The Convair B-58 Hustler, designed and produced by American aircraft manufacturer Convair, was the first operational bomber capable of Mach 2 flight.

The B-58 was developed during the 1950s for the United States Air Force (USAF) Strategic Air Command (SAC). To achieve the high speeds desired, Convair chose a delta wing design used by contemporary interceptors such as the Convair F-102. The bomber was powered by four General Electric J79 engines in underwing pods. It had no bomb bay; it carried a single nuclear weapon plus fuel in a combination bomb/fuel pod underneath the fuselage. Later, four external hardpoints were added, enabling it to carry up to five weapons.

The B-58 entered service in March 1960, and flew for a decade with two SAC bomb wings - the 43rd Bombardment Wing and the 305th Bombardment Wing. It was considered difficult to fly, imposing a high workload upon its three-man crews. Designed to replace the subsonic Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic bomber, the B-58 became notorious for its sonic boom heard on the ground by the public as it passed overhead in supersonic flight.

The B-58 was designed to fly at high altitudes and supersonic speeds to avoid Soviet interceptors, but with the Soviet introduction of high-altitude surface-to-air missiles, the B-58 was forced to adopt a low-level penetration role that severely limited its range and strategic value. It was never used to deliver conventional bombs. The B-58 was substantially more expensive to operate than other bombers, such as the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, and required more frequent aerial refueling. The B-58 also suffered from a high rate of accidental losses. These factors resulted in a relatively brief operational career of ten years. The B-58 was succeeded in its role by the smaller, swing-wing FB-111A.

Development

Origins
The genesis of the B-58 was the Generalized Bomber Study (GEBO II) issued in February 1949 by the Air Research and Development Command (ARDC) at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, for the development of a supersonic, long-range, manned bomber aircraft. ARDC sought the best attainable quantitative data, challenging the industry to devise their own solutions to attain the stated goal. Work on the proposed bomber's design was to begin less than two years after sustained supersonic flight had been achieved. According to aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist, while some military officials were keenly interested in the prospective use of supersonic bombers, others held doubts about the propulsion systems and materials science required for supersonic operations, as well as the much higher fuel consumption relative to subsonic counterparts.

Despite the skepticism, multiple contractors submitted bids for GEBO II, which was viewed as an influential step towards a development contract. These included Boeing, Convair, Curtiss, Douglas, Martin, and North American Aviation. Most of the submissions were relatively straightforward, unambitious, and expensive. Convair, which had built the XF-92A and other delta-wing fighters, evaluated swept and semidelta configurations, then settled on the delta wing, which offered good internal volume for support systems and fuel. It also provided low wing loading for the airframe size, permitting supersonic flight in the midstratosphere at . Most of the configurations studied mated the delta wing to a relatively slender fuselage housing a crew of two and powered by a pair of jet engines.

The Convair proposal, coded FZP-110, was a radical, two-place, delta-wing bomber powered by three General Electric J53 turbojet engines. The performance estimates included a  speed and a  range. A key feature of the design was to store consumables, both weaponry and most of the fuel, within a large external pod, which enabled a smaller fuselage. In January 1951, Convair submitted the FZP-110 proposal, which was received later than other competing bids. During December 1951, a revised FZP-016 proposal was submitted, which deleted the third engine on the tail, increased the remaining two engines' thrust, and added a third crew member to operate defensive systems.

Selection

The USAF chose Boeing's MX-1712 and Convair MX-1626 design studies to proceed to a phase 1 study. During this period, Convair took advantage of recent developments by General Electric and replaced the two large J53 engines with four smaller J79s optimized for supersonic flight. The recently formulated area rule was also applied to the design, resulting in aerodynamic reprofiling and an even more slender fuselage. Having been refined, Convair redesignated their renewed submission MX-1964.

In August 1952, Convair's design was judged superior. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, Boeing's submission was viewed as equally good, but their separate contract to produce the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress had undoubtedly influenced this competition. In December 1952, Convair was chosen to meet the new SAB-51 (Supersonic Aircraft Bomber) and SAR-51 (Supersonic Aircraft Reconnaissance) standards, the first general operational requirements  for supersonic bombers. In February 1953, the USAF issued a contract for Convair's design, designated B-58 on 10 December 1952.

The B-58 program, unlike those for prior military aircraft, was the first weapon-system contract. Under this arrangement, Convair acted as the prime contractor responsible for all program elements, not just the aircraft. Convair was required to devise or subcontract everything associated with the aircraft's operation, from the engines to training manuals, spare components, and software, in excess of one million items. Early on, the contract was modified to build a pair of XB-58 prototypes, 11 YB-58A preproduction aircraft, and 31 mission pods including a free-fall bomb pod, a rocket-propelled controllable bomb pod, a reconnaissance pod, and an electronic reconnaissance pod.

Into flight
The first prototype, serial number 55-660, was rolled out on 31 August 1956. The program was performed under high security; prior to the roll out, no unauthorized individual had knowledge of its shape or basic configuration. On 11 November 1956, the maiden flight occurred. The prototype exceeded Mach 1 for the first time on 30 December of that year. The difficult and protracted flight-test program involving 30 aircraft continued until April 1959. In total, 116 B-58s were produced - 30 trial aircraft and 86 production B-58A models. Most of the trial aircraft were later upgraded to operational standards. Eight were equipped as TB-58A training aircraft.

Convair sought further development of the B-58, proposing variants and derivatives for both military and civilian applications. Most never went beyond the drawing board, having been ordered prior to the decision to terminate multiple contracts. The B-58B, B-58C, B-58D, and B-58E variants were all terminated prior to completion of any production aircraft. During the late 1960s, some refinements to the existing fleet were developed and introduced, such as slender bomb racks (known as "multiple weapons capability") and additional pods. The final B-58 was delivered in October 1962.

Design

Overview
The Convair B-58 Hustler was a high-speed strategic bomber, capable of routinely attaining Mach 2 at altitude. It incorporated a large delta wing with a leading-edge sweep of 60°, and was powered by an arrangement of four General Electric J79-GE-1 turbojet engines. Although its sizable wing generated relatively low wing loading, it proved to be surprisingly well suited for low-altitude, high-speed flight. To protect against the heat generated while cruising at Mach 2, the crew compartment,  wheel wells, and electronics bay were pressurized and air conditioned. The B-58 was one of the first extensive applications of aluminum honeycomb panels, which bonded outer and inner aluminum skins to a honeycomb of aluminum or fiberglass.

Various features of the B-58 were considered to be record-breaking, according to Gunston and Gilchrist. The structure itself made up 13.8% of the aircraft's gross weight, an exceptionally low figure for the era, while the wing was considered to be extremely thin, as well. Several key features of the engine, including the nacelle and the inlet, were unlike any existing aircraft, having been devised from guidance by aerodynamicists. Specifically, the inlets used moving conical spikes, being fully aft on the ground and at low speeds to maximize air intake, then driven forward while being flown at high speeds to minimize the annular gap. This movement was automatically controlled, but significant noise and asymmetric thrust were generated in the event of a single inlet malfunctioning.

Crew provisions
The B-58 was operated by a crew of three - pilot (the aircraft commander or "AC"), radar navigator/bombardier ("Nav"), and defense systems operator ("DSO"). They were seated in separated tandem cockpits. The AC's cockpit, which was provided with very deep windows, was considered to be mostly conventional for a large multiengine aircraft. The DSO was provisioned with a complex arrangement of different systems, which Gunston and Gilchrist describe as being the most complicated of any aircraft of the era. The space allocated to the crew, despite being roughly half of the fuselage's internal volume, was typically considered to be cramped and claustrophobic.

Later versions of the B-58 provided each crew member with a novel ejection capsule that could eject at an altitude of  at speeds up to Mach 2. Unlike standard ejection seats of the period, a protective clamshell enclosed the seat and the control stick with an attached oxygen cylinder, allowing the AC to continue to fly even "turtled up" and ready for immediate egress. The capsule was buoyant; the crewmember could open the clamshell and use it as a life raft. Unusually, the ejection system was tested with live bears and chimpanzees; it was qualified for use during 1963 and a bear became the first living being to survive a supersonic ejection.

The electronic controls were ambitious and advanced for the day. The Nav and DSO's cockpits featured wraparound dashboards with warning lights and buttons, and automatic voice messages and warnings from a tape system were audible through the helmet sets. Research during the era of all-male combat aircraft assignments revealed that a woman's voice was more likely to gain the attention of young men in distracting situations. Nortronics Division of Northrop Corporation selected actress and singer Joan Elms to record the automated voice warnings. To those flying the B-58, the voice was known as "Sexy Sally". The original voice recordings are archived.

Adverse flight characteristics

While the B-58's performance and design were exceptional for the era, it was not an easy aircraft to fly. This was caused by the 60° leading-edge sweepback of its wing and was inherent in these types of delta-wing platforms. It required a much higher angle of attack than a conventional aircraft, up to 9.4° at Mach 0.5 at low altitudes. If the angle of attack was too high, in excess of 17°, the bomber could pitch up and enter a spin. Several factors could prevent a successful recovery; if the pilot applied elevon, if the center of gravity was not correctly positioned, or if the spin occurred below , recovery might not be possible. The B-58 also possessed unconventional stall characteristics; if the nose was elevated, the bomber maintained forward motion without pitching down. Unless large amounts of power were applied, the descent rate increased rapidly. Another problem pilots faced was called "fuel stacking", taking place whenever the B-58 accelerated or decelerated. It was caused by fuel movement within the tanks, which led to sudden changes in the aircraft's center of gravity. This could cause the B-58 to abruptly pitch or bank, potentially resulting in a loss of control.

The aircraft had unusual takeoff requirements, with a 14° angle of attack needed for the rotation near  for a  combat weight. This poor takeoff performance was evident with the high landing speed, necessitating a drogue parachute for braking, which was also required for B-47 and B-52 aircraft. To accommodate the high landing speed, the specially configured landing gear had to handle excessive conditions; both the inflation pressure and wheel rotation speed were far greater than prior units to cope.

Weapons systems

The Sperry AN/ASQ-42 bombing/navigation system combined a sophisticated inertial navigation system with the KS-39 star tracker (astro-inertial navigation system) to provide a heading reference, the AN/APN-113 Doppler radar to provide ground speed and windspeed data, a search radar to provide range data for bomb release and trajectory, and a radar altimeter. The AN/ASQ-42 was estimated to be 10 times more accurate than any previous bombing/navigation system.

Defensive armament consisted of a single 20 mm (0.79 in) T-171E-3 rotary cannon with 1,200 rounds of ammunition in a radar-aimed tail barbette. It was remotely controlled through the Emerson MD-7 automated radar fire-control system, only requiring the DSO to lock on a selected target blip on his scope and then fire the gun. The system computed aiming, velocity, or heading differential, and range compensation. Offensive armament typically consisted of a single nuclear weapon, along with fuel tanks, in a streamlined MB-1C pod under the fuselage. Incurable difficulties with fuel leakage resulted in the replacement of the MB-1C with the two-component pod (TCP), which placed the nuclear weapon in an upper section, while the lower fuel component could be independently jettisoned. This had the added benefit of allowing the pilot to "clean up" the aircraft for fuel efficiency or in case of emergency, while still retaining the (somewhat) slimmer weapon.

From 1961 to 1963, the B-58 was retrofitted with two tandem stub pylons under each wing root, adjacent to the centerline pod, for B43 or B61 nuclear weapons. This allowed for a total of five nuclear weapons per aircraft. Although the USAF looked at using the B-58 for conventional strikes, it was never equipped for carrying or dropping conventional bombs. A photo reconnaissance pod, the LA-331, was also fielded. Several other specialized pods for electronic countermeasures or an early cruise missile were considered, but not adopted. The late-1950s High Virgo air-launched ballistic missile was designed to be launched from the B-58; a Hustler carried out four test launches to determine ballistic missile and antisatellite weapon-system capability.

Operational history

Introduction

On 1 August 1960, the B-58 was declared operational, nine months after the delivery of the first aircraft to the USAF. One month later, a single B-58 participated in the annual SAC Combat Competition at Bergstrom; it proved itself to be superior to competing Boeing B-47 Stratojets and Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, securing first place in both high-level and low-level radar bombing exercises.

Crews were typically chosen from other strategic bomber squadrons. Due to some characteristics of delta-winged aircraft, new pilots used the Convair F-102 Delta Dagger as a conversion trainer before moving to the TB-58A trainer. The B-58 was found to be difficult to fly, and its three-man crews were constantly busy, but its performance was exceptional. A lightly loaded Hustler could climb at nearly 46,000 ft/min (235 m/s). In addition to its much smaller weapons load and more limited range than the B-52, the B-58 had been extremely expensive to acquire.

Excessive program expenditure

Through FY 1961, the total cost of the B-58 program was $3 billion ($ billion in  dollars). A highly complex aircraft, it also required considerable maintenance, much of which required specialized equipment and ground personnel. For comparison, the average maintenance cost per flying hour for the B-47 was $361, for the B-52 it was $1,025, and for the B-58 it was $1,440. The B-58 cost one-third more to operate than the B-52. The cost of maintaining and operating the two operational B-58 wings (39 aircraft per wing) equaled that of six wings of B-52s (only 15 aircraft per wing). Because of the support costs of six wings vs only two wings, the actual cost per aircraft of the B-52s was $1.42 million per year vs $1.21 million per year for the B-58 (this figure included special detailed maintenance for the nose landing gear, which retracted in a complex fashion to avoid the center payload).

Compounding these exorbitant costs, the B-58 had a high accident rate; 26 B-58 aircraft were lost in accidents, or 22.4% of total production, and more than half of the losses occurred during flight tests. The SAC senior leadership had been doubtful about the aircraft type from the beginning, although its crews eventually became enthusiastic about the aircraft. General Curtis LeMay was never satisfied with the bomber, and after a flight in one declared that it was too small, far too expensive to maintain in combat readiness, and required an excessive number of aerial refuelings to complete a mission. Although the high-altitude ferry range of the B-58 was better than that of the B-47, the lack of forward basing resulted in a requirement for more KC-135 tanker support.

Operational wings and retirement
Two SAC bomb wings operated the B-58 during its operational service - the 43rd Bombardment Wing (which later transitioned to the 43rd Airlift Wing), based at Carswell AFB, Texas, from 1960 to 1964, and Little Rock AFB, Arkansas, from 1964 to 1970; and the 305th Bombardment Wing, based at Bunker Hill AFB (later Grissom AFB), Indiana, from 1961 to 1970. The 305th also operated the B-58 combat crew training school, the predecessor of the USAF's formal training units.

By the time the early problems had largely been resolved and SAC interest in the bomber had solidified, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara decided that the B-58 was not a viable weapon system. During the B-58's introduction, high-altitude Soviet surface-to-air missiles became a threat, especially the SA-2 Guideline, a system the Soviet Union extensively deployed. The "solution" to this problem was to fly at low altitudes, minimizing the radar line-of-sight and reducing exposure time.

Because of dense air at low altitudes, the B-58 could not fly at supersonic speeds and its moderate range was reduced further, negating the costly high-speed performance of the aircraft. Despite shortcomings, the type had its advocates within the service; according to Gunston and Gilchrist, when Secretary McNamara had requested proposals for a new manned Mach 2 bomber, General Thomas S. Power responded with a request for the B-58 to be put back into production. In late 1965, McNamara ordered retirement of the B-58 by 1970; the principal reason given for this directive was the high sustainment cost for the fleet. On 29 October 1969, the Department of Defense announced that the type would be withdrawn from service on 31 January 1970.

Despite efforts of some officials within the USAF to secure a reprieve, the phaseout proceeded on schedule. The last B-58s were retired in January 1970, after which they were placed into storage with the Military Aircraft Storage and Disposition Center at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. The fleet survived intact until 1977, when nearly all remaining aircraft were sold to Southwestern Alloys for disposal. As a weapon system, the B-58 was replaced by the FB-111A. This aircraft was designed for low-altitude attack, to be more flexible with the carriage of conventional weapons, and less expensive to produce and maintain.

Since B-58 pilots were the only USAF pilots experienced in long-duration supersonic flight, several former Hustler crew members were selected by Colonel Douglas Nelson to fly the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird at the start of that program.

Test aircraft

Several B-58s were used for special trials. One was specially modified to test the Hughes radar system intended for the Lockheed YF-12 interceptor and the North American F-108 Rapier, which had an extended nose to accommodate the radar and was nicknamed "Snoopy" (see Aircraft on Display). Several improved (and usually enlarged) variants, named B-58B and B-58C by the manufacturer, were proposed, but never built.

World records
The B-58 set 19 speed records, including cross-US, and the longest supersonic flight in history. In 1963, it flew from Tokyo to London (via Alaska), a distance of , with five aerial refuelings in 8 hours, 35 minutes, 20.4 seconds, averaging . , this record still stands. The aircraft was serving in an operational unit, and had not been modified in any way besides being washed and waxed. One of the goals of the flight was to push the limit of its new honeycomb construction technique. The speed of the flight was limited only by the speed at which they believed the honeycomb panels would delaminate, although one of the afterburners malfunctioned and the last hour of the flight was continued at subsonic speed. This reduced the average speed to roughly Mach 1.5, despite most of the flight being at Mach 2. This B-58 was called Greased Lightning, which was the codename for the record attempt.

A B-58 set the FAI record for altitude with a 5000-kg payload: 26000 m.

Some of the record-winning aerospace trophies the B-58 won were the Bleriot Trophy, the Thompson Trophy, the Mackay Trophy, the Bendix Trophy, and the Harmon Trophy.

Singer John Denver's father, Lieutenant Colonel Henry J. Deutschendorf Sr., USAF, held several speed records as a B-58 pilot.

Variants
 XB-58: Prototype; two built
 YB-58A: Pre-production aircraft; 11 built
 B-58A: Three-seat medium-range strategic bomber aircraft; 86 built
 TB-58A: Training aircraft, eight conversions from YB-58A
 NB-58A: This designation was given to a YB-58A used to test the General Electric J93 engine, originally intended for the North American XB-70 Valkyrie Mach 3 bomber.
 RB-58A: Variant with ventral reconnaissance pod; 17 built
 B-58B: Unbuilt. Larger and faster than the B-58A, this version would have had uprated J79-GE-9 engines, a longer fuselage for extra fuel capacity, canards, and the ability to carry conventional weapons. A prototype B-58B was ordered (S/N 60-1109) and a total purchase of 185 envisioned, but the entire project was canceled before construction began, due to budgetary considerations. The B variant was also planned to be the mothership for a Mach 4 parasite called the FISH, for First Invisible Super Hustler. That FISH had three ramjets that would be ignited at an altitude of at least  and speeds over Mach 2. The Super Hustler would then drop from the B-58B, climb to , and accelerate to Mach 4.2 to complete its mission.
 B-58C: Unbuilt. Proposed as a cheaper alternative to the XB-70, this enlarged version would have carried more fuel and  J58 engines, the same ones used on the Lockheed SR-71. Design studies were conducted with two- and four-engine designs. Capable of carrying conventional weapons, the C model had an estimated top speed approaching Mach 3, a supercruise capability of about Mach 2, a service ceiling of about , and a maximum range of . As enemy defenses against high-speed, high-altitude penetration bombers improved, the value of the B-58C diminished and the program was canceled in early 1961.
 B-58D: Unbuilt. Proposed as an interceptor aircraft, taking advantage of its speed and high altitude performance.
 B-58E: Unbuilt. Proposed as a multi-mission platform, to have been armed with numerous air-launched ballistic missiles (ALBM).
 Convair Model 58-9: a proposed supersonic transport. First developed by Convair in 1961, it was intended to carry 58 passengers at speed in excess of Mach 2. Multiple revisions of this proposal was submitted to Congress as Convair's bid for the National Supersonic Transport program.

Operators

United States Air Force
43rd Bombardment Wing – Carswell AFB, Texas (1960–1964); Little Rock AFB, Arkansas (1964–1970)
63rd Bombardment Squadron, Medium
64th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
65th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
6592nd Test Squadron
3958th Operational Test and Evaluation Squadron (1958–1960)
305th Bombardment Wing – Bunker Hill (later Grissom AFB), Indiana (1961–1970)
364th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
365th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
366th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
Air Force Flight Test Center – Edwards AFB, California (1956–1958)

Accidents and incidents
Out of 116 B-58 Hustlers produced, 24 were lost in crashes. This represents a loss rate of approximately 21% of the total number produced.

On October 27, 1959, a Convair B-58 Hustler jet bomber was being flown from Carswell Air Force Base near Fort Worth, Texas, to Eglin Air Force Base in Florida. Three civilian crew members were aboard: the pilot, Everette Wheeler, and two flight engineers, Michael Keller and Harry Blosser. At about 7:30 p.m., the plane was flying at about 25,000 feet when it developed a problem, and all three crew members ejected from the plane. Keller and Wheeler both landed safely, though Wheeler suffered a broken arm, but Blosser didn't survive. His body was found early the next morning in a field, still strapped into his ejection seat and the parachute open. The plane crashed on a field in Lake Shady (today Lake Serene) about two miles south of U.S. Route 98, leaving a crater 30 feet deep and 75 feet wide. After the crash, between 30 and 40 Air Force personnel were sent to investigate. They set up a temporary headquarters in the Oak Grove School auditorium. Anyone who found wreckage was asked to turn it in.

On April 22, 1960, a B-58 crashed into Great Salt Lake, Utah. Only the DSO survived.

On June 3, 1961, B-58A 59-2451 Firefly crashed during the Paris Air Show, killing all three on board. The aircraft had earlier made the first supersonic transatlantic crossing between New York and Paris in less than 3 hours 20 minutes.

In September 1961, a B-58 on training flight from Carswell Air Force Base suffered a fire and failure of the left main gear. A chase aircraft was sent to examine the aircraft in flight. Through the night, eight sessions of aerial refuelings were conducted, using an improved technique and, once daylight broke, a successful emergency landing was made at Edwards Air Force Base. The Air Force made a training film about the incident, including film of the landing.

On December 8, 1964, a B-58 carrying nuclear weapons slid off an icy runway on Bunker Hill Air Force Base in Bunker Hill, Indiana and caught fire during a training drill. The five nuclear weapons on board were burned, including one 9-megaton thermonuclear weapon, causing radioactive contamination of the crash area.

On June 15, 1965, at the Paris Air Show, Lieutenant Colonel Charles D. Tubbs was killed and two other crewmen injured when their B-58 crashed. The aircraft landed short of the runway, struck the instrument approach beacons, and burst into flames.

On July 22, 1965, B-58 #60-1128 departed runway during landing and was destroyed.  All three occupants were unharmed.

On December 12, 1966, a B-58 crashed in field near McKinney, Kentucky killing all three crew members.

On June 14, 1967, Aircraft abandoned in flight.  Three crew members ejected, and one of them was killed when parachute did not open.

On April 3, 1969, The aircraft crashed near Rokeby, Nebraska.  Aircraft's left wing was torn off before crashing.  All three crew members managed to eject and parachute to safety.

On April 18, 1969, B-58A #61-2056 crashed in field near Danville, Illinois.  All three occupants were able to eject and parachute to safety.

Aircraft on display

Today there are eight B-58 survivors:

TB-58A
 55-0663 – Grissom Air Museum, Grissom Air Reserve Base (former Bunker Hill AFB / former Grissom AFB), Peru, Indiana. This is the oldest remaining aircraft and the fourth B-58 built.
 55-0668 – Little Rock Air Force Base in Jacksonville, Arkansas.

B-58A
 55-0665 Snoopy – Edwards Air Force Base, California, . Built as a YB-58A, later redesignated B-58A. This aircraft sits derelict as a photo target on Edwards AFB's photo range.
 55-0666 – Built as a YB-58A, later redesignated B-58A. Under restoration at Castle Air Museum at the former Castle Air Force Base in Atwater, California. Formerly on display at Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, Rantoul, Illinois.
 59-2437 Firefly II – Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex (former Kelly Air Force Base), San Antonio, Texas.
 59-2458 Cowtown Hustler – National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft flew from Los Angeles to New York City and back on 5 March 1962, setting three separate speed records, and earning the crew the Bendix Trophy and the Mackay Trophy for 1962. The aircraft was flown to the Museum on 1 March 1969. The aircraft is on display in the Museum's Cold War gallery.
 61-2059 Greased Lightning – Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum near Ashland, Nebraska. It averaged 938 nmph flying 8,028 nmi. from Tokyo to London in 8 hours and 35 minutes in October 1963.
 61-2080 – Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, in Tucson, Arizona. It was the last B-58 to be delivered.

Specifications (B-58A)

Notable appearances in media

Jimmy Stewart, a bomber pilot during World War II and a brigadier general in the Air Force Reserve, appeared in the Air Force documentary film B-58 Champion of Champions. In the film, Stewart flew in the back seat of the B-58 on a typical low-altitude attack.

In the film Fail Safe, the attack on Moscow is made by a squadron of "Vindicator" bombers, fictitious aircraft. While exterior shots of the plane relied on footage of B-58s, interior shots depicted a three-man crew, similar to that of a conventional airliner, and distinct from the tandem seating on a real B-58. The fictional Vindicator bomber was again represented by the B-58 in Fail Safe, a 2000 made-for-TV remake starring George Clooney.

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Adams, Chris. Deterrence: An Enduring Strategy. New York: IUniverse, Inc., 2009
 Convair B-58 Hustler Pilot's Flight Operating Instructions. Washington, D.C.: United States Air Force, 2008. .
 Converse, Elliott V. Rearming for the Cold War, 1945–1960 (History of Acquisition in the Department of Defense). Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretary, Historical Office, 2012. .
 Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing, 1996. .
 Grant, R.G. and John R. Dailey. Flight: 100 Years of Aviation. Harlow, Essex: DK Adult, 2007. .
 Gunston, Bill. American Warplanes. New York: Crown Publishers Inc., 1986, p. 162. .
 Gunston, Bill. Bombers of the West. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1973, pp. 185–213. .
 Gunston, Bill and Peter Gilchrist. Jet Bombers: From the Messerschmitt Me 262 to the Stealth B-2. Osprey, 1993. .
 Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. Arlington, Texas: Aerofax, 1988. .
 Higham, Robin, Carol Williams and Abigail Siddall, eds. Flying Combat Aircraft of the USAAF-USAF (Vol. 1). Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1975. .
 Miller, Jay. Convair B-58 Hustler (Aerograph 4). Midland, UK: Aerofax, 1985. .
 Miller, Jay. "History of the Hustler." Airpower, Vol. 6, No. 4, July 1976.
 Slade, Stuart. United States Strategic Bombers 1945–2012. Newtown, Connecticut: Defense Lion Publications, 2012. .
 Sorenson, David S. The Politics of Strategic Aircraft Modernization. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1995. .
 Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Military Aircraft Since 1909. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1989. .
 United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975.
 Veronico, Nicholas A. and Ron Strong. AMARG: America's Military Aircraft Boneyard. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2010. .
 Wagner, Ray. American Combat Planes of the Twentieth Century. Reno, Nevada: Jack Bacon and Co., 2004. .
 Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 2000, p. 38. .
 Winchester, Jim, ed. "Convair B-58 Hustler." Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: The Grange plc., 2006. .

External links

 (1959) T.O. 1B-58A-1 Flight Manual USAF B/RB-58A Aircraft

 B-58 Hustler Association Homepage
 B-58.com The B-58 Hustler Page, includes B-58 flight manuals
 Convair B-58 Hustler Rendezvous
 Aviation-history.com profile of the B-58
 B-58 photographs from the Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company hosted by the Portal to Texas History
 B-58 Voice Warning Messages
 Offensive Systems and the Pod

Tailless delta-wing aircraft
1950s United States bomber aircraft
Quadjets
B-58
Aircraft first flown in 1956
Mid-wing aircraft
Strategic bombers

Convair B-58 Hustler


පාසල යනු ශිෂ්‍ය ශිෂ්‍යාවන්ගේ ඉගෙනීම සඳහා ගුරුවරුන්ගේ මගපෙන්වීම යටතේ ඉගෙනුම් පරිශ්‍රයන් සහ ඉගෙනුම් පරිසරයන් සැපයීමේ අරමුණින් සැලසුම්කරන ලද ආයතනයක් වේ. බොහෝ රටවල සාමාන්‍යයෙන් අනිවාර්ය වූ විධිමත් අධ්‍යාපන පද්ධතීන් පවතී. මෙහි දී සිසුහු පාසල් මාලාවක් තුළින් ස්වකීය ප්‍රගතිය සාක්ෂාත් කරගනිති. මෙම පාසල් සඳහා විවිධ රටවල විවිධ යෙදුම් භාවිත වන නමුත් බාල දරුවන් උදෙසා ප්‍රාථමික පාසල් සහ ප්‍රාථමික අධ්‍යාපනය අවසන් කළ ගැටවර පිරිස් වෙනුවෙන් පවතින ද්විතීයික පාසල් ප්‍රධාන වේ. උසස් අධ්‍යාපන පාඨමාලා පවත්වන ආයතන පොදුවේ විශ්වවිද්‍යාල යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වේ.මෙම මූලික පාසල්වලට අමතර ව සමහර රටවල සිසුහු ප්‍රාථමික සහ ද්විතීයික අධ්‍යාපනයට පෙර මෙන් ම පසු ව ද  පවත්වනු ලබන විවිධ පාඨමාලාවන් හදාරති. ළදරුපාසල් හෝ පෙරපාසල් යනු වයස අවුරුදු 3ත් 5ත් අතර වැනි ඉතා බාල වියෙහි දැරියන් උදෙසා පවත්වන පාසල් වැඩසටහන් ය. ද්විතීයික අධ්‍යාපනයෙන් පසු ව විශ්වවිද්‍යාල, පුහුණු පාසල්, උසස් විදුහල් හෝ සෙමනේරි  වැනි ආයතනවල අධ්‍යාපනය ලැබිය හැකි ය. නෘත්‍ය පාඨශාලාවන් හෝ ආර්ථිකවිද්‍යා පාඨශාලාව වැනි යම්කිසි විෂය ක්ශේත්‍රයකට අයත් පාඨමාලාවන් පමණක් ලබාදෙන ආයතන ද පවතී. විකල්ප පාසල් තුළ දී සම්ප්‍රදායෙන් බැහැර නිර්දේශයන් සහ ක්‍රමවේදයන් යටතේ අධ්‍යාපනය ලබාදිය හැකි ය.රාජ්‍ය නොවන ආයතන විසින් පවත්වන පාසල් ද පවතින අතර මේවා පෞද්ගලික පාසල් යනුවෙන් හඳුන්වනු ලැබේ. නිසියාකාර හෝ සුවිශේෂී රාජ්‍ය අධ්‍යාපන පද්ධතියක් නොපවතින විට පෞද්ගලික පාසල් පිහිටක් විය හැකිය. ක්‍රිස්තියානි පාසල්, හවුසා (මුස්ලිම් පාසල්) , යෙෂිවා (යුදෙව් පාසල්) වැනි ආගමික අරමුණු මත පවත්වාගෙන යනු ලබන පෞද්ගලික පාසල් මෙන් ම ගුණාත්මක බවින් වැඩි අධ්‍යාපනයක් සැපයීම හෝ වෙනත් පෞද්ගලික අභිමතාර්ථ පිණිස ද පෞද්ගලික පාසල් පවත්වා ගෙන යනු ලැබේ. යුධපුහුණුව සහ ව්‍යාපාර පාසල් වැනි ආයතන වැඩිහිටියන් ඉලක්ක කරගත් පාසල්වලට නිදසුන් ය.ගෘහස්ත පාසල් සහ අන්තර්ජාල මාධ්‍ය පාසල් යනු සාම්ප්‍රදායික පාසල් ගොඩනැගිලිවලින් බැහැර ව ස්ථානගත වන පාසල් විශේෂයකි. පොදු වශයෙන් පාසල් විවිධ සංවිධාන ව්‍යුහයන් යටතේ පැවතිය හැකි ය.

නිරුක්තිය

ඉතිහාසය සහ සංවර්ධනය
සිසුන් නිශ්චිත ස්ථානයකට එක්තැන් කර අධ්‍යාපනය ලබාදීම පිළිබඳ  අදහස පුරාණ සම්භාව්‍ය අවධියේ සිට පැවතෙන්නකි. අඩු තරමින් පුරාණ ග්‍රීසිය, රෝමය, ඉන්දියාව සහ චීනය තුළ විධිමත් පාසල් පැවති බවට සාක්ෂි ඇත. බයිසැන්තියානු අධිරාජ්‍යය ප්‍රාථමික මට්ටමේ පටන් ඇරඹුණු  ආයතනගත වූ අධ්‍යාපන පද්ධතියකට හිමිකම් කියා ඇත. Traditions and Encounters  නම් මූලාශ්‍රයට අනුව ප්‍රාථමික අධ්‍යාපන පද්ධතිය ක්‍රි.ව. 425දී ස්ථාපිත කර ඇති අතර සාමාන්‍යයෙන් සොල්දාදුවකු අවම වශයෙන් ප්‍රාථමික අධ්‍යාපනය සපුරා තිබිණි. අතැම් අවස්ථාවන්හි කාර්යක්ෂම වූ මෙන් ම බොහෝවිට දැවැන්ත ද වූ අධිරාජ්‍යයේ පරිපාලන ව්‍යුහය උගත් පුරවැසියන් බහුතරයක් වූ බවට සාක්ෂි දරයි. ආක්‍රමණකාරීත්වයන්ට මුහුණදීමට ගත් සිය ප්‍රයත්නයේ දී රෝමානු සංස්කෘතියේ සමෘද්ධිමත්බව මෙන් ම මහඟුබව ද බයිසැන්තියමට බොහෝසෙයින් අහිමිවුණ ද, ඔවුහු සිය යුධ අත්පොත්වල නිපුණත්වයේ වටිනාකම ඉස්මතු කර ඇත. ක්‍රි.ව. 1453දී අධිරාජ්‍යයේ බිඳවැටීම තෙක් ම බයිසැන්තියානු අධ්‍යාපන පද්ධතිය අඛණ්ඩ ව ක්‍රියාත්මක විය.මුල් මධ්‍ය අවධීන්හි දී අනාගත පූජකයන් සහ පරිපාලකයන් බිහිකිරීම අරමුණු කරගනිමින් බටහිර යුරෝපය තුළ අද දක්වා ම දැනට ඇති පැරණිත ම පාසැල් වන සහ අඛණ්ඩ ව පවත්වා ගෙන එනු ලබන  The King's School, Canterbury, King's School, Rochester, St Peter's School, York සහ Thetford Grammar School ඇතුලු ව දියොකීසීය පාසල් (cathedral schools) සැලකිය යුතු සංඛ්‍යාවක් ආරම්භ කෙරුණි. ක්‍රි.ව. 5වැනි සියවසේ ඇරඹුමත් සමග ආගමික විෂයන් මෙන් ම ලෞකික විෂයන් ද උගැන්වුනු ආශ්‍රමික පාසැල් (monastic schools) ද යුරෝපය පුරා පිහිටුවිනි.

වත්මන් සමාජය අදහස් කරන ආකාරයේ පාසල් පද්ධතියක් බිහිකරගැනීමට සමත් වූ තවත් සංස්කෘතියක් නම් ඉස්ලාමයයි. ක්‍රමවත් අධ්‍යාපන සහ දැනුම් ව්‍යාප්ත කිරීමේ ක්‍රමවේදයක් , අරමුණු වෙනුවෙන් සැකසුනු ව්‍යුහයන් යොදාගත් එය දැනුම ලබාදීම මුල්කරගත්තේ විය. මුල දී මස්ජිදය විසින් ආගමික කටයුතු සහ ඉගෙනුම් ක්‍රියාකාරකම් ඒකාබද්ධ කෙරුණු නමුත් මස්ජිදයෙන් බැහැර ව පවතින පාසැලක් වූ ක්‍රි.ව. 859 දී බිහිවුණු අල් ක්වරාවියන් වැනි මද්රාසා පාසල් 9වන සියවසේ දී හඳුන්වා දිනි. පොදුජනතාව උදෙසා කාලිෆ්වරයකුගේ පරිපාලකත්වය යටතේ මද්රාසා පද්ධතිය හඳුන්වා දුන්නෝ ද ඔවුහු ම ය.

ඔටෝමන්වරු යටතේ  Bursa සහ Edirne යන නගර අධ්‍යාපනයේ කේන්ද්‍රස්ථානයන් බවට පත්විය. ඔටෝමන්වරුන් විසින් මස්ජිදයක්, රෝහලක්, මද්රාසාවක්, මුළුතැන්ගෙයක් සහ භෝජන ශාලාවකින් ද සමන්විත වූ Külliye නම් අධ්‍යාපනික ආයතන විශේෂයක් හඳුන්වා දුන් අතර නොමිලේ ආහාර පාන, සෞඛ්‍යය පහසුකම් සහ වාසස්ථාන ද සැපයූ එය විසින් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතනයන්ට නව මුහුණුවරක් ලබාදුන්නේය.

12වන සියවසේ දී යුරෝපය තුළ විශ්වවිද්‍යාලයයන් දක්නට ලැබුණි. ඒ තුළ ශාස්ත්‍රීයවාදය ( scholasticism) වැදගත් මෙවලමක් වූ අතර විද්‍යාර්ථීහු  schoolmen  යනුවෙන් හැඳින්විනි.මධ්‍යකාලීන අවධියේ සහ වැඩි වශයෙන් ම මුල් නූතන අවධියෙහි (විශ්වවිද්‍යාලවලට ප්‍රතිවිරුද්ධ ලෙස) පාසල්වල අරමුණ වූයේ ලතින් භාෂාව ඉගැන්වීමයි. grammar school යන යෙදුමට මගපෑදුවේ මේ විසිනි. එක්සත් ජනපදයේ දී මෙය ප්‍රාථමික පාසල උදෙසා අවිධිමත් ව ව්‍යවහාර වුවත් එක්සත් රාජධානියේ දී දක්ෂතාවය හෝ යෝග්‍යතාවය මත පදනම් ව අයදුම්කරුවන් ව බඳවා ගන්නා පාසලක් හැඳින්වීමට එය භාවිතා වේ. මේ හේතුවෙන් පාසල් විෂය නිර්දේශය ව්‍යවහාරීය භාෂාවන්ට (vernacular languages) අදාළ සාක්ෂරතාවය ලබා දීමට මෙන් ම තාක්ෂණ, කලා, විද්‍යා  සහ ප්‍රායෝගික විෂයන් ද ඇතුලත් වන පරිදි පුළුල් වපසරියක් කරා ක්‍රමික  ව පැතිරි ගොස් ඇත.

18වන සියවසේ දී යුරෝපයේ ඇතැම් පළාත්හි අනිවාර්ය පාසල් පැමිණීම සාමාන්‍ය සංසිද්ධියක් බවට පත්විය. ඩෙන්මාර්ක් සහ නෝර්වේහි මෙය 1739 සහ 1711 තරම් ඈතක දී හඳුන්වා දුන් අතර සාමාන්‍ය ජනතාවගේ සාක්ෂරතාවය ඉහළ නැංවීම ප්‍රාථමික අරමුණ විය. එක්සත් ජනපදයේ මෙන් ම අනෙකුත් පෙදෙස්වල ද වූ මුල්කාලීන රජයේ පාසල් බොහොමයක් තනි ගුරුවරයකු විසින් එකම පන්ති කාමරයක ශ්‍රේණි හතකට අයත් දරු දැරියන් පිරිසකට උගැන් වූ තනි කාමරයේ පාසල් විය. 1920ගණන් වල ආරම්භයත් සමග තනි කාමරයේ පාසල් පන්ති කාමර රැසක් බවට පරිවර්තනය විය.

ප්‍රාදේශීය යෙදුම්

හිමිකාරීත්වය සහ පරිපාලනය

භාහිර සබැඳි

පාසල්


Andorras U/17-fodboldlandshold er Andorras landshold for fodboldspillere, som er under 17 år og administreres af Federació Andorrana de Futbol (FAF).

U/17-fodboldlandshold
U/17-fodboldlandshold i Europa

Andorras U/17-fodboldlandshold


Kirchnüchel Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Plön iline bağlı belediye. 10,09 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 31 Aralık 2015 itibarıyla yaklaşık 184 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Kilometrekare başına yaklaşık 18 kişilik bir nüfus yoğunluğuna sahiptir. Belediye Başkanlığı Jörg Schöning tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 http://www.amt-luetjenburg.de

Kaynakça

Plön iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Kirchnüchel


أوميجا (Omega) هو امتداد لنظام صف الحروف تخ يضيف دعم يونيكود إليه. طوّره أوميجا (تخ) وYannis Haralambous بعد أن تم تجميد تطوير تخ في 1991، بغرض إضافة دعم تعدد اللغات. يتضمن ترميز خطوط جديد لتخ من 16 بتة، بالإضافة إلى خطوط جديدة (omlgc وomah) تغطي طيفا أوسع من الأبجديات.

في 2004 أثناء مؤتمر مجموعة مستخدمي تخ أعلن Plaice عن خطته للانفصال بمشروع جديد (لم يظهر للعموم بعد) بينما سيستمر Haralambous في العمل على أوميجا الأصلي.

حزمة لاتخ التي تعمل مع أويجا تسمى لامبدا (lambda).

ألف ولُواتخ

بالرغم من أن المشروع بدا واعدا في البداية إلا أن التطوير تباطأ ووظيفية النظام لم تكن مستقرة. بدأ مشروع مستقل بهدف استقرار الكود ودمجه مع وظيفية إ-تخ (e-TeX)، عرف باسم ألف (Aleph) وقاده Giuseppe Bilotta.

لاتك مع ألف يسمى لامد (Lamed).

ألف نفسه توقف تطويره، لكن أغلب خصائصه تم دمجها في مشروع لُواتخ (LuaTeX)، مشروع جديد مولته في البداية جامعة ولاية كلورادو (عبر مشروع تخ الشرقي بواسطة إدريس سماوي حامد) ومجموعة مستخدمي تخ الموجه للغة الهولندية. بدأ لواتخ في 2006 وأصدر أول بيتا في صيف 2007. سيخلف لواتخ كلا من ألف وبي‌دي‌إف‌تخ (pdfTeX)، ويستخدم لوا كلغة برمجة مدمجة خفيفة. يطوره Taco Hoekwater بشكل أساسي.

وصلات خارجية

 قائمة أويجا البريدية

تخ
يونيكود

أوميجا (تخ)


RFA Eddycliff (A190) was an Eddy-class coastal tanker of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.

References
 Eddy-Class Coastal Tankers
 Historical RFA

Eddy-class coastal tankers
1952 ships
Ships built in Glasgow

RFA Eddycliff


වායූන් අයණීකරණය කිරීමේ හැකියාවෙන් හා ද්රව්ය තුලින්  විනිවිද යාමේ හැකියාවක් සහිත කිරණ විකිරණ ලෙස හඳුන්වයි.

මේවා ශරීරයට අහිතකර මෙන්ම හිතකර විකිරණ වර්ගද ඇත.

ඇල්ෆා,බීටා,ගැමා යනු විකිරණ සඳහා උදාහරණ කිහිපයකි.මේවා ඉහත පරිදි පිළිවෙලින් ,ගමන් කරන දුර හෙවත් දෘව්යය විනිවිද යාමේ හැකියාව වැඩි වන අතර අයණීකරණය වීමේ හැකියාව පිළිවෙලින් අඩුවේ.

පිළිකා සෛල විනාශ කිරීම,රෝග නිර්ණය කිරීම වැනි වෛද්යය කටයුතු සඳහා විකිරණ ප්රයෝජනයට ගනී.

නවීන පරිගණක, ලැප්ටොප්, නවීණ ජංගම දුරකථනයන්(smart phones/smart watches) වැනි උපකරණයන් තුළින් ශරීරයට අහිතකර විකිරණයන් පිටවිය හැකි බැවින් ප්රවේසම් වීම වඩාත් සුදුසු වේ.

සංස්කරණය - Hansaka Shiran

විකිරණ


Det apostoliske vikariat i nord (latin Apostolicus Vicariatus Missionum Septentrionalium) var fra 1667 til 1868 den romersk-katolske kirkes forvaltningsstruktur for Norden og Nordtyskland. Disse områder var blevet protestantiske under reformationen. Efterhånden som den katolske kirke genvandt fodfæste i det nordlige Europa, opdeltes vikariatet mellem 1743 og 1868 i særskilte strukturer for de enkelte lande.

Under reformationen blev hele det nordlige Europa protestantisk. De tidligere romersk-katolske bispedømmer blev enten ophævet eller fortsatte som protestantiske stifter. Dette berørte kirkeprovinserne ærkebispedømmet Bremen (fire bispedømmer i Tyskland), ærkebispedømmet Lund (otte bispedømmer i Danmark, Skånelandene og Sydslesvig), Magdeburg (seks bispedømmer i Tyskland og Polen), Nidaros (ni bispedømmer i Norge, på Færøerne, Island og Grønland) og Uppsala (syv bispedømmer i Sverige og Finland) samt dele af kirkeprovinsen Mainz (to af tolv bispedømmer) og to eksempte bispedømmer (Cammin og Meißen). Området havde først status som missionsmark og blev omtalt som de nordiske missioner. Det gejstlige ansvar var delt mellem nuntiuserne i Bruxelles (for Danmark og Norge), Køln (for det meste af Nordtyskland) og Warszawa (for Sverige og Mecklenburg).

Norden og Nordtyskland blev ophøjet til apostolisk vikariat i 1667. Den apostoliske vikar havde sæde i Hannover og var direkte underordnet den pavelige nuntius i Køln. Ofte var vikaren samtidig biskop af Osnabrück, Paderborn og/eller Hildesheim. I 1600-tallet tolererede de protestantiske magthavere kun yderst få katolske menigheder i regionen f.eks. i Altona. Ved begyndelsen af 1700-tallet var antallet katolikker i vikariatet dog øget til omkring 2000.

Efterhånden som katolikker blev tolereret i større grad i regionen og antallet øgedes, blev forskellige områder udskilt fra Det apostoliske vikariat i nord for at danne egne forvaltningsstrukturer:
 Fra 1709/21 til 1780 var Brandenburg, Hannover og Bremen-Verden udskilt som Det apostoliske vikariat Øvre og Nedre Sachsen.
 1743 udskiltes Sachsen som Det apostoliske vikariat Sachsen.
 1783 udskiltes Sverige og Finland som Det apostoliske vikariat Sverige.
 1821 blev store dele af det nordlige Tyskland fordelt mellem bispedømmerne Breslau, Hildesheim og Paderborn.
 1834 udskiltes Anhalt og Braunschweig som Det apostoliske vikariat Anhalt.
 1855 udskiltes Nordnorge, Nordsverige, Færøerne, Island og Grønland sammen med det nordligste Skotland, arktisk Canada og Kolahalvøen som Nordpolsmissionen.
 1868 blev resten af vikariatet opdelt i fire enheder:
 Det apostoliske præfektur Danmark (Apostolica Praefectura Daniae) omfattede Danmark (fik tillagt Færøerne og Grønland i 1869) og blev ophøjet til Bispedømmet København i 1953.
 Det apostoliske vikariat Nordtyskland (Apostolicus Vicariatus Germaniae Septentrionalis) omfattet Mecklenburg samt kredsene Lübeck og Eutin, men gik i 1930 op i Osnabrück bispedømme.;
 Den norske mission (Missio sui juris Norvegiae) omfattede Norge, og blev ophøjet til Oslo katolske bispedømme i 1953.
 Det apostoliske præfektur Slesvig-Holsten (Apostolica Praefectura Sleswigis Holsatiae) omfattede Slesvig og Holsten, men blev i 1930 delt mellem Det apostoliske vikariat Danmark og Osnabrück bispedømme.

Romerskkatolske kirke i Danmark
Kirkehistorie

Apostoliske vikariat i nord