ලී රාමු කිරීම යනු එක්තරා ඉදිකිරිම් කලාවක් වන අතර, ඒ සදහා නූතන ලී රාමු කිරිම් වලදි යොදා ගන්නා යම් ප්‍රමිතියකට අනුකූලවූ නිශ්චිත දිග හා පලල සහිතව තනා නිම කරන ලද ලී වලට වඩා ශක්තිමත් රාමු කිරීමේ අමුද්‍රව්‍ය යොදා ගනි. පළමුව ශාක කද වෑය උපයෝගි කර ගෙන සතරැස් හැඩයක්  බවට පත් කර එම ලී එකි‍ෙනක  සම්බන්ධ කරන අතර මෙහිදී ඇණ උපයෝගි කර නොගනි. නූතන ක්‍රම අනුගමනය කරමින් ඉරා සැකසූ ලී එක්සත් ජනපදය තුල ජනප්‍රිය වෙමින් පවතී.

එක් සාම්ප්‍රදායික රාමු කිරිමේ ක්‍රමයක් වනුයේ "නූමාන් කත්තු" ක්‍රමයයි. මේ සදහා 320 ක ආනතියකින් යාවු නිශ්චිත  දිග පළලකින් යුක්ත වූ ලිය සම්බන්ධ වන අතර එම ලිය අගුළු  දැමීමට පෙර 900 න් වූ  කූඤ්ඤයක් 180  න් වූ තුන්ඩයත් සමග එය අතරින් සවි කරයි. මෙම කුමය වඩු කාර්මිකයෙකු වූ ඩැනියෙන් ආර්. ෙනවුමාන් විසින් සොයා ගත් අතර ඔහු 1630  වසරේදී වූ  ව්‍යුහාත්මක දියුණුවටද හේතු වූ තැනැත්තා වේ. මෙම රාමු කිරිමේ කලාව අනෙකුත් ජනපද වල වු ඉදිකිරීමේ තැන් වලට ද  ව්‍යාප්ත විය. බොහෝ ප්‍රසිද්ධ "ප්ලයිමෙ‍ාන්" හා "කොන්කෝඩ්" ජනපද මේ සදහා උදාහරණ වේ. මෙම නෙවුමාන්ගේ කත්තු සහිත රාමු කිරීම් අනෙකුත් වඩු කාර්මිකයන් හා ඉදිකිරිම් ආයතන යොදා ගත් අතර වර්ථමානයේ මෙය පාරම්පරික රාමු කිරිම් වලට යොදා ගනී.

එතරම් සාම්ප්‍රදායික නොවූ රාමු කිරීමේ තවත් ක්‍රමයක් වනුයේ "නිව් ස්ටයිල්" බැම්ම ක්‍රමයයි.මෙම ක්‍රමයයි. මෙම ක්‍රමය මූලිකව ගොඩනගනු ලැබුවේ 1800 කාලයේ ඌත් හි සෝල්ට් ලෙත් නගරයේ පදිංචි කරුවෙකු වූ ඔස්ටින් ඩී. නිව් නම් ආගමික නිකායකට සම්බන්ධ වූ සාමාජිකයෙකි. මෙම ක්‍රමය යටතේ 900  ක ආනතියකින් වු එකම ප්‍රමාණයේ වූ ලි කදන් දෙකක් හණ පටියකින් බැදීම සිදු කරයි. මෙම ක්‍රමය ඉතා පහසුවෙන් භාවිතා කල හැකි නිසාත්, කල් පැවැත්ම වැඩි නිසාත්, ආගමික නිකායට අයත් සාමාජිකයන් මුල් කාලයේ නිවෙස් ඉදිකිරීමේදි යොදා ගන්නා ලදි. අවසානයේ නිවෙස් ඉදි කිරිම සදහා සාම්ප්‍රදායික උළු/ගඩොල් හා හුණු බදාම යොදා ගැනීමත් සමගම ආගමික නිකායට අයත් සාමාජිකයන් මෙන් මෙම ක්‍රමයද අභාවයට පත් විය.

කලා ශිල්ප

ලී රාමු කිරීම


Night Visions er bandet Imagine Dragons første album, der udkom 4. september 2012.

Albummet blev en stor succes, og bandet blev for alvor et internationalt band.

Spor

1: Radioactive

2: Tiptoe

3. It´s Time

4: Demons

5: On Top of the world

6: Amsterdam

7:  Hear Me

8: Every Night

9: Bleeding Out

10: Underdog

11: Nothing Left to Say/Rocks

Hvis man køber deluxe udgaven af Night Visions kommer følgende sange med:

12: Cha-Ching (Till We Grow Older)

13: Working Man

14: My Fault

15: Round and Round

16: The River

17: America

18: Selene

19: Cover Up

20: I Dont Mind

Debutalbum fra 2012
Imagine Dragons

Night Visions (album)


"The Boscombe Valley Mystery", one of the fifty-six short Sherlock Holmes stories written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, is the fourth of the twelve stories in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. It was first published in the Strand Magazine in October 1891.

Plot summary
John Turner, a widower and a major landowner who has a daughter named Alice, lives in Herefordshire with a fellow expatriate from Australia, Charles McCarthy, a widower who has a son named James. Charles has been found dead near Boscombe Pool; it was reported that he was there to meet someone. Two witnesses testify that they saw Charles walking into the woods followed by James, who was carrying a gun. Patience Moran, daughter of a lodgekeeper, says that she saw the two arguing and that, when James raised his hand as if to hit his father, she ran to her mother; and while she was telling her mother what she saw, James rushed to their house seeking help. The Morans followed James back to the Pool, where they found his father dead. James was arrested and charged with murder. Alice believes that James is innocent and has contacted Inspector Lestrade, who in turn seeks help from Sherlock Holmes.

James confirms the testimonies of the witnesses but explains that he was going into the woods to hunt, not to follow his father. He later heard his father calling "Cooee" and found him standing by the pool, surprised to see him. They argued heatedly, and James decided to return to their farm. Shortly after that he heard his father cry out and returned to find him lying on the ground. James insists that he tried to help him, but his father died in his arms. James refuses to give the cause of their argument, despite the coroner's warning that it could be damaging to his case if he does not reveal it. James also remembers that his father's last words were something about "a rat", but James is uncertain of their meaning in the situation. He also thinks he saw a cloak on the ground, which vanished while he was helping his father.

Alice meets Holmes, Lestrade and Dr. Watson in a hotel, and hopes that Holmes has found a way to prove James's innocence. She also believes that she was the subject of the argument between the McCarthys – Charles wanted his son to marry her, but James had refused. Alice had taken James' side out of respect for him, and her father was also against the union. Holmes asks Alice if he could meet her father, but she says his health worsened after the death of Charles, whom he had known since they were in Victoria. Holmes decides to see James.

Holmes mistakenly surmises that James knows who killed his father and is protecting someone. It emerges that Alice is right about the cause of the argument between James and Charles. What she does not know is that James actually loves her but could not follow his father's demand because he had married a barmaid before Alice had returned from boarding school. This burdened him, but he could not tell his father about his marriage because he would have been kicked out of the house and left unable to support himself. When his wife heard of his troubles, however, she confessed that she was already married before they met, and therefore their marriage is invalid.

Holmes, Watson and Lestrade go to the farm, and examine Charles's and James's boots. They then head to Boscombe Pool, following the track from the courtyard. After examining the ground, Holmes finds evidence of the presence of another man, besides Charles and James, whom he believes to be the murderer. Holmes deduces that the killer is left-handed (because Charles was struck neatly on the left side of his head from behind, where a right-handed man would have struck him on the other side), and that the stranger is tall, has a limp and smokes cigars. Lestrade is not convinced.

At the hotel, Holmes explains to Watson that "Cooee" is an Australian cry and that the apparent reference to "a rat", overheard by James, in fact comprised the last syllables of "Ballarat", a place in Australia. The person Charles was meeting was, therefore, someone he knew from Australia. John Turner, Alice's father, then comes to their room (coincidentally being announced by a hotel employee right as Watson is about to name him as the killer, after correctly interpreting the hints Holmes has offered him), entering with a limp, and, realising that Holmes has deduced the crime, confesses.

In his confession, John explains that he was a member of the Ballarat Gang, a group of bushrangers in Australia. They robbed a gold convoy in which Charles was the wagon driver, and John spared his life despite knowing that Charles could later identify him. The loot made the surviving gang members rich, and they moved to England. Resolved to change, John parted ways with his friends. He bought land and got married, and then Alice was born. Some time later, Charles tracked down John and threatened to blackmail him unless he and his son were provided for. In response, John gave Charles the farm and money, hoping this would satisfy him. However, this was not enough, and Charles eventually demanded the marriage of James and Alice. Although he liked James, John did not want Charles' "cursed blood" mixed with his family's, so he resisted the union. After much pressure, John agreed to meet Charles secretly at the Pool to resolve the matter. Seeing Charles and James there arguing, John hid, intending to wait until James left. However, he became angry when he heard the nature of the argument and killed Charles to preserve his freedom and spare his daughter. James heard his father's death cry and returned, but John was able to hide in the woods. He had to return later to retrieve the cloak that he had dropped in his haste.

John signs his statement, and Holmes vows to keep it secret unless it is needed to free James. In the end, Holmes's objections are sufficient to acquit James, and John dies seven months after the meeting with Holmes and Watson. Meanwhile, Watson surmises that James and Alice will likely marry and live in happiness without ever discovering the true history of their fathers.

Possible basis for Boscombe Valley
En route to the murder scene Holmes tells Watson that "Boscombe Valley is a country district not very far from Ross, in Herefordshire." There is no real location matching this description. Leslie S. Klinger, in his The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, calls it "a disguised name" and lists possible locations for the setting of the story as posited by other researchers.

Publication history
"The Boscombe Valley Mystery" was published in the UK in The Strand Magazine in October 1891, and in the United States in the US edition of the Strand in November 1891. The story was published with ten illustrations by Sidney Paget in The Strand Magazine. It was included in the short story collection The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, which was published in October 1892.

Adaptations

Film and television
One of the short films in the Sherlock Holmes Éclair film series (1912) was based on the story. In the short film, Georges Tréville played Sherlock Holmes and Mr Moyse played Dr. Watson. Another short film based on the story was released in 1922 as part of the Sherlock Holmes Stoll film series, with Eille Norwood as Sherlock Holmes and Hubert Willis as Dr. Watson.

The 1968 television series Sherlock Holmes, starring Peter Cushing as Holmes and Nigel Stock as Dr. Watson, dramatised this story for its sixth episode. Lestrade is replaced by a local policeman, Inspector Lanner, and Charles McCarthy's first name has been changed to Bill. John Turner dies immediately after confessing to Holmes.

In the 1991 TV adaption starring Jeremy Brett and Edward Hardwicke, Boscombe Valley is in Cheshire in the northwest of England. Inspector Lestrade of Scotland Yard does not appear; instead Holmes cooperates with one Inspector Summerby. A young James Purefoy stars as James McCarthy.

Radio

"The Boscombe Valley Mystery" was adapted by Edith Meiser as an episode of the radio series The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes with Richard Gordon as Sherlock Holmes and Leigh Lovell as Dr. Watson. Meiser also adapted the story for The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes for a 1940 episode with Basil Rathbone as Holmes and Nigel Bruce as Watson.

In 1943, the BBC Home Service dramatised the story with Arthur Wontner as Holmes and Carleton Hobbs as Watson. A different radio adaptation aired on the BBC Light Programme in 1966, as part of the 1952–1969 radio series starring Hobbs as Holmes and Norman Shelley as Watson.

"The Boscombe Valley Mystery" was adapted as an episode of CBS Radio Mystery Theater titled "The Boscombe Pool Mystery". The episode, which featured Kevin McCarthy as Sherlock Holmes and Court Benson as Dr. Watson, first aired in May 1977.

"The Boscombe Valley Mystery" was adapted in 1990 for BBC Radio 4 by Bert Coules, as part of the 1989–1998 radio series starring Clive Merrison as Holmes and Michael Williams as Watson. It also featured Samuel West as James McCarthy and Donald Gee as Inspector Lestrade.

A 2011 episode of the radio series The Classic Adventures of Sherlock Holmes was adapted from the story, with John Patrick Lowrie as Holmes and Lawrence Albert as Watson.

References
Notes

Sources

External links

Sherlock Holmes short stories by Arthur Conan Doyle
1891 short stories
Short stories adapted into films
Works originally published in The Strand Magazine

The Boscombe Valley Mystery


Alþjóðlega kvikmyndahátíðin í Karlovy Vary (Tékkneska: Mezinárodní filmový festival Karlovy Vary) er kvikmyndahátíð sem haldin er árlega í júlí í Karlovy Vary í Tékklandi. Hátíðin, sem var stofnuð árið 1946, er ein sú elsta í heimi og hefur orðið leiðandi kvikmyndahátíð í Mið- og Austur-Evrópu.

Kvikmyndahátíðir
Tékknesk menning


Fox Chase ist der Name folgender Orte in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Fox Chase (Kentucky)
 Fox Chase (Pennsylvania)

Fox Chase


The year 1958 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.

Events
 February 21 – The Irish Georgian Society, the group for the promotion of Georgian architecture in Ireland, is established by Desmond Guinness.
 February 28 – The Victorian Society, the pressure group for the promotion and protection of Victorian and Edwardian Baroque architecture and related arts in the United Kingdom, holds its first meeting at Linley Sambourne House in London.
 Alvar Aalto is commissioned to design the North Jutland Art Museum in Aalborg, Denmark (completed 1972).
 Sanctuary of Divine Mercy (Sanktuarium Miłosierdzia Bożego), Kalisz, Poland is designed; it will not be built until 1977–93.
 Competition for the design of Churchill College, Cambridge, England, is won by Richard Sheppard's practice, Sheppard Robson; the competition also launches the practice of Howell, Killick, Partridge and Amis.

Buildings and structures

Buildings opened

 March 27 – Congress House, London, designed by David Aberdeen, officially opened.
 April 17 – Opening of the Expo '58 World's Fair in Brussels; its most notable features are the Atomium, designed by André Waterkeyn, and the Philips Pavilion, designed by Iannis Xenakis.
 June 30 – Palácio da Alvorada (), Brasília, designed by Oscar Niemeyer.
 September 12 – Center of New Industries and Technologies, at La Défense in Paris, designed by Bernard Zehrfuss with Robert Camelot, Jean de Mailly and engineer Jean Prouvé; opened by General Charles de Gaulle.
 November 7 – Chapel, Convent of the Sisters of Mary Reparatrix, Chelsea, London, designed by Hector Corfiato, consecrated.

Buildings completed

 October 14 – Tokyo Tower, Shiba Park, Tokyo, Japan, by Tachū Naitō.
 October 15 – Dirksen Senate Office Building, Washington, D.C., designed by Eggers & Higgins from New York.
 Kulttuuritalo (House of Culture), Helsinki, designed by Alvar Aalto.
 The Old Vic Theatre Annex, Southwark, London, designed by Lyons, Israel and Ellis.
 UNESCO headquarters in Paris, designed by Bernard Zehrfuss with Marcel Breuer and Pier Luigi Nervi.
 Provost's House, The Queen's College, Oxford, England, designed by Raymond Erith.
 Riverview High School (Sarasota, Florida), designed by Paul Rudolph.
 St. Joseph's Church, Le Havre, France, designed by Auguste Perret (died 1954).
 Wiener Stadthalle indoor arena, Vienna, designed by Roland Rainer.
 Seagram Building in New York City, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
 Torre Velasca in Milan, designed by BBPR.
 Torres de Satélite monument in Ciudad Satélite, Mexico, designed by Luis Barragán, Mathias Goeritz and Jesús Reyes Ferreira.
 High Sunderland (house for Bernat Klein), near Selkirk, Scottish Borders, designed by Peter Womersley.

Awards
 American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal – Henry R. Shepley.
 AIA Gold Medal – John Wellborn Root.
 RIBA Royal Gold Medal – Robert Schofield Morris.

Births
 June 12 – Nille Juul-Sørensen, Danish architect, director of the Danish Design Centre in Copenhagen

Deaths
 January 8 – Mary Colter, American architect and designer (born 1869)
 May 17 – Hugo Häring, German architect and writer (born 1882)
 June 17 – Wells Coates, Canadian architect, designer and writer (born 1895)
 October 19 – Gyula Rimanóczy, Hungarian architect (born 1903)
 October 25 – James Chapman-Taylor, New Zealand domestic architect (born 1878)

References

1958 in architecture


Urinalysis, a portmanteau of the words urine and analysis, is a panel of medical tests that includes physical (macroscopic) examination of the urine, chemical evaluation using urine test strips, and microscopic examination. Macroscopic examination targets parameters such as color, clarity, odor, and specific gravity; urine test strips measure chemical properties such as pH, glucose concentration, and protein levels; and microscopy is performed to identify elements such as cells, urinary casts, crystals, and organisms.

Background

Urine is produced by the filtration of blood in the kidneys. The formation of urine takes place in microscopic structures called nephrons, about one million of which are found in a normal human kidney. Blood enters the kidney though the renal artery and flows through the kidney's vasculature into the glomerulus, a tangled knot of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus and Bowman's capsule together form the renal corpuscle. A healthy glomerulus allows many solutes in the blood to pass through, but does not permit the passage of cells or high-molecular weight substances such as most proteins. The filtrate from the glomerulus enters the capsule and proceeds to the renal tubules, which reabsorb water and solutes from the filtrate into the circulation and secrete substances from the blood into the urine in order to maintain homeostasis.

The first destination is the proximal convoluted tubule. The filtrate proceeds into the loop of Henle, then flows through the distal convoluted tubule to the collecting duct. The collecting ducts ultimately drain into the renal calyces, which lead to the renal pelvis and the ureter. Urine flows through the ureters into the bladder and exits the body through the urethra.

Besides excreting waste products, the process of urine formation helps to maintain fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance in the body. The composition of urine reflects not only the functioning of the kidneys, but numerous other aspects of the body's regulatory processes. The ease with which a urine sample can be obtained makes it a practical choice for diagnostic testing.

Medical uses
Urinalysis involves assessment of the physical properties of urine, such as color and clarity; chemical analysis using urine test strips; and microscopic examination. Test strips contain pads impregnated with chemical compounds that change color when they interact with specific elements in the sample, such as glucose, protein and blood, and microscopic examination permits the counting and classification of solid elements of the urine, such as cells, crystals, and bacteria.

Urinalysis is one of the most commonly performed medical laboratory tests. It is frequently used to help diagnose urinary tract infections and to investigate other issues with the urinary system, such as incontinence. It may be used to screen for diseases as part of a medical assessment. The results can suggest the presence of conditions such as kidney disease, liver disease and diabetes. In emergency medicine urinalysis is used to investigate numerous symptoms, including abdominal and pelvic pain, fever, and confusion. During pregnancy, it may be performed to screen for protein in the urine (proteinuria), which can be a sign of pre-eclampsia, and bacteria in the urine, which is associated with pregnancy complications. The analysis of urine is invaluable in the diagnosis and management of kidney diseases.

Specimen collection
Samples for urinalysis are collected into a clean (preferably sterile) container. The sample can be collected at any time of the day, but the first urine of the morning is preferred because it is more concentrated. To prevent contamination, a "midstream clean-catch" technique is recommended, in which the genital area is cleaned before urinating and the sample is collected partway through the urination. Samples can also be collected from a urinary catheter or by inserting a needle through the abdomen and into the bladder (suprapubic aspiration). In infants and young children, urine may be collected into a bag attached to the genital region, but this is associated with a high risk of contamination. If the sample is not tested promptly, inaccurate results can occur because bacteria in the urine will multiply and elements such as cells and casts will degrade. It is recommended that urinalysis is performed within two hours of sample collection if the urine is not refrigerated.

Macroscopic examination

Color and clarity

Normal urine has a yellow hue, which is primarily caused by the pigment urochrome. The color can range from pale yellow to amber based on the individual's hydration status. Urine can develop a variety of abnormal colors, which may suggest disease in some cases. A total lack of color indicates that the urine is extremely dilute, which may be caused by excessive fluid intake, diabetes insipidus, or diabetes mellitus. Dark yellow-brown to green urine may suggest a high concentration of bilirubin, a state known as bilirubinuria. Red urine often indicates the presence of red blood cells or hemoglobin, but can also be caused by  some medications and the consumption of foods containing red pigments, such as beets. Myoglobin, a product of muscle breakdown, can give urine a red to reddish-brown color. Dark brown or black urine can occur in a genetic disorder called alkaptonuria and in people with melanoma. Purple urine occurs in purple urine bag syndrome.

A spectrum of abnormal colors can result from the intake of drugs. An unusually bright yellow color can occur after consumption of B vitamin supplements, while phenazopyridine, used to treat urinary tract-related pain, can turn the urine orange. Methylene blue may turn it blue to bluish-green. Phenolphthalein, a stimulant laxative previously found in Ex-Lax, can produce colors ranging from red to purple, and levodopa, used to treat Parkinson's disease, may result in "cola-colored" urine.

The clarity of urine is also recorded during urinalysis. Urine is typically clear; materials such as crystals, cells, bacteria, and mucus can impart a cloudy appearance. A milky appearance can be caused by a very high concentration of white blood cells or fats, or by chyluria (the presence of lymphatic fluid in the urine). Unpreserved urine will become cloudier over time.

Smell

The odor (scent) of urine can normally vary from odorless (when very light colored and dilute) to a much stronger odor when the subject is dehydrated and the urine is concentrated.  Transient changes in urine odor can occur after consuming certain foods, most notably asparagus. The urine of diabetics experiencing ketoacidosis (urine containing high levels of ketone bodies) may have a fruity or sweet smell, while urine from individuals with urinary tract infections often has a foul smell. Some inborn errors of metabolism cause characteristic odors, such as maple syrup urine disease (which takes its name from the urine scent) and phenylketonuria (which causes a "mousey" smell). Odor is rarely reported during urinalysis.

Specific gravity
Specific gravity is a measure of the concentration of the urine, which provides information about hydration status and kidney function. It normally ranges from 1.003 to 1.035; lower values indicate that the urine is dilute, while higher values mean that it is concentrated. A urine specific gravity that consistently remains around 1.010 (isosthenuria) can indicate kidney damage, as it suggests that the kidneys have lost the ability to control urine concentration. It is not possible for the kidneys to produce urine with a specific gravity greater than 1.040 but such readings can occur in urine that contains high-molecular weight substances, such as contrast dyes used in radiographic imaging. Specific gravity is commonly measured with urine test strips, but refractometers may also be used. Reagent strip readings are based on the concentration of ions in the sample, while refractometer readings are affected by other substances such as glucose and protein.

Urine test strip

Urine test strips or "dipsticks" allow for the rapid measurement of numerous urine parameters and substances. The strip is dipped into the urine sample and the color changes on the reagent pads are read after a defined period of time, either by eye or using an automated instrument. The tests included vary depending on the type of dipstick, but common ones are glucose, ketones, bilirubin, urobilinogen, blood, white blood cells (leukocyte esterase), protein, nitrite, pH, and specific gravity. Nitrite is reported as negative or positive; other elements may be scored on a scale or reported as an approximate concentration based on the intensity of the color change.

False positive and false negative results may occur. General sources of error include abnormally colored urine, which interferes with the interpretation of color changes; high levels of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), which can cause false negative results for blood, bilirubin, glucose, and nitrite; and variations in the concentration of the sample.

Blood
Reagent pads for blood change color in the presence of heme groups, which catalyze the reaction of hydrogen peroxide with the color indicator in the test strip. Heme groups are found in hemoglobin, but also in myoglobin (a product of muscle breakdown). Thus, a positive result for blood can represent the presence of red blood cells (hematuria), free hemoglobin (hemoglobinuria), or myoglobin (myoglobinuria). Red blood cells can sometimes be distinguished from free hemoglobin or myoglobin as the former causes a speckled pattern on the test pad while the latter results in a uniform color change.

White blood cells
Leukocyte esterase, an enzyme found in granulocytes, is measured to estimate the concentration of white blood cells. The action of the enzyme on chemicals in the test pad ends in the creation of a purple azo dye. False positive results can occur if the sample is contaminated with vaginal secretions; false negatives can occur in very concentrated samples or those containing high levels of glucose and protein.  Elevated white blood cell counts in urine generally indicate infection or inflammation. People with a low level of neutrophils in the blood (neutropenia) may not have enough white blood cells in their urine to produce a positive reaction.

Nitrite
Some bacteria that cause UTIs can reduce urinary nitrates to nitrites. The presence of nitrites, which causes a pink color on the reagent strip pad, therefore acts as an indicator of urinary tract infection. The nitrite test is quite specific, meaning that someone is likely to have a UTI if it is positive, but it is not sensitive; a negative result does not reliably indicate that the subject does not have a UTI. Not all bacteria that cause UTIs produce nitrite, and because it takes time for the chemical reaction to occur, the test is best performed on urine that has been in the bladder overnight. A diet low in vegetables can lead to low nitrate levels in the urine, meaning that nitrites cannot be produced. False positive results can occur in samples that are contaminated or stored improperly, allowing bacteria to multiply.

Protein
Test strips estimate urine protein levels by exploiting the ability of protein to interfere with pH indicators. The reagent pad contains an indicator that is buffered to a pH of 3, which changes from yellow to green in the presence of protein. Trace levels of protein in the urine can be normal, but high levels (proteinuria) can indicate kidney disease. Most cases of proteinuria are caused by increased levels of albumin, which test strips can detect relatively well; but they are markedly less sensitive to other proteins, such as Bence-Jones protein, which may occur in multiple myeloma. Because the test pad reaction is dependent on pH, false positive results can occur if the urine is highly alkaline. Conventional test strips are not sensitive enough to reliably detect microalbuminuria, a condition in which urine albumin levels are slightly elevated, although dipsticks specialized for this measurement exist.

pH
pH indicators are used to measure the pH of the sample. Urine pH varies with diet and a wide range of values occur in healthy subjects, although it is most commonly slightly acidic. Because the kidneys are involved in regulating acid-base balance, the urine is typically acidic in people with metabolic or respiratory acidosis and alkaline in those with alkalosis. However, in renal tubular acidosis, the urine pH remains alkaline while the blood is acidic. During urinary tract infections, waste products of bacterial metabolism can cause the urine to become alkaline. Urine pH may be monitored to help prevent the formation of kidney stones or to avoid side effects of some drugs, such as high-dose methotrexate therapy, in which crystals that cause kidney damage can form if the urine is acidic. If microscopy is performed, knowing the pH of the sample helps to identify any crystals that might be present.

Specific gravity
Urine test strips use the concentration of ions in the urine to estimate specific gravity. The test pad contains a polyelectrolyte that releases hydrogen ions in proportion to the concentration of ions in the sample. The consequent pH change is measured using a pH indicator. The reading obtained from reagent strips, as opposed to refractometers, is not affected by substances such as glucose, urea and contrast dyes. Falsely low readings can occur in alkaline urine.

Glucose
Test strips for glucose contain the enzyme glucose oxidase, which breaks down glucose and forms hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct. In the presence of a peroxidase enzyme, hydrogen peroxide reacts with a chromogen to induce a color change. The presence of glucose in the urine is known as glycosuria. In people with normal blood sugar levels, the amount of glucose in the urine should be negligible as it is reabsorbed by the renal tubules. High blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia) cause excess glucose to spill over into the urine and result in a positive reading. This characteristically occurs in diabetes mellitus (although it is not part of the formal diagnostic criteria). Glycosuria may occur in people with normal blood sugar levels during pregnancy or due to dysfunction of the renal tubules (termed renal glycosuria).

Ketones

Ketone bodies are products of fat breakdown. When the body relies on fats, rather than carbohydrates, as its main energy source, increased levels of ketones occur in the blood and urine. The presence of detectable levels of ketones in the urine is called ketonuria. Ketones occur in three forms in the body: beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), acetone and acetoacetate. Test strips use sodium nitroprusside to detect acetoacetate, and those with a glycine additive can detect acetone; however, none detect BHB. The reaction of ketones with sodium nitroprusside in an alkaline medium turns the test pad purple.

Ketonuria occurs in uncontrolled type 1 diabetes and in diabetic ketoacidosis. Ketonuria can also occur when the body's demand for carbohydrates outpaces dietary intake, such as in people following a ketogenic diet, people experiencing severe vomiting or diarrhea, and during starvation or after strenuous exercise. Mild ketonuria can be normal during pregnancy. Some medications, such as levodopa or methyldopa, can cause a false positive result.

Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a waste product formed from the breakdown of hemoglobin. Cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system digest aged red blood cells and release unconjugated bilirubin into the bloodstream, which is converted to water-soluble conjugated bilirubin by the liver. Conjugated bilirubin is normally stored in the gallbladder as a constituent of bile and is excreted through the intestines; it does not occur at detectable levels in the urine.

The presence of bilirubin in the urine (termed bilirubinuria) occurs as a consequence of high blood levels of conjugated bilirubin in liver disease or bile duct obstruction. Bilirubin is detected by means of reaction with a diazonium salt that forms a colored complex. With prolonged light exposure, bilirubin converts to biliverdin and becomes undetectable by reagent strips.

Urobilinogen
Urobilinogen refers to a group of compounds produced from bilirubin by the intestinal flora. Under normal conditions, most of the urobilinogen produced is absorbed into the bloodstream and secreted into the bile by the liver, or excreted in the feces as stercobilin and other compounds. A small fraction is excreted in the urine.

Urine urobilinogen is increased in liver disease and hemolytic jaundice (jaundice due to increased destruction of red blood cells); in the latter case, urine bilirubin is typically negative. In bile duct obstruction, urine bilirubin increases but urobilinogen is normal or decreased, as bilirubin cannot reach the intestines to be converted to urobilinogen. Testing methods are based on the Ehrlich reaction of urobilinogen with para-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde, or interaction with a diazonium compound to produce a colored product. Test strips that use Ehrlich's reagent can give false positive results in the presence of porphobilinogen and numerous drugs. Decreased levels of urobilinogen cannot be detected by the dipstick method. Like bilirubin, urobilinogen is sensitive to light.

Microscopic examination

Microscopic examination of the urine allows cells and elements such as urinary casts to be identified and counted. This can yield a great detail of information and may suggest a specific diagnosis. Microscopy is not always included in urinalysis: it may be reserved for samples that have abnormal results on preliminary testing or that are from certain patient populations, such as infants. Results that typically require microscopic examination include abnormal color or clarity and positive dipstick results for blood, leukocytes, nitrite, or protein.

If microscopy is necessary, the urine may be centrifuged to concentrate the solid elements so that they can be viewed more easily. In this case, a drop of the concentrated sample is placed under a coverslip and examined, typically at 100x and 400x magnification. The microscopic components of urine are reported according to the amount present in the microscope's field of view at low magnification (reported as /lpf, meaning low-power field) and high magnification (/hpf for high-power field). Some elements, such as crystals or bacteria, are typically reported in a qualitative format, using terms such as "few" or "many" or grades from 1+ to 4+. Others, such as cells or casts, are reported using numerical ranges. If it is necessary to determine the exact number of cells or casts in the sample, unconcentrated urine can be placed in a counting chamber called a hemocytometer. In this case, the results are reported per microliter (/μL). Urine is traditionally examined by light microscopy, but some laboratories use phase-contrast microscopes, which improve the visualization of elements such as urinary casts and mucus. Urine can also be stained before analysis to make its components easier to identify.

There are automated microscopy systems that use flow cytometry technology or pattern recognition to identify microscopic elements in unconcentrated urine. Automated instruments reduce workload in medical laboratories and can accurately identify most common urinary elements, but do not perform as well with unusual findings such as transitional and renal epithelial cells, abnormal casts and rare crystals.

Elements that can be observed on microscopic examination include:

Red blood cells

Under the microscope, normal red blood cells (RBCs) appear as small concave discs. Their numbers are reported per high-power field. In highly concentrated urine they may shrivel and develop a spiky shape, which is termed crenation, while in dilute urine they can swell and lose their hemoglobin, creating a faint outline known as a ghost cell. A small quantity of red blood cells in the urine is considered normal.

An increased level of RBCs is termed hematuria. Microscopic hematuria is sometimes observed in healthy people after exercise or as a consequence of contamination of the sample with menstrual blood. Pathologic causes of hematuria are diverse and include trauma to the urinary tract, kidney stones, urinary tract infections, drug toxicity, genitourinary cancers, and a variety of other renal and systemic diseases. Abnormally shaped red blood cells with blob-like protrusions of the cell membrane, called dysmorphic RBCs, are thought to represent damage to the glomerulus.

White blood cells
Typically, most white blood cells (WBCs) in urine are neutrophils. They are round, larger than RBCs, possess a cell nucleus, and have a granular appearance. A few white blood cells can normally be found in the urine of healthy individuals; females tend to have slightly more than males. An increased number of WBCs is termed pyuria or leukocyturia and is associated with infection or inflammation of the urinary tract. WBCs can also appear in the urine following exercise or fever. An increased number of eosinophils (eosinophiluria) can occur in acute interstitial nephritis and chronic UTIs. Cytocentrifugation and staining of the urine sample is necessary to reliably distinguish eosinophils from neutrophils.

Epithelial cells

Epithelial cells form the lining of the urinary tract. Three types may occur in urine: squamous epithelial cells, transitional epithelial cells and renal tubular epithelial cells. Some laboratories do not distinguish between the three types of cells and simply report "epithelial cells" in general.

Squamous epithelial cells line the urethra, as well as the vagina and the outer layer of the skin. They are very large, flat, and thin, with irregular borders and a single, small nucleus. They may fold into various shapes. They are not considered clinically significant, but if they are seen in large numbers they can indicate contamination of the sample by vaginal secretions or the skin of the urogenital area.

Transitional epithelial cells, also known as urothelial cells, line the urinary tract from the renal pelvis through the ureters and bladder and, in males, the upper (proximal) portion of the urethra. They are smaller than squamous cells and their shape varies based on the layer of epithelium from which they are derived, but they are most commonly round or pear-shaped. They may have one or two nuclei. Small numbers of these cells are found in normal urine; larger numbers can be seen after invasive procedures like catheterization or cystoscopy or in conditions that irritate the urinary tract, such as urinary tract infections. In the absence of recent trauma to the urinary tract, clusters and sheets of transitional cells in the urine may indicate malignancy, requiring further investigation.

Renal tubular epithelial cells (RTEs) line the collecting ducts and the distal and proximal tubules of the kidney. They can be difficult to identify in unstained urine, as they look similar to urothelial cells and WBCs; however, they are generally larger than WBCs and smaller than urothelial cells, and collecting duct cells, unlike urothelial cells, often have a flat edge. The presence of RTEs in high numbers is a significant finding, as this indicates damage to the renal tubules. This may occur in conditions such as acute tubular necrosis, drug or heavy metal toxicity, acute glomerulonephritis, kidney transplant rejection, trauma, and sepsis.

Casts

Urinary casts are cylindrical structures composed of Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein. Their shape derives from the renal tubules where they are formed, and the protein base can incorporate cells or other material. Hyaline casts contain only protein and can be found in low numbers in healthy people; their numbers may increase transiently after exercise or dehydration. Persistently increased numbers are seen in many renal diseases. They are almost transparent and can be difficult to see using light microscopy.

Granular casts, so named for their microscopic appearance, incorporate degenerated cellular material or protein aggregates. They are considered an abnormal finding and are associated with diseases of the kidney although they can rarely occur in healthy individuals, particularly following strenuous physical activity. Large, dense casts with cracked edges, called waxy casts, are traditionally associated with chronic kidney failure, though little evidence exists to support this. Red blood cell casts incorporate intact RBCs and are a serious finding because under normal conditions, RBCs cannot pass through the glomerulus into the renal tubules. These casts are characteristically found in people with glomerular diseases such as acute glomerulonephritis and lupus nephritis. White blood cell casts represent infection or inflammation involving the kidneys; they can occur in pyelonephritis, but are absent in lower urinary tract infections. Following injury to the renal tubules, renal tubular epithelial cell casts may be seen in the urine.  Casts may incorporate a variety of other materials such as bacteria, yeast, crystals, and pigments like bilirubin or myoglobin.

Crystals

Various compounds in the urine can precipitate to form crystals. Crystals can be identified based on their appearance and the pH of the urine (many types preferentially form at an acidic or alkaline pH). Crystals that can be found in normal urine include uric acid, monosodium urate, triple phosphate (ammonium magnesium phosphate), calcium oxalate, and calcium carbonate. Crystals can also appear as poorly defined aggregates of granular material, termed amorphous urates or amorphous phosphates (urates form in acid urine while phosphates form in alkaline urine). These are of no clinical significance, but they can interfere with microscopy by obscuring other elements (especially bacteria). Some drugs, such as sulfonamides, may form crystals when excreted in the urine, and ammonium biurate crystals commonly occur in aged samples.

The presence of crystals in the urine has conventionally been associated with the formation of kidney stones, and crystalluria is more common in people with kidney stones than those without. However, crystalluria occurs in up to 20% of the normal population, so it is not a reliable diagnostic marker. Some types of crystals are characteristically associated with disease states. Leucine and tyrosine crystals may be observed in liver disease, and cystine crystals indicate cystinuria (although they look identical to hexagonal variants of uric acid crystals, and can only be distinguished with further testing). Cholesterol crystals may rarely be seen in nephrotic syndrome and chyluria.

Organisms

Microorganisms that can be observed in the urine include bacteria, yeast and Trichomonas vaginalis. The urine of children with pinworm infections may contain Enterobius vermicularis eggs, and Schistosoma haematobium ova  may be detected in urine samples from individuals with parasitic infestations.

Other elements
Mucus can occur in the urine, where it appears as translucent wavy strands under the microscope. The presence of mucus is not a clinically significant finding, but it can be confused with hyaline casts. Sperm may occasionally be observed in the urine of both males and females; in female children and vulnerable adults, this can indicate sexual abuse. Fat droplets and oval fat bodies may be present in a condition called lipiduria, which has various causes, most notably nephrotic syndrome. Contaminants from the outside environment, such as starch granules, hair, and clothing fibers, may be seen but are not reported.

Interpretation

The interpretation of urinalysis takes into account the results of physical, chemical and microscopic examination and the person's overall condition. Urine test results should always be interpreted using the reference range provided by the laboratory that performed the test, or using information provided by the test strip/device manufacturer.  Not all abnormal results signify disease, and false positive results are common. For this reason, the use of urinalysis for screening in the general population has been discouraged, but it remains a common practice.

Urinalysis is commonly used to help diagnose urinary tract infections, but the significance of the results depends on the broader clinical situation. In the setting of UTI symptoms, positive dipstick results for nitrite and leukocyte esterase are strongly suggestive of a UTI, but negative results do not rule it out if there is a high degree of suspicion. When the dipstick test is positive, microscopy is used to confirm and count WBCs, RBCs and bacteria and assess for possible contamination (signified by a high number of squamous epithelial cells in the sample). If UTI is suspected, particularly in complicated cases or when urinalysis results are inconclusive, a urine culture may be performed to identify microorganisms if present, obtain a colony count, and carry out antibiotic sensitivity testing. The colony count helps to distinguish between contamination and infection.

If a significant quantity of bacteria is present in the urine but there are no symptoms of a UTI, the condition is called asymptomatic bacteriuria. Asymptomatic bacteriuria is common in elderly people and in those with long-term urinary catheters, and in most cases does not require treatment. Exceptions include pregnant women, in whom bacteriuria is associated with poorer pregnancy outcomes, and people undergoing some invasive urology procedures.

A positive dipstick result for blood could signify the presence of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or myoglobin, and therefore requires microscopic analysis for confirmation. Intact red blood cells will normally be observed under the microscope if present, but they may lyse in dilute or alkaline samples. Hemoglobinuria, if unaccompanied by a high quantity of RBCs, can signify intravascular hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells inside the body). Myoglobinuria occurs in rhabdomyolysis and other conditions that cause breakdown of muscle tissue.

If red blood cells are present, the interpretation takes into account whether the urine is visibly bloody (termed macroscopic hematuria) or if RBCs are only seen on microscopy (microscopic hematuria). Contamination of the sample with blood from a non-urinary source, such as from menstruation or rectal bleeding, can mimic hematuria, and microscopic hematuria is sometimes observed in healthy people after exercise. Other causes of microscopic hematuria include UTI, kidney stones, benign prostatic hyperplasia, and trauma to the urinary tract. Kidney diseases that affect the glomerulus can cause microscopic hematuria, in which case it is referred to as glomerular hematuria. On urine microscopy, the presence of abnormally shaped ("dysmorphic") red blood cells and RBC casts is associated with glomerular hematuria. Proteinuria and elevated blood creatinine alongside hematuria suggests kidney dysfunction. In people at risk, persistent microscopic hematuria can be a sign of urinary tract cancer and may require further testing, such as urinary tract imaging and cystoscopy. Sometimes no cause can be identified, and the condition is managed with regular monitoring. The causes of macroscopic hematuria are similar, but in the absence of an obvious explanation such as trauma or UTI, it is more strongly associated with malignancy and requires further investigation.

Elevated levels of protein in the urine are often suggestive of kidney disease, but may have other causes. Proteinuria can occur transiently as a consequence of exercise, fever, stress, or UTI. Proteinuria that occurs only while standing, called orthostatic proteinuria, is relatively common in young men and not associated with disease. In multiple myeloma, Bence-Jones protein may be secreted into the urine, although this type of proteinuria is not as easily detected by urine dipsticks. If proteinuria is persistently detected by dipstick testing, a 24-hour urine collection can be performed to obtain an accurate measurement of protein levels; alternatively, protein excretion can be estimated from the urine protein/creatinine ratio of a single specimen. Measuring the amount of protein in the urine helps to distinguish between different causes of proteinuria. Urine protein electrophoresis, which identifies and measures the proportions of different types of protein in the urine, may be used to investigate the cause of proteinuria and to detect Bence-Jones protein. During pregnancy, dipstick testing may be used to screen for proteinuria as it is a sign of pre-eclampsia.

History

The diagnostic value of urine has been recognized since ancient times. Urine examination was practiced in Sumer and Babylonia as early as 4000 BC, and is described in ancient Greek and Sanskrit texts. Hippocrates, Celsus and Galen published important works correlating the characteristics of urine with patients' health. During the Middle Ages the visual inspection of urine―termed uroscopy—gained widespread popularity. The 7th-century manuscript De Urinis by the Byzantine physician Theophilus Protospatharius is thought to be the earliest publication dedicated solely to the examination of urine. Protospatharius notably described a method for precipitating protein out of urine using heat.

Many influential works on urine testing followed. Publications by Isaac Judaeus built upon Protospatharius' work, and Zayn al-Din Gorgani, an 11th-century Persian physician, published instructions for specimen collection which noted that urine samples were affected by aging and exposure to heat and light. Other medieval writers included Gilles de Corbeil, who published a popular mnemonic poem on uroscopy and introduced the matula, a round flask used to examine urine; and Joannes Actuarius, who wrote a series of books on uroscopy in seven volumes. The 1491 book Fasciculus Medicinae, published by Johannes de Ketham, became popular with laypeople and was used for self-diagnosis. The matula came to symbolize the practice of medicine in general.

Physicians of antiquity interpreted the color of urine using circular charts listing correspondences with disease states. The relation of urine characteristics to disease was based on the theory of the four humors. Different areas of the matula flask were thought to represent different organs and regions of the human body. In the 16th century, Paracelsus applied the principles of alchemy to the study of urine. He believed that materials obtained from distillation and precipitation of the urine could provide diagnostic information. In this respect he could be regarded as a progenitor of biochemical methods for urinalysis.

During the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the abuse of uroscopy by disreputable individuals began to draw criticism. "Uromancers" without medical training claimed that they could not only diagnose disease, but detect pregnancy, determine a baby's sex, and even predict the future from a subject's urine. In 1637 the English physician Thomas Brian published The Pisse-Prophet, or, Certaine Pisse-Pot Lectures, excoriating those who claimed to be able to diagnose diseases by uroscopy without examining the patient.

The 19th century saw a proliferation in chemical methods for the analysis of urine, but these techniques were labor-intensive and impractical; in one contemporary editorial a physician complained about the dangers of keeping nitric acid (used to detect albumin) in one's pocket. A search for more convenient techniques ensued. An early method resembling urine test strips was devised by the French chemist  in 1850. Maumené impregnated a strip of wool with tin(II) chloride, added a drop of urine, and exposed it to a flame. If the urine contained glucose, the wool would turn black. In the 1880s William Pavy developed powdered reagents for urinalysis, and George Oliver introduced "Urinary Test Papers" for albumin and glucose, which were a commercial success and were marketed in Germany as well as the United Kingdom. From 1900 onwards there was a proliferation of commercial reagent kits for urinalysis.  Beginning in the 1920s, the chemist Fritz Feigl developed highly sensitive methods for spot testing on filter paper, which paved the way for modern urine test strips. Feigl also introduced the method of protein detection using the protein error of indicators, which is still used today.

In 1956 Helen Murray Free and her husband developed Clinistix (also known as Clinistrip), the first dip-and-read test for glucose in urine for patients with diabetes. This breakthrough led to additional dip-and-read tests for other substances. The invention was named a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society in May 2010. A dipstick test for urine protein, called Albustix, was introduced by Miles Laboratories in 1957, and the first multi-test dipsticks were released in 1959. Automated test strip readers came onto the market in the 1980s.

See also

 Uroscopy, the ancient form of this analysis
 Urinary casts
 Proteinuria
 Urine test strip
 Urine collection device
 Pregnancy test, measures hCG levels in urine

References

Works cited

External links

 Conoximent de las Orines, an early book about analyzing urine for medical purposes. Estimated date 1466.

Nephrology

Urinalysis


Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu (Öğretim Birliği Yasası), Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi tarafından 3 Mart 1924 tarih ve 430 Kanun Numarası ile kabul edilmiş olan ve ülkedeki bütün eğitim kurumlarının Maarif Vekaletine (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı) bağlanmasını öngören yasadır.

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nde eğitimin temel kanunu kabul edilmiş ve daha sonra çıkarılan kanunlara esas teşkil etmiştir. 1982 anayasasında 174. maddeyle koruma altına alınmış "inkılap kanunlarından" bir tanesidir.

Türkiye'de eğitim alanında reform yapabilmek; millilik, laiklik, modernlik esaslarını uygulayabilmek için eğitim kurumlarının birleştirilmesine ihtiyaç duyulması sebebiyle hazırlanan kanun; ülkenin eğitim işlerinde çok başlılığın kaldırılmasını sağladı. Hilâfetin kaldırılmasına dair kanun ve "Şeriye ve Evkaf Vekaleti'nin kaldırılması hakkında kanun"la aynı gün çıkarıldı.

Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu ayrıca tekke ve zaviyelerin kapatılması; dinsel olduğu düşünülen Osmanlı harflerinin kaldırılıp Harf Devrimi'nin yapılması gibi diğer bazı Atatürk devrimlerinin gerçekleşmesi için de altyapıyı oluşturmuştur.

Eğitimde mektep-medrese ikiliğinin kökeni
19. yüzyıl ortalarına gelene kadar Osmanlı toplumunda eğitim öğretim faaliyetleri -Enderun ve birkaç büyük medrese hariç- devletin görev alanının dışındaydı. Osmanlı Devleti'nde batılılaşma sürecine girildikten sonra devlet, ülkede pek çok batı tipi eğitim kurumu kurmuş; bu kurumlar ile birlikte eski eğitim kurumları da faaliyetlerine devam etmişti.

Devlet, şahıs ve dernekler tarafından ilköğretim düzeyinde "iptidai" adlı ilkokullar kurulmasını, bu okullarda modern öğretim tekniklerini uygulanmasını destekliyordu; bu okullarda öğretmenlik yapmak üzere öğretmen yetiştiriyordu. Ancak köy ve mahalle imamlarıyla eşlerinin yönetiminde bulunan ve çoğu vakıf kuruluşu olan sıbyan mektepleri ile mahalle mekteplerine dokunulmamıştı.

Ortaöğretim ve yükseköğretim düzeyinde ise modern tipte rüştiyeler, idadiler, sultaniler, yüksekokullar ve Darülfünun açılmış; vakıf kuruluşları olan medreselerden devlet desteği çekilmişti ancak medreseler kapatılmamıştı; halen öğrenci yetiştirmeye devam ediyorlardı. İki farklı tipte kurumdan birbirlerine zıt hayat görüşlerine sahip kimseler yetişmekteydi. Böylece toplumda bir "mektep-medrese ikiliği" doğmuştu. Üçüncü bir kategori olarak yabancı okullar (misyoner okulları, azınlık okulları ve kolejler) eğitim alanında faaliyet göstermekteydi.

Kısacası Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin Osmanlı'dan devraldığı bu eğitim-öğretim mirası, farklı insan tipleri yetiştiren farklı eğitim tiplerinin bir arada var olduğu bir sistemdi. Yeni rejimin getirmek istediği ulusal nitelikteki yeni toplum düzeninin herkes tarafından benimsenmesi, devrimlerin halk üzerinde köklü ve etkili olabilmesi için tüm eğitim kurumların tek bir merkeze bağlanması; eğitim-öğretimin tek elden, tek esasa göre yönetilmesi gereği hissedilmekteydi.

Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu hazırlıkları ve kanunun kabulü
 Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı yıllarında millî mücadelenin önderi Mustafa Kemal ve bazı hatipler konuşmalarında eğitim kurumlarının birleştirilmesine dair bazı ifadeler kullanmışlardır. Mustafa Kemal'in Halk Fırkası'nı kuracağını açıkladığı ve fırkanın dokuz maddelik programını tanıttığı 7 Aralık 1922 tarihli basın bildirisinde medreselerin kaldırılması düşüncesi ilk kez açık olarak ortaya konuldu.

1 Mart 1923'te TBMM üçüncü yılı açılışında yaptığı konuşmayı büyük ölçüde eğitim konularına ayıran Mustafa Kemal; "Ülke çocuklarının birlikte eğitim ve öğrenim görmek zorunda olduğunu, öğrenim birliğinin ülkenin ilerlemesi için büyük önem taşıdığını, bu nedenle "Şeriye Vekaleti ile Maarif Vekaletinin" işbirliğine varmasını gerektiğini ifade etti.

Bu görüşler ışığında 2 Mart günü Halk Fırkası'nın grup toplantısında 3 ayrı yasa tasarısı hazırlandı. "Şer'iye ve Evkaf Vekaleti'nin lağvı ve Diyanet Reisliğinin teşkili" hakkındaki kanun müzakereleri kabul olunduktan sonra Tevhid-i Tedrisat yasa tasarısı Saruhan Mebusu ve Maarif Vekili Vasıf Bey ve 57 arkadaşının imzasıyla gündeme getirildi. Kanunun gerekçesi şu sözlerle ifade edilmişti: "Bir millet bireyleri ancak bir eğitim görebilir. İki türlü eğitim bir ülkede iki türlü insan yetiştirir. Bu ise, duygu ve düşünce birliği ile dayanışma amaçlarını tamamen yok eder."

Tasarı ertesi gün meclise sunuldu. 429 sayılı Şer'iye ve Evkaf Yasası'nın kabulünden sonra Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu, 3 Mart 1924 günü TBMM Genel Kurulunda 430 Kanun Numarası ile kabul edildi.

Kanunun uygulanması
Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu'nun uygulanması ile Maarif Vekili Vasıf Bey görevlendirildi. Kanun, eğitimin temel kanunu olarak kabul edildi ve daha sonra çıkarılan bütün kanunlara esas teşkil etti.

Medreselerin kapatılması
Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu  maddelerinde mahalle mektepleri ve medreselerin kapatılmasına ilişkin bir ifade bulunmuyordu ancak Maarif Vekili Vasıf Bey, Mayıs ayında yayımladığı bir genelge ile "Bakanlığı'nın elindeki ilkokulların hiçbirinde meslek dersleri okutulamayacağı, bunun öğretimin birleştirilmesine aykırı olacağı gerekçesiyle" mahalle mektepleri ve medreseleri kapattı.

Yasa çıktığında ülkede 479 medrese ve 18.000 medrese talebesi vardı fakat sadece 6.000'i gerçek öğrenci idi. Geri kalanlar, II. Abdülhamit devrinde çıkan bir kanunla medrese öğrencileri askerlikten muaf tutuldukları için okula kayıt yaptıran ancak öğrenim görmeyen kimselerdi. Medrese başına ortalama bir hoca vardı. İstanbul'daki medrese binalarını inceleyen bir kurulun hazırladığı rapora göre; hiçbiri okul olarak kullanılabilecek nitelikte değildi.

Adalet Bakanlığı'nın şer-i mahkemeleri kapatması üzerine Mekteb-i Kuzat (Kadı Okulu) da kapatıldı.

İlahiyat Fakültesi ve imam hatip okullarının kurulması
Lisansüstü seviyesinde eğitim veren iki yıllık "Medrese-i Süleymaniye" yerine 1924 yılında İstanbul Dârülfünunu'nda bir İlâhiyat Fakültesi kuruldu. Açıldığında 224 öğrencisi olan fakültenin öğrenci sayısı 1934 yılında 20'ye düştü. Bu nedenle o yıl yapılan Üniversite Reformu ile İlahiyat Fakültesi kapatılarak "İslam Tetkikleri Enstitüsü" adında bir enstitü kuruldu.

Hem İlahiyat Fakültesi'ne altyapı oluşturmak hem de imam ve hatip yetiştirmek için 1923-1924 öğretim yılında ülkenin değişik yerlerinde 29 imam hatip okulu kuruldu. 1926-1927 öğretim yılında okulların sayısı ikiye indi. Bu okullar 1930-1931 öğretim yılında ise öğrenciler tarafından yeterince ilgi görmemeleri nedeniyle kapatıldı.

Din derslerinin kaldırılması
Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu'nun kabulünden bir süre sonra "Türkiye'de sadece Müslüman vatandaşların olmadığı, Müslüman olmayan Türk vatandaşlarının da dinsel gereksinmeleri ve vicdan özgürlüğü olduğu" düşünülerek ilkokul programından Kur'an dersleri, ortaokul ve lise programından da din, Arapça ve Farsça dersleri çıkarılmıştır.

Başlangıçta isteğe bağlı bir ders haline getirilmiş olan din dersi; ortaokullarda 1930'da, öğretmen okullarında 1931'de, şehir ilkokullarında 1933'te, köy ilkokullarında 1939'da tamamen müfredattan çıkarıldı. Tüm bu gelişmeler sonucu 1939-1948 yılları arasında din derslerinin hiç yer almadığı bir örgün eğitim deneyimi yaşandı.

Azınlık ve misyoner okullarının durumu
Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu'nun kabulünden sonra misyoner ve azınlık okulları Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı'nın denetim ve gözetimine girmiş; dinsel ve siyasal amaçlı eğitim yasaklanmış; ders programlarına tarih, coğrafya, yurttaşlık bilgisi, Türkçe dersleri eklenmiştir. Bu dönemde azınlık okullarında okutulan kitaplardan aziz resimleri çıkarıldı; okul binalarındaki haçların indirilmesi istendi. Dinsel sembollerin yalnızca okul kiliselerinde bulundurulmasına izin verildi. Din esaslarına dayalı eğitim ve din propagandası yapma yasaklarına uymayan yabancı okullar kapatıldı. Bunlar arasında Merzifon ve Kayseri'deki Amerikan okulları, İzmir'deki Fransız okulu bulunur.

Askeri okulların durumu
Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu'nun kabulü sonucu askeri idadiler liseye çevrildi. Ancak askeri okullar 1925 yılında çıkarılan bir yasa ile yeniden Millî Savunma Bakanlığı'na bağlandılar.

1961 ve 1982 Anayasaları ile korunması
Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu, 1961 anayasasının "Devrim Kanunlarının Korunması" başlıklı 153. Maddesi kapsamında hükümleri anayasaya aykırı olduğu şeklinde anlaşılamaz ve yorumlanamaz olduğu bildirilen 8 kanundan birisi olmuştur.

1982 Anayasasında ise "İnkılap Kanunlarının Korunması" başlıklı 174. Madde ile anayasaya aykırı olduğu şeklinde anlaşılamaz ve yorumlanamaz olarak ifade edilen 8 kanundan birisidir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu metni

1924'te Türkiye
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti yasaları
Türkiye'de eğitim

Tevhîd-i Tedrîsât Kanunu


Diese Liste der Michigan State Historic Sites im Roscommon County nennt alle als Michigan State Historic Site eingestuften historischen Stätten im Roscommon County im US-Bundesstaat Michigan. Die mit † markierten Stätten sind gleichzeitig im National Register of Historic Places eingetragen.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Denkmäler im National Register of Historic Places im Roscommon County

Weblinks
 Historic Sites Online – Roscommon County. Michigan State Housing Developmental Authority.

Belege

!
Roscommon County


Melchior Cardinal de Polignac (11 October 1661 – 20 November 1742) was a French diplomat, Cardinal and Neo-Latin poet.

Second son of Armand XVI, marquis de Polignac and Marquis Chalancon, Governor of Puy; and Jacqueline de Beauvoir -Grimoard-de Roure (his third wife), Melchior de Polignac was born at Chateau de la Ronte, near Puy en Vélay, Lavoûte-sur-Loire, Haute-Loire, Auvergne.

Education and early career

A precocious child, he was taken by his uncle to Paris, and installed in the Jesuit Collège de Clermont (later named the Collège de Louis le Grand). At the appropriate time, he passed to the Collège de Harcourt, where thanks to the misdirected efforts of a teacher who was an enthusiast for Aristotle, Polignac adopted the opposite view and became a Cartesian. His thesis in Theology at the Sorbonne (1683) discussed the Kings of Judah who had destroyed the "high places". He was either prescient, or aware of discussion around Louis XIV which led in two years to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) and the removal of the Huguenot "high places". He had somehow attracted the patronage of the Cardinal Emmanuel de la Tour d'Auvergne de Bouillon, who took Polignac with him when he went to Rome for the Conclave following the death of Pope Innocent XI on 12 August 1689. Bouillon chose Polignac as one of his Conclavists. When the new Pope, Alexander VIII (Ottoboni) was elected, he assisted Cardinal de Bouillon and the French Ambassador, the Duc de Chaulnes, in attempting to improve relations between Louis XIV and the Holy See. Polignac was sent back to France to report to Louis, who immediately sent him back to Rome with further instructions. He was still in Rome when Alexander VIII died after less than sixteen months on the throne, and was again Conclavist of Cardinal de Bouillon in the Conclave of 1691 that elected Innocent XII (Pignatelli).

At an early age he achieved recognition as a diplomat. In 1693 he was sent as ambassador to Poland, where he worked with Cardinal Augustyn Michal Stefan Radziejowski, the Primate of Poland and nephew of King John III Sobieski, to bring about the election of François-Louis de Bourbon, prince de Conti as successor to John Sobieski (1697). The other candidate, Augustus the Strong of Saxony, however, was supported by Austria and Russia, and was elected over the French candidate. The subsequent failure of this intrigue led to Polignac's temporary disgrace, and retirement to his Abbey of Bon-Port, but in 1702 he was restored to favour. In 1709 he was sent along with Nicholas du Blé, Maréchal d'Huxelles, as plenipotentiaries to conduct negotiations toward peace at the Dutch town of Geertruidenberg, but thanks to the obstinacy of Louis XIV, they were unsuccessful. Polignac left Getruidenberg on 25 July 1710 and had an interview with Louis XIV at Versailles on 31 July. In 1712 he was sent, again along with the Maréchal d'Huxelles, as a plenipotentiary of Louis XIV of France, to the Congress of Utrecht, and this time a peace was concluded.

Character portrait

The Duc de Saint-Simon provides a character portrait of the Abbé de Polignac around the end of 1705, as he was trying to restart his career and climb back into the notice of the French government, in particular the Duc de Bourbon—a portrait full of Saint-Simon's usual snobbery and malevolence:

"The Abbe de Polignac, after his adventures in Poland and the exile which followed them, came back to the surface. He was a tall man, very well made, with a handsome face, much cleverness, and above all, grace and polished manners; all kinds of knowledge, a most agreeable way of expressing himself, a touching voice, a gentle eloquence, insinuating, manly, exact in terms, charming in style, a gift of speech that was wholly his own; all about him was original and persuasive; amusing in narratives; possessed of a smattering of all the arts, all the manufactures, all the professions. In whatever belonged to his own, that is, learning and the ecclesiastical calling, he was rather less versed. … In other respects he was wholly occupied with his own ambition, without friendship, without gratitude, without any feeling except for himself; false, lax, indifferent to the means of success; without restraint from God or man, but always with a cloak of delicacy which gave him dupes; above all, a libertine, more from facility, coquetry, ambition, than from natural debauchery; so that while the heart was false and the soul not upright, his judgment was nil, his actions erroneous, his mind inaccurate, which, in spite of the most gracious and deceptive exterior, caused the failure in his hands of every enterprise intrusted to him.

"With a face and talents so fitted to impress others, he was aided by his birth, to which, however, his property did not respond; but that fact dispelled all envy and conciliated favour and good will. The most amiable ladies of the Court, those even of advanced age, the men most distinguished for place or reputation, the persons of both sexes who chiefly set the tone,—he won them all. Even the King succumbed to him through M. du Maine, to whose wife he was devoted. He was on all the Marly trips, end every one was eager to enjoy his charms; he had them for all sorts of conditions, persons, and minds...."

Literary prestige

On 26 May 1704 Abbé de Polignac was elected to the Académie Française, to the seat once held by Bossuet. His inauguration speech survives. In 1715 he became a member of the Académie royale des sciences, and was its President several times. In 1717, he became a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

He left unfinished a refutation of Lucretius, written in Latin verse, mostly during his first exile, and published after his death by the abbé de Rothelin (Anti-Lucretius, 1745). Lucretius' poem, De rerum natura, had also been left unpublished at that poet's death, and was published through the efforts of Cicero, according to Jerome. Polignac's poem was very popular in the eighteenth century and translated several times: for example, Jean-Pierre de Bougainville translated it into French prose in 1749, and François-Joseph Bérardier de Bataut translated it in French verse in 1786.  It was translated into English by George Canning in 1766 in a self-published tome. It is now forgotten.

Ecclesiastical career

Pope Clement XI (Altieri) had been watching Polignac's career. On 17 May 1706 he showed his favor by naming Polignac an Auditor of the Rota (one of the Church's highest courts), a post made vacant by the promotion of Msgr. Joseph-Emmanuel de la Trémoille to the cardinalate. He spent the next three years in Rome.  In 1712, he was created a Cardinal Deacon by Pope Clement XI (Altieri) on 18 May 1712 but the nomination was made in pectore, that is, his appointment was not made public at the time; it was only announced on 30 January 1713. At the time Polignac was a negotiator residing in a Protestant country, and it was deemed inadvisable to disrupt the course of events or cause offense by making his elevation public. While in Holland, he met and conversed with the famous Protestant philosophe, Pierre Bayle, who had begun publishing the Dictionnaire in 1697. Once the Peace was concluded, he was presented with the red biretta at Versailles by Louis XIV on 6 June 1713. He did not go to Rome for the induction ceremonies, and thus had no deaconry assigned to him for many years. He did not attend the Conclave of April–May 1721, which elected Innocent XIII (de' Conti), having been forbidden to travel to Rome by the French Regent, Philippe d' Orleans. But he was present at the Conclave of 1724, though he made a very late appearance on 23 April, after the Conclave had been in progress for seven weeks. He was eligible to participate, since he had finally been ordained deacon and priest, on 8 and 19 September 1722, by Msgr. Pierre Sabatier, the Bishop of Amiens. After the Conclave, on 27 September, the new Pope named him Cardinal Deacon of S. Maria in Porticu. Polignac immediately wrote an account of the Conclave and sent it off to the new First Minister of Louis XV, Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon. The Duke was so highly impressed by the report, both in content and style, that he had the King name Polignac French Chargé d'affaires to the Holy See, a post he held until 1732. He was thus absent from France for eight years.

On 20 November Benedict XIII (Orsini) promoted him to being Cardinal Priest of S. Maria in Via. On 19 December 1725 he transferred to the title of S. Maria degli Angeli. These promotions were conditioned, to be sure, by his appointment as Chargé d'affaires. Also in 1724, Polignac was elected a member of the Roman Arcadian Academy, founded in 1692 in memory of Queen Christina of Sweden; his academy name was Teodosso Cesisio. In 1730 he was in Rome and participated in the four-month-long Conclave which elected Clement XII (Corsini). He did not, at the age of 78, travel to Rome for the Conclave of 1740.

His position in French society

During the last years of Louis XIV, Abbé de Polignac enjoyed the position of Master of the King's Chapel (1713–1716). But during the Regency Polignac became involved in the Cellamare Conspiracy, which attempted to dislodge Philippe d'Orleans from the Regency, and replace him with Philip V of Spain, uncle of the young King Louis XV. Polignac was relegated to Flanders and confined to his Abbey d'Anchin for three years. As soon as Louis XV attained his majority, however, he had Polignac rehabilitated and restored to his positions. In 1726, he received the Archbishopric of Auch.  He was consecrated in Rome by Pope Benedict XIII. In 1728 he was granted the Collar of the Order of the Holy Spirit.

Death

He died at his home in what is now 80–88 rue Bonaparte in the 6th Arondissement in Paris (also known as the Hôtel Polignac), on 20 November 1742, at the age of 80, of "hydropsie". He was buried in the Church of S. Sulpice in Paris.  At the time of his death, he was also Abbot of Begars, Mouron, and Corbie; and Prior of Montdidier, Voute-sur-Loire, and Nagent le Rotron.  After his death Frederick the Great bought his acclaimed collection of marble statues, which he had collected through his archaeological work in Rome.

References

Bibliography
 Melchior de Polignac, Copie d'une lettre de Monsieur l'Abbé de Polignac, à Monsieur de Chasteau-Neuf (Villeneuve 1695).
 Melchior de Polignac, Lettre de Monsieur Labbee de Polignac, a Monsieur le Grand Pensionaire Heinsius, avec la resolution ... les Seigneurs Etats Generaux des Provinces-Unies des Pays-Bas, du 23 et du 27 Juillet 1710 (Geertruydenbergh ce 20. de Juillet 1710).
 Deslandes de Lancelot, Troisieme memoire signifié pour M. le Cardinal de Polignac, Archevêque d'Auch. Contre le sieur Marchal Econome Sequestre (Paris: De l'Imprimerie de Christophe David, 1738).
 Anonymous, "Eloge de M. le Cardinal de Polignac," Histoire de l' Academie royale des sciences, Annee M.DCCXLI. (Paris: Imprimerie royale 1744), 180–200.
 Mario Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontificum Romanorum et S.R.E. Cardinalium Tomus secundus (Romae 1751), 247–250.
 Lorenzo Cardella, Memorie storiche de' cardinali della Santa Romana Ecclesia Tomo Ottavo (Roma: Pagliarini 1794), pp. 149–152.
 Chrysostome Faucher, O.Min., Histoire du Cardinal de Polignac 2 vols. (Paris 1780).
 Hippolyte de la Porte, "Polignac (Melchior de)," Biographie universelle, ancienne et moderne (Paris: chez L. G. Michaud 1823), 184–188.
 Le Baron de ****, Maison de Polignac: précis historique orné du portrait de M. le prince Jules de Polignac, président du Conseil des ministers (Paris: L. F. Hivert et chez les Libraires de nouveautés, 1830), pp. 75–153.
 Léon, comte de Bastard d'Estang (1864). Négociations de l' abbé de Polignac en Pologne concernant l' élection du prince de Conti comme roi de Pologne (1696–1697). Auxerre: G. Perriquet.
 P. Paul, Le Cardinal Melchior de Polignac (Paris, 1922).
 Ulysse Rouchon, La Mission Du Cardinal Melchior de Polignac À Rome, 1724–1732 (Paris 1927).

External links
Melchior de Polignac at the Catholic Encyclopedia

1661 births
1742 deaths
People from Haute-Loire
Members of the Académie Française
Occitan nobility
Melchior
Archbishops of Auch
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Ambassadors of France to Poland
17th-century French diplomats
17th-century writers in Latin
18th-century writers in Latin
18th-century French diplomats
18th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in France

Melchior de Polignac


Die US Open 1988 im Badminton fanden vom 8. bis zum 13. November 1988 im Ambassador College in Pasadena in Kalifornien statt. Mit einem Preisgeld von 15.000 US-Dollar wurde das Turnier als 1-Sterne-Turnier in der Grand-Prix-Wertung eingestuft.

Finalresultate

Referenzen
 World Badminton 17 (1989) (1), S. 41

1988
World Badminton Grand Prix 1988
Sportveranstaltung in Pasadena (Kalifornien)

US Open 1988 (Badminton)


Marele potop din Valencia a fost o inundație care a avut loc la 14 octombrie 1957, în bazinul râului râului Turia, în zona sa de trecere prin localitatea Valencia din Spania. Inundația a ucis cel puțin 81 de persoane, existând de asemenea pagube materiale semnificative.

Valencia și râul Turia
Valencia este un oraș cu peste două milenii de istorie, fondat în anul 138. d. H,. lângă râul Turia și nu departe de mare (de Marea Mediterana). Este, prin urmare, unul dintre cele mai vechi orașe din Spania și amplasarea lui pe o durata atât îndelungată, de timp,  a profitat de resursele de neegalat oferite de apele acestui râu, care, pe de alta parte, a dat naștere unei creșteri lente, dar continue, a nivelului fundului albiei, cu aluviuni pe care râul le-a cărat in decursul vremii.

Ca mai toate orașele construite pe o câmpie aluvionară (o câmpie expusa inundației) a suferit eternul paradox al unui râu care, pe de-o parte se constituie într-o bogată resursă de viață, oferind resurse economice inepuizabile, prin intermediul agriculturii, și pe de alta parte se constituie într-un iminent pericol, întotdeauna latent (cu inundațiile sale sporadice) care poate provoca severe daune, asa cum într-adevăr s-au petrecut lucrurile de-a lungul lungii sale istorii.

Pentru a se combate pericolele acestor inundații, s-a creat Fabrica de Murs și Valls (ziduri/diguri și împrejmuiri), cu scopul de a construi diguri, râului  împrejmuire care a început în secolul al XIV-lea și s-a încheiat în secolul al XVII-lea. O lucrare monumentală realizată cu blocuri mari de piatră spartă, ridicată la câțiva metri buni deasupra digurilor (malurilor) naturale ale râului, și care ar fi servit evitării pagubelor pricinuite de puternica inundație din 1957, dacă ar fi fost corect făcută întreținerea albiei pe timpul a trei secole (XVII - XX), întreținere care ar fi însemnat curățarea (evacuarea) anuală a aluviunilor depuse de râu. pe fundul albiei sale, prin comparație cu istoria altor orașe cu o locație similară (New Orleans, de exemplu), întreținere care s-a relevat a fi fost ceva extrem de dificil de făcut. Iar în cazul localității Valencia, înălțarea fundului albiei și-a demonstrat evidența în timpul inundațiilor din anul 1957, când sistemul de canalizare a funcționat ca furnizor în unele puncte ale orașului (strada Las Barcas, de exemplu) funcționând ca vase comunicante dar în direcție inversă, altfel spus, aducând apa din râu în oraș, în loc sa o evacueze din oraș în rău: nivelul apei în râul a depășit cu ușurință zidurile existente, în mod precis, datorita nivelului crescut în decursul vremurilor al fundului albiei râului. Într-o imagine Street View din Google Maps de la  de la  () poate fi văzut că vehiculele care vin de pe podul "Puente del Real coboară înspre piața "Plaza de Tetuan", înălțimea podului fiind mai mare ca a pieței. Și dacă reamintim că podul acesta a fost depășit de apele râului, ne explicam mai ușor motivul inundării orașului prin chiar sistemul de canalizare al său.

In ce privește malul stâng al râului (riviera Nord) situația provocată de acea inundație a fost mult mai severă, întrucât cea mai mare parte a apelor revărsate de inundații s-au îndreptat spre stânga, după cum indică o locație situată în emisfera nordică, unde înălțarea fundului albiei a fost mai semnificativa pe acea parte stânga și, de asemenea, inundațiile sunt de mai mare amploare tocmai pe această parte. O altă imagine de Street View a Google Maps ne arată șesul numit Llano de la Zaidía și podul San Jose văzute din Strada Dr. Olóriz, care a fost o zona unde cotele inundației au atins cel mai înalt nivel (4.20 m). Mai precis, orientarea imaginii focalizează spre punctul unde potopul a distrus digul artificial al râului exact la joncțiunea lui cu podul "Puente de San Jose" (care apare în partea din stânga a imaginii). Vedem la acest pod partea de parapet originala a râului (blocuri de piatră cioplită), continuat de un parapet mai scund, de construcție ulterioara (Cheiul de pe malul stâng din strada Dr. Olóriz: ).

Istoria
In data 13 (octombrie 1957), au căzut precipitații de peste 300 mm într-o mare parte a bazinului (361 mm în , deși această localitate este situata în bazinul râului , altfel spus, în afara bazinului râului Turia), și a continuat pe 14, cu mai mult de 100 mm. Astfel iau origine două valuri de inundație care se prăvălesc înspre Valencia, prima undă atingând 2.700 m3/s și o viteză medie de 3,25 m/s; iar a doua, mai violentă, atingând 3700 m3/s, 4,16 m/s, inundând în mare parte capitala valenciană

Ca un fapt curios, zona de lângă Catedrala a fost o zona libera de ape, ceea ce demonstrează buna alegere, făcută la vremea ei, a amplasamentului acesteia. Este posibil ca această zonă ceva mai ridicată să fie motivul pentru care cursul râul Turia formează o curbă largă, de forma unui semicerc, în jurul orașului, pe care-l înconjoară pe la nord, lăsând aceasta zona din preajma Catedrală, în centrul acelei curbe. În schimb, în zona de străzii "Calle de las Barcas" (al cărui nume da de înțeles ca acolo a fost cândva un pentru că a fost un debarcader ce deservea bărcile ce or fi navigat în trecut, pe Turia), nu doar ca a fost inundata, ci mai mult, colectorii de drenaj au acționat ca furnizori, datorita ridicării nivelul  apei din râu cu mult deasupra străzii, agravând astfel enormele pagube provocate de acea inundație.

Consecințe
După acest potop, albia râului Turia a fost deviată prin partea de sud a Valenciei, prin intermediul așa-numitul , echipându-se aceasta noua albie cu o capacitate care se cifrează la 5.000 m3/s, și în plus, cu alte diferite lucrări (de mai mică amploare) de regularizare a râului.

Înălțimile atinse de nivelul apei în timpul inundațiilor provocate de acest potop, au fost foarte variate de la un loc la altul al orașului.. De la un 40 de centimetri cât a măsurat în , la 80 de centimetri în , la 2,25 metri în Plaza de Tetuán, la 2.70 metri pe strada Pintor Sorolla, la 3,20 metri în "Jardines del Parterre", la 4 metri în "Calle de las Rocas", și până la 5,20 metri in strada "Doctor Olóriz".

Ploile abundente, au afectat și alte zone din provincia Valencia. Ravena Carraixet, cu o albie foarte ampla, încă de când coboară din munții Sierra de Calderona , și ajungând în zona de câmpie la a masura aproape 200 m lățime (între  și ), s-a revărsat de asemenea, iar apele sale sau unit împreună cu cele ale râului Turia, înainte de a ajunge la mare, in apropiere de .

Un alt "focar" important de precipitații a fost bazinul râului , care a atins recordul istoric de 900 m³/s revărsându-se în Sagunto.

După potop, supărat pe întârzierea ajutorului venit din partea guvernului, primarul din Valencia, , a adus reproșuri lui Francisco Franco, în urma cărora a fost destituit, dar primarul si-a atins scopul propus, criticile sale producând grăbire în ce privește primirea ajutorului guvernamental, atat pentru orașul in sine cat și pentru proiectul .

Referințe

Surse bibliografice
 Doliu în Valencia. Narațiune și episoade ale tragediei. Autor anonim. Tipărit în Valencia de către Tipografia Bernese, 31 octombrie 1957. Se pare că acesta este un prospect cu informații de propaganda al guvernului național pentru a face referire la vizita lui Franco în zonele afectate. Nu are nici o indicație de autor, astfel că este în domeniul public.

Inundațiile din Valencia (1957)


تعود معظم الأنظمة القانونية الوطنية في العالم إلى مدارس أو أنظمة قانونية رئيسية، أبرزها:

 القانون العام، ويسمى أيضاً «القانون الأنجلو-ساكسوني»، وتتبع له الأنظمة القانونية في البلاد الناطقة بالإنجليزية كبريطانيا (باستثناء اسكتلندا)، والولايات المتحدة، وكندا، وأستراليا، ونيوزيلندا.
 القانون المدني، ويسمى أيضاً «القانون الروماني-الجرماني». وهو أكثر المدارس شيوعاً في العالم وقد نشأ في أوروبا القارية، وتعود أصوله إلى القانون المدني الروماني.
 قانون العرف.
 القانون الاشتراكي -- وهو فلسفة قانونية تسعى لخلق مادة قانونية متوافقة مع مبادئ الاشتراكية، وما زال له دور في قانون جمهورية الصين الشعبية.
 قانون الشريعة اليهودية
 قانون كنسي
 الفقه الإسلامي -- وهو النظام الذي من خلاله يتم استنباط أحكام الشريعة الإسلامية، ويتواجد في بعض دول العالم الإسلامي إلى جانب أنظمة قانونية أخرى كالقانون المدني.

انظر أيضًا
 قانون مقارن
 قانون ديني

مراجع

أنظمة قانونية

نظم القانون


De er splittergale er en dansk stumfilm fra 1919, der er instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr. efter manuskript af Valdemar Hansen.

Handling

Eksterne henvisninger

Film instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr.
Stumfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1919

De er splittergale


An Eragrostis anacranthoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Thomas Arthur Cope. An Eragrostis anacranthoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eragrostis, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Zambia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eragrostis

Eragrostis anacranthoides


Sebastián Uriza (Bluefields, Reino de Mosquitia, 1861 - ¿?) fue presidente interino de este país centroamericano del 11 al 14 de noviembre de 1926, sustituyendo al general Emiliano Chamorro y tras 4 días de gobierno le entregó el poder a Adolfo Díaz Recinos.

Biografía
Sebastián Uriza militó en el Partido Conservador (PC) en su natal Bluefields. En 1894 el gobierno del general José Santos Zelaya, mediante el general y periodista Rigoberto Cabezas, reincorporó la Mosquitia. En 1907 el presidente de Estados Unidos Theodore Roosevelt se interesó por esa ciudad. En julio del mismo año Uriza participó en una rebelión contra Zelaya siendo encarcelado en Granada y escapó de la prisión el 7 de agosto del mismo año; el PC dio su aval para la primera intervención de Estados Unidos en el país y fue delegado gubernamental en El Rama y después en Bluefields en 1911.

Fue diputado al Congreso Nacional por el Departamento de Estelí en 1913 y siendo presidente del Senado firmó el Decreto Legislativo N.39, del 28 de febrero de 1919, por el cual se cambió la tonalidad del Himno Nacional La Patria Amada, que fue cambiado en 1939 por Salve a ti. En 1920 propuso cambiarle el nombre a San Pedro de Metapa, Departamento de Matagalpa, por el de Ciudad Darío por ser la cuna del poeta Rubén Darío (1867-1916).

Durante la segunda intervención de Estados Unidos el 11 de noviembre fue nombrado Presidente de la República, de forma interina, ante la renuncia del general Emiliano Chamorro y tras 4 días de gobierno le entregó el poder al contador de minas Adolfo Díaz Recinos.

Referencias

Scudder Klyce Postkarte aus Bluefields (en inglés)
BOLETÍN JUDICIAL DE LA GACETA, 15 DE JUNIO DE 1914
BOLETÍN JUDICIAL DE LA GACETA, 15 DE JUNIO DE 1918,
10 de noviembre de 1911 17 de enero de 1912, Sebastián Uriza – Diputado propietario por el Departamento de Bluefields
Grupoese DE METAPA A CIUDAD DARÍO
Normas Jurídicas de Nicaragua, 12 de marzo de 1923, LAS CONVENCIONES DE WASHINGTON – CONVENCIÓN PARA UNIFICAR LAS LEYES PROTECTORAS DE OBREROS Y TRABAJADORES

Gobernantes de Nicaragua
Presidentes de Nicaragua

Sebastián Uriza


Stekene es un municipio de la región de Flandes, en la provincia de Flandes Oriental, Bélgica.

En 2019 Stekene tenía una población total de 18.445 habitantes. La superficie total es de 44,80 kilómetros2 y una densidad de población de 412 habitantes por km².

Stekene es considerado como un oasis dentro de una Flandes industrializada, ya que gran parte de su territorio está constituido por bosques y terrenos agrícolas.

Stekene es limítrofe con Sint-Gillis-Waas, Sint-Niklaas y con Moerbeke, y al norte de Stekene se sitúa el municipio holandés de Hulst.

Demografía

Evolución
Todos los datos históricos relativos al actual municipio, el siguiente gráfico refleja su evolución demográfica, incluyendo municipios después de efectuada la fusión el 1 de enero de 1977.

Personajes ilustres
Victor Leemans (1901–1971), presidente del Parlamento Europeo entre 1965 y 1966.

Enlaces externos
 Página oficial  (en neerlandés)

Localidades de la provincia de Flandes Oriental
Municipios de la provincia de Flandes Oriental

Stekene


Cerrah Mehmed Paşa Camii, 1594'te Cerrah Mehmed Paşa yaptırmıştır. Mimar Davud Ağa'nın inşa ettiği caminin avlusu dört kapılıdır. Anakubbesi altı filayağına yaslanmaktadır. Tek şerefeli bir minaresi vardır. Cami içine üç kapıdan girilir. Minberi mermerdir.

Galeri

Mimar Davud Ağa'nın eserleri
Fatih'teki camiler
İstanbul'daki Osmanlı camileri
1590'larda tamamlanan camiler
Aksaray, Fatih

Cerrah Mehmed Paşa Camii


Die Slowakische Badmintonmeisterschaft 1998 war die sechste Auflage der Titelkämpfe im Badminton in der Slowakei.

Medaillengewinner

Weblinks
Meisterschaftsstatistik beim nationalen Verband

1998
Badminton 1998

Slowakische Badmintonmeisterschaft 1998


Odur (polegla alpska azaleja, polegli odur, puzava azaleja, povaljeni odur, lat. Kalmia procumbens, sin. Loiseleuria procumbens), biljna vrsta iz porodice vrjesovki, nekada uključivana u monotipski rod odur (Loiseleuria), a danas rodu kalmija ili lovor ruža.

Odur je vazdazeleni puzavi patuljasti grm raširen po Euroaziji (uključujući Hrvatsku) i Sjevernoj Americi.

Izvori

Ericoideae

Odur


El Parque Provincial El Tromen es  un humedal altoandino ubicado en los departamentos de Chos Malal y Pehuenches de la provincia del Neuquén, Argentina.

Fue creado el 15 de octubre de 1971 por decreto provincial n° 1954 y declarado sitio Ramsar el 2 de febrero de 2006 (Día Mundial de los Humedales), el número 1626 en el mundo y el décimo quinto en Argentina. Tiene una superficie de 30 000 ha -que abarca la laguna Tromen y el volcán Tromen- con una rica biodiversidad que incluye un endemismo estricto, la lagartija Liolaemus punmahuida.

Valor natural
Hay tres regiones biogeográficas: las estepas arbustivas del monte, en las que predominan las jarillas hembra, macho y crespa, y algunas isletas de chañar en el noreste; las estepas patagónicas con arbustos bajos y espinosos y presencia de coirón y gramíneas como poa, stipa y festuca; y las estepas altoandinas, con herbáceas y arbustivas bajas.
Fauna
El área protegida es el hábitat de algunos mamíferos entre los que se encuentran el amenazado tuco tuco, chinchillones, vizcachas, maras, mulitas y zorros colorados.

-Aves: Se han registrado por lo menos 26 especies de aves acuáticas y migratorias en la zona, entre ellas, una importante colonia de gaviota andina; gallaretas ligas rojas, escudete rojo y ala blanca; variedad de patos: colorado, overo, zambullidor, crestón y de anteojos, pico cuchara, maicero, barcino; flamenco austral y cisne de cuello negro. También se encuentran especies de cachirla común, jilguero grande, canastero pálido, gaucho serrano (Agriornis montana), jilguero grande, cabecita negra andino, y el choique, especie que se encuentra reducida en número tanto en Neuquén como en toda la Argentina.

Valor cultural
Se identificaron diez yacimientos arqueológicos con restos de objetos utilizados por aborígenes, cinco de los cuales están alrededor de la laguna de Los Barros, cuatro cercanos a la laguna Tromen y uno en las laderas del Cerro Wayle.

Referencias

Áreas naturales protegidas de la provincia de Neuquén
Humedales de Argentina
Sitios Ramsar en Argentina
Departamento Chos Malal
Departamento Pehuenches
Parques provinciales de Argentina

Parque provincial El Tromen


Carlon Jeffery ( es un actor estadounidense más conocido por su papel de co-protagonista en la serie original de Disney Channel, A.N.T. Farm como Cameron Parks.

Carlo también  cuenta con una gemela Carla Jeffrey, la cual también es actriz y ha participado en películas como Zombies y Zombies 2, ambas de Disney Channel.

Vida y carrera
Jeffery nació en Houston, Texas y ha estado viviendo ahí desde la edad de ocho años. Se crio en Cincinnati, Ohio. Ha actuado en salas de la comunidad numerosas veces. Él y su familia se mudaron a Los Ángeles en 2005 para que pudiera seguir una carrera de música y actuación.

En el próximo año, consiguió su primer papel notable, una aparición especial en It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia.En 2007, tuvo un periodo de tres episodios en la serie de drama Héroes. Sus otros créditos en televisión incluyen Bones y Trust Me.

Actualmente es co-protagonista como Cameron Parks en la serie de Disney Channel A.N.T. Farm que se estrenó en 2011.

En la música, Jeffery también es un cantante de rap, conocido con su nombre artístico "Lil C-Note. Él tiene una hermana gemela, llamada Carla Jeffery quien también trabaja en el mundo de la televisión.

Filmografía

Películas

Televisión

Discografía

Bandas sonoras
 A.N.T. Farm Soundtrack (2 canción: Pose, Summertime)

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Actores de Texas
Actores de cine de Estados Unidos
Actores de televisión de Estados Unidos
Cantantes masculinos de Estados Unidos
Cantantes de Texas
Raperos de Estados Unidos
Artistas de Disney
Mellizos
Nacidos en Houston

Carlon Jeffery


Calvin Coolidge Hernton (28 de abril de 1932 — 30 de setembro de 2001) foi um sociólogo, poeta e autor americano, particularmente conhecido por seu estudo de 1965 Sex and Racism in America, que foi descrito como "um olhar franco sobre o papel as tensões sexuais atuavam na divisão racial americana e ajudaram a definir o tom de muitas críticas sociais afro-americanas na década seguinte.

Biografia
Hernton nasceu em Chattanooga, Tennessee, Estados Unidos, em 28 de abril de 1932. Ele estudou no Talladega College, no Alabama, onde se formou em sociologia (1954), e na Fisk University, onde obteve o título de mestre. Em meados da década de 1950, trabalhou como assistente social na cidade de Nova York. Ele também fez leituras de poesia lá e co-fundou a revista Umbra, que publicou um coletivo de escritores negros, incluindo Langston Hughes, Ishmael Reed e Alice Walker. Hernton posteriormente foi para Londres e trabalhou com o Institute of Phenomenological Studies (1965–69), estudando com RD Laing. Hernton atuou ao lado de Obi Egbuna, CLR James e outros na Antiuniversidade de Londres.

Ele voltou para os Estados Unidos em 1970 e foi para o Oberlin College como escritor residente e dois anos depois ingressou no departamento de Estudos Negros. Ele foi professor de estudos afro-americanos lá até sua aposentadoria em 1999.

Hernton foi autor de nove livros que refletem seus escritos como poeta, romancista, ensaísta, dramaturgo e cientista social, incluindo o best-seller Sex and Racism In America (1965), traduzido para vários idiomas, e o inovador The Montanha Sexual e Escritores de Mulheres Negras: Aventuras em Sexo, Literatura e Vida Real (1987). Seus poemas também foram publicados em Essence, Evergreen Review e Black Scholar, entre outros lugares, e em várias gravações e foram apresentados em peças na Broadway e em turnê.

Em 2011 o Chelsea Art Museum recriou uma performance de Black Zero, happening encenado por Aldo Tambellini no Group Center em diversas ocasiões entre 1963 e 1965. As gravações sonoras de Hernton recitando sua poesia foram acompanhadas por apresentações improvisadas de Ben Morea e Henry Grimes.

Hernton morreu em Oberlin, Ohio, aos 69 anos.

Bibliografia
Ficção

 Espantalho (romance; 1974)

Não-ficção

 Sexo e Racismo na América (Doubleday, 1965)
 Livros Brancos para Americanos Brancos (Doubleday, 1966)
 Coming Together: Black Power, White Hatred e Sexual Hang-ups (Doubleday, 1971)
 (com Joseph Berke ) The Cannabis Experience: An Interpretative Study of the Effects of Marijuana and Haxixe (Londres: Peter Owen, 1974)
 The Sexual Mountain and Black Women Writers: Adventures in Sex, Literature, and Real Life (1987)

Poesia

 The Coming of Chronos to the House of Nightsong: An Epic Narrative of the South (Interim Books, 1964)
 Medicine Man: Collected Poems (Reed Cannon & Johnson Publishing, 1976)
 The Red Crab Gang e Black River Poems (Ishmael Reed Publishing Company, 1999)
 Poemas selecionados (Wesleyan University Press, no prelo, 2022)

Peças

 Feliz por estar morto (1958)
 Chama (1958)
 O Lugar (1972)
 (Estas peças permanecem inéditas)

Contribuições para Antologias

 (Poesia) Rosey E. Pool, ed., Beyond the Blues: New Poems by American Negroes (Hand & Flower Press, 1962)
 (Poesia e ensaio) LeRoi Jones e Larry Neal, eds, Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing (Morrow, 1969)

Referências

Leitura adicional

 Tom Dent, 'A Voice from a Tumultuous Time' (resenha de Medicine Man) , Obsidian, Vol.6 (Primavera-Verão 1980), pp. 103–6.
 David Grundy, A Black Arts Poetry Machine: Amiri Baraka and the Umbra Poets (Londres: Bloomsbury, 2019).
 Michel Oren, "The Enigmatic Career of Hernton's Scarecrow", Callaloo, Volume 29, Número 2, Primavera de 2006, pp. 608–618.
 Lauri Ramey, "Calvin Hernton: Retrato de um Poeta", em Lauri Ramey (ed. ) , The Heritage Series of Black Poetry, 1962-1975: A Research Compendium (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008).
 Lorenzo Thomas, Extraordinary Measures: Afrocentric Modernism and Twentieth Century American Poetry (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2000), pp. 133–6.

Ligações externas

 Margalit Fox, "Calvin Hernton, 69, Scholar Of American Race Relations" (obituary), The New York Times, October 10, 2001.
 "Medicine Man" by Calvin Hernton, African American Registry
 FBI file on Calvin Hernton at the Internet Archive

Sociólogos dos Estados Unidos
Mortos em 2001
Nascidos em 1932
Novelistas dos Estados Unidos
Poetas dos Estados Unidos
Alunos da Universidade Fisk
Escritores dos Estados Unidos
Poetas afro-americanos
Afro-americanos do século XX
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Negres)

Calvin C. Hernton


Baudenkmäler nach Ortsteilen

Salgen

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Bronnen

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Hausen

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Simonsberg

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Abgegangene Baudenkmäler

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Siehe auch
 Liste der Bodendenkmäler in Salgen

Anmerkungen

Literatur

Weblinks

 In dieser [ Kartenansicht] sind Baudenkmäler ohne Koordinaten mit einem roten bzw. orangen Marker dargestellt und können in der Karte gesetzt werden. Baudenkmäler ohne Bild sind mit einem blauen bzw. roten Marker gekennzeichnet, Baudenkmäler mit Bild mit einem grünen bzw. orangen Marker.

Salgen
!

Liste der Baudenkmäler in Salgen


Die Kathedrale von Namur mit dem Patrozinium Saint-Aubain (St. Alban) ist die Bischofskirche des römisch-katholischen Bistums Namur in Namur (Belgien). Sie gilt als bedeutendes Beispiel spätbarocker Architektur und einzig in ihrer Art in Belgien.

Geschichte
Im Jahr 1047 wurde das Kollegiatstift St. Alban in Namur gegründet. Nach der Errichtung des Bistums Namur 1559 wurde die Stiftskirche zur Kathedrale erhoben. Zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts galt sie als stilistisch veraltet. Die Überschwemmung des Jahres 1740 machte sie vollends baufällig. Bischof und Domkapitel beschlossen einen Neubau auf den Fundamenten der Stiftskirche und der benachbarten Pfarrkirche Saint-Jean-Évangeliste. Mit dem Architekturentwurf wurde Gaetano Pisoni beauftragt, der zu dieser Zeit in Brüssel wirkte. 1751 wurde der Grundstein gelegt. Die Arbeiten, insbesondere an der Kuppel, zogen sich jedoch hin und konnten erst 1767 abgeschlossen werden. Die feierliche Weihe erfolgte am 20. September 1772.

Architektur
Ältester Teil der Kathedrale ist der freistehende Glockenturm im Westen, der von der Stiftskirche erhalten blieb. Die mittelalterlichen Untergeschosse wurden 1648 um ein frühbarockes Obergeschoss erhöht.

Die Kirche selbst, im barock-klassizistischen (Louis-seize-) Stil gehalten, ist eine gewestete dreischiffige Basilika. Mit ihrem breiten Querhaus, dessen Arme apsidial schließen, und dem langen Chor sowie der mächtigen Tambour-Kuppel über der Vierung kommt sie einem Zentralbau nahe. Diese Wirkung wird durch die nachkonziliare Altarinsel in der Vierung verstärkt. Die übrige künstlerische Ausstattung – Kanzel, Altäre, Gemälde – sind weitgehend original. Die zweigeschossige, geschwungene Schaufassade an der Ostseite musste nach Verwitterungsschäden um 1900 vollständig erneuert werden.

Orgel
Die Orgel geht zurück auf ein Instrument, das in den Jahren 1844 bis 1849 von dem Orgelbauer Wilhelm Korfmacher erbaut wurde. Erhalten ist bis heute das imposante Orgelgehäuse. Das Instrument hatte um die 50 Register auf drei Manualen und Pedal. Im Laufe der Jahre wurde das Orgelwerk mehrfach renoviert, und in den Jahren 1964–1968 umfassend umgebaut. Das Instrument hat heute 60 Register auf vier Manualen und Pedal.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Geschichte und Architektur (französisch)
 360°-Ansicht des Innenraums

Kathedrale
Kirchengebäude in Wallonien
Römisch-katholische Kathedrale in Belgien
Alban-von-Mainz-Kirche
Erbaut in den 1760er Jahren
Kollegiatstift
Disposition einer Orgel
 Kathedrale

Kathedrale von Namur