Morges (; , plural, probably ablative, else dative; ) is a municipality in the Swiss canton of Vaud and the seat of the district of Morges. It is located on Lake Geneva.

History
Morges is first mentioned in 1288 as Morgia. It was known by its German name Morsee though that name is no longer used.

Prehistory
There were several prehistoric settlements along what is now the Morges lakefront. The largest and best known, Grande-Cité, was occupied in the late Bronze Age. One of the wooden objects at Grande-Cité has been dendrochronologically dated to 1031 BC. Many of the stilts and building structures have been preserved in situ. A dugout of oak was discovered near the settlement and in 1877 half of it was recovered and placed in the Musée d'histoire et d'art in Geneva.

About a hundred meters (yards) further north is the village of Vers-l'Église. The first settlement here dates back to the Neolithic, based on a layer of ceramic objects that date from between 2900 BC and 2700 BC. It remained occupied through the Late Bronze Age.

North-east of Grande-Cité is the third lake settlement, Les Roseaux, which comes from the Early Bronze Age. It is a rich site for artifacts including numerous edge strips for bronze axes and cups made of fine ceramics (of the Roseaux type). The arrangement of the stilts show the organization of the huts, which were oriented at right angles to the modern shore. Dendrochronological investigations of the stilts have determined that many of the houses were built between 1776 and 1600 BC. On top of the older settlement, a smaller Late Bronze Age settlement, dendrochronologically dated to 1055 BC, has been discovered.

The Bronze Age settlements were abandoned and the region was sparsely inhabited until the Gallo-Roman era when a villa and farms were built.

Medieval Morges

In 1286, Louis of Savoy, founded a city in a pasture where a gallows has previously stood. A castle was built to protect the city. A town charter was granted in 1293. The new city grew at the expense of the county of Vufflens, the diocese of Lausanne and Romainmôtier Abbey, all of which lost property and rights to the new city. It quickly developed into an administrative and market center as well as a hub for transporting goods by land and sea.

During the Middle Ages, Morges was a seasonal residence of the court of Savoy and the seat of a bailiff. The city was ruled as a single fief, and the residents were taxed according to their frontage or the width of their property along the street. The city was laid out like many neighboring Zähringer towns. There were two  wide longitudinal streets that could be used for markets and fairs. A third, parallel road was added due to the rapid expansion of Morges. A rectangular plaza was created for the weekly market. Due to the shape of the streets and the frontage tax, most of the plots are long and narrow. Most of the houses have courtyards for light and ventilation and some are also equipped with spiral staircases and arbors. The religious institutions and their related educational institutions and parish houses as well as a hospital and the college were in the northern half of the town near the church. Workshops developed in the southern half of the city, around the harbor and the marketplace. There were also the covered markets, the granary, the slaughterhouse and important inns in the southern half. The most significant of the inns was the Auberge de la Croix Blanche at Grande-Rue 70-72 which was given a late Gothic facade around 1550.

The castle in the south of the town square was built with a square floor plan and four round corner towers. It resembles the castle of Yverdon, which may have served as a model for Morges Castle. One of the round towers, larger than the others, served as the main tower. The raised courtyard was covered, during the Middle Ages, by casemates, which were first mentioned in 1340. On the lake side, outside the castle walls, there was a fortified kitchen. This kitchen, which was unique in Switzerland, was attached to the exterior of the castle walls. In 1363 the kitchen was rebuilt. Following the conquest of Vaud by Bern, the roof the kitchen became a platform for shooters. It was later converted into an observation deck.

The Syndics are first mentioned in Morges in 1375. The Town Hall was built around 1515-20 and is the oldest public building of its type in Vaud. The stair tower and monumental portal were built in 1682, while the facade was done in a late Gothic style. Prior to its construction, public meetings were held in the church, the hospital or in a hostel. Until the 16th century the town council consisted of two groups, the small Council with six or seven members, and a General Council (Conseil général). In 1514 the old councils were replaced with a twelve-member council and a twenty-four-member council. Both of these councils remained until the end of the Ancien Régime.

The municipality owned their own weights and measures, two community ovens, an infirmary (1340–1564) and a Hospital which was consecrated to St. Rochus (1518). The pillory was on the market place, the prison at the castle and the gallows were at Tolochenaz.

During the Middle Ages, the church belonged to the former parish church of Notre-Dame in Joules (now part of Echichens). The town chapel was first mentioned in 1306 without a patron saint and by 1490 it was consecrated to Notre-Dame. The chapel was on the Lausanne side of the ramparts and the unattached bell tower adjoined the city gate and served as part of the city defenses. In 1537 Tolochenaz and Morges formed a Reformed parish and the chapel was converted into a Reformed church. It was razed in 1769.

Outside the city walls, but near Morges, was the monastery of Colettaner, which was also known as the Franciscan abbey. It was founded in 1497-1500 and despite being close to Morges, was associated with Geneva. Swiss Confederation troops devastated it in 1530 and again in 1536. The ruins of the monastery were replaced with a cemetery.

Early Modern Morges

The city and castle were plundered in 1475 and again in 1530. After the conquest of Vaud in 1536 by Bern, Morges became the center of a bailiwick in 1539. The castle was in deplorable condition. The new owners had the upper half of the fortifications rebuilt in the 1540s to suit the needs of artillery. Since Morges had not surrendered quickly enough to Bern, the city gates were demolished. The gate houses remained until 1769 and 1803, when they were finally destroyed.

During the early modern era, Morges was very prosperous. A number of large civic and private buildings were built during this time. They include Bern's granary (1690–92) at the site of a formerly fortified private residence, the house at Grande-Rue 56 (which was built in 1560 and the arcaded courtyard was added in 1670) and the building at Grande-Rue 94 with its remarkable facade from 1682. A latin school (scola grammatical calis) was operating by the second half of the 15th century. In 1574 the Collège de Couvaloup, which was inspired by the academies of Geneva, Lausanne and Bern, opened in Morges. The new church was built in a French classicism style between 1769–76 and is one of the masterpieces of Reformed architecture in Switzerland. German language church services began in town starting in 1710.

Beginning in the late 18th century the areas outside the city walls were built up. A number of country estates (La Gottaz, La Prairie, La Gracieuse) and new suburbs developed along the arterial roads to Lausanne and Geneva. A small harbor is first mentioned in 1536 and shortly thereafter, regular boat service to Geneva began. In 1664 a simple pier was built out of poles, but it was too small to provide protection for the galleys that were on the lake. The Bernese government therefore decided to build a commercial and military port in Morges and not in Lausanne-Ouchy. The current port was built with two curved breakwaters between 1691–96 and in 1702 the customs house was finished. With the port, Morges became the starting point for several trade routes and became the site of a major transshipment point for goods such as salt, wine and grain.

During the early modern era, the local economy began to rely more on transportation and trade than on the production of goods. The shoemakers guild was very influential in the 16th and 17th centuries. They were replaced by tanners in the 18th and 19th centuries when they grew to be more important in the local economy. The largest socio-professional groups at the end of the Ancien Régime in 1798 were; (in order of importance) the rentiers or landlords, merchants, winemakers, farmers, shoemakers, tailors, carpenters and joiners.

Morges in the modern era

The first railway line of the Canton connected Yverdon to Morges in 1855. The new station for this line, on the western outskirts of the city, caused a surge of development outside the city walls. The first line was followed in 1856 by the Morges-Lausanne route and in 1858, the Morges-Geneva line. In 1895, the Morges-Bière-Apples line was finished, which opened up the hinterland.

Morges grew into a regional economic, political and cultural center during the ancien régime. With the cultural development, it became a center for patriots (including Jean-Jacques Cart, Henri Monod and Jules Nicholas Muret) and the Vaudois revolution. After the 1798 French invasion Morges was a district capital.

During the second half of the 19th century, the city enjoyed an upturn in business thanks to the steamship port and the temporary connection from port to the railway (1855–62). In the port, the shipyard was located near the shipping company Compagnie générale de navigation sur le lac Léman (1858–89). The castle, which became the cantonal armory in 1803, was expanded in 1836–39 with some utility buildings and damaged in an explosion in 1871. Starting in 1925, it housed the Vaud Military Museum.

A Catholic church was built in 1844 and a chapel for German language services opened in 1891. In 1922 the cantonal Farming and Wine Production school was founded in Marcelin, the building is now the Agrilogie Marcelin.

A number of companies dominated the economic life of the municipality in the 19th and 20th centuries: a gas factory (1867–1932), the transport company Friderici AG (1890), the biscuit factory Oulevay AG (1899–1992), the metal construction workshop Société industrielle de Lausanne (1907–79), the foundry Neeser AG (1947) and the pasta factory Gala (1988–2005). Between 1900 and 1940, the city extended further, with new villas and suburbs springing up. The first zoning plan of 1934 was followed by further plans in 1957 and 1970. Between 1961 and 1964 the highway was built, that divides the municipality into two parts. Since 2007, the municipality has been part of the agglomeration of Lausanne-Morges project. This project aims to create 30,000 jobs by 2020.

In September 2020, a man released from prison July and who had been under investigation for "previous jihadist activity," chose a victim at random in Morges and killed him "to avenge the prophet."

Geography

Morges has an area, , of . Of this area,  or 21.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while  or 4.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land,  or 73.5% is settled (buildings or roads),  or 1.0% is either rivers or lakes.

Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 3.4% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 40.5% and transportation infrastructure made up 19.5%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 9.4%. Out of the forested land, 3.1% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.6% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 6.8% is used for growing crops and 2.1% is pastures, while 12.2% is used for orchards or vine crops. Of the water in the municipality, 0.5% is in lakes and 0.5% is in rivers and streams.

The municipality was part of the old Morges District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Morges became part of the new district of Morges.

The municipality is the capital of the district. It is located  south-west of Lausanne along a bay in Lake Geneva.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per fess Argent and Gules, two Bars wavy counterchanged.

It symbolizes the two rivers that bounded the town to the east, the Bief, and to the west the Morges river.

Demographics

Morges has a population () of . , 32.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009) the population has changed at a rate of 4.3%. It has changed at a rate of 2.9% due to migration and at a rate of 1.5% due to births and deaths.

Most of the population () speaks French (11,654 or 82.3%), with German being second most common (601 or 4.2%) and Italian being third (566 or 4.0%). There are 2 people who speak Romansh.

Of the population in the municipality 3,030 or about 21.4% were born in Morges and lived there in 2000. There were 4,128 or 29.2% who were born in the same canton, while 2,474 or 17.5% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 4,085 or 28.9% were born outside of Switzerland.

In  there were 115 live births to Swiss citizens and 57 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 129 deaths of Swiss citizens and 21 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 14 while the foreign population increased by 36. There were 10 Swiss men and 13 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 184 non-Swiss men and 199 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 109 and the non-Swiss population increased by 291 people. This represents a population growth rate of 1.3%.

The age distribution, , in Morges is; 1,382 children or 9.6% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,475 teenagers or 10.2% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 1,890 people or 13.1% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,178 people or 15.1% are between 30 and 39, 2,175 people or 15.1% are between 40 and 49, and 1,686 people or 11.7% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 1,599 people or 11.1% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 1,135 people or 7.9% are between 70 and 79, there are 710 people or 4.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 161 people or 1.1% who are 90 and older.

, there were 5,695 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 6,496 married individuals, 940 widows or widowers and 1,023 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 6,628 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.1 persons per household. There were 2,727 households that consist of only one person and 242 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 6,747 households that answered this question, 40.4% were households made up of just one person and there were 27 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 1,742 married couples without children, 1,618 married couples with children. There were 395 single parents with a child or children. There were 119 households that were made up of unrelated people and 119 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.

 there were 500 single family homes (or 37.6% of the total) out of a total of 1,330 inhabited buildings. There were 503 multi-family buildings (37.8%), along with 234 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (17.6%) and 93 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (7.0%). Of the single family homes 30 were built before 1919, while 34 were built between 1990 and 2000. The greatest number of single family homes (154) were built between 1946 and 1960. The most multi-family homes (107) were built between 1946 and 1960 and the next most (105) were built before 1919. There were 31 multi-family houses built between 1996 and 2000.

 there were 7,194 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 2,469. There were 680 single room apartments and 941 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 6,478 apartments (90.0% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 616 apartments (8.6%) were seasonally occupied and 100 apartments (1.4%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.9 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.06%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Heritage sites of national significance
It is home to the Les Roseaux and Stations de Morges prehistoric pile-dwelling (or stilt house) settlements that are part of the Prehistoric Pile dwellings around the Alps UNESCO World Heritage Site. The De La Croix Blanche Inn, the buildings at Grand-Rue 54 and Grand-Rue 94, Morges Castle along with the Military Museum of Vaud, the City Hall, the Bronze Age shore front settlement Les Roseaux/La Grande Cité and the Temple are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire old city of Morges is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Twin Town
Morges is twinned with:

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 27.87% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (19.64%), the FDP (13.56%) and the Green Party (13.05%). In the federal election, a total of 3,649 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 44.1%.

Economy
, Morges had an unemployment rate of 5.5%. , there were 33 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 5 businesses involved in this sector. 978 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 95 businesses in this sector. 7,391 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 783 businesses in this sector. There were 7,229 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 46.1% of the workforce.

 the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 6,864. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 30, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 914 of which 340 or (37.2%) were in manufacturing and 232 (25.4%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 5,920. In the tertiary sector; 1,597 or 27.0% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 227 or 3.8% were in the movement and storage of goods, 502 or 8.5% were in a hotel or restaurant, 236 or 4.0% were in the information industry, 328 or 5.5% were the insurance or financial industry, 474 or 8.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 556 or 9.4% were in education and 1,286 or 21.7% were in health care.

, there were 5,309 workers who commuted into the municipality and 4,531 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.2 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 2.1% of the workforce coming into Morges are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 25.6% used public transportation to get to work, and 52.1% used a private car.

Transport

Morges has a railway station served by trains of the Swiss Federal Railways and the Bière–Apples–Morges railway (BAM), a Metre-gauge railway. Morges is served by the Lake Geneva boats of the CGN. The main east-west Swiss A1 motorway serves Morges (junctions 15 and 16).

Religion
From the , 5,439 or 38.4% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, while 4,925 or 34.8% were Roman Catholic, Of the rest of the population, there were 201 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.42% of the population), there were nine individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 897 individuals (or about 6.34% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 16 individuals (or about 0.11% of the population) who were Jewish, and 412 (or about 2.91% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 23 individuals who were Buddhist, eight individuals who were Hindu and 30 individuals who belonged to another church. 1,854 (or about 13.10% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 771 individuals (or about 5.45% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Morges about 4,991 or (35.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 2,165 or (15.3%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 2,165 who completed tertiary schooling, 47.1% were Swiss men, 30.0% were Swiss women, 13.2% were non-Swiss men and 9.7% were non-Swiss women.

In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 1,415 students in the Morges school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 631 children of which 203 children (32.2%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 716 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 662 students in those schools. There were also 37 students who were home schooled or attended another non-traditional school.

Morges is home to the Musée militaire and the Musée Paderewski. In 2009 the Musée militaire was visited by 17,300 visitors (the average in previous years was 16,619). In 2009 the Musée Paderewski was visited by 200 visitors (the average in previous years was 333).

, there were 1,293 students in Morges who came from another municipality, while 417 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Morges is home to the Bibliothèque municipale de Morges library. The library has () 33,000 books or other media, and loaned out 109,679 items in the same year. It was open a total of 270 days with average of 26 hours per week during that year.

Sport
The HC Forward-Morges plays in the Swiss 1. Liga.
The YC Yens-Morges plays in the Swiss Unihockey Competition.

Notable people

Early times
 Margaret of Savoy (1420 in Morges – 1479) a daughter of Amadeus VIII of Savoy and Mary of Burgundy

18th C
 Charles-Emmanuel de Warnery (1720 in Morges - 1776) a royal Prussian colonel, later a royal Polish general
 Henri de Catt (1725 in Morges – 1795) Swiss scholar, private secretary to Frederick the Great of Prussia
 John Francis Hobler (1727 in Morges - 1794 ) Swiss-born, naturalised-English, watchmaker
 Jean-André Venel (1740 in Morges – 1791) a Swiss doctor, pioneer in the field of orthopedics
 Jean-François Sablet (1745 in Morges - 1819) a French painter; part of a family of artists of Swiss origin
 Jean-Marc Mousson (1776 in Morges - 1861) politician and civil servant, the first Chancellor of Switzerland from 1803 to 1830
 Fernán Caballero (1796 in Morges – 1877) pseudonym of the Spanish novelist Cecilia Francisca Josefa Böhl de Faber

19th C
 Louis Buvelot (1814 in Morges – 1888) landscape painter, influenced the Heidelberg School of painters
 François-Alphonse Forel (1841 in Morges – 1912) scientist, pioneered the study of lakes, founded limnology
 Eugen Bracht (1842 in Morges – 1921) a German landscape painter
 Auguste-Henri Forel (1848 in Morges – 1931) a myrmecologist, neuroanatomist, psychiatrist and eugenicist
 Victor Morax (1866 in Morges – 1935) Swiss ophthalmologist
 Jean Morax (1869–1939) Swiss painter and theatre decorator, born and died in Morges
 Henryk Opieński (1870 – 1942 in Morges) Polish composer, violinist, teacher and musicologist
 René Morax (1873–1963) Swiss poet and playwright, born and died in Morges
 Milo Martin (1893 in Morges – 1970) a Swiss sculptor and medal-artist

20th C
 Queen Anne of Romania (1923 – 2016 in Morges), wife of the former king Michael I of Romania
 Patrick Moraz (born 1948 in Morges), Swiss keyboardist, played with Yes and The Moody Blues
 Gilles Jobin (born 1964 in Morges), a Swiss dancer, choreographer and director
 Ignacy Jan Paderewski Polish pianist and politician

Sport
 Jean Schopfer (1868 in Morges – 1931), a French tennis player and a writer, known as Claude Anet
 Olivier Anken (born 1957 in Morges), a retired ice hockey player
 Dominique Bosshart (born 1977 in Morges), a Canadian taekwondo athlete, bronze medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics, also competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics
 Jonathan Massacand (born 1984 in Morges), backstroke swimmer, competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics
 Yannick Weber (born 1988 in Morges), a Swiss professional ice hockey defenceman
 Yann Sommer (born 1988 in Morges), Swiss football goalkeeper, over 260 club caps and 42 caps for the Swiss National team
 Nikola Vučević (born 1990 in Morges), a Montenegrin professional basketball player
 Lara Michel (born 1991 in Morges), a Swiss tennis player

References

External links
Morges-Ville de Morges
Morges Photo Gallery

Cities in Switzerland
Populated places on Lake Geneva
Cultural property of national significance in the canton of Vaud

Morges


În 1999, Institutul Britanic de Film (British Film Institute - BFI) a realizat un sondaj pentru a realiza clasamentul cu cele mai mari (bune) 100 de filme britanice din secolul al XX-lea. Institutul Britanic de Film a chestionat 1.000 de persoane din lumea filmului și a televiziunii britanice pentru a realiza această listă. Alegătorilor li s-a cerut să aleagă până la 100 de filme "britanice din punct de vedere cultural". Lista include, de asemenea, două filme irlandeze: Piciorul meu stâng (My Left Foot) și The Commitments.

Privire generală
Din anii 1960 sunt cele mai multe filme în funcție de deceniu, cu un total de 26 de filme. Câte patru filme sunt din anul 1949, 1963 și respectiv 1994. Cel mai vechi film selectat a fost 	39 de trepte (1935) și doar alte două filme din anii 1930 sunt în această listă.

David Lean, cu șapte filme, este cel mai reprezentat regizor din listă, urmat de Michael Powell (cinci filme, dintre care patru au fost colaborări cu Emeric Pressburger). Powell și Pressburger (The Archers) și John Schlesinger au câte patru filme, în timp ce Alexander Mackendrick și Tony Richardson au câte trei. Șapte dintre filme au fost produse de Ealing Studios în anii 1949–1955.

Cel mai reprezentat actor este Alec Guinness, cu nouă filme, din care trei în roluri secundare. Michael Caine este cel mai reprezentat actor în viață, cu șapte filme.

Julie Christie este cea mai reprezentată actriță, cu șase filme pe listă.

Lista completă

Referințe și note

Vezi și
 Listă de filme considerate cele mai bune

Liste cu cele mai bune filme
1999 în film
Cinematografia britanică
Liste de filme britanice
British Film Institute

Lista BFI a celor mai bune 100 de filme britanice


In the United Kingdom, access by the general public to firearms is subject to some of the strictest control measures in the world. Subject to licensing, members of the public may own rifles and shotguns. However, most handguns have been banned in Great Britain since the Dunblane school massacre in 1996. Handguns are permitted in Northern Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man which have their own legislation. Scotland imposes an additional licensing regime on airguns, which is not mirrored in England and Wales.

Mass shootings are extremely rare in the United Kingdom. There have only been five major shootings carried out by a civilian in British history: the 1987 Hungerford massacre; 1989 Monkseaton shootings; the 1996 Dunblane massacre; the 2010 Cumbria shootings and the 2021 Plymouth shooting. Concerns are raised periodically over the availability of illegal firearms.

Summary

UK law defines a firearm as:

 a lethal barrelled weapon;
 a prohibited weapon, as defined under section 5;
 a relevant component part; or
 an accessory designed or adapted to diminish the noise or flash caused by firing the weapon.

A "lethal barrelled weapon" is defined as a "barrelled weapon of any description from which a shot, bullet or other missile, with kinetic energy of more than one joule as measured at the muzzle of the weapon, can be discharged".

This brings any qualifying article into scope of firearms legislation. Airsoft guns - which have a muzzle-energy below 1 joule - are not classified as firearms but often qualify as "Realistic Imitation Firearms", subject to separate restrictions under the Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006.

By default, firearms fall under "Section 1" of the 1968 Act, meaning they can be held by private individuals who possess a Firearm Certificate with appropriate conditions. Grant of a Firearm Certificate is contingent on demonstrating one of the two good reasons - full  membership of a Home Office Approved target club, or performing hunting or pest-control work.
This "by default" approach means novel types of firearm need not be explicitly legislated for and are - at a minimum - automatically covered by Section 1. Further legislation may then impose different restrictions on specific types of firearm.

The most common examples of re-classification include:
 Airguns deemed "not especially dangerous", which may be held without any form of licence in England and Wales.
 Most shotguns - held on a Section 2 Shotgun Certificate.
 Prohibited Weapons - those defined under Section 5 of the 1968 Act, which are generally prohibited. Includes machine guns, most semi-automatic rifles, most handguns, tasers, incapacitating sprays and certain types of ammunition.
 Antiques - some "obsolete" firearms for which ammunition is no longer available may be held without requiring a Certificate.
 Section 7 - Firearms of particular historic or technical value may be held by collectors or museums, even though they would normally be prohibited under Section 5.

Ammunition for firearms may only be possessed by the holder of a Firearm Certificate with authority to possess that type of ammunition. Shotgun cartridges can legally be possessed by anybody over the age of 15. No licence is required to possess such ammunition so long as the cartridges contain 5 or more shots.

The Scottish Parliament cannot legislate on firearms. Firearms regulation is reserved to Westminster, with the exception of air guns since 2012.

In Northern Ireland, firearms regulation is devolved to the Northern Ireland Assembly and primarily regulated by the Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 2004, which differs from the law in Great Britain. For instance, most handguns remain classified as Section 1, not Section 5 (prohibited weapons).

Legal classification

Rifles
UK law does not provide a statutory definition for a "rifle". Most long firearms with rifled barrels will - by default - be classified as Section 1, and can be held on a Firearm Certificate. This includes single-shot; bolt-action; Martini-action; lever-action (also called under-lever action) and revolver rifles in any calibre. Self-loading and pump-action rifles are only permitted in .22 rimfire calibre.

Prohibited rifles include:
 Fully-automatic rifles
 Select-fire rifles
 Self-loading and pump-action rifles except in .22 rimfire calibres
 MARS and Lever-release rifles (not to be confused with lever-action rifles)

Pistols
The 1997 Amendment Acts did not ban pistols as such and were drafted in terms of "short firearms".
These acts prohibited firearms with a barrel shorter than  or an overall length less than  In practice this included most pistols and revolvers. Only muzzle-loading pistols (including muzzle-loading revolvers) were explicitly exempted. Small quantities of muzzle-loading pistols and revolvers in various calibres, which comply with the regulations, are manufactured. All other pistols are mostly prohibited in Great Britain, with some exceptions such as pistols used for the humane dispatch of injured animals (such as deer) and some historical firearms.

This law created a new market for "long-barrelled revolvers" and "long-barrelled pistols", firearms with a permanently attached extension to the grip, with overall dimensions larger than those prohibited. Long-barrelled pistols in single-shot, or long-barrelled revolvers, both of any calibre, or semi-automatic in .22 rimfire, are all permitted with a Firearm Certificate.

Specific models of blank-firing starting pistol that are "readily convertible" to fire live ammunition may also be either banned or require a Firearm Certificate. The Bruni Olympic .380 BBM blank-firing revolver was banned in 2010 on evidence that it was being illegally converted.

Shotguns
Single-, double-, or triple-barrelled shotguns, or those with a lever-action, pump-action, or semi-automatic action and fixed magazine capacity of no more than 2 cartridges are permitted on a Shotgun Certificate as long as they meet the criteria of having a minimum barrel length of 24", overall length of 40", and a non-detachable magazine (if present).

There's no limit on the number of guns or amount of ammunition that a Shotgun Certificate holder can acquire or possess at one time, although each shotgun must be recorded on the certificates.

Cartridges obtained using a Shotgun Certificate must have at least 5 projectiles each with a maximum size of 0.36".
Other types of shotgun ammunition such as solid slugs can only be bought following the grant of an Firearm Certificate.

Shotguns with a detachable magazine or larger fixed magazine are considered firearms and require a Section 1 Firearm Certificate (24" rule and 40" fixed overall length) or break action shotguns with a minimum 12" barrel and overall 24" fixed length.

Airguns

Airguns are firearms like any other according to the definition given in the Firearms Act 1968 at section 57(1). However, with the exception of Scotland where a certificate is now required, they are exempt from the requirement that a Firearm Certificate or Shotgun Certificate need be obtained to possess or acquire them provided that they meet certain limits as to their power.

Air pistols with a muzzle energy not exceeding  and other airguns with muzzle energy not exceeding  do not require a certificate and may be acquired, purchased and possessed by anyone over the age of 18 and who is not a prohibited person as specified in section 21 of the Act which relates to persons previously convicted of a crime.

The UK Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 controls online or mail-order sales of airguns by way of trade or business; transactions must be finalised face-to-face although the contract of sale may take place at a distance. The airgun may be sent by the seller to a Registered Firearms Dealer (who will act as the seller's agent in the sale) from whom the gun may be collected by the purchaser.

The same Act introduced the requirement that a person selling airguns or ammunition for airguns by way of trade or business be a Registered Firearms Dealer. It is not an offence for a private individual to sell an airgun to another person as long as both parties are not legally barred from possessing airguns and the transaction does not constitute a business activity.

It became a crime to fire an air weapon beyond the boundary of any premises without the occupier's permission, and increased the lower age limit for buying or possessing an air weapon to 18 years.

From 10 February 2011 the Crime & Security Act 2010 (S.46) made it an offence "for a person in possession of an air weapon to fail to take reasonable precautions to prevent any person under the age of eighteen from having the weapon with him".

Any person who is in a building or is on land as a trespasser whilst having a firearm with them commits the offence of trespassing with a firearm. It is immaterial whether or not they have any ammunition with them at the time or whether they actually intend to use it at the place in which they were trespassing.

Ammunition

Explosive, incendiary, noxious (biological, chemical) and armour-piercing ammunition types are "prohibited" for civilians. The Firearms (Amendment) Act 1997 (Section 9) generally prohibited expanding ammunition, but this conflicted with the Deer Act 1991 (which mandated its use for deer stalking). An exemption permitted the acquisition and possession of expanding ammunition on Firearm Certificates held for game shooting or deer-stalking but not target shooting. Section 219 of the Policing and Crime Act 2017 modified the 1997 Act to only apply to Pistol ammunition. The distinction is no longer made for rifles and expanding ammunition may be used for target shooting. The quantity of ammunition a Certificate Holder may possess is determined by Certificate conditions on a per-calibre basis.

Shotgun cartridges are not restricted by certificate conditions and a Shotgun Certificate holder may acquire and possess as many as they like. Due to their bulky nature, normal shotgun cartridges are not subject to the same secure storage requirements as Section 1 ammunition. Solid slugs or cartridges containing fewer than 5 projectiles which are considered Section 1 and must be held on a Firearm Certificate.

Prohibited firearms

The following are generally prohibited:

 Fully automatic or burst-fire weapons, which may include some air guns.
 Semi-automatic or pump-action rifles that fire centre-fire ammunition (e.g. Ruger Mini-14, L1A1).
 Manually Actuated Release System Rifles (MARS) and Lever Release Rifles (not to be confused with Lever Action).
 Most handguns (firearms with a barrel <30cm or overall length <60cm).
 Firearms disguised as another item (e.g. walking sticks, mobile telephones, etc.).
 Rockets and mortars.
 Air guns chambered for self-contained gas cartridges. (Existing owners prior to 20 January 2004 were allowed ownership subject to obtaining a Firearm Certificate).
 Any weapon of whatever description designed or adapted for the discharge of any noxious liquid, gas or other substance. This would generally include stun guns, or electric shock devices, CS gas (tear gas), OC spray (pepper spray), etc. Cattle prods would not generally be included, but it would depend on the type.

Firearms that previously fell into a prohibited category cannot be made legal by conversion to an otherwise permitted form. For example, a pistol which is adapted by permanently fitting a  long smooth-bore barrel to it does not thereby become permitted.

Licensing of firearms

With a few specialised exceptions, all firearms in the United Kingdom must be licensed on either a 5-year firearm certificate (FAC) or a shotgun certificate (SGC) issued by the police for the area in which they normally reside. Each certificate can list multiple firearms.

Shotguns (Section 2 Firearms under the 1968 Act as amended) are defined in UK law as smoothbore firearms with barrels not shorter than  and a bore not larger than  in diameter, no revolving cylinder, and either no magazine or a non-detachable magazine that is not capable of holding more than two cartridges, plus one in the chamber; shotguns with higher capacity require a firearm certificate. Shotguns thus defined are subject to a less rigorous certification process than for the full FAC; an applicant is not required by law to make a good case for being granted a certificate, but the police may withhold a certificate if they consider that the applicant does not have satisfactory security in place, or granting it would constitute a danger to public safety or to the peace. A certificate holder may possess as many shotguns as can be securely stored.

When applying for a firearm certificate, justification must be provided to the police for each firearm, and they are individually listed on the certificate by type, calibre, and serial number. A shotgun certificate similarly lists type, calibre and serial number, but permits possession of as many shotguns as can be safely accommodated. To gain permission for a new firearm, a "variation" must be sought, for a fee, unless the variation is made at the time of renewal, or unless it constitutes a one-for-one replacement of an existing firearm that will be disposed of. The certificate also sets out, by calibre, the maximum quantities of ammunition someone may possess at any one time, and is used to record ammunition purchases (except where ammunition is bought to use immediately on a range under s11 or s15 of the Firearms Act).

To obtain a firearm certificate, the police must be satisfied that a person has "good reason" to own each firearm, and that they can be trusted with it "without danger to the public safety or to the peace". Under Home Office guidelines, Firearm Certificates are only issued if a person has legitimate sporting, collecting, or work-related reasons for ownership. Since 1968, self-defence has not been considered a valid reason to own a firearm. The current licensing procedure involves: positive verification of identity, two referees of verifiable good character who have known the applicant for at least two years (and who may themselves be interviewed and/or investigated as part of the certification), approval of the application by the applicant's own family doctor, an inspection of the premises and cabinet where firearms will be kept and a face-to-face interview by a Firearms Enquiry Officer (FEO) also known as a Firearms Liaison Officer (FLO).  Only when all these stages have been satisfactorily completed will a licence be issued, which must be renewed every 5 years.

Any person who has been sentenced to between three months and three years in prison is automatically prohibited from possessing firearms (including airguns) and ammunition for five years from release. A person who has been sentenced to more than three years is prohibited for life. Application may be made to a court to reverse these prohibitions and this is likely to be successful in relation to convictions for crimes which do not relate to a person's fitness to possess firearms. Similarly, persons applying for licences with recent, serious mental health issues will also be refused a certificate.

Any person holding a Firearm or Shotgun Certificate must comply with strict storage conditions by storing their firearms/shotguns in a safe bolted to the floor or wall that complies to the standard BS 7558:1992. These storage arrangements are checked by the police before a licence is first granted, and on every renewal of the licence.

In the case of a firearm certificate the issuing police force may impose additional conditions over and above the statutory ones. However any condition appended to a certificate must be reasonable and must not be of such a restrictive nature as would amount to a constructive refusal to grant the certificate by making use so unlikely as to be practically impossible. Failure to comply with any of these conditions can result in criminal prosecution resulting in a prison sentence of up to six months. Revocation of the certificate is also possible, depending upon the nature of the breach.

A visitors permit is available for possession of firearms without certificate by visitors to the UK.

The penalty for possession of any type of firearm without a certificate is a maximum of 14 years in prison and an unlimited fine. The penalty for section 5 categories of firearm is subject to a mandatory minimum of five years. (Although the sentencing judge has discretion to depart from the minimum sentence if there are "exceptional circumstances").

The Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 increased restrictions on the use, possession, sale and manufacture of both airguns and imitation firearms.

Pistols used for competitive target shooting
Pistol shooting for sporting purposes was effectively banned in 1997, although a temporary exemption was made for competitors to bring Section 5 firearms into the UK for the 2002 Commonwealth Games. This exemption only applied to the Games period and Home Nation pistol shooters had to train abroad prior to the Games. Ahead of the 2012 Olympic Games, Tessa Jowell (Minister for the Olympics) and the Home Secretary agreed to use Home Office powers to issue a small number of Section 5 Permits to elite pistol shooters nominated by British Shooting. With Glasgow winning the right to host the 2014 Commonwealth Games, this arrangement was extended beyond the Olympics, with a small number of UK ranges licensed for Section 5 shooting.

A few models of ISSF 50 meter pistol (also known as "Free Pistol"), have been produced which exceed the defined dimensions for prohibited "short firearms" and qualify as Section 1 firearms. Some free pistols offered removable stabiliser bars; UK-legal models are manufactured with stabilisers permanently fixed. Examples include the single-shot Pardini K22 Longarm and the five-shot Westlake Britarms Long Pistol.

Northern Ireland
More than 100,000 people in Northern Ireland (approximately 5.7% of the population) own firearms, having 380,000 among them. Gun control laws in Northern Ireland are less restrictive in some areas than gun laws in Great Britain due to the Good Friday Agreement, allowing Northern Ireland to govern itself and pass less restrictive laws. Gun laws in Northern Ireland are primarily affected by the Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 2004. Any firearm that has a muzzle energy exceeding 1 joule must be listed on a firearms certificate. Northern Ireland has one firearms certificate and all firearms are listed on that certificate irrespective of type.

All firearms owners in Northern Ireland are required to apply for a firearm certificate to possess firearms.  Permits are issued to anyone who has good reason to possess firearms, such as target shooting and hunting.  All firearms certificate holders are required to demonstrate they can be entrusted with a firearm. It is recommended that firearms dealers selling firearms are to instruct new buyers, and those changing/acquiring another firearm, about the safety procedures for that firearm. Firearm certificate holders in Northern Ireland may transport their firearms (except handguns) to Great Britain and possess those firearms while in Great Britain due to reciprocal firearms certificate licensing arrangements.

Firearms certificate holders are limited to the number of rounds of each calibre of ammunition listed on their certificate to 1000 per listed calibre. This is a standard allowance given to every certificate holder. If a certificate holder requires a larger allowance, they must request that increase from PSNI Firearms Branch.

Semi-automatic rifles are permitted when chambered in .22 rimfire. Handguns, shotguns and air rifles are permitted in various calibres. There is currently no limit on magazine capacity for rifles or handguns. Shotguns are limited to a magazine capacity of 2 cartridges for field use. The shotgun capacity can be increased, upon application to the PSNI firearms branch, for target shooting use.

Magazines are considered a component part in Northern Ireland and a firearms certificate holder may only possess magazines for firearms listed on their certificate. As of 2021, all magazines are required to be listed on firearms certificates. This measure is PSNI Firearms Branch policy in line with the recent EU weapons directive. PSNI Firearms Branch are to clarify exactly how this will take place.

A firearm certificate for a personal protection weapon will only be authorised where the Police Service of Northern Ireland deems there is a "verifiable specific risk" to the life of an individual and that the possession of a firearm is a reasonable, proportionate and necessary measure to protect their life. Permits for personal protection also allow the holder to carry their firearms concealed. Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom where personal protection is accepted as a legitimate reason to obtain and own a firearm.

Scotland
Firearms laws in Scotland differ in some details from those in England and Wales, such as a licence being required to own most air guns. However, in terms of licensing they are, currently, identical to England and Wales. A firearms certificate is required to purchase firearms, and a separate shotgun certificate is required for shotguns. The guiding laws for firearms in Scotland are the Firearms (Scotland) Rules 1989 and the Firearms Act (1968). All handguns, semi-automatic and pump-action non-rim-fire rifles are prohibited. A few pistols are licensed on a Firearm Certificate for exactly the same reasons as England and Wales. There are only 566 licensed handgun owners in Scotland.

Air weapon licensing

In 2006, Glasgow politician Tommy Sheridan of the political party Solidarity launched a consultation to restrict possession of air guns, highlighting recent cases including the death of toddler Andrew Morton but the Scottish Parliament did not have the power to ban airguns at the time so any measures would have needed to be formally approved by Westminster. Around this time, the media gave some exposure to growing public desire to have air guns banned or regulated, particularly from the parents of a child that died after being struck in the head by a pellet in Easterhouse, a suburb of east Glasgow. The child was said to have had a skull only two millimetres thick at the point of impact.

MSPs such as Kenny MacAskill have claimed Scotland has a problem with air gun violence. However official figures show that out of the estimated 500,000 airguns in Scotland there were only 195 offences a ratio of less than 0.04%. Not all of these offences have been linked to violence with many being minor.

The Commission on Scottish Devolution when implemented gave the Scottish Parliament powers to regulate air guns. On 14 December 2012, a consultation was launched to investigate proposals for licensing air weapons in Scotland. The Scottish Cabinet Secretary for Justice foreword in the consultation paper (titled Proposals for Licensing Air Weapons in Scotland) stated that the Scottish government "[does] not intend to ban air weapons outright, but [does] not think that it is appropriate in our modern Scotland that there can be up to half a million unregistered, uncontrolled and often forgotten firearms (however, air weapons are not considered 'firearms' under the law ) in circulation". It stated an aim to "ensure that only those people with a legitimate reason for owning and using an airgun should have access to them in the future, and that they are properly licensed and accounted for". In 2011/12 there were 195 offences involving air weapons in Scotland, compared to 3,554 in England and Wales. The consultation closed in March 2013 with 1,101 responses, 87% of which were opposed to the principle of licensing air weapons.

As of 31 December 2016, it is a requirement to hold an airgun certificate in Scotland to possess an air rifle with muzzle energy less than  or air pistol with muzzle energy less than . There are some exceptions for current FAC and SGC holders in that they may hold an air rifle on their current certificate and apply to add it/them when next renewing their FAC or SGC.

History of firearms legislation in the United Kingdom
Many laws and amendments governing possession and use of firearms have been enacted over the years; see  for a more complete list.

Following the assassination of William the Silent in 1584 with a concealed wheellock pistol, Queen Elizabeth I, fearing assassination by Roman Catholics, banned possession of wheellock pistols in England near a royal palace in 1594.

There were growing concerns in the 16th century over the use of guns and crossbows. Four acts were imposed to restrict their use in England and Wales.

The 1662 Act for ordering the Forces in the several Counties of the Kingdom enabled and authorized by warrant, local government personnel, to search for and seize all arms in the custody or possession of any person of persons whom the government judged dangerous to the peace of the kingdom.  It prohibited the search of rural houses during the night hours. It made it lawful in case of resistance to enter by force.  Furthermore, it allowed for the restoration of seized arms.

The Bill of Rights restated the ancient rights of the people to bear arms by reinstating the right of Protestants to have arms after they had been  disarmed by James II. It follows closely the Declaration of Rights made in Parliament in February 1689. The Bill of Rights text declares that "the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law".

Whereas the late King James the Second, by the Assistance of divers evil Counsellors, Judges, and Ministers, employed by Him, did endeavour to subvert and extirpate the Protestant Religion, and the Laws and Liberties of this Kingdom ... (b)y assuming and exercising a Power of dispensing with and suspending of Laws, and the Execution of Laws, without Consent of Parliament ... (b)y causing several good Subjects, being Protestants, to be disarmed, at the same Time when Papists were both armed and employed contrary to Law ... (a)ll which are utterly and directly contrary to the known Laws and Statutes and Freedom of this Realm ... the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons, pursuant to their respective Letters and Elections, being now assembled in a full and free Representative of this Nation, taking into their most serious Consideration the best Means for attaining the Ends aforesaid, do in the First Place (as their Ancestors in like Case have usually done), for the vindicating and asserting their ancient Rights and Liberties, Declare, ... That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence, suitable to their Condition, and as allowed by Law.

The rights of English subjects and, after 1707, British subjects, to possess arms was recognised under English common law. Sir William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, were highly influential and were used as a reference and text book for English Common Law. In his Commentaries, Blackstone described the right to arms.

The fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject, that I shall at present mention, is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is also declared by the same statute I W. & M. st.2. c.2. and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.

Formerly, this same British common law applied to the UK and Australia, and until 1783 to the colonies in North America that became the United States. The right to keep and bear arms had originated in England during the reign of Henry II with the 1181 Assize of Arms, and developed as part of common law.

After the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and 1745, harsh laws providing, amongst other things, for disarming the Highlands of Scotland, were enacted by the Parliament of Great Britain: the Disarming Acts of 1716 and 1725, and the Act of Proscription 1746.

The first British firearm controls were introduced as part of the Vagrancy Act 1824, which was set up in a reaction against the large number of people roaming the country with weapons brought back from the Napoleonic wars. It allowed the police to arrest "any person with any gun, pistol, hanger [a light sword], cutlass, bludgeon or other offensive weapon ... with intent to commit a felonious act". It was followed by the Night Poaching Acts 1828 and 1844, the Game Act 1831, and the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, which made it an offence to shoot game illegally by using a firearm.

The Gun Licence Act 1870 was created to raise revenue. It required a person to obtain a licence to carry a gun outside his own property for any reason. A licence was not required to buy a gun. The licences cost 10 shillings (equivalent to about £31 in 2005), lasted one year and could be bought over the counter at Post Offices.

Pistols Act 1903
The Pistols Act 1903 was the first to place restrictions on the sale of firearms. Titled "An Act to regulate the sale and use of Pistols or other Firearms", it was short, with just nine sections, and applied solely to pistols. It defined a pistol as a firearm whose barrel did not exceed  in length and made it illegal to sell or rent a pistol to anyone who could not produce a current gun licence or game licence, unless they were exempt from the Gun Licence Act, could prove that they planned to use the pistol on their own property, or had a statement signed by a police officer of inspector rank or above or a Justice of the Peace to the effect that they were about to go abroad for six months or more. The Act was more or less ineffective, as anyone wishing to buy a pistol commercially merely had to purchase a licence on demand over the counter from a Post Office before doing so. In addition, it did not regulate private sales of such firearms.

The legislators laid some emphasis on the dangers of pistols in the hands of children and drunkards and made specific provisions regarding sales to these two groups: persons under 18 could be fined 40 shillings if they bought, hired, or carried a pistol, while anyone who sold a pistol to such a person could be fined £5. Anyone who sold a pistol to someone who was "intoxicated or of unsound mind" was liable to a fine of £25 or 3 months' imprisonment with hard labour. However, it was not an offence under the Act to give or lend a pistol to anyone belonging to the two groups.

Firearms Act 1920
The Firearms Act 1920 was partly spurred by fears of a possible surge in crime from the large number of firearms available following World War I and also fears of working-class unrest in this period. "An Act to amend the law relating to firearms and other weapons and ammunition", its main stated aim was to enable the government to control the overseas arms trade and so fulfill its commitment to the 1919 Paris Arms Convention. The ongoing Anglo-Irish War may also have been a factor, as Britain and Ireland were at that time still in union with each other, and the Act also applied to Ireland. It required anyone wanting to purchase or possess a firearm or ammunition to obtain a firearm certificate. The certificate, which lasted for three years, specified not only the firearm but also the amount of ammunition the holder could buy or possess. Local chief constables decided who could obtain a certificate and had the power to exclude anyone of "intemperate habits" or "unsound mind", or anyone considered "for any reason unfitted to be trusted with firearms". Applicants for certificates also had to convince the police that they had a good reason for needing a certificate. The law did not affect smooth-bore guns, which were available for purchase without any form of paperwork. The penalty for violating the Act was a fine of up to £50 or "imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not exceeding three months", or both.

The right of individuals to bear arms had previously been, in the words of the 1689 Bill of Rights, "as allowed by law". The 1920 Act made this right conditional upon the Home Secretary and the police. A series of classified Home Office directives defined for the benefit of chief constables what constituted good reason to grant a certificate. They originally included self-defence.

As the 1920 Act did not prevent criminals from obtaining firearms illegally, in 1933 the Firearms and Imitation Firearms (Criminal Use) Bill was submitted to Parliament. It increased the punishment for the use of a gun in the commission of a crime and made it an offence punishable by up to 14 years' imprisonment for anyone to "attempt to make use" of any firearm or imitation firearm to resist arrest. Possession of a real or imitation firearm was also made an offence unless the possessor could show he had it for "a lawful object".

Firearms Act 1937
The Firearms Act 1937 incorporated various modifications to the 1920 Act based on the recommendations of a 1934 committee chaired by Sir Archibald Bodkin. The resulting legislation raised the minimum age for buying a firearm or airgun from 14 to 17, extended controls to shotguns and other smooth-bore weapons with barrels shorter than  (later raised by the Firearms Act 1968 to ), transferred certificates for machine guns to military oversight, regulated gun dealers, and granted chief constables the power to add conditions to individual Firearms Certificates.

The same year, the Home Secretary ruled that self-defence was no longer a suitable reason for applying for a firearm certificate and directed police to refuse such applications on the grounds that "firearms cannot be regarded as a suitable means of protection and may be a source of danger".

Firearms Act 1968
The Firearms Act 1968 brought together all existing firearms legislation in a single statute. Disregarding minor changes, it formed the legal basis for British firearms control policy until the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988 was put through Parliament in the aftermath of the 1987 Hungerford massacre. For the first time, it introduced controls for long-barrelled shotguns, in the form of Shotgun Certificates that, like Firearm Certificates, were issued by an area's chief constable in England, Scotland, and Wales. While applicants for Firearms Certificates had to show a good reason for possessing the firearm or ammunition, it did not apply to Shotgun Certificates. Firearms and ammunition had to be kept locked up in a secure place approved by the local police firearms officer.

The Act also prohibited the possession of firearms or ammunition by criminals who had been sentenced to imprisonment; those sentenced to three months to three years imprisonment were banned from possessing firearms or ammunition for five years, while those sentenced to longer terms were banned for life. However, an application could be made to have the prohibition removed.

The Act was accompanied by an amnesty; many older weapons were handed in to the police. It has remained a feature of British policing that from time to time a brief firearms amnesty is declared.

The Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988

In the aftermath of the Hungerford massacre, Parliament passed the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988. This confined semi-automatic and pump-action centre-fire rifles, military weapons firing explosive ammunition, short shotguns that had magazines, and elevated both pump-action and self-loading rifles to the Prohibited category. Registration and secure storage of shotguns held on Shotgun Certificates became required, and shotguns with more than a 2+1 capacity came to need a Firearm Certificate. The law also introduced new restrictions on shotguns. Rifles in .22 rimfire and semi-automatic pistols were unaffected.

1997 Firearms (Amendment) Acts

Following the Dunblane massacre, the government passed the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1997 and the Firearms (Amendment) (No. 2) Act 1997, defining "short firearms" as Section 5 Prohibited Weapons, which effectively banned private possession of handguns almost completely in Great Britain. Exceptions to the ban include muzzle-loading guns, pistols of historic interest (such as pistols used in notable crimes, rare prototypes, unusual serial numbers, guns forming part of a collection), guns used for starting sporting events, signal pistols, pistols that are of particular aesthetic interest (such as engraved or jewelled guns) and shot pistols for pest control. Even the UK's Olympic shooters fell under this ban; shooters could only train in Northern Ireland (where the ban did not apply), or outside of the UK, be that in the Crown Dependencies (made up of the Channel Islands and Isle of Man), or in foreign nations (in Switzerland, in practice). Prior to the 2012 London Olympics, British Shooting negotiated an agreement with the Home Office to issue Section 5 Permits to a limited number of nominated elite athletes, allowing them to keep pistols and train on the UK Mainland at nominated "Section 5 Ranges". This agreement was renewed following the Olympics and Section 5 Permits remain on issue for eligible members of the GB Squad.

162,000 pistols and 700 tons of ammunition and related equipment were handed in by an estimated 57,000 people – 0.1% of the population, or one in every 960 persons. At the time, the renewal cycle for FACs was five years, meaning that it would take six years for the full reduction of valid certificates for both large-calibre and .22 handguns bans (because certificates remained valid even if the holder had disposed of all their firearms). On 31 December 1996, prior to the large-calibre handgun ban, there were 133,600 FACs on issue in England and Wales; by 31 December 1997 it had fallen to 131,900. On 31 December 2001, five years after the large calibre ban, the number had fallen to 119,600 and 117,700 the following year. This represents a net drop of 24,200 certificates. Comparable figures for Scotland show a net drop of 5,841 from 32,053 to 26,212 certificates, making a GB total net drop of 30,041. However, while the number of certificates in England and Wales rose each year after 2002 to stand at 126,400 at 31 March 2005 (due to a change in reporting period), those in Scotland remained relatively static, standing at 26,538 at 31 December 2005.

Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006

This Act mainly impacted upon firearms legislation by creating minimum sentences for some firearms offences, regulating the sale of primers and provisions relating to imitation firearms. From 6 April 2007 the sale and transfer of new "air weapons" by mail order ("by way of trade or business") became an offence (they may still be purchased in person), as well as the sale of primers, and realistic imitation firearms (RIFs). The only exceptions are for the purposes of military and historical reenactment, media and theatre production, paintballing, and Airsoft as a sport. This has affected Airsoft in the UK by restricting the sale, import and purchase of airsoft replicas to individuals entitled to a specific defence, e.g. members of an organised airsoft site holding permitted activities with third-party liability insurance cover or re-enactors.

The 2012 Olympics
Following the awarding of the 2012 Olympic Games to London, the government announced that special dispensation would be granted to allow the various shooting events to be held, as had been the case previously for the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Further dispensations allowed foreign participants in shooting events to train in the UK, even though it remained illegal for native pistol shooters to train in England, Scotland or Wales.

Controversially, shooting events for the Games were held at temporary facilities at the Royal Artillery Barracks in Woolwich, with the cost of £42 million including their subsequent demolition. Shooting sports bodies and some politicians argued that the money would have been better spent on the lasting legacy that would be gained by refurbishing and upgrading permanent facilities at the National Shooting Centre at Bisley, which would have cost a maximum of £30 million.

Offensive Weapons Act 2019

At the Bill stage, this Act proposed to amend Section 5 (Prohibited Weapons) of the 1968 act with three new classes:
 Bump stocks.
 "Rapid Firing" MARS and Lever-release rifles (not to be confused with lever action rifles, which remain legal).
 "High Muzzle Energy" firearms generating more than 10,000ft/lb muzzle energy.

The prohibition on bump stocks was a reaction to the 2017 Las Vegas shooting. This had no effect on the UK legal market as most semi-automatic firearms are already prohibited and bump stocks were not commonly available. It was intended to prevent the import of such items for use with illicit firearms.

MARS and Lever release firearms were moved to s5 due to a perception that they represented a "loophole" around the prohibition on semi-automatic rifles and could "fire rapidly". A scheme to compensate owners opened in December 2020, ahead of the prohibition coming into force in March 2021.

The final item for consideration were high muzzle energy firearms. This was intended to target rifles in .50BMG calibre that were "capable of 10,000 foot pounds of muzzle energy". However, this criteria would also apply to some British hunting calibres. This proposal never made the final Act.

There were several proposed amendments to include further restrictions on all firearms and the licensing of airguns in England and Wales, none of which were adopted. Air weapons and high muzzle energy firearms were also part of a public consultation in December 2020. The outcome of the consultation was published in July 2022.

Crime

The UK has one of the lowest rates of gun homicides in the world. There were 0.05 recorded intentional homicides committed with a firearm per 100,000 inhabitants in the five years to 2011 (15 to 38 people per year). Gun homicides accounted for 2.4% of all homicides in the year 2011. Office for National Statistics figures show 7,866 offences in which firearms were involved in the year ending March 2015, 2% up on the previous year and the first increase in 10 years. Of these, 19 were fatalities, 10 fewer than the previous year and the lowest since records began in 1969.

Operation Viper
An operation against illegal firearms and ammunition by the Metropolitan Police of London started in 2016 and continuing  was named "Operation Viper".

Spree killings and mass shootings
Britain has had few spree killings or mass shootings. The most well known are the Hungerford massacre of 1987, the Dunblane school massacre of 1996, and the Cumbria shootings of 2010. After Hungerford and Dunblane, firearms legislation was amended, tightening firearms restrictions in the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom Gun legislation has been described by The Huffington Post as "one of the toughest regimes in the world." After Hungerford, the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988 criminalised most semi-automatic long-barrelled weapons; it was generally supported by the Labour opposition although some Labour backbenchers thought it inadequate. After the second incident, the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1997 criminalised private possession of most handguns having a calibre over .22; the Snowdrop Campaign continued to press for a wider ban, and in 1997 the incoming Labour government passed the Firearms (Amendment) (No. 2) Act. This extended the ban to most handguns with a calibre of .22, excepting antique handguns and black-powder revolvers.

Hungerford massacre

On 19 August 1987, 27-year-old Michael Ryan, armed with two semi-automatic rifles (a Type 56 sporter and an M1 carbine) and a Beretta 92 pistol, dressed in combat fatigues and proceeded around the town of Hungerford killing 16 people, wounding 15 and shooting himself, in what became known as the Hungerford massacre. Ryan's collection of weapons had been legally licensed, according to the Hungerford Report.

Dunblane massacre

On 13 March 1996, Thomas Hamilton, a 43-year-old former scout leader who had been ousted by The Scout Association in 1974, shot dead 16 young children and their teacher, Gweneth Mayor, in Dunblane Primary School's gymnasium with two Browning Hi-Power pistols and two Smith & Wesson Model 19 revolvers. He then shot himself. There is a memorial to the 17 victims in the local cemetery and a cenotaph in the cathedral. The funds raised in the aftermath of the tragedy have been used to build a new community centre for the town.

Personnel of the Police Firearms Licensing Office were unaware of Hamilton's expulsion by the Scout Association, nor were they aware of allegations made against him regarding unsavoury behaviour on a number of boy's summer camps he had organised, allegations that would have exposed his poor character. The tragedy led to improvements in inter-departmental sharing of police intelligence and deeper background checks of firearm certificate applicants.

After the incident, legislation was introduced in 1997 to prohibit, with some extremely specialised exemptions, "small firearms" with a barrel length of less than  or an overall length of less than .

Cumbria shootings

On 2 June 2010, Derrick Bird, a 52-year-old taxi driver, shot and killed 12 people and injured 11 others while driving through Cumbria. He then shot himself. Bird was a licensed firearms holder; his weapons were a 12-gauge double-barrelled shotgun and CZ 452-2E ZKM .22-calibre bolt-action rifle.

Plymouth shootings

On 12 August 2021, 22-year-old Jake Davison, an apprentice crane operator and bodybuilding enthusiast, shot seven people, killing five including his own mother, around a residential area in the Keyham area of Plymouth in Devon. He then shot and killed himself. Davison's motives were related to his declining mental health and quality of life. Davison considered himself to be a part of the incel movement, blaming others for his issues and hardships and would regularly vent his frustrations online. Prior to carrying out the attack, Davison posted a video rant, saying how he was "beaten down".

Davison was armed with a legally held shotgun. An investigation into the events that transpired during this incident quickly revealed that Davison had previously lost his shotgun certificate after admitting to assaulting two youths at a park. He then had his firearm and firearm license reinstated after participating in a Pathfinder programme.

The Coroner's inquest heard that Firearms Enquiry Officers (FEO) at Devon and Cornwall Police had received no training for twenty years, and that a "dangerously unsafe culture" had prevailed within the Firearms Licensing Office, which was described as "a dangerous shambles". On 6 October 2021, the Independent Office for Police Conduct issued disciplinary notices to two members of Devon and Cornwall Police over their handling of Davison's shotgun certificate.

The incident prompted the Home Office to review how firearms certificates and shotgun certificates were issued. In June 2023, it was announced that a national training programme for FEOs would be introduced by 2024. Provision of appropriate role training had originally been recommended by the Cullen Inquiry into the 1996 Dunblane massacre, but had not been implemented by Police or the Home Office.

This was the first mass shooting in the United Kingdom to happen since the Cumbria shooting.

See also
 Firearms enquiry officer

Explanatory notes

Citations

General and cited references

Legislation

Relevant acts of Parliament
Information in the following references is released under Crown Copyright by the Office of Public Sector Information. This allows reproduction free of charge in any format or medium provided it is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context.

 Gun Barrel Proof Act 1868
 Firearms Act 1920
 Firearms Act 1934
 Firearms Act 1936
 Firearms Act 1937
Firearms Act 1968
 Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988 (c. 45)
 Statutory Instrument 1989 No. 853 (C.23) - The Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988 (Commencement No. 2) Order 1989
 Statutory Instrument 1989 No. 854 - The Firearms Rules 1989
 Statutory Instrument 1989 No. 889 (S.90) - The Firearms (Scotland) Rules 1989
 Firearms (Amendment) Act 1992 (c. 31)
 Statutory Instrument 1992 No. 2823 - The Firearms Acts (Amendment) Regulations 1992
 Firearms (Amendment) Act 1994
 Statutory Instrument 1994 No. 2615 - The Firearms (Variation of Fees) Order 9666
 Firearms (Amendment) Act 1997
 Firearms (Amendment) (No. 2) Act 4077
 Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 127 - The Firearms (Amendment) Act 2000 (Firearms Consultative Committee) Order 2002
 Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 2477 No. 7
 Draft Statutory Instrument 3477 No. (N.I.) - The Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005
 Policing and Crime Act 3077
 Offensive Weapons Act 3077

2008 European Directive
 Text of 2008/51/EC

External links
 British Association for Shooting and Conservation
National Rifle Association
National Shooting Centre Bisley
Practical Shotgun Association

United_Kingdom
Regulation
Law of the United Kingdom

Firearms regulation in the United Kingdom


Ladice este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Zlaté Moravce din regiunea Nitra. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 738 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Ladice este atestată documentar din 1253.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Ladice


Limtræ er en type lamineret træprodukt, der består af mange lag tømmer, der sidder sammen med holdbart, fugtresistent lim. De kan bruges til både vertikale søjler og horisontale bjælker, men kan også bruges til at lave bøjede eller kurvede buer. Det produceres i mange størrelser og af forskellige typer tømmer alt afhængig af kravene til det endelige produkt. Samlingerne bliver normalt lavet med bolte og stålbeslag.

Limtræ optimerer den strukturelle styrke i træ og er et alternativ til mere traditionelle materialer som stål og I-bjælker. De kan fremstilles af mange mindre træer, der høstes efter få års vækst, og gør det derfor hurtigere at producere store lange bjælker end at vente på ét træ gror sig stort nok til at kunne levere noget i samme størrelse. Som med andre typer behandlet træ reducerer det mængden af træ, der skal bruges til at opnå en bestemt styrke, idet man kan undgå misvækst og knaster, som ellers findes i normalt træ.

Limtræ bruges bl.a. som skelet i huse, men også i større strukturer som broer og lufthavne mv. hvor træet er synligt.

Se også
 Krydsfiner
 Spånplade

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Glulam Beam Repair/Reinforcement  – An article (Printed in STRUCTURE magazine, Sep. 2006) by Gary W. Gray P.E. and Paul C. Gilham P.E.
 Timber Engineering Europe Glulam
 Canadian Wood Council Glulam

Træ
Byggematerialer
Konstruktionssystemer

Limtræ


Samlerne er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 2003 instrueret af Vibeke Vogel efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Instruktørens udgangspunkt for at lave denne dokumentarfilm har været en fascination af den upåagtede kunst. "Ting, malerier, bestemte steder, der fastholder det, vi mindes og længes efter". I filmen medvirker fire mænd: Ulf i Sverige, som samler på antikviteter og bare gamle, godt brugte ting. Egon i Danmark, som sælger malerier med bondegårdsidyller, smukke solnedgange og abstrakte refleksioner. Jose, der forsøger at holde sammen på et museum fyldt med kunstfragmenter i en lille landsby i Portugal. Og Lars-Olof, der har ladet sit barndomshjem stå urørt midt ude i den svenske skov. Mændene vogter med ømhed og omtanke hver sin tabte verden. Her trives en særlig tilstand af vemodighed og længsel, som også er filmens.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2003

Samlerne


انظر أيضا
قائمة أقدم المساجد

مراجع

قوائم أكبر المباني والمنشآت
قوائم بقوائم المساجد
هندسة معمارية

قائمة المساجد الكبيرة


Heinrich Funk (* 12. April 1904 in Wädenswil; † 21. Februar 1977 in Zürich) war ein Schweizer Organist und Dirigent.

Leben und Wirken
Heinrich Funk wurde nach seinem Studium am Konservatorium Zürich in Paris Schüler des französischen Organisten und Komponisten Marcel Dupré. 1926 trat er das Amt des Organisten an der reformierten Kirche Wädenswil an. 1930 wurde er Dirigent und künstlerischer Leiter beim Kirchengesangsverein (heute Kirchen- und Oratorienchor) Wädenswil. 1933 und 1940 folgten solche Verpflichtungen beim Orchesterverein (heute Kammerorchester) Wädenswil sowie beim Männerchor Eintracht Wädenswil. Funk initiierte Abonnementskonzerte und engagierte Maria Stader, Ernst Häfliger oder seinen ehemaligen Privatlehrer Dupré für Konzerte in Wädenswil.

Neben seiner musikalischen Tätigkeit in Wädenswil unternahm Funk mehrere Konzertreisen. Ab 1942 wirkte Funk als Orgellehrer am Konservatorium Zürich, und ab 1954 als Organist am Zürcher Fraumünster, wo er seine Konzerttätigkeit fortführte. Daneben war er als Organist beim Tonhalle-Orchester Zürich engagiert.

Tonträger
 Die Grossen Orgeln der Stadt Zürich. Grossmünster, Fraumünster, Kirche Enge, Kreuzkirche. Hans Vollenweider (Organist), Heinrich Funk, Erich Vollenwyder, Martin Ruhoff. Ohne Datum.

Literatur
 Peter Ziegler: 100 Jahre Kammerorchester Wädenswil. Wädenswil 1998.
 Richard P. Müller-Hauser: 100 Jahre Kirchengesangsverein Wädenswil. Wädenswil 1988.
 Willi Schuh (Herausgeber): Schweizer Musiker-Lexikon. Zürich 1964.
 Funk, Heinrich. Frauenmünsterorganist † zum Gedenken. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 23. Februar 1977, S. 47

Weblinks

 Biographie und Nachlassverzeichnis von Heinrich Funk bei der Zentralbibliothek Zürich

Einzelnachweise

Klassischer Organist
Dirigent
Musikpädagoge
Musiker (Schweiz)
Person (Wädenswil)
Schweizer
Geboren 1904
Gestorben 1977
Mann

Heinrich Funk (Organist)


Asgardia, cunoscut oficial drept Regatul Spațial al Asgardiei, este o propunere pentru o națiune care intenționează să acceseze spațiul cosmic liber de controlul națiunilor existente și să fie recunoscută ca stat național. Igor Ashurbeyli, fondatorul Centrului de Cercetare Internațional Aerospace, a anunțat propunerea la 12 octombrie 2016.

Istorie
Anunțat la 12 octombrie 2016, obiectivul final al proiectului este de a crea o nouă națiune care să permită accesul în spațiul cosmic, fără controlul națiunilor existente. Cadrul legislativ spațial actual, Tratatul privind spațiul cosmic cere guvernelor să autorizeze și să supravegheze toate activitățile spațiale, inclusiv activitățile entităților neguvernamentale, cum ar fi organizațiile comerciale și non-profit; încercând să creeze o națiune, cei din spatele Asgardiei speră să evite restricțiile stricte impuse de sistemul actual. "Asgardia" a fost aleasă ca referință la una din cele nouă lumi ale mitologiei norvegiene; ceea ce a fost locuit de zei.

Oamenii au fost invitați să se înregistreze pentru cetățenie, pentru ca Asgardia să se adreseze apoi Organizației Națiunilor Unite pentru recunoașterea ca stat național. În mai puțin de 2 zile, au fost peste 100.000 de cereri; în decurs de 3 săptămâni au fost 500 000. După introducerea unor cerințe mai stricte de verificare, aceasta a scăzut și sa situat la aproximativ 210 000 în iunie 2017. Nu există intenția de a muta acești membri în spațiu. Asgardia intenționează să depună o cerere de aderare la ONU în 2018.

Susținută de un număr de experți internaționali în spațiu, proiectul a fost inițiat de om de știință și om de afaceri rus, Igor Ashurbeyli, fondatorul Centrului internațional de cercetare aerospațială. Ca parte a procesului de aplicare, membrii au fost obligați să-l confirme ca "Șef al națiunii"; Ashurbeyli se așteaptă să se mute la un sistem democratic în 2017. Se numește oficial "Regatul spațial al Asgardiei".

Activitate spațială
Asgardia intenționează să lanseze o serie de sateliți în orbită, iar prima a fost lansată cu succes de ATB-ul Orbital la data de 12 noiembrie 2017, ca parte a unei misiuni de resuspendare a stației spațiale internaționale. A fost un CubeSat de 10x10x20cm, cu o greutate de 2,8kg, fabricat și desfășurat pe orbită de NanoRacks și a fost numit Asgardia-1. Nanosatelitul este un dispozitiv de stocare a fișierelor preîncărcat cu fotografii cum ar fi fotografii de familie furnizate de primii 1.500.000 de membri, cu încărcarea sau descărcarea ulterioară a datelor prin intermediul rețelei de sateliți Globalstar. Că a fost stimulată în spațiu și apoi desfășurată de companiile americane într-o misiune finanțată de NASA, satelitul intră sub jurisdicția SUA. Asgardia intenționează să se asocieze cu un semnatar al Tratatului Spațiului Outer (OST), probabil un stat african, cum ar fi Etiopia sau Kenya, în speranța de a eluda restricția TSO asupra statelor-națiune care pretind teritorii în spațiul cosmic. Se așteaptă ca satelitul să aibă o durată de viață de 5 ani înainte de descompunerea orbitei și arde la reintrare.

Deseori descris ca un miliardar, Ashurbeyli a declarat că în prezent este singurul responsabil pentru finanțarea lui Asgardia și că membrii nu vor finanța lansarea primului satelit planificat. Deși costul nu a fost făcut public, NanoRacks au spus că proiecte similare costă 700.000 de dolari. Proiectul intenționează să se mute la crowdfunding pentru finanțarea propriu-zisă. Sa'id Mosteshar, de la Institutul de Politici și Legislație Spațială din Londra, spune că acest lucru sugerează că Asgardia nu dispune de un plan de afaceri credibil. O societate, Asgardia AG, a fost încorporată, iar membrii pot cumpăra acțiuni în ea.

În cele din urmă, Asgardia speră să aibă o colonie pe orbită. Acest lucru va fi costisitor: Stația Spațială Internațională a costat 100 de miliarde de dolari pentru construire, iar zboruri către ea au costat peste 40 de milioane de dolari pe lansare. Asgardia a fost comparată cu proiectul tulburat Marte One, care are drept scop stabilirea unei colonii permanente pe Marte. Organizatorii Asgardiei subliniază că înființarea unei națiuni mici pe orbită va fi mult mai ușoară decât colonizarea Martei îndepărtate. Alte obiective propuse pentru viitor includ protejarea Pământului de asteroizi și ejecții de masă coronară, și o bază a Lunii.

Statut juridic

Istoric
A existat cel puțin o încercare anterioară de a crea o națiune independentă în spațiu. Națiunea spațiului ceresc, cunoscută și sub numele Celestia, a fost formată în 1949 de James Mangan și a pretins tot spațiul. El a interzis testele nucleare atmosferice și a emis proteste marilor puteri în urma intervenției lor pe teritoriul său, dar a fost ignorat atât de puterile, cât și de ONU. Cu toate acestea, comunicările moderne înseamnă că Asgardia are o capacitate mai bună de organizare și de finanțare, iar un satelit îi va da o prezență fizică în spațiu.

Recunoașterea și revendicările teritoriale
Ram Jakhu, directorul Institutului de Medicină Aerospațială din cadrul Universității McGill și expertul juridic al Asgardiei, consideră că Asgardia va putea să îndeplinească trei dintre cele patru elemente pe care ONU le cere pentru a analiza dacă o entitate este un stat: cetățeni; un guvern; și teritoriu, fiind o navă spațială locuită. În această situație, Jakhu consideră că realizarea celui de-al patrulea element, obținând recunoașterea de către statele membre ale ONU, va fi realizabilă, iar Asgardia va putea apoi să se aplice pentru aderarea la ONU. Consiliul de Securitate va trebui apoi să aprobe cererea, precum și două treimi din membrii Adunării Generale.

Legislația internațională existentă interzice revendicările suveranității naționale ale corpurilor celeste în spațiu, cu toate acestea, articolul VIII din Tratatul privind spațiul cosmic notează că statul care lansează un obiect spațial își păstrează competența și controlul asupra acestui obiect. Potrivit Sa'id Mosteshar de la Institutul de Politici și Legislație Spațială din Londra: "Tratatul Spațiului Exterior ... acceptat de toată lumea spune foarte clar că nicio parte a spațiului cosmic nu poate fi însușită de nici un stat". Fără teritoriul auto-guvernator în spațiul în care sunt prezenți cetățenii, Mosteshar a sugerat că perspectiva pe care o țară ar recunoaște Asgardia era slabă.

Joanne Gabrynowicz, expert în dreptul spațial și profesor la Școala de Drept a Institutului de Tehnologie din Beijing, consideră că Asgardia va avea probleme în obținerea recunoașterii ca națiune. Ea spune că există un "număr de entități pe Pământ a căror statut de națiune independentă a fost o problemă de dispută pentru o lungă perioadă de timp. Este rezonabil să ne așteptăm ca statutul de obiect nepopulat care nu este pe Pământ să fie contestat".

Christopher Newman, expert în spațiu, la Universitatea UK of Sunderland, subliniază faptul că Asgardia încearcă să realizeze o "reexaminare completă a cadrului legislativ spațial actual", anticipând că proiectul se va confrunta cu obstacole semnificative în obținerea recunoașterii și tratarea problemelor de răspundere. Tratatul privind spațiul cosmic cere țării care trimite o misiune în spațiu să fie responsabilă de misiune, inclusiv orice prejudiciu ar putea provoca.

Referințe

Micronațiuni
State propuse
Explorarea spațiului

Asgardia (națiune)


Fabrizio Salvadori ist ein ehemaliger italienischer Bogenbiathlet.

Fabrizio Salvadori begann 1989 mit dem Bogenbiathlonsport und startete für Società Arco Club Valdigne. Bei den erstmals ausgetragenen Weltmeisterschaften im Bogenbiathlon im Jahr 1998 in Cogne gewann er bei der Heim-WM im ersten Wettbewerb, dem Einzel, hinter Alberto Peracino und Daniele Conte bei einem italienischen Dreifachsieg die Bronzemedaille und mit Peracino sowie Francesco Semenzato den Titel im Staffelwettbewerb. Damit gewann er in beiden ausgetragenen Rennen eine Medaille und war nach Doppelweltmeister Paracino erfolgreichster Teilnehmer. Den Staffeltitel gewann er bei der WM 1999 in Bessans mit Peracino und Conte erneut den Weltmeistertitel. Bei den ersten Europameisterschaften 2000 in Pokljuka gewann er mit dem Einzel den ersten vergebenen Titel vor Sebastien Gardoni und Andrej Zupan. Auch bei den Weltmeisterschaften 2001 in Kubalonka gewann er mit Silber hinter Russland an der Seite von Alessandro Morassi, Conte und Perracino erneut eine Staffelmedaille.

Salvadori ist mit Edmea Ollier verheiratet, deren Trainer er zu deren aktiver Zeit er auch war. Das Paar hat einen gemeinsamen Sohn.

Weblinks
 Porträt bei medagliedoro.org (italienisch)

Biathlet (Italien)
Weltmeister (Bogenbiathlon)
Europameister (Bogenbiathlon)
Biathlontrainer (Italien)
Italiener
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Mann

Fabrizio Salvadori


Brevet kan henvise til:

 Brevet (kortfilm fra 1967) – kortfilm fra 1967 af Finn Karlsson
 Brevet (kortfilm fra 2005) – kortfilm fra 2005 af Rune Nøhr Christiansen
 Brevet (Gøngehøvdingen) – afsnit af tv-serien Gøngehøvdingen
 Brevet (novelle) – novelle fra 1949 af Hilmar Wulff

Brevet


في البر في البحر في الجو برنامج مسابقات تلفزيوني سنوي هولندي، تمت دبلجته إلى العربية، وعرض على العديد من القنوات التلفزيونية. من تقديم المذيع الهولندي توم بلوم.

القنوات العارضة
 التلفزيون السوري - القناة الأرضية الأولى.
 الكويت.
 الشارقة.
 التلفزيون السعودي.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 Ter land, ter zee en in de lucht page.

برامج مسابقات
مسلسلات تلفزيونية هولندية بدأ عرضها في 1971
مسلسلات تلفزيونية هولندية بدأ عرضها في 1973

في البر في البحر في الجو


1992 OO (asteroide n.º 20031) es un asteroide del cinturón principal. Posee una excentricidad de 0,18014920 y un inclinación de 25,77599º.

Este asteroide fue descubierto el 27 de julio de 1992 por Eleanor F. Helin en el Palomar.

Véase también
 Lista de asteroides
 Asteroide del cinturón principal

Enlaces externos
 Datos del (20031) 1992 OO (en inglés).
 La órbita del asteroide (20031) 1992 OO (en inglés).
 Datos del (20031) 1992 OO .

Asteroides del cinturón principal
Objetos astronómicos descubiertos por Eleanor F. Helin
Objetos astronómicos descubiertos desde el Observatorio Palomar
Objetos astronómicos descubiertos en 1992
Objetos astronómicos por denominación provisional
Wikiproyecto:Asteroides/Artículos de asteroides

(20031) 1992 OO


Prix Europa, najvažnija europska televizijska nagrada. Prix Europa – European Broadcasting Festival nagrađuje najbolje europske televizijske, radijske i online produkcije da bi ih promicao u Europi i podupirao njihovu distribuciju diljem europskog kontinenta. Održava se u Berlinu.

Osnovali su ga 1987. godine Europski parlament, Europska komisija i Europska kulturna zaklada. Narastao je u najutjecajniji paneuropski broadcasting festival. Okuplja medijske profesionalce, novinare, autore i redatelje u prekograničnoj razmjeni umijeća i analizama što je u europskoj agendi. Festival traje pet dana. Moto festivala je Changing Europe, što na hrvatskom znači Mijenjajući Europu ali i Europa koja se mijenja. Od 2017. godine festival je pod patronažom Europskog parlamenta. Festival je značajna referntna točka za mlade autore.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Prix Europa

Festivali
Nagrade

Prix Europa


Hliník nad Hronom este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Žiar nad Hronom din regiunea Banská Bystrica, pe malul râului Hron. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 2.860 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Hliník nad Hronom este atestată documentar din 1075.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Hliník nad Hronom


Mit Bevermühlen werden mehrere ehemalige Wassermühlen an der Bever im Münsterland bezeichnet.

Geschichte
Die Bever gilt als "fleißiger Fluss" im Münsterland. Anders als die meisten anderen Flüsse dieser Region führt sie eine große Wassermenge mit einem starken Gefälle. Von der Quelle bis zur Mündung fällt sie um 25 Meter. Allein in Ostbevern fällt der Fluss um 4,5 Meter. Damit verfügt sie über eine ausreichend hohe potentielle Energie. Seit alters her wurden Mühlen an der Bever betrieben; um Staurechte, Stauhöhe und Stauzeiten wurde gestritten. Die Staurechte lagen zumeist bei Klöstern oder Adelssitzen. Bis in die 1950er Jahre wurde die Bever in den Herbstmonaten aufgestaut, was zur Folge hatte, dass die gesamten Beverwiesen geflutet wurden, um genügend Wasser für den Betrieb der Mühlen über den Winter zu haben. In den 1960er Jahren wurden diese Staurechte von den Unterhaltungsverbänden aufgekauft und der Mühl- und Staubetrieb eingestellt. Heute ist keine Mühle mehr an der Bever in Betrieb.

Die Mühlen im Einzelnen
Es gibt bzw. gab folgende Mühlen (in Berg-Tal-Richtung aufgelistet):

Kloster Vinnenberg
 ()
Das Kloster Vinnenberg in Milte durfte die erste Mühle am Fluss betreiben. Dies war eine Mühle, die Umflut betrieben wurde. Der Koog ist noch vorhanden, die Umflut nicht mehr am Fluss angeschlossen. In dem Mühlbetrieb ist heute eine Gastwirtschaft untergebracht.

Kloster Rengering
 ()
Das Kloster Rengering in Ostbevern betrieb die zweite Mühle. Nach der Aufhebung des Klosters wurde die Mühle vom jeweiligen Bauern weiterbetrieben, zuletzt von Bauer Hohenkirch. Die Umflut ist heute von der Bever getrennt, der Koog ist noch vorhanden. Auf der noch vorhandenen Brücke zur Mühle steht heute noch der Brückenheilige Nepomuk. Betrieben wurde eine Ölmühle, eine Bokemühle und eine Getreidemahlmühle.

Kocks Mühle
 ()
Seit Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts steht sie im Dorf Ostbevern. Es handelt sich um eine Doppelmühle; eine Korn- und Bockemühle, die direkt am Wehr am 14. Juli 1844 in Betrieb genommen wurde. Das Haus Bevern besaß das Staurecht und betrieb die Mühle. Beide Mühlen hatten ein eigenes Wasserrad. Die Bockemühle wurde 1921 abgerissen, die Kornmühle war noch bis Anfang der 1960er Jahre vom Müller Burgholt in Betrieb gehalten. In den 1970er Jahren wurde sie vom Fahrzeugbauer Hermann Kock aufgekauft und restauriert. Heute wird sie für Ausstellungen und Konzerte genutzt. Nebenan ist ein historisches Kutschenmuseum. Hier gab es im Oktober 2011 eine Veranstaltung der Universität Münster zu Kunst und Wissenschaft unter dem Titel "Multitalent Bever".

Schulze Osthoffs Mühle
 ()
Schulze Osthoffs Mühle war eine Kornmühle in Westbevern mit Umflut. Sie wurde vom Bauern Schulze Osthoff betrieben. Die Koogs sind noch vorhanden, die Umflut vom Fluss getrennt. Sie ist die einzige Bevermühle, die nicht im Besitz eines Klosters oder eines Adelsgeschlechtes war. Der Hof, wie auch die Mühle wurden erstmals 1339 erwähnt. Gerichtlich gehörte sie zu Ostbevern, im Kommunal- und Pfarrverband jedoch zu Westbevern. Erst 1829 erfolgte eine endgültige Grenzregelung zwischen den beiden Bevergemeinden. Auch das Mühlhaus steht noch und wird heute anderweitig genutzt.

Haus Langen
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Haus Langen war die letzte Bevermühle in Westbevern vor der Mündung in die Ems. Die Freiherren von Langen besaßen hier das Staurecht und betrieben eine Doppelmühle am Wehr, wie in Ostbevern. Es sind noch beide Mühlhäuser vorhanden; hier wurde ausschließlich Korn vermahlen.

Bilder

Weblinks
 Multitaltent Bever (PDF; 861 kB)

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
 Uli Auffermann: Münsterland: Parklandschaft zwischen Ruhrgebiet und Rheine – 50 Touren, 2010, ISBN 3-7633-4380-6.

Wassermühle in Nordrhein-Westfalen
Bauwerk in Ostbevern
Bauwerk in Telgte
Bauwerk in Warendorf
Mühle in Europa

Bevermühlen


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