Kinoprojektor služi za projiciranje filmova. Konstruiran je za određeni format filmske vrpce, a postoje i kombinirani projektori za više formata. Sastoji se od mehaničkog, električnog, optičkog i tonskoga dijela. Filmska vrpca prolazi kroz projektor standardiziranom brzinom od 24 sličice u sekundi. Otkriće kinoprojektora bilo je presudno za razvoj kinematografije, odnosno prikazivanje za masovnu publiku.

Način rada
Uzmimo komadić drva koji tinja i zavrtimo ga u tamnoj sobi. Ako ga vrtimo brže, činit će nam se kao da je cijela kružnica po kojoj se vrti svijetla. To će biti onda kad jedan okret po kružnici traje 1/8 sekunde. Znači da osjet u oku traje 1/8 sekunde pošto je nestao podražaj. Prestane li na oko djelovati podražaj svjetlosti, neće u isti mah nestati i osjet svjetlosti nego će trajati još neko vrijeme. Utisak slike u oku traje po prilici 1/8 sekunde nakon što je podražaj nestao. Na pojavi da osjet svjetlosti u oku traje dulje vremena od podražaja osniva se kinoprojektor.

Prvi aparat za prikazivanje filmova i to uglavnom na istoj osnovi kakav je i danas u upotrebi izumio je Francuz Louis Lumiere 1894. Na filmu je snimljena radnja, odnosno gibanje na mnogo sličica koje se jedna od druge razlikuju samo za neki dio kretnje. Projiciranje na platnu vrši se brzinom od 24 slike u sekundi, pa se zbog toga utisci stapaju u neprekinutu cjelinu, i mi na primjer vidimo kako čovjek hoda.

Kinoprojektor je projekcioni aparat kod kojeg se slike, snimljene na filmsku vrpcu, projiciraju na zaslon. Vrpcu pokreću zupčanici koji hvataju u izreze perforacije koja se nalazi s obje strane vrpce, a kreće se između uređaja za rasvjetu i objektiva projektora. Filmska se vrpca povlači posebnim mehanizmom, koji se zove malteški križ, i to na prekide tako da se svaka slika određeno vrijeme, iako vrlo kratko, projicira na zaslon (platno).

Kada se slika mijenja, to jest kada dolazi iduća, zaslon nije osvijetljen jer je svjetlosni tok zaklonjen rotirajućim zaslonom. Zbog velike brzine to se ne opaža, već nam se čini da jedna slika ide neprekidno za drugom.

Snimi li se neka pojava, na primjer 500 puta u sekundi, i projicira li se brzinom od 20 slika u sekundi, bit će brzina projiciranja 20 : 500 = 1/25 normalne brzine. Zbog toga će se snimljena pojava razvijati na zastoru sasvim polagano tako da ćemo tu pojavu moći promatrati u detalje. Tako se na primjer skok konja može vidjeti sasvim polagano. Na taj j enačin filmskim putem na zastoru omogućuje da se brze pojave potpuno uspore. Filmskim putem možemo postići i obratno, spore pojave ubrzati na zastoru, kao na primjer rast biljke.

Izvori

Optički uređaji

Kinoprojektor


Niklas Süle (født 3. september 1995 i Frankfurt am Main) er en tysk fodboldspiller (midterforsvarer). Han spiller for Borussia Dortmund i Bundesligaen. Han har tidligere spillet for 1899 Hoffenheim og Bayern München

Klubkarriere
Som ungdomsspiller repræsenterede Süle i flere år Hoffenheim, og i 2012 blev han rykket op som en del af klubbens seniortrup. Han fik sin Bundesliga-debut for klubben 11. maj 2013 i et opgør mod Hamburger SV.

Efter mere end 100 Bundesliga-kampe for Hoffenheim blev Süle i januar 2017 solgt til Bayern München for en pris på ca. 20 millioner euro. Han tiltrådte i klubben i sommeren 2017 og debuterede 18. august samme år i en Bundesliga-kamp mod Bayer Leverkusen.

Hos Bayern var Süle med til at blive tysk mester fem sæsoner i træk (2018-2022) og vinde Champions League 2020. Samme år vandt klubben også VM for klubhold, UEFA Super Cup, tyske pokalmesterskab og den tyske supercup.

Ved udløbet af kontrakten med Bayern skiftede Süle i sommeren 2022 til Borussia Dortmund.

Landshold
Süle har indtil videre spillet 45 kampe for det tyske landshold, som han debuterede for 31. august 2016 i en venskabskamp mod Finland. Han var en del af det tyske hold, der vandt guld ved Confederations Cup 2017, og deltog også ved VM 2018 i Rusland.

Som ungdomsspiller repræsenterede Süle adskillige af de tyske U-landshold. Han var også med på det tyske OL-landshold ved OL 2016 i Rio de Janeiro. Her blev Tyskland nummer to i sin indledende pulje efter to uafgjorte kampe og en 10-0-sejr over . I kvartfinalen blev det til 4-0 over  og i semifinalen 2-0 over . I finalen mødte tyskerne hjemmeholdet fra , og her måtte man ud i straffesparkskonkurrencen for at få afgjort kampen. Brasilien vandt denne med 5-4 og fik dermed guld, mens Tyskland fik sølv, og Nigeria vandt kampen om bronze.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Tyskland
Fodboldspillere fra TSG 1899 Hoffenheim
Fodboldspillere fra FC Bayern München
Personer fra Frankfurt am Main
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2018
Deltagere ved det europæiske mesterskab i fodbold 2020
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2022
Deltagere for Tyskland ved sommer-OL 2016
Olympiske sølvmedaljevindere fra Tyskland

Niklas Süle


Arthur Joseph Goldberg (August 8, 1908January 19, 1990) was an American statesman and jurist who served as the 9th U.S. Secretary of Labor, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the 6th United States Ambassador to the United Nations.

Born in Chicago, Illinois, Goldberg graduated from the Northwestern University School of Law in 1930. He became a prominent labor attorney and helped arrange the merger of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations. During World War II, he served in the Office of Strategic Services, organizing European resistance to Nazi Germany. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Goldberg as the Secretary of Labor.

In 1962, Kennedy successfully nominated Goldberg to the Supreme Court to fill a vacancy created by the retirement of Felix Frankfurter. Goldberg aligned with the liberal bloc of justices and wrote the majority opinion in Escobedo v. Illinois. In 1965, Goldberg resigned from the bench to accept appointment by President Lyndon B. Johnson as the Ambassador to the United Nations. In that role, he helped draft UN Resolution 242 in the aftermath of the Six-Day War. He ran for governor of New York in 1970 but was defeated by Nelson Rockefeller. After his defeat, he served as president of the American Jewish Committee and continued to practice law.

Early life and education
Goldberg was born and raised on West Side, Chicago, the youngest of eight children of Rebecca Perlstein and Joseph Goldberg, Orthodox Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire. His paternal line derived from a shtetl called Zenkhov, in Ukraine. Goldberg's father, a produce peddler, died in 1916, forcing Goldberg's siblings to quit school and go to work to support the family. As the youngest child, Goldberg was allowed to continue school, but worked jobs on the side, including as a vendor at Wrigley Field and as a library clerk, to help support his family. He was childhood friends with future professional boxer Jackie Fields. Goldberg attended classes and lectures at the Hull House, which aimed to educate recent European immigrants. He graduated from Harrison Technical High School at the age of 16.

Goldberg's interest in the law was sparked by the noted murder trial in 1924 of Leopold and Loeb, two wealthy young Chicagoans who were spared the death penalty with the help of their high-powered defense attorney, Clarence Darrow. Goldberg attended the trial while he was a high school senior. Goldberg later pointed to the case as inspiration for his opposition to the death penalty on the bench, since he had seen how inequality of social status could lead to unfair application of the death penalty. Jewish Supreme Court Justices Louis Brandeis and Benjamin Cardozo also served as inspiration to Goldberg from a young age.

Goldberg, who worked part time as a construction worker, took night courses at Crane Junior College of the City Colleges of Chicago and DePaul University. He later earned a B.S.L. (magna cum laude; 1929) and J.D. (1930) degrees from Northwestern University. Goldberg served as the Editor of the Illinois Law Review (now known as the Northwestern Law Review) and helped Law Dean John Henry Wigmore write his third edition of the treatise on evidence. Goldberg graduated from Northwestern law school in just 2.5 years and with the highest academic record ever at Northwestern. Being just 21-years-old, he was too young to pass the Illinois Bar. However, he sued and successfully argued his own case to be admitted to the bar.

In 1931, Goldberg married Dorothy Kurgans. They had one daughter, Barbara Goldberg Cramer, and one son, Robert M. Goldberg (an attorney in Anchorage, Alaska). He was the uncle of prolific blues rock keyboardist Barry Goldberg.

World War II
During World War II, Goldberg was a member of the United States Army, wherein he served as a captain and later a major. He wanted to join the Marines, but was not physically fit enough. Goldberg served as well in an espionage group operated by the Office of Strategic Services, the precursor to the CIA, serving as chief of the Labor Desk, an autonomous division of the American intelligence agency that was charged with the task of cultivating contacts and networks within the European underground labor movement during World War II. The Jewish Telegraphic Agency stated, "Goldberg's file notes that as both a civilian and a member of the Army, he supervised a section in the Secret Intelligence Branch of OSS to maintain contact with labor groups and organizations regarded as potential resistance elements in enemy-occupied and enemy countries. He organized anti-Nazi European transportation workers into an extensive intelligence network."

Early legal career
Due to antisemitism, Goldberg was unable to work in Chicago's big law firms because they would not hire Jews. Instead, he started his legal career at Pritzger & Pritzger, a firm founded by German Jews. However, he was uncomfortable with his work at Pritzger because the work mainly dealt with representing large businesses.

Goldberg's interest in labor law spiked at the start of The Great Depression and in 1933 he left Pritzger to create his own boutique law firm, which was focused on labor law. Goldberg joined the National Lawyers Guild (NLG), a group that was advocating for The New Deal, in the mid-1930s. However, Goldberg, among others, resigned a few years later due to the NLG's growing association with the American Communist Party.

Goldberg became a prominent labor lawyer and represented striking Chicago newspaper workers on behalf of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1938. The strike went on for eight months and Goldberg spent almost everyday in court arguing on the worker's behalf. Eventually, the strike persuaded William Randolph Hearst to recognize the newspaper union. Appointed general counsel to the CIO in 1948 to succeed Lee Pressman, Goldberg served as a negotiator and chief legal adviser in the merger of the American Federation of Labor and CIO in 1955. AFL-CIO is one of the US major labor unions representing America's workers and labor. Goldberg also served as general counsel of the United Steelworkers of America.

Political career

Goldberg was an active participant in the National Citizens Political Action Committee and the CIO Political Action Committee. He supported the presidential campaigns of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Goldberg initially supported Senator Joseph McCarthy's efforts to investigate communism in the United States, but soon opposed those efforts after it became clear they threatened the organized labor movement.

In 1960, Goldberg wanted his friend Adlai Stevenson to run for president, but Stevenson encouraged Goldberg to back Hubert Humphrey. Instead, Goldberg backed Senator John F. Kennedy. Goldberg served as a labor advisor to Kennedy's campaign and was influential in getting unions to back Kennedy.

Kennedy administration
President John F. Kennedy nominated Goldberg to be United States Secretary of Labor, where he served from 1961 to 1962. He was the third Jew to be named to a Cabinet position. Goldberg wanted to be named Attorney General, so he would improve his chances of getting nominated to the Supreme Court, but that spot went to Kennedy's brother Robert. As Labor Secretary, Goldberg encouraged Kennedy to increase the minimum wage, extend unemployment benefits, create job opportunities for the youth and invest in economically distressed areas. Following Goldberg's advice, Kennedy established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), which ensured employees are treated fairly regardless of "race, creed, color, or national origin." Goldberg also championed the creation of the President's Advisory Committee on Labor-Management Policy.

Supreme Court
On August 31, 1962, Kennedy nominated Goldberg as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to succeed Felix Frankfurter, who was retiring. Earlier that same year, Kennedy had considered nominating Goldberg to succeed Charles Whittaker, but chose Byron White instead. Frankfurter and Chief Justice Earl Warren were consulted by the President beforehand and both gave their full support.

He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on September 25, and served on the Court from October 1, 1962, until July 25, 1965. Only one Senator, Strom Thurmond from South Carolina, opposed his nomination. During his tenure, the seat Goldberg occupied on the Court came to be informally known as the "Jewish seat", as his two immediate predecessors—Frankfurter and Benjamin Cardozo before him—were also Jewish. , Goldberg is the last Cabinet official to have also served on the Supreme Court.

Despite his short time on the bench, Goldberg played a significant role in the Court's jurisprudence. Replacing Justice Felix Frankfurter, who was a center-right Justice, Goldberg's liberal views on constitutional questions shifted the Court's balance toward a broader construction of constitutional rights. A self-described judicial activist, Goldberg voted for a liberal outcome in 89% of cases before the court.

His best-known opinion came in the concurrence of Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), arguing that the Ninth Amendment supported the existence of an unenumerated right of privacy. He argued that to determine if a right is a fundamental right, the court should look to whether the right involved is of such a character that it cannot be denied without violating those fundamental principles of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all America's civil and political institutions.

Perhaps Goldberg's most influential move on the Court involved the death penalty. Goldberg argued in a 1963 internal Supreme Court memorandum that imposition of the death penalty was condemned by the international community and should be regarded as "cruel and unusual punishment," in contravention of the Eighth Amendment. Finding support in this position from two other justices (William J. Brennan and William O. Douglas), Goldberg published an opinion dissenting from the Court's denial of certiorari in a case, Rudolph v. Alabama, involving the imposition of the death penalty for rape, in which Goldberg cited the fact that only five nations responding to a UN survey indicated that they allowed imposition of the death penalty for rape, including the U.S., and that 33 states in the U.S. had outlawed the practice.

Goldberg's dissent sent a signal to lawyers across the nation to challenge the constitutionality of capital punishment in appeals. As a result of the influx of appeals, the death penalty effectively ceased to exist in the United States for the remainder of the 1960s and 1970s, and the Supreme Court considered the issue in the 1972 case of Furman v. Georgia, where the Justices, in a 5 to 4 decision, effectively suspended the death penalty laws of states across the country on the ground of the capricious imposition of the penalty. That decision would be revisited in Gregg v. Georgia (1976), where the justices voted to allow the death penalty under some circumstances; the death penalty for rape of an adult female victim, however, would be struck down in Coker v. Georgia (1977). In 2008, the death penalty for rape of children was ruled unconstitutional by a 5 to 4 decision (Kennedy v. Louisiana).  Writing for The New York Times, Adam Liptak said that Goldberg's dissent helped "create the modern movement for the abolition of the death penalty."

Goldberg also wrote the majority opinions in Escobedo v. Illinois, which provided criminal defendants the right to counsel during interrogation under the Sixth Amendment and Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez, which declared unconstitutional parts of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that revoked citizenship for those that had fled the country in order to dodge the draft.

Despite Goldberg's short tenure on the court, a number of his law clerks have gone on to become deeply influential. Stephen Breyer later became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court and he held Goldberg's seat on the Court from 1994 until 2022. Another of Goldberg's law clerks was Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz. Since other justices would be unlikely to hire a Jewish clerk, Goldberg emphasized hiring Jewish clerks. Six out of his eight law clerks were Jewish.

UN ambassador

In 1965, Goldberg was persuaded by Johnson to resign his seat on the court to replace the recently deceased Adlai Stevenson II as the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (UN). Johnson wanted to appoint his friend, Abe Fortas, to the court. If any of his Great Society reforms were going to be deemed unconstitutional by the Court, he thought that Fortas would notify him in advance. Goldberg, who had declined an earlier offer to leave his position to be Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare, took Johnson's offer of the UN ambassadorship when Johnson discussed it with him on Air Force One to Illinois for Stevenson's funeral. Goldberg was promised by Johnson that he would be a member of the President's cabinet and would be involved in all decisions involving ending the Vietnam War. Bruce Allen Murphy, a professor at Lafayette College, wrote in one of his books that Johnson also told Goldberg that he would consider putting him on his ticket as vice president in the 1968 United States presidential election.

Goldberg wrote that he resigned to have influence in keeping the peace in Vietnam and that after the crisis had passed, he expected he would be reappointed to the Supreme Court by Johnson to replace the retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren. He also said, "I had an exaggerated opinion of my capacities. I thought I could persuade Johnson that we were fighting the wrong war in the wrong place [and] to get out."

David Stebenne, Goldberg's biographer, adds, "Many observers, then and later, found this answer hard to accept." He suggests, "Johnson must have had some influence over Goldberg that induced him [to resign from the Supreme Court]."  Time reported in 1962 that Johnson knew that for a party thrown in Johnson's honor that year, a Goldberg aide, Jerry Holleman, solicited contributions from wealthy supporters of Johnson, including Billy Sol Estes. Holleman accepted responsibility and there was no public awareness of Goldberg and Johnson's involvement.

Johnson said of the Goldberg decision in his later-released audio tapes:

Goldberg chose to retain only one of Stevenson's aides, US Ambassador Charles W. Yost, a career Foreign Service Office who was able to help Goldberg navigate the intricacies of United Nations procedures, and foreign affairs debates in the Security Council. While serving as UN Ambassador, Goldberg was successful at brokering peace between Greece and Turkey during the Cyprus crisis of 1967 and helped diplomatically resolve a conflict between North Korea and the United States following the 1968 Pueblo incident.

Resolution 242

In 1967, Goldberg was a key drafter of Resolution 242, which followed the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel and the Arab states. While interpretation of that resolution has subsequently become controversial, Goldberg was very clear that the resolution does not obligate Israel to withdraw from all of the captured territories. He stated that:

Goldberg's role as the UN ambassador during the Six-Day War may have been the reason why Sirhan Sirhan, the assassin of Robert F. Kennedy, also wanted to assassinate Goldberg.

Subsequent career

Frustrated with the war in Vietnam, Goldberg resigned from the ambassadorship in 1968 and accepted a senior partnership with the New York law firm Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison. Longing to return to the bench, Goldberg later claimed that he was Earl Warren's preference to succeed him when the chief justice announced his retirement in 1968, but President Johnson selected Abe Fortas instead. After Fortas's nomination was withdrawn in the face of Senate opposition, Johnson briefly considered naming Goldberg chief justice as a recess appointment before ruling out the idea. On 15 October 1969, Goldberg was a featured speaker at the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam march.

With the prospect of a return to the Supreme Court closed to him by the election of Richard Nixon, Goldberg contemplated a run for elected office. Initially considering a challenge to Charles Goodell's reelection to the United States Senate, he decided to run against New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller in 1970. Though the former justice initially polled well, his campaign was unsuccessful. Goldberg faced accusations of being a "carpetbagger" by the New York media and he faced a contested Democratic primary campaign against Howard J. Samuels. Although Goldberg won the Democratic primary, his poor skills as a campaigner and lack of knowledge about New York (while campaigning in Manhattan, he mistakenly claimed that he was in Brooklyn), coupled with Rockefeller's formidable advantages, resulted in a 700,000 vote margin of victory for the incumbent Republican. At one point in the campaign, Goldberg told a voter, who commented that he wished he was still on the Court "so do I, sometimes." Basil Paterson was his running mate as Lt. Governor. His son David later became Governor in 2008.

After his defeat, Goldberg returned to law practice in Washington, D.C., and served as President of the American Jewish Committee. In 1972, Goldberg returned to the Supreme Court as a lawyer, representing Curt Flood in Flood v. Kuhn. His oral argument was referred to by one observer as "one of the worst arguments I'd ever heard – by one of the smartest men I've ever known..." Under President Jimmy Carter, Goldberg served as United States Ambassador to the Belgrade Conference on Human Rights in 1977, and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1978.

Goldberg was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 until 1989. He was also a member of the Cabinet from 1961 to 1962, but resigned when he was named to the Supreme Court.

Goldberg died in 1990. As a former member of the U.S. Army he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

See also

 Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States
 John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates
 List of Jewish American jurists
 List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)
 List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
 United States Supreme Court cases during the Warren Court

References

Further reading

 Goldberg, Arthur J. AFL-CIO: Labor United. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956.
 Goldberg, Arthur J. Equal Justice: The Supreme Court in the Warren Era. Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1971.
 Goldberg, Arthur J. The Defenses of Freedom: The Public Papers of Arthur J. Goldberg. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ed. 1st ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1966.

Paterson, David "Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity."Skyhorse Publishing. New York, New York, 2020

External links

JFK to Secretary of Labor, Arthur Goldberg: Missile and Space Programs - End Labor Delays, 1961 Shapell Manuscript Foundation

Oyez, U.S. Supreme Court media, Arthur J. Goldberg.

Arthur Goldberg's FBI files, hosted at the Internet Archive:
Part 1
Part 2

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1908 births
1990 deaths
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American judges
United States Army personnel of World War II
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Congress of Industrial Organizations people
DePaul University alumni
Illinois Democrats
Jewish American members of the Cabinet of the United States
Kennedy administration cabinet members
Lyndon B. Johnson administration cabinet members
20th-century American politicians
Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law alumni
People of the Office of Strategic Services
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World War II spies for the United States
Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison people
United States Army officers
Jewish American attorneys
Presidents of the American Jewish Committee

Arthur Goldberg


Chandrexa de Queixa, İspanya'nın kuzeybatısında, ülkenin on yedi özerk bölgesinden biri olan Galiçya'nın dört eyaletinden güneydoğu köşesinde bulunan Ourense eyaletine bağlı belediyesi. 2002 yılı nüfus sayımına göre belediyenin nüfusu 865 kişidir.

Chandrexa de Queixa


John Conybeare ( - ) est évêque de Bristol et l'un des théologiens les plus notables du .

Biographie
Conybeare est né à Pinhoe, où son père est vicaire, et fait ses études à Exeter Free School, Blundell's School et Exeter College, Oxford. Il est élu membre probatoire du Collège d'Exeter en 1710, obtient son baccalauréat en 1713 et est nommé un an plus tard préélecteur en philosophie .

Le 27 mai 1716, Conybeare est ordonné prêtre par l'évêque de Winchester, Sir Jonathan Trelawney et devient curé dans le Surrey . Il retourne à Oxford un an plus tard et devient un prédicateur bien connu. Il est Recteur de l'église St Clement, Oxford en 1724, surveillant principal, Exeter College, Oxford en 1725, recteur de l'Exeter College, Oxford, 1730, Doyen de Christ Church, Oxford, 1733 et Évêque de Bristol en 1750 .

Conybeare est connu pour la publication de son livre Calumny Refuted, une réponse à la calomnie personnelle du Dr Richard Newton.

Conybeare est le père du Dr William Conybeare, le recteur bien connu de Bishopsgate, et grand-père du traducteur et poète anglo-saxon John Josias Conybeare et du géologue William Conybeare. Il est enterré dans la cathédrale de Bristol.

Bibliographie

 Une défense de la religion révélée contre les exceptions d'un écrivain tardif dans son intitulé Christianisme aussi ancien que la création, contre Matthew Tindal, 1732
 Calumny Refuted: Or, An Answer To The Personal Slanders Publié par le Dr Richard Newton, Publié pour JJ et P. Knapton [etc. ] (Londres), contre Richard Newton, principal de Hart Hall, Oxford, 1735

Références

Liens externes

Doyen de Christ Church (Oxford)
Étudiant du Collège d'Exeter
Évêque de Bristol
Décès en juillet 1755
Naissance en janvier 1692
Décès à 63 ans

John Conybeare


Gökçebaşı, Samsun ilinin Salıpazarı ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Samsun iline 78 km, Salıpazarı ilçesine 28 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

Salıpazarı'nın mahalleleri

Gökçebaşı, Salıpazarı


Liebhaber und andere Fremde (Originaltitel: Lovers and Other Strangers) ist eine US-amerikanische Filmkomödie aus dem Jahr 1970, die von Cy Howard nach dem gleichnamigen, 1968 uraufgeführten Bühnenstück von Renée Taylor und Joseph Bologna für den Fernsehsender ABC inszeniert wurde.

Handlung
Mike Vecchio und Susan Henderson wollen heiraten. Die Eltern des Paares, das seit 18 Monaten zusammen ist, begrüßen die Entscheidung. Mikes Vater Frank, ein harter Arbeiter mit italienischen Vorfahren, erfährt zu seinem Entsetzen, dass sein bislang kinderloser älterer Sohn Richie sich von seiner Frau Joan scheiden lassen will. Auf der anderen Seite wird Susans erfolgreicher Vater Hal, ein irischer Katholik, von seiner Geliebten Cathy, die beste Freundin seiner Frau Bernice, zu einer Entscheidung zwischen ihr und seiner Frau gezwungen. Susans Schwester Wilma ist von der Sexleistung ihres Ehemannes Johnny und dessen nächtlicher Fernsehsucht enttäuscht.

Am Abend vor der Hochzeit arrangieren Mike und Susan ein Blind Date für Susans Cousine Brenda, einer der Brautjungfern, mit Mikes Freund Jerry. Ihre letzte Nacht als Verlobte wollen Mike und Susan in einer Hochzeitssuite in einem Hotel verbringen. Jerry versucht die jungfräuliche Brenda zu verführen, doch ihr ständiges Geplapper verdirbt ihm die Lust.

Die Hochzeitszeremonie berührt die Gefühle der Teilnehmer. Der nostalgische Frank gesteht seinem Sohn eine frühere Affäre. Cathy flieht voller Tränen auf die Toilette, wo sie von Hal getröstet wird. Brenda und Jerry schlafen endlich miteinander, ebenso wie Johnny und Wilma, die von Johnnys Leistung diesmal erfreut ist. Die Hoffnung der Vecchios auf eine Wiedervereinigung von Richie und Joan wird jedoch nicht erfüllt. Mike und Susan hingegen nehmen das emotionale Chaos um sie herum nicht wahr und starten voller Zuversicht in ihr Eheleben.

Hintergrund
Der Film feierte am 12. August 1970 seine Premiere. In Deutschland kam er am 30. April 1971 in die Kinos.

Einen Gastauftritt bei der Hochzeitsfeier hatten Jerry Stiller, der Ehemann von Anne Meara, und deren gemeinsame Tochter Amy Stiller sowie Sylvester Stallone. Diane Keaton gab mit diesem Film ihr Leinwanddebüt.

Das Theaterstück, das dem Drehbuch zu Grunde liegt, wurde am 18. September 1968 am Broadway uraufgeführt und 70 Mal gespielt. Richard S. Castellano wiederholt im Film seine Theaterrolle.

Der Oscar-prämierte Song wurde für den Film von Larry Meredith eingesungen. Bei der Oscarverleihung 1971 wurde er von Petula Clark vorgetragen. Später wurde er erfolgreich von den Carpenters interpretiert.

Kritik
Das Lexikon des internationalen Films beschrieb den Film als "turbulente und trotz eines Ansatzes zur Ernsthaftigkeit nur vordergründige Situationskomödie, episodisch aufgelöst und meist bis zur Übertreibung ausgespielt; auch formal unausgeglichen". Roger Ebert, Kritiker der Chicago Sun-Times, hingegen lobte den Film als angenehme und amüsante Komödie.

Auch Variety schrieb positiv über den Film. Er erzähle seine Geschichte auf angenehme Weise und enthülle amüsant und teilnahmsvoll die Marotten der Familienmitglieder.

Auszeichnungen
1971 gewann der Film einen Oscar in der Kategorie Bester Song für das Lied For All We Know von Fred Karlin (Melodie), Robb Royer und Jimmy Griffin (Text). Weitere Nominierung gab es in den Kategorien Bester Nebendarsteller (Richard S. Castellano) und Bestes adaptiertes Drehbuch.

Im gleichen Jahr wurde der Film für den Golden Globe als Bester Film (Komödie) nominiert. Als bester Nebendarsteller belegte Richard S. Castellano den 4. Platz und der Film selbst den 9. Platz bei der Verleihung der Laurel Awards. In der Kategorie Beste Komödie wurde das Drehbuch für den WGA-Award der Writers Guild of America nominiert.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1970
US-amerikanischer Film
Filmkomödie
Literaturverfilmung

Liebhaber und andere Fremde


Blackballing is a rejection in a traditional form of secret ballot, where a white ball or ballot constitutes a vote in support and a black ball signifies opposition. The system is typically used where an organization's rules provide that one or two objections, rather than an at-least-50% share of votes, are sufficient to defeat a proposition.  Since the seventeenth century, these rules have commonly applied to elections to membership of many gentlemen's clubs and similar institutions such as Masonic lodges and fraternities.

A large supply of black and white balls is provided for voters. Each voter audibly casts a single ball into the ballot box under cover of the box, or of a combination of a cloth and the box itself, so that observers can see who votes but not how they are voting. When all voting is complete, the box is opened and the balls displayed: all present can immediately see the result, without any means of knowing which members are objecting.

In America, members of fraternal clubs often voted at their meetings without paper ballots as early as the 17th century. In order to progress, votes had to be unanimous in nature, as a single vote against was enough to apply veto. A blackball box was used instead of paper ballots for this reason.

Process
The principle of such election rules in a club is that it is self-perpetuating to preserve the current ethos (and exclusivity) of the club, by ensuring that candidates are congenial to (almost) all the existing members; i.e., new members are elected by unanimous or near-unanimous agreement of voting members. A difference of opinions could be divisive, so that an election must be taken secretly as well as correctly.

The number of votes in support is often irrelevant, except to prove a quorum.  Whilst in many such cases even a single black ball will be fatal to the candidate's election, rules in larger clubs ensure that a single member cannot exercise a veto to the detriment of the future of the club. For example, two black balls are required to exclude; a limited category or committee of members vote, rather than all members; or in the event of a blackball, the election may be repeated immediately to ensure that there is no mistake, or after a fixed period to allow further information or opinions to be discussed discreetly. A variant sometimes used is that all incoming candidates are voted on as a group; if the group as a whole is blackballed, then each member must be voted on individually.

The practice also found popularity in areas outside of social clubs. In the Soviet Union, dissertation panels would typically cast their vote on a thesis defense using this system.

Robert's Rules of Order notes that the use of black and white balls can be ordered by passing an incidental motion to that effect. The manual notes, "This custom, however, is apparently declining."

The term still remains in use for many different electoral systems which have applied from club to club and from time to time: for example, instead of differently coloured balls, ballot-balls may be dropped into separate "yes" or "no" drawers inside the ballot box.

In some Masons' lodges, a black cube is used instead of a black ball so that a black ball can be differentiated from a dirty white ball, as the lighting in the meeting hall is very dim during voting.

An example
The following example from the rules of election to the Travellers Club, which is quoted from Dickens's Dictionary of London (1879), provides an illustration of the principle:

References

Clubs and societies
Electoral systems
Voting

Blackballing


Anna Sten (în ; ) a fost o actriță americană de origine ucraineană. Ea și-a început cariera jucând în piese de teatru și filme în Rusia înainte de a călători în Germania, unde a jucat în mai multe filme. Spectacolele în care juca au fost observate de către producătorul de film Samuel Goldwyn, care a adus-o în Statele Unite ale Americii cu scopul de a crea o nouă vedetă a ecranului care să rivalizeze cu Greta Garbo. După câteva filme nereușite, Goldwyn i-a reziliat contractul. Ea a continuat să joace ocazional până în 1962, când a avut ultima ei apariție în film.

Primii ani și educația
Anna Petrovna Fesak s-a născut pe 3 decembrie 1908 la Kiev. Există și alte date de naștere contradictorii: 1910 și 1906 din formularele de admitere la facultate. Mama ei, Alexandra, afirmă că data de naștere a Annei este 29 octombrie 1906 la sosirea ei în Statele Unite, deși unele discrepanțe s-ar putea datora trecerii de la calendarul iulian la calendarul gregorian. Potrivit biografiei oficiale, tatăl ei s-a născut într-o familie de cazaci și a lucrat ca un actor și producător de teatru. Mama ei era o balerină de origine suedeză. La mijlocul anilor 1920 ea s-a căsătorit la Kiev cu actorul de varietăți Boris Sten (născut Bernstein) și a luat numele lui de familie ca nume de scenă.

În cele mai multe surse străine numele ei de fată sunt scrise Stenska și Sudakevich, sau o combinație a acestora (precum variantele comune Anel (Anyushka) Stenska-Sudakevich sau Annel (Anjuschka) Stenskaja Sudakewitsch), iar așa se explică de ce Sten a fost identificată în mod greșit cu actrița rusă Anel Sudakevich, care jucat în filmele sovietice în același timp și cu unii din aceeași regizori cu care a lucrat și Anna Sten. Actrițele au fost adesea confundate una cu cealaltă.

Sten a urmat studii la Facultatea de Teatru din Kiev, a lucrat ca reporteriță și a jucat simultan la Teatrul Mic din Kiev, a participat la cursuri de teatru unde a învățat sistemul Stanislavski. În 1926, ea a trecut cu succes examenele de admitere la primul teatru proletcultist din Moscova.

Cariera
În 1926, după finalizarea studiilor la școala de teatru de la Kiev, Sten a fost invitată de regizorul ucrainean Viktor Turin să apară în filmul Provokator, inspirat de cartea scriitorului ucrainean Oles Dosvitnîi. Sten a fost descoperită de către profesorul și regizorul rus de teatru Konstantin Stanislavski, care a aranjat o audiție pentru ea la Academia de Film de la Moscova. Sten continuat să joace în alte piese de teatru și filme în Ucraina și Rusia, inclusiv comedia The Girl with a Hatbox  (1927) a lui Boris Barnet. Ea și soțul ei, regizorul rus de film Fedor Ozep, au călătorit în Germania pentru a apărea în coproducția germano-sovietică studios, The Yellow Ticket  (1928). După ce filmul a fost terminat, Anna Sten și soțul ei au decis să nu se mai întoarcă în Uniunea Sovietică.

După o tranziție lină la filmele sonore, Sten a apărut în filmele germane ca Trapez (1931) și Criminalul Dimitri Karamazov (1931), până când a ajuns în atenția producătorului american de film Samuel Goldwyn. Goldwyn era în căutarea unei actrițe străine care să devină o rivală a Gretei Garbo și o posibilă succesoare a Vilmei Bánky, cu care Goldwyn avusese mare succes în epoca filmului mut. Timp de doi ani după aducerea Annei Sten în America, Goldwyn a depus eforturi ca ea să învețe limba engleză și metodele de actorie de la  Hollywood. El a cheltuit mult timp și mulți bani în primul film american în care a apărut Sten, Nana (1934), o ecranizare a romanului scandalos al lui Émile Zola din secolul al XIX-lea. Dar filmul nu a avut succes la box-office, cum nu au avut nici cele două filme ulterioare ale lui Goldwyn, We Live Again (1934) și The Wedding Night (1935), în care a jucat alături de Gary Cooper. Nemulțumit, Goldwyn a reziliat contractul cu "noua Garbo". Susținerea Annei Sten de către Goldwyn  este menționată în piesa "Anything Goes" (1934) a lui Cole Porter din musicalul cu același nume: "When Sam Goldwyn can with great conviction / Instruct Anna Sten in diction / Then Anna shows / Anything goes."

În anii 1940, Sten a apărut în mai multe filme, inclusiv The Man I Love (1940), So Ends Our Night  (1941), Chetniks! The Fighting Guerrillas (1943), They Came to Blow Up America (1943), Three Russian Girls (1943) și Let's Live a Little (1948). Sten a continuat să joace în filme în Statele Unite și în Anglia, dar nici unul dintre ele nu a avut succes. Încercând să remedieze această situație prin urmarea unor studii la The Actors Studio, Sten a apărut în mai multe seriale de televiziune în anii 1950, inclusiv Red Skelton Show (1956), The Walter Winchell File (1957) și Adventures in Paradise (1959).

Sfârșitul carierei
Mai târziu, majoritatea aparițiilor în filme a lui Sten au fost favoruri făcute soțului ei. Ea a avut o apariție în filmul Heaven Knows, Mr. Allison (1957) produs de Frenke și un rol principal în ultimul ei film (produs tot de Frenke), The Nun and the Sergeant (1962).

Sten a murit pe 12 noiembrie 1993, în orașul New York, la vârsta de 84 de ani.

Viața personală
Sten a fost căsătorită cu producătorul de film american Eugene Frenke, a cărui carieră a înflorit la Hollywood după ce și-a urmat soția acolo, în 1932.

Filmografie

Referințe
 Note

 Citări

Legături externe

 Photographs and literature

 Anna Sten Biography (in Russian)

Nașteri în anii 1900
Decese în 1993
Actrițe americane din secolul al XX-lea
Americani de origine rusă

Anna Sten


Bridgewater College is a private liberal-arts college in Bridgewater, Virginia. Established in 1880, Bridgewater College admitted both men and women from the time of its founding and was the first four-year liberal arts college in Virginia to do so.  Approximately 1,800 students are enrolled.

History

Bridgewater College was established in 1880 as Spring Creek Normal and Collegiate Institute by Daniel Christian Flory. Nine years later, the school was named Bridgewater College and chartered by the Commonwealth of Virginia to grant undergraduate degrees. Bridgewater conferred its first Bachelor of Arts degree on June 1, 1891. In 1895, the Chairman of the Faculty, Walter B. Yount, a graduate of what would become Juniata College and the University of Virginia was named the college's first President. After his retirement in 1910, John S. Flory (an early Bridgewater graduate who also received degrees from other institution and had served on the faculty and as vice-president) succeeded him as the college's president.

Bridgewater College became the first senior co-educational liberal arts college in Virginia and one of the few accredited colleges of its type in the South.

The oldest portion of the Bridgewater College campus, consisting of five fine brick collegiate buildings constructed before 1911, is included in the Bridgewater Historic District.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.

2022 shooting

On February 1, 2022, 55-year-old campus police officer John Painter and 48-year-old campus safety officer J.J. Jefferson were shot and killed on campus after being called to investigate a suspicious person on campus. The shooter, a 27-year-old former student named Alexander Wyatt Campbell, was later apprehended after a manhunt and suffered a gunshot injury at some point during the incident.

Repatriation of Native American items
The college is returning sacred funerary belongings and remains that were donated to the college. These items are protected by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA).

Academics
Bridgewater offers more than 60 majors and minors, awarding the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees. Bridgewater students have the opportunity to study abroad through the BCA Study Abroad program and May Term Travel Courses.

Bridgewater also offers the Flory Honors Program. Flory Fellows gain access to many opportunities and benefits, including honors sections of general education courses limited to 15 students each, housing within the honors community, and more.

Bridgewater began offering its first masters program in Athletic Training for the 2017–2018 school year, and now offers a Master of Arts in Digital Media Strategy for the 2018–2019 school year. Bridgewater College hopes to include more graduate programs in the future. Bridgewater was ranked #229 in National Liberal arts colleges based on U.S. News Report

Student life

Traditions
Annual events at Bridgewater College celebrate tradition, community, alumni, and culture. Founder's Day observance at Bridgewater commemorates the April 3, 1854, birth of Daniel Christian Flory, who began Bridgewater College in 1880, at the age of 26.

Homecoming weekend in October welcomes alumni back to the college with class reunions, outdoor festivities, a home football game and the annual Athletic Hall of Fame banquet.

Athletics

Bridgewater College is a Division III member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and follows guidelines and policies set forth by this governing body. The teams are members of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC), which has 14 member institutions.

Notable people

Alumni
 G. Steven Agee, former Justice of the Supreme Court of Virginia and now a Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit
 Pasco Middleton Bowman II, Senior federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit
 David Branshaw, professional golfer.
 Ray Bussard, former NCAA Championship (1978) winning Men's Swim Coach at University of Tennessee from 1968 to 1989
 Moses H. W. Chan, Physicist elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2000
 Wolfgang Drechsler, German social scientist and government adviser
 Phil Eyler, Canadian politician
 Jacob A. Garber, U.S. Representative, 1929-1931
 Nathan H. Miller, politician
 Richard D. Obenshain, politician

Faculty
 Carl Bowman, sociologist

References

External links

 Official website
 Official athletics website

Private universities and colleges in Virginia
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Church of the Brethren
Educational institutions established in 1880
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Education in Rockingham County, Virginia
Buildings and structures in Rockingham County, Virginia
1880 establishments in Virginia

Bridgewater College


Skutulfuglar (fræðiheiti: Anhingidae), einnig kallaðir skutlar eða slönguhálsfuglar, er ætt árfeta.

Heimildaskrá

Árfetar

Skutulfuglar


The Battle of Caporetto (also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, the Battle of Kobarid or the Battle of Karfreit) was a battle on the Italian front of World War I.

The battle was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Central Powers and took place from 24th of October to 19th of November 1917, near the town of Kobarid (now in north-western Slovenia, then part of the Austrian Littoral), also was near the river Isonzo. The battle was named after the Italian name of the town (also known as Karfreit in German).

Austro-Hungarian forces, reinforced by German units, were able to break into the Italian front line and rout the Italian forces opposing them. The battle was a demonstration of the effectiveness of the use of stormtroopers and the infiltration tactics developed in part by Oskar von Hutier. The use of poison gas by the Germans also played a key role in the collapse of the Italian Second Army.

The rest of the Italian Army retreated  to the Piave River, its effective strength declined from 1,800,000 troops down to 1,000,000 and the government of Paolo Boselli collapsed.

Prelude

 Throughout the spring and summer of 1917, the Italians had launched numerous offensives on the Austro-Hungarian Lines in the Isonzo Sector, with the 11th Battle of the Isonzo being the most successful in pushing back the Austro-Hungarians. After the Italian success in the 11th Battle of the Isonzo, Emperor Karl knew a breakthrough was going to happen at any moment, as both the Austro-Hungarians and Italians were exhausted, and running out of men to sustain the war. So, he wrote to Kaiser Wilhelm II and requested that German forces be deployed to Italy.
In August 1917 Paul von Hindenburg and Arthur Arz von Straußenburg decided to send troops from the Eastern Front to the Isonzo Sector. Erich Ludendorff was opposed to this but was overruled. Later, in September three experts from the Imperial General Staff, led by the chemist Otto Hahn, went to the Isonzo front to find a site suitable for a gas attack. They proposed attacking the quiet Caporetto sector, where a good road ran west through a mountain valley to the Venetian Plain. The Germans also sent Lieutenant General Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen, an expert in mountain warfare to reconnoitre the ground.

The Austro-Hungarian Army Group Boroević, commanded by Svetozar Boroević, was prepared for the offensive. In addition, a new 14th Army was formed with nine Austrian and six to eight German divisions, which were commanded by the German Otto von Below. The German divisions were Ludendorff's general reserve. Lieutenant Colonel Georg Wetzell, Ludendorff's strategic adviser, advised Ludendorff to use the German divisions to attack a weakpoint in the Italian line. The Italians inadvertently helped by providing weather information over their radio.

The German and Austro-Hungarian battle plan was to use Otto von Below's German divisions, which would be guided by Konrad Krafft to attack a part of the Julian Alps which was near the northeastern corner of the Venetian salient. Meanwhile, Svetozar's Austro-Hungarian army would attack the eastern end of the salient and a stretch of ground near the Adriatic shore.

The buildup of German and Austro-Hungarian military forces in the region was noticed by Italian air reconnaissance.

Battle

Foul weather, as well as lack of readiness in some of the Austro-Hungarian divisions and in particular of their artillery, delayed the attack for two days but on 24 October there was no wind and the front was misted over. At 02:00, in the northern area of the battle (near Bovec/Plezzo) 894 metal tubes similar to Livens Projectors (), dug into a reverse slope, were triggered electrically to simultaneously fire canisters containing  of chlorine-arsenic agent and diphosgene, smothering the Italian trenches in a dense cloud of poison gas. Knowing that their gas masks could protect them only for two hours or less, the defenders fled, though 500–600 were still killed. Other parts of the valley were bombed with gas from common grenades. Then the front was quiet until 06:00, when all the Italian wire and trenches to be attacked were bombarded by mortars.

At 06:41, 2,200 guns opened fire, many targeting the valley road along which reserves were advancing to plug the gap. At 08:00 two large mines were detonated under strong points on the heights bordering the valley and the infantry attacked. Soon they penetrated the almost undefended Italian fortifications in the valley, breaching the defensive line of the Italian Second Army between the IV and XXVII Corps. To protect the attackers' flanks, Alpine Troops infiltrated the strong points and batteries along the crests of the adjoining ridges, Matajur and Kolovrat, laying out their telephone lines as they advanced to maintain contact with their artillery. Specially-trained and equipped stormtrooper units led attacks, making use of the new German model 08/15 Maxim light machine gun, light trench mortars, mountain guns, flamethrowers and hand grenades.

The attackers in the valley marched almost unopposed along the excellent road toward Italy, some advanced  on the first day. The Italian army beat back the attackers on either side of the sector where the central column attacked, but von Below's successful central penetration threw the entire Italian army into disarray. Forces had to be moved along the Italian front in an attempt to stem von Below's breakout, but this only weakened other points along the line and invited further attacks. At this point, the entire Italian position was threatened.

The Italian 2nd Army commander Luigi Capello was bedridden with fever. Recognizing that his forces were ill-prepared for this attack and were being routed, Capello requested permission to withdraw to the Tagliamento River. Cadorna, who believed the Italian force could regroup and hold out, denied the request. Finally, on 30 October 1917, Cadorna ordered the majority of the Italian force to retreat to the other side of the Tagliamento. It took the Italians four full days to cross the river, and by this time the German and Austro-Hungarian armies were on their heels, ambushing the defenders whenever they could. These ambushes would become known as the Battle of Pozzuolo. Eventually, the retreating Italian soldiers were able to break through the Austro-German encirclement and retreat to the Tagliamento. Then, on 2 November, after an attack by Captain Emil Redl's 4th Battalion of the 4th Bosnian Infantry Regiment, the 55th Infantry Division (Austria-Hungary) established a bridgehead across the Tagliamento River. About this time, however, the rapid success of the attack caught up with them. The German and Austro-Hungarian supply lines were stretched to the breaking point and unable to launch another attack to isolate a part of the Italian army against the Adriatic. Cadorna was able to retreat further and by 10 November had established a position on the Piave River and Monte Grappa.

Even before the battle, Germany was struggling to feed and supply its armies in the field. Erwin Rommel, who as a junior officer won the Pour le Mérite for his accomplishments in the battle, often bemoaned the demands placed upon his "poorly fed troops". The Allied blockade of the German Empire, which the Kaiserliche Marine had been unable to break, had led to food shortages and widespread malnutrition in Germany and the Central Powers in general. The inadequate provisioning, as well as the grueling night marches preliminary to the Battle of Caporetto, took a toll on the German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Despite these logistical problems, the initial assault was extremely successful. However, as the area controlled by the combined Central Powers forces expanded, an already limited logistical capacity was overstrained. By the time the attack reached the Piave, the soldiers of the Central Powers were running low on supplies and were feeling the effects of exhaustion. As the Italians began to counter the pressure put on them, the German forces lost momentum and were once again caught up in another round of attrition warfare.

Aftermath

Analysis
Brian R. Sullivan called Caporetto "the greatest defeat in Italian military history." John R. Schindler wrote "By any standard, Twelfth Isonzo [Caporetto] and its aftermath represented an unprecedented catastrophe for Italian arms." The disaster "came as a shock" and "triggered a search for scapegoats," culminating in a 1919 Italian military commission that investigated the causes of the debacle. At Rapallo, a Supreme War Council was created to improve Allied military co-operation and develop a common strategy. Luigi Cadorna was forced to resign after the defeat, a final straw according to the Prime Minister, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. Cadorna was known to have maintained poor relations with the other generals on his staff and by the start of the battle, had sacked 217 generals, 255 colonels and 355 battalion commanders.

In addition, he was detested by his troops as being too harsh. Cadorna had been directing the battle some  behind the front and retreated another  to Padua. Cadorna was replaced by Armando Diaz and Pietro Badoglio, who commanded one of the corps easily overwhelmed by the Germans in the early stages of the battle, but escaped from all charges during the commission hearings. Italian propaganda offices were established, promising land and social justice to soldiers. Italy also accepted a more cautious military strategy from this point on. Diaz concentrated his efforts on rebuilding his shattered forces while taking advantage of the national rejuvenation that had been spurred by invasion and defeat.

Casualties

Italian losses were enormous: 13,000 were killed, 30,000 wounded and 265,000–275,000 were taken prisoner. Morale was so low among the Italian troops, mainly due to Cadorna's harsh disciplinary regime, that most of these surrendered willingly. 3,152 artillery pieces, 3,000 machine guns and 1,712 mortars were lost, along with a vast amount of stores and equipment. In contrast, the Austro-Hungarians and Germans sustained between 20,000 and 70,000 casualties.

Subsequent operations
The last push of Austro-Hungarian and German forces was met and defeated by Italian forces at the First Battle of Monte Grappa: they had advanced more than  in the direction of Venice, but they were not able to cross the Piave River. Up to this point the Italians had been left to fight on their own but, after the Battle of Caporetto, Britain and France sent reinforcements to the Italians. They were reinforced by six French infantry divisions and five British infantry divisions as well as sizeable air contingents. However, these troops played no role in stemming the advancing Germans and Austro-Hungarians, because they were deployed on the Mincio River, some  behind the Piave, as the British and French strategists did not believe the Piave line could be held.

The Piave served as a natural barrier where the Italians could establish a new defensive line, which was held during the subsequent Battle of the Piave River and later served as springboard for the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, where the Austro-Hungarian army was finally defeated after eleven days of resistance. On November 5, Allied officials came together at Rapallo to form the Supreme War Council.

Legacy

Opera Nazionale Combattenti, an Italian charitable organisation, was set up in December 1917 in the immediate aftermath of the battle, to provide assistance to veterans of the First World War; it was closed in 1977.

After the battle, the term "Caporetto" gained a particular resonance in Italy. It is used to denote a terrible defeat – the failed General Strike of 1922 by the socialists was referred to by Mussolini as the "Caporetto of Italian Socialism". Many years after the war, Caporetto was still being used to destroy the credibility of the liberal state.

The Battle of Caporetto has been the subject of a number of books. British writer and military historian Cyril Falls's one volume The Battle of Caporetto is an operational and tactical account of the battle as the centerpiece of the larger campaign in northeastern Italy. Infanterie greift an (Infantry Attacks), an interwar memoir and military handbook written by the future German field marshal Erwin Rommel, features the actions of then lieutenant Rommel and units he led during the battle, providing insight into "stormtrooper" tactics. The Swedish author F.J. Nordstedt (pseud. Christian Braw) wrote about the battle in his novel Caporetto. The bloody aftermath of Caporetto was vividly described by Ernest Hemingway in his novel A Farewell to Arms. Curzio Malaparte wrote an excoriation of the battle in his first book, Viva Caporetto, published in 1921. It was censored by the state and suppressed; it was finally published in 1980. The battle also features prominently in the novel Questa storia by Alessandro Baricco.

Today, a museum in the town of Kobarid is dedicated to the Isonzo Battles in general, and the Caporetto Battle in particular.

See also
 Italian prisoners of war in World War I

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

 Anna Grillini: Caporetto, Battle of, in: 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
 Simon Jones: The Gas Attack at Caporetto, 24th October 1917

1917 in Italy
1917 in Austria-Hungary
Modern history of Slovenia
Military history of Italy during World War I
Battles of World War I involving Italy
Battles of World War I involving Austria-Hungary
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of the Italian Front
1910s in Slovenia
October 1917 events
November 1917 events
Battles of the Isonzo
Battles involving Slovenia

Battle of Caporetto


Saargrund ist ein Ortsteil der Stadt Eisfeld im Landkreis Hildburghausen in Thüringen.

Lage
Saargrund liegt an der Bundesstraße 281 nördlich von Sachsenbrunn in einem Tal des Thüringer Schiefergebirges. Rechts und links der Straße befinden sich Wiesen und an den Hängen Felsen und Wald.

Geschichte
1730/31 wurde das Dorf erstmals urkundlich erwähnt.

100 Personen wohnten 2012 im Ortsteil.

Zum 1. Januar 2019 kam Saargrund im Zuge der Eingemeindung von Sachsenbrunn zur Stadt Eisfeld.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Ort im Landkreis Hildburghausen
Geographie (Eisfeld)
Ersterwähnung 1730
Gemeindeauflösung 1994
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Hildburghausen)

Saargrund


Alfred James Lotka (født 2. marts 1880 i Lemberg, Østrig-Ungarn, død 5. december 1949 i Red Bank, New Jersey, USA) var en amerikansk matematiker, fysisk kemiker og statistiker.

Opvækst og uddannelse
Alfred James Lotka blev født 5. december 1880 i det daværende Lemberg i Østrig-Ungarn, som nu hedder Lviv og ligger Ukraine. Hans forældre Jacques and Marie Doebely Lotka var amerikanske missionærer.

Alfred Lotka voksede op i Frankrig, blev Bachelor of Science ved Birmingham University i England i 1901 og studerede efterfølgende kemi i et år ved Leipzig Universitet i Tyskland hvor han blev påvirket af Wilhelm Ostwald. I 1902 flyttede han til USA hvor han arbejdede i forskellige jobs af kortere varighed, skrev artikler om fysisk biologi samt studerede på Cornell University hvorfra han fik en kandidatgrad i 1909. I 1912 fik Alfred Lotka en doktorgrad fra Birmingham baseret på 12 videnskabelige artikler, som han havde skrevet.

Matematisk biologi
Lotka begyndte i stigende grad at anvende matematiske metoder inden for biologi. I 1920 skrev han artiklen "Analytical note on certain rhythmic relations in organic systems", hvori han beskriver hvordan vekselvirkningen mellem populationer af rovdyr og byttedyr kan føre til vedvarende svingninger i størrelsen af populationerne. Vito Volterra, som ikke kendte Lotkas arbejde, lavede samme analyse i 1926, og modellen kendes nu som Lotka-Volterra-ligningerne.

I 1925 udgav Lotka bogen Elements of Physical Biology hvor han behandlede forholdet mellem rovdyr og byttedyr, eller mellem parasit og værtsorganisme, yderligere. Bogen blev genoptrykt i 1956 med titlen Elements of Mathematical Biology, og den er nu en klassiker indenfor økologi.

Statistiker og demograf
I 1924 fik Alfred Lotka arbejde som statistiker og demograf i livsforsikringsselskabet Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (MetLife), hvor han var ansat indtil han gik på pension i 1947. På trods af den ikke-akademiske karriere som statistiker i et forsikringsselskab vedblev Alfred Lotka med at skrive videnskabelige artikler og var anerkendt i den akademiske verden for sit arbejde. Han skrev meget om demografiske emner og anses som en af grundlæggerne af disciplinen matematisk demografi. Han skrev om mange emner spændende fra malaria-epidemiologi, befolkningsprognoser, sterilitet i ægteskaber, familers uddøden til livslængde og mange andre ting.

Organisationsarbejde
Alfred Lotka var aktiv i mange organisationer. Han var formand for Population Association of America i 1938-1939 og formand for American Statistical Association i 1942, næstformand i International Union for the Scientific Investigation of Population Problems i 1948-1949, formand for United States National Committee of the Union i 1948-1949. Han var fellow i American Public Health Association, American Statistical Association, American Association for the Advancement of Science og Institute of Mathematical Statistics, og medlem af adskillige andre selskaber.

Produktion
Lotka skrev i alt over 100 videnskabelige artikler om emner som matematisk analyse af befolkningstal og evolution, forsikringsvidenskab, teoretisk og anvendt demografi, matematik, fysik, kemi, biologi og økonomi. Han skrev bøgerne Elements of Physical Biology (1925) og Theorie Analytique des Associations Biologiques (to bind i hhv. 1934 og 1939), og var med medforfatter til bøgerne The Money Value of a Man (1930), Length of Life (1936) og Twenty-five Years of Health Progress (1937) sammen med Louis I. Dublin, som også arbejdede ved MetLife.

Alfred Lotka blev gift med Romola Beattie i 1935. De fik ingen børn. Efter han gik på pension i 1947, arbejdede han med at revidere og oversætte Theorie Analytique des Associations Biologiques til engelsk. Alfred Lotka døde 5. december 1949 i Red Bank, New Jersey.

Referencer

Matematikere fra USA
Statistikere fra USA
Kemikere fra USA
Biologer fra USA
Fysikere fra USA
Økologer
Populationsdynamik
Biofysikere

Alfred J. Lotka


Lys sodalbatros () er en stormfugl, der lever på den sydlige halvkugle.

Noter
 Avibase - the world bird database

Eksterne henvisninger

Atlanterhavets fugle
Det Indiske Oceans fugle
Stillehavets fugle
Det sydlige ishavs fugle
Stormfugle

Lys sodalbatros


Manic Miner is a platform game written for the ZX Spectrum by Matthew Smith. It was published by Bug-Byte in 1983, then later the same year by Software Projects. The first game in the Miner Willy series, the design was inspired by Miner 2049er (1982) for the Atari 8-bit family. Retro Gamer called Manic Miner one of the most influential platform games of all time, and it has been ported to numerous home computers, video game consoles, and mobile phones.

Gameplay

In each of the twenty caverns, each one screen in size, are several flashing objects, which the player must collect before Willy's oxygen supply runs out. Once the player has collected the objects in one cavern, they must then go to the now-flashing portal, which will take them to the next cavern. The player must avoid enemies, listed in the cassette inlay as "...Poisonous Pansies, Spiders, Slime, and worst of all, Manic Mining Robots..." which move along predefined paths at constant speeds. Willy can also be killed by falling too far, so players must time the precision of jumps and other movements to prevent such falls or collisions with the enemies.

Extra lives are gained every 10,000 points, and the game ends when the player has no lives left. Above the final portal is a garden. To the right is a house with a white picket fence and red car parked in front. To the left is a slope leading to backyard with a pond and tree; a white animal, resembling a cat or mouse, watches the sun set behind the pond. Upon gaining his freedom, the game restarts from the first level with no increase in difficulty.

The in-game music is In the Hall of the Mountain King from Edvard Grieg's music to Henrik Ibsen's play Peer Gynt. The music that plays during the title screen is an arrangement of The Blue Danube.

Release

There are some differences between the Bug-Byte and Software Projects versions.

 In Processing Plant, the enemy at the end of the conveyor belt is a bush in the original, whereas the Software Projects one resembles a Pac-Man ghost.
 In Amoebatrons' Revenge, the original Bug-Byte amoebatrons look like alien octopuses with tentacles hanging down, whereas the Software Projects amoebatrons resemble the Bug-Byte logo.
 In The Warehouse, the original game has threshers travelling up and down the vertical slots, rotating about the screen's X-axis. The Software Projects version has Penrose triangles (i.e. the Software Projects logo) instead, which rotate about the screen's Z-axis.
 The Bug-Byte cheat code was the numerical sequence "6031769" - based on Matthew Smith's driving licence. In the Software Projects version this changed to "typewriter".

Ports

The game was officially ported to the Commodore 64, Commodore 16, Amstrad CPC, BBC Micro, Dragon 32/64, Amiga, Oric 1, Game Boy Advance, MSX, SAM Coupé, and mobile phones.

SAM Coupé

The SAM Coupé version, programmed by Matthew Holt, like the ZX original requires pixel-perfect timing, and both graphics and audio, the latter by František Fuka, were greatly updated. In addition to the original twenty caverns, forty additional caverns were included in this release. Levels were designed by David Ledbury, and winners of a competition run by SAM Computers Ltd.

PMD 85
The game was ported for Czechoslovak Computers PMD 85 in 1985. The authors of the PMD 85 version are Vít Libovický and Daniel Jenne. They made it as accurate as they could.

BBC Micro
The BBC Micro version does not have the Solar Power Generator, instead containing a completely different room called "The Meteor Shower". This has the "reflecting machines" from the Solar Power Generator, but there is no beam of light. Instead, it has meteors which descend from the top of the screen and disintegrate when they hit platforms, like the Skylabs in Skylab Landing Bay. It also has forcefields which turn on and off, and the layout is completely different.

Also, the very last screen (which is still called The Final Barrier) is complex and difficult (unlike the Spectrum version, which is considered to be fairly easy) and has a completely different layout. It also features the blinking forcefields.

Amstrad CPC
The Amstrad version was effectively the same as the Spectrum version by Software Projects, except that Eugene's Lair was renamed "Eugene Was Here," and the layout of The Final Barrier was again completely different (but is more similar to the Spectrum version than the BBC version).

Dragon 32/64

The Dragon 32 version, programmed by Roy Coates, had two extra rooms (i.e. 22 altogether) and a cheat mode accessed by typing "P", "P", "ENGUIN". To retain the resolution of the original, the Dragon version used PMODE 4 in black/white mode.

Oric/Atmos
Programmed by Chris Larkin, the Oric version has 32 screens instead of 20.

Commodore 16
The Commodore 16 version was limited in a number of respects - this was mainly due to the initial lack of developer material for the C16 machine, and a two-week deadline to produce and test the game, then generate a master tape for the duplication house.
Other issues related to the lack of a fast loader system for the C16 cassette deck, as a result it took about seven minutes for the game to load, and a bug resulted in the game entering the first screen as soon as the tape had finished loading instead of waiting for the user to start the game. Further issues related to the lack of music and in game sound, and the way that video memory was mapped in the C16, this resulted in a number of the screens having to be removed so that load time and video mapping could be correctly handled.

Reception
In August 1983, sales of Bug-Byte's original ZX Spectrum release of Manic Miner took the game to the top of the UK video games charts replacing Jet Pac.
The Commodore 64 version, released by Software Projects, reached the number one position in early 1984. It went on to become the best selling Commodore 64 game and third best selling ZX Spectrum game of 1984.

The SAM Coupé version scored 84% in Your Sinclair and 88% in Crash.

Manic Miner was the winner of "Best Arcade Style Game", and placed third in the "Game of the Year" category at the 1983 Golden Joystick Awards voted for by readers of Computer and Video Games magazine.
Manic Miner was placed at number 25 in the "Your Sinclair official top 100" Spectrum games of all time, and was later voted number 6 in the Readers' Top 100 Games of All Time.

In 1991, ACE magazine listed Manic Miner and its sequel Jet Set Willy, along with Hunchback, Impossible Mission, and the Mario series, as the greatest platform games of all time calling  Manic Miner "the first great home computer platform game".

The game was #97 on Polygon's 2017 retrospective list of the 500 best games of all time.

Legacy
Unofficial ports exist for Microsoft Windows, MS-DOS, Linux, Macintosh, Atari ST, ZX81, TRS-80 Color Computer, PlayStation, Playdate Nintendo 64, Neo Geo Pocket Color, Acorn Archimedes, Orao, Cambridge Z88, PMD 85, HP48, Zune, Acorn Atom, Acorn Electron, Commodore 128, and VIC-20.

The sequel to Manic Miner is Jet Set Willy, and it was followed by Jet Set Willy II. Software Projects also released a game in the style of Manic Miner for the VIC-20 called The Perils of Willy.

Manic Miner 360 was released for the Xbox 360 as an Xbox Live Indie Game 21 June 2012.

A homage to the Manic Miner loading screen appears in one episode of the 2005 British sitcom Nathan Barley.

See also
 Miner Willy series of games
 Roller Coaster
 Miner 2049er
 Blagger
 Sir Lancelot

References

External links

 Manic Miner at World Of Spectrum

 Complete video from the C64 Version on archive.org
 Retro Gamer Magazine: The Making Of Manic Miner
 HTML5 version
Android Orao emulator containing Manic Miner

1983 video games
Amiga games
Amsoft games
Amstrad CPC games
BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games
Bug-Byte Software games
Commodore 16 and Plus/4 games
Commodore 64 games
Dragon 32 games
Fiction about mining
Game Boy Advance games
Golden Joystick Award winners
Mobile games
MSX games
Oric games
Platformers
PMD 85 games
SAM Coupé games
Single-player video games
Software Projects games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in the United Kingdom
ZX Spectrum games

Manic Miner


Crkva sv. Marije Magdalene u Kapeli župna je rimokatolička crkva u Kapeli u Bjelovarsko-bilogorskoj županiji.

Današnja crkva izgrađena je na mjestu kapele, koja je postojala još 1205. godine. Prema narodnoj predaji, ova crkva preuređena u 18. stoljeću, bila je nanovo sagrađena od opeke nekadašnjeg pavlinskog samostana u Pavlin Kloštru.

Zagrebački nadbiskup bl. Alojzije Stepinac posjetio je župnu crkvu u lipnju 1935. Prilikom jačeg potresa na Bilogori koji je pogodio i Kapelu 27. ožujka 1938., srušio se crkveni zvonik i bio uništen velik dio crkve. Njemački zrakoplovi 11. studenoga 1944. u bombardiranju pogodili su crkvu sv. Marije Magdalene.

Crkveni toranj stradao u potresu 1938. pokušavalo se obnoviti više puta, ali svi su napori bili uzaludni do 2017. godine, kada je konačno obnovljen. Vizuru Kapele do tada je činio krnji crkveni toranj koji je podsjećao na nekakvu kulu.

Zaštitnica župe je sv. Marija Magdalena, čiji se spomendan svečano slavi 22. srpnja.

Izvori

Katoličke crkve u Hrvatskoj
Bjelovarsko-bilogorska županija
Kapela

Crkva sv. Marije Magdalene u Kapeli


Den fremmede kan henvise til:

 Den fremmede (roman) – en roman af Albert Camus
 Den fremmede (film fra 2009) – en dansk kortfilm fra 2009 instrueret af Nuka Wølk Mathiassen
 Den fremmede (film fra 2015) – en dansk kortfilm fra 2015 instrueret af Aske Bang

Den fremmede


Far er en dansk kortfilm fra 2012 instrueret af Per Dreyer.

Handling
Det er juleaften, og børnene glæder sig til, at far kommer med gaver. Men noget er galt. Far har en masse frostpizzaer med, han er usædvanligt opsat på at have sex med mor, og lejligheden har ingen vinduer.

Medvirkende

 Stefania Omarsdottir, Moderen
 Claus Bue, Faderen
 Igor August Svideniouk Egholm, Sønnen
 Silja Byske, Datteren

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2012

Far (film)


පරුෂාවාචය යනු අසන්නාගේ සිත රිදවීම සඳහා ප්‍රකාශ කරන ලද වචන ය.

පරුෂාවාච අකුසලය සඳහා සම්පූර්ණ විය යුතු අංග:
 සිත රිදවීම සඳහා පුද්ගලයෙක් සිටීම
 ක්‍රෝධ සහගත සිත් ඇති වීම
 සිත රිදවන වචන ප්‍රකාශ කිරීම

පරුෂාවාචය


Amerika yerlileri, Avrupalılar'ın gelişinden önce Amerika kıtasında yaşayan Eskimo-Aleut halkları ile Kızılderilileri kapsayan ortak ad. Bazıları bu adı İngilizce Amerindian terimin karşılığı olarak yalnızca Kızılderililer için kullanır ve Eskimo-Aleut halklarını dahil etmez. Alaska ve Kanada gibi hem Eskimo hem de Kızılderili nüfus barındıran yörelerde Amerika yerlisi adı her ikisi için kullanılırken, Kıta ABD'sinden Arjantin'e kadar Eskimo barındırmayan diğer yörelerde yalnızca Kızılderili anlamındadır.

ABD Nüfus Sayım Dairesi (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Sayım Bürosu) ülkedeki yerlileri American Indian and Alaska Native adı altında topluca ele alır ve American Indian («Amerikalı Hint») terimiyle Kıta ABDsi'ndeki yerliler (ki hepsi de Kızılderilidir) kastedilirken, Alaska Native («Alaska Yerlisi») terimi Alaska'daki yerlilerin tamamı (Aleutlar, Alaska Eskimoları, Alaska Kızılderilileri) için kullanılır.

Kanada'da aboriginal peoples («yerli halklar») olarak adlandırılır ve hem Kanada Eskimolarını (Inuit), hem Kanada Kızılderililerini (First Nations), hem de melez Métisleri nitelendirir. Kanada'da Indian («Kızılderili») adı "aşağılayıcı" (pejorative) bulunduğu için resmî olarak fazla kullanılmaz. Kanada'da Indian adı resmî olarak yalnızca Hintler için kullanılır.

Amerika yerlilerinin sınıflandırılması kültür bölgelerine, coğrafyası ve dillerine göre ayrı ayrı sınıflandırılır. Antropologlar genellikle akışkan sınırlı kültür bölgeleri olarak sınıflandırma eğilimindedirler. Bu kültür bölgeleri şu anki sınırlara göre değil, yerlilerin Amerika'nın keşif sürecinde Avrupalılarca karşılaştığı 15. yüzyıl başlarındaki konumları baz alınarak düzenlenir.

Amerika yerli dilleri, üç ana filum olarak, Eskimo ile Aleutların konuştuğu Eskimo-Aleut dilleri, Kızılderili Na-Dene halklarının konuştuğu Na-Dene dilleri ile bunların haricindeki bütün Kızılderili halklarının konuştuğu Amerind dilleri biçiminde sınıflandırılır. Na-Dene dillerinin Asya'daki Yenisey dilleri ile Dene-Yenisey dilleri adı altında birlikte sınıflandırılması fikri 2008 yılında Edward Vajda tarafından ortaya konmuştur ve Eskimolar dışında Asya kökenli olduğu dil bilimi kriterlerine göre ortaya konan ilk ve tek Kızılderili grubu budur. Geriye kalan diğer Kızılderililerin dilleri 1960 yılında Joseph Greenberg tarafından Amerind dilleri adı altında birleştirilmesi fikri ortaya atılmıştır, fakat bu teoriyi tarihi dil bilimcilerin çoğu reddeder.

Na-Dene dillerini konuşan halklar, İnuitler ve Alaska yerlileri haplogrup Q (Y-DNA) mutasyonları sergiler; bununla birlikte, diğer Kızılderililerde (Amerind dillerini konuşanlar) bulunan mtDNA mutasyonlarından farklıdır. Amerika yerlileri DNA'sına göre 12 genetik gruba ayrılır ve Eskimolar ile Na-Dene Kızılderilileri haricindeki Kızılderililerde 10 ayrı genetik gruplaşma görülür.

Diller

Amerika yerli dilleri, üç ana filum olarak sınıflandırılır: Eskimo ile Aleutların konuştuğu Eskimo-Aleut dilleri, Kızılderili Na-Dene halklarının konuştuğu Na-Dene dilleri ile bunların haricindeki bütün Kızılderili halklarının konuştuğu Amerind dilleri. Bu ana dil filumları yanında hiçbir dil ailesine girmeyen izole diller de bulunmaktadır. UNESCO'ya göre birçoğu ya tükenmiş ya da konuşulabilirliği tehlikededir

Genetik sınıflandırma

Amerika yerlileriyle ilişkili en yaygın haplogrup olarak Haplogrup Q1a3a (Y-DNA) verilmektedir. Tıpkı mtDNA gibi Y-DNA da diğer çekirdek kromozomlardan farklıdır ve Y kromozomu çoğunluğunda benzersiz olup mayoz bölünme sırasında rekombinasyona uğramaz. Bu etkiye sahip mutasyonların tarihsel dokusu kolayca incelenebilir. Bu dokular biribirinden oldukça farklı iki genetik bölüm oluşturur: birincisi, Amerika'nın başlangıç yerlileri; ikincisi, Amerika'nın Avrupalılar tarafından sömürgeleştirilmesinden sonraki sürecin yerlileri. Eski olan, kurucu haplotip ve gen çizgisi sayısı için belirleyici faktördür ve günümüzdeki amerika yerlilerinde bulunmaktadır.

Kurucu nüfus için Beringia'da ilk 20.000 yıl konaklamayla birlikte Bering Denizi kıyılarında insan yerleşimi aşamalı oluşmuştur.. Mikrosatelit çeşitliliği ve Y çizgisinin dağılımı ilk sömürgeleştirme döneminden beri izole edilmiş Güney Amerika bölgelerinde yaşayan Kızılderili gruplarına özgüdür</small>.. Na-Dene, İnuit ve Alaska Yerlileri haplogrup Q (Y-DNA) mutasyonları sergiler; bununla birlikte, diğer Kızılderililerde (Amerind dillerini konuşanlar) bulunan mtDNA mutasyonlarından farklıdır. Bu da gösteriyor ki, Grönland ve Kuzey Amerika'nın kuzey uç içlerine en erken göç daha sonraki nüfustan kaynaklanır.

Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups baz alınarak yapılan çalışmalara göre:

Kültür bölgeleri

Kuzey Amerika

Kuzey Amerika'da Kanada, Grönland, ABD ve Meksika'nın kuzeyindeki yerli halklar etnoğraflar tarafından 10 kültür bölgesine ayrılır. Bazı kültür gruplarının kapsamı araştırıcıya göre değişkenlik gösterebilmektedir.

 Eskimo (Arktik) kültür bölgesi Arctic (→ Eskimo–Aleut dilleri)
 Subarktik Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Subarctic (→ Na-Dene dilleri, Algonkin–Yurok dilleri)
 Kuzeydoğu Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Northeast (→ Algonkin–Yurok dilleri, İrokua dilleri)
 Pasifik Kuzeybatısı Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Northwest Coast (→ Haydaca, Çimşiyan dilleri, Vakaş dilleri)
 Plato Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Plateau (→ Saliş dilleri)
 Büyük Havza Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Great Basin
 Ova Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Plains (→ Siyu dilleri)
 Kaliforniya Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi California
 Güneydoğu Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Southeast
 Güneybatı Kızılderilileri kültür bölgesi Southwest

Arktik

 Paleo-Eskimo, tarihöncesi kültürler, Rusya, Alaska, Kanada, Grönland, 2500 MÖ–1500 MS
 Arctic small tool tradition, tarihöncesi kültürü, 2500 MÖ, Bering Boğazı
 Pre-Dorset, doğu Arktik, 2500–500 MÖ
 Saqqaq kültürü, Grönland, 2500–800 MÖ)
 Independence I kültürü, kuzeydoğu Kanada ve Grönland, 2400–1800 MÖ
 Independence II kültürü, kuzeydoğu Kanada ve Grönland, 800–1 MÖ)
 Groswater, Labrador and Nunavik, Kanada
 Dorset kültürü, 500 MÖ–1500 MS, Alaska, Kanada (muhtemelen arkaik kalıntısı 1903 yılında tükenen Sallirmiut halkı)
 Aleutlar, Aleut Adaları, Alaska ile Kamçatka Krayı, Rusya
 İnuit halkları, Rusya, Alaska, Kanada, Grönland
 Thule kültürü, Proto-İnuit, Alaska, Kanada, Grönland, 900–1500 MS
 Birnirk kültürü, tarihöncesi İnuit kültürü, Alaska, 500 MS–900 MS
 Grönland İnuitleri, Grönland
 Kalaallit, batı Grönland
 Avanersuarmiut, kuzey Grönland
 Tunumiit, doğu Grönland
 Batı Kanada İnuitleri, batı Arktik Kanada
 İnyupikler, kuzey ve kuzeybatı Alaska
 Yupik halkları, Alaska ve Rusya
 Supikler, Alaska Yarımadası, güney orta Alaska'nın kıyıları ve adalar bölgesi
 Alaska Yupikleri, batı orta Alaska
 Chevak Çupikleri, Hooper Bay ve Chevak, Alaska
 Nunivak Çupikleri, Nunivak Adası, Alaska
 Sibirya Yupikleri, Rus Uzak Doğusu ve St. Lawrence Adası, Alaska
 Chaplino Yupikleri, Sibirya
 Naukan Yupikleri, Sibirya
 Sirenik Yupikleri, Sibirya

Subarktik

Kaliforniya

Kaliforniya Kızılderili kültür grubu Kaliforniya eyaletinin sınırlarıyla uyumlu değildir ve buradaki bütün Kızılderilileri kapsamaz. Nevada ile birlikte doğu sınırındaki kabileler Büyük Havza Kızılderilileri kültür grubuna, Oregon sınırına yaın bazı kabileler ise Plato Kızılderilileri kültür grubuna dahildir

Kuzeydoğu

Büyük Havza

Plato

 Cayuse, Oregon
 Celilo (Wayampam)
 Chinook
 Columbian (Dialects: Wenatchee, Sinkayuse, Chelan)
 Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
 Colville, Washington
 Upper Cowlitz
 Flathead (Selisch or Salish), Idaho and Montana
 Klamath, Oregon
 Klickitat Tribe, Washington
 Kootenai/Ktunaxa, British Columbia, Montana, and Idaho
 Lower Snake (Chamnapam, Wauyukma, Naxiyampam)
 Modoc, California and Oregon
 Molala (Molale), Oregon
 Nimipular, Idaho
 Nikola Atabaskları (extinct)
 Nikola Salişleri (confederacy)
 Nlakapamuklar, British Columbia, formerly known as the Thompson people
 Okanaganlar (Syilx), British Columbia and Washington
 Palus (Palouse)
 Pend'Oreilles (Kalispel), Washington
 Rock Creek
 Sanpoil (tribe)
 Secwepemc (Shuswap), British Columbia
 Sinixt (Lakes), British Columbia, Washington, Idaho
 Spokane, Washington
 St'at'imc (Lillooet)
 Lil'wat
 In-SHUCK-ch
 Tenino (Warm Springs), Oregon
 Dalles Tenino
 Dock-Spus
 Tygh
 Wyam
 Umatilla, Oregon
 Upper Nisqually (Mishalpan)
 Walla Walla, Oregon
 Wanapum
 Wasco-Wishram, Oregon
 Yakama, Washington

Pasifik Kuzeybatısı

Büyük Ovalar

Büyük Ovalar'daki yerliler Kuzey ve Güney Ova Kızılderilileri olmak üzere iki ana grupta toplanırlar.

Güneydoğu

Güneybatı

Bazen Oasisamerica olarak adlandırılır ve Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Chihuahua ile Sonora bölgelerini kapsar.

Meksika ve Mezoamerika
Meksika, Mezoamerika ve Karayipler'deki yerli halklar genellikle, dil, çevre ve kültürüne göre sınıflandırılırlar.

Aridoamerika

Mezoamerika

Circum-Caribbean
Partially organized per Handbook of South American Indians.

Karayip
Anthropologist Julian Steward defined the Antilles cultural area, which includes all of the Antilles ve Bahamalar, except for Trinidad and Tobago.

 Arawak
 Taino, Greater Antilles, northern Lesser Antilles
 Lucayan, Bahamas
 Igneri, Lesser Antilles, 400—1000 MS
 Nepoya, Trinidad
 Suppoya, Trinidad
 Caquetio, Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and Venezuela
 Carib, Lesser Antilles
 Garifuna ("Black Carib"), Originally Dominika ve Saint Vincent, currently Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua
 Ciboney, Greater Antilles, ca. 1000—300 MÖ
 Guanahatabey (Guanajatabey), Cuba, 1000 MÖ
 Ciguayo, Hispaniola
 Garifuna ("Black Carib"), Originally Dominika ve Saint Vincent, currently Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua
 Ortoiroid, ca. 5500—200 MÖ
 Coroso culture, Puerto Rico, 1000 MÖ–200 MS
 Krum Bay culture, Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, 1500—200 MÖ
 Saladoid culture, 500 MÖ—545 MS

Orta Amerika
Orta Amerika kültürü El Salvador, Honduras, Nikaragua, Kosta Rika ve Panama ile Kolombiya ve Ekvador'un Pasifik Kıyılarında görülür.

Kolombiya ve Venezuela
Kolombiya ve Venezuela kültürü bugünkü Kolombiya ile Venezuela topraklarını içerir. Güney Kolombiya And kültür sahasına girer. Doğu Venezuela Guyanalar kültür sahasındadır ve güneydoğu Kolombiya ile güneybatı Venezuela Amazonya kültür sahasına dahildir.

Guyanalar
Kolombiya'nın kuzey kısımları, Fransız Guyanası, Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela ve Brezilya'daki Amazonas, Amapá, Pará, Roraima eyaletleri.

Doğu Brezilya
Brezilya'nın doğusundaki Ceará, Goiás, Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Pará ve Santa Catarina eyaletleri.

Andlar

 Andean Hunting-Collecting Tradition, Arjantin, 11,000–4,000 MS
 Awa-Kwaiker, northern Ecuador, southern Colombia
 Aymaralar, Bolivya, Chile, Peru
 Callawalla (Callahuaya), Bolivya
 Cañari, Ecuador
 Capulí culture, Ecuador, 800—1500 MS
 Cerro Narrio (Chaullabamba) (Precolumbian culture)
 Chachapoyas, Amazonas, Peru
 Chachilla (Cayapas)
 Chanka (Chanca), Peru
 Chavín, northern Peru, 900–200 MÖ
 Chincha people, Peru (Precolumbian culture)
 Chipaya, Oruro Department, Bolvia
 Chuquibamba culture (Precolumbian culture)
 Conchucos
 Diaguita
 Amaicha, Arjantin
 Calchaquí, Arjantin
 Chicoana, Salta, Arjantin
 Quilmes (Precolumbian culture), Arjantin
 Guangaia (Precolumbian culture)
 Ichuña microlithic tradition (Precolumbian culture)
 Inca Empire (Inka), based in Peru
 Jama-Coaque (Precolumbian culture)
 Killke culture, Peru, 900–1200 MS
 Kogi
 Kolla (Colla), Arjantin, Bolivya, Chile
 La Tolita (Precolumbian culture)
 Las Vegas culture, coastal Ecuador, 8000 MÖ–4600 MÖ
 Lauricocha culture, Peru, 8000–2500 MÖ
 Lima culture, Peru, 100–650 MS
 Maina, Ecuador, Peru
 Manteño-Huancavilca (Precolumbian culture)
 Milagro (Precolumbian culture)
 Mollo culture, Bolivya, 1000–1500 MS
 Muisca, Colombian highlands (Precolumbian culture)
 Pachacama (Precolumbian culture)
 Paez (Nasa culture), Colombian highlands (Precolumbian culture)
 Panzaleo (Precolumbian culture)
 Pasto
 Pijao, Colombia
 Keçuvalar (Kichua, Kichwa), Bolivya
 Chankas
 Wankas (Huancas)
 Quitu culture, 2000 MÖ—1550 MS
 Salinar (Precolumbian culture)
 Saraguro
 Tiwanaku culture (Tiahuanaco), 400-1000 MS, Bolivya
 Tsáchila (Colorado), Ecuador
 Tuza-Piartal (Precolumbian culture)
 Uru, Bolivya, Peru
 Uru-Murato, Bolivya
 Wari culture, central coast and highlands of Peru, 500–1000 MS
 Pocra culture, Ayacucho Province, Peru, 500–1000 MS

Pasifik Ovaları

 Amotape complex, northern coastal Peru, 9,000–7,1000 MÖ
 Atacameño (Atacama, Likan Antaí), Chile
 Awá, Colombia and Ecuador
 Bara, Colombia
 Cara culture, coastal Ecuador, 500 MÖ-1550 MS
 Bahía, Ecuador, 500 MÖ–500 MS
 Casma culture, coastal Peru, 1000–1400 MS
 Chancay, central coastal Peru, 1000–1450 MS
 Chango, coastal Peru, northern Chile
 Chimú, north coastal Peru, 1000–1450 MS
 Cupisnique (Precolumbian culture), 1000-200 MÖ, coastal Peru
 Lambayeque (Sican culture), north coastal Peru, 750–1375 MS
 Machalilla culture, coastal Ecuador, 1500–1100 MÖ
 Manteño civilization, western Ecuador, 850–1600 MS
 Moche (Mochica), north coastal Peru, 1-750 MS
 Nazca, south coastal Peru, 1-700 MS
 Norte Chico civilization (Precolumbian culture), coastal Peru
 Paiján culture, northern coastal Peru, 8,700–5,900 MÖ
 Paracas, south coastal Peru, 600-175 MÖ
 Recuay culture, Peru (Precolumbian culture)
 Tallán (Precolumbian culture), north coastal Peru
 Valdivia culture, Ecuador, 3500–1800 MÖ
 Virú culture, Piura Region, Peru, 200 MÖ–300 MS
 Wari culture (Huari culture), Peru, 500–1000 MS
 Yukpa (Yuko), Colombia
 Yurutí, Colombia

Amazon

Kuzeybatı Amazon
This region includes Amazonas in Brezilya; the Amazonas ve Putumayo Departments in Kolombiya; Cotopaxi, Los Rios, Morona-Santiago, Napo, and Pastaza Provinces and the Oriente Region in Ekvador; and the Loreto Region in Peru.

 Arabelalar, Loreto Region, Peru
 Arapasolar (Arapaco), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Baniwa
 Barbudolar, Loreto Region, Peru
 Bora, Loreto Region, Peru
 Candoshi-Shapra (Chapras), Loreto Region, Peru
 Carútana (Arara), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Chayahuita (Chaywita) Loreto Region, Peru
 Cocama, Loreto Region, Peru
 Cofán (Cofan), Putumayo Department, Kolombiya and Ecuador
 Cubeo (Kobeua), Amazonas, Brezilya and Kolombiya
 Dâw, Rio Negro, Brezilya
 Flecheiro
 Huaorani (Waorani, Waodani, Waos), Ekvador
 Hupda (Hup), Brezilya, Kolombiya
 Jibito, Loreto Region, Peru
 Jivaroan peoples, Ekvador ve Peru
 Achuar, Morona-Santiago Province ve Oriente Region, Ekvador ve Loreto Region, Peru
 Aguaruna (Aguarana), Ecuador, Peru
 Huambisa, Peru
 Shuar, Morona-Santiago Province ve Oriente Region, Ekvador ve Loreto Region, Peru
 Kachá (Shimaco, Urarina), Loreto Region, Peru
 Kamsá (Sebondoy), Putumayo Department, Kolombiya
 Kanamarí, Amazonas, Brezilya
 Kichua (Quichua)
 Cañari Kichua (Canari)
 Canelo Kichua (Canelos-Quichua), Pataza Province, Ekvador
 Chimborazo Kichua
 Cholos cuencanos
 Napo Runa (Napo Kichua, Quijos-Quichua, Napo-Quichua), Ekvador ve Peru
 Saraguro
 Sarayacu Kichua, Pastaza Province, Ekvador
 Korubu, Amazonas, Brezilya
 Kugapakori-Nahua
 Macaguaje (Majaguaje), Río Caquetá, Kolombiya
 Machiguenga, Peru
 Marubo
 Matsés (Mayoruna, Maxuruna), Brezilya ve Peru
 Mayoruna (Maxuruna)
 Miriti, Amazonas Department, Kolombiya
 Murato, Loreto Region, Peru
 Mura, Amazonas, Brezilya
 Pirahã (Mura-pirarrã), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Nukaklar (Nukak-Makú), doğu Kolombiya
 Ocaina, Loreto Region, Peru
 Omagua (Cambeba, Kambeba, Umana), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Orejón (Orejon), Napo Province, Ekvador
 Panoan, western Brezilya, Bolivya, Peru
 Sharpas
 Sionalar (Sioni), Amazonas Department, Kolombiya
 Siriano, Brezilya, Kolombiya
 Siusi, Amazonas, Brezilya
 Tarianolar (Tariana), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Tsohom Djapá
 Tukano (Tucano), Brezilya, Kolombiya
 Barasana (Pareroa, Taiwano), Amazonas, Brezilya ve Vaupés, Kolombiya
 Eastern Tukanoan (Tucanoan)
 Makuna (Buhagana, Macuna), Amazonas, Brezilya ve Vaupés, Kolombiya
 Waikino (Vaikino), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Waimiri-Atroari (Kinja, Uaimiri-Atroari), Amazonas ve Roraima, Brezilya
 Wanano (Unana, Vanana), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Witoto
 Murui Witoto, Loreto Region, Peru
 Yagua (Yahua), Loreta Region, Peru
 Yaminahua (Jaminawa, Yamanawa, Yaminawá), Pando Department, Bolivya
 Yora
 Záparo (Zaparo), Pastaza Province, Ekvador
 Zuruahã (Suruahá, Suruwaha), Amazonas, Brezilya

Doğu Amazon
This region includes Amazonas, Maranhão, and parts of Pará States in Brezilya.

 Amanayé (Ararandeura), Brezilya
 Araweté (Araueté, Bïde), Pará, Brezilya
 Awá (Guajá), Brezilya
 Chuncho, Peru
 Ge
 Guajajára (Guajajara), Maranhão, Brezilya
 Guarani, Paraguay
 Ka'apor, Maranhão, Brezilya
 Kuruaya, Pará, Brezilya
 Marajoara, Precolumbian culture, Pará, Brezilya
 Panará, Mato Grosso and Pará, Brezilya
 Parakanã (Paracana)
 Suruí do Pará, Pará, Brezilya
 Tembé (Tembe)
 Turiwára (Turiwara)
 Wayampi
 Zo'é people, Pará, Brezilya

Güney Amazon
This region includes southern Brezilya (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, parts of Pará, and Rondônia) and Eastern Bolivya (Beni Department).

 Apiacá (Apiaká), Mato Grosso and Pará, Brezilya
 Assuriní do Toncantins (Tocantin)
 Aweti (Aueto), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Bakairí (Bakairi)
 Chácobo (Chacobo), northwest Beni Department, Bolivya
 Chiquitano (Chiquito, Tarapecosi), Brezilya and Santa Cruz, Bolivya
 Cinta Larga, Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Enawene Nawe, Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Gavião of Rondônia
 Guarayu (Guarayo), Bolivya
 Ikpeng (Xicao), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Itene, Beni Department, Bolivya
 Irántxe (Iranche)
 Juma (Kagwahiva), Rondônia, Brezilya
 Jurúna (Yaruna, Juruna, Yudjá), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Kaiabi (Caiabi, Cajabi, Kajabi, Kayabi), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Kalapálo (Kalapalo), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Kamayurá (Camayura), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Kanoê (Kapixaná), Rondônia, Brezilya
 Karipuná (Caripuna)
 Karitiâna (Caritiana), Brezilya
 Kayapo, Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Kuikuro, Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Matipu, Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Mehináku (Mehinacu, Mehinako), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Moxo (Mojo), Bolivya
 Nahukuá (Nahuqua), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Nambikuára (Nambicuara, Nambikwara), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Pacahuara (Pacaguara, Pacawara), northwest Beni Deparmtent, Bolivya
 Pacajá (Pacaja)
 Panará, Mato Grosso and Pará, Brezilya
 Parecís (Paressi)
 Rikbaktsa (Erikbaksa), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Rio Pardo people, Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Sateré-Mawé (Maue), Brezilya
 Suyá (Kisedje), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Tacana (Takana), Beni and Madre de Dios Rivers, Bolivya
 Tapajó (Tapajo)
 Tapirapé (Tapirape)
 Tenharim
 Terena, Mato Gross and Mato Grosso do Sul, Brezilya
 Trumai, Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Tsimané (Chimané, Mosetén, Pano), Beni Department, Bolivya
 Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau, Rondônia, Brezilya
 Wari' (Pacanawa, Waricaca'), Rondônia, Brezilya
 Wauja (Waurá, Waura), Mato Grosso, Brezilya
 Wuy jugu (Mundurucu, Munduruku)
 Yawalapiti (Iaualapiti), Mato Grosso, Brezilya

Güneybatı Amazon
This region includes the Cuzco, Huánuco Junín, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali Regions of eastern Peru, parts of Acre, Amazonas, and Rondônia, Brezilya, and parts of the La Paz ve Beni Departments of Bolivya.

 Aguano (Santacrucino, Uguano), Peru
 Aikanã, Rondônia, Brezilya
 Akuntsu, Rondônia, Brezilya
 Amahuaca, Brezilya, Peru
 Asháninka (Campa, Chuncha), Acre, Brezilya and Junín, Pasco, Huánuco, and Ucayali, Peru
 Banawá (Jafí, Kitiya), Amazonas, Brezilya
 Cashibo (Carapache), Huánuco Region, Peru
 Conibo (Shipibo-Conibo), Peru and Amazonas, Brezilya
 Ese Ejja (Chama), Beni Department, Bolivya
 Harakmbut, Madre de Dios, Peru
 Amarakaeri, Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Kareneri, Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Huachipaeri, Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Arasairi, Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Manuquiari, Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Puikiri (Puncuri), Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Sapiteri, Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Toyeri, Madre de Dios Region, Peru
 Hi-Merimã, Himarimã, Amazonas, Brezilya
 Jamamadi, Acre and Amazonas, Brezilya
 Kaxinawá (Cashinahua, Huni Kuin), Peru and Acre, Brezilya
 Kulina (Culina), Peru
 Kwaza (Coaiá, Koaiá), Rondônia, Brezilya
 Latundê, Rondônia, Brezilya
 Machinere, Bolivya and Peru
 Mashco-Piro, Peru
 Matís (Matis), Brezilya
 Matsés (Mayoruna, Maxuruna), Brezilya, Peru
 Parintintin (Kagwahiva'nga), Brezilya
 Shipibo, Loreto Region, Peru
 Ticuna (Tucuna), Brezilya, Colombia, Peru
 Toromono (Toromona), La Paz Department, Bolivya
 Yanesha' (Amuesha), Cusco Region, Peru
 Yawanawa (Jaminawá, Marinawá, Xixinawá), Acre, Brezilya; Madre de Dios, Peru; and Bolivya
 Yine (Contaquiro, Simiranch, Simirinche), Cuzco Region, Peru
 Yuqui (Bia, Yuki), Cochabamba DepartmentBolivya
 Yuracaré (Yura), Beni and Cochabamba Departments, Bolivya

Gran Chaco

 Abipón, Arjantin, historic group
 Angaite (Angate), northwestern Paraguay
 Ayoreo (Ayoré, Moro, Morotoco, Pyeta, Yovia, Zamuco), Bolivya and Paraguay
 Chamacoco (Zamuko), Paraguay
 Chané, Arjantin and Bolivya
 Chiquitano (Chiquito, Tarapecosi), eastern Bolivya
 Chorote (Choroti, Iyo'wujwa, Iyojwa'ja Chorote, Manjuy), Arjantin, Bolivya, and Paraguay
 Guana (Kaskihá), Paraguay
 Guaraní, Arjantin, Bolivya, Brezilya, and Paraguay
 Bolivyan Guarani
 Chiriguano, Bolivya
 Guarayo (East Bolivyan Guarani)
 Chiripá (Tsiripá, Ava), Bolivya
 Pai Tavytera (Pai, Montese, Ava), Bolivya
 Tapieté (Guaraní Ñandéva, Yanaigua), eastern Bolivya
 Yuqui (Bia), Bolivya
 Guaycuru peoples, Arjantin, Bolivya, Brezilya, and Paraguay
 Mbayá (Caduveo), historic
 Kadiweu, Brezilya
 Mocoví (Mocobí), Arjantin
 Pilagá (Pilage Toba)
 Toba (Qom, Frentones), Arjantin, Bolivya, and Paraguay
 Kaiwá, Arjantin and Brezilya
 Lengua people (Enxet), Paraguay
 North Lengua (Eenthlit, Enlhet, Maskoy), Paraguay
 South Lengua, Paraguay
 Lulé (Pelé, Tonocoté), Arjantin
 Maká (Towolhi), Paraguay
 Nivaclé (Ashlushlay, Chulupí, Chulupe, Guentusé), Arjantin and Paraguay
 Sanapaná (Quiativis), Paraguay
 Vilela, Arjantin
 Wichí (Mataco), Arjantin and Tarija Department, Bolivya

Güney Cone

 Aché, southeastern Paraguay
 Alacaluf (Kaweshkar, Halakwulup), Chile
 Chaná (extinct), formerly Uruguay
 Chandule (Chandri)
 Charrúa, southern Brezilya and Uruguay
 Chono (Precolumbian culture), formerly Chiloé Archipelago, Chile
 Comechingon (Henia-Camiare), Arjantin
 Haush (Manek'enk, Mánekenk, Aush), Tierra del Fuego
 Het (Querandí) (extinct), formerly Argentinian Pampas
 Chechehet
 Didiuhet
 Taluhet
 Huarpe (Warpes) (extinct), Strait of Magellan, Chile
 Allentiac (Alyentiyak)
 Millcayac (Milykayak)
 Oico
 Mapuche (Araucanian), southwestern Arjantin and Chile
 Huilliche (Huillice, Hulliche), Chile
 Lafquenche
 Mapuche, southwestern Arjantin and Chile
 Pehuenche, south central Chile and Arjantin
 Picunche, formerly Chile
 Promaucae, formerly Chile
 Mbeguá (extinct), formerly Paraná River, Arjantin
 Minuane (extinct), formerly Uruguay
 Puelche (Guenaken, Pampa) (extinct), Argentinian and Chilean Andes
 Tehuelche, Patagonia
 Künün-a-Güna (Gennakenk, Gennaken)
 Küwach-a-Güna
 Mecharnúekenk
 Aónikenk (Zuidelijke Tehuelche)
 Teushen (Tehues, extinct), Tierra del Fuego
 Selk'nam (Ona), Tierra del Fuego
 Yaghan (Yamana), Tierra del Fuego
 Yaro (Jaro)

Ayrıca bakınız
 Alaska yerlileri kabile birlikleri
 Amerika yerlisi yazarlar listesi

Dipnotlar

Kaynakça

 D'Azevedo, Warren L., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986. ISBN 978-0-16-004581-3.
 Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed. The Spanish Missions of "La Florida". Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993. ISBN 0-8130-1232-5.
 Hann, John H. A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996. ISBN 0-8130-1424-7.
 Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513-1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8.
 Heizer, Robert F., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ISBN 978-0-16-004574-5.

 Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
 Steward, Julian H., editor. Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 4: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution, 1948.
 Sturtevant, William C., genel editör ve Bruce G. Trigger, cildin editörü. Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast. Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ASIN B000NOYRRA.
 Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.

Amerika yerlileri