محرك أيوني هو نوع المحركات الخاصة التي تستخدم في تحريك المسابير الفضائية وتعديل مسارات الأقمار الاصطناعية. المحرك يعمل بطريقة حزم أيونات تندفع بواسطة حقل كهربائي قوي ومن ثم تخرج بقوة دفع أيوني مما يجعل المسبار الفضائي يتحرك في الاتجاه المضاد. ومع ان الجهد المستخدم منخفض بسبب محدودية الطاقة الكهربائية في المسابير الفضائية والاقمار الاصطناعية إلا ان هذه المحركات تنتج قوة دفع عالية (Specific impulse) إذ تتحرك الأيونات بسرعات عالية جدا في المجال الكهربائي المسلط عليها ولها في نفس الوقت كتلة ولو بسيطة . قوة دفعها قليلة إذا ما قورنت بالدفع الصاروخي الاشتعالي ؛ ففي الدفع الصاروخي الاشتعالي تكون كمية الوقود هائلة جدا في حين سرعات الحبيبات الساخنة تكون نسبيا قليلة (الدفع = حاصل ضرب كتلة الغاز في تسارعه -قانون نيوتن الثانيقانون نيوتن الثاني-) . لذلك تستخدم مثل هذه المحركات في الفضاء لتعديل مسارات الأقمار، وهي تعمل لفترة طويله وكمياتها قليلة لا تشكل مشكلة وزنية فتكون سهلة لحملها في قمر صناعي . ذلك بخلاف محركات الصواريخ الاشتعالية (تعمل بالاحتراق كيميائي) التي تكون لازمة لإطلاق صاروخ ثقيل بحمولته ورفعه عن سطح الأرض . المحركات الأيونية تعمل بغاز زينون وهو نوع من الغازات النبيلة وله كتلة كبيرة.

مقارنة

تقدم المحركات الأيونية دفعا أقل بكثير من المحركات الصاروخية المعتادة، فدفع محرك أيوني يعادل وزن كارت البريد
(70 ميللي نيوتن), ولكن سرعة خروج الأيونات تكون عظيمة (10 إلى 130) كيلومتر في الثانية ويمكن تشغيلها لفترات طويلة. ولكن لاستخدام محرك أيوني يجب أن تكون المركبة الفضائية خفيفة الكتلة بحيث يعمل المحرك الايوني على تسريعها خلال دفع لمدة طويلة .

المسبار الفضائي SMART-1 يزن مثلا 367 كيلوجرام ويحمل معه 84 كيلوجرام من الزينون الذي يتحول إلى ايونات ويتم تسريعها فتقوم بدفع المسبار في الاتجاه المعاكس لخروجها من المسبار.

والمشكلة في المحركات الأيونية أنها تحتاج إلى طاقة كبيرة (تصل في سمارت1 إلى 1300 واط للمحرك نفسه) . وقد ابتكر نوع جديد من الخلايا الشمسية Triple-Junction-GaInP2/GaAs/Ge-Solar cells تنتج قدرة كهربائية عالية تبلغ نحو 370 واط للمتر المربع بكفاءة 27% لسمارت-1 , بغرض إنتاج طاقة كهربائية كافية بمساحة مناسبة من الألواح الضوئية التي تشغل المسبار وتشغل المحرك الأيوني.

إن زيادة سرعة انطلاق الأيونات من المسبار إلى الضعف تحتاج إلى زيادة في الطاقة الكهربائية أربع مرات . والهدف عند بناء محرك إيوني هو جعل كتلة المسبار اقل ما يمكن، ويحتاج إلى سرعة فائقة للأيونات . أي أن المحرك الأيوني يحتاج إلى توافق بين كتلة المسبار (بما فيها الألواح الشمسية) والطاقة المتولدة .

ميزة المحرك الأيوني بالمقارنة بالمحرك الصاروخي المعتاد أن مع إنتاج نفس الدفع يحتاج المحرك الأيوني كتلة أقل، إذ أن سرعة انطلاق الأيونات من المسبار تكون أكبر كثيرا. فتبلغ الدفع النوعي للزينون 3000 ثانية في حين الدفع النوعي لغاز الاحتراق (الصاروخي) 370 ثانية.
أي أن سرعة الأيونات تبلغ ستة أضعاف سرعة الغازات المشتعلة الناتجة من المحرك الصاروخي.

المحرك الايوني يعمل في الفراغ ولهذا فهو يصلح في الفضاء .

وقد وصلت قدرة المحركات الأيونية إلى نحو عدة كيلوواط . ولتحريك كتل كبيرة فيحتاج المحرك الإيوني العمل عبر مدة طويلة (أسابيع، أشهر أو سنوات) . أي في البعثات الفضائية طويلة الأمد.

يقوم المحرك الصاروخي برفع المسبار إلى الفضاء خلال دقائق يستهلك خلالها مئات الأطنان من الوقود، وفي الفضاء يمكن للمحرك الأيوني أن يقوم بزيادة السرعة، ويؤدي ذلك خلال أشهر وسنوات.

الأصول
إن الشخص الأول الذي كتب ورقة تشرح هذه الفكرة علانيةً هو قسطنطين تسيولكوفسكي في عام 1911. لكن أول وثيقة خاصة أخذت الدفع الكهربائي بعين الاعتبار هي مفكرة مكتوبة بخط اليد لروبرت غودارد بتاريخ 6 سبتمبر عام 1906. أجرى غودارد التجارب الأولى على المحرك الأيوني في جامعة كلارك بين عامي 1916 و 1917. تمت التوصية أن تُنفّذ هذه التقنية في ظروف شبه خلاء وعلى ارتفاع عالٍ، ولكن قُدِّم الدفع باستخدام تيارات هواء متأين بضغط الغلاف الجوي. ظهرت الفكرة مجددًا في كتاب هيرمان أوبرث «الطرق إلى المركبة الفضائية» الذي نُشر في عام 1923، حيث شرح فيه أفكاره حول توفير الكتلة في الدفع الكهربائي، وتوقع استخدامها في دفع المركبات الفضائية والتحكم بالوضعية، وأيّد التسارع الكهروستاتيكي للغازات المشحونة.

بنى هارولد أر. كاوفمان محرك أيوني عامل في عام 1959 في منشآت مركز غلين للأبحاث التابع لناسا. كان مشابهًا للمحرك الأيوني الكهروستاتيكي المُشبَّك، واستخدم الزئبق بمثابة مادة دافعة. أُجريت الاختبارات دون المدارية خلال ستينيات القرن العشرين، وفي عام 1964 أُرسل المحرك في رحلة دون مدارية على متن مسبار اختبار الصاروخ الكهربائي الفضائي 1 (واختصارًا إس إي أر تي 1). عمل بشكل ناجح لمدة 31 دقيقة كما كان مخططا قبل أن يسقط إلى الأرض. تَبِع هذا الاختبار في عام 1970 الاختبار المداري إس إي أر تي-2.

جرت دراسة محرك دفع يعمل بتأثير هول بشكل مستقل في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية وفي الاتحاد السوفييتي في خمسينيات وستينيات القرن العشرين، وهو شكل بديل من الدفع الكهربائي. جرى تشغيل محركات تعمل بتأثير هول على متن أقمار اصطناعية سوفييتية منذ العام 1972 وحتى نهايات التسعينيات من القرن العشرين، إذ استخدم بشكل رئيسي من أجل عملية استقرار الأقمار الاصطناعية في الاتجاهات شمال-جنوب وشرق-غرب. أكملت نحو 100 إلى 200 محرك مهامها على متن الأقمار الاصطناعية الروسية والسوفييتية. قُدّم تصميم محرك الدفع السوفييتي إلى الغرب في عام 1992، وذلك بعد أن زار فريق من المتخصصين في الدفع الكهربائي المختبرات السوفييتية تحت إشراف منظمة الدفاع الصاروخي البالستي.

مبدأ العمل العام
تستخدم المحركات الأيونية الأشعة الأيونية (ذرات أو جزيئات مشحونة كهربائيًا) من أجل توليد قوة دفع بشكل ينسجم مع انخفاض الزخم الحركي. تختلف طريقة تسريع الأيونات، لكن تستفيد كل التصاميم من نسبة الكتلة/الشحنة للأيونات. تعني هذه النسبة إمكانية توليد اختلافات محتملة صغيرة نسبيًا لسرعات عالية للعادم. يُقلل هذا من كمية كتلة التفاعل أو المادة الدافعة المطلوبة، لكنه يزيد من كمية الطاقة النوعية المطلوبة بالمقارنة مع الصواريخ الكيميائية. ولذلك تقدر المحركات الأيونية على تحقيق اندفاعات نوعية عالية. إنّ مشكلة قوة الدفع المنخفضة هي التسارع المنخفض، بسبب ارتباط كتلة وحدة الطاقة الكهربائية مباشرةً بكمية الطاقة. تجعل قوة الدفع المنخفضة هذه المحركات الأيونية غير مناسبة لإطلاق المركبات المدارية إلى المدار، لكنها فعالة بالنسبة للدفع في الفضاء.

تنقسم المحركات الأيونية إلى كهروستاتيكي وكهرومغناطيسي. الفرق الرئيسي بينهما هو طريقة تسريع الأيونات.

 تستخدم المحركات الأيونية الكهروستاتيكية قوة كولوم، وتُسرّع الأيونات في اتجاه الحقل الكهربائي.
 تستخدم المحركات الأيونية الكهرومغناطيسية قوة لورنتس لتحريك الأيونات.

تتمثل مصادر الطاقة للمحركات الأيونية عادةً في ألواح شمسية كهربائية، لكن على مسافات بدرجة كافية من الشمس، وتُستعمل أيضًا الطاقة النووية. تكون كتلة مصدر الطاقة في كلا الحالتين متناسبة مع ذروة الطاقة التي يُمكن الإمداد بها، وتتوفر الطاقة في كلا الحالتين لهذا المحرك تقريبًا بشكل غير محدود.

انظر ايضأ
 إدغار شويري
 محرك دفع بلازما
 مشروع بروميثيوس
 بعثة ليزا باثفايندر

مراجع

اختراعات روسية
تقانات ناشئة
دفع المركبات الفضائية
محركات

محرك أيوني


Escopa é um jogo de cartas italiano, e o segundo principal jogo da Itália (atrás apenas de Briscola). Também é popular na Argentina e no Brasil, na variação Scopa di Quindici, trazido por imigrantes italianos. Também é jogado em antigas colônias italianas, como Líbia e Somália, e alguns outros países, como a Tunísia, com cartas de aparência diferente. É jogado com um baralho Italiano padrão de 40 cartas, na maioria das vezes entre dois jogadores ou duas duplas, mas também pode ser jogado entre 3 e 6 pessoas.

O nome scopa significa "vassoura" em italiano, já que ao fazer uma escopa significa todas as cartas da mesa foram "varridas".

História
Escopa já era bem conhecida na Itália no século 18, mas não há evidências anteriores de sua origem.

Cartas

Um baralho Italiano consiste de 40 cartas, divididas em quatro naipes. Baralhos italianos podem ser do tipo Neapolitan, Piacentine, Triestine, e Sicilian, e possuem naipes equivalentes ao baralho francês: Coppe (Copas), Ori ou Denari (Ouros ou moedas), Spade (Espadas) e Bastoni (Paus).

Os valores das cartas variam numericamente de um a sete (indicados pelo número de elementos em cada carta), mais as três cartas de figuras: Valete [Fante] vale 8 - Cavalo [Cavallo] nos baralhos napolitanos -, Dama [Donna] vale 9, e o Rei [Re] vale 10. Como o naipe de Ouros é importante na contagem de pontos, suas cartas também são chamadas de "bello": "il sette bello" é o sete de ouros, "il'asso bello" é o Ás de ouros.

Regras

Se os jogadores formam duplas, devem se sentar de frente um para o outro. Escolhe-se o jogador que vai cartear.

Cada jogador recebe três cartas. Quatro cartas são postas viradas para cima na mesa. Caso as cartas na mesa sejam três ou quatro reis o jogo é inválido, as cartas devem ser recolhidas e re-embaralhadas. É normal organizar as cartas da mesa tanto em uma linha com as quatro, quanto em duas linhas com duas cartas (um quadrado 2x2).

O jogador à direita do carteador começa a jogar. Esse jogador têm duas opções:

 Coloca uma carta na mesa
 Joga uma carta para capturar (trocar) uma ou mais cartas

A captura é feita ao comparar o valor da carta jogada com as cartas da mesa. Tanto a carta jogada quanto a(s) capturada(s) são viradas para baixo e movidas para o monte de cartas capturadas na frente do jogador. Cada jogador deve mover as cartas para seu próprio monte. Essas cartas estão fora do jogo e só serão viradas no final, para calcular os pontos. Para capturar é preciso que a soma dos valores seja exata (nem faltar nem sobrar).

Por exemplo: Um jogador têm na mão um 2 de ouros (♦), 5 de espadas (♠) e 7 de paus (♣). Na mesa há um ás de ouros, 5 de paus e 6 de espadas. As opções do jogador são:

 Colocar o 2 de ouros na mesa;
 Capturar o 5 de paus usando o 5 de espadas, e colocar as duas cartas no seu monte;
 Capturar o 6 de espadas e o ás de ouros usando o sete de paus, e colocar as duas cartas no seu monte.

Não é legal colocar na mesa uma carta que tem a possibilidade de capturar. No exemplo anterior, o jogador não é obrigado a capturar com o sete de paus ou o 5 de espadas, mas também não pode colocar essas cartas na mesa como pode fazer com o 2 de ouros. Também não é possível passar a vez, se não for houver uma captura legal, ele deve colocar uma na mesa.

Se um jogador captura as últimas cartas da mesa, ele varreu (scopa), e tem um ponto adicional (exceto se essa for a última carta da mão do jogador, da última mão - não houver cartas para reabastecerem depois).

Em uma situação onde uma carta tem várias possibilidades da captura, o jogador é forçado a dar preferência ao menor número de cartas.

Por exemplo: Se as cartas na mesa são 1(ás), 3, 4 e 8(valete), e o jogador joga outro valete de sua mão, ele não pode capturar o 1, 3 e 4, apenas o outro valete, mesmo que a soma dos valores sejam iguais. Ele também poderia jogar outra carta para colocar na mesa ou para fazer outra captura, ele não é forçado a capturar. Porém, optando pela captura, deve pegar o menor número possível de cartas. Na variante Cirulla não há essa regra.

Quando todos os jogadores ficam sem cartas, o carteador distribui mais três (ou mais) cartas, novamente começando pela sua direita, e o jogo é retomado. Isso é repetido até as cartas do baralho acabarem. A mesa não é reabastecida com cartas: se as cartas na mesa acabaram, significa que o próximo jogador não tem capturas legais e deve colocar uma carta na mesa.

Quando o carteador joga a última carta do último round, o último jogador a capturar é recompensado com as cartas restantes na mesa, e então se calculam os pontos.

Pontuação
Os pontos são calculados quando as cartas do baralho acabam. Se o jogo for feito em duplas, a pontuação de cada parceiro é feita junta. Os jogadores ganham um ponto para cada "scopa".

O jogador pode fazer até quatro pontos segundo os seguintes critérios, cada um valendo um ponto:

 Capturou o maior número de cartas;
 Capturou o maior número de cartas do naipe de ouros;
 Capturou o Sete de ouros ("sette bello");
 Obteve o melhor número (ver abaixo).

Se dois jogadores ou duplas ou mais capturaram o mesmo número de cartas, ou o mesmo número de cartas de ouros, ou o melhor número igual, nenhum deles ganha o ponto extra.

O "número" de cada jogador ou dupla é determinado ao selecionar a "melhor" carta segundo uma tabela de pontos separada, sendo a mais popular:

Se uma dupla captura o sete de ouros e de copas, o seis de paus e o ás de espadas, o número dessa dupla é 21 + 21 + 18 + 16 = 76. Se esse for o maior número pontuado, a dupla ganha um ponto (mais outro ponto por ter pego o sete de ouros).

Existem outras tabelas de pontos para determinar o número da dupla. A maioria usa o mesmo ranking apresentado acima, mas com valores de pontuação diferentes (como 0 pontos para cartas de figuras ao invés de 10).

Uma variante popular na América é dar um ponto para quem tiver capturado o maior número se Setes (ignorando a tabela). Se empatar, avalia-se quem capturou o maior número de Seis, depois Ás, etc.

O sete de ouros é obviamente a carta mais valiosa do jogo, e sozinha ajuda a compor todos os quatro pontos. Um jogador ou dupla pode pode obter o melhor número da tabela mesmo com um único sete mas outras cartas úteis. Se um jogador ou dupla têm três Setes (3x21 = 63) e nenhuma outra carta, os oponentes podem obter um número melhor com um Sete (21) e três Áses (3x16), somando 69. Assim, é uma estratégia comum capturar Áses e Seis sempre que possível.

Scopas - Em adição aos quatro pontos descritos acima, um jogador ou dupla têm pontos adicionais para cada "scopa" realizada. Uma scopa é recompensada quando um jogador consegue limpar todas as cartas da mesa. Limpar a mesa com a última carta da última mão (quando todo o baralho já foi utilizado para reabastecer) não é contado como uma scopa. É comum que, ao realizar uma scopa, o jogador deixe uma carta virada para cima em seu monte de capturas, para se lembrar na hora da contagem.

O jogo ocorre até que um jogador ou dupla tenha pelo menos onze pontos e tenham mais pontos que qualquer outro. Nenhum ponto, inclusive scopas, são dados durante o jogo; eles devem ser todos calculados no fim de uma rodada. Por essa razão, se a pontuação corrente for 10 a 9, e a dupla liderando faz uma scopa, não podem clamar imediatamente a vitória. Ainda é possível ao outro time empatar ou até virar o jogo quando todos os pontos forem calculados.

Em alguns lugares na Itália, antes do jogo começar os jogadores concordam em jogar segundo a variação capotto. Nessa variação, se uma dupla está ganhado de sete pontos a zero, o jogo é considerado finalizado antes dos onze pontos, e o time liderando vence.

Também é possível combinar um valor limite diferente, geralmente com incrementos de cinco ou dez, como 16, 21, ou 31 pontos.

Variações
Existem muitas variações de Escopa. Como não há regras oficiais, é bom que todos os jogadores concordem e saibam as regras antes de iniciarem um jogo. Muitas das variações podem ser combinadas. Por exemplo, uma variação comum na área de Milão combina "Scopone scientifico", "Scopa d'Assi" e "Napola".

Jogando com Baralho francês
Quando se joga com um baralho francês comum de 52 cartas, 12 cartas precisam ser removidas. O mais fácil para jogadores novatos é remover as cartas com figuras, e então jogar com cartas que vão do Ás ao Dez. O mais tradicional é remover os Oitos, Noves e Dez do baralho, com o Valete valendo 8, a Dama 9 e o Rei 10.

Scopa d'Assi (Asso piglia tutto)

Nessa versão, jogar um Ás captura todas as cartas que estiverem na mesa (porém não conta como scopa).

Pode acontecer de já haver um Ás na mesa quando alguém joga outro. Nesse caso, as regras variam sobre se o jogador ainda pode pegar todas as cartas, mas geralmente ele pode pegar apenas o Ás. Esse evento, que todos os jogadores vão tentar evitar, se chama queimar um Ás.

Scopone

Nesse jogo, que deve ser jogado entre duas duplas, os jogadores recebem todos nove cartas no início de cada round. O jogo prossegue ao redor da mesa até que todos os jogadores fiquem sem cartas.

Em ainda outra versão, chamada Scopone scientifico, os jogadores recebem dez cartas cada, de maneira que não sobra nenhuma na mesa - os primeiros a jogar precisam colocar cartas nela. É muito usado jundo da scopa d'Assi.

Napola (Scopone Trentino)
Um jogador ou dupla que captura o Ás, Dois e Três de Ouros consegue a Napola, e é recompensado com o número de pontos da carta de ouros mais alta consecutiva que obtiveram.

Por exemplo, se um time captura o Ás, 2, 3, 4, 5 e 8 de Ouros, ganham Cinco pontos adicionais.

Por causa do alto número de pontos por jogo, ele é jogado até 21 pontos, e não 11. Algumas vezes uma dupla consegue capturar todas as 10 cartas de Ouros e ganham imediatamente.

Pontos Adicionais
Na versão do Re Bello (Rei bonito), o Rei de Ouros também conta um ponto, assim como o Sete de Ouros.

Em algumas regiões da Calabria (especialmente perto de Cosenza), um ponto é dado para quem conseguir Sete de Paus junto do Sete de Ouros.

Scopa di Quindici

Nessa versão, a carta jogada não captura cartas que somam o seu próprio número. Ao invés disso, captura qualquer combinação de cartas que junto dela mesma soma 15.

Por exemplo, se houver na mesa: A, 3, 5 7; jogar um 2 captura o A, 5 e o 7 (2 + 1 + 5 + 7 = 15), e as três cartas capturadas e o dois vão para o monte de capturas do jogador.

Cirulla (em Liguriano cirolla ou ciammachinze)
É a variante mais comumente encontrada na Ligúria áreas próximas, como a Baixa Pidemonte, e é geralmente jogada com o baralho de 40 cartas Genovês com 2, 3 ou 4 jogadores. Essa variação combina elementos da Scopa tradicional, Scopa a Quindici, Scopa d'Assi e Napola, e premia com mais pontos para combinações ainda na mão ou capturadas.

Captura
Cartas em Cirulla podem ser capturadas com uma de três maneiras:

 Captura Simples - Como em Scopa, uma carta pode capturar outra de mesmo valor, ou várias que somam até o mesmo. Quando uma única carta captura combinações diferentes de cartas, os jogadores podem escolher a que mais lhes convir. Eles não são forçados a capturarem o menor número de cartas possível. Assim, com J, 5 e 3 na mesa, jogar um J permite capturar tanto o outro J quanto o 3 e o 5.
 Regra de quinze - Similar ao Scopa a Quindici, uma carta na mão pode capturar uma ou mais cartas que juntas somam 15. Similar à regra acima, quando há mais de uma captura disponível, os jogadores podem escolher.
 Captura de Ás - Jogar um Ás permite ao jogador capturar todas as cartas da mesa, e conta como scopa (vale um ponto). Essa captura só é possível a menos que já haja outro Ás na mesa - caso em que jogar um Ás permite capturar apenas o Ás que está na mesa (ou ser usado para fazer a "regra de quinze", se disponível).

Quando várias capturas são possíveis, os jogadores são livres para escolhes a que melhor lhes convir, exceto no caso da "Captura com Ás" que não pode pegar todas as cartas se houver outro Ás na mesa.

Por exemplo - Se houver dois Setes na mesa, jogar um Ás é possível tanto pela captura com Ás quanto pela Regra de quinze. Porém, se houver um Ás, já não é possível, apenas caso o jogador queira capturar o outro ás com o seu próprio. Se houver porém, um Rei (10), 3 e um Ás, jogar um outro Ás pode capturar a mesa inteira pela regra de quinze.

Bônus
Há duas mãos bônus disponíveis que premiam algumas combinações na mão:

 Bônus de três pontos (em Liguriano, barsega ou boña da trei) - São premiados jogadores que tiverem em mãos cartas que somem menos que 10.
 Bônus de Dez pontos (boña de dexe) - São premiados jogadores que seguram três cartas do mesmo valor.

Tais bônus devem ser declarados na sua própria vez, antes do jogador que segura as cartas jogar a primeira carta (tipicamente isso é feito batendo na mesa) e o jogador que anuncia deve mostrar a mão e deixá-las viradas para cima. Nos casos raros de uma mão se qualificar para ambos os bônus (por exemplo. três cartas de 3), apenas o bônus de 10 pontos é aplicado, mas variações dessa regra existem.

Mais dois bônus estão disponíveis ao carteador, como método de balancear o fato de jogadores nesse papel geralmente estarem em desvantagem:

 Bônus de uma scopa - Se as quatro cartas que o carteador pôs na mesa no início do jogo somam 15, o carteador as captura e marca uma scopa.
 Bônus de duas scopas - Se as quatro cartas que o carteador pôs na mesa no início do jogo somam 30, o carteador as captura e marca duas scopas.

Para ajudar nos dois bônus de combinações na mão e nos dois bônus do carteador, o Sete de Copas (7♥) conta como curinga (em Liguriano, poncin, em Italiano matta) e podem fazer o papel de qualquer outra carta que o jogador escolher, desde que permitam a ele pontuar um dos quatro bônus.

Por exemplo, um jogador segurando 'Q♦ Q♣ 7♥' pode dizer que o '7♥' é uma Dama, e se qualifica para o bônus de dez pontos. O '7♥' vai manter o valor declarado (nesse exemplo, uma Dama, que vale 9) pelo resto da mão, para efeito de capturas (pode por exemplo capturar um '6' já que 9 + 6 = 15), e após o fim da mão reverte o valor para '7♥' (ou em caso de captura, a carta volta a ser um '7♥'). Porém, um jogador segurando 'Q♦ K♣ 7♥' não pode tomar vantagem do '7♥' como curinga já que, não importa que valor ele venha a ter, não vai qualificar o jogador para nenhum bônus.

Pontuação
A pontuação é similar ao scopa padrão, com pontos sendo premiados por capturar mais cartas, mais Ouros, o '7♦', possuindo o melhor número e também para cada scopa.

Adicionalmente:

 Três pontos são dados pela captura das cartas 'A♦ 2♦ 3♦' (chamadas em Liguriano de a bassa e em Italiano de la piccola). Esse bônus pode ser estendido ao serem capturadas mais cartas na sequência, então 'A♦ 2♦ 3♦ 4♦' vale quatro pontos, até, 'A♦ 2♦ 3♦ 4♦ 5♦ 6♦', que vale seis pontos.
 Cinco pontos são dados pela captura de 'J♦ Q♦ K♦' (chamada em Liguriano de l'erta e em Italiano de la grande).

Com esse grande número de pontos sendo distribuídos, jogos de Cirulla tendem a ser assuntos tensos, onde situações aparentemente desesperadoras podem ser revertidas em uma questão de minutos. Como resultado, o jogo geralmente é jogado até que um jogador ou dupla alcance 51 pontos. Contudo, se um jogador ou dupla conseguir capturar todas as cartas de ouro em uma rodada, eles ganham imediatamente.

Escopa Líbia

Escopa é muito popular na Líbia, e geralmente é jogada como mencionado acima, mas algumas variações locais geralmente são adicionadas, como:

 Varrer todas as dez cartas de Ouro (algumas vezes oito são o suficiente) reseta o oponente à zero;
 Jogadores contam scopas baseados no valor da carta mais alta (se a melhor carta tirada da mesa for 7, a scopa vale 7);
 Jogadores contam scopas baseados no número total de cartas envolvidas (se uma scopa varre 5 cartas, o número de pontos dela é 5.

Shkobba Tunisiana

Trazida por imigrantes Italianos e Sicilianos o jogo é conhecido na Tunísia como shkobba, e é jogado com baralhos similares em aparência às cartas sicilianas. Shkobba é jogado com as mesmas regras, a mesma pontuação, mas mais comumente entre dois jogadores ou duas duplas. Shkobba é popular na Tunísia, especialmente durante o Ramadã.

Pontuando o melhor número

Um grande número de variações da tabela de pontos é usado para calcular o melhor número, a maioria usando a mesma ordem de cartas. Uma variação notável é contar 0 pontos para cada carta com figuras.

Pontuação final

Alguns jogam até 16 ou 21 pontos, ou até uma pontuação arbitrária acordada no ínicio do jogo.

Referências

Jogos de cartas

Escopa


Ader Éole — aeronave experimental que voou em 1890
EOLE (foguete) — foguetão francês
EOLE (satélite) — satélite meteorológico francês
Linha E do RER — linha ferroviária de Paris também chamada Eole
Éole-en-Beauce — comuna francesa da região Centro-Vale do Loire

Desambiguações de tecnologia

Eole


أسامة بن عبد المجيد الشبكشي (ولد في جدة 21 أكتوبر 1943/ 1363هـ - توفي يوم 31 مارس 2023 / 9 رمضان 1444هـ) وزير الصحة السعودي من عام 1995 إلى 2003، وعُين سفيراً للمملكة العربية السعودية في ألمانيا حتى عام 2015.

النشأة والتعليم
ولد أسامة شبكشي يوم الجمعة 20 ذي الحجة 1363هـ في منزل جده لأبيه في حارة المظلوم في مدينة جدة. ابتدأ تعليمه في مدرسة الفلاح لمن هم دون سن السابعة، ثم انتقل للدراسة في السودان مع ابن عمه هشام صالح شبكشي حين كان في السادسة من عمره، ومنها إلى لبنان عام 1953م. انتقل إلى الإسكندرية وتحديداً إلى كلية فيكتوريا، وبعد ما يزيد على عام من دراسته فيها عاد إلى السعودية وقد بلغ الخامسة عشر من عمره، وهناك عقد العزم للحصول على بعثة دراسية لإكمال دراسته الجامعية، حيث التحق بمدارس الثغر النموذجية.

أعاد دراسة الثانوية العامة في مدرسة كيل في ألمانيا الغربية، ثم حصل على شهادة البكالوريوس في الطب من جامعة إرلنغن نورنبيرغ. حصل على درجتي دكتوراة: الأولى في الطب عام 1974، والأخرى في الفلسفة عام 1976.

المناصب
 عضو مجلس إدارة مركز الملك فهد للعلوم الطبية.
 عضو مجلس إدارة المستشفى الجامعي.
 محاضر في كلية الطب جامعة الملك عبد العزيز بجدة .
 عضو مجلس كلية الطب والعلوم الطبية .
 عضو لجنة التنسيق بين المستشفيات في المنطقة الغربية .
 وكيل جامعة الملك عبد العزيز للدراسات العليا والبحث العلمي في يناير 1991.
 مشرف على مستشفى جامعة الملك عبد العزيز بجدة.
 عميد كلية والعلوم الطبية بجامعة الملك عبد العزيز.
 مدير لجامعة الملك عبد العزيز بجدة في ديسمبر 1993.
 وزيراً للصحة في أغسطس 1995.
 مستشار في الديوان الملكي.
 سفير المملكة العربية السعودية في ألمانيا.

أسرته
أنجب ولدين: «مايا» وهي متزوجة، و«عبد المجيد» الذي فقده في حادث سير في محافظة جدة في يوم اعتبره أسوأ أيام حياته.

إصدارات

 أصدر سيرة حياته في كتاب (مواقف وأشهاد).

انظر أيضًا
 قائمة سفراء المملكة العربية السعودية في ألمانيا

مراجع

روابط خارجية
 مفيد النويصر : اسامه شبكشي سيرته لا تشبه أي سيرة وشخصيته فريدة .. صنع مجده من أجل ان يفخر به والده

سفراء السعودية لدى ألمانيا
مواليد 1943
وزراء صحة سعوديون
مواليد 1363 هـ
دبلوماسيون سعوديون
رؤساء جامعات وكليات في السعودية
وفيات 2023
وفيات 1444 هـ

أسامة بن عبد المجيد شبكشي


An Melinis rupicola in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Alfred Barton Rendle, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Georg Zizka. An Melinis rupicola in nahilalakip ha genus nga Melinis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Melinis

Melinis rupicola


Alexander Jerminingeldowitsch Arbusow (, wiss. Transliteration ; *  in Arbusow-Baran; † 22. Januar 1968 in Kasan) war ein sowjetischer und russischer Chemiker. Er war ein Pionier der Chemie der Organophosphate.

Leben
1896–1900 studierte Arbusow Chemie an der Universität Kasan unter Alexander Michailowitsch Saizew (1841–1910, Entdecker der Saytzeff-Regel) und war dort anschließend bis 1906 als Assistent für organische Chemie tätig. 1905 erlangte er den Magistertitel für Chemie. Am Forst- und Landwirtschaftlichen Institut in Nowo-Alexandria arbeitete er als Professor 1906 bis 1911. Dann kehrte er zurück nach Kasan, wo er 1914 zum Dr. chem. promoviert wurde. 1911 bis 1930 war er dort Professor für organische Chemie, 1929–1949 war er Direktor des Butlerow-Instituts. Zwischen 1930 und 1962 war er in Kasan Professor mit einem Lehrstuhl für chemische Technologie, ab 1945 war er Direktor des Arbusow-Instituts. 1962 wurde Arbusow an der Universität Kasan emeritiert.

Wissenschaftliche Bedeutung
Bekannt ist Arbusow durch die nach ihm benannte Arbuzov-Reaktion, auch Michaelis-Arbuzov-Reaktion, die er 1906 entwickelte und die in der organischen Chemie eine wichtige Rolle spielt. Arbuzov synthetisierte – teilweise mit seinem Sohn Boris Aleksandrovič – Ester der Phosphorsäure sowie Thioester der phosphorigen, phosphonigen und phosphinigen Säure. Weiterhin synthetisierte er Verbindungen, die Phosphor-Kohlenstoff-Bindungen enthalten. Diese Verbindungsklassen erlangten breite praktische Anwendung als Insektizide. Die Herstellung mesomeriestabilisierter Radikale vom Triarylmethantyp zählte ebenfalls zum Forschungsgegenstand der Arbeiten von Arbuzov.

Neben seinen wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten schrieb Arbusow 1948 A Brief Sketch of the Development of Organic Chemistry in Russian.

Auszeichnungen
Arbusow wurde 1943 und 1947 mit dem Stalinpreis ausgezeichnet. Weiterhin trug er den Titel Held der sozialistischen Arbeit und erhielt fünf Leninorden. Seit 1932 war er korrespondierendes und seit 1942 Vollmitglied der Akademie der Wissenschaften der UdSSR.

Literatur über Arbuzov

Weblinks

 Арбузов, Александр Ерминингельдович Biografie bei Helden des Landes (russisch)

Einzelnachweise

Chemiker (19. Jahrhundert)
Chemiker (20. Jahrhundert)
Mitglied der Russischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
Träger des Leninordens
Träger des Stalinpreises
Held der sozialistischen Arbeit
Abgeordneter (Oberster Sowjet der UdSSR)
Sowjetbürger
Russe
Geboren 1877
Gestorben 1968
Mann
Absolvent der Staatlichen Universität Kasan

Alexander Jerminingeldowitsch Arbusow


كتابة الحروف الصينية المبسطة واحدة من كتابتين متخذتين لتدوين لغات صينية. هذه الكتابة التي تأسست عام 1956 على حروف صينية تقليدية، والتي تعرف قائمة رموزها مراجعة عام 2009، مستعملة في جمهورية الصين الشعبية.

مراجع

أنظمة كتابة مع رموز 4 حروف بإيزو 15924
إصلاح تهجئة
لغة صينية

حروف صينية مبسطة


An Luzula leptophylla in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Franz Georg Philipp Buchenau ngan Donald Petrie. An Luzula leptophylla in nahilalakip ha genus nga Luzula, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Luzula

Luzula leptophylla


La ligne S4 est une des dix-huit lignes de train de banlieue de l'agglomération barcelonaise. Elle relie Barcelone à Olesa de Montserrat et dessert au total douze communes sur le tracé de la ligne Llobregat - Anoia.

Elle est exploitée par les Chemins de fer de la généralité de Catalogne (FGC).

Historique
La ligne entre Plaça d'Espanya et Olesa de Montserrat reçoit le code S4 en . Elle puise ses origines dans la ligne du Nord-Ouest entre Barcelone et Martorell, ouverte en , et le tronçon entre de Martorell à Olesa de Montserrat, mis en service en .

Caractéristiques

Ligne
La ligne parcourt les infrastructures de la ligne Llobregat - Anoia. Elle compte , dont onze souterraines, et parcourt . Les rails sont à écartement métrique et la voie est double sur l'intégralité du trajet.

À partir de Plaça d'Espanya, elle dessert douze communes : Barcelone, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Cornellà de Llobregat, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Santa Coloma de Cervelló Sant Vicenç dels Horts, Pallejà, Sant Andreu de la Barca, Castellbisbal, Martorell, Abrera et Olesa de Montserrat, et partage son tracé avec la ligne L8 jusqu'à Molí Nou | Ciutat Cooperativa, la ligne S3 jusqu'à Can Ros, la ligne S9 jusqu'à Quatre Camins, les lignes S8 et R6/60 jusqu'à Martorell Enllaç, et les lignes R5/50 jusqu'à son terminus d'Olesa de Montserrat.

Stations et correspondances

Exploitation

Matériel roulant
La ligne est servie par les rames de série 213 des FGC.

Horaires et tarification

Projets

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Chemins de fer de la généralité de Catalogne
 Métro de Barcelone – Rodalies de Catalogne

Liens externes
 .

S4
Lignes régionales de Catalogne

Ligne S4 des FGC


The Renault Mégane (), also spelled without the acute accent as Megane, especially in languages other than French, and also known as the Renault Megavan for an LCV in Ireland, as the Renault Scala in Iran and as the Renault Mégane Grandcoupé for the saloon in Israel, North Macedonia, Palestinian Authority and Serbia for certain generations, is a small family car produced by the French car manufacturer Renault for model year 1996, and was the successor to the Renault 19. The Mégane has been offered in three- and five-door hatchback, saloon, coupé, convertible and estate bodystyles at various points in its lifetime, and having been through four generations is now in its fifth incarnation.

The first generation was largely based on its predecessor, the 19, and utilized modified versions of that car's drivetrain and chassis. The second and third generations were based on the Renault–Nissan C platform. The fourth generation is based on the CMF-CD platform, as used by the Renault Talisman and Renault Scénic.

In November 1996, the Mégane Scénic compact MPV was introduced, using the same mechanical components as the hatchback Mégane. For 2002, the Mégane entered its second generation with a substantial redesign taking place, and was voted European Car of the Year for 2003, whilst also becoming the first car in its class to receive a five star Euro NCAP rating.

The Mégane entered its third generation in 2008, with another totally different design being used; the saloon version of the Mégane became known as the Renault Fluence for this generation, and it was introduced in 2009. The fourth-generation Mégane was launched in 2015, with sales commencing in 2016.

In 2021, Renault revealed a battery electric version known as the Megane E-Tech Electric, which takes on a crossover exterior design.

First generation (X64; 1995)

Development of the X64 began at the beginning of 1990, with the first sketches of X64 programme being drawn during the first six months of 1990. Very quickly, several themes were outlined and developed into four small scale (1/5) models by September 1990.

The designs retained were developed around four themes. Theme A: a six light version, evoking the Laguna; Theme B: a model with a markedly cuneiform line; Theme C: another design with ellipse shaped glasswork and rear notch; Theme D: a model with the same elliptical glazing and rounded rear.

In March 1991, all four styling proposals were developed into full scale (1:1). Theme C by Michel Jardin was chosen by Le Quement and frozen for production in April 1992. The first prototypes were built and presented to management in December 1992. Approximately 432 prototypes were built (at Rueil assembly) and destroyed during development.

In June 1993, Renault purchased production tooling for the X64, with the first test unit being assembled at the Douai plant in October 1994, and pre production units being constructed from December 1994 to the middle of 1995.

The Mégane I was unveiled in September 1995, at the Frankfurt Motor Show, as a replacement for the Renault 19. The car was essentially a reskin of its predecessor, and carried over the 19's floorpan, engines, transmissions and chassis design, albeit with much modification.

Taking its name from a Renault concept car shown in 1988, the Mégane further developed the new corporate styling theme introduced by Patrick Le Quément on the Laguna, most notably the "bird beak" front grille – a styling cue borrowed from the Renault 16 of the 1960s. Renault decided to add an acute accent to the vehicle name (Mégane), in order to assert its European identity, in a context of growing competition of newer car manufacturers coming from Japan.

As with the 19 and the 11 before it, the Mégane was produced at Renault's Douai plant in northern France starting in July 1995, and at the Spanish plant of Palencia. Market launch began on 15 November 1995 in France, and 15 December 1995 for the coupé. Sales in the United Kingdom commenced in April 1996.

Safety was a key focus of the Mégane I, Renault's first car reflecting their new focus of selling on safety.

It featured a pillar mounted three-point seatbelt for the middle rear occupant (replacing the common 'lap strap'), standard front belt pre tensioners and load limiters, driver's airbag (passenger airbag from 1996) and an impressive safety structure – a specification ahead of all rivals in 1995, e.g. VW Golf Mk 3, Opel Astra F, Ford Escort etc. Some features, such as the three-point middle belt, had debuted on the Renault 19 safety concept vehicle (and this feature entered production on the Renault Laguna before the Mégane).

The car also benefited from Renault's first "System for Restraint and Protection" (SRP), essentially a system of careful optimisation of occupant restraint by interaction of the seat, seatbelt, pretensioner, load limiter and airbag. The Mégane I achieved a best in class four star crash test rating in the 1998 round of testing by Euro NCAP.

November 1996 saw the introduction of the Mégane Scénic compact MPV.

Power came from the Renault E type ("Energy") engine in 1.4 L and 1.6 L, and the F-type unit in both 1.9 L diesel and 2.0 L petrol forms, although this time around there was a wider variety of 16 valve derivatives. A 1.9 L diesel engine in both normally aspirated and turbocharged forms was also available.

Renault also produced a limited number of Renaultsport edition Phase 1's with the Renaultsport bodywork; however, these were very rare. The Renaultsport kit was available to purchase for a short time direct from Renault France, but has now been discontinued, thus their value has increased.

The estate version of the original Mégane was only available in LHD form, with no RHD variants built. This could be due to the greater popularity of the Scenic in those markets, limiting the potential sales of a compact estate. The estate was added with the facelift of 1999, although pre-facelifted Mégane estates were sold from 1998 in Turkey, where it was manufactured.

In Japan, Renault was formerly licensed by Yanase Co., Ltd., but in 1999 Renault acquired a stake in Japanese automaker Nissan. As a result of Renault's purchase, Yanase canceled its licensing contract for all Renault models sold in Japan, including, but not limited to, the Mégane I, in 2000, and Nissan took over as the sole licensee for Renault cars.

Facelift
A mild facelift in spring 1999 gave the Mégane I a modified grille, more advanced safety features and upgraded equipment, and 16 valve engines were used across the range. An Estate body style was also launched in mainland Europe with the facelift. The production continued for the Latin America Market, where it was sold alongside the Mégane II line at a considerably lower price until 2011.

South America
In countries, such as Argentina and Colombia, the Mégane I was available until 2010, sold as a sedan and an estate, but in Venezuela, it was available only as a sedan. It features as the top line of the model the LA04 engine (16 valves, 1.6 litres and 110 HP), and was produced by both Renault Colombia and Renault Argentina, in where it was one of the best selling cars to date.

It is a car with more advanced safety features, upgraded equipment and more. The Mégane I had a lower price than the Mégane II.

In Venezuela, it was only available in one version: Unique, with a five-speed manual gearbox or a four-speed automatic one. Both of these were equipped with Abs and other extra equipment including driver and passenger front airbags, foglights, leather seats, electric mirrors and electric windows. In Argentina, not every version had features such as electric windows, electric mirrors or airbags.

Engines

Maxi Mégane

During the 1990s, Renault Sport developed a rally car for the Formula 2 Kit Car regulations. This was the Clio Williams Maxi, which was the first car truly developed for the F2 Kit Car category, and first appeared in 1996. However, rivals such as Citroën and Peugeot soon introduced bigger and more powerful cars, which resulted in Renault producing an F2 version of the Mégane in 1996. The Maxi Mégane officially represented the brand in French Championship rallies in 1996 and 1997 with drivers like Philippe Bugalski, Jean Ragnotti or Serge Jordan, and the British Rally Championship from 1996 to 1999, with Grégoire De Mévius, Alain Oreille, Robbie Head, Martin Rowe, and Tapio Laukkanen. Both the French and British rally teams also compete in the World Rally Championship.

After the works programme was discontinued, many privateers continued to use the car. It was also used in the FIA 2-Litre World Rally Cup, which Renault won in 1999. The car used a special version of the Renault F7R engine, and had a seven speed Sequential manual transmission.

Its most notable result was an outright victory in the 1996 Tour de Corse in the hands of Philippe Bugalski and his co driver Jean-Paul Chiaroni (in a year where the Tour de Corse was a FIA 2-Litre World Rally Cup only event); but it also helped Renault to the FIA 2 Litre World Rally Cup of Manufacturer's title in 1999.

In other high level competitions, Renault took back to back manufacturer's and driver's titles in the British Rally Championship in 1998 and 1999, whilst they also took the European Rally Championship in 1999.

Second generation (2002)

The Mégane II was launched in September 2002 for the 2003 model year, and marked a completely new fresh start. The two cars bear very little resemblance, the new vehicle having been inspired by the manufacturer's new design language first seen in the Avantime.

The new Mégane was voted European Car of the Year for 2003, fighting off stiff competition from Japan's Mazda 3 and PSA's Citroën C4, and achieved a five star safety rating in the Euro NCAP crash tests, the first small family car to do so.

The Mégane II and the Laguna were both showcases for a great deal of innovative technologies Renault launched at the beginning of the 2000s; the Renault Card keyless ignition system, standard on the Mégane II, was a first in this class and has since been widely adopted.

Similarly, the option of a panoramic glass sunroof is another area in which Renault led where others followed. In June 2003, the first ever live crash test using a real driver rather than a crash test dummy featuring the Mégane II was conducted by Top Gear.

In Brazil, Renault launched a flex fuel version, called "Hi-Flex", which is able to run either with unleaded gasoline (petrol) or ethanol. Like the Brazilian Scénic and Clio versions, the Mégane's engine can work with any mix of gasoline and ethanol, due to the use of an electronic control module.

The Megane ll sedan was assembled in Iran by Pars Khodro from 2008 to 2013.

The flex version has a 16V 109 hp (110 PS) (113 hp (115 PS) with ethanol) 1.6-litre inline-four engine developed and produced in Brazil, but the 2.0 litre version does not allow ethanol use, because its engine is made in France.

As with the previous Mégane, the range of models is wide; there is a three and five door hatchback available, named "Sport Hatch" and "Hatch" respectively, there is a four-door saloon/sedan (Sport Saloon), a five-door estate (Sport Tourer / Grandtour), and to replace both the Mégane Coupe and Convertible, a new retractable hardtop coupe designed by Karmann.

Unlike its predecessor, the Mégane II was not licensed by Yanase Co., Ltd. for the Japanese market, as Renault had acquired a stake in Nissan when the Mégane I was still in production. Instead, the Mégane II was licensed by Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. and sold exclusively through Nissan Red Stage Store locations.

Mégane RS

The RenaultSport (RS) versions of the three door and five door Mégane hatchbacks were introduced, equipped with a turbocharged petrol 2.0 L 16v engine producing  and Turbocharged diesel 2.0L dCi 16V engine producing 175 PS (129 kW;173 hp). Along with the engine, changes were made to the front and rear suspension geometry to improve handling, and the model features a deeper, wider front bumper. The Mégane Renault Sport competes in the hot hatch segment of the market.

Facelift
The Hatchback model was revised at Motor Show Brussels in January 2006, the Wagon and Convertible model was debut at Geneva Motor Show in March 2006, with changes in interior trim (e.g. a new revised instrument cluster with the speedometer moved to the right and the tachometer moved to the left), specification levels and most notably, a new front nose. A new front suspension system borrowed from the Mégane 2.0  was adopted, improving the driving performance. Also, the Nissan Sentra B16 is based on the platform from 2006 of the Renault Mégane.

Engines

Reception
During its first full year of sales, the Mégane II topped the French sales charts, with 198,874 registered in 2003. It has also sold very well in Britain, being the nation's fourth most popular car in 2005 and the nation's fifth most popular car in 2004 and 2006. In 2007, however, it dipped to eighth place, with just over 55,000 examples being sold.

Thanks to the locally assembled 4-door model, the Mégane has been the best-selling car in Turkey from 2004 to 2006.

In January 2011, it was reported that the Mégane II had the highest rate of MOT failures in the United Kingdom for cars first taking the test in 2007. While in German ADAC breakdown statistics, the Mégane scored very well, surpassing such cars as the Ford Focus, Honda Civic and Opel/Vauxhall Astra. The model of 2008 achieved third place in its class, after the BMW 1 Series and Audi A3.

Third generation (2008)

The third generation was launched in the end of 2008, to keep the range competitive. In October 2008, both the five door hatchback and Mégane Coupé were officially put on sale. The two models have different designs; the Coupé has a sporty design, while the five door model is more conservative.

No automatic transmission is offered, with it being replaced by a continuously variable transmission.

A five-door estate version was introduced in June 2009, and was named the Sport Tourer. Another addition to the range came in the form of the Coupé Cabriolet in June 2010. That year also saw the addition of a 1.4 L turbocharged engine being added to the range.

Production of the Mégane's saloon derivative, the Fluence, began in Argentina in 2011, at the firm's Córdoba plant. The Mégane III was also made available for sale in Argentina that year, but was produced in Turkey, and imported into the country. In Brazil, the Fluence replaced the Mégane in Renault's lineup from 2011 onwards.

The Mégane III underwent its first facelift in January 2012, which also introduced three new engines; a 1.2 L turbocharged petrol engine, a new  version of the 1.5 L dCi engine, and a new 1.6 L dCi engine.

Another facelift followed for 2014, with a more powerful  version of the 1.2 L turbocharged engine going on sale, whilst the styling of the hatchback, coupé and estate versions was updated to match Renault's new model range.

Later that year, a  version of the 2.0 L turbocharged petrol engine was added to the range.

Higher specification Mégane feature the same 2.0 dCi engine as the Mégane II. However, after 2015 the 2.0 dCi was no longer offered.

Special editions

Mégane Olympic
The Mégane Olympic is a special edition launched in August 2012 on the occasion of the London 2012 Olympic Games.

Engines

Fourth generation (BFB; 2016)

The fourth generation Mégane was launched at the September 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show, with sales starting in July 2016. The vehicle is larger and based on an all-new CMF-CD platform shared with the Renault Scénic and Renault Talisman. The Mégane IV follows the latest design language, which has been seen on the Clio IV, Captur, Espace V and Talisman.

An estate version (Mégane Sport Tourer/Grand tour, codenamed KFB) was revealed at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show. The four door fastback saloon version called the Mégane Sedan later in July of the same year.

Technical details
The fourth generation Mégane is larger and lower than its predecessor. The suspension is made of MacPherson struts on the front and a torsion beam on the rear. Brakes are discs on both axles. The driver can select between five driving modes that change the car set up.

Most Mégane's models have a head up display and a seven-inch screen (replaced with an 8.7-inch touchscreen in some trim levels).

Options include adaptive cruise control, automated emergency braking, lane departure warning, speed limit warning, blind spot monitoring, automatic headlights, reversing camera, parking sensors and a hands free parking system.

Speaking about the car, Renault's chief designer Laurens van den Acker said, "Renault can produce cars with a Latin skin and a German heart". It has nine engines available (four petrol and five diesel) with power outputs between  and .

Mégane Sedan
The Mégane Sedan, launched in July 2016, resembles the Talisman, but with the front section of the Mégane IV hatchback and a fastback like sloping roofline. It has more space for the back seat passengers than the hatchback and a larger boot, with a claimed volume of 508 litre.

It is sold on the African continent, the Middle East, various Eastern Asian and Australian markets. Within Europe, it is offered in several countries including Turkey, Italy, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Serbia, Greece, Georgia and Ireland, but neither France or the United Kingdom.

Depending on the market, there are two petrol engines and three diesel engines offered, with power outputs ranging from 90 to 130 bhp. Only the mid range engine is suitable to be matched with the dual clutch six speed transmission.

The Mégane Sedan is facelifted in February 2021, some months after the hatchback and the estate. It receives a new 115 hp petrol engine.

Mégane GT

The Mégane GT is a high performance version based on the hatchback model with 1.6-litre I4 diesel and petrol powertrains. As standard, it incorporates a four-wheel steering system (4Control) and dual-clutch automatic gearbox with optional paddle shifting. It also has a slightly different design for the interior and the exterior.

Mégane R.S.
The Mégane R.S. was introduced in September 2017 and went on sale in 2018. Based on the hatchback model, it is powered by a 1.8-litre turbocharged engine developed jointly with Nissan, with tweaks made by engineers working from the Renault Formula 1 engine factory in Viry-Châtillon, France. The engine produces  and  torque, with an option of two transmissions, which are six-speed manual or a six-speed dual-clutch automatic.

Mégane RS Trophy-R

Making its public debut on May 24, 2019, at the Monaco Formula 1 Grand Prix, the Mégane RS Trophy-R is a limited edition based on the regular Trophy.

It was designed to be the fastest front-wheel-drive vehicle to lap the Nürburgring, and as such it is  lighter due to the thinner glass used on the rear doors, a carbon fiber hood, the absence of rear seats combined with lighter front seats, a titanium exhaust and no rear wiper, among other things. To save even more weight, it can be fitted with an optional carbon-ceramic brake kit at the front as well as carbon rims.

Mégane RS Ultime
Announced in January 2023, the Mégane RS Ultime is a limited edition available in just 1,976 units, as a reference to the founding year of Renault Sport. All are signed by Laurent Hurgon, a test driver who has broken several lap records in the Mégane RS and was actively involved in the development of the model.

It is the last RS-badged model and made its public debut at the 2023 Tokyo Motor Show, marking the 20th anniversary of the Mégane RS series, which was first introduced in 2003.

Orders opened in March 2023 with a starting price of €53,450 (not including the green tax) in France.

Facelift
In 2020, the Mégane was refreshed with facelift, with minor changes to the exterior design, a 9.3-inch touchscreen, and a plug-in hybrid version in both estate and hatchback variants marketed as the Mégane E-Tech. It combines the 1.6-liter four-cylinder petrol engine with two electric motors for a total system output of  and comes with a 9.8 kWh battery that allows it to run on electricity for  and up to a top speed of  in the mixed WLTP test cycle and for  in the city.

In June 2022, Renault launched the "E-Tech engineered" special edition for the hybrid versions of the Clio, Captur, Arkana and Mégane (hatchback and estate), with design elements inspired by the Megane E-Tech.

Megane E-Tech

The Megane E-Tech is a battery electric car using the Megane nameplate that was launched in February 2022. It is built on a dedicated electric vehicle platform called the CMF-EV.

Nameplate usage

Mégane Scénic

In 1996, a compact MPV called the Mégane Scénic was introduced. It was renamed to Scénic during a facelift in 1999.

Mégane Conquest

In September 2020, the rebadged version of the South Korean-made Renault Samsung XM3/Arkana was launched in former Yugoslavian countries as the Mégane Conquest due to negative connotations with the Serbian historical war criminal Arkan.

See also
 Mégane Renault Sport
 Renault Fluence
 Renault Scénic

Notes

External links

  (UK)
  (Sport Tourer: UK)

Megane
Compact cars
Sedans
Coupés
Euro NCAP small family cars
Latin NCAP small family cars
Hatchbacks
Convertibles
Hardtop convertibles
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Plug-in hybrid vehicles
2000s cars
2010s cars
Cars introduced in 1995
Rally cars
Cars of Brazil
Cars of Turkey

Renault Mégane


Die Päpstliche Theologische Fakultät San Bonaventura, auch bekannt als Seraphicum, (; ) ist eine Privatuniversität in Rom. Sie ist die Ordenshochschule  der Ordensgemeinschaft der Minoriten (OFMConv).

Geschichte
Das ursprüngliche Kolleg St. Bonaventura in Rom, auch bekannt als Päpstliches Kolleg Seraphicum, wurde am 18. Dezember 1587 gegründet und geht auf die alten Universitätsstudien des Ordens der franziskanischen Minderordens zurück, die später Kollegien genannt wurden. Grundlage des Studiums waren die Lehren des Heiligen Bonaventura.

Das Seraphicum wurde von Papst Sixtus V. mit der apostolischen Konstitution Ineffabilis divinae Providentiae am Generalhaus des Ordens, dem Konvent Santi XII Apostoli, gegründet. Im Zuge der Aufhebung der kirchlichen Einrichtungen nach der Einigung Italiens stellte das Kolleg 1873 seine akademische Tätigkeit zwar vorübergehend ein, wurde aber nie kanonisch aufgehoben.

Im Jahr 1894 wurde daher ein neues Internationales Seraphisches Kolleg bei der Basilika San Giorgio in Velabro errichtet. 1905 wurde durch ein Reskript von Papst Pius X. eine theologische Fakultät angegliedert. Durch das Dekret der Heiligen Kongregation für die Seminare und Studienuniversitäten (heute: Dikasterium für die Kultur und die Bildung) vom 13. Juni 1935 erhielt die Fakultät den Titel "Päpstliche theologische Fakultät", die dann mit dem Dekret vom 13. Januar 1955 den Namen "Päpstliche Theologische Fakultät St. Bonaventura" erhielt.

1964 wurde im römischen Stadtviertel EUR–Tre Fontane in der Via del Serafico 1 ein neuer Sitz eröffnet. Seit 1973 steht der Zugang zu den Studiengängen und akademischen Abschlüssen der Fakultät auch externen Studenten offen, sowohl kirchlichen als auch Laien. Die Satzung der Fakultät wurde am 19. Dezember 1986 genehmigt. Die Päpstliche Akademie der Unbefleckten Empfängnis hatte von 1988 bis 2012 ihren Sitz am Seraphicum.

Das Seraphicum verfügt über eine Bibliothek mit etwa dreihunderttausend Bänden, die den Studenten zur Verfügung steht. Der Bestand der Bibliothek umfasst Titel zu rechtlichen, ethisch und moralischen, musikalischen und theologischen Themen.

Großkanzler
 Joachim Giermek OFMConv (2001–2007)
 Marco Tasca OFMConv (2007–2019)
 Carlos Trovarelli OFMConv (seit 2019)

Rektoren
 Orlando Todisco (...–2005)
 Zdzisław Józef Kijas (2005–2010)
 Domenico Paoletti (2010)
 Dinh Anh Nhue Nguyen (2016–2021)
 Raffaele Di Muro (seit 2021)

Schriften
 Pontificia Facoltà Teologica "S. Bonaventura" - Seraphicum - per i 100 anni di attività accademica Rom 2004
 Pontificia Facoltà Teologica San Bonaventura - Seraphicum. Centro di studi accademici - Vademecum, Roma 2007

Weblinks

 Website des Seraphicum

Seraphicum
Universität in Rom
Katholische Hochschule
Priesterseminar
Ordenshochschule
Minoriten
Gegründet 1905
Bonaventura als Namensgeber


T-baneringen, også kaldet Ringen, er en del af T-banen i Oslo, der betjener bydele nord for Sentrum. I vest er banen koblet sammen med sammen med Sognsvannsbanen ved Ullevål stadion, mens den i øst er koblet sammen med Grorudbanen ved Carl Berners plass. Den 5 km lange bane blev bygget i 2000-2006 og kostede 1,4 mia. NOK. Som navnet antyder udgør banen en del af en ring sammen med dele af de to tilstødende baner og Fellestunnelen. Den samlede ring er på 13,5 km med 13 stationer.

Banen betjenes af T-banens linje 4 og 5. Linje 4 går fra Bergkrystallen på den østlige Lambertseterbanen via Fellestunnelen, Sognsvannsbanen, T-baneringen, Lørenbanen og Grorudbanen til Vestli. Linje 5 slår knude på sig selv, idet den går fra Vestli ad Grorudbanen, Fellestunnelen, Sognsvannsbanen og T-baneringen, før den endnu en gang går gennem Fellestunnelen til Sognsvannsbanen men nu til endestationen Sognsvann.

Et særligt kendetegn ved de tre stationer undervejs på T-baneringen er, at de har øperroner i stedet for perroner på hver side af sporene, som det ellers er almindeligt i Oslo. T-baneringen er imidlertid forholdsvis kort, så passagerer vil ofte kunne køre begge veje rundt til et givent sted uden større tidsforskel. Især for passagerne til de centrale stationer Jernbanetorget, Stortinget og Nationaltheatret er øperronerne hensigtsmæssige.

Historie
Banen blev planlagt i 1990'erne, og byggeriet gik i gang i 2000. Første etape fra Ullevål stadion med de to nye stationer Nydalen og Storo åbnede 20. august 2003. Resten af T-baneringen åbnede for trafik 21. august 2006, hvor T-banen også fik sin hidtil nyeste station, Sinsen.

Bygningen af banen har medført, at områderne i nærheden af de nye stationer har kunnet udbygget i langt større grad end tidligere. Nydalen Station betjener således Nydalen, som har fået en af de største koncentrationer af arbejdspladser i Oslo, samtidig med at der er kommer massivt gang i boligbyggeriet i området. Etableringen af Storo og Sinsen Stationer har medført, at det hidtil åbne område i det sydlige Storo, det østlige Sandaker og det nordøstlige Torshovdalen udbygges med over 1.000 lejligheder. Derudover har de nye stationer naturligvis betydet en drastisk forbedring af infrastrukturen for de eksisterende boliger og arbejdspladser. For eksempel steg andelen af tilfredse eller meget tilfredse brugere af kollektiv trafik i Storo/Nydalen-området fra 39 % i 2003 til 74 % i 2007.

3. april 2016 åbnedes Lørenbanen, der er en nordlig forbindelse mellem T-baneringen og Grorudbanen, der gør at tog fra Grorudbanen kan køre nordom ad T-baneringen og ikke nødvendigvis sydom gennem Fellestunnelen. Formålet med anlæggelsen af Lørenbanen var blandt andet at øge kapaciteten på T-banen med op til 30 % og at aflaste Fellesstunnelen gennem Sentrum med et tog fra Grorudbanen, så Østensjøbanen kunne få øget frekvensen fra et til to tog hver kvarter. Desuden etableredes Løren Station i byudviklingsområdet ved Løren, så det kunne få forbindelse med T-banen.

Drift
Trods navnet betjenes T-baneringen ikke af tog, der til stadighed kører i ring som på Berliner Ringbahn og tidligere Circle Line i London. Det blev overvejet men forkastet, fordi køretiden for en tur rundt er 24 minutter, hvilket passer dårligt med, at T-banelinjerne normalt kører hvert kvarter. Desuden er forsinkelser svære at indhente ved denne form for drift, hvilket i øvrigt også var grunden til, at det blev opgivet på Circle Line.

I stedet blev T-baneringen fra 2006 betjent af linje 4 og 6, der var bundet sammen i en sløjfe. Tog på linje 4 fra Bergkrystallen på den østlige Lambertseterbanen kørte herfra gennem Fellestunnelen til T-baneringen, hvor de på vejen rundt blec til linje 6 og derefter endnu en gang kører gennem Fellestunnelen, før de fortsatte til Sognsvann på den vestlige Sognsvannsbanen. Den vestlige del mellem Ullevål stadion og Storo betjentes desuden af linje 3, der i den modsatte ende kørte til Bøler på Østensjøbanen.

Ved åbningen af Lørenbanen 3. april 2016 blev linjenettet ændret, så T-baneringen i stedet betjenes af linje 4 og 5. Linje 4 går fra Bergkrystallen på den østlige Lambertseterbanen via Fellestunnelen, Sognsvannsbanen, T-baneringen, Lørenbanen og Grorudbanen til Vestli. Linje 5 slår knude på sig selv, idet den går fra Vestli ad Grorudbanen, Fellestunnelen, Sognsvannsbanen og T-baneringen, før den endnu en gang går gennem Fellestunnelen til Sognsvannsbanen men nu til endestationen Sognsvann.

Ved driftsforstyrrelser i Sentrum kan T-baneringen fungere som en nødløsning, der gør det muligt at komme fra øst til vest. Det kræver dog, at passagerne skifter tog på både Majorstuen og Tøyen.

Noter

Kilder
Oslo Sporveiers strategiske ruteplan 2006-2010
Nå er ringen sluttet – Aftenposten 21. august 2006

Eksterne henvisninger

T-banen i Oslo
Etableret i 2003

T-baneringen


Breitenburg er administrationsby og en kommune i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Breitenburg under Kreis Steinburg. Kreis Steinburg ligger i den sydvestlige del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

Geografi

Breitenburg ligger omkring fire kilometer sydøst for Itzehoe (bydelen Nordoe ligger syd for Itzehoe) ved floden Stör. Breitenburger Færge fører Landesstraße 116 over Stör. Syd for kommunen løber motorvejen A23 fra Hamborg til Itzehoe. Den godt ti km lange Breitenburger Kanal der blev anlagt fra 1875 til 1877, til at transportere tørv fra Breitenburger Moor og cement fra en fabrik i Lägerdorf, går gennem kommunen.

Historie
I 1526 erhvervede Johan Rantzau geesthøjden ved at købe landejendommene tilhørende klosteret Bordesholm i sognet Breitenberg ved Stör, som ved en oversvømmelse var blevet ødelagte. Her ligger nu kirken. Johann Rantzau lod her i 1531 sit sæde Schloss Breitenburg bygge, som siden da næsten uafbrudt var ejet af greverne af Rantzau. Herskabet Breitenburg efterlod til sin søn, statholderen Heinrich, mens godset Bothkamp tilfaldt den yngste søn Paul.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Kommunens side  på amtets websted
 Statistikamt Nord – Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2014 (XLSX-Data) (Fortschreibung auf Basis des Zensus 2011)

Byer i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Kreis Steinburg

Breitenburg


Paesia, rod papratnjača iz porodice Dennstaedtiaceae, koja čini dio reda osladolike. Ima 12 vrsta od kojih su tri iz tropske Amerike, a ostale iz Tajvana, Sumatre, Nove Kaledonije i Novog Zelanda)

Vrste
 Paesia acclivis (Kunze) Kuhn
 Paesia anfractuosa (Christ) C.Chr.
 Paesia bivalvis (Alderw.) R.M.Tryon & A.F.Tryon
 Paesia divaricatissima (Dryand. ex Baker) Copel.
 Paesia elmeri Copel.
 Paesia glandulosa (Sw.) Kuhn
 Paesia laevis Copel.
 Paesia luzonica Christ
 Paesia radula (Baker) C.Chr.
 Paesia rugosula (Labill.) Kuhn
 Paesia scaberula (A.Rich.) Kuhn
 Paesia tahitensis Copel; Društveni otoci

Izvori

Denstetijevke

Paesia


Gesztely é um município da Hungria, situado no condado de Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén. Tem  de área e sua população em 2015 foi estimada em 2.790 habitantes.

Localidades de Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén

Gesztely


Wisconsin was admitted to the Union on May 29, 1848. Its current U.S. senators are Republican Ron Johnson (since 2011) and Democrat Tammy Baldwin (since 2013), making it one of seven states to have a split United States Senate delegation. William Proxmire was the state's longest serving senator (served 1957–1989).

List of senators

|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 29, 1848 –Jun 8, 1848
| Wisconsin elected its senators 10 days after statehood.
| rowspan=3 | 1
|
| rowspan=2 | 1
| Wisconsin elected its senators 10 days after statehood.
| nowrap | May 29, 1848 –Jun 8, 1848
| colspan=3 | Vacant

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 1
| rowspan=5 align=left | Henry Dodge
| rowspan=5  | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jun 8, 1848 –Mar 3, 1857
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1848.
| Elected in 1848.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jun 8, 1848 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=4  | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Isaac P. Walker
! rowspan=4 | 1

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1849.Retired.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1851.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 2
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1854.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Mar 3, 1861
| rowspan=3  | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Charles Durkee
! rowspan=3 | 2

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 2
| rowspan=6 align=left | James R. Doolittle
| rowspan=6  | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1857.
| rowspan=3 | 3
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1861.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=9  | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Timothy O. Howe
! rowspan=9 | 3

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1863.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 4
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 5
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1866.

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 align=left | Matthew H. Carpenter
| rowspan=3  | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1869.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 5
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1872.Lost re-election.

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 4
| rowspan=4 align=left | Angus Cameron
| rowspan=4  | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1875.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 6
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 7
| Elected in 1879.Died.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Feb 24, 1881
|  | Republican
| align=right | Matthew H. Carpenter
! 4

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 24, 1881 –Mar 14, 1881
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 5
| rowspan=7 align=left | Philetus Sawyer
| rowspan=7  | Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 3, 1893
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1881.
| rowspan=4 | 7
|

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Carpenter's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 14, 1881 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=2  | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Angus Cameron
! rowspan=2 | 5

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1885.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1885 –Mar 3, 1891
| rowspan=3  | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Coit Spooner
! rowspan=3 | 6

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1887.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 8
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1891.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=3  | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | William F. Vilas
! rowspan=3 | 7

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 align=left | John L. Mitchell
| rowspan=3  | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1893 –Mar 3, 1899
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1893.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1897.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Apr 30, 1907
| rowspan=6  | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | John Coit Spooner
! rowspan=6 | 8

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 align=left | Joseph V. Quarles
| rowspan=3  | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1899 –Mar 3, 1905
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1899.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 10
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1903.Resigned.

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=15 | 8
| rowspan=15 align=left | Robert M. La Follette
| rowspan=15  | Republican
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 4, 1906 –Jun 18, 1925
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1905.Did not assume office until Jan 4, 1906 after resigning as Governor of Wisconsin.
| rowspan=5 | 11
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 30, 1907 –May 17, 1907
| colspan=3 | Vacant

|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Spooner's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | May 17, 1907 –Mar 3, 1915
| rowspan=4  | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Isaac Stephenson
! rowspan=4 | 9

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1909.Retired.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1911.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1914.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1915 –Oct 21, 1917
| rowspan=2  | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Paul O. Husting
! rowspan=2 | 10

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1916.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 21, 1917 –Apr 18, 1918
| colspan=3 | Vacant

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1918 to finish Husting's term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Apr 18, 1918 –Mar 3, 1927
| rowspan=7  | Republican
| rowspan=7 align=right | Irvine Lenroot
! rowspan=7 | 11

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 14
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1920.Lost renomination.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1922.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 14
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 18, 1925 –Sep 30, 1925
|

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 9
| rowspan=11 align=left | Robert M. La Follette Jr.
| rowspan=5  | Republican
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Sep 30, 1925 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish his father's term

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1926.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1927 –Mar 3, 1933
| rowspan=3  | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John J. Blaine
! rowspan=3 | 12

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1928.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1932.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –Jan 3, 1939
| rowspan=3  | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | F. Ryan Duffy
! rowspan=3 | 13

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6  | Progressive
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1938.
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Jan 3, 1939 –Jan 3, 1963
| rowspan=14  | Republican
| rowspan=14 align=right | Alexander Wiley
! rowspan=14 | 14

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Lost nomination as a Republican.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1944.

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=6 align=left | Joseph McCarthy
| rowspan=6  | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –May 2, 1957
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1950.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 19
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 20
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1956.Lost re-election.

|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 3, 1957 –Aug 27, 1957
|

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=16 | 11
| rowspan=16 align=left | William Proxmire
| rowspan=16  | Democratic
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Aug 28, 1957 –Jan 3, 1989
| Elected to finish McCarthy's term

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1962.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1963 –Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=9  | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Gaylord Nelson
! rowspan=9 | 15

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1968.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.Lost re-election.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jan 3, 1993
| rowspan=6  | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Bob Kasten
! rowspan=6 | 16

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.Lost re-election.

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 12
| rowspan=12 align=left | Herb Kohl
| rowspan=12  | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Jan 3, 1989 –Jan 3, 2013
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1992.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1993 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=9  | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Russ Feingold
! rowspan=9 | 17

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.Lost re-election.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2006.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2011 –present
| rowspan=9  | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Ron Johnson
! rowspan=9 | 18

|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 13
| rowspan=6 align=left | Tammy Baldwin
| rowspan=6  | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2013 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022.

|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3| 31
|

|- style="height:2em"
|

|- style="height:2em"
|
| 32
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.

See also

 List of United States representatives from Wisconsin
 United States congressional delegations from Wisconsin
 Elections in Wisconsin

References

Senators
Wisconsin

List of United States senators from Wisconsin


Mazıköy, Muğla ilinin Bodrum ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Muğla iline 136 km, Bodrum ilçesine 45 km uzaklıktadır. Mahallede Çocuk Mezarlığı köyü bulunmaktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Bodrum'un mahalleleri

Mazıköy, Bodrum


Naturlig energi er en dokumentarfilm fra 1975 instrueret af Simon Plum efter manuskript af Simon Plum.

Handling
Dokumentarfilm om vindenergiens og solenergiens muligheder i Danmark. En grundlæggende og, i sin tid, banebrydende film om naturens energistrømme og de naturlige energikilder som alternativ til atomkraft. I filmens findes udtalelser fra skoleleder Mogens Amdi Petersen, professor Niels I. Meyer m.fl. Nogle år efter filmens fremkomst vedtoges en energiplan og lov i Danmark, som ord til andet følger filmens anvisninger på, hvordan vi kan bygge et samfund med mindre energisvineri, satsning på de vedvarende energiresourcer og på den måde helt undgå a-kraften.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1975

Naturlig energi


جابر جاسم من أهل جزيرة دلما ولد في العام 1952م وتوفي في عام 2001م، وعمره يناهز 50. وهو من أشهر مطربي الإمارات العربية المتحدة. درس المرحلة الابتدائية في قطر في منطقة مدينة دخان. وهو معروف عند أهل الإمارات وأهل الخليج الذي اشتهر بأغنية غزيل فله وله أغنيات شهيرة منها ضاع فكري وسيدي يا سيد ساداتي التي كتبها الشاعر أحمد الكندي، الذي عاش اليتم والفقر والحب والحرمان وتوفي عن عمر ناهز 45 عاما. امتلك الفنان الإماراتي الراحل جابر جاسم حنجرة دافئة، وكان دؤوبا ووفيا لشعراء بلاده القدامى منهم والمعاصرين، كما استفاد من نبرة رواد البحر وبدو الصحراء ووظفها في تجربته. التقى في القاهرة مع عدد من الأسماء الخليجية والكويتية على وجه التحديد أسماء كانت تدرس في القاهرة لسنين والموسيقى مثل الملحن الراحل مرزوق المرزوق، والملحن يوسف المهنا، والمطرب البحريني أحمد الجميري، والمطرب والملحن عبد الرب إدريس والمطرب البحريني الكبير محمد علي عبد الله وغيرهم. وجوده مع هذه الأسماء كان دافعا ومشجعا له لتقديم نفسه وفي أمسيات يحدوه الأمل لتقديم كل ما هو جديد وشيئا فشيئا بدأ اسمه يلمع كمطرب شاب يقدم فنا أصيلا، واستفاد من التراث الإماراتي في تطوير العديد من الألحان ومن هنا بدأت انطلاقته. لم تمضِ إلا سنوات قليلة ليصنع تاريخه الفني عندما زار الكويت أكثر من مرة وغنى في العديد من المناسبات والحفلات إلى جانب أسماء بارزة. وتعاون مع عدد من الأسماء الفنية ثم أقام العديد من الحفلات الغنائية في قطر وأصبح جابر جاسم إسماً بارزا في مجال الأغنية، وقام خلال تلك الفترة بتلحين العديد من الأعمال الغنائية.

البداية
عشق جابر جاسم الغناء منذ صغره، وهام حبا وشوقا بتراث أهله وأجداده في الإمارات، وأخذ يردد 'الشلات' منذ صغره، ويدندن بألحانها ويقلد ما يستمع إليه في الأعراس والمناسبات خصوصا الأعياد والاحتفالات. وتمنى لو أن الفرصة تسنح له ليقدم هذا التراث بصورة مطورة. سافر في منتصف الستينات إلى القاهرة للدراسة، ووجد نفسه أمام عالم جديد، استمع إلى تجارب الفنانين والمطربين على الساحة مثل عبد الحليم حافظ وفريد الأطرش ومحمد عبد الوهاب، وغنّى أغانيهم في جلساته الخاصة. لكن شوقه كان يجذبه إلى ألحان أهله وأرضه، وتفكيره كان منصبا لتقديم هذا الفن الزاخر بالكثير من الألحان الجميلة.

قطر

بدأت مسيرته في عام 1963 في مسابقة الكشافة التي أُقيمت في قطر، حيث كان جابر جاسم، على الرغم من أنه من إمارة أبوظبي، وولد في جزيرة دلما، كان يمثل دولة قطر، إلا أنه بدأ دراسته الابتدائية في مدرسة دخان في دولة قطر. وقد فاجأ جابر جاسم الجميع بغنائه الرائع على خشبة المسرح، ولم يكن حينها قد تجاوز الحادية عشرة من عمره، حيث قدّم «وين عا رام الله» الأغنية الفلسطينية المشهورة.

المعروف أن الفنان جابر جاسم بدأ حياته الفنية في قطر عندما كان في مدارسها الابتدائية والمتوسطة، وكانت الساحة الفنية الإماراتية موزعة في الخارج، فهناك أصوات في السعودية وأخرى في الكويت وهكذا في قطر والبحرين، وذلك بسبب توافر الفرص في مجال الغناء والتسجيل والإمكانات المادية وشركات الاسطوانات والفرق الموسيقية في أواخر الستينات وحتى قيام الاتحاد سنة 1971 حيث بدأت كل تلك المعطيات تأخذ طريقها إلى النمو والتطور في الدولة.

العودة

عاد جاسم من قطر إلى موطنه الإمارات في العام 1969، والتقى الشاعر عتيج بن روضة الظاهري، وغنى له 15 قصيدة عن الحب. عاد إلى الإمارات مع تأسيس دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة، بدعوة الراحل الشيخ زايد بن سلطان آل نهيان لأهالي الإمارات المقيمين في الدول الشقيقة للعودة إلى الوطن للمساهمة في بناء الدولة، فانضم جابر جاسم إلى الفرقة الموسيقية القومية التابعة لوزارة الإعلام، وبدعم من وزير الثقافة والإعلام آنذاك أحمد بن حامد. كما ابتعثته الوزارة العام 1967م لدراسة الموسيقى في معهد الفنون الموسيقية في مصر وبقي فيها ستة أشهر.

أواخر الستينات

منذ بداية حقبة الستينات حتى العام 1967 كان جابر جاسم يبحث عن فرصة تناسب تلك الأيام الخالدة في تاريخ إمارة أبوظبي لتقديم أغنية وطنية بمناسبة عيد الجلوس للراحل الشيخ زايد بن سلطان آل نهيان، ولم تكن هناك فرقة موسيقية فأشار عليه أحد أصدقائه بأن يذهب إلى فرقة الشرطة الموسيقية، وهناك التقى بالرائد اسحق مدير الفرقة وتدرب معه على الأغنية ونجحت.

بعد أغنية عيد الجلوس بعام واحد عمل موظفا في الإذاعة بوظيفة لاقط أخبار لكنه كان يلتقط جديد الأغاني العربية والخليجية ويستمع إليها بشغف وهو يرددها ويتمنى الوصول إلى مستوى الغناء بمصاحبة فرقة موسيقية. ومن خلال هذا المخاض اليومي الذي يعيشه وحماسه أيضا للخروج من القوالب القديمة ذات الإيقاع الواحد والمتكرر والذي أشيع في الجلسات الشعبية والمناسبات الاجتماعية السائدة في ذلك الوقت، فكانت محاولات جابر جاسم في مجال البحث عن أغنية تلحق بركب مثيلاتها في البلاد العربية، وكان اللقاء المهم مع الشاعر أحمد بن علي الكندي، وتزامن هذا اللقاء مع لقاء شاعر آخر هو عتيج بالروضة الظاهري شاعر غزيل فلة.

بداية السبعينات

شارك جابر جاسم في بداية السبعينيات من القرن الماضي في تمثيل دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة في المحافل والمهرجانات الفنية على المستوى العربي والعالمي، وقد بدأ هذا المشوار بأسبوع ثقافي في طوكيو عاصمة اليابان. وأوصل الأغنية الإماراتية إلى شهرة واسعة على مستوى الخليج، خصوصاً حين غنى أغنية «غزيّلٍ فله في دبي لاقاني» في الحفل الغنائي الذي صاحب دورة كأس الخليج الثالثة في الكويت في العام 1974.

في عام 1975 حمل هاتين الأغنيتين (سيدي ياسيد ساداتي وغزيل فلة) إلى الكويت حيث يقدم كل مطرب خليجي فقرة غنائية تمثل بلاده، وكان جابر جاسم يمثل دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة في احتفالات كأس الخليج لكرة القدم، ويتذكر في أحد لقاءاته الصحفية: قبل الغناء ولمدة أسبوع أتنقل وحيدا ومن دون أن يعترض طريقي أحد أو يعرفني جمهور. وبعد الغناء صرت أشق طريقي في الفندق والشارع والسوق وسط إشارات الجميع إلي بأن هذا هو مطرب سيدي ياسيد ساداتي.

حصل على ألحان ملحنين متميزين على مستوى الخليج مثل طلال مداح من السعودية، ويوسف المهنا، وليلى عبد العزيز من الكويت، وآخرين، كما أن الفنان إبراهيم جمعة نفسه لحن له أغنية وطنية. كما أشار إلى أن جابر جاسم نفسه لحن الكثير من أغانيه، وكان يتبادل الرأي مع صديق طفولته إبراهيم جمعة في الألحان التي يود وضعها لأغانيه.

التعاونات الفنية
معظم القصائد التي لحنها وغناها الفنان جابر جاسم التي بلغت 200 أغنية، عرف بمحاولاته للتجديد في الغناء والموسيقي، والذي قاد إلى بدايات الأغنية الحديثة فيما بعد، وكان يتميز في مجال اختيار نصوص أغانيه؛ ومنها قصائد الشاعر سعيد بن عتيج الهاملي، والشاعرة عفراء بنت سيف المزروعي، والشاعر أحمد بن علي الكندي، وعشرات الشعراء القدامى والمعاصرين. من خلال بحثه عن الكلمات، غنى للشاعر سعيد بن عتيج الهاملي، الذي رحل في العام 1919، واستدعى بيئته في الأغنية وكل من يسمعه لا بد من أن يشعر بالمكان.

تحديدا بين الأوائل السبيعينات ومنتصف الثمانينات عندما استقر اخيرا في الإمارات العربية المتحدة وتعاون مع عدد من الأسماء البارزة لا سيما الشاعر سالم سيف الخالدي، كما تعاون مع الشاعر أحمد الكندي الذي قدم له أغنية 'شدوا العربان'، وقدم من كلمات الشاعر سالم سيف الخالدي اغنيته 'نسيتونا حبايبنا' التي حققت شهرة واسعة.

الحس الفني

تعد تجربة جابر جاسم مختلفة من حيث التأسيس الفني، فقد مر بمراحل ثلاث: كانت المرحلة الأولى تقليدية شعبية منذ فترة الصبا، والثانية بعد الدورات الدراسية ومصاحبة الفرق الموسيقية، والثالثة مع الألحان الجديدة والمهرجانات العربية الكبرى والتعاونات الفنية وتراكم الخبرة.

تتميز اختيارات جابر جاسم الشعرية بأنها ابنة بيئتها التي تضيف لأدائه نكهة فنية كان يعرف تماما أنها الطريق إلى الانتشار والشهرة من ناحية، وبأنه يحمل أمانة ثقافية في عملية توصيل نتاج المجتمع الإماراتي إلى المحيط الجماهيري الواسع. ولذلك كان يختار القصيدة المعبرة عن أدق العواطف والمنتجة بشكل تلقائي وجميل مثل قصيدة الشاعر خلفان بن يدعوه:

 واحسرتي ضاق الفظا بي
 يوم ابعدوني عن حبيبي
 في خنّ ساعي مِ لَخْشابي
 سِلْجٍ ومَجْراهِ المغيبي

الحياة الاجتماعية

جابر جاسم كان متزوجا وله خمسة أولاد أكبرهم حمد.

توفي أصغر أبنائه يوم الأربعاء تاريخ 20/2/2008 خالد وعمره 18 سنة بحادث سيارة.

وفاته
في السنوات الأخيرة وقبل رحيله بسنوات قرر جابر جاسم إعادة تصوير عدد من أغانية القديمة، لكن هذا المشروع لم يرَ النور، ومن الأغاني الجميلة التي تعرضها الفضائيات أغنية ضاع فكري التي صورها في الكويت في أوائل الثمانينات إلى جانب أغاني أخرى عدة. وقد تُوفي في أوائل شهر أكتوبر عام 2001 ولم يحقق حلمه بإعادة تصوير أغانيه الجميلة التي سبق وقدمها في الحفلات والمناسبات.

مصادر

مغنون ومغنيات إماراتيون
مواليد 1952
وفيات 2001

جابر جاسم


Eduardo Mangada Samain (Anna, Valencia, 4 de marzo de 1932) es un arquitecto y político español del Partido Socialista Obrero Español.

Biografía
Cursó estudios de Arquitectura en la Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Madrid, en la que seguidamente ejerció como catedrático.

Activo en política desde la década de 1970, militó en el Partido Comunista Español entre 1973 y su expulsión en 1982, como consecuencia de su apoyo a la fusión de la formación con Euskadiko Ezkerra.

Fue Primer Teniente de Alcalde y concejal de Urbanismo del Ayuntamiento de Madrid, junto a Enrique Tierno Galván entre 1979 y 1982. En 1983, Joaquín Leguina lo reclamó para formar parte del Primer Gobierno de la Comunidad de Madrid atribuyéndole la titularidad de la Consejería de Ordenación del Territorio, Medio Ambiente y Vivienda, competencias a las que en 1987 sumó las de Obras Públicas y Transportes.

Elegido diputado de la II Legislatura de la Asamblea de Madrid, causó baja durante la legislatura, siendo sustituido por José Antonio Sáinz García.
Retirado de la vida política en 1991, desde entonces se ha dedicado a la Arquitectura y el Urbanismo.

En octubre de 2014 se dio de baja en el  Partido Socialista Obrero Español.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

Concejales del Ayuntamiento de Madrid de la corporación 1979-1983
Políticos del Partido Comunista de España
Consejeros de la Comunidad de Madrid
Arquitectos de España del siglo XX
Urbanistas de España del siglo XX
Urbanistas de España del siglo XXI
Arquitectos por la ETSAM
Diputados de la II Legislatura de la Asamblea de Madrid
Primeros tenientes de alcalde del Ayuntamiento de Madrid
Diputados del Grupo Parlamentario Socialista en la Asamblea de Madrid
Nacidos en Anna

Eduardo Mangada


Tiganophyton, monotipski biljni rod smješten u vlastitu porodicu Tiganophytaceae. Jedina vrsta je T. karasense, zimzeleni patuljasti grm opisan 2020 godine kao nova vrsta, novi rod i nova porodica iz reda Brassicales. Namibijski endem.

Izvori

Brassicales

Tiganophyton


The Cigna Group is a for-profit American multinational managed healthcare and insurance company based in Bloomfield, Connecticut. Its insurance subsidiaries are major providers of medical, dental, disability, life and accident insurance and related products and services, the majority of which are offered through employers and other groups (e.g., governmental and non-governmental organizations, unions and associations). Cigna is incorporated in Delaware.

Cigna offers Medicare and Medicaid products and health, life and accident insurance coverages primarily to individuals in the U.S. and selected international markets. In addition to its ongoing operations described above, Cigna also has certain run-off operations, including a Run-off Reinsurance segment. In the Phoenix metropolitan area, Cigna runs a full-service staff-model health maintenance organization with satellite clinics throughout the region, known as the Evernorth Care Group (formally Cigna Medical Group). Cigna Global Health Benefits also operates under the Cigna corporation.

The company ranked #15 in the 2023 Fortune 500 list of the largest U.S. corporations by total revenue.

History
Cigna was formed by the 1982 merger of the Connecticut General Life Insurance Company (CG) and INA Corporation (the parent corporation of Insurance Company of North America, the first stock insurance company in America). The company name, Cigna, is a mix of letters from the merging companies, CG and INA. Insurance Company of North America was formed in 1792, while CG was created in 1865 by a special act of the Governor of Connecticut. In October 1871, the great Chicago Fire burned for two days, destroyed 2,000 acres, and left 100,000 people in Illinois homeless. INA paid $650,000, one of only 51 insurance companies (out of a total of 202) to pay claims in full.

Before selling its domestic and international property and casualty business to the Bermuda-based ACE Insurance company in the late 1990s, Cigna was among the companies with a large international network comparable to those of AIG, Allianz, and Zurich. The strategy behind the sale was to concentrate on core business. ACE – at that time a key player at the Bermuda and Lloyd's insurance market – on the other hand, was interested in expanding the international network in the traditional insurance market.

Cigna sold the majority of its life insurance operations to Lincoln National Corporation in 1997.

In 2002, it was alleged in violation of the Securities Exchange Act for earnings manipulation. Its common stock price plummeted significantly as a result. In October 2011, Cigna agreed to buy HealthSpring Inc. for $3.8 billion to jump-start its business selling Medicare plans from 46,000 Medicare Advantage members to almost 400,000 Medicare Advantage members. The payment would come from an issue of new equity to cover about 20 percent of the value, with the rest funded by additional cash and debt. In 2013, Cigna operated in 30 countries, had approximately 35,800 employees and managed around US$53.734 billion in assets.

In June 2015, U.S. health insurer Anthem Inc. announced that it would acquire Cigna for $47 billion in cash and stock. Anthem confirmed it had reached a deal to buy Cigna on July 24, 2015. On July 21, 2016, the US Justice Department filed an antitrust suit to block the proposed merger, and a District Court ruling on February 8, 2017 blocked the merger on anticompetitive grounds. That month, Cigna Corp. called off its $48 billion merger agreement with Anthem Inc., with Anthem stating it would "continue to enforce its rights under the merger agreement and remains committed to closing the transaction." After exhausting federal appeals of the antitrust merger block, the companies turned on each other in Delaware's Court of Chancery. The legal saga came to an end with a August 31, 2020 decision denying both companies claims for compensation from the other for the failed merger.

On March 7, 2018, it was announced that Cigna would acquire Express Scripts in a $67 billion deal and on August 24, 2018, the shareholders of Cigna and Express Scripts approved the deal.

In June 2020, Cigna formed a strategic alliance with Priority Health to make comprehensive health care coverage more affordable and accessible to Michigan employers and customers.

In September 2020, Cigna rebranded its health services portfolio under the name Evernorth, which included Express Scripts, Accredo, and eviCore.

In October 2020, it was announced that Cigna and Envision Healthcare had renewed their agreement to include Envision's clinicians as in-network providers for Cigna's members.  In 2021, Molina Healthcare acquired Cigna's Medicaid contracts in Texas for US$60 million.

On February 13, 2023 Cigna renamed its holding company The Cigna Group, its health benefits provider business unit Cigna Healthcare, and its Evernorth business unit Evernorth Health Services.

Cigna Global Health Benefits

Cigna Global Health Benefits is a business unit within Cigna. The company is headquartered in Wilmington, Delaware, close to Philadelphia. Additional Cigna Global Health Benefits operations are located in Visalia, California, and Greenock, Scotland and Shanghai, China and Antwerp, Belgium. Sales offices are located in North America, Europe, Asia and the Middle East.

Products and services
CGHB global health plans typically include medical, dental, behavioral and disability, as well as business travel and life components. Expatriates are defined as employees of multinational companies working outside their home country on short, and long-term international assignments. CGHB maintains its own, in-house international claims platform, and offers a network of physicians and hospitals for its members (including 550,000 in the U.S. and more than 141,000 outside the U.S.).

Accounting and investor relations
On February 9, 2005, Cigna elected to adopt in the fourth quarter of 2004 fair value accounting for its stock options in accordance with SFAS No. 123 and to restate prior periods.

Public relations and lobbying
The UK newspaper Guardian in their Esc and Ctrl videoblog about control of the Internet by corporations, documented an incident with Nataline Sarkisyan and the former vice president of Cigna talking about astroturfing, the practice of creating fake blogs by interested groups, e.g. health insurance companies, to push claims that are profitable for said company into media, e.g. dismissing universal health care.

Cigna spent more than $4.4 million from 2005 to 2009 on lobbying to attain legislation that the company favors. This includes $720,000 spent in 2009 alone, when it had 20 lobbyists at five firms working on their behalf.

In 2008, the head of Cigna's public relations, Wendell Potter, resigned, becoming a whistleblower who gave testimony in 2009 to the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation in favor of reform of the health care industry.

Nataline Sarkisyan liver transplant case
In December 2007, Cigna was criticized after the company refused to pay for a liver transplant of a California teenage girl, Nataline Sarkisyan, justifying their refusal to pay by claiming that the procedure was experimental, even though there was a liver ready and waiting to be transplanted and doctors estimated she had a 65% chance of surviving at least six months. In response to much protest and public scrutiny, Cigna reversed its decision, though Ms. Sarkisyan died awaiting the transplant. Cigna notes that it had no financial stake in the decision to authorize the transplant because it merely administers the insurance plan of Mr. Sarkisyan's employer and would not bear the cost of any operation. However, Cigna offered to pay for the transplant itself when it made the exception to the policy.

Even though liver transplants have been performed since 1963 and are a well-accepted treatment option for end-stage liver disease and acute liver failure, Cigna defended its actions by claiming that there was insufficient data to show that a transplant for a patient in Sarkisyan's condition would be safe and effective. The California court agreed with Cigna's position that the Sarkisyans' claims regarding Cigna's decision-making were preempted by federal ERISA law. On April 16, 2009, the United States District Court for the Central District of California dismissed all of the claims against Cigna related to the coverage determination.

Awards and evaluations
Cigna received gold in the 2009 Gartner & 1to1 Customer Experience Excellence Award. The awards are given to the companies that "most clearly demonstrate exemplary customer relationship strategy and an unrivaled level of excellence in delivering the customer experience".

In January 2010, Cigna received the JD Power award for customer service for all of its call centers for the fourth time in a row.

In 2011, the California Nurses Association determined that Cigna denies roughly 39.6% of all claims (compared to competitors such as Aetna who denied about 5.9% of all claims in the same time frame).

Strategic alliances
On April 16, 2010, Cigna announced an alliance with Humana group to offer a streamlined Medicare Advantage offering through employer clients for retirees.

In November 2011, Cigna and TTK Group, an Indian business conglomerate focused on healthcare, formed a joint venture called Cigna TTK to develop a health insurance business in India subject to obtaining government approvals.

Controversies
In 2015, the American Consumer Satisfaction Index named Cigna as one of the most hated companies in the U.S. Cigna's name returned on the ACSI's most hated list in 2018.

In August 2020, the Department of Justice filed a lawsuit against Cigna alleging that the company defrauded Medicare Advantage, Medicare, and Medicaid for $1.4B by submitting diagnostic codes for health conditions that patients did not have.

In November 2020, investors sued Cigna's CEO and board alleging that they had used "black-ops-style" tactics to "blow up" the merger with Anthem in 2017. One pension fund accused Cigna CEO David Cordani of seeking to poison the deal after he had failed to secure the top post in the resulting company. The fund claimed he had utilized lawyers and public relations specialists to set up a "Trojan Horse" campaign. The merger would have produced the largest U.S. health insurer.

In 2023, Cigna was criticized for allowing company doctors to reject claims even if they had not opened the patient file. The company was found to be using a system, "PXDX," that according to Propublica, "saved money in two ways. It allowed Cigna to begin turning down claims that it had once paid. And it made it cheaper to turn down claims, because the company's doctors never had to open a file or conduct any in-depth review. They simply denied the claims in bulk with an electronic signature."

See also

 List of United States insurance companies

References

External links

Health insurance companies of the United States
Pharmacy benefit management companies based in the United States
Health care companies based in Connecticut
Companies based in Hartford County, Connecticut
Bloomfield, Connecticut
1792 establishments in Connecticut
Financial services companies established in 1792
Financial services companies established in 1982
American companies established in 1982

Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
American companies established in 1792

Cigna


Giovanni Cornaro (født 30. juni 1720 i Venedig i Italien, død 29. marts 1789 i Roma) var en af Den katolske kirkes kardinaler. Han var en søn af Niccolò Cornaro and Alba Giustiniani Han var tilknyttet den romerske kurie.

Han blev 1. juni 1778 udnævnt til kardinal for San Cesareo i Palatio af pave Pius VI.

Han var fra en anden gren af den gamle Cordano-slægten som de andre Cornaro-kardinalerne kom fra, skønt de var alle hans fjerne slægtninge: Kardinalerne Marco Cornaro (udnævnt 1500), Francesco Cornaro (1527), Andrea Cornaro (1544), Luigi Cornaro (1551), Federico Cornaro (1585), Federico Baldissera Bartolomeo Cornaro (1626) og Giorgio Cornaro (1697).

Han døde i 1789 og blev begravet i basilica San Marco.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Biografi på The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
 Giovanni Cardinal Cornaro på The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church

Kardinaler fra Italien
Katolske præster fra Italien
Personer fra Venedig

Giovanni Cornaro


Perdövites veya stall; akışkanlar dinamiğinde, bir akışkan içerisinde hareket eden bir cisme etki eden taşıma kuvvetinin -hücum açısının (AOA) kritik değeri geçmesi nedeniyle- azalması veya yok olması sonucunda cismin akışkan içerisinde tutunamaması. Kelimenin kökeni ise Fransızca'da hız kaybı anlamına gelen "perte de vitesse"den gelmektedir.

Tutunma kaybına uğramanın çeşitli nedenleri olabilir. En temel iki sebep şöyledir:
 Taşıyıcı yüzey üzerinde gereken akışkan hızının elde edilememesi
 Kontrol ya da taşıma yüzeyleri üzerinde meydana gelen akım ayrılması

Hava taşıtlarında

Hava taşıtlarında perdövites kritik hücum açısının geçildiği her durumda "süratten bağımsız olarak" gerçekleşir. Yani perdövites bu açının aşıldığı tüm süratlerde gerçekleşir.

Tutunma kaybına tüm kanat uğrayabileceği gibi, kontrol yüzeylerinin bulunduğu kanat kısımları da uğrayabilir. Her ikisi de kontrol kaybına, dolayısıyla tutunma kaybına sebep olacaktır. Örneğin, ok açısı verilmiş kanatlarda kanat ucunda bulunan kontrol yüzeyleri, uçaktan ve kanadın tamamından daha evvel tutunma kaybına uğrar. Bu sebeple, taşıma merkezi, ağırlık merkezinin önüne geçer ve bu da pozitif yunuslama momenti meydana getirir. Yani uçak, burnunu kaldırma eğilimine girer. Artık kontrol yüzeyleri üzerinde hakimiyet zayıfladığından, tutunma kaybı böyle bir durumda kazaya sebebiyet verebilir.

Türbülanslı hava akımlarında meydana gelen kontrol kaybı, tutunma kaybıyla karıştırılmamalıdır.

Dönüşte perdövites

Dönüş esnasında hücum açısının düz ve yatışsız uçuşa nazaran daha fazla olması gerekir. Bu nedenle dönüş esnasında perdövites hücum açısına daha yüksek süratte (daha erken) ulaşılır. Bu sürat artışları şu şekildedir:

 30° yatışta %7 artış
 45° yatışta %19 artış
 60° yatışta %41 artış
 75° yatışta %100 artış

Örneğin düz ve yatışsız uçuşta 50 KIAS süratte kritik hücum açısını aşıp perdövites olan bir uçak 60° yatışlı bir dönüş esnasında 71 KIAS'ta (daha erken) perdövites olacaktır.

Kaynakça
 Pooley, Dorothy, ve David Robson. The Air Pilot's Manual 4: The Aeroplane Technical. 5. baskı. Cranfield. Pooley's Air Pilot Publishing, 2009.

İlgili bağlantılar
 Kanat profili
 Taşıma kuvveti
 Hücum açısı

Aerodinamik (havacılık)
Havacılık terimleri

Perdövites