L'édition masculine 2022 du tournoi de tennis de Rome se déroule du 8 au  sur terre battue en extérieur. Il s'agit du  de la saison.

Faits marquants

Forfaits
On note les forfaits de l'Américain Taylor Fritz, des Espagnols Carlos Alcaraz et Roberto Bautista-Agut, de l'Italien Matteo Berrettini, du Français Gaël Monfils et de Daniil Medvedev. Ils sont respectivement remplacés par Pedro Martínez, Emil Ruusuvuori, Marcos Giron, Sebastian Korda, Alejandro Davidovich Fokina et Ilya Ivashka.

Contexte
Après l'invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie fin février, les instances dirigeantes internationales du tennis autorisent les joueurs de Russie et de Biélorussie à participer aux tournois, mais pas sous le drapeau de leur pays, jusqu'à nouvel ordre.

Pendant le tournoi

Longtemps écarté des courts en raison d'une blessure au pied, Stanislas Wawrinka, retombé à la  place mondiale, signe sa première victoire sur le circuit depuis quinze mois en battant au premier tour le  mondial Reilly Opelka. Son dernier succès remontait au 8 février 2021, lors de l'Open d'Australie, contre Pedro Sousa.

Le tenant du titre et décuple vainqueur du tournoi Rafael Nadal est éliminé en huitièmes de finale par Denis Shapovalov après un match en 3 sets lors duquel il a souffert de son pied gauche.

Novak Djokovic remporte la  victoire de sa carrière lors de sa demi-finale face à Casper Ruud. Il devient le  joueur à atteindre ce total après Jimmy Connors, Roger Federer, Ivan Lendl et Rafael Nadal.

Lauréats
Le Serbe Novak Djokovic remporte le tournoi en battant en finale Stéfanos Tsitsipás. Il s'agit du  titre ATP de sa carrière en simple, le  en Masters 1000.

En double, les tenants du titre Nikola Mektić et Mate Pavić décrochent leur  titre ensemble en s'imposant en finale face à John Isner et Diego Schwartzman. Il s'agit de leur  et  titre respectif dans la discipline.

Primes et points

NB : Si une tête de série est éliminée dès son entrée en lice, elle remporte les points d'une défaite au , même si elle en a été exemptée.

Résultats en simple

Parcours

Tableau final

Premiers tours

Haut du tableau

Bas du tableau

Résultats en double

Parcours

Tableau final

Premiers tours

Haut du tableau

Bas du tableau

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Tournoi de tennis de Rome
 Saison 2022 de l'ATP
 Tournoi de tennis de Rome (WTA 2022) : tournoi féminin
 Tournois ATP Masters 1000

Liens externes
  Site officiel du tournoi

ATP 2022
Tennis en Italie en 2022
Rome
Tennis en mai 2022

Tournoi de tennis de Rome (ATP 2022)


Kup Zagrebačkog nogometnog saveza za sezonu 2004./05. je igran od rujna 2004. do svibnja 2005. godine  U kupu nastupaju klubovi s područja Grada Zagreba, a pobjednik i finalist natjecanja natjecanja su stekli pravo nastupa u pretkolu Hrvatskog kupa u sezoni 2005./06.
Kup je osvojilo ZET iz Zagreba, pobijedivši u završnici HAŠK, također iz Zagreba.

Sudionici
U natjecanju su sudjelovala 44 kluba, prikazani prema pripadnosti ligama u sezoni 2004./05.

Rezultati

1. kolo
Igrano 8. rujna 2004.

2. kolo
Igrano 22. rujna 2004.

3. kolo
Igrano 29. rujna 2004.

4. kolo
Igrano 20. listopada 2004.

Četvrtzavršnica
Igrano 20. travnja 2005.

Poluzavršnica
Igrano 11. svibnja 2005.

Završnica
Igrano 25. svibnja 2005.

Poveznice
 Zagrebački nogometni savez
 Kup Zagrebačkog nogometnog saveza

Izvori

 nk-maksimir.hr, Kup ZNS-a 2004./05. , pristupljeno 9. rujna 2017.

2004-05
Zagreb-kup

Kup Zagrebačkog nogometnog saveza 2004./05.


La Torre de Casa Tardán de Gistaín es un monumento declarado Bien de Interés Cultural por el Gobierno de Aragón se encuentra en la localidad de
Gistaín uno de los pueblos más altos del Pirineo aragonés, pertenece al Valle de Chistau, comarca de Sobrarbe, provincia de Huesca, Aragón, España.
En la parte baja del caserío encontraremos este monumento, pero esta localidad nos ofrece tres hermosas torres de planta cuadrada que se levantan entre las viviendas; una pertenece a la iglesia y las otras dos son civiles, torreones defensivos del  símbolo de las casas fuertes (construidas las dos por casa Tardán, una de ellas por una rencilla con la casa rival, Arrín o Rins y que posteriormente pasó a ser propiedad de esta última). Destacan también algunos escudos y ventanas decoradas.

Descripción

Es una torre de grandes dimensiones, exenta y de planta cuadrada. Está cubierta con losa de pizarra a cuatro vertientes. Tiene cinco alturas y en los pisos más altos se suceden vanos y aspilleras. Tiene una hilera de huecos en la cuarta planta que podría ser la sujeción de un antiguo cadalso de madera. Esta torre está levantada sobre el cauce de un torrente, lo que la convierte en la única torre puente del Alto Aragón.

Historia

Fue conocido también como Chistén de las fuens. Se sabe de su existencia en época visigoda, siendo en tiempos del Rey Recaredo (586-601) una de las cuatro Cecas de Aragón -asentamientos donde se fabricaba moneda-.Chistén ha sido tradicionalmente un pueblo de pastores pero ha tenido otras actividades económicas importantes como las minas de hierro (de las que las primeras referencias se remontan a principios del ), la exportación de madera de sus bosques o el contrabando con Francia a través de los pasos de alta montaña.

Notas y referencias

Enlaces externos
 Comarca de Sobrarbe (http://www.sobrarbe.com/)
 Turismo de Sobrarbe ()
 Geoparque de Sobrarbe (http://www.geoparquepirineos.com/)

Bienes de interés cultural de la provincia de Huesca
Gistaín
Casas torreadas del Alto Aragón

Torre de Casa Tardán


Michael E. Van Ness (1974.), američki astronom

Životopis
Studirao je na Sveučilištu Sjeverne Arizone. Od 1988. godine radi u sklopu projekta LONEOS-a. Zanima se za arheoastronomiju.

Otkrića
Otkrio je dva periodična kometa - komet 213P/Van Ness i komet 327P/Van Ness te jedan neperiodični komet, komet C/2004 S1 Van Ness.

Asteroid 14185 Van Ness ponio je njegovo ime.

Bilješke i referencije

Američki astronomi
Otkrivači kometa

Michael E. Van Ness


Earl (kadınsa kontes), konta denk bir İngiliz asalet unvanı. Eski Norveççede jarl unvanı ile ilişkilidir. Kökenine bakıldığında "cesur adam" veya "savaşçı" anlamlarına gelir.

Earl, "kabile şefi" anlamında bir İskandinav ve Anglo Sakson unvanı olarak ortaya çıktı. Unvan Orta Çağda İskandinavya'da ortadan kalkarken, İngiltere'de kullanılmaya devam edildi. Unvan, rütbe olarak vikont ile marki arasında yer alır ve kıta Avrupası'ndaki kont unvanına karşılık gelir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Kont

Soyluluk unvanları
Britanyalı soyluluk unvanları
Erkekler için kullanılan toplumsal unvanlar

Earl


The Sportpalast speech () or Total War speech was a speech delivered by German Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels at the Berlin Sportpalast to a large, carefully selected audience on 18 February 1943, as the tide of World War II was turning against Nazi Germany and its Axis allies. The speech is particularly notable as Goebbels almost mentions the Holocaust, when he begins saying "Ausrotten" (using the German word for extermination), but quickly changes it to Ausschaltung (i.e. exclusion). This was the same word Heinrich Himmler used on 18 December 1941, when he recorded the outcome of his discussion with Adolf Hitler on the Final Solution, wherein he wrote "als Partisanen auszurotten" ("exterminate them as partisans").

It is considered the most famous of Joseph Goebbels's speeches.  The speech was the first public admission by the Nazi leadership that Germany faced serious dangers. Goebbels called for a total war (German: totaler Krieg) to secure victory over the Allies, and exhorted the German people to continue the war even though it would be long and difficult because—as he asserted—both Germany's survival and the survival of a non-Bolshevist Europe were at stake.

Background

After the Axis defeat in late 1942 at the Second Battle of El Alamein in Egypt, a turning point of World War II in Europe occurred on 2 February 1943 as the Battle of Stalingrad ended with the surrender of Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus and the German 6th Army to the Soviets. At the Casablanca Conference in January, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill had demanded Germany's unconditional surrender, and the Soviets, encouraged by their victory, were beginning to retake territory, including Kursk (8 February), Rostov-on-Don (14 February), and Kharkiv (16 February). After the Axis defeats in Egypt and the subsequent loss of Tripoli (23 January, 1943), military setbacks shook Axis morale. In the Pacific, the Americans had just completed their months-long reconquest of Guadalcanal.

Adolf Hitler responded with the first measures that would lead to the all-out mobilization of Germany. Prior to the speech, the government closed restaurants, clubs, bars, theatres, and luxury stores throughout the country so that the civilian population could contribute more to the war.

Setting and audience
The setting of the speech in the Sportpalast placed the audience behind and under a big banner bearing the all-capital words "TOTALER KRIEG – KÜRZESTER KRIEG" ("total war – shortest war") along with Nazi banners and Nazi swastikas, as seen in pictures and film of the event.

Although Goebbels claimed that the audience included people from "all classes and occupations" (including "soldiers, doctors, scientists, artists, engineers and architects, teachers, white collars"), the propagandist had carefully selected his listeners to react with appropriate fanaticism. Goebbels said to Albert Speer that it was the best-trained audience one could find in Germany. However, the enthusiastic and unified crowd response recorded in the written version is, at times, not fully supported by the recording.

Details
Goebbels reiterated three themes in the speech:

If the Wehrmacht was not in a position to counter the danger from the Eastern front, the German Reich would fall to Bolshevism and the rest of Europe shortly afterwards.
The Wehrmacht, the German people and the Axis Powers alone had the strength to save Europe from this threat.
Danger was at hand, and Germany had to act quickly and decisively.

In the speech, Goebbels elaborated at length what Nazi propaganda asserted was the threat posed by so-called International Jewry: "The goal of Bolshevism is Jewish world revolution. They want to bring chaos to the Reich and Europe, using the resulting hopelessness and desperation to establish their international, Bolshevist-concealed, capitalist tyranny." Rejecting the protests of enemy nations against the Reich's Jewish policies, he stated, to deafening chants from the audience, that Germany "intends to take the most radical measures, if necessary, in good time."

While Goebbels referred to Soviet mobilization nationwide as "devilish", he explained that "we cannot overcome the Bolshevist danger unless we use equivalent, though not identical, methods [in a] total war". He then justified the austerity measures enacted, explaining them as temporary measures.

Historically, the speech is important in that it marks the first admission by the Party leadership that they were facing problems, and launched the mobilization campaign that, arguably, prolonged the war, under the slogan: "And storm, break loose!" ().
Goebbels claimed that no German was thinking of any compromise and instead that "the entire nation is only thinking about a hard war".

Goebbels attempted to counter reports in the Allied press that German civilians had lost faith in victory by asking the audience a number of questions at the end, such as:

Do you believe with the Führer and us in the final total victory of the German people?
Are you and the German people willing to work, if the Führer orders, 10, 12 and if necessary 14 hours a day and to give everything for victory?
Do you want total war? If necessary, do you want a war more total and radical than anything that we can even imagine today?

The audio recording of the speech differs in some ways from the written record. Especially significant is that in the recording, Goebbels actually begins to mention the "extermination" of the Jews, rather than the less harsh terms used in the written version to describe the Final Solution, but catches himself in the middle of the word.

Quotes

The last line originated in the poem Männer und Buben (Men and Boys) by Carl Theodor Körner during the Napoleonic Wars. Körner's words had been quoted by Adolf Hitler in his 1920 speech "What We Want" delivered at Munich's Hofbräuhaus, but also by Goebbels himself in older speeches, including his 6 July 1932 campaign speech before the Nazis took power in Germany.

Regarding the word Ausschaltung there was a slight pause when Goebbels said Aussr... .Ausschaltung means elimination, which is fit in the context of the speech.

Reception
Millions of Germans listened to Goebbels on the radio as he delivered this speech about the "misfortune of the past weeks" and an "unvarnished picture of the situation." By amassing such popular enthusiasm, Goebbels wanted to convince Hitler into giving him greater powers in running the war economy. Hitler, however, was not yet ready to bring the economy to a total war footing over the objections of his ministers. On 23 July 1944, Goebbels was finally appointed Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War, responsible for maximising the manpower for the Wehrmacht and the armaments industry at the expense of sectors of the economy not essential to the war effort.

The speech also led to the spread of a late-war whisper joke, popular in Western Germany, especially the Ruhr:

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links
 English translation at Calvin University
 Original speech (in German) on the Internet Archive

1943 in Germany
Speeches by Nazis
1943 in international relations
Joseph Goebbels
February 1943 events
1943 speeches

Sportpalast speech


Uroš Slijepčević (Hrtić, pokraj Dvora na Uni, 1921. - Zagreb, 2009.), bio je sudionik narodnooslobodilačke borbe, visoki partijski funkcionar, rukovodeći djelatnik Udbe i republički sekretar (ministar) unutrašnjih poslova SR Hrvatske u razdoblju od 1963. do 1966.godine.

Djetinjstvo i mladost
Rođen je 1921.godine u selu Hrtiću, pokraj Dvora na Uni, naselju u kojem je živjelo većinski srpsko stanovništvo, u tadašnjoj Kraljevini SHS. U rodnom je selu pohađao pučku školu, dok je srednjoškolsko obrazovanje stekao u Dvoru na Uni i Petrinji. Već kao učenik Učiteljske škole u Petrinji, priključio se ilegalnoj Komunističkoj partiji (KPJ).

Drugi svjetski rat
Početak Drugoga svjetskog rata, okupacija Jugoslavije i uspostava NDH, zatekli su ga na Baniji, gdje se po izbijanju ustanka, priključio partizanskim pokretu. Tijekom 1942. bio je imenovan političkim komesarom u Drugom bataljunu Osme banijske narodnooslobodilačke brigade, u čijem je sastavu sudjelovao u svim važnijim bitkama za oslobođenje Jugoslavije.

Karijera u socijalističkoj Jugoslaviji
Nakon završetka Drugoga svjetskog rata obnašao je visoke partijske i državne funkcije u NR, odnosno SR Hrvatskoj, tada jednoj od republika u sastavu socijalističke Jugoslavije. Krajem 1950-ih i početkom 1960-ih, bio je republički podsekretar zadužen za UDB-u te je kasnije napredovao na mjesto republičkog sekretara (ministra) unutrašnjih poslova SR Hrvatske od 1963. do 1967.

Obdukcija tijela pok. kardinala Alojzija Stepinca 1960.
Bio je na dužnosti načelnika Udbe SR Hrvatske kada je u veljači 1960. umro blaženi kardinal Alojzije Stepinac, te je o tijeku i vremenu trajanja postupka obdukcije i balzamiranja tijela pokojnog kardinala zahtijevao izvještavanje u realnom vremenu te je pritom svojim podređenima davao instrukcije kako bi spriječili navodne "zloupotrebe" iz crkvenih krugova.

Brijunski plenum 1966.
Kao republicki sekretar za unutrašnje poslove, bio je jedan od sudionika tzv. Brijunskog plenuma, odnosni Četvrtog plenuma CK SKJ-u, odrzanog na Brijunima, 1.srpnja 1966., na kojem je smijenjen Aleksandar Ranković, s obrazloženjem kako se Udba izdigla iznad Partije. Nastavno je sudjelovao i kao član Komisije za reorganizaciju i unapređenje Službe unutrašnjih poslova na razini SR Hrvatske koja je imala zadatak baviti se "deformacijama u radu Udbe".

Kasnije je u drugoj polovici 1970-ih i tijekom 1980-ih obnašao niz funkcija u Društveno-političkom vijeću Sabora SR Hrvatske i u Odboru za općenarodni obranu i društvenu samozaštitu.

Kao saborski zastupnik i partijski funkcionar, dana 22.lipnja 1978., sudjelovao je na svečanosti otkrivanja spomenika za žrtve fašizma u banijskom mjestu Donja Bačuga, s obzriom da je u tom kraju sudjelovao u NOB-u, te je u tom mjestu stradao veliki broj partizanskih boraca, ali i civilnih žrtava u Drugom svjetskom ratu.

Odlazak u mirovinu i smrt
U drugoj polovici 1980-ih odlazi u mirovinu. Uslijed demokratskih promjena, te proglašenja samostalne Republike Hrvatske, raspada socijalističke Jugoslavije, izbijanja oružanih sukiba, nije se isticao niti politički aktivirao.

Umro je u Zagrebu, 2009., u osamdeset i devetoj godini života, pokopan je na gradskom groblju Mirogoj.

Vezani članci

 Jovo Ugrčić

Izvori

Komunisti u drugoj Jugoslaviji

Uroš Slijepčević


Mireille Mathieu, (d. 22 Temmuz 1946) Fransız şarkıcı. 9 farklı dilde 1200'ü aşkın şarkısıyla ve dünya genelinde 120 milyonu aşkın kayıt satışıyla, Fransız basını tarafından Édith Piaf'ın halefi olarak nitelendirilmektedir. Eiffel Kulesi'nin 100. yıl dönümünde, Fransa'nın ulusal marşı olan La Marseillaise'i söylemiştir.

Albümleri

Dış bağlantılar

Kaynakça

Yaşayan insanlar
1946 doğumlular
Fransız kadın şarkıcılar
Fransız kadın pop şarkıcıları
Disleksi olan kişiler

Mireille Mathieu


Articles with hCards

ෆෙඩ්රිකා ජෑන්ස් ශ්‍රී ලාංකික මාධ්‍යවේදිනියක් සහ ද සන්ඩේ ලීඩර් පුවත්පතේ හිටපු කර්තෘවරියකි.

ඇය පුවත්පතේ සිටින කාලය තුළ ශ්‍රී ලංකා රජය දැඩි ලෙස විවේචනය කළාය. ඇයගේ පූර්වගාමියා වූ ලසන්ත වික්‍රමතුංග ඝාතනය කර තිබූ අතර, ජෑන්ස් නිතර බිය ගැන්වීම් හා හිරිහැර කිරීම් සහ ගිනි තැබීම් සහ මරණ තර්ජන රැසකට ගොදුරු විය.

2012 සැප්තැම්බර් මාසයේදී පුවත්පත් ආයතනයේ නව, රජයට හිතවත් හිමිකරු විසින් ඇයගේ තනතුරෙන් නෙරපා හැරීමෙන් පසු, ජෑන්ස් ඇය දැන් ජීවත් වන එක්සත් ජනපදයට සංක්‍රමණය විය.

පෞද්ගලික ජීවිතය
ජෑන්ස් ලන්දේසි සම්භවයක් ඇති බර්ගර් ජාතිකයෙක් වන අතර ජැකලින් ෆර්නැන්ඩස්ගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරිය සහ ජටින් රුංතාගේ නෑනා වේ.  ඇයට දරුවන් දෙදෙනෙකි.

මාධ්‍ය සහ පුවත්පත් කලාව
ජෑන්ස් "ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිවිල් යුද්ධය අතරතුර රොයිටර් හි රූපවාහිනී අංශය වන විස්නිව්ස් හි යුද වාර්තාකරුවෙකු ලෙස සිය වෘත්තීය ජීවිතය ආරම්භ කළේය." ඇය රජයේ සොල්දාදුවන් සහ ගරිල්ලා හමුදා සමඟ සම්මුඛ සාකච්ඡා පැවැත්වූ අතර, ශ්‍රී ලංකා පාර්ලිමේන්තුව ආවරණය කරන ගවේෂණාත්මක මාධ්‍යවේදිනියක් ලෙසද කටයුතු කළාය. "ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිටින එකම මාධ්‍යවේදිනියක් ලෙස ඇය ගෞරවනීය දේශපාලන වාර්තාකාරිනියක ලෙස පෙනී සිටිමින් උදෑසන ප්‍රවෘත්ති රූපවාහිනී වැඩසටහනක නිවේදිකාවක් බවට පත් වූවාය."

සන්ඩේ ලීඩර්
ඇය 1994 දී "දේශපාලනිකව පෝෂණය වූ ගවේෂණාත්මක පුවත්පතක්"  සහ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ "හුදකලා ස්වාධීන හඬක්" ලෙස විස්තර කර ඇති ද සන්ඩේ ලීඩර් පුවත්පතට සම්බන්ධ වූ අතර,  ලාල් වික්‍රමතුංග විසින් ප්‍රධාන කර්තෘ ලසන්ත වික්‍රමතුංග ඝාතනයෙන් පසුව 2009 ජනවාරි මාසයේදී එහි කර්තෘ වීමට ඉල්ලා සිටියාය. වික්‍රමතුංගට "මෝටර් බයිසිකල්වලින් පැමිණි මිනිසුන් සැඟවී සිට ඔහුගේ හිසට වෙඩි තබා ඇත."  වික්‍රමතුංගට මෙන්ම ජෑන්ස්ටද ඇයගේ වැඩ නිසා මරණ තර්ජන ඇතුළු තර්ජන එල්ල විය.    ඇය ප්‍රකාශ කර ඇත්තේ තමාට මෙම තර්ජන එල්ල වීමට පටන් ගත්තේ කර්තෘ ධුරයට පත්වීමෙන් පසුව බවයි. "ඔබ මෙය ලිවීම නතර නොකළහොත් මම ඔබව කපා දමමි" යනුවෙන් රතු තීන්ත සහිත එක් ලිපියක් මට ලැබුණි," ඇය ටෙලිග්‍රාෆ් වෙත පැවසුවාය. ලසන්ත ඝාතනයට සති තුනකට පෙර ඔහුට එවා තිබූ තර්ජනාත්මක ලිපියක තිබූ අත් අකුරු සමාන විය.

2009 ඔක්තෝම්බර් 22 දින ජෑන්ස් සහ ප්‍රවෘත්ති කර්තෘ මුන්සා මුෂ්තාක් වෙත තැපැල් මගින් අතින් ලියූ මරණීය තර්ජන යවා ඇත.   "ඔබ ලිවීම නතර නොකළහොත් අපි ඔබව කපා දමමු" යනුවෙන් එම ලිපි තර්ජනය කර ඇත. ජෑන්ස් දේශසීමා රහිත මාධ්‍යවේදීන්ට පැවසුවේ වික්‍රමතුංග මහතාට තම ලේකම්වරයා ගොනු කළ ලිපියම ලැබී ඇති බවයි. මෙම ලිපි තුනම එකම පුද්ගලයා විසින් ලියා ඇති බව සනාථ කළ ග්‍රැෆික් විද්‍යාඥයෙකු විසින් මෙම ලිපි සංසන්දනය කළ බව ජෑන්ස් පැවසීය. එම ලිපි තුනම එකම අතකින් ලියා ඇති බව  තහවුරු කළ ග්‍රැෆික් විද්‍යාඥයෙකු විසින් එම ලිපි සංසන්දනය කළ බව ජෑන්ස් පැවසීය  2010 ඔක්තෝම්බර් මාසයේදී ශ්‍රී ලංකා ගාඩියන් සඟරාව වාර්තා කළේ ශ්‍රී ලංකා හමුදා බුද්ධි අංශ ජෑන්ස් ඝාතනය කිරීමට කුමන්ත්‍රණය කරන බවයි. 2012 ජූලි 6 වන දින දුරකථන ඇමතුමකින් ආරක්‍ෂක ලේකම් ගෝඨාභය රාජපක්‍ෂ විසින් ජෑන්ස්ට තර්ජනය කර අපහාස කරන ලදී. ජෑන්ස්ට අනුව ආරක්ෂක ලේකම්වරයා පැවසුවේ "ඔව් මම ඔබට තර්ජනය කළා. ඔබේ වර්ගයේ මාධ්‍යවේදීන් ජරාව කන ඌරන්! . . . මම ඔයාව හිරේ දාන්නම්! . . . මිනිස්සු ඔයාව මරයි! ! ! මිනිස්සු ඔයාට වෛර කරනවා! ! !" .

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිවිල් යුද්ධය අවසානයේ, 2009 දී, ජෑන්ස් ලිපියක් ලිවීය, ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ආරක්ෂක ලේකම් ගෝඨාභය රාජපක්ෂ, කොටි නායකයාට සමාන මනෝවිද්‍යාත්මක පැතිකඩක් බෙදාගත් බව යෝජනා කළේය.  2010 ශීත ඍතුවේ දී, ජෑන්ස්, ශ්‍රී ලංකා හමුදාවේ හිටපු හමුදාපතිවූ, ජනාධිපතිවරණවලදී විපක්ෂ අපේක්ෂකයා සමඟ සම්මුඛ සාකච්ඡාවක් පැවැත්වීය. ඔහු යුද්ධය අවසානයේ යටත් වෙන්න දෙමළ කොටි කැරලිකාර නායකයින් පිරිසකට හමුදාව වෙඩි තැබූ බවට පැතිර යන කටකතා සනාථ කළේය. ජෑන්ස් කතාව ගෙන ගිය විට, එය විපක්ෂයේ මැතිවරණ පරාජයට හේතු වූ අතර, එමඟින් පුවත්පත ආණ්ඩුවෙත්, විපක්ෂයෙත් සතුරෙක් බවට පත් කළේය.

2012 දී ජෑන්ස්ට දැනගන්නට ලැබුණේ රාජපක්ෂ සිය බිරිඳ වෙනුවෙන් බලු පැටියෙකු ස්විට්සර්ලන්තයේ සිට ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට ප්‍රවාහනය කිරීම සඳහා ශ්‍රී ලංකන් ගුවන් සේවයට අයත් මගී ගුවන් යානයක් යැවීමට සැලසුම් කර ඇති බවයි.  ජෑන්ස් ඔහුගෙන් ප්‍රකාශයක් ඉල්ලා සිටි විට ඔහු කෝපයෙන් මෙසේ කීවේය: "ඔබත් මමත් එකම උත්සවයක සිටිමින් මම ඔබට පෙන්වා දෙනවා නම්... එහි සිටින මිනිසුන්ගෙන් සියයට 90ක් ඔබ මැරෙනවා දැකීමට කැමති වනු ඇත... ඔවුන් ඔබව මරා දමයි."   "ගෝඨා ගොස් බෙර්සර්ක්" යන ශීර්ෂ පාඨය යටතේ ඇය ඔහුගේ තුප්පහි කතාවේ සම්පූර්ණ පිටපත මුද්‍රණය කළාය.  මෙම ලිපිය "ඔහුට එරෙහිව විශාල පසුබෑමක්" ඇති කළ බව ජෑන්ස් පැවසීය, ඒ සඳහා ඔහු ඇයට "කිසිදා සමාව නොදෙන" බව වාර්තා විය. "ලසන්ත ගිය පාරේම මටත් යන්න හොඳ අවස්ථාවක් තියෙනවා කියලා මිනිස්සු කිව්වා." ඇය එම කතාව පල කිරීමෙන් පසුව, ඇයට "යතුරුපැදිවලින් පසුපසින්" ගොස් "මරණ තර්ජන එල්ල කළාය."  19 වන වගන්තිය සහ PEN ජාත්‍යන්තර කණ්ඩායම් ඇයගේ ආරක්ෂාව ගැන කනස්සල්ල පළ කළ අතර තර්ජන පිළිබඳව පරීක්ෂණයක් ඉල්ලා සිටියේය.

සේවයෙන් පහ කිරීම
2012 සැප්තැම්බර් මාසයේදී, ශ්‍රී ලංකා ජනාධිපති මහින්ද රාජපක්ෂගේ හිතවතෙකු වූ අසංග සෙනෙවිරත්න, ද සන්ඩේ ලීඩර් සහ එහි සහෝදර පුවත්පත වන ඉරුරේස හි 72% ක කොටස් මිලදී ගත්තේය.   ඔහු එම පත්‍රය මිලදී ගත්තේ රජයේ මුල්‍ය ආධාර ඇතිවය.  ජෑන්ස්ට අනුව, ශ්‍රී ලංකා රජය සහ රාජපක්ෂ පවුල විවේචනය කරන ලිපි පළ කිරීම නවත්වන ලෙස සෙනෙවිරත්න ඇගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටියේය.   ඇය එය ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කළ අතර 2012 සැප්තැම්බර් 21 දින ඇය කර්තෘ ධුරයෙන් නෙරපා හරින ලදී.   ඇය වෙනුවට සකුන්තලා පෙරේරා පත් කළා.   "මම කාර්යාලයේ වාඩි වී සිටියදී පවා නව කළමනාකාරිත්වය විසින් නව සංස්කාරකවරයෙකු පත් කරන ලදී," ජෑන්ස් 2013 ජූලි මාසයේදී පැවසීය  සෙනෙවිරත්න ඇය සේවයෙන් පහ කිරීම පිළිබඳ ජෑන්ස්ගේ වාර්තාව විවාද කළේය.

ජෑන්ස්ට අනුව, ශ්‍රී ලංකා රජය සහ රාජපක්ෂ පවුල විවේචනය කරන ලිපි පළ කිරීම නවත්වන ලෙස සෙනෙවිරත්න ඇගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටියේය. ඇය එය ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කළ අතර 2012 සැප්තැම්බර් 21 දින ඇය කර්තෘ ධුරයෙන් නෙරපා හරින ලදී.   ඇය වෙනුවට සකුන්තලා පෙරේරා ද සන්ඩේ ලීඩර් කර්තෘ ධූරයට පත් විය.  සෙනෙවිරත්න ජෑන්ස් ප්‍රකාශ ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කරයි.

එක්සත් ජනපදයේ නැවත පදිංචි කිරීම
ඇය සේවයෙන් පහ කිරීමට පෙර, මරණ තර්ජන පවසමින් ජෑන්ස් ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාවේ නැවත පදිංචි වීමට මානුෂීය වීසා බලපත්‍රයක් සඳහා කොළඹ ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු මහ කොමසාරිස් කාර්යාලය හරහා ඉල්ලුම් කර තිබුණි.  ඇයගේ අයදුම්පත 2012 ඔක්තෝම්බර් මාසයේදී ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කරන ලදී   "හිමිකම් පෑම සිදුකරන අවස්ථාවේ ඇය ශ්‍රී ලංකාවෙන් පිටත නොසිටිය යන පදනම මත."  කෙසේ වෙතත්, ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ එක්සත් ජනපද තානාපතිවරයා "ජෑන්ස් සමඟ මිත්‍ර වී ඇයට සහ ඇගේ පුතුන්ට එක්සත් ජනපදයට ඇතුළු විය."  එක්සත් ජනපද වීසා බලපත්‍රයක් නිකුත් කර ඇති ඇය සහ ඇගේ පුතුන් දෙදෙනා 2012 ඔක්තෝම්බර් මාසයේදී සියැටල් වෙත පැමිණියාය. ඇය සරණාගතභාවය සඳහා ඉල්ලුම් කර වොෂින්ටනයේ Puyallup හි පදිංචි වූ අතර එහිදී ඇය අභ්‍යන්තර මෝස්තරයේ රැකියාවක් සොයා ගත්තාය.  ඇය වොෂින්ටන් ප්‍රාන්තය තෝරා ගත්තේ ඇයගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරෙකු සිටින කැනඩාවට සමීප වීම නිසාය.

2012 නොවැම්බරයේදී ඇය පැවසුවේ තමා නැවත කිසි දිනෙක ලංකාවට නොඑන බවයි. "මට ආපසු යාමක් නැත, කිසිසේත් නැත. මම මේකෙන් පණපිටින් ගොඩ එන්න ලැබීම වාසනාවක් කියලා මට හිතෙනවා."  2013 ජූනි මාසයේදී ජෑන්ස් පැවසුවේ ශ්‍රී ලංකාව ගැන සිතීම ඇයට "දරුණු වේදනාවක්" ඇති කළ බවයි. "මට අතපසු වන ලෞකික දේවල් එයයි - මම ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ එකම වැලි, බොරළු පාරක් ගැන සිහින දකිමි. මට මගේ නිවස එපා වෙනවා. මම මගේ රටට ආදරය කළ අතර මට කිසි විටෙකත් පිටව යාමට අවශ්‍ය නොවීය, නමුත් ඒ සියල්ල මා පිටුපසින් තැබීමට මට බල කිරීමට සිදු විය. මම ආපසු හැරී බලන තාක් මට ඉදිරියට යා නොහැක. සෑම දිනකම මම ටිකක් ශක්තිමත් වෙනවා."

ජෑන්ස් 2014 මැයි මාසයේදී ඔස්ලෝ නිදහස් සංසදයේදී කතා කිරීමට නියමිතය

ගෞරව සහ සම්මාන
ජෑන්ස් 2004 වසරේ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කර්තෘ සංසදයේ වසරේ මාධ්‍යවේදියා සම්මානය දිනා ගත්තේය

යොමු කිරීම්

Year of birth missing (living people)
ජීවමාන ජනයා
Pages with unreviewed translations

ෆෙඩ්රිකා ජෑන්ස්


In the Hindu tradition, a murti (, ) is a devotional image, such as a statue or icon, of a deity or saint used during puja and/or in other customary forms of actively expressing devotion or reverence - whether at Hindu temples or shrines. A mūrti is a symbolic icon representing Divinity for the purpose of devotional activities. Thus, not all icons of gods and saints are mūrti; for example, purely decorative depictions of Divine figures often adorn Hindu temple architecture in intricately carved doorframes, on colourfully painted walls, and ornately sculpted rooftop domes. A mūrti itself is not God, but it is merely a representative shape, symbolic embodiment, or iconic manifestation of God.

Murti are also found in some nontheistic Jain traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain temples, and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals.

A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery. Ancient era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas, and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from ugra () symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali) to saumya () symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi and Ganpati). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples. Other murti forms found in Hinduism include the lingam.

A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the ultimate reality or Brahman, to some Hindus. In a religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest and serve as a participant of puja. On other occasions, they serve as the centre of attention in annual festive processions; these are called utsava murti. The earliest murti are mentioned by Pāṇini in the 4th century BCE. Prior to that, the agnicayana ritual ground seemed to serve as a template for the temple.

A murti (also spelt murthi) may also referred to as a vigraha, pratima or simply deity.

Hindu devotees go to the mandirs to take darshan, bringing prepared offerings of naivedya to be blessed at the altar before the deity, and to perform puja and aarti.

Etymology and nomenclature

Murti literally means any solid body or form with definite shape or limits produced from material elements. It contrasts with mind, thought and the immaterial in ancient Indian literature. The term also refers to any embodiment, manifestation, incarnation, personification, appearance, image, idol or statue of a deity.

The earliest mention of the term murti occurs in primary Upanishads composed in the 1st millennium BCE, particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad, verse 1.13 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, verse 6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5 of Prashna Upanishad. For example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a "form, manifestation of time". The section sets out to prove Time exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology in Indian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemological proof as follows,

The section includes the concept of Time and non-Time, stating that non-Time as that which existed before creation of universe, and time as which came into existence with the creation of universe. Non-time is indivisible, time is divisible, and the Maitri Upanishad then asserts that the "year is the mūrti of time". Robert Hume translates the discussion of "mūrti of time", in verse 6.14 of the Maitri Upanishad, as "form".

Most scholars, such as Jan Gonda, Max Muller, PV Kane and Stephanie Jamison, state that there were neither murti nor temples nor idol-facilitated worship in the Vedic era. The Vedic Hinduism rituals were directed at nature and abstract deities called during yajna with hymns. However, there isn't universal consensus, with scholars such as AC Das, pointing to the word Mūradeva in Rig Veda verses 7.104.24, 10.87.2 and 10.87.14. This word may refer to "Deva who is fixed" or "Deva who is foolish". The former interpretation, if accurate, may imply that there were communities in the Vedic era who had Deva in the form of murti, and the context of these hymns suggest that the term could possibly be referring to practices of the tribal communities outside of the Vedic fold.

One of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of murti, is found in Jivikarthe Capanye by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE. He mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine, and the latter meaning images that were carried from place to place. Panini also mentions Devalaka, meaning custodians of images of worship who show the images but do not sell them, as well as Jivika as people whose source of livelihood was the gifts they received from devotees. In ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Panini's work, numerous references are found to divine images with terms such as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond, strongly suggest that temples and murti were in existence in ancient India by about 4th century BCE. Recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was established in India by the Maurya Empire period (~3rd century BCE).

By early 1st millennium BCE, the term murti meant idols, image or statue in various Indian texts such as Bhavishya Purana verse 132.5.7, Brihat Samhita 1.8.29 and inscriptions in different parts of India. The term murti has been a more generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone, either a deity, of any human being, animal or any art. Pratima includes murti as well as painting of any non-anthropomorphic object. In contrast, Bera or Bimba meant "idol of god" only, and Vigraha was synonymous with Bimba.

Types

A murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue. It may be found inside or outside a temple or home, installed to be moved with a festive procession (utsava murti), or just be a landmark. It is a significant part of Hindu iconography, and is implemented in many ways. Two major categories include:
Raudra or Ugra - are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were worshipped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or errors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a kingdom.
Shanta and Saumya - are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns.

Beyond anthropomorphic forms of religious murti, some traditions of Hinduism cherish aniconism, where alternate symbols are shaped into a murti, such as the linga for Shiva, yoni for Devi, and the saligrama for Vishnu.

Methods and manuals

Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell". The use of murti and particularly the prana pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony.

The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone, wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel, grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity (transparent, translucent and crystal).

Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height should be  of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions. Chapter 58 of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition.

The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative measurements.

In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God (saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually important.

According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox 'Hindu' deities". This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism.

Role in worship

Major Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartaism favour the use of murti. These traditions suggest that it is easier to dedicate time and focus on spirituality through anthropomorphic or non-anthropomorphic icons. Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita, states in verse 12.5,

In Hinduism, states Jeaneane Fowler, a murti itself is not god, it is an "image of god" and thus a symbol and representation. A murti is a form and manifestation, states Fowler, of the formless Absolute. Thus a literal translation of murti as 'idol' is incorrect, when idol is understood as superstitious end in itself. Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a murti is an image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of emotional and real value to the viewer. When a person worships a murti, it is assumed to be a manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it.

Devotional (bhakti movement) practices centred on cultivating a deep and personal bond of love with God, often expressed and facilitated with one or more murti, and includes individual or community hymns, japa or singing (bhajan, kirtan or aarti). Acts of devotion, in major temples particularly, are structured on treating the murti as the manifestation of a revered guest, and the daily routine can include awakening the murti in the morning and making sure that it "is washed, dressed, and garlanded." In Vaishnavism, the building of a temple for the murti is considered an act of devotion, but non-murti symbolism is also common wherein the aromatic Tulsi plant or Saligrama is an aniconic reminder of the spiritualism in Vishnu. These puja rituals with the murti correspond to ancient cultural practices for a beloved guest, and the murti is welcomed, taken care of, and then requested to retire.

Christopher John Fuller states that an image in Hinduism cannot be equated with a deity and the object of worship is the divine whose power is inside the image, and the image is not the object of worship itself, Hindus believe everything is worthy of worship as it contains divine energy emanating from the one god. According to the Agamas, the bimba murti ( / ) is different from the mantra murti () from the perspective of rituals, gestures, hymns and offerings.

Some Hindu denominations like Arya Samaj and Satya Mahima Dharma reject idol worship.

Role in history

Murti and temples were well established in South Asia, before the start of Delhi Sultanate in the late 12th century CE. They became a target of destruction during raids and religious wars between Islam and Hinduism through the 18th-century.

During the colonial era, Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus to Christianity wrote memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe, which Mitter, Pennington and other scholars call as fictionalised stereotypes, where murti were claimed as the evidence of lack of spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus, of "idolatry and savage worship of stones" practices akin to Biblical demons, calling Murti as monstrous devils to eroticised bizarre beings carved in stone. The British Missionary Society with colonial government's assistance bought and sometimes seized, then transferred murti from India and displayed it in their "trophies" room in the United Kingdom with the note claiming that these were given up by Hindus who now accept the "folly and sin of idolatry". In other instances, the colonial British authorities, seeking additional government revenue, introduced Pilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major temples.

The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonial rule of India by attacking murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness, arguing that it was, states Tanisha Ramachandran, "the White Man's Burden to create a moral society" in India. This literature by the Christian missionaries constructed the foundation of a "Hindu image" in Europe, during the colonial era, and it blamed murti idolatry as "the cause for the ills of Indian society". By 19th-century, ideas such as pantheism (universe is identical with God or Brahman), contained in newly translated Sanskrit texts were linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additional evidence of superstitions and evil by Christian missionaries and colonial authorities in British India.

The polemics of Christian missionaries in colonial India triggered a debate among Hindus, yielding divergent responses. It ranged from activists such as Dayananda Saraswati who denounced all murti, to Vivekananda who refused to denounce murti and asked Hindus in India and Christians in the West to introspect, that images are used everywhere to help think and as a road to ideas, in the following words,

Religious intolerance and polemics, state Halbertal and Margalit, have historically targeted idols and material symbols cherished by other religions, while encouraging the worship of material symbols of one's own religion, characterising the material symbols of others as grotesque and wrong, in some cases dehumanising the others and encouraging the destruction of idols of the others. The outsider conflates and stereotypes the "strange worship" of the other religions as "false worship" first, then calls "false worship" as "improper worship and false belief" of pagan or an equivalent term, thereafter constructing an identity of the others as "primitive and barbarians" that need to be saved, followed by justified intolerance and often violence against those who cherish a different material symbol than one's own. In the history of Hinduism and India, states Pennington, Hindu deity images (murti) have been a religious lens for focusing this anti-Hindu polemic and was the basis for distortions, accusations and attacks by non-Indian religious powers and missionaries.

Significance

Ancient Indian texts assert the significance of murti in spiritual terms. The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, whose palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered in the 1970s among remote villages of Orissa – four in Oriya language and one in crude Sanskrit, asserts that the doctrine of murti art making is founded on the principles of origin and evolution of universe, is a "form of every form of cosmic creator" that empirically exists in nature, and it functions to inspire a devotee towards contemplating the Ultimate Supreme Principle (Brahman). This text, whose composition date is unknown but probably from late 1st millennium CE, discusses the significance of images as, state Alice Boner and others, "inspiring, elevating and purifying influence" on the viewer and "means of communicating a vision of supreme truth and for giving a taste of the infinite that lies beyond". It adds (abridged):

In the fifth chapter of Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Pippalada asserts, "from tattva-rupa (essence of a form, underlying principle) come the pratirupani (images)". In the sixth chapter, Pippalada repeats his message that the artist portrays the particular and universal concepts, with the statement "the work of the Sthapaka is a creation similar to that of the Prajapati" (that which created the universe). Non-theistic Jaina scholars such as Jnansundar, states John Cort, have argued the significance of murti along the same lines, asserting that "no matter what the field – scientific, commercial, religious – there can be no knowledge without an icon", images are part of how human beings learn and focus their thoughts, icons are necessary and inseparable from spiritual endeavours in Jainism.

While murti are an easily and commonly visible aspect of Hinduism, they are not necessary to Hindu worship. Among Hindus, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised Self (Soul, Atman) and the Universal Principle (Brahman, god) within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. Those who have yet to reach this height of realisation, various symbolic manifestations through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:

See also

Hindu iconography
Hindu deities
Ishta-Deva
Thangka
Utsava

References

Further reading
 "Idolatry and The Colonial Idea of India: Visions of Horror, Allegories of Enlightenment" by Swagato Ganguly. Routledge.
Prasanna K Acharya, Indian Architecture According to Manasara-Silpasastra, South Asia Books, ,
Prasanna K Acarya (1927), A dictionary of Hindu architecture : treating of Sanskrit architectural terms, with illustrative quotations from silpāśāstras, general literature, and archaeological records, Oxford University Press (Out of Print),
Alice Boner (1965), Principles of composition in Hindu sculpture, BRILL,
TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass,
Vidya Dehejia (1997), Indian Art, Phaidon,
P Mitter (2001), Indian Art, Oxford University Press,
Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche (2012), Rediscovering the Hindu Temple, Cambridge Scholars Publishing,

External links

Divine Images in Stone and Bronze: South India, Chola Dynasty (c. 850–1280), Aschwin Lippe, Metropolitan Museum Journal, Vol. 4, pages 29–79
The Sculpture of Greater India, Aschwin Lippe, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 18, No. 6, pages 177–192
The Arts of South and Southeast Asia, Steven Kossak, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 51, No. 4

Objects used in Hindu worship
Hindu iconography
Puja (Hinduism)
Cult images

Murti


Simone Rose Hirschler, née Lévy le  à Mulhouse et morte au camp d'Auschwitz le , est l'épouse et la collaboratrice de René Hirschler, grand rabbin de Strasbourg et du Bas-Rhin.

Biographie
Elle est la fille ainée de Paul Lévy, propriétaire d'une entreprise de recyclage de textiles en gros, et Berthe Coblenz. Avec sa famille et son frère Francis, elle habite  rue de Modenheim à Illzach. Peu pratiquante, la famille est attachée au judaïsme.

À , au sein du groupe des Éclaireurs israélites de France, elle fait la connaissance de René Hirschler, le benjamin du rabbinat français. Il a  et cherche à regrouper la jeunesse de la communauté et à l'instruire dans le domaine de la foi et de la culture. Simone Lévy devient sa secrétaire et sa collaboratrice.

En , il  crée avec elle Kadimah, bulletin bimensuel pour les communautés israélites de Mulhouse et du Haut-Rhin. Des écrivains et artistes juifs de la région et d'ailleurs y collaborent par la suite. Dès le second numéro, Simone Lévy publie, en fin de bulletin, le premier de ses contes pour enfant à même de transmettre les valeurs juives à travers des récits imagés qu'elle signe « Grande Sœur ».

Le , elle épouse René Hirschler. Le couple aura  : Miriam Oppenheimer le , Josseline Norych le  et Alain Hirschler le .

En , Simone Hirschler donne une conférence sur le thème « Féminisme et Judaïsme » en posant la question de savoir si les femmes qui jouent un rôle public demeurent dans le judaïsme. Elle y répond positivement et conclut que :En 1939, René Hirschler est nommé grand-rabbin de Strasbourg et du Bas-Rhin mais la guerre éclate et il est mobilisé. Les civils alsaciens sont évacués dans les régions du Centre, de l'Ouest et du Sud de la France. Simone Hirschler s'installe en Bretagne avec ses trois enfants.

Après l'armistice, le grand-rabbin René Hirschler est aussi nommé aumônier général des camps d'internement. Il visite les internés et son épouse l'assiste dans ses lourdes tâches tant morales que matérielles. Celles-ci impliquent de nombreux déplacements dans les conditions dangereuses, avec le risque d'être arrêtés. Simone qui pénètre dans des lieux de détention entourés de barbelés, est  forcément consciente des risques. Elle qui pourrait se cacher choisit de seconder son mari auprès de milliers de personnes juives de différentes générations, femmes enceintes et personnes âgées qui attendent visites, colis alimentaires, lettres, vêtements et aide spirituelle. Simone Hirschler utilise aussi son sens de la diplomatie auprès des fonctionnaires de Vichy.

Au printemps 1943, la nourriture dans les camps est insuffisante. Simone Hirschler a l'idée de trouver pour chaque interné un parrain qui s'engage à lui envoyer un colis par mois. Elle arrive, malgré les difficultés, à convaincre un millier de parrains.

Le , le couple est arrêté à Marseille. Leur dernière adresse est au 65, boulevard des Vagues. En , Simone Hirschler et son mari sont transférés au camp de Drancy. Ils sont déportés le  par le convoi  au camp d'Auschwitz. Simone est dirigée à l'annexe Auschwitz II (Birkenau) où elle est employée à de durs travaux de terrassement. Epuisée, elle est envoyée au Revier (« infirmerie »). Elle y apprend qu'elle est sélectionnée pour la chambre à gaz et réussit à faire parvenir un mot d'adieu à son mari :Simone Hirschler est gazée le .

Ses trois enfants ont survécu à la guerre, d'abord cachés à Combloux puis Saint-Gervais (Haute-Savoie) et enfin à La Bourboule, dans la pension Villa Gracieuse de Georges et Marie-Louise Mazeau qui ont reçu à titre posthume la médaille des Justes.

Reconnaissance
Elle est déclarée « Morte pour la France ».

Distinctions
 avec étoile d'argent avec la citation suivante :

Œuvre

 .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 Serge Klarsfeld. Le Mémorial de la déportation des Juifs de France. Beate et Serge Klarsfeld: Paris, 1978. Nouvelle édition, mise à jour, avec une liste alphabétique des noms.FFDJF (Fils et Filles des Déportés Juifs de France), 2012.

Articles connexes

 René Hirschler

Liens externes

Naissance à Mulhouse
Naissance en novembre 1911
Naissance dans le district de Haute-Alsace
Victime de la Shoah en France
Camp de Drancy
Déporté au camp d'Auschwitz
Résistante française
Résistant alsacien
Titulaire de la croix de guerre 1939-1945
Décès en avril 1944
Décès à Auschwitz
Décès à 32 ans
Mort pour la France
Victime française de la Shoah

Simone Hirschler


Kerstin Franke-Gneuß, geb. Gneuß, (* 12. April 1959 in Meißen) ist eine deutsche Grafikerin, Malerin und Installationskünstlerin. Sie lebt und arbeitet in Dresden.

Leben
Franke-Gneuß wuchs in Weinböhla auf und legte 1977 das Abitur in Meißen ab. Sie absolvierte von 1975 bis 1978 ein Abendstudium an der Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden unter anderem bei Ursula Rzodeczko. Von 1978 bis 1984 folgte ebenda ein Studium der Malerei und Grafik. Zu ihren Lehrern zählten hier Siegfried Klotz und Günter Horlbeck. Seit 1984 arbeitet sie freischaffend in Dresden.

Franke-Gneuß war 1989 Mitbegründerin der Dresdner Sezession 89. Im Jahr 1993 erhielt sie ein Stipendium der Stiftung Kunstbesitz St. Wendel. Seit 1993 befinden sich Objekte von Franke-Gneuß im öffentlichen Raum unter anderem in Dresden und Chemnitz. Sie arbeitet seit 1995 in einem Atelier im Künstlerhaus Dresden-Loschwitz und ist seit 2003 in der Altana-Galerie, Universitätssammlungen Kunst + Technik der TU Dresden, beschäftigt.

Wirken

Franke-Gneuß arbeitet in unterschiedlichsten Techniken, wobei Radierungen "in allen techn[isch] mög[lichen] Kombinationen" dominieren. Ihre Kaltnadelradierungen und Malereien, unter anderem in Mischtechniken, nehmen dabei ihre Inspiration aus der Natur. So "entstehen dunkle Geflechte, die sich als Fragm[ent] des Erlebten aus dem Weiß des Bildgrundes entwickeln." Arbeiten von Franke-Gneuß sind stets abstrakt. Im Jahr 1994 veröffentlichte sie mit dem Künstlerbuch Schattenrosen eine Sammlung von Radierungen zu Gedichten von Ingeborg Bachmann.

Ab Mitte der 1990er-Jahre schuf Franke-Gneuß auch Installationen und Werke für den öffentlichen Raum, darunter 1991 ein großes Altarrückfenster für einen Kirchneubau in Altenberg. Lichtskulpturen befinden sich unter anderem am Gustav-Adolf-Platz in Dresden sowie auf dem Festspielgelände Hellerau. Im Januar 2012 gewann Franke-Gneuß den Wettbewerb zur künstlerischen Gestaltung des neuen Amtsgerichts in Dresden mit einer Arbeit aus geschwungenen Wellen. Das Kunstwerk IUS_In Gottes Hand, das eine Wandfläche entlang der Haupttreppe und eine Wand im ersten Stock ziert, wurde vom Freistaat Sachsen für 70.000 Euro erworben.

Daneben entstanden nicht dauerhaft angebrachte Lichtinstallationen. Unter anderem schuf sie anlässlich der Premiere des Operneinakters Die Bassariden in der Semperoper 1997 die Lichtinstallation Schattenglut aus Acrylglas auf dem Dach der Semperoper-Probenbühne. Im Rahmen der Kunstaktion Mnemosyne im fluss '97 war 1997 ihr Werk Kronenwirbel unterhalb der Prießnitz-Brücke nahe dem Dresdner Diakonissenkrankenhaus zu sehen. Im Jahr 1999 schuf sie auf dem Ernemannturm der Technischen Sammlungen Dresden mit farbigen Acrylstäben die Installation Treiblicht. In ihren Arbeiten für den öffentlichen Raum geht es Franke-Gneuß dabei vor allem um "die Modulation von Licht und Schatten", ausgehend von der grafischen Arbeit. Im Jahr 2011 waren in der Schau Jetzt nach X/I zudem Porzellanarbeiten von ihr zu sehen.

Werke von Franke-Gneuß befinden sich unter anderem im Besitz des Dresdner Kupferstichkabinetts und des Erfurter Angermuseums. Seit 1989 ist ihr Werk See (1988) Teil der Sammlungen der Galerie Neue Meister.

Auszeichnungen
 2016: 9. Felix Hollenberg-Preis

Arbeiten im öffentlichen Raum
Mehrere Installationen von Franke-Gneuß befinden sich im öffentlichen Raum:
 1991: Altarfenster, Evangelische Kirche Altenberg (Erzgebirge)
 2000: Lichtsammelglas-Skulptur "Innere Mitte" in Dresden-Strehlen, 2017 vom Erststandort (Insel des Verkehrskreisels auf dem Gustav-Adolf-Platz) nach Altstrehlen umgesetzt (beide Male im Rahmen des Mnemosyne-Wasser-Kunst-Weges entlang des Kaitzbaches aufgestellt)
 2003: "Kaskade" Wand-Skulptur, Lichtsammelglas, Görges-Bau, Universitätssammlungen Kunst + Technik, Dresden
 2005: "Woge" Wand-Skulptur, Aluminium, Stadtentwässerung Dresden Kaditz
 2005: "Aufwind" Lichtsammelglas-Skulptur, TIETZ Chemnitz
 2010: "Impuls" Lichtsammelglas-Skulptur, Festspielgelände Hellerau Dresden
 2012: "IUS_In Gottes Hand" Wandinstallation, Amtsgericht Dresden

Ausstellungsbeteiligungen (Auswahl)
 1984: Technische Universität Dresden
 1992: Galerie P. Breuer, Zwickau (mit Gerda Lepke)
 1993: Galerie M. Beck, Bad Homburg vor der Höhe (mit Karin Kremer, Gerda Lepke)
 1994: Galerie am Märckischen Platz, Rathenow
 1994: De Markten, Brüssel (mit Thea Richter, Angela Hampel)
 1995: Rathaus Meißen

Literatur
 Felix Hollenberg-Preis 2016: Kerstin Franke-Gneuß – GRATWANDERUNG, Ausstellungskatalog, Kunstmuseum Albstadt, Albstadt 2017, S. 80, ISBN 978-3-934439-48-1.
 G. Söder: Franke-Gneuß, Kerstin. In: Allgemeines Künstlerlexikon. Band 44: Franconi–Freyenmuth. K.G. Saur, München und Leipzig 2005, S. 79–80.
 Kerstin Franke-Gneuß. In: Künstler am Dresdner Elbhang. Band 1. Elbhang-Kurier-Verlag, Dresden 1999, S. 47.
 Fraktale. Kerstin Franke-Gneuß, Ausstellungskatalog, Leonhardi-Museum, Dresden 1994.
 Kerstin Franke-Gneuß, Ausstellungskatalog, Galerie Mitte, Dresden 1994.
 Erde. Arbeiten zum Pleinair auf Leinwand und Papier, Objekte in Ton, Stein und Metall von Gerda Lepke, Marion Kahnemann, Regine Buer, Kerstin Franke-Gneuß, Thea Richter, Wladimir W. Kratschmer, Valentin W. Tschikow, Ausstellungskatalog, Dresden 1992.

Weblinks

 Offizielle Seite von Kerstin Franke-Gneuß
 Dresdner Sezession 89: Kerstin Franke-Gneuß
 Offizielle Webseite vom Künstlerhaus Dresden

Einzelnachweise

Maler (Dresden)
Grafiker (Dresden)
Deutscher
Geboren 1959
Frau

Kerstin Franke-Gneuß


Henri Louis Léon Lemaître, né le  à Valenciennes et mort le  à Sceaux, est un bibliothécaire et historien français.

Biographie
Henri Lemaître, né à Valenciennes le , profite dans sa jeunesse de la librairie familiale de son père et de son oncle pour se familiariser avec ce milieu intellectuel et se passionner pour les livres. Élève de l'École nationale des chartes, il en sort en 1903 après avoir soutenu une thèse sur Gilles le Muisit qui sera publiée en 1905 par la Société de l'histoire de France.

Attaché à la Bibliothèque nationale de France, il s'y voit confier la section Histoire de France. Sa rencontre du Père Antoine de Sérent, historien des Frères Mineurs, pendant ses études à l'École des Chartes, l'incite à s'intéresser à l'histoire des Franciscains et à collaborer, dès 1911, à l'Archivum franciscanum historicum, puis en 1912 à la France franciscaine, et en 1924 à cofonder et diriger pendant huit ans la Revue d'histoire franciscaine.

Au retour de la guerre en 1918, il quitte la Bibliothèque nationale pour diriger la Revue des Bibliothèques puis pour fonder avec Léonce Celier et Léo Crozet, Archives et Bibliothèques. De 1928 à 1931, il préside l'Association des bibliothécaires français. En 1934, il est nommé directeur adjoint de l'Institut scientifique de recherches économiques et sociales. Pendant toutes ces années, il est également professeur à la Faculté des lettres de l'Institut catholique de Paris et organise en 1944 les cours techniques de documentation de l'Union française des organismes de documentation qu'il préside.

Il participe à de nombreux congrès et conférences à l'étranger soit en qualité de simple observateur (aux États-Unis en 1911, en Italie en 1920 et en Belgique en 1921 pour recueillir les publications concernant la guerre), soit en tant que représentant de la France (en Égypte en 1911 pour l'inauguration de l'école khédiviale au Caire, en Écosse en 1927 pour la Conférence internationale des bibliothèques à Édimbourg, en Suisse en 1928 au Congrès des bibliothèques suisses de Zoug, en 1929 à Rome et à Venise au Congrès mondial des bibliothèques, en Suède au Congrès international des bibliothèques de 1930, à Alger en 1931, à Berne la même année pour l'inauguration de la nouvelle Bibliothèque nationale suisse et à Thoune à l'occasion de la  session du Comité international des bibliothèques et enfin à Zurich en 1938 et 1939 pour le  Congrès international des bibliothèques d'hôpitaux comme délégué du ministère Français de la Santé publique, et pour le Congrès international de documentation).

Distinctions

Décorations
  en 1931

 Chevalier de l'ordre de la Couronne de Belgique et de la Couronne d'Italie

Récompense
 Président d'Honneur de l'Association de Bibliothécaires Anglais

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en février 1881
Naissance à Valenciennes
Historien français du XXe siècle
Archiviste paléographe
Bibliothécaire français
Décès en novembre 1946
Décès à Sceaux (Hauts-de-Seine)
Décès à 65 ans

Henri Lemaître (paléographe)


Roma tarihçileri tarafından Varian Felaketi (Clades Variana) olarak tanımlanan Varus Savaşı, günümüzde Almanya'nın kuzeyindeki Teutoburg Ormanında, MS 9 yılında Cermen halklarının bir ittifakının bir Roma İmparatorluğu generali olan Publius Quinctilius Varus liderliğindeki Roma lejyonlarını ve yardımcı birliklerini pusuya düşürmesiyle gerçekleşmiş bir savaştır. Cermen halklarının bu ittifakı, General Varus'un yardımcı birliklerinde görev alan Cermen subayı Arminius tarafından yönetilmiştir. Bir Roma vatandaşı olan Arminius, Romalı komutanını metodik olarak aldatmasına ve Roma ordusunun taktik tepkilerini tahmin etmesine olanak sağlayan bir Roma askeri eğitimi almıştı.

Bu savaş, İmparator Augustus dönemindeki zaferlerle dolu genişleme dönemini aniden sona erdirmiş olmasının da etkisiyle genellikle Roma tarihinin en önemli yenilgilerinden biri olarak görülür. Bu savaşın sonucu, Romalıları Cermanya'yı fethetme hırslarından caydırdı ve bu nedenle Avrupa tarihinin en önemli olaylarından biri olarak kabul edildi. Bazen topluca Roma Cermanyası olarak da adlandırılan Roma İmparatorluğu'nun Germania Superior ve Germania Inferior eyaletleri, daha sonraları kuzeydoğu Roma Galyasın'da kurulurken, Ren Nehri'nin ötesindeki bölgeler Roma kontrolünden bağımsız kaldı. Misilleme seferleri Tiberius ve Germanicus tarafından yönetildi ve başarıya ulaştı, ancak Ren Nehri, Roma İmparatorluğu ile Cermanya'nın geri kalanı arasında bir sınır haline geldi. Roma İmparatorluğu, İmparator Marcus Aurelius (161–180) döneminde gerçekleşen Markoman Savaşları'na kadar Cermanya'ya başka hiçbir büyük akın başlatmadı.

Savaş, günümüz Almanyası ve Alman kültürünün gelişimini hazırlayan sürece önemli katkıda bulunmuştur.

Muharebe
Roma Lejyonları, Alman bir kabile lideri tarafından Teutoburg Ormanı'na götürülür. Ormanın göbeğinde bir Roma kampı olup, Cermen kabile lideri onlara kaşiflik yapmaktadır. Tüm ordular ormana girdiği zaman ormanın her iki yanından da askerler lejyon kolonuna akın etmeye başlamıştır. Romalılar düzeni bozmayarak ilerlemeye çalışmış, gün batmadan önce kampa ulaşmak istemişlerdir. Çünkü Roma kumandanları, kampa ulaşırlarsa, barbarların duvarları aşamayacaklarını biliyordur. Ancak kampa ulaşana kadar tüm ordular tamamen dağılmıştır.

Roma İmparatorluğu'nun muharebeleri
Cermenler tarihi
Kuzey Ren-Vestfalya tarihi
Cermen paganizmi
Çeruskerler
Almanya askerî tarihi
Gece muharebeleri
9
0'larda Roma İmparatorluğu
1. yüzyılda çatışmalar
Antik Cermen halklarının muharebeleri

Varus Muharebesi


La Carrera Nueva York - París de 1908 (nombre original en inglés: 1908 New York to Paris Race) fue una competición automovilística celebrada en 1908, con la salida en Nueva York y la meta en París. Fue organizada por el periódico New York Times, y en ella se inscribieron 6 automóviles: 3 franceses, 1 alemán, 1 italiano y 1 estadounidense. El ganador fue el alemán George Schuster a bordo de un Thomas Flyer representando a Estados Unidos.

La carrera fue inspirada por la prueba Pekín - París de 1907, pero en esta ocasión tendría como salida la ciudad de Nueva York, con un trasbordo en barco de 240 km desde Nome a través del Estrecho de Bering hasta East Cape en Siberia, aunque finalmente se tuvo que atravesar el océano Pacífico desde Seattle.

Historia

La salida se tomó a las 11:15 del 12 de febrero en el Times Square de Nueva York. Los seis participantes estaban formados por:
 Un Protos de Alemania
 Un Züst de Italia
 Un De Dion-Bouton de Francia
 Un Motobloc de Francia
 Un Sizaire-Naudin de Francia
 Un Thomas Flyer de Estados Unidos

El Thomas Flyer americano fue el primer vehículo en llegar a San Francisco, empleando para ello 41 días, 8 horas y 15 minutos.

La ruta luego los llevó a Valdez, (Alaska) por barco. El equipo americano se encontró con unas duras condiciones en Alaska, y la carrera fue desviada a través del Pacífico en barco de vapor hasta Japón. Continuó por barco hasta Vladivostok, (Siberia) para empezar a cruzar los continentes de Asia y Europa. Solo tres de los competidores llegaron más allá de Vladivostok: el Protos, el Züst, y el Thomas Flyer.

La tundra de Siberia y Manchuria fue una pesadilla para los equipos. Finalmente, el mejor estado de las carreteras de Europa acercó al equipo americano a París el 30 de julio de 1908, resultando los vencedores. Los alemanes habían llegado a París cuatro días antes, pero fueron sancionados con un total de 30 días por no ir a Alaska y por realizar parte del recorrido en un vagón de ferrocarril. Eso le dio la victoria a los estadounidenses con George Schuster al volante por 26 días. Los italianos llegaron más tarde, en septiembre de 1908. En total fueron 169 días.

La carrera fue de interés internacional, con cobertura diaria en la primera página del New York Times (uno de los patrocinadores de la carrera junto al periódico parisino Le Matin). La importancia del evento se extendió más allá de la propia carrera. Junto con la carrera Beijing-París, que tuvo lugar el año anterior, contribuyó a que los automóviles empezaran a considerarse como un medio de transporte de masas y en grandes distancias, más allá de la pura diversión por parte de los ricos. También dio lugar a la petición de mejora del estado de las carreteras, pues antes de la competición había muy pocas carreteras pavimentadas, y en muchas partes del mundo no había carreteras. Por aquel entonces, los equipos tuvieron que viajar en vagones de ferrocarril cuando no había ninguna carretera disponible.

Cine
 La película La carrera del siglo, (The Great Race) de 1965 dirigida por Blake Edwards, estaba basada en esta carrera.
 En 2008 se editó The Greatest Auto Race on Earth, un documental sobre la carrera.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 The Great Auto Race
 The Greatest Auto Race. DVD documental

Competiciones de automovilismo
Deporte en 1908

Nueva York - París de 1908


Çapraz işleme fotoğraf filminin uygun olmayan kimyasal ile işlenmesi anlamına gelir.

İki çeşit film için de yapılabilir:
 Negatif (renkli) filmi E-6 ile yıkamak (Renkli saydam film elde etmek için)
 Pozitif (renkli) filmi C-41 ile yıkamak (Renkli negatif elde etmek için)

Bilinen popüler uygulamalarıdır.

Bununla birlikte renkli negatif ya da pozitif filmlerin siyah beyaz işleme tabi tutulabilir. Bu işlem sırasında hidroklorik asit dikromat karışımı ya da potasyum triod (KI3) çözeltileri karıştırarak değişik etkiler elde etmek mümkündür.

Renkli, çapraz işlenmiş fotoğraflar yüksek kontrast ve doğal olmayan renklerinden tanınabilir. Kullanılan filme bağlı olarak sonuçlar birbirinden çok farklı olabilmektedir. Doğal sonuçlarda elde edilen bileşenlerin genel olarak çok yüksek oranlara ulaşması olarak bakılabildiğinden film hızı arttıkça gren miktarının da çok fazla artacağı akılda tutulmalıdır.

Adobe Photoshop ve GIMP gibi yazılımlarda fotoğrafların eğri, kontrast ve renk dengeleri ile oynanarak benzer etkiler yaratılabilmektedir.

Fotoğrafik yöntemler

Çapraz işleme


La Merced Church é uma igreja de estilo barroco na região de Antigua Guatemala .

História

Os Mercedários foram os primeiros a fundar um mosteiro masculino na antiga Santiago da Guatemala.  A cruz na pedra do átrio e as salas atrás do altar principal são as estruturas mais antigas de La Merced e datam do século XVII. Em 1749, Juan de Dios Estrada foi contratado para a construção do luxuoso santuário e mosteiro. Ele ergueu um edifício de baixa altura projetado para resistir a terremotos com base nas experiências do tremor de 1751. Arcos e colunas são mais largos para resistir aos terremotos. Sua inauguração foi em 1767.

A efígie de Jesus Cristo segurando a cruz foi esculpida em 1650 por Alonzo de la Paz y Toledo.

Tradução forçada para a nova capital

Após os terremotos de Santa Marta em 1773 e contra a vontade do arcebispo e do clero regular, a capital foi transferida de Santiago de Los Caballeros de Guatemala para um novo local, conhecido como Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción . Para impor a mudança, o capitão general Martín de Mayorga, decidiu obrigar os padres e monges a transferir as esculturas religiosas mais importantes para a nova cidade; por isso, em 1778 os monges de La Merced foram obrigados a transferir para a nova cidade as esculturas de Jesús Nazareno e da Virgem Maria. A ação foi dura, pois os indígenas que deveriam cuidar das amadas imagens chegaram tarde, enquanto a vizinhança orava e chorava enquanto as esperava. Quando as esculturas foram embaladas em uma caixa, seus seguidores as acompanharam até o portão das Animas da cidade, e um deles carregou a cruz da escultura até San Lucas Sacatepéquez, povoado localizado a 15 km de Antigua Guatemala.  A caravana chegou à nova capital à noite, e as esculturas foram recebidas por frades franciscanos e depois por mercedários que a colocaram em uma estrutura temporária de madeira localizada onde iriam construir sua nova igreja. Martín de Mayorga veio verificar a chegada, que marcou o fim da árdua mudança.  Em 1801, a irmandade de Jesús Nazareno de la Merced transferiu o altar da escultura para a nova capital, embora a nova igreja ainda não tivesse sido construída.

Mas a igreja conhecida então como "Oratorio de La Merced"- não sofreu grandes danos após o terremoto e ainda estava aberta ao público; conservou seus tesouros e altares até 1813, quando foi inaugurada a igreja da nova capital. Ainda assim, mesmo quando todas as esculturas e altares se mudaram para a nova cidade, a antiga igreja permaneceu aberta.  Finalmente, em meados do século XIX, a paróquia de San Sebastián se mudou para esta igreja e continua lá até hoje.

Descrição
A fachada barroca é cercada por duas torres sineiras de baixa altura. No topo, está a efígie de São Pedro Nolasco que fundou a Ordem da Bem-Aventurada Virgem Maria da Misericórdia no século XIII. Ele é cercado por dois Mercedários e o brasão da ordem. A efígie de Nossa Senhora das Mercedes está no nicho central da fachada. Ela é ladeada à esquerda pelas efígies de São Raimundo Nonatus e São Pedro Arinengol (com uma corda indicando seu martírio por ter sido enforcado) e à direita pelo bispo mercenário San Pedro Pascual e pela primeira freira Mercedária, Santa Maria de Cervellon.

Semana Santa

As procissões da Semana Santa são uma das principais atrações turísticas de Antigua Guatemala . De La Merced, duas procissões icônicas percorrem as ruas durante a Semana Santa:

Galeria de imagens

Veja também

Notas e referências

Referências

Bibliografia

links externos

!CS1 espanhol-fontes em língua (es)
!Artigos com coordenadas no Wikidata
Igrejas da Guatemala
Guatemala
Igrejas Ocidentais
Turismo cultural

Iglesia de La Merced, Antigua Guatemala


An Danthonia cachemyriana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Hippolyte François Jaubert ngan Édouard Spach. An Danthonia cachemyriana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Danthonia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Danthonia

Danthonia cachemyriana


Bojana Jovanovski (en serbio: Бојана Јовановски) (Belgrado, Yugoslavia, 31 de diciembre de 1991) es una tenista serbia. En 2014 llegó al puesto número 32 en el ranking de la WTA. La máxima posición que alcanzó fue la 32ª.

Vida privada
El padre de Bojana, Zoran Jovanovski, fue futbolista profesional, quien además es su mánager. Jovanovski cita a María Sharápova como su ídolo en el tenis, según cita ella por su «Agresivo estilo de juego y fuerte personalidad».

Es una gran amiga de su compatriota Jelena Janković y habla con fluidez el serbio y el inglés.

En diciembre de 2010, mientras competía en Dubái, se rumoreó que Jovanovski podría jugar por Macedonia, los medios reportaron que era por «Estar a la sombra de sus compatriotas Ana Ivanović y Jelena Janković», aunque su padre se encargó rápidamente de desmentirlo argumentando que ella nunca había estado en Macedonia y que todo se debió a una confusión debido a su apellido.

Títulos WTA (2; 2+0)

Individual (2)

Finalista (2)

Títulos 125s (1; 1+0)

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Bojana Jovanovski en al Asociación de Tenis de Mujeres
 Bojana Jovanovski  en la Fed Cup

Tenistas femeninas de Serbia
Nacidos en Belgrado

Bojana Jovanovski


Amfreville () is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region of north-western France.

The inhabitants of the commune are known as Amfrevillais or Amfrevillaises

Geography
Amfreville is located some 25 km north-west of Caen and 1 km south-east of Ouistreham mostly on the right bank of the Orne with a small portion on the left bank. It can be accessed by the D514 from Sallenelles in the north passing through the west of the commune then continuing south then west to Bénouville. Access to the village is by the D37B from Breville-les-Monts in the south-east and continuing through the village north to Sallenelles. There is also the D236 going east from the village to Bavent. There are several hamlets apart from the village: Hameau Oger and Hameau La Rue form a continuous urban area with the main village and the hamlets of La Basse Ecarde and La Haute Ecarde are to the west. The rest of the commune and the entire left bank of the Orne portion are farmland.

The Orne river separates the two parts of the commune with no direct access across the river - the nearest crossing is on the D514 to the south of the commune. A stream forms the northern border of the commune flowing into the Orne.

History

Amfreville is located close to Sword Beach on the Normandy coast, which is one of the beaches where the Allies executed their Normandy landings. It is also close to the important medieval city of Caen, which figured in the Allied landings. Amfreville is considered to have been officially "liberated" from the German occupation of World War II on 6 June 1944.

Amfreville is understood to be the ancestral home of the Umfraville family of Anglo-Norman nobles who occupied England under William the Conqueror and his successors, and went on to become British nobility under the titles the Barons of Prudhoe and the Lords of Redesdale, and later also gained Scottish lands and the title Earl of Angus.

Images of these historical associations with the Norman Conquest of 1066 and the Normandy Landings of 1944 are incorporated in the town's heraldry.

Heraldry

Administration

List of Successive Mayors

Twinning

Amfreville has twinning associations with:
 Hillerse (Germany) since 1999.
 Brunehaut (Belgium) since 2005.
 Dolton (United Kingdom) since 1981.

Population

Sites and monuments

Le Plain is a place with a tree plantation, a church, and horses. It is registered as a site of ecological interest for flora and fauna.

See also
Communes of the Calvados department

Bibliography
Amfréville en Baie de l'Orne, Gillonne and Rémi Desquesnes, 2001

References

External links
Amfreville on Géoportail, National Geographic Institute (IGN) website
Amfreville on the 1750 Cassini Map

Communes of Calvados (department)

Amfreville, Calvados


Aspire Zone, também conhecida como Doha Sports City, é uma    complexo esportivo localizado no distrito de Baaya em Doha, Qatar . De propriedade da Aspire Zone Foundation, foi estabelecido como destino esportivo internacional em 2003 e no ano seguinte foi inaugurado um centro educacional para o desenvolvimento de campeões esportivos ( Aspire Academy ). O complexo contém várias instalações esportivas, a maioria construída em preparação para os Jogos Asiáticos de 2006 .

A Aspire Zone também abriga a estrutura mais alta de Doha, a Aspire Tower, e fica ao lado do Villaggio Mall, o shopping mais popular do Catar.

O complexo é uma característica importante na candidatura para a Copa do Mundo da FIFA de 2022 apresentada pela Associação de Futebol do Catar e foi fundamental para a candidatura de Doha para os Jogos Olímpicos de 2016 apresentada pelo Comitê Olímpico do Catar .

Instalações esportivas
As instalações esportivas da Aspire Zone incluem:

 Khalifa International Stadium, um estádio com capacidade para 50.000 pessoas usado principalmente para partidas de futebol .
 Hamad Aquatic Center, uma piscina olímpica .
 O Aspire Dome, que é o maior pavilhão poliesportivo coberto do mundo e contém 13 campos de jogo diferentes.

Academia Aspire
A Aspire Academy, uma academia esportiva para jovens, está localizada no centro da Aspire Zone.

Aspetar
O Aspetar, hospital especializado em ortopedia e medicina desportiva, é uma das instalações do Aspire Zone. Iniciando suas operações em 2007, foi o primeiro hospital de medicina esportiva na região do Oriente Médio. Recebeu o credenciamento como Centro Médico de Excelência da FIFA em 2009. O hospital publica uma revista intitulada Aspetar Sports Medicine Journal .

Ligações externas

Estádios de futebol do Catar

Aspire Zone


Allégorie de la Vertu et du Vice ou Le choix entre la Vertu et le Vice ou encore Le choix d'Hercule est une peinture de Paul Véronèse, réalisée vers 1565 à Venise, en Italie. Elle est conservée dans la Frick Collection de New York. Il s'agit d'une peinture allégorique à grande échelle représentant la lutte d'Hercule entre la Vertu et le Vice, personnifiées ici par les figures des deux femmes le tirant physiquement dans des directions différentes.

Sujet
Ici, la Vertu semble gagner la lutte contre Hercule, mais le Vice a déchiré le bas d'Hercule et tend toujours la main vers lui. Derrière sa jupe se cache un poignard et une statue de sphinge. Sur le fronton en pierre au-dessus de la scène, une inscription indique « [HO]NOR ET VIRTUS/[P]OST MORTE FLORET » (« Honneur et Vertu s'épanouissent après la mort »). En tant qu'allégorie, l'objectif de ce tableau est de véhiculer un message moral, celui de la supériorité de la vertu sur le vice.

Le genre de l'allégorie contraste avec les tableaux bien connus de Véronèse de scènes historiques et bibliques, comme les Noces de Cana ainsi qu'avec les œuvres moins formelles d'autres peintres vénitiens de la Renaissance comme Giorgione ou Titien. Cette œuvre, ainsi que Allégorie de la Sagesse et de la Force, également conservée à la Frick Collection, est considérée comme la première de Véronèse dans ce style. Ces deux toiles sont également considérées par les érudits comme ses premières à traverser les Alpes.

Provenance
Le Choix entre Vertu et Vice et Sagesse et Force ont voyagé ensemble depuis leur création, à travers de nombreux propriétaires et collections prestigieux. Pour cette raison, de nombreux érudits ont supposé que Véronèse les avait peints comme une paire. En 1970, Edgar Munhall a été le premier érudit à suggérer qu'ils étaient simplement réalisés en même temps, et non comme des pendents. Les travaux entrepris par des chercheurs du Metropolitan Museum of Art dans les années 2000 ont confirmé que les deux avaient été réalisés individuellement.

Dès sa création à Venise, ce tableau a voyagé entre les mains de l'empereur Rodolphe II du Saint Empire romain germanique, de la reine Christine de Suède, de la famille Odesalchi, de la célèbre collection de la maison d'Orléans de Philippe II, duc d'Orléans, puis entre les mains de divers Anglais et marchands d'art avant d'arriver à son lieu actuel dans la Frick Collection.

Références

Bibliographie
 Rosand, David, Peinture à Venise du XVIe siècle : Titien, Véronèse, Tintoret, 2e éd 1997, Cambridge UP
 La Frick Collection et La Sérénissime : Arts de la République de Venise

Liens externes

Tableau de Paul Véronèse
Tableau des années 1560
Peinture allégorique
Héraclès ou Hercule dans la peinture
Mythologie gréco-romaine dans la peinture
Œuvre conservée à la Frick Collection

Allégorie de la Vertu et du Vice


Deux Corniauds en chasse (titre original : ) est une comédie burlesque italienne réalisée par Giorgio Simonelli et sortie en 1964.

Synopsis
Ciccio et Franco sont deux cousins siciliens qui répondent à une annonce de journal dans laquelle deux charmantes jumelles d'une vingtaine d'années (avec seulement un petit défaut physique) cherchent des maris, de préférence riches. En réalité, il s'agit d'une escroquerie, car un groupe d'acteurs de théâtre en disgrâce se sert des filles pour escroquer les deux malheureux, en prétendant par un tour de passe-passe qu'elles sont des jumelles siamoises.

Ils parviennent ensuite à les dépouiller de leurs biens en mettant en scène une fausse opération de séparation des corps, après quoi leur mort pendant l'opération est simulée. Les deux cousins finissent donc par pleurer sur deux tombes vides. De retour de Rome en Sicile, ils découvrent que leur grand-mère décédée leur a laissé un énorme héritage de pas moins de 100 millions de lires ; ils retournent donc sur les tombes de leurs petites amies « mortes » en pensant construire un monument en leur honneur. C'est précisément à cette occasion qu'une seconde escroquerie est organisée, par la même clique qui a pris connaissance de la fortune héritée par les cousins. On leur fait croire que les deux jumelles mortes avaient d'autres vrais jumelles. À ce moment-là, dans un simulacre, les deux filles sont enlevées avec une demande de rançon de 100 millions précisément. Mais lorsque la rançon est remise, les deux cousins donnent l'argent à un autre gang qui avait réellement enlevé le fils d'un banquier et se retrouvent avec le bébé sur le dos.

De plus, ils ne peuvent pas récupérer l'argent, car il s'avère que le bébé rendu n'est pas l'enfant du banquier, mais celui de la nourrice qui les allaitait tous les deux. Finalement, grâce à un stratagème, la police parvient à attraper les escrocs. Les deux cousins, laissés sans le sou, se retrouvent alors Gros-Jean comme devant.

Fiche technique
 Titre original italien :
 Titre français : Deux Corniauds en chasse ou Les Sœurs siamoises
 Réalisateur : Giorgio Bianchi
 Scénario : , ,
 Photographie : Bitto Albertini,
 Montage :
 Musique : Carlo Rustichelli
 Production :
 Sociétés de production : Ramo Film
 Pays de production :
 Langue originale : italien
 Format : Noir et blanc - 1,37:1 - Son mono - 35 mm
 Durée : 90 minutes
 Genre : Comédie burlesque
 Dates de sortie :
 Italie :  (Milan)
 France :  (Franche-Comté)

Distribution
 Franco Franchi : Franco
 Ciccio Ingrassia : Ciccio
  : Mia
  : Pia
 Leopoldo Trieste : Don Marcuzzo, le tueur à gages sicilien
 Lino Banfi : parent de Franco et Ciccio à la gare
 Alberto Bonucci : Arturo, un des escrocs
 Romano Giomini : le vendeur du lit double
 Alfredo Marchetti : Sasà, l'un des escrocs
 Miranda Martino : la veuve au cimetière
 Elena Nicolai : la baronne, la fausse tante de Mia et Pia
 Pietro De Vico : le maître principal
 Oreste Palella : le commissaire
 Luciano Bonanni : le gardien de la clinique
 Dino Cassio : le serveur du restaurant
 Grazia Spadaro : Concetta, la tante de Franco et Ciccio

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film italien sorti en 1964
Comédie italienne
Film burlesque
Film réalisé par Giorgio Bianchi
Film avec une musique composée par Carlo Rustichelli
Film se déroulant en Sicile
Film se déroulant à Rome
Film tourné à Rome
Film tourné aux studios de Cinecittà
Film en italien
Film italien en noir et blanc

Deux Corniauds en chasse


An Ficinia fascicularis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck. An Ficinia fascicularis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Ficinia, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Ficinia

Ficinia fascicularis


Sarcobatus,  maleni biljni rod smješten u vlastitu porodicu Sarcobataceae, dio reda klinčićolike. Postoje dvije su priznate vrste, obje iz Sjeverne Amerike.

Vrste
 Sarcobatus baileyi Coville
 Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr.

Izvori

Rodovi klinčićolikih

Sarcobatus


The Tanana Valley is a lowland region in central Alaska in the United States, on the north side of the Alaska Range, where the Tanana River emerges from the mountains. Traditional inhabitants of the valley are Tanana Athabaskans of Alaskan Athabaskans.

Climate
The region experiences great extremes of temperature during the year. During the winter months, the air is prone to stratification due to temperature inversions, leading to thick fogs. During the summer, the surrounding plains are generally boglike, and include much permafrost and many pingos.

Communities
The Tanana Valley is the most populated area of Alaska north of the Alaska Range. Its largest city is Fairbanks. Other communities include:

College
Chena Hot Springs
Eielson AFB
Ester
Fort Wainwright
Fox
Manley Hot Springs
Nenana
North Pole
Tok
Two Rivers
Pleasant Valley
Salcha

Archaeology
According to James Q. Jacobs, Tanana Valley has the earliest evidence of human occupation in Alaska.

"At least three distinct lithic complexes appear in the Alaskan archaeological record at approximately the same time, between 12,060 and 11,660 B.P. The earliest firm evidence of human occupation is in the Tanana Valley in Alaska. At the Broken Mammoth, Swan Point, Mead, and Healy Lake, Alaska sites, the oldest dates range between 12,060 BP and 11,410. These sites contain cultural remains considered ancestral to today's Alaskan Native inhabitants.

The oldest stratified sites in the Nenana Valley region date to from 11,820 to 11,010 BP.

The Mesa complex in northern Alaska dates to 11,660 BP."Kunz and Reanier 1996:502

More recently, Tanana Valley sites have been dated to pre-Clovis period, or 13,000–14,000 cal yr BP.

Sites
The Broken Mammoth site, the Swan Point Archaeological Site, and the Mead Archaeological Site are the earliest dated sites in Alaska. They are located along the Tanana River.

See also

Nenana Valley

Notes

External links

Landforms of Fairbanks North Star Borough, Alaska
Landforms of Southeast Fairbanks Census Area, Alaska
Landforms of Yukon–Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska
Regions of Alaska
Valleys of Alaska
Pre-Clovis archaeological sites in the Americas
Tanana Athabaskans

Tanana Valley


Die Canadian International 2009 im Badminton fanden vom 27. bis zum 30. April 2009 in Montreal statt.

Sieger und Platzierte

Weblinks
 http://tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=654F7685-CC88-4558-B6D4-981A9D42ABE8

2009
Badminton 2009
Badmintonwettbewerb in Montreal

Canadian International 2009


AEK Aþena er grískt knattspyrnulið frá Aþenu. Félagið var stofnað áið 1924 í Aþenu af fólki sem hafði flutt frá Istanbúl þá Konstantínópel, stuttu eftir grísk/tyrkneska stríðið, sem í Grikkalandi er nefnt "Η μεγάλη καταστροφή", sem þýðir "stóra katastrófan". AEK Aþena er það félag í Grikklandi, sem hefur unnið flesta meistaratitla, þeir hafa unnið 12 meistaratitla og 15 bikarmeistaratitla. Litir félagsins eru gult og svart. Eiður Smári Guðjohnsen og Arnar Grétarsson léku með liðinu um tíma. Arnar var einnig yfirmaður knattspyrnumála hjá félaginu um tíma.

Titlar

Innanlandstitlar
Gríska úrvalsdeildin: 13 1939, 1940, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1978, 1979, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2018, 2023 Gríska bikarkeppnin: 16
 1932, 1939, 1949, 1950, 1956, 1964, 1966, 1978, 1983, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2002, 2011, 2016, 2023
Gríski Ofurbikarinn: 3 1971, 1989, 1996Gríski deildarbirkarinn: 1
 1990

Alþjóðlegar keppnir
Úrslit í Balkans Cup (1) : 1967
Undanúrslit í Evrópukeppni félagsliða (1) : 1977
Fjórðungsúrslit í Evrópukeppni bikarhafa (2) : 1997, 1998

Þekktir leikmenn
  Angelos Basinas, Traianos Dellas, Theodoros Zagorakis, Demis Nikolaidis, Michalis Kapsis, Sotiris Kyrgiakos, Sokratis Papastathopoulos, Kostas Katsouranis, Vasilis Tsiartas, Toni Savevski, Thomas Mavros, Mimis Papaiouanou
    Bruno Alves
   Paolo Assuncao, Rivaldo
     Juanfran
   Ignacio Scocco
   Carlos Gamara
  Arnar Grétarsson, Eiður Smári Guðjohnsen
  Perparim Hetemaj
  Frank Klopas
  Simos Krassas, Giorgos Savvidis, Giorgos Tofas, Ioannis Okkas, Panikos Krystallis
  Michel Kreek

Heimildir

Íþróttafélög frá Aþenu
Grísk knattspyrnufélög
stofnað 1924

AEK Aþena


أشباه الفيروسات Viroids هي ممرضات نباتية تتكون من قطعة قصيرة (بضع مئات من القواعد النيتروجينية) من الرنا الحلقي وحيد السلسلة المتكامل بدرجة عالية من دون الغلاف البروتيني المميز للفيروسات.

طالع أيضاً

 حياة لاخلوية
 علم أمراض النبات
 بريون
 تابع (بيولوجيا)
 فيروس
 تصنيف الفيروسات

مراجع

أشباه الفيروسات

فيروسي الشكل


11361 Orbinskij este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
11361 Orbinskij este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Geisei de Tsutomu Seki. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,44 ua, o excentricitate de 0,19 și o înclinație de 6,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 11001-12000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1998
Centura de asteroizi

11361 Orbinskij


تولا مدينة لبنانية في قضاء زغرتا في محافظة الشمال.
 تولا مدينة قديمة في المكسيك.

صفحات توضيح أسماء أماكن

تولا (توضيح)


Papir og Pap er Penge værd er en propagandafilm fra 1947 instrueret af Ole Palsbo efter manuskript af Erik Scharling.

Handling
En festlig, nærmest revyagtig propagandafilm for papirindsamlingen i 1947. Del af antologien »Genbrug - dengang i fyrrerne«

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Propagandafilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1947

Papir og Pap er Penge værd


Zlatni ariš (lat. Pseudolarix amabilis), monotipski rod listopadnog četinara iz porodice borovki podrijetlom iz Kine.

Zlatni ariš atraktivnog je izgleda. Može narasti do 40 metara visine, s deblom promjera od jednog metra. Listovi su svjetlozelene boje, duljine 3-6 cm i široki 2-3 mm. Često se koristi zas formiranje bonsaia.

Galerija

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Borovke

Zlatni ariš


United Nations Security Council Resolution 678, adopted on 29 November 1990, after reaffirming resolutions 660, 661, 662, 664, 665, 666, 667, 669, 670, 674 and 677 (all 1990), the council noted that despite all the United Nations efforts, Iraq continued to defy the Security Council.

Details
The United Nations Security Council, invoking Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, offered Iraq one final chance to implement Resolution 660 (1990) which demanded that Iraq withdraw its forces unconditionally from Kuwait to the positions in which they were located on 1 August 1990, the day before the invasion of Kuwait began.

On 29 November 1990, the Security Council passed Resolution 678 under the guidance of Canada, the USSR, United Kingdom and the United States, which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline. The Resolution requested Member States to keep the council informed on their decisions. This was the legal authorization for the Gulf War, as Iraq did not withdraw by the deadline.

Cuba's position was nuanced as it had voted for or abstained on previous resolutions relating to the Iraqi invasion, but did not support Resolution 678 because of its authorization of "all necessary means."

Resolution 678 was adopted by 12 votes with two opposing (Cuba and Yemen) and one abstention from the People's Republic of China. The authority granted to Member States in this case contrasts with the disputed legality of U.S. actions in the invasion of Iraq of 2003.

Sticks and carrots
The United States government strenuously lobbied governments represented on the UN Security Council, including the Soviet Union, China, Malaysia and Yemen, to support a resolution authorizing UN members states to use "all necessary means" for removing Iraqi forces from Kuwait. China, which had usually vetoed such resolutions authorizing action against a state, abstained in exchange for a promise from the US government that sanctions would be eased, and that the Chinese foreign minister would be received in the White House. Various members of the council were rewarded with economic incentives as a result of their 'yes' vote, and those who initially opposed the resolution were discouraged from voting 'no' with the idea of economic penalties, particularly by the United States. The US successfully obtained a commitment from the Saudi government to provide $1 billion to the Soviets in aid through the winter.

After Yemen voted against the resolution, the US, World Bank and International Monetary Fund halted aid programs to Yemen, and Saudi Arabia expelled Yemeni workers. Following the US government's fruitless effort to persuade the Yemeni government to support the resolution, US diplomats bluntly informed Yemeni officials "That was the most expensive no vote you ever cast"—referring to ceasing more than $70 million of US government foreign aid to Yemen.

Criticism
International law experts, such as Professor Burns H. Weston, have argued that the UN security council resolution set a "dubious precedent" by backing away from the "peaceful and humanitarian purposes and principles" enshrined in the United Nations Charter, a cornerstone of international law. It did this by failing to vest in the UN the responsibility and the accountability for the military force that was deployed to the region but instead allowing the United States to manage world policy essentially in a unilateral manner.

See also
 Gulf War
 Iraq–Kuwait relations
 List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 601 to 700 (1987–1991)

References

External links

Text of the Resolution at undocs.org

 0678
 0678
History of Kuwait
1990 in Kuwait
1990 in Iraq
Gulf War
 0678
November 1990 events