În informatică, complexitatea în timp a unui algoritm exprimă măsura timpului cât durează rularea algoritmului, ca funcție de lungimea  ce reprezintă datele de intrare. Complexitatea în timp a unui algoritm este exprimată cel mai adesea folosind notația Big O, care exclude coeficienții și termenii de grad inferior. Când este exprimată astfel, se spune că complexitatea în timp este exprimată asimptotic, adică atunci când dimensiunea intrării tinde spre infinit. De exemplu, dacă durata de timp necesară unui algoritm pentru a rula pe intrări de dimensiune n este cel mult  pentru orice n (mai mare decât un n0), complexitatea asimptotică în timp este O(n3).

Complexitatea în timp este frecvent estimată prin numărarea operațiilor elementare efectuate de algoritm, unde o operație are o durată fixă. Astfel, timpul de rulare diferă de numărul de operații elementare cel mult printr-un factor constant.

Deoarece performanța unui algoritm timp poate varia cu diferite intrări de aceeași mărime, se utilizează frecvent complexitatea în timp în cel mai rău caz, notată cu T(n), valoare definită ca fiind cantitatea maximă de timp consumată dintre toate intrările de dimensiune n. Mai puțin frecvent, și, de obicei, specificată în mod explicit, este măsura complexității în cazul mediu. Complexitățile în timp sunt clasificate în funcție de natura funcției T(n). De exemplu, un algoritm cu T(n) = O(n) se numește algoritm în timp liniar, iar un algoritm cu T(n) = O(kn) pentru o constantă k>1 este numit algoritm în timp exponențial.

Tabel de complexități în timp frecvente
Următorul tabel rezumă unele clase de complexități în timp întâlnite frecvent. În tabel, poly(x) = xO(1), adică polinomial în x.

Timp constant
Se spune despre un algoritm că este în timp constant (sau timp O(1)) dacă valoarea lui T(n) este delimitată de o valoare care nu depinde de mărimea datelor de intrare. De exemplu, accesarea unui singur element într-un  are nevoie de timp constant întrucât trebuie să fie efectuată o singură operațiune pentru a-l localiza. La fel și găsirea valorii minime într-un tablou sortat în ordine crescătoare – este primul element. Cu toate acestea, găsirea valorii minime într-un tablou neordonat nu este constantă de timp, întrucât este nevoie de o parcurgere a fiecărui element din tablou, în scopul de a determina valoarea minimă. Prin urmare, aceasta este o operațiune în timp liniar, care durează O(n). Dacă numărul de elemente este cunoscut în avans și nu se schimbă, cu toate acestea, un astfel de algoritm poate fi considerat a rula în timp constant.

În ciuda denumirii de "timp constant", timpul de rulare nu trebuie să fie independent de dimensiunea problemei, ci o limită superioară a timpului de rulare trebuie să fie delimitată independent de dimensiunea problemei. De exemplu, taskul de a "schimba valorile a și b dacă este necesar, astfel încât a≤b" este considerat a rula în timp constant, chiar dacă durata efectivă poate depinde dacă este sau nu este deja adevărat că a ≤ b. Cu toate acestea, există unele constante t astfel încât timpul necesar este întotdeauna cel mult t.

Iată câteva exemple fragmente de cod care se execută în timp constant:
 int index = 5;
 int item = lista[index];
 if (condiție adevărată) then
  efectuează operațiunii care se execută în timp constant
 else
  efectuează alte operațiuni care se execută în timp constant
 for i = 1 to 100
  for j = 1 to 200
  efectuează operațiunii care se execută în timp constant
Dacă T(n) este O(orice valoare constantă), aceasta este echivalentă cu și enunțată în notație standard, T(n) = O(1).

Se spune că un algoritm este în timp logaritmic dacă T(n) = O(log n). Ca urmare a utilizării sistemului de numerație binar de către calculatoare, logaritmul este frecvent în bază 2 (log2 n, uneori scris lg n). Cu toate acestea,  pentru logaritmi, loga n și logb n diferă doar printr-o constantă multiplicativă, care în notație Big-O este eliminată; astfel că O(log n) este o notație standard pentru algoritmii în timp logaritmic, indiferent de baza logaritmului.

Timp logaritmic
Algoritmii care au durata de execuție în timp logaritmic se întâlnesc de obicei în operații pe arbori binari sau atunci când se utilizează căutarea binară.

Un algoritm O(log n) este considerat extrem de eficient, deoarece numărul de operațiuni pe instanță necesar pentru a finaliza rularea scade la fiecare instanță.

Un exemplu foarte simplu de acest tip este un algoritmul care taie un șir în jumătate, apoi taie jumătatea din dreapta în jumătate, și așa mai departe. El va dura O(log n) (n fiind lungimea șirului) deoarece șirul se taie în jumătate înainte de fiecare tipărire (presupunând că console.log și str.substring rulează în timp constant).
Aceasta înseamnă că, pentru a crește numărul de tipăriri cu 1, trebuie dublată lungimea șirului.// Function to recursively print the right half of a string
var right = function(str){
    var length = str.length;

    // Helper function
    var help = function(index){

        // Recursive Case: Print right half
        if(index < length){

            // Prints characters from index until the end of the array
            console.log(str.substring(index, length));

            // Recursive Call: call help on right half
            help(Math.ceil((length + index)/2));
        }

        // Base Case: Do Nothing
    }
    help(0);
}

Timp polilogaritmic
Un algoritm este considerat a fi în timp polilogaritmic dacă T(n) = O((log n)k), pentru un k constant. De exemplu, ordonarea lanțului de matrice poate fi rezolvată în timp polilogaritmic pe o mașină cu acces aleator paralel.

Timp subliniar
Se spune că un algoritm rulează în timp subliniar dacă T(n) = o(n). În particular, aici sunt incluși algoritmii cu complexitățile definite mai sus, precum și alții cum ar fi  de complexitate  O(n½).

Algoritmii tipici care sunt exacți și totuși rulează în timp subliniar folosesc prelucrări paralele (așa cum face algoritmul NC1 de calcul al determinantului matricei),  (de exemplu, căutarea lui Grover), sau li se garantează unele presupuneri despre structura datelor de intrare (cum ar fi căutarea binară și mulți algoritmi de mentenanță a arborilor, care rulează în timp logaritmic). Limbajele formale însă, așa cum este mulțimea tuturor șirurilor care au un bit de 1 pe poziția indicată de primii log(n) biți ai șirului, ar putea depinde de toți biții intrării, dar tot ar putea fi calculați în timp subliniar.

Termenul specific algoritm în timp subliniar este de regulă rezervat algoritmilor diferiți de cei de mai sus prin aceea că sunt rulați peste modele seriale clasice de mașină și nu au dreptul la prezumții despre datele de intrare. Ei pot însă să fie , și chia trebuie pentru orice task netrivial.

Cum un astfel de algoritm trebuie să dea un răspuns fără a-și citi datele de intrare în întregime, detaliile lui depind masiv de accesul permis asupra intrării. De regulă, pentru o intrare reprezentată de un șir binar b1,...,bk se presupune că algoritmul poate cere și primi într-un timp O(1) valoarea lui bi oricare ar fi i.

Algoritmii în timpi subliniari sunt de regulă randomizați și furnizează doar soluți . De fapt, se poate demonstra ușor că nu este decidabilă proprietatea unui șir binar de a avea doar zerouri (și niciun 1) printr-un algoritm neaproximativ în timp subliniar. Algoritmii în timpi subliniari apar natural în cercetarea .

Referințe

Teoria complexității de calcul

Complexitate în timp


Igor Petrovitj Volk (; ; født 12. april 1937, død 3. januar 2017) var en kosmonaut og testpilot i Sovjetunionen.

Militær- og testpilot
Igor Volk blev pilot i det sovjetiske luftvåben i 1956. Efter en uddannelse som testpilot i 1965 kom han på Gromov Flight Research Institute. Han loggede over 7000 flyvetimer i over 80 forskellige typer af luftfartøjer. I sin karriere fløj han alle typer af sovjetiske jagerfly, bombefly og transportfly. Han var en dygtig pilot, der beherskede mange manøvre. Han var den første der testede flyadfærd i forbindelse med angreb fra kritiske vinkler (ca. 90°), og han udførte kunstflyvning såsom "cobra"-manøvren.

Space program
Igor Volk blev udvalgt som kosmonaut den 12. juli 1977 og fløj som forskningskosmonaut på Sojus T-12, den 7. ekspedition til Saljut 7. Et mål for missionen var at undersøge effekten af længerevarende rumfart i forbindelse med Volks hjemrejse, som forberedelse til at være pilot på rumfærgen Buran. Han fungerede som leder af træningsprogrammet for kosmonauter ved Buran-programmet, og efter projektets annullering, som stedfortræder for prøveflyvninger hos Gromov Flight Research Institute i 1995, før han trak sig tilbage i 1996. Han har tidligere fungeret som formand for den Nationale Aero Club i Rusland og vicepræsident i Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Som anerkendelse for hans bidrag som testpilot og kosmonaut blev han den 29. juli 1984 tildelt ordenen Sovjetunionens Helt.

Øvrige resultater
Volk var også opfinder og havde planer om en flyvende bil til fire personer, kaldet Lark-4, som stiger op og lander ved 45 km/h ved hjælp af en 27-meter landingsbane. Den bruger 11 liter brændstof for hver 100 km og opnår en hastighed på omkring 637 km/h.

Personlige liv
Volk var gift og havde to børn. Han døde den 3. januar 2017, mens han var på ferie i Plovdiv, Bulgarien. Han blev 79.

Hædersbevisninger og priser
 Titlen af Helten af Sovjetunionen
 Titlen på Pilot-Kosmonaut for Sovjetunionen
 Titel af" Beæret testpilot for Sovjetunionen
 Fædrelandets fortjeneste Orden 4. klasse
 Leninordenen (USSR)
 Arbejdernes Røde Fane Ordenen  (USSR)
 Folkenes venskabs Ordenen (USSR)
 Fortjenstmedalje for Rumforskning

Henvisninger

Sovjetunionens helt
Opfindere fra Rusland

Igor Volk


José Guardiola (eigentlich: Josep Guardiola Díaz de Rada, * 22. Oktober 1930 in Barcelona; † 9. April 2012 ebenda) war ein katalanischer Musiker und Sänger.

Er entstammte einer musikalischen Familie und war in den 1950er und 1960er Jahren in Spanien und auch Südamerika erfolgreich. Bekannt waren seine spanischen Versionen von Klassikern wie Sixteen Tons oder Mackie Messer. Er nahm für Spanien am Eurovision Song Contest 1963 in London teil und erreichte mit dem Schlager Algo prodigioso Platz 12. Josep Guardiola komponierte auch die Hymne für den katalanischen Fußballclub RCD Espanyol Barcelona.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Musiker (Katalonien)
Sänger
Interpret eines spanischen Beitrags beim Eurovision Song Contest
Spanier
Geboren 1930
Gestorben 2012
Mann

José Guardiola (Sänger)


Education in the Republic of Ireland is a primary, secondary and higher (often known as "third-level" or tertiary) education. In recent years further education has grown immensely with 51% of working age adults having completed higher education by 2020. Growth in the economy since the 1960s has driven much of the change in the education system. For universities there are student service fees (up to €3,000 in 2015), which students are required to pay on registration, to cover examinations, insurance and registration costs.

The Department of Education, under the control of the Minister for Education, is in overall control of policy, funding and direction, while other important organisations are the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland, the Higher Education Authority, and on a local level the Education and Training Boards are the only comprehensive system of government organisation. The Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science, a new department formed in August 2020, will create policy and control funding for third-level institutions. There are many other statutory and non-statutory bodies that have a function in the education system. As of 2020, Norma Foley is the current Minister for Education and Simon Harris is the current Minister for Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science.

History
The first state-funded educational institutions in Ireland were established in the 16th century. The first printing press in Ireland was established in 1551, the first Irish-language book was printed in 1571 and Trinity College Dublin was established in 1592.

The Education Act 1695 prohibited Irish Catholics from running Catholic schools in Ireland or seeking a Catholic education abroad, until its repeal in 1782. As a result, highly informal secret operations that met in private homes were established, called "hedge schools." Historians generally agree that hedge schools provided a kind of schooling, occasionally at a high level, for up to 400,000 students in 9000 schools, by the mid-1820s. J. R. R. Adams says the hedge schools testified "to the strong desire of ordinary Irish people to see their children receive some sort of education." Antonia McManus argues that there "can be little doubt that Irish parents set a high value on a Hedge school education and made enormous sacrifices to secure it for their children....[the Hedge schoolteacher was] one of their own". The 1782 repeal of the 1695 penal laws had made the Hedge schools legal, although still not in receipt of funding from the Parliament of Ireland.

Formal schools for Catholics under trained teachers began to appear after 1800. Edmund Ignatius Rice (1762-1844) founded two religious institutes of religious brothers: the Congregation of Christian Brothers and the Presentation Brothers. They opened numerous schools, which were visible, legal, and standardised. Discipline was notably strict.

From 1811, the Society for the Promotion of the Education of the Poor of Ireland (Kildare Place Society, which evolved into the Church of Ireland College of Education), started to established a nationwide network of non-profit, non-denominational schools, in part funded through the production and sales of textbooks. By 1831, they were operating 1,621 primary schools, and educating approximately 140,000 pupils.

In 1831, the Stanley letter led to the establishment of the Board of National Education and the National School system using public money. The UK Government appointed the commissioner of national education whose task was to assist in funding primary school construction, teacher training, the producing of textbooks, and funding of teachers.

Hedge schools declined after 1831 as the Catholic bishops preferred this, as the new schools would be largely under the control of the Catholic Church and allow better control of the teaching of Catholic doctrine.

On 10 September 1966, the Fianna Fáil Education Minister, Donogh O'Malley, famously made his unauthorised speech announcing plans for free upper second-level education in Ireland. Free upper second-level education was eventually introduced in September 1967, and is now widely seen as a milestone in Irish history.

Students must go to schools from ages 6 to 16 or until they have completed three years of second-level of education.
 Under the Constitution of Ireland, parents are not obliged "in violation of their conscience and lawful preference to send their children to schools established by the State, or to any particular type of school designated by the State." However, the parental right to homeschool his/her child has met legal contests over minimum standards in the absence of constitutional provision for State-defined educational standards.

In 1973, the Irish language requirement for a second-level certificate was abandoned. However, the Irish language remains a core subject taught in all public schools with exemptions given to individual pupils on grounds of significant periods lived abroad, or with learning difficulties etc.

While English is the primary medium of instruction at all levels in most schools across the state, in Gaelscoileanna (Irish-language schools), Irish is the primary medium of instruction at all levels and English is taught as a second language.

At third level, most university courses are conducted in English, with only a few Irish language options. Some universities offer courses partly through French, German or Spanish.

Framework

Years

Education is compulsory for all children in Ireland from the ages of six to sixteen or until students have completed three years of second-level education and including one sitting of the Junior Certificate examination. Primary education commonly starts at four to five years old. Children typically enrol in a Junior Infant class at age four or five depending on parental wishes. Some schools enrollment policies have age four by a specific date minimum age requirements.

Pre-school

Most play schools in Ireland are in the private sector. Increasingly, children of working parents, who are below school age; attend a myriad of crèches, play-schools, Montessori schools, etc., which have sprung up in response to the changing needs of modern families. These operate as businesses and may charge often substantial childcare fees. Since 2009, in response to public demand for affordable childcare, children may receive two years free preschool the years prior to starting primary schools under the "Early Childcare and Education Scheme".

Irish language Naíonraí are growing rapidly across Ireland. Nearly 4,000 preschoolers attend 278 preschool groups.

Primary school
 Junior Infants (age 4–5/5–6) (informally known as Low Infants)
 Senior Infants (age 5–6/6–7) (informally known as High Infants)
 First Class (age 6–7/7–8)
 Second Class (age 7–8/8–9)
 Third Class (age 8–9/9–10)
 Fourth Class (age 9–10/10–11)
 Fifth Class (age 10–11/11–12)
 Sixth Class (age 11–12/12–13)

Primary school children usually start between 8:30 a.m. and 9:20 a.m. Children finish between 1.10 p.m. and 2 p.m. in Junior & Senior infants, while older children spend another hour in school and finish between 2:10 p.m. and 3 p.m.

Secondary school
Since 1967, secondary school education has been state funded in Ireland.

Junior Cycle
The Junior Cycle is a three-year programme, culminating in the Junior Certificate examination. The Junior Certificate examination is sat in all subjects (usually 10 or 11) in early-June, directly after the end of Third Year.
 First Year (age 12–13/13–14)
 Second Year (age 13–14/14–15)
 Third Year (age 14–15/15–16)

Transition Year
 Transition Year sometimes called Fourth Year (age 15-16/16-17) – depending on school, this may be compulsory, optional or unavailable.

Senior Cycle
The Senior Cycle is a two-year programme to prepare students for the Leaving Certificate examinations. The Leaving Certificate examinations take place directly after the end of Sixth Year, with the first exam being held on the Wednesday following the June public holiday (the first Monday in June).
 Fifth Year (age 16–18 or age 15–17 if Transition Year is skipped)
 Sixth Year (age 17–19 or age 16–18 if Transition Year is skipped)

To prepare students for the State examination in both the Senior (Leaving Certificate) and Junior (Junior Certificate) cycles, many schools hold Mock Examinations (also known as Pre-Certificate Examinations) around February each year. These "mocks" are not state examinations: independent companies provide the exam papers and marking schemes – and are therefore not mandatory across all schools.

Primary education
The Primary School Curriculum (1999) is taught in all schools. The document is prepared by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment and leaves to the church authorities (usually the Catholic Church but not universally) the formulation and implementation of the religious curriculum in the schools they control. The curriculum seeks to celebrate the uniqueness of the child:

...as it is expressed in each child's personality, intelligence and potential for development. It is designed to nurture the child in all dimensions of his or her life—spiritual, moral, cognitive, emotional, imaginative, aesthetic, social and physical...

The Primary Certificate Examination (1929–1967) was the terminal examination at this level until the first primary-school curriculum, Curaclam na Bunscoile (1971), was introduced, though informal standardised tests are still performed. The primary school system consists of eight years: Junior and Senior Infants, and First to Sixth Classes. Most children attend primary school between the ages of four and twelve although it is not compulsory until the age of six. A minority of children start school at three.

In 1990 the first Muslim National School (originally on the South Circular Road, now in Clonskeagh) gained recognition and state funding from the Department of Education, and in 2001 a second Muslim National school was established on the Dominican campus on the Navan road in north Dublin. Both are under the patronage of the Islamic Foundation of Ireland. 2014 saw the establishment of the first independent Muslim primary school in Blanchardstown.

Stratford National School, is the only Jewish-ethos primary school in Ireland, under the patronage of the Dublin Talmud Torah. Due to the small community, only about 50% its pupils are of the Jewish faith.

As recently as 2016, virtually all state-funded primary schools – almost 97 percent – were under church control, with approximately 81% under Roman Catholic control. Irish law allowed schools under church (or other religious ethos) control to consider religion as the main factor in admissions. Oversubscribed schools often chose to admit Catholics over non-Catholics, a situation that created difficulty for non-Catholic families. The United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child in Geneva asked James Reilly, the Minister for Children at that time, to explain the continuation of preferential access to state-funded schools on the basis of religion. He said that the laws probably needed to change, but noted it may take a referendum because the Irish constitution gives protections to religious institutions. The issue is most problematic in the Dublin area. A petition initiated by a Dublin attorney, Paddy Monahan, received almost 20,000 signatures in favour of overturning the preference given to Catholic children. An advocacy group, Education Equality, planned a legal challenge.
Irelands main Muslim representative bodies, have praised the Irish education sector and catholic run schools for being accommodating to the needs of pupils from their community.

Reforms in recent years, including an increase in the number of schools with multi- and non-denominational patrons, has meant that the number of Roman Catholic patronage state-funded schools has fallen to approximately 80%.

Types of school
Primary education is generally completed at a national school, a multidenominational school, a gaelscoil or a preparatory school.
 National schools date back to the introduction of state primary education in 1831. They are usually controlled by a board of management under diocesan patronage and often include a local clergyman. The term "national school" has of late become partly synonymous with primary school in some parts. Recently, there have been calls from many sides for fresh thinking in the areas of funding and governance for such schools, with some wanting them to be fully secularised.
 Gaelscoileanna are a recent movement, started in the mid 20th century. The Irish language is the working language in these schools and they can now be found countrywide in English-speaking communities. They differ from Irish-language national schools in Irish-speaking regions in that most are under the patronage of a voluntary organisation, Foras Pátrúnachta na Scoileanna Lán-Ghaeilge, rather than a diocesan patronage. Approximately 6% of primary school children attend Gaelscoils and approximately 3% attend Gaelcholáistí with 187 primary and post-primary schools across the country making it the fastest growing education sector.
 Multidenominational schools are another innovation. They are generally under the patronage of a non-profit limited company without share capital. They are often opened due to parental demand and students from all religions and backgrounds are welcome. Many are under the patronage of voluntary organisations such as Educate Together or An Foras Pátrúnachta. At least one proposed school has been approved under the patronage of the regional ETB, who generally run vocational secondary schools. In October 2020, general secretary of Education and Training Boards Ireland Paddy Lavelle confirmed that multidenominational state secondary schools, called State's Education and Training Boards (ETBs) – formerly called vocational schools – were going to phase out a set of Catholic influences such as mandatory graduation masses, displaying Catholic symbols only, and visits from diocesan inspectors, as described in the 'framework for the recognition of religious belief/identities of all students in ETB schools'.
 Preparatory schools are independent, fee-charging primary schools that are not reliant on the state for funding. These typically serve to prepare children for entry to fee-charging independent or voluntary secondary schools. Most are under the patronage of a religious order.

As of 2021, mainstream primary schools numbered as follows:

Secondary education
Most students enter secondary school aged 12–13. Most students attend and complete secondary education, with approximately 90% of school-leavers taking the terminal examination, the Leaving Certificate, at age 16–19 (in 6th Year at secondary school). Secondary education is generally completed at one of four types of school:
 Voluntary secondary schools, or just "secondary schools", are owned and managed by religious communities or private organisations. The state funds 90% of teachers' salaries. With respect to other running costs, the vast majority of schools have 95% covered by the state with the balance being made up largely through voluntary contributions from pupils' families, while a minority of schools charge fees for pupils to attend and do not receive state subvention other than teachers' salaries. These schools cater for 57% of secondary pupils.
 Community colleges, most of which were formerly called vocational schools, are owned and managed by Education and Training Boards, with 93% of their costs met by the state. These schools educate 28% of secondary pupils.
 Comprehensive schools or community schools were established in the 1960s, often by amalgamating voluntary secondary and vocational schools. They are fully funded by the state and run by local boards of management. Nearly 15% of secondary pupils attend such schools.
 Grind schools are fee-charging privately run schools outside the state sector, who tend to run only the Senior Cycle curriculum for 5th and 6th Year students as well as a one-year repeat Leaving Certificate programme.

Gaelcholáistí are second-level schools (voluntary, vocational or comprehensive) located within English-speaking communities but in which the Irish language is used as the main medium of education. Approximately 3% of secondary students attend these schools.

In urban areas, there is considerable freedom in choosing the type of school the child will attend. The emphasis of the education system at second level is as much on breadth as on depth; the system attempts to prepare the individual for society and further education or work. This is similar to the education system in Scotland. Although in 2012, the Programme for International Student Assessment (Pisa) found Ireland to be 7th in reading and 20th in mathematics in a world survey at the age of 15.

As of 2021, mainstream post-primary schools numbered as follows:

Types of programme
The document Rules and Programme for Secondary Schools published by the Department of Education sets out the minimum standards of education required at this level. Examinations are overseen by the State Examinations Commission. Additional documents set out the standard in each element, module or subject.
 The Junior Cycle builds on the education received at primary level and culminates with the Junior Certificate Examination. Students usually begin this at the age of 12 or 13. The Junior Certificate Examination is taken after three years of study and not before fourteen years of age. It consists of exams in English, Irish, Maths and Science (unless the student has an exemption in one of these) as well as a number of chosen subjects. This is typically a selection of subjects including Art, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Ancient Greek and Classical Studies, Music, Business Studies, Technology, Home Economics, Materials Technology (Woodwork, Metalwork), History, Geography, Civic Social and Political Education (CSPE), and Religious Education. The selection of optional and compulsory subjects varies from school to school. Most students take around ten examined subjects altogether. Other non-examined classes at Junior Cycle level include Physical Education and Social Personal and Health Education (SPHE).
 Transition Year is a one-year informal course taken by an increasing number of students usually ages 15 or 16. The content of this is left to the school to model on the local needs. It is compulsory in some schools but optional in others. Some schools do not offer it. Students may attend structured classes, but do not cover material relevant to the Senior Cycle or the Leaving Certificate exams, and therefore students who choose not to do this year are in no way academically disadvantaged when entering the Senior Cycle. The range of activities in Transition Year or Fourth Year differs greatly from school to school, but many include activities such as work experience placements, project work, international trips or exchanges and excursions. Students may participate in courses such as creative writing, sailing, film-making, public speaking and so on, or enter competitions in science, fashion, motor sport and others that would normally be too time-consuming for a full-time student. Proponents of TY believe that it allows students an extra year to mature, engage in self-directed learning, explore career options and to choose subjects for senior cycle (the results of the Junior Certificate examination do not become available until midway through September, by which time students not taking Transition Year will already have chosen their classes and begun attending). Opponents believe that a year away from traditional study and the classroom environment can distract students and cause problems when they return to the Senior Cycle. They also believe that the activities undertaken in TY prevent some students from enrolling in this year, as they can be costly and most schools charge a fee of a few hundred euro to cover these activities.
 The Senior Cycle builds on the junior cycle and culminates with the Leaving Certificate Examination. Students normally begin this aged 15–17 the year following the completion of the Junior Cycle or Transition Year. The Leaving Certificate Examination, with required exams in English, Irish, and Maths (barring exemptions), and 3 or 4 optional subjects, is taken after two years of study usually at the ages of 17–19.

Therefore, a typical secondary school will consist of First to Third Year (with the Junior Certificate at the end of Third), the usually optional Transition Year (though compulsory in some schools), and Fifth and Sixth Year (with the Leaving Cert. at the end of Sixth).

The vast majority of students continue from lower level to senior level, with only 12.3% leaving after the Junior Certificate. This is lower than the EU average of 15.2%.

Ireland's secondary students rank above average in terms of academic performance in both the OECD and EU; having reading literacy, mathematical literacy and scientific literacy test scores better than average. Ireland has the second best reading literacy for teenagers in the EU, after Finland.

Third-level education

According to the 2022 US News rankings, Ireland is among the top twenty best countries for education.

Special needs education

The "Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act 2004" established the framework for the education of students with special needs.

The National Council for Special Education (NCSE) supports students with physical and intellectual disabilities. Some schools provide specific services to students with disabilities. Students with dyslexia are offered additional supports where funding is available.

Special needs assistant
A Special Needs Assistant (SNA) is a teaching assistant who is specialised in working with young people in the classroom setting who require additional learning support due to disability.

Areas of disadvantage

The Department of Education identifies disadvantaged schools and has schemes in place to provide additional assistance to low-income families and families experiencing financial hardship. Available assistance includes an allowance for school clothing and footwear, assistance with purchasing school books (administered by school principals), exemption from examination fees for the Leaving Certificate and Junior Certificate exams, and a 'remote areas boarding grant' that facilitates students living in remote areas to attend secondary school.

As of 2023, the European Investment Bank is lending €200 million to finance investment in school buildings around Ireland. The project is part of the Department of Education's newest round of school capital investment, which seeks to improve the learning environment for about 23 000 pupils as well as teacher working conditions.

"Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools" (DEIS, often in the anacronym form ) is the main policy initiative of the Department of Education to address educational disadvantage. Schools that operate under the Deis scheme are known as Deis schools. The increased resources under the program include reduced class sizes. The program has been in place since 2005. As of 2020, there were 890 Deis schools with more than 180,000 students. In March 2022, Secretary of Education Norma Foley announced an expansion of the program to include an additional 310 schools (273 primary and 37 post-primary).

International students
Schools and universities in Ireland are popular destinations for international students. The country's universities and colleges have educated many heads of state and government around the world, rivalled only by the United States.

Public holidays
At primary level, schools are required to open for a minimum of 182 days and 167 at post-primary level. Standard Easter, Christmas and mid-term breaks are published by the Department of Education for the upcoming years. Exact dates vary depending on the school. Generally primary and secondary get similar holidays. The year is broken up into three terms:
 From the week in which 1 September falls to the week before Christmas.
 From the week after New Year's Day to the week before Easter Sunday
 From the week after Easter Sunday to the end of June for primary level or end of May/start of June for post-primary level to facilitate state exams starting in June.
There is a mid-term break (one week off halfway through a term) around the public holiday at the end of October, two weeks off for Christmas: generally the last week in December and the first week in January, another mid-term break in February, two weeks off for Easter and 8 (primary) or 12 (secondary) weeks of summer holidays. Public Holidays are also taken off.

In 2020 and 2021, due to COVID-19 pandemic and Deltacron hybrid variant in Ireland, all schools, colleges, universities, and childcare facilities were closed in March 2020 and remained closed until the end of August/September 2020 or until January/February 2022.

See also
 Education in the United Kingdom
 List of schools in the Republic of Ireland
 List of universities in the Republic of Ireland
 National Institute for Higher Education
 Institutes of Technology in Ireland
 Young Scientist and Technology Exhibition
 List of fee-charging schools in Ireland
 Education controversies in the Republic of Ireland
 2010 student protest in Dublin
 Open access in the Republic of Ireland
 List of Ireland-related topics

References

Further reading
 Akenson, D. H. with Sean Farren and John Coolahan. "Pre-university education, 1921-84" in J. R. Hill, ed. A New History of Ireland:  Vol. VII Ireland, 1921-84 (1976) pp 711–56 online
 Akenson, Donald H. The Irish Education Experiment: The National System of Education in the Nineteenth Century (1981; 2nd ed 2014)
 Akenson, Donald H. A Mirror to Kathleen's Face: Education in Independent Ireland, 1922–60 (1975)
 Connell, Paul. Parson Priest and Master: National Education in Co. Meath 1824-41 (1995)
 Coolahan, John. Irish Education, History and Structure (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 1981).
 Dowling, Patrick J. A history of Irish education: a study in conflicting loyalties (Cork, 1971).
 Dowling, Patrick J. The Hedge Schools of Ireland (1998).
 Farren, Sean. The politics of Irish education 1920-65 (Belfast, 1995).
 Harford, Judith The Opening of University Education to Women in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2008)
 Harford, Judith Education for All? The Legacy of Free Post-Primary Education, (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2018)
 Harford, Judith, Hyland, Áine & Fleming, Brian. 100 Years of Inequality?: Irish Educational Policy since the Foundation of the State, Paedagogica Historica, 2023
 Loxley, Andrew, and Aidan Seery, eds. Higher Education in Ireland: Practices, Policies and Possibilities (2014)

 McDermid, Jane. The Schooling of Girls in Britain and Ireland, 1800-1900 (2012)
  McElligott, T. J. Education in Ireland (Dublin, 1966).
 McManus, Antonia. The Irish Hedge School and its Books, 1695–1831 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2002)
 O' Donoghue, Thomas, and Judith Harford, Piety and Privilege: Catholic Secondary Schooling in Ireland and the Theocratic State, 1922-67, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021).
 O'Donoghue, Thomas, and Judith Harford, Teacher Preparation in Ireland: History, Policy and Future Directions (2017)
 O'Donoghue, Thomas, and Judith Harford Secondary School Education in Ireland: Memories and Life Histories, 1922–1967 (London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
 O'Donoghue, Thomas A. "The Roman Catholic ethos of Irish secondary schools, 1924-62, and its implications for teaching and school organisation" Journal of Educational Administration and History, 22#2 (1990), pp 27–37.
 Raftery, Deirdre, and Susan M. Parkes, eds. Female Education in Ireland, 1700–1900: Minerva or Madonna (Irish Academic Press, 2007).
 Raftery, Mary, and O'Sullivan, Eoin. Suffer the little children: the inside story of Ireland's industrial schools (Dublin, 1999).
 Walsh, B. (2021) 'More sinn'd against than sinning? The intermediate system of schooling in Ireland 1878-1922' History of Education
 Walsh, B. 'Nobody Will Even Remember It': An Oral History of the Contribution of the Teaching Religious in Ireland (Part I) Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 110 (437), 92–101. Part II 110 (438), 201-212 (2021).
 Walsh, B. The "Haunting Silence": autobiographical accounts of secondary teaching in twentieth-century Ireland' Paedagogica Historica (2020)
 Walsh, B. (ed.) Essays in the History of Irish Education (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2016)
 Walsh, B. 'I never heard the word methodology': personal accounts of teacher training in Ireland 1943–1980. June 2016 History of Education 46(3)
 B Walsh, 'Girls' perceptions of school in nineteenth-century Ireland', in B. Walsh (ed.), Knowing Their Place? The intellectual life of women in nineteenth-century Ireland, (Dublin, History Press, 2014)

Primary sources
 Hyland, Áine, and Kenneth Milne, eds. Irish educational documents: A selection of extracts from documents relating to the history of Irish education from the earliest times to 1922 (Church of Ireland College of Education, 1995)
 Hyland, Áine, and Kenneth Milne, eds. Irish educational documents. Vol. 2: a selection of extracts... relating to the history of education from 1922 to 1991 (Dublin, 1991).

External links
 Central Statistics Office - Education Statistics
 Irish Second-Level Students' Union, Connecting Students. Giving Students a Voice.
 Higher Education Authority, Ireland
 International Education Board Ireland
 National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, Ireland
 National Qualifications Authority of Ireland
 The Sunday Times University Guide 2004 - Ireland
 Learningireland.ie - Ireland's National Education Database
 SchoolDays.ie - Online Resource for Parents and Teachers in Ireland
 IrelandStats.com - Historical Information about Irish schools
 The Teaching Council of Ireland

Education in the Republic of Ireland


Vivienne Maree Medrano (Maryland, EUA - 28 de outubro de 1992), também conhecida por seu pseudônimo online VivziePop, é uma animadora, ilustradora, criadora de quadrinhos e dubladora americana. Ela é mais conhecida como a criadora das séries animadas para adultos Hazbin Hotel e Helluva Boss.

Carreira

Início
Antes de ingressar no YouTube, Medrano foi assistente em um filme de comédia de terror de Zach Bellissimo intitulado Blanderstein, em 2011.

Medrano lançou seu canal no YouTube sob o pseudónimo "VivziePop" em 2012, construindo um público online dedicado. Em 2013, ela iniciou um webcomic intitulado ZooPhobia, que ficou no ar até 2016, terminando para que ela pudesse encontrar mais tempo para desenvolver o Hazbin Hotel. Medrano dirigiu seu primeiro curta-metragem de animação, intitulado "Son of 666" em 2013. Medrano lançou seu filme de tese de quarto ano intitulado "Timber" em 2014, pelo qual ela ganhou o prêmio Dusty em "Outstanding Achievement in Character Animation". Medrano batizou o filme com o nome da música de Pitbull e Kesha, e sua trilha também tinha homenagens à música. Em outubro de 2014, ela lançou um videoclipe animado para a música "Die Young" de Kesha, que acumulou mais de 50 milhões de visualizações até outubro de 2019. Como resultado, ela se tornou "relativamente conhecida" online por sua animação e arte, algumas das quais ela compartilhou em seu canal.

Medrano se formou em Belas Artes e se formou na Escola de Artes Visuais em agosto de 2014. Ela trabalhou como animadora freelancer por dois anos. Ela continuou a trabalhar em seu webcomic ZooPhobia até 2016, quando o encerrou para focar sua atenção no Hazbin Hotel. O Hazbin Hotel receberia financiamento coletivo por meio do Patreon, permitindo que ela contratasse uma pequena equipe e colaborasse com especialistas para que o programa tivesse um "alto valor de produção". Também permitiu que ela criasse mercadorias para a série, gerando mais fundos.

SpindleHorse Toons
Medrano fundou o estúdio de animação SpindleHorse Toons, sob o qual seriam lançados o piloto de Hazbin Hotel, o piloto e primeira temporada de Helluva Boss, e vários curtas de animação. Medrano atua como diretora, escritora e designer de personagens para SpindleHorse Toons. Medrano lançou o primeiro trailer de Hazbin Hotel em abril de 2018.

Em fevereiro de 2019, seu canal acumulou mais de 1,2 milhão de inscritos. Em abril de 2019, foi relatado que o total de visualizações em seu canal havia atingido mais de 163 milhões. Em entrevista ao Cartoon Brew, ela disse que grande parte do piloto do Hazbin Hotel foi financiado com dinheiro de seu Patreon, em vez da receita do algoritmo do YouTube.  A empresa Horseless Cowboy auxiliou Medrano no elenco de voz durante a primeira temporada de Helluva Boss, com Richard Steven Horvitz atuando como diretor de voz. Lucas Bermudez, do Screen Rant, atribuiu o sucesso do Hazbin Hotel como a única razão para Helluva Boss receber uma boa audiência.

Em outubro de 2019, o episódio piloto de Hazbin Hotel foi lançado no canal de Medrano no YouTube. Dois dias após o lançamento do piloto, ele obteve mais de 2 milhões de visualizações. Em novembro de 2019, o piloto de Helluva Boss também foi lançado em seu canal no YouTube. Medrano afirmou que, enquanto os dois shows compartilham um cenário, Hazbin Hotel é sobre "redenção e consequências de ações passadas", enquanto Helluva Boss segue "personagens e sociedades que já existem no Inferno" com foco principal nas relações entre os personagens.

Em julho de 2020, Medrano lançou um videoclipe animado para o Hazbin Hotel chamado "Addict", apresentando a música de Silva Hound de mesmo nome.

Em agosto de 2020, o Hazbin Hotel foi escolhido para uma série completa pela A24. Naquela época, o Cartoon Brew relatou que o piloto da série havia sido visto mais de 41 milhões de vezes e que seu canal acumulou mais de 3,6 milhões de assinantes, observando que ela "desenvolveu e produziu seu" piloto original sem qualquer envolvimento de estúdio ". A Animation Magazine disse que a A24 estava dando um "passo ousado" ao escolher a série.

Em 30 de setembro de 2020, Medrano lançou um curta-metragem de animação intitulado "Bad Luck Jack", baseado em seu webcomic ZooPhobia. O curta foi indicado e ganhou o prêmio Ursa Major na categoria "Melhor Curta Dramática". O curta também foi listado como "Trabalho curto dramático antropomórfico recomendado" no site do Ursa Major Award.

Em outubro de 2020, começou o primeiro episódio da primeira temporada de Helluva Boss, quase um ano após o lançamento original de seu piloto. Oito episódios foram encomendados, todos os quais seriam lançados gratuitamente em seu canal no YouTube. A Animation Magazine informou que os pilotos de Hazbin Hotel e Helluva Boss foram, coletivamente, vistos mais de 65 milhões de vezes até 7 de outubro

Em fevereiro de 2021, Medrano disse ao Insider que Helluva Boss permanece independente do Hazbin Hotel, dizendo que pretendia mantê-lo assim "enquanto o público quiser continuar vendo", acrescentando que eles têm "um plano para onde a história vai e termina", observando que ter um final parece "surreal".

Em setembro de 2021, Medrano falou em um palco virtual no Animation Exposé do Festival Internacional de Animação de Ottawa sobre a criação de Hazbin Hotel e Helluva Boss . Ela foi acompanhada por Bryan Dimas, o produtor associado de desenvolvimento da Warner Bros. Animation e co-diretor de um grupo chamado LatinX in Animation.

Em 3 de março de 2022, Medrano disse que muitos dos artistas que trabalharam no piloto do Hazbin Hotel voltariam para a primeira temporada e argumentou que "o espírito indie do piloto continua vivo". Junto com SpindleHorse Toons, Princess Bento Studio, estúdio criado pela Bento Box Entertainment e Princess Pictures, produzirá a série. No final de fevereiro e meados de março, os redesigns de Alastor e Charlie foram lançados na conta oficial do Twitter do Hazbin Hotel. Em 29 de abril de 2022, a conta oficial do Twitter do Hazbin Hotel divulgou uma imagem do novo design de Angel Dust. Em 31 de maio de 2022, a conta oficial do Twitter postou uma imagem do redesenho de Vaggie, chamando-a de "protetora do hotel". Outras prévias da série foram lançadas, principalmente por Medrano, em dezembro de 2022, janeiro de 2023, e março de 2023.

Outros Trabalhos
Em fevereiro de 2017, ela compartilhou uma ilustração de um Lego Joker, que Inverse chamou de "grotesco, mas adorável", dizendo que captura a "complicada relação de amor e ódio entre o Príncipe Palhaço do Crime e o Cavaleiro das Trevas". De 2017 a 2019, ela trabalhou como animadora na série DreamWorksTV de Nico Colaleo, Too Loud. Ela chamou sua experiência na série de "uma delícia". Ela também trabalhou como designer de personagens na série.

Em 2019, Medrano foi entrevistado para o documentário intitulado "Hand-Drawn: 2D Animation Documentary". Em março de 2021, foi noticiado que ela era sócia da Redefine Entertainment, empresa de gestão formada por Jairo Alvarado, Tony Gil, e Max Goldfarb .

Em maio de 2022, LatinX in Animation anunciou que Medrano realizaria um "cafecito" em 3 de junho de 2022 durante o Animation Day no 21º Los Angeles Latino International Film Festival.

Em fevereiro de 2023, Medrano apareceu na Level Up Expo, também conhecida como LVL UP EXPO, uma convenção de jogos.

Vida Pessoal
Medrano nasceu em Frederick, Maryland. Ela se interessou por animação ao assistir ao filme Bambi. Ela começou a usar programas de arte como o MS Paint na terceira série. Sua arte inicial foi fortemente influenciada por Invader Zim. Medrano mudou-se para a cidade de Nova York e começou a frequentar a Escola de Artes Visuais em setembro de 2010 e se formou em 2014. Medrano é bissexual.

Filmografia

Filmes

Web Séries

Referências

Ligações externas

 Canal De VivziePop no YouTube

 Tumblr de VivziePop

 Patreon de VivziePop

Autoras de banda desenhada
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 1992
Bissexuais
Youtubers dos Estados Unidos
Animadores
Animadores dos Estados Unidos
Mulheres LGBT

Vivienne Medrano


Barbara Rittner (Krefeld, Alemania Federal, 25 de abril de 1973) es una tenista alemana, en su carrera llegó a ser puesto número 24 en el ranking de la WTA.

Carrera
Como junior, Barbara Rittner ganó el Campeonato junior femenino de Wimbledon 1991, ganando su primer torneo de la WTA en 1992.

Barbara Rittner tuvo que esperar hasta 9 años, para ganar su segundo y último torneo de la WTA, ganando el Abierto de Bélgica en 2001.

Enlaces externos

Tenistas femeninas de Alemania
Campeones de Wimbledon junior
Nacidos en Krefeld
Tenistas en los Juegos Olímpicos de Barcelona 1992

Barbara Rittner


Sören er en by og kommune i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Bordesholm i den sydøstlige del af Kreis Rendsborg-Egernførde. Kreis Rendsborg-Egernførde ligger i den centrale del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

Geografi
Sören er en skovrig kommune omkring 14 km nord for Neumünster og 12 km syd for Kiel. Bundesautobahn 215 går gennem kommunen.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Kommunens side på amtets websted .
 Statistikamt Nord – Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2013 (XLSX-Data) (Fortschreibung auf Basis des Zensus 2011)

Kommuner i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Kreis Rendsborg-Egernførde

Sören (Holstein)


Ernst Otto Emil Zörner, né le  à Nordhausen, disparu en 1945 et déclaré mort en 1960, est  un homme politique allemand, membre du parti nazi, président du Landtag de Brunswick, député au Reichstag, bourgmestre de Dresde et gouverneur du district de Lublin dans le gouvernement général de Pologne.

Biographie

Jeunesse
Après l'école primaire, Zörner fait ses études secondaires à Brunswick, puis un apprentissage de trois ans et trois semestres à l'école supérieure de commerce de Hanovre. Quand la Première Guerre mondiale éclate en 1914, il se porte volontaire pour le front. Il finit la guerre comme commandant de compagnie avec le grade de Leutnant. En 1918, il travaille pour le service des gardes-frontières à Danzig puis est de nouveau comme commerçant l'année suivante En 1924, il crée une brûlerie de café et une épicerie à Brunswick.

National-socialiste de la première heure
Zörner rejoint le NSDAP en 1922 et est cofondateur du parti dans le Land de Brunswick. Après l'interdiction du parti, il y adhère de nouveau en 1925 (numéro de membre 3 218), et il y fait rapidement carrière. En , il est le premier conseiller municipal nazi à Braunschweig et, en 1929, Fraktionsführer. En 1930, il est élu au parlement du Land de Brunswick et en devient président en septembre de la même année

Il est élu au Reichstag en 1932 et obtient en , peu après la prise du pouvoir par les nazis, la vice-présidence du parlement.

Télégramme de Hitler
En prévision de l'élection à la présidence du Reich en 1932, Zörner s'assure que l'apatride Adolf Hitler reçoive la nationalité allemande requise pour participer au vote. Pour ce faire, il lui propose de l'inscrire comme son sous-locataire, car Hitler doit à l'époque prouver au bureau d'enregistrement des résidents qu'il réside à Brunswick afin d'être naturalisé. Le , Hitler fait parvenir à Zörner le télégramme suivant : « Je vous prie de m'enregistrer en tant que sous-locataire chez vous. - Adolf Hitler". Hitler n'a cependant jamais vécu à l'adresse indiquée  Hohetorwall 7 ou à toute autre adresse de Brunswick.

Confrontation avec le premier ministre de Brunswick
Avant même qu'Hitler ne soit naturalisé, Zörner entre en conflit avec le ministre-président nazi de l'État libre de Brunswick Dietrich Klagges, ce qui conduit les deux hommes à une procédure devant la Cour suprême du parti du NSDAP à Munich qui empêchera la réélection de Zörner comme Président du Parlement de Brunswick en .

Bourgmestre de Dresde
Grâce à l'appui d'Hitler, Zörner est désigné bourgmestre de Dresde en  et occupe ce poste jusqu'en .

En 1936-37, Zörner est accusé de malversations financières et est éloigné de ses fonctions en 1937. Il est alors nommé représentant d'Albert Speer, et est censé s'occuper de la refonte du projet de capitale du Reich (Germania). Il siège aussi au Conseil présidentiel de la Chambre des beaux-arts du Reich.

Seconde Guerre mondiale - Gouvernement général
Hans Frank, « gouverneur général » de la Pologne occupée et ami de Zörner, l'emmène au gouvernement général peu après l'occupation de la Pologne en 1939. De  à , il remplace le maire polonais de Cracovie. Le , il est nommé gouverneur du district de Lublin, succédant à Friedrich Schmidt.

Conflit avec la SS
Pendant son séjour à Lublin, la population rurale polonaise est expulsée avec une grande brutalité par le Chef supérieur de la SS et de la Police de Lublin Odilo Globocnik et ses troupes dans le cadre de l'Action Zamość. Après une lutte de pouvoir entre Zörner et Globocnik, ainsi que des critiques de Zörner de la mise en œuvre de la politique d'occupation en Pologne, il est démis de ses fonctions  le  par Heinrich Himmler, et renvoyé dans le Reich allemand où il est mis à disposition de l'Organisation Todt.

Dans la confusion de la fin de la guerre, on perd sa trace. Au printemps 1945, Zörner aurait été arrêté dans le Protectorat de Bohême-Moravie et se serait suicidé. En 1945, il est considéré comme disparu. En , à la demande de sa fille, Ernst Zörner est rétroactivement déclaré mort en . Cependant, sa seconde épouse n'est pas mentionnée dans le certificat, ce qui fait que l'historien Bogdan Musiał n'exclut pas que le couple Zörner soit entré dans la clandestinité sous de faux noms en 1945.

Bibliographie
 : Im deutschen Land marschieren wir. Freistaat Braunschweig 1930–1945. Braunschweig 1984.
 Horst-Rüdiger Jarck, Günter Scheel (Hrsg.): Braunschweigisches Biographisches Lexikon – 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Hahnsche Buchhandlung, Hannover 1996 ,  et suiv.
 Ernst Klee: Das Personenlexikon zum Dritten Reich. S. Fischer Verlag GmbH, 2003 .
 : Deutsche Zivilverwaltung und Judenverfolgung im Generalgouvernement. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1999 ; 2. unv. Aufl., Wiesbaden 2004 .
 Werner Präg,  (Hrsg.): Das Diensttagebuch des deutschen Generalgouverneurs in Polen 1939–1945. Veröffentlichungen des Institut für Zeitgeschichte, Quellen und Darstellungen zur Zeitgeschichte Band 20, Stuttgart 1975 .
 : Bürgertum und Nationalsozialismus 1930–1933. Braunschweigs Weg ins Dritte Reich. Hannover 1961.
 Ernst-August Roloff: Wie braun war Braunschweig? Hitler und der Freistaat Braunschweig. In: Braunschweiger Zeitung-Spezial, Nr. 3 (2003), Braunschweig 2003.
 : Bitte mich als Untermieter bei Ihnen anzumelden! Hitler und Braunschweig 1932–1935. Norderstedt 2004.
 Erich Stockhorst: 5000 Köpfe. Wer war was im 3. Reich. Arndt, Kiel 2000  (Unveränderter Nachdruck der ersten Auflage von 1967).
 : Hitlers Braunschweiger Personal. DöringDruck, Braunschweig 2017 ,

Notes et références

Liens externes

Marchand du XXe siècle
Personnalité du Parti national-socialiste des travailleurs allemands
Personnalité politique du Troisième Reich
Député du Landtag de l'État libre de Brunswick
Bourgmestre de Dresde
Député du Reichstag (république de Weimar)
Naissance en juin 1895
Naissance à Nordhausen
Naissance dans la province de Saxe
Date de décès non renseignée (XXe siècle)

Ernst Zörner


Witch's broom or witches' broom is a deformity in a woody plant, typically a tree, where the natural structure of the plant is changed. A dense mass of shoots grows from a single point, with the resulting structure resembling a broom or a bird's nest. It is sometimes caused by pathogens.

Diseases with symptoms of witches' broom, caused by phytoplasmas or basidiomycetes, are economically important in a number of crop plants, including the cocoa tree Theobroma cacao, jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) and the timber tree Melia azedarach.

Causes
A tree's characteristic shape, or habit, is in part the product of auxins, hormones which control the growth of secondary apices. The growth of an offshoot is limited by the auxin, while that of the parent branch is not. In cases of witch's broom, the normal hierarchy of buds is interrupted, and apices grow indiscriminately. This can be caused by cytokinin, a phytohormone which interferes with growth regulation. The phenomenon can also be caused by other organisms, including fungi, oomycetes, insects, mites, nematodes, phytoplasmas, and viruses. The broom growths may last for many years, typically for the life of the host plant. If twigs of witch's brooms are grafted onto normal rootstocks, freak trees result, showing that the attacking organism has changed the inherited growth pattern of the twigs.

Ecological role
Witches' brooms provide nesting habitat for birds and mammals, such as the northern flying squirrel, which nests in them.

See also
 Plant development § buds and shoots – atypical shoot development
 Epicormic shoot – a shoot that develops from buds under the bark
 Forest pathology
 Longan witches broom-associated virus
 Melampsora can cause different kinds of witch's brooms.
 Moniliophthora perniciosa, cause of witch's broom disease in cacao
 Phyllody, a related plant growth abnormality affecting flowers

References

External links

 Witches' Broom at BBC h2g2.
 Fir and spruce broom

Plant pathogens and diseases

Witch's broom


Forever Young is the debut studio album by German synth-pop band Alphaville. It was released on 27 September 1984 by Warner Music Group. Four singles supported the album, "Big in Japan", "Sounds Like a Melody", "Forever Young", and "Jet Set". The album charted well, hitting the Top 20 in six European countries and reaching number 1 in Norway and Sweden. Alphaville followed up with their second album in 1986 with the release of Afternoons in Utopia.

The album was re-released in a "super deluxe" edition in March 2019.

Background
The band released the single "Big in Japan" before the album had finished recording, and its success surprised the band and label. Said the band, "'[Big in Japan]' beamed us up into showbiz heaven, half of the album was still to be written. So, while we were in the middle of composing and arranging the residual songs, we were sort of overtaken by our future selves. … Once we wore tattered jeans and sweaty leather jacks … now we were homeless millionaires living in hotel suites and airports." Their sudden and unexpected success affected the rest of the album. In 1986, singer Marian Gold recalled that he "bought an album of an unknown British band named Big in Japan. As you know, there's a considerable musical market in Japan. If you wanted to become famous, what you should do was to form a hard rock group and then release an album over there; it would definitely sell well... so the story went ... The statement fitted well to my storyline about a couple of drug addicted lovers and moreover provided the title for the prospective song."

The first three tracks the band recorded were "Big in Japan", "Seeds", which was released as the b-side to "Big in Japan", and "Forever Young", which was originally recorded as an up-tempo track. The band was not happy with the fast version of "Forever Young", and recording of the track had come to a halt while the band figured out what to do with the song. It was producer Andreas Budde who suggested turning the track into a ballad, which is how the song was released.

The band had planned to release "Forever Young" as their second single, to follow the success of "Big in Japan". However, record studio executives requested that the band release an additional song between the two singles, and as a result "Sounds Like a Melody" was written and arranged in just two days. Of the experience, Gold said "the whole affair felt like an insult to our naive hippie instincts. Writing music exclusively for the sake of commercial success seemed like the sell-out of our virtual beliefs. On the other hand, did this not open up possibilities for wonderful games to play in the brave new world of pop music?" This corporate pressure caused Gold to dislike the song and he refused to play it live for over 15 years.

Some songs they wrote for the album were sung in German ("Blauer Engel", "Traumtänzer", and "Leben Ohne Ende"), but none of the songs ended up making it on the actual release, instead being released as b-sides or on later retrospective albums. Colin Pearson, who co-produced the album, said that Marian Gold would occasionally have problems with lyrics, and then he would remember that Gold was writing in a foreign language.

Band member Bernhard Lloyd said the album was recorded using equipment such as Roland TR-808 and Linn LM-1 drum machines, a Roland System-100M, an ARP String Ensemble and a Roland SDE 200 Digital Delay machine. The album was recorded on Tascam 8-track tapes, and they used a Friendchip SRC machine to synchronize all the tracks.

The iconic cover art for the album is by .

Songs
The song "Summer in Berlin" contains references to the East German uprising of 1953, which occurred on 17 June 1953. When the compilation album Alphaville Amiga Compilation was assembled for release in East Germany in 1988, the song "Summer in Berlin" was submitted for inclusion, but rejected "for political reasons."

"Fallen Angel" was written after "Big in Japan" was released, and the band said "everything changes when you're Number One. The world becomes a big shopping mall where all is for free, people, objects, what-ever. There is something vulgar about all this."

In 1988, Gold said that "'In The Mood' is very likely about us, about how we felt in 1984, though we didn't realize that when we wrote it. The rocket-like success of "Big In Japan" was mind-blowing and irritating at the same time and we were scandalized by a horror of losing our artistic innocence ever since we had signed that record-deal."

On the song "The Jet Set", Gold said of the song, "We didn't intend to write a proper song; it was supposed to be some kind of jingle that advertises things money can't buy: anarchy, freedom, love, fun and a piece of the end of the world."

Critical reception

Reviews were generally positive, with one reviewer calling it "a classic synth pop album" and "a wonderfully fun ride from start to finish."

Chart performance
The album fared well in parts of Europe, but it failed to make an impact on the UK charts or in the US, faring no better than number 180.

The single "Big in Japan" made a surprise entry onto the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 66, where it stayed on the chart for several weeks.

Although the title track "Forever Young" was re-released several times as a single by the band's label in the hope of it becoming a hit in the United States, it did not reach any higher than number 65 on the Hot 100. Although it reached one position higher than "Big in Japan", it quickly fell into obscurity and "Big in Japan" remains their biggest-selling single in the US. "Big in Japan" also managed to peak at number 8 on the UK Singles Chart, while "Forever Young" was also considered a commercial failure there, reaching number 98.

Re-release
On 15 March 2019, the album was remastered for the first time for its 35th anniversary. The package comes with two additional CDs, one with original single versions, B-sides and remixes and the other with 16 original demos. The other disc is a DVD that includes a 60-minute documentary and promo videos. There is also a super deluxe edition that includes the new remaster on vinyl and comes with a 24-page vinyl-sized booklet, created by the art director of the original album in close collaboration with the band and contains a variety of rare and unpublished photos, sleeve notes and various other testimonies.

Track listing

2019 remaster
On 10 January 2019, it was officially announced that the album reissue of Forever Young would be released on 15 March 2019.
The Forever Young reissues were published in several editions:

Super Deluxe Edition 3-CD/1-DVD/1-Vinyl; the original 10-track album on the first disc, also original singles, b-sides and 12″ versions remixes on a second disc, Only on super deluxe it includes 16-track original demos including German-language songs on a third disc, the fourth disc is the DVD that includes a brand new documentary and promo music videos, the package also includes a remastered vinyl of the original 10-track album.
Deluxe Edition 2-CD; the original 10-track album on the first disc, including original singles, b-sides and 12″ versions remixes on a second disc.
Separate Remastered Vinyl one-LP; the original 10-track album remastered by Bernhard Lloyd and Stefan Betke.

Disc 1 — The original 10-track album

Personnel

Alphaville
 Marian Gold – lead and backing vocals
 Bernhard Lloyd – rhythm keyboards, programming, electric guitar, drum machine
 Frank Mertens – lead keyboards

Additional musicians
 Wolfgang Loos – additional keyboards, gong
 Ken Taylor – bass
 Curt Cress – drums, percussion
 Wednesday, Gulfstream, The Rosie Singers, The Claudias – backing vocals
 German Opera – strings, string arrangements

Production
 Produced by Wolfgang Loos, Colin Pearson and Andreas "Andy" Budde
 Recorded and engineered by Wolfgang Loos and Uli Rudolph
 Technical assistance by Boris Balin and Thomas Beck
 Mixed by Wolfgang Loos
 Artwork, Cover Design by Ulf Meyer zu Küingdorf
 Inner Sleeve Photography by Thomas Reutter
 Management by Heinz-Gerd Luetticke

Charts

Weekly charts

Certifications and sales

References

1984 debut albums
Alphaville (band) albums
Atlantic Records albums
Warner Music Group albums

Forever Young (Alphaville album)


El Club Ciclista Eibarrés (en euskera Eibarko Txirrindulari Elkartea) es un club de ciclismo de la localidad guipuzcoana de Éibar en el País Vasco (España). Fue fundado en el año 1926 y desde 1931, cuando organizó el I Gran Premio San Juan, ha venido organizando diferentes pruebas ciclistas entre las que destacan, durante los años de la República, el Gran Premio de la República, la prueba amateur Memorial Valenciaga y el Gran Premio de la Bicicleta Eibarresa a partir de 1952.

Historia
En el año 1926, con licencia SS-1, Eulogio Gárate, Hermogenes Larrañaga y Eulogio Bustindui fundaron el Club Ciclista G.A.C. antecesor del Club Ciclista Eibarrés, con la intención de dar a conocer los nuevos productos que la G.A.C. comenzaba a fabricar y presentaría en 1927. Hasta ese año la G.A.C. fabricaba pistolas automáticas decidiendo pasar a la fabricación de bicicletas por la crisis demanda que sobre las armas había en aquellos momentos. Pronto el nombre del club paso a "Club ciclista eibarés-GAC " y lo presidió Eulogio Bustindui. El club participó en la formación de dequipos ciclistas con corredores inminentemente eibarreses o de la zona.

En Éibar se realizaban pruebas ciclistas bajo la tutela de la Unión Deportiva Eibarresa, en 1931 colabora con la Unión deportiva eibarresa en la organización del I Gran Premio San Juan. Al año siguiente organiza, dentro de los actos del primer aniversario de la proclamación de la República, el "Gran Premio de la República" que se realizaría hasta 1935, denominándose en sus dos últimas ediciones "Gran Premio de la República / Eibar-Madrid-Eibar".

En 1940, tras la guerra civil, se vuelve a reorganizar el club y se reanudan la organización de competiciones. En 1941, junto al Club Deportivo Eibar,  se organiza el " Gran Premio San Juan" (prueba en tres etapas), prueba que organizarían conjuntamente hasta 1948. En 1949, 1950 y 1951 organizan el "Gran Premio San Juan", el "Circuito Urbano" y la "Prueba de Velocidad".

Para el 25 aniversario del club se organiza la "Bicicleta Eibarresa" en la que destaca, como novedad, el carácter internacional de la misma. Desde 1952 y hasta 1969 el "Gran Premio Bicicleta Eibarresa" se organiza bajo ese título expulsivo y toma relevancia. En 1970 pasa a denominarse "Vuelta al País Vasco Gran Premio Bicicleta Eibarresa" y en 1974 el club pierde la organización de la misma que se denominará solamente "Vuelta al País Vasco". En 1972 se comienza a organizar el "Memorial Valenciaga", una prueba para aficionados.

Entre 1974 y 1978 el club sufre una crisis de actividad y organización que se supera con una nueva directiva en 1978 comenzando a organizar una serie de pruebas de diferentes especialidades ciclistas desde infantiles a profesionales; mantiene una comisión de cicloturismo y otra de mountain-bike; encauzando a través de ellas excursiones y actividades recreativas. En 1980 se unen Club Deportivo Eibar y Club Ciclista Eibarrés con el fin de volver a organizar pruebas de carácter profesional, fruto de esa unión es la prueba conocida como "Euskal Bizikleta" que surge de la unión de la "Bicicleta eibarresa" y la "Subida a Arrate".

En el año 2001, con motivo del 75 Aniversario de la fundación del club el ayuntamiento de Éibar da el nombre de "Bicicleta eibarresa" una plaza de la ciudad.

Presidentes del club Ciclista eibarés
 Eulogio Bustindui.
 Hermogenes Larrañaga
 Antonio Sarasua.
 Kasto Aristondo.
 Ramón Sarasua.
 Secundino Loidi.
 Pedro María Blaglietto.
 J Mendibe.
 Felipe Fernández.
 Jose Luis Valenciaga.
 Luis Urcelay.
 José Arregui.
 Luis Epelguez
 Javier Bengoa
 Jose Aranberri
 Rafael Treviño
 José Antonio Larrea
 Ramon Arizaga
 Pablo Uribetxeberria
 Jesus Maria Hernández
 Jabier Ziaran
 Moises Artaechebarria.
Ángel López Mendi.

Notas y referencias

Enlaces externos
 Club Ciclista Eibarrés
 La Bicicleta y el Ciclismo en Éibar

Ciclismo en Éibar
Clubes deportivos de Guipúzcoa
Equipos de ciclismo del País Vasco

Club Ciclista Eibarrés


Stokke Station (Stokke stasjon) er en jernbanestation på Vestfoldbanen, der ligger i Sandefjord kommune i Norge. Stationen består af to spor med hver sin sideliggende perron og en stationsbygning opført i hvidmalet træ efter tegninger af Balthazar Lange. Stationen betjenes af NSB's regionaltog mellem Skien og Eidsvoll.

Stationen åbnede sammen med banen 7. december 1881. Den blev fjernstyret 15. september 1971 og gjort ubemandet 1. maj 1989.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Stationer på Vestfoldbanen
Etableret i 1881
Jernbanestationer i Vestfold

Stokke Station


Wadworth Hall est un manoir classé grade I, situé dans le village de Wadworth (près de Doncaster), en Angleterre. Il est construit en 1749 pour la famille Wordsworth par le célèbre architecte du Nord James Paine (architecte). C'est actuellement une résidence privée et ce depuis 1995. La maison, cependant, a servi à plusieurs fins au cours des 250 dernières années.

Le bâtiment est construit en pierre de taille calcaire magnésienne avec un toit en ardoise Westmorland. Le bloc principal est de 3 par 4 baies sur deux étages avec des greniers avec une aile de service plus tard attachée .

Histoire
Le nom de Wordsworth apparait au  après une vague de migration provoquée par la conquête normande de la Grande-Bretagne en 1066. La famille Wordsworth vit dans le Yorkshire à 'Wadsuuorde' ou Wadsworth. La langue anglaise n'a été standardisée qu'au cours des derniers siècles et les noms étaient fréquemment mal orthographiés sur les documents officiels en raison de l'analphabétisme, ce qui explique peut-être pourquoi le manoir et son village environnant s'appellent Wadworth (une variante de Wordsworth).

Trouvée pour la première fois dans le Yorkshire, la famille était installée à Wadsworth, enregistrée dans le Domesday Book en 1086 comme « terre du roi », une lande avec deux églises et des maisons dispersées. On dit qu'un bâtiment isolé dans le village est le cadre du célèbre roman d'Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights. Le village est concédé par le roi Guillaume à Roger de Bully (considéré comme l'ancêtre des Wadsworth) à la suite de la conquête normande de l'Angleterre.

Le domaine est ensuite transmis à la famille Ross au  avec James Clark Ross.

Après son utilisation comme maison familiale, il est vendu au Conseil du comté de West Riding en 1957 et est transformé en maison de retraite avant d'être ensuite vendu à un cabinet d'architectes, qui le transforme en bureaux. Au milieu des années 1990, les architectes réduisent leurs effectifs et Andrew Cusack installe son entreprise informatique sur une partie du rez-de-chaussée du manoir. Un an plus tard, l'opportunité s'est présentée pour Cusack d'acheter la maison.

Références

Liens externes

Monument classé de Grade I dans le Yorkshire du Sud

Wadworth Hall


An Sporadanthus traversii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Ferdinand von Mueller, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Ferdinand von Mueller och Thomas Kirk. An Sporadanthus traversii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sporadanthus, ngan familia nga Restionaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Sporadanthus

Sporadanthus traversii


Goi, Rode, Goi! (ruski:  Гой, Роде, Гой!, "Pozdrav, Rode, pozdrav!") peti je studijski album ruskog pagan metal sastava Arkona. Diskografska kuća Napalm Records objavila ga je 28. listopada 2009. godine.

Na albumu se pojavljuje mnogo gostujućih pjevača i glazbenika, a pogotovo na skladbi "Na Moyey Zemle", na kojoj sudjeluju pjevači iz skupina Månegarm (iz Švedske), Obtest (iz Litve), Menhir (iz Njemačke), Skyforger (iz Latvije) i Heidevolk (iz Nizozemske). Svaki od njih pjeva na svojem materinjem jeziku i utjelovljuje lik ratnika iz tih područja koji putniku opisuje svoju domovinu.

Taj je uradak jedan od rijetkih izdanja skupine koji je bio objavljen na gramofonskoj ploči u ograničenoj nakladi od 500 primjeraka. U usporedbi s inačicom albuma na CD-u pjesme "Pritcha" i "Na Moey Zemle" na gramofonskoj su ploči zamijenile mjesta.

Popis pjesama

Recenzije
Album je dobio pozitivne međunarodne kritike. About.com pohvalio je spoj snažnih vokala s dubokim i dinamičnim skladbama, ali je zamijetio i uglavnom vedru atmosferu sličnu onoj finskih metal sastava kao što su Finntroll i Korpiklaani. Recenzent je opisao Arkonu kao jednu od najboljih pagan skupina.

Njemački je Sonic Seducer napisao da je ovaj album epskiji i orkestralniji, ali i zaigraniji od prethodnih uradaka. Metal Hammer pohvalio je vokalne sposobnosti pjevačice Arhipove i tradicionalne ruske melodije.

Kerrang! je napisao pozitivnu recenziju za album te u njoj istaknuo da, za razliku od mnogih izvođača u ovom podžanru, Arkonu "čine stvarni pogani koji su osnovali ovaj sastav kako bi prikazali svoj način razmišljanja. [...] Naslovna skladba i "Nevidal" odlikuju se ratničkim metalom, dok je vesela "Yarilo" poput Jolly Rogera u Turisasovom stilu koji, nažalost, traje manje od tri minute. U potpunosti je na ruskom i zbog toga je, bizarno, bolja", rekao je recenzent Steve Beebee, koji je albumu dao 3 od pet bodova.

Zasluge

Arkona
Masha "Scream" – vokali, klavijature, tamburin, šejker, drombulja, produkcija
Ruslan "Kniaz" – bas-gitara
Vlad "Artist" – bubnjevi
Sergey "Lazar" – drombulja (na pjesmi "Korochun"), gitara, balalajka, produkcija, miksanje, mastering
Ostalo osoblje
Kris Verwimp – naslovnica
W. Smerdulak – dizajn
Yury Eremin – fotografija
Sofia Sultanova – dirigentica zbora
Alexander Kozlovskiy – dirigent gudačkog kvinteta
Jan Yrlund – urednik slika

Dodatni glazbenici
Joris "Boghtdrincker" – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Mark "Splintervuyscht" – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Cosmin "Hultanu" Duduc – tulnic (na pjesmi "Goi, Rode, Goi!")
Vasiliy Derevyanny – domra (na pjesmama 7 i 14)
Vetrodar – mandolina (na pjesmi "Nebo hmuroe tuchi mrachniye")
Vladimir "Volk" – gajde, frula (na pjesmi "Korochun")
Vladimir Cherepovsky – gajde, zviždaljka, sopilka, žalejka, frula, okarina
Ilya "Wolfenhirt" – zborski vokali
Alexander "Shmel" – zborski vokali
Alexander "Olen" – harmonika
Erik Grawsiö – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Jan Liljeqvist – violina, flauta (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Baalberith – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Sadlave – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Pēteris "Peter" – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Edgars "Zirgs" – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Kaspars Bārbals – kokle (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")
Heiko Gerull – vokali (na pjesmi "Na moey zemle")

Izvori

Albumi iz 2009.
Albumi sastava Arkona

Goi, Rode, Goi!


Obrazovanje u Mađarskoj uglavnom je javno, a provodi ga Ministarstvo za ljudske resurse.

Obrazovanje u predškolskim vrtićima obvezno je i predviđeno za svu djecu između tri i šest godina, nakon čega je pohađanje škole također obvezno do dobi od šesnaest godina. Osnovno obrazovanje obično traje osam godina. Srednjoškolsko obrazovanje uključuje tri tradicionalna tipa škola usredotočenih na različite akademske razine: gimnazija upisuje najdarovitiju djecu i priprema studente za sveučilišne studije; srednje strukovne škole za srednjoškolce traju četiri godine, a tehnička škola priprema učenike za strukovno obrazovanje i svijet rada.

Sustav je djelomično fleksibilan i postoje mogućnosti promjena škole, na primjer diplomanti iz strukovne škole mogu postići dvogodišnji program za pristup strukovnom visokom obrazovanju. Trendovi u međunarodnoj studiji matematike i znanosti (TIMSS) ocijenili su mađarske učenike od 13 i 14 godina među najboljima na svijetu u područjima matematike i znanosti.

Većina mađarskih sveučilišta su javne ustanove, a studenti tradicionalno studiraju bez plaćanja naknade. Opći uvjet za upis na sveučilište je matura. Mađarski sustav javnoga visokoga obrazovanja obuhvaća sveučilišta i druge visokoškolske ustanove koji pružaju obrazovne programe i srodne stupnjeve do doktorskog stupnja te također doprinose istraživačkim aktivnostima. Zdravstveno osiguranje za studente je besplatno do kraja studija.

Engleski i njemački jezik važni su u mađarskom visokom obrazovanju, postoji niz programskih stupnjeva koji se podučavaju na tim jezicima, što godišnje privlači tisuće studenata na razmjenama. Mađarsko visoko obrazovanje i osposobljavanje rangirano je kao 44. od 148 zemalja u Globalnom izvješću o konkurentnosti 2014. godine.

Izvori

Obrazovanje u Mađarskoj


වෙසක්, යනු චන්ද්‍ර මාසයකි. බුද්ධ වර්ෂ ක්‍රමයේ දී සහ සිංහල වර්ෂ ක්‍රමයේ දී බක් සහ පොසොන් මාස අතර මාසයවේ.

සෑම චන්ද්‍ර මසකම මෙන්ම පෑලවක දිනයෙන් ඇරඹෙන මෙම මාසය අමාවක දිනයෙන් අවසන් වේ.

උත්සව
 බොහෝ බෞද්ධ ජාතීන් වෙසක් මස පසලොස්වක දිනයේ බුදුන් වහන්සේගේ තෙමඟුල සමරනු ලබයි. මෙම උත්සවය සඳහාබොහෝ රටවල වෙසක් හෝ බුද්ධ පූර්ණිමා නමින් හැඳින්වේ.
 ශ්‍රී පාද වන්දනා සමය අවසන්කිරීමේ උත්සවය

කාලය මැනීම - සිංහල ක්‍රම

වෙසක් මාසය


Scott Elliott Fahlman (born March 21, 1948) is an American computer scientist and Professor Emeritus at Carnegie Mellon University's Language Technologies Institute and Computer Science Department.  He is notable for early work on automated planning and scheduling in a blocks world, on semantic networks, on neural networks (especially the cascade correlation algorithm), on the programming languages Dylan, and Common Lisp (especially CMU Common Lisp), and he was one of the founders of Lucid Inc. During the period when it was standardized, he was recognized as "the leader of Common Lisp." From 2006 to 2015, Fahlman was engaged in developing a knowledge base named Scone, based in part on his thesis work on the NETL Semantic Network. He also is credited with coining the use of the emoticon.

Life and career
Fahlman was born in Medina, Ohio, the son of Lorna May (Dean) and John Emil Fahlman. He attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he received a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) and Master of Science (M.S.) degree in electrical engineering and computer science in 1973, and a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in artificial intelligence in 1977. He has noted that his doctoral diploma says the degree was awarded for "original research as demonstrated by a thesis in the field of Artificial Intelligence" and suggested that it may be the first doctorate to use that term. He is a fellow of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence.

Fahlman acted as thesis advisor for Donald Cohen, David B. McDonald, David S. Touretzky, Skef , Justin Boyan, Michael Witbrock, and Alicia Tribble Sagae.

From May 1996 to July 2001, Fahlman directed the Justsystem Pittsburgh Research Center.

Emoticons
Fahlman was not the first to suggest the concept of the emoticon – a similar concept for a marker appeared in an article of Reader's Digest in May 1967, although that idea was never put into practice.

In an interview printed in The New York Times in 1969, Vladimir Nabokov noted: "I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile –
 some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket."

Fahlman is credited with originating the first smiley emoticon, which he thought would help people on a message board at Carnegie Mellon to distinguish serious posts from jokes. He proposed the use of :-) and :-( for this purpose, and the symbols caught on. The original message from which these symbols originated was posted on 19 September 1982. The message was recovered by Jeff Baird on 10 September 2002 and read:

19-Sep-82 11:44    Scott E  Fahlman             :-)
From: Scott E  Fahlman <Fahlman at Cmu-20c>

I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers:

:-)

Read it sideways.  Actually, it is probably more economical to mark
things that are NOT jokes, given current trends.  For this, use

:-(

References

External links

1948 births
Living people
American computer scientists
Artificial intelligence researchers
Fellows of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
MIT School of Engineering alumni
Lisp (programming language) people
People from Medina, Ohio
Natural language processing researchers
Machine learning researchers
Creators of writing systems

Scott Fahlman