الملك المعز عز الدين أيبك الجاشنكير التركماني الصالحي النجمي(توفي بالقاهرة عام 1257). أول سلاطين الدولة المملوكية. نُصِّب سلطانًا على مصر في عام 1250 بعد أن تزوجته وتنازلت له عن العرش شجر الدر سلطانة مصر وأرملة السلطان الأيوبي الصالح أيوب، وبقي سلطانًا على مصر إلى أن اُغتيل بقلعة الجبل في عام 1257. كان من أصل تركماني. اسم أيبك يتكون من مقطعين بالتركية (أي) وتعني قمر و(بك) وتعني أمير.

الأصل
كان أيبك أميرا. يخدم مع بني جلدته من التركمان في بلاط السلطان الأيوبي الصالح نجم الدين أيوب. لذا عرفته المماليك البحرية باسم أيبك التركماني. ترقى أيبك إلى رتبة أمير وعمل جاشنكيرا وكان رنكه رسم الخوانجا.

بعد وفاة السلطان الأيوبي الصالح أيوب أثناء الحملة الصليبية السابعة (حملة الملك الفرنسي لويس التاسع) على دمياط في عام 1249 ثم اغتيال المماليك البحرية ابنه السلطان توران شاه عند فارسكور بعد هزيمة الصليبيين وأسر لويس التاسع في عام 1250, تسلطنت شجر الدر أرملة الصالح أيوب على عرش مصر بمساندة وتأييد المماليك البحرية وبذلك فقد الأيوبيون سيطرتهم على مصر.

لم يرض كلا من الأيوبيين في الشام في دمشق والخليفة العباسي المستعصم بالله في بغداد بانتزاع عرش الأيوبيين في مصر وتنصيب شجر الدر ورفضا الاعتراف بسلطانها فقام الأمراء الأيوبيون بتسليم الكرك للملك المغيث عمر ودمشق للملك الناصر صلاح الدين يوسف الذي قبض على عدة من أمراء مصر في دمشق فرد المماليك بتجديد حلفهم لشجر الدر ونصبوا عز الدين أيبك أتابكا وقبضوا على الأمراء الميالون للناصر يوسف في القاهرة. وبعث المستعصم إلى الأمراء في مصر كتابا يقول: «إن كانت الرجال قد عدمت عندكم، فأعلمونا حتى نسير إليكم رجالا».

السلطنة
عدم الاعتراف بسلطنة شجر الدر من قبل الأيوبيين في دمشق والخليفة العباسي (الذي كان اعترافه بالسلاطين مطلوبًا لشرعية حكمهم رغم كونه خليفةً اسمًا فقط)  أربك المماليك في مصر وأقلقهم فراحوا يفكرون في وسائل توفيقية ترضي الأيوبيين والخليفة العباسي وتمنحهم شرعية لحكم البلاد فقرر المماليك تزويج شجر الدر من أيبك ثم تتنازل له عن العرش فيرضى الخليفة العباسي بجلوس رجل على تخت السلطنة ثم البحث عن رمز أيوبي يشارك أيبك الحكم اسميًا فيهدأ خاطر الأيوبيين ويرضوا عن الوضع الجديد.

تزوجت شجر الدر من أيبك وتنازلت له عن العرش بعد أن حكمت مصر ثمانين يومًا  بإرادة صلبة وحذق متناهي في ظروف عسكرية وسياسية غاية في التعقيد والخطورة بسبب غزو العدو الصليبي للأراضي المصرية وموت زوجها سلطان البلاد الصالح أيوب بينما الحرب ضد الصليبيين دائرة على الأرض الواقعة بين دمياط والمنصورة. نُصِّب أيبك سلطانًا واتخذ لقب الملك المعز. في محاولة لإرضاء الأيوبيين والخليفة العباسي قام المماليك بإحضار طفل أيوبي في السادسة من عمره، وقيل في نحو العاشرة من عمره،  وسلطنوه باسم «الملك الأشرف مظفر الدين موسى» وأعلن أيبك أنه ليس سوى نائب للخليفة العباسي وأن مصر لا تزال تابعًا للخلافة العباسية كما كانت من قبل. ولإثبات ولائه لأستاذه السلطان الأيوبي المتوفى الصالح أيوب قام أيبك بنقل رفاته من قلعة جزيرة الروضة إلى مقبرته التي كان قد أنشأها قبل وفاته قرب مدرسته في منطقة بين القصرين بالقاهرة. حتى تلك اللحظة كان أيبك يعتمد على ثلاث أمراء وهم: زعيم المماليك البحرية فارس الدين أقطاي الجمدار، وركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري، وسيف الدين بلبان الرشيدي.

الصراع مع الأيوبيين
الناصر يوسف الأيوبي ملك دمشق والذي أصبح الشام كله بيده  بعث بجيش إلى غزة للاستيلاء على مصر والإطاحة بأيبك لكن سيف الدين أقطاي تصدى له. ثم قام الناصر بمحاولة جديدة قاد فيها جيشًا كبيرًا إلى مصر وتمكن من كسر ميسرة جيش أيبك في معركة جرت بالقرب من الصالحية وفر عسكر أيبك إلى القاهرة وتبعهم عدد من عسكر الناصر واتضح للناس أن الناصر قد انتصر فخطب له بالقاهرة ومناطق آخرى من مصر، في غضون ذلك أرض المعركة ما تزال المعارك دائرة بين جيش الناصر وأيبك، وأستولت البحرية بقيادة أقطاي على سناجقه ونهبت أمواله ووقع في الأسر عدد كبير من عسكر وأمراء جيشه كان من بينهم تورانشاه وأخاه نصرة الدين محمد والملك الأشرف. بعدها بقليل استولى فارس الدين أقطاي على الساحل ونابلس إلى نهر الأردن.

في عام 1252 وردت الأنباء بأن الجيش المغولي بقيادة هولاكو قد اقتحم الحدود الشرقية للعالم الإسلامي وانه ينوى الاستيلاء على بغداد فقام أيبك بازاحة الملك الأشرف موسى من تخت السلطنة وسجنه ونصب الأمير سيف الدين قطز نائبا له ثم نفى الأشرف في وقت لاحق إلى الأراضي البيزنطيه وكان الأشرف موسى آخر من خطب له من بيت أيوب بالسلطنة بمصر. بسبب الوضع دعم مركزه داخل مصر وقد تمكن في عام 1253 من خلال التفاوض الذي أشرف عليه الخليفة العباسي من عقد صلح مع الناصر تم له بمقتضاه الاتفاق على المناطق التابعة لكلا الجانبين.

تمرد الأعراب
في عام 1253 نشب تمرد خطير في مصر الوسطى والصعيد قامت به القبائل العربية المقيمة بمصر بزعامة حصن الدين ثعلب الذي تصدى له الأمير فارس الدين أقطاي وانتصر عليه بالقرب من ديروط وأخمد ثورته. بعد أن منح أيبك الأمان لثعلب استدعاه وسجنه بالإسكندرية. نجاح فارس الدين أقطاي في سحق تمرد ثعلب ومن قبل في الانتصار على جيش الناصر يوسف منحاه ومعه مماليكه البحرية مكانة ونفوذا جعلت أيبك يتوجس منهم ويعتبرهم مصدرا للتهديد على سلطنته. عندما طلب أقطاي من أيبك سكنى القلعة مع عروسه التي سيعقد عليها وكانت أختاً للملك المظفر صاحب حماة لاح لأيبك أن أقطاي ومماليكه البحرية قد تجاوزوا كافة الاعتبارات فقرر القضاء على أقطاي.

الإطاحة بالمماليك البحرية
تآمر أيبك مع قطز والمماليك المعزية على اغتيال فارس الدين أقطاي والقضاء على مماليكه فقام أيبك بدعوة أقطاي إلى قلعة الجبل لأخذ مشورته في أمر ما واغتاله. في بادئ الأمر ظنت مماليك أقطاي أن أيبك قد حجز زعيمهم في القلعة فلما تجمعوا عندها للمطالبة بالإفراج عنه ألقيت إليهم رأسه فأُصيبوا بالفزع وأيقنوا أن أيبك قد عزم على القضاء عليهم ففروا من مصر أثناء الليل. وهربت جماعة منهم إلى سلطنة الروم السلاجقة وآخرى إلى الكرك وثالثة إلى سوريا. وكان من بين تلك الجماعة الأخيرة بيبرس البندقداري وقلاوون الألفي وسنقر الأشقر. ولاحق أيبك البحرية الفارّين فصادر أموالهم وممتلكاتهم واسترد مدينة الإسكندرية التي كان أقطاي قد اقتطعها لنفسه من خاص السلطنة في عام 1252 وأعاد للناصر البلاد التي كان قد اقتطعها للبحرية بالساحل من قبل. وأرسل إلى حكام المناطق التي فروا إليها يحذرهم منهم ويحرضهم عليهم. أما البحرية الذين لم يتمكنوا من الفرار من مصر فقد قام أيبك بالقبض عليهم وأعدم بعضهم ونودي في مصر بتهديد من أخفى أحدا من البحرية.

أما المماليك البحرية فقد أعلنوا ولائهم للملك الناصر يوسف في دمشق بسوريا بأنهم قد وصلوا إلى خدمته فسمح لهم بدخول مملكته وخرج إلى لقائهم وأكرمهم وأنعم عليهم.

الصراع مع البحرية والأيوبيين
كان لاغتيال فارس الدين أقطاي وفرار البحرية نتائج داخلية هامة منها بزوغ نجم الأمير سيف الدين قطز الذي أصبح أقرب المماليك إلى أيبك وأحبهم إليه، ومنها انقسام المماليك منذ ذلك الحين إلى فريقين هما المماليك البحرية والمماليك المعزية.

في عام 1255 تمرد شبيه اسمه عز الدين أيبك الأفرم وهو من المماليك الصالحية  على السلطان أيبك وسار إلى الصعيد وقام بجمع الأعراب فسيّر إليه أيبك العسكر بقيادة وزيره الأسعد شرف الدين الفائزي  الذي تمكن من اخماد التمرد.

أصبح أيبك - مع زوجته شجر الدر ونائب السلطنة قطز - الحاكم الأوحد لمصر. إلا أن وجود البحرية الفارين وعلى رأسهم بيبرس البندقداري وقلاوون الألفي وبعض الأمراء الكبار عند غريمه الأيوبي الملك الناصر ودخولهم في خدمته كان يقلقه. فالمماليك في الشام راحوا يحرضون الملوك الأيوبيين على غزو مصر والإطاحة بأيبك  قام الناصر يوسف بإرسال قوات من الشام إلى مصر للقضاء على أيبك كانت تضم المماليك البحرية مع عسكره.

النهاية
بحلول عام 1257 كان سوء العلاقات بين أيبك وزوجته شجر الدر قد وصل إلى ذروته وتزايدت الوحشة بينهما بسبب تسلط شجر الدر على الحكم بل وعلى حياته الشخصية حيث كانت تمنعه من زيارة زوجته الأخرى أم ابنه نور الدين علي وتصر على أن يقوم بتطليقها. أيبك الذي كان يبحث عن استقلالية وتحالفات تساعده على التصدي للأيوبيين والبحرية الفارين قرر الزواج من ابنة صاحب الموصل بدر الدين لؤلؤ. وقد أخبره بدر الدين لؤلؤ أن شجر الدر قد كاتبت الملك الناصر يوسف وحذره منها. عزم أيبك على الزواج من امرأة أخرى بالإضافة إلى خلافاتها معه في أمور الحكم وهي التي جعلته يبلغ السلطنة وإحساسها بمخاطر على حياتها أساء شجر الدر وأثار رغبتها في التخلص من أيبك فما كان منها إلا أن دبرت خطة لاغتياله مع بعض الخدم والمماليك.

في العاشر من أبريل عام 1257 تم اغتيال السلطان عز الدين أيبك أثناء استحمامه داخل قلعة الجبل على أيدي عدد من الخدم فمات بعد أن حكم البلاد سبع سنوات. أعلنت شجر الدر في الصباح التالي أنه قد توفي فجأة أثناء الليل إلا أن المماليك المعزية بقيادة نائب السلطنة قطز لم يصدقوها واعترف الخدم تحت وطأة التعذيب بالمؤامرة فحاول المعزية قتلها إلا أن المماليك الصالحية قامت بحمايتها ونقلت إلى البرج الأحمر بالقلعة. قام المعزية بتنصيب نور الدين بن أيبك سلطانا على البلاد وكان صبيا في الخامسة عشرة من العمر. بعد بضعة أيام عثر على جثة شجر الدر ملقاة خارج القلعة بعد أن قتلتها ضربا جواري أم المنصور نور الدين علي. تم إعدام الخدم الذين قاموا باغتيال عز الدين أيبك.

مات عز الدين أيبك وشجرة الدر بعد أن أسسا دولة المماليك. تلك الدولة التي سيطرت على جنوب وشرق حوض البحر المتوسط لبضعة عقود من الزمان قضت خلالها على القوى المغولية والصليبية التي تآزرت ضد المسلمين وحاولت اقتلاع العالم الإسلامي.

نقود عز الدين أيبك
نقش على نقوده اسمه «أيبك» فقط بدون ألقاب أو كنايات. أيضا نقش اسم السلطان الأيوبي الصالح أيوب على هذا النحو: «أيوب ابن الملك الكامل». وعلى الجانب الآخر من نقود أيبك نقش اسم الخليفة العباسي كالتالي: «المستنصر بالله أبو أحمد المنصور بالله أمير المؤمنين».

نقود الأشرف موسى
نقود الأشرف موسى التي عثر عليها نقش عليها اسمه وحده مع اسم الخليفة العباسي على جانبها الآخر على النحو الآتي: «الملك الأشرف»، «الملك أشرف أبو الفتح موسى ابن الملك الصالح أيوب» - «الإمام المستعصم» «الإمام المستعصم بالله أبو أحمد عبد الله أمير المؤمنين».

اصطلاحات مملوكية وردت في المقال:
 جاشنكير: ذواق طعام وشراب السلطان للتأكد من خلوه من السم، كان مسئولا عن طعام وشراب السلطان.
 رنك: رسما يوضح مكانة الأمير ومركزه الوظيفي. نقلت تلك الكلمة إلى لغات أخرى كالإنجليزية.
 خوانجا: المسئول عن حسابات السلطان المالية.
 أتابك: القائد العام للجيش.
 أستاذ: ولى نعمة المملوك أي سلطانه أو أميره الذي يدين له بالولاء
 نائب السلطنة: نائب السلطان وكان من ألقابه «كافل الممالك الشريفة الإسلامية الأمير الأمرى» مما يوضح سمو منصبه.

أسماء متشابهة:
بعض الأمراء كانوا يحملون اسم عز الدين أيبك:
 عز الدين أيبك استادار.
 عز الدين أيبك الأفرم  وهو * عز الدين أيبك الأفرم الصالحي.
 عز الدين أيبك البغدادي وهو * عز الدين أيبك البغدادي المنصوري.
 عز الدين أيبك الجمالي.
 عز الدين أيبك الحسامي البريدي.
 عز الدين أيبك الحموي وهو * عز الدين أيبك الحموي الظاهري.
 عز الدين أيبك الخازندار وهو * عز الدين أيبك الخازندار المنصوري.
 عز الدين أيبك الخطيري.
 عز الدين أيبك الدميتري.
 عز الدين أيبك الرومي وهو عز الدين أيبك الرومي الصالحي.
 عز الدين أيبك الشجاعي الأشقر.
 عز الدين أيبك الشجاعي شاد.
 عز الدين أيبك الشيخ.
 عز الدين أيبك الطويل.
 عز الدين أيبك العزي.
 عز الدين أيبك الفخري.
 عز الدين أيبك الموصلي.
 عز الدين أيبك النجيبي.
 عز الدين أيبك بن عبد الله التركي.
 عز الدين أيبك شاد الدواليب.
 عز الدين أيبك فطيس.
 عز الدين أيبك كرجي وهو * عز الدين أيبك كرجي المنصوري.

عز الدين أيبك في الأدب والسينما والتلفزيون

في الأدب

 رواية وا إسلاماه، هي رواية تاريخية عربية للكاتب علي أحمد باكثير صدرت عام 1945، يسرد فيها الكاتب سيرة حياة السلطان قطز منذ ولادته وحتى مماته وأحوال البلاد التي عاش فيها وملوكها وصراعهم مع التتار والصليبين.

في السينما والتلفزيون

 وا إسلاماه: فيلم سينمائي من إنتاج مشترك بين مصر وإيطاليا، يحكي أحداث معركة عين جالوت، قام بدور عز الدين أيبك الممثل المصري عماد حمدي.
 الظاهر بيبرس: مسلسل يحكي قصة حياة بيبرس، وما دار من أحداث في معركة عين جالوت، قام بدور عز الدين أيبك الممثل سعد مينه.
 الفرسان: مسلسل تاريخي تدور أحداثه حول مصر أثناء فترة هجوم التتار عليها، كما يتناول المسلسل هزيمة التتار في عين جالوت، قام بدور عز الدين أيبك الممثل سعيد عبد الغني .
 على باب مصر: مسلسل تاريخي تدور أحداثه حول مصر أثناء فترة هجوم التتار عليها، كما يتناول المسلسل هزيمة التتار في عين جالوت، قام بدور عز الدين أيبك الممثل حمدي الوزير.

مصادر

مراجع
 ابن إياس: بدائع الزهور في وقائع الدهور، مدحت الجيار (دكتور)، الهيئة المصرية العامة للكتاب، القاهرة 2007.
 ابن تغري: النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة، الحياة المصرية، القاهرة 1968.
 أبو الفداء: المختصر في أخبار البشر، القاهرة 1325ه.
 بيبرس الدوادار، زبدة الفكرة في تاريخ الهجرة، جمعية المستشرقين الألمانية، الشركة المتحدة للتوزيع، بيروت 1998
 جمال الدين الشيال (أستاذ التاريخ الإسلامي): تاريخ مصر الإسلامية، دار المعارف، القاهرة 1966.
 المقريزي: السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك، دار الكتب، القاهرة 1996.
 المقريزي: المواعظ والاعتبار بذكر الخطط والأثار، مطبعة الأدب، القاهرة 1968.
 قاسم عبده قاسم (دكتور): عصر سلاطين المماليك - التاريخ السياسي والاجتماعي، عين للدراسات الإنسانية والاجتماعية، القاهرة 2007.
 شفيق مهدى (دكتور): مماليك مصر والشام، الدار العربية للموسوعات، بيروت 2008.

أوصياء على العرش في مصر
مؤسسو دول
مسلمون عاصروا الحملة الصليبية السابعة
مماليك بحرية
نبلاء مصريون
وفيات 1257

المعز عز الدين أيبك


Jonas Hector (n. 27 mai 1990, Saarbrücken, Germania de Vest) este un fotbalist german care joacă pentru 1. FC Köln și naționala Germaniei pe postul de fundaș stânga.

Cariera de jucător
Hector și-a început cariera de fotbalist la SV Auersmacher în landul său natal, Saarland. După un sezon ca profesionst, el s-a transferat la 1. FC Köln în 2010. El a fost chemat la prima echipa de către antrenorul Holger Stanislawski după terminarea sezonului 2012–2013. El a debutat în primul tur al Cupei Germaniei  împotriva echipei SpVgg Unterhaching pe 1 august 2012. La 27 august, a jucat primul său meci în 2. Bundesliga contra celor de la FC Erzgebirge Aue. El și-a consolidat poziția de titular la Köln de-a lungul sezonului, având 24 de apariții.

În sezonul 2013–2014, Hector a jucat în 33 din cele 34 de meciuri din campionat, iar echipa a terminat pe primul loc, promovând astfel în Bundesliga. La data de 4 noiembrie 2013, el a marcat primul său gol din cariera de profesionist într-o victorie 4–0 contra 1. FC Union Berlin.

În sezonul următor, Hector a lipsit într-un singur meci și a debutat în Bundesliga împotriva echipei Hamburger SV chiar în prima etapă. Pe 4 octombrie 2014, el a marcat și primul său gol în Bundesliga într-o înfrângere 3–2 contra Eintracht Frankfurt. A fost numit Jucătorul Sezonului 2014-2015 pentru FC Köln, câștigând 54,41% din voturi.

Pe 7 februarie 2016, Hector a jucat primul său meci drept căpitan al echipei într-un egal 1–1 cu Hamburger SV.

Cariera internațională
La data de 7 noiembrie 2014, Hector a fost selecționat la naționala de seniori a Germaniei pentru prima oară. Convocarea a venit înaintea preliminariilor Euro 2016 cu două meciuri amicale contra Gibraltarului și a Spaniei. El a debutat la națională în victoria 4–0 contra Gibraltarului la Nürnberg pe 14 noiembrie, înlocuindu-l pe Erik Durm în minutul 72.

Pe 4 septembrie 2015, el a jucat primul său meci din preliminarii contra Poloniei ca fundaș dreapta, dând două pase decisive pentru Thomas Müller și Mario Götze.

La data de 29 martie 2016, Hector a marcat primul său gol pentru naționala Germaniei în victoria 4–1 împotriva Italiei la München.

Pe 31 mai 2016, Hector a fost convocat pentru lotul de jucători al Germaniei la Campionatul European din 2016. La data de 2 iulie 2016, Hector a marcat golul victoriei la loviturile de departajare în sferturile de finală contra Italiei, trimițând astfel Germania în semifinale.

Goluri internaționale

Referințe

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1990
Fundași
Fotbaliști germani
Fotbaliști ai Campionatului European de Fotbal 2016
Oameni în viață

Jonas Hector


Rioja, İspanya'nın on yedi özerk bölgesinden en kalabalık ikinci bölge olan Endülüs'e bağlı; İspanya'nın güneyinde bulunan Almería eyaletine bağlı belediye. 2009 yılındaki nüfusu; 1,389 kişidir. Belediye, 36 km²'lik bir alanı kaplamaktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynak: INE (Spain)

Dış bağlantılar
  Rioja - Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía
  Rioja - Diputación Provincial de Almería

Almería belediyeleri

Rioja, Almería


Patronyme

 Arnaldo Cortesi (1897–1966), journaliste italien.
 Celeste Cortesi (1997-), reine de beauté philippine.
 Chiara Simoneschi-Cortesi (1946-), femme politique suisse.
 Luigi Cortesi (1929-2009), historien italien.
 Mario Cortesi (1940-), journaliste, éditeur, écrivain, critique de cinéma et cinéaste suisse.
 Natascia Leonardi Cortesi (1971-), fondeuse suisse.
 Paolo Cortesi (1465-1510), écrivain humaniste italien.

Astronomie
 (91428) Cortesi, astéroïde de la ceinture principale d'astéroïdes.

Cortesi


La casa por la ventana es una película chilena-argentina escrita por Esteban Rojas y Vlado Rosas y dirigida por Esteban Rojas y Juan Olivares. Estrenada en cines el 10 de octubre de 2010. Fue exhibida en el marco del Festival Internacional de Cine de Valdivia el año 2011 y en el Festival Buenos Aires Rojo Sangre del mismo año.

Sinopsis
En vísperas de año nuevo, Julio Saéz Jr. (Walter Cornás), un flamante arquitecto que, por presión de su padre, organiza una fiesta en plan de codearse con la alta sociedad, se verá entrometido en un problema que supera sus condiciones de anfitrión: su casa se llenará de jóvenes con la idea de rockearla. Sus mejores amigos le ayudarán a vivir una noche atípica, en lo que será, finalmente, la noche de sus vidas.

Elenco
 David Carrasco
 Berta Muñiz
 Walter Cornás
 Esteban Rojas
 Miguel Barriga
 Alberto Castillo
 Romina Douglas
 Vlado Rosas
 Rocío Rodríguez Presedo
 Hugo Diaz
 Juan Olivares
 Leandro Cóccaro

Referencias
 https://web.archive.org/web/20111122101225/http://ecine.info/filmes/41937/la-casa-por-la-ventana/

Enlaces externos

 Información en Cine Chile

Películas de comedia de Chile

La casa por la ventana


Erzsébet Galgóczi ( — ) est une dramaturge, écrivaine et scénariste hongroise. Son œuvre est souvent qualifiée de « fiction réaliste ».

Biographie
Galgóczi nait le . Elle est scolarisée à l'école primaire de , le petit village où elle est née. Elle poursuit ses études dans le lycée de la ville voisine de Győr de 1941 à 1945. Entre 1945 et 1949, elle fréquente l'école de formation des enseignants de Győr, dont elle sort diplômée en 1949. Entre 1950 et 1955, elle suit les cours de l'École supérieure d'art dramatique et cinématographique de Budapest, avec une spécialisation en dramaturgie.

Elle vit ouvertement en tant que lesbienne à partir des années 1970, sa partenaire de longue date étant l'actrice Hilda Gobbi.

Par deux de ses œeuvres, elle acquiert une notoriété internationale. Tout d'abord, Törvényen kivül és belül [ Conformément à la loi], publié en 1980 et adapté au cinema par Károly Makk sous le titre Egymásra nézve [Un autre regard] , film diffusé en 1982, puis par le roman Vidravas [Chausse-trappe), publié en 1984.

Le , elle meurt subitement d'une crise cardiaque dans sa maison familiale.

Carrière
Écrivaine socialiste engagée à l'origine, Galgóczi perd progressivement confiance dans le régime et son travail reflète sa critique croissante de la répression politique et de la corruption.

Son œuvre la plus reconnue en Hongrie est Vidravas. Törvényen belül adapté au cinéma en 1982 par le réalisateur hongrois Károly Makk a une traduction en anglais publiée en 2007 chez Cleis Press sous le titre Another Love.

Récompenses
En 1978, Galgóczi a reçu le prix Kossuth. Elle a également reçu le prix SZOT (1970) et le prix József Attila (1962, 1969, 1976).

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en août 1930
Décès en mai 1989
Écrivain hongrois du XXe siècle
Scénariste hongrois de cinéma
Femme de lettres hongroise
Lauréat du prix Kossuth
Lauréat du prix Attila-József
Naissance à Győr
Décès à Győr
Décès à 58 ans

Erzsébet Galgóczi


Zimirina spinicymbia est une espèce d'araignées aranéomorphes de la famille des Prodidomidae.

Distribution
Cette espèce est endémique de la Grande Canarie aux îles Canaries en Espagne. Elle se rencontre vers Güigüí.

Description
Le mâle holotype mesure .

Systématique et taxinomie
Cette espèce a été décrite par Wunderlich en 1992.

Publication originale
 Wunderlich, 1992 : « Die Spinnen-Fauna der Makaronesischen Inseln: Taxonomie, Ökologie, Biogeographie und Evolution. » Beiträge zur Araneologie, , .

Liens externes

Notes et références

Prodidomidae
Espèce d'araignées (nom scientifique)
Faune endémique de Grande Canarie

Zimirina spinicymbia


Major Friedrich Wilhelm Kasiski (29 November 1805 – 22 May 1881) was a German infantry officer, cryptographer and archeologist. Kasiski was born in Schlochau, Kingdom of Prussia (now Człuchów, Poland).

Military service
Kasiski enlisted in East Prussia's 33rd Infantry Regiment on 20 March 1823 at the age of 17. In May 1824, he was promoted to the rank of master sergeant, and eight months later was commissioned as a second lieutenant in February 1825. It took fourteen years to earn his next promotion when, in May 1839, he advanced to the rank of first lieutenant. His next advancement was quicker, promoted to captain in November 1842. Kasiski finally retired from active service with the rank of major on 17 February 1852.

Between 1860 and 1868 he was the commander of a National Guard battalion.

Cryptography
In 1863, Kasiski published a 95-page book on cryptography, Die Geheimschriften und die Dechiffrir-Kunst (German, "Secret writing and the Art of Deciphering"). This was the first published account of a procedure for attacking polyalphabetic substitution ciphers, especially the Vigenère cipher (although it is possible Charles Babbage was already aware of a similar method but had not published it). The method relied on the analysis of gaps between repeated fragments in the ciphertext; such analysis can give hints as to the length of the key used. This technique is known as Kasiski examination.

The significance of Kasiski's cryptanalytic work was not widely realised at the time, and he turned his mind to archaeology instead. The later years of his life were spent at Neustettin (Szczecinek); the 11th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica cited a scholarly article by Kasiski in its entry on the town. Historian David Kahn notes, "Kasiski died on May 22, 1881, almost certainly without realizing that he had written a revolution in cryptology" (The Codebreakers).

Publication
 F. W. Kasiski, Die Geheimschriften und die Dechiffrir-Kunst (Berlin, (Germany): E. S. Mittler und Sohn, 1863).

References
 David Kahn, The Codebreakers – The Story of Secret Writing, revised ed, Scribner, 1996. pp. 207–209.
 M. W. Bowers (pseudonym Zembie), "Major F. W. Kasiski – Cryptologist", The Cryptogram, Vol. XXXI(3) (January–February 1964) pp. 53,58–59.

See also
List of cryptographers
Topics in cryptography
Kasiski examination

1805 births
1881 deaths
People from Człuchów
19th-century German archaeologists
German cryptographers
Prussian Army personnel
Pre-computer cryptographers
People from West Prussia
People from Szczecinek

Friedrich Kasiski


Saint-Pierre er hovedstaden i det franske oversøiske forvaltningsområde Saint Pierre og Miquelon, beliggende ud for Newfoundlands kyst i Canada. Saint-Pierre den mest befolket af de to kommuner der udgør Saint Pierre og Miquelon.

Geografi
Kommunen Saint-Pierre består af øen Saint-Pierre og flere nærliggende mindre øer, såsom L'Île-aux-Marins. Selvom byen indeholder næsten 90% af indbyggerne i Saint Pierre og Miquelon, er kommunen Saint-Pierre betydeligt mindre end kommune Miquelon-Langlade, som ligger i nordvest på Miquelon.

Hovedbosætningen og det kommunale sæde ligger på den nordlige side af en havn kaldet Barachois, der vender mod Atlanterhavet, på Saint-Pierre-øens østkyst. Havnenes mund beskyttes af en lille økæde.

Historie
St. Pierre var en base, der blev brugt af Al Capone til at transportere alkohol fra Canada til USA under Spiritusforbuddet.

Indtil 1945 eksisterede der en tredje kommune i Saint Pierre og Miquelon: L'Île-aux-Marins. Kommunen L'Île-aux-Marins blev annekteret af kommunen Saint-Pierre i 1945.

Demografi
Befolkningstallet i Saint-Pierre ved den lokale folketælling i 2006 var 5.888, mange er af baskisk, bretonsk, normandisk eller acadisk afstamning. Alle indbyggere i kommunen bor på øen Saint Pierre.

Administration
Kommunen ledes af en borgmester og et byråd.

Vartegn
Tæt på havnenes centrum ligger Posthuset og Toldhuset, og bag det ligger General Charles de Gaulle-pladsen, byens centrum.

Andre fremtrædende vartegn i Saint-Pierre omfatter katedralen, nord for Charles de Gaulle-pladsen, ombygget i begyndelsen af det tyvende århundrede efter en stor ild og Pointe aux Canons-fyrtårnet ved havnenes munding. Længere nordpå, tæt på byens tidligere hospital, er Fronton Zazpiak Bat - en arena for den traditionelle baskiske sport pelota.

Service
Hospitalier François Dunan (åbnet 2011  ) er det eneste hospital i St. Pierre et Miquelon med yderligere sundhedsbehov ved pensionatet hos Maison de Retraite Eglantine.

Transport
Saint-Pierre Lufthavn, den internationale lufthavn for Saint-Pierre og Miquelon, ligger syd for Saint Pierre-bosættelsen og betjenes af Air Saint-Pierre med flyvninger til Miquelon Airport, fem canadiske lufthavne og sæsonbetjening til Paris, Frankrig.

Venskabsbyer
Saint-Pierre er venskabsby med:

 link=| Frankrig  Port-en-Bessin-Huppain , ( Frankrig ) siden 1976.

Referencer

Hovedstæder i Nordamerika
Pages with unreviewed translations

Saint-Pierre, Saint Pierre og Miquelon


Chuck Adams (n, 23 de abril de 1971 en Pacific Palisades, Estados Unidos) es un jugador de tenis con nacionalidad americana. En su carrera ha conquistado un torneo a nivel ATP, su mejor posición fue Nº34 en febrero de 1995.

Títulos (1; 1+0)

Individuales (1)

Enlaces externos

Tenistas masculinos de Estados Unidos

Chuck Adams


Haplanister crypticus es una  especie de coleóptero adéfago de la familia Carabidae y el único miembro del género monotípico Haplanister. Es originario de Nueva Zelanda.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 ION
 Nomenclator Zoologicus
 Carabidae of the World

Anisodactylina

Haplanister


Johann Christian Gottlob Eidenbenz (* 22. Oktober 1761 in Owen bei Kirchheim unter Teck; † 20. August 1799 in Stuttgart) war ein deutscher Komponist.

Leben
Er war der älteste Sohn von Johannes Eidenbenz (1737–1815), Präzeptor in Owen, und dessen Frau Johanna Christiana geb. Löw (1724–1772). Eidenbenz erhielt seine Musikausbildung von 1776 bis 1784 als Zögling der Karlsschule, etwa gleichzeitig mit Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg und Friedrich Schiller. Bereits 1782 wurde er Bratschist und Altist am Stuttgarter Hoftheater des Herzogs Carl Eugen von Württemberg. Johann Christian Gottlob Eidenbenz komponierte Ballettmusiken, Lieder und viele kleine Klavierstücke. Am 8. Februar 1789 heiratete er in Stuttgart Rosine Justine Ziegler, Tochter des Leibgrenadiers Johannes Ziegler.

Eidenbenz litt an Trunksucht. Anfang 1799 führte dies zu seinem frühen Tod.

Mit Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart und Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg gehört er zu den Vertretern der in diesen Jahren aufblühenden Schwäbischen Liederschule.

Werke
 Sammlung neuer Klavierstücke mit Gesang für das deutsche Frauenzimmer, Berlin 1783/84
 24 leichte Klavierbelustigungen, Stuttgart 1793
 3 Duetti à 2 Flauti, op. 5, Heilbronn u. Offenbach 1795
 12 leichte Klavierstücke, Leipzig 1796
 Melodien zum Taschenbuch für Freunde des Gesanges, Stuttgart 1796
 12 Lieder mit Begleitung des Klaviers, Leipzig 1798
 Zahlreiche Einzeldrucke und Männerchorarrangements von Liedern, z. T. mit neuen Texten

Literatur

Weblinks

Komponist (Deutschland)
Person (Württemberg bis 1803)
Deutscher
Geboren 1761
Gestorben 1799
Mann

Johann Christian Gottlob Eidenbenz


Ante Marinović (Vela Luka, 1947.), hrvatski kipar i slikar. Živi i stvara na relaciji Vela Luka – San Diego, SAD.

Životopis
Rodio se u Veloj Luci. U Splitu je pohađao Školu za primijenjenu umjetnost u Splitu. Školovati se nastavio u Beogradu, gdje je diplomirao likovnu umjetnost na ALU. Zvanje maestro de la pietra stekao je na sveučilištu Asmave u Veroni. Primarno je kipar. Likovno se izrazio i crtežima, za koje je dobio nagrade. Izlagao je 29 puta samostalno i više od dvjesta puta skupno. Djela su mu izložena diljem svijeta. Radovi su mu u zbirkama mnogih inozemnih muzeja. Član je odbora direktora Međunarodne udruge kipara monumentalnih skulptura (AIESM).

Priznanja
Za svoje skulpture u prostoru u SAD, Luksemburgu, Italiji, Meksiku, Japanu, Kanadi, Švicarskoj, Srbiji, Sloveniji, Tajlandu, Hrvatskoj. Dvadeset je nagrada primio u zemlji i inozemstvu za svoje skulpture i crteže.

Izvori

Životopisi, Vela Luka
Hrvati u SAD-u
Hrvatski kipari
Hrvatski slikari

Ante Marinović (kipar)


Anamur Burnu, Türkiye'nin en güney ikinci noktasıdır. Koordinatları  dır.

Burnun hemen kuzeyinde Anemurium yer alır. Antik kent kuzeyinde Ören beldesi, kuzeydoğusunda ise modern Anamur ilçe merkezi vardır. Ancak Ören günümüzde Anamur kent dokusu içinde kalmıştır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türkiye'deki burunlar listesi

Dış bağlantılar

Türkiye'deki burunlar
Mersin ilindeki yeryüzü şekilleri
Burnu

Anamur Burnu


දෙවුම් බෝතලය යනු විද්‍යාගාරයන්හී භාවිතයට ගැනෙන පරීක්ෂණ නල, වට අඩි ප්ලාස්කු වැනි වීදුරු උපකරණ කොටස් ආදිය සේදීම සඳහා යොදා ගන්නා, නැසින්නක් සහිත මිරිකිය හැකි ප්ලාස්ටික් බෝතලයකි.

ස්කුරුප්පු මූඩියකින් ආවරිත බෝතලයෙහි බද කොටස මත අතින් තෙරපුම යෙදීම මගින් ඇතිවන පීඩනය නිසා, බෝතලය තුල වූ ද්‍රවය නැසින්න හරහා පටු ප්‍රවාහයක් ලෙස පිටතට ගලා ඒම සිදුවෙයි.

බොහොමයක් දෙවුම් බෝතල සුනම්‍යශීලී හා අද්‍රාව්‍ය ගුණ සහිත ප්ලාස්ටික් වලින් නිපදවා තිබෙන අතර, උඩුකුරුව භාවිතා කිරීම සඳහා බොහෝ දෙවුම් බෝතල තුල අභ්‍යන්තර ගිල්ලුම් නාලයක් සවිකොට තිබෙයි.

විද්‍යාගාරයන් තුල ක්‍රියාවන් සඳහා භාවිතයට ගැනෙන පොදු ද්‍රාවකයන්, ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරකයන් ආදිය දෙවුම් බෝතල් තුල රඳවන අතර: ආසූත ජලය, ක්ෂාලක ද්‍රාවණ සහ ඇසිටෝන්, අයිසොප්‍රොපනෝල් හෝ එතනෝල් වැනි සේදුම් කාරක එලෙස රඳවන ද්‍රාවණයන් අතර වේ.

ආශ්‍රිත

 http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/york/washbottle.html

දෙවුම් බෝතලය


The Shire of Alpine is a local government area in the Hume region of Victoria, Australia, located in the north-east part of the state. It covers an area of  and in 2022 had a population of 13,235.

It includes the towns of Bright, Dinner Plain, Mount Beauty and Myrtleford. There are two unincorporated areas within the shire: the areas around Mount Hotham and Falls Creek. It was formed in 1994 from the amalgamation of the Shire of Bright, Shire of Myrtleford, and parts of the United Shire of Beechworth, Shire of Oxley, Shire of Yackandandah and Shire of Omeo.

The Shire is governed and administered by the Alpine Shire Council; its seat of local government and administrative centre is located at the council headquarters in Bright, it also has service centres located in Dinner Plain, Mount Beauty and Myrtleford. The Shire is named after its location in the popular alpine region of Victoria.

Over 90% of the Shire is public land. The Shire has two major national parks, the Alpine National Park and Mount Buffalo National Park. The Shire's economy is based on tourism, agriculture and forestry.

Council

Current composition
The council is composed of seven councillors elected to represent an unsubdivided municipality.

Administration and governance
The council meets in the council chambers at the council headquarters in the Bright Municipal Offices, which is also the location of the council's administrative activities. It also provides customer services at both its administrative centre in Bright, and its service centres in Dinner Plain, Mt Beauty and Myrtleford.

Townships and localities
The 2021 census, the shire had a population of 13,235 up from 12,337 in the 2016 census

^ - Territory divided with another LGA

See also
 List of localities (Victoria)
 List of places on the Victorian Heritage Register in Alpine Shire

References

External links
Alpine Shire Council official website
Metlink local public transport map
Link to Land Victoria interactive maps

Local government areas of Victoria (state)
Hume (region)

Victorian Alps

Alpine Shire


Yerleşim yerleri
 Ericek, Nallıhan - Ankara ili Nallıhan ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Buharkent - Aydın ili Buharkent ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Dursunbey - Balıkesir ili Dursunbey ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Manyas - Balıkesir ili Manyas ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Osmaneli - Bilecik ili Osmaneli ilçesine bağlı köy
 Ericek, Genç - Bingöl ili Genç ilçesine bağlı köy
 Ericek, Bolu - Bolu ili merkez ilçesine bağlı köy
 Ericek, Büyükorhan - Bursa ili Büyükorhan ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Gürsu - Bursa ili Gürsu ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Ilgaz - Çankırı ili Ilgaz ilçesine bağlı köy
 Ericek, Çameli - Denizli ili Çameli ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Espiye - Giresun ili Espiye ilçesine bağlı köy
 Ericek, Şiran - Gümüşhane ili Şiran ilçesine bağlı köy
 Ericek, Göksun - Kahramanmaraş ili Göksun ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ericek, Seydiler - Kastamonu ili Seydiler ilçesine bağlı köy
 Ericek, Bulanık - Muş ili Bulanık ilçesine bağlı köy

Ericek


Çelik, demir elementi ile genellikle %0,02 ila %2,1 oranlarında değişen karbon miktarının bileşiminden meydana gelen bir alaşımdır. Çelik alaşımındaki karbon miktarları çeliğin sınıflandırılmasında etkin rol oynar. Karbon genel olarak demir'in alaşımlayıcı maddesi olsa da demir elementini alaşımlamada magnezyum, krom, vanadyum ve tungsten gibi farklı elementler de kullanılabilir. Karbon ve diğer elementler demir atomundaki kristal kafeslerin kayarak birbirini geçmesini engelleyerek sertleşme aracı rolü üstlenirler. Alaşımlayıcı elementlerin, çelik içerisindeki, değişen miktarları ve mevcut bulundukları formlar (çözünen elementler, çökelti evresi) oluşan çelikte sertlik, süneklilik ve gerilme noktası gibi özellikleri kontrol eder. Karbon miktarı yüksek olan çelikler demirden daha sert ve güçlü olmasına rağmen daha az sünektirler.

Yüksek çekme mukavemeti ve düşük maliyeti nedeniyle çelik, binalarda, altyapıda, aletlerde, gemilerde, trenlerde, arabalarda, makinelerde, elektrikli cihazlarda ve silahlarda kullanılmaktadır.  Demir, çeliğin ana metalidir.  Sıcaklığa bağlı olarak, iki kübik kristal yapı (allotropik form) alabilir: hacim merkezli kübik ve yüzey merkezli kübik.  Demirin allotroplarının, başta karbon olmak üzere alaşım elementleriyle etkileşimi, çeliğe ve dökme demire benzersiz özellikler kazandırır.

Yüksek karbon içeren alaşımlar, düşük erime noktaları ve dökme kabiliyetleri nedeniyle dökme demir olarak bilinirler. Çelik ayrıca az miktarda karbon içeren fakat demir cüruflarını da kapsayan dövme demir olarak da ayırt edilir. İki ayırt edici faktör de çeliklerin pas önleyiciliklerini artırır ve daha iyi kaynaklanabilirlik sağlar.

Her ne kadar Rönesans'tan uzun süre önceleri çelik çeşitli etkisiz metotlarla üretilmişse de 17. yüzyılda icat edilen daha etkili üretimlerden sonra kullanımı yaygın bir hâl aldı. 19. yüzyılın ortalarında Bessemer değiştirgeci'nin icadıyla çelik pahalı olmayan seri üretim materyali olmaya başladı. İlerleme sürecinde ilave edilen temel oksijen ile çelik yapımı gibi mükemmelleştirmeler üretimin maliyetini düşürürken metalin kalitesini arttırdı. Günümüzde, her yıl 1300 milyon ton üretimi ile, çelik dünyada en çok kullanılan ortak malzemelerden birisidir. Binalarda, altyapı üretiminde, aletlerde, gemilerde, otomobillerde, makinelerde, aksesuarlarda ve silahlarda ana malzemedir. Modern çelik çeşitli standartlar kuruluşları tarafından çeşitli özelliklerine göre sınıflandırılır.

Çeliğin maddesel özellikleri

Demir, birçok metal gibi, yeryüzü kabuğunda oksijen veya sülfür gibi diğer elementlerle kombine olmuş halde, sadece cevher şeklinde bulunur. Standart demirin içerdiği mineraller arasında Fe2O3 demir oksit (esmer renkte olan doğal demir oksidineden ibaret bir maden filizi) ve FeS2 pirit (budala altını) vardır. Demir, oksijenin uzaklaştırılması ve cevherin kimyasal açıdan tercih edilen eşi karbon ile birleştirilmesi ile cevherden çekilir. Bu süreç, ilk olarak kalay (yaklaşık olarak erime noktası ) ve bakır (yaklaşık olarak erime noktası ) gibi erime noktası düşük metallerde tatbiki yapılmış ve madeni tasfiye etme işlemi olarak bilinmektedir. Karşılaştırma yapılırsa dökme demirin yaklaşık olarak

civarında eridiği görülür.Bütün bu sıcaklıklara Bronz Çağı'ndan bu yana uygulanan eski metotlarla ulaşmak mümkündür. Oksijen oranının kendi kendini hızlıca 800 °C nin civarına yükseltmesinden beri, madenin tasfiyesi işleminin düşük oksijen ortamında  yer alması önemlidir.Bakır ve Kalaya benzemeyen sıvı demir Karbonu kolayca çözer. Maden tasfiye işlemi çelik adı verilen yüksek Karbon içeren alaşım pik demir olarak sonuçlanır. Fazla gelen Karbon ve diğer katkı maddeleri bir sonraki basamakta uzaklaştırılır.

Çelik sınıfları

Çeliklerin fiziksel ve mekanik özellikleri, içlerinde bulunan karbon yüzdesine göre değişir. Karbon yüzdelerine göre çelikler üç grupta toplanır;
 Düşük karbonlu çelikler: Bileşimlerinde en çok %0,2 oranında karbon içeren düşük karbonlu çelikler yumuşak, çekme mukavemetleri düşük, sertleştirilebilme yetenekleri çok az, kaynak olma özellikleri çok iyidir.
 Orta karbonlu çelikler: Bileşimlerinde &0,2-0,6 arasında içeren orta karbonlu çeliklerin çekme mukavemetleri düşük ancak yumuşak çeliklere göre yüksektir. Sertleştirilebilme yetenekleri ve kaynak olma özelliği orta derecededir.
 Yüksek karbonlu çelikler: Bileşimlerinde %0,6-2 arasında karbon içeren çeliklerdir. İçerdikleri karbon miktarına göre sertten çok serte doğru bir özellik gösterirler. Çekme mukavemetleri diğer çeliklere göre daha fazla olup, sertleştirilebilme yetenekleri çok iyi fakat, kaynak olma özellikleri çok zayıftır.

Paslanmaz çelikler
Paslanmaz çelikler, günümüz çelik sektörünün üzerine yoğunlaştığı ve en çok kullanılan çelik türüdür. Çeşitli paslanmaz çelik nitelik ve standartları bulunmaktadır. Genel olarak paslanmaz çelikler %10 ile %25 arasında Cr (krom) içerirler. Krom, çeliğin yüzeyine çıkarak kromoksit tabakası oluşturur ve demirin oksitlenmesini engeller. Bu kromoksit tabakası çok ince bir film olarak oluşup malzemenin mekanik özelliklerinde herhangi bir kötü etki yaratmaz. Ayrıca alaşım elementi olarak Ni (nikel) de kullanılır. Nikel paslanmaz özelliğini iyileştirir ve iyi bir korozyon direnci sağlar. Paslanmaz çelikler neredeyse tüm sanayi kollarında kullanılmaktadır.

Galeri

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Ayrıca bakınız
 Çelik üretimine göre ülkeler listesi
 Avrupa Kömür ve Çelik Topluluğu
 Bessemer ve Thomas Çeliği
 Isıl işlem
 Siemens-Martin yöntemi
 Çelik Tasarımı

Yapı malzemeleri
Çatı malzemeleri
MÖ 2. binyıl tanıtımları

Çelik


In the history of the United States, carpetbagger is a largely historical term used by Southerners to describe opportunistic Northerners who came to the Southern states after the American Civil War, who were perceived to be exploiting the local populace for their own financial, political, and/or social gain. The term broadly included both individuals who sought to promote Republican politics (including the right of African Americans to vote and hold office) and individuals who saw business and political opportunities because of the chaotic state of the local economies following the war. In practice, the term carpetbagger was often applied to any Northerners who were present in the South during the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877). The term is closely associated with "scalawag", a similarly pejorative word used to describe native white Southerners who supported the Republican Party-led Reconstruction.

White Southerners commonly denounced "carpetbaggers" collectively during the post-war years, fearing they would loot and plunder the defeated South and be politically allied with the Radical Republicans. Sixty men from the North, including educated free blacks and slaves who had escaped to the North and returned South after the war, were elected from the South as Republicans to Congress. The majority of Republican governors in the South during Reconstruction were from the North.

Since the end of the Reconstruction era, the term has been used to denote people who move into a new area for purely economic or political reasons, despite not having ties to that place.

Etymology and definition
The term carpetbagger, used exclusively as a pejorative term, originated from the carpet bags (a form of cheap luggage made from carpet fabric) which many of these newcomers carried. The term came to be associated with opportunism and exploitation by outsiders. The term is now used in the United States to refer to a parachute candidate, that is, an outsider who runs for public office in an area without having lived there for more than a short time, or without having other significant community ties.

According to Oliver Temple Perry in his 1912 book, "Notable men of Tennessee, from 1833 to 1875, Their Times and Their Contemporaries", Tennessee Secretary of State and Radical Republican Andrew J. Fletcher "was one of the first, if not the very first, in the State to denounce the hordes of greedy office-seekers who came from the North in the rear of the army in the closing days of the [U.S. Civil] War" within his June 1867 stump speech that he delivered across Tennessee for the re-election of the disabled Tennessee Governor William G. Brownlow:

"No one more gladly welcomes the Northern man who comes in all sincerity to make a home here, and to become one of our people, than I, but for the adventurer and the office-seeker who comes among us with one dirty shirt and a pair of dirty socks, in an old rusty carpet bag, and before his washing is done becomes a candidate for office, I have no welcome."

This was the origin of the term "carpet bag," and out of it grew the well known term "carpet-bag government."

In the United Kingdom at the end of the 20th century, carpetbagger developed another meaning: in British English it refers to people who join a mutual organization, such as a building society, in order to force it to demutualize, that is, to convert into a joint stock company. Such individuals are seeking personal financial gain through such actions.

Background
The Republican Party in the South comprised three groups after the Civil War, and white Democratic Southerners referred to two with derogatory terms. "Scalawags" were white Southerners who supported the Republican party, "carpetbaggers" were recent arrivals in the region from the North, and freedmen were freed slaves. Although "carpetbagger" and "scalawag" were originally terms of opprobrium, they are now commonly used in the scholarly literature to refer to these classes of people. Politically, the carpetbaggers were usually dominant; they comprised the majority of Republican governors and congressmen. However, the Republican Party inside each state was increasingly torn between the more conservative scalawags on one side and the more Radical carpetbaggers with their black allies on the other. In most cases, the carpetbaggers won out, and many scalawags moved into the conservative or Democratic opposition.

Most of the 430 Republican newspapers in the South were edited by scalawags—20 percent were edited by carpetbaggers.  White businessmen generally boycotted Republican papers, which survived through government patronage.

Historian Eric Foner argues:

Reforming impulse
Beginning in 1862, Northern abolitionists moved to areas in the South that had fallen under Union control. Schoolteachers and religious missionaries went to the South to teach the freedmen; some were sponsored by northern churches. Some were abolitionists who sought to continue the struggle for racial equality; they often became agents of the federal Freedmen's Bureau, which started operations in 1865 to assist the vast numbers of recently emancipated slaves. The bureau established schools in rural areas of the South for the purpose of educating the mostly illiterate Black and Poor White population. Other Northerners who moved to the South did so to participate in the profitable business of rebuilding railroads and various other forms of infrastructure that had been previously destroyed during the war.

During the time most blacks were enslaved, many were prohibited from being educated and attaining literacy. Southern states had no public school systems, and upper-class white Southerners either sent their children to private schools (including in England) or hired private tutors.  After the war, hundreds of Northern white women moved South, many to teach the newly freed African-American children. There they joined like-minded Southerners, most of which were employed by the Methodist and Baptist Churches, who spent much of their time teaching and preaching to slave and freedpeople congregations both before and after the Civil War.

Economic motives

Carpetbaggers also established banks and retail businesses. Most were former Union soldiers eager to invest their savings and energy in this promising new frontier, and civilians lured south by press reports of "the fabulous sums of money to be made in the South in raising cotton." Foner notes that "joined with the quest for profit, however, was a reforming spirit, a vision of themselves as agents of sectional reconciliation and the South's "economic regeneration." Accustomed to viewing Southerners—black and white—as devoid of economic initiative, the "Puritan work ethic", and self-discipline, they believed that only "Northern capital and energy" could bring "the blessings of a free labor system to the region."

Carpetbaggers tended to be well educated and middle class in origin. Some had been lawyers, businessmen, and newspaper editors. The majority (including 52 of the 60 who served in Congress during Reconstruction) were veterans of the Union Army.

Leading "black carpetbaggers" believed the interests of capital and labor were identical, and that the freedmen were entitled to little more than an "honest chance in the race of life."

Many Northern and Southern Republicans shared a modernizing vision of upgrading the Southern economy and society, one that would replace the inefficient Southern plantation regime with railroads, factories, and more efficient farming. They actively promoted public schooling and created numerous colleges and universities. The Northerners were especially successful in taking control of Southern railroads, aided by state legislatures. In 1870, Northerners controlled 21% of the South's railroads (by mileage); 19% of the directors were from the North. By 1890, they controlled 88% of the mileage; 47% of the directors were from the North.

Prominent examples in state politics

Mississippi
Union General Adelbert Ames, a native of Maine, was appointed military governor and later was elected as Republican governor of Mississippi during the Reconstruction era. Ames tried unsuccessfully to ensure equal rights for black Mississippians. His political battles with the Southerners and African Americans ripped apart his party.

The "Black and Tan" (biracial) constitutional convention in Mississippi in 1868 included 30 white Southerners, 17 Southern freedmen and 24 non-southerners, nearly all of whom were veterans of the Union Army. They included four men who had lived in the South before the war, two of whom had served in the Confederate States Army. Among the more prominent were Gen. Beroth B. Eggleston, a native of New York; Col. A. T. Morgan, of the Second Wisconsin Volunteers; Gen. W. S. Barry, former commander of a Colored regiment raised in Kentucky; an Illinois general and lawyer who graduated from Knox College; Maj. W. H. Gibbs, of the Fifteenth Illinois infantry; Judge W. B. Cunningham, of Pennsylvania; and Cap. E. J. Castello, of the Seventh Missouri infantry. They were among the founders of the Republican party in Mississippi.

They were prominent in the politics of the state until 1875, but nearly all left Mississippi in 1875 to 1876 under pressure from the Red Shirts and White Liners. These white paramilitary organizations, described as "the military arm of the Democratic Party", worked openly to violently overthrow Republican rule, using intimidation and assassination to turn Republicans out of office and suppress freedmen's voting. Mississippi Representative Wiley P. Harris, a Democrat, stated in 1875:
If any two hundred Southern men backed by a Federal administration should go to Indianapolis, turn out the Indiana people, take possession of all the seats of power, honor, and profit, denounce the people at large as assassins and barbarians, introduce corruption in all the branches of the public administration, make government a curse instead of a blessing, league with the most ignorant class of society to make war on the enlightened, intelligent, and virtuous, what kind of social relations would such a state of things beget.

Albert T. Morgan, the Republican sheriff of Yazoo, Mississippi, received a brief flurry of national attention when insurgent white Democrats took over the county government and forced him to flee. He later wrote Yazoo; Or, on the Picket Line of Freedom in the South (1884).

On November 6, 1875, Hiram Revels, a Mississippi Republican and the first African-American U.S. Senator, wrote a letter to U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant that was widely reprinted. Revels denounced Ames and Northerners for manipulating the Black vote for personal benefit, and for keeping alive wartime hatreds:

Elza Jeffords, a lawyer from Portsmouth, Ohio who fought with the Army of the Tennessee, remained in Mississippi after the conclusion of the Civil War. He was the last Republican to represent that state in the U.S. House of Representatives, having served from 1883 to 1885. He died in Vicksburg sixteen days after he left Congress. The next Republican congressman from the state was not elected until eighty years later in 1964: Prentiss Walker of Mize in Smith County, who served a single term from 1965 to 1967.

North Carolina
Corruption was a charge made by Democrats in North Carolina against the Republicans, notes the historian Paul Escott, "because its truth was apparent." The historians Eric Foner and W. E. B. Du Bois have noted that Democrats as well as Republicans received bribes and participated in decisions about the railroads. General Milton S. Littlefield was dubbed the "Prince of Carpetbaggers", and bought votes in the legislature "to support grandiose and fraudulent railroad schemes". Escott concludes that some Democrats were involved, but Republicans "bore the main responsibility for the issue of $28 million in state bonds for railroads and the accompanying corruption. This sum, enormous for the time, aroused great concern." Foner says Littlefield disbursed $200,000 (bribes) to win support in the legislature for state money for his railroads, and Democrats as well as Republicans were guilty of taking the bribes and making the decisions on the railroad. North Carolina Democrats condemned the legislature's "depraved villains, who take bribes every day"; one local Republican officeholder complained, "I deeply regret the course of some of our friends in the Legislature as well as out of it in regard to financial matters, it is very embarrassing indeed."

Escott notes that extravagance and corruption increased taxes and the costs of government in a state that had always favored low expenditure. The context was that a planter elite kept taxes low because it benefited them. They used their money toward private ends rather than public investment. None of the states had established public school systems before the Reconstruction state legislatures created them, and they had systematically underinvested in infrastructure such as roads and railroads. Planters whose properties occupied prime riverfront locations relied on river transportation, but smaller farmers in the backcountry suffered.

Escott claimed, "Some money went to very worthy causes—the 1869 legislature, for example, passed a school law that began the rebuilding and expansion of the state's public schools. But far too much was wrongly or unwisely spent" to aid the Republican Party leadership. A Republican county commissioner in Alamance eloquently denounced the situation: "Men are placed in power who instead of carrying out their duties ... form a kind of school for to graduate Rascals. Yes if you will give them a few Dollars they will liern you for an accomplished Rascal. This is in reference to the taxes that are rung from the labouring class of people. Without a speedy reformation I will have to resign my post."

Albion W. Tourgée, formerly of Ohio and a friend of President James A. Garfield, moved to North Carolina, where he practiced as a lawyer and was appointed a judge. He once opined that "Jesus Christ was a carpetbagger." Tourgée later wrote A Fool's Errand, a largely autobiographical novel about an idealistic carpetbagger persecuted by the Ku Klux Klan in North Carolina.

South Carolina
A politician in South Carolina who was called a carpetbagger was Daniel Henry Chamberlain, a New Englander who had served as an officer of a predominantly black regiment of the United States Colored Troops. He was appointed South Carolina's attorney general from 1868 to 1872 and was elected Republican governor from 1874 to 1877. As a result of the national Compromise of 1877, Chamberlain lost his office. He was narrowly re-elected in a campaign marked by egregious voter fraud and violence against freedmen by Democratic Red Shirts, who succeeded in suppressing the black vote in some majority-black counties. While serving in South Carolina, Chamberlain was a strong supporter of Negro rights.

Some historians of the early 1930s, who belonged to the Dunning School that believed that the Reconstruction era was fatally flawed, claimed that Chamberlain was later influenced by Social Darwinism to become a white supremacist. They also wrote that he supported states' rights and laissez-faire in the economy. They portrayed "liberty" in 1896 as the right to rise above the rising tide of equality. Chamberlain was said to justify white supremacy by arguing that, in evolutionary terms, the Negro obviously belonged to an inferior social order.

Charles Woodward Stearns, also from Massachusetts, wrote an account of his experience in South Carolina: The Black Man of the South, and the Rebels: Or, the Characteristics of the Former and the Recent Outrages of the Latter (1873).

Francis Lewis Cardozo, a black minister from New Haven, Connecticut, served as a delegate to South Carolina's 1868 Constitutional Convention.  He made eloquent speeches advocating that the plantations be broken up and distributed among the freedmen.  They wanted their own land to farm and believed they had already paid for land by their years of uncompensated labor and the trials of slavery.

Louisiana
Henry C. Warmoth was the Republican governor of Louisiana from 1868 to 1874.  As governor, Warmoth was plagued by accusations of corruption, which continued to be a matter of controversy long after his death. He was accused of using his position as governor to trade in state bonds for his personal benefit. In addition, the newspaper company which he owned received a contract from the state government. Warmoth supported the franchise for freedmen.

Warmoth struggled to lead the state during the years when the White League, a white Democratic terrorist organization, conducted an open campaign of violence and intimidation against Republicans, including freedmen, with the goals of regaining Democratic power and white supremacy. They pushed Republicans from political positions, were responsible for the Coushatta Massacre, disrupted Republican organizing, and preceded elections with such intimidation and violence that black voting was sharply reduced. Warmoth stayed in Louisiana after Reconstruction, as white Democrats regained political control of the state. He died in 1931 at age 89.

George Luke Smith, a New Hampshire native, served briefly in the U.S. House from Louisiana's 4th congressional district but was unseated in 1874 by the Democrat William M. Levy. He then left Shreveport for Hot Springs, Arkansas.

Alabama
George E. Spencer was a prominent Republican U.S. Senator. His 1872 reelection campaign in Alabama opened him to allegations of "political betrayal of colleagues; manipulation of Federal patronage; embezzlement of public funds; purchase of votes; and intimidation of voters by the presence of Federal troops." He was a major speculator in a distressed financial paper.

Georgia
Tunis Campbell, a black New York businessman, was hired in 1863 by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton to help former slaves in Port Royal, South Carolina. When the Civil War ended, Campbell was assigned to the Sea Islands of Georgia, where he engaged in an apparently successful land reform program for the benefit of the freedmen. He eventually became vice-chair of the Georgia Republican Party, a state senator and the head of an African-American militia which he hoped to use against the Ku Klux Klan.

Arkansas
The "Brooks–Baxter War" was a factional dispute, 1872–74 that culminated in an armed confrontation in 1874 between factions of the Arkansas Republican Party over the disputed 1872 election for governor. The victor in the end was the "Minstrel" faction led by carpetbagger Elisha Baxter over the "Brindle Tail" faction led by Joseph Brooks, which included most of the scalawags. The dispute weakened both factions and the entire Republican Party, enabling the sweeping Democratic victory in the 1874 state elections.

William Furbush
William Hines Furbush, born a mixed-race slave in Carroll County, Kentucky in 1839 received part of his education in Ohio. He migrated to Helena, Arkansas in 1862. After returning to Ohio in February 1865, he joined the Forty-second Colored Infantry.

After the war, Furbush migrated to Liberia through the American Colonization Society, where he continued to work as a photographer. He returned to Ohio after 18 months and moved back to Arkansas by 1870. Furbush was elected to two terms in the Arkansas House of Representatives, 1873–74 (from an African-American majority district in the Arkansas Delta, made up of Phillips and Monroe counties.) He served in 1879–80 from the newly established Lee County.

In 1873 the state passed a civil rights law. Furbush and three other black leaders, including the bill's primary sponsor, state senator Richard A. Dawson, sued a Little Rock barkeeper for refusing to serve their group. The suit resulted in the only successful Reconstruction prosecution under the state's civil rights law. In the legislature Furbush worked to create a new county, Lee, from portions of Phillips, Crittenden, Monroe and St. Francis counties in eastern Arkansas, which had a black-majority population.

Following the end of his 1873 legislative term, Furbush was appointed as county sheriff by Republican Governor Elisha Baxter. Furbush twice won reelection as sheriff, serving from 1873 to 1878. During his term, he adopted a policy of "fusion", a post-Reconstruction power-sharing compromise between Populist Democrats and Republicans. Furbush was originally elected as a Republican, but he switched to the Democratic Party at the end of his time as sheriff. Democrats held most of the economic power and cooperating with them could make his future.

In 1878, Furbush was elected again to the Arkansas House. His election is notable because he was elected as a black Democrat during a campaign season notorious for white intimidation of black and Republican voters in black-majority eastern Arkansas. He was the first-known black Democrat elected to the Arkansas General Assembly.

In March 1879 Furbush left Arkansas for Colorado. He returned to Arkansas in 1888, setting up practice as a lawyer. In 1889, he co-founded the African American newspaper National Democrat. He left the state in the 1890s after it disenfranchised black voters. Furbush died in Indiana in 1902 at a veterans' home.

Texas
Carpetbaggers were least numerous in Texas. Republicans controlled the state government from 1867 to January 1874. Only one state official and one justice of the state supreme court were Northerners. About 13% to 21% of district court judges were Northerners, along with about 10% of the delegates who wrote the Reconstruction constitution of 1869. Of the 142 men who served in the 12th Legislature, some 12 to 29 were from the North. At the county level, Northerners made up about 10% of the commissioners, county judges and sheriffs.

George Thompson Ruby, an African American from New York City who grew up in Portland, Maine, worked as a teacher in New Orleans from 1864 until 1866 when he migrated to Texas. There he was assigned to Galveston as an agent and teacher for the Freedmen's Bureau. Active in the Republican Party and elected as a delegate to the state constitutional convention in 1868–1869, Ruby was later elected as a Texas state senator and had wide influence. He supported construction of railroads to support Galveston business. He was instrumental in organizing African-American dockworkers into the Labor Union of Colored Men, to gain them jobs at the docks after 1870. When Democrats regained control of the state government in 1874, Ruby returned to New Orleans, working in journalism. He also became a leader of the Exoduster movement. Blacks from the Deep South migrated to homestead in Kansas in order to escape white supremacist violence and the oppression of segregation.

Historiography

The Dunning school of American historians (1900–1950) espoused White supremacy and viewed "carpetbaggers" unfavorably, arguing that they degraded the political and business culture. The revisionist school in the 1930s called them stooges of Northern business interests. After 1960 the neoabolitionist school emphasized their moral courage.

Modern use

United Kingdom

Building societies

Carpetbagging was used as a term in Great Britain in the late 1990s during the wave of demutualizations of building societies. It indicated members of the public who joined mutual societies with the hope of making a quick profit from the conversion.
Contemporarily speaking, the term carpetbagger refers to roving financial opportunists, often of modest means, who spot investment opportunities and aim to benefit from a set of circumstances to which they are not ordinarily entitled. Until the widespread adoption since the 2000s by building societies of measures such as a charitable assignment clause for new members, the best opportunities for carpetbaggers came from opening membership accounts at building societies to qualify for windfalls running into thousands of pounds from the process of conversion and takeover. The influx of such transitory 'token' members as carpetbaggers, took advantage of deposit criteria, often to instigate or accelerate the trend towards wholesale demutualisation.

Investors in these mutuals would receive shares in the new public companies, usually distributed at a flat rate, thus equally benefiting small and large investors, and providing a broad incentive for members to vote for conversion-advocating leadership candidates. The word was first used in this context in early 1997 by the chief executive of the Woolwich Building Society, who announced the society's conversion with rules removing the most recent new savers' entitlement to potential windfalls and stated in a media interview, "I have no qualms about disenfranchising carpetbaggers."

Between 1997 and 2002, a group of pro-demutualization supporters "Members for Conversion" operated a website, carpetbagger.com, which highlighted the best ways of opening share accounts with UK building societies, and organized demutualization resolutions.

This led many building societies to implement anti-carpetbagging policies, such as not accepting new deposits from customers who lived outside the normal operating area of the society, or a mandatory charitable assignment clause for new members.

The term continues to be used within the co-operative movement to, for example, refer to the demutualization of housing co-ops.

Politics
The term carpetbagger has also been applied to those who join the Labour Party but lack roots in the working class that the party was formed to represent.

World War II
During World War II, the U.S. Office of Strategic Services surreptitiously supplied necessary tools and material to resistance groups in Europe. The OSS called this effort Operation Carpetbagger. The modified B-24 aircraft used for the night-time missions were referred to as "carpetbaggers". (Among other special features, they were painted a glossy black to make them less visible to searchlights.) Between January and September 1944, Operation Carpetbagger operated 1,860 sorties between RAF Harrington, England, and various points in occupied Europe. British Agents used this "noise" as cover for their use of Carpetbagger for the nominated Agent who was carrying monies [authentic and counterfeit] to the Underground/Resistance.

Australia
In Australia, "carpetbagger" may refer to unscrupulous dealers and business managers in indigenous Australian art.

The term was also used by John Fahey, a former Premier of New South Wales and federal Liberal finance minister, in the context of shoddy "tradespeople" who travelled to Queensland to take advantage of victims following the 2010–2011 Queensland floods.

United States

In the United States, the common usage, usually derogatory, refers to politicians who move to different states, districts or areas to run for office despite their lack of local ties or familiarity. For example, West Virginia Congressman Alex Mooney was attacked as a carpetbagger when he first ran for Congress in 2014, as he had previously been a Maryland State Senator and Chairman of the Maryland Republican Party. 2022 Republican nominee for Pennsylvania Senator Mehmet Oz was prominently attacked as a carpetbagger by his opponent John Fetterman for previously living in New Jersey until months before the election. Fetterman won the election, with some claiming that this attack was vital to his victory. The term is now sometimes even used for politicians who relocate from the South to the North for politically opportunistic reasons. For example, former Arkansas First Lady Hillary Clinton was attacked by opponents as carpetbagging, because she had never resided in New York State or participated in the state's politics before the 2000 Senate race;   Republican nominee Rudy Giuliani mocked Hilary by putting an Arkansas flag on top of the New York City Hall.

The awards season blog of The New York Times is titled "The Carpetbagger".

Cuisine
A carpetbag steak or carpetbagger steak is an end cut of steak that is pocketed and stuffed with oysters, among other ingredients, such as mushrooms, blue cheese, and garlic. The steak is sutured with toothpicks or thread, and is sometimes wrapped in bacon.
The combination of beef and oysters is traditional. The earliest specific reference is in a United States newspaper in 1891. The earliest specific Australian reference is a printed recipe from between 1899 and 1907.

France

Politics
In French politics, carpetbagging is known as parachutage, which means "parachuting" in French.

See also
 Rootless cosmopolitans

References

Bibliography
 Ash, Stephen V. When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865 University of North Carolina Press, 1995.
 Barnes, Kenneth C. Who Killed John Clayton. Duke University Press, 1998; violence in Arkansas.
 Brown, Canter Jr. "Carpetbagger Intrigues, Black Leadership, and a Southern Loyalist Triumph: Florida's Gubernatorial Election of 1872" Florida Historical Quarterly, 1994 72 (3): 275–301. ISSN 0015-4113. Shows how African Americans joined Redeemers to defeat corrupt carpetbagger running for reelection.
 Bryant, Emma Spaulding. Emma Spaulding Bryant: Civil War Bride, Carpetbagger's Wife, Ardent Feminist; Letters and Diaries, 1860–1900 Fordham University Press, 2004. 503 pp.
 Campbell, Randolph B. "Carpetbagger Rule in Reconstruction Texas: an Enduring Myth." Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 1994 97 (4): 587–596. ISSN 0038-478X
 Candeloro, Dominic. "Louis Post as a Carpetbagger in South Carolina: Reconstruction as a Forerunner of the Progressive Movement". American Journal of Economics and Sociology 34#4 (1975): 423–432.
 Current, Richard Nelson. Those Terrible Carpetbaggers: A Reinterpretation (1988), a favorable view.
 Currie-Mcdaniel, Ruth. Carpetbagger of Conscience: A Biography of John Emory Bryant, Fordham University Press, 1999; religious reformer in South Carolina.
 Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff. Nation of Nations: A Concise Narrative of the American Republic. 3rd. New York: McGraw Hill, 2002.
 Durden, Robert Franklin; James Shepherd Pike: Republicanism and the American Negro, 1850–1882 Duke University Press, 1957
 Paul D. Escott; Many Excellent People: Power and Privilege in North Carolina, 1850–1900, University of North Carolina Press, 1985.
 Fleming, Walter L. Documentary History of Reconstruction: Political, Military, Social, Religious, Educational, and Industrial 2 vol 1906. Uses broad collection of primary sources.
 Foner, Eric. Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction, Oxford University Press, 1993, Revised, 1996, LSU Press.
 Foner, Eric.  (1988). Harper & Row, 1988, recent standard history.
 Fowler, Wilton B. "A Carpetbagger's Conversion to White Supremacy." North Carolina Historical Review, 1966 43 (3): 286–304. ISSN 0029-2494
 Galdieri, Christopher J. 2019. Stranger in a Strange State: The Politics of Carpetbagging from Robert Kennedy to Scott Brown. SUNY Press.
 Garner, James Wilford. Reconstruction in Mississippi (1902)

 Harris, William C. The Day of the Carpetbagger: Republican Reconstruction in Mississippi Louisiana State University Press, 1979.
 Harris, William C. "James Lynch: Black Leader in Southern Reconstruction", Historian 1971 34 (1): 40–61. ISSN 0018-2370; Lynch was Mississippi's first African American secretary of state.
 Klein, Maury. "Southern Railroad Leaders, 1865–1893: Identities and Ideologies" Business History Review, 1968 42 (3): 288–310. ISSN 0007-6805 Fulltext in JSTOR.
 Morrow, Ralph E.; Northern Methodism and Reconstruction Michigan State University Press, 1956.
 Olsen, Otto H. Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgee (1965)
 Post, Louis F. "A 'Carpetbagger' in South Carolina", The Journal of Negro History Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan. 1925), pp. 10–79 autobiography. in JSTOR
 Prince, K. Stephen. "Legitimacy and Interventionism: Northern Republicans, the 'Terrible Carpetbagger,' and the Retreat from Reconstruction." Journal of the Civil War Era 2#4 (2012): 538-63
 Simkins, Francis Butler, and Robert Hilliard Woody. South Carolina during Reconstruction (1932).
 Tunnell, Ted. Edge of the Sword: The Ordeal of Carpetbagger Marshall H. Twitchell in the Civil War and Reconstruction. LSU Press, 2001, on Louisiana.
 Tunnell, Ted. "Creating 'the Propaganda of History': Southern Editors and the Origins of Carpetbagger and Scalawag", Journal of Southern History, (Nov 2006) 72#4.
 Twitchell, Marshall Harvey. Carpetbagger from Vermont: The Autobiography of Marshall Harvey Twitchell. ed by Ted Tunnell; Louisiana State University Press, 1989. 216 pp.
 Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk; The Scalawag in Alabama Politics, 1865–1881. University of Alabama Press, 1991
 Wintory, Blake. "William Hines Furbush: African-American Carpetbagger, Republican, Fusionist, and Democrat", Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 2004 63 (2): 107–165. ISSN 0004-1823
 Wintory, Blake. "William Hines Furbush (1839–1902)" Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture (2006).
 Woolfolk, Sarah Van V. "George E. Spencer: a Carpetbagger in Alabama", Alabama Review, 1966 19 (1): 41–52. ISSN 0002-4341

External links

Reconstruction Era
American Civil War political groups
Political metaphors referring to people
Pejorative terms for people
Political metaphors
Carpetbagging

Carpetbagger


Te mai uiți și la om este un film românesc din 2015 regizat de Ana-Maria Comănescu. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Diana Cavallioti, Bogdan Nechifor, Andrei Ciopec.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2015 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2015

Te mai uiți și la om


The Stylus, ce urma inițial să fie numită The Penn, a fost un periodic proiectat să fie deținut și redactat de Edgar Allan Poe. Scriitorul avea un vis de lungă durată de a înființa o revistă americană cu standarde foarte ridicate, în scopul de a ridica din punct de vedere calitativ literatura epocii. În ciuda încercărilor de a atrage abonați și de a găsi susținători financiari și colaboratori, revista nu a mai fost publicată niciodată.

Privire de ansamblu
Deși Poe s-a gândit să înființeze o revistă încă de prin 1834, el a lansat primul prospect în iunie 1840, imediat după ce a părăsit Burton's Gentleman's Magazine. Inițial, Poe intenționa să-și numească revista The Penn, deoarece ar fi avut sediul în Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. În ediția din 6 iunie 1840 a ziarului Saturday Evening Post din Philadelphia, Poe a cumpărat spațiu publicitar pentru a-și publica prospectul: "PROSPECTUL REVISTEI PENN, jurnal literar lunar ce va fi redactat și publicat în orașul Philadelphia, de Edgar A. Poe". Mulți așteptau cu nerăbdare apariția revistei, inclusiv jurnalistul originar din Connecticut Jesse Erskine Dow, editor al ziarului Index, care a scris: "Avem încredere că în curând va apărea Penn Magazine, o lucrare care, dacă va fi dusă la capăt așa cum a plănuit, va desființa monopolul pompozității și va rupe lanțurile cu care un grup de pensionari cu cap pătrat au încins atât de mult timp frunțile tinerilor intelectuali care sunt prea mândri pentru a plăti un proxenet literar pentru o recenzie favorabilă într-un mamut de șase penny sau pentru o vorbă bună cu părinții lui Row, care beau vin din cranii de autori și se îngrașă cu gâștele care se hrănesc cu iarba ce se leagănă pe mormintele lor timpurii".

Poe și-a dat seama curând că are nevoie de "eforturi pentru a sprijini interesele generale ale Republicii Literelor, fără referire la anumite regiuni — considerând lumea în general ca adevărata audiență a autorului". Poetul Thomas Holley Chivers, originar din Georgia, a susținut că el i-a sugerat această idee lui Poe. Revista a fost redenumită The Stylus, un joc de cuvinte între cuvântul "Penn" ("stilou") și în special "pana cu care grecii obișnuiau să scrie".

Artistul F. O. C. Darley a semnat un contract pe 31 ianuarie 1843, pentru a crea ilustrații originale pentru The Stylus. Contractul presupunea realizarea a cel puțin trei ilustrații pe lună, "pe lemn sau pe hârtie", dar nu mai mult de cinci. Darley ar fi câștigat 7 dolari pe ilustrație. Contractul a fost încheiat prin 1 iulie 1844. La scurt timp după semnarea acestui contract, Darley i-a ilustrat lui Poe povestirea "Cărăbușul de aur". Pe 25 februarie 1843 a fost făcut un alt anunț pentru The Stylus, care a ocupat o pagină întreagă. Anunțul a subliniat statutul de poet al lui Poe și a inclus prima imagine publicată a lui Poe; Poe a scris despre ea: "eu sunt destul de urât, Dumnezeu știe, dar nici chiar așa".

Într-o scrisoare către James Russell Lowell din data de 30 martie 1844, Poe a subliniat tipul necesar de revistă americană:Cât de îngrozitoare este starea actuală a literaturii noastre! Către ce se îndreaptă lucrurile? Noi vrem... o revistă lunară bine constituită, cu un caracter, o circulație și o capacitate suficientă de a controla și de a da tonul literaturii noastre. Ar trebui să fie un exemplu de gust ridicat, dar nu prea rafinat: - adică, ar trebui să fie tipărită îndrăzneț, pe o hârtie excelentă, pe o singură coloană, și să fie ilustrată, nu doar împodobită, cu desene spirituale în stilul lui Grandville. Obiectivele sale principale ar trebui să fie Independența, Adevărul, Originalitatea. Ar trebui să fie o revistă de aproximativ 120 pp., ce va fi vândură la prețul de 5 dolari. Ea nu ar trebui să aibă nimic de-a face cu agenții sau cu agențiile. O astfel de revistă ar putea să-și exercite o prodigioasă influență și ar fi o sursă de bunăstare pentru proprietarii ei.

Poe i-a scris o scrisoare vărului său Neilson Poe pe 8 august 1845, în care a declarat foarte încrezător: "În ianuarie voi înființa o revistă". Chiar și așa, el nu și-a văzut visul pus în practică în ciuda faptului că a primit mai multe solicitări pentru abonare. El a fost foarte aproape de a-și realiza țelul, cu toate acestea, atunci când a devenit proprietar și redactor al Broadway Journal în octombrie 1845. Aceasta și-a încetat apariția la scurt timp după aceea, iar ediția sa finală a apărut la 3 ianuarie 1846. Într-o scrisoare din ianuarie 1846 către Sarah Josepha Hale, Poe a scris că "B. Journal și-a îndeplinit destinul său... Nu am privit-o niciodată decât ca un supliment temporar al unui alt proiect".

Acest mare proiect, a spus Poe, era să-și continue planurile sale pentru crearea propriei reviste. Prin august 1846, el a numit The Stylus "cel mare scop al vieții mele literare". El a adăugat profetic: "Fără îndoială, (cu excepția cazului în care aș muri) că-l voi realiza".

Strângerea de fonduri

Poe nu a fost în măsură să sprijine înființarea revistei sale cu banii proprii, în parte din cauza efectelor crizei de după Panica din 1837, și a căutat investitori. Pe 17 ianuarie 1840, Poe i-a scris o scrisoare prietenului și confratelui scriitor John Pendleton Kennedy, cerându-i ajutor pentru finanțarea revistei: "Din moment ce tu mi-ai dat primul start în lumea literară... nu te vei mai simți surprins de faptul că mă uit cu nerăbdare la tine pentru o încurajare în această nouă întreprindere", a scris el. George Graham i-a oferit sprijin financiar și l-a angajat pe Poe ca redactor la revista sa, sugerând că-l va ajuta cu finanțarea revistei The Penn după șase luni. După ce Poe a început să lucreze la Graham's Magazine, Graham a publicat un anunț în Saturday Evening Post prin care informa publicul că publicarea revistei The Penn va fi "suspendată".

Un alt posibil finanțator a fost colegul poet Thomas Holley Chivers, un prieten bogat al lui Poe, care va apăra mai târziu reputația postumă a lui Poe. Chivers credea că Poe era subapreciat la acel moment, mai ales pentru munca sa la Graham's Magazine, dar era îngrijorat de critica sa literară pe care o considera prea aspră. Este posibil ca lui Chivers să i se fi oferit, de asemenea, poziția de coredactor. El a refuzat propunerea din cauza faptului că atenția sa era distrasă de moartea fiicei sale, în vârstă de trei ani.

La începutul anului 1843, Poe l-a contactat pe Thomas C. Clarke, proprietarul revistei Saturday Museum din Philadephia. Un contract a fost semnat pe 31 ianuarie 1843, prin care s-a convenit ca primul număr să apară la 1 iulie. Ei s-au gândit să achiziționeze lista de abonați de la Southern Literary Messenger prin luna februarie. Prin luna mai a aceluiași an, Clarke și-a retras sprijinul său parțial din cauza unor dificultăților întâmpinate cu propria lui revistă, dar și din cauza temerilor legate de obiceiul de consum de alcool al lui Poe.

În februarie 1848, Poe a susținut o prelegere intitulată "On The Cosmography of the Universe" (publicată mai târziu ca Eureka: A Prose Poem) la Biblioteca Societății din New York. Poe a sperat ca profiturile de pe urma prelegerii să-i aducă fonduri semnificative pentru The Stylus. El se aștepta la un public de câteva sute de persoane; doar 60 de persoane au participat și mulți dintre ei au fost încurcați de subiect. Un ziar a făcut o recenzie foarte favorabilă a prelegerii și a recunoscut importanța sa ca strângere de fonduri:

Poe a avut parte de o susținere rezonabilă pentru The Stylus în lumea literară. William Gilmore Simms a scris în iunie 1843: "Dl. Poe este potrivit pentru a conduce o revistă literară. El este recunoscut ca unul dintre cei mai buni scriitori și critici ai noștri". Mai multe persoane și organizații s-au abonat la revistă înainte de moartea lui Poe. O listă de potențiali abonați îi includea pe Nathan C. Brooks, William Cullen Bryant, Sarah Josepha Hale, Charles Fenno Hoffman, John Pendleton Kennedy, George Lippard, James Russell Lowell, Anna Cora Mowatt, Frances Sargent Osgood, James Kirk Paulding, Thomas Mayne Reid, Jeremiah N. Reynolds și Nathaniel Parker Willis. Mai multe societăți studențești au fost interesate, de asemenea, să se aboneze, inclusiv cele de la Colegiul Dickinson, Colegiul Hampden-Sydney, Colegiul Jefferson, Colegiul Lafayette, Colegiul Marshall, Colegiul St. John's și Colegiul St. Mary's din Maryland.

Conținut
Poe avea planuri mărețe pentru aspectul revistei. El plănuia să stabilească standarde foarte ridicate, dorind o hârtie fină, gravuri de calitate superioară, critici ascuțite și o ficțiune originală îndrăzneață. Aceste standarde înalte urmau să se reflecte într-un abonament de 5 dolari, mai mare decât în mod obișnuit. În etapele inițiale de planificare, el a promis finanțatorilor că va începe cu 500 de abonați; numărul de abonați urma să crească la 5.000 până la sfârșitul celui de-al doilea an. "Nu există nici un motiv pentru care", a spus el, "o astfel de revistă nu ar putea, în cele din urmă, să ajungă la un tiraj la fel de mare precum cel al Graham's din prezent - și anume de 50.000 de exemplare". De asemenea, el a anticipat că va avea corespondenți la Berlin și Paris. James Russell Lowell i-a oferit un poem și, de asemenea, l-a convins pe Nathaniel Hawthorne să contribuie cu o povestire pentru primul număr ce urma să apară în 1843.

Referințe

Surse
 Bittner, William. Poe: A Biography. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1962.
 Meyers, Jeffrey. Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy. New York: Cooper Square Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8154-1038-7.
 Quinn, Arthur Hobson. Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8018-5730-9.
 Silverman, Kenneth. Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. ISBN 0-06-092331-8.
 Sova, Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001. ISBN 0-8160-4161-X.
 Thomas, Dwight and David K. Jackson. The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe 1809–1849. New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987. ISBN 0-7838-1401-1

Legături externe
 List of prospectuses of The Penn/The Stylus at the Edgar Allan Poe Society online

Reviste din Statele Unite ale Americii
Edgar Allan Poe

The Stylus


Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans (født 9. august 1811 i Lier, død 8. januar 1888 i Antwerpen) var en belgisk genremaler.

Dyckmans, der var elev af Melchior Gommar Tieleman og Gustave Wappers, malede en mængde små, hyggelige og stemningsfulde genrebilleder, harmoniske i koloritten og af minutiøs og glat gennemførelse (Belgiens Gérard Dou). Allerede med Kærlighedserklæringen (1834, Antwerpen, privat besiddelse) blev han publikums erklærede yndling. Andre værker er Faderlig undervisning, Klavertimen, Den blinde tigger (1852, museet i Antwerpen) etc. Dyckmans var 1841-54 professor ved Antwerpens Akademi.

Kilder

Billede

Malere fra Belgien

Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans


Deir ez-Zor (în  Dayr az-Zūr, în siriacă ܕܝܪܐ ܙܥܘܪܬܐ Dayrāʾ Zəʿōrtāʾ) este cel mai mare oraș din estul Siriei și al șaptelea ca mărime din țară. Situat la circa 450 de kilometri nord-est de capitala Damasc, pe malul fluviului Eufrat, Deir ez-Zor este reședința Guvernoratului Deir ez-Zor. Conform recensământului din 2004 al Biroului Central de Statistică din Siria, Deir ez-Zor avea o populație de  de locuitori.

Etimologie
Numele localității, care a fost acordat prin extensie și regiunii înconjurătoare, se referă la un vechi sit al uneia din mănăstirile izolate din zorii creștinismului răspândite prin toată Mesopotamia după persecutarea creștinilor în Roma Antică. Deși se crede că Deir, cuvântul arab pentru "mănăstire", a fost folosit în denumirea localității atât în Evul Mediu cât și în Epoca modernă, Zor, care indică vegetația de pe malul unui râu, a apărut mult mai târziu, în consemnările Imperiului Otoman. În limba siriacă, Dīrā Zeʿūrta înseamnă "mică locuință".

Actualmente sunt folosite diverse forme romanizate pentru a desemna orașul, incluzând Deir Ezzor, Deir Al-Zor, Deir-al-Zour, Dayr Al-Zawr, Der Ezzor, Deir Azzor și Deirazzor.

Relații internaționale
Deir ez-Zor este gazda celei de-a treia misiuni diplomatice armene din Siria, Consulatul Onorific al Republicii Armenia, deschis pe 11 februarie 2010.

Înainte de începerea Războiului Civil Sirian, aeroportul din Deir ez-Zor era unul nu foarte dezvoltat, din care se efectuau zboruri domestice către Damasc și internaționale către destinații din zona Golfului Persic.

Orașe înfrățite
Armavir, Armenia, din octombrie 2010.

Note

Vezi și
 Lista orașelor din Siria

Legături externe

Orașe din Siria

Deir ez-Zor


Viktor Johan Anton Claesson (født 2. januar 1992 i Värnamo, Sverige) er en svensk fodboldspiller (midtbane), der spiller for den danske superligaklub F.C. København.

Han har tidligere spillet for FC Krasnodar i Rusland (2017-22) og tidligere har han repræsenteret IFK Värnamo i sin fødeby samt Elfsborg i Borås.

Klubkarriere

IFK Värnamo
Claesson begyndte sin professionelle karriere i IFK Värnamo.

Elfsborg
I 2012 skriftede Cleasson til Elfsborg. Med Elfsborg vandt han i 2012 det svenske mesterskab, mens det året efter blev til sejr i landets pokalturnering.

Krasnodar
Efter Elfsborg skiftede Claesson til russiske Krasnodar i 2017. I forbindelse med Ruslands invasion af Ukraine i februar 2022 blev Claessons kontrakt i Krasnodar ophævet.

F.C. København
Efter ophævelsen af kontrakten i Krasnodar indgik Claesson i slutningen af marts 2022 en kontrakt med F.C. København gældende frem til sommerpausen 2022. Den 3. april 2022 debuterede Claesson for FCK, da han blev skiftet ind i det 61. minut i en kamp mod AaB, hvor han scorede sejrsmålet til 1-0. I sommerpausen blev det offentliggjort, at Claesson havde indgået en permanent kontrakt, der løber til sommeren 2026.

Landshold
Claesson har (pr. maj 2018) spillet 21 kampe og scoret tre mål for Sveriges landshold. Han debuterede for holdet 18. januar 2012 i en venskabskamp mod Bahrain. Han var en del af den svenske trup til VM 2018 i Rusland.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Sverige
Fodboldspillere fra IF Elfsborg
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2018
Deltagere ved det europæiske mesterskab i fodbold 2020
Fodboldspillere fra FC København

Viktor Claesson


Resiliência pode se referir a:
 Resiliência (ciência dos materiais)
 Resiliência (ecologia)
 Resiliência (psicologia)
Desambiguação

Resiliência


L'Artemisia (título original en italiano; en español, Artemisia) es una ópera en tres actos y un prólogo, con música de Francesco Cavalli y un libreto en italiano de Nicolò Minato. Se estrenó el 10 de enero de 1657 en el Teatro San Giovanni e San Paolo de Venecia.

La trama se basa en la convención que Cavalli había establecido en varias de sus diez óperas tempranas con el libretista Faustini de dos parejas de amantes desdichados que vuelven a unirse a gracias a un monarca benigno.

Historia
Se repuso en Nápoles en 1658, Palermo en 1659, Milán en 1663 y Génova en 1665. Las representaciones incluyeron una serie de arias de sustitución, y en el libreto de 1656 junto al aria de Erillo "Chiedete e sperate" estaba anotada la instrucción "un aria diferente para ser cantada cada noche."

Actualmente, se representa muy poco; en las estadísticas de Operabase  aparece con sólo una representación en el período 2005-2010.

Grabaciones
 Artemisia Francesa Lombardi Mazzulli, Roberta Mameli, Marina Bartoli, La Venexiana, Claudio Cavina, Glossa 2011.

Referencias
Notas

Fuentes
Brenac, Jean-Claude, Le magazine de l'opéra baroque en perso.orange.fr  Consultado el 9 de septiembre de 2011 (en francés)
Licencia

Enlaces externos

Óperas de Francesco Cavalli
Óperas en italiano
Óperas estrenadas en Venecia
Óperas de 1657

Artemisia (ópera)


Zgrada škole (Mraclin), građevina u mjestu Mraclin i gradu Velika Gorica, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis
Zgrada škole smještena je u središtu naselja. Sagrađena je 1923. godine prema nacrtima građevnog mjernika Nikole Hribara. Pravokutnog je tlocrta s rizalitnim istakom u središnjem dijelu začelja u kojemu je smješteno stubište. Posebnost građevine se očituje u visinskoj razlici gabarita, jer je istočna strana jednokatna, a zapadna je prizemnica. Dekorativnu plastiku pročelja čine karakteristični elementi secesije izvedeni na skroman način.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-3764 zaveden je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "sakralna graditeljska baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene javne građevine u Zagrebačkoj županiji
Mraclin
Mraclin

Zgrada škole u Mraclinu


Diane Meyer Simon (nascida Diane Irene Meyer) é uma ativista ambiental, fundadora e líder da Global Green USA, membro do Conselho Honorário da Green Cross International (GCI) e política. Ela é a ex-esposa do bilionário imobiliário de Indiana, Herbert Simon.

Infância e educação
Meyer era filha única, nascida em 1946, filha de pai francês e mãe franco-suíça. O seu pai trabalhou como professor, piloto da Força Aérea e médico; e a sua mãe trabalhava como professora e enfermeira. Simon obteve um BA em Psicologia na Butler University em 1968. Foi a Moscovo para participar numa conferência internacional sobre meio ambiente e encontrou-se com Mikhail Gorbachev. Após esta conferência, ela entrou para o Conselho Honorário do GCI. Simon também tornou-se a "Mulher do Ano" de Indianápolis e mudou-se para a Califórnia em 1989.

Carreira política
Como política, trabalhou como administradora e funcionária política do senador Birch Bayh de Indiana, e como organizadora no campo ambiental. Simon agora mora em Montecito, Califórnia.

Vida pessoal
Meyer foi casada duas vezes. O seu primeiro marido foi N. Stuart Grauel, então vice-secretário de Estado de Indiana. Em 1981, Meyer casou-se com o bilionário Herbert Simon. Eles divorciaram-se em 2000. Têm três filhos:

 Sarah Elisabeth Meyer Simon
 Rachel Mariam Meyer Simon Stuart
 Asher Benjamin Meyer Simon

Nascidos em 1946
Norte-americanos de ascendência francesa
Norte-americanos de ascendência suíça
Pessoas vivas
Ambientalistas dos Estados Unidos

Diane Meyer Simon


MNK Čulin Mlin je bosanskohercegovački malonogometni (dvoranski nogomet) klub iz Livna.

Povijest

Osnovan je 1978. godine. Najveće uspjehe je ostvarivao tijekom 1980-ih godina.

Nakon duže neaktivnosti, rad kluba je obnovljen 22. ožujka 2018. godine kada je izabrano novo vodstvo kluba.

Boja kluba je žuta.

Poznati bivši igrači

 Zlatko Dalić
 Miran Dalić
 Niko Čeko
 Boro Matan

Izvori

Čulin Mlin
M Čulin Mlin
Šport u Livnu

MNK Čulin Mlin


{{صندوق معلومات شخص
|الصورة = ملف:Nadia Younes.gif
|مكان الوفاة = بغداد، العراق
|المهنة  = مساعد أمين عام الأمم المتحدة لشئون الجمعية العامة والمؤتمرات
}}نادية يونس' (13 يونيو 1946 - 19 أغسطس 2003) ديبلوماسية مصرية راحلة. قضت نحو 33 عاما في العمل في هيئة الأمم المتحدة ومنظمة الصحة العالمية، حيث اعتلت أعلى المناصب في عدة مواقع ومنها مساعد سكرتير الأمم المتحدة لشؤون الجمعية العامة والمؤتمرات.

ولدت في القاهرة، مصر. حاصلة على شهادة الماجستير في العلوم السياسية والقانون الدولي من جامعة نيويورك، وبكالوريوس الأدب الإنجليزي من جامعة القاهرة. إضافة أنها كانت تجيد التحدث العربية والإنجليزية والفرنسية بطلاقة.

 العمل في الأمم المتحدة
انضمت ناديا يونس إلى الأمم المتحدة العام 1970، وبدأ من 1974 وعملت في دائرة العلاقات العامة، وكانت في البداية كموظفة صحفية في قسمي اللغتين الإنجليزية والفرنسية. ثم المتحدثة باسم رئيس الدورة 42 لجلسات الأمم المتحدة.

كما عملت يونس كنائبة المتحدث باسم الأمين العام للأمم المتحدة من مارس 1988 حتى يناير 1993. حينها عينت كمديرة مركز معلومات الأمم المتحدة في روما. بعد ذلك عادت لنيويورك لترأس شعبة وسائط الاعلام في دائرة العلاقات العامة.

عملت كرئيس لدائرة المراسم في الأمم المتحدة منذ 1998. وفي يوليو 1999 حتى يناير 2001 عملت في بعثة إدارة إقليم كوسوفو التابعة للأمم المتحدة (UNMIK) حيث كانت المسئولة عن المعلومات والاتصالات في الحكومة الخاصة التي رئسها برنار كوشنار. وبعد انتهاء مهمتها في كوسوفو عادت يونس إلى نيويورك لمتابعة مهامها كرئيس للمراسم. كما شغلت منصب مديرة العلاقات الخارجية في منظمة الصحة العالمية قبيل سفرها إلى بغداد.

في 2003 خدمت بشكل مؤقت كرئيس لفريق ممثل الأمم المتحدة الخاص في بغداد سيرجيو دي ميللو. توفيت يونس اثر جراح خطيرة بسبب تفجير استهدف فندق القناة في بغداد في 19 أغسطس 2003، والذي تقيم به البعثة الأممية حيث توفيت ومعها 22 عضوا في فريق الأمم المتحدة بينهم ميللو.

نعتها منظمة الصحة العالمية في حفل تأبين رسمي، وجاء في خطاب النعي «...تنعى منظمة الصحة العالمية واحدة من أكثر مسؤوليها المحترمين والفعالين والمثيرين للاهتمام''..». وأشارت وكالة أنباء رويترز إلى أنها كانت تتمتع «بالذكاء» وتمتلك «حسا بالدعابة».

ووري جثمانها الثرى في مسقط رأسها القاهرة، مصر.

مصادر ووصلات خارجية

 نادية يونس
 تكريم منظمة الصحة العالمية لناديا يونس
 Nadia Younes Memorial Lecture series
 OpenDocument Kofi Annan
 CIMUN: In Memory of Nadia Younes
 Gone too soon
 Nadia Younes, U.N. Aide In Baghdad, Is Dead at 57

أشخاص قتلوا في تفجير فندق القناة
أشخاص من القاهرة
جرائم 2003 في العراق
جرائم قتل في آسيا 2003
جرائم قتل في العراق 2003
جرائم قتل في العراق عقد 2000
دبلوماسيون مصريون
دبلوماسيون من القاهرة
سياسيات مصريات في القرن 20
ضحايا إرهاب مصريون
ضحايا عمليات إرهابية
مسؤولون مصريون في الأمم المتحدة
مصريون قتلوا في الخارج
مواليد 1365 هـ
مواليد 1946
موظفو الأمم المتحدة
وفيات 1424 هـ
وفيات 2003

نادية يونس


Etambutolul este un antibiotic tuberculostatic, fiind utilizat în special în tratamentul tuberculozei și al infecțiilor cu Mycobacterium avium complex. Calea de administrare disponibilă este cea orală. Este asociat în terapie cu alte tuberculostatice, precum izoniazida, rifampicina și pirazinamida.

Se află pe lista medicamentelor esențiale ale Organizației Mondiale a Sănătății.

Utilizări medicale

Reacții adverse

Note

Vezi și
 Izoniazidă
 Rifampicină
 Pirazinamidă

Antituberculoase
Dioli
Medicamente esențiale listate de OMS
Diamine

Etambutol


HX-228 est un convoi maritime allié nord-atlantique de la série de convois HX pendant la bataille de l'Atlantique durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. C'est l'un des quatre convois engagés dans une bataille navale durant le mois de crise de 1943 et il est notable pour la perte du commandant chef de groupe d'escorte AA "Harry" Tait.

Contexte
Le HX-228 est un convoi de traversée ouest-est de 60 navires, plus des contingents locaux, qui quitte New York le 28 février 1943 à destination de Liverpool. Il transporte du matériel de guerre.

Le groupe B3 de la Mid-Ocean Escort Force rejoignit le convoi depuis Saint-Jean de Terre-Neuve. Le groupe d'escorte était dirigé par le commandant AA Tait du HMS Harvester ; les autres navires de ce groupe sont les destroyers , ORP Burza et ORP Garland et les corvettes HMS Narcissus et les navires des FNFL Aconit, Renoncule et Roselys. Le groupe est soutenu par le porte-avions d'escorte  et par deux destroyers qui quittèrent la base navale Argentia le 5 mars.

Trois lignes de patrouille de sous-marins allemands sont déployées contre eux dans l'Atlantique Nord, les Wildfang, Burggraf et Neuland. Seul le groupe de combat Neuland, reconfiguré, comprenant treize sous-marins, engage le HX-228.

Début mars, un U-Boot repère le , qui a plusieurs jours de navigation d'avance sur le HX-228. Les sous-marins l'engagent. L'Amirauté détourne alors le HX-228 vers le nord-est pour éviter le conflit, le conduisant directement dans le secteur de patrouille de la meute de loups gris Neuland.

Attaque
Le 10 mars, le premier contact est établi par lU-336, par gros temps. Pendant le reste de la journée, huit autres sous-marins reçurent l'ordre de le rejoindre. Au même moment, le mauvais temps force l'USS Bogue à se détacher, car il était impossible de faire décoller des avions dans la tempête. Il navigue alors pour retourner vers Argentia et ne prendra aucune part à l'action.

Le soir du 10/11 mars, lors d'une bourrasque de neige, les premières attaques ont lieu.

L'U-221 attaqua trois bâtiments, coulant deux navires de munitions, le Tucurinca et l'Andrea F. Luckenbach, et endommageant un troisième, le SS Lawton B. Evans. LU-221 subit une vigoureuse  contre-attaque et battit en retraite pour réparer les dégâts.

L'U-444 et l'U-757 tirent tous les deux contre le William C Gorgas, qui fait marche arrière et coule.

L'U-757 tire également sur le Comté de Brant, qui transporte des munitions. Celui-ci prend feu et explosa, l'''U-757 fut endommagé dans cette explosion et fut contraint de retourner à sa base. Il est ensuite attaqué, en compagnie de deux autres U-Boote, dans le golfe de Gascogne par la RAF, mais tous s'en sortent.

L'U-86 et l'U-406 ont tous deux revendiqué d'avoir touché des cibles en utilisant les nouvelles torpilles FAT à fil conducteur (G7e/T3). Le Jamaica Provider est endommagé lors de cette attaque.

Dans la matinée du 11 mars, le Harvester aperçut l'U-444 à la surface et se précipite pour l'attaquer. Il ouvre le feu puis le percute, subissant des dommages à ses hélices dans l'opération. Il était cru que le Harvester avait coulé l'U-444, mais ce dernier est retrouvé plus tard à la surface et achevé par la corvette française Aconit. Alors qu'il se trouve sur place, le Harvester trouea et récupére 50 survivants du William Gorgas et un sous-marinier de l' U-444. En tentant de rejoindre le convoi, ses moteurs tombent en panne et il appelle lAconit pour obtenir de l'aide. Alors que le Harvester reste immobile sans défense, il est aperçu et torpillé par l'U-432 ; il coule avec 149 marins à bord, dont le commandant Tait.

Arrivé sur les lieux, l'Aconit obtient un contact Asdic du U-432 qui se tient immobile sous l'eau, à profondeur périscopique, son commandant et son équipage célébrant leur victoire. LAconit l'attaque avec des grenades sous-marines, l'expulsant à la surface et le coulant ensuite au canon.

L'Aconit récupére 20 survivants de l' U-432, 48 du Harvester, 12 du William C Gorgas et un sous-marinier de l' U-444, pour rejoindre les trois précédemment récupérés.

Malgré d'autres actions ce jour-là et dans la nuit du 11 au 12 mars, il n'y a eu aucune autre perte de part et d'autre et le 12 mars, l'amiral Karl Dönitz, le Befehlshaber der U-Boote (commandant en chef des U-Boote), mettent fin à l'attaque.

Le convoi HX-228 arrive sans autre perte à Liverpool le 15 mars 1943.

 Conclusion
Le HX 228 ne peut être considéré comme une victoire pour aucun des deux camps. Le convoi avait perdu quatre navires de transport et un navire de guerre, ainsi que le commandant Tait, un commandant efficace et très respecté du groupe d'escorte. La meute de loups Neuland avait perdu deux sous-marins, ce qui était potentiellement proportionnellement plus ruineux.

 Tableaux
Navires marchands alliés coulés

Navires de guerre alliés coulés

U-boot détruits

 Remarques

 Références

 Clay Blair : Hitler's U-Boat War [Volume 2]: The Hunted 1942–1945 (1998) (édition de poche britannique de 2000. )
 Arnold La Haye : Le système de convoi allié 1939-1945 (2000) (Canada). (Royaume-Uni)
 .
 .
 Stephen Roskill : La guerre en mer 1939-1945 Vol II (1956) ISBN (aucun)
 Jak PM Showell U-Boat Warfare: L'évolution de la meute de loups'' (2002)

Liens externes

 HX 228 chez convoiweb
 HX 228 à uboatnet

Convoi de l'Atlantique nord de la Seconde Guerre mondiale
Bataille ou opération navale de la Seconde Guerre mondiale

Convoi HX 228


Natura 2000-område nr. 90 Sneum Å og Holsted Å  består af habitatområdet H79, der er på 514 hektar og ligger i en smeltevandsdal mellem Esbjerg Bakkeø og Holsted Bakkeø. Natura 2000-området er beliggende i Vejen-, i Varde- og Esbjerg Kommuner og er en del af vandopland Vadehavet.

Beskrivelse
Sneum Å og Holsted Å er hovedvandløbene i et vidt forgrenet vandsystem der løber ud i Vadehavet. Der er i perioden 2005-2012 i forbindelse med snæbelprojektet, gennemført foranstaltninger der forbedrer fiskenes vandremuligheder i å-systemet, bl.a. er der fjernet stemmeværker og gennemført genslyngning af en del af Sneum Å.
I ådalene findes en lang række mose- og engområder. Rigkær og kildevæld er registreret flere steder langs åerne, nogle steder med artsrige og værdifulde forekomster. Nogle af moseområderne er dog så tilgroede, at den karakteristiske lavtvoksende urtevegetation er i kraftig tilbagegang.

Naturbeskyttelse
Cirka 400 ha af området er er omfattet af naturbeskyttelseslovens § 3.
Et lille stykke af åen syd for Endrup er fredet
Den nedre del af Sneum Å er en del af område nr. 89 Vadehavet og Nationalpark Vadehavet;

Se også
 Internationale naturbeskyttelsesområder i Danmark
 Naturtyper i Danmark

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger

 Naturplanen
 Basisanalysen 2016-21

Natura 2000-planer
Lokaliteter i Varde Kommune
Lokaliteter i Esbjerg Kommune
Lokaliteter i Vejen Kommune
EU-habitatområder i Danmark


Oschiri (sardisk: Óschiri, Óscari) er en by og en kommune (comune) i provinsen Sassari i regionen Sardinien i Italien. Byen ligger i 202 meters højde og har 3.293 indbyggere (2016). Kommunen har et areal på 215,61 km² og grænser til kommunerne Alà dei Sardi, Berchidda, Buddusò, Ozieri, Pattada, Tempio Pausania og Tula.

Referencer

Henvisninger

Kommuner i provinsen Sassari

Oschiri