Croydon is a large town in South London, England,  south of Charing Cross. Part of the London Borough of Croydon, a local government district of Greater London, it is one of the largest commercial districts in Greater London, with an extensive shopping district and night-time economy. The entire town had a population of 192,064 as of 2011, whilst the wider borough had a population of 384,837.

Historically an ancient parish in the Wallington hundred of Surrey, at the time of the Norman conquest of England Croydon had a church, a mill, and around 365 inhabitants, as recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086. Croydon expanded in the Middle Ages as a market town and a centre for charcoal production, leather tanning and brewing. The Surrey Iron Railway from Croydon to Wandsworth opened in 1803 and was an early public railway. Later 19th century railway building facilitated Croydon's growth as a commuter town for London. By the early 20th century, Croydon was an important industrial area, known for car manufacture, metal working and Croydon Airport. In the mid 20th century these sectors were replaced by retailing and the service economy, brought about by massive redevelopment which saw the rise of office blocks and the Whitgift Centre, the largest shopping centre in Greater London until 2008. Historically, the town formed part of the County of Surrey, and between 1889 and 1965 a county borough, but was amalgamated into Greater London in 1965.

Croydon lies on a transport corridor between central London and the south coast of England, to the north of two high gaps in the North Downs, one taken by the A23 Brighton Road and the main railway line through Purley and Merstham and the other by the A22 from Purley to the M25 Godstone interchange. Road traffic is diverted away from a largely pedestrianised town centre, mostly consisting of North End. East Croydon railway station is a hub of the national railway system, with frequent fast services to central London, Brighton and the south coast. The town is also at the centre of the only tramway system in southern England.

History

Toponymy

As the vast majority of place names in the area are of Anglo-Saxon origin, the theory accepted by most philologists is that the name Croydon derives originally from the Anglo-Saxon croh, meaning "crocus", and denu, "valley", indicating that, like Saffron Walden in Essex, it was a centre for the cultivation of saffron. It has been argued that this cultivation is likely to have taken place in the Roman period, when the saffron crocus would have been grown to supply the London market, most probably for medicinal purposes, and particularly for the treatment of granulation of the eyelids.

There is also a plausible Brittonic origin for Croydon in the form "Crai-din" meaning "settlement near fresh water" (cf Creuddyn, Ceredigion), the name Crai (variously spelled) being found in Kent at various places even as late as the Domesday Book.

Alternative, although less probable, theories of the name's origin have been proposed. According to John Corbet Anderson: "The earliest mention of Croydon is in the joint will of Beorhtric and Aelfswth, dated about the year 962. In this Anglo-Saxon document the name is spelt [here he uses Old English characters] Crogdaene. Crog was, and still is, the Norse or Danish word for crooked, which is expressed in Anglo-Saxon by crumb, a totally different word. From the Danish came our crook and crooked. This term accurately describes the locality; it is a crooked or winding valley, in reference to the valley that runs in an oblique and serpentine course from Godstone to Croydon." Anderson challenged a claim, originally made by Andrew Coltee Ducarel, that the name came from the Old French for "chalk hill", because it was in use at least a century before the French language would have been commonly used following the Norman Conquest. However, there was no long-term Danish occupation (see Danelaw) in Surrey, which was part of Wessex, and Danish-derived nomenclature is also highly unlikely. More recently, David Bird has speculated that the name might derive from a personal name, Crocus: he suggests a family connection with the documented Chrocus, king of the Alemanni, who allegedly played a part in the proclamation of Constantine as emperor at York in AD 306.

Early history
The town lies on the line of the Roman road from London to Portslade, and there is some archaeological evidence for small-scale Roman settlement in the area: there may have been a mansio (staging-post) here. Later, in the 5th to 7th centuries, a large pagan Saxon cemetery was situated on what is now Park Lane, although the extent of any associated settlement is unknown.

By the late Saxon period Croydon was the hub of an estate belonging to the Archbishops of Canterbury. The church and the archbishops' manor house occupied the area still known as "Old Town". The archbishops used the manor house as an occasional place of residence: as lords of the manor they dominated the life of the town well into the early modern period, and as local patrons they continue to have an influence. Croydon appears in Domesday Book (1086) as Croindene, held by Archbishop Lanfranc. Its Domesday assets included 16 hides and 1 virgate of land; a church; a mill worth 5s; 38 plough-teams;  of meadow; and woodland for 200 hogs. It had a recorded population of 73 households (representing roughly 365 individuals); and its value in terms of taxes rendered was £37 10s 0d..

The church had been established in the middle Saxon period, and was probably a minster church, a base for a group of clergy living a communal life. A charter issued by King Coenwulf of Mercia refers to a council that had taken place close to the monasterium (meaning minster) of Croydon. An Anglo-Saxon will made in about 960 is witnessed by Elfsies, priest of Croydon; and the church is also mentioned in Domesday Book. The will of John de Croydon, fishmonger, dated 6 December 1347, includes a bequest to "the church of S John de Croydon", the earliest clear record of its dedication. The church still bears the arms of Archbishop Courtenay and Archbishop Chichele, believed to have been its benefactors.

In 1276 Archbishop Robert Kilwardby acquired a charter for a weekly market, and this probably marks the foundation of Croydon as an urban centre. Croydon developed into one of the main market towns of north east Surrey. The market place was laid out on the higher ground to the east of the manor house in the triangle now bounded by High Street, Surrey Street and Crown Hill. By the 16th century the manor house had become a substantial palace, used as the main summer home of the archbishops and visited by monarchs and other dignitaries. However, the palace gradually became dilapidated and surrounded by slums and stagnant ponds, and in 1781 the archbishops sold it, and in its place purchased a new residence at nearby Addington. Nevertheless, many of the buildings of the original Croydon Palace survive, and are in use today as Old Palace School.

The Parish Church (now Croydon Minster) is a Perpendicular-style church, which was remodelled in 1849 but destroyed in a great fire in 1867, after which only the tower, south porch, and outer walls remained. A new church was designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, one of the greatest architects of the Victorian age, and opened in 1870. His design loosely followed the previous layout, with knapped flint facing and many of the original features, including several tombs. Croydon Parish Church is the burial place of six Archbishops of Canterbury: John Whitgift, Edmund Grindal, Gilbert Sheldon, William Wake, John Potter and Thomas Herring. Historically part of the Diocese of Canterbury, Croydon is now in the Diocese of Southwark. In addition to the suffragan Bishop of Croydon, the Vicar of Croydon is a preferment.

Addington Palace is a Palladian-style mansion between Addington Village and Shirley, in the London Borough of Croydon. Six archbishops lived there between 1807 and 1898, when it was sold. Between 1953 and 1996 it was the home of the Royal School of Church Music. It is now a conference and banqueting venue.

Croydon was a leisure destination in the mid 19th century. In 1831, one of England's most prominent architects, Decimus Burton, designed a spa and pleasure gardens below Beulah Hill and off what is now Spa Hill in a bowl of land on the south-facing side of the hill around a spring of chalybeate water. Burton was responsible for the Beulah Spa Hotel (demolished around 1935) and the layout of the grounds. Its official title was The Royal Beulah Spa and Gardens. It became a popular society venue attracting crowds to its fêtes. One widely publicised event was a "Grand Scottish Fete" on 16 September 1834 "with a tightrope performance by Pablo Fanque, the black circus performer who would later dominate the Victorian circus and achieve immortality in The Beatles song, Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" The spa closed in 1856 soon after the opening nearby of the Crystal Palace which had been rebuilt on Sydenham Hill in 1854, following its success at the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park.

Horse racing in the area took place occasionally, notably during visits of Queen Elizabeth I to the archbishop. Regular meetings became established first on a course at Park Hill in 1860 and from 1866 at Woodside, where particularly good prizes were offered for the races run under National Hunt rules. In that sphere its prestige was second only to Aintree, home of the Grand National. Increasing local opposition to the presence of allegedly unruly racegoers coupled with the need to obtain a licence from the local authority led to it being closed down in 1890.

The Elizabethan Whitgift Almshouses, the "Hospital of the Holy Trinity", in the centre of Croydon at the corner of North End and George Street, were erected by Archbishop John Whitgift. He petitioned for and received permission from Queen Elizabeth I to establish a hospital and school in Croydon for the "poor, needy and impotent people" from the parishes of Croydon and Lambeth. The foundation stone was laid in 1596 and the building was completed in 1599.

The premises included the Hospital or Almshouses, providing accommodation for between 28 and 40 people, and a nearby schoolhouse and schoolmaster's house. There was a Warden in charge of the well-being of the almoners. The building takes the form of a courtyard surrounded by the chambers of the almoners and various offices.

Threatened by various reconstruction plans and road-widening schemes, the Almshouses were saved in 1923 by intervention of the House of Lords. On 21 June 1983 Queen Elizabeth II visited the Almshouses and unveiled a plaque celebrating the recently completed reconstruction of the building. On 22 March each year the laying of the foundation stone is commemorated as Founder's Day.

The Grade II listed West Croydon Baptist Church was built in 1873 by J. Theodore Barker. It is a red brick building with stone dressings. Its three bays are divided by paired Doric pilasters supporting a triglyph frieze and panelled parapet.

The Parish Church of St Michael and All Angels by John Loughborough Pearson in West Croydon was built between 1880 and 1885, and is Grade I listed.

Industrial Revolution and the railway

The development of Brighton as a fashionable resort in the 1780s increased Croydon's importance as a halt for stage coaches on the road south of London. At the beginning of the 19th century, Croydon became the terminus of two pioneering commercial transport links with London. The first, opened in 1803, was the horse-drawn Surrey Iron Railway from Wandsworth, which in 1805 was extended to Merstham, as the Croydon, Merstham and Godstone Railway. The second, opened in 1809, was the Croydon Canal, which branched off the Grand Surrey Canal at Deptford. The London and Croydon Railway (an atmospheric and steam-powered railway) opened between London Bridge and West Croydon in 1839, using much of the route of the canal (which had closed in 1836). Other connections to London and the south followed.

The arrival of the railways and other communications advances in the 19th century led to a 23-fold increase in Croydon's population between 1801 and 1901. This rapid expansion of the town led to considerable health problems, especially in the damp and overcrowded working class district of Old Town. In response to this, in 1849 Croydon became one of the first towns in the country to acquire a local board of health. The Board constructed public health infrastructure including a reservoir, water supply network, sewers, a pumping station and sewage disposal works. The Surrey Street Pumping Station is Grade II listed; it was built in four phases. starting with the engine house in 1851, with a further engine house in 1862, a further extension in 1876–7 to house a compound horizontal engine and a further extension in 1912.

A growing town

In 1883 Croydon was incorporated as a borough. In 1889 it became a county borough, with a greater degree of autonomy. The new county borough council implemented the Croydon Improvement scheme in the early 1890s, which widened the High Street and cleared much of the "Middle Row" slum area. The remaining slums were cleared shortly after Second World War, with much of the population relocated to the isolated new settlement of New Addington. New stores opened and expanded in central Croydon, including Allders, Kennards and Grade II listed Grants, as well as the first Sainsbury's self-service shop in the country. There was a market on Surrey Street.

Croydon was the location of London's main airport until the Second World War. During the war, much of central Croydon was devastated by German V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets, and for many years the town bore the scars of the destruction. After the war, Heathrow Airport superseded Croydon Airport as London's main airport, and Croydon Airport quickly went into a decline, finally closing in 1959.

By the 1950s, with its continuing growth, the town was becoming congested, and the Council decided on another major redevelopment scheme. The Croydon Corporation Act was passed in 1956. This, coupled with national government incentives for office relocation out of Central London, led to the building of new offices and accompanying road schemes through the late 1950s and 1960s, and the town boomed as a business centre in the 1960s, with many multi-storey office blocks, an underpass, a flyover and multi-storey car parks. The redeveloped town centre has since been identified as an "edge city" – a significant urban and commercial centre in its own right, located on the outskirts of a larger metropolitan area (in this case, London).

In 1960 Croydon celebrated its millennium with a pageant held at Lloyd Park and an exhibition held at the old Croydon Aerodrome.

Modern Croydon

The growing town attracted many new buildings. The Fairfield Halls arts centre and event venue opened in 1962. Croydon developed as an important centre for shopping, with the construction of the Whitgift Centre in 1969. No. 1 Croydon (formerly the NLA Tower) designed by Richard Seifert & Partners was completed in 1970. The Warehouse Theatre opened in 1977.

The 1990s saw further changes intended to give the town a more attractive image. These included the closure of North End to vehicles in 1989 and the opening of the Croydon Clocktower arts centre in 1994. An early success of the centre was the "Picasso's Croydon Period" exhibition of March–May 1995.

The Croydon Tramlink began operation in May 2000 (see Transport section below).

The Prospect West office development was built in 1991 to 1992, and its remodelling planned in 2012 has now been completed. Renamed Interchange Croydon when it was reopened in 2014, the 180,000 square foot office development was the first new grade A office development of its size to open in Croydon for more than 20 years.

Another large shopping centre, Centrale, opened in 2004 opposite the Whitgift Centre, and adjoining the smaller Drummond Centre. House of Fraser and Debenhams are the anchor stores in the combined centre. In addition, there are plans for a large, new one billion pound shopping centre, in the form of a new Westfield shopping mall to add to the two which the company currently has in Greater London; Westfield plans to work jointly with Hammersons and to incorporate the best aspects of the two companies' designs. In November 2017, Croydon Council gave permission for the new Westfield shopping centre to be built and in January 2018, the Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, approved the regeneration scheme. Work to demolish the existing Whitgift Centre was due to begin in 2018 and Westfield Croydon was initially to open by 2022. The Westfield plans were delayed and the planning permission elapsed: however, in 2021, Croydon Council confirmed they were committed to see the Westfield Centre proceed. There are several other major plans for the town including the redevelopment of the Croydon Gateway site; and extensions of Tramlink to Purley Way, Streatham, Lewisham and Crystal Palace.

Croydon has many tall buildings such as the former Nestlé Tower (St George's House). The London Borough of Croydon's strategic planning committee in February 2013 gave the go-ahead to property fund manager Legal and General Property's plans to convert the empty 24-storey St George's House office building, occupied by Nestlé until September 2012, into 288 flats.

In 2007, events were held under the label of Croydon Exp07 to promote billions of pounds of promised projects, including swimming pools and a library. However, plans for a new shopping centre, to be called Park Place, had already been abandoned amid a scandal about cash for peerages. Also abandoned were plans for an arena near the East Croydon station, after a compulsory purchase order was rejected in 2008 at Cabinet level.

On 22 November 2011, then Mayor of London Boris Johnson announced £23m of additional funding to help redevelop the town at the Develop Croydon Conference.

Several apartment developments, for instance Altitude 25 (completed 2010), have been built in recent years, and several more are being built or planned. The construction of Saffron Square, which includes a 43-storey tower, began on Wellesley Road in 2011 and was completed in 2016. Other developments with towers over 50 floors high have been given planning approval. These include the 54-storey "Menta Tower" in Cherry Orchard Road near East Croydon station, and a 55-storey tower at One Lansdowne Road, on which construction was set to begin in early 2013. The latter is set to be Britain's tallest block of flats, including office space, a four-star hotel and a health club.

In May 2012 it was announced that Croydon had been successful in its bid to become one of twelve "Portas Pilot" towns and would receive a share of £1.2m funding to help rejuvenate its central shopping areas.

In November 2013, Central Croydon MP Gavin Barwell gave a presentation at a public meeting on the Croydon regeneration project, detailing various developments underway due to be completed in coming years.

On 26 November 2013, Croydon Council approved a redevelopment of the Town Centre by The Croydon Partnership, a joint venture by The Westfield Group and Hammerson. London Mayor Boris Johnson approved the plan the following day. The Croydon Advertiser listed the approval as an "Historic Night for Croydon".

At Ruskin Square, a Boxpark made of sea containers opened in 2016 as a temporary measure until new buildings are constructed for shops, offices and housing. The London Evening Standard said that this and other developments were reviving the town which was in the process of gentrification.

Future
A Croydon Vision 2020 plan was drawn up by the borough after a 1999 study by town planning consultants EDAW. The plan includes new office blocks, apartment buildings, shopping centres and other developments, some of which have already been built. More than 2,000 new homes are planned.

A redeveloped Fairfield Halls has been planned to be the linchpin of a cultural quarter encompassing nearby College Green. Plans include an art gallery, a new college, shops and offices, with a multi-storey car park set for demolition to make space for 218 homes.

Economy

As of 2011, Croydon's annual retail turnover from comparison goods was £353 million, the fifth-highest in Greater London behind the West End, Shepherd's Bush, Stratford and Kingston upon Thames. Croydon had as of 2012  of total town centre floorspace, the second highest in Greater London only behind the West End.

Apart from its large central shopping district, Croydon has a number of smaller shopping areas, especially towards the southern end of the town in which are many restaurants. As of 2011, two of Croydon's restaurants were listed in The Good Food Guide.

In a 2015 study by CACI, Croydon was ranked 12th in the "Hot 100 UK retail locations" with a score of 90%.

The Zotefoams company has its headquarters in Croydon.

Government

Status
For centuries the area lay within the Wallington hundred, an ancient Anglo-Saxon administrative division of the county of Surrey. In the later Middle Ages – probably from the late 13th century onwards – residents of the town of Croydon, as defined by boundary markers known as the "four crosses", enjoyed a degree of self-government through a town court or portmote, and a form of free tenure of property. These privileges set the area of the town apart from its rural hinterland, where the more usual and more restrictive rules of manorial tenure applied. However, Croydon did not hold any kind of formal borough status.

In 1690, the leading inhabitants petitioned William III and Mary for Croydon to be incorporated as a borough. The application was initially approved, the king authorising the drafting of a charter, but the process was then abruptly halted, apparently through the intervention of Archbishop John Tillotson, who probably feared a threat to his own authority over the town. The application was revived the following year, when Queen Mary again authorised a charter, but once again it was abandoned. A second petition in 1707 was effectively ignored.

Croydon's growth in the 19th century brought the issue of incorporation back on to the political agenda, and in 1883 the ancient parish of Croydon, apart from its exclave of Croydon Crook or Selsdon, was created a municipal borough within Surrey. In 1889, because the population was high enough, it was made a county borough, exempt from county administration.

In 1965 (under the terms of the London Government Act 1963) the County Borough of Croydon was abolished and the area was transferred to Greater London and combined with the Coulsdon and Purley Urban District to form the London Borough of Croydon.

The borough has on several occasions sought city status. (This would be a purely honorific change of title, making no practical difference to the borough's governance.) A draft petition was submitted by the County Borough to the Home Office in 1951, a more formal petition in 1954, and two more applications in 1955 and 1958. When the London Borough was created in 1965, the Council endeavoured to have it styled a City, as was the City of Westminster. Further bids for city status were made in 1977, 1992, 2000, 2002, and 2012. All have failed. The borough's predominant argument has always been its size: in 2000 it pointed out that it was "the largest town which does not have the title of City in the whole of Western Europe". The grounds on which it has been turned down have invariably been that it is (as was stated in 1992) merely "part of the London conurbation, rather than a place with a character and identity of its own". Undeterred, council representatives have more than once described Croydon as "a city in all but name". In 2008, Boris Johnson, then Mayor of London, said he would support Croydon being awarded city status.

Modern governance
The London Borough of Croydon has a Labour-controlled council with 41 Labour councillors and 29 Conservative councillors elected on 3 May 2018.

Most of the town centre lies within the Addiscombe and Fairfield wards, which form part of the Croydon Central constituency. The rest of the town centre is in the Croham ward, which is part of the Croydon South constituency. These wards are all in the London Borough of Croydon, which is responsible for services along with other agencies such as education, refuse collection, road maintenance, local planning and social care. The Addiscombe ward is currently represented by Labour Councillors . The Fairfield and Croham wards have, by contrast, habitually elected Conservative members. The sitting Member of Parliament for Croydon Central is Sarah Jones, a member of the Labour Party. The sitting Member of Parliament for Croydon South is Chris Philp, a member of the Conservatives. The Member of Parliament for Croydon North is Steve Reed, for the Labour Party.

Public services
The territorial police force is the Metropolitan Police. Their Croydon Police Station is on Park Lane opposite the Croydon Flyover .

The statutory fire and rescue service in Croydon is the London Fire Brigade (LFB) who have a fire station in Old Town, with two pumping appliances.

The nearest hospital is Croydon University Hospital (known from 1923 to 2010 as Mayday Hospital) in nearby Thornton Heath, which is part of Croydon Health Services NHS Trust. The London Ambulance Service provides the ambulance service.

Demography and population
The town of Croydon includes its neighbourhoods Addiscombe, Addington, Broad Green, Coombe, Forestdale, New Addington, Sanderstead, Selsdon, Shirley, and Waddon. The 13 electoral wards that make it up together counted a population of 192,064 in the 2011 census, forming the majority of the borough overall (pop. 384,837).

Croydon is ethnically diverse. Those who are from BAME minority background range from 19.5% in Sanderstead ward to 68.6% in Broad Green. West Thornton ward (part of Thornton Heath) is one of the most ethnically diverse areas of England.

Fairfield ward, which is the major ward covering the central town, was ethnically 40% White British, 16% Indian, and 10% Other White in the 2011 UK Census. Religiously, 46% was Christian, 21% irreligious, 13% Hindu and 8% Muslim. The most common household tenure type was either owned or privately rented. The median age was 33. In addition, the Broad Green ward was ethnically 23% White British, 13% Indian, 13% Other Asian, and 11% Black African. About 41% of household tenures were owned, while privately and socially rented each made up 29% each. The median age was 31. The Addiscombe ward was ethnically 45% White British and 10% Other White. Religiously, 52% of the population was Christian, 24% irreligious, 7% Muslim and 6% Hindu. 52% of house tenures were owned. There are 10 other wards that cover Croydon's neighbourhoods.

The median house price as of 2014 was £212,998 in Selhurst ward, one of London's lowest. The highest in the town was in Sanderstead ward, £392,500. The mean age in 2013 ranged from 32 years in Broad Green and Fieldway wards, to 43.2 years in Selsdon and Ballards ward.

Geography

Croydon town centre is near the centre of the borough of Croydon, to the north of the North Downs and the Pilgrims' Way path. To the north of Croydon are typical London districts, whereas a short distance southeast (such as Coombe and Selsdon) is green, hilly and rural land. To the west are industrial areas, part of which are in the London Borough of Sutton. The southern suburbs are mainly affluent and also hilly.

The town centre is bordered by Waddon immediately southwest of central Croydon. To the west, inside the London Borough of Sutton lies Beddington. To the north are Broad Green, Thornton Heath and Selhurst. To the south lies South Croydon, and going further south are Purley and Sanderstead. To the east lie Addiscombe and Shirley.

Croydon High Street runs from South Croydon up to the point where it meets the street called North End. North End is the main shopping street, while Croydon High Street is the main restaurant quarter.

The High Street is also home to Wrencote House, a Grade II* listed building. Dating from the late 17th or early 18th centuries, and probably built as a merchant's house, it has a distinctive "H" plan form over its four floors (including basement and attic storey). External features include a rich red brick facade with black headers, and a heavily carved and enriched wooden eaves cornice.

Wellesley Road on the A212 road forms a north–south axis through the town centre. In line with London Plan policy, there have been a number of proposals to create greater integration between East Croydon station, which lies on one side of the A212, and the town centre of Croydon, which lies on the other side of it. Croydon Vision 2020 aims to tackle this though such solutions as making the road easier for pedestrians to cross by creating a centre island pathway.

Topographically, central Croydon generally lies between  (in the north) and  (in the south) above sea level. Elevation significantly climbs towards the east of the town – Coombe Park peaks at about  above sea level, whereas the Addington Hills, Coombe Wood and Addington Golf Course are as high as , with the southern end of New Addington having an elevation of over . To the south, Croham Hurst has a hill of , and the highest area of Croydon is the Sanderstead Plantation at . The lowest elevation is around Broad Green, about  above sea level.

River Wandle

The River Wandle is a tributary of the River Thames, flowing some 9 miles (14 km) to Wandsworth and Putney from its source in Croydon. It roughly forms the borough's western boundary with the London Borough of Sutton, and for part of its length also forms the boundary between the London Boroughs of Croydon and Lambeth. One of its tributaries rises in Selhurst.

Culture

Arts

There are several arts venues. Foremost is the Fairfield Halls, opened in 1962, which consists of a large concert hall frequently used for BBC recordings, the Ashcroft Theatre and the Arnhem Gallery. Fairfield is the home of the London Mozart Players. Many famous faces have appeared at the Fairfield Halls, including The Beatles, Bucks Fizz, Omid Djalili, Robert Cray, JLS, Chuck Berry, BB King, Don McLean, The Monkees, Johnny Cash, Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight, Morecambe and Wise, Tom Jones, The Stylistics, Status Quo, Level 42, A-HA, John Mayall, Jools Holland, Kenny Rogers, James Last, and Coolio. The main concert hall was used for the conference scene in the Ron Howard film The Da Vinci Code (2006). The Fairfield Halls reopened in 2019, following a programme of modernisation and refurbishment.

Croydon Clocktower, developed by the London Borough of Croydon in the mid-1990s, houses a state-of-the-art library, a performance venue in the old reference library, the David Lean Cinema (a small, independent, art-house cinema) and the Museum of Croydon, which details Croydon's history. The building links into Croydon Town Hall and some areas of the building, most notably the Braithwaite Hall, are part of the original town hall and library complex, built in 1892–1896 to a design by Charles Henman. A bronze statue of Queen Victoria was erected outside the buildings in 1903.

The Warehouse Theatre (which closed in 2012), was a studio theatre known for promoting new writing, comedy and youth theatre. It had to close because of the major Ruskin Square redevelopment, but will re-open in the future in a new larger theatre building within the new development.

The Pembroke Theatre had many productions with well-known actors before its closure in about 1962.

There are several local and small venues for comedy and community events dotted around Croydon and its districts. Croydon Youth Theatre Organisation celebrated its 40th birthday in 2005. There are several community arts groups, particularly in the large Asian community.

The Spread Eagle Theatre is a new 50-seat studio theatre. Opened in October 2013, it is situated in the town centre, 10 minutes' walk from East Croydon Station. The Spread Eagle works closely with its sister venue, the Old Joint Stock Theatre in Birmingham. Both venues champion 'big plays for small spaces' with an emphasis on new writing, supporting emerging artists and theatre companies.

A calendar titled "Rare Roundabouts of Croydon", with a picture of a different Croydon roundabout each month, has enjoyed some success.

Public art

About 60 murals were added to Croydon town centre in 2018, as part of the Rise street art festival coordinated by the Rise art gallery in Croydon.

Literature
Croydon is the setting of two poems by British Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman, "Croydon" and "Love in a Valley".

The borough has been the residence of many renowned authors and novelists, including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who set up house in Norwood, D.H. Lawrence, and French novelist Émile Zola, who lived for a time in the Queen's Hotel, Upper Norwood. Cicely Mary Barker, author and illustrator of the Flower Fairies series of books, was born in Croydon.

Croydon is the setting of novels. The now defunct airport lent itself to the mysteries The 12.30 from Croydon and Death in the Clouds, and the town is mentioned in some Sherlock Holmes mysteries.

Croydon is referred to in a rhyme dating back to the 18th century, revised in the Victorian era to:

In Jane Austen's unfinished novel The Watsons (written c.1803–1805), the heroine, Emma Watson, has a brother and sister-in-law who live in Croydon, and who urge her to join them for an extended visit. Another sister, Elizabeth, encourages the idea, commenting "there is always something lively going on at Croydon". It would appear that the plot was intended to continue with Emma moving to Croydon.

Music
The composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875–1912) lived at 30 Dagnall Park, Selhurst, until his death. He grew up in Croydon and sang in the church choir at St George's and taught at the Crystal Palace School of Music and many other schools of music. He died from pneumonia after collapsing at West Croydon station. There is an impressive grave with a poem at Bandon Hill Cemetery, and exhibits about him in the Museum of Croydon.

In addition to the Fairfield Halls, several venues in Croydon have hosted rock acts. Established in 1976, the Cartoon was a popular live music venue that closed in 2006. The Greyhound in Park Lane played host to acts such as Led Zeppelin, Jimi Hendrix, The Who, David Bowie, Queen, Siouxsie and the Banshees, The Damned, The Boomtown Rats, A-ha in (1987) and others during the 1960s and '70s. Mott The Hoople paid tribute to the town's music scene in the song Saturday Gigs. The Greyhound also saw the debut of the Electric Light Orchestra in 1972.

In the punk era Croydon had its own scene including bands such as Johnny Moped, which at one point had member Captain Sensible who later released the song "Croydon" in 1982 in tribute to his home town.

Croydon has been at the centre of the development of the dubstep genre, a relatively recent musical development that traces its roots from Jamaican dub music, UK Garage and drum and bass. Artists such as Benga and Skream, who honed their production and DJing skills whilst working at the now defunct Big Apple Records on Surrey Street, along with Norwood's Digital Mystikz, DJ Chef, Timi Korus and Thornton Heath's Plastician, form the core roster of dubstep DJs and producers. Moreover, UK rappers and grime artists Stormzy, Krept and Konan, Nadia Rose and Section Boyz all hail from or can trace their roots to the London Borough of Croydon.

In 1993, Music Week reported that Croydon's record shops were thriving. The town centre was for 30 years home to Europe's largest second-hand record store, Beano's, offering rare vinyl, CDs and books. In November 2008, it was announced that Beano's would close. The premises, off Church Street near the Grant's cinema complex, became a "market place" with stalls for rent by small business and individuals. Another, now closed, record shop was Shake Some Action which specialized in punk records at 100 Church Street.

Continuing Croydon's tradition of dubstep record shops, are Reggaemasters, which opened in 2004 on Drummond Road and moved to Frith Road in 2019, and Addiscombe's DnR Vinyl, which cites Big Apple Records as its main inspiration. Ten Pin Records opened in Purley in 2022.

The oldest currently surviving shop in Croydon is 46 South End, which is a music shop. Dating back to the 16th century, this Grade II listed building still retains all its original Tudor features. Records show that the premises has been a shop for at least 163 years, where street directories from 1851 give the names of E. C. Johnson & Thorpe.

Croydon is home to the BRIT School for performing arts and technology, based in Selhurst, which has produced stars such as Adele, Jessie J, Amy Winehouse, Leona Lewis, Katie Melua, Katy B, Kate Nash, Imogen Heap, Rizzle Kicks, Dane Bowers and members of the Feeling & the Kooks. Independent of such institutions, Croydon is also the home of artists such as Nosferatu D2, Frankmusik, Noisettes, and Saint Etienne.

Club Soda is a music charity supporting artists with learning disabilities, their artists include The Carbonators. They run a regular club night called Soda Beat.

Media
Croydon plays host to the popular Channel 4 show Peep Show. The ITV police drama The Bill, although set in East London, was filmed in Croydon and many of the town centre locations were filmed around Surrey Street and St George's House (the Nestle building). Sun Hill Police Station is in nearby Mitcham. The opening credit sequence for the sitcom Terry and June featured the eponymous stars walking around the Whitgift Centre and the Fairfield Halls. In 2007, the music video for pop star Mika's single "Big Girl (You Are Beautiful)" was shot in various locations around the town, including High Street and Surrey Street Market. The Delta Point building, close to West Croydon station appeared in the film The Dark Knight Rises as Gotham General Hospital. The 2018 interactive film, Black Mirror: Bandersnatch featured several scenes shot in Croydon, such as St George's Walk and No.1 Croydon.

Croydon has its own fully independent television station: it does not receive any government or local authority grant or funding and is supported by donations, sponsorship and by commercial advertising. In 2012, Croydon Radio, an internet radio station, began in the area.

Sport and leisure

Parks and open spaces

The borough has many woods for walking in, which together account for 8.5% of Greater London's woodland resource (626.46 hectares). These include Lloyd Park and Croham Hurst.

Among several other parks and open spaces around Croydon, there is an area of landscaped green space in the town centre called Queens Gardens; it is adjacent to the town hall and Clocktower art centre.

Clubs and teams
The most prominent sports club in the borough is Crystal Palace Football Club, based in the north of the borough since 1918. Palace play at the purpose-built stadium of Selhurst Park, which the club moved to in 1924 from the Nest, its first Croydon-based stadium. The Nest had previously been the home of the defunct Croydon Common Football Club and sat next to Selhurst station. Palace won promotion to the Premier League (the top tier of football in England) at the end of the 2012–13 season. Croydon has a Non-League football club, Croydon F.C. who play at Croydon Sports Arena. Sunday League team Purley Saint Germain also play at Croydon Sports Arena.

Streatham-Croydon RFC, founded in 1871, is one of Greater London's oldest extant rugby union clubs, playing just north of the town centre at Frant Road in Thornton Heath.

Croydon Amphibians SC plays in Division 2 British Waterpolo League. In 2008, the team won the National League Division 3.

The borough also has a women's roller derby team called Croydon Roller Derby, which trains in Carshalton. The team was established in the early part of this decade and has played both national and international teams including Roller Derby Madrid, Stuttgart Valley Rollergirlz and Oxford Roller Derby. The sport is full-contact and played on quad skates with players skating round an elliptical track.

Transport

Rail

Heavy Rail
Croydon is served by East Croydon, South Croydon and West Croydon railway stations. East Croydon and South Croydon are served by Govia Thameslink Railway, operating under the Southern and Thameslink brands via the Brighton Main Line. West Croydon is served by London Overground and Southern services. The largest and busiest of the three stations is East Croydon, although West Croydon is located closer to Croydon's main shopping district.

Light Rail
The Tramlink tram system opened in 2000; Croydon is its hub. Its network consists of two main lines, from Elmers End or Beckenham to Wimbledon, and from New Addington to West Croydon, with all trams running via a loop in central Croydon. It is the only tram system in Greater London. It serves Mitcham, Woodside, Addiscombe and the Purley Way retail and industrial area.

The system was previously known as the "Croydon Tramlink", having been established under the Croydon Tramlink Act 1994.

Road
A few miles to the south of Croydon is a small gap in the North Downs, a route for transport from London to the south coast. The London to Brighton road used to pass through the town on North End before the A23 Purley Way was built to the west. Transport for London operates many bus routes in and around Croydon. Most buses serve West Croydon bus station, next to the railway station and tram stop.

Croydon's early transport links
The horse-drawn Surrey Iron Railway was an early public railway. It was opened in 1803, had double track, was some  long and ran from Wandsworth to Croydon, at what is now Reeves Corner. In 1805 it was extended to Merstham as the Croydon, Merstham, and Godstone Railway. The railway boom of the 1840s brought superior and faster steam lines and it closed in 1846. The route is followed in part by the modern Tramlink. The last remaining sections of rail can be seen behind railings in a corner of Rotary Field in Purley.

With the opening of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway line to London Victoria in 1860 extra platforms were provided at East Croydon, which the LBSCR treated as a separate station named New Croydon. The South Eastern Railway (SER) was excluded from this station, which ran exclusively LBSCR services to London at fares cheaper than those the SER offered from the original station. In 1864, the LBSCR obtained authorisation to construct a -mile long branch line into the heart of the town centre near Katharine Street, where Croydon Central station was built. The line opened in 1868 but enjoyed little success and closed in 1871, only to reopen in 1886 under pressure from the Town Council before finally closing in 1890. The station was subsequently demolished and replaced by the Town Hall. In 1897–98, East Croydon and New Croydon were merged into a single station with three island platforms, which remain today, but the two stations kept separate booking accounts until 1924.

The Croydon Canal ran for  from what is now West Croydon station. It travelled north largely along the course of the present railway line to New Cross Gate, where it joined the Grand Surrey Canal and went on into the River Thames. It opened in 1809 and had 28 locks. It had a strong competitor in the Surrey Iron Railway and was never a financial success. It sold out to the London & Croydon Railway in 1836. The lake at South Norwood is the former reservoir for the canal.

Croydon Airport on Purley Way was the main airport for London until it was superseded by Heathrow Airport and Gatwick Airport. It opened on 29 March 1920 by combining two smaller airfields used for defence in World War I. It developed into one of the great airports of the world during the 1920s and 1930s. It welcomed the world's pioneer aviators in its heyday. As aviation technology progressed and aircraft became larger and more numerous, it was recognised in 1952 that the airport would be too small to cope with increasing air traffic and its role was decreased.. The last scheduled flight departed on 30 September 1959. The air terminal, now known as Airport House adjoining Purley Way to the west of the town, has been restored and has a museum open one day a month. The name "Croydon Airport" is still used as a landmark and as a bus stop designation.

Notable people

 Peggy Ashcroft (1907–1991), actress, was born in Croydon, lived in George Street as a child and attended Croydon High School; honoured in the name of the Ashcroft Theatre, part of the Fairfield Halls
 Lionel Atwill (1885–1946), stage and screen actor, was born in Croydon
 Robert Barclay (1833–1876), an English Quaker historiographer
 Jon Benjamin (1964–), Chief Executive of the Board of Deputies of British Jews, born and grew up in Croydon
 Alex Brooker (1984–), Journalist, born in Croydon
 Raymond Chandler (1888–1959), American detective fiction writer, lived in Upper Norwood as a schoolboy
 Anne Clark (1960–), electronic music artist and poet, was born in Croydon
 Carlton Cole (1983–), English footballer, born in Croydon
 Kit Connor (2004–), Actor known for Rocketman and Heartstopper on Netflix, born and raised in Croydon
 Roger Ward Crosskey (1930–2017), entomologist, born in Croydon
 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930), Scottish-born fiction writer, lived at No. 12 Tennison Road, South Norwood and featured the area in some of his Sherlock Holmes detective stories
 Jane Drew (1911–1996), modernist architect, born in Thornton Heath and head girl at Croydon High School
 Havelock Ellis (1859–1939), sexologist, born in Croydon
 Paul Garelli (1924–2006), French Assyriologist, born in Croydon
 Ben Haenow (1985–), pop singer, winner of The X Factor (UK series 11), born in Croydon
 Roy Hodgson (1947–), Crystal Palace and former England manager, born and grew up in Croydon
 Tom Holland (1996–), actor in five Marvel Cinematic Universe films, educated at the BRIT School
 William Forster Lanchester, FRSE (1875–1953), zoologist, born and raised in Croydon
 Eden Kane (born Richard Graham Sarstedt) (1940–), singer and older brother of Peter and Robin Sarstedt
 Rachel Khoo (1980–), cook, editor-in-chief of online lifestyle magazine Khoollect, with her own BBC series
 George Knowland (1922–1945), Victoria Cross recipient, went to Elmwood Junior School
 Nish Kumar (1985–), comedian, born in Wandsworth and raised in Croydon
 D. H. Lawrence (1885–1930), novelist, lived at 12 Colworth Road, Addiscombe, 1908–1912 whilst a teacher at Davidson Road School
 David Lean (1908–1991), film director, born in Croydon
 Mike Leeder, Hong Kong based Casting Director and Film Producer, born and raised in Croydon. Worked at Allders of Croydon, before relocating to Hong Kong in 1989.
 Kirsty MacColl (1959–2000), singer and songwriter, born and grew up in Croydon
 David McAlmont (1967–), singer, songwriter, writer, historian; born at St Mary's Maternity Hospital, attended Broadmead Primary
 Ralph McTell (1944–), musician, composer of "Streets of London", was brought up in Croydon
 Katie Melua (1984–), musician, singer and songwriter, attended the BRIT School
 Kate Moss (1974–), model, attended Riddlesdown High School
 Malcolm Muggeridge (1903–1990), author and media personality, the son of H. T. Muggeridge, a prominent Croydon Labour councillor, and taught at John Ruskin Central School in the 1920s
 Lucy Porter (1973–), comedian, born in Croydon
 Jason Puncheon (1986–), professional footballer playing in midfield for Pafos FC (Cyprus)
 Peter Sarstedt (1941–2017), singer, winner of Ivor Novello Award, lived in Croydon as a teenager
 Robin Sarstedt (1944–), singer and younger brother of Peter
 Captain Sensible (born Raymond Burns) (1954–), guitarist with The Damned, attended school in South Norwood
 Ashraf Sinclair (1979–2020), Malaysian actor, born in Croydon
 Emile Smith Rowe (2000–), professional football player, born in Thornton Heath before relocating to North London
 Dan Stevens (1982–), actor, born in Croydon
 Stormzy (1993–) UK grime rapper, born in Croydon
 Aaron Wan-Bissaka (1997–), English footballer, born in Croydon
 Algy Ward (born Alaisdair Terry Mackie Ward) (1959–2023), bass guitarist and musician with The Saints, The Damned, and Tank, born in Croydon
 Amy Winehouse (1983–2011), singer, attended the BRIT School
 Edward Woodward (1930–2009), actor, born and for many years lived in Croydon
 Wilfried Zaha (1992–), professional football player, grew up in Thornton Heath and attended Selsdon High School

.

Education

The town is home to Croydon College, with its main site on Park Lane and College Road near East Croydon station. It has over 13,000 students attending one of its three sub-colleges. The sub-colleges were created in 2007. The three sub-colleges are the Croydon Sixth Form College, Croydon Skills and Enterprise College and the Croydon Higher Education College. The Higher Education College offers university-level education in a range of subjects from Law through to Fine Art. Croydon Skills and Enterprise College delivers training and education opportunities.

The town has five fee-paying schools, three of which are part of the Whitgift Foundation. Two are boys' schools (though Trinity School has a co-educational sixth form): Whitgift School was situated near the Almshouses until 1931 when it moved to its current site in Haling Park in South Croydon, the Middle School (renamed Trinity School of John Whitgift in 1954) remained on the site until 1965 when it moved to Shirley Park. A direct grant grammar school until 1968, it is now a member of the Headmasters' Conference. Old Palace School, an independent girls' school situated in the old Summer Palace of the Archbishops of Canterbury, joined the Whitgift Foundation group of schools in 1993. Croham Hurst School, an independent girls' school in South Croydon, became part of Old Palace in 2007 and its old buildings are now used as the Old Palace junior school. The site of the old Whitgift grammar school is now the Whitgift shopping centre whose freehold is owned by the Whitgift Foundation.

Croydon is also home to three single-sex Catholic state schools. The formerly independent John Fisher School in Purley has not charged fees since the late 1970s, but during the 1990s was selective, choosing boys via exams, interviews, tests, previous school reports and written statements. The school ended its selection policy in 1999, and now accepts pupils under a points system, which favours those who have high mass attendance and whose families are most involved in the Catholic Church. Coloma Convent Girls' School is one of England's Catholic girls' schools: formerly a grammar school, it has now, like John Fisher, adopted points-based admission criteria. St. Joseph's College, on Beulah Hill in Upper Norwood, is a boys' school with a mixed sixth form.

Croydon High School for Girls is an independent girls' school in Selsdon, and a member of the Girls' Day School Trust. The Japanese Saturday School of London, a weekend Japanese programme, uses Croydon High School as its Croydon Campus (クロイドン校舎 Kuroidon Kōsha).

Royal Russell School is a co-educational independent boarding and day school in South Croydon and is a member of the Headmasters' Conference.

References

Further reading

External links

London Borough of Croydon
Open directory project

Areas of London
Districts of the London Borough of Croydon
History of the London Borough of Croydon
Metropolitan centres of London
Market towns in London

Croydon


An Poa koksuensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Vitaliǐ Petrovich Goloskokov. An Poa koksuensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Poa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Poa

Poa koksuensis


Svijet

Književna djela

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

 Nobelova nagrada za književnost:

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Književna djela

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

 3. siječnja – Ivo Brešan, hrvatski dramski pisac, prozaist, slavist i scenarist (* 1936.)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Književnost u 2017.


Whistleblower – In gefährlicher Mission (Originaltitel: The Whistleblower) ist ein kanadisch-deutsches Kriegsdrama aus dem Jahr 2010 von Larysa Kondracki, mit Rachel Weisz in der Hauptrolle. Der Film handelt von einem Einsatz der US-Polizistin Kathryn Bolkovac in den späten 1990er Jahren im Nachkriegs-Bosnien. Der Film feierte am 13. September 2010 Premiere auf dem Toronto International Film Festival.

Handlung
Zwei junge Mädchen aus der Ukraine werden von ihren eigenen Familien an einen Menschenhändlerring verkauft, der sie nach Bosnien schleust. Dort werden sie psychisch gebrochen und werden in ein Lokal verschleppt, wo sie als Kellnerinnen und Prostituierte arbeiten müssen. Sie werden sexuell missbraucht, physisch und psychisch unterdrückt. Die US-amerikanische Polizistin Kathryn Bolkovac, die in einem Auslandseinsatz für eine internationale Organisation ist, deckt während ihrer Tätigkeit illegale Machenschaften im Bereich Frauenhandel auf. Sie hat die Aufgabe, die örtliche Polizei bei ihrer Arbeit zu unterstützen. Dabei entdeckt sie, dass Mitglieder von Organisationen, die zur Friedenssicherung vor Ort sind, selber in diese brutalen Geschäfte verwickelt sind. Über undichte Kanäle gelangen Informationen über die Ermittlungen der jungen Polizistin bis in leitende Stellen der UN-Organisation, die anscheinend ihrerseits vom Frauenhandel profitieren. So wird Kathryn Bolkovac ihres Amtes enthoben und muss das Land verlassen. Sie kann noch Beweismaterial mitnehmen, um den Skandal aufzudecken.

Produktion
The Whistleblower wurde von den beiden Filmproduktionsgesellschaften Sunrise Films und Barry Films hergestellt.
Die Dreharbeiten begannen im Oktober 2009. Für die Anfangsszenen und die UN-Büros wurde das Neue Rathaus von Toronto, Ontario genutzt, Außenaufnahmen wurden überwiegend in Bukarest (Rumänien) gedreht, und die weiteren Aufnahmen entstanden in den MediaPro Studios in Bukarest.

Rachel Weisz bekam bereits 2005 das Drehbuch, konnte sich aber wegen ihrer Schwangerschaft nicht entschließen, die Rolle der toughen Polizistin Bolkovac zu spielen, bis sie sich 2009 erneut damit befasste und der Film in die Produktion gehen konnte.

Synchronisation

Veröffentlichung

Filmfestivals
The Whistleblower wurde bei verschiedenen Filmfestivals vorgestellt. In den USA geschah dies auf dem Palm Springs International Film Festival (8. Januar 2011), Santa Barbara Film Festival (28. Januar), Portland International Film Festival (18. Februar), Miami International Film Festival (8. März), San Francisco International Film Festival (26. April) und auf dem Boston Independent Film Festival (3. Mai 2011). In Hongkong wurde der Film auf dem Summer International Film Festival am 13. August 2011 vorgestellt. In Deutschland wurde The Whistleblower am 5. Oktober 2011 beim Filmfest Hamburg gezeigt. In den Niederlanden wurde der kanadisch-deutsche Produktion am 31. Oktober beim Thrillerfestival Zoetermeer und am 2. November 2011 beim Filmfestival Amsterdam Film Week vorgestellt.

Kino
In Dänemark startete The Whistleblower am 23. Juni 2011. In Kanada und den USA (zuvor eingeschränkt am 5. August) lief der Film am 12. August an, zwei Wochen später in Mexiko (26. August). Zwei Tage darauf kam der Film auch in Hongkong in die Kinos (28. August). Im September startet der Film in Argentinien (1. September), Indien (21. September) und in der deutschen Schweiz am 29. September 2011. In den Niederlanden erschien der Thriller am 10. November, tags darauf in Uruguay und ab dem 17. November in Israel. In Indonesien erschien The Whistleblower am 14. Dezember 2011 in den Kinos und in Peru am 19. Januar 2012.

DVD
In den folgenden Ländern wurde der Film Direct-to-DVD veröffentlicht. Dabei erschien The Whistleblower in Brasilien am 10. August, in Italien am 16. November und in Schweden am 19. Oktober 2011. Am 6. Januar 2012 erschien die DVD in Japan.

Rezeption

Kritiken

Auszeichnungen
 2010: Whistler Film Festival
 Publikumspreis für die Beste Geschichte
 Publikumspreis für den Bester Film
 2011: Palm Springs International Film Festival
 Publikumspreis für die Beste Geschichte
 2011: Seattle International Film Festival
 Golden Space Needle Award für Larysa Kondracki als Beste Regisseurin

Andere Nachwirkungen
Der Film basiert auf wahren Begebenheiten, sowohl bei Kathryn Bolkovac als auch bei Madeleine Rees handelt es sich um reale Personen. Nach einer Filmvorführung von The Whistleblower eröffnete UN-Generalsekretär Ban Ki-moon eine Podiumsdiskussion zum Thema sexuelle Ausbeutung und sexuellen Missbrauch in Konflikt- und Post-Konflikt-Situationen. Die Filmemacher und leitende UN-Beamte sprachen die im Film aufgeworfenen Themen, einschließlich Menschenhandel und Zwangsprostitution an, und forderten die Organisation auf die Bemühungen um den Kampf gegen die sexuelle Ausbeutung von Frauen und Kindern zu verstärken.

Weblinks

 Offizielle Website (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 2010
Kanadischer Film
Deutscher Film
Jugoslawienkriege im Film
Mafiafilm
Filmdrama
Thriller
Kriegsfilm

Whistleblower – In gefährlicher Mission


Psikoterapi, bireylerin duygusal ve davranışsal sorunlarının çözümünü, ruh sağlıklarının geliştirilmesi ve korunmasını amaçlayan tekniklerin genel adı.  Psikoterapi her zaman sadece tek tek bireyleri konu almaz, zaman zaman incelenen tüm bir ailenin etkileşimsel meseleleri zaman zamansa incelenen bir çiftin birbiriyle olan ilişkisindeki bazı sorunların ruh sağlığı temelindeki kökleri olabilir. Ruh-zihin sağlığına dair sorunların psikolojik, sosyolojik veya somatik boyutları olabilir.

Kelime anlamı
Psikoterapi, psiko () ve terapi () sözcüklerinden oluşur. Psukhē, ruh ve zihin; therapeia ise iyileştirme anlamına gelmektedir.

Tedavi ve süreç hakkında
Psikoterapi, daha olgun ve uygun bir ruhsal denge sağlamak amacı doğrultusunda zihinsel ve duygusal bozukluk gösteren hastalarla düşünce ve duygu alışverişi kurularak yürütülen bir tedavi bilim ve sanatıdır. Türkiye'de Psikiyatristler ve Klinik Psikologlar psikoterapi yaparlar. Genel bir başlık altında söylemek gerekirse, duygusal çatışmaları çözümleyen, bu çatışmalardan doğan kaygı ve gerginlikleri, çökkünlükleri azaltan, ruhsal uyum düzeyini artıran, kişilerarası ilişkileri daha olgunlaştıran tüm teknik ve yöntemlere psikoterapi denebilir.

Psikoterapi sürecinde terapist ile danışan arasında kurulan ilişki temel alınarak danışanın yaşadığı sorunlar üzerinde çalışılır. Sadece psikolojik rahatsızlık yaşayan kişiler değil, hayatının herhangi bir alanında tıkanıklık yaşadığını hisseden ve yaşamını daha anlamlı bir şekilde sürdürmek isteyen herkes psikoterapi sürecine girebilir. Psikoterapi, terapistin danışan adına neyin doğru olduğuna karar vermesi ya da nasıl değişeceğini söylemesi değildir. Psikoterapist, kendi kuramsal bilgilerini ve uygulama becerilerini kullanarak; danışanın kendisini tanıması, hayatına dair farkındalıklar yaşaması, daha sağlıklı ilişkiler kurması ve yeni çözüm yolları geliştirebilmesi için danışana ışık tutar.

Psikoterapi türleri

Bütüncül Psikoterapi
Tüm psikoterapi tekniklerinin hangi hastaya ne zaman uygulanacağını ve bütünü izah etmeye yönelik bu terapi yöntemi farklı teknikleri entegre etmeyi sağlar. Esneklik sağlayan bu model evrensel uygulamalar için de uygundur ve pratiktir.

Psikodinamik Psikoterapiler
Psikodinamik psikoterapiler, yapıtaşı olarak Freud'un klasik Dürtü Kuramı ve sonrasında da, Ego Psikolojisi, Nesne İlişkileri Kuramı, Kendilik Psikolojisi, Masterson Yaklaşımı gibi diğer psikodinamik yaklaşımlarla devam etmiştir. Bu yaklaşımlar; psikopatolojilerin temelinde kişinin 0-6 yaş arasındaki dönemde yaşadıklarının olduğunu savunur ve serbest çağrışım ve rüyaların yorumlanması başta olmak üzere bunları irdeler ve temelde hepsi bilinçdışı kavramına uygulamalarının teorik temelinde yer verir.

0-6 yaş döneminde odaklandıkları alt dönem yaklaşımlara ve temel aldıkları psikodinamik kuramına göre değişmektedir.

Bilişsel Psikoterapi
Bilginin işlenmesi sürecinde; temel kabullerdeki hatalardan kaynaklanan işlevi olmayan şematik kavramlar, zamanla olumsuz otomatik düşüncelere dönüşür. Sonuçta ortaya çıkan düşünsel, duygulanım ve davranış bozukluklarının sağıtımı bilişsel psikoterapinin alanına girmektedir. Bilişsel (Kognitif) terapi olarak da adlandırılmaktadır. Şema terapisi, düşünsel duygulanımcı davranış terapisi de bilişsel terapiden kaynaklanmıştır

Davranışçı Psikoterapi
Davranışta otomatik modelleme gibi öğrenmeler sonucunda ortaya çıkan bozukluklarda; duyarsızlaştırma, ödüllendirme gibi çeşitli teknikler yoluyla davranış değişikliği ya da davranışın frekansında azalma gibi sonuçlar sağlamaya yönelik terapilerdir.

Bilişsel - Davranışçı Psikoterapiler
Klinik uygulamalar ve gözlemler psikoterapi süreci içinde, bilişsel-davranışçı yöntemlerin bir arada kullanılmasının etkin sonuçlar ortaya çıkarttığını görgül olarak göstermektedir. Günümüzde sıklıkla bu iki yöntem bir arada kullanılmaktadır.

Varoluşçu Psikoterapi
Varoluşçu Psikoterapi de önemli olan şimdi ve burada kavramlarıdır. Varoluşçular varolma yolunda kişinin en çok üzerinde durduğu 5 soruyu temel alarak bunlar yoluyla psikoterapiyi yapılandırmışlardır. Yaklaşımın öncüsü Viktor E. Frankldır ve bu yaklaşımın temellerinden yola çıkarak logoterapiyi geliştirmiştir.

Sistemik Psikoterapi
Sistemik Psikoterapi Palo Alto'dan Paul Watzlawick ve arkadaşlarının 1970'lerde geliştirdiği, matematik sistem kuramları, iletişim kuramları ve aile dizin çalışmalarının temelini olşturduğu, 10-15 seans süreli ve bir ekip tarafından uygulanan psikoterapi yöntemidir.

Gestalt Psikoterapi Yaklaşımı
1940'lı yıllarda Fritz Perls, Laura Perls ve Paul Goodman tarafından geliştirilmiş bir psikoterapi yaklaşımıdır. Geştalt kelimesi Almanca'da kendine özgü bir bütünlüğü olan şekil, örüntü anlamına gelmektedir. Bu yaklaşım, her bireyin, doğuştan var olan potansiyellerini açığa çıkarabilme dürtüsüne sahip olduğu görüşünü benimser. Bireyin kendi özelliklerini ve potansiyelini fark edip, buna sahip çıkabilmesini ve kendisini gerçekleştirmesini amaçlar.

Narrative Terapi

Narrative Terapi Avustralyalı aile terapisti Michael White ve Yeni Zelandalı aile terapisti David Epson tarafından geliştirilmiş bir post-modern psikoterapi yaklaşımıdır. Odak noktası, bireylerin yapısal özelliklerine değil yaşamlarını nasıl anlamlandırıp, yorumladıklarıdır.

Oyun Terapisi

Oyun Terapisi, çocukların psikolojik ihtiyaçlarına ve psikolojik sorunlarına yönelik bir psikoterapi yöntemidir. Çocukların oyun üzerinden daha güvenli ve daha işlevsel iletişim kurabildikleri ve bu yolla kaygı, okul fobisi, travma, hiperaktivite, dikkat eksikliği, alt ıslatma, kaka tutma, gece terörü gibi birçok sorun için sağaltıcı olduğu hipotezi üzerine kuruludur.

Sanal Gerçeklik Terapisi
Sanal gerçeklik cihazları psikoterapide, başlıca özgül fobiler olmak üzere pek çok rahatsızlığın tedavisinde kullanılmaktadır. Sanal Gerçeklik Terapisi (SGT) ile danışanların uyarıcıya duyarsızlaşması hedeflenir. Bilgisayar ortamında hazırlanan yapay bir ortam aracılığıyla, denetimli bir yüzleşme sağlayan sanal gerçeklik terapileri, birçok rahatsızlığın ve fobilerin tedavisinde başarı sağlamıştır. SGT, bir terapist eşliğinde sistematik bir şekilde ilerler.

Psikoterapi için önerilen farklı tanımlar
Sigmund Freud ve Josef Breuer'in hastalarından biri olan Bertha Pappenheim (Anna O. anonim adıyla da anılır), kendisine uygulanan tedaviye "talking cure" yani konuşma terapisi demiştir. Bu tanım daha sonraları Freud tarafından da kullanılmıştır.

Avrupa Psikoterapi Derneği ve Dünya Psikoterapi Derneklerinin ortak psikoterapi tanımının Türkçe çevirisi şöyledir:

"Psikoterapi uygulaması, davranış bozuklukları ve rahatsızlık durumlarının, ya da psikososyal, ayrıca psikosomatik etkenler ve nedenlerle ilişkili geniş kişilik gelişimi gereksinimlerinin, bilimsel psikoterapik yöntemler ile, bir veya daha fazla tedavi olan kişilere, bir ya da daha fazla terapist ile, var olan bulguların hafifletilmesi ya da ortadan kaldırılması, bozuk davranış şekilleri ve tutumlarının değiştirilmesi ve tedavi edilen bireyin olgunlaşma, büyüme, aklıselimlik ve iyilik süreçlerinin desteklemek gayesi ile, genel ve özel eğitimlerine dayanarak geniş kapsamlı, amaçlı ve planlı tedavi ya da terepâtik müdahalesidir."

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Psikoterapinin tarihi
 Psikodrama
 Psikanaliz

Psikoterapi


An Najas browniana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Alfred Barton Rendle. An Najas browniana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Najas, ngan familia nga Hydrocharitaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Najas

Najas browniana


Miosis er et begreb med forskellige definitioner, som generelt omfatter konstriktion af pupillen. Miosis betyder desuden at en persons pupil bliver mindre end normalt. Den modsatte tilstand, mydriasis, er dilatation af pupillen.

Årsager
Her er nogle eksempler.

Sygdomme
 Horner syndrom
 Arvelige lidelser

Stoffer
 Opioider som f.eks. fentanyl, morfin, heroin samt metadon (vigtig undtagelse er demerol/pethidin)
 Produkter der indeholder nikotin, såsom cigaretter, tyggetobak eller tyggegummi.

Symptomer
Stofmisbrug

Miosis


Aristippos, MÖ 435-356 yılları arasında yaşamış olan Yunan düşünür. Sokrates'in öğrencisi olan Aristippos, Kirene okulunun kurucusu olarak bilinir. Eserlerinden hiçbiri günümüze ulaşmamış olan filozof, acıdan kaçınan ve akla ya da ölçülülüğe dayalı doğrudan hazzı temele alan bir ahlak öğretisi geliştirmiştir. Kynikler'in 'dünyaya sırtını dönen bilgin'ine karşı Aristippos, 'dünyadan akıllıca tat almayı bilen bilgin' görüşünü temsil eder.

O'na göre haz veren şey "iyi", haz vermeyen "kötü"dür. İnsan sadece kendi yaşadığı hazzı bilebilir. Başkalarının hazzını bilemez. Bu nedenle evrensel ahlak yasası yoktur.

Kaynakça

MÖ 435 doğumlular
MÖ 386 yılında ölenler

MÖ 4. yüzyılda Yunanlar
Antik Yunan filozoflar

Sirenayka

Sokrates'in öğrencileri

Aristippos


North Point is a mixed-use urban area in the Eastern District of Hong Kong. Located in the northeastern part of Hong Kong Island, the area is named after a cape between Causeway Bay and Tsat Tsz Mui that projects toward Kowloon Bay.

Location
North Point is bounded by Oil Street () to the west and by Tin Chiu Street () to the east, by Victoria Harbour to the north and Braemar Hill to the southeast. Causeway Bay neighbourhood lies west of North Point, while the Tsat Tsz Mui is east of North Point.

History

Parts of North Point have been inhabited since before the British arrived in the mid-19th century. The Metropole Hotel was built in 1899 and was used until 1906. In 1919, the Hongkong Electric Company started operation of the territory's second power station at North Point. In the 1920s, Ming Yuen Amusement Park became a popular entertainment venues on the Island. During the 1930s, the beaches of North Point became one of the most popular places for holding swimming gala in Hong Kong. In 1938, the North Point Refugee Camp was built to accommodate the influx of refugees from the Mainland. The camp comprised 26 huts. Access to the camp was via Kam Hong Road and Marble Road. During World War II, the camp was renamed the North Point Camp, and used as a prisoner of war camp for captured Canadian soldiers during the Japanese occupation.

During the Chinese Civil War, a large number of the rich and middle class from Shanghai fled to Hong Kong to escape the turmoil of war, many of whom settled in North Point. In 1950, North Point became known as "Little Shanghai", since in the minds of many, it has already become the replacement for the surrendered Shanghai in China. The first wave of emigrants introduced Shanghai-style restaurants, beauty parlours and barbershops. They also learned Cantonese and intermarried with people of other dialect groups. During the 1950s, North Point was the premiere place of residence for these emigrants, leading to a massive population boom; by the end of 1960, North Point was listed as the most densely populated place on earth by the Guinness Book of Records. The first school in Hong Kong to use Mandarin as the main medium of instruction, Kiangsu and Chekiang Primary School, was founded in 1953 in North Point by these early Shanghainese immigrants. Shanghai at the time was heavily associated with leftist movements; leftist-supported businesses in North Point, such as the Sunbeam Theatre which showcases Chinese Opera, are a legacy of their influence.

The second group that moved to North Point were the Hokkien Fujianese, who were mostly displaced by political events in China but then soon mostly moved to countries in Southeast Asia, such as the Philippines and Indonesia. Small Indonesian specialist grocery shops selling coffee, coconuts, and bumbu are some of the remaining traces of their identity. The area became known as "Little Fujian". Grocery shops on Chun Yeung Street offer a variety of traditional Fujianese foods, such as "misua", "tokwa", "tikoy", "lumpia" & "green bean cake", all of which are also staples of Chinese Filipino cuisine in the Philippines.

Culture
After Cantonese, Hokkien Min Nan is the most widely spoken language in North Point. Many Min Nan associations () are based in North Point to bring people from the same towns or villages together. North Point is also home to several Min Nan-speaking churches serving the Min Nan Christians.

Today, North Point comprises a mix of new luxury developments and older Chinese buildings.

Economy
The head office of Sino United Publishing is in the S U P Tower () in North Point.

Housing

City Garden, built from 1983 to 1986, is a private housing estate consisting of 14 blocks, each 28 storeys tall. Part of the site was occupied North Point Power Station before 1983.

North Point Estate, which stood next to the North Point Ferry Pier, was demolished in 2003.

Education
There are three government primary schools in North Point. Located at 888 King's Road, the North Point Government Primary School (NPGPS) opened in 1954. The North Point Island Place Primary and Kindergarten School is located on Tanner Road and is in the Island Place Estate. The North Point Government Primary School (Cloud View Road) abbreviated as NPCVR, also opened in 1954, is located at 22 Cloud View Road. All three schools are whole-day, co-ed and have nominated secondary school status with Shau Kei Wan GSS, Shau Kei Wan East GSS and Clementi Secondary School.

The Chinese International School is located on Hau Yuen Path in Braemar Hill and is a private, co-educational school providing education to students from Reception to Year 13. Established in 1983, the school has a diverse student body with over 30 nationalities represented. Secondary school students pursue the IB Primary Years Programme before moving on to the IB Diploma.

North Point is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 14. Within the school net are multiple aided schools (operated independently but funded with government money) and North Point Government Primary School.

 Former schools
 Java Road Government Primary School
 The Hong Kong Japanese School's Secondary Section was formerly on Braemar Hill in North Point. In April 2018 the junior high school moved to the Happy Valley campus.

Transport

MTR
North Point is served by the Island line and the Tseung Kwan O line of the MTR rapid transit railway system. North Point station is the terminus of the Tseung Kwan O line.

Tramway
North Point is also served by Hong Kong Tramways, of which it is one of the seven terminal points.

Bus
Kowloon Motor Bus, New World First Bus and Citybus have routes through North Point.

Ferry
Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry services connect North Point Ferry Pier to various places in Hong Kong, including Hung Hom, Kowloon City, and Kwun Tong. During the annual Tin Hau Festival, special ferries operate from North Point Ferry Pier to Joss House Bay. North Point is also served by public light buses.

Thoroughfares
There is one highway, Island Eastern Corridor, serving North Point; it runs along the waterfront of the area.

Streets in North Point include:

 Boat Street
 Cheung Hong Street
 Ching Wah Street
 Chun Yeung Street
 City Garden Road
 Comfort Terrace
 Electric Road
 Fort Street
 Fortress Hill Road
 Hei Wo Street
 Java Road
 Kam Hong Street
 Kam Ping Street
 Kin Wah Street
 King's Road (partially)
 Marble Road
 Ming Yuen Western Street
 North Point Estate Lane
 North Point Road
 North View Street
 Oil Street
 Peacock Road
 Power Street
 Shu Kuk Street
 Tanner Road
 Tin Chiu Street
 Tin Chong Street
 Tin Hau Temple Road () (partially)
 Tong Shui Road
 Tsat Tsz Mui Road
 Wharf Road ()
 Yuet Tuen Street

See also
 List of places in Hong Kong
 State Theatre (Hong Kong)
 Fujianese organized crime

References

External links

 History of North Point, in Heritage Impact Assessment on the Former Clubhouse of Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club at 12 Oil Street Vol 1 Part 1, pp. 9–70
 Sun Ferry
 Fortune Ferry

Eastern District, Hong Kong

North Point


El Ferial es un centro comercial situado en la localidad madrileña de Parla, inaugurado en 1995. Cuenta con una superficie de 30.000 m² construidos entre ellos más de 60 locales comerciales, y 1700 plazas de aparcamiento gratuitas.

Inauguración
Se inauguró en 1995, destacando entre sus comercios el hipermercado Continente, el restaurante McDonald y los cines Yelmo de 8 salas, entre otros. Cuenta con tres accesos al centro, al lado del centro comercial se sitúa el recinto ferial de Parla, un espacio para celebrar distintos eventos, por el cual el centro comercial se bautizo con el mismo nombre.

Evolución
Con los años han pasado diversos negocios, unos todavía existentes desde sus inicios que han ido evolucionando y otros nuevos, así como el hipermercado paso a denominarse Carrefour, el McDonald desapareció y los cines cerraron unos años, hasta 2019 que fueron adquiridos por otra empresa y actualmente se encuentran en la última fase de remodelación.  El 14 de junio de 2019 Spazio Cines inauguró siete salas de cines

Proyecto de ampliación
En 2012 se planificó una ampliación del centro comercial, cogiendo los terrenos del recinto ferial hasta la plaza de toros, con un incremento de su superficie tres veces mayor, que en la actualidad. Aunque todavía está pendiente de desarrollar el proyecto en extensión de los terrenos, pues se encuentra paralizado, ya que primero tenía que llegar una primera fase, que era la remodelación del centro comercial, esta fase llegaría por el veinte aniversario dándole una nueva imagen al centro comercial, pues se cambiaria el suelo y cartelería. Después de esto llegaría una segunda fase de reorganización del centro comercial, añadiendo los nuevos cines en 2019 y a la espera de retomar el proyecto de ampliación.

Accesos
En centro cuenta, con paradas para Taxi y paradas de autobús.

Por carretera
 A-42 salida 19 por M-408 dirección Pinto.
 A-4 salida 22 por M-506 dirección Fuenlabrada desvió a Parla por M-408.

En Cercanías y autobús
Línea C-4, Estación de Parla, transbordo en autobús línea C1 y C2 Parla o 471 Humanes Pinto.

Tranvía de Parla ML4
Estación más cercana parada plaza de Toros.

Referencias

El Ferial
El Ferial

El Ferial


Agrilus cupreonitens é uma espécie de escaravelho perfurador de madeira metálico da família Buprestidae. É conhecida a sua existência na América Central e América do Norte.

Referências

cupreonitens
Coleópteros descritos em 1928

Agrilus cupreonitens


Die Portugal International 1991 fanden vom 1. bis zum 2. Juni 1991 statt. Es war die 26. Auflage dieser internationalen Titelkämpfe von Portugal im Badminton.

Finalergebnisse

Weblinks
 http://tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=434B6405-13A0-4985-BCA6-98CD82F36BBA

1991
Badminton 1991

Portugal International 1991


العرامية هي قرية تابعة لبلدة العمران بمنطقة الأحساء، في المنطقة الشرقية في المملكة العربية السعودية. تحتضنها مزارع النخيل وتعود إلى 350 عاما.

الموقع
قرية العرامية تبعد عن مدينة الهفوف بحوالي 17 كيلو مترا شرقاً وتبعد عن يبرين 291 كم، وتبعد عن العاصمة الرياض مسافةَ 342 كيلومترًا. تحدها من الغرب قرية الأسلة وقرية الرمل، ومن الشرق قرية الصبايخ، ومن الشمال قرية أبو ثور، ومن الجنوب مزارع.

السكان
عدد سكانها التقريبي 1000 نسمة موزعين علي تقريبا 90 منزل، وغالب نشاطهم الاقتصادي في الزراعة.

المرافق
بها مدارس ابتدائية ومتوسطة وثانوية للبنين والبنات مثل مدرسة العرامية الثانوية للبنات بقرية العرامية و مدرسة العرامية الثانوية للبنين و مدرسة همام بن الحارث المتوسطه، والطريق المؤدي إليها مزفلت، وأرضها منبسطة، وبها حوالي 60 منزلاً، وتغذيها شبكات مياه وكهرباء حكومية. وكذلك تضم عدة مساجد واحد منها يبلغ عمره أكثر من 250 عاماً مثل مسجد الصبايخ، وحسينية شيعية، ومجموعة من المطاعم والمرافق العامة.

المراجع

قرى المنطقة الشرقية
قرى محافظة الأحساء

العرامية


Kalchstraße 25 ist ein unter Denkmalschutz stehendes ehemaliges Bürgerhaus im oberschwäbischen Memmingen. Es umfasst die Hausnummern 25, 25a und 25b. Das Haus steht in der Stauferstadt ungefähr in der Mitte der Kalchstraße auf der Nordseite.

Das dreigeschossige Giebelhaus besitzt fünf Achsen und stammt im Wesentlichen aus dem 16. Jahrhundert. Die Flügel der stichbogigen, mittig in der Südseite befindlichen Haustür sind schlicht gefeldert und stammen aus der Zeit um 1800.

Das Erdgeschoss des Hauses wird von zwei Gastronomiebetrieben genutzt, die oberen Stockwerke sind bewohnt.

Literatur

Weblinks

 Das Denkmal beim bayerischen Landesamt für Denkmalpflege

Baudenkmal in Memmingen
Memmingen
Memmingen
Bauwerk in Memmingen

Kalchstraße 25


Viviana Patricia Bonilla Salcedo (nascida em 3 de outubro de 1983) é uma advogada e política equatoriana. Foi deputada nacional e primeira vice-presidente da Assembleia Nacional do Equador.

Ela foi destituída da Assembleia Nacional em setembro de 2020 após um escândalo de corrupção conhecido como Caso Sobornos que envolveu o presidente, Rafael Correa, e o vice-presidente, Jorge Glas.

Mulheres do Equador na política
Advogados do Equador

Viviana Bonilla


بعد وفاة بطليموس التاسع لم يكن له وريث للملك ؛ فتولت حكم مصر زوجته الثالثة برنيقة. وعرف أن هناك ابنا للملك الأسبق (بطليموس الثامن) وهو مقيم بروما فعاد إلى مصر وتولى الحكم عام 107 ولقب باسم الإسكندر الأول وتوفي عام 88 ق.م

مراجع

أشخاص من الإسكندرية
حكام القرن 1 ق م في إفريقيا
حكام القرن 2 ق م في إفريقيا
فراعنة البطالمة
مصريون في القرن 1 ق م
مصريون في القرن 2 ق م
مواليد القرن 2 ق م
وفيات 88 ق م
يونانيون في القرن 1 ق م

بطليموس العاشر


Bazilije Trifun Božičković (Kloštar Vojakovački, 11. veljače 1719. – Gornji Tkalec, 9. svibnja 1785.) posljednji je u nizu marčanskih biskupa i prvi križevački grkokatolički biskup.

Božičković je rođen u Kloštru Vojakovačkom, kod Križevaca 1719. godine. Tada se to mjesto zvalo Batinjani. Za rane mladosti stupio je u samostan Marču. Njegov brat Porfirije bio je župnik u Žumberku. Nakon što je Marča spaljena, pošao je u Zagreb i tamo je nastavio svoje naukovanje. U Rimu, kao pitomac Kolegija sv. Atanazija, studirao je na sveučilištu Kongregacije de propaganda fide, filozofiju i teologiju. Po završetku studija bio je profesor u Dragomilu, u Galiciji, i u Lavovu. Nakon toga je sedam godina u Rimu vršio službu prokuratora Reda sv. Bazilija Velikog.

Nakon Palkovićeve smrti, carica Marija Terezija imenovala ga je svidničkim biskupom i 27. ožujka 1759. naložila da se instalira. Od Svete Stolice dobio je naslov dioklecijanopolitanski, apostolski vikar Vlaha ili Grka koji borave u Zagrebačkoj biskupiji, u pokrajinama i kraljevinama Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji. Papa Klement XIII. dao mu je nakon posvete opsežne facultates, u 22. točke. Budući da je sjemenište ponovno stradalo od požara, on je iz temelja sagradio veliku novu zgradu, od dva kata. Gradnja je trajala od 1768. do 1774. godine. Za vrijeme Božičkovića namjesto Marčanske biskupije osnovana je 17. lipnja 1777., nova – Križevačka eparhija, sa sjedištem u Križevcima. Prvim njezinim biskupom bio je sam Božičković. Umro je 1785., u Gornjem Tkalcu, gdje je u kapeli i pokopan.

Posmrtni ostatci biskupa Božičkovića preneseni su 1985. iz kapele u Gornjem Tkalcu u grkokatoličku katedralu u Križevcima.

U poštanskom uredu Križevci dana 11. veljače 2019. u uporabi je bio prigodni poštanski žig na spomen 300. obljetnice rođenja biskupa Bazilija Božičkovića. Prigodni žig i prigodnu omotnicu oblikovali su Stjepan Zdenko Brezarić i Vladimir Palošika.

Izvori

Hrvatski grkokatolički biskupi
Životopisi, Križevci

Bazilije Božičković


Za druga značenja, pogledajte "Leleg (mitologija)".
Prema grčkoj mitologiji, Leleg (starogrčki Λέλεξ, G Λέλεγος) bio je jedan od prvih stanovnika Lakonije te je postao prvi kralj te pokrajine, koja se po njemu tada zvala Lelegija. Mit kaže da je Leleg rođen iz Zemlje.

Leleg je oženio nimfu Kleohariju, koja mu je rodila nekoliko sinova, uključujući Mileta i Polikaona. Neki Lelegovu ženu zove Peridija te postoji tradicija prema kojoj mu je ona rodila Mileta, Poliklona, Bomoloha i Terapnu. Druga tradicija kaže da je Leleg bio sin Spartusa te otac Amikle od Sparte.

Preko Mileta, Leleg je bio djed Eurota, koji je imao kćer Spartu. Ta se žena kasnije udala za Lakedemona, koji je nazvao grad Spartu po svojoj supruzi, ali je grad zvan i po njemu.

Junak Perzej bio je potomak Lelegov jer je Lelegova praunuka Sparta bila majka Euridike, supruge Akrizija, kralja Arga. Euridika je bila Danajina majka te Perzejeva baka.

U Sparti je postojao maleni hram posvećen Lelegu.

Izvori i bilješke

Mitološki Grci
Lakonska mitologija

Leleg


පංජංබි භාෂාවෙන් ෂිකි ලෙසින් හැඳින්වෙන, ෂික් ආගම යනු, {{#tag:ref|ෂික් ආගම (දේශීය වශයෙන් ෂිකි ලෙසින් හැඳින්වෙයි) සැදී ඇත්තේ ෂික් යන පදයෙන් වන අතර, එය පැමිණ ඇත්තේ "ගෝලයා" යන අරුත ඇති  වෙතින් හෝ,  "උපදේශනය" යන අරුත ඇති  යන සංස්කෘත මූලක පද වෙතිනි.  |group=සටහන}}  , 15වන සියවසෙහිදී ගුරු නානාක් විසින් ඉන්දියානු උපමහාද්වීපයේ  පංජාබ් ප්‍රදේශයේදී ඇරඹුනු සහ,  සහ අනුයාත  ෂික් ගුරුන් දහ දෙනෙක් තුලින් පැවැති (අවසන් ගුරු වූයේ ශුද්ධවූ ලියැවිලි ගුරු ග්‍රාන්ත් ෂහිබ්'')  ඒක දේව වාදී ආගමකි.

සටහන්

ආශ්‍රිත

ෂීක් ආගම


La rivière Case-Navire est un fleuve de  qui prend sa source sur les hauteurs de Schœlcher et se termine dans la mer au centre du bourg de Schœlcher (anciennement "Case-Navire").

On y trouve notamment les cascades de Didier, de l'usine d'embouteillage du même nom.

Références

Liens externes

Cours d'eau en Martinique

Rivière Case Navire


Radbod (o Redbad) (m. 719) fue un caudillo pagano de Frisia desde 680 hasta su muerte. Es considerado el último monarca independiente de los frisones antes de ser dominados por el Imperio franco.

Las fuentes históricas no concuerdan acerca de su rango, mientras en algunos textos se lo denomina «rey» (konungr), en otros, de origen franco, es designado como «duque», en este contexto caudillo, de los frisones.

Reinado
Su predecesor, y probablemente padre, Aldegisel (el equivalente en nórdico antiguo es Aðils) había recibido desde 678 al misionero cristiano Wilfrido de York, quien había iniciado la evangelización del territorio de Frisia;  con ello aceptaba también la influencia del reino de los francos.

En 689, Radbod fue derrotado por Pipino de Heristal en la batalla de Dorestad y obligado a ceder la Frisia occidental (Frisia Citerior, desde Scheldt a Vlie) a los francos.

Entre 690 y 692, Utrecht cayó en manos de Pipino de Heristal, lo que dio a los francos el control sobre las rutas de comercio del Rin hacia el mar del Norte. Algunas fuentes mencionan que, tras la derrota, Radbod se retiró en 697 a la isla de Heligoland, mientras que otras citan que fue en territorio de los actuales Países Bajos y que se conoce todavía como Frisia.

En aquel periodo había un arzobispado o diócesis de los frisones fundado por Willibrord, y se concertó un matrimonio entre Grimoaldo el Joven, primogénito de Pipino, y Thiadsvind, hija de Radbod, en 711.

Tras la muerte de Pipino en 714, Radbod tomó de nuevo la iniciativa. En 716 forzó a escapar a Willibrord y sus monjes y llegó hasta Colonia donde derrotó a Carlos Martel, hijo de Pipino, aunque finalmente Carlos sometió a los frisones. Radbod murió en 719, pero la lucha contra el poder de los francos se mantuvo con sus sucesores, en 725, 734 y 736.

Como ejemplo del poder que tenía Radbod hasta el final de sus días, las noticias sobre sus movimientos militares eran suficiente motivo para hacer tambalear a todo el Imperio Franco.

Religión
Durante el segundo viaje de San Bonifacio a Roma, Wulfram de Sens (o Vulfran), un monje de la Archidiócesis de Sens, intentó convertir a Radbod, pero sin éxito. La leyenda menciona que Radbod llegó casi a bautizarse, pero renunció cuando se le dijo que no encontraría a ninguno de sus ancestros en el Cielo tras su muerte, ya que, según sus propias palabras:

{{cita|(...) prefiero una eternidad en el Infierno con mis antepasados que en el Cielo con mis enemigos, (refiriéndose sobre todo a los francos).}}

Willibrord intentó de nuevo enviar una misión con apoyo carolingio a Frisia con el único propósito de evangelizar a los paganos que vivían allí con la esperanza que una vez convertidos al Cristianismo, los francos lograran el control sobre el puerto de Dorestad, un enclave que hasta aquel momento había sido imposible de conquistar.

 Cultura popular
En la ópera Lohengrin de Richard Wagner aparece "Radbod, caudillo de los frisones" como padre de Ortrud. Es posible que Wagner tuviese en el pensamiento a un histórico Radbod, aunque murió 150 años antes de que naciera Enrique I el Pajarero, otro personaje histórico de la obra que no pudo ser contemporáneo.

En la novela de Harry Harrison, El martillo y la cruz («The Hammer and the Cross»), Radbod es el fundador de El Camino («the Way»), un culto pagano organizado, creado para combatir a los misioneros cristianos.

 Véase también
 Gesta Normannorum Ducum''
 Anexo:Festividades y fechas remarcables de Ásatrú

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Gesta Normannorum ver Cap. 9

Historia de la provincia de Frisia

Radbod


Masters of the Universe é um futuro americano de fantasia e aventura dirigido e coescrito por Aaron e Adam Nee. Estrelado por Kyle Allen, este será o segundo filme baseado na linha de brinquedos da Mattel, depois do filme de 1987 de mesmo nome.

Masters of the Universe está agendado para ser lançado em 2024, pela Netflix.

Sinopse
Um órfão chamado Adam descobre que é um príncipe destinado a ser o salvador de uma terra distante e deve aprender rapidamente sobre seu poder e a importância de salvar seu verdadeiro lar de uma força do mal.

Elenco

Produção

Desenvolvimento
Um reboot de Masters of the Universe dirigido por John Woo e produzido pela Fox 2000 Pictures, foi anunciado em 2004. Mas o estúdio desistiu do filme em novembro de 2006.

Em 24 de maio de 2007, foi anunciado que a Warner Bros., Joel Silver e a Silver Pictures produziriam o filme, com um roteiro de Justin Marks.

Em 29 de janeiro de 2009, foi anunciado que John Stevenson dirigiria o filme, com o roteiro sendo reescrito por Evan Daugherty.

Em 23 de setembro de 2009, a Sony Pictures assumiu os direitos de produção do filme depois que a Mattel e o produtor Joel Silver não concordaram com a direção criativa do filme. A Sony e Todd Black, Jason Blumenthal e Steve Tisch, da Escape Artists, iriam começar a desenvolver o projeto do zero para a Columbia Pictures. Em abril de 2010, a Sony contratou os roteiristas Mike Finch e Alex Litvak para escreverem um novo roteiro.

No final de 2012, foi relatado que Jon M. Chu estava em negociações para dirigir o filme. O ator original de He-Man, Dolph Lundgren, deu uma entrevista ao IGN sobre um possível papel no filme como Rei Randor. Em 12 de outubro de 2012, Richard Wenk foi contratado para reescrever o roteiro do filme. Em 28 de março de 2013, Chu disse que o filme ainda estava no início do desenvolvimento e que seria uma história de origem. Em 7 de outubro, o The Hollywood Reporter informou que Terry Rossio escreveria o roteiro e que o filme seria ambientado em Eternia, com Chu não sendo mais o diretor.

Em 10 de janeiro de 2014, Schmoes Know informou que Joe Cornish, Rian Johnson, Andrés Muschietti, as duplas Kirk DeMicco e Chris Sanders, e Phil Lord e Chris Miller, estavam em negociações para dirigir o filme. Em 26 de fevereiro, foi relatado que os diretores Mike Cahill, Jeff Wadlow, Harald Zwart e Chris McKay também estavam em consideração para dirigir. Em 9 de abril, Schmoes Know informou que Wadlow dirigiria o filme, mas o The Hollywood Reporter disse que na verdade ele estaria reescrevendo o roteiro do filme.

Em 19 de agosto de 2015, foi anunciado que Christopher Yost havia sido contratado para escrever o filme.

Em 22 de janeiro de 2016, o Deadline informou que McG dirigiria o filme e também supervisionaria uma reescrita do último roteiro de Alex Litvak e Mike Finch, enquanto DeVon Franklin se juntou como produtor. Em 24 de junho de 2016, Kellan Lutz disse que havia agendado uma reunião com McG e Mary Viola sobre o papel de He-Man. Em 27 de abril de 2017, foi anunciado que o filme seria lançado em 18 de dezembro de 2019. Ao mesmo tempo, McG deixou o filme e David S. Goyer foi contratado para reescrever o roteiro.

Em dezembro de 2017, foi relatado que Goyer estava definido para não apenas escrever, mas também dirigir o filme. Em fevereiro de 2018, a Variety informou que Goyer havia decidido se afastar como diretor para se concentrar em outros projetos, mas ele permaneceria como produtor executivo e roteirista e o estúdio disse estar muito feliz com o roteiro que ele entregou e estava se reunindo com possíveis substitutos. Carlos Huante, um designer de criaturas e ex-artista da Industrial Light and Magic que também trabalhou no desenho original da Filmation, foi contratado por Goyer para trabalhar em seu filme, no entanto, em entrevista, Huante disse que a Sony sentiu que o roteiro de Goyer seria muito caro para ser produzido, pois Goyer pretendia que o filme estivesse na escala épica da trilogia de O Senhor dos Anéis e que suas ideias para o filme não seriam mais usadas.

Em abril de 2018, a Variety informou que a dupla Aaron e Adam Nee dirigiria o filme. Em janeiro de 2019, Art Marcum e Matt Holloway foram contratados e foi anunciado que eles escreveriam um novo rascunho do roteiro. As filmagens do filme estavam programadas para começarem em meados de julho de 2019 em Praga. Em 20 de março de 2019, foi relatado que Noah Centineo havia sido escalado para interpretar He-Man. A Sony então anunciou que a data de lançamento do filme seria adiada para 5 de março de 2021. Em janeiro de 2020, o filme foi retirado do calendário de lançamentos da Sony, com sua data de lançamento de março preenchida por Uncharted. Em abril de 2021, foi relatado que Centineo havia deixado o filme, deixando vago o papel de He-Man. Em 28 de janeiro de 2022, foi anunciado que a Netflix havia adquirido oficialmente o filme da Sony e que Kyle Allen interpretaria He-Man. Também foi revelado que David Callaham havia escrito um novo roteiro com os irmãos Nee.

Filmagens
As filmagens do filme estavam programadas no verão de 2022 nos Estados Unidos, mas foram adiadas para 2023.

Lançamento
Masters of the Universe está agendado para ser lançado em 2024, pela Netflix. Ele foi provisoriamente previsto para ser lançado em 18 de dezembro de 2019 e 5 de março de 2021 nos Estados Unidos.

Ligações externas

Filmes em produção
Filmes dos Estados Unidos de 2024
Filmes em língua inglesa
Filmes de aventura dos Estados Unidos
Filmes de fantasia dos Estados Unidos
Filmes de ação dos Estados Unidos
Filmes com órfãos
Reinícios de filmes
Filmes de espada e feitiçaria
Filmes de aventura da década de 2020
Filmes de fantasia da década de 2020
Filmes de ação da década de 2020
Filmes da Columbia Pictures
Filmes originais da Netflix
Masters of the Universe

Masters of the Universe (futuro filme)


Quatre navires différents de la marine royale suédoise ont porté successivement le nom de HMS Svärdfisken (en suédois : espadon) :
 Le , une galère lancée en 1713
 Le , une semi-galère lancée en 1739
 Le , un sous-marin lancé en 1914.
 Le , un sous-marin lancé en 1940.

Notes et références

HMS Svärdfisken


Herman Stilling er en dansk portrætfilm fra 1987 instrueret af Palle Hansen.

Handling
Herman Stilling fik med sine stærke farver og det gennemgående trolde-tema ikke blot udtrykt sig i malerier. Hans fabulerende stil egnede sig også til tegninger, grafik, collager og mosaikker. Eller i stort format på københavnske husgavle. Herman Stillings billedkunst blev kendt gennem talrige udstillinger over hele landet, og han er varigt repræsenteret med flere værker på nordiske museer og i form af gavludsmykninger. Han er blevet hædret med en række priser og legater.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Portrætfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1987

Herman Stilling (film)


La cérémonie d'ouverture des Jeux olympiques d'été de 2024 est prévue le  sur la Seine à Paris en  France, avec les cérémonies protocolaires au pied de la Tour Eiffel, aux Jardins du Trocadéro.

Contexte
Alors que lors de la phase de candidature, le Stade de France avait été envisagé de manière assez classique pour y tenir les cérémonies, l'ouverture des Jeux olympiques de Paris sera organisée le  sous la forme d'un défilé de bateaux sur la Seine.

Annoncée le  par le comité olympique de Paris 2024, la cérémonie d'ouverture aura lieu sur la Seine. Ce spectacle aura lieu sur un trajet de , du pont d'Austerlitz, jusqu'au pont d'Iéna où la flamme olympique s'installera place du Trocadéro, face à la Tour Eiffel. Des tribunes provisoires seront aménagées le long de ce parcours au bord du fleuve pour que  puissent y assister.

C'est la première fois depuis la création des Jeux olympiques modernes qu'une cérémonie d'ouverture ne se déroule pas dans un stade. Cette cérémonie sera d'ailleurs la plus importante en termes de spectateurs.

Les forces de sécurité et divers spécialistes de la question s'inquiètent des enjeux sécuritaires liés à une cérémonie se déroulant sous ce format inédit. L'Élysée choisit cependant de passer outre les réticences de la préfecture de Police. En juillet 2023, la Préfecture de police annonce que 570 boîtes des bouquinistes installés au bord de Seine, 59 % d'entre elles, durant la période des Jeux. Cette exigence suscite une forte inquiétude des bouquinistes en raison du risque de dégradation des boîtes, même si la Ville de Paris s'engage à prendre en charge les réparations éventuelles.

Préparatifs
En septembre 2022, le comité d'organisation nomme le metteur en scène Thomas Jolly comme directeur artistique des quatre cérémonies (ouverture et clôture des Jeux olympiques, et des Jeux paralympiques).

La matinée du , une répétition est organisée avec une quarantaine d'embarcations (contre 170 bateaux prévus en 2024, dont 91 pour les athlètes, complétés par une réserve de 25 bateaux) entre les ponts d'Austerlitz et d'Iéna. Un second passage est organisé avec un test de remorquage d'un navire en panne. La circulation fluviale est répartie sur trois voies : une pour les athlètes, une pour les médias et une pour l'assistance et la sécurité.

Déroulement

Parcours hors norme
Le défilé des délégations lors de la Cérémonie d'ouverture doit se dérouler sur des barges qui descendront la Seine vers les Jardins du Trocadéro. Près de 10 500 athlètes sont prévus pour le défilé sur 160 bateaux. Le trajet de 6 kilomètres est en grande partie choisi pour sa richesse architecturale s'illustrant par de nombreux monuments parisiens. La cérémonie se fera de nuit car elle débutera à 20 heures 24 en références à l'année des jeux.{
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}La durée totale de la cérémonie est estimée à 3 heures et demie pour faire passer toutes les barques avec les athlètes embarquant un peu avant le pont d'Austerlitz au niveau du Jardin des Plantes. Il s'ensuit un trajet sous plus de 8 ponts et passerelles parisiens avant l'arrivée au Pont d'Iéna face à la Tour Eiffel. Le trajet de la cérémonie passe entre l'île de la cité et de Saint-Louis permettant une vue imprenables de différents points de lieux de la capitale. Le parcours relève aussi du peu commun avant de nombreux monuments tout au long du trajet.

Programmes

Liste des diffuseurs
 : Discovery Communications / Eurosport et ARD/ZDF
 – RTBF / VRT
  : SBS
  : NBC
  : Discovery Communications et Eurosport
  : BBC1 et Eurosport
  : ICI Radio-Canada Télé et Réseau des sports (français) / Canadian Broadcasting Corporation et The Sports Network (anglais)
  : RTP 1 / RTP 2 et TVI
  : France Télévisions

Notes et références

2024 été
Jeux olympiques d'été de 2024

Cérémonie d'ouverture des Jeux olympiques d'été de 2024