A massively multiplayer online game (MMOG or more commonly MMO) is an online video game with a large number of players on the same server. MMOs usually feature a huge, persistent open world, although there are games that differ. These games can be found for most network-capable platforms, including the personal computer, video game console, or smartphones and other mobile devices.

MMOs can enable players to cooperate and compete with each other on a large scale, and sometimes to interact meaningfully with people around the world. They include a variety of gameplay types, representing many video game genres.

History

The most popular type of MMOG, and the subgenre that pioneered the category, is the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG), which descended from university mainframe computer MUD and adventure games such as Rogue and Dungeon on the PDP-10. These games predate the commercial gaming industry and the Internet, but still featured persistent worlds and other elements of MMOGs still used today.

The first graphical MMOG, and a major milestone in the creation of the genre, was the multiplayer flight combat simulation game Air Warrior by Kesmai on the GEnie online service, which first appeared in 1986. Kesmai later added 3D graphics to the game, making it the first 3D MMO.

Commercial MMORPGs gained acceptance in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The genre was pioneered by the GemStone series on GEnie, also created by Kesmai, and Neverwinter Nights, the first such game to include graphics, which debuted on AOL in 1991.

As video game developers applied MMOG ideas to other computer and video game genres, new acronyms started to develop, such as MMORTS. MMOG emerged as a generic term to cover this growing class of games.

The debuts of The Realm Online, Meridian 59 (the first 3D MMORPG), Castle Infinity (the first kid-focused MMORPG),Ultima Online,  Underlight and EverQuest in the late 1990s popularized the MMORPG genre. The growth in technology meant that where Neverwinter Nights in 1991 had been limited to 50 simultaneous players (a number that grew to 500 by 1995), by 2000 a multitude of MMORPGs was each serving thousands of simultaneous players and led the way for games such as World of Warcraft and EVE Online.

Despite the genre's focus on multiplayer gaming, AI-controlled characters are still common. NPCs and mobs who give out quests or serve as opponents are typical in MMORPGs. AI-controlled characters are not as common in action-based MMOGs.

The popularity of MMOGs was mostly restricted to the computer game market until the sixth-generation consoles, with the launch of Phantasy Star Online on Dreamcast and the emergence and growth of online service Xbox Live. There have been a number of console MMOGs, including EverQuest Online Adventures (PlayStation 2), and the multiconsole Final Fantasy XI. On PCs, the MMOG market has always been dominated by successful fantasy MMORPGs.

MMOGs have only recently begun to break into the mobile phone market. The first, Samurai Romanesque set in feudal Japan, was released in 2001 on NTT DoCoMo's iMode network in Japan. More recent developments are CipSoft's TibiaME and Biting Bit's MicroMonster which features online and bluetooth multiplayer gaming. SmartCell Technology is in development of Shadow of Legend, which will allow gamers to continue their game on their mobile device when away from their PC.

Science fiction has also been a popular theme, featuring games such as Mankind, Anarchy Online, Eve Online, Star Wars Galaxies and The Matrix Online.

MMOGs emerged from the hard-core gamer community to the mainstream strongly in December 2003 with an analysis in the Financial Times measuring the value of the virtual property in the then-largest MMOG, EverQuest, to result in a per-capita GDP of 2,266 dollars which would have placed the virtual world of EverQuest as the 77th wealthiest nation, on par with Croatia, Ecuador, Tunisia or Vietnam.

World of Warcraft is a dominant MMOG with 8-9 million monthly subscribers worldwide. The subscriber base dropped by 1 million after the expansion Wrath of the Lich King, bringing it to 9 million subscribers in 2010, though it remained the most popular Western title among MMOGs. In 2008, Western consumer spending on World of Warcraft represented a 58% share of the subscription MMOG market in 2009. The title has generated over $2.2 billion in cumulative consumer spending on subscriptions from 2005 through 2009.

Virtual economies

Within a majority of the MMOGs created, there is virtual currency where the player can earn and accumulate money. The uses for such virtual currency are numerous and vary from game to game. The virtual economies created within MMOGs often blur the lines between real and virtual worlds. The result is often seen as an unwanted interaction between the real and virtual economies by the players and the provider of the virtual world. This practice (economy interaction) is mostly seen in this genre of games. The two seem to come hand in hand with even the earliest MMOGs such as Ultima Online having this kind of trade, real money for virtual things.

The importance of having a working virtual economy within an MMOG is increasing as they develop. A sign of this is CCP Games hiring the first real-life economist for its MMOG Eve Online to assist and analyze the virtual economy and production within this game.

The results of this interaction between the virtual economy, and our real economy, which is really the interaction between the company that created the game and the third-party companies that want a share of the profits and success of the game. This battle between companies is defended on both sides. The company originating the game and the intellectual property argue that this is in violation of the terms and agreements of the game as well as copyright violation since they own the rights to how the online currency is distributed and through what channels. The case that the third-party companies and their customers defend, is that they are selling and exchanging the time and effort put into the acquisition of the currency, not the digital information itself. They also express that the nature of many MMOGs is that they require time commitments not available to everyone. As a result, without external acquisition of virtual currency, some players are severely limited to being able to experience certain aspects of the game.

The practice of acquiring large volumes of virtual currency for the purpose of selling to other individuals for tangible and real currency is called gold farming. Many players who have poured in all of their personal effort resent that there is this exchange between real and virtual economies since it devalues their own efforts. As a result, the term 'gold farmer' now has a very negative connotation within the games and their communities. This slander has unfortunately also extended itself to racial profiling and to in-game and forum insulting.

The reaction from many of the game companies varies. In games that are substantially less popular and have a small player base, the enforcement of the elimination of 'gold farming' appears less often. Companies in this situation most likely are concerned with their personal sales and subscription revenue over the development of their virtual economy, as they most likely have a higher priority to the games viability via adequate funding. Games with an enormous player base, and consequently much higher sales and subscription income, can take more drastic actions more often and in much larger volumes. This account banning could also serve as an economic gain for these large games, since it is highly likely that, due to demand, these 'gold farming' accounts will be recreated with freshly bought copies of the game.

The virtual goods revenue from online games and social networking exceeded US$7 billion in 2010.

In 2011, it was estimated that up to 100,000 people in China and Vietnam are playing online games to gather gold and other items for sale to Western players. While this 'gold farming' is considered to ruin the game for actual players, many rely on 'gold farming' as their main source of income.

However single player in MMOs is quite viable, especially in what is called 'player vs environment' gameplay. This may result in the player being unable to experience all content, as many of the most significant and potentially rewarding game experiences are events that require large and coordinated teams to complete.

Technical aspect
Most MMOGs also share other characteristics that make them different from other multiplayer online games. MMOGs host many players in a single game world, and all of those players can interact with each other at any given time. Popular MMOGs might have thousands of players online at any given time, usually on company-owned servers. Non-MMOGs, such as Battlefield 1942 or Half-Life usually have fewer than 50 players online (per server) and are usually played on private servers. Also, MMOGs usually do not have any significant mods since the game must work on company servers. There is some debate if a high head-count is a requirement to be an MMOG. Some say that it is the size of the game world and its capability to support many players that should matter. For example, despite technology and content constraints, most MMOGs can fit up to a few thousand players on a single game server at a time.

To support all those players, MMOGs need large-scale game worlds, and servers to connect players to those worlds. Some games have all of their servers connected so all players are connected in a shared universe. Others have copies of their starting game world put on different servers, called "shards", for a sharded universe. Shards got their name from Ultima Online, where in the story, the shards of Mondain's gem created the duplicate worlds.

Still, others will only use one part of the universe at any time. For example, Tribes (which is not an MMOG) comes with a number of large maps, which are played in rotation (one at a time). In contrast, the similar title PlanetSide allows all map-like areas of the game to be reached via flying, driving, or teleporting.

MMORPGs usually have sharded universes, as they provide the most flexible solution to the server load problem, but not always. For example, the space simulation Eve Online uses only one large cluster server peaking at over 60,000 simultaneous players.

It is challenging to develop the database engines that are needed to run a successful MMOG with millions of players. Many developers have created their own, but attempts have been made to create middleware, software that would help game developers concentrate on their games more than technical aspects. One such piece of middleware is called BigWorld.

An early, successful entry into the field was VR-1 Entertainment whose Conductor platform was adopted and endorsed by a variety of service providers around the world including Sony Communications Network in Japan; the Bertelsmann Game Channel in Germany; British Telecom's Wireplay in England; and DACOM and Samsung SDS in South Korea. Games that were powered by the Conductor platform included Fighter Wing, Air Attack, Fighter Ace, Evernight, Hasbro Em@ail Games (Clue, NASCAR and Soccer), Towers of Fallow, The SARAC Project, VR1 Crossroads and Rumble in the Void.

Typical MUDs and other predecessor games were limited to about 64 or 256 simultaneous player connections; this was a limit imposed by the underlying operating system, which was usually Unix-like. One of the biggest problems with modern engines has been handling the vast number of players. Since a typical server can handle around 10,000–12,000 players, 4000–5000 active simultaneously, dividing the game into several servers has up until now been the solution. This approach has also helped with technical issues, such as lag, that many players experience. Another difficulty, especially relevant to real-time simulation games, is time synchronization across hundreds or thousands of players. Many games rely on time synchronization to drive their physics simulation as well as their scoring and damage detection.

Although there is no specific limit to where an online multiplayer online game is considered massive, there are broad features that are often used as a metric. Garriott's famed 1997 definition referred to the fundamental architecture shift required to support tens of thousands of concurrent players, which required shifting from individual servers to data centers on multiple continents. Games may have MMO features like large worlds with online persistence but still not generally be considered an MMO, such as Grand Theft Auto V's online play, while other games like League of Legends have small individual sessions but the global infrastructure requirements often allow for classification as an MMO. The term is often used differently by players who tend to refer to their play experience versus game developers who refer to the engineering experience. MMO game developers tend to require tremendous investments in developing and maintaining servers around the globe, network bandwidth infrastructure often on the order of terabytes per second, and large engineering problems relating to managing data spread between multiple computer clusters.

Game types
There are several types of massively multiplayer online games.

Role-playing

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games, known as MMORPGs, are the most common type of MMOG. Some MMORPGs are designed as a multiplayer browser game in order to reduce infrastructure costs and utilise a thin client that most users will already have installed. The acronym BBMMORPGs has sometimes been used to describe these as browser-based.

Bulletin board role-playing games
Many games are categorized as MMOBBGs,, Massively Multiplayer Online Bulletin Board Games, also called MMOBBRPGs. These particular types of games are primarily made up of text and descriptions, although images are often used to enhance the game.

First-person shooter

MMOFPS is an online gaming genre which features many simultaneous players in a first-person shooter fashion. These games provide large-scale, sometimes team-based combat. The addition of persistence in the game world means that these games add elements typically found in RPGs, such as experience points. However, MMOFPS games emphasize player skill more than player statistics, as no number of in-game bonuses will compensate for a player's inability to aim and think tactically.

Real-time strategy

Massively multiplayer online real-time strategy games, also known as "MMORTS", combine real-time strategy (RTS) with a persistent world. Players often assume the role of a general, king, or other types of figurehead leading an army into battle while maintaining the resources needed for such warfare.  The titles are often based in a sci-fi or fantasy universe and are distinguished from single or small-scale multiplayer RTSes by the number of players and common use of a persistent world, generally hosted by the game's publisher, which continues to evolve even when the player is offline.

Turn-based strategy

Steve Jackson Games' UltraCorps is an example of an MMO turn-based strategy game.  Hundreds of players share the same playing field of conquest.  In a "mega" game, each turn fleets are built and launched to expand one's personal empire.  Turns are usually time-based, with a "tick" schedule usually daily.  All orders are processed, and battles resolved,  at the same time during the tick. Similarly, in Darkwind: War on Wheels, vehicle driving and combat orders are submitted simultaneously by all players and a "tick" occurs typically once per 30 seconds. This allows each player to accurately control multiple vehicles and pedestrians in racing or combat.

Simulations

Some MMOGs have been designed to accurately simulate certain aspects of the real world. They tend to be very specific to industries or activities of very large risk and huge potential loss, such as rocket science, airplanes, trucks, battle tanks, submarines etc. Gradually as simulation technology is getting more mainstream, so too various simulators arrive into more mundane industries.

The initial goal of World War II Online was to create a map (in northwestern Europe) that had real-world physics (gravity, air/water resistance, etc.), and ability for players to have some strategic abilities to its basic FPS/RPG role.  While the current version is not quite a true simulated world, it is very complex and contains a large persistent world.

The MMOG genre of air traffic simulation is one example, with networks such as VATSIM and IVAO striving to provide rigorously authentic flight-simulation environments to players in both pilot and air traffic controller roles.  In this category of MMOGs, the objective is to create duplicates of the real world for people who cannot or do not wish to undertake those experiences in real life.  For example, flight simulation via an MMOG requires far less expenditure of time and money, is completely risk-free, and is far less restrictive (fewer regulations to adhere to, no medical exams to pass, and so on).

Another specialist area is the mobile telecoms operator (carrier) business where billion-dollar investments in networks are needed but market shares are won and lost on issues from segmentation to handset subsidies. A specialist simulation was developed by Nokia called Equilibrium/Arbitrage to have over a two-day period five teams of top management of one operator/carrier play a "wargame" against each other, under extremely realistic conditions, with one operator an incumbent fixed and mobile network operator, another a new entrant mobile operator, a third a fixed-line/internet operator, etc. Each team is measured by outperforming their rivals by market expectations of that type of player. Thus each player has drastically different goals, but within the simulation, any one team can win. Also to ensure maximum intensity, only one team can win. Telecoms senior executives who have taken the Equilibrium/Arbitrage simulation say it is the most intense, and most useful training they have ever experienced. It is typical of business use of simulators, in very senior management training/retraining.

Examples of MMO simulation games include World of Tanks, War Thunder, Motor City Online, The Sims Online, and Jumpgate.

Sports
A massively multiplayer online sports game is a title where players can compete in some of the more traditional major league sports, such as football (soccer), basketball, baseball, hockey, golf or American football. According to GameSpot.com, Baseball Mogul Online was "the world's first massively multiplayer online sports game". Other titles that qualify as MMOSG have been around since the early 2000s, but only after 2010 did they start to receive the endorsements of some of the official major league associations and players.

Racing
MMOR means massively multiplayer online racing.  Currently there are only a small number of racing-based MMOGs, including iRacing, Kart Rider, Test Drive Unlimited, Project Torque, Drift City and Race or Die. Other notable MMORs included Upshift Strikeracer, Motor City Online and Need for Speed: World, all of which have since shut down. The Trackmania series is the world's largest MMO racing game and holds the world record for "Most Players in a Single Online Race".  Although Darkwind: War on Wheels is more combat-based than racing, it is also considered an MMOR.

Casual
Many types of MMO games can be classified as casual, because they are designed to appeal to all computer users (as opposed to subgroup of frequent game buyers), or to fans of another game genre (such as collectible card games). Such games are easy to learn and require a smaller time commitment than other game types. Other popular casual games include simple management games such as The Sims Online or Kung Fu Panda World.

MMORPGs, or massively multiplayer online puzzle games, are based entirely on puzzle elements.
They are usually set in a world where the players can access the puzzles around the world. Most games that are MMOPGs are hybrids with other genres. Castle Infinity was the first MMOG developed for children.  Its gameplay falls somewhere between puzzle and adventure.

There are also massively multiplayer collectible card games: Alteil, Astral Masters and Astral Tournament. Other MMOCCGs might exist (Neopets has some CCG elements) but are not as well known.

Alternate reality games (ARGs) can be massively multiplayer, allowing thousands of players worldwide to co-operate in puzzle trials and mystery solving.  ARGs take place in a unique mixture of online and real-world play that usually does not involve a persistent world, and are not necessarily multiplayer, making them different from MMOGs.

Music/rhythm
Massively multiplayer online music/rhythm games (MMORGs), sometimes called massively multiplayer online dance games (MMODGs), are MMOGs that are also music video games. This idea was influenced by Dance Dance Revolution. Audition Online is another casual massively multiplayer online game and it is produced by T3 Entertainment.

Just Dance 2014 has a game mode called World Dance Floor, which also structures like an MMORPG.

Social
Massively multiplayer online social games (MMOSGs) focus on socialization instead of objective-based gameplay. There is a great deal of overlap in terminology with "online communities" and "virtual worlds". One example that has garnered widespread media attention is Linden Lab's Second Life, emphasizing socializing, worldbuilding and an in-world virtual economy that depends on the sale and purchase of user-created content. It is technically an MMOSG or Casual Multiplayer Online (CMO) by definition, though its stated goal was to realize the concept of the Metaverse from Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash.  Instead of being based around combat, one could say that it was based around the creation of virtual objects, including models and scripts.  In practice, it has more in common with Club Caribe than EverQuest.  It was the first MMO of its kind to achieve widespread success (including attention from mainstream media); however, it was not the first (as Club Caribe was released in 1988). Competitors in this subgenre (non-combat-based MMORPG) include Active Worlds, There, SmallWorlds, Furcadia, Whirled, IMVU and Red Light Center.

Many browser-based Casual MMOs have begun to spring up. This has been made easier because of maturing of Adobe Flash and the popularity of Club Penguin, Growtopia, and The Sims Online.

Combat

Massively multiplayer online combat games are realtime objective, strategy and capture the flag style modes.

Infantry Online is an example multiplayer combat video game with sprite animation graphics, using complex soldier, ground vehicle and space-ship models on typically complex terrains developed by Sony online entertainment.

Research
Some recent attempts to build peer-to-peer (P2P) MMOGs have been made. Outback Online may be the first commercial one, however, so far most of the efforts have been academic studies. A P2P MMOG may potentially be more scalable and cheaper to build, but notable issues with P2P MMOGs include security and consistency control, which can be difficult to address given that clients are easily hacked. Some MMOGs such as Vindictus use P2P networking and client-server networking together.

In April 2004, the United States Army announced that it was developing a massively multiplayer training simulation called AWE (asymmetric warfare environment). The purpose of AWE is to train soldiers for urban warfare and there are no plans for a public commercial release.  Forterra Systems is developing it for the Army based on the There engine.

In 2010, Bonnie Nardi published an ethnographic study on World of Warcraft examined with Lev Vygotsky's activity theory.

As the field of MMOs grows larger each year, research has also begun to investigate the socio-informatic bind the games create for their users. In 2006, researchers Constance A. Steinkuehler and Dmitri Williams initiated research on such topics. The topic most intriguing to the pair was to further understand the gameplay, as well as the virtual world serving as a social meeting place, of popular MMOs.

To further explore the effects of social capital and social relationships on MMOs, Steinkuehler and Williams combined conclusions from two different MMO research projects: sociocultural perspective on culture and cognition, and the other on media effects of MMOs. The conclusions of the two studies explained how MMOs function as a new form of a "third place" for informal social interactions much like coffee shops, pubs, and other typical hangouts. Many scholars, however, such as Oldenburg (1999), challenge the idea of a MMOs serving as a "third place" due to inadequate bridging social capital. His argument is challenged by Putnam (2000) who concluded that MMOs are well suited for the formation of bridging social capital, tentative relationships that lack in depth, because it is inclusive and serves as a sociological lubricant that is shown across the data collected in both of the research studies.

MMOs can also move past the "lubricant" stage and into the "superglue" stage known as bonding social capital, a closer relationship that is characterized by stronger connections and emotional support. The study concludes that MMOs function best as a bridging mechanism rather than a bonding one, similar to a "third place". Therefore, MMOs have the capacity and the ability to serve as a community that effectively socializes users just like a coffee shop or pub, but conveniently in the comfort of their home.

Spending
British online gamers are outspending their German and French counterparts according to a study commissioned by Gamesindustry.com and TNS. The UK MMO-market is now worth £195 million in 2009 compared to the £165 million and £145 million spent by German and French online gamers.

The US gamers spend more, however,  spending about $3.8 billion overall on MMO games. $1.8 billion of that money is spent on monthly subscription fees. The money spent averages out to $15.10 between both subscription and free-to-play MMO gamers. The study also found that 46% of 46 million players in the US pay real money to play MMO games.

Today's Gamers MMO Focus Report, published in March 2010, was commissioned by TNS and gamesindustry.com. A similar study for the UK market-only (UK National Gamers Survey Report) was released in February 2010 by the same groups.

See also
 Extended reality
 Game engine
 List of massively multiplayer online games
 Multiplayer video game
 Online game
 Social network game
 Virtual world

References

External links

Multiplayer online games
Video game genres
Video game terminology
Social software

Massively multiplayer online game


Pollarolo ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Antonio Pollarolo (1676–1746), italienischer Komponist des Barock
 Carlo Francesco Pollarolo (1653–1723), italienischer Opernkomponist

Pollarolo


La Préfecture du prétoire d'Italie (en latin : Praefectura praetorio Italiae ou, dans sa forme complète jusqu'en 356, Praefectura praetorio Italiae, Illyrici et Africae) était l'une des grandes divisions administratives de l'Empire romain tardif (aussi appelé « Bas-Empire »). Bien que son territoire ait varié au cours des décennies, elle comprenait la péninsule italienne, la Dalmatie, la Pannonie, le Norique, la Rhétie et  l'Afrique du Nord romaine. Créée après la mort de  en 337, elle existe jusqu'à son remplacement par l'Exarchat de Ravenne (ou d'Italie) en 584. Avec la préfecture des Gaules, elle forme après la mort de Théodose et la partition de l'empire, l'Empire romain d'Occident (Imperium romanum, pars occidentalis).

Contexte historique

thumb|left| Carte des provinces de l'Empire romain en 116.

Les provinces romaines apparaissent au lendemain de la première guerre punique, alors que la République romaine s'étend hors de la péninsule italienne. La Sicile (à l'exception de Syracuse) devint ainsi la première province en 241 av. J.-C. et sera bientôt suivie après la guerre des Mercenaires par la Corse-Sardaigne en 227 av. J.-C.. Après les conquêtes de l'empire, le nombre de provinces romaines ne cessera d'augmenter; d'une dizaine à la mort d'Auguste, elles seront quarante-sept sous Dioclétien (r. 284-305).  Ce dernier empereur scindera  celles-ci en unités plus petites  (elles passent de 47 à 85), tout en les regroupant vers 297 en douze diocèses  gérés par des « vicaires ».

Les diocèses où l'on parlait habituellement latin (Gaules et Italie) furent confiés au coempereur de Dioclétien, Maximien (r. 286 – 305), assisté d'un césar, Constance Chlore, jusque-là son préfet du prétoire. Les diocèses où l'on parlait grec formèrent la préfecture du prétoire d'Orient.

Jusque-là, l'Italie elle-même n'avait jamais été divisée en province, ni n'avait payé d'impôt. Rome ayant perdu son statut de capitale au profit de Nicomédie (Dioclétien) et de Milan (Maximien Hercule), Dioclétien mit fin à ces  privilèges. Seule la ville de Rome jusqu'à la borne du centième mile échappa à la provincialisation et aux impôts tout en étant gouvernée par un préfet de la Ville de rang sénatorial responsable devant l'Auguste résidant à Milan.  En dehors de la Ville, l'ensemble de la péninsule devint un diocèse (scindé par la suite) comprenant seize provinces qui prirent toutefois le nom de « régions », dénomination que leur avait donné Auguste lors de sa réforme administrative et furent  gouvernées par des sénateurs portant l'antique titre de corrector.

On assiste également sous Dioclétien à un début de séparation des pouvoirs civils et militaires. Avec l'exclusion des sénateurs des postes de haute gestion et l'émergence de ministères spécialisés (scriniae) dirigés par des magistri promus selon leurs mérites (ou la faveur du prince) se formera un conseil appelé « consistoire ». Ce conseil comprenait entre autres un corps de spécialistes du droit, deux responsables des finances (un pour le Trésor public, l'autre pour les domaines privés), et était sous la direction d'un « préfet du prétoire », anciennement commandant de la garde prétorienne, acquérant de plus en plus de tâches pour devenir en fait le bras droit du prince.

Constantin compléta la séparation des carrières militaire et civile amorcée sous Dioclétien. Le préfet du prétoire fut déchargé du commandement des armées au profit d'un dux, choisi parmi les officiers militaires, et  devint essentiellement un administrateur civil.

Histoire

Il est difficile en effet d'établir précisément à quel moment se fit la transformation de ce qui avait été une fonction militaire  en une administration territoriale. Selon l'historien Zozime, les préfectures du prétoire auraient été créées par Constantin en 218 ou 224. Pour l'historienne et byzantiniste Cécile Morrisson, il s'agit là d'un anachronisme; en réalité chaque Auguste et César continua à avoir son propre préfet du prétoire qui servait de chef d'État-major. Ce n'est que vers le milieu du  que les préfectures furent transformées en subdivisions administratives. Tout comme le terme provincia signifiait au départ le domaine de responsabilité attribué à un magistrat romain  mais en viendra à désigner par  glissement progressif le territoire lui-même, on passa progressivement de la notion de préfet du prétoire à celle du territoire où s'exerçait sa juridiction.

thumb|right|Partage de l'Empire romain entre les Césars nommés par Constantin : de l'ouest à l'est, les territoires de , , Flavius Dalmatius et .

Après la mort de  (r. 306-337), son empire fut divisé entre ses fils, ,  et , ainsi que ses neveux, les césars Flavius Dalmatius et Flavius Hannibalianus. Cet arrangement ne devait guère durer, les trois frères faisant assassiner la plupart des autres membres de la famille par l'armée avant de se rencontrer en Pannonie le  et de diviser l'empire entre eux. Mécontent de ce premier partage qui donnait à son frère  une certaine prépondérance en raison de sa qualité de fils ainé,  exigera un nouveau partage des territoires lors d'une seconde  rencontre l'année suivante à Viminacium (aujourd'hui en Serbie) et obtiendra également les diocèses de Dacie et de Macédoine (unis au départ sous le nom de « diocèse de Mésie ») qui auraient dû revenir à son cousin Dalmatius. Toutefois la dispute reprit entre les deux frères au sujet du partage de l'Afrique entre les préfectures des Gaules et d'Italie.  En 340  marchera sur l'Italie avec ses troupes, mais y sera tué à la suite de quoi  prit le contrôle du domaine de son frère.

Au départ,  la préfecture d'Italie s'appellera ainsi praefectura praetorio Italiae, Illyrici et Africae.  En 347 l'Illyrie fut détachée de la préfecture pour constituer une préfecture distincte comprenant les diocèses de Pannonie, Dacie et Macédoine. Vulaius Rufinus en devint le premier préfet de 347 à 352. La nouvelle préfecture sera abolie en 361 par l'empereur Julien (r. 361 – 363) et rétablie en 375 par Gratien (r. 367 – 383). Son territoire continua à faire l'objet de contestation entre les deux parties de l'empire jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit finalement scindée en 395, le diocèse de Pannonie quittant l'Illyrie pour être absorbé par la préfecture d'Italie sous le nom de diocèse d'Illyrie.

Quant à l'Italie elle-même, elle sera éventuellement divisée en deux : le Diocesis Italia annonaria (litt. : Diocèse de l'Italie de l'annone dont les habitants devaient fournir à la cour, à l'administration et à l'armée les fournitures, vin et matériaux de construction) et le Diocesis Italia Suburbicaria (litt : Diocèse de l'Italie suburbicaire, c.à.d. soumis au gouvernement de l'Urbs). À la fin du , l'Italie était gouvernée par huit « consulares »  (Venetiae et Histriae, Aemiliae, Liguriae, Flaminiae et Piceni annonarii, Tusciae et Umbriae, Piceni suburbicarii, Campaniae, ainsi que la  Siciliae), deux « correctores »  (Apuliae et Calabriae ainsi que Lucaniae et Bruttiorum) et sept « praesides » (Alpium Cottiarum, Rhaetia Prima et Secunda, Samnii, Valeriae, Sardiniae, ainsi que Corsicae).

Même si l'Empire romain d'Occident  cessa d'exister lorsque le chef barbare Odoacre (patrice d'Italie, 476 - 493) prononça la déchéance de Romulus Augustule en 476, celui-ci et son successeur, l'Ostrogoth Théodoric le Grand (r. 493 – 526) conserveront la structure administrative romaine tout en restant sujets nominaux de l'empereur de Constantinople. Goths et Romains formaient deux sociétés distinctes, vivant sous leurs propres lois. La préfecture continua donc à exister et revint directement sous l'autorité impériale après les guerres de  (r. 527 – 565) contre les Goths. Toutefois, l'invasion de l'Italie par les Lombards en 568 devait réduire le contrôle de Constantinople à quelques territoires éparpillés sur le territoire. La préfecture fut remplacée par l'exarchat de Ravenne en 569, cette dernière ville ayant déjà remplacé Milan comme capitale parce que moins exposée aux invasions.

La fonction de préfet demeurera toutefois attestée jusqu'au . Le dernier titulaire connu  apparait en 639.

Subdivisions territoriales

thumb|left|La préfecture d'Italie vers l'an 400.

Sous Dioclétien, l'Italie devint le Dioecesis Italiciana et incluait la Rhétie. Il était divisé entre les provinces suivantes :

 Ligurie (aujourd'hui Ligurie et  Piémont occidental);

 Transpadane (Piémont oriental et Lombardie);

 Rhétie (Est de la Suisse, ouest et centre de l'Autriche, sud de l'Allemagne et une partie du nord-est de l'Italie);

 Vénétie et Istrie (Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia et Trentino-Alto Adige ainsi que l'Istrie);

 Émilie (Émilie-Romagne);

 Tuscie (Étrurie) et Ombrie (Toscane et Ombrie);

 Flaminie (Flaminia) et Picenum annonaire (l'ancien Ager Gallicus dans la Marche aujourd'hui);

 Latium et Campanie (parties côtières du  Lazio et de la Campane);

 Samnium (Abruzze, Molise et Irpinia);

 Apulie et Calabre (l'Apulie d'aujourd'hui);

 Lucanie et Bruttium  (Basilicata et Calabre);

 Sicile (Sicile et Malte);

 Corse et Sardaigne    (Corsica et Sardinia).

Après Constantin et la division de l'Italie en deux diocèses  les provinces furent réparties comme suit :

Italie annonaire (Italia, capitale Milan) :

 Émilie, Aemilia

 Alpes cottiennes, Alpes cottiae

 Flaminie et Picenum annonaire, Flaminia et Picenum annonarium

 Ligurie, Liguria

 Rhétie première, Raetia prima

 Rhétie seconde, Raetia secunda

 Vénétie et Istrie, Venetia et Histria

Italie suburbicaire (Regiones suburbicariae, capitale Rome) :

 Apulie et Calabre, Apulia et Calabria

 Campanie, Campania

 Corse, Corsica

 Lucanie et Bruttium, Lucania et Bruttii

 Picenum suburbicaire, Picenum suburbicarium

 Samnium, Samnium

 Sardaigne, Sardinia

 Sicile, Sicilia

 Tuscie et Ombrie, Tuscia et Umbria

 Valérie (province romaine), Valeria

Liste des préfets connus

    Aemilianus (328)

    Lucius Papius Pacatianus (334-335)

    Aconius Catullinus Philomathius (341)

    Marcus Maecius Memmius Furius Baburius Caecilianus Placidus (342-344)

    Vulcacius Rufinus (premier mandat, 344–347)

    Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Lampadius (355)

    Taurus (356-361)

    Claudius Mamertinus (361-365)

    Vulcacius Rufinus (deuxième mandat, 365–368)

    Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (premier mandat vers 368–375)

    Decimius Hilarianus Hesperius (378-380)

    Flavius Afranius Syagrius (382)

    Flavius Hypatius (382-383)

   Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (deuxième mandat, 383)

    Nonius Atticus (383-384)

   Vettius Agorius Praetextatus (384)

    Neoterius (385)

   Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (troisième mandat, 387)

   Virius Nicomachus Flavianus  (390-392)

Empire d'Occident

    Nummius Aemilianus Dexter (395)

    Eusebius (395-396)

    Flavius Mallius Theodorus (397-399)

    Valerius Messala Avienus (399-400)

    Rufus Synesius Hadrianus (400-405)

    Flavius Macrobius Longinianus (premier mandat, 406)

    Curtius (407-408)

    Flavius Macrobius Longinianus (deuxième mandat, 408)

     Flavius Mallius Theodorus (408-409)

    Caecilianus (409)

    Jovius (409)

    Melitius (410-412)

    Seleucus (préfet pour l'Afrique, 412)

    Ioannes (412-413)

    Rufus Synesius Hadrianus (413-414)

    Seleucus (414-415)

    Junius Quartus Palladius (416-421)

    Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus  (peut-être 426)

    Anicius Auchenius Bassus (deuxième mandat 435)

    Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus (vers 438)

    Pétrone Maxime (439)

    Caecina Decius Aginatius Albinus (443-448)

    Caecina Decius Basilius (458)

    Caelius Aconius Probianus (461-463)

    Caecina Decius Basilius (463-465)

    Felix Himelco (473)

Période Goth

Sous Odoacer:

    Nar. Manlius Boethius (entre 480 et 486) (consul en 487)

   Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius (483) (consul en 480)

   Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius (486-493) (consul en 486)

Sous les  Ostrogoths:

    Libérius (494-500)

    Flavius Albinus (?500-503)[2] (consul en 493)

    Cassiodorus the Elder (500-?)

    Anicius Probus Faustus (509-512) (consul en 490)

    Rufius Magnus Faustus Avienus  (527-528) (consul en 502)

    Faustus (521/522) or 529

   Cassiodore (533-537) (consul en 514)

    Fidelis (537-538)

    Reparatus (538-539)

Période byzantine

    Athanasius Athanase (préfet du prétoire)  (539-542)

    Maximinus (vers 542)

    Flavius Marianus Michaelius Gabrielius Petrus Iohannes Narses Aurelianus Limenius Stephanus Aurelianus, (554/568)

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Bibliographie

Sources primaires

 Anonyme de Valois.

 Zozime, Histoire Nouvelle, Livre 2,  Édition et traduction François Paschoud, 3 tomes en 5 volumes, Paris, les Belles Lettres, 1971-1989.

 Aurélius Victor. Le Livre des Césars. (trad. Pierre Dufraigne), Paris, Les Belles Lettres, coll. « Collection des Universités de France », 1975 (réimpr. 2003),  .

 Eutrope, (trad. Joseph Hellegouarc'h), Abrégé d'histoire romaine, Les Belles-Lettres, coll. « CUF Latin », 1999, LXXXV-  .

Sources secondaires

  Anonyme. « Les provinces romaines » (dans) Imperio Romano [en ligne] https://www.romanoimpero.com/2013/01/le-province-romane.html.

  Bury, J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire, New York, Macmillan, 1923.

  Canduci, Alexander. Triumph and Tragedy : The Rise and Fall of Rome's Immortal Emperors, Pier 9, 2010,  .

  Cosentino, Salvatore. Storia dell'Italia bizantina (VI-XI secolo): da Giustiniano ai Normanni. Bononia University Press, 2008. .

  Decret, François. Carthage ou l'empire de la mer, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, coll. « Points histoire », 1977,  .

  Gibbon, Edward. Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire, New York, The Modern Library, Random House, sans date de reedition, [1888],

  Heydemann, Gerda. "The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions". (In) Jonathan J. Arnold; M. Shane Bjornlie; Kristina Sessa (eds.). A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. Leiden and Boston, Brill, 2016..

  Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press, 1971..

  Jones, A.H.M. The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. .

  Kazhdan, Alexander, (ed.) The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press, 1991. .

  Le Bohec, Yann.  Géostratégie de la première guerre punique : Actes de la table ronde de Lyon – , Université Lyon III, 2001.

   Le Bohec, Yann. Histoire militaire des guerres puniques : 264-146 avant J.-C., Monaco, Éditions du Rocher, coll. « Art de la guerre », 2003,  .

  Lewis, William. " and His Brothers: The Civil War of AD 340", (in) Nicholas Baker-Brian and Shaun Tougher (eds.), The Sons of Constantine, AD 337-361: In the Shadows of Constantine and Julian. Palgrave Macmillan. 2020. .

  Maraval, Pierre. Les fils de Constantin, Paris, CNRS éditions, coll. « Biblis », 2013,  .

  Maraval Pierre.  Constantin le Grand. Empereur romain, empereur chrétien : 306-337, Paris, Tallandier, coll. « Texto », 2014,  [2011] .

  Mommsen, Theodor. History of Rome, Book II: From the Abolition of the Monarchy in Rome to the Union of Italy. Leipzig, Reimer & Hirsel, 1855.

  Morrisson, Cécile (dir.), Le monde byzantin,  : L'Empire romain d'Orient (330-641), Paris, Presses universitaires de France, coll. « Nouvelle Clio », 2012 [2004] .

  Nesbitt, John W.; Oikonomides, Nicolas, eds. Catalogue of Byzantine Seals at Dumbarton Oaks and in the Fogg Museum of Art, Volume 2: South of the Balkans, the Islands, South of Asia Minor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1994. .

  Nicolet, Claude. Rome et la conquête du monde méditerranéen 264–27 av. J.-C., Paris, PUF, coll. « Nouvelle Clio, l'Histoire et ses problèmes », 1978,  .

  Ostrogorsky, Georges. Histoire de l'État byzantin, Paris, Payot, 1983 [1956].

  Settipani, Chirstian.  Continuité gentilice et Continuité familiale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale, Linacre College, Oxford University, coll. « Prosopographica & Genealogica », 2000,  .

  Williams, Stephan. Diocletian and the Roman Controversy. New York, London, Routledge, 1997 [1985]. .

  Wolfram, Herwig (trad. Thomas Dunlap). The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples, Berkeley, Calif. London, University of California Press, 2005,  .

  Wolfram, Herwig (trad. Thomas J. Dunlap). History of the Goths, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990,  .

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

 Préfecture du prétoire des Gaules

 Préfecture du prétoire d'Afrique

 Préfet du Prétoire

 Préfecture du prétoire d'Illyrie

 Préfecture du prétoire d'Orient

 Province romaine

 Diocèse (Empire romain)

 Liste des diocèses de l'Empire romain

Liens externes

 Sur le site de Cambridge University Press, présentations du

  volume 1

  volume 2

  volume 3

Antiquité tardive
Historiographie romaine
Prosopographie
Territoire du haut Moyen Âge
Institution de l'Empire romain

Préfecture du prétoire d'Italie


Zagrebačka frazeološka škola naziv je za skupinu hrvatskih jezikoslovaca, frazeologa, koja je zasnovala temelje frazeologije u Hrvatskoj, a djeluje i danas.

Utemeljiteljicom hrvatske frazeologije smatra se akademkinja Antica Menac, koja je u časopisu Jezik (god. 18, sv. 1, 1970.) objavila prvi frazeološki rad "O strukturi frazeologizama", u kojemu utire temelje budućih frazeoloških istraživanja. Osamdesetih godina XX. st. djelovanjem Škole pokrenut je nakladnički niz Mali frazeološki rječnici, a 1982. Josip Matešić izdaje prvi frazeološki rječnik hrvatskoga jezika.

Izvori
 Kovačević, Barbara: "Frazeološko nazivlje", u: Mihaljević, Milica, Hudeček, Lana i Jozić, Željko: Hrvatsko frazeološko nazivlje, Institut za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje: Zagreb, 2020.
 Menac, Antica: "O strukturi frazeologizma", Jezik, sv. 18, br. 1 (1970.), str. 1-4.
 Opašić, Maja: "Od A do Ž o istraživanjima hrvatske frazeologije", Fluminensia, sv. 23, br. 2 (2011.), str. 188-190.

Sveučilište u Zagrebu
Frazeologija

Zagrebačka frazeološka škola


Signalet er en kortfilm fra 1966 instrueret af Ole Gammeltoft efter manuskript af Anders Bodelsen, Ole Gammeltoft.

Handling
En mand flytter ind i en moderne boligkarré. Han bor, går og kommer, er totalt alene med sine banale hverdagsgøremål - hans husfællers eksistens når ham kun som fjerne lyde eller gennem stjålne kik i dørspionen. Men en dag hører han bankesignaler fra lejligheden ved siden af, og han besvarer dem. Men siden syntes han ikke godt, han selv kunne begynde med bankesignalerne igen. Men han tænkte sig, de ville blive gentaget før eller senere, og i så fald ville de kun være en begyndelse.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1966

Signalet


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Die Achmetelis-Teatri-Warketeli-Linie (georgisch: ახმეტელი თეატრი-ვარკეთილის ხაზი), früher Gldani-Warketeli-Linie, Didube-Samgore-Linie und Didube-Rustaweli-Linie, auch kurz Achmetelis-Warketeli-Linie, ist die erste Linie der Metro Tiflis. Sie wurde im Januar 1966 eröffnet.

Geschichte
Es gab bereits 1940 Überlegungen für eine U-Bahn, da das Straßenbahn-System und das Oberleitungsbusnetz vollkommen überlastet waren. In den 1950er-Jahren wurde mit den Bauarbeiten begonnen, bis die Linie im Januar 1966 eröffnet wurde. Sie umfasste die Stationen Didube, Elektrodepo (heute: Goziridse), Oktomberi (heute: Nadsaladewi), Wagsolski Ploscheds (heute: Sadguris Moedani), Mardschanischwili und Rustaweli. Sie trug den Namen Didube-Rustaweli-Linie. Am 6. November 1967 wurde eine Verlängerung bis 300 Aragweli fertiggestellt. Nach weiteren Eröffnungen am 10. Mai 1971, im November 1985 und am 7. Januar 1989 wuchs die Linie auf 19,6 km an. Seit 1992 wurden 5 der 14 Stationen umbenannt. Verlängerungen nach Norden und Süden sind geplant, können aber wegen der Finanzlage Georgiens nicht realisiert werden.

Galerie

Einzelnachweise

Metro Tiflis

Achmetelis-Teatri-Warketeli-Linie


أكاسيد الحديد هي مركبات كيميائية تتكون من الحديد والأكسجين. يوجد ستة عشر أكاسيد حديد وأوكسي هيدروكسيدات معروفة، وأشهرها الصدأ، وهو أحد أشكال أكسيد الحديد (III).

قد تشير إلى إحدى أكاسيد الحديد، من بينها:

 أكسيد الحديد الثنائي FeO، حيث ان حالة أكسدة الحديد في المركب +2.
 أكسيد الحديد الثلاثي Fe2O3، حيث حالة أكسدة الحديد في المركب +3.

أكاسيد

 أكسيد الحديد II
 الحديد O: أكسيد الحديد (II)،
 الحديد O 2: بيروكسيد الحديد
 أكاسيد مختلطة من Fe II و Fe III
 Fe 3 O 4: أكسيد الحديد (II III)، أكسيد الحديد الأسود
 Fe 4 O 5
 Fe 5 O 6
 Fe 5 O 7
 Fe 25 O 32
 Fe 13 O 19
 أكسيد الحديد الثالث
 Fe 2 O 3: أكسيد الحديد (III)
 α-Fe 2 O 3: مرحلة ألفا، الهيماتيت
 β-Fe 2 O 3: المرحلة التجريبية
 γ-Fe 2 O 3: طور جاما، مغهيميت
 ε-Fe 2 O 3: مرحلة إبسيلون

التمدد الحراري

مراجع

أكاسيد
مركبات الحديد

أكاسيد الحديد


Göksu Parkı; Ankara'nın Etimesgut ilçesinde bulunan bir şehir parkıdır. Susuz Göleti ve çevresinde yürütülen rekreasyon çalışmaları sonucunda oluşturulan park, sınırları içerisinde yer aldığı Göksu Mahallesi'ne de ismini vermiştir. Toplam kullanım alanı 550.000 m² olan parkın 127.189 m²'si göletten oluşmaktadır.

Tarihçe
20. yüzyılın ilk yarısı boyunca herhangi bir fiziki müdahaleye uğramaksızın varlığını sürdüren Susuz Göleti, 1960 yılında Devlet Su İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından oluşturulan bir taşkın önleme planı doğrultusunda bakıma alındı ve çalışmalar 1961 yılında tamamlandı. 1972'de, yine DSİ tarafından gölet ve çevresini kapsayan bir rekreasyon projesi üretildiyse de uygulamaya konmadı. Kamulaştırılan fakat herhangi bir düzenleme çalışmasının yürütülmediği bölge, 1980'lere kadar tarım ve hayvancılık faaliyetleri kapsamında kullanıldı.

1993 yılında, dönemin Ankara Büyükşehir Belediye Başkanı Murat Karayalçın; "İstanbul Yolu Kent Girişi Projesi" kapsamında Susuz Göleti ve çevresindeki yaklaşık 130 hektar büyüklüğündeki bir arazide sosyal ve kültürel ihtiyaçların göz önünde bulundurularak çevre düzenlemesi yapılmasını hedefledi. Fakat DSİ'nin yürüttüğü çalışmalar neticesinde ekonomik ömrünü tamamladığı rapor edilen gölet, ilerleyen yıllarda Etimesgut Belediyesi'ne devredildi. 1998 yılında Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi'nin de devreye girmesiyle söz konusu belediye tarafından kısmen düzenlenen alan, halkın kullanımına açıldı. Gölet çevresindeki tarım arazilerinin imara açılarak toplu konut projelerinin yapılmasına yönelik çıkartılan karar ise önceki yıllarda gölet çevresinde yürütülmekte olan tarım ve hayvancılık faaliyetlerini ciddi oranda azalttı. Kıyıları sazlıklarla kaplanan ve dibinde biriken tortular yüzünden bataklığa dönüşen gölette, suya girilmesi ve balık avlanması yasaklandı.

Parkın günümüzdeki haline kavuşması ise 2003 yılında Türk mimarlar Hüseyin Bütüner ve Hilmi Güner tarafından çizilen proje neticesinde gerçekleşti. Ocak-Mayıs ayları arasında yürütülen çalışmalarda toplam 550.000 m²'lik bir alanda düzenleme yapılarak Göksu Parkı oluşturuldu. Parkın üzerine inşa edildiği alanın ana ögesi su olmasından ötürü inşa edilen sosyal ve kültürel tesislerin yanı sıra plaj voleybolu oynamaya yönelik sahalar, göleti çepeçevre saran ahşap yürüme iskeleleri, kuşbakışı seyir imkanı sağlayan deniz feneri ve tekne barınakları da projede sıklıkla kullanıldı.

Flora

 Abies nordmanniana (Doğu Karadeniz göknarı)
 Acer negundo (Dişbudak yapraklı akçaağaç)
 Acer pseudoplatanus (Dağ akçaağacı)
 Aesculus hippocastanum (Beyaz çiçekli at kestanesi)
 Ailanthus altissima (Kokar ağaç)
 Berberis thunbergii var. atropurpurea (Kırmızı yapraklı bodur berberis)
 Betula pubescens (Tüylü huş)
 Buddleja davidii (Kelebek çalısı)
 Buxus sempervirens (Adi şimşir)
 Campsis radicans (Acemborusu)
 Catalpa bignonioides (Katalpa)
 Cedrus atlantica glauca-pendula (Atlas sediri)
 Cedrus libanotica var. glauca (Atlas sediri)
 Cedrus deodora (Himalaya sediri)
 Cerastium tomentosum (Beyaz çiçekli farekulağı)
 Cercis siliquastrum (Erguvan)
 Chaenomeles japonica (Bahardalı)
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Yalancı servi)
 Cornus alba var. sibirica (Sibirya kızılcığı)
 Cotoneaster dammeri (Dağ muşmulası)
 Cotoneaster horizontalis (Yayılıcı dağ muşmulası)
 Cotoneaster microphyllus
 Cotoneaster salicifolius (Yeşil dağ muşmulası)
 Cupressus arizonica (Arizona servisi)
 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Kuş iğdesi)
 Euonymus japonicus (Altuni taflan)
 Forsythia × intermedia (Altın çanak)
 Fraxinus excelsior (Adi dişbudak)
 Hedera helix (Duvar sarmaşığı)
 Hibiscus syriacus (Ağaçhatmi)
 Juglans regia (Adi ceviz)
 Juniperus × pfitzeriana (Çin ardıcı)
 Juniperus chinensis (Çin ardıcı)
 Juniperus hibernica (Adi ardıç)
 Juniperus sabina (Kara ardıç)
 Juniperus virginiana (Kurşun kalem ardıcı)
 Koelreuteria paniculata (Altuni fener ağacı)
 Ligustrum vulgare (Kurtbağrı)
 Lonicera caprifolium (Hanımeli)
 Lonicera tatarica (Tatar hanımeli)
 Malus × floribunda (Japon çiçek elması)
 Morus alba (Ters dut)
 Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Amerikan sarmaşığı)
 Picea pungens (Mavi ladin)
 Pinus nigra (Karaçam)
 Platycladus orientalis (Doğu mazısı)
 Prunus cerasifera (Kiraz eriği)
 Pyracantha coccinea (Ateş dikeni)
 Robinia pseudoacacia (Beyaz çiçekli yalancı akasya)
 Salix babylonica (Salkım söğüt)
 Salix caprea (Keçi söğüdü)
 Sambucus nigra (Kara mürver)
 Styphnolobium japonicum (Japon soforası)
 Spiraea × vanhouttei (Keçisakalı)
 Syringa vulgaris (Leylak)
 Tamarix tetrandra (Gezik)
 Thuja occidentalis (Batı mazısı)
 Tilia tomentosa (Gümüşi ıhlamur)
 Viburnum opulus (Gilaburu)
 Yucca filamentosa

Kaynakça

Göksu, Etimesgut
Etimesgut'taki parklar
Ankara'daki göller
Ankara'daki şehir parkları
2003'te Türkiye'de kurulan oluşumlar

Göksu Parkı


Byparken er en park, der ligger i Roskilde på Østsjælland. Parken skråner mod nord ned mod Roskilde Fjord og Roskilde Havn. Den er omgivet af Sankt Clara Vej mod vest, Sankt Ibs vej mod Nord, Frederiksborgvej mod øst og et villaområde mod syd og Provstmarken.

Det meste af parken er udlagt til græsarealer, men langs kanten findes buske, og rundt omkring er en del gamle træer. Mod vest findes en legeplads. I parken findes et vandløb, der ender i en sø i den nordligste del. Der er også opstillet en genforeningssten. Helt mod syd ligger en stråtækt bygning, der er indrette til restauranten Pipers Hus.

I juli måned afholdes der gratis koncerter i parken, som arrangeres i et samarbejde mellem spillestedet Gimle og Roskilde Kommune Til sankthans bliver der arrangeret bål.

Historie
I middelalderen lå Sankt Hans' Kirke på Provstmarken, og det omkringliggende område var Sankt Hans' sogn, der var et af Roskildes 13 sogne, hvor kannikker med relation til Roskilde Domkirke boede. I 1443 blev domkirken ramt af en brand, der hurtigst spredte sig til områderne nord og vest for bygningen, hvor den forårsagede store ødelæggelser. Området hvor Provstmarken lå, blev aldrig genopført. Med reformationen mistede Roskilde en stor del af sine indtægter, og byen oplevede en længere periode med recession. I adskillige hundrede år var Provstmarken en del af Provstegården og blev brugt til græsning af kvæg.

I 1898 arvede Roskilde by en stor sum penge af tekstilfabrikanten Otto Henrich Schmeltz. En del af disse penge var reserveret til etableringen af en park "der ikke skulle bruges til nogen slags sport". I 1915 brugte byen en del af disse penge til at købe et stykke jord nord for Provstmarken, som indtil dette tidspunkt havde været landbrugsjord. Den nye park blev designet af landskabsarkitekten Aage Hansen.

Se også
 Folkeparken - en anden park i byen tæt ved Byparken

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Bygninger, konstruktioner og anlæg i Roskilde
Parker i Danmark

Byparken (Roskilde)


Gwalior (hindi ग्वालियर); marathi ग्वाल्हेर) er den nordligst beliggende by i den indiske delstat Madhya Pradesh. Den ligger 122 km syd for Agra. Byen har en betydelig industri, der producerer blandt andet bomuld, garn, farvestoffer og kemikalier. Gwalior Universitet åbnede i 1964.

Gwalior er strategisk beliggende i Gird regionen i Nordindien, og Gwalior fort har fungeret som hovedsæde for flere af Nordindiens historiske kongedømmer, herunder fyrstestaten Gwalior. Gwalior er administrationscentrum for både det omliggende Gwalior distrikt og divisionen af samme navn.

Ved folketællingen i 2001 havde Gwalior 826 919 indbyggere, hvoraf 54 % var mænd og 46 % kvinder. Læsekyndigheden ligger på 70 %, hvilket er højere end det nationale gennemsnit på 59,5 %; 76 % af mændene kan læse, og 63 % af kvinderne. 13 % af befolkningen er under 6 år.

Henvisninger

Byer i Madhya Pradesh

Gwalior


Ebba Årsjö, née le  à Oskarshamn, est une skieuse alpine handisport suédoise concourant en  pour les athlètes debout. Après deux médailles d'or aux Mondiaux, elle remporte deux médailles d'or et une médaille de bronze aux Jeux.

Carrière
Ebba Årsjö est née avec le syndrome de Klippel-Trenaunay ayant entraînait une réduction musculaire dans sa jambe droite.

Pour ses premiers Jeux paralympiques en 2022, elle remporte deux médailles d'or en super combiné et slalom ainsi qu'une médaille de bronze en descente catégorie debout.

Palmarès

Jeux paralympiques

Références

Liens externes

Skieuse alpine suédoise
Championne paralympique de ski alpin
Championne paralympique suédoise
Médaillée de bronze paralympique suédoise
Skieuse alpine aux Jeux paralympiques d'hiver de 2022
Naissance en janvier 2001
Naissance à Oskarshamn

Ebba Årsjö


Thomas Andrews FRS FRSE (19 December 181326 November 1885) was an Irish chemist and physicist who did important work on phase transitions between gases and liquids. He was a longtime professor of chemistry at Queen's University of Belfast.

Life
Andrews was born in Belfast, Ireland, where his father was a linen merchant. He attended the Belfast Academy and the Royal Belfast Academical Institution, where at the latter of which he studied mathematics under James Thomson. In 1828 he went to the University of Glasgow to study chemistry under Professor Thomas Thomson, then studied at Trinity College, Dublin, where he gained distinction in classics as well as in science.  Finally, at University of Edinburgh in 1835, he was awarded a doctorate in medicine.

Andrews began a successful medical practice in his native Belfast in 1835, also giving instruction in chemistry at the Academical Institution. In 1845 he was appointed vice-president of the newly established Queen's University of Belfast, and professor of chemistry there. He held these two offices until his retirement in 1879 at age 66.  He died in 1885, and was buried in the Borough Cemetery in Belfast.

In 1842, Andrews married Jane Hardie Walker (1818–1899). They had six children, including the geologist Mary Andrews.

Work

Andrews first became known as a scientific investigator with his work on the heat developed in chemical actions, for which the Royal Society awarded him a Royal Medal in 1844. Another important investigation, undertaken in collaboration with Peter Guthrie Tait, was devoted to ozone.

His reputation mainly rests on his work with liquefaction of gases. In the 1860s he carried out a very complete inquiry into the gas laws—expressing the relations of pressure, temperature, and volume in carbon dioxide. In particular, he established the concepts of critical temperature and critical pressure, showing that a substance passes from vapor to liquid state without any breach of continuity. He concluded that... the gaseous and liquid states are only distant stages of the same condition of matter, and are capable of passing into one another by a process of continuous change.In Andrews' experiments on phase transitions, he showed that carbon dioxide may be carried from any of the states we usually call liquid to any of those we usually call gas, without losing homogeneity. The mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs cited these results in support of the Gibbs free energy equation. They also set off a race among researchers to liquify various other gases. In 1877-78 Louis Paul Cailletet was the first to liquefy oxygen.

Selected writings

 Thomas Andrews, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the Continuity of the Gaseous and Liquid States of Matter", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 159 (1869), pp. 575–590.
  - Contains a biographical memoir of Andrews by Tait and Crum Brown

References

Further reading

1813 births
1885 deaths
Fellows of the Royal Society
Irish chemists
Irish physicists
Scientists from Belfast
People educated at the Belfast Royal Academy
Royal Medal winners
Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
University of Paris alumni
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Medical School
British expatriates in France
Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities

Thomas Andrews (scientist)


La saison 2022-2023 de Challenge League est la  du championnat de Suisse de deuxième division, après la Super League. Le championnat oppose dix clubs dont un ou deux relégué(s) de Super League et un promu de Promotion League en deux séries de matchs aller-retour (soit quatre rencontres entre chaque équipes). Comme la Super League 2023-2024 passe à  il y aura deux promotions cette saison, le troisième est qualifié pour un barrage en matchs aller-retour face au dernier de Super League. Le dernier affronte le troisième de Promotion League dans un barrage de maintien.

Participants

Légende des couleurs

Changements d'entraîneur

Classement

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Domicile et extérieur

Domicile

Extérieur

Résultats

Barrage de promotion
Le barrage de promotion se déroule sur deux matchs et oppose le dernier de Super League, au troisième de Challenge League. Le vainqueur de ce barrage obtient une place pour le championnat de Super League 2023-2024 tandis que le perdant tombe ou reste en Challenge League.

Barrage de relégation
Le barrage de relégation se déroule sur deux matchs et oppose le dernier de Challenge League, au troisième de Promotion League. Le vainqueur de ce barrage obtient une place pour la Challenge League 2023-2024 tandis que le perdant tombe ou reste en Promotion League.

Statistiques

Leader par journée

Lanterne rouge par journée

Évolution du classement

Résultats par match

Buts marqués par journée
Ce graphique représente le nombre de buts marqués lors de chaque journée.

Classement des buteurs et passeurs

Parcours en coupes d'Europe

Voir aussi
 Coupe de Suisse de football 2022-2023

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Liens externes
 Site officiel de la Swiss Football League

2022-2023
Suisse M2
Championnat M2
Football M2

Championnat de Suisse de football de deuxième division 2022-2023


Die Snookerweltmeisterschaft 1986 fand vom 19. April bis zum 5. Mai 1986 im Crucible Theatre in Sheffield statt.

Weltmeister wurde überraschend Joe Johnson, der zum ersten Mal in seiner Karriere bei einer Weltmeisterschaftsendrunde über Runde eins hinauskam. Im Finale besiegte er Steve Davis, den Weltmeister von 1983 und 1984, der auch im Vorjahr im Finale stand. Der Titelverteidiger Dennis Taylor schied hingegen schon in der ersten Runde aus.

Der spätere 7-malige Weltmeister Stephen Hendry gab 1986 sein Debüt und hielt bis 2012 auch den Rekord als jüngster Spieler bei einer Weltmeisterschaftsendrunde.

Preisgeld

Finalrunde

Finale
Im Finale konnten beide Spieler die Partie lange offen gestalten. Am Ende des ersten Tages stand es 8:8, wobei Davis zwischenzeitlich schon 7:4 führte. Am zweiten Tag erwischte Johnson den besseren Start und gewann die ersten vier Frames. Davis kam zwar bis zum Ende der Session wieder auf 13:11 heran, doch in der vierten und letzten Session konnte Johnson das Match beim Stande von 14:12 mit vier gewonnenen Frames am Stück gewinnen.

Qualifikation
Die Ergebnisse der letzten Qualifikationsrunde für die ungesetzten Spieler sind in folgender Übersicht aufgeführt:

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Century-Breaks
Es wurden 20 Century Breaks von zehn verschiedenen Spielern erzielt. Damit wurde der vorherige Rekord von 18 Century Breaks aus dem Jahre 1986 überboten.

Das höchste Break in der Qualifikation war ein 141-Break von Stephen Hendry.

Quellen
 Chris Downer: Crucible Almanac (2011 edition)., Bournemouth 2011.

1986
Snookerveranstaltung 1986
Billardturnier in Sheffield
Crucible Theatre

Snookerweltmeisterschaft 1986


Bakırcılar, Karabük ilinin Eflani ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köy, 1928 yılından beri aynı adı taşımaktadır. Daha önceleri Safranbolu ilçesine bağlıyken, 23 Mayıs 1959'da Eflani ilçesine bağlandı.

Coğrafya
Köy, Karabük il merkezine 63 km, Eflani ilçe merkezine 18 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Eflani belde ve köyleri

Bakırcılar, Eflani


Keydomar Vallenilla, né le  à La Guaira, est un haltérophile vénézuélien.

Palmarès

Jeux olympiques
 Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020 à Tokyo
  Médaille d'argent en moins de 96 kg.

Championnats du monde
 Championnats du monde d'haltérophilie 2021 à Tashkent, Ouzbékistan
  Médaille de bronze en moins de 96 kg.
 Championnats du monde d'haltérophilie 2022 à Bogota, Colombie
  Médaille d'or en moins de 89 kg.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Haltérophile vénézuélien
Médaillé d'argent olympique vénézuélien
Naissance en octobre 1999
Haltérophile (homme) aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020

Keydomar Vallenilla


În lingvistică, termenii temă și remă se referă la împărțirea propoziției în două segmente, după unii autori considerate din punct de vedere logic, după alții din punct de vedere comunicativ sau pragmatic. Unii precizează că această împărțire este valabilă pentru propoziția văzută ca enunț, adică funcțiile de temă și remă se manifestă numai în contextul în care este folosită propoziția.

Conform unei definiții mai vechi, tema conține o informație deja cunoscută de participanții la comunicare, deci veche, iar rema o informație nouă. Unii lingviști le dau și în prezent această definiție.

După o definiție mai nouă, tema este despre ceea ce este vorba în propoziție, iar rema – ceea ce vrem să comunicăm despre temă.

În definiția mai multor lingviști actuali se combină cel puțin parțial cele două de mai sus. Astfel, tema este partea din propoziție ce reprezintă ceva sau pe cineva despre care este vorba în propoziție, informație deja cunoscută de participanții la comunicare, ceea ce ține de informația implicit admisă sau presupusă, iar rema – partea din propoziție ce reprezintă ceea ce se spune despre temă. Unii adaugă la aceasta că rema conține o informație nouă față de temă, iar alții că tema este punctul de pornire al comunicării.

Terminologia nu este unitară în ceea ce privește denumirile corespunzătoare temei și remei în literatura de specialitate anglofonă și francofonă, preluate și în cea maghiară. În general sunt considerate șiruri de sinonime următoarele:

 temă –  topic, theme –  topique, thème;
 remă –  predicate, comment, rheme –  prédicat, commentaire, rhème, propos.

Există și o viziune în care termenii englezi theme și topic nu sunt sinonime. Cel din urmă ar desemna prima secvență a propoziției, adusă pe primul loc de la locul ei canonic, prin urmare propoziția canonică nu ar avea topic.

În continuare folosim numai termenii "temă" și "remă".

Propoziția canonică

Propoziția canonică este una enunțiativă, neexclamativă, reală, pozitivă și completă, în care nu se face niciun efort pentru a atribui rolurile de temă și de remă, și care nu are nicio parte scoasă în evidență. Cel puțin în unele limbi, într-o astfel de propoziție, tema este pe primul loc, fiind de regulă subiectul, iar rema este toată partea din propoziție de după temă. Exemple:

 în limba franceză: Pierre aime Marie "Pierre o iubește pe Marie";
 în limba engleză: A visitor is coming to the door "Un vizitator vine la ușă";
 în limba muntenegreană: Komšija prodaje kuću u Danilovgradu "Vecinul vinde o casă în Danilovgrad";
 în limba maghiară: János feltette a könyvet a polcra "János a pus cartea pe raft".

În aceleași limbi, o excepție este propoziția cu predicat nominal având numele predicativ exprimat prin substantiv sau pronume. În acestea, subiectul poate fi și la începutul, și la sfârșitul propoziției, dar tema rămâne pe primul loc, iar rema pe al doilea. Exemplu:
  Paris est la capitale de la France "Parisul este capitala Franței";
 La capitale de la France est Paris "Capitala Franței este Parisul".

După unii lingviști, toate propozițiile de mai sus nu ar putea fi considerate ca având temă, dacă răspund la întrebarea "Despre ce este vorba?", dat fiind că toată propoziția conține o informație nouă, deci ar fi numai remă.

Propoziții necanonice

În diversele situații de comunicare, nu toate propozițiile sunt canonice. Vorbitorii sau cei care scriu sunt cei care determină rolurile de temă și de remă ale diferitelor părți ale propoziției, în funcție de intențiile lor.

De exemplu, un vorbitor poate determina, punând o întrebare, ce parte a răspunsului va fi temă, respectiv remă. O întrebare precum  Quand vas-tu à la poste ? "Când mergi la poștă?" se referă la complementul circumstanțial de timp. Răspunsul poate fi, de exemplu, Je vais à la poste demain "Merg la poștă mâine", în care tema este Je vais à la poste, pentru că informația conținută în această secvență este deja cunoscută, apărând în întrebare, iar rema – demain, acest complement reprezentând informația nouă. Dacă însă întrebarea este Que fais-tu demain ? "Ce faci mâine?", adică se referă la predicat, răspunsul este același din punct de vedere gramatical și al conținutului ca cel precedent, Demain, je vais à la poste "Mâine merg la poștă", dar aici Demain devine temă, în timp ce je vais à la poste devine remă. Prin urmare, vorbitorul, în acest exemplu cel care răspunde, tematizează o parte a propoziției și implicit rematizează restul ei.

Rolurile de temă și de remă pot fi determinate de contextul situațional și în absența vreunei întrebări. De exemplu, în secvența / Slavko vidi Olgu. Olgu vidimo i mi "Slavko o vede pe Olga. Pe Olga o vedem și noi", Olga este parte a remei în prima propoziție și devine temă în a doua.

Există și propoziții fără temă. Este, de exemplu, cazul celor care prezintă evenimente fără agent:  Érkezett egy levél "A sosit o scrisoare", Esik az eső "Plouă" (literal "Cade ploaia"). În dialoguri, răspunsurile sunt de multe ori numai reme, fiind propoziții fragmentare, atunci când se evită repetarea conținutului întrebării. Exemplu:  – Who sang the song? – Caroline "– Cine a cântat cântecul? – Caroline".

Tematizare, rematizare și scoatere în evidență

Tematizarea unei părți a propoziției și implicit rematizarea celeilalte se face prin diverse procedee, care pot diferi de la limbă la limbă. În unele limbi, de exemplu cele indo-europene, se realizează prin schimbări de topică și prozodice (accentuare și intonație) sau/și prin anumite construcții la care participă cuvinte suplimentare față de propoziția canonică. În alte limbi, de pildă coreeană, japoneză, tagalog, orice parte de propoziție poate fi temă, ceea ce este marcat cu o particulă sau un afix. În plus, tematizarea/rematizarea poate fi combinată cu scoaterea în evidență a temei sau a remei, ori a unei părți din acestea.

Tematizare

În limbile în care, în propoziția canonică, tema (reprezentată de subiect) este plasată pe primul loc în propoziție, tematizarea altor părți de propoziție în sensul gramaticii tradiționale, eventual cu toată sintagma lor, se face prin același procedeu. Exemple:

 predicat verbal:  Pierre, Paul et Marie ont été reçus "Pierre, Paul și Marie au trecut la examen" → Ont été reçus Pierre, Paul et Marie "Au trecut la examen Pierre, Paul și Marie";
 complement direct:
  Paul a lu la lettre de Marie "Paul a citit scrisoarea lui Marie" → La lettre de Marie, Paul l'a lue "Scrisoarea lui Marie, Pierre a citit-o" – cu reluare în remă prin pronume personal;
  John gave the money to Peter yesterday "John i-a dat banii lui Peter ieri" → The money John gave to Peter yesterday "Banii i i-a dat John lui Peter ieri";
 / Olgu vidimo i mi "Pe Olga o vedem și noi";
  János feltette a könyvet a polcra "János a pus cartea pe raft" → A könyvet feltette János a polcra "Cartea a pus-o János pe raft";
 complement indirect:
  Nous ne savons rien de cet auteur "Nu știm nimic despre autorul acesta" → De cet auteur, nous ne savons rien "Despre autorul acesta nu știm nimic";
  John gave the money to Peter yesterday "John i-a dat banii lui Peter ieri" → To Peter John gave the money yesterday "Lui Peter John i-a dat banii ieri";
 complement circumstanțial:
  Je vais à la poste demain "Merg la poștă mâine" → Demain, je vais à la poste "Mâine merg la poștă";
  John gave the money to Peter yesterday "John i-a dat banii lui Peter ieri" → Yesterday John gave the money to Peter "Ieri John i-a dat banii lui Peter";
  János feltette a könyvet a polcra "János a pus cartea pe raft" → A polcra feltette János a könyvet "Pe raft, János a pus cartea";
 atribut substantival:  Je n'ai jamais su les motifs exacts de cette brouille "Niciodată n-am aflat motivele exacte ale acestei certe" → De cette brouille, je n'ai jamais su les motifs exacts;
 nume predicativ:
  Pierre n'est pas sérieux "Pierre nu e serios" → Sérieux, Pierre ne l'est pas – cu reluare în remă prin pronume personal;
  Szép nem vagyok, de kedves annál inkább "Frumoasă nu sunt, dar drăguță/amabilă cu atât mai mult" – punere în opoziție a două însușiri.

Tematizarea se poate realiza și prin transformarea de la diateza activă la cea pasivă, în limbile în care această diateză este folosită:

  Pierre accuse Paul "Pierre îl acuză pe Paul" → Paul est accusé par Pierre "Paul este acuzat de Pierre";
  I helped the child "L-am ajutat pe copil" → The child was helped by me "Copilul a fost ajutat de mine".

Rematizare

În franceză, de exemplu, rematizarea fără scoatere în evidență se face prin plasarea părții respective a propoziției la sfârșitul acesteia (Je vais à la poste demain "Merg la poștă mâine" dacă propoziția este răspuns la întrebarea "Când mergi la poștă?"). În schimb, dacă se dorește scoaterea în evidență a complementului, acesta se plasează la începutul propoziției printr-o construcție specifică: C'est demain que je vais à la poste "Mâine merg la poștă". Astfel se poate rematiza și scoate în evidență orice parte de propoziție în sensul gramaticii tradiționale, eventual împreună cu sintagma ei, în afară de predicat. Răspunsul la o întrebare care vizează subiectul unui predicat verbal nici nu se poate construi decât scoțându-l în evidență prin acest procedeu sau prin altă construcție. Astfel, la o întrebare precum Qui veut épouser Juliette ? "Cine vrea să o ia în căsătorie pe Juliette?", răspunsul poate fi:
 cu rema la început, accentuată mai puternic: C'est Pierre qui veut épouser Juliette "Pierre (este cel care) vrea să o ia în căsătorie pe Juliette";
 cu rema la sfârșit, accentuată mai slab: Celui qui veut épouser Juliette est Pierre "Cel care vrea să o ia în căsătorie pe Juliette este Pierre".

În alte limbi, rematizarea sau/și scoaterea în evidență a unui asemenea subiect se poate face prin procedee ca cele de mai jos:
 / plasarea remei la sfârșit și accentuarea ei mai puternică; Šunku donosi Slavko "Șunca o aduce Slavko";
  plasarea remei la început și accentuarea ei mai puternică: János olvasta el a könyvet "János (este cel care) a citit cartea".

În franceză mai sunt și alte construcții de rematizare cu scoatere în evidență:
 a subiectului unui predicat nominal: La clé de l'évolution est le hasard "Cheia evoluției este întâmplarea" → Le hasard, voilà la clé de l'évolution "Întâmplarea, iată cheia evoluției";
 a complementului direct exprimat prin verb la infinitiv: Il ambitionne brasser des affaires "Are ambiția să învârtă afaceri" → Brasser des affaires, c'est ce qu'il ambitionne "Să învârtă afaceri, asta are ambiția să facă";
 a numelui predicativ exprimat prin adjectiv: La Loire est belle "Loara e frumoasă" → Elle est belle, la Loire "E frumoasă Loara" – cu subiectul exprimat de două ori, prin substantiv sau pronume personal accentuat la sfârșitul propoziției, anticipat cu pronumele personal neaccentuat corespunzător la începutul propoziției + verbul copulativ.

Funcțiile structurii temă-remă

În afară de funcția logică/comunicativă în propoziție, tema și rema au o funcție și la nivelul discursului sau textului. Perechea temă-remă este unul din mijloacele de realizarea a legăturii dintre propoziții independente care nu sunt în aceeași frază, și între fraze, contribuind astfel la organizarea discursului/textului la nivel mezostructural, ceea ce asigură coeziunea și coerența sa. Propoziții învecinate pot fi interconectate prin faptul că rema uneia devine cel puțin parțial tema celei/celor următoare în aceeași formă sau în forma unui cuvânt cu același conținut noțional. Exemple:

 / Slavko vidi Olgu. Olgu vidimo i mi "Slavko o vede pe Olga. Pe Olga o vedem și noi". Partea principală a remei primei propoziții (Olgu) devine tema celei de-a doua.
  Holnap az idő vagy esős lesz vagy napsütéses. Ha esik, itthon maradunk. Ha süt a nap, elmegyünk kirándulni "Mâine vremea va fi ori ploioasă, ori însorită. Dacă plouă, rămânem acasă. Dacă e soare, mergem în excursie". În prima propoziție, rema are două părți importante, "ploioasă" și "însorită". Prima devine tema celei de-a doua fraze, iar a doua – tema celei de-a treia.

Și în dialoguri, replicile pot fi legate între ele făcând dintr-o parte a predicatului unei replici tema replicii următoare :

Vorbitorul care pune întrebarea face din "bani" tema în sens general a dialogului, iar cel care răspunde, repetând cuvântul "bani", îl tematizează cu intenția de a-l menține ca temă generală a dialogului.

Interconectându-se în diverse moduri, temele și remele realizează o progresie tematică în discurs/text.

Note

Surse bibliografice

  Browne, Wayles și Alt, Theresa, A Handbook of Bosnian, Serbian, and Croatian (Manual de bosniacă, sârbă și croată), SEELRC, 2004 (accesat la 22 august 2018)
  Bussmann, Hadumod (coord.), Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (Dicționarul limbii și lingvisticii), Londra – New York, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-203-98005-0 (accesat la 22 august 2018)
  Čirgić, Adnan; Pranjković, Ivo; Silić, Josip, Gramatika crnogorskoga jezika (Gramatica limbii muntenegrene), Podgorica, Ministerul Învățământului și Științei al Muntenegrului, 2010, ISBN 978-9940-9052-6-2 (accesat la 22 august 2018)
  Crystal, David, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (Dicționar de lingvistică și fonetică), ediția a VI-a, Blackwell Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-1-4051-5296-9 (accesat la 10 noiembrie 2018)
  Dubois, Jean et al., Dictionnaire de linguistique (Dicționar de lingvistică), Paris, Larousse-Bordas/VUEF, 2002 (accesat la 26 decembrie 2022)
  É. Kiss, Katalin, 5. fejezet – Mondattan (Capitolul 5 – Sintaxă), Kiefer, Ferenc (coord.), Magyar nyelv (Limba maghiară), Budapesta, Akadémiai Kiadó, 2006, ISBN 963-05-8324-0, pp. 72–107 (accesat la 26 decembrie 2022)
  Eifring, Halvor și Theil, Rolf, Linguistics for Students of Asian and African Languages (Lingvistică pentru studenții în limbi asiatice și africane), Universitatea din Oslo, 2005 (accesat la 22 august 2018)
  Kalmbach, Jean-Michel, La grammaire du français langue étrangère pour étudiants finnophones (Gramatica limbii franceze ca limbă străină pentru studenți vorbitori de finlandeză), versiunea 1.5., Universitatea din Jyväskylä (Finlanda), 2017, ISBN 978-951-39-4260-1 (accesat la 22 august 2018)
  Tolcsvai Nagy, Gábor, 6. fejezet – Szövegtan (Capitorul 6 – Lingvistica textului), Kiefer, Ferenc (coord.), Magyar nyelv (Limba maghiară), Budapesta, Akadémiai Kiadó, 2006, ISBN 963-05-8324-0, pp. 108–126 (accesat la 26 decembrie 2022)
  Wyler, Gabriel, Manuel de la grammaire française (Manual al gramaticii franceze), actualizat la 31.07.2019 (accesat la 25 aprilie 2020)

Lingvistică

Temă și remă


Le château fort de Mosson  est un fort donjon situé dans le village de Mosson, dans le département français de la Côte-d'Or.

Localisation
Le château fort de Mosson est situé rue aux Friands à l'extrémité occidentale du village, au pied d'une côte dominant à l'ouest la vallée de l'Ource.

Histoire
L'établissement de la maison forte de Mosson remonte au moins au . En janvier 1282, Richard, seigneur de Dampierre, la reprend en fief de Gui de Genève, évêque de Langres avec  « 40 maignies d'hommes, le four, la moitié du moulin » et reçoit à cet effet 120 livres tournois. Le 3 juin 1372, Jean de Saffres, grand doyen de Langres, tient du duc à Mouson « les amplastres qui sont devant le cloux appelez la saule de Rochefort et de la grange de costé ladite saule, et des meix tenant à ycelle ensemble le maisonnement tenant à icelle ».

Architecture
En 1795, un nommé Cely décrit "une place dépendant du château est emplantée de 7 marronniers et par une porte de bois donne accès dans la cour qui est à l'est du château, où se trouve un puits et 88 tilleuls. Un pavillon au nord de la cour avec une aile de chaque côté ; il y a quatre tours dont l'une sert d'escalier pour gagner le grenier. Au rez-de-chaussée, deux chambres à feu et trois cabinets dans chacune des tours qui ont deux étages. Dans une des ailes, une cuisine, un cellier, une chambre. L'autre aile comprend une écurie et un bucher. Au nord de la cour est un pavillon dont le rez-de-chaussée sert de communication entre le château et la basse-cour".

La maison forte est précédée d'une basse-cour fermée au nord par deux corps de logis encadrant une tour-porche sans pont-levis. Elle est constituée d'une tour rectangulaire haute de treize mètres comprenant trois étages cantonnés aux angles par quatre tourelles rondes légèrement plus hautes que le logis central. Celui-ci a été percé au  de baies rectangulaires sur les faces nord, sud et est alors que la façade occidentale porte les cheminées.

Mobilier
Château de Mosson, propriété privée, ne se visite pas. Cependant, on peut en admirer la cheminée monumentale ainsi que sa plaque au musée du Pays châtillonnais où elles sont déposées.

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des châteaux de la Côte-d'Or

Château dans la Côte-d'Or
Châtillonnais
Château fort dans la Côte-d'Or

Château-fort de Mosson


Lydintensitet eller akustisk intensitet er akustisk effekt per fladeenhed. Akustisk intensitet kan udtrykkes
,
hvor P er akustisk effekt (W) og S er arealet (m²). Lydintensitet har derfor enheden Watt/m². Den øjeblikkelige intensitet kan udtrykkes
,
hvor p(t) er lydtryket (Pa) og u(t) er partikelhastigheden (m/s), begge som funktion af tiden. Gennemsnitsintensiteten er så
,
hvor T er tidsintervallet (s) der integreres over.

Akustisk intensitetsniveau eller lydintensitetsniveau er akustisk intensitet målt i dB:
,
hvor referenceintensiteten  er den laveste akustiske intensiteten, ved 1 kHz, som en gennemsnitsperson kan opfatte.

Kilder/referencer

Akustik
Måleenheder

Lydintensitet


كافوس (Κάβος) هي مدينة في كيركيرا في مقاطعة كينتريكي إلادا في اليونان.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 1,082 نسمة.

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في كورفو (مقاطعة)
مدن اليونان

كافوس (كيركيرا)


قبل عام 2002 معظم المراقبين الغربيين لم يعتبروا حزب التحرير تهديد كبير -هدفه المتمثل في إسقاط الحكومات ليحل محلها الخليفة الذي سيطبق الشريعة يبدو غير واقعي وغير المحتمل ان يتعالى صداها مع المسلمين في الغرب. بالرغم من أن حزب التحرير تمكن من استغلال الظروف السياسية لكسب موطئ قدم في مناطق معينة، كما هو الحال في آسيا الوسطى، الا انه بشكل عام كان ينظر اليه على انه حزب راكد. لكن خلال السنوات 2002-2007، أحداث العالم المضطرب وتيار الرأي العام المتغير تجاه الولايات المتحدة اعطت حزب التحرير اطارا لدفع جدول أعماله. قبل خمس سنوات، قدر العلماء وجود حزب التحرير في حوالي 40 بلدا. واليوم، ان التقدير قد ارتفع إلى أكثر من 45 بلدا. خلال السنوات 2002-2007، عدة فروع أصبحت كبيرة وقوية بما فيه الكفاية للانتقال من مرحلة الحمل الخفيه إلى المرحلة النشطة بين الجماهير، ومنها أستراليا، بلجيكا، الدانمارك، ماليزيا، فلسطين، باكستان، تركيا وبنغلاديش. وقد تضخمت عضويتها، لتضع على المسار هدفها باقناع الامة الإسلامية في العالم ان قيام الخلافة -ظاهريا من خلال وسائل غير عنيفة- امر ضروري لعكس اتجاه الهبوط للمجتمع الإسلامي إلى الصعود من جديد. عالميا، اعطى حزب التحرير نفسه ثقة وتفاؤلا، ويتنامى وفقا لاستراتيجية وضعها اعضائه المؤسسين في 1953. حزب التحرير-أمريكا يتمتع بنمط مماثل من التقدم.

في ال13 سنة الأولى من تطوره، حزب التحرير-أمريكا كان ينظر اليه على انه صغير جدا وغير فعال لتقديم أي نوع من التهديد الحقيقي (اورانج كاونتي سجل 25 آب، 2005). مؤسسيها -ومعظمهم شبان هاجروا إلى الولايات المتحدة من الشرق الأوسط في أوائل الثمانينات- واجهوا وقتا صعبا للتغلب على الاختلافات الثقافية مع الشباب الامريكى باعتباره الفئة المستهدفة، وكانوا في بعض الأحيان غير قادرين على المنافسة مع غيرهم من المجموعات المتطرفة ---صاحبة المال الوفير والاستراتيجيات الأكثر عدوانيه والإدارة المؤسسة جيدا-. ومع ذلك، مؤسسو حزب التحرير-أمريكا نجحوا في تحقيق ما يكفي من أعضاء خلال أول 10 سنوات لتأمين مستقبل الحزب. حزب التحرير-أمريكا استمر بالتطور مستخدما نفس المنهجية كغيره من الفروع أخرى والآن يظهر علامات الحيوية.

حزب التحرير في أمريكا: النكسات المؤقتة والنجاح طويل الاجل

كان نمو حزب التحرير-أمريكا بطيء نسبيا بالنسبة لبلدان أخرى؛ ولكن، ما قد يكون بمثابة معوقات نموه في البداية إما تم التغلب عليها أو قد تعتبر الآن اصول.

العقبة الأولى هي عقليه مؤسسيها، الذين اعتادوا على الأوضاع في الشرق الأوسط، حيث حزب التحرير محظور في معظم البلدان. كانوا دائما قلقين من اختراق «الجواسيس» لحلقاتهم واسم «حزب التحرير» ذكر فقط همسا خارج اجتماعاتهم التي اجريت في ساب روزا. هذه الدرجة من السرية تكون عملية عندما تدير حركة سياسية تخريبيه، ولكن هذه السرية تبدو غريبة على الشباب المسلمين قبل احداث11/9 ولذلك اختار الكثيرون عدم مواصلة ارتباطهم بحزب التحرير-أمريكا. لكن بعد أحداث 11/9، حيث يشعر المسلمين بعدم الحرية في التعبير عن المعارضة، أصبحت سرية حزب التحرير-أمريكا امرا مفيدا له تنظيميا. وفي الواقع، حزب التحرير-أمريكا نما دون ملاحظه من الصحافيين والباحثين والمدققين.

وهناك عامل آخر أسهم في بطء نمو حزب التحرير-أمريكا قد يكون رفض المؤسسيين السماح لطلابهم والمنضمين الجدد على التفاعل على شبكة الإنترنت. كانوا قلقين من أن التفاعل الحر على الإنترنت قد يؤثر سلبا على سرية تنامي جهاز الحزب في أمريكا. مرة أخرى، الكثير من مؤيديهم من الشباب الامريكى وجدوا هذه القيود السخيفه واختاروا تجاهل القيود. الروح الرائدة للجيل الجديد جعلت حزب التحرير-أمريكا واحدة من أكثر الجماعات المتطرفة المبتكرة من حيث استخدام وسائط الإعلام الجديدة كوسيله لتسويق فكرتها. بعض من خطط التسويق شملت ازياء الهيب هوب، وعصبات الهيب هوب، واستخدام الشبكات الاجتماعية على الإنترنت، واستخدام شبكات تبادل الفيديو على الإنترنت ومواقع المنتديات والتشات. قدرت الحزب على البقاء خطوة واحدة إلى الأمام من اتجاه منحنى، كفل دوام جهودها، والاساليب المتغيره باستمرار جعل التدقيق فيه من قبل خصومه أكثر صعوبة.

المعارك الصعبة كانت مستمرة طوال مسيرة تنامي حزب التحرير-أمريكا. أحيانا يفوز حزب التحرير-أمريكا بالسيطرة على مسجد، مركز إسلامي بالمجتمع، أو رابطة طلابية، وأحيانا أخرى يحرج بسبب عدم قدرته على المنافسة بضم أعضاء جدد مع منظمات ممولة أفضل ولها تاريخ طويل في الوجود في الولايات المتحدة، مثل الاخوان المسلمين. حزب التحرير منظمة تموليها ذاتي، تنافس فقط بالفكر والحملات الدعائية غير مكلفة.

أول قاعدة لعمليات هلال، هو الجالية الإسلامية في اورانج كاونتي، حيث كانت تعج بالصراع بين الفصائل المتطرفة التي تتنافس للسيطرة على المسجد، ومنها من كان له علاقة بالقاعده (نيو يوركر، 22 يناير).

مجموعة حزب التحرير الصغيرة التابعة لهلال لم تتحالف مع المجموعة التي تتحكم بالمسجد، وعندما حاولوا ضم أعضاء جدد من خلال توزيع مجلة khalifornia، اجبروا على التوقف من مجلس إدارة المسجد (سجل اورانج كاونتي 25 آب، 2005). كان لهلال حظا أفضل في مدينة كوينز، نيويورك، حيث استولى نظرائه على مسجد صغير بعيد عن الشارع الرئيسي كانوا يستخدموه كقاعده لعمليات الحزب، الاجتماعات والمؤتمرات ومكتب تحرير لمجلة حزب التحرير، وهي مجلة أخباريه تسمى الراية.

في ظل استمرار المعوقات في المجتمع الإسلامي من اورانج كاونتي، انتقل هلال إلى البلدة التي تشكل قاعدة لعملياته الحالية، وهي المركز الإسلامي في وادي سان غابرييل. وهناك مؤشرات غير رسمية ان هلال يواصل مساعيه في عطل نهاية الاسبوع لعرض ايديولوجيه حزب التحرير، رغم أنه ينفي أي روابط جارية مع حزب التحرير-أمريكا.

وجود حزب التحرير-أمريكا في الولايات المتحدة لم يقتصر على السواحل الاثنين. بعض أكثر الاعضاء نفوذا لحزب التحرير-أمريكا موجودين في الغرب الأوسط، المتحول إلى الإسلام جليل عبد العادل، وهو حاليا بروفسور علم النفس السريري في جامعة الينوي، شيكاغو. قد يكون عبد العادل أهم أعضاء حزب التحرير-أمريكا المعروفين. لقد تحدث في المؤتمر الرئيسي لحزب التحرير في بريطانيا، وظهر في تموز 2007 في فيديو انتجه أعضاء حزب التحرير-بريطانيا عام 2007 للترويج لمؤتمر الخلافة، مما جعل عبد العادل الممثل الأول لحزب التحرير-أمريكا معروف علنا على هذا النحو.

مستقبل حزب التحرير-أمريكا

رغم بعض العقبات منذ البداية، حزب التحرير-أمريكا تجاوز العقبات، وجند عدد كافي من الاتباع المخلصين لتوليد زخم لنمو الحزب في الولايات المتحدة. طبقا لاستراتيجية الحزب العالمية، يضم حزب التحرير-أمريكاصحاب شهادات عليا لهم تأثير بين افراد مجتمعاتهم، بمن فيهم الاطباء والمحامون واصحاب المؤسسات، والعلماء والمهندسين واساتذة الجامعات. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، وجود حزب التحرير-أمريكا على الخط تبين أن اعضاءه قد ازدهروا خارج نيويورك، اورانج كاونتي، شيكاغو وميلووكي.

من المرجح ان يلعب حزب التحرير-أمريكا دورا هاما في الشبكة العالمية لحزب التحرير، نظرا لنجاحه في وسائط الإعلام الجديدة على الساحة والوصول إلى الطلاب الذين يدرسون في الجامعات الاميركية لعدة سنوات قبل عودتهم إلى بلدانهم الأصلية. نفيد بت، الناطق الرسمي المؤثر باسم حزب التحرير-باكستان، انضم لحزب التحرير عندما أقام في الولايات المتحدة.

رغم أنه ليس من المرجح ان يبدأ التحرير-أمريكا العنف فإنها قد يكون بمثابة نقطة الانطلاق في عملية التطرف. وكانت هناك عدة حالات لافراد انضموا لصفوف حزب التحرير ثم انتقلوا إلى تنظيمات عسكرية، كما كان الحال مع قضية تل أبيب الانتحاري عمر الشريف، وأبو عيسى الهندي، الذين تآمروا لمهاجمة عدة اهداف مالية في نيويورك.

ولكن في هذه المرحلة من تنامي الحزب، ولان الولايات المتحدة لا تتمتع بنفس الحارقة الأوضاع الاجتماعية كما هو الحال في أوروبا، حزب التحرير-أمريكا لا يرجح ان يكون عدد كبير من المجندين كما حدث في بلدان أخرى كثيرة. ومع ذلك، طموح حزب التحرير-أمريكا إلى تفاقم التوترات والتشجيع على عدم مشاركة أمريكا في النظم الاجتماعية والسياسية لا ينبغي اهماله. يوفر حزب التحرير للمجتمعات الإسلامية مشاعر الاستياء والتهميش، كما حدث في المملكة المتحدة، والدنمارك وأستراليا. إذا استمر ازدياد الانشقاق بين المسلمين في الولايات المتحدة والحكومة، سضع حزب التحرير-أمريكا نفسه في التدخل لاستغلال التوترات.

المقال مترجم عن مقالة مادلين جرون

مصادر

الإسلام السياسي في الولايات المتحدة
تأسيسات عقد 1990 في الولايات المتحدة
حزب التحرير
منظمات إسلامية في الولايات المتحدة
أحزاب سياسية إسلامية في الولايات المتحدة

حزب التحرير (أمريكا)


Europsko prvenstvo u nogometu do 21 godine – Slovenija i Mađarska 2021. (mađarski: 2021-es U21-es labdarúgó-Európa-bajnokság, slovenski: Evropsko prvenstvo v nogometu do 21 let 2021) 23. je izdanje UEFA Europskog prvenstva do 21 godine. Prvotno, 12 reprezentacija trebalo je igrati na turniru, no 6. veljače 2019., UEFA-in izvršni odbor povećao je taj broj na 16. Na natjecanju mogu igrati samo igrači rođeni 1. siječnja 1998. ili kasnije.

Domaćini turnira bili su Mađarska i Slovenija. Turnir je prvotno trebao biti igran od 9. do 26. lipnja 2021, no raspored turnira bio je promijenjen zbog pandemije COVID-19. UEFA Europsko prvenstvo 2020. prebačeno je na lipanj i srpanj 2021. godine. Novi datumi prvotno su trebali biti odlučeni 27. svibnja 2020., no bili su odlučeni 17. lipnja 2020., kada se na sastanku UEFA-inog izvršnog odbora raspravljalo o kalendaru i formatu natjecanja. Dana 17. lipnja 2020., UEFA je objavila da će se natjecanje igrati u dvije faze; grupna faza od 24. do 31. ožujka 2021. te drugi dio natjecanja od 31. svibnja do 6. lipnja iste godine.

Stadioni
Natjecanje se održalo na ovim stadionima:

Privremeni raspored objavljen je u studenom 2019. s osam stadiona u osam gradova. Prema tom rasporedu Mađarska (Grupa A i C) i Slovenija (Grupa B i D) pojedinačno su bili domaćini dviju grupa, dvaju četvrtfinala i jednog polufinala, dok se finale odigralo na Stadionu Stožice u Ljubljani.

Sudci

4. sudci
 Ádám Farkas
 Espen Eskås
 Horațiu Feșnic
 Rade Obrenović

Sastav Hrvatske
Slijedi sastav Hrvatske u grupnoj fazi:

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 Promjene u sasatvu nokaut faze u odnosu na sastav grupne faze
 Hrvoje Babec nosio je dres s brojem 14 umjesto 3
 David Čolina nosio je dres s brojem 3 umjesto 4
 Boško Šutalo uključen je u sastav te je nosio broj 4
 Umjesto Darka Nejašmića (broj 6) član sastava bio je Joško Gvardiol (broj 6)
 Umjesto Dominika Kotarskog (broj 12) član sastava bio je Ivor Pandur (broj 12)
 Umjesto Mihaela Žapera (broj 13) član sastava bio je Neven Đurasek (broj 13)
 Dario Vizinger (broj 14) bio je isključen iz sastava
 Umjesto Marka Divkovića (broj 18) član sastava bio je Stipe Biuk (broj 18)

Grupna faza

Grupa A

Grupa B

Grupa C

Grupa D

Drugi dio natjecanja
Ako je potrebno, u utakmicama druge faze natjecanja koriste se produžetci i penali kako bi se utvrdio pobjednik utakmice.

Četvrtfinale

Polufinale

Finale

Strijelci
Zabijeno je 83 golova u 31 utakmice. Prosječan broj golova po utakmici iznosi 2,68.

4 gola:
 Lukas Nmecha

3 gola:

 Patrick Cutrone
 Myron Boadu

 Dany Mota
 Javi Puado

2 gola:

 Anders Dreyer
 Odsonne Édouard
 Luka Ivanušec
 Gianluca Scamacca
 Cody Gakpo
 Perr Schuurs
 Ridle Baku
 Florian Wirtz
 Francisco Conceição
 Francisco Trincão
 Daniel Gómez Alcón

1 gol:

 Mads Bech Sørensen
 Jacob Bruun Larsen
 Wahid Faghir
 Carlo Holse
 Gustav Isaksen
 Victor Nelsson
 Eberechi Eze
 Curtis Jones
 Matteo Guendouzi
 Jonathan Ikoné
 Dayot Upamecano
 Domagoj Bradarić
 Nikola Moro
 Dario Vizinger
 Sveinn Aron Guðjohnsen
 Giulio Maggiore
 Tommaso Pobega
 Giacomo Raspadori
 Bendegúz Bolla
 András Csonka
 Sven Botman
 Brian Brobbey
 Dani de Wit
 Justin Kluivert
 Perr Schuurs
 Jonathan Burkardt
 Jota
 Ramos
 Diogo Queirós
 Fábio Vieira
 Andrei Ciobanu
 Alexandru Mățan
 Alex Pașcanu
 Fjodor Čalov
 Denis Makarov
 Nair Tiknizjan
 Arsen Zaharjan
 Aljoša Matko
 Juan Miranda
 Gonzalo Villar
 Kastriot Imeri
 Dan Ndoye

1 autogol:

 Sandro Kulenović (protiv Švicarske)
 Giulio Maggiore (protiv Češke)

 Nik Prelec (protiv Češke)
 Jorge Cuenca (protiv Portugala)

Nagrade
Ove su nagrade dodijeljene na kraju natjecanja:
Igrač natjecanja:  Fábio Vieira
Zlatna kopačka:  Lukas Nmecha

Momčad natjecanja
Tehnički opservatori UEFA-e izabrali su momčad natjecanja nakon završetka natjecanja.

Televizijski prijenos

Europa

Izvan Europe

Bilješke

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Službena web-stranica
 Under-21 Matches: 2021, UEFA.com

Europska prvenstva u nogometu
Nogomet u Sloveniji
Nogomet u Mađarskoj
Međunarodna športska natjecanja u Sloveniji
Međunarodna športska natjecanja u Mađarskoj


O Pica-pau-magalhânico (Campephilus magellanicus) é uma ave da espécie de pica-pau encontrado no sul do Chile e sudoeste da Argentina; ele é residente dentro de seu alcance. Esta espécie é o exemplo mais ao sul do gênero Campephilus, que inclui o famoso pica-pau bico-de-marfim (C. principalis).

Descrição

O pica-pau de Magalhães tem  de comprimento. Os machos desta espécie pesam , e as fêmeas pesam . Entre as medidas padrão, a corda da asa é , a cauda é , a conta é , e o tarso é . É o maior pica-pau América do Sul e um dos maiores pica-paus do mundo. Entre as espécies conhecidas, apenas os membros não neotropicais do gênero Dryocopus e o pica-pau-grelha (Mulleripicus pulverulentus) são de corpo maior. Com a provável extinção dos pica-paus -bico-de-marfim e imperiais (Campephilus imperialis), o pica-pau-de-magalhães é a maior espécie viva do gênero Campephilus. Com um peso médio de  em machos e  nas fêmeas, é talvez o pica-pau mais pesado certamente existente nas Américas.

Várias vocalizações são emitidas por ambos os sexos. Mais informações são necessárias para determinar a função e o papel desses sons. Uma vocalização frequente é uma chamada nasal explosiva ( ou ) dada isoladamente ou em série (até sete, às vezes mais). Outra chamada alta, geralmente de pares, é uma chamada de gargarejo, que normalmente é emitida em série:  ou . Como muitas espécies em Campephilus, seu tambor é uma batida dupla alta.

Habitat
Os pica-paus de Magalhães habitam florestas maduras de Nothofagus e Nothofagus-Austrocedrus, onde se alimentam principalmente de larvas e besouros adultos (Coleoptera), bem como de aranhas. Ocasionalmente, outros alimentos podem complementar a dieta, incluindo seiva e frutas, bem como pequenos répteis, morcegos e ovos e filhotes de passeriformes.

Comportamento
Grupos familiares também se reúnem. Em um caso, cinco indivíduos foram observados empoleirados em cerca de  furo de profundidade vertical. Os pares reprodutores são altamente territoriais e geralmente tentam deslocar agressivamente e até atacar membros da mesma espécie, às vezes fazendo isso cooperativamente com os juvenis que criaram nos anos anteriores. Um ataque letal foi registrado em 2014. Quando estão criando filhotes ativamente, os jovens são mantidos agressivamente à distância por seus pais.

Dieta e alimentação
A espécie comumente co-ocorre com o chileno (Colaptes pitius) e o pica-pau listrado (Veniliornis lignarius), mas não compete diretamente com eles devido aos diferentes tamanhos corporais e preferências de habitat e presas. Esses pica-paus geralmente se alimentam em pares ou pequenos grupos familiares e são muito ativos em sua busca por comida; eles passam a maior parte do dia procurando por presas. Eles geralmente usam árvores vivas, mas também se alimentam de substratos mortos, como árvores caídas ou quebradas no chão, embora geralmente passem pouco tempo fazendo isso. Uma vez que a neve desaparece do solo na primavera, os pica-paus de Magalhães procuram presas nos troncos úmidos das árvores mais baixas. Na Terra do Fogo, os pica-paus de Magalhães se alimentam de árvores mortas e em decomposição ao redor de lagoas que hospedam o castor americano (Castor canadensis) introduzido.

Reprodução

O pica-pau-de-magalhães nidifica na primavera do hemisfério sul, de outubro a janeiro. Ambos os sexos cooperam na escavação do ninho no tronco de uma árvore. Os buracos de nidificação estão localizados em diferentes alturas, dependendo das espécies de árvores e das características do habitat local. A cavidade do ninho normalmente é de 5 a  acima do solo. As fêmeas põem de um a quatro ovos, com a grande maioria dos ninhos contendo dois ovos. Os pais reprodutores monogâmicos compartilham todos os deveres na escavação do ninho, incubação, defesa territorial e de predadores e criação dos filhotes. Os adultos normalmente se reproduzem a cada dois anos, uma característica não documentada em nenhuma outra espécie de pica-pau. A incubação dura de 15 a 17 dias, com o macho fazendo quase toda a incubação noturna. O mais novo dos dois filhotes, não raramente, morre de fome. Os filhotes emplumam em 45 a 50 dias. Após 2-3 anos sendo criados e auxiliados pelos pais, os jovens pica-paus de Magalhães tornam-se sexualmente maduros. A reprodução bem-sucedida e os laços de pares, no entanto, geralmente não ocorrem até os 4 a 5 anos de idade.

Ecologia
Vários predadores potenciais são conhecidos, sendo quase exclusivamente aves de rapina. Estes incluem falcões de garganta branca ( Buteo albigula), falcões variáveis ( B. polyosoma ), falcões bicolores (Accipiter bicolor) e caracarás com crista ( Caracara plancus ) (o último provavelmente um predador apenas de jovens). Quando eles encontram esses predadores em potencial enquanto não estão nidificando, os pica-paus de Magalhães geralmente respondem ficando quietos e parados. No entanto, as aves de rapina são frequentemente atacadas de forma agressiva durante a época de nidificação.

Status
Atualmente, a espécie é listada como de menor preocupação, mas reduções populacionais foram relatadas. A perda e a fragmentação florestal estão afetando as florestas temperadas do sul da América do Sul a um ritmo crescente, portanto, essas práticas também representam uma ameaça para o pica-pau de Magalhães. A distribuição da espécie se contraiu e foi fragmentada como consequência do desmatamento da floresta nativa, especialmente no centro-sul do Chile, onde a espécie agora está restrita a áreas protegidas e relíquias. As mudanças nos componentes estruturais da floresta após a extração de madeira, a conversão da floresta em plantações exóticas e a fragmentação devido ao desmatamento são as principais ameaças às suas populações. A espécie é protegida da caça tanto no Chile quanto na Argentina, onde não é ou muito raramente é caçada ilegalmente.

Ligações externas

 Vídeos do Pica-pau de Magalhães na Internet Coleção de pássaros
 Programa de conservação do pica-pau de Magalhães (espanhol)
 Selos (para Argentina, Chile ) com RangeMap
 Aves de Chile: Pica-pau de Magalhães - Descrição e fotos

Campephilus
Aves descritas em 1828
Aves do Chile

Pica-pau-magalhânico