The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of interest in astrobiology due to the planet's proximity and similarities to Earth. To date, no proof of past or present life has been found on Mars. Cumulative evidence suggests that during the ancient Noachian time period, the surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms, but habitable conditions do not necessarily indicate life.

Scientific searches for evidence of life began in the 19th century and continue today via telescopic investigations and deployed probes, searching for water, chemical biosignatures in the soil and rocks at the planet's surface, and biomarker gases in the atmosphere.

Mars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early Earth. This is especially true since Mars has a cold climate and lacks plate tectonics or continental drift, so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the Hesperian period. At least two-thirds of Mars's surface is more than 3.5 billion years old, and it could have been habitable since 4.48 billion years ago, 500 million years before the earliest known Earth lifeforms; Mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to life, even if life does not or has never existed there.

Following the confirmation of the past existence of surface liquid water, the Curiosity, Perseverance and Opportunity rovers started searching for evidence of past life, including a past biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic, or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic compounds on Mars is now a primary objective for space agencies.

The findings of organic compounds inside sedimentary rocks and of boron on Mars are of interest as they are precursors for prebiotic chemistry. Such findings, along with previous discoveries that liquid water was clearly present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars. Currently, the surface of Mars is bathed with ionizing radiation, and Martian soil is rich in perchlorates toxic to microorganisms. Therefore, the consensus is that if life exists—or existed—on Mars, it could be found or is best preserved in the subsurface, away from present-day harsh surface processes.

In June 2018, NASA announced the detection of seasonal variation of methane levels on Mars. Methane could be produced by microorganisms or by geological means. The European ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter started mapping the atmospheric methane in April 2018, and the 2022 ExoMars rover Rosalind Franklin was planned to drill and analyze subsurface samples before the programme's indefinite suspension, while the NASA Mars 2020 rover Perseverance, having landed successfully, will cache dozens of drill samples for their potential transport to Earth laboratories in the late 2020s or 2030s. As of February 8, 2021, an updated status of studies considering the possible detection of lifeforms on Venus (via phosphine) and Mars (via methane) was reported.

Early speculation

Mars's polar ice caps were discovered in the mid-17th century. In the late 18th century, William Herschel proved they grow and shrink alternately, in the summer and winter of each hemisphere. By the mid-19th century, astronomers knew that Mars had certain other similarities to Earth, for example that the length of a day on Mars was almost the same as a day on Earth. They also knew that its axial tilt was similar to Earth's, which meant it experienced seasons just as Earth does—but of nearly double the length owing to its much longer year. These observations led to increasing speculation that the darker albedo features were water and the brighter ones were land, whence followed speculation on whether Mars may be inhabited by some form of life.

In 1854, William Whewell, a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, theorized that Mars had seas, land and possibly life forms. Speculation about life on Mars exploded in the late 19th century, following telescopic observation by some observers of apparent Martian canals—which were later found to be optical illusions. Despite this, in 1895, American astronomer Percival Lowell published his book Mars, followed by Mars and its Canals in 1906, proposing that the canals were the work of a long-gone civilization. This idea led British writer H. G. Wells to write The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet's desiccation.

Spectroscopic analysis of Mars's atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U.S. astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen were present in the Martian atmosphere. The influential observer Eugène Antoniadi used the 83-cm (32.6 inch) aperture telescope at Meudon Observatory at the 1909 opposition of Mars and saw no canals, the outstanding photos of Mars taken at the new Baillaud dome at the Pic du Midi observatory also brought formal discredit to the Martian canals theory in 1909, and the notion of canals began to fall out of favor.

Habitability

Chemical, physical, geological, and geographic attributes shape the environments on Mars. Isolated measurements of these factors may be insufficient to deem an environment habitable, but the sum of measurements can help predict locations with greater or lesser habitability potential. The two current ecological approaches for predicting the potential habitability of the Martian surface use 19 or 20 environmental factors, with an emphasis on water availability, temperature, the presence of nutrients, an energy source, and protection from solar ultraviolet and galactic cosmic radiation.

Scientists do not know the minimum number of parameters for determination of habitability potential, but they are certain it is greater than one or two of the factors in the table below. Similarly, for each group of parameters, the habitability threshold for each is to be determined. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple lethal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly. There are no full-Mars simulations published yet that include all of the biocidal factors combined. Furthermore, the possibility of Martian life having a far different biochemistry and habitability requirements than the terrestrial biosphere is an open question.

Past
Recent models have shown that, even with a dense CO2 atmosphere, early Mars was colder than Earth has ever been. Transiently warm conditions related to impacts or volcanism could have produced conditions favoring the formation of the late Noachian valley networks, even though the mid-late Noachian global conditions were probably icy. Local warming of the environment by volcanism and impacts would have been sporadic, but there should have been many events of water flowing at the surface of Mars. Both the mineralogical and the morphological evidence indicates a degradation of habitability from the mid Hesperian onward. The exact causes are not well understood but may be related to a combination of processes including loss of early atmosphere, or impact erosion, or both. Billions of years ago, before this degradation, the surface of Mars was apparently fairly habitable, consisted of liquid water and clement weather, though it is unknown if life existed on Mars.

The loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by the solar wind, which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures. Part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest became
trapped in permafrost, a subsurface ice layer.

Observations on Earth and numerical modeling have shown that a crater-forming impact can result in the creation of a long-lasting hydrothermal system when ice is present in the crust. For example, a 130 km large crater could sustain an active hydrothermal system for up to 2 million years, that is, long enough for microscopic life to emerge, but unlikely to have progressed any further down the evolutionary path.

Soil and rock samples studied in 2013 by NASA's Curiosity rover's onboard instruments brought about additional information on several habitability factors. The rover team identified some of the key chemical ingredients for life in this soil, including sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and possibly carbon, as well as clay minerals, suggesting a long-ago aqueous environment—perhaps a lake or an ancient streambed—that had neutral acidity and low salinity. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. The confirmation that liquid water once flowed on Mars, the existence of nutrients, and the previous discovery of a past magnetic field that protected the planet from cosmic and solar radiation, together strongly suggest that Mars could have had the environmental factors to support life. The assessment of past habitability is not in itself evidence that Martian life has ever actually existed. If it did, it was probably microbial, existing communally in fluids or on sediments, either free-living or as biofilms, respectively. The exploration of terrestrial analogues provide clues as to how and where best look for signs of life on Mars.

Impactite, shown to preserve signs of life on Earth, was discovered on Mars and could contain signs of ancient life, if life ever existed on the planet.

On June 7, 2018, NASA announced that the Curiosity rover had discovered organic molecules in sedimentary rocks dating to three billion years old. The detection of organic molecules in rocks indicate that some of the building blocks for life were present.

Present
Conceivably, if life exists (or existed) on Mars, evidence of life could be found, or is best preserved, in the subsurface, away from present-day harsh surface conditions. Present-day life on Mars, or its biosignatures, could occur kilometers below the surface, or in subsurface geothermal hot spots, or it could occur a few meters below the surface. The permafrost layer on Mars is only a couple of centimeters below the surface, and salty brines can be liquid a few centimeters below that but not far down. Water is close to its boiling point even at the deepest points in the Hellas basin, and so cannot remain liquid for long on the surface of Mars in its present state, except after a sudden release of underground water.

So far, NASA has pursued a "follow the water" strategy on Mars and has not searched for biosignatures for life there directly since the Viking missions. The consensus by astrobiologists is that it may be necessary to access the Martian subsurface to find currently habitable environments.

Cosmic radiation
In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic radiation and solar radiation; observations made in the late 1990s by the Mars Global Surveyor confirmed this discovery. Scientists speculate that the lack of magnetic shielding helped the solar wind blow away much of Mars's atmosphere over the course of several billion years. As a result, the planet has been vulnerable to radiation from space for about 4 billion years.

Recent in-situ data from Curiosity rover indicates that ionizing radiation from galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar particle events (SPE) may not be a limiting factor in habitability assessments for present-day surface life on Mars. The level of 76 mGy per year measured by Curiosity is similar to levels inside the ISS.

Cumulative effects
Curiosity rover measured ionizing radiation levels of 76 mGy per year. This level of ionizing radiation is sterilizing for dormant life on the surface of Mars. It varies considerably in habitability depending on its orbital eccentricity and the tilt of its axis. If the surface life has been reanimated as recently as 450,000 years ago, then rovers on Mars could find dormant but still viable life at a depth of one meter below the surface, according to an estimate. Even the hardiest cells known could not possibly survive the cosmic radiation near the surface of Mars since Mars lost its protective magnetosphere and atmosphere. After mapping cosmic radiation levels at various depths on Mars, researchers have concluded that over time, any life within the first several meters of the planet's surface would be killed by lethal doses of cosmic radiation. The team calculated that the cumulative damage to DNA and RNA by cosmic radiation would limit retrieving viable dormant cells on Mars to depths greater than 7.5 meters below the planet's surface.
Even the most radiation-tolerant terrestrial bacteria would survive in dormant spore state only 18,000 years at the surface; at 2 meters—the greatest depth at which the ExoMars rover will be capable of reaching—survival time would be 90,000 to half a million years, depending on the type of rock.

Data collected by the Radiation assessment detector (RAD) instrument on board the Curiosity rover revealed that the absorbed dose measured is 76 mGy/year at the surface, and that "ionizing radiation strongly influences chemical compositions and structures, especially for water, salts, and redox-sensitive components such as organic molecules." Regardless of the source of Martian organic compounds (meteoric, geological, or biological), its carbon bonds are susceptible to breaking and reconfiguring with surrounding elements by ionizing charged particle radiation. These improved subsurface radiation estimates give insight into the potential for the preservation of possible organic biosignatures as a function of depth as well as survival times of possible microbial or bacterial life forms left dormant beneath the surface. The report concludes that the in situ "surface measurements—and subsurface estimates—constrain the preservation window for Martian organic matter following exhumation and exposure to ionizing radiation in the top few meters of the Martian surface."

In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled and were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a major, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month.

UV radiation
On UV radiation, a 2014 report concludes  that "[T]he Martian UV radiation environment is rapidly lethal to unshielded microbes but can be attenuated by global dust storms and shielded completely by < 1 mm of regolith or by other organisms." In addition, laboratory research published in July 2017 demonstrated that UV irradiated perchlorates cause a 10.8-fold increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure. The penetration depth of UV radiation into soils is in the sub-millimeter to millimeter range and depends on the properties of the soil.

Perchlorates
The Martian regolith is known to contain a maximum of 0.5% (w/v) perchlorate (ClO4−) that is toxic for most living organisms, but since they drastically lower the freezing point of water and a few extremophiles can use it as an energy source (see Perchlorates - Biology) and grow at concentrations of up to 30% (w/v) sodium perchlorate by physiologically adapting to increasing perchlorate concentrations, it has prompted speculation of what their influence would be on habitability.

Research published in July 2017 shows that when irradiated with a simulated Martian UV flux, perchlorates become even more lethal to bacteria (bactericide). Even dormant spores lost viability within minutes. In addition, two other compounds of the Martian surface, iron oxides and hydrogen peroxide, act in synergy with irradiated perchlorates to cause a 10.8-fold increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure. It was also found that abraded silicates (quartz and basalt) lead to the formation of toxic reactive oxygen species. The researchers concluded that "the surface of Mars is lethal to vegetative cells and renders much of the surface and near-surface regions uninhabitable." This research demonstrates that the present-day surface is more uninhabitable than previously thought, and reinforces the notion to inspect at least a few meters into the ground to ensure the levels of radiation would be relatively low.

However, researcher Kennda Lynch discovered the first-known instance of a habitat containing perchlorates and perchlorates-reducing bacteria in an analog environment: a paleolake in Pilot Valley, Great Salt Lake Desert, Utah. She has been studying the biosignatures of these microbes, and is hoping that the Mars Perseverance rover will find matching biosignatures at its Jezero Crater site.

Recurrent slope lineae
Recurrent slope lineae (RSL) features form on Sun-facing slopes at times of the year when the local temperatures reach above the melting point for ice. The streaks grow in spring, widen in late summer and then fade away in autumn. This is hard to model in any other way except as involving liquid water in some form, though the streaks themselves are thought to be a secondary effect and not a direct indication of the dampness of the regolith. Although these features are now confirmed to involve liquid water in some form, the water could be either too cold or too salty for life. At present they are treated as potentially habitable, as "Uncertain Regions, to be treated as Special Regions".). They were suspected as involving flowing brines back then.

The thermodynamic availability of water (water activity) strictly limits microbial propagation on Earth, particularly in hypersaline environments, and there are indications that the brine ionic strength is a barrier to the habitability of Mars. Experiments show that high ionic strength, driven to extremes on Mars by the ubiquitous occurrence of divalent ions, "renders these environments uninhabitable despite the presence of biologically available water."

Nitrogen fixation
After carbon, nitrogen is arguably the most important element needed for life. Thus, measurements of nitrate over the range of 0.1% to 5% are required to address the question of its occurrence and distribution. There is nitrogen (as N2) in the atmosphere at low levels, but this is not adequate to support nitrogen fixation for biological incorporation. Nitrogen in the form of nitrate could be a resource for human exploration both as a nutrient for plant growth and for use in chemical processes. On Earth, nitrates correlate with perchlorates in desert environments, and this may also be true on Mars. Nitrate is expected to be stable on Mars and to have formed by thermal shock from impact or volcanic plume lightning on ancient Mars.

On March 24, 2015, NASA reported that the SAM instrument on the Curiosity rover detected nitrates by heating surface sediments. The nitrogen in nitrate is in a "fixed" state, meaning that it is in an oxidized form that can be used by living organisms. The discovery supports the notion that ancient Mars may have been hospitable for life. It is suspected that all nitrate on Mars is a relic, with no modern contribution. Nitrate abundance ranges from non-detection to 681 ± 304 mg/kg in the samples examined until late 2017. Modeling indicates that the transient condensed water films on the surface should be transported to lower depths (≈10 m) potentially transporting nitrates, where subsurface microorganisms could thrive.

In contrast, phosphate, one of the chemical nutrients thought to be essential for life, is readily available on Mars.

Low pressure
Further complicating estimates of the habitability of the Martian surface is the fact that very little is known about the growth of microorganisms at pressures close to those on the surface of Mars. Some teams determined that some bacteria may be capable of cellular replication down to 25 mbar, but that is still above the atmospheric pressures found on Mars (range 1–14 mbar). In another study, twenty-six strains of bacteria were chosen based on their recovery from spacecraft assembly facilities, and only Serratia liquefaciens strain ATCC 27592 exhibited growth at 7 mbar, 0 °C, and CO2-enriched anoxic atmospheres.

Liquid water

Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as humans know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars except at the lowest elevations for minutes or hours. Liquid water does not appear at the surface itself, but it could form in minuscule amounts around dust particles in snow heated by the Sun. Also, the ancient equatorial ice sheets beneath the ground may slowly sublimate or melt, accessible from the surface via caves.

Water on Mars exists almost exclusively as water ice, located in the Martian polar ice caps and under the shallow Martian surface even at more temperate latitudes. A small amount of water vapor is present in the atmosphere. There are no bodies of liquid water on the Martian surface because its atmospheric pressure at the surface averages —about 0.6% of Earth's mean sea level pressure—and because the temperature is far too low, () leading to immediate freezing. Despite this, about 3.8 billion years ago, there was a denser atmosphere, higher temperature, and vast amounts of liquid water flowed on the surface, including large oceans.

It has been estimated that the primordial oceans on Mars would have covered between 36% and 75% of the planet. On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.

Analysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ≤ 0.78 to 0.86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point.

In June 2000, possible evidence for current liquid water flowing at the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed through them as recently as several years ago.

There is disagreement in the scientific community as to whether or not the recent gully streaks were formed by liquid water. Some suggest the flows were merely dry sand flows. Others suggest it may be liquid brine near the surface, but the exact source of the water and the mechanism behind its motion are not understood.

In July 2018, scientists reported the discovery of a subglacial lake on Mars,  below the southern polar ice cap, and extending sideways about , the first known stable body of water on the planet. The lake was discovered using the MARSIS radar on board the Mars Express orbiter, and the profiles were collected between May 2012 and December 2015. The lake is centered at 193°E, 81°S, a flat area that does not exhibit any peculiar topographic characteristics but is surrounded by higher ground, except on its eastern side, where there is a depression.

Silica

In May 2007, the Spirit rover disturbed a patch of ground with its inoperative wheel, uncovering an area 90% rich in silica. The feature is reminiscent of the effect of hot spring water or steam coming into contact with volcanic rocks. Scientists consider this as evidence of a past environment that may have been favorable for microbial life and theorize that one possible origin for the silica may have been produced by the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water.

Based on Earth analogs, hydrothermal systems on Mars would be highly attractive for their potential for preserving organic and inorganic biosignatures. For this reason, hydrothermal deposits are regarded as important targets in the exploration for fossil evidence of ancient Martian life.

Possible biosignatures
In May 2017, evidence of the earliest known life on land on Earth may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around hot springs and geysers) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. These findings may be helpful in deciding where best to search for early signs of life on the planet Mars.

Methane

Methane (CH4) is chemically unstable in the current oxidizing atmosphere of Mars. It would quickly break down due to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and chemical reactions with other gases. Therefore, a persistent presence of methane in the atmosphere may imply the existence of a source to continually replenish the gas.

Trace amounts of methane, at the level of several parts per billion (ppb), were first reported in Mars's atmosphere by a team at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2003. Large differences in the abundances were measured between observations taken in 2003 and 2006, which suggested that the methane was locally concentrated and probably seasonal. On June 7, 2018, NASA announced it has detected a seasonal variation of methane levels on Mars.

The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), launched in March 2016, began on April 21, 2018, to map the concentration and sources of methane in the atmosphere, as well as its decomposition products such as formaldehyde and methanol. As of May 2019, the Trace Gas Orbiter showed that the concentration of methane is under detectable level (< 0.05 ppbv).

The principal candidates for the origin of Mars's methane include non-biological processes such as water-rock reactions, radiolysis of water, and pyrite formation, all of which produce H2 that could then generate methane and other hydrocarbons via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis with CO and CO2. It has also been shown that methane could be produced by a process involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars. Although geologic sources of methane such as serpentinization are possible, the lack of current volcanism, hydrothermal activity or hotspots are not favorable for geologic methane.

Living microorganisms, such as methanogens, are another possible source, but no evidence for the presence of such organisms has been found on Mars, until June 2019 as methane was detected by the Curiosity rover. Methanogens do not require oxygen or organic nutrients, are non-photosynthetic, use hydrogen as their energy source and carbon dioxide (CO2) as their carbon source, so they could exist in subsurface environments on Mars. If microscopic Martian life is producing the methane, it probably resides far below the surface, where it is still warm enough for liquid water to exist.

Since the 2003 discovery of methane in the atmosphere, some scientists have been designing models and in vitro experiments testing the growth of methanogenic bacteria on simulated Martian soil, where all four methanogen strains tested produced substantial levels of methane, even in the presence of 1.0wt% perchlorate salt.

A team led by Levin suggested that both phenomena—methane production and degradation—could be accounted for by an ecology of methane-producing and methane-consuming microorganisms.

Research at the University of Arkansas presented in June 2015 suggested that some methanogens could survive in Mars's low pressure. Rebecca Mickol found that in her laboratory, four species of methanogens survived low-pressure conditions that were similar to a subsurface liquid aquifer on Mars. The four species that she tested were Methanothermobacter wolfeii, Methanosarcina barkeri, Methanobacterium formicicum, and Methanococcus maripaludis. In June 2012, scientists reported that measuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, "low H2/CH4 ratios (less than approximately 40)" would "indicate that life is likely present and active". The observed ratios in the lower Martian atmosphere were "approximately 10 times" higher "suggesting that biological processes may not be responsible for the observed CH4". The scientists suggested measuring the H2 and CH4 flux at the Martian surface for a more accurate assessment. Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres.

Even if rover missions determine that microscopic Martian life is the seasonal source of the methane, the life forms probably reside far below the surface, outside of the rover's reach.

Formaldehyde
In February 2005, it was announced that the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) on the European Space Agency's Mars Express Orbiter had detected traces of formaldehyde in the atmosphere of Mars. Vittorio Formisano, the director of the PFS, has speculated that the formaldehyde could be the byproduct of the oxidation of methane and, according to him, would provide evidence that Mars is either extremely geologically active or harboring colonies of microbial life. NASA scientists consider the preliminary findings well worth a follow-up but have also rejected the claims of life.

Viking lander biological experiments

The 1970s Viking program placed two identical landers on the surface of Mars tasked to look for biosignatures of microbial life on the surface. Of the four experiments performed by each Viking lander, only the 'Labeled Release' (LR) experiment gave a positive result for metabolism, while the other three did not detect organic compounds. The LR was a specific experiment designed to test only a narrowly defined critical aspect of the theory concerning the possibility of life on Mars; therefore, the overall results were declared inconclusive. No Mars lander mission has found meaningful traces of biomolecules or biosignatures. The claim of extant microbial life on Mars is based on old data collected by the Viking landers, currently reinterpreted as sufficient evidence of life, mainly by Gilbert Levin, Joseph D. Miller, Navarro, Giorgio Bianciardi and Patricia Ann Straat, that the Viking LR experiments detected extant microbial life on Mars.

Assessments published in December 2010 by Rafael Navarro-Gonzáles indicate that organic compounds "could have been present" in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2. The study determined that perchlorate—discovered in 2008 by Phoenix lander—can destroy organic compounds when heated, and produce chloromethane and dichloromethane as a byproduct, the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars. Because perchlorate would have broken down any Martian organics, the question of whether or not Viking found organic compounds is still wide open.

The Labeled Release evidence was not generally accepted initially, and, to this day lacks the consensus of the scientific community.

Meteorites
As of 2018, there are 224 known Martian meteorites (some of which were found in several fragments). These are valuable because they are the only physical samples of Mars available to Earth-bound laboratories. Some researchers have argued that microscopic morphological features found in ALH84001 are biomorphs, however this interpretation has been highly controversial and is not supported by the majority of researchers in the field.

Seven criteria have been established for the recognition of past life within terrestrial geologic samples. Those criteria are:
 Is the geologic context of the sample compatible with past life?
 Is the age of the sample and its stratigraphic location compatible with possible life?
 Does the sample contain evidence of cellular morphology and colonies?
 Is there any evidence of biominerals showing chemical or mineral disequilibria?
 Is there any evidence of stable isotope patterns unique to biology?
 Are there any organic biomarkers present?
 Are the features indigenous to the sample?

For general acceptance of past life in a geologic sample, essentially most or all of these criteria must be met. All seven criteria have not yet been met for any of the Martian samples.

ALH84001

In 1996, the Martian meteorite ALH84001, a specimen that is much older than the majority of Martian meteorites that have been recovered so far, received considerable attention when a group of NASA scientists led by David S. McKay reported microscopic features and geochemical anomalies that they considered to be best explained by the rock having hosted Martian bacteria in the distant past. Some of these features resembled terrestrial bacteria, aside from their being much smaller than any known form of life. Much controversy arose over this claim, and ultimately all of the evidence McKay's team cited as evidence of life was found to be explainable by non-biological processes. Although the scientific community has largely rejected the claim ALH 84001 contains evidence of ancient Martian life, the controversy associated with it is now seen as a historically significant moment in the development of exobiology.

Nakhla
The Nakhla meteorite fell on Earth on June 28, 1911, on the locality of Nakhla, Alexandria, Egypt.

In 1998, a team from NASA's Johnson Space Center obtained a small sample for analysis. Researchers found preterrestrial aqueous alteration phases and objects of the size and shape consistent with Earthly fossilized nanobacteria.
Analysis with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) studied its high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 2000, and NASA scientists concluded that as much as 75% of the organic compounds in Nakhla "may not be recent terrestrial contamination".

This caused additional interest in this meteorite, so in 2006, NASA managed to obtain an additional and larger sample from the London Natural History Museum. On this second sample, a large dendritic carbon content was observed. When the results and evidence were published in 2006, some independent researchers claimed that the carbon deposits are of biologic origin. It was remarked that since carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the Universe, finding it in curious patterns is not indicative or suggestive of biological origin.

Shergotty
The Shergotty meteorite, a  Martian meteorite, fell on Earth on Shergotty, India on August 25, 1865, and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately. It is composed mostly of pyroxene and thought to have undergone preterrestrial aqueous alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest remnants of a biofilm and its associated microbial communities.

Yamato 000593
Yamato 000593 is the second largest meteorite from Mars found on Earth. Studies suggest the Martian meteorite was formed about 1.3 billion years ago from a lava flow on Mars. An impact occurred on Mars about 12 million years ago and ejected the meteorite from the Martian surface into space. The meteorite landed on Earth in Antarctica about 50,000 years ago. The mass of the meteorite is  and it has been found to contain evidence of past water movement. At a microscopic level, spheres are found in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to NASA scientists.

Ichnofossil-like structures
Organism–substrate interactions and their products are important biosignatures on Earth as they represent direct evidence of biological behaviour. It was the recovery of fossilized products of life-substrate interactions (ichnofossils) that has revealed biological activities in the early history of life on the Earth, e.g., Proterozoic burrows, Archean microborings and stromatolites. Two major ichnofossil-like structures have been reported from Mars, i.e. the stick-like structures from Vera Rubin Ridge and the microtunnels from Martian Meteorites.

Observations at Vera Rubin Ridge by the Mars Space Laboratory rover Curiosity show millimetric, elongate structures preserved in sedimentary rocks deposited in fluvio-lacustrine environments within Gale Crater. Morphometric and topologic data are unique to the stick-like structures among Martian geological features and show that ichnofossils are among the closest morphological analogues of these unique features. Nevertheless, available data cannot fully disprove two major abiotic hypotheses, that are sedimentary cracking and evaporitic crystal growth as genetic processes for the structures.

Microtunnels have been described from Martian meteorites. They consist of straight to curved microtunnels that may contain areas of enhanced carbon abundance. The morphology of the curved microtunnels is consistent with biogenic traces on Earth, including microbioerosion traces observed in basaltic glasses. Further studies are needed to confirm biogenicity.

Geysers

The seasonal frosting and defrosting of the southern ice cap results in the formation of spider-like radial channels carved on 1-meter thick ice by sunlight. Then, sublimed CO2 – and probably water – increase pressure in their interior producing geyser-like eruptions of cold fluids often mixed with dark basaltic sand or mud. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars.

A team of Hungarian scientists propose that the geysers' most visible features, dark dune spots and spider channels, may be colonies of photosynthetic Martian microorganisms, which over-winter beneath the ice cap, and as the sunlight returns to the pole during early spring, light penetrates the ice, the microorganisms photosynthesize and heat their immediate surroundings. A pocket of liquid water, which would normally evaporate instantly in the thin Martian atmosphere, is trapped around them by the overlying ice. As this ice layer thins, the microorganisms show through grey. When the layer has completely melted, the microorganisms rapidly desiccate and turn black, surrounded by a grey aureole. The Hungarian scientists believe that even a complex sublimation process is insufficient to explain the formation and evolution of the dark dune spots in space and time. Since their discovery, fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke promoted these formations as deserving of study from an astrobiological perspective.

A multinational European team suggests that if liquid water is present in the spiders' channels during their annual defrost cycle, they might provide a niche where certain microscopic life forms could have retreated and adapted while sheltered from solar radiation. A British team also considers the possibility that organic matter, microbes, or even simple plants might co-exist with these inorganic formations, especially if the mechanism includes liquid water and a geothermal energy source. They also remark that the majority of geological structures may be accounted for without invoking any organic "life on Mars" hypothesis. It has been proposed to develop the Mars Geyser Hopper lander to study the geysers up close.

Forward contamination

Planetary protection of Mars aims to prevent biological contamination of the planet. A major goal is to preserve the planetary record of natural processes by preventing human-caused microbial introductions, also called forward contamination. There is abundant evidence as to what can happen when organisms from regions on Earth that have been isolated from one another for significant periods of time are introduced into each other's environment. Species that are constrained in one environment can thrive – often out of control – in another environment much to the detriment of the original species that were present. In some ways, this problem could be compounded if life forms from one planet were introduced into the totally alien ecology of another world.

The prime concern of hardware contaminating Mars derives from incomplete spacecraft sterilization of some hardy terrestrial bacteria (extremophiles) despite best efforts. Hardware includes landers, crashed probes, end-of-mission disposal of hardware, and the hard landing of entry, descent, and landing systems. This has prompted research on survival rates of radiation-resistant microorganisms including the species Deinococcus radiodurans and genera Brevundimonas, Rhodococcus, and Pseudomonas under simulated Martian conditions. Results from one of these experimental irradiation experiments, combined with previous radiation modeling, indicate that Brevundimonas sp. MV.7 emplaced only 30 cm deep in Martian dust could survive the cosmic radiation for up to 100,000 years before suffering 106 population reduction. The diurnal Mars-like cycles in temperature and relative humidity affected the viability of Deinococcus radiodurans cells quite severely. In other simulations, Deinococcus radiodurans also failed to grow under low atmospheric pressure, under 0 °C, or in the absence of oxygen.

Survival under simulated Martian conditions
Since the 1950s, researchers have used containers that simulate environmental conditions on Mars to determine the viability of a variety of lifeforms on Mars. Such devices, called "Mars jars" or "Mars simulation chambers", were first described and used in U.S. Air Force research in the 1950s by Hubertus Strughold, and popularized in civilian research by Joshua Lederberg and Carl Sagan.

On April 26, 2012, scientists reported that an extremophile lichen survived and showed remarkable results on the adaptation capacity of photosynthetic activity within the simulation time of 34 days under Martian conditions in the Mars Simulation Laboratory (MSL) maintained by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The ability to survive in an environment is not the same as the ability to thrive, reproduce, and evolve in that same environment, necessitating further study.

Although numerous studies point to resistance to some of Mars conditions, they do so separately, and none has considered the full range of Martian surface conditions, including temperature, pressure, atmospheric composition, radiation, humidity, oxidizing regolith, and others, all at the same time and in combination. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple lethal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly.

Water salinity and temperature
Astrobiologists funded by NASA are researching the limits of microbial life in solutions with high salt concentrations at low temperature. Any body of liquid water under the polar ice caps or underground is likely to exist under high hydrostatic pressure and have a significant salt concentration. They know that the landing site of Phoenix lander was found to be regolith cemented with water ice and salts, and the soil samples likely contained magnesium sulfate, magnesium perchlorate, sodium perchlorate, potassium perchlorate, sodium chloride and calcium carbonate. Earth bacteria capable of growth and reproduction in the presence of highly salted solutions, called halophile or "salt-lover", were tested for survival using salts commonly found on Mars and at decreasing temperatures. The species tested include Halomonas, Marinococcus, Nesterenkonia, and Virgibacillus. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple Martian environmental factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly, however, halophile bacteria were grown in a lab in water solutions containing more than 25% of salts common on Mars, and starting in 2019, the experiments will incorporate exposure to low temperature, salts, and high pressure.

Mars-like regions on Earth
On 21 February 2023, scientists reported the findings of a "dark microbiome" of unfamiliar microorganisms in the Atacama Desert in Chile, a Mars-like region of planet Earth.

Missions

Mars-2

Mars-1 was the first spacecraft launched to Mars in 1962, but communication was lost while en route to Mars. With Mars-2 and Mars-3 in 1971–1972, information was obtained on the nature of the surface rocks and altitude profiles of the surface density of the soil, its thermal conductivity, and thermal anomalies detected on the surface of Mars. The program found that its northern polar cap has a temperature below  and that the water vapor content in the atmosphere of Mars is five thousand times less than on Earth. No signs of life were found.

Signs of life of the Mars space program AMS from orbit were not found. The descent vehicle Mars-2 crashed on landing, the descent vehicle Mars-3 launched 1.5 minutes after landing in the Ptolemaeus crater, but worked only 14.5 seconds/

Mariner 4

Mariner 4 probe performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965. The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers, oceans, or any signs of life. Further, it revealed that the surface (at least the parts that it photographed) was covered in craters, indicating a lack of plate tectonics and weathering of any kind for the last 4 billion years. The probe also found that Mars has no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0.6 kPa (compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet's surface. After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these.

Viking orbiters

Liquid water is necessary for known life and metabolism, so if water was present on Mars, the chances of it having supported life may have been determinant. The Viking orbiters found evidence of possible river valleys in many areas, erosion and, in the southern hemisphere, branched streams.

Viking biological experiments

The primary mission of the Viking probes of the mid-1970s was to carry out experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil because the favorable conditions for the evolution of multicellular organisms ceased some four billion years ago on Mars. The tests were formulated to look for microbial life similar to that found on Earth. Of the four experiments, only the Labeled Release (LR) experiment returned a positive result, showing increased 14CO2 production on first exposure of soil to water and nutrients. All scientists agree on two points from the Viking missions: that radiolabeled 14CO2 was evolved in the Labeled Release experiment, and that the GCMS detected no organic molecules. There are vastly different interpretations of what those results imply: A 2011 astrobiology textbook notes that the GCMS was the decisive factor due to which "For most of the Viking scientists, the final conclusion was that the Viking missions failed to detect life in the Martian soil."

Norman Horowitz was the head of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory bioscience section for the Mariner and Viking missions from 1965 to 1976. Horowitz considered that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival of life on other planets. However, he also considered that the conditions found on Mars were incompatible with carbon based life.

One of the designers of the Labeled Release experiment, Gilbert Levin, believes his results are a definitive diagnostic for life on Mars. Levin's interpretation is disputed by many scientists. A 2006 astrobiology textbook noted that "With unsterilized Terrestrial samples, though, the addition of more nutrients after the initial incubation would then produce still more radioactive gas as the dormant bacteria sprang into action to consume the new dose of food. This was not true of the Martian soil; on Mars, the second and third nutrient injections did not produce any further release of labeled gas." Other scientists argue that superoxides in the soil could have produced this effect without life being present. An almost general consensus discarded the Labeled Release data as evidence of life, because the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer, designed to identify natural organic matter, did not detect organic molecules. More recently, high levels of organic chemicals, particularly chlorobenzene, were detected in powder drilled from one of the rocks, named "Cumberland", analyzed by the Curiosity rover. The results of the Viking mission concerning life are considered by the general expert community as inconclusive.

In 2007, during a Seminar of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution (Washington, D.C., US), Gilbert Levin's investigation was assessed once more. Levin still maintains that his original data were correct, as the positive and negative control experiments were in order. Moreover, Levin's team, on April 12, 2012, reported a statistical speculation, based on old data—reinterpreted mathematically through cluster analysis—of the Labeled Release experiments, that may suggest evidence of "extant microbial life on Mars". Critics counter that the method has not yet been proven effective for differentiating between biological and non-biological processes on Earth so it is premature to draw any conclusions.

A research team from the National Autonomous University of Mexico headed by Rafael Navarro-González concluded that the GCMS equipment (TV-GC-MS) used by the Viking program to search for organic molecules, may not be sensitive enough to detect low levels of organics. Klaus Biemann, the principal investigator of the GCMS experiment on Viking wrote a rebuttal. Because of the simplicity of sample handling, TV–GC–MS is still considered the standard method for organic detection on future Mars missions, so Navarro-González suggests that the design of future organic instruments for Mars should include other methods of detection.

After the discovery of perchlorates on Mars by the Phoenix lander, practically the same team of Navarro-González published a paper arguing that the Viking GCMS results were compromised by the presence of perchlorates. A 2011 astrobiology textbook notes that "while perchlorate is too poor an oxidizer to reproduce the LR results (under the conditions of that experiment perchlorate does not oxidize organics), it does oxidize, and thus destroy, organics at the higher temperatures used in the Viking GCMS experiment." Biemann has written a commentary critical of this Navarro-González paper as well, to which the latter have replied; the exchange was published in December 2011.

Phoenix lander, 2008

The Phoenix mission landed a robotic spacecraft in the polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008, and it operated until November 10, 2008. One of the mission's two primary objectives was to search for a "habitable zone" in the Martian regolith where microbial life could exist, the other main goal being to study the geological history of water on Mars. The lander has a 2.5 meter robotic arm that was capable of digging shallow trenches in the regolith. There was an electrochemistry experiment which analysed the ions in the regolith and the amount and type of antioxidants on Mars. The Viking program data indicate that oxidants on Mars may vary with latitude, noting that Viking 2 saw fewer oxidants than Viking 1 in its more northerly position. Phoenix landed further north still.
Phoenixs preliminary data revealed that Mars soil contains perchlorate, and thus may not be as life-friendly as thought earlier. The pH and salinity level were viewed as benign from the standpoint of biology. The analysers also indicated the presence of bound water and CO2. A recent analysis of Martian meteorite EETA79001 found 0.6 ppm ClO4−, 1.4 ppm ClO3−, and 16 ppm NO3−, most likely of Martian origin. The ClO3− suggests presence of other highly oxidizing oxychlorines such as ClO2− or ClO, produced both by UV oxidation of Cl and X-ray radiolysis of ClO4−. Thus only highly refractory and/or well-protected (sub-surface) organics are likely to survive. In addition, recent analysis of the Phoenix WCL showed that the Ca(ClO4)2 in the Phoenix soil has not interacted with liquid water of any form, perhaps for as long as 600 Myr. If it had, the highly soluble Ca(ClO4)2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO4. This suggests a severely arid environment, with minimal or no liquid water interaction.

Mars Science Laboratory

The Mars Science Laboratory mission is a NASA project that launched on November 26, 2011, the Curiosity rover, a nuclear-powered robotic vehicle, bearing instruments designed to assess past and present habitability conditions on Mars. The Curiosity rover landed on Mars on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater, near Aeolis Mons (a.k.a. Mount Sharp), on August 6, 2012.

On December 16, 2014, NASA reported the Curiosity rover detected a "tenfold spike", likely localized, in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere. Sample measurements taken "a dozen times over 20 months" showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging "7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere". Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. In addition, low levels of chlorobenzene (), were detected in powder drilled from one of the rocks, named "Cumberland", analyzed by the Curiosity rover.

Mars 2020

The Mars 2020 rover is a Mars planetary rover mission by NASA, launched on July 30, 2020. It is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials.

Future astrobiology missions
 ExoMars is a European-led multi-spacecraft programme currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Federal Space Agency for launch in 2016 and 2020. Its primary scientific mission will be to search for possible biosignatures on Mars, past or present. A rover with a  core drill will be used to sample various depths beneath the surface where liquid water may be found and where microorganisms or organic biosignatures might survive cosmic radiation.
 Mars sample-return mission – The best life detection experiment proposed is the examination on Earth of a soil sample from Mars. However, the difficulty of providing and maintaining life support over the months of transit from Mars to Earth remains to be solved. Providing for still unknown environmental and nutritional requirements is daunting, so it was concluded that "investigating carbon-based organic compounds would be one of the more fruitful approaches for seeking potential signs of life in returned samples as opposed to culture-based approaches."

Human colonization of Mars

Some of the main reasons for colonizing Mars include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Surface conditions and the presence of water on Mars make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in the Solar System, other than Earth. Human colonization of Mars would require in situ resource utilization (ISRU); A NASA report states that "applicable frontier technologies include robotics, machine intelligence, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, 3-D printing/additive manufacturing, and autonomy. These technologies combined with the vast natural resources should enable, pre- and post-human arrival ISRU to greatly increase reliability and safety and reduce cost for human colonization of Mars."

Interactive Mars map

See also

 Areography (geography of Mars)

 Carbonates on Mars

 Chloride-bearing deposits on Mars

 Composition of Mars
 Elysium Planitia

 Fretted terrain
 Geology of Mars
 Glaciers on Mars
 Gravity of Mars
 Groundwater on Mars
 Hecates Tholus

 Lakes on Mars
 List of quadrangles on Mars
 List of rocks on Mars
 Magnetic field of Mars
 Mars Geyser Hopper

 Martian craters
 Martian dichotomy
 Martian geyser
 Martian gullies
 Martian soil
 Mineralogy of Mars
 Ore resources on Mars
 Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission
 Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes

 Vallis
 Water on Mars

Notes

References

External links
 Scientist says that life on Mars is likely today
 Ancient salty sea on Mars wins as the most important scientific achievement of 2004 – Journal Science
 Mars meteor found on Earth provides evidence that suggests microbial life once existed on Mars
 Scientific American Magazine (November 2005 Issue) Did Life Come from Another World?
 Audio interview about "Dark Dune Spots"

Astrobiology
Mars
Mars
Astronomical controversies

Life on Mars


Emanuele Pirro (Rim, Italija, 12. siječnja 1962.) je bivši talijanski vozač automobilističkih utrka. Godine 1980. osvojio je naslov prvaka u Formuli Fiat Abarth, a 1982. titulu viceprvaka u Europskoj Formuli 3. Još jednu titulu viceprvaka osvojio je 1986. u Formuli 3000 za momčad Onyx Racing Engineering. U Formuli 1 je nastupao od 1989. do 1991., a najbolji rezultat je ostvario na Velikoj nagradi Australije 1989. kada je u Benettonu osvojio 5. mjesto. Na utrci 24 sata Le Mansa je nastupio trinaest puta od 1981. do 2010., a čak pet puta je pobjeđivao, tri puta od 2000. do 2002., te 2006. i 2007. U Italian Touring Car prvenstvu je osvojio naslov 1994. i 1995. U American Le Mans Series prvenstvu osvojio je naslov prvaka 2001. u klasi LMP900 i 2005. u klasi LMP1. Također je pobjeđivao i na utrkama 24 sata Nürburgringa i 12 sati Sebringa. Danas se redovito natječe u automobilističkim utrkama povijesnih bolida, te je često jedan od sudaca na pojedinim utrkama Formule 1.

Izvori

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Emanuele Pirro


රාහුල කුමරු(කි.පූ. 534) සිද්ධාර්ථ ගෞතමයන්ගේ (පාලි - සිද්ධත්ත ගෝතම) සහ යශෝධරා කුමරියගේත් එකම පුතණුවන්ය. සිද්ධාර්ථ ගෞතමයන් බුදු බව පතා ගිහිගෙයින් නික්මුණු දිනයේම රාහුල උපන්නේය.

සිද්ධාර්ථ කුමරු ජීවිතයේ ස්වභාවය, දුක ගැන, අවලෝකනය කරමින් හිඳ තමාට පමණක් නොව සියලු ලෝක සත්වයින්ගේ යහපත උදෙසා බුද්ධත්වය ලබා ගත යුතු යයි තීරණය කරමින් මාළිගයෙන් නික්ම යාමට සැරසුනේය. ඔහුට පු‍තෙකු ලැබුණු ආරංචිය ඇසු විට "රාහු ජාතෝ බන්ධනම් ජාතම් - රාහු ඉපදුනි - බාධාවක් මතු වී ඇත" යනුවෙන් මතුලේය.

ඒ අනුව ළදරුවාට රාහුල යයි නම් තැබිණ. 'රාහුල' යන්නෙහි තේරුම බාධාව යනුයි. ළදරුවා, ඔහුගේ බිරිඳවන යශෝධරාවන්ට සහ ගෘහ ජීවිතය කෙරෙහි බැඳ තබන බැම්මකි යන අර්ථයෙන් ළදරු කුමරුට 'රාහුල' යන නම තැබිනි.

ගිහි පුද්ගලයෙකු තම බිරිඳ ගෙන් හා දරුවන් නිසා ලබන සතුට "මෘදු බාධා" ලෙස ධම්ම පදයෙහි විස්තර වේ. මෙම බාධාවන් කෙනෙකු ජීවිතයට බැඳීම තම අදරණීයයන් වෙත බැඳීම ඔවුන්ගේ වෙන් වීම පමණක් නොව හුදෙක් ඊට වඩා ගැඹුරින් සංසාර චක්‍රය වෙත බැඳීමක් වෙයි.

වර්තමාන ඉන්දියාවේ සහ නේපාලයේ ඉන්දීය භාෂාවල රාහුල් යන නම සාමාන්‍යයෙන් භාවිතා වන නමක් බවට පත්ව ඇත. එය පළමුවෙන්ම නිවැරදි අර්ථයෙන් භාවිතා වන්නට ඇත්තේ පෙර කී කුමාරයාට වන්නට ඇත.

රාහුල කුමාරයා ඇති දැඩි කරන ලද්දේ ඔහුගේ මව සහ සීයා වන සුද්ධෝදන රජු විසිනි. ඔහුගේ  සත් වැනි වියේදී බුදුන් වහන්සේ තම පියා වූ සුද්ධෝදන රජුගේ ඉල්ලීම පිට කපිලවස්තු නුවරට වැඩම  කළහ. සත් දිනක් ගත කොට ආපසු යමට සූදානම් වන අවස්ථාවේ යශෝධරා දේවිය තම පුත් රාහුල කුමරුවන් ඔහුගේ පියා වන බුදුන් වහන්සේ දැකීම පිණිස කැඳවා ගෙන ආවාය. පියා රාජ්‍යය අතහැර තපසට ගිය බැවින් රාජ්‍යයේ ඊළඟ  උරුමක්කාරයා රාහුල බැව්ද, මුත්තනුවන්ට දිගු කලක් රාජ්‍යය පාලනය කිරීමට අවස්ථාව නොලැබෙන බැව්ද පැහැදිළි කරමින්  රාහුලට හිමි රාජ්‍යය සමග ඔහුගේ ඉදිරි පැවැත්මට අවශ්‍ය වස්තුවද පියාගෙන් ඉල්ලන ලෙස රාහුලට දන්වා සිටියාය.

දන් වලඳා නිම වූවායින් පසු "මගේ උරුමය මට දුන මැනවි" යයි කියමින්  රාහුල කුමරු  බුදු හිමියන් පසු පස ගියේය. කිසිවෙක් ඔහු වැලැක්වූයේ නැත. බුදුන් වහන්සේද බාධා නොකළහ. රාහුල කුමරු තම පියා දෙස බලා "බුදු හිමියනි, මට ඔබේ සෙවනැල්ල පවා සුව දායකයැ" යි කීවේය.

බුදුන් වහන්සේ තමන් වහන්සේ වැඩ සිටි නීග්‍රෝධ උයනට පැමිණ මෙසේ සිතූහ. "ඔහු පියාග් උරුමය ලබා ගැනීමට කැමැත්තෙන් සිටී. එහෙත් එය නොයෙක් කම්කටොලු, කරදර වලින් පිරුනේ වෙයි. මම ඔහුට මා විසින් ලබා ගත් නිවන පිළිබඳව අවබෝධ කර දී ඔහු ලෝකෝත්තර සුවයේ හිමිකරුවකු කරමි".

බුදුන් වහන්සේ ශාරිපුත්ත තෙරුන් වහන්ස් අමතා කුඩා රාහුල පැවිදි කරන ලෙස ඉල්ලා සිටියහ. එපරිදි ඔහු පළමු සාමනේර නම බවට පත් විය.

රාහුල හිමි පැවිදි වීමෙන් අනතුරුව බුදුන් වහන්සේ රාහුල හිමිට සත්‍යය පැවසීමේ වැදගත් කම වදාළහ. මෙම දේශනාව රාහුලෝවාද සූත්‍රය නම් වේ. බුදුන් වහන්සේ සත්‍යය සියලු සුචරිතයන්හි අග්‍රස්ථානයේ තැබූහ. සත්‍යය අවබෝධ කිරීම සඳහා කටයුතු කරන්නා කිසි විටෙක සත්‍ය යන ශික්ෂා පදය කඩ නොකළ යුතුය.

බුදුන්ගේ ඉගැන්වීම් අනුගමනය කරමින් රාහුල තෙරුන් අරහත් භාවය ලබා ගත් අනෙක් භික්ෂූන්ගෙන් කෙනෙකු විය.

රාහුල හිමි, බුදුන් වහන්සේ, ශාරිපුත්ත හා මොග්ගල්ලාන යන හිමි වරුනට ප්‍රථම පිරිනිවන් පෑහ.

External links
The Buddha's Instructions to Rahula (Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu)
Ambalatthika-rahulovada Sutta - Instructions to Rahula at Mango Stone
Maha-Rahulovada Sutta - The Greater Exhortation to Rahula
Cula-Rahulovada Sutta - The Shorter Exposition to Rahula
Excerpt: Rahula Becomes an Arahant
Lifestory
IMMEDIATE FAMILY OF THE BUDDHA, 5. Rahula by Radhika Abeysekera
Theragatha
Theragatha Verses of the Elder Monks
Thag 4.8 Verse of Rahula

References
The Buddha and His Teaching, Nārada, Buddhist Missionary Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1988, ISBN 967-9920-44-5

රාහුල රහතන් වහන්සේ


المتحف السلوفاكي الشرقي يقع في مدينة كوشيتسه، وهو أحد أقدم متاحف سلوفاكيا أسس في سنة 1872. أنشأ المبنى الحالي في بدايات القرن العشرين على طراز عصر النهضة الجديد. وهو أول مبنى في المدينة يصمم ليكون متحفا. تعتلى تماثيل لبرسيوس وفولكان (إلهين إغريقيين) واجهة المبنى.

معرض صور

مراجع

عمارة القرن 20 في سلوفاكيا
متاحف أسست في 1872
متاحف تاريخية في سلوفاكيا
متاحف فنية ومعارض في سلوفاكيا
متاحف في كوشيتسه

المتحف السلوفاكي الشرقي


Čierne Kľačany este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Zlaté Moravce din regiunea Nitra. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 1.129 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Čierne Kľačany este atestată documentar din 1209.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Čierne Kľačany


Nesta lista constam os Bispos Diocesanos da Santarém, criada em 1975.

Bispos de Santarém

Bispos de Portugal

Lista de bispos de Santarém


An Stipa mongholica in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Porphir Kiril Nicolai Stepanowitsch Turczaninow ngan Carl Bernhard von Trinius. An Stipa mongholica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stipa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stipa

Stipa mongholica


Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers er en amerikansk gyserfilm fra 1995 instrueret af Joe Chappelle.

Medvirkende
 Donald Pleasence som Dr. Sam Loomis
 Paul Rudd som Tommy Doyle
 Marianne Hagan som Kara Strode
 Mitchell Ryan som Dr. Terence Wynn
 Devin Gardner som Danny Strode
 George P. Wilbur som Michael Myers
 A. Michael Lerner som Michael Myers
 J. C. Brandy som Jamie Lloyd
 Danielle Harris som ng Jamie Lloyd
 Mariah O'Brien som Beth
 Keith Bogart som Tim Strode
 Kim Darby som Debra Strode
 Bradford English som ohn Strode
 Leo Geter som Barry Simms
 Susan Swift som Nurse Mary
 Alan Echeverria som Dr. Bonham
 Janice Knickrehm som  Mrs. Blankenship

Eksterne Henvisninger

Gyserfilm fra USA
Amerikanske film fra 1995
Seriemorderfilm
Film om Halloween
Slasher film

Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers


إغناطيوس يوسف الثالث يونان بطريرك الكنيسة السريانية الكاثوليكية. ولد بتاريخ 15 نوفمبر/تشرين الثاني 1944 في مدينة الحسكة السورية وكان اسمه جوزيف بن فرجو أبن المقدسي يونان كبسو، أكمل دراسته الابتدائية في مدرسة تابعة للكنيسة وبعد ذلك التحق بالمدرسة الإكليريكية في دير الشرفة في لبنان وذلك في شهر أغسطس/آب عام 1956 وهناك أتم المرحلة الثانوية. أُرسل إلى روما لمتابعة دراساته في الفلسفة وعلم اللاهوت في مدرسة البروبغندا حتى سنة 1971 تاريخ نيله إجازة في الفلسفة واللاهوت. رجع إلى مسقط رأسه الحسكة حيث تمت رسامته قسيساً على يد المطران ميخائيل جروة في 12 سبتمبر/أيلول 1971. تسلم بعدها إدارة الإكليريكية الكبرى بالشرفة وكان يُدرس كذلك في الإكليريكية الصغرى حتى سنة 1973. بعد ذلك رجع إلى مدينة الحسكة ليتولى مهمة التربية الدينية في أبرشية المدينة. وفي سنة 1980 استدعاه البطريرك حايك ليصبح قسيسا معاوناً في رعية سيدة البشارة للسريان الكاثوليك في العاصمة اللبنانية بيروت.

نشاطه الكنسي في القارة الأمريكية
بتاريخ 20 مارس/آذار 1986 تم تعيين جوزيف يونان كاهناً في بروكلين وباترسون فانتقل إلى الولايات المتحدة، ووزع عمله بين أبناء كنيسته المهاجرين في كل من ولاية نيويورك وولاية نيوجرسي حيث أسس في هذه الأخيرة رعية أطلق عليها تسمية سيدة النجاة. نال درجة الخورنة بتاريخ 27 يونيو/حزيران 1991 في نيوجرسي، وكان قد عُين في عام 1989 من قبل المجمع الشرقي مسؤولاً على رعايا الكنيسة السريانية الكاثوليكية في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، قام بعدها بتأسيس رعية جديدة في لوس أنجلس وأخرى في سان دييغو.

رُشح من سينودس كنيسته ليرفع لمرتبة الأسقفية مع كاهن آخر فوقع اختيار البابا يوحنا بولس الثاني عليه بتاريخ 18 يناير/كانون الثاني 1995، فسمي مطراناً على أميركا الشمالية وزائراً رسولياً على فنزويلا. وتمت رسامته في 13 يناير/كانون الثاني 1996 على يد البطريك إغناطيوس أنطوان الثاني حايك في كنيسة قلب يسوع في مدينة القامشلي، وأطلق عليه تسمية «مار أفرام» بحسب العادة الجارية في الكنيسة بإعطاء تسمية «أبوية» لكل أسقف جديد.

انتخابه لمنصب البطريرك
في يوم الثلاثاء 20 يناير/كانون الثاني عام 2009، أنتخب الأساقفة السريان الكاثوليك جوزيف يونان مطران أبرشية سيدة النجاة في أمريكا وكندا ليكون البطريرك الجديد للكنيسة السريانية الأنطاكية الكاثوليكية خلفاً للبطريرك السابق المستقيل إغناطيوس بطرس الثامن عبد الأحد، وذلك بعد اجتماعهم في روما في سينودس غير عادي بناء على دعوة البابا بنديكتوس السادس عشر في فترة امتدت بين يومي 17 و23 من يناير/كانون الثاني عام 2009. وتم الاحتفال بتنصيبه في بيروت بتاريخ 15 فبراير/شباط 2009، ليتسلم بعدها مهام وظيفته الجديدة.

مواضيع ذات صلة
 الكنيسة السريانية الكاثوليكية

مصادر

 المطران جوزيف يونان بطريركاً للكنيسة السريانية الأنطاكية الكاثوليكية - موقع أبونا (يصدر عن الاتحاد الكاثوليكي العالمي للصحافة / الأردن)
 مار أغناطيوس يوسف الثالث مطران كندا والولايات المتحدة بطريركا للسريان الكاثوليك في العالم - موقع قناة عشتار الفضائية

آشوريون
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من الحسكة (مدينة)
بطاركة الكنيسة السريانية الكاثوليكية
بطاركة سوريون
سريان
شخصيات مسيحية معاصرة
مسيحيون سوريون
مواليد 1363 هـ
مواليد 1944

إغناطيوس يوسف الثالث يونان


Trippafluga (fræðiheiti: Tipula confusa) er fluga af hrossafluguætt. Hún hefur fjögur lífsstig (egg, lirfa, púpa, fluga) og spanna þessi stig um eitt ár. Trippaflugur eru algengastar við sunnanvert Ísland en finnast lítt annars staðar.

Tilvísanir

Tenglar
 Trippafluga  Náttúrufræðistofnun Íslands

Hrossafluguætt
Skordýr á Íslandi

Trippafluga


Ingolf Fjeld er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1981, der er instrueret af Dolfi Rotovnik.

Handling
En dansk/engelsk ekspeditions forsøg på at bestige den 2560 høje sydvæg af Ingolf fjeld, der ligger 150 km nordøst for Angmagssalik, Østgrønland. Filmen indeholder scener med sejllads på fjorden, lejrliv, klatring, laviner og vejrlig.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1981

Film om Grønland
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Ingolf Fjeld


في البرمجة  كرستوماسي البرامج هو مجموعة من البرامج المتشابهة المكتوبة بلغات برمجية مختلفة, بغرض توضيح الفروق في الصياغة و المفاهيم و المصطلحات بين اللغات, أوضح مثال على ذلك مشروع ايه سي إم لتجميع برنامج أهلا بالعالم بكل اللغات.

يعتقد أن إريك ريموند هو أول من أستخدم المصطلح في موقع مختص بتاريخ الحاسوب, المصطلح يناظر المصطلح الأدبي كرستوماسي.

وصلات خارجية
 شفرة رشيد.
 قياس أداء لغات البرمجة.
 99 زجاجة بيرة, بأكثر من ألف لغة
 شفرة تعمية استبدالية (ROT13) في لغات عدة.

طالع أيضا
برنامج أهلا بالعالم.

برمجة

كرستوماسي البرامج


Humphrey Marshall (* 13. Januar 1812 in Frankfort, Kentucky; † 28. März 1872 in Louisville, Kentucky) war ein US-amerikanischer Offizier und Politiker. Zwischen 1849 und 1852 sowie nochmals von 1855 bis 1859 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Kentucky im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
Humphrey Marshall war ein Enkel des gleichnamigen US-Senators Humphrey Marshall (1760–1841). Nach einer guten Grundschulausbildung absolvierte er im Jahr 1832 die US-Militärakademie in West Point. Nach einem anschließenden Jurastudium und seiner 1833 erfolgten Zulassung als Rechtsanwalt begann er zunächst in Frankfort und dann ab 1834 in Louisville in diesem Beruf zu praktizieren. Außerdem wurde er Mitglied in der Staatsmiliz von Kentucky. Während des Mexikanisch-Amerikanischen Krieges war er Oberst einer aus Freiwilligen bestehenden Einheit. Nach dem Krieg betrieb er im Henry County Landwirtschaft.

Politisch wurde Marshall Mitglied der Whig Party. Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1848 wurde er im siebten Wahlbezirk von Kentucky in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1849 die Nachfolge von Garnett Duncan antrat. Nach einer Wiederwahl im Jahr 1850 konnte er am 4. März 1851 eine zweite Legislaturperiode im Kongress antreten. Nachdem er als Nachfolger von John Wesley Davis zum amerikanischen Gesandten im Kaiserreich China ernannt worden war, legte er sein Abgeordnetenmandat am 4. August 1852 nieder. Bis 1854 übte Marshall sein diplomatisches Amt in China aus. Nach seiner Rückkehr in die Vereinigten Staaten wurde er nach der Auflösung der Whigs Mitglied der kurzlebigen American Party.

Bei den Wahlen des Jahres 1854 wurde er wiederum im siebten Distrikt von Kentucky in den Kongress gewählt. Dort löste er am 4. März 1855 William Preston ab. Nach einer Wiederwahl im Jahr 1856 konnte er bis zum 3. März 1859 zwei weitere Legislaturperioden im US-Repräsentantenhaus absolvieren. Diese waren von den Diskussionen und Ereignissen im Vorfeld des Bürgerkrieges geprägt. Im Jahr 1858 lehnte er eine erneute Nominierung für den Kongress ab.

Bei den Präsidentschaftswahlen des Jahres 1860 unterstützte Marshall die Kandidatur von John C. Breckinridge. Zu Beginn des Bürgerkrieges trat er für die Neutralität Kentuckys ein. Als Truppen der Union in seinem Staat einmarschierten, schloss sich Marshall dem Heer der Konföderation an, in dem er bis zum Brigadegeneral aufstieg. Zwei seiner Cousins, William Birney und David B. Birney, waren gleichzeitig Generäle im gegnerischen Heer der Union. Mit einer Unterbrechung blieb er bis 1863 in der Armee. Danach zog er nach Richmond in Virginia, wo er als Rechtsanwalt praktizierte. Im Herbst 1863 wurde er in den Konföderiertenkongress gewählt.

Nach dem Ende des Krieges zog Humphrey Marshall nach New Orleans in Louisiana. Später kehrte er nach Louisville zurück, wo er bis zu seinem Tod im Jahr 1872 als Anwalt arbeitete. Er wurde in seinem Geburtsort Frankfort beigesetzt.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für Kentucky
Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Konföderierten Staaten von Amerika
Mitglied der United States Whig Party
Mitglied der Know-Nothing Party
Botschafter der Vereinigten Staaten im Kaiserreich China
Militärperson (Konföderierte Staaten)
Rechtsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
Leutnant (United States Army)
Absolvent der United States Military Academy
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1812
Gestorben 1872
Mann

Humphrey Marshall (Politiker, 1812)


المَكَدامِيَة أو المَكْدَمِيَّة أو  أو  هو جنس نباتي من النباتات المزهرة من فصيلة البروطية حيث توجد بكثرة في شرقي أستراليا (سبعة أنواع)، كَلِدونية الجديدة (نوع واحد هو M. neurophylla)، وسولاوسي في أندونيسيا (نوع واحد، M. hildebrandii). هي أشجار تتنوع الحجم من صغيرة إلى كبيرة مستديمة الخضرة تنمو من 2 - 12 متر. الأوراق مرتبة في بتلات من ثلاث إلى ست أوراق في البتلة بشكل قطع ناقص. الثمرة قاسية متخشبة تحوي بذرة أو بذرتين.

التسمية
سمي النوع على اسم جون مَكَدام John Macadam الذي كان أول من وصف هذا النوع. وهو زميل فرديناند فون مولر عالم النبات، الذي كان أول من وصف هذا الجنس. ثمة أسماء شائع عديدة تشمل المكدامية، جوز المكدامية، جوز كُوِنْزِلَند، جوز الدغل، جوز ماروشي، ملكة المكسرات وجوز bauple؛ ويطلق عليها السكان الأصليين في أستراليا أسماء تشمل جنديلي، جندلو بومبيرا.

الإنتاج
تعتبر مكسرات المكدامية من أحد المحاصيل الغذائية الهامة التي تنتج من نوعين من المكدامية فقط هما:
 مكدامية كاملة الأوراق
 مكدامية رباعية الأوراق

أما باقي الأنواع تحوي سموم أو تكون غير صالحة للأكل، وتكون السمية نتيجة وجود الغليكوزيدات فيها.

تشتهر هاواي بإنتاج المكدامية بشكل تجاري بدءاً من العشرينات من القرن العشرين. إلا أن المحاصيل ساءت في 2008 بسبب الجفاف والآفات الزراعية.

أنواع المكدامية
 مكدامية فرانسية
 مكدامية كاملة الأوراق
 مكدامية معرقة الأوراق
 مكدامية ثلاثية الأوراق
 مكدامية رباعية الأوراق
 مكدامية ضيقة الأوراق
 مكدامية كلودية
 مكدامية قائمة
 مكدامية كبيرة
 مكدامية هيانة
 مكدامية هيلدبراندي
 مكدامية جنسنية
 مكدامية دقيقة الأوراق
 مكدامية لوية
 مكدامية صغيرة
 مكدامية متعالية
 مكدامية روسلية
 مكدامية دويرية
 مكدامية فيردية
 مكدامية ويلانية
 مكدامية ينغيانية

انظر أيضًا
 مكسرات

مراجع

أجناس البروطية
أشجار مثمرة
بروطيات في أستراليا
مكاداميا
مكاداميا
مكاداميا
فواكه جافة
مطبخ أسترالي
مطبخ هاواي
مكاداميا
نباتات متوطنة في أستراليا

مكدامية


107 (مائة وسبع) هو عدد صحيح. يلي العدد 106 ويسبق العدد 108 وهو عدد طبيعي موجب.

مراجع

أعداد أولية
أعداد صحيحة
أعداد موجبة

107 (عدد)


Í barndómi er síðasta bók íslenska rithöfundarins Jakobínu Sigurðardóttur. Bókin kom út árið 1994 en Jakobína lést þá fyrr um árið. Í bókinni koma fram minningarbrot úr barnæsku höfundar í Hælavík á Hornströndum sem fæddist þar árið 1918. Í bókinni er sagt frá daglegu lífi í fátækt og einangrun í harðbýlli víkinni, skólagöngu Jakobínu og drauma hennar um líf laust við strit foreldra sinna.

Í eftirmála bókarinnar segir dóttir Jakobínu, Sigríður Þorgrímsdóttir, frá því að þó endanlegur frágangur að bókinni hafi ekki verið búinn hafi handritið að bókinni hafi verið að mestu fullgert. Með Sigríði hafi meðal annars yngri systir Jakobínu, rithöfundurinn Fríða Á. Sigurðardóttir, aðstoðað við lokafrágang bókarinnar.

Jakobína var frænka Þórleifs Bjarnasonar, höfundar Hornstrendingabókar sem sagði frá lífi og starfi fólks áður en Hornstrandir lögðust í eyði um miðja 20. öld. Henni hafi þótt skorta heimildir um daglegt líf innanbæjar og hafi rætt um Í barndómi sem heimildarrit um bæinn Hælavík og líf fólksins í bænum.

Jakobína var komin á áttræðisaldur þegar hún lést. Glíman við gleymskuna og hvað minnið er slitrótt er oft nefnd í bókinni. Í bréfi Jakobínu til frænku sinnar haustið 1992 sagði hún svo frá tilurð bókarinnar: "Árum saman hef ég reynt að tína saman brot um bæina þar, minnið er svikult og ævin orðin löng. Það er víst meir en áratugur síðan ég byrjaði að leita, fyrst í eigin minni, síðan til þeirra sem enn eru eftir af hópnum, sem átti þar heima og eru næstir mér í aldri. En minni þeirra er eins og mitt, brot en ekkert heilt."

Tilvísanir
Íslenskar bókmenntir
Bókaárið 1994

Í barndómi


Tommi og Jenni (enska: Tom & Jerry) er bandarísk kvikmynd frá árinu 2021 leikstýrð af Tim Story og framledd af Warner Bros.

Talsetning

Tilvísanir

Tenglar

Bandarískar kvikmyndir
Kvikmyndir frumsýndar 2021

Tommi og Jenni (kvikmynd 2021)


Svipdagsmál (Old Norse: , 'The Lay of Svipdagr') is an Old Norse poem, sometimes included in modern editions of the Poetic Edda, comprising two poems, The Spell of Gróa and The Lay of Fjölsviðr.

The two works are grouped since they have a common narrator, Svipdagr. Moreover, they would appear to have a common origin since they are closely similar in use of language, structure, style and metre (ljóðaháttr). These two poems are found in several 17th-century paper manuscripts. In at least three of these manuscripts, the poems are in reverse order and separated by a third Eddic poem titled Hyndluljóð. For a long time, the connection between the two poems was not realized, until in 1854 Svend Grundtvig pointed out a connection between the story told in Grógaldr and the first part of the medieval Scandinavian ballad of Ungen Sveidal/Herr Svedendal/Hertig Silfverdal (TSB A 45, DgF 70, SMB 18, NMB 22). Then in 1856, Sophus Bugge noticed that the last part of the ballad corresponded to Fjölsvinnsmál. Bugge wrote about this connection in Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania 1860, calling the two poems together Svipdagsmál. Subsequent scholars have accepted this title.

Poems

Grógaldr

In the first poem, the young Svipdagr has been compelled to come to Menglöð by his cruel stepmother. To accomplish this seemingly impossible task, he summons the shade of his mother, Gróa, a völva or witch, to aid him in this task. She casts nine spells (a significant number in Norse mythology).

Fjölsvinnsmál

In the second poem, Svipdag, having survived the rigours of the journey, is confronted by the eponymous giant watchman, Fjölsviðr. Fjölsviðr is one of the names of the principal of the gods of Asgard, Odin. Fjölsviðr tells him to go away, while asking him his name; Svipdagr wisely conceals his name. A game consisting of question and answer riddles ensues, wherein Svipdagr learns that Menglöð lives in the castle guarded by the Fjölsviðr, and that the castle may not be entered by any save one: Svipdagr. He gives his true name and the gates are opened and Menglöð greets her saviour.

Theories
To date, scholarship has reached no consensus on the meaning of the poems, producing a number of competing theories. Jacob Grimm (1835) identified Menglöð (Old Norse "the one who takes pleasure in jewels") with Freyja. Viktor Rydberg (1889) identified Svipdagr as Freyja's husband Óðr, Menglöð herself as Freyja, and Fjölsviðr representing Odin. Hjalmar Falk (1893) is inclined to see the influence of Grail-poems. Jan de Vries (1941) concluded that the author had formed an Eddic poem out of a fairy story of an enchanted princess and her lover, through borrowing and invention. Otto Höfler (1952) and F.R. Schröder (1966) discerned elements of the myth and ritual which treat the reawakening of the earth beneath the rays of the sun each spring. Einar Ólafur Sveinsson (1975) suggests that the substance of the poem comes from the Irish legend of Art mac Cuinn. Lotte Motz (1975) argues that the poem represents the initiation of a young hero into a mother-goddess cult, identifying Svipdagr's mother Gróa with his lover, Menglöð, based primarily on a limited interpretation of the word mögr in Fjölsvinnsmál 47. More recently, John McKinnell (2005) has stated: "There is no need to identify Menglöð with Gróa, and the attempt to see Gróa's spells as an initiatory ritual distorts the obvious meaning of several of them."

Notes

Bibliography

 Falk, Hjalmar (1893). "Om Svipdagsmål". Arkiv för nordisk filologi: 311–362. Lund: Berlingska Boktryckeri.
 McKinnell, John (2005). Meeting the Other in Old Norse Myth and Legend. D.S. Brewer

 Rydberg, Viktor (1889) translated by Rasmus B. Anderson. Teutonic Mythology. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co.
 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer
 Einar Ólafur Sveinsson (1975). "Svipdag's Long Journey: Some Observations on Grógaldr and Fjölsvinnsmál". Hereditas: 298–319. Ed. Bo Almqvist et al. Dublin: Folklore of Ireland Society.

External links
 Jörmungrund: Svipdagsmál (Old Norse text with English translation.)
 Bellows' translation
 MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image repository) illustrations from Victorian and Edwardian  retellings of Svipdagsmál. Clicking on the thumbnail will give you the full image and information concerning it.

Eddic poetry

Svipdagsmál


Halterofilii este un film românesc din 1986 regizat de Luiza Ciolac.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1986 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1986

Halterofilii


11 (unsprezece) este un număr natural precedat de 10 și urmat de 12.

În matematică

 11 este un număr prim, fiind cel mai mic prim format din două cifre în baza 10. Este un prim aditiv,  un prim asigurat, un prim circular, un prim Pell, un prim permutabil, un prim plat, un prim Ramanujan, un prim Solinas, un prim Sophie Germain, un prim tare, un prim subțire și un număr prim Wagstaff.

 Este un număr prim Eisenstein fără parte imaginară și partea reală de forma 3n − 1.
 Formează o pereche de numere prime gemene cu numărul 13, și formează o pereche de numere prime verișoare cu  (diferența dintre cele două numere este de patru unități).
 Este parte a celei de-a doua perechi cunoscute de numere Brown, împreună cu .
 Este un număr Heegner, deoarece inelul numerelor întregi pentru corpul  este un inel factorial.
 Este un număr Lucas.
 Este un număr Schröder–Hiparh.
 Este un număr prim Sophie Germain, al treilea prim sigur, al doilea prim bun, și al doilea prim unic.
 Este un număr Størmer.
 Este un număr Wedderburn-Etherington.
 Deși este necesar pentru un număr n să fie prim pentru ca 2n − 1 să fie un prim Mersenne, reciproca nu este adevărată: 211 − 1 = 2047, care este 23 × 89, deci un număr compus.
 Dacă un număr este divizibil cu 11, prin inversarea cifrelor sale se va obține un alt multiplu de 11. Cu excepția cazului în care numărul are două cifre adiacente care împreună însumează mai mult decât 9, prin înmulțirea numărului cu 11, inversarea cifrelor produsului și împărțirea noului număr cu 11, se va obține un număr care este inversul celui original. De exemplu, pentru 142.312 avem: 142.312 × 11 = 1.565.432 → 2.345.651 / 11 = 213.241.
 În baza 10, există o metodă simplă de a determina dacă un număr este divizibil cu 11: se adună toate cifrele aflate într-o poziție impară și cele rămase. Dacă diferența dintre cele două sume este un multiplu de 11, inclusiv 0, atunci numărul de la care s-a plecat este divizibil cu 11. De exemplu, pentru numărul 65.637 avem (6 + 6 + 7) - (5 + 3) = 19 - 8 = 11, așadar 65.637 ese divizibil cu 11.
 Un poligon cu 11 laturi și 11 vârfuri se numește endecagon.
 Este un număr endecagonal.
 Este un număr repunit (repdigit) în baza 10, mai exact primul număr prim repunit.
 Este un număr palindromic în baza 10.
 La afișajul cu șapte segmente, 11 este atât prim strobogramatic cât și prim diedral.

Lista unor calcule matematice

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; background: white"
|-
! style="width:105px;"|Împărțire
!1
!2
!3
!4
!5
!6
!7
!8
!9
!10
! style="width:5px;"|
!11
!12
!13
!14
!15
|-
|11 ÷ x
|11
|5.5
|3.
|2.75
|2.2
|1.8
|1.
|1.375
|1.
|1.1
!
|1
|0.91
|0.
|0.7
|0.7
|-
|x ÷ 11
|0.
|0.
|0.
|0.
|0.
|0.
|0.
|0.
|0.
|0.
!
|1
|1.
|1.
|1.
|1.
|}

 Alte sisteme de numerație

 În știință
 Este numărul atomic al sodiului.
 Este masa atomică a borului.
 Grupa a 11-a din tabelul periodic al elementelor este grupa cuprului și conține elementele chimice cupru, argint, aur și roentgeniu.

 Astronomie
 NGC 11 este o galaxie spirală în constelația Andromeda.
 Messier 11 (Roiul Raței Sălbatice) este un roi deschis din constelația Scutul.
 11 Parthenope este o planetă minoră.
 Apollo 11 este prima misiune spațială în urma căreia au ajuns oameni pe Lună.
 11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR este o cometă periodică din sistemul solar.

 În sport
 Într-o echipă de fotbal se regăsesc 11 jucători.
 Într-o echipă de fotbal american se regăsesc 11 jucători.
 Într-o echipă de hochei pe iarbă se regăsesc 11 jucători.
 Într-o echipă de crichet se regăsesc 11 jucători.

 Alte domenii Unsprezece' se mai poate referi la:
 Codul pentru departamentul francez Aude.
 Ocean's Eleven, un film din 2001.
 DN11, un drum național din România.
 DN11A, un drum național din România.
 DN11B, un drum național din România.
 Eleven (11), un personaj fictiv din serialul Stranger Things.
 Numărul premiilor Oscar care au fost câștigate de trei filme: Ben-Hur (1959), Titanic (1997) și Stăpânul Inelelor: Întoarcerea Regelui (2003).
 11:11:
 albumul muzical de debut al Reginei Spektor din 2001.
 albumul formației Rodrigo y Gabriela din 2009.
 11-11-11, un film din 2011.

Note

 Bibliografie
 Marius Coman, Enciclopedia matematică a claselor de numere întregi'', Columbus, Ohio: Education Publishing, 2013,

Legături externe

  The Positive Integer 11
  Prime Curios: 11
  VirtueScience: 11
  Numbers aplenty: 11

Numere naturale
Numere prime

11 (număr)


Ascot Vale ist ein Stadtteil im Nordwesten der australischen Metropole Melbourne. Er befindet sich ca. 7 km vom Stadtzentrum entfernt und grenzt im Osten an den Maribyrnong River, im Westen an das Moonee Ponds Creek.

Die Geschichte des Stadtteils begann 1888, als dort ein Postamt eröffnet wurde.

Einzelnachweise

Stadtteil von Melbourne
Moonee Valley City

Ascot Vale


La bataille de Loïew (en , en , en ) est une bataille du soulèvement de Khmelnytsky. Près du site de la ville actuelle de Loïew en Biélorussie, une force numériquement supérieure de cosaques ukrainiens sous le commandement de Stepan Pobodaïlo et Mykhaïlo Krytchevsky est vaincue par les forces polono-lituaniennes sous le commandement de Hetman de campagne de Lituanie Janusz Radziwiłł. Radziwiłł a pu engager les forces cosaques avant leur jonction. D'abord il a vaincu l'armée de Krytchevsky, qui a été mortellement blessé ; puis il a défait l'armée de Pobodaïlo.

Avant la bataille
Une armée cosaque sous Stepan Pobodaïlo avec une force d'environ  hommes a pris Loïew à l'été 1649 et a commencé à l'utiliser comme base opérationnelle dans la région, pour une série de raids de pillage. Le Hetman de campagne de Lituanie Janusz Radziwiłł mène l'armée lituanienne (environ  hommes, dont environ 800 hussards ailés,  fantassins, et de la cavalerie légère) sur le terrain pour l'engager.

Bohdan Khmelnytsky, chef des cosaques ukrainiens, est informé des plans de Radziwiłł pendant le siège de Zbaraj. Il détache une partie de ses forces, une armée d'environ  hommes dirigés par Mykhaïlo Krytchevsky, pour soutenir Podobaïlo contre la république des Deux Nations.

Le 23 juillet, l'armée du polono-lituanienne s'approche de Loïew sur la rive droite du Dniepr. Le camp fortifié de Pobodaïlo était sur la rive gauche et Radziwiłł décide de commencer un siège en bombardant le camp des cosaques avec son artillerie par-dessus de la rivière.

Déroulement de la bataille
Lorsque Radziwiłł apprend l'approche des renforts cosaques sous Krytchevsky, il envoie  cavaliers en reconnaissance, mais Krytchevsky les évite et attaque l'armée principale. L'assaut cosaque est brisé par les tirs d'artillerie et d'infanterie des Polonais. Radziwiłł attaque ensuite les cosaques avec sa cavalerie, mais est encerclé par les cosaques et aurait péri si le reste de la cavalerie, revenant de la mission de reconnaissance ratée, n'était arrivé à ce moment, renversant la situation.

Les restes de l'armée de Krytchevsky prennent position dans un fort de chariots. Les premières tentatives de l'armée polono-lituanienne pour prendre les nouvelles positions cosaques échouent. Entre-temps, les troupes de Pobodaïlo traversent la rivière pour aider leurs alliés, mais sont défaites. Après cela, l'assaut final du fort de wagons réussit, les hussards quittant leurs montures et se battant à pied. Krytchevsky, mortellement blessé, est fait prisonnier. Radziwiłł capture environ 40 bannières cosaques sur le terrain. Samuel Orgelbrand a estimé les pertes cosaques à  hommes, 2 pièces d'artillerie et 12 bannières.

L'une des raisons de la défaite de l'armée cosaque et des pertes importantes est une erreur stratégique de Krytchevsky, qui a mal évalué le facteur de soudaineté qui a permis à l'armée du Commonwealth de détruire chaque unité de l'armée cosaque séparément.

Conséquences
Les forces polono-lituaniennes reprennent le contrôle de la région, mais le manque de ravitaillement empêche Radziwiłł d'avancer sur Kiev.

Radziwiłl est récompensé par le roi avec des possessions à Nevel, Sebej et Krasny. Non content de ces récompenses, il trahira plus tard la république.

Une autre bataille aura lieu dans la même zone deux ans plus tard.

Notes et références

Voblast de Homiel
1649 en Europe
Bataille de 1649
Soulèvement de Khmelnytsky

Bataille de Loïew (1649)


نديم محمد، الملقب بشاعر الألم، سوري ولد في عام 1908 في قرية عين شقاق في قضاء جبلة ـ محافظة اللاذقية.

تعليمه
تعلم القراءة والقرآن في القرية على يد شيخ الكتاب أولاً، ثم أرسل إلى المدرسة في قرية (العنازة) في منطقة بانياس الساحل، لتعلم قواعد اللغة العربية ومنها مدرسة (الفرير) في اللاذقية، ثم إلى جبلة ونال منها الشهادة الابتدائية في عام 1925.

وفي عام 1926 أرسل إلى مدرسة اللاييك في بيروت، وبعد سنة ونيف سافر إلى فرنسا لإتمام الدراسة في جامعة مونبيلييه حيث حصل على الإجازة في الأدب العربي، وانتقل إلى سويسرا لدراسة الحقوق، ولكنه عاد في عام 1930 لأسباب خاصة دون أن يكمل دراسته.

حياته المهنية
شغل العديد من الوظائف بدءاً من عام 1933 وكان في جميعها مشاكساً، وكان آخرها مديراً للمركز الثقافي في (الحفة) ثم خبيراً في وزارة الإعلام، حيث عاوده المرض الذي كان قد أصيب به في عام 1939 وهو التدرن الرئوي، وأدخل في مصح (بحنس) في جبل لبنان، وفي أواخر أيامه تعالج في مشفى المواساة في دمشق إلى أن توفاه الله في بيت ابن اخيه وحافظ تراثه الادبي غسان حسن في قرية عين شقاق في السابع عشر من شهر كانون الثاني عام 1994 عن عمر ناهز السادسة والثمانين.

أعماله وشهرته
أشهر دواوينه «آلام» بثلاثة أجزاء.

قال عنه عميد الأدب العربي الدكتور طه حسين عن ديوانه (آلام) في مؤتمر الأدباء العرب في بلودان: «لو لم يكن لهذا الشاعر إلاَّ هذا الديوان فحريٌّ بالشعر العربي أن يضمه إلى فحوله الكبار».

نماذج من قصائده
لا يدخلنْ أحدٌ كوخي فلست أرى

في الداخلين سوى لصٍ ومغتاب

جارٌ من الوحش أو طيرٌ أعلمها

أوفى وأخلص من جاري وأترابي

حولي من الذئب والعقبان طائفةٌ

هم كل صحبي وسماري وأحبابي

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 اضاءات: نديم محمد: شاعر الألم والكبرياء - جبلة.كوم

شعراء سوريون في القرن 20
مواليد 1908
وفيات 1994

نديم محمد


Dünya Barış Konseyi kurulduğu 1949 yılından beri Dünya barışı, silahsızlanma küresel güvenlik, ulusal bağımsızlık, ekonomik ve sosyal adelet ve gelişim, çevrenin  korunması, insan hakları, bağımsızlık mücadelesi veren halklarla dayanışma için ve emperyalizme karşı mücadele etmektedir. Kurucu başkanı Frederic Joliot-Curie'nin "Barış herkesin işidir." sözünü kendine ilke edinen DBK, dünyanın pek çok ülkesinde bulunan barıştan yana örgütlerin federasyonudur.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Sovyet Barış Komitesi

Dış bağlantılar
 Dünya Barış Konseyi
 Barış Derneği
 Gathering the pieces of peace

Uluslararası kuruluşlar

Dünya Barış Konseyi


Luka Gaženica je zadarska trajektna luka u Gaženici na adresi Gaženička 28. Luka je napravljena za teretne i putničke namjere. Građena je šest godina, a otvorena je 2015. U toj luci se nalazi Lučka uprava Zadar d.d. i Luka Zadar d.d. U rujnu 2019. odabrana je kao najbolja svjetska luka godine.

Povijest

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Luka Zadar d.d.
Lučka uprava Zadar d.d.

Gaženica
Zadar

Luka Gaženica


إليلتن إحدى بلديات دائرة إيفرحونن التابعة لولاية تيزي وزو.

مواضيع ذات صلة
 بلديات ولاية تيزي وزو
 دوائر ولاية تيزي وزو

مصادر

 التقسيم الإداري لولاية  ولاية تيزي وزو

إليلتن

إليلتن


Chronic er en fransk-mexicansk dramafilm skrevet og instrueret af Michel Franco fra 2015, og med Tim Roth i hovedrollen.

Medvirkende
 Tim Roth som David
 Bitsie Tulloch som Lidia
 David Dastmalchian som Bernard
 Tate Ellington som Greg
 Claire van der Boom som Alice
 Maribeth Monroe som Sarah's niece
 Robin Bartlett som Marta
 Sarah Sutherland som Nadia
 Laura Niemi som Margaret
 Michael Cristofer som John
 Joe Santos som Issac Sr.
 Kari Coleman som Sarah's sister
 Nailea Norvind som Laura
 Rachel Pickup som Sarah

Kilder

Eksterne henvisninger

Amerikanske film fra 2015
Film fra Mexico
Dramafilm fra Mexico
Franske film fra 2015
Engelsksprogede film

Chronic (film)


Europska konfederacija konzervatorsko restauratorskih udruga ECCO organizacija je koja okuplja europske udruge konzervatora restauratora. Utemeljena je 1991. godine. Konfederacija od početka radi na izradi profesionalnih standarda struke, te se zalaže za ujednačavanje konzervatorsko restauratorskog obrazovanja na Europskoj razini. ECCO kao razinu obrazovanja potrebnu za ulazak u struku preporuča zvanje magistra struke, najmanje 5 godišnje fakultetsko obrazovanje odnosno razina 7 europskog kvalifikacijskog okvira (uz napomenu da kod nas zvanje magistra struke u području konzerviranja restauriranja nosi i dosta osoba sa samo 2 godine obrazovanja u struci). Od četiri hrvatske konzervatorsko restauratorske udruge samo je Hrvatsko restauratorsko društvo član ECCO-a (od 16. travnja 2014.).

Zemlje punopravne članice
Austrija, Belgija, Bugaska, Danska, Hrvatska, Finska, Francuska, Njemačka, Grčka, Mađarska, Irska, Italija, Norveška, Portugal, Slovačka, Slovenija, Španjolska, Švedska, Švicarska.

Pridružene članice
Češka, Malta, Rumunjska.

Zemlje koje nisu članice
Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo – istupilo je iz članstva 2007. zbog neslaganja s nekim od temeljnih odrednica ECCO-a.
Umjesto sustava vezanog uz školovanje odlučili su se za sustav profesionalne akreditacije. Većina članova britanskog ICON-a ne bi mogla proći kriterije za koje se ECCO zalaže, dobar dio britanskih studija konzerviranja restauriranja usmjeren je na trajanje od 3 godine, neki i samo 2 godine.

Predsjednici ECCO-a do danas

 Mogens Koch (1991–1992)
 Ulrich Schiessl (1993–1994)
 Pierre Masson (1995–1997)
 Stéfan Pennec (1998–2000)
 Gerlinde Tauschnig (2001–2002)
 Ylva Player Dahnsjö (2003–2004)
 Michael van Gompen (2005)
 Monica Martelli Castaldi (2006–2012)
 Susan Corr (2013 – do danas/2020./)

Poveznice
 Školovanje konzervatora restauratora
 Konzervator restaurator
 Konzervator tehničar

Dodatna literatura
E. C. C. O. Professional Guidelines (I, II, III), Bruxelles 2002.

E.C.C.O. Competences for Access to the Conservation Restoration Profession,Bruxelles 2011.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Službena stranica ECCO-a

Konzervacija


La lipomatosis simétrica múltiple o enfermedad de Madelung, es una enfermedad que se caracteriza por la existencia de numerosos depósitos de grasa que se sitúan alrededor del cuello, hombros, tronco y axilas. Es característico que otras partes del organismo como antebrazos, miembros inferiores, cara, manos y pies queden libres. Debe su nombre al cirujano Otto Wilhelm Madelung que presentó una serie de 35 casos en 1888, aunque la primera descripción fue de Benjamín Brodie en 1846. Es una enfermedad rara, el número de casos descritos en la literatura médica es muy reducido, se da con más frecuencia en los países mediterráneos como Italia, donde afecta a uno de cada 25.000 varones, siendo mucho más rara entre las mujeres. La causa que origina este trastorno es desconocida, pero existe una fuerte relación con el alcoholismo. No debe confundirse con la deformidad de Madelung que es una anomalía de la muñeca producida por un trastorno del crecimiento.

Referencias

Enfermedades epónimas

Lipomatosis simétrica múltiple


Griffin Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Griffin Township (Conway County, Arkansas)
 Griffin Township (Pope County, Arkansas)
 Griffin Township (North Dakota)

Siehe auch:
 Griffins Township

Griffin Township


Konstantin Friedrich Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, Duce de Oldenburg (9 mai 1850 - 18 martie 1906) a fost fiu al Ducelui Peter de Oldenburg și a soției acestuia, Prințesa Therese de Nassau-Weilburg. Cunoscut la curtea Țarului Nicolae al II-lea ca Ducele Constantin Petrovici de Oldenburg,  el a fost tatăl conților și conteselor von Zarnekau.

Biografie
A fost al șaptelea copil și al treilea fiu al Ducelui Peter de Oldenburg și a soției acestuia, Prințesa Therese de Nassau-Weilburg. Familia Oldenburg era o ramură mai tânără a Casei de Holstein-Gottorp, era o casă ducală mică aflată la granița Germaniei cu Danemarca.

În timpul secolului al XVIII-lea, Ducii de Holstein-Gottorp au câștigat influență alegând cu grijă alianțe maritale cu case regale din Germania, Danemarca, Suedia, Norvegia și Prusia. Împărăteasa Elisabeta a Rusiei, care nu avea copii l-a proclamat pe nepotul ei Karl Peter Ulrich de Holstein-Gottorp moștenitor al tronului și când el a devenit Țarul Petru al III-lea în 1762, familia Holstein-Gottorp, ea însăși o ramură a Casei de Oldenburg, a devenit casa imperială a Rusiei care a domnit până în 1917 sub numele de Romanov.

Țarul Petru al III-lea al Rusiei s-a căsătorit la 21 august 1745 cu verișoara sa de gradul al doilea, prințesa prusacă Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, mai bine cunoscută ca Ecaterina a II-a sau Ecaterina cea Mare. Cuplul a avut un fiu, Pavel, care, după decesul împărătesei Ecaterina în 1796, a domnit sun numele de Pavel I al Rusiei până la asasinarea sa în 1801. Pavel și soția sa, Maria Feodorovna, Ducesă de Württemberg, au avut 10 copii. Fiul lor cel mare a domnit sub numele de Alexandru I al Rusiei între 1801 și 1825, perioada  Războaielor Napoleoniene.

În 1808, când Oldenburg a fost invadată de trupele franceze și olandeze, Petru I, Marele Duce de Oldenburg și prinț-episcop de Lübeck și-a trimis cel de-al doile fiu, Ducele George de Oldenburg, să stea în Rusia la rudele sale, familia imperială rusă.

La 3 august 1809, Ducele George de Oldenburg, bunicul lui Constantin Petrovici, s-a căsătorit cu Marea Ducesă Ecaterina Pavlovna a Rusiei, fiica Țarului Pavel I. Căsătoria a fost aranjată în grabă, ca un mijloc de a evita o nuntă forțată cu Napoleon Bonaparte, iar mariajul s-a dovedit unul fericit. Ecaterina Pavlovna a fost sora favorită a Țarului Alexandru I iar Ducele George de Oldenburg a devenit favorit la curte.

Ei au avut doi copii. Cel de-al doilea fiu al lor, Ducele Petru Georgievici de Oldenburg, tatăl lui Constantin Petrovici, s-a născut în 1812.

Constantin Petrovici a avut șapte frați și surori. Sora lui Alexandra s-a măritat cu un Romanov în timp ce alți doi frați s-au căsătorit cu membri ai Casei de Leuchtenberg. La 20 octombrie 1882 Constantin s-a căsătorit morganatic cu Agrippina Japaridze, o nobilă georgiană. Petru al II-lea, Mare Duce de Oldenburg, șeful Casei de Oldenburg, a creat-o contesă von Zarnekau în ziua nunții. Între 1883 și 1892 ei au avut șase copii, toți născuți în Kutais, în Caucaz:

 Alexandra Constantinovna von Zarnekau, contesă von Zarnekau (10 mai 1883 - 28 mai 1957); s-a căsătorit cu Prințul Georg Alexandrovici Iurievski,  un fiu al Țarului Alexandru al II-lea al Rusiei și al metresei sale, Ecaterina Dolgorukova.
 Ekaterina Konstantinovna von Zarnekau, contesă von Zarnekau (16 septembrie 1884 - 24 decembrie 1963)
 Nikolai Konstantinovich von Zarnekau, conte von Zarnekau (7 mai 1885 - 1976)
 Aleksai Konstantinovich von Zarnekau, contevon Zarnekau (16 iulie 1887 - 16 septembrie 1918)
 Petr Konstantinovich von Zarnekau, conte von Zarnekau (26 mai 1889 - 1 noiembrie 1961)
 Nina Konstantinovna von Zarnekau, contesă von Zarnekau (13 august 1892 - 1922)

După căsătorie, perechea a trăit la mosia familiei Japaridze din Kutaisi. Constantin a ajutat-o pe Agrippina la construirea viilor de producție și la o fabrică de vin. El a ajutat regiunea să se dezvolte agricol. El a început să vândă fructe, pepeni, legume și produse agricole în străinătate. În noiembrie 1894, Țarul Alexandru al III-lea s-a îmbolnăvit de befrită și a murit. Când Țarul Nicolae al II-lea a urcat pe tron, el i-a permis Ducelui Constantin Petrovici și familiei sale să se întoarcă la Sankt Petersburg.

Arbore genealogic

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Note

Nașteri în 1850
Decese în 1906
Casa de Oldenburg
Duci de Oldenburg
Oameni din Sankt Petersburg

Constantin Petrovici de Oldenburg