Central is a heritage-listed railway station located in the centre of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The station is the largest and busiest railway station in Australia and serves as a major transport interchange for NSW TrainLink inter-city rail services, Sydney Trains commuter rail services, Sydney light rail services, bus services, and private coach transport services. The station is also known as Sydney Terminal (Platforms 1 to 12). The property was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. It recorded 85.4 million passenger movements in 2018 and serves over 250,000 people daily.

Central station occupies a large city block separating ,  and the central business district, bounded by Railway Square and Pitt Street in the west, Eddy Avenue in the north, Elizabeth Street in the east and the Devonshire Street Tunnel in the south. Parts of the station and marshalling yards extend as far south as Cleveland Street, and are located on the site of the former Devonshire Street Cemetery.

History
There have been three terminal stations in Sydney.

First Sydney terminal
The railway arrived in New South Wales in 1831. Proposals began in the 1840s for a railway linking Sydney and Parramatta, with an eastern terminus close to the Sydney city centre.

Although the Sydney Railway Company first applied to the government for four blocks of land between Hay and Cleveland streets in 1849, the Surveyor General favoured Grose Farm, now the grounds of the University of Sydney. It was further from the city and less costly to develop. The company finally exchanged land in the first, second and third blocks, between Hay and Devonshire Streets, for an increased area of  in the fourth block, the Government Paddocks, between Devonshire and Cleveland Streets. Hence, the site of the first Sydney railway terminus was located here from 1855.

The original Sydney station was opened on 26 September 1855 in an area known as Cleveland Fields. It was a temporary timber and corrugated iron building, constructed rapidly in late August to early September 1855, in time for the opening of the line to Parramatta for passenger trains.

This station (one wooden platform in a corrugated iron shed), called "Sydney Terminal", had Devonshire Street as its northern boundary. It was frequently but unofficially called "Redfern Station", while at that time, the present Redfern Station was officially called "Eveleigh". Although called "Redfern Station", the first and second Sydney Terminals were never actually located in Redfern, being to the north of Cleveland Street, which is Redfern's northern boundary.

The first and second station buildings were both in the form of a shed which covered the main line. A photograph of the exterior of the first station taken in 1871 shows vertical boarding, windows with a hood and a corrugated iron roof, with a roof vent. Internally, the stud framing and timber truss roof members were exposed. The offices and public facilities were contained in the adjacent lean-to, which faced George Street.

Only one platform and the main up-line served the passenger station. A similar platform and line layout was used for the Mortuary Station, constructed 15 years later; however, the level of detail and materials varied considerably. The first station building was extended almost immediately, a shed being constructed at the southern end to cover an additional  of platform.

Second Sydney terminal
When the station became inadequate for the traffic it carried, a new station was built in 1874 on the same site and was also called Sydney Terminal.

The Second Sydney Terminal was a more substantial brick station building, initially with two platforms. The second station building was constructed on the site of the first station, the main hall spanning the up and down mainlines. Separate platforms and facilities were provided for arriving and departing passengers. The new station building appears to have taken three years to complete: the drawings are dated 1871, while the official opening was in 1874. The second station, like the first, was constructed to allow for a future extension of the line into the city, the lines initially extending just far enough past the building to accommodate a steam locomotive.

John Whitton, the engineer-in-chief, designed a neo-classical station building to be constructed of brick, with the decorative detail formed using polychromatic and relief work. Almost immediately the demand for platform space during peak times resulted in additional branch lines and platforms being constructed adjacent to the passenger station. These lines were brought in front of the station, obscuring it from view and isolating the verandah. By 1890 Whitton's station building had become engulfed within a sea of sheds and tram platform canopies. The second Redfern station, demolished following the completion of the first stage of the main terminal building , was a gloomy building, the glass in the roof lantern not permitting a great deal of light to enter and the soot from the steam locomotives coating the surfaces with grime.

The second station grew to 14 platforms before it was replaced by the present-day station to the north of Devonshire Street.

Proposals for extension into the city
In major metropolitan areas the rail terminus tended to be located within the inner core of the city. The site of the first and second station termini was inconveniently located for the city. Initially, a horse-bus service operated from the station to the city and both the engineer-in-chief, John Whitton, and the Chief Commissioner for Railways, B. H. Martindale, recognised the urgency of a city rail extension.

In 1877, John Young, a prominent Sydney builder and local politician, proposed a scheme to provide a circular city extension to the railway. The route included stations at Oxford Street, William Street and Woolloomooloo in the east, Circular Quay, then Dawes Point and a line parallel to Darling Harbour in the west. John Whitton designed a grand city terminus at the corner of Hunter and Castlereagh Streets two years later. Neither of these schemes eventuated.

In 1895, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public Works advised that a royal commission should be constituted to "inquire into the question of bringing the railway from its present terminus at Redfern into the city". The findings of the commission, favouring a site in St James Road, were released in 1897. The term Central Station was now in common use. The public works annual report of 1896–1897 noted that "the Railway Construction Branch was called upon to furnish voluminous plans and estimates of the cost of the various proposals brought before the commission. After a most exhaustive investigation, the Royal Commission reported, almost unanimously, in favour of the extension of the railway into the city by the route and according to the plan as described as the St James Road Scheme".In 1897, Norman Selfe drew up a scheme for the gradual enlargement and extension of the railway to the northern end of the city and in the same year Railway Commissioner, E. M. G. Eddy, proposed a terminal city station at the corner of Elizabeth Street and St James' Road. The route of the latter was virtually the same as that for 1879, however, the new site for the terminus included half of the northern end of Hyde Park. Although  of the burial ground in Devonshire Street was offered as compensation, public sentiment still opposed the loss of Hyde Park.

The initial designs for a near Sydney Terminal were prepared by Henry Deane, the Engineer-in-Chief of Railway Construction in consultation with the Railway Commissioners. Deane is reputed to have prepared 10 schemes for the royal commission. Although the St James location was preferred, a scheme that did not involve the disturbance of or use of land in Hyde Park was sought. The extension of Belmore Park was initially proposed in the 1897 scheme as compensation for the use of the northwestern corner of Hyde Park as a railway station. Following a change of government the St James scheme was abandoned and Deane prepared, , a further two schemes, one of which was for the Old Burial Ground Site.The royal commission in 1897 again considered the city railway extension because of dangerous congestion at Redfern and recommended using Hyde Park. Then, after an investigative trip overseas, Henry Deane prepared alternative proposals for a new railway terminal for the government in 1900. The second scheme proposal called for the resumption of the Devonshire Street cemeteries, but this was cheaper and less contentious than the acquisition of Hyde Park. It was the second scheme which was eventually adopted.

The earlier schemes to extend the lines further into the city would have been prohibitively expensive and would have required large scale resumptions. The site of the Old Burial ground was, in comparison, relatively easily obtainable as no private land was involved. Due to the extent of the resumption there would, in addition to a terminus, be room for the extension of the goods yard and the erection of a carriage shed and post office. The existing lines were at a higher level than the Burial Ground, so rather than lowering the existing railway track, the tramlines were to be raised to serve a high level station. The Public Works Committee passed the design on 7 June 1900, however, a much modified building was actually constructed.

The total estimated cost of the works was to be  with the general works estimated at , the Station Building estimated at  and the Resumptions estimated at . Almost immediately these estimates proved conservative, there was much public concern regarding the removal of bodies from the Old Burial ground and a new cemetery, the Botany Cemetery, had to be constructed, at public expense, at La Perouse.

Third Sydney terminal (Central station)

Devonshire Street Cemetery work and construction of third Sydney terminal

When the third station was built in 1906, it moved one block north, closer to the city. It fronted Garden Road, which was realigned to form Eddy Avenue. If Belmore Park is included, all the land now occupied by the railway at Central and Redfern coincides with the company's original selection of four blocks between Hay and Cleveland Streets. The present station was officially opened on 4 August 1906 and opening for passengers on 5 August 1906.

During Governor Macquarie's term, the future site of the Sydney Terminal was beyond the limits of settlement, which were marked by the tollhouse located at the end of George Street and at the entrance to Railway Square.

Central station was designed by the government architect, Walter Liberty Vernon. The new station was built on a site previously occupied by the Devonshire Street Cemetery, South Sydney Morgue, the Convent of the Good Samaritan, the Sydney Female Refuge, police barracks and superintendent's residence (on Pitt Street), Christ Church Parsonage, the Benevolent Asylum (fronting Railway Square), a steam train depot (at the corner of Pitt Street with Garden Road), as well as some residential properties on Railway Place. The convent, female refuge and police barracks were all original part of "Carters Barracks", built in 1819 to house convict gangs working as carters on the brick fields. The adjacent field which is today Belmore Park was known as the "police paddock", after the police barracks.

The remains exhumed from the cemetery were re-interred at several other Sydney cemeteries including Rookwood and Waverley cemeteries. Bodies were moved to Botany by steam tram motors and flat cars.

Terminus redesign
E. O'Sullivan, the Minister for Works, in 1901, established the [Central] Station Advisory Board, comprising railway experts to "investigate the question of the design and arrangements of the station". The members included Walter Liberty Vernon, both of the chief engineers of the New South Wales railway (for railway construction and existing lines respectively), and the chief engineers of the Queensland and Victorian railways. The committee also considered a suitable design for the new Flinders Street station in Melbourne. The design for the Sydney Terminus was to be a collaboration between the architect and the railway engineers. The layout was largely determined by the planning requirements of the railway engineers, to which an appropriate architectural style was overlaid. However, the initial scheme did not contain the required accommodation and an enlargement of the building was approved by the minister. The cost estimate was now . The board were to fulfil the wishes of the minister that "the building should be a monumental work of stateliness and beauty".

An early proposal for the new terminus, and the changes to the surrounding area, were reported in the Sydney Mail in 1901:

This design, with pavilions and a mansard roof, was strongly influenced by French Renaissance chateaux. The scale of the building, arrangement of the approaches and viaducts, the ground level colonnade and the position of the clocktower are all similar to the subsequent scheme, which was actually constructed.

By June 1901, work had begun on forming the site of the new station at Devonshire Street, the PWD Annual Report for 1900/01 noting that "a great deal of preliminary work has had to be done in the preparation of the site for the new station and the extension of the railway, owing to the necessity of removing the bodies from the old cemetery and providing a new cemetery to receive the remains, as well as the demolition of the buildings and disposal of the material. The work of clearing and levelling is now well in hand." "Private removals were commenced on the 29th of February 1901 and at the end of the year 1,145 bodies had been removed." Families could remove the remains to a cemetery of their choosing, however, the majority of bodies removed were relocated, at government expense, to the new cemetery at La Perouse. The Belmore Park to Fort Macquarie Electric Tramway was also constructed in 1900–1901.
The earlier brick and sandstone design, with a mansard roof, was abandoned in favour of an all sandstone terminus building which largely incorporated the same passenger, tram and vehicle separation as the earlier scheme. During 1899 a Parliamentary Standing Committee had debated whether the major public buildings should be constructed of brick with a sandstone trim or all sandstone. This committee determined that, for major public buildings, sandstone should be used.

Two designs, by members of the Government Architects Branch, were submitted for the façades in October 1901 to the Minister for Public Works and to the Railway Commissioners with the accompanying comment by the "Board of Experts" advising on the design of Central Station "we are of the opinion that either one or the other of the architectural designs which accompany this report may with confidence be adopted". Of the two façade options, that of Gorrie McLeish Blair was reputedly selected. The 1901/02 Annual Report describes the progress a year later, "work has progressed vigorously during the year. All the old buildings and human remains have been removed from the site and the foundation stone was laid at the corner of Pitt-street and the New Belmore road on the 30th April. The information of New-Street, 2 chains in width, the extension of Castlereagh-street and the widening of Hay and Elizabeth Streets is well forward. The levelling of the whole site is practically finished, and great improvements have been made to Belmore and Prince Alfred Parks by filling in with the spoil excavated for the foundations".

A more detailed account is given of the excavation: "the excavation to the docks and main building containing some 80,000 cubic yards, has been taken out and the material removed to Belmore Park, where it forms the tramway embankments and raises the general level of the park. About 30,000 cubic yards of material from the Castlereagh-street cutting have been utilised in improving the level of Prince Alfred Park."

In early 1902, the design of the terminus building was changed yet again, at the request of the "Board of Experts" advising on the design of Central that "the station building has been increased in height by one storey, and considerably in length of front, and an east wing added. A tower also of fine proportions has been included. The completed building consequently shows a much larger building than originally proposed, but it is thought in the future it will come into use. In the meantime, certain parts can be left out and added afterwards, but in spite of all such reduction the estimated cost of the new building and the main rood will amount to about  as compared with ".

As it was being built, it was reported that "Everything in connection with the new station appears to have been designed on a grand scale, from the great elevated approaches down to the system of handling luggage underground." It is listed on the NSW State Heritage Register and the now defunct Register of the National Estate.

Henry Deane, in a lecture given to the Sydney University Engineering Society in 1902, describes the layout of the Central Railway Station that was currently under construction: In his lecture, he also discusses many of the technical aspects of the design including luggage handling, the lifts, the water towers, the train shed roof, which was subsequently deleted as a cost-cutting measure, the platforms and signalling. A novel method of luggage handling was designed for Central to "get rid of the objectionable luggage-trolley, which is always frightening nervous people". An overhead luggage carrying system had been developed in England, however, in the case of Central station, "the levels permit of its being carried on underground by means of subways and lifts at suitable points". The mail was also to be transferred by subway.

The train shed roof was to be designed to have a central span of  with two sides spans of . Three pin trusses were to be employed, which were to be brought to the ground to provide intermediate support. The roof was to be continuous. This truss and roof configuration was to be based on that of the Union Station, St Louis, visited by Deane in 1894. Such a roof would have rivalled those of the major metropolitan termini in Europe and America. The platform area was to be double that of the earlier station and correspondingly double the number of passengers could be accommodated. The maximum number of passengers that the Devonshire Street station could accommodate was 20,000; the new station would be able to accommodate 40,000. The location of the cab rank was also discussed, it having been decided not to incorporate a cab rank inside the building so that the new station could be "kept entirely free from the smell, which the standing of horses under the roof must certainly involve".

The last train departed platform 5 of the 1874 station at midnight of 4 August 1906. During the remainder of that night, the passenger concourse was demolished and the line extended through the old station into the new station. The Western Mail arrived at 05:50 on 5 August 1906 at the new station. Devonshire Street, which separated the two stations, became a pedestrian underpass to allow people to cross the railway line and is now known by many as the Devonshire Street Tunnel.

An  clock tower in the Free Classical style was added at the north-western corner of the station, opening on 12 March 1921. The clock was designed by Richard Lamb and Alfred Fairfax, the co-founders of Fairfax & Roberts.

Tram approaches and Belmore Park

On a continuous axis with the first station building, Belmore Park originally fronted the first Hay and Corn Markets in Hay Street. When the third station was located one block further north, it linked up with the southern side of Belmore Park. The park then fortuitously provided a green foil to the commanding city front of the station.

In 1902, the Railway and Tramway Construction Branch, headed by Henry Deane, reported that "plans and detail drawings have been prepared in the office for the whole of the retaining wall and shops in Pitt-Street, both north and south of the new road in front of the Station, also for the Devonshire-Street subway and for the whole of the basement floors, including drainage, telephone tunnels, &c." At this stage, the estimated cost of the works was 561,600 pounds, however, it was "probable that his estimate will be exceeded".

The necessary tramway deviations,  of track, were laid in 1901–02 using day labour. The track consisted of rails laid on sleepers. The curve and the poles were manufactured by local engineering firms including Clyde Engineering Co. The Permanent Way (i.e. track) was imported either from England or America. The construction of the first stage of the station began in June 1902 and was completed in August 1906. By 30 June 1903 the following works had been completed:

The 1908 Royal Commission for the Improvement of the City of Sydney and its Suburbs offered two schemes which, in providing vehicular access, attempted to resolve the discrepancy in scale between Belmore Park and the station building. The scheme presented by John Sulman consisted of two circular roadways, one above the other, around Belmore Park. The Commissioners, however, favoured a less grandiose Scheme prepared by Norman Selfe.

Although neither scheme was attempted, Selfe's proposal is recalled in the Elizabeth Street ramp which was built in 1925 to allow the extension of an electric connection to the city. The park, needless to say, was never raised to the height of the assembly platform.

Eastern façade

The Elizabeth Street façade of the Sydney Terminus has received less attention. Facing the working class terraces in Surry Hills, the eastern wing was finished in brick rather than stone when shortage of funds hurried completion of the first stage of the station in 1906. It was the obvious location for expansion when new platforms were added to the original complex to provide the electrical city and suburban connection in 1926. The grand station building is eclipsed from view at street level by the Elizabeth Street ramp, and the later semi-circular classical entrance portico to the city connection is in refined contrast to the rusticated blocks and heavy treatment of the main building.

Battle of Central station (1916)
The Liverpool riot of 1916, sometimes called the "battle of Central station", took place after soldiers rebelling against camp conditions had raided hotels in Liverpool and travelled to the city by commandeered trains. Upon arrival at Central station, the rioters set about destroying the station facilities, and fire was exchanged between rampaging rioters and military police. One rioter was shot dead and several were injured. The only remaining evidence of the gun battle is a small bullet-hole in the marble by the entrance to platform 1. This incident had a direct influence on the introduction of 6 o'clock closing of hotels in 1916, which lasted in New South Wales until 1955.

Electrification
The original proposal for electrification was for the North Shore line, from Hornsby to , a separate line which could be electrified without impact on the remainder of the rail system. However, due to the necessity of building the City Underground Railway and the proposal for a Sydney Harbour Bridge, not to mention the expansion of the Illawarra and Bankstown lines, the program was altered in order that the electrification could be linked with these proposed expansions. From Well Street, Redfern eight tracks would continue as the City Railway whilst four would carry the country trains to the Sydney Terminal. An above ground station would include a link to allow the transfer of passengers and baggage to the Sydney Terminal. This new station was constructed on the east side.

South of the station buildings, additional works built to accommodate the electrification and expansion of the city and suburban lines included extensions to the Cleveland Street Bridge and flyovers. The Devonshire Street subway and Devonshire Street wall were extended through the new suburban section. The new viaduct along Elizabeth Street included new bridges over Eddy Avenue, Campbell Street and Hay Street and a new retaining wall along Elizabeth Street.

Modernisation

Modernisation programs were undertaken in 1955 and again in 1964. In the 1955 work, a booking hall was created (in the former refreshment room, now the railway bar). Murals depicting railway scenes lined the walls and a terrazzo map of Australia was installed on the floor. In October 1980 a modernisation program at the Sydney Terminal commenced. The objective of the work was to improve the facilities for both passenger convenience and comfort. The start of this modernisation program coincided with the 125th Anniversary of the NSW Railways and it was at a time when many major service advances were being made to the State Rail System.

Darling Harbour line
In addition to the construction of the main trunk line between Sydney and Parramatta in 1855, a branch line between Darling Harbour and the Sydney Yard, with a cutting and underpass to carry the line under George Street, was also constructed. This line was to allow for the transfer of goods to be exported by ship, primarily wool bales. In the first decades of settlement goods were loaded and unloaded in Sydney Cove, however, as the city expanded the wharves extended round into Cockle Bay (Darling Harbour). The presence of the rail link would have influenced the development of this harbour. The Darling Harbour Line was one of the first cuttings and overbridges to be constructed as part of the NSW Rail network. In contrast to later structures sandstone was used to line the walls of the underpass and to form the overbridge. The Darling Harbour Line partially followed the line of an existing water course, the Blackwattle Creek. Subsequent alterations to the layout of Railway Square have resulted in extensions to the overbridge.

The line fell into disuse with the demise of Darling Harbour as a working harbour in the second half of the 20th century. Part of the railway, from Haymarket at Hay Street, near the Powerhouse Museum connecting to the Metropolitan Goods railway line to Lilyfield and Dulwich Hill, became part of the new light rail Dulwich Hill Line. Trams entering the city via the Dulwich Hill Line deviated from the Darling Harbour Line at Hay Street to run via surface streets to the Central station colonnade.

For a time, the remainder of the former Darling Harbour Line, from Sydney Yard to Hay Street, remained disused and functional, and was used to transfer trains to the Powerhouse Museum. Most of this section, from the Devonshire Street Tunnel to Hay Street, were converted to a pedestrianised linear park called "The Goods Line" in stages in 2012 and 2015.

The final part of the Darling Harbour Line, a tunnel under Railway Square, is intact but disused. There are proposals to also pedestrianise it.

Sydney Yard
The first Sydney railway workshop, constructed , was a substantial two storey sandstone building with arched openings to both floors and a slate roof. A boiler, for the production of steam, was located at the southern end of the building. By 1865, a timber extension had been constructed over a section of track to allow the locomotives to be worked on under cover. A blacksmiths forge was located in an adjacent single storey building. In contrast with the first Redfern Station building (Sydney Terminal) the main workshop building was an elaborately detailed sandstone building, with a rock-faced ashlar base, quoins and sills. The use of substantial and well-detailed sandstone buildings on the site was to continue with the construction of the twin-gabled goods shed, the Mortuary Station and finally the present station building and its approaches.

Originally the Sydney Yard occupied the area between the passenger station and the two storey workshop building. Initially, timber and corrugated iron sheds were built, however, these were soon replaced with more substantial masonry building. Gable-ended locomotive and carriage workshops were built here. Although no architectural drawings of these buildings have been located it is assumed that metal roof trusses and cast iron internal columns were used, similar to the structural system favoured in England, and later employed at Eveleigh. Of these sheds, the most elaborate was the Second Goods Shed, built in the late 1860s. The building was as, if not more, elaborate than many English examples. It was unusual, even in the 19th century, for this level of decorative detail to be employed on such a utilitarian structure as a goods shed, the standard of building obviously representing the level of importance of the yard.

Extensive facilities were required to keep the locomotives in good working order. The Sydney/Redfern yards were extended towards Elizabeth Street and the Exhibition Ground (Prince Alfred Park). Until the construction of the railway workshops at Eveleigh in the mid-1880s the majority of the maintenance work was undertaken at the Sydney/Redfern Yard. In 1884 the yards included a gasworks (), gas holder, a carriage works and the locomotive shop (by 1865). A turntable connected the now considerably extended main workshop building, one of the two blacksmiths shops and the repairing shed. All of these structures have been demolished. Further towards the park, in the area now known as the Prince Alfred Sidings were located the carpenters shop, the second blacksmiths shop and an office. These buildings are the only remnants of the Sydney Yard. Little physical evidence remains of the layout or the functioning of this once extensive railway yard as many of the structures were removed to allow for the construction of platforms 16-23 and subsequently the city electric station.

Mortuary station

The Mortuary station, or the Receiving House as it was known, was originally constructed for funeral parties, the mourners accompanying the coffin on the journey to the necropolis at Rookwood Cemetery. Most documentary sources date the building as being constructed in 1869, however, the outline of the station first appears on the 1865 MWS&DB (Metropolitan Water Sewerage & Drainage Board) plan. The rail lines had not yet been constructed. The inner Sydney cemetery or New Burial Ground, also known as the Sandhills or Devonshire Street station, was located in the Brickfields, a site now occupied by the main terminal building. By the 1840s this cemetery was overcrowded and a new location, in close proximity to a railway line, was required. In the early 1860s a site at Haslem's Creek was selected for the new cemetery. To distinguish the cemetery from the surrounding residential area of Haslem's Creek the cemetery became known as the Rookwood Necropolis. A station was constructed within the Rookwood Necropolis.

The Colonial Architect, James Barnet, designed both receiving houses (mortuary stations) in the mid 1860s. The station within the Necropolis has subsequently been relocated and modified to form the nave of All Saints Church of England, , ACT. Although both stations are Gothic Revival in style, the plan and detailing of each varies considerably. Barnet's two station buildings were designed to celebrate the passage of the coffin to and from the train. In the Victorian Era, mourning the dead was a prolonged ritual with elaborate rules concerning behaviour and dress. The train trip to Rookwood became part of this ritual.

The regular funerary train service to the Rookwood Necropolis commenced in 1867, two years before Mortuary Central and the Rookwood Station had been completed. By 1908 there were four stations within the necropolis, named Mortuary Stations 1-4, with the Sydney receiving house being known as Mortuary Central. Mortuary Central was built by Stoddart & Medway from Pyrmont sandstone and completed in March 1869. The carvings were executed by Thomas Duckett and Henry Apperly. From the variation claim submitted by the builders it would appear that a slightly larger building, with more decoration was built than originally intended. The form of the Mortuary Station, with the large porte-cochère, clearly indicates that it is not a church. A colonnade of trefoil arches and foliated capitals forms a screen to the platform. The same arch form being employed for both ends of the platform and for the octagonal porte-cochère to the west. The station building is above street level, with a flight of stairs leading to the platform level. Ramps to the north and south were used for carriages. Internally were the ticket office, two vestibules and retiring rooms.

Photographs taken in the early 1870s clearly show the decorative detail of the building. Two colours of stone were employed, a darker shade of the arches and the surrounds to the medallions, the lighter shade being reserved for the ashlar work. The two shades of stone were employed internally in the same manner. The arcade covering the platform is very elaborate, with its curved queen post truss roof, with ripple iron above following the curve, blind arcading to the west that mirrors the eastern arcade, and geometric tiled floor. Even the platform benches follow the Gothic Revival theme of the design, resembling pews. This platform would have contrasted with the more utilitarian Redfern station building, designed by John Whitton and constructed in the early 1870s.

The stonework of the Mortuary Station was very delicately worked, with a number of different foliage motifs forming the capitals, the trefoil spandrel panel within the main arches and the medallions. A star and zig-zag motif was used on the soffit of the arch, ball flowers on the cornice brackets and a zig-zag on the cornice. The original roof covering was slate, with a pattern of half round and diamond slates being employed at the ridge and above the eaves. The octagonal porte-cochère terminates in a bell-cote, whose detail is a miniature of the main trefoil arch and medallion motif. The bellcote was roofed with lead. Decorative metalwork is also employed, as finals, as a cresting and as balustrades. A leaf motif was used for the balustrade to the porte-cochère and repeated in the panels of the elaborate timber gates that lead to the platform. A palisade fence that stepped down to follow the slope and matching gates separated the station from the street and a picket fence lined the ramps. The spire of Mortuary Station (the Bellcote) was a distinctive townscape element that could be seen from the Exhibition Grounds (Prince Alfred Park) and from Sydney University.

The arcade detail of Mortuary Central, with its pointed trefoil arches, medallions and foliated capitals, is reminiscent of the hotel at St Pancras Station by Sir George Gilbert Scott, designed in 1865 and constructed in 1868–73. There are few other station buildings, either in Australia or the United Kingdom, with this level of decorative detail. The construction of special mortuary stations is rare, with no other examples having been located. The Mortuary station became part of the rail complex at Central after the new station was constructed in 1906, although it remained physically separate from the new station buildings.

By the late 1970s, the station had deteriorated, slates were missing from the roof and the stonework was covered in graffiti. A restoration program was undertaken in 1983.

Railway Institute

The Railway Institute on Chalmers Street was constructed as a venue for the railway employees, providing a setting for both educational activities and social functions. It is reputed to be the first railway institute in Australia and provided a range of services for railway employees such as evening classes and a library. A competition was held for the design, which was won by the architect Henry Robinson. It is a Queen Anne Revival style building, based on English prototypes such as the London Board Schools. The design was the first use of Marseille roof tiles for public buildings in Australia. Many public buildings were designed by competition c. 1890, during the period of transition between the Colonial and Government Architects Offices. The practice was abandoned in the mid-1890s due to the partiality of the judges.

When the Railway Institute was constructed in 1891, the building was located on the corner of Devonshire Street and Elizabeth Street, at the northeastern corner of the Sydney rail yard. The surrounding streets and the carriage way have subsequently been modified. A carriage-way lead to the porte-cochère, enabling people attending social functions to enter the building without getting wet. In addition to the library there were two halls, a large hall, with a stage, and a smaller hall on the ground floor. The detail of this space is largely intact and there are few examples of small scale halls of this period remaining in Sydney. A single storey addition to the building, designed by the Government Architect, Walter Liberty Vernon, was added in 1898 to the southeast of the main building.

Classes, such as engineering drafting, and examinations for railway employees, were held in the Institute. The building was also utilised during emergencies such as the 1919 influenza epidemic when women volunteers manufactured face masks (for railway employees). There are few examples of Institutes of this period that provided such a high level of facilities for the benefit of the employees. The names on the honour board reads as a "who's who" of railway personalities.

Station layout
Central Railway Station has buildings concentrated on its northern boundaries that are fed by large rail yards behind. Together they form part of the fabric of the city of Sydney and form boundaries to its inner suburbs. The location of this station is on land that has been in continuous government use since the commencement of European settlement. Various forms of public transport have radiated from this site since 1855.

Sydney Terminal building

The most prominent part of Sydney Central Station, visible from many parts of the City and surrounding area, is the 1906 sandstone main terminal building, referred to as the "Sydney Terminal Building" by railway staff. It is sited to dominate its surroundings and to mark the importance of the railways and its service to the state and the city.

The main concourse and platforms are elevated above the surrounding roads. This elevated siting also permits the use of the topography to gain road access to more than one level enabling the development of an extensive subterranean luggage network and separation of differing modes of transport. The commanding position of the Terminus with large areas of open space sloping away from the building continues the public domain of Railway Square whilst maintaining a clear vista of the Terminus from the surrounding area. The Terminus, and in part the Parcels Post Office, create a formal edge to Railway Square.

On the main Eddy Avenue façade, the Terminus comprises a colonnade and porte-cochère, which originally provided an undercover area for passengers transferring to and from trams. After the removal of the original Sydney tram network, the upper level colonnade was used by motor vehicles, but it is now again used by trams on the Dulwich Hill Line.

The main concourse, called the "Main Assembly platform", is located on the upper level and is the centre of the Terminus, around which all of the ancillary functions, such as refreshment rooms, waiting rooms and the booking hall, were arranged. As originally built, the main terminal building also had terraces or "decks" on the east and west sides, which were accessible by vehicles. The main concourse "platform" was accessed from both the East and West deck. The main concourse is dominated by a large vaulted roof over the concourse and elaborate masonry, primarily Sydney sandstone.

The station opened on 5 August 1906 with 11 platforms, but was soon expanded to 15, and by 1913 had 19. As part of the construction of the electrified city railway in the 1920s, the existing station was cut back to 15 platforms with new platforms built to the east of the existing station. As part of the project, platforms 10 to 15 were electrified, with platforms 1 to 9 following in 1956.The current 15 Sydney Terminal platforms run perpendicular to the main station concourse and all are dead ended with the buffer stop. They are arranged as seven double platforms and one single platform, each with an awning, servicing a total of 15 tracks. Platforms 1–3 are for country and interstate services, while the remainder are for interurban services.

Platforms 1–10 have a centre run-round track, which was for locomotive-hauled trains. It enabled the locomotive to uncouple from its train and either depart or re-couple on the other end to pull the train to the next destination. There was extreme pressure on the speed to ready a train for the next destination due to the lack of platform space and a steady growth of rail patronage. These centre lines are now used for storage of electric rail car sets in off peak times. The platforms feature long timber-framed canopies over some of the platforms (incorporating Howe trusses). Timber was used in lieu of steel because of the high cost at the time of importing steel.

The only locomotive hauled trains now using Sydney Terminal are the Indian Pacific and special trains which usually use Platform 1. Platform 1 has always been the main out of Sydney Station with the longest platform. Platforms 1 and 2–3 were lengthened to their present length in 1962 covering the skylights to the Devonshire Street Subway for diesel hauled trains like the Southern Aurora. All long-distance NSW TrainLink XPT and Xplorer services and the Great Southern Rail Indian Pacific terminate at Central. These generally use Platforms 1 to 3, although when the Indian Pacific is in the station occupying both Platforms 2 and 3, some NSW TrainLink regional services use Platforms 4 to 12.

Central Electric Station

To the east of the Sydney Terminal building are ten further platforms, used by suburban Sydney Trains services and by a limited number of NSW TrainLink intercity services during peak hours.

As part of the construction of the electrified city railway in the 1920s and the electrification and expansions of the Sydney suburban lines, the existing station was cut back to 15 platforms with new Platforms 16 to 23 built on the station's eastern side in 1926. The Electric Station was part of the construction works overseen by Bradfield that included the excavation of the tunnels, the building of the Harbour Bridge, and electrification of the suburban rail network.

The platforms continue north via a six-track viaduct paralleling Elizabeth Street built to the north, passing over Campbell Street and Hay Street, and ending at Goulburn Street where it enters tunnels to connect with the City Circle underground rail system and the North Shore over the Sydney Harbour Bridge.

Platforms 16 to 23 are also elevated, but are served by a lower level concourse at street level. Railway staff refer to this part of the station as the "Central Electric Station", or "Central Electric System". The two stations were managed and staffed as separate entities. This section of the station is also referred to as the "suburban" platforms. There are two major pedestrian entrances to Central Electric: one at Elizabeth Street and one at the top of Eddy Avenue ramp. Both are constructed of Maroubra sandstone with classical detailing.

The four island platforms allow eight trains to use the station, four trains in each direction. South of these new platforms, a series of flying junctions were built. This involved the four southbound tracks passing beneath the northbound tracks with a series of diamond crossings allowing trains to cross lines without impeding trains traveling in the opposite direction.

In February 1926, Platforms 18 and 19 of the steam station were wired for electric trains with a demonstration run from Sydney to Hurstville. This wiring was transferred to Platforms 21 and 23 and Platforms 14 and 15 were wired for Bankstown electric train services commencing October 1926 and later worked into St James. As the Homebush electrification was completed, Platforms 17 and 18 were wired. Electric trains to Hornsby via the main line commenced on 21 January 1929. Trains to Hornsby used Platforms 16 and 18. Steam services to Parramatta and Liverpool were converted to electric in November 1929. Western electric trains began operating through to Wynyard from 28 February 1932.

Two further underground platforms were built as part of the Eastern Suburbs Railway, bringing the total number of platforms in the suburban section to ten. Construction commenced in 1948 but the line was not finished until 1979. While the plans called for four platforms, two (for the Southern Suburbs line) were intended to be used in the future and have never been brought into service. They were for a time used for archival storage by the railways.

Metro platforms
A construction project began in 2018 to construct two new underground platforms to serve the under-construction Sydney Metro City & Southwest line, and a new underground concourse called Central Walk. The new platforms are being built beneath Platforms 13–14. In November and December 2018, Platforms 12/13 and 14/15 were demolished. A temporary Platform 12 was erected in January 2019. Central Walk was partially opened in November 2022 and was fully opened in April 2023 and the Sydney Metro platforms will open in 2024.

Indicator board

When opened, Central station had an indicator board with 22 vertical panels. It was replaced in June 1982 by computer screens with the original indicator board conserved by the Powerhouse Museum. In June 2015, a new elevated  indicator board was installed on the main concourse on the same sandstone base as the original board.

Devonshire Street Tunnel
After Central was built in 1906, Devonshire Street, to the north of the old station, became an underpass, now called the Devonshire Street Tunnel or Devonshire Street Subway. The underpass allows pedestrians to access the eastern "suburban" section from Railway Square and Chalmers Street. To the west, the tunnel continues under Railway Square and connects to The Goods Line – the former Darling Harbour Line railway line which has been converted to a park and pedestrian pathway to Ultimo and Darling Harbour.

Railway Square

The western side of the Sydney Terminal building leads down to Railway Square, originally Central Square, at the junction of George and Pitt Streets. Although Railway Square no longer signifies the entrance to the interior of the colony, it has always channelled traffic from the southern parts of the city and out west to Parramatta. From the building of the first railway terminus at Devonshire Street in 1855, it was an important focus for the arrival of country persons to the city and later commuters into the city.

The importance of the relationship between the Sydney Terminus and Railway Square is reflected in the elevations of the main building. Here the dominating presence of the clock tower, completed in 1921, marked the arrival and departure times, the beginning and end of a workman's day. Before the spread of the suburbs, a workman could make a return trip home to eat dinner in his lunch hour.

Parcel Office building

To the west of the southern end of Platform 1 is the Inwards Parcel Office. This was the loading dock for parcels and mail from the post office. The mail was loaded via a tunnel from the post office. The Parcels Post Office is an unusual urban building, being designed to be viewed from three sides. Its symmetrical, boldly modelled elevations and its siting in the middle of an open space give it the presence of a public monument or sculpture. Due to the oblique road approaches to the Railway Square this building forms a strong element within the Sydney Terminal Precinct.

The Parcel Office building is now an apartment-hotel, managed by Adina.

Sydney Yards
South of the Devonshire Street Tunnel, a large rail yard extends to the Cleveland Street Bridge, linking the Sydney Terminal platforms (1–15) with the railway lines extending west. The track layout to Platforms 1–15 have remained virtually unchanged since they were originally laid out in 1906. Major items from its period as a steam locomotive hauled train yard have been removed. These include the Eastern Carriage shed demolished in 1986, Coal Stages, and Engine Docks at the head of each platform. Ash pits and water columns that were part of the yard have also been removed. There is only one "yard controller" remaining within the Yard. Previously, at least two Signal Boxes would have been located in the Yard at any one time, but these have been removed due to the mechanical interlocking system being computerised and pneumatically operated.

The Yard buildings have been altered significantly since the Eastern Carriage Shed was demolished. This large shed divided the central yard from the central electric lines. The land where the shed once stood lay vacant until the construction projects begun in 2018. Remaining structures signifying the division of the yard are the Cleaners Amenities and the former Timetable Office with the garden. The Rail Yard connects to the passenger platforms of Sydney Terminal which are as originally designed and built, with the infrastructure for steam locomotives having been removed - these being water columns between each track near the buffers. However, the concrete plinths remain.

The open space of the rail yards adds to the experience of arrival to the city from the north and south by opening up vistas to the imposing Sydney Terminal with its landmark tower. This open space permits the imposing Terminus and its Tower to be visible when viewed from a distance much as it was intended when originally built. The Terminus and its approaches define formal urban spaces in the city fabric.

Western Yard
The Western Rail Yard lies west of the westernmost main line track leading to Platform 1 (No. 1 Main Line), and extends to the Regent Street boundary to the west, Devonshire Street Subway to the north and Cleveland Street Bridge to the south. Until the construction project begun in 2018, the track layout of this yard had remained virtually unchanged since 1906. The rail sidings that take up the bulk of the land area were known as the "Botany Road Yards". These siding lines are still in service but are seldom used. The lines were used as storage yards for making up passenger trains and for goods being loaded and unloaded at the Parcel and Goods Sidings. This was a major activity at the Sydney Terminal that has become obsolete due to the introduction of technological changes such as fixed sets of rail cars, and the phasing out of locomotive-pulled trains. The Darling Harbour Line branch line formerly cut through the precinct providing access to Darling Harbour Goods Yard. This is no longer in use, and part of the former line is now the Goods Line, a lineal park connected to Devonshire Street Tunnel.

The underpass and overbridge date from 1855. The Mortuary Station with its siding and platform is on the boundary of this rail yard, facing Regent Street, and is visible from Railway Square because of the low scale of buildings in the Western Yard. Rail access to the Mortuary Station was from the main lines near the Cleveland Street Bridge, and has remained in service since the mid-1860s.

Nearer to the present main station building were the West Carriage Shed, demolished in 1999. This was the last remaining carriage shed at Central Station. The six rail lines that enter the shed were connected to the yard through tunnels at the end of Platform 1.

The Yard was designed for locomotive-hauled trains. As this technology has gone out of use except for the Indian Pacific and Special Trains the yard has little present functional use. With locomotive hauled trains the trains were marshalled for running in one direction. It has the locomotive at the head of the train and a brake van near the rear. This meant that trains when ending their journey had to be remarshalled before commencing their journey out of Sydney Station. The introduction of trains with driving positions at both ends of the train no longer require this process. As the station originally handled locomotive hauled passenger trains for suburban, country and interstate service this activity was considerable. Most of the steam loco facilities and trackwork has been removed. The decline in shunting and the removal of coal and water storage has seen a reduction in the level of activity in the yard. Although it has progressed through various configurations, the landscape has maintained the same ground level since 1856 with its final layout being enlarged in 1906 by the removal of some houses and the realignment of Regent Street to its present format.

Parcel Dock
The Parcel Dock was physically connected with the main station complex and had four platforms (two dock platforms) for the use of mail trains. Due to the decline of parcel delivery by rail, this was cut back to serve a motorail loading ramp (for the loading of automobiles) for the Indian Pacific. The space where the mail sidings were is now a Youth Hostels Association hostel named the Sydney Railway Square YHA. The hostel rooms are modelled on old train carriages.

Former Prince Alfred Sidings
The Prince Alfred Sidings were formerly to the south of Platform 23 and on the eastern perimeter of the site, making up the boundary with Prince Alfred Park to the southeast. The Prince Alfred or "PA" electric car sidings were built only after the flyovers. Prior to the construction of the electric lines, the yard was a goods yard containing Produce and Goods Sheds as well as the first carriage shed. All have been removed from this precinct. The Yard is a small part of the original Sydney yard, of which a number of buildings remain which date from 1870. Later additional buildings are associated with the 1926 Electric Suburban System. The construction of the electric system reduced the width of the Prince Alfred Sidings, and trains within this yard needed to be protected because of vandalism. The Electric Sub Station is part of the 1926 electrification works and is linked with the sub station at the Sydney Harbour Bridge. It also contains air compressors for the operation of pneumatic points within the Yard and the City Circle Lines. A retaining wall forms the boundary with Prince Alfred Park; it has been incorporated into the rear wall of the blacksmiths workshops. A number of mature trees are growing on the boundary, the largest being a Moreton Bay Fig at least 80 years old.

The Prince Alfred sidings were closed in August 1995 and then demolished to make way for the Airport line, which enters a tunnel built into the retaining wall of Prince Alfred Park.

Platforms

Central serves all Sydney Trains suburban lines except for the Cumberland Line. The platforms are numbered from 1 to 25, with 1 being the westernmost platform and 25 being one of the easternmost. Platforms 1 to 14 are above ground terminating at the Sydney Terminal Building. Platforms 16 to 23 are above ground and part of the suburban station to the east of the main building. Platforms 24 and 25 are underground. Platforms 26 and 27 are being constructed underground beneath Platforms 13 and 14 to serve Sydney Metro.

The numbers for Platforms 26 to 27 formerly referred to never-completed "ghost platforms", now used for archival document storage and Sydney Metro communications and power rooms. These platforms are located underground, above Platforms 24 and 25; all four platforms were constructed as part of the original vision for the Eastern Suburbs Railway.

Connecting services

Light rail

Central Grand Concourse is the eastern terminus of the Dulwich Hill Line that operates to Chinatown, Darling Harbour, Pyrmont and the inner western suburbs. The light rail stop is in an outside concourse area, near the main waiting area and departure hall. This area was used for trams until 1958, when the service was withdrawn. It was known as Railway Colonnade and then Central. Light rail services operate in a clockwise direction, whereas the trams operated in an anti-clockwise direction.

The CBD and South East Light Rail from Circular Quay to Kingsford and Randwick also run via Central: its nearest stops are Haymarket Stop, at Rawson Place to the northwest, and Central Chalmers Street, on Chalmers Street to the east.

Bus services

Many bus services depart from the adjacent Eddy Avenue or from the nearby Elizabeth Street or Railway Square.

Coach services
Long distance coaches depart from the western forecourt and Pitt Street:
Australia Wide Coaches operates services to Orange
Firefly Express operates services to Melbourne and Adelaide via Melbourne
Greyhound Australia operates services to Brisbane, Byron Bay, Canberra and Melbourne
Murrays operates services to Canberra
Port Stephens Coaches operates services to Fingal Bay via Nelson Bay
Premier Motor Service operates services to Brisbane and Eden

Heritage listing
Sydney Central station was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999, as a place which is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales, and in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales, as well as having a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. The listing includes the Sydney Terminal building, the Sydney Yards adjacent to it, the Western Yard, the West Carriage Sheds, the Prince Alfred Sidings, the Central electric station, as well as adjacent buildings and infrastructure including the Mortuary Station, the Darling Harbour branch line, the Railway Institute and the Parcel Post Office. The listing also records alternative names including Sydney Terminal and Central Railway Stations Group and Central Railway; Central Station; Underbridges.

Heritage listed Movable items
Train controllers desk, (AA15), third floor Sydney terminus
Doors linking train controllers offices, (AD07), third floor Sydney terminus

Condition
As of 7 July 2020, the physical condition was good.

Diagrams and maps

See also

Architecture of Sydney
Light rail in Sydney
Regent Street railway station
Rail transport in New South Wales
Trams in Sydney

References

Bibliography

Attribution

Further reading

External links

 Central Station at transportnsw.info (Archived 8 October 2019)
 Photographs from NSW Records
  [CC-By-SA]

Easy Access railway stations in Sydney
Edwardian architecture in Australia
Railway stations located underground in Sydney
Railway stations in Australia opened in 1855
Railway stations in Australia opened in 1906
Walter Liberty Vernon buildings in Sydney
New South Wales State Heritage Register
New South Wales places listed on the defunct Register of the National Estate
Haymarket, New South Wales
Railway Square, Sydney
North Shore railway line
Eastern Suburbs railway line
City Circle
Bankstown railway line
Airport Link, Sydney
Clock towers in Australia
Former cemeteries

Central railway station, Sydney


عبيد الله بن جحش بن رئاب الأسدي، هو ابن عمة النبي محمد، وأمه أميمة بنت عبد المطلب، وأخو أم المؤمنين زينب بنت جحش، وكذلك أخو عبد الله بن جحش، وقد كان زوجًا لأم المؤمنين أم حبيبة بنت أبي سفيان، فأنجبت له حبيبة.

نسبه وحياته
هو عُبيد الله بن جحش بن رياب بن يعمر بن صبِرة بن مرة بن كبير بن غنم بن دودان بن أسد بن خزيمة، أبوه جحش بن رياب، قيل بأنه لم يدرك الإسلام، وذكر ابن حجر العسقلاني في الإصابة أن ابن حبان ذكر جحش في الصحابة، وأما عن أم عبيد الله فهي أميمة بنت عبد المطلب عمة النبي محمد، أختلف في إسلامها، وذكر البعض بأن أميمة أسلمت وهاجرت وأطعمها رسول الله أربعين وسقًا من تمر خيبر. فيكون عبيد الله ابن عمة النبي محمد، وقد كان زوجًا لأم المؤمنين أم حبيبة بنت أبي سفيان، فأنجبت له حبيبة، وتزوجت حبيبة من داود بن عروة بن مسعود الثقفي.

وأخوته هم: عبد الله بن جحش الذي كان من المسلمين الأوائل، وقتل يوم أحد، وأبي أحمد عبد بن جحش أحد السابقين في الإسلام، وأخواته هم: زينب بنت جحش وهي أم المؤمنين وإحدى زوجات النبي محمد، وحمنة بنت جحش زوجة الصحابي مصعب بن عمير ثم طلحة بن عبيد الله. وأمّ حبيب بنت جَحْش وقيل: أم حبيبة قال ابن سعد:  وقد تزوجها عبد الرحمن بن عوف ولَم تلد له شيئًا.

هجرته إلى الحبشة
ذكرت المصادر التاريخية وكتب السير النبوية أنه أسلم وهاجر إلى الحبشة مع زوجته أم حبيبة ثم تنصَّر بالحبشة ومات على النصرانية.

وأخرج ابن إسحاق عن محمد بن جعفر بن الزبير قال: . وروى الحاكم في المستدرك عن الزهري وفيه: .

والبعض من المعاصرين يرى أن ردة عبيد الله لم تثبت، ويعتبرون الروايات التي تقول بارتداد عبيد الله روايات مرسلة وضعيفة، واستدل البعض بحوار دار بين هرقل وأبي سفيان وكان إذ ذاك مشركاً أنه سأله ـ ضمن سؤالاته ـ: . ولو كان عبيد الله قد تنصّر لوجدها أبو سفيان فرصة للنيل من النبي محمد ودعوته، كما فعل لما سُئل: ، ولا يمكن القول بأن أبا سفيان لم يعلم بردّة عبيد الله ـ لو صحت ـ لأنه والد زوجه أم حبيبة.

المراجع

الردة في الإسلام
صحابة هاجروا إلى الحبشة
عرب في القرن 7
مدفونون في الحبشة
مسلمون تحولوا إلى الأرثوذكسية الشرقية
مسلمون تحولوا إلى الأرثوذكسية المشرقية
مسلمون سابقون
مسيحيون عرب
مواليد 588
مواليد في مكة
وفيات 627
وفيات القرن 7
وفيات في إثيوبيا

عبيد الله بن جحش


Supermad, superfødevarer eller superfood er navne som bruges for visse typer af mad, der er særligt rige på blandt andet vitaminer og mineraler. Kendte fødevarer, som ofte kaldes supermad er blåbær, broccoli og spinat, men de seneste år er stadig flere eksotiske planter kommer til - fx chiafrø og quinoa.

Supermad er ikke et videnskabeligt begreb, men udtrykket er opstået blandt producenter af og fortalere for kosttilskud. Supermad er i løbet af 2000-årene blevet en trend.

Der er ikke videnskabeligt grundlag for at sige, at supermad er sundere end en normal varieret kost, og der er skepsis om tendensen blandt læger og ernæringseksperter. Nogle former for supermad kan også være skadelige ved høje indtag. En kost baseret på supermad kan også være en dyr fornøjelse.

I EU er det ikke tilladt at bruge begrebet supermad i markedsføring om et produkt medmindre kan følges af en specifik autoriseret sundhedspåstand.

Referencer

Ernæring
Pseudovidenskab

Supermad


Diese Seite beschreibt den Gottesdienst und die Praxis der Zeugen Jehovas, einer christlichen, chiliastisch ausgerichteten und nichttrinitarischen Religionsgemeinschaft.

Zusammenkünfte

Versammlungszusammenkünfte

Die gottesdienstlichen Zusammenkünfte der Versammlungen der Zeugen Jehovas finden gewöhnlich in Königreichssälen statt.

Der Ablauf der Zusammenkünfte und die dort behandelten Themen folgen weltweit einheitlichen Vorgaben, die auf der Website der Religionsgemeinschaft abgerufen werden können. In den Zusammenkünften werden auf dem Bibelverständnis der Zeugen Jehovas basierende Ansprachen gehalten, Situationen aus der Missionstätigkeit ("Predigtdienst") geübt, Interviews geführt und Lehrstoff anhand von Fragen und Antworten gemeinsam besprochen. Die Zusammenkünfte beginnen und enden jeweils mit Lied und Gebet; auch etwa in der Mitte jeder Zusammenkunft wird ein Lied gesungen.

Jede Versammlung hält wöchentlich zwei Zusammenkünfte ab, die jeweils etwa 1¾ Stunden dauern. Neben insgesamt etwa 15 Minuten an Liedern und Gebeten je Zusammenkunft umfassen diese Zusammenkünfte folgende Programmteile:
 Zusammenkunft unter der Woche ("Leben-und-Dienst-Zusammenkunft"):
 "Schätze aus Gottes Wort": Predigt, Kommentare der Anwesenden und Lesung zum "wöchentlichen Bibelleseprogramm".
 "Uns im Dienst verbessern": Schulung für den "Predigtdienst" und das Sprechen in den Zusammenkünften.
 "Unser Leben als Christ": Predigten und Besprechungen sollen helfen, biblische Grundsätze in die Praxis umzusetzen. Auch das "Versammlungsbibelstudium", bei dem eine Veröffentlichung von Jehovas Zeugen fortlaufend gemeinsam besprochen wird, ist Teil dieses Programmteils.
 Zusammenkunft am Wochenende:
 "Öffentlicher Vortrag" (30 Minuten): Diese Predigt, der Vielfalt wegen oft von Rednern aus benachbarten Versammlungen gehalten, richtet sich besonders auch an Außenstehende.
 "Wachtturm-Studium" (60 Minuten): Ein Artikel aus der Studienausgabe des Wachtturms wird gelesen und in Frage- und Antwort-Form mit Beteiligung der Anwesenden besprochen.

Kongresse
Die sogenannten "Kongresse" der Zeugen Jehovas sind gottesdienstliche Tagungen, zu denen sich die Verkündiger mehrerer Versammlungen zusammenfinden. Jede Versammlung nimmt jährlich teil an
 zwei jeweils eintägigen "Kreiskongressen", üblicherweise mit mehreren hundert Anwesenden,
 einem dreitägigen "Regionalkongress", üblicherweise mit vielen hundert bis zu mehreren tausend Anwesenden.
Je nach den Gegebenheiten werden diese Kongresse in im Eigentum der Religionsgemeinschaft stehenden Kongresssälen oder in gemieteten Veranstaltungshallen oder Stadien abgehalten. Im Rahmen der Kongresse finden auch Taufen statt.

Taufe
Jehovas Zeugen praktizieren unter Berufung auf den Taufbefehl Jesu  die Gläubigentaufe. Die Taufe gilt den Zeugen Jehovas als Zeichen der Hingabe des Einzelnen an den Schöpfer. Um getauft werden zu können, muss man sein Leben nach dem ausgerichtet haben, was Jehovas Zeugen als Willen Gottes erkennen. Das schließt neben einem Leben nach den von Jehovas Zeugen vertretenen moralischen Maßstäben auch ein, gemäß den persönlichen Möglichkeiten die Gottesdienste zu besuchen und missionarisch aktiv zu sein. Älteste ergründen in ausführlichen Gesprächen mit einem Taufwilligen, ob er die Voraussetzungen zur Taufe erfüllt und ein ausreichendes Verständnis der Lehre hat und ob der Wunsch zur Taufe auf seinem eigenen freien Willen beruht. Die Taufe gilt den Zeugen Jehovas als Voraussetzung zur Rettung, aber sie wird nicht als Sakrament angesehen.

Die Taufe wird nach neutestamentlichem Muster durch Untertauchen im Wasser vollzogen. Das Untertauchen symbolisiert nach Ansicht der Zeugen Jehovas Reue und das Aufgeben des früheren Lebenswandels, das Heraufkommen aus dem Wasser zeigt an, dass man ein neues Leben als Nachfolger Jesu beginnt und dass man auf der Grundlage des Opfers Jesu von früheren Sünden nicht mehr belastet ist. Jehovas Zeugen betrachten die Taufe als öffentliche Glaubensäußerung. Taufen werden daher üblicherweise bei größeren gottesdienstlichen Veranstaltungen, den "Kongressen", vollzogen. Die Taufe findet statt, nachdem die Taufwilligen folgende zwei Fragen öffentlich bejaht haben: 1. Hast du gestützt auf das Opfer Jesu Christi deine Sünden bereut und dich Jehova hingegeben, um seinen Willen zu tun? 2. Ist dir bewusst, dass deine Hingabe und Taufe dich als Zeugen Jehovas kennzeichnen und du zu der Organisation gehörst, die von Gottes Geist geleitet wird? Da sich Jehovas Zeugen als einzig wahre Religionsgemeinschaft verstehen, erkennen sie außerhalb ihrer Religionsgemeinschaft durchgeführte Taufen nicht als gültig an.

Gebet
Jehovas Zeugen betonen die Wichtigkeit privater und öffentlicher Gebete. Sie richten Gebete ausschließlich an Gott (Jehova), und beten dabei durch Jesus (nicht durch Maria oder Heilige). Sie verwenden weder auswendig gelernte Gebete noch Gebetbücher, sondern sprechen ihre Gebete frei. Gebete in den Zusammenkünften werden von einem männlichen Zeugen Jehovas laut gesprochen; wer von den Zuhörern dem Gebet zustimmen will, sagt am Ende des Gebets "Amen".

Feiern

Abendmahl
Die einzige religiöse Feier sowie wichtigste Zusammenkunft der Zeugen Jehovas ist das Abendmahl des Herrn, das Gedächtnismahl oder Feier zum Gedenken an den Tod Christi genannt wird. Diese Feier wird am 14. Nisan nach Sonnenuntergang begangen. Bei der Berechnung dieses Datums orientieren sich Jehovas Zeugen am jüdischen Mondkalender, wie er ihrer Meinung nach in biblischer Zeit in Verwendung war, so dass der Tag der Abendmahlsfeier im gregorianischen Kalender kein festes Datum hat. 2023 fällt die Feier auf den Abend des 4. April.

Während der Feier wird eine Ansprache gehalten, die Sinn und Nutzen von Jesu Tod erklären soll. Nach Gebeten werden die Symbole für das Blut und den Körper Jesu Christi (Rotwein und ungesäuertes Brot) durch die Reihen, von Anwesendem zu Anwesendem, gereicht. Es ist jedem Anwesenden freigestellt, von den Symbolen zu nehmen. Von dieser Möglichkeit machen weltweit jedoch nur wenige Gebrauch. Sie zeigen durch das Nehmen der Symbole, dass sie sich zu der nach Auslegung der Zeugen Jehovas in der Offenbarung des Johannes () erwähnten Gruppe von 144.000 Menschen zugehörig fühlen, die dazu auserwählt sei, während der Millenniumsherrschaft als Mitregenten Jesu zu wirken. Nach Ansicht der Zeugen Jehovas wurden die Mitglieder dieser Gruppe von 144.000 Menschen, der sogenannten "Klasse der Geistgesalbten" mit "himmlischer Hoffnung", von den Ereignissen beim Pfingstfest im Jahr 33 bis heute nach und nach berufen. Da die Mitgliederzahl der 144.000 Auserwählten von Jehovas Zeugen als nahezu vollständig angesehen wird, gibt es heute in vielen Versammlungen keine "Gedächtnismahl-Teilnehmer" mehr.

Sonstige Feiern und Feiertage
Außer dem Abendmahl gibt es keine religiösen Feiertage für Jehovas Zeugen. Obwohl sie an Jesus als Sohn Gottes und an den Bibelbericht über seine Geburt, seinen Tod und seine Auferstehung glauben, feiern sie nicht Weihnachten und auch nicht Ostern im herkömmlichen Sinn, da sie die Kommerzialisierung dieser Anlässe ablehnen und annehmen, dass viele Weihnachts- und Osterbräuche im Heidentum wurzeln. Auch feiern Jehovas Zeugen keine Geburtstage, aufgrund des angeblich heidnischen Hintergrunds vieler damit verbundener Bräuche und aufgrund des negativen Konnexes der Erwähnung von Geburtstagen in der Bibel.

Für die Gestaltung von Hochzeiten und Begräbnissen gibt es für Zeugen Jehovas keine starren religiösen Vorschriften. Auf Wunsch der beteiligten Personen kann ein Ältester im Königreichssaal oder an einem anderen Ort eine Rede zu einem solchen Anlass halten, wobei gewöhnlich auch Gebete gesprochen und religiöse Lieder gesungen werden.

Evangelisation und Mission

Verkündigung

Markenzeichen der Jehovas Zeugen ist ihre Evangelisationstätigkeit, von ihnen häufig als "Predigtdienst" bezeichnet. Sie führen diese Tätigkeit unter Berufung auf Jesu Missionsbefehl () und auf das Vorbild der Urchristen aus, und sie beten zu Gott um die Hilfe des Heiligen Geistes für die Ausführung dieser Tätigkeit.

Jehovas Zeugen sprechen Menschen an Haustüren, auf öffentlichen Plätzen und in Alltagssituationen an, versuchen Interesse an der Bibel zu wecken, hinterlassen bei Interesse kostenfrei Bibeln und bibelerklärende Literatur, laden zu ihren Zusammenkünften ein, und führen mit interessierten Personen Bibelkurse ("Bibelstudien") durch. In den Versammlungszusammenkünften und in der Literatur der Zeugen Jehovas werden Vorschläge gemacht, wie man solche Gespräche einleiten und Einwände beantworten kann. Die aktive Teilnahme an der Evangelisationstätigkeit wird von jedem Zeugen Jehovas erwartet und ist eine der Voraussetzungen für die Taufe. Viele derer, die sich zum Beispiel aus gesundheitlichen Gründen nicht an der Verkündigung von Haus zu Haus beteiligen, versuchen sich zumindest durch das Schreiben von Briefen und durch Gespräche mit Besuchern an der Evangelisationstätigkeit zu beteiligen.

Monatlich berichten Zeugen Jehovas an einen der Versammlungsältesten das Ausmaß ihres Zeiteinsatzes an der Evangelisationstätigkeit, wer das tut, wird als Verkündiger bezeichnet. Viele Zeugen Jehovas sind etwa 10 Stunden pro Monat in der Evangelisationstätigkeit aktiv, es gibt aber keine Vorgabe für das Ausmaß der Beteiligung. Zeugen Jehovas, die – häufig indem sie nur einer Teilzeitarbeit nachgehen – ihr Leben so einrichten, dass sie sich durchschnittlich zumindest 70 Stunden pro Monat an der Evangelisationstätigkeit beteiligen, werden Pioniere genannt. Die Wachtturm-Bibelschule Gilead in Patterson (New York) bildet Missionare aus, die weltweit in Gebiete entsandt werden, in denen es nur wenige Zeugen Jehovas gibt, um dort hauptamtlich für die Religionsgemeinschaft zu missionieren.

Druck- und Übersetzungstätigkeit, Neue Medien

Motiviert durch Aussagen der Bibel, wonach Menschen "aus allen Völkern und Sprachen" Gott dienen würden , versuchen Jehovas Zeugen, ihre Botschaft weltweit zu verkünden, und verwenden große Anstrengungen darauf, die Bibel und Veröffentlichungen der Wachtturm-Gesellschaft in viele Sprachen zu übersetzen. 2500 Übersetzer sind dabei tätig. Eine von Zeugen Jehovas erstellte Bibelausgabe, die Neue-Welt-Übersetzung der Heiligen Schrift, wird in über 100 Sprachen gedruckt. Die Zeitschriften Der Wachtturm und Erwachet! gelten als die auflagenstärksten Zeitschriften der Welt; sie erscheinen in über 300 Sprachen.

Jehovas Zeugen haben ihre Internetpräsenz in den letzten Jahren stark ausgebaut und beworben. Das Logo der 2013 veröffentlichten Website jw.org erscheint prominent auf der Literatur der Zeugen Jehovas, auf Infoständen und an den Fassaden von Königreichssälen. 2014 waren auf der Website einzelne Publikationen in über 700 Sprachen abrufbar. Eine Onlinebibliothek (wol.jw.org) ist in über 400 Sprachen verfügbar, und es gibt einen Online-TV-Kanal (tv.jw.org).

Behandlung von Verstößen gegen Glaubensmaßstäbe
Bei den Zeugen Jehovas wird die Exkommunikation als "Gemeinschaftsentzug" bezeichnet und soll als "Meidung" praktiziert werden. Nach ihrer Ansicht belegen Bibelstellen wie  und , dass im Urchristentum Gläubige bei Verstößen gegen die Glaubensgrundsätze aus der Gemeinde ausgestoßen werden konnten.

Ein Gemeinschaftsentzug kann beispielsweise aufgrund von sexuellem Fehlverhalten, Alkoholismus, Gewalttätigkeit, Blut-, Drogen- oder Tabakgenuss, Diebstahl, Teilnahme am Gottesdienst einer anderen Kirche oder der Verbreitung abweichender Glaubenslehren ausgesprochen werden. Falls solche Vorwürfe erhoben oder bekannt werden, wird von der Ältestenschaft der betreffenden Versammlung ein nichtöffentlicher Ausschuss von zumindest drei Ältesten ("Rechtskomitee") gebildet, der die Vorwürfe untersucht. Ein solches Rechtskomitee wird nicht als Ersatz für die staatliche Gerichtsbarkeit verstanden, sondern behandelt nur den religiösen Aspekt eines Fehlverhaltens. Maßgeblich für die Entscheidungen eines Rechtskomitees ist nicht die Schwere der Sünde, sondern das Vorhandensein oder Nichtvorhandensein von Reue. Das Rechtskomitee hat das Ziel, den Betreffenden zur Reue zu bewegen, damit er ein Mitglied der Versammlung bleiben kann. Ein Gemeinschaftsentzug wird nur ausgesprochen, wenn das Fehlverhalten durch ein Geständnis oder die Aussage zumindest zweier Zeugen nachgewiesen wurde und wenn der Betreffende sich reuelos zeigt.

Wird dem Betreffenden mangels Reue die Gemeinschaft entzogen, wird das – ohne Details zu nennen – in der Versammlung verlautbart und die anderen Gemeindeglieder haben ihn zu meiden. Da Zeugen Jehovas ihren Freundeskreis meist innerhalb der Religionsgemeinschaft gefunden haben, stellt ein Gemeinschaftsentzug eine sehr harte Sanktion dar. Selbst gegenüber Familienangehörigen wird in solchen Fällen der Kontakt meist eingeschränkt, diese Strenge ist ein häufiger Angriffspunkt von Kritikern der Religionsgemeinschaft. Die Meidung wird auch gegenüber Personen praktiziert, die von sich aus den Austritt aus der Religionsgemeinschaft erklärten. Ein Ausgeschlossener darf den Königreichssaal zwar weiter besuchen, um die Zusammenkünfte mitzuverfolgen, hat dort aber kein Rederecht mehr. Der Entzug der Gemeinschaft soll die Religionsgemeinschaft vor dem Entstehen von Spaltungen bewahren, die Gläubigen vor schlechtem Einfluss schützen und den Sünder zur Reue motivieren.

Falls der Ausschluss nicht aufgrund von Häresie erfolgte, besuchen Älteste gelegentlich Ausgeschlossene von sich aus, um ihnen die Rückkehr in die Religionsgemeinschaft nahezulegen. Eine Wiederaufnahme erfolgt auf Antrag des Betroffenen nach offenem Schuldbekenntnis und ehrlicher Reue vor dem Ausschuss, der den Gemeinschaftsentzug verfügt hatte. Von dieser Möglichkeit macht etwa ein Drittel derer, denen die Gemeinschaft entzogen wurde, Gebrauch.

Ethik
Die Ethik der Zeugen Jehovas ergibt sich aus ihrem radikal eschatologischen Selbstverständnis: Sie sehen sich als kleine Gruppe aufrechter Christen im oder kurz vor dem Endkampf mit den Mächten des Bösen, die die sie umgebende Welt zum größten Teil regieren würden. Die Angst vor dem als unmittelbar bevorstehend gesehenen Weltgericht bestimmt große Teile des Handelns. Soziales und politisches Engagement wie die Teilnahme an Wahlen wird angesichts der Verworfenheit der Welt abgelehnt. Stattdessen widmen Zeugen Jehovas ihre Freizeit zu einem erheblichen Teil dem "Predigtdienst", das heißt der Tür-zu-Tür-Mission und dem Anbieten von Schriften der Gemeinschaft an öffentlichen Plätzen. Aus einem wörtlichen Verständnis des Bibeltexts leiten die Zeugen Jehovas eine Ablehnung von Militärdienst, Bluttransfusionen, dem Begehen der meisten christlichen und weltlichen Feiertage, außerehelichem Sex und Abtreibungen ab, was sie immer wieder in Konflikt mit der sie umgebenden Gesellschaft brachte und bringt. Auch Homosexualität gilt als Sünde. Zeugen Jehovas glauben, sie könne "geheilt" werden, etwa durch eine heterosexuelle Ehe. Verstöße gegen diese und andere ethische Vorschriften werden sanktioniert. Ehemalige Mitglieder berichten, drangsaliert worden zu sein. Der gemäßigte Rigorismus der Zeugen Jehovas wird von den Religionssoziologen Rodney Stark und Laurence R. Iannaccone als ein Faktor für den Erfolg gedeutet, den die Zeugen Jehovas auf dem globalen "Markt der Religionen" erleben.

Verhältnis zum Staat
Zeugen Jehovas wenden ihr Verständnis der Bibel auf die Art der Unterordnung unter die Macht des Staates an, indem sie sich nicht an politischen Veränderungen (ob gewaltsame Revolutionen, friedliche Demonstrationen oder aber auch bloße Teilnahme an Wahlen oder Parteitagen) beteiligen. Sie betrachten die staatlichen Organe als von Gott geduldet und mit Autorität ausgestattet. Im Allgemeinen halten sie sich deswegen an die staatlichen Gesetze. In vielen Ländern sind sie von staatlicher Seite als Religion anerkannt.

Es kann durchaus zu Konflikten zwischen staatlichen Forderungen und den Forderungen ihres Glaubens führen, da sie unter Berufung auf  den Gehorsam gegenüber Gott als höher erachten als menschliche Vorschriften oder Gesetze. So sind sie dafür bekannt geworden, dass sie sich strikt weigern, Militärdienst zu leisten (→ Kriegsdienstverweigerung der Zeugen Jehovas). Darüber hinaus lehnen sie alle Handlungen ab, die ihrer Meinung nach einer Verehrung des Staates oder seiner Repräsentanten gleichkommen. Bekannte Beispiele hierfür sind die Ablehnung des Fahnengrußes, des Singens der Nationalhymne oder des Hitlergrußes unter dem Nationalsozialismus.

Bis zur Veröffentlichung eines Artikels im Wachtturm vom 1. Mai 1996 betrachteten sie den Zivildienst als eine unpassende Einschränkung ihrer religiösen Freiheit und eine Form der politischen Betätigung. Nach dem Verständnis der Zeugen Jehovas darf heute Zivildienst geleistet werden.

Die Zeugen beteiligen sich nicht an politischen Wahlen und bekleiden keine politischen Ämter, weil sie die Worte Jesu, "kein Teil der Welt"  zu sein, als Aufforderung zu einem politisch passiven Verhalten deuten. Außerdem betrachten sie die Theokratie als der Demokratie überlegen. Dies spiegelt sich in ihrer Kirchenordnung wider, die eine hierarchische Ernennung von Funktionsträgern statt demokratischer Wahlen vorsieht.

Ausbildung und Beruf
Die Literatur der Zeugen Jehovas weist auf die Widersprüche und Interessenkonflikte hin, welche zwischen einer Hochschulausbildung und dem Leben als Zeuge Jehovas bestehen können. In den Veröffentlichungen der Zeugen Jehovas wird vor dem vermeintlich unmoralischen Lebenswandel vieler Studenten gewarnt, mit der Begründung, dass sich etliche Hochschulen seit den 60er Jahren zu Brutstätten der Gesetzlosigkeit und der Unmoral entwickelt hätten. Gemäß einer Empfehlung des monatlich erscheinenden internen Mitteilungsblattes Unser Königreichsdienst vom April 1999 wird angeraten, dass Bildungsfragen mit den Eltern, den Versammlungsältesten, dem Kreisaufseher oder mit erfolgreichen Pionieren besprochen werden sollten. Die letzte Entscheidung über die berufliche Zukunft ist dem Einzelnen überlassen. Bei allen Überlegungen solle das Bestreben im Vordergrund stehen, Jehova in größtmöglichem Umfang, unter anderem durch das christliche Predigtwerk, zu dienen. Aus diesen Gründen entscheiden sich viele Zeugen Jehovas gegen eine Hochschulausbildung.

Ehe, Familie, Sexualethik
Jehovas Zeugen betrachten die Ehe zwischen einem Mann und einer Frau als eine heilige, göttliche Einrichtung. Als einzig zulässiger Grund für eine Scheidung mit dem Recht zur Wiederverheiratung gilt ihnen, wenn ein Partner Ehebruch begeht und der andere die Ehe deshalb nicht fortführen möchte. Ansonsten gilt die Ehe vor Gott als nur durch den Tod auflöslich; wenn ein Ehepaar sich beispielsweise "nur" wegen Streitigkeiten vor dem Staat scheiden lässt, wird erwartet, dass die beiden danach nicht mehr heiraten. Es wird empfohlen, nach einem Ehepartner innerhalb der Glaubensgemeinschaft zu suchen.

Sex ist nur innerhalb der Ehe erlaubt, soll dem Mann und der Frau Freude bereiten und setzt nicht die Absicht voraus, Kinder zu zeugen. Empfängnisverhütung ist daher zulässig. Homosexuelle Handlungen gelten unter Berufung auf neutestamentliche Aussagen als Sünde.

In der Ehe gilt der Mann unter Berufung auf  als Haupt der Frau. Der Mann soll seine Frau lieben wie der Christus die Versammlung, die Frau soll ihren Mann respektieren wie die Versammlung den Christus.

Blut, Bluttransfusionen und Operationen
Jehovas Zeugen lehnen es ab, Blut zu sich zu nehmen, sei es als Nahrungsmittel oder für medizinische Zwecke; seit 1944 schließt das ausdrücklich auch die Ablehnung der damals populär werdenden Bluttransfusionen ein. Zeugen Jehovas glauben, dies sei aufgrund biblischer Aussagen wie  ("Nur Fleisch mit seiner Seele – seinem Blut – sollt ihr nicht essen", NWÜ und ELB) und  ("… euch […] zu enthalten […] von Blut …", NWÜ und ELB) erforderlich (siehe Jakobusklauseln).

Die Verwendung von Bluthauptbestandteilen (Blutplasma, Blutplättchen, roten und weißen Blutkörperchen) wird ebenso verworfen wie die Blutspende und die präoperative Eigenblutspende. Die Verwendung von Plasmafraktionen (Albumine, Globuline, Gerinnungsfaktoren, Fibrinogen u. ä.) und Ableitungen von den anderen Komponenten (wie Hämoglobinlösung von Erythrozyten; Interferone und Interleukine von Leukozyten) stellen sie jedoch der Gewissensentscheidung des Einzelnen anheim, ebenso Dialyse- und ähnliche Verfahren, Organ- und Knochenmarktransplantationen. Mit der Entnahme von Blut für Diagnosezwecke sind sie generell einverstanden.

Für den Kontakt zu Ärzten, Krankenhäusern und Pflegepersonal haben die Zeugen Jehovas einen Krankenhausinformationsdienst und Krankenhaus-Verbindungskomitees eingerichtet.

Abgesehen vom Blutverbot empfehlen Jehovas Zeugen umfassende medizinische Betreuung, und sie schätzen medizinischen Fortschritt, nicht zuletzt deshalb, weil sich dadurch zunehmend Eingriffsmöglichkeiten eröffnen, die eine Bluttransfusion nicht erfordern. Sie akzeptieren, dass Ärzte vital indizierte Bluttransfusionen bei Kindern auch ohne Einverständnis der Eltern durchführen können.

Siehe auch
 Lehre der Zeugen Jehovas

Anmerkungen

Einzelnachweise

Zeugen Jehovas

Gottesdienst und Praxis der Zeugen Jehovas


Boris Leonidoviç Pasternak (10 Şubat, 1890 - 30 Mayıs, 1960), Rus şair, oyun yazarı, romancı, çevirmen.

Çağımızın en büyük şairlerinden biri sayılmaktadır. 1920'lerde Rus edebiyat çevrelerinde "şairlerin şairi" unvanını alan sanatçı, SSCB'nin kültür politikasını yönetenlerle ters düşmüş ve şiirleri 1936'dan itibaren ülkesinde yasaklanmıştır.

Goethe, Rilke, Shakespeare ve Paul Verlaine'in eserlerini Rusça'ya kazandırmış çok başarılı bir çevirmendir.

1957'de ilk defa İtalya'da yayımlanan Doktor Jivago adlı romanı ile tüm dünyada tanınan sanatçı 1958 Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'ne layık görülmüş fakat ödülü reddetmiştir.

Yaşamı

Çocukluğu ve eğitimi
1890'da Moskova'da dünyaya geldi.  Rus Ortodoks Kilisesi'ne kabul edilmiş aslen Yahudi olan varlıklı bir sanatçı ailenin en büyük çocuğu idi. Babası Leonid Pasternak, tanınmış bir ressam; annesi Rosa Kaufman bir konser piyanisti idi.

1901'de liseye başlayıncaya kadar evde anne-babası ve özel öğretmenlerden ders alarak yetişti. Devrin önemli sanatçılarından Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Scriabin, Rainer Maria Rilke ve Lev Tolstoy gibi kimselerin konuk olduğu bir evde büyüdü; genç yaşta tanıştığı tüm bu sanatçılar onda iz bıraktı. Scriabin'in etkisiyle Moskova Konservatuvarı'na girip altı yıl müzik eğitimi gördü. O yıllarda bestelediği eserlerden üç piyano parçası günümüze gelmiştir.

1909'da müzik eğitimini yarım bırakarak Moskova Üniversitesi'ne kaydoldu. Önce Hukuk Fakültesi'ne yazıldıysa da öğrenimine felsefe bölümünde devam etti. 1912'de Almanya'ya giderek Marburg Üniversitesi'nde bir süre felsefe derslerini izledi. Burada Heokont Felsefe Okulunun bir üyesi olan filozof Hermann Cohende'den etkilendi. Edebî hayatı Almanya'dayken yazdığı şiirlerle başladı. İtalya'ya yaptığı kısa bir ziyaretin ardından 1913 kışında Moskova'ya döndü ve Moskova Üniversitesi'ndeki öğrenimini tamamladı. Gördüğü müzik ve felsefe öğrenimi yazarın kaleme aldığı eserlerde izlerini hep gösterdi. 1914'te ilk eseri olan "Bulutlarda İkiz" (Bliznets v tuchakh) yayımlandı. Bu eserde simgecilik etkisi taşıyan şiirleri yer alıyordu.

I. Dünya Savaşı yılları
Çocuklukta geçirdiği bir kazadan sonra bir bacağı diğerinden kısa kalmış olan Pasternak, I. Dünya Savaşı  yıllarında askere alınmadı; Ural Dağları'nda bir kimya fabrikasında memur olarak çalıştı. Çok verimli geçen bu dönemde iki cilt şiir yazdı. Bu ciltlerden birisi 1915'te bir yangında yok olmuş, diğeri 1917'de Bariyerlerin Üstünde adıyla yayımlanmış ve büyük ilgi görmüştür. Şiirlerinin yanı sıra ileride yazacağı Doktor Jivago dahil pek çok düzyazı eseri onun Ural Dağları'ndaki deneyimlerine dayanır.

1917'de Moskova'ya giden Pasternak, Moskova'ya varışı ile Ekim Devrimi'nin gerçekleşmesine kadar geçen sürede iki kitap yazdı: Kızkardeşimin Yaşamı  ile Temalar ve Varyasyonlar.  Ne var ki savaş koşulları nedeniyle beş yıl boyunca kitapları yayımlama fırsatı bulamamıştır.

Bolşevik Devrimi'nden sonra
Devrimden sonra Rusya'da kurulan yeni hükümetin acımasızlığını ürkütücü bulan Pasternak, her şeye rağmen devrimi destekliyordu. 1921'de ülke dışına çıkmak serbest olunca anne-babası ve kızkardeşleri Almanya'ya gidip geri dönmediler ancak o, Moskova'da kalıp kütüphaneci ve çevirmen olarak çalıştı.

1922'de "Kızkardeşimin Yaşamı" adlı şiir kitabı Rusların Samizdat  dedikleri bir yöntemle yurt dışına kaçırılıp geniş bir kitleye tanıtıldı. Aynı yıl Sanat Enstitüsü'nde öğrenci olan Yevgeniya Lury ile evlenen şair, eşiyle birlikte Berlin'e giderek ailesini ziyaret etti. Hayatının geri kalanında hemen hemen her sene ailesini ziyaret izni için başvuran ama izin alamayan Pasternak için bu, ailesinin son görüşü olmuştur. Oğlu  Evgeny 1923'te dünyaya geldi. Pasternak o yıl lirik çalışmalarının doruğu olarak kabul edilen "Temler ve Varyasyonlar" adlı kitabını çıkardı.

1920'lerde şiirler ve kısa öyküler yazmayı sürdüren Pasternak'ın öyküleri Luvers'in Çocukluğu (1922) adlı kitapta toplandı. Şair bu dönemde Sergey Yasenin ve Vladimir Mayakovski ile dost oldu. Bu iki şairin 1925 ve 1930'da intiharlarından sonra, Rusya'nın yaşayan en büyük şairi unvanını taşıdı.

Çeviriye yönelmesi
1930'larda SSCB'de yazarlardan Sosyalist Gerçekçilik doktrini çerçevesinde eser üretmeler isteniyordu ama Pasternak'ın gerçekçilik anlayışı resmi doktrin ile uyuşmuyordu. Her ne kadar 1934'te Sovyet Yazarlar Birliği başkanı seçildiyse de 1936'dan itibaren şiirlerini yayımlaması yasaklandı. Şiirlerini yayımlayamaz olunca şiir çevirileri yapmaya yöneldi. İngiliz, Fransız, Alman, Polonyalı ve Gürcü şairlerin eserlerini Rusçaya çevirdi. Shakespeare'in en başarılı çevirmeni olarak ün yaptı.

1931'de ilk eşinden ayrılan Pasternak, 1934 yılında ünlü piyanist Heinrich Neuhaus'un eşi  Zinaida Neuhaus  ile ikinci evliliğini yaptı. 1935'te Anti Faşist Kongresi'ne katılmak için Paris'e gitme fırsatını buldu. Çok başarılı olduğu çeviri işinden iyi kazanç elde ediyordu. Moskova dışındaki yazarlar köyünde 1936'da bir ev edinebildi ve hayatının geri kalanında çoğunlukla orada yaşadı.

II. Dünya Savaşı yılları
II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında kültür politikalarının esnekleşmesi sayesinde yeniden şiirler yazıp yayımlamaya başladı. Sabah Trenlerinde ve Ölümlü Dün adlı iki şiir kitabı yayımlandı. Savaş sırasında cephedeki okurlarından aldığı mektuplar onu daha çok yazmaya teşvik etti ve babasının Oxford'da 1945'te ölümünden sonra Doktor Jivago adlı ilk romanını yazmaya yoğunlaştı. 1946'dan itibaren pek çok yazar arkadaşı tutuklandı. Kendisi 1958'e kadar hiç kovuşturma ve soruşturmaya uğramadı ve tutuklananları kurtarmak için uğraştı. Gürcü şairlerin yapıtlarını Rusça'ya çevirmesi nedeniyle, Stalin'in gözüne girdiği ve bu sayede sürgüne gönderilmekten kurtulduğu düşünülür.

Olga Ivinskaya ile ilişkisi
Pasternak 22 yaş genç olan ve edebiyat dergilerinde editörlük yapan Olga Ivinskaya ile 1946'da tanışıp aşık oldu; yaşamının geri kalanında onunla evlilik dışı bir ilişki sürdürdü. Çeviri işlerinde birlikte çalıştılar ve böylece Pasternak, Doktor Jivago'yu yazmaya daha çok vakit ayırabildi. Doktor Jivago'nun Lara karakteri için ilham verdiği düşünülen Olga, 1950'de " bir casusluğa suç ortaklığı yapmak"la suçlanıp beş yıl çalışma kampında çalışma cezası aldı. Pasternak, bu tutuklamanın kendisini tutuklamak, tehdit etmek için neden ve kanıt bulmak amacıyla yapıldığını ama Olga'nın kahramanlığı sayesinde kendisine dokunulmadığını 1958'de bir arkadaşına gönderdiği mektubunda yazmıştır. Olga İvinskaya 1953'te Stalin'in ölümünden sonra serbest bırakıldı. İlişkilerine eskisi gibi devam ettiler.

Doktor Jivago'nun yayımlanması
Yazar, 1945'te başladığı ilk romanı Doktor Jivago'yu 1954'te tamamladı. Roman,1917 devrimi sürecinde Sovyetler Birliği'nin panoramasını sunan bir eserdir; başkahramanı zihinsel bağımsızlığı her şeyin üstünde tutan bir doktordur. 1956'da Noviy Mir Dergisine gönderilen Doktor Jivago, SSCB resmî görüşüne uygun yazılmadığı gerekçesiyle reddedildi. Kitabın el yazması bir İtalyan gazeteci tarafından yurtdışına kaçırıldıktan sonra 1957'de İtalya'da yayımlandı; kısa sürede çeşitli dillere çevrilerek ünlendi. Eserin İngilizce çevirisi 26 hafta boyunca New York Times'ın En çok satanlar listesinde kaldı.

Öte yandan eser Sovyetler Birliği'nde yasaklandı ve hiçbir eleştirmen yasak kitabı okumamış olmasına rağmen Sovyet Yazarlar Birliği kapalı bir duruşma düzenleyerek Pasternak'ın birlikten atılmasına karar verdiklerini açıkladı. Ayrıca Politbüro'ya bir dilekçe göndererek yazarın vatandaşlıktan çıkarılmasını, sürgün edilmesini istediler.

Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü adaylığı
Pasternak, şiirleri nedeniyle 1946-1950 arasında her yıl Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'ne aday gösterilmişti. 1958'de romanı Doktor Jivago romanının bütün dünyada gördüğü ilgi üstüne bir önceki yılın Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'nü kazanan Albert Camus tarafından tekrar aday gösterildi. Ancak İsveç Akademisinin kurallarına göre eserin orijinal dilde teslim edilmesi gerekliydi. Rusça kitap son anda Nobel Komitesi'ne sunuldu. Bunun İngiliz Gizli Haber Alma Servisi ve Amerikan Merkezi Haber Alma Teşkilatı'nın yürüttüğü bir operasyon sonucu gerçekleştiği iddia edilir.

Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'nü reddetmesi
Moskova yakınlarındaki Pederelniko'da yaşayan yazara Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'ne layık görüldüğü 23 Ekim 1958'de bir telgrafla bildirildi. Pasternak, o gün bu telgrafı "Memnunum, medyunum, onurlandım, şaşırdım" şeklinde yanıtladı.  Ancak 29 Ekim'de ikinci bir telgraf göndererek ödülü reddettiğini açıkladı.

Kimilerine göre yazar, bu ödülün kendisine Sovyet rejimini eleştirdiği için verildiği, siyasi bir karar olduğu düşüncesiyle reddetmiş; kimilerine göre ise Sovyetler Birliği yönetimi onu ödülü reddetmeye zorlamıştır.

Son yılları
25 Ekim  1958 günü, Nobel'i reddetmeden önce Moskova Edebiyat Enstitüsü tüm öğrencilerini Pasternak'ı ve romanını kınayan bir dilekçe yazmaya ve onu Sovyetler Birliği'nden sürülmesi için bir gösteri düzenlemeye çağırmıştı. Pastenrak, Nobel Ödülü'nü reddetmesine rağmen Sovyet basınında kınamalar devam ettiği ve sürgün edilmesi tehdidi sürdüğü için doğrudan Nikita Khrushchev'e yazdı ve anavatanından ayrılmasının kendisi için ölüm anlamına geleceğini söyledi  Bu mektup ve Hindistan Başbakanı Jawaharlal Nehru'nun müdahalesi sonucu yazar vatanından sürgün edilmedi.
Jivago'yu yazmasından sonra sevgi, ölümsüzlük, Tanrı'ya kavuşma konularında şiirler yazdı. Bu şiirleri 1959'da kitaplaştırdı ardından bir oyun yazmaya yöneldi. 30 Mayıs 1960'ta akciğer kanserinden hayatını kaybetti.

El yazısıyla çoğaltılıp Moskova metrosunda dağıtılan duyurular sayesinde cenazenin yeri ve saatini öğrenen binlerce Moskovalı okuyucusu Peredelniko'daki cenaze törenine katılmıştır. Törende  ünlü Rus çellist Mstislav Rostropovich bir Bach serenadı seslendirmiştir.

Ölümünden sonra
Pasternak'ın ölümünden sonra Olga Ivinskaya ve Olga'nın kızı Irina tutuklandılar. Her ikisi de Pasternak'ın batılı yayıncılarla ilişkisini sağlamakla suçlanıyordu. Irina 1962'de, Olga 1964'te serbest bırakıldı.

Şaire ölümünden bir yıl sonra şairlik hakları geri verildiyse de Doktor Jivago, 1988'e kadar yasak yapıtlar listesinde kaldı. 1989'da oğlu Yevgeny Borisovich Pasternak Stockholm'e giderek Nobel Ödülü'nü aldı.

Eserleri hakkında
Yapıtlarında doğa tutkusunu doğaya ilişkin imgelerle dile getirmiş, insan ve toplum sorunlarını kaynaşmış bir bütünlük içinde yansıtmıştır. İlk şiirlerinde sembolizm ve fütürizm akımının etkileri görülmüştür. Pasternak bireysel yaratıcılığın toplumsal eyleme boyun eğmek zorunda kaldığı bir dönemde yetişmiş, şiirinde bireysel ve toplumsal yaşantıları organik bir bütünlüğe kavuşturmuş, toplumsal sarsıntıları kendi benliğinde derinliğine yaşayarak çağının trajik gerçekliğini dile getirmiştir. Şiire yeni söyleyiş özellikleri kazandırmış. Özellikle aşk ve tabiat temaları üzerinde durmuştur.

İmge ve sözdizimi açısından Rus şiirine getirdiği yeniliklerle geleneksel Rus şiirinin yalın biçimlerini uzlaştırmıştır. Çağımızın en büyük şairlerinden biri sayılmaktadır.

Yapıtları

Şiir
 Bulutlarda ikiz(1914)
 Engellerin Üstünden (1917)
 Kızkardeşim Hayat (1922)
 Tem ve Çeşitlemeler (1923)
 Hava Yolları (1924)
 1905 Yılı (1927)
 Teğmen Schmidt (1927)
 İkinci Doğuş (1932)
 Erken Trenler (1943)
 Yeryüzü Enginliği (1945)
 Gece (1956)

 Roman
 Doktor Jivago'' (1957)

Kaynakça

1890 doğumlular
1960 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyıl Rus yazarları
Rus şairler
Rus Nobel Ödülü sahipleri
Yahudi asıllı Ruslar
Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahipleri
Moskova doğumlular
Rusya'da ölenler
Akciğer kanserinden ölenler

Boris Pasternak


Namibíska karlalandsliðið í knattspyrnu er fulltrúi Namibíu í knattspyrnu og er stjórnað af knattspyrnusambandi landsins. Liðið hefur aldrei komist í úrslitakeppni HM en í þrígang keppt í Afríkukeppninni.

Afrísk knattspyrnulandslið
Karlalandslið í knattspyrnu
Namibía

Namibíska karlalandsliðið í knattspyrnu


Burst er en dokumentarfilm fra 2003 instrueret af Reynir Lyngdal.

Handling
I et soveværelse skændes et par over et vandrør, der er sprunget læk. Teknisk er der brugt eksploderende vandbeholdere og trampoliner. Visuelle henvisninger til kampsport og tegnesierier.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2003

Burst


Maike Schaunig née le 13 mars 1996, est une joueuse de hockey sur gazon allemande. Elle évolue au poste de défenseure au Uhlenhorst Mülheim et avec l'équipe nationale allemande.

Elle a participé à la Coupe du monde 2018 et aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020.

Carrière

Coupe du monde
 Top 8 : 2018

Championnat d'Europe
  : 2021

Jeux olympiques
 Top 8 : 2020

Références

Liens externes

Joueuse allemande de hockey sur gazon
Naissance en mars 1996
Joueuse de hockey sur gazon aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020

Maike Schaunig


Saint-Rémy-en-Mauges ist eine Ortschaft und eine Commune déléguée in der französischen Gemeinde Montrevault-sur-Èvre mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) im Département Maine-et-Loire in der Region Pays de la Loire.

Am 15. Dezember 2015 wurden die Gemeinden La Boissière-sur-Èvre, Chaudron-en-Mauges, La Chaussaire, Le Fief-Sauvin, Le Fuilet, Montrevault, Le Puiset-Doré, Saint-Pierre-Montlimart, Saint-Quentin-en-Mauges, Saint-Rémy-en-Mauges sowie La Salle-et-Chapelle-Aubry aus der ehemaligen Montrevault Communauté zu einer Commune nouvelle mit dem Namen Montrevault-sur-Èvre zusammengelegt. Die Gemeinde Saint-Rémy-en-Mauges gehörte zum Arrondissement Cholet und zum Kanton Beaupréau.

Geografie
Saint-Rémy-en-Mauges liegt etwa 30 Kilometer östlich von Nantes.

Bevölkerungsentwicklung

Sehenswürdigkeiten
 Kirche Saint-Rémy
 Kapelle Sainte-Avoye
 Grotte de Lourdes
 Schloss

Literatur
 Le Patrimoine des Communes de Maine-et-Loire. Flohic Editions, Band 2, Paris 2001, ISBN 2-84234-117-1, S. 894–897.

Weblinks

Ort in Pays de la Loire
Commune déléguée im Département Maine-et-Loire
Montrevault-sur-Èvre
Gemeindeauflösung 2015

Saint-Rémy-en-Mauges


Julia Faure peut désigner :

 Julia Faure (1977-), actrice française ;
 Julia Faure (1986-), entrepreneuse, défend une filière française de vêtements éthiques et écologiques

Julia Faure


The Gambier Parry process is a development of the classical technique of fresco for painting murals, named for Thomas Gambier Parry.

True fresco is the technique of painting on fresh lime plaster whereby the pigments are fixed by the carbonatation of the lime (calcium hydroxide). The technique requires no other binding medium and the fixing process  produces a durable crystalline paint layer. However, only a limited range of pigments are suitable for true frescoes and the technique requires careful application under controlled conditions, and relatively low humidity thereafter. In some environments, conventional fresco colours can rapidly accumulate dirt and grime. The decoration of the new Houses of Parliament in the mid-nineteenth century saw an embarrassing failure of true fresco in England but had generated a revival in mural painting.

Gambier Parry developed a spirit medium for use on a specially prepared plaster or canvas ground and in 1862 he published his recipe. Originally it used beeswax, oil of spike lavender, spirits of turpentine, elemi resin and copal varnish, and was complex both in preparing the wall surface and applying the paint. With commercialisation the process was simplified and became widely known.

The system was used by Frederic Leighton for The Arts of Industry as Applied to War and The Arts of Industry as Applied to Peace at the Victoria & Albert Museum (1870-72) and by Ford Madox Brown on the Manchester Murals  in Manchester Town Hall (1879-93). One of the most complete examples of the Gambier Parry process may be seen at St Leonard's Church, Newland, Worcestershire where frescoes cover the interior of the church;  St Leonard's is the private chapel of the Beauchamp Almshouses.

References

Painting techniques
Fresco painting

Gambier Parry process