كوبي براينت (وُلد في 23 أغسطس عام 1978 – توفي في 26 يناير عام 2020) هو لاعب كرة سلة أمريكي محترف سابق. لعب كوبي في مركز «شوتنغ غارد» أو مدافع مسدد الهدف، ودخل الرابطة الوطنية لكرة السلة «إن بي إيه» مباشرة من المدرسة الثانوية، ولعب 20 موسمًا في مسيرته في الدوري مع فريق لوس أنجلوس ليكرز. فاز براينت بـ 5 بطولات في الإن بي إيه، واختير 18 مرة ضمن فريق كل النجوم، و 15 مرة ضمن فريق أفضل لاعبي الـ NBA، و 12 مرة ضمن فريق أفضل مدافعي الـ NBA، وحصل على لقب إم في بي MVP في موسم 2008، وحاز على لقب إم في بي النهائيات مرتين. يُعتبر كوبي براينت واحدًا من أعظم لاعبي كرة السلة في التاريخ، وكان أفضل هداف في ال (إن بي إيه) خلال موسمين، وحصل بذلك على المرتبة الرابعة في تاريخ الدوري ضمن فئة أفضل هداف في الموسم وأفضل هداف فيما بعد الموسم.

كوبي هو ابن لاعب ال (إن بي إيه) السابق جو براينت. درس كوبي في ثانوية لُوَر ميريون في ولاية بنسلفانيا، وحاز على شهرة هناك بصفته أفضل لاعب كرة سلة على مستوى ثانويات البلد. عقب تخرجه، دخل ضمن ال (إن بي إيه) درافت عام 1996 واختاره فريق شارلوت هورنتس، وكان ترتيبه في المرتبة pick رقم 13، ثم قايض فريق هورنتس كوبي مع فريق الليكرز. عندما كان براينت في سنته الأولى، استطاع بناء سمعة لنفسه باعتباره نجمًا في مقتبل عمره، وكسب محبة المشجعين عندما فاز في مسابقة السلام دانك عام 1997، كما اختير ضمن فريق كل النجوم في موسمه الثاني. وعلى الرغم من نشوب خلاف بين كوبي وزميله شاكيل أونيل، قاد الثنائي فريقهما الليكرز للفوز بثلاث بطولات متتالية من موسم عام 2000 وحتى 2002. في عام 2003، اتُهم براينت بالاعتداء الجنسي. رُفعت تهم جنائية ضد براينت، ثم أُسقطت بعدما رفضت المتهمة الإدلاء بشهادتها، ثم توصل الطرفان إلى حل دعوى مدنية بعيدًا عن أروقة المحكمة. أنكر براينت تهمة الاعتداء، لكنه اعترف بممارسة العلاقة الجنسية، وقدم اعتذارًا عامًا بخصوص ذلك، لكن من المتفق عليه أن تلك الادعاءات شوهت صورة كوبي براينت العامة، وأدت إلى خسارته عددًا من الرعاة التجاريين.

بعدما خسر فريق الليكرز نهائيات موسم 2004، استُبدل أونيل من الفريق، وأصبح براينت الركيزة الأساسية لفريق الليكرز. تصدر كوبي قائمة هدافي الموسم خلال موسمي 2005–2006 و 2006–2007. في عام 2006، أحرز كوبي أعلى عدد من النقاط خلال مسيرته، وهو 81 نقطة، وهو ثاني أعلى رقم من النقاط المسجلة خلال مباراة واحدة في تاريخ الدوري، بينما يحتل ويلت تشامبرلين المركز الأول بـ 100 نقطة في مباراة واحدة في موسم عام 1962. قاد براينت فريقه الليكرز إلى الفوز ببطولتين متتاليتين في موسمي 2009 و 2010، وحاز لقب إم في بي النهائيات في نهائيات كلا الموسمين. كان براينت من أفضل لاعبي الدوري حتى عام 2013، عندها عانى من تمزق وتر أخيل بينما كان في الـ 34 من عمره. تعافى كوبي من الإصابة، لكنه عانى من إصابات في الركبة والكتف منعته من اللعب خلال الموسمين اللاحقين على الترتيب. تقاعد براينت عقب انتهاء موسم 2015–2016 بعدما لاحظ تدني مقدراته الجسدية.

عندما بلغ براينت سنواته الـ 34 وأيامه الـ 104، كان أصغر لاعب في تاريخ الإن بي إيه يحرز 30 ألف نقطة خلال مسيرته. أصبح أيضًا المسدد رقم واحد في تاريخ فريق الليكرز في الأول من شهر فبراير عام 2010، متجاوزًا بذلك جيري ويست. كان براينت أيضًا أول لاعب في تاريخ ال (إن بي إيه) من مركز الغارد يلعب 20 موسمًا متتاليًا. في عام 2018، حاز براينت على جائزة أوسكار لأفضل فيلم رسوم متحركة قصير في عام 2017، وذلك عن فيلمه دير باسكيتبول (عزيزتي السلة).

توفي براينت في سن الـ 41 إلى جانب ابنته جيانا البالغة من العمر 13، بالإضافة إلى 7 أشخاص آخرين، في حادثة تحطم مروحية خاصة في كالاباساس في ولاية كاليفورنيا.

بدايته
بدأ براينت علاقته مع كرة السلة ودوري الرابطة الوطنية لكرة السلة بعد إنهاء المرحلة الثانوية عام 1996 مع فريق لوس أنجلوس ليكرز وكانت تلك الفترة من أقل فترات النادي سطوعًا في موسم 97 (توضيح) حقق براينت جائزة Slam Dunk All-Star Contest حيث جاء بالمركز الأول.

تشكيل ثُنائي
اجتمع شاكيل أونيل وكوبي براينت في فريق واحد و شكلوا ثنائي وأعادوا الفريق للألقاب مرة أخرى بعد فترة ركود الفريق في التسعينات عندما قادا فريق لوس أنجلس ليكرز إلى الفوز ببطولة دوري الرابطة الوطنية لكرة السلة ثلاث مرات متتالية أعوام (2002، 2001، 2000) وأعادوه إلى أمجاد الثمانينات بقيادة كريم عبد الجبار وماجيك جونسون.

افتراق الثنائي
بعد رحيل أونيل في 2004، أصبح براينت حجر الزاوية لفريق اللايكرز، في عام 2006، قام براينت بتسجيل 81 نقطة ضد فريق تورونتو رابتورز، ثاني أكثر النقاط في التاريخ بعد ويلت تشامبرلاين، الذي أدخل 100 (عدد) نقطة في مباراة واحدة.

قضية الاغتصاب
في عام 2003، سلطت عليه الأضواء الإعلامية حين اُتهم باعتداء جنسي في فندق في إدواردز، كولورادو على موظفة هناك. اعترف براينت بإقامة علاقة مع الموظفة، ولكنه لم يقم بالاعتداء عليها. في سبتمبر 2004، أسقطت القضية عن براينت بعد ما قالت الموظفة أنها غير مستعدة للإدلاء بالشهادة.

فوزه باللقب مُجددًا
في موسم 2009 أثبت كوبي براينت أنه قادر على قيادة الفريق للألقاب من دون زميله السابق شاكيل أونيل وأعاد الفريق للقب بعد سبع سنوات من الغياب.

ألقاب
حصل براينت على جائزة اللاعب الأثمن للموسم 2007-2008     بعد قيادة فريقه إلى نهائي الرابطة الوطنية لكرة السلة عام 2008، وفي نفس الموسم فاز بالميدالية الذهبية كجزء من فريق الألعاب الأولمبية في بكين عام 2008 لكرة السلة. على مستوى دوري الرابطة الوطنية لكرة السلة أحرز مع فريق لوس أنجلوس لايكرز دوري الرابطة الوطنية لكرة السلة خمس مرات، منها ثلاث مرات أعوام (2000، 2001، 2002، 2009، 2010)، أما على مستوى المنتخب شارك مع منتخب الولايات المتحدة لكرة السلة المشارك في الألعاب الأولمبية في بكين عام 2008 والألعاب الأولمبية في لندن 2012 الذي حصل على المركز الأول في تلك المشاركتين.

إحصائيات إن بي أي المهنية

موسم عادي

|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 71 || 6 || 15.5 || .417 || .375 || .819 || 1.9 || 1.3 || .7 || .3 || 7.6
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 79 || 1 || 26.0 || .428 || .341 || .794 || 3.1 || 2.5 || .9 || .5 || 15.4
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| style="background:#cfecec;"|50* || style="background:#cfecec;"|50* || 37.9 || .465 || .267 || .839 || 5.3 || 3.8 || 1.4 || 1.0 || 19.9
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 66 || 62 || 38.2 || .468 || .319 || .821 || 6.3 || 4.9 || 1.6 || .9 || 22.5
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 68 || 68 || 40.9 || .464 || .305 || .853 || 5.9 || 5.0 || 1.7 || .6 || 28.5
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 80 || 80 || 38.3 || .469 || .250 || .829 || 5.5 || 5.5 || 1.5 || .4 || 25.2
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 82 || style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || 41.5 || .451 || .383 || .843 || 6.9 || 5.9 || 2.2 || .8 || 30.0
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 65 || 64 || 37.6 || .438 || .327 || .852 || 5.5 || 5.1 || 1.7 || .4 || 24.0
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 66 || 66 || 40.7 || .433 || .339 || .816 || 5.9 || 6.0 || 1.3 || .8 || 27.6
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 80 || 80 || 41.0 || .450 || .347 || .850 || 5.3 || 4.5 || 1.8 || .4 || style="background:#cfecec;"|35.4*
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 77 || 77 || 40.8 || .463 || .344 || .868 || 5.7 || 5.4 || 1.4 || .5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|31.6*
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || 38.9 || .459 || .361 || .840 || 6.3 || 5.4 || 1.8 || .5 || 28.3
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || 36.1 || .467 || .351 || .856 || 5.2 || 4.9 || 1.5 || .5 || 26.8
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 73 || 73 || 38.8 || .456 || .329 || .811 || 5.4 || 5.0 || 1.5 || .3 || 27.0
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 82 || style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || 33.9 || .451 || .323 || .828 || 5.1 || 4.7 || 1.2 || .1 || 25.3
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 58 || 58 || 38.5 || .430 || .303 || .845 || 5.4 || 4.6 || 1.2 || .3 || 27.9
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 78 || 78 || 38.6 || .463 || .324 || .839 || 5.6 || 6.0 || 1.4 || .3 || 27.3
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 6 || 6 || 29.5 || .425 || .188 || .857 || 4.3 || 6.3 || 1.2 || .2 || 13.8
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 35 || 35 || 34.5 || .373 || .293 || .813 || 5.7 || 5.6 || 1.3 || .2 || 22.3
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 66 || 66 || 28.2 || .358 || .285 || .826 || 3.7 || 2.8 || .9 || .2 || 17.6
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|مسيرة
| 1,346 || 1,198 || 36.1 || .447 || .329 || .837 || 5.2 || 4.7 || 1.4 || .5 || 25.0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|أول-ستار
| 15 || 15 || 27.6 || .500 || .324 || .789 || 5.0 || 4.7 || 2.5 || .4 || 19.3

تصفيات

|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 9 || 0 || 14.8 || .382 || .261 || .867 || 1.2 || 1.2 || .3 || .2 || 8.2
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 11 || 0 || 20.0 || .408 || .214 || .689 || 1.9 || 1.5 || .3 || .7 || 8.7
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 8 || 8 || 39.4 || .430 || .348 || .800 || 6.9 || 4.6 || 1.9 || 1.3 || 19.8
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 22 || 22 || 39.0 || .442 || .344 || .754 || 4.5 || 4.4 || 1.5 || 1.5 || 21.1
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 16 || 16 || 43.4 || .469 || .324 || .821 || 7.3 || 6.1 || 1.6 || .8 || 29.4
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 19 || 19 || 43.8 || .434 || .379 || .759 || 5.8 || 4.6 || 1.4 || .9 || 26.6
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 12 || 12 || 44.3 || .432 || .403 || .827 || 5.1 || 5.2 || 1.2 || .1 || 32.1
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 22 || 22 || 44.2 || .413 || .247 || .813 || 4.7 || 5.5 || 1.9 || .3 || 24.5
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 7 || 7 || 44.9 || .497 || .400 || .771 || 6.3 || 5.1 || 1.1 || .4 || 27.9
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 5 || 5 || 43.0 || .462 || .357 || .919 || 5.2 || 4.4 || 1.0 || .4 || 32.8
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 21 || 21 || 41.1 || .479 || .302 || .809 || 5.7 || 5.6 || 1.7 || .4 || 30.1
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 23 || 23 || 40.8 || .457 || .349 || .883 || 5.3 || 5.5 || 1.7 || .9 || 30.2
|-
| style="text-align:right; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 23 || 23 || 40.1 || .458 || .374 || .842 || 6.0 || 5.5 || 1.3 || .7 || 29.2
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 10 || 10 || 35.4 || .446 || .293 || .820 || 3.4 || 3.3 || 1.6 || .3 || 22.8
|-
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"|لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
| 12 || 12 || 39.7 || .439 || .283 || .832 || 4.8 || 4.3 || 1.3 || .2 || 30.0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|مسيرة
| 220 || 200 || 39.3 || .448 || .331 || .816 || 5.1 || 4.7 || 1.4 || .6 || 25.6

وفاته
تُوفي كوبي براينت وابنته جينا (13 عامًا) في 26 يناير 2020 بسبب تحطم طائرة هيلكوبتر في كالاباساس في جنوب ولاية كاليفورنيا. كما توفي في الحادث 7 أشخاص آخرون هم جون ألتوبيلي (مدرب كرة السلة لفريق كلية أورانج كوست) وزوجته كيري وابنتهما أليشا، وسارة شستر وابنتها بايتون، ومدربة كرة السلة كريستينا ماوزر والطيار أرا زوبيان.

مراجع

روابط خارجية

لاعبو كرة سلة من مقاطعة أورانج (كاليفورنيا)
أعضاء قاعة مشاهير نايسميث التذكارية لكرة السلة
أفارقة أمريكيون في القرن 20
أفارقة أمريكيون في القرن 21
الرابطة الوطنية لكرة السلة أول-ستارز
ثانوية ماكدونالدز أول أميريكانز
حائزون على ميداليات في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2008
حائزون على ميداليات في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2012
خريجو ثانوية مريون السفلى
رومان كاثوليك أمريكيون
رياضيون من شاطئ نيوبورت (كاليفورنيا)
رياضيون من فيلادلفيا
ضحايا حوادث طيران في 2020
ضحايا حوادث مروحيات في الولايات المتحدة
فائزون بميداليات ذهبية أولمبية من الولايات المتحدة في كرة سلة
فاعلو خير أمريكيون
فاعلو خير من بنسيلفانيا
فاعلو خير من كاليفورنيا
فريق بريد أول أميريكانز لطلاب الثانوية (كرة السلة)
كاثوليك أمريكيون أفارقة
كاثوليك من بنسيلفانيا
كاثوليك من كاليفورنيا
لاعبو كرة السلة في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2012
لاعبو كرة سلة أمريكيون
لاعبو كرة سلة أمريكيون أفارقة
لاعبو كرة سلة في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2008
لاعبو كرة سلة مغتربون أمريكيون في إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة سلة من بنسيلفانيا
لاعبو كرة سلة من فيلادلفيا
لاعبو كرة سلة من لوس أنجلوس
لاعبو لوس أنجلوس ليكرز
لاعبو منتخب الولايات المتحدة لكرة السلة للرجال
مدافعون مسددون (كرة السلة)
مسجلو بث صوتي أمريكيون
مغتربون أمريكيون في إيطاليا
مواليد 1978
مواليد في فيلادلفيا (بنسيلفانيا)
وفيات عرضية في كاليفورنيا
وفيات ناجمة عن الحريق في الولايات المتحدة

كوبي براينت


Victor Stanciu (n. 28 octombrie 1884, Viștea de Jos județul Făgăraș – d. secolul al XX-lea) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Victor Stanciu a fost director al Școlii ortodoxe române de fete din Arad, consilier al secției școlare a Episcopiei ortodoxe române din Arad, directorul general al Consiliului Dirigent Sibiu-Cluj, profesor universitar și subsecretar de stat la Agricultură și Domenii.

Activitatea politică

A fost ales delegat al Școlii civile de fete din Arad la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba-Iulia, unde a votat unirea Ardealului cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II)

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1884
Decese în secolul al XX-lea
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Oameni din județul interbelic Făgăraș
Profesori români

Victor Stanciu


Brilliant Light Power, Inc. (BLP), formerly BlackLight Power, Inc. of Cranbury, New Jersey, is a company founded by Randell L. Mills, who claims to have discovered a new energy source from what he says is the electron in a hydrogen atom dropping below its ground energy state into a "hydrino state". The claims lack corroborating scientific evidence and the proposed hydrino states are unphysical and incompatible with key equations of quantum mechanics. BLP has announced several times that it was about to deliver commercial products based on Mill's theories but is yet to deliver any working product.

Mills has self-published a closely related book, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics and has co-authored numerous articles on hydrino-related phenomena. Critical analyses have been published in the peer reviewed journals Physics Letters A, New Journal of Physics, Journal of Applied Physics, and Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. In 2009, IEEE Spectrum magazine characterized it as a "loser" technology because "most experts don't believe such lower states exist, and they say the experiments don't present convincing evidence" and mentioned that physicist Wolfgang Ketterle had said the claims are "nonsense".

Company
The company, originally called HydroCatalysis Inc., was founded in 1991 by Randell Mills who claimed to have discovered a power source that "represents a boundless form of new primary energy" and that will "replace all forms of fuel in the world". On April 25, 1991 at a press conference in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Mills first announced his hydrino state hypothesis which rejects the idea that "cold fusion" was occurring in studies surrounding the Fleischmann–Pons experiment. According to Mills all the effects (which themselves were disputed to be unreproducible) were caused by shrinkage of hydrogen atoms as they fell to a state below the ground state. Arguments offered by Mills were in contradiction to known chemistry and were dismissed by the scientific community.

By December 1999, BLP raised more than $25 million from about 150 investors. By January 2006, BLP funding exceeded $60 million.

Among the investors are PacifiCorp, Conectiv, retired executives from Morgan Stanley and several BLP board members like Shelby Brewer who was the top nuclear official for the Reagan Administration and Chief Executive Officer of ABB-Combustion Engineering Nuclear Power and former board member Michael H. Jordan (1936 – 2010), who was Chief Executive Officer of PepsiCo Worldwide Foods, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, CBS Corporation and Electronic Data Systems.

In 2008, Mills said that his cell stacks could provide power for long-range electric vehicles, and that this electricity would cost less than 2 cents per kilowatt-hour.

In December 2013, BLP was one of 54 applicants to receive ~$1.1M in grant funding from the New Jersey Economic Development Authority.

Collaborators with the company

In 1996, NASA released a report describing experiments using a BLP electrolytic cell. Although not recreating the large heat gains reported for the cell by BLP, unexplained power gains ranging from 1.06 to 1.68 of the input power were reported, which, whilst "...admit[ing] the existence of an unusual source of heat with the cell...falls far short of being compelling". The authors went on to propose the recombination of hydrogen and oxygen as a possible explanation of the anomalous results.

Around 2002, the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) granted a Phase I grant to Anthony Marchese, a mechanical engineer at Rowan University, to study a possible rocket propulsion that would use hydrinos.

In 2002, Rowan University's Anthony Marchese said that whilst "agnostic about the existence of hydrinos", he was quite confident that there was no fraud involved with BLP. Although his NIAC grant was criticised by Bob Park, Marchese said "for me to not continue with this study would be unethical to the scientific community. The only reason not to pursue this would be because of being afraid of being bullied."

Criticism

In 1999, the Nobel prize winning physicist Philip Warren Anderson said he is "sure that it's a fraud", and in the same year another Nobel prize winning physicist, Steven Chu, called it "extremely unlikely". The following year, a 2000 patent based on its hydrino-related technology was later withdrawn by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) due to contradictions with known physics laws and other concerns about the viability of the described processes, citing Park and others.

A hydrino laser patent and a hydrino energy patent have not been withdrawn by the USPTO.

An April 2000 editorial column by Robert L. Park and an outside query by an unknown person prompted Group Director Esther Kepplinger of the USPTO to review this new patent herself. Kepplinger said that her "main concern was the proposition that the applicant was claiming the electron going to a lower orbital in a fashion that I knew was contrary to the known laws of physics and chemistry", and that the patent appeared to involve cold fusion and perpetual motion. Kepplinger contacted another Director, Robert Spar, who also expressed doubts on the patentability of the patent application. This caused the USPTO to withdraw from issue the patent application before it was granted and re-open it for review, and to withdraw four related applications, including one for a hydrino power plant.

In 2000, a law firm engaged by BLP sent letters to four prominent physicists asking them to stop making what it called "defamatory comments". The physicists had been quoted in the Village Voice, Dow Jones Newswire and other publications as dismissing BLP's claims on the basis that they violated the laws of physics. In response, one of the physicists, Robert L. Park of the American Physical Society, said that if BLP sued, he was confident the scientific community would lend its support and that the court would side with the physicists. Park later wrote that a number of the recipients of the letter, who had "responded honestly to questions from the media", had since fallen silent. Scientists, Park wrote, are easy to intimidate since they are not rich enough to risk costly legal actions.

In May 2000, BLP filed suit in the US District Court of Columbia, saying that withdrawal of the application after the company had paid the fee was contrary to law. In 2002, the District Court concluded that the USPTO was acting inside the limits of its authority in withdrawing a patent over whose validity it had doubts, and later that year, the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ratified this decision. Applications were rejected by the UK patent office for similar reasons. The European Patent Office (EPO) rejected a similar BLP patent application due to lack of clarity on how the process worked. Reexamination of this European patent is pending.

Robert L. Park, emeritus professor of physics at the University of Maryland and a notable skeptic, has been particularly critical of BLP since 1991. By 2000, Park remained skeptical, stating:
"Unlike most schemes for free energy, the hydrino process of Randy Mills is not without ample theory. Mills has written a 1000 page tome, entitled, "The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics", that takes the reader all the way from hydrinos to antigravity. Fortunately, Aaron Barth [...] has taken upon himself to look through it, checking for accuracy. Barth is a post doctoral researcher at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, and holds a PhD in Astronomy, 1998, from UC Berkeley. What he found initially were mathematical blunders and unjustified assumptions. To his surprise, however, portions of the book seemed well organized. These, it now turns out, were lifted verbatim from various texts. This has been the object of a great deal of discussion from Mills' Hydrino Study Group. "Mills seems not to understand what the fuss is all about." – Park

By 2008, Park continued to express his skepticism:
"BlackLight Power (BLP), founded 17 years ago as HydroCatalysis, announced last week that the company had successfully tested a prototype power system that would generate 50 KW of thermal power. BLP anticipates delivery of the new power system in 12 to 18 months. The BLP process, discovered by Randy Mills, is said to coax hydrogen atoms into a "state below the ground state", called the "hydrino". There is no independent scientific confirmation of the hydrino, and BLP has a patent problem. So they have nothing to sell but bull shit. The company is therefore dependent on investors with deep pockets and shallow brains." – Park In 2008, Robert L. Park wrote that BLP has benefited from wealthy investors who allocate a proportion of their funds to risky ventures with a potentially huge upside, but that in the case of BLP since the science underlying the offering was "just wrong" investment risk was, in Park's view, "infinite".

Various scientists also voiced their opinions as far back as the 1990s. Steven Chu, Nobel Laureate in Physics in 1997, said "it's extremely unlikely that this is real, and I feel sorry for the funders, the people who are backing this". In 1999, Princeton University's physics Nobel laureate Phillip Anderson said of it, "If you could fuck around with the hydrogen atom, you could fuck around with the energy process in the sun. You could fuck around with life itself." "Everything we know about everything would be a bunch of nonsense. That's why I'm so sure that it's a fraud." Wolfgang Ketterle, a professor of physics at MIT, said BLP's claims are "nonsense" and that "there is no state of hydrogen lower than the ground state". Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist based at City University of New York, adds that "the only law that this business with Mills is proving is that a fool and his money are easily parted." and that "There's a sucker born every minute." While Peter Zimmerman was chief arms-control scientist at the State Department, he stated that his department and the Patent Office "have fought back with success" against "pseudoscientists" and he railed against, among other things, the inventors of "hydrinos". In 2009, the editors of IEEE Spectrum magazine characterized it as a "loser" technology because "[m]ost experts don't believe such lower states exist, and they say the experiments don't present convincing evidence" and mentioned that Wolfgang Ketterle had said the claims are "nonsense". BLP has announced several times that it was about to deliver commercial products based on Mill's theories but has not delivered a working product.

Mark Chu-Carroll a science blogger and professional software engineer accused Mills of engaging in a scam: "Mills... is getting investors to give him money, promising that whatever they invest, they'll get back manifold when he starts selling hydrino power generators! He promises they'll be on market within a year or two – five at most! Then he comes up with either a demonstration, or the testimonial from his neighbor, or the self-publication of his book, or another press release talking about the newest version of his technology..... It's been going on for almost 25 years, this constant cycle of press release/demo/testimonial every couple of years.... claims from 2009 claiming commercialization within 12 to 18 months; from 2005 claiming commercialization within months; and claims from 1999 claiming commercialization within a year.... But he always comes up with an excuse why those deadlines needed to be missed. And he always manages to find more investors, willing to hand over millions of dollars. As long as suckers are still willing to give him money, why wouldn't he keep on making claims?"

Scientific American reported that in 2014, Mills was asked by an interested follower if he had ever isolated hydrinos and, in spite of previous claims, Mills said that the had not and that it would be "a really, really huge task." The interlocutor pointed out that if hydrinos were being produced at the rate Mills claimed, there would be obvious observations. Moreover, there was no sign of progress, "Every year they make up half the remaining distance to commercialization, but will they ever get there?"

In 2015, an energy analyst writing for Forbes noted that Mills had made numerous extraordinary and difficult-to-believe claims including that he had "refuted quantum mechanics, can explain "mysteries of the sun" and has identified dark energy. His inventions can: produce power very cheaply through  "'shrinking' the hydrogen atom's orbitsphere" with a power density of 100 billion watts per liter.  Additionally, the materials created can act as an explosive or propellant, make ships rustproof and endowed with stealth properties, produce an anti-gravity effect that will allow a vessel to elevate, and "form the basis of batteries the size of a briefcase to drive your car 1000 miles at highway speeds on a single charge.""

Peer-reviewed criticisms

In the 2000s, several reviewed articles were published criticizing Hydrino theory for being incompatible with Quantum Mechanics.

For example, in 2005, Andreas Rathke of the European Space Agency, publishing in the New Journal of Physics, wrote that Mills' description of quantum mechanics is "inconsistent and has several serious deficiencies", and that there is "no theoretical support of the hydrino hypothesis". Rathke said it would be helpful if Mills' experimental results could be independently replicated, and suggested that any evidence produced should be reconsidered in the context of a conventional physical explanation. One inconsistency of Mills' CQM with quantum mechanics regards its inability to be reconciled with the probability density function in quantum mechanics. Rathke stated, "However, while solutions of the Schrödinger equation with n<1 indeed exist, they are not square integrable. This violates not only an axiom of quantum mechanics, but in practical terms prohibits that these solutions can in any way describe the probability density of a particle." In the same year, the Journal of Applied Physics published a critique by A.V. Phelps of the 2004 article, "Water bath calorimetric study of excess heat generation in resonant transfer plasmas" by J. Phillips, R. Mills and X. Chen. Phelps criticized both the calorimetric techniques and the underlying theory described in the Phillips/Mills/Chen article. The journal also published a response to Phelps' critique on the same day. In 2005 Šišović and others published a paper describing experimental data and analysis of Mills' claim that a resonant transfer model (RTM) explains the excessive Doppler broadening of the Hα line. Šišović concluded that: "The detected large excessive broadening in pure hydrogen and in Ne–H2 mixture is in agreement with CM [Collision Model] and other experimental results" and that "these results can't be explained by RTM". The collision model explanation for excessive broadening of the Hα line is based on established physics.

In 2006, a paper published in Physics Letters A, concluded that Mills' theoretical hydrino states are unphysical. For the hydrino states, the binding strength increases as the strength of the electric potential decreases, with maximum binding strength when the potential has disappeared completely. The author Norman Dombey remarked "We could call these anomalous states "homeopathic" states because the smaller the coupling, the larger the effect." The model also assumes that the nuclear charge distribution is a point rather than having an arbitrarily small non-zero radius. It also lacks an analogous solution in the Schrödinger equation, which governs non-relativistic systems. Dombey concluded: "We suggest that outside of science fiction this is sufficient reason to disregard them." From a suggestion in Dombey's paper, further work by Antonio Di Castro has shown that states below the ground state, as described in Mills' work, are incompatible with the Schrödinger, Klein–Gordon and Dirac equations, key equations in the study of quantum systems.

In 2008, the Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics published an article by Hans-Joachim Kunze, professor emeritus at the Institute for Experimental Physics, Ruhr University Bochum, critical of the 2003 paper authored by R. Mills and P. Ray, Extreme ultraviolet spectroscopy of helium–hydrogen. The abstract of the article is: "It is suggested that spectral lines, on which the fiction of fractional principal quantum numbers in the hydrogen atom is based, are nothing else but artefacts." Kunze stated that it was impossible to detect the novel lines below 30 nm reported by Mills and Ray because the equipment they used did not have the capability to detect them as per the manufacturer and as per "every book on vacuum-UV spectroscopy" and "therefore the observed lines must be artefacts". Kunze also stated that: "The enormous spectral widths of the novel lines point to artefacts, too."

See also

 List of topics characterized as pseudoscience

References

External links

 Robert L. Park: BlackLight Power: Some Ideas Are Simply Too Dumb to Die!, in his newsletter What's New, January 13, 2006
 General media

Pseudoscience
Fringe physics
Companies based in Middlesex County, New Jersey
Companies established in 1991
Cranbury, New Jersey
1991 establishments in New Jersey

Brilliant Light Power


Hl.-Erzengel-Michael-Kirche Upninkai (lit. Upninkų Šv. arkangelo Mykolo bažnyčia) ist eine katholische Kirche im Dorf Upninkai in der Rajongemeinde Jonava (Litauen) am linken Ufer der Šventoji, nördlich des Ortes im Tal der Šventoji gelegen. Sie gehört zum Dekanat Jonava (Erzbistum Kaunas).

Geschichte
Upninkai wurde 1442 urkundlich im Testament von Kristinas Astikas erwähnt. Der andere Upninkai-Inhaber, bis 1477 sein Sohn Radvila Astikas, baute hier die erste Kirche. 1650 gehörte diese zur evangelisch-reformatischen Kirche. 1717 wurde die katholische Kirche gebaut und 1750 zum anderen Ort verlegt. 1845 baute man eine neue Kirche.

Weblinks
 Pfarrgemeinde Upninkai

Upninkai
Sakralbau in der Rajongemeinde Jonava
Upninkai
Erbaut in den 1840er Jahren
Dekanat Jonava
Kirche

Hl.-Erzengel-Michael-Kirche (Upninkai)


Pârvu Boerescu (n. 22 martie 1888 – d. 6 septembrie 1978, București) a fost un ofițer al Armatei României din Primul Război Mondial. A îndeplinit funcții de ofițer de stat major în cadrul Diviziei 11 Infanterie în campaniile anilor 1916 și 1917. A luat parte la prima bătălie din Valea Jiului din octombrie 1916 și Bătălia de la Mărășești din campania anului 1917.

A fost decorat cu Ordinul Militar de Război "Mihai Viteazul".

Biografie
Pârvu Boerescu (prenume complet: Pârvu-Ion-Constantin) s-a născut la 22 martie 1888, în București, ca fiu al căpitanului (ulterior general de divizie) Constantin Z. Boerescu și al Alexandrinei Boerescu, născută Socec (1868-1952).

În 1917 s-a căsătorit cu Felicia (Fifi) Maimarolu (1892-1977), fiica arhitectului Dimitrie Maimarolu, de care a divorțat în 1924. Din prima căsătorie au rezultat doi copii: Codrea (1921-1937) și Despina (1919-1987), măritată (între 1935 și 1940) cu aviatorul Ștefan "Bebe" Grecianu, iar din 1961 cu Ralph Sassoon Pârvu Boerescu s-a recăsătorit în 1941 cu Zizi (Zoe) Laurențiu (1917-1995) cu care a avut un singur copil, muzicianul și filologul Pârvu Boerescu (n. 1946).

A încetat din viață la 6 septembrie 1978, în vârstă de 90 de ani.

Cariera militară
Sublocotenent de Cavalerie (01.07.1907), Locotenent (01.07.1910), Căpitan (01.04.1915), Maior (13.11.1917) . Ulterior a fost avansat lt.-colonel și colonel în rezervă.
După absolvirea clasei a 4-a liceale la Liceul "Gh. Lazăr" din București în 1902, a fost înscris până în anul 1905 la Școala Fiilor de Militari din Iași, după care a trecut în Școala militară de infanterie și cavalerie din București, pe care o absolvă în anul 1906, ca șef de promoție. În septembrie 1906 a fost trimis la un stagiu militar de specializare în Germania, în Regimentul 15 de dragoni al Cavaleriei Prusiene (la Haguenau), frecventând Școala de Război din Metz și Școala de Echitație din Paderborn. Întors în țară în 1910, este avansat locotenent în Regimentul 5 Călărași și apoi în reg. 1 Roșiori. În anii 1912 și 1913 urmează Școala Superioară de Război din București, pe care o absolvă ca ofițer brevetat de stat-major, activând din 1915 în Ministerul de război, la direcția a 2-a Cavalerie.

Luptele de la Jiu
La începutul războiului (15/28 august 1916), cpt. P. Boerescu era ofițer în Statul-major al Armatei I-a, la Craiova, de unde a fost trimis în diverse misiuni de transmitere a ordinelor, de informare și de sprijin operativ. La ordinul Marelui Cartier General din Buftea a fost trimis în Dobrogea (28 aug./10 sept.), unde a ajutat la organizarea rezistenței unităților din Divizia 2/5 care luptau în sectorul Oltina. Din Medgidia a raportat apoi situația trupelor și despre modul neglijent și iresponsabil de conducere a operațiilor încredințate generalului A. Zaioncikovski, comandantul Corpului 24 rus, a cărui inactivitate a contribuit la retragerea generală spre linia Cernavodă – Constanța, cu grave consecințe pentru situația Armatei Române din Dobrogea. În 6/19 septembrie a fost trimis în defileul Jiului (Surduc, Polatiște, Păiș), unde unitățile românești se retrăgeau sub presiunea inamicului. A reușit împreună cu trupele comandate de col. Stavrache să asigure apărarea defileului până la sosirea întăririlor .
La 9/22 octombrie cpt. Boerescu a fost mutat șef al biroului de operații din Stat-majorul Diviziei a 11-a. Două zile mai târziu, generalul I. Dragalina a fost numit la comanda Armatei I-a. În 12/25 octombrie, cpt. Boerescu l-a însoțit împreună cu alți ofițeri din statul-major al Diviziei a 11-a pe Generalul Dragalina în recunoașterea pe care acesta a făcut-o în defileul Jiului, pentru a inspecta posturile înaintate ale reg. 26 infanterie. Din nefericire, la Schitul Locuri Rele, în apropierea Mânăstirii Lainici, viteazul general Dragalina a fost foarte grav rănit.
Pătrunderea rapidă a trupelor germane până la marginea orașului Târgu Jiu a creat o situație foarte grea și periculoasă, în care comandantul Grupului "Jiu", col. I. Anastasiu, împreună cu comandantul Diviziei a 11, col. D. Cocorăscu și cu lt.-col Mărculescu trebuiau să hotărască felul cum vor fi utilizate trupele de întărire trimise de la Slatina. În contradictoriu cu ordinele primite de la Armata I-a, cpt. Boerescu a susținut ideea ca "Detașamentul lt.col. Coandă" să nu fie adus în fața orașului Tg. Jiu, unde ar fi fost copleșit de superioritatea numerică a inamicului, ci să fie debarcat în gara Tg. Cărbunești și îndreptat spre Tetila, de unde urma să atace inamicul din flanc, pentru a-i tăia liniile de retragere. Soluția a fost acceptată, iar cpt. Boerescu însoțit de colonelul francez Fain, detașat la Div. 11, au traversat liniile inamice pe drumul cel mai scurt, noaptea, camuflați, pentru a ieși în întâmpinarea Detașamentului Coandă, la Tetila, și pentru a se asigura de buna desfășurare a planului de luptă . În dimineața de 14/27 octombrie, cpt. Boerescu, cu acordul lt.-colonelului Coandă, a preluat comanda primelor eșaloane de trăgători în atacul spre Sâmbotinul. Manevra "Detașamentului Coandă", susținută de eroismul soldațiilor și de vitejia unor ofițeri precum slt. N. Pătrășcoiu, originar din satul învecinat Arsuri, a avut drept rezultat retragerea trupelor germane, cu mari pierderi, înapoi pe creasta munților.
După retragerea în Moldova, Divizia a 11-a a intrat în refacere, fiind adusă la Mărășești în 6/19 aug. 1917. Maiorul P. Boerescu s-a mai remarcat cu ocazia incursiunii organizate în noaptea de 18-19 nov./1-2 dec. 1917, când, în fruntea unui detașament special antrenat, a străpuns liniile dușmane în zona Buduiul Calciu - Dealul Secului, pentru a captura documente aflate asupra ofițerilor germani, din care să rezulte situația reală a dispunerii trupelor și adevăratele intenții ale inamicului.
La 1/13 ianuarie 1918, Divizia a 11-a (comandată de gen. Ernest Broșteanu) a intrat în Chișinău, la solicitarea "Sfatului Țării" al Republicii Democratice Moldovenești, pentru a proteja viețile și bunurile locuitorilor din Basarabia. Maiorul P. Boerescu, șef al Biroului 2 (informații militare) al Diviziei a 11-a, a fost numit "Comandantul Pieții" în acest oraș (6 ianuarie - 11 februarie 1918). Misiunea sa principală a fost aceea de a cooordona și de a duce la bun sfârșit dezarmarea elementelor turbulente (foști soldați etc.) din Chișinău. A ajutat apoi la organizarea armatei Republicii Democratice Moldovenești.
În urma unui concediu de boală prelungit, la sfârșitul anului 1918 maiorul P. Boerescu a ieșit din cadrele active ale armatei. S-a implicat ulterior în organizarea "Uniunii Ofițerilor de Rezervă" (U.O.R.), filialele Ilfov și Chișinău, și a făcut parte din delgațiile României la congresele F.I.D.A.C. de la Paris, Londra, Bruxelles (unde a fost decorat cu "La Croix militaire" a Belgiei, cl. I -10.11.1928) și Belgrad (unde a primit Ordinul "Coroana Iugoslaviei", cl. III-a - 10 mai 1940).

Ordinul militar "Mihai Viteazul", Înalt Decret No 190
Ferdinand I / Prin grația lui Dumnezeu și voința națională / Rege al României / La toți de față și viitori sănătate.
Dorind a răsplăti meritele Căpitanului Boerescu Pârvu, dela Statmajorul Armatei Ia, pentru vitejia, inițiativa și avântul cu care s'a condus la 5 septembrie 1916, în lupta de lângă pichetul Polatiște și la 14 octombrie 1916, în lupta de lângă Sâmbotinul, când a condus succesiv trei linii de trăgători, prin focul de baraj al artileriei bavareze, –
Noi îi conferim Ordinul militar "Mihai Viteazul" clasa IIIa / Drept care îi dăm acest brevet subscris de Noi și învestit cu regescul Nostru sigiliu. / Dat în Iași, la 10 martie 1917. / L.S. (ss) Ferdinand / L.S. Ministru de Răsboi / (ss) Vintilă Brătianu / No 190. / Brevet No 101.

Cariera civilă
Pârvu Boerescu a ocupat diferite funcții de conducere în industrie: director tehnic al Fabricii de Hârtie din Piatra Neamț, director al Fabricii de Viscoză "Apretura", din Popești-Leordeni etc. A înființat propriile sale firme: "Reprezentanța Industriilor Străine" (R.I.S.), cu sediul în București, între anii 1927 și 1940 , apoi "Întreprinderile Pescărești Boerescu" (I.P.B.), între anii 1941 și 1944, la Jibrieni, lângă Vâlcov. Între 1931 și 1937 a condus filiala din jud. Târnava-Mică (Mediaș) a Partidului Liberal Gh. Brătianu.
În anul 1969 i-au fost recunoscute meritele militare din timpul Războiului de Întregire, primind, ca și ceilalți foarte puțini ofițeri supraviețuitori decorați cu Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul" în anii 1916–1917, o pensie specială, mai decentă.

Decorații
  Crucea "Trecerea Dunării" cu bareta "Tradiție" (19 septembrie 1941) "ca descendent fiu al generalului de divizie † Boerescu Z. Constantin".

Lucrări publicate
 Mitraliere de Cavalerie. O comparație a regulamentelor actuale germane și franceze relativ la mitralierele cavalerie, completată prin exemple din marile manevre imperiale germane din 1909, de Locot. Pârvu Boerescu din regimentul 9 roșiori. București, Institutul de arte grafice "Eminescu", 1912. (Extras din "Revista Armatei", nr. 7-8/1912, p. 549-595.)
 Rolul ofițerului de rezervă român, Conferință ținută de dl Maior de rezervă Pârvu Boerescu. Uniunea Ofițerilor de Rezervă și în Retragere, Secția Ilfov, Buletinul No. 5. Ciclul Conferințelor Secției Ilfov U.O.R., București, Cultura Națională, 1925.
 Și-au făcut datoria (Amintiri din primul război mondial)  [1968]: Colonel în rezervă Pârvu Boerescu, La Jiu (p. 52-61).
 Pârvu Boerescu, Jurnal de front (de la Jiu la Mărășești), Craiova, Editura Scrisul Românesc, 1975.

Galerie

Bibliografie
 Pârvu Boerescu, Jurnal de front (de la Jiu la Mărășești), Craiova, Editura Scrisul Românesc, 1975.
 Arhiva de documente ale colonelului (r.) Pârvu Boerescu, aflată în posesia familiei.
 General Ion Anastasiu, O pagină din războiul nostru – Lupta de la Jiu 14/27 octombrie 1916, București, 1936.
 D. Bogos, La răspântie. Moldova de la Nistru în anii 1917-1918, Chișinău, Editura Soc. "Glasul Țării", 1924.
 Lt.-col. N. Pătrășcoiu, Bătălia de la Jiu, București, Institutul de Arte Grafice "Marvan", f.a. (1937). V. pag. 33, 49, 75, 96.
 Colonel Ion Cupșa – Armata Română în Campaniile din anii 1916 și 1917, Ed. Militară, 1967.
 Ministerul de Răsboiu, Anuarul Ofițerilor și Drapelelor Armatei Române cărora li s-a conferit Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul", 1916-1920, București, Atelierele grafice Socec & Co., Societate anonimă. [f.a.].
 Who's Who in Central and East-Europe, 1933/34, edited by R.P.D. Stephen Taylor, Published by The Central European Times Publishing Co. Ltd. Zurich (p. 108).

Note

Legături externe

 https://www.istorie-pe-scurt.ro/inainte-baieti-sunteti-cu-mine-ultimele-clipe-ale-ecaterinei-teodoroiu
 https://dok.uni-lueneburg.de/projekte/memory/whoswho/BioFileB.HTML

Nașteri în 1888
Decese în 1978
Ofițeri români
Militari români în Primul Război Mondial
Decorați cu Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul"

Pârvu Boerescu


Kreis Strelno was a district in Regierungsbezirk Bromberg in the Prussian Province of Posen, from 1886 to 1919.

History
On July 1, 1886, the new Strelno district was formed from the southern part of the Inowrazlaw district with the towns of Strelno and Kruschwitz. The town of Strelno became the seat of the district administration.

On December 27, 1918, the Greater Poland uprising began in the province of Posen, and by January 5, 1919, the town of Strelno was under Polish control. On February 16, 1919, an armistice ended the Polish-German fighting, and on June 28, 1919, the German government officially ceded the Strelno district to the newly founded Poland with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

Demographics
According to the Prussian census of 1910, the district had a population of 37,620, of which 80% were Poles and 20% were Germans. Most German residents left the area after 1919.

Geographical features

Military command
Kreis Strelno was part of the military command in Posen (German: Bezirkskommando) at Hohensalza.

Court system
The main court (German: Landgericht) was in Bromberg, with lower courts (German: Amtsgericht) in Strelno and Hohensalza.

Standesämter
"Standesamt" is the German name of the local civil registration offices which were established in October 1874 soon after the German Empire was formed. Births, marriages and deaths were recorded. Previously, only the church records were used for Christians. In 1905, these Standesämter served towns in Kreis Strelno:

Officials

References

External links
 List of genealogical records

Districts of the Province of Posen

Kreis Strelno


A toy train is a toy that represents a train. It is distinguished from a model train by an emphasis on low cost and durability, rather than scale modeling. A toy train can be as simple as a toy that can run on a track, or it might be operated by electricity, clockwork or live steam. It is typically constructed from wood, plastic or metal. Many of today's steam trains might be considered as real ones as well, providing they are not strictly scale or not enough detailed ones in favor of a robustness appropriate for children or an inexpensive production.

Definitions

"Toy train" usually refers to a reduced-scale model of a train for children to play with. Some similar but larger vehicles are made for children to ride in, typically in parks and playgrounds; often they run on tires and not tracks. If they are meant to resemble trains then these too are called toy trains. Small trains are sometimes also called toy trains. In India, many trains that run on meter-gauge tracks and that are meant for adults are called toy trains. The trains that run on the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway are an example.

For highly accurate train models made for serious hobbyists and collectors, the term "model train" is preferred.

Standards
The first widely adopted standards for toy trains running on track were introduced in Leipzig, Germany in 1891 by Märklin.

See also List of rail transport modelling scales.

USA classification
Z Gauge [1:220]

N Gauge [1:160]

HO Gauge [1:87]

S Gauge [1:64]

O Gauge [1:43 to 1:48, varies]

G Gauge [1:20]

Märklin measured the gauge as the distance between the centers of the two outer rails, rather than the distance between the outer rails themselves. Lionel's standard gauge is allegedly the result of Lionel's misreading these standards, as are the variances in O gauge between the United States and Europe.

Most of these standards never really caught on, due to their large size, which made them impractical to use indoors, as well as the high price of manufacturing. Wide gauge trains, which are close in size to 2 gauge, are produced in limited quantities today, as are 1 gauge and O gauge trains. Of these, O gauge is the most popular.

The modern standards for toy trains also include S gauge, HO scale, N scale, and Z scale, in descending order of size. HO and N scale are the most popular model railway standards of today; inexpensive sets sold in toy stores and catalogs are less realistic than those sold to hobbyists. O gauge arguably remains the most popular toy train standard. Another size that is attracting interest among hobbyists is building and operating trains from Lego, or L gauge, which is roughly 1/38 scale.

A "de facto" standard is used by some companies making wooden toy trains that run on wooden tracks. This is usually referred to as "Brio" or "Thomas" compatible in reference to two major companies. The term "Vario System" introduced by the company Eichhorn, refers to a variant of the connecting system used by some modern wooden track producers. The tracks don't use rails as such but rather grooves set apart a certain distance. The same "gauge" is used by the "Lionel Great American Adventure series" produced by Learning Curve, the Plarail system from Tomy and Trackmaster. Although the rolling stock of each system may be used to some extent on the tracks of other systems the compatibility beyond simple straight track and large radius curves may be rather limited.

Playmobil is an example of a company that offers a complete play world system based on its small plastic dolls and has later extended its play world to railways. It has developed two train systems to date. One is aimed at larger children using electric trains and remote control. This track system is designed such that it can also be used outside much like a garden train. The other system is designed for preschool children or even toddlers. An example of a system aimed at the very young is offered among others by the company "Wader Toys". This includes tracks for road and rail as well as waterways. The elements are very simple in design, sturdy and washable as they are thought for play including such environments as sandboxes, mud and water. To scale detail is a very minor issue with such systems that focus rather on sturdiness, avoiding sharp edges and avoiding parts that could be a choking hazard.

Although the words "scale" and "gauge" are often used interchangeably, many toy train manufacturers historically had little concern with depicting accurate scale. American Flyer tended to boast its closer accuracy compared to other manufacturers. The terms "O scale" and "S scale" tend to imply serious scale modeling, while the terms "O gauge" and "S gauge" tend to imply toy trains manufactured by Lionel and American Flyer, respectively. While S gauge is fairly consistent at 1:64 scale, O gauge trains represent a variety of sizes. O gauge track happens to be 1/45 the size of real-world standard gauge track, so manufacturers in Continental Europe have traditionally used 1:45 for O gauge trains. British manufacturers rounded this up to 1:43, which is seven millimeters to the foot. U.S. manufacturers rounded it down to 1:48, which is a quarter-inch to the foot. However, most engaged in a practice of selective compression in order to make the trains fit in a smaller space, causing the actual scale to vary, and numerous manufacturers produced 1:64 scale trains—the proper size for S gauge—in O gauge, especially for cost-conscious lines.

Some of the earliest O gauge trains made of tinplate weren't scale at all, made to unrealistic, whimsical proportions similar in length to modern HO scale, but anywhere from one and a half to two times as wide and tall.

Some adult fans of toy trains operate their trains, while others only collect.  Some toy train layouts are accessorized with scale models in an attempt to be as realistic as possible, while others are accessorized with toy buildings, cars, and figures. Some hobbyists will only buy accessories that were manufactured by the same company who made their trains. This practice is most common among fans of Marx and Lionel.

History

The earliest toy trains were made of lead and had no moving parts. Some had wheels that turned, but these had to be pushed or pulled. A few of the early 19th-century push toy trains were made of tinplate, like the large, durable, stylized locomotive toys in the U.S., which were painted red and gold and decorated with hearts and flowers.

Around 1875, technological advancements in materials and manufacturing allowed tin to be stamped, cut, rolled, and lithographed faster than ever before.

Toy trains were revolutionized when Märklin, a German firm that specialized in doll house accessories, sought to create an equivalent toy for boys where a constant revenue stream could be ensured by selling add-on accessories for years after the initial purchase. In addition to boxed sets containing a train and track, Märklin offered extra track, rolling stock, and buildings sold separately, creating the predecessor to the modern model train layout featuring buildings and scenery in addition to an operating train.

Electric trains followed, with the first appearing in 1897, produced by the U.S. firm Carlisle & Finch. As residential use of electricity became more common in the early 20th century, electric trains gained popularity and as time went on, these electric trains grew in sophistication, gaining lighting, the ability to change direction, to emit a whistling sound, to smoke, to remotely couple and uncouple cars and even load and unload cargo. Toy trains from the first half of the 20th century were often made of lithographed tin; later trains were often made mostly of plastic.

Prior to the 1950s, there was little distinction between toy trains and model railroads—model railroads were toys by definition. Pull toys and wind-up trains were marketed towards children, while electric trains were marketed towards teenagers, particularly teenaged boys. It was during the 1950s that the modern emphasis on realism in model railroading started to catch on.

Consumer interest in trains as toys waned in the late 1950s, but has experienced resurgence since the late 1990s due in large part to the popularity of Thomas the Tank Engine.

Today, S gauge and O gauge railroads are still considered toy trains even by their adherents and are often accessorized with semi-scale model buildings by Plasticville or K-Line (who owns the rights to the Plasticville-like buildings produced by Marx from the 1950s to the 1970s). However, due to their high cost, one is more likely to find an HO scale or N scale train set in a toy store than an O scale set.

Many modern electric toy trains contain sophisticated electronics that emit digitized sound effects and allow the operator to safely and easily run multiple remote control trains on one loop of track.  In recent years, many toy train operators will operate a train with a TV camera in the front of the engine and hooked up to a screen, such as computer monitor. This will show an image, similar to that of a real (smaller size) railroad.

See also
GeoTrax
Lego Trains
Plarail
Ferrorama (also known as Super Rail)
Rail transport modelling
Wooden toy train
National Toy Train Museum

External links
 A short history of toy trains, by the Train Collectors Society (UK)
 50th Christmas For Electric Trains, by Alden Armagnac, December 1950, Popular Science

References

 Schievelbein, D (2007) "MarX Trains and Toys Guide : The Toy King Louis Marx". eBay Guide

Toy trains
Rail transport modelling
Electronic toys
Mechanical toys

Toy train


Agia Paraskevi (, Agía Paraskeví) is a suburb and a municipality in the northeastern part of the Athens agglomeration, Greece. It is part of the North Athens regional unit. Agia Paraskevi was named after the main church of the town, which is dedicated to Saint Paraskevi of Rome.

Geography

Agia Paraskevi is situated near the northern edge of the forested Hymettus mountain range,  northeast of Athens city center. The municipality has an area of 7.935 km2. The built-up area of Agia Paraskevi is continuous with those of the neighboring Cholargos, Chalandri and Gerakas. Besides the central area around the Agia Paraskevi Square, Agia Paraskevi consists of 7 districts: Kontopefko, Nea Zoi, Tsakos, Stavros, Aigiannis, Pefkakia and Paradeisos. The National Center of Scientific Research Demokritos, which hosts the sole nuclear reactor in Greece, is situated in Agia Paraskevi. It is also home of the Greek Ministry of Agriculture.

The main thoroughfare is Mesogeion Avenue, which connects Agia Paraskevi with central Athens. The eastern beltway Motorway 64 passes through the southeastern part of the municipality. The municipality is served by several metro stations and a suburban railway station, located in adjacent municipalities.

History

Agia Paraskevi was part of the community of Chalandri until 1931, when it became a separate community. It became a municipality in 1963. Formerly a farmers' village, it experienced much suburban development since the 1950s.

In 1993, there was considerable opposition from inhabitants of the suburb to the construction of the Hymettus ring road (Motorway 64). The ring road was to form a major highway on the mountainside linked directly to the Motorway 6, and the construction of both motorways were to commence immediately. The realization that this plan would demand the felling of a considerable number of trees, as well as spurring an increase in noise pollution, predictably aroused the opposition of the local population, who requested a different solution: a covered road. However, the government would not reverse the decision and, in fact, sent bulldozers to the mountainside. This led to a riot in April, 1993. Thousands of people traveled up the mountainside and faced the bulldozers, forcing the drivers to leave. At length police arrived and managed to force the demonstrators off the site; eventually the construction of the two highways began, and was completed in 2001. The road was covered only at a small section, that running over the Deree College.

Cultural clubs and activities

The following cultural clubs, activities and workshops are available in Agia Paraskevi:

Municipal Conservatory, Art Workshops, Choir, Philharmonic Orchestra, Theater Group & Drama Club, Dance Classes, Film Club and Open Air Cinema, Open University courses and various other cultural clubs that organize events throughout the year.

Sports
The football team of the city is Agia Paraskevi F.C., known as "Santa", attracting devoted fans. During the Olympic games in 2004, a part of the historical Marathon passed through Agia Paraskevi over Mesogeion avenue. Agia Paraskevi hosts also two basketball clubs with earlier presence in the higher national divisions, Basketball Agia Paraskevi and GS Agia Paraskevi.And P.A.O.D.A.P. city organization with individual sports like tennis, fighting sports and more.

Education

The Lycée Franco-Hellénique Eugène Delacroix (LFH), a French international school, is in the town and The American College of Greece.

In Agia Paraskevi, there are the following public educational institutes and schools: 13 kindergarten schools, 11 elementary schools, 6 junior high schools (including one for the hearing impaired) and 5 high schools (including one for the hearing impaired). There are also 3 vocational-technical high schools (including one for the hearing impaired).

Twin towns
Agia Paraskevi is twinned with:
 Saint-Brieuc, France (May 1992)
 Grocka, Serbia  (May 1994)
 Geroskipou, Cyprus (May 1998)

Historical population

References

External links
City of Agia Paraskevi official website
FACEBOOK OFFICIAL GROUP of Agia Paraskevi

Municipalities of Attica
Populated places in North Athens (regional unit)

Agia Paraskevi


الداء الخامس أو الحمامى العدوائية أو المرض الخامس  (ويعرف أيضا بمتلازمة الخد المصفوع، أو الخد الملطوم، أو الوجه المصفوع أو الوجه الملطوم) هو عدوى فيروسية سببها الفيروس بشري يعرف باسم فيروس صغير ب19. ويعتبر هذا المرض معديا بشكل معتدل في الطفولة حيث يميل إلى التَأثير على الأطفالِ من عمر 3 إلى 12. وتمتد فترة الحضانة من 6 إلى 14 يوم.

التاريخ
اسم «المرض الخامس» مستمد من التصنيف التاريخي لها كخامس طفح جلدي تقليدي شائع في مرحلة الطفولة. وغيرها من الطفح الجلدية الشائعة في التصنيف هي:
 الحصبة
 الحمى القرمزية
 الحميراء
 دوق داء
  حمامى عدوائية  (المرض الخامس)
 الوردية(عد وردي)

وقد وصفت لأول مرة من قبل روبرت ويلان في 1799 بأنها "الحصبة الألمانية" "Rubeola, sine catarrho"". وقد عرفت ووصفت بشكل أفضل من قبل Anton Tschamer في عام 1889 كصنف من اصناف مرض الحميراء ("Ortliche Rotheln").وفي عام 1896 تم تصنيفها كمرض مستقل من قبل T. Escherich واعطيت اسم"erythema infectiosum" "الحمامي العدوائية" في 1899.

الأعراض
 يمتاز المرض الخامس بوجود ثلاثة مراحل:
 أولاً إصابة الطفل باحمرار شديد يشبه حرقة الشمس التي تظهر على شكل طفح على الخدود.
 اليوم التالي، تَظهر بقَع مستديرةَ حمراء على الأذرع والأرجلِ.
 بعد حوالي أسبوع واحد يبهت لون الطفح مما يسبب ظهور لون يشبه لون الرخام.
 ويعتبر الطفح المخرّمِ أحد الأعراض المميزة لهذا المرضِ.
 قد يدوم الطفح لمدة شهر وقَد يختفي وبعد ذلك يظهر مرة ثانية.
 عموماً يشعر الطفل بصحة جيدة بدون حمى.
 عادة ما يكون التشخيص سريرياً؛ على أية حال، يمكن إجراء فحص دم لاكتشاف فيروس ب19.
 لا يعتبر الطفح معديا، ويستطيع الأطفال الذهاب إلى المدرسة.

ملاحظة: هذا الفيروسِ يمكن أن يكون خطيرا خصوصاً على الأجنة. إذا كنت حبلى وتعرضت لهذا الفيروسِ، فيجب أن يعرف الطبيب النسائي بذلك حتى يراقب نمو الحمل.

الانتقال
 ينتقل المرض الخامس في المقام الأول عن طريق افرازات الجهاز التنفسي (اللعاب والمخاط وما إلى ذلك), ولكن يمكن أيضا أن ينتقل أيضا عن طريق الاتصال مع دم المصاب.
 فترة حضانة المرض (الفترة الزمنية بين الإصابة الأولية، وظهور الأعراض) عادة تكون ما بين 4 و21 يوما.
 يكون الأفراد المصابون بالمرض الخامس ناقلين للمرض بشكل أكبر (معدين) قبل ظهور الأعراض.
 أطفال المدارس والعاملين في الرعاية النهارية، والمدرسين والأمهات هم الأكثر احتمإلا أن يتعرضوا للفيروس.
 عندما تكون الاعراض واضحة، هناك احتمال قليل لانتقال العدوى، وبالتالي لايلزم عزل الأفراد الذين تظهر عليهم اعراض المرض ولا يعتبر الطفح معديا، ويستطيع الأطفال الذهاب إلى المدرسة.

علم الأوبئة
قد تتأثر أي سنّ بهذه الإصابات ولكنها شائعة عند الأطفال الذين تتراوح أعمارهم بين الخامسة والخامسة عشر. عندما يتمّ الوصول إلى سنّ البلوغ حوالي نصف السكان يكونوا قد اكتسبوا المناعة بسبب تعرّضهم للعدوى في وقت ما في ماضيهم.
يمكن أن يتفشّى المرض بين الأطفال في الحضانة والصفوف الابتدائية.

مصادر

 البوابة
 ^ Weir E (March 2005). "Parvovirus B19 infection: fifth disease and more". CMAJ 172 (6): 743. doi:10.1503/cmaj.045293. . PMC 552884.
 ^ a b c d e f Sabella C, Goldfarb J (October 1999). "Parvovirus B19 infections". Am Fam Physician 60 (5): 1455–60. . Retrieved 2009-11-06.
 ^ a b c d e f Servey JT, Reamy BV, Hodge J (February 2007). "Clinical presentations of parvovirus B19 infection". Am Fam Physician 75 (3): 373–6. . Retrieved 2009-11-06.

أمراض فيروسية
حالات جلدية مرتبطة بفيروسات
طب الأطفال

المرض الخامس


Hiroki Oka (født 18. april 1988) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Ventforet Kofu.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Hiroki Oka


Un chargement automatique est un système mécanique automatisé assurant la manipulation des munitions lors de leur chargement dans un système d'arme. Il ne nécessite pas d'intervention humaine lors de son fonctionnement.

Histoire et utilisation

Véhicules blindés

Chars de combat

Le chars de combat soviétiques T-64 et T-72, mis en service respectivement à la fin des années 60 et au milieu des années 70, furent équipé de chargement automatiques sous la forme d'un carrousel logé au fond de la tourelle, sous les sièges de l'équipage. Le but recherché était d'avoir des chars avec des tourelles biplaces, à l'aspect plus compact et donc moins lourdes. Le chargement automatique garantissait également le chargement du canon de manière continue et ce même si le char était en marche et sur un terrain accidenté.

À la même époque l'Armée suédoise perçu ses chars de combat Strv-103 dont l'agencement interne assez particulier faisait que l'intégralité de ses munitions de  étaient idéalement situées à l'arrière du châssis et séparées de l'équipage par une cloison blindée. De ce fait, son canon était alimenté en munitions par un magasin automatisé d'une contenance de 50 obus.

Au milieu des années 80, la FMC Corporation présenta son CCVL (Close Combat Light Vehicle) comme compétiteur pour le programme de char léger AGS (Armored Gun System). Ce char léger avait la particularité d'avoir un dispositif de chargement automatique capable de décharger une munitions de  déjà engagée dans la culasse du canon et de la remplacer dans le carrousel. Ce qui peut être utile quand la munition sélectionnée ne correspond pas à la cible traitée.

Le tout début des années 90 marqua l'introduction des chars Type 90 et Leclerc, tous deux équipés de convoyeurs à munitions fonctionnant à l'aide d'une chaîne d'alvéoles, système précédemment testé sur le MBT-70 américano-allemand. Situés dans la nuque de leurs tourelles respectives. Ces dernières étant isolées du compartiment de combat de la tourelle par une cloison blindé et recouverte de panneaux détachables libérés en cas d'explosion des munitions.

Automoteur d'artillerie
En raison de l'encombrement des munitions de  et de , plusieurs systèmes furent développés au cours de la Guerre froide sur des blindés chenillés tels que le Bandkanon 1 suédois l'AuF1 français ou sur roues comme le ShKH vz. 77 DANA tchécoslovaque.

Lance-missile
Le chasseur de char lance-missile IT-1 soviétique était équipé d'un système de chargement automatique comprenant un rail de lancement pivotant prenant le missile dans son conteneur avant de se mettre en position de tir en basculant à l'extérieur de la tourelle.
Le lance-missile quadruple du VAB Mephisto est recomplété, sous blindage, de manière automatique ; le module élévateur escamotable vient s'éclipser dans le toit et s'aligne avec deux barillets rotatif contenant chacun quatre missiles HOT.

Navires

Afin de rendre les tourelles navales plus légères et plus compactes, il a fallu éliminer les pourvoyeurs de la tourelle. OTO Melara conçu au début des années 60 l'Oto Melara 76/62 Compatto, un système d'arme pouvant être installé sur n'importe quelle classe de navires. Il comprend un canon à tir rapide de  tirant à 85 coups/minute monté dans une tourelle légère et compacte.

En 1968, la Marine nationale entreprit l'automatisation de son canon naval polyvalent de  Modèle 53 afin qu'il ne nécessite plus aucun servant.

Le destroyer HMS Bristol lancé en 1973 fut le premier bâtiment de la Royal Navy à être armé d'un canon naval Mark 8 de 4,5 pouces conçu par le RARDE.

Galerie

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 Lexique des armes à feu

Arme
Chargement automatique

Chargement automatique


المصحف الأزرق هو نسخة من القرآن الكريم مكتوب بالخط الكوفي المذهب على الورق الأزرق النادر. يرجع إلى القرن الرابع للهجرة، تم اكتشافه في مدينة القيروان.

التاريخ
يعود المصحف إلى النصف الثاني من القرن الرابع للهجرة (القرن 10م)، وتثبت سجلات الجامع الأعظم بالقيروان وجوده بمكتبته منذ القرن الخامس إذ يشير جرد مخطوطات المسجد الكبير بالقيروان المحرر سنة 693 هجرية/1292-1293 ميلادية، إلى هذا القرآن بالعبارات التالية «... في سبعة مجلدات من الحجم الكبير كتب بالذهب في خط كوفي على رق أزرق أسود. كتبت السور وعدد الآيات والأحزاب بالفضة؛ وغلف المصحف بجلد مطبوع على خشب مبطن بالحرير. "يحتفظ بهذا المخطوط حاليا بتونس، باستثناء الأجزاء الأربعة الأولى الموزعة على متاحف ومجموعات خاصة عبر العالم»
خلال القرن التاسع عشر للميلاد تم نهب المكتبة وسرقت عدة صفحات منه نجدها اليوم في مجموعات خاصة وفي بعض متاحف أوروبا.
لا زال جزء من المصحف موجود ضمن مجموعة المخطوطات القيروانية، حيث نجد بعض صفحاته بالمتحف الوطني للفن الإسلامي برقادة للفنون الإسلامية.

مراجع
ًًَََُُُّّّ

أعمال في فن الخط
الإسلام في تونس
مصحف
مخطوطات القرن 10
مصحف

المصحف الأزرق


Hermès International áður Hermès Paris eða einfaldlega Hermès, er franskt fyrirtæki sem vinnur við hönnun, framleiðslu og sölu á lúxusvörum, sérstaklega á sviði leðurvöru, tilbúins til að nota, ilmvatn, úrsmíði, hússins, listina að lifa og listir borðsins. Stofnað í París árið 1837 af Thierry Hermès, fyrirtækið Hermès, upphaflega belti og hnakkaframleiðandi, tilheyrir enn í dag aðallega erfingjum þess.

Atvinnuauður fjölskyldunnar er áætlaður 39.600 milljónir evra.

Tilvísanir

Tenglar
 Heimasíða Hermès

Fyrirtæki
Framleiðslufyrirtæki
Frönsk fyrirtæki

Hermès International


ජනිල්  මෙයිලානි පර්රිෂ් (උපත 1988 ඔක්තෝබර් මස 10වන දින ) ඇමෙරිකානු නිළියක හා ගායිකාවක වේ. She is best known for playing Mona Vanderwaal on the Freeform mystery drama series Pretty Little Liars. She is also known for portraying Cosette|Young Cosette in the Broadway theatre|Broadway production of Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables (1996), and Jade in the teen comedy film Bratz (2007 film)|Bratz (2007). In 2014, Parrish participated in the Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 19)|19th season of Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)|Dancing with the Stars, taking third place.

ඇමෙරිකානු නිළියන්
ජීවත්වන්නෝ
1988 උපත්

ආශ්‍රිත

ජනිල් පර්රිෂ්


John Ormsby Johnson fue un oficial de la Royal Navy que sirvió en la Guerra de Crimea.

Biografía
John Ormsby Johnson nació el 11 de agosto de 1822.

El 20 de septiembre de 1835 ingresó a la marina británica. El 28 de junio de 1844 fue promovido al grado de teniente y el 27 de mayo de 1849 a comandante.

El 17 de febrero de 1852 casó con Edith Renira, hermana del reverendo Charles Edward Twyford, de Trotton, Sussex.

El 2 de julio de 1852 recibió su primer mando, el del transporte de tropas acorazado HMS Megaera. Al frente del HMS Megaera sirvió en la Guerra de Crimea hasta su finalización en 1856.

El 10 de mayo de 1856 fue ascendido a capitán pero debió esperar hasta el 27 de noviembre de 1861 para recibir un nuevo mando, el del HMS Satellite, corbeta a vapor con la que partió de Plymouth para sumarse a la estación naval británica en el Atlántico Sur.

Allí participó del bloqueo del puerto de Río de Janeiro junto a la fragata HMS Forte, buque insignia al mando del capitán Thomas Saumarez, la balandra HMS Stromboli (comandante Arthur Robert Henry), la HMS Curlew (comandante Charles Stuart Forbes) y la cañonera HMS Doterel, y capturó cinco barcos que estaban anclados en esa bahía, en el punto más álgido de la llamada Cuestión Christie, grave conflicto que llevó a la ruptura de relaciones diplomáticas entre el Imperio de Brasil y Gran Bretaña.

El 5 de mayo de 1862 dejó el mando de la Satellite por invalidez y regresó a su patria.

Entre el 28 de abril de 1863 y el 27 de abril de 1866 comandó el HMS Pembroke, viejo navío de línea de tercer rango (74 cañones) afectado al servicio de guardacostas que operaba desde Harwick.

Entre el 25 de julio de 1867 y el 29 de noviembre de 1870 fue comandante de la HMS Liffey, fragata a hélice afectada inicialmente a la costa sur de Irlanda, con la que en septiembre de 1868 viajó a las Indias Occidentales y que en junio de 1869 pasó a integrar el Flying Squadron, división especial de la Royal Navy creada como unidad de intervención rápida global. Compuesta también por el HMS Liverpool (buque insignia), el Barrosa, Endymion, Phoebe y Scylla, zarpó de Portsmouth el 18 de julio de 1869 y después de circunnavegar el globo regresó a Gran Bretaña en noviembre de 1870, después de navegar 53000 millas.

Tras pasar a retiro en 1874, el 11 de junio de ese año fue reconocido en el grado de contralmirante, y el 1 de febrero de 1879 fue promovido al grado de vicealmirante retirado.

El 26 de febrero de 1881 murió en Ipswich.

Bibliografía
 Foreign Office, British and foreign state papers, 1863-1864, Volumen LIV, William Ridgway, Londres, 1869
 The Brazil correspondence in the cases of the Prince of Wales and officers of the Forte, William Ridgway, Londres, 1863

Enlaces externos
 John Ormsby Johnson R.N., en pdavis.nl

Almirantes de la Marina Real británica

John Ormsby Johnson


Palacio de la Ópera puede referirse a:

 Ópera Garnier, Palacio Garnier u Ópera de París.
 Palacio de la Ópera (La Coruña).

Palacio de la Ópera


O World RX da Alemanha é uma das etapas do Campeonato Mundial de Rallycross. A etapa já teve dois circuitos como sede, sendo Estering de 2014 até 2018, e Nürburgring em 2021.

Uma característica interessante da etapa é o fato de nenhum piloto ter conseguido vencer mais de uma vez, tendo vencedores diferentes em todas as edições.

Circuitos utilizados

Vencedores

Automobilismo da Alemanha

World RX da Alemanha


In genetics and bioinformatics, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP ; plural SNPs ) is a germline substitution of a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome that is present in a sufficiently large fraction of considered population (generally regarded as 1% or more).

For example, a G nucleotide present at a specific location in a reference genome may be replaced by an A in a minority of individuals. The two possible nucleotide variations of this SNP – G or A – are called alleles.

SNPs can help explain differences in susceptibility to a wide range of diseases across a population. For example, a common SNP in the CFH gene is associated with increased risk of age-related macular degeneration. Differences in the severity of an illness or response to treatments may also be manifestations of genetic variations caused by SNPs. For example, two common SNPs in the APOE gene, rs429358 and rs7412, lead to three major APO-E alleles with different associated risks for development of Alzheimer's disease and age at onset of the disease.

Single nucleotide substitutions with an allele frequency of less than 1% are sometimes called single-nucleotide variants (SNVs). "Variant" may also be used as a general term for any single nucleotide change in a DNA sequence, encompassing both common SNPs and rare mutations, whether germline or somatic. The term SNV has therefore been used to refer to point mutations found in cancer cells. DNA variants must also commonly be taken into consideration in molecular diagnostics applications such as designing PCR primers to detect viruses, in which the viral RNA or DNA sample may contain SNVs. However, this nomenclature uses arbitrary distinctions (such as an allele frequency of 1%) and is not used consistently across all fields; the resulting disagreement has prompted calls for a more consistent framework for naming differences in DNA sequences between two samples.

Types

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms may fall within coding sequences of genes, non-coding regions of genes, or in the intergenic regions(regions between genes). SNPs within a coding sequence do not necessarily change the amino acid sequence of the protein that is produced, due to degeneracy of the genetic code.

SNPs in the coding region are of two types: synonymous SNPs and nonsynonymous SNPs. Synonymous SNPs do not affect the protein sequence, while nonsynonymous SNPs change the amino acid sequence of protein.
 SNPs in non-coding regions can manifest in a higher risk of cancer, and may affect mRNA structure and disease susceptibility. Non-coding SNPs can also alter the level of expression of a gene, as an eQTL (expression quantitative trait locus).
 SNPs in coding regions:
 synonymous substitutions by definition do not result in a change of amino acid in the protein, but still can affect its function in other ways. An example would be a seemingly silent mutation in the multidrug resistance gene 1 (MDR1), which codes for a cellular membrane pump that expels drugs from the cell, can slow down translation and allow the peptide chain to fold into an unusual conformation, causing the mutant pump to be less functional (in MDR1 protein e.g. C1236T polymorphism changes a GGC codon to GGT at amino acid position 412 of the polypeptide (both encode glycine) and the C3435T polymorphism changes ATC to ATT at position 1145 (both encode isoleucine)).
 nonsynonymous substitutions:
 missense – single change in the base results in change in amino acid of protein and its malfunction which leads to disease (e.g. c.1580G>T SNP in LMNA gene – position 1580 (nt) in the DNA sequence (CGT codon) causing the guanine to be replaced with the thymine, yielding CTT codon in the DNA sequence, results at the protein level in the replacement of the arginine by the leucine in the position 527, at the phenotype level this manifests in overlapping mandibuloacral dysplasia and progeria syndrome)
 nonsense – point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon, or a nonsense codon in the transcribed mRNA, and in a truncated, incomplete, and usually nonfunctional protein product (e.g. Cystic fibrosis caused by the G542X mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene).

SNPs that are not in protein-coding regions may still affect gene splicing, transcription factor binding, messenger RNA degradation, or the sequence of noncoding RNA. Gene expression affected by this type of SNP is referred to as an eSNP (expression SNP) and may be upstream or downstream from the gene.

Frequency

More than 600 million SNPs have been identified across the human genome in the world's population. A typical genome differs from the reference human genome at 4 to 5 million sites, most of which (more than 99.9%) consist of SNPs and short indels.

Within a genome
The genomic distribution of SNPs is not homogenous; SNPs occur in non-coding regions more frequently than in coding regions or, in general, where natural selection is acting and "fixing" the allele (eliminating other variants) of the SNP that constitutes the most favorable genetic adaptation. Other factors, like genetic recombination and mutation rate, can also determine SNP density.

SNP density can be predicted by the presence of microsatellites: AT microsatellites in particular are potent predictors of SNP density, with long (AT)(n) repeat tracts tending to be found in regions of significantly reduced SNP density and low GC content.

Within a population
There are variations between human populations, so a SNP allele that is common in one geographical or ethnic group may be much rarer in another.  However, this pattern of variation is relatively rare; in a global sample of 67.3 million SNPs, the Human Genome Diversity Project "found no such private variants that are fixed in a given continent or major region. The highest frequencies are reached by a few tens of variants present at >70% (and a few thousands at >50%) in Africa, the Americas, and Oceania. By contrast, the highest frequency variants private to Europe, East Asia, the Middle East, or Central and South Asia reach just 10 to 30%."

Within a population, SNPs can be assigned a minor allele frequency—the lowest allele frequency at a locus that is observed in a particular population. This is simply the lesser of the two allele frequencies for single-nucleotide polymorphisms.

With this knowledge scientists have developed new methods in analyzing population structures in less studied species. By using pooling techniques the cost of the analysis is significantly lowered. These techniques are based on sequencing a population in a pooled sample instead of sequencing every individual within the population by itself. With new bioinformatics tools there is a possibility of investigating population structure, gene flow and gene migration by observing the allele frequencies within the entire population. With these protocols there is a possibility in combining the advantages of SNPs with micro satellite markers. However, there are information lost in the process such as linkage disequilibrium and zygosity information.

Applications

 Association studies can determine whether a genetic variant is associated with a disease or trait.
 A tag SNP is a representative single-nucleotide polymorphism in a region of the genome with high linkage disequilibrium (the non-random association of alleles at two or more loci). Tag SNPs are useful in whole-genome SNP association studies, in which hundreds of thousands of SNPs across the entire genome are genotyped.
 Haplotype mapping: sets of alleles or DNA sequences can be clustered so that a single SNP can identify many linked SNPs.
 Linkage disequilibrium (LD), a term used in population genetics, indicates non-random association of alleles at two or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome. It refers to the phenomenon that SNP allele or DNA sequence that are close together in the genome tend to be inherited together. LD can be affected by two parameters (among other factors, such as population stratification): 1) The distance between the SNPs [the larger the distance, the lower the LD]. 2) Recombination rate [the lower the recombination rate, the higher the LD].
 In genetic epidemiology SNPs are used to estimate transmission clusters.

Importance
Variations in the DNA sequences of humans can affect how humans develop diseases and respond to pathogens, chemicals, drugs, vaccines, and other agents. SNPs are also critical for personalized medicine. Examples include biomedical research, forensics, pharmacogenetics, and disease causation, as outlined below.

Clinical research

Genome-wide association study (GWAS)
One of main contributions of SNPs in clinical research is genome-wide association study (GWAS). Genome-wide genetic data can be generated by multiple technologies, including SNP array and whole genome sequencing. GWAS has been commonly used in identifying SNPs associated with diseases or clinical phenotypes or traits. Since GWAS is a genome-wide assessment, a large sample site is required to obtain sufficient statistical power to detect all possible associations. Some SNPs have relatively small effect on diseases or clinical phenotypes or traits. To estimate study power, the genetic model for disease needs to be considered, such as dominant, recessive, or additive effects. Due to genetic heterogeneity, GWAS analysis must be adjusted for race.

Candidate gene association study
Candidate gene association study is commonly used in genetic study before the invention of high throughput genotyping or sequencing technologies. Candidate gene association study is to investigate limited number of pre-specified SNPs for association with diseases or clinical phenotypes or traits. So this is a hypothesis driven approach. Since only a limited number of SNPs are tested, a relatively small sample size is sufficient to detect the association. Candidate gene association approach is also commonly used to confirm findings from GWAS in independent samples.

Homozygosity mapping in disease
Genome-wide SNP data can be used for homozygosity mapping. Homozygosity mapping is a method used to identify homozygous autosomal recessive loci, which can be a powerful tool to map genomic regions or genes that are involved in disease pathogenesis.

Methylation patterns

Recently, preliminary results reported SNPs as important components of the epigenetic program in organisms. Moreover, cosmopolitan studies in European and South Asiatic populations have revealed the influence of SNPs in the methylation of specific CpG sites. In addition, meQTL enrichment analysis using GWAS database, demonstrated that those associations are important toward the prediction of biological traits.

Forensic sciences

SNPs have historically been used to match a forensic DNA sample to a suspect but has been made obsolete due to advancing STR-based DNA fingerprinting techniques. However, the development of next-generation-sequencing (NGS) technology may allow for more opportunities for the use of SNPs in phenotypic clues such as ethnicity, hair color, and eye color with a good probability of a match. This can additionally be applied to increase the accuracy of facial reconstructions by providing information that may otherwise be unknown, and this information can be used to help identify suspects even without a STR DNA profile match.

Some cons to using SNPs versus STRs is that SNPs yield less information than STRs, and therefore more SNPs are needed for analysis before a profile of a suspect is able to be created. Additionally, SNPs heavily rely on the presence of a database for comparative analysis of samples. However, in instances with degraded or small volume samples, SNP techniques are an excellent alternative to STR methods. SNPs (as opposed to STRs) have an abundance of potential markers, can be fully automated, and a possible reduction of required fragment length to less than 100bp.[26]

Pharmacogenetics
Pharmacogenetics focuses on identifying genetic variations including SNPs associated with differential responses to treatment. Many drug metabolizing enzymes, drug targets, or target pathways can be influenced by SNPs. The SNPs involved in drug metabolizing enzyme activities can change drug pharmacokinetics, while the SNPs involved in drug target or its pathway can change drug pharmacodynamics. Therefore, SNPs are potential genetic markers that can be used to predict drug exposure or effectiveness of the treatment. Genome-wide pharmacogenetic study is called pharmacogenomics. Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics are important in the development of precision medicine, especially for life-threatening diseases such as cancers.

Disease
Only small amount of SNPs in the human genome may have impact on human diseases. Large scale GWAS has been done for the most important human diseases, including heart diseases, metabolic diseases, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Most of the SNPs with relatively large effects on these diseases have been identified. These findings have significantly improved understanding of disease pathogenesis and molecular pathways, and facilitated development of better treatment. Further GWAS with larger samples size will reveal the SNPs with relatively small effect on diseases. For common and complex diseases, such as type-2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and Alzheimer's disease, multiple genetic factors are involved in disease etiology. In addition, gene-gene interaction and gene-environment interaction also play an important role in disease initiation and progression.

Examples
 rs6311 and rs6313 are SNPs in the Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor gene on human chromosome 13.
 The SNP − 3279C/A (rs3761548) is amongst the SNPs locating in the promoter region of the Foxp3 gene, might be involved in cancer progression.
 A SNP in the F5 gene causes Factor V Leiden thrombophilia.
 rs3091244 is an example of a triallelic SNP in the CRP gene on human chromosome 1.
 TAS2R38 codes for PTC tasting ability, and contains 6 annotated SNPs.
 rs148649884 and rs138055828 in the FCN1 gene encoding M-ficolin crippled the ligand-binding capability of the recombinant M-ficolin.
 An intronic SNP in DNA mismatch repair gene PMS2 (rs1059060, Ser775Asn) is associated with increased sperm DNA damage and risk of male infertility.

Databases
As there are for genes, bioinformatics databases exist for SNPs.
 dbSNP is a SNP database from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). , dbSNP listed 149,735,377 SNPs in humans.
 Kaviar is a compendium of SNPs from multiple data sources including dbSNP.
 SNPedia is a wiki-style database supporting personal genome annotation, interpretation and analysis.
 The OMIM database describes the association between polymorphisms and diseases (e.g., gives diseases in text form)
 dbSAP – single amino-acid polymorphism database for protein variation detection
 The Human Gene Mutation Database provides gene mutations causing or associated with human inherited diseases and functional SNPs
 The International HapMap Project, where researchers are identifying Tag SNPs to be able to determine the collection of haplotypes present in each subject.
 GWAS Central allows users to visually interrogate the actual summary-level association data in one or more genome-wide association studies.

The International SNP Map working group mapped the sequence flanking each SNP by alignment to the genomic sequence of large-insert clones in Genebank. These alignments were converted to chromosomal coordinates that is shown in Table 1. This list has greatly increased since, with, for instance, the Kaviar database now listing 162 million single nucleotide variants (SNVs).

Nomenclature
The nomenclature for SNPs include several variations for an individual SNP, while lacking a common consensus.

The rs### standard is that which has been adopted by dbSNP and uses the prefix "rs", for "reference SNP", followed by a unique and arbitrary number. SNPs are frequently referred to by their dbSNP rs number, as in the examples above.

The Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) uses a standard which conveys more information about the SNP. Examples are:
 c.76A>T: "c." for coding region, followed by a number for the position of the nucleotide, followed by a one-letter abbreviation for the nucleotide (A, C, G, T or U), followed by a greater than sign (">") to indicate substitution, followed by the abbreviation of the nucleotide which replaces the former
 p.Ser123Arg: "p." for protein, followed by a three-letter abbreviation for the amino acid, followed by a number for the position of the amino acid, followed by the abbreviation of the amino acid which replaces the former.

SNP analysis
SNPs can be easily assayed due to only containing two possible alleles and three possible genotypes involving the two alleles: homozygous A, homozygous B and heterozygous AB, leading to many possible techniques for analysis. Some include: DNA sequencing; capillary electrophoresis; mass spectrometry; single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP); single base extension; electrochemical analysis; denaturating HPLC and gel electrophoresis; restriction fragment length polymorphism; and hybridization analysis.

Programs for prediction of SNP effects
An important group of SNPs are those that corresponds to missense mutations causing amino acid change on protein level. Point mutation of particular residue can have different effect on protein function (from no effect to complete disruption its function). Usually, change in amino acids with similar size and physico-chemical properties (e.g. substitution from leucine to valine) has mild effect, and opposite. Similarly, if SNP disrupts secondary structure elements (e.g. substitution to proline in alpha helix region) such mutation usually may affect whole protein structure and function. Using those simple and many other machine learning derived rules a group of programs for the prediction of SNP effect was developed:
 SIFT This program provides insight into how a laboratory induced missense or nonsynonymous mutation will affect protein function based on physical properties of the amino acid and sequence homology.
 LIST (Local Identity and Shared Taxa) estimates the potential deleteriousness of mutations resulted from altering their protein functions. It is based on the assumption that variations observed in closely related species are more significant when assessing conservation compared to those in distantly related species.
 SNAP2
 SuSPect
 PolyPhen-2
 PredictSNP
 MutationTaster: official website
 Variant Effect Predictor from the Ensembl project
 SNPViz  This program provides a 3D representation of the protein affected, highlighting the amino acid change so doctors can determine pathogenicity of the mutant protein.
 PROVEAN
 PhyreRisk is a database which maps variants to experimental and predicted protein structures.
 Missense3D is a tool which provides a stereochemical report on the effect of missense variants on protein structure.

See also

 Affymetrix
 HapMap
 Illumina
 International HapMap Project
 Short tandem repeat (STR)
 Single-base extension
 SNP array
 SNP genotyping
 SNPedia
 Snpstr
 SNV calling from NGS data
 Suspension array technology
 Tag SNP
 TaqMan
 Variome

References

Further reading

 Human Genome Project Information — SNP Fact Sheet

External links

 NCBI resources  – Introduction to SNPs from NCBI
 The SNP Consortium LTD – SNP search
 NCBI dbSNP database – "a central repository for both single base nucleotide substitutions and short deletion and insertion polymorphisms"
 HGMD – the Human Gene Mutation Database, includes rare mutations and functional SNPs
 GWAS Central – a central database of summary-level genetic association findings
 1000 Genomes Project – A Deep Catalog of Human Genetic Variation
 WatCut  – an online tool for the design of SNP-RFLP assays
 SNPStats  – SNPStats, a web tool for analysis of genetic association studies
 Restriction HomePage – a set of tools for DNA restriction and SNP detection, including design of mutagenic primers
 American Association for Cancer Research Cancer Concepts Factsheet on SNPs
 PharmGKB – The Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics Knowledge Base, a resource for SNPs associated with drug response and disease outcomes.
 GEN-SNiP  – Online tool that identifies polymorphisms in test DNA sequences.
 Rules for Nomenclature of Genes, Genetic Markers, Alleles, and Mutations in Mouse and Rat
 HGNC Guidelines for Human Gene Nomenclature
 SNP effect predictor with galaxy integration
 Open SNP – a portal for sharing own SNP test results
 dbSAP  – SNP database for protein variation detection

Molecular biology
Population genetics
DNA
Genetic genealogy

Biotechnology
Mutation

Single-nucleotide polymorphism


Çalın Davulları (türkü) - Nihat Kaya tarafından Hüseyin Yaltırık'tan derlenmiş, Selanik türküsü olarak da bilinen Rumeli türküsü.
 Bülbülüm Altın Kafeste (türkü) - Ali Şevket Öndersev tarafından hafızaya alınmış ve Muzaffer Sarısözen'e aktarılmış, Selanik türküsü olarak da bilinen Rumeli türküsü.
 Bir Fırtına Tuttu Bizi- Yücel Paşmakçı tarafından Fatma Çil'den derlenip notaya alınmış, Selanik türküsü olarak da bilinen Rumeli türküsü.

Selanik Türküsü


Evenimente

 Psamtik II îi succede lui Necho II ca rege al Egiptului
 Statul Chu înfrânge Statul Jin în Bătălia de la Bi

Nașteri

 Cresus, ultimul rege al Lidiei

Decese

 Necho II al Egiptului

Ani

595 î.Hr.


Gadsji Gadsjijev (  ; født 28. oktober 1945 i Bujnaksk, Dagestanske ASSR, USSR) er en tidligere rusisk fodboldspiller og træner.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Rusland

Gadsji Gadsjijev


An Carex testacea in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Daniel Carl Solander ngan Francis M.B. Boott. An Carex testacea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Carex

Carex testacea