L'Orfeo (SV 318) (), sometimes called La favola d'Orfeo , is a late Renaissance/early Baroque favola in musica, or opera, by Claudio Monteverdi, with a libretto by Alessandro Striggio. It is based on the Greek legend of Orpheus, and tells the story of his descent to Hades and his fruitless attempt to bring his dead bride Eurydice back to the living world. It was written in 1607 for a court performance during the annual Carnival at Mantua. While Jacopo Peri's Dafne is generally recognised as the first work in the opera genre, and the earliest surviving opera is Peri's Euridice, L'Orfeo is the earliest that is still regularly performed.

By the early 17th century the traditional intermedio—a musical sequence between the acts of a straight play—was evolving into the form of a complete musical drama or "opera". Monteverdi's L'Orfeo moved this process out of its experimental era and provided the first fully developed example of the new genre. After its initial performance the work was staged again in Mantua, and possibly in other Italian centres in the next few years. Its score was published by Monteverdi in 1609 and again in 1615. After the composer's death in 1643 the opera went unperformed for many years, and was largely forgotten until a revival of interest in the late 19th century led to a spate of modern editions and performances. At first these performances tended to be concert (unstaged) versions within institutes and music societies, but following the first modern dramatised performance in Paris, in 1911, the work began to be seen in theatres. After the Second World War many recordings were issued, and the opera was increasingly staged in opera houses, although some leading venues resisted it. In 2007, the quatercentenary of the premiere was celebrated by performances throughout the world.

In his published score Monteverdi lists around 41 instruments to be deployed, with distinct groups of instruments used to depict particular scenes and characters. Thus strings, harpsichords and recorders represent the pastoral fields of Thrace with their nymphs and shepherds, while heavy brass illustrates the underworld and its denizens. Composed at the point of transition from the Renaissance era to the Baroque, L'Orfeo employs all the resources then known within the art of music, with particularly daring use of polyphony. The work is not orchestrated as such; in the Renaissance tradition instrumentalists followed the composer's general instructions but were given considerable freedom to improvise.

Historical background

Claudio Monteverdi, born in Cremona in 1567, was a musical prodigy who studied under Marc'Antonio Ingegneri, the maestro di cappella (head of music) at Cremona Cathedral. After training in singing, string playing and composition, Monteverdi worked as a musician in Verona and Milan until, in 1590 or 1591, he secured a post as suonatore di vivuola (viola player) at Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga's court at Mantua. Through ability and hard work Monteverdi rose to become Gonzaga's maestro della musica (master of music) in 1601.

Vincenzo Gonzaga's particular passion for musical theatre and spectacle grew from his family connections with the court of Florence. Towards the end of the 16th century innovative Florentine musicians were developing the intermedio—a long-established form of musical interlude inserted between the acts of spoken dramas—into increasingly elaborate forms. Led by Jacopo Corsi, these successors to the renowned Camerata were responsible for the first work generally recognised as belonging to the genre of opera: Dafne, composed by Corsi and Jacopo Peri and performed in Florence in 1598. This work combined elements of madrigal singing and monody with dancing and instrumental passages to form a dramatic whole. Only fragments of its music still exist, but several other Florentine works of the same period—Rappresentatione di Anima, et di Corpo by Emilio de' Cavalieri, Peri's Euridice and Giulio Caccini's identically titled Euridice—survive complete. These last two works were the first of many musical representations of the Orpheus myth as recounted in Ovid's Metamorphoses, and as such were direct precursors of Monteverdi's L'Orfeo.

The Gonzaga court had a long history of promoting dramatic entertainment. A century before Duke Vincenzo's time the court had staged Angelo Poliziano's lyrical drama La favola di Orfeo, at least half of which was sung rather than spoken. More recently, in 1598 Monteverdi had helped the court's musical establishment produce Giovanni Battista Guarini's play Il pastor fido, described by theatre historian Mark Ringer as a "watershed theatrical work" which inspired the Italian craze for pastoral drama. On 6 October 1600, while visiting Florence for the wedding of Maria de' Medici to King Henry IV of France, Duke Vincenzo attended the premiere of Peri's Euridice. It is likely that his principal musicians, including Monteverdi, were also present at this performance. The Duke quickly recognised the novelty of this new form of dramatic entertainment, and its potential for bringing prestige to those prepared to sponsor it.

Creation

Libretto
Among those present at the Euridice performance in October 1600 was a young lawyer and career diplomat from Gonzaga's court, Alessandro Striggio, son of a well-known composer of the same name. The younger Striggio was himself a talented musician; as a 16-year-old, he had played the viol at the wedding festivities of Duke Ferdinando of Tuscany in 1589. Together with Duke Vincent's two young sons, Francesco and Fernandino, he was a member of Mantua's exclusive intellectual society, the , which provided the chief outlet for the city's theatrical works. It is not clear at what point Striggio began his libretto for L'Orfeo, but work was evidently under way in January 1607. In a letter written on 5 January, Francesco Gonzago asks his brother, then attached to the Florentine court, to obtain the services of a high quality castrato from the Grand Duke's establishment, for a "play in music" being prepared for the Mantuan Carnival.

Striggio's main sources for his libretto were Books 10 and 11 of Ovid's Metamorphoses and Book Four of Virgil's Georgics. These provided him with the basic material, but not the structure for a staged drama; the events of acts 1 and 2 of the libretto are covered by a mere 13 lines in the Metamorphoses. For help in creating a dramatic form, Striggio drew on other sources—Poliziano's 1480 play, Guarini's Il pastor fido, and Ottavio Rinuccini's libretto for Peri's Euridice. Musicologist Gary Tomlinson remarks on the many similarities between Striggio's and Rinuccini's texts, noting that some of the speeches in L'Orfeo "correspond closely in content and even in locution to their counterparts in L'Euridice". The critic Barbara Russano Hanning writes that Striggio's verses are less subtle than those of Rinuccini, although the structure of Striggio's libretto is more interesting. Rinuccini, whose work had been written for the festivities accompanying a Medici wedding, was obliged to alter the myth to provide a "happy ending" suitable for the occasion. By contrast, because Striggio was not writing for a formal court celebration he could be more faithful to the spirit of the myth's conclusion, in which Orfeo is killed and dismembered by deranged maenads or "Bacchantes". He chose, in fact, to write a somewhat muted version of this bloody finale, in which the Bacchantes threaten Orfeo's destruction but his actual fate is left in doubt.

The libretto was published in Mantua in 1607 to coincide with the premiere and incorporated Striggio's ambiguous ending. However, Monteverdi's score published in Venice in 1609 by Ricciardo Amadino shows an entirely different resolution, with Orpheus transported to the heavens through the intervention of Apollo. According to Ringer, Striggio's original ending was almost certainly used at the opera's premiere, but there is no doubt that Monteverdi believed the revised ending was aesthetically correct. The musicologist Nino Pirrotta argues that the Apollo ending was part of the original plan for the work, but was not staged at the premiere because the small room which hosted the event could not contain the theatrical machinery that this ending required. The Bacchantes scene was a substitution; Monteverdi's intentions were restored when this constraint was removed.

Composition

When Monteverdi composed L'Orfeo he had a thorough grounding in theatrical music. He had been employed at the Gonzaga court for 16 years, much of it as a performer or arranger of stage music, and in 1604 he had written the ballo Gli amori di Diane ed Endimone for the 1604–05 Mantua Carnival. The elements from which Monteverdi constructed his first opera score—the aria, the strophic song, recitative, choruses, dances, dramatic musical interludes—were, as conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt has pointed out, not created by him, but "he blended the entire stock of newest and older possibilities into a unity that was indeed new". Musicologist Robert Donington writes similarly: "[The score] contains no element which was not based on precedent, but it reaches complete maturity in that recently developed form ... Here are words as directly expressed in music as [the pioneers of opera] wanted them expressed; here is music expressing them ... with the full inspiration of genius."

Monteverdi states the orchestral requirements at the beginning of his published score, but in accordance with the practice of the day he does not specify their exact usage. At that time it was usual to allow each interpreter of the work freedom to make local decisions, based on the orchestral forces at their disposal. These could differ sharply from place to place. Furthermore, as Harnoncourt points out, the instrumentalists would all have been composers and would have expected to collaborate creatively at each performance, rather than playing a set text. Another practice of the time was to allow singers to embellish their arias. Monteverdi wrote plain and embellished versions of some arias, such as Orfeo's "Possente spirto", but according to Harnoncourt "it is obvious that where he did not write any embellishments he did not want any sung".

Each act of the opera deals with a single element of the story, and each ends with a chorus. Despite the five-act structure, with two sets of scene changes, it is likely that L'Orfeo conformed to the standard practice for court entertainments of that time and was played as a continuous entity, without intervals or curtain descents between acts. It was the contemporary custom for scene shifts to take place in sight of the audience, these changes being reflected musically by changes in instrumentation, key and style.

Instrumentation

For the purpose of analysis the music scholar Jane Glover has divided Monteverdi's list of instruments into three main groups: strings, brass and continuo, with a few further items not easily classifiable. The strings grouping is formed from ten members of the violin family (viole da brazzo), two double basses (contrabassi de viola), and two kit violins (violini piccoli alla francese). The viole da brazzo are in two five-part ensembles, each comprising two violins, two violas and a cello. The brass group contains four or five trombones (sackbuts), three or four trumpets and two cornetts. The continuo forces include two harpsichords (duoi gravicembani), a double harp (arpa doppia), two or three chitarroni, two pipe organs (organi di legno), three bass viola da gamba, and a regal or small reed organ. Outside of these groupings are two recorders (flautini alla vigesima secunda), and possibly one or more citterns—unlisted by Monteverdi, but included in instructions relating to the end of act 4.

Instrumentally, the two worlds represented within the opera are distinctively portrayed. The pastoral world of the fields of Thrace is represented by the strings, harpsichords, harp, organs, recorders and chitarroni. The remaining instruments, mainly brass, are associated with the Underworld, though there is not an absolute distinction; strings appear on several occasions in the Hades scenes. Within this general ordering, specific instruments or combinations are used to accompany some of the main characters—Orpheus by harp and organ, shepherds by harpsichord and chitarrone, the Underworld gods by trombones and regal. All of these musical distinctions and characterisations were in accordance with the longstanding traditions of the Renaissance orchestra, of which the large L'Orfeo ensemble is typical.

Monteverdi instructs his players generally to "[play] the work as simply and correctly as possible, and not with many florid passages or runs". Those playing ornamentation instruments such as strings and flutes are advised to "play nobly, with much invention and variety", but are warned against overdoing it, whereby "nothing is heard but chaos and confusion, offensive to the listener". Since at no time are all the instruments played together, the number of players needed is less than the number of instruments. Harnoncourt indicates that in Monteverdi's day the numbers of players and singers together, and the small rooms in which performances were held, often meant that the audience barely numbered more than the performers.

Three of the instruments used in the original performance of L'Orfeo have had recent revivals: the cornetto (usually paired with sackbuts), the  (a multi-course harp with sharps and flats) and the regal (an organ with fractional-length reed pipes). Instrumental color was widely used in specific dramatic situations during the 17c: in particular the regal was associated with Hades.

Roles
In his personaggi listed in the 1609 score, Monteverdi unaccountably omits La messaggera (the Messenger), and indicates that the final chorus of shepherds who perform the moresca (Moorish dance) at the opera's end are a separate group (che fecero la moresca nel fine). Little information is available about who sang the various roles in the first performance. A letter published at Mantua in 1612 records that the distinguished tenor and composer Francesco Rasi took part, and it is generally assumed that he sang the title role. Rasi could sing in both the tenor and bass ranges "with exquisite style ... and extraordinary feeling". The involvement in the premiere of a Florentine castrato, Giovanni Gualberto Magli, is confirmed by correspondence between the Gonzaga princes. Magli sang the prologue, Proserpina and possibly one other role, either La messaggera or Speranza. The musicologist and historian Hans Redlich mistakenly allocates Magli to the role of Orfeo.

A clue about who played Euridice is contained in a 1608 letter to Duke Vincenzo. It refers to "that little priest who performed the role of Euridice in the Most Serene Prince's Orfeo". This priest was possibly Padre Girolamo Bacchini, a castrato known to have had connections to the Mantuan court in the early 17th century. The Monteverdi scholar Tim Carter speculates that two prominent Mantuan tenors, Pandolfo Grande and Francesco Campagnola may have sung minor roles in the premiere.

There are solo parts for four shepherds and three spirits. Carter calculates that through the doubling of roles that the text allows, a total of ten singers—three sopranos, two altos, three tenors and two basses—is required for a performance, with the soloists (except Orfeo) also forming the chorus. Carter's suggested role-doublings include La musica with Euridice, Ninfa with Proserpina and La messaggera with Speranza.

Synopsis
The action takes place in two contrasting locations: the fields of Thrace (acts 1, 2 and 5) and the Underworld (acts 3 and 4). An instrumental toccata (English: "tucket", meaning a flourish on trumpets) precedes the entrance of La musica, representing the "spirit of music", who sings a prologue of five stanzas of verse. After a gracious welcome to the audience she announces that she can, through sweet sounds, "calm every troubled heart". She sings a further paean to the power of music, before introducing the drama's main protagonist, Orfeo, who "held the wild beasts spellbound with his song".

Act 1
After La musica's final request for silence, the curtain rises on act 1 to reveal a pastoral scene. Orfeo and Euridice enter together with a chorus of nymphs and shepherds, who act in the manner of a Greek chorus, commenting on the action both as a group and as individuals. A shepherd announces that this is the couple's wedding day; the chorus responds, first in a stately invocation ("Come, Hymen, O come") and then in a joyful dance ("Leave the mountains, leave the fountains"). Orfeo and Euridice sing of their love for each other before leaving with most of the group for the wedding ceremony in the temple. Those left on stage sing a brief chorus, commenting on how Orfeo used to be one "for whom sighs were food and weeping was drink" before love brought him to a state of sublime happiness.

Act 2
Orfeo returns with the main chorus, and sings with them of the beauties of nature. Orfeo then muses on his former unhappiness, but proclaims: "After grief one is more content, after pain one is happier". The mood of contentment is abruptly ended when La messaggera enters, bringing the news that, while gathering flowers, Euridice has received a fatal snakebite. The chorus expresses its anguish: "Ah, bitter happening, ah, impious and cruel fate!", while the Messaggera castigates herself as the bearing of bad tidings ("For ever I will flee, and in a lonely cavern lead a life in keeping with my sorrow"). Orfeo, after venting his grief and incredulity ("Thou art dead, my life, and I am breathing?"), declares his intention to descend into the Underworld and persuade its ruler to allow Euridice to return to life. Otherwise, he says, "I shall remain with thee in the company of death". He departs, and the chorus resumes its lament.

Act 3
Orfeo is guided by Speranza to the gates of Hades. Having pointed out the words inscribed on the gate ("Abandon hope, all ye who enter here"), Speranza leaves. Orfeo is now confronted with the ferryman Caronte, who addresses Orfeo harshly and refuses to take him across the river Styx. Orfeo attempts to persuade Caronte by singing a flattering song to him ("Mighty spirit and powerful divinity"), and, although the ferryman is moved by his music ("Indeed thou charmest me, appeasing my heart"), he does not allow him to pass, claiming he is incapable of feeling pity. However, when Orfeo takes up his lyre and plays, Caronte is soothed into sleep. Seizing his chance, Orfeo steals the ferryman's boat and crosses the river, entering the Underworld while a chorus of spirits reflects that nature cannot defend herself against man: "He has tamed the sea with fragile wood, and disdained the rage of the winds."

Act 4
In the Underworld, Proserpina, Queen of Hades, who has been deeply affected by Orfeo's singing, petitions King Plutone, her husband, for Euridice's release. Moved by her pleas, Plutone agrees on the condition that, as he leads Euridice towards the world, Orfeo must not look back. If he does, "a single glance will condemn him to eternal loss". Orfeo enters, leading Euridice and singing confidently that on that day he will rest on his wife's white bosom. But as he sings a note of doubt creeps in: "Who will assure me that she is following?". Perhaps, he thinks, Plutone, driven by envy, has imposed the condition through spite? Suddenly distracted by an off-stage commotion, Orfeo looks round; immediately, the image of Euridice begins to fade. She sings, despairingly: "Losest thou me through too much love?" and disappears. Orfeo attempts to follow her but is drawn away by an unseen force. The chorus of spirits sings that Orfeo, having overcome Hades, was in turn overcome by his passions.

Act 5
Back in the fields of Thrace, Orfeo has a long soliloquy in which he laments his loss, praises Euridice's beauty and resolves that his heart will never again be pierced by Cupid's arrow. An off-stage echo repeats his final phrases. Suddenly, in a cloud, Apollo descends from the heavens and chastises him: "Why dost thou give thyself up as prey to rage and grief?" He invites Orfeo to leave the world and join him in the heavens, where he will recognise Euridice's likeness in the stars. Orfeo replies that it would be unworthy not to follow the counsel of such a wise father, and together they ascend. A shepherds' chorus concludes that "he who sows in suffering shall reap the fruit of every grace", before the opera ends with a vigorous moresca.

Original libretto ending
In Striggio's 1607 libretto, Orfeo's act 5 soliloquy is interrupted, not by Apollo's appearance but by a chorus of maenads or Bacchantes—wild, drunken women—who sing of the "divine fury" of their master, the god Bacchus. The cause of their wrath is Orfeo and his renunciation of women; he will not escape their heavenly anger, and the longer he evades them the more severe his fate will be. Orfeo leaves the scene and his destiny is left uncertain, as the Bacchantes devote themselves for the rest of the opera to wild singing and dancing in praise of Bacchus. The early music authority Claude Palisca believes that the two endings are not incompatible; Orfeo might evade the fury of the Bacchantes and be rescued by Apollo. However, this alternative ending in any case nearer to original classic myth, where the Bacchantes also appear, but it is made explicit that they torture him to his death, followed by reunion as a shade with Euridice but no apotheosis nor any interaction with Apollo.

Reception and performance history

Premiere and early performances

The date for the first performance of L'Orfeo, 24 February 1607, is evidenced by two letters, both dated 23 February. In the first, Francesco Gonzaga informs his brother that the "musical play" will be performed tomorrow; it is clear from earlier correspondence that this refers to L'Orfeo. The second letter is from a Gonzaga court official, Carlo Magno, and gives more details: "Tomorrow evening the Most Serene Lord the Prince is to sponsor a [play] in a room in the apartments which the Most Serene Lady had the use of ...it should be most unusual, as all the actors are to sing their parts." The "Serene Lady" is Duke Vincenzo's widowed sister Margherita Gonzaga d'Este, who lived within the Ducal Palace. The room of the premiere cannot be identified with certainty; according to Ringer, it may have been the Galleria dei Fiumi, which has the dimensions to accommodate a stage and orchestra with space for a small audience.

There is no detailed account of the premiere, although Francesco wrote on 1 March that the work had "been to the great satisfaction of all who heard it", and had particularly pleased the Duke. The Mantuan court theologian and poet, Cherubino Ferrari wrote that: "Both poet and musician have depicted the inclinations of the heart so skilfully that it could not have been done better ... The music, observing due propriety, serves the poetry so well that nothing more beautiful is to be heard anywhere". After the premiere Duke Vincenzo ordered a second performance for 1 March; a third performance was planned to coincide with a proposed state visit to Mantua by the Duke of Savoy. Francesco wrote to the Duke of Tuscany on 8 March, asking if he could retain the services of the castrato Magli for a little longer. However, the visit was cancelled, as was the celebratory performance.

There are suggestions that in the years following the premiere, L'Orfeo may have been staged in Florence, Cremona, Milan and Turin, though firmer evidence suggests that the work attracted limited interest beyond the Mantuan court. Francesco may have mounted a production in Casale Monferrato, where he was governor, for the 1609–10 Carnival, and there are indications that the work was performed on several occasions in Salzburg between 1614 and 1619, under the direction of Francesco Rasi. Years later, during the first flourish of Venetian opera in 1637–43, Monteverdi chose to revive his second opera, L'Arianna there, but not L'Orfeo. There is some evidence of performances shortly after Monteverdi's death: in Geneva in 1643, and in Paris, at the Louvre, in 1647. Although according to Carter the work was still admired across Italy in the 1650s, it was subsequently forgotten, as largely was Monteverdi, until the revival of interest in his works in the late 19th century.

20th-century revivals

After years of neglect, Monteverdi's music began to attract the interest of pioneer music historians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and from the second quarter of the 19th century onwards he is discussed increasingly in scholarly works. In 1881 a truncated version of the L'Orfeo score, intended for study rather than performance, was published in Berlin by Robert Eitner. In 1904 the composer Vincent d'Indy produced an edition in French, which comprised only act 2, a shortened act 3 and act 4. This edition was the basis of the first public performance of the work in two-and-a-half centuries, a concert performance at d'Indy's Schola Cantorum on 25 February 1904. The distinguished writer Romain Rolland, who was present, commended d'Indy for bringing the opera to life and returning it "to the beauty it once had, freeing it from the clumsy restorations which have disfigured it"—presumably a reference to Eitner's edition. The d'Indy edition was also the basis of the first modern staged performance of the work, at the Théâtre Réjane, Paris, on 2 May 1911.

An edition of the score by the minor Italian composer Giacomo Orefice (Milan, 1909) received several concert performances in Italy and elsewhere before and after the First World War. This edition was the basis of the opera's United States debut, another concert performance at the New York Met in April 1912. The opera was introduced to London, in d'Indy's edition, when it was sung to piano accompaniment at the Institut Français on 8 March 1924. The first British staged performance, with only small cuts, was given by the Oxford University Operatic Society on 7 December 1925, using an edition prepared for the event by Jack Westrup. In the London Saturday Review, music critic Dyneley Hussey called the occasion "one of the most important events of recent years"; the production had "indicated at once Monteverdi's claim to rank among the great geniuses who have written dramatic music". Westrup's edition was revived in London at the Scala Theatre in December 1929, the same year in which the opera received its first US staged performance, at Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts. The three Scala performances resulted in a financial disaster, and the opera was not seen again in Britain for 35 years.

Among a flurry of revivals after 1945 was Paul Hindemith's edition, a full period reconstruction of the work prepared in 1943, which was staged and recorded at the Vienna Festival in 1954. This performance had a great impact on the young Nikolaus Harnoncourt, and was hailed as a masterpiece of scholarship and integrity. The first staged New York performance, by the New York City Opera under Leopold Stokowski on 29 September 1960, saw the American operatic debut of Gérard Souzay, one of several baritones who have sung the role of Orfeo. The theatre was criticised by New York Times critic Harold C. Schonberg because, to accommodate a performance of Luigi Dallapiccola's contemporary opera Il prigioniero, about a third of L'Orfeo was cut. Schonberg wrote: "Even the biggest aria in the opera, 'Possente spirito', has a good-sized slash in the middle ... [L'Orfeo] is long enough, and important enough, not to mention beautiful enough, to have been the entire evening's opera."

By the latter part of the 20th century the opera was being shown all over the world. In 1965, Sadler's Wells, forerunner of English National Opera (ENO), staged the first of many ENO presentations which would continue into the 21st century. Among various celebrations marking the opera's 400th anniversary in 2007 were a semi-staged performance at the Teatro Bibiena in Mantua, a full-scale production by the English Bach Festival (EBF) at the Whitehall Banqueting House in London on 7 February, and an unconventional production by Glimmerglass Opera in Cooperstown, New York, conducted by Antony Walker and directed by Christopher Alden. On 6 May 2010 the BBC broadcast a performance of the opera from La Scala, Milan. Despite the reluctance of some major opera houses to stage L'Orfeo, it is a popular work with the leading Baroque ensembles. During the period 2008–10, the French-based Les Arts Florissants, under its director William Christie, presented the Monteverdi trilogy of operas (L'Orfeo, Il ritorno d'Ulisse and L'incoronazione di Poppea) in a series of performances at the Teatro Real in Madrid.

Music

L'Orfeo is, in Redlich's analysis, the product of two musical epochs. It combines elements of the traditional madrigal style of the 16th century with those of the emerging Florentine mode, in particular the use of recitative and monodic singing as developed by the Camerata and their successors. In this new style, the text dominates the music; while sinfonias and instrumental ritornelli illustrate the action, the audience's attention is always drawn primarily to the words. The singers are required to do more than produce pleasant vocal sounds; they must represent their characters in depth and convey appropriate emotions.

Monterverdi's recitative style was influenced by Peri's, in Euridice, although in L'Orfeo recitative is less preponderant than was usual in dramatic music at this time. It accounts for less than a quarter of the first act's music, around a third of the second and third acts, and a little under half in the final two acts.

The importance of L'Orfeo is not that it was the first work of its kind, but that it was the first attempt to apply the full resources of the art of music, as then evolved, to the nascent genre of opera. In particular, Monteverdi made daring innovations in the use of polyphony, of which Palestrina had been the principal exponent. In L'Orfeo, Monteverdi extends the rules, beyond the conventions which polyphonic composers, faithful to Palestrina, had previously considered as sacrosanct. Monteverdi was not in the generally understood sense an orchestrator; Ringer finds that it is the element of instrumental improvisation that makes each performance of a Monteverdi opera a "unique experience, and separates his work from the later operatic canon".

The opera begins with a martial-sounding toccata for trumpets which is repeated twice. When played on period wind instruments the sound can be startling to modern audiences; Redlich calls it "shattering". Such flourishes were the standard signal for the commencement of performances at the Mantuan court; the opening chorus of Monteverdi's 1610 Vespers, also composed for Gonzaga's court, employs the same fanfare. The toccata acted as a salute to the Duke; according to Donington, if it had not been written, precedent would have required it to be improvised. As the brass sound of the toccata fades, it is replaced by the gentler tone of the strings ritornello which introduces La musica's prologue. The ritornello is repeated in shortened form between each of the prologue's five verses, and in full after the final verse. Its function within the opera as a whole is to represent the "power of music"; as such it is heard at the end of act 2, and again at the beginning of act 5, one of the earliest examples of an operatic leitmotiv. It is temporally structured as a palindrome and its form of strophic variations allows Monteverdi to carefully shape musical time for expressive and structural purposes in the context of seconda prattica.

After the prologue, act 1 follows in the form of a pastoral idyll. Two choruses, one solemn and one jovial are repeated in reverse order around the central love-song "Rosa del ciel" ("Rose of the heavens"), followed by the shepherds' songs of praise. The buoyant mood continues into act 2, with song and dance music influenced, according to Harnoncourt, by Monteverdi's experience of French music. The sudden entrance of La messaggera with the doleful news of Euridice's death, and the confusion and grief which follow, are musically reflected by harsh dissonances and the juxtaposition of keys. The music remains in this vein until the act ends with La musica's ritornello, a hint that the "power of music" may yet bring about a triumph over death. Monteverdi's instructions as the act concludes are that the violins, the organ and harpsichord become silent and that the music is taken up by the trombones, the cornetts and the regal, as the scene changes to the Underworld.

The centrepiece of act 3, perhaps of the entire opera, is Orfeo's extended aria "Possente spirto e formidabil nume" ("Mighty spirit and powerful divinity"), by which he attempts to persuade Caronte to allow him to enter Hades. Monteverdi's vocal embellishments and virtuoso accompaniment provide what Carter describes as "one of the most compelling visual and aural representations" in early opera. Instrumental colour is provided by a chitarrone, a pipe-organ, two violins, two cornetts and a double-harp. This array, according to music historian and analyst John Whenham, is intended to suggest that Orfeo is harnessing all the available forces of music to support his plea. In act 4 the impersonal coldness of the Underworld is broken by the warmth of Proserpina's singing on behalf of Orfeo, a warmth that is retained until the dramatic moment at which Orfeo "looks back". The cold sounds of the sinfonia from the beginning of act 3 then remind us that the Underworld is, after all, entirely devoid of human feeling. The brief final act, which sees Orfeo's rescue and metamorphosis, is framed by the final appearance of La musica's ritornello and the lively moresca that ends the opera. This dance, says Ringer, recalls the jigs danced at the end of Shakespeare's tragedies, and provides a means of bringing the audience back to their everyday world, "just as the toccata had led them into another realm some two hours before. The toccata and the moresca unite courtly reality with operatic illusion."

Recording history

The first recording of L'Orfeo was issued in 1939, a freely adapted version of Monteverdi's music by Giacomo Benvenuti, given by the orchestra of La Scala Milan conducted by Ferrucio Calusio. In 1949, for the recording of the complete opera by the Berlin Radio Orchestra conducted by Helmut Koch, the new medium of long-playing records (LPs) was used. The advent of LP recordings was, as Harold C. Schonberg later wrote, an important factor in the postwar revival of interest in Renaissance and Baroque music, and from the mid-1950s recordings of L'Orfeo have been issued on many labels. The 1969 recording by Nikolaus Harnoncourt and the Vienna Concentus Musicus, using Harnoncourt's edition based on period instruments, was praised for "making Monteverdi's music sound something like the way he imagined". In 1981 Siegfried Heinrich, with the Early Music Studio of the Hesse Chamber Orchestra, recorded a version which re-created the original Striggio libretto ending, adding music from Monteverdi's 1616 ballet Tirsi e Clori for the Bacchante scenes. Among more recent recordings, that of Emmanuelle Haïm in 2004 has been praised for its dramatic effect.

Editions
After the publication of the L'Orfeo score in 1609, the same publisher (Ricciardo Amadino of Venice) brought it out again in 1615. Facsimiles of these editions were printed in 1927 and 1972 respectively. Since Eitner's first "modern" edition of L'Orfeo in 1884, and d'Indy's performing edition 20 years later—both of which were abridged and adapted versions of the 1609 score—there have been many attempts to edit and present the work, not all of them published. Most of the editions that followed d'Indy up to the time of the Second World War were arrangements, usually heavily truncated, that provided a basis for performances in the modern opera idiom. Many of these were the work of composers, including Carl Orff (1923 and 1939) and Ottorino Respighi in 1935. Orff's 1923 score, using a German text, included some period instrumentation, an experiment he abandoned when producing his later version.

In the post-war period, editions have moved increasingly to reflect the performance conventions of Monteverdi's day. This tendency was initiated by two earlier editions, that of Jack Westrup used in the 1925 Oxford performances, and Gian Francesco Malipiero's 1930 complete edition which sticks closely to Monteverdi's 1609 original. After the war, Hindemith's attempted period reconstruction of the work was followed in 1955 by an edition from August Wenzinger that remained in use for many years. The next 30 years saw numerous editions, mostly prepared by scholar-performers rather than by composers, generally aiming towards authenticity if not always the complete re-creation of the original instrumentation. These included versions by Raymond Leppard (1965), Denis Stevens (1967), Nikolaus Harnoncourt (1969), Jane Glover (1975), Roger Norrington (1976) and John Eliot Gardiner. Only the composers Valentino Bucchi (1967), Bruno Maderna (1967) and Luciano Berio (1984) produced editions based on the convention of a large modern orchestra. In the 21st century editions continue to be produced, often for use in conjunction with a particular performance or recording.

Notes and references

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

 L'Orfeo libretto in Italian with English translation
 L'Orfeo libretto in German translation

Operas by Claudio Monteverdi
Pastoral operas
Italian-language operas
Operas
1607 operas
Operas about Orpheus
Operas based on Metamorphoses
Proserpina

L'Orfeo


Ghania Hammadou est une journaliste et romancière algérienne née en 1953 à Alger.

Membre de l'équipe ayant relancé le quotidien Alger Républicain en 1989, elle participe à la création du journal Le Matin et en devient la première rédactrice en chef.

Elle quitte l'Algérie en 1993 à cause de la guerre civile et s'exile en France où elle se lance dans l'écriture de romans. Son œuvre est fortement teintée par la migration dans un contexte de guerre et à la condamnation de la violence.

Biographie

Jeunesse et études
Ghania Hammadou naît en 1953 dans la banlieue d'Alger et émigre avec sa famille dans une cité ouvrière du nord de la France à l'âge de six ans. Elle y passe son baccalauréat et poursuit ses études en droit.

Elle retourne en Algérie en 1974 pour étudier à l'École normale de journalisme d'Alger jusqu'en 1978.

Carrière journalistique
Ghania Hammadou commence sa carrière de journaliste à l'hebdomadaire Révolution Africaine où elle travaille jusqu'en 1989. Elle le quitte pour participer à la relance du quotidien Alger Républicain.

En septembre 1991, elle cofonde Le Matin avec une équipe constituée autour de Mohamed Nenchicou. Elle en devient la première rédactrice en chef.

En 1993, à la suite de nombreuses menaces de mort et de l'assassinat de quatre confrères, elle quitte le journal et l'Algérie pour retourner en France.

Carrière littéraire
Ghania Hammadou se lance dans l'écriture de romans à partir de son arrivée en France. Le premier jour d'éternité, publié en 1997 dans la revue Algérie – littérature – action puis chez Marsa édition est étroitement lié à la réalité historique de l'Algérie des années 1990 et sa décennie noire. Inspiré par sa propre histoire, il met en scène Myriem, journaliste exilée et confrontée à l'assassinat de son amant Aziz, homme de théâtre exécuté par des terroristes. Elle s'insurge contre la folie meurtrière qui s'est emparée du pays.

Dans son second roman, Paris plus loin que la France, publié en 2001 chez Paris Méditerranée, Ghania Hammadou reprend le thème de la migration forcée mais cette fois dans le contexte de la guerre d'Algérie. Le récit est porté par des personnages féminins dont Mériem, cinq ans et sa mère Zahra. Il présente la situation de la femme algérienne au sein de sa famille ainsi que dans la société ainsi que les difficultés auxquelles étaient souvent confrontés les immigrés de la première génération.

Ghania Hammadou publie en 2004 Bab-Errih : La Porte du vent chez Paris-Méditerranée, un roman dans lequel elle revient à l'époque de la guerre civile algérienne à travers deux personnages féminins, Selma, une femme algérienne qui refuse de quitter le pays par solidarité et Hélène, une journaliste française.

Publications

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Références

Liens externes

Naissance en 1953
Naissance à Alger
Femme de lettres algérienne

Ghania Hammadou


55P/Tempel-Tuttle, komet Halleyeve vrste, objekt blizu Zemlji.

Roditeljsko je tijelo meteroskog pljuska Leonida. Godine 1699. promatrao ga je Gottfried Kirch ali nije priznat kao periodični komet sve to Tempelovog i Tuttleovog otkrića tijekom perihela 1866. godine. Godine 1933. S. Kanda deducirao je da je komet iz 1366. Tempel–Tuttle, što je potvrdio Joachim Schubart 1965. godine. 26. listopada 1366. godine komet je prošao 0,0229 AJ (3,430 milijuna km) od Zemlje.

Putanja kometa 55P/Tempel–Tuttle skoro točno presijeca Zemljinu putanju, stoga potoci materijala otpala s kometa tijekom prolaza perihela ne moraju se vremenim raspršiti da bi naišli na Zemlju. Komet trenutno ima Zemljin MOID od 0,008 AJ (1,2 milijuna km). Ova podudarnost znači da potoci materijala s kometa na perihelu su još uvijek gusti kad susretnu Zemlju, čiji je ishod 33-godišnji ciklus Leonidskih meteorskih oluja. Primjerice studenoga 2009. Zemlja je prošla kroz meteore zaostale iza orbita, uglavnom onih iz 1466. i 1533. godine.

Veljače 2016. za dva je bolida koja je otkrila Nasina All-Sky Fireball Network izračunato da su im orbite konzistentne s onim od kometa 55P, premda s čvorom 100 stupnjeva manjih od 55P. Razlog ovomu tek treba otkriti.

Za 55P/Tempel–Tuttle se procijenilo da mu je jezgra mase 1,2 kg i promjera 1,8 km te "potočni" dio mase 5 kg.

Vidi
C/1983 H1, komet IRAS–Araki–Alcock (blizu prišao Zemlji 1983.)
D/1770 L1, Lexellov komet (izgubljeni komet, blizu prišao zemlji 1770.)
252P/LINEAR (blizu prišao Zemlji 2016.)
P/2016 BA14 (blizu prišao Zemlji 2016.)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Kronkova kometografija  (eng.)

Kometi

55P/Tempel-Tuttle


Republika Hrvatska i Republika Kazahstan održavaju diplomatske odnose od 20. listopada 1992. Veleposlanstvo Republike Hrvatske u Republici Kazahstanu, sa sjedištem u Nursultanu, osnovano je 2015. godine, a svečano je otvoreno 2019. godine. Od uspostave diplomatskih odnosa do 2014. godine Veleposlanstvo Republike Hrvatske u Ankari bilo je nadležno za bilateralne odnose s Kazahstanom, a od 2014. do uspostave novog Veleposlanstvo, Veleposlanstvo Republike Hrvatske u Moskvi bilo je nadležno za Kazahstan. Dužnost izvanrednog i opunomoćenog veleposlanika Republike Hrvatske u Republici Kazahstanu od 1. studenoga 2018. godine obnaša Refik Šabanović.

Veleposlanici

Vidi još
Ministarstvo vanjskih i europskih poslova Republike Hrvatske

Vanjske poveznice
 Kazahstan na stranici MVEP-a

Izvori

Kazahstan

Popis hrvatskih veleposlanika u Kazahstanu


Mildura ( ) is a regional city in north-west Victoria, Australia. Located on the Victorian side of the Murray River, Mildura had a population of 34,565 in 2021. When nearby Wentworth, Irymple, Nichols Point, Merbein and Red Cliffs are included, the combined urban area had a population of 58,914 in 2021, having grown marginally at an average annual rate of 1.3% year-on-year over the preceding five years.

Mildura is the largest settlement in the Sunraysia region, where around 90% of Australia's table grape exports are grown. Likewise, it is a major horticultural centre notable for its overall (table, sultana and wine) grape production, supplying about 80% of Victoria's grapes. Many wineries also source grapes from Mildura. It is very close to the New South Wales border, the Murray River, from which it draws an abundant supply of irrigation water. It is known as Australia's first 'irrigation colony'.

The city's central business district is located just a short distance from the banks of the Murray. Langtree Avenue is the main shopping and dining precinct in Mildura, with the middle section of the street a pedestrian mall. The other major retail precinct is along Fifteenth Street in the Mildura South area, where a mid-sized undercover shopping mall and several big box stores are located. The city's name was taken from the Mildura homestead, an early sheep station which covered most of the area. The urban area of Mildura is surrounded by irrigated horticulture, where the original grape and citrus blocks were located with water irrigated from the Murray River.

History
Mildura has a long history of orange and grape farming, and an even longer history of Aboriginal occupation. This includes the Latje Latje and Barkindji (also known as Paakantji) peoples, amongst others, being the original inhabitants of present-day Mildura.

Toponymy
There are several theories as to the origin of the name Mildura. While it was the name of the sheep station, without precedent in the English language, most historians believe it to have originated from Aboriginal Australian words. However, the etymology of Mildura is not certain, as in several local dialects, the words mill and dura have different meanings. The word dura is generally thought to mean "earth", "sand" or "rock" in the local Ladji Ladji language. However, usage of the word mill varies by dialect and may mean "red" or "water", and thus, interpretations of the name can vary from "red earth" to "water rock".

Prehistory and European settlement

Many Aboriginal people lived around the site of Mildura because of the abundant food. Local tribes included the Latjilatji and Jarijari.

The first Europeans in the area arrived in 1857 and brought sheep to graze the rich pastures.

Irrigation settlement
A major drought in Victoria from 1877 to 1884 prompted Alfred Deakin, then a minister in the State Government and chairman of a Royal Commission on water supply, to visit the irrigation areas of California. There he met George and William Chaffey.

In 1886, Canadian-American irrigator George Chaffey came to Australia and selected a derelict sheep station known as Mildura as the site for his first irrigation settlement, signing an agreement with the Victorian government to spend at least £300,000 on permanent improvements at Mildura in the next twenty years.

After much political wrangling, the settlement of Mildura was established in 1887. The Post Office opened on 23 January 1888.

Growth

The nearby towns of Wentworth, Gol Gol, Curlwaa and Yelta sprang up in the mid-to-late 19th century. In the 1890s came the scourge of the rabbit. This devastated the sheep farmers, especially south of the Murray. There was also a financial recession at this time. Combined, these factors restricted growth of the new settlement.

After this period, the new settlement grew and grew. It was soon the main town of the district. Suburbs and new satellite towns sprang up. From the 1920s, a number of 'suburban' train services were established to Merbein and Red Cliffs. These were operated by railcars.

In 1934 Mildura was officially proclaimed a city.

Post war Mildura experienced a large influx of migrants particularly from European and Mediterranean countries including Italy and Greece. Many of these migrants were attracted by the unskilled labour offered by the fruit picking industry.

Nowingi toxic waste proposal

In 2004 there was a controversial proposal by the Victorian Government to build a state-level Long Term Containment Facility (LTCF) for Industrial Waste in Nowingi, approximately 50 km south of Mildura. The site is a small enclave of state forest surrounded by national park, and contains habitat important to a number of threatened species.

The abandoning of the LTCF proposal was received with jubilation by opponents of the LTCF, not only in the Mildura area and elsewhere in Victoria, but also across the border in South Australia where there were fears that the toxic waste might affect the water supply via the Murray River and thereby the fruit-growing industries of the Riverland and Murraylands.

The Mildura Rural City Council and residents spent almost $2 million fighting the Government's proposal for the LTCF at Nowingi. On 10 January 2007 the Victorian Government did not rule out some form of reimbursement for the council's legal and other costs in opposing the LTCF. "The general rule is that people bear their own costs, that is most likely to apply in this case ... but I've indicated and I am prepared to talk to the council and mayor about the whole issue of how Mildura moves forward and I'll do that," John Thwaites said.

Geography

Topography
Mildura is situated on flat land without hills or mountains on the southern bank of the Murray River and surrounded to the west, north and east by lakes and billabongs including Lake Hawthorn, Lake Ranfurly and Lake Gol Gol. Several towns surround Mildura on the flat plains including Merbein to the west as well as Irymple and Red Cliffs to the south which could be considered suburban areas or satellite towns separated by small stretches of open farmland.

While the land along the river and irrigation channels is fertile, much of the land around Mildura is also dry, saline and semi-arid.

Urban structure

Mildura is a largely low-rise and low density urban area that is overwhelmingly dependent upon private automobiles for transportation. Residential dwellings consist almost solely of single-family detached homes on relatively large allotments. The population has been growing rapidly for several decades with most of the residential growth occurring in the south, south western and more recently the eastern parts of the urban area.

The central business district (CBD) is located at the northern end of the urban area, fronting onto the Murray River. The main shopping street of Mildura is Langtree Avenue, which features a pedestrian mall and shopping centre. The area between Seventh and Eight Streets is known as Feast Street, and is home to many boutique eateries and beverage dispensaries. The combined (CBD) area, known as City Heart, complements the Mildura Central Shopping Centre, located at the opposite end of the urban area on the corner of Fifteenth Street and Deakin Avenue. The latter, so named after Alfred Deakin, 'the Victorian Cabinet Minister who introduced the concept of an irrigated settlement in Australia', itself runs around twelve kilometres in a south-west direction from Seventh Street before terminating in peri-urban farmland. Fifteenth Street is the main strip of big box stores, car dealerships and other commercial enterprises.

The tallest buildings are exemplified by the two-storey 1934 Old Mildura Base Hospital, two-storey Marina Dockside apartments completed in 2010 and the three-storey tower/spire of the 1920s T&G building. Other notable tall structures that serve as literal landmarks in the city include the 'new' water tower, built in the 1950s, and the 'old' water tower, now partially subsumed by a hotel.

Climate
Mildura has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk) with hot summers and cool winters. It is only about 50 metres above sea level despite being several hundred kilometres from the coast.

Rainfall totals are about 280 mm a year and are spread evenly across the months and seasons with Winter and Spring having the most rainy days.

Average maximum temperatures range from a hot  in summer to a mild  in winter. Minimum temperatures range from around  in summer to  in winter, when frost is common and often destructive to irrigated crops. Mildura experiences some very hot days in summer with temperatures exceeding 40 °C (104 °F) on a number of days per year, however are at times succeeded by cold fronts off the Bight.

Mildura got record daily rainfall on 5 February 2011 with .

Economy

Fruit and wine production

Mildura is also known as the centre of Victoria's Food Bowl and is a major producer of citrus fruits (especially oranges), and wine. It is also notable for its grape production, supplying 80% of Victoria's grapes. Many wineries also source grapes from Mildura. The local area produces more than 70% of Australia's dried vine fruits.

Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone
Mildura is part of the Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone, in which fruits or vegetables may not be taken into the area (they can, however, be taken out). This is to stop the Queensland fruit fly from invading crops and plantations which could have a devastating effect on the economy. Disposal bins into which fruit can be disposed of are located along highways entering the zone.

Tourism

Tourism is a A$210 million industry in Mildura. However, a large percentage (30%) are domestic tourists visiting friends or relatives.

The city's situation on the Murray River makes it a hub for watersports, paddlesteamers and boat cruises. The still conditions make Mildura ideal for hot air ballooning and the Mildura International Balloon Fiesta attracts many visitors. The Australian Inland Botanic Gardens, located nearby in Mourquong is another popular attraction which draws visitors to the city.

Mildura Central
Mildura Central's (formerly Centro Mildura) extensive redevelopment in 2005 has positioned the centre as the major shopping destination within the Sunraysia region. Mildura Central is also the only fully enclosed, air-conditioned shopping centre in this area and offers a retail mix including representation from a number of national fashion stores. Serving a primary trade area population of 60,000 residents, Mildura Central also receives consumers from beyond the trade area including the Riverland, Swan Hill, Robinvale and Broken Hill. It includes a large Target, a Big W to the side of Mildura Central, a 19 aisle Woolworths and a Coles supermarket across the road. Other retailers in Mildura Central include JB Hi-Fi, Kaisercraft, Jay Jays and EB Games.

Development proposals

Mildura's location in Victoria and consistently strong local lobbying have seen the Government of Victoria take an interest in the city as a possible centre for population and industry decentralisation programs. There have been numerous proposals involving the state government for large scale developments and investments, many ambitious and speculative that have been shelved indefinitely.

Given the large amount of sunlight Mildura receives, it is the site for several proposals for large scale solar power in Australia including a massive solar updraft tower proposal in 2004 and 2010. In 2013, Mildura Solar Concentrator Power Station, a 1.5 MW demonstration plant, was commissioned by Silex Systems and it was expected to be expanded to 100 MW by 2017. However, in August 2014, the project was abandoned by Silex, due to lack of commitment to renewable energy by the Abbott government. The government's plans to scrap the praised Renewable Energy Target (RET) in Australia were cited as one of the main reasons for abandoning the project. International scientists criticised this decision extensively, claiming Australia risks being "left behind the rest of the world" if it cuts its plans for renewable energy. The decision to not build the plant may also cause electricity prices to rise significantly in the country.

Another large development which has been controversial was the proposal for Mildura to be the site for Victoria's second casino.

Culture

Since early settlement Mildura has been home to artists, writers and creative people. Organisations such as the Red Cliffs Musical Society, Eisteddfod, Mildura Ballet Guild and Mildura Country Music Festival have helped grow a reputation for home grown talent and creative community. The hub of this community is the Mildura Arts Centre, which began as a gallery space at Rio Vista House in the 1950s and became fully established in 1956 with the building of a new regional art gallery and performing arts theatre. In 2012, after two years of construction, the new Mildura Arts Centre opened.

Mildura is host to many annual festivals such as the Mildura Country Music Festival, the International Balloon Fiesta, the Jazz Food & Wine Festival, Mildura Wentworth Arts Festival, Murray River International Music Festival, Mildura Writers Festival, Mildura Palimpsest, and the Mildura Show. There is also the annual Mildura masters coarse fishing competition held in November which attracts a number of international and local coarse anglers and the Australian Alternative Varieties Wine Show

Demographics

As of the , there were 34,565 people residing in 15,694 households. Indigenous Australians make up 5.5% of Mildura's population. 75.2% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were Malaysia 2.6%, India 1.5%, England 1.3%, Italy 1.0%, and Vietnam 0.9%. 76.7% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 2.3%, Italian 1.4%, Vietnamese 1.1%, Turkish 1.1% and Punjabi 0.9%. The most common responses for religion were No Religion, so described 41.4%, Catholic 19.1% and Anglican 8.3%.

Crime
In 2018 Mildura recorded the highest rural crime rate in Victoria and the fourth highest crime rate in the state overall.

Organised Crime
Mildura has long been associated with the Calabrian Mafia, with claims made by police in 1966 that annual organised crime meetings were held in Mildura to co-ordinate nationwide criminal activities. In a 1960s National Anti-Mafia Directorate report by John T. Cusack (United States' Bureau of Narcotics) and Ugo Macera (assistant commissioner of police in Calabria) claims were made that the "ancient Calabrian Secret Criminal Society known as the L'Onorata Societa" and the "'Ndrangheta" were operating "throughout the State, with large segments in the fruit growing and farming areas of Mildura and Shepparton" adding that "There are reports the Society has existed in Victoria since 1930". They have reportedly been involved in revenge killings, cannabis production and weapons purchases.

During the 1980s the Mildura Mafia emerged as a major crime group that dominated marijuana production in Australia and ran an Australia-wide money-laundering network. Several notable mafia murders have been linked to the region including the suspected mafia hit on 43-year-old Marco Medici in 1983, police believe the murder may be connected to the assassination of anti-drug crusader Donald MacKay at Griffith in 1977. The 1984 murders of Melbourne gangsters Rocco Medici and Giuseppe Furina are also connected to Mildura through the Medici family. In 1982, 42-year-old Mildura greengrocer Dominic Marafiote and his parents were murdered after Marafiote gave South Australian police the names of Calabrian mafia bosses in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. In 2016 Mildura residents Nicola Ciconte, Vincenzo Medici and Michael Calleja were convicted and sentenced in Italy for their role in a plot to smuggle up to 500 kilograms of cocaine into Australia.

Ice epidemic

Mildura has recorded significantly higher than average rates of methamphetamine use. Rural methamphetamine use overall is 2.5 times higher than in metropolitan areas. Prior to 2010 rates of use of illicit drugs in rural areas were significantly lower than those in the cities.

In 2014, a Mildura-based Comancheros Motorcycle Club member and former Australian Defence Force (ADF) sniper, Joshua Faulkhead, was arrested after being caught transporting large quantities of methamphetamine, cocaine and ecstasy between Sydney and Mildura. Faulkhead was sentenced to nine years and five months in jail.

In 2015, 20 people were involved in a large drug trafficking operation in Mildura in north-west Victoria. Methamphetamine, marijuana and ecstasy were seized in raids. The drugs seized were reported to be worth more than $15,000. $20,000 in cash were seized and a number of weapons were also seized. Later that same year, Stephen Gillard and Geoffrey Hitchen from South Penrith, were arrested for possession of $300,000 worth of methamphetamines in scrubland off the Mallee Highway at Tutye, west of Ouyen. Local farmers uncovered plastic fruit juice bottles containing the drugs after noticing the men behaving strangely the previous day.

In 2017, a joint Australian Federal Police (AFP) and United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) investigation lead to the seizure of $2.4 million in cash at the Mildura Airport, after 255 kilograms crystal methamphetamine were found at a storage facility in Northern California in June. The bust was part of an investigation into an alleged conspiracy to use a light plane to export drugs from the US to Australia. The 72-year-old pilot, a 52-year-old man from Zetland, and a 58-year-old Melbourne man were charged with conspiracy to import a commercial quantity of border controlled drugs and money laundering offences. The crystal methamphetamine was reported to be worth $255 million. Those arrests were connected to $2.4 million which was found in Mildura, in a prime mover that was driven from Adelaide in April.

Notable people
Notable people from Mildura include:

 Leigh Adams, retired motorcycle speedway rider. Ten time Australian Solo Champion and the 1992 World Under-21 Champion. Including juniors, Adams won a total of 16 Australian championships and 4 World Championships.
 Jason Akermanis, Australian rules footballer. Won the 2001 Brownlow Medal.
 Adam Bland, PGA tour golfer.
 Jason Crump, retired Motorcycle speedway rider. Australia's only triple Speedway World Champion (2004, 2006 and 2009).
 Phil Crump, retired motorcycle speedway rider. The father of Jason Crump, he is a four time Australian Solo Champion and thirteen time Victorian champion.
 Matt Dea, Australian rules footballer. Currently plays for the Essendon Football Club in the Australian Football League.
 Ken Duncan, OAM, Australian landscape photographer.
 Patricia Edgar, founding director of the Australian Children's Television Foundation.
 Ted Hill (1915–1988), barrister and communist activist.
 Rick Kelly, V8 Supercar driver. 2001 Australian Drivers' Champion, 2006 V8 Supercar Champion, and 2003 and 2004 Bathurst 1000 winner.
 Todd Kelly, V8 Supercar driver. Winner of the 2003 Bathurst 24 Hour and 2005 Bathurst 1000.
 Sam Kerridge, former Australian rules footballer. Played for the Carlton Football Club.
Ben Knight, senior reporter at the Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
 Matthew Knights, former Richmond Football Club captain and former Essendon Football Club coach.
 Mark Lee, 1980 Premiership player and 1984 Jack Dyer Medalist, Richmond Football Club
 Jason Lyons, retired motorcycle speedway rider. 1999 Speedway World Team Cup and 2002 Speedway World Cup winner and a three time Victorian Champion.
 Kris McCarthy, Olympic middle-distance runner.
 Ron McEwin, (1928–1979) former Essendon VFL player.
 Warren Monson (1975–2023), sidecar speedway rider. Two times winner of the FIM Speedway Sidecar World Cup.
 Lochie O'Brien, Carlton AFL player.
 Ellen Sandell, politician and environmentalist, currently deputy leader of the Victorian Greens.
 Ariel Steinberg, Australian rules footballer currently playing for the Essendon Football Club.
 Colin Sylvia, former Melbourne Football Club and Fremantle Football Club midfielder.
 Chris Tarrant, Collingwood Football Club defender.
 Robbie Tarrant, Australian rules footballer
 Cameron Waters, racing driver.
 Josh Waters, Superbike rider, Suzuki works rider for 2014, winner of race 2 Brands Hatch BSB, 20 July 2014.
 Dale Weightman, Richmond Football Club 1978–1993.
 Julia Zaetta, editor of Better Homes and Gardens.
 Tania Zaetta, actress and television presenter.
 Dylan Stephens, Sydney Swans AFL player.

Media
Local newspapers include the Sunraysia Daily, Mildura Midweek and Mildura Weekly. Online news sources include the Mildura Independent Star and River 1467 AM News. Local radio stations include ABC Local Radio (National), River 1467 AM (3ML) (Commercial), 97.9 Sun FM Sunraysia (Commercial), 99.5 Star FM (Commercial), and Hot FM (Community).

Local TV stations include ABC TV, SBS TV, Seven, WIN Television (9), Mildura Digital Television (10), 7two, 7mate, 7flix, 7Bravo, 9Go!, 9Gem, 9Life, ABC TV Plus, ABC Kids, ABC Me, ABC News, SBS HD, SBS Viceland, SBS World Movies, SBS Food, NITV, SBS WorldWatch, 10 Bold and 10 Peach.

Of the three main commercial networks, Seven News produces short local news and weather updates throughout the day, broadcast from its Canberra studios. WIN Mildura produced half-hour WIN News bulletins for the Sunraysia region until May 2015.

The Sunraysia region, including the city of Mildura, was the first region in Australia to switch off analogue TV broadcast in the implementation of the country's DTV transition process.

Sport

Mildura has nine Australian rules football teams competing in the Sunraysia Football League; Imperials, Mildura, South Mildura, Irymple, Robinvale-Euston, Wentworth, Merbein, Red Cliffs and Ouyen United. Mildura also have a junior football League ranging from age groups of under 10s to under 16s.

Roller Derby is a growing sport in the region, with Mildura having its own league, the Mildura Roller Derby League, which participates in competitions around Victoria and, at least annually, holds a tournament in Mildura.

Mildura has six swimming clubs and local competitions are regularly held during summer. Clubs train all year round.
Mildura has a history of producing many country, state and national champions.

The Sunraysia Rugby League is also based in Mildura and has six senior men's teams competing for the annual premiership. Rugby league matches are played from May to September.

The Sunraysia Cricket Association operates its competition between October and March annually. The SCA (not to be confused with Southern Cross Austereo or Supercheap Auto also abbreviated SCA and this SCA and the 2 other SCA's are all from Australia) consists of eight teams; Coomealla-Wentworth, Merbein South, Irymple, Mildura East, Mildura Settlers, Mildura West, Nichols Point and Workers-Gol Gol.

Mildura has a horse racing club, the Mildura Racing Club, which schedules around nine race meetings a year including the Mildura Cup meeting in May.

The Mildura Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the city.

Golfers play at the course of the Mildura Golf Club on Twelfth Street.

The Sunraysia Baseball League plays during autumn and winter and has four baseball clubs in the league; Hawks, Saints, Eagles and Wanderers. There are four junior grades (U/7s, U/10s, U/13s and U/16s), three senior grades (A, B and C Grade) and a women's competition.

Basketball also has a large following in Mildura with hundreds of teams in all divisions entered in the Mildura Basketball Association's summer league.

Association football (soccer) also has a large following in Mildura, with there being a popular junior and senior league played during the winter months. The league consists of six teams, those being Three Colours, Mildura City, Mildura United, Irymple Knights, Nichols Point and Northern Suns.

Mildura is a town well-known for motor sports. It has several tracks in the region to cater for different types of motor sports, including the Mildura Kart Club (Go-Kart racing), Timmis Speedway (Automobile speedway), Olympic Park Speedway (Motorcycle speedway), Sunset Strip (1/8-mile drag racing), and North West Victoria Motorcycle Club. (Off-road motorcycle racing). The Mildura TT Circuit hosted the Australian TT in the 1950s.

Mildura is home to four field hockey teams (Koowinda, Mildura Wanderers, Rivaside and Waratahs) which compete in the Sunraysia Hockey Association. The association has grades for males and females, ranging from Under 9s to A grade.

Transport

Mildura is on the intersection of the Sturt Highway from Adelaide to Sydney and the Calder Highway to Melbourne via Bendigo. Deakin Avenue, the main street of Mildura, is known as the longest straight avenue in Australia, at 12.1 km. CDC Mildura, BusBiz and Dysons operate V/Line bus services that connect Mildura to various parts of Victoria and southern New South Wales. Greyhound Australia run buses to Adelaide and Sydney via Canberra. NSW TrainLink run buses to Sydney. The Henty Highway Bus Service runs buses to Horsham.

Mildura has a railway connection to Melbourne, which is used for freight transport that generally runs three times a week in each direction. In May 2006, it was announced that the Mildura line would receive a $73 million upgrade using gauge convertible sleepers.

Mildura Airport is the third busiest regional airport in Victoria, serviced by three QantasLink flights daily to Melbourne (with four services on Thursday & Friday), three Regional Express Airlines flights to Melbourne, with Regional Express flights daily to Adelaide, Sydney and Broken Hill. Virgin Australia had one flight per day in each direction between Melbourne and Mildura until March 2020. In May 2023, startup low-cost airline Bonza commenced flights between Mildura, Melbourne and the Sunshine Coast, Queensland. Fares are starting at $50 on the Melbourne route, as at April 2023, this is roughly a third of the cost of flights with Regional Express or QantasLink which start at $149 and $179 respectively.

Education

St Joseph's College

In 1905, a small group of Sisters of Mercy came from Wentworth to Mildura and established a convent in a weatherboard building on the corner of Pine Avenue and Tenth Street.

Catholic secondary education commenced in Mildura in 1906 when the Sisters of Mercy began conducting classes in rooms attached to the original convent in Pine Avenue. The Certificate of Registration of a School, dated 31 December 1906, indicates that sub-primary, primary and secondary classes were being conducted from the convent at the time.

In 1911 boarding school facilities were provided in Olive Avenue and in 1914 a new school was erected in Walnut Avenue. The first buildings of St Joseph's College at its present site were opened in 1929. The college has well equipped classrooms, science and computer laboratories, creative arts and design and technology complex, religious education centre, library, sports facilities, staff and student amenities.

Mildura Senior College
The college has been closely linked with the development of Mildura since the opening of the irrigation settlement by the Chaffeys in the 1880s. In 1890 the Governor of Victoria, Lord Hopetoun, laid the foundation stone of what was to become the Chaffey Agricultural College but, due to financial difficulties, the college was not built. In 1911, the Education Department of Victoria agreed to erect a high school on the Chaffey College site and Mildura High School was officially opened in September 1912. The diamond jubilee of the school was celebrated on 8 and 9 September 1972. It celebrated its 75th anniversary in August 1987 and in 2012 celebrated its centenary over the weekend of 14–16 September.

As part of a strategic plan by the Ministry of Education in 1990, Mildura High School changed its name to Mildura Secondary College to reflect the changing nature of educational delivery in secondary schools. Again, as a result of restructuring in education provision since 1995, the college has been known as Mildura Senior College, catering exclusively for the final two years of secondary education.

Mildura Senior College caters exclusively for Year 11 & 12 students.  In 2013 there will be approximately 500 students in Year 11 and 400 in Year 12.  Entrance to Year 11 is open to all students living in the Sunraysia District who have successfully completed Year 10. The decision regarding the satisfactory completion of Year 10 is the responsibility of the 7-10 College.  Enrolment at the College is also dependent on factors such as age, behaviour record and other achievements.  Please see the section on enrolment for further information.

Chaffey Secondary College

Chaffey Secondary College is a Victorian state government secondary school catering for students in Years 7 to 10 located in Deakin Avenue. In 2012 the college had 640 students enrolled. The college offers 120 to 140 different courses each term as part of its modular learning program. Students and families participate in a program of course counselling and student-led presentations each term to help students create the most appropriate course for their ability, pathway and interests. The college has a double-court gymnasium which it operates as a joint-use facility with the Mildura Rural City Council. The college operates a small theatre with seating for up to 220 people.

Sunraysia Institute of TAFE

Sunraysia Institute of TAFE's main campus is located in Benetook Avenue. In 2008, the institute had 6,592 students enrolled.

La Trobe University

La Trobe University operates a regional campus in Mildura, with 500 students enrolled as of 14 February 2018.

In popular culture
Two Australian Navy vessels have been named after Mildura, HMAS Mildura and HMS Mildura.

The songs "Mildura (Home of Mine)" and "Come to Mildura – the Land of Winter Sunshine" were written by Reg. Stoneham in the 1920s.

G. H. Ball's "My Old Home Town (Mildura)" was recorded on the B-side of John Collinson's first recording of "Waltzing Matilda" in 1926.

Sister cities

  Upland, California, United States, which, like Mildura, was established as an irrigation community by George and William Chaffey
  Kumatori, Osaka, Japan
  Dali City, Yunnan, China

See also

 1956 Murray River flood
 Cardross road accident
 PS Success
 Mildura Airport
 List of cities in Victoria, Australia
 People from Mildura

References

External links

 Official Tourism Website – Mildura
 Murray River info – Mildura
 Mildura Bureau of Meteorology Field Office
 Watch historical footage of Mildura and surrounds dating from 1920-2001 from the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia's collection.
 Mildura - Visit NSW

Mildura
Rural City of Mildura
Cities in Victoria (state)
Planned communities in Australia
Wine regions of Victoria (state)
Populated places on the Murray River
1887 establishments in Australia

Mildura


Aleksandr Shirshov (en  ), né le  à Moscou, est un escrimeur russe pratiquant le sabre.

Formé par S.Bunaev et Kh. Ismailov, membre du CSKA Moscou, il rejoint la sélection nationale en 1991 et fait partie de l'équipe de sabre de la  Communauté des États indépendants aux Jeux olympiques de Barcelone, en 1992. Celle-ci s'impose devant la Hongrie et la France de Jean-François Lamour.

Il est également champion du monde par équipe en 1994 et champion d'Europe par équipe en 2000. Son palmarès, toujours par équipe, compte aussi trois médailles d'argent aux championnats du monde et une médaille de bronze aux championnats d'Europe.

Après son retrait des compétitions, il s'engage dans une carrière d'entraîneur. Le champion du monde par équipe 2013 Kamil Ibragimov fait partie de ses élèves.

Aleksandr Shirshov est Maître honoré des sports depuis 1992.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance à Moscou
Naissance en août 1972
Escrimeur russe
Champion olympique de l'Équipe unifiée
Escrimeur aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 1992

Aleksandr Chirchov


أحمد عبد الرحمن محمد البنا الشهير  (1300/1883 - 1378/1958) عالم حديث سني أزهري مصري، وهو والد حسن البنا مؤسس جماعة الإخوان المسلمين، رتب مسند الإمام أحمد بن حنبل، وخرَّج أحاديثه، وشرح ما يحتاج إلى بيان وسمّاه (الفتح الرباني لترتيب مسند الإمام أحمد بن حنبل الشيباني 1378هـ / 1958م) في اثنين وعشرين جزءاً كبيراً. أشتهر بالساعاتي نظرا لعمله في إصلاح الساعات كمصدر للرزق بجانب عمله في الأزهر.

النشأة
ولد في عام 1883 م - 1300 هج، في قرية شمشيرة من أعمال مديريّة الغربيّة، كان والده رجلاً متدينا ملتزما، وكانت أمّه متدينة، نذرته للقرآن والعلم الشرعي.

حفظ القرآن الكريم في سنّ مبكّرة، وأتقن أحكام التجويد على الشيخ أحمد أبو رفاعي في كتّاب القرية.

سافر إلى الإسكندرية والتحق بدروس مسجد الشيخ إبراهيم باشا، وأقام بجواره عدّة سنوات، وتعلم بها إصلاح الساعات لكى يكون له مورد عيش.

عاد إلى قريته عالماً شرعياً ومصلحاً للساعات فتزوّج من ابنة تاجر مواشي في قريته وأخذها إلى المحمودية سنة 1331/1903، حيث استقر وافتتح دكاناً على النيل وبنى بيتاً صغيرًا داخل البلد، التي كانت أقرب إلى البندر وتعرف عليه رجال المحمودية واختاروه مأذوناً شرعيًا وإمامًا للمسجد، وكان يتبادل مع العلماء منهم الأحاديث، واستقر بها، ولقى عالمها الشيخ الكفيف محمد محمد زهران، صاحب (مدرسة الرشاد الدينيّة) ومحرر (مجلّة الإسعاد) الشهريّة التي صدرت بين عامي (1920 ـ 1928) واستعان بمكتبته الزاخرة بأمّات الكتب الدينيّة.

عندما وقع على مسند الإمام أحمد بن حنبل الشيبانى، وهو أكبر موسوعة في الحديث، وفيه قرابة ثلاثين ألف حديث، ولكنها مرتبة حسب «المسانيد» وليس حسب المواضيع وكانت هناك الأحاديث المروية عن أبى هريرة، فمثلاً نجد حديثاً عن صلاة الفجر وبعده مباشرة حديثاً عن غزوة أحد وبعده حديثاً عن الزكاة، ولهذا كان هذا الكتاب الثمين معطلاً عن الاستفادة منه كمرجع فقه، وكان يجب لجعله مرجعًا مفيدًا إعادة تصنيف ثلاثين ألف حديث واستخراج كل أحاديث الصلاة وكذلك أحاديث الزكاة، إلخ، وهى مهمة عجز عنها أئمة الإسلام من القرن الثالث ومن ضمنهم ابن كثير.

مؤلفاته
 كتاب الفتح الرباني لترتيب مسند الإمام أحمد بن حنبل الشيباني
 كتاب بدائع المنن في جمع وترتيب مسند الشافعي والسنن.
 كتاب بلوغ الأماني من أسرار الفتح الرباني وهو شرح لكتابه السابق.

المصادر

وصلات خارجية
 رسائل الإمام حسن البنا إلى أبيه، جمال البنا، إخوان ويكي
 ذكريات عن الشيخ البنا الساعاتي، جمال البنا: 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7

إخوان مسلمون مصريون
جمال البنا
حسن البنا
علماء حديث من مصر
مواليد 1300 هـ
مواليد 1883
وفيات 1378 هـ
وفيات 1958

أحمد عبد الرحمن البنا


ඩිජිටල් තරංග මගින් සංඥා ලබාගන්නා  රූපවාහිනී, ඩිජිටල් රූපවාහිනී වේ.

ආරම්භය
1990 ගණන් වල අග භාගයේදී හදුන්වා දුන් මෙම තාක්ෂණය ව්‍යපාර සහ පාරිභෝගික ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික කර්මාන්ත සදහ රූපවාහිනිය ප්‍රචාරණය යොදා ගන්නා ලදි. අතර එමගින් නව මුල්‍ය අවස්ථාවන් ඇති විය.

සංඛ්‍යාත්මක රූපවාහිනිය, ප්‍රතිසම රූපවාහිනිය වඩා නිමයශිලි සහ කර්යක්ෂම වේ. ප්‍රතියම රූපවාහිනි සංඛ්‍යාක රූපවාහිනිය වඩා හොද තත්ත්වයේ ප්‍රතිබිම්බ සහ ශබ්ද යන වඩා හොද වැඩ සටහන් අවස්ථා සදහා ඉඩ දෙනු ලැබේ. කෙසේ නමුත් DTV මගින් ඉඩාත් හොද කාර්මික තත්තවයන් සදහා ඉඩ දෙන නමුත් ප්‍රතියම සංඥා සංඛ්‍යාත සංඥා මගින් උසස් තත්තවයේ ප්‍රතිබිම්බ හෝ ශබ්ද ගෙන යනු නොලැබේ.

ඩිජිටල් රූපවාහිනී


Regimentul 50 Infanterie a fost o unitate de nivel tactic din rezerva armatei permanente care s-a constituit la 14/27 august 1916, prin mobilizarea unităților și subunităților de infanterie din cercul de recrutare Focșani, din cadrul Comandamentului III Teritorial. Regimentul a făcut parte din organica Brigăzii 35 Infanterie. La intrarea în război, Regimentul 50 Infanterie a fost comandat de locotenent-colonelul Mihail Anastasiade. Regimentul 50 Infanterie a participat la acțiunile militare pe frontul românesc, pe toată perioada războiului, între 14/27 august 1916 - 28 ocotmbrie/11 noiembrie 1918.

Drapelul de luptă al regimentului a fost decorat cu cea mai înaltă distincție de război, Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul", clasa III:
"Pentru vitejia și avântul cu care au luptat atât ofițerii cât trupa, în aprigele lupte de la Mărășești din anul 1917. În ziua de 30 iulie, pe când regimentul se afla pe poziție între Divizia 9 și Corpul IV Armată rus, nu numai că a rezistat cu energie nenumăratelor atacuri date de inamic, dar contraatacând cu furie au reușit să înainteze și să câștige teren, acest regiment de elită s-a distins în mod glorios prin îndârjirea cu care a luptat la 6 august 1917, împotriva trupelor din Divizia a 2-a Bavareză și în timpul cărei lupte batalionul I a dat un contra atac strălucit, care a determinat prima retragere a dușmanului."
Înalt Decret no. 1356 din 15 noiembrie 1917

Participarea la operații

Campania anului 1916

Campania anului 1917

Comandanți

Decorații
  Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul", clasa III

Note

Bibliografie

 Falkenhayn, Erich von, Campania Armatei a 9-a împotriva românilor și a rușilor, Atelierele Grafice Socec & Co S.A., București, 1937
 Kirițescu, Constantin, Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, București, 1989
 Ioanițiu Alexandru (Lt.-Colonel), Războiul României: 1916-1918,vol 1, Tipografia Geniului, București, 1929
  ***, România în războiul mondial 1916-1919, vol I-IV, Monitorul Oficial și Imprimeriile Statului, București, 1934-1941
 ***, Marele Cartier General al Armatei României. Documente 1916 – 1920, Editura Machiavelli, București, 1996
 ***, Istoria militară a poporului român, vol. V, Editura Militară, București, 1989
 ***, România în anii primului Război Mondial, Editura Militară, București, 1987
 ***, România în primul război mondial'', Editura Militară, 1979

Vezi și
Participarea României la Primul Război Mondial
Ordinea de bătaie a Armatei României (1916)
Ordinea de bătaie a Armatei României (1917)

Unități militare române din Primul Război Mondial

Regimentul 50 Infanterie (1916-1918)


المدن الخمس البنتابولس "Pentapolis" من الكلمة اليونانية: (بنتا) وتعني خمسة و(بوليس) وتعني مدينة أو المدينة الدولة. وهي مدن أسسها الإغريق بداية من القرن السابع قبل الميلاد في إقليم قورينائية بشرق ليبيا لتكون مركزا للحضارة الإغريقية في أفريقيا. كما اشتهرت بتصدير نبات السيلفيوم النادر.

والمدن هي:
 قورينا، (شحات الحالية).
 أبولونيا، وتوجد في موقعها مدينة سوسة الحالية.
 يوسبريديس، (بنغازي الحالية).
 توخيرا، وتوجد في موقعها مدينة توكرة حاليا.
 برقه (المرج القديمة حاليا).

انظر أيضا
 المدن الخمس

مواقع إغريقية في ليبيا
مواقع رومانية في ليبيا

المدن الخمس (قورينائية)


පැස්ටල් යනු කූරක ආකාරයට ඇති චිත්‍රකලා මාධ්‍යයක් වන අතර, එය සමන්විත වන්නේ අමිශ්‍ර කුඩු කෙරුණු වර්ණක සහ බැඳුම්කාරකයකිනි. පැස්ටල් වල අඩංගු වර්ණකයන්, තෙල් සායම් ඇතුළු අනෙකුත් සියළු වර්ණ චිත්‍රකලා මාධ්‍ය තැනීමට භාවිතා කරන ඒවාම වෙති; බැඳුම්කාරකය උදාසීන පැහැයක් සහිත සහ අඩු  සංතෘප්තියක් සහිත වෙයි.

"පැස්ටල්" යන නාම පදයෙන් නැගී එන අර්ථ :
පැස්ටල් මගින් කළ නිර්මාණයන් හැඳින්වෙන වෙනත් නාමපදයකි.
පැස්ටල් සමග කළ නිර්මාණයන් හැඳින්වෙන ක්‍රියාපදයකි.
දීප්තියෙන් අඩු වර්ණ යන්න හැඳින්වෙන ක්‍රියාපදයකි.

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 රටහුණු

පැස්ටල්


Ljestvice i sastavi liga sedmog stupnja hrvatskog nogometnog prvenstva u sezoni 2021./22.

3. ŽNL Bjelovarsko-bilogorska

Jug

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 nsbbz.hr, III ŽNL Jug NSBBZ 2021./22.
 nsbbz.hr, III ŽNL Jug NSBBZ, wayback
 nsbbz.hr, 26. kolo
 nsbbz.hr, 26. kolo, wayback
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet", br. 22/22
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet"
 nsbbz.hr, rezultati i strijelci

Sjever

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 nsbbz.hr, III ŽNL Sjever NSBBZ 2021./22.
 nsbbz.hr, III ŽNL Sjever NSBBZ, wayback
 nsbbz.hr, 22. kolo
 nsbbz.hr, 22. kolo, wayback
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet", br. 22/22
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet"
 nsbbz.hr, rezultati i strijelci

3. ŽNL Istarska

Jug

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 nszi.hr, TREĆA ŽNL JUG – 2021/2022
 nszi.hr, TREĆA ŽNL JUG – 2021/2022
 nszi.hr, Bilteni
<ref name=nszi_bilten_55"> [https://nszi.hr/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/BILTEN-NSZI-BROJ-55.-14.06.2022.pdf nszi.hr, Nogometni savez Županije Istarske, BILTEN - br. 55. - Natjecateljska godina 2021./2022., Konačne tablice liga seniora i mladeži za natjecateljsku godinu 2021./2022., br. 214/2022], objavljeno 14. lipnja 2022., preuzeto 1. kolovoza 2022. </ref> nszi.hr, Bilten'', br. 214/2022 (55)
 sofascore.com
 tipscore.com

Sjever

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 nszi.hr, TREĆA ŽNL SJEVER – 2021/2022
 nszi.hr, TREĆA ŽNL SJEVER – 2021/2022
 nszi.hr, Bilteni
 nszi.hr, Bilten, br. 214/2022 (55)
 sofascore.com
 tipscore.com

3. ŽNL Koprivničko-križevačka

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 ns-kckz.hr, 3. ŽNL
 ns-kckz.hr, 3. ŽNL, wayback
 ns-kckz.hr, "Službeni glasnik" br. 21/2022
 sofascore.com
 tipscore.com

3. ŽNL Varaždinska

Skupina Ludbreg

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Skupina Ludbreg
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Skupina Ludbreg, wayback
 sofascore.com
 tipsscore.com

Skupina Varaždin

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Skupina Varaždin
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Skupina Varaždin, wayback
 sofascore.com
 tipsscore.com

3. ŽNL Virovitičko-podravska

Istok

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 znsvpz.hr, Bilteni III. ŽNL Istok
 znsvpz.hr, Bilten - III. ŽNL Istok, 14. kolo
 sofascore.com
 tipscore.com

Zapad

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 znsvpz.hr, Bilteni III. ŽNL Zapad
 znsvpz.hr, Bilten - III. ŽNL Zapad, 18. kolo
 sofascore.com
 tipscore.com

3. ŽNL Vukovarsko-srijemska

NS Vinkovci

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 znsvs.hr, III. ŽNL Vinkovci 2021./22.
 znsvs.hr, arhiva 2021./22.

NS Vukovar

 Izvori:
 rsssf.org
 znsvs.hr, III. ŽNL Vukovar 2021./22.
 znsvs.hr, arhiva 2021./22.
 sofascore.com
 tipscore.com

Povezani članci
 1. HNL 2021./22.
 2. HNL 2021./22.
 3. HNL 2021./22.
 4. rang HNL-a 2021./22.
 5. rang HNL-a 2021./22.
 6. rang HNL-a 2021./22.
 8. rang HNL-a 2021./22.
 Hrvatski nogometni kup 2021./22.

Vanjske poveznice
  sofascore.com, Croatia Amateur
  tipsscore.com, Croatia Amateur

Izvori

  rsssf.org, Croatia 2021/22 - Seventh Level

2021-22
 7

7. rang HNL-a 2021./22.


Lettenmühle ist ein Gemeindeteil des Marktes Bechhofen im Landkreis Ansbach (Mittelfranken, Bayern).

Geografie
Der Weiler liegt im Esbachtal. Im Norden liegt das Langfeld. 0,5 Kilometer westlich des Ortes erhebt sich der Lammelberg (), im Osten grenzt das Waldgebiet Esbach an. Die Kreisstraße AN 54 führt nach Reichenau (1,1 km südlich) bzw. Lammelbach (1,1 km nördlich).

Geschichte
Lettenmühle lag im Fraischbezirk des eichstättischen Oberamtes Wahrberg-Herrieden. Das Kastenamt Herrieden war Grundherr der Mühle.

Mit dem Gemeindeedikt (frühes 19. Jahrhundert) wurde Lettenmühle dem Steuerdistrikt und der Ruralgemeinde Sachsbach zugewiesen. Im Zuge der Gebietsreform in Bayern wurde diese am 1. Juli 1971 nach Bechhofen eingemeindet.

Einwohnerentwicklung

Religion
Der Ort ist seit der Reformation evangelisch-lutherisch geprägt und gehört zur Kirchengemeinde St. Georg (Sachsbach), die ursprünglich eine Filiale von St. Maria (Königshofen) war, seit 1902 eine Filiale von St. Johannis (Bechhofen) ist. Die Katholiken sind nach St. Vitus und Deocar (Herrieden) gepfarrt.

Literatur

Weblinks

Fußnoten

Geographie (Bechhofen, Mittelfranken)
Ort im Landkreis Ansbach
Weiler in Mittelfranken

Lettenmühle (Bechhofen)


Un antidot (sinonim: contraotravă) este un compus chimic care are un efect de neutralizare al acțiunii unei otrăvi sau unei substanțe extrem de toxice. Termenul provine din  (pharmakon antidoton), care înseamnă "(medicament) dat ca remediu / leac".

Unele antidoturi utilizate pentru anumite toxine sunt fabricate prin injectarea toxinei respective în corpul unui animal, în doze mici, urmând ca apoi anticorpii formați în corpul gazdei să fie recoltați. Aceste antidoturi pot fi utilizate în cazurile de intoxicații cu venin (de exemplu, de șerpi, păianjeni sau alte animale veninoase). Totuși, în unele cazuri (de exemplu, veninul de artropode: unii păianjeni, scorpioni, albine) veninul este potențial-letal doar dacă provoacă reacții alergice de tipul șocului anafilactic, iar atunci nu se poate trata otrăvirea ci se tratează reacția alergică (cu adrenalină).

Pentru unele toxine nu există niciun antidot. De exemplu, intoxicația cu aconitină (un alcaloid extrem de toxic din tuberculul unor specii de Aconitum) în cantități suficiente este adesea fatală. În acest caz se poate trata doar bradicardia instalată prin administrare de atropină.

Listă de antidoturi
Mai jos se regăsește o listă de antidoturi și intoxicația pentru care fiecare dintre antidoturi este indicat:

Note

Vezi și
 Antitoxină
 Antivenin
 Antidot universal
 Medicină de urgență

Antidot


بلدية لا ياكونا (بالكاتالانية: la Llacuna) هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برشلونة، والتي تقع في منطقة كاتالونيا، شرق إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 878 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007).

مراجع

بلديات في أناويا
بلديات في مقاطعة برشلونة

لا ياكونا (برشلونة)


Montemor-o-Novo belediyesi, Portekiz'in Alentejo bölgesine bağlı Alentejo Central altbölgesinin belediyelerinden biridir.

Bucaklar
Belediyede 10 bucak (Por.: freguesia) yer almaktadır.

 Cabrela
 Ciborro
 Cortiçadas
 Foros de Vale de Figueira
 Lavre
 Nossa Senhora da Vila (Montemor-o-Novo)
 Nossa Senhora do Bispo (Montemor-o-Novo)
 Santiago do Escoural
 São Cristóvão
 Silveiras

Alentejo Central'in belediyeleri

Montemor-o-Novo