Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) is a United States federal research facility dedicated to the study of foreign animal diseases of livestock. It is a national laboratory of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Directorate for Science and Technology (S&T), and operates as a partnership with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The facility's director is Dr. Larry Barrett.

Isolated on Plum Island off the eastern tip of Long Island, New York, the center has been tasked with protecting America's livestock from animal diseases since 1954. It is the only facility in the country authorized to work with live foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) samples, and specializes in the study of FMD and African swine fever. At the height of the Cold War, study of biological weapons for use against livestock was conducted at the site, ending in 1969 when President Nixon declared an end to the United States' offensive bioweapons program. Today the facility maintains laboratories up to biosafety level 3, and has remained controversial as a result of its high risk work and proximity to the New York metropolitan area.

The facility is slated for closure in 2023, with work moving to the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility under construction in Manhattan, Kansas.

Location

The center is located on Plum Island near the northeast coast of Long Island in New York state. During the Spanish–American War, the island was purchased by the government for the construction of Fort Terry, which was later deactivated after World War II and then reactivated in 1952 for the Army Chemical Corps. The center comprises 70 buildings (many of them dilapidated) on . Plum Island has its own fire department, power plant, water treatment plant and security. Any wild mammal seen on the island is killed to prevent the possible transmission of foot and mouth disease. However, as Plum Island was named an important bird area by the New York Audubon Society, it has attracted different birds. Plum Island has placed osprey nests and bluebird boxes throughout the island. , new kestrel houses were planned to be added.

History
In response to disease outbreaks in Mexico and Canada in 1954, the US Army gave the island to the Agriculture Department to establish a research center dedicated to the study of foot-and-mouth disease in cattle.

The island was opened to news media for the first time in 1992. In 1995, the Department of Agriculture was issued a $111,000 fine for storing hazardous chemicals on the island.

Local Long Island activists prevented the center from expanding to include diseases that affect humans in 2000, which would require a Biosafety Level 4 designation; in 2002, the US Congress again considered the plan.

The Wall Street Journal reported in January 2002 that many scientists and government officials wanted the lab to close, believing that the threat of foot-and-mouth disease was so remote that the center did not merit its $16.5 million annual budget. In 2002, the Plum Island Animal Disease Center was transferred from the United States Department of Agriculture to the United States Department of Homeland Security.

In 2003, a whistleblower who voiced concerns about safety at the facility was fired by the contractor he worked for. He had discussed his concerns with aides to Senator Hillary Clinton. A National Labor Relations Board judge found that the contractor, North Fork Services, had discriminated against the whistleblower.

In 2020, the Department of Homeland Security plan to put the island up for auction after the conclusion of laboratory activities in 2023 was blocked by Congress. As part of ongoing COVID-19 pandemic relief legislation, Senator Chuck Schumer of New York negotiated a provision in the CARES Act that protects the island from being sold. Environmentalists had opposed the sale of the island because of its extensive wildlife habitats. After the final draft of the legislation was announced, Schumer said "It would have been a grave mistake to sell and develop Plum Island's 840-acres of habitat, which is home to many endangered species, that's why preventing the unnecessary sale requirement was a top priority of these negotiations."

Replacement facility

On September 11, 2005, DHS announced that the Plum Island Animal Disease Research Center will be replaced by a new federal facility. The location of the new high-security animal disease lab, called the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF), is being built in Manhattan, Kansas.

The plan was controversial almost immediately when it was unveiled, following a cost assessment by DHS and prime contractor Booz Allen Hamilton in which the agency determined that the cost of maintaining or moving the facility would be comparable.

Those conclusions, as well as claims about the safety of the facility proposed were called into question several times, first by a 2007 Government Accountability Office study, which stated that claims by DHS that the work on foot and mouth disease performed on Plum Island can be performed "as safely on the mainland" is "not supported" by evidence.

In 2012, DHS completed a risk assessment of the Kansas site that called the proposed facility "safe and secure". In response, a 2012 review of the risk assessment by the National Research Council called it "seriously flawed".

Despite controversy, the new facility is nearing completion, and transfer of laboratory contents from Plum Island to NBAF is to be complete by 2023. The USDA has named former director of Canada's Centers for Animal Disease Alfonso Clavijo as the director of the new facility.

Activities
PIADC's mission can be grouped into three main categories: diagnosis, research, and education.

Since 1971, PIADC has been educating veterinarians in foreign animal diseases. The center hosts several Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic schools each year to train federal and state veterinarians and laboratory diagnostic staff, military veterinarians and veterinary school faculty.

At PIADC, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) work together; DHS' Targeted Advanced Development unit partners with USDA, academia and industry scientists to deliver vaccines and antivirals to the USDA for licensure and inclusion in the USDA National Veterinary Vaccine Stockpile.

USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) performs basic and applied research to better formulate countermeasures against foreign animal diseases, including strategies for prevention, control and recovery. ARS focuses on developing faster-acting vaccines and antivirals to be used during outbreaks to limit or stop transmission. Antivirals prevent infection while vaccine immunity develops. The principal diseases studied are foot-and-mouth disease, classical swine fever, and vesicular stomatitis virus.

USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS) operates the Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, an internationally recognized facility performing diagnostic testing of samples collected from U.S. livestock. APHIS also tests animals and animal products being imported into the U.S. APHIS maintains the North American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Bank at PIADC and hosts the Foreign Animal Disease Diagnosticians training program, offering several classes per year to train veterinarians to recognize foreign animal diseases.

Research on biological weapons at PIADC ceased when the United States Biological Warfare program was ended in 1969 by President Richard Nixon.

Biological weapons research
The original anti-animal biological weapons mission was "to establish and pursue a program of research and development of certain anti-animal (BW) agents". By August 1954 animals occupied holding areas at Plum Island and research was ongoing within Building 257. The USDA facility, known as the Plum Island Animal Disease Center, continued work on biological warfare research until the U.S. program was ended by Richard Nixon in 1969. The bio-weapons research at Building 257 and Fort Terry was shrouded in aura of mystery and secrecy. The existence of biological warfare experiments on Plum Island during the Cold War era was denied for decades by the U.S. government. In 1993 Newsday unearthed documents proving otherwise and in 1994, Russian scientists inspected the Plum Island research facility to verify that these experiments had indeed ended.

Diseases studied and outbreaks
As a diagnostic facility, PIADC scientists study more than 40 foreign animal diseases, including classical swine fever and African swine fever. PIADC runs about 30,000 diagnostic tests each year. PIADC operates Biosafety Level 3 Agriculture (BSL-3Ag), BSL-3 and BSL-2 laboratory facilities. The facility's research program includes developing diagnostic tools and biologicals for foot-and-mouth disease and other diseases of livestock.

Because federal law stipulates that live foot-and-mouth disease virus cannot be studied on the mainland, PIADC is unique in that it is currently the only laboratory in the U.S. equipped with research facilities that permit the study of foot-and-mouth disease.

Foot-and-mouth disease is extremely contagious among cloven-hooved animals, and people who have come in contact with it can carry it to animals. Accidental outbreaks of the virus have caused catastrophic livestock and economic losses in many countries throughout the world.

Foot-and-mouth disease was eradicated from the U.S. in 1929 (with the exception of the stocks within the Plum Island center) but is currently endemic to many parts of the world.

In 2012, two researchers at the facility, Dr. John Neilan and Dr. Michael Puckette, developed the first Foot-and-mouth disease vaccine which does not require live virus cultures in the manufacturing process, allowing vaccine development to occur safely and legally on U.S. mainland for the first time.

Laboratory accidents
Plum Island has experienced outbreaks of its own, including one in 1978 in which the disease was released to animals outside the center, and two incidents in 2004 in which foot-and-mouth disease was released within the center.

In response to the two 2004 incidents, New York Senator Hillary Clinton and Congressman Tim Bishop wrote a letter to the Department of Homeland Security regarding their concerns about the center's safety: "We urge you to immediately investigate these alarming breaches at the highest levels, and to keep us apprised of all developments."

Historic buildings

Building 257
Building No. 257 at Fort Terry, on Plum Island near Long Island, New York, was completed around 1911. The original purpose of the building was to store weapons, such as mines, and the structure was designated the Combined Torpedo Storehouse and Cable Tanks building. Fort Terry went through a period of activations and deactivations through World War II until the U.S. Army Chemical Corps took over the facility in 1952 for use in anti-animal biological warfare (BW) research. The Chemical Corps planned a laboratory for the fort, to be housed in Building 257. The conversion of Fort Terry to a BW facility required the remodeling of Building 257 and other structures.

As work neared completion on the lab and other facilities in the spring of 1954 the mission of Fort Terry changed. Construction was completed on the facilities on May 26, 1954, but the post was transferred to the USDA before the military could utilize the new laboratory facilities. Fort Terry was officially transferred to the USDA on July 1, 1954, at the time scientists from the Bureau of Animal Industry were already working in Building 257. Construction on a new lab facility, known as Building 101, also began about this time but was not completed until September 1956.

A modernization program in 1977 aimed to update both Building 257 and Building 101, but the program was canceled in 1979 because of construction contract irregularities. Plum Island facilities were essentially unchanged until a new modernization began in 1990. Two-thirds of the laboratory facilities inside Building 101 were renovated and operations in Building 257 were consolidated into Building 101. According to a United States Department of Homeland Security spokesperson in 2004, Building 257 was closed in 1995 and poses no health hazard.

Building 101
The structure is a  T-shaped white building. It is situated on Plum Island's northwest plateau on a  site where it is buttressed by a steep cliff which leads into the ocean. To the south-west of the building's site is the old Plum Island Lighthouse.

Construction on Plum Island's new laboratory Building 101 began around July 1, 1954, around the same time that the Army's anti-animal bio-warfare (BW) facilities at Fort Terry were transferred to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Following the transfer, the facilities on Plum Island became known as the Plum Island Animal Disease Center. The USDA's $7.7. million Building 101 laboratory facility was dedicated on September 26, 1956. Prior to the building's opening the area around it was sprayed with chemicals to deter insect or animal life from approaching the facility. Upon its opening a variety of tests using pathogens and vectors were conducted on animals in the building. Research on biological weapons at PIADC did not cease until the entire program was canceled in 1969 by Richard Nixon.

A modernization program in 1977 aimed to update both Building 101 and another laboratory, Building 257, but the program was canceled in 1979 because of construction contract irregularities. PIADC facilities were essentially unchanged until a new modernization began in 1990. Two-thirds of the laboratory facilities inside Building 101 were renovated and operations from Building 257 were consolidated into Building 101. Building 257 was closed, and a major expansion, known as Building 100, was completed on Building 101 in 1995. According to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Building 257 currently poses no health hazard.

Controversy

Conspiracy theories
Prolific but unfounded conspiracy theories have alleged that Lyme disease, first documented in nearby Lyme, Connecticut, was a biological weapon that originated in the Plum Island laboratory. A discredited 2004 book entitled Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory fueled the conspiracy theories. Archived specimens show that Lyme disease was endemic well before the establishment of Plum Island laboratory. Additionally, Lyme disease was never a topic of research at Plum Island, according to the US Department of Homeland Security and Department of Agriculture.

On July 12, 2008, a creature dubbed the Montauk Monster washed ashore at Ditch Plains Beach near the business district of Montauk, New York. The creature, a quadruped of indeterminate size, was dead when discovered, and was assumed by some to have come from Plum Island as a result of the currents and proximity to the mainland. Palaeozoologist Darren Naish studied the photograph and concluded from visible dentition and the front paws that the creature may have been a raccoon. This was also the opinion of Larry Penny, the East Hampton Natural Resources Director.

Terrorism
When American educated Pakistani neuroscientist Aafia Siddiqui, a suspected al-Qaeda member, was captured in Afghanistan in July 2008, she had in her handbag handwritten notes referring to a "mass casualty attack" that listed various U.S. locations, including the Plum Island Animal Disease Center. In February 2010, she was convicted of assault with a deadly weapon and attempting to kill U.S. servicemembers and FBI agents who sought to interrogate her.

In popular culture
 Plum Island and PIADC are the subject of a murder mystery novel, Plum Island, by Nelson DeMille. DeMille has said, "How could anthrax not be studied there? Every animal has it." While addressing popular culture fears of a germ warfare lab at Plum Island, overall, the facility is presented as doing the job described by the Federal Government—research into animal diseases that would either devastate our national livestock or jump to humans and devastate us. The novel portrays the investigation into the murder of two Plum Island scientists. The motive, initially thought to be germs for terrorists or germs for a biotech company, is really the search for the lost treasure of Captain Kidd, who sailed the waters around Long Island prior to his capture. Kidd's treasure has never been found.
 Plum Island is also referred to in the 1991 psychological thriller The Silence of the Lambs, when the character of Hannibal Lecter is offered a transfer to a different psychiatric institution, as well as the promise of annual week-long supervised furlough to Plum Island, in exchange for his assistance in helping the FBI locate the whereabouts of the missing daughter of a prominent US Senator. It is later revealed in the film that the offer is bogus in the first place, used only as a ruse to elicit Lecter's cooperation.
 The Plum Island facility served as the inspiration for the Mount Dragon research facility in the 1996 techno-thriller Mount Dragon, written by Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child.
 The testing facility at Plum Island is the subject of a novel, The Poison Plum, by author Les Roberts.
 Plum Island and the facility there figure prominently in the 2014 horror novel, The Montauk Monster, by Hunter Shea, in which a bizarre carcass found on a beach in 2008 is an early version of vicious creatures now terrifying the Montauk community.
 The Plum Island facility is mentioned in the television show Emergence as the takeoff point for a flight that crashes in Southold, New York. In reality, this would be impossible, as there are no airstrips on Plum Island.

References

Further reading
 The Plum Island Animal Disease Laboratory (1956)
 U.S. General Accounting Office. (2003). Combating bioterrorism: actions needed to improve security at Plum Island Animal Disease Center. Washington, D.C.: Author.
 U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2005). Plum Island Animal Disease Center: DHS and USDA are successfully coordinating current work, but long-term plans are being assessed: report to congressional committees. Washington, D.C.: Author.
 U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2007). Plum Island Animal Disease Center: DHS has made significant progress implementing security recommendations, but several recommendations remain open. Washington, D.C.: Author.
 U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2008). High-containment biosafety laboratories: DHS lacks evidence to conclude that foot-and-mouth disease research can be done safely on the U.S. mainland: testimony before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C.: Author.
 U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2009). Biological research: observations on DHS's analyses concerning whether FMD research can be done as safely on the mainland as on Plum Island: report to congressional committees. Washington, D.C.: Author.
 U.S. House of Representatives. (2008). Germs, viruses, and secrets: government plans to move exotic disease research to the mainland United States: hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, one hundred tenth congress, second session, May 22, 2008. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

External links
 Official website
 Plum Island Animal Disease Center | USDA

1954 establishments in New York (state)
Animal disease control
Organizations established in 1954
Plum Island (New York)
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Homeland Security
United States biological weapons program

Plum Island Animal Disease Center


The Attorney-General of Australia (AG) is the minister of state of the Commonwealth of Australia and chief law officer of state, charged with overseeing the national legal affairs and public security as the head of the Attorney-General's Department. The current attorney-general is Mark Dreyfus, who was appointed by Prime Minister Anthony Albanese in June 2022 following the 2022 Australian federal election.  By convention, the attorney-general is a lawyer by profession, being either a barrister or solicitor.

The Attorney-General is one of only four positions in the commonwealth government to have continuously been held since federation, along with the prime minister, the minister for Defence and the treasurer.

The current attorney-general is assisted in his portfolio by the Assistant Minister for the Republic held by Matt Thistlethwaite.

History
The attorney-general is nearly always a person with legal training, and eleven former attorneys-general have received senior judicial appointments after their ministerial service.

Billy Hughes was the longest-serving attorney-general of Australia, serving for thirteen and a half years over four non-consecutive terms; this included six years during his own prime ministership.

Historically, the attorney-generalship was seen as a stepping stone to higher office – Alfred Deakin, Billy Hughes, and Robert Menzies all became prime minister, while John Latham, H. V. Evatt, and Billy Snedden were leaders of the opposition. Lionel Bowen was deputy prime minister under Bob Hawke in the 1980s. Additionally, four former attorneys-general have won appointment to the High Court – Isaac Isaacs, H. B. Higgins, John Latham, Garfield Barwick, and Lionel Murphy. Isaacs later became governor-general.

Role and functions

Role
The attorney-general is the minister responsible for legal affairs, national and public security. The attorney-general also serves as a general legal adviser to the Cabinet, and has carriage of legislation dealing with copyright, human rights and a range of other subjects. They are responsible for the Australian Law Reform Commission and the Australian Commission for Law Enforcement Integrity.

Functions
Functions of the state and federal attorneys-general include the administration of the selection of persons for nomination to judicial posts and the authorizing of prosecutions. In normal circumstances, the prosecutorial powers of the attorney-general are exercised by the Director of Public Prosecutions and staff; however, the attorney-general maintains formal control—including the power to initiate and terminate public prosecutions and take over private prosecutions.

Statutory criminal law provides that prosecutions for certain offences require the individual consent of the attorney-general. This is generally for offences whose illegality is of a somewhat controversial nature or where there is perceived to be a significant risk that prosecutions of a political nature may be embarked upon. The attorney-general also generally has the power to issue certificates legally conclusive of certain facts (e.g., that the revelation of certain matters in court proceedings might constitute a risk to national security); the facts stated in such certificates must be accepted by the courts and cannot legally be disputed by any parties. The attorney-general also has the power to issue a nolle prosequi with respect to a case, which authoritatively determines that the state (in whose name prosecutions are brought) does not wish to prosecute the case, so preventing any person from doing so.

Relationship with the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation
See: Australian Security Intelligence Organisation

List of attorneys-general
The following individuals have been appointed as attorney-general for Australia:

Notes
 A member of the Protectionist Party, Higgins served in the Labor ministry of Chris Watson, because Labor had no suitably qualified lawyer in Parliament.
 Hughes took silk in 1909, and became a King's Counsel.
 Whitlam served as part of a two-man ministry together with Lance Barnard for fourteen days, until the full ministry was commissioned.
 Prime Minister Paul Keating's original choice for Attorney-General in 1993 had been Michael Lavarch, but Lavarch's re-election was delayed by the death of an opposing candidate for the seat of Dickson; Duncan Kerr held the portfolio in the interim until Lavarch won the resulting supplementary election. Kerr served as Attorney-General for 26 days. There was no Attorney-General for the eight days between Duffy's commission ending on 24 March 1993 and Kerr's commission commencing on 1 April 1993.
 Gallagher served as part of an interim five-person ministry for nine days, until the full ministry was commissioned.

List of assistant ministers for the republic
The position is responsible for the Albanese government's policy of establishing a republic and is the first Commonwealth portfolio for republic policy.

Attorneys-general of the states and territories
The Australian states each have separate attorneys-general, who are state ministers with similar responsibilities to the federal minister with respect to state law. For attorneys-general of the various states and territories of Australia, see:

 Attorney-General of the Australian Capital Territory
 Attorney-General of New South Wales
 Attorney-General of the Northern Territory
 Attorney-General of Queensland
 Attorney-General of South Australia
 Attorney-General of Tasmania
 Attorney-General of Victoria
 Attorney-General of Western Australia

See also

 Attorney general
 Justice ministry

Notes

References

External links

Attorney-General

Attorney-General of Australia


Hrvatsko-srpska granica, naziv za 317,6 km dugu granicu između Republike Hrvatske i Republike Srbije.

Povijest

Hrvatsko-srpsko razgraničenje u Prvoj jugoslaviji

Drugi svjetski rat

Razgraničenje u Drugoj Jugoslaviji

Današnja granica Republike Hrvatske i Republike Srbije baštini razgraničenje Federalne Države Hrvatske odnosno Narodne Republike Hrvatske u razdoblju 1945–1956. godine. Međudržavne su bile one dionice hrvatskih granica koje su ujedno bile vanjske granice Jugoslavije.

Granice prema susjednim državama (ponajprije Italiji, ali i Mađarskoj) bile su u Jugoslaviji dopušteni javni interes, pa su mediji opširno pisali o jugoslavenskim zahtjevima, a nastojali su i mobilizirati stanovništvo kako bi demonstrirali opću podršku državnoj politici. Međurepubličke granice su, naprotiv, bile prekrivene šutnjom. Premda su te granice kolokvijalno poznate kao avnojevske granice, one su godinama nakon osnutka AVNOJ-a bile proizvoljno mijenjane. K tome, većina ključnih odluka kao da je donesena usmeno: nema im pisanog traga, ali su ostale posljedice.

Granica Hrvatske i Srbije do 1918. tekla je rijekom Savom do njezina ušća u Dunav, a cijeli Srijem je bio jedna od hrvatskih županija. Ukidanjem Hrvatske Zakonom o oblastima 1922. pa do osnutka Banovine Hrvatske 1939. formalno je dokinut problem istočne hrvatske granice.

Sa stvaranjem Banovine Hrvatske njezina istočna granica u Srijemu nalazila se puno zapadnije nego 1918. NDH je imala zapadnu granicu iz vremena do 1918. Nakon rata, inicijativa za utvrđivanje hrvatsko-srpske granice potekla je 1945. od upravnih tijela AP Vojvodine, jer su ona prva poslala dopis o tom pitanju Hrvatskoj. Po vojvođanskom prijedlogu, obje obale Dunava, južno od ušća Drave u Dunav, trebale su pripasti Vojvodini. Predsjedništvo AVNOJ-a osnovalo je 19. lipnja 1945. »Komisiju Predsjedništva AVNOJ-a za izradu prijedloga razgraničenja teritorije između Vojvodine i Hrvatske«. Ta se komisija u literaturi kolokvijalno naziva, po njezinu predsjedniku, članu CK KPJ Milovanu Đilasu, Đilasova komisija. Članovi komisije bili su Milovan Đilas, njezin predsjednik i ministar za Crnu Goru u saveznoj vladi, Vicko Krstulović, ministar unutarnjih poslova Hrvatske, Milentije Popović, ministar unutarnjih poslova Srbije, Jovan Veselinov »Žarko«, sekretar JNOF-a Vojvodine, i Jerko Zlatarić, potpredsjednik Okružnog NO-a u Somboru. Područje o kojem je Komisija Predsjedništva AVNOJ-a odlučivala u lipnju 1945. odnosilo se na devet kotareva: dva u Baranji (Batina i Darda), četiri u Bačkoj (Apatin, Odžaci, Sombor i Subotica) i tri u Srijemu (Ilok, Šid i Vukovar).

Srijem

Đilasova Komisija je zabilježila stanje u lipnju 1945.: »Danas postoje dva vukovarska sreza (kotara) – jedan (sjeverni dio) u Hrvatskoj a drugi (južni dio) u Vojvodini, od kojih je onaj u Hrvatskoj sa relativnom većinom Srba, a onaj u Vojvodini sa relativnom većinom Hrvata«. Iz teksta je vidljivo da je Đilasova komisija zatekla dva kotara Vukovar, jedan u Vojvodini sa sjedištem u gradu Vukovaru i drugi u Hrvatskoj sa sjedištem u Borovu. »Privremenoj glavnoj skupštini građana i građanki grada Vukovara« 20. travnja 1945. prisustvovali su predstavnici Okružnog NOO-a iz Srijemske Mitrovice, što potvrđuje da je grad Vukovar pripao kotaru (srezu) Vukovar podređenom Okrugu sa sjedištem u Srijemskoj Mitrovici. Komisija Predsjedništva AVNOJ-a za razgraničenje između Hrvatske i Vojvodine pripremila je svoje izvješće 1. srpnja 1945. Dodijelila je cijelo područje predratnoga kotara Vukovar Hrvatskoj obrazlažući odluku konstatacijom kako: »na ovom prostoru i granica treba da bude istočno od pomenutog hrvatskog pojasa, tj. između Šida i Vukovara, selima koja su već pomenuta«.]

Sama činjenica da su postojala dva kotara Vukovar bila je u suprotnosti s opsegom federalnih jedinica koje je sekretar Predsjedništva AVNOJ-a Mile Peruničić opisao 24. veljače 1945. na Predsjedništvu AVNOJ-a. Očito je takvo stanje uspostavljeno 12. travnja 1945., ulaskom jedinica JA u Vukovar. Postojanje dvaju kotareva, od kojih je jedan sa samim gradom Vukovarom u Vojvodini potvrđuje i Izvještaj Okružnoga komiteta KPH Osijek Oblasnom komitetu KPH za Slavoniju od 29. svibnja 1945. Autor Izvještaja, Pero Car, piše: »Prije izvjesnog vremena mi smo htjeli rasformirati Vukovarski kotar i pripojiti ga jedan dio Vinkovcima, a jedan dio Osijeku. To je kod naroda izazvalo priličnu reakciju sa težnjom, da se pripoje federalnoj Srbiji i da svakako ostanu vezani uz grad Vukovar«.

U izvješću javnog tužioca za Okrug Osijek, Živojina Jocića, upućenom 19. kolovoza 1945. javnom tužiocu Federalne Hrvatske, spominje se izoliranost hrvatskog dijela kotara Vukovar od grada Vukovara, što bi upućivalo da je transfer nadležnosti nad područjem koje je Đilasova komisija dodijelila Hrvatskoj proveden tek potkraj kolovoza.

Hrvatskoj je granica u Srijemu bila prioritet. Dokument »O razgraničenju Vojvodine« pokazuje da je Vojvodina Hrvatskoj ponudila kompenzaciju teritorijem dvaju kotareva u Baranji, Batina i Darda, ako bi priznala cijeli Srijem Vojvodini. Na hrvatskoj strani se smatralo da bi Srbi trebali popustiti u Srijemu, a Hrvati eventualno u Bačkoj. Božidar Firšt, autor elaborata »Razgraničenje Federalne Države Hrvatske prema Federalnoj Državi Srbiji«, obrazlagao je potrebu održanja banovinske granice iz 1939. u Srijemu, s kotarevima Ilok i Šid u Hrvatskoj, strahom od ustaša i mačekovaca. »Đilasova komisija«, odnosno Komisija Predsjedništva AVNOJ-a za razgraničenje između Hrvatske i Vojvodine, došla je do zaključka da privremena granica između Hrvatske i Vojvodine treba ići: »od mađarske granice, rijekom Dunavom do međe između sela: Bačko Novo Selo i Bukin (bačko-palanački srez); odatle preko Dunava između atara sela: Opatovac–Mohovo, Lovas–Babska, Tovarnik–varoš Šid, Podgrađe–Ilinci, Adaševci–Mala Vašica, Lipovac–Batrovci, Strošinci–Morović. Na taj bi način sela sadanjega šidskog sreza: Opatovac, Lovas, Tovarnik, Podgrađe, Adaševci, Lipovac, Strošinci (i Jamena) – zajedno sa svojim atarima – pripala Hrvatskoj, a sela Mohovo, Babska, varoš Šid, Ilinci, Mala Vašica, Batrovci, Morović – zajedno sa svojim atarima – Vojvodini«.
Selo Adaševci, koje se spominje u tekstu zaključka, navedeno je pogreškom, a mislilo se na manje obližnje selo Apševci. U svakom slučaju, danas su Adaševci dio Vojvodine, a Apševci Hrvatske. Vladimir Bakarić se 6. veljače 1946. na sjednici CK KPH održanoj u Zagrebu žalio da je Franjo Gaži iz HRSS-a sazvao niz sastanaka u Beogradu u kojima je izraženo mišljenje da su u Srijemu »granice Hrvatske nepravilno povučene«.

Ilok je bio dijelom Banovine Hrvatske te u sastavu Velike župe Vuka za vrijeme NDH. Snage Narodnooslobodilačke vojske Jugoslavije (NOVJ) zauzele su ga u prosincu 1944. te se između Iloka i Vukovara od prosinca 1944. do 12. travnja 1945. nalazila Srijemska fronta. Ilok je odlukom »Đilasove komisije« do daljnjega bio trebao ostati u sastavu Vojvodine, odnosno Srbije. To potvrđuje i izvješće Vicka Krstulovića, podneseno CK KPH na sastanku održanom 26. lipnja 1945. Zanimljivo je da su dvojica članova Đilasove komisije, sam Milovan Đilas i Jerko Zlatarić, zapamtila kako je njihova komisija Ilok dodijelila Hrvatskoj, što je primjer koji upozorava na nepouzdanost memoara. Naime, Đilas je 1983. napisao: »Sporni su bili jedino Ilok i Bunjevci. Prvi je – na moj predlog – pripao Hrvatskoj, jer je u njemu bila hrvatska većina, premda se uvlači kao slepo crevo u vojvođanski srpski prostor«. Jerko Zlatarić je izjavio u intervjuu 1971.: »Jedva sam dogurao da smo dobili Ilok. Jedva nekako! (...) Nikakav se zapisnik nije pravio, ništa«. No, Đilasova komisija je predložila: »Što se tiče iločkog sreza, iako zapadna sela Šarengrad i Ljuba, kao i grad Ilok, imaju ogromnu većinu Hrvata, a istočna sela Neštin, Susek, Banoštor i dr. ogromnu srpsku većinu, komisija je smatrala da zasada ne bi ovaj srez trebalo cijepati na dva dijela, nego ga ostaviti u sadašnjem sastavu, s tim što bi pripao Vojvodini. Srez inače, uzet u cjelini, ima relativnu većinu Srba. Ilok je grad i pristanište na Dunavu i njegovo pripojenje Hrvatskoj zasada bi, zbog daljine administrativnih veza, otežalo njegov razvitak. Poslije sređivanja vlasti, s jedne i s druge strane granice, koju predlaže komisija, moglo bi se postaviti pitanje priključenja Hrvatskoj zapadnih sela iz iločkog sreza, kao i grada Iloka. Sada bi to moglo izazvati izvjesne teškoće, to utoliko pre što prilike tamo nisu sređene«.

Čini se da je Ilok najkasnije do rujna 1945. bio uključen u sastav FD Hrvatske. Povjesničar Mario Bara donosi podatak da su stanovnici hrvatskih naselja u okolici Iloka i u samom Iloku održali referendum 1946., kojim su se izjasnili za pripajanje Hrvatskoj. Grad Ilok i okolna naselja uključeni su u Vukovarski kotar. Podatak o referendumu donosi i Stjepan Sršan, pozivajući se na svjedočanstvo Nikole Miličevića. No, u izvješću javnog tužitelja Okruga Osijek javnom tužitelju NR Hrvatske o stanju u studenom 1945. sud u Iloku naveden je kao dio područja pod jurisdikcijom Osijeka. Stoga je upitno kakav bi referendum bio održavan 1946. ako je Ilok već 1945. vraćen u sastav Hrvatske.

Postavlja se i pitanje što je dovelo do odluke da se Ilok preda Hrvatskoj, dok su sela Bapska i Ljuba s većinskim hrvatskim stanovništvom ostavljena u Vojvodini, a Jamena sa srpskim stanovništvom je predana Hrvatskoj? Odgovor tek treba utvrditi. Predajom Jamene iz kotara Šid u sastav Hrvatske, odnosno kotara Županja u okrugu Brod, otvoreno je pitanje koje će biti riješeno tek 1947. godine zajedno s pitanjem Bapske, koja je ostala u Vojvodini.

Dva povezana pitanja, pripadnost sela Bapska-Novak (danas Bapska) blizu Iloka, odnosno južno od Šarengrada, te sela Jamena, koje je uz Savu, rješavana su godinama nakon povlačenja granice između Hrvatske i Srbije od strane Đilasove komisije i dodjele Iloka Hrvatskoj. Premda su zahtjevi NO-a za priključenje drugoj republici pretežno opravdavani drugim vrstama argumenata, bilo je jasno da iza njih stoje nacionalni obziri. Tako je i formulirano u dopisu Okružnog NO-a Slavonski Brod poslanom Predsjedništvu Vlade NRH 20. studenog 1946.: »Napominje se, da je selo Jamena uvijek prije bilo u sklopu sreza Šidskog, a geografske i saobraćajne prilike, a pomalo i nacionalne, jer je to mjesto naseljeno velikom većinom Srba, upravo imperativno diktiraju da se želji naroda izadje u susret«.

Predsjednik Okružnog NO-a Osijek, J. Mesić, izvijestio je 27. svibnja 1947. godine Odjel za zakonodavstvo i izgradnju narodne vlasti Predsjedništva Vlade NR Hrvatske da je Mjesni NO Babska-Novak zapisnički predan 7. svibnja 1947. iz sastava kotara Šid u sastav kotara Vukovar. Tomu su nazočili predstavnici ONO-a Osijek, KNO-a Vukovar i Izvršnog odbora AP Vojvodina NR Srbije. Mesić navodi da je pripojenje sigurno izvršeno rješenjem Predsjedništva Vlade FNRJ, ali da ga ne može citirati, jer ga ONO Osijek ne posjeduje.[68]

Baranja
Baranja je trokut između Drave i Dunava, koji je tradicionalno činio dio ugarske županije Baranja, a obuhvaćao je dva kotara, Batinu i Dardu. Trianonskim sporazumom pripao je Kraljevstvu SHS. Baranja do 1945. nije pripadala upravnim jedinicama sa sjedištem u Hrvatskoj. Činila je dio Dunavske banovine, a od 1941. do 1945. bila je pripojena Kraljevini Mađarskoj. Na sjednici Glavnoga narodnooslobodilačkog odbora Vojvodine održanoj 6. travnja 1945. rečeno je: »Pitanje Baranje za sada ostaje otvoreno dok tamošnji narodi sami ne reše o svojoj pripadnosti. Međutim, većina članova Glavnog narodnooslobodilačkog odbora Vojvodine je mišljenja da će Baranja biti u sastavu federalne Hrvatske«.

Vojvođanske vlasti su Hrvatskoj otvoreno nudile Baranju, ako bi Hrvatska predala sav Srijem Vojvodini zajedno s dijelovima kotara Osijek. Razlozi zašto je vojvođanskim vlastima više bilo stalo do Srijema nego do Baranje leže u povijesnom razvitku. Naime, Baranja nije bila dio povijesne Vojvodine ni povijesne Hrvatske. Srijem je imao uvjerljivu etničku većinu Hrvata i Srba, dok su u Baranji dvije najbrojnije skupine bili Nijemci i Mađari prema popisima provedenima prije Drugoga svjetskog rata, za kojima su tek potom slijedili Hrvati, pa Srbi. Svi ti čimbenici pridonosili su da su Baranjom bile spremne platiti za ciljeve u Srijemu.

Razlog trgovine jest taj što su vojvođanskim vlastima u svim segmentima dominirali Srbi. Ponuda Baranje nije bila nikakva ponuda. Radilo se trgovanju tuđim za tuđe, odnosno Baranjom koja je u Austro-Ugarskoj u jednom razdoblju bila dijelom Hrvatske, kao i Srijemom koji je u cijelom razdoblju Austro-Ugarske bio dijelom Hrvatske.

Bačka
Područje Banata, Bačke i Baranje je, 17. listopada 1944. godine, Naredbom Vrhovnoga komandanta NOV-a i POJ-a o uspostavljanju vojne uprave za Banat, Bačku i Baranju, ujedinjeno pod zajedničkom upravom i ostalo je pod njom do 27. siječnja 1945. godine, kada je naredba ukinuta. Politički položaj Vojvodine riješen je u prvoj polovici 1945. statusom autonomne pokrajine u okviru federalne jedinice Srbije. Odluka da se Vojvodina priključi Srbiji donijeta je 6. travnja 1945. na sjednici Glavnoga narodnooslobodilačkog odbora Vojvodine (GNOOV). Razgraničenje Hrvatske i Srbije u Bačkoj sprovela je posebna komisija. Kotar Sombor je, uz kotareve Subotica, Apatin i Odžaci, jedan od četiri kotara u Bačkoj koje je Hrvatska 1945. tražila od Vojvodine. Upravo je srpska većina u gradu Somboru prema Đilasovoj komisiji bila prema nekima glavna zapreka da se Subotica pripoji Hrvatskoj.

No, to nije bio jedini razlog. Općina i mjesnih zajednica s nacionalnom većinom drugog južnoslavenskog naroda bilo je u svim republikama, pa ipak nisu dodijeljene drugoj republici. Takva odluka rezultat širokogrudnosti jednog Hrvata, člana te komisije (Komisija je sazvana u sljedećem sastavu: Milovan Đilas, ministar za Crnu Goru pri saveznoj vladi, obavljao je dužnost predsjednika komisije pa će po njemu poslije ona biti nazvana »Đilasova komisija«, Vicko Krstulović, ministar unutrašnjih poslova Narodne vlade Hrvatske, Milentije Popović, ministar unutrašnjih poslova Narodne vlade Srbije, Jovan Veselinov – Žarko, sekretar JNOF-a Vojvodine i Jerko Zlatarić, potpredsjednik Okružnog NOO-a u Somboru). Taj član je predmetu pristupio kao da je taj teritorij Hrvatskoj suvišan, kao da Hrvatska uzima više nego što joj pripada i to od Srba prema kojima su se svi hrvatski jugokomunisti idolopoklonski odnosili. Kotari su dodijeljeni Srbiji njegovom zaslugom, kad su već i srpski članovi komisije bili uvjereni za to da se dodijeli Hrvatskoj. Pored toga, prema Hrvatskoj se odnosilo kao prema poraženoj zemlji. Hrvatska je tretirana kao poražena zemlja, usprkos snažnom pokretu otpora, kojem je najviše od svih naroda u Jugoslaviji dala doprinos, dok je Srbija kao i u monarhističkoj Jugoslaviji bila tretirana kao državotvorna, bez obzira na gotovo najjačoj kolaboraciji. U svakoj situaciji teritorijalno namirivanje i prohtjevi drugih republika bilo je na štetu Hrvatske, i svako hrvatsko protivljenje ušutkivano je optužbama za nacionalizam, receptu kojem se pribjegavalo sve do raspada Jugoslavije.

Hrvatska je u proces razgraničenja ušla sa statusom jedne od federalnih jedinica unutar jugoslavenske federacije, pri čemu se sva vlast nalazila u rukama Komunističke partije Hrvatske kao podružnice Komunističke partije Jugoslavije. To je utjecalo na to da je značajne teritorijalne dobitke ostvarila na granici s u Drugom svjetskom ratu poraženom Italijom, dok je u razgraničenjima s drugim federalnim jedinicama bila podređena konačnim odlukama saveznih tijela, pri čemu se držalo razgraničenja prema etničkom kriteriju, što je dovelo do dobitka Baranje ali je zbog zanemarivanja povijesnoga kriterija u Srijemu Hrvatska nije dobila neke teritorije koji su joj u prošlosti pripadali.

Granični spor nakon raspada SFRJ

Danas se Hrvatska i Srbija spore oko granice u Podunavlju. Hrvatska traži kako je po međunarodnom pravu u istim situacijama, tj. neka granica slijedi stari tok Dunava. Srbija želi da granica ide sredinom trenutnog glavnog toka Dunava. Srbijanskim prijedlogom Hrvatska bi izgubila više posjeda na istočnoj strani, nego što bi dobila na zapadnoj strani. Hrvatski gubitak prema srbijanskom prijedlogu bio bi i strateški, jer bi izgubila strateški izlaz Dunavom u Mađarsku, jer po međunarodnom pravu na kojem se bazira hrvatski prijedlog, Hrvatska bi prolazila kroz svoje ploveći ka Mađarskoj, dok bi Srbija za otploviti Dunavom u Mađarsku morala proći kroz Hrvatsku.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Srbija
Granica
Granice Srbije

Hrvatsko-srbijanska granica


Red Bricks (übersetzt etwa Rote Backsteine) ist der Name einer vierköpfigen Rockband aus Rosenheim (Südbayern).

Geschichte
Die Band wurde im Juni 2008 von Frontsänger und Gitarrist Kenta Wohlfahrt sowie Bassist Sebastian Zeitz im Internat Schloss Neubeuern gegründet. Später kamen Gitarrist Georg Wisböck und Schlagzeuger Jakob Schropp hinzu. Nach den ersten zwei EPs im April 2009 (Demo-Tape 1) und November 2009 (Demo-Tape 2) verließ Jakob Schropp die Band, um sich seinem Studium zu widmen. Er wurde durch Xaver Mayerl ersetzt.

Im Sommer 2011 wurde in den Hicktown Studios das erste Album produziert. Just Cause erschien am 16. Januar 2012 unter dem Label Hicktown Records und ist sowohl physisch als auch digital bei großen Anbietern erhältlich. Die 12 hochenergetischen Lieder ihres Debütalbums vereinen Rock Genres wie Britpop, Metal Riffs, Punkrock oder Off-Beats. Seit 2009 spielen sie in ganz Deutschland Festivals und Club-Shows. So standen sie unter anderem schon in Münchens Backstage und Muffathalle auf der Bühne und waren Vorgruppe der englischen Band Baddies. Im Sommer 2012 sind sie wieder auf Tour und bereits für einige Festivals gebucht.

Werk
Das Album wurde bereits von Bands wie Donots, Itchy Poopzkid oder The Subways gewürdigt und erhielt positive Kritiken von Seiten der Medien.
 "Live vermutlich eine absolute Granate und auch auf Platte insgesamt doch ziemlich gut. Die Red Bricks aus Rosenheim sollte man in Zukunft auf dem Zettel haben".
 "Sowohl in spiel- als auch in produktionstechnischer Hinsicht lässt die Scheibe hingegen keine Wünsche offen".
 "Just Cause" ist möglicherweise der Grundstein einer Karriere von vier verdammt coolen Typen.

Diskografie
 2009: Demo-Tape 1 (EP)
 2009: Demo-Tape 2 (EP)
 2012: Just Cause (Album, Hicktown Records)

Weblinks
 Red Bricks bei Facebook

Einzelnachweise

Rockband
Deutsche Band

Red Bricks


Friedrich Conrad Dietrich Wyneken (* 13. Mai 1810 in Verden an der Aller, Königreich Westphalen; † 4. Mai 1876 in San Francisco) war Missionar und Pastor in den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. Er diente außerdem 14 Jahre als zweiter Präsident der Lutherischen Kirche – Missouri-Synode. Ferner war er der erste Präsident des Concordia Theological Seminary, das er mitbegründet hatte.

Leben

Frühe Jahre und Ausbildung
Friedrich Conrad Dietrich Wyneken wurde am 13. Mai 1810 als Sohn des Pastors Heinrich Christoph Wyneken (1766–1815) und der Anne Catherine Louise Wyneken, geborene Meyer, in Verden an der Aller im damaligen Königreich Westphalen (später Königreich Hannover) geboren.

Friedrich Wyneken wurde am 22. Mai 1810 von seinem Vater in der Andreaskirche zu Verden getauft. Heinrich Wyneken starb fünf Jahre später und hinterließ elf Kinder und seine Witwe. Friedrich besuchte das Gymnasium in Verden. Im Alter von 17 Jahren immatrikulierte er sich an der Universität Göttingen, wechselte aber bald zur Universität Halle. Keine dieser Institutionen war für die dogmatische Lutherische Orthodoxie bekannt, die Wyneken später vertrat, vielmehr vertraten sie stark rationalistische Standpunkte. In Halle wurde Wyneken ein Student August Tholucks, eines begabten Linguisten, der an persönliche religiöse Erfahrungen glaubte.

Nach seinem Studienabschluss arbeitete Wyneken als Privatlehrer in Lesum (heute ein Stadtteil Bremens) im Hause des Konsistorialrats Georg von Hanffstengel, selbst ein "erweckter" Pastor. In dieser Zeit wurde Wyneken mehr von der Erweckungsbewegung beeinflusst, die von Tholuck geführt wurde. Er wurde am 8. Mai 1837 in Stade gemeinsam mit seinem Kommilitonen E. W. Wolff ordiniert. Alsbald sicherten sich die beiden eine freie Überfahrt nach Amerika bei einem "erweckten" Kapitän, Tönjes Stürje, und den Segen der Stader Bibel- und Missionsgesellschaft.

Auswanderung nach Amerika
Früh im Jahre 1838 segelte Wyneken über den Atlantik und erreichte Baltimore. Er bemerkte, dass im Folgejahr wöchentlich 5000 Deutsche allein den vergleichsweise nahen Hafen von Philadelphia erreichten, wobei die meisten vor wirtschaftlichen Schwierigkeiten, Krieg und politischer Unterdrückung in den verschiedenen deutschen Staaten flohen. Diese Einwanderung sollte sich bis zum Amerikanischen Bürgerkrieg fortsetzen. Wyneken arbeitete in Baltimore, wobei er für etwa ein Jahr dem kranken Pastor Johann Heaesbaert und einer gemischten Gemeinde aus Lutheranern und reformierten Mährern half.

Dann, als sich sein Mentor erholte, entsandte das lutherische Ministerium von Pennsylvanien Wyneken nach Westen, um den vielen evangelischen deutschen Landwirten zu dienen, die nach Ohio, Indiana und Michigan gezogen waren. In Pittsburgh traf er C. F. Schmidt, den Herausgeber der Lutherischen Kirchenzeitung, der sein Freund und Unterstützer werden sollte, setzte aber seine Evangelisierung westwärts fort. In den Counties Putnam und Allen in Ohio fand Wyneken Lutheraner, die seit Jahren keine Predigt mehr gehört hatten. So taufte er viele Kinder und entschied sich, seinen Amtsbrüdern in Deutschland von dem dringenden Bedürfnis nach ihrem Dienst in der Neuen Welt zu berichten. Er diente jedenfalls zuerst den Deutschen in Fort Wayne und der nahegelegenen Siedlung Friedheim, Preble Township (Indiana), im nordwestlichen Adams County, deren Pastor, Jesse Hoover, im Mai 1838 verstorben war. Dann machte er Fort Wayne, eine Transport- und Kanalstadt, zu seinem Stützpunkt, und reiste zwischen den verstreuten Siedlungen an der Michigan Road sowohl nach Norden als auch ins zentrale Indiana und das westliche Ohio.

Er schloss sich (trotz Zweifeln an deren wirtschaftlicher Lage) der Synode des Westens an und bat die Evangelisch-Lutherische Generalsynode der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika um mehr Kirchenpersonal, insbesondere für die frustrierende missionarische Erkundungsarbeit, als die verstreuten deutschen Protestanten ihre eigenen Kirchengemeinden gründen wollten. Während die Generalsynode über keinerlei Ressourcen verfügte, galt dies nicht für die vielen Missionsgesellschaften in Deutschland. Schon im Jahre 1840 hatte die Bremer (Missions-)Gesellschaft für evangelische Deutsche zwei Missionspastoren nach Amerika entsandt; sie sandte fünf weitere im Jahre 1842.

Am 31. August 1841 heiratete Wyneken Sophia Marie Wilhelmine Buuch (1824–1891), die Tochter des ersten Siedlers in Friedheim. Im selben Jahr sandte die Stader Missionsgesellschaft G. Jensen, um Wynekens pastorale Verpflichtungen an der Evangelisch-Lutherischen St. Pauls-Kirche in Fort Wayne zu übernehmen, während dieser mit seiner Frau zur medizinischen Behandlung einer Halskrankheit nach Deutschland zurückkehrte.

"Notruf"
Im Februar 1843 veröffentlichte Wyneken während dieses Deutschlandaufenthalts einen "Notruf" auf den starken Pfarrermangel der deutschen Lutheraner im Mittleren Westen der USA, der von Wilhelm Löhe in Deutschland verbreitet wurde. Durch diesen Text mit dem Titel "Die Noth der deutschen Lutheraner in Nordamerika" aufmerksam geworden, ließ sich Wilhelm Sihler mit zehn weiteren jungen Theologen dorthin senden. Wynekens Aufruf, gemeinsam mit seinen persönlichen Kontakten und Briefwechseln mit Wilhelm Löhe und Missionsgesellschaften in Hannover, Bremen, Erlangen, Breslau, Leipzig und Berlin innerhalb des folgenden Jahres, in dem er medizinisch behandelt wurde und sein erstes Kind großzog, brachte viele deutsche Geistliche und Theologiestudenten (22 davon durch Löhe selbst ausgebildet) dazu, nach Amerika auszuwandern. Der Aufruf wurde an vielen Orten befolgt und im Nachhinein als Meilenstein der Kirchengeschichte betrachtet.

Seine Beschreibung der unhaltbaren geistlichen Verhältnisse für lutherische Auswanderer in den USA war sehr plastisch. Gleichzeitig machte er nachdrücklich auf die Verantwortung der deutschen Lutheraner für ihre amerikanischen Glaubensgeschwister aufmerksam. Er wies auch auf den globalen Zusammenhang hin, nämlich dass in einem Zeitalter weltweiter Wanderungsbewegungen Entwicklungen innerhalb des amerikanischen Luthertums letzten Endes auch Einfluss auf das deutsche haben würden. Diese internationale Sichtweise Wynekens, die zuvor noch selten war, fand viele Anhänger und kann als Anfangspunkt einer Entwicklung angesehen werden, die letztlich zur Gründung von Organisationen wie dem Internationalen Lutherischen Rat oder dem Lutherischen Weltbund führte. Während heute eine gegenseitige internationale Unterstützung lutherischer Kirchen auf finanziellem oder personellem Wege üblich, oder zumindest ein Interesse an dem Ergehen von Lutheranern in anderen Ländern verbreitet ist, endete vor Wynekens Aufruf die Anteilnahme am Ergehen anderer Gemeinden insbesondere im vor der Reichsgründung zersplitterten Deutschland an der jeweiligen Landesgrenze, sofern sie überhaupt vorhanden war.

Als Wyneken im Mai 1843 mit Adolf Biewend, der bald einen Ruf einer Gemeinde nahe Washington, D.C. annahm, nach Amerika zurückkehrte, arbeiteten Löhe und Johann Friedrich Wucherer in Deutschland daran, Missionare nach Nordamerika zu entsenden, indem sie die "Kirchlichen Mitteilungen aus und über Nord-Amerika" veröffentlichten. 1845 wurde Wyneken Delegierter der Synode des Westens bei der Generalsynode.

Im September 1845 nahmen Wyneken, zwei seiner früheren Schüler, Sihler und die meisten der elf von Löhe nach Amerika entsandten Personen an einem Treffen in Cleveland teil. Dort beschlossen sie, sich wegen Lehrstreitigkeiten von der Ohio-Synode zu trennen, und die Gründung einer neuen lutherischen Synode anzustreben. Wyneken predigte bei dem Treffen und gab denen gute Ratschläge, die seinem Aufruf gefolgt waren. Er folgte dem Ruf einer Gemeinde in Baltimore, der er für fünf Jahre diente.

Präses der Missouri-Synode
Es folgten weitere Treffen; schließlich gründeten die jungen Menschen, die auf den "Notruf" Wynekens hin von Löhe ausgebildet und zur Betreuung lutherischer Auswanderer nach Amerika entsandt wurden, 1847 gemeinsam mit sächsischen Auswanderern um Carl Ferdinand Wilhelm Walther die Deutsche Evangelisch-Lutherische Synode von Missouri, Ohio und anderen Staaten, aus der die Lutherische Kirche – Missouri-Synode entstand, deren Präses Walther und direkt danach, im Jahre 1850, Wyneken selbst wurde, der mit ihm zusammengearbeitet hatte. Walther hatte auch das Concordia-Seminar in St. Louis gegründet. Wyneken lebte vier Jahre in dieser Stadt.

Einhundert Jahre nachdem der ebenfalls aus dem Kurfürstentum Braunschweig-Lüneburg stammende Henry Melchior Mühlenberg die Pastoren und Gemeinden des kolonialen Amerika zusammengebracht hatte, sammelte Wyneken gemeinsam mit Carl Ferdinand Wilhelm Walther die verstreuten deutschen Protestanten in konfessionell lutherischen Gemeinden und schmiedete sie in einer eng verbundenen Kirchenfamilie zusammen.

Unter Wynekens Führung lag das Hauptaugenmerk der Arbeit auf der Integration deutscher Einwanderer, beispielsweise indem ihnen Ansiedlungsmöglichkeiten in der Nähe anderer Deutscher verschafft wurden, durch Bau von Kirchen und kirchlichen Schulen, sowie die Ausbildung von Pfarrern und Lehrern. Durch persönliche Besuche bei jeder Gemeinde, Teilnahme an den meisten Synoden- und Distriktversammlungen, Ratschläge an Pfarrer und Gemeinden und die Schlichtung von Streitigkeiten gelang es ihm, eine vielgestaltige Synode aus selbstbewussten Gemeinden, Pastoren und Lehrern zu einer starken, konfessionellen Kirche zusammenzuführen. Es wurde versucht, den Bedürfnissen deutscher Einwanderer gerecht zu werden, indem Pfarrkandidaten zu ihnen als Besucher entsandt wurden. Später wurde versucht, Laien als Verbreiter und Händler religiöser Bücher einzusetzen, Gemeindepfarrer wurden angehalten, neue Gebiete zu erkunden. Sie sollten auch Siedlungen betreuen, in denen deutsche Lutheraner zuvor ohne eigenen Pfarrer auskommen mussten. Für besondere Aufgaben wurden Geistliche von Walther und Wyneken handverlesen. So wurden reitende Pastoren ausgebildet, die in bestimmten Gebieten Siedlungen reihum betreuen sollten. Wyneken hatte sein Amt für 14 Jahre inne, bis er 1864 aus Gesundheitsgründen zurücktreten musste; eine lange Zeit, an der die hohe Wertschätzung für seine Arbeit abzulesen ist. 1897 hatten die Gemeinden der Synode bereits 685.000 Mitglieder.

Lebensabend und Tod
Als sich Wynekens Gesundheit verschlechterte, zog er nach Cleveland und half ein Jahrzehnt lang seinem Sohn, der ebenfalls Pastor war. Dann reiste er nach Kalifornien, wo seine Tochter lebte, und er hoffte, dass das Klima seine Gesundheit fördere. Friedrich Conrad Dietrich Wyneken starb in San Francisco am 4. Mai 1876. Sein Schwiegersohn, Pastor Bühler, predigte bei der emotionsgeladenen Trauerfeier. Wynekens Körper wurde nach Osten gebracht und mehrere Trauerfeiern wurden in St. Louis und Fort Wayne abgehalten, bevor er schließlich in Cleveland beigesetzt wurde.

Wynekens missionarische Erfahrung und Methode sowie sein Missionsplan beeinflussten die amerikanische lutherische Mission für viele Jahre. Er wurde der "Donner nach dem Blitz" genannt. Sein Gedenktag im Kalender der Missouri-Synode ist der 4. Mai.

Während er als "unermüdlicher" Kirchenarbeiter betrachtet wurde, gestand er selbst, dass er "furchtbar unter Melancholie" leide.

Familie
Einige der älteren Mitglieder der Familie Wyneken und Verwandte waren kleinere Regierungsvertreter im Herzogtum Bremen-Verden, als dieses unter schwedischer Kontrolle stand. Die Familie Wyneken hatte eine lange lutherische Tradition, bevor Friedrich nach Amerika ging. Heinrich Wynekens Vater, sein Großvater und ein Bruder waren Pastoren in Hannover. Zwei ältere Brüder Friedrich Wynekens wurden ebenfalls Pastoren. Eine nennenswerte Anzahl entfernterer Verwandter und verschwägerter Personen waren ebenfalls lutherische Geistliche, beispielsweise Superintendent Justus Ruperti (1833–1899), Friedrichs Neffe.

Andere Verwandte Wynekens durchliefen militärische Karrieren im Kurfürstentum Hannover beziehungsweise dem Königreich Hannover. Friedrich Wynekens Großvater mütterlicherseits war als Rittmeister in Verden stationiert. Wynekens Cousin zweiten Grades Christian Wynecken (1783–1853) und dessen Bruder Friedrich (1782–1871) kämpften in der Königlich Deutschen Legion in Spanien und in der Schlacht von Waterloo; später wurde sie Generalleutnante in der Hannoverschen Armee. Viel später sollte ein Cousin dritten Grades, Hans Kannengiesser (1880–1970), in der Schlacht von Gallipoli kämpfen und später Generalleutnant werden.

Literatur
 Christoph Barnbrock: Ungleiche Partner. F.C.D. Wyneken (1810–1876) und C.F.W. Walther (1811–1887) in ihrer Eigenart. In: Lutherische Theologie und Kirche. 4/2011
 Gustav Hageman: Friedrich Konrad Dietrich Wyneken: Pioneer Missionary of the Nineteenth Century. Men and Missions Series. St. Louis: Concordia, 1926.

 Rudolph Rehmer: The Impact of Wyneken's Notruf. In: Missionary to America: The History of Lutheran Outreach to Americans. Essays and Reports of the Lutheran Historical Conference 15. St. Louis: Lutheran Historical Conference, 1992.
 Wilhelm Rothert: Allgemeine Hannoversche Biografie. Band 2: Im Alten Königreich Hannover 1814–1866. Hannover: Sponholtz, 1914, S. 505–513
 Edward John Saleska: Friedrich Conrad Dieterich Wyneken 1810–1876. STM thesis. St. Louis: Concordia Seminary, 1946.
 Robert E. Smith: Wyneken as Missionary. In: Daniel Harmelink (Hrsg.): Let Christ be Christ. Huntington Beach, CA: Tentatio Press, 1999. S. 321–340.
 Norman J. Threinen: Wyneken and 19th Century German Lutheranism: An Attempt to Mobilize Confessional Lutherans in Germany in Behalf of Lutherans in North America. In: Missionary to America: The History of Lutheran Outreach to Americans. Essays and Reports of the Lutheran Historical Conference 15. St. Louis: Lutheran Historical Conference, 1992.
 Norman J. Threinen: F.C.D. Wyneken: Motivator for the Mission. In: Concordia Theological Quarterly. 60 (1996) Nos. 1-2.

Weblinks
 Concordia Historical Institute
  von Pastor F. C. D. Wyneken
 Graebner, August Lawrence. Half a Century of Sound Lutherianism in America: A Brief Sketch of the History of the Missouri Synod. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1893.
 Johann Christoph Wilhelm Lindemann: Friedrich Konrad Dietrich Wyneken. An Evangelist Among the Lutherans of North America.

Einzelnachweise

Person des evangelischen Namenkalenders
Präses, Präsident oder Moderator einer Synode
Evangelischer Missionar
Lutherischer Geistlicher (19. Jahrhundert)
Deutscher Emigrant in den Vereinigten Staaten
Person des Christentums (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1810
Gestorben 1876
Mann

Friedrich Wyneken (Missionar)


En drøm er en dansk animationsfilm fra 2012 med instruktion og manuskript af Malte Pedersson.

Handling
Filmen er en historie om et mareridt. En ung kvinde ønsker sig et barn, men hun mangler en mand at få det med. Hun møder mænd der gør tilnærmelser, men hun synes ikke om nogen af dem, og hun er begyndt at føle sig ensom.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Animationsfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2012

En drøm


George Alexander Kelly (April 28, 1905 – March 6, 1967) was an American psychologist, therapist, educator and personality theorist. He is considered the father of cognitive clinical psychology and is best known for his theory of personality, personal construct psychology.

Biography

George Alexander Kelly was born in 1905 on a farm near Perth, Kansas to two strictly religious parents. He was their only child. They moved frequently during his childhood years, resulting in a fragmented early education. He later attended Friends University and Park College, where he received a bachelor's degree in physics and mathematics. Early on, he was interested in social problems, and he went on to get his master's degree in sociology at the University of Kansas, where he wrote a thesis on workers' leisure activities. He also completed minor studies in labor relations.

Kelly taught at various colleges and other institutions, with course topics ranging from speech-making to "Americanization". In 1929, after receiving an exchange scholarship, he completed a Bachelor of Education degree at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, writing a thesis dealing with the prediction of teaching success. He then returned to the United States to continue psychology studies and completed a graduate and doctoral degrees in psychology at the State University of Iowa in 1931. After he received his Ph.D in Psychology, Kelly worked as a psychotherapist in Kansas. His dissertation was on speech and reading disabilities. For some years before World War II, Kelly worked in school psychology, developing a program of traveling clinics which also served as a training ground for his students. He had a keen interest in clinical diagnosis. It was during this period that Kelly left behind this interest in psychoanalytic approach to human personality, because he said people were more troubled by natural disasters than any psychological issue, such as the libidinal forces.

During World War II, Dylan Brundage and Kelly worked as aviation psychologists, where, among other things, Kelly was responsible for a training program for local civilian pilots. After the war, he was appointed professor and director of clinical psychology at the Ohio State University, where he remained for twenty years. Under his guidance, OSU's graduate psychology training programs became some of the best in the United States, offering a unique blend of clinical skills and a strong commitment to scientific methodology.

It is also at OSU that Kelly developed his major contribution to the psychology of personality. The Psychology of Personal Constructs was published in 1955 and achieved immediate international recognition, gaining him visiting appointments at various universities in the US as well as in Europe, the former Soviet Union, South America, the Caribbean, and Asia. He was also elected president of the clinical and the consulting divisions of the American Psychological Association, and served as president of the American Board of Examiners in Professional Psychology, providing expertise and insight, especially regarding ethical issues.

Kelly went on a world tour in 1961, invited to speak about his essays and articles all over the country. In 1964, Kelly wrote a paper for the First Old Saybrook Conference, which has been renamed to Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP). Kelly's paper, "The threat of aggression", was later published in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. Kelly transferred from Ohio State University to Brandeis University in the United States for the psychology department.

Kelly noted: "Johann Herbart's work on education and particularly mathematical psychology influenced me. I think mathematics is the pure instance of construct functioning—the model of human behavior" Although Kelly was influenced by Herbart—a philosopher, psychologist, and founder of pedagogy as an academic discipline—some of Kelly's inspiration for the theory of personal constructs came from a close friend of his. Namely, this friend had been an actor in some drama in college, and for two or three weeks he really got into his character and lived it as it was the real him. Kelly, unlike many people who would see this only as a sheer affectation, thought this was the expression of his real self and the behavior was authentic.

Kelly also worked extensively on researching the implications and applications of his theory, while continuing to work in clinical psychology. Joseph Rychlak is among his prominent students who expanded on his theories. Brendan A. Maher, who became a professor himself, published a selection of Kelly's essays and articles after his death.  Kelly had all his students refer to him as "Professor Kelly", however when they would receive a Ph.D. dissertation they could call him George and he would also call them by their first name instead of "Miss", "Mrs.", or "Mister".

George Kelly died on March 6, 1967, at the age of 61, just two years after accepting the Riklis Chair of Behavioral Science at Brandeis University.

Kelly's ideas are still used in today's findings to explore personality into greater depths. His ideas also help to uncover the patterns of behavior.

Work

Kelly's concerns

Kelly did not like his theory being compared to other theories. Oftentimes, people believed Kelly's personal construct theory was similar to humanistic theories or cognitive theories, but Kelly thought of his theory as its own category of theories. Some say Kelly was similar to Ulric Neisser, "the father of cognitive psychology", because they both studied cognitive psychology characteristics, others say Kelly was similar to Abraham Maslow, the creator of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, because they both studied humanistic psychology characteristics. Although Kelly's research had some humanistic psychology characteristics, it differed from that field in many ways as well. Kelly rejected being labelled as a cognitive psychologist—to the extent that he almost wrote another book stating his theory had no link to cognitive theories.

Kelly saw that current theories of personality were so loosely defined and difficult to test that in many clinical cases the observer contributed more to the diagnosis than the patient. If people took their problems to a Freudian analyst, they would be analysed in Freudian terms; a Jungian would interpret them in Jungian terms; a behaviourist would interpret them in terms of conditioning; and so on.

Kelly acknowledged that both the therapist and patient would each bring a unique set of constructs to bear in the consulting room. Therefore, the therapist could never be completely "objective" in construing their client's world. The effective therapist was, however, one who construed the patient's material at a high level of abstraction within the patient's (as opposed to the therapist's) system of construction. The therapist could then comprehend the ways in which the patient saw the world that were disordered and help the patient to change their maladaptive constructs.

Personal construct psychology

Kelly's fundamental view of personality was that people are like naive scientists who see the world through a particular lens, based on their uniquely organized systems of construction, which they use to anticipate events. Personal construct theory explores the individual's map they form by coping with the psychological stresses of their lives. But because people are naive scientists, they sometimes employ systems for construing the world that are distorted by idiosyncratic experiences not applicable to their current social situation. A system of construction that chronically fails to characterize and/or predict events, and is not appropriately revised to comprehend and predict one's changing social world, is considered to underlie psychopathology (or mental illness.)

The body of Kelly's work, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, was written in 1955 when Kelly was a professor at Ohio State University. The first three chapters of the book were republished by W. W. Norton in paperback in 1963 and consist only of his theory of personality which is covered in most personality books. The re-publication omitted Kelly's assessment technique, the rep grid test, and one of his techniques of psychotherapy (fixed role therapy), which is rarely practiced in the form he proposed.

Kelly believed that each person had their own idea of what a word meant. If someone were to say their sister is shy, the word "shy" would be interpreted in different ways depending on the person's personal constructs they had already associated with the word "shy". Kelly wanted to know how the individual made sense of the world based on their constructs. Kelly believed that a person's own meaning and definition is the foundation of who and what that person is and helps give shape to a person's idea of what the world is based on their individual constructs.

On the other hand, Kelly's fundamental view of people as naive scientists was incorporated into most later-developed forms of cognitive-behavioral therapy that blossomed in the late 70s and early 80s, and into intersubjective psychoanalysis which leaned heavily on Kelly's phenomenological perspective and his notion of schematic processing of social information. Kelly's personality theory was distinguished from drive theories (such as psychodynamic models) on the one hand, and from behavioral theories on the other, in that people were not seen as solely motivated by instincts (such as sexual and aggressive drives) or learning history but by their need to characterize and predict events in their social world. Because the constructs people developed for construing experience have the potential to change, Kelly's theory of personality is less deterministic than drive theory or learning theory. People could conceivably change their view of the world and in so doing change the way they interacted with it, felt about it, and even others' reactions to them. For this reason, it is an existential theory, regarding humankind as having a choice to reconstrue themselves, a concept Kelly referred to as constructive alternativism. Constructs provide a certain order, clarity, and prediction to a person's world. Kelly referenced many philosophers in his two volumes but the theme of new experience being at once novel and familiar (due to the templates placed on it) is closely akin to the notion of Heraclitus: "we step and do not step in the same rivers." Experience is new but familiar to the extent that it is construed with historically derived constructs.

Kelly defined constructs as bipolar categories—the way two things are alike and different from a third—that people employ to understand the world. Examples of such constructs are "attractive," "intelligent," "kind." A construct always implies contrast. So when an individual categorizes others as attractive, or intelligent, or kind, an opposite polarity is implied. This means that such a person may also evaluate the others in terms of the constructs "ugly," "stupid," or "cruel." In some cases, when a person has a disordered construct system, the opposite polarity is unexpressed or idiosyncratic. The importance of a particular construct varies among individuals. The adaptiveness of a construct system is measured by how well it applies to the situation at hand and is useful in predicting events. All constructs are not used in every situation because they have a limited range (range of convenience). Adaptive people are continually revising and updating their own constructs to match new information (or data) that they encounter in their experience.

Kelly's theory was structured as a testable scientific treatise with a fundamental postulate and a set of corollaries.

 Fundamental postulate: "A person's processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he [or she] anticipates events."
 The construction corollary: "a person anticipates events by construing their replications." This means that individuals anticipate events in their social world by perceiving a similarity with a past event (construing a replication).
 The experience corollary: "a person's construction system varies as he successively construes the replication of events."
 The dichotomy corollary: "a person's construction system is composed of a finite number of dichotomous constructs."
 The organization corollary: "each person characteristically evolves, for his convenience in anticipating events, a construction system embracing ordinal relationships between constructs."
 The range corollary: "a construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite range of events only."
 The modulation corollary: "the variation in a person's construction system is limited by the permeability of the constructs within whose range of convenience the variants lie."
 The choice corollary: "a person chooses for himself that alternative in a dichotomized construct through which he anticipates the greater possibility for extension and definition of his system."
 The individuality corollary: "persons differ from each other in their construction of events."
 The commonality corollary: "to the extent that one person employs a construction of experience which is similar to that employed by another, his psychological processes are similar to the other person."
 The fragmentation corollary: "a person may successively employ a variety of construction subsystems which are inferentially incompatible with each other."
 The sociality corollary: "to the extent that one person construes the construction processes of another, he may play a role in a social process involving the other person."

Disordered constructs are those in which the system of construction is not useful in predicting social events and fails to change to accommodate new information. In many ways, Kelly's theory of psychopathology (or mental disorders) is similar to the elements that define a poor theory. A disordered construct system does not accurately predict events or accommodate new data.

Dimensions of transitions

Transitional periods in a person's life occur when they encounter a situation that changes their naive theory (or system of construction) of the way the world is ordered. They can create anxiety, hostility, and/or guilt and can also be opportunities to change one's constructs and the way one views the world.

The terms anxiety, hostility, and guilt had unique definitions and meanings in personal construct theory (The Psychology of Personal Constructs, Vol. 1, 486–534).

Anxiety develops when a person encounters a situation that their construct system does not cover, an event unlike any they have encountered. An example of such a situation is a woman from the western United States who is accustomed to earthquakes, who moves to the eastern United States and experiences great anxiety because of a hurricane. While an earthquake might be of greater magnitude, she experiences greater anxiety with the hurricane because she has no constructs to deal with such an event. She is caught "with her constructs down." Similarly, a boy who has been abused in early childhood may not have the constructs to accommodate kindness from others. Such a boy might experience anxiety in an outstretched hand that others view as benevolent.

Guilt is dislodgement from one's core constructs. A person feels guilt if they fail to confirm the constructs that define them. This definition of guilt is radically different from in other theories of personality. Kelly used the example of the man who regards others as cow-like creatures "making money and giving milk." Such a man might construe his role in relationship to others in terms of his ability to con favors or money from them. Such a man, who other psychologists might call a ruthless psychopath, and see as unable to experience guilt, feels guilt, according to Kelly's theory, when he is unable to con others: He is then alienated from his core constructs.

Hostility is "attempting to extort confirmation of a social prediction that is already failing." When a person encounters a situation in which they expect one outcome and receive quite a different one, they should change their theory or constructs rather than trying to change the situation to match their constructs. But the person who continually refuses to modify their belief system to accommodate new data, and in fact tries to change the data, is acting in bad faith and with hostility. Hostility, in Kelly's theory, is analogous to a scientist "fudging" their data. An example might be a professor who sees himself as a brilliant educator who deals with poor student reviews by devaluing the students or the means of evaluation.

Rep test

Rep stands for repertory grid. In 1955, George Kelly created an interactive grid known as the rep test based on his personal construct theory. The repertory grid is a mathematical way of giving meaning to one's own, or other people's, personal constructs. The repertory grid test needs a set of elements (such as people or things), and a set of constructs created by the individual. The test asks a person to list people or things that are important, then the responses are split into groups of three. There are three role-titles in each row; the person is to think how two of the constructs are alike, and how the other is different from the two that are alike. The responses are sorted into two poles, an emergent pole and implicit pole. The emergent pole is the way in which two elements are similar, while the implicit pole is the way in which the third element differs from the two that are similar. After extracting a construct, the individual analyzes the role-titles and checks the elements that are best described under the emergent pole and leaves blank the elements best described under the implicit pole. Kelly's repertory grid test can be used in many different situations, from clinical psychology to marketing, due to its ability to apply constructs to any kind of event. Kelly believed the repertory grid provided a "basis for a mathematics of psychological space"—a way to mathematically model any person's "psychological space".

Publications, a selection

1955: The psychology of personal constructs. Vol. I, II. Norton, New York. (2nd printing: 1991, Routledge, London, New York)
1963: A theory of personality. The psychology of personal constructs. Norton, New York (= Chapt. 1-3 of Kelly 1955).
1969: Clinical psychology and personality: The selected papers of George Kelly. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

References

External links

1905 births
1967 deaths
Constructivism (psychological school)
20th-century American psychologists
American social psychologists
Park University alumni
Friends University alumni
University of Kansas alumni
University of Iowa alumni
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
People from Sheldon, Iowa

George Kelly (psychologist)


කොන්ක්ලෙව් හෙවත් රහස් සකච්ජා කුටිය ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන්නේ රෝමය සඳහා වන රදගුරුතුමකු තෝරා පත්කර ගැනීමටත් විශ්ව කතෝලික සභාවේ දෘෂ්‍යමාන නායකයාණන් හෙවත් පේදුරු තුමන්ගේ අනුප්‍රප්තිකයාණන් වන පාප් තුමන් තෝරා පත්කර ගැනීමටත් කාදිනල්වරුන් රැස්වන ස්ථානයයි. වසර දහස් ගණනක් පුරාවට පාප්තුමන් තෝරා පත්කර ගැනීමට කොන්ක්ලෙව් හෙවත් රහස් සකච්ජා කුටිය භාවිතා විය. කොන්ක්ලෙව් කුටිය හැඳින්වෙන්නේ යම් සංවිධානයකට නායකයකු තෝරා පත්කර ගැනීම සඳහා භාවිතා කරන ඉපැරණිතම ක්‍රමවේදය හැටියටය. කොන්ක්ලෙව් කුටිය වර්තමානයේ පිහිටා තිබෙන්නේ සිස්ටයින් දෙව්මැදුරේ අපෝස්තලික මන්දිරයේ ය.කොන්ක්ලෙව් කුටිය වර්තමානයේ පිහිටා තිබෙන්නේ සිස්ටයින් දෙව්මැදුරේ අපෝස්තලික මන්දිරයේ ය. අපෝස්තලික යුගයේ සිටම සෙසු රදගුරුවරුන්තෝරාගන්නා පරිද්දෙන්ම රෝමයේ රදගුරුතුමන් පදවියේ පූජ්ය පක්ෂයේ හා ගිහි ජනතාවගේ සම්මුතියකට අනුව තෝරා ගන්නා ලදී. වර්ෂ 1059දි පාප්තුමකු තෝරාපත්කර ගැනීම සඳහා සහභාගි විය යුතු ඡන්ද හිමියන් කව්රුන්ද යන්න නිශ්චිතව දක්වන ලදි. එහිදි කාදිනල්වරුන්ට පමණක් ඡන්දය භාවිතා කිරීමට අවස්තාව ලබා දෙන ලදි. කාලයෙන් කාලයට මෙම සම්ප්‍රදායන් නවීකරණයට ලක් විය. 1970 දී VI වැනි පාවුලු පාප්තුමා විසින් වයස අවුරුදු 80ට අඩු කාදිනල්වරුන්ට පමණක් ඡන්දය භාවිතා කිරීමට සීමා පනවන ලදි.  වර්තමානයේ භාවිතා වන ක්‍රමවේදය ස්ථාපිත කරන ලද්දේ දෙවන ජුවාම් පාවුලු පාප්තුමා විසින්  නිකුත් කරන ලද Universi Dominici gregis නම් අපෝස්තලික ව්යවස්ථාව මගිනි. දහසයවන බෙනඩික් පාප් තුමන් විසින් මෙම ක්‍රමවේදය දෙවරක් සංශෝදනය කරන ලදි. ඒ අනුව පාප් තුමකු වශයෙන් තෝරා පත්කර ගැනීම සඳහා යම් කාදිනල් තුමකු තුනෙන් දෙකකට වැඩි බහුතර ජන්ද ප්‍රමාණයක් හිමිකරගත යුතු අතර එලෙස තේරී පත්වන කාදිනල්තුමා පාප් තුමකු ලෙස කටයුතු කිරීමට තම නිදහස් කැමැත්තෙන්ම ඉදිරිපත් වීමද අවශ්‍ය වේ.

කොන්ක්ලෙව් කුටිය


Over the course of English parliamentary history there were a number of Acts of Uniformity. All had the basic object of establishing some sort of religious orthodoxy within the Church of England.

The Act of Uniformity 1548 (2 & 3 Edw. 6. c. 1), also called Act of Equality, which established the Book of Common Prayer as the only legal form of worship
The Act of Uniformity 1552 (5 & 6 Edw. 6. c. 1) required the use of the Book of Common Prayer of 1552
The Act of Uniformity 1559 (1 Eliz. 1. c. 2), adopted on the accession of Elizabeth I
The Act of Uniformity 1662 (14 Cha. 2. c. 4), enacted after the restoration of the monarchy
The Act of Uniformity (Explanation) Act 1663 (15 Cha. 2. c. 6)
The Act of Uniformity Amendment Act 1872, modified the preceding acts

See also
Act of Supremacy
Nonconformist
Conformist
Test Act
Conventicle Act 1664
Occasional Conformity Act 1711
Religion in the United Kingdom
Religious uniformity
List of short titles

Acts of the Parliament of England concerning religion
History of the Church of England
Christianity and law in the 16th century

Act of Uniformity


Wild Germany ist ein Reportage-Format mit dem freien Journalisten Manuel Möglich auf dem ZDF-Spartensender ZDFneo.

Das Konzept der Sendung zeigt den meisten Zuschauern weitgehend unbekannte soziale Gruppen oder Phänomene in Deutschland.

Im Juni 2021 ist Wild Germany als Spotify Original Podcast erschienen.

Folgen

Auszeichnungen
Wild Germany wurde 2011 für den deutschen Fernsehpreis in der Kategorie "Beste Reportage" nominiert.

Weblinks

Literatur
 Hendrik Neubauer, Arnd Rüskamp: Wild Germany – Wir gehen dahin, wo es wehtut. Heel Verlag, Königswinter 2011, ISBN 978-3-86852-509-0.

Einzelnachweise

Fernsehsendung (Deutschland)
ZDFneo

Wild Germany


The following is a list of national parks in Turkey.

History
The concept of a national park was introduced for the first time in Turkey by Selahattin İnal, who argued that "nature reserves should have the status of a national park and they should be determined according to natural beauty and touristic potential criteria." The concept was included in the 25th article of the Forest Law adopted on 31 August 1956, and was included in the legal plane for the first time. The General Directorate of Forestry, which is given the responsibility of the national parks by law, is authorized to declare a national park for the purpose of using it as a scientific and public sports and recreation area, provided that the fauna and flora of the forested areas are preserved. Until 1983, only areas that had forest cover fell within the category of national parks, but the National Parks Law, which was adopted on 9 August 1983, new protection statuses such as nature parks, nature preserve areas, and nature monuments were established and areas with historical, touristic or cultural values could now be declared as national parks even if they were not covered by forests.
 According to the current version of the law, the declaration of a new national park falls within the powers of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, which takes the advice of the Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning on zoning, and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism on historical and touristic matters.

In the cases where the area set to become a national park consists of lands belonging to the public as well as fields belonging to the individuals, the area is taken under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, which can use measures such as expropriation, transfer, allocation or donation under the Expropriation Law. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has the right to organize, manage, or operate national parks. The right to operate is valid only for national parks not covered by the state forests, and the right to operate the state forests cannot be transferred in accordance with article 169 of the constitution. The management of the national parks is directly done by the Directorate of National Parks, a subbranch of the General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, which itself is controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

Yozgat Pine Grove National Park, one of the remaining ruins of the ancient forests in Central Anatolia, was declared Turkey's first national park on 5 February 1958. Antalya has the highest number of national parks among the provinces by having five national parks within its boundaries. With a height of  and an area of , Mount Ararat National Park is Turkey's largest and highest national park. The last area to be declared a national park was Botan Valley National Park, which was listed on 15 August 2019. Turkey has a total of 44 national parks, which cover an area of .

Key

National parks

National parks by province

Former national parks

Map

References
Inline citations

Sources

External links

 National parks map system

National parks
Turkey

National parks

List of national parks of Turkey


Calle King-Old Town es una estación elevada en la línea Amarilla y la línea Azul del Metro de Washington, administrada por la Autoridad de Tránsito del Área Metropolitana de Washington. La estación se encuentra localizada la Calle King en Alexandria en Virginia.

Conexiones
WMATA MetrobusDASH
la Alexandria Union Station está a través de esta estación; se puede hacer transferencia al VRE y Amtrak.

Lugares de interés
 George Washington Masonic National Memorial
 Oficina de Patentes y Marcas de Estados Unidos (PTO)
 Universidad Regent, campus Alexandria

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 WMATA: King Street Station
 StationMasters Online: King Street Station
 The Schumin Web Transit Center: King Street Station
 south entrance from Google Maps Street View
 King Street entrance from Google Maps Street View
 Commonwealth Avenue entrance from Google Maps Street View

Estaciones de Metro de Estados Unidos inauguradas en 1983
Transporte de Alexandria
Estaciones de la línea Amarilla (Metro de Washington)
Estaciones de la línea Azul (Metro de Washington)

Calle King–Old Town (Metro de Washington)


Em genética, expressividade é o grau em que um fenótipo é expresso por indivíduos que possuem um genótipo particular. A expressividade está relacionada com a intensidade de um determinado fenótipo; difere da penetrância, que se refere à proporção de indivíduos com um determinado genótipo que realmente expressam o fenótipo.

Expressividade variável
A expressividade variável refere-se ao grau em que um genótipo é fenotipicamente expresso. Por exemplo, várias pessoas com a mesma doença podem ter o mesmo genótipo, mas uma pode expressar sintomas mais graves, enquanto outra portadora pode parecer normal. Essa variação na expressão pode ser afetada por genes modificadores, fatores epigenéticos ou pelo ambiente. Os genes modificadores podem alterar a expressão de outros genes de forma aditiva ou multiplicativa. Ou seja, o fenótipo observado pode ser o resultado da soma ou multiplicação de dois alelos diferentes. No entanto, também pode ocorrer uma redução na expressão em que o lócus primário, onde o fenótipo é expresso, é afetado. Fatores epigenéticos, como elementos cis-regulatórios, também podem causar variabilidade na expressão induzindo variação na abundância de transcritos.

Exemplos

Três síndromes comuns que envolvem variabilidade fenotípica devido à expressividade incluem: síndrome de Marfan, síndrome de Van der Woude e neurofibromatose.

As características da síndrome de Marfan variam amplamente entre os indivíduos. A síndrome afeta o tecido conjuntivo do corpo e tem um espectro de sintomas que vão desde o envolvimento ósseo e articular leve até formas neonatais graves e doenças cardiovasculares. Essa diversidade de sintomas é resultado da expressividade variável do gene FBN1 encontrado no cromossomo 15 (veja a figura 1). O produto do gene está envolvido na montagem adequada de microfibrilas.

A síndrome de Van der Woude é uma condição que afeta o desenvolvimento da face, especificamente um lábio leporino (ver figura 2), fenda palatina ou ambos. Portadores da mutação também podem ter depressões perto do centro do lábio inferior, que podem parecer úmidas devido à presença de glândulas salivares. Os fenótipos resultantes expressos variam significativamente entre os indivíduos. Essa variação pode ser tão ampla que um estudo publicado pelo Departamento de Ortodontia da Universidade de Atenas mostrou que alguns indivíduos não sabiam que possuíam o genótipo para essa condição até serem testados.

A neurofibromatose (NF1), também conhecida como doença de Von Recklinghausen, é um distúrbio genético causado por uma mutação no gene da neurofibromina NF1 no cromossomo 17. Uma mutação de perda de função no gene supressor de tumor pode causar tumores nos nervos chamados neurofibromas. Estes aparecem como pequenos inchaços sob a pele. É estipulado que a variação fenotípica é resultado de modificadores genéticos não ligados.

Bibliografia

Genética

Expressividade


Herrernes enkeltstart ved EM i landevejscykling 2017 blev afholdt den 3. august i Herning i Danmark. Det var den 2. enkeltstart for herrer ved EM.

Enkeltstarten blev vundet af belgiske Victor Campenaerts, efterfulgt af polske Maciej Bodnar og irske Ryan Mullen.

Deltagere

Danske ryttere
 Martin Toft Madsen
 Mads Würtz Schmidt

Resultater

Eksterne henvisninger

Enkeltstart (herrer)

EM i landevejscykling 2017 – Enkeltstart (herrer)


Higson est un patronyme pouvant désigner:

Patronyme
Allison Higson (née en 1973), nageuse canadienne
Charlie Higson (né en 1958), auteur britannique de comédies
 (né en 1983), actrice anglaise
 (1887-1958), joueur anglais de rugby
Kenneth Higson (1934-1988), homme politique canadien en Ontario
 (1908-1974), joueur anglais de rugby
Nigel Higson (né en 1963), mathématicien canadien

Voir aussi
(3025) Higson, astéroïde de la ceinture principale

Homonymie de patronyme

Higson


La golondrina cabecinegra o golondrina gorra negra (Notiochelidon pileata) es una especie de ave paseriforme de la familia Hirundinidae nativa de América Central, incluyendo El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala y México. Su hábitat consiste de bosque húmedo tropical y subtropical, áreas cultivadas y áreas urbanas. No tiene subespecies reconocidas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

pileata
Aves de América Central
Taxones descritos por John Gould
Animales descritos en 1858

Notiochelidon pileata


Trott's Pond je malo jezero na sjeveroistoku Bermuda. Kao i mnoga Bermudska jezera, ono je boćato jer se nalazi blizu Atlantskog oceana.

Jezero se nalazi u župi Hamilton istočno od Harrington Sounda i 800 metara sjeveroistočno od većeg Jezera mangrova.

Izvori

Reljefni oblici na Bermudima
Jezera u britanskim prekomorskim područjima
Jezera u Sjevernoj Americi

Trott's Pond


Funktion 3+1 er en dansk eksperimentalfilm fra 1995, der er instrueret af Bynke Maibøll, Morten Meldgaard og Andreas Trägårdh.

Handling
En spionrejse gennem Mellemeuropa, besat af totalitær pornografisk arkitektur - frygtløs og tro.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1995

Eksperimentalfilm fra Danmark

Funktion 3+1


Planeta Petrila este un film românesc din 2016 regizat de Andrei Dăscălescu. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Ion Barbu, Cătălin Cenușă.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2016 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2016
Filme documentare românești

Planeta Petrila


حاجب العين شريط على شكل قوس تشكله شعيرات تنمو أعلى عين الإنسان. يساهم الحاجب في حماية العين من قطرات العرق أو المطر وغيرهما.

تعبيرات
يستعين البشر بحواجب العين للتعبير عن حالات شعورية كالغضب أو الحيرة أو الإستغراب.

عناية
يقوم بعض الأشخاص وأغلبهم نساء بإعطاء شكل مميز للحواجب وذلك بقص بعضها لإضفاء صيغة جمالية. وعند آخرين وبسبب عدم الظهور بصفة كافية، يلجأ إلى الرسم بالقلم لما يشبه الحاجب.

الحواجب في الثقافة
 تناوله عدد من شعراء العرب والفرس، مثل عمر الخيام، وتغنوا بجمال النساء وأثر حاجب العين الإغوائي في سلب ألباب الرجال.
 يتداول الناس المثل الشعبي «العين لا تعلى على الحاجب» .

الحاجب الوحيد

عند بعض الأشخاص ينمو شعر زائد بين الحاجبين وعند كثافته يعطي الانطباع بالالتصاق الحاجبين أو ما يسمى بالحاجب الوحيد

معرض صور

مراجع

تشريح
ملامح الوجه
حاجب عين

حاجب عين


Garayska abeceda je abecedno pismo posebno sastavljeno za pisanje wolofskog jezika, jezika kojim govori stanovništvo u Senegalu i dijelovima Gambije i Mauretanije. Tradicijski se wolofski jezik pisao prilagođenom inačicom arapskog pisma zvanim wolofal. Ona je danas najraširenija. Raste uporaba latinice nakon što ju je senegalska vlada proglasila službenim pismom pisanja wolofskog jezika. Latinični pravopis za wolofski jezik standardiziran je 1974. godine. Piše se s desna na lijevo kao arabicom i neki znakovi sliče na arabične. Ima 25 suglasnika i 14 samoglasnika.

Počelo je pozivom senegalskog predsjednika Sedara "skupimo stijenje i izgradimo ovu novu zemlju" na godišnjicu obljetnice senegalske neovisnosti od Francuske. El Hadji Assane Faye je stvorio garaysku abecedu 1961. godine. Šetao je plažom blizu svog sela, razmišljao je što nedostaje njegovoj zemlji i kako bi joj mogao pridonijeti. Došao je do pećine Garaya. Riječ garay znači "bjelina pamukovog cvijeta". Nazvana je po bjelini svoje nutrine. Došla mu je vizija. Našao je oblike u pijesku. Zvao je prijatelja da mu donese nešto na čemu će pisati i tako je nastalo garaysko pismo.

Pedesetak godina otkako je izmišljen još uvijek ga se neformalno podučava. Godine 2016. predan je zahtjev da se napravi Unicode za garaysko pismo.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Atlas of the Endangered Alohabets
ScriptSource
Facebook
YouTube Garay Alphabet Introduction

Pismo
Senegal

Garaysko pismo


The flag of Alberta is an official symbol of the province of Alberta,  Canada. In 1968, the provincial legislature authorized the design of a flag, adopting it on 1 June 1968.

The flag has the proportions 1:2, with the provincial shield of arms in the centre of an ultramarine blue background.  The shield's height is  that of the flag's height.

The provincial colours, adopted in 1984, are blue and gold (deep yellow); they are also referred to as "Alberta blue" and "Alberta gold", appearing on the flag/shield in the sky/background and wheat background, respectively.

In 2001, a survey conducted by the North American Vexillological Association (NAVA) placed the Alberta provincial flag 35th in design quality out of the 72 Canadian provincial, U.S. state, and U.S. territory flags ranked.

History
Around the time of the upcoming centennial celebration of Canadian Confederation petitions were submitted in November 1966 to Premier Ernest Charles Manning by the Social Credit Women's Auxiliaries of the Alberta Social Credit League to give Alberta its own unique flag. The flag was designed and approved as the official provincial flag by the Alberta legislature on June 1, 1968.

The Calgary Flames used the flag as a shoulder patch on their home and away uniforms from 2007 to 2020.

Gallery

See also
List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
Coat of arms of Alberta
Symbols of Alberta

References

Sources
 Franco, Guida (2006). Canadian Almanac & Directory 2006. Toronto: Micromedia ProQuest. .

External links

 Legislative Assembly of Alberta – The Citizen's Guide to the Alberta Legislature, Part V: The Emblems of Alberta
 Arms and flag of Alberta in the online Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges

Flag
Flags of Canada
Flags introduced in 1968

Flag of Alberta


1975 වර්ෂයේ තිරගත වූ සිංහල චිත්‍රපට ලැයිස්තව පහත දැක්වේ.

මේවාද බලන්න
 සිංහල සිනමාව
 සිංහල චිත්‍රපට ලැයිස්තුව

1975 සිංහල චිත්‍රපට ලැයිස්තුව