The Ynglings were a dynasty of kings, first in Sweden and later in Norway, primarily attested through the poem Ynglingatal. The dynasty also appears as Scylfings (Old Norse Skilfingar) in Beowulf. When Beowulf and Ynglingatal were composed sometime in the eighth to tenth centuries, the respective scop and skald (poet) expected his audience to have a great deal of background information about these kings, which is shown in the allusiveness of the references.

According to sources such as Ynglingatal and Íslendingabók, the Fairhair dynasty in Oppland, Norway was in fact a branch of the Ynglings. Saxo Grammaticus held that Eric the Victorious, whom modern regnal lists usually begin with, and his descendants were also Ynglings, but this does not tally with Icelandic sources.

The dynasty claimed descent from the gods Freyr and Njörðr, and other kings were likely mythical as well, whereas others may have been real: especially Egil, Ottar, Ale and Adils that are mentioned in Beowulf as well as Nordic sources.

Names

In the Scandinavian sources they are the descendants of Yngvi-Frey of Vanaheim. Yngling means descendant of Frey, and in the Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus they are called the sons of Frey. Several of these kings appear in Beowulf: Eadgils (Adils), Onela (Ale), and Ohthere (Ottar Vendelkråka), but here they are called Scylfings (see the Beowulf section below).

Snorri Sturluson hints at a less divine origin in Skáldskaparmál for this dynasty: One war-king was named Skelfir; and his house is called the House of Skilfings: his kindred is in the Eastern Land.

In Ynglinga Saga in 1220 AD, Snorri Sturluson discusses marriages between Swedish and Finnish royal families. In 1220 AD (c.), in the  section of Edda, Sturluson discusses King Halfdan the Old, Nór's great-grandson, and nine of his sons who are the forefathers of various royal lineages, including "Yngvi, from whom the Ynglings are descended". According to  in 1230 AD, Nór founded Norway. He was a direct descendant of Fornjótr, the King of "Gotland, Kvenland and Finnland". In traditional Scandinavian lineages we find Halfdan the Old as the Great-grandfather of Ragnvald Eysteinson Jarl of Møre, the father of Rollo, called Gengu-Hrolf in Norse sources, the Viking conqueror who founded Normandy, who Dudo of Saint-Quentin testifies took the name Robert after converting to Christianity. He is also known as Count Rou of Rouen famous for being William the Conqueror's great-great-great-grandfather.

In 1387 AD,  ('How Norway was founded') is an account of the origin of various legendary Norwegian lineages. It too traces the descendants of the primeval Finnish ruler Fornjotr back through Nór and his siblings, Góí and Gór; Nór being here the eponym and first great king of Norway, and then gives details of the descendants of Nór and of his brother Gór in the following section known as the  ('Genealogies', a.k.a. , 'Founding of Norway'). The Hversu account is closely paralleled by the opening of the .

The 'genealogies' also claim that many heroic families famed in Scandinavian tradition but not located in Norway were of a Finn-Kven stock, mostly sprung from Nór's great-grandson Halfdan the Old. Almost all the lineages sprung from Halfdan are then shown to reconvert in the person of Harald Fairhair, the first king of "all Norway". This information can be confirmed in other sources.

The 'Ættartölur' account ends to a genealogy of Harald's royal descendants down to Olaf IV of Norway with the statement that the account was written in 1387, and with a list of the kings of Norway from this Olaf back to Harald Fair-hair.

Another origin for the name skilfing is possible: Snorri described Erik and Alrik, the sons of Skjalf to be the de facto ancestors of this Norse clan.

The kings who resided at Upsal had been the supreme chiefs over the whole Swedish dominions until the death of Agne, when, as before related, the kingdom came to be divided between brothers (Alrek and Erik). After that time the dominions and kingly powers were spread among the branches of the family as these increased; but some kings cleared great tracts of forest-land, and settled them, and thereby increased their domains.

From Sweden to Norway
According to Snorri Sturluson, the dynasty led the settlement of the Swedish provinces and established themselves as the kings of its provinces, accepting the overlordship of the Swedish king at Uppsala, until the dynasty all but exterminated itself with Ingjald Ill-Ruler and his downfall. A survivor Olof Trätälja was the ancestor of the Norwegian branch.

Remaining in Sweden

However, both Snorri (as in the earlier quote) and Saxo described the clan as remaining in Sweden after this date.

Saxo on the Battle of Bråvalla (ca 750):
Now the bravest of the Swedes were these: Arwakki, Keklu-Karl (Kelke-Karl), Krok the Peasant, (from Akr), Gudfast and Gummi from Gislamark. These were kindred of the god Frey, and most faithful witnesses to the gods. Ingi (Yngwe) also, and Oly, Alver, Folki, all sons of Elrik (Alrek), embraced the service of Sigurd Hring; they were men ready of hand, quick in counsel, and very close friends of Ring. They likewise held the god Frey to be the founder of their race. Amongst these from the town of Sigtun (Old Sigtuna) also came Sigmund, a champion advocate, versed in making contracts of sale and purchase; besides him Frosti surnamed Bowl: allied with him was Alf the Lofty (Erect?spear-thrower?) from the district of Upsala (Old Uppsala); this man was a swift spear-thrower, and used to go in the front of the battle.

Moreover, both in Icelandic sources and in the Gesta Danorum, King Sigurd Hring would become the ancestor of the houses of Ragnar Lodbrok and would thus be the semi-legendary ancestor of the House of Munsö through Björn Ironside, and the Danish royal house through Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye. Ragnar's eldest son Ivar the Boneless was the leader of the Great Heathen Army and appears to have been the founder of the Uí Ímair dynasty of the Kingdom of York and Kingdom of Dublin, and by extension the Crovan Dynasty of the Kings of Mann.

The line

The family tree
This is the mythic Yngling family tree based on Historia Norwegiæ, Ynglinga saga, Beowulf and other Old Norse sources. The names of Swedish kings are shown in bold.

The name Scylfing
In Old English several kings who are generally identified as Ynglings are called Scylfings.

The genealogy is given as:

Ohthere (Ottar) also occurs as the father of Aedgils (Adils) in Ynglingatal. There Skilfing (Skilfingr) appears as a synonym of Yngling, in a line on Egil, the father of Ottar, so that Ongentheow is considered identical to Egil.

Likewise in the Skáldskaparmál the Scylfings are described as an eastern family and East King was a conventional kenning for a Swedish king.

However, in the , (the genealogies attached to ), the Skilfings are of Norwegian origin and include a family identified as Skjöldungs. In the eddic poem Grímnismál (stanza 55), Skilfing appears as one of Odin's names, the information there also appearing in the Gylfaginning..

Beowulf
In the Old English poem Beowulf, the word Scylfing occurs twice in the singular and twice in the plural. For alliterative purposes the name could be extended, such as the form Heathoscylfing 'Battle-Scylfing', which occurs once in the singular and twice in the plural. A Scylfing whose name is partly missing but ends in -ela married the sister of Hrothgar and Halga. Specifically identified as Scylfings are Ongentheow, king of Sweden, and by extension his subject Wiglaf son of Weohstan. Wiglaf and Weohstan belonged to the family of the Wægmundings to which Beowulf and his father Ecgtheow also belonged. Another extended form is helm Scylfinga. This literally means 'Scylfings'-helmet'; it is a kenning meaning both "ruler of the Scylfings" and "protector of the Scylfings". The Beowulf poet uses it to refer to Ongentheow's son Onela.

In Norse tradition

From the
The eddic poem , in stanza 16 speaks of descendants of an ancient king named Halfdan the Old:Hence come the Skjöldungs, hence the Skilfings,
Hence the Ödlings [], hence the Ylfings, ...

From the
In the , Snorri Sturluson speaks of the second group of nine sons of Halfdan the Old, from whom many families of legend descend, one of these sons being Yngvi, purported ancestor of the Yngling lineage. But neither Skylfings or Skjöldungs are specifically derived from these sons. Snorri continues with examples of famous descendants of three of those lineages, followed by: "Of the house of the Ylfings was Eirík the Eloquent ()." But Ylfings have not been previously mentioned. Then follows the names of four ancestors of four lineages not descended from Halfdan, which include Yngvi and the Ynglings a second time. There is obvious confusion or corruption in this passage or its source. The fourth lineage is identified:
One war-king was named Skelfir; and his house is called the House of Skilfings: his kindred is in the Eastern Region.
A connection with the east might mean a connection to Sweden, but the vagueness of expression suggests Snorri knows no more about these Skilfings than he has written.

Snorri also gives Skilfing as a kenning for "king" and it appears as a kenning for "sword" in the  found in some versions of the .

From the
The  connected to  are a longer variant of the genealogical passages in the , also speaking of Halfdan the Old and lineages descended from him and of other notable lineages, but in much greater detail. In this list of the sons of Halfdan, Yngvi the ancestor of the Ynglings is missing and Skelfir the ancestor of the Skilfings appears in his place. This might be a remembrance of an earlier identity or connection of the Swedish Ynglings and the Swedish Scylfings in Beowulf. But nothing in the following genealogy is necessarily Swedish though possible Swedish parallels do appear, particular the names Alrek and Eirík as discussed below.

There are many oddities in this account.

It claims Skelfir was king of Vörs (Vǫrs), modern Voss in northern Hordaland in southwestern Norway, but Halfdan's inheritance was in southeastern Norway.

Skelfir was the father of Skjöld (Skjǫldr). The account ends by saying that lineage of Skelfir was called the Skilfing lineage or the Skjöldung lineage, seemingly identifying the two. But Skjöldungs are normally the legendary royal family of the rulers of Denmark and no connection with Denmark is made here. Indeed, the Ættartǫlur later twice gives a quite different list of descendants of the Danish Skjöld who is there made a son of Odin as commonly in Norse texts. Skjöld as son of Skelfir might be related to English traditions of Scyld being a son or descendant of Sceafa (as discussed under Sceafa), though here too (at least in Beowulf) the connection is to Danish matters, not to Norway.

This Norwegian Skjöld, ancestor of the Norwegian Skjöldungs, is father of Eirík, father of Alrek (Alrekr), father of Eirík the Eloquent, whom the Skáldskaparmál presented as an Ylfing. These two mentions are the only occurrences of Eirík the Eloquent in Norse texts. But what seems to be the same figure appears prominently in book 5 of Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum as Ericus disertus. This Ericus disertus is indeed a Norwegian, but his father is not named Alrek but rather Regnerus pugilex, that is Ragnar the Champion. The Gesta Danorum then somewhat forcibly identifies Ericus disertus with Eirík, a legendary king of Sweden, a king who in the Ynglinga saga and elsewhere has an elder brother (rather than a father) named Alrek. See Alrek and Eirík for details.

In the Ynglinga saga the mother of the Swedish kings Alrek and Eirík is named Skjálf, which might also be an eponym for Skilfing.

Returning to the , there Eirík the Eloquent is father of Alrek, father of Víkar (Víkarr), father of Vatnar. This Víkar is the famous Víkar, king of Hördaland, who was sacrificed to Odin by Starkad. The chain of descent from Alrek to Víkar to Vatnar is also found in Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka ('The saga of Hálf and his heroes'). However Gautreks saga gives an entirely different ancestry and different descendants to Víkar. See Víkar for details.

This genealogy may have been based on attempts to ascribe a Norwegian origin to both Swedish Scylfings and Danish Skjöldungs and also be related to Saxo's account of the Norwegian Ericus desertus. If so, as it stands, it has been edited to remove material that would obviously conflict with the standard genealogies of the Skjöldungs and Ynglings which also appear in the .

Variant spellings
Other anglicized spellings: Eirík: Eirik ; Eirík the Eloquent: Eirik the Eloquent, Eiríkr the Wise in Speech ; Halfdan the Old: Hálfdan the Old ; Skjöld: Skjold, Skiold, Scyld ; Starkad: Starkath ; Víkar: Vikar ; Vörs: Vor.

See also
 Saxo's kings of Sweden
 Fairhair dynasty

References

Mythological kings of Sweden
Semi-legendary kings of Sweden
Freyr
Norwegian monarchy

Norse clans
Legendary royal families

Yngling


Friends of the People is an American sketch comedy television series. It was slated to premiere on TruTV in summer 2014, but was pushed to October 28, 2014, as part of the network's shift in their programming direction. Many of the cast members (Jennifer Bartels, Jermaine Fowler, and Lil Rel Howery) were originally reported to be cast members of a planned revival of In Living Color which never materialized. The show's first season consisted of 10 episodes. This made it the network's first sketch comedy show. The series held a TV-14 rating, though select episodes were rated TV-MA — also a first for the truTV network.

Cast
Kevin Barnett
Jennifer Bartels
Jermaine Fowler
Lil Rel Howery
Keith Lucas
Kenny Lucas
Josh Rabinowitz

References

External links

2010s American sketch comedy television series
2014 American television series debuts
2015 American television series endings
English-language television shows
TruTV original programming
Television series by 3 Arts Entertainment

Friends of the People


Fauna može značiti:

 Fauna, životinjski svijet.

 Fauna (božica), rimska božica.

Fauna (razdvojba)


ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ව්‍යාපාර සහ කාර්මික සාර්ථකත්වය සඳහා කැපී පෙනෙන ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයන් ගේ ලැයිස්තුවක් පහත වේ.

 උපාලි විජේවර්ධන (මෝටර් රථ / මාධ්‍ය)
 ලලිත් කොතලාවල (බැංකු හා මුල්‍ය)
 ඔටාරා ගුණවර්ධන (විලාසිතා)
 එච්. කේ. ධර්මදාස (සෞඛ්‍ය සේවා / ඉදිකිරීම්)
 සෝමා එදිරිසිංහ (මාධ්‍ය / චිත්‍රපට / ස්වර්ණාභරණ / මුල්‍ය)
 වික්ටර් හෙට්ටිගොඩ (ආයුර්වේද වෛද්‍ය)
 රිචඩ් පීරිස් (සිල්ලර / නිෂ්පාදන)
 ධම්මික පෙරේරා (ව්‍යාපාරික / ආයෝජක / දානපති)
 ඉෂාර නානායක්කාර (ව්‍යවසායක / බැංකු)
 මහේෂ් අමලියන් (රෙදිපිළි)
 අශෝක් පතිරගේ (ව්‍යවසායක / බැංකු / සිල්ලර)
 රවිදු මාරියෝ වීරකෝන් (ව්‍යවසායක / ඊ-වාණිජ්‍යය)
 ෂෙහාන් සචින්ත  (ව්‍යවසායක)

යොමු කිරීම්

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කර්මාන්තකරුවන්ගේ ලැයිස්තුව


Hot chocolate, also known as hot cocoa or drinking chocolate, is a heated drink consisting of shaved or melted chocolate or cocoa powder, heated milk or water, and usually a sweetener. It is often garnished with whipped cream or marshmallows. Hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate, characterized by less sweetness and a thicker consistency.

The first chocolate drink is believed to have been created by the Maya around 2,500–3,000 years ago, and a cocoa drink was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD, by which they referred to as . The drink became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then. Until the 19th century, hot chocolate was used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases.

Hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations, including the spiced  of Latin America, the very thick  served in Italy and  served in Spain, and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United States. Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, coffeehouses and teahouses. Powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores and online.

History

Archaeologists have found evidence that Mayan chocolate consumption occurred as early as 500 BC, and there is speculation that chocolate predates even the Mayans. To make the chocolate drink, which was served cold, the Maya ground cocoa seeds into a paste and mixed it with water, cornmeal, chili peppers, and other ingredients. They then poured the drink back and forth from a cup to a pot until a thick foam developed. Chocolate was available to Maya of all social classes, although the wealthy drank chocolate from "large spouted vessels" that were often buried with elites. An early Classic period (460-480 AD) Mayan tomb from the site of Rio Azul, Guatemala, had vessels with the Maya glyph for cacao on them with residue of a chocolate drink.

Because sugar was yet to come to the Americas,  was said to be an acquired taste.  What the Spaniards then called  was said to be a drink consisting of a chocolate base flavored with vanilla and other spices that was served cold. The drink tasted spicy and bitter as opposed to sweetened modern hot chocolate. As to when  was first served hot, sources conflict on when and by whom. However, José de Acosta, a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century, described  as:

Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolate. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that "chili"; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh. Within Mesoamerica many drinks were made from cacao beans, and further enhanced by flowers like vanilla to add flavor. This was a tribute to the Aztecs. The Aztecs, or Mexica, required conquered people to provide them with chocolate. Cups, gourds, cacao beans, as well as others things they acquired were listed in The Essential Codex Mendoza. Cacao became used as a currency throughout Mesoamerica. The Aztecs used chocolate to show high status: it was a bad omen for someone low or common to drink chocolate. Europeans' first recorded contact with chocolate was not until 1502 on Columbus's fourth voyage.

European adaptation

After defeating Montezuma's warriors and demanding that the Aztec nobles hand over their valuables, Cortés returned to Spain in 1528, bringing cocoa beans and chocolate drink making equipment with them. At this time, chocolate still only existed in the bitter drink invented by the Mayas. Sweet hot chocolate and bar chocolate were yet to be invented. After its introduction to Europe, the drink slowly gained popularity. The Imperial Court of Emperor Charles V soon adopted the drink, and what was then only known as "chocolate" became a fashionable drink popular with the Spanish upper class. Additionally, cocoa was given as a dowry when members of the Spanish royal family married other European aristocrats. At the time, chocolate was very expensive in Europe because the cocoa beans only grew in South America.

Sweet-tasting hot chocolate was then invented, leading hot chocolate to become a luxury item among the European nobility by the 17th century. Even when the first Chocolate House (an establishment similar to a modern coffee shop) opened in 1657, chocolate was still very expensive, costing 50 to 75 pence (approximately 10–15 shillings) a pound (roughly £45–65 in 2016). At the time, hot chocolate was often mixed with spices for flavor; one notable recipe was hot chocolate "infused with fresh jasmine flowers, amber, musk, vanilla and ambergris." In the late 17th century, Sir Hans Sloane, president of the Royal College of Physicians, visited Jamaica, where he was introduced to cocoa. He found it 'nauseous' but by mixing it with milk made it more palatable. When Sloane returned to England, he brought the recipe with him, introducing milk chocolate to England.  The aristocratic nature of the drink led to chocolate being referred to as "the drink of the gods" in 1797.

The Spanish began to use  made of porcelain in place of the hollowed gourds used by the natives. They then further tinkered with the recipes by using spices such as cinnamon, black pepper, anise, and sesame. Many of these things were used to try to recreate the flavor of the native flowers which they could not easily acquire. Black pepper was used to replace chillies and mecaxochitl, cinnamon was used in place of orejuelas, sugar replaced honey.

In 1828, Coenraad Johannes van Houten developed the first cocoa powder producing machine in the Netherlands. The press separated the greasy cocoa butter from cacao seeds, leaving a purer chocolate powder behind. This powder was easier to stir into milk and water. As a result, another very important discovery was made: solid chocolate. By using cocoa powder and low amounts of cocoa butter, it was then possible to manufacture chocolate bars. The term  chocolate then came to mean solid chocolate rather than hot chocolate, with the first chocolate bar being created in 1847.

According to tradition, the Italian version cioccolata calda was first born in Turin around 1560. To celebrate that the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved from Chambéry to Turin, Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy asked for a new beverage, and so this thicker, creamy version was created.

Terminology

A distinction is sometimes made between "hot cocoa", made from cocoa powder (ground cacao beans from which much of the cocoa butter has been removed), and "hot chocolate", made directly from bar chocolate, which already contains cocoa, sugar, and cocoa butter. Thus, the major difference between the two is the cocoa butter, the absence of which makes hot cocoa significantly lower in fat than hot chocolate while still preserving all the antioxidants found in chocolate.

 Hot chocolate can be made with dark, semisweet, or bittersweet chocolate grated or chopped into small pieces and stirred into milk with the addition of sugar.
 Cocoa usually refers to a drink made with cocoa powder, hot milk or water, and sweetened to taste with sugar (or not sweetened at all).
 Instant hot chocolate or hot cocoa mix may be based on cocoa powder, powdered chocolate, or both; often includes powdered milk or comparable ingredients so it can be made without using milk; sugar or other sweeteners; and typically stabilizers and thickeners. However, mixes can vary widely (between countries and often between brands) in ingredients included, their ratio and their quality.

Ingredients

Add-ons

Fat
Whipped cream and marshmallows are frequently added to hot chocolate.

Theobromine found in the cocoa solids is fat soluble. Cocoa beans contain significant amount of fats, but cocoa powder is usually defatted. However, adding fat to defatted cocoa powder will increase its bioavailability.

Alcohol
Rum is added to hot chocolate to make a Lumumba.

Usage
Today, hot chocolate in the form of drinking chocolate or cocoa is considered a comfort food and is widely consumed in many parts of the world.  European hot chocolate tends to be relatively thick and rich, while in the United States the thinner instant version is consumed more often.  In Nigeria, hot chocolate is referred to as "tea" even though it is not actually a tea due to the Nigerian custom of referring to drinks consumed in the morning as "tea". Many regions have distinctive additives or toppings, ranging from marshmallow and whipped cream to cheese.

Europe

In mainland Europe (particularly Spain and Italy), hot chocolate is sometimes served very thick due to the use of a thickening agent such as cornstarch. One of the thick forms of hot chocolate served in Europe is the Italian .

Hot chocolate with churros is the traditional working-man's breakfast in Spain. This style of hot chocolate can be extremely thick, often having the consistency of warm chocolate pudding. In the Netherlands, hot chocolate is a very popular drink, known as . It is often served at home or in cafes. In France, hot chocolate is often served at breakfast time. Sometimes sliced bread spread with butter, jam, honey, or Nutella is dunked into the hot chocolate.

In Germany, hot chocolate made by melted chocolate () is distinguished from those made from powders (). It is often served with whipped cream on top.

Even further variations of hot chocolate exist. In some cafes in Belgium and other areas in Europe, one who orders a  or  receives a cup of steaming white milk and a small bowl of bittersweet chocolate chips to dissolve in the milk.  One Viennese variant, , contains an egg yolk for thickness.

North America

In the United States and Canada, the drink is popular in instant form, made with hot water or milk from a packet containing mostly cocoa powder, sugar, and dry milk. This is the thinner of the two main variations. It is very sweet and may be topped with marshmallows, whipped cream, or a piece of solid chocolate. Hot chocolate was first brought to North America as early as the 17th century by the Dutch, but the first time colonists began selling hot chocolate was around 1755. Traditionally, hot chocolate has been associated with cold weather and winter in the United States and Canada.

Hot chocolate mixed with espresso or coffee under the name of caffè mocha is sold in coffee shops around the United States and elsewhere.  This particular name comes from the town Mocha, Yemen, where a specific blend of coffee with the same name is grown.

In Mexico, hot chocolate remains a popular national drink, often including semi-sweet chocolate, cinnamon, sugar, and vanilla. Hot chocolate of this type is commonly sold in circular or hexagonal tablets which can be dissolved into hot milk, water, or cream, and then blended until the mixture develops a creamy froth. A 1942 article in the Chicago Tribune describes Mexican cinnamon hot chocolate as being traditionally served alongside a variety of sweet Mexican pastries, such as pan dulce or churros.

South America
In Colombia, a hot chocolate drink made with milk and water using a chocolatera and molinillo is enjoyed as part of breakfast with bread and soft, fresh farmer's cheese.  Colombian hot chocolate is often topped with a soft farmer's cheese or other mild cheese. Similarly, hot chocolate in Ecuador is often topped with cheese.

In Peru, hot chocolate can be served with panettone at breakfast on Christmas Day, even though summer has already started in the southern hemisphere. In addition, many Peruvians will add a sweet chocolate syrup to their drink.

The Argentinian submarino is a hot chocolate drink made from adding a chocolate bar and sugar to hot steamed milk.

Spanish East Indies

In the Philippines, the native hot chocolate drink is known as tsokolate. It is made from tabliya (or ), tablets of pure ground roasted cacao beans, dissolved in water and milk. Like in Spanish and Latin American versions, the drink is traditionally made in a tsokolatera and briskly mixed with a wooden baton called the molinillo (also called  or ), causing the drink to be characteristically frothy.  is typically sweetened with a bit of muscovado sugar and has a distinctive grainy texture.

 is also known as  in Kapampangan;  in Maguindanao; and  or  in Visayan languages. All are derived from Spanish chocolate ('chocolate').

 is commonly consumed at breakfast with traditional kakanin delicacies or pandesal and other types of bread. It is also popular during Christmas season in the Philippines.

Health

From the 16th to 19th centuries, hot chocolate was valued as a medicine as well as a drink.

The explorer Francisco Hernández wrote that chocolate drinks helped treat fever and liver disease. Another explorer, Santiago de Valverde Turices, believed that large amounts of hot chocolate were helpful in treating chest ailments and that smaller amounts could help stomach disorders. When chocolate was introduced to the French in the 17th century, it was reportedly used "to fight against fits of anger and bad moods", which may be attributed to chocolate's phenylethylamine content. Today, hot chocolate is consumed for pleasure rather than medicinally, but new research suggests that there may be other health benefits attributed to the drink.

Several negative effects can be attributed to drinking hot chocolate, as some hot chocolate recipes contain high amounts of sugar, hydrogenated oils, or fats.

When chocolate first began to grow in popularity it was opposed by the Catholic church. It was seen to lack the ability to break fast, seeing as it was consumed in its liquid form. Coffee was the other popular trend which was seen as good for the body but bad for the mind. Chocolate began being consumed as a way to replenish one's body from the effects that coffee caused. It was said to nourish one's body and potency.

Benefits

Research has shown that the consumption of hot chocolate can be positive for one's health. A study conducted by Cornell University has shown that hot chocolate contains more antioxidants than wine and tea, therefore reducing the risk of heart disease. In a single serving of cocoa, the researchers found 611 milligrams of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and 564 milligrams of epicatechin equivalents (ECE), compared with 340 milligrams of GAE and 163 milligrams of ECE in red wine, and 165 milligrams of GAE and 47 milligrams of ECE in green tea. Chang Yong Lee, the professor and researcher at Cornell who conducted the study, revealed that larger amounts of antioxidants are released when the drink is heated.

The flavonoids found in the cocoa that makes up hot chocolate also have a positive effect on arterial health. A particular study performed by the National Institutes of Health partially supported by Mars Chocolate company showed high amounts of improvement in blood flow after drinking a flavanol-rich cocoa drink. In the study, the subjects (27 people ages 18 to 72) drank a cocoa drink containing 900 milligrams of flavonols every day, which resulted in an improvement in blood flow and the function of endothelial cells that line blood vessels.

In further studies conducted by Dr. Norman K. Hollenberg, professor of medicine at Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School found that flavonols may also help vessels dilate and help keep platelets from clustering on the blood vessel walls. Flavonoids found in hot chocolate are beneficial to health mainly because they shield the walls of blood vessels from free radical damage. Flavanols are also thought to help reduce blood platelet buildup and can balance levels of compounds called eicosanoids, which may be beneficial to cardiovascular health.

See also
 Champurrado, hot chocolate's Mexican counterpart
 Chocolate milk
 Cuestión moral: si el chocolate quebranta el ayuno eclesiástico (Whether chocolate breaks ecclesiastical fast: a moral question)
 Hot chocolate effect
 List of chocolate drinks
 List of hot drinks

References

Further reading
 Morton, Frederic; Morton, Marcia (1986). Chocolate, an Illustrated History. Crown Publishers. .
 Turback, Michael (2005). Hot Chocolate. Ten Speed Press. .

External links

Chocolate drinks
Hot drinks
Mesoamerican cuisine
Mexican drinks
Non-alcoholic drinks
Christmas food
Mexican chocolate
Articles containing video clips
Food combinations

Hot chocolate


172525 Adamblock este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
172525 Adamblock este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Junk Bond Observatory de David Healy (astronom). Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,35 ua, o excentricitate de 0,02 și o înclinație de 3,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 172001-173000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2003
Centura de asteroizi

172525 Adamblock


Hoya quinquenervia er fjölær jurt í vaxblómaættkvísl.  Útbreiðslan er á Filippseyjum.

Tilvísanir

Vaxblómaættkvísl

Hoya quinquenervia


عام الحزن، هو العام الذي توفي فيه عم الرسول أبو طالب الذي كان يدفع عنه أذى قريش ثم زوجته خديجة بنت خويلد التي كانت تسانده في الدعوة. وهو ما يقارب العام العاشر للبعثة (الثالث قبل الهجرة).

خديجة هي خديجة بنت خويلد بن أسد القرشية (68 ق.هـ - 3 ق.هـ/ 556م - 619م)؛ أم المؤمنين وأولى زوجات الرسول محمد وأم كل أولاده ما عدا ولده إبراهيم، عاشت خديجة مع النبي فترة ما قبل البعثة، وكانت تستشعر نبوة زوجها، فكانت تعتني ببيتها وأولادها، وتسير قوافلها التجارية، وتوفر للنبي مُؤونته في خلوته عندما كان يَعتَكف ويَتعَبد في غار حراء، وعندما أنزل الله وحيه على النبي كانت خديجة أول من صدقته فيما حَدّث، وذهبت به إلى ابن عمها ورقة بن نوفل الذي بَشَّره بأنه نبي الأُمّة، فكانت أول من آمن بالنبي من الرجال والنساء، وأول من توضأ وصلّى، وظلت بعد ذلك صابرة مُصابرة مع الرسول في تكذيب قريش وبطشها بالمسلمين، حتى وقع حصار قريش على بني هاشم وبني المطلب في شِعب أبي طالب، فالتحقت بزوجها في الشِعب، وعانت ما عاناه بنو هاشم من جوع ومرض مدة ثلاث سنين، وبعد أن فُك الحصار عن الرسول ومن معه مرضت خديجة، وما لبثت أن توفيت بعد وفاة عم النبي أبي طالب بن عبد المطلب بثلاثة أيام وقيل بأكثر من ذلك، في شهر رمضان قبل هجرة الرسول بثلاث سنين عام 619م وعمرها خمس وستون سنة، وكان مقامها مع الرسول بعدما تزوجها أربعاً وعشرين سنة وستة أشهر، ودفنها الرسول بالحجون (مقبرة المعلاة).

تحظى خديجة بنت خويلد بمكانة كبيرة ومنزلة عظيمة عند جميع الطوائف الإسلامية، فقد روى أبو هريرة: «قال رسول الله: خير نساء العالمين أربع: مريم بنت عمران، وابنة مزاحم امرأة فرعون، وخديجة بنت خويلد، وفاطمة بنت محمد»، وأتى جبرائيل إلى النبي مرة فقال: «يا رسول الله، هذه خديجة قد أتتك معها إناء فيه إدام أو طعام أو شراب، فإذا هي أتتك فاقرأ عليها السلام من ربّها عزّ وجل ومنّي، وبشّرها ببيت في الجنّة من قصب لا صخب فيه ولا نَصَب».

و أبو طالب هو أبو طالب بن عبد المطلب بن هاشم الهاشمي القرشي، عم النبي محمد وكافله وناصره وحاميه، ووالد علي بن أبي طالب، أول أئمة أهل البيت عند الشيعة، ورابع الخلفاء الراشدين عند أهل السنة والجماعة، وكان أبو طالب منيعًا عزيزًا في قريش، وسيدًا شريفًا مطاعًا مهيبًا.

وُلد أبو طالب قبل النبي بخمس وثلاثين سنة، وتزوج من فاطمة بنت أسد، فأنجبت له: طالبًا، وعقيلًا، وجعفرًا، وعليًّا، وأمّ هانئ، وجمانة، وريطة، وأسماء، ولما مات عبد المطلب أوْصَى بمحمد  إلى أبي طالب، فكفله وأحسن تربيته، ولما بعث قام في نصرته وذَبَّ عنه من عاداه، فلم يزل يذب عن رسول الله  ويناوئ قريشًا إلى أن مات.

ذهب مشهور أهل السنة والجماعة إلى أن أبو طالب مات كافرًا ولم يسلم، بينما يعتقد الشيعة بأن أبو طالب مات مسلمًا مؤمنًا. افي البعثة والبعثة هي عدة مراحل كان محمد يذهب إلى غار حراء في جبل النور على بعد نحو ميلين من مكة فيأخذ معه السويق والماء فيقيم فيه شهر رمضان. وكان يختلي فيه قبل نزول القرآن عليه بواسطة أمين الوحي جبريل ويقضى وقته في التفكر والتأمل.

تذكر كتب السيرة النبوية أن الوحي نزل لأول مرّة على محمد وهو في غار حراء، حيث جاء الوحي جبريل، فقال: اقرأ، قال:«ما أنا بقارئ» - أي لا أعرف القراءة، قال:«فأخذني فغطَّني حتى بلغ مني الجهد، ثم أرسلني» فقال: اقرأ، قلت:«ما أنا بقارئ»، قال:«فأخذني فغطَّني الثانية حتى بلغ مني الجهد، ثم أرسلني» فقال: اقرأ، فقلت:«ما أنا بقارئ، فأخذني فغطَّني الثالثة، ثـم أرسلني»، فقال: ﴿اقْرَأْ بِاسْمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ﴾ [96:1]﴿خَلَقَ الْإِنْسَانَ مِنْ عَلَقٍ﴾ [96:2]﴿اقْرَأْ وَرَبُّكَ الْأَكْرَمُ﴾ [96:3]﴿الَّذِي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِ﴾ [96:4]﴿عَلَّمَ الْإِنْسَانَ مَا لَمْ يَعْلَمْ﴾ [96:5]، فأدرك محمد أن عليه أن يعيد وراء جبريل هذه الكلمات، ورجع بها يرجف فؤاده، فدخل على زوجته خديجة، فقال:«زَمِّلُونى زملوني»، فزملوه حتى ذهب عنه الروع، فقال لزوجته خديجة:«ما لي؟» فأخبرها الخبر،«لقد خشيت على نفسي»، فقالت خديجة:«كلا، والله ما يخزيك الله أبداً، إنك لتصل الرحم، وتحمل الكل، وتكسب المعدوم، وتقري الضيف، وتعين على نوائب الحق»، فانطلقت به خديجة إلى ابن عمها ورقة بن نوفل وكان حبراً عالماً قد تنصر قبل الإسلام، وكان يكتب الكتاب العبراني، فيكتب من الإنجيل بالعبرانية، وكان شيخًا كبيراً فأخبره خبر ما رأى، فقال له ورقة:«هذا الناموس الذي أنزله الله على موسى«. وقد جاءه الوحي جبريل أخرى جالسا على كرسي بين السماء والأرض، ففر منه رعباً حتى هوى إلى الأرض، فذهب إلى زوجته خديجة فقال:«دثروني، دثروني، وصبوا علي ماءً بارداً»، فنزلت: ﴿يَاأَيُّهَا الْمُدَّثِّرُ﴾ [74:1]﴿قُمْ فَأَنْذِرْ﴾ [74:2]﴿وَرَبَّكَ فَكَبِّرْ﴾ [74:3]﴿وَثِيَابَكَ فَطَهِّرْ﴾ [74:4]﴿وَالرُّجْزَ فَاهْجُرْ﴾ [74:5]، وهذه الآيات هي بداية رسالته ثم بدأ الوحي ينزل ويتتابع لمدة ثلاثة وعشرين عاماً حتى وفاته. وفي رواية وردت في طبقات ابن سعد وتاريخ الطبري وبلاغات البخاري؛ بعد وفاة ورقة بن نوفل كان الوحي يتقطع، فيصاب محمد بحالة إحباط وحزن شديدين حتى أنه يفكر في الانتحار بإلقاء نفسه من فوق قمم الجبال، لكنه كلما كان يصل لقمة جبل ليلقي نفسه كان يتبدى له جبريل ويقول له: «يا محمد، إنك رسول الله حقا» فيهدأ ويتراجع، لكنه كان يكررها كلما انقطع الوحي. لكن الرأي السني الذي يعتبر أن الانتحار محرم في الإسلام ينكر وقوع هذه الحادثة، حيث أنكر علماء الأزهر على هذه الرواية في كتابهم«حقائق الإسلام في مواجهة المشككين»، وذلك بسبب أن الواقدي عند علماء الحديث هو«متروك الحديث»، وثانيا فإن رواية الطبري فهي مردودة سندا ومتنا لاختلافها مع روايات أخرى، وثالثا ذكر هذه الواقعة قد ورد تحت ضمن بلاغات البخاري ما يعني أنها مجرد خبر بُلغ به وهو ما يعتبره العلماء ليس ضمن الأحاديث صحيحة السند أو المتن التي أخرجها البخاري في صحيحه. وهذا بالإضافة إن هذا البلاغ ليس موصولاً بالنبي محمد. رواية التفكير في الانتحار لتأخر الوحي لم تصح، والزيادة التي في البخاري لا تنسب للصحيح لأنها ليست على شرطه، وقد أثبتها البخاري أنها من قول الزهري لا غيره، فهي بلاغ مقطوع الإسناد لا يصح من سبق إلى الإسلام خديجة بنت خويلد، وابن عمه علي بن أبي طالب وكان صبيا ابن عشر سنين يعيش في كفالة محمد وأسلم بعد النبوة بسنة، جمع الرسول محمد  أهله وأقاربه وعرض عليهم الإسلام فلم يجبه إلا علي. ثم أسلم مولاه الصحابي زيد بن حارثة، وصديقه أبو بكر في أوائل أيام الدعوة. واستمرت الدعوة سراً لمدة ثلاث سنوات ثم نزل الوحي يكلف الرسول بإعلان الدعوة والجهر بها. وفقا لابن سعد، لم تعارض قريش محمد في دعوته إلا بعد أن نزلت آيات في ذم الأصنام وعبادتها. في حين يتمسك مفسري القرآن وبعض كتاب السيرة بأن المعارضة تزامنت مع بدء الدعوة الجهرية للإسلام. كما مثلت زيادة عدد معتنقي الإسلام خطرا على نظام الحياة الدينية في مكة، مما يؤثر سلبا على القوة الاقتصادية لقريش التي تستمدها من حماية الكعبة وأصنامها وخدمة الحجيج وتوافدهم إلى المدينة، فكانت دعوة محمد تشكل تهديدا بزوال سلطتهم. فقدم كبار تجار قريش على محمد عرضا بالتخلي عن دعوته -وفي رواية ابن سعد التوقف عن شتم آلهتهم- في مقابل مشاركته التجارة ودخوله ضمن صفوفهم، والزواج من بناتهم لبناء مركزه بينهم، بيد أنه رفض. فعرضوا عليه أن يعبد آلهتهم سنة ويعبدون الله سنة بحسب تاريخ الطبري، فأخبرهم أنه سينتظر أمر الله، فنزلت الآيات ﴿قل يأيها الكافرون، لا أعبد ما تعبدون﴾، كما نزلت الآيات: ﴿قل أفغير الله تأمروني أعبد أيها الجاهلون﴾ إلى الآية: ﴿بل الله فاعبد وكن من الشاكرين﴾.

لجؤوا بعد ذلك إلى تشويه صورته قصد إبعاد الناس عنه. فقالوا عن محمد: أنه مصاب بنوع من الجنون، وقالوا: إن له جناً أو شيطاناً يتنزل عليه كما ينزل الجن والشياطين على الكهان، وقالوا شاعر، وقالوا ساحر، وكانوا يعملون للحيلولة بين الناس وبين سماعهم القرآن، ومعظم شبهاتهم دارت حول توحيد الله، ثم رسالته، ثم بعث الأموات ونشرهم وحشرهم يوم القيامة وقد رد القرآن على كل شبهة من شبهاتهم حول التوحيد. لكنهم لما رؤوا أن هذه الأساليب لم تجد نفعاً في إحباط الدعوة الإسلامية استشاروا فيما بينهم، وقرروا القيام بتعذيب المسلمين. فأخذ كل رئيس يعذب من دان من قبيلته بالإسلام، وتصدوا لمن يدخل الإسلام بالتعذيب والضرب والجلد والكي. حتى وصل الأمر إلى إيذاء محمد نفسه وضربوه ورجموه بالحجارة في مرات عديدة ووضعوا الشوك في طريقه لما اشتد البلاء على المسلمين أخبرهم الرسول محمد أن الله أذن لهم بالهجرة إلى الحبشة في عام 615م، فخرج الصحابي عثمان بن عفان ومعه زوجته رقية بنت محمد، وخرج الصحابي أبو حاطب بن عمرو ثم خرج الصحابي جعفر بن أبي طالب فكانوا قرابة 80 رجلاً.

يقول الطبري أن محمداً«كان حريصا على صلاح قومه محبا لمقاربتهم، وشق عليه مقاطعة قومه له وإعراضهم عنه»، وقد نقل الطبري رواية عن ابن حميد عن سلمة عن محمد بن كعب القرظي قيل فيها:«أن النبي محمد تمنى أن ينزل الله عليه ما يقرب بينه وبين قومه، فكان يوما يصلي بالمسلمين بسورة النجم، فلما انتهى إلى: ﴿أَفَرَأَيْتُمُ اللَّاتَ وَالْعُزَّى﴾ [53:19] ﴿وَمَنَاةَ الثَّالِثَةَ الْأُخْرَى﴾ [53:20] ألقى الشيطان على لسانه -أو ألقاها الشيطان بنفسه على مسامع الكفار حسب تفسير ابن كثير والقرطبي- كلمات وهي: «تلك الغرانيق العلا وإن شافعتهن لترتجى»، حتى أتم السورة ثم سجد فسجد معه المسلمين وكل من كان في المسجد من قريش وكل من سمع بذلك». وتقول الرواية أن محمد قام بالتراجع لاحقا عن ذلك الجزء وحزن وخاف خوفا شديدا من الله لكنه عفا عنه وأنزل عليه الآيات: ﴿وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَا مِنْ قَبْلِكَ مِنْ رَسُولٍ وَلَا نَبِيٍّ إِلَّا إِذَا تَمَنَّى أَلْقَى الشَّيْطَانُ فِي أُمْنِيَّتِهِ فَيَنْسَخُ اللَّهُ مَا يُلْقِي الشَّيْطَانُ ثُمَّ يُحْكِمُ اللَّهُ آَيَاتِهِ وَاللَّهُ عَلِيمٌ حَكِيمٌ﴾ [22:52]. وتعرف تلك الحادثة بقصة الغرانيق، التي ذكرها بعض المؤرخين مثل ابن سعد والطبري وابن الأثير وابن المطهر. إلا أن الرواية المذكورة في صحيح البخاري:ج2/ص32 بدون ذكر حادثة الغرانيق،: «عن عبد الله قال قرأ النبي النجم بمكة فسجد فيها وسجد من معه، غير شيخ أخذ كفاً من حصى أو تراب ورفعه إلى جبهته وقال يكفيني هذا، فرأيته بعد ذلك قتل كافراً»، وهي الرواية التي أيدها وابن كثير الذي اعتبر قصة الغرانيق مرسلة وسندها غير صحيح. ويوافقه في ذلك الرأي السني الرسمي الذي يعتبرها قصة مكذوبة من وضع الزنادقة وقد ذكر أخرون سبب أخر لسجود المشركين غير قصة الغرانيق مثل الآلوسي الذي قال أن سجودهم لم يكن لمدح ألهتهم ولكن لدهشة أصابتهم وخوف اعتراهم عند سماع السورة وهي فيها ذكر كيف أهلك الله الأقوام السابقة لتكذيبهم أنبيائهم مثل قوم عاد وثمود ونوح ومن شدة الأيات وخوفهم استشعروا أن يحدث ذلك معهم فلما رأوا المسلمين يسجدون ظنوا أن الهلاك سيحل بهم فسجدوا خوفا من ذلك، وصلت الأخبار للمسلمين بالحبشة أن قريشاً قد أسلموا -نظرا لسجودهم-، فقدم مكة منهم جماعة فوجدوا الاضطهاد مستمرا فمكثوا بمكة إلى أن هاجروا إلى المدينة لما انتشر الإسلام وذاع، اتفق زعماء قريش على مقاطعة بني هاشم وبني المطلب ابني عبد مناف فلا يبايعوهم ولا يناكحوهم ولا يكلموهم ولا يجالسوهم حتى يسلموا إليهم محمد، وكتبوا بذلك صحيفة وعلقوها في سقف الكعبة. فانحاز إلى الشعب بنو هاشم وبنو المطلب مسلمين كانوا أو غير مسلمين إلا أبا لهب فإنه ظاهر قريش. استمرت المقاطعة قرابة ثلاث سنوات فلم يقربهم أحد في الشعب. ثم سعى في نقض تلك الصحيفة أقوام من قريش فكان القائم في أمر ذلك هشام بن عمرو فأجابته قريش، وأخبرهم محمد أن الله قد أرسل على تلك الصحيفة الأكلة فأكلت جميع ما فيها إلا المواضع التي ذكر فيها الله. توفي كل من زوجته خديجة وعمه أبو طالب -أكبر مؤيدي ومساندي محمد- في عام 619 م فسُمٍّي بعام الحزن. فتولى أبو لهب قيادة بني هاشم من بعد أبي طالب، وبعدها انحسرت حماية بني هاشم لمحمد وازداد أذى قريش له. مما دفعه للخروج إلى الطائف ليدعوهم آملاً أن يؤوه وينصروه على قومه، لكنهم آذوه ورموه بالحجارة ورفضوا دعوته ولم يسلم إلا الطفيل بن عمرو الدوسي (الذي دعا قومه فأسلم بعضهم وأقام في بلاده حتى فتح خيبر ثم قدم بهم في نحو من ثمانين بيتاً). عاد محمد إلى مكة تحت حماية المطعم بن عدي. وفقاً للمعتقد الإسلامي فإن الملائكة عرضت على النبي محمد أن يهلكوا أهل الطائف إلا أنه رفض وقال: «عسى أن يخرج من أصلابهم أقوام يقولون ربنا الله وفي البعثة، حدثت الهجرة وهي الهجرة إلى الحبشة حدث تاريخي إسلامي، هو: هجرة بعض المسلمين الأوائل من مكة إلى بلاد الحبشة (مملكة أكسوم)؛ بسبب ما كانوا يلاقونه من إيذاء من زعماء قريش، فدعاهم النبي للخروج إلى أرض الحبشة مادحًا ملكها أصحمة النجاشي بأنه مَلِكٌ لا يُظلَم عنده أحد، فخرج عدد من المسلمين، وكانت الهجرة الأولى إلى الحبشة في رجب من العام الخامس بعد البعثة، وكانوا أحد عشر رجلًا وأربع نسوة، وأمَّروا عليهم عثمان بن مظعون، ثم بلغهم وهم بأرض الحبشة أن أهل مكة أسلموا، فرجع بعضٌ منهم إلى مكة فلم يجدوا ذلك صحيحًا، فرجعوا، وسار معهم مجموعة أخرى إلى الحبشة، وهي الهجرة الثانية، وكانوا ثلاثة وثمانين رجلًا وزوجاتهم وأبنائهم، على رأسهم جعفر بن أبي طالب. لما رأى النبي محمد ما يصيب أصحابه من أذى زعماء قريش لهم، بينما كان يحميه عمه أبو طالب من أذى قريش، فقال لأصحابه: «لو خرجتم إلى أرض الحبشة؟ فإن بها ملكا لا يظلم عنده أحد، وهي - أرض صدق - حتى يجعل الله لكم فرجا مما أنتم فيه»، وقيل إنها كانت بعد وفاة أبي طالب، فكان أول من هاجر منهم أحد عشر رجلًا وأربع نسوة، وقيل: وامرأتان، وقيل: كانوا اثني عشر رجلًا، وقيل: عشرة، فخرجوا من مكة حتى وصلوا ساحل بحر القلزم، ثم أمَّروا عليهم: عثمان بن مظعون، ووجدوا سفينتين، فركبوا مقابل نصف دينار لكل منهم، وعلمت قريش فأسرعت في تعقبهم إلى الساحل ولكنهم كانوا قد أبحروا، وكان ذلك في رجب من العام الخامس بعد البعثة الموافق 615 م كان أول من خرج مهاجرًا إلى الحبشة بأهله عثمان بن عفان لم يمكث المهاجرون في الحبشة طويلًا، حتى بلغتهم أخبار أن أهل مكة قد أسلموا، فقرروا العودة إلى مكة في شهر شوال من نفس السنة، حتى إذا دنوا من مكة بلغهم أن ما كانوا تحدثوا به من إسلام أهل مكة كان باطلاً، فمنهم من رجع إلى الحبشة، ومنهم من دخل مكة مستخفيًا أو في جوار رجل من قريش. بعد عودة بعض المهاجرين إلى مكة، أذن لهم النبي في الخروج إلى الحبشة مرة ثانية، فخرجوا، وكان عددهم في المرة الثانية ثلاثة وثمانين رجلًا وتسع عشرة امرأة، وقيل: ثماني عشرة امرأة، وقال الطبري: كانوا اثنين وثمانين رجلًا سوى نسائهم وأبنائهم، وشك في عمار بن ياسر هل كان فيهم وبه تتكمل العدة ثلاثة وثمانين، وكان على رأسهم جعفر بن أبي طالب فكان هو المقدم عليهم، والمترجم عنهم عند النجاشي. لم يخرج المسلمون المهاجرون دفعةً واحدةً، لكن خرج جماعة مع جعفر بن أبي طالب، ثم خرجت جماعة مع أبي موسى الأشعري، فلما وصلت جماعة أبي موسى إلى اليمن علموا بخروج المسلمين للهجرة إلى المدينة فأردوا الرجوع، فركبوا سفينة، لكن الرياح هاجت عليهم حتى أوصلتهم بلاد الحبشة.

ولما وصل المسلمون الحبشة شعروا بالأمن، فعن أم سلمة قالت: «لما نزلنا أرض الحبشة، جاورْنا بها خيرَ جارٍ النجاشيَّ، أمِنَّا على ديننا، وعبدنا الله تعالى لا نؤذى ولا نسمع شيئاً نكرهه»، وأنشد عبد الله بن الحارث بن قيس أبياتًا في ذلك فقال:

اجتمعت قريش في دار الندوة، واتفقوا علي أن يجمعوا الأموال والهدايا ويهدوها إلى النجاشي، وانتدبوا لذلك رجلين، فبعثوا عمرو بن العاص وعمارة بن الوليد مع الهدايا، وقيل عمرو بن العاص وعبد الله بن أبي ربيعة، فركبا البحر، فلما دخلا على النجاشي سجدا له، وسلما عليه، واتفق وفد قريش مع البطارقة أن يشيروا على النجاشي بأن يسلم المسلمين إليهم، ولكن النجاشي رأي بأن يدعو المسلمين ليستمع بنفسه إلى ما يقولون . أرسل النجاشي إلى الصحابة فدعاهم، فلما جاءهم رسولُه اجتمعوا، ثم قال بعضهم لبعض: «ما تقولون للرجل إذا جئتموه؟»، قالوا: «نقول والله ما علمنا وما أمرنا به نبينا  كائناً في ذلك ما هو كائن»، فلما جاءوا، وقد دعا النجاشي أساقفته فنشروا مصاحفهم حوله، سألهم فقال لهم: «ما هذا الدين الذي قد فارقتم فيه قومكم، ولم تدخلوا في ديني ولا في دين أحد من هذه الملل؟»، أو قال: «ما هذا الدين الذي أنتم عليه؟ فارقتم دين قومكم ولم تدخلوا في يهودية ولا نصرانية»، فخاطبه جعفر بن أبي طالب،

فقال له النجاشي: «هل معك مما جاء به عن الله من شيء؟»، فقال له جعفر بن أبي طالب: «نعم»، فقال له النجاشي: «فاقرأه علي»، فقرأ عليه صدراً من سورة مريم:  كهيعص  ذِكْرُ رَحْمَةِ رَبِّكَ عَبْدَهُ زَكَرِيَّا  إِذْ نَادَى رَبَّهُ نِدَاءً خَفِيًّا  ، إلى الآيات:  وَاذْكُرْ فِي الْكِتَابِ مَرْيَمَ إِذِ انْتَبَذَتْ مِنْ أَهْلِهَا مَكَانًا شَرْقِيًّا  فَاتَّخَذَتْ مِنْ دُونِهِمْ حِجَابًا فَأَرْسَلْنَا إِلَيْهَا رُوحَنَا فَتَمَثَّلَ لَهَا بَشَرًا سَوِيًّا  قَالَتْ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِالرَّحْمَنِ مِنْكَ إِنْ كُنْتَ تَقِيًّا  قَالَ إِنَّمَا أَنَا رَسُولُ رَبِّكِ لِأَهَبَ لَكِ غُلَامًا زَكِيًّا  قالت أم سلمة : فبكى والله النجاشي حتى اخضلت لحيته، وبكت أساقفته حتى أخضلوا مصاحفهم حين سمعوا ما تلا عليهم، ثم قال النجاشي: «إن هذا والذي جاء به عيسى ليخرج من مشكاة واحدة، انطلقا، فلا والله لا أسلمهم إليكما، ولا يكادون».

فلما خرج رسولا قريش من عنده، قال عمرو بن العاص: «والله لآتينه غداً عنهم بما أستأصل به خضراءهم»، فقال له عبد الله بن أبي ربيعة: «لا نفعل، فإن لهم أرحاماً، وإن كانوا قد خالفونا»، قال: «والله لأخبرنه أنهم يزعمون أن عيسى بن مريم عبد». ثم غدا عليه من الغد فقال له: «أيها الملك، إنهم يقولون في عيسى بن مريم قولاً عظيماً، فأرسل إليهم فسلهم عما يقولون فيه»، فأرسل إليهم ليسألهم عنه، فاجتمع القوم، ثم قال بعضهم لبعض: «ماذا تقولون في عيسى بن مريم إذا سألكم عنه؟»، قالوا: «نقول والله ما قال الله، وما جاءنا به نبينا، كائنا في ذلك ما هو كائن»، فلما دخلوا عليه قال لهم: «ماذا تقولون في عيسى ابن مريم؟»، قالوا نقول فيه خيرا....

مصادر

619
العصر النبوي
فجع
مصطلحات إسلامية

عام الحزن


Maurice Senart est un éditeur de musique français né le  à Paris et mort dans la même ville le .

Éléments biographiques
Maurice François Marie Sénart naît à Paris ( arrondissement) le .

En 1908, il fonde une maison d'édition musicale en association avec B. Roudanez, puis en assure seul la direction à compter de 1912.

En 1920, avec Albert Neuburger, la firme est réorganisée en Société anonyme des éditions Maurice Senart.

En 1925, Maurice Sénart est nommé chevalier de la Légion d'honneur.

Il meurt à Paris ( arrondissement) le .

Éditions Maurice Senart

Parmi les principales publications de Maurice Senart figure l'important recueil Maîtres musiciens de la Renaissance française édité par Henry Expert, les Maîtres contemporains de l'orgue édités par Joseph Joubert, l'Édition classique en morceaux détachés et les Transcriptions classiques éditées par Vincent d'Indy, l'Édition nationale de musique classique, qui comprend notamment les éditions de travail d'Alfred Cortot réalisées autour des œuvres de Chopin, Schumann, Liszt et Weber, ou encore La Musique de chambre, une vaste collection périodique de musique vocale et instrumentale concentrée sur les auteurs modernes.

Senart est un fervent défenseur de la musique française de son temps, publiant notamment Cras, Milhaud, Inghelbrecht, Koechlin, Rivier, Delannoy, Migot, Jaques-Dalcroze, la majeure partie du catalogue d'Honegger et des œuvres de compositeurs étrangers établis à Paris, Tansman et Harsányi par exemple, ou Casella et Malipiero.

En 1925, le catalogue Senart comprenait  œuvres.

En 1941, la maison d'édition est rachetée par Salabert.

Bibliographie

 .
 .
 .

Notes et références

Article connexe
 Éditions Durand-Salabert-Eschig

Liens externes

 Base Léonore

Naissance en janvier 1878
Naissance dans le 7e arrondissement de Paris
Éditeur musical français (personne)
Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur
Maison d'édition d'ouvrages musicaux
Entreprise fondée en 1908
Personnalité française du monde des affaires du XXe siècle
Décès en mai 1962
Décès dans le 18e arrondissement de Paris
Décès à 84 ans

Maurice Senart


Carlo Lorenzini (d. 24 Kasım 1826, Floransa - ö. 26 Ekim 1890, Floransa) İtalyan İtalyan gazeteci ve yazar.

Bir kültürel simge haline gelen çocuk romanı karakteri Pinokyo'nun yaratıcısıdır.

Yaşamı
1826 yılında Floransa'da yoksul bir ailenin çocuğu olarak dünyaya geldi. Asıl adı Carlo Lorenzini idi. Babası aşçı Domenico Lorenzini; annesi hizmetçi Angela Orzali idi. Her ikisi de Marki Lorenzo Ginori'nin evinde çalışmaktaydı. Yazarın takma adı Collodi, annesinin doğduğu yerin adıdır.

İlkoöğrenimini köyünde tamamladıktan sonra Marki Lorenzo Ginori'nin desteğiyle Toskana'da bir papaz okulunda ilahiyat öğrenimi gördü ancak din adamı olmak istemiyordu. Yanında yaşadığı Rahip Zipoli'den piyano öğrendi. On altı yaşındayken felsefe öğrenimi için Floransa'ya gitti; ardından Floransa'nın en büyük kitapçısı olan ve bir de küçük matbaası bulunan Libera Piatti'de çalıştı. Burada yazar ve entelektüellerden oluşan bir çevre edindi, edebiyata karşı ilgisi arttı.

Ulusal birliğini sağlamaya çalışan İtalya'nın  Avusturya'ya karşı mücadelesine destek vermek için gönüllü olarak orduya katıldı. 22 yaşında iken gazeteciliğe başladı ve Risorgimento (Yeniden Yükseliş) hareketini desteklemek için 1848'de Il Lampione (Sokak Lambası) adlı mizah dergisini çıkarmaya başladı. Dergi kurulduktan birkaç ay sonra sansür dairesi tarafından kapatıldı; ama Collodi yılmayarak 1853'de La Scaramuccia (Didişme) adlı yeni bir dergi kurdu.

Gazeteciliği 1859'a kadar sürdürdü, sonra Giuseppe Garibaldi'nin özgürlük mücadelesi veren kuvvetlerine katıldı. 1861'de İtalya Krallığı kurulunca, gazeteciliği ve silahlı eylemleri bırakarak şehri Floransa'ya geri döndü ve resmî görevler üstlendi: Önce sansür dairesinde çalıştı, sonra valilikte görev aldı.

Edebiyat çalışmalarına hiç ara vermemiş olmasına karşın, 1875'e kadar dikkat çekici bir başarı sağlayamadı. 1875'te, Floransa'da bir yayınevi için Perrault'nun masallarını İtalyancaya çevirdi. Bu çeviri çalışması, çocuk edebiyatını yakından tanımasını sağladı ve onu derinden etkiledi. Kendisi de çocuk öyküleri yazmaya başladı ve Giannettino adlı bir karakter yarattı.

Yapıtlarından Giannettino 1876'da, Minuzzolo 1878'de yayımlandı. 1881'de emekli oldu. Çocukluğuna dönme arzusuyla köyüne dönüp  annesi ve erkek kardeşi ile yaşamaya başladı. 7 Temmuz 1881'de Il giornale per i bambini adlı çocuk dergisinde Pinokyo'nun maceralarını tefrika etmeye başladı ve büyük ilgi gördü. Ancak o, kariyerini bir çocuk kitapları yazarı olarak devam etmek istemiyordu. Bu yüzden dört ay sonra öyküyü Pinokyo'nun ölümü ile bitirse de okuyucuların yoğun talebi üzerine 16 Şubat 1882'de romana eklediği Mavi Peri'''nin sihirli değneği ile onu tekrar hayata döndürdü ve Pinokyo'nun Maceraları'nı yayınlamayı sürdürdü. Bu noktadan itibaren hikâyelere Ugo Fleres'in çizimleri eşlik etti. Collodi, Pinokyo'nun Maceraları'na Il giornale per i bambini 'nin 25 Ocak 1883 tarihli sayısında kesin olarak son verdi. Aynı yıl Pinokyo'nun Maceraları bu kez kitap olarak yayımlandı.

Collodi, 26 Ekim 1890'daki ani ölümüne kadar çocuk kitapları yazmaya devam etti. Cenazesi Floransa'da Porte Sante Anıt Mezarlığı'na defnedilmiştir.

 Bazı eserleri I racconti delle fate'' (Peri Öyküleri), 1875
Giannettino (Küçük Giannetto), 1876
Minuzzolo (Ufaklık), 1878
Le avventure di Pinocchio (Pinokyo'nun Serüvenleri), 1883
Storie allegre (Neşeli Öyküler), 1887
Note gaie (Neşeli Notlar), 1892
Divagazioni critico-umoristiche (Eleştirel-Gülmeceli Değinmeler), der.: Giuseppe Rigutini, 1892

Kaynakça

1826 doğumlular
1890 yılında ölenler
19. yüzyıl İtalyan gazetecileri
19. yüzyıl İtalyan roman yazarları
İtalyan çocuk kitabı yazarları
Pinokyo
Floransa doğumlular

Carlo Collodi


Claus Dalby (født 23. marts 1963 på Frederiksberg) er en dansk forlægger, forfatter og tv-personlighed med interesse for havedyrkning.

Historie
Dalby blev født på Frederiksberg og voksede op i Valby. Som 15-årig flyttede han hjemmefra, og tog en EFG-uddannelse. Derefter blev han selvlært tryllekunstner med kunstnernavnet Zimba - samt hundedressør.

I 1995 mødte han Anne Just, og dette blev starten på Dalbys karriere indenfor havekunst og dyrkning. Efter Just's død i 2009 har Claus Dalby siddet i fondsbestyrelsen for Anne Just's Have.

Udover at have sine egne haveprogrammer på DR1 og DR2, har Dalby siden 2002 lavet adskillige bøger om haven, ligesom han sammen med samlever Jaume Ferrer Servera i 1987 etablerede Forlaget Klematis, som er en af Danmarks største udgivere af danske børnebøger.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Claus Dalbys officielle websted

Personer fra Valby
Faglitterære forfattere fra Danmark
Havedyrkning
Forlæggere fra Danmark
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog

Claus Dalby


سان مارينو  هي إحدى مدن مقاطعة لوس أنجلوس، كاليفورنيا. تم إعطاءها لقب مدينة في 25 أبريل، 1913.

أعلام

 روبرت ميليكان
 ميخائيل كاثروود
 ستيفن جي. كابلان
 أندرو بارك
 مايك شاندلير

المراجع

سان مارينو (كاليفورنيا)
أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1913
تأسيسات سنة 1913 في كاليفورنيا
مدن كاليفورنيا
مدن لوس أنجلوس (كاليفورنيا)

سان مارينو (كاليفورنيا)


La historia de los judíos en el Perú se remonta a inicios del , con orígenes muy diversos como consecuencia de su diáspora; entre ellos están los alemanes, polacos, rusos, turcos, etc. La mayoría de origen asquenazí, con raíces en Europa Central y Oriental, aunque también existen otros grupos étnicos, especialmente de origen sefardí. Con el paso de los años, la población judía en el Perú ha ido disminuyendo en detrimento de otros lugares en el mundo, principalmente Israel. La población hebrea en el país andino está compuesta al año 2020 por aproximadamente unos 3000 miembros, de los cuales, más del 96% se concentra en la capital peruana, donde la comunidad cuenta con tres sinagogas, de las cuales, dos son asquenazíes (una alemana y la otra rumana) y la otra es sefardí. De las tres, dos pertenecen a la corriente ortodoxa, mientras que la restante (la alemana), pertenece a la corriente masortí.

Historia
Los orígenes de la presencia judía en el Perú se remontan a la llegada de los conquistadores españoles. Eran sefardíes provenientes de la península ibérica. (Ver:Apellidos Pardo, Calle, Etc.). La  presencia de la Inquisición obligó a muchos a convertirse o exiliarse en regiones menos hostiles del virreinato

En el año 1870 se fundó en Lima la "Sociedad Hebrea de Beneficencia", que integraban, entre otros miembros, Jacobo Herzberg, Miguel Badt, Natazzius Hurwitz, Paul Ascher y Jacobo Brillman.

Hacia la década de 1910, llegan judíos asquenazíes y sefardíes, quienes se integran a las comunidades formadas por los pocos judíos alemanes ya establecidos en el país, principalmente en Lima. En la década siguiente continúa la inmigración, fundamentalmente de jóvenes asquenazíes, quienes, en su mayoría, se dedican al negocio al crédito en ciudades del interior del país como Arequipa, Trujillo , Cusco, Abancay, Huanuco, Piura y Chiclayo.

Desde la formación de la República la inmigración al Perú fue marginal, para 1890 se estimaba alrededor de 200 judíos en el país

La década del 20 coincidirá con el fin prematuro de la inmigración judía y el aumento del antisemitismo, se prohíbe a Embajadas y Consulados peruanos que concedan visas a los que profesen la religión judía, tras la ocupación de Francia unos doscientos huérfanos judíos de entre 4 y 10 años, se les negó la visa humanitaria para ir a Perú por parte del gobierno.

En esos años, los sefardíes forman la "Sociedad de Beneficencia Israelita Sefardita" (1928) y los asquenazíes la "Unión Israelita del Perú" (1923). En 1925 se funda en Lima la "Organización Sionista del Perú" que busca reagrupar a las dos comunidades.En 1935 se funda la "Sociedad Israelita de Socorro Mutuo de los Judíos" y  los movimientos juveniles.

Durante la década del 30 la pequeña comunidad se enfrentará al aumento del antisemitismo, con la formación del Partido Unión Revolucionaria fundado por Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro en 1931. y dirigido por Luis A. Flores Medina y devino en partido abiertamente fascista que se caracterizaba por su oposición al comunismo, y en particular, al Partido Aprista, por la xenofobia y su abierto antisemitismo. Llegando a atacar tiendas de propietarios judíos en Lima. En 1938, la Cancillería peruana prohíbe totalmente la inmigración judía al Perú.

En la década del cuarenta, se fusionaron todas las comunidades judías existentes en el país, formando una sola. Se crea el "Directorio de la Colectividad Israelita del Perú" (1942) como órgano representativo de toda la judería peruana y se crean y unifican los servicios comunes: ampliación del cementerio, hogar de ancianos, colegio judío León Pinelo (1946), dos movimientos juveniles sionistas Hanoar Hatzioní y Betar, grupos de mujeres sionistas (Wizo, OSE, Pioneer Women), Comité Peruano Pro Palestina Hebrea que consigue el voto peruano para la Partición, campaña pro víctimas de guerra, se crean la Asociación de Crédito Israelita del Perú, la Asociación Médica Israelita del Perú y empieza a circular diariamente el boletín de la Jewish Telegraphic Agency.

La década de 1980  es un período de debilitamiento comunitario, con creciente emigración producto de la crisis económica de la deuda externa, la delincuencia, los secuestros y el terrorismo, ya durante la década de 1990 se observa claramente la decadencia comunitaria. Continúa el deterioro económico del país y de la comunidad, crece el desempleo y la pobreza entre la comunidad judía. Disminuye la aliá hacia Israel y crece la emigración hacia Estados Unidos. Durante la dictadura de Fujimori se dieron diversos actos antisemitas entre ellos la persecución al empresario Baruch Ivcher, despojado de su nacionalidad peruana y de la propiedad del canal de televisión Frecuencia Latina y del Canal 2, que habían informado de varios casos de violación de los derechos humanos, corrupción y y escuchas telefónicas ilegales por parte de las Fuerzas Armadas y de los servicios de espionaje del Ejecutivo peruano.

En las décadas siguientes, el aumento del antisemitismo y las crisis económicas sucesivas incrementan la emigración, principalmente a Estados Unidos, Israel y Argentina, reduciéndose la población judía Para el año 2020 se estimaba alrededor de 1200 judíos radicados en el Perú.

Véase también

Cementerio Israelita de El Callao
Sinagoga 1870
Pueblo judío

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Página del Museo Judío del Perú

Historia de los judíos en el Perú


Shallow Life  este un album al formației Lacuna Coil, apărut în 2009. Aparține genurilor gothic metal, alternative rock, nu metal.

Surse și apariție

Albumul a fost înregistrat în 2008 la un studio din Los Angeles cu producătorul Don Gilmore. Conform revistei Rock Sound, albumul ar avea anumite influențe arabe. Scabbia observa că discul are o "senzație mai rock" și că "este o combinație perfectă între vechiul nostru sunet european și ceva mai modern... o parte este foarte heavy. Extraordinar este că am reușit să îmbunătățim toate aspectele Lacuna Coil fără să înlocuim ceea ce era deja bun și fără să adăugăm ceva nepotrivit". Se spune că ar fi prima încercare de album conceptual al formației, punând în discuție stilurile de viață superficială din lumea contemporană. Cântecul "Spellbound" și-a făcut debutul la Soundwave Music Festival în februarie 2009. Cântecul "Not Enough" a fost publicat pentru descărcare gratuită pe situl italian de muzică XL împreună cu culisele videoclipului de la Spellbound. La începutul lui aprilie, cântecul I'm not Afraid  a început să fie difuzat la radio în Rusia.

Pe 8 aprilie 2009, Lacuna Coil au publicat toate cele 12 cântece spre a fi ascultate pe pagina lor de Myspace, pentru o săptămână.

Pe 14 aprilie, formația a creat un sondaj pe pagina lor de Myspace, bazat pe 9 piese din care fanii să voteze un al doilea single.

Shallow Life a reapărut ca CD dublu,  ediție de lux, cu material grafic nou, din 22-27 ianuarie 2010 în Europa și 22 februarie 2010 în America de Nord. Discul bonus conține înregistrări acustice live și piese de studio ce nu fuseseră lansate.

Receptare

Albumul a avut receptări diverse din partea criticilor. Cronicarul Allmusic a publicat o recenzie eterogenă, i-a acordat 2,5 stele din 5, notând: "Ca să fim corecți, Shallow Life apare ca o continuare previzibilă a parcursului precedent al formației Lacuna Coil și mulți observatori ar putea argumenta că întoarcerea în trecut nu este o soluție pentru ca o formație să prospere pe termen lung - dar s-ar putea să fie aici, date fiind vânzările sub așteptări și criticile primite". Revista Kerrang i-a acordat 3 stele din 5, notând: "Poate că nu va sta în picioare lângă Karmacode în 10 ani, dar este un album pentru ziua de azi". Rocksound i-a acordat 8 stele din 10, remarcând că albumul este "mai aventuros, mai plin de vervă și mai accesibil decât materialele precedente, Shallow Life este sound-ul unei formații care culege roadele a peste un deceniu de existență în industrie". În ciuda reacțiilor mixte, piesa Wide Awake a fost aproape universal elogiată.

Piese
Toate versurile au fost scrise de Lacuna Coil și don Gilmore. Toată muzica este compusă de Lacuna Coil.
 Survive – 3:34
 I Won't Tell You – 3:47
 Not Enough – 3:40
 I'm Not Afraid – 3:22
 I Like It – 3:42
 Underdog – 3:40
 The Pain – 4:00
 Spellbound – 3:21
 Wide Awake – 3:51
 The Maze – 3:38
 Unchained – 3:22
 Shallow Life – 4:00
 Oblivion – 4:09 – Piesă bonus
 The Last Goodbye -4:15 - Piesă bonus

Single-uri
 Spellbound:Spellbound a fost publicat pe 20 martie 2009, fiind pus la dispoziție pentru descărcare digitală. Nu este programată nicio publicare în variantă fizică. A fost lansat pe Liquid Metal și Octane, posturile companiei de radio prin satelit Sirius XM pe 14 februarie și lansat oficial pe pagina de Myspace pe 24 februarie.
 I Like It: Single-ul a fost ales după un sondaj de pe profilul de Myspace al formației, care a avut ca subiect 9 piese de pe Shallow Life.  Videoclipul piesei a fost filmat în luna mai. Filmările s-au făcut în Kansas City sub regizorul american Kevin James Custer și s-a lansat pe 29 iunie 2009. Deși a fost promovat ca single, nu a fost niciodată interpretat în concert.
 I Won't Tell You: Single-ul a fost lansat pe 5 octombrie 2009 pe posturile principale de rock din America. Videoclipul s-a filmat pe 5 decembrie la Milano sub regizorul italian SaKu, care regizase și Spellbound. Clipul s-a lansat pe pagina oficială de Myspace a formației pe 12 ianuarie 2010.
 Wide Awake: A fost lansat ca single special pentru sărbători la posturile de radio italiene pe 30 noiembrie.

Echipă și contribuții

Lacuna Coil

 Andreea Ferro- voce masculină

 Cristina Scabbia- voce feminină
 Marcus "Mauss" Biazzi- chitară solo
 Cristiano Pizza Migliore- chitară armonie
 Marco Coti Zelati- bas, clape
 Cristiano CriZ Mozzati- baterie

Producție

 Don Gilmore- producător și inginer
 Mark Kiczula- asistent inginer de înregistrări
 Josh Newell- asistent de studio
 Înregistrat la studiourile NRG, North Hollywood, CA
 Masterizare- Ted Jensen la Sterling Sound

Alți membri ai echipei

 Chris Denner- fotograful formației
 Director artistic și de design-  Stefan Wibbeke, Media Logistics GmbH, medialogistics.com

Publicare

 Toată muzica de: Lacuna Coil
 Toate clapele de: Marco Coti Zelati
 Toate versurile de: Lacuna Coil/ Don Gilmore
 Toată muzica și versurile publicate de: Lacuna Coil/ High speed Chase, ASCAP
 Administrat de Kobalt

Alte contribuții

 Management: Adam (DOOM) Sewell pentru Riot Rock Management
 Rezervări: Paul Ryan (UK), Tim Borror (SUA) pentru The Agency Group
 Reprezentare legală: Michael Toorock, Toorock și Rosen, LLP
 Managementul turneului: Mark "Gus" Guy

Topuri

Albume din 2009
Albume gothic metal

Shallow Life


The Probation Service (formerly the National Probation Service) for England and Wales is a statutory criminal justice service, mainly responsible for the supervision of offenders in the community and the provision of reports to the criminal courts to assist them in their sentencing duties. It was established in its current form by the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act in April 2001, but has existed since 1907 as a set of area-based services interacting at arm's length with central government.

The current Probation Service was created on 26 June 2021 following the Ministry of Justice withdrawing the contracts of 21 privately-run Community Rehabilitation Companies (CRCs).

The service is part of His Majesty's Prison and Probation Service (HMPPS), which transferred to the Ministry of Justice from the Home Office on 9 May 2007. It comprises 42 probation areas which are coterminous with police force area boundaries, served by 35 probation trusts. Trusts are funded by HMPPS and employ all staff except the chief officer; they are accountable to their boards (comprising up to fifteen members appointed by the Secretary of State) for day-to-day operations and financial management, and to HMPPS via a Regional Offender Manager, with whom they have service level agreements, for performance against the targets for the offender management and interventions services for which they have been funded.

The work of probation trusts is scrutinised by HMPPS, which reports independently to UK government ministers; and by HM Inspectorate of Probation.  There are concerns that staff shortages, failure in communication and privatisation may be weakening the probation service and putting the public at risk.

Northern Ireland has its own probation service, whilst in Scotland criminal justice social work services are managed within the social work departments of local authorities.

History

The Church of England Temperance Society and other voluntary societies appointed missionaries to the London police courts during the late nineteenth century.  From this developed the system of releasing offenders on the condition that they kept in touch with the missionary and accepted guidance. In 1907 this supervision was given a statutory basis which allowed courts to appoint and employ probation officers.

The service, at the start of 2004, had some 18,000 staff. Statistics for the year 2002 state that it supervised just less than 193,000 offenders and provided 253,000 pre-sentence reports to courts in England and Wales, advising them on the background of and proposing appropriate sentences for convicted offenders. In addition, it has responsibility for ensuring that victims of violent and sexual crime resulting in prison sentences of over 12 months are consulted before offenders are released from custody.

The advent of NOMS in 2004 changed the pattern of correctional services delivery in England and Wales. The Offender Management Bill, introduced in Parliament late in 2006, was intended to enable probation areas to become trusts as part of wider government policy to open up the provision of correctional services to greater competition from the voluntary, community, and private sectors. This was one of the recommendations of the Carter Report (2003): others were to introduce a system of end-to-end offender management, with one named offender manager having responsibility for an offender throughout his or her sentence (be it in custody, the community, or both), and to rebalance sentencing in order to redress the drift towards less and less serious offences resulting in imprisonment or community sentences. Carter saw the need to improve public and sentencer confidence not only in community sentences but also in the fine as credible sanctions for appropriate offenders and offences.

The Bill completed its passage through Parliament in July 2007, and the first six probation trusts came into being on 1 April 2008 (Merseyside, South Wales, Humberside, Dyfed/Powys, West Mercia and Leicestershire & Rutland). Lancashire Probation Trust achieved Trust status on 1 April 2009.

Criticism
An article in The Guardian suggests privatisation of the probation service was done in haste, underfunded and is failing. Probation is being used less because judges and magistrates have lost confidence in the privatised probation system.

The probation service in London is understaffed and many probation officers are inexperienced.  Probationers are seen too infrequently and some are overlooked.  A proper risk assessment is not done in the majority of cases. Privatisation of probation service continues to produce "troubling" results. The Chief Inspector of Probation disclosed that probation supervision for one in four low-risk offenders in Gwent is no more than a phone call every six weeks. HM Inspectorate of Probation maintains half of cases have no proper assessment of risk of harm.  Junior officers working for Community Rehabilitation Companies (CRCs) sometimes manage over 200 cases each though at most 60 can be managed safely.

Not enough is done to supervise former prisoners after release from jail and discourage reoffending.  Glenys Stacey, Chief Inspector of Probation said, "Although there are exceptions, the community rehabilitation companies... are not generally producing good quality work, not at all."

The Justice Select Committee said the 'Transforming Rehabilitation' programme had brought the probation system into a "mess", staff morale was at an "all-time low" and newly released prisoners got "wholly inadequate" support.  The committee said that splitting the service between a national body and 21 rehabilitation companies lead to a two-tier system, reducing voluntary sector involvement. MPs said the companies' efforts to reduce re-offending is "disappointing" and some staff are not trained to deal with cases they are assigned. Perpetrators of domestic abuse are inadequately supervised by private companies, putting tens of thousands of victims and their families at risk.   The staff of privatised offender supervision companies do not have the skill, experience or time to supervise perpetrators.  HM Inspectorate of Probation found in 71% of cases, there was insufficient victim protection.  Glenys Stacey stated private Community Rehabilitation Companies were "nowhere near effective enough."  Katie Ghose of Women's Aid said, "This report shows that community rehabilitation companies are failing victims, with a significant lack of understanding about domestic abuse, especially coercive control.  Probation officers are routinely underestimating the ongoing danger posed to the victim and not reassessing the level of risk involved when circumstances change. The findings of this report show that CRCs are currently not fit for purpose when it comes to domestic abuse cases and we call on the government to urgently change this to protect survivors".  Too few perpetrators of domestic abuse are referred to courses to help them manage relationships better and those who do too frequently do not complete the course.

Serious offences committed by people supervised by the probation service have increased markedly.  Richard Burgon said, "All too often probation appears stretched to breaking point and struggling to fulfil its fundamental role of keeping the public safe. The Conservatives' irresponsible decision to break up and privatise much of probation has put huge pressures on the system. The government urgently needs to explain how it plans to tackle this extremely worrying rise in serious offences committed by offenders".

Suicides by people the Probation Service manages have risen by 19% from 283 in 2017–18 to 337 in 2018–19, and amounted to 31% of all deaths of offenders in the community.  Deborah Coles of INQUEST said, "These figures are deeply disturbing and require urgent scrutiny due to the current lack of independent investigation. What is known is that people are being released into failing support systems, poverty and an absence of services for mental health and addictions. This is state abandonment. This is the violence of austerity."

See also
Violent and Sex Offender Register
Offender Assessment System (OASys)
Probation services are provided by local authorities in Scotland
Drug Interventions Programme
Lancashire Probation Trust

Notes

External links

 Probation Statistics 2002
 Managing Offenders, reducing Crime - Home Office paper describing proposals for NOMS
 Excel spreadsheet linked to downloadable National Probation Service Circulars issued 1996 to 2007.
 Rehabilitation versus punishment – judge for yourself press release from the ministry of Justice for an interactive media overview of the England & Wales probation process
 Video clip about Desistance and Probation Practice Research by the Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research

Penal system in England
Prison and correctional agencies
Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)
1997 establishments in England
Penal system in Wales
1997 establishments in Wales
Government agencies established in 1997
1997 in British law
Probation

National Probation Service


Huacho () is a city in Peru, capital of the Huaura Province and capital of the Lima Region. Also is the most populated city of the Lima Region and Norte Chico. It is located 223 feet (68 metres) above sea level and 148 km north of the city of Lima. The city is located on the Pan-American Highway and it is close to the Lachay National Reserve, so it has extensive vegetation and wildlife.

Geography

Settled on the bottom of a wide bay, its climate is wet and appealing. In the surrounding areas there are rice, cotton, sugarcane and different grain fields. This fact has allowed the rise of a rather important cotton industry, as well as cotton and oil factories. Within its natural landscape, its salt mines and its beaches (such as El Paraíso ) are of great interest. Huacho was one of the main trade centers of northern Lima.

History

Under the viceroy of Francisco de Toledo, who decided to group the ayllus of the Indians who were established in that area into reductions.  The site chosen was that of "Gaucho Bay."  Consequently, on 25 August 1571, the reduction was named San Bartolomé de Guachu.

During the Viceroyalty of Peru, the city belonged to the province of Huara and was established as a trading and fishing port.  In 1774 the Viceroy José Antonio de Mendoza granted Huacho the category of "pueblo" and with it, allowed it to build its main plaza.

Huacho was, like Huaura, a pueblo that received and hosted the members of the liberation expedition led by José de San Martín, participating on 26 November 1820 of the Grito libertador en el balcéon de Huaura, on the subject of historical verification.

On 12 February 1821, Huacho was elevated to district, belonging to the province of Chancay, in the department of Lima.  The Congress conceded the title of Fidelísima Villa (most faithful) on 11 April 1828, under the presidency of Don José de La Mar.  On 24 January 1830, the province of Chancay was unified with the province of Lima and Santa in the department of Ancash.  Huaura was established as the capital of the province of Chancay.   Thirty years before, on January 23, 1866, Huacho was established as the capital of Chancay.

Due to its technological advances, in 1892, the city began a city tram service, an animal transportation service called "tranvías de sangre" (blood tram), which was said to have used mules or horses. This service extended to Huara, and was electrified in 1920, making Huacho the first city after Lima to have its own electric tram system.

Beginning in 1911, it was the main hub of the Ferrocarril Noroeste del Perú (Northwestern Train of Peru), which connected Huacho with Ancón, Sayan, and Barranca.

On November 10, 1874, Huacho was elevated to the category of city and was made capital of the province even when it was separated from Chancay (today the province of Huaral), and the province of Huaura was created. Next the city of Huacho was also the capital of the Prefecture of Lima, and now is the capital of the Governal Region of Lima.

Archaeology
South of the city of Huacho is located a large archaeological site of Bandurria, Peru. Its history goes back to 4,000 BC.

Culture
Huacho is home to the annual Guinea Pig Festival.

Its gastronomy is represented by the Salchicha Huachana.

Twin towns and sister cities
  Wellington, New Zealand
  Lima, Peru
  Tokyo, Japan
  San Isidro, Peru
  París, France
  El Cairo, Egypt
  Madrid, Spain
  Barcelona, Spain
  Valparaíso, Chile

Notable people
 Mercedes Indacochea (1889-1959), educator
 Jorge Koechlin (bornn 1950), racing driver

References

External links

 website information (ES)

Populated places in the Lima Region
Populated places established in 1571
Regional capital cities in Peru

Huacho


I kernefysik, betegner henfaldskæder en sammenhængende kæde af radioaktive henfald. De fleste radioisotoper henfalder ikke direkte til en stabil tilstand, men gennemløber en serie af henfald, indtil en stabil isotop er dannet. Et led i en henfaldskæde betegnes ved dens relation til foregående eller efterfølgende trin. En "forældre-isotop" gennemgår henfald til en "datter-isotop". Et eksempel er uran (atom nummer 92), som henfalder til thorium (atom nummer 90). Datter-isotopen kan være stabil eller kan henfalde og danne sin egen datter-isotop. Datteren af en datter kaldes nogle gange "datter-datter isotop".

Tiden, som det tager for et forældre-atom at henfalde til et atom af dets datter-isotop varierer meget, ikke kun for forskellige forældre-datter kæder, men også for ens par af forældre og datter-isotoper. Mens henfaldet af et enkelt atom sker spontant, er henfaldet af en start-population af identiske atomer i tiden "t", beskrevet ved en aftagende eksponentiel fordeling, e−λt, hvor λ kaldes henfaldskonstanten. På grund af den eksponentielle sammenhæng, kan man beskrive isotopen ved halveringstiden.

Halveringstiden er den tid det tager for halvdelen af et oprindeligt antal af forældre-isotoper at henfalde til deres datter-isotop. Halveringstider er blevet bestemt eksperimentelt for tusinder af radio-isotoper. De varierer fra næsten øjeblikkeligt henfald til 1019 år, eller længere.

De mellemliggende trin udsender den samme mængde af radioaktivitet som den oprindelige isotop (dog ikke den samme energi). Når der opnås ligevægt, vil en datter-isotop være tilstede i direkte forhold til dens halveringstid; men da dens aktivitet er omvendt proportional med halveringstiden, vil hvert nuklid i henfaldskæden til sidst bidrage med lige så meget radioaktivitet som isotopen i begyndelsen af kæden, men ikke med den samme energi. For eksempel er uran-238 svagt radioaktivt, mens begblende, en uranmalm, er 13 gange mere radioaktivt end rent uran i samme mængde, på grund af radium og andre datter-isotoper som det indeholder.

Ustabile radium isotoper er ikke kun vigtige radioaktive kilder, men som det næste led i kæden frembringer de radon,en inaktiv, naturligt forekommende gas. Klipper som indeholder thorium og/eller uran (som nogle granitter) udsender radon gas, der kan opsamles i lukkede steder som kældre og miner under jorden. Udsættelse for radon anses for at være den vigtigste årsag til lungekræft i ikke-rygere. .

Historie
Alle de grundstoffer og isotoper som vi finder på Jorden, med undtagelse af hydrogen, deuterium, helium, helium-3, og måske små mængder af stabile lithium og beryllium isotoper, som blev skabt i Big Bang, blev dannet ved s-proces eller r-proces i stjerner. Dem som i dag findes på Jorden, kan derfor senest være dannet for 4.5 milliarder år siden. Alle grundstoffer som er skabt for mere end 4.5 milliarder år siden kaldes "primordiale", hvilket betyder at de er dannet ved processer i stjerner. Ved dannelses-tidspunktet, begyndte de ustabile grundstoffer at henfalde med det samme. Alle isotoper med halveringstid mindre end 100 millioner år er reduceret til 0.0000000000028% (%) eller mindre af de oprindelige mængder, som var i Jorden ved dens dannelse. De findes i spormængder i dag, eller er henfaldet helt. Der er kun to andre måder at lave isotoper: "kunstigt", inden i en menneskeskabt eller naturlig reaktor, eller gennem henfald af en forældre-isotop i en henfaldskæde.

Ustabile isotoper forsøger at blive stabile; deres mål er at blive en af de 200 stabile isotoper der findes i universet. Stabile isotoper har et forhold mellem neutroner og protoner i kernen der er 1 i stabilt helium-4 og langsomt vokser til ca. 1.5 for bly. (der er ingen fuld stabilitet for isotoper tungere end bly-208). Grundstoffer som er tungere end det, skal af med noget masse for at opnå stabilitet, oftest som alfahenfald. Den anden almindelige måde for et isotop med den rette masse, men med et højt neutron-proton forhold (n/p) er betahenfald, i hvilket der sker grundstof-forvandling, mens massen er bevaret og n/p bliver mindre.

Der findes også et inverst beta henfald, der hjælper isotoper med for få neutroner til at nærme sig stabilitet; men da fission næsten kun har produkter som er neutron-tunge er positron emission relativt sjælden sammenlignet med beta emission.

Der er mange relativt korte betahenfaldskæder, mindst to (et tungt betahenfald og et let positron henfald) for hver masse op til omkring 207 og nogle højere, men for de tungere grundstoffer (ofte kaldet "transuraner", men faktisk brugt for alle isotoper tungere end bly) er der kun 4 meget sandsynlige henfaldskæder.

Denne kendsgerning skyldes de to mulige henfald: Alfahenfald, der reducerer massen med 4 AMU, og beta, der ikke ændrer massen, men kun p/n forholdet. De fire kæder kaldes 4n + 1, 4n + 2, and 4n + 3; resten, som fås ved at dividere atommassen med 4 giver den kæde som isotopen vil bruge til henfald.

Der er andre muligheder, men de har en meget lavere sandsynlighed for at forekomme end alfa- eller betahenfald.

Tre af disse kæder har en lang-livet isotop nær starten af kæden; de er flaskehalse i processen, der sænker hastigheden i henfaldskæden og holder kæden under dem "levende". De tre stoffer er uran-238 (halveringstid = 4.5 milliarder år), uran-235 (halveringstid = 700 millioner år) og thorium-232 (halveringstid = 14 milliarder år).

Den fjerde kæde har ikke en flaskehals-isotop der holder så længe, så næsten alle isotoperne i denne kæde er henfaldet til nær stabiltet i enden af kæden.

Nær enden af denne kæde er bismuth-209, der længe blev anset for stabil. For nylig har man dog fundet at Bi-209 er ustabil med en halveringstid på 19 milliarder milliarder år.

Det er det sidste trin før stabilt thallium-205. Omkring den tid hvor solsystemet blev dannet, var der flere ustabile isotoper med høje masser tilstede, og kæderne var længere og indeholdt isotoper der nu er henfaldet. I dag har vi frembragt isotoper, som ellers var henfaldet : plutonium-239, brugt til atomvåben er et godt eksempel med en halveringstid på 24500 år, det henfalder ved udsendelse af alfa-partikler til uran-235.

Typer af henfald
 De 4 mest almindelige typer af radioaktive henfald er: alfahenfald, betahenfald, gammahenfald, inverst beta henfald (idet man medregner både positron emission, elektronindfangning), .

Alfa-henfaldet sker ved udsendelse af helium-4 (alfa partikler er helium-4 kerner) og er den eneste af processerne som ændrer atommasse tallet (A) for kernen. Massetallet mindskes med 4 ved et alfa-henfald og på grund af dette, vil næsten ethvert henfald resultere i en kerne, hvis atommasse kan skrives som enten 4n, 4n+1, 4n+2 eller 4n+3, hvilket inddeler nukliderne i fire henfaldskæder.

Tre hoved-henfaldskæder findes i naturen, de kaldes ofte thorium serien, radium serien eller uran serien, og actiniumserien. De repræsenterer tre af de fire omtalte klasser og ender i tre forskellige stabile isotoper af bly.

Massetallene af isotoperne kan repræsenteres ved henholdsvis A = 4n, A = 4n + 2, og A = 4n + 3.

De lang-livede isotoper i toppen af disse kæder, som er henholdsvis thorium-232, uran-238, and uran-235, har eksisteret siden jordens dannelse.

På grund af den forholdsvis korte halveringstid af dens start-isotop neptunium-237 (2.14 millioner år), er den fjerde kæde, kaldet neptunium serien med A = 4n + 1, allerede forsvundet i naturen, bortset fra det sidste trin, henfaldet af bismuth-209.

Slutningen af denne henfaldskæde vides nu at være thallium-205.

Nogle ældre kilder angiver den endelige isotop til at være bismuth-209, men det blev opdaget for nylig, at den har en halveringstid på .

Der er også ikke-transurane henfaldskæder, for eksempel magnesium-28 og chlorine-39. På Jorden er de fleste start-isotoper i disse kæder fra før 1945 frembragt af kosmisk stråling.

Efter 1945 har test af nukleare våben også frigjort talrige radioaktive fission products.
Næsten alle sådanne isotoper henfalder enten med beta - eller beta+ henfald, idet de skifter fra et grundstof til et andet uden at ændre masse.
Disse datterprodukter har generelt længere halveringstider, da de er tættere på stabilitet og kæden ender med en stabil isotop.

Actiniders alfa-henfaldskæder
I de fire tabeller herunder, er de mindre forgreninger (med forgrenings-sandsynlighed mindre end 0.0001 %) udeladt. Den frigjorte energi udgøres af den totale kinetiske energi af alle de udsendte partikler. (elektroner, alfa partikler, gammakvanter, neutrinoer, Auger electroner og röntgenstråler) og den rekylerende kerne, idet det antages at kernen var i hvile fra start. Bogstavet 'a' betyder år, fra latin annus).

I tabellerne herunder (undtaget for neptunium), er de historiske navne for de naturligt forekommende nuklider også givet. Disse navne var i brug på den tid, da henfaldet først blev opdaget og undersøgt. Fra de historiske navne kan man lokalisere den bestemte kæde som kernen tilhører, og erstatte det med dets moderne navn.

De tre naturligt forekommende aktinid alfahenfaldskæder som er vist herunder - thorium, uran/radium (fra U-238) og actinium (fra U-235) - ender hver i deres bestemte bly-isotop (henholdsvis Pb-208, Pb-206 og Pb-207).

Alle disse isotoper er stabile og er også tilstede i naturen som primordiale nuklider, men den større mængde af dem sammenlignet med bly-204 (som kun har en primordial oprindelse) kan bruges til at aldersbestemme klippe med uranium-lead dating metoden.

Thorium serien

4n kæden, som begynder med naturligt forekommende thorium-232, indeholder følgende grundstoffer: actinium, bismuth, bly, polonium, radium, radon and thallium. Alle er tilstede, i det mindste midlertidigt, i enhver prøve som indeholder thorium, enten det er et metal, compound, eller et mineral. Serien slutter med bly-208.

Den totale energi som frigøres fra thorium-232 til bly-208, inklusive neutrinoernes energi, er 42.6 MeV

Neptunium serien

4n+1 kæden, der starter med Np-237 kaldes ofte "neptunium serien" eller "neptunium kaskaden". I denne serie, er det kun 2 af isotoperne som forekommer naturligt, nemlig de sidste to: bismuth-209 og thallium-205.

En røgalarm , som indeholder et americium-241 ioniserings-kammer samler en betydelig mængde af neptunium-237 som henfaldsprodukt af americium: de følgende grundstoffer er også tilstede, i det mindste midlertidigt, som henfaldsprodukter fra neptunium: actinium, astat, bismuth, francium, bly, polonium, protactinium, radium,thallium, thorium, og uran. Da studiet af denne henfaldskæde er af nyere dato har dets nuklider ingen historiske navne. En unik egenskab ved denne kæde er at den ikke omfatter ædelgassen radon. I de andre henfaldskæder er der radon, som kan migrere gennem klipper.
Den totale frigjorte energi fra californium-249 til thallium-205, inklusive neutrinoernes energi, er 66.8 MeV.

Uran serien

4n+2 henfaldskæden, som starter med naturligt forekommende uran-238, indeholder følgende grundstoffer: astat, bismuth, bly, polonium, protactinium, radium, radon, thallium, og thorium. Alle disse er tilstede, i det mindste midlertidigt, i enhver prøve som indeholder uran-238. Serien slutter med bly-206.

Den totale energi som frigøres fra uran-238 til bly-206, inklusive neutrinoernes energi, er 51.7 MeV

Actinium serien
4n+3 henfaldskæden,som starter med naturligt forekommede U-235, indeholder følgende grundstoffer: actinium, astat, bismuth, francium, bly, polonium, protactinium, radium, radon, thallium, og thorium. Alle er tilstede, i det mindste midlertidigt, i enhver prøve indeholdende uran-235. Serien slutter med den stabile isotop Bly-207.

Den totale energi som frigøres fra uran-235 til bly-207, inklusive neutrinoernes energi, er 46.4 MeV

Beta-henfaldskæder i fissionsprodukter
Da de tunge oprindelige kerner altid har en større andel af neutroner, starter fissionsprodukt-kerner næsten altid med et neutron/proton-forhold, der er væsentligt større end det, der er stabilt i deres masseinterval. De gennemgår derfor flere betahenfald efter hinanden, hver konverterer en neutron til en proton. De første henfald tenderer til at have højere henfaldsenergi og kortere halveringstid. Disse sidste henfald kan have lav henfaldsenergi og/eller lang halveringstid.

Eksempelvis har uran-235 92 protoner og 143 neutroner. Fission tager en ekstra neutron, og producerer så to eller tre neutroner mere; antag at 92 protoner og 142 neutroner er tilgængelige for de to fissionsprodukt-kerner. Antag, at de har massen 99 med 39 protoner og 60 neutroner (yttrium-99), og massen 135 med 53 protoner og 82 neutroner (iod-135); i så fald kan henfaldskæden ses af nedenstående oversigt.

Noter

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

 Nucleonica nuclear science portal
 Nucleonica's Decay Engine for professional online decay calculations
 Decay chains
 Government website listing isotopes and decay energies
 National Nuclear Data Center Freely available databases that can be used to check or construct decay chains. Fully referenced.
  The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA  with decay chains
 Decay Chain Finder

Radioaktivitet

Henfaldskæde


Bertilo João Morsch (Sobradinho, ) é um bispo brasileiro da Igreja Católica, bispo auxiliar da Arquidiocese de Porto Alegre.

Biografia
Bertilo nasceu em 7 de novembro de 1964, filho de Alfredo Morsch (falecido) e de Cecília Paulus Morsch, é o mais novo entre sete irmãos (Maria Zeniria, Eli José(falecido), Adelmar, Judite, Irinita, Gilmar e Bertilo). Ele recebeu o sacramento do batismo e da Primeira Comunhão na comunidade  São Miguel - localidade de Pitingal no município de Passa Sete, que na época era distrito de Sobradinho. Foi crismado no Seminário São José em Santa Maria.

No ano de 1978, Bertilo ingressou no Seminário São José, em Santa Maria, na oitava série do ginasial. Na mesma instituição concluiu o ensino médio, em 1981. Cursou Filosofia e Teologia no IFITESMA (Instituto de Filosofia e Teologia de Santa Maria), entre os anos de 1982 e 1986. No dia 7 de janeiro de 1989 foi ordenado presbítero por Dom José Ivo Lorscheiter, na capela São Miguel de Pitingal, em Sobradinho, sua cidade natal.

Ministério Sacerdotal
Como sacerdote exerceu o ministério como vigário paroquial na paróquia Nossa Senhora da Piedade, em Júlio de Castilhos, entre os anos de 1989 e 1990. Trabalhou como vigário paroquial na paróquia São Pedro no município de São Pedro do Sul, entre os anos de 1991 e 1993, onde assumiu como pároco no ano seguinte, e permaneceu até o ano 2000.

No ano de 2001, iniciou os estudos no mestrado em Direito Canônico na Pontifícia Universidade Lateranense, em Roma, onde apresentou a dissertação em 2003. No final do mesmo ano foi nomeado pároco e reitor do Santuário Basílica Menor Nossa Senhora de Medianeira, em Santa Maria.

O ano de 2005 também marca o ingresso de Bertilo na vida acadêmica como professor de Direito Canônico e Pastoral Fundamental na Fapas (Faculdades Palotinas), onde exerce a docência. Também, entre os anos de 2006 e 2010, participou da Câmara Eclesiástica de Santa Maria junto ao Tribunal Eclesiástico como referencial. De agosto de 2020 até 2022 foi o Defensor do Vínculo e Promotor de Justiça junto ao Tribunal Eclesiástico Interdiocesano de Santa Maria.

A partir de 2013 até 2021 foi reitor do Seminário Maior São João Maria Vianney e pároco da Paróquia da Ressurreição, em Santa Maria.

Atuou ainda em programas diários de rádio, como os das rádios Imenbuí de Santa Maria, desde 2004 a 2013 e na rádio Medianeira de Santa Maria.

Ministério Episcopal
Foi nomeado pelo Papa Francisco como bispo auxiliar da Arquidiocese de Porto Alegre em .  A ordenação episcopal ocorreu em  no Santuário Basílica Nossa Senhora Medianeira de Todas as Graças  sendo convidados a serem o ordenante principal Leomar Antônio Brustolin, arcebispo de Santa Maria e coordenantes dom Jaime Spengler, O.F.M., arcebispo de Porto Alegre e dom Aparecido Donizete de Souza, bispo auxiliar de Porto Alegre, nomeado bispo auxiliar de Cascavel.

Ligações externas

Naturais de Sobradinho (Rio Grande do Sul)
Alunos da Pontifícia Universidade Lateranense
Bispos auxiliares de Porto Alegre

Bertilo João Morsch


(26640) Bahýľ, denumire internațională (26640) Bahyl, este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
26640 Bahýľ este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul din Ondřejov de Peter Kušnirák. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,99 ua, o excentricitate de 0,12 și o înclinație de 13,6° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 26001-27000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2000
Centura de asteroizi

26640 Bahýľ


A categoria peso pesado masculino ou até 91 kg do boxe nos Jogos Europeus de 2015 foi disputada entre 16 a 27 de junho, no Baku Crystal Hall, em Baku, Azerbaijão.

Calendário
Horário de verão do Azerbaijão (UTC+5).

Medalhistas

Resultados
Os resultados foram os seguintes.

Final

Metade superior

Metade inferior

Eventos do boxe nos Jogos Europeus de 2015

Boxe nos Jogos Europeus de 2015 - Peso pesado masculino