Belgarion (also called Garion) is a fictional character and the chief protagonist in The Belgariad and The Malloreon, two fantasy epics written by David Eddings.

Garion is the distant nephew of Polgara the Sorceress and the distant grandson of Belgarath the Sorcerer, though in truth his lineage is many times removed from them, through Belgarath's other daughter and Polgara's twin sister, Beldaran, the wife of Riva Iron-Grip, the first king (and founder) of Riva. Garion's father was Geran, a stonecutter in the Sendarian village of Annath and hidden heir to the Rivan throne.  His mother, Ildera, was the daughter of a clan chief of Algaria.

Geran and Ildera were killed after a Grolim sent her into premature labor while he had Pol out looking for Garions grandmother. After Garion's birth he set fire to their home, and he (Garion) was taken by his aunt to live on Faldor's farm. He lived there in ignorance for 14 years. He was watched all his life by Chamdar, the man who killed his parents, until he would be old enough to be coming into his talents and could be used as a pawn. However, after the "Orb of Aldur" was stolen, he was swept along as his aunt and grandfather left to search for it. Along the way he learned many things about himself and his family, including the fact he's an immortal sorcerer—and is eventually revealed to be the Heir to the Rivan Throne—after which he begrudgingly becomes king. He also falls in love with Ce'Nedra, the Tolnedran princess, who reciprocates, and is forced to marry him by treaty.

He then discovers his destiny—destroying the Dark God Torak—and to avoid a bloody war with the Angaraks, goes with his grandfather and Silk on a journey which ends in an epic duel that he ultimately wins by slaying Torak. He is then married to Ce'Nedra and has a baby boy.

Several years later, during which he matures considerably, his son, Geran, is kidnapped to be the bearer of a new Dark Prophecy. Garion follows his son's kidnapper on a trek across Mallorea, and during this time he conceives another child, meets his grandmother, befriends the Emperor of Mallorea and the King of the Murgos (who have been enemies of his allies for generations), and chooses his successor as the "Child of Light." His successor ends the eternal conflict, becoming a God in the process. He returns home for the birth of his daughter Beldaran, although he is told by the Prophecy to prepare for a few more children along the way, as he and Ce'Nedra have hugely increased lifespans, reproductive and otherwise.

During the two series, he collects various titles, which he tends to use only when it suits him.  From the book Castle of Wizardry onwards, he holds the titles King of Riva, Overlord of the West, and Lord of the Western Sea, Keeper of the Orb of Aldur, and after Enchanter's End Game takes on the title of Godslayer.  Through many of the books he also bears the title Child of Light (he also bears this name in the Mrin and Darine Codices)  Among his most important accomplishments are the slaying of the god Torak in Enchanters' End Game, and his decision to choose his successor for the term 'Child of Light'  at the Place Which Is No More in The Seeress of Kell.

Personality
Raised on Faldor's Farm, Garion demonstrates all the attributes of a Sendarian farmer, which he extends to ruling Riva with relative ease. He has a streak of solid common sense, honesty, and unassuming charm.  As he matures, Garion uses these qualities to deal with more 'world-wise' monarchs and politicians in a manner they are unfamiliar with, thus making Garion one of the most powerful rulers. He's also grown duplicitous enough to use his rural background as a way of pointing that he has not had instruction in intricate proprieties of certain groups—the Mimbrate chivalry and the obscure Sorcerer's code of ethics—assuming there actually is one and Belgarath wasn't dodging questions. As he put it, "Let's agree I don't have very good manners, and you can answer me anyway."

He is very private with a strict sense of honor- his time among the Sendars has made him almost prudish, though in contrast he is very worldly and aware not everyone thinks like him. However, he has a tendency to act or speak without thinking, which can lead him into trouble. He is also ruled largely by his emotions, though this trait is much more controlled in the Malloreon. He is naturally loving and will go to any lengths to protect those he cares about, but when annoyed he has a fearsome temper. He is also highly stubborn and proud, often refusing to admit he's wrong even when he knows he is. He is also highly intelligent, though he was illiterate till he was 15, and he tends to hide this and use it as an advantage on people who think he's stupid.

Powers and abilities
Garion has an exceptional talent as a sorcerer being able to use the Will and the Word, and like his aunt and grandfather has a drastically extended lifespan (being the disciple of a God allows them to live an infinite amount of time.) However, he is initially unaware of the consequences of his actions e.g. he almost triggers an Ice Age whilst creating a thunderstorm; almost dies when he attempted to revive the colt in the 'Cave of the Gods' and sinking into mud when trying to throw a boulder - though this is usually because of his lack of education and not thinking things all the way through.  This aptitude is (in part at least) because of his lineage, which includes Polgara and Belgarath - though it is subtly hinted he is at least as strong, if not stronger than his grandfather. The first measure of his power is shown in Queen of Sorcery when Maas says to Salmissra his power is "untried and undirected but is very strong. He could destroy you quite by accident." In the Belgariad he mainly uses "spontaneous sorcery" meaning he does it without consciously gathering and releasing his will.  The Prophecy also acts through him on many occasions when he is incapable of protecting himself.  In the Malloreon his powers are more mature and he has much greater control, though he tends to only do small things with it, leaving the more complicated things to his family as they have more experience.

Being the "Child of Light", he has the Prophecy of the Light in his head who tells him how and when to use his power, as well as providing information that is necessary. This voice is quite separate from him with its own personality, and it often leaves him for long periods. It has protected him on a number of occasions, and has developed a fondness for him - often acting like a family member with unwanted advice and criticism.

As the keeper of the Orb of Aldur, and one of the only remaining descendants of Riva Iron-Grip, Belgarion was one of three people able to touch it without being destroyed - an ability he now shares only with Eriond (a God) and his only son Geran (named after Garion's father). This in itself grants him huge magical power, allowing him to destroy continents if he deems it necessary; however, he rarely uses it, as the childlike mind of the Orb is enthusiastic and eager to please Garion, and as such has a tendency to overdo things (such as when it empowered Garion to knock over the gates of Jarviksholm during the attack on the city, or one point when the Orb, due to misinterpreting a stray thought as a literal request, began enthusiastically explaining to Garion how he could rearrange the stars in the sky to spell out his name, implying that Garion with the Orb has enough power to simultaneously move multiple stars across interstellar distances.) He is also, due to his connection with the Prophecy, able to recite the Book of Alorn from memory, despite having never actually read it. In fact, Belgarath claims he could have done so from the cradle if he'd been asked.

His companions on his adventures have taught him many skills, and on these journeys he has gained a great deal of practical experience. His tutorship under Silk has rendered him capable of moving silently when needed, as well as to lie effectively and he is good at gathering information from local sources. He is also adept in the Drasnian secret language, which is practised using hand signs.  He has also learned how to use a variety of different weapons, and as he is a student of Hettar, Mandorallen, and Barak, he is a master swordsman, capable of taking out entire battalions single handed. His use of the "Sword of the Rivan King" has caused him to be feared in most parts of the world; as his son puts it: "when Father got his sword out, most sensible people ran for cover."

His extensive travels have given him contacts in all parts of the world, including the Emperor of Mallorea and the King of the Murgos. His upbringing also makes him aware of the common people. He has a shopkeeper friend in Riva who he periodically visits to listen to what's troubling commoners. Rather than use this to ferret out secrets, he usually applies what he learns to smoothing out injustices, such as an unfair tax.

References

Family tree

Fictional kings
Fictional characters who use magic
Literary characters introduced in 1982

Belgarion


HMS Emperor of India was an  of the British Royal Navy. She was originally to have been named Delhi but was renamed before she was completed, to honour King George V, who was also Emperor of India at the time. The ship was laid down on 31 May 1912 at the Vickers shipyard, and was launched on 27 November 1913. The finished ship was commissioned a year later in November 1914, shortly after the start of the First World War. She was armed with a main battery of ten  guns and was capable of a top speed of .

Upon commissioning, Emperor of India joined the 4th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet, based at Scapa Flow. She took part in numerous sorties into the northern North Sea to enforce the blockade of Germany, along with frequent training exercises and gunnery drills. Emperor of India was in dock for a refit in late May 1916, so she was unavailable for the Battle of Jutland. The increased danger from submarines led both the Grand Fleet and the German High Seas Fleet to pursue more cautious strategies after Jutland, which led to a less eventful war.

After the war, Emperor of India was sent to the Mediterranean Fleet, where she became involved in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea from 1919–1921. She remained in the Mediterranean until 1926, when she was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet. The London Naval Treaty of 1930 mandated that Emperor of India and her three sister ships be dismantled. In 1931, she and  underwent a series of weapons tests that proved to be highly beneficial for future British battleship designs. Emperor of India was ultimately sold for scrap in February 1932, and was broken up shortly thereafter.

Design

The four Iron Duke-class battleships were ordered in the 1911 building programme, and were an incremental improvement over the preceding . The primary change between the two designs was the substitution of a heavier secondary battery in the newer vessels. Emperor of India was  long overall and had a beam of  and an average draught of . She displaced  as designed and up to  at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of four Parsons steam turbines, with steam provided by eighteen Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The engines were rated at  and produced a top speed of . Her cruising radius was  at a more economical . Emperor of India had a crew of 995 officers and ratings, though during wartime this grew to up to 1,022.

Emperor of India was armed with a main battery of ten BL  Mk V naval guns mounted in five twin gun turrets. They were arranged in two superfiring pairs, one forward and one aft; the fifth turret was located amidships, between the funnels and the rear superstructure. Close-range defence against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary battery of twelve BL 6-inch Mk VII guns. The ship was also fitted with a pair of QF 3-inch 20 cwt anti-aircraft guns and four  3-pounder guns. As was typical for capital ships of the period, she was equipped with four  torpedo tubes submerged on the broadside.

Emperor of India was protected by a main armoured belt that was  thick over the ship's ammunition magazines and engine and boiler rooms, and reduced to  toward the bow and stern. Her deck was  thick in the central portion of the ship, and reduced to  elsewhere. The main battery turret faces were  thick, and the turrets were supported by  thick barbettes.

Service history

Emperor of India was laid down at the Vickers shipyard on 31 May 1912, originally to have been named Delhi. She was launched on 27 November 1913 and christened Emperor of India. The ship was commissioned into the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet under Admiral John Jellicoe in November 1914 for sea trials, three months after the outbreak of the First World War. The following month she was assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron as the second division flagship, where she served for the first two years of the war. On 1 December, Emperor of India and her sister ship  arrived at the 4th Squadron to begin working up, before being pronounced fit for service with the fleet on 10 December. During this period, the rearmost 6-inch guns were removed from the four Iron Duke-class ships and their casemates were sealed off, as they were too low in the hull and permitted water to continually enter the ship.

First World War
On 23–24 December, the 4th and 2nd Squadrons conducted gunnery practice north of the Hebrides. The following day, the entire fleet sortied for a sweep in the North Sea, which concluded on 27 December; this was Emperor of Indias first fleet operation. Another round of gunnery drills followed from 10–13 January 1915 west of the Orkney and Shetland Islands, this time with the entire fleet. On the evening of 23 January, the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty's Battlecruiser Fleet, but the main fleet did not become engaged in the Battle of Dogger Bank that took place the following day. From 7–10 March, the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea, during which it conducted training manoeuvres. Another such cruise took place from 16–19 March. On 11 April, the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April; another patrol in the area took place from 17–19 April, followed by gunnery drills off Shetland on 20–21 April.

The Grand Fleet conducted a sweep into the central North Sea on 17–19 May without encountering any German vessels. In mid-June, the fleet conducted another round of gunnery training. On 2–5 September, the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills. Throughout the rest of the month, the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises. On 13 October the majority of the fleet conducted another sweep into the North Sea, returning to port on the 15th. From 2–5 November, Emperor of India participated in another fleet training operation west of Orkney Another such cruise took place from 1–4 December.

The typical routine of gunnery drills and squadron exercises occurred in January. The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the Heligoland Bight, but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea. As a result, the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea. On the night of 25 March, Emperor of India and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow to support the Battlecruiser Fleet and other light forces that raided the German zeppelin base at Tondern. By the time the Grand Fleet approached the area on 26 March, the British and German forces had already disengaged and a severe gale threatened the light craft. Iron Duke, the fleet flagship, guided the destroyers back to Scapa while Emperor of India and the rest of the fleet retired independently.

On 21 April, the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans while the Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea. The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft. The Grand Fleet did not arrive in the area until after the German High Seas Fleet had withdrawn, however. On 2–4 May, the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea. Emperor of India was not available for the Battle of Jutland on 31 May–1 June, as she was in dock for a refit. Following Jutland, she was transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron, where she again served as the second division flagship. She remained in the 1st Squadron for the rest of the war.

On 18 August, the Germans again sortied, this time to bombard Sunderland; Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, the German fleet commander, hoped to draw out Beatty's battlecruisers and destroy them. British signals intelligence decrypted German wireless transmissions, allowing Jellicoe enough time to deploy the Grand Fleet in an attempt to engage in a decisive battle. Both sides withdrew, however, after their opponents' submarines inflicted losses in the action of 19 August 1916: the British cruisers  and  were both torpedoed and sunk by German U-boats, and the German battleship  was damaged by the British submarine . After returning to port, Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited risking the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U-boats. Later that year, Emperor of India was equipped with equipment to handle a kite balloon. Following the investigation into the Battle of Jutland, the Royal Navy determined that deck protection was insufficient in all of its capital ships; as a result, Emperor of India had an additional  of armour over the magazines between October and December 1916.

A series of minor modifications followed throughout 1917 and 1918; these included the installation of larger and additional searchlights to improve night combat capabilities, funnel caps to reduce smoke interference with the spotting tops, and rangefinder baffles that were intended to make it more difficult to estimate the range for enemy gunners. The baffles were later removed in 1918. In late 1917, the Germans began using destroyers and light cruisers to raid the British convoys to Norway; this forced the British to deploy capital ships to protect the convoys. In April 1918, the German fleet sortied in an attempt to catch one of the isolated British squadrons, though the convoy had already passed safely. The Grand Fleet sortied too late to catch the retreating Germans, though the battlecruiser  was torpedoed and badly damaged by the submarine .

Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, the Allies interned most of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow. The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow. The massive fleet consisted of some 370 British, American, and French warships. The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles. Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919, which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty. That morning, the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers, and while they were away Reuter issued the order to scuttle the High Seas Fleet.

Post-war career

In 1919, Emperor of India was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet, as part of the 4th Battle Squadron, along with her three sisters and two King George V class battleships. During this period, she served in the Black Sea during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War to support the Whites against the Red Bolsheviks. Admiral Edward Hobart Seymour, the commander of British forces in the Black Sea, hoisted his flag aboard the ship on 14 April. The ship bombarded Bolshevik troops on 5 May 1919 outside Theodosia, and later to disrupt the operations of a railway being used to supply the Bolshevik assault on the port. On 26 March 1920, Emperor of India provided gunfire support to the evacuating White Russian forces outside Novorossiysk, along with the French armoured cruiser . Shortly thereafter, Emperor of India came under fire from an armoured train, prompting the ship to leave the harbour, bound for Theodosia. The ship was also involved in observing the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–22; this included stops in the ports of Mitylene and Smyrna.

She returned to Britain for a refit in 1922, during which new long-base rangefinders were installed on "X" turret. This was followed by another stint in the Mediterranean Fleet that lasted until 1926. During this period, she took part in a demonstration in Smyrna against Turkish demands that foreign warships leave the port. She was thereafter transferred to the Atlantic Fleet, where she served until 1930. In May 1926, stability tests were conducted with the ship; these provided the basis for a 1927 proposal from the Director of Naval Construction to add anti-torpedo bulges to the four Iron Duke-class ships. The proposal was sent to the Board for review, but concerns over the further value of the ships, which were due to be replaced in 1931–32 under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty, and the cost of the reconstruction led the Board to cancel it. From July–September 1927, she had a refit in Devonport. She served as the squadron flagship from June 1929–January 1931, when she was relieved by Marlborough.

According to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930, the four ships of the Iron Duke class were to be scrapped or demilitarised; Emperor of India was scheduled to be removed from service in 1931 and broken up for scrap. The ship provided one final service to the Navy by serving as a gunnery target, along with Marlborough. The tests included firing destroyer armament at the upper works at close range to test their effectiveness in a simulated night engagement, direct hits from 13.5-inch shells, aerial attacks, and experiments with flash tightness in the magazines. The main tests for Emperor of India took place in June off Bognor Regis. She departed Portsmouth on 6 June and ran aground on the Owers Bank. Salvage efforts proved fruitless, and so the Navy decided to conduct the gunnery tests there. The tests were conducted on 10–11 June, with her sister Iron Duke, which hit Emperor of India with twelve 13.5-inch shells over the two days. The first round of shells were fired from , while on the second day the range was increased to . She was refloated later and sold for scrap to the Alloa Shipbreaking Co. on 6 February 1932. She arrived in Rosyth for demolition on 16 February.

The tests provided invaluable experience that was incorporated into the  and es and . Of particular importance was a shell that struck Emperor of India on the bottom edge of the main belt, which penetrated into one of the boiler rooms, where it caused tremendous damage. This showed that the depth of British belt armour was too shallow, which influenced the design of the King George V class. In addition, the tests with Emperor of India and Marlborough highlighted the weaknesses of the deck armour of British battleship designs, particularly over the ammunition magazines, and the other First World War-vintage battleships that continued in service had additional armour installed in subsequent modernisations in the 1930s.

Footnotes

Notes

Citations

References

External links

Maritimequest HMS Emperor of India photo gallery

Iron Duke-class battleships
Vickers
Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness
1913 ships
World War I battleships of the United Kingdom
Royal Navy ship names
Maritime incidents in 1931
Ships sunk as targets

HMS Emperor of India


Karlo Kiseli (Zavidovići, 2. lipnja 1939.), hrvatski domovinski i iseljenički književnik: romanopisac i dramski pisac.

Životopis
Rodio se je u Zavidovićima, u kojima je završio pučku i srednju školu. Još od učeničke dobi pisao je pjesme, kratke priče i igrokaze. Prve je radove objavio u Krivaji, mjesnom listu. U Zavidovićima mu je dok je još bio srednjoškolac izveden satirični igrokaz Papučari. Zbog političkih razloga pobjegao je u inozemstvo, u Austriju. Siječnja 1960. stigao je kao hrvatski politički emigrant u Australiju, u Sydney, koji mu je ostao stalno mjesto boravka. Književni profil promijenio mu se u romanopisca i dramatičara. Djeluje dvojezično te u djelima na engleskom unosi hrvatske teme, a u djela na hrvatskom bjelosvjetske teme. U Sydneyu je osnovao Hrvatsko dramsko-literarno društvo . Hrvatima u Australiji predstavio se je dramom Sedlareva kći, koje je izvelo njegovo Hrvatsko dramsko-literarno društvo. Publika ga je jako dobro primila. Istu ramu ponovo su nakon 1971. izveli 1981., a te 1981. izveli su mu i dramu Vraške sanjarije. Na engleskom su mu izvedene dvije drame, Mysterious Baroness i Say Goodbye to my Harold. U svojim je izvedenim dramama bio i redatelj.
Član je Australskog društva književnika (A.S.A.), sydneyskog centra P.E.N. kluba i Društva hrvatskih književnika.

Djela
Objavio je djela:

 Bumerang ljubomore (roman), Zagreb 1971., (ubrzo povučen iz prodaje);2. izdanje objavio je u Hong Kongu 1979.
 Incompatible destinies (roman),  1981.
 U rukopisu mu je ostalo desetak gotovih drama, nekoliko romana i koju stotinu pjesama.

Nagrade i priznanja

Šimun Šito Ćorić uvrstio ga je u svoju antologiju 60 hrvatskih emigrantskih pisaca.

Izvori

Hrvatski pjesnici
Hrvatski dramatici
Hrvatski romanopisci
Satiričari
Hrvatski kazališni redatelji
Hrvati u Australiji
Hrvatska politička emigracija (1945. – 1989.)

Karlo Kiseli


O Challenger de Ilkley (comercialmente Ilkley Trophy), anteriormente chamado de Fuzion 100 Ilkley Trophy e Aegon Ilkley Trophy, é um torneio de tênis para jogadores profissionais masculinos e femininos disputado em quadras de grama. O evento é classificado como € 42.500 ATP Challenger e $ 100.000 ITF Women's Circuit. É realizado em Ilkley, Reino Unido, desde 2015. A edição de 2020 do torneio foi cancelada devido à pandemia de COVID-19 e a edição de 2021 foi realizada em Nottingham por causa da pandemia, mas em 2022 ambas as etapas do torneio estão definidos para serem mantidos.

Finais

Simples masculino

Duplas masculinas

Simples feminina

Duplas femininas

Ligações externas

Torneios de tênis no Reino Unido
Circuito Feminino ITF

Challenger de Ilkley


Japansk trane () er en tranefugl, der lever på Hokkaido og Manchuriet.

Noter
 Avibase - the world bird database

Eksterne henvisninger

Trane
Traner

Japansk trane


لميس العلمي شخصية مقدسية معروفة شغلت مناصب عدة في مجال التربية والتعليم وحقوق المواطن أهمها مديرة كلية الطيرة في رام الله ومديرة قطاع التربية التعليم في وكالة غوث وتشغيل اللاجئين الفلسطينيين. أُوكلت لها حقيبة التربية والتعليم العالي الفلسطيني في حكومة فياض التي لم تنل ثقة المجلس التشريعي ولا تحظى بشرعية قانونية منذ عام 2007 حيث شغلت هذا المنصب حتى شهر 6-2013 حيث شكلت حكومة جديدة وتم تعيين علي أبو زهري وزيرا للتربية والتعليم العالي.

انظر أيضًا
 قائمة وزراء التربية والتعليم في فلسطين

المراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من القدس
خريجو الجامعة الأمريكية في بيروت
خريجو جامعة إدنبرة
سياسيات إسرائيليات في القرن 20
سياسيات في القرن 20
سياسيون من القدس
مربون في القرن 20
وزراء تربية أو تعليم أو ما يعادل ذلك حسب البلد
وزراء حكومة السلطة الوطنية الفلسطينية
وزراء حكومة فلسطين
وزيرات فلسطينيات

لميس العلمي


Sino-Japanese vocabulary, also known as , is that subset of Japanese vocabulary that originated in Chinese or was created from elements borrowed from Chinese. Some grammatical structures and sentence patterns can also be identified as Sino-Japanese.

Kango is one of three broad categories into which the Japanese vocabulary is divided. The others are native Japanese vocabulary (yamato kotoba) and borrowings from other, mainly Western languages (gairaigo). It has been estimated that about 60% of the words contained in modern Japanese dictionaries are kango,<ref>Shibatani, Masayoshi. [https://books.google.com/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&dq=%22Sino-Japanese%22+vocabulary&pg=RA1-PA167 The Languages of Japan (Section 7.2 "Loan words", p.142)], Cambridge University Press, 1990. </ref> and that about 18–20% of words used in common speech are kango. The usage of such kango words also increases in formal or literary contexts, and in expressions of abstract or complex ideas.Kango, the use of Chinese-derived words in Japanese, is to be distinguished from kanbun, which is historical Literary Chinese written by Japanese in Japan. Both kango in modern Japanese and classical kanbun have Sino-xenic linguistic and phonetic elements also found in Korean and Vietnamese: that is, they are "Sino-foreign", meaning that they are not pure Chinese but have been mixed with the native languages of their respective nations. Such words invented in Japanese, often with novel meanings, are called wasei-kango. Many of them were created during the Meiji Restoration to translate non-Asian concepts and have been reborrowed into Chinese.Kango is also to be distinguished from gairaigo of Chinese origin, namely words borrowed from modern Chinese dialects, some of which may be occasionally spelled with Chinese characters or kanji just like kango. For example,  (Pekin, "Beijing") which was borrowed from a modern Chinese dialect, is not kango, whereas  (Hokkyō, "Northern Capital", a name for Kyoto), which was created with Chinese elements, is kango.

 Background

Ancient China's enormous political and economic influence in the region had a deep effect on Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other Asian languages in East and Southeast Asia throughout history, in a manner somewhat similar to the preeminent position that Greek and Latin had in European history. For example, the Middle Chinese word for gunpowder,  (), is rendered as hwayak in Korean, and as kayaku in Japanese. At the time of their first contact, the existing Japanese language had no writing system, while the Chinese had a written language and a great deal of academic and scientific information, providing new concepts along with Chinese words to express them. Chinese became the language of science, learning, religion and government. The earliest written language to be used in Japan was literary Chinese, which has come to be called kanbun in this context. The kanbun writing system essentially required every literate Japanese to be competent in written Chinese, although it is unlikely that many Japanese people were then fluent in spoken Chinese. Chinese pronunciation was approximated in words borrowed from Chinese into Japanese; this Sino-Japanese vocabulary is still an important component of the Japanese language, and may be compared to words of Latin or Greek origin in English.

Chinese borrowings also significantly impacted Japanese phonology, leading to many new developments such as closed syllables (CV(N), not just CV) and length becoming a phonetic feature with the development of both long vowels and long consonants. (See Early Middle Japanese: Phonological developments for details.)

 Grammar

Sino-Japanese words are almost exclusively nouns, of which many are verbal nouns or adjectival nouns, meaning that they can act as verbs or adjectives. Verbal nouns can be used as verbs by appending  (e.g. ), while an adjectival noun uses  instead of  (usual for nouns) when acting attributively.

In Japanese, verbs and adjectives (that is, inflecting adjectives) are closed classes, and despite the large number of borrowings from Chinese, virtually none of these became inflecting verbs or adjectives, instead being conjugated periphrastically as above.

In addition to the basic verbal noun + suru form, verbal nouns with a single-character root often experienced sound changes, such as  →  → , as in , and some cases where the stem underwent a sound change, as in , from .

 Sino-Japanese and on'yomi
The term kango is usually identified with , a system of pronouncing Chinese characters in a way that at one point approximated the original Chinese. On'yomi is also known as the 'Sino-Japanese reading', and is opposed to  under which Chinese characters are assigned to, and read as, native Japanese vocabulary.

However, there are cases where the distinction between on'yomi and kun'yomi does not correspond to etymological origin. Chinese characters created in Japan, called , normally only have kun'yomi, but some kokuji do have on'yomi. One such character is  (as in  hataraku, "to work"), which was given the on'yomi dō (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component, ) when used in compounds with other characters, e.g. in  rōdō ("labor"). Similarly, the character  ("gland") has the on'yomi sen (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component,  sen "spring, fountain"), e.g. in  hentōsen "tonsils"; it was intentionally created as a kango and does not have a kun'yomi at all. Although not originating in Chinese, both of these are regarded as 'Sino-Japanese'.

By the same token, that a word is the kun'yomi of a kanji is not a guarantee that the word is native to Japanese. There are a few Japanese words that, although they appear to have originated in borrowings from Chinese, have such a long history in the Japanese language that they are regarded as native and are thus treated as kun'yomi, e.g.,  uma "horse" and  ume. These words are not regarded as belonging to the Sino-Japanese vocabulary.

 Words made in Japan

While much Sino-Japanese vocabulary was borrowed from Chinese, a considerable amount was created by the Japanese themselves as they coined new words using Sino-Japanese forms. These are known as ; compare to .

Many Japanese-created kango refer to uniquely Japanese concepts. Examples include , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and Bushidō ()

Another miscellaneous group of words were coined from Japanese phrases or crossed over from kun'yomi to on'yomi. Examples include henji ( meaning 'reply', from native  kaerigoto 'reply'), rippuku ( 'become angry', based on  hara ga tatsu, literally 'belly/abdomen stands up'), shukka ( 'fire starts or breaks out', based on  hi ga deru), and ninja ( from  shinobi-no-mono meaning 'person of stealth'). In Chinese, the same combinations of characters are often meaningless or have a different meaning. Even a humble expression like gohan ( or  'cooked rice') is a pseudo-kango and not found in Chinese. One interesting example that gives itself away as a Japanese coinage is kaisatsu-guchi ( literally 'check ticket gate'), meaning the ticket barrier at a railway station.

More recently, the best-known example is the prolific numbers of kango coined during the Meiji era on the model of Classical Chinese to translate modern concepts imported from the West; when coined to translate a foreign term (rather than simply a new Japanese term), they are known as . Often they use corresponding morphemes to the original term, and thus qualify as calques. These terms include words for new technology, like  denwa ('telephone'), and words for Western cultural categories which the Sinosphere had no exact analogue of on account of partitioning the semantic fields in question differently, such as  kagaku ('science'),  shakai ('society'), and  tetsugaku ('philosophy'). Despite resistance from some contemporary Chinese intellectuals, many wasei kango were "back-borrowed" into Chinese around the turn of the 20th century. Such words from that time are thoroughly assimilated into the Chinese lexicon, but translations of foreign concepts between the two languages now occur independently of each other. These "back-borrowings" gave rise to Mandarin diànhuà (from denwa), kēxué (from kagaku), shèhuì (from shakai) and zhéxué (from tetsugaku). Since the sources for the wasei kango included ancient Chinese texts as well as contemporary English-Chinese dictionaries, some of the compounds—including  bunka ('culture', Mandarin wénhuà) and  kakumei ('revolution', Mandarin gémìng)—might have been independently coined by Chinese translators, had Japanese writers not coined them first. A similar process of reborrowing occurred in the modern Greek language, which took back words like τηλεγράφημα telegrafíma ('telegram') that were coined in English from Greek roots. Many of these words have also been borrowed into Korean and Vietnamese, forming (a modern Japanese) part of their Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese vocabularies.

Alongside these translated terms, the foreign word may be directly borrowed as gairaigo. The resulting synonyms have varying use, usually with one or the other being more common. For example,  yakyū and  bēsubōru both translate as 'baseball', where the yakugo  is more common. By contrast,  teikyū and  tenisu both translate as 'tennis', where the gairaigo  is more common. Note that neither of these is a calque – they translate literally as 'field ball' and 'garden ball'. ('Base' is  rui, but  ruikyū is an uncommon term for 'softball', which itself is normally  sofutobōru).

Finally, quite a few words appear to be Sino-Japanese but are varied in origin, written with — kanji assigned without regard for etymology. In many cases, the characters were chosen only to indicate pronunciation. For example, sewa ('care, concern') is written , using the on'yomi "se" + "wa" ('household/society' + 'talk'); although this word is not Sino-Japanese but a native Japanese word believed to derive from sewashii, meaning 'busy' or 'troublesome'; the written form  is simply an attempt to assign plausible-looking characters pronounced "se" and "wa". Other ateji of this type include  mendō ('face' + 'fall down' = 'bother, trouble') and  yabo ('fields' + 'livelihood' = 'uncouth'). (The first gloss after each character roughly translates the kanji; the second is the meaning of the word in Japanese.)

 Types of on'yomi On'yomi were originally used in ondoku ( "sound reading"), the Japanese system for reading aloud texts in the Middle Chinese (MC) language. A huge number of loanwords entered the Japanese language from Middle Chinese, intermediated by these conventionalized pronunciations. There are different types of on'yomi for Sino-Japanese vocabulary, depending mainly on the time period of borrowing.

Go-on ( "Wu sound") readings represent the first major wave of Chinese borrowing in the 5th and 6th centuries, coinciding with the introduction of Buddhism in Japan. It is not agreed whether Go-on pronunciations are clearly derived from a particular dialect of Middle Chinese. Buddhist teachings along with the Chinese language were largely imported through the Korean peninsula, and it is unclear to what extent this fact influenced the Go-on pronunciations. Certain genres of modern vocabulary largely use Go-on readings, especially words related to Buddhism and law.

Kan-on ( "Han sound") readings were introduced in the 7th through 9th centuries during the Tang dynasty, and are based on the central Chang'an pronunciation of Middle Chinese. While there was a large-scale effort to replace Go-on readings with Kan-on readings when pronouncing Chinese texts in Japan, this effort did not extend to changing the pronunciation of borrowed words that were already used in Japanese. Massive borrowing of Chinese loanwords continued during this period, and these new borrowings reflected the new Kan-on readings. Today, Kan-on readings are the most commonly encountered type of on'yomi.

Kan'yō-on ( "customary sound") readings are not considered to follow the regular patterns for adapting either Go-on or Kan-on readings, but are commonly encountered in existing Sino-Japanese words. In some cases, the Kan'yō-on reading is in fact a regular development of the original Go or Kan on'yomi in a particular environment. For example,  (MC lop) has the Kan'yō-on reading /raQ/ (or /ra/) in all Sino-Japanese words, which is the regular development of earlier /rap(u)/ before a voiceless obstruent. A common irregularity for Kan'yō-on is an unexpected voicing value for an initial obstruent. For example,  (MC tʂɛmX) is read in all Sino-Japanese words as /zaN/ rather than the expected Kan-on reading /saN/.

Tō-on/Sō-on ( "Tang sound" or  "Song sound") readings were introduced mostly from the 12th century onward, during and after the Song dynasty. "Tang" was in this context used to mean "Chinese" (i.e. "real Chinese pronunciation"), with no intended connection to the earlier Tang Dynasty. Due to their more recent borrowing, Tō-on readings are sometimes more recognizably similar to Modern Chinese pronunciations. There are far fewer Sino-Japanese loanwords with Tō-on readings compared to Go-on and Kan-on readings. Dictionaries do not attempt to provide a Tō-on reading for each kanji as many do for Go-on and Kan-on readings.

Go-on and Kan-on readings have a special status when compared with other on'yomi types. Arising initially out of the need to be able to read any Chinese text aloud using ondoku, there is a long-standing practice of providing a Go and Kan reading for every kanji, even those which have never actually been used in borrowed Sino-Japanese vocabulary. The readings which are not actually encountered in Sino-Japanese loanwords were largely codified in the Edo period through the philological study of Chinese rime tables. These readings are given in many dictionaries, though for the less common kanji there is sometimes disagreement between sources.

 Correspondences between Middle Chinese and on'yomi
All characters used to write Middle Chinese represented a single syllable in the spoken language, made up of an "initial" (a single onset consonant), and a rime (the remainder of the syllable). Originally, the on'yomi for kanji attempted to closely match the Middle Chinese pronunciation for each character, while guided by the possible sounds and structures of Japanese as spoken at the time. In fact a number of new word shapes entered the language to accommodate the large influx of Chinese borrowings. Subsequently, many sound changes took place in Japanese, affecting both borrowed and native vocabulary. As such, on'yomi now often bear little resemblance to their original Middle Chinese source, and are even less similar to the pronunciation of the same characters in modern Chinese languages, which have undergone many changes from Middle Chinese. For example,  (MC xjwæŋ) had the Go-on pronunciation [kwjaũ] when it was first borrowed, which subsequently developed to [kjaũ], then [kjau], then [kjɔː], and finally modern Japanese /kyō/ [kjoː].

 Onsets (initials)
The Early Middle Chinese (EMC) initials have the following regular correspondences in Go and Kan on'yomi.

Aspiration was contrastive in Middle Chinese, but voiceless obstruents were adapted to Go and Kan pronunciations in the same way regardless of aspiration. However, many Kan'yō on'yomi exist with voiced obstruents corresponding to Middle Chinese unaspirated (and sometimes aspirated) voiceless obstruents. For example,  (MC kjun) 'army' has the prescribed Go/Kan reading kun, but Kan'yō gun is the only reading actually used in Japanese. There are multiple reasons for the changes from the earlier Go to the later Kan pronunciations. These borrowings were drawn both from different times and different regions of China, and furthermore the Go pronunciations were likely intermediated through Korean Buddhist monks. However, there is little to support the claim that Go-on pronunciations were at the time of their introduction "less accurate" than their later Kan-on counterparts. The discrepancies between the two on'yomi categories are largely due to changes that took place between Early and Late Middle Chinese. The Early Middle Chinese (EMC) voiced obstruents became breathy voiced in Late Middle Chinese, e.g. [b > pɦ]. EMC [ɲ] became [ɻ], later becoming [ʐ] in Northern Chinese dialects. In the Japanese of both time periods, the voiced obstruents were prenasalized as [mb, nd, ndz, ŋg], helping to explain why they correspond to Middle Chinese nasals in Kan on'yomi. The Japanese consonant [p] developed first to [f] or [ɸ], and more recently to /h/ (with allophones [h, ɸ, ç]). Older [p] remains modern Japanese /p/ after the special moras /N/ and /Q/, and as such all /h/-initial on'yomi have regular variants with /p/ in this environment, for example Kan-on  /hitu/ 'brush' vs.  /eN.pitu/ 'pencil'.

 Rimes (medials and finals)
Middle Chinese rimes or "finals" contained a vowel, optional glides before the vowel (sometimes called "medials"), and an optional coda consonant /j, w, m, n, ŋ, p, t, k/— schematically (j)(w)V(C). The precise phonetic realization of the MC vowels is debated, and the set of vowels possible before different coda consonants varies considerably. When borrowed into Japanese, the more complicated MC vowel system was adapted to fit the Japanese five vowel system with /i, e, a, o, u/. MC rimes could begin with a glide /w/, /j/, or both /jw/. The earliest Japanese on'yomi allow the following sequences containing glides:

All of the /Cy/ and /Cw(y)/ sequences were newly introduced by borrowing from Chinese, though some would later arise in native vocabulary. By the advent of the "historical kana" spellings (13th century, lasting until 1946), the "ancient" kana sequences with /CwyV/ had long before lost their /w/, those with /Cwi/ had become /Cui, ki, gi/, and /ye/ merged with /e/. Later, /w/ was lost everywhere except in the sequence /wa/ with no preceding consonant. The presence of these glides in on'yomi is in some cases not easily predictable, for example 約 (MC ʔjak) has the Go reading yaku, while 央 (MC ʔjaŋ) has the jōyō Go reading ō, with yō listed as an alternate (but unused) Go reading.

The tables below show the regular correspondences between MC rimes and Japanese on'yomi (Go and Kan readings). The rimes are given in the transcription systems of Bernhard Karlgren, Li Rong, and William Baxter (see Middle Chinese finals for more transcription systems). Examples are given using the MC reconstructions from Karlgren's Grammata Serica Recensa (GSR), with the rimes transcribed using Baxter's system (see Character List for Karlgren's GSR). Japanese on'yomi are given in a phonemic transcription (see Japanese phonology).

Different MC rimes were restricted to following only certain MC initial consonants. Furthermore, the identity of the initial consonant sometimes results in a different regular outcome for the Japanese on'yomi. For the purposes of determining the Japanese on'yomi, the following sets of consonants can be distinguished:

Developments after the Japanese consonants /r/ (from MC /l/) and /n/ (from MC /n, ɳ, ɲ/) are noted where relevant. The MC onset /y/ (like all palatal onsets) appears only with MC rimes beginning in /j/, and generally patterns in on'yomi with MC /ʔ/ before the same rimes, but sometimes there is a distinction, where /y/ patterns with S. Where one of these five categories (P, T, S, K, Ø) appears in parentheses in the tables below, it refers to the adaptation of the MC rime after these different sets of consonants. Five columns in each table mark whether the given MC rime is found after each of these onset categories. A bullet (•) indicates that Go and Kan on'yomi exist corresponding to the given MC rime after the given onsets. When (~) appears, it indicates that an MC character exists which is expected to provide a relevant Japanese on'yomi, but it either has no identified reading, has on'yomi which are not clearly distinguished as Go vs. Kan, or has multiple MC pronunciations which make it impossible to determine which MC rime the on'yomi correspond to.

While the correspondences between MC rimes and Japanese on'yomi are rather consistent, there exists considerably more irregularity than is represented in these tables. Exceptional pronunciations are often found even for officially recognized Go and Kan readings. Furthermore, many kanji have Kan'yō-on readings, which by definition do not follow the regular correspondences, but appear in established Sino-Japanese words. The illusion of regularity is bolstered by the fact that lexicographers generally provide Go and Kan readings for characters based on their expected outcome, even when these readings are not actually employed in any Japanese word. Out of necessity, many of the examples shown below are of this type. Readings in the jōyō kanji list are highlighted in blue.

 Vowel-final rimes
These MC rimes have no consonant after the vowel.

 Rimes ending in a palatal glide
These MC rimes are analyzed as having a palatal glide after the vowel, though not all of the rimes end in a phonetic [j] in all MC transcription systems. These mostly end up as Japanese ai, e, ē, i, or ui.

 Rimes ending in a labial glide
The MC rimes ending in a labial glide were for the most part borrowed as diphthongs in Japanese. These later monophthongized as long vowels, such that these MC rimes mostly correspond to modern Japanese ō, yō, ū, or yū.

 Rimes with coda m
MC coda /m/ was originally written in Japanese with the man'yōgana , which came to stand for the nasal special mora /N/. The manyō'gana  developed into the hiragana ん used to represent /N/. It is possible that  originally represented two distinct sounds, moraic /m/ and moraic /n/ (from MC coda /n/, see below), but they may have been pronounced identically in Sino-Japanese vocabulary from the start. Regardless,  would not have stood for /mu/ in these words (the Go-on reading), just as the precursors of hiragana つ represented /t/ and not /tu/ when adapting the MC coda /t/ (see below). Native /mu/ from this time (man'yōgana  or , among others) remains /mu/, developing to /N/ only under very specific circumstances, while the borrowed moraic /m/ always develops to /N/.

 Rimes with coda n
MC coda /n/ was adapted in Japanese as the nasal special mora /N/.

 Rimes with coda ŋ
MC coda /ŋ/ was borrowed as a single Japanese phoneme which was realized as two nasalized offglides: [ĩ] after /e/, and [ũ] after /u, o, a/. The nasality of these glides was generally not represented in writing, but in some cases was indicated with the same diacritic mark that would become the dakuten used to mark prenasalized obstruents. These glides then denasalized, and the resulting diphthongs later monophthongized as long vowels. As such, almost all characters with the MC coda /ŋ/ end in ō, yō, ē, ū, or yū in modern Japanese on'yomi.

 Rimes with coda p
MC coda /p/ was borrowed as Japanese /pu/ (likely pronounced as [βu] after a vowel at the time of borrowing). Note that these original readings are identical to the readings for MC /m/-final rimes, but with ふ in place of ん. The phoneme /p/ eventually lenited to /h/ word-initially, but was lost between vowels (except Vpa > Vwa). The result was that all /pu/-final readings developed /Vu/ sequences, which later monophthongized. This same change is seen in native vocabulary, as in OJ ke1pu > ModJ kyō 'today'. As a result of this development, all characters with the MC coda /p/ have Go and Kan readings ending in ō, yō or yū in modern Japanese.

Originally, borrowed coda /p/ functioned just like coda /t, k/ (see below) in that the "epenthetic" vowel /u/ did not appear before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, resulting in readings with the obstruent special mora /Q/ in place of /pu/. This phenomenon can still be seen in a number of Japanese words, for example  /zipu/ > /zyū/ 'ten' vs.  /ziQ.sai/ [dʑissai] 'ten years old' (now usually /zyuQ.sai/ [dʑɯssai]). For  (MC lop), the expected Kan reading /rapu > rō/ is not found in Sino-Japanese vocabulary, but only /raQ/ as in  /raQ.ti/ [ɾattɕi] 'abduction' (shortened in most words to /ra/). However, for many characters, the vowel-final readings have been extended to all environments. In some cases, the reading with /Q/ led to the analogical creation of a /tu/-final reading. Notably, for  (MC lip) the Kan'yō-on reading /ritu/ (from regular /riQ/) is overwhelmingly common in Sino-Japanese vocabulary.

 Rimes with coda t
The MC coda /t/ was borrowed as Japanese /t/. Characters ending in this consonant were at first consistently pronounced with no epenthetic vowel, with the kana つ serving double duty to represent /t/ and /tu/. Note that these readings are identical to the readings for MC /n/-final rimes, but with つ/ち in place of ん. Later, an epenthetic vowel /u/ or /i/ was inserted after the consonant in most environments. Kan-on readings use /tu/ exclusively, while the earlier Go'on readings use both /ti/ and /tu/ unpredictably. For example, MC  bat is adapted as Go /batu/, while the homophonous MC  bat is listed in dictionaries as Go /bati/ (though it is not actually used in existing Japanese words). Often Go readings with /ti/ and /tu/ are listed for the same character, though in practice those with /tu/ are much more common. For example,  has the Go readings /meti/ and /metu/, but only /metu/ is recognized as the jōyō reading, and this is the only Go reading found in existing Japanese words. In fact only nine characters have jōyō readings with /(C)Vti/, though these include the common characters  /iti/ 'one',  /siti/ 'seven',  /hati/ 'eight', and  /niti/ 'day'. Before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, the epenthetic vowel does not appear, and the /t/ functions as the obstruent special mora /Q/, forming a geminate with the following obstruent. For example,  /niti/ 'day' appears as /niQ/ in the word  /niQ.ki/ [nikki] 'diary'.

 Rimes with coda k
MC coda /k/ was borrowed as Japanese /k/ with a following epenthetic /i/ (after /e/) or /u/ (after /a, o, u/). After /i/, the epenthetic vowel (/iki/ vs. /iku/) depends on the original Middle Chinese vowel. The readings for MC /k/-final rimes are very similar to the original readings for MC /ŋ/-final rimes with く/き in place of nasalized う/い, but in this case there are some differences. Just like with coda /t/, the epenthetic vowel is absent before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, and the /k/ functions as the obstruent special mora /Q/. For example,  /gaku/ 'study' appears as /gaQ/ in the word  /gaQ.kō/ [gakkō] 'school'.

 Shapes of borrowed Sino-Japanese roots
All MC roots were a single syllable, and due to the restrictions on possible MC syllable shapes, a limited set of readings (on'yomi) are possible for borrowed Sino-Japanese roots. Furthermore, due in large part to the many distinct MC sounds which were merged when borrowed into Japanese, some readings are extremely common across different kanji, while others are very rare. The below table gives the number of kanji with each possible jōyō on'yomi (not distinguishing between Go, Kan, Tō, and Kan'yō, and not including readings considered restricted or rare). A zero represents a reading which is attested in Sino-Japanese vocabulary, but uses a non-jōyō reading. Readings which are listed in dictionaries but which are merely hypothesized and do not appear in attested Japanese words are not considered.

Due to the fact that most MC syllables had a coda, most Japanese on'yomi are bimoraic, containing either two syllables, a long vowel, or the moraic nasal /N/. These last two structures are extremely common in Sino-Japanese roots, but somewhat rare in native Japanese vocabulary. For these and other reasons, the phonological patterns of Sino-Japanese words and native Japanese words are markedly different, and it is very often possible to correctly guess the etymological origin of a word based solely on its shape.

 Phonetic correspondences between Modern Chinese and on'yomi
 Comparison with Mandarin
At first glance, the on'yomi of many Sino-Japanese words do not resemble the Modern Standard Chinese pronunciations at all. Firstly, the borrowings occurred in three main waves, with the resulting sounds identified as , , and ; these were at different periods over several centuries, from different stages in Historical Chinese phonology, and thus source pronunciations differ substantially depending on time and place. Beyond this, there are two main reasons for the divergence between Modern Standard Chinese and Modern Standard Japanese pronunciations of cognate terms:
 Most Sino-Japanese words were borrowed in the 5th - 9th centuries AD, from Early Middle Chinese into Old Japanese. Both languages have changed significantly since then, and in different ways. This has resulted in the respective pronunciations becoming more and more divergent over time.
 Middle Chinese had a much more complex syllable structure than Old Japanese, as well as many more vowel and consonant differences. Many sounds and sound combinations had to be approximated in the borrowing process, sometimes with significant differences (e.g. final  was represented as  or ).

Nonetheless, the correspondences between the two are fairly regular. As a result, Sino-Japanese can be viewed as a (transformed) "snapshot" of an archaic period of the Chinese language, and as a result is very important for comparative linguists as it provides a large amount of evidence for the reconstruction of Middle Chinese.

The following is a rough guide to equivalencies between modern Chinese words and modern Sino-Japanese on'yomi readings.

Unless otherwise noted, in the list below, sounds shown in quotation marks or italics indicate the usage of non-IPA romanization such as Hanyu pinyin for Mandarin Chinese and Hepburn romanization for Japanese. Symbols shown within slashes or square brackets, like  or , are IPA transcriptions.

 A major sound-shift has occurred in Mandarin since the time of modern contact with the West. Namely, the sounds written in Pinyin as "g"  or "k" , when immediately preceding an "i", "y" or "ü" sound, became "j" (, similar to English "j") or "q" (, similar to English "ch"). This change is called palatalization. As a result, Peking () changed to Běijīng, and Chungking () to Chóngqìng. This shift did not occur in Sino-Japanese. Thus, Mandarin qì (, 'breath, air, spirit') corresponds to Japanese ki. In some other varieties of Chinese, it is still pronounced as 'ki'. For example,  in Southern Min is khì (Pe̍h-ōe-jī romanization). This is similar to the way the Latin , once always pronounced like an English , became closer to an English  in Italian words where the  is followed by an  or , changing centum  into cento .
 Old Japanese did not have an "-ng" or  syllable ending, which is very common in Chinese. This sound was borrowed as either /i/ or /u/. The combinations /au/ and /eu/ later became "ō" and "yō", respectively, in Japanese. Thus, the Mandarin reading of "Tokyo" (; Eastern () Capital ()) is Dōngjīng; this corresponds to Japanese Tōkyō, with sound history for  being supposed approximately *kiæŋ -> kyau -> kyō (for comparison: Southern Min  (colloquial) is kiaⁿ with a nasal diphthong). Another example is , former name for Seoul, which is Keijō in Japanese and Gyeongseong in Korean (which, did and does have syllables ending in ).  is read "kei" (*kiæŋ -> kyei -> kei) in this case.
 As in the case of , the same character sometimes has multiple readings, e.g. "kyō" (Go-on) vs. "kei" (Kan-on) vs. "kin" (Tō-on). These stem from multiple phases of borrowing, which occurred at different times and from different source dialects and were carried out by different groups of people possibly speaking different dialects of Japanese. This means that the same word may have had different Chinese pronunciations, and even if not, the borrowers may have chosen different strategies to handle unfamiliar sounds. For example, the character  seems to have had an approximate pronunciation of /kjæŋ/ at the time of both the Go-on (5th - 6th century AD) and Kan-on (7th - 9th century AD) borrowings; however, the unfamiliar vowel /æ/ was represented by /a/ in the former case and /e/ in the latter. (This may also indicate different source pronunciations of the vowel.) In addition, the unfamiliar final  was represented by /u/ in the former case but /i/ in the latter, agreeing in frontness vs. backness with the main vowel. By the time of the Tō-on borrowing (post-10th century), the pronunciation in Chinese had changed to /kiŋ/, thus the pronunciation "kin" was decided as the closest approximation.
 The vowels of Chinese sometimes correspond to Sino-Japanese in an apparently haphazard fashion. However, Mandarin "ao" often corresponds to Japanese "ō" (usually derived from earlier Sino-Japanese [au]), and Chinese empty rime  (represented in pinyin with a "i") often corresponds to  (a different sound, also represented with a "i" in Hepburn) in Japanese.
 The distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants ( vs.  or  vs. ) has been lost in modern Mandarin and many other varieties of Chinese. The key exception is in Wu dialects (, e.g. Shanghainese). The Shanghainese voiced consonants match the Japanese  readings nearly perfectly in terms of voicing. For example,  (grape) is pronounced "budo" in Shanghainese and "budō" (< "budau") in Japanese (preserving the voiced consonants [b] and [d]), but "pútáo" in Mandarin. Incidentally, the rising tone of the Mandarin syllables may reflect the earlier voiced quality of the initial consonants.
 In modern Mandarin, all syllables end either in a vowel or in one of a small number of consonant sounds: "n", "ng", or occasionally "r". However, Middle Chinese, like several modern Chinese dialects (e.g. Yue, Hakka, Min), allowed several other final consonants including , , , and , and these are preserved in Sino-Japanese (except for -m, which is replaced by -n, as in , san, "three"). However, because Japanese phonology does not allow these consonants to appear at the end of a syllable either, they are usually followed in Sino-Japanese by an additional "i" or "u" vowel, resulting in a second syllable (-tsu or -chi if from -t, -ku or -ki if from -k, and -pu if from -p, although -pu became -fu and then simply -u). As a result, a one-syllable word in Chinese can become two syllables in Sino-Japanese. For example, Mandarin tiě (, 'iron') corresponds to Japanese . This is still pronounced with a final  in Cantonese:  (Vietnamese thiết). Another example is Mandarin guó (, 'land'), from Early Middle Chinese /kwək/, corresponding to Japanese koku.
The consonant "f" in Mandarin corresponds to both "h" and "b" in Japanese. Early Middle Chinese had no /f/, but instead had /pj/ or /bj/ (in other reconstructions,  or ). Japanese still reflects this ("h" was /p/ in Old Japanese). For example, Mandarin Fó ( 'Buddha') corresponds to Japanese ; both reflect Early Middle Chinese /bjut/ from a still older form /but/. In modern Southern Min Chinese, this character may be pronounced either [put] or [hut] (colloquial and literary respectively).
 In addition, as in the previous example, Old Japanese /p/ became modern "h". When a Middle Chinese word ended in /p/, this produced further complications in Japanese. For example, Middle Chinese  'ten' (Standard Mandarin "shí", Cantonese ) was borrowed as Old Japanese /zipu/. In time this went through a series of changes: /zipu/ > /zihu/ > /ziu/ >  > "jū". Note that in some compounds, the word was directly borrowed as /zip-/ > "jip-"; hence "jippun" 'ten minutes' (or "juppun", influenced by "jū"), rather than "*jūfun".
 More complex is the archaic dento-labial nasal sound: The character  ('strife, martial arts') was pronounced "mvu" in Late Middle Chinese. The sound is approximated in the Japanese pronunciations "bu" and "mu". However, that sound no longer exists in most modern Chinese dialects, except Southern Min "bú", and the character  is pronounced "wǔ" in Mandarin,  in Cantonese, "vu" in Hakka, Shanghainese, and Vietnamese.
 The modern Mandarin initial "r" usually corresponds to "ny" or "ni" in Japanese. At the time of borrowing, characters such as  ('person') and  ('day'), which have an initial "r" sound in modern Mandarin, began with a palatal nasal consonant  closely approximating French and Italian gn and Spanish ñ. (This distinction is still preserved in some Chinese varieties, such as Hakka and Shanghainese, as well as Vietnamese.) Thus Mandarin Rìběn (, Japan) corresponds to Japanese Nippon. This is also why the character , pronounced  in Middle Chinese, is pronounced "nin" in some contexts, as in , and "jin" in others, such as — approximating its more modern pronunciation. In Wu dialects, including Shanghainese,  ('person') and  ('two') are still pronounced "nin" and "ni", respectively. In Southern Min (especially Zhangzhou accent),  is "jîn" (literary pronunciation) which is practically identical to Japanese On'yomi.
 In Middle Chinese,  ('five') and similar characters were pronounced with a velar nasal consonant, "ng" ([ŋ]), as its initial. This is no longer true in modern Mandarin, but it remains the case in other Chinese dialects such as Cantonese () and Shanghainese. Japanese approximates the Middle Chinese */ng/ with "g" or "go"; thus  becomes "go". In Southern Min, it is pronounced /gɔ/ (colloquial) or /ŋɔ/ (literary) while in the Fuzhou dialect it is pronounced "ngu". In addition, some Japanese dialects have [ŋ] for medial g.
 The Mandarin "hu" sound (as in "huá" or "huī") does not exist in Japanese and is usually omitted, whereas the Mandarin "l" sound becomes "r" in Japanese. Thus, Mandarin Huángbò () corresponds to Japanese Ōbaku, and Rúlái () and lamian () to Nyorai and ramen respectively.
 Mandarin "h", usually from Middle Chinese  or  will often correspond to "k" or "g" in Japanese, as Old Japanese lacked velar fricatives: Modern Japanese  is derived from Old Japanese , which descended in most cases from a Proto-Japonic */p/; however, this lack of velar fricatives in Old Japanese helps preserve the voiced-voiceless contrast between Middle Chinese  and  that Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean and Vietnamese has lost. Mandarin "z" will often correspond to Japanese "j"; these are also changes in Chinese. Thus, Mandarin hànzì () corresponds to Japanese kanji, hànwén (, Chinese written language) to kanbun, and zuìhòu ( 'last') to saigo''.

Chart of correspondences
Note:
 MC: Middle Chinese
 Pinyin: Modern Standard Chinese (Mandarin) in its official spelling. Multiple outcomes for MC initials (e.g. MC /ɡ/ > Pinyin g,j,k,q) are primarily due to two reasons:
 MC voiced stops/affricates become Mandarin aspirated stops/affricates (p,t,k,etc.) when the syllable had the MC first tone (Mandarin first/second tones), unaspirated stops/affricates (b,d,g,etc.) otherwise.
 Early Mandarin velar obstruents (g,k,h) and alveolar sibilants (z,c,s) become palatal obstruents (j,q,x) when a front vowel or glide followed.
 Go: , from the Northern and Southern dynasties China or Baekje Korea during the 5th and 6th centuries. Go means Wu.
 Kan: , from the Tang dynasty during the 7th to 9th century.
 : Zen Buddhist borrowings from the Song dynasty (10th to 13th century) and after.

Initials:

Finals:

Examples

Notes:
 Middle Chinese, Mandarin Pinyin, Go-on, Kan-on: See above.
 Middle Chinese reconstruction is according to William H. Baxter. His phonetic notation is used, along with IPA when different. Syllables are tone 1 unless otherwise indicated. See An Etymological Dictionary of Common Chinese Characters for more info.

See also
Sino-Xenic pronunciations
List of Chinese–Japanese false friends
Wasei-kango
Wasei-eigo
Sino-Korean vocabulary
Singdarin
Classical compounds in European languages

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
 Analysis of regularity in Japanese phonetic series, with lists of most useful Kanji components for predicting on'yomi

Japanese phonology
Japanese vocabulary
Archaic Japanese language
Japanese

Sino-Japanese vocabulary


An Anthurium uleanum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Adolf Engler. An Anthurium uleanum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Anthurium, ngan familia nga Araceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 A. u. nanayense
 A. u. uleanum

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Anthurium

Anthurium uleanum


An Pinalia carnicolor in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Oakes Ames, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Wally Suarez och James Edward Cootes. An Pinalia carnicolor in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pinalia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pinalia

Pinalia carnicolor


Frank Carlton Serafino Feranna, Jr., kendt som Nikki Sixx (født 11. december 1958 i San Jose i Californien i USA), er bassist, forfatter, fotograf og grundlægger af og hovedsangskriver for det amerikanske rockband Mötley Crüe. Han har tidligere spillet i bandet London.

Eksterne henvisninger

Bassister fra USA
Sangskrivere fra USA

Nikki Sixx


The Crusader 101 was an electrically-operated toy car introduced in 1964 by Deluxe Reading of Elizabeth, New Jersey and produced through 1966. Intended for sale in discount and grocery stores, the Crusader 101 was easily among the largest and most detailed toy cars on the market.

The toy did not represent any specific car.  The front featured stacked, forward-sweeping headlights and slightly pointed hood reminiscent of Pontiacs of the period while the inwardly dished grille and crossbar resembled those used on early 1960s Mercurys.  The taillights strongly resembled those on 1948-1956 Cadillacs while the rear end and overall styling suggested the 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible rendered in molded red plastic. The highly detailed interior featured white bucket seats with black inserts both front and rear, matching door panels, black "carpeting" and a chrome-plated dashboard and console with legible gauges and radio dial resembling those in the Mercury Monterey. The chrome-plated windshield frame surrounded a green-tinted windshield and was topped by working sun visors.

The Crusader 101 had the additional benefit of size.  It measured about three feet in length - or just under one meter - which allowed for some elaborate detail hitherto unseen in a toy car. The trunk had storage space for a spare tire, jack and lug wrench which could be used to actually change a wheel. Twin radio aerials on either rear fender could be raised or lowered by hand.  Not only were the sun visors adjustable, the turn signal lever, steering wheel and gear selector could be moved as well.  A male driver figure was included with the car - in a relaxed pose at the wheel and was just as detailed as the car itself.  He was unpainted beige plastic. A remote control and battery holder shaped like an automatic transmission selector allowed the car to be "driven" per the promise on the box of "YOU DRIVE IT - YOU PARK IT."

Despite its size and level of detail unusual for a toy car, the Crusader 101 was, first and foremost, a toy. The front steering knuckles were prone to breaking, especially if one got a bit too eager with the lug wrench.  Electrical problems were common usually manifesting themselves in failed steering control.  The windshield frame often warped with age as did the body - though to a much lesser degree - while the vacuum-plated chrome plastic parts tended to turn black.  Regardless of its problems, the Crusader 101 is one of the most collectible toy cars of the postwar era. Originally priced at around US$13, prime, mint-with-box examples can easily fetch upwards of $300.  The Crusader 101's size has always made it particularly desirable to Barbie collectors since it is well-proportioned to the fashion doll and will easily seat four of them.  Deluxe Reading manufactured a "Dream Kitchen" playset during that period that was scaled to Barbie and similar dolls.  As such, the Crusader 101 was the subject of the cover story of the December, 2002 edition of Barbie Bazaar magazine.

See also
Model car

Toy cars and trucks

Crusader 101


هيلينا بونهام كارتر  (26 مايو 1966) هي ممثلة إنكليزية. ظهرت لأول مرة على التلفاز في مسلسل "A Pattern of Roses" قبل أن تحصل على دورها الأول في فيلم "Lady Jane". عملت مع شريكها المخرج الكبير تيم برتون في العديد من أفلامه و التي قام ببطولة أغلبها الممثل الكبير جوني ديب مثل تشارلي ومصنع الشوكولاتة وجثة العروس (فيلم) وسويني تود: الحلاق الشيطاني لشارع فليت وأليس في بلاد العجائب والظلال الداكنة. اشتهرت بشدة من خلال أدوارها في أفلام برتون وخاصةً فيلمي سويني تود و أليس في بلاد العجائب، و كذلك من خلال أدوراها في أفلام مثل نادي القتال، ودور بيلاتريكس لسترانج في سلسلة أفلام هاري بوتر.

أفلامها مع تيم برتون
كوكب القرود (2001) - السمكة الكبيرة (2003) - تشارلي ومصنع الشوكولاتة (2005) - العروس الجثة (2005) - سويني تود :الحلاق الشيطاني من فليت ستريت (2007) - أليس في بلاد العجائب (2010) - الظلال الداكنة (2012) - أليس عبر المرآة (2016)

أفلامها مع جوني ديب
تشارلي ومصنع الشوكولاتة (2005) - العروس الجثة (2005) - سويني تود :الحلاق الشيطاني من فليت ستريت (2007) - أليس في بلاد العجائب (2010) - الظلال الداكنة (2012) - الحارس الوحيد (2013) - أليس عبر المرآة (2016)

الترشيحات لجائزة الأوسكار
 أفضل ممثلة رئيسية عام 1998 عن فيلم The Wings of the Dove
 أفضل ممثلة مساعدة عام 2011 عن فيلم The King's Speech

الترشيحات لجائزة الجولدن جلوب
 أفضل ممثلة في مسلسل قصير أو فيلم تليفزيونى عام 1994 عن فيلم Fatal Deception: Mrs. Lee Harvey Oswald
 أفضل ممثلة درامية عام 1998 عن فيلم The Wings of the Dove
 أفضل ممثلة مساعدة في مسلسل أو مسلسل قصير أو فيلم عام 1999 عن مسلسل Merlin
 أفضل ممثلة في مسلسل قصير أو فيلم تليفزيونى عام 2003 عن فيلم Live from Baghdad
 أفضل ممثلة أستعراضية أو كوميدية عام 2008 عن فيلم Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street
 أفضل ممثلة مساعدة عام 2011 عن فيلم The King's Speech

الأفلام

روابط خارجية

 Helena Bonham Carter at Emmys.com

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
إنجليز من أصل إسباني
إنجليز من أصل يهودي ألماني
إنجليز من أصل يهودي تشيكي
إنجليز من أصل يهودي نمساوي
بريطانيون من أصل يهودي فرنسي
حائزون على جائزة بافتا (أشخاص)
حائزون على جائزة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة للأداء المبهر للطاقم عن فئة المسلسلات الدرامية
حائزون على جائزة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة للأداء المتميز
حائزون على وسام الإمبراطورية البريطانية من رتبة قائد
رواة كتب صوتية
فائزات بجائزة بافتا لأفضل ممثلة مساعدة
فائزون بجائزة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة لأفضل أداء من قبل طاقم ممثلين في فيلم سينمائي
ممثلات أفلام إنجليزيات
ممثلات إذاعة إنجليزيات
ممثلات إنجليزيات في القرن 20
ممثلات إنجليزيات في القرن 21
ممثلات تلفزيون إنجليزيات
ممثلات مسرح إنجليزيات
ممثلات من لندن
ممثلو هاري بوتر
مواليد 1966
مواليد في لندن
مؤديات صوت إنجليزيات

هيلينا بونهام كارتر


IRAS 17163-3907 (o Nebulosa del huevo frito) es una estrella hipergigante amarilla y una de las más raras de todo el universo. Esta estrella posee un diámetro mil veces mayor que el de nuestro Sol y su nebulosa tiene la forma aparente de un huevo frito. Fue fotografiada recientemente por el Observatorio Austral Europeo (ESO).

Su brillo es 500 000 veces más potente que el de nuestro sol, y se encuentra a unos 13000 años luz de la Tierra por lo que posiblemente sea la estrella hipergigante amarilla más cerca encontrada hasta ahora.

Su descubrimiento
Como lo indica su nombre, IRAS 17163-3907 fue detectada por primera vez en 1983,por el satélite IRAS, gracias a las ondas infrarrojas que emite en longitudes de onda cercanas a los 12 micrones. Se encuentra cerca del centro de la Vía Láctea, más precisamente en la constelación de Escorpio. Pero a pesar de ser una de las 30 estrellas más brillantes del cielo nocturno en el infrarrojo, debido a su débil emisión de luz visible, recién ahora se detectó que se trataba de una hipergigante amarilla. Por otra parte, la forma esférica casi perfecta de su nebulosa fue recientemente descubierta gracias a la cámara infrarroja VISIR del Very Large Telescope (VLT), instalado en Cerro Paranal (Chile).  Esta cámara,utilizando sus tres filtros en el infrarrojo medio (verde (11 850 nm), rojo (12 810 nm) y azul (8590 nm)), logró avistar el material a su alrededor y fotografiar sus dos envoltorios o nubes casi esféricas.

Sus dimensiones
En comparación con nuestro sistema solar si la nebulosa del Huevo Frito es colocada en el centro, nuestro sol junto con los todos planetas interiores (entre ellos la Tierra), y Júpiter quedarían dentro del diámetro de la estrella. Por otro lado, los astrónomos suponen que el envoltorio exterior tiene un radio que equivale a 10 000 veces la distancia entre la Tierra y el Sol, y es incluso mayor que la órbita que describe Neptuno.

Con una masa total de aproximadamente veinte veces la del Sol, durante su evolución, en pocos cientos de miles de años, ha expulsado material rico en silicatos y gases, formando 2 nebulosas que equivalen a unas 4 veces la masa de todo nuestro sistema solar, de forma casi esférica que le dan su forma tan llamativa. Debido a su actividad es posible que la estrella se convierta en una supernova creando así nuevos componentes químicos que den lugar a nuevas estrellas.

Su evolución
Esta estrella comenzó quemando todo su hidrógeno con una masa equivalente a unos veinte soles o más, y se convirtió en una supergigante roja. Luego de haber consumido todo su helio paso a su estado actual de hipergigante amarilla y seguirá así durante unos pocos millones de años más, lo cual equivale a un tiempo de vida relativamente breve en términos cosmológicos. Finalmente evolucionará como otro tipo estrella llamada variable azul, muy luminosa e inusual variando continuamente su brillo y perdiendo de a poco la mayor parte de su masa a causa de los fuertes vientos estelares que genera. Finalmente es posible que se convierta en una inestable Wolf-Rayet y explote formando una violenta supernova.

Las propiedades de éste objeto se consideran muy similares a las de IRC+10420, otra hipergigante amarilla situada en la constelación del Águila rodeada también de una nebulosa formada de modo similar.

Se estima también que la nebulosa exterior contiene 0.17 masas solares de polvo y que fue producida en una explosión que tuvo lugar 16.000 años atrás en la que se expulsaron alrededor de 7 masas solares de masas de gas. Las propiedades de ésta son similares a las de las que rodean a algunas Variables luminosas azules, sugiriendo que esas nebulosas tienen su origen en pérdida de masa durante la fase de supergigante roja.

Referencias

Hipergigantes

IRAS 17163-3907


رواية المنشق: هي رواية سعودية في مجال الخيال العلمي، وقد صدرت تحت أول سلسلة سعودية ُتعني بهذا المجال وتدعى سعوديات للكاتب خالد بن عبد الكريم الحقيل.

وقد حاول الكاتب تطويع احداثها لتتواكب مع البيئة المحلية بالمملكة العربية السعودية، حيث ابحرت الرواية في الخيال لتتناول قصة مخلوقات فضائية تحاول أن تستعمر الأرض، وبعد الدراسة يقع اختيارها على المملكة العربية السعودية، وبالتحديد عاصمتها الرياض، ومن ثم تبدأ القصة الحقيقية والتي تصف تلك المواجهات بين تلك المخلوقات الكونية وسكان مدينة الرياض،
 من مواطنين ورجال أمن.

وقد تم إصدار رواية المنشق في 160 صفحة في العام 1429 هجرية، وفي العام التالي 1430 هجرية تم إصدار العدد رقم (2) من سلسلة سعوديات تحت عنوان فارس وتقع في نحو 200 صفحة.. ومن ثم تم بعد ذلك إصدار العدد رقم (3) من سلسلة سعوديات تحت عنوان «الشبهاء» وتحكي قصة أقوام يشابهوننا بالأجسام ويختلفوا عن البشر فيما عدا ذلك.

المراجع

روايات خيال علمي
روايات سعودية

المنشق (رواية)


Fallen er det ottende studiealbum fra det norske black metal-band Burzum, og det andet siden bandets eneste medlem, Varg Vikernes' løsladelse fra fængslet i maj 2009.

Fallen fortsætter Burzums tradition med at anvende klassiske kunstværker som omslag. I dette tilfælde anvendes således en beskåret udgave af William-Adolphe Bouguereau's Douleur d'amour (1899). Inde i omslaget findes en række illustrationer af den danske tegner Lorenz Frølich.

Spor

Eksterne henvisninger

Black metal-album
Burzum-album
Album fra 2011

Fallen (Burzum-album)


Aurel Coșciuc () a fost un delegat al Reuniunii române de agricultură din comitatul Sibiu în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia.

Biografie
Studiile le-a urmat la Sibiu, Blaj, Cluj și Budapesta, în urma cărora a obținut diploma de inginer. Imediat după finalizarea studiilor a acționat ca profesor la  Kecskemét (Ungaria), post la care a renunțat din cauză că i s-a cerut să își maghiarizeze numele, abzicând de orice post la stat. Și-a continuat cariera tot ca profesor, la Sibiu, în cadrul Academiei Teologice. A fost conferențiarul agricol al Astrei, în cadrul căreia a desfășurat o permanentă și intensă activitate românească în Ardeal, care a constat în prelegeri și scrieri cu privire la practicile agricole, pe care le găsim amintite în ziare ale vremii (precum este: Unirea – foaie bisericească politică), dar și în cartea intitulată Îngrășarea sau gunoirea pământului, al cărei autor este. După Unire, Aurel Cosciuc a intrat sub Consiliul Dirigent, în serviciul Statului, ca funcționar superior în Ministerul Agriculturii și Domeniilor. A fost numit conferențiar, profesor și subdirector al Academiei de Agricultură din Cluj, post la care a renunțat din cauză că a primit concomitent și funcția de inspector în Ministrul Agriculturii.

Activitate politică
După Unire a intrat în serviciul Statului ca funcționar superior în Ministerul Agriculturii și Domeniilor.

Lucrări
 Aurel Coșciuc: Îngrășarea sau gunoirea pământului , Sibiu, Edit. Asociațiunii (Tip. arhidiecezană), 1913, Biblioteca poporală a Asociațiunii [Astra], an. III, nr. 30
 Aurel Coșciuc: Lucrarea pământului, Sibiu, Edit. Asociațiunii (Tip. arhidiecezană), 1911, Biblioteca poporală a Asociațiunii, an I, nr. 6
 Aurel Coșciuc: Nutrirea animalelor de casă, Op premiat. Cu 6 ilustrații în text. Sibiu, Edit. și proprietatea Reuniunei române de agricultură din comitatul Sibiiului (Tip. arhidiecezană), 1909, Biblioteca Reuniunii Române de Agricultură din Comitatul Sibiiului, nr. 15
 Aurel Coșciuc:  Un ram industrial de îmbrățișat. (Fabricile agricole de spirt). Însemnătatea lor, și alte îndrumări, Sibiiu, Editura Revistei Economice (Tipografia Arhidiecezană), 1911, Biblioteca Băncilor Române, nr. 11

Note

Bibliografie
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voievod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanțiilor; Documente la un sfert de veac de la Marea Unire, vol. I, Editura Academiei Române; 2005
 http://documente.bcucluj.ro/web/bibdigit/periodice/unirea/1914/BCUCLUJ_FP_PIV1902_1914_024_0005.pdf
 http://dspace.bcucluj.ro/handle/123456789/68409

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1882
Decese în 1935
Agronomi români
Profesori români
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Aurel Coșciuc


විකිපීඩියා ( or  ) යනු විවිධ භාෂා වලින් ලියැවුණු, අන්තර්ජාලය පාදක කරගත් නිදහස් විශ්වකෝෂයකි. ස්වෙච්ඡා රචකයින්ගේ සහ-සහයෝගයෙන් යුතුව, වෙනත් ඕනෑම අයෙකුට වෙබ් බ්‍රව්සරයක් හරහා සංස්කරණය කළ හැකි පරිදි විකිපීඩියා ලිපි ලියවේ. 2001 ඡනචාරි 15  දින මෙම විශ්වකෝෂය ආරම්හ කළේ විශේෂඥයන් විසින් සකසන Nupediaව ඌන පූර්ණය කිරීමටයී. මෙය පවත්වාගෙන යන්නේ ලාහ-නොපතන ආයතනයක් වන විකිමීඩියා පදනම මගිනි. අන්තර්ජාතික භාෂාවක් වන ඉංග්‍රීසි භාෂාවෙන් සැකසුනු ලිපි 3,800,000 පමණ ඇතුළුව, සිංහල මෙන්ම තවත් විවිධ භාෂා ගණනකින් සැදුම්ලත් ලිපි 5,000,000 ත් වඩා විකිපීඩියාවෙහි අන්තර්ගතය. ආරම්භයෙහි පටන්ම එහි ජනප්‍රියතාවයෙහි,  ස්ථාවර වර්ධනයක් රඳවාගත් විකිපීඩියාව එම සාර්ථකත්වය තවත් සහෝදර ව්‍යාපෘති ගණනාවක් දියත් කිරිම දක්වා ව්‍යාප්ත කළේය

විකිපීඩියාව විවේචනාත්මකවත්, නිදහස් අන්තර්ගතය හා නිදහස් ස්වභාවය නිසා තවත් විටක ප්‍රශංසාත්මකවත්, ජනමාධ්‍ය  හා විද්වත් ප්‍රජාව  විසින් නිතර ම පාහේ සඳහන් කරනු ලැබේ. විකිපීඩියාව සංස්කාරකවරුන්ට මධ්‍යස්ථ ප්‍රතිපත්තියක් අනුගමනය කිරීමට අනුබල දෙනු ලැබේ. එහි දී කිසිවක් පරමාර්ථ සත්‍යය වශයෙන් හුවා නො දක්වා, යථා දර්ශනයන් වශයෙන් පිළිගනු ලබන සියල්ල සාරාංශ ගත කෙරෙනු ලැබේ. නමුත් විකිපීඩියාව මූලාශ සඳහනක් වශයෙන් භාවිත කිරීම විවාදාසම්පන්න ය. කවර හෙයින් ද යත්, එය ඕනෑ ම අයෙකුට සංස්කරණය කළ හැකි නිසා, කඩාකප්පල්කාරී ක්‍රියා, සාවද්‍ය තොරතුරු, අසංගත බව, නිවරද්‍යතාවය ඔප්පු නො කළ මත වාද යනාදිය ඇතුළත් විය හැකි වන බැවිනි.

භාෂා 200 කට අධික ප්‍රමාණයකින් විකිපීඩියා සංස්කරණ පවතී. එයින් සංස්කරණ 100 ක් පමණ ක්‍රියාකාරී ඒවා ය. ලිපි 50,000 කට වඩා පවතින සංස්කරණයන් ගණන එකොළසකි. (එම සංස්කරණයන්: ඉංග්‍රීසි, ජර්මන්, ප්‍රංශ, ජපන්, පෝලන්ත, ඉතාලි, ස්වීඩන්, ලන්දේසි, පෘතුගීසි, ස්පාඤ්ඤ හා චීන ය.)

සුවිශේෂ ලක්ෂණ

"සැමට දායක විය හැකි නිදහස් විශ්වකෝෂය" යන්න විකිපීඩියාවේ උදාන වැකිය යි.

"පෘථිවිය මත ජීවත්  වන සෑම අයෙකුට ම ස්ව භාෂාවෙන්, ලබා ගත හැකිත්, දායක විය හැකිත්, හැකි උපරිමයෙන් උසස් බවින් යුතු වූත් නිදහස් විශ්වකෝෂයක් නිර්මාණය කිරීම හා බෙදා හැරීම" යනු වශයෙන්, මෙම විශ්වකෝෂ ව්‍යාපෘතියේ ආරම්භකයා වන ජිමී වේල්ස් (Jimmy Wales) ව්‍යාපෘතියේ අරමුණු පැහැදිලි කරයි.
විකිපීඩියාව බ්‍රිටැනිකාව තරමට හෝ ඊට්ත් වඩා ගුණාත්මක බවින් දියුණු කොට මුද්‍රණයෙන් එළි දැක්වීම ජිමී වේල්ස් ගේ අභිප්‍රාය යි.

විකිපීඩියාව wikipedia.org යන වෙබ් අඩවිය තුළ " විකි" (wiki) නම් මෘදුකාංග වර්ගයක් උපයෝගි කර ගනිමින් වර්ධනය කරනු ලැබේ. මෙම විකි යන යෙදුම භාවිත වූයේ විකිවිකිවෙබ් (WikiWikiWeb) යන්න සඳහා ය. විකි විකි යනු "ඉක්මන්" යන අරුත දෙන හවායි වදනකි.

වෙනත් අන්තර්ජාල විශ්වකෝෂ ව්‍යාපෘති කිහිපයක් ද පවති. ඇතැම් ඒවා මේ වන විට අක්‍රීයව පවති. මෙම ඇතැම් ව්‍යාපෘති, සංස්කරණ හා හිමිකම් පිළිබඳ සාම්ප්‍රදායික ප්‍රතිපත්ති අනුගමනය කරනු ලබයි. විශේෂඥයන් විසින් ලියනු ලබන දර්ශනය ගැන ස්ටැන්ෆර්ඩ් විශ්වකෝෂය (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) හා දැනට අක්‍රීයව පවතින න්‍යුපීඩියාව (Nupedia) එවැන්නන් ය. තනි පුද්ගලයන් විසින් පවත්වාගෙන යන ලිපි වලින් සමන්විත h2g2, Everything2 වැනි වෙබ් අඩවි අවධිමත් ලෙස, තොරතුරු සොයන්නන්ට මග පෙන්වයි. විකිපීඩියාව, Susning.nu, එන්සික්ලොපීඩියා ලිබ්‍රෙ (Enciclopedia Libre) විකි විශ්වකෝෂ ව්‍යාපෘති වන අතර කතුවරු විශාල ගණනක් එහි අන්තර්ගතයන් සම්පාදනය කරති; සංවර්ධනය කරති. ඒවා සංශෝධනය කිරීමේ දී පිළිගත් ක්‍රමවේදයක් නැත. ලිපි ගණන අතිනුත්, අන්තර්ගත වචන සංඛ්‍යාව අතිනුත්, විකි විශ්වකෝෂ අතර පෙරමුණ ගැනීමට විකිපීඩියාව සමත්ව ඇත. අනෙක් බොහෝ විශ්වකෝෂ මෙන් නොව, විකිපීඩියාව එහි අන්තර්ගතය GNU නිදහස් ලේඛණ බලපත්‍රය යටතේ බලපත්‍ර ගත කොට ඇත.

අන්තර්ගත කළ යුතු තොරතුරු සම්බන්ධයෙන් විකිපීඩියාව සතුව ප්‍රතිපත්ති පද්ධතියක් ඇත. අන්තර්ගතයන් එකතු කළ යුතු ද; ප්‍රතිශෝධනය කළ යුතු ද; සහෝදර ව්‍යාපෘතියකට බැර කළ යුතු ද; නැතිනම් ඉවත් කළ යුතු ද, යනුවෙන් අන්තර්ගතයන් සම්බන්ධයෙන් ගැටළුවක් පැන නැගුණු විට මෙම ප්‍රතිපත්ති උපුටා දක්වනු දැක ගත හැකි ය.

නිදහස් අන්තර්ගතය
හිමිකම් පැවරූ හිමිකම් බලපත්‍රයක් වන GFDL නිදහස් ලේඛණ බලපත්‍රය යටතේ (GNU Free Documentation License), විකිපීඩියා ලිපි ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කෙරෙනු ලැබේ. මෙම බලපත්‍රය මගින් යම් නිර්මාණයක් නැවත බෙදා හැරීමට, එයට වෙනස් කම් කිරීමට,  හා වාණිජ අරමුණු සඳහා භාවිතා කිරීමට අවසර දෙන අතර, එහි දී මුල් කතුවරයා සඳහන් කළ යුතු වේ. එම නැවත භාවිතාවන් ද GFDL නිදහස් ලේඛණ බලපත්‍රය යටතේ නිකුත් කළ යුතු ය. විකිපීඩියා ව්‍යාපෘතියට බැර කරන අන්තර්ගතයන් GFDL නිදහස් ලේඛණ බලපත්‍රය යටතේ නිදහස් වන අතර හිමිකම් මුල් කතුවරයා සතුව ම පවතී. විකිපීඩියාවේ සෑම ලිපියක ම පෙළ GFDL නිදහස් ලේඛණ බලපත්‍රය යටතේ නැවත භාවිතාවන්ට නිදහස් ය. නමුත් සැලකිය යුතු තරමේ ඡායාරූප හා හඬ පට ප්‍රමාණයක් නිදහස් ඒවා නොවේ. ආයතනික ලාංඡන, ගීත සාම්පල, හිමිකම් සහිත ප්‍රවෘත්ති ඡායාරූප වැනි දෑ යහ භාවිතාවන් උදෙසා භාවිත කිරීමේ හිමිකම සහිතව විකිපීඩියාව තුළ නැවත භාවිතා කරනු ලැබේ. අතැම් මාධ්‍ය, විකිපීඩියාව තුළ පමණි හා අන්තර්ගතය වෙනස් නො කොට යුතු ය යන කොන් දේසි යටතේ විකිපීඩියාවට ලබා දී ඇත. කෙසේ නමුත් ඇතැම් විකිපීඩියා සංස්කරණයන් සඳහා වලංගු වන්නේ නිදහස් මාධ්‍ය පමණි.

මාධ්‍ය, විද්වත්හු, හා සෙසු අය විකිපීඩියාව මූලාශයක් වශයෙන් හා අතිරේක කියවීමක් වශයෙන් භාවිතා කරති. ප්‍රවෘත්ති ආයතන ඇතැම් විටක තමන් ගේ මූලාශ්‍රයක් වශයෙන් විකිපීඩියා ලිපි සඳහන් කරති. විකිපීඩියාවේ සංස්කාරකවරුන් පවත්වාගෙන යන ලයිස්තු වලට අනුව, ප්‍රවෘත්ති මාධ්‍ය නිතර ම පාහේ විකිපීඩියා ලිපි උපුටා දක්වා ඇත. ඉතා කලාතුරකින් විකිපීඩියා ලිපි ශාස්ත්‍රීය කටයුතු, ග්‍රන්ථ කටයුතු, සම්මන්ත්‍රණ, හා අධිකරණ කටයුතු සඳහා භාවිතා කොට තිබේ. කැනඩා පාර්ලිමේන්තුවේ වෙබ් අඩවිය C-38 පනතෙහි වැඩිදුර කියවීම් ලයිස්තුවට සම ලිංගික විවාහ සම්බන්ධයෙන් වන විකිපීඩියා ලිපිය අන්තර්ගත කොට තිබීම නිදසුනක් වශයෙන් දැක්විය හැකි ය. විකිපීඩියාව හා සම්බන්ධ මෙවැනි භාවිතාවන් ගැන අසම්පූර්ණ ලයිස්තු විකිපීඩියානුවෝ පවත්වා ගෙන යති.

විවිධ හාෂාමය සංස්කරණ

2005 මාර්තු වන විට විකිපීඩියාව "ක්‍රියාකාරී" භාෂා සංස්කරණයන් 119 කින් සමන්විත කවයක් සාදයි. එහි විශාලත ම සංස්කරණයන් පහ අවරෝහණය වන පිළිවෙළින්, ඉංග්‍රීසි, ජර්මන්, ප්‍රංශ, ජපන්, හා පෝලන්ත වේ. සමස්ථයක් වශයෙන් ගත් කල, මිලියන 2.6 ක් පමණ වන සමස්ථ ලිපි සංඛ්‍යාවකින් යුත්, වෙනස් තත්ත්ව යටතේ ඇති භාෂා සංස්කරණයන් 205 කින් විකිපීඩියාව සමන්විත වේ.

භාෂා සංස්කරණයන් එකිනෙකාගෙන් ස්වායක්ත ය. එක් සංස්කරණයක අන්තර්ගතය අනෙක් සංස්කරණයන් හා බැඳී නො පවතින අතර, සියල්ලෝ ම "මධ්‍යස්ථ දර්ශනය" අනුගමනය කරති. නමුත් ලිපි, පරිවර්ථනය කරන්න ඉල්ලීම් මගිනුත්, ඡායාරූප, විකිමීඩියා නිදහස් මාධ්‍ය ගබඩාව මගිනුත්, භාෂා සංස්කරණයන් අතරේ බෙදා හදා ගනු ලැබේ. එහෙත් ඕනෑ ම භාෂා සංස්කරණයක පවතින පරිවර්තිත ලිපි සංඛ්‍යාව එහි පවතින සම්පූර්ණ ලිපි සංඛ්‍යාවෙන් අල්ප ප්‍රමාණයක් බව සඳහන් කිරීම වටී.

සංස්කරණය
සියලු ගමිකයන්හට පාහේ විකිපීඩියා ලිපි සංස්කරණය කිරීමේ හැකියාව ඇති අතර, ලේඛනගත පරිශීලකයන් හට නව ලිපි තැනීම හා ඒවායේ වෙනස්තම් ක්ෂණයකින් ප්‍රදර්ශනය කරවීම සිදු කල හැක.  විවෘත-මූලාශ්‍ර මෘදුකාංග ප්‍රවර්ධනය වන ආකාරයටම, පරිශීලකයන් අතර සහයෝගීත්වය අනුසාරයෙන් ලිපි වල තත්ත්වය දිනෙන් දින දියුණුව සිදුවේ යැයි යන අපේක්ෂාවෙන් විකිපීඩියාව පදනම්ව ඇත.

ලබාගතහැකි මාධ්‍ය

සංයුක්ත සහ අංකිත වීඩියෝ තැටි මගින්ද විකිපීඩි‍යා තොරතුරු ලබාගත හැක.

ඉතිහාසය

විකීපීඩියාව ආරම්භ කරන ලද්දේ නූපීඩියා වෙහි අනුපූරකයක් වශයෙනි, එය නිදහස් මාර්ගගත  විශ්වකෝෂ ව්‍යාපෘතියක්  වන අතර විදිමත් ක්‍රම මගින් එහි ලිපි ලියන ලද්දේ ප්‍රවීණයන් විසිනි.

මෘදුකාංග සහ දෘඪාංග

සොයුරු ව්‍යාපෘති

විකල්ප අක්ෂර ක්‍රමයන්

මේවාත් සුදුසුදැයි බලන්න

ආශ්‍රිත

වැඩිදුර අධයයනය

බාහිර පරිශීලක

සටහන්

මූලාශ්‍ර

විකිපීඩියා

විශ්වකෝෂ
අන්තර්ජාලගත විශ්වකෝෂ

විකිපීඩියා


الشيخ عبد الله ناصح علوان من مواليد حي قاضي عسكر بمدينة حلب سنة 1928 م وأحد أعظم من كتب في التربية في الإسلام

دراسته
 عندما انتهى من الابتدائية بدأ دراسة العلم الشرعي في الثانوية الشرعية وكانت تعرف في ذلك الوقت ب(الخسروية) نسبة إلى بانيها خسرو باشا، وتأثّر بالشيخ راغب الطباخ والدكتور مصطفى السباعي, وانتمى للإخوان المسلمين في المدرسة.
 نال شهادة الثانوية الشرعية في سنة 1949 م، ونال شهادة كلية أصول الدين جامعة الأزهر سنة 1952، ثم نال الماجستير جامعة الأزهر سنة 1954،
 اعتقل في مصر سنة 1954 م  في عهد الرئيس جمال عبد الناصر ولم يتكمن من استكمال الدراسات العليا بمصر
 حصل على شهادة الدكتوراه بعد مدة من جامعة السند في باكستان، تحت عنوان فقه الدعوة والداعية.

عمله في مجال التدريس والدعوة
 عمل الشيخ عبد الله منذ عام 1954 م مدرساً لمادة التربية الإسلامية في ثانويات حلب وتصدّى للأفكار الإلحادية التي بدأت في الظهور في تلك الحقبة وفي عهد الوحدة بين سوريا ومصر نجح بانتخابات منطقته لمنزلته بين أهالي مدينة حلب.
 كان خطيبا مفوها فكان له دروسه الدورية في مسجد (عمر بن عبد العزيز) درّس فيه الفقه والسيرة،
 كان الشيخ على صلة طيبة مع علماء سوريا وكان يتنقل من مدينة إلى أخرى داعيًا إلى توحيد كلمة العلماء
 حين اشتد البلاء لوحق الشيخ فخرج من مدينة حلب سنة (1400 هـ/1979 م) وأقام عدة أشهر في الأردن، ثم توجه إلى السعودية،
 له العديد من المشاركات في العديد من المحاضرات والمخيمات الطلابية وله العديد من المقالات في المجلات الإسلامية ودروسه التربوية في إذاعة القرآن الكريم في المملكة العربية السعودية،
 عمل أستاذًا في قسم الدراسات الإسلامية في جامعة الملك عبد العزيز في جدة، منذ 1401 هـ إلى أن توفي.

مؤلفات الشيخ
للشيخ العديد من المؤلفات وترجم أغلبها للعديد من اللغات وخاصة كتابه الشهير تربية الأولاد في الإسلام :
 آداب الخطبة والزفاف وحقوق الزوجين
 أحكام الزكاة على ضوء المذاهب الأربعة
 أخلاقية الداعية
 أفعال الإنسان بين الجبر والاختيار
 إلى كل أب غيور يؤمن بالله
 إلى ورثة الأنبياء والدعاة إلى الله
 الأخوة الإسلامية
 الإسلام شريعة الزمان والمكان
 الإسلام والجنس
 الإسلام والحب
 الإسلام والقضية الفلسطينية
 التكافل الاجتماعي في الإسلام
 الدعوة الإسلامية والإنقاذ العالمي
 القومية في ميزان الإسلام
 بين العمل الفردي والعمل الجماعي
 تربية الأولاد في الإسلام جزئين
 تعدد الزوجات في الإسلام وحكمه تعدد زوجات النبي (صلى الله عليه وسلم)
 ثقافة الداعية
 حتى يعلم الشباب
 حرية الاعتقاد في الشريعة الإسلامية
 حكم الإسلام في التأمين
 حكم الإسلام في وسائل الإعلام
 حين يجد المؤمن حلاوة الإيمان
 دور الشباب في حمل رسالة الإسلام
 روحانية الداعية
 الشباب المسلم في مواجهة التحديات
 شبهات وردود حول العقيدة الربانية وأصل الإنسان
 صفات الداعية النفسية
 صلاح الدين الأيوبي بطل حطين ومحرر القدس من الصليبيين
 عقبات الزواج وطرق معالجتها على ضوء الإسلام
 عقبات في طريق الدعاة
 فضائل رمضان وأحكامه
 فضل الدعوة والداعية
 قصة الهداية  جزئين
 كيف يدعو الداعية ؟
 ماذا عن الصحوة الإسلامية في العصر الحديث؟
 محاضرة تكوين الشخصية الإنسانية في نظر الإسلام
 محاضرة في الشريعة الإسلامية وفقهها ومصادرها
 معالم الحضارة في الإسلام وأثرها في النهضة الأوربية
 مواقف الداعية التعبيرية
 مسؤولية التربية الجنسية
 نظام الرق في الإسلام
 هذه الدعوة.. ما طبيعتها؟
 وجوب تبليغ الدعوة وفضل الدعوة والداعية

وفاته
توفي بعد معاناة كبيرة مع المرض إثر عودته من باكستان، وكانت الوفاة في الساعة التاسعة والنصف صباح يوم السبت 5 محرم عام 1408 هـ الموافق 29 أغسطس 1987م في جدة بمستشفى جامعة الملك عبد العزيز.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 موقع الشيخ عبد الله ناصح علوان
   الشيخ عبد الله ناصح علوان, الشبكة الإسلامية

إخوان مسلمون سوريون
علماء دين سنة سوريون
كتاب وكاتبات سوريون
مواليد 1928
مواليد في حلب
وفيات 1408 هـ
وفيات 1987

عبد الله ناصح علوان


Crossostemma laurifolium je biljka iz porodice Passifloraceae, roda Crossostemma. Nema sinonima za ovu biljku.

Raste u tropskim dijelovima Afrike, u zapadnoj i istočnoj Gani, u Gvineji u pokrajini Nzérékoré Lola i u Nigeru.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Crossostemma na Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) , SAD-ov odjel za poljodjelstvo, služba za poljodjelska istraživanja.

Passifloreae

Crossostemma laurifolium


São Tomé do Castelo Portekiz'de Vila Real belediyesine bağlı olan, 33,02 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 990 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Vila Real'ın bucakları

São Tomé do Castelo


Bulevardul "Fluieră vântu" este un film românesc din 1950 regizat de Jean Mihail. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Alexandru Giugaru, Ion Finteșteanu, Alexandru Ionescu Ghibericon.

Este o satiră politică bazată pe piesa de teatru Bulevardul împăcării de Aurel Baranga. A fost filmat în toamna anului 1950.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1950 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1950
Filme de comedie românești
Filme de comedie din anii 1950

Bulevardul Fluieră vântu