Rita Coolidge (Lafayette, 1 de mayo de 1945) es una cantante estadounidense ganadora de múltiples Premios Grammy. Durante las décadas de 1970 y 1980, sus canciones estuvieron en las listas de Billboard de música pop, country, Adult Contemporary y jazz.

Trayectoria
Se hizo conocida como «The Delta Lady» —en español «La Dama del  Delta»— e inspiró a Leon Russell a componerle una canción con el mismo nombre. En noviembre de 1970, conoció a Kris Kristofferson en el aeropuerto de Los Ángeles mientras esperaban el mismo avión a Tennessee. Él decidió continuar el viaje hasta Memphis con ella en lugar de bajarse en Nashville como tenía originalmente planeado; se casaron en 1973. Con él, grabó varios álbumes a dúo, ganando un Premio Grammy por la mejor interpretación country por un dúo o grupo con vocal en 1974 por «From the Bottle to the Bottom» y en 1976 por «Lover Please».

En 1997, Coolidge fue una de las fundadoras de Walela, un trío de música nativa de Estados Unidos, junto con su hermana Priscilla y la hija de esta, Laura Satterfield. El trío lanzó álbumes de estudio en 1997 (Walela) y 2000 (Unbearable Love), un álbum en vivo y un DVD (Live in Concert) en 2004 y un álbum compilatorio (The Best of Walela) en 2007. Walela significa colibrí en cheroqui.

Vida privada
Rita viene de ancestros escoceses y nativos americanos cheroquis.

Coolidge estuvo casada con Kris Kristofferson de 1973 a 1980. Tienen un hijo, Casey. Previamente Coolidge estuvo vinculada sentimentalmente a Stephen Stills y Graham Nash; su ruptura con Stills en favor de Nash ha sido citada como causa de la separación inicial en 1970 de Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.

Coolidge vive en Fallbrook, un pequeño pueblo al sur de California.

Álbumes (Norteamérica)

Álbumes con Kris Kristofferson

Álbumes internacionales

Álbumes recopilatorios

Sencillos

 A B-side of "Fever"

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio oficial
 Rita Coolidge on A&M Records

Ganadores del Premio Grammy

Rita Coolidge


පැන්ඩා උගේ ගැහැනු සතා වරකට එක් පැටවෙකු පමණක් දමයි. උන් මාර්තු සිට මැයි දක්වා වූ කාලය තුළ එක්වන අතර අගෝස්තු සැප්තැම්බර් මාසවල දී පැටවුන් බිහි කරති. අළුත උපන් කුඩා පැටවෙකුගේ බර 2 kg පමණ වේ. පැටවුන් ඇස් අරින්නේ දින 40 කට පසුව ය.යෝධ පැන්ඩාවුන්ට නිශ්චිත ලැගුම් පොළවල් නැත. එහෙත් අභිජනන සමයේ දී උන් ඉතා වෙහෙස මහන්සි වී පැටවුන් බිහිි කිරීමට සුදුසු බිලයක් තනති. එය තුළ සුව පහසුව පිණිස මෘදු ශාක පත්ර අතුරණු ලැබේ.යෝධ පැන්ඩා සිත් ගන්න සුලු ගති ගුණවලින් හෙබි අහිංසක සතෙකි. උගේ මුහුණේ ඇත්තේ් ළදරු පෙනුමකි. උගේ ගමන සිනා උපදවන සුලු ය. යෝධ පැන්ඩා දිනකට පැය දහයක් දොළහක් පමණ ආහාර ගැනීමේ නිරත වේ. ගස තලා දමන්නේ නැතිව උණ දළු හා කොළ ගලවා ගැනීමේ අපූරු හැකියාවක් ඌට ඇත.                                                                                මේ බුහුටි බව ඌට ලැබී ඇත්තේ ඉදිරි ගාත්රාවල දිගු රෝමවලින් වැසුණු මංශමය කොට්ට ඇති නිසා ය.යෝධ පැන්ඩාට නිශ්චිත දින චර්යාවක් නැත. දිවා කාලය පමණක් නොව රාති්ර කාලයට ද ඌ ආහාර සොයා සැරිසරයි. නිදා ගැනීමට හෝ විවේත ගැනීමට විශේෂ වේලාවක් නැත. මධ්යම රාති්රයට හා උදෑසනට උන් වඩාත් කියාකාරී ය. බාහිර බලපෑම් නැතිවිට මේ පැන්ඩා ගේ සියලු කටයුතු අලස ලෙස හෙමින් සීරුවේ සිදු කෙරේ. කෙනෙකු කළබල කළහොත් ඌ ඉවතට දිවගොස් සැඟව ගනී. එසේ කළ නො හැකි නම් ගසකට නැග අතු රිකිලි අතර සැඟවෙයි. වටාපිටාව නිහඬ හා නිශ්චල වූ විට පැන්ඩා ගසින් බැස බිමට පැමිණේ. ඇතැම්විට පැන්ඩාවුන් ගස්වල අතු මත නිදා සිටිනු ද දැකිය හැක.
සංරක්ෂණයවඳවී යාමට ඔන්න මෙන්න කියා සිටි මේ සොඳුරු සත්ත්වයා ඉන් බේරා මතු පරපුර වෙනුවෙන් ආරක්ෂා කිරීම සඳහා ජාත්යන්තර ප්රජාවගේ ද සහාය ඇතිව චීන රජය ක්ෂණිකව පියවර ගත්තේ ය. යෝධ පැන්ඩාවන් සංරක්ෂණය කිරීම සඳහා වන පෙත් වෙන් කෙරුණු අතර උන් පිළිබඳව පුළුල් ලෙස අධ්යයනයක් ද සිදු කෙරින. එම අධ්යයනය ප්රයෝජනයට ගෙන ගන්නා ලද පියවර නිසා අදවන විට චීනයේ යෝධ පැන්ඩා ගහණය වර්ධනය වෙමින් පැවතීම වන සත්ත්ව ලෝලීන් ගේ සතුටට කරුණකි.

පැන්ඩා


O zonă tampon este, în general, o zonă care se află între două sau mai multe zone, dar în funcție de tipul de zonă tampon, poate servi la separarea regiunilor sau la conectarea acestora. Tipurile obișnuite de zone tampon sunt zonele demilitarizate, zonele de frontieră și anumite zone restrictive de serviciu și centurile verzi. Astfel de zone pot fi, dar nu neapărat, cuprinse de un stat suveran, formând un stat tampon.

Zonele tampon au diverse scopuri, politice sau de altă natură. Acestea pot fi create pentru a preveni violența, pentru a proteja mediul, pentru a proteja zonele rezidențiale și comerciale împotriva accidentelor industriale sau a dezastrelor naturale sau pentru a izola închisorile și pot utiliza în mai multe alte scenarii. Zonele tampon rezultă adesea în regiuni mari nelocuite, care sunt ele însele de remarcat în multe părți din lume din ce în ce mai dezvoltate sau aglomerate.

Funcții ecologice (conservare)

Îmbunătățirea calității apei
Acesta arată că calitatea apei de suprafață în multe țări se înrăutățește, deoarece oamenii nu folosesc terenul în mod corespunzător. Deși zona tampon ocupă o suprafață mică, aceasta îmbunătățește considerabil calitatea apei din bazinul hidrografic datorită efectului său de filtrare asupra nutrienților din apa subterană și a apei de suprafață.

Deoarece terenurile agricole sunt pulverizate cu cantități mari de pesticide, unele dintre ele putând scurge în apa de suprafață. Acesta va avea un impact negativ asupra peștilor și a altor vieți acvatice, ceea ce poate duce la deteriorarea mediului. Tamponul de vegetație s-a dovedit a fi un filtru eficient pentru sedimente, în special pentru pesticidele legate de sedimente. Când pesticidele sunt pulverizate în exces, se poate construi un tampon de vegetație pentru a reduce pătrunderea pesticidelor în apa de suprafață. De asemenea, zona tampon împiedică răspândirea metalelor grele sau a toxinelor în zonele protejate.

Stabilizarea malurilor râurilor
Plantele erbacee pot juca un rol într-o oarecare măsură, dar pe termen lung, zona tampon de vegetație poate rezolva eficient problema creșterii nivelului apei și eroziunii apei. Capacitatea de adsorbție a zonei tampon poate reduce viteza de scurgere a suprafeței și poate crește conținutul eficient de apă al solului. Prin creșterea conținutului de materie organică a solului și îmbunătățirea structurii solului, aceasta are un efect pozitiv asupra performanțelor de stocare a apei din sol. În plus, rădăcinile plantelor fac solul mai puternic, rezistă valurilor și furtunii, atenuează eroziunea malurilor râurilor prin inundații și controlează eficient eroziunea plajei.

Oferă hrană și habitat vieții sălbatice
Zonele tampon riverane au fost utilizate în multe zone pentru a proteja habitatele multor animale care sunt devastate de activitatea umană sporită. Ariile din jurul zonei tampon pot forma habitatul multor animale, părțile lemnoase și frunzele plantelor pot deveni hrană pentru animale acvatice mici. Zona tampon în sine poate susține, de asemenea, activitățile de viață ale diferiților amfibieni și păsări. Un studiu arată că speciile și numărul de animale și plante din zonele riverane sunt mai mari decât în alte ecosisteme.

Oferă valoare estetică

Note

Vezi și
 Stat tampon

Termeni politici
Geopolitică

Zonă tampon


Dissington Hall est un manoir de campagne privé situé sur les rives de la rivière Pont à North Dissington, Ponteland, Northumberland, Angleterre. Il s'agit d'un bâtiment classé Grade II*.

Histoire
Le manoir de North Dissington est pendant des siècles le siège de la famille Delaval. Une ancienne maison sur le site est le lieu de naissance de l'amiral Ralph Delaval (c.1641 - c.1707) et de l'amiral George Delaval (c. 1667 - 1723) qui construisent le Seaton Delaval Hall.

L'amiral Ralph Delaval vend la propriété en 1673 à Edward Collingwood de Byker. En 1794, plus tard, Edward Collingwood (1734–1806), avocat et propriétaire d'une mine de charbon de Chirton, Northumberland, charge l'architecte William Newton de construire un nouveau manoir sur le site. La construction est achevée en 1797 . Lorsqu'il meurt sans enfants, il lègue le domaine à un neveu, Edward Spencer-Stanhope, à condition qu'il change son nom en Collingwood. La famille Collingwood est propriétaire jusqu'en 1955, bien qu'elle ait été principalement louée à des locataires après 1867. Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, elle est utilisée comme dortoir, hôpital et dépôt de stockage de TNT. En 1940, elle est frappée par une bombe qui cause des dommages aux élévations est et sud .

La propriété est améliorée vers 1820 lorsqu'un porche toscan est ajouté. L'écurie est classée séparément en tant que bâtiment classé Grade II.

La maison est achetée par ses propriétaires actuels dans le cadre d'un projet de restauration en 1968 .

Références

Liens externes

Monument classé de Grade II* dans le Northumberland

Dissington Hall


بلدية أرويو دي لا لوز ، هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة قصرش والتي تقع في منطقة إكستريمادورا، غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 6.477 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007). وتبلغ مساحتها 128 كم2،و بذلك تكون الكثافة السكانية 50.6 نسمة/كم2. يبلغ ارتفاعها 352 م عن سطح البحر.

وصلات خارجية
 موقع رسمي

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في قصرش
بلديات قصرش

أرويو دي لا لوز


est un genre éteint de fougères à graines, un groupe de fougères préhistoriques de la famille éteinte des Cyclopteridaceae et de l'ordre éteint des Medullosales.

Taxinomie

Liste des espèces
 † Cyclopteris collumbiana Schimper, 1862
 † Cyclopteris cuneata Carruthers, 1872
 † Cyclopteris digitata Ad. Brongniart, 1830
 † Cyclopteris elegans Lesquereux, 1854 - fossile datant du Carbonifère et trouvé en Pennsylvanie, aux États-Unis
 † Cyclopteris elegans Ung. Unger, 1856 - fossile datant du Dévonien et trouvé en Thuringe en Allemagne
 † Cyclopteris elegans (Achep.) Achepohl, 1883 - fossile trouvé en Westphalie, en Allemagne
 † Cyclopteris erosa Grand'Eury, 1877
 † Cyclopteris fimbriata Lesquereux, 1854
 † Cyclopteris obtusa
 † Cyclopteris reniformis Brongniart, 1830
 † Cyclopteris rhomboidea

Noms en homonymie
 Cyclopteris Schrad. ex Gray (nom rejeté), sunonyme de Cystopteris Bernh.

Notes et références

Liens externes

 Cyclopteris sur EOL (consulté le 24 mars 2022)

Bibliographie
  Alexandre Brongniart, Prodrome d'une histoire des végétaux fossiles, 1828
  Charles Léo Lesquereux, New species of fossil plants, Boston Journ. of Nat. Hist, volume VI, 4, 1854 (description à la page 416) (lien vers BHL).
  Franz Unger, Zweiter Theil (Bearbeited von F. Unger. Mit 13 Tafeln.) Schieffer- und Sandsteinflora. Denkschr. K. Akad. d. Wiss., Wien, Math. natw. CI, vol. XI., 1856 (description à la page 161, illustration sur le tabl. 6, fig. 1) (lien vers BHL).
  Ludwig Achepohl, Das Niederrheinisch-Westfälische Steinkohlengebirge: Atlas der fossilen Fauna und Flora in 42 Blättern, nach Originalen photographirt und 4 lithographirte Blätter, nebst vier geognostischen Tafeln, alle Flötze der Horizonte Oberhausen, Essen, Bochum und Dortmund nach mittleren Abständen, im Massstabe von 1:2000 darstellend, 1883 (description à la page 116, illustration sur le tabl. 35, fig. 5.)(lien sur BHL).
  Wilhelmus Josephus Jongmans, Fossilium Catalogus, II. Plantae. Partie 39.

Pteridospermatophyta
Genre de plantes préhistoriques (nom scientifique)
Taxon fossile décrit en 1828

Cyclopteris


Aşkın Güngör (d. 1972, İstanbul) Türk yazar.

Yayıncılık yaşamı 1990 yılında Alfa Yayınları'nda başladı. 1994 yılında Necattin Sinanç tarafından kurulan Galaksi Yayınları'nda devam etti. Bu kurumlarda editörlük, redaktörlük, kaligraflık, karikatüristlik, çizgi roman ressamlığı, metin ve öykü yazarlığı yaptı.

İlk şiir kitabı Ben Bir Kediyim 1993 yılında yayımlandı. Aynı yıl, Sosyaldemokrat Halkçı Parti'nin düzenlediği İnsan Hakları konulu öykü yarışmasında Ve İp Gerildi adlı eseri birincilik ödülüne değer bulundu.

1994-1999 yılları arasında Darkwood Sakinleri Çizgi Roman Kültürü ile Atılgan Bilimkurgu adlı dergilerde yazar - çizerlik görevlerine devam eden Güngör, BU Yayınevi 1996 yılı Çocuk Edebiyatı Roman Yarışması'nda Düşler Diyarı adlı eseriyle Jüri Teşvik Ödülü aldı. Adı geçen kitap 2006 yılına dek 44 baskı yaptı. Bilimkurgu romanları olan Gohor Cam Kent ile Gohor Kurtlar Yolu 2003'te, Aykolik adlı romanı 2005'te aynı yayınevi tarafından yayımlandı.

2002'de yayımlanan İM Yayınları'na ait Türk Bilimkurgu Öyküleri serisinin 1. kitabında Gökkuşağı Uzayı adlı öyküsüyle yer aldı.

Tudem Kültür Yayınları'ının 2004 Masal Yarışması'nda Sevgiyi Arayan Kardan Adam adlı çalışmasıyla 3.'lük ödülüne değer bulundu.

Türkiye Bilişim Derneği'nin düzenlediği, Zühtü Bayar, Bülent Akkoç, Sönmez Güven, Levent Karadağ ve Unsal Oskay'ın seçici kurulunu oluşturduğu, Bilişim Dergisi 2004 Yılı Bilimkurgu Öykü Yarışması'nda Sevgilim Dans Edelim mi? adlı çalışması 1.'lik ödülü aldı. Öykü Remzi Kitabevi'nin Bilimkurgu Öyküleri kitabında yayımlandı.

Türkiye'nin genç ve atılımcı yayınevlerinden Olgu Kitaplığı tarafından, 2007 Mayıs'ında, Beyoğlu'nun arka sokaklarında geçen bir aşk ve cinayet öyküsü olan Sevgili Salak yayımlandı. Aynı yılın Ekim ayında, İsyanya'da İspanyolca yayımlanan Hispacon 2007 adlı bilimkurgu ve fantastik öykü antolojisinde, Çarkıfelek adlı öyküsüyle, Türkiye'yi temsil eden tek yazar olarak yer aldı. Yine 2007'nin Kasım ayında Türkiye'nin köklü yayınevlerinden İnkılap Kitabevi tarafından Mesih'in Klonu adlı romanı yayımlandı. Kimisi çeşitli yarışmalarda ödüller de kazanmış olan bilimkurgu ve fantastik öykülerinden oluşan kitabı Geceyle Gelen Mart 2008'de Crea Yayıncılık tarafından okurlara sunuldu. Bu kitabı, yine Crea Yayıncılık tarafından yayınlanan Nisan 2008 tarihli Olağan Mucizeler ve Haziran 2008 tarihli Gohor Kıyametten Sonra adlı romanlar izledi. Kasım 2008 yılında yayınlanan Kardan Adam Masalı' adlı kitabıyla Uçanbalık Yayınları ailesina katıldı.

Yazar, 25 Mayıs 2005 tarihinde Anita hanımla evlendi.

Dış bağlantılar
Aşkın Güngör Resmi Web Sitesi

1972 doğumlular
Türk yazarlar
Yaşayan insanlar
İstanbul doğumlu yazarlar
Resim aranan yazarlar
20. yüzyıl Türk roman yazarları
21. yüzyıl Türk roman yazarları

Aşkın Güngör


Şian Şehir Halk Stadyumu Çin'in Şian şehrinde çok amaçlı olarak inşa edilen bir stadyumdur.

Çoğunlukla futbol müsabakalarının yapıldığı bu stadyum, 18.000 seyirci kapasitelidir.

Çin'deki stadyumlar

Şian Halk Stadyumu


Bileşke fonksiyon, matematikte bir işlevdir.

,  kümesinden  kümesine giden bir fonksiyonsa,  de  kümesinden  kümesine giden bir fonksiyonsa, o zaman  fonksiyonunu her  için,

kuralıyla tanımlanan  kümesinden  kümesine giden fonksiyon olarak tanımlanır. Bu fonksiyona  ve  fonksiyonlarının bileşkesi adı verilir.

Başka bir deyişle, bileşke

 ve

fonksiyonlarından

fonksiyonunu üretir.

 ve  fonksiyonlarının (bu sırayla) bileşkesini alabilmek için  fonksiyonunun değer kümesi,  fonksiyonunun tanım kümesine eşit olmalıdır.

Eğer ,  kümesinden  kümesine,  de  kümesinden  kümesine giden bir fonksiyonsa, o zaman hem  fonksiyonundan hem de  fonksiyonundan söz edilebilir.

Bileşke, 'ten 'e giden fonksiyonlar kümesi olan Fonk kümesi üzerine bir ikili işlemdir. Özdeşlik fonksiyonu Id, bu ikili işlemin sağdan ve soldan etkisiz elemanıdır. Ayrıca, Fonk kümesinin bileşke işlemi için tersinir elemanları eşlemeler, yani bijeksiyonlardır.

Özellikleri
 (gerçek sayılar kümesi) olsun.  fonksiyonu  ve  fonksiyonu  olarak tanımlansın. O zaman,

dir. Ancak

dir. Demek ki

,

yani bileşkenin değişme özelliği yoktur. Öte yandan bileşkenin birleşme özelliği vardır.

 dört küme olsun.

,

,

üç fonksiyon olsun. O zaman şu fonksiyonlardan söz edilebilir:

,

,

,

.

Bu fonksiyonlardan ikincisi ve dördüncüsü birbirine eşittir, yani

eşitliği geçerlidir.  kümesinden herhangi bir  elemanı alınır ve her iki fonksiyon da bu  elemanında değerlendirilirse

ve

eşitliklerine ulaşılır.

Her iki eşitliğin sağ tarafları eşit olduğundan sol tarafları da eşittir, yani

.

Bundan da fonksiyonların eşit olduğu, yani  eşitliği çıkar.

Matematiksel fonksiyonlar
Küme teorisinde genel kuramlar

Bileşke fonksiyon


An Potamogetonaceae in uska familia han Liliopsida. An Potamogetonaceae in nahilalakip ha ordo nga Alismatales, classis nga Liliopsida, punoan nga Tracheophyta, ngan regnum nga Plantae. An familia nga Potamogetonaceae in naglalakip hin 79 ka mga species, sumala ha Catalogue of Life.

An kladograma hini sumala ha Catalogue of Life:

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Potamogetonaceae

Potamogetonaceae


وادي الحجر أو ما يسمى حديثاً بضاحية الثورة العربية الكبرى، هي منطقة تقع في محافظة الزرقاء في الأردن، تمتاز بخصوبة أراضيها ووفرة المياه حيث كان أول من جاء إليها هم الشيشان والشركس وتملكوا جزءاً كبيرا من أراضيها.

مراجع

مناطق مدينة الزرقاء

وادي الحجر


ක්‍රය ශක්ති සාම්‍යය () යනු ආර්ථික විද්‍යාත්මක දර්ශකයකි. ක්‍රය ශක්තිය යනු භාණ්ඩ සහ සේවා මිලට ගැනීමට ඇති හැකියාවයි.

ආශ්‍රිත

 දළ දේශීය නිෂ්පාදිතය
 දදේනි (ක්‍රශසා) අනුව රටවල් ලැයිස්තුව
 List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
 List of IMF ranked countries by GDP, Includes IMF ranked PPP of 186 countries
 Measures of national income and output
 Relative purchasing power parity
 The Big Mac Index

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි
 Penn World Table
 Purchasing power parities updated by Organisation of Cooperation and Development (OECD) from OECD data
 Explanations from the U. of British Columbia (also provides daily updated PPP charts)
 Purchasing power parities as example of international statistical cooperation from Eurostat – Statistics Explained
 World Bank International Comparison Project provides PPP estimates for a large number of countries
 UBS's "Prices and Earnings" Report 2006 Good report on purchasing power containing a Big Mac index as well as for staples such as bread and rice for 71 world cities.
 "Understanding PPPs and PPP based national accounts" provides an overview of methodological issues in calculating PPP and in designing the ICP under which the main PPP tables (Maddison, Penn World Tables, and World Bank WDI) are based.
 List of Countries by Purchasing Power Parity since 1990 (World Bank)
 Purchasing power parity Definition, Unesco
 Purchasing power parity Converter (PPP Converter

ආර්ථික විද්‍යාව
Purchasing power
Gross domestic product
International economics
Inequalities
වෙළෙඳාම
Currency

ක්‍රය ශක්ති සාම්‍යය


O risco biotecnológico é uma forma de risco existencial que pode vir de fontes biológicas, como agentes biológicos geneticamente modificados. A origem de um patógeno de alta consequência pode ser uma liberação deliberada (na forma de bioterrorismo ou armas biológicas), uma liberação acidental ou um evento natural.

Um capítulo sobre biotecnologia e biossegurança foi publicado na antologia Global Catastrophic Risks de 2008 de Nick Bostrom, que cobriu riscos inclusive como agentes virais. Desde então, novas tecnologias como CRISPR e unidades genéticas foram introduzidas.

Segundo Teixeira, P. e Valle, S. da Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Biossegurança é o conjunto de ações voltadas para a prevenção, minimização ou eliminação de riscos inerentes às atividades de pesquisa, produção, ensino, desenvolvimento tecnológico e prestação de serviços, visando à saúde do homem, dos animais, a preservação do meio ambiente e a qualidade dos resultados

Embora a capacidade de projetar patógenos deliberadamente tenha sido restrita a laboratórios de ponta administrados por pesquisadores de ponta, a tecnologia para conseguir isso (e outras façanhas surpreendentes da bioengenharia) está rapidamente se tornando mais barata e mais difundida. Tais exemplos incluem a diminuição do custo de sequenciamento do genoma humano (de US$ 10 milhões para US$ 1.000), o acúmulo de grandes conjuntos de dados de informações genéticas, a descoberta dos drives de genes e a descoberta do CRISPR.

Mutações de ganho de função
Os patógenos podem ser geneticamente modificados intencionalmente ou não para alterar suas características, incluindo virulência ou toxicidade. Quando intencionais, essas mutações podem servir para adaptar o patógeno a um ambiente laboratorial, entender o mecanismo de transmissão ou patogênese, ou no desenvolvimento de terapêuticas. Tais mutações também têm sido usadas no desenvolvimento de armas biológicas, e o risco de uso duplo continua sendo uma preocupação na pesquisa de patógenos. A maior preocupação está frequentemente associada a mutações de ganho de função, que conferem funcionalidade nova ou aumentada, e o risco de sua liberação. A pesquisa de ganho de função em vírus vem ocorrendo desde a década de 1970 e ganhou notoriedade depois que as vacinas contra a gripe foram transmitidas em série por hospedeiros animais.

Varíola
Um grupo de pesquisadores australianos alterou involuntariamente as características do vírus da varíola do rato enquanto tentava desenvolver um vírus para esterilizar roedores como meio de controle biológico de pragas. O vírus modificado tornou-se altamente letal mesmo em camundongos vacinados e naturalmente resistentes.

Gripe
Em 2011, dois laboratórios publicaram relatórios de triagem mutacional de vírus da gripe aviária, identificando variantes que se tornam transmissíveis pelo ar entre furões. Esses vírus parecem superar um obstáculo que limita o impacto global do H5N1 natural. Em 2012, os cientistas examinaram ainda mais mutações pontuais do genoma do vírus H5N1 para identificar mutações que permitiam a disseminação pelo ar. Embora o objetivo declarado desta pesquisa fosse melhorar a vigilância e se preparar para os vírus da gripe que apresentam risco particular de causar uma pandemia, havia uma preocupação significativa de que as próprias cepas de laboratório pudessem escapar.  Marc Lipsitch e Alison P. Galvani foram coautores de um artigo na PLOS Medicine argumentando que experimentos em que cientistas manipulam vírus da gripe aviária para torná-los transmissíveis em mamíferos merecem um escrutínio mais intenso sobre se seus riscos superam ou não seus benefícios. Lipsitch também descreveu a gripe como o "potencial patógeno pandêmico" mais assustador.

Regulamento
Em 2014, os Estados Unidos instituíram uma moratória na pesquisa de ganho de função para influenza, MERS e SARS. Isso ocorreu em resposta aos riscos específicos que esses patógenos transportados pelo ar representam. No entanto, muitos cientistas se opuseram à moratória, argumentando que isso limitava sua capacidade de desenvolver terapias antivirais. Os cientistas argumentaram que as mutações de ganho de função eram necessárias, como adaptar o MERS a ratos de laboratório para que pudesse ser estudado.

O National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity também instituiu regras para propostas de pesquisa usando pesquisa de ganho de função de interesse. As regras descrevem como os experimentos devem ser avaliados quanto a riscos, medidas de segurança e benefícios potenciais; antes do financiamento.

A fim de limitar o acesso para minimizar o risco de fácil acesso ao material genético de patógenos, incluindo vírus, os membros do Consórcio Internacional de Síntese de Genes solicitam patógenos regulamentados e outras sequências perigosas. Pedidos de DNA patogênico ou perigoso são verificados quanto à identidade do cliente, barrando clientes em listas de vigilância governamentais, e apenas para instituições "demonstradamente engajadas em pesquisas legítimas".

CRISPR
Após avanços surpreendentemente rápidos na edição de CRISPR, uma cúpula internacional proclamou em dezembro de 2015 que era "irresponsável" prosseguir com a edição de genes humanos até que questões de segurança e eficácia fossem abordadas. Um dos mecanismos que o CRISPR pode causar risco existencial é através dos drives de genes, que dizem ter potencial para "revolucionar" a gestão do ecossistema. Drives de genes são uma nova tecnologia que tem potencial para fazer genes se espalharem por populações selvagens como incêndios florestais. Eles têm o potencial de espalhar rapidamente genes de resistência contra a malária, a fim de repelir o parasita da malária P. falciparum. Esses drives de genes foram originalmente projetados em janeiro de 2015 por Ethan Bier e Valentino Gantz – essa edição foi estimulada pela descoberta do CRISPR-Cas9. No final de 2015, a DARPA começou a estudar abordagens que poderiam interromper os genes se saíssem de controle e ameaçassem espécies biológicas.

Referências

Ligações externas

 Relatório da Iniciativa de Ameaças Nucleares sobre Prevenção de Riscos Biológicos Catastróficos Globais (setembro de 2020)
 Perfil do problema de 80.000 horas na redução de riscos biológicos catastróficos globais (março de 2020)
Biotecnologia
Risco existencial

Risco biotecnológico


بلدية جامع أو (نقحرة: خيميالكون) (بالإسبانية: Gimialcón) هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة آبلة التابعة لمنطقة قشتالة وليون وسط إسبانيا.

الديموغرافيا
يبلغ عدد سكان بلدية جامع 94 نسمة عام 2011 (وفقاً للمعهد الوطني للإحصاء الإسباني).

أعلام
 لويس جبريل بورتيو
 إيسيدرو دياز غونزاليس

مراجع

مصادر
  الموقع الرسمي لبلدية جامع

أماكن مأهولة في آبلة
بلديات آبلة
أماكن ذات اسم عربي الأصل في شبه الجزيرة الإيبيرية

خيميالكون


Midilli şu anlamlara gelebilir:

 Midilli (ada), Ege Denizi'de Yunanistan'a bağlı bir ada
 Midilli (hayvan), bir at türü
 Midilli (il), Yunanistan'da bir il
 Midilli (şehir), Yunanistan'da bir şehir
 Midilli (kruvazör), Osmanlı Donanması'na ait Magdeburg sınıfı hafif kruvazör

Midilli


إدوارد روجيه فازلين  هو لاعب كرة مضرب فرنسي.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 معلومات عن اللاعب

أبطال الجراند سلام في زوجي كرة المضرب
أبطال بطولة فرنسا المفتوحة
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو كرة مضرب فرنسيون
مواليد 1983
رياضيون من هوت دو سين
أشخاص من جينيفيرس

إدوارد روجيه فازلين


La Cleopatra (título original en italiano; en español, Cleopatra) es una ópera en dos actos con música de Domenico Cimarosa y libreto en italiano de F. Moretti. Se estrenó en el Palacio de Invierno del Hermitage de San Petersburgo el 26 de diciembre de 1789.

La Cleopatra fue un encargo de la reina Catalina II en el año 1788. A Cimarosa y a Moretti se les encomendó una ópera más bien corta y con una trama relativamente simple. Como resultado, la ópera dura aproximadamente cien minutos, una duración más corta para una época de aquella época. El argumento es también muy sencillo, faltándole los giros y las intrigas típicas de otras óperas serias de la época. Musicalmente la ópera se constituye principalmente por arias con solo unos cuantos dúos, un cuarteto, un ballet y una marcha.

Esta ópera se representa poco; en las estadísticas de Operabase aparece con solo una representación en el período 2005-2010.

Enlaces externos

Óperas de 1789
Óperas de Domenico Cimarosa
Óperas en italiano
Óperas estrenadas en San Petersburgo
Representaciones culturales de Cleopatra

La Cleopatra


Prostitution in Germany is legal, as are other aspects of the sex industry, including brothels, advertisement, and job offers through HR companies. Full-service sex work is widespread and regulated by the German government, which levies taxes on it. In 2016, the government adopted a new law, the Prostitutes Protection Act, in an effort to improve the legal situation of sex workers, while also now enacting a legal requirement for registration of prostitution activity and banning prostitution which involves no use of condoms. The social stigmatization of sex work persists and many workers continue to lead a double life. Human rights organizations consider the resulting common exploitation of women from East Germany to be the main problem associated with the profession.

History

Middle Ages to Confederation (1815)
Sex work in historically German lands has never been outlawed and has been described since the Middle Ages. Since the 13th century, several German cities operated brothels known as Frauenhäuser ("women's houses");

the practice of sex work was considered a necessary evil, a position already held by Saint Augustine (354–430). Some municipalities actively encouraged it and far from existing on the margins, sex workers were often honoured guests, who maintained domestic order as an outlet and lesser evil to such things as adultery and rape. The city also gained tax revenues from the prostitutes.

Emperor Sigismund (1368–1437) thanked the city of Konstanz in writing for providing some 1,500 workers for the Council of Constance which took place from 1414 to 1418.

Sex workers were more vigorously persecuted beginning in the 16th century, with the start of the Reformation and the appearance of syphilis. In 1530, Charles V ordered the closure of brothels throughout the German Holy Roman Empire.

Section 999 of the 1794 General State Laws for the Prussian States determined that "dissolute female persons who want to do business with their bodies ... would have to go into the whoredom houses tolerated under the supervision of the state".

The Confederations (1815–1871)
Beginning in the 19th century, sex workers in many regions had to register with police or local health authorities and submit to regular health checks to curb venereal diseases.

The so-called Bremer Regulations of 1852 stated that prostitution was "not a trade in the true sense". By this distinction between prostitution and other trades, immorality of prostitution was defined in law.

German Empire (1871–1918)
In Imperial Germany (1871–1918) attitudes to sex work were ambivalent. While sex work was tolerated as a necessary function to provide for male sexuality outside of marriage, it was frowned on as a threat to contemporary moral images of women's sexuality. Therefore, state policy concentrated on regulation rather than abolition. This was mainly at the municipal level. The Criminal Code of 1871 prohibited brothels and "commercial fornication". In the 1876 version, prostitution was only punishable if the woman worked outside police supervision. State regulation at the time created an atmosphere which defined what was considered proper, and what was proper feminine sexuality.

Controls were particularly tight in the port city of Hamburg. The regulations included defining the dress and conduct of prostitutes both inside and outside the brothel, thus making the occupation define their lives as a separate class of women on the margins of society.

At the beginning of the 20th century, prostitution was considered "harmful to communities".  Nevertheless, there existed or originated in the 20th century, various brothel and red-light districts such as Helenenstraße in Bremen (from 1878), Linienstraße in Dortmund (from 1904), Stahlstraße in Essen (from about 1900), Rampenloch in Minden (from 1908), Im Winkel in Bochum (from about 1912), and the Flaßhofstraße in Oberhausen (from 1910 and 1963). It is estimated that in 1900 there were 50,000 women working in Berlin (population 1 December 1900: 1,888,848).

Weimar Republic (1918–1933)
In Weimar-era Germany the economy collapsed due to the loss of the First World War and the imposition of war reparations at the Treaty of Versailles. As a result, the middle class lost their savings and the working class were unemployed. The Republic ended up printing money to pay its bills which lead to hyperinflation in 1923. The outcome of all of this was that women, including the millions of war widows, turned to prostitution. Licentiousness and streetwalking were common in this period and Weimar Berlin is famed for its decadence.

On a national scale, prostitution was officially proscribed, but within various locales, polices tolerated prostitutes if they were in state registry. Prostitutes were to have compulsory medical examines for STDs, banned from areas of large public gathering, and were required to give up personal freedoms of private residence, travel, and denying unwarranted search under the German moral police, Sittenpolizei. Unregistered prostitutes arrested for soliciting, or otherwise were not given the same legal protection or voice as average citizens, and due process was not practiced.

The Law for Combating Venereal Diseases was adopted in 1927, which decriminalized prostitution thus undoing the state-regulated system, Reglementierung.

Nazi era (1933–1945)
During the Nazi era, street based sex workers were seen as "asocial" and degenerate and were at times sent to concentration camps, especially to the Ravensbrück camp. The Nazis did not entirely disapprove of sex work though and instead installed a centralized system of city brothels, military brothels (Wehrmachtsbordelle), brothels for foreign forced laborers, and concentration camp brothels.

During the Second World War, the German Wehrmacht established about 100 Wehrmacht brothels in the occupied territories, including France, Poland, Italy, and Norway. Lothar-Günther Buchheim described his impressions from Brest: "If a large ship had arrived, the hookers simply laid there between sailors." Military prostitution was regulated, "Only a permit from the military command brothel allowed you to visit. Always use a condom (rubber protection). For the German soldiers there was a disinfectant syringe in the urethra."

Between 1942 and 1945, camp brothels were installed in ten concentration camps, including Auschwitz. Himmler intended these as an incentive for cooperative and hard-working non-Jewish and non-Russian inmates, in order to increase the productivity of the work camps. Initially the brothels were staffed mostly with former sex worker inmates who volunteered, but women were also put under pressure to work there.
In the documentary film, Memory of the Camps, a project supervised by the British Ministry of Information and the American Office of War Information during the summer of 1945, camera crews filmed women who stated that they were forced into sexual slavery for the use of guards and favored prisoners. The filmmakers stated that as the women died they were replaced by women from the concentration camp Ravensbrück.

None of the women who were forced to work in these concentration camp brothels ever received compensation, since the German compensation laws do not cover persons designated as "asocial" by the Nazis.

In a famous case of espionage, the Nazi intelligence service SD took over the luxurious Berlin brothel Salon Kitty and equipped it with listening devices and specially trained sex workers. From 1939 to 1942 the brothel was used to spy on important visitors.

German Democratic Republic (GDR 1945–1990)

After World War II, the country was divided into East Germany (German Democratic Republic) and West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany from 1949–90). In East Germany, as in all countries of the communist Eastern Bloc, full-service sex work was illegal and according to the official position, it didn't exist. There were high-class sex workers working in the hotels of East Berlin and the other major cities, mainly targeting Western visitors; the Stasi employed some of these for spying purposes. Street-based workers were available for the pleasure of visiting Westerners, too.

Federal Republic of Germany (BRD 1945–2001)
In West Germany, the registration and testing requirements remained in place but were handled quite differently in the regions of the country. In Bavaria, in addition to scheduled Sexually transmitted disease (STD) check-ups, regular tests for HIV were required from 1987, but this was an exception. Many sex workers did not submit to these tests, avoiding the registration. A study in 1992 found that only 2.5% of the tested workers had a disease, a rate much lower than the one among comparable non-sex workers.

In 1967, Europe's largest brothel at the time, the six-floor Eros Center, was opened on the Reeperbahn in Hamburg. An even larger one, the twelve-floor building now called Pascha in Cologne was opened in 1972. The AIDS scare of the late 1980s had an effect on the business, and the Eros Center closed, as well as several other brothels in Hamburg. The Pascha continued to flourish, and has evolved into a chain with additional brothels in Munich and Salzburg.

Anything which led to the "promotion of prostitution" (Förderung der Prostitution) remained a crime until 2001, even after the extensive criminal law reforms of 1973. This placed operators of brothels under the threat of potential legal action. Most brothels were, therefore, run as a bar with an attached but legally separate room rental. Many municipalities built, ran and profited from high rise or townhouse-style high-rent Dirnenwohnheime (lit.: "whores' dormitories"), to keep street-based sex work and pimping under control. Here workers sold sex in a room they rented by the day. These establishments, called "Laufhäuser" in Johns' jargon are now mostly privatized and operate as Eros Centers. Even before the 2001 reform, many upmarket sex workers operated in their own apartments, alone or with other women. Luxurious country houses, called "FKK-Sauna-Clubs" are the exclusive end of prostitution in Germany. There, women and men pay the same entrance fees ranging from about €50 to 100 and usually include meals and drinks and the sex workers negotiate their deals with the individual clients, thus avoiding the appearance of pimping ("Zuhälterei"). Illegal variations on that business model, like "Flaterate-Clubs" and "Pauschalclubs" also exist and advertise openly in daily newspapers and the Internet. These establishments charge an "all-you-can handle" fee of about €75 to €90.

Before the 2002 prostitution law, the highest courts of Germany repeatedly ruled that sex work offends good moral order (verstößt gegen die guten Sitten), with several legal consequences. Any contract that is considered immoral is null and void, so a sex worker could not sue for payment. Sex workers working out of their apartments could lose their leases. Finally, bars and inns could be denied a licences if sex work took place on their premises.

In 1999, Felicitas Weigmann lost the licence for her Berlin cafe Psst!, because the cafe was being used to initiate contacts between customers and sex work and had an attached room-rental also owned by Weigmann. She sued the city, arguing that society's position had changed and sex work no longer qualified as offending the moral order. The judge conducted an extensive investigation and solicited a large number of opinions. In December 2000 the court agreed with Weigmann's claim. This ruling is considered as precedent and important factor in the realization of the Prostitution Law of 1 January 2002. Only after an appeal process though, filed by the Berlin town district, was Weigmann to regain her café license in October 2002.

The compulsory registration and testing of workers was abandoned in 2001. Anonymous, free and voluntary health testing has been made available to everyone, including illegal immigrants. Many brothel operators require these tests.

Modern era

Legislative reform (2002)
In 2002, a one-page law sponsored by the Green Party was passed by the ruling coalition of Social Democrats and Greens in the Bundestag. The law, the Prostitution Act (Prostitutionsgesetz), removed the general prohibition on furthering full-service sex work and allowed sex workers to obtain regular work contracts. The law's rationale stated that sex work should not be considered as immoral anymore.

The law has been criticized as having not effectively changed the situation of the sex workers, believed to be because some workers themselves don't want to change their working conditions and contracts. The German government issued a report on the law's impact in January 2007, concluding that few sex workers had taken advantage of regular work contracts and that work conditions had improved only for 35% workers.

Post 2002

Between 2000 and 2003, the visa issuing policies of German consulates were liberalized. The opposition claimed that this resulted in an increase in human trafficking and sex workers entering the country illegally, especially from Ukraine. The episode led to hearings in 2005 and is known as the German Visa Affair 2005.

In 2004, the Turkish gang leader Necati Arabaci was sentenced to 9 years in prison for pimping, human trafficking, assault, extortion, weapons violations and racketeering. His gang of bouncers controlled the night clubs in Cologne's entertainment district, the Ring, where they befriended girls in order to exploit them as sex workers. After Arabaci's arrest, informants overheard threats against the responsible prosecutor, who received police protection and fled the country in 2007 when Arabaci was deported to Turkey.

In 2004, the large FKK-brothel Colosseum opened in Augsburg, and police suspected a connection to Arabaci's gang, which owned several similar establishments and was supposedly directed from prison by its convicted leader.

After several raids, police determined that the managers of the brothel dictated the prices that the women had to charge, prohibited them from sitting in groups or using cell phones during work, set the work hours, searched rooms and handbags, and made them work completely nude (charging a penalty of €10 per infraction). In April 2006, five men were charged with pimping. The court quashed the charges, arguing that the prostitution law of 2002 created a regular employer-employee relationship and thus gave the employer certain rights to direct the working conditions. Colosseum remained in business.

In early 2005, the media in Great Britain reported that a woman refusing to take a job as a sex worker might have her unemployment benefits reduced or removed altogether.
A similar account had appeared in mid-2003; a woman received a job offer through a private employment agency. In this case, the agency apologized for the mistake, stating that a request for a sex worker would normally have been rejected, but the client misled them, describing the position as "a female barkeeper." To date, there have been no reported cases of women actually losing benefits in such a case, and the employment agencies have stated that women would not be made to work in sex work.

In March 2007, the brothel "Pascha" in Cologne announced that senior citizens above the age of 66 would receive a discount during afternoons; half of the price of €50 for a "normal session" would be covered by the house. Earlier, in 2004, a 20% discount for long-term unemployed had been announced by a brothel in Dresden.

Also in 2007, authorities in Berlin began to close several apartment brothels that had existed for many years. They cited a 1983 court decision that found that the inevitable disturbances caused by brothels were incompatible with residential areas. Sex workers' rights groups and brothel owners fought these efforts. They commissioned a study that concluded that apartment brothels in general neither promote criminality nor disturb neighbors.

The economic downturn of 2009 has resulted in changes at some brothels. Reduced prices and free promotions are now found. Some changes, the result of modern marketing tools, rebates, gimmicks. Brothels introducing all-inclusive flat-rates, free shuttle buses, discounts for seniors and taxi drivers. "Day passes." Some brothels reportedly including loyalty cards, group sex parties, rebates for golf players. Clients have reported reducing their number of weekly visits.

In 2009, the Bundessozialgericht ruled that the German job agencies are not required to find sex workers for open positions in brothels. The court rejected the complaint of a brothel owner who had argued that the law of 2002 had turned sex work into a job like any other; the judges ruled that the law had been passed to protect the employees, not to further the business.

The effects of the reforms continue to be debated. A five-part series in Der Spiegel in 2013 claimed it was a failure. Others have argued that, while the German model still has many weaknesses, it has reduced violence against sex workers.

In 2014, a startup in Berlin launched Peppr, an app for prostitution.

The Criminal Code was amended in October 2016 to criminalise clients of trafficked or coerced prostitutes. This change was led by Social Democrat Eva Högl.

The Prostituiertenschutzgesetz (Prostitutes Protection Act) came into force in July 2017. Amongst the provision of the Act are registration of prostitutes, annual health checks and mandatory condom use. Brothel operators also need to register and prove their 'good conduct' before registration. The legislation also places restrictions on advertising.

Football World Cup 2006

Officials speculated that up to 40,000 illegal sex workers, mainly from Eastern European countries, would enter Germany for the Football World Cup, held in Germany in the summer of 2006. Women and church groups were planning a "Red card to forced prostitution" campaign with the aim of alerting World Cup visitors to the existence of forced sex trafficking. They asked for support from the national football team and the national football organization but were initially rebuffed. In March 2006, the president of the German football federation turned around and agreed to support a campaign named "Final Whistle – Stop Forced Prostitution". The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), the Nordic Council and Amnesty International also expressed concern over an increase in the trafficking of women and forced sex trafficking up to and during the World Cup.

In March 2006, the campaign "Responsible John. Prostitution without compulsion and violence" was started by the government of Berlin. It provides a list of signs of forced sex trafficking and urges sex workers' customers to call a hotline if they spot one of those signs.

In April 2006, an advertisement for the Pascha brothel in Cologne that featured a several story-high image of a half-naked young woman with the flags of 2006 FIFA World Cup countries sparked outrage after Muslims were offended by the inclusion of the Saudi Arabian and Iranian flags. Pascha's owner, Armin Lobscheid, said a group of Muslims had threatened violence over the advertisement, and he blacked out the two flags. The Tunisian flag that features the Muslim crescent remained on the advertisement.

On 30 June 2006, The New York Times reported that the expected increase in prostitution activity around the World Cup had not taken place. This was confirmed by the 2006 BKA report on human trafficking, which reported only five cases of human trafficking related to the World Cup.

COVID-19 pandemic
Social distancing as a preventative measure during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany caused a marked reduction in the number of visitors to brothels, some operators reporting a 50% reduction in business. Several federal states ordered entertainment venues to close on 14 March 2020, followed by the Central Government ordering a nationwide closure on 22 March 2020. (Brothels are classed as entertainment venues in Germany.)

According to Susanne Bleier Wilp of the Association for Erotic and Sexual Services Providers lobby group in Berlin, 80% of the prostitutes working in Germany at the time were foreign, mainly from Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and Ukraine. Many of them lived in the brothels. Whilst most returned to their home countries, some were made homeless by the brothel closures.

The  () published a new hygiene concept for sex workers. It had three parts, one for sex workers who work in their own apartments, one for escorts and one for street prostitutes.

Thuringia
The Thuringian Corona Ordinance decided to keep all the prostitution-related facilities closed until 31 August 2020. The hygiene concepts referred to by brothel operators were all denied. Due to the physical closeness related to such services, it was impossible to counteract the dangers of getting infected effectively.

Hamburg
On Herbertstraße on St. Pauli, 400 prostitutes and brothel operators protested for the reopening of brothels on 11 July 2020. According to the professional association for erotic and sexual services, the fact that body-related services such as tattoo studios, hairdressers and massage salons were allowed to work during the COVID-19 crisis was unfair.

Munich
By March 2020, all brothels in Trudering, Munich were closed due to the coronavirus crisis. Prostitutes continued to work outside of regulated establishments. They were allowed to set appointments with clients in the non-restricted areas of the city. As long as brothels were not allowed to open, prostitution continued to take place outside the brothels.

Extent of prostitution and associated issues
Studies in the early 1990s estimated that about 50,000–200,000 women and some men did sex work in Germany. The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality, published in 1997, reported that over 100,000 women work in prostitution in Germany. A 2005 study gave 200,000 as a "halfway realistic estimate". The prostitutes' organization Hydra puts the number at 400,000, and this number is typically quoted in the press today. A 2009 study by TAMPEP also gave the Hydra estimate of 400,000 full or part-time prostitutes, with 93% being gender female, 3% transgender and 4% gender male.

The same study found that 63% of the sex workers in Germany were foreigners, with two thirds of them coming from Central and Eastern Europe. In 1999 the proportion of foreign sex workers had been 52%. The increase was attributed to the EU enlargement.

From other studies, it is estimated that between 10% and 30% of the male adult population have had experiences with sex workers. Of those 17-year-old males in West Germany with experience of intercourse, 8% have had sex with a sex worker.

A 2009 survey identified the following main vulnerability factors for German sex workers (in the order of importance):
 Financial problems, including debts and poverty.
 Violence and abuse by police, clients, and pimps.
 No professional identity; lack of self-confidence.
 Stigma and discrimination.
 Exploitative personal dependencies.

Forms of female prostitution

Street prostitution (Straßenstrich)

Regular street-based sex work is often quite well organized and controlled by pimps. Most cities established "Sperrbezirke" (off-limits zones) and charge the street based workers an amusement tax, that in the city of Bonn for instance is paid by the sex workers at parking meters, six euro for a period of about eight night hours. The same fee is collected from sex workers in apartments and brothels, sometimes by municipal tax collectors in person. Some sex workers have a nearby caravan, others use the customer's car, still, others use hotel rooms. With recent economic problems, in some large cities "wild" street-based sex work has started to appear: areas where women work temporarily out of short-term financial need.  A "sex drive-in", or "Verrichtungsbox", is a facility of structures to enclose cars to provide a safer place for sex work using cars.

Prostitution for the procurement of narcotics
In every major German city, there are prostitutes who offer their services to procure drugs. This often takes place near the main railway stations, while the act usually takes place in the customer's car or in a nearby rented room. These prostitutes are the most desperate, often underage, and their services are generally the cheapest. Pimps and brothel owners try to avoid drug-addicted prostitutes, as they are inclined to spend their earnings solely or primarily on drugs. Other prostitutes tend to look down on them as well, because they are considered as lowering the market prices.

In a unique effort to move drug-addicted streetwalkers out of the city center and reduce violence against these women, the city of Cologne in 2001 created a special area for tolerated street prostitution in Geestemünder Straße. Dealers and pimps are not tolerated, the parking places have alarm buttons and the women are provided with a cafeteria, showers, clean needles and counselling. The project, modelled on the Dutch tippelzones, is supervised by an organisation of Catholic women. A positive scientific evaluation was published in 2004.

Bars
In bars, women try to induce men to buy expensive drinks along with sexual services. Sex usually takes place in a separate but attached building. Prices are mostly set by the bar owner and the money is shared between the owner and the prostitute. The prevalence of such practices has diminished as a result of the registration obligation in the Prostitutes Protection Act.

Eros centers (Bordell, Laufhaus)

An eros center is a house (Laufhaus) or street (Laufstraße) where women can rent small one-room apartments for 80–150 euro per day. Then they solicit customers from the open door or from behind a window. Prices are normally set by the prostitutes; they start at 250–500 euros for short-time sex. The money is not shared with the brothel owner. Security and meals are provided by the owner. The women may even live in their rooms, but most do not. Minors and women not working in the eros center are not allowed to enter. Eros centers exist in almost all larger German cities. The most famous is the Herbertstraße near the Reeperbahn in Hamburg. The largest brothel in Europe is the eros center Pascha in Cologne, a 12-storey building with some 120 rooms for rent and several bars.

Apartment prostitution (Wohnungspuffs)
There are many of these advertised in the daily newspapers. Sometimes run by a single woman or man and sometimes by a group of roommates.

Partytreffs and Pauschalclubs
These are a variation on partner-swapping swing clubs with (sometimes, but not always) paid prostitutes in attendance, as well as 'amateur' women and couples. Single men pay a flat-rate entrance charge of about €80 to €150, which includes food, drink and unrestricted sexual activity, with the requirement that these are performed in the open in full view of all the guests. Women normally pay a low or zero entrance charge.

FKK sauna clubs

Typically, these are brothels in houses or large buildings, often with swimming pool and sauna, a large 'meet and greet' room with bar and buffet on the ground floor, TV/video screens, and bedrooms on the upper floor(s). Operating hours are usually from late morning until after midnight. The female sex workers are typically nude, wearing only high heels. The term FKK is a euphemism, erroneously referring to the German FKK 'Freikörperkultur' nudist culture. In some clubs the sex workers are topless instead of nude. Meanwhile the customers and club members wear robes or towels. Men and women often pay the same entrance fee, from €35 to €70, including use of all facilities and refreshments (beer is allowed, but most FKK sauna clubs do not allow liquor). Some clubs will admit couples. This form of prostitution, which was mentioned in the rationale of the 2002 prostitution law as providing good working conditions for the women workers, exists all over Germany, Austria and parts of the Netherlands, but mainly in the Rhein-Ruhrgebiet and in the area around Frankfurt am Main. Among the largest clubs of this type are: Artemis in Berlin, opened in the fall of 2005, the new Harem in Bad Lippspringe and the long-established FKK World near Giessen and FKK Oase in the countryside near Bad Homburg.

Escort services (Begleitagenturen)
Escort services, where a potential male client calls for a woman to visit a residence or at a hotel for sexual services, exist in Germany.

For special groups
Sexual services for the disabled and elderly. The agency Sensis in Wiesbaden connects prostitutes with disabled customers. Nina de Vries somewhat controversially provides sexual services to severely mentally disabled men and has been repeatedly covered in the media. Professional training is available for 'sex assistants'.

Forms of male prostitution
A comparatively small number of males offer sexual services to females, usually in the form of escort services, meeting in hotels. The vast majority of male prostitutes serve male clients. In 2007 it was estimated that there were 2,500 male prostitutes in Berlin. The above-mentioned Pascha brothel in Cologne reserves one entire floor for male and transgender prostitutes.

Legal situation
Prostitution is legal in Germany. However, since 2017, prostitutes are required to obtain two-year valid registration certificates after undergoing prescribed health advice, while businesses involved in prostitution must possess legal permits. Both prostitution without the use of condoms and the advertisement of prostitution involving either no condoms or pregnant women, are illegal as well. Prostitutes may work as regular employees with contract and also supposed to register with the local authority which provides them a document colloquially called Hurenpass, though the vast majority work independently. Brothels are registered businesses that need a special brothel licence; if food and alcoholic drinks are offered, the standard restaurant licence is also required.

Prostitutes have to pay income taxes and have to charge VAT for their services, to be paid to the tax office. In practice, prostitution is a cash business and taxes are not always paid, though enforcement has been strengthened. The Länder North Rhine-Westphalia, Baden Württemberg and Berlin have initiated a system where prostitutes have to pay their taxes in advance, a set amount per day, to be collected and paid to tax authorities by the brothel owners. North Rhine-Westphalia charges €25 per day per prostitute, while Berlin charges €30. In May 2007, authorities were considering plans for a uniform country-wide system charging €25 per day.

Until 2002, prostitutes and brothels were technically not allowed to advertise, but that prohibition was not enforced. The Bundesgerichtshof ruled in July 2006 that, as a consequence of the new prostitution law, advertising of sexual services is no longer illegal.  Many newspapers carry daily ads for brothels and for women working out of apartments. Many prostitutes and brothels have websites on the Internet. In addition, sex shops and newsstands sell magazines specialising in advertisements of prostitutes ("Happy Weekend", "St Pauli Nachrichten", "Sexy" and many more).

Foreign women from European Union countries are allowed to work as prostitutes in Germany. Women from other countries can obtain three-month tourist visas for Germany. If they work in prostitution, it is illegal, because the tourist visa does not include a work permit.

Pimping, (Zuhälterei = exploiting and/or controlling a sex worker) admitting prostitutes under the age of eighteen to a brothel, and influencing persons under the age of twenty-one to take up or continue work in prostitution, are illegal. It is also illegal to contract sex services from any person younger than 18, per Article 182 (paragraph 2) of the Criminal Code. Before 2008 this age limit was 16. This law also applies to Germans traveling abroad, to combat child prostitution occurring in the context of sex tourism.

Municipal regulation
The first city in Germany to introduce an explicit prostitution tax was Cologne. The tax was initiated early in 2004 by the city council led by a coalition of the conservative CDU and the leftist Greens. This tax applies to striptease, peep shows, porn cinemas, sex fairs, massage parlors, and prostitution. In the case of prostitution, the tax amounts to €150 per month and working prostitute, to be paid by brothel owners or by privately working prostitutes. (The area Geestemünder Straße mentioned above is exempt.) Containment of prostitution was one explicitly stated goal of the tax. In 2006 the city took in €828,000 through this tax. The neighboring city of Bonn collects a nightly sex work tax of six euro from street prostitutes in the Immenburgstrasse by vending machines identical to German parking meters. All other areas of the city are Sperrbezirk (off-limits for street prostitution).

Every city has the right to zone off certain areas where prostitution is not allowed (Sperrbezirk). Prostitutes found working in these areas can be fined or, when persistent, jailed. The various cities handle this very differently. In Berlin prostitution is allowed everywhere, and Hamburg allows street prostitution near the Reeperbahn during certain times of the day. Almost the entire center of Munich is Sperrbezirk, and under-cover police have posed as clients to arrest prostitutes. In Leipzig, street prostitution is forbidden almost everywhere, and the city even has a local law allowing police to fine customers who solicit prostitution in public. In most smaller cities, the Sperrbezirk includes the immediate city center as well as residential areas. Several states prohibit brothels in small towns (such as towns with fewer than 35,000 inhabitants).

This concept has been the subject of a number of legal challenges. In North Rhine-Westphalia a Minden court has ruled against 'Sperrbezirk', as have courts in Hesse and Bavaria. The court ruled that a general prohibition of prostitution infringed a basic right to choose one's occupation, as laid down in the 2002 Prostitution Act.

Health
Annual health checks for prostitutes are mandated by law in Germany.
Previously, in Bavaria (Bayern), law mandates the use of condoms for sexual intercourse with prostitutes, including oral contact. In 2017 this was extended to the whole of Germany.

Crime
The 1957 murder of the high-class prostitute Rosemarie Nitribitt in Frankfurt drew great media attention in postwar Germany. The circumstances of her death remain obscure. Police investigations turned up no substantial leads other than a prime suspect who was later acquitted due to reasonable doubt. Several high-profile, respectable citizens turned out to have been among her customers, a fact on which the media based insinuations that higher social circles might be covering up and obstructing the search for the real murderer. The scandal inspired two movies.

Werner Pinzner was a contract murderer active in the brothel scene of Hamburg in the 1980s. Captured in 1986, he confessed to eight murders of people involved in prostitution businesses. His long-time female lawyer and his wife conspired to smuggle a gun into the Hamburg police headquarters on 29 July 1986, and Pinzner proceeded to kill the attending prosecutor, his wife and himself. The lawyer was sentenced to six years in prison for aiding in murder.

Six persons were murdered in a brothel in Frankfurt am Main in 1994. The Hungarian couple managing the place as well as four Russian prostitutes were strangled with electric cables. The case was resolved soon after: it was a robbery gone bad, carried out by the husband of a woman who had worked there.

In 2012 it was reported that police were investigating the owners of a number of high-class brothels in Düsseldorf. Allegedly, numerous customers had been incapacitated with date rape drugs or other drugs in order to charge exorbitant amounts to their credit cards; those who complained were blackmailed with video footage.

Organized crime
According to Klaus Bayerl, head of the Kriminalpolizei Augsburg, the large brothels created since 2002 are facilities in which official directors are irreproachable persons, while the background, the brothels are run by pimps or criminal gangs and almost always have close ties to organised crime.

Competing for supremacy in the red-light districts include several motorcycle gangs. Again and again there were massive clashes between the Bandidos and the Hells Angels. Both associations are known arms and drug traffickers and promoters of prostitution.

Involved in the fight for control of the red-light districts are the Black Jackets. In 2013, the Lustpark brothel in Neu-Ulm was being used as a weapons warehouse by the Black Jackets. It became known in 2012 that the Dutch gang Satudarah MC were active in Germany. Satudarah is deeply involved in prostitution, drug trafficking and violent crime.

Likewise, the bouncer Gang United Tribuns are involved in the power struggle. The bouncer scene is considered a key position also in recruiting new prostitutes. Other organisations involved in prostitution and trafficking include the Gremium MC, Outlaws MC, the Red Legion, and the Rock Machine MC, whose members are involved in the dispute with the brothel Murat C. in Neu-Ulm in December 2012 when someone was shot.

One of the leading figures in the scene is the German-Turkish Necati Arabaci. He is involved, inter alia, in the brothels Babylon in Elsdorf near Cologne and Wiago in Leverkusen, and also in brothels in Augsburg and Mallorca among others. In 2013 the Augsburg prosecutor established suspicion of money laundering against a person connected to the Hells Angels in the large Colosseum brothel in Augsburg.

The Hanoverian Frank Hanebuth was arrested in July 2013 in Mallorca, Spain, along with 20 other Hells Angels members. As head of the Hells Angels Spanish chapter, he is accused of forming a criminal organisation, promoting illegal prostitution, drug trafficking and money laundering. Hanebuth had acquired several Spanish brothels and is also involved in the mistreatment of prostitutes.

André Schulz, head of the German Criminal Investigation Association warned in July 2016 of "an escalation of turf wars between enemy biker gangs in Germany".

Sex trafficking

Illegal human trafficking is a major focus of police work in Germany, yet it remains prevalent. In 2007, Germany was listed by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime as a top destination for victims of human trafficking.

In 2009, 710 victims of trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation were discovered, an increase of 5% in comparison with 2008.

In 2008, authorities identified 676 sex-trafficking victims.

In 2007, law enforcement authorities recorded 689 victims trafficked for sexual exploitation. Most victims (419) were between the ages of 18 and 24; 184 were nationals of the country. Approximately 12 percent were under the age of 18, including 39 citizens. One percent (seven) were under 14 years of age.

The trafficking in women from Eastern Europe is often organized by perpetrators from that same region. The German Federal Police Office BKA reported in 2006 a total of 357 completed investigations of human trafficking, with 775 victims. Thirty-five percent of the suspects were Germans born in Germany and 8% were German citizens born outside of Germany.

According to the report, in 2006 about 35% of the victims of human trafficking reported that they had agreed from the beginning to work in prostitution; often they did not know about the working conditions and debts incurred. Some others hoped for a job as waitress, maid or au pair; some were simply abducted. Once in Germany, their passports are sometimes taken away and they are informed that they now have to work off the cost of the trip. Sometimes they are brokered to pimps or brothel operators, who then make them work off the purchase price. They work in brothels, bars, apartments; as streetwalkers or as escorts and have to hand over the better part of their earnings. Some women reconcile themselves with this situation as they still make much more money than they could at home; others rebel and are threatened or abused. They are, reportedly, sometimes told that the police have been paid off and will not help them, which is false. They are, reportedly, also threatened with harm to their families at home.

The report states that victims are often unwilling to testify against their oppressors: the only incentive they have to do so is the permission to remain in the country until the end of the trial (with the hope of finding a husband during that time), rather than being deported immediately. Prostitutes from EU countries are not prohibited from traveling to and working in Germany. There is a large influx from Poland, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, and Romania, for instance. Actually, the income prospects for them are not larger than at home, but they prefer to work in the better and safer German environment, as long as they can avoid pimps exploiting and controlling them. German law enforcement aggressively tries to eradicate pimping. In one raid in 2013 near Bonn, 24 males were arrested for exploiting prostitutes, one of them just 15 years old.

Scandals and news coverage

In 2003, German CDU politician Michel Friedman, popular TV talk show host and then assistant chairman of the Central Council of Jews in Germany, became embroiled in an investigation of trafficking women. He had been a client of several escort prostitutes from Eastern Europe who testified that he had repeatedly taken and offered cocaine. After receiving a fine for the drug charge, he resigned from all posts. Since 2004 he has been hosting a weekly talk show on the TV channel N24.

Also in 2003, artist and art professor Jörg Immendorff was caught in the luxury suite of a Düsseldorf hotel with seven prostitutes (and four more on their way) and some cocaine. He admitted to having staged several such orgies and received 11 months on probation and a fine for the drug charges. He attempted to explain his actions by his "orientalism" and terminal illness.

In 2012, Bettina Wulff, the ex-wife of German ex-president Christian Wulff, won several court settlements with some media outlets and the search engine Google requiring them to not connect her with an alleged past as a prostitute.

Politics
The coalition of Social Democrats and the Green Party that governed the country from 1998 until late 2005 attempted to improve the legal situation of prostitutes in the years 2000–2003. These efforts were criticized as inadequate by prostitutes' organizations such as Hydra, which lobby for full normality of the occupation and the elimination of all mention of prostitution from the legal code. The conservative parties in the Bundestag, while supporting the goal of improving prostitutes' access to the social security and health care system, have opposed the new law because they want to retain the "offending good morals" status.

German churches run several support groups for prostitutes. These generally favor attempts to remove stigmatization and improve the legal situation of prostitutes, but they retain the long term abolitionist goal of a world without prostitution and encourage all prostitutes to leave the occupation.

Alice Schwarzer rejects all prostitution as inherently oppressive and abusive; she favors a legal arrangement similar to the situation in Sweden, wherein 1999 after heavy feminist lobbying a coalition of Social Democrats, Greens and leftists outlawed the buying but not the selling of sexual services. German-American journalist and men's rights activist Jerry Hoss likens the push for prostitution prohibition to a demand for a "final solution of the prostitution problem by Feminazis." He asserts that pimping, forced labor, abduction, false imprisonment, illegal immigration, extortion, rape, bodily injury, etc. are already strictly forbidden in Germany and no new laws are needed, just better enforcement.

In 2005, the ruling grand coalition of CDU and SPD announced plans to punish customers of forced prostitutes, if the customer could reasonably have been aware of the situation. In April 2009, it was reported that the plans would provide for a penalty of up to 5 years in prison. The law had not been enacted when the center-right CDU-FDP coalition came to power in November 2009. In 2014, the coalition of CDU and SPD renewed their plans to increase regulation and control of prostitution. Several organisations protested against these plans, amongst them prostitutes organisations as Hydra, Doña Carmen, the 'Berufsverband erotische und sexuelle Dienstleistungen', and an anonymous group of customers, the Freieroffensive. In 2016 and 2017 many of the proposals were brought into law.

See also
History of Germany
Regulated prostitution

References

Bibliography

Richard J. Evans. Prostitution, State and Society in Imperial Germany. Past & Present No. 70 (Feb., 1976), pp. 106-129
 Victoria Harris: Selling Sex in the Reich: Prostitutes in German Society, 1914-1945, Oxford 2010 (reviewed in: THE, 24 June 2010 ).
 Julia Roos: Weimar through the Lens of Gender. Prostitution Reform, Woman's Emancipation, and German Democracy, 1919–33, Ann Arbor 2010 (reviewed by Katie Sutton in: H-Net Reviews, August 2011 ).
Anna Bretzlaff. An Examination of Changing Patterns of Prostitution in Germany Since Unification. Carleton University, April 2008
Conceptions of Prostitute Women's Agency in West-Germany from the 1950s to the 1980s. 9th European Social Science History Conference Glasgow, Scotland, UK Wednesday 11 - Saturday 14 April 2012
Barbara Kavemann. The Act Regulating the Legal Situation of Prostitutes – implementation, impact, current developments. Sozialwissenschaftliches FrauenForschungsInstitut an der Evangelischen Fachhochschule Freiburg. Berlin Sept 2007
 Michaela Freund-Widder: Frauen unter Kontrolle: Prostitution und ihre staatliche Bekämpfung in Hamburg vom Ende des Kaiserreiches bis zu den Anfängen der Bundesrepublik, Münster 2007.
 Sabine Gleß: Die Reglementierung von Prostitution in Deutschland, Berlin 1999.
 Fritz Koch: Verwaltete Lust: Stadtverwaltung und Prostitution in Frankfurt am Main 1866-1968. Wiesbaden 2010.
 Malte König: Der Staat als Zuhälter. Die Abschaffung der reglementierten Prostitution in Deutschland, Frankreich und Italien im 20. Jahrhundert (Bibliothek des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom, Band 131). De Gruyter, Berlin 2016 (reviewed by Julia Brüggemann in: H-France Review, July 2017 ).
 Sybille Krafft: Zucht und Unzucht. Prostitution und Sittenpolizei im München der Jahrhundertwende, Munich 1996.
 Julia Roos: Weimar through the Lens of Gender. Prostitution Reform, Woman's Emancipation, and German Democracy, 1919-33, Ann Arbor 2010.
 Regina Schulte: Sperrbezirke: Tugendhaftigkeit und Prostitution in der bürgerlichen Welt. 2nd ed. Europ. Verlag-Anst., Frankfurt a.M. 1994.
 Beate Schuster: Die freien Frauen. Dirnen und Frauenhäuser im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert, Frankfurt a.M./New York 1995.
 Peter Schuster: Das Frauenhaus. Städtische Bordelle in Deutschland (1350-1600), Paderborn 1992.
 Stefan Wünsch: Das erkrankte Geschlecht. Medizin und Prostitution im Berlin des 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderts, Würzburg 2020. ISBN 978-3-8260-6973-4.
 Claudia Thoben: Prostitution in Nürnberg: Wahrnehmung und Maßregeln zwischen 1871 und 1945, Nürnberg 2007.
Alltag im Spätmittelalter, Harry Kühnel, Helmut Hundsbichler (eds.), 2nd edn., Kaleidoskop, 1984

External links

 Hydra e.V., support organization for prostitutes, also has the text of the new prostitution law
 Scathing criticism of the new prostitution law, by Doña Carmen, a support group for foreign prostitutes working in Germany
 Madonna e.V. For the welfare and rights of prostitutes in Germany
 Freiersein, information site for prostitution customers, run by prostitutes' support organizations. Has a section with "10 rules for fair play" outlining proper behavior of customers.
 Matthias Lehmann. Research Project Germany

Prostitution in Germany


රෝදයේ ඉතිහාසය

ටෙහෙරන්හි ඉරාක ජාතික කෞතුකාගාරයේ ප්‍රදර්ශණය සදහා ඇතිගරාදි සහිත රෝදයක් එම රෝදය ක්‍රි.පු. 2 වන සහස්‍රයේ පසු භාගයේ චෝකා සන්බිල්වල කැනිම් වලින් සොයා ගන්නා ලදී.

මෙම රෝදය බොහෝ දුරට ක්‍රි.පු. 4 වන සහස්‍රයේදී ප්‍රාග් මෙසේපොටේබියාවේ දී ආරම්භවුවා විය හැකිය. එම රෝදය ක්‍රි.පු. 3 වන සහස්ස්‍රයේදී ඉන්දු නිම්න ශිෂ්ඨාචාරය සමග පැරණි චන්ද්‍රයාවට ලගා විය. ක්‍රි.පු. 3700 පමණ සිට මිනිසුන් භුමිදාන කිරිම සදහා යොදා ගත් මැගන් රථ හෝ කරත්ත (දෙවර්ගයම) සහිත සොහොන් කිහිපයක් කොකේසස් හි උතුරු දෙසින් හමුවිය රෝද සහිත වාහනයක් යැයි සිතිය හැකි දේක. (රෝද හතරක් අක්ෂ දඹු දෙකක් සහිත මැගනයක් ) පැරණිම චිත්‍රගත කිරීම දක්නට ලැබෙන්නේ එවකට ප්‍රොටෝ ඉන්දු යුරෝපියානුවන් පදිංචිව සිටි ප්‍රදේශයක් වු දකුණු පෝලන්තයේ කැණිම් වලින් සොයාගත් ක්‍රි.පු3500 තරම් පැරණි රොනසිස් වලද ලෙස හැදින්වෙන මැටි වලදකය.

මෙම රෝදය ක්‍රි.පු 4 වෙනි සහස්‍ර‍යේදි යුරෝපයට හා ඉන්දියාවට (ඉන්දු නිම්න ශිෂ්ඨාචාරය) ලගා විය. චිනයේ ක්‍රි.පු. 1200 පමණ යුධ රථ යොදා ගැනිමත් සමග මෙම රෝදය පැවති බව පැහැදිලිවම සනාථ වන අතර බාර්බියරින් ලෝච් (2000) මීටත් ඈත අතීතයේ, එනම් ක්‍රි.පු. 2000 පමණ සිට චීනයේ රෝද සහිත වාහන පැවති බවට තර්ක කරයි.  ඇඩම්වෝර්ක් හි ස්වාධින වු " රෝදයේ නිමවිමක්" විද යන්න විවෘත ප්‍රශ්නයක් ලෙස පවති. ඊට විකල්ප වශයෙන්, එම සංකල්පය හිමාලයානු මායිම් පැනඑමෙන් පසුව එහි ලගා වුවාද විය හැකිය. චීනයට රෝදය හදුන්වා දිම ෂැන්ක් පෙලපතෙහි (ක්‍රි.පු. 1700 දී පමණ) ආරම්භය හා බැදුණු ආක්‍රමණිකයන් විසින් යොදාගත් වාහනයන් ඔස්සේ සිදු වුනායැයි ද අදහස් ඉදිරිපත් වී ඇත.

ඔවුන් නියම රෝදය සැදුවේ නොවුවද, ක්‍රි.පු. 1500 පමණ අතිතයේදි කුඩා ළමයින්ගේ සෙල්ලම් බඩු ලෙස හදුනාගත් යම් යම් ද්‍රව්‍යයන්ගේ රෝද ආකාරයට කැටයම් කල ගල් හමුවීම නිසා, ඔල්මේක් සහ සමහර අනෙකුත් බටහිර අර්ධ ගෝලයේ සංස්කෘතින් ඊට ආසන්න වුවායැයි සිතිම‍ට ඉඩ ඇත.

එහෙයින් රෝදය නිපදවීම පශ්චාත් නියෝලිතික සමයට වැටෙන අතර ඒය ලෝකඩ යුගයේ මුල් කාලයේදි ආරම්භයට මගපැදු අනෙකුත් ශිල්පිය ප්‍රගමනයන් හා බැදි පැවතිනු බවද පෙන්. කෘෂිකර්මය සොයා ගැනිමටත් පසුව රෝද රහිත සහස්‍රයන් කිහිපයක් පසු කර යාමත්, මින් හැ‍ගවෙන බව සැලකිය යුතුය. වඩාත් ඈත කාලය දෙස බැලිමේදි ශිරීරිකව නුතන මානවයාගේ ආරම්භය වර්ෂ 150,000 පමණ පෙර සිදුවු‍යේ යැයි පුරා මානව විද්‍යාඥයින් විසින් අනුමාන කර ද ඒ අතරින් වර්ෂ 143,000 ක් " රෝදරහිත" කාලයක් වු බව සැලකිල්ලට ලක් වේ. අප හා සමාන හැකියාවක් සහිත වු මිනිසුන් රෝදය පිලිබද අදහසක් පහල වීමට පෙර එතරම් දිගු කාලයක් පෘතුවියේ ඇවිදිමින් සිටියහ. යන අදහස අරම්භයේ දී විමිතිය දනවන සුළුවිය හැකිය.  නමුත් මෙයින් බොහෝ කාලයක් තුල ජනගහනයට ඉතාමත් කුඩා වු අතර රෝදයක් ප්‍ර‍යෝජනවත් විම සදහා තව්වක් සහ අක්ෂ දණ්ඩක් අවශ්‍ය වන නිසා ඒ අසට පෙන තරම් සරල උපකරණයක් නොවිය හැකිය.  රෝදයක් නිපදවිම සහ එය සමබරව තබා ගැනීමට අක්ෂ රෝද නිපදවන්නක් අවශ්‍ය වේ.

ආරම්භයේ දී නිපදවු රෝද සිදුරක් සහ අක්ෂ දණ්ඩක් සහිත සරල ලී තැටියක් විය. දැව වල වපුනයේ ස්වභාවය අනුව කඩා වැටිමක් සිදුනොවි බර ඉසිලිමට එහි වපුහය ශක්තිමත් නොවිම නිසා ගසක කදක හරස් පැතිකඩක් ඉට නොගැලපේ. දික් අතට කැපු ලෑලි වල රවුම් කැබලි ඒ සදහා අවශ්‍ය වේ. ඇලකර්න් ගොත්‍රකයින් විසින් සාදන ලදැයි විශ්වාස කරන එවැනි පැරිණිම රෝද‍ය ඉස්ලෝවේලියානු පුරාවිද්‍යාඥ ජැනස් ද ජෙක් විසින් 2002 පොදු සමයේදී ස්ලෝවේනියාවේ ලුබල්ජානා වගුරුවලින් ගිනිකොණ දෙස ක්‍රිලෝමීටර් 20 ක් පමණ දුරින් පිහිටි ලුබුල් ජානා වගුරුවලින් සෝයා ගන්නා ලදී. ඔස්ට්‍රේලියාවේ වියනාහි විශේෂඥයන්ට අනුව මෙම නිර්දේශණය ක්‍රි.පු. 3350 -3100 අතර කාලයේදී නිර්මාණය කරන ලද්දක් වන අතර එය ස්විස්ටර් ලන්තයේ හා ජර්මනියේ හමුවු වු එවැනි නිර්මාණයන්ට වඩා පැරණිය.

ගරාදි සහිත රෝදය වඩා මෑතකදි නිමවන ලද අතර එය වඩා වේගවත් සැහැල්ලු වාහන නිර්මාණයට ඉඩ සැලසිය ඊට පැරණිම උදහරණ හමුවුයේ ක්‍රි.පු. 2000 තරම් පැරණි ඇන්ඩ්‍රනෝර්වෝ සංස්කෘතියෙහිය. ඊට ටික කාලයකට පසු කෝකේසස් කලාපයේ අශ්ව සංස්කෘතින් විසින් සියවස් 3 කින් වැඩි කොටසක් තුල අශ්වයින් විසින් ඇදගෙන යන ගරාදි සහිත රෝද වලින් යුක්ත යුධ රථ පාවිච්චි කලහ. මිනෝවාන් අධිපත්‍යය සහ පුර්ව සම්භාව්‍යය ස්පාටර් හා ඇකන්ස් වලින් නායකබයින්දුන් සංස්ථාපනයන් කඩා දමා ඔවුහු ග්‍රික අර්ධ වීපයේ ඉතාමත් අභ්‍යන්තරයට ඇතුලත් වි එහි ජීවත් වු මධ්‍යය රාජ්‍යය ජනතාව සමග එකතුවිය. ක්‍රි.පු. 1 වෙනි සහස්‍රයේදි සේල්ටික් රථවලින් රෝද‍ය වටා යොදන යකඩ පට්ටම හදුන්වා දෙන ලදී. වයර් රෝදය සහ සුලන් පුරවන ලද ටයර් නිමවනු ලැබු ක්‍රි.ව. 1870 වන තෙක් ගරාදි සහිත රෝද විශාල වෙනසක් කිරිම් වලින් තොරව අඛණ්ඩව භාවිතයේ යෙදිනි.

රෝදයේ නිමැවිම තාක්ෂණයට පොදු වේද, ජල රෝදය, දැති රෝදය කටින රෝදය, නරින්සුවර් හෝ ඇදරැම් රෝදය වැනි සොයා ගැනීම් වලට විශේෂ වශයෙන් ද වැදගත් විය. රෝද පරම්පරාවේ වඩා නුතන නිමැවිමක් වනුයේ අවරපෙත්ත, ජෙට් යන්ත්‍රය, ජව රෝදය හා ටර්බයිනයයි.

සටහන්

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රෝදය නිපදවීම


فضل الكلاب على كثير ممن لبس الثياب أو تفضيل الكلاب على كثير ممن لبس الثياب هو كتابٌ من تأليف أبو بكر بن المرزبان المتوفى عام 309 هجريًا. يذكر الكتاب ماقيل في الكلب من آيات قرآنية وأحاديث وأقوال الشعراء والحكماء والرواة. يعكس الكتاب أيضًا موقفًا من قليلي الوفاء من البشر، مقدرًا قيمة الوفاء عند الكلب الذي يُرافق الناس ليكون حارسهم ورفيقهم.

تذكر المصادر أنَّ هناك شكًا في نسبة تأليف الكتاب إلى أبو بكر بن المرزبان. أُشير إلى الكتاب في كتاب «زهر الأكم» لليوسي، حيث قال ، كما أشار إليه صلاح الدين الصفدي قائلًا .

نشر الكتاب لأول مرة في مجلة المشرق عام 1912 ميلاديًا تحت عنوان «فضائل الكلاب»، ثم طبع طبعاتٍ كثيرة، بعنوان «فضل الكلاب» و«تفضيل الكلاب». كما تُشير المصادر أنَّ أهم هذه الطبعات هي طبعة زهير الشاويش عام 1990 ميلاديًا.

النسخة الإنجليزية
تُرجم الكتاب إلى الإنجليزية تحت عنوان «The superiority of dogs over those who wear clothes» عام 1978 ميلاديًا، وكان من ترجمة وتحرير (G R Smith) و(M A Abdel Haleem).

المراجع

كتب باللغة العربية
كتب فلسفة عربية

فضل الكلاب على كثير ممن لبس الثياب


Medzianky este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Vranov nad Topľou din regiunea Prešov. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 287 de locuitori.

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Localitatea Medzianky este atestată documentar din 1212.

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Yalancı iğde, Çıçırgan ya da Yer iğdesi (Latince Hippophae rhamnoides) İğdegiller ailesindendir. 10 m yüksekliğinde, dikenli bir ağaçtır. Genç dalları gümüş gibi parlak olur; daha sonra pas tutmuş gibi rengi solar. Ucu 7 cm dikendir. Yaprakları boğumlu, üstü koyu yeşil-gri, altı sarımsı veya beyaz, gümüş gibi parlaktır. Çiçekleri çift eşeylidir. Küçük çekirdekli yemişinin rengi kırmızı veya sarımsı, tadı ekşidir. Yemişi şıralı, yumuşak ve çabuk ezilir. Dağlık bölgelerde, göl ve akarsuların kıyılarında, kumlu ve taşlı bölgelerde yetişir. Hammadde olarak pişmiş yemişi toplanır. Yemişi hava soğuyunca (-15C°) çırpılarak toplanır.

Bitkinin Latince adı, Hippo (at) ve Phaos (parlamak) kelimelerinin birleşmesiyle oluşturulmuştur çünkü antik kaynaklara göre meyveleri ve narin dalları atların yemlerine karıştırıldığında atları güçlendirmekte ve postlarını parlak hale getirmektedir.

Günümüzde Kuzey Avrupa ve ABD'de alternatif bir tarım ürünü olarak incelenen bitki, Çin'de fazla miktarda üretilmektedir.

Tıpta

İltihaba karşı, mikrop öldürücü, ağrı kesici, yaraları tedavi edici özelliklere sahiptir. Şırası sıkılıp alındıktan sonra, kalan kısmı, kurutulur ve sonra bitki yağında bekletilir. Bu işlem birkaç aşamadan geçirilir ve sonuçta yalancı iğde yağı elde edilir. Çıçırgan yağı, ciltte, mukozada oluşan çeşitli yaraları tedavi eder. Bu yüzden, bu yağ, yemek borusundaki zararlı şişliklerde, mide ve on iki parmak bağırsağındaki yara hastalığında, ayrıca rahim ağzı iltihabında ve başka jinekolojik hastalıkların tedavisinde kullanılır. Çıçırgan yağı, cilt hastalıklarında (egzema, erpes), uzun zamandır iyileşmeyen yaraların tedavisinde olumlu sonuç verir. Tibet hekimliğinde, çıçırganın yaprakları romatizmada kompres olarak kullanılır. Çıçırgan yağından iltihaplı hastalıklarda ağrıyı azaltmak ve dindirmek için yararlanırlar.

Rus kozmonotların uzay yolculuklarında beslenme desteği olması için bu meyvenin suyunu içtikleri ve kozmik radyasyona karşı yine bu meyvelerden elde edilen püreyi ciltlerine sürdükleri bilinmektedir.

Kozmetik amaçla, çıçırgan yağından özel bir maske hazırlanarak, ciltteki çeşitli lekeleri, sivilcileri gidermek için ve saç dökülmesinde faydalanılır.

Çıçırgan yağı, mide suyunun fazla salgılanmasını azaltır; karaciğer hastalığında rastlanılan zehirlenmelere karşı etkilidir. Çıçırganın yağında katı yağı asitleri (linol, lipolen), yağda eriyen vitaminler (retinol, tokoferol), fosfolipitler, bitki sterinleri çok sayıda bulunur; aterosklerozu önlemekte kullanılır. Çıçırgan yağı, kandaki kolestrol düzeyinde azalma olunca da kullanılabilir.

Çıçırgan yağı, eczanelerde 50-100 ml'lik cam şişelerde satılır. Ondaki karotinoillerin oranı %30 mg, %180 mg'dır. Ciltteki yaraları tedavi ederken, gazlı bezi çıçırgan yağında ıslatarak, hastalıklı bölge örtülür. Bu işlem her gün tekrarlanarak uygulanır.

Yemek borusundaki zararlı şişliklerin tedavisinde, günde 2-3 kez, 1/2 yemek kaşığı çıçırgan yağı verilir. Mide ve on iki parmak bağırsağının yaralarında ise, 2-3 kez yemekten 30-40 dakika önce, 1 çay kaşığı içilir. Rahim yaralarının tedavisinde, yuvarlanmış gazlı bez, çıçırgan yağında (5–10 mg) ıslatılır ve rahim ağzındaki yaraya yapıştırılır. Her gün değiştirilmelidir. Kolpit tedavide 10-15; endoservisittet ve rahim ağzı erozyonunda 8-12 kez işlem uygulanır. Gerektiğinde 4-6 hafta dinlendikten sonra tedaviye devam edilebilir. Çıçırganın yemişi, polivitaminli bir maddedir. Ondan ayrıca reçel, jöle, şarap hazırlanır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Avrupa florası Hippophae
 Pakistan florası Hippophae
 Çin florası Hippophae türler listesi
 Nevada Üniversitesi veri dosyası Hippophae

rhamnoides
Meyve
Dioik bitkiler
Carl Linnaeus tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Yalancı iğde


Joey Lynn King (n. 30 iulie 1999, Los Angeles) este o actriță americană cunoscută pentru roluri în filme ca Ramona și Beezus (2010), A naibii dragoste (2011), Grozavul și puternicul Oz (2013), Trăind printre demoni (2013), Alertă de grad zero (2013) și Ziua Independenței: Renașterea (2016).

Viață personală
Joey King s-a născut în Los Angeles, California. Are două surori mai mari, actrițele Kelli și Hunter King. Joey a declarat că este "jumătate evreică și jumătate creștină, dar în cea mai mare parte evreică".

Din 2017, King a fost într-o relație cu actorul australian Jacob Elordi, partenerul ei din filmul The Kissing Booth, dar s-au despărțit în 2019.

Carieră
Înainte de a intra în industria cinematografică, Joey King a apărut în peste 100 de spoturi publicitare și a lucrat ca model pentru Life, o companie care comercializează cereale.

Prima apariție a lui Joey King într-un lungmetraj a fost în Acoperă-mi inima (2007), unde a avut ocazia să-i cunoască pe actori ca Adam Sandler, Don Cheadle, Jada Pinkett Smith, Liv Tyler și Donald Sutherland. Pe atunci avea doar șapte ani. Ea a fost vocea puiului de iac Katie din animația Horton (2008) și a castorului din Epoca de gheață 3: Apariția dinozaurilor (2009). În 2010, a fost invitată să apară în două episoade din serialul Mesaje de dincolo. A jucat, de asemenea, în două episoade din sitcomul Disney Channel Viața dulce a lui Zack și Cody. Alte apariții în seriale includ Anturaj, CSI: Crime și investigații și Mediumul.

Primul rol principal al lui King a fost în filmul Ramona și Beezus (2010), o adaptare după seria de cărți a scriitoarei americane Beverly Cleary. A jucat rolul Ramonei Quimby, sora mai mică a lui Beezus Quimby (Selena Gomez), rol care i-a consolidat decizia de a urma o carieră în actorie. Joey a lansat și un single pentru film, intitulat "Ramona Blue".

În 2011, King a jucat rolul unei fetițe, Kirsten, în filmul Invadarea lumii: Bătălia Los Angeles. Tot în 2011 i-a fost oferit un rol în comedia romantică A naibii dragoste. De asemenea, a apărut în videoclipul piesei "Mean" a cântăreței Taylor Swift, interpretând rolul unei eleve respinse de colegii ei. Ulterior, a interpretat rolul unei tinere Talia al Ghul în cel de-al treilea film Batman al regizorului Christopher Nolan, Cavalerul negru: Legenda renaște (2012). În aceeași perioadă a apărut în serialele Bent și Viața cu Jess. În 2013, Joey a jucat în Grozavul și puternicul Oz, alături de James Franco și Michelle Williams, în Trăind printre demoni, alături de Vera Farmiga și Patrick Wilson și în Alertă de grad zero, alături de Channing Tatum și Jamie Foxx. În 2014 a apărut în Rolul vieții mele, alături de partenerul din Oz, Zach Braff, precum și în serialul Fargo, ca Greta Grimly, fiica polițistului Gus Grimly (Colin Hanks).

Filmografie

Premii și nominalizări

Note

Nașteri în 1999
Nașteri pe 30 iulie
Actrițe americane din secolul al XXI-lea
Actrițe de film americane
Actrițe de televiziune americane
Actrițe de voce americane

Joey King


Vostok 1 (, Doğu veya Orient 1), Vostok programının ilk uzay uçuşu ve tarihteki ilk insanlı yörünge uçuşuydu. Vostok 3KA uzay kapsülü, 12 Nisan 1961'de Sovyet kozmonot Yuri Gagarin ile birlikte Baykonur Uzay Üssü'nden fırlatıldı ve Gagarin'i Dünya çevresinde yörünge hızına ulaşan ve Dünya çevresinde tam bir tur atan ilk insan yaptı.

Yörünge uçuşu, Dünya etrafında tek bir turu içeriyordu ve en alçak noktasında  irtifada üst atmosferi sıyırdı. Uçuş, fırlatmadan inişe kadar 108 dakika sürdü. Gagarin,  irtifada kapsülünden ayrılarak paraşütle yere indi.

Görevin ayrıntıları

Uçuşun asıl kozmonotu Gagarin, yedek kozmonotu German Titov idi. Vostok 1, dünya çevresinde bir kez döndükten sonra indi. Uçuş toplam 108 dakika sürdü.

Fırlatmadan sonra 25 dakika boyunca yer kontrol istasyonu uzay aracının kararlı bir yörüngeye oturup oturmadığını bilemedi. Aracın doğrultu kontrol sistemi tam otomatikti. Tıbbi personel, insan metabolizmasının uzay boşluğuna nasıl tepki vereceğinden emin değildi. Bu nedenle, uçuş kontrol paneli Gagarin'in kullanamayacağı şekilde kilitlenmişti. Kilidin şifresi acil bir durumda kontrolü ele alabilmesi için zarf içinde yine Gagarin'e teslim edilmişti. Vostok aracının yörüngesini değiştirme imkânı yoktu, sadece doğrultu değiştirebiliyordu. Yörünge değiştirebilen uzay araçları çok daha sonra, Gemini ve Soyuz projeleri ile imal edilecekti. Uçuşun büyük kısmında Vostok aracının doğrultusu kendi halinde salınmaya bırakıldı. İniş motorunun ateşlenmesinden az önce aracın doğrultusu otomatik sistem tarafından düzeltildi.

İniş motorları Afrika'nın batı kıyısı açıklarında, Angola yakınında, iniş noktasından 8.000 km uzaklıkta ateşlendi. Sıvı yakıtlı retro roketler 42 saniye boyunca çalıştı. Ağırlık sınırlaması nedeniyle bu roketlerin bir yedeği yoktu. Ancak Vostok aracındaki pek çok sistem gibi, bu roketlerin çalışmaması durumuna karşı önlem alınmış, yörünge 10 gün kadar sonra uzay aracının kendi kendine atmosfere gireceği şekilde ayarlanmıştı. Araçta bu süre için yeterli yiyecek ve içecek bulunuyordu.

İniş ateşlemesinden on saniye sonra ayrılması gereken Vostok hizmet modülü beklenmedik şekilde iniş kapsülü Şarike bağlı kaldı. Atmosfere giren Vostok, hizmet modülünün yarattığı aerodinamik bozukluk nedeniyle çılgınca dönmeye başladı. Yaklaşık on dakika sonra iki modülü birbirine bağlayan kablolar yanarak koptu ve Şarik kararlı bir durum aldı.

Gagarin, iniş sırasında yeryüzüne 7 km kala fırlatma koltuğuyla kapsülden ayrıldı ve yere kendi paraşütüyle indi. Vostok 1'de de paraşüt olmasına karşın, uzay aracının ağırlığı nedeniyle iniş çok sert olacağı için bu yöntem tercih edilmişti. Sovyetler uzun süre Gagarin'in araçtan atladığını açıklamadılar. Zira Uluslararası Havacılık Federasyonu kurallarına göre o yıllarda bir uçuşun başarılı sayılması için pilotun uçakla birlikte yere inmesi gerekiyordu. Günümüzde, Soyuz 1'in başarılı bir uçuş olduğuna dair bir şüphe yoktur.

Vostok kapsülü, Korolyov kentindeki RKK Energiya müzesinde sergilenmektedir.

 Görevin gidişatı

 12 Nisan 1961, Çarşamba: Fırlatmaya birkaç dakika kala Gagarin basına bir konuşma yaptı: "Tanıdığım ve tanımadığım dostlar, yurttaşlarım, tüm dünyanın insanları! Az sonra güçlü bir Sovyet füzesi beni uzayın derinliklerine taşıyacak. Size söylemek isterim ki, şu anda tüm hayatım tek bir an gibi gözlerimin önünde. Benden beklenen şeyi yapmak için gereken gücü bulacağımı hissediyorum."
 Geri sayım: Yuri Gagarin Vostok 1 aracındadır. Kapsülde bulunan bir kamera sayesinde görüntüsü uzay merkezindeki televizyonlara yansır. Sergey Korolyov mikrofona konuşur: "Şafak, çamı (Gagarin'in çağrı kodu) arıyor. Birazdan geri sayım başlayacak." Gagarin cevap verir: "Anlaşıldı. İyi hissediyorum, moralim yerinde. Gitmeye hazırım."
 06:07 UTC: Vostok 1, Sovyetler Birliği'ne bağlı Kazakistan Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti'ndeki Baykonur Uzay Üssü'nden (Tyura-Tam 45°55′12.72″K, 63°20′32.32″D) fırlatıldı. Fırlatma rampasına daha sonra "Gagarin's start" (Rusça: Гагаринский старт) adı verildi. Fırlatma sırasında Korolyov şunları söyler: "Ön aşama... Orta... Asıl... ATEŞ! Size iyi bir uçuş dileriz. Her şey yolunda." Gagarin: "Poyekhali! (Haydi gidelim!)"
 06:09 UTC: Fırlatmadan iki dakika sonra Vostok roketinin çevresine takılı dört tali roket yakıtlarını tüketti ve ana araçtan ayrıldı. (T+ 119 sn.)
 06:10 UTC: Vostok 1 kapsülünü koruyan kılıf atıldı. Bu, Gagarin'in ayağının altındaki pencereyi ve Vzor görsel yön bulma aracını açmış oluyordu. (T+ 156 sn.)
 06:12 UTC: Beş dakika geçtikten sonra Vostok ana aşaması tüm yakıtını bitirdi, kapandı ve uzay aracından ayrıldı. Son roket aşaması aracı yörüngeye taşımak üzere ateşlendi. (T+ 300 sn.)
 06:13 UTC: Roket hala çalışıyor, Vostok 1'i yörüngeye doğru itiyordu. Gagarin telsize şu mesajı geçti: "...uçuş iyi gidiyor. Dünyayı görebiliyorum. Görüş açık. Hemen her şey görünüyor. Kümülüs bulutlarının altında oldukça boşluk var. Uçuşa devam ediyorum, her şey yolunda."
 06:14 UTC: Roket çalışmaya devam etmekteydi. Vostok 1, merkezi Rusya'dan geçiyordu. Gagarin telsize konuşur: "Her şey iyi çalışıyor. Tüm sistemler çalışıyor. Haydi devam edelim!"
 06:15 UTC: Son roket safhasının ateşlenmesinden üç dakika sonra Gagarin telsize konuşur:"Zarya-1, Zarya-1, sizi iyi duyamıyorum. Ben iyiyim. Moralim yerinde. Uçuşa devam ediyorum..." Vostok 1, Baykonur Uzay Üssü'nden uzaklaşmaktaydı. Zarya-1 (Baykonur Yer İstasyonu) artık güçlükle duyulmaktaydı, az sonra telsiz menzilinden çıkacaktı.
 06:17 UTC: Vostok'un üst kademe motorları kapanır. On saniye sonra uzay aracı roketten ayrılır ve yörüngeye girer. (T+ 676 sn.) Gagarin: "Uzay aracı normal çalışıyor. Vzor penceresinden dünyayı görebiliyorum. Her şey planlandığı gibi gidiyor." Vostok 1, Sibirya üzerinden yoluna devam eder.
 06:21 UTC: Vostok 1, Kamçatka yarımadası üzerinden Büyük Okyanus semalarına geçer. Gagarin: "...iniş modu göstergelerinin ışıkları yandı. İyi hissediyorum ve moralim yerinde. Kokpit parametreleri: Basınç 1, nem 65, sıcaklık 20, kabin basıncı 1, ilk otomatik 155, ikinci otomatik 155, retro roket sistemi basıncı 320 atmosfer."
 06:25 UTC: Vostok 1, Kamçatka yarımadasından Güney Amerika'nın güney ucuna doğru Büyük Okyanus'u çaprazlama kat ederken, Gagarin sorar: "Uçuş hakkında ne söyleyebilirsiniz? Bana ne söyleyebilirsiniz?" Yörünge parametrelerini sormaktadır. Kamçatka'daki yer istasyonu cevap verir: "20 numaradan (Sergey Korolyov) gelen herhangi bir talimat yok. Uçuş normal devam ediyor". Bununla söylemek istedikleri, henüz uçuşa başlayalı 6 dakika geçtiği için ellerinde aracın yörüngeye oturup oturmadığı hakkında bilgi olmadığı, ancak uzay aracı sistemlerinin iyi çalıştığıdır.
 06:31 UTC: Gagarin, Habarovsk'daki yer istasyonuna seslenir: "Kendimi harika hissediyorum, çok iyi, çok iyi, çok iyi. Bana uçuş hakkında biraz bilgi verin." Vostok 1, Habarovsk yer istasyonunun VHF radyo ufkuna yaklaşmaktadır ve şu cevabı alır: "Tekrar edin. Sizi pek iyi duyamıyoruz". Gagarin tekrarlar: "Çok iyi hissediyorum. Elinizdeki uçuş bilgilerini verin." Vostok 1, Habarovsk'un VHF menzili dışına çıkar ve bağlantı kesilir.
 06:37 UTC: Vostok 1 yoluna devam ederken Kuzey Büyük Okyanus'ta güneş batar. Gagarin, Hawaii adalarının kuzeybatısında geceye girer. Yer istasyonlarının VHF menzili dışında olduğundan artık iletişim HF dalgaboyundan gerçekleşmelidir.
 06:46 UTC: Habarovsk istasyonu Vostok 1'e HF dalgaboyundan mors alfabesiyle "KK" mesajını gönderir. Bu "komutların okunduğunu bildirin" demektir. Gagarin'den uzay aracının otomatik iniş sisteminin yer kontrolden gönderilen komutları aldığında bildirmesi istenmektedir. Gagarin 06:48 UTC'de bu bilgiyi verir.
 06:48 UTC: Vostok 1, güneydoğu yönünde ilerleyerek 170° batı boylamında ekvatoru geçer ve Büyük Okyanus'un güneyini kat etmeye başlar. Gagarin HF dalgaboyundan mesaj geçer: "Mutat rapor mesajını gönderiyorum: Saat 9:48 (Moskova saati), uçuş başarıyla devam ediyor. Spusk-1 düzgün çalışıyor. İniş modu göstergesinin ibresi hareket ediyor. Kokpit basıncı 1, nem 65, sıcaklık 20, kabin basıncı 1.2 ... El komutası 150, birinci otomatik 155, ikinci otomatik 155, retro roket düzeneği tankları 320 atmosfer. İyi hissediyorum..."
 06:49 UTC: Gagarin, dünyanın gece tarafına geçtiğini bildirir.
 06:51 UTC Gagarin, güneşe göre doğrultu düzeltme düzeneğinin açıldığını bildirir. Bu düzenek, retro ateşleme için aracın doğrultusunu güneşe göre ayarlayacaktır. Doğrultu ayarlama düzeneği birbirini yedekleyen iki düzenekten oluşmaktadır: Güneşe göre doğrultu belirleyen otomatik bir düzenek ve elle işletilen görsel bir düzenek. Bunların ikisi de yine birbirini yedekleyen her biri 10'ar kg gaz içeren iki soğuk azot püskürtmeli roket sistemini denetlemektedir.
 06:53 UTC: Habarovsk istasyonu, Gagarin'e HF radyosuyla mesaj gönderir: "No 33'ün (kozmonot birliğinin komutanı General Kamanin) emriyle bu mesajı gönderiyoruz: Uçuş planlandığı gibi gidiyor ve yörünge hesaplandığı gibi." Vostok 1'in düzgün bir yörüngeye oturduğunu bildirmektedirler. Gagarin mesajı aldığını bildirir.
 06:57 UTC: Vostok 1 güney Büyük Okyanus üzerinde, Yeni Zelanda ile Şili arasındadır. Gagarin: "Uçuşa devam ediyorum ve Amerika'nın üzerindeyim..."
 07:00 UTC: Vostok 1 Güney Amerika'nın ucundaki Macellan Boğazı'nın üzerinden geçer. Bu sırada, Vostok 1 uçuşu Moskova radyosu tarafından duyurulmaktadır.
 07:04 UTC: Gagarin 06:48'dekine benzer bir uzay aracı durum raporu gönderir. Bu mesaj artık çok uzaktaki yer istasyonlarına ulaşmaz.
 07:09 UTC: Gagarin durum raporu gönderir, fakat rapor yer istasyonlarına ulaşmaz.
 07:10 UTC: Güney Atlas Okyanusu üzerinden geçen Vostok 1 tekrar güneşli alana girer. Retro ateşlemeye 15 dakika kalmıştır.
 07:13 UTC: Gagarin durum raporu gönderir, rapor Moskova istasyonu tarafından kısmen alınır: "Sizi iyi işitiyorum. Uçuş..."
 07:18 UTC: Gagarin durum raporu gönderir, fakat rapor yer istasyonlarına ulaşmaz.
 07:23 UTC: Gagarin durum raporu gönderir, fakat rapor yer istasyonlarına ulaşmaz.
 07:25 UTC: Vostok 1, retro ateşleme için doğru doğrultudadır. Araç Angola'nın Atlas Okyanusu kıyısına yaklaşırken retrolar 42 saniye boyunca ateşlenir. Ateşleme Rusya'daki planlanan iniş noktasından 8.000 km uzakta yapılmıştır.
 07:25 ila 07:35 UTC: Retro ateşlemeden on saniye sonra, yerden Vostok 1 aracına hizmet modülünü iniş modülünden ayırması için komut gönderilir. Bir kablo yumağı kopmaz ve ayrılmayı engeller. Uzay aracının iki modülü 10 dakika daha bağlı kalacaktır. Vostok 1, Afrika'nın batı sahilini geçer ve merkezi Afrika üzerinden Mısır'a doğru yoluna devam eder.
 07:35 UTC: Vostok 1 Mısır yakınlarında atmosfere girer. Aracın iki parçası bağlı kaldığı için aerodinamik olarak kararsızdır ve çılgınca dönmektedir. Sonunda kablo yumağı yanar ve iniş modülünü serbest bırakır. İniş modülü derhal uygun iniş doğrultusunu alır.
 07:35 ila 07:55 UTC: İniş Mısır ve Akdeniz üzerinden devam eder, Kıbrıs'ın batı kıyısından geçer ve Türkiye semalarına girer. Giderek alçalan Vostok 1, Karadeniz üzerinden geçerek Krasnodar yakınlarında Sovyetlere girer. Gagarin iniş sırasında 8 g'lik basınca maruz kalmıştır.
 07:55 UTC:''' Vostok 1, yerden 7 km yüksekliktedir. Giriş kapısı atılır ve Gagarin fırlatma koltuğuyla aracı terk eder. 2,5 km yükseklikte Vostok 1'in ana paraşütü açılır. Gagarin ve uzay aracı, uçuşun başlamasından 1 saat 48 dakika sonra Engels kentinin 26 km güneybatısında Saratov bölgesinde 51° K 46° D koordinatlarında yere inerler. Vostok 1'in iniş saati 07:55 UTC, Gagarin'inki (paraşütü çok daha yukarıda açıldığı için) 08:05 UTC'dir. Vostok 1'in inişini iki öğrenci kız görür, şu şekilde tarif ederler: "İki veya üç metre çapında dev bir toptu. Düştü, zıpladı, tekrar düştü. Yere ilk vurduğu yerde büyük bir çukur oluştu." Bir çiftçi ve kızı, gökyüzünden paraşütle inen tuhaf turuncu elbiseli, başında miğfer olan bir insan görürler. Gagarin olayı şöyle anlatır: "Beni uzay elbisemle ve arkamda sürüklenen paraşütle görünce korkuyla gerilediler. Onlara 'Korkmayın, ben de sizin gibi Sovyet'im, uzaydan indim ve Moskova'yı aramak için bir telefona ihtiyacım var.' dedim."''

Ayrıca bakınız
 Yuri Gagarin
 Sergey Korolyov
 Vostok programı

Notlar

Kaynakça

1
İnsanlı uzay uçuşları
1961'de Sovyetler Birliği
1961'de uzay çalışmaları
1960'larda fırlatılan uzay gemileri

Vostok 1


Heart 2 Heart war eine isländische Schlagerpop-Band, angeführt von den beiden Sängerinnen Sigríður Beinteinsdóttir und Sigrún Eva Ármannsdóttir.

Als Gewinner der isländischen Vorauswahl durfte die Gruppe beim Eurovision Song Contest 1992 in Malmö mit dem Popsong Nei eða já (dt.: Nein oder Ja) antreten. Sie erreichten Platz 7.

Einzelnachweise

Interpret eines isländischen Beitrags beim Eurovision Song Contest
Isländische Band
Popband

Heart 2 Heart


An Grosourdya quinquelobata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Schltr., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Leslie Andrew Garay. An Grosourdya quinquelobata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Grosourdya, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Sulawesi. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Grosourdya

Grosourdya quinquelobata