From 1933 to 1945, Nazi Germany operated more than a thousand concentration camps (), including subcamps on its own territory and in parts of German-occupied Europe.

The first camps were established in March 1933 immediately after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. Following the 1934 purge of the SA, the concentration camps were run exclusively by the SS via the Concentration Camps Inspectorate and later the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office. Initially, most prisoners were members of the Communist Party of Germany, but as time went on different groups were arrested, including "habitual criminals", "asocials", and Jews. After the beginning of World War II, people from German-occupied Europe were imprisoned in the concentration camps. About 1.65 million people were registered prisoners in the camps, of whom about a million died during their imprisonment. Most of the fatalities occurred during the second half of World War II, including at least a third of the 700,000 prisoners who were registered as of January 1945. Following Allied military victories, the camps were gradually liberated in 1944 and 1945, although hundreds of thousands of prisoners died in the death marches.

Museums commemorating the victims of the Nazi regime have been established at many of the former camps and the Nazi concentration camp system has become a universal symbol of violence and terror.

Background

Concentration camps are conventionally held to have been invented by the British during the Second Boer War, but historian Dan Stone argues that there were precedents in other countries and that camps were "the logical extension of phenomena that had long characterized colonial rule". Although the word "concentration camp" has acquired the connotation of murder because of the Nazi concentration camps, the British camps in South Africa did not involve systematic murder. The German Empire also established concentration camps during the Herero and Namaqua genocide (1904–1907); the death rate of these camps was 45 per cent, twice that of the British camps.

During the First World War, eight to nine million prisoners of war were held in prisoner-of-war camps, some of them at locations which were later the sites of Nazi camps, such as Theresienstadt and Mauthausen. Many prisoners held by Germany died as a result of intentional withholding of food and dangerous working conditions in violation of the 1907 Hague Convention. In countries such as France, Belgium, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany, civilians deemed to be of "enemy origin" were denaturalized. Hundreds of thousands were interned and subject to forced labor in harsh conditions. During the Armenian genocide perpetrated by the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Armenians were held in camps during their deportation into the Syrian Desert. In postwar Germany, "unwanted foreigners" – mainly Eastern European Jews – were warehoused at Cottbus-Sielow and Stargard.

History

Early camps (1933–1934)

On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany after striking a backroom deal with the previous chancellor, Franz von Papen. The Nazis had no plan for concentration camps prior to their seizure of power. The concentration camp system arose in the following months due to the desire to suppress tens of thousands of Nazi opponents in Germany. The Reichstag fire in February 1933 was the pretext for mass arrests. The Reichstag Fire Decree eliminated the right to personal freedom enshrined in the Weimar Constitution and provided a legal basis for detention without trial. The first camp was Nohra, established on 3 March 1933 in a school.

The number of prisoners in 1933–1934 is difficult to determine; historian Jane Caplan estimated it at 50,000, with arrests perhaps exceeding 100,000. Eighty per cent of prisoners were members of the Communist Party of Germany and ten per cent members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. Many prisoners were released in late 1933, and after a Christmas amnesty, there were only a few dozen camps left. About 70 camps were established in 1933, in any convenient structure that could hold prisoners, including vacant factories, prisons, country estates, schools, workhouses, and castles. There was no national system; camps were operated by local police, SS, and SA, state interior ministries, or a combination of the above. The early camps in 1933–1934 were heterogeneous and fundamentally differed from the post-1935 camps in organization, conditions, and the groups imprisoned.

Institutionalization (1934–1937)

On 26 June 1933, Himmler appointed Theodor Eicke the second commandant of Dachau, which became the model followed by other camps. Eicke drafted the Disciplinary and Penal Code, a manual which specified draconian punishments for disobedient prisoners. He also created a system of prisoner functionaries, which later developed into the camp elders, block elders, and kapo of later camps. In May 1934, Lichtenburg was taken over by the SS from the Prussian bureaucracy, marking the beginning of a transition set in motion by Heinrich Himmler, then chief of the Gestapo (secret police). Following the purge of the SA on 30 June 1934, in which Eicke took a leading role, the remaining SA-run camps were taken over by the SS. In December 1934, Eicke was appointed the first inspector of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate (IKL); only camps managed by the IKL were designated "concentration camps".

In early 1934, the number of prisoners was still falling and it was uncertain if the system would continue to exist. By mid-1935, there were only five camps, holding 4,000 prisoners, and 13 employees at the central IKL office. At the same time, 100,000 people were imprisoned in German jails, a quarter of those for political offenses. Believing Nazi Germany to be imperiled by internal enemies, Himmler called for a war against the "organized elements of sub-humanity", including communists, socialists, Jews, Freemasons, and criminals. Himmler won Hitler's backing and was appointed Chief of German Police on 17 June 1936. Of the six SS camps operational as of mid-1936, only two (Dachau and Lichtenburg) still existed by 1938. In the place of the camps that closed down, Eicke opened new camps at Sachsenhausen (September 1936) and Buchenwald (July 1937). Unlike earlier camps, the newly opened camps were purpose-built, isolated from the population and the rule of law, enabling the SS to exert absolute power. Prisoners, who previously wore civilian clothes, were forced to wear uniforms with Nazi concentration camp badges. The number of prisoners began to rise again, from 4,761 on 1 November 1936 to 7,750 by the end of 1937.

Rapid expansion (1937–1939)

By the end of June 1938, the prisoner population had expanded threefold in the previous six months, to 24,000 prisoners. The increase was fueled by arrests of those considered habitual criminals or asocials. According to SS chief Heinrich Himmler, the "criminal" prisoners at concentration camps needed to be isolated from society because they had committed offenses of a sexual or violent nature. In fact, most of the criminal prisoners were working-class men who had resorted to petty theft to support their families. Nazi raids of perceived asocials, including the arrest of 10,000 people in June 1938, targeted homeless people and the mentally ill, as well as the unemployed. Although the Nazis had previously targeted social outsiders, the influx of new prisoners meant that political prisoners became a minority.

To house the new prisoners, three new camps were established: Flossenbürg (May 1938) near the Czechoslovak border, Mauthausen (August 1938) in territory annexed from Austria, and Ravensbrück (May 1939) the first purpose-built camp for female prisoners. The mass arrests were partly motivated by economic factors. Recovery from the Great Depression lowered the unemployment rate, so "work-shy" elements would be arrested to keep others working harder. At the same time, Himmler was also focusing on exploiting prisoners' labor within the camp system. Hitler's architect, Albert Speer, had grand plans for creating monumental Nazi architecture. The SS company German Earth and Stone Works (DEST) was set up with funds from Speer's agency for exploiting prisoner labour to extract building materials. Flossenbürg and Mauthausen had been built adjacent to quarries, and DEST also set up brickworks at Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen.

Political prisoners were also arrested in larger numbers, including Jehovah's Witnesses and German émigrés who returned home. Czech and Austrian anti-Nazis were arrested after the annexation of their countries in 1938 and 1939. Jews were also increasingly targeted, with 2,000 Viennese Jews arrested after the Nazi annexation. After the Kristallnacht pogrom in November 1938, 26,000 Jewish men were deported to concentration camps following mass arrests, overwhelming the capacity of the system. These prisoners were subject to unprecedented abuse leading to hundreds of deaths – more people died at Dachau in the four months after Kristallnacht than in the previous five years. Most of the Jewish prisoners were soon released, often after promising to emigrate.

World War II
At the end of August 1939, prisoners of Flossenbürg, Sachsenhausen, and other concentration camps were murdered as part of false flag attacks staged by Germany to justify the invasion of Poland. During the war, the camps became increasingly brutal and lethal due to the plans of the Nazi leadership: most victims died in the second half of the war. Five new camps were opened between the start of the war and the end of 1941: Neuengamme (early 1940), outside of Hamburg; Auschwitz (June 1940), which initially operated as a concentration camp for Polish resistance activists; Gross-Rosen (May 1941) in Silesia; and Natzweiler (May 1941) in territory annexed from France. The first satellite camps were also established, administratively subordinated to one of the main camps. The number of prisoners tripled from 21,000 in August 1939 to about 70,000 to 80,000 in early 1942. This expansion was driven by the demand for forced labor and later the invasion of the Soviet Union; new camps were sent up near quarries (Natzweiler and Gross-Rosen) or brickworks (Neuengamme).

In April 1941, the high command of the SS ordered the murder of ill and exhausted prisoners who could no longer work (especially those deemed racially inferior). Victims were selected by camp personnel or traveling doctors, and were removed from the camps to be murdered in euthanasia centers. By April 1942, when the operation finished, at least 6,000 and as many as 20,000 people had been killed – the first act of systematic killing in the camp system. Beginning in August 1941, selected Soviet prisoners of war were killed within the concentration camps, usually within a few days of their arrival. By mid-1942, when the operation finished, at least 34,000 Soviet prisoners had been murdered. At Auschwitz, the SS used Zyklon B to kill Soviet prisoners in improvised gas chambers.

In 1942, the emphasis of the camps shifted to the war effort; by 1943, two-thirds of prisoners were employed by war industries. The death rate skyrocketed with an estimated half of the 180,000 prisoners admitted between July and November 1942 dying by the end of that interval. Orders to reduce deaths in order to spare inmate productivity had little effect in practice. During the second half of the war, Auschwitz swelled in size – fueled by the deportation of hundreds of thousands of Jews – and became the center of the camp system. It was the deadliest concentration camp and Jews sent there faced a virtual death sentence even if they were not immediately killed, as most were. In August 1943, 74,000 of the 224,000 registered prisoners in all SS concentration camps were in Auschwitz. In 1943 and early 1944, additional concentration camps – Riga in Latvia, Kovno in Lithuania, Vaivara in Estonia, and Kraków-Plaszów in Poland – were converted from ghettos or labor camps; these camps were populated almost entirely by Jewish prisoners. Along with the new main camps, many satellite camps were set up to more effectively leverage prisoner labor for the war effort.

Organization

Beginning in the mid-1930s, the camps were organized according to the following structure: commandant/adjutant, political department, protective custody camp, , camp doctor, and guard command. In November 1940, the IKL came under the control of the SS Main Command Office and the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) took on the responsibility of detaining and releasing concentration camp prisoners. In 1942, the IKL was subordinated to the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office (SS-WVHA) to improve the camps' integration into the war economy. Despite changes in the structure, the IKL remained directly responsible to Himmler.

The camps under the IKL were guarded by members of the SS-Totenkopfverbande ("death's head"). The guards were housed in barracks adjacent to the camp and their duties were to guard the perimeter of the camp as well as work details. They were officially forbidden from entering the camps, although this rule was not followed. Towards the end of the 1930s, the SS-Totenkopfverbande expanded its operations and set up military units, which followed the Einsatzgruppen death squads and massacred Polish Jews as well as Soviet prisoners of war. Older general SS personnel, and those wounded or disabled, replaced those assigned to combat duties. As the war progressed, a more diverse group was recruited to guard the expanding camp system, including female guards (who were not part of the SS). During the second half of the war, army and air force personnel were recruited, making up as many as 52 per cent of guards by January 1945. The manpower shortage was reduced by relying on guard dogs and delegating some duties to prisoners. Corruption was widespread.

Most of the camp SS leadership was middle-class and came from the , who were hard-hit by the economic crisis and feared decline in status. Most had joined the Nazi movement by September 1931 and were offered full-time employment in 1933. SS leaders typically lived with their wives and children near the camps where they worked, often engaging prisoners for domestic labor. Perpetration by this leadership was based on their tight social bonds, a perceived common sense that the aims of the system were good, as well as the opportunity for material gain.

Prisoners

Before World War II, most prisoners in the concentration camps were Germans. After the expansion of Nazi Germany, people from countries occupied by the Wehrmacht were targeted and detained in concentration camps. In Western Europe, arrests focused on resistance fighters and saboteurs, but in Eastern Europe arrests included mass roundups aimed at the implementation of Nazi population policy and the forced recruitment of workers. This led to a predominance of Eastern Europeans, especially Poles, who made up the majority of the population of some camps. By the end of the war, only 5 to 10 per cent of the camp population was "Reich Germans" from Germany or Austria. More than 100,000 Soviet prisoners of war and smaller groups from other nationalities were transferred to the concentration camps in direct violation of the Geneva Convention.

Most Jews who were persecuted and killed during the Holocaust were never prisoners in concentration camps. Significant numbers of Jews were imprisoned beginning in November 1938 because of Kristallnacht, after which they were always overrepresented as prisoners. During the height of the Holocaust from 1941 to 1943, the Jewish population of the concentration camps was low. Extermination camps for the mass murder of Jews—Kulmhof, Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka—were set up outside the concentration camp system. The existing IKL camps Auschwitz and Majdanek gained additional function as extermination camps. After mid-1943, some forced-labor camps for Jews and some Nazi ghettos were converted into concentration camps. Other Jews entered the concentration camp system after being deported to Auschwitz. Despite many deaths, as many as 200,000 Jews survived the war inside the camp system.

Conditions

Conditions worsened after the outbreak of war due to reduction in food, worsening housing, and increase in work. Deaths from disease and malnutrition increased, outpacing other causes of death. However, the food provided was usually sufficient to sustain life. Life in the camps has often been depicted as a Darwinian struggle for survival, although some mutual aid existed. Individual efforts to survive, sometimes at others' expense, could hamper the aggregate survival rate.

The influx of non-German prisoners from 1939 changed the previous hierarchy based on triangle to one based on nationality. Jews, Slavic prisoners, and Spanish Republicans were targeted for especially harsh treatment which led to a high mortality rate during the first half of the war. In contrast, Reich Germans enjoyed favorable treatment compared to other nationalities.

A minority of prisoners obtained substantially better treatment than the rest because they were prisoner functionaries (mostly Germans) or skilled laborers. Prisoner functionaries served at the whim of the SS and could be dismissed for insufficient strictness. As a result, sociologist Wolfgang Sofsky emphasizes that "They took over the role of the SS in order to prevent SS encroachment" and other prisoners remembered them for their brutality.

Forced labor

Hard labor was a fundamental component of the concentration camp system and an aspect in the daily life of prisoners. However, the forced labor deployment was largely determined by external political and economic factors that drove demand for labor. During the first years of the camps, unemployment was high and prisoners were forced to perform economically valueless but strenuous tasks, such as farming on moorland (such as at Esterwegen). Other prisoners had to work on constructing and expanding the camps. In the years before World War II, quarrying and bricklaying for the SS company DEST played a central role in prisoner labor. Despite prisoners' increasing economic importance, conditions declined; prisoners were seen as expendable so each influx of prisoners was followed by increasing death rate.

Private sector cooperation remained marginal to the overall concentration camp system for the first half of the war. After the failure to take Moscow in late 1941, the demand for armaments increased. The WVHA sought out partnerships with private industry and Speer's Armaments Ministry. In September 1942, Himmler and Speer agreed to use prisoners in armaments production and to repair damage from Allied bombing. Local authorities and private companies could hire prisoners at a fixed daily cost. This decision paved the way for the establishment of many subcamps located near workplaces. More workers were obtained through transfers from prisons and forced labor programs, causing the prisoner population to double twice by mid-1944. Subcamps where prisoners did construction work had significantly higher death rates than those that worked in munitions manufacture. By the end of the war, main camps were functioning more and more as transfer stations from which prisoners were redirected to subcamps.

At their peak in 1945, concentration camp prisoners made up 3 per cent of workers in Germany. Historian Marc Buggeln estimates that no more than 1 per cent of the labor for Germany's arms production came from concentration camp prisoners.

Public perception

Arrests of Germans in 1933 were often accompanied by public humiliation or beatings. If released, prisoners might return home with visible marks of abuse or psychological breakdown. Using a "dual strategy of publicity and secrecy", the regime directed terror both at the direct victim as well as the entire society in order to eliminate its opponents and deter resistance. Beginning in March 1933, detailed reports on camp conditions were published in the press. Nazi propaganda demonized the prisoners as race traitors, sexual degenerates, and criminals and presented the camps as sites of re-education. After 1933, reports in the press were scarce but larger numbers of people were arrested and people who interacted with the camps, such as those who registered deaths, could make conclusions about the camp conditions and discuss with acquaintances.

The visibility of the camps heightened during the war due to increasing prisoner numbers, the establishment of many subcamps in proximity to German civilians, and the use of labor deployments outside the camps. These subcamps, often established in town centers in such locations as schools, restaurants, barracks, factory buildings, or military camps, were joint ventures between industry and the SS. An increasing number of German civilians interacted with the camps: entrepreneurs and landowners provided land or services, doctors decided which prisoners were healthy enough to continue working, foremen oversaw labor deployments, and administrators helped with logistics. SS construction brigades were in demand by municipalities to clear bomb debris and rebuild. For the prisoners, chances of survival rarely improved despite the contact with the outside world, although those few Germans who tried to help did not encounter punishment. Germans were often shocked to see the reality of the concentration camps up close, but reluctant to aid the prisoners because of fear that they would be imprisoned as well. Others found the poor state of the prisoners to confirm Nazi propaganda about them.

Historian Robert Gellately argues that "the Germans generally turned out to be proud and pleased that Hitler and his henchmen were putting away certain kinds of people who did not fit in, or who were regarded as 'outsiders', 'asocials', 'useless eaters', or 'criminals. According to historian Karola Fings, fear of arrest did not undermine public support for the camps because Germans saw the prisoners rather than the guards as criminals. She writes that demand for SS construction brigades "points to general acceptance of the concentration camps". In Cologne some construction brigade prisoners were shot in broad daylight.

Statistics

There were 27 main camps and, according to historian Nikolaus Wachsmann's estimate, more than 1,100 satellite camps. This is a cumulative figure that counts all the subcamps that existed at one point; historian Karin Orth estimates the number of subcamps to have been 186 at the end of 1943, 341 or more in June 1944, and at least 662 in January 1945.

The camps were concentrated in prewar Germany and to a lesser extent territory annexed to Germany. No camps were built on the territory of Germany's allies that enjoyed even nominal independence. Each camp housed either men, women, or a mixed population. Women's camps were mostly for armaments production and located primarily in northern Germany, Thuringia, or the Sudetenland, while men's camps had a wider geographical distribution. Sex segregation decreased over the course of the war and mixed camps predominated outside of Germany's prewar borders.

About 1.65 million people were registered prisoners in the camps, of whom, according to Wagner, nearly a million died during their imprisonment. Historian Adam Tooze counts the number of survivors at no more than 475,000, calculating that at least 1.1 million of the registered prisoners must have died. According to his estimate, at least 800,000 of the murdered prisoners were not Jewish. In addition to the registered prisoners who died, a million Jews were gassed upon arriving in Auschwitz; including these victims, the total death toll is estimated at 1.8 to more than two million. Most of the fatalities occurred during the second half of World War II, including at least a third of the 700,000 prisoners who were registered as of January 1945.

Death marches and liberation

Major evacuations of the camps occurred in mid-1944 from the Baltics and eastern Poland, January 1945 from western Poland and Silesia, and in March 1945 from concentration camps in Germany. Both Jewish and non-Jewish prisoners died in large numbers as a consequence of these death marches.

Many prisoners died after liberation due to their poor physical condition.

The liberation of the camps – documented by the Western Allies in 1945 – has played a prominent part in perception of the camp system as a whole.

Legacy

Since their liberation, the Nazi concentration camp system has come to symbolize violence and terror in the modern world.
After the war, most Germans rejected the crimes associated with the concentration camps, while denying any knowledge or responsibility. Under the West German policy of  (), some survivors of concentration camps received compensation for their imprisonment. A few perpetrators were put on trial after the war.

Accounts of the concentration camps – both condemnatory and sympathetic – were publicized outside of Germany before World War II. Many survivors testified about their experiences or wrote memoirs after the war. Some of these accounts have become internationally famous, such as Primo Levi's 1947 book, If This is a Man. The concentration camps have been the subject of historical writings since Eugen Kogon's 1946 study,  ("The SS State"). Substantial research did not begin until the 1980s. Scholarship has focused on the fate of groups of prisoners, the organization of the camp system, and aspects such as forced labor. As late as the 1990s, German local and economic history omitted mention of the camps or presented them as exclusively the responsibility of the SS. Two scholarly encyclopedias of the concentration camps have been published: Der Ort des Terrors and Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos. According to Caplan and Wachsmann, "more books have been published on the Nazi camps than any other site of detention and terror in history".

Stone argues that the Nazi concentration camp system inspired similar atrocities by other regimes, including the Argentine military junta during the Dirty War, the Pinochet regime in Chile, and Pitești Prison in the Romanian People's Republic.

Sources

Notes

Citations

Sources

Concentration
SS Main Economic and Administrative Office
Total institutions

Nazi concentration camps


තාක්ෂණය වර්ධනය වීමත් සමග බිහි වූ SMS සේවාවේ නිර්මාතෘ ලෙස සලකන්නේ ෆින්ලන්තයේ මැටි මැකොනන් ය.එය 1980 දශකය මුල් භාගයේ සිටම නොයෙක් මට්ටමින් ජංගම දුරකථන සඳහා යොදා ගෙන ඇත.SMS සේවාව මුල් දිනවල යොදාගෙන ඇත්තේ ජංගම දුරකථන ග්‍රාහකයින්ට නොයෙකුත් දැනුම්දීම් සිදු කිරීමටය.එම කාලයේදී SMS පණිවිඩ යැවීමේ හැකියාව පැවතියේ ජංගම දුරකථන සේවා සපයන ආයතන වලට පමණක් වුවද, 1990 පමණ විට පෞද්ගලික පණිවිඩ සඳහා SMS භාවිතය ඇරඹුණි.

කෙසේ වුවද ලොව ප්‍රථම SMS පණිවිඩය යවා ඇත්තේ 1992 දෙසැම්බර් මස 2 වෙනි දින ඉංජිනේරුවරයෙකු වූ නීල් පැප්වර්ත් විසිනි.Vodafone ජාලය හරහා මෙම පණිවිඩය යැවීම සිදු කෙරිණි. ඒ Vodafone සමාගමේ අධ්‍යක්ෂක වරයෙකු වූ රිචඩ් ජාවිස් වෙතයි.එම පණිවිඩයේ සටහන් වී ඇත්තේ " Merry Christmas " ලෙසින් නත්තල් සුභ පැතුම් පණිවිඩයකි. එහෙත් එම දිනවල පැවති ගිණුම්කරණ දුර්වලතා නිසා කෙටි පණිවිඩ සේවාව දියුණු වූයේ සෙමින්ය.

එක් ජංගම දුරකථනයකින් යවනු ලබන කෙටි පණිවිඩය පළමුවෙන්ම කෙටි පණිවිඩ සේවා මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් වෙත ලඟා වෙයි.එම පණිවිඩය පිළිබඳ ගිණුම්ගත කර ගැනීමෙන් පසුව පණිවිඩය ලබන්නා වෙතට යොමු කෙරේ.එම ග්‍රාහක දුරකථනය ක්‍රියා විරහිත නම් නැවත වරක් එම පණිවිඩය යොමු කෙරේ.මේ අයුරින් කෙසේ හෝ එම පණිවිඩය අදාල දුරකථනයට යොමු කෙරේ.මෙම ක්‍රියාවලිය එතරම් විශ්වාසනීය නොවේ.පණිවිඩය ප්‍රමාද වීමට හෝ නොලැබී යාමටද ඉඩ කඩ ඇත.එබැවින් යවන පණිවිඩය සම්බන්ධව භාරදීමේ වාර්ථාවක් [Deliver Report] ලබා ගැනීම සුදුසුවේ. SMS ලොව පුරා සීග්‍රයෙන්ම ජනප්‍රය වන මාධ්‍යයකි.2012 වසරේ කරණ ලද ගණනය කිරීමකට අනුව වසරකට කෙටි පණිවිඩ බිලියන 8600ක් ලොව පුරා හුවමාරු වී ඇත.එනම් සෑම පුද්ගලයෙක්ම වසරකට කෙටි පණිවිඩ 1228ක් බැගින් යවා ඇත.එසේම කෙටි පණිවිඩ සංඛ්‍යාව මගින් ජංගම දුරකථන සේවා ආයතන වලට ලබා දුන් ආදායම ඇ.ඩො. බිලියන 150 ඉක්මවිය . ලෝකය පුරා දවසකට යවන කෙටි පණිවිඩ ගණන කොතරම්දැයි International Herald Tribune පුවත්පත සොයා බැලීය.එහිදී පෙනී ගියේ දැනට ලොව පුරා මිනිසුන් වසරකට හුවමාරු කරන SMS ගණන ට්‍රිලියන 8ක් හෙවත් කෝටි ලක්ෂ 8ක් බවයි.එනම් දිනකට කෝටි 2186 කට වැඩි SMS ප්‍රමාණයක් හුවමාරු වේ.

SMS දැනට ලෝකයේ ප්‍රධානම ප්‍රචාරණ් මාධ්‍යයක් වී ඇත.බොහෝ ප්‍රවෘත්ති ආයතන    මගින් පුවත් දැණුවත් කිරීම ලබාදීම සාමාන්‍ය දෙයකි.එසේම දේශපාලනයටද SMS ගෑවී ඇත.2001 දී පිලිපීන ජනපති එස්ට්‍රාඩා ට එරෙහිව උද්ඝෝෂකයෝ දැවැන්ත SMS ප්‍රචාරක ව්‍යාපාරයක් ගෙන ගියේය.එස්ට්‍රාඩා පැරදුනේ ඒ හේතුවෙනි.2002 දී කොරියානු ජනපතිවරණයේදී පරාජය වේ යැයි සිතූ අපේක්ෂක රෝමෝ හුයින් වැඩි ඡන්ද සුළු ප්‍රමාණයකින් ජයගත්තේ අවසාන මොහොතේ ගෙන ගිය SMS ප්‍රචාරක ව්‍යාපරාය හේතුවෙනි.

SMS උන්මාදය තදින්ම වැලදී ඇත්තේ ආසියාතිකයින්ට හා යුරෝපීන්ටයි. ජපානය,කොරියාව,ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව වැනි රටවලට මෙය එතරම බලපා නැත. SMS, දුරකථන සමාගම්වලටද ඉතා වාසිදායක වේ.ඒ දුරකථන ඇමතුමක් සම්බන්ධ කරන වියදමෙන් SMS 350ක් පමණ සම්ප්‍රේෂණය කල හැකි නිසාය. SMS තාක්ෂණයට යා හැකි දුර බොහෝය.කෙටි පණිවිඩ සේවාවටත් වඩා ප්‍රභල,ලාභදායී තාක්ෂණයක් ලොවට හඳුන්වාදෙන තුරු SMS ඇති කල පෙරලිය නොනවත්වා ගමන් කරනු ඇත.

කෙටි පණිවිඩ සේවාව


An Stipa editorum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Eugène Pierre Nicolas Fournier. An Stipa editorum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stipa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stipa

Stipa editorum


أوزات-لو-كومبيلي (Auzat-la-Combelle) بلدية فرنسية تقع في إقليم بأي دي دومي التابع لمنطقة أوڤرن وسط فرنسا .

السكان

أعلام
 إميل أنتونيو

مراجع

بلديات إقليم بوي دي دوم
مدن فرنسا

أوزات-لو-كومبيلي


Presbyopia is physiological insufficiency of accommodation associated with the aging of the eye that results in progressively worsening ability to focus clearly on close objects. Also known as age-related farsightedness (or age-related long sight in the UK), it affects many adults over the age of 40. A common sign of presbyopia is difficulty reading small print which results in having to hold reading material farther away.  Other symptoms associated can be headaches and eyestrain. Different people will have different degrees of problems. Other types of refractive errors may exist at the same time as presbyopia.  This condition is similar to hypermetropia or far-sightedness which starts in childhood and exhibits similar symptoms of blur in the vision for close objects.

Presbyopia is a typical part of the aging process. It occurs due to age related changes in the lens (decreased elasticity and increased hardness) and ciliary muscle (decreased strength and ability to move the lens), causing the eye to focus right behind rather than on the retina when looking at close objects. It is a type of refractive error along with nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism. Diagnosis is by an eye examination.

Presbyopia can be corrected using glasses, contact lenses, multifocal intraocular lenses, or LASIK (PresbyLASIK) surgery. The most common treatment is glass correction using appropriate convex lens. Glasses used to correct presbyopia may be simple reading glasses, bifocals, trifocals, or progressive lens.

People over 40 are at risk for developing presbyopia and all people become affected to some degree. Around 25% of people (1.8 billion globally) are currently affected.

Signs and symptoms
The first symptoms most people notice are difficulty reading fine print, particularly in low light conditions, eyestrain when reading for long periods, blurring of near objects or temporarily blurred vision when changing the viewing distance. Many extreme presbyopes complain that their arms have become "too short" to hold reading material at a comfortable distance.

Presbyopia, like other focal imperfections, becomes less noticeable in bright sunlight when the pupil becomes smaller. As with any lens, increasing the focal ratio of the lens increases depth of field by reducing the level of blur of out-of-focus objects (compare the effect of aperture on depth of field in photography).

The onset of presbyopia varies among those with certain professions and those with miotic pupils. In particular, farmers and homemakers seek correction later, whereas service workers and construction workers seek correction earlier. Scuba divers with interest in underwater photography may notice presbyopic changes while diving before they recognize the symptoms in their normal routines due to the near focus in low light conditions.

Interaction with myopia
People with low near-sightedness can read comfortably without eyeglasses or contact lenses even after age forty, but higher myopes might require two pairs of glasses (one for distance, one for near), bifocal, or progressive lenses. However, their myopia does not disappear and the long-distance visual challenges remain. Myopes considering refractive surgery are advised that surgically correcting their nearsightedness may be a disadvantage after age forty, when the eyes become presbyopic and lose their ability to accommodate or change focus, because they will then need to use glasses for reading. Myopes with low astigmatism find near vision better, though not perfect, without glasses or contact lenses when presbyopia sets in, but the more astigmatism, the poorer the uncorrected near vision.

A surgical technique offered is to create a "reading eye" and a "distance vision eye", a technique commonly used in contact lens practice, known as monovision. Monovision can be created with contact lenses, so candidates for this procedure can determine if they are prepared to have their corneas reshaped by surgery to cause this effect permanently.

Mechanism

The cause of presbyopia is lens hardening by decreasing levels of -crystallin, a process which may be sped up by higher temperatures. It results in a near point greater than  (or equivalently, less than 4 diopters).

In optics, the closest point at which an object can be brought into focus by the eye is called the eye's near point. A standard near point distance of  is typically assumed in the design of optical instruments, and in characterizing optical devices such as magnifying glasses.

There is some confusion over how the focusing mechanism of the eye works. In the 1977 book, Eye and Brain, for example, the lens is said to be suspended by a membrane, the 'zonula', which holds it under tension. The tension is released, by contraction of the ciliary muscle, to allow the lens to become more round, for close vision. This implies the ciliary muscle, which is outside the zonula, must be circumferential, contracting like a sphincter, to slacken the tension of the zonula pulling outwards on the lens. This is consistent with the fact that our eyes seem to be in the 'relaxed' state when focusing at infinity, and also explains why no amount of effort seems to enable a myopic person to see farther away.

The ability to focus on near objects declines throughout life, from an accommodation of about 20 dioptres (ability to focus at  away) in a child, to 10 dioptres at age 25 (), and levels off at 0.5 to 1 dioptre at age 60 (ability to focus down to  only). The expected, maximum, and minimum amplitudes of accommodation in diopters (D) for a corrected patient of a given age can be estimated using Hofstetter's formulas: expected amplitude  (age in years); maximum amplitude  (age in years); minimum amplitude  (age in years).

Diagnosis
A basic eye exam, which includes a refraction assessment and an eye health exam, is used to diagnose presbyopia.

Treatment
In the visual system, images captured by the eye are translated into electric signals that are transmitted to the brain where they are interpreted. As such, in order to overcome presbyopia, two main components of the visual system can be addressed: image capturing by the optical system of the eye and image processing in the brain.

Image capturing in the eye
Solutions for presbyopia have advanced significantly in recent years due to widened availability of optometry care and over-the-counter vision correction options.

Corrective lenses
Corrective lenses provide vision correction over a range as high as +4.0 diopters. People with presbyopia require a convex lens for reading glasses; specialized preparations of convex lenses usually require the services of an optometrist.

Contact lenses can also be used to correct the focusing loss that comes along with presbyopia. Multifocal contact lenses can be used to correct vision for both the near and the far. Some people choose contact lenses to correct one eye for near and one eye for far with a method called monovision.

Surgery

Refractive surgery has been done to create multifocal corneas. PresbyLASIK, a type of multifocal corneal ablation LASIK procedure may be used to correct presbyopia. Results are, however, more variable and some people have a decrease in visual acuity. Concerns with refractive surgeries for presbyopia include people's eyes changing with time. Other side effects of multifocal corneal ablation include postoperative glare, halos, ghost images, and monocular diplopia.

Image processing in the brain
A number of studies have claimed improvements in near visual acuity by the use of training protocols based on perceptual learning and requiring the detection of briefly presented low-contrast Gabor stimuli; study participants with presbyopia were enabled to read smaller font sizes and to increase their reading speed.

Eye drops
Pilocarpine, eye drops that constrict the pupil, has been approved by the FDA for presbyopia.

 Research on other drugs is in progress.  Eye drops intended to restore lens elasticity are also being investigated.

Etymology
The term is from  and  (GEN ).

History
The condition was mentioned as early as the writings of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. Glass lenses first came into use for the problem in the late 13th century.

See also
 Vuity

References

External links

 "Presbyopia" at MedLinePlus Medical Encyclopedia

Disorders of ocular muscles, binocular movement, accommodation and refraction
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate
Disability by type

hr:Dalekovidnost

Presbyopia


Palazzo Pitti ([paˈlattso ˈpitti])  er et stort renæssancepalace i Firenze, Italien. Det er beliggende på den sydlige side af floden Arno, nær Ponte Vecchio. Kernen i det nuværende palads daterer sig til 1458, og var oprindeligt bolig for den ambitiøse bankier Luca Pitti.

Paladset blev købt af Medici-familien i 1549 og blev hovedresidens for den herskende familie i Storhertugdømmet Toscana. Det udvidedes som en skatkiste for senere generationers samlinger af malerier,  smykker og andre luksuriøse ejendele.

I slutningen af det 18. århundrede, blev paladset brugt som en magtbase for Napoleon og senere i en kort periode som det vigtigste kongelige palads i det forenede Italien. Slottet og dets inventar blev doneret til det italienske folk af Kong Victor Emmanuel III i 1919.

Paladset er nu det største museumskompleks i Firenze. Hovedbygningen i paladset (kaldet corps de logis) er 32.000 kvadratmeter meter. Det er opdelt i flere vigtige gallerier eller museer, der er nærmere beskrevet nedenfor.

Historie

Tidlige historie

Opførelsen af denne store bygning blev bestilt i 1458 af den Florentinske bankier Luca Pitti (1398-1472), primære støtte og ven af Cosimo de' Medici. Palazzo Pittis tidlige historie er en blanding af fakta og myter. Pitti havde tilsyneladende bestemt at vinduerne skulle være større end indgangen til Palazzo Medici. Kunsthistorikeren Giorgio Vasari har foreslået, at Brunelleschi var paladsets arkitekt, og at hans elev Luca Fancelli blot var hans assistent på den opgave. Men i dag er det Fancelli, der generelt er krediteret. Udover tydelige forskelle fra den ældste arkitekts stil, så døde Brunelleschi 12 år før opførelsen af paladset begyndte. Det arkitektoniske udtryk og udførelsen af vinduer tyder på, at arkitekten var mere erfaren i utilitaristisk indenlandsk arkitektur end i de humanistiske regler, der er defineret af Alberti i sin bog' De Re Aedificatoria.

Selvom det oprindelige palads var imponerende, ville på ingen måde have været nogen rival til den Florentinske Medici residens, hverken i størrelse eller indhold. Hvem arkitekten bag Palazzo Pitti end var, så bevægede han sig imod den moderne modetendens. Der rustikke murværk, som giver paladset en alvorlig og magtfuld atmosfære, som forstærkes af den tredobbelt serie af syv hvælvingsåbninger, der minder om en romersk akvædukt. Den romerske stil appellerede til den Florentinske kærlighed til den nye stil all'antica. Dette originale design har overlevet frem til nutiden: gentagelsen i  facaden blev fortsat under de efterfølgende tilføjelser til paladset, og dens indflydelse kan ses i mange 16-hundretals efterligninger og 19-tals opblomstringer. Arbejdet blev stoppet efter Pitti led økonomiske tab efter Cosimo de' Medicis død i 1464. Luca Pitti døde i 1472 uden at have gjort bygningen færdig.

Medicierne

Bygningen blev solgt i 1549 af Buonaccorso Pitti, en efterkommer af Luca Pitti, til Eleonora di Toledo. Eleonora blev kåret til Cosimo I de 'Medici i Toscana, senere Storhertug. Ved indflytningen i slottet fik Cosimo Vasari til at udvide bygningen til at passe i hans smag. Slottet blev mere end fordoblet ved at tilføje en ny fløj langs bagenden. Vasari byggede også Vasari korridoren, en overliggende gangbro fra Cosimos gamle palads og regeringsbygningen Palazzo Vecchio, gennem Uffizi, over Ponte Vecchio til Palazzo Pitti. Dette gjorde det muligt for Storhertugen og hans familie at bevæge sig let og sikkert fra deres officielle bopæl til Palazzo Pitti. I begyndelsen blev Palazzo Pitti hovedsagelig brugt til modtagelse af officielle gæster og til lejlighedsvise opgaver for retten, mens Medicis' hovedbolig forblev Palazzo Vecchio. Det var først under Eleonoras søn Francesco I og hans kone Johanna af Østrig, at palæet blev permanent bolig og hjemsted for Medicis' kunstsamling.

Et område på Boboli-bakken bag palæet blev erhvervet for at skabe en stor park og haver, i dag kendt som Boboli-haverne. Landskabsarkitekten ansat til dette var hofarkitekten Niccolò Tribolo, der døde det følgende år. Han blev efterfulgt af Bartolommeo Ammanati. Det originale design af haverne er centreret omkring et amfiteater bag corps de logis af palazzo. Det første skuespil, der blev opført der, var Andria af Terence i 1476. Det blev fulgt af mange klassisk inspirerede spil af florentinske dramatikere som Giovan Battista Cini. Opført til at fornøje det højkulturelle Medici-hof, indeholdt de kunstfærdige dekorationer designet af hofarkitekt Baldassarre Lanci.

Cortilen og udvidelser

Med haveprojektet godt i vej, vendte Ammanati sin opmærksomhed mod at skabe en stor gårdsplads live bag hovedfacaden for at forbinde palæet til dens nye have. Denne gårdhave har en rustik stensætning, der er blevet bredt kopieret, især til det parisiske Palais du Luxembourg af Marie af Medici. I hovedfasaden skabte Ammanati også de fineste finestre inginocchiate ("knælende" vinduer) under henvisning til deres forestillede lighed med en prie-dieu (bønskammel), der erstattede indgangskarnaperne i hver ende. I løbet af årene 1558-70 skabte Ammanati en monumental trappe for at føre mere pomp til piano nobile, og han udvidede sidefløjene til haven, der omfavnede gårdspladsen gravet ind i den stejle skrånende bakke på samme niveau som piazzaen foran. Derfra var den synlig gennem kælderens centrale bue. På havesiden af gårdspladen byggede Amannati en grotte kaldet "Mosesgrotten" på grund af den porfyr-statue, der står i den. På terrassen over dette, på niveau med piano nobile vinduerne, byggede Ammanati et springvand centreret på aksen. Det blev senere erstattet af Fontana del Carciofo ("Artiskokens Fountain"), designet af Giambolognas tidligere assistent Francesco Susini og færdiggjort i 1641.

I 1616 blev der afholdt en konkurrence i designudvidelser til hovedfacaden med tre buer i hver ende. Giulio Parigi vandt Kommissionen. Arbejdet på nordsiden begyndte i 1618, og på sydsiden i 1631 af Alfonso Parigi. I løbet af det 18. århundrede blev to vinkelrette fløje konstrueret af arkitekten Giuseppe Ruggeri for at forbedre og understrege udbredelsen af via Romana, som skaber en piazza centreret på facaden. Prototypen på Cour d'honneur, der blev kopieret i Frankrig. Sporadiske mindre tilføjelser og ændringer blev lavet i mange år derefter under andre herskere og arkitekter.

På den ene side af haverne er den bizarre grotte designet af Bernardo Buontalenti. Den nederste facade blev påbegyndt af Vasari, men den øverste etagers arkitektur er skabt af "dryppende" pimpstenstalaktitter med Medici-våbenskjoldet i midten. Det indre er ligeledes en mellemting mellem arkitektur og natur. Det første kammer har kopier af Michelangelos fire ufærdige slaver, der kommer ud fra hjørnerne og synes at bære hvælvet med en åben oculus i centrum og malet som en rustikt bur med dyr, figurer og vegetation. Figurer, dyr og træer af er lavet i stuk og ru pimpsten pryder de nedre vægge. En kort passage fører til et lille andet kammer og til et tredje, der har et central springvand med Giambolognas Venus i midten af bassinet, som kigger frygtsomt over hendes skulder på de fire satyrer, der spytter vandstråler på hende fra kanten.

Husene Lorraine og Savoy
Palæet forblev den vigtigste Medici-bolig indtil den sidste mandlige Medici-arving Gian Gastone de' Medici døde i 1737. Den blev derefter beboet kort af hans søster, den aldrende Electress Palatine. Ved hendes død uddøde Medici-dynastiet, og palæet overgik til den nye Storhertug af Toscana, det østrigske hus Lorraine (Habsburg), i skikkelse af Frans 1. Stefan. Den østrigske besiddelse blev kort afbrudt af Napoleon, som brugte palæet under hans herredømme over Italien.

Da Toscana gik fra Huset Loraine (Habsburg) til Huset Savoyen i 1860, blev Palazzo Pitti medtaget. Efter Risorgimento, da Firenze kort var hovedstaden i Kongeriget Italien, boede Victor Emanuel 2. i palæet indtil 1871. Hans barnebarn Victor Emanuel 3. forærede palæet til landet i 1919. Palazzo og andre bygninger i Boboli Haverne blev så opdelt i fem separate kunstgallerier og et museum, der ikke kun indeholder mange af dets oprindelige indhold, men også uvurderlige genstande fra mange andre samlinger erhvervet af staten. De 140 værelser, der er åbne for offentligheden, er en del af et interiør, som i vid udstrækning er et senere produkt end den oprindelige del af strukturen. De er hovedsagelig skabt i to faser: en i det 17. århundrede og den anden i begyndelsen af det 18. århundrede. Nogle tidligere interiører forbliver, og der er stadig senere tilføjelser som tronsalen. I 2005 opdagedes nogle glemte badeværelser fra det 17. århundrede i palæet med bemærkelsesværdige eksempler på samtidig installation, der meget ligner  badeværelserne i det 21. århundrede.

Palatina-galleriet
 Se en delvis liste af værker i  Samlingerne i  Palazzo Pitti

Palazzo Pittis hovedgalleri Palatina-galleriet indeholder en stor samling af over 500 primært renæssance malerier, som engang var en del af Medicis' og deres efterfølgeres private kunstsamling. Galleriet, der forbinder til de kongelige lejligheder, indeholder værker af Raphael, Titian, Perugino (Klagesang over den Døde Kristus), Correggio, Peter Paul Rubens og Pietro da Cortona. Galleriets karakter er stadig en privat samling, og kunstværkerne vises og hænger meget, som de ville have været i de store rum, som de var beregnet til snarere end at følge en kronologisk rækkefølge eller arrangeret efter skole af kunst.

De fineste værelser blev dekoreret af Pietro da Cortona i barok stil. Først og fremmest Cortona malede et lille rum på hovedetagen kaldet Sala della Stufa med en serie, der skildrer menneskehedens fire aldre; Guldalderen og sølvalderen blev malet i 1637, efterfulgt i 1641 af bronzealder og jernalder. De betragtes blandt hans mesterværker. Kunstneren blev efterfølgende bedt om at male de store hertugelige modtagelsesrum; én suite med fem værelser på forsiden af palæet. I disse fem planetariske rum er det guddommelige hierarki vist baseret på den politologiske kosmologi; Venus, Apollo, Mars, Jupiter (Medici tronsal) og Saturnus, men uden Mercur og Månen, som burde have været før Venus. Disse udsmykkede lofter med fresker og udførligt stukarbejde fejrer i høj grad Medici-slægten og udbredelsen af dygtige lederskab. Cortona forlod Firenze i 1647, og hans elev og samarbejdspartner Ciro Ferri gennemførte serien i 1660'erne. De skulle inspirere de senere Planetværelser ved Louis XIVs Versailles, designet af Le Brun.

Samlingen blev først åbnet for offentligheden i slutningen af det 18. århundrede, omend modvilligt, af storhertug Leopold 2. af Toscana, der som Toscanas første oplyste hersker var ivrig efter at opnå popularitet efter afslutningen af Medici styret.

Værelserne i Palatina-gallerierne

Palatina-galleriet har 28 værelser, blandt dem:
 Castagnoli-værelset: opkaldt efter maleren Giuseppe Castagnoli der udførte freskerne i loftet. I dette værelse er udstillet portrætter af familierne Medici og Lorraine  og Musebordet, et mesterværk af stenindlagt bord udført af Opificio delle Pietre Dure mellem 1837 og 1851.
 Arkets værelse: indeholder et maleri af Giovanni Battista Caracciolo (17. århundrede). I 1816 fik loftet malet en fresko af Luigi Ademollo med Noahs indtog Jerusalem med arken.
 Psykes værelse blev opkaldt efter loftfresker af Giuseppe Collignon. Det indeholder malerier af Salvator Rosa fra 1640-1650..
 Poccetti-salen: Freskerne på loftet var engang tilskrevet Bernardino Poccetti, men nu tilskrevet Matteo Rosselli. I midten af salen er et bord (1716) bestilt af Cosimo III. I salen er der også værker af Rubens og Pontormo.
 Prometheus-værelset blev opkaldt efter fresker af Giuseppe Collignon (19. århundrede) og indeholder en stor samling runde malerier. Blandt dem er Madonna med barnet af Filippino Lippi (15. århundrede), to portrætter af Botticelli og malerier af Pontormo og Domenico di Pace Beccafumi.
 Justice-værelset har et freskoloft af Antonio Fedi (1771-1843), og viser portrætter (16. århundrede) af Tizian, Tintoretto og Paolo Veronese.
 Ulysseus-værelset fik malet fresker i 1815 af Gaspare Martellini. Den indeholder tidlige værker af Filippino Lippi og Raphael.
 Illiade-værelset indeholder Madonna fra Panciatichi-familien og Madonna Passerini (henholdsvis 1522-1523 og 1526) af Andrea del Sarto og malerier af Artemisia Gentileschi (17. århundrede).
 Saturn-værelset indeholder et portræt af Agnolo Doni (1506), Stolens Madonna (1516) og Portræt af Cardinal Inghirami (1516) af Raphael; Den indeholder også Bebudelsen (1528) af Andrea del Sarto, og Jesus og Evangelisterne (1516) af Fra Bartolomeo.
 Jupiter-værelset indeholder Kvinde med slør af Raphael (1516), som ifølge Vasari repræsenterer en kvinde han forelskede sig i. Blandt de øvrige værker i værelset er malerier af Rubens, Andrea del Sarto og Perugin.

 Mars-værelset er præget af værker fra Rubens. Allegorierne repræsenterer Krigens konsekvenser (deraf rummets navn) og De fire filosoffer (blandt dem Rubens portrætterede sig til venstre). På hvælvet er en freske af Pietro da Cortona, Medicis triumf

 Apollo-værelset indeholder Madonna med helgener (1522) af Il Rosso, oprindeligt fra Santo Spiritos Kirke, og to malerier af Tizian: en Magdalene og Portræt af en engelsk adelsmand (mellem 1530 og 1540).
 Venus-værelset indeholder Venere Italica (1810) af Canova bestilt af Napoleon. På væggene er landskaber (1640-50) af Salvator Rosa og fire malerier af Tizian, 1510-1545. Blandt de Tizianske malerier er et portræt af pave Julius II (1545) og La Bella (1535).
 Den hvide sal var engang balsalen og er præget af de hvide udsmykninger og ofte bruges til midlertidige udstillinger.
De kongelige værelser omfatter 14 værelser. Deres udsmykning er blevet ændret til kejserlig stil i Savoy-tiden, men der er stadig nogle værelser, der opretholder dekorationer og møbler fra Medici-tiden.

Det grønne værelse blev blev malet af Giuseppe Castagnoli i begyndelsen af det 19. århundrede. Det udstiller et Intarsia-kabinet fra det 17. århundrede og en samling af forgyldte bronzer; Tronsalen blev indrettet til kong Vittorio Emanuele II af Savoy og er præget af det røde brokade på væggene og af japanske og kinesiske vaser (17.-18. århundrede).

Det blå værelse indeholder indsamlede møbler (17.-18. Århundrede) og portrætter af medlemmer af Medici-familien malet af Justus Sustermans (1597-1681).

Hovedværker

Andre gallerier

De kongelige gemakker
Dette er en suite med 14 værelser, der tidligere blev brugt af familien Medici og deres efterfølgere. Disse værelser er i vid udstrækning ændret siden Mediciernes æra, senest i det 19. århundrede. De indeholder en samling af Medici portrætter, mange af dem af kunstneren Giusto Sustermans. I modsætning til de store saloner, der indeholder Palatina-samlingen, er nogle af disse værelser meget mindre og mere intime, men stadig grandiose og forgyldte mere velegnede til de daglige krav til levevis. Periodeindretninger omfatter himmelseng og andre nødvendige møbler, der ikke findes andre steder i paladset. Kongerne i Italien Palazzo Pitti frem til 1920'erne. På det tidspunkt var det allerede blevet omdannet til et museum, men en række værelser (nu Galleriet for Moderne Kunst) var forbeholdt dem, når de besøgte Firenze officielt.

Galleriet for moderne kunst

Dette galleri stammer fra ombygningen af det florentinske akademi i 1748, da et galleri for moderne kunst blev oprettet. alleriet var beregnet til at indeholde de kunstværker, som var præmievindere i akademiets konkurrencer. Palazzo Pitti blev på ny opført i stor skala, og de nye kunstværker blev samlet for at pryder de nyindrettede saloner. Ved midten af 1800-tallet var så mange de store hertugelige malerier af moderne kunst, som mange blev overført til Palazzo della Crocetta, som blev det første hjem for det nyoprettede "Museum for moderne kunst".

Efter Risorgimento og udvisning af den storhertugelige familie fra palæet blev alle de store hertugelige moderne kunstværker samlet under ét tag i det nyligt betegnede "Akademiets moderne galleri". Samlingen fortsatte med at vokse, især under Victor Emanuel 2.'s protektion. Det var imidlertid først i 1922, at dette galleri blev flyttet til Palazzo Pitti, hvor det blev suppleret af yderligere moderne kunstværker i ejerskab af både staten og kommunen Firenze. Samlingen blev anbragt i lejligheder for nylig ledet af medlemmer af den italienske kongelige familie. Galleriet blev åbnet for offentligheden i 1928.

I dag er samlingen udvidet og spredt over 30 værelser. Den omfatter værker af kunstnere fra Macchiaioli-bevægelsen og andre moderne italienske skoler i slutningen af 1800'erne og begyndelsen af det 20. århundrede. Billederne fra Macchiaioli-kunstnerne er særligt bemærkelsesværdige, da denne skole af 1900-tallets toskanske malere ledet af Giovanni Fattori var tidlige pionerer og grundlæggerne af den impressionistiske bevægelse.Titlen "Galleri af moderne kunst" kan for nogle kan lyde forkert, da kunsten i galleriet dækker perioden fra det 18. til det tidlige 20. århundrede. Ingen eksempler på senere kunst er inkluderet i samlingen, da "moderne kunst" i Italien refererer til perioden før anden verdenskrig. Det der fulgte er generelt kendt som "samtidskunst" (arte contemporanea). I Toscana kan denne kunst findes på Centro per l'arte contemporanea Luigi Pecci i Prato, en by omkring 15 km fra Firenze.

Sølvmuseet
Sølvmuseet, der undertiden kaldet "Medicier Finansministerius", indeholder en samling af uvurderlige sølvarbejder, kaméer og arbejder i halvædelstene, mange af sidstnævnte fra samlingen af Lorenzo de Medici, herunder hans samling af gamle vaser, mange med sarte sølvforgyldte monteringer tilføjet i det 15. århundrede. Disse værelser var tidligere en del af de private kongelige lejligheder og er indrettet med fresker fra det 17. århundrede. Den mest fantastiske af Giovanni da San Giovanni fra 1635 til 1636. Sølvmuseet indeholder også en fin samling tyske guld- og sølvgenstande købt af Storhertug Ferdinand 3. af Toscana efter sin tilbagevenden fra eksil i 1815 efter den franske besættelse.

Porcelænsmuseet

Museet åbnede i 1973 i Casino del Cavaliere i Boboli-haverne. Porcelænen er fra mange af de bedste europæiske porcelænsfabrikker, hvor Sèvres og Meissen nær Dresden er godt repræsenteret. Mange af genstandene i samlingen var gaver til de florentinske herskere fra andre europæiske overhoveder, mens andre værker blev specielt bestilt af den storhertugelige hof. Særligt bemærkelsesværdigt er flere store spistel fra Vincennes fabrikken, senere omdøbt til Sèvres, og en samling små kagefigurer.

Tøjmusseet
Museet er beliggende i en fløj kendt som "Palazzina della Meridiana". Det indeholder en samling teaterkostumer fra 1600-tallet og frem til i dag. Det er også det eneste museum i Italien, der beskriver italienske modes histore. En af de nyere samlinger i palæet, blev grundlagt i 1983 af Kirsten Aschengreen Piacenti. Meridiana lejlighederne - fjorten værelser én suite - blev færdiggjort i 1858.

Udover teaterkostumer indeholder galleriet klæder, der er blev brugt mellem det 18. århundrede og nutiden. Nogle af udstillingerne er unikke for Palazzo Pitti. Disse omfatter 16-hundredetals begravelsestøj for Storhertug Cosimo I de' Medici, og hans kone Eleonora af Toledo og deres søn Garzia, som begge døde af malaria. Deres kroppe ville have været udstillet på Lit de parade iført deres fineste tøj, før de blev iklædt mere almindeligt påklædning før begravelsen. Galleriet udviser også en samling af smykker fra midten af det 20. århundrede. Sala Meridiana sponsorerede oprindeligt et funktionelt solkompas, indbygget i en freske af Anton Domenico Gabbiani.

Vognmuseet

Dette museum i stueetagen udstiller vogne og andre transportmidler, der anvendes af storhertughoffet hovedsagelig i slutningen af det 18. og 19. århundrede. Udstillingens omfang bevirker, at en besøgende i det 19. århundrede undrer sig: "Hvordan kan de finde plads til alle disse vogne og heste". Nogle af vognene er yderst dekorative, prydes ikke kun af forgyldte, men af malede landskaber på deres paneler.
De der bruges ved de vigtigst lejligheder, som f.eks. "Carrozza d'Oro" (Den gyldne vogn), er dækket af gyldne kroner, som ville have angivet rang og staut for vognens ejere. Andre vogne på udstillingen anvendes af Kongen af Begge Sicilier og ærkebiskopper og andre florentinske honoratiores.

Palæet i dag
I dag er palæet forvandlet fra kongelige palads til museum. Det er i hænderne på den italienske stat gennem "Polo Museale Fiorentino", en institution, der administrerer tyve museer, herunder Galleria degli Uffizi og har det ultimative ansvar for 250.000 katalogiserede kunstværker. På trods af sin metamorfose fra kongelig bolig til en statsejet offentlig bygning, bevarer palæet liggende på sit højdedrag med udsigt over Firenze stadig atmosfæren af en privat samling i et stort hus. Dette skyldes i høj grad "Amici di Palazzo Pitti" (Palazzo Pittis venner), en organisation af frivillige og lånere, der blev grundlagt i 1996, og som rejser midler og fremsætter forslag til den løbende vedligeholdelse af palæet og samlingerne, og til den fortsatte forbedring af deres udstillinger.

Pastiche
Königsbau-fløjen i Münchner Residenz, det tidligere kongelige palads i Bayerns hovedstad München blev modelleret efter Palazzo Pitti.

Noter

Referencer

 Pitti Palace and Museums - see sub-siderne for individuelle museer
 Levey, Michael. "Florence: A Portrait". Harvard University Press, 1998.

Yderliger læsning

Eksterne referencer
 Officielle hjemmeside
 The Museums of Florence - Pitti Palace - Galleria Palatina
 The Museums of Florence - Pitti Palace - Modern Art Gallery
 The Museums of Florence - Pitti Palace - Silver museum
 The Museums of Florence - Pitti Palace - Porcelain Museum
 The Museums of Florence - Pitti Palace - Boboli Garden
 The Museums of Florence - Pitti Palace - Royal Apartments
 Pitti Square, Virtual Tour

Museer i Italien
Firenze

Palazzo Pitti


Ōizumi (jap. , -machi) ist eine Stadt im Landkreis Ōra (, -gun), in der Präfektur Gunma, in der Mitte Japans. Oizumi hat einen großen Bevölkerungsanteil an Dekasegi (brasilianischen Japanern) und Nepalesen.

Geografie
Die Gemeinde befindet sich im Westen der Präfektur Gunma. Im Süden der Gemeinde fließt der Tone.

Umgeben ist die Ōizumi von Ōta im Westen und Norden, Ōra im Osten, Chiyoda im Südosten und Kumagaya in der Präfektur Saitama im Süden auf der anderen Flussseite.

Geschichte
Die Gemeinde entstand am 31. März 1957 aus dem Zusammenschluss der Stadt Koizumi (, -machi) mit dem Dorf Ōkawa (, -mura).

Verkehr
Die wichtigste Fernstraße der Gemeinde ist die Nationalstraße 354 nach Takasaki oder Hokota.

An das Schienennetz ist Ōizumi über die Tōbu Koizumi-Linie nach Tatebayashi angeschlossen. Haltestellen in der Gemeinde sind Nishi-Koizumi, Koizumimachi und Higashi-Koizumi.

Sehenswürdigkeiten
An Sehenswürdigkeiten existieren in der Gemeinde die Ruine der Burg Koizumi (, Koizumi jōseki) und die Ainohara-Ruine (, Ainohara iseki) aus der Jōmon-Zeit (3500–3000 vor Chr.), sowie der buddhistische Tempel Ryūsen-ji () und der shintōistische Koizumi-Schrein (, Koizumi-jinja).

Wirtschaft
In Ōizumi befinden sich Werke der internationalen Konzerne Sanyo und Fuji Heavy Industries, aber auch des Druckunternehmens Toppan Printing und des Tiefkühlkostunternehmens Ajinomoto Reitō Shokuhin.

Bildung
In Ōizumi befinden sich die Grundschulen (, Ōizumi-chōritsu X shōgakkō) Nord (, kita), Süd (, minami), West (, nishi) und Ost (, higashi), sowie die Mittelschulen (, Ōizumi-chōritsu X chūgakkō) Nord, Süd und West.

An höheren Bildungseinrichtungen können die Nishi-Ōra-Oberschule (, Gunma-kenritsu Nishi-Ōra kōtō gakkō), die Ōizumi-Oberschule (, Gunma-kenritsu Ōizumi kōtō gakkō), sowie eine Fachoberschule (, Ōizumi hoiku fukushi semmon gakkō) mit Spezialisierung auf Kinderpflege oder Wohlfahrtspflege allgemein besucht werden.

Städtepartnerschaften
Ōizumi ist seit Oktober 1992 eine Schwesterstadt des brasilianischen Guaratinguetá.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in der Präfektur Gunma

Ōizumi (Gunma)


El Templo del Otro Partido (también conocido por su sigla TOP) es un museo de marketing deportivo ubicado en la ciudad de Buenos Aires. Cuenta con cerca de 4000 piezas de exposición, incluyendo alrededor de 1000 camisetas de fútbol de distintas procedencias. Fue ideado y fundado por Claudio Destéfano, periodista especializado en negocios deportivos.

Objetos en exposición

Fútbol

El museo expone una larga lista de objetos vinculados a la historia del deporte argentino, con especial énfasis en los ídolos del fútbol, el tenis, el básquet y el rugby.
Así, por ejemplo, entre las más de 120 camisetas de Boca Juniors en exhibición, se incluye la que Martín Palermo utilizó en el partido que significó su retirada del fútbol profesional. También se exponen los pantalones amarillos usados por Juan Román Riquelme durante la final de la Copa Libertadores 2007.

Tenis y básquet

Entre otros objetos de gran valor para la memoria deportiva de los argentinos, se incluyen zapatillas de los baloncestistas Jorge "Chuzo" González y Emanuel Ginóbili. También hay raquetas y pelotas utilizadas por ídolos del tenis como Guillermo Vilas, Gastón Gaudio y Guillermo Coria.

Museo virtual

El Templo del Otro Partido tiene su equivalente virtual en la web Hay Otro Partido, plataforma dedicada a la historia del deporte argentino y su relación con patrocinadores y grandes marcas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Recorrido por el Templo del Otro Partido (Rugby Fan)

Véase también

 Patrocinio deportivo
 Museo de la Pasión Boquense

Deporte en la ciudad de Buenos Aires
Museos de fútbol
Museos deportivos

Templo del Otro Partido


نادي أولمبيك الدشيرة هو نادٍ رياضي مغربي من مدينة الدشيرة، يمارس في دوري الدرجة الثانية المغربي، تأسس سنة 1940.

وصلات خارجية
  الموقع الرسمي للقناة الرياضية المغربية

أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1940
أندية كرة قدم في المغرب
تأسيسات سنة 1940 في المغرب
عمالة إنزكان آيت ملول

نادي أولمبيك الدشيرة


Mikael Pittet, né le  à Lausanne, est un chercheur et professeur suisse.

Biographie
Mikael Pittet a terminé sa thèse de doctorat en immunologie à l'Institut Ludwig pour la recherche sur le cancer et est diplômé de l'Université de Lausanne en 2001. Il a ensuite poursuivi des recherches post-doctorales au Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), à la Harvard Medical School (HMS) et au Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (DFCI), à Boston (États-Unis).

Il est devenu professeur assistant à l'HMS en 2006, professeur associé en 2013 et professeur en 2019 (Département de radiologie). Ill a été nommé Samana Cay MGH Research Scholar en 2015 et nommé directeur du programme d'immunologie du cancer du CSB en 2016.

Après plus de quinze ans passés aux États-Unis, Mikaël Pittet est nommé en septembre 2021, professeur au Département de pathologie et immunologie de l'Université de Genève.

Domaine de recherche
Mikael Pittet est un chercheur largement cité  en immunologie du cancer et en immunothérapie du cancer, en particulier dans les domaines de l'immunité innée et adaptative. Ses recherches portent sur la découverte de la façon dont le système immunitaire contrôle le cancer et d'autres maladies et comment il peut être exploité pour la thérapie. Il est connu pour utiliser l'imagerie moléculaire pour suivre les cellules immunitaires et les médicaments directement in vivo.

Les travaux du Professeur Pittet ont identifié comment les cancers sont régulés par diverses cellules immunitaires, y compris les cellules T cytotoxiques, les cellules T régulatrices, les macrophages, les monocytes, les neutrophiles et les cellules dendritiques. Ces cellules sont considérées comme des cibles thérapeutiques dans l'immunothérapie du cancer.

Publications
Mikael Pittet est l'auteur de plus de 140 publications dans des revues à comité de lecture et a contribué à plusieurs manuels. Son travail a été cité plus de 25 000 fois et il a un h-index de 75.

Prix
Les travaux de Mikael Pittet ont été récompensés par le prix de la bourse de recherche Samana Cay MGH 2015, le prix Robert Wenner 2016, le prix du chercheur distingué 2016  de l'Académie de recherche en radiologie et le prix de mentorat 2017 MGH. Mikael Pittet est reconnu comme un chercheur hautement cité sur la base de ses multiples articles qui se classent dans le top 1% en termes de citations dans tous les domaines et au cours de la dernière décennie

Publications principales

Références

Personnalité liée à Lausanne
Professeur à la Harvard Medical School
Étudiant de l'université de Lausanne
Naissance en mai 1975

Mikael Pittet


An Cyperus kappleri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ferdinand von Hochstetter ngan Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel. An Cyperus kappleri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cyperus, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cyperus

Cyperus kappleri


Violeta se fue a los cielos es el trigésimo sexto álbum oficial en estudio del cantautor chileno Ángel Parra como solista. Fue lanzado en Chile originalmente en 2006 y grabado en Francia, país donde el autor vivió varios años producto de su exilio durante la dictadura militar. Más tarde se lanzó una versión francesa, con otra carátula y bajo el nombre de Ángel Parra chante Violeta Parra o simplemente Chante Violeta Parra.

El disco es un álbum tributo a su madre Violeta Parra, que se incluyó en el libro biográfico homónimo escrito por el mismo Ángel y publicado por la editorial Catalonia en 2006. Anteriormente en 1997, el cantautor ya había hecho otro tributo a Violeta, llamado Violeta Parra, texto y música.

Lista de canciones

Referencias

Álbumes de Chile de 2006
Álbumes de Ángel Parra
Álbumes tributo a Violeta Parra
Álbumes en español

Violeta se fue a los cielos (álbum)


Glenea doriai é uma espécie de escaravelho da família Cerambycidae. Foi descrita por Stephan von Breuning em 1950. É conhecida a sua existência no Bornéu.

Referências

Borneo catalog 2005

doriai
Coleópteros descritos em 1950

Glenea doriai


Wilhelm Hans August von Waldow, également Hans August Wilhelm von Waldow (né le  à Berlin et mort le  dans la même ville) est un avocat administratif allemand en Prusse.

Biographie
Wilhelm von Waldow est le fils du chef forestier royal prussien et fidéicommis de Dannenwalde, Adolf (Friedrich August)  (1820-1906) et sa femme Elisabeth née  -Plessow (1826-1904).

Waldow passe les deux premières années de sa vie à Berlin ; puis la famille s'installe d'abord à Francfort-sur-l'Oder, puis à Posen et enfin à Königsberg à la suite des transferts du père. Le 4 septembre 1874, Wilhelm passe son baccalauréat en tant qu'élève n° 372 à l'école de l'abbaye de Roßleben. De 1874 à 1877, il étudie le droit et les sciences politiques à l'Université Kaiser Wilhelm de Strasbourg, à l'Université de Göttingen et à l'Université Frédéric-Guillaume de Berlin. En 1876, il devient membre du Corps Saxonia Göttingen. Après avoir terminé avec succès ses études, Waldow travaille à la . Il est nommé greffier le 2 janvier 1878, mais sert en 1878/79 comme  au  à pied de la Garde de l'armée prussienne.

Le 1er avril 1881, Waldow entre dans le service administratif supérieur et devient stagiaire du gouvernement. À ce titre, il travaille au district de Dantzig. Après avoir réussi l'examen d'État majeur en 1884, il est nommé évaluateur du gouvernement et employé par le district de Bromberg. Il est ensuite employé au ministère prussien de l'Intérieur à Berlin, au district de Francfort et un an plus tard à nouveau au ministère de l'Intérieur à Berlin. En 1886, il prend en charge l'administration provisoire du bureau de l'arrondissement de Fischhausen dans le district de Königsberg. Après avoir été nommé administrateur le 3 novembre 1886 et avoir travaillé six ans à Königsberg, il prend en charge en 1892 l'administration provisoire de l' dans le district de Potsdam. Il encourage la construction de chaussées et de petits chemins de fer et développa le service d'extinction des incendies.

Le 4 août 1890, Waldow épouse Elisabeth  (1866-1950), fille du général  et Rose, née von Albrecht, à Königsberg. Le mariage produit trois enfants, dont deux survivent à leur père.

De 1894 à 1898, Waldow est membre du parlement de l'État prussien. Le 2 février 1898, il devient haut président à Königsberg et le 9 octobre 1899 président du district de Königsberg.

En 1903, il est nommé haut président de la province de Posnanie. Il y assume également les fonctions de vice-président de la Commission d'établissement pour la Prusse-Occidentale et Posnanie, conservateur de l' et président de la Société allemande des arts et des sciences de Posen. À la mort de son père en 1906, Waldow hérite des domaines de Dannenwalde et Gramzow. Dans cette phase, il agit également en tant qu'exécuteur testamentaire pour son cousin Rochus von Rochow-Stülpe et entre ainsi en contact avec le sélectionneur de semences bien connu . En 1910 il devient conseiller privé réel. En 1911, il est nommé président de la province de Poméranie, avec son siège à Stettin.

Le 6 août 1917, Waldow est nommé ministre d'État et devient secrétaire d'État à l'Office du Reich à l'Alimentation. Lors de la Révolution de novembre, il quitte la fonction publique. À partir de 1920, il travaille comme membre du parlement et plus tard temporairement comme président de l'association d'État libre de Mecklembourg-Strelitz du Parti populaire national allemand.

En 1936, Wilhelm von Waldow devient commandeur honoraire de la coopérative de Mecklembourg de l'Ordre de Saint-Jean. Il rejoint cette congrégation évangélique reconnue en tant que candidat et par la suite en tant que chevalier d'honneur et en 1893, il reçoit le titre de chevalier en 1902. Les sœurs de Waldow, Wilhelmine et Klara, sont également actives dans l'ordre en tant que sœurs caritatives. Et son fils Franz (1894-1961), qui reprend également le domaine de Dannenwalde jusqu'à la réforme agraire, suit également la tradition de son père. Il obtient son doctorat en 1929 de l'Université de Göttingen avec une thèse sur le droit agricole> et est chevalier d'honneur de l'Ordre de Saint-Jean après la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

Honneurs
 Ordre de l'Aigle rouge de  classe avec feuilles de chêne (1906)
 Ordre de la Couronne 2e classe (1909)
 Citoyen d'honneur de Posen, Hohensalza, Schneidemühl et Bartenstein (1910/11)

Dans ce qui est alors l'arrondissement de Bas-Barnim, certaines rues qui appartiennent désormais à Berlin portent le nom de Waldow : en 1900 dans la colonie de Carlshorst, qu'il approuve et co-fonde, Waldowallee, à Oberschöneweide Waldowplatz  et deux Waldowstrassen. Il y a d'autres Waldowstrassen à Hohenschoenhausen, Niederschoenhausen, Mahlsdorf, et Reinickendorf.

Bibliographie
 Die Geschichte derer v. Waldow unter Benutzung des von dem Kammerherrn Franz v. Waldow u. d. Staatsminister a. D. Wilhelm v. Waldow gesammelten Materials / bearb. von Willy Spatz, nach dessen Ableben vollendet von Willy Hoppe, Verlag R. Rohde, Berlin 1927

Liens externes

Références

Ministre prussien
Haut président de la province de Poméranie
Haut président de la province de Posnanie
Président du district de Königsberg
Personnalité du Parti populaire national allemand
Citoyen d'honneur d'une ville de Pologne
Chevalier de 2e classe de l'ordre de la Couronne (Prusse)
Récipiendaire de l'ordre de l'Aigle rouge de 2e classe
Naissance en octobre 1856
Naissance à Berlin
Décès en juillet 1937
Décès à Berlin
Décès à 80 ans

Wilhelm von Waldow


السيرة المَرَضيّة أو التاريخ المرضي أو التاريخ الطبي  هي ما يرويه المريض من شكاوي صحية وأعراض وآلام والمتعلقة بمرضِ ما أو حالة صحية معينة. وهي تشمل ذِكر أول ظهور للأعراض، وتكرارها وذكر مقدمات الأعراض. كما تشمل ذِكر مايقوم به المريض للتأثير على الأعراض ومدى نجاحه في ذلك من عدمه. أي أن السيرة المرضية هي «قصة المريض مع المرض».

ويقوم الطبيب أو الممرض باستقصاء السيرة المرضية من خلال أسئلة مرتبة يوجهونها للمريض تشمل النواحي المهمة، وتساعد في تشخيص المرض كخطوة أولى للبحث عن العلاج. كان الرازي أول من أكد على أهمية أن يتحدث الطبيب إلى المريض مباشرة، وألا يعتمد على معلومات نُقلت إليه عن المريض من طرف ثالث، إذ اشتكى الرازي من أن تحليلات الأطراف الناقلة غالباً غير صحيحة، وكثيراً ماتظهر رغبة الطرف الثالث في إبهار الطبيب بما يملك من معلومات طبية.

مفهوم السيرة المرضية
تشمل السيرة المرضية جوانب كثيرة يرويها المريض لطبيبه معتقداً تسهيل عمل الطبيب في تشخيص المرض والبحث عن العلاج المناسب، ويمكن تقسيم محتوى السيرة المرضية إلى:

الشكوى الرئيسية
الأعراض الرئيسية من آلام وتغيرات تطرأ على المريض وتعيقه في حياته أو تقلقه. وهي في العادة أول ما يذكره المريض ولذا تعتبر هي الشكوى الرئيسية التي جلبت المريض لطلب العناية الطبية.

ومن الأمثلة عليها: ألم الظهر، ألم الصدر، ضيق النفس، الأرق، القلق، الخوف، العجز الجنسي، الرعاف، النزيف، الكسور، التغيرات الجلدية، الطفح... الخ.
غالباً مايقيس المريض جودة العلاج ودقة الطبيب في مدى تحسن العرض الرئيسي واستجابته للعلاج، وهو يشكل الدافع الرئيسي لزيارة الطبيب.

الشكوى الحالية
وهي تختلف عن الشكوى الرئيسية في أنها تتعلق بما يشكو منه المريض لحظة تواجده عند الطبيب، فقد يكون المريض نعساناً بسبب الأرق الذي أصابه في الليلة السابقة، وقد يشكو من الألم، أو يكون خالياً من الشكوى في لحظة تواجده أمام الطبيب، وكثير من المرضى يصيبهم الخوف من الطبيب (بخاصة الأطفال)، مما قد يغطي على الشكوى الرئيسية أو يغيرها، فينكر المريض الألم خوفاً من العلاج (الحقنة للأطفال، أو العملية الجراحية عند البالغين).

عامل الزمن
ويشمل مايرويه المريض أو ما يجيب به على أسئلة الطبيب حول:
 بداية المرض: متى بدأت الأعراض لأول مرة؟ متى بدأت الشكوى هذه المرة؟
 استمرارية العرض: كم تبقى الأعراض تؤثر في المريض، هل الشكوى مستمرة أم متقطعة؟ هل يدوم العرض لساعات، أيام أو أسابيع، أم يكون لثوانٍ أو دقائق معدودة؟
 تردد الشكوى: كم مرة تعود النوبات للظهور؟ كم مرة في اليوم\الأسبوع\الشهر تعود الشكوى للظهور؟ هل هي منتظمة أم غير منتظمة؟
 مراحل المرض والتغيرات التي لاحظها المريض في تطور الحالة المرضية، والمدة الزمنية لكل مرحلة.

يساعد عامل الزمن في تقسيم الأمراض إلى حادة  ومزمنة  ومتكررة .

المؤثرات
ماهي العوامل المؤثرة على المرض؟ ماذا يزيد من المرض أو يسبّبه باعتقاد المريض نفسه؟ وماذا يخفف منه؟ ويدخل في المؤثرات أيضاً الأدوية والعلاجات التي جربها المريض بكافة أنواعها، الطبية والشعبية والخرافية، وذلك لأن من ذلك أن يساعد في تشخيص المرض أو مضاعفاته.

السيرة الحيوية
وتشمل الجوانب الحيوية مثل:
 الشهية، آخر وجبة غذائية، التغذية.
 الإخراج مثل التبرز والتبول.
 قائمة الأدوية التي يتناولها المريض بانتظام.

السيرة الموسعة
تشمل السيرة المرضية الموسعة جوانب تؤثر في المرض وسيره، ويسألها الطبيب أو المعالج حين الحاجة إليها وتشمل:

التاريخ المرضي

يشمل التاريخ المرضي:
 تاريخ المرض الحالي .
 الأمراض الأخرى التي يعاني منها المريض.
 الأمراض السابقة التي أصابت المريض.
 العمليات الجراحية التي أُجريت للمريض.
 الأدوية التي يتناولها المريض بانتظام.

السيرة العائلية
بما أن العديد من الأمراض الجينية موروثة، كما أن التركيب الجيني يؤثر في كثير من الأمراض، فإن السيرة العائلية تشمل تاريخ العائلة الطبي، وبخاصة المتعلق بالمرض، مثل تواجد المرض عند الآباء والأمهات، والأجداد، إصابة الإخوة والأشقة، وكذلك التي يعاني منها الأبناء.

السيرة المهنية
وفيها يُسأل المريض عن مهنته التي تعلمها ومهنته التي يمارسها، ووضعه في عالم العمل. ويُستفاد من السيرة المهنية في معرفة مكامن المخاطر الصحية في جو العمل، والظروف التي تؤثر على صحة المريض الجسدية والنفسية. فالمهن المكتبية غير المهن الزراعية، وتعرض المريض للملوثات في بيئة العمل.

كما تفيد السيرة المهنية في معرفة المستوى المعرفي والعلمي للمريض، ومدى إدراكه لكُنه المرض، ومقدرته على استيعاب الشروحات الطبية، والالتزام بالتعليمات الطبية.

السيرة الاجتماعية
تشمل السيرة الاجتماعية جوانب مؤثرة في سير الأمراض وعلاجها منها:
 الحالة الاجتماعية من زواج وطلاق أو عزوبية تؤثر في كثير من الأمراض ومواجهة الآلام، وكذلك في شرح الضغوطات العائلية التي يمكن أن يتعرض لها المريض وتؤثر سلباً وإيجاباً على مجرى المرض. ومعرفة الوضع الأسري يساعد الطبيب أو المعالج على تقدير الحاجة للمساعدة التمريضية.
 المستوى الاجتماعي ومقدار الدخل المالي له دور في تقدير العلاجات الممكنة، كما أن الاستفسار عن توفر التأمين الصحي والأمن الاجتماعي يساعد على تقدير أفض الطرق العلاجية للمريض، والتأثير على استعداد المريض لتلقي العلاجات المكلفة أو التي تستغرق مدةً طويلة مثل النقاهة والعلاج الطبيعي.

سيرة الغريب
السيرة المرضية ينقلها المريض مباشرة إلى طبيبه، ولكن في بعض الحالات يكون الطبيب بحاجة إلى معلومات ينقلها له أشخاص آخرون حول الحالة الصحية للمريض، مثل حالات فقدان الوعي، أو الحالات التي لايكون فيها المريض نفسه قادراً على وصف المرض أو ذكر أعراضه، كعدم قدرة المريض على الكلام بسبب سكتة دماغية مثلاً، وهناك أمراض لا يلاحظها إلا مرافقو المريض فتكون الشكوى منقولة منهم. وسميت بسيرة الغريب لأن «غريباً» ينقلها إلى الطبيب لا المريض نفسه، وغالباً مايكون المرافق للمريض قريباً له لا غريباً بالمعنى الاجتماعي، إلا أن السيرة تسمى بذلك لتفريقها عن السيرة الذاتية للمرض.

انظر أيضاً
 فحص سريري.
 عرض (طب).
 علامة (طب).
 تشخيص.
 التشخيص بأثر رجعي

المراجع

فحوصات طبية
فروع تاريخ العلوم
مصطلحات طبية
ممارسة الطب
علاج رياضي

سيرة مرضية


Der Schimmelreiter ist eine deutsche Verfilmung der gleichnamigen Novelle Theodor Storms aus dem Jahre 1978 von Alfred Weidenmann. Der amerikanische Schauspieler John Phillip Law verkörperte darin den Titelhelden Hauke Haien.

Handlung
Hauke Haien ist ein ebenso ehrgeiziger wie entschlossener junger Mann mit großen Zielen. Er heiratet die hübsche, blonde Tochter des alten Deichgrafen Tede Volkerts, von dem er unbeabsichtigt zum Nachfolger aufgebaut wurde. Als der Alte stirbt, tritt Hauke voller Selbstbewusstsein dessen Erbe an und entwickelt sofort hochfliegende Pläne. Er plant den Bau eines Deichs, wie es zuvor noch keinen gegeben hat. Hoch und machtvoll soll er sein und die dahinter lebenden Menschen für immer vor den tosenden Nordseefluten schützen. Dies will er erreichen, indem er den neuen Deich so konstruiert, dass er zur Seeseite weniger steil abfällt als bisher. Doch seine kühnen und genialen Pläne stoßen nicht auf Gegenliebe geschweige denn Begeisterung.

Haukes Tatendrang befremdet die unflexiblen Friesen des Dorfes, deren Trägheit ihr größtes Charaktermanko ist. Sie sind beseelt von allerlei Aberglauben, mutmaßen, dass Haien mit dem Teufel im Bunde stehen müsse. Als der junge Deichgraf auch noch einen klapprigen Schimmel erwirbt, den er hegt und pflegt und zu einem edlen und stolzen Pferd aufpäppelt, wenden sich die einfältigen Dörfler endgültig von ihm ab. Zu seinem Unglück bringt seine Frau Elke auch noch eine geistig behinderte Tochter zur Welt. Mehrere als düstere Vorzeichen gedeutete Vorkommnisse lassen das Gerücht aufkommen, dass sich bald für die gesamte Gemeinde ein schreckliches Unglück ereignen wird. Eines Tages im Oktober bricht ein schwerer Sturm los, der die hohen Wellen heftig gegen den Deich peitscht. Der Deichgraf schwingt sich auf seinen Schimmel und reitet zum gefährdeten Deich. Da bricht die Katastrophe auf ihn und seine Familie herein: Der alte Damm bricht, und Hauke muss zusehen, wie Frau und Kind in den Fluten ertrinken. Daraufhin reitet auch er mit seinem Pferd in den nassen, tosenden Tod.

Produktion

Der Film wurde in Schleswig-Holstein (Außenaufnahmen unter anderem in Wewelsfleth, Dithmarschen und Ockholm in Nordfriesland) und in Bendestorf (Atelier) in nur 41 Tagen (20. September bis 5. November 1977) gedreht und am 29. März 1978 in Husum uraufgeführt.

Für eine Reihe von an dieser Produktion Beteiligten bedeutete Der Schimmelreiter die Abschiedsvorstellung vom Kinofilm: Regisseur Weidenmann, Produzent (Gesamtleiter) Alf Teichs, die Darsteller Lina Carstens, Werner Hinz und Teichs' Gattin Katharina Mayberg sowie Szenenbildner Roman Weyl.

ZDF-Redakteur Martin Büttner (Kino-Magazin "Neues vom Film") übernahm für den an der Herstellung des Films beteiligten Sender die Redaktion.

Bereits 1933 hatten Curt Oertel und Hans Deppe den Stoff verfilmt. Die Titelrolle verkörperte damals Mathias Wieman.

Kritik
Das Lexikon des Internationalen Films schrieb: "Ein mit stimmungsvollen Landschaftsaufnahmen routiniert inszenierter Film, in dem der gesellschaftliche Konflikt zurücktritt zugunsten der tragischen Love-Story, die von Weidenmann […] breit ausgespielt wird."

Das große Personenlexikon des Films nannte Weidenmanns Arbeit eine "fade[n] Literaturverfilmung" und empfand sie überdies als "allzu routiniert inszeniert".

Weblinks

 Schimmelreiter-Verfilmungen in der Übersicht

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1978
Deutscher Film
Horrorfilm
Filmdrama
Theodor-Storm-Verfilmung
Alfred Weidenmann

Der Schimmelreiter (1978)


ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පුරවැසිභාවය ඇති තැනැත්තන් ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ ලෙස හැඳින්වේ. සමස්ථ ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයන් සංඛ්‍යාව මිලියන 20ක් (ක්‍රි.ව.2014 ඇස්තමේන්තුව) පමණවේ. ම්න් අති බහුතරය ශ්‍රී ලංකාව තුලම ජීවත්වන අතර සැලකියයුතු සංඛ්‍යායාවක් මැදපෙරදිග රැකියාවල නිරතවේ.

අතීතය
ක්‍රි.ව. 1972 මැයි 22 දිනට පෙර මොවුන් ලාංකිකයෝ ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලැබීය.

ශ්‍රී ලංකික ජන සංයුතිය

ජීවත්වන රට අනුව
ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ අතිබහුතරය ජීවත්වේ. ශ්‍රී ලාංකික පුරවැසිභාවය අති තැනැත්තන් සැලකියයුතු සංඛ්‍යාවක් ජීවත්වන අනෙක් රටවල් මෙසේය. ඉන්දියාවේ හැර අනෙක් රටවල වාසයකරන බහුතර ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ සිංහලවේ.

ජාතිය අනුව

සිංහල

දෙමළ

ආගම අනුව

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සම්මාන පුරවැසිභාවය
ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පළමු සම්මාන පුරවැසියා ආතර්.සී.ක්ලාක් ය.

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ද්විත්ව පුරවැසිභාවය එවන් යමක් තිබේ.

ශ්‍රී ලංකික භාවය අත්හැරි පුද්ගලයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ (හෝ ලාංකිකයෝ) සැලකියයුතු සංඛ්‍යවක් පහත සඳහන් රටවල පුරවැසිභාවය ලබා  ශ්‍රී ලාංකාවේ පුරවැසි භාවය අත්හැර ඇත. මොවුනගෙන් බහුතරය දෙමළ ජනතාවවේ.

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාව සබැඳි ඩයස්පෝරා

ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ

ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ


Der Orangeblütige Erbsenstrauch (Caragana aurantiaca) ist ein orangegelb blühender Strauch und ein Vertreter der Schmetterlingsblütler (Faboideae). Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet der Art liegt in Asien. Sie wird selten als Zierstrauch verwendet.

Beschreibung
Der Orangeblütige Erbsenstrauch wächst als wenig verzweigter Strauch mit grünlich brauner bis dunkelgrauer, glänzender Rinde und erreicht eine Wuchshöhe von 1 Meter. Die Zweige sind zahlreich, dünn, anfangs aufrecht und später abstehend übergeneigt. Die Laubblätter sind in vier Blättchen unterteilt. Blattstiel und Blattspindel werden an langen Zweigen 3 bis 5 Millimeter lang und verdornen häufig; sie fehlen jedoch an kurzen Zweigen. Die Blättchen sind 4 bis 16 Millimeter lang und 1 bis 2 Millimeter breit, linealisch bis lanzettlich-lineal, sichelförmig und kahl. Die Oberseite ist hellgrün, die Unterseite ist etwas heller als die Oberseite. Die Nebenblätter verdornen.

Die Schmetterlingsblüten stehen einzeln auf 6 bis 9 Millimeter langen Stielen. Der Blütenkelch ist 6 bis 7 Millimeter lang und glockenförmig. Die Blütenkrone ist orangegelb und 1,8 bis 2 Zentimeter lang. Die Fahne ist rundlich, mit runder oder ausgerandeter Spitze. Die Platte ist drei bis viermal länger als der Nagel. Die Flügel sind schmal länglich, der Nagel ist halb so lang wie die Platte. Der Nagel des Schiffchen ist kürzer als die Platte, die Blattöhrchen sind kurz. Der Fruchtknoten ist kahl. Die Hülsenfrüchte sind 2,5 bis 4 Zentimeter lang, zylindrisch, etwas zusammengedrückt und kahl. Der Orangeblütige Erbsenstrauch blüht von Juni bis Juli, die Früchte reifen im August.

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n=16.

Vorkommen und Standortansprüche
Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet des Orangeblütigen Erbsenstrauchs liegt in Afghanistan, in der Republik Altai in Russland, in Kirgisistan, Usbekistan, im chinesischen Autonomen Gebiet Xinjiang und in Pakistan. Er wächst in Steppen und Trockenwäldern in etwa 1000 Metern Höhe auf trockenen bis frischen, schwach sauren bis stark alkalischen, sandigen, sandig-kiesigen bis sandig-lehmigen, nährstoffreichen Böden an sonnigen bis lichtschattigen Standorten. Die Art ist nässeempfindlich, wärmeliebend und meist frosthart.

Systematik
Der Orangeblütige Erbsenstrauch (Caragana aurantiaca) ist eine Art aus der Gattung der Erbsensträucher (Caragana) in der Familie der Hülsenfrüchtler (Fabaceae). Dort wird sie der Tribus Hedysareae in der Unterfamilie der Schmetterlingsblütler (Faboideae) zugeordnet. Koehne hat die Art 1893 erstbeschrieben. Der Gattungsname Caragana leitet sich vom mitteltürkischen Wort "qaraqan" ab, das einen Erbsenstrauch beschreibt, das Artepitheton aurantiaca bedeutet orangerot.

Verwendung
Der Orangeblütige Erbsenstrauch wird aufgrund der dekorativen Blüten als Zierstrauch verwendet, ist jedoch eher selten.

Nachweise

Literatur

 Andreas Roloff, Andreas Bärtels: Flora der Gehölze. Bestimmung, Eigenschaften und Verwendung. Mit einem Winterschlüssel von Bernd Schulz. 3., korrigierte Auflage. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 2008, ISBN 978-3-8001-5614-6, S. 157.

 Helmut Genaust: Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen. 3., vollständig überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Nikol, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-937872-16-7 (Nachdruck von 1996).

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Erbsensträucher

Orangeblütiger Erbsenstrauch


Conway Tearle (17 de mayo de 1878 – 1 de octubre de 1938) fue un actor teatral y cinematográfico angloestadounidense.

Primeros años
Nacido en la ciudad de Nueva York, era hijo del conocido cornetista británico Jules Levy y de la actriz estadounidense Mary "Minnie" Conway. Minnie Conway era descendiente directa de William Augustus Conway, un actor shakespeariano popular en los Estados Unidos en la década de 1820. El padre de ella, propietario del Teatro Brooklyn, habría sido el organizador de la primera compañía teatral de repertorio estadounidense. Tras divorciarse los padres de Tearle, su madre se casó con Osmond Tearle, un popular actor británico de repertorio shakespeariano, que actuaba en el medio provincial. Conway Tearle era medio hermano de los también actores Malcolm Tearle y Godfrey Tearle, así como del músico de jazz Jules Levy Jr.

Conway Tearle se educó en Inglaterra y en los Estados Unidos, iniciándose en el teatro a temprana edad. A los diez años de edad era capaz de recitar doce obras de Shakespeare de memoria. Su gran oportunidad llegó a los 21 años, cuando en Mánchester, Inglaterra, sin preparación alguna, fue llamado para interpretar a Hamlet al enfermar el actor principal justo antes de iniciarse la función.

Carrera
La actuación que Tearle hizo esa noche le facilitó su primera interpretación en el teatro londinense haciendo el papel de Vizconde de Chauvin, el personaje principal de "The Queen's Double", obra representada el 27 de abril de 1901 en el Teatro Garrick. Posteriormente hizo una gira por Australia actuando durante unos meses con el papel de Ben Hur, volviendo finalmente a Londres para protagonizar la obra "The Best of Friends" en el Teatro Drury Lane. Tearle repartió las siguientes cuatro temporadas con compañías encabezadas por Ellen Terry y Charles Wyndham.

En 1905 Tearle volvió a Estados Unidos para actuar con Grace George en una pieza de corta trayectoria, Abigail. A lo largo de unos ocho años Tearle trabajó en diversas producciones en el circuito de Broadway que no llegaron a convencer al público neoyorquino. Aun así, consiguió buenas críticas por sus actuaciones en obras como The New York Idea, The Liars, Major Barbara, y otras. En 1908/09 Tearle retomó su papel en una lujosa producción itinerante de Ben Hur.

Tearle volvió a Hollywood en 1914, consiguiendo un considerable éxito con la interpretación de primeros papeles románticos. Su primer film fue The Nightingale, una historia de Augustus Thomas sobre una chica de suburbio, Ethel Barrymore, que llega a ser una estrella de ópera.  Su última película fue una adaptación de la obra de Shakespeare Romeo y Julieta rodada en 1936 e interpretada por John Barrymore. En total, Tearle actuó en unos 93 filmes a lo largo de su carrera, llegando en un momento dado a ser, probablemente, el actor mejor pagado de Estados Unidos. Con la llegada del cine sonoro la carrera de Tearle empezó a decaer, posiblemente debido a su edad, más que a la nueva tecnología.
El 16 de diciembre de 1931 Conway actuó junto a Kay Francis en la inauguración del Teatro Paramount en Oakland (California), el cual estrenó el film rodado por la pareja The False Madonna, con producción de Paramount Pictures.

Al año siguiente Tearle consiguió un gran éxito en Broadway con Dinner at Eight, encarnando a Larry Renault, personaje que posteriormente llevaría al cine John Barrymore.

Uno de los últimos papeles protagonistas de Tearle fue el que hizo en Hey Diddle Diddle, una comedia escrita por Bartlett Cormack. La obra se estrenó en Princeton (Nueva Jersey) el 21 de enero de 1937, y en la misma también actuaba Lucille Ball en el papel de  Julie Tucker. La función tuvo buenas críticas, pero hubo problemas a causa de la mala salud de Tearle. Cormack quería reemplazarle, pero la productora, Anne Nichols, quiso que se reescribiera el papel de Tearle. No hubo acuerdo, y finalmente la pieza dejó de representarse tras una semana de funciones en Washington D. C., en parte por culpa de la salud de Tearle.

Sus últimas actuaciones en Broadway tuvieron lugar en las piezas Living Dangerously (1935) y Antonio y Cleopatra (1937).

Vida personal

Conway Tearle se casó por primera vez en 1901 en Sunderland, Inglaterra. En 1908 Tearle entabló pleito por divorcio en Reno (Nevada), acusando a su esposa, Gertrude Maude Blennerhasset, de haberle abandonado varios años antes.

Su segunda esposa, la actriz Josephine Park, presentó una demanda de divorcio en marzo de 1912 tras conocer que Tearle se había ido a Italia a bordo del USS America (ID-3006) con la actriz Roberta Hill. Con anterioridad el nombre de Roberta había salido a la luz en una demanda de divorcio presentada por la mujer de John Jacob Astor IV.

La tercera esposa de Tearle, Roberta Hill, pidió el divorcio en 1917, tras encontrar unos detectives contratados por ella a Tearle en una habitación de hotel con Adele Rowland, una actriz y bailarina de comedias musicales. La pareja explicaba que se encontraban ensayando una obra.

El siguiente mes de febrero Tearle se casó con Rowland, permaneciendo ambos juntos hasta la muerte del actor, ocurrida unos veinte años más tarde. Adele Rowland había sido esposa del actor Charles Ruggles, y en esa época era conocida por interpretar la canción "Pack Up Your Troubles In Your Old Kit Bag And Smile, Smile, Smile", la cual cantaba en el musical de 1915 Her Soldier Boy.

Conway Tearle falleció en Hollywood, California, a causa de un infarto agudo de miocardio en 1938. Tenía 60 años de edad. Sus restos fueron incinerados, y las cenizas entregadas a sus allegados.

Selección de su filmografía
 The Seven Sisters (1915)
 Stella Maris (1918)
 Atonement (1919)
 Bella Donna (1923)
 Black Oxen (1923)
 Ashes of Vengeance (1923)
 The Next Corner (1924)
 The Mystic (1925)
 The Greater Glory (1926)
 Altars of Desire (1927)
 The Isle of Forgotten Women (1927)
 Gold Diggers of Broadway (1929)
 Morals for Women (1931)
 The Hurricane Express (1932)
 Vanity Fair (1932)
 Stingaree (1934)
 The Headline Woman (1935)
 Romeo y Julieta (1936)
 The Preview Murder Mystery (1936)

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Fallecidos por infarto agudo de miocardio
Actores de cine de Estados Unidos
Actores de cine mudo
Actores de teatro de Estados Unidos
Personas de Nueva York (estado)

Conway Tearle


is a city located in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan, founded on April 1, 1954. In March 1, 2012, the city had an estimated population of 43,931, with 19,119 households and a population density of 294.82 persons per km2. However the census of 2020 confirmed a population decline to 39,011  and by October 2022 there were only 17,537 households . The total area is  and shares a border with Ei, a town to its north.

On January 1, 2006, the towns of Kaimon and Yamagawa (both from Ibusuki District) were merged into Ibusuki.

Ibusuki can be accessed by Routes 226 and 269 and the Ibusuki Skyline drive. The city's main railroad station is Ibusuki Station.

Ibusuki is famous for black-sand spas known as sunamushi onsen and the fine noodle sōmen nagashi.

Ibusuki has a sister city relationship with Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia.

Geography
Points of interest include:
 Kirishima-Kinkowan National Park contains in its Kagoshima Bay region:
Kaimondake volcano
An inactive stratovolcano at the end of the Satsuma Peninsula
 Chiringashima
Island in Kagoshima Bay
 Lake Ikeda
A volcanic caldera
 Tōsenkyō
 Ryūgū Shrine
The city includes the following districts from the west:
Kaimonjutcho
The northern aspect of Mount Kaimon and adjacent sea coast of Satsuma Peninsula
Kaimonkawashiri
The southern aspect Mount Kaimon and adjacent sea coast of Satsuma Peninsula
Kaimonsenta
From Kaimonjutcho and Kaimonkawashiri to Lake Ikeda
Ikeda
Northern Lake Ikeda to the west
Iwamoto
North of Ikeda to the west coast at Kagoshima Bay
Komaki
regions north west of Iwamoto to the west coast at Kagoshima Bay
Yamagawaokachogamizu
The coast including Cape Nagasakibana at the entrance to Kagoshima Bay
Kaimonueno
From Lake Ikeda towards the south
Yamagawatoshinaga
Adjacent to eastern shore Lake Ikeda
Yamagawaoyama
to the west of Yamagawaogawa from Nishi-Ōyama rail station to Lake Unagi
Yamagawaogawa
extends from near the sea almost to Lake Unagi a volcanic crater
Yamagawanarikawa
Surrounds of Lake Unagi to the northern aspects Yamagawa harbour
Nishikata
from west of Lake Unagi to Kagoshima Bay including the land corridor to Ibusuki
Higashikata
Rural north of Lake Unagi almost to the coast of Kagoshima Bay missing the main land corridor to Ibusuki and includes Chiringashima
Yamagawafukumoto
coast at entrance to Kagoshima Bay and includes southern aspects Yamagawa harbour
Yamagawaasahicho
coastal in Yamagawa harbour within Kagoshima Bay
Shinnishikata
Northern inland area
Junicho
 Almost from Lake Unagi to the east, mainly inland but reaching the coast at northern aspect Yamagawa harbour
Omure
Central Ibusuki to the north and reaching Kagoshima Bay
Minato
Central Ibusuki to the north and reaching Kagoshima Bay
Yunohama
South of Ibusukifrom railway to coast of Kagoshima Bay
Kiirenukumicho
North of Komaki along the coast of Kagoshima Bay
Yamagawayamashitacho

Geology
The city has many volcanoes and hot springs of the Ibusuki Volcanic Field. The Yamagawa Binary Power Station uses local geothermal power to contribute a maximum of 4990 kilowatts  as a "green energy" source.

Climate
Ibusuki has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot summers and mild winters. Precipitation is significant throughout the year, and is heavier in summer, especially the months of June and July. The average annual temperature in Ibusuki is . The average annual rainfall is  with June as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around , and lowest in January, at around . Its record high is , reached on 18 August 2020, and its record low is , reached on 25 January 2016. Due to its marine subtropical climate, the city is the northern limit in Japan where cycads grow naturally.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Ibusuki in 2020 is 39,011 people. Since the census began in Ibusuki in 1950, the town's population has been slowly declining, with no signs of picking up until 2020 but the latest data suggests further decline.

Culture
 Hirasaki Shrine
 Iwasaki Art Museum
 Ibusuki Onsen
 Ibusuki Experimental Botanical Garden

Transport
 Higashi-Kaimon Station
 Ibusuki Station
 Irino Station
 Kaimon Station
 Miyagahama Station
 Nigatsuden Station
 Nishi-Ōyama Station
 Ōyama Station
 Satsuma-Imaizumi Station
 Satsuma-Kawashiri Station
 Yamakawa Station

Twin cities
Chitose in Hokkaidō
Rockhampton in Australia

References

External links

 Ibusuki City official website
 Kagoshima Prefectural Visitors Bureau official website

 Photos of the sand baths at Ibusuki and area attractions

Cities in Kagoshima Prefecture

Ibusuki, Kagoshima


زراعة الغابات أو الحِرَاجة هي مجموعة التقنيات التي تسمح باستحداث (أي بالغرس والتشجير) والاستغلال الاقتصادي والاجتماعي العقلاني للغابات وكل ذلك مع رعايتها والحرص على استمراريتها. ويطلق اسم زراعة الغابات المستدامة حين يكون الاستثمار في غابة ما باستغلالها اقتصاديا واجتماعيا مع الأخذ بعين الاعتبار نصيب الأجيال القادمة.

تجديد الغابات

الحراجة أمر أساس لاستمرار الغابات ولتشجير الأراضي الخالية من الأشجار لزيادة رقعة الغابات. يمكن للغابة أن تتجدد من البذور المزروعة ذاتيًا (التجديد الطبيعي) والتي تسقط من الأشجار أو البذور المزروعة والشتلات المزروعة (التجديد الاصطناعي) التي يجلبها عمال الحراجة. يعتمد أداء الحراجة على إمكانات النمو في تلك الرقعة والدرجة التي تسمح بها بيئتها بالتكاثر. لذلك فإن هناك حاجة إلى البذور في جميع أنماط التجديد، سواء للبذر الطبيعي أوعملية البذار ولرفع مخزون الغرس في المشتل.

التجديد الطبيعي هو وسيلة «للتجديد الطبيعي بمساعدة الإنسان» لإنشاء فئة عمرية للغابات من البذر الطبيعي أو الإنبات في منطقة بعد الحصاد في تلك المنطقة من خلال قطع الانتقاء أو حصاد المأوى (أو شجرة البذور) أو تحضير التربة أو تقييد حجم موقف واضح لتأمين التجدد الطبيعي للأشجار المحيطة.

تتضمن عملية التجديد الطبيعي تجديد الغابات عن طريق البذور المزروعة ذاتيًا، أو مصاصو الجذور، أو تقطيع الأشجار. في الغابات الطبيعية، تعتمد الصنوبريات بالكامل تقريبًا على التجدد من خلال البذور. ومع ذلك، فإن معظم الأوراق العريضة قادرة على التجدد عن طريق ظهور براعم من جذوعها (نواة) وسيقان مكسورة.

تاريخ
ترجع جذور مفهوم زراعة الغابات إلى الحضارات القديمة وخصوصا الصينيين الذين قاموا بزراعة مساحات شاسعة لتستغل فيما بعد وألفوا فيها مؤلفات. ثم في أوربا حيث أن هنري دو مونصو يعتبر أول من ألف فيها، ولكن في حقيقة الأمر فإن زراعة الغابات المعاصرة ظهرت في بروسيا نتيجة أعمال عالمي الزراعة جورج هارتيغ (1764-1837) وهاينريتش كوتا (1763-1844) حيث أنها أسسا في بروسيا مدراس لزراعة الغابات جذبت العديد من الطلبة وحتى من الخارج، ويعتبر كوتا أول من استعمل كلمة زراعة النباتات: "Sylviculture" وذلك في كتابه: «مقدمة لزراعة الغابات» سنة 1817م، بعد ذلك انتشر مجال زراعة الغابات وكثر دارسوه ومدرسوه وطورت أساليبه وآلياته وتطبيقاته لنرى حصيلة كل ذلك في يومنا هذا.

الأهداف
غالبا ما تكون أهداف زراعة الغابات تختص بتحصيل مواد سلعية كالخشب، كما تهدف بالتوازي إلى تثبيت التربة ومكافحة التعرية والانجراف، واستمرار السكان الأصليين في أراضيهم بتحسين بيئتهم، كما تهدف إلى توفير غذاء للحيوانات وتحسين المنظر العام للمناطق وخلق أماكن ترفيهية.

انظر أيضاً

 حراجة

المراجع

إدارة الغابات
قطع الأشجار

زراعة الغابات