يقوم الاقتصاد المختلط  بالخلط بين عناصر اقتصاد الأسواق المالية وعناصر الاقتصاد المخطط له، أو بين الأسواق الحرة والدعم الحكومي، أو بين المؤسسات الخاصة والعامة. لا يوجد تعريف واحد للاقتصاد المختلط، بل تعريفان رئيسيان. أول تعريف يقوم على الخلط بين الأسواق والدعم الحكومي، ويشير إلى اقتصاد السوق الرأسمالية ذات الإشراف التنظيمي القوي، والسياسات التدخلية، وتوفير الحكومة للخدمات العامة. التعريف الثاني ذو طبيعة سياسية ويقوم على الخلط بين اقتصاد المشاريع الخاصة والمشاريع العامة.

في معظم الحالات، ولا سيما اقتصاد الدول الغربية، يشير مصطلح «الاقتصاد المختلط» إلى الاقتصاد الرأسمالي الذي يتميز بهيمنة الملكية الخاصة على وسائل الإنتاج والمشاريع التي تسعى إلى الربح وتراكم رأس المال كقوة دافعة أساسية. في هذا النظام، تخضع الأسواق لرقابة تنظيمية بدرجات متفاوتة، وتمارس الحكومات نفوذًا على الاقتصاد الكلي بشكل غير مباشر من خلال السياسات المالية والنقدية بهدف مواجهة تاريخ دورات الطفرة أو الكساد، والبطالة وتفاوت الدخل في الرأسمالية. في هذا الإطار، توفر الحكومة أعدادًا متفاوتة من المرافق العامة والخدمات الأساسية، وغالبًا يقتصر نشاط الدولة على توفير السلع العامة والمتطلبات المدنية الشاملة. ويشمل ذلك الرعاية الصحية والبنية التحتية المادية وإدارة الأراضي العامة. يتناقض ذلك مع مبدأ عدم التدخل (ليزيه فير)، إذ يقتصر نشاط الدولة على توفير السلع والخدمات العامة بالإضافة إلى البنية التحتية والإطار القانوني لحماية حقوق الملكية وتنفيذ العقود.

بالإشارة إلى النماذج الاقتصادية لأوروبا الغربية بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية التي دافع عنها الديمقراطيون المسيحيون والديمقراطيون الاشتراكيون، يتبين أن الاقتصاد المختلط هو شكل من أشكال الرأسمالية التي تمتلك فيها معظم الصناعات ملكية خاصة مع عدد صغير فقط من المرافق العامة والخدمات الأساسية ذات الملكية العامة. في فترة ما بعد الحرب، أصبحت الديمقراطية الاشتراكية الأوروبية مرتبطة بهذا النموذج الاقتصادي، مثلما يتضح من تنفيذ دولة الرفاهية.

كمثال اقتصادي، يقوم أفراد من مختلف الخلفيات السياسية بدعم الاقتصاد المختلط، عادةً من الحزب الوسط اليسار والوسط اليمين، مثل الديمقراطيين الاشتراكيين أو الديمقراطيين المسيحيين.

أصول الكلمات
لا يوجد تعريف واحد فقط للاقتصاد المختلط. ومع ذلك، يوجد عمومًا تعريفان رئيسيان، أحدهما سياسي والآخر غير سياسي.

يشير التعريف السياسي للاقتصاد المختلط إلى درجة تدخل الدولة في اقتصاد السوق، إذ يصور الدولة على أنها تتدخل في السوق على افتراض أن السوق هو الآلية «الطبيعية» لتخصيص الموارد. يقتصر التعريف السياسي على الاقتصاد الرأسمالي ويستبعد الامتداد للأنظمة غير الرأسمالية، إذ يهتم بالسياسة العامة ونفوذ الدولة في السوق. من ناحية أخرى، يتعلق التعريف غير السياسي بأنماط ملكية وإدارة المشاريع الاقتصادية في الاقتصاد.

يقوم التعريف غير السياسي للاقتصاد المختلط بخلط الملكية العامة والخاصة للمؤسسات في الاقتصاد ولا يهتم بالأشكال السياسية والسياسة العامة.

التاريخ
نشأ مصطلح «الاقتصاد المختلط» في سياق النقاش السياسي في المملكة المتحدة في فترة ما بعد الحرب، على الرغم من أن مجموعة السياسات المرتبطة بهذا المصطلح مدعومة منذ ثلاثينيات القرن العشرين على الأقل. معظم مؤيدي الاقتصاد المختلط، منهم آر إتش تاوني، وأنتوني كروسلاند وأندرو شونفيلد، ارتبطوا بحزب العمال البريطاني، على الرغم من أن المحافظين بمن فيهم هارولد ماكميلان قد أعربوا عن وجهات نظر مماثلة. جادل منتقدو الاقتصاد المختلط، ومنهم لودفيج فون ميسيس وفريدريك فون حايك، بأنه لا يمكن أن يكون هناك حل وسط دائم بين التخطيط الاقتصادي واقتصاد السوق وأن أي تحرك في اتجاه التخطيط الاشتراكي هو خطوة غير مقصودة نحو ما أسماه هيلير بلوك «الدولة الخادعة».

الفلسفة السياسية
بالمعنى غير السياسي، يستخدم مصطلح «الاقتصاد المختلط» لوصف النظم الاقتصادية التي تجمع بين عناصر مختلفة لاقتصاد السوق والاقتصاد المخطط. نظرًا لأن معظم الإيديولوجيات السياسية والاقتصادية معرفّة بالمعنى المثالي، فالمعاني الموصوفة - إن وجدت - نادرًاً ما تطبّق بشكل عملي. يعتبر الكثيرون أنه من المعقول تسمية الاقتصاد، على الرغم من أنه ليس تعبيرًا مثاليًا، إلا أنه قريب من المثالي عند تطبيق نموذج التقييم الذي يحقق التسمية المثالية. ومع ذلك، عندما ينحرف النظام المعني بشدة عن النموذج الاقتصادي أو الأيديولوجية المثالية، يمكن أن تصبح مهمة تحديده صعبة. وبالتالي، تمت صياغة مصطلح «الاقتصاد المختلط». ونظرًا لأنه يستبعد أن يحتوي الاقتصاد على مزيج متساوٍ تمامًا، يميل الاقتصاد المختلط نحو الملكية الخاصة أو الملكية العامة، أو نحو الرأسمالية أو الاشتراكية، أو نحو اقتصاد السوق أو الاقتصاد الموجه بدرجات متفاوتة.

التعاليم الاشتراكية الكاثوليكية
جادل المؤلف اليسوعي ديفيد هولينباخ إس جي بأن التعليم الاشتراكي الكاثوليكي يدعو إلى «شكل جديد» من أشكال الاقتصاد المختلط. ويشير إلى تصريح البابا بيوس الحادي عشر بأن الحكومة «يجب أن تقدم المساعدة لأعضاء الهيئة الاشتراكية، ولكن قد لا تدمرهم أو تستوعبهم أبدًا». كتب هولينباخ أن الاقتصاد المختلط الاشتراكي يشمل العمل والإدارة والدولة الذين يتعاونون معًا من خلال نظام تعددي يقوم بتوزيع القوة الاقتصادية على نطاق واسع.

ومع ذلك، لاحظ الباحثون اللاحقون أن اعتبار التبعية «ممارسة سياسية نزولية، تقودها الحكومة» يتطلب قراءة انتقائية للنشرات الدورية في الستينيات. تشير القراءة الأكثر شمولية للتعاليم الاشتراكية الكاثوليكية إلى أن تصور مفهوم التبعية هو «مفهوم صعودي» «متجذر في الاعتراف بالإنسانية المشتركة، وليس بالمكافئ السياسي للإلزام النبيل».

الديمقراطية الاشتراكية الأوروبية
في أوائل فترة ما بعد الحرب في أوروبا الغربية، رفضت الأحزاب الديمقراطية الاشتراكية النموذج السياسي والاقتصادي الستاليني الحالي في الاتحاد السوفيتي، إذ التزمت إما بطرق بديلة عن الاشتراكية أو بحل وسط بين الرأسمالية والاشتراكية. في هذه الفترة، تبنى الديمقراطيون الاشتراكيون اقتصادًا مختلطًا قائمًا على هيمنة الملكية الخاصة، مع وجود أقلية فقط من المرافق الأساسية والخدمات العامة الخاضعة للملكية العامة. ونتيجة لذلك، أصبحت الديمقراطية الاشتراكية مرتبطة بالاقتصاد الكينزي وتدخلات الدولة ودولة الرفاهية، مع التخلي عن الهدف السابق المتمثل في استبدال النظام الرأسمالي (أسواق عناصر الإنتاج، والملكية الخاصة والعمل المأجور) بنظام اقتصادي اشتراكي مختلف نوعيًا.

الفاشية
على الرغم من أن الفاشية هي في الأساس أيديولوجية سياسية تشدد على أهمية القضايا الثقافية والاجتماعية في الاقتصاد، فإن الفاشية عمومًا تدعم الاقتصاد المختلط الرأسمالي على نطاق واسع. تدعم الفاشية تدخل الدولة في الأسواق والمشاريع الخاصة، إلى جانب إطار الشركات المعروف باسم «الموقف الثالث» الذي يهدف ظاهريًا إلى أن يكون حل وسطً بين الاشتراكية والرأسمالية من خلال التوسط في نزاعات العمل والأعمال لتعزيز الوحدة الوطنية. اعتمدت الأنظمة الفاشية في القرن العشرين في إيطاليا وألمانيا برامجَ أعمال عامة كبيرة لتحفيز اقتصاداتها، وتدخلات الدولة في الاقتصاد الذي يسيطر عليه القطاع الخاص إلى حد كبير لتعزيز إعادة التسلح والمصالح الوطنية. ربط الباحثون أوجه التشابه بين الصفقة الأمريكية الجديدة وبرامج الأشغال العامة التي روجت لها الفاشية، بحجة أن الفاشية نشأت ردًاً على تهديد الثورة الاشتراكية وتهدف بالمثل إلى «إنقاذ الرأسمالية» والملكية الخاصة.

الاشتراكية
دعا عدد من الاشتراكيين إلى «الاقتصاد المختلط» القائم على خلط المشاريع الخاصة والمملوكة اجتماعيًا كشكل انتقالي ضروري بين الرأسمالية والاشتراكية. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، تدعو مقترحات الأنظمة الاشتراكية إلى خلط أشكال مختلفة لملكية المشاريع بما في ذلك دور المؤسسات الخاصة. على سبيل المثال، مفهوم ألكساندر نوفي «للاشتراكية الممكنة» التي تحدد النظام الاقتصادي القائم على خلط مشاريع الصناعات الكبيرة الحكومية، وتعاونيات العمال والمستهلكين، ومشاريع المؤسسات الخاصة الصغيرة والمؤسسات المملوكة شخصيًا.

مواضيع ذات صلة
 الديمقراطية الاشتراكية
 الاشتراكية الديمقراطية
 اقتصاد مخطط
 اقتصاد السوق الاجتماعي
 الحرب على الفقر
 اشتراكية السوق
 اقتصاد مخطط لامركزياً
 دورة اقتصادية
 الاشتراكية الليبرالية

مراجع

أنظمة اقتصادية
اقتصاد الرفاه
إيديولوجيات اقتصادية
دولة رفاهية
ديمقراطية اجتماعية
رأسمالية
فلسفة سياسية

اقتصاد مختلط


Proprioception eller Balancesansen, fra Latin proprius, betyder "ens egen", "individuel", og capio, kaperer, at tage eller holde om, i forståelse af den relative position af ens egen kropsdele og styrken det kræver at bevæge sige.

Hos mennesker styrer det af proprioceptorere (muskeltener) i de tværstribede skeletalmuskler og sener (Golgiorgan) og den fibrøse kapsel i leddene. Det adskilles fra eksteroception, ved den måde man ser verden omkring sig, og introception, ved den måde man opfatter smerter, sult, etc., og bevægelsen af interne organer

Referencer

Fysiologi

Proprioception


Caryn A. James ist eine US-amerikanische Filmkritikerin, Journalistin, Hochschullehrerin und Schriftstellerin. Bis Dezember 2010 leitete sie den Bereich der Fernsehkritik bei der New York Times.

Leben
Nachdem Caryn James ihren Bachelor mit "summa cum laude" am Providence College erhalten hatte, promovierte sie in Englischer Literatur an der Brown University. Anschließend arbeitete sie als Freie Journalistin, bevor sie im Dezember 1984 für die Literaturkritik der New York Times angestellt wurde. Von 1988 bis 1989 war sie als Kulturreporterin unterwegs, bevor sie von 1989 bis 1995 Filmkritiken schrieb. Ab 1995 konzentrierte sie sich hauptsächlich auf den Bereich der Fernsehkritik, ehe sie 1997 die Leitung darüber übernahm.

Im Dezember 2010 verließ sie die New York Times und wurde Freie Journalistin. Kurz darauf startete sie mit James On Screen auf Indiewire.com ihren eigenen Blog, wo sie weiterhin über das Filmgeschehen berichtet. Zum Wintersemester 2011 wurde sie außerplanmäßige Assistenzprofessorin im Bereich Filmwissenschaften an der Columbia University.

Veröffentlichungen
 1999: Glorie, Penguin Books (Roman)
 2006: What Caroline Knew, St. Martin's Press (Roman)

Weblinks

 Caryn James bei Rotten Tomatoes
 Blog auf Indiewire (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (21. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (Englisch)
Journalist (Vereinigte Staaten)
Filmkritiker
Kritiker (The New York Times)
Hochschullehrer (Columbia University)
Person (IndieWire)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Frau

Caryn James


El proyecto Famatina fue un proyecto de exploración para la extracción minera, principalmente de oro, en el cerro Famatina de 6250 metros, situado en la provincia de La Rioja en Argentina. Varias empresas internacionales han intentado iniciarlo, pero no han podido debido a la desaprobación de las ciudades de Famatina y Chilecito. Estos pobladores objetan que se utilizará cianuro para la extracción de metales con los posibles riesgos para la ecología y la salud que trae dicho elemento y demás metales pesados utilizados.

Historia
El cerro Famatina tiene una historia minera ligada a la extracción de oro, plata, y hierro. Se conoce que los Incas y sus predecesores realizaban la minería en este cerro. En el  comenzó un mayor auge de la minería en la zona. En el  se abrió una mina altamente mecanizada "La Mexicana" con capitales Británicos, pero con la venida de la primera guerra mundial para 1914 declinó totalmente.

El proyecto Famatina se inició el 18 de junio de 1999 cuando la empresa canadiense Corriente Resources compró el proyecto a la empresa provincial Yamiri S.A.  Y en septiembre del mismo año la empresa anuncia el descubrimiento de venas con alto contenido de oro.

Desde el 2004 se realizan en Famatina medidas de protesta en contra el Proyecto Famatina, llevado a cabo por la empresa transnacional, con sede en Canadá, Barrick Gold Corporation. Los pobladores acusan a la empresa de liberar, mediante explosiones mineras, metales pesados (arsénico, cadmio, plomo, etc.) que afectarían el ecosistema de la región pues las sierras regulan el clima y la provisión de agua de la provincia. Ellos alegan que los metales pesados quedarían depositados en diques contaminando el agua aún después de cerrada la mina.

Además la empresa no deja beneficios económicos para el país, puesto que las regalías quedan para la misma. Los vecinos acusaron a Luis Beder Herrera, gobernador riojano, de mentir al decir que la minería no tiene restricciones en la provincia, "siendo que él mismo hizo aprobar tres leyes en ese sentido".

Al grito de "El Famatina no se toca" y de "Agua sí, oro no", los pobladores realizan cortes de ruta y pintan numerosos murales en Famatina con motivos en contra de la construcción minera. De esa manera lograron en principio frenar la obra. Pero la empresa comenzó luego a realizar secretamente un camino por el Departamento Vinchina, pretendiendo continuar con la explotación minera y según los vecinos está promoviendo el desarrollo nuclear para la explotación de uranio.

Finalmente, la intención de Barrik de explotar el cordón montañoso de Famatina, fue abandonada en 2007 tras las movilizaciones, campañas informativas y cortes de ruta.

El proyecto y sus controversias
A la fecha existe una fuerte resistencia de la población de la Ciudad de Chilecito y Famatina (La Rioja, Argentina) con el objetivo de que ninguna empresa explore o explote el recurso.

Ha habido cortes de las rutas de accesos no permitiendo el paso a camiones y personal de la empresa.
La iglesia local en la persona de su obispo ha pedido al Gobierno de la provincia de La Rioja que realice una consulta popular (habilitada constitucionalmente) para que los ciudadanos tomen la decisión sobre el modo de explotación de los minerales.

La negativa de parte de la población
Según la asamblea de Famatina este método de extracción tendría como consecuencia una contaminación en general y principalmente de los acuíferos y la fuente de agua dulce que proviene desde el cerro Famatina.

La oposición de la ciudad de Famatina a la minería a cielo abierto iniciada por los pobladores del lugar, es considerada una lucha popular de relevancia en Argentina y es apoyada por algunas ciudades del país, ya que los pobladores lograron impedir a dos multinacionales explotar el lugar en los periodos del 2006 y 2011. Las empresas Barrick Gold y Shandong Gold, no pudieron iniciar la exploración y se retiraron del proyecto, ante la negativa de la ciudad.

Osisko Mining Corporation
A finales de agosto de 2011 la empresa canadiense Osisko Mining Corporation adquirió el contrato y  suscribió un convenio con la provincia para la exploración de la mina de oro. Iba a ser realizado en sociedad con Energía y Minerales Sociedad del Estado (EMSE). Prometían 2000 empleos en la primera etapa. El 2 de enero de 2012, la comunidad cortó el acceso a la zona y 15.000 personas se manifestaron frente a la Casa de Gobierno. En julio de 2013 el contrato se rescindió al no lograr consenso social. El proyecto minero fue rescindido por un decreto del Ejecutivo provincial, en cumplimiento con el compromiso asumido por el gobernador Luis Beder Herrera en 2013.

Midais
Esta compañía salteña, sin experiencia en el rubro, firmó un acuerdo para explotar oro en Angulos, junto al río Blanco. En abril de 2015 los asambleístas retomaron las protestas, que no se diluyeron ante las afirmaciones del Gobierno de que la empresa iba a utilizar un método de "minería aurífera en río seco", sin químicos, ni uso del agua, ni explosivos. En noviembre del mismo año se oficializó el desmantelamiento de la iniciativa para preservar la "paz social".

Véase también
Mina a cielo abierto
Cianuro
Ley de protección de glaciares

Referencias

Proyectos
Minas de oro
Lugares contaminados
Minas de Argentina
Departamento Chilecito

Proyecto Famatina


In mathematics, and especially differential geometry and gauge theory, a connection is a device that defines a notion of parallel transport on the bundle; that is, a way to "connect" or identify fibers over nearby points. A principal G-connection on a principal G-bundle P over a smooth manifold M is a particular type of connection which is compatible with the action of the group G.

A principal connection can be viewed as a special case of the notion of an Ehresmann connection, and is sometimes called a principal Ehresmann connection. It gives rise to (Ehresmann) connections on any fiber bundle associated to P via the associated bundle construction. In particular, on any associated vector bundle the principal connection induces a covariant derivative, an operator that can differentiate sections of that bundle along tangent directions in the base manifold. Principal connections generalize to arbitrary principal bundles the concept of a linear connection on the frame bundle of a smooth manifold.

Formal definition

Let  be a smooth principal G-bundle over a smooth manifold . Then a principal -connection on  is a differential 1-form on  with values in the Lie algebra  of  which is -equivariant and reproduces the Lie algebra generators of the fundamental vector fields on .

In other words, it is an element ω of  such that
  where  denotes right multiplication by , and  is the adjoint representation on  (explicitly, );
 if  and  is the vector field on P associated to ξ by differentiating the G action on P, then  (identically on ).

Sometimes the term principal G-connection refers to the pair  and  itself is called the connection form or connection 1-form of the principal connection.

Computational remarks
Most known non-trivial computations of principal G-connections are done with homogeneous spaces because of the triviality of the (co)tangent bundle. (For example, let , be a principal G-bundle over ) This means that 1-forms on the total space are canonically isomorphic to , where  is the dual lie algebra, hence G-connections are in bijection with .

Relation to Ehresmann connections
A principal G-connection  on  determines an Ehresmann connection on  in the following way. First note that the fundamental vector fields generating the  action on  provide a bundle isomorphism (covering the identity of ) from the bundle  to , where  is the kernel of the tangent mapping  which is called the vertical bundle of . It follows that  determines uniquely a bundle map  which is the identity on . Such a projection  is uniquely determined by its kernel, which is a smooth subbundle  of  (called the horizontal bundle) such that . This is an Ehresmann connection.

Conversely, an Ehresmann connection  (or ) on  defines a principal -connection  if and only if it is -equivariant in the sense that .

Pull back via trivializing section
A trivializing section of a principal bundle P is given by a section s of P over an open subset U of M. Then the pullback s*ω of a principal connection is a 1-form on U with values in .
If the section s is replaced by a new section sg, defined by (sg)(x) = s(x)g(x), where g:M→G is a smooth map, then . The principal connection is uniquely determined by this family of -valued 1-forms, and these 1-forms are also called connection forms or connection 1-forms, particularly in older or more physics-oriented literature.

Bundle of principal connections
The group G acts on the tangent bundle TP by right translation.  The quotient space TP/G is also a manifold, and inherits the structure of a fibre bundle over TM which shall be denoted dπ:TP/G→TM.  Let ρ:TP/G→M be the projection onto M.  The fibres of the bundle TP/G under the projection ρ carry an additive structure.

The bundle TP/G is called the bundle of principal connections .  A section Γ of dπ:TP/G→TM such that Γ : TM → TP/G is a linear morphism of vector bundles over M, can be identified with a principal connection in P.  Conversely, a principal connection as defined above gives rise to such a section Γ of TP/G.

Finally, let Γ be a principal connection in this sense.  Let q:TP→TP/G be the quotient map.  The horizontal distribution of the connection is the bundle

 We see again the link to the horizontal bundle and thus Ehresmann connection.

Affine property
If ω and ω′ are principal connections on a principal bundle P, then the difference  is a -valued 1-form on P which is not only G-equivariant, but horizontal in the sense that it vanishes on any section of the vertical bundle V of P. Hence it is basic and so is determined by a 1-form on M with values in the adjoint bundle

Conversely, any such one form defines (via pullback) a G-equivariant horizontal 1-form on P, and the space of principal G-connections is an affine space for this space of 1-forms.

Examples

Maurer-Cartan connection
For the trivial principal -bundle  where , there is a canonical connectionpg 49called the Maurer-Cartan connection. It is defined as follows: for a point  define for which is a compositiondefining the 1-form. Note thatis the Maurer-Cartan form on the Lie group  and .

Trivial bundle
For a trivial principal -bundle , the identity section  given by  defines a 1-1 correspondencebetween connections on  and -valued 1-forms on pg 53. For a -valued 1-form  on , there is a unique 1-form  on  such that

  for  a vertical vector
  for any

Then given this 1-form, a connection on  can be constructed by taking the sumgiving an actual connection on . This unique 1-form can be constructed by first looking at it restricted to  for . Then,  is determined by  because  and we can get by takingSimilarly, the formdefines a 1-form giving the properties 1 and 2 listed above.

Extending this to non-trivial bundles
This statement can be refinedpg 55 even further for non-trivial bundles  by considering an open covering  of  with trivializations  and transition functions . Then, there is a 1-1 correspondence between connections on  and collections of 1-formswhich satisfyon the intersections  for  the Maurer-Cartan form on ,  in matrix form.

Global reformulation of space of connections
For a principal  bundle  the set of connections in  is an affine spacepg 57 for the vector space  where  is the associated adjoint vector bundle. This implies for any two connections  there exists a form  such thatWe denote the set of connections as , or just  if the context is clear.

Connection on the complex Hopf-bundle
Wepg 94 can construct  as a principal -bundle  where  and  is the projection mapNote the Lie algebra of  is just the complex plane. The 1-form  defined asforms a connection, which can be checked by verifying the definition. For any fixed  we haveand since , we have -invariance. This is because the adjoint action is trivial since the Lie algebra is Abelian. For constructing the splitting, note for any  we have a short exact sequencewhere  is defined asso it acts as scaling in the fiber (which restricts to the corresponding -action). Taking  we get

where the second equality follows because we are considering  a vertical tangent vector, and . The notation is somewhat confusing, but if we expand out each termit becomes more clear (where ).

Induced covariant and exterior derivatives
For any linear representation W of G there is an associated vector bundle  over M, and a principal connection induces a covariant derivative on any such vector bundle. This covariant derivative can be defined using the fact that the space of sections of  over M is isomorphic to the space of G-equivariant W-valued functions on P. More generally, the space of k-forms with values in   is identified with the space of G-equivariant and horizontal W-valued k-forms on P. If α is such a k-form, then its exterior derivative dα, although G-equivariant, is no longer horizontal. However, the combination dα+ωΛα is. This defines an exterior covariant derivative dω from -valued k-forms on M to -valued (k+1)-forms on M. In particular, when k=0, we obtain a covariant derivative on .

Curvature form
The curvature form of a principal G-connection ω is the -valued 2-form Ω defined by

It is G-equivariant and horizontal, hence corresponds to a 2-form on M with values in . The identification of the curvature with this quantity is sometimes called the (Cartan's) second structure equation. Historically, the emergence of the structure equations are found in the development of the Cartan connection.  When transposed into the context of Lie groups, the structure equations are known as the Maurer–Cartan equations: they are the same equations, but in a different setting and notation.

Flat connections and characterization of bundles with flat connections
We say that a connection  is flat if its curvature form . There is a useful characterization of principal bundles with flat connections; that is, a principal -bundle  has a flat connectionpg 68 if and only if there exists an open covering  with trivializations  such that all transition functionsare constant. This is useful because it gives a recipe for constructing flat principal -bundles over smooth manifolds; namely taking an open cover and defining trivializations with constant transition functions.

Connections on frame bundles and torsion
If the principal bundle P is the frame bundle, or (more generally) if it has a solder form, then the connection is an example of an affine connection, and the curvature is not the only invariant, since the additional structure of the solder form θ, which is an equivariant Rn-valued 1-form on P, should be taken into account. In particular, the torsion form on P, is an Rn-valued 2-form Θ defined by

Θ is G-equivariant and horizontal, and so it descends to a tangent-valued 2-form on M, called the torsion. This equation is sometimes called the (Cartan's) first structure equation.

Definition in algebraic geometry

If X is a scheme (or more generally, stack, derived stack, or even prestack), we can associate to it its so-called de Rham stack, denoted XdR. This has the property that a principal G bundle over XdR is the same thing as a G bundle with connection over X.

References

Connection (mathematics)
Differential geometry
Fiber bundles
Maps of manifolds
Smooth functions

Connection (principal bundle)


, né le  à Inariyama, Nagano et mort le  à Tokyo , est un mangaka de presse japonais, particulièrement connu pour ses portraits.

Après avoir complété ses études secondaires en 1926, Kondō rejoint la capitale Tokyo et devient en 1928 l'apprenti d'Ippei Okamoto afin de devenir dessinateur de presse. En 1932, il fonde la . L'année suivante, il commence à travailler pour le quotidien .

Il reçoit en 1974 la Médaille au ruban pourpre ainsi que le prix Kan-Kikuchi en 1975.

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie
 .

Liens externes

Dessinateur de presse
Caricaturiste japonais
Mangaka
Naissance dans la préfecture de Nagano
Naissance en février 1908
Décès en mars 1979
Décès à Tokyo
Décès à 71 ans

Hidezō Kondō


Korpset - Gjort af det rette stof er et TV2 program der havde tv-premiere i 2017 og som har kørt over 2 sæsoner. Programmet er baseret på Thomas Rathsacks og 3 andre forhenværende jægersoldaters egne erfaringer i forbindelse med optagelsesprøven til Jægerkorpset. I programmet bliver 30 håbefulde mænd sendt igennem nogle hårde fysiske udfordringer hvor kun nogle få gennemfører. Programmet har skabt nogle kontroverser da Jægerkorpset selv har taget afstand fra programmet og har vendt de fire tidligere jægersoldaters portrætter i jægerkorpsets hovedkvarter for at vanære dem. Programmets koncept er baseret på det britiske TV program "SAS: Who Dares Wins".

Referencer

Tv-programmer fra TV 2 Danmark
Realityshows fra Danmark

Korpset (TV2-program)


Jan Mølby (Kolding, Dinamarca, 4 de julio de 1963) es un exfutbolista danés que se desempeñaba como centrocampista y que disputó gran parte de su carrera en el Liverpool FC.

Clubes

Jugador

Entrenador

Palmarés

AFC Ajax

 Eredivisie: 1982-83
 Copa de los Países Bajos: 1983

Liverpool FC

 FA Premier League: 1985-86, 1989-90
 FA Cup: 1986, 1992
 FA Community Shield: 1987, 1989, 1990

Futbolistas de Dinamarca en la Copa Mundial de 1986
Futbolistas del Ajax de Ámsterdam
Futbolistas del Liverpool Football Club en los años 1980
Futbolistas del Liverpool Football Club en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Barnsley Football Club
Futbolistas del Norwich City Football Club
Futbolistas del Swansea City Association Football Club
Futbolistas de Dinamarca en la Eurocopa 1984
Entrenadores de fútbol de Dinamarca

Entrenadores del Hull City Association Football Club

Jan Mølby


Ambonus distinctus é uma espécie de besouro da família Cerambycidae. Foi descrito por Newman em 1840. É encontrado principalmente nas regiões Sul e Sudeste do Brasil.

Referências

Coleópteros descritos em 1840
Elaphidiini

Ambonus distinctus


Eleanor Jane Mondale Poling (January 19, 1960 – September 17, 2011) was an American radio personality, television host, and actress.

Biography
Mondale was the only daughter of Joan Mondale and former Vice President Walter Mondale. Her older brother is former Minnesota State Senator Theodore Adams "Ted" Mondale. Her younger brother is attorney William Hall Mondale, the former assistant Attorney General of Minnesota (1990–2000). For her senior year of high school, Mondale attended St. Timothy's, a boarding school outside of Baltimore. After graduating from St. Lawrence University in Canton, New York, she moved to begin a career in Hollywood.

Personal life

After she completed her college education, Mondale quickly earned a reputation in the media for being a "wild child", although she claimed many of the rumors were unfounded. She was married three times and had no children, as well as involved with some high-profile men, including reportedly former President Bill Clinton during his time in office.

Mondale's first marriage, to football player Keith Van Horne, lasted from April 9, 1988, until August 1989, when Van Horne filed for divorce. In 1990 she dated rock singer-songwriter Warren Zevon, traveling on tour with him to Australia. She also dated Washington Redskins offensive tackle George Starke.

Mondale's second marriage, from June 21, 1991, to November 1991, was to Greg Malban, a DJ known as Greg Thunder.

In 1999, Mondale sold her house in Los Angeles to move to New York to be with her boyfriend at the time, New York plastic and reconstructive surgeon Joe DeBellis.

In June 2005 Mondale married Minneapolis musician Chan Poling of the group The New Standards. Mondale and Poling lived on a small farm in Minnesota, where they raised miniature horses until her death.

Acting career
Mondale took time off from college in 1981 to move to Hollywood. She worked briefly as an extra and had one speaking line in the TV series 240-Robert. She then returned to St. Lawrence University, in Canton, New York, graduating in 1982. By January 1983, Mondale was back in Hollywood, where she had small roles on TV shows such as Three's Company, Dynasty, and Matt Houston.

Eleanor Mondale was a regular guest on Howard Stern's E! TV show during the late 1990s and early 2000s.

Journalism career

Mondale began her journalism career while still in Los Angeles, taking a job at KABC-TV in 1985. She left the station in late 1985 and soon moved to Chicago, getting her first radio break as a helicopter reporter at WMAQ (AM). She continued taking fill-in radio news jobs at various Chicago radio stations, including WCKG-FM. She also was waiting for the pilot of a King World Productions show, "The Rock 'n Roll Evening News", to be sold. Within a few months the show began airing in national syndication, with Mondale working as its Midwest correspondent.

In 1986, Mondale signed a one-year contract with powerhouse Chicago radio station WGN (AM) to appear as a frequent contributor to programs. In early 1987, Mondale joined Chicago radio station WCKG-FM as a morning news anchor. In June 1987, Mondale shifted to being the co-host of WCKG's morning show alongside John Fisher. In early 1988, Mondale took a leave of absence from WCKG to collaborate with a Chicago writer on a book about the children of U.S. presidents.

In June 1989, Mondale took a job in Minneapolis as an entertainment reporter for WCCO-TV. In March 1990, Mondale quit unexpectedly just a few days before a local magazine was to publish a feature on Mondale titled "Walter and Joan's Wild Child".

After leaving WCCO and spending some time in Australia, Mondale became a morning sidekick on WLOL-FM in Minneapolis, where she remained until the station was bought by Minnesota Public Radio in 1991. She also hosted "The Great American TV Poll" on the Lifetime cable channel.

In April 1991, Mondale returned to Chicago's airwaves as a morning sidekick at WKQX, working alongside morning host Robert Murphy. Mondale and fellow sidekick Dan Walker were forced out of WKQX in January 1993.

After leaving WKQX, Mondale began working in television. In March 1993, Mondale and Robin Leach co-hosted a two-hour special on national television about Madonna titled "Madonna Exposed". In early 1994, Mondale began working as a correspondent for NBC's Today show.

In mid-1994, Mondale landed a job as anchor/host of "Q and E", a half-hour weekly celebrity show airing on E!, and was also a regular correspondent for the network's news division. In 1996, Mondale was hired by CBS as a Los Angeles-based correspondent forThis Morning.

Mondale also later hosted the E! shows Wild On in 1997 and E! News Live. She worked on ESPN as a reporter on the horse racing events, which lasted two years (2002–2003). She covered for ESPN2 the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association. After ESPN, she co-hosted The World's Greatest Auto Shows for the Speed Channel in 2004 and 2005. She worked for the CBS Television show This Morning.

In 2006, after battling brain cancer for the first time, Mondale signed on as a host at WCCO-AM. She remained there until 2009, when she left the airwaves to go on disability because of her cancer's recurrence.

In 2013, she was posthumously inducted into the Minnesota Broadcasting Hall of Fame.

Film career
Mondale had five speaking lines in the opening minutes of the 1991 film Drop Dead Fred.
She appeared in the 1999 film Ground Control as Christine, and narrated the feature documentary film Fritz: The Walter Mondale Story (2008), which details the life of her father and aspects of her own childhood.
She also appeared in the short film Mirage (2004), directed by Sayer Frey and produced by Shelli Ainsworth.

Illness and death
After a bout of seizures, Mondale was diagnosed with brain cancer in June 2005. In the summer of 2006, the cancer was in remission, but she announced in February 2008 that a small tumor had returned and that she would seek treatment at the Mayo Clinic. Mondale was again diagnosed with brain cancer in August 2009 and was scheduled to undergo surgery later that month. She died from the disease at her home in Minnesota on September 17, 2011, at the age of 51.

See also
List of people with brain tumors

Notes

External links

American film actresses
American horse racing announcers
American infotainers
American radio personalities
American television actresses
American television sports announcers
Children of vice presidents of the United States
Deaths from brain cancer in the United States
Motorsport announcers
Actresses from Minneapolis
St. Lawrence University alumni
Women sports announcers
1960 births
2011 deaths
Walter Mondale
American people of Norwegian descent

Eleanor Mondale


Los gotlandeses (gutar en sueco) son el pueblo de la isla de Gotland. El etnónimo es idéntico al de los godos (gutans), y ambos nombres fueron originalmente en proto-germánico *gutaniz. Su idioma es el gútnico (gutniska).

Historia temprana
La historia más antigua sobre los gotlandeses se relata en la Gutasaga. De acuerdo a la leyenda descienden de un hombre llamado Þjelvar, que fue el primer descubridor de Gotland. Þjelvar tenía un hijo llamado Hafþi que se casó con una hermosa doncella llamada Hvitastjerna. Estos dos fueron los primeros en asentarse en Gotland. Hafþi y Hvitastjerna luego tuvieron tres hijos, Guti, Graipr y Gunfjaun. Después de la muerte de sus padres, los hermanos dividieron Gotland en tres partes y cada uno tomó una pero Guti quedó como el cacique de mayor rango y dio su nombre la isla y a su gente.

En el idioma sueco moderno existen dos palabras para los habitantes de Gotland: gotlänning y gute. Todos los habitantes de Gotland, sea cual sea su origen étnico, son gotlänning (pl. gotlänningar) pero a uno se le llama gute (pl. gutar) cuando es de ascendencia nativa.

Vínculo con los godos

Aparte de correspondencias en sus idiomas que apuntan ser el mismo, hacia el primer siglo antes de la era cristiana se notan cambios en el estrato de los restos en yacimientos de la cultura de Prusia en el Sur del Baltico, que indican fuertes contactos con el Sur de Suecia. Está relacionado con la sobrepoblación, que provocó que un tercio de los gotlandeses emigraran y se asentaran en el sur de Europa. Algunos estudiosos, como por ejemplo Wessén, Wenskus, Hoffman etc, han sostenido que este relato podría ser una reminiscencia de la migración de los godos:

Durante largo tiempo, el pueblo descendiente de estos tres se multiplicaron tanto que la tierra no pudo sustentarlos a todos. Entonces lo echaron a suertes, y cada tercera persona fue escogida para marcharse, y pudieron quedarse todo lo que poseían y llevárselo con ellos, a excepción de su tierra.... ellos remontaron el río Dvina hacia Rusia. Fueron tan lejos que llegaron al país de los griegos.... se asentaron allí, y allí viven todavía, y todavía tienen algo de nuestra lengua.

El nombre de los gotlandeses en nórdico antiguo occidental es gotar, que es el mismo que se usó para los godos. Las fuentes nórdicas, como las sagas, no distinguen entre los godos y los gotlandeses:þáttr af Ragnars sonum, Sögubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum, Óláfs saga helga, Skáldskaparmál y Edda Sæmundar de Grimnismál. El término en nórdico antiguo oriental para ambos godos y gotlandeses parece haber sido gutar. Sólo los godos y los gotlandeses portan este nombre de entre todas las tribus germánicas. El hecho de que el etnónimo es idéntico al de los godos puede ser el motivo por el que no son mencionados como un grupo específico hasta la Getica de Jordanes, donde podrían ser aquellos que son llamados Vagothi. Sin embargo Ptolomeo menciona a los Goutai viviendo en el sur de la isla de Skandia, quienes podrían identificarse con los gotlandeses.

Ciertos lingüistas, como por ejemplo Elias Wessén, apuntan que hay similitudes entre el gótico y el gútnico que no se encuentra en ninguna otra lengua germánica. Un ejemplo es el uso de la palabra cordero tanto para la oveja joven como para la adulta, lo cual sólo se da en gútnico y gótico.

Acuerdo con suecos
Antes del , los gotlandeses hicieron un acuerdo comercial y defensivo con reyes suecos, de acuerdo con la Gutasaga. Esto parece deberse a una agresión militar sueca. Aunque los gotlandeses salieron victoriosos en esas batallas, al final encontraron más beneficioso (como nación de comerciantes que eran) intentar negociar un tratado de paz con los suecos.

Referencias

Etnias de Europa
Godos
Pueblos germánicos antiguos
Historia de Suecia

Gotlandeses


Anneux () is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.

Its church is dedicated to Saint Léger.

History
Anneux was among the villages fought over at the western end of the Battle of Cambrai (1917).

Population

Heraldry

See also
Communes of the Nord department

References

External links

 Aujourd'hui à Anneux (in French)
 Anneux in the Battle of Cambrai

Communes of Nord (French department)

Anneux


La gare de Oujhorod (ukrainien : Ужгород (станція)) est une gare ferroviaire située dans la ville de Oujhorod en Ukraine.

Situation ferroviaire

Histoire
La gare est ouverte en 2004 et fait partie de la ligne de chemin de fer Ligne Lviv-Stryï-Tchop, c'est le lieu de passage de la frontière. Elle reprend un ancien projet de gare soviétique de gare pour les J.O. de 1980 qui n'a jamais abouti.

Service des voyageurs

Accueil

Desserte

Intermodalité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Transport ferroviaire en Ukraine,
 Liste de gares en Ukraine.

Liens externes

Gare dans l'oblast de Transcarpatie
Gare mise en service en 2004
Oujhorod

Gare de Oujhorod


Pierre Hahn (Clichy,  — Paris, ) foi um historiador e um dos primeiros militantes do movimento homossexual na França. É atribuído a Hahn a escrita da primeira tese de doutorado sobre a história da homossexualidade na França.

Entre 1965 e 1974, Hahn publicou regularmente textos na revista homófila , sob o pseudônimo "André Clair".

Obras publicadas

Ver também
 Frente Homossexual de Ação Revolucionária (FHAR)

Naturais de Clichy
História LGBT na França
Ativistas dos direitos LGBT da França
Historiadores da França
Suicidas da França

Pierre Hahn


මහාචාර්ය අතුල සුමතිපාල (ඉංග්‍රීසි: Athula Sumathipala)  MRCP, MD යනු එංගලන්තය කීල් විශ්වවිද්‍යාලයට සම්බන්ධිතව මනෝ වෛද්‍යවේදය පිළිබඳ කටයුතු කරන ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ උපත ලද මහාචාර්යයවරයෙකි / විශේෂඥ මනෝ වෛද්‍යවරයෙකි.

මහාචාර්ය අතුල කොළඹ විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය සහ ලන්ඩන් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයහි උපාධිධරයෙකි.

මහාචාර්ය අතුල හිටපු පර්යේෂණ හා සංවර්ධන ආයතනයෙහි අධ්‍යක්ෂද හිටපු ශ‍්‍රී ලංකා නිවුන් ලේඛනාගාරයේ අධ්‍යක්ෂද වෙයි. ඔහු රෝහණ විජේවීරයන්ගේ වෛද්‍යවරයාද විය.

අතුල සුමතිපාල  කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසුවෙකි.

ආශ්‍රිත
 අතුල සුමතිපාලයන්ගේ ඉංග්‍රීසි විකිපීඩියා පිටුව

කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසු මහාචාර්ය වරුන්

 ජාන පර්යේෂණ සඳහා අපේම රසායනාගාරයක්

 නිවුන් සංස්කෘතික තරගාවලියේ අවසන් තරගයට සුදුසුකම් ලැබූවන්ට පුහුණු වැඩමුළුවක්

 කාය රූපීරෝග ලක්ෂණ පිළිබඳ සම්මන්ත‍්‍රණයක්

 කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසු ව්‍යෛද්‍යවරුන්

 ආදි නාලන්දයීය ව්‍යෛද්‍යවරුන්ගේ සංගමය

චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ
ආදි නාලන්දියයෝ
මහාචාර්යවරු - ශ්‍රී ලංකා

අතුල සුමතිපාල


Burma deltog i Sommer-OL 2016 i Rio de Janeiro, som blev arrangeret i perioden 5. august til 21. august 2012.

Medaljer

Referencer

Lande ved sommer-OL 2016
Burma ved sommer-OL

Burma ved sommer-OL 2016


Miguel Ángel Julio Rosette (Santa Marta, Magdalena, Colombia; 21 de febrero de 1990) es un futbolista colombiano que juega como volante central en Delfines del Este FC de la Liga Dominicana de Fútbol.

Selección juvenil
 Participó en todas las categorías de selecciones juveniles de Colombia desde sub 15 hasta sub 20.
 Participó en 5 campeonatos sudamericanos juveniles (teniendo un récord en Colombia)
 Participó en dos campeonatos mundiales de la FIFA a nivel juvenil
 Copa Mundial de Fútbol Sub-17 de 2007: en este mundial Rossete fue capitan de la seleccion Colombia y compartió vestidor con James Rodríguez, actual jugador del everton de la premier league.
 Copa Mundial de Fútbol Sub-20 de 2011: aquí compartió vestidor con jugadores como James Rodríguez, nuevamente parte del proceso, Luis Muriel, Santiago Arias, Jeison Murillo, Sebastián Pérez, Duván Zapata, entre otros.

Clubes

Palmarés

Campeonatos nacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en BDFA
 Ficha en Transfermarkt

Nacidos en Santa Marta
Futbolistas de Colombia
Futbolistas del Deportivo Independiente Medellín
Futbolistas del Trujillanos Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del América de Cali
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Tucumán

Miguel Julio Rosette


Botryopteridiopsida, fosilni razred papratnjača kojemu pripada najmanje tri reda. Ime reda dolazi po rodu Botryopteridium čiji je jedini poznati predstavnik vrsta †Botryopteridium forense Doweld 2001.

Redovi i porodice
 †ordo Botryopteridiales Doweld 2001
 †ordo Neomariopteridales Doweld 2001
 †ordo Senftenbergiales Doweld 2001

Izvori

Papratnjače

Botryopteridiopsida


Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusu (Lagenorhynchus acutus) Lagenorhynchus cinsindeki altı yunus türünden biridir ve Kuzey Atlas Okyanusu'nun ılık ve serin sularında bulunur. Belirgin bir renge sahiptir.

Taksonomi
Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusu 1828'de Gray tarafından adlandırıldı. Tür adındaki Latince acutus kelimesi 'ucu sivri' anlamına gelir ve yunusun sivri uçlu sırt yüzgecine ithafen verilmiştir.

Fiziksel tanımlama
Diğer deniz yunuslarından hafifçe daha büyük olan Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusu doğum anında bir metreden biraz daha uzundur ve ergenliğe eriştiğinde erkekler 2,8 metreye dişiler de 2,5 metreye ulaşır. 200 – 230 kg. arasında ağırlığa sahiptir. Cinsel olgunluğa dişiler 6-12 yıl arasında erkekler de 7-11 yıl arasında erişir. Hamilelik süresi 11 aydır ve yavrular yaklaşık bir buçuk yıl emzirilir. Erkeklerin yaşam süresi 22 yıl, dişilerin ise 27 yıldır.

Bu tür yunusların ayırtedici ve dikkat çekici özelliği sırt yüzgeçlerinin arkasında gövdelerinin her iki yanında bulunan beyaz ile soluk sarı arasındaki lekedir. Diğer açık deniz yunus ve balinaları arasında bu renk biçimi Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusuna özgüdür. Vücudun geri kalanı kesin hatlarla belirli renklerdedir. Çene, boğaz ve karın beyaz, yan yüzgeçler, sırt yüzgeçi ve sarı leke dışında sırt koyu gri ile siyah renktedir. Ağızdan kuyruğa kadar uzanan ve gözün hemen üzerinden başlayan açık gri bir çizginin hemen üzerinde ve sırt yüzgecinin altında başka bir beyaz leke daha vardır.

Yunus gruplarının büyüklüğü bulundukları yere göre değişiklik gösterir. Newfoundland kıyılarında gruplar 60 yunustan oluşur ama İzlanda'nın doğusunda gruplar daha küçülür.

Ağlara yakalanan yunusların midelerinin içindekilerin araştırılması sonucu bu türün ana besin kaynağının ringa balığı, uskumru ve mürekkep balığı olduğu anlaşılmıştır.

Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusu oldukça akrobatiktir ve tekneler ile birlikte yüzer ancak bayağı yunus ve beyaz burunlu yunus kadar sokulgan değildir.

Popülasyon ve dağılım
Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusu yalnızca Atlas Okyanusu'nda bulunur. Özellikle yoğun popülasyon oranlarına sahip alanlar arasında Newfoundland ve Cape Cod kıyıları ile Birleşik Krallık, İzlanda ve Grönland'ın arasında kalan üçgen deniz alanı ve Kuzey Denizi'dir. Toplam popülasyonun 200-300.000 olduğuna inanılmaktadır.

İnsan ile etkileşim

Tarihi olarak Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusları Norveç ve Newfounland'tan başlatılan sürek avlarıyla öldürülmekteydi ancak bu son yıllarda durdurulmuştur. Ama Faroe Adaları'nda az da olsa hâlâ devam etmektedir. Bu avlanmanın bölgede ne etkisi olacağı bilinmemekle birlikte doğa korumacılarının dikkatini çekmiştir. Türün geniş anlamda tehdit altında olmadığı kabul edilmektedir.

Kaynakça
  Bilgibankası girişinde bu türün neden asgari endişe altında listelendiği açıklanmaktadır.
 Atlantic White-sided Dolphin, Frank Cipriano, Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals pp49–51 ISBN 0-12-551340-2
 National Audubon Society: Guide to Marine Mammals of the World ISBN 0-375-41141-0
 Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals ISBN 0-12-551340-2

Lagenorhynchus
Atlas Okyanusu'ndaki balinalar
Britanya adaları faunası

Atlantik beyaz yanlı yunusu


An Sievekingia reichenbachiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Allen Rolfe. An Sievekingia reichenbachiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sievekingia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Sievekingia

Sievekingia reichenbachiana


Der Große Preis von Indien 2012 (offiziell 2012 Formula 1 Airtel Indian Grand Prix) fand am 28. Oktober auf dem Buddh International Circuit in Greater Noida statt und war das siebzehnte Rennen der Formel-1-Weltmeisterschaft 2012.

Berichte

Hintergrund
Nach dem Großen Preis von Korea führte Sebastian Vettel in der Fahrerwertung mit sechs Punkten vor Fernando Alonso und mit 48 Punkten vor Kimi Räikkönen. In der Konstrukteurswertung führte Red Bull-Renault mit 77 Punkten vor Ferrari und mit 83 Punkten vor McLaren-Mercedes.

Beim Großen Preis von Indien stellte Pirelli den Fahrern die Reifenmischungen P Zero Hard (silber) und P Zero Soft (gelb) sowie für Nässe Cinturato Intermediates (grün) und Cinturato Full-Wets (blau) zur Verfügung.

Mit Vettel trat der einzige ehemalige Sieger zu diesem Grand Prix an.

Als Rennkommissare fungierten Gerd Ennser (DEU), Alan Jones (AUS) und Steve Stringwell (GBR).

Training
Im ersten freien Training erzielte Vettel die Bestzeit vor Jenson Button und Alonso. In diesem Training kam Esteban Gutiérrez erstmals an einem Grand-Prix-Wochenende zum Einsatz. Gutiérrez vertrat bei Sauber seinen Landsmann Sergio Pérez, der das Training aus gesundheitlichen Gründen ausließ. Darüber hinaus übernahm Valtteri Bottas den Williams von Bruno Senna und Giedo van der Garde den Caterham von Heikki Kovalainen.

Im zweiten freien Training blieb Vettel vorne. Mark Webber übernahm den zweiten Platz vor Alonso.

Auch im dritten freien Training war Vettel Erster. Gefolgt wurde er diesmal von Button und Webber.

Qualifying
Im ersten Abschnitt des Qualifyings fuhr Pastor Maldonado die schnellste Runde. Die Marussia-, HRT- und Caterham-Piloten sowie Jean-Éric Vergne schieden aus. Im zweiten Segment war Vettel Schnellster. Die Force-India-Piloten sowie Kamui Kobayashi, Daniel Ricciardo, Michael Schumacher, Senna und Romain Grosjean schieden aus. Im finalen Abschnitt blieb Vettel vorne und erzielte die Pole-Position vor Webber und Lewis Hamilton.

Rennen

Vettel gewann das Rennen vor Alonso und Webber. Für Vettel war es der 26. Sieg in der Formel-1-Weltmeisterschaft.

Vettel behauptete die Führung beim Start und behielt diese bis zum Ende des Rennens. Webber lag zunächst auf dem zweiten Platz, bis er mit KERS-Problemen hinter Alonso, der in der Startphase zwei Positionen gut gemacht hatte, zurückfiel.

Meldeliste

Anmerkungen

Klassifikationen

Qualifying

Anmerkungen

Rennen

Anmerkungen

WM-Stände nach dem Rennen
Die ersten zehn des Rennens bekamen 25, 18, 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 bzw. 1 Punkt(e).

Fahrerwertung

Konstrukteurswertung

Einzelnachweise

2012
Indien
Buddh International Circuit

Großer Preis von Indien 2012


කායික ශක්තිය යනු  පේශීන් භාවිතා කිරීමෙන්,  භෞතික වස්තූන් වෙත, බලය යෙදවීමට යම් පුද්ගලයෙකුගේ හෝ සතෙකුගේ හෝ ඇති හැකියාවයි.

කායික ශක්තිය


Grønland på cykel! er en dokumentarfilm fra 1998 instrueret af Stig Hartkopf efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Den cyklende livsjæger Stig Hartkopf har været ude med kameraet og denne gang besøgt Grønland på sin vej verden rundt. Han gengiver den menneskelige og dagligdags side af afsides liggende samfund på en nærværende og ægte måde med interviews og kameraets registrering. Filmene er humoristiske og giver præcise billeder af de besøgte steder i slutningen af det 20. århundrede.

Referencer

Se også
 Island på cykel!
 Færøerne på cykel !
Den Dominikanske Republik på cykel

Eksterne henvisninger

Film om Grønland
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1998

Grønland på cykel!


Eugen Spinanțiu (n. 1892, Săvârșin, comitatul Caraș-Severin, Regatul Ungariei – d. 1975, Săvârșin, județul Arad, RSR ) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Eugen Spinanțiu, născut la data de 7 aprilie 1892 în comuna Săvârșin, comitatul Caraș-Severin, urmează studiile la Școala Normală de Învățător ajungând el însuși învățător în localitatea Căprioara, stingându-se din viață în ziua de 8 februarie 1975.

Activitatea politică
Eugen Spinanțiu a fost ales ca delegat supleant al Cercului electoral Făget-Birchiș, județul Caraș-Severin în cadrul Marii Adunări Naționale de la Alba Iulia în marea zi de 1 decembrie a anului 1918. În viață, domnul Spinanțiu s-a distins ca și membru al P.N.R. iar după 1918, ocupă funcția de senator în Parlamenul României.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918
  1 decembrie 1918, Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia. Mărturii, documente și semnificații

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1892
Decese în 1975
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Învățători români
Bănățeni
Români din Austro-Ungaria

Eugen Spinanțiu


Elena Drăgulinescu-Stinghe () a fost o interpretă de operă (soprană) și profesoară de canto română.

Biografie
După studiile gimnaziale la Azilul "Elena Doamna" din București, urmează între 1901 și 1906 cursurile Conservatorului din București, cu profesorii Charlota Laria (canto), Dumitru Georgescu-Kiriac (teorie, solfegiu, armonie, cor), Carl Flesch (vioară) și actrița Aristizza Romanescu (dicțiune). În particular, studiază cu Elena Teodorini, apoi, între 1910 și 1912, se specializează la Paris (canto) cu mari muzicieni.

În 1902 a debutat la Teatrul Național București, în compania unei trupe lirice franceze, în rolul Philine din opera Mignon, pe care l-a interpretat până în 1909.

Între 1909 și 1914 a jucat cu succes în Paris și în alte orașe franceze. În timpul primului război mondial a revenit în România. În sezonul 1914-1915, a fost solista Operei din București și între 1916-1918 a fost solistă la Opera din Iași.

A fost solista Operei din București timp de aproape două decenii, cu excepția unui an (1927-1928), cănd a cântat la Opera din Cluj. În 1940 s-a retras de pe scenă și a predat lecții private de canto și lecții la Conservatorul "Astra" din București.

În 1965 a publicat la Editura muzicală volumul Amintiri.

Note

Bibliografie

Nașteri în 1881
Decese în 1970
Soprane române
Profesoare române
Profesori de canto români
Memorialiști români
Ploieșteni

Elena Drăgulinescu-Stinghe


Roman Conopliov (în , ) () este un politician rus și transnistrean, prozator, publicist  și analist politic.

Biografie
Roman Conopliov s-a născut pe 4 septembrie 1973, în orașul Pocep, regiunea Breansk, Federația Rusă, URSS) în familia lui Eugeniu și Liubov Conopliova, născută Țigancova. În anul 1977 s-a mutat împreună cu familia sa în RSS Moldovenească. A absolvit școala medie din orașul Dnestrovsc, pe care o termină în 1990.

În anul 1992 s-a mutat în Moscova. A studiat apoi la Facultatea de Drept a Institutul Internațional de Economie și Drept (1992-1996) și la Facultatea de Tehnologia informației a Universitatea Tehnică din Breansk (1999-2002).

Conopliov a fost um membru al opoziției extraparlamentare în  Rusiei. Conopliov a fost um membru al Comitetul Central al Partidului Național-Bolșevic în  Rusiei(1997-2003),  lider al partidului în regiunea Briansk, a fost arestat de autorități pentru activitățile sale politice.

În anul 2002 s-a mutat în Transnistria. În perioada 2002-2017 Conopliov a fost consultant politic și publicist.

În perioada 2006-2012 Conopliov a fost activ și secretar de presă în al Partidului Popular Democrat "Prorâv!". Konoplev a fost coordonatorul Marșul rusesc din 2006 de la Tiraspol.

Roman Conopliov a coordonat săptămânalul " Russki Prorâv" (2007-2008) în Tiraspol, Republici Moldovenești Nistrene.

Roman Conopliov , a lucrat ca redactor la agenției de știri "Lenta PMR"(2004-2008) și "DNIESTER"(2009-2017). Conopliov a expert în consiliere de afaceri și comunicare politică. Specializarea sa principală se axează pe problemele politice și conflictele etnice din fostele republici sovietice și CSI.

În aprilie 2012 Conopliov a părăsit Tiraspolul după provocarea unor servicii speciale.

Scriitorul Nicolae Dabija susținea că Roman Conopliov este un ideolog ai șovinismului rus, susținând expulzarea acestuia din Moldova.

Începând din 2013, Roman Conopliov se stabilește la Lisabona, Portugalia. De asemenea, a dobândit cetățenia portugheză prin naturalizare.

Lucrările publicate în limba rusă
 Evangelie ot extremista, 2005
 Dromomania, 2011
 ''Porajenie, 2013

Referințe

Legături externe

 Roman Conopliov. Proza.ru
 Cum de nu se crapa pamantul, sa-l inghita pe vrajmas?, cuvantul-liber.ro
 "Transnistria, o zonă offshore cu o presă care dezinformează și o conducere care nu se gândește la viitor" , publika.md
 Republica Moldova, între un agresor și un ocupant – sau conflictul cu propria identitate, Văzută de un jurnalist român - Mihaela Onofrei, 2009
, Văzută de un jurnalist român - Mihaela Onofrei, 2009
 Partidele politice din Transnistria
 Reacții publice la filmul NTV despre regiunea transnistreană, difuzat de TV7 , media-azi.md
  SCENARIU: Reintegrarea regiunii transnistrene și soarta "tragică" a avanpostului rusesc, Timpul.md
 Peisajul mediatic i narativele presei transnistrene. Tablou incomplet, viitorul.org
 Between real and imitation democracy: elections in Transnistria  , opendemocracy.net
 *Roman Konoplev: Pridnestrovie's future: Liberal economy, Freedom and security, 2010.

Nașteri în 1973
Nașteri pe 4 septembrie
Oameni din Transnistria
Ruși în viață
Romancieri ruși
Politicieni ruși
Politologi ruși
Național Bolșevism

Roman Conopliov


Hüttung steht für:

 Hüttung (Selbitz), Ortsteil der Stadt Selbitz, Landkreis Hof, Bayern
 Frauenberger Hüttung (Hutní kout), Platz im Ortsteil Panenská Hůrka, Gemeinde Bílý Kostel nad Nisou, Tschechien

Hüttung


22263 Pignedoli este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
22263 Pignedoli este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul San Vittore din Bologna. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,43 ua, o excentricitate de 0,27 și o înclinație de 11,0° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 22001-23000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1980
Centura de asteroizi

22263 Pignedoli


was a town located in Tagawa District, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. It was once a coal mining town.

As of 2005, the town had an estimated population of 9,592 and a density of 592.09 persons per km². The total area was 16.20 km². This is down from 9,870 (609.26/km²) in 2003.

On March 6, 2006, Akaike was merged with the towns of Hōjō and Kanada (all from Tagawa District) to create the town of Fukuchi, with an estimated population of 25,000 (September 1, 2011).

In 1992, it was the first municipality in Japan to become effectively bankrupt, with losses of 3.2 billion yen, or 1.3 times its annual budget. The town's rehabilitation process was completed at the end of fiscal 2001—two years earlier than initially planned. This was achieved through measures such as slashing the salaries of town officials, raising utility costs, and cutting back on public works projects.

See also
 Yūbari, Hokkaidō—presently the only bankrupt town in Japan.

References

External links
Fukuchi official website in Japanese

Dissolved municipalities of Fukuoka Prefecture
Populated places disestablished in 2006
2006 disestablishments in Japan

Akaike, Fukuoka


Phyllopentas es un género con trece especies de plantas con flores perteneciente a la familia Rubiaceae.

Es nativo del África tropical y Madagascar.

Descripción
Estas especies fueron incluidas previamente en Pentas, a la que se circunscribe de manera más amplia (Verdcourt, 1953). Kårehed y Bremer (2007) estudiaron este grupo con los datos moleculares y separaron varios géneros, dos están documentados desde Madagascar, Pentas y Phyllopentas con la mayoría de las especies de Madagascar incluidas ahora en Phyllopentas. Muchas de las especies de Phyllopentas tienen uno o más lóbulos del cáliz y al menos algunas de las flores se expanden en un lóbulo petaloides, pero esta estructura no se encuentra en todas las especies de este género.

Taxonomía
El género fue descrito por (Verdc.) Kårehed & B.Bremer y publicado en Taxon 56(4): 1076. 2007.

Especies
A continuación se brinda un listado de las especies del género Phyllopentas aceptadas hasta enero de 2012, ordenadas alfabéticamente. Para cada una se indica el nombre binomial seguido del autor, abreviado según las convenciones y usos, y la publicación válida.
 Phyllopentas austro-orientalis (Homolle & Verdc.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas concinna (K.Schum.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas decaryana (Homolle ex Verdc.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas elata (K.Schum.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas hirtiflora (Baker) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas ionolaena (K.Schum.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas ledermannii (K.Krause) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas madagascariensis (Verdc.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas mussaendoides (Baker) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas schimperi (Hochst.) ined..
 Phyllopentas schumanniana (K.Krause) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas tenuis (Verdc.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).
 Phyllopentas ulugurica (Verdc.) Kårehed & B.Bremer, Taxon 56: 1076 (2007).

Referencias

Knoxieae

Phyllopentas


Dawson est une ville américaine située dans le comté de Lac qui Parle, dans le Minnesota. Selon le recensement de 2020, sa population est de .

Notes et références

Liens externes

Ville au Minnesota
Comté de Lac qui Parle

Dawson (Minnesota)


حسان يبدة   لاعب كرة قدم جزائري.ولد في 14 مايو 1984 م في باريس من عائلة جزائرية من تيزي وزو، منطقة القبائل، كان يلعب في فريق نادي أوكسير وهو الآن ينشط في فريق نادي نابولي فاز مع منتخب فرنسا تحت 17 سنة بكأس العالم سنة 2001 لكنه في 11 أكتوبر 2009 تم استدعائه للعب في صفوف منتخب الجزائر بقيادة رابح سعدان في مباراة التصفيات المزدوجة لكاسي العالم وأفريقيا التي جمعت منتخبي الجزائر وروندا.

السيرة الذاتية

مع الأندية
 حسان يبدة بدأ مسيرته كلاعب شباب لنادي أوكسير في عام 2000، نشأ حسان يبدة بحي شعبي وفق التقاليد الجزائرية اسمه «ألفورت فيل» ودخل مركز تكوين لنادي أوكسير وسنه لا يتجاوز 14 سنة وفي سن الـ 17 لعب للفريق الثاني لنادي أوكسير وشارك ببطولة دولية ودية مع الفريق الثاني. في 2006 أعير يبدة إلى نادي «ملعب لافالوا» في الدرجة الثانية الفرنسية وفي 2007 انتقل يبدة إلى نادي لومان في الدرجة الأولى الفرنسية بعقد مدته عام ونصف وبعد أن أمضي مع الفريق ابتعد يبدة عن الملاعب لبعض الأسابيع لتحضيره الجدي للعودة بقوة ليكون على أعلى مستوى ولعب مع الفريق الثاني.
في موسم 2006/2007 ولم يكن محضرا بالشكل الجيد ليبدأ مع الفريق الأول الموسم الجديد 2007/2008 لكن عاد بقوة في منتصف الموسم ولعب في الفريق الأول وفرض مكانته الأساسية في الفريق. وأراد رئيس الفريق بعد نهاية الموسم في أن يحتفظ باللاعب ويجدد عقده مع الفريق لكن يبدة أمضي في ماي 2008 غير الأجواء وانتقل لنادي بنفيكا البرتغالي لمدة 4 مواسم حيث قدم يبدة مستوى رائع جدا وفرض مكانته الأساسية مع الفريق الذي يضم خيرة اللاعبين على مستوى وسط الميدان في مقدمتهم رييس وآيمار ولعب في أول موسم له مع الفريق العاصمي 25 مباراة سجل من خلالها هدف وحيد.انتقل يبدة على سبيل الإعارة لنادي بورستموث الأنجليزي وتألق فيه مع زميله نذير بلحاج ولكنه عاد إلى بنفيكا ولكنه أراد الرحيل عنه بسبب تهمشيه فانتقل إلى نادي نابولي لموسم واحد بشكل إعارة قابلة لأخذ الملكية إذا استغل فرصته.وأبان الاعب عن قدراته في المباريات الأخيرة مما جعله قطعة من التشكيلة الأساسية لنادي نابولي وسبق ووصفه مدرب النادي ماتزاري ب«البديل الذي يملك خصائص الأساسيين».وقد سجل يبدة أول أهدافه في مباراة الكأس أمام نادي بولونيا برأسية محكمة وسجل ثاني أهدافه ضد العملاق الإنتر عن طريق ضربة جزاء على طريقة الكبار.

مع المنتخب
 فاز حسان يبدة ب كأس العالم تحت 17 سنة لكرة القدم مع المنتخب الفرنسي رفقة زميله في المنتخب مراد مغني.
 وبعد المستوى المذهل الذي قدمه حسان يبدة مع بنفيكا اتصل مدرب المنتخب الجزائري رابح سعدان باللاعب وأبدى رغبته بأن يضم اللاعب لصفوف المنتخب ووافق يبدة للعب مع المنتخب الجزائري بعد أن قررت الفيفا تغيير القوانين.
 سجّل حسان يبدة هدفه الأول مع المنتخب الجزائري في 27 مارس 2011 إثر المقابلة التي جمعت بنظيره المنتخب المغربي بملعب 19 ماي بعنابة (الجزائر), في إطار التصفيات المؤهلة لنهائيات كأس أمم أفريقيا بغينيا الاستوائية والغابون..عن طريق ضربة جزاء في الدقيقة السادسة واحتفل حسان يبدة بالهدف بطريقة معبرة عن فرحته الكبيرة..

الموضة
 يمتاز حسان يبدة بأناقته حصوصا في طريقة تسريحة شعره والتي أصبحت مثالا لكثيرين من محبي ومتتبعي المنتخب الجزائري، حيث يبدل صباغتها في كل مسابقة يرحل إليها وهي ميزة تتغير لديه.
 كأس رابطة أندية المحترفين في عام 2009 في البرتغال مع بنفيكا لشبونة
 أحسن بديل في الشطر الأخير من 2010 مع نابولي.

مع المنتخب
 - فاز مع منتخب فرنسا تحت 17 سنة بكأس العالم سنة 2001
 المرتبة الرابعة في كأس الأمم الأفريقية 2010.
 المشاركة في كأس العالم 2010 مع المنتخب الجزائري.

فرديا
 فاز بجائزة أحسن الرياضية نظرا لتعاملة بروح رياضية مع خصمه في كل مباراة.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 البطاقة الشخصية
 الموقع الرسمي لحسان يبدة

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في البرتغال
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون جزائريون مغتربون في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
رياضيون جزائريون مغتربون في البرتغال
رياضيون جزائريون مغتربون في إسبانيا
رياضيون جزائريون مغتربون في إنجلترا
رياضيون جزائريون مغتربون في إيطاليا
رياضيون فرنسيون مغتربون في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
رياضيون فرنسيون مغتربون في البرتغال
رياضيون فرنسيون مغتربون في إسبانيا
رياضيون فرنسيون مغتربون في إنجلترا
رياضيون فرنسيون مغتربون في إيطاليا
رياضيون فرنسيون من أصل جزائري
رياضيون من فال دو مارن
فرنسيون من أصل جزائري
فرنسيون من أصل قبائلي
قبائليون
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني
لاعبو الدوري الإماراتي
لاعبو الدوري الإنجليزي الممتاز
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري البرتغالي الممتاز
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو أودينيزي
لاعبو أوكسير
لاعبو بنفيكا
لاعبو بورتسموث
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الإنجليزي
لاعبو كأس الأمم الإفريقية 2010
لاعبو كأس العالم 2010
لاعبو كأس العالم 2014
لاعبو كرة قدم جزائريون
لاعبو كرة قدم جزائريون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجال جزائريون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجال جزائريون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إسبانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إنجلترا
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في البرتغال
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إسبانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إنجلترا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة قدم من فال دو مارن (إقليم فرنسي)
لاعبو لافال
لاعبو لومان
لاعبو منتخب الجزائر في كأس العالم 2010
لاعبو منتخب الجزائر لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب فرنسا لكرة القدم للشباب
لاعبو نابولي
لاعبو نادي الفجيرة
لاعبو نادي بيليننسش
لاعبو نادي غرناطة
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1404 هـ
مواليد 1984

حسان يبدة


Jean Walker-Smith, née le  à Dulwich et morte le , est une joueuse de tennis britannique des années 1940 et 1950.

Biographie
Jean Walker-Smith a étudié à la Roedean School à Brighton. Elle a travaillé dans une usine d'armement pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

Classée meilleure joueuse britannique au début des années 1950, elle a notamment atteint les demi-finales des Internationaux de France et du Championnat des États-Unis en 1951. Au tournoi de Wimbledon, elle a accédé à trois reprises aux quarts de finale. Elle est finaliste du British Hard Court en 1951 conter Doris Hart. Elle a été classée à la fin de cette saison  mondiale par Lance Tingay du Daily Telegraph.

Elle a été membre de l'équipe de Grande-Bretagne lors de la Wightman Cup en 1951 et 1952.

Palmarès (partiel)

Titre en simple dames

Finale en simple dames

Titre en double dames

Finale en double dames

Parcours en Grand Chelem (partiel)
Si l'expression « Grand Chelem » désigne classiquement les quatre tournois les plus importants de l'histoire du tennis, elle n'est utilisée pour la première fois qu'en 1933, et n'acquiert la plénitude de son sens que peu à peu à partir des années 1950.

En simple dames

À droite du résultat, l'ultime adversaire.

En double dames

Sous le résultat, la partenaire ; à droite, l'ultime équipe adverse.

Références

Liens externes

Joueuse britannique de tennis
Naissance en mars 1924
Naissance à Dulwich
Décès en février 2010
Décès à 85 ans

Jean Walker-Smith


Mario Garín Fernández né le 26 avril 1992 à Santander, est un joueur de hockey sur gazon espagnol. Il évolue au poste de gardien de but au Club de Campo Villa et avec l'équipe nationale espagnole.

Carrière

Coupe du monde
 Top 8 : 2014
 Premier tour : 2018

Championnat d'Europe
  : 2019
 Top 8 : 2013, 2015, 2021

Références

Liens externes

Joueur espagnol de hockey sur gazon
Naissance en avril 1992
Naissance à Santander

Mario Garín


نادي فريجوس  نادي كرة قدم فرنسي يلعب في دوري الدرجة الوطنية . تم تأسيس النادي في سنة 1938 .

مراجع

أندية كرة قدم أسست في 2009
أندية كرة قدم في بروفنس ألب كوت دازور
تأسيسات سنة 2009 في فرنسا

نادي فريجوس


Altice Arena (prijašnji nazivi MEO Arena, odnosno Pavilhão Atlântico) višenamjenska je arena u Lisbonu, glavnom gradu Portugala. Jedna je od najvećih arena u Europi kapaciteta 20.000 sjedećih mjesta. Otvorena je 1998. godine kako bi ugostila EXPO izložbu. Uz EXPO '98 ugostila je i mnoge druge događaje kao što su Svjetsko nogometno prvenstvo za mlađe od 19 godina 1999., ATP Finale 2000., Svjetsko prvenstvo u atletici na zatvorenom 2001., Svjetsko prvenstvo u rukometu 2003., MTV Europsku dodjelu nagrada 2005., UEFA Kup u futsalu (2001./02., 2009./10., 2014./15.) i nekoliko koncerata tijekom godina.

Altice Arena također će biti mjesto događaja Eurosonga 2018.

Izvori

 Altice Arena na portugalskom jeziku

Športski objekti u Portugalu

Altice Arena


Rhodomelaceae, velika porodica crvenih alga iz reda Ceramiales. Postoji preko tisuću vrsta

Rodovi

 Abbottella Hollenberg 	1
 Acanthophora J.V.Lamouroux 	7
 Acanthosiphonia Savoie & G.W.Saunders 	1
 Acrocystis Zanardini 	1
 Adamsiella L.E.Phillips & W.A.Nelson 	4
 Aiolocolax Pocock 	1
 Alleynea Womersley 	1
 Alsidium C.Agardh 	8
 Amansia J.V.Lamouroux 	17
 Amplisiphonia Hollenberg 	1
 Aneurianna L.E.Phillips 	4
 Antarctocolax Skottsberg 	1
 Aphanocladia Falkenberg 	6
 Ardissonula G.De Toni 	1
 Benzaitenia Yendo 	1
 Beringiella M.J.Wynne 	1
 Boergeseniella Kylin 	1
 Bostrychia Montagne 	41
 Bostrychiocolax Zuccarello & J.A.West 	1
 Bryocladia F.Schmitz 	5
 Carradoriella P.C.Silva 	5
 Chamaethamnion Falkenberg 	2
 Chiracanthia Falkenberg 	1
 Chondria C.Agardh 	79
 Chondrophycus (J.Tokida & Y.Saito) Garbary & J.T.Harper 	16
 Choreocolax Reinsch 	5
 Cladhymenia Harvey 	6
 Cladureae Díaz-Tapia & Maggs 	2
 Cladurus Falkenberg 	2
 Cliftonaea Harvey 	1
 Coeloclonium J.Agardh 4
 Colacopsis De Toni 	4
 Corynecladia J.Agardh 	3
 Dasyclonium J.Agardh 	10
 Dawsoniella Hollenberg 	1
 Dawsoniocolax A.B.Joly & Yamaguishi-Tomita 	1
 Dictyomenia Greville 	6
 Digenea C.Agardh 	6
 Dipterocolax J.Morrill 	1
 Dipterosiphonia F.Schmitz & Falkenberg 	6
 Ditria Hollenberg 	3
 Doxodasya (F.Schmitz) Falkenberg 	4
 Echinophycus Huisman 	1
 Echinosporangium Kylin 	1
 Echinothamnion Kylin 	4
 Enantiocladia Falkenberg 	4
 Endosiphonia Zanardini 	5
 Epiglossum Kützing 	2
 Epineuron Harvey 	1
 Epizonaria Díaz-Tapia & Maggs 	1
 Erythrocystis J.Agardh 	2
 Erythrostachys J.Agardh ex Jean White 	1
 Eutrichosiphonia Savoie & G.W.Saunders 	4
 Exophyllum Weber Bosse 	1
 Gonatogenia J.Agardh 	1
 Gredgaria Womersley 	1
 Halopithys Kützing 	3
 Haplodasya Falkenberg 	2
 Harveyella F.Schmitz & Reinke 	1
 Hawaiia Hollenberg 	1
 Herpopteros Falkenberg 	1
 Herposiphonia Nägeli 	60
 Herposiphoniella Womersley 	1
 Heterocladia Decaisne 	3
 Heterodasya Joly & Oliveira 	1
 Heterostroma Kraft & M.J.Wynne 	1
 Holotrichia F.Schmitz 	1
 Husseya J.Agardh 	1
 Janczewskia Solms-Laubach 	11
 Jantinella Kylin 	2
 Jeannerettia Hooker f. & Harvey 	1
 Kapraunia Savoie & G.W.Saunders 	4
 Kentrophora S.M.Wilson & Kraft 	2
 Kintarosiphonia S.Uwai & M.Masuda 	0
 Kuetzingia Sonder 	2
 Lampisiphonia H.-G.Choi, Díaz Tapia & Bárbara 	1
 Laurencia J.V.Lamouroux 	137
 Laurenciella V.Cassano, Gil-Rodríguez, Sentíes, Díaz-Larrea, M.C.Oliveira & M.T.Fujii 	3
 Laurenciocolax A.D.Zinova & Perestenko 	1
 Leachiella Kugrens 	1
 Lembergia Saenger 	1
 Lenormandia Sonder 	6
 Leptosiphonia Kylin 	5
 Leveillea Decaisne 	3
 Levringiella Kylin 	2
 Lophocladia (J.Agardh) F.Schmitz 	8
 Lophosiphonia Falkenberg 	10
 Lophothalia Kützing 	2
 Lophura Kützing 	1
 Lophurella F.Schmitz 	11
 Melanothamnus Bornet & Falkenberg 	57
 Meridiocolax J.Morrill 	3
 Metamorphe Falkenberg 	1
 Microcolax F.Schmitz 	2
 Micropeuce J.Agardh 	5
 Murrayella F.Schmitz 1
 Nanopera S.M.Wilson & G.T.Kraft 	1
 Neochondria S.Sutti, M.Tani, Y.Yamagishi, T.Abe & K.Kogame 	2
 Neorhodomela Masuda 	6
 Neotenophycus Kraft & I.A.Abbott 	1
 Neurymenia J.Agardh 	2
 Odonthalia Lyngbye 	14
 Ohelopapa F.Rousseau, Martin-Lescanne, Payri & L.Le Gall 	1
 Oligocladella P.C.Silva 	3
 Onychocolax Pocock 	1
 Ophidocladus Falkenberg 	1
 Osmundaria J.V.Lamouroux 	7
 Osmundea Stackhouse 	24
 Pachychaeta Kützing 	2
 Palisada K.W.Nam 	25
 Pentocladia Huisman 	1
 Periphykon Weber Bosse 	2
 Perrinia Womersley 	1
 Phaeocolax Hollenberg 	1
 Picconiella G.De Toni 	2
 Pityophykos Papenfuss 	1
 Placophora J.Agardh 	3
 Pleurostichidium Heydrich 	1
 Pollexfenia Harvey 	5
 Polysiphonia Greville 185
 Polyzonia Suhr 	1
 Protokuetzingia Falkenberg 	1
 Pterochondria Hollenberg 	1
 Pterosiphonia Falkenberg 	10
 Pterosiphoniella E.Y.Dawson 	1
 Pycnothamnion P.J.L.Dangeard 	1
 Rhodolachne M.J.Wynne 	1
 Rhodomela C.Agardh 	13
 Rhodomelopsis Pocock 	1
 Rodriguezella F.Schmitz 	7
 Rytiphlaea C.Agardh 	5
 Savoiea M.J.Wynne 	4
 Schizochlaenion M.J.Wynne & R.E.Norris 	1
 Sonderella F.Schmitz 	1
 Spirocladia Børgesen 	5
 Spirophycus A.J.K.Millar 	1
 Sporoglossum Kylin 	1
 Streblocladia F.Schmitz 	8
 Stromatocarpus Falkenberg 	1
 Symphyocladia Falkenberg 	8
 Symphyocladiella D.E.Bustamante, B.Y.Won & T.O.Cho 	8
 Symphyocolax M.S.Kim 	1
 Tayloriella Kylin 	4
 Thaumatella (Falkenberg) Kylin 	1
 Tiparraria Womersley 	1
 Tolypiocladia F.Schmitz 	4
 Trichidium J.M.Noble & Kraft 	1
 Tylocolax F.Schmitz 	1
 Ululania K.E.Apt & K.E.Schlech 	1
 Veleroa E.Y.Dawson 	6
 Vertebrata S.F.Gray 	30
 Vidalia J.V.Lamouroux ex J.Agardh 	3
 Waldoia W.R.Taylor 	1
 Waputikia C.Walcott 	1
 Wilsonaea F.Schmitz 	1
 Wilsonosiphonia D.Bustamante, Won & T.O.Cho 	4
 Womersleyella Hollenberg 	4
 Wrightiella F.Schmitz 	2
 Xiphosiphonia Savoie & G.W.Saunders 	3
 Yuzurua (K.W.Nam) Martin-Lescanne 	2
Tribusi
 Alsidieae Ardissone 14
 Amansieae Schmitz & Hauptfleisch 63
 Bostrychieae Falkenberg 41
 Chondrieae F.Schmitz & Falkenberg 95
 Dipterosiphonieae Díaz-Tapia & Maggs 6
 Herposiphonieae F.Schmitz & Falkenberg 	71
 Heterocladieae Falkenberg 	3
 Laurencieae F.Schmitz 	229
 Lophosiphonieae Fritsch 	10
 Lophothalieae F.Schmitz & Falkenberg 	19
 Neotenophyceae Kraft & I.A.Abbott 	1
 Ophidocladeae Díaz-Tapia & Maggs 	1
 Pleurostichidieae Hommersand 	1
 Polysiphonieae Ardissone 	225
 Polyzonieae F.Schmitz & Falkenberg 	13
 Pterosiphonieae Falkenberg 	60
 Rhodomeleae 40
 Sonderelleae L.E.Phillips 	2
 Streblocladieae Díaz-Tapia & Maggs 	110
 Thaumatelleae Díaz-Tapia & Maggs 	1

Izvori

Ceramiales

Rhodomelaceae


Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages.

Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other proto-language, and it is the best understood of all proto-languages of its age. The majority of linguistic work during the 19th century was devoted to the reconstruction of PIE or its daughter languages, and many of the modern techniques of linguistic reconstruction (such as the comparative method) were developed as a result.

PIE is hypothesized to have been spoken as a single language from approximately 4500 BCE to 2500 BCE during the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age, though estimates vary by more than a thousand years. According to the prevailing Kurgan hypothesis, the original homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have been in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Europe. The linguistic reconstruction of PIE has provided insight into the pastoral culture and patriarchal religion of its speakers.

As speakers of Proto-Indo-European became isolated from each other through the Indo-European migrations, the regional dialects of Proto-Indo-European spoken by the various groups diverged, as each dialect underwent shifts in pronunciation (the Indo-European sound laws), morphology, and vocabulary. Over many centuries, these dialects transformed into the known ancient Indo-European languages. From there, further linguistic divergence led to the evolution of their current descendants, the modern Indo-European languages. Today, the descendant languages of PIE with the most native speakers are Spanish, English, Portuguese, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Bengali, Russian, Punjabi, German, Persian, French, Marathi, Italian, and Gujarati.

PIE is believed to have had an elaborate system of morphology that included inflectional suffixes (analogous to English child, child's, children, children's) as well as ablaut (vowel alterations, as preserved in English sing, sang, sung, song) and accent. PIE nominals and pronouns had a complex system of declension, and verbs similarly had a complex system of conjugation. The PIE phonology, particles, numerals, and copula are also well-reconstructed.

Asterisks are used as a conventional mark of reconstructed words, such as *, *, or *; these forms are the reconstructed ancestors of the modern English words water, hound, and three, respectively.

Development of the hypothesis
No direct evidence of PIE exists; scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the comparative method. For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English:  and foot,  and father,  and fish. Since there is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants (p and f) that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can infer that these languages stem from a common parent language. Detailed analysis suggests a system of sound laws to describe the phonetic and phonological changes from the hypothetical ancestral words to the modern ones. These laws have become so detailed and reliable as to support the Neogrammarian rule: the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception.

William Jones, an Anglo-Welsh philologist and puisne judge in Bengal, caused an academic sensation when in 1786 he postulated the common ancestry of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, the Celtic languages, and Old Persian, but he was not the first to state such a hypothesis. In the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent became aware of similarities between Indo-Iranian languages and European languages, and as early as 1653, Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn had published a proposal for a proto-language ("Scythian") for the following language families: Germanic, Romance, Greek, Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, and Iranian. In a memoir sent to the  in 1767, , a French Jesuit who spent all his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the analogy between Sanskrit and European languages. According to current academic consensus, Jones's famous work of 1786 was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included Egyptian, Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindi.

In 1818, Rasmus Christian Rask elaborated the set of correspondences in his prize essay  ('Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language'), where he argued that Old Norse was related to the Germanic languages, and had even suggested a relation to the Baltic, Slavic, Greek, Latin and Romance languages. In 1816, Franz Bopp published On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit, in which he investigated the common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833, he began publishing the Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and German.

In 1822, Jacob Grimm formulated what became known as Grimm's law as a general rule in his . Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages and demonstrated that sound change systematically transforms all words of a language. From the 1870s, the Neogrammarians proposed that sound laws have no exceptions, as illustrated by Verner's law, published in 1876, which resolved apparent exceptions to Grimm's law by exploring the role of accent (stress) in language change.

August Schleicher's A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages (1874–77) represented an early attempt to reconstruct the proto-Indo-European language.

By the early 1900s, Indo-Europeanists had developed well-defined descriptions of PIE which scholars still accept today. Later, the discovery of the Anatolian and Tocharian languages added to the corpus of descendant languages. A subtle new principle won wide acceptance: the laryngeal theory, which explained irregularities in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European phonology as the effects of hypothetical sounds which no longer exist in all languages documented prior to the excavation of cuneiform tablets in Anatolian. This theory was first proposed by De Saussure in 1879 on the basis of internal reconstruction only, and progressively won general acceptance after Jerzy Kuryłowicz's discovery of consonantal reflexes of these reconstructed sounds in Hittite.

Julius Pokorny's  ('Indo-European Etymological Dictionary', 1959) gave a detailed, though conservative, overview of the lexical knowledge accumulated by 1959. Jerzy Kuryłowicz's 1956 Apophonie gave a better understanding of Indo-European ablaut. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became robust enough to establish its relationship to PIE.

Historical and geographical setting

Scholars have proposed multiple hypotheses about when, where, and by whom PIE was spoken. The Kurgan hypothesis, first put forward in 1956 by Marija Gimbutas, has become the most popular. It proposes that the original speakers of PIE were the Yamnaya culture associated with the kurgans (burial mounds) on the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea. According to the theory, they were nomadic pastoralists who domesticated the horse, which allowed them to migrate across Europe and Asia in wagons and chariots. By the early 3rd millennium BCE, they had expanded throughout the Pontic–Caspian steppe and into eastern Europe.

Other theories include the Anatolian hypothesis, which posits that PIE spread out from Anatolia with agriculture beginning  7500–6000 BCE, the Armenian hypothesis, the Paleolithic continuity paradigm, and the indigenous Aryans theory. The latter two of these theories are not regarded as credible within academia. Out of all the theories for a PIE homeland, the Kurgan and Anatolian hypotheses are the ones most widely accepted, and also the ones most debated against each other. Following the publication of several studies on ancient DNA in 2015, Colin Renfrew, the original author and proponent of the Anatolian hypothesis, has accepted the reality of migrations of populations speaking one or several Indo-European languages from the Pontic steppe towards Northwestern Europe.

Descendants

The table lists the main Indo-European language families, comprising the languages descended from Proto-Indo-European.

Commonly proposed subgroups of Indo-European languages include Italo-Celtic, Graeco-Aryan, Graeco-Armenian, Graeco-Phrygian, Daco-Thracian, and Thraco-Illyrian.

There are numerous lexical similarities between the Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Kartvelian languages due to early language contact, though some morphological similarities—notably the Indo-European ablaut, which is remarkably similar to the root ablaut system reconstructible for Proto-Kartvelian.

Marginally attested languages
The Lusitanian language was a marginally attested language spoken in areas near the border between present-day Portugal and Spain.

The Venetic and Liburnian languages known from the North Adriatic region are sometimes classified as Italic.

Albanian and Greek are the only surviving Indo-European descendants of a Paleo-Balkan language area, named for their occurrence in or in the vicinity of the Balkan peninsula. Most of the other languages of this area—including Illyrian, Thracian, and Dacian—do not appear to be members of any other subfamilies of PIE, but are so poorly attested that proper classification of them is not possible. Forming an exception, Phrygian is sufficiently well-attested to allow proposals of a particularly close affiliation with Greek, and a Graeco-Phrygian branch of Indo-European is becoming increasingly accepted.

Phonology

Proto-Indo-European phonology has been reconstructed in some detail. Notable features of the most widely accepted (but not uncontroversial) reconstruction include:
three series of stop consonants reconstructed as voiceless, voiced, and breathy voiced;
sonorant consonants that could be used syllabically;
three so-called laryngeal consonants, whose exact pronunciation is not well-established but which are believed to have existed in part based on their detectable effects on adjacent sounds;
the fricative
a vowel system in which  and  were the most frequently occurring vowels. The existence of  as a separate phoneme is debated.

Notation

Vowels
The vowels in commonly used notation are:

Consonants

The corresponding consonants in commonly used notation are:

Accent
The Proto-Indo-European accent is reconstructed today as having had variable lexical stress, which could appear on any syllable and whose position often varied among different members of a paradigm (e.g. between singular and plural of a verbal paradigm). Stressed syllables received a higher pitch; therefore it is often said that PIE had a pitch accent. The location of the stress is associated with ablaut variations, especially between full-grade vowels ( and ) and zero-grade (i.e. lack of a vowel), but not entirely predictable from it.

The accent is best preserved in Vedic Sanskrit and (in the case of nouns) Ancient Greek, and indirectly attested in a number of phenomena in other IE languages, such as Verner's Law in the Germanic branch. Sources for Indo-European accentuation are also the Balto-Slavic accentual system and plene spelling in Hittite cuneiform. To account for mismatches between the accent of Vedic Sanskrit and Ancient Greek, as well as a few other phenomena, a few historical linguists prefer to reconstruct PIE as a tone language where each morpheme had an inherent tone; the sequence of tones in a word then evolved, according to that hypothesis, into the placement of lexical stress in different ways in different IE branches.

Morphology

Root
Proto-Indo-European roots were affix-lacking morphemes that carried the core lexical meaning of a word and were used to derive related words (cf. the English root "-friend-", from which are derived related words such as friendship, friendly, befriend, and newly coined words such as unfriend). Proto-Indo-European was probably a fusional language, in which inflectional morphemes signaled the grammatical relationships between words. This dependence on inflectional morphemes means that roots in PIE, unlike those in English, were rarely used without affixes. A root plus a suffix formed a word stem, and a word stem plus a desinence (usually an ending) formed a word.

Ablaut
Many morphemes in Proto-Indo-European had short e as their inherent vowel; the Indo-European ablaut is the change of this short e to short o, long e (ē), long o (ō), or no vowel. The forms are referred to as the "ablaut grades" of the morpheme—the e-grade, o-grade, zero-grade (no vowel), etc. This variation in vowels occurred both within inflectional morphology (e.g., different grammatical forms of a noun or verb may have different vowels) and derivational morphology (e.g., a verb and an associated abstract verbal noun may have different vowels).

Categories that PIE distinguished through ablaut were often also identifiable by contrasting endings, but the loss of these endings in some later Indo-European languages has led them to use ablaut alone to identify grammatical categories, as in the Modern English words sing, sang, sung.

Noun
Proto-Indo-European nouns were probably declined for eight or nine cases:
nominative: marks the subject of a verb. Words that follow a linking verb (copulative verb) and restate the subject of that verb also use the nominative case. The nominative is the dictionary form of the noun.
accusative: used for the direct object of a transitive verb.
genitive: marks a noun as modifying another noun.
dative: used to indicate the indirect object of a transitive verb, such as Jacob in Maria gave Jacob a drink.
instrumental: marks the instrument or means by, or with, which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. It may be either a physical object or an abstract concept.
ablative: used to express motion away from something.
locative: expresses location, corresponding vaguely to the English prepositions in, on, at, and by.
vocative: used for a word that identifies an addressee. A vocative expression is one of direct address where the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence, "I don't know, John", John is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed.
allative: used as a type of locative case that expresses movement towards something. It was preserved in Anatolian (particularly Old Hittite), and fossilized traces of it have been found in Greek. It is also present in Tocharian. Its PIE shape is uncertain, with candidates including *-h2(e), *-(e)h2, or *-a.
Late Proto-Indo-European had three grammatical genders:
 masculine
 feminine
 neuter
This system is probably derived from an older two-gender system, attested in Anatolian languages: common (or animate) and neuter (or inanimate) gender. The feminine gender only arose in the later period of the language. Neuter nouns collapsed the nominative, vocative and accusative into a single form, the plural of which used a special collective suffix  (manifested in most descendants as -a). This same collective suffix in extended forms  and  (respectively on thematic and athematic nouns, becoming -ā and -ī in the early daughter languages) became used to form feminine nouns from masculines.

All nominals distinguished three numbers:
 singular
 dual
 plural
These numbers were also distinguished in verbs (see below), requiring agreement with their subject nominal.

Pronoun
Proto-Indo-European pronouns are difficult to reconstruct, owing to their variety in later languages. PIE had personal pronouns in the first and second grammatical person, but not the third person, where demonstrative pronouns were used instead. The personal pronouns had their own unique forms and endings, and some had two distinct stems; this is most obvious in the first person singular where the two stems are still preserved in English I and me. There were also two varieties for the accusative, genitive and dative cases, a stressed and an enclitic form.

Verb
Proto-Indo-European verbs, like the nouns, exhibited a system of ablaut.

The most basic categorisation for the reconstructed Indo-European verb is grammatical aspect. Verbs are classed as:
stative: verbs that depict a state of being
imperfective: verbs depicting ongoing, habitual or repeated action
perfective: verbs depicting a completed action or actions viewed as an entire process.
Verbs have at least four grammatical moods:
indicative: indicates that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences.
imperative: forms commands or requests, including the giving of prohibition or permission, or any other kind of advice or exhortation.
subjunctive: used to express various states of unreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, obligation, or action that has not yet occurred
optative: indicates a wish or hope. It is similar to the cohortative mood and is closely related to the subjunctive mood.
Verbs had two grammatical voices:
 active: used in a clause whose subject expresses the main verb's agent.
mediopassive: for the middle voice and the passive voice.
Verbs had three grammatical persons: first, second and third.

Verbs had three grammatical numbers:
singular
dual: referring to precisely two of the entities (objects or persons) identified by the noun or pronoun.
plural: a number other than singular or dual.

Verbs were probably marked by a highly developed system of participles, one for each combination of tense and voice, and an assorted array of verbal nouns and adjectival formations.

The following table shows a possible reconstruction of the PIE verb endings from Sihler, which largely represents the current consensus among Indo-Europeanists.

Numbers
Proto-Indo-European numerals are generally reconstructed as follows:

Rather than specifically 100, * may originally have meant "a large number".

Particle
Proto-Indo-European particles were probably used both as adverbs and as postpositions. These postpositions became prepositions in most daughter languages.

Reconstructed particles include for example, * "under, below"; the negators *, *; the conjunctions * "and", * "or" and others; and an interjection, *, expressing woe or agony.

Derivational morphology
Proto-Indo-European employed various means of deriving words from other words, or directly from verb roots.

Internal derivation
Internal derivation was a process that derived new words through changes in accent and ablaut alone. It was not as productive as external (affixing) derivation, but is firmly established by the evidence of various later languages.

Possessive adjectives
Possessive or associated adjectives were probably created from nouns through internal derivation. Such words could be used directly as adjectives, or they could be turned back into a noun without any change in morphology, indicating someone or something characterised by the adjective. They were probably also used as the second elements in compounds. If the first element was a noun, this created an adjective that resembled a present participle in meaning, e.g. "having much rice" or "cutting trees". When turned back into nouns, such compounds were Bahuvrihis or semantically resembled agent nouns.

In thematic stems, creating a possessive adjective seems to have involved shifting the accent one syllable to the right, for example:
 *tómh₁-o-s "slice" (Greek tómos) > *tomh₁-ó-s "cutting" (i.e. "making slices"; Greek tomós) > *dr-u-tomh₁-ó-s "cutting trees" (Greek drutómos "woodcutter" with irregular accent).
 *wólh₁-o-s "wish" (Sanskrit vára-) > *wolh₁-ó-s "having wishes" (Sanskrit vará- "suitor").

In athematic stems, there was a change in the accent/ablaut class. The reconstructed four classes followed an ordering in which a derivation would shift the class one to the right:
 acrostatic → proterokinetic → hysterokinetic → amphikinetic
The reason for this particular ordering of the classes in derivation is not known. Some examples:
 Acrostatic *krót-u-s ~ *krét-u-s "strength" (Sanskrit krátu-) > proterokinetic *krét-u-s ~ *kr̥t-éw-s "having strength, strong" (Greek kratús).
 Hysterokinetic *ph₂-tḗr ~ *ph₂-tr-és "father" (Greek patḗr) > amphikinetic *h₁su-péh₂-tōr ~ *h₁su-ph₂-tr-és "having a good father" (Greek εὑπάτωρ, eupátōr).

Vrddhi
A vrddhi derivation, named after the Sanskrit grammatical term, signifying "of, belonging to, descended from". It was characterised by "upgrading" the root grade, from zero to full (e) or from full to lengthened (ē). When upgrading from zero to full grade, the vowel could sometimes be inserted in the "wrong" place, creating a different stem from the original full grade.

Examples:
 full grade *swéḱuro-s "father-in-law" (Vedic Sanskrit ) > lengthened grade *swēḱuró-s "relating to one's father-in-law" (Vedic , Old High German swāgur "brother-in-law").
 full grade *dyḗw-s > zero grade *diw-és "sky" > new full grade *deyw-o-s "god, sky god" (Vedic , Latin deus, etc.). Note the difference in vowel placement, *dyew- in the full-grade stem of the original noun, but  in the vrddhi derivative.

Nominalization
Adjectives with accent on the thematic vowel could be turned into nouns by moving the accent back onto the root. A zero grade root could remain so, or be "upgraded" to full grade like in a vrddhi derivative. Some examples:
 PIE *ǵn̥h₁-tó-s "born" (Vedic jātá-) > *ǵénh₁-to- "thing that is born" (German Kind).
 Greek leukós "white" > leũkos "a kind of fish", literally "white one".
 Vedic kṛṣṇá- "dark" > kṛ́ṣṇa- "dark one", also "antelope".

This kind of derivation is likely related to the possessive adjectives, and can be seen as essentially the reverse of it.

Affixal derivation

Syntax
The syntax of the older Indo-European languages has been studied in earnest since at least the late nineteenth century, by such scholars as Hermann Hirt and Berthold Delbrück. In the second half of the twentieth century, interest in the topic increased and led to reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European syntax.

Since all the early attested IE languages were inflectional, PIE is thought to have relied primarily on morphological markers, rather than word order, to signal syntactic relationships within sentences. Still, a default (unmarked) word order is thought to have existed in PIE. In 1892, Jacob Wackernagel reconstructed PIE's word order as subject–verb–object (SVO), based on evidence in Vedic Sanskrit.

Winfred P. Lehmann (1974), on the other hand, reconstructs PIE as a subject–object–verb (SOV) language. He posits that the presence of person marking in PIE verbs motivated a shift from OV to VO order in later dialects. Many of the descendant languages have VO order: modern Greek, Romance and Albanian prefer SVO, Insular Celtic has VSO as the default order, and even the Anatolian languages show some signs of this word order shift. Tocharian and Indo-Iranian, meanwhile, retained the conservative OV order. Lehmann attributes the context-dependent order preferences in Baltic, Slavic and Germanic to outside influences. Donald Ringe (2006), however, attributes these to internal developments instead.

Paul Friedrich (1975) disagrees with Lehmann's analysis. He reconstructs PIE with the following syntax:
 basic SVO word order
 adjectives before nouns
 head nouns before genitives
 prepositions rather than postpositions
 no dominant order in comparative constructions
 main clauses before relative clauses
Friedrich notes that even among those Indo-European languages with basic OV word order, none of them are rigidly OV. He also notes that these non-rigid OV languages mainly occur in parts of the IE area that overlap with OV languages from other families (such as Uralic and Dravidian), whereas VO is predominant in the central parts of the IE area. For these reasons, among others, he argues for a VO common ancestor.

Hans Henrich Hock (2015) reports that the SVO hypothesis still has some adherents, but the "broad consensus" among PIE scholars is that PIE would have been an SOV language. The SOV default word order with other orders used to express emphasis (e.g., verb–subject–object to emphasise the verb) is attested in Old Indo-Aryan, Old Iranian, Old Latin and Hittite, while traces of it can be found in the enclitic personal pronouns of the Tocharian languages.

See also
 Indo-European vocabulary
 Proto-Indo-European verbs
 Proto-Indo-European pronouns
 List of Indo-European languages
 Indo-European sound laws
 List of proto-languages

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Clackson, J. (2007). Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2017. Volume 1 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110261288
2017. Volume 2 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110523874
2018. Volume 3 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110542431

External links

 At the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center: List of online books , Indo-European Lexicon
 Proto-Indo-European Lexicon at the University of Helsinki, Department of Modern Languages, Department of World Cultures, Indo-European Studies

 Indo-European Grammar, Syntax & Etymology Dictionary
 Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database
 glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online, an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages

Bronze Age
Indo-European languages
Language
Indo-European

Proto-Indo-European language