Herbert George Baker ( 14 de diciembre 1920, Portland - 2001) fue un botánico, ecólogo, profesor y explorador estadounidense británico. Era una autoridad en biología de la polinización y sistemas reproductivos de las angiospermas. Originó el concepto, llamado ley de Baker, de que la autopolinización debería ser común en especies que han tenido éxito en establecer poblaciones a largas distancias de las originales por medio de dispersión.

Realizó exploraciones botánicas en Ghana, en colaboración con la Universidad de Ghana, donde fue jefe de su Departamento de botánica de 1954 a 1957. Realizó actividades académicas en la cátedra de botánica en la Universidad de California, y accedió a director de su Jardín Botánico.

Algunas publicaciones
 . 1989. The Evolutionary ecology of plants. Westview Special Studies. Edición ilustrada de Westview Press, 600 pp.

 . 1986. Ecology of biological invasions of North America and Hawaii. Volumen 58 de Ecological studies. Analysis and Synthesis. Edición ilustrada de Springer-Verlag, 321 pp. ISBN 0387962891

 -----------------------------------. 1984. The future of plants and vegetation under human influence. Nº 2 de Special publication. Editor Pacific Division, Am. Ass. for the Advancement of Sci. 14 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1978. Plants and civilization. 3ª edición ilustrada de Wadsworth Pub. Co. 198 pp. ISBN 0534005756

 -----------------------------------. 1970. Two cases of bat pollination in Central America. Edición reimpresa. 11 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1968a. Las plantas y la civilización. Fundamentos de la botánica. Tradujo Carlos Villegas García. Editor	Herrero Hermanos Sucesores, 193 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1968b. Intrafloral ecology. Volumen 13 de Annual review of entomology. Editor Annual review of entomology, 30 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1965. Plants and civilisation. Fundamentals of botany series. Editor Wadsworth, 184 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1965b. Ecology and economic development in tropical Africa. Nº 9 de Research series, Berkeley. Institute of International Studies University of California. Volumen 9 de California. University. Institute of International Studies. Research series. Editor David Brokensha & Institute of Int. Studies, Univ. of California, 268 pp.

 -----------------------------------, . 1965c. The genetics of colonizing species: proceedings. Volumen 1964. Edición reimpresa de Academic Press, 588 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1965d. Charles Darwin and the perennial flax--a controversy and its implications. Editor Huntia, 21 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1965e. The evolution of the cultivated kapok tree: a probable West African product. Edición reimpresa. 31 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1965f. Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds. Edición reimpresa. 26 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1964a. Opportunities for evolutionary studies in the tropics. Edición reimpresa. 6 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1964b. Variation in style length in relation to outbreeding in Mirabilis (Nyctaginaceae). Edición reimpresa. 6 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1962. Annotations in volumes of De Candolle's Prodromus which accompanied Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker to Antarctica. Editor	Society for the Bibliography of Natural History, 9 pp.

 -----------------------------------. 1954. The Limonium binervosum complex in western and northern Ireland. Edición reimpresa de Society by T. Buncle & Co. 141 pp.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Ecólogos de Estados Unidos
Botánicos de Estados Unidos
Exploradores de Estados Unidos
Profesores de Estados Unidos
Escritores en inglés
Nacidos en Brighton

Herbert George Baker


مايكروسوفت فلايت سيميولتر إكس ، لعبة فيديو لمحاكاة الطيران، وهي آخر ما أنتج فريق آسس ستيديو التابع لشركة مايكروسوفت. متوفرة في نسختين نسخة للهواة وأخرى للمحترفيين، خرجت للأسواق في شهر أكتوبر من سنة 2006 «النسخة الفرنسية». وتعتبر من أمتع لعب الفيديو ومن أشهرها في هذا المجال. شهدت هذه النسخة عدة تطويرات وتحسينات خاصة في مجال الغرافيك إضافة إلى تأسيس قمرة حقيقية ثلاثية الأبعاد تزيد من متعة سياقة الطائرة خلافا للنسخ السابقة، لم يتم حذف القمرة الثنائية الأبعاد وذلك لتلبية رغبات كل الهاوين باللعبة. تحتوي على ما يقارب 25000 مطار حول العالم، وبها عدة مميزات كتعليم قيادة الطائرات التجارية والمروحيات، والتخاطب مع أبراج المراقبة، إضافة إلى الحيوانات والسيارات والبنيات التحتية، والتحسين في التضاريس والبحر بشكل أفضل من النسخ السابقة.

متطلبات النظام
بيئة عمل اللعبة هو وندوز إكس بي 2 أو وندوز فيستا، تصنف هذه اللعبة ضمن الألعاب الشرهة، أي أنّها تستهلك طاقة كبيرة لكي تعمل بالشكل الجيد، فهي تتطلب 2.00 جيغا بايت كسعة للذاكرة الحية، إضافة إلى 3.50 جيجا هرتز لمعالجات بانتيوم. تحتاج إلى بطاقة غرافيك ذات سعة عالية 512 ميغا بيت على الأقل، تتطلب أيضا سعة ما يناهز 15 جيجا بايت على القرص الصلب عند فك الضغط والقيام بعملية التنصيب، نسبة كبيرة جدا من هذه السعة العالية سببها تأسيس الكرة الأرضية كاملة، يليها قوة الغرافيك.

انظر أيضا
 محاكاة الطيران
 مايكروسوفت فلايت سيميولتر

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
موقع اللعبة

ألعاب فيديو 2006
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في ألمانيا
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في المكسيك
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في المملكة المتحدة
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في تركيا
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في لاس فيغاس
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في ماريلند
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في واشنطن
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في ولاية نيويورك
ألعاب فيديو فردية وجماعية
ألعاب فيديو محاكاة
ألعاب فيديو مطورة في الولايات المتحدة
ألعاب مايكروسوفت
ألعاب ويندوز الحصرية
ألعاب ويندوز
مايكروسوفت فلايت سيميولتر
محاكاة مراقبة حركة المرور

فلايت سيميولتر إكس


Saint Andrews  is a town in Charlotte County, New Brunswick, Canada. The historic town is a national historic site of Canada, bearing many characteristics of a typical 18th century British colonial settlement, including the original grid layout with its market square, and the classical architecture.

Although often shortened in non-official sources to St. Andrews, the town's legal name is spelt Saint Andrews, and appears as such on the town's website; St. Andrews by-the-Sea is a brand used for tourism purposes by the local Chamber of Commerce.

On 1 January 2023, Saint Andrews annexed the local service district of Bayside and Chamcook. Revised census information has not been released.

History
The site of the town was named Qunnnoskwamk'ook, meaning long gravel bar in the Malecite-Passamaquoddy language. The present name was given by a French missionary who landed at the site on Saint Andrew's Day. At the eastern end the town is a midden, a pile of shells and other refuse that accumulated over two thousand years due to year-round activity of the Passamaquoddy. It is today a provincial heritage site.

The site was settled in 1783 by Penobscot Loyalists.
The town's street grid was designed by Charles Morris and was laid out at that time and persists today. Except for the shoreline Water Street, street names have royal or colonial associations (Parr Street, Carleton Street and Montague Street are all named after Governors. These streets cross thirteen streets named after the children of George III.). Also typical of British colonial settlement of the time are the defensive sites, public spaces, and delineation of the town.

Between 1820 and 1860, the port of Saint Andrews welcomed Irish immigrants. They were first quarantined at Hospital Island, in Passamaquoddy Bay. At the 1851 census, more than 50% of the town's population had been born in Ireland.

The Pendlebury Lighthouse, also known as the St. Andrews North Point Lighthouse, was built in 1833 at the tip of the peninsula. It was deactivated in 1938, and has since been restored and registered as a Canadian historic place.

In 1840, the Charlotte County Court House was built, and was used continually until 2016.

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, St. Andrews became a seaside resort for people from Montreal and Boston who were seeking to escape the summer heat. The town's first seaside hotel, the Argyll, opened in 1881. It was followed in 1889 by The Algonquin, a resort on a hill overlooking the town, which became Canada's first seaside resort. The Argyll burned down in 1892 and was never rebuilt while the Algonquin burned in 1914 and was rebuilt one year later. The lifestyle of wealthy summer visitors is commemorated at the Ross Memorial Museum.

A federal marine research facility, the St. Andrews Biological Station, was established in 1908 and the Huntsman Marine Science Centre in 1969.

The town was designated a national historic site in 1998.

Geography

Saint Andrews is at the southern tip of a peninsula, extending into Passamaquoddy Bay. The waterfront faces Saint Andrews Harbour and the Western Channel, which is formed by Navy Island. The harbour is at the mouth of the St. Croix River.

The town is directly opposite the community of Robbinston, Maine, 2 kilometres to the west across the river mouth, and 53 km by road.

Ministers Island is east of the town and is accessible by road at low tide only.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Saint Andrews had a population of  living in  of its  total private dwellings, a change of  from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of  in 2021.

Transportation
Despite its proximity to the Canada–United States border, the nearest border crossings are 30 km away at St. Stephen or via a ferry service at Deer Island.

The only way into or out of Saint Andrews by land is via Route 127, which runs directly through the town. It meets Route 1 on either end of the town.

Media
A local community channel, CHCO-TV, serves the Saint Andrews and Charlotte County area. The station launched in 1993 on cable television, and began broadcasting over the air in 2006.

Education
NBCC St. Andrews
Vincent Massey Elementary School (K-5)
Sir James Dunn Academy (6-12)

Gallery

See also
List of historic places in St. Andrews
List of people from Charlotte County

References

External links

Communities in Charlotte County, New Brunswick
Towns in New Brunswick
Populated coastal places in Canada
Lighthouses in New Brunswick

Saint Andrews, New Brunswick


The Vijayanagara Empire (also called the Karnata Kingdom) was a medieval Indian empire that covered much of the region of Southern India, ruling the lands of the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, and some parts of Telangana and Maharashtra. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Turco-Persian Muslim invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it conquered almost all of Southern India's ruling dynasties and pushed the Turco-Persian sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region, in addition to annexing Gajapati Empire (Odisha) till Krishna river, thus becoming a notable power. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò de' Conti. These travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in the local languages, and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have provided ample information about the history and power of the empire.

The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over Southern India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara architecture style. This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the construction of Hindu temples. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology, historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music, evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor.

Alternative names
Karnata Rajya (Karnata Kingdom) was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire, used in some inscriptions and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya and Telugu work Vasu Charitamu. According to historians including Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat, B. A. Saletore, P. B. Desai, and Ram Sharma, "although Robert Sewell mentioned in the body of the text that the empire was called "Karnataka", he chose "Vijayanagar" in the title because he knew Kannada and Telugu groups would fight if he called it "Karnataka"." As per existing historical records such as inscriptions from the historical ruins of the empire, it is referred to as Karnataka Samrajya (literally 'Karnataka Empire').

Europeans referred to the Vijayanagara Empire as "The Kingdom of Narasinga", a name derived from "Narasimha" by the Portuguese.  It is not clear whether the name was derived from Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya or Narasimha Raya II.

History

Background and origin theories

Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan – the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, and the Pandyan Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from the north. By 1336 the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana) had been defeated by armies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate.

Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the Yadava Empire in . He created the Kampili kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present-day Karnataka state. The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and upon their defeat, the populace committed a jauhar (ritual mass suicide) in . The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in  as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India.

Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara empire. One is that Harihara I and Bukka I, the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India. Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been captured by the army of Ulugh Khan at Warangal. According to tradition, based on a Telugu-narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain.

Early years
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River and earned the title of "master of the eastern and western seas" (Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai, and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab in the north. The original capital of the empire was in the principality of Anegondi on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's Karnataka. It was moved to Vijayanagara during Bukka Raya I's reign because it was easier to defend against the Muslim armies, who were persistently attacking from the northern lands.

With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and South India was controlled by the Vijayanagara Empire. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, was successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook works of fortification and irrigation. Firuz Bahmani of Bahmani Sultanate entered into a treaty with Deva Raya I in 1407 that required the latter to pay Bahmani an annual tribute of "100,000 huns, five maunds of pearls and fifty elephants". The Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute. Such wars for tribute payment by Vijayanagara were repeated in the 15th century.

Deva Raya II (eulogized in contemporary literature as Gajabetekara) succeeded to the throne in 1424. He was possibly the most successful of the Sangama Dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords and the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim. By 1436 the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were successfully dealt with and had to accept Vijayanagara overlordship. After a few years of tranquility, wars broke out with the Bahamani Sultanate in 1443 with some successes and some reversals. The Persian visitor Firishta attributes Deva Raya II's war preparations, which included augmenting his armies with Muslim archers and cavalry, to be the cause of the conflict. Contemporary Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak attributes the war to the Bahamani Sultan capitalizing on the confusion caused by an internal revolt within the Vijayanagara Empire, including an attempt to assassinate the Raya by his brother.

Deva Raya II was succeeded by his elder son Mallikarjuna Raya in 1446. The Gajapati king removed the Vijayanagara control over the Tamil country by occupying the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry, Kondaveedu, Kanchipuram, and Tiruchirapalli. These defeats reduced the Vijayanagara Empire's prestige, described by an inscription which described the Gajapati king as "a yawning lion to the sheep of the Karnatak King". Mallikarjuna's successor Virupaksha Raya II led a life of pleasure perusing wine and women leading to the loss of Goa and much of Karnataka to the Bahmani Sultanate. His governor Saluva Narasimha reduced the loss of territory by holding almost all of coastal Andhra Pradesh south of the Krishna river, Chittoor, the two Arcots and Kolar. Saluva Narashimha defeated the Gajapatis and held Udayagiri, drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore, and took procession of Machilipatnam and Kondaveedu. He later defeated Bahmani forces and recovered most of the empire's earlier losses.

After the death of Virupaksha Raya II in 1485, Saluva Narasimha led a coup that ended the dynastic rule while continuing to defend the empire from raids by the Sultanates created from the continuing disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in its north. Saluva Narasimha left his two adolescent sons under the care of general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka who ably defended the kingdom from their traditional enemies, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan. He also subdued rebelling chiefs of the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya territories. Despite many attempts by nobles and members of the royal family to overthrow him, Narasa Nayaka retained control as a regent king till 1503.

In 1503, Narasa Nayaka's son Vira Narasimha had prince Immadi Narasimha of the Saluva dynasty assassinated and took over the rule in a coup thus becoming the first of the Tuluva dynasty rulers. This did not go well with the nobles who revolted. Seeing internal troubles grow, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan began to encroach on the empire even as the governors of Ummattur, Adoni, and Talakad colluded to capture the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region from the empire. The empire came under the rule of Krishna Deva Raya in 1509, another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. Initially Krishnadevaraya faced a many obstacles including dissatisfied nobles, the rebellious chief of Ummattur in the south, a resurgent Gajapati kingdom under King Prataparudra, a growing threat from the newly formed Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur under Yusuf Adil Khan and Portuguese interest in controlling the west coast. Not one to be unnerved by these pressures he strengthened and consolidated the empire, one victory at a time. He was an astute king who hired both Hindus and Muslims into his army. In the following decades, the empire covered Southern India and successfully defeated invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates to its north.

Empire's peak

The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya (circa 1509 to 1529) when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire gained territory formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan, such as Raichur and Gulbarga from the Bahamani Sultanate, territories in the eastern Deccan from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shahi of Golkonda, and Kalinga region from the Gajapatis of Odisha. This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of King Krishnadevaraya.

Krishna Deva Raya was succeeded by his younger half-brother Achyuta Deva Raya in 1529. When Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542, Sadashiva Raya, the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya, was appointed king, and Rama Raya, Krishna Deva Raya's son-in-law, becoming the caretaker. When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne, Rama Raya made him a virtual prisoner and became the de facto ruler. He hired Muslim generals in his army from his previous diplomatic connections with the Sultanates and called himself "Sultan of the World". This included both Deccani Muslims recruited from anywhere in the Deccan or Westerners from beyond the Persian Gulf. He was keenly interfering in the internal affairs of the various Sultanates and on playing off the Muslim powers against one another, while making himself the ruler of the most powerful and influential regional power. This worked for a while but eventually made him very unpopular among his people and the Muslim rulers. He made a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to stop the supply of horses to Bijapur, then defeated the Bijapur ruler and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmednagar.

Defeat and decline

Eventually the Deccan sultanates to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Rama Raya's army in January 1565 in the Battle of Talikota. Regarding the Vijayanagara defeat in battle, Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies, though numerically disadvantaged, were better equipped and trained. Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery. The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them a greater reach, and their archers used metal cross bows which enabled them to reach longer distance targets. In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended on slow moving war elephants, a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter reach javelines, and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range. Richard Eaton argues that Vijayanagara's inferiority was due to Krishna Raya's failure to invest in military technology in the years since Raichur because his victory against a technologically superior army led him to underestimate technology's value.

Despite these disadvantages, Kamath, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals (identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath) switched sides and joined forces with the Sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of the Sultanates. The generals captured Rama Raya and beheaded him, and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display. Rama Raya's beheading created confusion and havoc in the Vijayanagara army, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today.

After Rama Raya's death, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire. Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others. During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara, including the Nayakas of Chitradurga, Keladi Nayaka, Mysore Kingdom, Nayak Kingdom of Gingee, Nayaks of Tanjore, and Nayaks of Madurai.

Governance

The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms. The King, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, military, and ally formed the seven critical elements that influenced every aspect of governance. The King was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers (Pradhana) headed by the prime minister (Mahapradhana). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary (Karyakartha or Rayaswami) and the imperial officers (Adhikari). All high-ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training. A secretariat near the king's palace employed scribes and officers to maintain records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the ring of the king. At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords (Gowdas) supervised accountants (Karanikas or Karnam) and guards (Kavalu). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments (Niyogas), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.

The empire was divided into five main provinces (Rajya), each under a commander (Dandanayaka or Dandanatha) and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes. A Rajya was divided into regions (Vishaya, Vente or Kottam) and further divided into counties (Sime or Nadu), themselves subdivided into municipalities (Kampana or Sthala). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to the empire, while some areas, such as Keladi and Madurai, came under the direct supervision of a commander.

On the battlefield, the king's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small-scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long-range artillery, which were commonly manned by foreign gunners. Army troops were of two types: the king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen, and over 900 elephants. The whole army was claimed to number over 1.1 million soldiers, with up to 2 million having been recorded, along with a navy led by a Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy). The army recruited from all classes of society, supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers, and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics, shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that armour was not necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.

The capital city was dependent on water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India. Contemporary records and notes of foreign travellers describe huge tanks constructed by labourers. Excavations uncovered the remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines. In the fertile agricultural areas near the Tungabhadra River, canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks. These canals had sluices that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas, the administration encouraged digging wells, which were monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.

Economy

The economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture. Rice, Sorghum (jowar), cotton, and pulse legumes grew in semi-arid regions, while sugarcane, and wheat thrived in rainy areas. Betel leaves, areca (for chewing), and coconut were the principal cash crops, and large-scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as turmeric, pepper, cardamom, and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of masons, sculptors, and other skilled artisans.

According to Abdur Razzak, much of the empire was fertile and well cultivated. Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment. Salt production and the manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable. Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The ports of Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam, and Dharmadam were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers.

When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities (Arabs, Persians, Guzerates, Khorassanians) settled in Calicut, drawn by the thriving trade business. Ship building prospered and keeled ships between 1000 and 1200 bahares (burden) were built without decks by sewing the entire hull with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice. The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind timber, anafistula, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain. Cotton yarn was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia. Chief imports from Palestine were copper, quicksilver (mercury), vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, colored camlets, gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip to the capital. Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal.

East coast trade routes were busy, with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice, millet, pulses and tobacco were grown on a large scale. Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the weaving industry. A mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region. The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons, plain calico and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to Java and the Far East. Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and Pulicat in printed. The main imports on the east coast were non-ferrous metals, camphor, porcelain, silk and luxury goods.

Mahanavami festival marked the beginning of a financial year from when the state treasury accounted for and reconciled all outstanding dues within nine days. At this time, an updated annual assessment record of provincial dues, which included rents and taxes, paid on a monthly basis by each governor was created under royal decree.

Temples were taxed for land ownership to cover military expenses. In the Telugu districts the temple tax was called Srotriyas, in the Tamil speaking districts it was called as Jodi. Taxes such as Durgavarthana, Dannayivarthana  and Kavali Kanike were collected towards protection of movable and immovable wealth from robbery and invasions. Jeevadhanam was collected for cattle graze on non-private lands. Popular temple destinations charged visitor fees called Perayam or Kanike. Residential property taxes were called Illari.

Culture

Social life

The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific Varnasramadharma (lit, "helpers of the four classes and four stages"). According to Talbot, caste was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage (Gotra) and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes and caste clusters ("Jati"). According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same. Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within a family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community.

Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities. This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits. According to Talbot, terminology such as Setti was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while Boya identified herders of all types. Artisans consisted of blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brasssmiths and carpenters. These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes, especially when it came to social privileges. Conquests led to large-scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of a place. The Tottiyans were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status (poligars),  Saurashtrans were traders who came from present-day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits, the Reddys were agriculturists and the Uppilia were salt farmers.

According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in the military. The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order. Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes, kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities. They ascended the social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living, ethics and practices. In South India they were loosely called the Nayakas.

Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone). There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion, marital affection, martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders.

The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in the previous centuries, such as Lingayatism, provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts. Tirumalamba Devi who wrote Varadambika Parinayam and Gangadevi the author of Madhuravijayam were among the notable women poets of the Sanskrit language. Early Telugu women poets such as Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla became popular. Further south the provincial Nayaks of Tanjore patronised several women poets. The Devadasi system, as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of harems among men of the royalty and the existence of seraglio is well known from records.

Well-to-do men wore the Petha or Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets, bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water, civet musk, musk, or sandalwood. In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery. Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light.

Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime. Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as cock fight, ram fight and female wrestling. Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community-based gaming activities. Engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction. Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified.

Dowry was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families. When a sister of Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur was married to Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar, the town of Sholapur was given to the bride by her family. Ayyangar notes that when the Gajapati King of Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious King Krishnadevaraya he included several villages as dowry. Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well. The practice of putting a price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic Mahr system. To oppose this influence, in the year 1553, the Brahmin community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the kanyadana within the community. According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment. There is a mention of Streedhana ("woman's wealth") in an inscription and that the villagers should not give away land as dowry. These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts.

Religion

The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show. The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism, The Nāgarī script inscription at Hampi includes the term Hinduraya Suratrana, which Benjamin Lewis Rice translates as "the Suratrana of Hindu Rayas". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "the Sultan among Hindu kings" and state this to be an evidence of some Islamic political traditions being adopted by Hindu kings, as well as that Indian kingdoms recognized their religious identity of being Hindu and of Hinduism by early 14th century. Majority Others interpret the term Hinduraya Suratrana to mean "protectors of the gods of (or among) the Hindu kings". .Empire's founders, the Sangama brothers (Harihara I and Bukka Raya I) came from a pastoral cowherd background, possibly the Kuruba people, that claimed Yadava lineage. The founders of the empire were devout Shaivas (worshippers of the Hindu god Shiva) but made grants to Vishnu temples. Their patron saint Vidyaranya was from the Advaita order at Sringeri. The Varaha (the boar avatar of Vishnu) was the emblem of the empire. Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava (followers of Vishnu) by faith, but also worshipped Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati as well as Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, refers to Virupaksha as Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi. Endowments were made to temples in the form of land, cash, produce, jewellery and constructions.

The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas represented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta, the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (Devaranamas and Kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha, Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha, the guru (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Pitamaha or "Father of Carnatic music") and Kanakadasa earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya. The king considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu at Tirupati in present-day Andhra Pradesh.

The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.

Islamic contact with South India began as early as the seventh century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. In the early 15th century, Deva Raya built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne.

The introduction of Christianity began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier (1545) and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.

Epigraphs, sources and monetization

Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls, boundary of properties and open places for public display. Another form of documentation was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping. Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation, a panegyric of the king or local ruler, the name of the donor, nature of the endowment (generally either cash or produce), the manner in which the grant would be used, obligations of the donee, share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations. Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival, and retribution or a curse on those who do not honor the grant.

Most Vijayanagara empire inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada, Telugu and Tamil, and a few in Sanskrit. According to Suryanath U. Kamath about 7000 stone inscriptions, half of which are in Kannada, and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit, have been recovered. Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century. According to Mack, the majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty (from 1503 to 1565) with the Saluva dynasty (from 1485 to 1503) inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire. The Sangama dynasty (from 1336 to 1485) which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period. Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium, the majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649. Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity. The Vijayanagara empire was originally founded in Karnataka, with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire. After its defeat to the Sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara, the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh, creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language.

In addition to epigraphs and coins, the sources of Vijayanagara history (its origin, social and political life and eventual defeat) are the accounts of foreign travelers and contemporary literary sources in Sanskrit, Kannada, Persian and Telugu. The Portuguese visitors to the empire were Domingo Paes (1522), Fernão Nunes (1537), Duarte Barbosa (1516) and Barradas (1616), and Athanasius Nikitin (1470) came from Russia. Niccolò de' Conti (1420), Ludovico di Varthema (1505), Caesar Fredericci (1567) and Filippo Sassetti (1585) were travelers from Italy and Abdur Razzak (1443) visited from Persia. Contemporary Muslim writers who were either under the patronage of rival kingdoms (the Sultanates) or were visitors to Vijayanagara and accomplished valuable works are Ziauddin Barani (Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, 1357), Isamy (Fatuhat us salatin), Syed Ali Tabatabai (Burhan-i-Maisar, 1596), Nisammuddin Bakshi, Firishta (Tarik-i-Firishta) and Rafiuddin Shirazi (Tazkirat ul Mulk, 1611). Among writings by native authors, the important Sanskrit works that shed light on the empire are Vidyaranya Kalajnana, Dindima's Ramabhyudayam on the life of King Saluva Narasimha, Dindima II's Achyutabhyudayam and Tirumalamba's Varadambika Parinayam. Among Kannada literary works, Kumara Ramana Kathe by Nanjunda Kavi, Mohanatarangini by Kanakadasa, Keladiripavijayam by Linganna and the recently discovered Krishnadevarayana Dinachari are useful sources, and among Telugu works, Srinatha's Kashikanda, Mallayya and Singayya's Varahapuranamu, Vishvanatha Nayani's Rayavachakamu, Nandi Timmanna's Parijathapaharanamu, Durjati's Krishnaraja Vijayamu, Peddanna's Manucharitamu and King Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada are important sources of information.

The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold Varaha (or Hun/Honnu, Gadyana) weighted 50.65  53 grains. The Partab or Pratapa was valued at half a Varaha, the Fanam, Phanam or Hana, an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the Varaha. A Tar made of pure silver was a sixth of a Phanam and a Chital made of brass was a third of the Tar. Haga, Visa and Kasu were also coins of lower denominations.

Literature

During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, Prabandha (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu, the latter gained even more cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings, especially Krishnadevaraya.

Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, written by well known figures such as Sayanacharya (who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called Vedartha Prakasha whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856), and Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies. Other writers were famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title Tikacharya for his polemical writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticized the beliefs of Adi Sankara. Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as Jambavati Kalyana by King Krishnadevaraya, and Madura Vijayam (also known as Veerakamparaya Charita) by Princess Gangadevi, a daughter-in-law of King Bukka I, dwells on the conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara empire.

The Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and Veerashaiva (Lingayatism) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs called Devaranama (lyrical poems) in the native meters of Sangatya (quatrain), Suladi (beat based), Ugabhoga (melody based) and Mundige (cryptic). Their inspirations were the teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many Dasas (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution. Kumara Vyasa, the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote Gadugina Bharata, a translation of the epic Mahabharata. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada. Chamarasa was a famous Veerashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His Prabhulinga Leele, later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint Allama Prabhu (the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi).

At this peak of Telugu literature, the most famous writing in the Prabandha style was Manucharitamu. King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the Amuktamalyada, a story of the wedding of the god Vishnu to Andal, the Tamil Alvar saint poet and the daughter of Periyalvar at Srirangam. In his court were eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars (Ashtadiggajas) of the literary assembly. The most famous among them were Allasani Peddana who held the honorific Andhrakavitapitamaha (lit, "father of Telugu poetry") and Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester who authored several notable works. The other six poets were Nandi Thimmana (Mukku Timmana), Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, Madayyagari Mallana, Bhattu Murthi (Ramaraja Bhushana), Pingali Surana, and Dhurjati. Srinatha, who wrote books such as Marutratcharitamu and Salivahana-sapta-sati, was patronised by King Devaraya II and enjoyed the same status as important ministers in the court.

Most Tamil literature from this period came from Tamil-speaking regions, which were ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention to the cultivation of Tamil literature. Some poets were also patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. Svarupananda Desikar wrote an anthology of 2824 verses, Sivaprakasap-perundirattu, on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, Tattuvarayar, wrote a shorter anthology, Kurundirattu, that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose Irusamaya Vilakkam was an exposition of the two Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.

Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya's Sangitsara, Praudha Raya's Ratiratnapradipika, Sayana's Ayurveda Sudhanidhi and Lakshmana Pandita's Vaidyarajavallabham. The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished during this period with scholars such as Madhava, who made important contributions to trigonometry and calculus, and Nilakantha Somayaji, who postulated on the orbitals of planets.

Architecture

Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

In the 14th century, the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples of Deccan architecture. The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work. At Hampi, the Vitthala and Hazara Ramaswamy temples are examples of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style. A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. The Vitthala temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.

Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large monoliths such as the Sasivekaalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekaalu (ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the Dashavatara and Girijakalyana (marriage of Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, the Shivapurana murals (tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in India.

An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" (Mahanavami Dibba) has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.

Family trees

Sangama dynasty (1336–1485)

Saluva dynasty (1485–1505)

Tuluva dynasty (1491–1570)

Aravidu dynasty (1542–1652)

Travellers

In the memoirs of Niccolò de' Conti, an Italian merchant and traveller who visited Hampi about 1420, the city had an estimated circumference of  and it enclosed agriculture and settlements in its fortifications. In 1442, Abdul Razzaq, who visited from Persia, described it as a city with seven layers of forts, with outer layers for agriculture, crafts and residence, the inner third to seventh layers very crowded with shops and bazaars (markets).

In 1520, Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller, visited Vijayanagara as a part of trade contingent from Portuguese Goa. He wrote his memoir as Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga, in which he stated Vijayanagara was "as large as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight ... the best provided city in the world". According to Paes, "there are many groves within it, in the gardens of the houses, many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes ...".

Cesare Federici, an Italian merchant and traveller, visited a few decades after the 1565 defeat and collapse of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to Sinopoli, Johansen, and Morrison, Federici described it as a very different city. He wrote, "the citie of Bezeneger (Hampi-Vijayanagara) is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses stand still, but emptie, and there is dwelling in them nothing, as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts".

The historian Will Durant, in his Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization recites the story of Vijayanagara and calls its conquest and destruction a discouraging tale. He writes, "its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious thing, whose delicate complex of order and liberty, culture and peace" may at any time be overthrown by war and ferocious violence.

Fictional representations
 Vijayanagara is a key inspiration for the fictional city and empire of Bisnaga in Salman Rushdie's novel  Victory City.

See also

 History of India
 History of South India
 Vijayanagara military
 Political history of medieval Karnataka
 Taxation in medieval India

Notes

References

Sources

External links

States and territories established in 1336
States and territories disestablished in 1646
Medieval Karnataka
Hindu states
History of Karnataka
Former empires

Vijayanagara Empire


Alibi din dragoste este un film de comedie romantică american din 1989 regizat de Bruce Beresford, după un scenariu de Charlie Peters, în care joacă Tom Selleck, Paulina Porizkova, William Daniels și James Farentino.

Sinopsis
Phil Blackwood (Selleck) este un romancier american care, fiind aflat într-o sală de judecată, o întâlnește pe Nina, suspectă de crimă de origine română atunci când ea este judecată. Îndrăgostindu-se de ea, Blackwood pretinde că este preot romano-catolic cu scopul de a o cunoaște în timp ce Nina își așteaptă verdictul. Nina poartă o cruciuliță la gât (care era interzis în România comunistă) și susține că este nevinovată, iar Phil o crede. Cu ajutorul editorului său, Sam (Daniels), Blackwood inventează un alibi ("Avem o aventură.") pentru Nina pentru a se asigura de eliberarea ei.

Nina se mută apoi cu Blackwood pentru a se sustrage Securității, care a comisese de fapt crima pentru a opri familia Ninei din a fugi în America. Punctul culminant al filmului are loc în timpul funeraliilor lui Grimaldi, o slujbă jovială în care mai mulți clovni se adună pentru a sărbători viața lui Joseph Grimaldi.

Distribuție

 Tom Selleck ca Phil Blackwood
 Paulina Porizkova ca Nina
 William Daniels ca Sam
 James Farentino ca Frank
 Hurd Hatfield ca Troppa
 Victor Argo ca Auran
 Patrick Wayne ca Gary Blackwood
 Tess Harper ca Sally Blackwood

Reacții
Filmul a primit recenzii negative, obținând un rating de 14% pe Rotten Tomatoes, bazat pe 21 recenzii.

Deși a fost cel mai cunoscut film în care a apărut Porizkova, rolul ei ca Nina i-a adus în anul 1990 o nominalizare la Zmeura de Aur pentru Cea Mai Proastă Actriță.

Note

Legături externe

Filme regizate de Bruce Beresford
Filme Warner Bros.
Filme în limba română
Filme în limba engleză
Filme americane
Filme despre scriitori
Filme din 1989

Alibi din dragoste


O Herói  es una película del año 2003.

Sinopsis
Reclutado a pesar suyo en el ejército angoleño a los quince años, desmovilizan a Vitorio al cabo de 20 años de lucha. Durante una de sus últimas misiones, pisó una mina antipersonas y hubo que amputarle la pierna. Al cabo de meses de espera, consigue una prótesis con la que espera poder empezar una nueva vida. Solo, desamparado, deambula por las calles de Luanda en busca de trabajo y de su familia, de la que no tiene noticias. En esta ciudad que solo desea olvidar la guerra, sometida a la creciente llegada de refugiados y a toda clase de penurias, Vitorio solo encuentra compasión, burla o indiferencia. Una noche, mientras duerme en la calle, le roban la prótesis y, al mismo tiempo, su sueño de integración. Sin embargo, unos encuentros fortuitos le ayudarán a recuperar la esperanza: Judith, una prostituta que le ofrece su casa; Manu, un niño de diez años que busca en él al padre al que apenas conoció, y Joana, la joven maestra de Manu, que le ayuda a recuperar la prótesis a través de un programa de radio.

Premios
 Journées Cinématographiques de Carthage 2004
 Sundance Film Festival 2005

Referencias

Películas ambientadas en Angola

O Herói


Johann Friedrich Payer (* 28. August 1775 in Tübingen; † 9. Juni 1851 in Neuenbürg) war Tübinger Universitätsoberpedell und wurde im Studentenjargon deshalb Pudel genannt. Er war der Sohn des Universitätspedells Ludwig Christoph Payer († 13. September 1814) und verheiratet mit Christine Katharina Payer († 22. März 1858), geb. Heckenhauer.

Der Politiker Friedrich von Payer war sein Enkel.

Ehrungen

Am 24. Oktober 1839 bekam er als Universitätsoberpedell die goldene Verdienstmedaille durch das Ministerium des Innern und des Kirchen- und Schulwesens verliehen. Dabei wurde ein Glückwunschschreiben ausgehändigt, das unter anderem vom Wappenherold Professor Friedrich Stälin unterzeichnet ist.

Literatur

Gottlieb Ludwig Eisenbach: Rede nach der Beerdigung des Herrn Johann Friedrich Payer, gew. Ober-Pedellen an der Universität Tübingen. Geboren in Tübingen den 28. August 1775, gestorben in Neuenbürg den 9. Juni 1851. Gehalten am 11. Juni 1851. Meen, Neuenbürg [1851]
 – zum Enkel Friedrich von Payer, mit Informationen zur Familie Payer zu Beginn des Artikels

Einzelnachweise

Person (Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen)
Württemberger
Deutscher
Geboren 1775
Gestorben 1851
Mann

Johann Friedrich Payer


කොටියා (Panthera pardus kotiya), සඳහා භාවිතා වන වැරදි යෙදුමකි. ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දිවියන් ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන සත්වයන් දෙදෙනෙක් ඇත.
 හඳුන් දිවියා (Prionailurus viverrinus)
 කොළ දිවියා (Prionailurus rubiginosus)

කොටියා සඳහා සාවද්‍යය ලෙස දිවියා යන්න ව්‍යවහාර කිරීම මෑත ඉතිහාසයේදී සිදු වූ වැරැද්දක් බව පෙනේ.

ශ්‍රී ලංකානු දිවියා


Kazuma Takai (født 5. august 1994) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Renofa Yamaguchi FC.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kazuma Takai


Alexandria Governorate (, ) is one of the governorates of Egypt. The city of Alexandria was historically the capital of Egypt until the foundation of Fustat, which was later absorbed into Cairo. Today the Alexandria governorate is considered second in importance after the Cairo Governorate. It is located in the northern part of the country, directly on the Mediterranean Sea, making it one of the most important harbours in Egypt.

Along with Cairo, Port Said and Suez, Alexandria is one of four governorates in the country that are also municipalities. The governorate capital is the city of Alexandria, the second largest city in Egypt. Alexandria governorate lies along the Mediterranean coast and stretch for about 70 km northwest of the Nile Delta. The governorate is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea in the north, El Behera governorate in the south and the east and Matrouh governorate in the west. The total area size of Alexandria governorate is almost 2818 km2. It has the most important harbour in Egypt and it is the second largest urban governorate in the country with population more than four and half million (4,799,740 in March 2015) and population density of 1700 square kilometres according to the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS). Alexandria has a unique geographical location and a mild climate. It is also considered an industrial governorate where 40% of Egyptian industries are concentrated, especially chemicals, food, spinning and weaving as well as petrol industries and fertilizers.

Demographics

Municipal divisions
The governorate is divided into municipal divisions with a total estimated population as of January 2023 of 5,523,511.

Industrial zones
According to the Egyptian Governing Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI), in affiliation with the Ministry of Investment (MOI), the following industrial zones are located in this governorate:
New Manshia
Al Nasseria
Upper and Lower Mergham
The industrial zone in K 31, Desert Road
Seibco
Ajami
Al Nahda and its expansions
Ohm Zagheou
 New Borg El Arab

Tourism
Alexandria is known with its diverse history as it was occupied by several cultures throughout the years. Several monuments nowadays shape Alexandria's historic sites.

Monuments
 Bibliotheca Alexandrina
 Citadel of Qaitbay
 Graeco-Roman Museum
 Alexandria National Museum
 Royal Jewelry Museum
 Serapeum
 Pompey's Pillar
 Roman Amphitheatre
 Lighthouse of Alexandria

Gardens
 Al Montaza Gardens
 Al Shallalat Gardens
 Antoniadis Garden
 El-Nozha Garden
 International Park of Alexandria

Education
Alexandria Governorate follows the Egyptian Educational System in its public schools and universities.

Most notable educational institutes
 Bibliotheca Alexandrina ( Alexandria Library)
 Alexandria University
 International Branch of Alexandria University
 Borg El Arab Technological University
 Senghor University
 Arab Academy for Science, Technology, and Maritime Transport
 Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology in New Borg El Arab city.
 City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications
 Pharos University
 The Higher Institute For Engineering And Technology In King Marriott

Sports
The governorate of Alexandria has several sports clubs that represents the governorate such as:
 El Ittihad Alexandria Club
 Egyptian Olympic Athletes Club
 Smouha Sporting Club
 Alexandria Sporting Club
Alexandria governorate most common sport is football and holds three main stadiums which are:
 Borg El Arab Stadium
 Alexandria Stadium
 Haras El-Hedoud Stadium

Former governors
Alexandria Governorate has had several governors throughout the years, below is listed the former governors since 1952 up to 2017:
 Counselor Mohammed Mustafa Kamal Dib (from April 10, 1952 to January 5, 1957)
 Mr. Mahmoud Ismael Mehanna (from March 4, 1957 to September 10, 1960)
 Major Sedeek Abdul Latif (from October 8, 1960 to November 12, 1961)
 Mr. Mohammed Hamdi Ashour (from November 12, 1961 to October 27, 1968)
 Major General Ahmed Kamel (from November 6, 1968 to November 17, 1970)
 Major Mamdouh Salem (from November 18, 1970 to May 13, 1971)
 Dr. Ahmed Fouad Muhyiddin (from May 8, 1971 to September 7, 1972)
 Prof. Abdel Moneim Wehbe (From September 8, 1972 to May 28, 1974)
 Major General. Ahmed Abdel Tawab Hdaib (from May 29, 1974 to November 27, 1978)
 Prof. Mohamed Fouad Hilmi (from November 28, 1978 to May 14, 1980)
 Prof. Naim Mustafa Abu Talib (from May 15, 1980 to August 23, 1981)
 Mr. Mohammed Saeed Al-Mahi (from August 24, 1981 to May 17, 1982)
 Major General Mohamed Fawzy Maaz (from May 18, 1982 to June 9, 1986)
 Counselor Ismail El-Gawsaqi (from July 10, 1986 to July 8, 1997)
 Major General Mohamed Abdel Salam Mahgoub (from July 9, 1997 to August 28, 2006)
 General Adel Labib (from August 2006 to February 2011)
 Dr. Essam Salem (from April 3, 2011 to July 2011)
 Dr. Osama Foley (from August 4, 2011 to July 2012)
 Counselor Mohamed Atta Abbas (from September 4, 2012 to June 1, 2013)
 Counselor Maher Mohamed Zahir Baybars (from June 16, 2013 to August 12, 2013)
 General Tarek Mahdy (from August 13, 2013 to February 6, 2015)
 Mr. Hany El-Mesiry (from February 7, 2015 to October 25, 2015)
 Engineer Mohamed Ahmed Abd-El-Zaher (from December 26, 2015 to September 7, 2016)
 General Reda Mohamed Farahat (from September 9, 2016 to February 16, 2017)
 Dr. Mohamed Ali Sultan (from February 16, 2017 to August 30, 2018)
 Dr. Abdul Aziz Qansua (from August 30, 2018 to present)

Transportation

Ports
 Alexandria Port
 Al Dekheila Port. ( The second largest port in Alexandria Governorate after Alexandria Port).
 Abu Qir Port
 Eastern Port. ( One of the oldest ports as it was built in 2000 B.C in Racoda village to serve the coastal area in the 'Pharos Island').

Railroads
 Alexandria Tram
 Alexandria Railways

Airports
Alexandria Governorate has one international airport:
 Borg El Arab Airport.

References

External links
 Alexandria Governorate Page in English
 Miscellaneous 1997 statistical information on Alexandria
 El Wattan News of Alexandria Governorate

Governorates of Egypt

Alexandria Governorate


إستريا (بالكرواتية والسلوفينية: Istra، وبالإيطالية: Istria) هي أكبر شبه جزيرة في شمال شرقي البحر الأدرياتيكي ، تقع بين خليج تريستي وكفارنير وهي مقسمة بين كرواتيا وسلوفينيا وإيطاليا ولكنها تقع ضمن الأراضي الكرواتية، وأكبر مدنها هي بولا. من الناحية التاريخية فالجزيرة مأهولة منذ القدم حيث وجدت فيها بقايا الإنسان الحجري التي تعود إلى القرن الثاني عشر قبل الميلاد.

المناخ
تمتاز إستريا بتنوع المناخ وأختلافه على مدار السنة:

 فوسط إستريا له مناخ قاري.
 أما الساحل الشمالي (أو السلوفيني والإيطالي) له مناخ شبه البحر الأبيض المتوسط.
 والساحل الغربي والجنوبي له مناخ البحر الأبيض المتوسط
 بينما الساحل الشرقي له مناخ شبه البحر الأبيض المتوسط مع تأثيرات شبيهه بمناخ المحيطات.

أكثر المدن دفئا وحرارة هي مدينتي بولا و روفينج بينما تعتبر مدينة بازين أكثر المدن برودة، ويعتبر معدل هطول الأمطار في إستريا متوسط حيث يبلغ 640 - 1020 ملم في المناطق الساحلية، ويصل إلى 1500 ملم في التلال والمرتفعات.

أعلام
 ماركوس فيبسانيوس أغريبا
 هيرمان من كارينثيا
 إميل ساكس

مراجع

الساحل النمساوي
الممالك والدول النمساوية المجرية
أشباه جزر
أشباه جزر سلوفينيا
أشباه جزر كرواتيا
جغرافيا أوروبا الجنوبية
جغرافيا إيطاليا
جغرافيا سلوفينيا
جغرافيا كرواتيا
جغرافيا وسط أوروبا

إستريا


Beta-relaksacijski maksimum, beta-maksimum gubitaka (engleski "beta relaxation peak", "betaa loss peak") je vrijednost beta-relaksacije, to jest pri drugoj najvišoj temperaturi ili drugoj najnižoj frekvenciji na krivulji gubitaka polimera. Javlja se pri nižim temperaturama ili višim frekvencijama nego alfa-relaksacijski maksimum i spada u sekundarne alfa-relaksacijski maksimumi. Poslije bete slijedi gama-relaksacijski maksimum (maksimumim gubitak).

Izvori

Polimeri

Beta-relaksacijski maksimum


ඇමෙරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදය යනු ජනපද 50ක්, ෆෙඩරල් දිස්ත්රික්කයක් (එක්සත් ජනපදයේ අගනුවර වන වොෂිංටන්, ඩී. සී.), ප්‍රධාන ප්‍රදේශ පහක්, සහ විවිධ කුඩා දිවයින් වලින් යුත් ෆෙඩරල් ජනරජයකි. සමීප ජනපද 48 හා වොෂින්ටන් ඩී.සී ෆෙඩරල් දිස්ත්‍රික්කය, කැනඩාව හා මෙක්සිකෝව අතර උතුරු ඇමෙරිකාවේ ද; අනෙක් ජනපද දෙක වන ඇලස්කාව සහ හවායි, උතුරු ඇමරිකාවේ වයඹ කොටසෙහි සහ මධ්‍යම-පැසිෆික් සාගර කලාපයෙහිද; පිළිවෙලින් වේ. මේ අතර අයත් භූමි ප්‍රදේශ පැසිෆික් සාගරයෙහි සහ කැරිබියන් මුහුදෙහි විහිදී තිබෙයි.

එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ප්රාථමික අනු කොටස් ජනපද වන අතර, එක්සත් ජනපද ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්ථාව යටතේ බලතල හා අයිතිවාසිකම් රාශියක් බුක්තිවිඳිති. එනම්, අභ්යන්තර වෙළඳාම නියාමනය කිරීම, මැතිවරණ පැවැත්වීම, ප්‍රාදේශීය ආන්ඩු නිර්මාණය සහ ව්‍යවස්ථා සංශෝධන අනුමත කිරීම ය.සෑම ජනපදයකටම වෙන්වූ, ජනරජ මූලධර්ම මත පදනම් වූ ව්‍යවස්ථාවක් සහ විධායකය, ව්‍යවස්ථාදායකය සහ අදිකරණය යනුවෙන් සමන්විත ආණ්ඩුවක් වේ. සියළුම ජනපද සහ ඒවාගේ පදිංචිකරුවන් ෆෙඩරල් කොන්ග්රසය තුල නියෝජනය වන අතර, සෙනෙට් සභාව සහ නියෝජිත මන්ත්‍රී මණ්ඩලය ද්වි පාර්ශවීය ව්‍යවස්ථාදායකයකින් සමන්විතය. සෑම ජනපදයක්ම සෙනෙට් සභිකයන් දෙදෙනෙකු විසින් නියෝජනය කරනු ලබන අතර, වඩාත්ම මෑත දශකය තුල අනුමත කළ සංගණනයන්ට අනුව නියෝජිතයින් සමානුපාතිකව ජනපද අතර බෙදී සිටී. අතිරේක වශයෙන් සෑම ජනපදයක්ම, එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ජනාධිපතිවරයා තෝරා පත් කරගන්නා ආයතනය වන මැතිවරණ විද්‍යාලයන්හි ඡන්දය ප්‍රකාශ කිරීම සඳහා නියමිත ඡන්දදායකයින් ගණනක් තෝරා ගැනීමට සුදුසුකම් ලබන අතර, එය එම ජනපදයේ කොංග්‍රසයේ නියෝජිතයන් සහ සෙනෙට් සභිකයන්ගේ එකතුවට සමානවේ. ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්ථාවෙහි 1වන ලිපියෙහි 3වන අංශයෙහි IV වන වගන්තිය මගින් නව ජනපදයන් සමූහාණ්ඩුවට ඇතුලත්වීමේ බලය කොංග්‍රසයට ලබා දෙයි. 1776 දී ඇමරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදය පිහිටුවීමෙන් අනතුරුව, ජනපද සංඛ්‍යාව 13 සිට වර්තමාන ජනපද  50 දක්වා වර්ධනය වී ඇති අතර, සෑම නව ජනපදයක්ම පවත්නා ජනපද සමග සමාන පදනමක් යටතේ පිළිගනු ලැබේ.

ආශ්රේයයන්

ඇමෙරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ජනපද සහ භූමි ප්‍රදේශ ලැයිස්තුව


Persicarieae, tribus biljaka iz porodice dvornikovki. Sastoji se od dva podtribusa međju kojima su najznačajniji rodovi Koenigia i Persicaria

Podtribusi
 Koenigiinae Dammer in Engler & Prantl
 Persicariinae (Dumort.) Galasso, Soldano & Banfi

Izvori

Polygonoideae

Persicarieae


The year 1942 saw a number of significant happenings in radio broadcasting history.

Events
1 January – All radio broadcasting in the Netherlands comes under full control of the country's Nazi occupiers. Publication of the only authorized programme guide, De Luistergids, begins.
9 January – Blue Network Company, Inc. is incorporated by RCA in the United States to hold the assets of the NBC Blue Network, in case NBC loses their case against the FCC in court to maintain ownership of two networks.
29 January – The BBC Forces Programme transmits the first edition of Desert Island Discs, presented by Roy Plomley. Vic Oliver is the first castaway. The series will still be running (on BBC Radio 4) more than 75 years later.
23 February – Fireside chat by the President of the United States: On Progress of the War.
24 February – The Voice of America begins short-wave radio broadcasting using CBS and NBC transmitters. Its first programmes are in German.
27 February – James Stanley Hey, a British Army research officer, helps develop radio astronomy, when he discovers that the sun emits radio waves.
28 April – Fireside chat: On Our National Economic Policy.
6 May – The Radio Doctor (Charles Hill) makes his first BBC radio broadcast giving avuncular health care advice to British civilians.
19 May – A subsequently famous BBC outside broadcast recording captures the song of the common nightingale with the sound of Royal Air Force Lancaster bombers flying overhead.
26 July – Gene Autry takes his oath of office to join the United States Army during the broadcast of Gene Autry's Melody Ranch.
September – The Brains Trust first broadcast under this title on BBC Home Service radio in the United Kingdom.
7 September – Fireside chat: On Inflation and Progress of the War.
12 October – Fireside chat: Report on the Home Front.
8 November – Aspidistra medium wave radio transmitter goes into service in the south of England for black propaganda and military deception purposes against Nazi Germany.

Debuts
24 January: Abie's Irish Rose debuts on NBC.
3 February: Red Ryder debuts on NBC Blue West Coast.
1 March: KBON, Omaha, Nebraska, a Mutual affiliate, begins broadcasting on 1400 kHz with 250 W power (full-time).
4 March: Junior Miss (1942–1954) debuts on CBS.
22 March: The Better Half debuts on Mutual.
3 April: People Are Funny debuts on NBC.
5 April: The Army Hour debuts on NBC.
13 April: Are You a Genius? debuts on CBS.
19 April: WJLD, Bessemer, Alabama, begins broadcasting on 1400 kHz with 250 W power.
1 May: In Person, Dinah Shore debuts on the Blue Network.
6 May: The Radio Doctor (Charles Hill) makes his first BBC radio broadcast giving health care advice.
9 June: Cheers from the Camps debuts on CBS.
17 June: Suspense debuts on CBS following its 1940 pilot on Forecast.
18 July: Chips Davis, Commando debuts on CBS.
30 July: Stage Door Canteen debuts on CBS.
2 August: Hop Harrigan debuts on ABC.
3 August: An American in England debuts on CBS.
6 September: Mayor of the Town debuts on NBC.
20 September: The Electric Hour debuts on CBS.
2 October: The Cisco Kid debuts on Mutual.
10 October: Campana Serenade debuts on NBC.
20 October: Songs by Sinatra debuts on CBS.
31 October: The Bob Hawk Show debuts on CBS.
9 November: Ceiling Unlimited debuts on CBS.

Closings
(undated) - Harold Teen ends its run on network radio (Mutual).
3 January: The Bishop and the Gargoyle ends its run on network radio (Blue Network).
3 April: Captain Flagg and Sergeant Quirt ends its run on network radio (NBC).
26 April: Songs by Dinah Shore ends its run on network radio (NBC-Blue).
26 June: Arnold Grimm's Daughter ends its run on network radio (NBC).
23 August: Great Plays ends its run on network radio (Blue Network).
11 September: The Bartons ends its run on network radio (NBC).
22 September: Cheers from the Camps ends its run on network radio (CBS).
25 September: The Story of Bess Johnson ends its run on network radio (NBC).
27 September: Joe and Mabel ends its run on network radio (NBC).
3 November: The Avenger (radio program) ends its run on WHN.
22 December: An American in England ends its run on network radio (CBS).

Births
7 August: Garrison Keillor, American public radio host of A Prairie Home Companion.
12 August: David Munrow, English early music performer and presenter (Pied Piper on BBC Radio 3) (suicide 1976).
29 August: Larry Monroe, 29-year veteran with KUT in Austin, Texas (d. 2014).
20 September: Dan Davis, American radio personality on ESPN Radio.
24 October: Frank Delaney, Irish-born novelist and radio presenter (d. 2017).
11 December: Bud Ballou, American disc jockey and radio personality during the 1960s and 1970s.
24 December: Anthony Clare, Irish-born psychiatrist and BBC radio presenter (d. 2007).
26 December: Emperor Rosko (Mike Pasternak), American disc jockey on both sides of the Atlantic.
Bill Brown, New York City television and radio personality (WCBS-FM, WPLJ, WNEW-FM).

References

Radio by year

1942 in radio


Michael Allen Baker (born October 27, 1953) is a retired captain in the United States Navy,  former NASA astronaut, and the International Space Station Program Manager for International and Crew Operations, at NASA's Johnson Space Center.  He is responsible for the coordination of program operations, integration and flight crew training and support activities with the International Partners.

Early life
Baker was born on October 27, 1953, in Memphis, Tennessee, and considers Lemoore, California to be his hometown. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America where he achieved its second highest rank, Life Scout. Baker graduated from Lemoore Union High School, Lemoore, California, in 1971, and received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Texas in 1975. He has two children.

Naval service
After graduation, Baker completed flight training and earned his Wings of Gold as a Naval Aviator at Naval Air Station Chase Field, Beeville, Texas, in 1977. In 1978, he was assigned to Attack Squadron 56 (VA-56), embarked on the aircraft carrier , homeported in Yokosuka, Japan, where he flew the A-7 Corsair II. In late 1980, he was assigned to Carrier Air Wing 30 as the Air Wing Landing Signal Officer.

He attended the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School in 1981 and, after graduation, was assigned to the Carrier Suitability Branch of the Strike Aircraft Test Directorate. While there, Baker conducted carrier suitability structural tests, aircraft carrier catapult and arresting gear certification tests, and automatic carrier landing system certification and verification tests on the various aircraft carriers of the Navy's fleet in the A-7 Corsair II aircraft.

In 1983, he returned to the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School as an instructor. He was then assigned as the U.S. Navy exchange instructor at the Empire Test Pilots' School in Boscombe Down, England, teaching performance, flying qualities and systems flight test techniques.

He has logged over 5,400 hours flying time in approximately 50 different types of airplanes, including tactical jets, VSTOL, multi-engine transport and rotary wing aircraft, and has over 300 carrier landings to his credit.

NASA

Selected by NASA in June 1985, Baker became an astronaut in July 1986 upon completion of a one-year training and evaluation program.

Following the Challenger accident, Baker was assigned from January 1986 to December 1987 as a member of the team that was pursuing redesign, modification and improvements to the Shuttle Landing and Deceleration Systems, to include nosewheel steering, brakes, tires, and drag chute, in an effort to provide greater safety margins during landing and rollout. He was then assigned to the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory, where he was involved in the checkout and verification of the computer software and hardware interfaces for STS-26 (the return-to-flight mission) and subsequent flights.

Baker then served as an ascent, entry and orbit spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) for Shuttle missions STS-27, STS-29, STS-30, STS-28, STS-34, STS-33, STS-32, STS-36, STS-31, STS-38, and STS-35. His duties included communication with the Shuttle crew during simulations and actual missions, as well as working procedural problems and modifications between missions. He served as the leader of the Astronaut Support Personnel team at the Kennedy Space Center for Shuttle missions STS-44, STS-42 and STS-45. He was assigned as the Flight Crew Operations Directorate Representative to the Space Shuttle Program Office from December 1992 to January 1994.

Between March and October 1995, he served as the Director of Operations for NASA at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia. He was responsible for the coordination and implementation of mission operation activities in the Moscow region for the joint U.S./Russian Shuttle/Mir program. From October 1997 to August 2001, he was the assistant director of Johnson Space Center (JSC) for Human Space Flight Programs, Russia and was responsible for implementation and integration of NASA's Human Space Flight Programs in Russia. Those activities included International Space Station (ISS) training, operations, technical liaison, logistics and personnel administration support. He also served as the NASA JSC representative to the Russian Space Agency, Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, Star City; Mission Control Center-Moscow, Energia Rocket and Spacecraft Corporation, Krunichev State Scientific and Production Space Center and other Russian government agencies and manufacturers involved in the ISS program. After his return to JSC in August 2001, he was assigned as the International Space Station Program Manager for International Operations responsible for the coordination of program operations, integration and flight crew training and support activities with the International Partners.

Space flights
A veteran of four space flights, Baker has logged 965 hours in space. He served as pilot on STS-43 (August 2–11, 1991) and STS-52 (October 22 to November 1, 1992), and was the mission commander on STS-68 (September 30 to October 11, 1994) and STS-81 (January 12–22, 1997).

STS-43 Space Shuttle Atlantis launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 2, 1991. During the flight, crew members deployed the fifth Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-E), in addition to conducting 32 physical, material, and life science experiments, mostly relating to the Extended Duration Orbiter and Space Station Freedom. After 142 orbits of the Earth, the 9-day mission concluded with a landing on Runway 15 at the Kennedy Space Center on August 11, 1991. Mission duration was 213 hours, 21 minutes, 25 seconds.

STS-52 Space Shuttle Columbia launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on October 22, 1992. During the mission crew members deployed the Italian Laser Geodynamic Satellite (LAGEOS), used to measure movement of the Earth's crust, and operated the U.S. Microgravity Payload 1 (USMP-1). Additionally, the Advanced Space Vision System (SVS) developed by the Canadian Space Agency was tested by the Canadian payload specialist and the crew using a small target assembly that was released from the remote manipulator system. The SVS will be used for Space Station construction. These three primary payloads together with numerous other payloads operated by the crew encompassed geophysics, materials science, biological research and applied research for Space Station Freedom. Following 159 orbits of the Earth, the 10-day mission concluded with a landing on Runway 33 at the Kennedy Space Center on November 1, 1992. Mission duration was 236 hours, 56 minutes, 13 seconds.

STS-68 Space Shuttle Endeavour launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on September 30, 1994. This flight was the second flight of the Space Radar Laboratory (SRL), which consists of a large radar called SIR-C/X-SAR (Shuttle Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar) and MAPS (Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites). As part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, SRL was an international, multidisciplinary study of global environmental change, both natural and man-made. The primary objective was to radar map the surface of the Earth to help us understand the contributions of ecology, hydrology, geology, and oceanography to changes in our Planet's environment. Real-time crew observations of environmental conditions, along with over 14,000 photographs, aided in interpretation of the radar images. This SRL mission was a highly successful test of technology intended for long-term environmental and geological monitoring of planet Earth. Following 183 orbits of the Earth, the eleven-day mission concluded with a landing on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on October 11, 1994. Mission duration was 269 hours, 46 minutes, 10 seconds.

STS-81 Space Shuttle Atlantis launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida on January 12, 1997. STS-81 was the fifth in a series of joint missions between the U.S. Space Shuttle and the Russian Space Station Mir and the second one involving an exchange of U.S. astronauts. In five days of docked operations more than three tons of food, water, experiment equipment and samples were moved back and forth between the two spacecraft. Following 160 orbits of the Earth the STS-81 mission concluded with a landing on Kennedy Space Center's Runway 33 ending a 3.9 million mile journey. Mission duration was 244 hours, 56 minutes.

Post NASA
In January 2017, Baker left NASA to work for the private industry. He currently resides in League City, Texas.

Honors
Defense Superior Service Medal
Legion of Merit
Distinguished Flying Cross
2 Defense Meritorious Service Medals
National Defense Service Medal
3 Navy Expeditionary Medals
the Navy Unit Commendation
3 Meritorious Unit Commendations
the Battle "E" Award
NASA Distinguished Service Medal
NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal
NASA Exceptional Service Medal
4 NASA Space Flight Medals
2 Sea Service Awards
the Overseas Service Award
Named 1993 Outstanding University of Texas Alumnus

Organizations
Member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots
Association of Naval Aviation
the Tailhook Association
Association of Space Explorers
National Aeronautic Association
Sierra Club
Veterans of Foreign Wars
Member of the Advisory Committee to the University of Texas College of Engineering, Aerospace Engineering Department.

References

External links

Spacefacts biography of Michael A. Baker

1953 births
Living people
American test pilots
Aviators from Tennessee
NASA people
Military personnel from Memphis, Tennessee
People from Lemoore, California
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Recipients of the NASA Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the NASA Exceptional Service Medal
United States Naval Aviators
United States Naval Test Pilot School alumni
United States Navy astronauts
United States Navy officers
Cockrell School of Engineering alumni
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Mir crew members
Military personnel from California

Michael A. Baker


The University of Mumbai is a public state university in Mumbai. It is one of the largest university systems in the world with over 549,000 students on its campuses and affiliated colleges. , the university had 711 affiliated colleges. Ratan Tata is the appointed head of the advisory council.

History
In accordance with "Wood's despatch", drafted by Sir Charles Wood in 1854, the University of Bombay was established in 1857 after the presentation of a petition from the Bombay Association to the British colonial government in India. The University of Mumbai was modelled on similar universities in the United Kingdom, specifically the University of London.

The first departments established were the Faculty of Arts at Elphinstone College in 1835 and the Faculty of Medicine at Grant Medical College in 1845. Both colleges existed before the university was founded and surrendered their degree-granting privileges to the university. The first degrees awarded in 1862 were Bachelor of Arts and Licentiate in Medicine. Medical schools such as Sindh Medical School in Hyderabad, Sindh were affiliated with the university as well.

Cornelia Sorabji, who later studied law at Somerville College becoming Oxford's first female law student and India's first female advocate, was the university's first female graduate in 1888.

Until 1904, the university only conducted examinations, awarded affiliations to colleges, developed curricula, and produced guidelines for colleges developing curricula. Teaching departments, research disciplines, and post-graduate courses were introduced from 1904, and several additional departments were established. After India achieved independence in 1947, the functions and powers of the university were reorganized under The Bombay University Act of 1953. The name of the university was changed from University of Bombay to University of Mumbai in 1996.

In 1949, student enrolment was 42,272 with 80 affiliated colleges. By 1975, these numbers had grown to 156,190 and 114 respectively.

Kalina Campus
Examination processes were made more efficient by the introduction of online delivery of question papers for examinations, and assessment of answer books by scanning at remote examination centres. The academic depository of the university was started in collaboration with CDSL in 2015. The university is the first university in the country to start an academic depository.

 Jawaharlal Nehru Library
 Alkesh Dinesh Mody Institute for Financial and Management Studies (ADMI) which offers BMS, MFSM, MS Finance &  MMS programmes

Library

Rajabai Clock Tower

One of Mumbai's landmarks, the Rajabai Clock Tower, was completed in the 1870s and houses the University of Mumbai's library. Sir George Gilbert Scott modeled the Rajabai Clock Tower on the clock tower of the Palace of Westminster in London. Local businessman Premchand Roychand contributed to the cost of construction and named the tower in memory of his mother, Rajabai. The tower is  tall and has five storeys. At a height of  from the ground, there are eight statues representing the Indian castes. The tower clock is reported to have played 16 tunes including "Rule Britannia", "God Save the Queen", "Home! Sweet Home!" and "A Handel Symphony". On the initiative of the then Vice-Chancellor, Rajan Welukar, the first phase of restoration of Rajabai Clock Tower started in 2013 and was completed in May 2015. Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) gave a Rs 4 crore grant for this phase of the restoration project.

Convocation Hall

Affiliated colleges
Its jurisdiction extends over 7 districts - Mumbai City district, Mumbai Suburban district, Palghar district, Raigad district, Ratnagiri district, Sindhudurg district, Thane district.

Prominent institutes
Several departments of the University of Mumbai are a part of vocational institutions and are not located on the four Mumbai campuses. These include the departments of Medicine and Medical Research located in many prominent hospitals in Mumbai, such as the Tata Memorial Hospital, Bombay Hospital and G.S. Medical College and King Edward Memorial Hospital. The Department of Medicine at Tata Memorial Hospital is now affiliated to the Homi Bhabha National Institute.

Institute of Chemical Technology (then known as the University Department of Chemical Technology, UDCT), was originally a department of MU, which later gained the status of a university.

Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute, then known as the Victorial Jubilee Technical Institute, founded in 1887, was the first Engineering Institute of the University of Mumbai. Thadomal Shahani Engineering College was the first Engineering college in the University of Mumbai to start courses in Computer Engineering, Information Technology, Electronics Engineering and Biomedical Engineering.

Libraries

Jawaharlal Nehru Library (JNL) is the central library, located on the campus at Kalina. As of May 2019, it desperately needs restoration.

Vice-chancellors

 John Wilson – 1857
 Raymond West
 Alexander Kinloch Forbes
 Sir Alexander Grant, 10th Baronet – 1863–1868
 William Guyer Hunter – 1869
 Herbert Mills Birdwood
 Rev Dugald Mackichan – 1888-91
 Kashinath Trimbak Telang – 1892–1893
 Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar – 1893–1894
 N. G. Chandavarkar – 1911−1912
 John Heaton – 1912–1915
 Pherozeshah Mehta – 1915
 Sir Leslie Orme Wilson (Chancellor) - 1927
 Mirza Akbar Khan – 1930–31
 R. P. Paranjpye – 1934
 Sir Rustom Pestonji Masani - 1941
 Pandurang Vaman Kane
 John Matthai – 1955–1957
 V. R. Khanolkar – 1960–1963
 Shashikant Karnik
 Trimbak Krishna Tope – 1971–1977
 M. D. Bengalee – 1986-1992
 Snehlata Deshmukh – 1995–2000
 Bhalchandra Mungekar – 2000–2005
 Vijay Khole – 2005 – September 2009
 Chandra Krishnamurthy – September 2009–July 2010, Acting Vice-Chancellor
 Suhas Pednekar - August 2010 - September 2010, Acting Vice-Chancellor
 Rajan Welukar – October 2010 – July 2015
 Sanjay V. Deshmukh – July 2015 – October 2017
 Suhas Pednekar - April 2018 − Present

 Dr. Ravindra D Kulkarni - June 2023 - Present

Notable alumni

Rankings

Internationally, the University of Mumbai was ranked 741-750 in the QS World University Rankings of 2024 and 101–150 in Asia. It was ranked 1201–1500 in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2023, 351–400 in Asia in 2022 and in the same band among emerging economies.

The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) ranked it 65th among universities in India in 2020.

Partner universities
Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) have been signed with University of Amsterdam, University of Bath, Liverpool Hope University, Toronto Metropolitan University, IESEG School of Management, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin University, Nankai University in China and Edith Cowan University in Australia.

See also
 List of universities in India
 Universities and colleges in India
 Education in India

References

External links

Universities and colleges established in 1857
Universities in Mumbai
1857 establishments in India
University of Mumbai alumni
Recipients of the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Trophy

University of Mumbai


Orsilochos (), auch Ortilochos (), ist eine Person der griechischen Mythologie.

Bei Homer ist Orsilochos der Sohn des Diokles, eines Abkömmlings des Flussgottes Alpheios und Königs von Pharai, und der Zwillingsbruder des Krethon. Gemeinsam mit seinem Bruder nimmt er am Trojanischen Krieg teil, wo sie als tapferste Kämpfer unter den Danaern gelten. Im Kampf werden die Brüder von Aineias getötet, was den um sie trauernden Menelaos zu einem Vorstoß gegen die Trojaner bewegt.

Pausanias berichtet, dass Antikleia, die Mutter des Gorgasos und des Nikomachos, eine Schwester des Orsilochos ist.

Literatur

Anmerkungen

Person der griechischen Mythologie
Person (Trojanischer Krieg)

Orsilochos (Sohn des Diokles)