Dmitri Shostakovich's Symphony No. 7 in C major, Op. 60, nicknamed the Leningrad, was begun in Leningrad, completed in the city of Samara (then known as Kuybyshev) in December 1941, and premiered in that city on March 5, 1942. At first dedicated to Lenin, it was eventually submitted in honor of the besieged city of Leningrad, where it was first played under dire circumstances on August 9, 1942, nearly a year into the siege by German forces. The performance was broadcast by loudspeaker throughout the city and to the German forces in a show of resilience and defiance. The Leningrad soon became popular in both the Soviet Union and the West as a symbol of resistance to fascism and totalitarianism, thanks in part to the composer's microfilming of the score in Samara and its clandestine delivery, via Tehran and Cairo, to New York, where Arturo Toscanini conducted a broadcast performance on July 19, 1942 and Time magazine placed Shostakovich on its cover. That popularity faded somewhat after 1945, but the work is still regarded as a major musical testament to the 27 million Soviet people who lost their lives in World War II, and it is often played at Leningrad Cemetery, where half a million victims of the 900-day Siege of Leningrad are buried.

Length and form
Shostakovich's longest symphony typically takes approximately 80 minutes to perform. The work has four movements. Shostakovich at first gave them titles—"War", "Reminiscence", "Home Expanses", and "Victory"—but he soon withdrew these and left the movements with their tempo markings alone.

I. Allegretto
The first movement is in modified sonata form and lasts for approximately half an hour; there are two contrasting subjects, but no development, which is replaced by the "invasion" theme. It begins with a broad theme played by the strings in octaves, which is later echoed by the woodwinds. This is followed by a slower section played by flutes and strings, which segues into the "invasion" march: a 22-measure ostinato theme that resembles Ravel's Boléro. At the end of the twelfth statement of the theme, the brass present an inverted version of the theme, which is developed into a climax. After this is a slower, two-part section follows, with a bassoon solo introduced by a solo clarinet; then a soft recapitulation of the opening theme played by the strings. The movement's brief coda repeats the "invasion" theme, played by a solo trumpet and percussion.

II. Moderato (poco allegretto)
The second movement is the symphony's shortest. Shostakovich referred to it as both a scherzo and a lyric intermezzo. It begins in the latter vein with a quiet, playful theme in the strings. Moments later, a solo oboe plays a high variation on the tune. Other instruments continue with tunes of their own for several moments. Then, in the middle of the movement, woodwinds interject with a brash, shrill theme, followed by brass, then strings, then woodwinds. This eventually leads to a quick, majestic passage that is another ostinato, but different from the invasion theme in the first movement. The remaining third of the movement is much like the beginning of the second movement.

III. Adagio
The third movement is structured similarly to its predecessor, with a slow initial theme, a faster middle section, and a recapitulation of the initial theme. Woodwinds begin with slow, sustained notes, accentuated by the horns. This simple theme cadences, and is followed by a declamatory theme played by violins. Winds and brass repeat the string theme, which the strings take over with another brief variation. This transitions directly into a faster passage. The violins return with the opening theme of the movement. This builds into a somewhat frantic passage underlaid by an ostinato in the lower strings. This leads into a loud development section. The passage ends quickly, with the woodwinds bringing back the original theme, again echoed by the strings, just as in the beginning. The final third of the movement continues in this vein.

IV. Allegro non troppo
The finale begins with a quiet melody in the strings. The high strings hold the high notes, and are joined briefly by woodwinds. The low strings suddenly begin a quick march-like tune that is answered by violins and the rest of the orchestra. A transitional passage follows, with three-note figures played by high strings, accented by slap pizzicati in the cellos and basses. A slower and sharply accented section follows, which leads to a development section, with themes from earlier movements. Woodwinds build on one of these until violins take over with another theme that builds to the climax. The symphony ends in the key of C major.

Instrumentation

The work is written for a large orchestra consisting of:

Woodwinds

3 Flutes (2nd doubling alto flute; 3rd doubling piccolo)
2 Oboes
Cor anglais
3 clarinets in B and A (3rd doubling E-flat clarinet)
Bass clarinet
2 Bassoons
Contrabassoon

Brass
8 Horns
6 Trumpets
6 Trombones
 Tuba

Percussion
5 Timpani
Bass Drum
Snare Drum (at least one; two to three recommended)
Cymbals
Tam-Tam
Triangle
Tambourine
Xylophone

Keyboard
Piano

Strings
2 Harps; and a minimum of:
16 1st Violins
14 2nd Violins
12 Violas
10 Cellos
8 Double basses

Overview

Composition

"Music about terror"
There are conflicting accounts as to when Shostakovich began the symphony. Officially, he was said to have composed it in response to the German invasion. Others, such as Rostislav Dubinsky, say that he had already completed the first movement a year earlier. According to statements attributed to the composer in Solomon Volkov's Testimony, he had planned the symphony before the German attack and that he had "other enemies of humanity" in mind when he composed the "invasion theme" of the first movement. In the book, he is also reported to have said that in dedicating the symphony to Leningrad, he had in mind not the city under German siege, but "that Stalin destroyed and Hitler merely finished off."

The Leningrad Symphony Orchestra announced the premiere of the Seventh Symphony for its 1941–1942 season. The fact this announcement was made before the German invasion would seem to confirm the statement in Testimony. Shostakovich did not like talking about what he called "creative plans," preferring to announce his works once they were completed. He did like to say, "I think slowly but I write fast." In practice this meant that Shostakovich usually had a work completed in his head before he began writing it down. The Leningrad Symphony would not have made its announcement without the composer's consent, so Shostakovich likely had a clear idea at that time of what his Seventh Symphony would portray.

Soviet music critic Lev Lebedinsky, a friend of the composer's for many years, confirmed after the dawn of glasnost ("openness") under Mikhail Gorbachev that Shostakovich had conceived the Seventh Symphony before Hitler invaded Russia:

Another important witness was the daughter-in-law of Maxim Litvinov, the man who served as Soviet foreign minister before the war, then was dismissed by Stalin. She heard Shostakovich play the Seventh Symphony on the piano in a private home during the war. The guests later discussed the music:

While Shostakovich could speak like this only in a very narrow circle of friends, it did not stop him from hinting to the Soviet Press about a hidden agenda for the Seventh Symphony. He insisted, for instance, that the "central place" of the first movement was not the "invasion section" (the part journalists usually asked about first). Rather, the movement's core was the tragic music which followed the invasion section, which the composer described as "a funeral march or, rather, a requiem." He continued, "After the requiem comes an even more tragic episode. I do not know how to characterize that music. Perhaps it is a mother's tears or even the feeling that the sorrow is so great that there are no more tears left."

"Inquisition for blood"
The Nazi attack and consequent relaxing of Soviet censorship gave Shostakovich the hope of writing the work for a mass audience. Shostakovich's plan was for a single-movement symphony, including a chorus and a requiem-like passage for a vocal soloist, with a text taken from the Psalms of David. With the help of his best friend, critic Ivan Sollertinsky, who was knowledgeable about the Bible, he selected excerpts from the Ninth Psalm. The idea of individual suffering became interwoven in Shostakovich's mind with the Lord God's vengeance for the taking of innocent blood (Verse 12, New King James Version).

A public performance of a work with such a text would have been impossible before the German invasion. Now it was feasible, at least in theory, with the reference to "blood" applied at least officially to Hitler. With Stalin appealing to the Soviets' patriotic and religious sentiments, the authorities were no longer suppressing Orthodox themes or images.

"Invasion" theme
Something else Shostakovich played for his composition students were the 12 variations of what later became known as the "invasion" theme. This has been taken historically, especially in the West, as portraying the invading Wehrmacht, and was listed as such in the official program. According to musicologist Ludmila Mikheyeva (who is also Ivan Sollertinsky's daughter in law) maintains that Shostakovich played the theme and its variations for his students before the war with Germany began.<ref>See 111 sinfonii: spravochnik-putevoditel''' (St. Petersburg, 2000), 618.</ref>

While the word "invasion" was used by commentators in numerous articles and reviews, Shostakovich never used it to describe the episode or theme. "I did not set myself the goal of a naturalistic depiction of military action (the roar of planes, the crash of tanks, cannon fire). I did not compose so-called battle music. I wanted to convey the context of grim events."

Neither does the "invasion theme" itself sound threatening, at least at first. For its latter half, Shostakovich quotes Graf Danilo's entrance song, "Da geh' ich zu Maxim," from Franz Lehár's operetta The Merry Widow. The Merry Widow was also Hitler's favorite operetta, which played well with Soviet propagandists writing about the symphony. A version of this song may have already existed in Russia. Set to the words, "I'll go and see Maxim," it was reportedly sung jokingly in the Shostakovich household to the composer's son. Arthur Lourié called the theme a "trite, intentionally silly motif," adding, "This tune can be whistled by any Soviet man on the street. ..." Conductor Yevgeny Mravinsky echoed Lourié when he called it a generalized image of spreading stupidity and triteness.

Tensions not resolved
Two weeks before he planned to complete the symphony-requiem, Shostakovich played what he had finished to date for Sollertinsky, who was being evacuated with the Leningrad Philharmonic. While playing the music, Shostakovich realized that what he had written was not a complete work in itself but actually the beginning of something much larger, since the tensions brought up in the symphony-requiem had not been resolved. The question now became whether to stay in the city to continue working or to evacuate and resume the work after a long hiatus. By the time he decided to evacuate, it was too late—the Germans had cut off the rail link to the city. He and his family were trapped.

On 2 September, the day the Germans began bombarding the city, Shostakovich began the second movement. Working at high intensity in between sprints to the nearest bomb shelter, he completed it within two weeks. Within hours he accepted a request to speak on Radio Leningrad to address the city. Adopting a matter-of-fact tone, he attempted to assure his fellow Leningraders that for him it was business as usual:

That evening he played what he had written so far to a small group of Leningrad musicians. After Shostakovich finished the first movement, there was a long silence. An air-raid warning sounded. No one moved. Everyone wanted to hear the piece again. The composer excused himself to take his family to the nearest air-raid shelter. When he returned, he repeated the first movement, which then was followed by the next movement for his guests. Their reaction encouraged him to start that night on the Adagio. He completed this movement on 29 September in the city. Shostakovich and his family were then evacuated to Moscow on 1 October 1941. They moved to Kuybyshev (now Samara) on 22 October, where the symphony was finally completed.

Premières

The world première was held in Kuybyshev on 5 March 1942. The Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra, conducted by Samuil Samosud, gave a rousing performance that was broadcast across the Soviet Union and later in the West as well. The Moscow première took place on 29 March 1942 in the Columned Hall of the House of Unions, by a joined orchestra of the Bolshoi Orchestra and the All-Union Radio Orchestra.

The microfilmed score was flown to Tehran and travelled to the West in April 1942. The symphony received its broadcast première in Europe by Sir Henry J. Wood and the London Philharmonic Orchestra on 22 June 1942 in London, and concert première at a Proms concert at the Royal Albert Hall. The première in North America took place in New York City on 19 July 1942, by the NBC Symphony Orchestra under Arturo Toscanini in a concert  broadcast nationwide on the NBC radio network. This performance was originally released on LP by RCA Victor in 1967.

Much had to be done before the Leningrad première could take place. The Leningrad Radio Orchestra under Karl Eliasberg was the only remaining symphonic ensemble. The orchestra had survived—barely—but it had not been playing and musical broadcasts had ceased. Music was not considered a priority by Party officials. Political appeals took a significant part of the broadcast time. Even then, there were hours of silence because of the lack of agitators. As for the city itself, Leningrad surrounded by the Nazis had become a living hell, with eyewitness reports of people who had died of cold and starvation lying in doorways in stairwells. "They lay there because people dropped them there, the way newborn infants used to be left. Janitors swept them away in the morning like rubbish. Funerals, graves, coffins were long forgotten. It was a flood of death that could not be managed. Entire families vanished, entire apartments with their collective families. Houses, streets and neighborhoods vanished."

The official hiatus on musical broadcasts had to end before the symphony could be performed. This happened quickly, with a complete about-face by Party authorities. Next was reforming the orchestra. Only 15 members were still available; the others had either starved to death or left to fight the enemy. Posters went up, requesting all Leningrad musicians to report to the Radio Committee. Efforts were also made to seek out those musicians who could not come. "My God, how thin many of them were," one of the organizers of the performance remembered. "How those people livened up when we started to ferret them out of their dark apartments. We were moved to tears when they brought out their concert clothes, their violins and cellos and flutes, and rehearsals began under the icy canopy of the studio." Orchestral players were given additional rations.

Before they tackled Shostakovich's work, Eliasberg had the players go through pieces from the standard repertoire—Beethoven, Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov—which they also performed for broadcast. Because the city was still blockaded at the time, the score was flown by night in early July for rehearsal. A team of copyists worked for days to prepare the parts despite shortages of materials. At rehearsal, some musicians protested, not wanting to waste their little strength on an intricate and not very accessible work. Eliasberg threatened to hold back the additional rations, quelling any dissent.

The concert was given on 9 August 1942. Whether this date was chosen intentionally, it was the day Hitler had chosen previously to celebrate the fall of Leningrad with a lavish banquet at the Astoria Hotel. Loudspeakers broadcast the performance throughout the city as well as to the German forces in a move of psychological warfare. The Soviet commander of the Leningrad front, General Govorov, ordered a bombardment of German artillery positions in advance to ensure their silence during the performance of the symphony; a special operation, code-named "Squall," was executed for precisely this purpose. Three thousand high-caliber shells were lobbed onto the enemy.

The symphony was not premiered in Germany until after the war. It took place in Berlin on 22 December 1946, with Sergiu Celibidache conducting the Berlin Philharmonic.

Reception

In the Soviet Union
At the first hearings of the Seventh, most listeners wept. This was true even when Shostakovich played the piece on the piano for friends. The requiem pages of the first movement made a special impression, much as the Largo of his Fifth Symphony had done. Some scholars believe that, as he had done in the Fifth, Shostakovich gave his audience a chance to express thoughts and suffering that, in the context of the Great Purges, had remained hidden and accumulated over many years. Because these previously hidden emotions were expressed with such power and passion, the Seventh became a major public event. Alexei Tolstoy, who played a pivotal role in the life of the Fifth Symphony, was the first to note the significance of the spontaneous reaction to the Seventh. After hearing an orchestral rehearsal of it, Tolstoy wrote a highly positive review of the work for Pravda.

Tolstoy's actions became instrumental in the life of the Seventh. Tolstoy's interpretation of the Seventh, in fact, lined up with Stalin's stated support of nationalism and patriotism. At least as important was that without the help of the United States and the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union would not overcome Nazi Germany. The Soviets had been seen not long ago in the Western press as godless villains and barbarians. Now the Americans and British had to believe that the Soviet Union was helping protect the values those countries cherished from fascism for the Soviets to continue receiving those countries' support.

Stalin therefore took the approach of, "If you can't beat them, join them" when it came to the Seventh Symphony, approving a propaganda campaign centered around the work. It was performed and broadcast all over the Soviet Union. Magazines and newspapers continued printing stories about it. The piece continued having enormous success. People still wept at concerts. They often rose from their seats during the finale and applauded thunderously afterwards. The difference now was that they were now aiding a potent propaganda campaign.

In the West
Shostakovich had been known in the West before the war. When news of the Seventh quickly spread in the British and American press, the composer's popularity soared. During the war, the work was very popular both in the West and in the Soviet Union as the embodiment of the fighting Russian spirit. The American premiere, in July 1942, was by the NBC Symphony Orchestra conducted by Arturo Toscanini, broadcast on radio by NBC and preserved on transcription discs; RCA issued the recording on LP in 1967 and later reissued it on CD. The symphony was played 62 times in the United States in the 1942–43 season.

Shostakovich's contemporaries were dismayed, even angered by its lack of subtlety, crudity, and overblown dramatics. Virgil Thomson wrote that, "It seems to have been written for the slow-witted, the not very musical and the distracted," adding that if Shostakovich continued writing in this manner, it might "eventually disqualify him for consideration as a serious composer. Sergei Rachmaninoff's only comment after hearing the American premiere on the radio was a grim "Well, and now let's have some tea."

Disdainful remarks about the symphony being nothing more than a bombastic accompaniment for a bad war movie were voiced immediately after the London and New York premieres. However, in the cultural and political ear of the period, they had no effect. The American public-relations machine had joined the Soviet propaganda arm in portraying the Seventh as a symbol of cooperation and spiritual unity of both peoples in their fight against the Nazis.

Decline in appreciation
Once the novelty of the Seventh Symphony had worn away, audience interest in the West quickly dissipated. One reason may have been the work's length. At about 70 minutes, it was longer than any previous Shostakovich symphony. While it could be argued that he could have made the symphony 30 minutes shorter by condensing his message, the long passages of sparsely accompanied solos for wind instruments present listeners with the opportunity to study them, appreciate the inner character of the music as each instrument soliloquises on a given mood. To utilize this to the extent that Shostakovich did, combined with a wordless narrative style of mood-painting, necessitated an expansive time frame. Even so, this extended time span may have seemed excessive to some critics, especially since Western critics were unaware of the anti-Stalinist subtext hidden in the work. Hearing it only in the context of wartime propaganda, Western critics dismissed the symphony as a series of bombastic platitudes, and as such not worth serious consideration. The critic Ernest Newman famously remarked that, to find its place on the musical map, one should look along the seventieth degree of longitude and the last degree of platitude.

The Seventh Symphony was actually a convenient target from the start for Western critics. It was considered a strange, ungainly hybrid of Mahler and Stravinsky—too long, too broad-gestured in narrative and overly emotional in tone. Shostakovich placed the work's emphasis on the effect of musical images rather than on symphonic coherence. Those images—stylized fanfares, march rhythms, ostinati, folkloric themes and pastoral episodes—could easily be considered models of socialist realism. Because of his emphasis on these images, Shostakovich can be said to have allowed the work's message to outweigh its craftsmanship. For all these reasons, the music was considered both naïve and calculated in the West.

Soviet audiences did not come to the music with the same expectations as Western listeners. What mattered to Soviet listeners was the message and its serious moral content. The Seventh maintained its position with that audience because its content was so momentous. Nevertheless, as early as 1943 Soviet critics claimed the "exultation" of the Seventh's finale was unconvincing, pointing out that the part of the symphony they found most effective—the march in the opening movement—represented not the defending Red Army but the Nazi invaders. They believed that Shostakovich's pessimism had short-circuited what might have otherwise been a masterpiece in the vein of the 1812 Overture. The tragic mood of Shostakovich's next symphony, the Eighth, intensified the critical discord. Later, negative views from the West prejudiced the thinking of the Soviet elite toward the Seventh.

Re-evaluation
When Testimony was published in the West in 1979, Shostakovich's overall anti-Stalinist tone and specific comments about the anti-totalitarian content hidden in the Fifth, Seventh and Eleventh Symphonies were held suspect initially. They were in some ways a complete about-face from the comments the West had received over the years, many times in the composer's words. Questions also arose over Solomon Volkov's role—to what degree he was a compiler of previously written material, a transcriber of the composer's actual words from interviews, or an author essentially putting words into the composer's mouth.

Two things happened. First was the composer's son Maxim's view on the accuracy of Testimony. He initially stated to the Sunday Times, after his defection to the West in 1981, that it was a book "about my father, not by him". Later, though, he reversed his position. In a BBC television interview with composer Michael Berkeley on 27 September 1986, Maxim admitted, "It's true. It's accurate. ... The basis of the book is correct." Second, with the dawning of glasnost, those who were still alive and had known Shostakovich when he had written the Leningrad Symphony could now share their own stories with impunity. By doing so, they helped corroborate what had appeared in Testimony, allowing the West to reevaluate the symphony in light of their statements.

In recent years the Seventh Symphony has again become more popular, along with the rest of Shostakovich's work.

Legacy

It has been alleged that Béla Bartók quoted the march theme of the first movement in the "Intermezzo Interotto" of his Concerto for Orchestra in response to the Hungarian composer's frustration about the positive reception of the piece. The quotation is clearly the "invasion" theme, and Bartók interjects his very romantic and lyrical melody in the movement with a much slower interpretation of Shostakovich's invasion ostinato. The resemblance has been variously interpreted by later commentators as an accusation of tastelessness, as a commentary on the symphony's over-popularity in Bartók's eyes, and as an acknowledgement of the position of the artist in a totalitarian society. However, it is much more likely that Bartók (as his pianist friend György Sándor has said) was, like Shostakovich, parodying the very popular Lehár theme directly. This view has been confirmed by Bartók's son Peter, in his book "My father": Bartók had respect and admiration for Shostakovich's works, and was mocking Lehár's music and behind it the Nazis.

Janet Sobel's painting "Music" was inspired by the symphony. She told Sidney Janis that the painting was her impression of the music that Shostakovich created in wartime: "Shostakovich has captured the power of the Russian people and by his music has given them strength. His music has so stimulated me, and I have tried to present these feelings in my picture."

In the Ken Russell film Billion Dollar Brain (1967), music from the Leningrad Symphony accompanies the failed military invasion of the then Latvian Soviet Republic by Texas millionaire Midwinter (a pivotal scene reflecting the Battle of the Neva from Aleksandr Nevsky). Incidentally, earlier on, Michael Caine as Harry Palmer attends the end of a concert of what is claimed to be the Leningrad Symphony, whereas in fact the finale from Shostakovich's Eleventh Symphony is heard.

American rock band Fall Out Boy also used elements of Symphony No. 7 in their song "The Phoenix" from their 2013 album Save Rock and Roll. The same sample had been used by the German hip hop artist Peter Fox in his song "Alles neu" in 2008, and by Plan B in "Ill Manors" in 2012.

Film version
On 31 January 2005 a film version of the Symphony was premiered in St. Petersburg, with the St. Petersburg Academic Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Shostakovich's son Maxim Shostakovich accompanying a film directed by Georgy Paradzhanov, constructed from documentary materials, including film of the siege of Leningrad. Many survivors of the siege were guests at the performance. The composer's widow Irina acted as script consultant to the project, and its musical advisors included Rudolf Barshai and Boris Tishchenko. The film and performance were repeated, with the same artists, in London on 9 May 2005 at the Royal Albert Hall.

Notable recordings

Recordings of this symphony include:

Notes

References
Barnes, Julian, 'The Noise of Time', Vintage 2016 []
Blokker, Roy, with Robert Dearling, The Music of Dmitri Shostakovich: The Symphonies (Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1979). .
Dubinsky, Rostislav (1989). Stormy Applause. Hill & Wang 1989. .
Programme note for the Symphony for performance by the London Shostakovich Orchestra
Fay, Laurel, Shostakovich: A Life (Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press, 1989). .
Geiger, Friedrich, notes for Teldec 21467: Shostakovich: Symphony No. 7 "Lenningrad"; New York Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Kurt Masur.
MacDonald, Ian, The New Shostakovich (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990). .
MacCurtain, Lawrence P., "Rhapsody in red: Shostakovich and American wartime perceptions of the Soviet Union," Patterns of Prejudice 47:359-378, 2013.
Maes, Francis, tr. Arnold J. Pomerans and Erica Pomerans, A History of Russian Music: From Kamarinskaya to Babi Yar (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2002). .
Moynahan, Brian, Leningrad: Siege and Symphony. (Eastbourne, UK: Quercus Publishing, 2013)
Sollertinsky, Dmitri & Ludmilla, tr. Graham Hobbs & Charles Midgley, Pages from the Life of Dmitri Shostakovich (New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980). .
Volkov, Solomon, tr. Antonina W. Bouis, Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich (New York: Harper & Row, 1979.). .
Volkov, Solomon, tr. Antonina W. Bouis, St. Petersburg: A Cultural History (New York: The Free Press, 1995). .
Volkov, Solomon (2004). Shostakovich and Stalin: The Extraordinary Relationship Between the Great Composer and the Brutal Dictator. Knopf. .
Wilson, Elizabeth (1994). Shostakovich: A Life Remembered''. Princeton University Press. .
Ed Vulliamy, "Orchestral manoeuvres (part one)". The Guardian, 25 November 2001.
Ed Vulliamy, "Orchestral maneouvres [sic] (part two)". The Guardian, 25 November 2001.
 Review of film version of the Symphony, St. Petersburg, 31 January 2005
 Programme, Shostakovich 7th Symphony/Cinemaphonia, Albert Hall, London May 9, 2005.

External links
 Full orchestral score from the New York Philharmonic's archives

Symphony No. 07 (Shostakovich)
1941 compositions
Compositions in C major
Culture in Saint Petersburg
Siege of Leningrad

Symphony No. 7 (Shostakovich)


Adamsfjorden (nordsamisk: Áttánvuotna) er en fjordarm af Storfjorden og Laksefjorden i Lebesby kommune i Finnmark  fylke i Norge. Fjorden går  2,5 km mod sydøst til Adamsfjord i enden af fjorden.

Fjorden har indløb mellem Indre Adamsfjordklubben i nord og Adamsfjordholmen i syd. På nordvestsiden går den lille fjordarm Geazzevuotna mod nordøst. Fjorden er 41 meter på det dybeste, omkring midt i fjorden.

Fylkesvej 98 går langs østsiden af fjorden. de lavvandede områder inderst i fjorden er beskyttet som Adamsfjord naturreservat, og her ligger  hvor  løber ud.

Kilder og henvisninger

Fjorde i Troms og Finnmark
Lebesby

Adamsfjorden


Vietnam millî futbol takımı, Vietnam'ı uluslararası arenada temsil eden futbol takımıdır.

Turnuva tarihi

FIFA Dünya Kupası tarihi

Asya Kupası tarihi
 1956 - 1992 arası - Katılmadı
 1996 - 2004 arası - Elemeleri geçemedi
 2007 - Çeyrek final
 2011 - Elemeleri geçemedi

Kaynakça

Millî futbol takımı
Asya'da millî futbol takımları

Vietnam millî futbol takımı


Onthophagus octogonus é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Frey em 1962.

Referências

Ligações externas

octogonus
Coleópteros descritos em 1962

Onthophagus octogonus


Roms sporvogne betjener Roms sporvejsnet. Den allerførste linje åbnede i 1877, og gik fra Piazzale Flaminio til Piazza Mancini. I dag er der 6 linjer med 192 stationer. Der er planer om at etablere flere linjer f.eks til Vatikanet.

Rom
Transport i Italien
Etableret i 1877

Sporvogne i Rom


Donanım aşağıdaki anlamlara gelebilir:

 Ağ donanımı: Bilgisayar ağının elemanları arasında iletişim için gerekli aygıtlar.
 Bilgisayar donanımı: Bilgisayarda bulunan fiziksel birimler.

Donanım


Atopia is a Canadian production company and film distributor.

Atopia may also refer to:

 Atopia, a 2001 book by Helmut Willke
 Atopia, a 2019 book of poetry by Sandra Simonds

See also
 The Atopia Chronicles, a 2012 novel by Matthew Mather
 Atopy (philosophy), the ineffability of things or emotions that are seldom experienced

Atopia (disambiguation)


Die Pfarrkirche San Pedro in Fraga, einer Stadt in der spanischen Provinz Huesca der Autonomen Region Aragonien, wurde im Mittelalter errichtet. Die Kirche ist ein geschütztes Baudenkmal (Bien de Interés Cultural).

Geschichte
Im Kern geht die Kirche auf einen westgotischen Bau zurück, der unter den Mauren als Moschee genutzt wurde. Nach der Reconquista im 12. Jahrhundert wurde der Bau im romanischen Stil verändert.

Beschreibung
Die Kirche mit einem Schiff besitzt noch gut erhaltene romanische Kapitelle am Portal. Der Turm, im 12. Jahrhundert begonnen, wurde im gotischen Stil vollendet und schließlich während des Barock mit einem oktogonalen Aufsatz erhöht.

Weblinks

 San Pedro (Fraga) bei romanicoaragones (spanischer Text)

Fraga
Kirchengebäude in Aragonien
Fraga
Fraga
Kulturdenkmal in der Provinz Huesca
Erbaut im 12. Jahrhundert
Fraga
Fraga (Huesca)
Bauwerk in der Provinz Huesca
Fraga
Fraga

San Pedro (Fraga)


Kriminallov for Grønland er en lov bygget på grønlandsk retskultur, gældende for det selvstyrende Grønland.

Loven svarer til den danske straffelov og indeholder stort set de samme punkter, med 266 paragraffer fordelt på 49 kapitler. Den store forskel er dog at den grønlandske kriminallov ikke omtaler straf og derfor ikke indeholder strafferammer.

Se også
 Grønlands Retsvæsen

Love
Grønland
Strafferet

Kriminallov for Grønland


Ida Nyrop Ludvigsen (1927–1973), Danish translator and official, was born and raised in Gentofte, Denmark as the first of two children. Her parents, mag.art Karen Nyrop and mag.art Anders Carl Christensen, were both engaged to teach French language for listeners at the Danish State Broadcast when it started around 1926.

Ludvigsen lost her father at the age of fourteen, but her mother Karen managed the very popular radio lessons until 1953 and provided for her family by numerous translations of classic and modern French literature.

Ludvigsen married in 1946 to Holger Ludvigsen (1925–2008) and never finished her university studies in literature, but became a mother of five children. Among them is the author and journalist Jacob Ludvigsen (1947) who among other happenings founded the free town of Christiania in Copenhagen. After thirteen years of marriage and mothering, she started working at the Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen. She published occasional short stories, articles or reviews, and a single  collection of poems called Modsat (Opposite) in 1966.  At that time, she started her career as a translator from English.

Her most successful work was translating J. R. R. Tolkien's books. Her  translation of The Lord of the Rings (1968-1972) was the first to profit from Tolkien's Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings for translators.
She also had numerous other public roles, the most important as a member of the Danish State Radio council.

1927 births
1973 deaths
Danish women writers

Ida Nyrop Ludvigsen


Limperich, Almanya'nın Kuzey Ren-Vestfalya eyaletinde, Bonn kentine bağlı bölge. Kuzeyinde Beuel-Mitte, batısında Küdinghoven, güneybatısında Ramersdorf, güneyinde Oberkassel-Bonn yer alır. Batısında Ren nehri uzanır. Semt, kısaca  "Li-Kü-Ra" olarak adlandırılan ve Limperich'in yanı sıra Küdinghoven ve Ramersdorf-Bonn'un da dahil olduğu bölgeyi meydana getirir. 13'nci yüzyılda yapıldığı tahmin edilen Limperich Şatosu, bağcılık faaliyetleri ve katolik ve rum-ortodoks kiliseleri, bölgenin öne çıkan özellikleri arasında sayılmaktadır.

Dış bağlantılar
 Limperich Sivil İnisiyatif
 Limperich Rehberi

Limperich


Reies López Tijerina (September 21, 1926 – January 19, 2015), was an activist who led a struggle in the 1960s and 1970s to restore New Mexican land grants to the descendants of their Spanish colonial and Mexican owners. As a vocal spokesman for the rights of Hispanos and Mexican Americans, he became a major figure of the early Chicano Movement (although he preferred "Indohispano" as a name for his people) and founded the Alianza Federal de Mercedes. As an activist, he worked in community education and organization, media relations, and land reclamations. He became famous and infamous internationally for his 1967 armed raid on the Tierra Amarilla courthouse.

Early life
Born in Falls City, Texas in 1926, Tijerina spent several years as a pastor starting in 1950 and later as an itinerant preacher.

Career

Kingdom of God
In 1956, Tijerina and 17 families of his followers sought to purchase land in Texas on which to create their version of the Kingdom of God. Finding Texas land too expensive, they opted for 160 acres (647,497 square meters) in the Southern Arizona desert, which they bought with $1,400 in pooled funds. Situated just north of the Papago Tohono O'odham Indian reservation, the land was secluded and undeveloped, the perfect conditions for a community seeking to remove itself from the "vanity and corruption" of the cities. They especially sought to protect their children from the influence of public schooling.

At first, the families, referred to as "los Bravos" or the "Heralds of Peace", lived under trees, but they soon dug themselves subterranean shelters, covering them with automobile hoods recovered from garbage dumps outside the cities of Casa Grande and Eloy. Tijerina obtained a permit from the Arizona Department of Education to construct a school and to educate their children.  He and the other men spent three months building the schoolhouse, only for it to be burned to the ground

The members of the colony made friends with the neighboring communities, especially African Americans and Native Americans, particularly the Pima Indians.  Tijerina soon found himself thrust into the role of bail bondsman for these minority communities. Officials from the Pima County school board began visiting the Valley of Peace early in the year, encouraging the settlers to send their children to public schools.  Citing the recent rape and murder of a local eight-year-old girl who was waiting for the bus, Tijerina and the other parents requested police protection for their children, which was denied.  As a result, the commune-dwellers retained the right to educate their own children.

On April 18, 1956, Tijerina delivered his daughter Ira de Alá, the first person to be born in the colony.  He chose the name Ira de Alá, literally "Wrath of Allah", because he "knew that if there was a just God, he had to be angry and unhappy with those that managed our government and religion here on Earth". During the first year, a jet crashed on the property.  Valley of Peace residents reported the crash, and officials came to take away the remains but neglected to ask about the condition of the property or the residents. Not long after the crash, a group of Anglo-American youths rode their horses over the tops of the settlers' subterranean homes, damaging them.  Thinking that the pranks were but youthful mischief, the commune members simply repaired their dwellings and made no complaint.  But shortly thereafter, they returned from work in the cotton fields to discover two residences destroyed by fire.  Tijerina and two other men went to file a report with Sheriff Lawrence White.  But when White found out the direction from which the horse tracks came, he refused to investigate. Don Pelkam, an FBI agent stationed in Casa Grande who had investigated the crash, also refused to investigate, claiming that the arson had occurred outside his jurisdiction.

Shortly after his daughter was born, a storm flooded the Valley of Peace. Devastated by his losses, Tijerina could not sleep. During the night he had a vision:

Following the vision, Tijerina felt that his life had purpose and direction, and his experience, which he interpreted as divine, gave him an unwavering conviction.

In the early 1950s, Tijerina was first encouraged to divert his religious energy into politics. After a sermon in Dallas one day, a man invited him home for lunch. As Tijerina recalls, "He said to my face, 'I don't like preachers, they take advantage of the people. What I think you should do is quit talking religion. What the Spanish-American people need is a Spanish-American politician, you may be that ... you should study law and history and help your people.'" In June 1956, Tijerina and a few bravos went to Monero, New Mexico, to visit a community that had previously welcomed him.  There he learned about land grants, a controversial issue regarding Hispanic property rights.  Zebedeo Martínez, Zebedeo Valdez, and other elderly men, all members of the Brotherhood of Jesus, shared the story of how their families were dispossessed of their lands.  The next day, they took Tijerina's group to Chama, Tierra Amarilla, and Ensenada to meet with other unhappy heirs.

Tijerina empathized with their plight, and offered to do what he could to help them, on the condition that they unite to "re-gather the strength that the Anglos had taken from" them.  But when he discovered that they held no titles to the land, having been turned over to Governor William Anderson Pile in the late nineteenth century, he resolved to go to Mexico to study the issue.

He left in the fall of 1956 and stayed in Mexico until the new year, researching at the General National Archive and meeting with lawyers and other influential people. One of the most important documents he studied was the Laws of the Indies, which had governed the American portion of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years.  Another was a re-drafted version of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo containing a protocol that guaranteed land grants to descendants of the original grantees, which he obtained in the Tepito barrio for twenty-five cents. On this trip to Mexico, Tijerina realized that the biggest obstacle to his success was "the fear the Anglo had placed in [the land grant-heirs'] hearts through their foreign education."  While education had been a key factor in the founding of the Valley of Peace, it now took on an even more important dimension in the life of Tijerina and in the struggle for the land.

In January 1957, officials from the Arizona State Department of Education threatened Tijerina and the other parents with jail time if they did not send their children to public school. Even when confronted with the Supreme Court cases defending the right to home-schooling, the officials would not back down.  Tijerina claims to have later found out that the real reason for the harassment was "Rockefeller money was planning to build a model city about a mile from the Valley of Peace."  As a last resort, Tijerina took his case to the Phoenix press.  However, neither of the two major papers covered the story of the persecution.

On March 19 of the same year, Tijerina was charged with the grand theft of six feed-trailer wheels. The case was thrown out for lack of evidence, but the next month, he was charged with another theft, this time for hardware discovered in the Valley of Peace. During the investigation, officials found out that Margarito Tijerina, who had joined the commune, was wanted in Indiana and took him into custody.

Reies was accused of being the getaway driver during a failed attempt to free his brother from Pinal County Jail. During a recess at his hearing, he left the courthouse, becoming a fugitive.

Tijerina and the other families with children sought refuge in New Mexico.  They arrived in the ghost town of Gobernador in early 1957 and took refuge in a church.  Desperate for food, Tijerina and his brother Margarito set out to find help.  They met Don Manuel Trujillo, a local rancher.  Tijerina later called Trujillo his "first and best teacher on the question of land grants in New Mexico."  In New Mexico, Tijerina got the idea to organize the heirs of the New Mexico land grants into a corporation that could compete with "the great corporations of the Anglos". But realizing that survival came first, Tijerina and two other bravos returned to the Valley of Peace to look for work.  They were arrested and imprisoned in Florence, Arizona for ninety days.  Margarito, who had violated the conditions of his parole, was not released.  While in prison, Margarito asked Tijerina to help the wife and child of a fellow inmate.  Commune members clothed and fed the woman and child, and Tijerina secured the man's release.  Two days later, he was imprisoned and charged with attempting to free his brother.  Released on bond, his court-appointed attorney urged him to flee the state for his own safety.  After consulting with the other families, Tijerina decided to risk losing the Valley of Peace and flee.

Tijerina spent the next seven years as a fugitive in Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico.  By this time he had seven children and had to leave them with his wife.  While on the run, Tijerina continued to research communal land rights, the U.S. Constitution, and the rights guaranteed by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The biggest weakness he saw in U.S. law was its failure to provide specific protection for the family.

In May 1958, he was invited to speak in front of a group of land grant heirs in Chama, New Mexico.  During his speech, he was attacked and struck over the head with a club.  In the ensuing melee, Tijerina was removed to safety and his brother, Anselmo, was arrested for assaulting Tijerina's attacker.

In 1959, Tijerina went to an archive in Guadalajara, Jalisco. When he requested the documents concerning the New Mexican land claims, the attendant was unable to locate them. His nephew from Pleasanton Texas then hid the files in his house in the closet. The last person to access the documents was an American commissioned by the Mexican government to convert them to microfilm.

The authorities came close to apprehending Tijerina many times, and he was maligned in the local press as a "Communist" and a "bandit".  In September 1959, he organized a strike in Shamrock, Texas, in protest of unequal working conditions for Mexican laborers. When thus confronted, the cotton farmer gave in to the strikers' demands.

Tijerina secured housing in Ensenada, New Mexico, where he came into further contact with members of the Brotherhood of Jesus, who told him of Thomas B. Catron's leadership of the Santa Fe Ring, a group of ranchers, and government officials who systematically dispossessed the land grantees and their heirs of their claims from 1848 until 1904.  He also became aware that the federal government itself had claimed portions of the Tierra Amarilla grant in the name of the Forest Service.

When Tijerina's brother Margarito was released from prison in Michigan City, Tijerina took advantage of the opportunity to meet with Elijah Muhammad.  They met daily over the course of a week, during which time they discussed the need for unity among the minority groups of the United States.

On December 12, 1959, Tijerina sent a letter signed by some eighty families asking President Eisenhower to investigate the land claims.  Two months later, they received a cold response. Having failed to receive redress of their grievance from one signatory of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Tijerina and his supporters turned to the government of Mexico. His goal was to deliver a 500-signature petition, historical documents, and legal opinions to President Adolfo López Mateos.  Arriving in Mexico City, Tijerina made the acquaintance of the labor leader Vicente Lombardo Toledano, who listened patiently to the story of the struggle of "the forgotten community" over the land, and offered to do what he could for the price of $25,000.  Having failed to reach López Mateos via Toledano, he turned to other acquaintances in the religious and academic communities.  But before he could meet with the president, his documents were stolen during a visit to the post office. Devastated, Tijerina returned to the United States, along with his nephew Johnny Tijerina.

He returned to Mexico in late 1961 and succeeded in obtaining an audience with General Lázaro Cárdenas. The General offered his support, but warned auspiciously, "if you are not willing to see blood spilt, forget about all of this."

La Alianza
In August 1962, while living in Albuquerque, Tijerina drafted the first plan of the Alianza Federal de Mercedes.  A letter calling for an Alianza of Pueblos and Pobladores (Alliance of Towns and Settlers) followed soon afterwards in October. La Alianza, as it became known, was officially incorporated on February 2, 1963, the 115th anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Tijerina was elected president and Eduardo Chávez was elected vice-president. The Alianza sought "to organize and acquaint the heirs of all Spanish land-grants covered by the Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty" with their rights.  The group further sought to foster pride the heritage of the Native New Mexicans and to command Anglo respect on their behalf.  The Alianza began publishing a newspaper, and Tijerina wrote a weekly column for The News Chieftain. In June 1963, the Alianza sent letters to the governments of the United States and Mexico reminding them of their obligations under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

At the same time, Tijerina's fugitive lifestyle was taking its toll on his family life.  He and his wife discussed divorce as a possible solution to their problems at the beginning of 1963, which she obtained later in the year.

It was also at this time that the local press gave Tijerina the nickname of Don Quixote, belittling his quest to restore the property rights of land grant heirs.  By 1964 the Alianza had over 6,000 members; a year later, its membership had increased to 14,000.  At its 1966 convention, the Alianza counted 20,000 people in its fold. Nevertheless, the Alianza's activities raised the ire of many New Mexican Hispanics, who saw Tijerina as an outsider who had come to upset the status quo. For example, U.S. Senator Joseph Montoya, spoke out against Tijerina and the Alianza, stating that "the last thing the Spanish-speaking need is agitation, rabble-rousing, or creation of false hopes," and characterized Tijerina as an "outsider who sparked violence and set back racial relations and an enemy of the United States."

To promote the cause of the Alianza, Tijerina began planning an automobile caravan to Mexico. While laying the groundwork in Mexico, he was detained and deported by Mexican officials. The insult crushed the hopes of many Alianzistas that Mexico would bring their case to the United Nations, and led Tijerina to suspect that the FBI was behind the deportation.

On April 1, 1965, Tijerina began broadcasting the daily radio program "The Voice of Justice". The 5,000 watt station, KABQ-FM, provided "the best medium to reach the community about the issue of the land." In August 1965, he adapted the show to a televised format.

Tijerina's single status had begun to cause him trouble as the leader of a family-based organization, but his attempts to reconcile with his wife failed.  On August 8, 1965, he met Patricia, and the two were wed on September 25.

March on Santa Fe and the taking of San Joaquín
In 1966, Tijerina went to Spain and learned a great deal about the Spanish laws governing land grants.  When he returned, he planned a July 4 protest march from Albuquerque to Santa Fe called "the Spanish American March for a Redress of Grievances."  On the march, some white New Mexicans shouted epithets at them.  Some even shot at them.  Arriving in the capital, they met with the governor and delivered a written demand for an investigation into the theft of the communal land holdings.

Failed attempts to petition the government for redress of grievances led the Alianza to take direct action. In October 1966, Alianza members occupied part of the "Echo Amphitheater Park," part of the Carson National Forest that had been part of the San Joaquín del Río de Chama grant.  The Alianza set up and proclaimed the "Republic of San Joaquín del Río de Chama." Descendants of the original settlers elected officials, and, according to some accounts, issued visas to passing tourists.  When two forest rangers attempted to remove the occupiers, they were arrested by the newly elected marshals. The rangers were tried, convicted of trespassing, given suspended sentences, and released along with their trucks.

After five days, the claimants turned themselves in. Of the 300 people involved, only five—Tijerina, his brother Cristóbal and three other Alianza members—were charged with assault on the Rangers and converting government property to personal use.  Bail in the amount of $5,000 each was imposed.

Courthouse raid
Released on bond, Tijerina called a meeting of the Alianza in the village of Coyote. On June 3, 1967, District Attorney Alfonso Sánchez ordered police to disband the meeting, alleging that the Alianza was inspired by communists and outside agitators, and had the state police set up roadblocks to arrest Alianza members.  During the meeting, eleven Aliancistas were taken into custody.  Tijerina and several members managed to avoid arrest and met near the town of Canjilón, where the Alianza condemned the arrests as illegal acts.

On June 5, 1967, Tijerina led an armed raid on the Rio Arriba County courthouse in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico, to free the imprisoned members and to place a citizen's arrest on Sánchez for violating the Alianza's right of peaceable assembly in Coyote two days prior.  Unbeknownst to Tijerina, the county judge had already freed the imprisoned members while Sánchez himself was not present at the courthouse that day. In the ensuing confrontation, Eulogio Salazar, a prison guard, was shot and Daniel Rivera, a sheriff's deputy, was badly injured. The Aliancistas headed for the mountains of Canjilón with two abductees.

Lieutenant Governor of New Mexico E. Lee Francis ordered the National Guard out as well as a large array of law enforcement agencies, including state police from all the northern counties, local sheriffs and unofficial posses, Jicarilla Apache police, and cattle inspectors, to arrest all members of the Alianza involved in the incident, thus launching the biggest manhunt in New Mexico history. In a crude translation of his name, the press dubbed Tijerina "King Tiger".  The Ballad of Río Arriba, a corrido based on the raid written by Roberto Martínez, received heavy radio play. The next Monday, Tijerina surrendered to authorities in Albuquerque and was charged with fifty-four criminal counts including kidnapping and armed assault.

The courthouse raid caught the attention of the national press and brought Tijerina's regional land grant crusade into the larger Chicano and civil rights movements.  He met with activists from around the country such as Rodolfo Gonzales, the founder of the Denver-based Chicano organization, La Cruzada por Justicia.  At his trial, Tijerina defended himself with the help of two court-appointed lawyers.  He was convicted of assault with intent to commit a violent felony (intent to kill or to commit mayhem) and of false imprisonment.  He appealed his conviction to the New Mexico Court of Appeals, who certified the case to the New Mexico Supreme Court.  His convictions were affirmed.  Las Cruces was the venue for the San Joaquín trial. Forbidden from discussing the history of the land grant, Tijerina was ultimately convicted of destruction of federal property and assault on a federal officer and sentenced to two years' imprisonment.

Poor People's Campaign
In March 1968, Tijerina was elected to lead the Chicano contingent of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference's (SCLC) Poor People's March on Washington. Despite stunning setbacks, including the April 4 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., the president of the SCLC, and the April 25 bombing of Tijerina's Albuquerque home, the SCLC was undeterred. Under the leadership of new SCLC president Ralph Abernathy, the march proceeded as planned, on May 2, 1968. Tijerina, with three busloads from New Mexico, met up with the Corky Gonzales-led Hispanic contingency from Colorado, the Alicia Escalante-led contingency from Los Angeles, the Reverend Nieto-led contingency from Texas, and a group of Puerto Ricans from New York. Together, they convened in "Resurrection City" with the African American factions led by Coretta Scott King and Abernathy. Tijerina insisted that the Native American delegations spearhead the march and be the first to demand justice, a proposal that had been approved during the original planning meeting with Dr. King. But when it came time to march, Abernathy's followers resisted the idea. Much was made of this "rift" in the mainstream press, which claimed that Tijerina insisted that the Hispanic delegation go first. En route to D.C., a group of Native Americans who were accompanied by Dick Gregory were detained by Washington State police. In protest, Tijerina organized a demonstration in front of the United States Supreme Court building on May 29. Police brutalized the demonstrators, but eventually, twenty delegates were permitted to  meet with John Davis, the clerk of the court. The following month, leaders met with Secretary of State Dean Rusk. On June 23, 1969, the day that Warren E. Burger was sworn in as Chief Justice, Tijerina returned to Washington to place him under citizen's arrest. As he waited outside the Senate chamber, Burger never exited. He had dodged the arrest by exiting out a back door.

Supporters of Tijerina formed the People's Constitutional Party in 1968.

Trial and incarceration
In early 1970, Tijerina was sentenced to prison for charges related to the 1967 Tierra Amarilla courthouse raid.  The presiding judge, Garnett Burkes, denied defense claims of double jeopardy.  A team of four lawyers spent eighteen months preparing the case, but on the opening day of the trial, Tijerina dismissed them, opting to defend himself. He was charged with the false imprisonment and assault of Daniel Rivera. Rivera, the prosecution's star witness, admitted under Tijerina's cross-examination that he neither knew federal civil rights laws, nor had he been trained in how to protect peoples' civil rights. He also testified that Tijerina was not to blame for the events at Tierra Amarilla. The Albuquerque Tribune compared Tijerina's courtroom performance with Clarence Darrow's. Dr. Frances Swadesh, a University of Colorado anthropologist, testified that Anglos had used force and legal maneuvers to steal the land. Tijerina based his closing argument on Article 6, Section two of the Constitution, which obligates the government to comply with the terms of international treaties, i.e., the protection of the property rights of land-grantees as provided by articles 8 and 9 of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. He continued to assert his constitutional right to place a citizen's arrest on the law enforcement officers who, by their own admission, were ignorant of the law and had violated the Alianza's right of free assembly.

Tijerina was sentenced to two years in a federal prison. He was incarcerated in La Tuna, Texas, where he shared a cell with Joe Valachi. Suspecting a plot to poison him and blame the mafia, Tijerina refused to eat, preferring scraps saved by fellow Mexican prisoners.

At one point, he was transferred to Albuquerque, where he shared a cell with 25-year-old Walter Payton, a member of the white militia the Minutemen, who had been arrested by the FBI on weapons charges after five tons of weapons and ammunition were discovered near Truth or Consequences. When Payton learned that "King Tiger" was being held in the same facility, he told the authorities not to put them together, swearing he would kill Tijerina if he saw him. Prison officials promptly locked them in the same cell. But when the two talked peacefully for more than four hours, Payton was transferred out of the cell.

In 1970 Tijerina was transferred to a mental hospital in Springfield, Missouri. His exposure to the mentally ill combined with his historical research crystallized his concept of "Anglo psychopathy":

I believe the origins of the Anglo psychopathy began  when the English were excluded from the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed June 7, 1494, between Spain and Portugal. The treaty was brokered by the Pope. It was at this time that the Anglo not only rejected the legitimate body of the era, but also the religion that went against them. The Anglo, without respect for authority and religion, and to get back into the colonization game, legalized piracy. They had to operate outside the law to become the law. Over the last 480 years, the Anglo complex of psychopathy has worsened. His conscience tortures him, and his thinking grows demented for having violated his own religion, his own law, and humanity.

It was also in the mental hospital that Tijerina began focusing on a "solution for peace among humanity" and found a new goal: "to promote fraternity and harmony among human beings."

One of the terms of his 1971 release was that he not hold any leadership in the Alianza. Nonetheless, Tijerina continued to advocate for land rights, for human unity, and for an investigation into the death of Eulogio Salazar. The League of United Latin American Citizens lent their support to the land grant cause in 1972 after the publication of a supportive report in the Tribune. But in spite of the new invigoration of the movement,
little progress was made outside of the sphere of public awareness.

On June 29, 1974, Tijerina began his second prison term. During his incarceration he came into contact with Blas Chávez, a World War II veteran who had been involved in New Mexico politics and ended up out of favor with the powerful. He told Tijerina of the corrupt dealings of Senator Joseph Montoya and other politicians, as well as the details behind the murder of Eulogio Salazar.

Later years
He lived in El Paso, Texas after about a year in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico where he moved in April 2006. After a fire claimed his New Mexico house in 1994, Tijerina moved to Uruapan, Michoacán, where he married for the third time. He presented his archival materials to the University of New Mexico on October 19, 1999. On November 5 of the same year, he met with senior staff of then-Governor of Texas George W. Bush's administration about land issues. A translation of his memoirs, previously only available in a 1978 Spanish version published by Mexico's Fondo de Cultura Económica, was published in 2000.

He died in El Paso, aged 88, on January 19, 2015.

Notes
  Tijerina, quoted in Nabokov, 195
  Nabokov, 199
  Tijerina, 1
  Tijerina, 3
  Tijerina, 5
  Tijerina, 22

References

Blawis, Patricia Bell. Tijerina and the Land Grants: Mexican Americans in Struggle for Their Heritage. New York: International Publishers. 1971.
Nabokov, Peter, 1969. Tijerina and the Courthouse Raid. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. .
Maciel, David R. and Peña, Juan José, La Reconquista: The Chicano Movement in New Mexico, published in The Contested Homeland, A Chicano History of New Mexico, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000. .
 Tijerina, Reies López, 2000.  They Called Me "King Tiger": My Struggle for the Land and Our Rights. Translated and edited by José Ángel Gutiérrez. Houston: Arte Público Press. .
Oropeza, Lorena. The King of Adobe: Reies López Tijerina - Lost Prophet of the Chicano Movement. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2019.

External links

Inventory of the Reies Tijerina Papers, 1888-2003
Inventory of the Reies Tijerina Photograph Collection, 1944-2000
Inventory of the Alianza Federal de Pueblos Libres Collection, 1963-1997

1926 births
2015 deaths
People from New Mexico
American people of Mexican descent
Activists from Texas
Activists for Hispanic and Latino American civil rights
Criminals from Texas
Criminals from New Mexico
Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government

Reies Tijerina


Da verden kom til Jonathan er en dansk kortfilm fra 2000, der er instrueret af Hanne-Vibeke Holst og Morten Bruus.

Handling
Et barn kommer til verden, lyder det så smukt. Samtidig kommer verden til barnet. I denne poetiske kortfilm følges forfatteren Hanne-Vibeke Holst og fotografen Morten Bruus' nyfødte Jonathan på rejsen gennem det første leveår. Først er morens bryst, søvnen, badet, lyset og lydene det lille barns foretrukne. Senere kommer bolden, bilen og blomsterne ind på livets scene. Fire årstider senere kan Jonathan grinende og triumferende løbe ud af billedet. Han har taget de første skridt ud i den store verden.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2000

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Da verden kom til Jonathan


Gonçalo Matias Ramos (Olhão, 20 de junho de 2001) é um futebolista português que atua como atacante. Atualmente joga no Paris Saint-Germain, emprestado pelo Benfica.

Carreira
Nascido em Olhão, Algarve, Ramos iniciou a sua carreira no futebol nas camadas jovens do Olhanense em 2009, antes de ingressar no Loulé e depois nas camadas jovens do Benfica em 2013, aos 12 anos. No dia 13 de janeiro de 2019, estreia-se com a equipe reserva do Benfica como um substituto aos 84 minutos para Nuno Tavares em uma derrota em casa por 3-2 para o Braga B na LigaPro. Em 21 de julho de 2020, ele estreou no time principal do Benfica como substituto aos 85 minutos por Pizzi em uma vitória por 4 a 0 sobre o Desportivo das Aves na Primeira Liga, marcando dois golos em 8 minutos. Nessa época, Ramos disputou a Liga Jovem da UEFA de 2019–20, na qual foi peça fundamental para que o Benfica chegasse à final da competição, onde perdeu para o Real Madrid (3–2), em que bisou na final; ele terminou como artilheiro do torneio com oito golos. Em 7 de outubro de 2020, ele concordou em estender o contrato até 2025.

Depois de uma promissora temporada 2020-21 com a equipa B, que marcou onze golos em doze jogos, Ramos recebeu uma oportunidade na equipa principal no início da temporada 2021-22 pelo técnico Jorge Jesus, começando em um 2-0 vitória em casa sobre o Spartak Moscovo na terceira pré-eliminatória da Liga dos Campeões. Após a chegada de Roman Yaremchuk e o retorno de Darwin Núñez de lesão, Ramos encontrou minutos limitados na equipa principal, levando-o a buscar uma saída do clube na janela de transferências de inverno. Com a chegada do técnico interino Nélson Veríssimo em janeiro de 2022, que já o havia treinado na equipa B, Ramos passou a jogar com mais regularidade, e reacendeu sua forma, marcando sete golos e dando duas assistências, com sua versatilidade que lhe permitiu atuar em várias posições no ataque, o que foi considerado útil pelo novo treinador.

Em 13 de abril, ele marcou seu primeiro gol na Liga dos Campeões em um empate fora de casa por 3-3 contra o Liverpool em Anfield na segunda mão das quartas de final. Ao fazer isso, ele se tornou o segundo jogador mais jovem (com 20 anos e 297 dias) a marcar pelo clube nas fases finais da competição, no entanto, o Benfica foi eliminado após perder para o Liverpool por 6 a 4 no total.

Ramos começou a temporada 2022–23 marcando o seu primeiro hat-trick a 2 de agosto em uma vitória em casa por 4-1 sobre o Midtjylland na primeira mão da terceira pré-eliminatória da Liga dos Campeões da UEFA de 2022–23.

Seleção Portuguesa
Com os sub-17 de Portugal, Ramos participou no Campeonato da Europa de Sub-17 de 2018, em Inglaterra. Nesta competição, ele jogou duas partidas, marcando um golo contra a Eslovénia, mas acabou eliminado da fase de grupos.

Ramos fez parte da seleção de Portugal que terminou como vice-campeã da Espanha no Campeonato da Europa de Sub-19 da UEFA de 2019, na Arménia. Ele foi o melhor marcador com quatro golos em cinco jogos, incluindo um hat-trick na vitória por 4-0 contra a República da Irlanda nas semifinais.

Em 12 de novembro de 2020, Ramos conquistou sua primeira internacionalização pelo time sub-21, marcando o terceiro golo na sua estreia na vitória por 3 a 0 na Bielorrússia para a campanha de qualificação para o Campeonato Europeu de 2021. Em março de 2021, Ramos participou do Campeonato da Europa de Sub-21 de 2021, ajudando Portugal a terminar como vice-campeão, depois de perder na final por 1 a 0 para a Alemanha.

A 20 de Setembro de 2022, Gonçalo Ramos foi pela primeira vez convocado para representar a seleção A de Portugal, no quadro da Liga das Nações, para os jogos contra a República Checa a 24 de Setembro e contra a seleção espanhola a 27 de Setembro. No primeiro jogo foi suplemente não utilizado e no segundo ficou de fora. A 17 de Novembro marca o primeiro golo pela seleçao portuguesa aos 81 minutos do jogo de preparação contra a Nigéria.

No dia 6 de dezembro de 2022, Gonçalo Ramos anotou um hat-trick contra a Suíça em um confronto de oitavas de final da Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2022. Ramos tornou-se o primeiro atleta a anotar um hat-trick em sua primeira partida como titular em Copas do Mundo desde Miroslav Klose, em 2002. E o mais jovem artilheiro de três gols na fase eliminatória da Copa do Mundo da FIFA desde Pelé em 1958.

Títulos
Benfica
Primeira Liga: 2022–23

Prêmios individuais
 Galardões Cosme Damião – Revelação do Ano: 2021
 Avançado do Mês da Liga Portugal 2: Setembro/Outubro 2021
 Jogador Jovem do Mês da Liga Portuguesa: março de 2022, agosto/setembro de 2022
 Bota de Ouro do Campeonato da Europa de Sub-19 da UEFA: 2019
 Melhor marcador da Liga Jovem da UEFA: 2019–20

Nascidos em 2001
Naturais de Olhão
Futebolistas de Portugal
Futebolistas do Sport Lisboa e Benfica B
Futebolistas do Sport Lisboa e Benfica
Ramos, Gonçalo
Portugueses expatriados na França
Jogadores da Seleção Portuguesa de Futebol
Jogadores da Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2022

Gonçalo Ramos


Kappelborgskolen var en folkeskole beliggende i Skagen. Den blev indviet i 1901, og nedlagt i 2005. Bygningen som er tegnet af arkitekt Anton Haunstrup, fungere i dag som byens kulturhus.

I 1913 besøgte kongeparret Christian 10. og Dronning Alexandrine skolen.

Litteratur
 Kappelborgskolen, Skagen: 75 år 1901-1976

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Kulturhus Kappelborgs websted

Folkeskoler
Skagen
Etableret i 1901
Ophørt i 2005

Kappelborgskolen


La elección para gobernador de Luisiana de 2011 se realizó el 22 de octubre de dicho año, así como en tres otros estados de Estados Unidos, para elegir a los responsables de la administración a nivel estatal.

Sistema electoral
El gobernador es elegido por sufragio universal, en un sistema de segunda vuelta. El margen para resultar electo en la primera ronda de votación es un 50% de los votos válidamente emitidos. Si ninguna candidatura logra el 50% de los votos válidamente emitidos, hay una segunda vuelta entre las dos más votadas.

Dura cuatro años en el ejercicio de sus funciones y puede ser reelegido como máximo en una ocasión.

Resultados
Con 100 % de los votos escrutados.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Tara Hollis for Governor
Bobby Jindal for Governor
Elections Division en la Secretaría de Estado de Luisiana
Louisiana gubernatorial election, 2011 en Ballotpedia
Louisiana Governor Candidates en Project Vote Smart
Campaign contributions for 2011 Louisiana Governor en Follow the Money

Luisiana
Elecciones para gobernador de Luisiana

Elección para gobernador de Luisiana de 2011


Die Slovak International 1994 im Badminton fanden Mitte Oktober 1994 in statt.

Sieger und Platzierte

Weblinks
 http://www.tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=AFD099B9-21E9-4B2D-8C7B-46D2B3249712
 http://www.bedminton.sk/

1994
Badminton 1994

Slovak International 1994


سمنجة هي قرية تابعة لمعتمدية بئر المشارقة من ولاية زغوان بالشمال التونسي. وتوجد على الطريق الرئيسية الرابدة بين مدينتي زغوان وتونس (مدينة). وكانت توجد بها منذ العهد الاستعماري مدرسة للتعليم الفلاحي حيث كان يوجد بالمنطقة العديد من المعمرين الفرنسيين.

قرى ولاية زغوان

سمنجة


الفجيج قرية تقع في معتمدية نصر الله بولاية القيروان من الوسط التونسي.

فجيج

الفجيج (تونس)


An Maxillaria cozierana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Henry Gordon Jones. An Maxillaria cozierana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Maxillaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Guyana. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Maxillaria

Maxillaria cozierana


HP, Hp  veya hp aşağıdaki anlamlara gelebilir:

HP
 Hewlett-Packard; bilgisayar donanımları ve yazılımları üreticisi şirket
 Harry Potter; Çocuk romanı kahramanı
 Halkçı Parti
 Hürriyet Partisi
 Halk Partisi (KKTC), KKTC'de bir siyasi parti.

hp
 Beygir gücü (İngilizce horsepower).

Kısaltmalar

HP


Straniul paradis este un film românesc din 1995 regizat de Constantin Dicu. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Emil Hossu, Victor Rebengiuc. Este bazat pe nuvela Strania domnișoară Ruth scrisă de Laurențiu Fulga.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1995 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1995
Filme regizate de Constantin Dicu

Straniul paradis


L'Autonomie nationale des allemands en Hongrie (, MNOÖ ; , LdU) est une organisation nationale représentant la minorité allemande de Hongrie.

Histoire

A la suite de l'élections des gouvernements autonomes des minorités en 1994, l'assemblée électorale de la minorité allemande élit, le , l'organe de représentation politique et culturelle des Allemands de Hongrie : l'Autonomie nationale des Allemands en Hongrie. Selon les opportunités offertes par la loi CLXXIX sur les droits des  nationalités , le MNOÖ continue à mettre en œuvre une politique moderne en matière de minorités.

Résultats électoraux

Depuis 2014, chacune des minorités ethniques de Hongrie a la possibilité de faire élire un député de manière facilitée grâce à un abaissement du seuil électoral, à la condition qu'ils s'enregistrent préalablement sur des listes électorales distinctes. Le siège est prélevé sur les 93 dédiés à la représentation proportionnelle si la liste en question franchit un seuil spécifique établit au quart du quotient inverse de ce total, soit  du total des suffrages au scrutin de liste. Treize minorités sont concernées : les Arméniens, Bulgares, Croates, Allemands, Grecs, Polonais, Roms, Roumains, Ruthènes, Serbes, Slovaques, Slovènes et Ukrainiens. En pratique, seules les communautés allemandes et roms sont suffisamment nombreuses pour espérer pouvoir atteindre ce seuil et obtenir un siège, si tant est qu'une part suffisante de leurs membres s'inscrivent sur les listes dédiées.

Élections législatives

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Parti politique en Hongrie
Groupe ethnique en Hongrie
Parti politique fondé en 1995


آمون غُوت  (11 ديسمبر 1908 - 13 سبتمبر 1946) ضابط في الجيش النازي الألماني إبان الحرب العالمية الثانية ومدير معسكر «بلاسوف»، أحد معسكرات الإبادة في بولندا.

بداية حياته
ولد في مدينة فيينا عاصمة الإمبراطورية النمساوية-الهنغارية آنذاك وكانت أسرته تعمل في الطباعة. عند بلوغه سن 22 عاما التحق بالحزب النازي الفرع النمساوي وتجدر الإشارة أن إنجازاته وتحركاته في الحزب النازي في بداية حياته لم تكن معلومة للموثقين.

معتقل بلاسوف
في شهر أغسطس من عام 1942 التحق آمون بشرطة بلاسوف النازية في بولندا وكان برتبة ضابط عادي في معسكرات الابادة، وفي فبراير من عام 1943، أُوكل إليه إنشاء وقيادة معسكر بلاسوف الشهير للإبادة حيث استغرق تأسيس المعتقل قرابة شهر باستعمال عمالة محلية بأسلوب العبودية النازية.

وفي مارس من عام 1943، أمر بأغلاق أماكن تجمع اليهود في «كراكوف» ونقلهم إلى معسكر الاعتقال الجديد في بلاسوف، وفي عملية نقل اليهود من «كراكوف» إلى معتقل «بلاسوف» سقط من المدنيين اليهود قرابة 2000 يهودي قتلى، وقد تم إدانة آمون بقتله شخصيا العديد من المدنيين أثناء عملية النقل.

نهاية حياته العسكرية
في سبتمبر من عام 1944 تم إعفاؤه من منصبه كمدير للمعتقل وتحويلة إلى الإدارة الاقتصادية والإدارية في الحزب النازي، وفي شهر نوفمبر من نفس العام تم اعتقال آمون من قبل الجيستابو (البوليس السري النازي) بتهمة سرقة ممتلكات اليهود والتي ينظر لها الحزب النازي على أنها مكتسبات نازية، وبسبب تداعيات الحرب، لم يسنح للإدارة النازية أن يمثل أمام محاكمة للتهم المسندة إليه وتم تناسي الأمر.

في نهاية المطاف، تم تشخيص آمون من قبل أطباء نازيين على أنه مختل عقليا ويعاني أيضا من مرض السكر وتم إيداعه مصحّا عقليا في مدينة «باد تولز» وفي مايو من عام 1945 تم اعتقال آمون من قبل القوات الأمريكية بعد الإطاحة بنظام برلين النازي.

إعدامه
بعد أن وضعت الحرب العالمية الثانية أوزارها، تمت إدانة آمون بتهمة قتل الآلاف من اليهود وتم تنفيذ حكم الإعدام في 13 سبتمبر 1946 وتجدر الإشارة أن تنفيذ الحكم فشل في إعدام آمون مرتين على التوالي لإساءة تقدير الجلاد طول حبل المشنقة وفي المرة الثالثة تمت العملية بنجاح ومات عن عمر يناهز 37 عام.

فيلم قائمة شيندلر
لعل شهرة آمون غوث العالمية تُعزى للفيلم الأمريكي الشهير «قائمة شيندلر» عندما لعب الممثل الإنجليزي «رالف فاينز» دور آمون غوث كمدير لمعسكر الاعتقال، وكان الفيلم يتناول بشكل أساسي دور «أوسكار شيندلر» في إنقاذ ما يربو على الألف من اليهود وعن قسوة آمون مع المدنيين اليهود في معسكر اعتقال «بلاسوف».

انظر أيضا
 فريتز سوهرين

روابط خارجية

مراجع

 محاكمته
 آمون غوث من الموسوعة الإنجليزية

أشخاص معدومون شنقا في بولندا
أشخاص من فيينا
أفراد عسكريون من فيينا
أفراد مكتب الأمن الرئيسي للرايخ
أوسكار شندلر
إعدامات مصورة
ضباط ألمانيا النازية
قادة معسكرات الاعتقال النازية
قتلة جماعيون نمساويون
كاثوليك سابقون
مرتكبو المحرقة
مرتكبو الهولوكوست في بولندا
مواليد 1908
مواليد في فيينا
نازيون أعدموا شنقا من قبل بولندا
نازيون أعدموا في معسكرات اعتقال
نازيون معدومون في بولندا
نازيون نمساويون
نازيون نمساويون أدينوا بجرائم حرب
نازيون نمساويون معدومون
نمساويون أدينوا بالقتل
نمساويون أدينوا بجرائم حرب
نمساويون أدينوا بجرائم ضد الإنسانية
نمساويون أعدموا في الخارج
وفيات 1946
وفيات في كراكوف

آمون غوت


La gare de Boca Raton est une gare ferroviaire américaine à Boca Raton, dans le comté de Palm Beach, en Floride. Elle est située sur la Brightline entre la gare de Fort Lauderdale et la gare de West Palm Beach.

Situation ferroviaire

Histoire

Service des voyageurs

Accueil

Desserte

Intermodalité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Brightline
 Florida East Coast Industries
 Gare de West Palm Beach
 Gare de MiamiCentral
 Gare d'Aventura

Liens externes

Gare en Floride
Brightline
Gare
Gare mise en service en 2022

Gare de Boca Raton