Reichswerke Hermann Göring foi um conglomerado industrial na Alemanha nazista que operou durante 1937 e 1945. Foi fundado para extrair e processar minérios de ferro da região de Salzgitter que foram considerados antieconômicos pelas siderúrgicas privadas. A estatal Reichswerke era vista como um veículo para acelerar o crescimento da mineração de minério e da produção de aço, independentemente dos planos e opiniões dos capitalistas privados, que contrariavam a visão estratégica de Adolf Hitler. Em novembro de 1937, o Ministro da Aviação do Reich, Hermann Göring, obteve acesso irrestrito ao financiamento estatal e lançou uma cadeia de fusões, diversificando-se em indústrias militares com a absorção da Rheinmetall. O próprio Göring supervisionou o Reichswerke, mas não o possuía em nenhum sentido e não obteve lucro pessoal diretamente com ele, embora às vezes sacasse dinheiro para despesas pessoais.

Após o Anschluss, o Reichswerke absorveu as indústrias pesadas austríacas, incluindo aquelas de propriedade de investidores privados alemães. O cluster de siderúrgicas e empresas de apoio em Linz tornou-se seu ativo mais importante. A liderança nazista considerava os ativos capturados como propriedade do Estado e não estavam dispostos a compartilhar os despojos com empresas alemãs. Após a ocupação alemã da Tchecoslováquia, o Reichswerke absorveu entre 50 e 60 por cento das indústrias pesadas tchecas. O padrão se repetiu na Polônia ocupada, na França e na União Soviética. O Reichswerke operou ativos capturados tão longe de sua base como Liepāja na Letônia e Donetsk no leste da Ucrânia. Forneceu um oitavo da produção de aço alemã durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial e criou um complexo militar controlado pelos nazistas que era independente de interesses privados. No final de 1941, a Reichswerke tornou-se a maior empresa da Europa e provavelmente do mdundo inteiro, com um capital de 2,4 bilhões ℛℳ e cerca de meio milhão de trabalhadores.

Em 1942, a estrutura corporativa ineficiente do Reichswerke foi reduzida em tamanho. Seus ativos de armas e munições foram integrados ao Ministério de Armamentos; o núcleo de mineração e aço do Reichswerke continuou operando sob a supervisão de Göring até o final da guerra, embora com prejuízo. O conglomerado foi desmembrado pelos Aliados em 1944-1945, mas a fábrica de Salzgitter continuou operando como Reichswerke até 1953. O logotipo do Reichswerke, que se assemelhava ao brasão de armas de Göring, permaneceu em uso por Peine e Salzgitter até meados da década de 1980.

Salzgitter

Em 1935-1936, a indústria siderúrgica alemã, concentrada na região do Ruhr, recuperou-se da Grande Depressão e atingiu quase a plena utilização de suas usinas. Foi dominado pelas empresas privadas Vereinigte Stahlwerke (VS), Krupp, Gutehoffnungshütte e Mannesmann. Três quartos do minério de ferro processado na Alemanha eram importados; as reservas de minério doméstico na área de Salzgitter foram consideradas de qualidade muito baixa para serem economicamente viáveis. A demanda por ferro e aço aumentou com o aumento dos gastos militares, aumentando ainda mais a dependência das importações. Membros influentes dentro do Partido Nazista, incluindo o conselheiro econômico de Hitler, Wilhelm Keppler, se uniram para aumentar a mineração doméstica de minério de ferro.

O minério de ferro tornou-se o principal problema do Plano Quadrienal (1936-1940). Em outubro de 1936, Göring soube que a fundidora Stewarts & Lloyds em Corby, Reino Unido, havia fundido com sucesso minérios de baixo teor; a nova tecnologia removeu as barreiras para os planos de Göring. Em dezembro de 1936, Göring anunciou que o programa doméstico de minério, ferro e aço havia se tornado uma prioridade nacional e que não toleraria hesitação ou obstrução por parte dos proprietários privados dos recursos. O capital privado levantou suas objeções contra o rápido crescimento, e Göring decidiu colocar a mineração de minério sob controle estatal.

Ao longo da primeira metade de 1937, Göring lutou por uma indústria siderúrgica autossuficiente e contra os barões do aço. Seus apelos radicais melhoraram seu próprio peso político e silenciaram a oposição. O objetivo de Göring de alinhar a economia com os planos estratégicos de Adolf Hitler foi totalmente apoiado pela imprensa nazista. O perigo de depender das importações de minério foi comprovado pelas greves e pelo sentimento antinazista na Suécia e pelo sucesso da Frente Popular na França. Em julho de 1937, os barões do aço ficaram surpresos com um decreto que instituiu a Reichswerke, uma empresa estatal integrada encarregada de superar o Ruhr na produção de aço acabado. Temendo a criação de uma capacidade industrial excessiva e a concorrência acirrada com o Estado, eles discutiram cautelosamente as formas de conter as ambições de Göring. Eles uniram forças com o adversário de Göring, o Ministro da Economia do Reich, Hjalmar Schacht, que negou financiamento estatal ao projeto de Göring.

Em 23 de julho de 1937, Göring anunciou que o Reichswerke começaria a minerar e processar minérios de Salzgitter e que o governo assumiria depósitos de minério de propriedade privada em troca de ações minoritárias nas novas empresas. Paul Pleiger tornou-se o diretor administrativo. Os críticos argumentaram que o projeto Salzgitter consumiria mais aço do que poderia produzir em três anos. O Ruhr tentou uma resposta coordenada, mas escutas telefônicas e vigilância deram a Göring conhecimento prévio dos movimentos dos barões do aço e ele antecipou sua ação organizada por meio de ameaças e promessas pessoais. Os barões do aço escaparam de um confronto aberto com o regime, mas a confiança entre a liderança nazista e as grandes empresas foi perdida para sempre. Schacht foi obrigado a renunciar em novembro de 1937, sua função passou para Göring.

Trabalho escravo

O projeto Salzgitter recrutou sua força de trabalho de toda a Alemanha, Áustria, Itália, Holanda e outros países. Produziu seu primeiro ferro-gusa em outubro de 1939 e seu primeiro aço em agosto de 1940. Uma grande usina metalúrgica, Stahlwerke Braunschweig, foi construída nas proximidades, começando em março de 1940; acabou se tornando uma das maiores fábricas do país, empregando dez mil trabalhadores. A maioria dos funcionários da área de Salzgitter, 47.000 trabalhadores, não eram alemães. Em cinco anos, de 1937 a 1942, a população aumentou cinco vezes. A moradia não era suficiente nem mesmo para os alemães nativos; trabalhadores estrangeiros tiveram que viver em setenta campos improvisados. A Gestapo administrava um campo de concentração no local para os trabalhadores delinquentes. O trabalho forçado de prisioneiros de campos de concentração nazistas não foi empregado até maio de 1944; os três campos que forneciam escravos para Salzgitter continham até 6.500 prisioneiros. Outro campo local, em Drutte, forneceu trabalhadores escravos para as fábricas de munição do Reichswerke a partir de 1942. Salzgitter foi alvo de bombardeios aliados várias vezes, mas os danos à usina foram insignificantes. Seus altos-fornos operaram até serem capturados pelos americanos em abril de 1945.

Expansão

Após a remoção de Schacht em novembro de 1937, o Reichswerke cresceu rapidamente enquanto as siderúrgicas privadas do Ruhr foram privadas de capital (sua capacidade permaneceu em 16 milhões de toneladas por ano até a eclosão da Segunda Guerra Mundial). Em fevereiro de 1938, Göring aumentou a capital do Reichswerke de 5 para 400 milhões de ℛℳ, iniciando uma cadeia de fusões. Em abril, o Reichswerke entrou na produção de armas, absorvendo a Rheinmetall. Nos meses seguintes, o Reichswerke consolidou a maioria das indústrias pesadas austríacas, desde a extração de minério até a produção de armas avançadas.

Göring voltou seus olhos para o aço austríaco em 1937. O Anschluss de março de 1938 deu-lhe acesso praticamente ilimitado aos recursos austríacos. As atividades do Reichswerke na Áustria demonstraram que Göring considerava os ativos capturados como propriedade do Estado e não estava disposto a compartilhar as fortunas com empresas privadas alemãs - pelo contrário, o Reichswerke absorveu ativos austríacos que já eram de propriedade de investidores alemães e eliminou completamente os barões do Ruhr da indústria austríaca. Seu principal alvo na Áustria, a empresa siderúrgica Alpine Montangesellschaft, era 56% de propriedade da gigante alemã VS. Imediatamente após o Anschluss, Göring aconselhou a VS a acelerar a mineração de seus minérios austríacos, e novamente a empresa privada recusou por medo de superprodução. O Reichswerke comprou uma participação não controladora na Alpine e, em seguida, lutou contra o controle total da empresa por seis meses. A pressão regulatória ameaçou desvalorizar a Alpine, e em março de 1939, a VS se afastou. Os recursos de minério da Alpine foram vitais para o segundo grande projeto de Göring – o novo cluster verticalmente integrado de siderúrgicas em Linz, que também incluía a Eisenwerke Oberdonau e várias empresas de construção e transporte. Göring, em suas funções de presidente da Prússia e chefe da Luftwaffe, também estabeleceu laços estreitos entre o Reichswerke e as indústrias petrolífera e aeronáutica.

As relações entre o Estado e os barões do aço continuaram a se deteriorar, e Göring usou o mesmo padrão de intimidação para extorquir outros ativos austríacos e depois tchecos de seus antigos proprietários. O Reichswerke absorveu de 50 a 60 por cento da indústria pesada tcheca e uma participação um pouco menor na Áustria. Os mecanismos de aquisição variaram desde a compra de ações de boa-fé ao controle por procuração através de bancos locais dependentes até o confisco total, como foi o caso da fábrica da família Rothschild, de propriedade britânica, em Vitkovice. Os Sudetos, anexados em 1938, trouxeram as primeiras reservas substanciais de carvão. Na Alemanha, o Reichswerke efetivamente subjugou os barões do Ruhr, forçando-os a fornecer carvão aos altos-fornos de Salzgitter, comissionados em 1939, a um preço abaixo do mercado. A "aquisição" de minas de carvão polonesas permitiu ao Reichswerke baixar ainda mais os preços do carvão.

Após a eclosão da guerra, o Reichswerke abandonou as formalidades em tempo de paz e simplesmente assumiu todos os ativos "alemães" que considerava atraentes. Declarou-se "um truste do estado alemão" durante a guerra, um cavaleiro branco salvando os países ocupados do " colonialismo " do grande negócio. Acertos e indenizações, quando reconhecidos, foram adiados até o fim da guerra. Mas os próprios planos pós-guerra do Reichswerke, desenvolvidos em 1942, exigiam um maior aumento do controle estatal sobre as indústrias pesadas e a industrialização dos territórios orientais às custas do Ruhr. O Reichswerke claramente favoreceu o desenvolvimento industrial na Europa Central, em vez da própria Alemanha, em parte porque estava fora do alcance dos bombardeiros aliados. Entre 1943 e 1944 metade do ferro e aço do Reichswerke foram produzidos nos territórios ocupados, a outra metade na Alemanha (incluindo a Áustria anexada).

A indústria soviética de carvão e aço capturada em 1941-1942 tornou-se a tarefa mais desafiadora do Reichswerke. Hitler encarregou o Reichswerke de colher as plantas abandonadas o mais rápido possível. Pleiger obrigou os velhos barões do aço do Ruhr a enviar suas equipes de administração e literalmente "adotar" os ativos soviéticos. Os barões do aço relutantes se opuseram, mas tiveram que obedecer à ordem explícita de Hitler. Os nazistas radicais se opuseram, por diferentes razões, mas não puderam oferecer uma solução melhor.

Os ativos romenos, quase toda a capacidade de carvão e aço do país, foram adquiridos através de uma série de acordos amigáveis e colocados sob controle conjunto germano-romeno. Um cuidado especial foi dado ao maior estaleiro romeno em Galați. Em 1942, o estaleiro romeno assinou um acordo de "assistência em questões técnicas" com o Reichswerke. O capital do estaleiro aumentou onze vezes, de 50 para 550 milhões de lei. Nesse mesmo ano, os submarinos da Marinha romena Marsuinul e Rechinul, estabelecidos em 1938, foram finalmente concluídos. Outra conquista notável daquele ano foi o lançamento do primeiro navio-tanque construído localmente na Romênia, o SRT-128. Em 1943, quatro caça- minas modificados da classe M foram construídos na Romênia a partir de materiais alemães. Esta colaboração germano-romena também beneficiou a Kriegsmarine, já que o estaleiro romeno montou seis submarinos costeiros entre 1942 e 1943. O estaleiro romeno também participou da montagem de S-boats.

Reestruturação

No final de 1941, a Reichswerke tornou-se a maior empresa da Europa. O conglomerado passou por uma série de reorganizações; em janeiro de 1941 seus ativos foram organizados em três divisões:

 Bloco A - Carvão, Ferro e Aço (Alemanha, Áustria, Boêmia e Morávia, França, Luxemburgo, Polônia e Romênia)
 Bloco B - Armas e Munições (Alemanha, Áustria, Boêmia e Morávia)
 Bloco C - Transporte Fluvial e Ferroviário

Uma quarta divisão foi adicionada mais tarde para ativos soviéticos capturados – plantas e minas da Bacia de Kryvbas e Donets na Ucrânia, com interesses menores na Bielorrússia, Letônia e Rússia central.

O Reichswerke acumulou fábricas demais para gerenciá-las com eficiência. Em vez de apontar os ativos mais promissores, distribuiu os recursos disponíveis sobre tudo o que tinha. Seus gestores não sentiram a pressão da competição que moldou a gestão das empresas privadas. Richard Overy observou que a obsessão de Göring por megaprojetos de longo prazo não apenas drenava a economia, mas contrastava fortemente com a ideologia da blitzkrieg.

A incapacidade de controlar o enorme conglomerado tornou-se evidente em 1942, e Pleiger persuadiu Göring a limitar o Reichswerke à produção de carvão, ferro e aço. O Reichswerke passou o controle sobre suas fábricas de armas e munições para a Organização Todt e seu sucessor, o Ministério de Armamentos. Ainda assim, a organização operou com prejuízo; de fato, o Bloco A registrou perdas em todos os anos de sua existência, de 1939 a 1945. As operações francesas se saíram ainda pior.

Liquidação

Os bens do Reichswerke adquiridos pela conquista foram recapturados pelas tropas aliadas entre 1943 e 1945 - estes incluíam bens da ARBED (Luxemburgo) e Skoda Works.

Os ativos do Reichswerke na Áustria ocupada pelos aliados foram nacionalizados pela Primeira Lei de Nacionalização promulgada pelo parlamento austríaco em 26 de julho de 1946. As minas de minério em Erzberg e as siderúrgicas em Linz, destruídas por ataques aéreos aliados, foram reorganizadas na estatal VÖEST (agora parte da Voestalpine). A reconstrução desses ativos tornou-se uma prioridade fundamental do Plano Marshall na Áustria. A nacionalização foi apoiada pelo Departamento de Estado dos EUA e contestada pelos generais do Exército dos EUA, que pediram a privatização. Steyr-Daimler-Puch, outrora propriedade do Reichswerke e controlado pelo Exército dos EUA, tornou-se um modelo piloto para a modernização privada defendida por Mark W. Clark. Eventualmente, o Departamento de Estado prevaleceu e os austríacos foram autorizados a nacionalizar as fábricas à vontade. Os ativos do Reichswerke na zona de ocupação soviética foram assumidos pela Administração da Propriedade Soviética na Áustria e devolvidos à Áustria para um resgate em 1955.

Os fornos de Salzgitter foram desligados e desmantelados, o que acabou devastando a economia da cidade. O desmantelamento começou a sério em 1947 e terminou com a demolição de fornos e fundições. Salzgitter foi inundada com quarenta e quatro mil refugiados alemães do Leste, o desemprego ultrapassou 30%, e os britânicos consideraram reassentar fisicamente os moradores com medo de uma revolta comunista. Dos trinta e sete mil deslocados (principalmente da Polônia) que trabalhavam em Salzgitter em 1945, muitos se recusaram a ser reassentados e as deportações continuaram até meados da década de 1950. Em fevereiro de 1950, os trabalhadores se levantaram contra a demolição de suas fábricas e acabaram vencendo o impasse sem derramamento de sangue com as tropas britânicas. O desmantelamento continuou por mais um ano, mas a siderurgia em Salzgitter foi salva. A fábrica estatal operou sob o nome de Reichswerke até 1953, foi renomeada AG für Bergbau- und Hüttenbetrieb e, eventualmente, tornou-se Salzgitter AG. O logotipo do Reichswerke, que lembrava o brasão de armas de Göring, não foi substituído até a década de 1980.

Bibliografia

 Neumann, Klaus (2000). Mudando memórias: o passado nazista na nova Alemanha. Imprensa da Universidade de Michigan..
 Overy, RJ (1995). Guerra e economia no Terceiro Reich. Imprensa da Universidade de Oxford.ISBN 0-19-820599-6.
 Tweraser, Kurt (2000). O Plano Marshall e a reconstrução da indústria siderúrgica austríaca 1945-1953. em: Bischof, Gunther et ai. (2000). O Plano Marshall na Áustria. Editores de transações.ISBN 0-7658-0679-7. pág. 290-322.

Leitura adicional

 Wysocki, Gerd (1982, em alemão). Zwangsarbeit im Stahlkonzern: Salzgitter und die Reichswerke "Hermann Göring", 1937-1945. Magni-Buchladen.ISBN 3922571077. A história e o significado deste estudo são revistos por Neumann, pp. 31-32.

Fundações na Alemanha em 1937
Empresas siderúrgicas da Alemanha
Economia da Alemanha Nazista
Hermann Göring

Reichswerke Hermann Göring


Lärm fue una banda holandesa de Hardcore, formada en 1981.

Historia

Fue una de las bandas de hardcore punk rápido y ruidoso de su tiempo, pionera del grindcore y del estilo de punk straight edge en Europa, además de fundadores del red ege (straight edge comunista) en los Países Bajos.

Se disolvieron en 1987 y, a continuación, la mayoría de los miembros formaron el grupo Seein' Red, aunque volvieron a juntarse brevemente en 1995 tras haber hecho una compilación de un EP titulado "Extreme Noise Terrorism"

En 2003, se reunieron de nuevo bajo el nombre de Lärm as Fuck, aunque la mayoría de los integrantes aun permanecen en Seein' Red: grabaron algunas canciones y realizaron presentaciones parciales para los seguidores de culto hasta que en 2012 tocaron su concierto de despedida.

Integrantes

 Meno - voz
 Paul - guitarra
 Dorien - guitarra
 Joss - bajo
 Olav - batería

Discografía

Álbumes de estudio

 1986: "Straight On View"

EP

 1986 - "No One Can Be That Dumb"
 1987 - "Nothing Is Hard in This World if You Dare to Scale the Heights"
 1995 - "Extreme Noise Terrorism"

Compilaciones

 1987 - What Is Punk?
 1996 - It's All So Quiet on the Eastern Front
 2005 - Extreme Noise
 2005 - Off Target
 2007 - Straight on View / Campaign for Musical Destruction
 2010 - Lärm

Enlaces externos

 Lärm en MySpace.
 Biografía de la banda Lärm, en inglés.

Quintetos de música de los Países Bajos
Grupos de música de los Países Bajos
Grupos de rock de los Países Bajos
Grupos de grindcore
Grupos de thrashcore
Grupos de hardcore punk de los Países Bajos
Grupos straight edge
Grupos de powerviolence
Grupos de música de los años 1980
Grupos de música de los años 1990
Grupos de música de los años 2000
Grupos de música de los años 2010
Grupos de música formados en 1981
Grupos de música formados en los años 1980

Lärm


Le raïon de Tchervonohrad (en ) est un raïon (district), créé en 2020 dans l'oblast de Lviv en Ukraine.

Lieux d'intérêt

Références

Tchervonohrad
Division administrative fondée en 2020

Raïon de Tchervonohrad


Andrej Tavželj (* 14. März 1984 in Kranj, SR Slowenien) ist ein slowenischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit 2016 bei der Association des Sports de Glisse d'Angers in der französischen Ligue Magnus unter Vertrag steht.

Karriere

Andrej Tavželj begann seine Karriere als Eishockeyspieler beim HK Triglav Kranj, für dessen Profimannschaft er von 2000 bis 2005 in der Slowenischen Eishockeyliga aktiv war. In der Saison 2004/05 bestritt er parallel sechs Partien für den HK Slavija Ljubljana. Von 2005 bis 2010 spielte der Verteidiger für den HDD Olimpija Ljubljana, mit dem er in der Saison 2006/07 Slowenischer Meister wurde. Ab der Saison 2007/08 nahm er mit dem HDD Olimpija an der Österreichischen Eishockey-Liga teil. Die Saison 2009/10 beendete er bei der SG Cortina in der italienischen Serie A1. Die folgende Spielzeit verbrachte er bei deren Ligarivalen SG Pontebba.

Zur Saison 2011/12 wurde Tavželj vom HK Jesenice verpflichtet, bei dem er auf Anhieb Mannschaftskapitän wurde. Für die Slowenen erzielte er in der ÖEHL in 37 Spielen je fünf Tore und fünf Vorlagen. Im Januar 2012 wechselte er für den Rest der Spielzeit zum HK Poprad aus der slowakischen Extraliga. Für die folgende Spielzeit wurde er von den Dragons de Rouen aus der französischen Ligue Magnus verpflichtet. Mit dem Team aus der Normandie konnte er auf Anhieb den französischen Landesmeistertitel sichern. Im selben Jahr gewann er mit seiner Mannschaft auch den französischen Ligapokal, ein Erfolg, den er 2014 wiederholen konnte. Nachdem im zweiten Jahr zwar der Hauptrundensieg in der Ligue Magnus heraussprang, aber im Playoff-Halbfinale das Aus gegen die Association des Sports de Glisse d'Angers kam, wechselte er 2014 zu Toros Neftekamsk in die russische Wysschaja Hockey-Liga, die er mit dem Team aus Baschkortostan 2015 gewinnen konnte. Trotz dieses Erfolges verließ er Russland und kehrte nach Slowenien zurück, wo er wieder für Olimpija Ljubljana zunächst in der österreichischen Liga als Kapitän auf dem Eis stand und nach dem Verpassen der dortigen Playoffserie an den Playoffs der slowenischen Liga teilnahm und damit am 15. nationalen Meistertitel des Klubs beteiligt war. 2016 wechselte er erneut nach Frankreich, wo er nunmehr für die Association des Sports de Glisse d'Angers in der Ligue Magnus spielt.

International
Für Slowenien nahm Tavželj im Juniorenbereich an der U18-Junioren-Weltmeisterschaft der Division I 2002 sowie der U20-Junioren-Weltmeisterschaft der Division I 2004 teil.

Im Seniorenbereich stand er im Aufgebot seines Landes bei den Weltmeisterschaften der Division I 2009, 2010, 2012 und 2014 sowie in der Top-Division 2008, 2011, 2013 und 2015. Zudem vertrat er seine Farben bei den Qualifikationsturnieren zu den Olympischen Winterspielen 2010 in Vancouver und 2014 in Sotschi sowie den Winterspielen in Sotschi selbst, bei denen die Slowenen einen überraschenden siebten Rang erreichten.

Erfolge und Auszeichnungen
 2007 Slowenischer Meister mit dem HDD Olimpija Ljubljana
 2013 Französischer Meister mit Rouen Hockey Élite 76
 2013 Gewinn des Coupe de la Ligue mit Rouen Hockey Élite 76
 2014 Gewinn des Coupe de la Ligue mit Rouen Hockey Élite 76
 2015 Gewinn der Wysschaja Hockey-Liga mit Toros Neftekamsk
 2016 Slowenischer Meister mit dem HDD Olimpija Ljubljana

International
 2010 Aufstieg in die Top-Division bei der Weltmeisterschaft der Division I, Gruppe B
 2012 Aufstieg in die Top-Division bei der Weltmeisterschaft der Division I, Gruppe A
 2014 Aufstieg in die Top-Division bei der Weltmeisterschaft der Division I, Gruppe A

Statistik

(Stand: Ende der Saison 2015/16)

Weblinks

Eishockeynationalspieler (Slowenien)
Eishockeyspieler (HK Triglav Kranj)
Eishockeyspieler (HDD Olimpija Ljubljana)
Eishockeyspieler (HK Slavija Ljubljana)
Eishockeyspieler (SG Cortina)
Eishockeyspieler (SG Pontebba)
Eishockeyspieler (HK Jesenice)
Eishockeyspieler (HK Poprad)
Eishockeyspieler (Rouen Hockey Élite 76)
Eishockeyspieler (Association des Sports de Glisse d'Angers)
Olympiateilnehmer (Slowenien)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 2014
Slowenischer Meister (Eishockey)
Französischer Meister (Eishockey)
Jugoslawe
Slowene
Geboren 1984
Mann

Andrej Tavželj


KLOV may refer to:

Geography
Klov, an historical neighbourhood in the Ukrainian capital Kyiv

Art, entertainment, and media
Killer List of Videogames, a website devoted to cataloging videogames
KLOV (FM), a radio station (89.3 FM) licensed to Winchester, Oregon, United States
K-LOVE, a Christian Radio network in the United States

KLOV


Light Link er en dansk dokumentarfilm instrueret af Werner Hedman.

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Light Link


Astraea heliotropium est une espèce de grands escargots de mer de Nouvelle-Zélande appartenant à la famille des Turbinidae, les turbans et escargots étoilés.

Le premier exemplaire de cette espèce a été rapporté en Europe par le célèbre capitaine Cook.

Coquille
La hauteur de la coquille peut atteindre , et sa largeur jusqu'à . Elle a la forme d'un cône aplati. En dessous, elle est concave, avec un ombilic largement ouvert. La pointe est en forme de dôme et comporte 5 verticilles convexes. La suture entre les verticilles est en zigzag, à cause des « dents » triangulaires recourbées qui arment leur périphérie fortement carénée. Les verticilles au-dessus et au-dessous possèdent de nombreuses séries de granules en spirale. L'ombilic est profond et grossièrement strié obliquement à l'intérieur. L'ouverture est transversalement ovale, oblique, nacrée à l'intérieur. Son péristome (sa « lèvre ») est continu. La columelle est légèrement dilatée, empiétant sur l'ombilic. La coquille est brunâtre ou violacé au-dessus, claire en dessous.

Distribution
Cette espèce est endémique de Nouvelle-Zélande.

Références

  Williams, S.T. (2007). Origins and diversification of Indo-West Pacific marine fauna: evolutionary history and biogeography of turban shells (Gastropoda, Turbinidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 92, 573–592.
  Spencer, H.; Marshall. B. (2009). All Mollusca except Opisthobranchia. In: Gordon, D. (Ed.) (2009). New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume One: Kingdom Animalia. 584 pp

Bibliographie complémentaire
  , New Zealand Mollusca, William Collins Publishers Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand 1979
  Glen Pownall, New Zealand Shells and Shellfish, Seven Seas Publishing Pty Ltd, Wellington, New Zealand 1979

Liens externes

Faune endémique de Nouvelle-Zélande
Statut UICN Préoccupation mineure
Turbinidae
Espèce de gastéropodes (nom scientifique)

Astraea heliotropium


Sinterklaas () or Sint-Nicolaas () is a legendary figure based on Saint Nicholas, patron saint of children. Other Dutch names for the figure include De Sint ("The Saint"), De Goede Sint ("The Good Saint") and De Goedheiligman ("The Good Holy Man"). Many descendants and cognates of "Sinterklaas" or "Saint Nicholas" in other languages are also used in the Low Countries, nearby regions, and former Dutch colonies.

The feast of Sinterklaas celebrates the name day of Saint Nicholas on 6 December. The feast is celebrated annually with the giving of gifts on St. Nicholas' Eve (5 December) in the Netherlands and on the morning of 6 December, Saint Nicholas Day, Belgium, Luxembourg, western Germany, northern France (French Flanders, Lorraine, Alsace and Artois), and Hungary. The tradition is also celebrated in some territories of the former Dutch Empire, including Aruba.

Sinterklaas is one of the sources of the popular Christmas icon of Santa Claus.

Figures

Sinterklaas

Sinterklaas is based on the historical figure of Saint Nicholas (270–343), a Greek bishop of Myra in present-day Turkey. He is depicted as an elderly, stately and serious man with white hair and a long, full beard. He wears a long red cape or chasuble over a traditional white bishop's alb and a sometimes-red stole, dons a red mitre and ruby ring, and holds a gold-coloured crosier, a long ceremonial shepherd's staff with a fancy curled top.

He traditionally rides a white horse. In the Netherlands, the last horse was called Amerigo, but he was "pensioned" (i.e., died) in 2019 and replaced with a new horse called Ozosnel ("oh so fast"), after a passage in a well-known Sinterklaas song. In Belgium, the horse is named Slecht weer vandaag, meaning "bad weather today" or Mooi weer vandaag ("nice weather today").

Sinterklaas carries a big, red book which records whether each child has been good or naughty in the past year.

Zwarte Piet

Sinterklaas is assisted by Zwarte Piet ("Black Pete"), a helper dressed in Moorish attire and in blackface. Zwarte Piet first appeared in print as the nameless servant of Saint Nicholas in Sint-Nikolaas en zijn knecht ("St. Nicholas and His Servant"), published in 1850 by Amsterdam schoolteacher Jan Schenkman; however, the tradition appears to date back at least as far as the early 19th century. Zwarte Piet's colourful dress is based on 16th-century noble attire, with a ruff (lace collar) and a feathered cap. He is typically depicted carrying a bag which contains candy for the children, which he tosses around, a tradition supposedly originating in the story of Saint Nicholas saving three young girls from prostitution by tossing golden coins through their window at night to pay their dowries.

Traditionally, he would also carry a birch rod (Dutch: roe), a chimney sweep's broom made of willow branches, used to spank children who had been naughty. Some of the older Sinterklaas songs make mention of naughty children being put in Zwarte Piet's bag and being taken back to Spain. This part of the legend refers to the times that the Moors raided the European coasts, and as far as Iceland, to abduct the local people into slavery. This quality can be found in other companions of Saint Nicholas such as Krampus and Père Fouettard. In modern versions of the Sinterklaas feast, however, Zwarte Piet no longer carries the roe and children are no longer told that they will be taken back to Spain in Zwarte Piet's bag if they have been naughty.

Over the years many stories have been added, and Zwarte Piet has developed into a valuable assistant to the absent-minded saint. In modern adaptations for television, Sinterklaas has developed a Zwarte Piet for every function, such as a Head Piet (Hoofdpiet), a Navigation Piet (Wegwijspiet) to navigate the steamboat from Spain to the Netherlands, a Presents Piet (Pakjespiet) to wrap all the gifts, and Acrobatic Piet to climb roofs and chimneys. Traditionally Zwarte Piet's face is said to be black because he is a Moor from Spain. Today, some children are told that his face is blackened with soot because he has to climb through chimneys to deliver gifts for Sinterklaas.

Since the 2010s, the traditions surrounding the holiday of Sinterklaas have been the subject of a growing number of editorials, debates, documentaries, protests and even violent clashes at festivals. In most cities and television channels now only display Zwarte Piet characters with some soot smudges on the face rather than full blackface, so-called roetveegpieten ("soot-smudge Petes") or schoorsteenpieten ("chimney Petes").
In a 2013 survey, 92 per cent of the Dutch public did not perceive Zwarte Piet as racist or associate him with slavery, and 91 per cent were opposed to altering the character's appearance. In a similar survey in 2018, between 80 and 88 per cent of the Dutch public did not perceive Zwarte Piet as racist, and between 41 and 54 per cent were happy with the character's modernised appearance (a mix of roetveegpieten and blackface).
A June 2020 survey saw a drop in support for leaving the character's appearance unaltered: 47 per cent of those surveyed supported the traditional appearance, compared to 71 per cent in a similar survey held in November 2019. Prime Minister Mark Rutte stated in a parliamentary debate on 5 June 2020 that he had changed his opinion on the issue and now has more understanding for people who consider the character's appearance to be racist.

Celebration

Arrival from Spain

The festivities traditionally begin each year in mid-November (the first Saturday after 11 November), when Sinterklaas "arrives" by a steamboat at a designated seaside town, supposedly from Spain. In the Netherlands this takes place in a different port each year, whereas in Belgium it always takes place in the city of Antwerp. The steamboat anchors, then Sinterklaas disembarks and parades through the streets on his horse, welcomed by children cheering and singing traditional Sinterklaas songs. His Zwarte Piet assistants throw candy and small, round, gingerbread-like cookies, either kruidnoten or pepernoten, into the crowd. The event is broadcast live on national television in the Netherlands and Belgium.

Following this national arrival, other towns celebrate their own intocht van Sinterklaas (arrival of Sinterklaas). Local arrivals usually take place later on the same Saturday of the national arrival, the next day (Sunday), or one weekend after the national arrival. In places a boat cannot reach, Sinterklaas arrives by train, horse, horse-drawn carriage or even a fire truck.

Sinterklaas is said to come from Spain, possibly because in 1087, half of Saint Nicholas' relics were transported to the Italian city of Bari, which later formed part of the Spanish Kingdom of Naples. Others suggest that mandarin oranges, traditionally gifts associated with St. Nicholas, led to the misconception that he must have been from Spain. This theory is backed by a Dutch poem documented in 1810 in New York and provided with an English translation:

Dutch
Sinterklaas, goedheiligman!
Trek uwe beste tabberd an,
Reis daar mee naar Amsterdam,
Van Amsterdam naar Spanje,
Daar Appelen van Oranje,
Daar Appelen van granaten,
Die rollen door de straten.

English
Saint Nicholas, good holy man!
Put on the Tabard, best you can,
Go, therewith, to Amsterdam,
From Amsterdam to Spain,
Where apples bright of Orange,
And likewise those granate surnam'd,
Roll through the streets, all free unclaim'd [...]

The text presented here comes from a pamphlet that John Pintard released in New York in 1810. It is the earliest source mentioning Spain in connection to Sinterklaas. Pintard wanted St. Nicholas to become patron saint of New York and hoped to establish a Sinterklaas tradition. Apparently he got help from the Dutch community in New York, that provided him with the original Dutch Sinterklaas poem. Strictly speaking, the poem does not state that Sinterklaas comes from Spain, but that he needs to go to Spain to pick up the oranges and pomegranates. So the link between Sinterklaas and Spain goes through the oranges, a much appreciated treat in the 19th century. Later the connection with the oranges got lost, and Spain became his home.

Period leading up to Saint Nicholas' Eve

In the weeks between his arrival and 5 December, Sinterklaas visits schools, hospitals, and shopping centers. He is said to ride his white-grey horse over the rooftops at night, delivering gifts through the chimney to the well-behaved children. Traditionally, naughty children risked being caught by Black Pete, who carried a jute bag and willow cane for that purpose.

Before going to bed, children each leave a single shoe next to the fireplace chimney of the coal-fired stove or fireplace (or in modern times close to the central heating radiator, or a door). They leave the shoe with a carrot or some hay in it and a bowl of water nearby "for Sinterklaas' horse", and the children sing a Sinterklaas song. The next day they find some candy or a small present in their shoes.

Typical Sinterklaas treats traditionally include mandarin oranges, pepernoten, speculaas (sometimes filled with almond paste), banketletter (pastry filled with almond paste) or a chocolate letter (the first letter of the child's name made out of chocolate), chocolate coins, suikerbeest (animal-shaped figures made of sugary confection), and marzipan figures. Newer treats include gingerbread biscuits or and a figurine of Sinterklaas made of chocolate and wrapped in coloured aluminium foil.

Saint Nicholas' Eve and Saint Nicholas' Day
In the Netherlands, Saint Nicholas' Eve, 5 December, became the chief occasion for gift-giving during the winter holiday season. The evening is called Sinterklaasavond ("Sinterklaas evening") or Pakjesavond ("gifts evening", or literally "packages evening").

On the evening of 5 December, parents, family, friends or acquaintances pretend to act on behalf of "Sinterklaas", or his helpers, and fool the children into thinking that "Sinterklaas" has really given them presents. This may be done through a note that is "found", explaining where the presents are hidden, as though Zwarte Piet visited them and left a burlap sack of presents with them. Sometimes a neighbour will knock on the door (pretending to be a Zwarte Piet) and leave the sack outside for the children to retrieve; this varies per family. When the presents arrive, the living room is decked out with them, much as on Christmas Day in English-speaking countries. On 6 December "Sinterklaas" departs without any ado, and all festivities are over.

In the Southern Netherlands and Belgium, most children have to wait until the morning of 6 December to receive their gifts, and Sinterklaas is seen as a festivity almost exclusively for children. The shoes are filled with a poem or wish list for Sinterklaas and carrots, hay or sugar cubes for the horse on the evening of the fifth and in Belgium often a bottle of beer for Zwarte Piet and a cup of coffee for Sinterklaas are placed next to them. Also in some areas, when it is time for children to give up their pacifier, they place it into his or her shoe ("safekeeping by Sinterklaas") and it is replaced with chocolate the next morning.

The present is often creatively disguised by being packaged in a humorous, unusual or personalised way. This is called a surprise (from the French).

Poems from Sinterklaas usually accompany gifts, bearing a personal message for the receiver. It is usually a humorous poem which often teases the recipient for well-known bad habits or other character deficiencies.

In recent years, influenced by North-American media and the Anglo-Saxon Christmas tradition, when the children reach the age where they  get told "the big secret of Sinterklaas", some people will shift to Christmas Eve or Christmas Day for the present giving. Older children in Dutch families where the children are too old to believe in Sinterklaas any more, also often celebrate Christmas with presents instead of pakjesavond. Instead of such gifts being brought by Sinterklaas, family members ordinarily draw names for an event comparable to Secret Santa. Because of the popularity of his "older cousin" Sinterklaas, Santa Claus is however not commonly seen in the Netherlands and Belgium.

History

Pre-Christian Europe

Jacob Grimm, Hélène Adeline Guerber and others have drawn parallels between Sinterklaas and his helpers and the Wild Hunt of Wodan or Odin, a major god among the Germanic peoples, who was worshipped in Northern and Western Europe prior to Christianization. Riding the white horse Sleipnir he flew through the air as the leader of the Wild Hunt, always accompanied by two black ravens, Huginn and Muninn. Those helpers would listen, just like Zwarte Piet, at the chimney – which was just a hole in the roof at that time – to tell Wodan about the good and bad behaviour of the mortals. Historian Rita Ghesquiere asserts that it is likely that certain pre-christian elements survived in the honouring of Saint Nicholas. Indeed, it seems clear that the tradition contains a number of elements that are not ecclesiastical in origin.

Middle Ages
The Sinterklaasfeest arose during the Middle Ages. The feast was both an occasion to help the poor, by putting money in their shoes (which evolved into putting presents in children's shoes) and a wild feast, similar to Carnival, that often led to costumes, a "topsy-turvy" overturning of daily roles, and mass public drunkenness.

In early traditions, students elected one of their classmates as "bishop" on St. Nicholas Day, who would rule until 28 December (Innocents Day), and they sometimes acted out events from the bishop's life. As the festival moved to city streets, it became more lively.

16th and 17th centuries
During the Reformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, Protestant reformers like Martin Luther changed the Saint gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl and moved the date for giving presents from 6 December to Christmas Eve. Certain Protestant municipalities and clerics forbade Saint Nicholas festivities, as the Protestants wanted to abolish the cult of saints and saint adoration, while keeping the midwinter gift-bringing feast alive.

After the successful revolt of the largely Protestant northern provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of Roman Catholic king Philip II of Spain, the new Calvinist regents, ministers and clericals prohibited celebration of Saint Nicholas. The newly independent Dutch Republic officially became a Protestant country and abolished public Catholic celebrations. Nevertheless, the Saint Nicholas feast never completely disappeared in the Netherlands. In Amsterdam, where the public Saint Nicholas festivities were very popular, main events like street markets and fairs were kept alive with persons impersonating Nicholas dressed in red clothes instead of a bishop's tabard and mitre. The Dutch government eventually tolerated private family celebrations of Saint Nicholas' Day, as can be seen on Jan Steen's painting The Feast of Saint Nicholas.

19th century
In the 19th century, the saint emerged from hiding and the feast became more secularised at the same time. The modern tradition of Sinterklaas as a children's feast was likely confirmed with the illustrated children's book Sint-Nicolaas en zijn knecht ('Saint Nicholas and his servant'), written in 1850 by the teacher Jan Schenkman (1806–1863). Some say he introduced the images of Sinterklaas' delivering presents by the chimney, riding over the roofs of houses on a grey horse, and arriving from Spain by steamboat, which at that time was an exciting modern invention. Perhaps building on the fact that Saint Nicholas historically is the patron saint of the sailors (many churches dedicated to him have been built near harbours), Schenkman could have been inspired by the Spanish customs and ideas about the saint when he portrayed him arriving via the water in his book. Schenkman introduced the song Zie ginds komt de stoomboot ("Look over yonder, the steamboat is arriving"), which is still popular in the Netherlands.

In Schenkman's version, the medieval figures of the mock devil, which later changed to Oriental or Moorish helpers, was portrayed for the first time as black African and called Zwarte Piet (Black Pete).

World War II
During the German occupation of the Netherlands (1940–1945) many of the traditional Sinterklaas rhymes were rewritten to reflect current events. The Royal Air Force (RAF) was often celebrated. In 1941, for instance, the RAF dropped boxes of candy over the occupied Netherlands. One classical poem turned contemporary was the following:

Dutch
Sinterklaas, kapoentje,
Gooi wat in mijn schoentje,
Gooi wat in mijn laarsje,
Dank U Sinterklaasje

World War II version
R.A.F. Kapoentje,
Gooi wat in mijn schoentje,
Bij de Moffen gooien,
Maar in Holland strooien!

English
Sinterklaas, little capon,
Throw something in my little shoe,
Throw something in my little boot,
Thank you dear Sinterklaas

World War II version
R.A.F. little Capon,
throw something in my little shoe
throw [bombs] at the Krauts
but scatter [candy] in Holland!

This is a variation of one of the best-known traditional Sinterklaas rhymes, with "RAF" replacing "Sinterklaas" in the first line (the two expressions have the same metrical characteristics in the first and second, and in the third and fourth lines). The Dutch word kapoentje (little rascal) is traditional to the rhyme, but in this case it also alludes to a capon. The second line is straight from the original rhyme, but in the third and fourth line the RAF is encouraged to drop bombs on the Moffen (slur for Germans, like "krauts" in English) and candy over the Netherlands. Many of the Sinterklaas poems of this time noted the lack of food and basic necessities, and the German occupiers having taken everything of value; others expressed admiration for the Dutch Resistance.

Originally Sinterklaas was only accompanied by one (or sometimes two) Zwarte Pieten, but just after the liberation of the Netherlands, Canadian soldiers organised a Sinterklaas party with many Zwarte Pieten, and ever since this has been the custom, each Piet normally having his own dedicated task.

Sinterklaas in the former Dutch colonies

In Curaçao, Dutch-style Sinterklaas events were organised until 2020. The Zwarte Piet costumes were purple, gold, blue, yellow and orange but especially black and dark black. Prime Minister Ivar Asjes has spoken negatively of the tradition. In 2011, the government of Gerrit Schotte threatened to withdraw the grant for the Dutch tradition after the Curaçaoan activist Quinsy Gario was arrested, when he protested in Dordrecht against the use of Zwarte Piet. Since 2020, the Sinterklaas feast is no longer nationally celebrated in Curaçao and has been replaced by Children's Day on 20 November.

Dutch-style Sinterklaas events were also organised in Suriname. In 1970 the Surinamese playwright Eugène Drenthe envisioned the character of Gudu Ppa ("Father of Riches" in Sranantongo) as a postcolonial replacement of Sinterklaas. Instead of a white man, Gudu Ppa was black. His helpers symbolised Suriname's different ethnic groups, replacing Zwarte Piet. Although promoted by the military regime in the eighties, Gudu Ppa never really caught on. In 2011, opposition member of parliament and former president Ronald Venetiaan called for an official ban on Sinterklaas because he considered Zwarte Piet to be a racist element. Since 2013, the Sinterklaas feast on 5 December has been replaced by Kinderdag ("Children's Day") in Suriname.

The Saint Nicholas Society of New York celebrates a feast on 6 December to this day. In the Hudson Valley region of New York, Sinterklaas is celebrated annually in the towns of Rhinebeck and Kingston because of the region's Dutch heritage. It includes Sinterklaas' crossing the Hudson River and then a parade.

Sinterklaas as a source for Santa Claus
Sinterklaas is the basis for the North American figure of Santa Claus. It is often claimed that during the American War of Independence, the inhabitants of New York City, a former Dutch colonial town (New Amsterdam), reinvented their Sinterklaas tradition, as Saint Nicholas was a symbol of the city's non-English past. In the 1770s the New York Gazetteer noted that the feast day of "St. a Claus" was celebrated "by the descendants of the ancient Dutch families, with their usual festivities." In a study of the "children's books, periodicals and journals" of New Amsterdam, the scholar Charles Jones did not find references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas. Not all scholars agree with Jones' findings, which he reiterated in a book in 1978. Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York existed in the early settlement of the Hudson Valley. He agrees that "there can be no question that by the time the revival of St. Nicholas came with Washington Irving, the traditional New Netherlands observance had completely disappeared." However, Irving's stories prominently featured legends of the early Dutch settlers, so while the traditional practice may have died out, Irving's St. Nicholas may have been a revival of that dormant Dutch strand of folklore. In his 1812 revisions to A History of New York, Irving inserted a dream sequence featuring St. Nicholas soaring over treetops in a flying wagon a creation others would later dress up as Santa Claus.

In New York, two years earlier John Pintard published a pamphlet with illustrations of Alexander Anderson in which he calls for making Saint Nicholas the patron Saint of New York and starting a Sinterklaas tradition. He was apparently assisted by the Dutch because in his pamphlet he included an old Dutch Sinterklaas poem with an English translation. In the Dutch poem, Saint Nicholas is referred to as 'Sancta Claus'. Ultimately, his initiative helped Sinterklaas to pop up as Santa Claus in the Christmas celebration, which returned freed of episcopal dignity and ties via England and later Germany to Europe again.

During the Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer from Sinterklaas to the Christ Child or Christkindl (corrupted in English to Kris Kringle). Similarly, the date of giving gifts changed from 5 or 6 December to Christmas Eve.

Sinterklaas in fiction

In a scene in the 1947 film Miracle on 34th Street, a Dutch girl recognises Macy's department store Santa as Sinterklaas. They converse in Dutch and sing a Sinterklaas song while she sits on his lap.

Santa Claus is portrayed as Sinterklaas in the 1985 film One Magic Christmas: he and his wife have Dutch accents, and she calls him Nicolaas. In lieu of elves, his helpers are "Christmas angels" who are deceased people of all nationalities.

Sinterklaas has been the subject of a number of Dutch novels, films and television series, primarily aimed at children. Sinterklaas-themed children's films include Winky's Horse (2005) and the sequel Where Is Winky's Horse? (2007).

Sinterklaas-themed films aimed at adults include the drama Makkers Staakt uw Wild Geraas (1960), which won a Silver Bear award at the 11th Berlin International Film Festival; the romantic comedy Alles is Liefde (2007) and its Belgian remake Zot van A. (2010); and the Dick Maas-directed horror film Sint (2010).

De Club van Sinterklaas is a Sinterklaas-themed soap opera aimed at children. The popular television series has run since 1999 and has had a number of spin-off series.  Since 2001, a Sinterklaas "news" program aimed at children is broadcast daily on Dutch television during the holiday season, the Sinterklaasjournaal. The Dutch-Belgian Nickelodeon series Slot Marsepeinstein has aired since 2009.

Much of the first half of A War of Gifts by Orson Scott Card is about the Sinterklaas tradition, including chapter 4 "Sinterklaas Eve" and 5 "Sinterklaas Day".

In the fourth episode of the television series The Librarians ("And Santa's Midnight Ride"), Santa (Bruce Campbell) is an "immortal avatar" who has existed in many different incarnations throughout history. After experiencing mistletoe poisoning, he briefly turns into Sinterklaas, using his magic to play tricks and make toys appear in people's shoes, before regaining control of his current incarnation.

Sinterklaas also appeared in Sesamstraat, the Dutch version of Sesame Street.

Related holiday figures

Other holiday figures based on Saint Nicholas are celebrated in some parts of Germany and Austria (Sankt Nikolaus); the Czech Republic (Mikuláš); Hungary (Mikulás); Switzerland (Samichlaus); Italy (San Nicola in Bari, South Tyrol, Alpine municipalities, and many others); parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Serbia (Sveti Nikola); Slovenia (Sveti Nikolaj or Sveti Miklavž); Greece (Agios Nikolaos); Romania (Moș Nicolae); Albania (Shën Kolli, Nikolli), among others. See further: Saint Nicholas Day.

See also

 Companions of Saint Nicholas
 Folklore of the Low Countries

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

Annual events
Culture of Belgium
Christian folklore
December observances
Culture of the Netherlands
Dutch folklore
Belgian folklore
Catholicism in Belgium
Catholic culture
Dutch words and phrases
Supernatural beings identified with Christian saints
Fictional Christian saints
Fictional toymakers and toy inventors
Dutch-American culture
Dutch-American culture in New York (state)
Medieval legends
Christmas gift-bringers

Sinterklaas


Narciso Mallol fue un abogado y político originario de la ciudad de Valencia, España. Último Alcalde Mayor de la Villa de San Miguel de Heredía de Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

Alcalde mayor de Totonicapán
Narciso Mallol fue Alcalde Mayor de Totonicapán, en el Reino de Guatemala. De sus luchas antiélite se recuerda, en 1813, su alianza con el caudillo indígena Atanasio Tzul en el levantamiento contra las autoridades españolas, siendo el Jefe Político el Capitán don José de Bustamante y Guerra, y clericales teniéndose a Ramón Casaus y Torres como obispo de la Arquidiócesis de Guatemala. De allí Mallol se traslado a Quetzaltenango.

Alcalde mayor de Tegucigalpa

Narciso Mallol, tomó posesión del cargo de Alcalde Mayor de la Villa de San Miguel de Heredia de Tegucigalpa, el 6 de diciembre de 1817 (último alcalde español de la villa de Tegucigalpa). Fue nombrado mediante el Real Título, fechado el 25 de abril de 1817, en sucesión del señor Simón Gutiérrez que fungía interinamente el puesto público. Mallol no era simpatizante de la política e intereses de los criollos, sino que era un ferviente partidario de la república española; consecuentemente de la Constitución española de 1812.

El 7 de agosto de 1820, Mallol tendría como secretario del ayuntamiento Mayor de Tegucigalpa, al licenciado Dionisio de Herrera y un año más tarde contaría con los servicios del joven Francisco Morazán, quien fungiera como secretario del ayuntamiento y luego de defensor de oficio en procesos civiles y criminales.

Escándalo Midence
Ocurrido en 1818, cuando el señor José Manuel Midence, que fungía como tesorero de la Alcaldía mayor se dio a la fuga con la cantidad de 26.659 pesos plata, dejando en la ruina a la edilicia. El Licenciado Mallol tuvo que reorganizar a la alcaldía sustituyendo funcionarios y empleados, asimismo efectuar medidas de urgencia para recuperar los fondos. La recaudación fiscal que promovió no fue del todo satisfactoria a la vista de los pudientes. De entre sus medidas decretadas estaban las multas a faltas comunes, en tal sentido se recuperó la cantidad hurtada y mucho más.

Proyectos
 Recaudar fondos para el sostenimiento de la Alcaldía.
 Rehabilitación de la "calle Real" de Comayagüela y bordearla con árboles de sombra. (Esta calle actualmente es la segunda avenida).
 Remodelación de la fachada e interior de la "Casa de Rescates", después llamada "Casa de Moneda" y que en otros años posteriores la ocuparía la Tipografía Nacional de Honduras.
 Mejorar el edificio del ayuntamiento o Plaza de armas. (No concluido)
 Viaducto entre Comayagüela y la Villa de Tegucigalpa, conocida como "Puente Mallol".

Puente Mallol
El Río Grande o Choluteca, recorre la Villa de Tegucigalpa y la separa de Comayagüela, sus aguas son de afluencia imprevista y los pobladores tenían problemas cuando lo cruzaban, al unirse el agua de éste con las de los otros dos ríos Oro y Chiquito. De alguna manera había que solucionarse. Ya en 1816 el alcalde mayor don Simón Gutiérrez se había proyectado construir un puente sobre esta agua. Empero, un fuerte cambio climático produjo un temporal en 1817, que se llevó los materiales y desbarató por completo el plan, atrasándolo y causando perdidas económicas. Así que, Narciso Mallol, se propuso construir un puente.

En 1818 a iniciativa del Alcalde Narciso Mallol se proyecta la construcción de un puente sobre el Río Choluteca, para unir Tegucigalpa y Comayagüela. La construcción concluyó cuatro años después (1821), año en que los estados centroamericanos se declararan independientes de España y mismo en el que fallecería el licenciado Mallol (6 de marzo de 1821), razón por lo que se bautizó como "Puente Mallol".

La idea del puente era tanto escabrosa, debido a las impredecibles aguas pluviales de los ríos, como costosa. El primer paso fue realizar un estudio sobre los vados y orillas del río para evitar zonas profundas. Mallol encargó el diseño al arquitecto José María Rojas, pero un tiempo después, al examinar detenidamente los bosquejos de los planos, no fueron de su parecer. Mallol, mandó a llamar al arquitecto Juan Bautista Jáuregui, a quien había conocido en Guatemala antes de haber sido nombrado Alcalde de la Villa de Tegucigalpa, éste realizó su viaje a Honduras y no tardó en ponerse a la orden de su amigo. Inmediatamente realizó los nuevos planos para el puente, los cuales aceptó el alcalde y se realizó la contratación de un maestro constructor, que recayó en el señor Miguel Rafael Valladares. Primeramente se realizaron las bases, luego los arcos (diez en su totalidad) que unen a las pilastras y estas sostienen la plataforma; se reforzó con un encofrado resistente y un metro y medio de alto de protección en los muros. El proyecto se estaba volviendo una realidad, al son de los trabajos de albañiles y carpinteros y de un buen tiempo que les acompañase.

En 1830, una crecida en las aguas del río Choluteca dañó la parte de los arcos, que de Tegucigalpa, conduce a Comayagüela.

En 1906, otra crecida en el mes de octubre causó daños menores en su estructura, los que se repararon a continuación. En 1908 se procedió a reforzar la parte del cauce para que las crecidas no se llevasen las uniones entre el hormigón y la calzada.

Su máximo oponente fue el Huracán Mitch, en octubre y noviembre de 1998, el que con su tremenda fuerza no doblegó al Puente Mallol, pero sí lo hizo con los otros puentes de la ciudad. Empero, el puente aun continúa uniendo a las ciudades hermanas Comayagüela y a la capital, Tegucigalpa.

Descripción de la obra
El explorador William Wells, en su libro "Explorations and Adventures in Honduras" publicado en 1857, expone así al puente Mallol: "...es de diez arcos, tiene la vía ocho varas de ancho por cien de largo. Está construido de piedra arenisca que se trabaja fácilmente, pero que resiste la acción del tiempo. La balaustrada o antepecho, que mide cuatro pies de altura es en su parte superior de piedra cincelada. La construcción es sólida y de arquitectura puramente española. Tiene cuarenta pies sobre el río y es suficientemente fuerte para el peso de cualquier tren."

Referencias

Véase también
 Tegucigalpa, M.D.C.
 Comayagüela, D.C.

Bibliografía
 Aguilar, Juan M. "Tegucigalpa: Su Trazo urbano (1578-1920)", Instituto Hondureño de Antropología e Historia (IHAH), Artes Gráficas, Tegucigalpa, M.D.C. Honduras.
 Mariñas Otero, Luis  "Don Narciso Mallol, último alcalde español de Tegucigalpa", Cuadernos hispanoamericanos/Ediciones Cultura Hispánica. Madrid, España; 1948.
 Oyela, Leticia. "Historia Mínima de Tegucigalpa". Editorial Guaymuras, Tegucigalpa, M.D.C. Honduras; 1996.
 Valenzuela, José Reina. "El prócer Dionisio de Herrera", Biblioteca de la Sociedad de Geografía e Historia de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, M.D.C. Honduras; 1965. (Consultado en la Universidad de Texas, U.S.A.)
 Valladares, Nahúm. "El Puente Mallol", Reportaje en Diario La Tribuna (Honduras) en marzo de 2002, Tegucigalpa, M.D.C. Honduras.
 Wells, William. "Explorations and Adventures in Honduras" Harper and Brother´s Publishers; New York City, U.S.A. edition 1857. (Edición de 1960).

Nacidos en Valencia
Fallecidos en Tegucigalpa
Abogados de España del siglo XIX
Historia de Tegucigalpa
Alcaldes de Tegucigalpa
Historia de Honduras
Políticos de España del siglo XIX
Políticos de Honduras
Puente Mallol

Narciso Mallol


මෙය සමාජ අර්බුදයන් පිළිබඳ ප‍්‍රචණ්ඩකාරී සහ ප‍්‍රචණ්ඩකාරී නොවන හැසිරීම් විශ්ලේෂණය කරන්නා වූ ද, ඒ පිළිබඳ ව්‍යුහාත්මක යාන්ත‍්‍රණයන් අධ්‍යයනය කරන්නා වූ ද විෂයකි. මෙහිදී වඩාත් පිළිගත හැකි මානවවාදී තත්ත්වයක් සඳහා මෙම ක‍්‍රියාවලීන්ගේ මඟ පෙන්වීම අධ්‍යයනය කරයි.

සාම අධ්‍යයනය යනු යුද අධ්‍යයනය සහ සාපේක්ෂව ගත් කළ, අර්බුද වැළැක්වීම, උත්සන්න වීම අවම කිරීම හා විසඳීම පිළිබඳ බහු විෂයක උත්සාහයකි. යුද අධ්‍යයනයේ අරමුණ වන්නේ ගැටුම්වලින් ජයග‍්‍රහණය කරන ආකාරය සොයා බැලීමයි. සාම අධ්‍යයනය තුළට ඇතුළත් වන විවිධාකාර විෂයන් නම්, දේශපාලන විද්‍යාව, ආර්ථික විද්‍යාව, සමාජ විද්‍යාව, ජාත්‍යන්තර සම්බන්ධතා, මනෝ විද්‍යාව, ඉතිහාසය, මානව විද්‍යාව, ආගමික අධ්‍යයනයන් සහ කාන්තාවන් පිළිබඳ අධ්‍යයනය වේ.

සටහන්

| Peace and conflict studies
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{|

සාමය සහ ගැටුම් අධ්‍යයනය


Prezentul glosar de speologie conține termeni din domeniul explorării peșterilor, precum și noțiuni geografice, ecologice și tehnice conexe subiectului.

A
 abis - deschizătură adâncă într-un versant muntos (calcaros) căreia nu i se vede fundul.
 acetilenă - gaz incolor, utilizat și la iluminat în explorări speologice (vezi lampă de carbid).
 activă - se zice despre o peșteră, galerie, aven prin care circulă un curs subteran de apă (vezi și fosilă).
 acvifer - depozit de roci permeabile, care înamagazinează mari cantități de apă și permite mișcarea acesteia.
 acvifer liber -  (sau acvifer freatic) acvifer aflat la adâncime mai mică și care se încarcă direct cu apa din precipitații sau din râuri sau lacuri.
 acvifer captiv - acvifer aflat sub cel liber, fiind despărțit de acesta printr-un strat impermeabil sau semi-impermeabil.
 anemolite - formație concreționară (stalactită, stalagmită etc.) deviată prin împingerea laterală a apei, care se evaporă datorită curenților de aer din galeriile subterane.
 antropospeologie - disciplină care studiază resturile fosile umane din peșteri.
 autocaptare - fenomen caracteristic regiunilor carstice, prin care un râu își captează propriile ape.
 aven - cavitate naturală dezvoltată predominant pe verticală și care conține numeroase puțuri pentru parcurgerea cărora este necesară cunoașterea tehnicii speologiei alpine.

B
 bigăr - ieșirea la suprafață, la exterior sau în peșteri, ca un izvor puternic, a apelor din zonele carstice care au circulat prin goluri subterane; vezi și izbuc.
 biospeologie - știința care studiază viața animalelor și plantelor care trăiesc în peșteri.
 blocator de mână - dispozitiv mecanic utilizat pentru urcarea pe coardă (sinonim: poignée).
 blocator de piept - dispozitiv mecanic folosit pentru urcarea pe coardă (sinonim: crol).
 brener - arzător pentru flacăra de acetilenă.
 buclă - bucată de coardă sau chingă, având capetele înnodate sau cusute între ele.

C
 calcar - rocă sedimentară, ușor solubilă în apă și care stă la baza proceselor carstice, soldate cu apariția peșterilor și a altor cavități geologice.
 calcită - carbonat de calciu (CaCO3) rezultat din dizolvarea calcarului de către apele de infiltrație din zonele carstice; intră în alcătuirea "laptelui de stâncă" și a concrețiunilor din peșteri.
 canyoning - operația de parcurgere în mod descendent a unui canion pe firul apei, folosind tehnici și echipamente specifice.
 carabinieră - o verigă metalică, având ca sistem de deschidere spre interior o clapetă folosită ca element de legătură a corzilor la escaladări (vezi și scăriță speologică).
 carst - complex de fenomene naturale, geologice, cuprinzând diferite procese de dizolvare a unor roci solubile (calcare, gipsolare) în apele de suprafață sau de infiltrație - doline, avene, chei, peșteri, lapiezuri, etc.
 carstificare - proces geologic de dizolvare a unor roci solubile, dând naștere fenomenelor carstice.
 catacombă - galerie subterană lungă și îngustă.
 cavernă - vezi peșteră.
 cavernicol - specific peșterii, care ține de peșteră, care trăiește sau care crește în peșteră.
 cavernos - care are caverne; care se referă la caverne.
 chiropterit - zăcământ de fosfați realizat în peșteri pe seama unor depozite vechi de guano.
 coardă - mănunchi de mii de fibre sintetice de aceeași lungime, cu diametrul variind în general între 8 și 12 mm; se utilizează la coborâre și urcare.
 colaps - prăbușire deasupra unor goluri naturale în scoarță, indiferent de originea lor (erozivă, explozivă etc.); în zonele vulcanice poate conduce la individualizarea unor caldere, în regiunile carstice, la formarea unor doline sau în zone cu sare, după dizolvare la brecii.
 coloane - forme care apar în peșteri, ca rezultat al unirii stalactitelor și stalagmitelor; apar și în cadrul versanților datorită dezvoltării scurgerii combinate în înghețul și dezghețul manifestat pe diaclaze.
 concrețiuni - formă de depunere a carbonatului de calciu din apa de infiltrație pe pereții unei peșteri (stalactite, stalagmite, coloane, văluri etc.); sinonim: formațiuni de peșteră.
 crol - vezi blocator de piept.

D
 decroșare - tehnica de scoatere a unui accidentat de pe coardă.
 demirond - verigă semicirculară pentru închiderea hamului speologic și atașarea restului de echipamente.
 diaclază - fisură majoră, verticală a stratelor de rocă, întâlnită des în peșteri.
 dolină -  formă de relief carstic de tip negativ, cu aspect de pâlnie, formată prin dizolvarea la suprafață a unor roci solubile.
 dornă - lac adânc, subteran (în peșteri), vârtej, vâltoare, bulboacă.
 draperie parietală - depuneri de calcit ce îmbracă pereții golurilor subterane.

E
 echipament colectiv - totalul de echipamente necedare parcurgerii unei peșteri verticale, pe lângă echipamentul individual.
 echipament individual - echipamentul folosit de un speolog în parcurgerea verticalelor.
 emergență - vezi izbuc.
 endocarst - știința care studiază fenomenele din interiorul unui masiv carstic.
 exocarst - știința care studiază fenomenele din exteriorul unui masiv carstic.
 exurgență - ieșire la zi a apelor, care au circulat printr-un masiv de calcar, fără a se cunoaște insurgența sistemului; poate fi izbuc sau izvor (vezi și resurgență).

F
 formațiuni (de peșteră)  - vezi concrețiuni.
 fosilă - se zice despre o peșteră, galerie, aven prin care nu mai circulă  niciun curs subteran de apă (vezi și activă).
 fotofor - lampă electrică portativă care se prinde de casca celui care o poartă (speolog, miner etc.)

G
 galerie - culoar strâmt, rezultat al scurgerii apelor prin diaclazele care intersectează culoarele de calcare.
 ghețar - masă de gheață naturală, permanentă, prezentă atât în regiunile polare, cât și în peșteri și în avene.
 grotă - vezi peșteră
 gur - formațiune carstică, aflată pe podeaua peșterilor, care constă din zone îngrădite de depuneri calcitice, de obicei umplute cu apă.

H

I
 izbuc -  izvor de apă cu debit intermitent care se formează în regiunile carstice și funcționează pe principiul sifonului; sinonime: emergență, izvor vaucluzian, resurgență; vezi și exurgență.
 izvor vaucluzian - vezi izbuc.

J
 jama - puț carstic sau aven de mari dimensiuni.

K

L
 lapiez - formă de relief carstic rezultată prin coroziunea rocilor solubile de către apele de șiroire.
 lonjă de regrupare - vezi zelb.
 lungime (a unei peșteri) - suma lungimilor tuturor galeriilor, la care se adaugă puțurile coborâte, hornurile urcate, sifoanele plonjate.

M
 marmită - excavație circulară sculptată (de la câțiva decimetri la mai mulți metri în diametru) de curenții turbionari ai râurilor.
 merocarst - carst incipient, limitat mai ales la unele forme de adâncime, din cauza stratelor subțiri și calcarelor cu facies marnos sau cretos.
 mofetă - produs gazos, constituit in cea mai mare parte din dioxid de carbon, care străbate prin crăpăturile scoarței terestre în fazele finale ale activității vulcanice, în regiunile vulcanice sau adiacente.
 montmilch - depozite albe și moi de calcită îmbibată cu apă, care se formează în anumițe condiții pe pereții peșterilor.

N

O

P
 peșteră - cavitate, scobitură naturală subterană adâncă și mare, formată prin dizolvarea unor roci solubile de către apele de infiltrație; sinonime: grotă, cavernă.
 pierdere de apă - fenomen specific regiunilor carstice, constând din dispariția de la suprafața Pământului a unui curs de apă prin ponoare, sorburi, peșteri sau prin infiltrarea treptată în prundișul albiei.
 platou carstic - suprafață aproape plană, cu formatiuni carstice (peșteri, doline, avene, ponoare, văi oarbe, lapiezuri etc.).
 pod natural - arcadă de stâncă, rest a unei peșteri prăbușite.
 poignée - vezi blocator de mână.
 polie - (scris și polje) depresiune carstică închisă; pe fundul ei plat curge o apă care obișnuit se pierde în pământ, dar care la viituri umple depresiunea, formând un lac temporar.
 polje - vezi polie.
 ponor:
-  povârniș abrupt sau adâncitură formată prin prăbușirea, ruperea sau alunecarea unor straturi de teren;
- formă de relief rezultată prin asocierea liniară și laterală a dolinelor, care dă terenurilor calcaroase un aspect adâncit.
 portal - gură de peșteră de mari dimensiuni.
 puț absorbant - aven în care dispare un curs de apă.

R
 relief carstic - relief specific regiunilor cu roci solubile (calcar, gips, sare); se caracterizează prin platouri, văi oarbe, chei, abrupturi, doline, polii, ponoare, sorburi, izbucuri, avene, peșteri etc., generate de acțiunea de dizolvare și de circulatie a apei pe canale subterane.
 resurgență - vezi izbuc.

S
 sifon - canal natural de forma literei U întors prin care sunt drenate apele din grote sau din alte goluri subterane.
 stalactită - formă de depunere, în peșteri, a rocilor solubile, care atârnă pe tavan ca un țurțure, cu forma conică, având baza în sus (vezi și stalagmită).
 stalagmită - formă de depunere, în peșteri, a rocilor solubile, care se ridică de pe podea, având forma unui con cu vârful în sus (vezi și stalactită).

T
 tuf - rocă cu aspect poros și duritate redusă, rezultând din precipitarea carbonatului de calciu (calcită) în cazul unor izvoare carstice sau din răcirea și cimentarea unor cenuși vulcanice.
 turn de presiune - sector al unei peșteri cu secțiune circulară sau ovală, care indică faptul că în acel loc apa a curs sub presiune.

U
 uvală - formă carstică de suprafață, de formă alungită, puțin adâncă, provenită din unirea mai multor doline.

V
 verigă rapidă - tip de carabinieră cu siguranță fără clapetă și a cărei închidere se realizează prin înfiletarea unui șurub.

Z
 zelb - segment de coardă de lungime variabilă ce se folosește în escaladă pentru odihnă și auto-asigurare (sinonim: lonjă de regrupare; vezi și scăriță speologică).

Vezi și
 Glosar de alpinism
 Glosar de geografie

Legături externe
  Speologie.ro
  SpeoTimis.ro

Speologie

Glosar de speologie


Christopher John Grace ( ; born July 12, 1978) is an American actor. He is known for portraying Eric Forman in the Fox sitcoms That '70s Show and That '90s Show, Eddie Brock / Venom in Sam Raimi's film Spider-Man 3, Pete Monash in Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!, Carter Duryea in In Good Company, Edwin in Predators, Getty in Interstellar, Adrian Yates in American Ultra, and David Duke in Spike Lee's film BlacKkKlansman. His other film roles include Traffic, Mona Lisa Smile, Valentine's Day, Take Me Home Tonight, The Big Wedding, War Machine, Breakthrough, and Irresistible. He also starred as Tom Hayworth in the ABC comedy series Home Economics.

Early life
Grace was born on July 12, 1978, in New York City, the son of Pat, an assistant to the schoolmaster of the New Canaan Country School, and John Grace, a Madison Avenue executive. He has a sister, Jenny. His paternal grandmother was from a German-Jewish family, whereas his mother is of Irish descent.

Grace grew up in Darien, Connecticut, where actress Kate Bosworth was a middle-school friend, and actress Chloë Sevigny—who later appeared with him in high school stage plays—was sometimes his babysitter.

Career
Grace was cast as Eric Forman on Fox's That '70s Show, which debuted in 1998. He played the role regularly until the show's 7th season, when his character was written out and replaced with a new character named Randy Pearson (Josh Meyers). Grace made a brief guest appearance in the final episode.

Grace played a prep school student who introduces his girlfriend to freebasing in director Steven Soderbergh's 2000 film Traffic, as well as having uncredited cameos as himself in Soderbergh's Ocean's Eleven and its 2004 sequel, Ocean's Twelve. "The joke is that you're supposed to play the worst version of yourself and I don't think too many people are comfortable with that. I never thought for a second that people were really going to think that's what I was like. I think that people will know that I was faking it in those movies", he told Flaunt magazine in 2007.

He planned to cameo in Ocean's Thirteen. However, due to his role in Spider-Man 3, he had to abandon these plans. As Grace said, "I was doing reshoots on Spider-Man 3. I was bummed. I actually talked to Steven Soderbergh about that and we had a thing and then I couldn't do it." He appeared in director Mike Newell's 2003 film Mona Lisa Smile.

In 2004, Grace played the leading roles in Win a Date with Tad Hamilton! and In Good Company. That same year, he starred in P.S., which received only a limited theatrical release. Grace won the National Board of Review's 2004 award for Breakthrough Performance Actor for his work in In Good Company and P.S.

On January 15, 2005, Grace hosted Saturday Night Live.

In 2007, Grace portrayed Eddie Brock/Venom in Spider-Man 3, directed by Sam Raimi. Grace himself was a fan of the comics and read the Venom stories as a child. In 2009, Grace became the subject of a recurring column on the entertainment/pop culture site Videogum, entitled "What's Up With Topher Grace?"

In 2010, Grace appeared in the ensemble comedy Valentine's Day and played the character of Edwin in Predators.

In 2011, Grace appeared in the 1980s retro comedy Take Me Home Tonight. He co-wrote the script and co-produced the film. Grace also starred opposite Richard Gere in the spy thriller The Double.

In 2012, Grace starred alongside Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Matthew Gray Gubler in the social film The Beauty Inside, which won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding New Approach to an Original Daytime Program or Series in 2013. The film was directed by Drake Doremus and written by Richard Greenberg.

In 2014, Grace starred in the indie thriller The Calling, alongside Susan Sarandon, and appeared in Christopher Nolan's sci-fi adventure Interstellar, in a supporting role.

In October 2013, Grace joined HBO comedy pilot People in New Jersey with Sarah Silverman, but in January 2014, the pilot was passed on.

Grace co-starred in the comedy film American Ultra (2015), alongside Jesse Eisenberg and Kristen Stewart, playing a CIA agent. That same year, he co-starred in Truth, with Robert Redford and Cate Blanchett, and based on the story of CBS's 60 Minutes report that George W. Bush had received preferential treatment to keep him out of the Vietnam War. Grace played Mike Smith, a researcher on the story.

In January 2018, Grace joined the supernatural-thriller Delirium, which centers on a man recently released from a mental institute who inherits a mansion after his parents die. After a series of disturbing events, he comes to believe it is haunted. In August 2018, Grace portrayed David Duke in the biographical crime film BlacKkKlansman, directed by Spike Lee, alongside John David Washington and Adam Driver. In 2019, he played Billy Bauer in the 2nd episode of Black Mirror's 5th season, titled "Smithereens".
In 2020, Grace was cast in ABC's Home Economics pilot. On April 30, 2022, it was announced that Grace would have a guest appearance in the follow-up sitcom, That '90s Show.

Editing and "Lou's Cafe"
Grace has long held an interest in making fan edits of popular films, particularly those involving Star Wars. He has stated that this has become a source of relaxation for him. His edits were shared on his now-defunct pop-culture website Cereal Prize.

In 2012, he edited the Star Wars prequel trilogy into one 85-minute film, titled Star Wars: Episode III.5: The Editor Strikes Back and showed it to select audiences. The edit utilized original footage, music from the Clone Wars series, and a portion from Anthony Daniels' audiobook recordings.

In 2014, he created a cut of Boogie Nights that served as a reconstruction of the character Brock Landers' fake movie Angels Live in My Town.

In 2018, he created his own edit of The Hobbit, stating that "I think that maybe The Hobbit should've been one movie, and many people would agree. Money drives a lot of those franchises. It's better when the art leads." He specifically edited this as a way to relax while portraying David Duke in Spike Lee's BlacKkKlansman.

In 2019, Grace and editor Jeff Yorkes started a Twitter account for "Lou's Cafe", the pseudonym by which the two credit their work. The name comes from the diner featured in the film Back to the Future. Later that year, he and Yorkes were commissioned by Pixar to edit a retrospective for Toy Story 4, which was titled "Toy Story 4 Ever" and released on Pixar's YouTube account.

Personal life
Grace started dating actress Ashley Hinshaw in January 2014, and the two became engaged in January 2015.  On May 29, 2016, Grace and Hinshaw married near Santa Barbara, California.  On August 1, 2017, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace were expecting their first child.  Their daughter was born on November 1, 2017. On January 5, 2020, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace were expecting their second child together; their child was born in 2020. On September 30, 2022, Grace announced the news on The Kelly Clarkson Show that he and Hinshaw were expecting their third child together.

Grace is a supporter of FINCA International, a microfinance organization.

Filmography

Film

Television

Music videos
 In the Street (1999) by Cheap Trick, as Eric Forman
 Don't You Want Me Baby (2011) from Atomic Tom, as Himself

Video games
 Spider-Man 3 (2007), as Eddie Brock / Venom

Stage
 Lonely, I'm Not (2012), as Porter, at Second Stage Theatre

Awards and nominations

Film

Television

References

External links

 IGN Films interview (December 22, 2004)
 About.com interview (January 2004)

1978 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people of German-Jewish descent
American people of Irish descent
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Jewish American male actors
Male actors from Connecticut
Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from Darien, Connecticut
Darien High School alumni
21st-century American Jews

Topher Grace


Joseph Viterelli (March 10, 1937 – January 28, 2004) was an American actor, best remembered for playing Italian-American mobsters. He portrayed Jelly in Analyze This (1999) and Analyze That (2002).

Early life
Viterelli was born on March 10, 1937, in New York City and grew up in a tough neighborhood on Manhattan's Lower East Side. He played classical guitar but did not tell his friends about it. "They woulda thought I was a sissy," he said. "I used to save my hard-robbed money and sneak off to Carnegie Hall and Broadway theaters."

Early career
While in his 20s, he inherited four music schools in Queens that had been started by his family. "I actually taught classical guitar. But things went wrong. Then I opened a few bars. I drove a truck. I owned a cleaning service. I even had a job drilling holes in bowling balls to feed my five kids."

Viterelli moved to Los Angeles in the late 1970s. While living in Malibu, Viterelli became friends with director Leo Penn, who saw the screen possibilities in Viterelli's tough-guy visage. Penn thought Viterelli's tough-guy features would play well in the movies and on television.

Viterelli told Larry King that before he acted, "I had a couple of beer joints that I sold in New York and I came out here (in California) and I was looking around."

Acting
"(Leo Penn) asked me to be in some movies and TV, but I always declined," said Viterelli. "I said, 'For half my life, I've been keeping a low profile and now you want to put my mug on a 40-foot screen?'"

Years later, Viterelli got a call from Penn's actor son, Sean, who was in New York City to make the 1990 gangster melodrama State of Grace. Viterelli recalled: "(Sean) said, 'Joe, we're looking for a character that's from your neighborhood. We've seen about 50 to 60 people and nobody's right.' He said the key words, 'Would you do me a favor?'" Viterelli did and, proving to be a natural actor, launched his new career. Viterelli later appeared in Penn's The Crossing Guard (1995).

Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Viterelli had appeared in more than 40 movies, playing guys with such names as Nick Valenti (Bullets over Broadway; 1994), Joe Profaci (Mobsters; 1991), Fat Tommy Carducci (What She Doesn't Know; 1992), Vinnie "The Shrimp" (Mickey Blue Eyes; 1999) and Fat Tony Ragoni (The Cure for Boredom; 2001). He also had a supporting role in Shallow Hal (2001) and played Joseph Valachi in Ruby (1992). He also appeared in Eraser (1996).

A year before his death, Viterelli was considered for a role as former Governor of Illinois George Ryan in a biopic Abby Mann attempted to make.

Jelly
In 1999, he played Jelly, the menacing yet lovable henchman–confidant to Robert De Niro's anxiety-prone mob boss, in Analyze This (1999), costarring Billy Crystal as De Niro's reluctant psychiatrist.

Viterelli was able to convince De Niro and director Harold Ramis to cast him as Jelly after almost losing the role to a much younger actor.

When he described Viterelli's Jelly character patiently padding about "trying to deal with the disturbing news that his boss is cracking up and seeing a shrink," critic Roger Ebert wrote, "He lends a subtle dimension to the movie; he gives [De Niro's mob boss] a context, and someone who understands him. The comedy here isn't all on the surface, and Viterelli is one reason why."

The sequel, Analyze That, in which Viterelli reprised his role, was his final film.

In a Larry King Live interview, Viterelli said that De Niro was the "(e)asiest man to work with in the world," and that Crystal was "the funniest guy I ever met in my life."

Staples commercial
Viterelli can be seen in a Staples television commercial in which he provides mob-style "muscle" for an office worker who is having a problem dealing with a manager who demands doughnuts and pastry bribes in exchange for dispensing office supplies. The humorous spot, which debuted during Super Bowl XXXVIII, was Viterelli's only commercial.

Personal life and death
"Ninety percent of my fan mail is from kids 6 through 19," he told the New York Daily News in 2000. "They send me graduation pictures and report cards. Look at me, I'm a role model."

Viterelli never had an agent or a manager.

Viterelli participated in a roast of Magic Johnson, during which he told a joke about finding the former NBA star handcuffed to a tree naked, just after he had gotten robbed.

Viterelli died on January 28, 2004, aged 66, of complications from heart surgery at Valley Hospital in Las Vegas. He is survived by his wife, Catherine, and five children, including his son, the film composer Joseph Vitarelli, who spells his last name differently. One of his children is a lawyer.

Filmography

References

External links

1937 births
2004 deaths
American male film actors
American male television actors
Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City
American people of Italian descent
Male actors from the Bronx
20th-century American male actors

Joe Viterelli


Violettoppet turako () er en turakoart.

Violettoppet turako lever i Burundi, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Sydafrika, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia og Zimbabwe. Violettoppet turakos sydligste udbredelse er ved Mtamvuna floden på grænsen KwaZulu-Natal-Øst-Kapprovinsen. IUCN kategoriserer arten som ikke truet.

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