Hentai anime listesi:

#
 9 O`clock Woman
 10 Chikan Association (JP)

A
 A Heat For All Seasons
 A Kite
 Adventure Kid
 Advancer Tina
 Ai Shimai (Immoral Sisters)
 Akiba Girls
 Akiko (Hentai)
 Alice+
 Alien from the Darkness
 Anal Sanctuary
 Angel Blade
 Angel Blade Punish!
 Angel Core
 Angel of Darkness
 Angelium
 Angel Return to Court/Angel on the Ground
 Another Lady Innocent (Front Innocent)
 Anime Fiction Vols
 Anyone You Can Do... I Can Do Better
 Arisa

B
 Bad End
 Bad Play
 Bakunyuu Oyako
 Bakunyuu Shimai
 Battle Can-Can
 Battle Team Lakers EX
 Beat Angel Escalayer
 Beast City
 Beyond
 Bible Black
 La Noche de Walpurgis
 Bible Black New Testament
 La Lanza de Longinus
 Bizarre (H-anime)
 Black Gate
 Black Mail (H-anime)
 Black Widow
 Blind Night
 Blood Royale
 Blood Shadow
 Body Transfer
 Boin
 Bondage 101
 Bondage Mansion
 Bondage Game
 Bondage Queen Kate
 Boundary Between Dream And Reality
 Buttobi CPU

C
 Campus
 Can Can Bunny Extra
 Castle Fantasia
 Chains Of Lust
 Charm Point 1: Sister's Rondo
 CHU2
 City of Sin
 Classroom of Atonement
 Cleavage
 Co-ed Affairs
 Cool Devices
 Countdown: Akira Complex
 Countdown Conjoined
 Countdown to Delight
 Cream Lemon
 Crimsom Climax
 Custom Slave

D
 Daiakuji
 Darcrows
 Darling
 Dark
 Dark Love
 Dark Shell
 Dark Tour
 Demon Beast Invasion
 Demon Beast Resurrection
 Demon Warrior Koji
 Depravity (H-anime)
 Desperate Carnal Housewives
 Dirty Thoughts
 Discipline
 Discode
 DNA Hunter
 Do It! Yasuji's Pornorama
 Doctor Shameless
 Do Kyu Sei (Nanpa Classmates) (JP)
 Dokyusei 1 (End of Summer) (JP)
 Dokyusei 2 (JP)
 Dokyusei 2 SP (Graduated Classmates) (JP)
 Doura
 Dragon Knight series
 Dragon Pink
 Dragon Rider
 Dream Hazard
 Duchess Of Busty Mounds
 DVine Luv (D+Vine Luv)

E
 Endless Serenade
 El
 Elfina - Servant Princess
 Elven Bride
 Equation Of The Immoral
 Erotic Torture Chamber

F
 F³ (Frantic, Frustrated, Female)
 Fencer of Minerva
 F-Force
 Five Card
 Flash Back Game
 Fobia
 Foolish Mother
 Forbidden Love (H-anime)
 Four Play (H-anime)
 Front Innocent
 Fruits Cup
 Futari Ecchi

G
 Genmukan
 Gold Throbber
 G-Spot Express
 G-Taste
 Glo*ri*a
 Girl's Locker Room Lust
 Mini Skirt Gakuen
 Girl Next Door (H-anime)
 Green Green Thirteen: Erolutions

H
 Haikyuu!!
 Haitoko no Shoujo - Family of Debauchry
 Harumi's Bad Play
 Harvest Night
 Heartwork ~Symphony Of Destruction~
 HEN (Strange Love)
 Heat for all Season
 Heritage From Father
 Holy Virgins (H-anime)
 Hot Juicy Teacher
 Hot for Teacher(H-anime)

I
 I Love You (H-anime)
 Iketeru Futari
 Imma Youjo
 Inma Seiden
 Inju Seisen (Twin Dolls, Twin Angels)
 Isaku
 Isaku ~Respect~
 Immoral Sisters
 Immoral Sisters 2
 Immoral Sisters 3 - Blossoming
 Imouto Jiru
 Insatiable (H-anime)
 Invasion Of The Boobie Snatchers

J
 Jiburiru - The Devil Angel

K
 Kakyuusei (Hentai)
 Kakyuusei 2: Ki Hanashi Atsumari (Anthology)
 Kama Sutra (inspired by the book, the Kama Sutra)
 Kamyla
 Karen (Hentai)
 Keraku No Ou
 Kisaku
 Kisaku ~Revival~
 Kitty Pleasure Pack
 Kizuna
 Koihime

L
 La Blue Girl
 La Blue Girl Returns
 Lady Blue
 Leatherman
 Legend of the Wolf Woman
 Legend of the Overfiend (Urotsukidoji)
 Lesbian Ward
 Level C
 Lingeries Office
 Living Sex Toy Delivery
 Love Doll (H-anime)
 Love is the Number of Keys
 Luv wave
 Lunatic Night

M
 Magical Canan (JP)
 Magical Twilight
 Magic Woman M
 Maid Service (H-anime)
 Maiden of Deliverance
 Maniax (JP)
 Marin A Go Go
 Masquerade (H-anime)
 MeiKing
 M.E.M. (JP)
 Mezzo Forte
 Menage A Twins
 Midnight Panther
 Midnight Sleazy Train
 Mija Beautiful Demon (JP)
 Milk Junkies (JP)
 Milk Money (H-anime)
 Moonlight Lady
 Momone
 Mother Knows Breast
 My Pico (JP)
 My Sexual Harassment
 Mystery of the Necronomicon

N
 Natural2 Duo
 Naughty Nurses
 New Angel
 Nightmare Campus
 Night Shift Nurses (H-anime)
 Nonomura Hospital
 Nymphs Of The Stratosphere

O
 Ogenki Clinic Adventures
 One - True Stories
 Oni Tenshi
 Onba
 Office Affairs (H-anime)

P

 Parade Parade
 Perverse Investigations
 Phantom Hunter Miko
 Pianist, The (H-anime)
 Police Girl Yayoi
 Princess 69
 Princess Memory
 Private Psycho Lesson
 Private Sessions (H-anime)
 Punishment
 Pure Love (H-anime)
 Pure Mail

R
 Rankou Choukyo (Orgy Training)
 Red Lotus (H-anime)
 Rei-Lan - Orchid Emblem
 Rei Rei
 Renzu
 Romance... Flash of the Sword
 Roommate, The (H-anime)
 Rxxx Prescription For Pain

S
 Sacrilege
 Sailor and the Seven Ballz
 Samurai XXX
 School of Bondage (H-anime)
 Sex Crime Zero Sum Game
 Sex Demon Queen
 Sex Taxi
 Sexfriend
 Sex Ward
 Sex Warrior Pudding
 Sexy Sailor Soldiers
 Shusaku
 Sin Sorority
 Sibling Secrets
 Sins Of The Flesh (H-anime)
 Slave Doll
 Slave Market (H-anime)
 Slave Nursing (H-anime)
 Slave Sisters
 Slaves to Passion(H-anime)
 Slight Fever Syndrome
 Slutty Princess Diaries
 Sora no Iro, Mizu no Iro
 Spaceship Agga Ruter
 Spotlight (H-anime)
 Spy of Darkness
 Square of the Moon
 Stainless Night
 Star Ballz (H-anime)
 Stepmother's Sin
 Step-sister (H-anime)
 Story of Little Monica, The
 Submission Central
 Super Sexy Android
 Swallowtail Inn

T
 Taboo Charming Mother
 Tales of Misbehaviour
 Tales of Seduction
 Tales of Sintilation
 Tales of Tittilation
 Tales Trilogy
 Teachers's Pet
 Temptation (H-anime)
 The Game (H-anime)
 The Gigolo - Dochinpira
 The Hills Have Size
 The Last Kunoichi
 The Pupets
 Tokio Private Police
 Tournament of the Gods
 Trissanju
 Tsumamigui The Animation
 Twin Dolls
 Twin Angels
 Twisted Tales of Tokyo

U
 University Girls (H-anime)
 Urotsukidoji

V
 Venus 5
 V.G. Neo (part of the Variable Geo series)
 Vicious (H-anime)
 Virtua Call
 Viper GTS
 Virgin in the School Uniform
 Virgin Auction
 Virgin Touch
 Flutter of Birds 2 (JP)
 Visonary
 Vixens (H-anime)
 Voyeur`s Digest
 Vermeil in Gold

W
 Wake Up! Aria
 Waver
 Welcome to Pia Carrot
 Welcome to Pia Carrot 2
 Welcome to the Ogenki Clinic
 Wet Summer Days
 Wicked Lessons
 Wife Eater
 Wife with Wife
 Wind Of Ebenbourg
 Words Worth
 Words Worth Outer Story

X
 Xpress Train
 Xtra Credit

Y
 Yu-No

Z
 Zero no Mono
 Zoku Gosenzo (JP)

Anime

Hentai animeler listesi


Sahti is a Finnish type of farmhouse ale made from malted and unmalted grains including barley and rye. Traditionally the beer is flavored with juniper in addition to, or instead of, hops; the mash is filtered through juniper twigs into a trough-shaped tun, called a kuurna in Finnish. Sahti is top-fermented and many have a banana flavor due to isoamyl acetate from the use of baking yeast, although ale yeast may also be used in fermenting.

The end product is a cloudy beer with  phenolic flavors and a distinct taste similar to banana, balanced by the bitterness from the juniper branches. The carbonation level tends to be very low. Sahti was traditionally brewed as a farmhouse ale, but commercial versions are now available. Commercial sahti is usually 8% ABV. In Finland, due to the higher percentage of alcohol in sahti, it is only sold in commercial sahti breweries, pubs or state-owned Alko stores, not in regular markets or grocery stores. Sahti has to be stored cold until consumption and is therefore not available in all Alko branches.

Within Finland, sahti has differing characteristics depending on which part of the country it is from. It is often known as Tavastian beer from Häme (well-known sahti areas, such as Sysmä, Joutsa, Kuhmoinen and Lammi, are in Häme) but it is also made in Finland Proper and some parts of Central Finland. Every year the Finnish sahti brewing championship is held on the first weekend in August.

Brewing process
Traditionally, the most common sahti brewing process is using a long step infusion mash that may last up to six hours, after which the wort is lautered through the kuurna. Unlike most beers, traditional sahti wort goes straight from the lauter tun to the fermenter without boiling.

However, this is only one of several brewing processes that have traditionally been used. Sahti has also been brewed as a stone beer, with infusion mashing, with variants of decoction mashing, by boiling the mash in the kettle, and so on. Some regions of Finland have called their farmhouse ale taari, and in these areas different brewing processes appear to have been used, such as fermenting in the mash, and baking the wet malts in bread-like shapes before lautering.

Commercial sahti brands

 Kellarin Varastopanimo Joutsa: Varastopanimon Sahti
 Panimoravintola Beer Hunter's: Mufloni Sahti (from Pori)
 Finlandia Sahti and Finlandia Strong Sahti (from Sastamala)
 Hartolan Sahti, known as Krouvin Sahti and Punakallion Sahti.
 Hollolan Hirvi Kivisahti
 Huvila sahti (from Savonlinna)
 Joutsan Sahti
 Lammin Sahti (from Lammi)
 Tiinan Sahti (from Sysmä)
 Stadin Panimo: Stadin Sahti (from Helsinki)

In other countries

A farmhouse ale that in some cases is similar is brewed on the Swedish island of Gotland (known as Gotlandsdricka). An even closer relative in terms of flavour is a farmhouse ale known as koduõlu (lit. "home beer"), brewed on the Estonian islands in the Baltic.

In Estonia one commercial beer is sometimes described as "Estonian sahti", despite actually being an Estonian koduõlu:

 Pihtla Õlu from Pihtla õlleköök, Estonia

Finnish sahti has protected status in Europe., so that in order to be described as sahti a beer must be brewed following something close to the traditional process and ingredients. Modern craft beer versions of sahti can be somewhat removed from the original style, because brewers may use more hops, might not use juniper twigs, could introduce more carbonation, boil the wort, and may not use Finnish baking yeast.

In many countries sahti has been the subject of recent interest by homebrewers and microbreweries who have brewed many takes on the style. It is not clear if any of them actually resemble the original Finnish sahti beers in any way, so in the EU most of these beers could not be marketed as sahti.

Other versions:

 Mad Scientist #19 from Sixpoint Brewing
 Samuel Adams: Norse Legend sahti (from Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.)
 Dogfish Head Brewery: Sah'tea (from Milton, Delaware, U.S.) made with masala chai and juniper berries
 Sahti Ale - New Belgium Brewing Company (from Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.)
 Parallel 49 Brewing Company "Sahti Claws"
 Sahti - Gambling Man Brewing Company, UK (The first true Sahti to be commercially brewed in the UK)
 Ale Apothecary - "Sahati," a mixed fermentation ale lautered in a spruce kuurna with spruce branches
 Browar Pinta - "Koniec Świata" (pol. "The End of The World, owes its name to the date of its release to the market, which was supposed to be the end of the world), polish attempt of brewing Sahti beer. Made with juniper berries and branches.
 Bare Bear from Off Color Brewing
 Sahti - Kiitos Brewing, Salt Lake City Utah
 Ivar the Boneless - Proper Brewing, Salt Lake City Utah
 Löyly - HammerHeart Brewing Company, Lino Lakes Minnesota
 Ymir the Creator from High Ground Brewing in Terra Alta, WV
 Mānuka Sahti - Kererū Brewing, NZ
 Bushcrafter Sahti - Prairie Pride Brewing in Grand Island, NE
 Sauna Brau - Turnagain Brewing in Anchorage, AK
 Finnish Line - Independent Brewing in Bel Air, MD
 Osmotar Sahti - from Stonyslope Brewing Company in Calgary, AB, Canada

See also

 Finnish beverages

References

Finnish alcoholic drinks
Types of beer
Beer in Finland
Traditional Speciality Guaranteed products from Finland

Sahti


Río Bravo, oficialmente Ciudad Río Bravo, es una ciudad mexicana situada en el estado de Tamaulipas, cabecera del municipio homónimo. Según el conteo de 2020 del INEGI cuenta con una población de 111 314 habitantes. Es la octava ciudad más grande en términos de población en el estado de Tamaulipas, forma parte del área metropolitana de Reynosa-McAllen que tiene una población de más de 1.5 millones de habitantes.

Geografía

Localización
La ciudad de Río Bravo se localiza en las coordenadas 25°58'54" latitud norte 98°05'25" latitud oeste; Está ubicada en el norte del estado mexicano de Tamaulipas en el municipio homónimo, municipio del que también es la cabecera.

Clima
Ciudad Río Bravo tiene un clima semiseco muy cálido. Tiene una temperatura media anual de 22.7 °C. La temperatura promedio del mes más frío es de 13.8 °C en enero, y la temperatura del mes más cálido es de 29.1 °C en agosto. Tiene una precipitación media de 578.5 milímetros.

Historia

La hacienda se constituyó en 1774 y, la Sauteña en 1888 siendo su principal socio don Iñigo Noriega, se constituyó en un importante detonante económico: se construyeron caminos que partían de El Soldadito (hoy Matamoros) que unieron a Colombres -como se llamaba anteriormente Río Bravo- con los Estados Unidos y la Capital. En 1882, se inauguró el ferrocarril llamado El Nacional que unía Estación Cuevas (hoy Ciudad Díaz Ordaz) con Matamoros, pasando por la Estación Ébano, actual Río Bravo.

El emporio comercial y agrícola que representaba La Sauteña llegó a su cúspide el 10 de mayo de 1913, cuando el general Lucio Blanco tomó la Ciudad de Reynosa y posteriormente Colombres. Los revolucionarios destruyeron todo a su paso, acabando con la ciudad completa y, de paso, con los sueños de sus habitantes que habían conseguido convertir la ciudad en el centro de atracción turística, comercial e industrial, más importante de la zona Norte, incluyendo la región Sur de los Estados Unidos.

Posteriormente, en la década de los 30-40, con la creación de los sistemas de riego del Norte de México, vuelve a renacer la región y se forman, entre otras, las colonias 18 de Marzo y Magüelles, en lo que hoy es Valle Hermoso, dando un nuevo auge a la región. Estas colonias, así como otras que se formaron en la región eran fundamentalmente de dos tipos: en unas habitaban trabajadores desplazados por la falta de empleo -que se instalaban en los campamentos de construcción- y otras formadas por repatriados de los Estados Unidos. Este incremento poblacional permitió que Río Bravo renaciera nuevamente y alcanzara el nivel de crecimiento que hoy tiene.

Fechas históricas
El 4 de diciembre de 1961, se decreta la creación del municipio de Río Bravo.

En el año de 1962, el presidente del Congreso del Estado de Tamaulipas, Juan Posadas Iracheta, otorga el reconocimiento de ciudad al municipio.

Demografía
Ciudad Río Bravo de acuerdo al censo del año 2020 tiene 111 314 habitantes, 55 902 mujeres y 55 412 hombres. En 2005 tenía una población de 84 347, lo que representa un incremento del 28.4 por ciento respecto a 2020.

Viviendas
En Ciudad Río Bravo hay alrededor de 37,251 viviendas particulares, de estas 32,842 están habitadas, 32,687 disponen de energía eléctrica y 32,609 disponen de agua entubada.

Ciudades hermanas
Río Bravo esta hermanada con la siguiente ciudad:
  Donna, Texas, Estados Unidos.

Referencias

Localidades del estado de Tamaulipas
Localidades fronterizas de México

Río Bravo (Tamaulipas)


Sartor tucuruiense é uma espécie de peixe endêmica do Brasil. É encontrado na bacia do rio Tocantins e no Pará. Esta espécie atinge um comprimento de .

Bibliografia

 Garavello, JC e HA Britski, 2003. Anostomidae (Headstanders). pág. 71-84. Em RE Reis, SO Kullander e CJ Ferraris, Jr. (eds. ) Checklist dos Peixes de Água Doce da América do Sul e Central. Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS, Brasil.

Peixes descritos em 1987
Fauna endêmica do Brasil
Peixes do Brasil
Anostomídeos
!Artigos com microformatos 'espécies'

Sartor tucuruiense


ඔබට අවැසි ලිපිය තෝරාගන්න
 නෙල්සන් මෙන්ඩිස්
 නෙල්සන් මැන්ඩෙලා

වක්‍රෝත්තිහරණ පිටු

නෙල්සන්


أبو محمد عبد الله بن قاسم القيسي فقيه ظاهري قرطبي.

رحل عبد الله بن قاسم بن هلال بن يزيد بن عمران القيسى إلى المشرق لطلب العلم، فدخل العراق والتقى بداود الظاهري، وكتب عنه كتبه كلها، وأدخلها الأندلس واجتهد في نشرها، فكان ذلك سببًا في انتقاد علماء عصره له. كما أطلع على علم مالك، إلا أنه كان يميل للظاهرية. التقى القيسي أيضًا في رحلته بالمزني صاحب الشافعي وحدث عنه، وقد روى عنه محمد بن عبد الملك بن أيمن وقاسم بن أصبغ ومحمد بن قاسم وغيرهم. وقد عظّم ابن حزم قدره، وساوى بين ما لدى القيسي والمنذر بن سعيد البلوطي من العلم بما لدى علماء المشرق.

توفي القيسي عام 272 هـ.

المراجع

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 منتديات الظاهرية

أئمة سنة
حقوقيون في القرن 9
سنة الولادة غير معروفة
ظاهريون
عرب في القرن 9
علماء دين أندلسيون
علماء دين مسلمون سنة
فقهاء سنة
مسلمون باحثون عن الإسلام في القرن 9
وفيات 272 هـ
وفيات عقد 880

عبد الله بن قاسم القيسي


Cem İkiz (d. 1970), Türk gitaristtir.

Müziğe annesinin aldığı bir talebe gitarı ile başladı. Gitarın telleri o kadar yüksekte idi ki, sürekli parmakları kanardı. Bu ilk tanışma 12 yaşında başladı. İlk derslerini Bulgaristan'dan gelen Hasan Şenol'dan aldı. Bu stil Balkan folk müziğine, daha sonra da tüm dünyadaki folk müziklerine olan ilgisini arttırdı. Bu arada aileninde müziğe olan ilgisi sebebiyle klasik müzik, caz müziklerini sürekli olarak dinlerdi. TRT 3 radyosunda en beğendiği programlar her hafta 1 saat yayınlanan Klasik Gitar müziği ve değişik ülkelerin folk müzikleri idi.

1970 senelerinde çok sesli müziğin Türkiye'de kökleşmesini sağlayan, İdil Biret, Fazıl Say, Güher Pekinel, Süher Pekinel gibi ünlü sanatçılarımızı yetiştiren büyük akademisyen Mithat Fenmen' den armoni, kontrpuan, solfej, kompozisyon dersleri almıştır.
Bu arada Timur Selçuk ile de kısa bir çalışma sürecinden sonra, şan hocası Selma Voyt ile ses üzerine iki senelik bir çalışma yapmıştır.

Bu arada Türkiye'de o yıllarda bilhassa klasik gitar dinleyicisi az olduğundan, daha çok insanlara Gitar misyonerliği yapmaya çabalamıştır ve bu işten çok büyük bir mutluluk duymuştur. Birçok müzik okullarında öğretici olarak görev almıştır.

1980 senesinde İsveç'e gitmiş orada ünlü gitarist Göran Söllsher, Olof Johnson ile çalışmıştır.

İsveç'te caz müziğinin epey yaygın olması en azından bu konuya olan ilgisini arttırmıştır. Ancak bu daha çok dinleyici ve teorik olarak kalmıştır. Şu anda Türkiye'de René Macaroğlu, Neşet Ruacan, Önder Foçan, Nezih Yeşilnil gibi gitaristlerimizin bulunması da ayrıca bir çekirdek sayılabilir.

1986, 1987 senelerinde, Fikret Kızılok ve Bülent Ortaçgil ile İstanbul, (Bostancı' daki) Çekirdek isimli sanat evinde tanıştı. Jak Esim ile beraber Antik İspanyol müziği üzerine programlar yaptılar bu arada 2 ayrı kaset yapıldı. 1989'da üçüncü kaset yapıldı. Bu kasete ünlü sanatçı ve gitarist Erkan Ogur da katıldı. Bu çekirdek sanat evi bünyesinde Doğan Canku, Erkan Oğur, Neşet Ruacan, Grup Gündoğarken, Ezginin Günlüğü, Yeni Türkü, Maria Rita Epik, Fırat Kızıltuğ, Şenol Filiz gibi birçok sanatçının vardı.

Bu konserlerin yanı sıra; Bilsak, İspanyol Kültür Merkezi, Fransız, Alman Kültür Merkezlerinde ve daha birçok dernekte konserler verdi.

Bu arada Flamenco, Blues, Akustik gitar çalışmalarını da hızlandırdı. Yurt dışında birçok konserler verdi.

Son 10 senedir Kocaeli'nde de Dersler vermekte bunun yanı sıra Sabancı Kültür Merkezi'nde ve Işıl Kasapoğlu'nun görev aldığı İzmit Kültür Merkezi'nde birçok konserler vermektedir. Şu anda Kocaeli Belediye Konservatuvarında gitar hocası olarak görevini sürdürmektedir.

"Rock and Blues" ve "Akustik gitar metodu" adı altında iki adet metodu bulunmakta, ayrıca şu sıralarda Klasik Gitar Metodu çıkmak üzeredir.

Dış bağlantılar
 https://web.archive.org/web/20050914033916/http://www.angelfire.com/jazz/cemikiz0/

1970 doğumlular
Türk gitaristler
Yaşayan insanlar

Cem İkiz


În chimie, un mecanism de reacție este reprezentarea pe etape a unui proces chimic, în reacții chimice elementare, cu specificarea fiecărui intermediar de reacție (izolabil sau neizolabil). Etapele detaliate ale unei reacții pot sau nu să fie observabile empiric. În cadrul acestor etape, sunt descriși intermediarii, complecșii activați și stările de tranziție, împreună cu legăturile chimice care se desfac și care se formează (și în ce ordine). Un mecanism complet trebuie să explice stereochimia observată și motivul pentru care reactanții și catalizatorul utilizați au dus la formarea anumitor produși de reacție.

Cinetica chimică
Informațiile referitoare la mecanismele de reacție sunt obținute cu ajutorul cineticii chimice, determinând ordinul de reacție și ecuația vitezei de reacție pentru fiecare reactant.

Se consideră următoarea ecuație ca și un exemplu:

CO + NO2 → CO2 + NO

În acest caz, experimental s-a demonstrat că această reacție chimică are loc în conformitate cu expresia vitezei . Această formă sugerează faptul că reacția care decurge cel mai încet (cea care determină ordinul de reacție) este reacția dintre două molecule de NO2. Un posibil mecanism pentru reacția totală, care explică expresia, este:

2 NO2 → NO3 + NO (lent)
NO3 + CO → NO2 + CO2 (rapid)

Referințe

Reacții chimice
Cinetică chimică

Legături externe
 Mecanisme de reacție în chimia organică

Mecanism de reacție


Gaylussacia brasiliensis é uma espécie de plantas com flor do género Gaylussacia da família das Ericaceae, com distribuição natural no sueste do Brasil e no Paraguai.

Subespécies
A espécie G. brasiliensis tem as seguintes subespécies validamente descritas:
 G. b. nervosa
 G. b. pubescens
 G. b. scabrida

Galeria

Referências

Ligações externas

Gaylussacia brasiliensis
Gaylussacia brasiliensis (Spreng) Meisn. (Ericaceae): caracterização química e atividade biológica do fruto in vitro e in vivo
Autoecologia de Gaylussacia brasiliensis (Ericaceae), em restinga da Ilha de Santa Catarina, Sul do Brasil

Ericaceae
brasiliensis

Gaylussacia brasiliensis


Lower Manhattan, also known as Downtown Manhattan or Downtown New York City, is the southernmost part of Manhattan, the central borough for business and culture. The neighborhood is the historical birthplace and serves as the seat of government of New York City. Because there are no municipally defined boundaries for the neighborhood, a precise population cannot be quoted, but several sources have suggested that it was one of the fastest-growing locations in New York City between 2010 and 2020, related to the influx of young adults and significant development of new housing units.

Despite various definitions of Lower Manhattan, they generally include the area on Manhattan Island delineated to the north by 14th Street, to the west by the Hudson River, to the east by the East River, and to the south by New York Harbor. The Lower Manhattan business district, known as the Financial District or Wall Street, is a world-leading global center for finance, fintech, and other commerce, housing Wall Street, the New York Stock Exchange, and Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and other major financial institutions. Lower Manhattan is home to many of New York City's most iconic buildings, including One World Trade Center, the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere.

Geography
Lower Manhattan is delineated on the north by 14th Street, on the west by the Hudson River, on the east by the East River, and on the south by New York Harbor. Its northern border is designated by thoroughfares about a mile-and-a-half south of 14th Street and a mile north of Manhattan's southern tip around Chambers Street near the Hudson River east of the entrances and overpass to the Brooklyn Bridge. Two other major arteries to Lower Manhattan are Canal Street, roughly half a mile north of Chambers Street, and 23rd Street, roughly half a mile north of 14th Street.

Lower Manhattan's central business district forms the core of the area below Chambers Street and includes the Financial District, commonly known as Wall Street after the name of its primary artery, and the World Trade Center site. At the island's southern tip is Battery Park; City Hall is north of the Financial District. South of Chambers Street are Battery Park City and South Street Seaport. TriBeCa straddles Chambers Street on the west side; at the street's east end is the giant Manhattan Municipal Building. North of Chambers Street and the Brooklyn Bridge and south of Canal Street is the Chinatown neighborhood. Many court buildings and other government offices are located in this area.

The Lower East Side neighborhood straddles Canal Street. North of Canal Street and south of 14th Street are SoHo, the Meatpacking District, the West Village, Greenwich Village, Little Italy, Nolita, and the East Village. Between 14th and 23rd Streets are lower Chelsea, Union Square, the Flatiron District, Gramercy, and Stuyvesant Town–Peter Cooper Village.

History

Lenape and New Netherland

The area that would eventually encompass modern-day New York City was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically identical Native Americans who spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami.

European settlement began with the founding of a Dutch fur trading post in Lower Manhattan, later called New Amsterdam () in 1626. The first fort was built at The Battery to protect New Netherland.

In approximately 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. The Dutch West Indies Company subsequently imported African slaves to serve as laborers; they helped to build the wall that defended the town against English and native attacks. Early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became a director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kieft's War against the Native Americans. The Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City, New Jersey resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. The Dutch Republic sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29, 1645.

On May 27, 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival. The colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653. The first mayors (burgemeesters) of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year.

17th and 18th centuries

In 1664, the English conquered the area and renamed it "New York" after the Duke of York and the city of York in Yorkshire.

At that time, people of African descent made up 20% of the population of the city, with European settlers numbering approximately 1,500, and people of African descent numbering 375 (with 300 of that 375 enslaved and 75 free). While it has been claimed that African slaves comprised 40% of the small population of the city at that time, this claim has not been substantiated. During the mid-1600s, farms of free blacks covered  where Washington Square Park later developed.

The Dutch briefly regained the city in 1673, renaming the city "New Orange", before permanently ceding the colony of New Netherland to the English for what is now Suriname in November 1674.

The new English rulers of the formerly Dutch New Amsterdam and New Netherland renamed the settlement back to New York. As the colony grew and prospered, sentiment also grew for greater autonomy. In the context of the Glorious Revolution in England, Jacob Leisler led Leisler's Rebellion and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691, before being arrested and executed.

By 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. By 1703, 42% of households in New York had slaves, a higher percentage than in Philadelphia or Boston.

The 1735 libel trial of John Peter Zenger in the city was a seminal influence on freedom of the press in North America. It would be a standard for the basic articles of freedom in the United States Declaration of Independence.

By the 1740s, with expansion of settlers, 20% of the population of New York were slaves, totaling about 2,500 people. After a series of fires in 1741, the city became panicked that blacks planned to burn the city in a conspiracy with some poor whites. Historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear, but officials rounded up 31 blacks and 4 whites, all of whom were convicted of arson and executed. City officials executed 13 blacks by burning them alive and hanged 4 whites and 18 blacks.

In 1754, Columbia University was founded under charter by George II of Great Britain as King's College in Lower Manhattan.

The Stamp Act and other British measures fomented dissent, particularly among the Sons of Liberty, who maintained a long-running skirmish with locally stationed British troops over Liberty Poles from 1766 to 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 1765 in the first organized resistance to British authority across the colonies. After the major defeat of the Continental Army in the Battle of Long Island, General George Washington withdrew to Manhattan Island, but with the subsequent defeat at the Battle of Fort Washington the island was effectively left to the British. The city became a haven for loyalist refugees, becoming a British stronghold for the entire war. Consequently, the area also became the focal point for Washington's espionage and intelligence-gathering throughout the war.

In 1771, Bear Market was established along the Hudson River shoreline on land donated by Trinity Church, and replaced by Washington Market in 1813.

New York City was greatly damaged twice by fires of suspicious origin during British military rule. The city became the political and military center of operations for the British in North America for the remainder of the war and a haven for Loyalist refugees. Continental Army officer Nathan Hale was hanged in Manhattan for espionage. In addition, the British began to hold the majority of captured American prisoners of war aboard prison ships in Wallabout Bay, across the East River in Brooklyn. More Americans died from neglect aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war. British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783. George Washington triumphantly returned to the city that day, as the last British forces left the city.

Starting in 1785, the Congress met in New York City under the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, New York City became the first national capital of the United States under the new United States Constitution. The Constitution also created the current Congress of the United States, and its first sitting was at Federal Hall on Wall Street. The first United States Supreme Court sat there. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified there. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall. New York City remained the capital of the U.S. until 1790, when the role was transferred to Philadelphia.

19th century

New York grew as an economic center, first as a result of Alexander Hamilton's policies and practices as the first Secretary of the Treasury and, later, with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the North American interior. Immigration resumed after being slowed by wars in Europe, and a new street grid system, the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, expanded to encompass all of Manhattan. Early in the 19th century, the landfill was used to expand Lower Manhattan from the natural Hudson shoreline at Greenwich Street to West Street.

In 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then an independent city), Manhattan and outlying areas. The borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge in Lower Manhattan. Municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished, and the county governmental functions, housed in Lower Manhattan after unification, were absorbed by the city or each borough.

20th century

Washington Market was located between Barclay and Hubert Streets, and from Greenwich Street to West Street. It was demolished in the 1960s and replaced by a new Independence Plaza, Washington Market Park, and other developments.

Construction boom
Lower Manhattan retains the most irregular street grid plans in the borough. Throughout the early decades of the 1900s, the area experienced a construction boom, with major towers such as 40 Wall Street, the American International Building, Woolworth Building, and 20 Exchange Place being erected. Many new water crossings into Lower Manhattan were built at this time, including the Williamsburg Bridge in 1903 and the Manhattan Bridge in 1909. The Holland Tunnel to New Jersey opened in 1927, while the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel to Brooklyn opened in 1950 and was the last major fixed crossing to be built to Lower Manhattan.

Despite these road connections opening, the economic center of New York City began to shift from Lower Manhattan to Midtown with the opening of many commuter rail terminals at the turn of the 20th century. The original Penn Station opened in 1910, the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (now PATH) extension to 33rd Street was completed in 1910, and Grand Central Terminal opened in 1913.

On March 25, 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Greenwich Village took the lives of 146 garment workers, which would eventually lead to great advancements in the city's fire department, building codes, and workplace regulations.

Throughout the first half of the 20th century, New York became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication. Interborough Rapid Transit, the first New York City Subway company, began operating in 1904. The area's demographics stabilized, labor unionization brought new protections and affluence to the working class, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under Fiorello La Guardia, and his controversial parks commissioner, Robert Moses, ended the 'blight' of many tenement areas, by demolishing slums, factories, and working-class neighborhoods through public works such as the High line, the West Side Highway and FDR Drive, built housing projects, expanded new parks, rebuilt streets, and zoning controls, especially in Lower Manhattan. The zoning changes were intended to displace the industrial workforce by removing zoning protection for industrial space and incentivizing upscale residential and clerical redevelopment. The port of New York, despite its physical suitability for berthing and its close proximity to Europe, began to deteriorate due to the city's unwillingness to invest or modernise the port and the deindustrialization zoning policy. However a large number of small scale, dynamic, and highly specialized industries persisted despite the city's efforts such as the garment industry which was closely tied to the fashion industry in Midtown, or the printing industry; linked with the publishing industry.

In the 1950s, a few new buildings were constructed in Lower Manhattan, including an 11-story building at 156 William Street in 1955. A 27-story office building at 20 Broad Street, a 12-story building at 80 Pine Street, a 26-story building at 123 William Street, and a few others were built in 1957. By the end of the decade, Lower Manhattan had become economically depressed, in comparison with Midtown Manhattan, which was booming with the continued march uptown. David Rockefeller spearheaded widespread urban renewal efforts in Lower Manhattan, beginning with constructing One Chase Manhattan Plaza, the new headquarters for his bank. He established the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association (DLMA) which drew up plans for broader revitalization of Lower Manhattan, with the development of a world trade center at the heart of these plans. The original DLMA plans called for the "world trade center" to be built along the East River, between Old Slip and Fulton Street. After negotiations with New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority decided to build the World Trade Center on a site along the Hudson River and the West Side Highway, rather than the East River site.

When building the World Trade Center, 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 m3) of material was excavated from the site. Rather than dumping the spoil at sea or in landfills, the fill material was used to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street, creating Battery Park City. The result was a 700-foot (210-m) extension into the river, running six blocks or , covering , providing a  riverfront esplanade and over  of parks.

Through much of its history, the area south of Chambers Street was mainly a commercial district, with a small population of residents—in 1960, it was home to about 4,000. Construction of Battery Park City, on landfill from construction of the World Trade Center, brought many new residents to the area. Gateway Plaza, the first Battery Park City development, was finished in 1983. The project's centerpiece, the World Financial Center, consists of four luxury highrise towers. By the turn of the century, Battery Park City was mostly completed, with the exception of some ongoing construction on West Street. Around this time, Lower Manhattan reached its highest population of business tenants and full-time residents. These developments struggled to become fully occupied at desirable rents, with relatively high vacancy rates.

In 1993, the Downtown Lower Manhattan Association contributed to a city plan calling for the revitalization of Lower Manhattan. The plan included recommended zoning changes, tax incentives to encourage new tenants, and the conversion of commercial buildings into apartments. It also called for the creation of a business improvement district, called The Alliance for Downtown New York, to help spur the area's renewal. Between 1995 and 2014, 15.8 million square feet of office space was converted to residential or hotel use. As a result, Lower Manhattan's residential population rose from 14,000 to 60,000.

Culture
Since the early-20th century, Lower Manhattan has been an important center for the arts and leisure activities. Greenwich Village was a locus of bohemian culture from the first decade of the century through the 1980s. Several of the city's leading jazz clubs are still located in Greenwich Village, which was also one of the primary bases of the American folk music revival of the 1960s. Many art galleries were located in SoHo between the 1970s and early 1990s; today, the downtown Manhattan gallery scene is centered in Chelsea. From the 1960s onward, Lower Manhattan has been home to many alternative theater companies, constituting the heart of the Off-Off-Broadway community.

Punk rock and its musical derivatives emerged in the mid-1970s largely at two Lower Manhattan venues, CBGB on Bowery in the western edge of the East Village, and Max's Kansas City on Park Avenue South. At the same time, the area's surfeit of appropriated industrial lofts, played an integral role in the development and sustenance of the minimalist composition, free jazz, disco, and electronic dance music subcultures. The area's many nightclubs and bars, though mostly shorn of the freewheeling iconoclasm, pioneering spirit, and do-it-yourself mentality that characterized the pre-gentrification era, still draw patrons from throughout the city and the surrounding region.

21st century

In the early 21st century, the Meatpacking District, once the sparsely populated province of after-hours BDSM clubs and transgender prostitutes, gained a reputation as New York City's trendiest neighborhood.

September 11 attacks
During the September 11 attacks in 2001, two of four hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center, and the towers collapsed. The 7 World Trade Center was not struck by a plane but uncontrolled fires that were caused by falling debris resulted in the building's collapse; a first in the history of steel framed skyscrapers. The 3, 4, 5, and 6 World Trade Center buildings were damaged beyond repair or destroyed, and soon after demolished. The collapse of the Twin Towers also caused extensive damage to surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan. A total of 2,753 people, including those on the planes, were killed in New York. About 400,000 people, including rescue workers and residents of the area were exposed to toxic dust and debris; many developed serious respiratory illnesses, cancers, and other harms arising from the attack, and 3,496 died.

Post-9/11 rebuilding
Following September 11, Lower Manhattan lost much of its economy and office space but has since rebounded significantly. Private sector employment reached 233,000 at the end of 2016, the highest levels since the end of 2001. This was largely due to growth and diversification in the local workforce with gains in employment sectors like Technology, Advertising, Media and Information, as well as Hotel, Restaurants, Retailing, and Health care. As of 2016, Lower Manhattan's business district is home to approximately 700 retail stores and 500 bars and restaurants.

The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation has consummated plans to rebuild downtown Manhattan by adding new streets, buildings, and office space. The National September 11 Memorial at the site was opened to the public on September 11, 2011, while the National September 11 Museum was officially inaugurated by President Barack Obama on May 15, 2014. As of the time of its opening in November 2014, the new One World Trade Center, formerly known as the Freedom Tower, is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere and the sixth-tallest in the world, at ; while other skyscrapers are under construction at the site.

The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park, formerly known as Liberty Plaza Park, began in the Financial District on September 17, 2011, receiving global attention and spawning the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide.

On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy ravaged portions of Lower Manhattan with record-high storm surge from New York Harbor, severe flooding, and high winds, causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of Manhattanites and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems. The storm and its effects have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of Manhattan and the New York City metropolitan region to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future.

Lower Manhattan has been experiencing a baby boom, well above the overall birth rate in Manhattan, with the area south of Canal Street witnessing 1,086 births in 2010, 12% greater than 2009 and over twice the number born in 2001. The Financial District alone has witnessed growth in its population to approximately 43,000 as of 2014, nearly double the 23,000 recorded at the 2000 Census.

There are currently 61,000 residents in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan south of Chambers Street and more than 62 percent of the population is between 18 and 44. Lower Manhattan is home to more young professionals than Greenpoint, the East Village, and Downtown Brooklyn and on par with Downtown Jersey City and Williamsburg.

In June 2015, The New York Times wrote that Lower Manhattan's dining scene was experiencing a renaissance. There are over 400 casual dining and more than 100 full-service dining restaurants in the area. The Village Voice, based at 80 Maiden Lane in the Financial District and historically the largest alternative newspaper in the United States, announced in 2017 that it would cease publication of its print edition and convert to a fully digital venture.

On October 31, 2017, a man drove a pickup truck into the Hudson River Park's bike path between Houston Street and Chambers Street, killing eight people and injuring at least 15. Most of those who were hit were bicyclists. It was the first deadly terrorist attack in Manhattan since 9/11.

Since 2010, a Lower Manhattan community known as Little Australia has emerged and is growing in the Nolita neighborhood.

Historical sites

Before the September 11 attacks, the Twin Towers were iconic of Lower Manhattan's global significance as a financial center. The new office towers built since the attack (including One World Trade Center) have transformed the skyline of Lower Manhattan. The 9/11 Memorial & Museum at the former World Trade Center site has become a popular draw for visitors. New York City has been described as the gay capital of the world, and the epicenter of LGBT culture and its catalyst as a continuing cultural force in modern society has been the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village. Similarly, Chinatown, which was spawned just east of the original Five Points neighborhood of Lower Manhattan, was born in the 1850s and continues to be the epicenter of culture for the Chinese diaspora.

Lower Manhattan contains many more historical buildings and sites, including Castle Clinton, Bowling Green, the old United States Customs House (now the National Museum of the American Indian), Federal Hall National Memorial commemorating the site where George Washington was inaugurated as the first U.S. President, Fraunces Tavern, New York City Hall, the Museum of American Finance, the New York Stock Exchange Building, South Street Seaport, the Brooklyn Bridge, South Ferry (the embarkation point for the Staten Island Ferry), and Trinity Church. Lower Manhattan is home to some of New York City's most spectacular skyscrapers, including the Woolworth Building, 40 Wall Street (also known as the Trump Building), 26 Wall Street (also known as the Standard Oil Building), and 70 Pine Street (also known as the American International Building).

In 1966, the commercial district of Radio Row on Cortlandt Street was demolished to make way for construction of the former World Trade Center.

Denotation

Downtown in the context of Manhattan, and of New York City generally, has different meanings to different people, especially depending on where in the city they reside. Residents of the island or of The Bronx generally speak of going "downtown" to refer to any southbound excursion to any Manhattan destination. A declaration that one is going to be "downtown" may indicate a plan to be anywhere south of 14th Street—the definition of downtown according to the city's official tourism marketing organization—or even 23rd Street. The full phrase Downtown Manhattan may also refer more specifically to the area of Manhattan south of Canal Street. Within business-related contexts, many people use the term Downtown Manhattan to refer only to the Financial District and the corporate offices in the immediate vicinity. For instance, the Business Improvement District managed by the Alliance for Downtown New York defines Downtown as south of Murray Street (essentially South of New York City Hall), which includes the World Trade Center area and the Financial District. The phrase Lower Manhattan may apply to any of these definitions: the broader ones often if the speaker is discussing the area in relation to the rest of the city; more restrictive ones, again, if the focus is on business matters or on the colonial and early post-colonial history of the island.

As reflected in popular culture, "Downtown" in Manhattan has historically represented a place where one could "forget all your troubles, forget all your cares, and go Downtown," as the lyrics of Petula Clark's 1964 hit "Downtown" celebrate (although Tony Hatch, the songwriter of the track, later clarified that he naively believed Times Square to be "downtown," and was the actual inspiration for the hit single). The protagonist of Billy Joel's 1983 hit "Uptown Girl" contrasts himself (a "downtown man") with the purportedly staid uptown world. Likewise, the chorus of Neil Young's 1995 single "Downtown" urges "Let's have a party, downtown all right."

Economy

Lower Manhattan is the third largest business district in the United States, after Midtown Manhattan and the Chicago Loop. Anchored by Wall Street, New York City functions as the financial and fintech capital of the world and has been called the world's most economically powerful city. Lower Manhattan is home to the New York Stock Exchange, at 11 Wall Street, and the corporate headquarters of NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's largest and second largest stock exchanges, respectively, when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013. Wall Street investment banking fees in 2012 totaled approximately US$40 billion.

Other large companies with headquarters in Lower Manhattan include (in alphabetical order):
AIG, 175 Water Street
Ambac Financial Group
AOL, at 770 Broadway
BARKER, 30 Broad Street
Condé Nast, One World Trade Center, publisher of Vogue, W, Vanity Fair, The New Yorker, and other publications
EmblemHealth and Standard & Poor's, at 55 Water Street HIP Health Plan of New York, which became a part of EmblemHealth, moved there with 2,000 employees in October 2004. It was the largest corporate relocation in downtown Manhattan following the September 11 attacks.
Goldman Sachs, at 200 West Street
Group M, 3 World Trade Center
Hudson's Bay Company, Brookfield Place, the parent company of Saks, Lord and Taylor and Gilt Groupe
IBT Media, publisher of the International Business Times and Newsweek, among other publications; located in Hanover Square
Nielsen Company and subsidiary Nielsen Media Research
PR Newswire, at 350 Hudson Street
Spotify, 4 World Trade Center
Verizon Communications, at 140 West Street

Prior to the September 11 attacks, One World Trade Center served as the headquarters of Cantor Fitzgerald. Prior to its dissolution, the headquarters of US Helicopter were in Lower Manhattan. When Hi Tech Expressions existed, its headquarters were in Lower Manhattan.

Government and infrastructure

Vehicles
Lower Manhattan is accessible by vehicle through several major thoroughfares. From New Jersey, Lower Manhattan is accessible through the Holland Tunnel from Interstate 78. From Queens, Long Island, and points east, it is accessible through the Queens–Midtown Tunnel from the Long Island Expressway. From Midtown and Upper Manhattan, it is accessible from the West Side Highway.

Subway
The headquarters of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey is located in 4 World Trade Center of the World Trade Center complex.

The city hall and related government infrastructure of the City of New York are located in Lower Manhattan, next to City Hall Park. The Jacob K. Javits Federal Building is located in Civic Center. It includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation New York field office.

Many New York City Subway routes converge downtown. The largest hub, Fulton Center, was completed in 2014 after a $1.4 billion reconstruction project necessitated by the September 11, 2001, attacks, and involves six separate stations. This transit hub was expected to serve 300,000 daily riders as of late 2014. The World Trade Center Transportation Hub and PATH station opened in 2016. Ferry services are also concentrated downtown, including the Staten Island Ferry at the Whitehall Terminal, NYC Ferry at Pier 11/Wall Street (and Battery Park City Ferry Terminal starting in 2020), and service to Governors Island at the Battery Maritime Building.

Bus
Many MTA express buses stop in lower Manhattan, the , and  to Staten Island, the , and  to Brooklyn, the , and  to Queens, and the  to The Bronx.

See also

 East Side
 Lower East Side
 Lower West Side
 Midtown Manhattan
 Upper Manhattan
 West Side

References

External links

Lower Manhattan at NYCgo.com

Manhattan
Economy of New York City
Neighborhoods in Manhattan

Lower Manhattan


Ourisia cotapatensis er tegund blómstrandi plantna í græðisúruætt, ættuð frá Bólivíu (La Paz).

Tilvísanir

Ourisia

Ourisia cotapatensis


Trei povești de dragoste este un film românesc din 2007 regizat de Letiția Popa.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2007 în film

Filme din 2007
Filme regizate de Letiția Popa
Filme românești
Filme în limba română

Trei povești de dragoste


Charles Frédéric Gerhardt () a fost un chimist francez. Este cunoscut pentru faptul că a reformat notațiile utilizate pentru formule chimice (în perioada 1843–1846) și că a sintetizat acidul acetilsalicilic (în formă instabilă și impură).

Note

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1816
Nașteri pe 21 august
Decese în 1856
Decese pe 19 august
Chimiști francezi
Oameni din Strasbourg
Chimiști din secolul al XIX-lea

Charles Frédéric Gerhardt


في الهندسة الرياضية، الإحداثيات الخطية الثلاثية  لنقطة بالنسبة لمثلث معين تصف المسافات النسبية بين أضلاع المثلث الثلاثة وتلك النقطة.

مثال
 نقطة تقاطع الارتفاعات في المثلث لها احداثيات خطية ثلاثية تساوي 1:1:1 على اعتبار أن المسافة بين تلك النقطة وأضلاع المثلث متناسبة مع المسافة الفعلية.

مراجع

أنظمة إحداثيات
جبر خطي
هندسة المثلث
هندسة تآلفية

إحداثيات خطية ثلاثية


An Dendrobium spectabile in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl Ludwig von Blume, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel. An Dendrobium spectabile in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dendrobium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Dendrobium

Dendrobium spectabile


Die Straßenbahn Frankfurt (Oder) verkehrt seit 1898 als elektrische Straßenbahn in der brandenburgischen Stadt Frankfurt (Oder). Auf einem meterspurigen Streckennetz von etwa 19,5 Kilometern Länge verkehren drei Haupt- und zwei Verstärkungslinien.

Die Straßenbahn wird von der Stadtverkehrsgesellschaft mbH Frankfurt (Oder) betrieben.

Geschichte
Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts hatte Frankfurt (Oder) etwa 50.000 Einwohner, die Vorstädte Dammvorstadt, Lebuser Vorstadt und Beresinchen wuchsen an und die Stadt war an mehrere Eisenbahnlinien angeschlossen. Der innerstädtische Verkehr wurde jedoch nur durch Droschken und Fuhrwerke bedient. Es gab viele Anfragen zur Einrichtung von Straßenbahnstrecken für den Güter- und Personentransport. Der Plan, eine Pferdebahn durch die Berliner Regierungsbaumeister Christian Havestadt und Werner Contag errichten zu lassen scheiterten an der Eisenbahngesellschaft, die die ihr gehörende Bahnhofstraße nicht für die Verlegung von Schienen freigab.

Im Jahr 1894 diskutierte man in der Stadt über die Schaffung eines Pferdebahnnetzes von vier Linien. Diese sollten den Markt mit dem Bahnhof, dem Stadtteil Beresinchen, dem Schützenhaus und der Küstriner Straße verbinden. Die Pferdebahn war zu dieser Zeit aber schon eine veraltete Technologie – in Österreich war am 22. Oktober 1883 die erste elektrische Straßenbahn in Betrieb gegangen. Darum beschloss die Frankfurter Stadtverordnetenversammlung am 19. März 1896 den Bau einer elektrisch betriebenen Straßenbahn. Ein entsprechender Vertrag mit der AEG wurde nach langen Verhandlungen am 22. April 1896 vom Oberbürgermeister Paul Adolph unterschrieben. Am 7. April 1896 wurde in der Dammvorstadt der erste Oberleitungsmast aufgestellt. Am 10. Juli 1897 traf der erste Triebwagen in Frankfurt ein. Der erste Fuhrpark bestand aus 18 Triebwagen und sechs offenen Anhängern für den Sommerbetrieb mit einer Spurweite von 1 m. Das notwendige Elektrizitätswerk und das Straßenbahndepot wurden auf dem Grundstück Bachgasse 4 / Fischerstraße 6 errichtet. Am 20. Dezember 1897 nahm das als Gleichstromwerk errichtete Elektrizitätswerk den Probebetrieb auf. Am 23. Dezember 1897 fuhr Wagen Nr. 4 probeweise vom Elektrizitätswerk zum Neuen Kirchhof und zurück. Am 22. Januar 1898 erfolgte die offizielle Eröffnungsfahrt. An allen Straßenkreuzungen wurden die Bahnen von einer begeisterten Menge erwartet. Einen Tag darauf, Sonntag, den 23. Januar 1898, wurde auf zwei Linien der Regelbetrieb eröffnet, Buschmühlenweg – Wilhelmsplatz – Magazinplatz und Neuer Kirchhof – Wilhelmsplatz.

Erstere führte vom Chausseehaus im Buschmühlenweg über den Wilhelmsplatz (heute Zehmeplatz und Platz der Republik) zum Magazinplatz (heute Karl-Ritter-Platz). Zweitere führte vom Neuen Kirchhof (heute Hauptfriedhof) bis zum Wilhelmsplatz (heute Platz der Republik). Nachdem die Eisenbahngesellschaft ihre Genehmigung telegrafisch übermittelt hatte, konnte der Straßenbahnbetrieb am 8. Februar 1898 auch auf der Strecke Bahnhof – Schützenhaus aufgenommen werden. Die drei Linien wurden nach Farben unterschieden und hatten eine Gesamtlänge von 9,5 km. Während des ersten Betriebsjahres benutzten fast 1,9 Mio. Fahrgäste die Straßenbahn.

Sechs weitere Triebwagen wurden geliefert. Die AEG wollte das Elektrizitätswerk verkaufen, konnte sich aber mit der Stadt nicht einigen. So ging es an die Eisenbahngesellschaft, auf welche im April 1899 die Konzession übertragen wurde. Am 21. Dezember 1899 ging eine weitere, 2,4 km lange Strecke in Betrieb: Logenstraße – Kasernen (Paulinenhof). Dazu kam eine Streckenverlängerung vom Magazinplatz zum Schlachthof. Die vier farblich unterschiedene Linien wurden bis 1906 beibehalten.

 grün – Linie 1: Chausseehaus – Schlachthof
 rot – Linie 2: Bahnhof – Markt – Schützenhaus
 gelb – Linie 3: Junkerstraße (Markt) – Beresinchen (Neuer Kirchhof)
 blau – Linie 4: Logenstraße – Kasernen

Ab 1905 wurden die Strecken zweigleisig ausgebaut, Streckenführungen verändert, mehr Haltestellen geschaffen, der Takt verdichtet und die Unpünktlichkeit bekämpft.

Ab dem 11. November 1906 gab es eine veränderte Linienführung:

 Grüne Linie: Schlachthof – Chausseehaus
 Grün-Weiße Linie: Carthaus – Küstriner Straße
 Rote Linie: Bahnhof – Schützenhaus
 Gelbe Linie: Markt – Beresinchen
 Weiße Linie: Logenstraße – Kasernen

1908 kam es zur nächsten Streckenerweiterung, diesmal vom Paulinenhof zum Hellweg. Das Streckennetz wuchs auf 12 km an. 1915 wurde das Zahlkastensystem durch Schaffner abgelöst.

Während des Ersten Weltkrieges (1914–1918) wurde der Straßenbahnverkehr zwar nie eingestellt, war aber erheblich beeinträchtigt. Es kam zu Stromausfällen, Strecken wurden verkürzt und die kupfernen Oberleitungen wurden durch Leitungen aus Zink und Stahl ersetzt. Ab 1915 wurden zunehmend Frauen als Straßenbahnfahrerinnen eingesetzt, da die Männer an die Front gingen.

Am 13. März 1922 wurden die Frankfurter Elektrizitätswerke gegründet, die zur Hälfte der Stadt gehörten. Am 1. April 1922 übernahmen die Frankfurter Elektrizitätswerke den Straßenbahnbetrieb. Wegen der Deutschen Inflation 1914 bis 1923 stellte man am 28. Dezember 1922 die erste und im Februar 1923 eine weitere Strecke ein. Der Straßenbahnverkehr wurde während der Hyperinflation nie ganz eingestellt. Jedoch blieben nur sechs Triebwagen in Betrieb, während die anderen ausgeschlachtet wurden. Am Tiefpunkt der Inflation im November 1923 betrug der Fahrpreis 100 Milliarden Mark.

Im Jahr 1924 wurde mit dem Umbau des Frankfurter Bahnhofes und des Bahnhofsvorplatzes die neue Endhaltestelle am Bahnhof errichtet. Im Juni 1925 wurde der Straßenbahnverkehr reformiert, es wurden Zahlen als Linienkennzeichnung eingeführt, ein 10-Minuten-Takt eingeführt und der Betrieb bis 23:00 Uhr verlängert.

 Linie 1: Bahnhof – Schlachthof
 Linie 2: Kasernen – Schützenhaus
 Linie 3: Wilhelmsplatz – Beresinchen
 Linie 4: Wilhelmsplatz – Chausseehaus

Am 1. Oktober 1925 wurde die Linienführung der Linie 3 geändert in: Beresinchen – Chausseehaus; die Linie 4 wurde eingestellt.

Die Linie 2 wurde 1927 für den Ausflugsverkehr in der Dammvorstadt vom Schützenhaus zum Ostmarkstadion verlängert. Für eine dichtere Zugfolge wurden im Juli 1927 weitere Trieb- und Beiwagen angekauft. Am 24. Juli 1929 wurden als Ergänzung zum Straßenbahnnetz die beiden ersten Buslinien eröffnet. Das Straßenbahnnetz wuchs am 14. Juli 1936 erneut, diesmal vom Hellweg bis zum Westkreuz. Im gleichen Jahr folgten zwei weitere Autobuslinien. Ab dem 1. April 1938 gab es eine neue Linienführung:

 Linie 1: Bahnhof – Schlachthof
 Linie 2: Westkreuz – Rathaus – Dammvorstadt (früher Schützenhaus) – Stadion an den Kleisthöhen
 Linie 3: Beresinchen – Rathaus
 Linie 4: Wilhelmsplatz – Buschmühlenweg

Am 22. April 1945 endete der Straßenbahnverkehr infolge der Kampfhandlungen des Zweiten Weltkrieges. Nach Kriegsende am 8. Mai 1945 wurde der Straßenbahverkehr schrittweise mit der Inbetriebnahme der Linie Wilhelmsplatz – Beresinchen am 10. Juli 1945 wieder aufgenommen. Die Strecke in die Dammvorstadt ging nicht mehr in Betrieb, denn der östlich der Oder gelegene Stadtteil gehörte nun zu Polen und hieß fortan Słubice. Das ganze übrige Netz wurde ab dem 28. September 1945 wieder vollständig betrieben.

Mitte der 1950er Jahre kamen die ersten Neubaufahrzeuge hinzu. Die Innenstadtstrecken wurden 1957 den neu geschaffenen Straßenverläufen angepasst. Am Westkreuz wurde 1966 die erste Wendeschleife im damaligen Netz errichtet, der weitere Schleifen folgten. Da die Straßenbahn mittelfristig durch Busse ersetzt werden sollte, stellte man ab 1970 zunächst den Verkehr auf der Strecke in den Buschmühlenweg ein. Durch die Ölkrise wurden diese Pläne jedoch aufgegeben und wieder Streckenerweiterungen durchgeführt. Als erstes ging 1976 die Verlängerung vom Hauptfriedhof zum Südring in Betrieb. Vier Jahre später wurde die Strecke in der Leipziger Straße (Wilhelm-Pieck-Straße) durch eine Neubaustrecke über den Bahnhof ersetzt. Ein Jahr später folgte der erste Abschnitt nach Neuberesinchen und 1982 wurde der Rest dieser Strecke fertiggestellt. Ab Mitte der 1980er Jahre fuhren sechs Straßenbahnlinien durch die Stadt.

 Linie 1: Neuberesinchen – Bahnhof – Platz der Republik (heute Zentrum) – Lebuser Vorstadt
 Linie 2: Westkreuz (heute Messegelände) – Platz der Republik – Stadion
 Linie 3: Kopernikusstr. – Bahnhof – Platz der Republik – Lebuser Vorstadt
 Linie 4: Kopernikusstr. – Bahnhof – Platz der Republik – Große Oderstraße (heute Europa-Universität)
 Linie 5: Neuberesinchen – Bahnhof – Westkreuz
 Linie 6: Neuberesinchen – Bahnhof – Platz der Republik – Große Oderstraße

Ab 1987 begann dann ein neues Zeitalter bei der Frankfurter Straßenbahn. Insgesamt 22 neue Fahrzeuge vom Typ KT4D kamen aus der Tschechoslowakei. Ein Jahr später fand die mit 5,6 km Länge größte Netzerweiterung in der Geschichte der Frankfurter Straßenbahn statt. Bis zum Halbleiterwerk in Markendorf wurde die Strecke von der Kopernikusstraße verlängert. Zusammen mit den verlängerten Linien 3 und 4 fuhr eine neue Linie 7 von Markendorf nach Neuberesinchen. Eine weitere Neubaustrecke ins Hansa-Viertel war bereits im Gespräch. Diese Pläne konnten jedoch durch die Wende und den wirtschaftlichen Zusammenbruch der Region nicht mehr verwirklicht werden. Allerdings wurde das vorhandene Netz modernisiert. Neue Niederflurbahnen vom Typ GT6M ersetzten ab 1993 die letzten – bis zu 40 Jahre alten – zweiachsigen Fahrzeuge aus DDR-Produktion. Darüber hinaus modernisierte man die Tatra-Gelenkwagen. Der 100 Jahre alte Betriebshof in der Bachgasse wurde 1998 endgültig durch einen Neubau in Neuberesinchen ersetzt.

Die Stadtverordnetenversammlung beschloss am 3. Februar 2005 mit knapper Mehrheit den Weiterbau der Straßenbahn über den Grenzfluss Oder hinweg nach Słubice. Der Bau der Strecke wurde jedoch durch eine unverbindliche Volksbefragung Anfang 2006 mit einer großen Mehrheit abgelehnt. Daraufhin wurden die Erweiterungspläne zunächst fallen gelassen. Im Dezember 2012 wurde aber zumindest die lange geplante Buslinie 983 vom Frankfurter Bahnhof nach Słubice eröffnet.

2010 besaß die Stadt ein Straßenbahn-Liniennetz von 43 km mit 73 Haltestellen, von denen 29 barrierefrei waren. Bei 8 der 27 Straßenbahnen, die jeweils rund 45.000 km pro Jahr zurücklegen, handelt es sich um Niederflurbahnen. Der öffentliche Nahverkehr beförderte 2010 in der Stadt etwa 10,9 Millionen Fahrgäste.

Im Dezember 2014 äußerte sich der Geschäftsführer der Stadtverkehrsgesellschaft Frankfurt (Oder) weiterhin positiv zu der Verlängerung der Straßenbahn nach Słubice. Die Verlängerung der Straßenbahn solle auf jeden Fall mittelfristig ein Ziel bleiben. Begründet wurde dies damit, dass die Fahrgastzahlen der bestehenden Buslinie 983 jedes Jahr um mehrere Prozent gestiegen seien und es, besonders an den Wochenenden, immer wieder zu Überfüllungen im Busverkehr der Linie 983 kommen würde.

Erneuerung des Fuhrparks
Im September 2014 kündigte die Stadtverkehrsgesellschaft die Anschaffung 15 neuer Niederflurstraßenbahnen an, die in den Jahren 2017–2022 nach und nach in Betrieb gehen sollen. Damit solle die gesetzliche Forderung nach einem barrierefreien öffentlichen Personennahverkehr ab 2022 erfüllt werden. Die europaweite Ausschreibung startete im Mai 2015 und sah die Anschaffung von 13 Niederflurfahrzeugen mit der Option auf zwei weitere Fahrzeuge vor, die ab Dezember 2017 eingesetzt werden sollen. Das ursprüngliche Vorhaben einer gemeinsamen Großbestellung mit anderen brandenburgischen Straßenbahnbetrieben, um die Stückkosten zu reduzieren, konnte damit nicht realisiert werden, weil einerseits die Zeit zu knapp wurde und andererseits die anderen Betriebe kostengünstigere Wege über Gebrauchtfahrzeuge oder die Modernisierung des bestehenden Fuhrparks einschlugen.

Im Januar 2016 bat die Stadtverkehrsgesellschaft die beiden Bieter auf die Ausschreibung, die Angebotsbindefrist bis zum 30. September 2016 zu verlängern, weil die Finanzierung der Neufahrzeuge bisher nicht gesichert werden konnte. Anders als andere Bundesländer bot das Land Brandenburg keinerlei finanzielle Unterstützung für die Anschaffung neuer Fahrzeuge, sodass die Stadt die Kosten komplett selbst über Kredite stemmen musste. Um die Gesamtkosten zu reduzieren, sollten die Option auf zwei Zusatzfahrzeuge nicht gezogen und lediglich 13 Fahrzeuge angeschafft werden. Sollte auch das nicht finanzierbar sein, hätte über eine weitere Reduzierung des Bestellumfangs und zudem über eine Modernisierungen des bestehenden Fuhrparks nachgedacht werden müsseb. Damit wären die Gesamtkosten auf lange Zeit jedoch nur weiter gestiegen.

Am 14. März 2016 traf die Frankfurter Stadtverordnetenversammlung eine Grundsatzentscheidung für die Straßenbahn. Die Option einer teilweisen oder kompletten Umstellung des Netzes auf Busbetrieb wurde mehrheitlich abgelehnt und stattdessen die Untersuchung von vier Varianten zur Anschaffung der 13 Neufahrzeuge beschlossen. Variante 1 umfasste dabei den ursprünglichen Plan mit dem Zeithorizont 2017–2021. Favorisiert wurde jedoch Variante 2, die die Anschaffung der ersten sechs Neufahrzeuge erst im Jahr 2021 vorsieht. Dafür sollten sieben Tatrabahnen modernisiert und die übrigen sieben Neufahrzeuge erst in den Jahren 2027–2029 angeschafft werden. Damit setzte man die Hoffnung auf künftige brandenburgische Landesregierungen, die in ihren Legislaturperioden die Förderung von Neufahrzeugen wieder einführen könnten. Das Ergebnis dieser Untersuchung sollte am 23. Juni 2016 vorgelegt und die Entscheidung bis zum 30. September 2016 getroffen werden.

Am 19. September 2016 sprach sich die Stadtverordnetenversammlung sowohl gegen den schnellen Ankauf aller 13 Neufahrzeuge bis 2021 (Variante 1) als auch gegen eine Anschaffung innerhalb von zwei Zeitperioden bis 2029 mit zwischenzeitlicher Aufarbeitung von Altfahrzeugen (Variante 2) aus. Die Mehrheitsträger begründeten ihre Entscheidung mit einem Verweis auf die angespannte Haushaltslage Frankfurts und damit, dass ein sofortiger Kauf aller Fahrzeuge das Signal an die brandenburgische Landesregierung senden würde, die Stadt wäre finanziell in der Lage, die Anschaffung der Neufahrzeuge komplett selbst zu schultern. Frankfurts Oberbürgermeister Martin Wilke verkündete jedoch, dass er Signale aus der brandenburgischen Landesregierung vernommen habe, dass es künftig ein Förderprogramm für die Fahrzeugbeschaffung geben könnte. Sollte es dazu kommen, hätte Frankfurt mit einer sofortigen Entscheidung jedoch nicht mehr davon profitieren können. René Wilke, finanzpolitischer Sprecher der Fraktion Die Linke im brandenburgischen Landtag, der an den laufenden Haushaltsplanungen beteiligt ist, konnte solch ein Vorhaben der Landesregierung jedoch nicht bestätigen. Zwischenzeitlich gab die Geschäftsführung der Stadtverkehrsgesellschaft eine Verlängerung der Angebotsbindefrist mit den beiden Bietern bis zum 31. Dezember 2016 bekannt. Nach einer weiteren Verlängerung der Angebotsbindefristen beschloss die Stadtverordnetenversammlung am 27. April 2017 die Beschaffung von 13 Niederflurfahrzeugen bis zum Jahr 2022 zu einem Preis von 34,8 Millionen Euro. Wegen der wiederholten Verschiebung der Zuschlagserteilung hatten die Hersteller Solaris und Škoda Transportation im Herbst 2017 ihre Angebote von 2015 zurückgezogen. Erst mit der Änderung des ÖPNV-Gesetzes im Dezember 2017 ermöglichte Brandenburg als letztes Bundesland eine Förderung bei Neubeschaffungen.

Nachdem die Ausschreibung auf eigene Faust gescheitert war, wurde Frankfurt Teil einer gemeinsamen Ausschreibung mit Cottbus und Brandenburg (Havel). Nach einiger Verspätung wurde schließlich Škoda im Jahr 2020 der Zuschlag erteilt. Dreizehn Dreiteiler des Typs Škoda ForCity Smart Artic mit 70 % Niederfluranteil sollten den Tatra-Einsatz reduzieren. Am 17. Februar 2021 erteilten die Betreiber der Straßenbahnen in Brandenburg (Havel), Cottbus und Frankfurt (Oder) offiziell den Auftrag zur Lieferung von neuen Straßenbahnen. Geliefert werden soll der Typ Škoda ForCity Plus in einer sechsachsigen Variante. Auf einen Mittelwagen mit einem nicht ausdrehbaren Fahrwerk wurden die beiden Endwagen mit je einem Antriebsdrehgestell aufgesattelt. Die Produktion der Neufahrzeuge wurde durch den Russisch-Ukrainischen Krieg verzögert und begann im Sommer 2023.

Betrieb

Netz bis 2017

Die drei Hauptlinien 1, 2, 4 der Straßenbahn verkehrten täglich von 4.00 bis 23.30 im
 20-Minuten-Takt: Montag bis Freitag von 6.00 bis 19.00 Uhr, Sonnabend von 8.30 bis 15.00 Uhr,
 30-Minuten-Takt: Sonn- und Feiertag ganztägig (ab 6.00), Montag–Sonnabend vor und nach dem 20-Minuten-Takt.

Die Ergänzungslinien 3 und 5 verkehrten nur Montag bis Freitag im 20-Minuten-Takt.

Netz seit 2017

Linie 1 verkehrt vom Neubaugebiet Neuberesinchen über den Bahnhof zum Stadion.

Linie 2 verbindet die Universitätsstandorte, also das Hauptgebäude, das Audimax und das Marion-Gräfin-Dönhoff-Gebäude mit dem Sprachenzentrum in der Witzlebenstraße bis hin zum Messegelände. Werktags wird mit Solofahrzeugen vom Typ KT4Dm und Niederflurwagen vom Typ GT6M gefahren. Am Wochenende kommen ausschließlich niederflurige GT6M zum Einsatz.

Linie 3 gilt als Verstärkerlinie zur Linie 4. Sie verkehrt Montag bis Freitag von der Europa-Universität über den Südring zur Kopernikusstraße und in der HVZ weiter über den Technologiepark und das Klinikum in den Vorort Markendorf (Ort) im 20-min-Takt. Betrieben wird diese mit GT6M sowie KT4Dm.

Linie 4, fährt von Markendorf vorbei an den neuen Solarfabriken über Südring, Bahnhof und das Zentrum in Frankfurts Norden, der Lebuser Vorstadt. Jedes zweite Fahrzeug ist ein Niederflurwagen. Diskutiert wird derzeit die Einstellung des nördlichen Abschnitts zwischen einer neu zu errichtenden Wendeschleife an der Berliner Straße und der Lebuser Vorstadt.

Linie 5 ist eine Tangentiallinie – sie fährt am Zentrum "vorbei", vom Neubaugebiet Neuberesinchen über den Bahnhof zum Messegelände. Man hat allerdings Anschluss am Dresdener Platz oder Bahnhof aus bzw. in Richtung Zentrum. Alle 20 Minuten trifft man dort an Werktagen KT4Dm-Tatrawagen oder GT6M-Niederflurwagen an.

Mit dem Fahrplanwechsel am 10. Dezember 2017 wurde erstmals seit Jahren das Angebot stärker verändert. Seitdem ersetzen zusätzliche Fahrten der Linie 2 die Linie 5 teilweise, wodurch Neuberesinchen nur noch in der Hauptverkehrszeit im 10-Minuten-Takt angefahren wird. Damit wird dem Bevölkerungsrückgang in diesem Stadtteil Rechnung getragen.

Literatur
 Ralf-Rüdiger et al.: 100 Jahre Strom und Straßenbahn für Frankfurt (Oder). Stadtwerke Frankfurt (Oder), 1998.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Frankfurt Oder
Frankfurt
Verkehr (Frankfurt (Oder))
Frankfurt

Straßenbahn Frankfurt (Oder)


In computer programming, named parameters, named-parameter arguments, named arguments or keyword arguments refer to a computer language's support for function calls to clearly associate each argument with a given parameter parameter within the function call.

Overview
A function call using named parameters differs from a regular function call in that the arguments are passed by associating each one with a parameter name, instead of providing an ordered list of arguments.

For example, consider this Java or C# method call that doesn't use named parameters:

window.addNewControl("Title", 20, 50, 100, 50, true);

Using named parameters in Python, the call can be written as:
window.addNewControl(title="Title",
                     xPosition=20,
                     yPosition=50,
                     width=100,
                     height=50,
                     drawingNow=True)
Using named parameters in PHP, the call can be written as:
$window->addNewControl(title: "Title",
                       xPosition: 20,
                       yPosition: 50,
                       width: 100,
                       height: 50,
                       drawingNow: True);
The version with positional arguments is more implicit. The versions that name parameters are more explicit. Depending on circumstance, a programmer may find one or the other to be easier to read.

Use in programming languages
Named parameters are supported explicitly in many languages. A non-exhaustive selection of examples includes Ada, C# 4.0+, Ceylon, ColdFusion Markup Language (CFML), Common Lisp, Fortran, IDL, Kotlin, Mathematica, PL/SQL, PowerShell, Python, R, PHP, Ruby, Scala, Smalltalk, Swift and Visual Basic. Note that Objective-C does not have named parameters (even though parts of the method name may look like named parameters).
In C++, you can achieve named parameters by using designated initializers since C++20, like so:struct A{int a{}, int b{}};

void
foo(A bar)
{
   std::cout << bar.a << bar.b;
}
foo({.a = 1, .b = 3});

Order of parameters
In languages that do not support named parameters, the order of arguments in a function call is necessarily fixed, since it is the only way that the language can identify which argument is intended to be used for which parameter.

With named parameters, it is usually possible to provide the arguments in any order, since the parameter name attached to each argument identifies its purpose. This reduces the connascence between parts of the program. A few languages support named parameters but still require the arguments to be provided in a specific order.

Optional parameters and positional parameters

Named parameters are often used in conjunction with optional parameters.  Without named parameters, optional parameters can only appear at the end of the parameter list, since there is no other way to determine which values have been omitted.  In languages that support named optional parameters, however, programs may supply any subset of the available parameters, and the names are used to determine which values have been provided.

An added complication arises in languages such as OCaml that support both optional named parameters and partial application. It is impossible in general to distinguish between a function partly applied, and a function to which a subset of parameters have been provided.  OCaml resolves this ambiguity by requiring a positional argument after all optional named-parameter arguments: its presence or absence is used to decide if the function has been fully or partly applied. If all parameters are optional, the implementor may solve the issue by adding a dummy positional parameter of type unit.

In MediaWiki, the codes (variables) {{{1}}}, {{{2}}} in templates and so on, will be replaced by the first, second, and so on unnamed parameter (or the value of a parameter named 1, 2, etc.); these are known as s.

 Emulating
In languages that do not support named parameters, some of the same benefits can be achieved in other ways.

 With documentation
Their value as documentation can be replicated by tooltips in integrated development environments (IDEs) for languages such as Java, or with comments (in C):
MyFunctionCall(
    20,  /* x coordinate */
    50,  /* y coordinate */
    100, /* width */
    5,   /* height */
    TRUE /* drawing now? */
);

Such comments are not checked for correctness and the order of arguments remains important.

 With data structures
Removing the argument order restriction, and the ability to leave some values unspecified, can be achieved by passing a record or associative array.

For example, in JavaScript, these two calls are equivalent:
MyFunctionCall({ xPosition: 20, yPosition: 50, width: 100, height: 5,
                 drawingNow: true });
MyFunctionCall({ width: 100, height: 5, xPosition: 20, yPosition: 50,
                 drawingNow: true });

Compare to C99:
struct MyParam {
    int xPosition;
    int yPosition;
    int width;
    int height;
    unsigned char drawingNow;
};
…
MyParam parameters = { .xPosition = 20, .yPosition = 50,
        .width = 100, .height = 5, .drawingNow  = TRUE };
MyFunctionCall(&parameters);

 Special Support

In Perl and pre-2.0 Ruby a similar convention exists (generally called a hash or options hash), with special support for omitting the delimiters within function calls. As an example, the core module's Net::FTP new function accepts a hash of optional arguments.

 With chained method calls
In object-oriented programming languages, it is possible to use method chaining to simulate named parameters, as a form of fluent interface. Each named-parameter argument is replaced with a method on an "arguments" object that modifies and then returns the object. In C++, this is termed the named parameter idiom''. The object may then be passed to a function that uses the arguments it contains.

Method chaining is often used in conjunction with the builder pattern as a way to override default values provided by the builder class.

See also

 Help:Template for named and positional parameters.
 Fluent interface
 Tag (programming)

References

External links
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070502112455/http://plg.uwaterloo.ca/~rgesteve/cforall/named_pars.html
 In C++ this paradigm can be easily implemented: Boost Parameter Library
 Named Parameters in various programming languages at Rosetta Code

Subroutines
Articles with example C code
Articles with example JavaScript code
Articles with example PHP code
Articles with example Python (programming language) code

Named parameter


The Battle of Wireless Ridge was an engagement of the Falklands War which took place on the night from 13 to 14 June 1982, between British and Argentine forces during the advance towards the Argentine-occupied capital of the Falkland Islands, Port Stanley.

Wireless Ridge was one of seven strategic hills within five miles of Stanley at  that had to be taken in order for the Island's capital to be approached. The attack was successful, and the entire Argentine force on the Islands surrendered later that day.

The British force consisted of 2nd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment (2 Para), a troop of the Blues & Royals, with two FV101 Scorpion and two FV107 Scimitar light tanks, as well as artillery support from two batteries of 29 Commando Regiment Royal Artillery and naval gunfire support provided by 's 4.5-in gun.

The Argentine force consisted of the 7th Infantry Regiment as well as detachments from other units. The first Argentine unit to arrive in the sector was that commanded by Major José Rodolfo Banetta that took up residence inside the Moody Brook Barracks, but this unit had to evacuate the area on 11 June when British fire struck the building, killing three Argentine soldiers and wounding an officer. At first, the 7th Regiment on Wireless Ridge was relatively comfortable, shooting sheep and roasting them on old bed frames the soldiers had found nearby. Private Guillermo Vélez maintains that he personally shot and killed 50 sheep during his time on Wireless Ridge.

Background

After heavy losses during the Battle of Goose Green, including their commander, Lieutenant Colonel 'H' Jones, command of 2 Para passed to Lieutenant-Colonel David Chaundler, who was in England at the time of the battle. Chaundler flew to Ascension Island on a Vickers VC10 and then to the Falklands on a C-130 Hercules that was dropping supplies by parachute. Chaundler jumped into the sea, where he was picked up by helicopter and eventually delivered to  for a briefing with Admiral Sandy Woodward and then to Major General Jeremy Moore's headquarters.

Four days after Goose Green, Chaundler joined 2 Para. After debriefing the battalion's officers about Goose Green and the events following, he vowed that the unit would never again go into action without fire support.

From Fitzroy, 2 Para were moved by helicopter to Bluff Cove Peak where they were held in reserve. The first line of hills: Two Sisters, Mount Longdon and Mount Harriet, were taken. Three other hills were then slated to be captured: Mount Tumbledown by the Scots Guards, Mount William by the Gurkhas and Wireless Ridge by 2 Para. The final phase of 3 Commando Brigade's campaign, the battle for Stanley, would follow the capture of these hills.

On the morning of 13 June, it became clear that the attacks on Tumbledown had been successful, so 2 Para marched around the back of Mount Longdon to take up their positions for the assault on Wireless Ridge. As the action was expected to be concluded quickly, they took only their weapons and as much ammunition as possible, leaving most other gear behind in the camp. On Bluff Cove Peak, the Battalion's mortars and heavy machine guns were attacked by Argentine A-4 Skyhawks, which delayed their planned move forward, although they suffered no casualties.

Initial assault

In the closing hours of 13 June, D Company (Coy) began the attack sequence, advancing upon 'Rough Diamond' hill north-west of Mount Longdon. It had been hit by an intense barrage from British guns, from land and sea.

In the softening-up bombardment, British artillery had fired 6,000 rounds with their 105 mm pieces, and as the British paratroopers began their push, they were further backed by naval fire and the 76 and 30 mm guns mounted on the light tanks. The approximately 80 casualties sustained by 2 Para two weeks earlier at the Battle of Goose Green (including the loss of their commanding officer), had induced them not to take any unnecessary chances the second time around. The Argentine commanding officer, Lt.Col. Omar Giménez, says that three or four times he was nearly killed by a direct hit during the softening-up bombardment.

When D Coy reached the hill, they found that the Argentine compañía C of the 7th Infantry Regiment had withdrawn due to the heavy bombardment. As Major Philip Neame's D Coy started to consolidate their position, the Argentine 7th Regiment launched a series of heavy recoilless rifle, rocket and mortar attacks on Mount Longdon, causing casualties to the 3rd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment (3 Para).

With this massive fire support, A and B Coys were convinced the enemy on the 'Apple Pie' feature had been defeated, and began to advance confidently, but they met fierce resistance when they left their trenches. They came under heavy machine-gun fire; massive retaliation was initiated by the British machine-gunners and the guns of the Blues and Royals light tanks.

One Mount Longdon survivor from 3 Para recalled the British attack which was initially repulsed by the Argentines:

The Argentine defenders there eventually withdrew in the face of such withering fire, and A and B Coys took their objective. By this stage of the battle, there were not many experienced Argentine officers left; the Forward Artillery Observation Officer (Major Guillermo Nani), the Operations Officer (Captain Carlos Ferreyra) and the compañía A and C commanders (Captains Jorge Calvo and Hugo García) and at least three senior platoon commanders (First Lieutenants Antonio Estrada, Jorge Guidobono and Ramon Galíndez-Matienzo) were wounded. C Coy then moved down from their northern start line to advance to a position east of Wireless Ridge where they found a platoon position was unoccupied.

By about 4.30am, Lieutenant-Colonel Gimenez knew that the 7th Infantry Regiment had been decisively defeated; Communications are lost, my whole regiment is finished, but other attached units continued to fight.

SAS diversionary raid

The Special Air Service, along with men from the Special Boat Squadron, carried out  a diversionary raid immediately north of Port Stanley on the night of 13–14 June. The plan was, as 2 PARA attacked the northern half of Wireless Ridge, 30 SAS and SBS commandos aboard 4 Rigid Raiders would speed across the Murrell River entrance and attack the oil storage facilities on Cortley Ridge. However, before it could reach its objective, the assault force was illuminated by a spotlight on the Argentine Almirante Irízar hospital ship (illegally preparing to collect Major José Ricardo Spadaro's 601 National Gendarmerie Special Forces Squadron on Navy Point for a major insertion behind 2 PARA). A massive amount of fire, including 30mm anti-aircraft guns arched down onto the SAS/SBS force from positions along the northern shore, caused the British raiders to withdraw. Three British commandos were wounded and all the Rigid Raiders involved were damaged beyond repair. Thus the raid achieved its aim of convincing the defenders that a major sea-borne landing was about to happen.

Final assault
Led by Captain Rodrigo Alejandro Soloaga, two platoons (under Lieutenant Luis Bertolini and Second Lieutenant Diego Bianchi-Harrington) from the Argentine 10th Armoured Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron (which normally operated the Panhard AML) arrived on foot as reinforcements and took over the abandoned positions of the 7th Regiment Reconnaissance Platoon (under Lieutenant Francisco Ramón Galindez-Matienzo) in the western rocks of Wireless Ridge.

Maj. Philip Neame's D Coy (2 Para) then began the final assault from the western end of Wireless Ridge, under the cover of fire from 's 4.5 inch gun, four light tanks, twelve 105 mm artillery pieces, several mortars and anti-tank rockets.
As the Argentine 7th Infantry absorbed the attack, Soloaga's squadron engaged British forces on "Apple Pie", including the tanks, a Milan platoon and a machine gun platoon. Over the course of two hours the 10th Squadron suffered six dead and 50 wounded.

D Coy took the first half of their objective after a hard fight with a platoon of Argentine paratroopers under 2nd Lt Gustavo Alberto Aimar of the 2nd Airborne Infantry Regiment. While Neame's company was able to overrun the Argentine paratroopers, wounding Aimar and several of his men, the British suffered two killed (Privates David Parr and Francis Slough) in the process. Neame's men then came under fierce attack from Maj. Guillermo Berazay's Compañía A, 3rd Regiment which had tried to move forward to Mt Longdon during the fighting two nights earlier but had only reached Moody Brook valley. With Lt José Luis Dobroevic's 81mm Mortar Platoon providing fire support, the company, in the form of the platoons of Subteniente (Sub-Lieutenant) Carlos Javier Aristegui and 2nd Lt Víctor Rodriguez-Pérez advanced to contact. Private Patricio Pérez from Aristegui's platoon, recalled the unnerving experience of 66 mm rockets coming straight at them like undulating fireballs. He believed he shot a British paratrooper, possibly 12 Platoon's commander, and became enraged when he heard that his friend, Horacio Benítez from his platoon, had been shot.

According to Private Horacio Benítez from Aristegui's platoon:

The platoon of 2nd Lt Rodriguez-Pérez delivered a frontal assault and in fact closed in with the British 12 Platoon, under the command of Lt Jonathan Page (following the death of Lt Barry at Goose Green). The fight surged back and forth. Lt Page managed to hold the line, but only just.

Commenting later on the action, retired Major-General John Frost (who in 1944 as a lieutenant-colonel had commanded 2 Para during the Battle of Arnhem) describes the attack on 12 Platoon: "For two very long hours the company remained under pressure. Small-arms fire mingled with all types of HE [high explosive rifle-grenades] fell in and around 12 Platoon's position as the men crouched in the abandoned enemy sangars [a type of fortification] and in shell holes."
According to Neame: "Then from the east we got this counterattack. Jon Page, whose platoon I had left up that end did a really bloody good job. He managed to get hold of our artillery by flicking his radio onto their net, as we were still without our FOO. That broke up their attack."
Private Graham Carter from D Coy confirms that several men in Aristegui's platoon had managed to sneak into the rocks through which 12 Platoon had come earlier: "We were out in the open on limb, and it looked like 10 and 11 Platoons were shooting at us. We asked the OC [Neame] to come over and check our position. He bimbled across seeming oblivious to tracer all around him, then wandered back. We thought, 'silly bugger'. Then our platoon commander [Lt Jonathan Page] stood up, shouted to everyone to keep down and was knocked over himself, hit in the leg. He was screaming and shouting, but when the medic stripped him off there was no wound, just massive bruising where the round had hit his ammunition pouch."

Neame's officers and NCOs rallied the men to capture the final part of their objective and in the face of heavy fire, the Argentines having run out of ammunition, broke and retreated, covered by supporting machine gun fire, controlled by Lt Horacio Alejandro Mones-Ruiz of Berazay's compañía. Privates Esteban Tríes and José Cerezuela of Rodriguez-Pérez's platoon, volunteered to stay behind and rescue their wounded platoon sergeant, Manuel Villegas, laboriously carrying him to Port Stanley.

Private Michael Savage and other survivors from Compañía C were the first 7th Regiment troops to reach the relative safety of Port Stanley, only to be greeted with shock and disdain, he recalls, by immaculately dressed staff officers: "They had been sleeping in houses, in warm beds. They had shiny shoes, pristine ironed uniforms and waxed moustaches. They even had heating in their cars. I was so furious with them."

The battle was not yet over. Lt-Col. Eugenio Dalton, an Argentine 10th Brigade staff officer, during the pre-dawn darkness of 14 June, was seen driving around in a jeep, marshalling tired, panicky and dazed soldiers from various units into a company and leading them into Stanley's western sector, under heavy fire. Some 200 survivors from Wireless Ridge had been rallied by Dalton to form, under heavy gunfire, a last-ditch defensive line in front of the now silenced guns of the 4th Airborne Artillery Group near the racecourse. Near the church in Stanley, intent on helping Berazay, Maj. Carrizo-Salvadores, Second-in-command of the 7th Regiment, helped by the chaplain Father José Fernández, mustered about 50 Wireless Ridge survivors and led them on a bayonet charge, with the soldiers chanting their famous 'Malvinas March', but were stopped by heavy artillery and machine-gun fire. The Paras were momentarily alarmed and watched surprised, with Neame describing it as "quite a sporting effort, but one without a sporting chance". Neame later gave more details: "Then as daylight began we got another counter-attack, this time from the Moody Brook side onto Sean Webster's platoon. I thought 'bloody hell, what's going on around here?' I wondered what we had got into and thought that this was most unlike the Argentinians. For a while they were quite persistent."

2 Para had suffered three dead and 11 wounded. Its mortar platoon also reported four mortarmen with broken ankles after having fired supercharge rounds for extra range, in order to repel the Argentine counterattack force that had attacked from Moody Brook. The Argentines suffered approximately 25 dead and about 125 wounded, about 50 were taken prisoner. In the final stages of the battle, Brigadier-General Jofre had been offered the use of Skyhawks to bomb Wireless Ridge with napalm but declined in the belief that the British response would be commensurate.

Aftermath

Along with other key battles in the latter part of British activity under Operation Corporate, such as the Battle of Mount Tumbledown, the success at Wireless Ridge constituted one of the last major battles of the war before the subsequent surrender of Argentina. In the wake of the battle, British forces witnessed the Argentine soldiers pull back toward Stanley, before continuing to turn firepower onto them as they retreated, with one officer remarking "It was a most pathetic sight, and one which I never wish to see again."

Not wanting to replicate the heavy losses of Goose Green, the British had focussed a heavy artillery bombardment onto the opposing troops before undertaking the main assault, an action that would strongly affect the morale of the Argentine soldiers. The barrage lowered their will to fight significantly, spreading a sense of hopelessness through the forces as they retreated.A well-trained British battalion would also have been hard-pressed and forced to relinquish the position under the same circumstances, according to one military analyst who studied the battle in great detail.

With the opposing forces in retreat, and the successful capture of several key positions, including Wireless Ridge and Mount Tumbledown, the British obtained permission to advance on Stanley, with 2 Para leading the first troops into the town since Argentinian forces had first occupied the territory at the beginning of the war in April 1982. After its recapture, the Argentine surrender came into effect from 14 June.

For the bravery shown at Wireless Ridge, 2 Para was awarded three Military Crosses, one Military Medal and one Distinguished Conduct Medal. 29 Commando was awarded one Military Cross.

In 2022, retired Lieutenant-Colonels Víctor Hugo Rodríguez-Perez and Philip Neame met for the first time in London and exchanged signed copies of their books, Penal Company on the Falklands: A Memoir of the Parachute Regiment at War 1982 and Llevando la Patria al Hombro (Carrying the weight of the Fatherland on your shoulders).

See also
 Falklands War

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Jolly, Rick (1983) The red and green life machine : a diary of the Falklands Field Hospital, London: Century,

 Paul, James and Spirit, Martin (2002) Second time around for 2 Para: The Battle for Wireless Ridge, Britain's Small Wars, WWW site, Accessed 19 March 2007

External links
Anglo-Argentine Alan Craig tells of fight for Wireless Ridge
recollections of Anglo-Argentine conscript Michael Savage of the 7th Infantry Regiment's C Company

Wireless Ridge
Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)
Household Cavalry
British Army in the Falklands War
June 1982 events in South America

Battle of Wireless Ridge


Vozvízhenskaya , es una stanitsa del raión de Kurgáninsk del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia. Está situada en la orilla derecha del río Labá, tributario del Kubán, frente a la desembocadura del Fars, 44 km al noroeste de Kurgáninsk y 89 km al este de Krasnodar. Tenía 1 609 habitantes en 2010

Es cabeza del municipio Vozvízhenskoye, al que pertenece asimismo Sujói Kut.

Historia

La localidad fue fundada por cosacos en 1843 en el marco de la construcción de una nueva línea defensiva a lo largo del Labá en la Guerra del Cáucaso. En 1890 tenía 5 154 habitantes. Hasta 1920 pertenecía al otdel de Maikop del óblast de Kubán.

Enlaces externos y referencias

Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
Este artículo es en parte una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Воздви́женская.
Sitio web del municipio
El municipio en el sitio web del raión .
Vozvízhenskaya en el Diccionario Enciclopédico Brockhaus y Efron .
Mapa topográfico soviético en ''maps.vlasenko.net]
  en Panoramio

Localidades del raión de Kurgáninsk del krai de Krasnodar
Localidades establecidas en 1843

Vozdvízhenskaya


U 597 war ein deutsches Unterseeboot des Typs VII C – auch "Atlantikboot" genannt – das während des U-Boot-Krieges bei Geleitzugschlachten im Nordatlantik eingesetzt wurde.

Geleitzugschlachten im Nordatlantik
Nach den Maßgaben der Rudeltaktik setzte die Kriegsmarine ab Sommer 1941 mehrere U-Bootgruppen gegen die alliierten Geleitzüge ein, welche die Versorgung Großbritanniens sicherstellen sollten. Am 13. Juni wurde U 597 der Gruppe "Wolf" zugeteilt, die Ende des Monats den Geleitzug ON 113 attackierte. Kommandant Bopst fuhr einen Angriff, erzielte aber keine Erfolge. Am 27. Juni löste sich U-Bootgruppe "Wolf" auf, und einige der zugehörigen U-Boote, unter anderem U 597, ließen sich durch die "Milchkuh" U 461 versorgen. Diese Boote ordneten sich anschließend in den Vorpostenstreifen ein, den die inzwischen zusammengestellte U-Bootgruppe "Pirat" gebildet hatte, und attackierten Anfang August 1942 den Geleitzug ON 115, aus dem zwei Schiffe versenkt wurden. Bevor diese U-Bootgruppe wenige Tage später wegen ungünstiger Wetterlage aufgelöst wurde, griff U 597 erfolglos einen Nachzügler an. Am 3. August wurde das Boot der U-Bootgruppe "Steinbrinck" zugeteilt, die östlich der Neufundlandbank patrouillierte und den Geleitzug SC 94 attackierte. Kommandant Bopst sichtete einige Schiffe, die den Anschluss an den Konvoi verloren haben, konnte aber weiterhin keine Erfolge erzielen. Am 16. August kehrte U 597 nach Brest, dem Stützpunkt der 1. U-Flottille, zurück.

Versenkung
Am 1. Oktober 1942 war U 597 zunächst der U-Bootgruppe "Luchs" zugeteilt, die Jagd auf ihr Ziel, den Geleitzug HX 209, aufgrund erheblicher Luftsicherung eine Woche später bereits abbrach und aufgelöst wurde. Aus einigen dieser Boote – unter anderem U 597 – und neu Hinzugekommenen wurde am 8. Oktober die U-Bootgruppe "Panther" gebildet, die am 11. Oktober die 36 Schiffe des Geleitzugs ONS 136 entdeckten. Zum Angriff auf diesen Konvoi bildete der BdU aus U 597 und sieben weiteren Booten die U-Bootgruppe "Leopard". Wegen der ungünstigen Wetterbedingungen, mit Winden bis Stärke 10 blieb der Angriff der U-Bootgruppe erfolglos, einzig U 587 gelangen zwei Angriffe, ohne dass Versenkungen erzielt wurden. Um die Mittagszeit des 12. Oktober entdeckte ein Liberator-Bomber das aufgetaucht fahrende U-Boot und attackierte es mit Wasserbomben. Vom Flugzeug aus beobachtete auftreibende Ölflecken und Trümmer zeigten die Versenkung von U 597 an ().

Literatur und Quellen
 Rainer Busch, Hans-Joachim Röll: Der U-Boot-Krieg 1939–1945. Band 2: Der U-Boot-Bau auf deutschen Werften. E. S. Mittler und Sohn, Hamburg u. a. 1997, ISBN 3-8132-0512-6.
 Paul Kemp: Die deutschen und österreichischen U-Boot-Verluste in beiden Weltkriegen. Urbes Verlag, Gräfelfing vor München 1998, ISBN 3-924896-43-7.
 Jürgen Rohwer, Gerhard Hümmelchen: Chronik des Seekrieges 1939–1945. Manfred Pawlak Verlagsges., Herrsching 1981, .

Typ VII C
U-Boot im Zweiten Weltkrieg
Schiffsverlust im Zweiten Weltkrieg
Schiffsverlust 1942
Blohm + Voss
U597

U 597


Maoam (udtales "Ma-o-am") er et mærke fra slikproducenten Haribo. De distribueres under den tekniske betegnelse frugtkaramel med forskellig smag. Typisk pakkes fem stykker af en art i en pakke, og flere af disse pakker med forskellige smage pakkes og sælges i en stang. Derudover er der også store pakker.

Produkter

 Maoam Happy Fruits - frugtkarameller
 Happy Chews Cola - dragé med colasmag
 Happy Chews Syrlige - dragé med frugtsmag/syrlig smag
 Happy Chews Mix - sammenblanding af Happy Chews Cola, syrlige, salte, sure og tyrkiske
 Happy Chews Salte - dragé med salt/salmiak

Referencer

Haribo

Maoam