الزنباكتو في أنمي ومانغا بليتش هو سيف يعيش بداخله كائن يساعد الشينيغامي على القتال. يختلف هذا الكائن من شخص لآخر ويكون لكل منه اسم مميز. لا أحد يرى الكائن أو يسمع صوته سوى صاحب الزنباكتو. وبتعاونهما معاً تتوجد الرياتسو الخاصة بالشينيغامي مع قوى الزنباكتو وتصبح أكثر قوة.

مراحل إطلاق الزنباكتو
للزنباكتو حالة عادية غالباً ما تكون هيئة السيف العادي وله غمد وأحياناً أخرى تكون في هيئة عصا أو عكاز أو أشياء أخرى؛ ومن ثم فإن إطلاق قوى الزنباكتو تتم على مرحلتان:
 ايتشيكاي: أو الإطلاق الأول وغالباً يتغير شكل الزنباكتو في مرحلة الشيكاي وتزداد قوته ويكون له تقنية معينة في القتال
 بان كاي: وهو الإطلاق الكامل وهذة المرحلة لا يصل إليها إلا الشينيغامي ذوي الرياتسو العالية جداً وبعد تدريب طويل للتحكم بها، وغالباً يكون قادة الفرق وصلوا لمرحلة البان كاي، وأشخاص قليلين غيرهم في مجتمع الأرواح.

أنواع الزنباكتو
يمكن تقسيمهم من حيث نوع التقنيات فيكون هناك زنباكتو مائي وزنباكتو ثلجي وزنباكتو أرضي وزنباكتو يعتمد على الكيدو، وهناك زنباكتو مطلق دائماً، أي أنه دائماً في حالة الشيكاي مثل زانجيتنس الخاص بإيتشيغو وسيف زاراكي كنباتشي.

بليتش
مصطلحات بليتش

زنباكتو


Beth Jean Riesgraf (Belle Plaine Minnesota, 24 de agosto de 1978) es una actriz estadounidense, más conocida por su interpretación de Parker en la serie Leverage.

Trayectoria

Beth Riesgraf es la más joven de seis niñas. Ella acudió al instituto Cimarron-Memorial High School en Las Vegas, donde fue presidenta del cuerpo estudiantil, votada como la "más admirada", fue miembro del club de fotografía y se graduó con honores. Ella estuvo comprometida con el actor Jason Lee, con quien tiene un hijo, Pilot Inspektor Riesgraf-Lee. Ella apareció con Lee como Natalie Duckworth en la serie Me llamo Earl en 2005 y 2007, y en Alvin y las Ardillas como una madre en el supermercado en el año 2007. En 2008, Riesgraf salió como la novia sin nombre en el video musical oficial de "Cath", de Death Cab for Cutie. También en 2008, se convirtió en la coestrella del programa de televisión Leverage, interpretando a una exquisita ladrona de fama mundial que forma parte de un grupo de modernos Robin Hood o la versión moderna del Equipo A, que estafan, roban y timan a los ricos para darle ese dinero a aquellos a los que han estafado. Actualmente es una de las 5 estrellas de la exitosa serie, dotada de 5 temporadas, de trabajo fantástico y alucinante, como ella dice.

Filmografía

Películas

TV

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Actores de cine de Estados Unidos
Actores de televisión de Estados Unidos

Beth Riesgraf


في المنطق الرياضي، الجملة المفتوحة هي جملة منطق رياضي تحتوي متغيرات، وعلى خلاف الجملة العادية التي تحوي على ثوابت فالجملة المفتوحة لا تعطي حقائق، بحيث لا يمكن الحكم عليها إن كانت صحيحة أم خاطئة.
مثلاً: العبارة «x هو عدد موجب»، لا يمكن الحكم على كونها صحيحة. يقال عن الجملة المفتوحة بأنها محققة إذا وجد عنصر بتبديله في الجملة يمكن الحكم عليها بأنها صحيحة. فمثلاً في المثال السابق نقول عن العبارة «5 هو عدد موجب» بأنها جملة محققة.

أمثلة عن الجملة المفتوحة
 3x − 9 = 21 والتي تملك حلاً واحداً من أجل x=10.
 x + y = 0 والتي تملك حلولاً من أجل أي عددين متناظرين بالنسبة لعملية الجمع x,y.
 3x + 9 = 3x + 9 والتي حلولها هي جميع الأعداد الحقيقية.
 3x + 9 = 3x + 12 وهي ليس لها أي حل.

مراجع

تعبير منطقي
تعليم الرياضيات
رياضيات ابتدائية
منطق رياضي

جملة مفتوحة (رياضيات)


On Green Dolphin Street (auch Green Dolphin Street) ist ein Song des Komponisten Bronisław Kaper mit einem Text von Ned Washington. Der Song war – interpretiert durch Mel Tormé – als Titelstück für den Film Taifun (Engl. Green Dolphin Street) bestimmt, der 1947 in die Kinos kam. Ende der 1950er Jahre wurde der Song zu einem Jazzstandard.

Aufbau des Songs
Der durchgängig in C-Dur angelegte Song hat die Liedform A-B-A-B' mit 32 Takten. Der achttaktige A-Teil besteht aus einer einprägsamen, sich chromatisch abwärts bewegenden Melodie,  der häufig mit einem Latin-Rhythmus unterlegt wird. Der B- bzw. B'-Teil, der eine harmonisch bewegte Antwort auf die quasi-modale Eingangsmelodie des A-Teil gibt, vermittelt dann mit einem Walking Bass und Viertelnotenswing des Schlagzeugs ein anderes rhythmisches Gefühl.

Weitere Versionen
Der Song wurde in den 1950er Jahren von Sarah Vaughan gesungen. Auch Mark Murphy (1961), Anita O'Day, Carmen McRae Johnny Hartman (1972), Sheila Jordan, The Four Freshmen,  Kevin Mahogany und Gabrielle Goodman nahmen den Song in ihr Repertoire auf.

Posaunist  Urbie Green hat On Green Dolphin Street 1955 eingespielt. 1957 haben auch Barney Kessel, Ray Brown und Shelly Manne den Song instrumental interpretiert. Eine weitere frühe Instrumentalfassung stammt von Miles Davis, der ihn erstmals 1958 mit Cannonball Adderley, John Coltrane, Bill Evans, Paul Chambers und Jimmy Cobb für sein Filmmusik-Album Jazz Track einspielte, der
– aufbauend auf einer frühen Fassung von Ahmad Jamal, – den Song für ausgedehnte Improvisationen nutzte. Auch 1960 stellte er den Song auf seiner Europatournee beständig vor. Eric Dolphy (1960) orientierte sich für seine Version an der Aufnahme von Davis aus dem Jahr 1958, übernahm aber auf der Bassklarinette kurzzeitig die Funktion des Basses, um das Thema hinterher in seine Bestandteile zu zerlegen. Auch Albert Ayler interpretierte 1963 den Song bei einer Radioaufnahme für den dänischen Rundfunk mit Niels Brønsted und Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen mit den Errungenschaften des Free Jazz. Sonny Rollins nahm die Melodie 1965 auf einer Live-Aufnahme aus dem Museum of Modern Art "als Trampolin für Höhenflüge auf dem Tenorsax". Auch Miles Davis spielte Mitte der 1960er (The Complete Live at the Plugged Nickel 1965) das Stück so, dass man das Gefühl hatte, dass "sich der Standard allmählich" auflöse.

Aber auch weitere Instrumentalisten wie Bill Evans (1959), Oscar Peterson Trio (1962, 1968), Oscar Peterson Trio/Milt Jackson (1962), Joe Sample/Ray Brown/Shelly Manne (1976), Archie Shepp (1977), Herbie Hancock (1978), Herbie Hancock/Wayne Shorter (1979), George Benson/Count Basie Orchestra (1990), Walter Norris (1990), Joe Pass (1990), Chick Corea Akoustic Band (1990), Joe Henderson (1994), Chick Corea/Stanley Clarke/Lenny White (2009) und David Liebman/Martial Solal (2016) haben den Song interpretiert und aufgenommen.

Verwendung im Film
Nach dem Einsatz in Green Dolphin Street (1947) fand der Song mehrfach in Filmen Verwendung:
 The Prize (1963)
 Zigzag (1970, mit Anita O'Day)
 The Score (2001, mit Cassandra Wilson)

Weitere Bedeutung
On Green Dolphin Street (Dt. Die Traumtänzer) ist der Titel eines Romans von Sebastian Faulks, dessen Protagonist eine Miles-Davis-Version des Songs hört.

Literatur
 Hans-Jürgen Schaal (Hrsg.): Jazz-Standards. Das Lexikon. 3., revidierte Auflage. Bärenreiter, Kassel u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-7618-1414-3.

Einzelnachweise

Lied 1947
Jazz-Titel
Filmsong
Lied von Ned Washington

On Green Dolphin Street


إحسان نورى باشا (حوالي 1896 - 1976)، قائد وكاتب ومؤرخ كردي بارز قاد ثورة أغري في شمال كردستان عام 1930 وسميت ثورته بثورة أغري لأنها اندلعت في جبال ارارات في منطقة أغري. ولد نوري باشا سنة 1898، بعد أن أكمل دراسته الاساسية توجه إلى الآستانة لاكمال دراسته حيث دخل المدرسة العسكرية وبعد إكمال دراسته نال شهادة التخرج فعيّن برتبة ملازم ثانيٍ في الجيش العثماني. رقي في عهد حكم مصطفى كمال إلى رتب أعلى، لكن موقفه تغيّر بعد أن رأى بأُم عينيه بشاعة أعمال الحكومة التركية في اخماد ثورة الشيخ سعيد بيران سنه 1925 واعدام زعمائها الميامين وتدمير معظم قُرى تلك المناطق التي حارب الثوار فيها القوات الحكومية. فأخذ يفكر مع نخبة من الوطنيين الكُرد في تأسيس تنظيم سياسي ثوري موحد يأخذ على عاتقه تحرير كردستان من ربقة الاستعمار والاحتلال وصولاً إلى نيل حق تقرير المصير للامة الكردية، فأسَّسَ مع الأُمراء البدرخانيين والوطنيين الآخرين حزباً قومياً بأسم (خويبون) أي(الاستقلال) سنة 1927 للسعي في سبيل استقلال كردستان وتأسيس دولة موحدة للكرد.

قرّر حزب خويبون القيام بثورة قومية عارمة ضد سلطات تركيا الكمالية فاختار (الجنرال إحسان نوري باشا) لقيادتها. فهيأ الجنرال منذ ذلك الحين نفسه لتلك المهمة القومية الخطيرة، فوقع اختياره على جبل آكري من جبال آرارات ليكون منطلقاً لقيام تلك الثورة القومية. فجمع حوله نخبة مخلصة من ثوار أشداء، ُ هكذا قامت الثورة العتيدة في خريف سنة 1927 بدأت تلك الثورة بمصادمات محدودة بين الثوار الكُرد والقوات التركية من شرطة وجيش وعندما توسعت نشاطات الثوار الفدائيين الكٌرد، بدأت القيادة العامة للقوات المسلحة التركية بتمويه الحقائق واظهار تلك الحركة الثورية كأنها حركة تمرد محدودة، فأخذت تنشر دعايات عن إصدار قرار عفو عام عن المتمردين للعودة إلى أعمالهم الاعتيادية في مدنهم وقُراهم. لكن لا القائد المحنك الجنرال احسان نوري باشا ولا الثوار الميامين لم يصدقوا بتلك القرارات والوعود الكاذبة واعتبروها خديعة ومؤامرة خبيثة من جانب الحكومة للإيقاع بهم في الشَرَك. لذا حصّنوا مواقعهم في الكهوف وشعاب الجبال أكثر، إستعداداً لكل طارئ وجمعوا اسلحة وأعتدة وذخائر كثيرة لمدة طويلة وسيطروا على جميع اُجزاء سلسلة جبل آكري.

لقد كانت الحكومة التركية بعد سحقها لثورة 1925 الكوردية كانت تتوقع قيام انتفاضة أخرى، إلا أنهّا لم تكن تتوقع اندلاع ثورة أُخرى بهذه القوة وهذا التنظيم الجيدّ. فعندما علمت الحكومة حجم وقوة الثوار، قامت بتجهيز جيش مزود باحدث الاسلحة المتوفرة آنداك، تدعمه القوة الجوية الضاربة.

فصعدت تلك القوات الجبل عند جبهات(وان) و(بدليس) و(جبل سبحان) للقضاء على الثوار، إلاّ أن خطة قائد الثورة إحسان نورى باشا قد نجحت عندما أمر الثوار بعدم التصدي للقوات الحكومة إلى أن تصل إلى أمام فوهات بنادقهم ورشاشاتهم. فتقدم الجنود نحو مواقع الثوار الحصينة المخفية دون مقاومة تذكر. فلما وصلت معظم قواتهم إلى مقابل متاريسهم المحصنة عندئذ أمر القائد بضرب قوات العدو المهاجهة بصليات من رشاشاتهم وبنادقهم، فأوقعوا خسائر فادحة في صفوف القوات الحكومية المهاجهة، وأجبرتها على التقهقر والانسحاب إلى الوراء.

كانت خسائر القوات الحكومية حسب الاحصائيات التي أجريت مابين 13 حزيران إلى 13 تموز 1930 كالآتي:

بلغ عدد القتلى والجرحى في صفوف قوات الحكومية التركية عدة آلاف جندى وضابط، مع اسقاط 12 طائرة حربية والاستيلاء على 50 رشاشه وثلاثة آلاف بندقية و150 خيمة و 60 ألف إطلاقة و 40 حملاً من الارزاق المؤونات فبعد هذا الاندحار العسكري الفظيع للقوات الحكومية أخذت القيادة العامّة للقوات المسلحة باستدعاء 5 مواليد لخدمة الاحتياط، فجهزت من خيرة ضباطها وجنودها المدربين تدريباً جيداً, جيشاً قوياً دفعته نحو ساحة المعارك والمواجهة في شعاب وكهوف آكري داغ وحاصرت قوات عسكرية أُخرى المنافذ الخارجية من الجبل حصاراً محكماً.

فقاوم الثوار تلك القوات المهاجمة بكل جدارة وبطولة، فأوقعوا في صفوفها خسائر فادحة في الأرواح والعتاد، إلاّ أن أسلحتهم وتجهيزاتهم أخذت بالنفاد ولاتصل اليهم إمدادات أُخرى بسبب الحصار المفروض على مواقعهم. فعندئذٍ قرر الجنرال احسان نوري باشا ترك مواقعهم خوفاً من الإبادة الجماعية فتسللوا إلى داخل حدود كوردستان الإيرانية.

فقامت القوات التركية المهاجمة من بعدهم بتدمير مئات القرى الكوردية وقتل أُناس أبرياء بتهمة أنتمائهم للثوار في تلك الفترة العصيبة.

لجأ الجنرال إحسان نوري باشا قائد الثورة هو وعائلته ولفيف من الثوار في شهر تشرين الأول 1930 إلى حكومة شاهنشاهية إيران. فاقام هو في طهران العاصمة كلاجئ سياسى إلى أن توفي في 25/3/1976 عن عمر يناهز 78 سنة وهكذا طوي سجل حياة مناضل ثائر كرُدي كافح وحارب من أجل استقلال كوردستان وإقامة كيان سياسى للكورد، فصعدت روحه الطاهرة إلى جنة الخالدين وبقيت ذكرى نضاله الثوري حيةً في ضمائر أبناء كوردستان الأوفياء لشهدائهم.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أتراك مهاجرون إلى إيران
أشخاص من بدليس
أشخاص من محافظة بدليس
أفراد عسكريون أتراك في الحرب التركية الأرمينية
أكراد أتراك
أكراد عثمانيون
باشاوات
تمرد أرارات
خريجو أكاديمية الجيش العثماني
ضباط الجيش التركي
ضباط الجيش العثماني
ضحايا حوادث طرق سير
عسكريون عثمانيون في الحرب العالمية الأولى
قادة عموميون
قوميون أكراد
مواليد 1893
مواليد 1896
مواليد عقد 1890
مواليد في بدليس
وفيات 1976
وفيات حوادث الطرق في إيران
وفيات في طهران

إحسان نوري الباشا


Claude Langevin (født 5. december 1928 i Angers, Frankrig, død 8. september 2016) var en fransk komponist og pianist.

Langevin studerede komposition og klaver på Musikkonservatoriet i Paris og på l´Ecole Normale de Musique. Han har skrevet tre symfonier, orkesterværker, kammermusik, klaverstykker, orgelstykker etc.

Udvalgte værker

 "Symfoni Europa" (1977) - for orkester
 "Symfoni Frihed" (1990) - for orkester
 Symfoni "Afstemninger" (1997) - for strygeorkester
 ''Europæisk hymne- (19?) - for orkester

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Om Claude Langevin på musicweb-international.com

Komponister fra Frankrig
Pianister fra Frankrig

Claude Langevin


"Doctor's Orders" is the sixteenth episode from the third season of the science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise. It's the sixty-eighth episode of the series, first airing on February 18, 2004.

In the 22nd century aboard spaceship NX-01 Enterprise, two crew members Doctor Phlox and Commander T'Pol, guide the ship through an area of dangerous space while the rest of the crew are comatose. The episode is directed by Roxann Dawson with a story by Chris Black, and additional music by Kevin Kiner and Dennis McCarthy.

Plot
While traveling through the Delphic Expanse, Enterprise encounters a trans-dimensional disturbance that lies directly along its time-sensitive course to Azati Prime and the Xindi weapon ("Stratagem"). The crew also learns that the disturbance causes permanent neurological damage to the human neocortex. To avoid a two-week detour, while avoiding the danger to the crew, Doctor Phlox disables the neocortex of all human crewmembers, to survive the four day journey through the disturbance at reduced speed, so the anomaly won't effect the warp field.

While the crew is sedated, Phlox attends to his extended duties aboard the ship, including caring for Captain Archer's dog, Porthos, since Phlox is immune to the effects of the disturbance. As Phlox does so, he takes the opportunity to compose a letter to an acquaintance of his. Unfortunately, Phlox himself begins to become nervous and is easily spooked by irregular ship noises. In Engineering, falsely perceiving movement, he becomes increasingly tense and nervous. While investigating a noise, he encounters Sub-Commander T'Pol, who is also carrying out duties while the human crew are sedated and, as a Vulcan, has been enjoying the quiet contemplation this situation allows her. She commits to spending some time with Phlox for a meal.

Phlox's paranoia escalates to delusions. At one point, he believes that two Insectoids have somehow boarded the ship. T'Pol insists there is nothing on the sensors, but humors him by helping with a deck-to-deck search, which reveals nothing, except it being clear that Phlox is delusional, during which Phlox almost shoots Porthos who he forgot to put in his cabin; T'Pol reminds him that it is healthy for his race to use hallucinations to relieve stress. Phlox disagrees, until he hears and then sees a 'zombie' Ensign Sato; he contacts T'Pol and an encounters an awake Captain Archer hallucination. He finally scans himself, after having nearly a dozen hallucinations and confirms the disturbance is impacting his thinking.  He plans to sedate himself and let T'Pol run the ship, but she acknowledges that she is also becoming disturbed, despite not having hallucinations; he refuses to sedate T'Pol.

They discover that the anomaly is expanding and that they are ten weeks from the edge, rather than having emerged a half hour ago. Both of them are now easily agitated and distracted, but they conclude that engaging the warp engine is their only chance to escape. T'Pol's mind is unable to focus on helping, as Phlox battles to master the warp drive—he succeeds in getting them free using the warp engines at warp 2 with her help. That done, he wakes Archer and then escorts T'Pol to her room, only to find her sleeping there, having been sedated at the same time as the human crew, thus she was never real either. His T'Pol hallucination disappears, but everyone is now safe. Phlox sends his unedited letter to his acquaintance, assuring him that he will enjoy the story of his hallucinations.

Production
"Doctor's Orders" was written by co-executive producer Chris Black. The episode was directed by Roxann Dawson, making it the eighth time she directed an episode of Enterprise. Billingsley and Blalock were the only two actors on set for all seven days of filming.

Reception

Doctor's Orders was first aired in the United States on UPN on February 18, 2004.
According to Nielsen Media Research, it received a 2.6/4 rating share among adults. It had an average of 3.7 million viewers.

Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation called it an "interesting character study" and said "as bottle shows go, it's a beautifully done, satisfying episode, and a nice break from the Xindi action storyline while still moving the ship forward on its quest."
In 2015, Den of Geek in a review of important show characters, noted him as "funny, quirky Phlox"  and pointing out the character introduced audience to the Denobulan species. They recommended the episodes "Dear Doctor", "Stigma", "The Breach" and  "Doctor's Orders" for the Phlox character.

In 2020, James Whitbrook of Io9 described this episode as a worse version of the Star Trek: Voyager episode "One".

In 2011, Star Trek Magazine rated "Doctor's Orders" one out of five, and named it the worst episode of the season, despite the heavy presence of Porthos, as he alone could not save this episode.

Home media release
"Doctor's Orders" was released as part of the season three DVD box set, released in the United States on September 27, 2005. The Blu-ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013, and the season three box set was released on January 7, 2014. The Blu-Ray has a surround sound 5.1 DTS-HD Master Audio track for English, as well as German, French, and Japanese audio tracks in Dolby audio.

See also
 "One," an episode of Star Trek: Voyager which earlier used a similar plot.
 The Court Jester, the movie Doctor Phlox watches during movie night.

References

External links

Star Trek: Enterprise (season 3) episodes
2004 American television episodes

Doctor's Orders (Star Trek: Enterprise)


İşletim sistemi veya işletim dizgesi, bilgisayarda çalışan donanım kaynaklarını yöneten ve çeşitli uygulama yazılımları için yaygın servisleri sağlayan bir yazılımlar bütünüdür. İşletim sistemi, uygulama programları ve bilgisayar donanımı arasındaki iletişimi sağlamaktadır. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, GNU/Linux, BeOS, Android ve iOS işletim sistemlerine örnek olarak gösterilebilir.

İşletim sistemleri sadece bilgisayarlar, video oyun konsolları, cep telefonları ve web sunucularında değil; arabalarda, beyaz eşyalarda hatta akıllı saatlerde bile çalışmaktadır.

İşletim sistemleri işlevlerinin genişliği ile değil, donanımı belli bir amaç doğrultusunda programlayabilme nitelikleriyle değerlendirilmelidir.

Tarihi
1940'lı yıllarda elektronik dijital işletim sistemi dâhil hiçbir işletim sistemi yoktu. O zamanki elektronik sistemler, sıralı mekanik şalterler veya panolar üzerindeki jumper kablolar ile programlanmıştı. Örneğin, delikli kâğıt kartları verilerinden, bordro çeklerin askerî veya kontrollü baskı için balistik tablolar oluşturan özel amaçlı sistemleri elde edilmişti. Programlanabilir genel amaçlı bilgisayarlar icat edildikten sonra makine dilleri, (ikili rakam 0 ve 1 delikli kâğıt şerit üzerine dizeleri oluşturan) programlama sürecini hızlandırdı ve ardından tanıtıldı.

 1940'lar-1950'ler: İlk bilgisayarlar büyük makinalardı ve genellikle özel amaçlar için kullanılıyorlardı. İşletim sistemleri bu dönemde "yönetim programları" olarak adlandırılıyor ve temel giriş/çıkış işlemlerini kontrol ediyordu. Örneğin, UNIVAC I'nin işletim sistemi C-10, 1950'lerde kullanıldı.
 1960'lar: Bu dönemde çoklu işlem ve çoklu kullanıcı kavramları ortaya çıkmaya başladı. IBM OS/360 gibi işletim sistemleri, geniş bellek yönetimi ve çoklu işlem desteği sunuyordu.
 1970'ler: İşletim sistemleri daha da gelişti ve minicomputer'lar popüler hale geldi. UNIX, bu dönemde ortaya çıktı ve çoklu kullanıcı desteği, dosya sistemi ve komut satırı arabirimi ile dikkat çekti.
 1980'ler: Kişisel bilgisayarların yükselişi ile işletim sistemleri daha kullanıcı dostu hale geldi. Microsoft DOS (Disk Operating System) ve Apple Macintosh için System 1 bu dönemde tanıtıldı.
 1990'lar: Bu dönemde GUI (Graphical User Interface) tabanlı işletim sistemleri yaygınlaştı. Windows 95, 98 ve NT, kullanıcı dostu arayüzleri ve ağ yetenekleri ile büyük popülarite kazandı. Aynı dönemde Linux da gelişmeye başladı.
 2000'ler: İnternet ve ağ teknolojilerinin büyümesiyle işletim sistemleri ağa daha fazla odaklandı. Windows XP, Windows 7 ve Windows 10 gibi işletim sistemleri kullanıcı deneyimini geliştirdi. Macintosh System 7, çoklu görev yetenekleri, TrueType font desteği ve gelişmiş ağ özellikleri ile dikkat çekti. Aynı zamanda açık kaynak Linux işletim sistemleri de daha fazla kabul gördü. Debian, Redhat, Mandrake, Suse ve türevleri yaygınlaştı.
 2010'lar: Mobil cihazların yükselişi, mobil işletim sistemlerini (iOS, Android) öne çıkardı. Bulut bilişim, sanal makineler ve konteyner teknolojileri işletim sistemlerinin dağıtımını ve yönetimini değiştirdi.

Türleri ve terimler

Gerçek zamanlı işletim sistemleri

Gerçek zamanlı işletim sistemi, gerçek zamanlı uygulamaları çalıştırmayı amaçlayan çok görevli bir işletim sistemidir. Gerçek zamanlı işletim sistemleri genellikle özel zamanlama algoritmalarında kullanılmaktadır. Böylece, doğanın deterministik bir davranışı elde edilebilmektedir. Gerçek zamanlı işletim sistemlerinin ana teması, olaylara hızlı ve tahmin edilebilir bir tepki vermesidir. Ayrıca gerçek zamanlı işletim sistemlerinde, olay güdümlü veya zaman paylaşımlı bir tasarım vardır. Öncelikli görevleri arasında bir olaya dayalı sistem anahtarları yer almaktadır.  Bu sistem anahtarları, zaman paylaşımlı işletim sistemlerinin saat kesmelerine dayalı görevlere geçiş yapmaktadır.

Gerçek Zamanlı işletim sistemlerine örnek olarak, QNX gösterilebilir.

Çok kullanıcılı ve tek kullanıcılı işletim sistemleri

Çok kullanıcılı işletim sistemi, birden fazla kullanıcının aynı anda tek bir bilgisayar sistemine erişmesini sağlamaktadır. Bu sistem, zaman paylaşımı yoluyla bir bilgisayara birden çok kullanıcının erişimini sağlamaktadır. Bundan dolayı bu sistemler, zaman paylaşım sistemli çok kullanıcılı sistemler olarak sınıflandırılmaktadır. Çok kullanıcılı bir işletim sistemine karşı tek kullanıcılı işletim sistemleri, bir seferde tek bir kullanıcı tarafından kullanılabilmektedir. Bir Windows işletim sisteminde, birden fazla hesap için birden çok gerçek kullanıcı yoktur. Bunun yerine, sadece ağ yöneticisi gerçek kullanıcıdır. Ama Unix benzeri bir işletim sistemi için, bu iki kullanıcı bir kerede giriş yaparak, OS özelliği ile birçok kullanıcılı işletim sistemi yapmak mümkündür.

Çoklu görev ve tek görev
İşletim sistemi, aynı anda birden fazla görevin yerine getirilmesini sağlamaktadır. Bu sistemde, tek bir programın aynı anda çalışmasına izin verildiğinde; sistem, tek bir görevi sistemin altında gruplandırmaktadır. Bu tür sistemler, bir Çoklu-görev işletim sistemi olarak sınıflandırılmaktadır. Yani, çoklu görev, iki tip ön veya kooperatif davranarak olabilmektedir. Önleyici çoklu-görev işletim sistemi, işlemcide her program için bir yuva dilim ve zaman ayırmaktadır. Unix-Solaris gibi işletim sistemleri ve Linux desteği gibi önleyici çoklu-görev örnek olarak verilebilir. Çoklu-görev; kooperatif tanımlanmış bir şekilde, diğer işlemler için zaman tanımak amacıyla her işleme dayanarak elde edilmektedir. Windows 95, kooperatif çoklu görev desteği için örnek gösterilebilir.

Dağıtılmış işletim sistemleri
Bir dağıtılmış işletim sistemi bağımsız bir bilgisayar grubunu yönetmekte ve onların tek bir bilgisayarda görünmesini sağlamaktadır. Bu, bağlı olabilmekte ve birbirlerinin iletişim ağına bağlı bilgisayarların gelişimini sağlamaktadır. Dağıtık hesaplama, birden fazla makine üzerinde yapılmaktadır. Bir grup çalışması içinde bilgisayarlar yapıldığında, bir dağıtık sistem oluşturulmaktadır.

Gömülü işletim sistemleri
Gömülü işletim sistemleri, gömülü sistemlerde kullanılmak üzere tasarlanmıştır. Daha az özelliğe sahip PDA'lar gibi küçük makinelerde çalışacak şekilde tasarlanmıştır. Bu sistemlerin kaynakları sınırlı sayıda faaliyet göstermektedir. Bu sistemlerin tasarımı son derece verimlidir ve bu sistemlerde çok kompakt vardır. Windows CE ve Minix 3, gömülü işletim sistemlerinin bazı örnekleridir.

Bir işletim sistemi, kavramsal olarak üç grupta toplanabilecek bileşenlerden oluşmaktadır: kullanıcı arayüzü, komut satırı yorumlayıcısı ("kabuk") alt düzey sistem işlevleri ve bir çekirdek. Çekirdek, işletim sisteminin kalbidir. Adından da anlaşılabileceği gibi, "kabuk", çekirdeğin çevresini sarmaktadır. Donanımla iletişim kurmak çekirdeğin işidir.

Kimi işletim sistemlerinde kabuk ve çekirdek tümüyle ayrı bileşenlerken, kimilerinde bu ayrım yalnızca kavramsaldır.

Çekirdek tasarımları, yekpare (monolitik) çekirdekler, mikro-çekirdekler ve ekzoçekirdekler olarak üç ana gruba ayrılmaktadır. UNIX ve Windows, MS-DOS gibi geleneksel ticari sistemler ve Linux gibi daha yeni yaklaşımlar monolitik çekirdek kullanmaktadır. QNX, BeOS, Windows NT gibi yeni sistemlerin çoğu mikro çekirdek yaklaşımını kullanmaktadır. Araştırma amacıyla geliştirilen işletim sistemlerinin çoğu da mikro-çekirdek kullanmaktadır. Ekzo-çekirdekler ise henüz araştırma aşamasındadır.

İşletim sistemi çeşitleri

Amiga

1994 yılında Commodore International iflas ettikten sonra, Amiga kişisel bilgisayarlarının tüm hakları Amiga Inc'e kalmıştır. Amiga işletim sisteminin tekrar geliştirilebilmesi için, 2006 yılında PowerPC üzerinde uzmanlaşmış yazılım şirketi Hyperion Entertainment lisans vermiştir. Bir süre sonra, tüm haklar bu şirkete kalmıştır. AmigaOS, 4 ExecSG (Second Generation) çekirdeği üzerine kurulmuştur. AmigaOS, kurulduğu donanımdan maksimum performansı alan ve mükemmel birçok görevlilik (multitasking) özelliğine sahip olan, çok esnek bir işletim sistemidir. Commodore International; yazdığı AmigaOS 3.1 işletim sisteminin kaynak kodlarından devam ederek, günümüzde işletim sistemini 4.1 update 5 sürümüne kadar yükselmiştir. Çok yakında Hyperion Entertainment, yeni ve gelişmiş amiga donanımı olan Amigaone X1000 ile AmigaOS 4.2 'yi piyasaya sürmüştür.

GNU/Linux

GNU/Linux, UNIX benzeri bir işletim sistemidir. Bu işletim sistemi, bilgisayarlardan kol saatlerine kadar çok çeşitli alanlarda kullanılmaktadır. GNU/Linux, Unix'e benzeyen, ancak tamamen orijinal kod ile ücretsiz ve açık kaynak bir işletim sistemi yaratmaya çalışan bir programcı kitlesi iş birliğidir. 1983 yılında Richard Stallman tarafından başlatılan GNU projesi ile 1991 yılında Linus Torvalds tarafından başlatılan çekirdek tasarımının birleşimidir. Bu nedenle Linux çekirdeği ve GNU yazılım koleksiyonunun kullanıldığı bu işletim sistemine GNU/Linux denmektedir. Bugün, dünyanın dört bir yanına yayılmıştır ve sürekli olarak gelişim içerisindedir.

GNU/Linux, açık kaynak koduna sahip ve özgür (free software) bir işletim sistemidir. Bu sistemde bir hata tespit edilirse, dünyanın herhangi bir yerindeki bir programcı çok kısa sürede bu sorunu çözebilmektedir. GNU/Linux işletim sistemi çok karmaşık programları bir arada açsa bile, bilgisayar sorunsuz bir şekilde çalışmaya devam edebilmektedir. İnternetten ücretsiz indirilebilmekte ve talimatlar takip edilerek bilgisayara kurulabilmektedir. Açık kaynak sürücüler çekirdek içine gömülü olduğu için tek tek kurulması gerekmemektedir. Ancak, bir sorun ile karşılaşılırsa veya kapalı kaynak sürücüler kullanılmak istenirse, geliştiricilerin yazdığı yazılımlar kullanılabilmektedir.

Tüm bunlara rağmen, tahmini hesaplar, GNU/Linux'un %1,1 oranlarında kişisel bilgisayarlarda kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Ancak GNU/Linux, sunucular ve gömülü sistemler tarafından yaygın olarak benimsenmiştir. GNU/Linux, birçok alanda Unix'in yerini almaktadır ve dünyada en güçlü 10 bilgisayarda kullanılmaktadır. Ubuntu, Android, Debian, Arch Linux GNU/Linux dağıtımlarına örnek verilebilir.

Eskiden son kullanıcı tarafında pek fazla etkili olmayan ve tercih edilmeyen GNU/Linux; son yıllarda Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora Linux, Pardus gibi dağıtımlarla son kullanıcıya da hitap etmeye başlamıştır. Özellikle Ubuntu sayesinde çok fazla insan GNU/Linux'u tercih etmeye başlamıştır. Bunda Ubuntu'nun görselliğe önem veren politikaları ve diğer işletim sistemlerinde çok zorlanarak yapılabilecek masaüstü şovlarının (Compiz Fusion) son kullanıcıyı etkilemesi de önemli rol oynamıştır.

Linux dağıtımlarına Linux Mint ve Fedora Linux örnek verilebilir fakat dağıtımlar bununla sınırlı değildir.

MacOS

MacOS, Apple şirketi tarafından geliştirilen ve pazarlanan kısmen özel, grafiksel bir işletim sistemidir. Yine Apple'ın 1984 yılında oluşturduğu ilk işletim sistemi olan MacOS'un son sürümüdür. Fakat Mac OS 8 ve 9 sürümlerinin aksine, MacOS, NeXT şirketi tarafından geliştirilmiş bir teknoloji üzerine kurulmuş UNIX tabanlı bir işletim sistemidir.

İşletim sistemi ilk kez 2001 yılının Mart ayında, aşağıdaki bir masaüstü odaklı versiyonu (MacOS X v10.0) ile, MacOS X Server 1.0 olarak 1999 yılında piyasaya sürülmüştür. O zamandan beri, altı farklı "müşteri" ve MacOS X'in "server" sürümleri serbest bırakılmıştır. En son, Mac OS X 10.6 sürümü 28 Ağustos 2009 tarihinde kullanıma sunuldu.

Sunucu sürümü, MacOS Server mimari masaüstü muadili ile aynıdır. Ancak genellikle Macintosh sunucu donanımı Apple'ın hattı üzerinde çalışmaktadır. MacOS X Server, çalışma grubu yönetimi ve anahtar ağ hizmetlerine erişim sağlayan basitleştirilmiş yönetim yazılım araçları içermektedir. Bir posta aktarım arayüzü, LDAP sunucusu, bir alan adı sunucusu ve diğerleri dahildir.

MS-DOS

Microsoft firması tarafından geliştirilmiş eski bir işletim sistemidir. Windows üretildikten sonra kullanımı azalmıştır. Şu anda sadece format atarken veya dosya kurtarırken kullanılmaktadır. İngilizce karşılığı "disk işletim sistemi"dir. Üretim amacı bu olmasına rağmen, daha sonra DOS ortamında çalışan birçok uygulama ve oyun üretilmiştir.

Plan-9
Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie ve Douglas McIlroy, Unix işletim sistemini kurmak için Bell laboratuvarlarında C programlama dilini tasarlamış ve geliştirmiştir. Bell laboratuvarlarındaki programcılar, modern dağıtılmış çevreler için düzenlenmiş Plan 9 ve Inferno'yu geliştirmeye devam etmişlerdir. Plan 9, başlangıçta ağ işletim sistemi olarak tasarlanmıştır. Ancak Unix daha sonra bu özellikleri tasarıma dahil etmiştir. Şu anda Lucent Kamu Lisansı altında piyasaya sunulmaktadır. Inferno, Vita Nuova Holdings tarafından satın alınmıştır. Ayrıca, GPL/MIT Lisansı altında piyasaya sunulmaktadır.

Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows, kişisel bilgisayarlarda en çok kullanılan işletim sistemlerinden biridir.

Microsoft Windows, 1981 yılında eski MS-DOS işletim sistemi üzerine IBM PC eklentisi yapılarak piyasaya sürülmüştür. İlk olarak 1985 yılında yayımlanan Windows, kişisel bilgisayarların iş dünyasına hakim olmuştur. Windows XP ile başlanarak, tüm modern versiyonları Windows NT çekirdeği üzerine kurulmuştur. Şu anda en sık kullanılan Windows işletim sistemi Windows 10'dur. Windows 11, popülerlik olarak hâlâ Windows 10'un önüne geçememiştir.

Windows işletim sistemi sürümleri tarihi:

 Windows 1.0 (1985)
 Windows 2.0 (1987)
 Windows 3.0 (1990)
 Windows 95 (1995)
 Windows 98 (1998)
 Windows Me (2000)
Windows 2000(2000)
 Windows XP (2001)
 Windows Vista (2007)
 Windows 7 (2009)
 Windows 8 (Durduruldu  [kaynak gerekli], 2012)
 Windows 8.1 (2013)
 Windows 10 (2015)
Windows 11 (2021)

Be-OS
BeOS (Be Operating System), Be Incorporated tarafından 1991 yılında piyasaya sürülmüş olan UNIX türevi bir işletim sistemidir. Kendine ait bir dosya sistemine (BeFS) sahiptir. İlk başta Apple için AT & T Hobbit tabanlı donanım üzerinde çalışacak şekilde tasarlanmıştır. Daha sonra, PowerPC tabanlı işlemciler üzerinde çalışacak şekilde adapte edilmiştir. BeBox için özel olarak geliştirilen BeOS, sonra diğer bilgisayarları da desteklemeye başlamıştır. BeOS multimedya, iş ve yüksek performans için geliştirilmiş bir işletim sistemidir. BeOS'un arayüzü temiz ve derli toplu olarak geliştirilmiştir. BeOS, kolay API programlama için C++ dilinde yazılmıştır. Büyük ölçüde POSIX uyumluluğu vardır. 2001 yılında Be Inc. ekonomik nedenlerden dolayı Palm'e satılmıştır. İsim ve telif haklarının da satılması nedeniyle ismi değiştirilmiş ve bir süreliğine açık kaynak kodlu şekilde OpenBeOS ismiyle devam etmiştir. Palm'ın telif hakları gereğince ismi değiştirilerek, bu işletim sistemi günümüzde Haiku OS olarak geliştirilmeye devam etmektedir.

Bileşenler
Bir işletim sisteminin bileşenleri, hep birlikte bir bilgisayarın çalışmasını sağlamak üzere bir düzen içinde çalışmaktadır. Mâli veri tabanlarından film editörlerine kadar bütün yazılımlar, fare/klavyeden internet bağlantısına kadar, herhangi bir donanımı kullanmak için işletim sistemine ihtiyaç duymaktadır.

Kaynakça

İşletim sistemi


John William MacDougall (8 December 1947 – 13 August 2008) was a British Labour politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Glenrothes from the 2005 general election until his death; he was first elected to the House of Commons for Central Fife in the 2001 general election.

He was an active constituency MP who was loyal to the Labour government. From 2007 he was diagnosed with malignant mesothelioma, and due to his illness, his participation in Parliament became fleeting, although he remained as an MP until his death in August the following year.

Early life
MacDougall was educated at Templehall Junior Secondary School in Kirkcaldy, Fife. He later obtained a diploma in industrial management and a certificate in naval architecture studies. He began work as an apprentice caulker riveter at Rosyth Dockyard, but his main working life was spent as a boilermaker from 1964 at the oil rig construction yard in Methil. He became a shop steward for the GMB trade union, later full-time Shop Steward Convenor.

Political career

Fife councillor
After joining the Labour Party in 1981, MacDougall was elected as a Labour Party member of Fife Regional Council for Burntisland the following year. He became leader of the regional council in 1987, formally as Chairman of the Policy and Resources Committee, leaving work to be a full-time councillor, and serving until the Regional Council was abolished in the reform of local government.

MacDougall was elected to the new Fife unitary council in 1995 and became Convenor of the council when it assumed its powers in April 1996. MacDougall's position as leader led him to accept several other appointments, including as Chair of the Rosyth Dockyard and Naval Base Coordinating Committee, a director of Fife Enterprise, and Chair and director of Community Business Fife Ltd. In the mid-1990s he led the council's efforts to keep the Rosyth base open, including writing to every Conservative MP to ask them to support a defence review not led by the Treasury. He was a member of the Scottish Constitutional Convention which established the framework for the Scottish Parliament.

Parliament
When Henry McLeish announced that he would stand down from his UK Parliament seat in Central Fife on moving to the Scottish Parliament, MacDougall was thought to be likely to be beaten to the selection as his successor by the former Labour Party general secretary Alex Rowley. However MacDougall was announced as the winner of the ballot.

MacDougall won with a majority of 10,075.

Boundary changes
A boundary review cutting the number of United Kingdom Parliamentary seats in Scotland put MacDougall's seat in danger by enlarging it with parts taken from Kirkcaldy; it was rumoured that Kirkcaldy MP Lewis Moonie intended to challenge MacDougall. MacDougall was said to be "absolutely distraught" and intended to defend himself. He was mentioned as a potential candidate for the Central Fife constituency in the Scottish Parliament when Henry McLeish announced his retirement; however the selection went to his successor as council leader, Christine May. MacDougall won the selection for the new Glenrothes constituency when Lewis Moonie opted to retire instead.

Burns translation
To celebrate Burns Night in 2003, MacDougall had some of Robert Burns' most famous poems translated out of the Scots language into contemporary English to make them comprehensible for English guests. When Labour MPs were reported to be plotting to get Tony Blair to resign the leadership in favour of Gordon Brown, MacDougall was quoted as a supporter of Brown in opposing the plotting as not in his interests.

Illness and death
In May 2007 MacDougall revealed that he had serious health problems. He had had major surgery and a lung removed after being diagnosed with Mesothelioma, which transpired after his death came from the shipyards, but his doctor expected him to return to full health after he took part in the MARS Trial. In October it was said that he was likely to stand down in the event of a snap general election; however no election was called.

MacDougall was not recorded as having participated in any Parliamentary votes from early December 2007, and by June 2008 it was clear that his health problems were serious and there was a rumour that he would have to resign. However another rumour said that he was recovering and likely to return to work. MacDougall attended the House of Commons on 11 June 2008 to support the government on a knife-edge vote on pre-charge detention periods, giving an interview in which he admitted to having had an operation for  pleural mesothelioma; he declared his intention to stand for re-election. However, MacDougall died of mesothelioma at 6 AM on 13 August 2008 at the Victoria Hospital in Kirkcaldy.

References

External links

John MacDougall official site
Guardian Unlimited Politics – Ask Aristotle: John MacDougall MP
TheyWorkForYou.com – John MacDougall MP

1947 births
2008 deaths
Deaths from cancer in Scotland
Scottish Labour councillors
Deaths from mesothelioma
Scottish Labour MPs
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Fife constituencies
Scottish Labour politicians
Scottish trade unionists
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
Politicians from Dunfermline
British boilermakers

John MacDougall (British politician)


العقيد فلاديمير بلاتونوفيتش لياكهوف (1869 - 1919) ضابط روسي تولى قيادة فرقة القوزاق الفارسية في عهد الشاه محمد علي قاجار ،حظي بالشهرة بعد قيامه بقصف مبنى البرلمان الإيراني في 24 يونيو 1908 وإعدامه قيادات الحركات الدستورية في البلاد، وكنتيجة لذلك عينه الشاه محمد علي حاكماً عسكرياً لمدينة طهران.

مراجع

أفراد عسكريون روس في الحرب العالمية الأولى
الروس البيض
تاريخ إيران
سياسيون من الإمبراطورية الروسية
شخصيات الثورة الدستورية الفارسية
عسكريون روس
مواليد 1869
مواليد في سانت بطرسبرغ
وفيات 1919
وفيات في باطوم

مهاجرون من الإمبراطورية الروسية إلى إيران

فلاديمير لياكهوف


المزاد العلني هو مزاد تنظمه جهة نيابة عن الحكومة لبيع ممتلكات حكومية أو أملاك انتزعت من جهة ما بحكم قضائي.

بيع الممتلكات الحكومية

بيع الممتلكات الخاصة
فرنك سويسري من العملات القديمه المفقوده النادرة في العالم من سنة 1940

مصادر

فضاء عمومي
قانون
مشتريات حكومية

مزاد علني


Skriðhjálmur  (fræðiheiti: Aconitum reclinatum) er fjölært jurt af sóleyjaætt sem er upprunnin frá Austur Bandaríkjunum (Norður-Karólína, Pennsylvanía, Tennessee, Virginía, Vestur-Virginía).

Skriðhjálmur er eitraður og skal gæta varúðar við meðhöndlun hans, sérstaklega rætur.

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Eiturplöntur
Sóleyjaætt

Skriðhjálmur


Guðrún Gjúkadóttir ― Ekkja Sigurðar Fáfnisbana. Í Völsungasögu er sagt að hún hafi drepið Atla Húnakonung eftir að hafa matreitt syni hans fyrir hann.

Heimildir

Norræn goðafræði

Guðrún Gjúkadóttir


Vejen hjem fra rocknroll er Jens Unmacks debutalbum som solokunstner. Det blev udgivet i 2005 og modtog fem ud af seks stjerne i musikmagasinet GAFFA.

Spor
 "Joyride" - 4:20
 "Happy Ending (I Den Her Verden Vil Jeg Ikke Være Trist)" - 4:06
 "Skovens Dybe Stille" - 4:17
 "Født På En Søndag" - 4:00
 "Der Kommer En Morgen" - 3:30
 "(La La) Hollywood" - 4:31
 "Andre Hjem End Vores" - 3:29
 "Røde Lanterne" - 3:41
 "Invitation (Kommer Du Med ?)" - 3:59
 "Regn Over Skyerne" - 4:35
 "Vejen Hjem Fra Rocknroll" - 3:15

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Vejen hjem fra rocknroll på Discogs

Album fra 2005
Jens Unmack-album
Debutalbum fra Danmark

Vejen hjem fra rocknroll


تشمل صناعة المركبات تصميم، تطوير، تصنيع، تسويق وبيع المركبات. و في عام 2007، تم إنتاج أكثر من 73 مليون مركبة حول العالم، بما فيها الشخصية والتجارية بأنواعها المختلفة مثل الحافلات، الشاحنات، سيارات الأجرة وعربات النقل . و في نفس العام، تم بيع 71.9 مليون مركبة جديدة حول العالم، منها 2.4 مليون في الشرق الأوسط. ويوجد الآن حوالي 806 مليون مركبة حول العالم، تستهلك المركبات ما مقداره 260 مليار برميل من الوقود بنوعيه البنزين والديزل كل عام.

أزمة صناعة السيارات

الإنتاج العالمي

أكبر مصنعي المركبات (حسب الحجم)

The table below shows the world's largest motor vehicle manufacturing groups, along with the ماركةs produced by each one. The table is ranked by the latest production figures from المنظمة الدولية لمصنعي السيارات 2008 for the parent group, و then alphabetically by marque.

ملاحظات؛
* جنرال موتورز is in the process of selling همر to ، ساب للسيارات to Spyker, و eliminating بونتياك وزحل.

** Porsche is listed as parent company of مجموعة فولكس فاجن. This is only the case since January 2009, when Porsche acquired more than 50% of the shares of Volkswagen.

*** شركة فورد is looking to sell Volvo.

**** مجموعة هيونداي كيا للمركبات owns only a minority stake in كيا.

انظر أيضا

 صناعة السيارات في المغرب
 أزمة صناعة السيارات الأمريكية
 هندسة الهوية
 خطوط الإنتاج والتصنيع
 لحام النبض المغناطيسي

مراجع

إنتاج كبير
صناعات
صناعات ثقيلة
صناعة السيارات
مصنعو سيارات

صناعة المركبات


Mramor je naseljeno mjesto u općini Kakanj, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, BiH.

Stanovništvo

1991.

Nacionalni sastav stanovništva 1991. godine, bio je sljedeći:

ukupno: 232

 Muslimani - 231
 ostali, neopredijeljeni i nepoznato - 1

2013.

Nacionalni sastav stanovništva 2013. godine, bio je sljedeći:

ukupno: 163

 Bošnjaci - 160
 ostali, neopredijeljeni i nepoznato - 3

Izvori

Naselja u Zeničko-dobojskoj županiji
Kakanj

Mramor (Kakanj, BiH)


Zalmplaat (en néerlandais Zalmplaat) est une station, de la section commune à la ligne C et la ligne D du métro de Rotterdam. Elle est située sur la Doggersbank sur le territoire de l'arrondissement Hoogvliet, de Rotterdam au Pays-Bas.

Mise en service en 1974, elle est desservie, depuis 2009, par les rames de la ligne C et la ligne D du métro.

Situation sur le réseau

Établie sur un remblai, la station Zalmplaat, de la section commune à la ligne C et la ligne D, est établie : entre la station Hoogvliet, en direction : du terminus de la ligne C De Terp et du terminus de la ligne D Rotterdam-Centrale ; et la station Spijkenisse-Centre, en direction du terminus sud-ouest des lignes C et D De Akkers, terminus  .

Elle comporte deux voies encadrées par deux quais latéraux.

Histoire
La station Zalmplaat est mise en service le , lors de l'ouverture à l'exploitation de la section de Slinge à Zalmplaat qui devient le terminus de la ligne. Elle devient une station de passage le , lors de l'ouverture à l'exploitation de la section suivante de Zalmplaat au terminus De Akkers.

En décembre 2009, lors de la réorganisation des lignes, elle devient une station de passage de la section commune à la ligne C et la ligne D du métro.

Services aux voyageurs

Accès et accueil
La station, située sur un remblai, dispose d'un accès au niveau du sol. Elle est équipée, notamment, d'automates pour l'achat ou la recharge de titres de transport et d'un ascenseur pour l'accessibilité des personnes à la mobilité réduite.

Desserte
Zalmplaat, est desservie par les rames de la ligne C, en provenance ou à destination des terminus De Terp et De Akkers et les rames de la ligne D en provenance ou à destination des terminus Gare centrale et De Akkers.

Intermodalité
La station dispose d'un parc pour les vélos. Des places de stationnement pour les véhicules sont disponibles à proximité.

À proximité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Métro de Rotterdam
 Ligne C du métro de Rotterdam
 Ligne D du métro de Rotterdam
 Liste des stations du métro de Rotterdam
 Tramway de Rotterdam
 RET (entreprise)

Liens externes
 .
 .

Station de la ligne C du métro de Rotterdam
Station de la ligne D du métro de Rotterdam
Station de métro mise en service en 1974

Zalmplaat (métro de Rotterdam)


Dental products are specially fabricated materials, designed for use in dentistry. There are many different types of dental products, and their characteristics vary according to their intended purpose.

Temporary dressings
A temporary dressing is a dental filling which is not intended to last in the long term. They are interim materials which may have therapeutic properties. A common use of temporary dressing occurs if root canal therapy is carried out over more than one appointment. In between each visit, the pulp canal system must be protected from contamination from the oral cavity, and a temporary filling is placed in the access cavity. Examples include:

 Zinc oxide eugenol—bactericidal, cheap and easy to remove. Eugenol is derived from oil of cloves, and has an obtundant effect on the tooth and decreases toothache. It is suitable temporary material providing there are no biting forces on it. It is also contraindicated if the final restorative material is composite because eugenol adversely effects the bond/polymerization process; also, when applied directly on the pulp tissue, it can produce chronic inflammation and result in pulp necrosis. Brands include Kalzinol and Sedanol.

Cements
Dental cements are used most often to bond indirect restorations such as crowns to the natural tooth surface. Examples include:

 Zinc oxide cement—self setting and hardens when in contact with saliva. Example brands: Cavit, Coltosol.
Zinc phosphate cement
Zinc polycarboxylate cement—adheres to enamel and dentin. Example brand: PolyF.
Glass ionomer cement
Resin-based cement
Copper-based cement

Impression materials

Dental impressions are negative imprints of teeth and oral soft tissues from which a positive representation can be cast. They are used in prosthodontics (to make dentures), orthodontics, restorative dentistry, dental implantology and oral and maxillofacial surgery.

Because patients' soft-tissue undercuts may be shallow or deep, impression materials vary in their rigidity in order to obtain an accurate impression. Rigid materials are used with patients with shallow undercuts, while elastic materials are used with patients with deep undercuts, as the material must be flexible enough to reach the end-point of the undercut.

Impression materials are designed to be liquid or semi-solid when first mixed, then set hard in a few minutes, leaving imprints of oral structures.

Common dental impression materials include sodium alginate, polyether and silicones. Historically, plaster of Paris, zinc oxide eugenol and agar were used.

Lining materials
Dental lining materials are used during restorations of large cavities, and are placed between the remaining tooth structure and the restoration material. The purpose of this is to protect the dentinal tubules and the sensitive pulp, forming a barrier-like structure. After drilling the caries out of the tooth, the dentist applies a thin layer (approximately 1/2mm) to the base of the tooth, followed by light curing. Another layer might be applied if the cavity is very large and deep.

There are many functions to dental lining materials, some of which are listed below:

 Lining materials protect the weak tooth from post-operative hypersensitivity, reducing patient discomfort and allowing the tooth to heal at a faster rate after the procedure.
 Some dental restorative materials, such as acrylic monomers in resin-based materials and phosphoric acid in silicate materials, may pose toxic and irritable effects to the pulp. Lining materials protect the tooth from such irritants.
 Lining materials serve as an insulating layer to the tooth pulp from sudden changes in temperature when the patient takes hot or cold food, protecting them from potential pain resulting from thermal conductivity.
 Lining materials are electrically insulating, preventing corrosion by galvanic cell where two dissimilar metals (e.g. gold or amalgam) are placed next to each other.

Types
Calcium hydroxide

Calcium hydroxide has a relatively low compressive strength and a viscous consistency, making it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections. A common technique to overcome this issue is to apply a thin sub-lining of calcium hydroxide, then build up with zinc phosphate prior to amalgam condensation. This generates a relatively high pH environment around the area surrounding the cement due to calcium hydroxide leaking out, thus making it bactericidal.

It also has a unique effect of initiating calcification and stimulating the formation of secondary dentine, due to an irritation effect of the pulp tissues by the cement.

Calcium hydroxide is radio-opaque and acts as a good thermal and electrical insulation. However, due to its low compressive strength it is unable to withstand amalgam packing; a strong cement base material should be placed above it to counter this.

Calcium silicate-based liners have become alternatives to calcium hydroxide and are preferred by practitioners for their bioactive and sealing properties; the material triggers a biological response and results in formation of bonding with the tissue. They are commonly used as pulp capping agents and lining materials for silicate and resin-based filling materials.

It is usually supplied as two pastes, a glycol salicylate and another paste containing zinc oxide with calcium hydroxide. On mixing, a chelate compound is formed. Light-activated versions are also available; these contain polymerzation activators, hydroexyethyl methacrylate, dimethacrylate which when light activated will result in a polymerization reaction of a modified methacrylate monomer.

Polycarboxylate cement

Polycarboxylate cement has the compressive strength to resist amalgam condensation. It is acidic, but less acidic than phosphate cements due to it having a higher molecular weight and polyacrylic acid being weaker than phosphoric acid. It forms a strong bond with dentine and enamel, allowing it to form a coronal seal. In addition, it is an electrical and thermal insulator while also releasing fluoride, rendering it bacteriostatic. It is also radio-opaque, making it an excellent lining material.

Care has to be taken in handling such material, as it has a strong bond with stainless steel instruments once it sets.

Polycarboxylate cement is commonly used as a luting agents or as a cavity base material. However, it tends to be rubbery during its setting reaction and adheres to stainless steel instruments, so most operators prefer not to use it in deep cavities.

It is usually supplied as a power containing zinc oxide and a liquid containing aqueous polyacrylic acid. The reaction consists of an acid base reaction with zinc oxide reacting with the acid groups in polyacid. This forms a reaction product of unreacted zinc oxide cores bound by a salt matrix, with polyacrylic acid chains cross linking with zinc ions.

Glass ionomer

Glass ionomer (GI) has the strongest compressive and tensile strength of all linings, so it can withstand amalgam condensation in high stress bearing areas such as class II cavities. GI is used as a lining material as it is very compatible with most restorative materials, insulates thermally and electrically, and adheres to enamel and dentine. GI lining contains glass of smaller particle sizes compared to its adhesive restorative mix, to allow formation of a thinner film. Some variations are also radiopaque, making them good for X-ray cavity detection. In addition, GI is bacteriostatic due to its fluoride release from un-reacted glass cores.

GIs are usually used as a lining material for composite resins or as luting agents for orthodontic bands.

The reaction is an acid-base reaction between calcium-aluminum-silicate glass powder and polyacrylic acid. They come in a powder and liquid which are mixed on a pad or in capsules which are for single usage. Resin-modified GIs contain a photoinitiator (usually camphorquinone) and an amide, and are light cured with a LED light curing unit. Setting takes place by a combination of acid-base reaction and chemically activated polymerization.

Zinc oxide eugenol

Zinc oxide eugenol has the lowest compressive and tensile strength of the liners, so its use is limited to small or non-stress-bearing areas such as Class V cavities. This cavity lining is often used with a high strength base to provide strength, rigidity and thermal insulation. Zinc oxide eugenol can be used as linings in deep cavities without causing harm to the pulp, due to its obtundant effect on the pulp as well as its bactericidal properties due to zinc. However, eugenol may have an effect on resin-based filling materials, as it interferes with polymerization and occasionally causes discoloration. Caution could therefore be exercised when using both in tandem. It is also radio-opaque, allowing fillings to be visible by X-rays.

Zinc oxide eugenol is usually used as a temporary filling/luting agent due to its low compressive strength making it easily removed, or as a lining for amalgam as it is incompatible with composites resins.

It is supplied as a two paste system. Equal length of two pastes are dispensed into a paper pad and mixed.

Restorative materials

Dental restorative materials are used to replace tooth structure loss, usually due to dental caries (cavities), but also tooth wear and dental trauma. On other occasions, such materials may be used for cosmetic purposes to alter the appearance of an individual's teeth.

There are many challenges for the physical properties of the ideal dental restorative material. The ideal material would be identical to natural tooth structure in strength, adherence, and appearance. The properties of such material can be divided into four categories: physical properties, biocompatibility, aesthetics and application.

 Physical properties of good restorative materials include low thermal conductivity and expansion, resistance to different categories of forces and wear such as attrition and abrasion, and resistance to chemical erosion. There must also be good bonding strength to the tooth. Everyday masticatory forces and conditions must be withstood without material fatigue.
Biocompatibility refers to how well the material coexists with the biological equilibrium of the tooth and body systems. Since fillings are in close contact with mucosa, tooth, and pulp, biocompatibility is very important. Common problems with some of the current dental materials include chemical leakage from the material, pulpal irritation and, less commonly, allergic reactions. Some of the byproducts of the chemical reactions during different stages of material hardening need to be considered.
Radiopacity in dental materials is an important property that allows for distinguishing restorations from teeth and surrounding structures, assessing the absorption of materials into bone structure, and detecting cement dissolution or other failures that could cause harm to the patient. Cements, composites, endodontic sealers, bone grafts, and acrylic resins all benefit from the addition of radiopaque materials. Examples of these materials include zinc oxide, zirconium dioxide, titanium dioxide, barium sulfate, and ytterbium(III) fluoride.
 Ideally, filling materials should match the surrounding tooth structure in shade, translucency, and texture.
 Dental operators require materials that are easy to manipulate and shape, where the chemistry of any reactions that need to occur are predictable or controllable.

Direct restorative materials
Direct restorations are ones which are placed directly into a cavity on a tooth, and shaped to fit. The chemistry of the setting reaction for direct restorative materials is designed to be more biologically compatible. Heat and byproducts generated cannot damage the tooth or patient, since the reaction needs to take place while in contact with the tooth during restoration. This ultimately limits the strength of the materials, since harder materials need more energy to manipulate. The type of filling material used has a minor effect on how long they last. The majority of clinical studies indicate the annual failure rates (AFRs) are between 1% and 3% with tooth colored fillings on back teeth. Root canaled (endodontically) treated teeth have AFRs between 2% and 12%. The main reasons for failure are cavities that occur around the filling and fracture of the real tooth. These are related to personal cavity risk and factors like grinding teeth (bruxism).

Amalgam

Amalgam is a metallic filling material composed from a mixture of mercury (from 43% to 54%) and a powdered alloy made mostly of silver, tin, zinc and copper, commonly called the amalgam alloy. Amalgam does not adhere to tooth structure without the aid of cements or use of techniques which lock in the filling, using the same principles as a dovetail joint.

Amalgam is still used extensively in many parts of the world because of its cost effectiveness, superior strength and longevity. However, the metallic colour is not aesthetically pleasing and tooth coloured alternatives are continually emerging with increasingly comparable properties. Due to the known toxicity of mercury, there is some controversy about the use of amalgams. The Swedish government banned the use of mercury amalgam in June 2009. Research has shown that, while amalgam use is controversial and may increase mercury levels in the human body, these levels are below safety threshold levels established by the World Health Organization and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. However, there are certain subpopulations who, due to inherited genetic variabilities, are more sensitive to mercury than these threshold levels. They may experience adverse effects caused by amalgam restoration, including neural defects caused by impaired neurotransmitter processing.

Composite resin

Composite resin fillings (also called white fillings) are a mixture of nanoparticles or powdered glass and plastic resin, and can be made to resemble the appearance of the natural tooth. Although cosmetically superior to amalgam fillings, composite resin fillings are usually more expensive. Bis-GMA based resins contain Bisphenol A, a known endocrine disrupter chemical, and may contribute to the development of breast cancer. However, there is no added risk of kidney or endocrine injury in choosing composite restorations over amalgams. PEX-based materials do not contain Bisphenol A and are the least cytotoxic material available.

Most modern composite resins are light-cured photopolymers, meaning that they harden with light exposure. They can then be polished to achieve maximum aesthetic results.  Composite resins experience a very small amount of shrinkage upon curing, causing the material to pull away from the walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated with proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.

In some circumstances, using composite resin allows less of the tooth structure to be removed compared to other dental materials such as amalgam and indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam fillings whenever possible.

Generally, composite fillings are used to fill a carious lesion involving highly visible areas (such as the central incisors or any other teeth that can be seen when smiling) or when conservation of tooth structure is a top priority.

The bond of composite resin to tooth is especially affected by moisture contamination and the cleanliness of the prepared surface. Other materials can be selected when restoring teeth where moisture control techniques are not effective.

Glass ionomer cement

The concept of using "smart" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) have many applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body.

GIC fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid.

The cavity preparation of a GIC filling is the same as a composite resin. GICs are chemically set via an acid-base reaction. Upon mixing of the material components, no light cure is needed to harden the material once placed in the cavity preparation. After the initial set, GICs still need time to fully set and harden.

An advantage of GICs compared to other restorative materials is that they can be placed in cavities without any need for bonding agents. Another advantage is that they are not subject to shrinkage and microleakage, as the bonding mechanism is an acid-base reaction and not a polymerization reaction. Additionally, GICs contain and release fluoride, which is important to prevent carious lesions. As GICs release their fluoride, they can be "recharged" by the use of fluoride-containing toothpaste; this means they can be used to treat patients at high risk of caries.

Although they are tooth-colored, GICs vary in translucency, and their aesthetic potential is not as great as that of composite resins. Newer formulations that contain light-cured resins can achieve a greater aesthetic result, but do not release fluoride as well as conventional GICs.

The most important disadvantage of GICs is lack of adequate strength and toughness. To improve the mechanical properties of the conventional GIC, resin-modified ionomers have been marketed. GICs are usually weak after setting and are not stable in water; however, they become stronger with the progression of reactions and become more resistant to moisture.

New generations of GICs aim to regenerate tissues; they use bioactive materials in the form of a powder or solution to induce local tissue repair. These materials release chemical agents in the form of dissolved ions or growth factors such as bone morphogenetic protein, which stimulates activate cells.

GICs are about as expensive as composite resin.  The fillings do not wear as well as composite resin fillings, but they are generally considered good materials to use for root caries and for sealants.

Resin modified glass-ionomer cement (RMGIC)
A combination of glass-ionomer and composite resin, these fillings are a mixture of glass, an organic acid, and resin monomers that harden when light cured (light-activated polymerization besides the acid-base reaction of conventional GICs). The cost is similar to composite resin. It holds up better than GIC, but not as well as composite resin, and is not recommended for biting surfaces of adult teeth, or when control of moisture cannot be achieved.

Generally, RMGICs can achieve a better aesthetic result than conventional GICs, but not as good as pure composites.

Compomers

 Another combination of composite resin and GIC technology, compomers are essentially made up of filler, dimethacrylate monomer, difunctional resin, photo-activator and initiator, and hydrophilic monomers. The filler decreases the proportion of resin and increases the mechanical strength, as well as improving the material's appearance.

Although compomers have better mechanical and aesthetic properties than RMGIC, they have some disadvantages which limit their applications:
 Compomers have weaker wear properties.
 They cannot adhere to tooth tissue due to the presence of resin, which can make it shrink on polymerisation. They therefore require bonding materials.
 They release low levels of fluoride, so cannot act as a fluoride reservoir.
 They have high staining susceptibility; uptake of oral fluid causes them to show staining soon after placement.
Due to its relatively weaker mechanical properties, Compomers are unfit for stress-bearing restorations but can be used in the deciduous dentition where lower loads are anticipated.

Cermets

Dental cermets, also known as silver cermets, were created to improve the wear resistance and hardness of glass ionomer cements by adding silver. Their other advantages are that they adhere directly to tooth tissue, and are radio-opaque, which helps with identification of secondary caries when future radiographs are taken.

However, cermets have poorer aesthetics, appearing metallic rather than white. They also have a similar compressive strength, flexural strength, and solubility as GICs, some of the main limiting factors for both materials. In addition, their fluoride release is poorer than that of GICs. Clinical studies have shown cermets perform poorly. All these disadvantages led to the decline in the use of this restorative material.

Indirect restorative materials

An indirect restoration is one where the teeth are first prepared, then an impression is taken and sent to a dental technician who fabricates the restoration according to the dentist's prescription.

Porcelain fillings are hard, but can cause wear on opposing teeth. Their hardness and rigidiy enables them to resist abrasion forces, and are good aesthetically as they mimic the appearance of natural teeth. However, they are also brittle and not always recommended for molar fillings. Porcelain materials can be strengthened by soaking fired material in molten salt to allow exchange of sodium and potassium ions on the surface; this successfully creates compressive stresses on the outer layer, by controlling cooling after firing, and by the use of pure alumina inserts, a core of alumina or alumina powder, as they act as crack stoppers and are highly compatible to porcelain.

Tooth colored dental composite materials are either used as a direct filling or as the construction material for an indirect inlay. They are usually cured by light.

Nano-ceramic particles embedded in a resin matrix are less brittle and therefore less likely to crack, or chip, than all-ceramic indirect fillings. They absorb the shock of chewing more like natural teeth, and more like resin or gold fillings, than do ceramic fillings; at the same time they are more resistant to wear than all-resin indirect fillings. They are available in blocks for use with CAD/CAM systems.

Gold fillings have excellent durability, wear well, and do not cause excessive wear to the opposing teeth, but they do conduct heat and cold, which can be irritating.  There are two categories: cast gold fillings (gold inlays and onlays) made with 14 or 18 kt gold, and gold foil made with pure 24 kt gold that is burnished layer by layer. For years, they have been considered the benchmark of restorative dental materials.  However, recent advances in dental porcelains and a consumer focus on aesthetic results have caused the demand for gold fillings to drop.  Gold fillings are sometimes quite expensive, but they last a very long time, meaning that gold restorations are less costly and painful in the long run.  It is not uncommon for a gold crown to last 30 years.

Other historical fillings

Lead fillings were used in the 18th century, but became unpopular in the 19th century because of their softness. This was before lead poisoning was understood.

According to American Civil War-era dental handbooks, since the early 19th century metallic fillings had been made of lead, gold, tin, platinum, silver, aluminum, or amalgam.  A pellet was rolled slightly larger than the cavity, condensed into place with instruments, then shaped and polished in the patient's mouth.  The filling was usually left "high", with final condensation—"tamping down"—occurring while the patient chewed food.  Gold foil was the most popular filling material during the Civil War. Tin and amalgam were also popular due to lower cost, but were held in lower regard.

One survey of dental practices in the mid-19th century catalogued dental fillings found in the remains of seven Confederate soldiers from the Civil War. They were made of:
Gold foil: preferred because of its durability and safety.
Platinum: rarely used because it was too hard, inflexible and difficult to form into foil.
Aluminum: failed because of its lack of malleability but has been added to some amalgams.
Tin and iron: believed to have been a very popular filling material during the Civil War. Tin foil was recommended when a cheaper material than gold was requested by the patient, but it wore down rapidly; even if it could be replaced cheaply and quickly, there was a concern, specifically from Chapin A. Harris, that it would oxidise in the mouth and cause a recurrence of caries. Due to blackening, tin was only recommended for posterior teeth.
Thorium: the element's radioactivity was unknown at that time, and the dentist probably thought he was working with tin.
Lead and tungsten mixture: probably from shotgun pellets. Lead was rarely used in the 19th century, as it is soft and quickly worn down by mastication, and had known harmful health effects.

Acrylic polymers
Acrylics are used in the fabrication of dentures, artificial teeth, impression trays, maxillofacial / orthodontic appliances and temporary (provisional) restorations. They cannot be used as tooth filling materials because they can lead to pulpitis and periodontitis, as they may generate heat and acids during setting, and in addition they shrink.

Failure of dental restorations

Fillings have a finite lifespan; composites appear to have a higher failure rate than amalgam over five to seven years.  How well people keep their teeth clean and avoid cavities is probably a more important factor than the material chosen for the restoration.

Evaluation and regulation of dental materials
The Nordic Institute of Dental Materials (NIOM) performs several tests to evaluate dental products in the Nordic countries. In the European Union, dental materials are classified as medical devices according to the Medical Devices Directive. In USA, the Food and Drug Administration is the regulatory body for dental products.

References

User Guide of Dental Impression Material: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-keGMbCHC2A
Dental Materials Fact Sheet, Dental Board of California, May 2004

Restorative dentistry

Dental material


Heather may refer to:

Plants
The heather family, or Ericaceae, particularly:
Common heather or ling, Calluna
Various species of the genus Cassiope
Various species of the genus Erica

Name
 Heather (given name)
 Heather (surname)

Arts and media
 Heathers, a 1989 film directed by Michael Lehmann
 Heathers: The Musical, a musical by Laurence O'Keefe based on the film
 Heathers (TV series), a 2018 television series based on the film
 "Heather" (The Secret Circle), a television episode

Music
 Heathers (band), an acoustic singing duo from Ireland
 "Heather" (Beatles song), an unreleased 1968 song by Paul McCartney and Donovan
 "Heather" (Conan Gray song), a 2020 song by American singer Conan Gray
 "Heather", a song from fusion drummer Billy Cobham's 1974 album Crosswinds
 "Heather", a 2001 song by Paul McCartney from the album Driving Rain
 "Heather", a song from Patent Pending by Heavens
 "Heather", a version of the Johnny Pearson song, "Autumn Reverie", which appeared on the Carpenters album Now & Then
"Heather", a song from I Know Leopard's album Love is a Landmine

Places
 Heather, Leicestershire, a village in England
 Heather Preceptory, a preceptory of the Knights Hospitaller, established in the above village
 Heather St John's Football Club, an English football club based in the above village
 Heather, Missouri, a community in the United States
 Heather, Washington, an unincorporated community in the United States

Other uses
 Heather (fabric), interwoven yarns of mixed colours producing muted greyish shades with flecks of colour
 Heather (yacht), the original name of the yacht USS Sea Gull, built in 1902
 Heather, brand name of a progestogen-only pill containing norethisterone (norethindrone)

See also
 Heath (disambiguation)
 Heather Hills (disambiguation)
 Hurricane Heather

Heather


La , littéralement « trieuse à fruits », est un appareil censé permettre d'identifier les homosexuels, mis au point au Canada par Frank Robert Wake dans les années 1950. Le terme «  » désigne en anglais de manière insultante les homosexuels.

La machine projetait aux sujets des images de corps nus et photographiait le diamètre de leurs pupilles (test du réflexe pupillaire), dont la dilatation était supposée traduire une réaction érotique. La conception d'un tel test repose sur des postulats erronés concernant l'homosexualité et ne permet pas d'identifier l'orientation sexuelle d'une personne.

Contexte historique

La machine a été utilisée au Canada dans les années 1950-1960 dans le cadre d'une opération visant à détecter les homosexuels dans la fonction publique, la Gendarmerie royale du Canada (GRC) et l'armée. 9 000 personnes ont fait l'objet d'une enquête de la part de la Gendarmerie royale du Canada. Certaines ont été licenciées. Bien que le financement du projet ait été interrompu à la fin des années 1960, les enquêtes se sont poursuivies au-delà.

Le Conseil de sécurité a fait appel au docteur en psychologie F. R. Wake, professeur à la Carleton University d'Ottawa pour mettre au point des tests de détection ; cette démarche s'inscrivait dans le contexte de la médicalisation contemporaine de l'homosexualité.

F.R. Wake a par ailleurs occupé dans les années 1950 la fonction de chercheur médical dans le cadre de la Commission royale d'enquête sur le droit pénal en matière de psychopathie sexuelle criminelle, instance qui a œuvré dans le sens d'une criminalisation accrue de l'homosexualité au Canada.

Dispositif

La machine utilise une chaise similaire à celle utilisée par les dentistes. Elle a une poulie avec une caméra en direction des sujets étudiés ; une boîte noire située devant affiche des photos d'hommes et de femmes, les unes pornographiques, les autres jugées « neutres » par Frank Robert Wake, telles que des images du Christ sur la croix. Le postulat était que les pupilles se dilateraient en fonction du degré d'intérêt pour l'image, et que « le test du réflexe pupillaire » révèlerait l'homosexualité.

On avait d'abord fait croire que le but de la machine était d'évaluer le stress. Quand un grand nombre de personnes ont appris le véritable objectif de l'expérience, peu de gens ont accepté de se s'y soumettre.

Le gouvernement fédéral a consacré l'équivalent de 80 000 $ de 2017 au financement des tests.

Hypothèses et paramètres de test erronés
Les postulats scientifiques sur lesquels reposait la « machine à fruits » sont fragiles.

Le test de réflexe pupillaire est fondé sur des hypothèses erronées selon lesquelles les homosexuels et les hétérosexuels réagiraient différemment à ces stimuli visuels, et qu'il n'y a que deux types de sexualité. L'homosexualité est supposée être une déviance et l'hétérosexualité, la norme.
Les chercheurs n'ont pas pris en compte les différentes tailles des pupilles et les différentes distances entre les yeux
La quantité de lumière provenant des photographies change à chaque diapositive, et provoque une dilatation des pupilles des sujets qui n'est pas liée à leur intérêt pour l'image.
La dilatation des pupilles est extrêmement difficile à mesurer, car le changement était souvent inférieur à un millimètre.

Autres tests de détection concurrents

D'autres « machines à fruits » ont été utilisées au Canada à la même époque : le pléthysmographe (mesure du volume sanguin du doigt) ; des tests de sudation, ou d'association de mots.

Excuses officielles
D'anciens employés de la Gendarmerie royale du Canada, de l'armée et de la fonction publique, membres du « Réseau nous exigeons des excuses » demandent des excuses au gouvernement canadien en 2015 pour ce qu'ils nomment une « campagne nationale de purge contre les homosexuels » et les mesures discriminatoires dont ils ont été victimes.

En 2017 le Premier ministre Justin Trudeau présente des excuses aux personnes LGBT pour les discriminations qui les ont visées pendant des décennies.

Dans la culture populaire
La pièce de 1998 de Brian Drader, The Fruit Machine, juxtapose le projet de trieuse à fruits et un scénario parallèle exposant l'homophobie contemporaine.

Une tentative abandonnée d'utiliser une machine à fruits lors de l'interrogatoire du diplomate canadien John Watkins a été montrée dans le téléfilm de 2002 Agent of Influence.

Le roman Cold Dark Matter (2005) d'Alex Brett utilise le projet comme dispositif d'intrigue.

Le film documentaire de Sarah Fodey, , décrit les effets du dispositif sur plusieurs personnes.

Références

Bibliographie

 Gary Kinsman, "'Character Weakness' and 'Fruit Machines': Towards an Analysis of the Anti-Homosexual Security Campaign in the Canadian Civil Service," Labour/Le Travail, 35 (Spring 1995).
 Gary Kinsman et al., Whose National Security?: Canadian State Surveillance and the Creation of Enemies, (Entre les lignes, Canada, 2000), chapitre 10.
 John Sawatsky. Men in the Shadows: The RCMP Security Service. (Doubleday Canada, 1980) , chapters 10 and 11.

Articles connexes
 Purges ciblant les personnes LGBT au Canada pendant la guerre froide
 Détecteur de mensonge, un appareil pour détecter les réponses physiologiques indiquant le mensonge
 Peur violette, purges ciblant les personnes LGBT aux Etats-Unis
 Gaydar
 Pléthysmographe pénien
 Photopléthysmographie vaginale
 Machine Blade Runner #Voight-Kampff, un appareil fictif pour détecter les réponses émotionnelles non humaines

Pseudo-science
Instrument de mesure
Psychophysiologie
Test psychologique
Histoire du Canada
Histoire des LGBT au Canada
Droits LGBT au Canada
Homophobie
Terme LGBT

Fruit machine


نيوبي هي ابنة تانتالوس ملك فريجيا وأخت بيلوبس ملك البيلوبونيز وزوجة أمفيون الطيبي وكان لديها سبعة أبناء وسبع بنات وكانت تفخر بجمالهم وسخرت من ليتو لأن لديها ابنا واحدا هو أبولو وابنة واحدة هي آرتميس فاستفزهم هذا وانتقموا من نيوبي بأن قتلوا أبناءها (قتل أبولو الأبناء وقتلت أرتميس البنات) وظلت جثثهم غير مدفونة لتسعة أيام ثم دفنتهم الآلهة، وعادت نيوبي إلى وطنها وظلت تبكى حتى حولها إلى حجر حيث تبكي على خسارتها للأبد. وهو ما تحدث عنه هوميروس في الإلياذة وكذلك أبولودوروس وأوفيد. وتتعدد القصص حول عدد وأسماء أطفالها وكذلك زمن وسبب الوفاة

و هناك نسخه أخرى تقول ان اولادها ال 14 لم يموتو جمعيا. فهناك «اميكلاس» واحده من الفتيات قد ايقتن ان امها قد اخطأت وان العقاب سوف يكون وخيم، لذا فانها قد صلت للاله ليتو، وعندما وصلت ارتميس لكي تقتلها وجدتها في المعبد تصلي، فتركتها في حالها، وهناك أيضا «ميليبويا» أحد الأبناء الذي سار على نفس النهج، ولم يتم معاقبته هو أيضا.

ان هذه الارقام مثل ان يموتو ال 14 أو ال 12 تشير إلى عده اشياء، فمثلا الرقم 14 يشير إلى الوقت الذي اختفى فيه التايتنز، والرقم 12 هي روزنامه الشهور التي كانت في عهد زيوس ولكنه منعها وانشأ واحده جديده.

الحجر الذي يمثل نيوبي هو من الحجر الجيري وموجود في جبل سيبيلوس غرب تركيا  وهو يشبه شكل امرأة وهو يصب من مسام في الصخر مما نسج عنه هذه الأسطورة. وتكلم عنه باوسانياس وكوينتوس سميمايوس.

وفقا لبعض الباحثين فإن نيوبي هي إلهة الثلج والشتاء وأن أولادها الثلج والجليد قتلوا من قبل أبولو وأرتميس أي أنهم يذوبون من الشمس في الربيع، ووفقا لأخرى كانت إلهة الأرض وأبناؤها هم نتاج الأرض من خضر وفواكه حيث تجف ويأتيها الصيف.

ويرى بورمايستر أن الأسطورة تمثل الصراع بين أتباع ديونيسوس وأتباع أبولو وهزم الديونيسيون وطردوا إلى ليديا. والقصة تتشابه مع قصة لاميا التي ذهبت إلى كهف واختبأت فيه بعد أن قتل زيوس أولادها وأصبحت تقتل أولاد الآخرين.

الصخرة وقصة نيوبي أعطت بعدا أخلاقيا استمد منه الكتاب التراجيديون حول ما يصيب سعادة الإنسان من خلل، حيث أصبحت نيوبي مثال الطبيعة البشرية والمسؤولة عن الكبرياء عند الازدهار ونسيان احترام وطاعة الآلهة.

كانت القصة موضوعا مفضلا في الأدب والفن، فنجد أيسخيلوس وسوفوكليس تكبوا تراجيديات عنها وأوفيد يصفها بشكل مطول، وفي الفن هناك مجموعة من التماثيل الرخامية لنيوبي وأولادها موجودة في روما في معبد أبولو، وهي على الأغلب تقليد روماني لعمل عثر عليه عام 1583 قرب لاتيران وهو الآن موجود في متحف أوفيزي في فلورنسا، ومن المشكوك أنه ربما العمل الأصلي كان لبراكسيتيليس أو سكوباس.

المراجع

أميرات في الأساطير اليونانية
التحولات في الأساطير اليونانية
المرأة في الأساطير الإغريقية
شخصيات أسطورية إغريقية
ليديا
ملكات في الأساطير الإغريقية

نيوبي (أسطورة)


The tawny-flanked prinia (Prinia subflava)  is a small passerine bird belonging to the genus Prinia in the family Cisticolidae, a family of Old World warblers. It is widespread and common in most parts of Africa south of the Sahara. The plain prinia (P. inornata) of southern Asia was formerly included in this species but is now usually considered to be a separate species.

Taxonomy
The tawny-flanked prinia was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with the wagtails in the genus Motacilla and coined the binomial name Motacilla subflava. The specific epithet combines the Latin sub meaning "beneath" or "somewhat" with flavus meaning "yellow". Gmelin based his account on a hand coloured engraving by François-Nicolas Martinet that was published to accompany the Comte de Buffon's multi-volume work, the Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux. The tawny-flanked prinia is now one of 30 species placed in the genus Prinia that was introduced by the American naturalist Thomas Horsfield in 1821.

Ten subspecies are recognised:
 P. s. subflava (Gmelin, JF, 1789) — south Mauritania and Senegal to central Ethiopia and north Uganda
 P. s. pallescens Madarász, G, 1914 — north Mali to northwest Eritrea and north Ethiopia
 P. s. tenella (Cabanis, 1868) — south Somalia, east Kenya and east Tanzania
 P. s. melanorhyncha (Jardine & Fraser, 1852) — Sierra Leone to south Uganda, central Kenya and northwest Tanzania
 P. s. graueri Hartert, EJO, 1920 — central Angola, south, east DR Congo and Rwanda
 P. s. affinis (Smith, A, 1843) — southeast DR Congo and southwest Tanzania to northeast South Africa
 P. s. kasokae White, CMN, 1946 — east Angola and west Zambia
 P. s. mutatrix Meise, 1936 — south Tanzania to east Zimbabwe and central Mozambique
 P. s. bechuanae Macdonald, 1941 — southwest Angola and north Namibia to northwest Zimbabwe
 P. s. pondoensis Roberts, 1922 — south Mozambique and east South Africa

Description
The tawny-flanked prinia is  in length with a long, narrow, graduated tail and a fairly long, slender bill. The tail is often held erect or waved from side to side. The upperparts are grey-brown with rufous-brown edges to the flight feathers and a rufous tinge to the rump. The throat and breast are whitish while the flanks and vent are warm buff. There is a whitish stripe over the eye and the lores are dark. The tail feathers have a white tip and a dark subterminal band.

The sexes are similar in appearance. Non-breeding birds have a longer tail than breeding birds. Juveniles have pale yellow underparts and a yellowish bill. There are many recognised subspecies.

The call is short, wheezy and rapidly repeated. The song is a monotonous series of shrill notes. The male often sings from an exposed perch.

The pale prinia (P. somalica) of North-east Africa is similar but paler and greyer with whitish flanks. It inhabits drier, more open habitats than the tawny-flanked prinia. The river prinia (P. fluviatilis) of West Africa is also paler and greyer and has a longer tail. It is restricted to waterside vegetation.

Distribution and habitat
There are ten subspecies distributed across most parts of sub-Saharan Africa except for the driest and wettest areas. It is absent from much of the Congo Basin, southern Namibia, south-west Botswana and the western half of South Africa. It is found amongst shrubs and grass in a variety of habitats including woodland, savanna and cultivated areas. It adapts well to man-made habitats and is not considered to be threatened.

Behaviour
It feeds on insects and other invertebrates. It forages in small flocks which move through shrubs and undergrowth.

The nest is purse-shaped and made of strips of grass woven together. It is built one to two metres above the ground. Two to four eggs are laid; they are variable in ground colour and usually have brown or purple spots or blotches.

Gallery

References

Barlow, Clive; Wacher, Tim & Disley, Tony (1999) A Field Guide to Birds of the Gambia and Senegal, Pica Press, Sussex.
Serle, W.; Morel G.J. & Hartwig, W. (1977) Collins Field Guide: Birds of West Africa, HarperCollins.
Sinclair, Ian & Ryan, Peter (2003) Birds of Africa south of the Sahara, Struik, Cape Town.
Zimmerman, Dale A.; Turner, Donald A. & Pearson, David J. (1999) Birds of Kenya & Northern Tanzania, Christopher Helm, London.

External links

African Bird Image Database: Tawny-flanked prinia
 Tawny-flanked prinia - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.

tawny-flanked prinia
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
tawny-flanked prinia
tawny-flanked prinia

Tawny-flanked prinia


السفال هي قرية تقع في محافظة شبوة جنوب اليمن، وهي إحدى القرى في وادي يشيم. تتبع القرية إدارياً مديرية الصعيد، وتبعد عن مدينة الصعيد قرابة 20 كيلومتراً، يحدها من الشرق النقبة وحبان، ومن الغرب اللجفة ويشبم والصعيد، ومن الشمال جبل المكيحلة، ومن الجنوب جبل رضاع. تبلغ مساحة قرية السفال حوالي 9 كيلومترات مربعة، وتشتهر بالأراضي الزراعية والجبال العالية. يبلغ عدد سكان القرية حوالي 1,000 نسمة، والتركيب السكاني فيها يتكون من المشائخ آل السليماني وآل باهطير وآل بافياض وآل ثعلب وآل باقيس وآل مبارك وعلي مبارك وذريته وآل الجمامة.

جغرافياً

تقع قرية السفال في أسفل وادي يشبم بمديرية الصعيد بمنطقة العوالق. إذ تتكوَّن أرض العوالق من عدة أودية أحدها وادي يشبم، ويحد أرض العوالق من الشمال بيحان ومن الجنوب البحر العربي ومن الشرق حضرموت ومن الغرب البيضاء. وقد سُمِّيت قرية السفال بهذا الاسم لأنها تقع في أسفل وادي يشبم المُمتدّ من أعلى جبال الكور والمنحدر على طول تلك المنطقة التي يتوسطها، حيث يتوسطها، ويظلّ خصباً وزراعياً على مدار الموسم. وهي تُعتَبر من أهم مناطق مديرية الصعيد منذ القدم، ولا زالت حتى الآن تحظى بتلك الأهمية.

تبعد قرية السفال عن عاصمة شبوة عتق مسافة تقدر بحوالي 40 كيلومتراً. وهي إحد أكثر القرى التي تسكنها العديد من طبقات المجتمع بمختلف أصولها، كما تُقدَّر مساحتها بحوالي 3,000 متر مربع وعدد سكانها بنحو 900 إلى 1,000 نسمة تقريباً.

7-ال ناصره
وهناك بعض لشعاب التي تعتمدعليها في ري الأراضي الزراعية ومنها 1- مربون 2- ضومرين 3- حبره
4- عيمنه 5- ربضين 6- ثمده7- الشعبة
ومن أهم شعاب قرية السفال
1- ضبعه 2-لفاء 3- يمراه 4- ردمان
ومن أهم وأطول الجبال في السفال
المكيحلة 2-رضاع 3-السكك ((السفال وقوافي الشعراء))

أهم الحافات في قرية السفال:

 الكورة.
 الدرب.
 الهجيرة
 خلا هل ثعلب.
 الساقية.
 سرة.
 السوق.
 يمراة.
 لفا.
 الحجل.
 الكلبي.

في الشعر

من الشاعرين الذين ذكروا قرية السفال الشاعر عبد الله بن أحمد السليماني، في الأبيات:

وقال أيضأ فيها:

كما قال فيها الشاعر مذيب بن صالح بن فريد:

وذكرها الشاعر بن قدريه الربيزي في:

وتحدث عنها أبو بكر بن عبد الله السليماني في أبيات:

وقال الشاعر يعشوب السليماني:

وقال فيها الشاعر إياد أبو بكر عمر السليماني:

مراجع

محافظة شبوة

السفال


Libelula este un film românesc din 1974 regizat de Mihai Sălăjan, Adelina-Laura Bulibașa. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Gheorghe Sălăjan, Vasile Leac.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1974 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1974

Libelula


කොළඹ මරදාන,සාන්ත ජුසේ විදුහල  (St. Joseph's College, Colombo)

විශිෂ්ඨ ආදි සිසුන්
 තෝමස් කුරේ - ප්‍රථම ශ්‍රී ලාංකික කාදිනල් හිමිපාණන් සහ කොළඹ අගරදගුරුතුමා
 ඔස්වල්ඩ් ගොමිස් - කොළඹ විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ කුලපති සහ හිටපු කොළඹ අගරදගුරුතුමා
 රණසිංහ ප්‍රේමදාස - හිටපු ශ්‍රී ලංකා ජනාධිපති
 ශ්‍රීමත් එඩ්වින් විජයරත්න - හිටපු ස්වදේශ කටයුතු සහ ග්‍රාමීය සංවර්ධන අමාත්‍යවරයා
 Niranjan Deva-Aditya - Conservative Party (UK) Conservative Member of the European Parliament
 Rear Admiral Frank Wickramaratne - Chief of Staff Sri Lanka Navy VSV
 Major General Anton Muttukumaru - first Ceylonese commander of the Ceylon Army
 Major General Janaka Perera - Chief of Staff of the Sri Lanka Army and Opposition leader of the North Central Provincial Council
 ඈෂ්ලි ද සිල්වා - හිටපු ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩක
 චමින්ද වාස් - ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩක
 ඇන්ජෙලෝ මැතිව්ස් - ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩක
 තිසර පෙරේරා - ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩක

අඩවියෙන් බැහැර පිටු
 Official website
 Official Old Boys Union Website

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පාසල්
1896 establishments in Ceylon
Catholic schools in Sri Lanka
Catholic secondary schools in Sri Lanka
Educational institutions established in 1896
Private schools in Sri Lanka
Schools in Colombo
Schools in Sri Lanka founded by missionaries

සාන්ත ජුසේ විදුහල, කොළඹ


Ugovor o suradnji na području patenata (PCT) je međunarodni ugovor o patentnom pravu, koji je sklopljen 1970. godine. On pruža jedinstven postupak za podnošenje patentnih prijava radi zaštite izuma u svakoj od država ugovornica. Ugovor o suradnji na području patenata (PCT) omogućava podnošenje jedne patentne prijave s istovremenim učinkom u više zemalja umjesto podnošenja nekoliko odvojenih nacionalnih i/ili regionalnih patentnih prijava.
Na temelju Ugovora o suradnji na području patenata (PCT) svaka osoba koja ima prebivalište/sjedište u državi ugovornici ili je državljanin te države može podnijeti međunarodnu prijavu te jednom međunarodnom prijavom zahtijevati međunarodno pretraživanje i međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje, i time odgoditi postupak traženja zaštite u pojedinim nacionalnim i/ili regionalnim uredima za najviše 30 mjeseci računajući od datuma prvenstva ili međunarodnog datuma podnošenja. Prijava patenta podvrgnuta PCT-u naziva se međunarodna prijava ili PCT prijava.
PCT prijava se podnosi na jednom jeziku ovlaštenom prijemnom uredu (Receiving Office (RO)), odnosno pojedinim nacionalnim i/ili regionalnim uredima ovisno o nacionalnosti ili državljanstvu podnositelja prijave ili direktno nadležnom Međunarodnom uredu Svjetske organizacije za intelektualno vlasništvo. Potom se vrši pretraživanje stanja tehnike koju obavlja Ovlašteno tijelo za međunarodno pretraživanje (International Searching Authority (ISA)) koje rezultira izvješćem o međunarodnom pretraživanju, uz pisano mišljenje o patentibilnosti izuma, koji je predmet prijave. Nakon čega, ako podnositelj ne povuće prijavu patenta, slijedi međunarodna objava.  Po izboru, može uslijediti međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje koje provodi Ovlašteno tijelo za međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje (International Preliminary Examining Authority (IPEA)). Konačno, nadležna nacionalna ili regionalna tijela upravljaju pitanjima koja se odnose na ispitivanje zahtjeva (ako je to predviđeno nacionalnim zakonom) i izdavanje patenta.

Postupak međunarodne prijave patenta (PCT)
PCT postupak sastoji se od dvije glavne faze: međunarodne faze postupka i nacionalne i/ili regionalne faze postupka. Međunarodna faza počinje podnošenjem međunarodne prijave, a nacionalna i/ili regionalna faza počinje podnošenjem međunarodne prijave pojedinim nacionalnim i/ili regionalnim uredima, te završava (u slučaju povoljnog ishoda za podnositelja zahtjeva) dodjelom određenog broja nacionalnih i / ili regionalnih patenata. Prva faza naziva se međunarodna faza dok se druga naziva nacionalna faza.

Međunarodna faza
Međunarodna faza postupka sastoji se od pet koraka. Prva tri koraka sastoje se od podnošenja međunarodne prijave patenta, uspostavljanja izvješća o međunarodnoj pretrazi i pisanog mišljenja jednog od "međunarodnih tijela za pretraživanje", te objavljivanja međunarodne prijave i izvješća o međunarodnoj pretrazi. Po izboru i na izričit zahtjev podnositelja PCT prijave uz plaćanje dodatnih pristojbi u međunarodnoj fazi postupka mogu se provesti još dva koraka: međunarodna dopunska pretraga i/ili međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje.

Podnošenje međunarodne prijave (PCT)
Prvi korak postupka sastoji se od podnošenju međunarodne patentne prijave nadležnom prijemnom patentnom uredu ili direktno nadležnom Međunarodnom uredu Svjetske organizacije za intelektualno vlasništvo. Osobe koje imaju prebivalište/sjedište u Republici Hrvatskoj ili su državljani Republike Hrvatske mogu podnijeti međunarodnu prijavu putem Državnog zavoda za intelektualno vlasništvo Republike Hrvatske ili direktno nadležnom Međunarodnom uredu Svjetske organizacije za intelektualno vlasništvo (WIPO/OMPI).
PCT prijava patenta mora se podnijeti samo na jednom jeziku, iako se prijevodi mogu zahtijevati za međunarodnu pretragu i međunarodnu objavu, ovisno o jeziku podnošenja i Ovlaštenom tijelu za međunarodno pretraživanje koje vrši pretragu u međunarodnoj fazi. U Republici Hrvatskoj, međunarodna prijava se podnosi na engleskom ili hrvatskom jeziku u jednom primjerku. Ako je međunarodna prijava podnesena na hrvatskom jeziku, podnositelj je obvezan Državnom zavodu za intelektualno vlasništvo dostaviti prijevod međunarodne prijave na engleski jeziku roku od mjesec dana od međunarodnog datuma podnošenja.
Nakon podnošenja PCT prijave patenta, sve države ugovornice automatski su naznačene. Međunarodna prijava patenta koja ispunjava zahtjeve PCT ugovora te joj je utvrđen datum podnošenja, ima učinak regularne nacionalne prijave patenta u svakoj naznačenoj državi od PCT datuma podnošenja koji se ujedno smatra datumom podnošenja u svakoj od naznačenih država.

Međunarodna pretraga i pisano mišljenje
Ovlašteno tijelo za međunarodno pretraživanje (International Searching Authority (ISA)) vrši pretragu ili međunarodnu pretragu stanja tehnike kako bi pronašlo najrelevantnije dokumente za ocjenu patentabilnosti izuma čija se zaštita traži. Rezultat pretraživanja je Izvješće o međunarodnom pretraživanju (International Search Report (ISR)), zajedno s pisanim mišljenjem o patentibilnosti (Written Opinion (WO)). Podnositelj PCT prijave može izabrati ISA ovisno prijamnom uredu u kojim je podnositelj zahtjeva podnio međunarodnu prijavu. Rok za ispostavu ISR podnositelju je 9 mjeseci od datuma podnošenja PCT prijave patenta ili 16 mjeseci od najranijeg zahtjevanog prioriteta u slučaju da je prioritet zahtjevan.

Objavljivanje međunarodne prijave
Treći korak međunarodne faze postupka uključuje objavu međunarodne prijave i izvješća o međunarodnoj pretrazi, a pisano mišljenje postaje dostupno na PATENTSCOPE. Međunarodni ured WIPO, sa sjedištem u Ženevi, objavljuje PCT prijavu na jednom od deset "jezika objavljivanja": arapskom, kineskom, engleskom, francuskom, njemačkom, japanskom, korejskom, portugalskom, ruskom i španjolskom. Objava se obično odvija odmah nakon 18 mjeseci od datuma podnošenja ili, ako je zahtjevan prioritet, od najranijeg datuma traženja prioriteta. te objavljivanja međunarodne prijave zajedno s izvješćem o međunarodnoj pretrazi (A1 dokument) ili objavljivanja same međunarodne prijave (A2 dokument), te što prije nakon toga i izvješća o međunarodnoj pretrazi (A3 dokument). Nakon objavljivanja PCT prijave do 28 mjeseci od datuma najranijeg prioriteta, bilo koja treća strana može podnijeti primjedbe u pogledu novosti i inventivne razine izuma. Primjedbe se mogu podnijeti anonimno, a za njihovo podnošenje takvih zapažanja ne plaća se naknada.

Međunarodna dopunska pretraga
Prije isteka 22 mjeseca od najranijeg zahtjevnog prioriteta na zahtjev podnositelja PCT prijave patenta i uz uplatu dodatnih pristojbi može se provesti neobavezni četvrti korak međunarodne faze postupka - međunarodna dopunska potraga (Supplementary International Search (SIS)) međunarodne potrage koju može provesti jedna ili više ustanova za međunarodno pretraživanje (osim one koja je izvršila glavnu međunarodnu pretragu), što rezultira uspostavom dopunskog izvješća o međunarodnoj pretrazi. Ovu pretragu provodi Ovlašteno tijelo za dopunsku međunarodnu pretragu (Supplementary International Searching Authority (SISA)), a koje je u biti ISA koja nudi ovu uslugu (osim one koja je izvršila međunarodnu pretragu). Obično se SISA specifično fokusira na dokumente iz stanja tehnike na određenom jeziku za koji je specijalizirana. Cilj dopunske pretrage je smanjiti vjerojatnost pronalaska dodatnih dokumenata relevantnih za ocjenu patentibilnosti, koji bi mogli postati vidljivi tijekom kasnije nacionalne faze postupka i potencijalno ugroziti mogućnost priznanja patenta za izum.

Međunarodna prethodno ispitivanje
Ako podnositelj želi izmijeniti patentne zahtjeve i podnijeti argumente kako bi pobio negativno mišljenje međunarodnog ispitivača o patentibilnosti izuma izneseno u Pisanom mišljenju, osobito u slučaju nedostatka novosti, može podnijeti zahtjev za međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje (Demand for International Preliminary Examination) uz plaćanje odgovarajućih međunarodnih pristojbi. Tim zahtjevom pokreće se neobavezni peti korak:  međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje na novost, inventivnost i industrijsku primjenljivost čiji je rezultat uspostavljanje međunarodnog prethodnog izvješća o patentabilnosti (International preliminary report on patentability (IPRP Chapter II) od strane jednog od Ovlaštenih tijela za međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje (International Preliminary Examining Authority (IPEA)). Svrha ovog tijela je formirati prethodno mišljenje o novosti, inovativnoj razini i industrijskoj primjenjivosti prijavljenog izuma, a obzirom na izmijenjene patentne zahtjeve i imajući u vidu argumentaciju koju je podnositelj podnio uz Demand. [13] Ovo mišljenje daje podnositelju još detaljniji i realniji uvid u patentibilnost izuma, odnosno u vjerojatnost dobivanja patentne zaštite tijekom nacionalne/regionalne faze postupka. Rok za podnošenje zahtjeva za međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje je 3 mjeseca od datuma ispostave ISR i pisanog mišljenja podnositelju ili 22 mjeseca od prioriteta. Ako nije podnesen zahtjev za međunarodno prethodno ispitivanje, Međunarodni ured će uspostaviti međunarodno prethdono izvješće o patentibilnost (International preliminary report on patentability (IPRP Chapter I) na temelju pisanog mišljenja ISA.

Nacionalna faza

Po završetku međunarodne faze, potrebno je poduzeti daljnje korake u svakom od nacionalnih (ili regionalnih) ureda od kojih podnositelj zahtjeva želi patent za izum na temelju svoje međunarodne prijave. Konkretno, prije isteka 30 mjeseci od datuma podnošenja PCT prijave ili najranijeg zahtjevanog prioriteta (ako se u PCT prijavi poziva na raniji prioritet) podnositelj zahtjeva mora platiti tim uredima potrebne nacionalne (ili regionalne) pristojbe, dostaviti im sve potrebne prijevode i angažirati patentnog zastupnika koji je ovlašten zastupati ga u postupku pred određenim nacionalnim/regionalnim uredom. Postoje zakonski vremenski rokovi u kojima se pojedini koraci nacionalne/regionalne faze moraju poduzeti, a koji ako se ne poduzmu u zadanom roku, učinak međunarodne prijave će prestati u bilo kojoj državi u kojoj rok nije ispunjen. Nacionalni (ili regionalni) uredi zatim ispituju patentibilnost izuma sukladno nacionalnom/regionalnom zakonodavstvu i donose odluku o priznanju ili odbijaju nacionalnog (ili regionalnog) patenta. Na podnositelju je da odluči hoće li ući u nacionalnu fazu i pred kojim nacionalnim/regionalnim uredom.

Statistika
Prema podacima Međunarodnog ureda Svjetske organizacije za intelektualno vlasništvo (WIPO/OMPI) u 2018. godini je podneseno ukupno 253 000 PCT prijava patenta, što je gotovo 4% više nego u 2017. godini. Najveći broj prijava bio je iz područja digitalnih komunikacija, dok su prijave iz područja medicinske tehnologije činile 6.7% ukupnih patentnih prijava. U broju podnesenih prijava prednjače Sjedinjene Američke Države te potom Kina i Japan.

Izvori

Međunarodni ugovori

Ugovor o suradnji na području patenata