LAssociation nationale des gouverneurs (en anglais : National Governors Association, NGA) est une organisation politique américaine fondée en 1908. Les membres de l'association sont les gouverneurs des 55 États, territoires et commonwealths des États-Unis. Les membres de l'association viennent de tous les horizons politiques, la NGA elle-même étant non partisane.

Son président pour le mandat 2022-2023 est le démocrate Phil Murphy du New Jersey. Il est assisté à la vice-présidence par le républicain Spencer Cox de l'Utah, qui lui succèdera à la présidence de l'organisation pour le mandat 2023-2024.

Histoire

En 1907, la Commission des voies navigables intérieures (Inland Waterways Commission) juge nécessaire de demander à la Conférence des gouverneurs qui se tiendrait l'année suivante à la Maison-Blanche sous l'impulsion de Theodore Roosevelt de fournir des vues étatiques et nationales concernant des questions pratiques traitant de l'utilisation et de la gestion des ressources naturelles à l'ère progressiste. Le , à l'ouverture de la Conférence des gouverneurs, la NGA est fondée.

La NGA représente les gouverneurs des cinquante États et des cinq territoires américains (les Samoa américaines, Guam, les îles Mariannes du Nord, Porto Rico et les îles Vierges américaines). Elle est financée principalement par les cotisations des États, les subventions et contrats fédéraux et les contributions privées.

La NGA sert d'agent de liaison  pour les politiques publiques entre les gouvernements des États et le gouvernement fédéral. La NGA fournit aux gouverneurs et à leurs cadres supérieurs des services allant de la représentation des États à Capitol Hill et à la Maison-Blanche lors de discussions sur des questions fédérales à l'élaboration de rapports politiques sur les programmes d'État et l'organisation de séminaires de réseautage pour les responsables de l'exécutif de l'État. Le NGA Center for Best Practices se concentre sur les innovations de l'État et les meilleures pratiques sur des questions allant de l'éducation, de la santé publique à la technologie, à la réforme de l'aide sociale et à l'environnement. La NGA fournit également une assistance en matière de gestion et technique aux nouveaux gouverneurs et aux gouverneurs en place.

La NGA adopte une politique en 1977 officialisant sa pratique standard remontant à 1941 : le poste de président de la NGA alterne chaque année entre les gouverneurs républicains et démocrates, de sorte qu'aucun des partis ne peut contrôler le poste pendant deux années consécutives. Le vice-président est généralement de la partie opposée au président et assume généralement le rôle de président de la NGA l'année suivante. Le président actuel de la NGA est le gouverneur de l'Arkansas Asa Hutchinson, un républicain qui occupe précédemment le poste de vice-président de 2020 à 2021. Le vice-président actuel est le gouverneur du New Jersey Phil Murphy, un démocrate.

Bill Clinton, alors gouverneur de l'Arkansas,  est à ce jour le seul ancien président de l'organisation à être devenu président des États-Unis. Janet Napolitano de l'Arizona est devenue la première femme présidente de la NGA en 2006.

En février 2020, le secrétaire d'État américain Mike Pompeo avertit l'Association nationale des gouverneurs que le Parti communiste chinois (PCC) tentait activement d'influencer la politique américaine par l'intermédiaire des gouverneurs des États et des responsables locaux. En octobre 2020, le département d'État met fin à la participation des États-Unis au Forum des gouverneurs américano-chinois pour promouvoir la coopération infranationale en raison de tentatives présumées de l'Association du peuple chinois pour l'amitié avec les pays étrangers, une organisation de façade pour le département du front uni du travail du PCC pour  aux États-Unis.

Présidents

Les présidents de la NGA président l'organisation pour un mandat d'un an avec une alternance d'affiliation à un parti, de sorte que le même parti ne siège pas pendant deux mandats consécutifs.

Les États suivants n'ont jamais eu à ce jour de président de la NGA : Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut, Hawaï, Mississippi, Nouveau-Mexique, Caroline du Nord et Dakota du Sud. Les cinq territoires (Samoa américaines, Guam, îles Mariannes du Nord, Porto Rico et îles Vierges américaines) n'ont également jamais eu de gouverneur présidant la NGA.

Articles connexes
 Conseil de la fédération (Canada), un organisme similaire au Canada
 Cabinet national (Australie), un organisme similaire en Australie
 Comité ministériel conjoint (Royaume-Uni), un organisme similaire au Royaume-Uni
 Conférence nationale des gouverneurs (Mexique), une organisation similaire au Mexique
 Conférence des maires des États-Unis
 Association des gouverneurs républicains
 Association des gouverneurs démocrates
 Association des gouverneurs sur la sécurité routière

Références

Organisme fondé en 1908
Gouverneur des États-Unis

National Governors Association


M-60 Amerikan yapımı bir makineli tüfektir.Alman MG42 tüfeğinden esinlenerek yapılmıştır. 7.62x51 mm´lik NATO mermisi kullanır. Bu silah seri, isabetli fakat üretimi pahalı bir silahtır. Yaklaşık 2000 metre menzili ve 1100 metre kadar da etkili menzili vardır. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin II. Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonraki bütün çatışmalarına girmiş bir tüfektir. Gaz ve open bolt tekniği ile çalışır. Deniz kuvvetlerinden helikopterlere kadar birçok alanda görev yapılmıştır.

Kullanıcı ülkeler

Makineli silahlar
7.62 mm ateşli silah

M60 (makineli silah)


Lights on the Highway er fyrsta breiðskífa hljómsveitarinnar Lights on the Highway og kom út árið 2005.

Lagalisti
 Jameson's state (4:09)
 Said to much (4:38)
 The moment (2:43)
 Rest of us (4:46)
 Long summer dining (3:33)
 Down the alley (4:45)
 Wake up (2:52)
 Marilyn Monroeverdrive (4:12)
 No such strings (5:25)
 All for the better (3:32)
 The maze (10:45)
 She takes me home (3:08)

Hljómplötur gefnar út árið 2005
Íslenskar breiðskífur

Lights on the Highway (breiðskífa)


An Pleurothallis anthrax in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carlyle August Luer ngan Rodrigo Escobar. An Pleurothallis anthrax in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pleurothallis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Pleurothallis

Pleurothallis anthrax


Višestruki pobjednici (vozači)

Višestruki pobjednici (proizvođači)

Pobjednici po godinama

Izvor
juwra.com

Turska
Međunarodna športska natjecanja u Turskoj
Automobilizam u Turskoj

Reli Turska


Reuzenpijp (în ) este numele unui tunel de premetrou din orașul belgian Antwerpen.

Tunelul nefolosit
Începute în 1977, lucrările la tunel au fost oprite în 1981, când acesta se afla deja la faza de construcție neamenajată și neutilată, și au fost puse în conservare timp de 30 de ani.

Reuzenpijp este alcătuit din două tuburi suprapuse, tubul spre ieșirea din oraș fiind cel mai adânc. Totuși, cele două linii sunt la același nivel în stațiile Astrid, Collegelaan și Morckhoven. Numele tunelului provine de la procesiunile "Reuzenommegang" ale giganților "Reuskens" din folclorul districtului Borgerhout. În 2008, Ministrul Flamand al Mobilității, Kathleen Van Brempt, a anunțat că tunelul abandonat timp de trei decenii va fi pus în exploatare. În luna aprilie 2009, tunelul a fost deschis publicului pentru vizitare.

Pe 1 martie 2013, Hilde Crevits, noul ministru al Mobilității și Lucrărilor Publice din Flandra, a anunțat anul 2015 ca dată de deschidere a tunelului.

Proiectul LIVAN I

În cadrul proiectului LIVAN I, pe 4 martie 2013 au început lucrările de amenajare și utilare a Reuzenpijp. În 2014, în tunel au fost montate șinele și catenara, au fost instalate semnalizarea și iluminatul de urgență. Aceste lucrări s-au desfășurat fără întrerupere și au durat doi ani. A rămas însă o secțiune nefolosită, între stația Astrid și Gara Antwerpen-Centraal, iar Zegel a fost singura stație deschisă, renunțându-se la Carnot, Drink și Morckhoven. Inaugurarea a avut loc pe 18 aprilie 2015, iar tunelul este deservit de tramvaiele liniei , care circulă prin premetrou între centrul orașului Antwerpen și rampa de ieșire la suprafață din strada Herentalsebaan, continuând apoi până la parcarea P+R de la sensul giratoriu din Wommelgem.

Traseul de la parcarea P+R din Wommelgem și până la Gara Antwerpen-Centraal este străbătut de tramvaie în medie în 15 minute.

Tunelul Reuzenpijp se termină într-o buclă subterană de întoarcere situată sub piața Franklin Rooseveltplaats și va fi ulterior conectat la nivelul -3 al stației de premetrou Opera, în acest moment nefolosit. Prin amenajarea De Leien, a Pieței Operei și a Pieței Franklin Roosevelt, o rampă de acces la suprafață va fi construită pentru a permite tramvaielor care circulă prin tunel să iasă pe strada Frankrijklei, între Maria-Theresialei și Maria-Louisalei. Această rampă are drept scop asigurarea unei legături directe între Turnhoutsebaan și bluevardele De Leien de Sud.

Planuri de viitor
Începând din 2018, tramvaiele liniei  vor circula și ele prin tunelui Reuzenpijp.

Într-un stadiu ulterior, după 2020, vor fi deschise și stațiile de premetrou Foorplein, Drink și Carnot.

Note

Legături externe
Parlamentul Flandrei: Masterplanul de Transport în Flandra  (9 mai 2011);

Vezi și
Premetroul din Antwerpen

Tuneluri din Antwerpen
Premetroul din Antwerpen

Tunelul Reuzenpijp


Simone Barone (d. 30 Nisan 1978) İtalyan eski futbolcudur.

2006 FIFA Dünya Kupası'nı kazanan İtalya millî futbol takımı kadrosunda yer almıştır.

Kaynakça

1978 doğumlular
İtalyan futbolcular
2006 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
İtalya millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Yaşayan insanlar
FIFA Dünya Kupası kazanan futbolcular
Serie A futbolcuları
Serie B futbolcuları
Parma Calcio 1913 futbolcuları
Calcio Padova futbolcuları
AC ChievoVerona futbolcuları
Palermo FC futbolcuları
Torino FC futbolcuları
Cagliari Calcio futbolcuları
AS Livorno Calcio futbolcuları
Orta saha futbolcuları

Simone Barone


An Sporobolus agrostoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Emilio Chiovenda. An Sporobolus agrostoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sporobolus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Sporobolus

Sporobolus agrostoides


An Vanda tricolor in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Vanda tricolor in nahilalakip ha genus nga Vanda, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 V. t. suavis
 V. t. tricolor

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Vanda

Vanda tricolor


7 أرطال فيلم سينمائي درامي أمريكي ناطق باللغة الإنجليزية تم عرضه للمرة الأولى في 19 ديسمبر 2008. أخرج الفيلم غابرييل موكينو وأنتجه سكوت رودين، جاسون بلومينتال، جيمس لاسيتر، ويل سميث، وستيف تيستش وكتبه غرانت نيبورت وتم توزيعه عن طريق شركة أفلام كولومبيا. تم تصوير مشاهد الفيلم في لوس أنجلوس، باسادينا، وماليبو. بلغت ميزانية الفيلم 55 مليون دولار بينما بلغ الدخل 168 مليون دولار. تبلغ مدة الفيلم 123 دقيقة.

البطولة
 ويل سميث في دور تيم توماس متقمص شخصية بين توماس.
 مايكل يالي في دور بين توماس شقيق تيم توماس.
 باري بيبر في دور دان صديق تيم ومنفذ الوصية.
 روزاريو دوسن في دور إيميلي بوزا صاحبة مشروع بطاقات التهنئة وحبيبة تيم.
 وودي هارلسون في دور عزرا تورنر الأعمى الذي يعزف بالبيانو.
 إيلبيديا كاريلو في دور كوني تيبوس المرأة التي تعاني من عنف حبيبها.
 جوديان إيلدر في دور هولي موظفة خدمات الأطفال.
 بيل سميتروفيتش في دور جورج مدرب فريق الهوكي للناشئين.
 كوينتين كيلي في دور نيكولاس الطفل.
 روبين لي في دور سارة جينسون خطيبة تيم.

القصة

قبل سنتين يتسبب تيم توماس في حادث بسيارته يسفر عنه وفاة خطيبته سارة جينسون و6 أشخاص مجهولين. تيم يقرر التكفير عن خطئه بإنقاذ حياة 7 أشخاص. يقرر تيم التبرع برئته لأخيه بين الموظف في مصلحة الضرائب. بعد 6 أشهر يقرر التبرع بجزء من كبده لصالح موظفة خدمات الأطفال هولي. بعد ذلك بدأ في البحث عن أشخاص محتاجين بالفعل للتبرع بأعضائه. أخيرا وجد جورج مدرب فريق الهوكي للناشئين الذي يتبرع له بكليته ثم يتبرع بنخاعه الشوكي لصالح الطفل نيكولاس.

قبل وفاته بأسبوعين يتصل بهولي من أجل سؤالها حول من يستحق المساعدة وتقترح عليه هولي مساعدة كوني تيبوس التي تعيش في منزل مع طفلين وحبيبها الذي يسيء معاملتها ويضربها باستمرار وفي آخر مرة كسر لها 3 أضلع قبل نحو شهر. يذهب تيم لمقابلتها عارضا على كوني مساعدتها إلا أنها تنكر أنها تتعرض لسوء معاملة بسبب خوفها من بطش حبيبها بها لو علم بهذا الأمر. يقرر تيم الرحيل عن منزله والإقامة في نزل بالإيجار ومعه حوض سمك وقنديل البحر. بعد إقامته في النزل بليلة واحدة تهاتفه كوني من أجل مساعدتها بعدما ضربها بشكل موجع في الوجه. يقرر تيم إعطائها مفتاح منزل الشاطئ وعقد نقل الملكية لصالحها.

وكان تيم قد سرق هوية بين كموظف في مصلحة الضرائب وبدأ في تعريف نفسه للناس بهويته الجديدة وهي بين توماس موظف مصلحة الضرائب. بقي شخصان لكي يساعدها تيم وعند فحص الأوراق التي لديه يجد ملف عزرا تورنر بائع اللحوم عبر الهاتف الأعمى والذي يعزف البيانو. تيم يتصل بعزرا أثناء العمل ويستفزه كثيرا بالكلام من أجل معرفة ما إذا كان سريع الغضب ولكن عزرا يبقى هادئا طوال المكالمة وبالتالي يقرر تيم بأن عزرا يستحق المساعدة. ثم يتصل بإيميلي بوزا التي لديها مشروعها الخاص بتصميم وطباعة بطاقات الدعوة والتهنئة ولكنها تعاني من ضعف في عضلة القلب مع ندرة الدم الذي تحتاجه. يقضي معها الكثير من الوقت بالاهتمام بكلبها، جز عشب حديقتها، وإصلاح مطبعتها. يبدأ تيم في الوقوع في حب إيميلي ويقرر أن حالتها تستحق المساعدة.

يتعقب بين أخيه تيم حتى منزل إيميلي ويطالبه بإرجاع هويته. يغادر تيم منزل إيميلي متوجها إلى النزل حيث يملأ حوض الاستحمام بالثلج من أجل تجميد أعضائه ثم يجلس في الحوض ويضع قنديل البحر من أجل أن يعضه ويقتله. صديقه دان يقوم حسب وصية تيم بتنفيذ الوصية بتبرعه بقلبه وعينيه لصالح إيميلي وعزرا. بعد ذلك يتقابل عزرا وإيميلي في حفل موسيقي يحيية الأول.

سبب التسمية
قال ويل سميث أن تسمية الفيلم جاءت من مسرحية ويليام شكسبير تاجر البندقية حيث كان يتوجب على بطل المسرحية دفع رطل من لحم جسمه. وبالتالي فإن بطل الفيلم تيم توماس يقرر التكفير عن تسببه في وفاة 7 أشخاص بالتبرع من جسمه لصالح 7 أشخاص.

مصادر

مراجع
 الموقع الرسمي

أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 2000
أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية في عقد 2000
أفلام إنتاج 2008
أفلام إنتاج كولومبيا بيكتشرز
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام تقع أحداثها في لوس أنجلوس
أفلام دراما أمريكية
أفلام دراما إنتاج عقد 2000
أفلام دراما رومانسية أمريكية
أفلام درامية 2008
أفلام عن الانتحار
أفلام عن زراعة الأعضاء
أفلام مصورة في لوس أنجلوس
أفلام مصورة في لوس أنجلوس (كاليفورنيا)
أفلام مصورة في مقاطعة لوس أنجلوس
أفلام من إخراج غابرييل موكينو
أفلام من إنتاج ويل سميث
زراعة الأعضاء في الخيال

7 أرطال (فيلم)


Marie Callender's is an American restaurant chain. Its headquarters are in the Marie Callender's Corporate Support Center in Mission Viejo, Orange County, California. As of October 2023, the company operates 25 locations in California, Idaho, Nevada, and Utah.

History

First foundation
In the 1930s, Marie Callender and her husband Cal Warren Callender began selling pies in the city of Long Beach and in Orange County. In 1948, they sold their family car and used the money to set up a wholesale bakery with their son Don. The first official location was opened in 1964.

Eventually, Don opened a retail outlet in Orange, California, naming it after his mother, gradually adding other food. Within five years the chain was expanded to 12 more locations and opened its first locations outside of California (Las Vegas and Houston) in 1969. It grew into 84 locations by the end of the 1970s. However, the Houston location closed down in 1981. In 1997, the company announced that they planned to open three new restaurants in the Houston area once again.  At the end, all three remaining locations in Houston closed down in 2001 due to restaurants being unprofitable.

Late 20th century sales
In 1986, the restaurant chain was sold to Ramada Inn, then in 1990, to Wilshire Restaurant Group, Inc. Marie Callender Pie Shops, Inc. was purchased from Saunders Karp & Megrue (SKM) in 1999 by an affiliate of Castle Harlan, a New York-based private equity firm.

The company owned the East Side Mario's restaurant chain from 1997 (when it bought the chain from PepsiCo) to 2000.

Perkins & Marie Callender's Inc
In 2006, Castle Harlan merged Marie Callender's with another of its interests, Perkins Restaurant and Bakery. The combined chain, known as Perkins & Marie Callender's Inc. (PMCI), was headquartered in Memphis, Tennessee.

The business flourished until Don Callender died on January 7, 2009, due to complications resulting from head trauma sustained during a fall at home.

On June 13, 2011, a total of 58 units were closed, including 31 Marie Callender's and 27 Perkins Restaurant and Bakerys due to bankruptcy restructuring (Chapter 11). During bankruptcy, PCMI sold the Marie Callender's brand to ConAgra for US$57.5 million. Later that year, PMCI exited bankruptcy under the control of Wayzata Investment Partners.

Marie Callender's Inc.
On August 5, 2019, 29 stores were closed and the holding company for Perkins and Marie Callender's filed for bankruptcy. The chains were later split apart, with Perkins being bought by Huddle House, while Marie Callender's was sold to Elite Restaurant Group, which formed a new company known as Marie Callender's Inc. to operate the chain, for US$1.75 million.

Business

Restaurants
In later years, a typical restaurant would have a fully stocked bar, or saloon, serving alcoholic beverages. This is in contrast to family restaurants like Denny's or Village Inn, which generally do not serve alcoholic beverages. A salad bar is also a staple.

The type of cuisine served is mainly American, although many of the dishes are slanted towards styles of preparation that resemble Italian, Mexican, French, Cajun, or Chinese. Soups and sandwiches are available as meals or à la carte. Pies are signature items on the dessert menu: there are over 30 varieties available.

The interiors of the chain's earlier restaurants are decorated with antiques circa 1900, providing a theme that is reminiscent of Victorian England as well as early United States. Later restaurants reflect more modern tastes, with a clean interior and photos of food.

Frozen foods
For years the chain has licensed its name for shelf-stable and frozen entrees and sides. Various product licenses were included in a sale to ConAgra Foods in 1994 for $140 million. The name Marie Callender's was retained for the food line following the division's sale. In 2010, its cheesy chicken & rice meal was pulled due to a salmonella outbreak.

Don Callender

Donald W. Callender (September 27, 1927 – January 7, 2009) was an American restaurateur and co-founder of the Marie Callender's chain of restaurants, which originated in Southern California. He was also the creator of Babe's Slim Pign's in Redlands, P.H. Woods in Moreno Valley, Top-Gun Restaurant Grill, and Babe's Bar-B-Que & Brewery in Rancho Mirage.

Callender is credited as being among the first restaurateurs to offer franchise operations, with the first Marie Callender's franchisee opening  in Orange in 1964.

Biography
In the 1930s, Marie Callender (1907–1995), her husband Cal Warren Callender, and their only child, Don lived in a trailer park in Huntington Beach. Marie baked and sold pies to augment the family's income, with Don delivering her pies to customers on his bicycle.  A 1945 graduate of Long Beach Poly High School, he joined the Merchant Marine for a brief tour at the end of World War II and then returned home to southern California.

Callender died at age 81 in 2009 at Hoag Memorial Hospital Presbyterian in Newport Beach, due to complications resulting from head trauma sustained during a fall at his home over a year earlier.

Another surviving relative that is not named nor found in news articles, biographies or obituaries of Maie or Don, is Great granddaughter of Marie Callender, Harmony May Callender, Glen Callender's only child. Harmony was unfortunately almost completely abandoned by her father and the entire Callender Family at a very young age. She was written off and forgotten by the Callender family except for a small inheritance left to her that she could collect when she was 25. Patricia (Pat) Callender, Harmony's grandmother, Glen Callender's mother, was the only one who stayed as any kind of presence in her life growing up. Pat Callender was a good woman, who I knew personally growing up, as I am Harmony's sister. My mother was married to Glen Callender, whom she later divorced. Harmony did however, later on in her older life, reconnect with her father only, Glen Callender.  Alison Jones, sister of Harmony Callender.

Retail endeavors
By 1948, twenty-one year old Don was working to expand the business by selling pies to restaurants in Long Beach and Orange County. In 1951, he purchased a home on Gondar Ave. in the Plaza area of Long Beach, where the Callender family did their baking before shifting the expanding operation to a Quonset hut on Anaheim St. in Long Beach. Eventually, Don ventured into the retail realm, opening his first outlet in Orange (at 574 N. Tustin St.) and naming it after his mother, Marie. With continued experimentation, he gradually expanded his inventory and added other menu items which would later become Marie Callender fare.

Company sale and other businesses
By the time Callender sold the company in 1986 to Ramada for a reported $80 million, the chain had grown to 120 locations nationwide. Following the sale, Don remained in the restaurant industry, planning to start a second 21,000 square foot (1950 square meter) Babe's in Indio, California. Unfortunately, health issues forced Callender out of the project before seeing the project come to full fruition. The building was subsequently leased to Kaiser Restaurant Group, a local restaurant management consortium. Jackelope Ranch, also in Indio, opened the day after Don passed, as a Southwestern-themed barbecue.

See also

References

External links

 Orange County Register obituary for Don Callender

1948 establishments in California
1986 mergers and acquisitions
1990 mergers and acquisitions
1999 mergers and acquisitions
2006 mergers and acquisitions
Companies based in Long Beach, California
Companies based in Orange County, California
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2011
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2019
Conagra Brands brands
Economy of the Western United States
Frozen food brands
Mission Viejo, California
Regional restaurant chains in the United States
Restaurants established in 1948
Restaurants in Orange County, California
American companies established in 1948

Marie Callender's


Móri getur átt við:

 Móri rappari
 Móri bók í Sval og Val seríunni

Móri (aðgreining)


O iPhone 13 Pro e o iPhone 13 Pro Max são smartphones projetados e comercializados pela Apple Inc. Eles são os principais smartphones da décima quinta geração do iPhone, sucedendo o iPhone 12 Pro e o iPhone 12 Pro Max. Os dispositivos foram apresentados ao lado do iPhone 13 e iPhone 13 Mini em um evento especial da Apple no Apple Park em Cupertino, Califórnia, em 14 de setembro de 2021, e ficaram disponíveis dez dias depois, em 24 de setembro.

As principais atualizações em relação ao seu antecessor incluem maior duração da bateria, câmeras e fotografia computacional aprimoradas, foco de rack para vídeo em um novo "Modo Cinematográfico" a 1080p 30 fps, gravação de vídeo Apple ProRes, um novo sistema A15 Bionic em um chip e uma variável 10 Tela de -120 Hz, comercializada como ProMotion.

História

O iPhone 13 Pro e o iPhone 13 Pro Max foram anunciados oficialmente ao lado do iPad de 9ª geração, iPad Mini de 6ª geração , Apple Watch Series 7, iPhone 13 e iPhone 13 Mini por um evento de imprensa virtual filmado e gravado no Apple Park em Cupertino, Califórnia, em 14 de setembro de 2021. As encomendas começaram em 17 de setembro às 5h PST. O preço começa em US$ 999 para o iPhone 13 Pro e US$ 1099 para o iPhone 13 Pro Max, o mesmo de suas respectivas gerações anteriores.

Design

O design do iPhone 13 Pro e iPhone 13 Pro Max é praticamente inalterado em relação ao seu antecessor. No entanto, o módulo da câmera traseira agora cobre uma área maior devido às lentes maiores. O Face ID e o módulo da câmera na tela frontal, ou "notch", agora são 20% menores que as gerações anteriores.

O iPhone 13 Pro e 13 Pro Max estão disponíveis em cinco cores: Prata, Grafite, Dourado, Sierra Blue e Alpine Green. Sierra Blue é uma nova cor que substitui o Pacific Blue.

Em 8 de março de 2022, no evento especial da Apple "Peek Performance", a Apple revelou uma nova opção de cor Alpine Green, que ficou disponível em 18 de março.

Especificações

Hardware

O iPhone 13 Pro e Pro Max usa um processador A15 Bionic projetado pela Apple com um mecanismo neural de 16 núcleos, CPU de 6 núcleos (com 2 núcleos de desempenho e 4 núcleos de eficiência) e GPU de 5 núcleos. O A15 Bionic também contém um processador de imagem de última geração.

Mais bandas 5G estão disponíveis para suportar mais operadoras, especialmente fora dos EUA.

Display

O iPhone 13 Pro possui uma tela de 1170 x 2532 pixels de 6,1 polegadas e o iPhone 13 Pro Max possui uma tela de 1284 x 2778 pixels de 6,7 polegadas. Ambos os modelos possuem a tela Super Retina XDR OLED com brilho típico aprimorado de até 1000 nits e brilho máximo de até 1200 nits e, pela primeira vez em um iPhone, uma tela ProMotion variável de 10-120 Hz, que também pode ir tão baixo quanto 10 Hz para preservar a bateria e o termo foi usado anteriormente no iPad Pro (2.ª geração) e modelos posteriores.

Baterias

A Apple reivindica até 1,5 horas a mais de duração da bateria no iPhone 13 Pro do que seu antecessor e 2,5 horas a mais no 13 Pro Max. A capacidade nominal é de 11,97 Wh (3.095 mAh) no 13 Pro, enquanto o 13 Pro Max é avaliado em 16,75 Wh (4.352 mAh). Ambos os modelos podem carregar com MagSafe de até 15 W, carregamento sem fio Qi de até 7,5 W e Lightning de até 20-27 W para o (Pro Max), 20-23 W para o (Pro).

Câmeras

O iPhone 13 Pro possui quatro câmeras: uma câmera frontal e três câmeras traseiras, incluindo uma câmera telefoto, ampla e ultra grande angular. As câmeras traseiras contêm sensores maiores que o iPhone 12 Pro, permitindo mais coleta de luz. O amplo e o ultra-amplo também têm aberturas maiores para capturar mais luz e aumentar o desempenho com pouca luz. A câmera ultra larga também possui foco automático pela primeira vez. A telefoto de 77 mm tem uma abertura menor que a do 12 Pro, mas tem a vantagem de poder usar o Modo Noturno pela primeira vez. A telefoto maior também aumenta a capacidade de zoom digital para 15x.

As câmeras usam o mais recente mecanismo de fotografia computacional da Apple, chamado Smart HDR 4. O Smart HDR 4 processa rostos reconhecidos em fotos separadamente usando ajustes locais. Os usuários também podem escolher entre uma variedade de estilos fotográficos durante a captura, incluindo contraste rico, vibrante, quente e frio. A Apple esclarece que isso é diferente de um filtro, porque funciona de forma inteligente com o algoritmo de processamento de imagem durante a captura para aplicar ajustes locais a uma imagem.

O aplicativo da câmera contém um novo modo chamado Modo Cinematográfico, que permite aos usuários focar entre os assuntos e criar profundidade de campo rasa usando algoritmos de software. É compatível com as câmeras grande angular, telefoto e frontal em 1080p a 30 fps. A Apple também adicionou no iOS 15.1 a capacidade de gravar no Apple ProRes 4K a 30 fps para modelos com pelo menos 256 GB de armazenamento, no entanto, os modelos básicos com 128 GB de armazenamento serão limitados à gravação ProRes a 1080p 30 fps.

A câmera possui um modo macro que pode focar até 2 centímetros de um assunto. Ele utiliza o foco automático da câmera ultra larga e é ativado automaticamente quando perto o suficiente de um assunto.

Software

O iPhone 13 Pro e o iPhone 13 Pro Max são pré-instalados com o iOS 15 no lançamento.

Ver também
 Lista de modelos de iPhone

Ligações externas
 iPhone 13 Pro – Site oficial em português

Apple
IPhone
Produtos introduzidos em 2021
Smartphones
Telefones celulares

IPhone 13 Pro


Eduardo Riedel (f. 5 júlí 1969) er brasilískur stjórnmálamaður og kaupsýslumaður sem hefur verið ríkisstjóri Mato Grosso do Sul frá 1. janúar 2023. Hann hefur þegar gegnt stöðu utanríkisráðherra fyrir innviði Mato Grosso do Sul frá 22. febrúar 2022 til 2. apríl 2022.

Ferill
Hann fæddist í Rio de Janeiro, Brasilíu, 5. júlí 1969, sonur Seila Garcia Côrrea og Nelson Riedel. Hann útskrifaðist frá Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. Hann var Getúlio Vargas Foundation og European Institute of Business Administration.

Hann var utanríkisráðherra innviða í Mato Grosso do Sul frá 22. febrúar 2022 til 2. apríl 2023. Riedel var forseti Maracaju, Mato Grosso do Sul Union árið 1999 og varaforseti Landbúnaðar- og búskaparsambands Mato Grosson do Sul, og var einnig forstjóri National Confederation of Agriculture (CNA). Á árunum 2012 til 2014 var hann forseti Famasul, stuttu síðar gegndi hann stöðu utanríkisráðherra fyrir ríkisstjórn og stefnumótandi stjórnun Mato Grosso do Sul, á ríkisstjórn Reinaldo Azambuja, stöðu sem hann var í til 2021. Í júlí 2021 var hann skipaður af Reinaldo Azambuja sem formaður stjórnsýslu nefndar efnahags-heilbrigðis- og öryggisáætlunarinnar (Proseguir).

Árið 2022 bauðst hann fram í ríkisstjórnarkosningum í Mato Grosso do Sul fyrir ríkisstjóra og José Carlos Barbosa fyrir vara ríkisstjóraskrifstofu.
Þann 2. október 2022 fékk hann 361.981 atkvæði (25.16%) og fór í aðra umferð með frambjóðanda Renan Contar.

Tilvísanir

Fólk fætt árið 1969
Brasilískir stjórnmálamenn

Eduardo Riedel


Wagner Pereira Cardozo (født 16. oktober 1966) er en tidligere brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien

Wagner Pereira Cardozo


Baksei Chamkrong (; , , ) is a small Hindu temple located in the Angkor complex (Siem Reap, Cambodia). It is dedicated to Shiva and used to hold a golden image of him. The temple can be seen on the left side when entering Angkor Thom at the southern gate. It was dedicated to Yasovarman by his son, King Harshavarman I.  The temple was completed by Rajendravarman II (944–968).

Name
The name "Baksei Chamkrong" means "The Bird Who Shelters Under Its Wings" and comes from a legend. In it, the king tried to flee Angkor during a siege and then a huge bird landed and sheltered him under its wings.

Description
This temple is one of the first temples constructed of durable material such as bricks and laterite and with decoration in sandstone. A brick enclosure originally surrounded the pyramid with a stone gopura on the east side is now almost completely disappeared. Much of the stucco on the surface of the temple has vanished. The main sandstone lintel is decorated with a fine carving of Indra standing on his three-headed elephant Airavata. Garlands emanate from either side of Indra in the style current to the monument. There is an inscription on either side of the small doorway which detail the dedication and praises the early Khmer kings from Jayavarman II onward as well as earlier legendary kings, including the ancestor of the nation, the hermit Kambu.

The pyramid measures 27 metres across at the base and 15 at the summit for an overall height of 13 metres. Four stairway reach the summit at the cardinal points. The brick sanctuary tower, eight meters square on a sandstone base open to the east with the usual blind doors on the other sides.

Gallery

See also

 Phnom Bakheng
 Prasat Bei
 Thma Bay Kaek

References

Hindu temples in Siem Reap Province
Angkorian sites in Siem Reap Province

Prasat Baksei Chamkrong


José Santiago Crespo Pozo (Redondela, 8 de julio de 1909 - Junquera de Ambía, 10 de noviembre de 1978) fue un sacerdote mercedario y escritor español.

Trayectoria
Hizo sus primeros estudios en Vigo en los colegios de los jesuitas y salesianos. Ingresa después en el convento mercedario de Sarria, Lugo, en el que emite los votos en 1926. De allí fue trasladado al monasterio de San Juan de Poyo, para completar estudios de Filosofía y Teología. Recibió el orden sacerdotal en 1931. Dentro de la orden mercedaria ostentó varios puestos directivos, tanto en España como en América Latina. Durante la Guerra Civil Española (1936-1939) fue voluntario en las tropas de los sublevados, el bando nacional. Fue miembro correspondiente de diversas instituciones culturales como la Real Academia Galega y la Real Academia de la Historia.

De su obra escrita caben destacar sus estudios de Heráldica, Genealogía y Lexicografía.

Obra publicada (selección)
Santa Trahamunda. Leyenda sacra. Pontevedra. 1943
Ascendencia gallega de Bolívar. Bogotá. 1953
Linajes de Galicia en el Perú. Lima. 1953
Santa María de Pontevedra. Labras heráldicas y enterramientos de familias hidalgas. Pontevedra
Blasones y Linajes de Galicia. 4 tomos. 1957-1965.
Contribución a un Vocabulario Castellano-Gallego. Madrid. 1963.
Nueva contribución a un Vocabulario Castellano-Gallego: con indicación de fuentes e inclusión del gallego literario (galaico-portugués). 4 tomos. 1972-1985.

Escritores en español
Escritores en gallego
Escritores de Galicia
Académicos correspondientes de la Real Academia Gallega

José Santiago Crespo Pozo


Das Schlachthaus Nussdorf war ein städtisches Schlachthaus für Rinder im 19. Wiener Gemeindebezirk Döbling und Bestandteil der Fleischversorgung von Wien.

Geschichte
Das Schlachthaus Nussdorf in der Grinzinger Straße 151 beim Kreilplatz wurde etwa zeitgleich wie das Hernalser und das Meidlinger Schlachthaus errichtet. Die Eigentumsrechte an dem laut Kaufvertrag am 17. November 1886 erworbenen und in Nussdorf gelegenen Grundstück wurden in verschieden großen Anteilen den Katastralgemeinden Oberdöbling, Unterdöbling, Grinzing, Heiligenstadt und Nussdorf einverleibt.

1922 wurde das Schlachthaus aufgelassen und der heutigen Magistratsabteilung MA 48 – Fuhrpark und Stadtreinigung überlassen. 1927 wurde der Trakt mit den Schlachtkammern in einen Wagenschuppen mit Werkstätten sowie Aufenthalts- und Waschräumen für die Arbeiter umgestaltet. Zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt wurde auch das ehemalige Portierhäuschen abgebrochen. Heute befindet sich hier unter anderem der Mistplatz Heiligenstadt.

Beschreibung

Das 1886 nach Plänen und unter Aufsicht des Wiener Stadtbauamtes errichtete Schlachthaus Nussdorf bestand im Wesentlichen aus dem
 zweigeschoßigen Hauptgebäude mit späthistoristischer Putzgliederung an der Grinzinger Straße, dem
 Schlachthaus und dem
 Stallgebäude, zwei parallel zueinander stehenden Sichtziegelbauten mit Satteldächern.
Das Portier- und Gasmotorengebäude wurde im Laufe der Zeit ebenso abgebrochen wie der sogenannte Seuchenhof mit Platz für vier Rinder und einer zugehörigen Schlachtkammer.

Trotz verschiedener Umbauten und Abbrüche entspricht der Gebäudekomplex in seiner heutigen Form immer noch dem Bauzustand zum Zeitpunkt der Errichtung. Neben dem Schweineschlachthaus in Sankt Marx ist das Schlachthaus Nussdorf das einzige weitgehend im Originalzustand erhaltene Schlachthaus der Stadt Wien.

Literatur
 Manfred Wehdorn, Ute Georgeacopol-Winischhofer: Baudenkmäler der Technik und Industrie in Österreich. Band 1: Wien, Niederösterreich, Burgenland. Böhlau, Wien/Graz (u. a.) 1984, ISBN 3-205-07202-2
 DEHIO Wien - X.–XIX. und XXI.–XXIII. Bezirk ISBN 3-7031-0693-X (1997)

Stillgelegte Anlage
Döbling
Versorgungsbauwerk in Wien

Schlachthaus Nussdorf


World Vision United States is a member and founding organization of World Vision International. Founded in the United States in 1950, it is an evangelical relief and development organization. It is  one of the largest relief and development organizations in the US with a 1.6 billion dollar budget (2007).

History
World Vision was founded in 1950 by Dr. Robert Pierce ("Bob"), a young American evangelist minister whom the Youth for Christ missionary movement had first sent to China and South Korea in 1947. Pierce served for almost two decades at the helm of World Vision, but retired in 1967 from the organization.

During his journey he was moved by one little girl's suffering to promise to the local church of the child a monthly sum to guarantee her protection. It has created the concept of funding for children and World Vision.

At first the organization  focused on   orphans and other children in need, beginning in South Korea, then expanding throughout Asia. The program soon spread throughout Latin America, Eastern Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In the 1960s, the group started providing food, clothing, and medical care to citizens of impoverished countries after natural disasters by soliciting donations from major corporations.

From 1966 onward, the organization used in business also the name  "World Vision International" but from 1977 on this name was reserved for the umbrella organisation World Vision International. and the founding organization as a member of World Vision International is called World Vision United States whenever a distinction is necessary.

Later, Richard Stearns became president of World Vision US. On January 9, 2018, it was announced that Stearns would be retiring from the organization after nearly 20 years as President.

On May 31, 2018, it was announced that Edgar Sandoval would replace Stearns as World Vision's new President and CEO beginning October 1, 2018.

Organizational structure

World Vision US is an independently registered interdependent national member office of the federal umbrella organization World Vision International. The relationship with the central organization is governed by the "Covenant of Partnership", that all national members  sign. It provides that the national organizations must accept policies and decisions  of the umbrella organization.  and must not establish an office or program outside the US without the consent of the central group and the host country. Furthermore, except for  direct project founding, all funds used outside the US have to be remitted through the central organization, and its  financial   and budget principles must be accepted. Additionally, the national group must  also subscribes to the core values, the mission statement, and the Statement of Faith of World Vision.

Spirituality
World Vision aims to incorporate Christian belief into their development work as well as their organization. US president Richard Stearns stated that the group has a strict policy against proselytizing, which he describes as "... - using any kind of coercion or inducement to listen to a religious message before helping someone." Like all other national members of the World Vision Partnership, World Vision US is committed to the concept of  transformational development, which is cast in a biblical framework and in which evangelization is an inseparable integral part of development work.

Stearns  stated that "hope" is World Vision's most lasting impression. He believes that if hope can be restored in a community it is more beneficial than adding a water well. He emphasizes that everyone lives in a religious world where more than 90% of the population believes in some faith. He claims that World Vision's understanding of faith is essential for development.

Funding
World Vision uses the Sponsor a Child method of fundraising. Individuals, families, churches, schools, and other groups sponsor specific children or specific community projects in their own country or abroad. Sponsors send funds each month, to provide support for the sponsored children or projects.

According to its annual report, in 2008 87% of its funding was spent on programs, 8% on fundraising and 5% on management and general overhead.

Activities

World Vision provides emergency relief to people whose lives are endangered by disasters or conflict and who need immediate assistance. It attempts to respond to all major emergencies around the world themselves or in cooperation with partner agencies. For example, World Vision responded to famine in Ethiopia and North Korea, hurricanes in Central America, the tsunami in the Indian Ocean nations, earthquakes in El Salvador, India, Taiwan, Turkey and the Sichuan earthquake in China, Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar and war refugees in Kosovo, Chechnya, Sierra Leone, Angola, and East Timor.

The organization encourages public awareness about the needs of others, the causes of poverty, and the nature of compassionate response. These efforts include collaboration with media and community participation in fundraising.

The organization devotes considerable effort to advocating to the US government.  On March 1, 2011, along with 29 other faith-based groups, it sent a letter to the senate petitioning for the restoration of cuts made to foreign disaster assistance, global health, and food aid in the 2011 budget.

World Vision is a leading member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a Washington D.C.-based coalition of over 400 major companies and NGOs that advocates for a larger international affairs budget, which funds American diplomatic and development efforts abroad. World Vision is also a member of the Global Coalition Against Pneumonia and supports World Pneumonia Day on November 2, 2009.

Criticism
In 1999, the academic journal Development in Practice published an overview of World Vision's history focusing on the evolution of its global architecture.  The document, "Pursuing Partnership: World Vision and the Ideology of Development" was written by then World Vision staff person Alan Whaites, who went on to become a   political scientist concerned with international development.  He offered a picture of an organization that was often spurred to innovate and change as a result of internal reflection on external criticism.

Discrimination in hiring
In August 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that "World Vision is a 'religious corporation' and therefore exempt from  federal law barring faith-based discrimination, and thus was  permitted to dismiss two employees who were fired because they did not believe in the "divinity of Jesus or the doctrine of the Trinity." Judge Marsha Berzon of that circuit dissented, arguing that "Congress did not intend to allow all religiously motivated nonprofits to be exempt from the law." She believes that the decision discriminates against employees who have the ability to do the assigned work just because of their religious views.

Same-sex marriage

On March 24, 2014, the World Vision US announced that it would hire what it defined as Christians in same-sex marriages. Facing protests from donors and the larger evangelical community after the announcement, World Vision reversed the policy change two days later.

References

Further reading
 The Colossus of Care: World Vision has become an international force—and a partner with the poor, Tim Stafford, Christianity Today, March 2005
 Imperfect Instrument: World Vision's founder led a tragic and inspiring life, Tim Stafford, Christianity Today, March 2005
 Our Story - Point Hope, Inc. Delilah Rene recounts working with World Vision, 2005
Greene, Elizabeth, "Connecting with Generation Y," Chronicle of Philanthropy, July 24, 2003.
Holt, Shirleen, "Partners Find Real Ambitions Are to Do Good," Seattle Times, August 16, 2005.
Johnson, Larry, "World Vision's New Weapon," Fund Raising Management, June 1993, p. 22. Highbeam source
Le Pla, Ruth, "A Matter of Faith: Passion in the Boardroom," New Zealand Management, November 2006, p. S18.
Whaites, Alan, Pursuing Partnership: World Vision and the Ideology of Development,' Development in Practice, 1999, Volume 9, Number 4

External links
 Profile of World Vision, Inc., U.S. on MinistryWatch.com
 World Vision Report: Climate Change

Christian charities based in the United States
Christian educational organizations
Christian organizations established in the 20th century
Development charities based in the United States
Educational organizations based in the United States
Emergency organizations
Evangelicalism in the United States
Federal Way, Washington
Charities based in Washington, D.C.
Medical and health organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Christian organizations established in 1950
1950 establishments in the United States

World Vision United States


Avrupa Kadınlar Futbol Şampiyonası, UEFA'ya üye ülkeler arasında, kadın millî takımları düzeyinde düzenlenen 4 yılda bir oynanan futbol turnuvasıdır.

1984 yılında Kadın Futbolu İçin Avrupa Yarışması adıyla düzenlenmeye başlandı. 1990 yılında statüsü değiştirildi. 1991 yılında turnuvanın ismi bugünkü halini aldı. Bu yeni statü sadece 1991 ve 1995 yılındaki turnuvalarda kullanılmış, 1995 yılından itibaren erkek futbol turnuvalarında kullanılan statü, kadın futbol turnuvaları için de kullanılmaya başlanmıştır.

Avrupa Turnuvası'nda Temsil Edilen Kadın Takımları Şampiyonu (Eski İsim)

Sonuçlar

aet denotes after extra time
gg denotes golden goal
ps denotes after penaltı vuruşları

Özet
İstatistikler resmi olmayan 1969 ve 1979 turnuvalarını içermez.

Katılımlar

Turnuva gol kralları

Ayrıca bakınız
UEFA Kadınlar Şampiyonlar Ligi
UEFA Kadınlar 19 Yaş Altı Şampiyonası
UEFA Kadınlar 17 Yaş Altı Şampiyonası

Dış bağlantılar
 Avrupa Kadınlar Futbol Şampiyonası

Avrupa Kadınlar Futbol Şampiyonası


Jean-François Marmontel, francuski pisac iz 18. stoljeća. Pripadnik je prosvjetiteljstva kao književnog stila. Rodio se je u siromašnoj obitelji u Bort-les-Orguesu, Limousina (danas Corrèze 11. srpnja 1722., a umro u Abbonvilleu (kod Saint Aubina na Gaillonu) 31. prosinca 1799. godine. Školovao se je kod isusovaca. Bavio se je poviješću, pisao enciklopedijske članke, uređivao jedan časopis, pisao operna libreta za komedije, pisao tragedije i dr. Najpoznatiji je po filozofskim romanima "Belizar" i drugim svojim filozofskim romanima u kojima zastupa ideje francuskog prosvjetiteljstva.
Član masonske lože Les Neuf Sœurs.

Izvori

Francuski književnici
Francuski povjesničari
Dramatici
Romanopisci
Prosvjetitelji
Francuski masoni

Jean-François Marmontel


الميل أو الميل الزاوي (ويعرف أيضًا باسم الميل الاستوائي) ؛ في علم الفلك هو قيمة الزاوية بين أي جرم سماوي وخط الاستواء السماوي وذلك على دائرة عظمى تمر بالنجم وبقطبي السماء. وهو أحد الإحداثيات المستخدمة في تحديد موقع أية نقطة على الكرة السماوية، والأخرى تُسمّى المطلع المستقيم. يقاس الميل الزاوي بالدرجات والدقائق والثواني القوسية. وإذا كان النجم شمال خط الاستواء السماوي تكون قيمة بعده بالموجب (+) والنجم الذي يقع إلى جنوب خط الاستواء تكون قيمة بعده بالسالب (-) فنقول مثلا أن الميل الزاوي للسماك الرامح  (بالزائد لكونه يقع شمال خط الاستواء السماوي)، والسماك الأعزل  (بالناقص لكونه يقع جنوب خط الاستواء السماوي).

انظر أيضًا

 مطلع مستقيم
 حقبة (فلك)
 نظام إحداثي سماوي
 بعد قطبي

مراجع

زوايا
نظام إحداثي سماوي

ميل (إحداثي فلكي)


Bitulja je hrvatska kanalizirana rječica u Vukovarsko-srijemskoj županiji. Duga je 7,5 km. Nastaje 3,5 km jugozapadno od Prkovaca i potječe iz kanala Biđ. Ulijeva se u kanal Kaluđer južno od Šiškovaca. Oba kanala povezuju Bitulju s rijekom Biđ.

Rijeke u Hrvatskoj
Porječje Save

Bitulja


مر تاريخ السينما في ليبيا بمراحل مختلفة، ففي ديسمبر 1951 استقلت ليبيا عن إيطاليا، ومع ذلك ظل سوق العروض السينمائية فيها تابعاً لإيطاليا على نحو لا نجد له مثيلاً إلا في الدول الواقعة تحت الحكم الاستعماري. ففي كل عام كانت دور العرض التي يبلغ عددها حوالي ثلاثين داراً، تعرض حوالي خمسين فيلماً مصرياً وأربعين فيلماً إيطالياً، وعشرة أفلام أو أكثر من الأفلام الأمريكية، وغيرها من أفلام الدول الغربية. وكانت الأفلام الإيطالية تعرض باللغة الإيطالية دون ترجمة عربية، وفي دور عرض مخصصة للأجانب فقط. كما فرض آنذاك على جميع دور العرض أن تعرض يوم الأحد أفلاماً إيطالية.

ففي عام 1966 مثلاً، كان في طرابلس 13 داراً للعرض منها تسعة للأجانب، وأربعة للمواطنين. وحتى قيام ثورة الفاتح من سبتمبر 1969 لم تعرف ليبيا الإنتاج السينمائي القومي عدا الجريدة التي كانت تصدرها الحكومة منذ عام 1955.

تطور السينما
ظهرت السينما الليبية وتطورت خلال مرحلتين أساسيتين:
 الأولى منهما تقع خلال الفترة التي بدأت عام 1963 تقريباً، حتى بداية تاريخ إنشاء المؤسسة العامة للخيالة الليبية في عام 1973، حيث بدأت المرحلة الثانية. كانت الأشرطة المنتجة خلال المرحلة الأولى من نوع الأفلام التسجيلية مقاس 35مم، بعضها أبيض وأسود، والبعض الآخر ملوّن، وقد أنتجت بجهود بعض الشباب الليبي المتحمس والهاوي لهذا الفن، ولم يكن يزيد عددهم خلال بداية تلك المرحلة عن عدد أصابع اليدين. ويقدَّر عدد الأشرطة التي أنتجت خلال المرحلة الأولى بحوالي سبعين شريطاً تسجيلياً مختلفاً، صادف بعضها نجاحاً فنياً مرموقاً.
 مع بداية عام 1970 بُدئ في إنتاج مجموعة من الأشرطة السينمائية التعليمية بلغ عددها ستة أشرطة تعليمية، وفي عام 1971، أي بعد قيام ثورة الفاتح من سبتمبر، بدأ تطور كبير في مجال النشاط الخيالي عندما أنشأت أمانة الإعلام والثقافة إدارة الإنتاج السينمائي، وجُهزت بأحدث الآلات، والأجهزة، والمعدات اللازمة للإنتاج، فضلاً عن إنشاء معمل حديث لتحميض وطبع أشرطة الخيالة مقاس 35مم، 16 مم أبيض وأسود، أما الأشرطة الملونة فكان يجري تحميضها وطبعها بالخارج. وكان من إنجازات تلك الإدارة قيامها بإنشاء وتجهيز مكتبة وسجل خاص للأشرطة السينمائية، جمعت فيه بعض الأشرطة التسجيلية التاريخية التي صورت في ليبيا إبان الاحتلال الإيطالي بواسطة بعض شركات السينما الأجنبية. ويرجع تاريخ تصوير هذه الأشرطة إلى عام 1911، وقد أفادت هذه الأشرطة كثيراً في إنتاج بعض الأفلام التسجيلية الناجحة، يذكر منها شريط «كفاح الشعب الليبي ضد الاستعمار» الذي انتج عام 1973.
 قفزت صناعة السينما في ليبيا قفزتها الكبرى في طريق النمو والارتقاء بصدور قانون إنشاء المؤسسة العامة للخيالة في 13 ديسمبر 1973، لتنتقل السينما الليبية بذلك إلى مرحلتها الثانية، التي تعد نقطة التحول والانطلاق إلى عالم السينما الرحب، حيث أنشأت المؤسسة العامة للخيالة معملاً حديثاً للصوت مجهزاً بأحدث الأجهزة والمعدات اللازمة للتسجيلات الصوتية 35 مم، 16 مم ضوئي، ومغناطيس، وقاعة حديثة للميكساج، والعرض، فضلاً عن أجهزة المونتاج والتوليف للصورة والصوت، وأحدث معداتٍ وأجهزةٍ للتصوير، والإضاءة.

إنتاج
في خلال الفترة من أبريل 1974 إلى أبريل 1979، أُنتج حوالي 134 شريطاً تسجيلياً متنوعاً، إلى جانب بعض أعداد من مجلة الخيالة المصورة. كما أُنتج كذلك 7 أشرطة روائية طويلة بعضها إنتاج مشترك، وحصل بعضها على جوائز دولية. في يونيو 1979، بُدئ في إنتاج أول شريط روائي طويل على مستوى الإنتاج العالمي بأيدٍ ليبية خالصة.

وفي 21 يوليو 1979، صدر قرار اللجنة الشعبية العامة بالجماهيرية بإنشاء الشركة العالمية للخيالة، لتصبح الجهة المختصة والمسؤولة عن كل ما يتعلق بالنشاط الخيالي من إنتاج، وعروض، واستيراد، وتوزيع، وتسويق الأشرطة، وقد ضم إليها جميع دور العرض بالجماهيرية.

مصادر

سينما ليبية


Bruno Benedetto Rossi (; ; 13 April 1905 – 21 November 1993) was an Italian experimental physicist.  He made major contributions to particle physics and the study of cosmic rays. A 1927 graduate of the University of Bologna, he became interested in cosmic rays. To study them, he invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit, and travelled to Eritrea to conduct experiments that showed that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East.

Forced to emigrate in October 1938 due to the Italian racial laws, Rossi moved to Denmark, where he worked with Niels Bohr. He then moved to Britain, where he worked with Patrick Blackett at the University of Manchester. Finally he went to the United States, where he worked with Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, and later at Cornell University. Rossi stayed in the United States, and became an American Citizen.

During World War II, Rossi worked on radar at the MIT Radiation Laboratory, and he played a pivotal role in the Manhattan Project, heading the group at the Los Alamos Laboratory that carried out the RaLa Experiments.  After the war, he was recruited by Jerrold Zacharias at MIT, where Rossi continued his pre-war research into cosmic rays.

In the 1960s, he pioneered X-ray astronomy and space plasma physics. His instrumentation on Explorer 10 detected the magnetopause, and he initiated the rocket experiments that discovered Scorpius X-1, the first extra-solar source of X-rays.

Italy
Rossi was born to a Jewish family in Venice, Italy.  He was the eldest of three sons of Rino Rossi and Lina Minerbi. His father was an electrical engineer, who participated in the electrification of Venice.  Rossi was tutored at home until the age of fourteen, after which he attended the Ginnasio and the Liceo in Venice. After beginning his university studies at the University of Padua, he undertook advanced work at the University of Bologna, where he received a Laurea in Physics in 1927. His thesis advisor was Quirino Majorana, who was a well-known experimentalist and an uncle of the physicist Ettore Majorana.

Florence
In 1928, Rossi began his career at the University of Florence, as assistant to Antonio Garbasso, who had founded the University's Physics Institute in 1920. It was located in Arcetri, on a hill overlooking the city.  When Rossi arrived, Garbasso was Podestà of Florence, appointed by Benito Mussolini's fascist government of Italy. However, he brought to the Institute a group of brilliant physicists which included Enrico Fermi and Franco Rasetti before they moved to Rome, as well as Gilberto Bernardini, Enrico Persico, and Giulio Racah. In 1929, Rossi's first graduate student, Giuseppe Occhialini, was awarded the doctoral degree.

In search of pioneering research, Rossi turned his attention to cosmic rays, which had been discovered by Victor Hess in manned balloon flights in 1911 and 1912.  In 1929, Rossi read the paper of Walther Bothe and Werner Kolhörster, which described their discovery of charged cosmic ray particles that penetrated  of gold. This was astonishing, for the most penetrating charged particles known at the time were electrons from radioactive decay, which could penetrate less than a millimetre of gold. In Rossi's words, it

Rossi coincidence circuit
In 1954, Bothe was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith" for a method of assessing coincident events he implemented prior to 1924.  However, his implementation of this method was very cumbersome, for it involved visual correlation of photographed pulses. Within a few weeks of reading his paper with Kolhörster, Rossi invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit, which made use of triode vacuum tubes. The Rossi coincidence circuit has two major advantages:  it offers very precise temporal resolution and it can detect coincidences among any number of pulse sources.  These features make it possible to identify interesting events that produce coincident pulses in several counters.  These rare events stand out even in the presence of high rates of unrelated background pulses in the individual counters.  The circuit not only provided the basis for electronic instrumentation in nuclear and particle physics, but also implemented the first electronic AND circuit, which is a fundamental element of the digital logic that is ubiquitous in modern electronics.

At the time, an improved tubular version of the original Geiger counter, invented by Hans Geiger in 1908, had just been developed by his student Walther Müller.  These Geiger–Müller tubes (GM tubes or counters) made possible Bothe's investigations.  With Occhialini's help in the construction of GM tubes, and with the aid of a practical coincidence circuit, Rossi confirmed and extended the results of Bothe, who invited him to visit Berlin in the summer of 1930.  Here, with financial support arranged by Garbasso, Rossi collaborated on further investigations of cosmic ray penetration.  He also studied Carl Størmer's mathematical description of the trajectories of charged particles in the Earth's magnetic field. On the basis of these studies, he realised that the intensity of cosmic rays coming from eastward directions might be different from that of westward ones.  From Berlin, he submitted the first paper suggesting that observations of this east–west effect could not only confirm that cosmic rays are charged particles, but also determine the sign of their charge.

Rome conference
In the fall of 1931, Fermi and Orso Mario Corbino organized in Rome an international conference on nuclear physics, which was sponsored by the Royal Academy of Italy.  Fermi invited Rossi to give an introductory talk on cosmic rays.  In the audience were Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton, both of whom had won the Nobel prize in physics, in 1923 and 1927, respectively. During the 1920s, Millikan, who is famous for his oil drop experiment, made extensive measurements of the mysterious radiation discovered by Hess.  He coined the name "cosmic rays" and proposed that they were photons created by the fusion of hydrogen in interstellar space.  He was not pleased by the presentation of evidence that most observed cosmic rays are energetic charged particles.  Later, Rossi wrote:
Compton, who is famous for the Compton effect, had a more positive reaction, for he told Rossi later that the talk had motivated him to begin his own research on cosmic rays.

Rossi curve
Immediately after the Rome conference, Rossi carried out two experiments that led to a significant advance in the understanding of cosmic rays.  Both involved triple coincidences of pulses from three Geiger counters; but in the first, the counters were aligned and separated by blocks of lead, while in the second, they were placed in a triangular configuration such that all three could not be traversed by a single particle travelling in a straight line.  Results from the first configuration demonstrated the existence of cosmic-ray particles capable of penetrating  of lead.

With the second configuration enclosed in a lead box, the results showed that some cosmic rays interact in lead to produce multiple secondary particles.  In an extension of the second experiment, he measured the rate of triple coincidences as a function of the amount of the lead above the counters. A plot of this rate against thickness, which came to be known as the Rossi curve, showed a rapid rise as the lead layer was increased, followed by a slow decline. These experiments showed that ground-level cosmic rays consist of two components: a "soft" component which is capable of prolific generation of multiple particle events, and a "hard" component which is capable of traversing great thicknesses of lead.  At the time, the physical nature of both was a mystery, for they did not yet fit into the growing body of knowledge about nuclear and particle physics.

Late in 1931, Rossi arranged for Occhialini to work in the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge with Patrick Blackett, whom he had met in Berlin. With the aid of the new technique of electronic coincidence, Occhialini helped Blackett develop the first counter-controlled cloud chamber, with which they confirmed Carl Anderson's discovery of the positron and deduced that the positive electrons are produced in association with negative ones by pair production. Up to 23 positive and negative electrons were observed in some events, which were clearly related to the showers of Rossi's soft component.

Padua

In 1932, Rossi won a competition for an academic position in an Italian university, and was appointed professor of experimental physics at the University of Padua. Soon after Rossi arrived, the rector asked him to oversee the design and construction of Padua's new Physics Institute.  Although this task diverted his attention from research and teaching, he complied willingly, and the institute opened in 1937.

East-West effect
In spite of this distraction, Rossi was able to complete, in 1933, an experiment on the east–west effect that he had begun before leaving Arcetri.  Because this effect is more prominent near the equator, he organised an expedition to Asmara in Eritrea, which was then an Italian colony on the Red Sea at a latitude of 15° N. With Sergio De Benedetti, he set up a "cosmic ray telescope", which consisted of two separated GM counters in coincidence, whose axis of maximum sensitivity could be pointed in any direction.  It soon became apparent that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East.  This meant that there was a larger influx of positive primary particles than of negative ones. At the time, this result was surprising, because most investigators held the preconceived notion that the primaries would be negative electrons.

Just as Rossi left Eritrea, he received news of two observations of a similar east–west effect.  These were published in the Physical Review.  One was by Thomas H. Johnson, and the other was by Compton and his student, Luis Alvarez, who reported observations at Mexico City, where the latitude is 19° N. Because others had carried out the first experimental exploitation of his important idea of 1930, Rossi was disappointed, but published his results immediately after returning to Padua. Later, with Frederick C. Chromey, Alvarez and Rossi patented a "Vertical Determination Device", which made use of cosmic ray telescopes.

In Eritrea, Rossi discovered another phenomenon that would become a principal theme of his postwar cosmic ray research: extensive cosmic ray air showers.  The discovery occurred during tests to determine the rate of accidental coincidences between the Geiger counters of his detector. To assure that no single particle could trigger the counters he spread them out in a horizontal plane. In this configuration, the frequency of coincidences was greater than that calculated on the basis of the individual rates and the resolving time of the coincidence circuit.  Rossi concluded that:

In 1937, Rossi became acquainted with Nora Lombroso, the daughter of Ugo Lombroso, a professor of physiology at the University of Palermo, and Silvia Forti.  Her grandfather was the renowned physician and criminologist Cesare Lombroso, and her aunts, Gina Lombroso and Paola Lombroso Carrara, were well known Italian writers and educators.  In April 1938, Bruno and Nora married and set up a household in Padua.

Although Rossi avoided politics, some of Rossi's associates were active opponents of the fascist state.  For example, he mentored Eugenio Curiel, who became a member of the communist party, while completing a degree at Padua.  Later, in 1943, Curiel joined the resistance in Milan, and in 1945, was assassinated by soldiers of the Republic of Salò a German puppet state.  Similarly, Ettore Pancini, who received his laurea under Rossi in 1938, spent the war years alternating between cosmic ray research and active participation in the Italian resistance movements of Padua and Venice.

Because of these associations, and because both Rossis were Jewish, they became apprehensive as Italy's antisemitism grew under the influence of Nazi Germany.  Eventually, as a result of anti-Jewish laws resulting from the Manifesto of Race, Rossi was dismissed from his professorship. In his words:

Exile
With this setback, Rossi began an important phase of his career.  He summarised this period in a memoir: "The Decay of 'Mesotrons' (1939–1943): Experimental Particle Physics in the Age of Innocence", which he presented in a symposium at Fermilab in 1980. On 12 October 1938, the Rossis left for Copenhagen, where the Danish physicist, Niels Bohr, had invited him to study.  The couple had no intention of returning to Italy, and Bohr facilitated Rossi's search for a more secure position by sponsoring a conference attended by leading physicists.  He hoped that one of them would find Rossi a job, and soon, Rossi received an invitation to come to the University of Manchester, where Blackett was developing a major center of cosmic ray research.  After a pleasant two months in Denmark, Rossi and Nora arrived in Manchester.

Manchester
Rossi's stay in Manchester was brief, but productive.  At this time, a clear understanding of the soft component was available.  In 1934, Hans Bethe and Walter Heitler published a quantitative description not only of the production of electron-positron pairs by energetic photons, but also of the production of photons by energetic electrons and positrons. At Manchester, Rossi collaborated with Ludwig Jánossy on an experiment which demonstrated the correctness of the Bethe-Heitler theory of the second process, which had not yet been fully confirmed. This experiment also introduced the technique of anti-coincidence, which has become a ubiquitous feature of instruments for detecting and analyzing energetic particles.

By this time, cloud chamber observations had clarified the nature of the hard component.  In 1936, Anderson and his student, Seth Neddermeyer, discovered cosmic ray particles with mass intermediate between those of the electron and the proton, which Anderson called "mesotrons".  The mesotron subsequently became the known as the "μ meson", which was shortened to "muon". Just before the Copenhagen conference, Blackett suggested that observed variations of cosmic ray intensity with atmospheric temperature could be an indication that mesotrons are unstable, and he held intense discussions with Rossi on this subject.  As a result, Rossi left Manchester determined to confirm their decay and to measure the lifetime.

Chicago
With war looming over Europe, Blackett and others advised Rossi to leave Britain.  Consequently, he wrote to Compton, who invited him to attend a summer symposium in Chicago, and hinted that a job might become available.  In June 1939, the Rossis sailed for New York, where they were greeted by Fermi and his wife Laura, who had also left Italy because of the racial laws.  After a brief reunion with the Fermis, the Rossis were offered a ride to Chicago by Bethe.  They gratefully accepted, and arrived at the University of Chicago in mid-June 1939.

Mesotron decay

Immediately after a symposium session on mesotron instability reached a consensus that more definitive observations were needed, Rossi and Compton began to plan an experiment.  Because the intensity of the hard component increases with altitude, while the density of air decreases, Compton suggested that the investigations should be carried out on Mount Blue Sky in Colorado, where he had worked in the early 1930s, and where access to a research site at  elevation is provided by the Mount Evans Scenic Byway, the highest paved road in North America.  He urged Rossi to begin a series of experiments that summer, before snow blocked the road, and to help, enlisted two of his friends, Norman Hillberry and J. Barton Hoag, and a student, Winston Bostick. Rossi and his helpers hurriedly assembled equipment and loaded it onto a dilapidated bus that Compton borrowed from the zoology department.

By this time, it was known that the main process by which mesotrons lose energy is ionisation energy loss, which is described by the Bethe formula, and is proportional to the mass per unit area of the layer of material traversed.  If this were the only process, the intensity of the hard component passing through a layer of solid material would decrease by the same amount as in an equivalent layer of air. Rossi and his collaborators found that the decrease was significantly larger in the atmosphere than in a corresponding layer of solid carbon.  Because the distance traversed in air was much larger than that in carbon, they interpreted this result as evidence for decay of the mesotron, and taking into account the effect of relativistic time dilation, estimated its mean life at rest as roughly 2 microseconds.

The next summer, Rossi returned to Mount Evans where he performed experiments near Echo Lake at an elevation .  With the use of anti coincidence techniques, the apparatus made it possible to measure the mean free path before decay of two groups of mesotrons with different average momentum.  The results, published with David B. Hall, not only confirmed the proportionality between particle momentum and the mean free path of mesotrons before decay that is expected on the basis of relativity theory, but also presented an improved estimate of the lifetime at rest: (2.4±0.3) microseconds. These results and those of the previous year were not only the first to show definitively that mesotrons are unstable, but also the first experimental confirmation of the time dilation of moving clocks predicted by relativity theory.

Cornell
At Chicago, Rossi's position as research associate was not permanent, and Compton was unable to secure him a better one.  Consequently, he began a job search, during which he gave a seminar at Cornell University, where coincidentally, death had created a vacancy in the physics department.  After Bethe suggested that Rossi should be invited to fill this position, he was appointed associate professor at Cornell.  In the fall of 1940, after returning to Chicago from Colorado, the Rossis left for Ithaca.

At Cornell, Rossi met his first American graduate student, Kenneth Greisen, with whom he wrote an article, "Cosmic-Ray Theory", which was published in the Reviews of Modern Physics and became known among cosmic-ray researchers as "The Bible". During the summer of 1941, Greisen and physicists from Denver and Boulder accompanied Rossi to Mount Evans, where they refined the knowledge of proportionality between mesotron momentum and lifetime before decay. Greisen and Rossi also carried out experiments, which showed, in terms of processes documented in the "Bible", that not all particles of the soft component, could be produced by mesotrons of the hard component.  They interpreted this as evidence for primary electrons or photons, but it became evident later that the soft excess arises from the decay of neutral pions.

After the 1941 expedition to Colorado, Rossi decided that the question of whether mesotrons decay had been answered.  However, he was not satisfied with the precision with which the lifetime had been determined, for existing estimates depended on mesotron mass, which was not accurately known.  To perform a more direct measurement, he designed apparatus to measure the time interval between the arrival of a mesotron in an absorber, where it stopped, and the emission of an electron when the mesotron decayed.  To assist, he obtained the help of graduate student Norris Nereson.  At the heart of their experiment, was a "chronometer", which was an electronic circuit that produced a pulse whose height was accurately proportional to the time interval, and which could be recorded by photographing an oscilloscope trace.

This was the first time-to-amplitude converter, another of Rossi's contributions to electronic techniques of experimental physics.  With absorbers of lead and brass, the number of decays was plotted against time.  These decay curves had the same exponential form as those of ordinary radioactive substances, and gave a mean lifetime of 2.3±0.2 microseconds, which was later refined to 2.15±0.07 microseconds. After the war, Rossi discovered that his Italian colleagues, Marcello Conversi and Oreste Piccioni, had performed experiments very similar to his and measured a lifetime consistent with his result.

Looking back on what he called the "Age of Innocence", Rossi wrote:

Los Alamos

With the completion of his work on mesotrons, Rossi turned his attention toward the war effort. In 1942, while commuting from Ithaca to Cambridge, Massachusetts, he became a consultant on radar development at the Radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.  Here, along with Greisen, he invented a "range tracking circuit", which was patented after the war.

In early July 1943, Bethe invited Rossi to join the Manhattan Project.  Within a month, he reported for duty at Los Alamos Laboratory.  A few weeks later, Nora and their three-year-old daughter, Florence, joined Rossi in Los Alamos, New Mexico.  The laboratory's director, Robert Oppenheimer, asked Rossi to form a group to develop diagnostic instruments needed to create the atomic bomb. He soon realized that there already existed a group with a similar mission headed by the Swiss physicist Hans H. Staub. The two decided to merge their efforts into a single "Detector Group".  They were assisted by approximately twenty young researchers, including Matthew Sands an "electronic wizard", who later earned a PhD under Rossi, and David B. Nicodemus, whom Staub brought from Stanford University, who was an expert on particle detectors.

Fast ionization chamber
Bomb development called for large detectors of ionising radiation, whose response is proportional to the energy released in the detector and follows rapid changes in radiation intensity.  From the earliest research on radioactivity, radiation had been measured in terms of Ionisation, but existing Ionisation chambers were slow to respond to changes.  To address this problem, Rossi and Staub carried out a careful analysis of the pulses that result when individual charged particles create ions within an ionisation chamber. They realised that the high mobility of free electrons removed from ionised atoms means that the pulses produced by single particles can be very brief.  With James S. Allen, Rossi found gas mixtures of high electron mobility and low electron attachment. On the basis of these investigations, Allen and Rossi invented the "fast ionisation chamber", which they patented after the war. It was a crucial factor in the success of the Manhattan Project and became widely used in postwar research on particle physics.

RaLa experiments

In April 1944, the Manhattan project experienced a crisis, when Emilio Segrè's group discovered that plutonium made in reactors would not work in a gun-type plutonium weapon like the "Thin Man".  In response, Oppenheimer completely reorganised the laboratory to focus on development of an implosion-type weapon.

Rossi was enlisted to implement a method to test various weapon designs to arrive at one that produced an accurately symmetrical spherical implosion. The tests measured changes of the absorption of gamma rays in a metal sphere as it underwent implosive compression. The gamma rays were emitted by a pellet of the short-lived radioisotope Lanthanum-140 positioned in the center of the sphere.  The term RaLa experiment is a contraction of Radioactive Lanthanum.  As compression progressed, the rapid increase in absorption was detected as a decrease of gamma ray intensity recorded outside of the assembly.

The RaLa experiments revealed many pitfalls on the way to a successful implosion. To understand problematic jets that plagued early implosion designs, other test methods were necessary, but the RaLa experiments played a primary role in the design of explosive lenses. In his history of the Los Alamos project, David Hawkins wrote: "RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design".

Trinity diagnostics

On 16 July 1945, an implosion-type plutonium device was detonated at the Trinity site near Alamogordo, New Mexico.  The code name for this device was "The gadget", and its design was very similar to the Fat Man weapon that was dropped on Nagasaki twenty four days later.

In preparation for Trinity, Rossi designed instrumentation to record gamma radiation during the chain reaction, whose duration was expected to be approximately 10 nanoseconds.  Observations on this time scale were almost beyond the state of the art in 1945, but Rossi designed and built a large cylindrical ionisation chamber whose speed of response was adequate because its coaxial electrodes were separated by a narrow gap of only .

To record the signal, he installed a very fast oscilloscope, provided as a prototype by DuMont Laboratories, in an underground bunker several hundred feet from the Gadget, where it was photographed. To bring the signal to the oscilloscope, he devised an oversized coaxial transmission line, whose inner conductor was made smaller as it went from chamber to oscilloscope.  Because this configuration enhanced the signal reaching the oscilloscope, there was no need for amplification.  To confirm this surprising behaviour, Rossi consulted with Harvard professor Edward Purcell.

A few days after the test, Rossi went into the darkroom with Fermi, and before the newly developed film was dry, they were able to compute the initial growth rate of nuclear activity, which was crucial information for future weapons development.  Of three attempts to measure this rate at Trinity, Rossi's was the only one that was fully successful.

MIT
With the success of the Manhattan Project and the Radiation Laboratory, MIT moved into a new era of "big science" funded by the US government. MIT's expansion in nuclear physics was spearheaded by Jerrold R. Zacharias, who went to Los Alamos late in the war, and recruited Viki Weisskopf and Rossi as MIT professors. Rossi left Los Alamos for Cambridge on 6 February 1946.

Within the new Laboratory for Nuclear Science, headed by Zacharias, Rossi was delegated to create a cosmic ray research group at MIT. To help, he recruited four young scientists who had been at Los Alamos as PhD candidates:  Herbert Bridge, Matthew Sands, Robert Thompson and Robert Williams. Two who had been in the Radiation Laboratory also came to work with him: John Tinlot and Robert Hulsizer.  All six were more mature than typical graduate students, for they had several years of wartime research experience.  Consequently, they were paid a stipend similar to that of a postdoctoral researcher, which was funded by the Office of Naval Research and enabled them to support families during their graduate studies.

For this new phase of his activities, Rossi made a fundamental change of approach.  In his words:

Elementary Particles
With the discovery of the pion in 1947, the search for new elementary particles became a popular research topic. By operating fast ionization chambers within a cloud chamber, Herbert showed that the bursts of ionization they recorded were primarily produced by relatively low energy cosmic rays, whose nuclear interactions typically involve the ejection of several heavily ionising nuclear fragments. On the basis of this effect, he and Rossi demonstrated that the behaviour of these interactions is similar to that of penetrating showers.

Rossi's group focused on the use of cloud chambers to study their properties and interactions.  In 1948, with the aid of a multi-plate cloud chamber in which lead plates alternated with aluminium ones, Gregory, Rossi and Tinlot showed that the source of the electromagnetic component of cosmic ray interactions was predominantly energetic photons, rather than electrons. This result confirmed Oppenheimer's suggestion of 1947 that neutral pions are produced in interactions, along with charged ones, and that this component arises from their rapid decay into photons.

To study the new elementary particles, Bridge and Martin Annis operated a large rectangular multi plate cloud chamber at Echo Lake. This investigation provided the basis for a 1951 PhD thesis by Annis, supervised by Rossi. The next year, these authors, with another student of Rossi's, Stanislaw Olbert, showed how to derive information on particle energies from measurements of their multiple scattering. This added another way to use cloud chambers to measure the properties of elementary particles. In early 1953, with Bridge, Richard Safford and Charles Peyrou, Rossi published results of a comprehensive cloud chamber study of the elementary particles that became known as kaons. Peyrou was a visitor from at the École Polytechnique, where he had obtained an accurate value of the muon mass in 1947, and Safford was Rossi's student.

Bagnères-de-Bigorre conference
By 1952, a bewildering "zoo" of elementary particles had been reported, with various masses, decay schemes, nomenclature and reliability of identification.  To deal with this situation, Blackett and Leprince-Ringuet organized an International Cosmic Ray Conference at Bagnères-de-Bigorre in 1953. According to James Cronin, "this conference can be placed in importance in the same category as two other famous conferences, the Solvay congress of 1927 and the Shelter Island Conference of 1948."

Leprince-Ringuet asked Rossi to give a summary of new information presented at the conference and to propose nomenclature for the new particles.  Before the conference, in response to the latter assignment, Rossi circulated a suggestion that particles with mass smaller than that of a neutron be designated by small Greek letters and those with larger mass be designated by capital Greek letters. In his talk, on 11 July 1953, he reported that conference results, which he had compiled with the aid of Powell and Fretter, were consistent with this scheme, which was commonly used afterwards.

A highlight was Leprince-Ringuet's declaration in his closing talk that: "...in the future we must use particle accelerators."  With the 3 GeV Cosmotron already in operation at Brookhaven National Laboratory, this declaration reflected a consensus among the participants. As a result, Rossi's group began to wind down their cloud chamber experiments.  However, in 1954, Bridge, Hans Courant, Herbert DeStaebler, Jr. and Rossi reported on an unusual event in which a stopping singly charged particle decayed into three photons whose energies totaled more than the proton rest energy.  This is the signature of an antiproton annihilation. The next year, a group led by Owen Chamberlain and Emilio Segrè detected antiprotons, for which they were awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1960.

Extensive air showers
By the time of the Bagnères-de-Bigorre conference, Rossi had already turned his attention toward the astrophysical implications of cosmic ray phenomena, particularly extensive air showers.  After Rossi's recognition, in Eritrea, that these events exist, they were extensively studied by Pierre Auger, and by Williams. At this time, the extremely fast response of the newly developed scintillation counters offered a new way to study the structure of air showers.  To do this, Rossi enlisted his student, George W. Clark, who completed a PhD in 1952, and Piero Bassi, who was a visitor from the University of Padua.  Because solid scintillating material was unavailable, they decided to use terphenyl dissolved in benzine, which is an efficient liquid scintillator.  With the aid of three counters deployed on the roof of the MIT Physics building during the winter of 1952/53, they found that shower particles arrived within only one or two meters of a disk, which travels at nearly the speed of light in the direction of the shower axis.

This result showed that scintillation counters can not only determine of the arrival times of shower disks at many detectors spread over a large area, but also to estimate the number of particles striking each detector.  These capabilities combine the "fast-timing" method of determining shower arrival directions with the density sampling method of determining their size and the location of their axes.

Agassiz experiment
With this progress, Rossi's group began a major experiment that could measure both primary energies and arrival directions of extensive air showers.  Participating in this effort were: George Clark, William Kraushaar, John Linsley, James Earl, and Frank Scherb.  Kraushaar came to MIT from Cornell in 1949, after earning his PhD under Kenneth Greisen.  With the support of Professor Donald Menzel who was director of the Harvard College Observatory, Rossi's group deployed fifteen liquid scintillators, of area  on the wooded grounds of the observatory's Agassiz station.  The signals were brought on cables to a Quonset hut, where they were displayed on fifteen oscillographs and recorded photographically.

Shortly after the experiment began to record shower data, lightning ignited the flammable liquid of one of the counters.  Local firemen quickly extinguished the resulting fire before it spread to nearby trees, which were soaked with rain water.  Because the trees played an essential role in suppressing atmospheric convection that would degrade telescopic observations, Harvard and MIT carried out tense negotiations, until an elaborate system of fire protection was installed, and the experiment was allowed to resume. To eliminate the threat of fire, Clark, Frank Scherb and William B. Smith created a "factory" that made nonflammable plastic scintillator disks, whose thickness was  and whose diameter was approximately .

After a switch to plastic in the late spring of 1956, the experiment ran continuously.  Its findings were reported in Nature and the Physical Review. The most important results were summarized by Rossi as:

As the Agassiz experiment came to an end, the group realized that observations near the equator and in the southern hemisphere were needed to extend their conclusion that air shower arrival directions are nearly isotropic.  Consequently, Clark, in collaboration with Vikram Sarabhai, ran his smaller experiment at Kodaikanal, India, at a latitude of 10° N, and confirmed the absence of anisotropies. Later, at the suggestion of Ismael Escobar, the Agassiz equipment was moved to El Alto at 4200 meters on the Bolivian plateau at 16° S.  Here, Clark, Escobar and Juan Hersil found no anisotropies, but they showed that the structure of air showers at their maximum development is different from that at sea level.

Volcano Ranch experiment
The maximum energy of a particle recorded by Agassiz experiment, 1019 electron volt, is close to energies beyond which charged particles can not be confined to the galactic disc by typical interstellar magnetic fields of 10−5 gauss.  A detector array of very large dimensions is needed to detect showers of these energies. John Linsley agreed to take on responsibility for building such an array. He came to MIT in 1954 from the University of Minnesota, where he completed a PhD under Edward P. Ney.  Soon, he was joined by Livio Scarsi, whom Rossi had recruited from Occhialini's group at the University of Milan.

Because no large enough tract of open land was available near Boston, the array was constructed on a semi-desert property known asVolcano Ranch, about  west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, at an altitude of .  During 1957 and 1958, Linsley and Scarsi deployed 19 scintillation counters, which used fluorescent plastic disks similar to those of the Agassiz detectors, except that each counter incorporated four disks viewed by four photomultipliers. Initially the area of the array was 2.5*106 m2, which is to be compared with Agassiz's 105 m2, but in 1960, after Scarsi had returned to Milan, Linsley spread the detectors over an area of 107 m2.

Results from the Volcano Ranch experiment showed that the cosmic-ray intensity decreases smoothly with energy from 1017 - 1018 electron volt. and that primaries in this range arrive isotropically. Of particular significance was the detection of a single particle whose energy of 1020 electron volt is larger than the maximum that could be contained in the galactic disc by galactic magnetic fields. Particles of these energies can only originate in the galactic halo or from beyond the galaxy, and their existence is not consistent with the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit.

Space Plasma Research
On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1. This event began the Sputnik crisis, a "wave of near-hysteria" among a surprised American public. In response, the U.S. government increased funding for the National Science Foundation, and in 1958, created both the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Advanced Research Projects Agency, which was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972. On 4 June 1958, two days after legislation creating NASA was introduced, Detlev W. Bronk, chairman of the National Academy of Sciences, met with the heads of these three agencies to create a new advisory body, the Space Science Board, to provide advice for the expansion of space research and to make sure that funding of fundamental science would be properly emphasized.

The Board convened for its first meeting on 27 June 1958.  Only four members were already engaged in space research:  Rossi, Leo Goldberg, John Simpson, and James Van Allen. Rossi formed a subcommittee which included Thomas Gold, Philip Morrison and biologist Salvador Luria, who agreed that investigations of plasma in interplanetary space would be desirable. Consequently, Rossi decided to turn his group's efforts towards its study. With Herbert Bridge, Rossi designed and tested a plasma probe based on the classical Faraday cup.  However, to enhance the instrument's response to positively charged protons and to suppress its response to photoelectrons produced by sunlight, four grids were deployed within the cup.  A key innovation was a modulating voltage applied to one of the grids, which converted the signal into an alternating current, proportional to the proton flux and uncontaminated by any contribution of photoelectrons.

After intense lobbying of Homer Newell, NASA's deputy director of space flight programs, Rossi secured a flight opportunity on Explorer 10, "Goddard's first home-grown satellite". The unannounced goal was to hit the moon, but after launch on 25 March 1961, the satellite went into a highly elongated orbit around Earth, whose apogee, at 70% of the distance to the moon, was well short of this goal.

Nevertheless, during 52 hours of data recorded by the MIT probe before battery power ran out, Rossi's group found a transition between two distinct regions around earth.  Near earth, there were fairly strong and well organised magnetic fields, but no indication of interplanetary protons.  At 22 earth radii, the spacecraft entered a region where magnetic fields were weaker and more irregular, and where a substantial flux of protons was observed coming from the general direction of the Sun.  On several occasions during the rest of the flight, this flux disappeared and then reappeared again, which indicated that the spacecraft was flying close to the boundary between the two regions and that this boundary was moving irregularly. Eventually, this boundary became known as the magnetopause.

Under Bridge and Rossi, the MIT space plasma group included Frank Scherb, Edwin Lyon, Alan Lazarus, Alberto Bonnetti, Alberto Egidi, John Belcher and Constance Dilworth, who was Occhialini's wife. Its Faraday cups have collected data on plasma throughout the solar system: near Earth on OGO-1, OGO 3 and IMP 8, in interplanetary space on WIND, and in the Heliosphere and Heliosheath on Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.

X-Ray astronomy

As a consultant to American Science and Engineering, Inc., Rossi initiated the rocket experiments that discovered the first extra-solar source of X-rays, Scorpius X-1. Rossi was made institute professor at MIT in 1966.

Retirement
Rossi retired from MIT in 1970. From 1974 to 1980 he taught at the University of Palermo. In retirement he wrote a number of monographs, and a 1990 autobiography, Moments in the Life of a Scientist, which was published by Cambridge University Press. He died from a cardiac arrest at his home in Cambridge on 21 November 1993. He was survived by his wife, Nora, daughters Florence and Linda and son Frank. He was cremated, and his ashes are in the graveyard of the church of San Miniato al Monte, which overlooks Florence and the hill of Arcetri.

Honors and awards

Awards
 Wolf Prize in Physics for his role in the development of X-ray astronomy (1987)
 National Medal of Science (1985)
 Rumford Prize award of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for "discoveries concerning the nature and origins of cosmic radiations" (1976)
 Elliott Cresson Medal (1974)
 Gold Medal of the Italian Physical Society (1970)
 Doctors honoris causa from the universities of Palermo, Durham, and Chicago

Honors

 Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1948)
 Elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences (1950)
 Elected to the American Philosophical Society (1959)

Legacy
 Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, a NASA satellite X-ray observatory launched in 1995.
 Bruno Rossi Prize of the High Energy Astrophysics division of the American Astronomical Society.
 There is an endowed chair named in honor of Bruno Rossi at MIT.  It is currently held by Prof. Claude R. Canizares.

Books

References

External links
 Oral history interview transcript with Bruno Rossi on 21 July 1976, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
 Cosmic Ray Observations in Eritrea: Research Notes of Bruno Rossi, 1933

1905 births
1993 deaths
Scientists from Venice
University of Bologna alumni
Academic staff of the University of Florence
Academic staff of the University of Padua
University of Chicago faculty
Cornell University faculty
20th-century Italian astronomers
Jewish astronomers
20th-century Italian physicists
20th-century Italian Jews
Jewish physicists
Manhattan Project people
People from Los Alamos, New Mexico
National Medal of Science laureates
Particle physicists
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Wolf Prize in Physics laureates
Academic staff of the University of Palermo
Cosmic ray physicists
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Jewish Italian scientists
Recipients of the Matteucci Medal
Italian emigrants to the United States
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Bruno Rossi


ඊළාම් ජාතික ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදී විමුක්ති පෙරමුණ (ඊජාප්‍රවිපෙ) යනු ඉන්දියානු සහය පැවැති ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පැරණි  දෙමළ සටන්කාමී කණ්ඩායමකි.