Isla de La Certosa (en italiano: Isola della Certosa) es una isla en la laguna de Venecia, al norte de Italia. Se encuentra al noroeste de Venecia, a menos de 250 metros de San Pietro di Castello, y a poco más de 500 metros de la isla Lido de Venecia, con una canal de cerca de 20 metros de ancho que la separa de la isla de Vignole. La Certosa tiene una superficie aproximada de 22 hectáreas.

La isla albergó una comunidad de frailes agustinos a partir de 1199. Después de dos siglos, la isla abandonada fue cedida a la Orden de los Cartujos, el edificio religioso anterior sufrió un proceso de restauración desde 1490 hasta 1505. Después de la conquista napoleónica de Venecia, se convirtió en una instalación militar.

Véase también
 Geografía de Italia
 Geografía de Europa

Referencias

 Busato, Davide; Paola Sfameni (2009). L'isola della Certosa di Venezia, ambiente e storia tra passato e presente. Venice: Centro Studi Riviera del Brenta.

Islas de la laguna de Venecia

La Certosa


Aspagur III. od Iberije ili Varaz-Bakur II. (gruz. ვარაზ-ბაკურ II), iz dinastije Hozroida, bio je kralj Iberije (Kartlija, istočna Gruzija), od 380. do 394. godine. Naslijedio je na prijestolju svog oca Mitridata III. Bio je oženjen kćerkom Trdata, njegovog rođaka i nasljednika. Gruzijske kronike pripisuju mu izgradnju crkve Cilkani. Tijekom njegove vladavine, Rimsko Carstvo je potpisalo Acilisenski mir sa sasanidskim Iranom u kojem je priznalo gubitak Iberije i većeg dijela Armenije. Njegova dva sina, Farsman IV. i Mitridat IV., bili su kraljevi Iberije nakon kralja Trdata.

Izvori

Kraljevi Iberije

Aspagur III. od Iberije


Ferdinand "Ferdy" Doernberg (Bad Hersfeld, Njemačka, 10. lipnja 1967.) je njemački heavy metal glazbenik, klavijaturist, gitarist, pjevač i producent.

Životopis

Doernberg je rođen kao sin evangelističkog pastora, Martina Doernberga. Godine 1973. počeo je svirati glasovir, kasnije svira gitare i trube.

Prvi sastav gdje je Doernberg svirao bio The Wabbles. Godine 1989. Doernberg osnovao je sastav Rough Silk gdje svira do danas. Godine 1998. pridružio se sastavu gitarista Axela Rudija Pella. Prvi samostalni album objavio je 1995., drugi 2000., i treći 2006.

Doernberg je također glazbeni producent i glazbenik. Ima vlastiti studio Droehnwerku u Bad Nenndorfu. Bio je koncertni glazbenik sastava kao što su Therion, Gamma Ray i Freedom Call.

Godine 2009. objavljen je novi album sastava Rough Silk.

Diskografija

 Axel Rudi Pell

 Oceans of Time (1998.)
 The Masquerade Ball (2000.)
 Shadow Zone (2002.)
 Kings and Queens (2004.)
 Mystica (2006.)
 Diamonds Unlocked (2007.)
 Tales of the Crown (2008.)
 The Crest (2010.)
 Circle of the Oath (2012.)
 Into the Storm (2014.)
 Game of Sins (2016.)
 Knights Call (2018.)
 Sign of the Times (2020.)
 Diamonds Unlocked II (2021.)
 Lost XXIII (2022.)

 Rough Silk

 Roots of Hate (1993.)
 Walls of Never (1994.)
 Circle of Pain... ...or; The Secret Lies of Timekeeping (1996.)
 Mephisto (1997.)
 Beyond the Sundown (1998.)
 Symphony of Life (2001.)
 End of Infinity (2003.)
 A New Beginning (2009.)
 The Good, the Bad and the Undead (2012.)
 Progressive Oil-Pop (2018.)

 Roland Grapow

 The Four Seasons of Life (1997.)
 Kaleidoscope (1999.)

 Taraxacum

 Spirit of Freedom (2001.)
 Rainmaker (2003.)

Izvori

Njemački glazbenici heavy metala
Njemački klavijaturisti heavy metala
Njemački gitaristi heavy metala
Njemački pjevači heavy metala

Ferdy Doernberg


Ivan Fiamin (Volosko, 1833. – 1890.), hrvatski katolički svećenik, književnik, prevoditelj

Životopis
Rodio se u Voloskom. Predavao na bogosloviji u Senju od 1857. do 1862. godine katehetiku, metodiku i pedagogiku. Obnašao dužnost župnika u Rijeci. Branio prava hrvatskog naroda i zauzimao se za očuvanje staroslavenske službe Božje.
Dobio Nagradu iz zaklade Ivana N. grofa Draškovića 1878. godine, za prijevod knjige Françoisa Fénelona, Zgode Telemaka.

Izvori

Životopisi, Rijeka
Hrvatski katolički svećenici
Hrvatski književnici
Crkveno školstvo u Hrvatskoj

Ivan Fiamin


Le séléniure de plomb est un semiconducteur de formule chimique PbSe ayant une bande interdite large de  à température ambiante. Il se présente sous la forme d'une poudre ou de granules gris anthracite insoluble dans l'eau mais soluble dans l'acide chlorhydrique et l'acide nitrique. Il forme des cristaux d'apparence semblable à la galène (sulfure de plomb PbS) et qui lui sont isomorphes, avec comme paramètre cristallin . On le trouve dans le milieu naturel sous la forme d'un minéral appelé clausthalite. Chauffé dans un tube à essais ouvert, le séléniure de plomb se décompose en dégageant des vapeurs de sélénium.

Le séléniure de plomb est utilisé dans la fabrication de détecteurs infrarouges et caméras thermiques fonctionnant avec des longueurs d'onde de . Il ne nécessite pas d'être refroidi mais est plus performant à basse température. Il est également employé comme matériau pour diode laser, avec addition de petites quantités de strontium, d'europium ou de séléniure d'étain SnSe, dans la gamme de . Des nanocristaux de PbSe inclus dans d'autres matériaux peuvent être utilisés comme boîtes quantiques, par exemple dans les .

Synthèse

Le séléniure de plomb peut être obtenu par une réaction en plusieurs étapes de sélénium avec de l'acide nitrique , de l'ammoniac  et de l'oxyde de plomb(II) PbO :
2 Se + 8  ⟶ 2  + 8  + 2  ;
2 PbO + 4  ⟶ 2  + 2  ;
2  + 2  + 3  ⟶ 2 PbSe + 3  + 4  + 6 .

Il est également possible de convertir des quantités équimolaires d'acétate de plomb(II) trihydraté  et d'acide sélénieux  en sélénite de plomb  avec réduction ultérieure par une solution diluée d'acide acétique  et d'hydrazine .

Les monocristaux de séléniure de plomb sont synthétisés à partir de quantités précisément stœchiométriques des deux éléments dans des tubes de quartz sous vide :
Pb + Se ⟶ PbSe.

Des nanotiges monocristallines et des nanotubes polycristallins ont été obtenus à l'aide de membranes biologiques. Le diamètre des nanotiges obtenues était de l'ordre de  pour une longueur d'environ , tandis que les nanotubes avaient un diamètre d'environ  et une longueur pouvant atteindre .

Applications

Le séléniure de plomb est un matériau thermoélectrique, dont les propriétés pourraient être meilleures que celles du tellurure de plomb(II) PbTe. C'est l'un des premiers matériaux identifié comme étant sensible aux rayonnements infrarouges et utilisé pour des applications militaires. Les premières recherches de cette nature ont été menées dans les années 1930 et les premiers équipements fonctionnels tirant partie de ce matériau ont été produits pendant et juste après la Seconde Guerre mondiale en Allemagne, au Royaume-Uni et aux États-Unis. Il est depuis couramment employé dans les photodétecteurs infrarouges destinés à diverses applications, par exemple les spectromètres pour la détection de gaz et de flammes, ou encore les mèches infrarouges pour les munitions d'artillerie ou le repérage infrarouge passif ().

Le séléniure de plomb est capable de détecter un rayonnement infrarouge dans la fenêtre infrarouge moyenne (), précisément de , voire jusqu'à  dans certaines conditions. Il présente une détectivité élevée à température ambiante (fonctionnement non refroidi) ainsi qu'un temps de réponse très bref, ce qui en fait un bon matériau pour l'imagerie infrarouge rapide et bon marché.

Le séléniure de plomb est un matériau photoconducteur. Son mécanisme de détection repose sur la modification de la conductivité électrique d'une couche mince polycristalline lorsqu'elle absorbe un photon. L'absorption de tels photons fait passer des électrons de la bande de valence du matériau semiconducteur à sa bande de conduction. Si le détail des mécanismes à l'origine des propriétés intéressantes de ce matériau n'est pas encore pleinement élucidé, on pense que sa nature polycristalline, outre le matériau lui-même, joue un rôle central pour limiter l'effet Auger et le courant d'obscurité dans ces composants, en relation avec la présence de nombreuses zones désertées le long des joints de grains et des barrières de potentiel dans les couches minces molycristallines.

Méthodes de production des détecteurs infrarouges au PbSe

On emploie traditionnellement deux méthodes principales.

Dépôt chimique en solution

Également appelée dépôt en bain chimique (), c'est la méthode standard de production de ces composants. Développée aux États-Unis dans les années 1960, elle repose sur la précipitation du chalcogénure métallique sur un substrat dans une solution contrôlée de sélénourée , d'acétate de plomb(II) , d'iodure de potassium KI et d'autres composés. Cette méthode est encore employée pour la production de détecteurs infrarouges au séléniure de plomb. Les limitations de cette méthode contraignent la taille maximum des détecteurs PbSe produits de cette manière à un réseau de .

Dépôt chimique en phase vapeur

Cette méthode a été développée en Espagne au début du siècle et repose sur la déposition de la couche active à partir de précurseurs sublimés, suivie par des traitements thermiques particuliers. L'avantage de cette méthode par rapport à la précédente est d'assurer la compatibilité avec les substrats et de pouvoir produire des composants à structure complexe tout en maîtrisant les coûts.

Photodétecteurs à boîtes quantiques PbSe

La technique de dépôt employée dans le cas particulier des photodétecteurs à boîte quantique PbSe est généralement l'enduction centrifuge.

Notes et références

plomb
Composé du plomb
Matériau semi-conducteur
Composé IV-VI

Séléniure de plomb


Ronald Joseph Livingston (born June 5, 1967) is an American actor. He is best known for playing Peter Gibbons in the 1999 film Office Space and Captain Lewis Nixon III in the 2001 miniseries Band of Brothers. Livingston's other roles include the films Swingers (1996), Adaptation (2002), The Conjuring (2013); and the television series Loudermilk, and Boardwalk Empire, on which he appeared in the fourth season.

Early life
Livingston was born in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, to Kurt Livingston, an aerospace/electronics engineer, and Linda (née Rinas), a Lutheran pastor. He has two brothers and one sister. His younger brother, John, is also an actor; while his sister, Jennifer Livingston, and brother-in-law, Mike Thompson, were TV news personalities at WKBT-DT in La Crosse, Wisconsin.

Livingston attended Yale University, where he sang with The Whiffenpoofs and graduated in 1989, together with Anderson Cooper.

Livingston first acted at Theatre Cedar Rapids after being introduced to the group during a school job shadowing. Livingston moved to Chicago and became involved in the local theater scene.

Career
Livingston's first film role was in 1992, in Dolly Parton's Straight Talk. He moved to Los Angeles and was cast in supporting roles in Some Folks Call it a Sling Blade and The Low Life. Livingston landed his first role in a major film in 1996's Swingers. He starred as the male lead, Peter Gibbons, in the comedy cult classic Office Space, which co-starred Jennifer Aniston and was written and directed by Mike Judge. He also appeared in HBO's miniseries Band of Brothers as Captain Lewis Nixon III opposite Donnie Wahlberg and Damian Lewis. Livingston widened his variety of roles when he played a Hollywood agent in Adaptation (2002), a weaselly Ivy League upstart opposite Alec Baldwin's casino boss in The Cooler (2003) and teachers in Winter Solstice and Pretty Persuasion (both 2005). He also appeared as sardonic writer Jack Berger, Carrie's short-term boyfriend in the fifth and sixth seasons of Sex and the City. He guest-starred in the episode "TB or Not TB" of House. In 2006, he starred as FBI negotiator Matt Flannery in the Fox series Standoff, co-starring Rosemarie DeWitt, and he was an advertising spokesman for Sprint Nextel.

In summer 2007, Livingston appeared on the off-Broadway stage in the world premiere of Neil LaBute's In a Dark Dark House, produced by MCC Theater, with Frederick Weller and Louisa Krause. The show ran May–July at the Lucille Lortel Theatre in New York City. In November 2007, the indie film Holly told the story of a Vietnamese girl trafficked into the sex trade in Cambodia. Livingston starred as Patrick, a shady card shark who becomes determined to save Holly from her ill-destined fate.

In 2009, he portrayed flight engineer Maddux Donner in the series Defying Gravity, which was cancelled after its first season.

In 2010, Livingston co-starred in the Jay Roach comedy Dinner for Schmucks.  On February 26, 2013, Entertainment Weekly confirmed that he would be joining the cast of HBO's Boardwalk Empire for the fourth season.

In 2013, Livingston co-starred in the indie comedy Drinking Buddies alongside Olivia Wilde, Jake Johnson and Anna Kendrick. Drinking Buddies received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 82% based on 97 reviews.

Livingston starred in the Peter Farrelly–produced comedy television series Loudermilk on the Audience network.  Livingston played the title role of Sam Loudermilk, a former music critic and recovering alcoholic who works as a substance abuse counselor and support group leader, and who regularly doles out clever but acid-tongued critiques to his clients, his friends, and random people he encounters. The show premiered in October 2017 and was renewed in April 2018 for a second season that premiered in October 2018. In December 2018, Audience renewed the series for a third season. After Audience ceased operations, the third season premiered on Amazon Prime Video in 2020–21.

Livingston also stars in the ABC drama A Million Little Things as Jon Dixon, whose suicide causes his group of friends to evaluate their own lives.

Personal life
Livingston and his Standoff co-star Rosemarie DeWitt began a relationship after meeting on the show. After dating for three years, they were married on November 2, 2009, in San Francisco. He was previously engaged to actress Lisa Sheridan.

In May 2013, Livingston and DeWitt announced they had adopted an infant girl born the previous month. In December 2016, the couple announced they had adopted another child, a girl, who was born the previous year.

Filmography

Film

Television

References

External links

1967 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Living people
Male actors from Iowa
Actors from Cedar Rapids, Iowa
People from Marion, Iowa
Yale University alumni
Male actors from Chicago

Ron Livingston


ناحوم سوكولوڤ  (1859 - 1936، بالعبرية: נחום סוקולוב) كان صحفيا وكاتبا يهوديا بولنديا، من زعماء الحركة الصهيونية والمؤرخ الرسمي لها. شغل ناحوم سوكولوف مناصب مختلفة في الاتحاد الصهيوني العالمي وكان رئيس الاتحاد بين السنوات 1932 و1935.

كان رافضا للصهيونية حتى حضوره للمؤتمر الصهيوني الأول حيث تغير تفكيره، وصار من أكثر المؤيدين لها، ومن كبار المعجبين بثيودور هرتزل.

نشر سوكولوف كتابا سنويا بالعبرية طور من خلاله أسلوبا عبريا كان له أكبر الأثر في تطوير اللغة العبرية، ولكن أهم كتب سوكولوف كتابه الشهير تاريخ الصهيونية عام 1917 الذي يعد أول تأريخ للصهيونية.
غير أن اهتمامات سوكولوف الأدبية لم تحل دون أن يصبح زعيما صهيونيا بارزا، فقد شغل منصب السكرتير العام للمنظمة الصهيونية العالمية، وبنشوب الحرب العالمية الأولى أوفد إلى إنجلترا مع وايزمان للحصول على تأييدها للحركة، كما قام بمهمة مشابهه في إيطاليا وفرنسا وبالفعل حصل على تصريح من فرنسا بتأييد الحركة الصهيونية. وفي نفس العام حصل على وعد بلفور.

وفي عام 1919 ترأس سوكولوف الوفد الصهيوني في مؤتمر الصلح في باريس (مؤتمر فرساي).

روابط خارجية

مراجع

الوكالة اليهودية
أشخاص من حكومة بوتسك
بريطانيون من أصل يهودي بولندي
روس من أصل يهودي بولندي
صحفيون بولنديون
صحفيون بولنديون في القرن 19
صحفيون من الإمبراطورية الروسية
صحفيون وصحفيات إنجليز
صهاينة
صهاينة إنجليز
كتاب اللغة العبرية الحديثة
كتاب بريطانيون
كتاب بولنديون
كتاب ذكور في الإمبراطورية الروسية
كتاب يهود
مترجمون بريطانيون
مترجمون بولنديون
مدفونون في جبل هرتزل
مهاجرون من الإمبراطورية الروسية إلى المملكة المتحدة
مواليد 1859
ناشطون إنجليز
ناشطون يهود
وفيات 1936
وفيات في لندن
يهود بولنديون
يهود بولنديون في القرن 19
يهود بولنديون في القرن 20
يهود روس في القرن 19
يهود روس في القرن 20
يهود من الإمبراطورية الروسية
مؤسسو مجلات بولنديون

ناحوم سوكولوف


Padre Garcia (Tagalog: Bayan ng Padre Garcia) ist eine philippinische Stadtgemeinde in der Provinz Batangas, in der Verwaltungsregion IV, Calabarzon. Sie hat  Einwohner (Zensus ), die in 33 Barangays lebten. Sie wird als Gemeinde der zweiten Einkommensklasse auf den Philippinen und als urbanisiert eingestuft.

Die Topographie der Gemeinde ist gekennzeichnet durch gebirgiges Terrain. Ihre Nachbargemeinden sind San Antonio, Provinz Quezon, im Nordosten, Lipa City im Norden, Rosario im Süden und Westen.

Baranggays

Weblink

Ort auf den Philippinen
Provinz Batangas

Padre Garcia


Jasmine (* 1976 als Jasmine Tatjana Anette Valentin) ist eine finnische Sängerin und Gitarristin. Sie gehört der Minderheit der Roma an.

Als Siegerin des finnischen Vorentscheids nahm sie mit dem Schlager Niin kaunis on taivas (So schön ist der Himmel) am Eurovision Song Contest 1996 in Oslo teil. Sie erreichte das Finale und belegte dort mit 9 Punkten Platz 23 und somit den letzten Platz.

Quellen

Weblinks

Musiker (Finnland)
Sänger
Gitarrist
Interpret eines finnischen Beitrags beim Eurovision Song Contest
Roma (Person)
Finne
Geboren 1976
Frau

Jasmine (finnische Sängerin)


Scheggerott Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Schleswig-Flensburg iline bağlı bölge. 6,32 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 31 Aralık 2003 itibarıyla yaklaşık 394 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Belediye Başkanlığı Hartwig Callsen tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 www.suederbrarup.de

Schleswig-Flensburg iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Scheggerott


Klasa Tamandaré nova je klasa budućih fregata opće namjene za brazilsku mornaricu, temeljena na obitelji brodova MEKO. Projekt razvijaju Ministarstvo obrane i konzorcij Águas Azuis, koji čine ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS) i Embraer Defence & Security. Izgradnja četiriju planiranih fregata započela je 2022., a isporuka je predviđena između 2024. i 2028.

Specifikacije
Specifikacije za novu klasu fregata definirala je brazilska mornarica uz zamjenu najstarijih brodova u floti. Ima za cilj zaštititi takozvanu Plavu Amazonu (portugalski: A Amazônia Azul), područje bogato resursima koje pokriva oko 4,5 milijuna četvornih kilometara, provoditi operacije potrage i spašavanja i ispunjavati međunarodne obveze, među ostalim zadaćama.

Plan je zahtijevao projekte sa sljedećim naoružanjem i specifikacijama: jedinična cijena između 400-500 milijuna eura, glavni top OTO Melara 76 mm, najmanje osam raketnih ćelija VLS Sea Ceptor CAMM, mitraljez Rheinmetall Sea Snake 30 mm, dva mitraljeza .50, dva trostruka lansera za protupodmornička torpeda Mark 46 i dva dvostruka lansera za protubrodske projektile za raketu MANSUP. Uz to, pogonski sustav za dizelske motore i hangar koji može upravljati SH-60 Seahawk, Super Lynx Mk.21B ili Eurocopter EC725.
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Pobjednički konzorcij morat će izgraditi četiri broda u Brazilu, uz prijenos 100% tehnologije projekta (ToT) brazilskoj mornarici.

Projekt ThyssenKrupp
Konzorcij Águas Azuis, predvođen tvrtkom ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems, predstavio je svoj prijedlog fregate temeljen na izvornom dizajnu korvete MEKO A-100. Projekt je imao povećanu tonažu s 2000 na 3500 tona, povećanje duljine, nekoliko novih sustava kao što su radar Hensoldt TRS-4D AESA, oružje i kontrola paljbe, omogućujući tako brodu da stekne snagu za obavljanje oceanskih prijelaza u olujnom južnom Atlantiku.

Atech, tvrtka Embraer grupe, bit će dobavljač CMS-a (Combat Management System) i IPMS-a (Integrated Platform Management System). Ostali aspekti projekta koji su doveli do pobjedničke ponude su sličnosti s klasom fregata MEKO A-200 i njezinim modularnim konstrukcijskim sustavom, što omogućuje svestranost u budućim ažuriranjima.

Brazilska mornarica također planira izgraditi razarače od 7000 tona nakon isporuke novih fregata, a TKMS je mornarici predstavio svoj najmoderniji razarač za protuzračnu obranu MEKO A-400 od 7200 tona, ažuriranu verziju njemačke F-125 klase. Sličnosti između projekata i visoka stopa sličnosti između zahtjeva također su bile presudne za pobjedu konzorcija.

Izvori

Brazilska vojna oprema
Tamandaré

Fregata klase Tamandaré


Bombaški napad na Katedralu Gospe Karmelske u gradu Jolu na jugu Filipina predstavlja jedan od niza terorističkih napada boraca Islamske Države na katoličku manjinu na području separatističke autonomne pokrajine Islamskog Mindanaa. U napadu bombama amonijeva nitrata ručne izrade 27. siječnja 2019. poginulo je dvadeset, a teže i lakše ozlijeđeno stotinu i dvoje ljudi, većinom civila.

Napad se odvio samo tjedan dana nakon referenduma o proširenju i jačanju neovisnosti islamske samouprave na Mindanau i okolnim otočjima, među kojima je i otočje Sulu čije je Jolu upravno središte, ali i uporište Islamske Države na Filipinima. Unatoč tome, otočje Sulu jedino je koje je premoćno glasalo protiv referendumskog prijedloga, što je djelomično, uz političku i upravnu nestabilnost i motiviralo napad.

Skupina od šestero napadača koristila se sličnim načinom napada, kao i u bombaškom napadu na turističko naselje na Baliju 2002. godine, aktivirajući bombe ručne izrade pomoću mobitela kao detonatora.

Narednoga dana mjesto napada posjetio je i filipinski predsjednik Rodrigo Duterte, a napad su osudili čak i islamski separatistički borci Nacionalne fronte za oslobođenje Islamskog Mindanaa smatrajući ga nepotrebnim nasiljem, kao i brojne međunarodne organizacije (EU, UN, Svjetska banka...) te vlade mnogih država. Vlade Mađarske i Kine ponudile su višemilijunsku novčanu pomoć obiteljima žrtava.

Izvori
 Priopćenje Vlade Republike Mađarske povodom napada  na službenim stranicama Vlade
 Poimenični popis poginulih u napadu  u mrežnom izdanju Manila Bulletina
 Priopćenje o napadačima i Duterteovom posjetu na portalu ABS/CBN

Povijest Filipina
Teroristički napadi Islamske države

Bombaški napad u Jolu


Années 20 est un film dramatique français réalisé par Élisabeth Vogler et sorti en 2021.

Synopsis
Dans Paris, un soir de beau temps en 2020. Une caméra se promène, d'un passant à l'autre, collectant des bribes de conversations et dressant un panorama de la ville et d'une époque.

Fiche technique
 Titre original : Années 20
 Réalisation : Élisabeth Vogler
 Scénario : Élisabeth Vogler, Joris Avodo, François Mark et Noémie Schmidt
 Musique : Jean-Charles Bastion

 Costumes : Julie Fournier

 Production : Olivier Capelli et Laurent Rochette
 Sociétés de production : 21 juin cinema et Les Idiots
 Société de distribution : Wayna Pitch Film
 Pays de production :
 Langue originale : français
 Format : couleur — 2,35:1
 Genre : drame
 Durée : 85 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
 États-Unis :  (Tribeca)
 France :  (Festival d'Angoulême) ;  (sortie nationale)

Distribution
 Noémie Schmidt : Blanche
 Alice de Lencquesaing : Julie
 Paul Scarfoglio : Gary
 Manuel Severi
 Zoé Fauconnet : Zoé
 François Mark
 François Rollin : François
 Mehdi Djaadi : le gamer

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film français sorti en 2021
Film dramatique français
Film se déroulant dans les années 2020

Années 20 (film)


Hieronymus Theodor Richter () a fost un chimist german.

În 1863, în timp ce lucra la Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, descoperă indiul, alături de Ferdinand Reich.  În 1875, a devenit director al Academiei de Mine din Freiberg.

Note

Legături externe

Chimiști din secolul al XIX-lea
Germani din secolul al XIX-lea
Descoperitori de elemente chimice
Decese în 1898
Nașteri în 1824
Chimiști germani

Hieronymus Theodor Richter


Margareta Cosăceanu-Lavrillier (Margaret Cossaceanu sau Margaret Cossaceanu-Lavrillier; născută Margareta Cosăceanu; ) a fost o sculptoriță franceză de origine română.

Biografie
Margareta Cosăceanu este nepoata savantului George Constantinescu, inventatorul Teoriei sonicității. A studiat sculptura între 1910 și 1913 la Școala de Arte frumoase din București sub îndrumarea lui Dimitrie Paciurea.

În 1921, a obținut o bursă care i-a permis să meargă la Roma să-și continue studiile la Academia de Arte frumoase (pictorul Lucian Grigorescu studia acolo în același timp). În capitala italiană l-a cunoscut pe gravorul francez medalist André Lavrillier, câștigător al Prix de Rome în 1914, și boarder la Villa Medici. El a dus-o la Paris și a prezentat-o sculptorului Antoine Bourdelle.

După ce a fost distinsă cu Marele Premiu al Academiei de Arte frumoase în 1922, a plecat din Roma ca mai apoi să se stabilească la Paris, unde a participat la atelierul compatriotului său Constantin Brâncuși. Între timp, își continua studiile la Académie de la Grande Chaumière, în studioul lui Antoine Bourdelle, unde i-a întâlnit pe Germaine Richier și Alberto Giacometti. Bourdelle a luat-o colaboratoare în atelierul său din Impasse du Maine. El a rugat-o să recreeze la o scară mai mare o parte din lucrările sale, ca de exemplu Sapho. Pentru aceste lucrări figurative a folosit ceară, pământ, ipsos, bronz sau piatră. Margareta a continuat să lucreze cu el până la moartea acestuia, în 1929.

În 1929, s-a căsătorit cu André Lavrillier, cu care a avut trei copii, inclusiv pe fotograful Carol-Marc Lavrillier.

Saloane și expoziții internaționale
A participat la diverse saloane și expoziții, cum ar fi Salon d'Automne sau la Salon des Tuileries și a produs piese pentru statul francez. I s-au comandat lucrări pentru Expoziția Internațională de Artă și Tehnologie în Viața Modernă (1937), pentru pavilioane din Asia și cel românesc. Relieful Daci (din marmură, înalt de 3 m), pentru care a primit diploma de onoare, este astăzi în București.

Până în 1977, la cererea monetăriei Monnaie de Paris, a făcut mai multe medalii (medalia deputaților Adunării Naționale a Franței. În 1968 a realizat portretele iluștrilor Romain Gary, Anna de Noailles, Giacometti, Jean Effel.

În 1952, Bernheim-Jeune Gallery a organizat o expoziție retrospectivă a operei ei, iar Muzeul de Artă Modernă al orașului Paris i-a cumpărat lucrarea Marele tors de Femeie. În 1970, la cea de-a 40-a comemorare a morții maestrului ei, ea a creat din memorie un portret al lui Antoine Bourdelle.

Margaret Cosăceanu a murit la Paris pe 22 septembrie 1980, la vârsta de 87 de ani. În 1993, Galerie Vallois din Paris a organizat un spectacol retrospectiv închinat operei ei.

Lucrări și colecții (selecție)
 Pieta (1923), Musée des Années Trente
 Walkyrie (1923), utilizată pentru Constantinesco (automobile)
 Portretul lui Constantin I. Diamandy, diplomat român (1927)
 Bustul lui André Lavrillier, (1927), Musée national d'art moderne, centrul Pompidou
 Marele portret de femeie (1930)
 Statuia lui Tudor Vladimirescu în Craiova (1937)
 Reliful Daci (1937) pentru pavillonul României la Expoziție Internațională de Artă și Tehnologie în Viața Modernă 1937, astăzi în București
 Baxorelief, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris (1936-1940)
 Marmura Cap de Rhodia Bourdelle (1943), Muzeul Rolin, Autun
 Bustul lui Jean Charcot, (1943), Muzeul național de la Marine, Paris
 Portretul lui George Enescu (1956), Musée de la Philharmonie de Paris
 Cap de fată, Saint-Brieuc Muzeul de Artă și Istorie
 Monumental, Musée des Années Trente, Boulogne Billancourt
 Tors de femeie (1955), Musée d'art Moderne de la Ville de Paris.

Note

Nașteri în 1893
Decese în 1980
Sculptori români
Femei din România
Români expatriați în Franța
Înmormântări în cimitirul Montparnasse
Decese în Paris

Margareta Cosăceanu-Lavrillier


Die Kapelle im Klinikum Memmingen ist ein Andachtsraum für alle Glaubensgemeinschaften im Klinikum Memmingen.

Die seelsorgerische Betreuung der Klinik liegt in den Händen eines evangelischen und eines katholischen Priesters. Zur seelischen Behandlung der Patienten befindet sich eine Kapelle im zweiten Stock des Klinikums. Der eigentliche Sakralraum ist ungefähr 10 Meter lang, 9 Meter breit und 6 Meter hoch. Der Sakralraum ist vierzigfach bestuhlt. Gegen Süden befindet sich eine Seite mit 16 Fenstern.

Vier der Glasfenster sind künstlerisch gestaltet. Auf gelbem Glas steht in schwarzen Buchstaben:

 Ich bin die Magd des Herrn, Lk 1,38
 Ich war tot
 Doch siehe
 Ich lebe

In der Kapelle ist ein Volksaltar, Ambo und Sedilien. An der südöstlichen Seite hängt ein Kruzifix. Davor ist eine lebensgroße Marienstatue mit dem Jesuskind. Auf der mittig eingezogenen 2,5 Meter breiten Empore mit gläserner Brüstung befinden sich Stühle und auf der nördlichen Seite eine Orgel. Durch eine östliche Tür kann man in einen anderen Raum gelangen, der als Sakristei genutzt wird.

Weblinks

 Klinikum Memmingen

Kirchengebäude in Memmingen
Memmingen
Memmingen

Kapelle im Klinikum Memmingen


Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Franz von Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein (Franz Seraph von Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein; 1807–1878), österreichischer Maler
 Ludwig von Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein (1850–1939), österreichischer Maler
 Maximilian von Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein (1881–??), österreichischer Psychiater und Neurologe

Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein


{{Ficha de taxón
|name = Dalea searlsiae
|image = Purple Prairie Clover (2).jpg
| regnum = Plantae
| divisio = Magnoliophyta
| classis = Magnoliopsida
| ordo = Fabales
| familia = Fabaceae
| subfamilia = Faboideae
| tribus = Amorpheae
|genus = Dalea
|species = Dalea searlsiae|binomial_authority = (Gray) Barneby
|}}Dalea searlsiaees una especie de planta herbácea perteneciente a la familia de las leguminosas.
Distribución
Es nativa del sur de Nevada, y el este del  Desierto de Mojave.

 Descripción
Dalea searlsiae alcanza un tamaño de 50 cm de altura y tiene flores de color púrpura. Por lo general se encuentra en los bosques de pinos junto a la artemisa y el enebro.

 Taxonomía
Dalea searlsiae fue descrita por (Asa Gray) Rupert Charles Barneby y publicado en Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 27: 234, en el año 1977.
Etimología
El género fue nombrado en honor del boticario inglés Samuel Dale (1659-1739).searlsiae': epíteto
Sinonimia
 Kuhnistera searlsiae (A.Gray) Kuntze
 Petalostemon searlsiae'' A.Gray basónimo

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Jepson Manual Treatment
 USDA Plants Profile
 Photo gallery

searlsiae
Flora de América del Norte
Flora del Desierto de Mojave
Plantas descritas en 1977
Plantas descritas por Asa Gray
Plantas descritas por Barneby

Dalea searlsiae


Le buste d'homme accoudé est une sculpture en grès réalisée par Nicolas Gerhaert de Leyde vers 1463 pour le portail de la chancellerie de Strasbourg, dont il s'agit de l'un des rares fragments subsistants. Il est généralement admis depuis les années 1960 qu'il s'agit d'un autoportrait de l'artiste.

Historique
Le , la Ville de Strasbourg commande au sculpteur Nicolas de Leyde un portail monumental pour la nouvelle chancellerie de la ville. Le bâtiment abritant entre autres la salle d'audience de l'Ammeister et le secrétariat général de la Ville, il s'agit d'une commande prestigieuse, comme le confirme par ailleurs le paiement conséquent de  que reçoit l'artiste. Le buste n'est pas mentionné dans le contrat, mais deux éléments indiquent qu'il en faisait partie : d'une part sa parenté stylistique avec les têtes du prophète et de la sibylle, dont l'appartenance au portail ne fait aucun doute ; d'autre part une description faite par de Philippe Louis Künast d'un dessin disparu du portail, dans laquelle il dit qu'il s'y trouvait un buste de l'architecte au-dessus du millésime 1463.

L'édifice est mis en vente le  puis rasé et les sculptures dispersées ou détruites. Le buste entre en possession de la famille Reuss dans des circonstances floues : selon la légende familiale, elle aurait été trouvée au pied de la cathédrale sur un tas de gravats destinés à servir de remblai, mais cette histoire est improbable, la sculpture ayant fait l'objet d'une dépose soignée, comme le montre son très bon état de conservation. Les Reuss la déposent au début du  au musée archéologique de Strasbourg, puis elle passe en 1931 dans les collections du nouveau musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame fondé par Hans Haug.

Description

Le buste a été sculpté dans du grès rouge de la région de Strasbourg. Bien que paraissant être à première vue une sculpture en ronde-bosse, l'observation du dos montre que celle-ci n'est pas totale, l'œuvre ayant été reliée au mur par une moulure dont seul un fragment est encore visible. De même, le traitement sommaire de l'arrière du buste, la taille étroite et l'inclinaison par rapport à la base indiquent qu'il se trouvait probablement à l'origine sur un socle et dans un renfoncement en hauteur. L'œuvre est globalement dans un bon état de conservation, en dépit de quelques manques principalement localisés au niveau de la main gauche.

Le buste représente un homme vêtu d'un pourpoint et portant sur l'épaule gauche une écharpe à frange, peut-être un chaperon. Penché en avant, en appui sur son avant-bras gauche, il tient son menton de sa main droite, la tête penchée sur le côté et les yeux clos. Les chairs sont rendues avec une grande précision : les doigts appuyant sur la joue déforment la peau en créant des plis naturalistes et une grande attention a été portée à la figuration des rides sur le visage ou encore des veines saillant sur le dos de la main. En parallèle de l'écharpe reposant sur son épaule gauche, il porte sur son épaule droite une bande de tissu à double bordure de fourrure dont il agrippe l'autre extrémité de la main gauche après l'avoir enroulée sous son bras. Il tient également dans cette main un objet, dont seule subsiste l'extrémité.

Analyse

Figure mélancolique
La posture, yeux clos et tête reposant dans la paume de la main, est caractéristique de l'attitude mélancolique telle qu'elle est représentée depuis l'Antiquité. Par ailleurs, les représentations personnifiées de la mélancolie au Moyen Âge et de le Renaissance ont non seulement cette posture, mais tiennent souvent également un compas, ce que pourrait être l'objet que tient l'homme dans sa main gauche, bien qu'un ciseau ait également été proposé. Ce type d'instruments scientifiques et artistiques est souvent représenté dans les vanités et par extension les allégories de la mélancolie.

Autoportrait
Cette posture caractéristique d'un artiste a amené à se questionner très tôt sur la possibilité que l'œuvre soit un autoportrait de Nicolas de Leyde : le premier à proposer cette hypothèse est en effet Otto Wertheimer dès 1929. Jusqu'alors, le buste était considéré comme étant une représentation de Jean l'évangéliste faisant partie d'une agonie dans le Jardin des Oliviers disparue. Ce n'est toutefois que dans les années 1960 que l'hypothèse de l'autoportrait devient dominante, après la publication en 1959 de la description de 1709 du portail de la chancellerie de Philippe Louis Künast, qui évoque la présence d'une représentation sculptée de l'architecte.

Références

Annexes

Liste des expositions
 en exposition permanente au Musée de l'œuvre Notre-Dame de Strasbourg ;
 Spätgotik am Oberrhein. Meisterwerke der Plastik und des Kunsthandwerks 1450-1530, 4 juillet-5 octobre 1970, Badischen Landesmuseum, Karlsruhe ;
 Mélancolie, génie et folie en Occident, 13 octobre 2005-16 janvier 2006, Paris, Galeries Nationales du Grand-Palais ;
 Nicolas de Leyde, sculpteur du . Un regard moderne, 30 mars-8 juillet 2012, Strasbourg, Musée de l'Œuvre-Notre-Dame.

Bibliographie
 .
 .
 .

Articles connexes
 chancellerie de Strasbourg
 Tombeau de Conrad de Bussnang

Homme accoudé
Œuvre conservée au musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame
Sculpture du XVe siècle
Sculpture gothique

Buste d'homme accoudé


Dunzendorf ist der Name folgender Orte:

 Dunzendorf (Niederstetten), Ortsteil der Stadt Niederstetten, Main-Tauber-Kreis, Baden-Württemberg
 Dunzendorf (Gemeinde St. Martin), Ortschaft von St. Martin im Mühlkreis, Bezirk Rohrbach, Oberösterreich

Siehe auch:

 Dunzendorfer

Dunzendorf


Gürpınar, Zonguldak ilinin Alaplı ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Coğrafya
Köy, Zonguldak il merkezine 78 km, Alaplı ilçe merkezine 18 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Alaplı belde ve köyleri

Gürpınar, Alaplı


José Fábio Santos de Oliveira (født 21. april 1987) er en brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien
Fodboldspillere fra Associação Atlética Ponte Preta
Fodboldspillere fra Shonan Bellmare
Fodboldspillere fra Mito HollyHock

José Fábio Santos de Oliveira


PES 2010' (حيث الحروف هي اختصار لعبارة باللغة الإنجليزية هي Pro Evolution Soccer) هي لعبة فيديو لرياضة كرة القدم تم طرحها في الأسواق العربية في شهر نوفمبر 2009 وتعد أفضل الأجزاء على الإطلاق من ناحية الجرافيكس، والذكاء الاصطناعي. أصلحت كونامي كل الأخطاء تقريباً، إلا أن اللعبة ما زال يشوبها بعض الأخطاء الفادحة، مثل أخطاء الحراس، وأحياناً دخول الكرة من داخل أجسام اللاعبين متسببة في أهداف غير شرعية، ولكن ايجابياتها أكثر من سلبياتها لاستخدام كونامي محرك الفيفا الغريم التقليدي.
 ليونيل ميسي وفرناندو توريس اختيرا من الدائرة العامة لأن يصبحا الاعبا الرئيسيان في هذه اللعبة.

 دوري الأبطال
 بعد الاتفاق بين كونامي والإتحاد الأوروبي لكرة القدم بالنسبة لدوري أبطال أوروبا والدوري الأوروبي لأول مرة أصبح مرخص للعبة بشكل كامل ودمجها مع البطولات الأوروبية، ولكن هذه دوري أبطال أوروبا متوفرة فقط في نسخة بلاي ستيشن 3، إكس بوكس 360.
وبذلك يصبح لدى هذه اللعبة 258 لاعب كرة قدم رقمي، مع 139 حصل عليهم بشكل كامل، واللعبة تملك 55 فريق.

 المنتخبات
 يتم سرد فرق الوطنية التالية في الترتيب الذي تظهر في اللعبة، وتعتبر ألمانيا غير مرخصة، أما سلوفينيا فتظهر في كل من إصدار إكس بوكس 360، بلاي ستيشن 3 :

 أوروبا

  فريق جديد

   فريق جديد

   فريق خيالي
 فريق خيالي

   فريق خيالي
  فريق خيالي

 أفريقيا
    فريق خيالي

  فريق أعيد للسلسلة
  فريق خيالي
 أمريكا  فريق خيالي
  فريق خيالي
  فريق خيالي
  فريق خيالي

 آسيا
   فريق خيالي
  فريق خيالي
   فريق جديد
  فريق خيالي
   فريق خيالي
 كلاسيك

 فرق غير قابلة للعب هذه هي الفرق التي لا يمكن استخدامها في اللعبة ولكن عند إجراء مسابقة دولية ككأس العالم والقارية فيمكن اللعب ضدها. وهي تحتوي على أسماء وهمية للاعبين ومجموعات غير مرخصة باستثناء بوليفيا وقبرص والتي تتميز بأسماء اللاعبين.أوروبا

 أفريقيا

 أمريكا الشمالية  أمريكا الجنوبية   آسيا        '

البطولات
 البطولات مرخصة بالكامل كالتالي:
  الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الأولى
  الدوري الهولندي الممتاز
 البطولات التالية مرخصة جزئيا :
  بريميرليغ فريقين مرخصين : نادي ليفربول ومانشيستر يونايتد.
  سيري أ:جميع النوادي المرخص لها، لكن الاسم غير مرخص.
  لاليغا 12 فريق مرخص له :نادي أتليتك بلباو، أتليتكو مدريد، برشلونة، ديبورتيفو لاكورونيا، إسبانيول، راسينغ سانتاندر، ريال مايوركا، ريال بلد الوليد، نادي إشبيلية، ريال مدريد ،نادي فالنسيا، نادي فياريال.

اقرأ أيضا
فيفا 10

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 Generally PES Unofficial News & Updates Blog / Forums
 Unofficial PES Discussion & Editing Forums

ألعاب آي أو إس
ألعاب الهاتف المحمول
ألعاب إكس بوكس 360
ألعاب بلاي ستيشن 2
ألعاب بلاي ستيشن 3
ألعاب بلاي ستيشن بورتبل
ألعاب فيديو 2009
ألعاب فيديو رياضية تحتوي على طور المهنة
ألعاب فيديو فردية وجماعية
ألعاب فيديو مطورة في اليابان
ألعاب وي
ألعاب ويندوز
2010
جيمز فور ويندوز

برو إفلوشن سوكر 2010


Cemal Süreya (* 1931 in  Pülümür, Provinz Tunceli; † 9. Januar 1990 in Istanbul) war ein türkischer Dichter kurdisch-zazaischer Herkunft der Zweiten Neuen und gilt als einer der bedeutendsten Poeten aus der Türkei. Sein bürgerlicher Name war Cemalettin Seber.

Leben
Im Jahr 1938 wurde Süreya nach dem Dersim-Aufstand mit seiner Familie nach Bilecik verbannt. Er studierte Finanzwissenschaft an der Universität Ankara. Süreya arbeitete als Finanzbeamter sowie auch als Inspektor. Er war Chefredakteur der türkischen Literaturzeitschrift Papirüs. Süreyas Gedichte wurden in mehreren Zeitschriften und Zeitungen veröffentlicht. Einige davon sind Yeditepe, Yazko, Pazar Postası, Yeni Ulus, Oluşum, Türkiye Yazıları, Politika, Aydınlık, und Somut.

Gedichte
Seit seiner Studentenzeit publizierte Cemal Süreya seine Werke in verschiedenen Zeitungen und Zeitschriften. Bis auf sein Buch Onüç Günün Mektupları (Briefe der Dreizehn Tage), das Briefe an seine Ehefrau beinhaltet, publizierte er keines seiner Bücher, bevor es nicht in einer Zeitung oder Zeitschrift veröffentlicht wurde. Cemal Süreya wurde im deutschsprachigen Raum erst durch die Übersetzungen der Dichterin Safiye Can bekannt.

Can schreibt über Süreya:
"Cemal Süreya […] ist ein bedeutender und populärer türkischer Dichter und Schriftsteller. Er gilt als der wichtigste Vertreter der Zweiten Neuen, einer literarischen Strömung der modernen türkischen Dichtung. Als Vertreter der Zweiten Neuen wurde Süreyas erstes Gedicht Şarkısı Beyaz im Jahre 1953 in der Zeitschrift Mülkiye veröffentlicht. Die Zweite Neue bevorzugt einen abstrakten Sprachgebrauch und gilt als Gegenströmung zur Garip-Bewegung (vgl. Orhan Veli). Cemal Süreya, der die traditionelle Dichtung ablehnte, war ein Dichter, der mit immensem Wortschatz, neuen Wortschöpfungen und seinem Idiolekt hervorstach. Seine Gedichte handeln von der Einsamkeit des Individuums, dem Tod, aber auch von der Liebe und der Sexualität. Sie sind geprägt von Feingefühl und intensiven Bildern, die eine aufwühlende und bestechende Wirkung haben können."

Werke
 Üvercinka (1958)
 Göçebe (1965)
 Beni Öp Sonra Doğur Beni (1973)
 Sevda Sözleri (Collected Poems, 1984)
 Güz Bitiği (1988)
 Sıcak Nal (1988)
 Şapkam Dolu Çiçekle (1976)
 Günübirlik (1982)
 99 yüz (1990)
 Folklor Şiire Düşman (1992)
 Uzat Saçlarını Frigya (1992)
 Aritmetik iyi Kuşlar Pekiyi (1993) – Kinderbuch

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Literatur (Türkisch)
Geboren 1931
Gestorben 1990
Mann
Kurde

Cemal Süreya


Oranssi Pazuzu finski je psihodelični black metal-sastav. Ime sastava u prijevodu znači "narančasti Pazuzu", prema kralju demona vjetrova iz babilonske mitologije.

Povijest sastava

Sastav su 2007. godine osnovali pjevač i gitarist Jun-His te bubnjar Korjak i klaviajturist Evil. Kombinirajući različite utjecaje, od space rocka do black metala, prvi studijski album Muukalainen puhuu objavljuju u travnju 2009. godine. Iduće godine kreću na prvu inozemnu turneju te snimaju split album sa sastavom Candy Cane. Njihov drugi studijski album Kosmonument objavljuje izdavačka kuća Spinefarm Records 2011. godine. Nakon toga svirali su na mnogim europskim festivalima, uključujući Roadburn i Hellfest, a potom u suradnji s producentom Jaimeom Gomezom Arellanom snimaju treći album nazvan Valonielu. Zasada posljednji album Värähtelijä, koji je dobio pozitivne kritike od portala kao što su Allmusic, Pitchfork i Spin objavili su 2016. godine.

Sam sastav za svoju glazbu kaže da "priziva zvukove iz mračnih kutova svemira i uma"

Članovi sastava

Trenutačna postava
 Korjak – bubnjevi
 Moit – gitara
 Evil – udaraljke, klavijature
 Ontto – bas-gitara
 Jun-His – vokal, gitara

Bivši članovi
Moit - gitara

Diskografija
Studijski albumi
 Muukalainen puhuu (2009.)
 Kosmonument (2011.)
 Valonielu (2013.)
 Värähtelijä (2016.)
 Mestarin kynsi (2020.)

EP-ovi
 Farmakologinen (2017.)
 Kevät / Värimyrsky (2017.)

Split albumi
 Candy Cane / Oranssi Pazuzu (2010.)

Vanjske poveznice
Službena stranica

Finski sastavi heavy metala
Sastavi black metala

Oranssi Pazuzu


Lynchning (fra engelsk lynching) er en udførelse af ulovlig selvtægt, som regel en offentlig henrettelse udført af en gruppe eller større folkemasse. Begrebet forbindes ofte med henrettelser af afroamerikanere i Sydstaterne i USA. Begrebets oprindelse er usikker, men har formentlig baggrund i navnet på dommeren Charles Lynch, der var kendt for at hænge dem, der stod på den anden side under den amerikanske uafhængighedskrig i 1700-tallet.

Lynchning gennemføres oftest ved hængning, men kan også ske ved stening, skydning eller myrdet på anden vis. Formålet er at straffe en påstået overtræder eller synder, eller for at afskrække og/eller kontrollere en befolkningsgruppe. Lynchning er til tider set retfærdiggjort ved, at det er en gennemførelse af retfærdighed uden at blive forsinket af retsvæsnet, der enten er langsomt eller på anden måde ineffektivt.

Lynchninger er ofte forekommende i samfund præget af krig eller andre uroligheder, hvor sædvanlig politimæssig ordenshåndhævelse er helt eller delvist fraværende. Lynchning er kendt fra det amerikanske vilde vesten i 1800-tallet hvor "Lynch law" rådede i afsidesliggende områder, hvor lov og orden enten manglede, eller hvor myndighedernes tilstedeværelse var enten helt fraværende eller særlig svag.

I perioden fra 1880-1910 forekom lynchninger af jøder ofte i Rusland i form af såkaldte pogromer og i nogenlunde samme periode var lynchning endvidere forholdsvist udbredt i Sydstaterne i USA, hvor spændinger mellem hvide amerikanere og afro-amerikanere førte til lynchning af afroamerikanere. Lynchning finder fortsat sted i dag i flere lande, hvorfra der rapporteres om drab udført af en ophidset folkemængde på angivelige forbrydere eller krænkere af tro eller traditioner.

Etymologi
Ordets oprindelse er ikke fuldstændig fastslået, men det er almindelig antaget, at det stammer fra et navn. I USA er begrebet "lynching" eller "lynch law" traditionelt tilskrevet kvækeren Charles Lynch (1736–1796). Charles Lynch var en plantageejer i Virginia og en aktivist i den amerikanske uafhængighedskrig mod briterne. Han var leder af en folkedomstol i Virginia, der straffede loyallister, tilhængere af Storbritannien.

Det har dog været foreslået andre mindre sandsynlige oprindelser som ophav til ordet:

 William Lynch (1742–1820) fra Virginia har påstået, at udtrykket første gang blev benyttet for overenskomst, som blev underskrevet af ham og hans naboer i amtet Pittsylvania.
 James Lynch Fitzstephen fra Galway i Irland, som i egenskab af borgmester i Galway lod sin egen søn hænge fra balkonen i sit hus efter at have fundet ham skyldig i mordet på en spansk besøgende i 1493.
 Lingchi ("langsom prosess"), en kinesisk form for henrettelse som blev benyttet fra ca. 900 til 1905.
 Et arkaisk verbum, "to linch", at slå nogen fordærvet med et bøjeligt redskab, at straffe, tugte eller mishandle.

USA

"Lynch lov" – en form for straffejustis, som oftest medførte hængning uden rettergang af formodede kriminelle – kastede lange skygger over de amerikanske sydstater fra midten af 1800-tallet og frem til midten af 1900-tallet. Før borgerkrigen var ofrene oftest Slaverislaver og personer under mistanke for at hjælpe slaver på flugt fra ejeren.

Efter borgerkrigens afslutning blev Sydstaternes slaveri formelt afskaffet, ligesom de tidligere slaver opnåede borgerrettigheder, herunder stemmeret. Samfundsomvæltningerne i Sydstaterne kaldte mange hvide til kamp for at beholde den sociale dominans. Hemmelige borgerværn- og oprørske grupper som Ku Klux Klan (KKK) bedrev omfattende lynchninger, hvor de dræbte udvalgte eller tilfældige sorte for at kue den afroamerikanske befolkning. Ved vedtagelsen af den amerikanske føderale lov "Enforcement Act" fra 1871 fik USA's præsident udvidede beføjelser til at bekæmpe Ku Klux Klan og andre borgerværn m.v., der undertrykte afroamerikanernes borgerrettigheder og foretog lynchninger. Der blev herefter indsat regeringsstyrker, der i et vist omfang fik begrænset klanens indflydelse i Sydstaterne, uden dog at kunne bringe lynchningerne til ophør. Ved valget i 1876 fik Det demokratiske parti imidlertid politisk magt i Sydstaterne, hvilket indebar af mange af delstaterne vedtog nye forfatninger og love, der i praksis fratog de fleste afroamerikaneres (og mange fattige hvides) borgerrettigheder, ligesom der blev etableret foranstalninger, der sikrede raceadskillelse og udelukkede afroamerikanere fra det offentlige liv. Det anslås, at op imod 5.000 afroamerikanere blev lynchet i USA mellem 1860 og 1890.

Racehadet i USA ulmede fortsat, og resulterede iblandt i lynchninger, når modsætningerne mellem den hvide og afroamerikanske befolkningsgrupper blev tydelige. Mere end 20 sorte afroamerikanere blev lynchet i 1910 efter verdensmesterskabet i sværvægtsboksning mellem den sorte Jack Johnson og den hvide James J. Jeffries i "Århundredes kamp". Også udgivelsen af filmen En nations fødsel (The Birth of a Nation, også kendt som The Clansman) i 1915 fik urolighederne - og lynchningerne - til at blusse op. Filmen fremstiller Ku Klux Klan i et positivt lys, hvilket gav klanen et opsving i USA.

27. juli 1919 padlede den afroamerikanske teenager Eugene Williams sammen med nogle venner i Lake Michigan i sommervarmen. De tog ud mellem "de hvides strand" ved 26. gade og "negerstranden" ved 29. gade. Da de kom ind i "det hvide område", smed en hvid mand sten mod kanoen, og ramte Williams, der ikke kunne svømme. En politimand på "de hvides strand" ville hverken arrestere stenkasteren eller komme Williams til hjælp. Den unge mand døde senere.  Oprørte mennesker samlede sig, da politimanden ikke ville gribe ind; og i de voldsomme optøjer, der fulgte, blev 23 afroamerikanere og 15 hvide dræbt, 537 såret og omkring 1.000 afroamerikanske familier hjemløse. Volden kom helt ud af kontrol, og i 13 dage var Chicago lovløst område, selv om hæren blev indkaldt allerede den fjerde dag.  Ved én anledning måtte maskingevær køres ind, og soldater trække bajonetterne, for at få 600 forsamlede hvide til at sprede sig.

Efter 1935 sank antallet af lynchninger. Som værste enkeltepisode regnes lynchningen af 11 italienere i New Orleans 14. marts 1891. Mændene var mistænkt for at være tilknyttet et kriminelt siciliansk netværk, der stod bag drabet på byens politimester. Imidlertid blev de frikendt, og den oprørte folkemængde tog sagen i egne hænder og brød sig ind i fængslet, hvor italienerne stadig opholdt sig. Fangevogterne slap italienerne ud af cellerne og bad dem om at gemme sig, hvor de kunne; men ni blev fundet og skudt, mens to blev hængt udenfor.

I andre lande (udvalg)

Lynchninger i Palæstina er ofte rapporteret, hvor påståede "spioner" for Israel er blevet dræbt af ophidsede folkemængder.

Lynchninger er rapporteret fra bl.a. Pakistan, Afghanistan og Indien som følge af ophidsede folkemængder, der har anset en eller flere personer for at have udøvet blasfemi.

Lynchninger i Syd- og Mellemamerika er ofte forekommende. I Brasilien blev således alene i 2016 rapporteret 173 tilfælde.  Den 23. november 2004 blev tre mexikanske politifolk, der efterforskede narkokriminalitet, lynchet i byen San Juan Ixtayopan i Tláhuac af en menneskemængde, der mistænkte dem for at bortføre børn fra en skole. Politifolkene identificerede sig, men blev tævet bevidstløse, før der blev sat ild til dem.

I Europa har der tidligere sket omfattende lynchninger under jødeforfølgelser i Det Russiske Kejserrige og i Sovjetunionen, benævnt pogromer. Pogromer fandt primært sted i tiden fra ca. 1880 til 1910; men fortsatte frem til 1945, og var en af årsagerne til, at mange jøder udvandrede til primært USA omkring århundredeskiftet.

Under apartheidregimet i Sydafrika var lynchninger også ofte forekommende. Mange sorte sydafrikanere havde mistet tilliden til regimets retsystem, hvorfor der blev oprettet "folkedomstole", der dømte i sager, hvor der blev krævet retfærdighed. En henrettelsesmetode er necklacing, hvor offeret får et bildæk fyldt med benzin om halsen og armene, hvorefter der sættes ild til benzinen og offeret. Denne praksis var almindelig i 1980'erne og også i 1990'erne efter apartheidregimets fald. Nelson Mandelas ægtefælle Winnie Mandela vakte opmærksomhed, da hun udtalte at "med vore tændstikker og "halsbånd" skal vi befri dette land."  Lynchninger bl.a. med brug af benzinfyldte bildæk forekommer fortsat i Sydafrika.

Også i Nigeria praktiseres lynchning ved necklacing, da korrupt politi er mere frygtet end forbrydere. Offeret kan være i live i tyve minutter før døden indtræder.  I Kenya er det stadig et problem, at ældre mennesker anklages for trolddomskunster og lynches af overtroiske naboer, bevæbnet med økser og macheter, i rene hekseprocesser.

Noter

Litteratur
 Allen, James (red.), Hilton Als, John Lewis, & Leon F. Litwack (2000): Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Twin Palms Pub)  fulgt av en online fotografisk undersøkelse av lynsjingens historie i USA
 Bernstein, Patricia (2005): The First Waco Horror: The Lynching of Jesse Washington and the Rise of the NAACP, Texas A&M University Press, innb.,
 Brundage, W. Fitzhugh (1993): Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880-1930, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press,
 Cutler, James E. (1905): Lynch Law (New York)
 Dray, Philip (2002): At the Hands of Persons Unknown : The Lynching of Black America, New York: Random House. Innb. , uinnb.
 Ginzburg, Ralph (1962, 1988): 100 Years Of Lynchings, Black Classic Press, uinnb.
 Tolnay, Stewart E. & Beck, E.M. (1995): A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press,
 Wells-Barnett, Ida B. (1900): Mob Rule in New Orleans Robert Charles and His Fight to Death, the Story of His Life, Burning Human Beings Alive, Other Lynching Statistics Gutenberg eBook
 Wells-Barnett, Ida B. (1895): Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in all its Phases Gutenberg eBook
 Wood, Joe (2006): Ugly Water, St. Louis: Lulu.

Se også
 Rosewoodmassakren
 Raceoptøjerne i Tulsa 1921

Eksterne henvisninger
 Oprindelse af ordet "Lynch"
 Etymology OnLine
 Gonzales-Day, Ken, Lynching in the West: 1850-1935. Duke University Press, 2006.
 Markovitz, Jonathan, Legacies of Lynching: Racial Violence and Memory. University of Minnesota Press, 2004.
 Before the Needles, Executions (and Lynchings) in America Before Lethal Injection, Details of thousands of lynchings
 Houghton Mifflin: The Reader's Companion to American History – Lynching
 Lynchings in America

Kriminalitet
Retsvæsen
Henrettelse

Lynchning


Katharina Schneider (* 14. August 1985 in Ingolstadt) ist eine deutsche Tischtennisspielerin.

Leben
Schneider hat mit neun Jahren angefangen, Tischtennis zu spielen. Sie spielte zwischen 1998 und 2000 beim TTC Langweid, wechselte 2000 zu TTF Ochsenhausen, 2002 zum TSV Schwabhausen und kehrte 2005 wieder nach Langweid zurück, wo sie seitdem teilweise in der zweiten und teilweise in der ersten Bundesliga spielt.

2003 wurde sie Mannschaftseuropameister der Jugend und siegte im DTTB-Top-12-Ranglistenturnier der Mädchen. Sie war unter anderem zweifache deutsche Meisterin mit Langweid, bayerische Meisterin im Doppel mit Christina Feierabend in den Jahren 2009, 2010 und 2012 und erreichte einen 5. Platz im DTTB TOP 16-Turnier im Jahr 2009.

Schneider ist Volljuristin, arbeitet als Staatsanwältin, und wohnt in Langweid am Lech.

Turnierergebnisse

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
 Jahresjournal 2011/2012 des TTC Langweid, "Steckbrief" über Katharina Schneider, Seite 15

Tischtennisspieler (TTC Langweid)
Tischtennisspieler (TTF Ochsenhausen)
Tischtennisspieler (TSV Schwabhausen)
Deutscher
Geboren 1985
Frau

Katharina Schneider


Chiriquí () is a province of Panama located on the western coast; it is the second most developed province in the country, after the Panamá Province. Its capital is the city of David. It has a total area of 6,490.9 km2, with a population of 462,056 as of the year 2019.
The province of Chiriquí is bordered to the north by the province of Bocas del Toro, to the west by Costa Rica, to the east by the province of Veraguas, and to the south by the Pacific Ocean, specifically the Gulf of Chiriquí.

History

Until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, Chiriquí was populated by a number of indigenous tribes, known collectively as the Guaymí people.

The first European to visit and describe Chiriquí was Gaspar de Espinosa, in 1519. The province was officially established on 26 May 1849, when Panama was still part of Colombia. Several years later, President Abraham Lincoln of the United States proposed Chiriquí as a favored location for Linconia, a colony for free blacks from the United States. Only 349 accepted the offer. Most blacks were not interested.

Chiriquí was the province in which Manuel Noriega rose in the military ranks in the late 20th century; he helped bring Omar Torrijos back into the country after a coup d'état. Noriega had jeeps lined up with their lights on the runway in David to allow Torrijos's aircraft to land. Chiriqui was at the heart of a short-lived pro-democracy guerrilla movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s. After the dictatorship by Manuel Noriega from 1983 to 1989, Guillermo Endara became president of Panama; he appointed Edgar De Puy as governor of Chiriquí.

Administrative divisions
Chiriquí Province is divided into 13 distritos (districts) and sub-divided into 100 corregimientos, although a 14th district and an additional corregimiento took effect from May 2019.

Note: Through Law 55 of 13 September 2013, the creation of Tierras Altas District had been approved, consisting of the corregimientos of Cerro Punta, Cuesta de Piedra, Nueva California, Paso Ancho and Volcán, which were split off from Bugaba District. The new district was to have Volcán as its main centre. Also through that same law, the corregimiento of Solano was created, after splitting off from the corregimiento of La Concepción, Bugaba. That new administrative division within Chiriquí Province was to come into effect by 2 May 2019.

Climate
The province features a variety of climates, from hot and humid lowlands to the cool and moist highlands. The district is home to Fortuna Forest Reserve.

References

External links
 Knowing more about Chiriqui in My Panama Live
K. Holmberg 2010 'Placing Immateriality: Situating the Material of Highland Chiriquí', Internet Archaeology 28.
The Art of Precolumbian Gold: The Jan Mitchell Collection, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Chiriqui

Provinces of Panama
States and territories established in 1849
1849 establishments in the Republic of New Granada

Chiriquí Province


Plotha ist der Name folgender Orte:
 Plotha (Belgern-Schildau), Ortsteil der Stadt Belgern-Schildau im Landkreis Nordsachsen, Sachsen
 Plotha (Teuchern), Ortsteil der Gemeinde Teuchern im Burgenlandkreis, Sachsen-Anhalt

Plotha


Institutul de Arheologie din Iași (abreviere: IAI) este un institut de cercetare în domeniul arheologiei, care funționează sub egida Academiei Române. Institutul a fost fondat în 1990 prin desprinderea secției de arheologie a Institutului de Istorie și Arheologie "A.D. Xenopol".

Directori
 Dan G. Teodor (1990–2003)
 Victor Spinei (2003–2011)
 Alexander Rubel (2011–prezent)

Referințe

Legături externe
 arheo.ro - Sait oficial

Vezi și
 Academia Română
 Institutul de Arheologie "Vasile Pârvan"
 Institutul de Arheologie și Istoria Artei din Cluj-Napoca

Arheologie
Cultura în Iași
Arheologie
Institute de cercetări arheologice
Instituții din Iași

Institutul de Arheologie din Iași


Salpingidae ou besouros de casca de cintura estreita é uma família de besouros, na grande subordem Polyphaga . As espécies são pequenas, cerca de 1,5 – 7 mm de comprimento. Esta família está distribuída mundialmente e é composta por cerca de 45 gêneros e 300 espécies.

Gêneros
Estes 28 gêneros pertencem à família Salpingidae:

 Aegialites Mannerheim, 1853
 Aglenus Erichson, 1845
 Antarcticodomus Brookes, 1951
 Aprostomis Grouvelle, 1913
 Cariderus Mulsant, 1859
 Colposis Mulsant, 1859
 Dacoderus LeConte, 1858
 Elacatis Pascoe, 1860 (false tiger beetles)
 Episcapha Dejean, 1833
 Inopeplus Smith, 1851
 Istrisia Lewis, 1895
 Lissodema Curtis, 1833
 Myrmecoderus Aalbu, Andrews & Pollock, 2005
 Ocholissa Pascoe, 1863
 Parelacatis Chapin, 1923
 Poophylax Champion, 1916
 Rabocerus Mulsant, 1859
 Rhinosimus Latreille, 1805
 Salpingus Illiger, 1801
 Serrotibia Reitter, 1877
 Sosthenes Champion, 1889
 Sphaeriestes Stephens, 1831
 Szekessya Kaszab, 1955
 Tretothorax Lea, 1911-01
 Trogocryptoides Champion, 1924
 Vincenzellus Reitter, 1911
 † Arra Peris et al. 2014 Spanish amber, Albian
 † Eopeplus Kirejtshuk & Nel, 2009 Oise amber, France, Ypresian
 † Protolissodema Alekseev, 2013 Baltic amber, Eocene

Referências

Salpingidae
Famílias de coleópteros

Salpingidae


An Epidendrum sublobatum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Charles Schweinfurth, Leslie Andrew Garay ngan Galfrid Clement Keyworth Dunsterville. An Epidendrum sublobatum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Epidendrum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Epidendrum

Epidendrum sublobatum


Serenoa repens, commonly known as saw palmetto, is a small palm, growing to a maximum height around .

Taxonomy
It is the sole species in the genus Serenoa. The genus name honors American botanist Sereno Watson.

Distribution and habitat
It is endemic to the subtropical and tropical Southeastern United States, most commonly along the south Atlantic and Gulf Coastal plains and sand hills. It grows in clumps or dense thickets in sandy coastal areas, and as undergrowth in pine woods or hardwood hammocks.

Description
Erect stems or trunks are rarely produced, but are found in some populations. It is a hardy plant; extremely slow-growing, and long-lived, with some plants (especially in Florida) possibly being as old as 500–700 years.

Saw palmetto is a fan palm, with the leaves that have a bare petiole terminating in a rounded fan of about 20 leaflets. The petiole is armed with fine, sharp teeth or spines that give the species its common name. The teeth or spines are easily capable of breaking the skin, and protection should be worn when working around a saw palmetto. The leaves are light green inland, and silvery-white in coastal regions. The leaves are 1–2 m in length, the leaflets 50–100 cm long. They are similar to the leaves of the palmettos of genus Sabal. The flowers are yellowish-white, about 5 mm across, produced in dense compound panicles up to 60 cm long.

Ecology
The fruit is a large reddish-black drupe and is an important food source for wildlife and historically for humans. The plant is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species such as Batrachedra decoctor, which feeds exclusively on the plant.

Medical research

Saw palmetto extract has been studied as a possible treatment for people with prostate cancer and for men with lower urinary tract  symptoms associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). As of 2023, there is insufficient scientific evidence that saw palmetto extract is effective for treating cancer or BPH and its symptoms.

One 2016 review of clinical studies with a standardized extract of saw palmetto (called Permixon) found that the extract was safe and may be effective for relieving BPH-induced urinary symptoms compared against a placebo.

Ethnobotany
Indigenous names are reported to include: tala or  talimushi ("palmetto's uncle") in Choctaw; cani (Timucua); ta ́:la (Koasati); taalachoba ("big palm", Alabama); ta:laɬ a ́ kko ("big palm", Creek); talco ́:bˆı ("big palm", Mikasuki); and guana (Taíno, possibly). Saw palmetto fibers have been found among materials from indigenous people as far north as Wisconsin and New York, strongly suggesting this material was widely traded prior to European contact. The leaves are used for thatching by several indigenous groups, so commonly that a location in Alachua County, Florida, is named Kanapaha ("palm house"). The fruit may have been used to treat an unclear form of fish poisoning by the Seminoles and Lucayans.

References

External links

Serenoa repens
Serenoa repens from Floridata
Interactive Distribution Map for Serenoa repens

Coryphoideae
Monotypic Arecaceae genera
Plants used in traditional Native American medicine
Flora of the Southeastern United States
Non-timber forest products

Serenoa


Saut-d'Eau (en criollo haitiano Sodo) es una comuna de Haití que está situada en el distrito de Mirebalais, del departamento de Centro.

Santuario
El lugar tiene una gran importancia religiosa para los católicos y para los practicantes del vudú. Esto es así porque según la tradición el 16 de julio de 1847, la Virgen María (en su advocación de la Virgen del Carmen, para los vuduístas Erzulie Dantor) se apareció en la copa de una palmera. Sin embargo, un sacerdote francés, el Padre Lenouvel, para evitar "dar alas"  a los vodousants, decidió cortar el árbol, una palmera. Al parecer, el sacerdote tras dirigirse a su iglesia, quedó inconsciente y falleció en el mismo día. No obstante, el lugar se convirtió en un importante destino religioso para los haitianos.

Cada año, la "cascada Le Saut" situada en la sección comunal de Montagne Terrible y junto a la palmera donde tuvo lugar la aparición, es testigo de una gran peregrinación. Durante la fiesta de Nuestra Señora del Carmen, entre el 14 y el 16 de julio.

La actividad devocional principal de la festividad es el baño en las aguas de las cataratas, y pedir favores de la Virgen o Erzulie. El agua es también sagrada para los lwas Damballah y Ayida-Wedo. Curiosamente, las alturas de las rocas alrededor de la cascada forman una formación natural de Fibonacci, lo que aumenta la sensación de misticismo del lugar.

Secciones
Está formado por las secciones de:
 Canot (también denominada Rivière Canot)
 La Selle
 Coupe Mardi Gras
 Montagne Terrible

Demografía

Los datos demográficos contemplados en este gráfico de la comuna de Saut-d'Eau son estimaciones que se han cogido de 2009 a 2015 de la página del Instituto Haitiano de Estadística e Informática (IHSI).

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Festival de vudú de Saut d'Eau en Haití (en español). Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2017.

Saut-d'Eau
 Vudú
Apariciones marianas
Mariología
Milagros

Saut-d'Eau


Bill Hall (baseball, 1894)
 Bill Hall (baseball, 1928)
 Bill Hall (baseball, 1979)

Bill Hall


සමුද්දේශ රාමු
යම් වස්තුවක් හෝ යම් ස්ථානයක් තුළ පිහිටන විශේෂ ලක්ෂයක් ලෙස ගෙන තෝරා ගනු ලබන එකිනෙකට ලම්බක x,y,z,යන අක්ෂ පද්ධතියකට සමුද්දේශ රාමුවත් යැයි කියනු ලැබේ.

සමුද්දේශ රාමු


Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a class of proteins that play a key role in the innate immune system. They are single-pass membrane-spanning receptors usually expressed on sentinel cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells, that recognize structurally conserved molecules derived from microbes. Once these microbes have reached physical barriers such as the skin or intestinal tract mucosa, they are recognized by TLRs, which activate immune cell responses. The TLRs include TLR1, TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, TLR6, TLR7, TLR8, TLR9, TLR10, TLR11, TLR12, and TLR13. Humans lack genes for TLR11, TLR12 and TLR13 and mice lack a functional gene for TLR10. The receptors TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, TLR6, and TLR10 are located on the cell membrane, whereas TLR3, TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 are located in intracellular vesicles (because they are sensors of nucleic acids).

TLRs received their name from their similarity to the protein coded by the toll gene.

Function
The ability of the immune system to recognize molecules that are broadly shared by pathogens is, in part, due to the presence of immune receptors called toll-like receptors (TLRs) that are expressed on the membranes of leukocytes including dendritic cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, cells of the adaptive immunity T cells, and B cells, and non-immune cells (epithelial and endothelial cells, and fibroblasts).

The binding of ligands - either in the form of adjuvant used in vaccinations or in the form of invasive moieties during times of natural infection - to the TLR marks the key molecular events that ultimately lead to innate immune responses and the development of antigen-specific acquired immunity.

Upon activation, TLRs recruit adaptor proteins (proteins that mediate other protein-protein interactions) within the cytosol of the immune cell to propagate the antigen-induced signal transduction pathway.   These recruited proteins are then responsible for the subsequent activation of other downstream proteins, including protein kinases (IKKi, IRAK1, IRAK4, and TBK1) that further amplify the signal and ultimately lead to the upregulation or suppression of genes that orchestrate inflammatory responses and other transcriptional events.  Some of these events lead to cytokine production, proliferation, and survival, while others lead to greater adaptive immunity. If the ligand is a bacterial factor, the pathogen might be phagocytosed and digested, and its antigens presented to CD4+ T cells.
In the case of a viral factor, the infected cell may shut off its protein synthesis and may undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis). Immune cells that have detected a virus may also release anti-viral factors such as interferons.

Toll-like receptors have also been shown to be an important link between innate and adaptive immunity through their presence in dendritic cells. Flagellin, a TLR5 ligand, induces cytokine secretion on interacting with TLR5 on human T cells.

Superfamily

TLRs are a type of pattern recognition receptor (PRR) and recognize molecules that are broadly shared by pathogens but distinguishable from host molecules, collectively referred to as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). In addition to the recognition of exogenous PAMPs, TLRs can also bind to endogenous damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) such as heat shock proteins (HSPs) or plasma membrane constituents. TLRs together with the Interleukin-1 receptors form a receptor superfamily, known as the "interleukin-1 receptor / toll-like receptor superfamily"; all members of this family have in common a so-called TIR (toll-IL-1 receptor) domain.

Three subgroups of TIR domains exist. Proteins with subgroup 1 TIR domains are receptors for interleukins that are produced by macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells and all have extracellular Immunoglobulin (Ig) domains. Proteins with subgroup 2 TIR domains are classical TLRs, and bind directly or indirectly to molecules of microbial origin. A third subgroup of proteins containing TIR domains consists of adaptor proteins that are exclusively cytosolic and mediate signaling from proteins of subgroups 1 and 2.

Extended family

TLRs are present in vertebrates as well as invertebrates.  Molecular building blocks of the TLRs are represented in bacteria and in plants, and plant pattern recognition receptors are well known to be required for host defence against infection.  The TLRs thus appear to be one of the most ancient, conserved components of the immune system.

In recent years TLRs were identified also in the mammalian nervous system.  Members of the TLR family were detected on glia, neurons and on neural progenitor cells in which they regulate cell-fate decision.

It has been estimated that most mammalian species have between ten and fifteen types of toll-like receptors.  Thirteen TLRs (named simply TLR1 to TLR13) have been identified in humans and mice together, and equivalent forms of many of these have been found in other mammalian species. However, equivalents of certain TLR found in humans are not present in all mammals.  For example, a gene coding for a protein analogous to TLR10 in humans is present in mice, but appears to have been damaged at some point in the past by a retrovirus.  On the other hand, mice express TLRs 11, 12, and 13, none of which is represented in humans.  Other mammals may express TLRs that are not found in humans.  Other non-mammalian species may have TLRs distinct from mammals, as demonstrated by the anti-cell-wall TLR14, which is found in the Takifugu pufferfish. This may complicate the process of using experimental animals as models of human innate immunity.

Vertebrate TLRs are divided by similarity into the families of TLR 1/2/6/10/14/15, TLR 3, TLR 4, TLR 5, TLR 7/8/9, and TLR 11/12/13/16/21/22/23.

TLRs in Drosophila immunity

The involvement of toll signalling in immunity was first demonstrated in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Fruit flies have only innate immune responses allowing studies to avoid interference of adaptive immune mechanisms on signal transduction. The fly response to fungal or bacterial infection occurs through two distinct signalling cascades, one of which is the toll pathway and the other is the immune deficiency pathway. The toll pathway is similar to mammalian TLR signalling, but unlike mammalian TLRs, toll is not activated directly by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Its receptor ectodomain recognizes the cleaved form of the cytokine spätzle, which is secreted in the haemolymph as an inactive dimeric precursor. The toll receptor shares the cytoplasmatic TIR domain with mammalian TLRs, but the ectodomain and intracytoplasmatic tail are different. This difference might reflect a function of these receptors as cytokine receptors rather than PRRs.

The toll pathway is activated by different stimuli, such as Gram positive bacteria, fungi and virulence factors. First, the Spätzle processing enzyme (SPE) is activated in response to infection and cleaves spätzle (spz). Cleaved spätzle then binds to the toll receptor and crosslinks its ectodomains. This triggers conformational changes in the receptor resulting in signalling through toll. From this point forward, the signalling cascade is very similar to mammalian signalling through TLRs. The toll-induced signalling complex (TICS) is composed of MyD88, Tube, and Pelle (the orthologue of mammalian IRAK). Signal from TICS is then transduced to Cactus (homologue of mammalian IκB), phosphorylated Cactus is polyubiquitylated and degraded, allowing nuclear translocation of DIF (dorsal-related immunity factor; a homologue of mammalian NF-κB) and induction of transcription of genes for antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as drosomycin.

Drosophila have a total of 9 toll family and 6 spz family genes that interact with each other to differing degrees.

TLR2

TLR2 has also been designated as CD282 (cluster of differentiation 282).

TLR3
TLR3 does not use the MyD88 dependent pathway. Its ligand is retroviral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which activates the TRIF dependent signalling pathway. To explore the role of this pathway in retroviral reprograming, knock down techniques of TLR3 or TRIF were prepared, and results showed that only the TLR3 pathway is required for full induction of target gene expression by the retrovirus expression vector.  This retroviral expression of four transcriptional factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc; OSKM) induces pluripotency in somatic cells. This is supported by study, which shows, that efficiency and amount of human iPSC generation, using retroviral vectors, is reduced by knockdown of the pathway with peptide inhibitors or shRNA knockdown of TLR3 or its adaptor protein TRIF.  Taken together, stimulation of TLR3 causes great changes in chromatin remodeling and nuclear reprogramming, and activation of inflammatory pathways is required for these changes, induction of pluripotency genes and generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) colonies.

TLR11
As noted above, human cells do not express TLR11, but mice cells do. Mouse-specific TLR11 recognizes uropathogenic E.coli and the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. With Toxoplasma its ligand is the protein profilin and the ligand for E. coli is flagellin. The flagellin from the enteropathogen Salmonella is also recognized by TLR11.

As mouse TLR11 is able to recognize Salmonella effectively, normal mice do not get infected by oral Salmonella Typhi, which causes food- and waterborne gastroenteritis and typhoid fever in humans. TLR11 deficient knockout mice, on the other hand, are efficiently infected. As a result, this knockout mouse can act as a disease model of human typhoid fever.

Summary of known mammalian TLRs

Toll-like receptors bind and become activated by different ligands, which, in turn, are located on different types of organisms or structures. They also have different adapters to respond to activation and are located sometimes at the cell surface and sometimes to internal cell compartments. Furthermore, they are expressed by different types of leucocytes or other cell types:

Ligands

Because of the specificity of toll-like receptors (and other innate immune receptors) they cannot easily be changed in the course of evolution, these receptors recognize molecules that are constantly associated with threats (i.e., pathogen or cell stress) and are highly specific to these threats (i.e., cannot be mistaken for self molecules that are normally expressed under physiological conditions).  Pathogen-associated molecules that meet this requirement are thought to be critical to the pathogen's function and difficult to change through mutation; they are said to be evolutionarily conserved.  Somewhat conserved features in pathogens include bacterial cell-surface lipopolysaccharides (LPS), lipoproteins, lipopeptides, and lipoarabinomannan; proteins such as flagellin from bacterial flagella; double-stranded RNA of viruses; or the unmethylated CpG islands of bacterial and viral DNA; and also of the CpG islands found in the promoters of eukaryotic DNA; as well as certain other RNA and DNA molecules. As TLR ligands are present in most pathogens, they may also be present in pathogen-derived vaccines (e.g. MMR, influenza, polio vaccines) most commercially available vaccines have been assessed for their inherent TLR ligands' capacity to activate distinct subsets of immune cells. For most of the TLRs, ligand recognition specificity has now been established by gene targeting (also known as "gene knockout"):  a technique by which individual genes may be selectively deleted in mice. See the table above for a summary of known TLR ligands.

Endogenous ligands

The stereotypic inflammatory response provoked by toll-like receptor activation has prompted speculation that endogenous activators of toll-like receptors might participate in autoimmune diseases.  TLRs have been suspected of binding to host molecules including fibrinogen (involved in blood clotting), heat shock proteins (HSPs), HMGB1, extracellular matrix components and self DNA (it is normally degraded by nucleases, but under inflammatory and autoimmune conditions it can form a complex with endogenous proteins, become resistant to these nucleases and gain access to endosomal TLRs as TLR7 or TLR9). These endogenous ligands are usually produced as a result of non-physiological cell death.

Signaling

TLRs are believed to function as dimers. Though most TLRs appear to function as homodimers, TLR2 forms heterodimers with TLR1 or TLR6, each dimer having a different ligand specificity.  TLRs may also depend on other co-receptors for full ligand sensitivity, such as in the case of TLR4's recognition of LPS, which requires MD-2. CD14 and LPS-Binding Protein (LBP) are known to facilitate the presentation of LPS to MD-2.

A set of endosomal TLRs comprising TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9 recognize nucleic acid derived from viruses as well as endogenous nucleic acids in context of pathogenic events. Activation of these receptor leads to production of inflammatory cytokines as well as type I interferons (interferon type I) to help fight viral infection.

The adapter proteins and kinases that mediate TLR signaling have also been targeted.  In addition, random germline mutagenesis with ENU has been used to decipher the TLR signaling pathways.  When activated, TLRs recruit adapter molecules within the cytoplasm of cells to propagate a signal.  Four adapter molecules are known to be involved in signaling.  These proteins are known as MyD88, TIRAP (also called Mal), TRIF, and TRAM (TRIF-related adaptor molecule).

TLR signaling is divided into two distinct signaling pathways, the MyD88-dependent and TRIF-dependent pathway.

MyD88-dependent pathway
The MyD88-dependent response occurs on dimerization of TLRs, and is used by every TLR except TLR3. Its primary effect is activation of NFκB and Mitogen-activated protein kinase. Ligand binding and conformational change that occurs in the receptor recruits the adaptor protein MyD88, a member of the TIR family. MyD88 then recruits IRAK4, IRAK1 and IRAK2. IRAK kinases then phosphorylate and activate the protein TRAF6, which in turn polyubiquinates the protein TAK1, as well as itself to facilitate binding to IKK-β. On binding, TAK1 phosphorylates IKK-β, which then phosphorylates IκB causing its degradation and allowing NFκB to diffuse into the cell nucleus and activate transcription and consequent induction of inflammatory cytokines.

TRIF-dependent pathway
Both TLR3 and TLR4 use the TRIF-dependent pathway, which is triggered by dsRNA and LPS, respectively. For TLR3, dsRNA leads to activation of the receptor, recruiting the adaptor TRIF. TRIF activates the kinases TBK1 and RIPK1, which creates a branch in the signaling pathway. The TRIF/TBK1 signaling complex phosphorylates IRF3 allowing its translocation into the nucleus and production of Interferon type I. Meanwhile, activation of RIPK1 causes the polyubiquitination and activation of TAK1 and NFκB transcription in the same manner as the MyD88-dependent pathway.

TLR signaling ultimately leads to the induction or suppression of genes that orchestrate the inflammatory response.  In all, thousands of genes are activated by TLR signaling, and collectively, the TLRs constitute one of the most pleiotropic yet tightly regulated gateways for gene modulation.

TLR4 is the only TLR that uses all four adaptors. Complex consisting of TLR4, MD2 and LPS recruits TIR domain-containing adaptors TIRAP and MyD88 and thus initiates activation of NFκB (early phase) and MAPK. TLR4-MD2-LPS complex then undergoes endocytosis and in endosome it forms a signalling complex with TRAM and TRIF adaptors. This TRIF-dependent pathway again leads to IRF3 activation and production of type I interferons, but it also activates late-phase NFκB activation. Both late and early phase activation of NFκB is required for production of inflammatory cytokines.

Medical relevance
Imiquimod (cardinally used in dermatology) is a TLR7 agonist, and its successor resiquimod, is a TLR7 and TLR8 agonist. Recently, resiquimod has been explored as an agent for cancer immunotherapy, acting through stimulation of tumor-associated macrophages.

Several TLR ligands are in clinical development or being tested in animal models as vaccine adjuvants, with the first clinical use in humans in a recombinant herpes zoster vaccine in 2017, which contains a monophosphoryl lipid A component.

TLR7 messenger RNA expression levels in dairy animals in a natural outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease have been reported.

TLR4 has been shown to be important for the long-term side-effects of opioids. Its activation leads to downstream release of inflammatory modulators including TNF-α and IL-1β, and constant low-level release of these modulators is thought to reduce the efficacy of opioid drug treatment with time, and is involved in opioid tolerance, hyperalgesia and allodynia. Morphine induced TLR4 activation attenuates pain suppression by opioids and enhances the development of opioid tolerance and addiction, drug abuse, and other negative side effects such as respiratory depression and hyperalgesia. Drugs that block the action of TNF-α or IL-1β have been shown to increase the analgesic effects of opioids and reduce the development of tolerance and other side-effects, and this has also been demonstrated with drugs that block TLR4 itself.

The "unnatural" enantiomers of opioid drugs such as (+)-morphine and (+)-naloxone lack affinity for opioid receptors, still produce the same activity at TLR4 as their "normal" enantiomers. So, "unnatural" entianomers of opioids such as (+)-naloxone, can be used to block the TLR4 activity of opioid analgesic drugs without having any affinity for μ-opioid receptor

Discovery

When microbes were first recognized as the cause of infectious diseases, it was immediately clear that multicellular organisms must be capable of recognizing them when infected and, hence, capable of recognizing molecules unique to microbes. A large body of literature, spanning most of the last century, attests to the search for the key molecules and their receptors. More than 100 years ago, Richard Pfeiffer, a student of Robert Koch, coined the term "endotoxin" to describe a substance produced by Gram-negative bacteria that could provoke fever and shock in experimental animals. In the decades that followed, endotoxin was chemically characterized and identified as a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) produced by most Gram-negative bacteria. This lipopolysaccharide is an integral part of the gram-negative membrane and is released upon destruction of the bacterium. Other molecules (bacterial lipopeptides, flagellin, and unmethylated DNA) were shown in turn to provoke host responses that are normally protective. However, these responses can be detrimental if they are excessively prolonged or intense. It followed logically that there must be receptors for such molecules, capable of alerting the host to the presence of infection, but these remained elusive for many years. Toll-like receptors are now counted among the key molecules that alert the immune system to the presence of microbial infections.

The prototypic member of the family, the toll receptor (; Tl) in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, was discovered in 1985 by 1995 Nobel Laureates Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus and colleagues. It was known for its developmental function in embryogenesis by establishing the dorsal-ventral axis. It was named after Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard's 1985 exclamation, "" ("That's amazing!"), in reference to the underdeveloped ventral portion of a fruit fly larva. It was cloned by the laboratory of Kathryn Anderson in 1988. In 1996, toll was found by Jules A. Hoffmann and his colleagues to have an essential role in the fly's immunity to fungal infection, which it achieved by activating the synthesis of antimicrobial peptides.

The first reported human toll-like receptor was described by Nomura and colleagues in 1994, mapped to a chromosome by Taguchi and colleagues in 1996. Because the immune function of toll in Drosophila was not then known, it was assumed that TIL (now known as TLR1) might participate in mammalian development. However, in 1991 (prior to the discovery of TIL) it was observed that a molecule with a clear role in immune function in mammals, the interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor, also had homology to drosophila toll; the cytoplasmic portions of both molecules were similar.

In 1997, Charles Janeway and Ruslan Medzhitov showed that a toll-like receptor now known as TLR4 could, when artificially ligated using antibodies, induce the activation of certain genes necessary for initiating an adaptive immune response. TLR 4 function as an LPS sensing receptor was discovered by Bruce A. Beutler and colleagues. These workers used positional cloning to prove that mice that could not respond to LPS had mutations that abolished the function of TLR4. This identified TLR4 as one of the key components of the receptor for LPS.

In turn, the other TLR genes were ablated in mice by gene targeting, largely in the laboratory of Shizuo Akira and colleagues. Each TLR is now believed to detect a discrete collection of molecules – some of microbial origin, and some products of cell damage – and to signal the presence of infections.

Plant homologs of toll were discovered by Pamela Ronald in 1995 (rice XA21) and Thomas Boller in 2000 (Arabidopsis FLS2).

In 2011, Beutler and Hoffmann were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for their work. Hoffmann and Akira received the Canada Gairdner International Award in 2011.

Notes and references

See also
 NOD-like receptor
 Immunologic adjuvant
 RIG-I-like receptor

External links

 TollML: Toll-like receptors and ligands database at University of Munich
 The Toll-Like Receptor Family of Innate Immune Receptors (pdf)
 Toll-Like receptor Pathway
 BioScience Animations

Developmental genetics
Insect immunity
LRR proteins
Signal transduction

Toll-like receptor