The University of Hertfordshire (UH) is a public university in Hertfordshire, United Kingdom. The university is based largely in Hatfield, Hertfordshire. Its antecedent institution, Hatfield Technical College, was founded in 1948 and was identified as one of 25 Colleges of Technology in the United Kingdom in 1959. In 1992, Hatfield Polytechnic was granted university status by the British government and subsequently renamed University of Hertfordshire. It is one of the post-1992 universities.

Hertfordshire is mainly based at two campuses – College Lane and de Havilland. The university has 9 schools: Hertfordshire Business School, Computer Science, Creative Arts, Education, Health and Social Work, Humanities (which oversees its CATS programme), Hertfordshire Law School, Life and Medical Sciences, Physics, Engineering and Computer Science and Hertfordshire Higher Education Consortium.

As of 2022, it has around 32,000 students, including more than 13,000 international students that together represent 100 countries, making the university host the highest proportion of international students (outside of London) in England. The university is one of Hertfordshire's largest employers with over 3,400 staff, 2,045 of whom are academic members of staff. The annual income of the institution for 2021–22 was £317.5 million of which £9 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £305.3 million.  Hertfordshire is a member of University Alliance, Universities UK and European University Association.

History

Origins

The original campus for the university was at Roe Green in Hatfield, where it was founded as a technical college with a particular focus on training aerospace engineers for the aerospace industry that was then prevalent in Hatfield.  The Gape family of St Michael's Manor in St Albans owned the land at Roe Green from the late 17th century.  In the 1920s they sold it to Hill, a farmer, who then sold it to Alan Butler, chairman of the de Havilland Aircraft Company who lived at Beech Farm nearby. In 1944 he donated  of land at Roe Green to be used for educational purposes. In 1948 building commenced. The first principal W.A.J Chapman started on 1 January 1949 and in spring 1952 the 33 full-time and 66 part-time teachers were appointed. Hatfield Technical College opened with 1,738 students in September 1952 and in December officially opened by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. It was the first large technical college to be established in England after the war. Students attended the college on part-time or full-time courses.

In 1958 it was renamed Hatfield College of Technology and by 1960 offered four-year sandwich diplomas in technology. In 1961 it was designated a regional college in England and Wales by the Ministry of Education. The governors purchased a digital computer at a cost of £29,201 in 1962 so that a computer science degree could be established. The Council for National Academic Awards was formed in 1965 and Hatfield College was recognised for 13 honours degree courses.

Sir Norman Lindop became the Principal of the College of Technology in 1966. A year later L.E. Haines was made Chair of Governors, but died shortly afterwards and was replaced by F. Bramston Austin. A year later, Bayfordbury was acquired for the college.

20th century

In 1969 Hatfield College of Technology became Hatfield Polytechnic, offering honours degree courses in engineering and technology. In 1970 an observatory was built on the Bayfordbury Campus. Wall Hall and Balls Park Teacher Training Colleges merged in 1976 to become Hertfordshire College of Higher Education. In the same year Hatfield Polytechnic took over Balls Park. By 1977 more than ten per cent of the 4000 students came from more than forty different countries. The Students' Union Social Centre opened in 1977.

In 1982 John Illston succeeded Sir Norman Lindop as the director. A sports hall was built on the Hatfield Campus in 1984 and the number of students in that year was more than 5000. The number of staff, in the same year, had increased to 824.

Neil Buxton became its director in 1987. The following year, Sir Ron Dearing and Buxton signed an agreement that gave the polytechnic accreditation from the Council for National Academic Awards. Hatfield was one of only 21 polytechnics, colleges and Scottish Central institutions to be accredited at the time. Hatfield was also, in that year, one of eight polytechnics accredited for research degrees. In 1989 it was given corporate status.

After John Major announced in 1991 that polytechnics were to be abolished, Hatfield Polytechnic announced its intention to apply for university status. In 1992 it became the University of Hertfordshire and Sir Brian Corby became the first Chancellor. It was the first university to run a bus company by making Uno bus public. The Hertfordshire College of Health Care and Nursing Studies and the Barnet College of Nursing and Midwifery merged with the university in 1993.

In 1992, Hatfield Polytechnic was granted university status by the British government and subsequently renamed University of Hertfordshire. Its antecedent institution, Hatfield Technical College, was founded in 1948 and was identified as one of 25 Colleges of Technology in the United Kingdom in 1959.

In 1994 the St Albans Cathedral was chosen to hold the university's graduation ceremonies. The same year saw the first publication of league tables and Hertfordshire was named as the top new university. In 1995 its law school moved to St Albans. Sir Ian MacLaurin was appointed chancellor in 1996 and in 1997 the Learning Resource Centre opened.

21st century
In 2000, Olivia de Havilland, cousin of Sir Geoffrey de Havilland, visited the university to mark the inauguration of a project to build a new campus named after her cousin. The university's 50th anniversary was celebrated in 2002, by which time it had 21,695 students. In 2003 Tim Wilson succeeded Neil Buxton as vice-chancellor and the de Havilland campus opened.

Hertfordshire Sports Village also opened in 2003. In 2005 the university launched the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Postgraduate Medical School and School of Pharmacy to enhance medical education, training and research in the region. In 2006 the university opened its School of Film, Music and Media. The university opened the MacLaurin building in 2007, named in honour of its former chancellor Lord MacLaurin followed by a new law building in 2011. During this period, Hertfordshire became a lead academic sponsor of Elstree University Technical College, a university technical college which opened in September 2013. Hertfordshire is also the academic sponsor of Watford University Technical College

In 2010, Tim Wilson announced his intention to retire as vice-chancellor after more than 19 years at the university.

In 2011, Quintin McKellar replaced Tim Wilson as vice-chancellor of the university. Also on the same year, the Hatfield Beacon was restored and repositioned at the new Law School site. In the following year, the Kaspar project received a £180,000 donation from an international grant making foundation, which was used to further the university's research into the use of robotics to support the social development of children with autism.

In 2015, Hertfordshire adopted a policy of naming its buildings after people or organisations with a significant local or regional impact. These include Kate Bellingham, British engineer and television presenter and Alistair Spalding, chief executive and artistic director of Sadler's Wells Theatre.  All of the halls are named after influential alumni who the university feels represent the attributes of Hertfordshire graduates. In these two cases, the halls were named in recognition of Bellingham and Spalding's attributes of intellectual depth and adaptability and professionalism, employability and enterprise. In the same year, the University of Hertfordshire was announced as one of the first recipients of the Race Equality Charter which is an initiative that recognises excellence in advancing racial equality in higher education. The charter was launched by the Equality Challenge Unit at the start of the 2015 academic year.

In 2020, the University of Hertfordshire Observatory celebrated its 50th anniversary, and revealed an eight-year-long exposure photograph, breaking the record of longest exposure. The artist, Regina Valkenborgh, was a Master's student in August 2012, when she set the pinhole camera attached to one of the telescope domes in the Observatory. The camera was then forgotten, and rediscovered in September 2020 by the Observatory's Principal Technical officer. The photograph registered the path of the sun over the sky during the 2,953 days it was exposed to it.

Organisation and administration

The University of Hertfordshire was established as an independent Higher Education Corporation in 1989 under the terms of the Education Reform Act (1989). The institution is an exempt charity. The board of governors has responsibility for running the university, while the academic board is responsible for academic quality and standards, academic policies, research and scholarship. The vice-chancellor oversees its day-to-day running. The current chancellor is Robert Gascoyne-Cecil and the current vice-chancellor is Quintin McKellar.

The following people have been vice-chancellors of the university.
 Neil Buxton (1987-2003)
 Tim Wilson (2003–2010)
Quintin McKellar (2011–present)

The university runs on a three-term calendar in which the academic year is divided into three terms: Autumn (September–December), Spring (January–April), and Summer(April–May). Full-time undergraduate students take three to four courses every year for approximately eleven weeks before their quarterly academic breaks. The school year typically begins in late September and ends in mid-May.

Schools
The university offers over 800 undergraduate, postgraduate, CPD, online distance learning and short courses in its 7 schools of study, within which there are around 50 academic departments and 24 research centres.
 Hertfordshire Business School
 Creative Arts
 Health and Social Work
 Hertfordshire Law School
 Life and Medical Sciences
 Physics, Engineering and Computer Science
 Social Sciences, Humanities and Education

Charity
Being a Higher Education Corporation created by the 1988 Education Reform Act as amended by the 1992 Act, the University of Hertfordshire is an exempt charity as defined under the various Charities Acts.

The University of Hertfordshire has due regard to the Charity Commission's guidance on the reporting of public benefit, and particularly its supplementary guidance on the advancement of education, in accordance with the requirements of HEFCE, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, as the principal regulator of English higher education institutions under the Charities Act 2006.

The university has entered an agreement with the Office of Fair Access (OFFA) to demonstrate that access to programmes of full-time undergraduate education should not be limited on grounds of individual financial circumstances.

Affiliations and memberships
Hertfordshire is a member of Association of Commonwealth Universities which is the representative body of 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the world's first and oldest international university network, established in 1913. It is also a member of University Alliance, a network of British universities which was formed in 2006, adopting the name in 2007. University Alliance is a group of 'business engaged' universities that claim to drive innovation and enterprise growth through research and teaching. Its MBA programme is affiliated with Association of MBAs, the only global MBA-specific Accreditation and Membership Organisation.

Campus
The university is primarily based on two campuses, College Lane and de Havilland. It owns a BioPark facility, which is a science park managed by Exemplas on behalf of the university. It also provides 6,000 square metres of laboratory and office space to life science and health technology businesses. As of 2014, there are currently 27 permanent and virtual tenants.

Additionally, a pool and climbing wall are among its sports facilities. It has also the Weston auditorium, for arts events, two art galleries and owns one of the highly recognised teaching observatories in the United Kingdom.

With over 25,130 students, including more than 5,200 international students that together represent 100 countries, Hertfordshire has a global alumni of over 165,000.

College Lane Campus
The main site of the university remains the College Lane campus, which houses the original Hatfield Technical College building. Notable among the buildings in this campus is the university's Learning Resource Centre, a combined library and computer centre. There is also a substantial collection of halls of residence and student houses, and the University of Hertfordshire Students' Union is headquartered at College Lane campus. The College Lane campus is also the location of Hertfordshire International College, which is part of the Navitas group, providing a direct pathway for international students to the university. The Hertfordshire Intensive Care & Emergency Simulation Centre is also located at College Lane. A new science building has recently opened at College Lane. This purpose built facility primarily offers teaching laboratories, a range of research laboratories and a café.

de Havilland Campus
The £120-million de Havilland campus, which was built by Carillion, opened in September 2003 and is situated within 15 minutes walk of College Lane, and is built on a former British Aerospace site. This campus also houses its own Learning Resource Centre, a combined library and computer centre. Hertfordshire Sports Village which includes a gym, swimming pool, squash courts is also on this site. The large Weston Auditiorium is present on the de Havilland campus, adjacent to the Learn Resource Centre. The auditorium has a capacity of 450 and can host talks both by university lectures for students and for guest lecturers for guests and students, music and films events and dance events. The campus also contains 11 halls of residence; named after local towns and villages. Ashwell and Welwyn are examples of the buildings with the towns being present in Hertfordshire. The campus is mostly themed around law and business, having its business school located on the campus as well as its law school. A full scale, mocked up court room is present, being available for use for students studying a law degree. Along with publicly Northampton University it provides the 2 years accelerated law degree.

Bayfordbury Campus
A third 50-hectare site in Bayfordbury houses the university's astronomical and atmospheric physics remote sensing observatory, Regional Science Learning Centre, field stations for biology and geography programmes.

Situated approximately  from the main campus in Hatfield, Bayfordbury Observatory is one of the largest astronomical teaching observatories in the United Kingdom. The observatory has formed part of the astronomy-related degree programmes since it opened in 1970.

The seven optical telescopes at Bayfordbury campus to observe detailed images of objects in space. Moreover, the five newest telescopes are also able to be operated remotely. The 4.5-metre radio telescope and 3-dish 115-metre baseline interferometer allow a completely different view of the universe. These are connected to 21 cm line receivers, to detect the neutral hydrogen in the galaxy and extragalactic radio sources.

Meridian House
Home to some Schools within the Health and Human Faculty, this building is located on the edge of Hatfield town centre, off College Lane campus. Meridian House is the location of eight clinical skills laboratories for nursing and midwifery programmes of the university. Skills facilities and ambulances for paramedic training are also situated at Meridian House, aside from counselling programme and staff offices.

Gallery

University symbols

Academic dress
The University of Hertfordshire prescribes academic dress for its members. In accordance with tradition, Hertfordshire's academic dress consists of a gown, a cap and a hood. The black gown and square cap familiar to all readers of the Beano had evolved into their present form in England by the end of the Reformation. The hood, which is now the distinctive mark of a university-level qualification, is medieval in origin, and was originally functional.

Ceremonial mace
The ceremonial mace was produced in 1999 by craftsman Martyn Pugh, a Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, member of the British Jewellers Association and a Founder Member of the Association of British Designer Silversmiths. Its design symbolises the university's origins, expertise and associations. Its shape is inspired by the shape of an aeroplane wing symbolising the university's origin in the aviation industry. The head of the mace is engraved with zodiac symbols representing the university's contribution to astronomy and also contains the DNA double helix representing the biological sciences and microprocessor chips representing information and communications technology.

Coat of arms
The university's coat of arms was granted in 1992. The shield is charged with an oak tree taken from the coat of arms of the former Hatfield Rural District, the constellation Perseus (containing the binary star Algol) and a representation of the letter "H" recalling the emblem of the former Hatfield Polytechnic. The crest, a Phoenix rising from an astral crown, represents the university's evolution from a technical college training apprentices for the aviation industry. The two harts supporting the shield represent the county of Hertfordshire, with the covered cups referring to A.S. Butler, who donated the land upon which the original campus was built. A scroll bears the motto Seek Knowledge Throughout Life.

University logo
The standard university logo comprises the university name and the UH symbol in a horizontal panel. There is an exclusion zone equivalent to the height of the H in the logo above, below and to the right of the logo. The university have created an endorsed version of the logo to be used where legibility is an issue with the standard logo. It comprises just the university name in a horizontal panel. Although the university brands its logo in various colours, the standard colours are black and white.

Academic profile

Reputation

The university's School of Pharmacy has been awarded full Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain accreditation. The University of Hertfordshire is recognised as one of the top twenty universities in the world to study animation.

According to Destination of Leavers from Higher Education 2012–13 93.2 per cent of its full-time, first degree UK graduates are in work or further study within six months of graduating. Four of the university's schools achieved scores of 98 per cent: physics; astronomy and mathematics; health and social work; law and education. The survey, conducted by the UK's Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA), revealed in its UK Performance Indicators for Employment 2013/14 that the University of Hertfordshire has climbed 30 places in the past year and is now ranked 35th out of 152 universities in the UK.

In September 2015, the Complete University Guide showed that the university has the lowest recorded 'student-relevant' crimes in the East of England.  It is the fourth year the university has had the lowest rate of recorded crime in the East of England. For university's commitment to gender equality, it was regranted Athena Swan's Bronze institutional status.

The University of Hertfordshire won the Guardian University Award for Student Experience in 2015.

Rankings

University of Hertfordshire ranks 601–800 among world universities in Times Higher Education World University Rankings in 2019. It comes under the ranking of 101-150 under Young University Rankings 2018. In subject specific rankings, it has an overall world ranking between 301 and 400 in Arts and Humanities in 2019. It had a subject specific world ranking between 150 and 200 in European Teaching in 2018.

The Complete University Guide ranked UH courses in Food Science, Social Work, Optometry Ophthalmology & Orthoptics and Medical Technology as the top 20 in the UK in 2019.

In the THE 100 Under 50 universities 2015, a global ranking of the top 100 world universities under 50 years old, University of Hertfordshire was placed 71st.

It was awarded the  Entrepreneurial University of the Year by Times Higher Education in 2010. In 2011, it was ranked 41st by The Complete University Guide among UK universities, its highest regional ranking in recent years.

In the Times Higher Education ranking of most international universities in January 2015, Hertfordshire ranked 84th in the top 100 in the world. In 2016, it was placed at 122nd in the top 200 international universities in the world, by Times Higher Education. The rankings are based on excellence across teaching, research, citations, industry income and international outlook.

In the US News Best Global Universities Ranking in 2018, Hertfordshire ranked 698th among universities in the world.

According to the Times Higher Education Student Experience Survey 2018, the University of Hertfordshire has a ranking of 69, with a score of 75.5 for overall student satisfaction.

QAA and OIA
The last Quality Assurance Agency institutional audit for the university was in March 2009. The outcome was that 'confidence can reasonably be placed in the soundness of the institution's present and likely future management of the academic standards of the awards that it offers'.

According to the complaint statistics, from the Office of the Independent Adjudicator, the university issued 69 completion of
procedures letters in relation to student complaints, in 2013. This is below the band medium of 81, possibly suggesting greater student
satisfaction when compared to universities of a similar size.
The OIA received 22 complaints in 2013. This is above the band medium of 18.5, possibly suggesting that more students
are dissatisfied with the outcome of internal complaints procedure's, compared to universities of a similar size.

The university has also never been named in an OIA annual report for a shortfall in practice, or a failure to comply with a recommendation set by the Adjudicator.

Research

The university has three research institutes: Health and Human Sciences Research Institute; Science and Technology Research Institute; Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Research Institute. Also an expanding research profile with key strengths in areas of nursing, psychology, history, philosophy, physics and computer science.

HR Excellence in Research
In recognition of development activities related to research careers and the position of researchers at the university, the European Commission awarded University of Hertfordshire the right to use the HR Excellence in Research logo in spring 2010.

Research Excellence Framework
Over 55 per cent of the university's research was rated 'world leading' and 'internationally excellent' in the UK Government's 2014 Research Excellence Framework (REF) announced 18 December 2014. Fifty-seven per cent of the university's research submissions achieved a 4 or 3-star rating. This was an increase of 11% when compared to the results of the assessment in 2008. In 2014, it claimed the top impact for History for the results of REF, indicating that all of its submission in History is deemed 'outstanding'.

Kaspar

Kaspar, a social robot, has been designed by the University of Hertfordshire's Adaptive Systems Research Group (ASRG). The Kaspar project began in 2005, drawing upon previous researches to develop a social robot for engaging autistic children in a variety of play scenarios. The aim was to research whether interacting and communicating with Kaspar would help children with autism interact and communicate more easily with people. This is important because there is mounting evidence that early intervention for children with autism may change the child's development trajectory. Kaspar is a research tool with programmed responses adapted to be used by an autistic child in a safe, non-judgemental environment. The Kaspar research has shown that robots may provide a safe and predictable tool for children with autism, that enables the children to learn social interaction and communication skills, addressing specific therapeutic and educational objectives (for example, being able to engage in direct eye-contact or shared eye-gaze), in an enjoyable play context.

Rocket powered car
As part of the final year Aerospace Project, students and staffs from the University of Hertfordshire designed, built and tested a full sized rocket powered car under the mentorship of Ray Wilkinson, a senior professor from Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering.With support from BBC - Bang Goes the Theory and Host Dallas Campbell, the Vauxhall VX220 sports car, was fitted with a large hybrid rocket motor that is designed to produce over half a tonne of thrust was tested in the Duxford Aerodrome. The project got lot of attention for its unprecedented success story and was showcased in local places to build interest in STEM.

Facilities
In 1992, it established University of Hertfordshire Press, whose first publication was a book celebrating the institution's change in status from polytechnic to university.

Art collection
The University of Hertfordshire holds over 450 artworks in its art collection. The ethos of the UH Art Collection is to present modern and contemporary art in places where people study, work and visit. This reflects the University of Hertfordshire's determination to provide not only an attractive education setting but also one which will inform, enlighten and enhance the life of its students, staff and the local community. The UH Art Collection was established in 1952, as part of Hertfordshire Country Council's commitment to the post-war programme. The collection has a diverse portfolio including photography, textile, ceramics, sculpture, mixed media and works by Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, Andy Goldsworthy, Alan Davie, and Diane MacLean.

Park and Ride
Hertfordshire operates a regular shuttle bus service, Park and Ride, which connects 800 parking spaces at Angerland Common with its College Lane and de Havilland Campus facilities. The scheme started in 2006, when it is initially provided with the 700-car facility at Angerland Common, off South Way, Hatfield, in a bid to get cars off surrounding roads.

Since 2006, the university has planned on opening a second venue, with 150 spaces, at the south side car park at Stanborough Lakes in Welwyn Garden City.

Uno bus

Uno (formerly UniversityBus) is a bus service operated by the University of Hertfordshire, serving members of the general public, and also its own students and staff, at a discounted rate. In 1992, the University of Hertfordshire wanted to create and provide bus service to and from the university. Uno, previously known as UniversityBus, was created to provide student transport to the university from local areas; improve east-west travel across the county of Hertfordshire; and, to create new links between Hertfordshire and North London.

Student life

The main source of nightlife is the Forum, which houses three entertainment spaces, a restaurant, a café, multiple bars and onsite parking. Hertfordshire Students' Union (HSU) is the Students' Union of the University of Hertfordshire. The Students' Union Social Centre was opened in 1977. The Hatfield Technical College's management encouraged the establishment of a Student Representative Council (SRC) in 1982, to create a sense of unity and expand the social activities of its day students. The SRC was affiliated to the National Union of Students but initially restricted itself largely to social activities. After 1988 it began to campaign on issues such as improvements to the canteen, lifting the ban on religious or political activity within the then Hatfield Polytechnic, and for a formal students' union. The sectarian ban was finally lifted in 1992 and a Union granted in 1995. However, the canteen continued to be an issue throughout the 2000s. The Students' Union at the University of Hertfordshire represents all students in the university by organising campus activities and running different clubs and societies, from sports to entertainment.

Trident Media Radio
Trident Media Radio (formerly known as Crush Radio, Campus Radio Hatfield, CRUSH and Crush 1278) is the student radio station. TMR is run by students of the university. Crush is run by students of the university along with amateurs from around the surrounding areas.

Crush was the first campus radio, founded in 1960 under the name of CRH (Campus Radio Hatfield). After starting as a pirate radio station, CRH was turned into a University Society of the University of Hertfordshire and was renamed Crush 1278 for it broadcast on 1278AM frequency. As Crush became more accessible, via the internet, the name was changed again to Crush Radio. In 2009 Crush as a society merged with the other media societies of the Students union and the University of Hertfordshire as one media society, though Crush still uses its own website and broadcasts over 1278AM frequency, however it stopped broadcasting on 1278AM after the move in September 2009, but restarted commencing February 2011. Crush Radio has been broadcasting since 1960.  It broadcasts online via the Tunein platform.

Sport

Rowing
The University of Hertfordshire Rowing Club is affiliated to British Rowing (boat code UHE) and Dave Bell became a British champion after winning the men's double sculls title at the 2010 British Rowing Championships.

American Football
The University of Hertfordshire American Football team, The Hurricanes, is affiliated to British Universities American Football League (BUAFL) Premier League South

Partner institutions
The university holds a number of formal links with top-ranking institutions from around the world to share teaching and research and facilitate staff and student exchanges.
 Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
 James Cook University, Australia
 McGill University, Canada
 Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
 Stony Brook University, US
 University of Oklahoma, US
 Yonsei University, Korea

Aside from its international partners, the university has also strong regional agenda and a number of partner institutions in the region: Elstree Screen Arts Academy a university technical college located in Borehamwood; The Watford UTC, a University Technical College for the Watford area. The UTC specialises in Event Management and Computer Sciences.

Notable alumni

The university has notable alumni and staff in a number of disciplines. Hertfordshire has more than 5,200 international students and a global network of more than 160,000 alumni.

Arts, science and academia
Whitney Adebayo – Television personality and businessowner
Jean Bacon – Professor of Distributed Systems, Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge
Tony Banham – Founder of the Hong Kong War Diary project
Ciarán O'Keeffe – Psychologist specialising in parapsychology and forensic psychology
Diane Maclean – Sculptor and environmental artist
Ben Mosley - Expressive artist
Sean Hedges-Quinn – British sculptor and animator

Government, politics and society

Helen Lederer – Comedian, writer and actress who emerged as part of the alternative comedy boom at the beginning of the 1980s
Abdulaziz bin Abdullah – Deputy minister of foreign affairs in Saudi Arabia
John Cryer – English Labour Party politician
Richard Howitt – Member of the European Parliament for the Labour Party for the East of England
Akif Çağatay Kılıç –  Current Minister of Youth and Sports of Turkey
Darell Leiking - Former minister of the international trade & industry of Malaysia (MITI) and current MP in Malaysian Parliament
Mark Oaten –  British former politician who was a senior member of the Liberal Democrat Party
Fiona Onasanya - Labour Member of Parliament
Lawrie Quinn – Labour politician in England
Claire Ward – British Labour Party politician
Sarah West –  First woman to be appointed to command a major warship in the Royal Navy
Prince Raj – Member of Indian Parliament
Gwen O'Mahony - Former MLA in the 39th Parliament of British Columbia
Onn Hafiz Ghazi - 19th Menteri Besar of Johor in Malaysia

Business and finance

Chris Gubbey – Auto executive for General Motors
Martin Leach – British businessman
Luke Scheybeler –  British designer and entrepreneur

Media and entertainment

Kate Bellingham – British engineer and BBC presenter
Yulia Brodskaya – Artist and illustrator known for her handmade elegant and detailed paper illustrations
Sanjeev Bhaskar – British comedian, actor and broadcaster
Matthew Buckley – British actor
Stevyn Colgan – British writer, artist and speaker
Sonia Deol – British radio and television presenter, currently at GlobalBC in Vancouver, Canada (previously BBC Asian Network)
Des de Moor – member of The Irresistible Force with Morris Gould aka Mixmaster Morris both of whom became involved with the emerging UK acid house scene, after organising Madhouse at The Fridge, Brixton in 1988 –; released records on Ninja Tune and made one of the first chillout compilations, Give Peace a Dance 2: The Ambient Collection for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.
Jaine Fenn – British science fiction author
Guvna B – Urban contemporary gospel rap artist and composer
Bob Johnson –  British guitarist formerly in the electric folk band Steeleye Span
 Chris Knowles, anarchist, punk rock musician, drummer, bassist, DJ, member of anarchist collective Hagar the Womb who were affiliated to the Wapping Anarchy Centre, Crass and Poison Girls, and now known as part of the egalitarian industrial techno 'Liberator DJ collective'. He DJs under the moniker Chris Liberator.
Lisa Lazarus –  British model and actress
Helen Lederer, Comedian, writer and actress who emerged as part of the alternative comedy boom at the beginning of the 1980s
Upen Patel – British male model and film actor
Flux Pavilion – British dub step musician (real name Josh Steele)

Sports and athletics

Ajaz Akhtar – Former British cricketer
Steve Borthwick – Former English rugby union footballer who played lock for Saracens and Bath
Noah Cato – Rugby union player
Iain Dowie – Football manager
Owen Farrell – England, Saracens rugby union player
Gavin Fisher – Former chief designer of the Williams Formula One team.
Alex Goode – Professional British rugby union player
Aaron Liffchak – Rugby union footballer
Michael Owen – Rugby union player: former Wales and British & Irish Lions captain
Sachin Patel – Former British cricketer
Tom Ryder – Rugby union player
Alex Skeel – English football coach, domestic violence survivor

See also
 Armorial of UK universities
 List of universities in the UK
 Post-1992 universities

Notes

References

Study in UK at University of Hertfordshire.

External links
 University of Hertfordshire official website

Universities and colleges established in 1952
1952 establishments in England
University Alliance
Exempt charities
Education in Hertfordshire
Universities UK

University of Hertfordshire


Anton Braun (* 28. April 1990 in Berlin) ist ein deutscher Ruderer.

2008 war Braun Mitglied der Junioren-Nationalmannschaft, bei den U19-Weltmeisterschaften in Ottensheim gewann er im Vierer ohne Steuermann die Bronzemedaille. In dieser Bootsklasse nahm er 2009 bei den U23-Weltmeisterschaften in Račice u Štětí teil, wo er zusammen mit Andreas Kuffner, Hendrik Bohnekamp und Bastian Bechler ebenfalls Bronze gewann. Nach einem ersten Weltcup-Einsatz im Vierer wurde Braun 2010 erneut für die U23-Weltmeisterschaften nominiert und wurde mit dem deutschen Achter U23-Weltmeister. 2011 fuhr er erneut in die Medaillenränge im U23-Bereich, als er im Zweier ohne Steuermann mit Bastian Bechler den Bronzerang erreichte.

Ende März 2012 setzte sich Braun zusammen mit Felix Drahotta, dem Olympia-Vierten von 2008 in dieser Bootsklasse, bei der ersten nationalen Ausscheidung im Zweier ohne Steuermann durch. Dabei schlugen sie alle Mitglieder des Deutschland-Achters, die zu diesem Zeitpunkt amtierende Weltmeister waren. Nachdem das Boot bei der abschließenden Kleinbootüberprüfung den dritten Platz belegte, wurden Braun und Drahotta von Bundestrainer Ralf Holtmeyer für den Zweier ohne Steuermann nominiert. Bei ihrem ersten gemeinsamen Weltcupstart in Belgrad gewannen sie das Finale, es war der erste Weltcupsieg eines deutschen Zweiers seit mehreren Jahren. Braun und Drahotta gingen schließlich auch bei den Olympischen Sommerspielen in London an den Start und belegten Platz 7 im Zweier ohne Steuermann.

Im neuen Olympiazyklus konnte sich Braun im Kader für den Deutschland-Achter etablieren. Bei den Ruder-Europameisterschaften 2013 in Sevilla gewann er im Achter rudernd mit der Goldmedaille seinen ersten internationalen Titel in der offenen Altersklasse, später holte er bei den Weltmeisterschaften des gleichen Jahres Silber hinter dem Achter des Vereinigten Königreiches. In der Saison 2014 ruderte er gemeinsam mit Bastian Bechler im Zweier ohne und erreichte einen Bronzerang bei den Europameisterschaften sowie Platz 5 bei den Weltmeisterschaften. Danach gelang ihm der Sprung zurück in den Achter, mit dem Braun in der Saison 2015 erneut Gold bei der EM und Silber bei der WM hinter dem Vereinigten Königreich gewann. Bei den Olympischen Spielen 2016 erreichten Maximilian Korge, Max Planer, Anton Braun und Felix Wimberger den 12. Platz im Vierer ohne Steuermann.

Anton Braun ist Sportsoldat und startet für den Berliner Ruder-Club.

Internationale Erfolge
 2008: 3. Platz Junioren-Weltmeisterschaften im Vierer ohne Steuermann
 2009: 3. Platz U23-Weltmeisterschaften im Vierer ohne Steuermann
 2010: 1. Platz U23-Weltmeisterschaften im Achter
 2011: 3. Platz U23-Weltmeisterschaften im Zweier ohne Steuermann
 2013: 1. Platz Ruder-Europameisterschaften im Achter
 2013: 2. Platz Ruder-Weltmeisterschaften im Achter
 2014: 3. Platz Ruder-Europameisterschaften im Zweier ohne Steuermann
 2015: 1. Platz Ruder-Europameisterschaften im Achter
 2015: 2. Platz Ruder-Weltmeisterschaften im Achter

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ruderer (Deutschland)
Olympiateilnehmer (Deutschland)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2012
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2016
Europameister (Rudern)
Deutscher
Geboren 1990
Mann

Anton Braun (Ruderer)


Die Austrian International 1989 fanden vom 21. bis zum 23. April 1989 in Pressbaum statt. Es war die 19. Austragung dieser offenen internationalen Meisterschaften von Österreich im Badminton.

Finalergebnisse

Weblinks
Homepage
tournamentsoftware.com

1989
Badminton 1989
Badmintonwettbewerb in Pressbaum

Austrian International 1989


A Copa Pan-Americana de Voleibol Masculino de 2014 foi a 9ª edição deste torneio organizado pela Confederação da América do Norte, Central e Caribe de Voleibol (NORCECA) em parceria com a Confederação Sul-Americana de Voleibol (CSV), realizado no período de 11 a 16 de agosto, com as partidas realizadas no Centro de Alto Rendimiento de Tijuana, na cidade de Tijuana, no México.

A seleção cubana venceu seu primeiro título da competição ao vencer na final única a seleção norte-americana. O oposto cubano Rolando Cepeda foi eleito o melhor jogador do torneio.

Seleções participantes

Formato da disputa
O torneio foi dividido em duas fases: fase classificatória e fase final.

Os três primeiros classificados de cada grupo entraram na fase final, estruturada em quartas de final (em que não participaram os dois melhores primeiros classificados, já classificados para as semifinais, semifinais, disputa pelo terceiro lugar e final. As duas equipes derrotadas nas quartas de finais entraram na disputa pelo quinta lugar. Os últimos classificados de cada grupo entraram na disputa pelo sétimo lugar.

Cada grupo foi jogado com um sistema de todos contra todos e as equipes foram classificadas de acordo com os seguintes critérios:
 Maior número de partidas ganhas.
 Maior número de pontos obtidos, que são concedidos da seguinte forma:
 Partida com resultado final 3–0: 5 pontos para o vencedor e 0 pontos para o perdedor.
 Partida com resultado final 3–1: 4 pontos para o vencedor e 1 pontos para o perdedor.
 Partida com resultado final 3–2: 3 pontos para o vencedor e 2 pontos para o perdedor.
 Proporção entre pontos ganhos e pontos perdidos (razão de pontos).
 Proporção entre os sets ganhos e os sets perdidos (razão de sets).
 Se o empate persistir entre duas equipes, a prioridade é dada à equipe que venceu a última partida entre as equipes envolvidas.
 Se o empate persistir entre três equipes ou mais, uma nova classificação será feita levando-se em conta apenas as partidas entre as equipes envolvidas.

Fase classificatória
 Todas partidas no horário local (UTC-7).

Grupo A

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Resultados

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Grupo B

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Resultados

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Grupo C

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Resultados

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Fase final
 Chaveamento

 8º – 9º lugar

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 Sétimo lugar

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 Quartas de final

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 Semifinais

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 Quinto lugar

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 Terceiro lugar

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 Final

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Classificação final

Premiações

Individuais
Os atletas que se destacaram individualmente foramː

Most Valuable Player (MVP)
  Rolando Cepeda
Melhor Levantador
  Robert Boldog
Melhores Ponteiros
  Javier Jiménez
  Rodrigo Villalba

Melhores Centrais
  Mannix Román
  David Fiel
Melhores Oposto
  José Miguel Cáceres
Melhor Líbero
  Franco López

Ver também
 Copa Pan-Americana de Voleibol Feminino de 2014

Ligações externas

Copa Pan-Americana de Voleibol Masculino
Desporto no México em 2014
2014 no voleibol


Münster-Aaseestadt, Almanya'nın Kuzey Ren-Vestfalya eyaletinde, Münster kentine bağlı bölge. Münster-Mitte idari merkezine bağlıdır. 5.500 kişilik nüfusa, 1,5 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir.

Münster'in ilçeleri

Münster-Aaseestadt


كنيسة السيدة العذراء ومارجرجس بغبريال رمل الإسكندرية، وتقع الكنيسة بمنطقة غبريال - علي ترعة المنتزة.

المصادر
 الموقع الإلكتروني الخاص بالكنيسة

كنائس الإسكندرية

كنيسة السيدة العذراء ومارجرجس


A Reserva da Biosfera da Ilha do Príncipe (criada em 2012) é uma Reserva da Biosfera da UNESCO em São Tomé e Príncipe. Abrange toda a área emersa da ilha do Príncipe, os seus ilhéus Bom Bom, Boné do Jóquei, Mosteiros e Pedra da Galé, e as ilhas Pedras Tinhosas (Tinhosa Grande e Tinhosa Pequena), bem como os habitats marinhos circundantes. A reserva está localizada no Golfo da Guiné, ao largo da costa oeste de África, e é gerida pelo governo regional do Príncipe.

A área da reserva é de 71.592,5 hectares, subdivididos da seguinte forma:

 Área núcleo: 17.242,37 ha (marinho: 11.195,55 ha, terrestre 6.043,82 ha);
 Zona de amortecimento: 11.769,92 ha (marinho: 10.323,18 ha, terrestre 1.446,74 ha);
 Área de transição: 42.580,27 ha (marinho: 36.081,76 ha., terrestre 6.498,51 ha.

Características ecológicas
A ilha é caracterizada pelo seu relevo suave na metade norte da ilha e uma cadeia montanhosa na metade sul composta por vários picos fonolíticos com altitudes entre  onde há uma mancha de floresta primária. A diferença de geomorfologia e relevo entre os dois lados, resulta em bioclimatologia diferenciada, tem influência na distribuição dos principais tipos de ecossistemas da ilha, como os sistemas lóticos (fluviais) na área do maciço e seus vales e lênticos (lagos).) na área de planícies do norte.

A reserva da biosfera abriga grande biodiversidade em ecossistemas terrestres e marinhos, com altas taxas de endemismo em muitos grupos de organismos, especialmente plantas vasculares, moluscos, insetos, aves, répteis e morcegos. Faz parte do hotspot de biodiversidade das florestas tropicais da África Ocidental, contendo uma ampla gama de comunidades vegetais e habitats de grande importância internacional, como florestas tropicais primárias, sombras florestais, palmeiras e habitats ribeirinhos de planície.

Considerando a importância que esta área tem para a reprodução de tartarugas marinhas, aves marinhas e cetáceos, bem como recifes de coral, no cenário internacional, é uma área de grande interesse para a conservação da diversidade biológica global.

Características socioeconômicas
Até setembro de 2012, a população residente da reserva era de 6.727 habitantes, todos eles vivendo na área de transição, já que todos os ilhéus são inabitados.

As atividades econômicas na reserva da biosfera são essencialmente a pesca e a agricultura (especialmente cacau, café e copra) além de um pequeno empreendimento turístico, composto principalmente por algum turismo na capital, Santo Antônio, e um balneário na área de Bom Bom. A agricultura e a pesca são as principais atividades de subsistência, principalmente para consumo e excedentes comerciais no mercado local. Os produtos agrícolas e pesqueiros são consumidos principalmente em sua forma primária, mas existem alguns produtos processados, como peixe seco, banana frita, cacharamba (uma bebida feita com cana de açúcar) e vinho de palma.

Ilha do Príncipe
Reservas da biosfera

Reserva da Biosfera da Ilha do Príncipe


Lhasa-traktaten, officielt konventionen mellem Storbritannien og Tibet, var en traktat, der blev underskrevet i 1904 mellem Tibet og Storbritannien i Lhasa, Tibets hovedstad, på daværende tidspunkt under Qing-dynastiets administrative kontrol. Den blev underskrevet efter den britiske ekspedition til Tibet i 1903-1904, en militær ekspedition ledet af oberst Francis Younghusband og blev fulgt af den anglo-kinesiske konvention fra 1906.

Betingelser

Traktatens hovedpunkter tillod briterne at handle i Yadong, Gyantse og Gartok, mens Tibet skulle betale en stor godtgørelse på 7.500.000 rupier, senere reduceret med to tredjedele, idet Chumbi-dalen overdroges til Storbritannien, indtil betalingen blev modtaget. Yderligere bestemmelser anerkendte grænsen mellem Sikkim og Tibet og forhindrede Tibet i at have forbindelser med andre udenlandske kræfter, hvilket effektivt konverterede Tibet til et britisk protektorat.

Størrelsen af erstatningen var den hårdeste betingelse at acceptere for de tibetanske forhandlere. Statssekretæren for Britisk Indien, St John Brodrick, havde faktisk udtrykt behovet for at holde sig "inden for tibetanernes evne at betale" og gav Younghusband frie hænder for at blive "styret af omstændigheder i denne sag". Younghusband hævede erstatningskravet fra 5.900.000 til 7.500.000 rupier og krævede endvidere retten til for en britisk handelsagent med base i Gyantse til at besøge Lhasa "for konsultationer". Det lader til, at han stadig fulgte Lord George Curzons geopolitiske dagsorden om at udvide den britiske indflydelse i Tibet ved at sikre Chumbi-dalen for Storbritannien og nægte den til russerne som en del af The Great Game. Younghusband ønskede, at betalingen skulle opfyldes med årlige afdrag; det ville have taget omkring 75 år for tibetanerne at afbetale deres gæld, og da den britiske besættelse af Chumbi-dalen var kaution, indtil betalingen var afsluttet, ville dalen forblive i britiske hænder. Younghusband skrev til sin kone straks efter underskrivelsen; "Jeg har Chumbi i 75 år. Jeg har Rusland ude for altid."  Regenten kommenterede at "Når man har kendt skorpionen [betyder Kina], er frøen [hvilket betyder Storbritannien] guddommelig".

Efterspil

Den kejserlige Qing-repræsentant i Lhasa, Amban, afviste senere offentligt traktaten, mens Storbritannien meddelte, at det stadig accepterede kinesiske påstande om myndighed over Tibet. Den fungerende vicekonge, Lord Ampthill, reducerede erstatningen med to tredjedele og reducerede vilkårene væsentligt på andre måder. Bestemmelserne i denne traktat fra 1904 blev revideret i den anglo-kinesiske konvention fra 1906. Briterne besluttede også mod et gebyr fra Qing-hoffet at "ikke adskille tibetansk territorium eller forstyrre forvaltningen af Tibet", mens Kina forpligtede sig til "ikke at tillade nogen anden udenlandsk stat at blande sig i Tibets territorium eller interne administration".

Noter

Litteratur
 Charles Allen: Duel in the Snows:The True Story of the Younghusband  Mission to Lhasa; J.Murray 2004
 Charles Bell: Tibet, Past and Present. Oxford 1924
 John Powers: History as Propaganda: Tibetan exiles versus the People's Republic of China. Oxford University Press 2004

Eksterne henvisninger
Convention Between Great Britain and Thibet (1904)

Kinas historie
Tibets historie

Lhasa-aftalen


Ținutul Berdiansk (în , în ) a fost o unitate administrativ-teritorială (uezd) din gubernia Taurida a Imperiului Rus, constituită în 1842. Centrul administrativ al ținutului a fost orașul Berdeansk. Populația ținutului era de 304.718 locuitori (în 1897).

Istorie
Ținutul Berdiansk a fost creat în 1842, ca parte a guberniei Taurida (Tavria). În 1923, "uezd-ul" a fost desființat prin crearea districtului sovietic omonim.

Geografie
Ținutul Berdiansk ocupa o suprafață de 8.765 km² (9.350 de verste). În nord și est se învecina cu ținuturile Aleksandrovsk și Mariupol din gubernia Ekaterinoslav, în sud avea ieșire la Marea Azov, iar în vest se învecina cu ținutul Melitopol din aceeași gubernie.

Populație
La recensământul populației din 1897, populația ținutului era de 304.718 de locuitori, dintre care:

Diviziuni administrative
În anul 1886, Ținutul Berdiansk cuprindea 23 de voloste (ocoale) și 207 așezări.

Referințe

Bibliografie
Бердянск // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890—1907.

Fondări în 1842
Ținuturile guberniei Taurida
Istoria regiunii Zaporijjea
Desființări în 1923

Ținutul Berdiansk


Sukarno (6 Haziran 1901; Surabaya, Cava - 21 Haziran 1970, Cakarta), Endonezya bağımsızlık hareketinin önderi, hatip, devrimci, milliyetçi ve ve 1945-1967 arasında Endonezya'nın ilk devlet başkanı.

Biyografi
Doğu Cavalı yoksul bir öğretmenin oğluydu. Çocukluğunun büyük bir bölümünü Tulungagung köyünde büyükbabası ve büyükannesinin yanında geçirdi. 15 yaşında Surabaya'daki ortaokula gönderildi. 1921'de tanınmış din adamı Tjokroaminoto'nun 16 yaşındaki kızı Siti Utari ile evlendi.

Sukarno öğrenciliği sırasında Cava, Sunda ve Bali dillerini çok iyi öğrendi. Çağdaş Endonezya dili üzerindeki çalışmaları, gelecekte bu dilin geliştirilmesine yapacağı katkıların temelini oluşturdu. Arapça ve Felemenkçenin yanı sıra İngilizce, Fransızca, Almanca ve Japonca öğrendi. Zamanla feodal prenslerden kaçak komünistlere kadar, ülkenin hızla genişleyen siyasal yelpazesinin her kanadındaki yeni önderlerle tanıştı.

İnşaat mühendisliği eğitimini tamamladığı Bandung'da 1927'de yaşamının gerçek yönünün siyaset ve hitabette yattığını hesapladı. 1923'te Siti Utari'den boşanarak, Inggit Garnisih'le evlendi, ama 1943'te ondan da ayrıldı. Sonraki yıllarda birkaç kez daha evlendi.

Sokarno, sömürgeciliğe karşı çıktığı için Hollandalılar tarafından Bandung'da 2 yıl (1929-1931) hapsedildi, Sumatra ve Flores'te sekiz yılı aşkın süre sürgünde yaşadı (1933-1942). Mart 1942'de Hint Adalarını işgal eden Japonları hem ulusu, hem de kendisi için kurtarıcı olarak karşıladı. II. Dünya Savaşı boyunca Japonların başdanışmanı ve propaganda görevlisi oldu. Buna karşılık Japonlardan Endonezya'nın bağımsızlığını talep etti. 1 Haziran 1945'te yaptığı en ünlü konuşmasında, Pancasila diye bilinen Beş İlke'yi (tek tanrıya iman, adil ve modern toplum, Endonezya'nın birliği, demokrasi, sosyal adalet) tanımladı. Japonya'nın yenilgisi yaklaşınca önce tarafsız kaldı. Sonunda genç eylemciler tarafından kaçırılıp tehdit edilince 17 Ağustos 1945'te Endonezya'nın bağımsızlığını ilan etti. Yeni ve güçsüz cumhuriyetin devlet başkanı olarak Hollanda'ya başarıyla meydan okudu. Eski sömürgelerinde denetimi yeniden ele geçirmek için iki başarısız harekât düzenleyen Hollanda, 27 Aralık 1949'da Endonezya'nın bağımsızlığını resmen tanıdı.

Sukarno, Yogyakarta'daki devrim başkentinden Cakarta'ya 28 Aralık 1949'da zaferle döndü. Gösterişli bir yaşam sürmeyi yeğleyince kendisini eleştirenlerin sayısı hızla arttı. Siyasal gerilim yoğunlaşırken, Sukarno'nun saptırıcı siyasal manevraları da istikrarı olanaksızlaştırdı. Gene de eğitim, sağlık ve kültürel uyanış gibi alanlarda çarpıcı kazanımlar kazandırdı. Sukarno'nun çok önem verdiği Endonezyalılık gururu yerleşti. Ama bütün bunların ülke ekonomisi üzerinde yıkıcı etkisi oldu.

Sukarno 1956'nın sonlarında, çatışan siyasal partileri gömerek ulusal uzlaşmayı sağlama umuduyla parlamenter demokrasiyi ve özel girişimi ortadan kaldırdı; Güdümlü Demokrasi ve Güdümlü Ekonomi uygulamasını başlattı. Marksist bir ideolojiye ve çoğu yozlaşmış kişilikleriyle tanınan kalabalık bir bakanlar kuruluyla bütünleşen kişisel ve siyasi taşkınlıkları, sürekli bir ulusal bunalımla sonuçlandı. 1958'de Sumatra ve Celebes'te bölgesel ayaklanmalar çıktı. Enflasyon nedeniyle 1958'de 100 olan geçinme indeksi 1965'te 18 bine, 1967'de 600 bine yükseldi. Sukarno 1963'te ABD'yle ilişkilerini kesti. 1 milyar Amerikan doları değerinde silah ve malzeme aldıktan sonra SSCB'yle de ilişkilerini bozdu. Emperyalist ablukanın bir parçası olarak nitelediği Malezya'yı destekleyen BM'den 20 Ocak 1965'te resmen çekildi.

30 Eylül 1965'te, ülke Sukarno'nun da katıldığı kuşkusuz olan bir darbe girişimiyle sarsıldı. Askerler ve komünistlerden oluşan darbeciler 6 generali kaçırarak öldürdüler. Birkaç kent merkezini ele geçirdikten sonra yeni bir devrimci rejim kurduklarını açıkladılar. Darbeye karşı direnen Cakarta garnizonunun komutanı General Suharto ve Sukarno arasındaki iktidar mücadelesinde 300 bin ya da daha çok komünist ve komünist zanlısı öldü. Sukarno'nun 11 Mart 1966'da geniş yetkiler vermek zorunda kaldığı Suharto Mart 1967'de geçici devlet başkanı, Mart 1968'de devlet başkanı oldu. Görevden ayrılışından ölümüne kadar Cakarta'da ev hapsinde tutuldu. Sukarnoculuk ideolojisi 1970'lerin sonlarına kadar yasaklı kaldı, daha sonra Sukarno'nun saygınlığı iade edildi.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Muhammed Natsir
 Angkatan 66
 Nasakom

Kaynakça

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1901 doğumlular
Surabaya doğumlular
1970 yılında ölenler
Sukarno ailesi
Endonezya devlet başkanları
Endonezyalı inşaat mühendisleri
Endonezya tarihi
Endonezyalı devrimciler
Cavalılar
Endonezya Ulusal Devrimi'nde kişiler

Bandung Teknoloji Enstitüsünde öğrenim görenler
Soğuk Savaş'ta liderler
Böbrek yetmezliğinden ölenler
Endonezyalı Müslümanlar
Askerî darbe ile devrilen liderler
Lenin Barış Ödülü sahipleri
Endonezya'nın Ulusal Kahramanları

Sukarno


෴ ඉසුරුමුණිය ෴

  ප්‍රේමයේ සුවඳ පින්සාර වන තැනක ජීවිතය කෙතරම් නම් සුන්දර ද... පුරාණයේ සිට හමන ඒ මිහිරියාව සොයාගෙන ගියා වූ සංචාරේ සටහන.. ශ්‍රී බුද්ධ වර්ෂ 2563 ක් වූ පොසොන් මස 26 වන දින.

   ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පැරැණිම අගනගරය වන අනුරාධපුරය දේශයේ ඉතිහාසය අභිමානයෙන් දරන්නා වූ ජීවනාලිය බඳුය. දෙස් විදෙස් සංචාරකයින්ගේ නොමඳ අවධානය දිනා ගන්නා ලද අනුරාධපුර ඔබ ද ජීවිතයේ එක් වරක් හෝ පියනඟා ඇති ස්ථානයක් බව නොඅනුමානය. සුවහසක් පූජනීය ස්ථාන අතරින් අකලංක ප්‍රේමය හා බැඳුණ ඉසුරුමුණිය ආශ්චර්යජනක හැඟීමකින් කෙදිනක හෝ විඳගෙන ඇත්ද.

   මිහිඳු මහ රහතන් වහන්සේ ඇතුළු රහතන් වහන්සේලා හට වැඩ වාසය පිණිස කටාරම් කෙටූ ගල්ලෙන් හා පැන් පහසුව පිණිස අලංකාර පොකුණක් මුලින්ම ඉඳිකොට ඇත. එකල මේ තැනිතලා බිමක පිහිටි ගල් පර්වතය රන් පැහැයෙන් බැබලුණ බැවින් කසුන්ගිරි විහාරය නමින් හඳුන්වූ බව සඳහන් වේ. ශ්‍රී මහා බෝධියෙන් හටගත් අෂ්ඨ පල බෝධි වෘක්ෂයක් දේවානම්පියතිස්ස රජතුමා විසින් විහාර බිමෙහි රෝපණය කර පන්සීයක් කුල දරුවන් පැවදි කර වැඩ වාසය පිණිස ඉසුරුමුණි විහාරය තව තවත් අලංකාර අන්දමින් සංවර්ධනය කර ඇත. දන්ත ධාතූන් වහන්සේ මුලින්ම වැඩ හිඳුවා ඇති ඉසුරුමුණි විහාරයේ ලෙන් විහාරය උස් වේදිකාවක් මත ඉදිකරවා අාසනය , මකර තොරණ , බුදු පිළිමය හා පියස්ස යන සියල්ල එක ගල් කුලකින් නිර්මාණය කළ බව විශ්මයානු චිත්තයක් ඇති කරවයි.

   අද ද යථා තත්වයෙන් දකින්නට ලැබෙන ලෙන් විහාර පියගැටපෙළ කොටස් දෙකකින් යුක්තය. ශෛලමය සඳකඩපහණ , මුරගල් , කොරවක්ගල් පසුකරමින් පළමු මහලට නැඟ මිහිඳු පොකුණ අසල පර්වතය දෙස බලන විට සුවිශේෂ කැටයම් දෙකක් වන අශ්ව හිස හා මිනිසා සහ දිය නාන ඇත් රූප දැකගත හැක. කැටයම් වලට ඉහළින් ගල් පව්වේ කුහරයක් තනා ඇති අතර කාසියක් ගෙන යම් ප්‍රාර්ථනාවක් කර මෙම කුහරයෙහි රැඳෙන සේ විසිකළ විට එම කාසිය පොකුණට නොවැටී කුහරය තුළ රැඳේ නම් ප්‍රාර්ථනාව ඉෂ්ට වන බව ජනශ්‍රැතියකි. මෙම කැටයම් සම්බන්ධව බොහෝ මත වාද තිබුණ ද මා සිත දිනාගන්නා මතය නම් මිනිසා සහ අශ්ව හිස වර්ෂාවට අධිගෘහත දෙවියන් දක්වන කැටයමක් බවත් දිය නාන ඇතුන් මඟින් වැසි ලැබීමේ ප්‍රීතිය සංකේතවත් කරන බවත් ය. මෙම විහර බිම වැසි ලැබීමට පුද පූජා පවත්වන ස්ථානයක් ලෙස ප්‍රසිද්ධ වූ බැවින් මේඝ විහාරය නමින් හැඳින්වූ බවත් ප්‍රාර්ථනා ඉෂ්ට වන ස්ථානයක් බැවින් ඉස්සරසමනාරාමය ලෙස හැඳින්වූ බවත් ඉස්සරසමනාරාමය යන නම බිඳී අවුත් පසු කලෙක ඉසුරුමුණි විහාරය නම් වූ බව ඉතිහාස සාක්ෂි දක්වයි.

   කාශ්‍යප රජ සමය තුළ මිහිඳු ලෙන ඉදිරිපස විහාර ගෙය ඉදිකර විහාර භූමිය සංවර්ධනය කර ඇති අතර සිරි පතුල් කැටයම පිහිටන ස්ථානයෙහි ඉදිකරවා ඇති සර්වඥ ධාතු නිදන්පිත චෛත්‍ය හා රන්මසු උයනෙන් හමුවූ ඉසුරුමුණි පෙම් යුවල හා තවත් කැටයම් ඇතුළත් කෞතුකාගාරය මෑත කාලයේ ඉදිකර ඇත. ඉසුරුමුණිය බෞද්ධ විහාරයක් ලෙසත් රන්මසු උයන ඒ ආසන්නයේ ම රාජකීය උද්‍යානය ලෙසත් ඉදිකර තිබීමෙන් පැහැදිලි වන්නේ ආගම දහම සමඟ මුසුව පැවතුණ ජන ජීවිතයේ සුන්දරත්වයයි. පින්සාර සිතින් ආදරය විඳගන්න ආදරණීය වූ ඉසුරුමුණිය අදත් විවෘතය. ඒ නටබුන් තුළින් හිතට එබෙන අතීත සුවඳ සිහිගන්වන තවත් රසෝඝයක් අමරදේව ශූරීන්ගේ ගීතය ඇසුරින් සඳහන් කරමින් නිමාව මෙසේ තබමි.

   කලා වැව් දියේ උත්පල නෙලාගෙන ඇඟිලි පොකුරට අප්සරාවියන් ලෙන් දොර බලා හිඳිනවා

   වළාහක දෙවිඳු ඉසිවර ඇසින් බල බලා පුතු දෙස ඉසුරුමුණි විහාරය ළඟ අන්න හිඳිනවා

බෝඋපුල්වන් කසුබ්ගිරි රද්මහවෙහෙර


Ptesan-Wi (Ptesanwi, Ptesanwin; White Buffalo Calf Woman, White Buffalo Woman), Žena tele bijelog bivola jedna je od najvažnijih mitoloških figura Sijuksa. Donijela je svetu lulu (kalumet) Sijuksima i naučila ih mnogim umijećima civilizacije.

Izvori

Indijanska mitologija (božice)
Indijanska mitologija (heroji kulture)
Mitologija Sijuksa

Ptesan-Wi


The Earl of Courtown, in the County of Wexford, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created on 12 April 1762 for James Stopford, 1st Baron Courtown. He had previously represented County Wexford and Fethard in the Irish House of Commons. Stopford had already been created Baron Courtown, of Courtown in the County of Wexford, on 19 September 1758, and was made Viscount Stopford at the same time he was given the earldom. These titles are also in the Peerage of Ireland. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Earl. He was a Tory politician and served under William Pitt the Younger as Treasurer of the Household from 1784 to 1793. On 7 June 1796, he was created Baron Saltersford, of Saltersford in the County Palatine of Chester, in the Peerage of Great Britain. This title gave him and his descendants an automatic seat in the House of Lords.

His eldest son, the third Earl, was also a Tory politician. He succeeded his father as Treasurer of the Household and was also Captain of the Honourable Band of Gentlemen Pensioners for many years. He was succeeded by his third but eldest surviving son, the fourth Earl. He represented County Wexford in the House of Commons as a Tory. His only son from his first marriage, the fifth Earl, served as a Deputy Lieutenant of County Wexford. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the sixth Earl. He was Lord Lieutenant of County Wexford. His eldest son, the seventh Earl, was a major-general in the army and served as deputy assistant adjutant-general at the War Office from 1941 to 1947.  the titles are held by the latter's grandson, the ninth Earl, who succeeded his father in 1975. Lord Courtown is one of the ninety elected hereditary peers that remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999, and sits as a Conservative.

Several other members of the Stopford family have also gained distinction, especially in the army and Royal Navy. The Hon. Edward Stopford (1732–1794), second son of the first Earl, was a lieutenant-general in the army. His son William Henry Stopford-Blair (1788–1868) was a colonel in the Royal Artillery. He added "Blair" to his name after receiving a substantial bequest from brother-in-law, James Blair a prominent slave owner and anti-abolitionist activist. The Hon. Sir Edward Stopford (1766–1837), second son of the second Earl, was a lieutenant-general in the army. The Hon. Sir Robert Stopford, third son of the second Earl, was an Admiral of the Red. His eldest son Robert Fanshawe Stopford (1811–1891) was an admiral in the Royal Navy and was the father of 1) Robert Wilbraham Stopford (1844–1911), a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy, 2) Arthur Bouverie Stopford (1845–1902), a colonel in the Royal Artillery and 3) Frederick George Stopford (1852–1928), a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy; while his second son James John Stopford (1817–1868) was a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy. Reverend the Hon. Richard Bruce Stopford (1774–1844), fourth son of the second Earl, was Canon of Windsor and Chaplain to Her Majesty Queen Victoria.

The Hon. Sir Montagu Stopford, fifth son of the third Earl, was a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy. His youngest son Sir Lionel Stopford was a colonel and honorary major-general in the Derby Regiment and Irish Guards. His eldest son Sir Montagu Stopford was a general in the Rifle Brigade. The Hon. Sir Frederick Stopford, second son from the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was a lieutenant-general in the army. The Hon. Walter George Stopford (1855–1918), third son from the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was a rear-admiral in the Royal Navy. The Hon. Arthur Stopford (1879–1955), second son of the sixth Earl, was a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy. His son, Godfrey Vyvyan, married Marjorie Lupton in 1934.

The family seat was Courtown House, near Gorey, County Wexford.

Earls of Courtown (1762)
James Stopford, 1st Earl of Courtown (1700–1770)
James Stopford, 2nd Earl of Courtown (1731–1810)
James George Stopford, 3rd Earl of Courtown (1765–1835)
James Thomas Stopford, 4th Earl of Courtown (1794–1858)
James George Henry Stopford, 5th Earl of Courtown (1823–1914)
James Walter Milles Stopford, 6th Earl of Courtown (1853–1933)
James Richard Neville Stopford, 7th Earl of Courtown (1877–1957)
James Montagu Burgoyne Stopford, 8th Earl of Courtown (1908–1975)
James Patrick Montagu Burgoyne Winthrop Stopford, 9th Earl of Courtown (b. 1954)

The heir apparent is the present holder's only son James Richard Ian Montagu Stopford, Viscount Stopford (b. 1988)
The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son, Hon. James Freddie Montagu Stopford (b. 2022)

References

Attribution

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

External links

Earldoms in the Peerage of Ireland
Noble titles created in 1762
Earl

Earl of Courtown


Dropout-Box oder Dropdown-Box steht für
 Dropout-Menü, ein Auswahlfeld für Menüpunkte bei Programmen und Webseiten
 Dropdown-Liste, ein Auswahlfeld für voreingestellte Eingaben bei Programmen und Webseiten
 Combobox, ein Auswahlfeld für mögliche Eingaben eines Textfeldes (auch vorherige) bei Programmen und Webseiten

Dropout-Box


Natalija Rimantė Dušauskienė-Duž, geb. Aleksaitė (* 12. Dezember 1935 in Telšiai, Litauen) ist eine litauische Biologin.

Leben
1959 absolvierte sie das Diplomstudium an der Vilniaus universitetas. 1994 habilitierte sie sich im Fach Biologie. Von 1962 bis 1965 war sie wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin an der Fakultät für Naturwissenschaften der Vilniaus universitetas, von 1968 bis 1970 am Institut für Physik und Mathematik sowie seit 1970 am Botanikinstitut.

Seit 1986 ist sie Mitglied der Internationalen Union der Radioökologen.

Bibliografie
 Šiluminė energetika ir aplinka (su kt., d. 2 1981 m. d. 6 1987 m., d. 10 1992 m.);
 Drūkšių ežero – Ignalinos AE aušintuvo radiochemoekologinė situacija (su kt., 1992 m.).

Quelle

Ökologe
Litauer
Geboren 1935
Frau

Rimantė Dušauskienė-Duž


لويزاو ، من مواليد 13 فبراير 1981، لاعب كرة قدم برازيلي.

يلعب مع نادي بنفيكا البرتغالي.

بدأ باللعب مع منتخب البرازيل لكرة القدم في عام 2001.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في البرتغال
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية برازيليون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة القدم البرازيليون
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من ساو باولو (ولاية)
برتغاليون متجنسون
رياضيون برازيليون مغتربون في البرتغال
لاعبو الدوري البرازيلي الدرجة الأولى
لاعبو الدوري البرتغالي الممتاز
لاعبو المنتخبات الفائزة بكأس العالم
لاعبو بنفيكا
لاعبو كأس العالم 2006
لاعبو كأس العالم 2010
لاعبو كأس القارات 2005
لاعبو كأس القارات 2009
لاعبو كأس الكونكاكاف الذهبية 2003
لاعبو كروزيرو
لاعبو كرة قدم برازيليون
لاعبو كرة قدم فازوا بكوبا أمريكا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون برازيليون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في البرتغال
لاعبو كرة قدم من ولاية ساو باولو
لاعبو كوبا أمريكا 2001
لاعبو كوبا أمريكا 2004
لاعبو كوبا أمريكا 2011
لاعبو منتخب البرازيل لكرة القدم
لاعبون فائزون بكأس القارات
مسيحيون برازيليون
مواليد 1981

لويساو


Aritenoid, larinks iskeletinde bulunan ve bir çift olan kıkırdaktır. Tabanı aşağıda üç yüzlü bir piramide benzer. Krikoid kıkırdak üst kenarı ile eklemleşir.

Gırtlak
Kıkırdak doku

Aritenoid


Jorden er giftig har flere betydninger:

 Jorden er giftig – en leg
 Jorden er giftig (film fra 1988) – en kortfilm
 Jorden er giftig (film fra 2006) – en dokumentarfilm om Grindstedværket

Jorden er giftig (flertydig)


The Kecksburg UFO incident occurred on December 9, 1965, at Kecksburg, Pennsylvania, United States, when a fireball was reported by citizens of six U.S. states and Canada over Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario. Astronomers said it was likely to have been a meteor bolide burning up in the atmosphere and descending at a steep angle. NASA released a statement in 2005 reporting that experts had examined fragments from the area and determined they were from a Soviet satellite, but that records of their findings were lost in 1987. NASA responded to court orders and Freedom of Information Act requests to search for the records. The incident gained wide notoriety in popular culture and ufology, with speculation ranging from extraterrestrial craft to debris from the Soviet space probe Kosmos 96, and is often called "Pennsylvania's Roswell".

Initial reports
On the evening of December 9, 1965, a large, brilliant fireball was seen in at least six U.S. states and Ontario, Canada as it streaked over the Detroit, Michigan–Windsor, Ontario area. Reports of hot metal debris over Michigan and northern Ohio, grass fires, and sonic booms in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area were attributed to the fireball. Some people in the village of Kecksburg, about  southeast of Pittsburgh, reported wisps of blue smoke, vibrations, and a "thump", and also that something from the sky had crashed in the woods.

An early story in the Greensburg Tribune-Review stated the following: The area where the object landed was immediately sealed off on the order of U.S. Army and State Police officials, in anticipation of a "close inspection" of whatever may have fallen ... State Police officials there ordered the area roped off to await the expected arrival of both U.S. Army engineers and possibly, civilian scientists.

When state troopers and Air Force personnel searched the woods, they found "absolutely nothing". A subsequent edition in the Tribune-Review bore the headline "Searchers Fail To Find Object".

Authorities discounted proposed explanations such as a plane crash, errant missile test, or reentering satellite debris and generally assumed it to be a meteor. Astronomer Paul Annear said the fireball was likely to have been a meteor entering the Earth's atmosphere. Geophysicist George Wetherilo discounted speculations that it was debris from a satellite and agreed that the reports were probably due to a meteor. Astronomers William P. Bidelman and Fred Hess said it undoubtedly was a meteor bolide. A spokesman for the Department of Defense in Washington said first reports indicated the reported fireball was a natural phenomenon.

Scientific articles

Sky & Telescope
Several articles were written about the fireball in science journals. The February 1966 issue of Sky & Telescope reported that the fireball was seen over the Detroit-Windsor area at about 4:44 p.m. EST. The Federal Aviation Administration received 23 reports from aircraft pilots, starting at 4:44 p.m. A seismograph 25 miles southwest of Detroit recorded shock waves created by the fireball as it passed through the atmosphere. The Sky & Telescope article concluded that "the path of the fireball extended roughly from northwest to southeast" and ended "in or near the western part of Lake Erie".

Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
A 1967 article by two astronomers in the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (JRASC) used the seismographic record to pinpoint the time of passage over the Detroit area to 4:43 p.m. In addition, they used photographs of the trail taken north of Detroit at two different locations to triangulate the trajectory of the object. They concluded that the fireball was descending at a steep angle, moving from the southwest to the northeast, and likely impacted on the northwestern shore of Lake Erie near Windsor, Ontario.

NASA statements
In December 2005, just before the 40th anniversary of the Kecksburg incident, NASA released a statement reporting that experts had examined metallic fragments from the area and determined they were from a Russian satellite that re-entered the atmosphere and broke up, but records of their findings were lost in the 1980s.

Leslie Kean, described as "an investigative reporter backed by the Sci-Fi Channel", reportedly "sued NASA under the Freedom of Information Act" for the lost NASA records. On October 26, 2007, NASA agreed to search for those records after being ordered by a court. During the hearing, Steve McConnell, NASA's public liaison officer, testified that two boxes of papers from the time of the Kecksburg incident were missing. Loss of records is not a unique case for NASA; for example, the original tapes recorded during the televised Apollo 11 Moon landing were misplaced or reused.

In 2008, space writer James Oberg suggested that NASA was unlikely to possess any such documents since, in his view, it was highly likely that the supposed NASA team that investigated the site were in fact Air Force personnel who identified themselves as NASA personnel, something regularly done by military personnel in civilian clothes during the 1960s. He further suggested that Kean's action was no more than a "publicity stunt" for the benefit of Kean's employers.

According to John Ventre of MUFON and Shafton native Owen Eichler, their recent investigations have led them to speculate the object that reportedly landed in Kecksburg was "a General Electric Mark 2 Re-entry Vehicle that had been launched by the Air Force as a spy satellite, but fell out of orbit", however, "we need confirmation from NASA or the Air Force".

More recent comments by NASA are less supportive of a link to a Soviet satellite:
There is some speculation that the reentry of the Cosmos 96/Venera-type spacecraft was responsible for a fireball which was seen over southwestern Ontario, Canada and at least eight states from Michigan to New York at 4:43 p.m. EST (21:43 UT) on 9 December 1965. Investigations of photographs and sightings of the fireball indicated its path through the atmosphere was probably too steep to be consistent with a spacecraft re-entering from Earth orbit and was more likely a meteor in a prograde orbit from the vicinity of the asteroid belt, and probably ended its flight over western Lake Erie. U.S. Air Force tracking data on Cosmos 96 also indicate the spacecraft orbit decayed earlier than 21:43 UT on 9 December. Other analyses of the spacecraft orbit definitively indicate it could not have been the Cosmos 96 spacecraft. Some unconfirmed reports state the fireball subsequently landed in Pennsylvania southeast of Pittsburgh near the town of Kecksburg (40.2 N, 79.5 W) at 4:46 p.m. EST (although it should be noted that estimating the impact point of fireballs from eyewitness accounts is notoriously inaccurate).

Television and film
 In 1990, the NBC television show Unsolved Mysteries aired an episode partially devoted to the incident. The episode suggested an extraterrestrial craft had crashed. It quoted local residents at the time who said they had found an object in the woods shaped like an acorn and about as large as a Volkswagen Beetle bearing writing resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs which was subsequently removed in a secret military operation. A prop from that show remains on display in the village.
 In 2003, the Sci Fi Channel aired a two-hour documentary, "The New Roswell: Kecksburg Exposed", hosted by Bryant Gumbel. In it, Kecksburg resident John Hays says that as a 10-year-old boy, he saw a flat-bed truck emerging from the site near his house, carrying something "the size of a VW", an exact repetition of the claims he made in the first episode of Unsolved Mysteries, season 3, in 1990.
 In 2008, an episode of the Discovery Channel series Nazi UFO Conspiracy suggested the incident was the recovery of an alleged Nazi UFO called Die Glocke ("The Bell").
 In February 2009, the History Channel's UFO Hunters suggested a military conspiracy and cover-up related to the incident.
 In 2011, the History Channel's Ancient Aliens suggested the alleged Nazi secret weapon  was recovered at Kecksburg, prompting a government conspiracy and cover-up.
 In 2014, Giorgio A. Tsoukalos with the History Channel's In Search of Aliens visited the supposed crash site, led by local UFO researcher Stan Gordon.
 On September 12, 2019, producer-director Cody Knotts premiered his film Kecksburg. It dramatizes the story of John Murphy, a reporter for local radio station WHJB who claimed to be the victim of a government conspiracy.
 Filmmaker Andrew Patterson has said that the plot of his 2019 film The Vast of Night was partially based on the Kecksburg incident.

See also
 List of UFO sightings
 Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

References

External links
 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette article by David Templeton
 Skeptic Robert Sheaffer comments on the Kecksburg case
 Roadside America article
 UFOcasebook.com Summary of case
 UFOcasebook.com copies of released NASA records
 UFOevidence.org summary and links to Kecksburg articles
 International UFO Reporter, 2005 article by Leslie Kean

 Young, Robert R. "Metamorphosis: Claimed Witness Accounts of the Great Lakes Fireball of December 9, 1965" in Ballester-Olmos, V.J. and Heiden, Richard W. (Eds.), The Reliability of UFO Witness Testimony. UPIAR, Turin, Italy (2023), pp. 229-238. ISBN 9791281441002.

UFO sightings in the United States
UFO crashes
1965 in the United States
History of Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
1965 in Pennsylvania
December 1965 events in the United States

Kecksburg UFO incident


Ernst Ivanovitj Romanov (, ; født 9. april 1936 i Serov, Sverdlovsk oblast, Sovjetunionen) er en russisk skuespiller, der blandt andet er kendt for sin rolle som Bradshaw i den russiske tv-serie om Sherlock Holmes

Filmografi
: Monolog
: Sobaka na sene
: Zavesjtjanije professora Douelja
: Leto Ljubvi
: Romanovy. Ventsenosnaja semja
: Sherlock Holmes
: O ljubvi

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra Sovjetunionen
Skuespillere fra Rusland
Russere i 1900-tallet
Russere i 2000-tallet
Personer fra Sverdlovsk oblast

Ernst Romanov


Um jogo de texto ou jogo baseado em texto é um jogo eletrônico que usa uma interface de usuário baseada em texto, ou seja, a interface de usuário emprega um conjunto de caracteres codificáveis como ASCII em vez de bitmap ou gráficos vetoriais.

Os jogos baseados em texto têm sido bem documentados pelo menos desde os anos 1960, quando os teleimpressores (teleprinters) foram entrelaçados com computadores mainframe como forma de entrada, onde a saída era impressa em papel. Com isso, títulos notáveis foram desenvolvidos para computadores que usavam teleimpressores nas décadas de 1960 e 1970, e muitos outros foram desenvolvidos para terminais de vídeo desde pelo menos meados dos anos 1970, tendo atingido seu pico de popularidade naquela década e nos anos 1980, e continuaram desde os primeiros jogos online em meados da década de 1990.

Embora geralmente substituídos em favor de videogames que utilizam gráficos não textuais, os jogos baseados em texto continuam a ser escritos por desenvolvedores independentes. Eles foram a base que instigou vários gêneros dos jogos eletrônicos, especialmente videogames de aventura e RPG.

Visão geral
Estritamente falando, "baseado em texto" significa empregar um sistema de codificação de caracteres projetado para ser impresso como dados de texto.  Como a maioria dos computadores só lê código binário, os formatos de codificação são normalmente escritos em tal sistema de codificação, onde um bit é a menor unidade de dados que tem dois valores possíveis e cada combinação de bits representa um byte.  Dito isso, um jogo baseado em texto é qualquer jogo eletrônico em que a informação é transmitida como texto codificado para a interface do usuário.

Embora, tecnicamente, quando gráficos são exibidos em um monitor de computador, os dados de texto às vezes são contrastados com os gráficos, pois os primeiros são somente texto; a representação de dados transmitida por meio de um dispositivo de saída é restrita a um determinado conjunto de caracteres codificáveis e ao número total deles, bem como às capacidades gráficas. Por exemplo, o ASCII usa 96 caracteres imprimíveis em seu conjunto de 128, enquanto o ANSI usa ASCII juntamente com os 128 caracteres adicionais do ASCII estendido, o que permite colorir texto de várias maneiras, permitindo outras possibilidades.  Dados textuais também têm a vantagem de exigir pouco poder de processamento e poucos recursos gráficos para os padrões modernos, além de reduzir significativamente os custos de produção em comparação com dados gráficos.

História
Os jogos baseados em texto remontam aos teleimpressores na década de 1960, quando foram instalados nos primeiros computadores mainframe como uma forma de entrada e saída. Naquela época, os terminais de vídeo eram caros e estavam sendo experimentados como "teletipos de vidro", e o usuário enviava comandos via teleimpressor entrelaçado com o mainframe, sendo a saída impressa em papel. Os primeiros jogos de mainframe notáveis incluem The Sumerian Game, Lunar Lander, The Oregon Trail e Star Trek (jogo eletrônico de 1971).

Em meados da década de 1970, quando os terminais de vídeo se tornaram o meio mais barato para vários usuários interagirem com mainframes, jogos baseados em texto foram projetados em universidades para mainframes, em parte como um experimento de inteligência artificial, a maioria desses jogos sendo baseada tanto no RPG de 1974 Dungeons and Dragons quanto nas obras de J.R.R. Tolkien. Tal como acontece com outros jogos, muitas vezes faltavam funcionalidades como salvar. As razões propostas para a ausência da capacidade de salvar o progresso incluíam o fato de que os primeiros jogos de computador eram geralmente simples e as sessões de jogo eram curtas, bem como limitações e custos de hardware. Isso pode explicar em parte por que os jogos de computador anteriores foram desenvolvidos sob a estrutura episódica, mas esses jogos de computador cujo código-fonte pode ser acessado por qualquer pessoa, podem ser modificados e, à medida que os designers passam a criar mundos maiores, as sessões de jogos são alongadas e a necessidade de retomar onde o jogador havia parado tornou-se inevitável. Isso começou em 1977 com a revisão de Don Woods do jogo de aventura baseado em texto de 1976, Colossal Cave Adventure (mais tarde renomeado para Adventure ), que passou a ter jogabilidade e história expandidas e, notavelmente, a capacidade de salvar.

Os jogos baseados em texto também foram os primeiros precursores dos jogos online. A partir do final da década de 1970 até o domínio mundial da Internet em meados da década de 1990, os usuários de computadores domésticos ainda podiam interagir remotamente com outros computadores usando modems dial-up, conectando-os por meio de fios telefônicos. Esses computadores eram frequentemente controlados através de emuladores de terminal baseados em texto para sistemas de quadro de avisos (bulletin board systems ou BBS) executados por amadores, que tendiam a ser acessíveis - muitas vezes livremente - por códigos de área para reduzir custos de comunicações mais distantes. Sem um programa gráfico para clientes, a maioria dos jogos de computador on-line só podiam ser executados usando gráficos textuais, e onde o usuário tinha tal programa, a largura de banda, muitas vezes limitada, do modem tornava o download de gráficos muito mais lento do que texto. Os jogos online projetados para BBS inicialmente usavam ASCII como o conjunto de caracteres, mas desde o final dos anos 1980, a maioria dos BBS empregava arte ANSI colorida como padrão gráfico.  Esses jogos online ficaram conhecidos como " jogos de porta BBS ", pois para conectar-se a um BBS, abria-se a "porta" entre o cliente e os jogos no BBS.

No entanto, os emuladores de terminal ainda estão em uso hoje, e as pessoas continuam jogando MUDs (masmorra multiusuário) e explorando ficção interativa.  A Competição de Ficção Interativa foi criada em 1995 para encorajar o desenvolvimento e explorar títulos independentes de ficção interativa, e desde então tem realizado competições anuais para quem pode desenvolver o melhor jogo desse tipo.

Gêneros
Embora os jogos baseados em texto não se limitem a nenhum gênero específico, vários gêneros notáveis começaram e foram popularizados por jogos baseados em texto.

Aventura em texto
Aventuras em texto, do inglês Text adventures, (às vezes chamadas de ficção interativa) são jogos baseados em texto em que os mundos são descritos na narrativa e o jogador envia comandos tipicamente simples para interagir com os mundos. Colossal Cave Adventure é considerado o primeiro jogo de aventura e, de fato, o nome do gênero de aventura deriva do título.  Conforme os jogos de aventura baseados em texto atingiram seu pico de popularidade no final dos anos 1970 e 1980,  notáveis títulos de aventura baseados em texto foram lançados por vários desenvolvedores, incluindo Zork   e o Guia do Mochileiro das Galáxias da Infocom.

MUD
Um MUD (originalmente Multi-User Dungeon, em português, Masmorra Multi-Usuário, com variantes posteriores Multi-User Dimension e Multi-User Domain ), é um mundo virtual online multiusuário em tempo real . A maioria dos MUDs é representada inteiramente em texto, mas os MUDs gráficos não são desconhecidos. Os MUDs combinam elementos de jogos de RPG, hack and slash, ficção interativa e chat online. Os jogadores podem ler ou ver representações de salas, objetos, outros jogadores, personagens não-jogáveis (NPCs) e ações realizadas no mundo virtual. Os jogadores normalmente interagem uns com os outros e com o mundo, digitando comandos que se assemelham a uma linguagem natural.

Roguelike

O roguelike é um subgênero de jogos eletrônicos de RPG, caracterizado pela randomização para capacidade de reprodução, morte permanente e movimento baseado em turnos. Muitos dos primeiros roguelikes apresentavam gráficos ASCII. Os jogos tipicamente são dungeon crawlers, com muitos monstros, itens e características ambientais. Os roguelikes de computador geralmente empregam a maior parte do teclado para facilitar a interação com os itens e o ambiente. O nome do gênero vem do jogo Rogue, de 1980 .

Ver também
 ASCII art

Terminologia de jogos eletrônicos
Gráficos de jogos eletrônicos

Jogo baseado em texto


الياكوفليف ياك-26 (روسية:Яковлева Як-26) (لقب الناتو: فلاش لايت Flashlight) هي قاذفة قنابل تكتيكية نفاثة فوق صوتية من تصميم مكتب ياكوفليف في الاتحاد السوفييتي.

طورت الياك-26 مثل الياك-27 من الياك-25 في عائلة من الطائرات قاذفة/استطلاعية. الهدف الرئيسي من تطور الياك-26 هو زيادة سرعة الطائرة لتطير بسرعة فوق صوتية.

احتفظت الياك-26 بنفس التصميم العام للياك-25، ولكن كان جسم الطائرة أكثر طولا وأكثر انسيابية بالإضافة لوجود زجاج مصقول في مقدمة الطائرة للملاح أو الطيار المكلف بمهمة القصف، كما عدلت أجنحتها وأعطيت محركات أقوى. استبدل المدفع نودلمان إن-37 بأربع مدافع نودلمان-ريختر إن.أر-23 (اثنان منهم في الذيل). كما أضيفت مساحة داخلية لتحمل 1,000 كغم من القنابل بما فيها القنبلة النووية «تايتيانا». كما أصبح من الممكن تحميل قنابل أضافية تحت الأجنحة.

أنتج 10 وحدات فقط من الياك-26 ولم تدخل الخدمة رسميا. طارت لأول مرة عام 1956.

المواصفات

الصفات العامة
 الطاقم: 2، طيار وضابط قصف.
 الطول: 17.6 متر.
 المسافة بين الجناحين: 10.96 متر.
 مساحة الأجنحة: 29 متر².
 الوزن محملة: 11.200 كغم.
 المحرك: محركين نفاثين من نوع تومانسكي أر.دي-9 يعطي كل منهما قوة دفع 19.6 كيلو نيوتن.

الأداء
 السرعة القصوى: ماخ 1.03 (1.200 كيلومتر/ساعة).
 المدى: 2,200 كيلومتر.
 أقصى ارتفاع: 16.000 متر.
 الحمل على الأجنحة: 386 كغم/متر².
 النسبة دفع-وزن: 0.36

التسليح
 أربع رشاشات نودلمان-ريختر إن.أر-23 23 مم يحمل كلا منهم 300 طلقة. (المجموع 1200 طلقة).

انظر أيضا
 ياكوفليف

طائرات عسكرية 1950–1959
طائرات نفاثة ثنائية المحركات
طائرات ياكوفليف
قاذفات قنابل سوفيتية 1950–1959
قاذفة قنابل تكتيكية
طائرات ذات أجنحة وسطية

ياكوفليف ياك-26


Lama (Lama glama), devegiller (Camelidae) familyasından Güney Amerika'nın dağ ve çayırlarında toplu halde yabani olarak yaşayan Guanako'dan evcilleştirilmiş gevişgetiren bir otobur hayvan türüdür. Yük taşımak için İnka Medeniyeti tarafından eğitilmiştir. Ve devenin yakın akrabası olduğu bilinmektedir.

Özellikleri
Lama genel olarak 1–2 m boyunda olup 15 cm uzunluğunda bir kuyruğa sahiptir. Omuzları yerden 1-2 metre yüksektir. Ağırlığı 70–140 kg civarında olup, narin bir vücudu, uzun bir boynu ve uzun ince bacakları vardır. Develerden farklı olarak sırtında hörgüç bulunmaz. Başı küçüktür, uzun bir çene kısmı, uzun kulakları ve fırlamış gözleri vardır. Postu kaba ve yünlüdür. Dişilerde tüyler boyun ve ayaklarda kısadır.

Savunma sistemi
Her hayvanda olduğu gibi lamaların da bir savunma sistemi vardır. Lamaların savunma sistemi; fazla yaklaşıldığında tükürmeleridir. Tehdit hissettiği anda karşı tarafa tükürerek oradan hızla uzaklaşır. Ayrıca, büyüdükleri çevreden de fazla uzaklaşmazlar.

Üreme
Ağustos ve eylül aylarında çiftleşirler. Gebelik 11 ay sürer. Yeni doğan yavru anne tarafından dört ay emzirilir. Lama 2,5 - 3 yaşlarında üremeye başlar.

Devegiller
Çiftlik hayvanları
Evcil hayvanlar
Arjantin'deki memeliler
Bolivya'daki memeliler
Ekvador'daki memeliler
Peru'daki memeliler
Şili'deki memeliler
Çalışan hayvanlar
Carl Linnaeus tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Lama (hayvan)


Au Québec,

 Brome, un ancien canton;
 Brome, un ancien comté;
 Brome, une ancienne circonscription électorale fédérale;
 Brome (district électoral du Canada-Uni), un district électoral du Canada-Uni;
Brome, un ancien district provincial;;
 Brome, une municipalité de village dans Brome-Missisquoi au Québec (Canada);
 Brome, une ancienne municipalité de canton dans le comté de Brome au Québec (Canada).
 Brome—Missisquoi, une circonscription électorale fédérale ;
 Brome-Missisquoi, une circonscription électorale provinciale du Québec ;
 Lac-Brome, une ville dans Brome-Missisquoi ;
 Le lac Brome, un lac situé dans la ville de Lac-Brome;
 Le mont Brome, une des neuf collines Montérégiennes.

Brome (Québec)


Tectolithon,  rod crvenih algi iz porodice Hapalidiaceae kojemu pripada morska alga T. fluminense,  otkrivena kod obale brazilske države Rio de Janeiro, i opisana 2020. godine.

T. fluminense i Crustaphytum atlanticum otkrivene su u isto vrijeme i opisane su na temelju primjeraka prikupljenih na dubinama od 2 do 30 m u prijelaznom području od tropskog do suptropskog područja jugoistočnog Brazila.

Izvori

Hapalidiaceae

Tectolithon