The Battle of Savo Island, also known as the First Battle of Savo Island and in Japanese sources as the , and colloquially among Allied Guadalcanal veterans as the Battle of the Five Sitting Ducks, was a naval battle of the Solomon Islands campaign of the Pacific War of World War II between the Imperial Japanese Navy and Allied naval forces. The battle took place on 8–9 August 1942 and was the first major naval engagement of the Guadalcanal campaign and the first of several naval battles in the straits later named Ironbottom Sound, near the island of Guadalcanal.

The Imperial Japanese Navy, in response to Allied amphibious landings in the eastern Solomon Islands, mobilized a task force of seven cruisers and one destroyer under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa. The task forces sailed from Japanese bases in New Britain and New Ireland down New Georgia Sound (also known as "The Slot") with the intention of interrupting the Allied landings by attacking the supporting amphibious fleet and its screening force. The Allied screen consisted of eight cruisers and fifteen destroyers under Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley, but only five cruisers and seven destroyers were involved in the battle. In a night action, Mikawa thoroughly surprised and routed the Allied force, sinking one Australian and three American cruisers, while suffering only light damage in return.  Rear Admiral Samuel J. Cox, director of the Naval History and Heritage Command, considers this battle and the Battle of Tassafaronga to be two of the worst defeats in U.S. naval history, with only the attack on Pearl Harbor being worse.

After the initial engagement, Mikawa, fearing Allied carrier strikes against his fleet in daylight, decided to withdraw under cover of night rather than attempt to locate and destroy the Allied invasion transports. The Japanese attacks prompted the remaining Allied warships and the amphibious force to withdraw earlier than planned (before unloading all supplies), temporarily ceding control of the seas around Guadalcanal to the Japanese. This early withdrawal of the fleet left the Allied ground forces (primarily United States Marines), which had landed on Guadalcanal and nearby islands only two days before, in a precarious situation with limited supplies, equipment, and food to hold their beachhead.

Mikawa's decision to withdraw under cover of night rather than attempt to destroy the Allied invasion transports was primarily founded on concern over possible Allied carrier strikes against his fleet in daylight. In reality, the Allied carrier fleet, similarly fearing Japanese attack, had already withdrawn beyond operational range. This missed opportunity to cripple (rather than interrupt) the supply of Allied forces on Guadalcanal contributed to Japan's failure to recapture the island. At this critical early stage of the campaign, it allowed the Allied forces to entrench and fortify themselves sufficiently to defend the area around Henderson Field until additional Allied reinforcements arrived later in the year.

The battle was the first of five costly, large-scale sea and air-sea actions fought in support of the ground battles on Guadalcanal, as the Japanese sought to counter the American offensive in the Pacific. These sea battles took place after increasing delays by each side to regroup and refit, until the 30 November 1942 Battle of Tassafaronga—after which the Japanese, eschewing the costly losses, attempted resupplying by submarine and barges. The final naval battle, the Battle of Rennell Island, took place months later on 29–30 January 1943, by which time the Japanese were preparing to evacuate their remaining land forces and withdraw.

Background

Operations at Guadalcanal

On 7 August 1942 Allied forces (primarily U.S. Marines) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Island in the eastern Solomon Islands. The landings were meant to deny their use to the Japanese as bases, especially the nearly completed airfield at Henderson Field that was being constructed on Guadalcanal. If Japanese air and sea forces were allowed to establish forward operating bases in the eastern Solomons, they would be in a position to threaten the supply shipping routes between the U.S. and Australia. The Allies also wanted to use the islands as launching points for a campaign to recapture the Solomons, isolate or capture the major Japanese base at Rabaul, and support the Allied New Guinea campaign, which was then building strength under General Douglas MacArthur. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign.

The overall commander of Allied naval forces in the Guadalcanal and Tulagi operation was U.S. Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher. He also commanded the carrier task groups providing air cover. U.S. Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner commanded the amphibious fleet that delivered the 16,000 Allied troops to Guadalcanal and Tulagi. Also under Turner was Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley's screening force of eight cruisers, fifteen destroyers, and five minesweepers. This force was to protect Turner's ships and provide gunfire support for the landings. Crutchley commanded his force of mostly American ships from his flagship, the Australian heavy cruiser .

The Allied landings took the Japanese by surprise. The Allies secured Tulagi, nearby islets Gavutu and Tanambogo, and the airfield under construction on Guadalcanal by nightfall on 8 August. On 7–8 August Japanese aircraft based at Rabaul attacked the Allied amphibious forces several times, setting afire the U.S. transport ship  (which sank later) and heavily damaging the destroyer . In these air attacks, the Japanese lost 36 aircraft, while the U.S. lost 19 aircraft, including 14 carrier-based fighter aircraft.

Concerned over the losses to his carrier fighter aircraft strength, anxious about the threat to his carriers from further Japanese air attacks, and worried about his ships' fuel levels, Fletcher announced that he would withdraw his carrier task forces on the evening of 8 August. Some historians contend that Fletcher's fuel situation was not at all critical but that Fletcher used it to justify his withdrawal from the battle area.  Fletcher's biographer notes that Fletcher concluded that the landing was a success and that no important targets for close air support were at hand. Being concerned over the loss of 21 of his carrier fighters, he assessed that his carriers were threatened by torpedo-bomber strikes and wanting to refuel before Japanese naval forces arrived, he withdrew as he had previously forewarned Turner and Vandegrift. Turner, however, believed that Fletcher understood that he was to provide air cover until all the transports were unloaded on 9 August.

Even though the unloading was going more slowly than planned, Turner decided that without carrier air cover, he would have to withdraw his ships from Guadalcanal. He planned to unload as much as possible during the night and depart the next day.

Japanese response
Unprepared for the Allied operation at Guadalcanal, the initial Japanese response included airstrikes and an attempted reinforcement. Mikawa, commander of the newly formed Japanese Eighth Fleet headquartered at Rabaul, loaded 519 naval troops on two transports and sent them towards Guadalcanal on 7 August. When the Japanese learned that Allied forces at Guadalcanal were stronger than originally reported, the transports were recalled.

Mikawa also assembled all the available warships in the area to attack the Allied forces at Guadalcanal. At Rabaul were the heavy   (Mikawa's flagship), the light cruisers  of Cruiser Division 18 and  and the destroyer . En route from Kavieng were four heavy cruisers of Cruiser Division 6 under Rear Admiral Aritomo Goto: the   and  and the   and , totaling 34 8-inch main guns.

The Japanese Navy had trained extensively in night-fighting tactics before the war, a fact of which the Allies were unaware. Mikawa hoped to engage the Allied naval forces off Guadalcanal and Tulagi on the night of 8–9 August when he could employ his night-battle expertise while avoiding attacks from Allied aircraft, which could not operate effectively at night. Mikawa's warships rendezvoused at sea near Cape St. George in the evening of 7 August and then headed east-southeast.

Battle

Prelude

Mikawa decided to take his fleet north of Buka Island and then down the east coast of Bougainville. The fleet paused east of Kieta for six hours on the morning of 8 August to avoid daytime air attacks during its final approach to Guadalcanal. Mikawa proceeded along the dangerous New Georgia Sound (known as "The Slot"), hoping that no Allied plane would see them in the fading light. The Japanese fleet was in fact sighted in St George Channel, where the column almost ran into , lying in ambush. She was too close to fire torpedoes, but her captain, Lieutenant Commander H.G. Munson alerted the fleet. Once at Bougainville, Mikawa spread his ships out over a wide area to mask the composition of his force and launched four floatplanes from his cruisers to scout for Allied ships in the southern Solomons.

At 10:20 and 11:10, his ships were spotted by Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Hudson reconnaissance aircraft based at Milne Bay in New Guinea. The Hudson's crew tried to report the sighting to the Allied radio station at Fall River, New Guinea. Receiving no acknowledgment, they returned to Milne Bay at 12:42 to ensure that the report was received as soon as possible. The second Hudson also failed to report its sighting by radio but completed its patrol and landed at Milne Bay at 15:00. For unknown reasons, these reports were not relayed to the Allied fleet off Guadalcanal until 18:45 and 21:30, respectively. U.S. official historian Samuel Morison wrote in his 1949 account that the RAAF Hudson's crew failed to report the sighting until after they had landed and even had tea. This claim made international headlines and was repeated by many subsequent historians. Later research has discredited this version of events, and in 2014, the U.S. Navy's Naval History and Heritage Command acknowledged in a letter to the Hudson's radio operator, who had lobbied for decades to clear his crewmates' name, that Morison's criticisms were "unwarranted."

Mikawa's floatplanes returned around 12:00 and reported two groups of Allied ships, one off Guadalcanal and the other off Tulagi. By 13:00, he reassembled his warships and headed south through Bougainville Strait at . At 13:45, the cruiser force was near Choiseul southeast of Bougainville. At that time, several surviving Japanese aircraft from the noon torpedo raid on the Allied ships off the coast of Guadalcanal flew over the cruisers on the way back to Rabaul and gave them waves of encouragement. Mikawa entered The Slot by 16:00 and began his run towards Guadalcanal. He communicated the following battle plan to his warships: "On the rush-in we will go from S. (south) of Savo Island and torpedo the enemy main force in front of Guadalcanal anchorage; after which we will turn toward the Tulagi forward area to shell and torpedo the enemy. We will then withdraw north of Savo Island."

Mikawa's run down The Slot was not detected by Allied forces. Turner had requested that U.S. Admiral John S. McCain Sr., commander of Allied air forces for the South Pacific Area, conduct extra reconnaissance missions over The Slot in the afternoon of 8 August. But for unexplained reasons McCain did not order the missions nor did he tell Turner that they were not carried out. Thus, Turner mistakenly believed that The Slot was under Allied observation throughout the day. However, McCain cannot totally bear fault as his patrol craft were few in number and operated over a vast area at the extreme limit of their endurance. Turner had fifteen scouting planes of the cruiser force, which were never used that afternoon and remained on the decks of their cruisers, filled with gasoline and serving as an explosive hazard to the cruisers.

To protect the unloading transports during the night, Crutchley divided the Allied warship forces into three groups. A "southern" group, consisting of the Australian cruisers HMAS Australia and , cruiser , and destroyers  and , patrolled between Lunga Point and Savo Island to block the entrance between Savo Island and Cape Esperance on Guadalcanal. A "northern" group, consisting of the cruisers ,  and , and destroyers  and , conducted a box-shaped patrol between the Tulagi anchorage and Savo Island to defend the passage between Savo and Florida Islands. An "eastern" group consisting of the cruisers  and  with destroyers USS Monssen and USS  Buchanan guarded the eastern entrances to the sound between Florida and Guadalcanal Islands. Crutchley placed two radar-equipped U.S. destroyers to the west of Savo Island to provide early warning for any approaching Japanese ships. The destroyer  patrolled the northern passage and the destroyer  patrolled the southern passage, with a gap of  between their uncoordinated patrol patterns.

At this time, the Allies were unaware of all of the limitations of their primitive ship-borne radar, such as the effectiveness of the radar could be greatly degraded by the presence of nearby landmasses. Chicagos Captain Bode ordered his ship's radar to be used only intermittently out of concern that it would reveal his position, a decision that conformed with general Navy radar usage guidelines but which may have been incorrect in this specific circumstance. He allowed a single sweep every half hour with the fire control radar, but the timing of the last pre-engagement sweep was too early to detect the approaching Japanese cruisers. Wary of the potential threat from Japanese submarines to the transport ships, Crutchley placed his remaining seven destroyers as close-in protection around the two transport anchorages.

The crews of the Allied ships were fatigued after two days of constant alert and action in supporting the landings. Also, the weather was extremely hot and humid, inducing further fatigue and, in Morison's words, "inviting weary sailors to slackness." In response, most of Crutchley's warships went to "Condition II" the night of 8 August, which meant that half the crews were on duty while the other half rested, either in their bunks or near their battle stations.

In the evening, Turner called a conference on his command ship off Guadalcanal with Crutchley and Marine commander Major General Alexander A. Vandegrift to discuss the departure of Fletcher's carriers and the resulting withdrawal schedule for the transport ships. At 20:55, Crutchley left the southern group in Australia to attend the conference, leaving Bode in charge of the southern group. Crutchley did not inform the commanders of the other cruiser groups of his absence, contributing further to the dissolution of command arrangements. Bode, awakened from sleep in his cabin, decided not to place his ship in the lead of the southern group of ships, the customary place for the senior ship, and went back to sleep. At the conference, Turner, Crutchley, and Vandegrift discussed the reports of the "seaplane tender" force reported by the Australian Hudson crew earlier that day. They decided that it would not be a threat that night, because seaplane tenders did not normally engage in a surface action. Vandegrift said that he would need to inspect the transport unloading situation at Tulagi before recommending a withdrawal time for the transport ships, and he departed at midnight to conduct the inspection. Crutchley elected not to return with Australia to the southern force but instead stationed his ship just outside the Guadalcanal transport anchorage, without informing the other Allied ship commanders of his intentions or location.

As Mikawa's force neared the Guadalcanal area, the Japanese ships launched three floatplanes for one final reconnaissance of the Allied ships, and to provide illumination by dropping flares during the upcoming battle. Although several of the Allied ships heard and/or observed one or more of these floatplanes, starting at 23:45, none of them interpreted the presence of unknown aircraft in the area as an actionable threat, and no one reported the sightings to Crutchley or Turner. Mikawa's force approached in a single  column led by Chōkai, with Aoba, Kako, Kinugasa, Furutaka, Tenryū, Yūbari, and Yūnagi following. Sometime between 00:44 and 00:54 on 9 August, lookouts in Mikawa's ships spotted Blue about  ahead of the Japanese column.

Action south of Savo
To avoid Blue, Mikawa changed course to pass north of Savo Island. He also ordered his ships to slow to  to reduce wakes that might make his ships more visible. Mikawa's lookouts spied either Ralph Talbot about  away or a small schooner of unknown nationality. The Japanese ships held their course while pointing more than 50 guns at Blue, ready to open fire at the first indication that Blue had sighted them. When Blue was less than  away from Mikawa's force, she reversed course, having reached the end of her patrol track, and steamed away, apparently oblivious to the long column of large Japanese ships sailing by her. Seeing that his ships were still undetected, Mikawa turned back to a course south of Savo Island and increased speed, first to , and then to . At 01:25, Mikawa released his ships to operate independently of his flagship, and at 01:31 he ordered "Every ship attack."

At about this time, Yūnagi detached from the Japanese column and reversed direction, perhaps because she lost sight of the other Japanese ships ahead of her, or perhaps she was ordered to provide a rearguard for Mikawa's force. One minute later, Japanese lookouts sighted a warship to port. This ship was the destroyer , heavily damaged the day before and departing Guadalcanal independently for repairs in Australia. Whether Jarvis sighted the Japanese ships is unknown, since her radios had been destroyed. Furutaka launched torpedoes at Jarvis, which all missed. The Japanese ships passed as close to Jarvis as , close enough for officers on Tenryū to look down onto the destroyer's decks without seeing any of her crew moving about. If Jarvis was aware of the Japanese ships passing by, she did not respond in any noticeable way and was torpedoed and sunk the following day by aircraft from Rabaul. There were no survivors.

After sighting Jarvis, the Japanese lookouts sighted the Allied destroyers and cruisers of the southern force about  away, silhouetted by the glow from the burning George F. Elliott. At about 01:38, the Japanese cruisers began launching salvos of torpedoes at the Allied southern force ships. At this same time, lookouts on Chōkai spotted the ships of the Allied northern force at a range of . Chōkai turned to face this new threat, and the rest of the Japanese column followed, while still preparing to engage the Allied southern force ships with gunfire.

Pattersons crew was alert because the destroyer's captain had taken seriously the earlier daytime sightings of Japanese warships and evening sightings of unknown aircraft. At 01:43, Patterson spotted a ship, probably Kinugasa,  dead ahead and immediately sent a warning by radio and signal lamp: "Warning! Warning! Strange ships entering the harbor!" Patterson increased speed to full and fired star shells towards the Japanese column. Her captain ordered a torpedo attack, but his order was not heard over the noise from the destroyer's guns.

At about the same moment that Patterson sighted the Japanese ships and went into action, Japanese floatplanes dropped aerial flares directly over Canberra and Chicago. Canberra responded with Captain Frank Getting ordering an increase in speed and a reversal of an initial turn to port, which kept Canberra between the Japanese and the Allied transports, and for her guns to train out and fire at any targets that could be sighted. As Canberras guns took aim at the Japanese, Chōkai and Furutaka opened fire on her, scoring numerous hits. Aoba and Kako joined in with gunfire, and Canberra took up to 24 large-caliber hits. Early hits killed her gunnery officer, mortally wounded Getting, and destroyed both boiler rooms, knocking out power to the entire ship before Canberra could fire any of her guns or communicate a warning to other Allied ships. The cruiser glided to a stop, on fire, with a 5- to 10-degree list to starboard, and unable to fight the fires or pump out flooded compartments because of lack of power.

The crew of Chicago, observing the illumination of their ship by air-dropped flares and the sudden turn by Canberra in front of them, came alert and awakened Captain Bode. Bode ordered his  guns to fire star shells towards the Japanese column, but the shells did not function. At 01:47, a torpedo, probably from Kako, hit Chicagos bow, sending a shock wave throughout the ship that damaged the main battery director. A second torpedo hit but failed to explode, and a shell hit the cruiser's mainmast, killing two crewmen. Chicago steamed west for 40 minutes,leaving behind the transports she was assigned to protect. The cruiser fired her secondary batteries at the trailing ships in the Japanese column and may have hit Tenryū, causing slight damage. Bode did not try to assert control over any of the other Allied ships in the southern force, of which he was still technically in command. More significantly, Bode made no attempt to warn any of the other Allied ships or personnel in the Guadalcanal area as his ship headed away from the battle area.

Patterson engaged in a gun duel with the Japanese column. Patterson received a shell hit aft, causing moderate damage and killing 10 crew members. Patterson continued to pursue and fire at the Japanese ships and may have hit Kinugasa, causing moderate damage. Patterson then lost sight of the Japanese column as it headed northeast along the eastern shore of Savo Island. Bagley, whose crew sighted the Japanese shortly after Patterson and Canberra, circled completely around to port before firing torpedoes in the general direction of the rapidly disappearing Japanese column; one or two of which may have hit Canberra. Bagley played no further role in the battle. Yūnagi exchanged non-damaging gunfire with Jarvis before exiting the battle area to the west with the intention of eventually rejoining the Japanese column north and west of Savo Island.

At 01:44, as Mikawa's ships headed towards the Allied northern force, Tenryū and Yūbari split from the rest of the Japanese column and took a more westward course. Furutaka, either because of a steering problem, or to avoid a possible collision with Canberra, followed Yūbari and Tenryū. Thus, the Allied northern force was about to be enveloped and attacked from two sides.

Action north of Savo

When Mikawa's ships attacked the Allied southern force, the captains of all three U.S. northern force cruisers were asleep, with their ships steaming quietly at . Although crewmen on all three ships observed flares or gunfire from the battle south of Savo or else received Pattersons warning of threatening ships entering the area, it took some time for the crews to go from Condition II to full alert. At 01:44, the Japanese cruisers began firing torpedoes at the northern force. At 01:50, they aimed powerful searchlights at the three northern cruisers and opened fire with their guns.

Astorias bridge crew called general quarters upon sighting the flares south of Savo, around 01:49. At 01:52, shortly after the Japanese searchlights came on and shells began falling around the ship, Astorias main gun director crews spotted the Japanese cruisers and opened fire. Astorias captain, awakened to find his ship in action, rushed to the bridge and ordered a ceasefire, fearful that his ship might be firing on friendly forces. As shells continued to cascade around his ship, the captain ordered firing resumed less than a minute later. Chōkai had found the range, and Astoria was quickly hit by numerous shells and set afire. Between 02:00 and 02:15, Aoba, Kinugasa, and Kako joined Chōkai in pounding Astoria, destroying the cruiser's engine room and bringing the flaming ship to a halt. At 02:16, one of Astorias remaining operational main gun turrets fired at Kinugasas searchlight but missed and hit one of Chōkais forward turrets, putting the turret out of action and causing moderate damage to the ship. Astoria sank at 12:16 after all attempts to save her failed.

Quincy had also seen the aircraft flares over the southern ships, received Pattersons warning, and had just sounded general quarters and was coming alert when the searchlights from the Japanese column came on. Quincys captain gave the order to commence firing, but the gun crews were not ready. Within a few minutes, Quincy was caught in a crossfire between Aoba, Furutaka, and Tenryū, and was hit heavily and set afire. Quincys captain ordered his cruiser to charge towards the eastern Japanese column, but as she turned to do so Quincy was hit by two torpedoes from Tenryū, causing severe damage. Quincy managed to fire a few main gun salvos, one of which hit Chōkais chart room  from Admiral Mikawa and killed or wounded 36 men, although Mikawa was not injured. At 02:10, incoming shells killed or wounded almost all of Quincys bridge crew, including the captain. At 02:16, the cruiser was hit by a torpedo from Aoba, and the ship's remaining guns were silenced.  Quincys assistant gunnery officer, sent to the bridge to ask for instructions, reported on what he found:

Quincy sank, bow first, at 02:38.

Like Quincy and Astoria, Vincennes also sighted the aerial flares to the south, and furthermore, actually sighted gunfire from the southern engagement. At 01:50, when the U.S. cruisers were illuminated by the Japanese searchlights, Vincennes hesitated to open fire, believing that the searchlight's source might be friendly ships. Kako opened fire on Vincennes which responded with her own gunfire at 01:53.  As Vincennes began to receive damaging shell hits, her commander, Captain Frederick L. Riefkohl, ordered an increase of speed to , but at 01:55 two torpedoes from Chōkai hit, causing heavy damage. Kinugasa joined Kako in pounding Vincennes. Vincennes scored one hit on Kinugasa causing moderate damage to her steering engines. The rest of the Japanese ships also fired and hit Vincennes up to 74 times, and at 02:03 another torpedo hit her, this time from Yūbari. With all boiler rooms destroyed, Vincennes came to a halt, burning "everywhere" and listing to port. At 02:16, Riefkohl ordered the crew to abandon ship, and Vincennes sank at 02:50.

During the engagement, the U.S. destroyers Helm and Wilson struggled to see the Japanese ships. Both destroyers briefly fired at Mikawa's cruisers but caused no damage and received no damage to themselves. At 02:16, the Japanese columns ceased fire on the northern Allied force as they moved out of range around the north side of Savo Island. Ralph Talbot encountered Furutaka, Tenryū, and Yūbari as they cleared Savo Island.  The Japanese ships fixed Ralph Talbot with searchlights and hit her several times with gunfire, causing heavy damage, but Ralph Talbot escaped into a nearby rain squall, and the Japanese ships left her behind.

Mikawa's decision
At 02:16 Mikawa conferred with his staff about whether they should turn to continue the battle with the surviving Allied warships and try to sink the Allied transports in the two anchorages. Several factors influenced his ultimate decision. His ships were scattered and would take some time to regroup. His ships would need to reload their torpedo tubes, a labor-intensive task that would take some time. Mikawa also did not know the number and locations of any remaining Allied warships, and his ships had expended much of their ammunition.

More importantly, Mikawa had no air cover and believed that U.S. aircraft carriers were in the area. Mikawa was probably aware that the Japanese Navy had no more heavy cruisers in production and thus would be unable to replace any he might lose to air attack the next day if he remained near Guadalcanal. He was unaware that the U.S. carriers had withdrawn from the battle area and would not be a threat the next day. Although several of Mikawa's staff urged an attack on the Allied transports, the consensus was to withdraw from the battle area.  Therefore, at 02:20, Mikawa ordered his ships to retire.

Aftermath

Allied

At 04:00 on 9 August, Patterson came alongside Canberra to assist the cruiser in fighting her fires. By 05:00, it appeared that the fires were almost under control, but Turner, who at this time intended to withdraw all Allied ships by 06:30, ordered the ship to be scuttled if she was not able to accompany the fleet. After the survivors were removed, the destroyers  and  sank Canberra, which took some 300 shells and five torpedoes.

Later in the morning, Vandegrift advised Turner that he needed more supplies unloaded from the transports before they withdrew. Therefore, Turner postponed the withdrawal of his ships until mid-afternoon. In the meantime, Astorias crew tried to save their sinking ship. Astorias fires eventually became completely out of control, and the ship sank at 12:15.

On the morning of 9 August, an Australian coastwatcher on Bougainville radioed a warning of a Japanese airstrike on the way from Rabaul. The Allied transport crews ceased unloading for a time but were puzzled when the airstrike did not materialize. Allied forces did not discover until after the war was over that this Japanese airstrike instead concentrated on Jarvis south of Guadalcanal, sinking her with all hands. The Allied transports and warships all departed the Guadalcanal area by nightfall on 9 August. During the naval surface battle of Savo Island, three U.S. heavy cruisers,  (219 killed),  (370 killed), and  (322 killed), and one Australian heavy cruiser,  (84 killed), were sunk or scuttled. The commanding officers of Canberra and Quincy were also killed in action.  spent the next 6 months in drydock, returned to Guadalcanal in late January 1943 and was promptly finished off for good in the campaign's last engagement: the Battle of Rennell Island.

Japanese
In the late evening of 9 August, Mikawa on Chōkai released the four cruisers of Cruiser Division 6 to return to their home base at Kavieng. At 08:10 on 10 August, Kako was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine   from her destination. The other three Japanese cruisers picked up all but 71 of her crew and went on to Kavieng.

Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto signaled a congratulatory note to Mikawa on his victory, stating, "Appreciate the courageous and hard fighting of every man of your organization. I expect you to expand your exploits and you will make every effort to support the land forces of the Imperial army which are now engaged in a desperate struggle." Later on, though, when it became apparent that Mikawa had missed an opportunity to destroy the Allied transports, he was intensely criticised by his comrades.

Tactical result
From the time of the battle until several months later, almost all Allied supplies and reinforcements sent to Guadalcanal came by transports in small convoys, mainly during daylight hours, while Allied aircraft from the New Hebrides and Henderson Field and any available aircraft carriers flew covering missions. During this time, Allied forces on Guadalcanal received barely enough ammunition and provisions to withstand the several Japanese drives to retake the islands.

Despite their defeat in this battle, the Allies eventually won the battle for Guadalcanal, an important step in the defeat of Japan. In hindsight, according to Richard B. Frank, if Mikawa had elected to risk his ships to go after the Allied transports on the morning of 9 August, he could have improved the chances of Japanese victory in the Guadalcanal campaign at its inception, and the course of the war in the southern Pacific could have gone much differently. Although the Allied warships at Guadalcanal that night were completely routed, the transports were unaffected. Many of these same transports were later used many times to bring crucial supplies and reinforcements to Allied forces on Guadalcanal over succeeding months. Mikawa's decision not to destroy the Allied transport ships when he had the opportunity proved to be a crucial strategic mistake for the Japanese.

U.S. Navy board of inquiry

A formal United States Navy board of inquiry, known as the Hepburn Investigation, prepared a report of the battle. The board interviewed most of the major Allied officers involved over several months, beginning in December 1942.  The report recommended official censure for Captain Howard D. Bode of the Chicago for failing to broadcast a warning to the fleet of encroaching enemy ships. The report stopped short of recommending formal action against other Allied officers, including Admirals Fletcher, Turner, McCain, and Crutchley, and Captain Riefkohl. The careers of Turner, Crutchley, and McCain do not appear to have been affected by the defeat or the mistakes they made in contributing to it. Riefkohl never commanded ships again. Bode, upon learning that the report was going to be especially critical of his actions, shot himself in his quarters at Balboa, Panama Canal Zone, on 19 April 1943 and died the next day. Crutchley was later gazetted with the Legion of Merit (Chief Commander).

Admiral Turner assessed why his forces were so soundly defeated in the battle:

Historian Frank adds that "This lethargy of mind would not be completely shaken off without some more hard blows to (U.S.) Navy pride around Guadalcanal, but after Savo, the United States picked itself up off the deck and prepared for the most savage combat in its history."

The report of the inquiry caused the U.S. Navy to make many operational and structural changes. All the earlier models of U.S. Navy cruisers were retrofitted with emergency diesel-electric generators. The fire mains of the ships were changed to a vertical loop design that could be broken many times and still function. During the battle, many ship fires were attributed to aviation facilities filled with gas, oil, and planes. Motorboats were filled with gasoline and also caught fire. In some cases, these facilities were dead amidships, presenting a perfect target for enemy ships at night. Ready-service lockers (lockers containing ammunition that is armed and ready for use) added to the destruction, and it was noted that the lockers were never close to being depleted, i.e., they contained much more dangerous ammunition than they needed to. A focus was put on removing or minimizing flammable amidship materials. Admiral Ernest J. King, the commander in chief of the United States Fleet, ordered sweeping changes to be made before ships entered surface combat in the future.

See also
 The Second Battle of Savo Island (a.k.a. the Battle of Cape Esperance)
 The Third Battle of Savo Island (a.k.a. the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal)
 The Fourth Battle of Savo Island (a.k.a. the Battle of Tassafaronga)

References

Works cited

 Johnson, William Bruce. The Pacific Campaign in World War II: From Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal. London; New York: Routledge, 2006. .
 Leckie, Robert. Strong Men Armed: The United States Marines Against Japan. Da Capo Press, 2011. Originally published: New York: Random House, 1962. .

Further reading

External links

Conflicts in 1942
Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II
1942 in the Solomon Islands
Battles and operations of World War II involving the Solomon Islands
World War II naval operations and battles of the Pacific theatre
Naval battles of World War II involving Australia
Naval battles of World War II involving Japan
Naval battles of World War II involving the United States
Military history of Japan during World War II
1942 in Japan
Night battles
August 1942 events

Battle of Savo Island


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Modelul 300 al gamei Mercedes-Benz W186 este un automobil de lux, produs de Mercedes-Benz între anii 1951 – 1957. Fiind cel mai prestigios și mai mare autovehicul al producătorului, acesta a fost supranumit Maybach-ul vremii sale – elegant, puternic, exclusivist și scump. Acesta a reluat tradiția producătorului de dinaintea celui de-Al Doilea Război Mondial, de a crea un automobil de lux ca produs reprezentativ al fiecărei serii de automobile, care începuse odată cu simplexul de 60 cp, în 1903, și a continuat până la seria 770 Grand Mercedes, în anii '30. Astfel, s-au produs 3 serii consecutive, cunoscute ca 300a (sau doar 300), 300b și 300c. O variantă de dimensiuni ceva mai mari a automobilului, 300d, a fost construită folosind șasiul lui W189, și a apărut abia în 1957.

Cunoscut și ca Typ 300, Mercedes-Benz W186 era egal, în ceea ce privește dotările și prețul, cu contemporanul său Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud., dar îl depășea de departe în privința performanțelor atinse. Ales cu precădere dedemnitari și lideri în domeniul afacerilor, W186 conferea oțiuni precum separator din sticlă securizată pentru partea din spate, telefon mobil VHF , cu funcție de reportofon.

Desemnată ca serie reprezentativă a producătorului, W186 este adesea supranumită Adenauer, după primul cancelar al Republicii Federale Germane, Konrad Adenauer care, în timpul mandatului său, în perioada 1949-1963, a deținut 6 exemplare personalizate ale seriei (versiuni cabriolet, sedan și landaulet) precum și câteva exemplare din seria următoare – Mercedes-Benz W189. Printre dotările personalizate ale acestor "automobile de paradă" se numără măsuțele pliabile pentru scris, sirenele, draperiile, separatoarele din sticlă, trapele și configurația tip landaulet, cu plafon semi-retractabil.
Avansat din punct de vedere al tehnologiei, Mercedes-Benz 300 (W186) era concepută ca o mașină personală, păstrând totuși standardele înalte de calitate și confort. Printre numeroasele elemente pe care le avea în comun cu deja faimosul Mercedes-Benz 300SL Gullwing, în ceea ce privește elementele inovative de design și mecanică, se numără motorul, suspensiile și șasiul.

300
Modelul Mercedes-Benz 300 (W186) cu 4 uși a fost prezentat oficial la Frakfurt Motor Show, în aprilie 1951 , iar producția sa în serie a fost demarată în luna noiembrie a aceluiași an. La început, denumirea automobilului nu conținea distincția literei "a", care a fost adăugată ulterior, odată cu proiectarea versiunilor "b"și "c". Acestea erau folosite de entuziaști pentru a face o diferență între cele trei generații ale lui W186.

Disponibil atât în varianta sedan, cât și cabriolet, W186 se bucura de elemente moderne de design al careseriei, fiind construit pe baza șasiului cu cadru în X, patentat de Mercedes. Un nou motor de 3.0 L, cu arbore cu came cu capete din aluminiu, M186, cu 6 cilindri în serie, a fost adăugat unei cutii de viteze manuale în 4 trepte. Două carburatoare Solex cu inversie, două brațe diagonale între pistoane și blocul motor și două țevi de eșapament în partea din spate confereau automobilului rezistență la supra-incărcare, dezvoltând 115 PS (85 kW; 113 cp), cu un raport de compresie de 6.4:1

Creat pentru utilizare îndelungată și cu rezitență la uzură în condiții nefavorabile, motorul era dotat cu două mantale de răcire, un sistem de răcire a uleiului contralat termostatic, cuzineți din aliaj de cupru și oțel, și un arbore cotit fortificat. Nefiind dotată cu opțiunea pentru condus economic, mașina putea susține sarcină maximă, la greutate maximă, 24h/24, în cazul unor condiții de drum favorabile.

Combinația dintre cadrul în formă de X, din țeavă ovală din oțel, și sistemul de suspensii independente pentru fiecare dintre cele 4 roți  confereau automobilului agilitate și o ușoară manevrabilitate. Suspensiile cu 2 seturi a câte 2 brațe, dispuse paralel, resorturile elicoidale și o bară stabilizatoare erau dotări standard pentru partea din față, iar în spate se regăsea un arbore cu două resorturi elicoidale clasice. Un sistem inovator de suspensie de nivelare pentru partea din spate, care putea fi acționat din bordul mașinii, controla o bară de torsiune care creștea, cu o treime din valoarea normală, rigiditatea resorturilor, în caz de nevoie. Pe lângă acestea, W186 mai avea un sistem de lubrifiere, acționat de pedală, care reducea zgomotul produs în punctele de fricțiune. Frânele erau acționate de tamburi hidraulici, cu sector dințat de direcție, care a fost înlocuit, în 1952, de un sistem de direcție cu melc globoidal.

Până în septembrie 1955, s-a produs un total de 6,214 automobile tip sedan, și 591 de automobile tip Cabriolet D, cunsocute retroactiv ca seria 300a, inclusiv câteva exemplate de 300b cu elemente de facelift, preluate de la seria 300c, chair înainte de lansarea acesteia din urmă.

300b
Seria 300b (W186) a fost prezentată oficial în martie 1954, și venea în plus cu un sistem de frânare cu acționare hidraulică și portiere față dotate cu ferestre pivotante pentru ventilare. Puterea motorului crește la 125 PS (93 kW; 123 cp), prin adăugarea unor carburatoare Solex suplimentare și creșterea raportului de compresie la 7.5:1.

300c
Seria 300c (W186) și-a făcut debutul în septembrie 1955, și aducea în plus o lunetă mai mare și opțiunea unei transmisii automate, în 3 trepte. Prețul de listă ajungea la $10,864 în SUA (DM 22,000 pe piața internă), iar varianta decapotabilă era cu aproape o treime mai scumpă - $14,231 (DM 24,700).

În iulie 1956 a fost lansat un tip special de limuzină – Innenlenker (cunoscută și ca Typ 300 Lang), cu ampatament cu 20 cm (7.9 inch) mai lung decât cel obișnuit, la prețul de listă de 25,000 DM.

Până la sfârșitul lui iulie 1957, s-a produs un total de 1,432 de automobile 300c tip sedan. Au fost produse numai 51 de mașini 300c Cabriolet D, până în iunie 1956, după care producția acestora a fost întreruptă.

300d (W189)

Seria 300c a fost urmată de una cu apatament alungit – 300d (W189), lansată în 1957. Aceasta venea cu schimbări majore, care includ refacerea caroseriei, injecție de benzină, și o formă unică a plafonului, transformând automobilul într-un Phaeton  fără stâlpi de susținere..

Referințe și surse

Vehicule Mercedes-Benz

Mercedes-Benz W186


A sétima temporada da série de televisão dramática estadounidense Chicago Med foi encomendada em 27 de fevereiro de 2020 pela NBC, estreou em 22 de setembro de 2021 e foi finalizada em 25 de maio de 2022, contando com 22 episódios. A temporada foi produzida pela Universal Television em associação com a Wolf Entertainment, com Dick Wolf como produtor executivo e Michael Brandt, Derek Hass, Peter Jankowski, Andrew Schneider e Diane Frolov como produtores. A temporada foi ao ar na temporada de transmissão de 2021-22 às noites de quarta-feira às 20h00, horário do leste dos EUA.

Esta é a primeira temporada a não contar com a membro do elenco original Yaya DaCosta bem como a última a contar com a também original Torrey DeVitto, que deixa a série no primeiro episódio da temporada. A temporada também introduz no elenco principal Guy Lockard como Dr. Dylan Scott e Kristen Hager como Dra. Stevie Hammer, com esta última deixando a série ainda antes do final da temporada, no 14.º episódio. Steven Weber, que fez participações recorrentes como Dr. Dean Archer na temporada anterior, foi promovido ao elenco principal, porém seus créditos nos episódios são de "Convidado especial". Jessy Schram, que interpreta a Dra. Hannah Asher desde a temporada 5, acaba sendo promovida ao elenco principal após o 16.º episódio.

A sétima temporada estrela Nick Gehlfuss como Dr. Will Halstead, Torrey DeVitto como Dra. Natalie Manning, Brian Tee como Dr. Ethan Choi, Dominic Rains como Dr. Crockett Marcel, Marlyne Barrett como Maggie Lockwood, Kristen Hager como Dra. Stevie Hammer, Guy Lockard como Dr. Dylan Scott, S. Epatha Merkerson como Sharon Goodwin, Oliver Platt como Dr. Daniel Charles, Steven Weber como Dr. Dean Archer e Jessy Schram como Dra. Hannah Asher.

A temporada terminou com uma audiência média de de 9.09 milhões de telespectadores e ficou classificada em 14.º lugar na audiência total e classificada em 15.º no grupo demográfico de 18 a 49 anos.

Elenco e personagens

Principal
 Nick Gehlfuss como Dr. Will Halstead
 Torrey DeVitto como Dra. Natalie Manning
 Brian Tee como Dr. Ethan Choi
 Dominic Rains como Dr. Crockett Marcel
 Marlyne Barrett como Maggie Lockwood
 Kristen Hager como Dra. Stevie Hammer
 Guy Lockard como Dr. Dylan Scott
 S. Epatha Merkerson como Sharon Goodwin
 Oliver Platt como Dr. Daniel Charles
 Steven Weber como Dr. Dean Archer
 Jessy Schram como Dra. Hannah Asher

Recorrente
 Michael Rady como Dr. Matt Cooper
 Sarah Rafferty como Dra. Pamela Blake
 Asjha Cooper como Dra. Vanessa Taylor
 Brennan Brown como Dr. Sam Abrams
 Lorena Diaz como Enfermeira Doris
 Marie Tredway como Enfermeira Trinidad "Trini" Campos
 Marc Grapey como Peter Kalmick
 Johanna Braddy como Avery Quinn
 Riley Voelkel como Milena Jovanovic

Crossover
 LaRoyce Hawkins como Oficial Kevin Atwater ()
 Marina Squerciati como Oficial Kim Burgess ()
Notas

Episódios

Produção

Filmagens
As filmagens da décima temporada começaram em 20 de julho de 2021.

Casting
Em 12 de maio de 2021, Yaya DaCosta e Torrey Devitto anunciaram sua saída da série. Em 21 de julho de 2021, foi anunciado que Steven Weber seria promovido ao elenco regular na série após participações recorrentes na sexta temporada, e Guy Lockard e Kristen Hager se juntariam ao elenco principal. Em 16 de março de 2022, foi anunciado que Jessy Schram, que anteriormente fazia participações reccorentes como Dra. Hannah Asher, havia sido promovida ao elenco principal a partir do episódio 16 da sétima temporada. Em 4 de abril de 2022, foi anunciado que Kristen Hager sairia da série.

Recepção

Audiência

Notas

Lançamento em DVD

Temporadas de Chicago Med
Temporadas de séries de televisão de 2021
Temporadas de séries de televisão de 2022

Chicago Med (7.ª temporada)


Dörpstedt Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Schleswig-Flensburg iline bağlı bölge. 16,61 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 30 Eylül 2006 itibarıyla yaklaşık 564 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Belediye Başkanlığı Klaus Peter Neumann tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 www.kropp.de

Schleswig-Flensburg iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Dörpstedt


Alone je šesti studijski album američkog doom metal sastava Solitude Aeturnus. Album je 10. studenog 2006. godine objavila diskografska kuća Massacre Records.

Popis pjesama

Zasluge

Solitude Aeturnus
 James Martin – bas-gitara
 Steve Nichols – bubnjevi
 Robert Lowe – vokali, klavijature, koncept naslovnice
 John Perez – gitara
 Steve Moseley – gitara
Dodatni glazbenici
 Jason Spradlin – tambura (na pjesmi 1)

Ostalo osoblje
 Sterling Winfield – inženjer zvuka
 J.T. Longoria – inženjer zvuka, miksanje
 Greg Adams – inženjer zvuka
 Gary Long – mastering
 Paul Morgan – fotografija
 Travis Smith – naslovnica

Izvori

Albumi iz 2006.
Američki glazbeni albumi

Alone


Yakutlar ya da Sahalar (Sahaca: Сахалар [Sahalar]), Rusya içindeki Saha Cumhuriyeti'nde yaşayan Türk halkı.

Yakutlar, dil bağlamında bakılacak olursa Türk dillerinin kuzey öbeğine bağlı bir dildir. Çoğunluğu Saha Cumhuriyeti'nde olmak üzere, bu dili yaklaşık 456.000 kişi konuşur. Yakutça, Magadan, Sahalin bölgelerinde, Taymir ve Evenk özerk bölgelerinde de konuşulur. Sahaların dili, aynı zamanda kuzey Sibirya'nın küçük halklarının ticârî dilidir. 1960 ve 70'lerde kültürel ve manevi bir canlanma Saha dili ve edebiyatının yeniden doğmasını sağlamıştır.

Sahalar, 13. ve 14. yüzyıllarda Moğol kökenli Buryatların akınlarından sonra Sibirya'nın Baykal Gölü bölgesinden kuzeye göçen ve Türkçe konuşan insanların torunlarıdır. Bölgenin yerlisi olan daha küçük sayıdaki Moğol, Even (Lamut), Tunguz ve Eski Asya halkları da Sahalarla kaynaşmıştır. Bölgenin güney ve kuzeyi arasında kültürel farklılıklar bulunmasına rağmen, her iki grup da Doğu Ortodoks Kilisesi ile Şamanist ve Tengrici inançlarının bir bileşimini benimsemiştir. Sahaların nüfusu 1926 ile 1959 arasında kolektivizasyonun ve Sovyet baskısının sonucunda hızla düşmüştür. Bugün Rusya Federasyonu topraklarının beşte birini oluşturan Saha Cumhuriyeti'nin toplam nüfusu 929.280'dir (2002); Sahaların bu nüfus içindeki oranı % 46'dır (432.290) ve cumhuriyetin nüfusunun çoğunluğunu oluştururlar.

Kültür
Eski Türk kültürünün izlerinin büyük oranda hissedildiği Saha Türklerinin kültürü yöredeki öbür Türk topluluklarının kültürü ile büyük bir benzerlik gösterir. Saha Türkleri eski Türk giyim ve yaşam tarzını bugüne kadar yaşatmayı başarmışlardır. Ayrıca Sahalar kış aylarında ren geyiğinin derisinden hazırlanan ayakkabılar giymektedirler.

Dil

Yakutça, Sahaca (саха тыла-Sakha Tyla), Yakut Türkçesi ya da Saha Türkçesi; Sahaların (Saha Türklerinin, Yakutların, Yakut Türklerinin) konuştuğu Kuzeydoğu Asya'da konuşulan, Türki diller dil ailesine ait sondan eklemeli bir dildir. Türki diller ailesinin Kuzeydoğu Dilleri (Sibirya Dilleri) grubundan Şaz Türkçesinin devamını oluşturur. Dil, Saha Cumhuriyeti'nde çoğunluğun resmî dilidir. Rusya, ABD, Almanya, Büyük Britanya, Kanada, İsveç, Norveç, Fransa, Güney Kore, Avustralya gibi Sahaların göçtüğü ülkelerde de resmî olmayan azınlıklar tarafından da konuşulmaktadır. Sahacayı anadili olarak konuşan 450 ile 500 bin insan bulunmaktadır. Dil; Saha Cumhuriyeti'nde ulusal resmî dil, Rusya Federasyonu'nda ise yerel resmî dil statüsüne sahiptir. Taymir Yarımadası'nın doğusunda yaşayan halkların Rusça dışındaki resmî olmayan ticaret dilidir.

Sahaca, diğer pek çok Türki dil ile de paylaştığı sondan eklemeli olması ve ünlü uyumu gibi dil bilgisi özellikleri ile ön plana çıkar. Dil, tümce yapısı açısından genellikle özne-nesne-yüklem sırasına sahiptir. Hin-Avrupa ve Hami-Sami gibi büyük dil ailelerine bağlı dillerin aksine gramatik cinsiyetin (kelimelerdeki eril ve dişi cinsiyet ayrımı) bulunmadığı klasik bir Altay dilidir. Söz varlığının bir kısmı Rusça, İngilizce, Fransızca, Moğolca, Tunguzca, Çince gibi yabancı dillerin yanı sıra çeşitli Paleo-Sibirya dillerinden geçmedir. Diğer Türk dillerinin aksine istisnalar dışında Arapça ve Farsça'dan etkilenmedi. Dil, son halini 1939'da alan Kiril alfabesi tabanlı Saha Alfabesi ile yazılır.

Yakut mutfağı

Yakut mutfağında, geleneksel içki kumis, inek, kısrak ve ren geyiği sütü süt ürünleri, dilimlenmiş dondurulmuş tuzlu balık stroganina (строганина), somun eti yemekleri (oyogos), venison adlı geyik eti, dondurulmuş balık, kalın krep ve darı püresi tereyağı ve at yağı ile yapılan salamat vardır.

Kuerchekh veya kierchekh isimli tatlı, inek sütünden veya çeşitli meyvelerle kremadan yapılır.

Indigirka ise geleneksel bir balık salatasıdır.

Nüfus
Sahaların en fazla nüfusunun olduğu Saha Cumhuriyeti 949 753 kişilik (2009) bir nüfusa sahiptir. Куораттарга олорор дьон — 64,3 % (2002) Ülke yüzölçümü büyük olduğundan  0,3 kişi/km² düşer.

Yıllara göre nüfus dinamiği
Saha Cumhuriyeti nüfus ilerlemesi (bin kişi).

Kadın-erkek oranı
2002 yılı resmî sayımlarında kadın-erkek oranı:

Etnik dağılım
Saha Cumhuriyeti'nde 1939—2010 arası soyların oran dağılımı:

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Saha edebiyatı
 Türk halkları
 Türk dilleri
 Sibiryalı yerli halklar

Dış bağlantılar
 Yakut language site with lyrics, mp3 and video
 Yakut newspaper site
 A good brief description of Yakut Society
 Russian translations of Yakut texts (heroic poetry, fairy tales, legends, proverbs, etc)
 A multi-language dictionary: Yakut - Classical Mongolian - Khalkha - Russian - German - English
 Historical and administrative background
  in Russian
 Ethnic groups -Yakuts
 North-Eastern Federal University in Yakutsk
 Saadettin Yağmur Gömeç, Saha Türkleri - Ankara Üniversitesi

Asya'daki Türk halkları
Sibirya Türkleri
Modern göçebeler

Yakutlar


Andrew Thomas Carroll (fæddur 6. janúar 1989) er enskur knattspyrnumaður sem spilar með Reading FC . Andrew fæddist í Gateshead sem er í nágrenni Newcastle  og ólst upp hjá félaginu. Hann spilaði sinn fyrsta leik með aðalliðinu árið 2006, helsta fyrirmynd hans í æsku var Alan Shearer . Hann hefur einnig spilað fyrir Liverpool  og West Ham United . Carroll hefur  spilað níu landsleiki fyrir Enska karlalandsliðið í knattspyrnu.

Enskir knattspyrnumenn

Andy Carroll


La  séparée de fusiliers motorisés de la Garde (numéro d'unité militaire 51460) est une brigade d'infanterie mécanisée des Forces terrestres russes. Basée à Kniazé-Volkonskoïé, près de Khabarovsk, la brigade fait partie de la  du district militaire est.

La brigade est l'héritière du  de fusiliers motorisés, transféré en Extrême-Orient russe en 1967, et converti en brigade en 2009. Elle s'est fait connaître car impliquée dans le massacre de Boutcha en 2022.

Historique
En août 1967, le  régiment de fusiliers motorisés de la  division blindée, basé à Gorky dans le district militaire de Moscou, est transféré à une division de mobilisation de fusiliers motorisés dans le district militaire d'Extrême-Orient. Le régiment arrive à Kniazé-Volkonskoïé et rejoint la  division de formation de fusiliers motorisés en octobre 1967. À la fin de 1970, il est déplacé à Krasnaïa Retchka et deviendra partie intégrante de la 270 division de fusiliers motorisés du  corps d'armée. Le  novembre 1972, la division est intégrée dans la  armée.

En octobre 1974, le régiment devient une unité de réaction prête. Le , il est réduit à un effectif de catégorie B, avant d'être porté en effectif de guerre en décembre 1994. Entre le 8 et le , des éléments du régiment sont envoyés combattre lors de la première guerre de Tchétchénie dans le cadre du 245 régiment de fusiliers motorisés, alors formé à Moulino. Le , le régiment est transféré dans la  division de fusiliers motorisés de la Garde. Le , le régiment est directement subordonné au quartier général du district militaire d'Extrême-Orient et en 2001, retiré de la force de réaction prête. En juin, le régiment est redevient membre de la 270 division de fusiliers motorisés dans la  armée. En 2009, le régiment est converti en . En 2012, la brigade rejoint la garnison de Kniazé-Volkonskoïé.

En janvier 2014, un char T-72 de la brigade explose lors d'un exercice de tir, tuant un officier et deux conscrits.

L'unité est engagée lors de l'invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie en 2022. Des véhicules appartenant à la  brigade sont repérés à Mazyr, à l'ouest de Homiel, dans le cadre des préparatifs de l'offensive de Kiev.

Le gouvernement ukrainien publie la liste des militaires de la  brigade de fusiliers motorisés avec noms, date de naissance, numéro de passeport. Cette brigade était positionnée à Boutcha et est suspectée d'y avoir commis le massacre. La liste est issue de la fuite réalisée par les hackers d'Anonymous la veille. Un groupe ukrainien  de surveillance des activités de l'armée russe, du nom de « InformNapalm », aurait identifié le lieutenant-colonel Azatbek Omourbekov comme étant le responsable du bataillon présent lors du massacre.

Le 18 avril 2022, la brigade reçoit le statut honorifique d'unité de la « Garde » du président russe Vladimir Poutine, devenant ainsi la 64 brigade de fusiliers motorisés de la Garde.

Après la retraite russe de l'oblast de Kiev, la brigade est redéployée pour participer à l'offensive du Donbass. Début mai, la brigade aurait été engagée par les forces ukrainiennes vers Izioum et aurait subi des pertes. Le 10 août 2022, selon une information de Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty reprise par le Institute for the Study of War (ISW) et le magazine Newsweek, la 64 brigade est annoncée comme « détruite au combat (…) possiblement 'dans le cadre d'un effort intentionnel du Kremlin de cacher les crimes de guerre commis dans l'Oblast de Kiev'. ».

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Conflit russo-ukrainien
 Ordre de bataille de l'invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie en 2022
 Zatchistka

Liens externes
 Official website of the brigade

Unité ou formation militaire créée en 1967
Brigade de l'armée de terre russe
Unité de la Garde russe

64e brigade de fusiliers motorisés de la Garde


The Monastery er en portrætfilm fra 2007 instrueret af Pernille Rose Grønkjær efter manuskript af Jens Arentzen.

Filmen modtog Bodilprisen for bedste dokumentarfilm ved uddelingen i 2008.

Handling
The Monastery er historien om den 82-årige ungkarl, Vig, der aldrig har kendt til kærlighed, og Søster Amvrosija, en russisk nonne, der ved et tilfælde - eller skæbnen - bliver en del af hans liv. For 50 år siden købte Jørgen Laursen Vig Hesbjerg Slot på Fyn. Han ville lave et kloster. Nu, mange år senere, står han foran at kunne realisere planen. En gruppe russisk-ortodokse nonner er på vej, og med dem er Vigs livsdrøm på vej til at gå i opfyldelse. Men nonner har planer og viljer, og vejen til drømmen viser sig at være meget anderledes, end Vig havde forestillet sig.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Portrætfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2007
Bodilprisen

The Monastery


Diferencijal (njem. Differential [getriebe], prema Differenz: razlika od lat. differentia) ili mehanizam za izjednačivanje, u strojarstvu, je mehanizam koji omogućuje rastavljanje i mehanički prijenos torzijskoga momenta sile (momenta uvijanja) s jednog vratila na druga dva pod kutom od 90°, pri čemu broj okretaja na obje poluosovine (sekundarne osovine) može biti međusobno jednak ili različit, ali uvijek takav da zbroj tih okretaja bude konstantan, ako je konstantan broj okretaja pogonske osovine. Većinom se upotrebljava kod automobila, gdje se ugrađuje  (montira) u sklopu osovina pogonskih kotača, koji se u zaokretu (zavoju) okreću različitim brzinama. Kod pogona bez diferencijala, unutarnji bi se kotač sklizao po podlozi. Diferencijal može biti izveden na više različitih načina. Najčešća je izvedba diferencijala s koničnim zupčanicima (stožnicima).

Mehanički prijenos stožnicima

Kinematske površine ovih zupčanika su stošci na kojima se obavlja valjanje bez klizanja. Najčešće se primjenjuju pri prijenosu snage i kružnog gibanja između dvaju vratila čije osi zahvaćaju pravi ili neki drugi kut. Bočna linija zubaca stožnika može biti ravna, kosa ili zakrivljena. Zbog složenog geometrijskog oblika, stožnici su dosta osjetljivi na točnost izrade i ugradnje, te na odstupanje od pravilnog položaja osi. Modul stožnika nema stalnu vrijednost, nego se mijenja s promjerom dodirne kružnice povećavajući se prema širem dijelu stošca.

Pri proračunu ovih zupčanika kao osnova uzimaju se srednji promjeri diobenih kružnica koji se mjere na polovici širine zupca. Najmanji broj zubaca manjeg zupčanika ne bi trebao biti manji od 13. Stožnici s ravnim ili kosim zubima primjenjuju se s ukrštenim vratilima za prijenosne omjere do 6. Za prijenosne omjere veće od 1,2, prijenosnik s parom stožnika skuplji je od prijenosnika s parom čelnika, a za prijenosni omjer veći od 2,7 skuplji je i od kombiniranog prijenosnika s parom čelnika i parom stožnika. Stoga se rijetko upotrebljavaju za redukciju i multiplikaciju okretnog momenta, a češće za promjenu toka snage. U pogledu opteretivosti približno vrijede isti podaci kao kod čelničkog ozubljenja. Za veće zahtjeve ozubljuju se koso i spiralno, te toplinski obrađuju.

Stožnici sa zakrivljenim zupcima
Stožnici sa zakrivljenim zupcima najviše se upotrebljavaju u automobilskoj industriji (mjenjač brzine) te na alatnim strojevima. Njihove prednosti su visok stupanj prekrivanja i postupan zahvat zbog čega imaju miran i tih rad.

Hiperboloidni i hipoidni zupčanici
Hiperboloidni i hipoidni zupčanici pripadaju skupini stožastih zupčanika s malim osnim razmakom vratila. Hiperboloidni zupčasti parovi imaju osnovne kinematske površine u obliku hiperboloida. Koso ili zavojno ozubljeni stožnici mogu biti spareni i tako da se vrhovi njihovih stožastih kinematskih površina ne susreću, nego se osi stožaca sijeku. U tom slučaju radi se o hipoidnom zupčastom paru. Hipoidni zupčanici upotrebljavaju se u diferencijalu motornih vozila.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Dijelovi vozila

Diferencijal


Şohet, Musevilik'de yenilmesi serbest olan hayvanların kesiminin Şehita adı verilen kurallar dahilinde, özel bir kesim tekniği ile  bu işin eğitimini almış ve anatomi bilgisi olan yetkili bir kişi tarafından yapılması gereklidir bu kişiye  Şohet adı verilir.

Şohetlik eğitimi almamış herhangi bir Musevi'nin kesmiş olduğu et, kaşer değildir aynı şekilde Şohet eğitimi almamış bir haham dahi Museviliğe göre kesim yapma hakkına sahip değildir. Şöhet eğitimi almamış bir Musevi kesim yaparsa bu hayvan trefa (murdar) olmuş sayılır.

Bir cemaatte Şohet olmak isteyen, Museviliğin kurallarını iyi bilen ve pratikte de uygulayan bir Musevi, gerekli eğitimlerden geçirilir. Bu eğitimde kesim yapacağı hayvanların anatomileri, bu hayvanlarda bulunabilecek hastalıklar ve kesim tekniği ile ilgili bilgiler verilir. Uzun süren bu eğitimden sonra diplomasını alan Şohet, diplomasında kesmesine izin verilen hayvanları (Kümes hayvanları, küçükbaş hayvanlar, büyükbaş hayvanlar ya da hepsi) kesme yetkisine sahip olur.

Şohet eğitimini almamış kişi tarafından veya şehita kurallarına uyulmadan yapılmış kesim hayvanın etini trefa (Mundar) hale getirir.

Şehita Kuralları'na Göre Hayvan'ın Kesilmesi

Kesimi yapacak olan Şohet gerekli eğitimi almış olmalı ve keseceği hayvanın anatomisini çok iyi tanımalı ve bu konuda Hahamlıkça verilen diplomaya sahip olmalıdır.
Kesimi yapılacak hayvan iyice incelenmeli, bir hastalığı, sakatlığı olmamalıdır, örneğin bir organı, bacağı vs. eksik olan hayvan kesilmez. Kesilirse mundar olur. Yine duruşundan yürüyüşünden genel durumundan hasta olduğu anlaşılan hayvan kesilmez. Şohet hayvanı kesmeden önce tepeden tırnağa muayene etmelidir.
Kesimin yapıldığı bıçak hayvanın boğaz çapından daha büyük olmalı, çok keskin olmalı, üzerinde çentik bulunmamalıdır.
Hayvanın şahdamarı ve nefes borusu tek bir darbede kesilmelidir, bıçak hayvanın etine gömülmemelidir, en ufak bir duraksama, bir tereddüt hayvanın tamamını mundar hale getirir.
Her kesimden sonra bıçak kontrol edilmeli üzerinde bir çentik ya da takılmaya neden olacak çöp vs. olmamalıdır.
Hayvan mutlaka Tanrı'nın adı anılarak kesilmelidir, Türkiye'de Musevilerin kestiği eti Müslümanların da yiyebilmesi için ilginçtir şohet eti besmele ve tekbir ile keser.
Kesimi yapan şohet hayvanın içini açar öd kesesinin, karaciğerin ve akciğerin durumunu kontrol eder, işkembeyi açar ve inceler.
Öd kesesi patlamış hayvan mundardır tümüyle kullanılmaz
Karaciğer ve Akciğer zarı incelenir toplu iğnenin başı kadar dahi olsa en ufak bir kist veya ur varsa hayvan mundar olur bu hayvanın hiçbir yeri yemek için kullanılamaz tamamı mundar olur.
Hayvanın işkembesinde çivi, iğne vs. metal yabancı madde çıkarsa hayvan tamamen mundar olur kullanılamaz.
Hayvanın arka butları ayrılır bunların içindeki siyatik siniri tek parça olarak Menaker adı verilen bir uzman tarafından çıkartılır Menakerlik çok uzun bir eğitim gerektirdiğinden ve her şehirde menaker bulunmadığından çoğu zaman bu butlar Yahudilerce kullanılamaz.
Kesim ayrıca veteriner kontrolünde gerçekleştirilir, ancak veterinerin yenilebilir ifadesine karşılık Şohet yenilemiyeceğini ifade ederse bu hayvanın eti dinen mundar kabul edilir. Örneğin hayvanın işkembesinden çıkabilecek ufak bir çivi parçası sağlık bakımından bir sorun oluşturmasa da dinen oluşturur.
Tüm bu işlem basamakları gerçekleştikten sonra etin üzerine KAŞER כשׁר damgası vurulur.

Yahudilik
Dinî kavramlar

Şohet


Shosha Talik (Slatina, 1938.), hrvatsko-izraelska akademska slikarica i pjesnikinja.

Rodila se je u Slatini. U Osijeku je završila osnovnu i gimnaziju. Studirala je u Beogradu gdje je diplomirala na Likovnoj akademiji. Sa suprugom je otišla u Izrale 1965. godine. 1968. godine priredila je prvu izložbu crteža.  Izlagala je na više od 20 samostalnih i skupnih izložba. Djela su joj u zbirkama Izraelskog muzeja u Jeruzalemu. Objavila je tri knjige na hrvatskom, talijanskom i hebrejskom. Izdala je dva CD-a s vokalnom glazbom.

Izvori

Slatina

Izraelski umjetnici

Hrvatski pjesnici

Hrvatski slikari

Talijanska književnost

Shosha Talik


Bernhard Beskow henviser til blandt andre:

 Bernhard von Beskow (1796-1868) – svensk publicist
 Bernhard August Beskow (1837-1910) – svensk raderer

Bernhard Beskow


ලුනාව යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ, බස්නාහිර පළාත තුල කොළඹ දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ කොළඹ නගරයට දකුණුපස වෙරළබඩව පිහිටා තිබෙන නගරයකි.

බාහිර සබැඳි
 MSN Map

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ බස්නාහිර පළාතේ ජනාකීර්ණ ප්‍රදේශ
ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නගර සහ ගම්මාන

ලුනාව


قد يشير مصطلح موسم إلى :

 موسم في برنامج تليفزيوني
 موسم بمعنى موسم رياضي، وتأخذ معنى الدوري في كرة القدم

 موسم مناخي، أي فترة معينة من الزمن تتميز بمناخ معين

 موسم، طقس احتفالي سنوي تقيمه العديد من العشائر والقبائل المغاربية حول أضرحة الصلحاء.
الموسم	، أحد مراكز محافظة صامطة جنوب غرب منطقة جازان السعودية.
 موسم، عادة ما ينقسم البرنامج التليفزيوني إلى مواسم

موسم (توضيح)


On Monday, December 1, 1958, a fire broke out at Our Lady of the Angels School in Chicago, Illinois, shortly before classes were to be dismissed for the day.  The fire originated in the basement near the foot of a stairway.  The elementary school was operated by the Archdiocese of Chicago and had an enrollment of approximately 1600 students.  A total of 92 pupils and 3 nuns ultimately died when smoke, heat, fire, and toxic gases cut off their normal means of egress through corridors and stairways.  Many more were injured when they jumped from second-floor windows which, because the building had a raised basement, were nearly as high as a third floor would be on level ground (c. 25 ft.).

The disaster was the lead headline story in American, Canadian, and European newspapers.  Pope John XXIII sent his condolences from the Vatican in Rome. The severity of the fire shocked the nation and surprised educational administrators of both public and private schools. The disaster led to major improvements in standards for school design and fire safety codes.

Background

Our Lady of the Angels was an elementary and middle school comprising kindergarten through eighth-grade education. It was located at 909 North Avers Avenue in the Humboldt Park area of Chicago's West Side, on the northeast corner of West Iowa Street and North Avers Avenue (some sources describe the school as "in Austin").

The school was one of several buildings associated with the large Catholic parish; others included a church, a rectory, which was adjacent to the church, a convent of the Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which was across Iowa Street from the school, and two buildings one block east on Hamlin Avenue referred to by the parish as Joseph Hall and Mary Hall respectively, which housed kindergarten and first-grade classes. The Hamlin Avenue buildings were not involved in the fire, and aside from some minor smoke inhalation problems (no deaths or serious injuries), neither were the first floor of the north wing, the entire south wing, or the annex.

The fire was primarily confined to the second floor of the north wing. The north wing was part of a two-story structure built in 1910, but remodeled several times over the years. That wing originally consisted of a first-floor church and a second-floor school. The entire building became a school when a new, much larger church was opened in 1939.

Fire prevention and hazards

Due to a grandfather clause that did not require schools to retrofit to a new standard if they already met previous regulations, the school legally complied with the State of Illinois and City of Chicago fire codes of 1958 and was generally clean and well-maintained; nonetheless, several fire hazards existed. Each classroom door had a glass transom above it, which provided ventilation into the corridor but also permitted flames and smoke to enter once heat broke the glass. The school had one fire escape. The building had no automatic fire alarm, no rate-of-rise heat detectors, no direct alarm connection to the fire department, no fire-resistant stairwells, and no heavy-duty fire doors from the stairwells to the second-floor corridor.  At the time, fire sprinklers were primarily found in factories or in new school construction, and modern smoke detectors did not become commercially available until 1969.

In keeping with city fire codes, the building had a brick exterior to prevent fires from spreading from building to building as in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. However, its interior was made almost entirely of combustible wooden materials—stairs, walls, floors, doors, roof, and cellulose fiber ceiling tiles. Moreover, the floors had been coated many times with both flammable varnish and petroleum-based waxes. There were only two (unmarked) fire alarm switches in the entire school, and they were both in the south wing. There were four fire extinguishers in the north wing, each mounted  off the floor, out of reach for many adults and all of the children.

The single fire escape was near one end of the north wing, but to reach it required passing through the main corridor, which in this case rapidly became filled with suffocating smoke and superheated gases. Students hung their flammable winter coats on hooks in the hallway (there were no lockers). There were no limits to the number of students in a single classroom, and because of the post-World War II baby boom this number sometimes reached as many as 64 students. The school did not have a fire alarm box outside on the sidewalk, the nearest one being a block and a half away. With its  ceilings and a basement that extended partially above ground level, the school's second-floor windows were  above the ground, making jumping from them extremely risky, exacerbated by the fact that the grade surface under all windows was concrete or crushed rock.

The fire

Outbreak and reaction
The fire began in the basement of the older north wing between about 2:00 p.m. and 2:20 p.m. CST. Classes were due to be dismissed at 3:00 p.m. Ignition took place in a cardboard trash barrel located a few feet from the northeast stairwell. The fire smoldered undetected for approximately 20 minutes, gradually heating the stairwell and filling it with a light grey smoke that later would become thick and black, as other combustibles became involved. At the same time, it began sending superheated air and gases into an open pipe chase very near the source of the fire. The pipe chase made an uninterrupted conduit up to the cockloft above the second-floor classrooms (see "Evacuation" below).

The smoke began to fill the second-floor corridor, but remained unnoticed for a few minutes. At approximately 2:25 p.m., three eighth-grade girls, Janet Delaria, Frances Guzaldo, and Karen Hobik, returning from an errand, came up a different staircase to return to their second-floor classroom in the north wing (only Delaria would survive the fire). The girls encountered thick grayish smoke, making them cough loudly. They hurriedly entered the rear door of Room 211 and notified their teacher, Sister Mary Helaine O'Neill.

O'Neill got up from her desk and began lining up her students to evacuate the building. When she opened the front door of the classroom moments later to enter the hallway, the intensity of the smoke caused O'Neill to deem it too dangerous to attempt escape down the stairs leading to Avers Avenue on the west side of the building. She remained inside the classroom with her students to await rescue. The fire continued to strengthen, and several more minutes elapsed before the school's fire alarm rang.

About this same time, a window at the foot of the stairwell shattered due to the intense heat, giving the smoldering fire a new oxygen supply. This burst of heat also ignited a  by  roll of material, described by the fire chief in his report as "tarred building paper", stored in the area, which, along with the petroleum-based waxes on the floors, caused the thick, oily black smoke that was believed responsible for so many of the smoke inhalation deaths in the building. The wooden staircase burst into flames and, acting like a chimney, sent hot gases, fire, and very thick, black smoke swirling up the stairwell.

At approximately the same time, the school janitor, James Raymond, saw a red glow through a window while walking by the building. After running to the basement furnace room, he viewed the fire through a door that led into the stairwell. After instructing two boys who were emptying trash baskets in the boiler room to leave the area, Raymond rushed to the rectory and asked the housekeeper to call the fire department. He then ran back to the school to begin evacuation via the fire escape. The two boys meanwhile returned to their class and warned their lay teacher, which prompted her and another teacher to lead their students out of classrooms in the annex area of the second floor. The teachers had looked in vain for the school principal before deciding to act on their own to vacate the school. Unknown to them, the principal was in the other wing, covering a class for an absent teacher.

As they left the building, a teacher pulled the fire alarm, but it did not ring. Several minutes later, after leaving her students in the church, she returned to the school and attempted to activate the alarm again. This time, the alarm rang inside the school, but it was not automatically connected to the fire department. By this time, however, the students and teachers in the north wing classrooms on the second floor were essentially trapped, whether they knew about the fire or not.

Despite Raymond's visit to the rectory soon after 2:30 p.m. to spread the alert, there was an unexplained delay before the first telephone call from the rectory reached the fire department at 2:42 p.m. One minute later, a second telephone call was received from Barbara Glowacki, the owner of a candy store on the alley along the north wing. Glowacki had noticed flames in the northeast stairwell after a passing motorist, Elmer Barkhaus, entered her store and asked if a public telephone was available to call the fire department. Police initially thought this 61-year-old man was a suspect in the blaze until Barkhaus voluntarily came forward and explained himself. Glowacki used her private telephone in her apartment behind the store to notify authorities.

Evacuation
The first-floor landing was equipped with a heavy wooden door, which effectively blocked the fire and heat from entering the first floor hallways. However, the northeast stairwell landing on the second floor had no fire blocking door. As a result, there was no barrier to prevent the spread of fire, smoke, and heat through the second floor hallways. The western stairwell landing on the second floor had two substandard corridor doors with glass panes propped open (possibly by a teacher) at the time of the fire. This caused further drafts of air and an additional oxygen supply to feed the flames. Two other doors were chained open when they should have been closed; these doors were at the first and second floor levels leading into the annex. The upper door was quickly closed, but the lower one remained open throughout the fire.

As the fire consumed the northeast stairway, a pipe chase running from the basement to the cockloft above the second floor false ceiling had been feeding superheated gases for some minutes on a direct route to the attic. The building's old roof had been re-coated numerous times, and the tar had become very thick. Consequently, the heat of the fire was not able to burn quickly through the roof. If it had, it would have opened a hole that would have served to vent much of the smoke and gases. Eventually, as the temperature continued to rise in the enclosed space, the wood of the cockloft itself flashed over.

The fire then swept down through the hallway ceiling's ventilation grates into the second floor corridor as it flashed through the cockloft above the classrooms. Glass transom windows above the doors of each classroom broke as the heat intensified, allowing superheated gases and thick black smoke in the hallway to enter the classrooms. By the time the students and their teachers in the second floor classrooms realized the danger (and the occupants of several of the rooms, until that moment, did not realize the danger), their sole escape route into the hallway was impassable. The second floor of the north wing had become a perfect fire trap.

For 329 children and five teaching nuns, the only remaining means of escape was to jump from their second floor windows to the concrete or crushed rock  below, or to wait for the fire department to rescue them. Recognizing the trap they were in, some of the nuns encouraged the children to sit at their desks or gather in a semicircle and pray. But smoke, heat, and flames quickly forced them to the windows.

One nun, Sister Mary Davidis Devine, ordered her students in room 209 to place books and furniture in front of her classroom doors, and this helped to slow the entry of smoke and flames until rescuers arrived. Out of the 55 students in the room, eight escaped with injuries, and two died; Beverly Burda, the last student remaining in the room, evidently passed out from smoke inhalation and died when the roof collapsed. Another student, Valerie Thoma, died at a hospital on March 10, 1959, as a result of her extensive burn injuries.

Rescue
Fire department units arrived within four minutes of being called, but by then the fire had been burning unchecked for possibly as long as 40 minutes and was fully out of control. The fire department was initially hampered because they had been incorrectly directed to the rectory address around the corner at 3808 W. Iowa Street. Valuable minutes were then lost repositioning the fire trucks and hose lines. Additional firefighting equipment was summoned rapidly, as the fire situation was quickly upgraded to "five alarm" (all available equipment and units). In 1959, the National Fire Protection Association's report on the blaze exonerated the rapid response of the Chicago Fire Department and its initial priority to rescue pupils rather than merely fight the flames.

The south windows of the north wing overlooked a small courtyard surrounded by the school on three sides, and a  high iron picket fence on the fourth side facing Avers Avenue. Because of earlier problems with vandalism, the gate in the fence was routinely kept locked. Firefighters could not get ladders to the children at the south windows without first breaking through the gate. They spent two minutes battering the gate with sledgehammers and a ladder before they managed to smash it by backing a fire truck into it. The locked gate delayed the rescues of rooms 209 and 211.

Firefighters began rescuing children from the second-floor windows, but nightmare conditions in some of the classrooms had already become unbearable. Children were stumbling, crawling, and fighting their way to the windows, trying to breathe and escape. Many jumped, fell, or were pushed out the windows before firemen on ladders could reach them. Children jumped with their hair and clothes on fire. Some died later as a result of the fall, and several more were seriously injured. Many of the smaller children were trapped behind frantic students at the windows.

Some younger students who managed to secure a spot at a window were then unable to climb over the high window sills, or were pulled back by others frantically trying to scramble out. The temperature continued to increase until a flashover occurred in the hallway and several of the classrooms at approximately 2:55 p.m. Firefighters struggled desperately to pull students and nuns from windows as those classrooms partially filled with screaming children exploded. Firefighters noticed that the white shirts of children in the windows changed color and turned brown.

Shortly after the flashover, a wide portion of the school's roof collapsed over rooms 208, 209, and part of 210, and the massive downward rush of heat likely killed several other students and their teachers in rooms 208 and 210 instantly (Room 209 lost only one child, Beverly Burda, in the room itself, and she had been overcome by smoke inhalation before the roof collapsed).

Inside the burning school, a quick-thinking nun rolled petrified children down a stairwell when fear made them freeze. Injured students were rushed to five different hospitals, some in the cars of strangers. Priests from the rectory raced to the scene, grabbing frightened students and escorting them through the smoke to the doors. One of the priests, Father Joseph Ognibene, and Sam Tortorice, a parent of one of the students, were able to rescue most of the students in room 209 by passing them through a courtyard window on the second floor into the annex. Janitor James Raymond, though badly injured himself from a deep glass cut on his arm, worked in tandem with Father Charles Hund to open a locked emergency door leading to a fire escape outside room 207. Thanks to their efforts, all of the students and their teacher, Sister Geraldita Ennis, were rescued from the room.

In room 212, which was located at the opposite end of the hallway from the source of the fire, flames did not actually invade the room, but the toxic smoke and heated gases penetrated here as much as in any other second floor room, and just over half of the 55 students inside and their teacher, Sister Mary Clare Therese Champagne, succumbed to asphyxiation. When the Chicago Fire Department's new "snorkel" unit arrived, this was one of the first rooms that it began pouring water into, lowering the temperature inside the room significantly and the children who had not asphyxiated were then rescued by firefighters with ladders.

Glowacki took injured children into her candy store beside the school to escape the cold outdoor temperature while they awaited medical attention. Neighbors and parents raced into the school to rescue students on the lower floor or erect ladders outside that proved to be too short for the second floor. 74-year-old Ed Klock suffered a stroke while attempting to assist the children. Residents of houses along Avers Avenue opened their doors to provide sanctuary and warmth for the children.

Local radio and television reports soon broadcast the news across the city. WGN-AM radio broadcast continuous updates of the fire, with Chicago Police Officer Leonard Baldy providing observations from an overhead helicopter. Panicked mothers and fathers left their homes or workplaces and raced to the school. Mothers pleaded to enter the burning structure. A crowd of more than 5,000 anxious parents and onlookers had to be held back by police lines.

This number grew in the late afternoon as news of the disaster spread and bodies of victims were slowly removed by firemen. It was first hoped that fatalities might be relatively low, under the mistaken belief that the fire alarm had been sounded early enough. The toll climbed quickly once the blaze was partially extinguished and firemen were able to explore the building. National television networks interrupted their regular programming to announce details as the scope of the disaster widened.

Between the delayed discovery and reporting of the blaze and the misdirection of the response units to the wrong address, the firefighters arrived too late. Although they rescued more than 160 children from the inferno, many of the students carried out were already dead. Some of the bodies were so badly charred that they broke into pieces while being picked up. In room 212, none of the dead had been burned; the children who perished, as well as their teacher, all died of smoke inhalation.

Investigation

The cause of the fire was never officially determined. In 1962, a boy who was a student at Our Lady of the Angels at the time of the fire, confessed to setting the blaze. At the time of the fire, he was 10 years old and in fifth grade.  A family court judge later concluded the evidence was insufficient to substantiate the confession. Officially, the cause of the fire remains unknown.

In 1959, the National Fire Protection Association's report on the blaze blamed civic authorities and the Archdiocese of Chicago for "housing their children in fire traps" – their words – such as Our Lady of the Angels School.  The report noted that both the Chicago School Board and the Archdiocese of Chicago continued to allow some schools to be legally operated despite having inadequate fire safety standards.

Although Our Lady of the Angels School had passed a routine fire department safety inspection weeks before the disaster, the school was not legally bound to comply with all 1958 fire safety codes due to a grandfather clause in the 1949 standards. Existing older schools, such as Our Lady of the Angels, were not required to retrofit the safety devices that were required by code in all schools built after 1949.

Victims

All of the deceased (92 children and three nuns) lived in Chicago and occupied classrooms on the second floor of the north wing. All of those who perished on the day of the fire died when smoke, heat, fire, and toxic gases cut off their means of escape through corridors and stairways. Many more were injured, some severely, when they jumped from second-floor windows.

Room 208

Room 208, a room located in the northeast corner of the north wing housing Sister Mary St. Canice Lyng's seventh grade class, had twelve student deaths out of forty-seven students. Several ladders were placed near Room 208's windows. Of them, the ladder placed by Mario Camerini, a janitor, successfully reached Room 208's windows and allowed several students, including all of the remaining boys, to escape. The three boys died at their desks due to a spurt of heated gases. The conditions of 208 and the three dead boys are depicted in a black-and-white illustration by a Life magazine artist. Sister Mary St. Canice also died.

Room 209

Room 209, a room housing Sister Mary Davidis Devine's eighth grade class, had two student deaths. Of all of the students, one, Beverly Burda, died in the classroom, while a second, Valerie Thoma, died in a hospital three months later. The survivors credit Devine's decision to stack books at the door to slow entry of the smoke and an awning that provided an easier jump for their survival. Sam Tortorice, a parent of Room 209 student Rose Tortorice, climbed on the awning to assist the escapes of the Room 209 students. Father Joseph Ognibene joined Tortorice and rescued students. Devine, mistakenly under the impression that all of the students were rescued from the room, agreed to be rescued. By the time Devine and the rescue crews noticed Burda lying in the classroom, conditions made her rescue impossible, and she was killed when the roof collapsed. Devine died on October 14, 2006, at the age of 100.

Room 210

Room 210, housing Sister Mary Seraphica Kelley's fourth grade class, had 28 deaths out of the 57 students inside at the time of the fire. Kelley also died, making a total of 29 deaths in Room 210—the most deaths of any of the classrooms. The smaller and weaker bodies of the fourth graders contributed to the high death toll, as many of the children were unable to scale the window ledge. The fire entered the room at a quicker rate since two boys attempted to open the door to the room. Upon discovery of the fire, the flames forced the boys away from the door, preventing closure of the door and allowing the fire to attack the children.

Room 211

Room 211, housing Sister Mary Helaine O'Neill's eighth grade class, had 24 deaths out of the 48 students inside at the time of the fire. Normally 63 students occupied the room; at the time, 13 boys helped with a clothing drive at the church and 2 male students stayed home that day due to illness. A picket fence blocked firefighters and hampered the rescue of the middle schoolers in 211. The firefighters could not save all of the students before the room flashed over, killing the remaining students. Sister Mary Helaine O'Neill, the teacher, was severely burned, but survived. She died on September 27, 1975.

Room 212

Room 212, housing Sister Mary Clare Therese Champagne's fifth grade class, had 26 deaths out of the 55 students. The deaths were all due to smoke inhalation. Sister Mary Clare Therese also died. Life Magazine's picture of a firefighter carrying the body of ten-year-old John Jajkowski, who died in Room 212, became world-famous and was later used as a fire-prevention poster.

Responses

The funeral for the three nuns took place first. A Requiem Mass was offered in Our Lady of the Angels Church after more than 2,000 parishioners paid their respects to the deceased teachers as the closed caskets lay in repose in the convent. A color guard of 100 police officers and firefighters accompanied the coffins into the church. More than 100 nuns from the order of the Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary attended from across Illinois as well as from their Motherhouse in Dubuque, Iowa. The funeral procession had several hundred vehicles.  The three teachers were interred side by side in a grave next to other nuns of their religious order at the Mount Carmel Cemetery in suburban Hillside, Illinois.

For 27 of the young victims whose families accepted the offer to participate in it, a Solemn Requiem Mass and funeral service took place at the Illinois National Guard Armory abutting Humboldt Park, as the parish church was not large enough to accommodate the huge crowd.  Cardinal Francis Spellman, Archbishop of New York, came to Chicago to lend his support. The families of the other children who were victims of the fire elected to bury their children privately.  Many of the young students were buried in the "Shrine of the Holy Innocents" plot at Queen of Heaven Cemetery in Hillside, which is adjacent to Mount Carmel Cemetery.  A monument there lists the names of all 95 victims. Some of the students were buried in other cemeteries: 18 in St. Joseph Cemetery, 18 in St. Adalbert Cemetery, 12 in Mount Carmel Cemetery, 1 in St. Nicholas Cemetery, and 1 in Norway Cemetery in Norway, Michigan.

A relief fund was set up to assist distraught families and to care for injured children in future years. The Chicago metropolitan area rallied to provide support. Hollywood stars such as Jack Benny visited injured children in hospitals. A city newspaper, the Chicago American, devoted its entire front page on December 5, 1958, to photographs of the deceased students under the headline, "Chicago Mourns".

Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley ordered flags across the city lowered to half staff.

Legacy

The fire was the primary current events story in the December 15, 1958 issue of LIFE, containing photographs from the Chicago Sun-Times, Lee Balterman and Art Shay and reconstructed drawings of the events in the classrooms by Franklin McMahon. The first page of the article featured an image of firefighter Richard Scheidt carrying the body of 10-year-old John Michael Jajkowski, Jr. from the building. The photograph of Jajkowski, a fifth grader in Room 212, later served as a fire prevention safety poster nationwide. Jajkowski, an accomplished musician, played the accordion and served as a church choir member, and had expressed a desire to become a priest. Like 25 of his other classmates, Jajkowski was suffocated by black, oily smoke and eventually died. Steve Lasker of the Chicago American took the photograph of Scheidt and Jajkowski as the fire department was beginning to achieve control over the fire.

After the Our Lady of the Angels School fire, Percy Bugbee, the president of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) said in an interview, "There are no new lessons to be learned from this fire; only old lessons that tragically went unheeded." Sweeping changes in school fire safety regulations were enacted nationwide. Some 16,500 older school buildings in the United States were brought up to code within one year of the disaster.

Ordinances to strengthen Chicago's fire code and new amendments to the Illinois state fire code were passed. The National Fire Protection Association estimated that about 68% of all U.S. communities inaugurated and completed fire safety improvements after the Our Lady of the Angels fire, one of which was an increased number of law-mandated fire drills throughout the academic year. In addition, fire investigators came from as far away as London to study the lessons that could be learned.

The City Council of Chicago passed a law requiring that a fire alarm box be installed in front of schools and other public assembly venues. The interior fire alarm systems of these buildings must be connected to the street fire alarm box.  Another requirement was that all schools where it was deemed vital would have sprinkler systems installed. However, nine months later, in September 1959, Fire Commissioner Quinn, when interviewed by WNBQ reporter Len O'Connor, admitted that although 400 of the 1040 schools in Chicago at that time had been deemed in critical need of sprinkler systems, only two actually had sprinklers installed.

OLA students attended classes that were taught by their own teachers in nearby public school facilities, including John Hay School, Rezin Orr School, Ryerson Elementary and Cameron Elementary until the new Our Lady of the Angels School was finished in time for the school year beginning in September 1960.

The ruins of the school were dismantled in 1959 and a new Our Lady of the Angels School, located at 3814 West Iowa Street, was constructed in compliance with the latest required fire safety standards, such as installing a sprinkler system.  The modern three-story building with 32 classrooms plus a kindergarten opened in September 1960. Donations from around the world helped to fund the new construction.

As a result of a steady decline in enrollment during the 1990s, the Archdiocese of Chicago closed the school after the class of 1999 graduated.

The fire is considered a case study in the 2009 Edition of the NFPA Life Safety Code Handbook.

Popular culture

Some scenes from the 2003 movie Finding John Christmas are based on the OLA fire.

The documentary film Our Obligation, made by the Los Angeles Fire Department, is a dramatization of a "similar" disastrous school fire, explaining all the safety measures that should have been in place and functional. The filmmakers stated that the school in the film is not supposed to be OLA, but most of the details are identical, down to the iconic image of the dead student being carried out by the fireman. Additionally, the school depicted in the film is not a Catholic school like OLA, but a "regular" public elementary school with typical schoolteachers and students. This film was produced in 1959 during fire tests being made at Robert Louis Stevenson Junior High School located at 725 S. Indiana St. in East Los Angeles. The building (built in 1926) was scheduled for demolition due to seismic concerns, so the LAFD used a three-story section for the tests. The school building was replaced with a one-story structure. Our Obligation is available for free viewing and downloading at the Internet Archive.

The play entitled When Angels Wept by playwright Charles Grippo had two productions in Chicago in 2013 and was based on the Our Lady of the Angels School fire. The story is centered around a small group of survivors of the fire and how the tragedy affected their lives until present day.

The fire has been chronicled in several books, including The Immaculate Deception by Robert Chiappetta (Page Publishing, Inc., 2015), The Fire That Will Not Die by Michele McBride (ETC Publications, 1979), To Sleep with the Angels by David Cowen and John Kuenster (Ivan R. Dee, 2003), Remembrances of the Angels by John Kuenster (Ivan R. Dee, 2008) and a 2003 Emmy-winning television documentary, Angels Too Soon, produced by WTTW Channel 11 Chicago. The History Channel also featured the disaster in the television documentary Hellfire, which was an episode in the cable network's "Wrath of God" series.

One of the students who survived the fire was 8-year-old third grader Jonathan Friga, who would go on to fame as Jonathan Cain, keyboard and rhythm guitar player for the rock band Journey.  Cain referenced the fire in his lyrics to the Journey song "Ask The Lonely":

See also
Collinwood School Fire
New London School explosion
Bath Consolidated School

References

Further reading
Robert Chiappetta, The Immaculate Deception (Page Publishing, Inc, 2015, )
David Cowan and John Kuenster, To Sleep with the Angels: The Story of a Fire (1996) excerpt
Michele McBride. The Fire That Will Not Die, (ETC Publications, Palm Springs, CA, 1979)
John Kuenster. Remembrances of the Angels: 50th Anniversary Reminiscences of the Fire No One Can Forget, (Ivan R. Dee, Chicago, 2008)
Dudek, Mitch. "Survivors remember horror of Our Lady of the Angels fire." Chicago Sun-Times. December 1, 2013.

External links
Memorial site

1958 fires in the United States
1958 in Illinois
1950s in Chicago
Building and structure fires in the United States
Death in Chicago
Fires in Illinois
December 1958 events in the United States
Fire disasters involving barricaded escape routes
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago
1958 disasters in the United States
School fire disasters
Catholic schools in Chicago

Our Lady of the Angels School fire