{{معلومات نزاع عسكري
| اسم_النزاع = الحرب الاهلية الرواندية
| تاريخ      = 1 أكتوبر 1990 - 4 اغسطس 1993
| مكان       = رواندا
| نتيجة      = اتفاق اروشا، بدء الابادة الجماعية في روندا.
| خصم1  = المتمردين:

 الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية (RPF)

أيضا:
  عناصر من قوة الدفاع الشعبية الأوغندية (RPDF)
| خصم2  = الحكومة:

 القوات المسلحة الرواندية (FAR)

أيضا:
  عناصر من فوج المظليين في  الجيش الفرنسي(1990-1993)
  عناصر من الحرس الرئاسي الزائيري(; 1990-1990)
| قائد1      =   جوفينال هابياريمانا  باغاسورا أوغسطين بيزيمونغو
| قائد2      =  فريد رويجيما بيتر بيينجانا بول كاغامي
| قوة1       = 200،000 قوات حكومية
| قوة2       = 25,000 الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية

}}الحرب الأهلية الرواندية''' (1990 - 1993) أو ما يعرف بالحرب القبلية بين التوتسي والهوتو، كانت صراعاً بين القوات المسلحة الرواندية الممثلة لحكومة رواندا، وبين الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية المتمردة (RPF). وقد اندلعت الحرب التي استمرت منذ عام 1990 وحتى عام 1994 نتيجة للنزاع الذي طال أمده بين جماعات الهوتو والتوتسي ضمن السكان الروانديين. وقد جاءت ثورة (1959-1962) لتستبدل النظام الملكي التوتسي بنظام جمهوري بقيادة الهوتو، مما اضْطُر أكثر من 336,000 من التوتسي إلى البحث عن ملجأ في البلدان المجاورة. وقد قامت مجموعة من هؤلاء اللاجئين في أوغندا بتأسيس ما يعرف بالجبهة الوطنية الرواندية المتمردة التي أصبحت تحت قيادة فريد رويجيما وبول كاجامي جيشًا جاهزًا للمعركة في أواخر الثمانينيات.

نشبت الحرب في 1 أكتوبر 1990، عندما قامت الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية بغزو شمال شرق رواندا، وتقدمت 60 كم (37 ميل) داخل البلاد. ولكنها تعرضت لانتكاسة كبيرة عندما قُتِلَ رويجيما في اليوم الثاني من الحرب. حيث أصبح الجيش الرواندي بمساعدة قوات من فرنسا متفوقاً جداً فتمكن من هزيمة الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية هزيمة كبيرة بحلول نهاية أكتوبر. بعد ذلك عاد كاجامي الذي كان في الولايات المتحدة خلال الغزو ليتولى زمام الأمور. فقام بسحب القوات إلى جبال فيرونغا لعدة أشهر قبل معاودة الهجوم مرة أخرى. ثم بدأت الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية حرب عصابات من خلال الكر والفر، والتي استمرت حتى منتصف عام 1992 من دون أن يستطيع أحد تحقيق نصرا على الأرض. وقد أرغمت سلسله من الاحتجاجات الرئيس الرواندي جوفينال هابياريمانا على بدء مفاوضات سلام مع الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية وأحزاب المعارضة المحلية. وعلي الرغم من الاضطرابات وعمليات القتل التي قامت بها حركة هوتو باور وهي مجموعة من المتطرفين المعارضين لأي اتفاق بالإضافة إلى هجوم جديد للجبهة الوطنية الرواندية في أوائل عام 1993، فقد اِختُتِمَت المفاوضات بنجاح بتوقيع اتفاقات أرُوشا في شهر أغسطس من عام 1993.

وأعقب ذلك سلام غير مستقر، تم خلاله تطبيق بنود الاتفاقيات بصورة تدريجية. وتم نشر قوات تابعة للجبهة الوطنية الرواندية في مجمع في كيجالي كما تم إرسال بعثة لحفظ السلام من الأمم المتحدة للمساعدة في رواندا (UNAMIR).لكن حركة هوتو باور كانت تكتسب نفوذاً مطرداً وخططت لتنفيذ «حل نهائي» لإبادة التوتسي. وقد وُضِعَتْ هذه الخطة موضع التنفيذ عقب اغتيال الرئيس هابياريمانا في السادس من أبريل عام 1994. وعلى مدى نحو مئة يوم فقط، قُتل ما بين 500,000 و 1,000,000 من التوتسي والهوتو المعتدلين فيما أصبح يُعرَف باسم الإبادة الجماعية في رواندا. وسرعان ما استأنفت الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية الحرب الأهلية. فاستولوا على الأراضي بشكل مطرد، وحاصروا المدن وقطعوا طرق الإمداد. وبحلول منتصف شهر يونيه حاصروا العاصمة كيجالي، وفي الرابع من يوليو استولوا تمامًا عليها. وانتهت الحرب في وقت لاحق من ذلك الشهر عندما استولت الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية على آخر الأراضي التي تحتفظ بها الحكومة المؤقتة، مما أجبر الحكومة ومرتكبي جرائم الإبادة الجماعية علي النزوح إلى زائير.

تولى حزب الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية المنتصر السيطرة على البلاد، حيث كان بول كاجامي زعيمًا فعليًا. وشَغل كاجامي منصب نائب الرئيس منذ عام 1994، وكرئيس بداية من عام 2000، كما فاز بالانتخابات في الأعوام 2003 و 2010 و 2017. وبدأت الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية برنامجًا لإعادة بناء البنية التحتية واقتصاد البلاد، وجلب مرتكبي الإبادة الجماعية إلى المحاكمة، وكذلك تعزيز المصالحة بين الهوتو والتوتسي. وفي عام 1996 شنت الحكومة الرواندية التي تقودها الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية هجومًا ضد مخيمات اللاجئين في زائير، التي كانت موطنًا لقادة النظام السابق المنفيين وملايين اللاجئين من الهوتو. وساهم هذا الهجوم في بدأ حرب الكونغو الأولى، التي أطاحت بالدكتاتور موبوتو سيسي سيكو الذي استمر فترة طويلة في السلطة. واعتباراً من العام 2018، يظل كاجامي والجبهة الوطنية الرواندية القوة السياسية المسيطرة في رواندا.

البداية
سكن رواندا قبيلتين، الهوتو وكانوا مزارعين يكدحون في الأرض يستخرجون منها معاشا متواضعا، والتوتسي وهم قبيلة أقل عددا من الرعاة تمكنوا من السيطرة على الأغلبية من الهوتو بفضل الأموال التي كانت تدرها عليهم تربية قطعان الأبقار. الزواج المختلط بين افراد القبيلتين وتعاقب الزمان شكلا ثقافة ودينا ولغة مشتركة بين القبيلتين طمست تلك الانقسامات الاثنية، لكن بدلا من أن تكون القبيلتان متمايزتين أصبح ينظر إلى قبيلة التوتسي على أنهم الحكام وقبيلة الهوتو على أنهم المحكومون. لكن بلجيكا التي استعمرت رواندا أغلب القرن العشرين كانت تنظر إلى قبيلتي التوتسي والهوتو على أنهما قبيلتان مختلفتان واستحدثت بطاقات هوية أعادت تقسيم الروانديين تبعا لانتمائهم القبلي.
تأسس حزب «حزب حركة انعتاق الهوتو» (Parmehutu) في عام 1959 وقام هذا الحزب بعدة مذابح لافراد قبيلة التوتسي أثناء ما سمي بـ«الثورة الاجتماعية الزراعية». الأمر الذي نجم عنه عزل الملك الرواندي في عام 1961 وإبعاده عن رواندا وإعلان استقلال شكلي وقيام الجمهورية الأولى للهوتو في رواندا عام 1962. خلال الفترة الأولى للجمهورية الوليدة، شهدت العديد من المجازر وحدثت في تلك الفترة هجرات كبيرة متتابعة للتوتسي إلى بلدان الجوار، فدفع ذلك 160 ألف شخص إلى مغادرة رواندا خلال أعمال العنف التي شهدتها البلد بعد الاستقلال. إلى أن توجت اعتقالات ومجازر 1973 بانقلاب عسكري على يد وزير الدفاع جوفينال هابياريمانا. كانت الحكومة تضطهد افراد التوتسي وتحرمهم من فرص التعليم والوظائف. فقائمة الوظائف التي يستطيع التوتسي شغلها محدودة وضيقة، كانوا محرومين من التعليم العالي وممارسة السياسة ونشأ جيل من التوتسي المنفيين كمواطنين من الدرجة الثانية. أدى ذلك أي تشكيل الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية في المنفى وجناحها العسكري. بهدف قلب نظام حكم الهوتو. وفي أول أكتوبر 1990 عبرت قوات الجبهة الأراضي الرواندية قادمة من أوغندا التي دعمت التمرد.

الحرب
في الأول من أكتوبر 1990 قام 50 من متمردي الجبهة الوطنية الرواندية بعبور الحدود الرواندية قادمين من أوغندا وقتلو حرس الحدود. تبع ذلك عبور العديد من مقاتلي الحركة مرتدين ازياء الجيش الأوغندي بلغ عدد المتمردين 4 آلاف معظمهم من الجيل الثاني من التوتسي الذين ولدوا أو تربوا في المنفى. كانت الجبهة تهدف إلى إلغاء التمييز العرقي ضد أبناء التوتسي وإلغاء نظام بطاقات الهوية والتمييز الاقتصادي والسياسي واجراء الإصلاحات الاقتصادية والسياسية. مما صور الجبهة على انها حركة ديمقراطية تحاول إصلاح الأوضاع الرواندية والقضاء على نظام فاسد.

التدخل الخارجي
ساندت أوغندا قوات الحركة ماديا بالرغم من أن الرئيس الأوغندي يوري موسفنى أعلن ان الحركة قامت بالتمرد دون أن تجري تشاورا مسبقا مع أوغندا. كانت قوات الجبهة جيدة التدريب مما دفعها لان تهزم قوات الجيش الرواندي الأكثر عددا والمفتقدة للتدريب الجيد مما جعلها تحقق تقدما جيدا في الأراضي الرواندية بالرغم من مقتل قائد الجبهة فريد رويجيما في اليوم الثالث من الحرب على يد أحد القادة التابعين له. ولكن قوات الجبهة وصلت إلى مناطق على بعد 45 ميل من كيجالي عاصمة رواندا مما دفع الحكومة لان تطلب المساعدة من بلجيكا في 4 أكتوبر.
فشلت الجبهة في الحفاظ على تقدمها ومواصلة انتصارتها بسبب الدعم الذي قدمته فرنسا وزائير إلى حلفائهم في الحكومة الرواندية فارسلت زائير عناصر من الحرس الرئاسي الخاص لمساندة الجيش الرواندي وقدمت فرنسا عناصر من قواتها المظلية بلغ عددهم 125 فرد قادمين من جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى كما شحنت المدفعية، مدافع الهاون ومواد أخرى لرواندا، وقالت إنهم كانت مواجهة «العدوان الذي شن من بلد يتحدث الإنجليزية» خاصة ان فرنسا كانت قد وقعت اتفاقية دفاع مشترك في عام 1975 مع الرئيس جوفينال هابياريمانا. اصرت فرنسا على ان قواتها تهدف إلى حماية المدنيين ولكن المظليين الفرنسيين اقامو مواقعهم حول المطار وكيجالي بحيث يستطيعوا ايقاف تقدم الجبهة. وقامت بلجيكا في البداية بتقديم مساعدات إلى الحكومة الرواندية ولكنها توقفت بسبب القوانين المحلية البلجيكية التي تمنع القوات البلجيكية من الاشتراك في حرب اهلية. على جانب اخر قدمت فرنسا دعما عسكريا وماديا كبيرا إلى رواندا مما جعلها تحتل مكان بلجيكا كأكبر داعم غربي لرواندا.
كانت الجبهة غير مستعدة لحرب طويلة المدى وظهر افتقارهم الواضح إلى المعدات الثقيلة اللازمة لمواجهة قوات الحكومة وكانبول كاغامي أحد قادة الحركة في الخارج لتلقى دورات تدريبية في القيادة ومما جعل الامور اسوء كان قيام أوغندا بالقبض على بعض قيادات الحركة لاتهامهم بالضلوع في قتل قائد الجبهة فريد رويجيما. تراجعت قوات المتمردين إلى الركن الشمالي الشرقي من البلاد. وقامت الطائرات الفرنسية بالكشف عن مواقع البقية من المتمردين مما سهل على الجيش الرواندي سحقهم.

حرب العصابات

مع عودة بول كاغامي من الخارج قام باعادة تشكيل قواته التي كان عددها انخفض من 5,000 مقاتل إلى اقل من 2,000 مقاتل وانسحب بقواته إلى أوغندا مرة أخرى وقام بتجنيد عدد جديد من المقاتلين وقرر استخدام نمط حرب العصابات ضد الجيش الرواندي.
في يوم4 أكتوبر قامت الحكومة الرواندية بشن هجوم مزيف ضد العاصمة كيغالى من اجل اخافة المدنيين ودفعهم للتبليغ عن المتعاطفين مع الجبهة. أدى ذلك إلى ارتكاب العديد من المذابح بحق التوتسي وقتل حوالي 384 مدنيا في 48 ساعة واعتقال 10,000 مدني.
استمرت حرب العصابات في عامي 1991 و1992 من دون أن يستطيع أحد تحقيق نصرا على الأرض وفي بداية عام 1991 تحديدا في 23 يناير قامت قوات الجبهة بالاستيلاء على مدينة روهنغيري والاستيلاء على كميات من الأسلحة وتحرير المعتقلين وثم النسحاب من المدينة لاحقا. واستمرت الحرب على نمط حرب العصابات الكلاسيكي في غابات رواندا حتى عام 1992. اطلقت الجبهة اذاعة بدأت البث من أوغندا إلى رواندا في عام 1991. وكانت كل برامجها لتأييد الجبهة متهمة النظام الرواندي باجراء عمليات تطهير عرقي وإبادة جماعية بحق التوتسي.و في 4 أغطس 1993 شهدت مدينة أوروشا التنزانية التوقيع على اتفاق لتقاسم السلطة، ووفق اتفاق رعته الأمم المتحدة عين سياسيون من الجبهة في مناصب مهمة في الحكومة، إدماج قوات الجبهة في الجيش، وسمح بدخول قوة من ستمائة جندي من الجبهة بالدخول إلى كيغالي. عرف هذا الاتفاق باسم اتفاق أروشا.

مقالات ذات صلة
 الحرب الأهلية البوروندية

المصادر

الإبادة الجماعية في رواندا
تاريخ إفريقيا العسكري
تاريخ رواندا
تاريخ رواندا السياسي
حروب إفريقيا
حروب إفريقيا الأهلية
حروب أهلية
حروب أهلية بسبب الثورة
حروب أهلية بسبب العرقية
حروب أهلية فيما بعد 1945
حروب جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية
نزاعات في 1990
العنف ضد المرأة في رواندا

الحرب الأهلية الرواندية


Philip Collinson (born 26 August 1970) is a British television producer. He was initially an actor, before switching to working behind the cameras in the industry as a script editor and writer on programmes such as Springhill and Emmerdale, later becoming the producer of Peak Practice, Doctor Who and Coronation Street.

Career

Collinson has produced several series for the BBC, including the comedy drama Linda Green, and the first seasons of 1950s-set Born and Bred and paranormal thriller Sea of Souls. In January 2004, he started work as the tenth full-time in-house producer of the BBC science-fiction programme Doctor Who.

While he was an actor, the role of Alexander in the 1999 Channel 4 drama Queer as Folk was written especially for him by his friend Russell T Davies. However, after Antony Cotton auditioned for the production team, Davies and his fellow producers felt they had no choice but to offer the role to him instead of Collinson.

Collinson took a break from his Doctor Who production responsibilities for part of the 2007 series; Susie Liggat took his place for a month according to issue 372 of Doctor Who Magazine, while Collinson took a holiday. There was some confusion when Collinson's break was first announced, with some reports claiming that Collinson was leaving the series. "There was this whole madness last year when it was announced that... Susie was going to produce a couple of episodes," Collinson told Doctor Who Magazine in issue 380, "cos everyone immediately thought that I was leaving, and she was taking over. My friends thought I was seriously ill! Why else would I leave Doctor Who?" Collinson's holiday coincided with the filming of the two-parter "Human Nature"/"The Family of Blood"; he does however receive an executive producer credit for these episodes.  Liggat also produced five episodes of the 2008 series.

Collinson also served as an executive producer on the CBBC Doctor Who spin-off The Sarah Jane Adventures.

The BBC confirmed on 1 February 2008 that Collinson would be leaving his position on Doctor Who, to return to Manchester as BBC Head of Drama for the region. After less than two years in this role, it was announced in late 2009 than Collinson would be leaving the BBC to take over as producer of ITV's top-rated soap opera Coronation Street.

Collinson is gay, and admits that Doctor Who has a special appeal for LGBT people: "I can only talk for myself, and when I was a teenager," he said in a March 2007 interview. "For me, as a young boy and a teenager, growing up in the north of England, in a world where I could never imagine being a gay man, let alone settling down and finding someone, I think Doctor Who was really asexual. There were programmes like The Sweeney which were very much about men chasing women, men getting women, whereas with Doctor Who you had a show that never really dealt with that."

In July 2010 Collinson took over from Kim Crowther, as the new producer of Coronation Street. His first credited episode aired on 26 July 2010.

On 8 October 2012, it was announced that Collinson will step down as Producer of Coronation Street as of March 2013 and be replaced by Emmerdale Producer Stuart Blackburn.

On 20 January 2022, it was confirmed Collinson would return to Doctor Who as a producer, working again under Russell T Davies.

Occupations

Writer
Emmerdale (1998)

Director
Peak Practice (1 episode, 2000)

Producer
Linda Green (2001)
Born and Bred (6 episodes, 2002)
Sea of Souls (6 episodes, 2004)
Doctor Who (48 episodes, 2005–08)
Coronation Street (711 episodes, 2010–13)
Midwinter of the Spirit (3 episodes, 2015)
Bancroft (4 episodes, 2017)
Gentleman Jack (2019)
 It's a Sin (2021)
Good Omens (2019–present)

Executive producer
Doctor Who (7 episodes, 2007–08, 2023–)
The Sarah Jane Adventures (11 episodes, 2007)

Head of Drama
BBC Manchester (2008–10)

References

External links

Portrait on imitation £20 note, BBC prop from Runaway Bride

1970 births
Male actors from Manchester
Mass media people from Manchester
English television producers
English television writers
English LGBT actors
English gay actors
Living people
British male television writers
20th-century English LGBT people
21st-century English LGBT people

Phil Collinson


Convenția CMR (denumirea completă a Convenției privind contractul de transport rutier internațional de mărfuri) este o convenție a Organizației Națiunilor Unite, semnată la Geneva la 19 mai 1956. Aceasta se referă la diverse aspecte juridice privind transportul rutier de mărfuri. Acesta a fost ratificat de majoritatea statelor europene. În februarie 2017, a fost ratificat de 44 de state.

Pe baza CMR, Uniunea Internațională a Transporturilor Rutiere (IRU) a elaborat o scrisoare de trăsură standard CMR. Foaia de parcurs CMR este pregătită în trei limbi. Pe spate este textul din nou în trei limbi. Aceasta contribuie la acceptarea și recunoașterea scrisorii de trăsură în întreaga Europă. Verificat de către vamă și poliție, trebuie să existe un document de transport atunci când transportul este transportat. Documentul în sine nu este prescris; există minimum de informații necesare privind CMR. Dacă sunt expediate substanțe periculoase, sunt necesare unele informații suplimentare, după cum se descrie în ADR.

Referințe

Legături externe
Full text of the convention
Ratifications.
UNILAW Database: Full text Status Caselaw Bibliography

Tratate încheiate în 1956
Tratatele intrate în vigoare în 1961
Tratate de transport
Tratate ale României

Convenția CMR


Tour of Alberta er et canadisk etapeløb i landevejscykling som arrangeres hvert år i september. Løbet blev for første gang arrangeret i 2013. Løbet er af UCI klassificeret med 2.1 og er en del af UCI America Tour.

Vindere

Eksterne henvisninger

Cykelløb i Canada
Etableret i 2013

Tour of Alberta


Ivo Pavić (Hrvatska Tišina, BIH,  18. svibnja 1965.) - hrvatski katolički svećenik u Bosni i Hercegovini, franjevac, karizmatik

Rođen je 18. svibnja 1965. godine u Hrvatskoj Tišini kraj Bosanskog Šamca, gdje je pohađao srednju školu. Radio je u tvornici, dok u 24. godini nije osjetio svećenički poziv i odlazi u Franjevačku provinciju Bosna Srebrena, gdje stupa u postulaturu na Franjevačkoj klasičnoj gimnaziji u Visokom. Nakon toga, 17. srpnja 1990. u župi Osova oblaci franjevački habit i odlazi u novicijat. Teologiju je studirao u Sarajevu i Samoboru. Jednostavne zavjete položio je 8. srpnja 1991. u Sarajevu, a svečane 10. rujna 1995. u Samoboru. Zaređen je za svećenika Katoličke Crkve 29. lipnja 1997. Diplomirao je na Franjevačkom teološkom fakultetu u Sarajevu s temom: "Razmišljanje Karla Rahnera o Kristovu uskrsnuću kao temelju kršćanske vjere". Bio je župni vikar u Rumbocima, Uskoplju, Tuzli i Tolisi u Bosni i Hercegovini. Magistrirao je s temom "Ozdravljenje po molitvi" 2007. godine.

Po dvoranama i stadionima širom Bosne i Hercegovine i izvan nje održava vrlo posjećene molitvene susrete. Poznat je kao karizmatik kojem vjernici hodočaste i koji na svojim molitvenim susretima okuplja desetke tisuća ljudi, najviše u crkvi Presvetog Srca Isusova u Šurkovcu kraj Prijedora, gdje je župnik od 2009. godine. Doktorirao je 2011. godine s temom "Krštenje u Duhu Svetom u Crkvi s posebnim osvrtom na kontekst u Hrvatskoj i Bosni i Hercegovini" na Institutu za duhovnost Papinskoga sveučilišta Gregoriana u Rimu i time stekao akademski stupanj doktora znanosti.

Izvori

Hrvatski katolički svećenici
Hrvatski katolički svećenici iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Bosanskohercegovački franjevci

Ivo Pavić


في الاقتصاد، وبشكلٍ عام، يشكل الاستهلاك الشخصي للسلع والخدمات أكثر من ثلثي النشاطات الاقتصادية الأخرى. وبالنظر إلى إحصائيات الاستهلاك الشخصي بشكل دقيق، نجد أن ما يقارب 59% من الاستهلاك الشخصي يكون مرتكزاً على الخدمات، بينما 11.5% منه يعتمد على البضائع طويلة الأجل ( المعمرة أو الصلبة)، و 29% يكون من نصيب البضائع قصيرة الأجل (الخفيفة).

في هذا المقال، سوف أركز على البضائع طويلة الأجل وقصيرة الأجل، ملقيةً الضوء على العديد من النواحي المتعلقة بهما.

البضائع طويلة الأجل
أو كما تسمى السلع الصلبة، هي السلع التي تستهلك وتستخدم لمدة طويلة من الزمن غالبا ما تتعدى ثلاث سنوات، ولا تبلى بسهولة. وتعتبر كلاً من وسائل النقل والمواصلات، والأجهزة كالثلاجات وكذلك المعدات الرياضية وأثاث المنازل أيضاً مثالاً واضحاً لهذا النوع من السلع.

ومن الجدير بالذكر هنا أن السلع طويلة الأجل تختلف في صلابتها وعمرها، فهناك البضائع التي تكون صلبة ومتينة لمدة طويلة من الزمن كالسيارات والثلاجات. وهناك من السلع الصلبة التي لاتبلى أبداً كطوب وأدوات البناء. وتقاس صلابة ومتانة سلعةُ ما من خلال المدة الزمنية الواقعة بين عمليتي شراء لنفس السلعة.

البضائع قصيرة الأجل
أو كما تسمى السلع الخفيفة، على العكس من السلع الصلبة، هي السلع التي تستهلك في مدة زمنية قصيرة لا تتعدى سنة واحدة. ومن الأمثلة الواضحة لهذا النواع من السلع الملابس والأدوية و الأطعمة بأنواعها والورق أيضاً.

مما يميز السلع والبضائع الصلبة هو ارتفاع أسعارها عن السلع الخفيفة. بينما يميز البضائع قصيرة الأجل بأنها تستبدل بغيرها سريعاً، وتكون عمليات الشراء فيها متكررة.

طلبات البضائع طويلة الأجل
تُعد طلبات البضائع طويلة الأجل إحدى أهم وأشهر المؤشرات الاقتصادية التي تؤثر في قوة واتجاه الاقتصاد، حيث تؤثر المؤشرات الاقتصادية بشكلٍ كبير ومباشر على اتجاهات السوق. ويُعتبر التنبؤ الدقيق باتجاهات السوق أحد أكبر عوامل زيادة الأرباح في التجارة.

تشمل تقارير طلبات البضائع طويلة الأجل تقديراً لحجم الطلب، وقيمة الشحن والتخزين حيث يتم إصدارها شهرياً وتتم متابعتها من قبل وزارة التجارة. أيضاً تشمل هذه التقارير إحصائية للطلبات الجديدة وإجمالي ما تم إلغاؤها منها، وإجمالي الأعمال والطلبات التي لم يتم إنجازها حتى صدور التقرير. ويتم إجراء هذه التقارير على النشاطات الاقتصادية الحالية وذلك من أجل إعطاء صورة مستقبلية عن الاتجاهات التجارية لهذه الصناعات. حيث يدل ارتفاع الطلب للبضائع الصلبة إشارةً واضحة على ارتفاع الحاجة والطلب والإنتاج؛ وبالتالي قوة الاقتصاد. بينما يدل انخفاض الطلب على ضعف الإنتاج والاقتصاد.

كما تساعد هذه التقارير على معرفة إجمالي الإنتاج المحلي واتجاهات التوظيف المستقبلية إضافةً إلى رأس المال الذي يتم إنفاقه. كمثالاً على ذلك، وُجد أن الأوامر الجديدة المتعلقة بالصناعات غير الدفاعية، باستثناء الطائرات، تُعتبر تعويضاً جيداً لرأس المال المنفق. كما يتضح أن السلع والطلبات التي لم يتم إنجازها من هذا النوع من الصناعات يمكن الاستفادة منها لمعرفة مدى استمرار واستدامة رأس المال.

أثر ارتفاع معدل الطلب على السوق
نلاحظ أن التضخم والارتفاع في معدل الطلب للسلع الصلبة قد يؤثر سلباً على السوق؛ فكلما زاد التضخم والطلب أدى ذلك إلى نزول أسعار السلع والأسهم، مما قد يقود إلى تدهور الاقتصاد. وهذه الصورة توضح الأثر بشكلٍ أكبر:

نهايةً، تستخدم تقارير قياس طلب السلع الصلبة من أجل تقدير الاتجاه الاقتصادي السنوي ضمن تقارير يتم إصدارها سنوياً؛ حيث أن الآداء الاقتصادي يتم قياسه نهاية كل عام من أجل تقديم توقعات جيدة لإجمالي الإنتاج المحلي (مجموع الأموال التي تم تحصيلها من الخدمات والسلع المنتجة خلال السنة).

المراجع

Durable goods

Durable goods in Financial & Investment

Durable Goods Orders

Durable Goods Orders

Durable Goods Orders

Durable goods orders

تسويق
علم الاقتصاد

بضائع قصيرة وطويلة الأجل


Die Spanish International 1999 im Badminton fanden vom 18. bis zum 21. November 1999 in Sevilla statt. Es war die 21. Auflage des Turniers.

Sieger und Platzierte

Weblinks
 http://www.tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=E23C7E20-0417-4C73-B937-217847F68638

1999
Badminton 1999
Badmintonwettbewerb in Sevilla
EBU Circuit 1999/2000

Spanish International 1999


Stormbringer is the ninth studio album by English rock band Deep Purple, released in November 1974. It was the band's second studio album to feature the Mk III lineup including vocalist David Coverdale and bassist/vocalist Glenn Hughes.

Album cover and title
The cover image of Stormbringer is based on a photo. On 8 July 1927 a tornado near the town of Jasper, Minnesota, was photographed by Lucille Handberg. Her photograph has become a classic image, and was used and edited for the album's cover. The same photograph was used for Miles Davis' album Bitches Brew in 1970 and Siouxsie and the Banshees' album Tinderbox in 1986.

Stormbringer is the name of the second Elric of Melniboné novel by Michael Moorcock. It is the name of a magical sword described in many novels and comics by Moorcock and others which enjoyed enormous success in the 1960s and '70s. David Coverdale has denied knowledge of this until shortly after recording the album. In an interview with Charles Shaar Murray in the New Musical Express he claimed that the name was from mythology. A few years later, Moorcock collaborated with Blue Öyster Cult to write "Black Blade", a song that actually was about the sword Stormbringer.

According to Glenn Hughes, the slurred gibberish that is spoken by Coverdale at the beginning of the title track just prior to the first verse is the same backwards dialogue that Linda Blair's character utters in the film The Exorcist, when she is questioned by the priest.

Release and reception

In a retrospective review Alex Henderson of AllMusic writes that "Stormbringer falls short of the excellence of Machine Head and Who Do We Think We Are, but nonetheless boasts some definite classics – including the fiery "Lady Double Dealer," the ominous title song (a goth metal treasure), the sweaty "High Ball Shooter," and the melancholy ballad "Soldier of Fortune."

Guitarist Ritchie Blackmore left Deep Purple following Stormbringer and its subsequent tour, publicly citing his dislike for the funky direction the band was taking. Glenn Hughes nevertheless praises the album and Blackmore's contributions: "People who listen to Stormbringer, please listen...Ritchie Blackmore is damn funky, whether he likes it or not.  He played wonderfully on the album."

Reissues
In 1990, the album was remastered and re-released in the US by Metal Blade Records, with distribution by Warner Bros.

The Friday Music label released a version in the United States on 31 July 2007 (along with Made in Europe and Come Taste the Band). It is unclear which tapes were used as a source for this release, but the label's website claims that the album was digitally remastered (but not expanded).

Additionally EMI (Deep Purple's label for much of the world outside the US) worked with Glenn Hughes on a remastered, expanded version of the album (much like the Burn rerelease) which included bonus remixes and alternative takes.

35th Anniversary Edition
On 23 February 2009 the 35th Anniversary Edition of Stormbringer was released for the European/international market only. The release was expanded into a limited edition two-disc set: the first disc contained the full remastered album along with the new remixes, and the second disc was a DVD containing the quadraphonic mix in 5.1 audio as originally released in the USA on Quad reel back in 1974. After a limited run of the CD/DVD edition, the album became available in a single CD edition. A limited double gatefold vinyl edition was also released.

In popular culture
The song "Stormbringer" is used in the series finale of the US television series Ash vs. Evil Dead.

Track listing

Personnel

Deep Purple
 Ritchie Blackmore – guitars
 David Coverdale – lead vocals (all but "Holy Man"), backing vocals
 Glenn Hughes – bass guitar, backing vocals, lead vocals ("Holy Man")
 Jon Lord – organ, keyboards, electric piano, backing vocals
 Ian Paice – drums, percussion

Production
 Produced by Deep Purple and Martin Birch
 Recorded at Musicland Studios, Munich in August 1974
 Engineered by Martin Birch, assisted by Reinhold Mack and Hans Menzel
 Additional recording and mixing by Martin Birch and Ian Paice, assisted by Gary Webb and Garry Ladinsky at The Record Plant, Los Angeles during September 1974
 Mastered at Kendun Recorders, Burbank, California
 35th Anniversary Edition digital mastering and remastering by Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios, London
 Remixes for the "35th Anniversary Edition" mixed by Glenn Hughes with Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios, London, 3 November 2006
 "High Ball Shooter" (instrumental) mixed by Gary Massey at Abbey Road Studios, London, April 2002
 Original Quad mix by Gary Ladinsky at The Record Plant, October 1974
 Reformatted for 5.1 surround sound by Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios, London, February 2008

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

Accolades

References

External links
 9th studio album
 The Deep Purple Podcast – Episode #18 – Stormbringer

Deep Purple albums
1974 albums
Albums produced by Martin Birch
Warner Records albums
Purple Records albums
Hard rock albums by English artists
Blues rock albums by English artists
Funk rock albums by English artists

Stormbringer (album)


Prințul Mehmed (în ; ) a fost un prinț otoman (), fiul sultanului otoman Soliman Magnificul și al soției sale, Roxelana. Mehmed a avut o fiică, , împreună cu consoarta sa, Esmehan Baharnaz Sultan.

Mehmed s-a născut într-o perioadă rece de toamnă la Paltul Topkapı din Istanbul. A fost fratele prinților Baiazid, Abdullah și , al sultanei Mihrimah și al viitorului sultan Selim al II-lea. Prințesa , prințul Mustafa și  au fost frații săi vitregi, născuți din alte mame.

La vârsta de opt ani, la 27 iunie 1530, are loc  ceremonia de circumcizie a lui Mehmed și ai fraților săi, Mustafa și Selim. Capitala sărbătorește timp de 15 zile, perioadă în care toate familiile pot pregăti băieții pentru această procedură, care începe de la vârsta de cinci ani.

Încă de la o vârstă fragedă, Mehmed este cuprins de arta și cultura otomană și învață până la 14 ani, 4 limbi străine: arabă, persană, latină și italiană. La vârsta de 15 ani își imprimă prima semnătură caligrafică (tughra) care va reprezenta identitatea sa în toate lucrările și documentele oficiale. Este pasionat de arta muzicii și de botanică și le cere părinților săi acordul de a-și proiecta propria grădină cu plante exotice în incinta curții palatului.

Deși, în mod normal, nu era moștenitor direct al tronului, Mehmed devine copilul favorit al lui Soliman, nu doar pentru că era cel mai inteligent dintre prinți, ci și datorită faptului că era primul fiu născut din soția sa legală, sultana Hürrem (Roxelana). Acest lucru l-a avantajat în 1542, atunci când a fost denumit de către tatăl său, noul guvernator al provinciei Manisa (singurul sangeac condus de prințul moștenitor tron). A fost pus în funcție în locul fratelui său, prințul Mustafa care era, cronologic, primul prinț moștenitor la tron. Decizia a fost luată din cauza conflictelor apărute între Mustafa și tatăl său. Cauzele conflictelor erau faptele și deciziile incorecte pe care Mustafa le săvârșea de unul singur, fără acordul tatălui său. Acest fapt exprima în opinia lui Soliman, o rebeliune a fiului său împotriva sa. Soliman începe să-și piardă tot mai mult încrederea în Mustafa, pe când încrederea în Mehmed creștea considerabil, luându-l pe acesta în majoritatea campaniilor militare. După instaurarea noului moștenitor al tronului în provincia Manisa, Mustafa este trimis să guverneze provincia Amasya, o altă provincie destul de mare, situată în partea estică a imperiului, dar fiind cea mai depărtată de capitală. Mustafa își pierde orice speranță referitoare la moștenirea tronului tatălui său.

La vârsta de 20 de ani, Mehmed își începe activitatea de guvernator al Manisei, perioada cea mai importantă din viața sa în care drumul spre tronul otoman era clar și bine clădit de părinții săi. În același timp, frații săi mai mici guvernau alte două provincii importante: Selim guverna Konya, iar Bayazid guverna Kütahya.

În mod normal, sultana Hürrem trebuia să plece împreună cu Mehmed spre Manisa, dar aceasta rămâne la palat împreună cu Soliman, fapt care încalca regula impusă de predecesori ("fiecare prinț, în momentul guvernării unui sangeac, este obligat să fie însoțit de mama sa, iar dacă prințul rămâne fără mamă, atunci o soră, ori o mamă vitregă trebuie să-l însoțească").

Mehmed reușește să coordoneze provincia Manisa timp de doar un an (din 12 noiembrie 1542, până la 7 noiembrie 1543), deoarece este contaminat cu variolă, boală care îi aduce moartea după câteva săptămâni de luptă cu boala. Se presupune că moartea sa ar fi fost o capcană pusă intenționat, dar nu se știe exact cine este persoana care a dat acest ordin de a îl ucide. Mehmed este înhumat în Moscheea Șehzade din Istanbul.

Nașteri în 1521
Decese în 1543
Otomani
Istoria Imperiului Otoman
Soliman Magnificul

Prințul Mehmed


Ayakkabı; ayakların yerle doğrudan temasını keserek yabancı maddelerden ve değişik hava koşullarından koruyan, bunun yanı sıra şıklığı tamamlayan her türlü ayak giyimi'dir. Bot, çizme, sandalet, topuklu, spor ayakkabı, iskarpin gibi pek çok farklı türü vardır. Genelde "taban" adı verilen alt parça ile "saya" denen üst parçadan oluşur. Ayakkabının yer ile temasında dolayı yıprandığı için taban daha dayanıklı ve kalın bir malzeme kullanılarak yapılır. Ayağı saran saya ise deri, kumaş gibi daha ince bir malzemeden yapılır.

Ayakkabı modelleri çağlar boyunca çok çeşitlilik göstermiştir. Bunun başlıca nedeni ayakkabıların tropikal iklimden soğuk iklime kadar değişen farklı coğrafyalara ve modaya uygun yapılmasıdır.

Tarihçe
Ayakkabının tarihi kıyafetlerin tarihi kadar eskidir. Eski çağlarda çoğu insan, tabanı deriden ya da tahtadan sandallar giyerdi. Bu tür sandallara örneğin Antik Mısır'da rastlanır. Eski Yunanların avlanırken çizme giydikleri bilinmektedir. Bunun yanında hamama da bir tür ayakkabı ile girdikleri bilinmektedir. Girit'teki Minos uygarlığı ve Roma dönemlerinde bu tür ayakkabı ve çizmeler kullanılmıştır.

Orta Çağda, ayağı sarması için yumuşak deri ya da kumaştan yapılan ayakkabıların burunları sivriydi. Yolculuk sırasında ise potinler ya da baldırlara kadar çıkan çizmeler giyilirdi. 14. yüzyıl sonlarına doğru öylesine uzun burunlu ayakkabılar üretildi ki, bunlarla yürüyebilmek için ayakkabının burnunu bir zincirle diz kemerine bağlamak gerekiyordu.

Daha sonraki tarihlerde ayakkabılara yüksek mantar topuklar eklendi. Ayakkabıyı korumak amacıyla giyilen mantar topuklu şosonlar 1575'te moda oldu. Ama kötü havalarda ya da çok yağışlı bölgelerde tahta tabanlı ayakkabılar da giyiliyordu. Bu tür tahta ayakkabıları (sabo), Hollandalı çiftçiler günümüzde de giyerler.

17. yüzyılın başlarında ayakkabıların yerini alan yüksek topuklu uzun çizmeler, evde bile giyiliyordu. Sonraları, dantelli çorapların görünmesi için çizmelerin üst kenarları dışa doğru kıvrıldı. 1660'tan sonra siyah, üzeri bağcıklı ya da tokalı, kalkık kare burunlu ayakkabılar çizmenin yerini aldı. Kadın ayakkabıları erkek ayakkabılarının modasını izledi. 17. yüzyıldan başlayarak, sivri burun ve yüksek topuklarıyla özgün bir biçim aldı.

1720'lere kadar kare burunlu ayakkabılar yaygındı. Bu tarihten sonra bunların yerini yuvarlak burunlu ayakkabılar aldı. 1770'lerde üstte geniş kıvrımları bulunmayan uzun çizmeler moda oldu.
18. yüzyılda kadın ayakkabıları saten ya da brokardan yapılıyor ve toka, kurdele ya da fiyonklarla süsleniyordu. Yüksek topuklu ayakkabılar 1790'da tümüyle ortadan kalktı. Sokaklar ve yollar öylesine kötü ve çamurluydu ki, insanlar evden dışarıya çıkarken şosonlarını giymek zorunda kalıyorlardı.

19. yüzyılda kadın ayakkabıları saten ya da kadifedendi ve topuksuzdu. Erkekler ise genellikle düğmeli, bağcıklı ya da yanları esnek çizmeler giyiyorlardı. 1860'ların bağcıksız ve yanları esnek yarım çizmeleri çoğu zaman beyaz ipekten yapılıyordu. On yıl sonra yüksek topuklar yeniden moda oldu, çizmeler de yanları düğmeli olarak yapılmaya başlandı. Ayakkabılarda ve çizmelerde hâlâ bez kullanılıyordu, ama ayakkabıların burunları bazen deriden yapılıyordu.

19. yüzyılda kadınlar fabrikalarda ve bürolarda çalışmaya, ayrıca yürüyüş ve bisiklete binmek gibi sporlar yapmaya başlayınca daha sağlam ayakkabılar kaçınılmaz hale geldi. Bağcıklı rahat yürüyüş ayakkabısı Birinci Dünya Savaşı (1914-18) sırasında ortaya çıktı. Günümüzde de ayakkabı yapımında moda önemli rol oynamaktadır. Spor yaparken kas, kiriş, bağ, kemik ve kıkırdak yaralanmaları riskinin alt düzeye çekilebilmesi için doğru ayakkabı seçimi önem taşımaktadır.

Türklerde ayakkabı
Orta Asya'da Türkler deriden ve yünden giyim eşyaları yapmakta ustaydılar. Çizme ve çarık en yaygın ayakkabı türüydü. Deri çizmenin yanı sıra, yaygın olarak yünden keçe çizme de yapılıyordu. Hükümdarlar kırmızı renkli çizmeler giyiyorlardı. Çizme ata binenler için çok elverişliydi.

Selçuklu ve Osmanlı dönemlerinde ordunun, yönetici sınıfların ve kentli halkın gereksinimlerini karşılamak üzere zamanla ayakkabı çeşitleri çoğaldı ve ayakkabıcılık çok gelişti. Diğer zanaatçıların olduğu gibi ayakkabıcıların da bir örgütü vardı. Üretilen ayakkabıların niteliğini lonca denetlerdi. Ayakkabı satıcıları için kullanılan kavaf sözcüğü, giderek yapımcıları da kapsadı. Kavaflar da çizmeci, yemenici, nalıncı, terlikçi ve pabuççu gibi adlar alırlardı.

Osmanlı toplumunda ayakkabı, giyenlerin toplumsal konumuna ve mesleğine göre çeşitlilik gösterirdi. Ev içinde yüzleri atlas ve kadife gibi kumaşlardan yapılmış, üzerleri sırmayla işlenmiş hafif ayakkabı ve terlikler giyilirdi. Dışarıda giyilen deri ayakkabı ve çizmelere de süslenirdi. Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi'nde, ince bir zevkle ve hünerle işlenmiş deri ayakkabı ve çizmeler sergilenmektedir.

Osmanlı dönemindeki ayakkabılar, yapıldıkları malzemeye, biçimlerine ve kullanıldıkları yere göre adlar alırdı. Başmak, cimcime, çapula, çizme, yarım çizme, çedik, çedik pabuç, edik, fotin, galoş, mest, kalçın, kundura, merkub, nalın, sandal, terlik, tomak, yemeni başlıca ayakkabı çeşitleriydi. Genellikle alçak ökçeli ya da ökçesiz, yumuşak deriden yapılan rahat ayakkabılar tercih edilirdi. Dışarıda giyilen ayakkabılardan bazıları mest-ayakkabı gibi iki parçadan oluşurdu. Ayağa giyilen mestin üzerine onu yağmur ve çamurdan korumak amacıyla, önceleri ayakkabı, sonraları da lastik giyildi. Şoson ya da galoş denen lastik ayakkabının içine geçirilerek giyilen mestler, bir hadise dayanarak  namaz öncesi abdestde ayak yıkamak yerine mesh ederek (sıvazlayarak) kolaylık sağlaması bakımından özellikle soğuk kış aylarında örneğin namazlarını camilerde kılanlarca kullanılır.

16.-18. yüzyıllarda İstanbul, Edirne ve Bursa'da ayakkabıcılık çok gelişmişti. 19. yüzyıl sonlarına kadar Türkiye'de ayakkabı yapımı tümüyle el işçiliğine dayanıyordu. Beykoz'daki deri fabrikasına 1884'te ayakkabı yapım bölümü eklendi. 1933'te Sümerbank'a devredilen Beykoz Deri ve Kundura Fabrikası makineli üretimin yapıldığı önemli bir yerdi. Günümüzde ayakkabı üretimi daha çok özel sektör tarafından gerçekleştirilmektedir.

Günümüzde ayakkabı

Neredeyse tamamen makinelerle yapılmaktadır. Bir işçi makineyle günde 40-50 çift üretebilir. Elle çalışan bir ayakkabıcı ise günde yaklaşık bir çift ayakkabı yapabilir.

Ayakkabı yapmak için, önce sol ve sağ ayak modelleri, sonra da bunların tahta kalıpları yapılır. Ayakkabı yapımı genellikle sekiz aşamada gerçekleşir. Hayvan derisi, kumaş ya da yapay deriden, ayakkabının sayası ve astarı uygun biçimde kesilir. Sayayı oluşturan parçalar ile astar birbirine dikilir. Ayrıca ayakkabının burnuna sertlik veren parça ile topuğa konulan yumuşak parça da dikilir. Bağcık delikleri bu aşamada açılır ve ayakkabının iç yüzeyine numara ve model kabartmaları yapılır. İç ve dış taban parçaları ile topuklar hazırlanır. Bunlar genellikle kösele, kauçuk, bunların bileşimi ya da öteki yapay malzemelerden yapılır. Topuklar tahta da olabilir. Parçaların eklenmesiyle oluşan saya, kalıbın üzerine gerilir; iç tabana dikilir ya da çivilerle tutturularak kalıplanır. Saya ve iç taban, kalıcı biçimini alıncaya kadar kalıpta tutulur. Tabanlama aşamasında dış taban sayayla birleştirilir. Bu işlem dikerek, yapıştırarak, çivileyerek ya da bunlardan birkaçı birden uygulanarak yapılabilir.

1953'te geliştirilen bir işlemle kauçuk, polivinil klorür (PVC) ve poliüretan tabanlar kalıp-baskı yöntemiyle biçimlendirilir ve ayakkabının üst bölümüne tek bir işlemde yapıştırılır. Topuklama aşamasında topuk ayakkabının tabanıyla birleştirilir ve son biçimini alır. Bitirme, cilalama, ayakkabıyı kalıptan çıkarma, topuk ve taban yastıklarının yerleştirilmesi işlemlerini içerir. En son biçimini verme sırasında bağcıklar, fiyonklar ve tokalar takılır.

Türleri
 Blucher ayakkabı
 Brogue ayakkabı
 Genelev ayakkabı
 Derby ayakkabı
 Monk ayakkabı
 Oxford ayakkabı
 Spectator ayakkabı
 Winklepicker
 Wholecut
 İskarpin
 mokasen
 Parmak arası terlik
 Galoş
 Platform ayakkabı
 Sandalet
 Terlik
 Slayt terlik
 Bale ayakkabısı
 Yüksek topuklu ayakkabılar
 Mary Janes
 Sindhi Mojari
 Mule
 Burnu açık ayakkabı
 Eyer ayakkabı
 Topuğu açık ayakkabı
 Spor ayakkabı (crossover)
 Sneaker
 Bale ayakkabısı
 Yelken ayakkabısı
 Tırmanış ayakkabısı
 Koşu ayakkabısı
 Bisiklet ayakkabısı
 Krampon (futbol ayakkabısı)
 Ghillie (ayakkabı
 Yürüyüş botu
 Buz pateni
 Çizgili paten
 Jika-tabi
 Kung fu ayakkabısı
 Minimalist ayakkabı
 Motosiklet botu
 Dağcılık botu
 Bez ayakkabı (Plimsoll)
 Yarış ayakkabısı
 Binicilik botu
 Makaralı ayakkabı
 Tekerlekli paten
 Safari botu
 Paten ayakkabı
 Kayak botu
 Yüzme paleti
 Su ayakkabısı
 Güreş ayakkabısı

Ayrıca bakınız
Kar ayakkabısı
 Yelken ayakkabısı
 Aglet
 Ev ve ibadethanelerde ayakkabı çıkarma geleneği

Kaynakça

Ayak giyimi

Ayakkabı


The Armistice Day Blizzard (or the Armistice Day Storm) took place in the Midwest region of the United States on November 11 (Armistice Day) and November 12, 1940. The intense early-season "panhandle hook" winter storm cut a 1,000-mile-wide (1600 km) swath through the middle of the country from Kansas to Michigan.

Meteorological synopsis
On November 7, 1940, the low pressure system that later developed into the storm was affecting the Pacific Northwest and produced the  winds that destroyed the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. On November 10 the fast-moving storm crossed the Rocky Mountains in just two hours on its way to the Midwest.

The morning of November 11, 1940, brought with it unseasonably high temperatures in the Upper Midwest. By early afternoon, temperatures approached  over most of the affected region. However, as the day wore on conditions quickly deteriorated. Severe weather was reported across much of the Midwest with heavy rain and snow, a tornado, and gale-force winds were all reported. Temperatures dropped sharply, winds picked up and rain, followed by sleet and then snow, began to fall. An intense low pressure system tracked from the southern plains northeastward into western Wisconsin, pulling Gulf of Mexico moisture up from the South and pulling down a cold arctic air mass from the North.

The result was a raging blizzard that would last into the next day. Snowfalls of up to , winds of ,  snow drifts, and  temperature drops were common over parts of the states of Nebraska, South Dakota, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. In Minnesota,  of snow fell at Collegeville, and the Twin Cities recorded . Record low pressures were recorded in La Crosse, Wisconsin, and Duluth, Minnesota. Transportation and communications were crippled, which made finding the dead and injured more difficult. The Armistice Day Blizzard ranks #2 in Minnesota's list of the top five weather events of the 20th century.

Survivors describe the cold as so severe that it was difficult to breathe, with the air so moisture laden it was thick like syrup and that the cold seared the survivors lungs like a red-hot blade. Many individuals claim that animals were aware of the upcoming weather shifts which led to animals moving rapidly from the area. Duck hunters who were out at the time were amazed at the amount of ducks that were in the area and on the move through the skies, one survivor recounting there were thousands.  Future Minnesota Vikings coach Bud Grant was caught in this storm.

Casualties
A total of 146 deaths were blamed on the storm, with the following instances being noteworthy:
Along the Mississippi River several hundred duck hunters had taken time off from work and school to take advantage of the ideal hunting conditions. Weather forecasters had not predicted the severity of the oncoming storm, and as a result many of the hunters were not dressed for cold weather. When the storm began many hunters took shelter on small islands in the Mississippi River, and the  winds and 5-foot (1.5 m) waves overcame their encampments. Some became stranded on the islands and then froze to death as temperatures went below  overnight. Others tried to make it to shore and drowned. Duck hunters constituted about half of the 49 deaths in Minnesota. Those who survived told of how ducks came south with the storm by the thousands, and everybody could have shot their daily limit had they not been focused on survival.
Casualties were lessened by the efforts of Max Conrad, a pioneering light plane pilot and flight school owner and John R. "Bob" Bean (one of the flight school instructors) both based in Winona, Minnesota, 25 miles upriver from La Crosse. They flew up and down the river in the wake of the storm, locating survivors and dropping supplies to them. Both men were nominated for the Carnegie Medal for their heroism.
One survivor, Gerald Tarras, survived the storm in Minneapolis due to the two family Labrador retriever dogs who lay beside him and provided body heat to protect him.
In Watkins, Minnesota, 2 people died when a passenger train and a freight train collided in the blinding snow. Watkins residents formed a human chain to lead the passengers to safety.
In Lake Michigan, 66 sailors died in the sinking of three freighters, the SS Anna C. Minch, the SS Novadoc, and the SS William B. Davock, and two smaller boats.
13 people died in Illinois, 13 in Wisconsin, and 4 in Michigan.
Additionally, 1.5 million turkeys intended for Thanksgiving dinners across Minnesota perished from exposure to the cold conditions.

Aftermath
Prior to this event, all of the weather forecasts for the region originated in Chicago. After the failure to provide an accurate forecast for this blizzard, forecasting responsibilities were expanded to include 24-hour coverage and more forecasting offices were created, yielding more accurate local forecasts.

The U.S. Weather Bureau was criticized that it failed to predict the huge blizzard and officials released a statement that they were aware that the storm was coming but wrong about its strength and scope. The Twin Cities (Minneapolis/St. Paul) branch of Meteorology was upgraded to issue forecasts and not rely on the Chicago site.

See also
Climate of Minnesota
 Great Lakes Storm of 1913
 Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes
Mataafa Storm
Collapse of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, an infamous bridge collapse caused by the same low pressure system several days prior

References

External links
Armistice Day Blizzard
Yesterday's news: Storm paralyzes Minnesota
Armistice Day Blizzard of 1940, a podcast by the Minnesota Historical Society on the storm and subsequent changes to the National Weather Service's forecasting practices.

1940-11
1940 meteorology
1940 natural disasters in the United States
Natural disasters in Minnesota
Natural disasters in Wisconsin
1940 in Minnesota
1940 in Wisconsin
November 1940 events
Michigan State Historic Sites

1940 Armistice Day Blizzard


NGC 7762 je otvoreni skup u zviježđu Cefeju.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7762
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7762 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7762 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7750 - 7799

7762

NGC 7762


A X-a ediție a Premiilor Gopo  a fost festivitatea de premiere a celor mai reușite prestații din industria cinematografică românească difuzate între 1 ianuarie și 31 decembrie 2015.

Nominalizări și câștigători

Legături externe
 Câștigătorii Premiilor Gopo 2016  pe site-ul oficial

2016
2016 în România
2016

Gopo 2016


Acroceras, biljni rod iz porodice trava. Postoji dvadesetak vrsta u tropskim i suptropskim krajevima Amerike, Afrike i Azije.

Vrste

 Acroceras amplectens Stapf
 Acroceras attenuatum Renvoize
 Acroceras boivinii (Mez) A.Camus
 Acroceras bosseri A.Camus
 Acroceras calcicola A.Camus
 Acroceras chaseae Zuloaga & Morrone
 Acroceras diffusum L.C.Chia
 Acroceras elegans A.Camus
 Acroceras excavatum (Henrard) Zuloaga & Morrone
 Acroceras fluminense (Hack.) Zuloaga & Morrone
 Acroceras gabunense (Hack.) Clayton
 Acroceras hubbardii (A.Camus) Clayton
 Acroceras ivohibense A.Camus
 Acroceras lateriticum A.Camus
 Acroceras macrum Stapf
 Acroceras mandrarense A.Camus
 Acroceras manongarivense A.Camus
 Acroceras munroanum (Balansa) Henrard
 Acroceras parvulum A.Camus
 Acroceras sambiranense A.Camus
 Acroceras seyrigii A.Camus
 Acroceras tenuicaule A.Camus
 Acroceras tonkinense (Balansa) C.E.Hubb. ex Bor
 Acroceras zizanioides (Kunth) Dandy

Izvori

Boivinellinae

Acroceras


الكلية  تطلق على أي مؤسسة تعليمية تقدم شهادات عليا لما بعد المرحلة الثانوية كما تطلق على أقسام الجامعات فيقال مثلا كلية إدارة الأعمال أو كلية تقنية المعلومات والحاسوب.

انظر أيضًا
 جامعة
 تعليم ثالثي
 عام دراسي
 مدرسة إسلامية

المراجع

أنواع الجامعات والكليات
تعليم حسب المرحلة
تعليم عال
جامعات
جامعات وكليات
جهات حكومية
شباب

كلية (مؤسسة)


Maria Beatrice af Savoyen (italiensk: Maria Beatrice Vittoria Giuseppina di Savoia) (født 6. december 1792 i Torino, Kongeriget Sardinien, død 15. september 1840 i Kongeriget Lombardiet-Venetien) var prinsesse af Savoyen og Sardinien, gennem sit ægteskab blev hun hertuginde af Modena.

Forfædre
Maria Beatrice af Savoyen var datter af kong Viktor Emanuel 1. af Sardinien-Piemont.

Hun var barnebarn af Maria Antonia af Spanien, kong Viktor Emanuel 1. af Sardinien-Piemont og Ferdinand af Østrig-Este.

Maria Beatrice var oldebarn af kong Karl Emmanuel 3. af Sardinien-Piemont, Elisabeth Farnese, kong Filip 5. af Spanien, kejserinde Maria Theresia af Østrig og den tysk-romerske kejser Frans 1. Stefan.

Familie
I 1812 gav paven en dispensation, så hun kunne blive gift med sin morbror (Frans 4. af Østrig-Este og Modena), der blev hertug i Modena, da franskmændene sig ud i 1814.

Frans 4. var søn af Ferdinand af Østrig-Este (1754-1806) samt sønnesøn af kejserinde Maria Theresia af Østrig og den tysk-romerske kejser Frans 1. Stefan

Maria Beatrice og Frans 4. fik fire børn:
 Maria Theresia (1817–1886) var gift med en sønnesøn af kong Karl 10. af Frankrig. Ægteskabet var barnløst. Frem til sin død i 1883 var hendes mand prætendent til den franske trone.
 Frans 5. (1819–1875) var hertug af Modena i 1846–1859. Han var gift med en datter af Ludvig 1. af Bayern. Ægteskabet var barnløst.
 Ferdinand Karl Viktor (1821–1849) var gift med Elisabeth Franziska af Østrig-Ungarn. De fik een datter: Marie Therese af Østrig-Este (1849–1919), (gift med kong Ludwig 3. af Bayern).
 Maria Beatrix (1824–1906) var gift med Don Juan Carlos María Isidro de Borbón (Juan, greve af Montizón), der var carlisternes tronprætendent i 1860–1868, og fransk prætendent i 1883–1887. Maria Beatrix og Don Juan Carlos fik to sønner.

Kilder

Huset Savoyen

Maria Beatrice af Savoyen


Led Zeppelin, 1968 yılında Londra'da kurulan İngiliz rock grubudur. Led Zeppelin, gitarda Jimmy Page, davulda John Bonham, bas gitarda John Paul Jones ve vokalist olarak da Robert Plant tarafından dört kişilik bir grup olarak kurulmuştur.

Grup daha çok Heavy Metal müzik tarzının öncülerinden biri olarak tanınsa da yaptığı müzikle Blues, Rockabilly de dahil olmak üzere birçok farklı popüler müzik türünü aynı potada eritti. Popüler ve kolay erişilebilir kalmakla beraber istikrarlı bir şekilde yenilikçi olunabileceğini de kanıtlamışlardır. 1980 yılında John Bonham'ın ölümüyle dağılan grup hâlâ Rock müzik tarihindeki etkileri nedeniyle saygı görmeye devam etmektedir.

Grup, bugüne kadar 111 milyonu Amerika'da olmak üzere dünya genelinde toplam 300 milyonun üzerinde albüm satışına ulaşmıştır (Amerika'da satış sıralamasında The Beatles'ın ardından ikinci sıradadır).

Led Zeppelin, Rolling Stone dergisi tarafından "tartışmasız rock tarihinin en uzun soluklu gruplarından biri" olarak tanımlanmıştır.

"Stairway to Heaven"ın yanı sıra en popüler parçalarından bazıları:
"All My Love", "Thank You", Babe I'm Gonna Leave You", Rock and Roll", "Black Dog", "Heartbreaker",
"Living Loving Maid", "Immigrant Song", "Kashmir","Since I've Been Lovin' You",
"Dazed and Confused", "Misty Mountain Hop",
"Whole Lotta Love", "Communication Breakdown",
"Achilles Last Stand", "Fool in the Rain",
"Moby Dick", "When the Levee Breaks", "No Quarter",
"Good Times, Bad Times", "The Song Remains The Same" ve "In My Time Of Dying"

Led Zeppelin'in adı bulunmayan dördüncü albümünün kapağında grup elemanlarının imza olarak kullandığı dört mistik şekil  bulunmaktadır: John Bonham birbirine bağlı üç çemberden oluşan şekli; John Paul Jones özgüven ve ustalığı tasvir eden Kelt şeklini; Robert Plant Mu uygarlığının bir şeklini; ve Jimmy Page de "Zoso" olarak söylenen gizemli şekli. Sözleri İngiliz mistik edebiyatının ünlü kadın yazarlarından Lewis Spence'in "The Magic Arts in Celtic Brain" adlı kitabından etkilenen Robert Plant tarafından yazılan ve elinde mistik güçleri bulunan doğaüstü bir kadının ruhsal arayışlarını içeren ve tüm zamanların en büyük rock şarkılarından biri olarak nitelenen "Stairway to Heaven" şarkısı bu albümde yer almaktadır.

Diskografi

Stüdyo Albümleri
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:33px;"| Yıl
! rowspan="2" style="width:220px;"| Albüm Bilgileri
! colspan="8"| Tepe Noktaları
! rowspan="2" | Sertifikalar ve Satışlar
|-
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| BK
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| AVU
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| KAN
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| FRA
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| DAN
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| HOL
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| NOR
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"| ABD
|-
|rowspan=2| 1969
|style="text-align:left"| Led Zeppelin
Yayınlanma Tarihi: 12 Ocak 1969 (ABD)
Yayınlanma Tarihi: 31 Mart 1969 (BK)
Şirket: Atlantic
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 14+ Milyon
| <small>6
| <small>9
| <small>11
| <small>19
| <small>32
| <small>-
| <small>16
| <small>10
|
AVS: 2× Platinum (140,000)
KAN: Diamond (1,000,000)
FRA: Platinum (100,000)
HOL: Gold (25,000)
İSV: Gold (15,000)
BK: 2× Platinum (600,000)
ABD: 8× Platinum (8,000,000)
İSP: Platinum (60,000)
|-
|style="text-align:left"| Led Zeppelin II
Yayınlanma Tarihi: 22 Ekim 1969
Şirket: Atlantic
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 20+ Milyon
| <small>1
| <small>1
| <small>1
| <small>3
| <small>1
| <small>1
| <small>2
| <small>1
|
AVS: 4× Platinum (280,000)
AVT: Gold (25,000)
KAN: 9× Platinum (900,000)
FRA: 2× Gold (200,000)
ALM: Platinum (500,000)
ARJ: Gold (30,000)
BK: 4× Platinum (1,200,000)
ABD: 12× Platinum (12,000,000)
|-
|1970
|style="text-align:left"| Led Zeppelin III
Yayınlanma Tarihi: 5 Ekim 1970
Şirket: Atlantic
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 12+ Milyon
| <small>1
| <small>1
| <small>1
| <small>4
| <small>3
| <small>3
| <small>3
| <small>1
|
AVS: 3× Platinum (210,000)
FRA: Platinum (300,000)
ALM: Gold (250,000)
HOL: Gold (50,000)
ARJ: Platinum (40,000)
İSV: Gold (25,000)
ABD: 6× Platinum (6,000,000)
|-
|1971
|style="text-align:left"| Led Zeppelin IV
Yayınlanma Tarihi: 8 Kasım 1971
Şirket: Atlantic
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 37+ Milyon
| <small>1
| <small>2
| <small>1
| <small>2
| <small>9
| <small>7
| <small>3
| <small>2
|
AVS: 8× Platinum (560,000)
KAN: 2× Diamond (2,000,000)
FRA: 2× Platinum (600,000)
ALM: 3× Gold (750,000)
HOL: Platinum (100,000)
İSV: Platinum (50,000)
BRE: Gold (100,000)
ARJ: Platinum (60,000)
BK: 6× Platinum (1,800,000)
ABD: 23× Platinum (23,000,000)
|-
|1973
|style="text-align:left"| Houses of the Holy
Yayınlanma Tarihi: 28 Mart 1973
Şirket: Atlantic
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 17+ Milyon
| <small>'1
| <small>'''1
| <small>'''1
| <small>3
| <small>8
| <small>4
| <small>4
| <small>1
|
FRA: 2× Gold (200,000)
ALM: Gold (250,000)
BK: Platinum (300,000)
ARJ: Gold (30,000)
ABD: 11× Platinum (11,000,000)
|-
|1975
|style="text-align:left"| Physical GraffitiYayınlanma Tarihi: 24 Şubat 1975
Şirket: Swan Song
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 13+ Milyon
| <small>1
| <small>2
| <small>'''1
| <small>2
| <small>17
| <small>10
| <small>4
| <small>1
|
AVS: 3× Platinum (210,000)
FRA: Gold (100,000)
ALM: Gold (250,000)
BK: 2× Platinum (600,000)
ARJ: Gold (30,000)
ABD: 16× Platinum (8,000,000)
|-
|1976
|style="text-align:left"| PresenceYayınlanma Tarihi: 31 Mart 1976
Şirket: Swan Song
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 7+ Milyon
| <small>1
| <small>4
| <small>16
| <small>5
| <small>27
| <small>7
| <small>4
| <small>1
|
BK: Platinum (300,000)
ABD: 3× Platinum (3,000,000)
|-
|1979
|style="text-align:left"| In Through the Out DoorYayınlanma Tarihi: 15 Ağustos 1979
Şirket: Swan Song
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 10+ Milyon
| <small>1
| <small>3
| <small>'''1
| <small>7
| <small>28
| <small>21
| <small>14
| <small>1
|
ARJ: Gold (30,000)
AVS: 2× Platinum (140,000)
BK: Platinum (300,000)
ABD: 6× Platinum (6,000,000)
|-
|1982
|style="text-align:left"| Coda'''Yayınlanma Tarihi: 19 Kasım 1982
Şirket: Swan Song
Format: CS, CD, LP
Allmusic:
Dünya Satışı: 3,5+ Milyon
| <small>4
| <small>9
| <small>3
| <small>17
| <small>43
| <small>-
| <small>18
| <small>6
|
BK: Silver (60,000)
ABD: Platinum (1,000,000)
|-
| colspan="17" style="text-align:center; font-size:8pt;"| "—" olan listelere giremedi ya da orada yayınlanmadı
|}

 Konser Albümleri
 1976 The Song Remains The Same 2003 How the West Was Won 2012 Celebration Day''

Derlemeler
 1990 Remasters/Box Set
 1990 Profiled
 1993 Box Set II
 1993 Complete Studio Recordings
 1997 BBC Sessions
 1999 Early Days
 2000 Later Days
 2007 Mothership

Single'lar

Kaynakça

İngiliz blues rock grupları

İngiliz heavy metal grupları
İngiliz hard rock grupları
1968'de kurulan müzik grupları
1970'lerin müzik grupları
1980'lerin müzik grupları
Ivor Novello Ödülü sahipleri
Atlantic Records sanatçıları
Swan Song Records sanatçıları
Kennedy Center Onur Ödülü sahipleri
İngiliz rock grupları
Grammy Yaşam Boyu Başarı Ödülü sahipleri

Led Zeppelin


تضمين السعة  أو تضمين المطال أو تضمين الاتساع أو التضمين السعوي أو التضمين المطالي أو تضمين الوسع هو تقنية تضمين تُستخدم في الاتصالات الإلكترونية، يُعتبر الأكثر شيوعًا لنقل المعلومات عبر الموجة الحاملة الراديوية. يتغير في تضمين المطال، مطال (قوة إشارة) الموجة الحاملة بما يتناسب مع مطال إشارة الرسالة المرسلة. فإشارة الرسالة، على سبيل المثال، هي تابع الصوت الذي سيُعاد إنتاجه بواسطة مكبر صوت، أو شدة الضوء لوحدات البكسل في شاشة التلفاز. تتناقض هذه التقنية مع تضمين التردد، حيث يتغير تردد إشارة الموجة الحاملة، وتضمين الطور، الذي يتغير فيه الطور.

كانت إيه إم أول طريقة تضمين مُستخدمة لإرسال الصوت في البث الإذاعي. طُورت خلال الربع الأول من القرن العشرين، بدايةً من خلال تجارب الهاتف اللاسلكي التي قام بها روبرتو لانديل دي مورا وريجنالد فيسيندين في عام 1900. لا تزال هذه التقنية قيد الاستخدام اليوم في العديد من أشكال التواصل؛ على سبيل المثال، تُستخدم في أجهزة الراديو المحمولة مزدوجة المسار، وراديو الطائرات ذات التردد العالي جدًا، وراديو النطاق الترددي المدني، وفي أجهزة المودم الحاسوبية في التضمين المطالي المتعامد (كيو إيه إم). وكثيرًا ما تُستخدم إيه إم للإشارة إلى البث الإذاعي إيه إم بالموجة المتوسطة.

نماذج
يعني التضمين في الإلكترونيات والاتصال عن بعد، تغيير بعض جوانب الإشارة الحاملة للموجة المستمرة مع شكل موجة التضمين التي تحمل المعلومات، مثل الإشارة الصوتية التي تمثل الصوت، أو إشارة الفيديو التي تمثل الصور. وبهذا المعنى، فإن الموجة الحاملة، التي لها تردد أعلى بكثير من إشارة الرسالة، تحمل المعلومات. في محطة الاستقبال، تُستخرج إشارة الرسالة من الموجة الحاملة المضمنة عن طريق فك التضمين.

في تضمين المطال، يختلف مطال أو قوة ذبذبات الموجة الحاملة. على سبيل المثال، في الاتصالات الراديوية إيه إم، يُضمن مطال إشارة الموجة الراديوية المستمرة (موجة حاملة جيبية) من خلال شكل موجة الصوت قبل الإرسال. يُضمن شكل موجة الصوت مطال الموجة الحاملة ويحدد غلاف شكل الموجة. في مجال التردد، ينتج تضمين المطال إشارة مع تركيز الطاقة على تردد الحامل وترددين جانبيين متجاورين. كل تردد جانبي يساوي عرض النطاق الترددي للإشارة المُضمنة، وهو صورة طبق الأصل للآخر. وبالتالي يُطلق على المعيار إيه إم أحيانًا «تضمين المطال بنطاق جانبي مزدوج» (دي إس بي-إيه إم) لتمييزه عن أساليب التضمين الأكثر تعقيدًا المستندة أيضًا إلى تضمين المطال.

من عيوب جميع تقنيات تضمين المطال، وليس فقط معيار إيه إم، هو أن جهاز الاستقبال يضخم ويكشف الضجيج والتداخل الكهرومغناطيسي بنسبة متساوية مع الإشارة. تتطلب زيادة نسبة الإشارة إلى الضجيج المستقبلة، على سبيل المثال، بعامل 10 (تحسن 10 ديسيبل)، زيادة قدرة المرسل بعامل 10. هذا على النقيض من تضمين التردد (إف إم) والراديو الرقمي حيث يُقلل تأثير هذا الضجيج بعد فك التضمين بفعالية طالما كانت الإشارة المستقبلة أعلى بكثير من عتبة الاستقبال. لهذا السبب، لا تُفضل إذاعة إيه إم للموسيقى والبث عالي الدقة، بل تُفضل للاتصالات الصوتية وإذاعة (الرياضة والأخبار والبرامج الإذاعية وما إلى ذلك).

تُعتبر إيه إم غير فعالة أيضًا في استخدام الطاقة؛ يتركز ما لا يقل عن ثلثي الطاقة في إشارة الحامل. لا تحتوي إشارة الموجة الحاملة على أي من المعلومات الأصلية التي تُرسل (مقل الصوت والفيديو والبيانات وغير ذلك). ومع ذلك، فإن وجودها يوفر وسيلة بسيطة لفك التضمين باستخدام كشف الغلاف، ما يوفر مرجعًا تردديًا وطوريًا لاستخراج التشكيل من النطاقات الجانبية. يلزم في بعض أنظمة التضمين المستندة إلى إيه إم، خفض طاقة جهاز الإرسال من خلال الحذف الجزئي أو الكلي من مكون الموجة الحاملة، إلا أن أجهزة الاستقبال الخاصة بهذه الإشارات أكثر تعقيدًا وتكلفة. يمكن للمستقبل أن يعيد توليد نسخة من تردد الموجة الحاملة (عادةً ما تُحول إلى التردد المتوسط) من موجة حاملة «دليلية» مضعفة إلى حد كبير (في إرسال الموجة الحاملة المضعفة أو دي إس بي-آر سي) لاستخدامها في عملية فك التضمين. حتى مع حذف الموجة الحاملة تمامًا في نظام إرسال الموجة الحاملة المكبوتة بنطاق جانبي مزدوج، يمكن إعادة توليد الموجة الحاملة باستخدام دارة كوستاس لتثبيت الطور. ولكن هذا لا يعمل مع نظام إرسال الموجة الحاملة المكبوتة للنطاق أحادي الجانب (إس إس بي- إس سي)، ما يؤدي إلى صوت «دونالد داك» المميز من هذه المستقبلات عند حثها قليلًا. ومع ذلك، يُستخدم النطاق أحادي الجانب على نطاق واسع في راديو الهواة والاتصالات الصوتية الأخرى نظرًا لكفاءة الطاقة وعرض النطاق الترددي (تقليل عرض النطاق الترددي للتردد اللاسلكي إلى النصف مقارنةً بمعيار إيه إم). من ناحيةٍ أخرى، يسمح معيار إيه إم مع الموجة الحاملة الكاملة، في البث الموجي المتوسط والقصير، بالاستقبال باستخدام أجهزة استقبال غير مكلفة. تستوعب جهة البث تكلفة الطاقة الإضافية لزيادة المستمعين المحتملين بشكلٍ كبير.

يُعد مرجع المطال من الوظائف الإضافية التي توفرها الموجة الحاملة في معيار إيه إم، إلا أنها تُفقد إما في نظام إرسال الموجة الحاملة المكبوتة بنطاق أحادي الجانب أو بنطاق جانبي مزدوج. في جهاز الاستقبال، يستجيب التحكم الأوتوماتيكي في الكسب (إيه جي سي) إلى الموجة الحاملة بحيث يبقى مستوى الصوت المُعاد إنتاجه في تناسب ثابت مع التضمين الأصلي. ومن ناحيةٍ أخرى، مع إرسال الموجة الحاملة المكبوتة لا توجد طاقة مرسلة أثناء التوقف المؤقت في التضمين، ولذلك يجب أن يستجيب إيه جي سي لذروة القدرة المُرسلة في فترات بلوغ الذروة في التضمين. يتضمن هذا عادةً ما يسمى الهجوم السريع، دارة الاضمحلال البطيئ التي تحمل مستوى إيه جي سي لمدة ثانية أو أكثر بعد بلوغ القمم، بين المقاطع أو فترات التوقف القصيرة في البرنامج. وهذا أمر مقبول للغاية لأجهزة الاتصالات اللاسلكية، حيث يساعد ضغط الصوت على وضوحه. ومع ذلك، فإنه غير مرغوب فيه على الإطلاق بالنسبة للموسيقى أو برامج البث العادية، حيث يُتوقع إعادة إنتاج طبق الأصل للبرنامج الأصلي، بما في ذلك مستويات التعديل المختلفة.

نموذج متواضع من إيه إم يمكن استخدامه لإرسال البيانات الثنائية هو إبدال بالفتح والغلق، وهو أبسط شكل من أشكال الإبدال بإزاحة المطال، حيث تُمثل الأصفار والواحدات بوجود الموجة الحاملة أو عدم وجودها. وبالمثل، يُستخدم الإبدال بالفتح والغلق من قبل هواة الراديو لإرسال شفرة مورس حيث يُعرف باسم تشغيل الموجة المستمرة (سي دبليو)، على الرغم من أن الإرسال ليس «مستمرًا» تمامًا. يُستخدم الآن نموذج أكثر تعقيدًا لتقنية إيه إم، وهو التضمين المطالي المتعامد مع البيانات الرقمية، مع زيادة كفاءة استخدام عرض النطاق الترددي المتاح.

طرق فك التضمين
يتكون أبسط شكل من أشكال فك التضمين المطالي من الدايود الذي شُكل ليكون بمثابة كاشف الغلاف. من الممكن أن يوفر نوع آخر من فك التضمين، وهو كاشف الناتج، فك تضمين بجودة أفضل مع زيادة في تعقيد الدارة.

الموجة الحاملة والموجة المحمولة
فالإشارة AM تشكل موجتين مضمومتين: الموجة الحاملة عالية التردد حيث تبلغ طول موجتها نحو 4 مليمتر بينما الموجة المحمولة ذات تردد منخفض ويبلغ طولها كما في الشكل نحو 4 سنتيمتر. هذه هي الطريقة المتبعة في الاتصالات في البث والاستقبال والإذاعي والبث والاستقبال التلفزيوني بطريقة الإشارات المتماثلية وقبل نشأة الاتصال بالتقنية الرقمية.

إيجابياته
أبرز إيجابيات التضمين المطالي هي سهولة بنائه، ففي دائرة المضمن في ناحية الإرسال تحمل الرسالة على موجة حاملة, غالبا موجة جيبية (جا أو جتا) بتردد ما عن طريق توصيل مصدر الرسالة على التوالي مع مصدر الإشارة الجيبية ومن ثم إرسالها عبر [[قناة الإتصال الهوائيه. بينما في ناحية الاستقبال، يمكن لدائرة المستخلص أن تكون مجرد كاشف ظروف لاستخلاص الرسالة المرسلة ضمن الموجة الحاملة، وكاشف الظروف هذا هو عبارة عن ثنائي يتبعه مكثف، كذلك يمكن تحصيل الرسالة بطريقة أخرى وهي استعمال مرشح ترددات منخفضة. لذا تعتبر سهولة البلوغ هي أهم خصائص التضمين المطالي
.

سلبياته
 يعيب التضمين المطالي شدة تأثره بالتشويش الجوي على عكس التضمين الزاوي بشقيه الطوري والترددي.
 كفائته الكهربائية منخفضة ولا تتجاوز في أحسن الأحوال 33.33% وتتأثر مباشرة بعامل يدعى درجة التضمين.
 كفاءة التضمين والاستخلاص في التضمين المطالي أقل منها في التضمين الترددي ويمكن التحقق من ذلك باستخدام راديو السيارة حيث أن معياري وضوح الصوت وجودته يميلان لصالح الترددي.

طرائق التضمين المطال

 تعديل سعة منخفض المستوى

يتم التعديل بهذه الطريقة عند مستويات طاقة منخفضة، وطاقة صغيرة جدًا تكون مرتبطة بالإشارة الحاملة والإشارة المعدلة. لذلك فإن الطاقة الناتجة عن عملية التعديل تكون منخفضة. لذا فإننا نحتاج إلى مضخم إلكتروني لتضخيم السعة المعدَّلة لما هو مطلوب.

 تعديل سعة مرتفع المستوى

انظر أيضًا
 تضمين
 تضمين التردد
 تضمين الطور
 محول تضمين
 تضمين زائد

مراجع

أشكال تضمين راديوية
اختراعات كندية
إلكترونيات
تاريخ الراديو

تضمين السعة


The natural environment or natural world encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity.
The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components:
 Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, the atmosphere, and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature.
 Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from civilized human actions.

In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. Built environments are where humans have fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly changed into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert, the modified environment becomes an artificial one. Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams, and the works of mound-building termites, are thought of as natural.

People cannot find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. The massive environmental changes of humanity in the Anthropocene have fundamentally effected all natural environments: including from climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution from plastic and other chemicals in the air and water. More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in an agricultural field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil, but the structure is quite different.

Composition

Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include as part of the spheres of the Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere (to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geographical sciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of Earth.

Geological activity

The Earth's crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools and solidifies to form solid rock. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes.

Water on Earth

Most water is found in various kinds of natural body of water.

Oceans

An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the surface of the Earth (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. The deep seabeds are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments. The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.

Rivers

A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. A few rivers simply flow into the ground and dry up completely without reaching another body of water.

The water in a river is usually in a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. Rivers are a part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of water stored in glaciers and snowpacks.

Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek and brook. Their current is confined within a bed and stream banks. Streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology.

Lakes

A lake (from Latin lacus) is a terrain feature, a body of water that is localized to the bottom of basin. A body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, is not part of an ocean, and is larger and deeper than a pond.

Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.

Ponds

A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or human-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of human-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. Ponds and lakes are distinguished from streams by their current speed. While currents in streams are easily observed, ponds and lakes possess thermally driven micro-currents and moderate wind-driven currents. These features distinguish a pond from many other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools.

Human impact on water
Humans impact the water in different ways such as modifying rivers (through dams and stream channelization), urbanization, and deforestation. These impact lake levels, groundwater conditions, water pollution, thermal pollution, and marine pollution. Humans modify rivers by using direct channel manipulation. We build dams and reservoirs and manipulate the direction of the rivers and water path. Dams can usefully create reservoirs and hydroelectric power. However, reservoirs and dams may negatively impact the environment and wildlife. Dams stop fish migration and the movement of organisms downstream. Urbanization affects the environment because of deforestation and changing lake levels, groundwater conditions, etc. Deforestation and urbanization go hand in hand. Deforestation may cause flooding, declining stream flow, and changes in riverside vegetation. The changing vegetation occurs because when trees cannot get adequate water they start to deteriorate, leading to a decreased food supply for the wildlife in an area.

Atmosphere, climate and weather

The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and other inert gases, and carbon dioxide. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases. The atmosphere includes greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample, including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash, and meteoroids. Various industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine (elementary or in compounds), fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulphur compounds such as sulphur dioxide (SO2).

The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in reducing the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

Layers of the atmosphere

Principal layers
Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are:
 Exosphere: The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward, mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.
 Thermosphere: The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase. Its height varies with solar activity and ranges from about . The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between . In other way, the thermosphere is Earth's second highest atmospheric layer, extending from approximately 260,000 feet at the mesopause to the thermopause at altitudes ranging from 1,600,000 to 3,300,000 feet.
 Mesosphere: The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to . It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere.
 Stratosphere: The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about . The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere, typically is at .
 Troposphere: The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between  at the poles and  at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from the surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere.

 Other layers
Within the five principal layers determined by temperature there are several layers determined by other properties.
 The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about , though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
 The ionosphere: The part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, stretches from  and typically overlaps both the exosphere and the thermosphere. It forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere.
 The homosphere and heterosphere: The homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.
 The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is nearest the Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion.

Effects of global warming

The dangers of global warming are being increasingly studied by a wide global consortium of scientists. These scientists are increasingly concerned about the potential long-term effects of global warming on our natural environment and on the planet. Of particular concern is how climate change and global warming caused by anthropogenic, or human-made releases of greenhouse gases, most notably carbon dioxide, can act interactively, and have adverse effects upon the planet, its natural environment and humans' existence. It is clear the planet is warming, and warming rapidly. This is due to the greenhouse effect, which is caused by greenhouse gases, which trap heat inside the Earth's atmosphere because of their more complex molecular structure which allows them to vibrate and in turn trap heat and release it back towards the Earth. This warming is also responsible for the extinction of natural habitats, which in turn leads to a reduction in wildlife population. The most recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the group of the leading climate scientists in the world) concluded that the earth will warm anywhere from 2.7 to almost 11 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 to 6 degrees Celsius) between 1990 and 2100.
Efforts have been increasingly focused on the mitigation of greenhouse gases that are causing climatic changes, on developing adaptative strategies to global warming, to assist humans, other animal, and plant species, ecosystems, regions and nations in adjusting to the effects of global warming. Some examples of recent collaboration to address climate change and global warming include:

 The United Nations Framework Convention Treaty and convention on Climate Change, to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
 The Kyoto Protocol, which is the protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change treaty, again with the objective of reducing greenhouse gases in an effort to prevent anthropogenic climate change.
 The Western Climate Initiative, to identify, evaluate, and implement collective and cooperative ways to reduce greenhouse gases in the region, focusing on a market-based cap-and-trade system.

A significantly profound challenge is to identify the natural environmental dynamics in contrast to environmental changes not within natural variances. A common solution is to adapt a static view neglecting natural variances to exist. Methodologically, this view could be defended when looking at processes which change slowly and short time series, while the problem arrives when fast processes turns essential in the object of the study.

Climate

Climate looks at the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time. Weather, on the other hand, is the present condition of these same elements over periods up to two weeks.

Climates can be classified according to the average and typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme is the one originally developed by Wladimir Köppen. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, uses evapotranspiration as well as temperature and precipitation information to study animal species diversity and the potential impacts of climate changes.

Weather

Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmospheric area at a given time. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be the weather of Earth.

Weather occurs due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On the Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. Over thousands of years, changes in the Earth's orbit have affected the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influenced long-term climate.

Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The atmosphere is a chaotic system, and small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that civilized human activity such as agriculture and industry has inadvertently modified weather patterns.

Life

Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for about 3.7 billion years. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism.

Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. In biology, the science of living organisms, "life" is the condition which distinguishes active organisms from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, functional activity and the continual change preceding death.

A diverse variety of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth, and properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon- and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. Living organisms undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce and, through natural selection, adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means.

Ecosystems

An ecosystem (also called an environment) is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals, and micro-organisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged in a highly interrelated set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist. Eugene Odum, one of the founders of the science of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (i.e.: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem."

The human ecosystem concept is then grounded in the deconstruction of the human/nature dichotomy, and the emergent premise that all species are ecologically integrated with each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope.

A more significant number or variety of species or biological diversity of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem because there are more species present at a location to respond to change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects. This reduces the effect before the ecosystem's structure changes to a different state. This is not universally the case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability to provide goods and services on a sustainable level.

The term ecosystem can also pertain to human-made environments, such as human ecosystems and human-influenced ecosystems. It can describe any situation where there is relationship between living organisms and their environment. Fewer areas on the surface of the earth today exist free from human contact, although some genuine wilderness areas continue to exist without any forms of human intervention.

Biogeochemical cycles

Global biogeochemical cycles are critical to life, most notably those of water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.
 The nitrogen cycle is the transformation of nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds in nature. It is a cycle which includes gaseous components.
 The water cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Water can change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at various places in the water cycle. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water molecules can come and go.
 The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.
 The oxygen cycle is the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmospheric composition and life.
 The phosphorus cycle is the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movements of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth.

Wilderness

Wilderness is generally defined as a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. The WILD Foundation goes into more detail, defining wilderness as: "The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet – those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with roads, pipelines or other industrial infrastructure." Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival of certain species, ecological studies, conservation, solitude, and recreation. Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral, and aesthetic reasons. Some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity.

The word, "wilderness", derives from the notion of wildness; in other words that which is not controllable by humans. The word's etymology is from the Old English wildeornes, which in turn derives from wildeor meaning wild beast (wild + deor = beast, deer). From this point of view, it is the wildness of a place that makes it a wilderness. The mere presence or activity of people does not disqualify an area from being "wilderness." Many ecosystems that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered "wild." This way of looking at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without very noticeable human interference.

Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants, animals and other organisms. Domesticating wild plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred many times all over the planet, and has a major impact on the environment, both positive and negative. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, rain forests, plains, and other areas—including the most developed urban sites—all have distinct forms of wildlife. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by civilized human factors, most scientists agree that wildlife around the world is (now) impacted by human activities.

Challenges

It is the common understanding of natural environment that underlies environmentalism — a broad political, social, and philosophical movement that advocates various actions and policies in the interest of protecting what nature remains in the natural environment, or restoring or expanding the role of nature in this environment. While true wilderness is increasingly rare, wild nature (e.g., unmanaged forests, uncultivated grasslands, wildlife, wildflowers) can be found in many locations previously inhabited by humans.

Goals for the benefit of people and natural systems, commonly expressed by environmental scientists and environmentalists include:

 Elimination of pollution and toxicants in air, water, soil, buildings, manufactured goods, and food.
 Preservation of biodiversity and protection of endangered species.
 Conservation and sustainable use of resources such as water, land, air, energy, raw materials, and natural resources.
 Halting human-induced global warming, which represents pollution, a threat to biodiversity, and a threat to human populations.
 Shifting from fossil fuels to renewable energy in electricity, heating and cooling, and transportation, which addresses pollution, global warming, and sustainability. This may include public transportation and distributed generation, which have benefits for traffic congestion and electric reliability.
 Shifting from meat-intensive diets to largely plant-based diets in order to help mitigate biodiversity loss and climate change.
 Establishment of nature reserves for recreational purposes and ecosystem preservation.
 Sustainable and less polluting waste management including waste reduction (or even zero waste), reuse, recycling, composting, waste-to-energy, and anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge.
Reducing profligate consumption and clamping down on illegal fishing and logging.
Slowing and stabilisation of human population growth.
Reducing the import of second hand electronic appliances from developed countries to developing countries.

Criticism
In some cultures the term environment is meaningless because there is no separation between people and what they view as the natural world, or their surroundings. Specifically in the United States and Arabian countries many native cultures do not recognize the "environment", or see themselves as environmentalists.

See also

 Citizen's dividend
 Conservation movement
 Gaia hypothesis
 Greening
 Index of environmental articles
 List of environmental issues
 List of environmental websites
 Natural capital
 Natural history
 Natural landscape
 Sustainability
 Sustainable agriculture
 Timeline of environmental history
 Geological engineering

References

Further reading

External links

UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
BBC - Science and Nature.
Science.gov – Environment & Environmental Quality

Habitat
Earth

Natural environment