Georg Erhard Hamberger, né le  à Iéna où il est mort le , est un médecin, physicien et botaniste allemand.

Biographie

Fils du mathématicien , il est élève en anatomie de  dont il suit secrètement les cours. À la mort de son père en 1716, il décide de se consacrer entièrement à la médecine.

Élève de , il obtient une maîtrise de philosophie en 1717 et est diplômé docteur en médecine en 1721 de l'université d'Iéna.

Il officie dès 1724 dans le district de Weimar et devient en 1726 professeur de mathématiques et de physique à Iéna. Il est élu à l'Académie Léopoldine le 18 mai 1731. En 1744, il devint professeur titulaire de botanique, d'anatomie et de chirurgie et en 1748, professeur de chimie et de médecine pratique.

Dans De respirationis mechanismo, il étudie le phénomène de la respiration de manière totalement mécanique, ce qui lui attire une polémique avec Albrecht von Haller.

Œuvres

 Elementa physices, Iéna, 1727 et 1761
 De respirationis mechanismo, 1727 et 1747
 Physiologia medica, 1754
 Elementa physiologiæ medicæ, 1757
 Metfiodus medendi morbos, 1763

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 , Das Leben des Professors Georg Erhard Hambergers, nebst einer Nachricht von seinen Schriften, und gelehrten Streitigkeiten, Theodor Wilhelm Ernst Güth, Jena, 1758
 , Hamberger, Georg Erhard, In: Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärzte aller Zeiten und Völker, dirigé par August Hirsch, Urban & Schwarzenberg, Vienne & Leipzig, 1886, vol. 3,

 Jacob Brucker: Bilder-sal heutiges Tages lebender, und durch Gelahrheit berühmter Schrifft-steller, in welchem derselbigen nach wahren Original-malereyen entworfene Bildnisse in schwarzer Kunst, in natürlicher Aehnlichkeit vorgestellet, und ihre Lebens-umstände, Verdienste um die Wissenschafften/ und Schrifften aus glaubwürdigen Nachrichten erzählet werden. Johann Jacob Haid, 1747, 2. Bd., S. 16 (Online)
 Johann Georg Meusel: Lexikon der vom Jahr 1750 bis 1800 verstorbenen teutschen Schriftsteller. Gerhard Fleischer d. J., Leipzig, 1805, 5. Bd., S. 113 (Online)
 Johann Christoph Adelung: Fortsetzung und Ergänzungen zu Christian Gottlieb Jöchers allgemeinen Gelehrten-Lexico, worin die Schriftsteller aller Stände nach ihren vornehmsten Lebensumständen und Schriften beschrieben werden. Johann Friedrich Gledisch, Leipzig, 1787, Bd. 2, Sp. 1763 (Online)
 Johann Samuel Ersch, Johann Gottfried Gruber: Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste. Verlag Johann Friedrich Gleditsch, Leipzig, 1827, 2. Sektion, 1. Teil, S. 358 (Online)
 Theodor Günther: Goethes Crailsheimer Vorfahren und ihre fränkischthüringische Verwandtschaft. Selbstverlag, 1970, S. 104 ff.

Liens externes

Médecin allemand du XVIIIe siècle
Physicien allemand du XVIIIe siècle
Botaniste allemand du XVIIIe siècle
Naissance en décembre 1697
Naissance à Iéna
Naissance dans le duché de Saxe-Weimar
Décès en juillet 1755
Décès à Iéna
Décès dans le duché de Saxe-Weimar
Décès à 57 ans

Georg Erhard Hamberger


Jostein Hasselgård (* 24. März 1979 in Fredrikstad) ist ein norwegischer Popsänger.

Als Sechsjähriger begann er das Klavierspiel und studierte als junger Mann an der Norwegischen Musikhochschule. Zwischendurch war er kurzzeitig in einem Kindergarten als Erzieher angestellt. Als eher unbekannter Sänger gewann er die norwegische Vorauswahl Melodi Grand Prix 2003 und durfte daher beim Eurovision Song Contest 2003 in Riga antreten. Seine Ballade I'm Not Afraid To Move On errang den vierten Platz.  Mit seiner Band Hasselgård veröffentlichte er 2006 das Album A Few Words. Seit 2010 singt er in der Stimmlage Tenor bei der norwegischen A-cappella-Gruppe Pust.

Einzelnachweise

Musiker (Norwegen)
Popsänger
Interpret eines norwegischen Beitrags beim Eurovision Song Contest
Teilnehmer am Melodi Grand Prix
Norweger
Geboren 1979
Mann

Jostein Hasselgård


Las islas Bijol (en inglés: Bijol Islands) son un archipiélago del océano Atlántico en el África Occidental que hace parte del país de Gambia.

El grupo está formado por cinco islas situadas a unos kilómetros  frente a la costa, en el extremo occidental de Gambia, cerca de la ciudad de Tanji. El grupo de pequeñas islas pertenece a un santuario de aves, establecido en 1993 conocido como «Reserva de Aves Tanji».

Se localiza en las coordenadas geográficas .

Véase también
Geografía de Gambia
Geografía de África

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Mapa de ubicación de las islas

Archipiélagos e islas del océano Atlántico de Gambia

Islas Bijol


Constantin Sion (n. 7 septembrie 1795 – d. 15 februarie 1862) a fost un cronicar moldovean și paharnic.

Biografie
A fost fiul bașceaușului, apoi stolnic Iordache Sion (urmaș al unei familii de răzeși din ținutul Tutovei) și al Ecaterinei, fiica lui Toader Danu, vornic de Vrancea. Sion scrie, între 1840 și 1857, Arhondologia Moldovei, lucrare cu o anumită valoare genealogică care oferă informații despre aproximativ 700 de familii. Arhondologia Moldovei a fost publicată pentru prima dată postum, în 1892, la Iași, cu o prefață de Gh. Ghibănescu, însă istoricii au respins-o imediat, din cauza tonului subiectiv și a numeroaselor erori genealogice.

Ecaterina  (Catrina) Sion era nepoata, după mamă, a lui Simion Tăutu, descendent al vechii familii boierești atestate încă din secolul al XV-lea. Costandin Sion a avut cinci frați: Antohie, Ioniță, Neculai, Costache și Toader, arhondologul fiind al cincilea. Familia Sion din secolul al XVIII-lea  a fost o familie cu tradiții de cărturari. Iordache Sion (1732- 1812) copia letopisețe în tinerețea sa. Antohie Sion, fiul cel mai mare (1787- 1848), a avut rosturi politice și administrative în deceniile 3 - 5, dar și preocupări culturale: colecționa documente și cronici. Al doilea fiu, Ioniță Sion, a fost tatăl poetului Gheorghe Sion (1822-1892), ale cărui Suvenire contemporane  constituie o interesantă operă memorialistică. Banul Neculai Sion a notat câteva amintiri pe o veche psaltire: însemnări despre propria naștere și căsătorie, morțile și nașterile din familie, dar și evenimente naturale sau gospodărești mai importante (o secetă, un cutremur, o recoltă bogată sau una dezastruoasă). Ultimul fiu, serdarul Toader Sion, a fost, alături de Gheorghe, unul din semnatarii lucrării Prințipiile noastre pentru reformarea patriei. Paharnicul Sion (paharnic = rang de boierie, boier de Divan) a fost copist la vistierie, ceauș, staroste la Focșani,  vechil de staroste la Putna, președinte al Eforiei din Focșani în 1842, unde se stabilise de mult în casele de zestre ale soției sale, Eufrosina (Evfrosina), fata banului Toma Stamatin.

După Gheorghe Ungureanu, familia Sion descindea dintr-o veche familie de răzeși, Coșescu, din ținutul Tutovei, numită așa după numele moșiei Coșești și coborâtoare dintr-un Sion, atestat la anul 1558. Ionașcu Coșescu i-a avut ca fii pe Războian Coșescu, Mereuță (Mirăuță ), Irimia și Vasile Coșescu. Războian Coșescu a avut un fiu căruia i-a pus numele Sion. Acest Sion Coșescu a trăit pe la 1678. Fiul lui Sion Coșescu, Andrei, a adoptat numele Sion ca nume de familie. Andrei Sion, căsătorit cu o Gafița a avut un  fiu, Toader Sion, care are la rândul său trei fii: Constantin, Ioniță și Iordache. Ultimul dintre ei este tatăl paharnicului Costandin Sion. Șerban Cioculescu a remarcat în lucrarea Varietăți critice că în secolul al XVI-lea  un document menționează în satul Coșești, un Sion, fiul lui Dragotă păhărnicel. Paharnicul arhondolog și-a construit o legendă fabuloasă, a descendenței tătărăști a familiei Sion, susținând că familia Sion ar descinde dintr-un "tatar de la Crîm , un Demir-Sultan, fiul hanului de Crîm, Beldingherei. Mînca-l-ar cânii, ticălos, pentru că au venit în Moldova și s-au botezat". Fiind refugiat în Moldova, a luptat în rândurile oștenilor domnitorului Ștefan cel Mare, care l-ar fi botezat și boierit.

Un cărturar important al familiei este Gheorghe Sion (1822-1892), fiul paharnicului Ioniță Sion și al Frosinei  Schina, boiernaș pașoptist (a participat la revoluția pașoptistă din Moldova), membru al Societății Academice Române, autor de poezii, fabule, piese de teatru, amintiri de călătorie (din Basarabia și Bucovina).

Arhondologia Moldovei
Constantin Sion a scris Arhondologia Moldovei între anii 1840-1857 , lucrare ce constituie mai degrabă o cronică a contemporanilor lui decât o istorie documentată a familiilor boierești. Arhondologia , un termen introdus de fanarioți, are semnificația  de "Istorie a nobilimii; carte cuprinzând repertoriul familiilor nobile dintr-o țară." Și-a adunat informațiile în timp de treizeci și cinci de ani, dacă avem în vedere că a scris pînă în ajunul morții (1862), înregistrând sinuciderea fostului domnitor Grigore Al. Ghica (1857).  Primul procedeu al metodei sale de lucru este ancheta orală, printre boierii mai bătrâni, însă documentarea arhondologului a cuprins și izvoare scrise. Paharnicul a consultat " pe la 1826"  condica vistieriei  de la domnul Mihai Suțu din 1793, cu birnicii timpului. Uneori a consultat și documente de moșie, ca "Băloșeștii Voinescului, de la ținutul Vasluiului", sau "manuscripte istorice despre țara noastră și familia Cantimirească". Ioan Tanoviceanu prețuia mult valoarea istorică și originalitatea acestei scrieri. Alte opinii exprimate despre Arhondologie au fost cu totul negative. Sion suferea de xenofobie, cultivându-și totodată "dulcele delir avantajos al unei ascendențe fabuloase..."( Serban Cioculescu, op.cit., p. 147). Același Șerban Cioculescu nu ezita să numească Arhondologia "o scriere de ură și răzbunări personale..."Nicolae Iorga ignora conținutul  lucrării lui Sion în mod conștient, din pricina descrierii răuvoitoare pe care paharnicul o făcuse strămoșilor marelui istoric. În studiul său despre Genealogiștii Moldovei, G. Bezviconi afirma următoarele despre valoarea Arhondologiei: "Scrierea paharnicului Sion este o întreagă arhivă de bârfeli și răfuieli cu toți acei care au avut nenorocul să nu placă autorului; totuși, în lipsa altor memorii din acea epocă, lucrarea constituie un  izvor de prețioasă informație, mai cu seamă în ce privește contemporanii săi." O serie de informații ce trebuie verificate în documente sunt cele privind originea și vechimea unor familii. După opinia genealogistului Alexandru V. Perietzianu-Buzău,aceste informații , izvorâte din ranchiunele și subiectivitatea arheologului sunt cele fanteziste și deci neutilizabile științific.

Frații Costache Sion și Constantin Sion au fost niște fervenți antiunioniști. Unionismul, susținut de către ultimul domnitor reglementar, Grigore Al. Ghica, i se părea arhondologului o idee dementă, vrednică de "hagiul", de "împușcatul", de Grigore-vodă "nebunul".(Șerban Cioculescu, op.cit. p. 166), aluzie la tragicul său sfârșit, la Paris, la 24 august 1857.

Frații Antohie, Costache și Constantin Sion au plăsmuit o falsă cronică moldovenească, atribuită unui autor fictiv, Campoducele Arbore, care ar fi fost scrisă în secolul al III-lea al erei noastre. Această falsă cronică a căpătat numele de Cronica lui Huru sau Izvodul lui Clănău. "Petru Clănău", boier al lui Ștefan cel Mare, ar fi tradus textul cronicii în "Moldavă", în târgul Vasluiului. Frații Sion au inventat  Cronica lui Huru spre a servi neamului Sion să-și poată trimite feciorii la școala de cadeți din Petersburg -școală rezervată nobilimii. Falsitatea acestei cronici a fost demonstrată de Alexandru Philippide, Gr. G. Tocilescu, I.Tanoviceanu, Theodor Codrescu, Gh. Ghibănescu, Șerban Cioculescu etc.

Note

Nașteri în 1795
Decese în 1862
Cronicari moldoveni
Boieri și boiernași din Moldova
Oameni din secolul al XIX-lea

Constantin Sion


ට්‍රෝජන් අශ්වයා යනු ග්‍රීකයන් විසින් ට්‍රෝජන් යුද්ධයේ දී ට්‍රෝයි නගරයට ඇතුලු වීම සඳහා භාවිතා කළා යැයි පැවසෙන ලී වලින් සෑදූ අශ්වයෙකි. හෝමර් ගේ ඉලියඩ් කාව්‍යයේ ට්‍රෝජන් අශ්වයා ගැන සඳහන් නොවන අතර, ඔඩිසි හි ඒ පිළිබඳ ලුහුඬු සඳහනක් පමණක් පවතී. වර්ජිල් ගේ ඇනෙයිඩ් කාව්‍යයට අනුව, වසර 10 ක් ට්‍රෝයි නගරය වට කරගෙන නිෂ්ඵලව යුද්ධ කළ ග්‍රීකයන් අවසානයේ ඔඩිසියස්ගේ අණින් විශාල ලී අශ්වයෙකු නිර්මාණය කර ඇත. ඉන්පසුව, තෝරාගත් සෙබළුන් කිහිප දෙනෙක් සමග ඔඩිසියස් අශ්වයාගේ සිරුර තුල සැඟවුනු අතර, ග්‍රීක හමුදාව පසුබැස යන ලෙසක් පෙන්වමින් නෞකා ඈතට යාත්‍රා කර ඇත. තමා යුද්ධය ජයග්‍රහණය කළා යැයි සිතූ ට්‍රෝජන්වරු, කුසළාණයක් ලෙස ලී අශ්වයා නගරය තුලට රැගෙන ගියහ. එම රාත්‍රියේ අශ්වයාගෙන් පිටතට පැමිණි ග්‍රීක සෙබළුන් නගරයේ දොරටු විවර කළ අතර, රහසේ නැවත යාත්‍රා කර පැමිණ සිටි ග්‍රීක හමුදාව නගරයට කඩා වැදී, එය විනාශ කොට යුද්ධය අවසන් කළහ.

ට්‍රෝජන් අශ්වයා


Denis Borissowitsch Gluschakow (; ; * 27. Januar 1987 in Millerowo, UdSSR) ist ein russischer Fußballspieler. Er steht zurzeit beim russischen Erstligisten FK Nischni Nowgorod unter Vertrag.

Karriere

Verein
Gluschakow begann seine fußballerische Karriere beim FC Nika Moskau. Bereits dort wurde sein Talent entdeckt und Lokomotive Moskau kaufte ihn mit einer Weiterverkaufsgebühr von 15 %. Bei Lokomotiv fand er sich, nach zwei Leihen ins unterklassige Russland, sehr gut ein und war dann Stammspieler im zentralen Mittelfeld. Von 2005 bis 2013 machte er fast 150 Ligaspiele für die Hauptstädter. 2013 wurde er von einem anderen Klub aus Moskau gekauft, von Spartak Moskau. Diese zahlten rund acht Millionen Euro für ihn. Davon gingen 1,2 Millionen Euro an Nika Moskau. Nach einigen Anlaufschwierigkeiten war er bei Spartak auch gesetzt. Auch für Spartak machte er rund 150 Ligaspiele. Mit 32 Jahren wechselte er dann zum etwas schwächeren Erstligisten Achmat Grosny. Dort wurde er als einer der Topspieler gehandelt und war so gut wie immer in der Startelf vertreten.

Nationalmannschaft
Gluschakow hatte sein Debüt im Nationalteam am 29. März 2011 bei einem Freundschaftsspiel gegen Katar. Am 11. Oktober 2011 schoss er sein erstes Tor für Russland bei dem EM-Qualifikationsspiel gegen Andorra.

Gluschakow nahm mit der russischen Nationalmannschaft an der Fußball-Europameisterschaft 2012 in Polen und der Ukraine teil.

Seit August 2012 hat er einen Stammplatz in der Nationalmannschaft.

Bei der Fußball-Europameisterschaft 2016 in Frankreich wurde er in das russische Aufgebot aufgenommen. Im ersten Turnierspiel gegen England kam er als Einwechselspieler in den letzten 20 Minuten zum Einsatz. Gegen die Slowakei war er eine von zwei Einwechslungen zur Halbzeit. Ihm gelang noch der 1:2-Anschlusstreffer, die Partie ging dennoch verloren. Im dritten Spiel gegen Wales spielte er dann erstmals von Beginn an. Danach schied das Team als Gruppenletzter aus.

Beim Confed-Cup 2017 war er auch dabei und spielte bis zum Ausscheiden der Russen alle Gruppenspiele von Beginn an und über 90 Minuten. Sein letztes Spiel im Nationaltrikot machte er am 23. März 2018. Wenige Tage danach gab er seinen Rücktritt bekannt.

Erfolge
 Russischer Meister: 2017
 Russischer Supercup-Sieger: 2018

Privates
Denis Gluschakow heiratete am 19. Juni 2009 seine Freundin Darja, die von Beruf Zahnärztin ist. Am 26. September 2011 kam Tochter Walerija zur Welt. Die Familie lebt in Rostow am Don.

Weblinks

Fußballnationalspieler (Russland)
Fußballspieler (FK SKA Rostow)
Fußballspieler (Lokomotive Moskau)
Fußballspieler (Swesda Irkutsk)
Fußballspieler (Spartak Moskau)
Fußballspieler (Achmat Grosny)
Fußballspieler (FK Chimki)
Fußballspieler (FK Nischni Nowgorod)
Russischer Meister (Fußball)
Teilnehmer an einer Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft (Russland)
Teilnehmer an einer Fußball-Europameisterschaft (Russland)
Teilnehmer am FIFA-Konföderationen-Pokal (Russland)
Russe
Sowjetbürger
Geboren 1987
Mann

Denis Borissowitsch Gluschakow


La fosfoinosítido fosfolipasa C beta 1 (PLCB1) () es una isozima humana de la enzima fosfoinosítido fosfolipasa C. Cataliza la reacción:

 1-fosfatidil-1D-mio-inositol 4,5-bisfosfato + H2O  1D-mio-inositol-1,4,5-trisfosfato + diacilglicerol

Tiene como función la producción de las moléculas mensajeras diacilglicerol e inositol 1,4,5-trifosfato. Utiliza como cofactor calcio. Interacciona con la diacilglicerol kinasa theta. La activación de la PLCB1 mediada por receptor se produce a través de dos subunidades alfa de la proteína G: alfa-Q y alfa-11. Contiene un dominio tipo C2, un dominio tipo PI-PLC X-box y un dominio PI-PLC Y-box.

Los defectos en PLCB1 son causa de la encefalopatía epiléptica infantil tipo 12 (EIEE12). Esta enfermedad es una forma de epilepsia caracterizada por convulsiones o espasmos que empiezan en la infancia. Los pacientes pueden progresar a un síndrome de West que está caracterizado por espamos, detención del desarrollo psicomotor e hipsarritmia.

Referencias

Fosfolipasas
EC 3.1.4

PLCB1


Super Bowl XXX je bio završna utakmica 76. po redu sezone nacionalne lige američkog nogometa. U njoj su se sastali pobjednici AFC konferencije Pittsburgh Steelersi i pobjednici NFC konferencije Dallas Cowboysi. Pobijedili su Cowboysi rezultatom 27:17, kojima je to bio peti osvojeni naslov.

Utakmica je odigrana na Sun Devil Stadiumu u Tempeu u Arizoni, kojem je to bilo prvo domaćinstvo Super Bowla.

Tijek utakmice

Statistika utakmice

Statistika po momčadima

Statistika po igračima

Napomena: * - broj kompletiranih dodavanja/ukupno dodavanja, ** - ukupno jardi dodavanja, *** - broj touchdownova (polaganja), **** - broj izgubljenih lopti

Izvori

1995

Super Bowl XXX


Braunton is a large village, civil parish, ecclesiastical parish and former manor in Devon. The village is situated  west of Barnstaple. It is one of the largest villages in Devon with a population at the 2021 census of 10,217 people. There are two electoral wards (East and West). Their joint population at the above census was 8,218. Within the parish is the fertile, low-lying Braunton Great Field, which adjoins the undulating Braunton Burrows, the Core Area in North Devon Biosphere Reserve, the largest psammosere (sand dune system) in England. It confronts the Atlantic Ocean at the west of the parish at the large beach of Saunton Sands, one of the South West's international-standard surfing beaches.

Toponymy
The origin of the name Braunton is unclear; there are two likely explanations for the name. The first is that the name comes from the common name Brampton, derived from "a town where broom grew". The other explanation is that it could be named after St Brannock. Neither of these explanations fit perfectly, and the origin of this name will likely remain a mystery.

Topography
The South West Coast Path National Trail passes through the village and gives access for walkers to the spectacular North Devon coast. The Tarka Trail also passes through the village. Braunton Burrows marsh on the west side of the parish is a designated biosphere reserve, the first place in Great Britain to have gained such status. The coastal part of the parish lies within the North Devon Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, and comprises Saunton Sands to the west, a beach of finely-grained sand, and to the south the estuary of the River Taw, of mixed mud and sand. The north of Braunton Burrows are open to light public access and have been converted into a Links Golf Course. Braunton was half-surrounded by an extensive brackish salt-water marsh restricting available agricultural land.  In 1808 this was surveyed by Charles Vancouver, for the Board of Agriculture, who recommended that the marsh should be enclosed and reclaimed. This met with local approval and James Green was appointed as engineer for the drainage scheme. An Act of Parliament was obtained for the purpose on 25 May 1811.  On completion, responsibility for the marsh passed Marsh Inspectors, who sanctioned further work in 1854, involving the straightening and embanking of the River Caen, or Braunton Pill, to form the Braunton Canal. The scheme was completed by the addition of a new quay at Velator in the 1870s.

To the West of Braunton is Saunton and its beach and the sand dune system but bordering the village is what is reputed to be the largest remaining 'strip' farming area in the UK and which known as the 'Great Field' . Probably from medieval times and continuing today, this large area has been opened tilled without formal boundaries,  with at least 3 families still involved in production. This boundary effect by the 'Great Field' now acts as a 'natural' barrier to the development of the town in that direction.

During building works in the end of the 20th century, two strange findings revealed something of the areas geology. In one area of the village high on the side of the hill and about  above the flat area of the village, excavations for 1 m deep foundations of a house broke in to a pocket of sand which was found to extend greater than 5 m. The subsequent house had to be built on a raft on the sand. The sand was understood to have been examined by Exeter University, who considered it to have been a pocket pushed up by a glacier during the last ice age. At similar time in the flat area of the village, excavations for foundations revealed large sooth, rounded stones which were put down to a wide water course having been present at some time, rather than the small river that flows through the village now.

Braunton railway station formerly existed on the now closed Ilfracombe Branch Line two stations from Barnstaple railway station on the 'Tarka' or North Devon Line from Exeter, which currently operate regular and heritage trains.

The presence of the river, the 'soft' water and permission for abstraction, encouraged an American company, 'Curity' to set up business in the village in the early 60's for the purposes of bleaching and processing imported raw cotton wool from the US into various products such as cotton wool balls, and rolls of perfectly white cotton for other companies to make such products as tampons and other medical/surgical products.  Despite being in operation for about 40 years, the softness of the water and minimal [resin] 'ion exchange' meant that the 'Steambloc' boilers needed no treatment  or aggressive cleaning.

Climate
Braunton has an oceanic climate that is heavily moderated by the proximity to the Atlantic. Although Braunton is not a coast town.

History

Manors
Braunton was the chief manor of Braunton Hundred, and had been held by Saxon kings. Between 855 and 860 ten hides in Brannocminster were granted by King Æthelbald of Wessex to Glastonbury Abbey. After the Norman Conquest of 1066 the manor continued as a royal possession, in the demesne of King William the Conqueror. In the Domesday Book of 1086 (Exon Version) it is recorded as held at farm by Baldwin the Sheriff, Sheriff of Devon, whose fiefdom of 176 landholdings as recorded in Domesday Book was the largest in Devon. As recorded in the Domesday Book one virgate of land had been administratively transferred from the manor of Braunton to the tenure of Robert de Pont Chardon, lord of the manor adjoining of Heanton Punchardon. The royal manor was eventually split into three parts:

Braunton Dean
Braunton Dean, which probably represented the land granted by King William the Conqueror to Algar the Priest at some time before the compilation of the Domesday Book of 1086. Together with the Rectory of Braunton, it shortly afterwards came into the possession of the Dean of Exeter. In 1810 it was held, as a tenant of the Dean and Chapter, by Charles Trelwany of Coldrenick in Cornwall.

Braunton Abbots
Braunton Abbots, which extended also over part of the adjoining parish of Marwood. It was created by a grant from the remnant of the royal manor of Braunton by King Henry III (1216–1272) to Cleeve Abbey in Somerset. In 1810 it belonged to William Courtenay, 9th Earl of Devon (1768–1835) of Powderham

Braunton Gorges
Braunton Gorges, was held by the de Sachville family. Robert de Sachville (Latinized to de Siccavilla ("from the dry town")) had been granted this part in 1202. Their successors were the Gorges family of Wraxall, Somerset. As is recorded in a surviving document, in 1324 Eleanor Ferre, wife of Ralph de Gorges (d.1323), Baron Gorges, Sheriff of Devon, and daughter of Sir John Ferre of Tothill, Lincolnshire, was granted lands at Braunton including 1 acre at 'La Crofta', two acres at 'Myddelforlong', and half an acre at 'Longeland', which names (if not spellings) are still in use today. In 1330 as is recorded in the Calendar of Fine Rolls:

Waleys, by a fine levied at Westminster in the octave of Michaelmas, 4 Edward III, granted to Ralph Gorges two-thirds of the manor of Braunton Gorges by the name of two-thirds of 3 messuages, 2 carucates of land and 100s. of rent in the same town of Braunton, together with the reversion of the third part thereof which John Pecche and Eleanor, his wife, both now deceased, held as dower of the said Eleanor of the inheritance of the aforesaid Walter, to hold the same to himself and the heirs male of his body, with remainder in default of such heirs to William son of Theobald Russell and the heirs male of his body, and remainder in default of such heirs to Theobald brother of the said William and the heirs male of his body, and that the said Ralph and William died without heirs male of their bodies, and that Theobald brother of William entered the premises by virtue of the said fine, took to wife Agnes late the wife of Theobald Gorges, " chivaler," had issue by her Bartholomew Gorges and Thomas Gorges, and died seised of the premises, after whose death the said Bartholomew entered the manor as his son and heir male, and died seised of the two-thirds aforesaid without leaving an heir male of his body, so that the two-thirds and reversion ought to remain to the said Thomas, who is of full age, as brother and heir male of Bartholomew, and that the manor is held of the king by the service of rendering to the king a barbed arrow whenever he hunts in the Forest of Exemore, "to take the fealty of the said Thomas, and cause him to have full seisin of the said two-thirds and reversion".

Sir Theobald de Gorges (d. 1381) died seized of this estate and was succeeded by his son Ralph de Gorges, succeeded by his son Bartholomew de Gorges. In 1810 it was owned, together with Ash, Fullabrook and Braunton Park, by Joseph Davie Basset (1764–1846), later of Watermouth Castle, near Lynmouth, son of John Davie of Orleigh Court, near Bideford, by his wife Eleanora Basset, sister and heiress of Francis Basset (c. 1740–1802) of Heanton Punchardon and Umberleigh. In accordance with the terms of the inheritance, as was then usual in such cases, Joseph Davie and his descendants adopted the arms and surname of Basset in lieu of their patronymic.

St Brannock's Church
The grade I listed parish church, dedicated to St. Brannock, is large and has a Norman tower topped by a spire. A fine series of richly carved 16th century bench-ends survive with other interesting carved woodwork. The building is almost entirely 15th century, excepting the 13th century chancel with its arch and three lancet windows. The advowson of the parish church was historically a possession of Exeter Cathedral ("St Mary and St Peter").

Monuments and furnishings
In the floor of the choir is an unusual monumental brass which is a palimpsest, i.e. it has been re-used. It depicts on its uppermost side Elizabeth Bourchier (d.1548), a daughter of John Bourchier, 1st Earl of Bath of Tawstock Court, feudal baron of Bampton, Devon, and the wife of Edward Chichester (d.1522) of Raleigh in the nearby parish of Pilton. Her husband inherited the estate of Saunton, in the parish of Braunton, from his mother Margaret Beaumont, daughter and heiress of Hugh Beaumont of Shirwell, and her 3rd son Philip Chichester was seated at Saunton, where his mother may have spent her widowhood. Alternatively she may have lived at Ash, in the parish of Braunton, which in the 16th century the Bourchiers purchased from the Bellew family, whilst the Bourchiers also owned the estate of Beare in the parish of Braunton. A 16th-century wooden chest survives, with engravings of Portuguese men who may have come to England with the Spanish Armada of 1588.

St. Brannock

In 550 the missionary St. Brannock sailed from South Wales and converted the native Britons to Christianity. Brannock was a priest in the household of Brychan, King of Brecknock. He married one of the king's daughters, but due to family troubles left his royal home. At that time the Welsh Britons often raided their Dumnonian neighbours in North Devon, on the south side of the Bristol Channel.

Brannock probably came to North Devon with one such raid and is said to have landed at Saunton Sands, then dense woodland before later wind-erosion into sand-dunes, at the mouth of the River Taw. Brannock settled among a tribe of local Britons and soon established a strong Christian community. A church, the first in North Devon, was built near where the Caen Stream began to spread its waters on the alluvial lands around the River Taw. Brannockstood, the township that grew up around this church, later became Brantone and at the end of the 19th century, Braunton.

The story has it that Brannock tried to build the church on the hill overlooking the settlement but it kept being damaged by the weather and in a dream he saw a pigsty with piglets. At the foot of the hill he built the current church over the sty where it still remains, and the central wooden boss in the church depicts a sow and piglets. The remains of the original church remain on the hill.

Demography
The population of Braunton, according to the census of 1801, was 1,296. This number increased quite rapidly in the thirty years to 1831, to 2,047 however the rate of increase slowed during the next 10 years and coinciding with the arrival of the railway fell from 2,364 in 1851 to 2,089 in 1881.  Population growth resumed and saw almost a doubling between 1961 and 2011, to 8,128 people. Data for 1801–1961 is available at Britain Through Time. The 2001 and 2011 Censuses give detailed information about the village. The settlement's population in 2011 were living in 3,552 households.

Historic estates
Several of the historic estates within the parish of Braunton have expanded into larger settlements. They include:

Saunton

The civil parish includes the linear, hill-foot coastal settlement of Saunton, chiefly with holiday homes a small holiday village and a stand-alone luxury hotel with private beach areas.

Knowle

Higher above the village is Knowle commencing within  to the northwest.

Wrafton
Wrafton almost adjoins to the south and some of its affinity, particularly economic, is with Braunton instead of its civil parish, Heanton Punchardon further along the straight, semi-coastal road towards Barnstaple.

Lobb and North Lobb
WNW of the village centre is a modest farm, Fairlynch, followed by a farm-courtyard cluster of buildings, Lobb and then north, by three springs in a cleft (lowland half-bowl) of the Saunton Down upland ridge is a similar cluster, North Lobb with no road access from these places other than to Braunton but a footpath (Milkaway Lane) to Croyde and a similarly downhill branch to the south, Hannaborrow Lane to Saunton Sands.

Ash

Fullabrook
Fullabrook was the home of Sir Nicholas Hooper (1654–1731), Member of Parliament for Barnstaple 1695–1715.

Incledon

Buckland

Events
The village holds a Town carnival each year near the end of May.

Tourism
There are a range of surfing shops located in Braunton.

Facilities
The town has a few hotels and guesthouses and numerous shops (including a large Supermarket) and pubs. The town also boasts a secondary school and three primary schools.

Surfing
Since the closing years of the 20th century, the village has become a hub for surfing as it is on the main road gateway to three of the South West's surf beaches of Saunton, Croyde and Putsborough, all with fine powdery sand, and to a lesser extent a road to Woolacombe). The Museum of British Surfing opened in 2012 in the old goods shed of the old Braunton Railway Station on the Ilfracombe Branch Line.

A number of major surf brands are associated with the village including Tiki Board Barn Tokyo Demons Of Doom Killers Rusty Peach  Modern Foam Designs and Salt Rock.

Transport
Braunton is served by the following bus services:
21/21A Westward Ho!/Appledore - Bideford - Barnstaple - Braunton - Georgeham/Ilfracombe (Stagecoach)
303 Woolacombe - Braunton - Barnstaple (Filers)
502 to London (National Express)

Notable residents
 Charlotte Eliza Bousfield (formerly Collins), the noted diarist, was born at Braunton.

Twin towns
Plouescat, France.

See also
Braunton Academy
Braunton Burrows
North Devon Coast AONB
RMB Chivenor
Saunton Sands

Braunton gallery

Notes and references
Notes

References

External links

 Braunton Parish Council

The Explore Braunton Project
 Tourist Information Centre
 Christ Church
 Braunton at GENUKI

Villages in Devon
Civil parishes in Devon
North Devon

Braunton


A Marca da Toscana (em italiano: Marca di Tuscia), também conhecido como Margraviato da Toscana, foi uma marca do Reino Itálico e do Sacro Império Romano Germânico durante a Idade Média. Localizada no noroeste da Itália central (atual Toscana), fazia fronteira com os Estados Papais ao sul, o mar da Ligúria a oeste e a Lombardia ao norte. Compreendia um conjunto de condados, principalmente no vale do rio Arno, originalmente centrado em Luca.

História
A marca foi uma criação carolíngia, sendo sucessor do ducado lombardo de Túscia. Após a queda do Império Romano Ocidental, Túscia era parte do Reino Italiano dos Lombardos (Lombardia Maior) até que, em 754, os reis francos intervieram no conflito, ao lado do Papa Estêvão II. Com a doação de Pepino, a parte sul de Túscia, ao redor de Viterbo, tornou-se parte dos recém-estabelecidos Estados Papais, enquanto na parte norte surgiu a Marca da Toscana após a conquista carolíngia do Reino Lombardo. A Lombardia propriamente dita tornou-se o núcleo do Reino Itálico, junto com as marcas de Toscana e Verona.

O primeiro margrave da Marca foi Adalberto I, a quem foi concedido esse título em 846. Antes dele, seu pai e avô, controlaram a maioria dos condados da região e mantiveram títulos superiores, como prefeito da Córsega e duque de Luca. Os descendentes de Adalberto controlaram a marca até 931. Durante o final do século IX e início do século X, o apoio dos margraves da Toscana foi fundamental para qualquer candidato com a intenção de se tornar rei da Itália.

Em 931, Hugo da Provença, que se proclamou rei da Itália, desapropriou a família Bonifácio na tentativa de manter todos os feudos importantes da Itália nas mãos de seus parentes. Ele concedeu a Toscana a seu irmão Bosão. A marca permaneceu nas mãos de membros da família de Bosão até 1001, mantendo a influência toscana nas eleições reais. Ainda em 1027, o margrave Rainier foi deposto pelo Sacro Imperador Romano Conrado II por se opor a ele.

Em 1027, o ducado foi concedido aos condes de Canossa. Bonifácio III usava o título dux et marchio: duque e margrave. Ele era um aliado dos Sacros Imperadores Romanos, mas seu poder era tão grande que ameaçou o dos reis da Itália. Ele uniu a herança de Canossa e Toscana, e a passou para sua filha Matilda. Além de suas vastas propriedades da Emília, sua maior possessão era a Toscana, mantida em posse feudal, e ela a exerceu em benefício do papado na controvérsia da investidura. Quando Matilda morreu, em 1115, sem deixar herdeiros diretos, a família Canossa colapsou e foi extinta parcialmente. Seu vasto território foi disperso: alguns castelos permaneceram nas mãos dos senhores locais, outros ainda foram esquecidos no vácuo de poder ou simplesmente incorporados aos territórios papais.

Ver também
 Lista de soberanos da Toscana

Bibliografia
 Wickham, Chris. Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000. MacMillan Press: 1981.

Estados e territórios extintos em 1198
Estados extintos da Itália
Estados extintos da Europa da Idade Média

Marca da Toscana


Animal languages are forms of non-human animal communication that show similarities to human language. Animals communicate through a variety of signs, such as sounds or movements. Signing among animals may be considered complex enough to be a form of language if the inventory of signs is large. The signs are relatively arbitrary, and the animals seem to produce them with a degree of volition (as opposed to relatively automatic conditioned behaviors or unconditioned instincts, usually including facial expressions). In experimental tests, animal communication may also be evidenced through the use of lexigrams by chimpanzees and bonobos.

Many researchers argue that animal communication lacks a key aspect of human language, the creation of new patterns of signs under varied circumstances. Humans, by contrast, routinely produce entirely new combinations of words. Some researchers, including the linguist Charles Hockett, argue that human language and animal communication differ so much that the underlying principles are unrelated.  Accordingly, linguist Thomas A. Sebeok has proposed to not use the term "language" for animal sign systems. However, other linguists and biologists, including Marc Hauser, Noam Chomsky, and W. Tecumseh Fitch, assert an evolutionary continuum exists between the communication methods of animal and human language.

Aspects of human language

Human language contains the following properties. Some experts argue these properties separate human language from animal communication:

 Arbitrariness: There is usually no rational relationship between a sound or sign and its meaning. For example, there is nothing intrinsically house-like about the word "house".
 Discreteness: Language is composed of small, separate, and repeatable parts (discrete units, e.g. morphemes) that are used in combination to create meaning.
 Displacement: Language can be used to communicate about things that are not in the immediate vicinity either spatially or temporally.
 Duality of patterning: The smallest meaningful units (words or morphemes) consist of sequences of units without meaning (sounds or phonemes). This is also referred to as double articulation.
 Productivity: Users can understand and create an indefinitely large number of utterances.
 Semanticity: Specific signals have specific meanings.

Research with apes, like that of Francine Patterson with Koko (gorilla) or Allen and Beatrix Gardner with Washoe (chimpanzee), suggested that apes are capable of using language that meets some of these requirements, including arbitrariness, discreteness, and productivity.

In the wild, chimpanzees have been seen "talking" to each other when warning about approaching danger. For example, if one chimpanzee sees a snake, he makes a low, rumbling noise, signaling for all the other chimps to climb into nearby trees. In this case, the chimpanzees' communication does not indicate displacement, as it is entirely contained to an observable event.

Arbitrariness has been noted in meerkat calls; bee dances demonstrate elements of spatial displacement; and cultural transmission has possibly occurred through language between the bonobos named Kanzi and Panbanisha.

Human language may also not be completely "arbitrary." Research has shown that almost all humans naturally demonstrate limited crossmodal perception (e.g. synesthesia) and multisensory integration, as illustrated by the Kiki and Bouba study. Other recent research has tried to explain how the structure of human language emerged, comparing two different aspects of hierarchical structure present in animal communication and proposing that human language arose out of these two separate systems.

Claims that animals have language skills akin to humans however, are extremely controversial. In his book The Language Instinct, Steven Pinker illustrates that claims of chimpanzees acquiring language are exaggerated and rest on very limited or specious evidence.

The American linguist Charles Hockett theorized that there are sixteen features of human language that distinguish human communication from that of animals. He called these the design features of language. The features mentioned below have so far been found in all spoken human languages, and at least one is missing from any other animal communication system.
 Vocal-auditory channel: Sounds are emitted from the mouth and perceived by the auditory system. While this applies to many animal communication systems, there are many exceptions, such as those relying on visual communication. One example is cobras extending the ribs behind their heads to send the message of intimidation or of feeling threatened. In humans, sign languages provide many examples of fully formed languages that use a visual channel.
 Broadcast transmission and directional reception: This requires that the recipient can tell the direction that the signal comes from and thus the originator of the signal.
 Rapid fading (transitory nature): The signal lasts a short time. This is true of all systems involving sound. It does not take into account audio recording technology and is also not true for written language. It tends not to apply to animal signals involving chemicals and smells which often fade slowly. For example, a skunk's smell, produced in its glands, lingers to deter a predator from attacking.
 Interchangeability: All utterances that are understood can be produced. This is different from some communication systems where, for example, males produce one set of behaviors and females another and they are unable to interchange these messages so that males use the female signal and vice versa. For example, Heliothine moths have differentiated communication: females are able to send a chemical to indicate preparedness to mate, while males cannot send the chemical.
 Total feedback: The sender of a message is aware of the message being sent.
 Specialization: The signal produced is intended for communication and is not due to another behavior. For example, dog panting is a natural reaction to being overheated, but is not produced to specifically relay a particular message.
 Semanticity: There is some fixed relationship between a signal and a meaning.

Primates
Humans are able to distinguish real words from fake words based on the phonological order of the word itself. In a 2013 study, baboons were shown to have this skill as well. The discovery has led researchers to believe that reading is not as advanced a skill as previously believed, but instead based on the ability to recognize and distinguish letters from one another. The experimental setup consisted of six young adult baboons, and results were measured by allowing the animals to use a touch screen and select whether or not the displayed word was a real word, or a non-word such as "dran" or "telk". The study lasted for six weeks, with approximately 50,000 tests completed in that time. The researchers minimized common bigrams, or combinations of two letters, in non-words, and maximized them in real words. Further studies will attempt to teach baboons how to use an artificial alphabet.

In a 2016 study, a team of biologists from several universities concluded that macaques possess vocal tracts physically capable of speech, "but lack a speech-ready brain to control it".

Non-primates
Among the most studied examples of non-primate languages are:

Birds
 Bird songs: Songbirds can be very articulate. Grey parrots are well-known for their ability to mimic human language, and at least one specimen, Alex, appeared able to answer a number of simple questions about objects he was presented with, such as answering simple mathematical equations and identifying colors. Parrots, hummingbirds and songbirds display vocal learning patterns.

Insects
 Bee dancing: Used to communicate direction and distance of food source in many species of bees.

Mammals
 African forest elephants: Cornell University's Elephant Listening Project began in 1999 when Katy Payne began studying the calls of African forest elephants in Dzanga National Park in the Central African Republic. Andrea Turkalo has continued Payne's work in Dzanga National Park by observing elephant communication. For nearly 20 years, Turkalo has spent the majority of her time using a spectrogram to record the noises that the elephants make. After extensive observation and research, she has been able to recognize elephants by their voices. Researchers hope to translate these voices into an elephant dictionary, but this will likely not occur for many years. Because elephant calls are often made at very low frequencies, the spectrogram is designed to detect lower frequencies than humans can perceive, allowing Turkalo to better understand the elephants' noisemaking. Cornell's research on African forest elephants has challenged the idea that humans are considerably better at using language than animals, and that animals only have a small set of information they can convey to others. As Turkalo explained, "many of their calls are in some ways similar to human speech."
 Mustached bats: Since these animals spend most of their lives in the dark, they rely heavily on their auditory system to communicate,  including via echolocation and using calls to locate each other. Studies have shown that mustached bats use a wide variety of calls to communicate with one another. These calls include 33 different sounds, or "syllables", that the bats either use alone or combine in various ways to form composite syllables.
 Prairie dogs: Con Slobodchikoff studied prairie dog communication and discovered that they use different alarm calls and escape behaviors for different species of predators. Their calls transmit semantic information, which was demonstrated when playbacks of alarm calls in the absence of predators led to escape behavior appropriate for the types of predators associated with the calls. The alarm calls also contain descriptive information about the general size, color, and speed of the predator.

Aquatic mammals
 Bottlenose dolphins: Dolphins can hear one another up to 6 miles apart underwater. Researchers observed a mother dolphin successfully communicating with her baby using a telephone. It appeared that both dolphins knew who they were speaking with and what they were speaking about. Not only do dolphins communicate via nonverbal cues, they also seem to chatter and respond to other dolphins' vocalizations.

 Whales: Two groups of whales, the humpback whale and a subspecies of blue whale found in the Indian Ocean, are known to produce repeated sounds at varying frequencies, known as whale songs. Male humpback whales perform these vocalizations only during the mating season, and so it is surmised the purpose of songs is to aid sexual selection. Humpbacks also make a sound called a feeding call, which is five to ten seconds in length at a nearly constant frequency. Humpbacks generally feed cooperatively by gathering in groups, swimming underneath shoals of fish and lunging up vertically through the fish and out of the water together. Prior to these lunges, whales make their feeding call. The exact purpose of the call is not known, but research suggests that fish react to it. When the sound was played back to them, a group of herring responded to the sound by moving away from the call, even though no whale was present.
 Sea lions: Since 1971, Ronald J. Schusterman and his research associates have studied sea lions' cognitive ability. They have discovered that sea lions are able to recognize relationships between stimuli based on similar functions or connections made with their peers, rather than only the stimuli's common features. This is called equivalence classification. This ability to recognize equivalence may be a precursor to language. Research is currently being conducted at the Pinniped Cognition & Sensory Systems Laboratory to determine how sea lions form these equivalence relations. Sea lions have also been proven to understand simple syntax and commands when taught an artificial sign language similar to one used with primates. The sea lions studied were able to learn and use a number of syntactic relations between the signs they were taught, such as how the signs should be arranged in relation to each other. However, the sea lions rarely used the signs semantically or logically. In the wild it is thought that sea lions use reasoning skills associated with equivalence relations in order to make important decisions that can affect their survival, e.g. recognizing friends and relatives or avoiding enemies and predators. Sea lions use various postural positions and a range of barks, chirps, clicks, moans, growls and squeaks to communicate. It has yet to be proven that sea lions use echolocation as a means of communication.
The effects of learning on auditory signaling in these animals is of interest to researchers. Several investigators have pointed out that some marine mammals appear to have the capacity to alter both the contextual and structural features of their vocalizations as a result of experience. Janik and Slater have stated that learning can modify vocalizations in one of two ways, by influencing the context in which a particular call is used, or by altering the acoustic structure of the call itself. Male California sea lions can learn to inhibit their barking in the presence of any male dominant to them, but vocalize normally when dominant males are absent. The different call types of gray seals can be selectively conditioned and controlled by different cues, and the use of food reinforcement can also modify vocal emissions. A captive male harbor seal named Hoover demonstrated a case of vocal mimicry, but similar observations have not been reported since. Still shows that under the right circumstances pinnipeds may use auditory experience in addition to environmental consequences such as food reinforcement and social feedback to modify their vocal emissions.

In a 1992 study, Robert Gisiner and Schusterman conducted experiments in which they attempted to teach syntax to a female California sea lion named Rocky. Rocky was taught signed words, then she was asked to perform various tasks dependent on word order after viewing a signed instruction. It was found that Rocky was able to determine relations between signs and words, and form basic syntax. A 1993 study by Schusterman and David Kastak found that the California sea lion was capable of understanding abstract concepts such as symmetry, sameness and transitivity. This suggests that equivalence relations can form without language.

The distinctive sounds of sea lions are produced both above and below water. To mark territory, sea lions "bark", with non-alpha males making more noise than alphas. Although females also bark, they do so less frequently and most often in connection with birthing pups or caring for their young. Females produce a highly directional bawling vocalization, the pup attraction call, which helps mothers and pups locate one another. As noted in Animal Behavior, their amphibious lifestyle has made them need acoustic communication for social organization while on land.

Sea lions can hear frequencies between 100 Hz and 40,000 Hz, and vocalize from 100 to 10,000 Hz.

Mollusks
 Caribbean reef squid have been shown to communicate using a variety of color, shape, and texture changes. Squid are capable of rapid changes in skin color and pattern through nervous system control of chromatophores. In addition to camouflage and appearing larger in the face of a threat, squid use color, patterns, and flashing to communicate with one another in various courtship rituals. Caribbean reef squid can send one message via color patterns to a squid on their right, while they send another message to a squid on their left.

Fish
 Freshwater Elephant Fish have been observed to have their own language
 Mexican Tetra have been observed communicating with a series of clicks, and have also been observed to have regional accents

Comparison of "animal language" and "animal communication"

It is worth distinguishing "animal language" from "animal communication", although there is some comparative interchange in certain cases (e.g. Cheney & Seyfarth's vervet monkey call studies). Animal language typically does not include bee dancing, bird song, whale song, dolphin signature whistles, prairie dogs, nor the communicative systems found in most social mammals. The features of language as listed above are a dated formulation by Hockett in 1960. Through this formulation Hockett made one of the earliest attempts to break down features of human language for the purpose of applying Darwinian gradualism. Although an influence on early animal language efforts (see below), it is no longer considered the key architecture at the core of animal language research.

Animal language results are controversial for several reasons (for a related controversy, see also Clever Hans). In the 1970s, John C. Lilly was attempting to "break the code": to fully communicate ideas and concepts with wild populations of dolphins so that he could share human and dolphin culture, history, and more. This effort failed. Early chimpanzee work was with chimpanzee infants raised as if they were human; a test of the nature vs. nurture hypothesis. Chimpanzees have a laryngeal structure very different from that of humans, and it has been suggested that chimpanzees are not capable of voluntary control of their breathing, although better studies are needed to accurately confirm this. This combination is thought to make it very difficult for the chimpanzees to reproduce the vocal intonations required for human language. Researchers eventually moved towards a gestural (sign language) modality, as well as keyboard devices laden with buttons adorned with symbols (known as "lexigrams") that the animals could press to produce artificial language. Other chimpanzees learned by observing human subjects performing the task. This latter group of researchers studying chimpanzee communication through symbol recognition (keyboard) as well as through the use of sign language (gestural), are on the forefront of communicative breakthroughs in the study of animal language, and they are familiar with their subjects on a first name basis: Sarah, Lana, Kanzi, Koko, Sherman, Austin and Chantek.

Perhaps the best known critic of animal language is Herbert Terrace. Terrace's 1979 criticism using his own research with the chimpanzee Nim Chimpsky was scathing and basically spelled the end of animal language research in that era, most of which emphasized the production of language by animals. In short, he accused researchers of over-interpreting their results, especially as it is rarely parsimonious to ascribe true intentional "language production" when other simpler explanations for the behaviors (gestural hand signs) could be put forth. Also, his animals failed to show generalization of the concept of reference between the modalities of comprehension and production; this generalization is one of many fundamental ones that are trivial for human language use. The simpler explanation according to Terrace was that the animals had learned a sophisticated series of context-based behavioral strategies to obtain either primary (food) or social reinforcement, behaviors that could be over-interpreted as language use.

In 1984 Louis Herman published an account of artificial language in the bottlenosed dolphin in the journal Cognition. A major difference between Herman's work and previous research was his emphasis on a method of studying language comprehension only (rather than language comprehension and production by the animal(s)), which enabled rigorous controls and statistical tests, largely because he was limiting his researchers to evaluating the animals' physical behaviors (in response to sentences) with blinded observers, rather than attempting to interpret possible language utterances or productions. The dolphins' names here were Akeakamai and Phoenix. Irene Pepperberg used the vocal modality for language production and comprehension in a grey parrot named Alex in the verbal mode, and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh continues to study bonobos such as Kanzi and Panbanisha. R. Schusterman duplicated many of the dolphin results in his California sea lions ("Rocky"), and came from a more behaviorist tradition than Herman's cognitive approach. Schusterman's emphasis is on the importance on a learning structure known as equivalence classes.

However, overall, there has not been any meaningful dialog between the linguistics and animal language spheres, despite capturing the public's imagination in the popular press. Also, the growing field of language evolution is another source of future interchange between these disciplines. Most primate researchers tend to show a bias toward a shared pre-linguistic ability between humans and chimpanzees, dating back to a common ancestor, while dolphin and parrot researchers stress the general cognitive principles underlying these abilities. More recent related controversies regarding animal abilities include the closely linked areas of theory of mind, Imitation (e.g. Nehaniv & Dautenhahn, 2002), Animal Culture (e.g. Rendell & Whitehead, 2001), and Language Evolution (e.g. Christiansen & Kirby, 2003).

There has been a recent emergence in animal language research which has contested the idea that animal communication is less sophisticated than human communication. Denise Herzing has done research on dolphins in the Bahamas whereby she created a two-way conversation via a submerged keyboard. The keyboard allows divers to communicate with wild dolphins. By using sounds and symbols on each key the dolphins could either press the key with their nose or mimic the whistling sound emitted in order to ask humans for a specific prop. This ongoing experiment has shown that in non-linguistic creatures sophisticated and rapid thinking does occur despite our previous conceptions of animal communication. Further research done with Kanzi using lexigrams has strengthened the idea that animal communication is much more complex than once thought.

See also

Researchers

Animals

References

Further reading
 Bickerton, D. (2005). Language evolution: a brief guide for linguists. link
 Deacon, T. W. (1997) The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Human Brain. Allen Lane: The Penguin Press,

 Gardner R. Allen and Gardner Beatrice T. (1980) Comparative psychology and language acquisition. In Thomas A. Sebok and Jean-Umiker-Sebok (eds.): Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two-Way Communication with Man. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 287–329.

 Hayes, C. (1951). The Ape in Our House. New York: Harper & Row.

 Holder, M. D., Herman, L. M. & Kuczaj, S. III (1993). A bottlenosed dolphin's responses to anomalous gestural sequences expressed within an artificial gestural language. In H. R. Roitblat, L. M. Herman & P.E. Nachtigall (Eds): Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives, 299–308. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
 Hurford J.R., Studdert-Kennedy, M., & Knight, C. (Eds.) (1998) Approaches to the evolution of language: Social and cognitive bases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Huxley, Julian & Ludwig Koch (photographs by Ylla) 1938. Animal language. Text by Julian Huxley, long-playing record of animal language by Ludwig Koch. London, Country Life. Reprinted and republished by Grosset & Dunlap, New York 1964. Record in the 1964 reissue is by Columbia Special Products, 33 1/3 rpm, small format, ZVT 88894. Side 1 contains Sounds at the Zoo (presumably Zoological Society of London) and African sounds; side 2 African sounds continued.

 Kellogg, W.N., & Kellogg, L.A. (1933). The ape and the child.  New York: Whittlesey House (McGraw-Hill).
 Knight, C., Studdert-Kennedy, M., Hurford, J.R. (Eds.) (2000). The evolutionary emergence of language: Social function and the origins of linguistic form. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Kohts. N. (1935). Infant ape and human child. Museum Darwinianum, Moscow.
 Ladygina-Kohts, N.N, & de Waal, F.B.M. (2002). Infant Chimpanzee and Human Child: A Classic 1935 Comparative Study of Ape Emotions and Intelligence (Tr: B. Vekker).  New York: Oxford University Press.

 Miles, H.L. (1990) "The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing orangutan" in S.T. Parker and K.R. Gibson (eds.) "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative Developmental Perspectives. Cambridge Univ. Press.
 Pinker, S. (1984).  Language Learnability and Language Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  Reprinted in 1996 with additional commentary.

 Plooij, F.X. (1978). "Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees?" in A. Lock (ed.) Action, Gesture and Symbol. New York: Academic Press.

 Roitblat, H.R., Herman, L.M. & Nachtigall, P.E. (Eds.)(1993). Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives, 299–308. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
 Rumbaugh Duane M. (1980) Language behavior of apes. In Thomas A. Sebok and Jean-Umiker-Sebok(eds.): Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two- Way Communication with Man. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 231–259.

 Sayigh, L.S., Tyack, P.L., Wells, R.S. & Scott, M.D. (1990).  Signature whistles of free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): stability and mother-offspring comparisons. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 247–260.

 Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

External links
 Discussion: Starling Study: Recursion (Linguist List)
 International Bioacoustics Council research on animal language.
 The Animal Communication Project. More information on animal communication.
 Excellent compendium of links to the websites of all of the major animal language studies
 Listen to Nature  includes article "The Language of Birds"
 Jarvis Lab homepage Evolution of Brain Structure for Vocal Learning
 :de:Linguogenetik

Animal communication
Human–animal communication

Animal language


Itsuki ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Hiroyuki Itsuki (* 1932), japanischer Schriftsteller
 Yui Itsuki (* 1984), japanische Rock- und Metal-Musikerin und Synchronsprecherin (Seiyū)

Itsuki


El arroyo de los Molles es un curso de agua uruguayo ubicado en el departamento de Lavalleja, perteneciente a la cuenca hidrográfica de la laguna Merín.

Nace en la cuchilla Grande, desemboca en el arroyo de Godoy tras recorrer alrededor de 22 km.

Molles
Molles

Arroyo de los Molles


Karel Teige (13 decembrie 1900, Praga – 1 octombrie 1951, Praga) a fost un artist, scriitor și critic modernist avangardist ceh, una dintre cele mai importante figuri ale mișcării avangardiste ale anilor 1920 și 1930. El a fost un membru al mișcării Devětsil (Brusture) în anii 1920 și, de asemenea, a lucrat ca redactor și designer grafic pentru revista lunară a grupului Devětsil ReD (Revue Devětsilu). Una dintre cele mai importante lucrări ale sale despre teoria arhitecturii este Minimum Dwelling (1932).

Viața și cariera
Cu o evidentă energie fără sfârșit, Teige a introdus arta modernă la Praga. Expozițiile și evenimentele sponsorizate de Devětsil au adus personalități ale avangardei internaționale precum Le Corbusier, Man Ray, Paul Klee, Vladimir Maiakovski și Walter Gropius, printre mulți alții, pentru a ține prelegeri și a lucra la Praga. Teige a interpretat munca lor, uneori la propriu, pentru publicul ceh. În prelegerea sa din 1935, André Breton a adus un omagiu "tovărășiei intelectuale perfecte" cu Teige și Nezval: "Interpretat în mod constant de Teige în modul cel mai plin de viață, făcut să se supună unei tracțiuni lirice puternice de către Nezval, Suprarealismul se poate flata pe sine că a înflorit în Praga la fel ca și la Paris".

Deși nu era arhitect, Teige a fost un critic de arhitectură priceput, participant activ la CIAM și prieten cu Hannes Meyer, cel de-al doilea director al Bauhaus. Teige și Meyer credeau amândoi într-o abordare științifică și funcționalistă a arhitecturii, întemeiată pe principiile marxiste. În 1929 el a criticat celebrul proiect Mundaneum al lui Le Corbusier  (planificat pentru Geneva, dar care nu a fost realizat niciodată), pe motiv că Le Corbusier s-a îndepărtat de funcționalismul rațional și a fost pe cale să devină doar un stilist. Teige credea că "singurul scop și domeniu de aplicare al arhitecturii moderne este soluția științifică a sarcinilor exacte de construcție rațională".

După ce a salutat armata sovietică ca eliberatoare a țării, Teige a fost redus la tăcere de către guvernul comunist în 1948. El a murit în 1951 în urma unui atac de cord, cauzat se pare de o campanie de presă sovietică feroce la adresa lui în care a fost catalogat drept un "troțkist degenerat", lucrările sale au fost distruse de către poliția secretă, iar opera sa publicată a fost interzisă zeci de ani.

Scrieri

Versiuni originale

Studii
 Stavba o báseň
 Svět, který se směje
 Svět, který voní
 Jarmark umění
 Surrealismus proti proudu

Lucrări științifice
 Soudobá mezinárodní architektura
 Moderní architektura v Československu
 Moderní fotografie v Československu
 Vývojové proměny umění v
 Vývoj sovětské architektury
 Sociologie architektury
 Jan Zrzavý

Ediții în limba engleză
 Modern Architecture in Czechoslovakia and Other Writings (Texts & Documents), J P Getty Trust Pubn, 2000, ISBN 0-89236-596-X
 The Minimum Dwelling, MIT Press, 2002, ISBN 0-262-20136-4

Bibliografie
 Karel Teige. L'Enfant Terrible of the Czech Modernist Avant-Garde, ed. by Eric Dluhosch and Rostislav Svácha, MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 0-262-04170-7 -  includes 4 Essays of Teige
 Esther Levinger: "A life in nature - Karel Teige's journey from Poetism to Surrealism" In: Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, vol. 67.2004, 3, pp. 401–420.
 Peter A. Zusi: "The Style of the Present: Karel Teige on Constructivism and Poetism" in: Representations, 88. Fall 2004, pp. 102–124.
 Prager Architektur und die europäische Moderne, ed. by Tomáš Valena and Ulrich Winko, Berlin: Mann, 2006
 Radu-Alexandra Răuță: "Shifting meanings of modernism: parallels and contrasts between Karel Teige and Cezar Lăzărescu" in: The journal of architecture, Royal Institute of British Architects. - Bd. 14.2009, 1, pp. 27–44.

Referințe

Legături externe
 Description of recent Teige biography
 On Teige's erotic surrealist photomontages
  Dreams and Disillusion: Karel Teige and the Czech Avant-Garde
 Fostinum: Czech Photomontage -- Numerous examples of Karel Teige's work

Nașteri în 1900
Decese în 1951
Traducători din secolul al XX-lea
Jurnaliști cehi
Fotografi cehi
Traducători cehi

Karel Teige


Campioana României la fotbal este câștigătoarea eșalonului fotbalistic superior din România, SuperLiga României. Titlul a fost pus în joc încă din 1909 în competiții care au avut diverse formate. FCSB a câștigat cele mai multe campionate: 26, fiind cea mai prolifică echipă din SuperLigă. Cea de a doua echipă care a câștigat mai multe titluri este Dinamo București cu 18 campionate la activ. Rivalitatea Steaua-Dinamo, cunoscută și sub numele de Eternul derbi, este cea mai mare din campionatul României, cele două echipe câștigând în total 44 de titluri și au terminat pe locul al doilea de 39 de ori. A treia cea mai prolifică echipă este Venus București care a câștigat toate cele opt titluri în perioada interbelică, înainte de desființarea sa în 1948. De la prima ediție în 1909–10, liga a fost câștigată de 24 de echipe reprezentând 14 orașe, aproape două treimi dintre ediții (61 de titluri) fiind câștigate de echipe din București. În sezonul 2019–2020 CFR Cluj devine prima echipă din afara Bucureștiului care câștigă titlul pentru 3 ani la rând, de la performanța formației Chinezul Timișoara din anii 1922, 1923, 1924.

Campioane

Cupe (1909-1921)

Campionatul Național de Fotbal al României (1921–1932)

Divizia A (1932–2006)

Liga I (2006-2022)

SuperLiga  (2022-2024)

Vezi și
 Clasamentul marcatorilor din toate timpurile în SuperLiga României
 Lista jucătorilor de fotbal străini din SuperLiga României
 Recorduri și statistici fotbalistice în România

Referințe și note

Legături externe

Campionatul de Fotbal al României
Liste despre fotbal

Lista campioanelor României la fotbal


Lagaáskilnaðarregla er réttarregla út frá stjórnarskrá er felur í sér að gildi opinberra reglna um ákveðin viðfangsefni sé bundnar við að um þær séu settar með landslögum en ekki með afleiddri löggjöf. Heimildarregla lögmætisreglunnar er dæmi um lagaáskilnaðarreglu.

Íslenskir dómstólar hafa þó gengið út frá því að Alþingi sé þrátt fyrir allt heimilt að framselja lagasetningarvald til setningar afleiddrar löggjafar en þó með talsvert þrengra svigrúmi en ella, eins og að stjórnvöld mega ekki ákvarða beint hvað telst vera refsiverð háttsemi, en gæti verið heimilt að setja reglugerðir út frá viðkomandi lögum sem gæti verið refsivert að brjóta í bága við.

Lögfræði
Stjórnskipunarréttur

Lagaáskilnaðarregla


La eufonia ventrirrufa  (en Ecuador)  (Euphonia rufiventris), también denominada fruterito vientre rufo (en Venezuela) o de vientre rufo, eufonia buchirrufa (en Colombia) o eufonia de vientre rufo (en Perú) es una especie de ave paseriforme perteneciente al numeroso género Euphonia de la familia Fringillidae, anteriormente clasificada como Thraupidae. Es nativa de la cuenca amazónica en América del Sur.

Distribución y hábitat
Se distribuye desde el sur de Venezuela, este y sur de Colombia, este de Ecuador, norte y este de Perú, gran parte de la Amazonia brasileña excepto el cuadrante nororiental, hacia el sur hasta el norte y noroeste de Bolivia y centro del estado de Mato Grosso.

Esta especie es considerada bastante común en el dosel y en los bordes de selvas húmedas hasta los 1000 m de altitud, tanto en terra firme como en zonas inundables.

Descripción
Mide 11,5 cm de longitud, y pesa entre 13 y 18 g. El macho tiene el dorso cabeza, garganta y parte superior del pecho de color uniformemente negro azulado brillante y la parte inferior del pecho, el vientre color naranja. Algunas veces aparece un parche dorado en las axilas, pero normalmente está escondido. La hembra tiene plumaje verde oliva en las partes superiores, con la frente amarillenta y con un parche grisáceo en la nuca; mejillas, nuca, lados del cuello y pecho color verde viche amarillento; el pecho y el medio vientre son grisáceos y crísum rufo.

Comportamiento
Es una eufonia arborícola, que generalmente anda en pareja y frecuentemente se junta a bandadas mixtas para forrajear. También busca alimento en las epífitas con otras eufonias. Mueve su cola hacia los lados de forma regular.

Alimentación
Su dieta consiste de una variedad de pequeñas frutas y bayas, incluyendo bayas de muérdago (Loranthaceae).

Vocalización

El llamado que emite con más frecuencia es un áspero y grave «drrt-drrt-drrt-drrt».

Sistemática

Descripción original
La especie E. rufiventris fue descrita por primera vez por el ornitólogo francés Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot en 1819 bajo el nombre científico Tanagra rufiventris; localidad tipo «desconocida = Iquitos, Perú».

Etimología
El nombre genérico femenino «Euphonia» deriva del griego «euphōnia»: con belleza de voz, con excelencia de tono; y el nombre de la especie «rufiventris», proviene del latín «rufus»: rufo, rojizo, y «ventris, venter»: vientre, significando «de vientre rojizo».

Taxonomía
Algunas clasificaciones, como Clements checklist, la consideran monotípica.

Subespecies
Según la clasificación del Congreso Ornitológico Internacional se reconocen dos subespecies, con su correspondiente distribución geográfica:

 Euphonia rufiventris carnegiei , 1988 – sur de Venezuela hacia el sur hasta las cabeceras de los ríos Orinoco, Ventuari, Cauca, Paragua y Cuyuní.
 Euphonia rufiventris rufiventris (, 1819) – este de Colombia hacia el sur por el este de Ecuador, este de Perú y norte de Bolivia (río Surutú, en Santa Cruz), y la Amazonia brasileña (al este hasta el río Negro, vecindades del río Xingu y centro este de Pará, al sur hasta el centro de Mato Grosso).

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Videos, fotos y sonidos de  Euphonia rufiventris en The Internet Bird Collection.
 Sonidos y mapa de distribución de Euphonia rufiventris en xeno-canto.
 Fotos y sonidos de  Euphonia rufiventris en Wikiaves.

rufiventris
Aves de América del Sur
Animales descritos en 1819
Taxones descritos por Louis Pierre Vieillot

Euphonia rufiventris


Hiroto Tanaka (født 26. april 1990) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Ehime FC.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Hiroto Tanaka


El arroyo del Chamizo o Chamizo Grande es un curso de agua uruguayo que atraviesa el departamento de  Florida  perteneciente a la cuenca del Plata.

Nace en la Cuchilla Santa Lucía, desemboca en el río Santa Lucía tras recorrer alrededor de 36 km.

Referencias

Chamizo
Chamizo
Cuenca del río Santa Lucía (Uruguay)

Arroyo del Chamizo


ගෝලීය ලෙසින් ළමයින්ට ගරු කරනු වස්, ලෝකයේ විවිධ ස්ථානයන්හී ලෝක ළමා දිනය සැමරුම සඳහා විවිධ දිනයන් භාවිතා කෙරෙයි. මෙසේ දිනයක් වෙන් කළ යුතු යැයි මුලින්ම ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කෙරුණේ, 1925දී පැවැත්වුනු ළමුන්ගේ සුබ-සාධනය පිළිබඳ ලෝක සමුළුවෙහිදී වන අතර, 1954 දී  තීරණය වුනේ විශ්ව වශයෙන් "සුදුසු" දිනයක් තෝරාගත යුතු බවයි.   ගෝලිය වශයෙන් විවිධ ප්‍රභේද්‍යයන් පවතින අතර, එයින් ප්‍රධාන තැනක් ගන්නේ,  එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ නිර්දේශය මත, නොවැම්බර් 20 දින සැමරෙන විශ්ව ළමා දිනය වෙයි.

විශ්ව ළමා දිනය
විශ්ව ළමා දින වාර්ෂිකව නොවැම්බර් 20 දිනදී පැවැත්වෙයි.1954දී එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ මහා මණ්ඩලය විසින් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කෙරුණු මෙම දිනය, සංස්ථාපනය කිරීමේ අරමුණ වූයේ, පළමුව ළමුන් අතර අන්‍යොන්‍ය  හුවමාරුව සහ අවබෝධය දියුණු කර ලීම සඳහාත්, දෙවනුව ලෝකයේ ළමුන්ගේ ප්‍රයෝජනය සහ සුබසාධනය සඳහා අනුග්‍රහය දක්වන ක්‍රියාමාර්ග ඇරඹීම සඳහා දිනයක් වෙන් කරන මෙන් සියළු රටවල් උනන්දු කිරීම සඳහාය.

ලොව වටා සැමරුම් දින
ළමා දිනය සමරන නිල දිනය රටින් රටට වෙනස් වේ.

පැරණි සෝවියට් සංගමයේ ප්‍රාන්තවල (ආර්මේනියාව, අසර්බයිජානය, බෙලරුස්, එස්තෝනියාව, ජෝර්ජියාව, කසකස්තානය, කිර්ගිස්තානය, ලැට්වියාව, ලිතුවේනියාව, මෝල්ඩෝවා, රුසියාව, ටජිකිස්තානය, ටර්ක්මෙනිස්තානය, යුක්රේනය, උස්බෙකිස්තානය ඇතුළුව) ළමා දිනය ජුනි 1 දින සමරනු ලබන අතර අනෙකුත් පැරණි හෝ වත්මන් කොමියුනිස්ට් රාජ්‍යයන් (ඇල්බේනියාව, ඇන්ගෝලා, බෙනින්, බොස්නියා සහ හර්සගොවිනා, බල්ගේරියාව, කාම්බෝජය, ක්‍රොඒෂියාව, කියුබාව, චෙක් ජනරජය, ස්ලෝවැකියාව, ඉතියෝපියාව, නැගෙනහිර ජර්මනිය, කොසෝවෝ, ලාඕසය, මොන්ගෝලියාව, මොන්ටිනිග්‍රෝ, මොසැම්බික්, චීනය, උතුරු මැසිඩෝනියාව, පෝලන්තය, පෘතුගාලය, රුමේනියාව, සර්බියාව, ස්ලෝවේනියාව, ටැන්සානියාව, වියට්නාමය සහ යේමනය, සහ එහි සෝවියට් යුදෙව් ජනගහනය සංක්‍රමණය වීම හේතුවෙන් ඊශ්‍රායලයේ අඩු ප්‍රමාණයකි). මෙයට USSR වෙතින් නිදහස ලැබූ, යුගෝස්ලාවියා සම්මේලනය මෙන්ම චෙකොස්ලෝවැකියාව සහ ඉතියෝපියාව වැනි රාජ්‍යන්ද එදිනම සමරයි.

පහත කොටසේ වැදගත් සැමරුම් දින කිහිපයක් අනුපිළිවෙලින් දක්වයි.

ආශ්‍රිත

ලෝක ළමා දිනය


Le traité de Varsovie fut signé le 21 mai 1849 à Varsovie (alors partie de l'Empire russe) par l'empereur de Russie Nicolas Ier et l'empereur d'Autriche François-Joseph Ier.

En vertu de ce traité, Nicolas Ier s'est engagé à envoyer des troupes russes () en Hongrie pour combattre la révolution, ce afin de préserver l'intégrité territoriale de l'empire d'Autriche. De plus, l'empereur russe a également affecté des troupes pour l'occupation, pendant les hostilités, de la Moldavie, de la Valachie ( personnes), et de la Galicie ( personnes). Ainsi, François-Joseph lui-même autorisa l'intervention russe dans son empire.

Nicolas Ier croyait que les principes de la Sainte-Alliance et du légitimisme exigeaint, comme le formulait le chancelier et ministre des Affaires étrangères de l'Empire russe Charles Robert de Nesselrode, « de soutenir le pouvoir partout où il existe, de le renforcer là où il s'affaiblit, et de le défendre là où il est attaqué ». De plus, l'empereur russe considérait la guerre contre la révolution hongroise comme une continuation de son combat contre le soulèvement polonais de 1830-1831 : deux légions polonaises combattirent aux côtés des Hongrois, et parmi les généraux de l'armée hongroise se trouvaient des Polonais : Józef Bem, Jozef Wysocki et Henryk Dembiński.

L'intervention de l'Empire russe a en effet conduit à la défaite du soulèvement hongrois. Mais l'intervention russe a fait une impression négative sur le public européen. Le pacte de Varsovie lui-même ne contribue pas au rapprochement des deux empires : lors de la guerre de Crimée, l'Autriche, qui reste formellement neutre, adopte une position hostile envers la Russie.

Références

Articles connexes

 Révolution de 1848-1849 en Hongrie

Liens externes

 Édouard Sourovtsev GUERRE D'INDÉPENDANCE DE HONGRIE 1848-49

Révolution hongroise de 1848
1849
Varsovie
Varsovie
Varsovie
Varsovie

Traité de Varsovie (1849)


السعفة الساقية أو سعفة الفخذ أو سعفة باطن الفخذين والمغبن أو سعفة الأرفاغ أو تعفن سكروت  (بالإنكليزية البريطانية) أو حكة جوك  (بالإنكليزية الأمريكية) هي عبارة عن عدوى فطرية للمنطقة العجانية عند الذكور والإناث ، ولكنها تكون أكثر شيوعاً عند الرجال منها عند النساء.

الأعراض
و كما يدل اسم المرض فإن الأعراض تظهر على شكل حكة وشعور بالحرقة في المنطقة الحنية ومنطقة طيات الجلد الفخذية والشرجية. كما يمكن أن تمتد إلى المنطقة الداخلية من الفخذ وإلى الأعضاء التناسلية وإلى كل من المنطقة العجانية وحول الشرجية.

تتلون المناطق المصابة بالحمرة أو السمرة أو تكون مائلة للون البني ويكون الجلد متشقق ومجعد ويميل إلى التقشر ثم التساقط.

تبدأ العدوى في الطور الحاد من طيات المنطقة الحنية بحجم نصف انش، وغالباً ما تكون على الجانبين، ثم تكبر وتمتد إلى مناطق أخرى من غير شكل مميز. تظهر الأعراض على شكل بقع محمرة مرتفعة وبقع متقشرة مع حدود مرتفعة مميزة.
عندما تتطور الأفة فقد تمتد إلى الأسفل باتجاه منطقة الفخذ الداخلية. تكون الحواف المتقدمة أكثر حمرة وارتفاعاً من المناطق المخموجة والتي مضى عليها وقت أطول. تكون الحواف المتقدمة متقشرة ومميزة بشكل واضح.

العامل المسبب
تنتج هذه الإصابة من العدوى الانتهازية على الأغلب. حيث أن بعض الفطور من مناطق أخرى من الجسم (مثل قدم الرياضي) يمكن أن تتسبب بهذه الإصابة. تؤمن المناطق الحارة والرطبة جواً مناسباً لتكاثر الفطور وخاصة عند لبس الملابس الضيقة وحدوث احتكاك شديد مع الجسم.
أغلب الفطور شيوعاً في التسبب بهذه الإصابة هو فطر تريكوفايتون روبروم. كما يمكن للمبيضات البيض أن تلعب دوراً في الإصابة.

الوقاية
ينصح الأطباء بالوقاية لمنع الفطريات من التكون حتى لا تقع تعفن سكروت. الوقاية تكون بإزالة الحرارة والرطوبة من منطقة الفخذين.
 تنشيف المنطقة بفوطة نظيفة بعد الانتهاء من الأستحمام أو السباحة أو التعرق.
 تنشيف بعد الأنشطة البدنية.
 لبس ملابس داخلية كتانية لأن ليدهم منع قوي للهواء والرطوبة.
 تجنب ملابس البوليستر لأنها تساعد على تكوين الفطريات والبكتيريا.

العلاج
أفضل علاج لتعفن سكروت هو المضادات الفطرية بنوع allylamine أو azole ، وأيضا التي تحتوي على تيربينافين ونافتيفين

اقرأ أيضاً
 القوباء الحلقية
 المضاد الفطري

وصلات خارجية
 موقع الصحة الإلكتروني (إنجليزي)
 عيادة مايو (إنجليزي)
 موقع هاردن التابع لجامعة أيوا (إنجليزي)
 موقع مفاتيح الجينات (إنجليزي)

المراجع

أمراض فطرية حيوانية
حالات جلدية مرتبطة بفطريات

سعفة ساقية


is a horizontally scrolling shooter arcade video game released in 1981. It was developed by Konami and manufactured and distributed by Leijac in Japan and Stern in North America. It was the first side-scrolling shooter with forced scrolling and multiple distinct levels, and it established the foundation for a new genre.

It was Konami's first major worldwide hit. In the United States, it sold 15,136 arcade cabinets within five months and became Stern's second best-selling game. Scramble was not ported to any major contemporary consoles or computers, but there were releases for the Tomy Tutor and Vectrex as well as dedicated tabletop/handheld versions. Unauthorized clones for the VIC-20 and Commodore 64 used the same name as the original. The BBC Micro clone was called Rocket Raid, marketed by Acornsoft from 1982 and primarily within the UK. Scramble's sequel, the more difficult Super Cobra, was released later that year. Gradius (1985) was originally intended to be a follow-up to Scramble.

Gameplay

The player controls a futuristic aircraft, referred to in the game as a jet, and has to guide it across scrolling terrain, battling obstacles along the way. The jet is armed with a forward-firing weapon and bombs; each weapon has its own button. The player must avoid colliding with the terrain and other enemies while simultaneously maintaining its limited fuel supply, which diminishes over time. More fuel can be acquired by destroying fuel tanks in the game.

The game is divided into six sections, each with a different style of terrain and various obstacles. There is no intermission between each section; the game seamlessly scrolls into the new terrain. Points are awarded based on the duration of survival, as well as for destroying enemies and fuel tanks. In the final section, the player must destroy a "base". Once this objective is achieved, a flag indicating a completed mission is displayed at the bottom right of the screen. The game then repeats, returning to the first section with a slight increase in difficulty.

Scoring
 Per second the jet is in play: 10 points
 Rockets: 50 points on ground, 80 in air
 UFO ships: 100 points
 Fuel tanks: 150 points
 Mystery targets: 100, 200, or 300 points
 Base at ends of levels: 800 points

The player is awarded an extra jet for scoring 10,000 points, and none more thereafter. A jet is lost upon contact with anything. Once the final jet is destroyed, the game is over.

Handheld versions
A dedicated Tomytronic version of Scramble was released in 1982. A second electronic tabletop version of Scramble was released the same year in the UK by Grandstand under licence from Japanese firm Epoch Co., who sold the game in Japan under the title Astro Command. Gameplay differs from the arcade version as no scenery is rendered and the ship has no need to refuel. A handheld compact LCD version known as "Pocket Scramble" was released the following year. Scramble was also made available on the 2006 Game Boy Advance cartridge, "Konami Collector Series Arcade Advanced", this version is a very close port of the original game in the arcade cabinet.

Reception
Scramble was commercially successful and critically acclaimed. In its February 1982 issue, Computer and Video Games magazine said it "was the first arcade game to send you on a mission and quickly earned a big following". In the United States, the game sold 10,000 arcade cabinets worth  in sales within two months of release in 1981, and it topped the US monthly RePlay arcade charts in June 1981. It sold 15,136 arcade cabinets in the United States within five months, by August 4, 1981, becoming Stern's second best-selling game after Berzerk. Its sequel, the more difficult Super Cobra, sold 12,337 cabinets in the U.S. in four months that same year, adding up to 27,473 U.S. cabinet sales for both, by October 1981. In Japan, Scramble was tied with Jump Bug and Space Panic as the 14th highest-grossing arcade video game of 1981.

The Vectrex version was reviewed in Video magazine where it was praised for its fidelity to the original arcade game and was described as the favorite among Vectrex titles they had reviewed. The game's overlays were singled out, with reviewers commenting that "when you're really involved with a Vectrex game like Scramble, it's almost possible to forget that the program is in black-and-white". David H. Ahl of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games reported in 1983 that no test player was able to get past the fourth level of the Vectrex version.

In 1982, Arcade Express gave the Tomytronic version of the game a score of 9 out of 10, describing it as an "engrossing" game that "rates as one of the year's best so far".

Scramble made the list of Top 100 arcade games in the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition. In 1996, GamesMaster ranked the arcade version 60th in their "Top 100 Games of All Time."

Legacy
According to the Nintendo Game Boy Advance Gradius Advance intro and the Gradius Breakdown DVD included with Gradius V, Scramble is considered the first in the Gradius series. However, the Gradius Collection guidebook issued a few years after by Konami, lists Scramble as part of their shooting history, and the Gradius games are now listed separately.

An updated version of Scramble is available in Konami Collector's Series: Arcade Advanced by inputting the Konami Code in the game's title screen. This version allows three different ships to be chosen: the Renegade, the Shori, and the Gunslinger. The only difference between the ships besides their appearance are the shots they fire. The Renegade's shots are the same as in the original Scramble, the Shori has rapid-fire capabilities triggered by holding down the fire button, and the Gunslinger's shots can pierce through enemies, meaning they can be used for multiple hits with a single shot.

Impact
In an interview with RePlay magazine in January 1990, Konami founder Kagemasa Kōzuki (Kaz Kozuki) stated that he considers Scramble to be Konami's most important game. He stated that Scramble was the company's first major hit that "launched Konami into world prominence." The game also served as a foundation for the horizontally scrolling shooter sub-genre. While not the first horizontally scrolling shooter (it was predated by Defender two months earlier), Wayne Santos of GameAxis Unwired notes that Scramble and its sequel Super Cobra "created the side-scrolling shooter that progressed to the end of a level, rather than having a self-enclosed level that warped on itself in an infinite loop, like Defender."

Konami's Gradius (1985), the first title in the Gradius series, was originally intended to be a follow-up to Scramble, with the working title Scramble 2. It reused many of its materials and game mechanics. Game designer Scott Rogers named Scramble as well as Irem's Moon Patrol (1982) as forerunners of the endless runner platform genre.

In other media
Scramble gameplay is featured during the opening credits of the 1982 Spanish film Colegas by Eloy de la Iglesia, along with some other arcade games of the era like Defender, Monaco GP and Missile Command.

Re-releases
 Scramble joined the Xbox Live Arcade library for the Xbox 360 on September 13, 2006.
 Scramble was made available on Microsoft's Game Room service on March 24, 2010.
 Scramble was re-released in 2002 for GBA titled Konami Arcade Advanced.
 Scramble was re-released in 2005 for PlayStation 2 in Japan as part of the Oretachi Geasen Zoku Sono-series.
 Scramble was re-released in 2007 for Nintendo DS as part of Konami Classics Series: Arcade Hits.
 Scramble was re-released for PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and PC on Steam on April 18, 2019 as part of the Konami Anniversary Collection Arcade Classics.

Clones
The Atari 8-bit family games Airstrike (1982) and Bellum (1983) are both Scramble clones. Skramble (1983) is a clone for the Commodore 64. Whirlybird Run (1983) is a TRS-80 Color Computer clone.

Legal history
In Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman, 669 F.2d 852, the Second Circuit held that Stern could copyright the images and sounds in the game, not just the source code that produced them.

See also
Cosmic Avenger (1981)
Harrier Attack (1984)
Vanguard (1981)

References

External links
Official Arcade Archives website

Scramble at the Arcade History database

1981 video games
Arcade video games
Gradius video games
Konami games
Horizontally scrolling shooters
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 4 games
Stern video games
Vectrex games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
Konami arcade games
Video games developed in Japan
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Hamster Corporation games

Scramble (video game)


Marilen-Gabriel Pirtea (n. 28 noiembrie 1973, Ștei) este un deputat român, de profesie economist și rector al Universității de Vest din Timișoara.

Studii
A urmat școala generală și liceul de matematică-fizică "Avram Iancu" din localitatea natală, susținându-și bacalaureatul în 1992. Apoi a urmat cursurile Facultății de Științe Economice a Universității de Vest din Timișoara, pe care le-a absolvit în 1997, cu specializarea Finanțe-Bănci. În continuare a urmat tot acolo masterul în specializarea Fiscalitate, absolvit în 1998. În 2002 a obținut titlul de doctor în domeniul Finanțe, cu teza Managementul trezoreriei întreprinderii, sub conducerea prof. univ. dr. Horia D. Cristea. În perioada 2007–2015 a urmat o serie de cursuri postuniversitare de specializare în domeniile management universitar, securitate, diplomație și politică externă. Articolele științifice semnate de Marilen Pirtea în această perioadă au fost suspectate de plagiat.

Activitate profesională

După absolvirea facultății și-a continuat activitatea în cadrul Universității de Vest ca preparator (1997–2000), asistent (2000–2002), lector (2002–2005), conferențiar (2005–2008) și profesor (din 2008). Este conducător de doctorat în domeniul Finanțe.

A îndeplinit funcțiile de cancelar al Facultății de Științe Economice (2004–2008), prodecan și decan al Facultății de Economie și de Administrare a Afacerilor (2008–2012), respectiv rector al Universității de Vest (din 2012). Pirtea este membru în mai multe asociații cu profil finanțe-bănci din țară și membru fondator al Platformei de Formare și Cercetare Interdisciplinară "Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen". Pirtea este, de asemenea, membru în Consiliul de administrație al Aeroportului Internațional "Traian Vuia".

Pe lângă activitatea managerială, Marilen Pirtea activează ca editor al revistelor Timișoara Journal of Economics and Business, Theoretical and Applied Economics și Logistique & Management.

Activitate politică
În 2016 a fost ales deputat în Parlamentul României în circumscripția electorală nr. 37 din județul Timiș, din partea PNL. În cadrul Camerei Deputaților, Marilen Pirtea este membru al Comisiei pentru comunitățile de români din afara granițelor țării și secretar al Comisiei pentru buget, finanțe și bănci. Din 3 septembrie 2018, Marilen Pirtea este vicepreședinte al Camerei Deputaților, înlocuindu-l în această funcție pe deputatul PNL de Timiș Ben Oni Ardelean.

Onoruri
 Cetățean de onoare al orașului Ștei (2014)

Note

Vezi și

 Legislatura 2016-2020 (Camera Deputaților)

Nașteri pe 20 noiembrie
Nașteri în 1973
Conducători de doctorate români
Deputați români 2016-2020
Membri ai Partidului Național Liberal
Politicieni români în viață
Profesori universitari români
Rectori români
Timișoreni
Deputați români 2020-2024

Marilen Pirtea


Charles Wellbeloved ( - ) est un archéologue et théologien unitarien anglais.

Biographie
Charles Wellbeloved, enfant unique de John Wellbeloved (1742-1787), et de son épouse Elizabeth Plaw, est né à Denmark Street, St Giles, Londres, le 6 avril 1769, et baptisé le 25 avril à St. Giles-in-the- Champs. En raison de problèmes familiaux, il est élevé dès l'âge de quatre ans par son grand-père, Charles Wellbeloved (1713-1782), un gentilhomme campagnard à Mortlake, dans le Surrey, un anglican, et l'ami et disciple de John Wesley. Il fait sa première éducation auprès d'un ecclésiastique nommé Delafosse à Richmond. En 1783, il est placé dans une entreprise de drapiers à Holborn Hill, mais n'apprend que « comment attacher un colis ».

En 1785, il devient étudiant à la Homerton Academy sous Benjamin Davies. Parmi ses condisciples se trouvent William Field et David Jones (1765-1816). Jones est expulsé pour hérésie en 1786 ; ses opinions influencent Wellbeloved, qui est autorisé à terminer la session de 1787, mais pas à revenir. En septembre 1787, il suit Jones à New College, Hackney, sous la direction d'Abraham Rees, le cyclopodiste, et d'Andrew Kippis, puis (1789) sous  et (1790) Gilbert Wakefield. C'est ici qu'il se lie d'amitié avec Arthur Aikin, qui entre en 1789. Il fréquente le ministère de Richard Price (1723-1791).

Il épouse Ann Kinder (décédée le 31 janvier 1823) le  juillet 1793, à St. Mary's, Stoke Newington, avec qui il a plusieurs enfants. Leur plus jeune fils,  (15 juillet 1803- 21 février 1856), épouse l'héritière Sarah Scott le 17 février 1830 et prend le nom et les armes de Scott à la mort de son père en 1832. Robert est sous-lieutenant du Worcestershire et député de Walsall (1841-1846) . Sa plus jeune fille, Emma (décédée le 29 juillet 1842), épouse en 1831 sir James Carter, juge en chef du Nouveau-Brunswick .

Carrière ecclésiastique
Le premier sermon de Wellbeloved est prêché à Walthamstow le 13 novembre 1791. Peu de temps après, il reçoit par l'intermédiaire de Michael Maurice, père de [John] Frederick Denison Maurice, une invitation à devenir assistant de  à la chapelle St Saviourgate, York. Il accepte le 23 janvier 1792 et commence ses fonctions à York le 5 février. En 1801, il devient seul ministre à la mort de Cappe. La caractéristique principale de son travail exégétique est son traitement de la prophétie, limitant la portée de sa prédiction, confinant celle de la prophétie hébraïque à l'âge de sa production, et limitant les prédictions de notre Seigneur par la destruction de Jérusalem. Il rompt avec l'école de Priestley, rejetant une résurrection générale et fixant le jugement dernier à la mort. Sur ces points et sur d'autres, il suit de près le système de Newcome Cappe, mais son évitement prudent du dogmatisme laisse ses élèves libres, et aucun d'eux ne le suit dans le « cappisme ». Parmi ses coadjuteurs figurent , William Turner et William Hincks. À partir de 1810, il a la précieuse collaboration de John Kenrick, qui épouse sa fille aînée Lætitia.

En 1794, il commence à prendre des élèves dans une école du dimanche qu'il a fondée. Il est invité en novembre 1797 (après le refus de Belsham) à succéder à  (1747-1810) en tant que professeur de théologie à l'académie de Manchester. Barnes, un arien évangélique, ne lui donne aucun encouragement, mais il ne rejette l'offre qu'en février 1798 ; il est accepté peu après par George Walker. À la démission de Walker, les administrateurs proposent (25 mars 1803) de déplacer l'institution à York si Wellbeloved en devient le directeur. Il accepte (le 11 avril) et de septembre 1803 à juin 1840, l'institution est connue sous le nom de Manchester College, York, qui devient par la suite Harris Manchester College, Oxford. Sa gestion est conservée par un comité, se réunissant ordinairement à Manchester. Pendant trente-sept ans, Wellbeloved s'acquitte des fonctions de la chaire de théologie dans un esprit décrit par James Martineau, son élève, comme « franc et catholique, simple et minutieux ». Il suit la méthode que Richard Watson (1737-1816) a introduite à Cambridge, rejetant la théologie systématique et lui substituant l'exégèse biblique.

Il quitte de sa chaire de théologie en 1843. Il conserve ses liens avec sa chapelle jusqu'à sa mort, officiant occasionnellement jusqu'en 1853, ayant comme assistants John Wright (1845-1846) et Henry Vaughan Palmer (1846-1858). Il meurt à sa résidence, Monkgate, York, le 29 août 1858, et est enterré (3 septembre) dans le cimetière de la chapelle St.Saviourgate ; une plaque commémorative se trouve dans la chapelle. Son portrait, peint en 1826 par James Lonsdale, est gravé par Samuel Cousins .

Antiquaire
Il est le conservateur honoraire des antiquités de la  de 1823 jusqu'à sa mort en 1858, supervisant l'exposition et l'interprétation des antiquités au Yorkshire Museum à partir de son ouverture en 1830. Entre 1827 et 1829, il supervise les fouilles dans le cloître de l'abbaye Sainte-Marie d'York préparatoires au creusement des fondations du Yorkshire Museum.

Ouvrages publiés
Des propositions d'édition d'une bible familiale sont faites à Wellbeloved (14 mars 1814) par David Eaton (1771-1829), alors libraire à Holborn, succédant à . Le prospectus (mai 1814) annonce une traduction révisée avec commentaire. Entre 1819 et 1838, neuf parties sont publiées en grand in-quarto, contenant le Pentateuque, Job, les Psaumes, les Proverbes, l'Ecclésiaste et les Cantiques. Le texte est réimprimé, avec la version révisée de Josué, les juges, Ruth et les prophètes mineurs, dans « Les Saintes Écritures de l'Ancienne Alliance », 1859-1862, 3 vols. 8vo. En 1823, il entame une controverse, commencée par Thomas Thrush (1761-1843), avec . En tant que sous-administrateur du Sarah Hewley Trust, il est impliqué dans le procès (1830-1842) qui retire leurs avantages et leur autonomie aux unitariens.

Il est l'un des fondateurs de la York Subscription Library (1794), de la Yorkshire Philosophical Society (1822) et du York Institute (1827), et consacre beaucoup de temps à l'archéologie de York. Ses travaux archéologiques comprennent des fouilles préalables à la construction du Yorkshire Museum and Gardens, dont l'histoire est publiée dans A Handbook to the Antiquities in the Grounds and Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Après l'incendie du 2 février 1829, il joue un rôle de premier plan dans la collecte de fonds pour la restauration de la cathédrale et s'oppose à l'enlèvement du paravent du chœur. La description de la cathédrale dans le dictionnaire topographique de Lewis, l'article « York » dans la Penny Cyclopædia et un guide (1804) de la cathédrale de York sont de sa plume. Son Eburacum, ou York sous les Romains (York, 1842, 8vo), donne la substance de ses précédents articles et conférences sur le sujet.

Outre les ouvrages mentionnés ci-dessus, et des sermons et brochures isolés, il publie :

 Exercices de dévotion, 1801, 12mo ; 8e édition. 1832.
 Mémoires de … Rév. W[illiam] Bois, 1809, 8vo. Concernant le botaniste, le ministre William Wood
 Trois lettres… à Francis Wrangham, 1823, 8vo ; 2ème édition. même année.
 Trois lettres supplémentaires, 1824, 8vo.
 Mémoire' préfixé à 'Sermons, 1826, 8vo, par Thomas Watson.
 Compte de … l'abbaye de Sainte-Marie, York, dans Vetusta Monumenta , 1829, vol. v. fol.
 Mémoire de Thomas Grive, 1845, 8vo.
 Compte descriptif des antiquités du musée de la Yorkshire Philosophical Society, 1852, 8vo ; 3e édition. 1858.

Il contribue au Yorkshire Repository, 1794, 12mo; la Revue annuelle, 1802-1808 ; et les Actes de la Yorkshire Philosophical Society, 1855, vol. 1 .

Références

Liens externes

Archéologue britannique du XVIIIe siècle
Archéologue britannique du XIXe siècle
Décès en août 1858
Naissance en avril 1769
Théologien protestant du XVIIIe siècle
Théologien protestant du XIXe siècle
Décès à 89 ans

Charles Wellbeloved


6981 Chirman este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
6981 Chirman este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Bassano Bresciano de Observatorul din Bassano Bresciano. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,67 ua, o excentricitate de 0,16 și o înclinație de 13,3° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 6001-7000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1993
Centura de asteroizi

6981 Chirman