was the lead ship of the two  dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy. Launched in 1914 and commissioned in 1915, she initially patrolled off the coast of China, playing no part in World War I. In 1923, she assisted survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake.

Fusō was modernized in 1930–1935 and again in 1937–1941, with improvements to her armor and propulsion machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style. With only  guns, she was outclassed by other Japanese battleships at the beginning of World War II, and played auxiliary roles for most of the war.

Fusō was part of Vice-Admiral Shōji Nishimura's Southern Force at the Battle of Leyte Gulf. She was sunk in the early hours of 25 October 1944 by torpedoes and naval gunfire during the Battle of Surigao Strait. Some reports claimed Fusō broke in half, and that both halves remained afloat and burning for an hour; according to survivors' accounts, however, the ship sank after 40 minutes of flooding and caught fire when her fuel bunkers spilled open. Of the few dozen crewmen who escaped, only 10 survived to return to Japan.

Description

The ship had a length of  between perpendiculars and  overall. She had a beam of  and a draft of . Fusō displaced  at standard load and  at full load. Her crew consisted of 1,198 officers and enlisted men in 1915 and 1,396 in 1935. During World War II, the crew probably totalled around 1,800–1,900 men.

During the ship's first modernization during 1930–1933, her forward superstructure was enlarged with multiple platforms added to her tripod foremast. Her rear superstructure was rebuilt to accommodate mounts for  anti-aircraft (AA) guns and additional fire-control directors. Fusō was also given torpedo bulges to improve her underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor and equipment. During the second phase of her first reconstruction in 1934–1935, Fusōs torpedo bulge was enlarged and her stern was lengthened by . These changes increased her overall length to , her beam to  and her draft to . Her displacement increased by nearly  to  at deep load.

Propulsion
The ship had two sets of Brown-Curtis direct-drive steam turbines, each of which drove two propeller shafts. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , using steam provided by 24 Miyahara-type water-tube boilers, each of which consumed a mixture of coal and oil. Fusō had a stowage capacity of  of coal and  of fuel oil, giving her a range of  at a speed of . The ship exceeded her design speed of  during her sea trials, reaching  at .

During her first modernization, the Miyahara boilers were replaced by six new Kampon oil-fired boilers fitted in the former aft boiler room, and the forward funnel was removed. The Brown-Curtis turbines were replaced by four geared Kanpon turbines with a designed output of . During her 1933 trials, Fusō reached a top speed of  from . The fuel storage of the ship was increased to a total of  of fuel oil that gave her a range of  at a speed of .

Armament
The twelve 45-caliber 14-inch guns of Fusō were mounted in six twin-gun turrets, numbered one through six from front to rear, each with an elevation range of −5 to +30 degrees. The turrets were arranged in an uncommon 2-1-1-2 style with superfiring pairs of turrets fore and aft; the middle turrets were not superfiring, and had a funnel between them. The main guns and their turrets were modernized during the ship's 1930 reconstruction; the elevation of the main guns was increased to +43 degrees, increasing their maximum range from . Initially, the guns could fire at a rate of 1.5 rounds per minute, and this was also improved during her first modernization. The orientation of Turret No. 3 was reversed during the modernization; it now faced forward.

Originally, Fusō was fitted with a secondary armament of sixteen 50-caliber six-inch 41st Year Type guns mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull. The gun had a maximum range of  and fired at a rate of up to six shots per minute. She was fitted with five 40-caliber three-inch (76 mm) AA guns in 1918. The high-angle guns were in single mounts on both sides of the forward superstructure and both sides of the second funnel, as well as on the port side of the aft superstructure. These guns had a maximum elevation of +75 degrees, and could fire a  shell at a rate of 13 to 20 rounds per minute to a maximum height of . The ship was also fitted with six submerged  torpedo tubes, three on each broadside.

During the first phase of Fusōs modernization of the early 1930s, all five three-inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 40-caliber 127-millimeter dual-purpose guns, fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin-gun mounts. When firing at surface targets, the guns had a range of ; they had a maximum ceiling of  at their maximum elevation of +90 degrees. Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute, but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute. At this time, the ship was also provided with four quadruple mounts for the license-built Type 93 13.2 mm machine guns, two on the pagoda mast and one on each side of the funnel. The maximum range of these guns was , but the effective range against aircraft was only . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute, but the need to change 30-round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute.

The improvements made during the first reconstruction increased Fusōs draft by , soaking the two foremost six-inch guns, so they were removed during the first phase of the ship's second modernization in 1937 and 1938. During this same phase, the Type 93  machine guns were replaced by eight 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns in twin-gun mounts. Four of these mounts were fitted on the forward superstructure, one on each side of the funnel and two on the rear superstructure. This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon. According to historian Mark Stille, the twin and triple mounts "lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets; the gun exhibited excessive vibration; the magazine was too small, and, finally, the gun produced excessive muzzle blast". The configuration of the AA guns varied significantly; in July 1943, 17 single and two twin-mounts were added for a total of 37. In July 1944, the ship was fitted with additional AA guns: 23 single, six twin and eight triple-mounts, for a total of 95 in her final configuration. These  guns had an effective range of , and an effective ceiling of  at an elevation of +85 degrees. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines.

Armor
The ship's waterline armor belt was  thick; below it was a strake of  armor. The deck armor ranged in thickness from . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of  on the face,  on the sides, and  on the roof. The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armor 305 mm thick, while the casemates of the 152 mm guns were protected by 152 mm armor plates. The sides of the conning tower were  thick. The vessel contained 737 watertight compartments (574 underneath the armor deck, 163 above) to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage.

During her first reconstruction Fusōs armor was substantially upgraded. The deck armor was increased to a maximum thickness of . A longitudinal bulkhead of  of high-tensile steel was added to improve underwater protection.

Aircraft
Fusō was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying-off platform on Turret No. 2 in 1924. During the first phase of her first modernization, a catapult was fitted on the roof of Turret No. 3 and the ship was equipped to operate three floatplanes, although no hangar was provided. The initial Nakajima E4N2 biplanes were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938. Fusōs ability to operate her aircraft was greatly improved during the second phase of her second modernization in 1940–41 when the aircraft handling equipment was moved to the stern and a new catapult was installed. Mitsubishi F1M biplanes replaced the E8Ns from 1942 on.

Fire control and sensors
When completed in 1915, Fusō had two  and two  rangefinders in her forward superstructure, a  rangefinder on the roof of Turret No. 2, and 4.5-meter rangefinders in Turrets 3, 4, and 5. In late 1917 a fire-control director was installed on a platform on the foremast. The 4.5-meter rangefinders were replaced by  instruments in 1923. During the ship's first modernization, four directors for the 12.7 mm AA guns were added, one each on each side of the fore and aft superstructures, and an eight-meter rangefinder was installed at the top of the pagoda mast. This was replaced by a  rangefinder during 1938. At this same time, the two 3.5-meter rangefinders on the forward superstructure were replaced by directors for the 25 mm AA guns. Additional 25 mm directors were installed on platforms on each side of the funnel.

While in drydock in July 1943, Type 21 air search radar was installed on the roof of the 10-meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast. In August 1944, two Type 22 surface search radar units were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radar units were fitted on the funnel. Fusō was the only Japanese battleship to mount radar on her funnel.

Construction and service

Given a classical name for Japan, Fusō was laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal on 11 March 1912 and launched on 28 March 1914. She was commissioned on 8 November 1915 and assigned to the 1st Division,  of the 1st Fleet on 13 December under the command of Captain Kōzō Satō. The ship did not take part in any combat during World War I, as there were no longer any forces of the Central Powers in Asia by the time she was completed; she patrolled off the coast of China during that time. The ship served as the flagship of the 1st Division during 1917 and 1918. During the ship's period in reserve in 1918, five 76.2 mm anti-aircraft guns were installed. She aided survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake between 9 and 22 September 1923. Captain Mitsumasa Yonai assumed command on 1 July 1924 and was relieved on 1 November by Captain Sankichi Takahashi. In the 1920s, Fusō conducted training off the coast of China and was often placed in reserve.

The first phase of the ship's first modernization began on 12 April 1930 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal; machinery was replaced, armor was reinforced, and torpedo bulges were fitted. Fusō arrived on 26 September 1932 at Kure Naval Arsenal, where her armament was upgraded and her torpedo tubes were removed. Her sea trials began on 12 May 1933, and the second phase of her modernization began less than a year later. The ship's stern was lengthened and work was completed in March 1935. Captain Jinichi Kusaka was assigned command from November 1935 to December 1936. After sporadic use for training for the next two years, Fusō was assigned as a training ship in 1936 and 1937.

Fusō began the first phase of her second modernization on 26 February 1937, and Captain Hiroaki Abe assumed command on 1 December. He was relieved by Captain Ruitaro Fujita on 1 April 1938, the day after this phase of her modernization was completed. The ship was again assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet on 15 November. She briefly operated in Chinese waters in early 1939 before the second phase of her second modernization began on 12 December 1940. This was completed on 10 April 1941, and Fusō was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 1st Fleet. Captain Mitsuo Kinoshita assumed command on 15 September, when the division consisted of the two Fusō-class and the two s.

World War II

On 10 April 1941, Fusō was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 1st Fleet. When the war started for Japan on 8 December, the division, reinforced by the battleships  and  and the light carrier , sortied from Hashirajima to the Bonin Islands as distant support for the 1st Air Fleet attacking Pearl Harbor, and returned six days later. On 21 February 1942, the ship returned to the shipyard at Kure to replace her gun barrels, departing on 25 February. Together with the rest of the 2nd Battleship Division, she pursued but did not catch the American carrier force that had launched the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942.

Fusō and the rest of the 2nd Battleship Division set sail on 28 May 1942 with the Aleutian Support Group at the same time that most of the Imperial Fleet began an attack on Midway Island (Operation MI). Commanded by Vice-Admiral Shirō Takasu, the division was composed of Japan's four oldest battleships, including Fusō, accompanied by two light cruisers, 12 destroyers, and two oilers. Official records do not show the division as part of the larger Midway operation, known as Operation AL; they were to accompany the fleet under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, but were only to provide support to the Aleutian task force if needed.

On 14 June, Fusō returned to Yokosuka and arrived back at Hashirajima on 24 June. In an effort to replace the aircraft carriers lost at the Battle of Midway, the navy made plans to convert the two Fusō-class ships to hybrid battleship-carriers, but the two Ise-class battleships were chosen instead. The ship was assigned to the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at Etajima, Hiroshima, for use as a training ship between 15 November 1942 and 15 January 1943. Captain Keizō Komura assumed command on 5 December, and was relieved by Captain Nobumichi Tsuruoka on 1 June the next year. Seven days later, Fusō rescued 353 survivors from Mutsu when that ship exploded at Hashirajima.

Between 18 and 24 July 1943, the ship was at the Kure drydock for fitting of radar and additional 25 mm AA guns. Fusō sailed from the Inland Sea on 18 August for Truk Naval Base, carrying supplies, and arrived five days later. The Japanese had intercepted American radio traffic that suggested an attack on Wake Island, and on 17 October, Fusō and the bulk of the 1st Fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack. The fleet arrived on the 19th, departed four days later, and arrived back at Truk on 26 October.

On 1 February 1944, Fusō departed Truk with Nagato to avoid an American air raid, and arrived at Palau on 4 February. They left on 16 February to escape another air raid. The ships arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island, and Fusō was employed there as a training ship. A week later, Captain Masami Ban relieved Tsuruoka. The ship was refitted at Singapore between 13 and 27 April, and returned to Lingga. She was transferred to Tawi-Tawi on 11 May and provided cover for the convoy that failed to reinforce Biak Island at the end of the month. Fusō transferred to Tarakan Island off Borneo to refuel in early July before returning to Japan and escaping an attack by the submarine . In early August at Kure, she was refitted with additional radars and light AA guns. Fusō and her sister ship were transferred to Battleship Division 2 of the 2nd Fleet on 10 September, and Fusō became the flagship of the division under the command of Vice-Admiral Shōji Nishimura on 23 September. They departed Kure on 23 September for Lingga, escaping an attack by the submarine  the next day, and arrived on 4 October, where Nishimura transferred his flag to Yamashiro. The ships then transferred to Brunei to refuel in preparation for Operation Shō-Gō, the attempt to destroy the American fleet conducting the invasion of Leyte.

Battle of Surigao Strait

Commanded by Rear Admiral Masami Ban, Fusō left Brunei at 15:30 on 22 October 1944 as part of Nishimura's Southern Force, heading east into the Sulu Sea and then northeast into the Mindanao Sea. Intending to join Vice-Admiral Takeo Kurita's force in Leyte Gulf, the force passed west of Mindanao Island into Surigao Strait, where it met a large force of battleships and cruisers lying in wait. The Battle of Surigao Strait became the southernmost action in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.

At 09:08 on 24 October, Fusō, Yamashiro, and the heavy cruiser Mogami spotted a group of 27 planes, including Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers escorted by Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters from the carrier . A bomb from one of them destroyed the catapult and both floatplanes. Another bomb hit the ship near Turret No. 2 and penetrated the decks, killing everyone in No. 1 secondary battery; the ship began to list 2 degrees to starboard. Early the next morning, Fusō opened fire around 01:05 after a shape was spotted off the port bow; it turned out to be Mogami; Fusōs fire killed three sailors in that ship's sick bay.

One or two torpedoes, possibly fired by the destroyer , hit Fusō amidships on the starboard side at 03:09 on the 25th; she listed to starboard, slowed down, and fell out of formation. Some Japanese and American eyewitnesses later claimed Fusō broke in half, and that both halves remained afloat and burning for an hour, but they specifically mentioned only the size of the fire on the water, and not any details of the ship. Historian John Toland agreed in 1970 that Fusō had broken in two, but according to historian Anthony Tully in 2009:

Fusō sank between 03:38 and 03:50, releasing a large quantity of oil which ignited on the surface as she went down; only a few dozen men survived the rapid sinking and subsequent oil fire. There is evidence that some of these were rescued by the destroyer , which was itself sunk a short time later; it is also possible that some who escaped the sinking reached Leyte only to be killed by Filipinos, as is known to have happened to survivors from other Japanese warships sunk in the Battle of Surigao Strait. Ten crew members are known to have survived, all of whom returned to Japan. The total number of casualties is estimated at 1,620 sailors.

Fusō was removed from the navy list on 31 August 1945.

Wreck

 discovered the wreck of Fusō on 25 November 2017. The ship lies upside down in  of water and is in one piece on the seabed, with the hull broken amidships from the impact with the bottom. The pagoda mast broke off during the sinking and is some distance away from the wreck.

Notes

Footnotes

References

External links

 Anthony Tully, "Shell Game at Surigao: The entangled fates of battleships Fuso and Yamashiro", 1999
"Paul Allen's Petrel project wins spotlight in TV show about Pacific War shipwrecks"
"Drain the Oceans Season 2, Episode 8, Pacific War Megaships"

Fusō-class battleships
Shipwrecks in the Surigao Strait
World War I battleships of Japan
Second Sino-Japanese War naval ships of Japan
World War II battleships of Japan
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
1914 ships
Maritime incidents in October 1944
Shipwreck discoveries by Paul Allen
2017 archaeological discoveries
World War II shipwrecks in the Philippine Sea
Ships built by Kure Naval Arsenal

Japanese battleship Fusō


Buzatul sau lapina mare (Labrus viridis) este un pește marin teleostean din ordinul perciforme, familia labride, care trăiește în zona litorală, pe fund pietros sau printre tufele de zostera. Este răspândit pe coastele de est al Oceanului Atlantic, în Marea Mediterană, Marea Egee, Marea Marmara. În apele Mării Negre este foarte rar. Se întâlnește și pe litoralul românesc al Mării Negre de la Constanța spre sud. Are o lungime de până la 40 cm. Corpul este ușor alungit, capul comprimat lateral, botul alungit și cu buze groase (de unde și denumirea peștelui), iar pe fălci dinți dispuși pe un singur rând. Înotătoarea dorsală lungă. Înotătoarele pectorale și ventralele scurte. Corpul, cât și opercularul și preopercularul sunt acoperite în întregime cu solzi. Coloritul lui este frumos, verde pe spate, cu pete albastre pe cap, trunchi și înotătoare. Pe abdomen se distinge un desen reticulat brun, în formă de rețea, iar marginea înotătoarei dorsale este roșie, pe când a înotătoarelor anale și caudale, albastră. Depune icre bentonice pe la sfârșitul primăverii. Se hrănește cu crustacee, moluște și pești. Se poate folosi în acvarii mari, publice.

Descrierea
Lungimea maximă este de 60 cm. Obișnuit atinge 15-35 cm și o greutate de până la 1,7 kg. În Marea Neagră atinge o lungime de 40 cm și o greutate de 950 g.  Longevitatea este de 15-18 ani.

Corpul este alungit, înalt, moderat comprimat lateral. Înălțimea corpului este egală sau depășește ușor lungimea capului și reprezintă aproximativ 20,8-25% din lungimea totală a corpului, cuprinzându-se de 4,0-4,8 ori în lungimea lui totală.  Profilul dorsal și ventral sunt la fel de convexe. Înălțimea minimă a corpului reprezintă 11,7-12,5% din lungimea totală a corpului.

Capul este alungit. Lungimea capului este mai mare decât înălțimea corpului și reprezintă 23,8-26,4% din lungimea totală a corpului și intră în această dimensiune de 3,8-4,2 ori (la exemplarele din Marea Neagră de 3,9-4,1, iar la cele din Marea Mediterană de 3,6-4,0).

Ochii sunt mari. Spațiul interorbital este convex. Diametrul ochiului reprezintă 30,8-47%, iar spațiul interorbital 42-56,5% din înălțimea minimă a corpului și depășește ușor diametrul ochiului. În lungimea capului spațiul interorbital se cuprinde de 4,9-7,0 ori, iar diametrul ochiului de 4,0-6,5 ori. Nările sunt mai apropiate de ochi decât de vârful botului.

Botul este lung și ascuțit. Lungimea botului este cuprinsă de 2,2-2,7 ori în cea a capului și de 0,94-1,20 ori în înălțimea trunchiului caudal și reprezintă 37-43,5% din cea a capului și 83-107% din înălțimea minimă a corpului. Gura este relativ mare, terminală, moderat protractilă. Buzele sunt bine dezvoltate, cărnoase și groase.

Fălcile și oasele faringiene inferioare, care sunt concrescute între ele, sunt prevăzute cu dinți puternici; prevomerul și palatinele sunt lipsite de dinți. Dinții fălcilor sunt conici, caniniformi, dispuși pe un singur rând;  cei anteriori fiind mai puternici, mai curbați și mai groși ca ceilalți. Pe fiecare parte a fălcii superioare se află 8-11 dinți, iar pe cea a fălcii inferioare 9-12 dinți, care se micșorează treptat spre colturile gurii; perechile 2-3 anterioare de pe falca superioară și perechile 1-2 de pe falca inferioară sunt măriți, au forma  de canini ușor curbați. La exemplare bătrâne dinții fălcilor sunt rotunjiți la vârf.

Oasele faringiene 2, 3 și 4 de pe fiecare latură, sunt contopite în câte o singură piesă masticatoare, prevăzută cu dinți; cele două piese de pe fiecare latură rămân independente; marginea lor superioară e concavă și se articulează de o apofiză convexă a parasfenoidului. Oasele faringiene inferioare concrescute, adică cele stângi se concresc cu simetricele lor de pe partea dreaptă. Dinții faringieni sunt conici sau rotunjiți.

Înotătoarele au radii țepoase. Au o singură înotătoare dorsală, a cărei parte anterioară spinoasă (țepoasă) este mai lungă decât parte posterioară moale; parte spinoasă ocupă mai mult din jumătatea întinderii întregii înotătoare dorsale. Partea moale a dorsalei este puțin mai înaltă decât cea spinoasă. Partea spinoasă a dorsalei are 17-19 radii spinoase (nici unul dintre spini nu este prelungit), iar cea moale 10-14 radii moi ramificate (la subspecia Labrus viridis prasostictes din Marea Neagră 12-13 radii moi). Formula înotătoarei dorsale la Labrus viridis prasostictes este D XVII-XIX 12-13.

Înotătoarea anală este inserată aproximativ sub limita dintre partea spinoasă și cea moale a înotătoarei dorsale și are 3 spini (radii spinoase) în partea anterioară și 9-13 radii moi ramificate în partea posterioară. Subspecia Labrus viridis viridis din Marea Mediterană, are 10-11 radii moi, iar subspecia Labrus viridis prasostictes din Marea Neagră, are 9-10 radii moi. Formula înotătoarei anală la Labrus viridis prasostictes este A III 9-10. Înotătoarea anală are aproximativ aceeași lungime ca și partea moale a înotătoarei dorsale. Înotătoarea caudală este rotunjită și are 14 radii, din care 12 ramificate.

Înotătoarele pectorale și ventrale sunt rotunjite și scurte, vârful lor rămâne la mare distanță de anus. Înotătoarele ventrale rotunjite, cu poziție pectorală, se inserează puțin în urma înotătoarelor pectoralelor și au o radie anterioară spinoasă și 5 radii moi. Formula lor este V I 5. Înotătoarele pectorale sunt rotunjite și au o radie spinoasă și 14-15 radii moi. Formula înotătoarelor pectorale este P I 14-15.

Solzii cicloizi, de mărime mijlocie, acoperă întregul corp și cea mai mare parte a capului (cu excepția frunții și botului). Numărul rândurilor transversale de solzi de pe corp este mai mare ca 42. Pe obraji între ochi și preopercular sunt 5-8 rânduri transversale de solzi imbricați. Operculele (opercularul și preopercularul) sunt acoperite în întregime cu solzi imbricați; solzii de pe preopercul sunt mai mici ca cei de pe opercul. Interopercularul lipsit de solzi sau cu un număr redus de solzi (1-3 solzi pe marginea posterioară). Marginea posterioară a preopercularului netedă, nezimțuită la adulți (la puiet este de multe ori ușor zimțuită).

Linia laterală completă, continuă și neîntreruptă, anterior se află în partea superioară a corpului, apoi se curbează ușor în jos sub capătul posterior al înotătoarei dorsale și se continue prin mijlocul pedunculului caudal. Pe linia laterală se află 41-49 solzi dispuși în linie longitudinală. Numărul de solzi deasupra liniei laterale (numărați vertical până la începutul înotătoarei dorsale) este de 4-6. Numărul de solzi sub linia laterală (numărați vertical până la începutul înotătoarei ventrale) este de 12-13. Aceasta se poate reda prin formula 41 [4-6/12-13] 49. La subspecia Labrus viridis prasostictes această formulă este 44 [4-5½ /12-13] 47.

Vezica înotătoare este prezentă. Aparatul opercular cu 5-6  radii branhiostegale și o pseudobranhie bine dezvoltată. Pe primul arc branhial se află 20-22 branhiospini (spini branhiali). Apendicele pilorice lipsesc. Osul maxilar superior este absent. Coloana vertebrală are 38-39 vertebre. Toate coastele sunt articulate la parapofize.

Răspândire geografică
Terra typica: litoralul Crimeei.

Este răspândit pe coastele europene și africane ale Oceanului Atlantic, din Portugalia până în Maroc, în Marea Mediterană, Marea Egee, Marea Marmara, Marea Neagră. În Marea Neagră este o specie rară și se întâlnește pe litoralul sudic al Crimeei (Sevastopol și Balaklava), Dobrogii (România), Bulgariei  (Balcic, Varna, Burgas, Sozopol) și Turciei.

A fost găsit în apele litorale din următoarelor țări: Albania, Algeria, Bulgaria, Croația, Cipru, Egipt, Franța, Gibraltar, Grecia, Italia, Libia, Malta, Monaco, Muntenegru, Maroc, Portugalia, România, Slovenia, Spania, Tunisia, Turcia, Ucraina.

Pe litoralul românesc al al Mării Negre este întâlnit rar de la Constanța spre sud, inclusiv la Agigea.

Habitatul
Buzatul este un pește marin litoral. Trăiește în general solitar sau mai rar în cupluri, în zona litorală a mărilor la adâncimi de 2-50 m, unde este fund pietros, printre pietre sau stânci subacvatice sau între tufele de ierburi marine de Zostera sau de Posidonia. Peștii mai mari se întâlnesc la adâncimi mai mari decât puietul. Buzatul este un pește prudent și fricos, foarte mobil și rapid, care se ascunde sub pietre și printre ierburile marine de Zostera la apropierea unui plonjor.

Hrana
Se hrănește în primul rând cu moluște,  dar și cu crustacee, echinoderme și pești. Cu ajutorul dinților caniniformi puternici, dispuși pe un singur rând pe cele două fălci poate sfărâma carapacele crustaceelor sau cochiliile moluștelor pe care le prinde.

Bibliografie
 Petru Bănărescu. Fauna Republicii Populare Române. Vol. XIII : Pisces - Osteichtyes (Pești ganoizi și osoși). București. Editura Academiei Republicii Populare România, 1964.
 Sergiu I. Cărăușu. Tratat de ichtiologie. Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Române, Bucuresti 1952, 804 p.
 L. Lustun, I. Rădulescu, V. Voican. Dicționar piscicol. Editura Ceres. București 1978.
 George D. Vasiliu. Peștii apelor noastre. București : Edit. Științifică, 1959.
 Th. Bușniță, I. Alexandrescu. Atlasul peștilor din apele R.S. România. București, 1971.
 Radu Gheorghe, Radu Elena. Determinator al principalelor specii de pești din Marea Neagră. Editura VIROM, 2008.
 Kožul V, Glavić N, Tutman P, Bolotin J, Onofri V. The spawning, embryonic and early larval development of the green wrasse Labrus viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) (Labridae) in controlled conditions. Animal Reproduction Science 125 (2011), 196–203
 Quingnard, J.P., 1966. Recherches sur les Labridae (poisons Téléostéens Perciformes) des Côtes Européenes—systématique et biologie. Naturalia monspeliensia, série zoologie, 5, 7–248.
  Jardas, I., Pallaoro, A., Vrgoč, N., Jukić-Peladić. Crvena knjiga morskih riba Hrvatske (Red Book of Sea Fishes of Croatia). Ministarstvo kulture i Državni zavod za zaštitu prirode, Zagreb, 2008
 Васильева Е.Д. Рыбы Черного моря. Определитель морских, солоноватоводных, эвригалинных и проходных видов с цветными иллюстрациями, собранными С.В. Богородским. Москва, Изд-во ВНИРО, 2007.
 А. Н. Световидов. Рыбы Черного Моря. Издательство «Наука» Москва,  Ленинград 1964  (Определители по фауне СССР, издаваемые Зоологическим Институтом Академии Наук СССР, Том 86)
 А.Р. Болтачев, Е.П. Карпова.  Морские рыбы Крымского Полуострова. Национальная Академия Наук Украины, Институт Биологии Южных Морей им. А.О. Ковалевского. Симферополь «Бизнес-Информ» 2012 (Marine Fishes of the Crimean Peninsula)
 Красная книга Республики Крым. Животные. Симферополь, ООО «ИТ «АРИАЛ», 2015.

Legături externe
 Labre vert, Labrus viridis, Linnaeus, 1758. DORIS (Données d'Observations pour la Reconnaissance et l'Identification de la faune et la flore Subaquatiques)
  Labrus viridis  Linnaeus, 1758. FishBase
 Labrus viridis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
 Peștii din Marea Neagră. EcoMareaNeagra
  Губань зелений Labrus viridis Linnaeus, 1758. Червона книга України

Labrus
 Pești din România
Pești din Marea Neagră

Buzat


Checkers Drive In Restaurants er en af de største kæder med dobbelt-drive thru-restauranter i USA. Det blev et privat selskab i juni 2006 ved at fusionere med Taxi Holdings.

Fastfoodrestaurantkæder fra USA

Checkers Drive In Restaurants


T-26, 1920'lerde Sovyet tank programının ilk ürünüdür. Piyade destek tankına olan ihtiyaç çerçevesinde İngiliz hafif piyade tankından örnek alınarak modellemesi yapılmıştır. Çift taret versiyonlarında sorunlar çıktığı için terk edildi. 1933'ten itibaren tek tarete geçildi. Taretin tankın sağ tarafında olması, 37 mm.'lik Alman  topunun konulmasına  sorun yarattı. Bu yüzden 45 mm.'lik Model 1932 topunun konulması için daha iyi bir taret dizayn edildi.  Leningrad Fabrikası ve Harkof  Fabrikalar tarından dizayn edilen yeni taret T-26 Model 1933, BT-5 ve T-35 tankları için standart olarak belirlendi. Bu modelden 1937'de üretimi kesilene kadar 5.000'den fazla üretildi. T-26, 7 Kasım 1931'de Kızıl Meydan'da ilk defa halka gösterildi. A ve B versiyonları 5.500 adet üretildikten sonra 1936'da durduruldu. Toplamda yaklaşık 12.000 T-26 üretildi. İspanyol İç Savaşı, Rus-Japon Çatışmaları, Finlandiya Seferi ve II. Dünya Savaşı'nın Doğu Cephesi'nin ilk zamanlarında kullanıldı.

Kullanan ülkeler
  - 12.000
  - Bilinmiyor
  - 82
  - 126
  - 120
  - 64

Ayrıca bakınız
 II. Dünya Savaşı Zırhlı Araç Listesi

Kaynakça

II. Dünya Savaşı'nda Sovyetler Birliği'nin tankları

T-26


Saligny est une commune dans le județ de Constanța, dans la région de Dobroudja, en Roumanie. Le nom de la localité vient de l'ingénieur roumain Anghel Saligny (1854-1925). Dans le passé, la ville s'appelait Aziza / Azizia.

La commune comprend trois villages :
 Saligny (précédemment nommé Aziza ou Azizia) - nommé d'après l'ingénieur roumain dont le père était d'origine française Anghel Saligny
 Făclia (nommé jusqu'en 1925 Facria)
 Ștefan cel Mare (précédemment nommé Bazaschioi) - nommé d'après le prince moldave Étienne III le Grand.

Au recensement de 2011, Saligny avait une population de 2091 habitants (2086  Roumains et 5 autres)

Industrie
L'Agence nucléaire pour les déchets radioactifs (ANDR) a réalisé des études en vue d'un enfouissement des déchets radioactifs dans le village de Saligny.

Liens externes
 Commune de Saligny sur le site du Conseil du Judet de Constanța

Références

Commune dans le județ de Constanța

Saligny (Constanța)


Çelebizade Şerif Hasan Paşa (ö. 13 Şubat 1791, Şumnu) III. Selim saltanatında 30 Mart 1790 - 15 Şubat 1791 tarihleri arasında on ay on altı gün sadrazamlık yapmış bir Osmanlı devlet adamıdır. Mekke Şerifliği'nın sülalesinden olduğunu iddia etmiş ve "Şerif" lakabı taşımıştır.

Hayatı
Rusçuk ayanından Çelebi Şerif Süleyman Ağa'nın oğludur. Serdengeçti ağalığıyla Kırım hanı Kırım Giray ile birlikte Rusya'ya akın yaparak şecaati görülmüş, pederinin vefatı üzerine kendisine kapıcıbaşılık verilmişti. Fakat memleketinde tek durmayıp âyanlık iddiasıyla ortalığı karıştırdığından dolayı idamı için emir verilmiş ise de, kaçmaya muvaffak olarak eski Kırım hanı III. Selim Giray'ın dairesine iltica eylediğinden, onun ricasıyla memleket işlerine karışmaması şartıyla Rusçuk'ta oturmasına müsaade edilmişti.

Mutlak surette Rusçuk ayanı olmak isteyen Şerif Hasan Ağa, bunu zorla elde ettiği için tedibi emrolunmuş ise de, yine bir takrip kurtulup 1182 H. - 1768 M.'deki Rus seferi münasibetiyle kendisinden istifade tarafına gidilmiştir. Bu seferin sonlarına doğru Rusçuk ayanı Şerif Hasan Ağa orduya getirilip Rusçuk'ta pek çok asker varken Yergöğü kalesinin niçin alınmadığı kendisine sorulmuştu. Şerif Hasan Ağa o tarafın seraskeri Dağıstanlı Ali Paşa'nın yerine seraskerliğe talip olup fakat bunu açık söylemeyerek askerin Dağıstanlı ile aralarının iyi olmadığını beyan etmişti. Bunun üzerine Şerif Hasan Ağa'nın yaşının küçük olduğu göz önüne alındı ve vezir İsmail Paşa Rusçuk serakeri tayin olunarak gönderildi.

Arzusu olan seraskerliği elde edemeyen Şerif Hasan Ağa'nın avdetinden sonra biraderi Mehmet Ağa ordu merkezine gelmiş ve baklayı ağzından çıkararak "biraderime vezaret verilirse Yergöğü kalesinin zaptını taahhüd ederiz" demesi üzerine sadrâzam Muhsinzâde Mehmet Paşa tarafından Şerif Hasan Ağa'ya vezirlik verilmiştir (20 Cemaziyelâhır 1187-8 Eylül 1773).

Şerif Hasan Paşa, taahhüdü mucibince Yergöğü kalesini geri alamadığından dolayı seraskerlikten azlolunarak yerine Cezayirli Hasan Paşa getirilmiştir. Kaynarca antlaşmasını müteakip Özi muhafızlığına tayin edilen Şerif Hasan Paşa gitmek istemeyerek ayak sürüdüğünden vezirliği alınarak bir zaman Gümülcine'de ve sonra Rusçuk ve Selanik'te oturtulup 1201 Zilkade - 1787 Ağustos'ta ve muharebe esnasında vezir Silâhtar Çelik Mustafa Paşa'nın ricası üzerine vezirliği iade olunarak Misivri ve arkasından Vidin muhafızı olmuştur.

Serdar-ı ekrem Koca Yusuf Paşa, Vidin üzerinden Avusturya'ya yürüdüğü sırada Vidin'de sancağı şerif ordusuna kaymakam tayin edilen Şerif Hasan Paşa, daha sonra görevsiz olarak Rahova muhafazasına memur edilmiştir. Bu sırada vezir ve serdarı ekrem Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Paşa vefat etmiş ve Şerif Hasan Paşa Şumnu ordugâhına pek yakın olduğundan, ordu erkânının kararıyla Şumnu'ya davet edilerek serdar-ı ekrem vekâletini üzerine almıştır. Şerif Hasan Paşa, "yeni sadr-ı âzam acaba bize bir mansıb verir mi?" —çünkü Rahova muhafızlığını hiçbir yerden dirliği olmadan ve bir mansıb bekleyerek yapmakta idi— diye düşünürken, şeyhülislâm Hamidizâde'nin tavsiyesiyle Rumeli'deki vezirler arasında çekilen kur'a buna isabet ettiğinden, sadrâzam ve serdar-ı ekrem tayin edilmiş ve bu hale kendisi de hayrette kalmıştır (1 Şaban 1204 - 16 Nisan 1790).

Bunun on ay on gün süren sadrâzam ve serdar-ı ekremliği esnasında Avusturyalılara karşı Yergöğü muvaffakiyeti gibi küçük bir başarı elde edildi ise de, Rus cephesi bozgun haline gelip Kili, İsmail, Tolçı, Isakçı ve diğer bütün kaleler elden çıktı. Şerif Hasan Paşa bu vaziyet üzerine kendisi evvelâ Ruslar üzerine tedarik görmüşken sonra bundan vazgeçerek Avusturya cephesine gitmek istemesi gibi hatası olmakla beraber, kaptan Paşa ile Tatar hanının da vazifelerini yapmamalarını pervasız ve açık olarak pâdişâha bildirmişti.

Serdar-ı ekremin böyle serbest mütalaası İstanbul'un mizacına uymamış ve bundan başka mesul mevkiinde olan vezir-i âzamın kabahat isnat ettiği kaptan Paşa ile Tatar hanının bunu reddeylemeleri neticesinde bütün mesuliyet Şerif Hasan Paşa'ya yükletilmiş ve bundan başka aleyhtarları tarafından isyan edeceği hakkında da uydurma haberler yayıldığından, bir hâdiseye meydan vermeden azil ve katline karar verilmiştir.

Bunun için evvelâ kendisine bir hatt-ı hümâyun gönderilerek tatmini tarafına gidilmiş ve bu suretle iğfal edildikten sonra 9 Cemaziyelâhır 1205 - 13 Şubat 1791'de evvelâ kendisinden mühr-i hümâyun alınmış ve diğer bir hatt-ı hümâyunla da Sofya'da dairesini tanzim ile Avusturyalılardan tahliye edilecek olan Belgrat'ın teslim alınmasına memur edildiği bildirilmiştir.

Bu suretle iğfal edilen Şerif Hasan Paşa, evvelâ ordugâhtan alınarak Şumnu ayanının konağının yanındaki bir eve naklolunduktan sonra, orada uyurken kurşunla vurulmak suretiyle katledilmiştir. Yerine Bosna valisi Yusuf Paşa ikinci defa sadrâzam tayin edilmiştir.

Şerif Hasan Paşa, zeki ve şecaatli idiyse de, âyanlıktan yetişmiş olup devlet işlerine ve hükûmetin mizaç ve usulüne vakıf olmayıp açık kalpli ve açık sözlü idi. Kendisinin âyanlıktan yukarı bir kumandanlığı idare edemeyeceği 1788 seferinde malûm olmuşken iki cepheli bir seferde serdar-ı ekremlik gibi pek mühim bir vazifenin kur'a isabetiyle buna verilmesi pek garip ve felâketi davet edeceğine şüphe olmayan bir zihniyet neticesi idi. Vasıf, Şumnu karargâhında oturmayıp Celâli suretinde kır ve bayırlarda dolaşması ve bu suretle harb levazımını tatil etmesi ve İstanbul'a, gönderdiği tahriratlarda hürmetkârane beyanatta bulunmayarak edebi tecavüz ile pâdişâhın gazabını tahrik etmesinin katline sebep olduğunu yazmaktadır. Cevdet tarihi, zeki, akıllı, dirayetli, işgüzar ve ancak iyş ve işrete fazla düşkün olduğunu ve sadarette gözü kararıp halkın malına el uzattığını beyan ediyor. Bu muharebedeki olayları bizzat zabt etmiş olan Vekayi-i Hamidiye risalesi sahibi Mehmet Sadık Efendi, hüsnü ahlâk sahibi işbilir olduğunu kaydetmektedir.

Hâdikatü'l-Vüzera zeyli'nde de şiir ve inşaya vukufundan ve hava ve hevese düşkünlüğünden bahsediliyor. İstanbul'a gönderilen başı Üsküdar'da müntesib olduğu Hüdayî tekkesi'nde medfun olup, orada bazı hayratı da vardır. Âyanlık iddiasıyla birkaç defa serkeşliğe kalkması ve kendisinin idamı hakkında ferman gönderilmesi malûm olduğundan, sadareti esnasında da isyan etmesi ihtimali göz önüne alınarak, aleyhtarlarının iftiralarına inanılmış ve pervasızca tahriratları da bu ihtimali kuvvetlendirmiştir. Nesli bugün Almanya'da ile Türkiye'de sürmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Buz, Ayhan, (2009) Osmanlı Sadrazamları, İstanbul: Neden Kitap, ISBN978-975-254-278-5, .
 Danişmend, İsmail Hami, (2011), İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi 6 Cilt, İstanbul:Doğu Kütüphanesi, ISBN 9789944397681
 Tektaş, Nazim (2002), Sadrâzamlar Osmanlı'da İkinci Adam Saltanatı, İstanbul:Çatı Yayınevi (Google books:

Osmanlı sadrazamları
Rusçuk doğumlular
1791 yılında ölenler
Doğum tarihi bilinmeyenler
İdam edilmiş Osmanlılar

Şerif Hasan Paşa


فراخنييكا (Βραχναίικα) هي مدينة في أهيا في مقاطعة كينتريكي إلادا في اليونان.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 2913 نسمة.

مراجع

باتراس

فراخنييكا


Prisoners in Paradise ist das im September 1991 veröffentlichte fünfte Studioalbum schwedischen Hard-Rock-Band Europe. Es ist das letzte Album, das die Gruppe vor ihrer Auflösung aufnahm.

Hintergrund

Europe konnte mit dem Album Out of This World nicht an den Erfolg von The Final Countdown anknüpfen. Die 1988 erschienene Platte hatte die Hitsingle Superstitious hervorgebracht, die weltweit die Top 40 der Musikcharts erreicht hatte, doch das Album, das in den USA immerhin Platz 19 der Billboard 200 und in Europes Heimatland Schweden Platz 1 erreichte, hinterließ keinen bleibenden Eindruck: Alle vier nach Superstitious veröffentlichten Singles blieben ohne Charterfolg. Out of This World konnte die hohen Erwartungen, die nach The Final Countdown in die Band gesetzt wurden, nicht erfüllen.

Die Gruppe entschied sich, das nächste Album in den USA aufzunehmen und siedelte für die Vorbereitung nach San Francisco um. Die Aufnahmen zu Prisoners in Paradise fanden unter der Leitung des Musikproduzenten Beau Hill, der bereits für zahlreiche Platinerfolge anderer Gruppen (u. a. Ratts Out of the Cellar und Invasion of Your Privacy, Warrants Dirty Rotten Filthy Stinkig Rich und Cherry Pie sowie für Wingers Debütalbum und den Nachfolger In the Heart of the Young) verantwortlich war, in Los Angeles statt.

Doch auch Hill konnte Europe nicht zum erhofften großen Erfolg verhelfen: Prisoners in Paradise wurde am 25. September 1991 veröffentlicht, das Titellied erreichte Platz 8 der schwedischen Charts. Die beiden anschließend ausgekoppelten Singles, I'll Cry for You und Halfway to Heaven, gelangten ausschließlich in die britischen Hitlisten.
Das Album erreichte zwar die schwedischen Top Ten und gelangte in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz auch noch in die Top 40, in Großbritannien reichte es aber nur noch für Platz 61, während das Album in den USA gar nicht notiert wurde. Auszeichnungen bekam das Album nur in Großbritannien (Silberne Schallplatte) und Schweden (Platin).

Nach der auf die Veröffentlichung des Albums folgenden Tournee trennte sich die Gruppe, die einzelnen Musiker gingen verschiedenen eigenen Projekten nach oder schlossen sich anderen Musikern an. Von einer tatsächlichen Auflösung der Gruppe sprach aber niemand.

Titelliste
 All or Nothing (Eric Martin, André Pessis, Joey Tempest) – 3:55
 Halfway to Heaven (Tempest, Jim Vallance) – 4:07
 I'll Cry for You (Tempest, Nick Graham) – 5:21
 Little bit of Lovin' (Tempest, Kee Marcello) – 4:48
 Talk to Me (Mic Michaeli, Tempest) – 4:07
 Seventh Sign (Tempest, Michaeli, Marcello) – 4:43
 Prisoners in Paradise (Tempest) – 5:37
 Bad Blood (Tempest, Michaeli, Marcello) – 4:20
 Homeland (Tempest, Michaeli, Marcello) – 4:51
 Got Your Mind in the Gutter (Tempest, Beau Hill, Marcello) – 5:00
 'Til My Heart Beats Down Your Door (Brian McDonald, Fiona, Tempest, Michaeli) – 3:48
 Girl from Lebanon (Tempest) – 4:21
Bonustitel der 2001 wiederveröffentlichten Ausgabe:
 Mr. Government Man (Tempest, Hill)
 Long Time Comin' (Tempest)

Singleauskoppelungen
 Prisoners in Paradise
 I'll Cry for You
 Halfway to Heaven

Rezeption
Frank Trojan schrieb 1991 für Rock Hard, das Lied The Final Countdown "laste auf der Truppe zwar immer noch wie ein Fluch", doch sei Prisoners In Paradise "ein zumindest streckenweise erfolgreicher Versuch, vom Songeinerlei der überaus miesen "Out Of This World"-Rille wegzukommen". Vierzehn Lieder ließen "bei einer überlangen Spiellänge von fast 70 Minuten" auch "einige Lückenfüller bzw. Ausfälle entstehen", doch weise "Prisoners In Paradise" auch "einige Klassesongs" auf. Europe hätten "sicherlich den Fehler gemacht, zuviele Songs auf die Scheibe zu packen, die Hälfte wäre im Endeffekt mehr" gewesen. Denn Stücke wie All or Nothing oder Little Bit of Heaven würden "einem immer noch die Schuhe" ausziehen. Man denke "automatisch wehmütig an alte Wings of Tomorrow-Zeiten" zurück. Von "deren Klasse" sei Europe inzwischen "Lichtjahre entfernt", und es werde für die Gruppe "äußerst schwer werden, an alte Erfolge anzuknüpfen". Mit einem Album wie Prisoners In Paradise werde dies, "trotz der erwähnten guten Ansätze, sicherlich nicht mehr gelingen."

Weblinks
 Offizielle Homepage von Europe

Einzelnachweise

Album 1991
Album (Hard Rock)
Europe-Album

Prisoners in Paradise


2001 කාලීජ් ටයිම්ස් කුසලානය යනු 2001 ඔක්තෝම්බර් මස අගදී එක්සත් අරාබි එමීර් රාජ්‍යයේ පැවති එක්දින ජාත්‍යන්තර (ODI) ක්‍රිකට් තරඟාවලියකි. එය පකිස්ථානය, ශ්‍රී ලංකාව සහ සිම්බාබ්වේ ජාතික ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම් අතර පැවති තුන්කොන් තරඟාවලියකි. අවසන් මහා තරගයේදී ශී‍්‍ර ලංකාව කඩුලූ 5 කින් පරාජයට පත් කරමින් පකිස්ථානුවෝ තරගාවලියේ ජය හිමිකර ගත්හ. සියලුම තරග සාජාහි සාජා ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩාංගණයේදී පැවැත්විණි .

සංචිත

ප්‍රසාද ලකුණු වගුව

තරග

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6 වැනි තරගය

අවසාන තරගය

යොමු කිරීම්

බාහිර සබැඳි

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ශ්‍රී ලංකාව තුළ ක්‍රිකට්
ක්‍රිකට්

කාලීජ් ටයිම්ස් කුසලානය 2001


Isaac Williamson Scudder (* 1816 in Elizabeth, New Jersey; † 10. September 1881 in Jersey City, New Jersey) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1873 und 1875 vertrat er den Bundesstaat New Jersey im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Leben
Isaac Scudder besuchte zunächst vorbereitende Schulen. Nach einem anschließenden Jurastudium und seiner 1838 erfolgten Zulassung als Rechtsanwalt begann er in Elizabeth in diesem Beruf zu arbeiten. Später zog er nach Jersey City, wo er im dortigen Hudson County als Staatsanwalt fungierte. 1866 wurde er Mitglied der ersten Polizeikommission der Stadt Jersey City. Im gleichen Jahr wurde er Direktor bei der New Jersey Railroad & Transportation Co. Im Jahr 1872 wurde er auch Direktor bei der United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company.

Politisch war Scudder Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei. Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1872 wurde er im damals neu eingerichteten siebten Wahlbezirk von New Jersey in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1873 sein neues Mandat antrat. Da er im Jahr 1874 auf eine erneute Kandidatur verzichtete, konnte er bis zum 3. März 1875 nur eine Legislaturperiode im Kongress absolvieren. Im Jahr 1875 wurde Isaac Scudder juristischer Vertreter der Pennsylvania Railroad im Hudson County. Er starb am 10. September 1881 in Jersey City und wurde in seinem Geburtsort Elizabeth beigesetzt.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für New Jersey
Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei
Staatsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
Rechtsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1816
Gestorben 1881
Mann

Isaac W. Scudder


Human subject research is systematic, scientific investigation that can be either interventional (a "trial") or observational (no "test article") and  involves human beings as research subjects, commonly known as test subjects. Human subject research can be either medical (clinical) research or non-medical (e.g., social science) research. Systematic investigation incorporates both the collection and analysis of data in order to answer a specific question. Medical human subject research often involves analysis of biological specimens, epidemiological and behavioral studies and medical chart review studies. (A specific, and especially heavily regulated, type of medical human subject research is the "clinical trial", in which drugs, vaccines and medical devices are evaluated.) On the other hand, human subject research in the social sciences often involves surveys which consist of questions to a particular group of people. Survey methodology includes questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups.

Human subject research is used in various fields, including research into advanced biology, clinical medicine, nursing, psychology, sociology, political science, and anthropology. As research has become formalized, the academic community has developed formal definitions of "human subject research", largely in response to abuses of human subjects.

Human subjects
The United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) defines a human research subject as a living individual about whom a research investigator (whether a professional or a student) obtains data through 1) intervention or interaction with the individual, or 2) identifiable private information (). (Lim, 1990)

As defined by HHS regulations ():

 Intervention – physical procedures by which data is gathered and the manipulation of the subject and/or their environment for research purposes.
 Interaction – communication or interpersonal contact between investigator and subject.
 Private Information – information about behavior that occurs in a context in which an individual can reasonably expect that no observation or recording is taking place, and information which has been provided for specific purposes by an individual and which the individual can reasonably expect will not be made public.
 Identifiable information – specific information that can be used to identify an individual.

Human subject rights
In 2010, the National Institute of Justice in the United States published recommended rights of human subjects:
 Voluntary, informed consent
 Respect for persons: treated as autonomous agents
 The right to end participation in research at any time
 Right to safeguard integrity
 Protection from physical, mental and emotional harm
 Access to information regarding research
 Protection of privacy and well-being

From Subject to Participant
The term research subject has traditionally been the preferred term in professional guidelines and academic literature to describe a patient or an individual taking part in biomedical research. In recent years, however, there has been a steady shift away from the use of the term 'research subject' in favour of 'research participant' when referring to individuals who take part by providing data to various kinds of biomedical and epidemiological research.

Ethical guidelines

In general, it can be said that experimental infections in humans are tightly linked to a history of scandals in medical research, with scandals being followed by stricter regulatory rules. Ethical guidelines that govern the use of human subjects in research are a fairly new construct. In 1906 some regulations were put in place in the United States to protect subjects from abuses. After the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906, regulatory bodies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and institutional review boards (IRBs) were gradually introduced. The policies that these institutions implemented served to minimize harm to the participant's mental and/or physical well-being.

The Common Rule
The Common Rule, first published in 1991, also known as the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, is dictated by the Office of Human Research Protections under the United States Department of Health and Human Services and serves as a set of guidelines for institutional review boards (IRBs), obtaining informed consent, and Assurances of Compliance for human subject participants in research studies. On January 19, 2017, a final rule was added to the Federal Register with an official effective date of July 19, 2018.

Nuremberg Code

In 1947, German physicians who conducted deadly or debilitating experiments on concentration camp prisoners were prosecuted as war criminals in the Nuremberg Trials. A portion of the verdict handed down in the doctors' trial became commonly known as the Nuremberg Code, the first international document to clearly articulate the concept that "the voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential". Individual consent was emphasized in the Nuremberg Code in order to prevent prisoners of war, patients, prisoners, and soldiers from being coerced into becoming human subjects. In addition, it was emphasized in order to inform participants of the risk-benefit outcomes of experiments.

Declaration of Helsinki

The Declaration of Helsinki was established in 1964 to regulate international research involving human subjects. Established by the World Medical Association, the declaration recommended guidelines for medical doctors conducting biomedical research that involves human subjects. Some of these guidelines included the principles that "research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee prior to initiation" and that "research with humans should be based on results from laboratory animals and experimentation".

The Declaration of Helsinki is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics.

The Belmont Report
The Belmont Report was created in 1978 by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research to describe the ethical behaviors that involve researching human subjects. It is most heavily used by the current United States system for protecting human subjects in research trials. By looking primarily at biomedical and behavioral research that involve human subjects, the report was generated to promise that ethical standards are followed during research of human subjects. There are three standards that serve as the baseline for the report and how human subjects are to be researched. The three guidelines are beneficence, justice and respect for persons. Beneficence is described as protecting the well-being of the persons and respecting their decisions by being ethical and protecting the subjects from harm. The two rules of beneficence are maximizing the benefits of research and minimizing any possible risks. It is the job of the researcher to inform the persons of the benefits as well as the risks of human subject research. Justice is important because it causes the researchers to be fair in their research findings and share what they have found, whether the information is good or bad. The selection process of the subject is supposed to be fair and not separate due to race, sexual orientation or ethnic group. Lastly, respect for persons explains that at any point a person who is involved in a study can decide whether they want to participate, not to participate or withdraw themselves from the study altogether. Two rules of respect for persons involve the person being autonomous and persons with diminished autonomy and entitled to protection. The sole purpose of these guidelines is to ensure autonomy and to protect against those with a lesser chance to remain autonomous because of something out of their control.

Ethical concerns
As science and medicine evolve, the field of bioethics struggles to keep up with updating guidelines and rules to follow. There has been an interest in revisiting the ethics behind human subject trials. Members of the health field have commented that it may be useful to have ethics classes available to students studying to be health care professionals as well as have more discussions surrounding the issues and importance of informed consent. There have also been a bigger push to protect participants in clinical trials. Rules and regulations of clinical trials can vary by country. Suggestions to remedy this include installing a committee to keep better track of this information and ensure that everything is properly documented. Research coordinators and physicians involved in clinical studies have their own concerns, particularly that an implementation of ethics rules could potentially disrupt the logistics of preparing a research study, specifically when it comes to enrolling patients. Another concern that research teams may have is that even if the rules are ethically sound, they may not be logical or helpful for conducting their studies.

Of note currently in the research field is the manner in which researchers direct their conversations with potential human subjects for a research study.

Research in rural communities
Recently there has been a shift from conducting research studies at research institution facilities or academic centers to rural communities. There is concern surrounding the topics addressed during the discussions with this specific demographic of participants, particularly having to do with funding, overall efficacy of the treatment being studied, and if conducting such studies is done to the highest ethical standard.

Ann Cook and Freeman Hoas from the University of Montana's Department of Psychology conducted a study to gain more understanding about what influences potential candidates to consent to participation in any given clinical trial. They published their findings in February 2015. Cook and Hoas asked for the perspectives of the researchers and whether they would consent to being a subject in a clinical trial. To assess the shift to rural communities, they surveyed 34 physicians or researchers and 46 research coordinators from states that have "large rural populations and have historically demonstrated limited participation in clinical research." Proper consent forms were provided and signed at the start of the study. Of the physicians and research coordinators that participated in this study, 90% were from hospital centers or worked in a hospital-clinic setting. Of all the participants, only 66% of research coordinators and 53% of physicians received training in research methods, while 59% of the coordinators received any ethics training. Only 17% of the physicians had ethics research training prior to this study.

Hoas and Cook categorized their findings into the following main topics:

 source of funding
 morally nagging and challenging issues
 willingness to join a research study

The role of funding
Cook and Hoas found that funding played a significant role in participant selection. One of Hoas's and Cook's participants commented that "in his practice, the income from conducting pharmaceutical trials sometimes [is] used to offset the losses of conducting scientifically interesting but poorly funded federal studies," and most other participants administered trials because "reimbursements generated from such trials made it possible to maintain a financially viable, as well as profitable, practice." Cook and Hoas found that most of the physicians and coordinators could not explain directly if they actually told their patients or subjects about any financial compensation they received. Respondents worry that discussing funding or compensation would affect enrollment, effectively swaying participants from joining a research study. In most respondents' experience, most patients do not even ask for that information, so they assume that they do not have to discuss it with them and not jeopardize enrollment. When asked if information about funding or compensation would be important to provide to patients, one physician replied "...certainly it may influence or bring up in their mind questions whether or not, you know, we want them to participate because we're gonna get paid for this, you know, budget dollar amount. But, you know, when you talk about full disclosure, is that something that we should be doing? That's an interesting question."

Morally nagging or challenging issues
Respondents more often pointed out practical or logistical issues with the overall process rather than ethical issues. There was a general consensus that the whole practice of conducting research studies was more focused on the business aspects like funding and enrolling participants in the study in time. A physician commented that "[industry] relationships are very important because of cash flow."

Typical ethical issues that arise in this type of research trials include participant enrollment, the question of coercion if a physician refers their own patients, and any misunderstandings regarding treatment benefits. Patients are more likely to enroll in a trial if their primary care physician or a provider that they trust recommends the study. Most respondents seem to agree that patients consent to participate because they believe that through this study, they would be receiving "more attention than my regular patients" and that "there are an awful lot of additional opportunities for interaction." One respondent commented "...the way that we're required to actually recruit patients, which is to have their providers be the point of contact, some ways is--I mean, I don't want to use the word 'coercion', but it's kind of leaning in that direction because basically here's this person that they entrust themselves to, who they're very dependent on for, you know, getting their healthcare."

There was a large amount of respondents who thought that research participants did not read or understand the documents provided for informed consent. However, those respondents did not believe that was an ethical or moral concern.

Willingness to join a research study
Most of the coordinators and researchers showed some hesitation when they were asked if they would enroll as a subject in a clinical trial, not necessarily their own, but any study. When asked to elaborate on their hesitation, many said that they would be "concerned about the motivations behind the study, its purpose, its funding, as well as expectations of what participation might entail." Ultimately, only 24% of the respondents said they would be willing to participate with a majority of them stating they would need full transparency and an indication that there would be some personal benefit in order for them to even consider participating. Some had a list of criteria that had to be met. Eleven percent indicated that they would not at all be willing to enroll in a research study. One respondent commented "If it involved taking a medication, no. Never. I would be in a clinical trial if there was something, like...track [your] mammogram…[something] I am already subjecting myself to." Cook and Hoas stated that these answers were "particularly puzzling" because "these respondents still reported that their patient/participants received 'optimal care from clinical trials.

Clinical trials

Clinical trials are experiments done in clinical research. Such prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new treatments (such as novel vaccines, drugs, dietary choices, dietary supplements, and medical devices) and known interventions that warrant further study and comparison. Clinical trials generate data on safety and efficacy. They are conducted only after they have received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial - their approval does not mean that the therapy is 'safe' or effective, only that the trial may be conducted.

Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers and/or patients into small pilot studies, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies. Clinical trials can vary in size and cost, and they can involve a single research center or multiple centers, in one country or in multiple countries. Clinical study design aims to ensure the scientific validity and reproducibility of the results.

Trials can be quite costly, depending on a number of factors. The sponsor may be a governmental organization or a pharmaceutical, biotechnology or medical device company. Certain functions necessary to the trial, such as monitoring and lab work, may be managed by an outsourced partner, such as a contract research organization or a central laboratory. For example, a clinical drug trial case at the University of Minnesota that was under investigation in 2015 for the Death of Dan Markingson was funded by AstraZeneca, a pharmaceutical company headquartered in the United Kingdom.

Human subjects in psychology and sociology

Stanford prison experiment

A study conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971 examined the effect of social roles on college students at Stanford University. Twenty-four male students were assigned to a random role of a prisoner or guard to simulate a mock prison in one of Stanford's basements. After only six days, the abusive behavior of the guards and the psychological suffering of prisoners proved significant enough to halt the two-week-long experiment. The goal of the experiment was to determine whether dispositional factors (the behavior of guards and prisoners) or positional factors (the social environment of prisons) are the major cause of conflict within such facilities. The results of this experiment showed that people will readily conform to the specific social roles they are supposed to play. The prison environment played a part in making the guards behavior more brutal, due to the fact that none of the participants showed this type of behavior beforehand. Most of the guards had a hard time believing they had been acting in such a way. The evidence concludes this to be positional behavior, meaning the behavior was due to the hostile environment of the prison.

Milgram experiment

In 1961, Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram led a series of experiments to determine to what extent an individual would obey instructions given by an experimenter. Placed in a room with the experimenter, subjects played the role of a "teacher" to a "learner" situated in a separate room. The subjects were instructed to administer an electric shock to the learner when the learner answered incorrectly to a set of questions. The intensity of this electric shock was to be increased for every incorrect answer. The learner was a confederate (i.e. actor), and the shocks were faked, but the subjects were led to believe otherwise. Both prerecorded sounds of electric shocks and the confederate's pleas for the punishment to stop were audible to the "teacher" throughout the experiment. When the subject raised questions or paused, the experimenter insisted that the experiment should continue. Despite widespread speculation that most participants would not continue to "shock" the learner, 65 percent of participants in Milgram's initial trial complied until the end of the experiment, continuing to administer shocks to the confederate with purported intensities of up to "450 volts". Although many participants questioned the experimenter and displayed various signs of discomfort, when the experiment was repeated, 65 percent of subjects were willing to obey instructions to administer the shocks through the final one.

Asch conformity experiments

Psychologist Solomon Asch's classic conformity experiment in 1951 involved one subject participant and multiple confederates; they were asked to provide answers to a variety of different low-difficulty questions. In every scenario, the multiple confederates gave their answers in turn, and the participant subject was allowed to answer last. In a control group of participants, the percentage of error was less than one percent. However, when the confederates unanimously chose an incorrect answer, 75 percent of the subject participants agreed with the majority at least once. The study has been regarded as significant evidence for the power of social influence and conformity.

Robber's Cave study
A classic advocate of realistic conflict theory, Muzafer Sherif's Robber's Cave experiment shed light on how group competition can foster hostility and prejudice. In the 1961 study, two groups of ten boys each who were not "naturally" hostile were grouped together without knowledge of one another in Robber's Cave State Park, Oklahoma. The twelve-year-old boys bonded with their own groups for a week before the groups were set in competition with each other in games such as tug-of-war and football. When competing, the groups resorted to name-calling and other displays of resentment, such as burning the other group's team flag. The hostility continued and worsened until the end of the three-week study, when the groups were forced to work together to solve problems.

Bystander effect

The bystander effect is demonstrated in a series of famous experiments by Bibb Latane and John Darley. In each of these experiments, participants were confronted with a type of emergency, such as the witnessing of a seizure or smoke entering through air vents. A common phenomenon was observed that as the number of witnesses or "bystanders" increases, so does the time it takes for individuals to respond to the emergency. This effect has been shown to promote the diffusion of responsibility by concluding that, when surrounded by others, the individual expects someone else to take action.

Cognitive dissonance

Human subjects have been commonly used in experiments testing the theory of cognitive dissonance after the landmark study by Leon Festinger and Merrill Carlsmith. In 1959, Festinger and Carlsmith devised a situation in which participants would undergo excessively tedious and monotonous tasks. After the completion of these tasks, the subjects were instructed to help the experiment continue in exchange for a variable amount of money. All the subjects had to do was simply inform the next "student" waiting outside the testing area (who was secretly a confederate) that the tasks involved in the experiment were interesting and enjoyable. It was expected that the participants wouldn't fully agree with the information they were imparting to the student, and after complying, half of the participants were awarded $1 (roughly the same as $ now), and the others were awarded $20 (like $ now). A subsequent survey showed that, by a large margin, those who received less money for essentially "lying" to the student came to believe that the tasks were far more enjoyable than their highly paid counterparts.

Vehicle safety

In the automotive industry, research has shown that civilian volunteers decided to participate in vehicle safety research to help automobile designers improve upon safety restraints for vehicles. This research allows designers to gather more data on the tolerance of the human body in the event of an automobile accident, in order to better improve safety features in automobiles. Some of the tests conducted ranged from sled runs evaluating head–neck injuries, airbag tests, and  tests involving military vehicles and their restraint systems. From thousands of tests involving human subjects, results indicate no serious injuries were persistent. This is largely due to the preparation efforts of researchers to ensure all ethical guidelines are followed and to ensure the safety and well-being of their subjects. Although this research provides positive contributions, there are some drawbacks and resistance to human subject research for crash testing due to the liability of injury and the lack of facilities that have appropriate machinery to perform such experiments. Research with live persons provides additional data which might be unobtainable when testing with cadavers or crash test dummies.

Social media
The increased use of social media as a data source for researchers has led to new uncertainties regarding the definition of human subject research. Privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent are key concerns, yet it is unclear when social media users qualify as human subjects. Moreno et al. conclude that if access to the social media content is public, information is identifiable but not private, and information gathering requires no interaction with the person who posted it online, then the research is unlikely to qualify as human subjects research. Defining features of human subject research, according to federal regulations, are that the researchers interact directly with the subject or obtain identifiable private information about the subject. Social media research may or may not meet this definition. A research institution's institutional review board (IRB) is often responsible for reviewing potential research on human subjects, but IRB protocols regarding social media research may be vague or outdated.

Concerns regarding privacy and informed consent have surfaced regarding multiple social media studies. A research project by Harvard sociologists, known as "Tastes, Ties, and Time," utilized data from Facebook profiles of students at an "anonymous, northeastern American university" that was quickly identified as Harvard, potentially placing the privacy of the human subjects at risk. The data set was removed from public access shortly after the issue was identified. The issue was complicated by the fact that the research project was partially funded by the National Science Foundation, which mandates the projects it funds to engage in data sharing.

A study by Facebook and researchers at Cornell University, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2014, collected data from hundreds of thousands of Facebook users after temporarily removing certain types of emotional content from their News Feed. Many considered this a violation of the requirement for informed consent in human subjects research. Because the data was collected by Facebook, a private company, in a manner that was consistent with its Data Use Policy and user terms and agreements, the Cornell IRB board determined that the study did not fall under its jurisdiction. It has been argued that this study broke the law nonetheless by violating state laws regarding informed consent. Others have noted that speaking out against these research methods may be counterproductive, as private companies will likely continue to experiment on users, but will be dis-incentivized from sharing their methods or findings with scientists or the public. In an "Editorial Expression of Concern" that was added to the online version of the research paper, PNAS states that while they "deemed it appropriate to publish the paper... It is nevertheless a matter of concern that the collection of the data by Facebook may have involved practices that were not fully consistent with the principles of obtaining informed consent and allowing participants to opt out."

Moreno et al.'''s recommended considerations for social media research are: 1) determine if the study qualifies as human subject research, 2) consider the risk level of the content, 3) present research and motives accurately when engaging on social media, 4) provide contact information throughout the consent process, 5) make sure data is not identifiable or searchable (avoid direct quotes that may be identifiable with an online search), 6) consider developing project privacy policies in advance, and 7) be aware that each state has its own laws regarding informed consent. Social media sites offer great potential as a data source by providing access to hard-to-reach research subjects and groups, capturing the natural, "real-world" responses of subjects, and providing affordable and efficient data collection methods.

Unethical human experimentation

Unethical human experimentation violates the principles of medical ethics. It has been performed by countries including Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, North Korea, the United States and the Soviet Union. Examples include Project MKUltra, Unit 731, Totskoye nuclear exercise, the experiments of Josef Mengele, and the human experimentation conducted by Chester M. Southam.

Nazi Germany performed human experimentation on large numbers of prisoners (including children), largely Jews from across Europe, but also Romani, Sinti, ethnic Poles, Soviet POWs and disabled Germans in its concentration camps mainly in the early 1940s, during World War II and the Holocaust. Prisoners were forced into participating; they did not willingly volunteer and no consent was given for the procedures. Typically, the experiments resulted in death, trauma, disfigurement or permanent disability, and as such are considered as examples of medical torture. After the war, these crimes were tried at what became known as the Doctors' Trial, and the abuses perpetrated led to the development of the Nuremberg Code. During the Nuremberg Trials, 23 Nazi doctors and scientists were prosecuted for the unethical treatment of concentration camp inmates, who were often used as research subjects with fatal consequences. Of those 23, 15 were convicted, 7 were condemned to death, 9 received prison sentences from 10 years to life, and 7 were acquitted.

Unit 731, a department of the Imperial Japanese Army located near Harbin (then in the puppet state of Manchukuo, in northeast China), experimented on prisoners by conducting vivisections, dismemberments, and bacterial inoculations. It induced epidemics on a very large scale from 1932 onward through the Second Sino-Japanese war. It also conducted biological and chemical weapons tests on prisoners and captured POWs. With the expansion of the empire during World War II, similar units were set up in conquered cities such as Nanking (Unit 1644), Beijing (Unit 1855), Guangzhou (Unit 8604) and Singapore (Unit 9420). After the war, Supreme Commander of the Occupation Douglas MacArthur gave immunity in the name of the United States to Shirō Ishii and all members of the units in exchange for all of the results of their experiments.

During World War II, Fort Detrick in Maryland was the headquarters of US biological warfare experiments. Operation Whitecoat involved the injection of infectious agents into military forces to observe their effects in human subjects. Subsequent human experiments in the United States have also been characterized as unethical. They were often performed illegally, without the knowledge, consent, or informed consent of the test subjects. Public outcry over the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional investigations and hearings, including the Church Committee, Rockefeller Commission, and Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, amongst others. The Tuskegee syphilis experiment, widely regarded as the "most infamous biomedical research study in U.S. history," was performed from 1932 to 1972 by the Tuskegee Institute contracted by the United States Public Health Service. The study followed more than 600 African-American men who were not told they had syphilis and were denied access to the known treatment of penicillin. This led to the 1974 National Research Act, to provide for protection of human subjects in experiments. The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was established and was tasked with establishing the boundary between research and routine practice, the role of risk-benefit analysis, guidelines for participation, and the definition of informed consent. Its Belmont Report'' established three tenets of ethical research: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.

From the 1950s-60s, Chester M. Southam, an important virologist and cancer researcher, injected HeLa cells into cancer patients, healthy individuals, and prison inmates from the Ohio Penitentiary. He wanted to observe if cancer could be transmitted as well as if people could become immune to cancer by developing an acquired immune response. Many believe that this experiment violated the bioethical principles of informed consent, non-maleficence, and beneficence.

See also

 Doctors' Trial (Part of the Nuremberg Trials)
 Duplessis Orphans
 Genie (feral child)
 Human radiation experiments
 Institutional review board
 Japanese human experimentations
 Medical torture
 Military medical ethics
 Nazi human experimentation
 Non-human primate experiments
 Chester M. Southam's Cancer Injection Study
 Statistical unit
 Unethical human experimentation in the United States
 Vivisection

References

Further reading

External links

 "Human Research Report" - a monthly newsletter on protecting human subjects
 Nuremberg Code
 Belmont Report
 Declaration of Helsinki, 6th edition
 Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights by UNESCO
 Hungry Canadian aboriginal children used in government experiments during 1940s Toronto Star, 2013

Clinical research
Research ethics
Ethics and statistics
Articles containing video clips

Human subject research


L'élection présidentielle américaine de 1980 en Alabama se déroule le mardi . L'ancien gouverneur de Californie et candidat républicain à la présidence Ronald Reagan l'emporte d'une courte tête sur le président sortant Jimmy Carter. Le candidat tiers parti John Anderson ne remporte que 1,23 % des suffrages, ce qui constitue son plus mauvais score durant cette élection présidentielle.

Résultats

Analyse
C'est le quatrième plus petit écart de l'élection avec une marge de 1,3 pour cent et de  voix seulement. Jimmy Carter obtient un bon score en partie du fait de son statut de .

Le comté de Macon est celui dans lequel Jimmy Carter obtient le pourcentage le plus élevé de l'élection. John Anderson obtient son plus mauvais résultat dans cet État, et ses plus mauvais résultats de manière globale dans les anciens États confédérés. En moyenne, seuls 3 % des électeurs du Sud ont voté pour lui. Depuis cette élection, l'Alabama a toujours voté en faveur du candidat du Parti républicain et de nombreux comtés de l'État en changé (switched) de couleur depuis.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Sources
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Alabama
Novembre 1980
1988

Élection présidentielle américaine de 1980 en Alabama


Mentor-on-the-Lake est une ville américaine située dans le comté de Lake, dans l'Ohio. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de .

Liens externes

City dans l'Ohio
Comté de Lake (Ohio)

Mentor-on-the-Lake (Ohio)


Turismul în Grecia este cea mai populara tara avand in vedere  populatia.

in vedere  economice a țării, fiind unul din cele mai importante sectoare. Grecia a fost o atracție turistică încă din antichitate, pentru istoria sa bogată, precum și pentru litoralul lung, cu multe insule și plaje. Grecia a atras 26,5 milioane de vizitatori în 2015 și se estimează că va atrage 30 de milioane de turiști în 2016. Turismul  contribuie cu 18% la Produsul Intern Brut. Capitala Atena, precum și Santorini, Mykonos, Rodos, Corfu și Creta, reprezintă unele din cele mai importante destinații turistice.

În 2009, în Grecia au fost 19,3 milioane de turiști, în creștere față de 2008, când au fost numai numai 17,7 milioane. Majoritatea turiștilor provin din Uniunea Europeană (12,7 milioane), urmați de cei din America (0,56 milioane), Asia (0,56 milioane), Oceania (0,56 milioane) și Africa (0,06 milioane). Conform unui sondaj din China din 2005, Grecia a fost votată drept prima alegere a chinezilor ca destinație turistică.

Turismul în Grecia este administrat de Organizația Națională de Turism a Greciei, având-o în trecut ca ambasadoare pe cântăreața Elena Paparizou, câștigătoarea Eurovision 2005. În prezent ambasadoarea turismului grec este Sakis Rouvas, care și-a reprezentat țara la Eurovision 2009.

Infrastructură
Fiind o țară dezvoltată dependentă de turism, Grecia oferă o gamă largă de facilități turistice. Infrastructura turistică a Greciei a fost mult îmbunătățită de la Jocurile Olimpice din Atena 2004 și continuă să se extindă cu o serie de proiecte importante.

Hotelurile din Grecia conform datelor guvernamentale:

Note

Legături externe
 Site-ul oficial de turism al Greciei

Turismul în Grecia


Ștefan Roșian sau Ștefan Roșianu (n. 1867, Băgău, comitatul Alba – d. secolul al XX-lea) a fost un preot român unit, deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
În anul 1899 a fost hirotonit preot. A activat ca profesor și publicist în Blaj.

Activitate politică
A fost delegat la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 18 noiembrie/ 1 decembrie 1918 în calitatea de reprezentant al Cercului Murăș-Uioara, județul Alba.

Note

Legături externe
 http://www.dacoromania-alba.ro/nr67/gazeta.htm

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1867
Decese în secolul al XX-lea
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Români greco-catolici
Preoți români

Ștefan Roșian


Actinocarya tibetica, jednogodišnja biljka, tipična vrsta roda Actinocarya, porodica boražinovki. Raširena je po Kini i Tibetu.

Listovi su naizmjenični

Sinonimi
 Glochidocaryum kansuense W.T. Wang

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Plantillustrations.org (s ilustracijom)

Boražinovke
Flora Qinghaia
Flora Gansua
Flora Tibeta

Actinocarya tibetica


O Nürnberg foi um cruzador rápido operado pelo Kriegsmarine e a segunda e última embarcação da Classe Leipzig, depois do . Sua construção começou em novembro de 1933 na Deutsche Werke em Kiel e foi lançado ao mar em dezembro 1934, sendo comissionado na frota alemã em novembro do ano seguinte. Era armado com uma bateria principal composta por nove canhões de 149 milímetros montados em três torres de artilharia triplas, tinha um deslocamento carregado de nove mil toneladas e conseguia alcançar uma velocidade máxima de 32 nós.

O Nürnberg participou de patrulhas de não-intervenção durante a Guerra Civil Espanhola no final da década de 1930, todas sem incidentes. Com o início da Segunda Guerra Mundial em setembro de 1939, o cruzador participou de ações no Mar do Norte até ser torpedeado por um submarino britânico em dezembro. Foi reparado e passou a maior parte do conflito atuando como navio de treinamento no Mar Báltico, com exceção de um curto período em que serviu na Noruega entre novembro de 1942 e abril de 1943. Participou de uma única operação em Skagerrak em 1945.

A embarcação foi tomada pela Marinha Real Britânica em maio de 1945, depois do fim da guerra, e entregue para a Marinha Soviética em dezembro como reparação de guerra. Foi para Tallinn em janeiro de 1946 e renomeado para Admiral Makarov. Inicialmente serviu como a capitânia da 8ª Frota soviética, mas no início da década de 1950 foi colocado para servir como navio de treinamento com base em Kronstadt. Foi tirado de serviço por volta de maio de 1959 e desmontado, tendo sido a única grande embarcação alemã a ter uma carreira ativa no pós-guerra.

Bibliografia

Ligações externas

Classe Leipzig
Navios de 1934
Navios construídos em Kiel
Cruzadores da Kriegsmarine
Cruzadores da Alemanha na Segunda Guerra Mundial
Cruzadores da Marinha Soviética

Nürnberg (cruzador)


Das Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK) ist eine Zusammenstellung von Bibliotheken und Programmen der Programmiersprache Python (von Version 2.6 an) für Anwendungen der Computerlinguistik. Das NLTK ist quelloffen und wird unter der Apache-Lizenz vertrieben.

Die Entwicklung des NLTK begann im Jahr 2001 an der University of Pennsylvania unter Edward Loper und Steven Bird, die das Projekt seither gemeinsam mit Ewan Klein leiten. Da das NLTK in erster Linie zu Lehrzwecken entwickelt und dementsprechend angelegt wurde, ist eine umfangreiche Dokumentation, inklusive eines begleitenden, von den NLTK-Entwicklern selbst verfassten Lehrbuchs zur (symbolischen wie auch statistischen) Sprachverarbeitung in Python fester Bestandteil des Projekts. Verbreitung fand das NLTK daher insbesondere im Lehrbereich der Linguistik bzw. Computerlinguistik, des Information Retrieval und maschinellen Lernens sowie den Kognitionswissenschaften; es kann und wird darüber hinaus jedoch auch in der Forschung eingesetzt.

Literatur
 Jacob Perkins: Python Text Processing with NLTK 2.0 Cookbook. Packt Publishing, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84951-360-9
 Steven Bird, Ewan Klein, Edward Loper: Natural Language Processing with Python. O'Reilly Media, 2009. ISBN 978-0-596-51649-9

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website
 Natural Language Processing with Python – freie Onlineversion des Buches
 Eine Präsentation des Natural Language Toolkit auf dem Google Campus 2007 (Video auf YouTube)

Einzelnachweise

Python-Bibliothek
Freie Linguistik-Software
Computerlinguistik

Natural Language Toolkit


Der Produktenhandel, auch Landesproduktenhandel, war der Handel mit den Erzeugnissen des eigenen Landes. Insbesondere bedeutete dies den Handel mit den Erzeugnissen des Ackerbaues und der landwirtschaftlichen Nebengewerbe. Der Produktenhandel stand im Gegensatz zum Kolonialwarenhandel und zum Manufakturwarenhandel.

Quelle
 Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon, Band 16. Leipzig 1908, S. 366.

Handelsgeschichte

Produktenhandel


Tofildija (baluška, lat. Tofieldia), biljni rod u porodici tofildijevki koji se sastoji od desetak vrsta vodenih trajnica raširenih po velikim djelovima Europe, Azije i Sjeverne Amerike.

U Hrvatskoj raste čaškasta baluška  Tofieldia calyculata.

Vrste
 Tofieldia calyculata (L.) Wahlenb.
 Tofieldia cernua Sm.
 Tofieldia coccinea Richardson
 Tofieldia divergens Bureau & Franch.
 Tofieldia furusei (Hiyama) M.N.Tamura & Fuse
 Tofieldia glabra Nutt.
 Tofieldia himalaica Baker
 Tofieldia × hybrida A.Kern. ex Asch. & Graebn.
 Tofieldia nuda Maxim.
 Tofieldia okuboi Makino
 Tofieldia pusilla (Michx.) Pers.
 Tofieldia thibetica Franch.
 Tofieldia yoshiiana Makino

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Tofildijevke

Tofildija