Maria Karolina Zofia Felicja Leszczyńska (; 23 June 1703 – 24 June 1768), also known as Marie Leczinska (), was Queen of France as the wife of King Louis XV from their marriage on 4 September 1725 until her death in 1768. The daughter of Stanisław Leszczyński, the deposed King of Poland, and Catherine Opalińska, her 42-years and 9 months service was the longest of any queen in French history. A devout Catholic throughout her life, Marie was popular among the French people for her numerous charitable works and introduced many Polish customs to the royal court at Versailles. She is also one of the popularizers of the hurdy gurdy in the court of Louis XV, she played the instrument and made the gurdy famous. She was the grandmother of the French kings Louis XVI, Louis XVIII and Charles X.

Early life
Born as a member of the House of Leszczyński, Maria Karolina Zofia Felicja Leszczyńska (Wieniawa) was the second daughter of Stanislaus I Leszczyński and his wife, Countess Catherine Opalińska. She had an elder sister, Anna Leszczyńska, who died of pneumonia in 1717.

Maria's early life was troubled by her father's political misfortune. Ironically, the hopeless political career of King Stanislaus was eventually the reason why his daughter Maria was chosen as the bride of King Louis XV of France. Devoid of political connections, his daughter was viewed by the French as being free from the burden of international alliances.

She was born in Trzebnica in Lower Silesia, the year before her father was made King of Poland by Charles XII of Sweden, who had invaded the country in 1704. In 1709, her father was deposed when the Swedish army lost the military upper hand in Poland, and the family was granted refuge by Charles XII in the Swedish city of Kristianstad in Scania. During the escape, Marie was separated from the rest of her family; she was later found with her nurse hiding in a crib in a stable, although another version claims it was actually a cave in an old mineshaft. In Sweden, the family was welcomed by the queen dowager Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp and became popular members of society life on the estates of the nobility around Kristianstad. In 1712, they made an official visit to Medevi, the spa of the Queen Dowager. During this period in her life, Marie began speaking Swedish with a Scanian accent. As Queen of France, she was known to welcome Swedish ambassadors to France with the phrase "Welcome, Dearest Heart!" in Swedish.

In 1714, Charles XII gave them permission to live in his fiefdom of Zweibrücken in the Holy Roman Empire, where they were supported by the income of Zweibrücken: they lived there until the death of Charles XII in 1718. Zweibrücken then passed to a cousin of his. These lands were parallel to the confiscated Polish properties of Stanislaus. Stanislaus appealed to the Regent of France, the Duke of Orléans, and the Duke of Lorraine for help, with the Queen of Sweden acting as his mediator.

In 1718, with the support of the Duke of Lorraine, the family was allowed to settle in Wissembourg in the province of Alsace, which had been annexed by France, a place suggested by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, a nephew of Louis XIV and Regent of the Kingdom of France during Louis XV's minority. The family lived a modest life in a large town house at the expense of the French Regent.

Their lifestyle in Wissembourg was regarded as very below standard for a royal at that time; they lived in a small house, and could not pay the salary of their small retinue from which a few "served as an apology for a guard of honour", and the jewels of the former Queen Catherine were reportedly held as security by a moneylender.

While her mother Catherine and grandmother Anna Leszczyńska reportedly suffered from a certain degree of bitterness over their exile and loss of position which worsened their relationship with Stanislaus, whom they occasionally blamed for their exile, Marie was close to her father and spent a lot of time conversing with him, though she was evidently of a more rational nature as she "possessed the gift of suffering in silence and of never wearying others with her troubles" and was said to have developed "a profound and intense piety", which gave "to her youthful mind the maturity of a woman who no longer demands happiness".

Marriage

Early negotiations

Marie was not described as a beauty; instead her characteristics in the marriage market were stated as those of being pleasant, well-educated, and graceful in manner and movement. In 1720, she was suggested as a bride to Louis Henri de Bourbon, Prince of Condé (who preferred to be known as the Duke of Bourbon, rather than Prince of Condé), but her intended mother-in-law Louise Françoise de Bourbon refused to give her consent. The cavalry regiment provided by the Regent for the family's protection included the officer Marquis de Courtanvaux, who fell in love with Marie and asked the Regent to make him a duke so that he might ask for her hand, but the Regent refused and because of his low rank the marriage was impossible. Louis George, Margrave of Baden-Baden, and the third Prince of Baden were suggested, but these suggestions came to nothing  because of her insufficient dowry. Stanislaus unsuccessfully tried to arrange a marriage for her with the Count of Charolais, brother of the Duke of Bourbon. In 1724, Count d'Argensson proposed she marry the new Duke of Orléans, but her intended mother-in-law Françoise Marie de Bourbon wished for a dynastic match with political advantage.

In 1723, the Duke of Bourbon had become the Regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. The Regent was dominated by his lover, Madame de Prie. There were lengthy negotiations for a marriage between Marie and the now widowed Duke of Bourbon: Madame de Prie favored the match, as she did not perceive the reputedly unattractive Marie as a threat to her. The marriage negotiations, however, were soon overshadowed when marriage to King Louis XV, then aged fifteen, was given priority. That year, he fell ill and, fearing the consequences of the unmarried King dying without an heir, the Duc suggested getting him married as soon as possible. He was already engaged to Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain, who had been brought to France as his future wife some years earlier, but as she was only five years old there would be no issue for many years. With the king sick, it was feared he might die without an heir and that the throne would pass to the Orléans line. This was an undesirable prospect for the Duke of Bourbon, who preferred that the throne should pass to the Spanish line rather than to the Orléans line. Louis XV's engagement was broken off and the Infanta was sent back to Spain, to the chagrin of the Spanish. The Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie began negotiations for the immediate marriage of the King to Marie.

Negotiations for marriage to the King

Marie was on a list of 99 European princesses eligible to marry the young King. She was not the first choice on the list. She had been placed there initially because she was a Catholic princess and therefore fulfilled the minimum criteria, but was removed early on when the list was reduced from 99 to 17 for being too poor. However, when the list of 17 was further reduced to four, the preferred choices presented numerous problems. Anne and Amelia of Great Britain, who were considered with the understanding that they would convert to the Catholic faith upon marriage, were favored by the Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie because it was supported by their political financiers, the firm of Paris Brothers Joseph Paris Duverney. Cardinal Fleury easily prevented the British match because of religious reasons. The last two were the sisters of the Duke of Bourbon, Henriette-Louise and Élisabeth-Alexandrine, whom the King refused to marry because of the disapproval of Cardinal Fleury. Cardinal Fleury favored a match with Princess Charlotte of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg, which was supported by the maternal grandfather of Louis XV, the King of Sardinia through his spy the Princess of Carignan, Maria Vittoria of Savoy.

In these complicated disputes over the choice of a royal marriage partner, Marie Leszczyńska eventually emerged as a choice acceptable to both the party of the Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie, as well as the party of Cardinal Fleury, mainly because she was politically uncontroversial and lacked any of the alliances which could harm either party. At this point, there were already negotiations of marriage between Marie and the Duke of Bourbon. The Duke of d'Argensson had already left a favorable report of her, and the groundwork had been done. Cardinal Fleury accepted the choice as Marie posed no threat to him because of her lack of connections, while the Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie, precisely because she lacked any personal power base, expected her to be indebted to them for her position. Marie was, finally, chosen because she was a healthy adult Catholic princess ready to procreate immediately after the wedding. Reportedly, Madame de Prie had a flattering portrait painted of Marie, in which she was deliberately made to look like the King's favorite portrait of his mother, and when he was shown it, he was impressed and exclaimed: "She is the loveliest of them all!" and became enthusiastic of the match, an episode which attracted some attention.

The formal proposal was made on 2 April 1725. The announcement of the wedding was not received well at the royal court. Marie's father Stanislaus had been a monarch for only a short time and she was thought to be a poor choice of inferior status not worthy of being queen of France. The Dowager Duchess of Lorraine, sister of the former Duke of Orléans, was also insulted that her own daughter Elisabeth-Therese had not been chosen. The nobility and the court looked upon the future queen as an upstart intruder, the ministers as a cause to diplomatic trouble with Spain and Russia, whose princesses had been refused in favor of Marie, and the general public was also reportedly initially dissatisfied with the fact that France would gain "from this marriage neither glory nor honor, riches nor alliances." There were rumors before the wedding that the bride was ugly, epileptic and sterile. On 6 May 1725, Marie was forced to undergo a medical examination, which ruled out epilepsy and also gave reassuring reports about her menstruation and ability to procreate. In the marriage contract, the same terms were given to her as were previously given to the Spanish Infanta, and she was thus guaranteed fifty thousand crowns for rings and jewelry, two hundred and fifty thousand crowns upon her wedding, and the further guarantee of an annual widow allowance of twenty thousand crowns.

Private relationship to Louis XV

The marriage by proxy took place on 15 August 1725 in the Cathedral of Strasbourg, Louis XV represented by his cousin the Duke of Orléans, Louis le Pieux. On her marriage, Maria's Polish name was changed to the French Marie. Despite her surname being difficult for the French to pronounce, it was still often used by commoners. She was escorted by Mademoiselle de Clermont, seven ladies-in-waiting, two maids-of-honour, numerous equerries and pages in a long train of coaches; however, she was not welcomed by triumphal entries, diplomatic greetings or the other official celebrations, as was normally the custom upon the arrival of a foreign princess for a royal marriage. Marie made a good impression upon the public from the beginning, such as when she handed out largesse on her way to her wedding in Fontainebleau.

Louis and Marie first met on the eve of their wedding on 4 September 1725 at the Château de Fontainebleau. Marie was twenty-two years old and Louis fifteen. The couple were reported to have fallen in love at first sight based from eye witness accounts such as those of Cardinal de Rohan's letter and that of the Duke de Bourbon who were present when they met . Their relationship was very happy and idylic at first and for eight years Louis XV was faithful to her. The Duke de Richelieu, best friend of the King noted in his memoirs that Louis XV had a "true passion" for Marie Leczinska and at first resisted the idea on taking a mistress while his wife was always pregnant. He had been impatient to marry her, was reportedly flattered to have a twenty-two-year-old wife, and refused to allow criticism of her appearance.

In August 1727, at Versailles, Marie gave birth to twins, named Louise Élisabeth and Anne Henriette. The King was delighted, declaring that, after it had been said that he could not become a father, he had become the father of two. His first minister, Cardinal Fleury, however, was displeased and decided that until the Queen had given birth to a son she could not be allowed to accompany the King on his trips but had to stay at Versailles. A year later, to the King's disappointment, another daughter, Marie Louise, was born. The long-awaited dauphin, Louis, was born on 4 September 1729 to the relief of a country whose royal family had a history of failing to establish a secure male line of succession.

Marie had ten live children, seven of whom survived to adulthood. They all regarded her as a model of virtue, particularly her daughters. Marie, being of a phlegmatic nature, was not known to show them much affection. However, numerous contemporary accounts such as her own children's letters shows a caring and attentive mother. Memoirs of close friends the Duke de Luynes and lady in waiting Marechale de Mouchy, and the Barrister Barbier noted in their memoirs that "the Queen loved her children tenderly" and was noted to giving them "hugs and kisses" and  supervise their education and conduct and regularly send gifts and wrote letters to her younger daughters whom she was forbidden to see at Fontevraud. Marie Leczinska also consoled her children on their personal problems and physically nurse them whenever they are ill as noted by the diaries of her friends such as the Duke de Luynes.

Marie was regarded as plain and slender in appearance by her contemporaries but with a fresh and healthy complexion. That faded with age but piety precluded her from using artificial means to make herself look attractive. She was described as shy and reserved in the company of her husband. She considered it her duty to show him gratitude and reverence but was unable to relax enough to entertain him or to flirt with him. Once, for example, she could find no other way to entertain him than to suggest he to kill the flies in the window panes.

Louis XV, who suffered from melancholy and boredom, became inclined to listen when Marie was unfavorably compared to other women, and Cardinal Fleury, who wished to prevent Marie from eventually getting any influence over the King, favored the idea of the King taking a mistress as long as she was apolitical.

Louis XV eventually became a notorious womanizer. In 1733, he entered into his first infidelity with Louise Julie de Mailly; until 1737, this relationship was not official, and she was known at court as the Fair Unknown. These years, Marie unsuccessfully tried to figure out who the mistress was and did display her displeasure over the state of affairs, but the adultery had the support of Cardinal Fleury because de Mailly was not interested in politics, and after the first years of the king's adultery, Marie became resigned to it. After the difficult birth of Princess Louise in 1737, which nearly took her life, Marie was advised by the doctors that another pregnancy may end her life, and from 1738, she refused Louis's entrance to her bedroom.

In parallel with this, Louise Julie de Mailly was officially recognized as the King's royal mistress and favorite at court, and the relationship between the King and Queen discontinued in all but name, though they continued to perform their ceremonial roles side by side. The King paid only purely ceremonial visits to her rooms and no longer participated in her card games. The court, wary of her loss of the King's affection, only attended to her when court representation required. Louise Julie de Mailly was followed by Pauline Félicité de Mailly in 1739, Marie Anne de Mailly in 1742 and Diane Adélaïde de Mailly also in 1742. During the serious illness of Louis XV in Metz in August 1744, when he was believed to be dying, Marie was given his permission to join him. She was cheered by the supporting public along her journey, but when she arrived, he no longer wished to see her. She and the clergy supported the idea of the King exiling his mistress Marie Anne de Mailly including her sister, and the idea that the King should make a public regret for his adultery, but this did not improve their marriage.

Madame de Pompadour was presented at court in 1745 and was given such an important and influential position at court until her death in 1764 that she somewhat eclipsed the Queen. The lovers of Louis were often given positions in the court of Marie in order for them to have a permanent access and official excuse to remain at court, which placed Marie in a difficult position. She regarded the first official mistress Louise Julie de Mailly as the most hurtful because she was the first one; however, she disliked Marie Anne de Mailly on a more personal level because Marie Anne was haughty and insolent. In contrast to the other official mistresses, Marie had a moderately friendly and cordial relationship to Madame de Pompadour, who always treated the Queen with deference and respect, though Marie did, unsuccessfully, oppose Pompadour's appointment as a lady-in-waiting in 1756. In contrast, Marie seems never to have had extramarital relations.

Queen of France

Political role
Queen Marie never managed to develop political influence and instead focused on numerous charitable activities such giving money, edible foods, medicines as well as sewing and making clothes to the poor which was very much appreciated by the ordinary frenchmen. After her marriage, her appointed court consisted of a great number of followers of the Duke of Bourbon, among them Madame de Prie, the Duchess de Béthune, and the Marquise de Matignon, who, among her twelve ladies-in-waiting or dame du palais, the Duke's own sister, Marie Anne de Bourbon, became her Surintendante de la Maison de la Reine and Paris de Verney was appointed as her secretary. Cardinal de Fleury, who had been Louis's tutor, was appointed her grand almoner.

Marie had been given advice by her father to always loyally stand by the Duke of Bourbon, to whom she owed her marriage and position, and it was a favor to the Duke that Marie made her first attempt to interfere in politics. On 17 December 1725 the Duke of Bourbon, Madame de Prie and Paris de Verney attempted to banish Cardinal de Fleury through a plot. On their instruction, the Queen called on the King to come to her chambers, where the Duke de Bourbon was present. The doors were locked to ensure secrecy and the Duke presented the King with a report from their ambassador in Rome which blamed Fleury for the French failure in a dispute with the Pope. Bourbon asked the King if they should write a reply, which the King refused without the presence of Fleury. Meanwhile, Cardinal Fleury learned of the plot to discredit him and left the palace. The Duke and de Prie planned to use the absence of Fleury to have him confined to an abbey, and gave Marie the task of informing Louis XV that the absent Fleury wished to enter an Abbey and leave his position at court. This led to a crisis when the King gave Bourbon the choice to either expel Madame de Prie and Paris de Verney or be removed from his post of prime minister. This incident led to Cardinal Fleury categorizing Queen Marie as his opponent, and his decision to oust the ministry of the Duke of Bourbon. Cardinal Fleury warned the King that no woman should be allowed to participate in state affairs and that listening to women's advice would lead to disaster.

In June 1726, Fleury convinced the King to deprive the Duke of Bourbon of his ministry. Madame de Prie immediately enlisted the Queen to speak to the King in favor of Bourbon. She protested but agreed and reportedly spoke passionately about the affair to the King, but she was unable to succeed as the King reacted very negatively to her attempt to interfere in politics after the preparation from Fleury that women should not be allowed to participate in state affairs. The day following the fall of the Duke de Bourbon's ministry, Louis XV stated to Queen Marie that he demanded of her to let herself be directed by Cardinal Fleury in the future with the words:
"I beg, Madame, and, if necessary, I order you to place credence in everything that the former Archbishop of Frejus tells you on my behalf, as though he were I – Louis".

Marie's attempt to participate in state affairs during the events of 1726 resulted in a crisis in her relationship with Louis XV, and she sought advice on how to behave from the Princess of Carignano, whom unbeknownst to her was a spy in service of Savoy. The princess' advice was that as Queen of France, it was Marie's duty not to become involved in political intrigues and plots, but to act as an example of virtue and piety; a role model of a "Catholic consort of the Most Christian King". Queen Marie accepted the advice and followed it for the rest of her life, as she was never again involved in any political activity. After the 1726 crisis and until the birth of a dauphin in 1729, Cardinal Fleury and the Princess of Carignano made long running preparations to replace Marie, preferably with Charlotte of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg, if she should die in childbirth.

Marie reconciled with Cardinal Fleury, whom she kept contact with through letters and humbly entrusted to advise her how to behave in order to please the King. Fleury and Marie developed a cordial relationship and he often granted her his support when he estimated that her request to the King was harmless; such as in 1742, when the Cardinal, on her request, persuaded the King to allow her to appoint her personal friend Amable-Gabrielle de Villars as Dame d'atours. Her political activity after 1726 was limited to asking Louis XV to grant a pension or a promotion to a friend, and she often used Cardinal Fleury as a mediator to achieve this.

Despite her lack of influence, she did have political views, and also some indirect political importance. During the War of the Polish Succession in 1733–1736, she supported her father's candidacy to the Polish throne, and upon her father's demand, she did her best to encourage Cardinal Fleury to support her father's candidacy, but she expressed to the Cardinal that she had never wished for the war and that she was an innocent cause of it because the French wished to enhance her dynastic status. After the war, her father was given the Duchy of Lorraine because he was the father-in-law of the King of France, and the Duchy became part of France after the death of her father who became Duke of Lorraine, thus making herself indirectly useful in the political arena. As a devout Catholic, Queen Marie gave her passive support to the so-called Dévots party at court, supported the bishops in their conflicts with the Parliament of Paris, and expressed sympathy for the Jesuit order in their conflict with the crown. It was also a fact, that if the King should die before his son was an adult, then she would in accordance with custom have become regent of France until his 13th birthday, which made Marie a potential regent from the birth of the dauphin until his 13th-birthday, a fact which would have been well known at court.

Role as queen

Queen Marie was initially not respected by the royal court, where she was regarded as low-born. Her lack of dynastic status and lack of connections left her without a political power base, and she did not manage to acquire any personal or political influence. She was not credited with any personal significance and not given much personal attention outside of her ceremonial role as queen.

As queen, Marie Leszczyńska performed her ceremonial role in strict accordance with formal court etiquette and regularly and punctually fulfilled all the numerous representational duties that the court life at Versailles demanded of her. She valued the ritualized pomp and court presentations in order to increase her dignity and win the respect of the court nobility, which was necessary because she had no prestigious dynastic connections of birth and was thus initially seen as low born by them: her successor as queen, Marie Antoinette, was to ignore many of these rules, and once pointed out, that in contrast to her predecessor Queen Marie Leszczyńska, it was not necessary for her to enhance her status and dignity since her dynastic status was evident by birth, and that she could therefore afford to relax on her etiquette without losing respect.

Marie was given an allowance of 100.000 livres for pleasure, charity and gambling, a sum which was in reality often irregularly paid and also insufficient, as she was often in debt. Though she had simple habits, her apartments at Versailles were not redecorated after 1737 – her favorite game, cavagnole, often placed her in debt, and the King was normally unwilling to pay these off for her.

She accepted that her courtiers were appointed because of rank rather than personal preference, and conversed politely with those who were in attendance. However, though she was careful to always fulfill her representational role, she never participated in court life outside of what was necessary to fulfill her ceremonial duties, and when they were done, she preferred to retire to her private apartments with an intimate circle of friends. Among her own private friends were her grand almoner Cardinal de Luynes, Duke Charles Philippe d'Albert de Luynes and her Dame d'honneur Marie Brûlart as well as the wealthy widow of the late Regent the Dowager Duchess of Orleans: Francoise Marie de Bourbon (legitimized daughter of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan), who would invite and organized parties in her palaces in Paris for Marie Leszczyńska. Her other favorite lady in waiting was her Dame d'atour, Françoise de Mazarin, who supported Marie during the affair between her cousin, Louise Julie de Mailly and the King. Marie's private circle of friends was completed with the addition of President Hénault (her Surintendant since 1753) and Comte d'Argenson, whom she had asked not to address her with her title and with whom she also consulted when she wished to have a pension or a promotion given to a protégé. Like her mother, Marie maintained a political correspondence with Margareta Gyllenstierna, the spouse of Arvid Horn, after she had made her acquaintance during her stay in Sweden.

Queen Marie eventually did manage to win the respect of the court nobility by her strict adherence to court etiquette, which made her opinion at least formally important. In 1747, Voltaire was banished from the royal court through her influence. The reason were two incidents, both of which insulted the queen: During one long night of gambling, Voltaire's lover, Emilie du Chatelet, lost a fortune at the Queen's gambling table, during which Voltaire whispered to her in English that she had been cheated. This was regarded as an insult to the Queen, because it denounced her guests as cheats; Voltaire could have been arrested for his ill-timed remark. Shortly afterward, Voltaire wrote a poem in honor of his patron, the royal mistress Madame de Pompadour, in which he alluded to the sexual relationship between Pompadour and the King. This insulted Marie and led to the banishment of Voltaire from court.

When her first daughter-in-law died in 1746, the Queen, very fond and loving of her only son, opposed the selection of his next spouse, the Duchess Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, because she was the daughter of her father's rival, King Augustus III of Poland. Her dislike of the match was known but ignored, as she had no dynastic connections. Initially, this issue caused some friction between the Queen and her new daughter-in-law. However, the friction was soon overcome, reportedly because Marie-Josèphe was an admirer of the Queen's father. In honour of him, several of the Queen's grandsons received the name Stanislaus (Stanislas in French) at their christening.

Marie played a great part as a cultural and art patron. The Queen was the benefactor of the painters Charles-Antoine Coypel whom she commissioned  34 religious paintings  in her apartments as well as  Jean-Marc Nattier, whom she commissioned in 1748 to paint the last portrait she ever sat for, an unusual one as it was informal. It was a major success for Jean-Marc, as it was printed and sold in prints. It was also her favorite portrait, which she had reproduced to give to friends. She was the one who introduce and made popular the Polish style bed in french interior design. In the culinary side, Marie made eating lentils  popular in France and was also noted for inventing along with her chefs the now famous French meat pastry called "bouchée à la reine" in 1735. Furthermore, President Henault and de Luynes noted that Queen Marie was fluent in seven languages such as Italian,German, French,Latin, Swedish, English aside from her native Polish and was very useful when receiving foreign ambassadors.  Louis XV's wife was a great lover of music as she played the hurdy gurdy, harpsichord and guitar and was an avid engraver and painter. Marie was also skilled in embroidery and needlework wherein she gave her creations to poor churches  and was the promoter of many other artists such as Alexis-Simon Belle, Piere Gobert, Jean Louis Tocque, Charles Van Loo, Maurice Quentin de Latour  Hyacinth Rigaud and the poet Moncrift. Duke de Luynes stated in his memoirs that it was Marie who originally introduce the porcelain flowers to courtiers in Versailles by displaying it in her apartments in April 1748 after having it  commissioned from Sevres. Also at  Versailles, the Queen invited the castrato Farinelli in 1737 whom she received singing lessons from, and the young Mozart in 1764, whom she found very charming. During his visit to the palace, Marie acted as an interpreter for her spouse and family who did not understand German. Her major contribution to life at Versailles was the weekly Polish choral concerts.

Queen Marie maintained the role and reputation of a simple and dignified Catholic queen. She functioned as an example of Catholic piety and was framed for her generosity to the poor and needy through her philanthropy which included establishing workhouses, livelihood programs and financial assistance for the poor as well as supporting orphanages and hospitals, which made her very popular among the public her entire life as Queen.

Death and burial

Marie Leszczyńska died on 24 June 1768, one day after her birthday, at the age of 65. She had enjoyed great popularity among the public in her early and later years. She was buried at the Basilica of St Denis, and her heart was entombed at the Church of Notre-Dame-de-Bonsecours in Nancy.

Children

Ancestry

References

Further reading

 Perey, Lucien (1893). Le président Hénault et Madame du Deffand. La cour du régent, la cour de Louis XV et de Marie Leczinska (in French) (4th ed.). Paris: Calmann Lévy.

External links

 Marie Leszczyńska's profile at en.chateauversailles.fr
 The taste of Marie Leszczyńska at en.chateauversailles.fr

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1703 births
1768 deaths
People from Trzebnica
Queens consort of France
Navarrese royal consorts
Maria
18th-century Polish nobility
Polish royalty
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis
Daughters of kings

Marie Leszczyńska


Debra Janine Thomas (born March 25, 1967) is an American former figure skater and physician. She is the 1986 World champion, the 1988 Olympic bronze medalist, and a two-time U.S. national champion. Her rivalry with East Germany's Katarina Witt at the 1988 Calgary Olympics was known as the Battle of the Carmens.

Early life
Thomas was born in Poughkeepsie, New York, and grew up in San Jose, California. Her parents divorced when she was young. Her mother worked as a computer programming analyst in Sunnyvale, California.

Skating career
Thomas started skating at age 5 in San Jose. She competed in her first figure skating competition at age 9, finishing in first place. From then on, she was hooked on competitive skating. She attributes most of her success to her mother who sacrificed to drive her over 100 miles a day between home, school, and the ice rink.

As a young child, Thomas was coached by Barbara Toigo Vitkovits at Eastridge Mall in San Jose. At age 10, Thomas was introduced to Scottish skating coach Alex McGowan. In 1983, she began to represent the Los Angeles Figure Skating Club, which launched her career. McGowan would remain her coach until she retired from amateur competition at age 21.

Thomas placed fifth in the World Championships in 1985 and won gold in 1986.  The eighteen-year-old won the short program and landed four triple jumps to place second in the long program, enough to win the overall competition.  Thomas had also won the U.S. national title besides the World Championship that year; these achievements earned Thomas the ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year award that year. She was the first female athlete to win those titles while attending college full-time since Tenley Albright in the 1950s. She was the first African-American to hold U.S. National titles in ladies' singles figure skating. Thomas was a pre-med student at Stanford University during this time, although it was unusual for a top U.S. skater to go to college at the same time as competing. In 1986, she received a Candace Award for Trailblazing from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women.

In 1987, Thomas suffered with Achilles tendinitis in both ankles and struggled at the U.S. Nationals, placing second to Jill Trenary. She rebounded at the World Championships, finishing a close second to East German skater Katarina Witt.

Thomas relocated to Boulder, Colorado, in the winter of 1987–88 to prepare for the Olympics. In January 1988, she reclaimed the U.S. national title. At the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, she and Katarina Witt engaged in a rivalry that the media dubbed the "Battle of the Carmens", as both women skated their long programs to the music of Georges Bizet's opera Carmen. Thomas' Carmen program consisted of "big powerful jumps", fast spins in strong positions, Spanish steps that were sharply accented, an uplifted torso, and straight, clean lines as expressed in her arms and legs. According to figure skater writer and historian Ellyn Kestnbaum, Thomas presented in her program an outer-directed focus and the image of a powerful and confident woman "taking command of the space around her by moving forth into it". In Thomas' short program, she used techno dance music and wore "a form-fitting skirtless unitard that showed off both her long lines and her musculature". It also included "big jumps", as well as "a high-energy step sequence involving angled limbs, shoulder isolations, and syncopated rhythms". Kestnabum suggests that Thomas' use of contemporary urban dance forms in her short program evoked images of her African American cutlure and heritage.

Thomas skated strong compulsory figures and performed well in the short program to an instrumental version of "Something in My House" by Dead or Alive. In her free skating program, she made mistakes on a number of jumps and placed fourth in that segment of the competition. Thomas began with a triple toe-triple toe combination, which was rare for a female skater in the 1980s.  The second triple was not perfect and by her own admission, Thomas gave up on the rest of the program. Overall, she finished third and won the bronze medal, behind Witt and Canadian skater Elizabeth Manley (Thomas fell from first place going into the long program to third place overall in the final standings). By winning the bronze medal, Thomas became the first black athlete to win any medal at the Winter Olympics.

Thomas won the bronze medal at the 1988 World Championships and then retired from amateur skating. She performed for Stars on Ice and won the 1988 World Professional Championships in Landover, Maryland. She won the title again in both 1989 and 1991.

In February 1989, Thomas ranked 12th in the Q Score athlete standings, the only woman in the top 22. She was inducted into the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2000. She was also selected by President George W. Bush to be part of the U.S. Delegation for the Opening Ceremonies of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy along with other former Olympians: Dorothy Hamill, Eric Heiden, Kerri Strug, and Herschel Walker. Thomas returned to the ice briefly to participate in "The Caesars Tribute: A Salute to the Golden Age of American Skating", an event which featured many of the greatest legends and icons of American figure skating.

Thomas returned to competition in October 2023 at the World Figure and Fancy Skating Championships in Lake Placid, New York. She placed second in the ladies figure championship and seventh in ladies fancy skating.

Medical career
Thomas expressed interest in becoming a doctor from an early age. She studied at Stanford University during her competitive career until her move to Boulder, Colorado, during the 1987–88 season, and had resumed her studies by 1989. She graduated from Stanford in 1991 with a degree in engineering and then from the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine in 1997. Thomas followed this with a surgical residency at the University of Arkansas Medical Sciences Hospital and an orthopedic surgery residency at the Martin Luther King Jr./Charles Drew University Medical Center in South Central Los Angeles.

Thomas went on to become a practicing orthopedic surgeon specializing in hip and knee replacement. In June 2005, she graduated from the Orthopedic Residency Program at Charles R. Drew University in Los Angeles. She spent the next year preparing for Step I of the American Board of Orthopedic Surgeons' exam and working at King-Drew Medical Center as a junior-attending-physician specialist. In July 2006, she began a one-year fellowship at the Dorr Arthritis Institute at Centinela Hospital in Inglewood, California, for sub-specialty training in adult-reconstructive surgery. In September 2007, she began working at Carle Clinic in Urbana, Illinois. During her medical career, while she was skilled at doing the procedures and well-liked by patients, she had difficulty working with other doctors due to her struggles with bipolar disorder, and went from clinic to clinic, never staying longer than one year.

As of December 2010, Thomas was in private practice at ORTHO X-cellence Debra J. Thomas, MD, PC in Richlands, Virginia, which has since ceased operations.

Personal life
Thomas, a member of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority, married Brian Vander Hogen on March 15, 1988, in Boulder, Colorado. After their relationship ended, she married a sports attorney, Chris Bequette, in autumn 1996. Before divorcing, they had a son named Luc Bequette (b. 1997), who as of 2021 played defensive tackle for UC Berkeley.

Thomas was diagnosed with bipolar disorder by April 2012. In November 2015, it was reported that she was living in a bed bug-infested trailer in the Appalachian mountains with her fiancé who was struggling with anger and alcohol issues. Thomas stated that she was "broke", having lost most of her savings through her two divorces and failed medical practice, and had lost custody of her son when he was 13. She was featured in the November 7, 2015, episode of the television series Iyanla: Fix My Life on the Oprah Winfrey Network.

As of 2016, Thomas and fiancé Jamie Looney were living with Looney's two sons, Ethan and Austin, in southwest Virginia.

Programs

Competitive highlights
Amateur career

Professional career

References

1967 births
Living people
African-American sportswomen
American female single skaters
Feinberg School of Medicine alumni
Figure skaters at the 1988 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 1988 Winter Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in figure skating
Olympic medalists in figure skating
Sportspeople from Poughkeepsie, New York
Figure skaters from San Jose, California
Stanford University alumni
University of Arkansas alumni
World Figure Skating Championships medalists
African-American women physicians
African-American physicians
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American women

Debi Thomas


NGC 7708 je zvjezdana skupina u zviježđu Cefeju.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

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  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7708
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7708 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7708 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7700 - 7749

7708

NGC 7708


A woodie (or a woodie wagon) is a wood-bodied automobile, that became a popular type of station wagon the bodywork of which is constructed of wood or is styled to resemble wood elements. The appearance of polished wood gave a resemblance to fine wooden furniture and on many occasions the wood theme continued to the dashboard and inner door panels including the rear tailgate.

Originally, wood framework augmented the car's structure. Over time manufacturers supplanted wood construction with a variety of materials and methods evoking wood construction — including infill metal panels, metal framework, or simulated wood-grain sheet vinyl bordered with three-dimensional, simulated framework. Wood construction was evoked abstractly on the Nissan Pao (1989–1991) and Ford Flex (2009–2019) with a series of horizontal grooves and strakes.

History

1930s and 1940s
As a variant of body-on-frame construction, the woodie as a utility vehicle or station wagon originated from the early practice of manufacturing the passenger compartment portion of a vehicle in hardwood. It was a modern interpretation of an earlier horse-drawn wagon called a shooting brake which was made entirely of wood used to transport hunting spoils, gun racks, and ammunition on shooting trips.

Woodies were popular in the United States and were produced as variants of sedans and convertibles as well as station wagons, from basic to luxury. They were typically manufactured as third-party conversions of regular vehicles — some by large, reputable coachbuilding firms and others by local carpenters and craftsmen for individual customers. They could be austere vehicles, with side curtains in lieu of roll-up windows (e.g., the 1932 Ford) — and sold in limited numbers (e.g., Ford sold 1654 woodie wagons). Eventually, bodies constructed entirely in steel supplanted wood construction — for reasons of strength, cost, safety, and durability.

1950s and 1960s

In 1950, Chrysler discontinued  their woodie station wagons on DeSoto, Dodge and Plymouth station wagons. Buick's 1953 Super Estate Wagon and 1953 Roadmaster Estate Wagon were the last production American station wagons to retain real wood construction. Other marques by then were touting the advantages of "all-steel" construction to the buying public. By 1955, only Ford and Mercury, joined in 1965 by Chrysler, offered a "woodie" appearance — evoking real wood with other materials including steel, plastics and DI-NOC (a vinyl product). As the appearance became popular, Ford, GM, and Chrysler offered multiple models with the woodgrain appearance until the early 1990s.

The British Motor Corporation (BMC) offered the Morris Minor Traveller (1953–1971) with wood structural components and painted aluminum infill panels — the last true mass-produced woodie.  Morris' subsequent Mini Traveller (1961–1969) employed steel infill panels and faux wood structural members.

Simulated woodgrain

After the demise of models using actual wood construction, manufacturers continued to evoke wood construction with sheet-vinyl appliques of simulated wood grain, sometimes augmented with three-dimensional, simulated framework, and later by a simple series of indented grooves in the bodywork.

The 1966 Chevrolet Caprice in its second season, added to the four-door hardtop body style a full line of models including a vinyl-wood trimmed station wagon, the Caprice Estate. Dodge also reintroduced simulated wood the same year.

Ford marketed the Ford Pinto Squire with vinyl simulated wood trim in the early 1970s.  When Chevrolet proposed a simulated woodgrain option for the Chevy Vega Kammback wagon for the 1973 model year, after a gap of four years of applying woodgrain film on the Caprice, the Vega's production schedule made smooth application of the applique difficult without wrinkles and heavy scrappage — requiring retraining by the film supplier, 3M.  Subsequent rebadged variants of the Vega (marketed as "Woody"), including the Pontiac Astre Safari, Chevrolet Monza Estate and Pontiac Sunbird Safari, also offered simulated wood trim. Chevrolet offered a simulated woodie version of the Chevette in 1976, and AMC offered the Pacer wagon with optional simulated wood trim in 1977.

Ford also marketed version of their Ranchero model, a coupe utility produced between 1957 and 1979 with an open bed like a pickup truck but from a station wagon platform, with simulated woodgrain siding. In 1973, Ford produced a minivan prototype that offered a woodgrain appearance to preceded the Chrysler minivan, called the Ford Carousel, but it was not put into production. The 1973–1976 Chevrolet El Camino Estate, 1973–1977 Chevrolet Suburban, 1977–1979 Volkswagen Rabbit, and 1970–1991 Jeep Wagoneer had simulated woodgrain siding.

Introduced in 1981, the Ford Escort and Mercury Lynx four-door wagons offered optional simulated wood trim. GM offered its full-size wagons in wood trim versions until their final year in 1996.  From 1982 to 1988, Chrysler used the Town & Country name on a station wagon version of the K-based, front wheel drive LeBaron, featuring plastic woodgrain exterior trim with three dimensional simulated framework. As the station wagon declined in North America, manufacturers offered faux wood trim on SUVs and minivans (e.g., the Jeep Cherokee and Chrysler minivans). Chrysler offered simulated wood as an option for the Chrysler PT Cruiser, introduced in 2000—and aftermarket firms offered kits as well.

Japanese carmakers shied away from the appearance apart from port-of-entry or dealer-installed trim offered to North American consumers, although Mazda equipped the 1972-1977 Mazda Luce/RX-4 optionally, Honda briefly offered the 1980 Honda Civic station wagon, and Nissan offered the appearance on the 1983-1987 Nissan Cedric V20E SGL and Nissan Gloria V20E SGL top trim package station wagons to Japanese customers only.

In 2010, George Barris created a woodie version of the Smart Fortwo, an aftermarket firm offered a simulated wood kit for the same car, and GM displayed a prototype woodie version of the forthcoming Chevrolet Spark for the 2010 Paris Motor Show.

Introduced in 2008, the Ford Flex featured a series of side and rear horizontal grooves intended to evoke a woodie look—without either wood or simulated wood. Car Design News said the styling references "a previous era without resorting to obvious retro styling cues."

See: Smart Fortwo, George Barris woodie version
See: Smart Fortwo, aftermarket woodie kit
See: Chevrolet Spark with woodie trim

Legacy
Columbia Pictures' top-grossing film for the 1940s, director John Stahl's 1945 Leave Her to Heaven starring Gene Tierney and Cornel Wilde, features a "woodie" station wagon early in the film. Many other American movies from the 1940s also feature woodies.

The woodie was also closely associated with surfers and Surf-rock, e.g., "I bought a '34 wagon and we call it a woodie" from the classic "Surf City" by Jan and Dean or the 1963 instrumental "Boogie Woodie" by The Beach Boys.

In 1995, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 15 cent stamp commemorating the woodie wagon.

See also
Station wagon
Shooting-brake
Surf culture

References

External links

 National Woodie Club

Automotive styling features
Surf culture
Kustom Kulture
Wood products

Woodie (car body style)


كارتر بورول  (مواليد 18 نوفمبر 1955 في مدينة نيويورك) ملحن ومؤلف موسيقى أفلام، خريج كلية هارفرد.

كمؤلف للموسيقى التصويرية لدى بورول تاريخ مشترك مع الأخوين كوين مقدما موسيقى جميع الأفلام التي قدماها عدا "O Brother" و"Where Art Thou? " كما قد موسيقى لأفلام المخرج سبايك جونز.
من بين أشهر أعماله التي لاتعود للأخوين كوين وعزفت الفرقة في 1993، نظرية المؤامرة في 1997، هاملت العام 2000، السجين الإسباني العام 1997، قبل أن يعلم الشيطان أنك ميت في 2007، في بروج في 2008، نجوم براقة في 2008.

بورول كمعظم المؤلفين الموسيقيين درس البيانو، كما بدأ في تلقي دروس موسيقية عندما كان في سن السابعة. وهو متزوج من كريستن سكيولي منذ 1999.

أفلام حملت موسيقاه
 1984: Blood Simple
 1986: Psycho III
 1987: Raising Arizona
 1990: Miller's Crossing
 1991: Barton Fink
 1992: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)
 1993: This Boy's Life (film) 1993: Wayne's World 2 1993: Kalifornia 1993: And the Band Played On 1994: The Hudsucker Proxy 1995: Rob Roy 1995: مغامرات بندق 1996: Fear 1996: فارغو 1997: Conspiracy Theory 1997: The Spanish Prisoner 1997: The Jackal 1998: Velvet Goldmine 1998: The Big Lebowski 1998: Gods and Monsters 1999: Mystery, Alaska 1999: ثلاثة ملوك 1999: Being John Malkovich 2000: Before Night Falls 2000: Hamlet (2000 film) 2002: الرجل الذي لم يكن هناك 2002: Adaptation 2003: Intolerable Cruelty 2004: The Ladykillers 2004: Kinsey 2004: The Alamo 2006: The Hoax 2006: Fur: An Imaginary Portrait of Diane Arbus 2007: لا وطن للمسنين 2007: Before the Devil Knows You're Dead 2008: In Bruges 2008: Burn After Reading 2008: Twilight (2008 film) 2009: Where the Wild Things Are 2012: The Fifth Estate''

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 موقع كارتر بورول الرسمي

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
خريجو جامعة هارفارد
خريجو كلية هارفارد
مخرجو أفلام أمريكيون
مواليد 1954
مواليد 1955
مواليد في نيويورك
موسيقيون من مدينة نيويورك
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام أمريكيون
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام أمريكيون ذكور

كارتر بورول


Okuriashi harai ou Okuri ashi barai (送足払) é um dos 40 nage waza originais de Judo como desenvolvido por Jigoro Kano. Pertence ao segundo grupo, Dai nikyo, da lista de projeções tradicionais, Gokyo (no waza), de Judo Kodokan. Também faz parte das atuais 67 Projeções de Kodokan Judo. É classificado como uma técnica de pé, Ashi waza.

Descrição da técnica
Okuriashi harai é uma dupla varrida de pé a partir da posição em pé. Para executar esta técnica, extende-se o movimento de pisar da perna do oponente em direção à sua outra perna usando o pé contra o pé dele por dentro ou de lado. A varrida é mais eficaz contra um oponente a recuar e não resulta se apenas um dos seus pés deixar o chão.

Técnicas semelhantes, variantes, e pseudónimos
Técnicas semelhantes:

 De-ashi-barai: varrida de um pé ou para a frente ou para o lado
 Harai tsuri komi ashi: varrida de um pé para trás

Leitura adicional

 Sato, Nobuyuki (1992), "Ashiwaza", Judo Masterclass Techniques (segunda ed.), Ippon Books, ISBN 0-9518455-5-1

Ver também

 Técnicas do judô

Técnicas das artes marciais
!Artigos com texto em japonês

Okuriashi harai


Un capitel formează partea cea mai de sus al unei coloane (sau al unui pilastru). El mediază între coloană și ceea ce e susținut de coloană, lărgind aria suprafeței ei de susținere. Capitelul, care se proiectează pe fiecare parte în timp ce se ridică ca să susțină abaca, se alătură abacăi de obicei pătrată și fusului de obicei circular al coloanei. Capitelul poate să fi convex, ca la ordinul doric; concav, ca în clopotul cu susul în jos al ordinului corintic; sau spiralat, ca la ordinul ionic. Astea trei formează cele trei tipuri principale pe care se bazează toate capitalele din tradiția clasică. Ordinul compozit stabilit în secolul al XVI-lea pe un indiciu din Arcul lui Titus, adaugă volute ionice frunzelor de acantă corintice.

Din poziția extrem de vizibilă pe care o ocupă în toate clădirile monumentale cu coloane, capitelul e adesea selectat pentru ornamentare; și este adesea cel mai clar indicator al ordinului arhitectural. Tratarea detaliilor sale poate să fie o indicație a perioadei clădirii.

Antichitatea preclasică

Capiteluri egiptene
Cele două cele mai vechi capiteluri egiptene importante sunt cele bazate pe lotuși și pe plantele de papirus, iar ele, împreună cu capiturile palmiforme, au fost principalele tipuri folosite de egipteni, până când sub Dinastia Ptolemeică din secolele III-I î.Hr., diverse alte plante fluviale au fost folosite, iar capitalul convențional al lotusului a trecut prin diverse modificări.

Multe motive egiptene sunt simbolice, cum ar fi scarabeul sau gândacul sacru, discul solar sau vulturul. Alte motive obișnuite includ frunzele de palmier, planta de papirus sau mugurii și florile de lotus.

Unele dintre cele mai populare tipuri de capiteluri au fost cel hatoric, și cele în forme vegetale (lotus, papirus și compozit egiptean). Majoritatea tipurilor se bazează pe motive vegetale. Unele coloane aveau sau mai au capitelurile pictate în culori vii.

Capiteluri asiriene
Un fel de capitel cu volute e reprezentat în basoreliefurile asiriene, dar nu s-a găsit vreodată un capitel asirian; bazele îmbogățite expuse în British Museum au fost inițial interpretate greșit ca fiind capiteluri.

Capiteluri persane
La capitelul persan achemenid, aplicele sunt sculptate cu două animale spate-în-spate puternic decorate, proiectate în dreapta și stânga ca să susțină arhitrava; pe spate poartă alte apluce în unghi drept ca să susțină lemnele încrucișate. Taurul e cel mai comun, dar există și lei și grifoni. Capitelul se extinde mai jos decât în majoritatea celorlalte stiluri, cu ornamente extrase din numeroasele culturi cucerite de Imperiul Persan, inclusiv Egiptul, Babilonul și Lidia. Există volute duble în partea de sus și, inversate, în partea de jos a unei secțiuni lungi, canelate, care e pătrată, chiar dacă fusul coloanei e rotund și, de asemenea, canelat.

Capiteluri egeene
Cel mai vechi capitel egeean e cel prezentat în frescele de la Cnossos, în Creta (1600 î.Hr.). Era de tip convex, mulat probabil în stuc. Capitelurile de cel de-al doilea tip, concave, sunt exemplele bogat sculptate ale coloanelor care flanchează Mormântul lui Agamemnon din Micene (circa 1100 î.Hr.): sunt sculptate cu șevroane, iar pe unele suprafețe sunt sculptați mugurii unor flori.

Antichitatea clasică

Ordinele, sisteme structurale pentru organizarea părților componente, au jucat un rol crucial în căutarea perfecțiunea raportului și a proporției, ale grecilor. Grecii și romanii au deosebit trei ordine clasice de arhitectură: doric, ionic și corintic; fiecare are diferite tipuri de capiteluri deasupra coloanelor clădirilor lor monumentale hipostile și de alte tipuri. În tot Bazinul Mediteranean, Orientul Apropiat și lumea elenistică mai largă, inclusiv în Regatul Greco-Bactrian și în cel indo-grec, numeroase variații ale designurilor ăstora și ale altor designuri de capiteluri au coexistat cu ordinele clasice obișnuite. Singurul tratat arhitectural din antichitatea clasică care a supraviețuit e De architectura al arhitectului roman Vitruvius din secolul I î.Hr., care a discutat despre diferitele proporții ale fiecăruia dintre ordine și a făcut recomandări în legătură cu modul în care ar trebui construit capitelul coloanei fiecărui ordin și cu ce proporții. În lumea romană și în cadrul Imperiului Roman, s-a folosit ordinul toscan, originar din Italia și cu un capitel asemănător cu capitelurile dorice grecești, în timp ce perioada imperială romană a văzut apariția ordinului compozit, cu un capitel hibrid dezvoltat din cel ionic și cel corintic.

Capiteluri grecești

Capitelul doric

Capitelul doric e cel mai simplu dintre cele cinci ordine clasice: constă din abaca deasupra unei muluri echinus, cu un guler astragal așezat dedesubt. A fost dezvoltat în zonele ocupate de dorieni, una dintre cele două divizii principale ale rasei grecești. A devenit stilul preferat al Greciei continentale și al coloniilor occidentale (sudul Italiei și Sicilia). În Templul lui Apollo din Siracuza (circa 700 î.Hr.), mulura echinus a devenit o formă mai definită: cel din Partenon își atinge punctul culminant, unde convexitatea e în partea de sus și de jos cu o delicată curbă de unire. Partea înclinată a echinusului devine mai plată în exemplele ulterioare. În versiunile în care friza și alte elemente sunt mai simple, aceeași formă de capitel e descrisă ca fiind în ordinul toscan. Doricul și-a atins apogeul la mijlocul secolului al V-lea î.Hr. și a fost unul dintre ordinele acceptate de romani. Caracteristicile sale sunt masculinitatea, forța și soliditatea.

Capitelul doric constă într-o mulură convexă asemănătoare unei perne cunoscută sub numele de echinus și o placă pătrată denumită abacă.

Capitelul ionic

La capitelul ionic, volute spiralate sunt inserate între abacă și echină. Ordinul ăsta pare să fi fost dezvoltat simultan cu cel doric, chiar dacă nu a intrat în uz comun și a luat forma finală până la mijlocul secolului al V-lea î.Hr.. Stilul a predominat în zonele ionice, centrate pe coasta Asiei Mici și în Insulele Egeene. Forma ordinului a fost mult mai puțin stabilită decât cea dorică, variațiile locale persistând timp de multe decenii. La capitelurile ionice ale Templului arhaic al lui Artemis din Efes (560 î.Hr.), lățimea abacăi e de două ori mai mare decât cea a adâncimii sale, prin urmare, cel mai vechi capitel ionic cunoscut a fost practic un capitel de tip coș. Un secol mai târziu, la templul de pe Ilisos, abaca a devenit pătrată. Conform arhitectului roman Vitruvius, principalele caracteristici ale ordinului ionic erau frumusețea, feminitatea și subțirimea, derivate din baza sa pe proporția unei femei.

Volutele unui capitel ionic se sprijină pe un echinus, aproape invariabil sculptat cu ove. Deasupra volutelor spiralate e o abacă, mai puțin adâncă decât cea din exemplele dorice, și din nou ornamentată cu ove.

Capitelul corintic

S-a sugerat că frunzișul capitelurilor corintice grecești se bazează pe Acanthus spinosus, iar cel al celor romane pe Acanthus mollis. Frunzele sunt, în general, sculptate în două "rânduri" sau benzi, ca o cană cu frunze așezată în alta. Capitelurile corintice ale tolosului din Epidaur (400 î.Hr.) ilustrează tranziția dintre capitelul grec anterior, ca la Bassae, și versiunea romană pe care arhitecții renascentisti și moderni au moștenit-o și rafinat-o (vezi discuția mai completă la ordinul corintic).

În practica arhitecturală romană, capitelurile sunt tratate pe scurt în contextul lor adecvat, printre detaliile proprii fiecăruia din "ordine", în singurul manual de arhitectură complet care a supraviețuit din vremurile clasice, De architectura, de Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, mai cunoscut ca Vitruvius, dedicat împăratului Octavianus Augustus. Diferitele ordine sunt discutate în cărțile III și IV ale lui Vitruvius. El descrie practica romană într-un mod practiac, dând câteva povești despre inventarea fiecăruia dintre ordine, dar nu oferă un set greu și rapid de reglementare canonică pentru executarea capitelurilor.

Două alte ordine arhitecturale, în special romane, își au propriile capiteluri caracteristice: cele toscane solide și primitive, folosite în mod obișnuit în construcții militare, asemănătoare cu cele dorice grecești, dar cu mai puține muluri mici în profil, și cele compozite inventate, nici măcar menționate de Vitruvius, care combină volute ionice și capitelurile corintice cu acante, într-un ordin care era astfel destul de asemănător în proporție cu corinticul, în sine un ordin pe care romanii îl folosesc mult mai des decât grecii.

Adoptarea din ce în ce mai mare a capitelurilor compozite a semnalat o tendință către capitelurile mai libere, mai inventive (și adesea sculptate mai grosier) în Antichitatea târzie.

Capiteluri de antă

Capitelul de antă nu e un capitel care e așezat deasupra unei coloane, ci mai degrabă deasupra unei ante, un stâlp structural integrat la capătul frontal al unui perete, cum ar fi partea din față a peretelui lateral al unui templu.

Partea de sus a unei ante e de obicei foarte decorată, adesea cu benzi cu motive florale. Designurile corespund adesea unui ordin de coloane, dar de obicei cu un set diferit de principii de design. Ca să nu iasă excesiv de pe suprafața peretelui, structurile astea tind să aibă o suprafață destul de plană, formând capiteluri în formă de cărămidă, numite "capiteluri de antă". Capitelurile de antă sunt cunoscute din timpul ordinului doric.

Un capitel de antă poate să fie uneori calificat drept capitel "canapea" sau "capitel de antă canapea" atunci când laturile capitelului se extind în sus, într-o formă care amintește de o canapea.

Capitelurile de ante sunt uneori greu de distins de cele de pilaștru, care sunt mai degrabă decorative și nu au același rol structural ca cele de ante.

Capiteluri romane

Capitelul toscan

Originile ordinului toscan sunt la etrusci și se găsesc la mormintele lor. Chiar dacă romanii l-au perceput ca fiind în special italian, capitelul toscan găsită pe monumentele romane r de fapt mai aproape de ordinul doric grec decât de exemplele etrusce, capitelul său fiind aproape identic cu cel doric.

Capitelul compozit

Romanii au inventat ordinul compozit prin unirea celui corintic cu capitelul ionic, posibil încă din timpul domniei lui Augustus. În multe versiuni, volutele de ordinul compozit sunt totuși mai mari și există, în general, unele ornamente plasate central între volute. În ciuda originii, foarte multe capiteluri compozite tratează de fapt cele două volute ca elemente diferite, fiecare izvorât dintr-o parte a bazei lor cu frunze. În sensul ăsta, și având un ornament separat între ele, ele seamănă cu ordinul eolic greac arhaic, chiar dacă cele două par să nu fi avut calea dezvoltării lor în Roma Imperială timpurie. De asemenea, în cazul în care voluta ionică greacă e de obicei afișată din lateral ca o singură unitate de lățime neschimbată între fața și spatele coloanei, volutele compozite sunt tratate în mod normal ca patru unități mai subțiri diferite, una la fiecare colț al capitelului, la aproximativ 45° pe fațadă.

Capiteluri indiene

Capitelul cu Lei al lui Așoka

Capitelul cu Lei al lui Așoka e un capitel iconic care constă din patru lei asiatici care stau spate în spate, pe o bază elaborată care include alte animale. O reprezentare grafică a sa a fost adoptată ca emblemă oficială a Indiei în 1950. Capitelul ăsta cu lei din Sarnath stătea în vârful unui stâlp care purta edictele împăratului Așoka.  La fel ca majoritatea capitelurilor lui Așoka, e lustruit în mod strălucitor. Situat la locul primei predici a lui Buddha și a formării ordinii budiste, el puartă simboluri imperiale și budiste, reflectând autoritatea universală atât a cuvintelor împăratului, cât și ale lui Buddha. Capitelul servește astăzi ca emblemă a Republicii India. Eliminând baza în formă de floare de lotus de forma unui clopot, capitelul a fost adoptată ca Emblema Națională a Indiei, văzută dintr-un alt unghi, arătând calul din stânga și taurul din dreapta chakrei lui Așoka în baza circulară pe care se află cei patru lei indinei care stau spate-n spate. Pe partea prezentată aici sunt taurul și elefantul; un leu ocupă celălalt loc. Roata care e "chakra lui Așoka" de la baza sa a fost plasată în centrul steagului național al Indiei.

Capiteluri indo-ionice

Capitelul din Pataliputra e un capitel monumental dreptunghiular, cu modele de volute, care a fost descoperită în ruinele palatului din vechea capitală a Imperiului Mauryan, care e Pataliputra (Patna modernă, în nord-estul Indiei). E datat în secolul al III-lea î.Hr.. Partea superioară e formată dintr-o bandă de rozete, în total 11 pe fronturi și 4 pe laturi. Sub ele e o bandă cu un șirag de mărgele, apoi sub una de valuri, în general de la dreapta la stânga, cu excepția părții din spate unde sunt de la stânga la dreapta. Mai jos e o bandă de ove, cu 11 "limbi" sau "ouă" în față și doar șapte în spate. Mai jos apare motivul principal, o palmetă înflacărată, care crește printre pietricele.

Capitelul din Sarnath e un capitel al stâlpului, uneori descris și ca "suport de piatră", descoperită în săpăturile arheologice din vechiul sit budist din Sarnath. Stâlpul prezintă volute și palmete ionice. A fost divers datat din secolul al III-lea î.Hr. în perioada Imperiului Mauryan, până în secolul I î.Hr., în perioada Imperiului Șunga.

Capiteluri indo-corintice

Unele capiteluri cu o puternică influență greacă și persană au fost găsite în nord-estul Indiei în palatul Imperiului Maurya din Pataliputra, datând din secolele IV-III î.Hr.. Exemple precum Capitelul din Pataliputra aparțin mai degrabă ordinului ionic decât celui corintic ulterior. Ele sunt martori ai relațiilor dintre India și Occident din acea perioadă timpurie.

Capitelurile indocorintice corespund unor capiteluri mult mai abundente în orinul corintic care încoronează coloane sau pilaștri, care se găsesc în Subcontinentul nord-vestic indian, în special în Gandhara, și combină de obicei elemente elenistice și indiene. Capitelurile astea sunt de obicei datate în primul secol î.Hr. și constituie elemente importante ale artei grecobudiste.

Designul clasic a fost adesea adaptat, luând de obicei o formă mai alungită și uneori fiind combinat cu spirale, în general în contextul stupelor și al templelor budiste. Capitelurile indocorintice au încorporat, de asemenea, figurine ale lui Buddha sau de Bodhisattvi, de obicei ca figuri centrale înconjurate de, și adesea sub umbra, frunzișului luxos al designurilor corintice.

Antichitatea târzie și Evul Mediu Timpuriu

Capiteluri bizantine
Capitelurile bizantine sunt foarte variate, în mare parte dezvoltându-se din corinticul clasic, dar având tendința de a avea un nivel de suprafață uniformă, cu ornamentația sculptată cu burghie. Blocul de piatră era lăsat în stare brută pe măsură ce venea din carieră, iar sculptorul dezvolta noi designuri după propria sa fantezie, astfel încât rar se întâlnesc cu multe repetări ale aceluiași design. Unul dintre cele mai remarcabile dintre ele prezintă frunze sculptate parcă suflate de vânt; cel mai bun exemplu fiind la Hagia Sofia din secolul al VIII-lea (Salonic). Cele din Bazilica Sfântul Marcu din Veneția (1071) au atras în mod special fantezia lui John Ruskin.

Capitelurile din Bazilica San Vitale, în Ravenna (547) arată deasupra lor dosereturile necesar pentru purtarea arcului, al cărui punct de început era mult mai larg decât abaca capitelului. Pe capitelurile estice, vulturul, leul și mielul sunt sculptate ocazional, dar tratate convențional.

Există două tipuri de capiteluri folosite în Hagia Sophia: compozite și ionice. Capitelul compozit care a apărut în timpul Imperiului Bizantin Târziu, în principal la Roma, combină corinticul cu ionicul. Capitelurile compozite aliniază spațiul principal al navei. Capitelurile ionice sunt folosite în spatele lor în spațiile laterale, într-o poziție oglindă față de ordinele corintice sau compozite (așa cum a fost soarta lor până în secolul al XIX-lea, când clădirile au fost proiectate pentru prima dată cu un ordin monumental ionic). La Hagia Sophia, totuși, ele nu sunt declarațiile imperiale standard. Capitelurile sunt pline de frunziș în tot felul de variante. În unele, frunzele mici și luxuriante par a fi prinse în rotația volutelor - în mod clar, o sensibilitate diferită, nonclasică a preluat designul.

Capitelurile din Bazilica San Vitale din Ravenna (Italia) prezintă modele florale ondulate și delicate, similare cu ornamentele găsite pe catarame de centuri și lame de pumnale. Forma lor piramidală inversată are aspectul unui coș.

Evul Mediu
În ambele perioade coloanele mici sunt adesea folosite strânse în grupuri, de obicei în jurul unei pile care este de fapt o singură coloană mai mare sau care se desfășoară de-a lungul unei suprafețe a peretelui. Prin urmare, importanța structurală a coloanei individuale este mult redusă. În ambele perioade, chiar dacă există tipuri comune, sensul unui ordin strict cu reguli nu a fost menținut și, atunci când bugetul a permis, sculptorii au putut să se răsfețe cu inventivitatea lor. Capitelurile erau uneori folosite pentru reprezentări de figuri și scene narative, în special în arhitectura romanică.

În arhitectura romanică și-n cea gotică, capitelurile din toată Europa de Vest prezintă la fel de multă varietate ca în Est și, din același motiv, că sculptorul și-a dezvoltat designul în conformitate cu blocul pe care îl sculptase, dar în vest varietatea merge mai departe, din cauza grupării de coloane și pile.

Primul tip de capitel din Lombardia și Germania e cunoscut sub numele de capac de pernă, în care porțiunea inferioară a blocului cubului a fost tăiată ca să se întâlnească cu fusul circular. Aceste tipuri au fost în general vopsite la început cu modele geometrice, apoi sculptate.

Cea mai bună sculptură vine din Franța, în special din zona din jurul Parisului. Cele mai variate au fost sculptate între anii 1130 și 1170.

În Marea Britanie și Franța figurile introduse în capiteluri sunt uneori pline de personaje. Cu toate astea, capitelurile astea nu sunt egale cu cele din goticul englezesc timpuriu, în care frunzele sunt tratate ca și cum ar fi copiate din metal și sunt de o varietate infinită, fiind găsite în bisericile mici ale satelor, precum și în catedrale.

Capiteluri renascentiste și ulterioare

În perioada Renașterii, ceea ce prezenta a devenit de cea mai mare importanță și varietatea sa aproape la fel de mare ca în stilurile romanic și gotic. Pilastrul plat, care a fost folosit pe scară largă în perioada asta, a cerut o redare planară a capitelului, executată în relief. Lucrul ăsta a afectat designul capitelurilor. O variantă tradițională din capitelul compozit din secolul al XV-lea întoarce volutele spre interior deasupra sculpturii rigidizate a frunzelor.  În noile combinații renascentiste din designurile de capiteluri, cea mai mare parte a ornamentului se bazează surse clasice romane.

"Renașterea" a fost la fel de mult o reinterpretare ca o renaștere a normelor clasice. De exemplu, volutele capitelurilor ionice antice grecești și romane se întinseseră în același plan cu arhitrava de deasupra lor. Lucrul ăsta a creat o tranziție incomodă la colț - în cazul în care, de exemplu, proiectantul templului Athenei Nike de pe Acropola Ateniană a adus voluta exterioară a capitelurilor finale la un unghi de 45 de grade. Problema asta a fost rezolvată mai satisfăcător de arhitectul din secolul al XVI-lea Sebastiano Serlio, care a înclinat în exterior toate volutele capitelurilor sale ionice. De atunci, folosirea capitelurilor ionice antice, în locul versiunii lui Serlio, a împrumutat un aer arhaic întregului context, ca în arhitectura neogreacă.

Există numeroase ordine nou inventate, în care o ornamentarea diferită a capitalului este de obicei o caracteristică cheie. În limitele decorului, o anumită cantitate de joc inventiv a fost mereu acceptabilă în cadrul tradiției clasice. Ele au devenit din ce în ce mai frecvente după Renaștere. Când Benjamin Latrobe a reproiectat vestibulul Senatului din Capitoliul Statelor Unite în 1807, a introdus șase coloane pe care le-a "americanizat" cu spice de porumb înlocuind frunzele europene de acantă. După cum i-a raportat Latrobe lui Thomas Jefferson în august 1809,
Capitelurile astea în timpul sesiunii de vară mi-au adus mai multe aplauze din partea membrilor Congresului decât toate lucrările de mărime sau dificultate care le înconjoară. Le-au botezat "capitelurile de porumb".

Un alt exemplu e ordinul de Delhi inventat de arhitectul britanic Edwin Lutyens pentru palatul central din New Delhi, Viceroy's House, acum reședința prezidențială Rashtrapati Bhavan, folosind elemente din arhitectura indiană. Aici capitelul avea o bandă de creste verticale, cu clopote, agățat la fiecare colț ca înlocuitor pentru volute. Ordinul de Delhi reapare la unele clădiri ulterioare ale lui Lutyens, inclusiv la Campion Hall din Oxford.

Vezi și
 Impostă
 Pulvin

Referințe

 Lewis, Philippa & Gillian Darley (1986) Dictionary of Ornament, NY: Pantheon

Legături externe

 Tipuri de capiteluri folosite în Arta și Arhitectura Medievale

Coloane
Elemente arhitecturale

Capitel


Jonas Staugaitis (; 20 May 1868 in Omentiškiai, Suwałki Governorate – 18 January 1952 in Kaunas) was the acting President of Lithuania during the December 1926 coup d'état. He was formally elected for a few hours as the Speaker of the Seimas; as the highest-ranked official, he also became the de jure President of Lithuania. He renounced the office after the coup d'état was complete.

He was a medical doctor, having studied at the University of Warsaw. In 1919, he was elected to the Seimas (Lithuanian parliament) as a member of the Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union. On 2 June 1926, he was elected the speaker of Seimas.

He is buried in the Petrašiūnai cemetery in Kaunas.

References

External links
 STAUGAITIS Jonas (1868–1952)

1868 births
1952 deaths
Lithuanian physicians
People from Suwałki Governorate
People from Vilkaviškis District Municipality
Presidents of Lithuania
Speakers of the Seimas
Burials at Petrašiūnai Cemetery
Physicians from the Russian Empire

Jonas Staugaitis


Bergseng Station (Bergseng stasjon) er en tidligere jernbanestation på Dovrebanen, der ligger ved Bergseng i Ringsaker kommune i Norge.

Stationen åbnede 15. november 1894, da banen mellem Hamar og Tretten blev taget i brug. Den blev nedgraderet til holdeplads 1. oktober 1923 men atter opgraderet til station 9. december 1945. Den blev fjernstyret 29. april 1966 og gjort ubemandet 2. maj samme år. Betjeningen med persontog ophørte 29. maj 1988, hvor stationen samtidig blev omdannet til fjernstyret krydsningsspor.

Stationen er forsynet med en stationsbygning i rødmalet træ, der blev opført til åbningen i 1894 efter tegninger af Paul Due.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Stationer på Dovrebanen
Jernbanestationer i Norge uden persontrafik
Etableret i 1894
Ophørt i 1988
Jernbanestationer i Hedmark

Bergseng Station


An Triodia fissura in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Barrett, Wells ngan Hugh Neville Dixon. An Triodia fissura in nahilalakip ha genus nga Triodia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Triodia (Poaceae)

Triodia fissura


1 Cassiopeiae (1 Cas) es una estrella de magnitud aparente +4,84
situada en la constelación de Casiopea.
De acuerdo a la nueva reducción de los datos de paralaje del satélite Hipparcos, se encuentra a 1130 años luz del sistema solar.

1 Cassiopeiae es una subgigante blanco-azulada de tipo espectral B0.5IV.
Tiene una elevada temperatura efectiva entre 26850 y 27100K y es enormemente luminosa, 25500 veces más que el Sol.
Su diámetro angular de 0,204 milisegundos de arco, una vez conocida su distancia aproximada, permite estimar su radio, siendo éste 7,7 veces más grande que el radio solar.
Gira sobre sí misma con una velocidad de rotación proyectada de 15km/s.
Es una estrella masiva con una masa de 14,9±0,4 masas solares y una edad de solo 5,7±0,1 millones de años.

1 Cassiopeiae es una estrella rica en nitrógeno y su relación helio/hidrógeno es comparable a la de otras estrellas semejantes.
Asimismo, no parece tener campo magnético.
Pequeñas variaciones observadas en su velocidad radial pueden estar originadas por la presencia de una compañera estelar.

Referencias

Subgigantes
Constelación de Casiopea

1 Cassiopeiae


Eidorfe Moreira (Paraíba, 1912 - Belém, 1989) foi um advogado, escritor e professor. Foi um importante nome na produção bibliográfica sobre a geografia regional amazônica, em um período em que a geografia estava focada no eixo RJ-SP. Por sua importância, dá nome à Funbosque e a um prêmio na área da geografia regional.

Biografia
Eidorfe Moreira nasceu em 30 de julho de 1912, no estado da Paraíba, filho do militar Francisco Solerno Moreira e de Dona Petrolina Moreira. Sua família mudou-se para a cidade de Belém, no Pará, quando ele tinha menos de dois anos de idade. Entre 1921 e 1927, a família morou na cidade de Soure, na Ilha de Marajó.

Ao longo de sua fase estudantil no Colégio Paes de Carvalho, participou ativamente de atividades políticas e, em 1932, perdeu um braço por conta de um ferimento de bala durante a revolta em apoio à Revolução Constitucionalista de São Paulo. Em 1938, formou-se em Direito; no ano seguinte, já lecionava Economia Política em escolas de Belém; e em 1945, passou a servidor público. Também atuou na Universidade Federal do Pará como professor e pesquisador.

Eidorfe aposentou-se do serviço público em 1982 e faleceu no dia 02 de janeiro de 1989, vítima de infarto.

Reconhecimentos

 1996 - seu nome foi dado para a Fundação Centro de Referência em Educação Ambiental Escola Bosque,
 o Simpósio Nacional de Geografia Regional (SINGER) homenageia "os geógrafos que contribuiram com a produção do conhecimento no âmbito da Geografia Regional" com um prêmio com seu nome: "Prêmio Eidorfe Moreira de Geografia Regional".

Obras
Eidorfe Moreira formou-se advogado, mas sua produção intelectual concentrou-se na geografia regional:

Dentre suas principais obras publicadas, estão:

 1958 - Conceito de Amazônia,
 1960 - Amazônia: O Conceito e a Paisagem,
 1960 - Estado e Ideologia,
 1960 - Ideias para uma Concepção Geográfica de Vida,
 1962 - Presença do Mar na Literatura Brasileira,
 1966 - Belém e sua Expressão Georgráfica,
 1970 - Os Sermões que o Padre Vieira Pregou no Pará,
 1976 - Os Igapós e seu Aproveitamento,
 1979 - O Livro Didático Paraense,
 1989 (após a morte do autor) - Obras reunidas (8 volumes).

Advogados do Pará
Geógrafos do Pará
Escritores do Pará
Professores do Pará

Eidorfe Moreira