Gunfighters, also called gunslingers (), or in the late 19th and early 20th century,  gunmen were individuals in the American Old West who gained a reputation of being dangerous with a gun and participated in gunfights and shootouts. Today, the term "gunslinger" is more or less used to denote someone who is quick on the draw with a handgun, but this can also refer to those armed with rifles and shotguns. The gunfighter is also one of the most popular characters in the Western genre and has appeared in associated films, television shows, video games, and literature.

The gunfighter could be a lawman, outlaw, cowboy, or shooting exhibitionist, but was more commonly a hired gun who made a living with his weapons in the Old West.

Origin of the term
The term "gunslinger" was used in the Western film Drag Harlan (1920). The word was soon adopted by other Western writers, such as Zane Grey, and became common usage. In his introduction to The Shootist (1976), author Glendon Swarthout says "gunslinger" and "gunfighter" are modern terms, and the more authentic terms for the period would have been "gunman", "pistoleer", "shootist", or "bad man" (sometimes written as "badman"). Swarthout seems to have been correct about "gunslinger", but the term "gunfighter" existed in several newspapers in the 1870s, and as such the term existed in the 19th century. Bat Masterson used the term "gunfighter" in the newspaper articles which he wrote about the lawmen and outlaws whom he had known. However, Joseph Rosa noted that, even though Masterson used the term "gunfighter", he "preferred the term 'mankiller when discussing these individuals. Clay Allison (1841–1887), a notorious New Mexico and Texas gunman and cattleman, originated the term "shootist".

Usage
Often, the term has been applied to men who would hire out for contract killings or at a ranch embroiled in a range war where they would earn "fighting wages". Others, like Billy the Kid, were notorious bandits, and still others were lawmen like Pat Garrett and Wyatt Earp. A gunfighter could be an outlaw—a robber or murderer who took advantage of the wilderness of the frontier to hide from genteel society and to make periodic raids on it. The gunfighter could also be an agent of the state, archetypically a lone avenger, but more often a sheriff, whose duty was to face the outlaw and bring him to justice or to personally administer it. There were also a few historical cowboys who were actual gunfighters, such as the Cochise County Cowboys who participated in the bloody 1879 Skeleton Canyon massacre.

Depiction in culture

Gunslingers frequently appear as stock characters in Western movies and novels, along with cowboys. Often, the hero of a Western meets his opposite "double", a mirror of his own evil side that he has to destroy.

Western gunslinger heroes are portrayed as local lawmen or enforcement officers, ranchers, army officers, cowboys, territorial marshals, nomadic loners, or skilled fast-draw artists. They are normally masculine persons of integrity and principle – courageous, moral, tough, solid, and self-sufficient, maverick characters (often with trusty sidekicks), possessing an independent and honorable attitude (but often characterized as slow-talking). They are depicted as similar to a knight-errant, wandering from place to place with no particular direction, often facing curious and hostile enemies, while saving individuals or communities from those enemies in terms of chivalry. The Western hero usually stands alone and faces danger on his own, commonly against lawlessness, with an expert display of his physical skills (roping, gun-play, horse-handling, pioneering abilities, etc.).

In films, the gunslinger often possesses a nearly superhuman speed and skill with the revolver. Twirling pistols, lightning draws, and trick shots are standard fare for the gunmen of the big screen. In the real world, however, gunmen who relied on flashy tricks and theatrics died quickly, and most gunslingers took a much more practical approach to their weapons. Real gunslingers did not shoot to disarm or to impress, but to kill.

Another classic bit of cinema that is largely a myth is the showdown at high noon, where two well-matched gunslingers agree to meet for a climactic formal duel. These duels did occasionally happen, as in the case of the Luke Short–Jim Courtright duel, but gunfights were typically more spontaneous, a fight that turned deadly when one side reached for a weapon, and no one knew who actually won the fight for several minutes until the air finally cleared of smoke. Gunfights could be won by simple distraction or pistols could be emptied as gunmen fought from behind cover without injury. When a gunman did square off, it rarely was with another gunfighter. Gunslingers usually gave each other a wide berth, and it was uncommon for two well-known gunslingers to face off. The gunslinger's reputation often was as valuable as any skills possessed. In Western films and books, young toughs often challenge experienced gunmen with the hopes of building a reputation, but this rarely happened in real life. A strong reputation was enough to keep others civil and often would spare a gunfighter from conflict. Even other gunslingers were likely to avoid any unnecessary confrontation.

In the days of the Old West, tales tended to grow with repeated telling, and a single fight might grow into a career-making reputation. For instance, the gunfight at the O.K. Corral made legends of Wyatt Earp and the Cochise County Cowboys, but they were relatively minor figures before that conflict. Some gunslingers, such as Bat Masterson, actively engaged in self-promotion. Johnny Ringo built a reputation as a gunslinger while never taking part in a gunfight or killing unarmed civilians.

Fact and fiction

Most gunfights are portrayed in films or books as having two men square off, waiting for one to make the first move. This was rarely the case. Often, a gunfight was spur-of-the-moment, with one drawing his pistol, and the other reacting. Often it would develop into a shootout where both men bolted for cover. In popular folklore, men who held noteworthy reputations as a gunfighter were eager to match up against another gunman with the same reputation. On the contrary, in cases where two men held a similar reputation, both would avoid confrontation with one another whenever possible. They rarely took undue risks and usually weighed their options before confronting another well-known gunman. This respect for one another is why most famous gunfights were rarely two or more well-known gunmen matched up against one another, but rather one notable gunman against a lesser-known opponent or opponents.

These fights were usually close-up and personal, with a number of shots blasted from pistols, often resulting in innocent bystanders hit by bullets gone wild. Much of the time, it would be difficult to tell who had "won" the gunfight for several minutes, as the black powder smoke from the pistols cleared the air. How famous gunfighters died is as varied as each man. Many well-known gunfighters were so feared by the public because of their reputation that when they were killed, they died as a result of ambush rather than going down in a "blaze of glory". Others died secluded deaths either from old age or illness.

Mythology and folklore often exaggerate the skills of famous gunfighters. Most of these historical figures were not known to be capable of trick shooting, nor did they necessarily have a reputation for precision sharpshooting. Such tropes that are frequently seen in Westerns include shooting the center of a coin, stylistic pistol twirling, glancing shots that intentionally only graze an opponent (the bullet through the hat being an example), shooting an opponent's belt buckle (thus dropping his pants), a bullet cutting the hangman's rope, or shooting the guns out of opponents' hands (typically as an alternative to killing). The last was debunked by Mythbusters as an impossibility, as unjacketed bullets tend to shatter into fragments that can hurt or even kill. Ed McGivern dispelled the myth of the inaccuracy of pistol fanning by shooting tight groups while fanning the revolver.

In Western movies, the characters' gun belts are often worn low on the hip and outer thigh, with the holster cut away around the pistol's trigger and grip for a smooth, fast draw. This type of holster is a Hollywood anachronism. Fast-draw artists can be distinguished from other movie cowboys because their guns will often be tied to their thigh. Long before holsters were steel-lined, they were soft and supple for comfortable all-day wear. A gunfighter would use tie-downs to keep his pistol from catching on the holster while drawing. Most of the time, gunfighters would just hide their pistols in their pockets and waistbands. Wild Bill Hickok popularized the butt-forward holster type, which worked better on horseback. Other gunfighters would use bridgeport rigs that gave a faster and easier draw. Revolvers were a popular weapon to gunfighters who were horsemen, cowboys, and lawmen because of their concealability and effectiveness on horseback. The Winchester rifle was also a popular weapon among gunfighters. Dubbed the "Gun that Won the West", it was widely used during the settlement of the American frontier. Shotguns were also a popular weapon for "express messengers" and guards, especially those on stagecoaches and trains who were in charge of overseeing and guarding a valuable private shipment.

Quick draw and hip shooting was a rare skill in the West, and only a handful of historically known gunslingers were known to be fast, such as Luke Short, John Wesley Hardin, and Wild Bill Hickok. Shooting a pistol with one hand is normally associated with gunslingers, and is also a standard for them of the era to carry two guns and fire ambidextrously. Capt. Jonathan R. Davis carried two revolvers in his iconic gunfight, while Jesse James himself carried over half a dozen revolvers in many of his gunfights.

Gunfighters King Fisher, John Wesley Hardin, Ben Thompson, Billy the Kid, Wild Bill Hickok, and Pat Garrett all died as a result of ambushes, killed by men who feared them because of their reputation. Gunmen Kid Curry, Jim Courtright, Dallas Stoudenmire and Dave Rudabaugh were killed in raging gun battles, much as portrayed in films about the era, and usually against more than one opponent. Bill Longley and Tom Horn were executed. Famed gunman Clay Allison died in a wagon accident. Gunmen Wyatt Earp, Bat Masterson, Bass Reeves, Commodore Perry Owens, and Luke Short all died of natural causes, living out their lives on reputation and avoiding conflict in secluded retirement. Gunfighter and lawman Frank Eaton, known as "Pistol Pete" lived into old age and gained further fame, before his death at age 97, by becoming the mascot for Oklahoma A&M College (now Oklahoma State University). Rare are the gunfighters who, like William Sidney "Cap" Light, died accidentally by their own hand.

Famous gunfights

The image of a Wild West filled with countless gunfights was a myth generated primarily by dime-novel authors in the late 19th century. An estimate of 20,000 men in the American West were killed by gunshot between 1866 and 1900, and over 21,586 total casualties during the American Indian Wars from 1850 to 1890. The most notable and well-known took place in the states/territories of Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Actual gunfights in the Old West were very rare, very few and far between, but when gunfights did occur, the cause for each varied. Some were simply the result of the heat of the moment, while others were longstanding feuds, or between bandits and lawmen. Lawless violence such as range wars like the Lincoln County War and clashes with Indians were also a cause. Some of these shootouts became famous, while others faded into history with only a few accounts surviving. To prevent gunfights from happening, many cities in the American frontier, such as Dodge City and Tombstone, put up a local ordinance to prohibit firearms in the area.

The Gunfight at the OK Corral is a famous example of a real-life western shootout, between the Earp Brothers together with Doc Holliday, and the Clanton-McLaury gang. It lasted only 30 seconds, contrary to many movie adaptations. The gunfight itself did not actually happen in the corral but in a vacant lot outside of it. The shooting started when Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury cocked their pistols. Both parties simultaneously drew their guns, which added to the confusion about who fired first. It is not known who fired the first shot, but Wyatt's bullet was the first to hit, tearing through Frank McLaury's belly and sending McLaury's own shot wild through Wyatt's coattail. Billy Clanton fired at Virgil, but his shot also went astray when he was hit with Morgan's shot through his ribcage. Billy Claiborne ran as soon as shots were fired and was already out of sight. Ike Clanton panicked as well and ran towards Wyatt pleading for his life. "Go to fighting or get away!", Wyatt yelled and watched Ike desert his brother Billy and run. Doc instantly killed Tom McLaury with blasts from his shotgun. Frank was running to Fremont Street, and he challenged Holliday for killing his brother, but Doc dropped his shotgun, drew his pistol, and shot Frank in the right temple. Wounded and dying, Billy Clanton fired blindly into the gun smoke encircling him, striking Virgil's leg. Wyatt responded by sending several rounds into Billy.

On April 14, 1881, lawman Dallas Stoudenmire participated in a gunfight in El Paso, Texas which many dubbed the Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight, in which he killed three of the four fatalities with his twin .44 caliber Colt revolvers. One of those killed was an innocent Mexican bystander. Less than a year after these incidents, he would kill as many as six more men in gunfights while in the line of duty.

Another well-documented gunfight resulted in the most kills by one person in a single event, when Capt. Jonathan R. Davis shot eleven bandits single-handedly on 19 December 1854. Unknown to Davis and his companions, a band of robbers was lying in wait in the canyon brush near the trail. They were a typically diverse and motley group of Gold Rush bandits: two Americans, one Frenchman, two Britons, five Sydney Ducks, and four Mexicans. As Captain Davis and his companions trudged on foot, the bandit gang charged out of the brush, pistols flaming. James McDonald died instantly, without time to draw his revolver or react in any way. Dr. Bolivar managed to get his six-shooter out and fire twice at the highwaymen before he dropped, badly wounded. Captain Davis later described himself as being "in a fever of excitement at the time." Unfazed, he stood his ground, pulling out both pistols and firing a barrage at the charging outlaws. He shot down his assailants, one after another. The outlaws' bullets tore at Davis's clothing but caused only two slight flesh wounds. Within moments, seven of the bandits were dead or dying on the ground and Davis's pistols were empty. Four of the remaining robbers now closed in on the captain to finish him off. Davis whipped out his Bowie knife and quickly warded off the thrusts from the two of the bandits. He stabbed one of them to death; the other he disarmed by knocking the knife from his grasp and slicing off his nose and a finger of his right hand. The two last attackers were the men who had been wounded in a previous bandit raid. Despite their weakened condition, they foolishly approached Davis with drawn knives. The captain reacted in an instant. Slashing with his heavy Bowie, he killed them both.

On December 1, 1884, a town sheriff named Elfego Baca came face-to-face against 80 gunmen which became known as the Frisco shootout. The battle started when Baca arrested a cowboy who had shot him. In turn, the cowboy called upon 80 of his associates to murder Baca. Baca took refuge in an adobe house, and over the course of a 36-hour siege, the gunmen put 400 bullet holes in the house (some accounts say a total of 4,000 shots) without touching Baca. He in turn killed 4 of them and wounded 8. When the shooting was over as the attackers finally ran out of ammo, Baca strolled out of the house unscathed. Baca went on to a distinguished career as a lawyer and legislator and died in his bed in 1945, at age 80.

In January 1887 Commodore Perry Owens took office as Sheriff of Apache County, Arizona. He sent two deputies to arrest Ike Clanton. Clanton had instigated the Gunfight at the OK Corral and was charged with the later ambush shooting of Virgil Earp. Wyatt Earp searched for Ike Clanton in his vendetta, but never found him – Ike moved north to Apache County to continue rustling cattle and killing. Owens' two deputies killed Ike Clanton; Phin Clanton was arrested; three other gang members were killed; and the Clanton gang was done. Then Sheriff Owens turned his attention to the Blevins family, the other rustling gang in the county. In June 1887 Old Man Blevins disappeared, presumably killed by the Tewksbury faction of the Pleasant Valley War. The Blevins sons searched for their father and in August Hamp Blevins and another were killed by the Tewksbury side. So Andy Blevins (aka Cooper) ambushed and killed John Tewksbury and Bill Jacobs in revenge. Blevins returned to Holbrook and was heard bragging about his killings. Sheriff Owens had inherited a warrant for Andy Blevins' (Cooper) arrest for horse theft so he rode to Holbook on September 2, 1887. Sheriff Owens had hunted buffalo for the railroad and could shoot his Winchester from the hip with great accuracy. Cradling his Winchester rifle in his arm, Sheriff Owens knocked on the Blevins' door. Andy Blevins answered with a pistol in hand, the lawman told him to come out, that he had a warrant for arrest. Blevins refused and tried to close the door. Owens shot his rifle from his hip through the door, hitting Andy Blevins in the stomach. Andy's half-brother, John Blevins, pushed a pistol out the door to Owens' right and fired at the Sheriff. He missed and Owens shot John Blevins in the arm, putting him out of the fight. Owens saw Andy Blevins in the window moving to shoot back. Owens shot through the wall, striking Andy in the right hip – he died that night. Mose Roberts, boarding with the family, jumped out of a side window with a pistol. Sheriff Owens shot him through his back and chest, killing him. Fifteen-year-old Samuel Houston Blevins ran out the front door, with his brother's revolver, and yelled "I'll get him." His mother ran out after him. Owens shot and Sam fell backward, dying in his mother's arms. The shootout took less than one minute and made Owens a legend. In eight months Sheriff Owens had rid Apache County of two notorious gangs of rustlers and killers.

In many early western films and literature, Native Americans were often portrayed as savages; having conflicts and battles against gunfighters and White settlements. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), an estimated 19,000 White men, women, and children were killed while the Indians killed numbered between 30,000 and 45,000 casualties during the American Indian Wars. Gunfighters in history did fight Native Americans. Among them was civilian Billy Dixon, who made one of the longest recorded sniper kills, by shooting an Indian off his horse almost a mile away with his Sharps rifle, during a standoff in the Second Battle of Adobe Walls.

General George S. Patton himself had a gunfight when he was a young second lieutenant chasing Pancho Villa all over northern Mexico in 1916. Patton and 10 enlisted men had been sent to San Miguelito Ranch to look for Villa, who had recently raided the city of Columbus, New Mexico. Patton positioned his men by the south gate and was making his way up to the north gate when a trio of Villa's men came into the ranch on horseback. Patton drew his obsolete single-action Colt Peacemaker revolver and shot two of the men. The first man had been fatally wounded in the exchange and tried to draw his pistol before Patton killed him with a single shot. After his troops took down the remaining outlaw, Patton tied the three dead men to the hood of his touring car and drove the bodies back to his commanding officer.

Real-life Wild West duels

The image of two gunslingers with violent reputations squaring off in a street is a Hollywood invention. However, face-to-face fast draw shootouts did occur in the real West. These duels were first recorded in the South, brought by emigrants to the American Frontier as a crude form of the "code duello," a highly formalized means of solving disputes between gentlemen with swords or guns that had its origins in European chivalry. By the second half of the 19th century, few Americans still fought duels to solve their problems, and it became a thing of the past in the United States by the start of the 20th century. Writer Wyatt-Brown in his book "Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South" described dueling in the American frontier as a "custom", and was primarily used for teenage disputes, rise in rank, status, and scapegoating.

The most famous and well-recorded duel occurred on 21 July 1865, in Springfield, Missouri. Wild Bill Hickok and Davis Tutt quarreled over cards and decided to have a gunfight. They arranged to walk toward each other at 6 pm. Wild Bill's armed presence caused the crowd to immediately scatter to the safety of nearby buildings, leaving Tutt alone in the northwestern corner of the square. When they were about 50 yards apart, both men drew their guns. The two fired at the same time, but Hickok's shot hit Tutt in the heart, while Tutt's shot missed. This was the first recorded example of two men taking part in a quick-draw duel. The following month Hickok was acquitted after pleading self-defense. The first story of the shootout was detailed in an article in Harper's Magazine in 1867 and became a staple of the gunslinger legend.

The famous lawman Wyatt Earp gave an account of having participated in a duel once during his vendetta. While in the South Pass of the Dragoon Mountains, Earp's posse found one of the outlaw cowboys named "Indian Charlie" Cruz. One account says that after the party recognized Cruz, they chased him down and a gunfight ensued. The party managed to capture Cruz and he confessed to having taken part in Morgan's murder, and that he identified Stilwell, Hank Swilling, Curly Bill, and Johnny Ringo as other of Morgan's killers. During that time, Wyatt allowed Cruz to keep his revolver to "give him a chance to fight like a man." After the confession, Wyatt told Cruz to draw, challenging him to a duel, and the posse counted to three before Wyatt gunned Cruz down.

The Langford–Peel shootout occurred on July 22, 1867, between gunmen John Bull and Langford Peel.

Doc Holliday himself had a duel in a saloon in Las Vegas, New Mexico. One of the women who worked there had an ex-boyfriend named Mike Gordon who had just been discharged from the Army. Gordon wanted her to stop working. When she told him to leave her alone, he became angry, went outside the saloon, and started shooting out the windows with his pistol. As bullets went through the saloon, Doc unflinching, holstered his Colt Peacemaker revolver and walked outside. Gordon then started shooting at him but missed. Holliday then drew his pistol and shot Gordon at long range with one shot. He then went back to the saloon. Gordon died the next day and Holliday fled. Doc Holliday has also been credited with wounding and shooting a pistol out of saloon owner Milt Joyce's hand when he tried to brandish it at Holliday.

Another well-known duel in the American West happened in Fort Worth, Texas, and was known as the Luke Short-Jim Courtright Duel. Timothy Isaiah "Longhair Jim" Courtright was running the T.I.C. Commercial agency in Fort Worth, which provided "protection" to gambling dens and saloons in return for a portion of their profits. At the same time, Luke Short, a former friend of Courtright's, was running the White Elephant Saloon and Jim was trying to get Short to utilize his services. But the Dodge City gunfighter told Courtright to "go to Hell," and that he could do anything that was necessary to take care of his business. On February 8, 1887, the two quarreled, and with Bat Masterson at Short's side, Courtright and Short dueled in the street. They drew their pistols at close range, and Short fired first, blowing off Courtright's thumb. Courtright attempted the "border shift", a move where a gunfighter switches his gun to his uninjured hand, but he was too slow. Short shot him in the chest, killing him.

The Long Branch Saloon Shootout, involving Levi Richardson, a buffalo hunter, and "Cockeyed Frank" Loving, a professional gambler, happened on April 5, 1879. Richardson had developed some affection for Loving's wife Mattie, and the two began to argue about her. In the saloon, Frank sat down at a long table, Richardson turned around and took a seat at the same table. The two were then heard speaking in low voices. After the conversation, Richardson drew his pistol, and Loving drew his in response. The Long Branch Saloon was then filled with smoke. Dodge City Marshal Charlie Bassett, who was in Beatty & Kelley's Saloon, heard the shots and came running. Both men were still standing, although Richardson had fired five shots from his gun and Loving's Remington No. 44 was empty. Deputy Sheriff Duffey threw Richardson down in a chair and took his gun, while Bassett disarmed Loving. Richardson then got up and started toward the billiard table, when he fell to the floor with a fatal gunshot in the chest, as well as a shot through the side and another through the right arm. Frank Loving, who had only a slight scratch on his hand, was immediately taken to jail. Two days later, the coroner's inquest ruled that the killing had been in self-defense and Loving was immediately released.

On March 9, 1877, gamblers Jim Levy and Charlie Harrison argued over a game of cards in a saloon in Cheyenne, Wyoming. They met in an alley following an argument about a card game. Harrison shot first but missed. Levy aimed carefully and hit Harrison, who died a week later.

Not as well known today but famous in his time was the dapper, derby-wearing train robber Marion Hedgepeth, who despite his swell appearance, "was a deadly killer and one of the fastest guns in the Wild, Wild West". William Pinkerton, whose National Detective Agency had sought to capture Hedgepeth and his gang for years, noted that Hedgepeth once gunned down another outlaw who had already unholstered his pistol before Hedgepath had drawn his revolver. The infamous assassin Tom Horn was also said to have participated in a duel with a second lieutenant from the Mexican Army, due to a dispute with a prostitute when he was twenty-six years old. Gunfighters Jim Levy and Tom Carberry became infamous for participating in at least two quick draw duels in their lifetimes.

Living on reputation
Most Old West men who were labeled as being "gunfighters" did not kill nearly as many men in gunfights as they were given credit for, if any at all. They were often labeled as such due to one particular instance, which developed from rumors about them having been involved in many more events than they actually were. Often their reputation was as much "self-promotion" as anything else; such was the case of Bat Masterson. Wyatt Earp with his brothers Morgan and Virgil along with Doc Holliday killed three outlaw Cowboys in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Arizona Territory. He has been said to have been involved in more than one hundred gunfights in his lifetime. But Prof. Bill O'Neal cites just five incidents in his Encyclopedia of Western Gunfighters. Earp expressed his dismay about the controversy that followed him his entire life. He wrote in a letter to John Hays Hammond on May 21, 1925, that "notoriety had been the bane of my life."

After his brother Virgil was maimed in an ambush and Morgan was assassinated by hidden assailants, the men suspected of involvement were provided alibis by fellow Cowboys and released without trial. Wyatt and his brother Warren set out on a vendetta ride to locate and kill those they felt were responsible. Wyatt has been portrayed in a number of films and books as a fearless Western hero. He is often viewed as the central character and hero of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, at least in part because he was the only one who was not wounded or killed. In fact, his brother, Tombstone Marshal and Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp had considerably more experience with weapons and combat as a Union soldier in the Civil War, and in law enforcement as a sheriff, constable, and marshal. As city marshal, Virgil made the decision to disarm the Cowboys in Tombstone and requested Wyatt's assistance. But because Wyatt outlived Virgil and due to a creative biography, Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal published two years after Wyatt's death, Wyatt became famous and the subject of various movies, television shows, biographies and works of fiction.

There are no records to support the reputation that Johnny Ringo developed. Of the documented instances where Ringo killed men, they were unarmed, and there is no evidence to support his participation in a single gunfight. Others deserved the reputation associated with them. Jim Courtright and Dallas Stoudenmire both killed several men in gunfights both as lawmen and as civilians. Clay Allison and Ben Thompson had well-deserved reputations.<ref name=CunninghamS-WO-TAC-AV>Cunningham, Sharon. – [http://www.westernoutlaw.com/stories/files/Allisonforweb.pdf "The Allison Clan – A Visit"'] . – Western Outlaw. – (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF document).</ref> At the same time, gunmen like Scott Cooley are all but unknown, when they actually led a life reflective of what most would consider a gunfighter to be. In other cases, certain gunfighters were possibly confused, over time, with being someone else with a similar name. The most well-known of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch gang, the Sundance Kid, was in reality only known to have been in one shootout during his lifetime, and no gunfights. Some historians have since stated that it is possible that over time he was confused with another Wild Bunch member, Kid Curry, who was without a doubt the most dangerous member of the gang, having killed many lawmen and civilians during his lifetime before being killed himself. Hence, it is the Sundance Kid who is better known.

 Outlaw or lawman
It is often difficult to separate lawmen of the Old West from outlaws of the Old West. In many cases, the term gunfighter was applied to constables. Despite idealistic portrayals in television, movies, and even in history books, very few lawmen/gunfighters could claim their law enforcement role as their only source of employment. Unlike contemporary peace officers, these lawmen generally pursued other occupations, often earning money as gamblers, business owners, or outlaws—as was the case with "Curly" Bill Brocius, who, while always referred to as an outlaw, served as a deputy sheriff under sheriff Johnny Behan. Many shootouts involving lawmen were caused by disputes arising from these alternative occupations, rather than the lawman's attempts to enforce the law.

Tom Horn, historically cited as an assassin, served both as a deputy sheriff and as a Pinkerton detective, a job in which he shot at least three people as a killer for hire. Ben Thompson, best known as a gunfighter and gambler, was a very successful chief of police in Austin, Texas. King Fisher had great success as a county sheriff in Texas. Doc Holliday and Billy the Kid both wore badges as lawmen at least once. "Big" Steve Long served as deputy marshal for Laramie, Wyoming, while the entire time committing murders and forced theft of land deeds. A town with a substantial violent crime rate would often turn to a known gunman as their town marshal, chief, or sheriff, in the hopes that the gunman could stem the violence and bring order.

Known gunmen/lawmen were generally effective, and in time the violence would subside, usually, after the gunman/lawman had been involved in several shooting incidents, eventually leading to a substantial and well-earned fear that kept everyone in line. At times they were hired by cattlemen or other prominent figures to serve as henchmen or enforcers during cattle wars. Although sanctioned by law enforcement officials, the gunmen were not always actually deputized. Sometimes, however, just to make things "official", they would go through the formality of deputization. A case in point: the service of the Jesse Evans Gang, and outlaw Jesse Evans himself, as agents for the Murphy-Dolan faction during the Lincoln County War. While technically working as lawmen, they were little more than hired guns.

Usually, when a gunman was hired by a town as town marshal, they received the full support of the townspeople until order was restored, at which point the town would tactfully indicate it was time for a change to a less dangerous lawman who relied more on respect than fear to enforce the law. A good example was the 1882 decision by the El Paso, Texas, town council to dismiss Town Marshal Dallas Stoudenmire. He entered the council hall and dared the councilors to try to take his guns or his job, at which point they immediately changed their mind, saying he could keep his job. He resigned on his own a couple of days later.

Legacy
 Modern gunslinger

People relive the Wild West both historically and in popular culture by participating in cowboy action shooting events, where each gunslinger adopts his or her own look representing a character from Western life in the late 1800s, and as part of that character, chooses an alias to go by. The sport originated in Southern California, USA, in the early 1980s but is now practiced in many places with several sanctioning organizations including the Single Action Shooting Society (SASS), Western Action Shootists Association (WASA), and National Congress of Old West Shooters (NCOWS), as well as others in the US and in other countries. There are different categories shooters can compete in. There's the gunfighter, frontiersman, classic cowboy, and duelist – each with its own specifications.

Alongside the iconic cowboy, gunfighters have become a cultural image of the American people abroad, and also as an idealized image of violence, frontier justice, and adventure.Microsoft Encarta 2007 edition: Cowboy Even outside of the Western genre, the term 'gunslinger' has been used in modern times to describe someone who is fast and accurate with pistols, either in real life or in other fictional action genres.

The quick draw which gunfighters help popularize, is still an important skill in the American military and law enforcement communities.

 In popular culture

Gunfighters have been featured in media even outside the Western genre, often combined with other elements and genres, mainly science-fiction space Westerns, steampunk, and the contemporary setting. Abilities, clothing, and attitude associated with gunfighters are seen in many other genres. An example of this is "Han shot first", in which Han Solo, a gunfighter-like protagonist in Star Wars, kills his opponent with a subtle, under-the-table draw. He also wore his holster low on, and tied to, the thigh with a cutaway for the trigger. Roland Deschain from the fantasy series The Dark Tower is a gunfighter pitted against fantasy-themed monsters and enemies. Inspired by the "Man with No Name" and other spaghetti-western characters, he himself is detached or unsympathetic, often reacting as uncaring or angry at signs of cowardice or self-pity, yet he possesses a strong sense of heroism, often attempting to help those in need, a morality much seen in Westerns.

Jonah Hex, from DC Comics, is a ruthless bounty hunter bound by a personal code of honor to protect and avenge the innocent. IGN ranked Jonah Hex the 73rd greatest comic book hero of all time. Throughout the DC Universe, Hex has been, on many occasions, transported from the Old West to the contemporary setting and beyond. Even in unfamiliar territory and time periods, Hex managed to outgun his enemies with more advanced weaponry. Two-Gun Kid is another comic book gunfighter from Marvel Comics. Skilled with revolvers, he has aided many superheroes in future timelines, most notably She-Hulk.

Many Japanese manga and anime have also adopted the western genre. Yasuhiro Nightow is known for creating the space Western Trigun. The story's protagonist, Vash the Stampede, is a wandering gunslinger with a dark past. Unlike other violence-themed gunslingers, Vash carries a Shane-like pacifist attitude, and avoids killing men, even dangerous enemies. Behind him is the gun-toting priest named Nicholas D. Wolfwood, who carries with him a heavy machine gun and rocket launcher shaped like a cross. Nicholas is more violent than Vash, and the two would often argue about killing opponents. Other western genre-themed manga and anime include Cowboy Bebop and Kino's Journey, which both incorporate knight-errant gunslinger themes.

Modern-day western gunslingers have also appeared in recent Neo-Westerns. Raylan Givens from the television series Justified shares the same ambiguous moral code of an Old West sheriff, even using a fast draw to dispatch his enemies. The hitman Anton Chigurh from No Country for Old Men shares many elements of a hunted outlaw. Additionally, the comic book character Vigilante is a self-proclaimed gunfighter born in the 1940s.

Gunfighters have also been featured in many video games, both in traditional Old West and in contemporary and future settings. Colton White was the protagonist of 2005's best-selling western video game Gun. Another well-known video game Western protagonist is John Marston from Red Dead Redemption, who was nominated for 2010 Spike's Video Game Awards, as well as his friend Arthur Morgan in Red Dead Redemption 2. The New York Times stated: "he and his creators conjure such a convincing, cohesive and enthralling re-imagination of the real world that it sets a new standard for sophistication and ambition in electronic gaming." The main character Caleb in the video games Blood and Blood II: The Chosen is also a former Old West gunfighter. Gunfighter is also a callsign for a group of two Apache Helicopters in the video game Medal of Honor''. They appear on a mission named "Gunfighters", and the player will act as Captain Brad "Hawk" Hawkins from 1st Aviation Regiment.

Former professional American football quarterback Brett Favre was nicknamed "The Gunslinger" due to his rural, Southern upbringing and his wild, risky, quick-throwing play style that led him to great success in the National Football League.

References

Sources

Further reading

American mercenaries
Combat occupations
Stock characters
Western (genre) staples and terminology

Gunfighter


Asker; orduda görevli, erden mareşale kadar rütbeye sahip kişi. Askerlik yükümlülüğü altına giren şahıslar (erbaş ve er) ile özel yasalarla silahlı kuvvetlere katılan ve resmî bir kıyafet taşıyan kişilerdir. Askerlerin aslî görevi ülkelerinin topraklarını iç ve dış tehditlere karşı savunmaktır.

Ayrıca askerler, aslî vazifelerinin yanı sıra - ihtiyaca bağlı olarak- arama-kurtarma, tıbbi yardım, yangın söndürme, asayişi sağlama ve mesleki eğitim gibi oldukça geniş bir yelpazedeki görevleri de yerine getirebilirler.

Etimoloji

Türkçeye Arapçadan geçmiş olan asker sözcüğünün kökeninin Latince exercitus (ordu) sözcüğü olduğu yönünde görüşler vardır ancak bu iddia ses bakımından problemlidir. Sözcüğün Türkçede asker şahıslar için tekil olarak kullanımı, "askere gitmek", "askere yazılmak" vb. deyimlerden muhtemelen 19. yüzyılda türemiştir.

Eski Türkçedeki karşılığı sü'dür. Subaşı ise erbaşlar için kullanılırdı.

Tarihçe

Askerlik, insanlık tarihindeki en eski mesleklerden biridir. Sosyal hayata geçişle birlikte insanoğlunun toplu güvenlik ihtiyacı ortaya çıktı. Bu ihtiyaç öncelikle grup üyesi erkeklerin -avcı ve toplayıcılığa ilaveten- aynı zamanda kolluk gücü olarak görev yapması ile sağlanıyordu. Zamanla kaynakların idaresi ve paylaşımındaki gelişmeler ve değişim araçlarının kullanılmaya başlaması ile yeâane görevi topluluğun savunma ve saldırı ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak olan askerler ortaya çıktı.

Galeri

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız

 Askerlik hizmeti
 Zorunlu askerlik
 Subay
 Astsubay
 Erbaş
 Er
 Çocukların askerî kullanımı
 Kadınlar ve askerlik

Arapçadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Asker


3.HNL Zapad u sezoni 2017./18. je natjecanje za trećeligaške hrvatske nogometne klubove. Liga se sastoji od 18 momčadi. Igra se dvokružnim sustavom, znači svaka momčad sa svakim 2 puta. Ukupno se igraja 34 kola. Sezona je počela 25. kolovoz] 2017., a posljednje kolo je na rasporedu u 26. svibnja 2018. godine. Prve od tri momčadi ove lige ako bi imalo licenciju za nastup u 2.HNL ima direktan ulazak. Posljednje dvije momčadi ispadaju u 4. NL – Središte Zagreb  i 4. NL – NS Rijeka.
Prvak lige je postala momčad "Vinogradara".

Momčadi

1 "Kurilovec" se do siječnja 2018. nazivao "Udarnik"

Ljestvica

 "Kurilovec" se do siječnja 2018. nazivao "Udarnik"

Rezultatska križaljka
podebljan rezltat – igrano u prvom dijelu lige (1. – 17. kolo)
rezultat normalne debljine – igrano u drugom dijelu lige (18. – 34. kolo)

{| class="wikitable"  style="font-size: 85%; text-align: center"
!kratica !!klub !!DUB !!DUG !!HAŠK !!JAD !!KRK !!MAK !!OPA !!PAZ !!RUD !!SEG !!ŠPA !!TRNJ !!UDA !!VIN !!VRA !!VRB !!ZAGO !!ZAGR
|-
|DUB ||align="left"|Dubrava Tim Kabel Zagreb
|bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||1:0 ||4:4 ||1:1 ||2:0 ||1:2 ||0:3 ||2:1 ||1:0 ||2:0 ||4:0 ||1:1 ||3:1 ||1:2 ||2:1 ||5:2 ||4:0 ||5:1
|-
|DUG ||align="left"|Dugo Selo
|0:3 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||2:1 ||1:1 ||2:2 ||1:1||1:1 ||0:0 ||1:3 ||3:1 ||3:2 ||1:0 ||0:1 ||0:2 ||3:0 ||2:0 ||2:2 ||1:2
|-
|HAŠK ||align="left"|HAŠK Zagreb
|1:1 ||5:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||1:3 ||3:0 ||1:1 ||1:2 ||2:1 ||7:0 ||5:0 ||0:3 ||2:0 ||3:3 ||1:4 ||3:1 ||1:1 ||2:4 ||4:1
|-
|JAD ||align="left"|Jadran Poreč
|3:0 ||0:0 ||5:2 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||2:1 ||1:2 ||1:2 ||0:0 ||3:0 ||1:0 ||2:2 ||2:3 ||1:2 ||1:1 ||1:2 ||1:2 ||1:0 ||1:0
|-
|KRK ||align="left"|Krk
|3:2 ||1:1 ||1:1 ||3:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||0:0 ||2:3 ||0:0 ||0:0 ||3:1 ||2:0 ||1:0 ||3:1 ||0:0 ||4:1 ||1:0 ||3:2 ||1:4
|-
|MAK ||align="left"|Maksimir Zagreb
|4:1 ||0:3 ||1:1 ||2:1 ||4:1 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||1:0 ||1:2 ||2:1 ||10:1 ||1:1 ||1:3 ||1:1 ||3:0 ||2:1 ||0:3 ||4:3 ||1:0
|-
|OPA ||align="left"|Opatija
|1:4 ||3:1 ||3:0 ||3:0 ||0:1 ||2:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||1:0 ||1:0 ||2:0 ||1:2 ||2:1 ||2:2 ||3:0 ||3:1 ||2:1 ||3:0 ||2:0
|-
|PAZ ||align="left"|Pazinka (Pazin)
|1:3 ||6:1 ||2:1 ||1:2 ||0:1 ||1:0 ||0:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||0:1 ||2:1 ||2:2 ||3:1 ||1:0 ||0:1 ||1:2 ||2:1 ||3:1 ||2:5
|-
|RUD ||align="left"|Rudar Labin
|1:2 ||2:0 ||0:0 ||4:1 ||3:0 ||2:4 ||1:2 ||0:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||2:1 ||1:1 ||1:1 ||0:1 ||0:3 ||1:0 ||0:0 ||0:3 ||4:0
|-
|SEG ||align="left"|Segesta Sisak
|0:3 ||0:1 ||3:2 ||1:0 ||2:3 ||1:1 ||0:0 ||4:0 ||4:2 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||2:0 ||2:0 ||0:5 ||0:1 ||1:2 ||1:2 ||1:1 ||3:1
|-
|ŠPA ||align="left"|Špansko Zagreb
|4:1 ||2:1 ||0:1 ||1:0 ||3:1 ||0:3 ||0:1 ||3:0 ||2:0 ||0:1 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||4:1 ||2:2 ||0:2 ||1:0 ||1:4 ||1:1 ||1:4
|-
|TRNJ ||align="left"|Trnje Zagreb
|1:1 ||1:0 ||1:4 ||1:2 ||3:1 ||1:2 ||1:0 ||4:2 ||6:1 ||5:0 ||3:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||3:1 ||1:1 ||1:1 ||0:2 ||4:0 ||2:1
|-
|UDA ||align="left"|Udarnik Kurilovec  / Kurilovec (Velika Gorica)
|0:0 ||0:3 ||1:0 ||1:4 ||2:2 ||1:0 ||2:4 ||4:0 ||3:0 ||1:1 ||1:3 ||3:2 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||0:3 ||2:1 ||4:0 ||1:4 ||2:1
|-
|VIN ||align="left"|Vinogradar (Lokošin Dol – Mladina)
|2:0 ||0:0 ||2:3 ||2:1 ||3:2 ||3:1 ||0:0 ||1:1 ||5:0 ||7:1 ||3:0 ||4:0 ||1:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||3:1 ||2:0 ||5:2 ||4:0
|-
|VRA ||align="left"|Vrapče Zagreb
|3:1 ||2:3 ||1:0 ||3:3 ||5:0 ||3:1 ||2:0 ||1:3 ||5:0 ||4:1 ||1:1 ||1:1 ||2:1 ||0:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||1:2 ||3:4 ||0:1
|-
|VRB ||align="left"|Vrbovec
|2:2 ||0:0 ||2:1 ||1:1 ||1:0 ||3:0 ||0:2 ||1:2 ||5:0 ||2:1 ||1:0 ||4:0 ||1:0 ||3:1 ||0:0 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||2:1 ||4:1
|-
|ZAGO ||align="left"|Zagorec Krapina
|0:1 ||4:1 ||1:0 ||2:0 ||1:1 ||3:1 ||3:1 ||3:1 ||0:1 ||3:0 ||2:1 ||3:0 ||0:2 ||0:4 ||2:0 ||3:1 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||4:1
|-
|ZAGR ||align="left"|Zagreb
|0:1 ||0:0 ||2:0 ||2:0 ||2:1 ||3:0 ||0:0 ||1:0 ||5:0 ||0:1 ||0:0 ||3:0 ||1:3 ||1:1 ||2:1 ||0:0' ||1:2 ||bgcolor="gainsboro"|
|} Ažurirano: 29. srpnja 2018.''
Izvori:

Rezultati

Najbolji strijelci
Strijelci 10 i više pogodatka:

Ažurirano: 29. srpnja 2018.

Unutrašnje poveznice
 3. HNL – Zapad
 3. HNL 2017./18.
 3. HNL – Istok 2017./18.
 3. HNL – Jug 2017./18.
 2. HNL 2017./18.
 4. NL NS Rijeka 2017./18.

Vanjske poveznice
 hns-cff.hr, 3. HNL Zapad
 hns-cff.hr, Središte Zagreb
 nk-maksimir.hr, 3. HNL Zapad – raspored i rezultati
 scoresway.com, 3. HNL zapad 2017./18
 sportnet.hr, 3. HNL Zapad 2017./18.

Izvori

 hns-cff.hr, 3. HNL Zapad
 hns-cff.hr, Središte Zagreb
 rsssf.com, Hrvatska 2017./18., 3. HNL
 nk-maksimir.hr, 3. HNL Zapad – raspored i rezultati , pristupljeno 27. kolovoza 2017.; 29. srpnja 2018.
 nk-maksimir.hr, 3. HNL Zapad – ljestvica , pristupljeno 27. kolovoza 2017.; 29. srpnja 2018.
 scoresway.com, 3. HNL zapad 2017./18, pristupljeno 27. kolovoza 2017.
 sportnet.hr, 3. HNL Zapad 2017./18., rezultati
 sportnet.hr, 3. HNL Zapad 2017./18., ljestvice
 hns-cff.hr/, Izvještaj – Treća HNL Zapad 2017./18., objavljeno 4. lipnja 2018., preuzeto 29. srpnja 2018.
 hns-cff.hr, Glasnik – Službeno glasilo Nogometnog središta Zagreb – 3. HNL Zapad 2017./18., br. 01, (raspored jesenskog dijela natjecanja), objavljeno 24. kolovoza 2017., preuzeto 27. kolovoza 2017.

2017-18 Zapad
3 Zapad

3. HNL – Zapad 2017./18.


An Gavilea kingii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Joseph Dalton Hooker, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Maevia Noemi Correa. An Gavilea kingii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Gavilea, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Gavilea

Gavilea kingii


Obitelj Potter se prvotno sastoji od Jamesa i Lilly (rođena Evans) Potter te njihovog sina Harryja Pottera. Lily i Jamesa je ubio Lord Voldemort 31.listopada 1981. Njihov sin Harry odlazi živjeti sa sestrom svoje majke Lily. Harry s 11 godina saznaje istinu o svojim roditeljima te da nisu umrli u prometnoj nesreći. Harry tada kreće u Hogwarts te tamo upoznaje nove prijatelje. Na svojoj trećoj godini školovanja Harry saznaje da ima kuma Siriusa Blacka kojeg ubija Bellatrix Lestrange u knjizi Red feniksa. Harry zavšava svoje školovanje u Hogwartsu sa 17 godina. 19 godine poslije Harry je u braku s Ginny Weasley te oni imaju troje djece: Jamesa Siriusa, Albusa Severusa i Lily Lunu.

Izvori

Harry Potter

Obitelj Potter


Iustin Ardelean (n. 1865, Chișindria, județul Arad – d. secolul XX) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Iustin Ardelean a fost fiu de învățător. A studiat la Oradea, la Arad, la Brașov, la Budapesta, la Pojon și la Beiuș. În perioada în care a fost student la Budapesta a fost angajat la Teatrul Național Maghiar, datorită calităților sale vocale de bariton. Acesta și-a finalizat studiile în drept în anul 1904, la Budapesta, deschizându-și apoi un cabinet de avocatură în Oradea. Pe lângă desfășurarea activității în mediul juridic, Iustin Ardelean s-a implicat și în viața culturală a românilor din Transilvania și Ungaria. A fost editor al revistei Vulturul/Vulturul Ardealului din Oradea, începând cu anul 1892. În 1894 a fost judecat de către autoritățile austro-ungare pentru articolele publicate în Vulturul în apărarea memorandiștilor. Acesta a continuat însă editarea revistei Vulturul. În timpul Primului Război Mondial, mai precis în anul 1915, când avea vârsta de 50 de ani, Iustin Ardelean a fost înrolat și trimis pe front timp de doi ani. Acesta a fost președintele Asociației Sportive din Oradea timp de mai mulți ani.

Activitatea politică

A fost ales delegat al cercului electoral Oradea Mare la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba-Iulia, unde a votat unirea Ardealului cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918. A fost membru al C.N.R. Bihor. În anul 1920 a fost ales de către orădeni delegat pentru Parlamentul României, iar în anul 1922 a fost numit prefect în Oradea.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7
 https://bibliotecibihorene.blogspot.com/2018/01/personalitati-ale-unirii.html, pe site-ul bibliotecibihorene.blogspot.com, accesat la 14 noiembrie 2018

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005
 Ioan Muntean, Dumitru Tomoni, Vasile M. Zaberca, Banatul și Marea Unire. Bănățeni la Alba Iulia., Editura Partoș, Timișoara, 2018

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1865
Decese în secolul al XX-lea
Avocați români
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Prefecți români

Iustin Ardelean


Geogarypus plusculus est une espèce de pseudoscorpions de la famille des Geogarypidae.

Distribution
Cette espèce est endémique du Gascoyne en Australie-Occidentale. Elle se rencontre dans le parc national de la chaîne du Cap.

Description
Le mâle holotype mesure  et le mâle paratype .

Systématique et taxinomie
Cette espèce a été décrite par Cullen et Harvey en 2021.

Publication originale
 Cullen & Harvey, 2021 : « Two new species of the pseudoscorpion genus Geogarypus (Pseudoscorpiones: Geogarypidae) from northern Australia. » Records of the Western Australian Museum, ,  (texte intégral).

Notes et références

Geogarypidae
Espèce de pseudoscorpions (nom scientifique)
Faune endémique d'Australie-Occidentale

Geogarypus plusculus


Johann Ludwig von Fabrice (* 17. Juni 1676 in Regensburg; † 3. Mai 1733 in Ratzeburg) war ein deutscher Diplomat und Staatsmann in den Diensten von Kurhannover.

Leben

Johann Ludwig war ein Sohn von Weipart Ludwig von Fabrice. Er wurde 1696 an der Universität Gießen immatrikuliert. 1703 kam er in Celle als Kriegsrat in den Dienst des Herzogs Georg Wilhelm; 1706 wurde er Geheimer Legationsrat und war diplomatisch tätig.

1722 wurde Fabrice zum ersten Direktor der kaiserlichen Exekutionskasse in Boizenburg ernannt. In dieser Funktion arbeitete er mit Maximilian von Schütz als zweitem Direktor zusammen. Dieser war mit Amalia Margaretha von Fabrice, einer Nichte zweiten Grades von Johann Ludwig, verheiratet. Nach der Thronbesteigung Georgs II. wurde Fabrice von diesem zum Landdrosten und Direktor der Regierung des Herzogtum Sachsen-Lauenburg in Ratzeburg ernannt.

Johann Ludwig Fabrice war seit dem 23. Mai 1713 verheiratet mit Bertha Elisabeth von Grote (1689–1769) und hatte zwei Töchter, Lucie Charlotte und Marianne Hippolite.

Weblinks
 Johann Ludwig von Fabrice bei genealogy.net

Literatur

 Jan von Busch: Die St. Trinitatis-Kirche zu Warlitz. Geschichte und Bedeutung. Mit Beiträgen zur Geschichte des Gutes Warlitz und der Familie Sinold gen. Schütz / von Schütz, inklusive zahlreicher Stammbäume im Anhang, Thomas Helms Verlag Schwerin 2020, ISBN 978-3-940207-54-8. Auf S. 176f. ist ein umfangreicher Stammbaum der Familie von Fabrice enthalten.

Einzelnachweise

Jurist in der Frühen Neuzeit
Verwaltungsjurist
Person (Celle)
Person (Ratzeburg)
Johann Ludwig
Deutscher
Adliger
Geboren 1676
Gestorben 1733
Mann

Johann Ludwig von Fabrice


කිර්ති නිශ්ශංක සහ කාලිංග ලෝකේශ්වර යන නාම වලින්ද හැඳින්වුන නිශ්ශංක මල්ල රජතුමා 1187 සිට 1196 දක්වා ශ්‍රී ලංකාව පාලනය කළේය. රජු විසින් නිශ්ශංක ලතා මණ්ඩපය, හැටදාගේ සහ රන්කොත් වෙහෙර ඉදිකරන ලද අතර පැරණි විහාර සහ වැවු රැසක් ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණය කරන ලදී.

මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමාගේ අනුප්‍රාප්තිකයා වශයෙන් මෙරට රාජ්‍ය බලය හිමිකර ගත් විදේශීය කුමාරවරයකු ලෙස නිශ්ශංක මල්ල රජු පෙන්වා දිය හැකිය. ඉන්දියාවේ සිට පැමිණි කාලිංග වංශිකයෙකු වූ මොහුගේ සේවය මෙරටට කෙසේ ලැබුණේ ද යන්න මූලාශ්‍රය තොරතුරු සපයනු ලබයි.

කාලිංග වංශික නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුගේ රාජ්‍ය වර්ෂය ලෙස සැලකෙනුයේ ක්‍රි. ව. 1187 - 1196 දක්‌වා කාලයයි. මොහු පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු ගවේෂණය කරන්නකුට සාහිත්‍ය මූලාශ්‍රය සහ සෙල්ලිපි යන අංශ දෙකෙන්ම තොරතුරු ගවේෂණය කර ගැනීමේ හැකියාව පවතී. විශේෂයෙන්ම සාහිත්‍ය මූලාශ්‍රයන් අතර, මහා වංසයෙහි දෙවැනි කොටසට හිමිවනුයේ අද්විතීය ස්‌ථානයකි. දඹදෙණි යුගයේ දී මයුරපාද පරිවෙණාධිපති බුද්ධපුත්‍ර හිමියන් විසින් රචිත පූජාවලිය තුළින් ද නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු රැසක්‌ම ලද හැකිය. පූජාවලියට අනුව නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු පිළිබඳව දක්‌වා තිබෙනුයේ මෙසේය.

"...... ඔහු මරා කාලිංගයෙන් ආ කීර්ති ශ්‍රී නිශ්ශංකමල්ල නම් රජ බොහෝ පින් රැස් කොට නව හවුරුද්දක් රජ කළේය."

එසේම නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු පිළිබඳව තොරතුරු ලබා දෙන සාහිත්‍ය මූලාශ්‍රයන් අතර "රාජාවලිය, දළදා සිරිත¾ රාජරත්නාකරය" යනාදියට ද වැදගත් ස්‌ථාන හිමි වේ. එපමණක් ද නොව, නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු සපයන මූලාශ්‍රයන් අතර, "සෙල්ලිපි" සඳහා ද සුවිශේෂී ස්‌ථානයක් හිමි වන අතර, ලංකාවේ වැඩිම සෙල්ලිපි ප්‍රමාණයක් පිහිටුවීමේ ගෞරවය හිමිවනුයේ ද නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමාටය. නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු විසින් පිහිටුවන ලද සෙල්ලිපි අතර, "ගිරිතලේ ගල් ආසන ලිපිය, ගල්පොත ලිපිය, වැලිගහවත්ත ලිපිය, කටුගහගල්ලේ ලිපිය සහ රාමේශ්වරමේ ලිපිය ප්‍රධාන ස්‌ථානයක් හිමිකර ගනී. මෙම සෙල්ලිපි තුළින් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු රැසක්‌ම අනාවරණය කර ගැනීමේ හැකියාව පවතී. එම තොරතුරු පිළිබඳව සඳහන් කරන්නේ නම් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු තුන් රජය පැදකුණු කිරීම, දුස්‌ථ ලංකාවාසීන් සුස්‌ථ කිරිම, පාණ්‌ඩ්‍ය රාජ්‍ය ජයග්‍රහණය කිරීම මෙන්ම නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු විදේශ රාජ්‍යයන්ගෙන් පුද පඬුරු ලැබීම යනාදිය වැදගත් ය. මෙවැනි කරුණු ගණනාවක්‌ම සෙල්ලිපි තුළින් පැහැදිලි කරන අතරම, මොහු පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු සපයන මාධ්‍යයක් වශයෙන් "පුරාවස්‌තු" ද වැදගත් වේ. එම පුරාවස්‌තු ලෙස නිශ්ශංකලතා මණ්‌ඩපය, හැටදාගෙය සහ වටදාගෙය යනාදිය පෙන්වාදිය හැකිය. මෙසේ නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු අධ්‍යයනය කරන්නකුට ඉහත සඳහන් කළ මූලාශ්‍රයන් තුළින් ලැබෙන පිටිවහල අනල්පය.

නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු යනු විදේශීය වංශිකයකු බව අපි ඉහත සඳහන් කළෙමු. මෙසේ විදේශීය වංශිකයෙකු මෙරට රාජ්‍යයට පත්වීම ඔහුට මහත් අසීරුතාවක් වන්නට ඇත. එයට හේතුව වනුයේ ලාංකීය ජනතාව විදේශීය පාලකයකු මෙරට පාලන කටයුතු මෙහෙයවීම අනුමත නොකිරීමයි. මෙසේ සිදු වූ අවමානයෙන් මිදීමට නම් රජු ජනතාව අතර කැපී පෙනෙන චරිතයක් බවට පත්වීම සිදු විය යුතුමය. මේ අනුව නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු සිය අභිමානය ගොඩනැංවීම උදෙසා යොදාගත් උපක්‍රමයක් වශයෙන් "විරුදනාමයන් භාවිත කරමින් ජනතාව ඉදිරියේ පෙනී සිට ඇත. එසේ භාවිත කළ විරුද නාමයන් අතර "නිශ්ශංකමල්ල" යන්න භාවිත කිරීම පෙන්වා දිය හැකිය. කාලිංග රජවරු පොදුවේ භාවිත කළ නාමයක් සේ "මල්ල" යන්න සඳහන් ය. මොහු විසින් කරවන ලද සියලු ස්‌ථාන තමාගේ නාමයෙන්ම හඳුන්වාදී තිබේ. එම නාමයන් අතර "නිශ්ශංක ගව්ව, නිශ්ශංකලතා මණ්‌ඩපය, නිශ්ශංක දළදාගේ" යනාදිය සඳහන් ය. එසේම මොහු "පරාක්‍රමබාහු" යන විරුද නාමය ද යොදා ගෙන තිබේ. "නිශ්ශංක කාලිංග පරාක්‍රමබාහු" සේ හඳුන්වා තිබෙන බවත්, මෙය මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමා තමාට ප්‍රදානය කළ බවත් සඳහන් කරනු ලබයි.

නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු යොදාගත් විරුද නාමයන් අතර, "කාලිංග ලංකේශ්වර" යන්න සඳහන්ය. විදේශිකයෙකු වූ මොහු කාලිංග යන වචනයව ලාංකිකයන්ට නිතර ඇසීමට සලස්‌වා තිබේ. මොහු යොදාගත් විරුද නාමයන් අතරින් අප්‍රතිමල්ල යන්න විශේෂ තේරුමක් නැතිව යොදා ගෙන තිබේ. විද්වතුන් පෙන්වා දෙන අන්දමට මෙහි අදහස වනුයේ "සතුරන් නොමැති" යන්නයි. මේ ආකාරයට නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු තම අභිමානය සලසා ගනු සඳහා හෝ කුමන හේතුවක් නිසා හෝ විරුද නාමයන් බොහෝ ප්‍රමාණයක් භාවිත කරන ලද බව පැහැදිලි වේ.

ලංකාවේ රාජ්‍ය බලය හිමිකර ගත් රජවරු විවිධ අභියෝගයන්ට මුහුණ දුන් බව මූලාශ්‍රය තොරතුරුවලින් අපට අනාවරණය කර ගත හැකිය. පොලොන්නරුව රාජ්‍යයෙහි බලයට පත් වූ නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු ද අභියෝගයන් රැසකටම මුහුණ දුන් අතර, එම අභියෝගයන් කවරේද යන්න අධ්‍යයනය කිරීම වැදගත් ය. නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු එවැනි අභියෝගයන් හයකට (6) ලක් වූ බවත් එම අභියෝගයන් ජයග්‍රහණය කළ ආකාරය පිළිබඳ මූලාශ්‍රය සඳහන් කරනු ලබයි. ඒ අනුව නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුට මුහුණ දීමට සිදු වූ අභියෝගයන් මෙසේය.

01. විජාතිකත්වය

02. මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ ජනප්‍රියත්වය

03. ගොවිකුල ජනතාව

04. පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමාගේ හමුදාව

05. පාණ්‌ඩ්‍ය වංශිකයන්

06. රුහුණේ ජනතාව

එසේ නම් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමා මුහුණ දුන් අභියෝග සහ ඒවා ජයගත් ආකාරය පිළිබඳ සරලව විමසා බැලීම ද උචිතය.

ඒ අනුව නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු මුහුණ දුන් පළමු සහ ප්‍රධාන අභියෝගය වනුයේ, මොහුගේ "විජාතිකත්වයයි" නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුට පෙර ලංකාවේ රාජ්‍ය බලයට පත් වූ ඪ සේන, ඪ මහින්ද සහ ෂ වික්‍රමබාහු යන අය මවු පසින් විජාතිකය. එහෙත් පිය පාර්ශ්වයෙන් ස්‌වජාතිකය. නමුත් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල යනු සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම විජාතික පුද්ගලයෙකි. මොහුගේ ජන්ම භූමිය කාලිංගය වන හෙයින් කාලිංග වංශිකයන් හැර අනෙකුත් වංශිකයන් මෙම කරුණ පිළිබඳ දැඩි අවධානයෙන් යුතුව පසුවන්නට ඇතැයි සිතිය හැකිය. හේතුව වනුයේ කිසිදු ජාතියක් විදේශිකයෙකුගේ රජවීම අනුමත නොකරන හෙයිනි. විජාතිකත්වය නමැති ගැටලුවට විසඳුම් සෙවූ ආකාරය පිළිබඳව ද විමසා බැලීම වැදගත් ය. මේ සඳහා පියවර තුනක් වෙත යොමුවීමේ හැකියාවක් දක්‌නට ලැබේ. එම කරුණු තුන මෙසේය.

01. විදේශිකත්වය වැසියාගෙන් වසන් කිරීම

02 රජවීමේ නීත්‍යනුකූල බව පැවසීම

03. විදේශිකත්වය පවසමින් එහි වලංගු බව පැවසීම.

මෙම කරුණු අතරින් තෙවැනි කරුණ නම් විදේශිකත්වය පවසමින් එහි වලංගු බව පැවසීමට නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු යොමුවිය. එහිදී ඔහු පවසා සිටියේ,

"තමා උපන්නේ බුදු බෝසත් සක්‌විත්තන් උපදිනා උතුම් දඹදිව කලිඟු රට සිංහපුරයෙහි ය." යන්නයි. එසේම සිංහල ජනතාවට නිරන්තරයෙන් කාලිංග යන්න ඇසීමට සලස්‌වන ලදී. එහිදී පොලොන්නරුව "කාලිංගපුරය" ලෙස බිසව "කාලිංග සුභද්‍රd" යනාදී වශයෙන් ව්‍යවහාර කරන ලදී. මේ අන්දමට නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු සිය ප්‍රධාන අභියෝගයට සාර්ථකව විසඳුම් සෙවීමට සමත් විය.

නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු මුහුණ දෙන ලද දෙවැනි ගැටලුව ලෙසින් "මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමාගේ ජනප්‍රියත්වය" පෙන්වා දිය හැකිය. මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජු වසර තිස්‌තුනක් මෙරට පාලනය කරන ලද අතරම මේ කාලය තුළදී විශාල මෙහෙවරක් කිරීමට සමත් විය. පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමාට රජරට හා මායා රට සංවිධානය කිරීම, ආර්ථිකය දියුණු කිරීම, සහ විදේශ ජයග්‍රහණයන් රැසක් අත්පත් කරගැනීමට හැකියාව ලැබිණි. මෙම ජනතා මෙහෙවර හේතුවෙන් එකල ජනතාව ජාතිකාභිමානයෙන් පසුවීම දක්‌නට ලැබුණු බවත්, මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු යනු යෝධ වීර චරිතයක් වශයෙන් ජනතාවගේ සිතට කා වැදී තිබෙන්නට ඇත. මේ හේතුවෙන් පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුට පසුව රාජ්‍යත්වයට පත්වන පුද්ගලයන් පැරකුම් චරිතය සමඟ සසඳන්නට පෙළඹීම ස්‌වභාවිකය. එසේ නම් මහ පැරකුම් රජුගේ ජනප්‍රියත්වය යන අර්බුදය නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු විස¹ගත්තේ කෙසේද? එහිදී ක්‍රම කිහිපයක්‌ම අනුගමනය කරන ලද අතර පැරකුම්ගේ වීර ක්‍රියා හා සමාන වීර ක්‍රියා තමා විසින් ද සිදුකරන ලද බව පැවසීම එයින් එක් ක්‍රමයකි. එමෙන්ම පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජු සේම තමන් ද තුන් නිකාය සමඟි කළ බව දඹුලු ලිපියෙහි සඳහන් කර තිබෙනුයේ මෙසේය.

"බොහෝ කල් භින්නව තිබූ තුන් නිකාය සමගි කරවා" යනුවෙනි. පරාක්‍රම සමුද්‍රය මෙන් තමා ද නිශ්ශංක සමුද්‍රය කරවූ බව සඳහන් කිරීමෙන් නොනවතින නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුට චෝදනා එල්ල කරනු ලබයි. මේ ආකාරයට එම අභියෝගය ද සාර්ථකව ජයගැනීමට නිශ්ශංකමල්aල රජුට හැකිවිණි.

"ගොවිකුල ජනතාවගේ විරෝධතාවයෙන්" ද නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු මහත් අසීරුතාවට ලක්‌විය. එහිදී ගොවිකුල ජනතාව සංවිධානය වී පොලොන්නරුව රාජ්‍යයට උරුමකම් කියන ලදී. රටේ ප්‍රබල සංවිධානයක් ලෙසින් කුලීන ජනතාව විදේශීය පාලකයාට එරෙහිව නැඟී සිටීමට සමත් වූහ. එහිදී නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු ගොවිකුල ජනතාවගේ විරුද්ධභාවය තුරන් කරන ලද්දේ ජන්මය මතක් කරමින් නිග්‍රහ කිරීමෙන් සහ රාජ්‍ය උරුමයෙන් සහ ජනතාවගෙන් කොන් කිරීමෙනි. එහිදී ප්‍රකාශ කර සිටියේ,

"..... කැණහිලා සිංහයන්ට ද බාව කරන්නා සේ ගොවි කුලයෙහි ඇත්තන් රාජ්‍ය ලීලාව නොපැතුව මැන......"

"කෙසේ බලවත් වුවද ගොවිකුල ඇත්තෝ රජයට බලානොගත යුතුය."

යනාදී වශයෙනි. මේ අයුරින් ගොවිකුල ජනතාව නිග්‍රහයට ලක් කරමින් ඔවුන්ගේ අභියෝගය ද මර්දනය කරලීමේ හැකියාව නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු සතු වූ බව පැහැදිළිය.

කාලිංග වංශිකයකු වූ නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුට පාණ්‌ඩ්‍ය වංශිකයන්ගේ විරෝධතාවට ද මුහුණ දීමට සිදු වූ හෙයින් එය මර්දනය කිරීමට ද සාර්ථක ප්‍රතිපත්තියක් අනුගමනය කළේය. ඒ අනුව ගොවිකුල ජනතාවට මෙන්ම මර්දනශීලී ප්‍රතිපත්තියක් වෙත යොමුවීම විශේෂ ලක්‍ෂණයකි. ඒ අනුව පාණ්‌ඩ්‍යයන් පිළිබඳව නමින් සඳහන් නොකිරීමට ක්‍රියා කළේය. පාණ්‌ඩ්‍යයන් පිළිබඳ දක්‌වන ලද අදහස් අතර පහත සඳහන් ඒවා වැදගත් ස්‌ථානයක් හිමිකර ගනී.

"කාලිංග වංශයට හිමි ලක්‌දිව චෝඩ, පාණ්‌ඩ්‍ය ආදී රජුන් නොපිහිට විය යුත්තේය".

"ලක්‌දිව බුද්ධ ශාසනයට ප්‍රතිපක්‍ෂ අබෞද්ධ චෝඩ පාඬයාදී රජුන් නොපිහිටවියෑ යුත්තේ යෑ......"

මේ පිළිබඳව අදහස් දක්‌වන පරණවිතාන මහතා පෙන්වා දෙනු ලබනුයේ Non Buddhist such as cholas and Paundyas shouldn't be allowed to claim kingship යනුවෙනි. මේ අනුව පාණ්‌ඩ්‍ය වංශිකයන්ගේ විරෝධතාව ද මර්දනය කිරීම නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු ලද තවත් ජයග්‍රහණයකි.

මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමාගේ රාජ්‍ය නිලධාරීන්ගේ විරුද්ධතාවට ද නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු මුහුණ දුන් බව සඳහන් ය. පැරකුම් රජුගේ හමුදාපතීන් වූ කිත්ත, වික්‌කුන්ත. පරක්‌කම, චමුක්‌කන යන අය ප්‍රබල වූවා සේම මේ සමය වන විට ප්‍රාදේශීය රජවරුන් ලෙසින් පාලනය ගෙන යැමේ කටයුත්තෙහි ද නිරත වී තිබේ. මෙම නිලධාරින්ට ත්‍යාග, නම්බුනාම, යනාදිය ලබාදෙමින් සහනශීලී ක්‍රියාමාර්ගයක් වෙත නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු යොමුව තිබේ. එසේම නම්බුනාම තනතුරු ලැබීම තුළින් උදම් නොවිය යුතු බවට ද සඳහන් කිරීමට මොහු ක්‍රියා කළේය.

නම් තනතුරු ලදින් දර්පොද්ධත නොවිය යෑත්තේ යෑ......" මෙයට අර්ථ විවරණ සපයන පරණවිතාන මහතා පෙන්වා දෙනු ලබන්නේ.

"when one has received tittles, offices, and wealth from them, he shoudfn't become proud......' යනුවෙනි.

අවසාන වශයෙන් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුට මුහුණ දීමට සිදුවූ අභියෝගය නම්, රුහුණේ වාසය කළ ජනතාවගේ විරුද්ධතාවයයි. නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමාගේ විදේශිකත්වය සහ රජරට ජනතාව අතර පැවැති අසහනය ප්‍රයෝජනයට ගනිමින් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුට එරෙහිව රුහුණන් නැගී සිට තිබේ. මෙහිදී ද සහනශීලී ප්‍රතිපත්තියක් වෙත නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු යොමු වූ බව සඳහන් ය. රුහුණේ ගම්, නියම්ගම්, වැව් - අමුණු බලමින් සංචාරය කර ඇත. එසේම රුහුණන් ඉදිරියේදී දැඩි ආත්ම විශ්වාසයකින් ක්‍රියා කළ බව පහත ප්‍රකාශ තුළින් අනාවරණය වේ.

"........ බත් කෑ, බුලත් කෑ මතට උඩත නොව, රූණෝ නිවංචෝය. ස්‌වාමි පක්‍ෂපාත ඇත්තැයි කියව....." එසේම "රුහුණු රාජ්‍යයෙහි ඇත්තන් කෙරෙහි කරුණාවෙන් කියම්හ" යනුවෙන් ප්‍රකාශ කිරීමට පවා නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු යොමු වූ බව පෙනේ. කෙසේ වුවද, දඟකාර කොලු රැලකට අවවාද කරන වැඩිහිටියකු මෙන් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු රුහුණු ජනතාව ඉදිරියේ පෙනී සිටි බවට ගම්‍ය වේ.

මේ ආකාරයට නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු මුහුණ දුන් අභියෝග මොනවාද? ඒවාට විසඳුම් සෙවුවේ කෙසේද යන්නත් ඉහත විස්‌තරයෙන් පැහැදිලි වේ. මෙවැනි අභියෝග යටතේ පොලොන්නරුව රාජ්‍යයෙහි පාලනය හිමිකර ගත් නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමා අනුගමනය කළ "දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිපත්තියේ ස්‌වරූපය" ද විශේෂ ස්‌ථානයක් හිමිකර ගනී. විදේශීය පාලකයකු වූ මොහු ජනතාව තමාට පක්‍ෂපාතී කරගැනීම සඳහා නිරන්තරයෙන් ක්‍රියා කළේය. මෙහිදී ජනතාව වෙත ගොස් ඔහුගේ සමීපතම මිතුරෙකු ලෙසින් ක්‍රියා කිරීමට පෙළඹිණි. දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිපත්තියේ දක්‌නට ලැබුණු ලක්‍ෂණ අතර, මධ්‍යස්‌ථ රටවැසියා තමාට යොමුකරවා ගැනීම ද කැපී පෙනෙන්නකි. මෙහිදී ලාංකීය ජනතාව මධ්‍යස්‌ථ ජනතාවක් ලෙසින් පෙනී සිටියේ නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමාගේ විදේශිකත්වය හේතුවෙනි. මෙම මධ්‍යස්‌ථ ජනතාව තමා වෙතට යොමු කරවාගැනීම සඳහා විවිධ ක්‍රමෝපායන් අනුගමනය කිරීමට සිදු විය. ඒ අනුව මොවුන්ට ත්‍යාග, නම්බුනාම ආදිය ලබාදීම දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිපත්තියේ එක් අංශයක් විය. තවද නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමා මහා පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමා දවස පීඩිතව සිටි ජනතාවට විවිධ සහන ලබාදීම සිදුකිරීම ද දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිපත්තියේ ස්‌වරූපයක් විය. ඒ අනුව විවිධ වධ හිංසාවන්ට ලක්‌ව සිටි ජනතාව එයින් මුදවා ගනු ලැබීය. එසේම පැරකුම් රජු දවස අය කළ අය බදුවලින් ජනතාව නිදහස් කිරීමට යොමු විය. එසේ අය බදු සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම සහ අවුරුදු ගණනකට වශයෙන් අය කිරීම නතර කර තිබේ. ඒ බව නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුගේ පහත සෙල්ලිපි පාඨ තුළින් ගම්‍ය වේ.

"පෙර නොමඳ අය ගෙන දුරස්‌ථ කළ ලංකාවාසීන්ට පස් අවුරුද්දකට අය හැරීම."

"අවුරුදු ගණනකට අය හැරැයි."

"සත් අවුරුද්දකට අය හැරැයි" මෙසේ අවුරුදු පහකට, හතකට යනාදී වශයෙන් ජනතාවගෙන් එම බද්ද අය කිරීම නතර කළ බව පැහැදිලිය. එමෙන්ම සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම අය නොකිරීමට තීරණය කළ බදු අතරින් "කැති අඹ" හෙවත් සෙහෙන් කොටා කරන කටුසර භෝගයෙන් ලැබෙන ආදායම සඳහන්ය. නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමා දක්‌වන ආකාරයට තුන් රජයෙහි හැම කලටම අතහැර තිබේ. පිසුඹුරුවත හෙවත් ජලාශවලින් අල්ලන මසුන් වෙනුවෙන් රජයට අය කරන බද්ද සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම නතර කර තිබේ.

නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුගේ දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිපත්තියේ කැපී පෙනෙන ලක්‍ෂණ අතුරින් පොදු ජනතා අනුග්‍රහය ද සුවිශේෂීය. එහිදී දුස්‌ථව සිටි ලංකාවාසීන් සුස්‌ථ කිරීම සිදුකළ බව නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජු තමාගේ සෙල්ලිපිවල සඳහන් කරනු ලබයි. ඒ බව පහත සෙල්ලිපි පාඨය තුලින් අනාවරණය වේ.

"පෙර රජ දරුවන් නොමඳ අයගෙන් දුරස්‌ථ කළ ලංකාවාසීන්" එමෙන්ම "රන්කොත් වෙහෙර ටැම් ලිපිය" තුළින් ද නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමා තමාගේ පොදු ජනතා අනුග්‍රය දක්‌වා තිබේ.

"පූර්වේ රාජයන් දවසැ, අශෝක වධ බන්ධන හෝ ගව මහීෂාදී ස්‌ර්මස්‌මඟරණයෙන් ඉතා දුස්‌ථව ගියා වූ ලෝකවාසීන්ට දණ්‌ඩනාදී දෙය හැර............"

පොදු ජනතාවට සේවය කිරීමට නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජතුමා "දාන ශස්‌ත්‍ර" හෙවත් දිළිඳු භය දුරු කිරීම සඳහා අනන්ත යාචකයන්ට සම්පත් ලබා දීමට ක්‍රියා කොට ඇත. එම කරුණ විවිධ සෙල්ලිපි තුළිsන් අනාවරණය වේ.

"අන්නදාන නිරන්තරයෙන් පවත්වා" (අනුරාධපුර රුවන්වැලි සෑ ලිපිය.)

මෙහිදී ආහාර දාන වශයෙන් දිළිඳු ජනතාවට ලබා දුන් බව පැවසේ. "අනන්ත යාචකයන්ට රන්, රුවන් රිදී වළං..... (හැටදාගේ ප්‍රවේශ ලිපිය)

ආහාර පමණක් නොව රන්, රිදියෙන් කළ වළං යනාදිය පවා අසරණ ජනතාවට ලබා දීමට මොහු ක්‍රියා කළේය. තවද දිළිඳු ජනතාව වෙනුවෙන් පොලොන්නරුව නගරය පුරා විවිධ ශාලා ඉදිකළ බව සඳහනි. එසේ ඉදිකරන ලද ශාලා පිළිබඳ විමසීමේදී "ත්‍රිභුවන ශස්‌ත්‍ර, නිශ්ශංක ශස්‌ත්‍ර, බෞද්ධ ශස්‌ත්‍ර, බහුජන ශස්‌ත්‍ර" යනාදිය වැදගත් ය.

මෙවැනි දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිපත්තියක් අනුගමනය කළ නිශ්ශංක මල්ල රජතුමාගේ තවත් ක්‍රියාමාර්ගයක් වූයේ අවවාද ඇතුළත් කරමින් රට පුරා සෙල්ලිපි පිහිටුවීමයි. ගම් නියම්ගම් සිසාරා සංචාරය කළ මොහු විවිධ අවවාද ඇතුළත් කරමින් සෙල්ලිපි පිහිටුවීය. එම සෙල්ලිපි අතර "ගල්පොත ලිපිය, කටුගහගල්ගේ ලිපිය, වැලිගත්ත ලිපිය" යනාදිය ප්‍රධාන ස්‌ථානයක් හිමිකර ගනී.

රජවරු - කෝට්ටේ රාජධානිය

නිශ්ශංක මල්ල රජ


An Erythrodes glandulosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John Lindley, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Oakes Ames. An Erythrodes glandulosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Erythrodes, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Erythrodes

Erythrodes glandulosa


Panait Costache () a fost primar al Bucureștiului în perioada martie 1867 - noiembrie 1868.

Nașteri în secolul al XIX-lea
Decese în secolul al XIX-lea
Primari ai Bucureștiului
Politicieni români din secolul al XIX-lea

Panait Costache


Agrilus audax é uma espécie de escaravelho perfurador de madeira metálico da família Buprestidae. É conhecida a sua existência na América do Norte.

Referências

audax
Coleópteros da América do Norte

Coleópteros descritos em 1891

Agrilus audax


Shane Andre Mosley (n. 7 septembrie 1971), cunoscut sub numele de "Sugar" Shane Mosley, este un fost boxer profesionist american care a luptat într-e 1993 și 2016. A deținut mai multe campionate mondiale în trei clase de greutate, inclusiv titlul IBF la categoria ușoară; titlurile WBA (Super) și WBC welterweight; și titlurile WBA (Super), WBC și The Ring din categoria mijlocie. El este, de asemenea, fost campion la nivel național la welterweight (de două ori) și la mijlociu.

În 1998, Asociația Boxerilor Americani îl numea pe Mosley luptătorul anului. A primit, de asemenea, aceeași onoare de către Sala Internațională de Hall of Fame în 2000. În 2000 și 2001 a fost numit cel mai bun boxer din lume, pound for pound, de The Ring.

Rezultate în boxul profesionist

Referințe
Nașteri în 1971
Americani în viață
Boxeri americani
Campioni mondiali la box

Shane Mosley


Theo Walcott (d. 16 Mart 1989), İngiliz eski futbolcudur. İngiltere millî takımının formasını giyen en genç oyuncu olma unvanına sahiptir.

Theo Walcott, 18 Ağustos 2023 tarihinde futbolu bıraktığını açıkladı.

1989 doğumlular
Arsenal FC futbolcuları
İngiliz futbolcular
2006 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
Yaşayan insanlar
Jamaika asıllı İngilizler
İngiltere genç millî takım oyuncuları
Premier League futbolcuları
English Football League futbolcuları
Siyahi Britanyalı sporcular
Southampton FC futbolcuları
İngiltere millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Forvet futbolcular
İngiltere 21 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
2012 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası futbolcuları

Theo Walcott


Bougatsa (neogreacă: μπουγάτσα, alte grafii: Bugatsa, Bugaza; turcă: poğaça) este un produs de patiserie grecesc realizat din foitaj, în special în nordul Greciei, în jurul orasului Salonic .

Bougatsa poate fi preparată umplută cu cremă sau budincă de griș, cât și ca o gustare umplută cu brânză, carne sau spanac. Umplutura este adăugată între foile de plăcintă, apoi se coace în cuptor. Înainte de servire, bougatsa este adesea tăiată în bucăți mici și, în funcție de gust, se pudrează cu zahăr pudră sau scorțișoară. Bougatsa cu umplutură de brânză este similar, la gust, cu un alt produs de patiserie grecesc, tiropita, și, din aceasta cauză, este de multe ori încurcată cu aceasta.

Vezi și

 Bucătăria grecească
Bucătăria greacă

Bougatsa


Maurice Borrmans (1925. – 2017.), francuski katolički svećenik, misionar i arabist

Životopis
Rodio se i školovao u Francuskoj. God. 1949. pridružio se Družbi afričkih misionara (Bijeli oci) koja se uz dijaloško kršćansko svjedočenje bavi proučavanjem arapske kulture i islama. Nakon doktorata na Sorbonni u Parizu poglavari su ga kao svećenika rasporedili na djelovanje u Alžiru i Tunisu, zatim u Rim za profesora na Papinskom institutu za proučavanje arabistike i islama (PISAI) gdje je od 1975. do 2004. uređivao i časopis Islamochristiana te bio vrlo aktivan član Papinskog vijeća za međureligijski dijalog. Od 1963. do 2011. objavio jedanaest knjiga na francuskom s područja dijaloga kršćana i muslimana. Pisao je i na talijanskom. Od njegovih djela na hrvatski su prevedena dva: Smjernice za dijalog između kršćana i muslimana (Zagreb: Glas Koncila, 1984.) i Islam i kršćanstvo. Putovi dijaloga (Sarajevo: Napredak, 2010.) te Što kršćani trebaju znati o muslimanima radi međusobnog poštovanja? (KBF u Sarajevu i Glas Koncila, Zagreb, 2019., preveo prof.emeritus Mato Zovkić), prijevod izdanja ABC per capire i Musulmani (Torino: Edizioni San Paolo, 2007.).

Izvori

Francuski katolički svećenici
Francuski katolički misionari

Maurice Bormans


Wyandot (also Wyandotte, Wendat, Quendat or Huron) is the Iroquoian language traditionally spoken by the people known as Wyandot or Wyandotte, descended from the Tionontati. It is considered a sister to the Wendat language, spoken by descendants of the Huron-Wendat Confederacy. It was last spoken, before its revival, by members located primarily in Oklahoma, United States, and Quebec, Canada. Linguists have traditionally considered Wyandot as a dialect or modern form of Wendat.

Wyandot essentially died out as a spoken language with the death of the last native speaker in 1972, though there are now attempts at revitalization:
The Wyandotte Nation is offering Wyandot language classes in the Wyandotte Public Schools grades K–4, at the Wyandotte Nation's preschool "Turtle-Tots" program in Oklahoma and has created online language lessons for self-study.
The Huron-Wendat Nation of Quebec is offering adult and children's classes in the Wendat language at its village school in Wendake.

History

Relationship to Wendat
Although linguistics have equated with or seen as a dialect of the Iroquoian Wendat (Huron), Wyandot became so differentiated as to be considered a distinct language. This change appears to have happened sometime between the mid-18th century, when the Jesuit missionary Pierre Potier (1708–1781) documented the Petun dialect of Wendat in Canada, and the mid-nineteenth century. By the time the ethnographer Marius Barbeau made his transcriptions of the Wyandot language in Wyandotte, Oklahoma, in 1911–1912, it had diverged enough to be considered a separate language.

Significant differences between Wendat and Wyandot in diachronic phonology, pronominal prefixes, and lexicon challenge the traditional view that Wyandot is modern Wendat. History suggests the roots of this language are complex; the ancestors of the Wyandot were refugees from various Huronian tribes who banded together to form one tribe. After being displaced from their ancestral home in Canada on Georgian Bay, the group traveled south, first to Ohio and later to Kansas and Oklahoma. As many members of this group were Petun, some scholars have suggested that Wyandot is more influenced by Petun than by its descent from Wendat.

The work of Marius Barbeau was used by linguist Craig Kopris to reconstruct Wyandot; he developed a grammar and dictionary of the language. This work represents the most comprehensive research done on the Wyandot language as spoken in Oklahoma just prior to its extinction (or its "dormancy" as modern tribal members refer to it).

Phonology

Consonants
The phonemic inventory of the consonants is written by using the orthography used by Kopris in his analysis, which was based on Barbeau's transcriptions. The orthographic symbol is written in angled brackets where it differs from the IPA. Kopris listed places of articulation for the consonants but noted that the distinction had not been made by Barbeau.

[m] is placed in parentheses because it appears as an allophone of  in nearly all cases, but that cannot always explain its presence. The presence of a single voiced stop, , contrasting with the voiceless stop , makes Wyandot unusual among Iroquoian languages, as it is the only one with a phonemic voicing distinction. The /r/ sound is pronounced as [ɹ] rather than [r], according to researchers who phonetically transcribed directly from fluent speakers and described it as "corresponding to the English r" and as "the smooth English sound, never vibrant." The Wyandot  and  are both cognate with  in other Northern Iroquoian languages. Although the two largely appear to be in free variation, they clearly contrast in some cases (as in the minimal pairs da "that; the; who") and na ("now; then"). The ambiguity of the relationship between  and  seems to indicate that the two are in the process of a phonemic split that was not yet complete by the early 20th century.

Another unique feature of Wyandot is the presence of the voiced fricative , creating an - contrast, but there is no corresponding - contrast. The phoneme  also has no voiced counterpart.

Consonants may appear in clusters. Word-initial consonant clusters can be up to three consonants long, medial clusters up to four consonants long, and final clusters up to two consonants long.

Vowels
Barbeau's original transcriptions contained great detail and a complex system of diacritics, resulting in 64 different vowel characters. By eliminating allophones, Kopris found six phonemes, in addition to the marginal phoneme .

Other analysis of the same Barbeau data suggests that vowel length is contrastive in Wyandot, like in other Iroquoian languages.

Phonototactics
A Wyandot syllable consists of a vowel as the nucleus, a coda, and an optional onset. Onset clusters of two consonants are possible, with a single triconsonantal cluster (/skw/) occurring only in the first syllable of a word. Codas may consist of up to two consonants. This gives a maximal Wyandot syllable structure of CCCVCC, where C represent a consonant, and V represents a vowel.

Orthography
Wyandot is written in the Latin script, with the additional character  representing a glottal stop. The majority of characters represent their IPA values, with a few exceptions. The fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are indicated with a hachek, as  and , and nasal vowels are indicated by a nasal hook (e.g., , ). A colon  indicates a long vowel (e.g., ). As in the IPA, a raised  indicates prenasalization of stops (e.g., , ). Some allophones of consonants are explicitly indicated (e.g. , ).

Wendat use a similar orthography, with some differences. Although based on the 17th-century orthography of the Jesuit missionaries, the current orthography no longer uses the Greek letters θ for , χ for , ͺ for , or ȣ for  and . Pre-nasalization of stops is indicated by  (e.g., ). Nasal vowels are indicated as in French by  (e.g., , ). To disambiguate nasal vowels from oral vowels followed by /n/, the latter have diaeresis over the vowel (e.g., , ). Glottal stops are written with an apostrophe. The fricative /ʃ/ is written as . Consonantal allophones are not explicitly indicated.

Sample vocabulary

Seten - Stop, used on road signs (with arrêt) in some Huron reserves, such as Wendake in Quebec.
Skat - One
Tindee - Two
Shenk - Three
Anduak - Four
Weeish - Five
Sandustee - Water
Kanata - Village
"änen'enh" [a-NEN'-enh] - Mother

Wyandot and Wendat today
Citizens of the Wyandotte Nation, whose headquarters is in Wyandotte, Oklahoma, are promoting the study of Wyandot as a second language among its people as part of a cultural revival. Since 2005, Richard Zane Smith of the Wyandot Nation of Kansas (an unrecognized non-profit organization that identifies as a Native American tribe) has been volunteering and teaching in the Wyandotte schools with the aid of the linguist Kopris.

Linguistic work is also being done on the closely related Wendat.anthropologist John Steckley was reported in 2007 as being "the sole speaker" (non-native) of Wendat. Several Wendat scholars have master's degrees in Wendat language and have been active as linguists in the Wendat community in Quebec. In Wendake, Quebec, the First Nations people are working on a revival of Wendat language and culture. The language is being introduced in adult classes and into the village primary school. The Wendat linguist Megan Lukaniec has been instrumental in helping to create curriculum, infrastructure, and materials for Wendat language programs.

The Wyandot language is used in the television series Barkskins.

See also
Gabriel Sagard, Le grand voyage and Dictionnaire de la langue huronne (Dictionary of the Huron Language), 17th century
John Steckley, ed. (2009). Dictionary of the Huron Language

Notes

References
 Barbeau, Marius. (1960). "Huron-Wyandot Traditional Narratives: In Translations and Native Texts." National Museum of Canada Bulletin 165, Anthropological Series 47.
 Haldeman, Samuel Stehman. (1847). "On the Phonology of the Wyandots". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4: 268–269.
 Julian, Charles. (2010). A History of the Iroquoian Languages. Winnipeg, Canada: University of Manitoba dissertation.
 Kopris, Craig. (1999). "Wyandot Phonology: Recovering the Sound System of an Extinct Language". Proceedings of the Second Annual High Desert Linguistics Society Conference 2: 51–67.
 Kopris, Craig. (2001). A Grammar and Dictionary of Wyandot. Buffalo, NY: SUNY dissertation.
 Steckley, John L. (1988). "How the Huron Became Wyandot: Onomastic Evidence," Onomastica Canadiana 70: 59–70.

Sources
Native-languages.org: Wyandot words
Language page of the Wyandotte Nation

External links
For an example of Wyandot(te) language revitalization work, see an online lesson: "Wyandotte", Southern Oklahoma University

Language
Northern Iroquoian languages
Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands
First Nations languages in Canada
Indigenous languages of Oklahoma
Extinct languages of North America
Native American language revitalization

Wyandot language


Mesiotelus caucasicus est une espèce d'araignées aranéomorphes de la famille des Liocranidae.

Distribution
Cette espèce se rencontre en Azerbaïdjan, en Arménie, en Turquie et en Iran dans la province du Mazandéran.

Description
Le mâle holotype mesure  et la femelle paratype .

Systématique et taxinomie
Cette espèce a été décrite par Zamani et Marusik en 2021.

Étymologie
Son nom d'espèce lui a été donné en référence au lieu de sa découverte, le Caucase.

Publication originale
 Zamani & Marusik, 2021 : « Two new species of Liocranidae (Arachnida: Aranei) from the Caucasus and northern Iran. » Arthropoda Selecta, , ,  (texte intégral).

Liens externes

Notes et références

Liocranidae
Espèce d'araignées (nom scientifique)

Mesiotelus caucasicus


Toni der Assi (bürgerlicher Name Toni Latinović; * 19. Januar 1978 bei Frankfurt am Main) ist ein deutscher Rapper serbischer Abstammung, dessen Stil sich an den US-amerikanischen Hip-Hop von Public Enemy anlehnt.

Frühe Jugend
Toni ist der Sohn serbischer Einwanderer, die Anfang der 1970er Jahre aus dem damaligen Jugoslawien nach Deutschland kamen. Er wurde 1978 bei Frankfurt am Main geboren und hat noch einen älteren Bruder und eine Schwester. Seine Familie zog ein Jahr nach Tonis Geburt nach Mannheim. Einen Schulabschluss hat Toni nicht. Er war in den 1990ern in verschiedenen Breakdancecrews, wie den "Unique Wizzards" und "Rocking Till Death".

In dieser Zeit lernte Toni auch Hip-Hop-Künstler wie Torch, Toni L, Boulevard Bou oder auch einige vom ehemaligen Aggro-Berlin-Label kennen. Des Weiteren machte er Bekanntschaft mit Künstlern wie den Flying Steps oder Advanced Chemistry. Seit 2011 lebt er in Zürich.

Musik
Das Kürzel "Assi" steht für "asozial". Durch die Text- und Themenwahl in seiner Musik versucht Toni, "politischen und staatsfeindlichen" Rap im Stile US-amerikanischer Vorbilder und französischer Vorbilder wie Sefyu in den Hip-Hop einzuführen. Zu den Produzenten, mit denen er dabei zusammengearbeitet hat, zählen z. B. die "Rocko Beats".

Seine Texte bestehen meist aus der Aneinanderreihung von Teilsätzen und Doppelreimen. Der Inhalt der Texte beschreibt meist seine staatsfeindlichen Einstellungen wie z. B. "Vaterstaat Hurensohn" (Im Namen des Volkes) und das Leben in der seiner Meinung nach sozial benachteiligten deutschen Unterschicht.

Anklage und Urteil wegen Volksverhetzung
Nach seinem Video zur Single "Staatsfeind" wurde Toni 2008 von dem Abgeordneten Volker Beck wegen Beleidigung und Volksverhetzung angezeigt. Auf Grund von Textpassagen wie z. B. "schwule pädophile Kinderschänder – Freispruch im Namen des Volkes geht nicht, Kopfschuss, Gaskammer fertig" wurde Toni in vielen homosexuellen Foren als "Hass-Sänger" betitelt. Die Anzeige und die daraus entstehenden Folgen brachten Toni private Probleme und nach mehreren Hausdurchsuchungen, einer Festnahme und Berufungen, wurde Toni rechtskräftig zu einer Geldstrafe von 8.000 Euro verurteilt, die er laut eigenen Angaben an das SOS-Kinderdorf zahlte.

Sonstiges
Toni der Assi ließ Mitglieder der Gang Black Jackets in einem Video auftreten und trat dann selbst bei. Mindestens Anfang 2012 gehörte er noch dem Chapter Mannheim an.

Toni der Assi ist nicht zu verwechseln mit Voll Assi Toni, einem YouTube-Komiker aus Offenbach, der ab Mitte 2006 Jahre in Amateur-Kurzfilmen über seine sexuellen Erfahrungen mit zahlreichen Frauen in drastischen Wortbeiträgen berichtete.

Diskografie

Alben

 2009: Im Namen des Volkes (Distributionz, im Vertrieb von Soulfood)
 2011: Ghetto 3D
 2013: Von Brate für Brate
 2014: Žilet: Audio Digital Rasur
 2015: Alles Bombe

Singles
 2018: Jebote
 2019: Riziko Miziko
 2020: Wenn der Mantel fällt
 2022: Bass (feat. Speedeey)

EPs
 2006: Vorlaut (mit Mino)
 2010: Das Interpol Colucci Projekt. Distributionz/Finetunes

Mixtapes
 2007: Hektik Mektik. Unterdrukk Music Distributionz

Weblinks
  auf Bassdraft.com

Einzelnachweise

Rapper
Pseudonym
Deutscher
Geboren 1978
Mann

Toni der Assi


Vilenica je jedna od najstarijih turističkih špilja na svijetu. Nalazi se na cesti Sežana – Lokev u Sloveniji.

Špilja se prvi put spominje 1633., kada je vlasnik špilje grof Petač dao špilju na upravljanje župi Lokev, koja je mogla raspolagati svim prihodima od špilje, tako da mještani smatraju da je njihov špiljski turizam aktivan već skoro 400 godina.

Špilju je 1778., posjetio poznati prirodoslovac Balthasar Hacquet, a također su očuvani podaci o više kraljevskih posjeta: kralja Ferdinanda Napulja i Sicilije (1790.), cara Leopolda II. (1790. i 1791.), cara Franje I. (1816.), saksonskoga kralja Frederika II. (1836.), itd.

Do sredine 19. stoljeća, Vilenica je imala ugled najljepše, najveće i najposjećenije od svih krških špilja. O špilji od 1963. godine, brine Speleološko društvo iz Sežane. Članovi Društva su u svoje slobodno vrijeme postupno obnovili i instalirati električnu rasvjetu. Za posjetitelje Vilenice uređene su i osvijetljene staze u dužini od 450 m.

Špilja je dobila ime po vilama. Otkriveni su arheološki ostaci iz razdoblja između mlađeg kamenog doba i brončanog doba.

Godine 1980. počele su se organizirati večeri slovenskih pisaca, od 1986. godine pa nadalje međunarodni književni festival Vilenica okuplja pjesnike i pisce iz cijele Europe.

Špilje u Sloveniji

Vilenica (špilja)


April Grace es una actriz estadounidense.
A principios de 1990, Grace realiza un papel en Star Trek: The Next Generation. Apareció en la película de 1999 Magnolia. Ha aparecido en series de televisión como Lost como el personaje de Klugh. En 2007, Grace apareció en Soy leyenda.

Filmografía
 The X-Files (1995)
 "The List" ... como Danielle Manley
 Bean (1997) ... como Enfermera Pans
 Chicago Cab (aka Hellcab) (1997) ... como Shalita
 Waterproof (1999) ... como Tyree Battle
 Magnolia (1999) ... como Gwenovier
 Finding Forrester (2000) ... como Ms. Joyce
 Inteligencia artificial (2001) ...
 Boomtown (2002) ...
 The O.C. (2003)
 Dark Angel (2003)...como Ms. Diamond (1 episodio)
 "The Rescue" ... como Ms Dr. Burke
 The Stronger (2004)
 Joan de Arcadia (2004) ... como Toni Williams
 Constantine (2005) ... como Dr. Leslie Archer
 Lost (2006, 2007)
 "Enter 77" ... como Ms Klugh
 "Live Together, Die Alone" ... como Ms Klugh
 "Three Minutes" ... como Ms Klugh
 The Lost Room ... como Detective Lee Bridgewater
 Behind Enemy Lines 2: Axis of Evil (2006) ... como Ellie Brilliard
 Midnight Son (2007) ... como Virginia Hall
 Soy leyenda (2007) ... como reportera
 Grey's Anatomy (2008) ... como la hermana de Greta
 Fame (2009)...como la madre de Denise
 Lie to Me (2009) ... como Agente
 American Horror Story (2011)

Referencias

Actores de televisión de Estados Unidos
Actores de cine de Estados Unidos
Actores afroamericanos
Actrices de Florida
Actrices afroestadounidenses

April Grace


فاتن شاهين (11 يوليو 1951 -)، ممثلة سورية.

عن حياتها
من مواليد مدينة حلب، لديها أعمال عديدة في التلفزيون والأذاعة والمسرح، بدأت مسيرتها في العام 1972، انضمت إلى نقابة الفنانين السوريين في العام 1974.

أعمالها

من المسلسلات
 كسر عضم
 جنان نسوان
 ألو جميل ألو هناء.
 كان يا ما كان.
 الفصول الأربعة.
 خان الحرير.
 رجال تحت الطربوش.
 عيلة أكابر.
 القصاص.
 سفر
 شام شريف.
 أم عمارة.
 كاني وماني.
 ياقوت الحموي.
 أزهار الشتاء.
 سحر الشرق.
 الغرام.
 كثير من الحب كثير من العنف.
 عمر ابن الخطاب.
 يوميات مدير عام 2.
 رفة عين.
 جلسات نسائية
 ما ملكت أيمانكم (مسلسل)
 أيام الدراسة 1
بنات العيلة
أحلام كبيرة
ليس سرابا
 هارون
 ذكريات الزمن القادم

من المسرحيات
 المجنون.
 هلال بابل.
 الأم.
 جيفارا.

في الإذاعة
 حكم العدالة.
 ظواهر مدهشة.
 خزائن العرب.

أعمالها مرتّبة وفقا لسنوات الإنتاج

في السينما

 الفهد (1972)
 الشمس في يوم غائم (1985)
 الكرسي (2002)
 لكل ليلاه – فيلم قصير (2009)

في الإذاعة
شاركت خلال مسيرتها الفنية الطويلة في العديد من الأعمال الإذاعية.

في التلفزيون

 1992
 كان ياما كان ج1
 الشريد
 1994
 الحيتان
 1995
 الخطوات الصعبة
 1996
 القصاص
 1997
 الثريا
 1999
 الفصول الأربعة ج1
 تلك الأيام
 الفوارس
 2000
 قلوب في الميزان
 عشاق الخيال
 2001
 ألو جميل أهلين هنو
 سحر الشرق
 البطرني
 2003
 ذكريات الزمن القادم
 الهروب الي القمة
 بيت العز
 أيامنا الحلوة
 كوابيس منتصف الليل
 2004
 عشتار
 عصر الجنون
 رجال تحت الطربوش
 2005
 أشواك ناعمة
 الهارب
 المحطة 30
 رجاها
 2006
 أهل الغرام ج1
 كسر الخواطر
 صدى الروح
 مشاريع صغيرة
 الوزير وسعادة حرمه
 طعم السفرجل
 2007
 رسائل الحب والحرب
 على حافة الهاوية
 كثير من الحب كثير من العنف
 الاجتياح
 2008
 زهرة النرجس
 أولاد القيمرية
 ليس سرابا
 أهل الغرام ج2
 باب المقام
 بقعة ضوء ج6
 طوق الياسمين
 مواسم الخطر
 حارة عالهوا
 2009
 زمن العار
 على قيد الحياة
 الدوامة
 2010
 أسعد الوراق
 ماملكت أيمانكم
 قيود الروح
 الخبز الحرام
 بعد السقوط
 ذاكرة الجسد
 2011
 يوميات مدير عام ج2
 الزعيم
 Crazy TV
 جلسات نسائية
 طالع الفضة
 أيام الدراسة
 رجال العز
 صايعين ضايعين
 ميمو والعم فرحان
 2012
 بنات العيلة
 أيام الدراسة ج2
 عمر
 ما بتخلص حكايتنا

روابط خارجية

المراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من حلب
مسيحيون سوريون
ممثلات سوريات في القرن 20
مواليد 1370 هـ
مواليد 1951
ممثلات سوريات في القرن 21

فاتن شاهين


Beatrice "Bice" di Folco Portinari (; 1265 – 8 or 19 June 1290) was an Italian woman who has been commonly identified  as the principal inspiration for Dante Alighieri's Vita Nuova, and is also identified with the Beatrice who acts as his guide in the last book of his narrative poem the Divine Comedy (La Divina Commedia), Paradiso, and during the conclusion of the preceding Purgatorio. In the Comedy, Beatrice symbolises divine grace and theology.

Biography
Beatrice was the daughter of the banker Folco Portinari and was married to another banker, Simone dei Bardi. Dante claims to have met a "Beatrice" only twice, on occasions separated by nine years, but was so affected by the meetings that he carried his love for her throughout his life.
The tradition that identifies Bice di Folco Portinari as the Beatrice loved by Dante is now widely, though not unanimously, accepted by scholars. Boccaccio, in his commentary on the Divine Comedy, was the first one to explicitly refer to the woman; all later references are dependent on his unsubstantiated identification. Clear documents on her life have always been scarce, rendering even her existence doubtful. The only hard evidence is the will of Folco Portinari from 1287, which says, "Item d. Bici filien sue et uxoris d. Simonis del Bardis reliquite [...], lib.50 ad floren." The sentence is essentially a bequest to Portinari's daughter, who was married to Simone dei Bardi. Portinari was a rich banker, born in Portico di Romagna. He moved to Florence and lived in a house near Dante where he had six daughters. Portinari also gave generously to found the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova.

In the works of Dante Alighieri
Scholars have long debated whether the historical Beatrice should be identified with the Beatrice of Dante's writing. Certainly Beatrice Portinari fits the broad biographical criteria, and it's entirely possible that she and Dante knew each other—but the Beatrice of Dante's canon doesn't seem to rely on any such correspondence and exists as a literary character who bears only a passing resemblance to her historical antecedent.

Vita Nuova
Beatrice first appears in the autobiographical text La Vita Nuova, which Dante wrote around 1293. The Vita Nuova autoethnographical poetry and prose present Beatrice, and the poet's passion for her, in the context of Dante's own social and romantic reality. Dante's portrayal of Beatrice in the Vita Nuova is unambiguously positive, but at this early stage resembles the more generic attitude of the courtly lady, rather than the sharply defined personality for which Beatrice is famous in the Commedia.

According to Dante, he first met Beatrice when his father, Alighiero di Bellincione, took him to the Portinari house for a May Day party. They were both nine years old at the time, though Beatrice was a few months younger. Dante was instantly taken with her and remained so throughout his life in Florence—even though she married another man, the banker Simone de' Bardi, in 1287. For his part, Dante married Gemma Donati, a cousin of one of the most politically prominent families in Florence, in 1285. Despite this entanglement, he seems to have retained some feeling for Beatrice, even after her death in 1290. As Dante tells us in the Vita Nuova, he withdrew into intense study after Beatrice's death and began composing poems dedicated to her memory. The collection of these poems, along with others he had previously written in praise of Beatrice, became what we now know as the Vita Nuova.

The manner in which Dante chose to express his love for Beatrice, in both the Vita Nuova and Divine Comedy, is in line with the medieval notion of courtly love. Courtly love was a sometimes secret, often unrequited, and always respectful form of admiration for a lady. It is also first and foremost a literary conceit, rather than an actual form of intimacy. It was not uncommon for the lady in question to have no idea of her courtly admirer, and for the admirer in question not to be interested in a real relationship at all. Instead, the courtly lady serves as a subject for the lover to exercise his poetic skill, or even to discuss philosophy, in the practice of praising her. Whether or not Dante had any feelings for his neighbor Beatrice Portinari, courtly love is the modality he chooses to convey his passion, which suggests a degree of remove (at least) between historical reality and autobiographical narrative.

Divine Comedy
At the beginning of the Inferno, when Virgil appears to guide Dante through the afterlife, he explains that he was sent by Beatrice. She herself was moved to intercede by the Virgin Mary and Saint Lucia. She is referenced frequently throughout his journey through hell and purgatory as a source of inspiration and comfort.

Beatrice personally appears near the end of the Purgatorio to take over as guide from the Latin poet Virgil because, as a pagan, Virgil cannot enter Paradise. Moreover Beatrice, being the incarnation of beatific love (as her name implies), is uniquely suited to lead the pilgrim into the realm of divine bliss. Naturally, then, it's Beatrice who must lead the pilgrim into heaven. Where Virgil is understood as human reason and philosophy, Beatrice represents religious knowledge and passion: theology, faith, contemplation, and grace. Philosophy is suited to guide the pilgrim through the less holy realms of sin and repentance, but only divine faith can completely lead the soul to God.

Despite representing divine love, Beatrice's appearance to Dante in the Garden of Eden in Purgatorio XXX is not a joyous reunion. She berates him for weeping when Virgil disappears, and then for abandoning her memory after her death and indulging in sin to such a degree that she had to intercede on his behalf to save him. As Beatrice guides Dante through the spheres of Heaven, she grows increasingly beautiful and indescribable, representing Dante's progress towards God. She frequently corrects Dante during his journey, acting as a spiritual guide and source of wisdom. Contrary to her initial harsh treatment, throughout Paradiso Beatrice is encouraging and patient towards Dante, taking joy in his gradual progress. When they reach the Empyrean, she leaves him to take her proper place there. Saint Bernard guides Dante for the final portion of his journey. He points out Beatrice's place in the Empyrean among several glorified women from the Bible.

Dante compares Beatrice's direction of the pageant of the Church in the Garden to an admiral commanding his ship, an unusual masculine simile that has troubled the critical reading of Beatrice as a courtly lady. Her digressions on multiple academic subjects in the Paradiso also diverge from the typical portrayal of the courtly beloved, who exists as an object of praise, rather than a subject of discourse. For example, the first of these discourses is on optics, concerning the markings on the moon, and the scientific method in general. She is frequently viewed as a Christ figure, owing to her death, the "new life" Dante finds through her in La Vita Nuova, and her interceding before God to save Dante's soul in the Comedy.

Legacy

Modern art
Beatrice Portinari has been immortalized not only in Dante's poems but in paintings by Pre-Raphaelite artists and poets in the nineteenth century. Subjects taken from Dante Alighieri's La Vita Nuova, especially the idealization of Beatrice, inspired a great deal of Dante Gabriel Rossetti's art in the 1850s, in particular after the death of his wife Elizabeth Siddal. He idealized her image as Dante's Beatrice in a number of paintings, such as Beata Beatrix.

In popular culture
Asteroid 83 Beatrix in the asteroid belt is named in her honor, befitting of her role as Dante's guide through the heavenly spheres.

The Dante Alighieri Academy Beatrice Campus, a Catholic high school in Toronto, Ontario, Canada is named after Portinari.

In the book series A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket, Snicket's love interest is named Beatrice. The relationship between the characters is very similar to that of Beatrice Portinari and Dante.

In the 2014 animated miniseries Over the Garden Wall, the main characters Wirt and Greg are guided through the Unknown, a place implied to be the afterlife, by a bluebird named Beatrice. This is one of many parallels between the two works.

References

Further reading
 Conway, James. "Beatrice and Other Allegorical Characters of Dante Alighieri," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XVII, 1892.
 Frisardi, Andrew.

External links

1265 births
1290 deaths
Dante Alighieri
13th-century people from the Republic of Florence
13th-century Italian women
Characters in the Divine Comedy
Muses

Beatrice Portinari


An Triphora amazonica in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Schltr.. An Triphora amazonica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Triphora, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Triphora (Orchidaceae)

Triphora amazonica


Klokočov este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Michalovce din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 424 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Klokočov este atestată documentar din 1358.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Klokočov, Michalovce


Jesús García Sanjuán, conocido como García Sanjuán, es un exfutbolista español.

Trayectoria como jugador

García Sanjuán pasa por todas las categorías inferiores del Real Zaragoza, hasta llegar a debutar en el primer equipo en la temporada 1990-1991, en la cual disputa siete partidos de liga en Primera División.

En el conjunto maño permanece durante ocho temporadas, si bien la última de ellas, la 1997-1998, la inicia cedido en el Wolverhampton Wanderers de Inglaterra, retornando a la disciplina aragonesa en diciembre. El momento más glorioso de su carrera llega en 1995, cuando el Real Zaragoza se proclama campeón de la Recopa de Europa.

En el verano de 1998, García Sanjuán ficha por el Villarreal CF, equipo con el que disputa 22 partidos de liga, sin anotar ningún gol.

Al año siguiente recala en el Córdoba CF, en Segunda División, donde tiene también una participación no excesivamente destacada, con 26 encuentros en su haber en la categoría de plata.

En julio de 2000, y junto a varios futbolistas españoles más, decide embarcarse rumbo a Escocia para fichar por el Airdrie, presidido por el exfutbolista Steve Archibald. Posteriormente, militaría también en el Kilmarnock FC, del mismo país, durante dos temporadas, hasta que se retira del fútbol en 2003.

Tras su retirada

Dirige, junto a su hermano Tito, una Fundación enfocada a la divulgación y lucha contra el cáncer, y organiza viajes de turismo de golf a Escocia a través de una empresa personal.

Referencias

Revista Don Balón.

Enlaces externos

Ficha en BDFutbol
sanjuan Wolverhampton García Sanjuán, cedido al Wolverhampton
sanjuan Airdrie Colonización española en Escocia
Entrevista a García Sanjuán, julio de 2011

Futbolistas de Zaragoza
Futbolistas de la cantera del Real Zaragoza
Futbolistas del Real Zaragoza en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Villarreal Club de Fútbol en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Córdoba Club de Fútbol en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Kilmarnock Football Club
Futbolistas del Wolverhampton Wanderers Football Club
Hermanos futbolistas
Nacidos en Zaragoza

Jesús García Sanjuán