Politics of England forms the major part of the wider politics of the United Kingdom, with England being more populous than all the other countries of the United Kingdom put together. As England is also by far the largest in terms of area and GDP, its relationship to the UK is somewhat different from that of Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. The English capital London is also the capital of the UK, and English is the dominant language of the UK (not officially, but de facto). Dicey and Morris (p26) list the separate states in the British Islands. "England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark.... is a separate country in the sense of the conflict of laws, though not one of them is a State known to public international law." But this may be varied by statute.

The United Kingdom is one state for the purposes of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882. Great Britain is a single state for the purposes of the Companies Act 1985. Traditionally authors referred to the legal unit or state of England and Wales as "England" although this usage is becoming politically unacceptable in the last few decades. The Parliament of the United Kingdom is located in London, as is its civil service, HM Treasury and most of the official residences of the monarchy. In addition, the state bank of the UK is known as the "Bank of England".

Though associated with England for some purposes, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey have their own parliaments, and are not part of the United Kingdom, the European Union or England.

Prior to the Union, in 1707, England was ruled by a monarch and the Parliament of England. Since the Union, England has not had its own government.

History

Pre-Union politics

The English Parliament traces its origins to the Anglo-Saxon . Hollister argues that:
In an age lacking precise definitions of constitutional relationships, the deeply ingrained custom that the king governed in consultation with the Witan, implicit in almost every important royal document of the period, makes the Witenagemot one of Anglo-Saxon England's fundamental political institutions.

In 1066, William of Normandy brought a feudal system, where he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics before making laws. In 1215, the tenants-in-chief secured the Magna Carta from King John, which established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council, which slowly developed into a parliament.

In 1265, Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester summoned the first elected Parliament. The franchise in parliamentary elections for county constituencies was uniform throughout the country, extending to all those who owned the freehold of land to an annual rent of 40 shillings (Forty-shilling Freeholders). In the boroughs, the franchise varied across the country; individual boroughs had varying arrangements.

This set the scene for the so-called "Model Parliament" of 1295 adopted by Edward I. By the reign of Edward II, Parliament had been separated into two Houses: one including the nobility and higher clergy, the other including the knights and burgesses, and no law could be made, nor any tax levied, without the consent of both Houses as well as of the Sovereign.

The Laws in Wales Acts of 1535–42 annexed Wales as part of England and brought Welsh representatives to Parliament.

When Elizabeth I was succeeded in 1603 by the Scottish King James VI, (thus becoming James I of England), the countries both came under his rule but each retained its own Parliament. James I's successor, Charles I, quarrelled with the English Parliament and, after he provoked the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, their dispute developed into the English Civil War. Charles was executed in 1649 and under Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth of England the House of Lords was abolished, and the House of Commons made subordinate to Cromwell. After Cromwell's death, the Restoration of 1660 restored the monarchy and the House of Lords.

Amidst fears of a Roman Catholic succession, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 deposed James II (James VII of Scotland) in favour of the joint rule of Mary II and William III, whose agreement to the English Bill of Rights introduced a constitutional monarchy, though the supremacy of the Crown remained.  For the third time, a Convention Parliament, i.e., one not summoned by the king, was required to determine the succession.

Post-Union politics

 Treaty of Union agreed by commissioners for each parliament on 22 July 1706.
 Acts of Union 1707, passed by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.
 Act of Union 1800, passed by both the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Once the terms of the Treaty of Union were agreed in 1706, Acts of Union were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain based in the former home of the English parliament. All the traditions, procedures, and standing orders of the English parliament were retained, as were the incumbent officers, and English members comprised the overwhelming majority of the new body. It was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law and Scottish legislation remained separate, new legislation for both former kingdoms was now dealt with by the new parliament.

After the Hanoverian George I ascended the throne in 1714 through an Act of Parliament, power began to shift from the Sovereign, and by the end of his reign the position of the ministers – who had to rely on Parliament for support – was cemented. Towards the end of the 18th century the monarch still had considerable influence over Parliament, which was dominated by the English aristocracy and by patronage, but had ceased to exert direct power: for instance, the last occasion Royal Assent was withheld, was in 1708 by Queen Anne. At general elections the vote was restricted to freeholders and landowners, in constituencies that were out of date, so that in many "rotten boroughs" seats could be bought while major cities remained unrepresented. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the Napoleonic Wars developed the government became repressive against dissent and progress toward reform was stalled.

European Parliament

When the United Kingdom was a member of the European Union, members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom were elected by twelve European constituencies, of which nine were within England, the others being one each covering Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Gibraltar, the only British Overseas Territory that was then part of the European Union, was included in the South West England European Constituency. At the last European Parliamentary election in which the United Kingdom participated, the English European constituencies were

Post-devolution politics

While Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland voted for devolved legislatures in referendums in 1997 and 1998 (see 1997 Scottish devolution referendum, 1997 Welsh devolution referendum, and 1998 Northern Irish Belfast Agreement referendum) England has never had any referendum for Independence or devolved Assembly/Parliament.

The Scottish Parliament, Senedd and Northern Ireland Assembly were created by the UK parliament along with strong support from the majority of people of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and are not independent of the rest of the United Kingdom. However, this gave each country a separate and distinct political identity, leaving England (83% of the UK population) as the only part of the UK directly ruled in nearly all matters by the UK government in London, although London itself is devolved (see below).

While Scotland and Northern Ireland have always had separate legal systems to England (see Scots law and Northern Ireland law), this has not been the case with Wales (see English law, Welsh law and Contemporary Welsh Law). However, laws concerning the Welsh language, and also the Senedd, have created differences between the law in Wales, and the law in England, as they apply in Wales and not in England.

Regarding parliamentary matters, an anomaly called the West Lothian Question had come to the fore as a result of legislative devolution for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland without corresponding legislative devolution for England. Before devolution, for example, purely 'Scottish' legislation was debated at Westminster in a Scottish Grand Committee composed of just those MPs representing Scottish constituencies.

However, legislation was still subject to a vote of the entire House of Commons and this frequently led to legislation being passed despite the majority of Scottish MPs voting against. (This was especially true during the period of Conservative rule from 1979 to 1997 when the Conservative Party had an overall majority of MPs but only a handful representing Scotland and Wales.) Now that many Scottish matters are dealt with by the Scottish Parliament, the fact that MPs representing Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland can not vote on those issues as they affect Scotland, but can vote on those same issues as they affect England caused some disquiet. In 2015 English votes for English laws was passed by Westminster to solve this by giving English MPs a veto on legislation.

The Campaign for an English Parliament is a proponent of a separate English parliament.

Parliament of the United Kingdom

The Parliament of the United Kingdom is located at Westminster in London.

House of Commons
English members of parliament are elected at the same time as those for the rest of the UK. There are 533 English constituencies. Because of their large number, they form an inbuilt majority in the House of Commons. Even though Clause 81 of the Scotland Act 1998 equalised the English and Scottish electoral quota, and thereby reduced the number of Scottish members in the House of Commons from 72 to 59 MPs.

English Grand Committee

For many years an anomaly known as the West Lothian question where MPs from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are able to vote on matters which only affect England only when those same issues are devolved to their own institutions and has become a major issue in recent years. In May 2015 the Conservative Party won an unexpected overall majority and pledged to commit to a manifesto promise to change parliamentary procedures and create an English Grand Committee to give English MPs a much greater role in issues which affect only England (or England and Wales) as a solution to this issue known as "English votes for English laws" (EVEL). On 22 October 2015 following a heated debate in the House of Commons the Conservative Government led by David Cameron by 312 votes to 270 votes approved the proposals which came into effect immediately.

House of Lords
The House of Lords also has an inbuilt English majority.

Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as the Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual comprised a majority in the House of Lords, including the Church of England's archbishops, diocesan bishops, abbots, and priors. After 1539, however, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, for the Dissolution of the Monasteries suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the English Civil War, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661.

The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and by later acts. Now, there can be no more than 26 Lords Spiritual in the Lords, but they always include the five most important prelates of the Church: the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham, and the Bishop of Winchester. Membership of the House of Lords also extends to the 21 longest-serving other diocesan bishops of the Church of England. The current Lords Spiritual, therefore, represent only the Church of England, although members of other churches and religions are appointed by the Queen as individuals and not ex officio.

Devolution

Former regional assemblies

After power was to be devolved to Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales without a counterweight in England, a series of referendums were planned to establish elected regional assemblies in some of the regions. The first was held in London in 1998 and was passed. The London Assembly and Mayor of London of the Greater London Authority were created in 2000.

A referendum was held in North East England on 4 November 2004 but the proposal for an elected assembly was rejected. Plans to hold further referendums in other regions were then cancelled. The remaining eight Partnership Regional Assemblies were abolished in 2010 as part of a Sub-National Review of Economic Development and Regeneration with most of their functions transferring to the relevant Regional Development Agency and to Local Authority Leaders' Boards.

Greater London Authority

Greater London has a certain amount of devolution, with the London Assembly and the directly elected Mayor of London. The Assembly was established on 3 July 2000, after a referendum in which 72% of those voting supported the creation of the Greater London Authority, which included the Assembly along with the Mayor of London. The referendum and establishment were largely contiguous with Scottish and Welsh devolution.

In Greater London, the 32 London borough councils have a status close to that of unitary authorities, but come under the Greater London Authority, which oversees some of the functions performed elsewhere in England by Counties including transport, policing, the fire brigade and also economic development.

The Mayor of London is also referred to as the "London Mayor", a form which helps to avoid confusion with the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the ancient and now mainly ceremonial role in the City of London. The Mayor of London is mayor of Greater London, which has a population of over 7.5 million while the City of London is only a small part of the modern city centre and has a population of less than 10,000.

There is also a London political party, One London, which was represented in the assembly from 2005 to 2008, and is eurosceptic, with roots in the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) and Veritas.

('Devolved Regions' via) Metro Mayors

Localism saw limited return of regional devolution, with devolved powers for (Metro) city expansion and super-councils.

In 2014 it was announced that a Mayor of Greater Manchester would be created as leader of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority, subject to new primary legislation. In 2017 elections were held for Greater Manchester, the Liverpool City Region, the Tees Valley, West of England and the West Midlands as part of the devolution deals allowed by the Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016. The delayed election for the Sheffield City Region followed in May 2018.

'England only' departments of the British Government
Several departments of the British Government have responsibilities for matters affecting England alone. The heads of these departments are appointed by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and are not devolved:

 The Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government.
 The Department for Education is responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19.
 The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is responsible for environmental protection, food production and standards, agriculture , fisheries and rural communities in England.

Non-ministerial government departments
Non-ministerial government departments of the British Government administer much of England's affairs. Responsibility for them is not devolved.
Forestry Commission
 The Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted) which is a non-ministerial department headed by Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Schools in England.
Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation (Ofqual)
Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat) (England and Wales)
Charity Commission for England and Wales
 Crown Prosecution Service (England and Wales)
 Her Majesty's Land Registry (England and Wales)
 The National Archives (England and Wales)
 Planning Inspectorate (England and Wales)
 Food Standards Agency (England and Wales, Northern Ireland)
 Serious Fraud Office (England and Wales, Northern Ireland)

Other departments deal mainly with matters affecting England though they also have some UK wide responsibilities in certain areas;

 The Department of Health and Social Care, (DHSC) has responsibility for government policy on health, social care and the National Health Service in England (NHS).
 The Department for Transport
 The Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport
Other bodies with responsibilities for England alone include:

 English Heritage
 Historic England
 National Highways
 Homes England
 Regulator of Social Housing
 Tenant Services Authority
 Public Health England
 Genomics England
 Community Health Partnerships
 NHS Property Services
 NHS Professionals
 NHS Shared Business Services
 NHS Supply Chain
 Supply Chain Coordination Limited
 General Social Care Council
 Office for Students

Local government

For the purposes of local government, England is divided into as many as four levels of administrative divisions. At some levels, various legislation has created alternative types of administrative division.

Districts in England may also have the status of borough, city or royal borough.

The metropolitan counties were divided into metropolitan districts which are usually called boroughs. When the county councils were abolished the metropolitan districts gained much of their powers and therefore function similar to other unitary authorities.

Shire counties are divided into non-metropolitan districts. Power is shared with the county council, but shared differently from the metropolitan counties when first created.

The civil parish is the most local unit of government in England. Under the legislation that created Greater London, they are not permitted within its boundary. Not all of the rest of England is parished, though the number of parishes and total area parished is growing.

Political parties

The Green Party of England and Wales has had an amicable split from Scottish counterpart, and the Wales Green Party section is semi-autonomous.

The Conservative Party adopted a policy of English Votes on English Legislation (EVoEL), to prevent non-English constituency MPs voting on exclusively English legislation. Despite 'One Nation' Conservativism, some have flirted with devolution factors like the Barnett-Formula.

The Labour Party have devolved sub-parties for Scotland (clashed over intellectual property) and Wales. Labour tried unsuccessfully to devolve power to the Regions of England, on the basis of England being dis-proportionately large as a single entity within the United Kingdom. Lord Falconer, a Scottish peer claimed a devolved English parliament would dwarf the rest of the United Kingdom.

The Liberal Democrats have nominally separate Scottish, Welsh and English parties.

In spite of seeking independence of the United Kingdom from the European Union, both the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and Reform UK do not support further onward devolution to England, although support scrapping the Barnett formula.

Minor political parties
Most of the parties that only operate within England alone tend to be purely interested in English issues, like English independence or an English Parliament. Examples include the English Democrats, One England, the English People's Party, the English Radical Alliance, the England First Party, and the English Independence Party.

Church of England

The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England. King Charles III is the official head of the church, with the title Supreme Governor of the Church of England, while the Archbishop of Canterbury is the head clergyman. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the King's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil." In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and the Prime Minister.

Of the forty-four diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, only twenty-six are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The remaining twenty-one seats are filled in order of seniority by consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual.

Monmouthshire

The historic county of Monmouthshire, lying in the Welsh Marches (the Anglo-Welsh border), is a bone of contention for some English nationalists. Although the county is now mostly in Wales, to add to the confusion, Welsh Bicknor was an exclave of the county, and is in Herefordshire (England). The Welsh Border has historically been more fluid than the Anglo-Scottish border

Monmouthshire's Welsh status was ambiguous until relatively recently, with it often thought of as part of England. The entirety of Wales was made part of the Kingdom of England by the Statute of Rhuddlan, but did not adopt the same civil governance system, with the area of Monmouthshire being under the control of Marcher Lords.

The Laws in Wales Act 1535 integrated Wales directly into the English legal system and the "Lordships Marchers within the said Country or Dominion of Wales" were allocated to existing and new shires. Some lordships were annexed to existing counties in England and some were annexed to existing counties in Wales, with the remainder being divided up into new counties. Despite Monmouthshire being a new county, it was given two Knights of the Shire in common with existing counties in England, rather than one as in the counties in Wales.

The relevant section of the Act states that "one Knight shall be chosen and elected to the same Parliaments for every of the Shires of Brecknock, Radnor, Montgomery and Denbigh, and for every other Shire within the said Country of Dominion of Wales". As Monmouthshire was dealt with separately it cannot be taken to be a shire "within the said Country of Dominion of Wales". The Laws in Wales Act 1542 specifically enumerates the Welsh counties as twelve in number, excluding Monmouthshire from the count.

The issue was finally clarified in law by the Local Government Act 1972, which provided that "in every act passed on or after 1 April 1974, and in every instrument made on or after that date under any enactment (whether before, on or after that date) "Wales", subject to any alterations of boundaries..." included "the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport". The name passed onto a district of Gwent between 1974 and 1996, and on 1 April 1996, a local government principal area named Monmouthshire, covering the eastern 60% of the historic county, was created.

However, the issue has not gone completely away, and the English Democrats nominated candidates for the 2007 Welsh Assembly elections in three of six constituencies in the area of the historic county with a view to promoting a referendum on 'Letting Monmouthshire Decide' whether it wished to be part of Wales or England. The party received between 2.2% and 2.7% of the vote (a much lower total than Plaid Cymru) and failed to have any members elected.

Berwick-upon-Tweed

The status of Berwick, north of the River Tweed is controversial, especially amongst Scottish nationalists. Berwick remained a county in its own right until 1885, when it was included in Northumberland for Parliamentary purposes. The Interpretation Act 1978 provides that in legislation passed between 1967 and 1974, "a reference to England includes Berwick upon Tweed and Monmouthshire".

In 2008, SNP MSP Christine Grahame made calls in the Scottish Parliament for Berwick to become part of Scotland again, saying

"Even the Berwick-upon-Tweed Borough Council leader, who is a Liberal Democrat, backs the idea and others see the merits of reunification with Scotland."

However, Alan Beith, the Liberal Democrat MP for Berwick, said the move would require a massive legal upheaval and is not realistic. However he is contradicted by another member of his party, the Liberal Democrat MSP Jeremy Purvis, who was born and brought up in Berwick. Purvis has asked for the border to be moved twenty miles south (i.e., south of the Tweed) to include Berwick borough council rather than just the town, and has said:

"There's a strong feeling that Berwick should be in Scotland, Until recently, I had a gran in Berwick and another in Kelso, and they could see that there were better public services in Scotland. Berwick as a borough council is going to be abolished and it would then be run from Morpeth, more than 30 miles away.".

According to a poll conducted by a TV company, 60% of residents favoured Berwick rejoining Scotland.

Cornwall

Most English people and the UK government regard Cornwall as a county of England, but Cornish nationalists believe that the Duchy of Cornwall has a status deserving greater autonomy. Campaigners including Mebyon Kernow, a Cornish nationalist party, and all five Cornish Liberal Democrat MPs oppose participation in the South West Regional Assembly alongside Devon, Dorset, Gloucestershire, Somerset and Wiltshire in favour of a democratically elected Cornish Assembly.

See also

 National Health Service in England
 Outline of England
 List of active autonomist and secessionist movements
 Political parties in England
 Politics of Scotland
 Politics of Wales
 Politics of Northern Ireland
 Politics of Guernsey
 Politics of Jersey
 Politics of the Isle of Man
 Duchy of Lancaster
 Duchy of Cornwall

Sources

Footnotes

References

Politics of England


The Lockheed L-188 Electra is an American turboprop airliner built by Lockheed. First flown in 1957, it was the first large turboprop airliner built in the United States. Initial sales were good, but after two fatal crashes that led to expensive modifications to fix a design defect, no more were ordered. With its unique high power-to-weight ratio, huge propellers and very short wings (resulting in the majority of the wingspan being enveloped in propwash), large Fowler flaps which significantly increased effective wing area when extended, and four-engined design, the airplane had airfield performance capabilities unmatched by many jet transport aircraft even today—particularly on short runways and high field elevations. Jet airliners soon supplanted turboprops for many purposes, and many Electras were modified as freighters. Some Electras are still being used in various roles into the 21st century. The airframe was also used as the basis for the Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft.

Development
By mid-20th century, Lockheed had established a strong position in commercial airliner production with its piston-engined Constellation series. Further development brought turboprop engines to the Constellation airframe with the Lockheed L-1249 Super Constellation.

In 1951, Lockheed was approached by Capital Airlines to develop a new turboprop airliner, which was designated the YC-130, but no other carriers had any interest, so the design was dropped. Subsequently, Capital Airlines went on to order 60 British Vickers Viscounts. In 1954, as a result of American Airlines' interest in developing a twin-engined aircraft, the idea resurfaced and the company offered a twin-engined design now designated the CL-303. This newer design was a high-wing type and would allow for 60 to 70 passengers. This design was also shelved for lack of interest from other carriers.

The following year, American Airlines revised its requirement to a four-engine design for 75 passengers with  range. Lockheed proposed a new design, the CL-310 with a low wing and four Rolls-Royce Darts or Napier Elands. The CL-310 design met the American Airlines requirements, but failed to meet those of another interested carrier, Eastern Air Lines. Its requirements were for a longer range, a minimum cruising speed of , and increased seating capacity to the 85-to-90-passenger level. Lockheed redesigned the CL-310 to use the Allison 501-D13 turboprop engine, a civilian version of the T56 developed for the Lockheed C-130 Hercules military transport. The airframe was stretched to allow for more seats and handle the increased performance. This design was launched as the Model 188 with an order for 35 by American Airlines on June 8, 1955. This was followed by Eastern Air Lines with an order for 40 on September 27, 1955. The first aircraft took 26 months to complete, and by that time Lockheed had orders for 129. The prototype, a Model 188A, first flew on December 6, 1957, two months ahead of schedule. Lockheed was awarded a type certificate by the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) on 22 August 1958. The first delivery – to Eastern Air Lines – was on October 8, 1958, but it did not enter service until January 12, 1959.

In 1957, the United States Navy issued a requirement for an advanced maritime patrol aircraft. Lockheed proposed a development of the Electra that was later placed into production as the P-3 Orion, which had much greater success — the Orion has been in continual front-line service for more than 50 years.

Design
The Model 188 Electra is a low-wing cantilever monoplane powered by four wing-mounted Allison 501-D13 turboprops. It has a retractable tricycle landing gear and a conventional tail. It has a cockpit crew of three and can carry 66 to 80 passengers in a mixed-class arrangement, although 98 could be carried in a high-density layout. The first variant was the Model 188A, followed by the longer-range 188C with room for  more fuel and maximum take-off weight  higher.

Operational history

Civilian operations
American Airlines was the launch customer. Eastern Air Lines, Braniff Airways, and Northwest Airlines followed. The Electra suffered a troubled start. Passengers of early aircraft complained of noise in the cabin forward of the wings, caused by propeller resonance. Lockheed redesigned the engine nacelles, tilting the engines upwards 3°. The changes were incorporated on the production line by mid-1959 or as modification kits for the aircraft already built, and resulted in improved performance and a better ride for passengers.

Three aircraft were lost in fatal accidents between February 1959 and March 1960. After the third crash, the FAA limited the Electra's speed until the cause could be determined. After an extensive investigation, two of the crashes (in September 1959 and March 1960) were found to be caused by an engine-mount problem. The mounting of the gearbox cracked, and the reduced rigidity enabled a phenomenon called "whirl mode flutter" (analogous to the precession of a child's top as it slows down, an interaction of propellers with airflow) that affected the outboard engine nacelles. When the oscillation was transmitted to the wings and the flutter frequency decreased to a point where it was resonant with the outer wing panels (at the same frequency, or harmonically related ones), violent up-and-down oscillation increased until the wings would tear off.

The company implemented an expensive modification program (the Lockheed Electra Achievement Program, LEAP) in which the engine mounts and the wing structures supporting the mounts were strengthened, and some of the wing skins were replaced with thicker material. All Electras were modified at Lockheed's expense at the factory, with the modifications taking 20 days for each aircraft. The changes were incorporated in later aircraft as they were built. However, the damage had been done, and the public lost confidence in the type. This and the smaller jets that were being introduced eventually relegated Electras to the smallest airlines. Production ended in 1961 after 170 had been built. Losses to Lockheed have been estimated as high as $57 million, not counting an additional $55 million in lawsuits. Electras continued to carry passengers into the 1990s, but most now in use are freighters.

Several airlines in the US flew Electras, but the only European airline to order the type from Lockheed was KLM, which used 12 between September 1959 and January 1969 in Europe and east to Saigon and Kuala Lumpur.

In the South Pacific, Tasman Empire Airways Limited (TEAL) and its successor Air New Zealand flew the Electra on trans-Tasman flights. In Australia Trans Australia Airlines (TAA) and Ansett each operated three Electras on trunk routes between the Australian mainland state capital cities, and later to Port Moresby, from 1959 until 1971. Ansett had its three Electras converted to freighters in 1970–71 and continued to fly them until 1984. Qantas also operated four Electras on its routes to Hong Kong and Japan, to New Caledonia, and to New Guinea (until the New Guinea route was handed to Ansett and TAA); then later across the Indian Ocean to South Africa, and across the Tasman in competition with TEAL after that airline became 100% New Zealand-owned. The divestiture of TEAL's 50%-Australian shareholding was itself prompted by the Electra order, as TEAL wanted jet aircraft, but was forced by the Australian government to order Electras in order to standardise with Qantas. Three Qantas Electras were retired in the mid-1960s and the fourth in 1971.

Some Electras were sold to South American airlines, where the Electra had highly successful operations, such as those of Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano and Líneas Aéreas Paraguayas; in both cases, the Electra ensured the airlines' international operations before they started using jets. Most notably, Brazilian flag carrier airline Varig operated flawlessly a fleet of 14 Electras on the extremely busy Rio de Janeiro-São Paulo shuttle service (the so-called Ponte Aérea - or "Air Bridge" in Portuguese) for 30 years, completing over half a million flights on the route before the type was replaced by Boeing 737-300 and Fokker 100 jets in 1992. The Electra became so iconic on that route that its retirement caused a commotion in Brazil, with extensive press coverage and many special tributes.

During the mid-1970s, several secondhand Electras were bought by travel clubs, including Nomads, Adventurers and Shillelaghs. Others were retired from passenger service into air-cargo use, 40 being modified by a subsidiary of Lockheed from 1968 with one or two large doors in the left side of the fuselage and a reinforced cabin floor. Air California and Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) were still operating Electras for scheduled passenger service during the late 1970s primarily into the Lake Tahoe Airport located in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California, as this airfield had banned scheduled jet aircraft flights at the time.

Military use
In 1973, the Argentine Navy bought three Electras equipped with cargo doors. These were used during the "Dirty War" to toss political prisoners into the Rio de La Plata in the infamous death flights. The Electras were also used for transport duties during the Falklands War in 1982.

In 1983, after the retirement of its last SP-2H Neptune, the Argentine Navy bought further civilian Electra airframes, modified several for maritime patrol, and widely used them until their replacement by P-3s in 1994. One of the Argentine Navy's Electras, known locally as L-188E Electron, is preserved at the Argentine Naval Aviation Museum (Museo de la Aviación Naval) at Bahía Blanca.

Variants

Initial production version
L-188AF (All Freight version)
Unofficial designation for freighter conversions of L-188A carried out under a supplementary type certificate.
L-188PF (Passenger-Freight version)
Unofficial designation for freighter conversions of L-188A carried out under a supplementary type certificate.

Long-range version with increased fuel capacity ( fuel capacity from  on L-188A) and a higher operating gross weight (Maximum takeoff weight is  compared to  of the "A" version).
L-188CF
Unofficial designation for freighter conversion of L-188C carried out under a supplementary type certificate.
YP-3A Orion
One Orion aerodynamic test bed, fuselage shortened by .

Operators

Current operators
As of July 2018, only two Electras remain in active airliner service. Other aircraft are in service as air tankers and cargo aircraft as follows:

Canada
Air Spray (aerial firefighting) fourteen registered with nine in active service as air tankers;
Buffalo Airways (cargo/bulk fuel and aerial firefighting) shows eight registered with four in active service (two used for Cargo/Bulk Fuel Transport and two as air tankers)
Conair Group (aerial firefighting) with one registered in active service as an air tanker.

Former civilian operators

Australia
Ansett Airlines
Qantas
Trans Australia Airlines
Austria
Amerer Air
Bolivia
Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano
Brazil
Varig
Canada
International Jetair
Northwest Territorial Airways
Nordair 1972–1987 (Canadian Airlines 1987–1989) - 4 operated for Transport Canada Ice Reconnaissance service 1970s–1989
Colombia
SAM Colombia
Aerocondor Colombia
Aerocosta
Republic of the Congo
Trans Service Airlift
Costa Rica
Aero Servicios Puntarenas SA (APSA)
Lacsa
Ecuador
Ecuatoriana de Aviación
Transportes Aereos Nacionales Ecuatorianos (TAME)
El Salvador
TACA International Airlines
Guyana
Guyana Airways
Honduras
SAHSA
Transportes Aereos Nacionales (TAN Airlines)
Hong Kong
Cathay Pacific Airways

Indonesia
Garuda Indonesia Airlines
Mandala Airlines
Ireland
Hunting Cargo Airlines
Laos
Royal Air Lao
Mexico
Banco de México (corporate aircraft)
Mex-Jet Cargo (all cargo freighter version)
Netherlands
KLM
Martinair
Netherlands Antilles
Air ALM (all cargo freighter version)
Norway
Fred. Olsen Airtransport
Nordic Air
New Zealand
Air New Zealand
TEAL
Panama
Copa Airlines
Paraguay
 Líneas Aéreas Paraguayas
Peru
 Líneas Aéreas Nacionales SA
Philippines
 Air Manila International
Sweden
Falcon Air
West Air Sweden
Taiwan
 Winner Airways (one L-188A leased from Eastern Air Lines for two months in 1970)

United Kingdom
Air Bridge Carriers
Atlantic Airlines
Channel Express
United States
Air California
Air Florida
Air Southwest
American Airlines
American Flyers Airline
Braniff International Airways
Denver Ports of Call
Eastern Air Lines
Evergreen International Airlines
Federal Aviation Administration
Fairbanks Air Service
Great Northern Airlines
Gulf Air Transport
Hawaiian Airlines (all cargo freighter versions)
Holiday Airlines
Intermountain Airlines
Johnson International Airlines
McCulloch International Airlines
NASA
National Airlines
National Center for Atmospheric Research
Northwest Airlines
Overseas National Airways
Pacific Southwest Airlines
Reeve Aleutian Airways (passenger/cargo "Combi" versions)
Renown Aviation
Saturn Airways
Shillelagh Travel Club
Southeast Airlines
Trans International Airlines, later became Transamerica Airlines
TPI International Airways
Western Airlines
Zantop International Airlines
Zaire
Karibu Airways
Trans Service Airlift

Military operators
Argentina
Argentine Naval Aviation
Bolivia
Bolivian Air Force - 1 from 1973, still in use in 1987.
Ecuador
TAME
Honduras
Honduran Air Force - one 188A from 1979
Mexico
Mexican Air Force - one 188A from 1978 to 1987.
Panama
Panamanian Air Force - One 188C from 1973 to 1984.

Orders
Model 188A
 Eastern Air Lines ordered 40 188As which were delivered between November 1958 and August 1959, the last five as 188Cs.
 American Airlines ordered 35 188As which were delivered between November 1958 and March 1960.
 National Airlines ordered 14 188As which were delivered between April 1959 and January 1961.
 Ansett-ANA ordered three 188As which were delivered to Australia in February 1959, April 1959 and February 1960.
 Braniff ordered nine 188As which were delivered between April 1959 and January 1960.
 Western Airlines ordered 12 188As which were delivered between May 1959 and February 1961.
 Cathay Pacific ordered two 188As which were delivered in 1959.
 Trans Australia Airlines ordered three 188As which were delivered to Australia between June 1959 and August 1960.
 General Motors ordered one 188A which was delivered in July 1958.

Model 188C
 Northwest Orient Airlines ordered 18 188Cs which were delivered between July 1959 and June 1961.
 Pacific Southwest Airlines ordered three 188Cs which were delivered in November and December 1959.
 Capital Airlines ordered five 188Cs but later cancelled the order. The five aircraft were sold to other operators.
 Qantas  ordered four 188Cs which were delivered between October and December 1959.
 KLM ordered 12 188Cs which were delivered between September 1959 and December 1960.
 Tasman Empire Airways ordered three 188Cs which were delivered in October and December 1959.
 Garuda ordered three 188Cs which were delivered in January 1961.

Aircraft on display
s/no. 1003 ex NASA N428NA. This was the first P-3 Orion prototype. It was converted from an existing L188 Electra airframe into the YP3V-1/YP-3A Orion. It was later converted into the NP-3A by United States Naval Research Laboratory, then used by NASA for the Earth Resources Observation Program. Preserved at the National Naval Aviation Museum, Forrest Sherman Field, Pensacola, Florida.
s/no. 1025 ex Varig PP-VJM; preserved at the Museu Aeroespacial in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
s/no. 1125 TAM69, in TAM – Transporte Aéreo Militar colors at the Bolivia Aeronautical Museum, El Alto, La Paz, Bolivia.
 ex Argentine Navy 6-P-104, converted to L-188EW WAVE, retired in 1996; on display at the Museo de la Aviación Naval, Bahia Blanca, Argentina.
 ex Argentine Navy 6-P-106, converted to L-188E Electron, retired in 1996; on display at the Museo de la Aviación Naval, Comandante Espora Air Naval Base, Bahia Blanca.

Accidents and incidents
Of the total of 170 Electras built, as of June 2011, 58 have been written off because of crashes and other accidents.

 February 3, 1959: American Airlines Flight 320 en route from Chicago to New York City's LaGuardia Airport crashed on approach, 65 of 73 on board died.
 September 29, 1959: A Braniff Electra (Braniff International Airways Flight 542) crashed in Buffalo, Texas, en route to Dallas, Texas from Houston, Texas. All 29 passengers and five crew members died in the crash. The Civil Aeronautics Board blamed the crash on the "whirl-mode" prop theory and in-flight separation of a wing from the aircraft.
 March 17, 1960: Northwest Orient Flight 710, en route from Chicago to Miami, Florida, broke apart in flight over Perry County, Indiana, in the second "whirl-mode" crash. All 63 people on board died (57 passengers and six crew members).
 September 14, 1960: An Electra operated as American Airlines Flight 361 caught its landing gear on a dike while landing at LaGuardia Airport. The aircraft came to rest upside down. There were no fatalities among the 76 occupants (70 passengers, six crew).
 October 4, 1960: Eastern Air Lines Flight 375 crashed on takeoff from Boston, Massachusetts's Logan International Airport; 62 of 72 on board died. The crash was eventually determined to be the result of bird ingestion into three of the four engines.
 June 12, 1961: KLM Flight 823 crashed short of the runway on approach to Cairo; 20 of the 36 on board died.
 September 17, 1961: Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 706 crashed on takeoff from Chicago-O'Hare International Airport; all 37 on board died. The crash was eventually determined to be the result of mechanical failure in the aileron primary control system due to the improper replacement of the aileron boost assembly.
 March 27, 1965: While on a training flight, a Tasman Empire Airways L-188 crashed while landing at Whenuapai airport in Auckland, New Zealand. Although the aircraft was completely destroyed, all occupants escaped with only one minor injury.
 April 22, 1966: American Flyers Airline Flight 280/D crashed into a hill on approach to Ardmore Municipal Airport in Oklahoma; all five crew and 78 of the 93 passengers on board died.
 February 16, 1967: Garuda Indonesian Airways Flight 708 crashed while attempting to land at Manado-Sam Ratulangi Airport. A total of 22 of 92 passengers and crew on board died. The crash was eventually determined to be the result of an awkward landing technique resulting in an excessive rate of sink on touchdown. Marginal weather at the time of landing was a contributing factor.
 May 3, 1968: Braniff International Airways Flight 352, en route from Houston to Dallas, disintegrated over Dawson, Texas. All 80 passengers and five crew members died. This was the deadliest aviation disaster in Texas at the time. The National Transportation Safety Board found the probable cause to be overstressing of the structure beyond its ultimate strength during attempted recovery from unusual aircraft attitude produced by turbulence of a thunderstorm.
 August 9, 1970: LANSA Flight 502 crashed shortly after takeoff from Quispiquilla Airport near Cusco, Peru; 99 of the 100 people on board, plus two people on the ground, died. The co-pilot was the only survivor.
 December 24, 1971: LANSA Flight 508, en route from Lima to Pucallpa, Peru, entered an area of strong turbulence and lightning and disintegrated in midair due to structural failure following a lightning strike and fire. Of the 92 people on board, 91 died. One passenger, Juliane Koepcke, survived when trees cushioned her fall into the rainforest.
 August 27, 1973: A Lockheed L-188A Electra passenger plane (HK-777) operated by Aerocondor was destroyed when it flew into the side of the Cerro el Cable mountain shortly after takeoff from Bogotá-Eldorado Airport (BOG), Colombia. All 36 passengers and six crew members died.
 October 30, 1974: On approach to Rea Point Airfield on Melville Island, Northwest Territories (now Nunavut), Canada,  crashed into the ice-covered sea some 3 km south of its destination after the pilot-in-command abruptly increased the rate of descent in apparent disorientation. All 30 passengers and two of the four crew members, including the pilot-in-command, died.
 June 4, 1976: Air Manila Flight 702, an L-188A (RP-C1061), crashed just after takeoff from the Guam Naval Air Station; the 45 occupants and one person on the ground died.
 On November 18, 1979,  L-188 (N859U), operating a flight for the US military (Logair 3N18) from Hill Air Force Base, crashed near Salt Lake City airport, Utah.  While climbing between 12,000 and 13,000 ft, all electrical power was lost; the crew requested an immediate descent. The aircraft attained a high airspeed and a high rate of descent and the aircraft disintegrated in flight; all three crew members died. The NTSB investigation stated the probable cause was a progressive failure of the aircraft electrical system leading to the disabling or erratic performance of flight critical flight instruments and lighting. As a result, the crew became disoriented and lost control of the aircraft. The crew's efforts to regain control of the aircraft imposed loads which exceeded the design limits and caused it to break up in flight.
 January 8, 1981, a SAHSA L-188A  in Guatemala City, killing all six crew members on board.
On 8 June 1983, Reeve Aleutian Airways Flight 8's number-four propeller separated from the aircraft and tore a hole in the fuselage over the Pacific Ocean causing a rapid decompression and loss of control. The pilots managed to land the aircraft safely at Anchorage, Alaska and all 15 passengers and crew survived. Since the propeller fell into the sea and was never recovered, the cause of the separation is unknown.
 May 30, 1984, Zantop International Airlines Flight 931, a Lockheed L-188AF Electra (N5523) flying regularly scheduled cargo service from Baltimore/Washington International Airport (BWI) to Detroit-Willow Run Airport (YIP), crashed at Chalkhill, Pennsylvania; all three crew members and the sole passenger died. While cruising at FL220, at approximately 01:44 AM, the aircraft entered an unusual attitude shortly after a course change. During efforts to recover the aircraft the pilots imposed loads on the airframe that exceeded the aircraft's design limits and it broke apart at altitude. NTSB reported that in-flight problems with the aircraft's gyros likely provided conflicting attitude data to the flight crew at the time of the upset and this, combined with a lack of visual cues, were contributing causes of the accident.
 January 21, 1985: Chartered Galaxy Airlines Flight 203 crashed after takeoff from Reno-Cannon International Airport en route to Minneapolis–St Paul Minnesota; 70 of the 71 people on board died.
 September 12, 1988: A Tame Ecuador L-188A Electra, registration HC-AZY, crashed near Lago Agrio Airport shortly after takeoff; six crew and one passenger died.
 September 4, 1989: A Tame Ecuador L-188C Electra, registration HC-AZJ, crash-landed at Taura AFB with no fatalities.
 December 18, 1995: An overloaded 188C of Trans Service Airlift crashed near Cahungula, Angola, with the loss of 141 of the 144 occupants. This is the deadliest aviation disaster involving the Lockheed L-188 Electra.
 February 8, 1999: An Air Karibu L-188 (9Q-CDI)  after takeoff from N'djili Airport killing all seven crew members. The aircraft had been overloaded, and the flight engineer was serving as a co-pilot because no other co-pilots were present. A ground mechanic took the flight engineer's place.
 July 16, 2003: An Air Spray Lockheed L-188 Electra (Tanker #86 C-GFQA) crashed and was destroyed near Cranbrook, British Columbia shortly after delivering the retardant load. Tanker 86 was seen to turn right initially, then entered a turn to the left. At 1221 MST, the Electra struck the terrain on the side of a steep ridge at about 3900 feet above sea level. The aircraft exploded on impact and the two pilots died. An intense post-crash fire consumed much of the wreckage and started a forest fire at the crash site and the surrounding area.

Specifications (Model 188A)

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

 "2010 World Airliner Census". Flight International, August 24–30, 2010, pp. 29–49.
 "2011 World Airliner Census". Flight International
 "Air Commerce: The New York Tragedy". Flight, February 13, 1959, p. 231.
 Allen, Eric. Airliners in Australian Service, Volume 1. Weston Creek ACT: Aerospace Publications, 1995. .
 Brimson, Samuel. Flying the Royal Mail: The History of Australia's Airlines. Sydney, Australia: Dreamweaver Books, 1984. .
 Eastwood, Tony and John Roach. Turbo Prop Airliner Production List. West Drayton, Middlesex, UK: The Aviation Hobby Shop, 1990. .
 .
 Francillon, René J. Lockheed Aircraft since 1913. London: Putnam, 1982. .
 Hagby, Kay. Fra Nielsen & Winther til Boeing 747  (in Norwegian).  Drammen, Norway. Hagby, 1998.  .

 Siegrist, Martin. "Bolivian Air Power — Seventy Years On". Air International, Vol. 33, No. 4, October 1987. pp. 170–176, 194. .

 Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1961–62. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Ltd., 1961.

Further reading

External links

 Information, Pictures and Production List
 Engineering Summary of Propeller Whirl on the Electra
 Kiwanis Electra Memorial website
 NTSB Report on 1968 Braniff N9707C Crash
 "Lockheed Electra" a 1955 Flight article

L-0188 Electra
1950s United States airliners
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Four-engined turboprop aircraft

Aircraft first flown in 1957

Lockheed L-188 Electra


Alcarràs é um longa-metragem hispânico-italiano de drama lançado em 2022 dirigido por Carla Simón e escrito pela mesma junto a Arnau Vilaró. Ambientado e filmado em Alcarràs, Catalunha, no dialeto ocidental espanhol, catalão, apresentando um elenco não profissional de atores, conta uma história familiar sobre o desaparecimento de seu estilo vida baseado na colheita de pêssego. Vencedor do Urso de Ouro no 72º Festival Internacional de Cinema de Berlim, converteu-se no primeiro filme da história nesta língua a receber este prémio. Ademais, foi escolhido Representante Espanhol na corrida pelos Óscar como melhor filme internacional.

Enredo
Ambientado em Alcarràs (localidade do leste da Catalunha), o enredo consiste num drama rural familiar sobre o desaparecimento das atividades agrícolas. Depois de 80 anos e três gerações cultivando as mesmas terras (uma plantação de pessegueiros), a família Solé é forçada a deixá-las no final do verão, pois no local vai ser instalado um campo de painéis fotovoltaicos.

Alcarràs é a história desta espera, a crónica de um último verão ao longo dos dois meses de colheita. Em soma, a testemunha de um ecossistema rachado. A família atua como um só, sem esquecer as individualidades de cada uma das personagens e sua forma de enfrentar a adversidade.

Elenco
 Jordi Pujol Dolcet: Quimet
 Anna Rodríguez Otín: Dolors
 Xènia Roset: Mariona
 Albert Bosch: Roger
 Ainet Jounou: Iris
 Josep Abad: Rogelio
 Montse Oró: Nati
 Carles Cabós: Cisco
 Isaac Rovira: Paz
 Joel Rovira: Pere
 Berta Pipó: Glòria
 Elna Folguera: Teia
 Antònia Castells: Pepita

Produção

Roteiro

A morte do seu avô fez que a cineasta Carla Simón sentisse a necessidade de pôr o holofote no seu legado e de se perguntar o que aconteceu com a terra que ele trabalhou. O roteiro foi escrito a quatro mãos por Simón, baseando-se na lembrança do seu avô e dos seus tios, que seguem a cultivar pêssegos, juntamente com Arnau Vilaró, filho e neto de camponeses, quem Simón conheceu na universidade. O processo de escritura teve até 22 versões.

Filmagem

O filme foi produzido por Avalon e Vilaüt Filmes, juntamente com Kino Produzioni e TV3, com a participação de RTVE e Movistar+ e o apoio do Instituto da Cinematografia e das Artes Audiovisuais, o Instituto Catalão das Empresas Culturais, Creative Europe MEDIA, Eurimages, MIBACT e a Deputação de Lérida. O orçamento aproximado foi de três milhões de euros. A diretora de fotografia foi a boliviana Daniela Cajías, ganhadora de um prêmio Goya.

A produção devia ter começado em março de 2020, mas o estouro da pandemia de COVID-19 obrigou a adiar temporariamente o projeto. A idade dos atores da filmagem, entre os quais há pessoas idosas, também fez aumentar as medidas sanitárias de prevenção.

Finalmente, a equipe de filmagem começou o 1º de junho de 2021 na localidade de Alcarràs no meio da temporada de colheita de fruta; em localizações reais e filmadas sem filtros. Parte do filme também se filmou em vilarejos próximos como Sucs, Monral, el Puntal, la Llitera, Fraga, Massalcoreig e La Granja d'Escarp.

A filmagem finalizou depois de oito semanas e, contudo, contou-se da colaboração de até 24 municípios das comarcas do Segrià, o Pla d'Urgell, a Noguera e a Faixa de Aragão.

Casting

O elenco coral que integra a família Solé está formado por intérpretes amadores da região, selecionados em entrevistas individuais. O casting iniciou-se em 2019, desempenhou-se durante um ano com a participação de mais de 9.000 aspirantes sem experiência prévia no mundo da interpretação. Segundo Simón, esta decisão foi tomada para selecionar pessoas que trabalhassem a terra e que falassem o dialeto catalão norte-ocidental. A diretora de càsting foi Mireia Juárez, quem já selecionara o elenco de obras cinematográficas como Truman, El olivo e Estiu 1993.

Intérpretes

As personagens de ficção, portanto, têm características das pessoas reais que os interpretam. Jordi Pujol Dolcet (Quimet) tinha deixado de cultivas as terras da família catorze anos atrás por conta dos preços que se pagavam pela fruta; Anna Rodríguez Otín (Dolors) trabalhou colhendo fruta nos verões para poder pagar os estudos de magistério;<ref name=":3">{{Citar web|ultimo=Serra|primeiro=Xavi|url=https://www.ara.cat/cultura/cinema/alcarras-actors-quimet-dolors-jordi-pujol-dolcet-anna-otin-mestra-pages_1_4354401.html|titulo=La mestra i el pagès que són el cor de la família dAlcarràs'|data=2022-04-28|acessodata=2022-08-01|website=Diari Ara|língua=ca}}</ref> Josep Abad (Rogelio) é camponês desde os catorze anos, assim como Albert Bosch (Roger). A única atriz profissional da filmagem é a Berta Pipó (irmã da diretora, Carla Simón), quem encarna a Glória, irmã do Quimet.

Antes da filmagem, Simón convocou o elenco numa masia, onde trabalharam três meses se familiarizando com seus papeis de um jeito imformal, ensaiando algumas das cenas por duplas e em grupo; até gravaram cenas prévias à ação do filme, fato que os ajudou a entrar na história e ser mais conscientes dos seus papéis, e surgindo assim os vínculos e a familiaridade entre os atores que se reflete ao longo do filme.

 Pós-produção
 Montagem
A montagem de Alcarràs, ao longo de quase num ano de trabalho, foi a cargo de Ana Pfaff, ganhadora de dois Prémios Gaudí por Verão 1993 (2018) e Els dies que vindran (2020), parcerias também com a diretora Carla Simón.

 Música
Entre a música que escuta-se durante o filme, destaca Cançó de pandero, uma música transmitida oralmente que acompanha os trabalhos agrícolas, que liga o passado à geração mais nova, que é quem a canta. Neste caso, trata-se de uma letra escrita pelos roteiristas do filme, Carla Simón e Arnau Vilaró, e arranjada pelo guitarrista de jazz Ernest Pipó. Também soam La presó del rei de França, interpretada pelos Grallers de Almacelles seguindo a versão instrumental que popularizou a Companyia Elèctrica Dharma; Plan 10 de Dr. Calypso e Ton pare no té nas, interpretada pelo Coro Banahà de Bellvís.

 Estreia

Cinco anos depois que Carla Simón ganhasse o Grande Prémio do Júri pela obra Verão 1993 ao 67º Festival Internacional de Cinema de Berlim, Alcarràs foi exibida na competição oficial do 72º Festival Internacional de Cinema de Berlim, em 15 de Fevereiro de 2022.

O júri do certamen distinguiu-a em 16 de fevereiro ganhou o Urso de Ouro dessa edição –fato que a tornou o primeiro filme em catalão a receber este prémio– pelas «extraordinárias interpretações, tanto dos atores infantis como dos atores de mais de oitenta anos», e pela capacidade de «mostrar a tendresa e a comédia da família e o retrato da dependência da terra», em palavras do diretor de cinema e presidente do júri M. Night Shyamalan. A retransmissão em direto da cerimónia de entrega de prémios do festival foi seguida numa tela gigante no casino de Alcarràs, por mais de duzentos vizinhos e uma dezena dos intérpretes que acabavam de chegar da capital alemã.Depois de ganhar o Urso de Ouro em Berlim, Alcarràs, que deveria ter competido pela Bisnaga de Ouro do 25º Festival de Málaga, foi exibido só na secção oficial fora de concurso.

A prê-estreia do filme aconteceu em 26 de abril na Llotja de Lleida, ante 1.000 espectadores, com a presença da diretora, a equipe artística, o presidente da Generalitat Pere Aragonès e o prefeito Miquel Pueyo, e foi objeto de uma longa ovação final. Distribuída por Avalon ao Estado espanhol, Alcarràs estreou-se comercialmente nas salas de cinema em 29 de Abril de 2022.

Na primeira semana da sua exibição comercial, foram distribuidas 169 cópias. 13 treze localidades do leste catalão sem cinema reabriram suas salas para a estrear. Alcarràs foi a melhor estreia em catalão da última década, desde Bruc (2010), e situou-se na segunda posição da bilheteria espanhola, chegando a convocar 60.000 espectadores e arrecadando mais de 400.000 euros, três quartas partes só na Catalunha, e contando de uma boa distribuição internacional; entre o verão e o outono estreou-se à maioria de países. A distribuição internacional foi a cargo de MK2 Filmes e Mubi comprou os direitos para os países anglo-saxãos, a América Latina e o sudeste asiático.

Em Portugal, Alcarràs foi lançado em 14 de julho; enquanto no Brasil, o fime foi estreiado na Mostra Internacional de Cinema de São Paulo, em 21 de outubro.

Na sexta-feira 19 de Agosto de 2022, depois de somar 365.000 espectadores nas salas de cinema da Espanha e mais de 2,2 milhões de euros arrecadados, Alcarràs fez o salto às plataformas audiovisuais de reprodução em linha: Filmin, Prime Video, iTunes, Movistar Plus+, Vodafone TV, Orange TV, Google Play e Rakuten.

 Controvérsia
Como as salas de cinema têm liberdade para eleger a versão, isso fez que algumas optassem por projetar o filme legendado em castelhano em alguns cinemas catalães, argumentando que ajudava a entender todos os diálogos e que podia ser interessamte para a comunidade não catalanofalante. A cópia digital do filme que foi distribuida com a versão original (VO), com legendas em castelhano ou inglês e dublada ao castelhano. A polémica sobre as legendas acabou favorecendo a bilheteria das salas que programavam a VO. Alguns espectadores reclamaram à sala a devolução do dinheiro do ingresso, por ter exibido a versão legendada em castelhano sem haver sido avisado.

 Crítica
Sergi Sánchez, na sua resenha na revista Fotogramas, destacou a transparência da câmara, o equilíbrio dos pontos de vista narrativos e o trabalho dos atores não profissionais. Tim Robey, do The Telegraph, puntuou o filme com 5 estrelas sobre 5. Na Variety, Guy Lodge, considerou que Alcarràs confirma «a força e a coerência da voz de Simón» depois de Estiu 1993, e ainda adicionou que «equilibra uma consciência política cativante com seu drama doméstico».

Eulàlia Iglesias, no jornal Ara, viu um retrato de raiz neorrealista «que privilegia o compromisso de veracidade do meio retratado e a perspetiva humanista» de uma família camponesa, no que é «a crónica do fim de toda uma forma de entender um vínculo coletivo com a terra». Na publicação digital Núvol, Carlota Rubio relacionou Alcarràs com o conceito «essencialismo estratégico» introduzido pela filósofa indiana Gayatri Spivak, pelo qual grupos diversos unem forças temporariamente por uma causa maior como acontece no filme com respeito à questão de género, a língua ou a descentralização territorial.

 Prémios Alcarràs foi um dos trinta filmes pré-selecionados para os 35º Prémios do Cinema Europeu, entregues em 10 de Dezembro numa gala em Reykjavík; mas não ganhou nenhuma das três categorias às que foi indicado A Academia de Cinema da Espanha escolheu Alcarràs para a corrida pelos Óscar como melhor filme internacional, mas não foi uma das finalistas. Nos prémios Gaudi, Alcarrás venceu em 5 das 15 categorias em que foi indicado; enquanto nos Goya o filme não teve sucesso en nenhuma das 11 indicações que tinha recebido, a surpresa negativa da noite.

 Crítica social
 Mundo rural
Segundo a pesquisadora em literatura comparada Aina Vidal-Pérez, a terra protagoniza os três temas principais do filme: o trabalho, a propriedade e a transmissão. Em Alcarràs, explica-se que o latifundiário Pinyol foi escondido pela família Solé durante a Guerra Civil espanhola e, em compensação, cedeu-lhes uns campos em usufruto. O vô Rogelio refere-se a um passado, não tão longínquo, em que a produção agrícola era o sector económico central, não tinham precisado se adaptar aos monocultivos, nem aos abusos do atual sistema de distribuição alimentar, nem às pragas de coelhos –quando seus depredadores naturais não tinham sido extingidos–. O filme narra uma parte da história do  no interior do país e resgata os territórios periféricos do esquecimento sofrido; uns espaços que interessam pouco ao tecido produtivo dominante do capitalismo global.

Em definitiva, pondo o acento na oralidade como aquilo que nos faz ser mais humanos, Alcarràs é o tributo a um ofício que dá voz ao legado da memória compartilhada, nosso património cultural e, portanto, a nossa identidade.

 Defesa da terra

O leste catalão foi históricamente maltratado pelos projetos de desenvolvimento da Espanha da pós-guerra, mas que perduram no , com projetos especulativos que atentam contra o jeito de viver dos seus habitantes: Em 2022, as empresas Ignis Energia e Solaria podem somar 800 hectares que produziriam 400 megawatts de potência. Uma linha de alta tensão de 17 km será instalada, atravessando os campos ainda que foram apresentada mais de 2.000 alegações contra o projeto. O termo municipal de Alcarràs, de 9.500 pessoas, é a localidade dos Países Catalães com maior número de macro-fazendas de animais em confinamento, somando quase 250.000 porcos, além de frangos, galinhas, bois e ovelhas, sendo o segundo município da Europa com maior número de animais de granja.

Já seja pela pecuária intensiva ou pelos macroprojectos energéticos, as grandes empresas espanholas (com a colaboração do Governo) podem desapropiar terras de «utilidade pública», ainda ganhando subvenções públicas para a implantação das energias renováveis, numa mal entendida transição energética.

O povo do mundo rural sobrevive entre a subida dos custos de produção, os baixos preços das vendas, a burocracia, a falta de relevo generacional e o despovoamento da região; ainda deve afrontar o empobrecimento social, económico e ecológico do país. Os protagonistas do filme, porém, continuam a resistir à industrialização e à promessa de um duvidoso progresso social.

 Cinema em catalão

O sucesso comercial de Alcarràs, equiparável ao de Pão negro (2010) que chegou a ser pré-candidata para os prémios Oscar, fez renascer o debate social sobre a falta de inversão no cinema em catalão e a pouca quantidade de conteúdos audiovisuais nesta língua. A presidenta da Academia do Cinema Catalão, a cineasta Judith Colell, lamentou que só 6 dos 59 títulos candidatos aos Prémios Gaudí de 2022 fossem filmados em língua catalã e que, de média, estes tivessem um orçamento de € 720.000, muito debaixo dos € 2.000.000 dos filmes em outras línguas.

Dado que a inversão em coproduções da TV3 baixou um 50% na última década, os profissionais da indústria cinematográfica reclamam maior inversão na produção de longas-metragens, diante da situação do catalão como língua minorizada, sendo que as ajudas da Generalidade da Catalunha ao cinema tivessem representado só em 0,008% do PIB da Catalunha em 2020.

 Além do filme
Em 16 de junho de 2022, a editorial La Magrana publicou o livro Alcarràs. Una història sobre la terra, la pagesia i la família, do coguionista do filme e continuista da filmagem, Arnau Vilaró. A obra inclui o guião e narra a conceição do filme, como foi pensada, definida e explicada pela sua criadora, a cineasta Carla Simón.

 Ver também
 Lista de inscrições ao Oscar 2023 de melhor filme internacional

 Bibliografia

 Ligações externas
 Entrevistaa Carla Simón no programa Preguntes freqüents'' (TV3, 02/04/2022)

Filmes da Espanha de 2022
Filmes da Itália de 2022
Filmes em língua catalã
Filmes ambientados na Catalunha
Filmes de drama da década de 2020
Filmes de drama premiados
Filmes premiados com o Urso de Ouro

Alcarràs (filme)


Japan deltog ved vinter-PL 2018 i Pyeongchang, Sydkorea i perioden 9.-.18. marts 2018.

Landet deltog med 38 atleter.

Medaljer

Medaljevindere
Listen er ufuldstændig

Referencer

2018
Lande ved vinter-PL 2018

Japan ved vinter-PL 2018


Chris Scoville (17 de febrero de 1984) es un luchador profesional estadounidense, más conocido como Jimmy Jacobs, su nombre de en el ring. Es conocido por su paso en Ring of Honor (ROH), donde fue cuatro veces Campeón Mundial en Parejas. Trabajó para la WWE (donde fue escritor y guionista).

Carrera

Scobille participó por primera vez en la industria de la lucha en junio de 1998 como asistente general de Pro Wrestling Worldwide (PWW), una promoción con base en Grand Rapids, Míchigan, donde su hermano, Nick, estaba trabajando. Scobille pasó nueve meses de realizar varias tareas, incluyendo la provisión de comentario del color y de actuar como el webmaster de la empresa. Después de PWW, Scobille comenzó a trabajar para la Lakeshore Wrestling Organization (LsWO), e hizo de árbitro el 6 de marzo de 1999, en sustitución de un árbitro que estaba de vacaciones. Comenzó a entrenar como luchador bajo la enseñanza del veterano Joe "El Tejano" Ortega, un exalumno de Jose Lothario y el fundador de la LsWO, en Holland, Michigan en marzo de 1999 y luchó su combate de debut el 1 de mayo de 1999, a la edad de quince como "Jimmy Jacobs", perdiendo ante Michael Stryker. Scobille completó su formación en agosto de 1999 y pasó a luchar por varias promociones independientes en el área de Michigan los fines de semana, mientras asistía a la escuela secundaria y trabaja en una compañía de mudanzas de muebles durante la semana. Después de graduarse, asistió a la universidad durante tres años antes de decidirse a centrarse en su carrera de lucha como un trabajo de tiempo completo en mayo de 2005.

Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South (2002–2009)

De 2002 a 2005, Jacobs trabajaban para independiente Wrestling Association Mid-South (IWA Mid-South). En 17 de septiembre de 2004, Jacobs derrotaron delirante en un fósforo de la escalera para ganar el vacante campeonato de IWA Mid-South Heavyweight ligero. El 12 de diciembre, delirante derrotó a Jacobs en una revancha para ganar el título. En 1 de abril de 2005, Jacobs derrotaron Danny Daniels para ganar el Campeonato de peso pesado IWA Mid-South. En una exhibición de AAW en 26 de noviembre de 2005, Jacobs lanzaron el IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship en un bote de basura, alegando que necesitaba que me paguen después de la muestra había sido programado para pelear en para el IWA Mid-South ese fin de semana había sido cancelada. En 21 de enero de 2006, han perdido el Campeonato del mundo de IWA Mid-South a Arik Cannon y la promoción de la izquierda. Han vuelto en una aparición sorpresa el 30 de septiembre de 2006 y desde entonces ha hecho más apariciones de sorprender y tenía algunos partidos, sin embargo en un "unofficial" capacidad.  "En 5 de enero de 2007, Jacobs lucharon su primer partido de regreso cuando se enfrentó a su antiguo amigo Josh Abercrombie. Jacobs acabaría por perder ese partido debido a la interferencia exterior. En 12 de abril de 2008, Jacobs derrotaron a largo - nemesis tiempo B.J. Whitmer en un alambre de púas de la cuerda no coincide con para poner fin a su pelea. En 7 de marzo de 2009, Jacobs derrotaron rápido gris Carter para ganar el Campeonato de peso semipesado de IWA-MS por segunda vez. En 5 de junio de 2009, Jason Hades derrotó a Jacobs por el título.

'''En aspectos tempranos de ROH y Lacey completo Ángeles (2003-2007)Jacobs se unió a anillo del Honor (ROH) en 2003 junto con su rival Alex Shelley con quien pelea contra u ocasionalmente equipo con temprano en ROH. Después Dan Maff dejó la compañía como resultado de un fallout con su entrenador homicidio, Jacobs forman un equipo de la etiqueta con Maff completo expareja, B.J. Whitmer. En 2 de abril de 2005, Jacobs y Whitmer derrotaron a Samoa Joe y Jay Lethal por el vacante campeonato de ROH Tag Team. se perdió el título para el equipo de carnicería en 9 de julio de 2005, pero recuperó el 23 de julio. que llegó a perder el título, esta vez para el equipo de Sal Rinauro y Tony Mamaluke, en 1 de octubre de 2005.
Jacobs y Whitmer siguieron al equipo como parte de los Ángeles de Lacey gestionado por Lacey. El equipo se rompió aparte como Jacobs estaba más preocupado por ganar el afecto de Lacey que ganar los partidos. Jacobs se encendería hacer videos musicales para ROH profesando su amor por Lacey. Después Jacobs y Whitmer se fractura, los dos comenzaron a feuding en brutales combates. En un partido en el desafío del dragón puerta en 30 de marzo de 2006 Whitmer se deslizó en el tensor superior al intentar un super powerbomb que cayó primero Jacobs en cabeza y cuello en las cuerdas y el borde del anillo. Los dos continuaron varios minutos más de lucha. En su rostro el 17 de junio de 2006, Whitmer super lucha Jacobs en la multitud. Jacobs se encendió a Whitmer en Gut Check en 26 de agosto de 2006.

Más tarde se reveló en un storyline que Lacey estaba durmiendo con Colt Cabana. Lacey dispuesto para que los dos a ser un equipo de la etiqueta. Cabana abandonó el equipo porque era molesto en Lacey y trató de explicar a Jacobs que ella utilizaba. Jacobs aceptan aparentemente explicación de Cabana, antes de agredir a lo. Whitmer hizo su manera de volver de una lesión y continuó su problema con Jacobs. Cuando Brent Albright se unió a Angels de Lacey, sus partidos pronto se convirtió en tag team acerca de los partidos, donde enfrentarían Whitmer y Cabana Jacobs y Albright. Progresó más adelante cuando Daizee Haze se unió a Whitmer, y Lacey, a su vez como el líder del grupo, contrató a un "assassin", Mercedes Martínez. En el espectacular de Chicago: Noche 2, Lacey fue herido después de Whitmer, accidentalmente le golpeó en la cara con un pico cuando Jacobs movido fuera del camino.

Jacobs llegaría a hacer su tercer videoclip (en que ha sido descrito como "demented") expresando sus sentimientos en su desfiguración.
En 31 de marzo de 2007, en su ciudad natal de Detroit, Jacobs luchó contra B.J. Whitmer en lo que el Pro Wrestling Torch Boletín llamado un clásico instantáneo. Los dos concluyeron su pelea del año-larga en un fósforo de la jaula de acero. Jacobs ganaron al partido, pero luego, fue anunciado que Jacobs habían perdido un diente y rasgar su ligamento anterior de microfractura (lesión he sufrido anteriormente), y Whitmer había sufrido una lesión en el cuello. Mientras que Jacobs fue herido, ROH decidió continuar la historia de Lacey-Jacobs con 4 pequeñas viñetas que se muestra en YouTube, detallando un viaje que Lacey pasó en Chicago con Jacobs; Después, acompañó a Lacey al ring para sus partidos, en la que aparecían se intercambian personalidades. En agosto de 2007, Jacobs volvieron a ROH ganando a tres partidos recta al derrotar a Rhett Titus el 24 de agosto, Mitch Franklin el 25 de agosto y Chris Hero en 14 de septiembreLa Edad de la caída (2007-2009)Durante meses que llevaron al regreso de ROH a Chicago hubo mensajes crípticos en un blog de un ROH estable entrando con el nombre de código "Proyecto 161". Después de hacer un exitoso regreso a ROH, Jacobs, el regreso de Necro Butcher y el debutante Tyler Black atacaron a The Briscoe Brothers inmediatamente después de su partido con Kevin Steen y El Generico , que confirmó que Jacobs estaba detrás del Proyecto 161. Jay Briscoe estaba colgado al revés el aparejo que se utilizó para levantar los títulos de la escalera de juego y, como la sangre de Jay goteó sobre Jacobs, anunció el comienzo de La Era de la Caída . El ángulo era tan polémico que ROH decidió eliminar las imágenes de la pay-per-viewque estaba siendo grabado en el evento. Sin embargo, la grabación fue solicitada enérgicamente por los fanes de ROH, por lo que se mostró en el ROH Videowire para la semana del 15 de septiembre, y una "edición de sangre" de su debut aparece en el DVD del evento, Man Up . Más tarde en el evento, Tyler Black y Jack Evans se enfrentaron en un partido oscuro hasta que Jacobs y Necro Butcher se involucraron. El irlandés Airborne (David y Jake Crist) entró en el ring para salvar a Jack Evans, lo que llevó a una pelea de equipo de seis hombres entre The Age of the Fall y el equipo de Evans y el Irish Airborne. El partido terminó sin concurso ya que Necro Butcher atacó al árbitro.

Jacobs (derecha) y Tyler Black en el ring juntos en un evento Pro Wrestling Guerrilla .
El día después de su debut, su sitio web reveló que todas las entradas del blog había sido escrito por Tyler Black . En una entrevista con un sitio web alemán, Jacobs reveló que habría más personas involucradas. Esto fue incorporado en la promoción británica 3CW a principios de noviembre cuando Jacobs fue revelado como el más nuevo miembro de una facción similar en la promoción conocida como The Lost, dirigida por Sean David. Jacobs se enfrentó a Sterling James Keenan el 11 de noviembre en un "Street Fight" en Middlesbrough, Inglaterra.

Una mujer llamada Allison Wonderland también se convertiría en seguidora de Jacobs el 30 de noviembre, debutando en Dayton durante un partido de 4-Way Tag Team Scramble. En Unscripted III , Jacobs derrotó al excampeón del mundo ROH Bryan Danielson con su nuevo finalizador, End Time . En Final Battle 2007, Jacobs y Tyler Black derrotaron a los hermanos Briscoe para ganar el Campeonato Mundial de Tag Team ROH. [6] El 25 de enero de 2008, Jacobs se unió con el regreso Joey Matthews , el más reciente miembro de La Era de la Caída, en un esfuerzo perdedor contra Roderick Strong y Rocky Romero del No Remorse Corps. La noche siguiente, Jacobs y Black perdieron el ROH World Tag Team Championship a Davey Richards y Romero, de No Remorse Corps, en un partido de Ultimate Endurance, también involucrando a Brent Albright y BJ Whitmer de The Hangmen 3 ya Austin Aries y Bryan Danielson. El 22 de febrero de 2008, Jacobs introdujo a Zach Gowen como el más nuevo miembro del grupo. Tras el anuncio, los dos fueron derrotados por el Escuadrón de Buitres de Jigsaw y Ruckus .

El grupo en este momento tenía una invitación abierta para Austin Aries para unirse a ellos, escribir blogs y publicar videos de YouTube sobre y dirigido a él. Tammy Lynn Sytch había hecho una contraoferta a Aries de sus servicios (incluyendo la oferta de dinero y sexo) contra él unirse al grupo. El 30 de marzo de 2008, Aries dejó el anillo con Lacey, que iba a "convencerlo", y se supone que los dos tenían relaciones sexuales. En este show Rain acompañó al grupo al ring, como lo ha hecho en Full Impact Pro, porque el espectáculo estaba en Florida. El 19 de abril, Lacey dejó el grupo, el apartarse con Austin Aries románticamente. Aries también rechazó la invitación en el grupo. Jacobs, con el corazón destrozado por Lacey dejándolo, se derrumbó en el ring a los cantos de "Cry, Jimmy, Cry!" de los ventiladores y siendo cubierto con serpentinas. Más adelante en la demostración Jacobs demostró muestras de una avería mental como él golpeó a sí mismo en la cabeza con su pico de la marca registrada, a la preocupación de sus miembros del grupo del compañero. El evento principal fue cambiado cuando Jacobs se retiró. "El escuadrón del buitre" ( Ruckus , Jigsaw y Jack Evans) fueron golpeados por la combinación de Matthews, Black y Gowen (quien sustituyó a Jacobs). Después del partido Jacobs convocó a Aries y los dos pelearon, antes de que Aries fuera atacado Black, Matthews y Gowen. Jacobs fue a atacar Aries con su espiga, pero se detuvo cuando Lacey le rogó que no lo hiciera. El 25 de octubre, Jacobs y Aries tuvieron un partido Anything Goes donde ganó Jacobs, pero perdió un partido de Cuello de Perro a Aries el 8 de noviembre, después de perder una gran cantidad de sangre. [9] En un partido para terminar la pelea, Jacobs perdió a Aries en un partido "I Quit" en Rising Above . Durante el partido Lacey volvió y casi tiró la toalla para Aries, pero Aries le suplicó que no lo hiciera. Lacey entonces evitó que Tyler Black tirara la toalla para Jacobs, obligando a Jacobs a decir "I Quit".

Como resultado de la pérdida para Aries, Jacobs atacó a Black en Final Battle 2008 en diciembre. Jacobs y Black continuaron peleando durante varios meses, y el 27 de junio, Black derrotó a Jacobs en un combate de jaula de acero. Más tarde, más de una docena de hombres vestidos con ropas negras y máscaras negras subieron a la jaula y atacaron a Negro, mientras Jacobs proclamaba que la Era de la Caída no había terminado. La noche siguiente, después de que Kenta derrotara a Black, Jacobs y sus seguidores atacaron de nuevo a Black y trataron de colgarlo al revés, pero fueron detenidos por Kevin Steen, El Generico y Delirious. Colgaron a Jacobs boca abajo sobre el anillo, con Negro declarando que la Era de la Caída estaba terminada.

Durante mediados de julio de 2009, se reveló que Jacobs había dejado ROH. Un paquete de video fue mostrado en Ring of Honor Wrestling , donde Jacobs anunció que se iba, y más tarde confirmó su salida en una entrevista el 14 de julio.
S.C.U.M (2011-2013)
Jacobs regresó a ROH el 21 de mayo de 2011, cuando fue revelado como el patrocinador de Steve Corino . [10] En las grabaciones del 13 de agosto de Ring of Honor Wrestling , Jacobs luchó su primer combate contra ROH en más de dos años, perdiendo ante Mike Bennett . [11] Después de varios meses de tratar de "purgarse" del mal, Jacobs insinuó un giro de talón en el décimo Aniversario en un partido sin descalificación contra Kevin Steen , pero perdió después de congelarse en estado de shock cuando golpeó a Steen con su pico característico. Más tarde ese mismo mes, en Showdown in the Sun , Jacobs se dio vuelta completamente al ayudar a Steen a vencer a El Genericoen un partido de Last Man Standing el 30 de marzo, y venció al propio Generico la noche siguiente en un partido improvisado. El 12 de mayo, Jacobs y Steen se unieron a Steve Corino para formar el establo SCUM (Suffering, Chaos, Ugliness, and Mayhem). [12] [13] El 15 de septiembre en Death Before Dishonor X: State of Emergency , Jacobs y Corino derrotaron a Charlie Haas y Rhett Titus en la final de un torneo para ganar el Campeonato mundial de equipo de ROH vacante. [14] Perdieron el título a los Hermanos Briscoe (Jay y Mark Briscoe) el 16 de diciembre en la Batalla Final 2012: Día del Juicio Final en un combate a tres bandas, que también incluyó al equipo de Caprice Coleman.y Cedric Alexander . El 23 de junio de 2013, SCUM se vio obligado a disolverse, después de ser derrotado por el Equipo ROH en un partido de Steel Cage Warfare.
La Década (2013-2016)
En septiembre de 2013, Jacobs regresó a ROH a petición del BJ Whitmer que se retiraba, que intercedió con el compañero de partido Nigel McGuinness en nombre de Jacobs. Como parte de la historia, Jacobs recibió una serie de cinco partidos, con la condición de que si ganaba al menos tres de los partidos, recibiría un partido para el Campeonato Mundial ROH . Jacobs iría a ganar tres de los cinco partidos, y por lo tanto recibió su partido por el título contra el campeón del Mundo de ROH, Adam Cole , sin embargo no tuvo éxito. El 14 de diciembre de 2013, en la Batalla Final 2013 , Jacobs giró de nuevo, junto a BJ Whitmer y Roderick Strong; el trío atacó a Eddie Edwards, con Jacobs cortando una promoción explicando cómo estaba harto de que los luchadores fueran elogiados por abandonar ROH para saltar a grandes promociones de lucha libre (es decir, TNA o WWE). El grupo recién formado pasó a llamarse " La década ".

Después de que Whitmer reclutara exitosamente a Colby Corino, el hijo de 18 años del rival Whitmer Steve Corino para unirse a la Década, la fricción entre Jacobs y Whitmer comenzó a infligir, sintiendo que tomar al hijo de Corino era demasiado, lo que llevó a Jacobs a dejar la Década. El 28 de marzo de 2015, Jacobs perdió ante Whitmer en la Supercard of Honor IX , y fue atacado por Whitmer y The Decade después del partido. Jacobs fue salvado por Lacey, haciendo su primera aparición en la compañía desde 2008, y los dos aceptaron como la "Balada de Lacey". Jacobs también dio un discurso de despedida.

 En lucha

 Movimientos finales Contra Code (Shiranui)
 End Time (Guillotine choke, sometimes preceded by a snap DDT) – 2007–present
 Senton

 Movimientos de firma Hurricanrana
 Berzerker Drop (Inverted double underhook facebuster)
 Multiple stomps to a grounded opponent
 Release powerbomb
 Berzerker Boot (Running arched big boot)
 Seated chinlock
 Sidewalk slam
 Snap suplex
 Spear
 Spinning headscissors takedown
 Springboard dropkick
 Suicide dive

 Con B.J. Whitmer
 Doomsday Rana
 Powerbomb / Contra Code combination

 Con Tyler Black
 Backbreaker rack by Black followed by a senton by Jacobs
 Doomsday Rana
 Powerbomb / Contra Code combination

 Mánagers
 Becky Bayless
 Ricky Steamboat
 Bobby Heenan
 Scott D'Amore
 Lacey
 Dave Prazak
 Mr. Milo Beasley
 Sean David
 Allison Wonderland
 Rain
 Brodie Lee

Campeonatos y logros

 All American Wrestling
 AAW World Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)
 AAW Heritage Championship (2 veces)
 AAW World Tag Team Championship (1 vez) – con Tyler Black

 Pro Wrestling Prestige
 PWP United States Heavyweight Championship (1 vez, actual)

 Anarchy Championship Wrestling
 ACW-IWA Texas Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)
 ACW-IWA Texas Lone Star Classic (2008)

 Border City Wrestling
 BCW Can-Am Tag Team Championship (1 vez) – con Phil Atlas

 Championship Wrestling of Michigan
 CWM Tag Team Championship (1 vez) – con Jimmy Shalwin

 Great Canadian Wrestling
 GCW Ontario Independent Championship (1 vez)
 GCW Ontario Independent Championship Tournament (2006)

 Great Lakes All-Pro Wrestling
 GLAPW Cruiserweight Championship  (1 vez)

 Great Lakes Wrestling
 GLW Cruiserweight Championship (1 vez)

 Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South
 IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)
 IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Championship (2 veces)

 Independent Wrestling Federation of Michigan
 IWF Michigan Cruiserweight Championship (1 vez)

 Independent Wrestling Revolution
 IWR King of Indies Championship (1 vez)
 IWR Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Amazing N8

 Insanity Pro Wrestling
 IPW World Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)

 Lakeshore Wrestling Organization
 LSWO Tag Team Championship (2 veces) – con Jimmy Shalwin (1) y Gavin Starr (1)

 Midwest Pro Wrestling
 MPW Universal Championship (1 time)

 Mr. Chainsaw Productions Wrestling
 MCPW World Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)

 National Wrestling Alliance
 NWA Indiana Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)
 NWA Iowa Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)

 Powerhouse Championship Wrestling
 PCW Light Heavyweight Championship (1 vez)

 Price of Glory Wrestling
 POG Grand Championship (1 vez)
 Ultimate Ultimate Championship (1 vez)

 Pro Wrestling Federation
 PWF Tag Team Championship (1 vez) – con The Blitzkrieg Kid

 Pro Wrestling Guerrilla
 PWG World Tag Team Championship (1 vez) – con Tyler Black

 Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 PWI ranked him #50 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2009

 Ring of Honor
 ROH World Tag Team Championship (5 veces) – con BJ Whitmer (2), Tyler Black (2) y Steve Corino(1)

 Superior Championship Wrestling
 Bella Strap Championship (1 vez)

 Thunder Zone Wrestling
 TZW Cruiserweight Championship (1 vez)

 westside Xtreme wrestling
 wXw World Heavyweight Championship (2 veces)

 Xtreme Intense Championship Wrestling
 XICW Light Heavyweight Championship (5 veces)
 XICW Tag Team Championship (1 vez) – con Gavin Starr

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Age of the Fall.com
 Slam! Sports story
 Online World of Wrestling profile
 Evolve Wrestling profile
 Doin' It For Her WSX profile

Nacidos en Grand Rapids (Míchigan)
Exluchadores de ROH
Luchadores profesionales de Estados Unidos

Jimmy Jacobs


العمار مدينة سعودية تقع إلى الشمال الشرقي من السعودية.

الموقع
يحد مركز العمار من الشمال قرية المربع، ومن الجنوب قرية عشيران التابعة لمنطقة الرياض، ومن الغرب وادي الرشا، ومن الشرق المستوي ومركز أم حزم. ويقع على مساحة تقدر بحوالي 740 كيلو متر مربع.

التضاريس لمدينة العمار

مركز العمار في الجزء الأوسط تقريباً من هضبة نجد وتتمثل فيها ظاهرات السطح الرئيسية التي تشكل هضبة نجد، وهي ذات تضـاريس هادئـة متوسط ارتفاعه 685مترا فوق سطح البحر ذات سطح مستوي إلى متموج معدل انحداره نحو الشرق ضعيف يبلغ 1000:1.

مراجع

قرى منطقة الرياض

مدينة العمار