Die Gove-Bauxitmine befindet sich auf der Gove-Halbinsel im Nordwesten des Arnhem Lands an der Ostküste des Golf von Carpentaria im Northern Territory, Australien. Dieses Bergwerk zählte 2010 zu den fünf größten Bauxitbergwerken Australiens. Auf dem Gelände der Mine befindet sich auch eine Bauxitraffinerie.

Bergbau

Die Lagerstättenerkundung auf der Gove-Halbinsel begann 1952 und 1955 wurden Bauxitvorkommen entdeckt. Im Februar 1963 erlaubte der Premierminister der australischen liberalkonservativen Partei Robert Menzies den Abbau des großen Bauxitvorkommens. Daraufhin kam zu Protesten der dort lebenden Aborigines der Yolngu, die nicht über die Ausbeutung ihres Landes befragt worden waren. Diese reichten die Yolngu Bark Petition, eine auf Baumrinde gemalte Petition, im australischen Parlament ein. Sie unterlagen vor Gericht. Die damalige Bergbaugesellschaft sicherte allerdings den Aborigines Kompensationszahlungen und den Schutz von spirituellen Stätten im sogenannten Gove Agreement zu. Der Bergbau nahm im Juli 1972 seinen Betrieb durch die Swiss Aluminium Company auf. Seit 2007 befindet er sich im Eigentum der Rio Tinto Alcan mit einer Bergbaulizenz über ein Gebiet von 22625,7 ha. Die jährliche Kapazität der Mine beträgt 8,5 Millionen Tonnen Erz und die der Raffinerie 3,8 Millionen Tonnen Aluminiumoxid.

Auf dem Bergwerksgelände befindet sich eine Raffinerie, ein Speichergebäude, Hafen und Kraftwerk zur Energieerzeugung. 2009 beschäftigte das Bergwerk 851 Personen, darunter 10 % Aborigines.

Im Mai 2011 wurde eine Vereinbarung zwischen der Rirratjingu, Gumatj and Galpu Traditional Owners, Northern Land Council und Rio Tinto Alcan über weitere 42 Jahre Minenbetrieb bis 2053 geschlossen werden.

2012 gab es Überlegungen zur Rückführung des Bauxitabbau. 2013 gab Rio Tinto bekannt, dass der Bergbau weiterhin betrieben werde.

Gove-Aluminiumraffinerie

Die Gove-Aluminiumraffinerie produzierte 2010 2,5 Millionen Tonnen Bauxiterz. Zur Erweiterung der Kapazität der Raffinerie auf 3,0 Millionen Tonnen wurden 2004 2,3 Millionen US-Dollar investiert, die auch eine Energieminimierung von 30 % nach sich zog.

Infrastruktur

Zur Aufnahme der Bergbau-Betriebs wurde der Ort Nhulunbuy gegründet und Unterkünfte für die Bergleute geschaffen. Das Gebiet der Gove Penisula und auch das Arnheim Land sind infrastrukturell wenig erschlossen. Nhulunbuy ist lediglich über eine 700 Kilometer lange, unbefestigte Straße erreichbar. Vor einem Befahren der Central Arnhem Road, die nach Nhulunbuy führt, ist für die letzten 460 Kilometer eine Erlaubnis einzuholen. Deshalb werden die Beschäftigten über den Gove Airport eingeflogen. Daneben besteht auch eine Schiffsverbindung.

Siehe auch
 Bauxitbergbau in Australien
 Aluminiumhütte

Einzelnachweise

Bauxitbergwerk in Australien
Aktives Bergwerk
Geologie Australiens
Geographie (Northern Territory)
Bergwerk in Australien und Ozeanien
East Arnhem Region

Gove-Bauxitmine


Avedik de Tokat (arménien Ավետիք Եվդոկիացի Avétik Yevtogiatsi) né le  à  Tokat; †  à Paris) est un  Patriarche arménien de Constantinople et un  Patriarche arménien de Jérusalem de 1702 à 1703 et de 1704 à 1706.

Biographie
Avedik ou Avetik est ordonné diacre près d'Adana en 1676, et consacré prêtre quelques années plus tard il exerce cette
fonction dans le monastère de Jakobs à Erzincan . il est  nommé évêque d'Erzincan en 1690, mais son épiscopat est troublé car depuis Erzurum, il mene une violente propagande contre les Arméniens favorables aux catholiques comme Mékhitar de Sébaste et les missionnaires latins et engage une controverse avec Nahapet d'Édesse le Catholicos d'Etchmiadzin.

En 1701, il se rend à Istanbul et y est intronisé le  comme Patriarche des Arméniens. Quelques mois plus tard, il revendique également la dignité de Patriarche arménien de Jérusalem. Il est déposé en 1703 en faveur de Kalust Gaydzag  d'Amassia à Constantinople et de  Minas II d'Amid à Jérusalem mais il est réintégré en 1704.  Mechitar s'étant enfui en Grèce et finalement à Venise pour échapper à ses activités anti-catholiques. En 1706, Avedik est destitué définitivement par les autorités ottomanes et expulsé à Jérusalem.

A Chios  Charles de Ferriol, ambassadeur de France dans l'Empire ottoman de 1692 à 1711 le fait arrêter et déporter en France. Là, il est emprisonné d'abord à Marseille, puis au monastère de Mont-Saint-Michel et enfin à la Bastille à Paris. Sous la pression des circonstances, Avedik entre en communion ecclésiale avec le souverain pontife romain le , il est ensuite autorisé à vivre chez ses relations parisiennes et à partir du  il travaille également comme liturgiste. Il meurt le  et est inhumé dans le chœur de  Église Saint-Sulpice de Paris d'où sa pierre tombale a disparu.

Notes et références

Sources
 .
 .

Lien externe

Patriarche arménien de Constantinople au XVIIIe siècle
Patriarche arménien de Jérusalem au XVIIIe siècle
Naissance en 1657
Décès en juillet 1711
Décès à Paris

Avedik de Tokat


أنطونيو دو أوليفيرا سالازار  28 أبريل 1889 – 27 يوليو 1970) شغل منصب رئيس الوزراء وديكتاتور البرتغال في الفترة من 1932 إلى 1968. كان رئيس الجمهورية في عام 1951 ، بصفة مؤقتة. أسس وقاد نوفو استادو ( "الدولة الجديدة") التي حكمت وسيطرت على البرتغال من 1932 حتى 1974.

كان حاكمًا مستبدًا للبرتغال، أصبح رئيسًا للوزراء عام 1932م. ثم أعلن في العام التالي دستورًا جعله حاكمًا استبداديًا. . قبل أن يدخل سالازار في خدمة الحكومة كان خبيرًا في الشؤون المالية، وأستاذًا في علم الاقتصاد بجامعة مومبرا. في عام 1926 رفض أن يشغل منصب وزير المالية، لأنه كان يرى أنه لا يمتلك السلطة الكافية لحل مشاكل البرتغال المالية. وفي عام 1928 تردت الحالة الاقتصادية في البرتغال لدرجة أن الحكومة أعطت سالازار السلطات التي طالب بها.

أقام سالازار دولة عسكرية، فوضع النقابات تحت إدارة الحكومة. ومنع حرية الصحافة والحريات السياسية، وأقام الاقتصاد على قواعد محكمة، ولكنها كانت على حساب الأجور، ورفاهية كثير من المواطنين. و في وسط الحرب العالمية الثانية احتفظ سالازار بحياد البرتغال. فأصبحت العاصمة لشبونة حلقة الوصل بين الدول الحليفة ودول المحور، حيث كان عملاؤهم يعملون بحرِّية تامة في أنحاء الدولة المختلفة. ومع ذلك استطاع سالازار أن يحافظ على علاقات البرتغال التقليدية بإنجلترا، ومنح الدول الحليفة قواعد جوية وبحرية في جزر الآزور، وهي مجموعة جزر برتغالية.

تزايدت المعارضة السياسية ضده في البرتغال في أواخر الخمسينيات. لفتت سياساته نحو أنغولا وموزمبيق، وبعض المستعمرات البرتغالية الأخرى في أفريقيا أنظار العالم في أواخر الستينيات، حيث عمل سالازار على الاحتفاظ بسيطرة البرتغال على هذه المستعمرات بالرغم من عدم موافقة الأمم المتحدة والأفارقة. منذ عام 1968 بدأ يعاني من شلل في الدماغ عجز معه عن القيام بواجباته. أُبْعد سالازار عن الحكم بطريقة لم يكن يتوقعها، وتولى السلطة مكانه مارسيلو كايتانو، وتوفي سالازار بعد ذلك بسنتين.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

برتغاليون في القرن 19
أشخاص من سانتا كومبا داو
اقتصاديون برتغاليون
الكاثوليكية واليمين المتطرف
إستادونوفو (البرتغال)
برتغاليون مناهضون للشيوعية
حكام فاشيون
خريجو جامعة قلمرية
رومان كاثوليك برتغاليون
رؤساء البرتغال
رؤساء وزراء البرتغال
زعماء الحرب العالمية الثانية
سياسيون برتغاليون في القرن 20
شخصيات الحرب الباردة
عنصرية في البرتغال
فاشيون برتغاليون
فاشيون مسيحيون
قوميون برتغاليون
معاداة البروتستانتية
معاداة السامية في البرتغال
معاداة الماسونية
مواليد 1889
مواليد في سانتا كومبا داو
وزراء مالية البرتغال
وفيات 1970
وفيات بسبب مرض دماغي وعائي
وفيات في لشبونة
وفيات مرتبطة بالمرض في البرتغال
اقتصاديون برتغاليون في القرن 20

أنطونيو سالازار


DAMS (nekad Driot-Arnoux Motorsport, danas Driot Associés Motor Sport) je francuska momčad koja se natječe u FIA Formula 2 prvenstvu i FIA Formula E prvenstvu, a osnovali su je Jean-Paul Driot i René Arnoux 1988. Momčad se u prošlosti natjecala u mnogim automobilističkim prvenstvima, u kojima je osvojila ukupno 13 vozačkih naslova i 14 momčadskih naslova.

Naslovi

Vozački

Momčadski

Vanjske poveznice
 dams.fr - Official website

Momčadi Formule 2
Automobilizam u Francuskoj

DAMS


Loren Alfonso (28 de março de 1995) é um boxeador azeri, medalhista olímpico.

Carreira

Alfonso conquistou a medalha de bronze nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 em Tóquio, após confronto na semifinal contra o cubano Arlen López na categoria peso meio-pesado. Ele conquistou a medalha de ouro nos Jogos Europeus de 2019 em sua modalidade.

Pugilistas olímpicos do Azerbaijão
Pugilistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020

Loren Alfonso


An Cynorkis flexuosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Cynorkis flexuosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cynorkis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Madagascar.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 C. f. bifoliata
 C. f. flexuosa

Mga kasarigan

Cynorkis

Cynorkis flexuosa


is a town located in Hidaka District, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 7,970 in 3266 households and a population density of 170 persons per km². The total area of the town is .

Geography
Hidaka is located on the coast  in central Wakayama Prefecture, facing the Kii Channel. The coastline is a ria coast and the climate is mild..

Neighboring municipalities
Wakayama Prefecture
Gobō
Hirogawa
Mihama
Hidakagawa
Yura

Climate
Hidaka has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Hidaka is 16.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1878 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.7 °C, and lowest in January, at around 7.3 °C. The area is subject to typhoons in summer.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Hidaka has remained fairly steady over the past century.

History
The area of the modern town of Hidaka was within ancient Kii Province. The villages of Shiga, Hizaki, Higashi-Uchihara and Nishi-Uchihara were established with the creation of the modern municipalities system on April 1, 1889. Higachi-Uchihara and Nishi-Uchihara merged on August 1, 1941 to form Uchihara Village. Uchihara merged with Shiga and Hizaki on October 1, 1954 to form the town of Hidaka.

Government
Hidaka has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city council of 12 members. Hidaka collectively with the other municipalities of Hidaka District, contributes three members to the Wakayama Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Wakayama 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Hidaka is centered on commercial fishing and agriculture. The main crops are rice and vegetables in the flatlands and horticulture in the mountains. Plans by Kansai Electric to construct a nuclear power plant in Hidaka were cancelled due to vehement local opposition.

Education
Hidaka has three public elementary schools and one public middle schools operated by the town government. The town does not have a high school.

Transportation

Railway
 JR West – Kisei Main Line

Highways

Local attractions
Shishigase Pass on the Kumano Kodo, National Historic Site and World Heritage Site

References

External links

 Hidaka official website

Towns in Wakayama Prefecture
Hidaka, Wakayama
Populated coastal places in Japan

Hidaka, Wakayama


The Lithuanian nobility or Lithuanian szlachta (, ) was historically a legally privileged hereditary elite class in the Kingdom of Lithuania and Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including during period of foreign rule 1795–1918) consisting of Lithuanians from Lithuania Proper; Samogitians from Duchy of Samogitia; following Lithuania's eastward expansion into what is now Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, many ethnically Ruthenian noble families (boyars); and, later on, predominantly Baltic German families from the Duchy of Livonia and Inflanty Voivodeship. It traced its origins via Palemonids to Polemon II of Pontus.

Families of the nobility were responsible for military mobilization and enjoyed Golden Liberty; some were rewarded with additional privileges for success on the battlefield. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ducal titles were mostly inherited by descendants of old dynasties while the relatively few hereditary noble titles in the Kingdom of Poland were bestowed by foreign monarchs. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had one of the largest percentages of nobility in Europe, with szlachta (nobility) constituting close to 10% of the population, but in some constituent regions, like Duchy of Samogitia, it was closer to 12%. However, the high nobility was extremely limited in number, consisting of the magnates and later, within the Russian Empire, of princes.

Lithuanian nobility is not formally recognized by the Republic of Lithuania and does not carry special status, but the Lithuanian Royal Union of Nobility (founded 1928, closed in 1940, reestablished in 1994) unites in excess of 4,000 members from 600 families.

Lithuania before formal Christianization
Prior to the baptism (and quick repudiation) by Mindaugas, lesser members of the nobility were called bajorai (singular - bajoras) and greater nobles, kunigai (singular - kunigas), related to the Old , meaning "king", or , usually translated as duke, .  These positions evolved from tribal leaders and were chiefly responsible for waging wars and organizing raids operations into enemy territories.  Following the establishment of a unified state, they gradually became subordinates to greater Dukes, and later to the King of Lithuania. After Mindaugas' death, all Lithuanian rulers held the title Grand Duke (), or king, which was the title sometimes used by Gediminas and several others.

Ethnic Lithuanian nobility had different names than common people, as their names consisted of two stems. Greater noble families generally used their predecessor's Lithuanian pagan given names as their family names; this was the case with Goštautai, Radvilos, Astikai, Kęsgailos and others. Those families acquired great wealth, eventually becoming magnates.  Their representatives are respectively Jonas Goštautas, Radvila Astikas, Kristinas Astikas and Mykolas Kęsgaila. The aforementioned families were granted corresponding Polish coats of arms under the Union of Horodlo in 1413.

While at the beginning the nobility was almost all Lithuanian or Samogitian, with territorial expansion more Ruthenian families joined the nobility. As early as the 16th century, several Ruthenian noble families began to call themselves gente Ruthenus, natione Lithuanus. A good example is the Chodkiewicz family, which attributed its ancestry to the House of Gediminas.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania before the Union of Lublin (1386-1569)

Formation of the noble estate
The term boyar, boiarstvo () originally denoted all those who fought. Over the course of the 15th century, it changed its meaning to refer to the masses of ordinary nobility who could stand up to fight when called upon. There were also social groups that were personally free but had no military commitments. Such a group were, for example, putnie boyars, who served as grand-ducal envoys and were in charge of road maintenance. A significant group of boyars were service boyars who did not own allodial land, but only service estates, which they received and owned only by the grace of the Grand Duke. As the role and wealth of the great magnates increased, the service boyars put themselves at the service of the lords and princes in exchange for tenures. Despite the fact that they performed military functions, their servile status called their nobility into question. For quite a long time social mobility remained open and anyone could become ennobled as a reward for services to the Grand Duke. In time, the influence of lesser nobles decreased while greater nobles acquired increasingly more power.

The process of the formation of the noble estate in Lithuania accelerated after the union with Poland when there arose a desire to equalize the legal system of both countries. Nobility, or szlachta, in Poland was already a well-established estate, its legal position was consolidated in the 14th century. At this point, it was basically impossible to enter the noble status otherwise than by birth. The development of the idea of corona regni aroused among the nobility a notion of being the main unifying force of the kingdom and responsible for its rule. Lithuanian nobles aspired to this position. Privileges of 1387 and 1413 gave legal security of tenure to holders of allodial land and recognized in law the rights of landowners to pass on their estates. Although allodial land ownership was previously known in the Grand Duchy, its prevalence increased significantly in the following period. Similarly, the new law of inheritance led to a decline in the importance, outside Kaunas district and Samogitia, of clan kinships, in favour of more nuclear families.

This led to a rapid change in the structure of land ownership. While in 1386 80% of the population lived in the lands directly under the Grand Duke's rule, by 1528 this figure had fallen to 30%. It is estimated that 5% of the land was owned by the Church, while as much as 65% of the land was then in the hands of 13 thousand of noble families (6 thousand of them were of Lithuanian origin). Most of it was owned by a small group of several dozen families of lords, which constituted the political elite of the country.

New terms emerged for all those of noble birth: shliakhta (from ; ) in Ruthenian and nobiles in Latin. The term  () began to denote the nobles who possessed land.  Szlachta itself was stratified into several categories.

As the privileges and political importance of the nobility grew and the burdens and freedoms of the peasantry were reduced, these linguistic differences began to gain importance. Around the beginning of the 16th century, groups of boyars spared no effort to prove their noble status. The grand ducal council resolved that nobility had to be attested by the testimony of two neighbours, of undoubtedly noble lineage, saying that the applicant's family had been "boyars and shliakhta through the ages". Another opportunity to prove nobility were the military musterings, the first one organised in 1528, where a register of those capable to fight was prepared. Listening in such a register was legal proof of nobility.

Emergence of a magnate elite
Initially, a group distinguished by prestige were the princely families, which members bore the title of knyaz. These were mostly, at least according to tradition, the descendants of the dynasties who accepted the authority of Gediminids. However, only those who owned land in Lithuania proper, who was of Lithuanian origin and who had accepted Catholicism in 1386, had any influence on central state policy. The Ruthenian princes had influence only on the local situation in their lands. They varied considerably in terms of wealth and importance, some of them wielding huge estates, while others possessed their land on service tenure from the grand duke or another prince (so-called 'service princes' - князя слчжбовiе). The most powerful princes retained almost total power in their lands, recognising the supremacy of the grand dukes. Vytautas began a policy of limiting the power of the princes and incorporating their appanages into the domain. Many princes died in civil wars after his death. Many appanages, lying in the east, were lost to Moscow in the course of wars in the 15th and 16th centuries. Some families became extinct, and with the restriction of the circle of inheritance, their estates were incorporated into the grand-ducal domain. In 1499 Alexander regulated the legal system of the few remaining appanages, the magnates ruling them were given the full ius ducale. This was of little political significance since the princes as a political class were of little importance.

Regarding Lithuania proper, not counting descendants of Gediminas seven princely families are known: Borowski, Dowgowd, Giedraitis/Giedrojć, Jamontowicz, Holshansky, Sudemund, Świrski. They also used the title knyaz, which is probably a rendering of the Lithuanian kunigas, which in pagan times probably belonged to every person of noble status. It is not clear whether they owed their princely dignity to their former status as sovereigns or to their connection and affinity with the ruling family established in the 14th century (this is confirmed at least for the Gedraitis and Holshanskys).

Among them, only the Holshansky played a significant role on the side of the grand dukes, starting from Jogaila and Vytautas, being in the strict power elite. Apart from them, these were the families descended from Gediminas family: Olelkovich, Belsky, Kobryński and Zasławski. The princes of ethnically Ruthenian origin were excluded from the strict power elite and found their place in it only at the end of the 15th century. Then the representatives of powerful Volhynian families: Sanguszko, Czartoryski, Ostrogski and Zasławski found their place in the power elite.

Since the reign of Vytautas, documents began to distinguish a group of great lords, calling them in Latin baro (pl. barones), dominus (pl. domini) or, in Ruthenian texts, "great boyars" (боярe великie). Soon, the borrowed from Polish term "pan" (plural "pany", пан;  or ), literally meaning "lord" gained popularity. This new elite was only partly descended from the old princely families that ruled Lithuania in pagan times. To a large extent, these were new families that appeared during the reigns of Jogaila and Vytautas and whose representatives were among the signatories of the Union of Horodło (1413). They owed their position to the generosity of the grand dukes, who rewarded them with offices and land granted in allodium.

In the Union of Horodło (1413) forty-five Polish families adopted forty-seven Lithuanian Catholic families, lending them their coats of arms. It is assumed that the representatives of Lithuanian nobility gathered in Horodło constituted the elite of that time on which Vytautas based his authority. The adoption of Polish coats of arms, an important marker of nobility with a well-established tradition in Western Europe, elevated this narrow group above other privileged population groups. Despite the fact that some of them abandoned the Horodło coats of arms and replaced them with others, the political significance of this gesture did not lose its significance. In the system built by Vytautas, central offices were restricted to Catholics only, which excluded nobles of Ruthenian origin. The basis of the Grand Duke's power was the lands of Lithuania proper, basically the provinces of Trakai and Vilnius. Nobles from this region constituted the ruling elite. The situation began to change in the 1430s when nobility privileges began to be extended to the Ruthenian nobility.

The cementing of the new elite was strengthened by the emergence of the institution of the council. Initially, it had no institutionalized form but gathered the ruler's closest associates. However, from 1430 onwards, it began to take shape as a permanent institution, to which one automatically became a member by virtue of holding the relevant office. Possession of the princely title gave the right to participate in wider councils, called Sejm (сеймь, сoймь) a term borrowed from Polish. Their position grew especially during the period when the Grand Duke was also King of Poland and was away from the country for long periods. Crucial to this was the privilege of 1492, which gave the council enormous influence over the politics of the Grand Duchy. Practically giving it full control over the actions of the ruler. While in Poland at that time the limitation of royal power was associated with an increase in the role of the ordinary nobility, in the Grand Duchy, where nobility assemblies (sejmiks) did not exist, full power passed into the hands of the great lords. Grand Duchy of Lithuania offices were held almost exclusively by magnates.

Potent Radziwiłł family (Radvila) received the title of the prince (; ) from the Holy Roman Emperor in 1518, similarly some other families received titles of counts (Goštautai/Gasztołd in 1529/30; Ilinicz in 1553; Chodkiewicz in 1568; possibly Kęsgailos/Kieżgajło in 1547) from the Emperor. The elevation of the Radziwiłł family resulted in the abandonment of the title of "knyaz" by those Ruthenian families that still retained significant power, wealth and often appanages (for example Wiśniowiecki, Ostrogski, Zbaraski). They adopted instead the Polish title "książę", which in Ruthenian texts was translated as "knyazhe". As a result, the poorer prince families that still used the title of knyaz fell completely into insignificance, and the Lithuanian magnate elite consisted of "princes and lords" ().

Privileges
Following his distribution of state land, the Grand Duke became dependent on powerful landowners, who began demanding greater liberties and privileges. The nobles were granted administrative and judicial power in their domains and increasing rights in state politics. The legal status of the nobility was based on several privileges, granted by the Grand Dukes:

 In 1387 the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila, newly crowned King of Poland, granted a privilege to nobles and soldiers. They received personal rights, including the right to inherit and govern land as well as estates inherited from ancestors or gifted by the Grand Duke. At the same time, the nobles had duties to serve in the military, build, maintain and safeguard castles, bridges, roads and other vicinities.
 In 1413 Vytautas and Jogaila signed Union of Horodło. The act served to renew Polish–Lithuanian union and establish a common Sejm, guaranteeing the right to inherit lands gifted by the Grand Duke. Forty-three Lithuanian noble families were granted Polish coats of arms. Most of the veldamai became serfs.
 Jogaila's privilege in 1432 in essence repeated previous acts. Military service remained the primary means to receive land.
 Privilege of May 6, 1434 was granted by Sigismund Kestutaitis to Catholic and Eastern Orthodox nobility. They were guaranteed freedom to dispose of their land. Significantly, the act also prohibited persecution without a fair trial.
 In 1447 Casimir I Jagiellon limited positions within the Catholic Church or state institutions only to people from Lithuania. Certain nobles were released from their duties to the Grand Duke. This privilege also marked the beginnings of serfdom in Lithuania, as peasants were removed from the Grand Duke's jurisdiction.
 1492 privilege by Alexander Jagiellon renewed the 1447 privilege and added a few more provisions, the most important of which limited the Grand Duke's rights in regards to foreign policy. The Grand Duke became dependent on the Lithuanian Council of Lords. Without the consent of the Council no high official could be removed from his position. Lower posts had to be appointed in the presence of voivodes of Vilnius, Trakai, and other voivodeships. The privilege also prohibited selling various state and church positions to nobility.  In turn, the Grand Duke was limited from exploiting conflicts between higher and lower nobility and profiting by selling the positions. This privilege also signified that city residents could not become officials.
 In 1506 Sigismund I the Old confirmed the position of the Council of Lords in state politics and limited acquisition of positions within the noble class.
 On April 1, 1557, Sigismund II Augustus initiated the Wallach reform, which completed the establishment of serfdom. The implementation of serfdom deprived the peasants of land ownership as well as personal rights, making the serfs completely dependent on nobles.
 Union of Lublin in 1569 created the new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The nobility was granted the right to elect a common ruler for Poland and Lithuania.
 The Third Statute of Lithuania, completed in 1588, further expanded the rights of nobility. Laws could be enacted only by the general sejm. The nobility was granted triple immunity: legal, administrative and tax exemption. The statute finalized the division between nobility, peasants, and city residents.

Most of the nobility rights were retained even after the third partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795.

After the Union of Lublin
The nobility was particularly numerous in the ethnically Lithuanian lands and is estimated to have constituted about 10-11%, while in the Ruthenian lands of the Grand Duchy only about 3-4%. The nobility in Samogitia was particularly numerous, but usually, it was a poor nobility living in gentry villages. In the right-bank part of Kaunas county the nobility accounted for as much as 25% of the hearths in the late 18th century. In 1777 there were 16,534 noble houses registered (5.2% of the total) in the whole Grand Duchy. In 1790 the register showed 100 palaces, 9,331 manors, 494 noblemen's houses in towns, and 13,890 houses of noblemen without subjects.

Linguistic Polonization did not always mean full Polonization in the state or ethnic sense. The Lithuanian nobility felt united with the Polish nobility as part of one political nation of the Commonwealth, enjoying privileges, freedom and equality. In this sense, they often referred to themselves as "Polish nobility" or outright "Poles". At the same time, separatism and the defense of Lithuanian national separateness within the federation state were very strong. The Lithuanian nobility was warmly attached to the laws, traditions and symbols of the Grand Duchy. Moreover, the Lithuanian separateness was also defended by the members of ethnically Polish families settling in Lithuania.

Ties to the Kingdom of Poland

Following the Union of Horodło (1413), the Lithuanian nobility's rights were equalized with those of the ruling class of the Kingdom of Poland (szlachta). During the following centuries, the Lithuanian nobility began to merge with the Polish nobility. The process accelerated after the Union of Lublin (1569), resulting in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Lithuanian nobility polonised, replacing Lithuanian and Ruthenian languages with Polish although the process took centuries. In the 16th century, a newly established theory amongst Lithuanian nobility was popular, claiming that Lithuanian nobility was of Roman extraction, and the Lithuanian language was just a morphed Latin language. By that time, the upper nobility and the ducal court already used Polish as their first language. The last Grand Duke known to have spoken Lithuanian was Casimir IV Jagiellon (1440-1492). In 1595 Mikalojus Daukša addressed Lithuanian nobility calling for the Lithuanian language to play a more important role in state life. The usage of Lithuanian declined, and the Polish language became the predominant administrative language in the 16th century, eventually replacing Ruthenian as the official language of the Grand Duchy in 1697. Nonetheless, spoken Lithuanian was still common in the Grand Duchy courts during the 17th century.

At first, only Lithuanian magnate families were affected by Polonization, although many of them like the Radziwiłłs remained loyal to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and safeguarded its sovereignty vis-à-vis the Kingdom of Poland. Gradually Polonization spread to a broader population, and for the most part, the Lithuanian nobility became part of both nations' szlachta.

The middle nobility adopted the Polish language in the 17th century, while the minor rural nobles remained bilingual up to the period when the question of language related-nationality appeared.

The Lithuanian nobles did preserve their national awareness as members of the Grand Duchy, and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots; their leaders would continue to represent the interests of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the General sejm and in the royal court.

Lithuanian language was used during Kościuszko Uprising in the proclamations calling to rise up For our freedom and yours. And Lithuanian nobles did rise to fight for the independence of their nation.

After partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

In Lithuania proper, the Polonization of the nobility, gentry and townspeople was practically complete by the early 19th century, relegating the Lithuanian language to the status of a peasant's tongue. The processes of Polonization and russification were partially reversed with the Lithuanian National Revival. Despite origins from mostly the non-noble classes, a number of nobles re-embraced their Lithuanian roots.

The lesser Lithuanian nobility, still partially preserving the Lithuanian language, subsequent to the partitions of the Commonwealth left most of the former Grand Duchy under control of the Russian Empire. The situation worsened during the years of tsar Nicholas I of Russia's rule. After the November uprising imperial officials wanted to minimize the social base for another potential uprising and thus decided to reduce the noble class. During the period 1833–1860, 25,692 people in Vilna Governorate and 17,032 people in Kovno Governorate lost their noble status. They could not prove their status with monarchs' privileges or land ownership. They did not lose personal freedom, but were assigned as one steaders  in rural areas and as citizens in towns.

In view of the January Uprising, imperial officials announced that "Lithuanians are Russians seduced by Poles and Catholicism" and banned press in the Lithuanian language and started the Program of Restoration of Russian Beginnings.

Over the course of time, the Lithuanian nobility increasingly developed a sense of belonging to the Polish nation. During the 19th century, a self-designation, often represented using a Latin formula gente Lithuanus, natione Polonus (Lithuanian by birth, Polish by nationality) was common in Lithuania Proper and the former Samogitian Eldership. With Polish culture developing into one of the primary centers of resistance to the Russian Empire, Polonization in some regions actually strengthened in response to official policies of Russification. An even larger percentage of Lithuanian nobility was Polonised and adopted Polish identity by the late 19th century. A Russian census in 1897 showed that 27.7% of nobility living within modern Lithuania's borders recognized Lithuanian as the mother language. This number was even higher in Kovno Governorate, where 36.6% of nobility identified the Lithuanian language as their mother language.

Most descendants of the Lithuanian nobility remained ill-disposed to the modern national movements of Lithuania and Belarus and fought for Poland in 1918-1920. The landowning nobles in the new Lithuanian state saw themselves predominately as Poles of Lithuanian background. During the interbellum years the government of Lithuania issued land reform limiting manors with 150 hectares of land while confiscating land from those nobles who were fighting alongside the Polish in Polish-Lithuanian War.  Many members of the Lithuanian nobility during the interbellum and after World War II emigrated to Poland, many were deported to Siberia during the years 1945–53 of Soviet occupation, many manors were destroyed. The Association of Lithuanian Nobility was established in 1994.

Heraldry
Lithuanian and Samogitian families possessed heraldry predating formal Christianization. The most archaic type of post-1413 heraldry has a motive of crossed arrows. According to the Union of Horodło of 1413, 47 Lithuanian and Samogitian noble houses adopted Polish nobility coat of arms. As the nobility expanded during the following centuries more coats of arms were created.

Influential Lithuanian families

Families from ethnic Lithuania

Families from Ruthenia
 Chodkiewicz
 Czartoryski
 Danielewicz
 Olelkovich
 Gulka
 Hlebowicz
 Kalinowski family
 Krupski
 Ogiński (Oginskiai)
 Sapieha (Sapiegos)
 Tyszkiewicz (Tiškevičiai)
 Wiśniowiecki (Višnioveckiai), Zasławski, Ostrogski (related families descending from Kaributas)
 Zbaraski
 Domontovich (via Daumantas of Pskov)

Muscovite and later Russian princely and noble families originating in Lithuania
 Golitsyn
 Kurakin
 Khovansky
 Trubetskoy (via Demetrius I Starshy, son of Algirdas)
 Woroniecki
 Nieswicki (via Kaributas, son of Algirdas)
 Volynsky (via Bobrok)

 Tolstoy
 Dostoevsky (via Danilo Irtishch)
 Mikhalkov
 Stolypin
 Stravinsky

 Bulgakov
 Mstislavsky
 Belsky

 Sheremetev family (via Feodor Koshka)

Families from Livonia

 Plater (Pliateriai)
 Tyzenhaus (Tyzenhauzai)
 Römer (Riomeriai)
 Pahlen
 Barclay de Tolly
 Lieven

Families from the Republic of Venice

 Dražba (Dražbos)

Families from Republic of Lucca
 Moriconi

Families from Ferrara and/or Modena
 Carpi

See also
 List of early Lithuanian dukes
 List of Lithuanian rulers
 Germanic monarchy for references to Germanic synonym of kuningaz (Modern German: König, English: king).
 Szlachta
 List of szlachta

References

Bibliography

Further reading
  Rimvydas Petrauskas Giminaičiai ir pavaldiniai: Lietuvos bajorų grupės XIV a. pabaigoje-XV a. I pusėje in: Lietuva ir jos kaimynai: nuo Normanų iki Napoleono: prof. Broniaus Dundulio atminimui. Vilnius, 2001, p. 107-126.
  Rimvydas Petrauskas, Lietuvos diduomenė XIV a.pabaigoje - XV a.:sudėtis-struktūra-valdžia. Aidai, Vilnius; 2003.
  N. Asadauskienė, V. Jankauskas, V. Kamuntavičienė, Lietuvos didikai (Lithuanian noblemen). Šviesa, Vilnius; 2011.
  Historiographical notes on the research of Lithuanian nobility.

External links
  The Alphabetical Lists.

 Lithuanian Royal Union of Nobility

Lithuanian nobility


Jean Pazzi, né le  à Guillaumes et mort le  à Péone, est un skieur alpin français.

Biographie
Il dispute les Jeux olympiques de Saint-Moritz en 1948. Cette même année, il prend la  place de la descente du Kandaher à Chamonix derrière James Couttet.

En 1949, il est Champion de descente des États-Unis et du .

En 1950, il participe aux Championnats du monde d'Aspen, où il prend une belle  place dans les descente. Il termine aussi  du combiné.

Il possède aussi un titre de vice-champion de France de descente et de slalom.

Hommage
Une place de la commune de Guillaumes porte son nom.

La station de Valberg a donné son nom à l'une de ses pistes noires.

Une compétition de ski , le Mémorial Jean Pazzi a été créé en 1993.

Palmarès

Jeux olympiques

Championnats du monde

Classiques internationales
Les résultats qui suivent ne sont qu'une vue très partielle de l'ensemble de ses performances.

1948 :
 Chamonix (Kandahar) :  de la descente et du combiné

1949 :
 Wengen:  de la descente
 Villard :

1951 :
 Sestrières (Kandahar):  de la descente

Championnats de France Elite

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Articles annexes
 Meilleures performances françaises aux Championnats du monde de ski alpin

Liens externes

Skieur alpin français
Skieur alpin aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1948
Naissance en août 1920
Naissance à Guillaumes
Décès en décembre 1982
Décès à 62 ans
Décès à Péone

Jean Pazzi


Kazaklar (Казаки), yazar Lev Tolstoy'un ilk kez 1863'de basılan ünlü bir romanıdır. Tolstoy'un ilk eserlerindendir.

Kazaklar dönemin Rusya'sının iki farklı topluluğunu, Rus aristokrasisini ve Rus şehir yaşamını, Kazaklar ve Kazak köyleriyle gerçekçi bir biçimde karşılaştırarak kurulmuş bir temele sahiptir. Romanda kendisine yaşamında yepyeni bir sayfa açan genç Rus aristokrat'ın Kazak yaşamıyla tanışması, bir Kazak kızına aşık olması etrafında dönen hikâye, dünyayı ve hayatı iki farklı yorumlayış biçimini anlatılır. Ülkeden kopuk, kendi kültürlerinin içinde yaşayan Kazakların yaşamını, hangi şartların onları böyle savaşçı kıldığını, niye böyle yaşadıklarını da anlıyoruz bu serüven boyunca.

Roman Tolstoy'u, "kültürel çatışma"nın ne demek olduğunu ve insan bakış açısının önemini okuyucuya anlatıyor.

Konusu

Dmitri Andreyeviç Olenin, asil bir aileden gelmesine rağmen, Moskova sosteyesinde bir türlü aradığını bulamayan, kendisine eş olabilecek uygun adayları reddetmiş ve artık zamanı gelmesine rağmen bir düzen tutturamamış gençlerden birisidir. Kendisine miras olarak kalmış parayı ve verdiği rahatlığı bir türlü mutluluğa çevirmesini bilemediğinden, gelecek planlarını yavaş yavaş değiştirmeye ve mutluluğu bulunduğu şehrin dışında aramaya karar verir.
Orduya katılıp, Rusya'nın yerleşmeye ve gücünü pekiştirmeye çalıştığı Kafkaslara gitmeyi planlar. Burada şansının da yardımıyla alınacak birkaç nişanla, Moskova'ya ünlü bir asker olarak dönebileceğini düşünmektedir.
Hizmetine katıldığı birlik Kafkaslarda, Terek ırmağının yakınındaki bir köye yerleştirilir. Burada birlikler nihai görevleri kesinleşene kadar bekleyecektir. Ancak imkânsızlıklar yüzünden rütbeli askerlerin köyde bulunan evlerde yaşamasına karar verilmiş ve Olenin'in şansına köyün en güzel kızı olan Marianka'nın yaşadığı ev düşmüştür. Asil bir ailenin mensubu olması ona askerliğin zorluklarından uzak durma imkânını verecek ve bu sayede istediği hayatı köydekilerle beraber yaşayacaktır.
Marianka'nın nişanlısı olan kazak genci Luka kısa sürede Olenin'in varlığını keşfedecek ve aralarında arkadaşlık ile başlayıp giderek rekabetçi bir havaya bürünen bir ilişki başlayacaktır. Olenin uzun yıllardır aradığı seveceği ve ona mutluluğu verebilecek kişinin Marianka olduğuna karar vermiştir.

Kazak yaşamı ve Tolstoy

Romanı yazdığı tarihte Tolstoy, 35'li yaşlarında ve mutluluğu aradığı bir dönemdedir. Bu tarihlerde ilgisini önceleri Moskova sosyetesinin dışına yönlendirmiş ve kafkaslara özel bir önem vermiştir. Bu merak dönemine ait topladığı bilgiler ve gözlemlerle o bölgeyi ve insanlarını anlatan birkaç roman daha yazmıştır (Hacı Murat, Kafkaslarda Bir Mahkûm).

Tolstoy, Asya kökenli bir halk olan Ruslara, gelişimle gelen kültürel dönüşüm ile bölgeye göre yüksek bir medeniyete sahip olmalarının sağladığı farklı bakış açısı ile, bölgeyi ve halkını, yaşamlarını ve inceliklerini, o bölgeyi sadece savaşlardan dönenlerin anlattığı hikâyelerden tanıyan okuyucusuna, gerçekçi ve nedenseliğe saygılı bir üslupla anlatmıştır. Olayların anlaşılmasına verdiği bu yardım sayesinde, Tolstoy, okuyucuyu, karakterlerin uzağında kalmadan, aynı şartlarda her insanın aynı tepkiler verebileceğini ve olayları aslında kültür farklarından kaynaklanan olaylar olarak değil, evrensel insan değer ve davranışları ile karşılaştırarak anlaması gereğini konusunda ikna etmiştir.

Roman, Türk okuyucusu için ilginç bilgiler ve mesajlar içermektedir. Bunların bir tanesi, Türklerle benzer bir kültür geçmişi olan Kazaklarda, kadının yerinin Anadolu'ya göre Kafkaslarda nasıl da farklı bir yerde olduğudur. Kadın Anadolu'dakinin aksine o dönemde nişanlılık döneminde bile beraber yaşamak istediği erkeği seçme hakkına sahiptir. Sosyal ortamlardaki yeri ve erkeklerle olan ilişkilerinde çok daha fazla özgür davranabilmektedir. Öte yandan hırsızlık, kendilerine yapılmadığı sürece başkalarına karşı yapıldığında asla kınanacak bir davranış olarak değerlendirilmemekte ve bölgede bir geçim kaynağı olarak görülmektedir.

Klasik romanlar
Tolstoy romanları
1863 romanları
Rusça romanlar
Kapak resmi aranan kitaplar
Konusu Rusya'da geçen romanlar

Kazaklar (roman)


Lawrence Gonzi (d. 1 Temmuz 1953) eski Malta Başbakanı ve Ekonomi Bakanı. Hükûmet partisi Partit Nazzjonalista'nın da genel başkanıdır. 23 Mart 2004'te Eddie Fenech Adami'nin çekilmesiyle birlikte başbakan oldu. Ayrıca Milliyetçi Partisi lideriydi. Gonzi, 1988-1996 yılları arası Malta Temsilciler Meclisi Başkanı olarak görev yaptı ve 1998 yılından 2004'e kadar Sosyal Politika Bakanlığının yanı sıra, 1999'dan 2004'e kadar Başbakanlık yaptı.

Ailesi
Luigi Gonzi ve Ines Galea'nın oğlu, Michael Gonzi'nin, eski Malta başpiskoposunun büyük yeğenidir. Catherine Callus'la evli olup David, Mikela ve Paul adında üç çocuğu vardır.

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1953 doğumlular
Malta başbakanları
Yaşayan insanlar
Malta başbakan yardımcıları
Siyasi parti liderleri
Yasama organı başkanları

Lawrence Gonzi


Kolovrat (uređaj), uređaj za sukanje vunene, lanene i konopljine niti
Kolovrat, prezime
Kolovrat (Tuzla, BiH)
Kolovrat (znak)
Kolovrat (Zagorje ob Savi, Slovenija)
Kolovrat (Prijepolje, Srbija)
Kolovrat (bend)

Kolovrat


Glycosylation is the reaction in which a carbohydrate (or 'glycan'), i.e. a glycosyl donor, is attached to a hydroxyl or other functional group of another molecule (a glycosyl acceptor) in order to form a glycoconjugate. In biology (but not always in chemistry), glycosylation usually refers to an enzyme-catalysed reaction, whereas glycation (also 'non-enzymatic glycation' and 'non-enzymatic glycosylation') may refer to a non-enzymatic reaction.

Glycosylation is a form of co-translational and post-translational modification. Glycans serve a variety of structural and functional roles in membrane and secreted proteins. The majority of proteins synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum undergo glycosylation. Glycosylation is also present in the cytoplasm and nucleus as the O-GlcNAc modification. Aglycosylation is a feature of engineered antibodies to bypass glycosylation. Five classes of glycans are produced:
 N-linked glycans attached to a nitrogen of asparagine or arginine side-chains. N-linked glycosylation requires participation of a special lipid called dolichol phosphate.
 O-linked glycans attached to the hydroxyl oxygen of serine, threonine, tyrosine, hydroxylysine, or hydroxyproline side-chains, or to oxygens on lipids such as ceramide.
 Phosphoglycans linked through the phosphate of a phosphoserine.
C-linked glycans, a rare form of glycosylation where a sugar is added to a carbon on a tryptophan side-chain. Aloin is one of the few naturally occurring substances.
 Glypiation, which is the addition of a GPI anchor that links proteins to lipids through glycan linkages.

Purpose
Glycosylation is the process by which a carbohydrate is covalently attached to a target macromolecule, typically proteins and lipids. This modification serves various functions. For instance, some proteins do not fold correctly unless they are glycosylated. In other cases, proteins are not stable unless they contain oligosaccharides linked at the amide nitrogen of certain asparagine residues. The influence of glycosylation on the folding and stability of glycoprotein is twofold. Firstly, the highly soluble glycans may have a direct physicochemical stabilisation effect. Secondly, N-linked glycans mediate a critical quality control check point in glycoprotein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. Glycosylation also plays a role in cell-to-cell adhesion (a mechanism employed by cells of the immune system) via sugar-binding proteins called lectins, which recognize specific carbohydrate moieties. Glycosylation is an important parameter in the optimization of many glycoprotein-based drugs such as monoclonal antibodies. Glycosylation also underpins the ABO blood group system. It is the presence or absence of glycosyltransferases which dictates which blood group antigens are presented and hence what antibody specificities are exhibited. This immunological role may well have driven the diversification of glycan heterogeneity and creates a barrier to zoonotic transmission of viruses. In addition, glycosylation is often used by viruses to shield the underlying viral protein from immune recognition. A significant example is the dense glycan shield of the envelope spike of the human immunodeficiency virus.

Overall, glycosylation needs to be understood by the likely evolutionary selection pressures that have shaped it. In one model, diversification can be considered purely as a result of endogenous functionality (such as cell trafficking). However, it is more likely that diversification is driven by evasion of pathogen infection mechanism (e.g. Helicobacter attachment to terminal saccharide residues) and that diversity within the multicellular organism is then exploited endogenously.

Glycosylation can also module the thermodynamic and kinetic stability of the proteins.

Glycoprotein diversity

Glycosylation increases diversity in the proteome, because almost every aspect of glycosylation can be modified, including:
Glycosidic bond—the site of glycan linkage
Glycan composition—the types of sugars that are linked to a given protein
Glycan structure—can be unbranched or branched chains of sugars
Glycan length—can be short- or long-chain oligosaccharides

Mechanisms

There are various mechanisms for glycosylation, although most share several common features:
Glycosylation, unlike glycation, is an enzymatic process. Indeed, glycosylation is thought to be the most complex post-translational modification, because of the large number of enzymatic steps involved.
The donor molecule is often an activated nucleotide sugar.
The process is non-templated (unlike DNA transcription or protein translation); instead, the cell relies on segregating enzymes into different cellular compartments (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum, cisternae in Golgi apparatus). Therefore, glycosylation is a site-specific modification.

Types

N-linked glycosylation

N-linked glycosylation is a very prevalent form of glycosylation and is important for the folding of many eukaryotic glycoproteins and for cell–cell and cell–extracellular matrix attachment. The N-linked glycosylation process occurs in eukaryotes in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and widely in archaea, but very rarely in bacteria. In addition to their function in protein folding and cellular attachment, the N-linked glycans of a protein can modulate a protein's function, in some cases acting as an on/off switch.

O-linked glycosylation

O-linked glycosylation is a form of glycosylation that occurs in eukaryotes in the Golgi apparatus, but also occurs in archaea and bacteria.

Phosphoserine glycosylation
Xylose, fucose, mannose, and GlcNAc phosphoserine glycans have been reported in the literature. Fucose and GlcNAc have been found only in Dictyostelium discoideum, mannose in Leishmania mexicana, and xylose in Trypanosoma cruzi. Mannose has recently been reported in a vertebrate, the mouse, Mus musculus, on the cell-surface laminin receptor alpha dystroglycan4. It has been suggested this rare finding may be linked to the fact that alpha dystroglycan is highly conserved from lower vertebrates to mammals.

C-mannosylation

A mannose sugar is added to the first tryptophan residue in the sequence W–X–X–W (W indicates tryptophan; X is any amino acid). A C-C bond is formed between the first carbon of the alpha-mannose and the second carbon of the tryptophan. However, not all the sequences that have this pattern are mannosylated. It has been established that, in fact, only two thirds are and that there is a clear preference for the second amino acid to be one of the polar ones (Ser, Ala, Gly and Thr) in order for mannosylation to occur. Recently there has been a breakthrough in the technique of predicting whether or not the sequence will have a mannosylation site that provides an accuracy of 93% opposed to the 67% accuracy if we just consider the WXXW motif.

Thrombospondins are one of the proteins most commonly modified in this way. However, there is another group of proteins that undergo C-mannosylation, type I cytokine receptors. C-mannosylation is unusual because the sugar is linked to a carbon rather than a reactive atom such as nitrogen or oxygen. In 2011, the first crystal structure of a protein containing this type of glycosylation was determined—that of human complement component 8. Currently it is established that 18% of human proteins, secreted and transmembrane undergo the process of C-mannosylation. Numerous studies have shown that this process plays an important role in the secretion of Trombospondin type 1 containing proteins which are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum if they do not undergo C-mannosylation This explains why a type of cytokine receptors, erythropoietin receptor remained in the endoplasmic reticulum if it lacked C-mannosylation sites.

Formation of GPI anchors (glypiation)
Glypiation is a special form of glycosylation that features the formation of a GPI anchor. In this kind of glycosylation a protein is attached to a lipid anchor, via a glycan chain. (See also prenylation.)

Chemical glycosylation
Glycosylation can also be effected using the tools of synthetic organic chemistry. Unlike the biochemical processes, synthetic glycochemistry relies heavily on protecting groups (e.g. the 4,6-O-benzylidene) in order to achieve desired regioselectivity. The other challenge of chemical glycosylation is the stereoselectivity that each glycosidic linkage has two stereo-outcomes, α/β or cis/trans. Generally, the α- or cis-glycoside is more challenging to synthesis. New methods have been developed based on solvent participation or the formation of bicyclic sulfonium ions as chiral-auxiliary groups.

Non-enzymatic glycosylation
The non-enzymatic glycosylation is also known as glycation or non-enzymatic glycation. It is a spontaneous reaction and a type of post-translational modification of proteins meaning it alters their structure and biological activity. It is the covalent attachment between the carbonil group of a reducing sugar (mainly glucose and fructose) and the amino acid side chain of the protein. In this process the intervention of an enzyme is not needed. It takes place across and close to the water channels and the protruding tubules.

At first, the reaction forms temporary molecules which later undergo different reactions (Amadori rearrangements, Schiff base reactions, Maillard reactions, crosslinkings...) and form permanent residues known as Advanced Glycation end-products (AGEs).

AGEs accumulate in long-lived extracellular proteins such as collagen which is the most glycated and structurally abundant protein, especially in humans. Also, some studies have shown lysine may trigger spontaneous non-enzymatic glycosylation.

Role of AGEs
AGEs are responsible for many things. These molecules play an important role especially in nutrition, they are responsible for the brownish color and the aromas and flavors of some foods. It is demonstrated that cooking at high temperature results in various food products having high levels of AGEs.

Having elevated levels of AGEs in the body has a direct impact on the development of many diseases. It has a direct implication in diabetes mellitus type 2 that can lead to many complications such as: cataracts, renal failure, heart damage... And, if they are present at a decreased level, skin elasticity is reduced which is an important symptom of aging.

They are also the precursors of many hormones and regulate and modify their receptor mechanisms at the DNA level.

Deglycosylation
There are different enzymes to remove the glycans from the proteins or remove some part of the sugar chain.
 α2-3,6,8,9-Neuraminidase (from Arthrobacter ureafaciens): cleaves all non-reducing terminal branched and unbranched sialic acids.
 β1,4-Galactosidase (from Streptococcus pneumoniae): releases only β1,4-linked, nonreducing terminal galactose from complex carbohydrates and glycoproteins.
 β-N-Acetylglucosaminidase (from Streptococcus pneumoniae): cleaves all non-reducing terminal β-linked N-acetylglucosamine residues from complex carbohydrates and glycoproteins.
 endo-α-N-Acetylgalactosaminidase (O-glycosidase from Streptococcus pneumoniae): removes O-glycosylation. This enzyme cleaves serine- or threonine-linked unsubstituted Galβ1,3GalNAc
 PNGase F: cleaves asparagine-linked oligosaccharides unless α1,3-core fucosylated.

Regulation of Notch signalling
Notch signalling is a cell signalling pathway whose role is, among many others, to control the cell differentiation process in equivalent precursor cells. This means it is crucial in embryonic development, to the point that it has been tested on mice that the removal of glycans in Notch proteins can result in embryonic death or malformations of vital organs like the heart.

Some of the specific modulators that control this process are glycosyltransferases located in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. The Notch proteins go through these organelles in their maturation process and can be subject to different types of glycosylation: N-linked glycosylation and O-linked glycosylation (more specifically: O-linked glucose and O-linked fucose).

All of the Notch proteins are modified by an O-fucose, because they share a common trait: O-fucosylation consensus sequences. One of the modulators that intervene in this process is the Fringe, a glycosyltransferase that modifies the O-fucose to activate or deactivate parts of the signalling, acting as a positive or negative regulator, respectively.

Clinical

There are three types of glycosylation disorders sorted by the type of alterations that are made to the glycosylation process: congenital alterations, acquired alterations and non-enzymatic acquired alterations.

 Congenital alterations: Over 40 congenital disorders of glycosylation (CGDs) have been reported in humans. These can be divided into four groups: disorders of protein N-glycosylation, disorders of protein O-glycosylation, disorders of lipid glycosylation and disorders of other glycosylation pathways and of multiple glycosylation pathways. No effective treatment is known for any of these disorders. 80% of these affect the nervous system.
 Acquired alterations: In this second group the main disorders are infectious diseases, autoimmune illnesses or cancer. In these cases, the changes in glycosylation are the cause of certain biological events. For example, in Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), the body of the patient produces antibodies against the enzyme lymphocytes galactosyltransferase which inhibits the glycosylation of IgG. Therefore, the changes in the N-glycosylation produce the immunodeficiency involved in this illness. In this second group we can also find disorders caused by mutations on the enzymes that control the glycosylation of Notch proteins, such as Alagille syndrome.
 Non-enzymatic acquired alterations: Non-enzymatic disorders, are also acquired, but they are due to the lack of enzymes that attach oligosaccharides to the protein. In this group the illnesses that stand out are Alzheimer's disease and diabetes.

All these diseases are difficult to diagnose because they do not only affect one organ, they affect many of them and in different ways. As a consequence, they are also hard to treat. However, thanks to the many advances that have been made in next-generation sequencing, scientists can now understand better these disorders and have discovered new CDGs.

Effects on therapeutic efficacy
It has been reported that mammalian glycosylation can improve the therapeutic efficacy of biotherapeutics. For example, therapeutic efficacy of recombinant human interferon gamma, expressed in HEK 293 platform, was improved against drug-resistant ovarian cancer cell lines.

See also

References

External links
 GlycoEP

 GlyProt: In-silico N-glycosylation of proteins on the web
 NetNGlyc: The NetNglyc server predicts N-glycosylation sites in human proteins using artificial neural networks that examine the sequence context of Asn-Xaa-Ser/Thr sequons.
 Supplementary Material of the Book "The Sugar Code"
 Additional information on glycosylation and figures

Post-translational modification
Organic reactions
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate chemistry
Biochemistry
Congenital disorders of glycosylation

Glycosylation


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Bronchiolitis is inflammation of the small airways in the lungs. Acute bronchiolitis is due to a viral infection usually affecting children younger than two years of age. Symptoms may include fever, cough, runny nose, wheezing, and breathing problems. More severe cases may be associated with nasal flaring, grunting, or the skin between the ribs pulling in with breathing. If the child has not been able to feed properly, signs of dehydration may be present.

Chronic bronchiolitis is the general term used for small airways disease in adults, notably in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Acute bronchiolitis is usually the result of infection by respiratory syncytial virus (72% of cases) or human rhinovirus (26% of cases). Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms. Tests such as a chest X-ray or viral testing are not routinely needed.

There is no specific treatment. Symptomatic treatment at home is generally sufficient. Occasionally, hospital admission for oxygen, support with feeding, or intravenous fluids is required. Tentative evidence supports nebulized hypertonic saline. Evidence for antibiotics, antivirals, bronchodilators, or nebulized epinephrine is either unclear or not supportive.

About 10% to 30% of children under the age of two years are affected by bronchiolitis at some point in time. It commonly occurs in the winter in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the leading cause of hospitalizations in those less than one year of age in the United States. The risk of death among those who are admitted to hospital is about 1%. Outbreaks of the condition were first described in the 1940s.

Signs and symptoms

Bronchiolitis typically presents in children under two years old and is characterized by a constellation of respiratory symptoms that consists of fever, rhinorrhea, cough, wheeze, tachypnea and increased work of breathing such as nasal flaring or grunting that develops over one to three days. Crackles or wheeze are typical findings on listening to the chest with a stethoscope. The child may also experience apnea, or brief pauses in breathing. After the acute illness, it is common for the airways to remain sensitive for several weeks, leading to recurrent cough and wheeze.

Some signs of severe disease include:
 increased work of breathing (such as use of accessory muscles of respiration, rib & sternal retraction, tracheal tug)
 severe chest wall recession (Hoover's sign)
 presence of nasal flaring and/or grunting
 increased respiratory rate above normal
 hypoxia (low oxygen levels)
 cyanosis (bluish skin)
 lethargy and decreased activity
 poor feeding (less than half of usual fluid intake in preceding 24 hours)
 history of stopping breathing

Causes

The term usually refers to acute viral bronchiolitis, a common disease in infancy. This is most commonly caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV, also known as human pneumovirus). Other agents that cause this illness include human metapneumovirus, influenza, parainfluenza, coronavirus, adenovirus, rhinovirus and mycoplasma.

Risk factors
Children are at an increased risk for progression to severe respiratory disease if they have any of the following additional factors:
 Preterm infant (gestational age less than 37 weeks)
 Younger age at onset of illness (less than 3 months of age)
 Congenital heart disease
 Immunodeficiency
 Chronic lung disease
 Neurological disorders
 Tobacco smoke exposure

Diagnosis

The diagnosis is typically made by clinical examination. Chest X-ray is sometimes useful to exclude bacterial pneumonia, but not indicated in routine cases. Chest x-ray may also be useful in people with impending respiratory failure. Additional testing such as blood cultures, complete blood count, and electrolyte analyses are not recommended for routine use although may be useful in children with multiple comorbidities or signs of sepsis or pneumonia.

Testing for the specific viral cause can be done but has little effect on management and thus is not routinely recommended. RSV testing by direct immunofluorescence testing on nasopharyngeal aspirate had a sensitivity of 61% and specificity of 89%. Identification of those who are RSV-positive can help for disease surveillance, grouping ("cohorting") people together in hospital wards to prevent cross infection, predicting whether the disease course has peaked yet, and reducing the need for other diagnostic procedures (by providing confidence that a cause has been identified). Identification of the virus may help reduce the use of antibiotics.

Infants with bronchiolitis between the age of two and three months have a second infection by bacteria (usually a urinary tract infection) less than 6% of the time. When further evaluated with a urinalysis, infants with bronchiolitis had a concomitant UTI 0.8% of the time. Preliminary studies have suggested that elevated procalcitonin levels may assist clinicians in determining the presence of bacterial co-infection, which could prevent unnecessary antibiotic use and costs.

Differential diagnosis
There are many childhood illnesses that can present with respiratory symptoms, particularly persistent cough and wheezing. Bronchiolitis may be differentiated from some of these by the characteristic pattern of preceding febrile upper respiratory tract symptoms lasting for 1 to 3 days followed by the persistent cough, tachypnea, and wheezing. However, some infants may present without fever (30% of cases) or may present with apnea without other signs or with poor weight gain prior to onset of symptoms. In such cases, additional laboratory testing and radiographic imaging may be useful. The following are some other diagnoses to consider in an infant presenting with signs of bronchiolitis:
 Asthma and reactive airway disease
 Bacterial pneumonia
 Congenital heart disease
 Heart failure
 Whooping cough
 Allergic reaction
 Cystic fibrosis
 Chronic pulmonary disease
 Foreign body aspiration
 Vascular ring

Prevention
Prevention of bronchiolitis relies strongly on measures to reduce the spread of the viruses that cause respiratory infections (that is, handwashing, and avoiding exposure to those symptomatic with respiratory infections). Guidelines are mixed on the use of gloves, aprons, or personal protective equipment.

One way to improve the immune system is to feed the infant with breast milk, especially during the first month of life. Respiratory infections were shown to be significantly less common among breastfed infants and fully breastfed RSV-positive hospitalized infants had shorter hospital stays than non or partially breastfed infants. Guidelines recommend exclusive breastfeeding for infants for the first 6 months of life.

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has currently approved two RSV vaccines for adults ages 60 and older, Arexvy (GSK plc) and Abrysvo (Pfizer). Abrysvo is also approved for "immunization of pregnant individuals at 32 through 36 weeks gestational age for the prevention of lower respiratory tract disease (LRTD) and severe LRTD caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in infants from birth through 6 months of age."

Nirsevimab, a monoclonal antibody against RSV, is recommended by the CDC for all children younger than 8 months in their first RSV season. Additionally, children aged 8 to 19 months who are at increased risk may be recommended to receive Nirsevimab as they enter their second RSV season.

A second monoclonal antibody, Palivizumab, can be administered to prevent bronchiolitis to infants less than one year of age that were born very prematurely or that have underlying heart disease or chronic lung disease of prematurity. Passive immunization therapy requires monthly injections during winter. Otherwise healthy premature infants that were born after a gestational age of 29 weeks should not be administered Palivizumab, as the harms outweigh the benefits. Passive protection through the administration of other novel monoclonal antibodies is also under evaluation.

Tobacco smoke exposure has been shown to increase both the rates of lower respiratory disease in infants, as well as the risk and severity of bronchiolitis. Tobacco smoke lingers in the environment for prolonged periods and on clothing even when smoking outside the home. Guidelines recommend that parents be fully educated on the risks of tobacco smoke exposure on children with bronchiolitis.

Management
Treatment of bronchiolitis is usually focused on the hydration and symptoms instead of the infection itself since the infection will run its course and complications are typically from the symptoms themselves. Without active treatment, half of cases will go away in 13 days and 90% in three weeks. Children with severe symptoms, especially poor feeding or dehydration, may be considered for hospital admission. Oxygen saturation under 90%-92% as measured with pulse oximetry is also frequently used as an indicator of need for hospitalization. High-risk infants, apnea, cyanosis, malnutrition, and diagnostic uncertainty are additional indications for hospitalization.

Most guidelines recommend sufficient fluids and nutritional support for affected children. Measures for which the recommendations were mixed include nebulized hypertonic saline, nebulized epinephrine, chest physiotherapy and nasal suctioning. Treatments which the evidence does not support include salbutamol, steroids, antibiotics, antivirals, heliox, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), and cool mist or steam inhalation.

Diet
Maintaining hydration is an important part of management of bronchiolitis. Infants with mild pulmonary symptoms may require only observation if feeding is unaffected. However, oral intake may be affected by nasal secretions and increased work of breathing. Poor feeding or dehydration, defined as less than 50% of usual intake, is often cited as an indication for hospital admission. Guidelines recommend the use of nasogastric or intravenous fluids in children with bronchiolitis who cannot maintain usual oral intake. The risk of health care caused hyponatremia and fluid retention are minimal with the use of isotonic fluids such as normal saline, breast milk, or formula.

Oxygen

Inadequate oxygen supply to the tissue is one of the main concerns during severe bronchiolitis and oxygen saturation is often closely associated with both the need for hospitalization and continued length of hospital stay in children with bronchiolitis. However, oxygen saturation is a poor predictor of respiratory distress. Accuracy of pulse oximetry is limited in the 76% to 90% range and there is weak correlation between oxygen saturation and respiratory distress as brief hypoxemia is common in healthy infants. Additionally, pulse oximetry is associated with frequent false alarms and parental stress and fatigue. Clinicians may choose not to given additional oxygen to children with bronchiolitis if their oxygen saturation is above 90%. Additionally, clinicians may choose not to use continuous pulse oximetry in these people.

When choosing to use oxygen therapy for a child with bronchiolitis, there is evidence that home oxygen may reduce hospitalization rate and length of stay although readmission rates and follow-up visits are increased. Also, the use of humidified, heated, high-flow nasal cannula may be a safe initial therapy to decrease work of breathing and need for intubation. However, evidence is lacking regarding the use of high-flow nasal cannula compared to standard oxygen therapy or continuous positive airway pressure. These practices may still be used in severe cases prior to intubation.

Blood gas testing is not recommended for people hospitalized with the disease and is not useful in the routine management of bronchiolitis. People with severe worsening respiratory distress or impending respiratory failure may be considered for capillary blood gas testing.

Hypertonic saline
Guidelines recommend against the use of nebulized hypertonic saline in the emergency department for children with bronchiolitis but it may be given to children who are hospitalized.

Nebulized hypertonic saline (3%) has limited evidence of benefit and previous studies lack consistency and standardization. A 2017 review found tentative evidence that it reduces the risk of hospitalization, duration of hospital stay, and improved the severity of symptoms. The majority of evidence suggests that hypertonic saline is safe and effective at improving respiratory symptoms of mild to moderate bronchiolitis after 24 hours of use. However, it does not appear effective in reducing the rate of hospitalization when used in the emergency room or other outpatient settings in which length of therapy is brief. Side effects were mild and resolved spontaneously.

Bronchodilators
Guidelines recommend against the use of bronchodilators in children with bronchiolitis as evidence does not support a change in outcomes with such use. Additionally, there are adverse effects to the use of bronchodilators in children such as tachycardia and tremors, as well as adding increased financial expenses.

Several studies have shown that bronchodilation with β-adrenergic agents such as salbutamol may improve symptoms briefly but do not affect the overall course of the illness or reduce the need for hospitalization. However, there are conflicting recommendations about the use of a trial of a bronchodilator, especially in those with history of previous wheezing, due to the difficulty with assessing an objective improvement in symptoms. Bronchiolitis-associated wheezing is likely not effectively alleviated by bronchodilators anyway as it is caused by airway obstruction and plugging of the small airway diameters by luminal debris, not bronchospasm as in asthma-associated wheezing that bronchodilators usually treat well.

Anticholinergic inhalers, such as ipratropium bromide, have a modest short-term effect at best and are not recommended for treatment.

Epinephrine
The current state of evidence suggests that nebulized epinephrine is not indicated for children with bronchiolitis except as a trial of rescue therapy for severe cases.

Epinephrine is an α and β adrenergic agonist that has been used to treat other upper respiratory tract illnesses, such as croup, as a nebulized solution. A Cochrane meta-analysis in 2011 found no benefit to the use of epinephrine in the inpatient setting and suggested that there may be utility in the outpatient setting in reducing the rate of hospitalization. However, current guidelines do not support the outpatient use of epinephrine given the lack of substantial sustained benefit.

A 2017 review found inhaled epinephrine with corticosteroids did not change the need for hospitalization or the time spent in hospital. Other studies suggest a synergistic effect of epinephrine with corticosteroids but have not consistently demonstrated benefits in clinical trials. Guidelines recommend against its use currently.

Fluid therapy
Approximately 50% of infants who are hospitalized due to bronchiolitis require fluid therapy. Some are dehydrated and others cannot be fed fluids safely by mouth. There are two main approaches to fluid therapy: intravenous (IV) fluid therapy and enteral tube fluid therapy (nasogastric or orogastric). Both approaches to fluid therapy are associated with a similar length of hospital stay. Enteral tube fluid therapy may reduce the risk of local complications, but the evidence for or against each approach is not clear.

Unclear evidence
Currently other medications do not yet have evidence to support their use, although they have been studied for use in bronchiolitis. Experimental trials with novel antiviral medications in adults are promising but it remains unclear if the same benefit will be present.
 Surfactant had favorable effects for severely critical infants on duration of mechanical ventilation and ICU stay however studies were few and small.
 Chest physiotherapy, such as vibration or percussion, to promote airway clearance may slightly reduce duration of oxygen therapy but there is a lack of evidence that demonstrates any other benefits. People with difficulty clearing secretions due to underlying disorders such as spinal muscle atrophy or severe tracheomalacia may be considered for chest physiotherapy.
 Suctioning of the nares may provide temporarily relief of nasal congestion but deep suctioning of the nasopharynx has been shown prolong length of hospital stay in infants. Upper airway suctioning may be considered in people with respiratory distress, feeding difficulties, or infants presenting with apnea.
 Heliox, a mixture of oxygen and the inert gas helium, may be beneficial in infants with severe acute RSV bronchiolitis who require CPAP but overall evidence is lacking.
 DNAse has not been found to be effective but might play a role in severe bronchiolitis complicated by atelectasis.
 There are no systematic reviews or controlled trials on the effectiveness of nasal decongestants, such as xylometazoline, for the treatment of bronchiolitits.
 Overall evidence is insufficient to support the use of alternative medicine. There is tentative evidence for Chinese herbal medicine, vitamin D, N-acetylcysteine, and magnesium but this is insufficient to recommend their use.

Non-effective treatments
 Ribavirin is an antiviral drug which does not appear to be effective for bronchiolitis.
 Antibiotics are often given in case of a bacterial infection complicating bronchiolitis, but have no effect on the underlying viral infection and their benefit is not clear. The risks of bronchiolitis with a concomitant serious bacterial infection among hospitalized febrile infants is minimal and work-up and antibiotics are not justified. Azithromycin adjuvant therapy may reduce the duration of wheezing and coughing in children with bronchiolitis but has not effect on length of hospital stay or duration of oxygen therapy.
 Corticosteroids, although useful in other respiratory disease such as asthma and croup, have no proven benefit in bronchiolitis treatment and are not advised. Additionally, corticosteroid therapy in children with bronchiolitis may prolong viral shedding and transmissibility. The overall safety of corticosteroids is questionable.
 Leukotriene inhibitors, such as montelukast, have not been found to be beneficial and may increase adverse effects.
 Immunoglobulins are of unclear benefit.

Epidemiology

Bronchiolitis typically affects infants and children younger than two years, principally during the autumn and winter. It is the leading cause of hospital admission for respiratory disease among infants in the United States and accounts for one out of every 13 primary care visits. Bronchiolitis accounts for 3% of emergency department visits for children under 2 years old. Bronchiolitis is the most frequent lower respiratory tract infection and hospitalization in infants worldwide.

References

External links
 Bronchiolitis. Patient information from NHS Choices
     from the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network

Animal viral diseases
Inflammations
Pediatrics
Acute lower respiratory infections
Coronavirus-associated diseases
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate

Bronchiolitis


RMAS Typhoon (A95) was an ocean-going tug of the Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service (RMAS). She was designed for ocean towing, rescue, salvage and fire-fighting. She was the first ship to leave the United Kingdom ahead of the task force for the South Atlantic during the 1982 Falklands War. She had a fishery protection role in the Cod Wars.

History

The ship was repaired at Falmouth ship repair yard on 19 October 1979, and was also involved in the rescue of the Spanish butane tanker, MV Butaseis, which was aflame and drifting towards the village of Brixton, Devon. The tug stayed as part of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary until included in the RMAS.

Typhoon saw service in the Falklands War from leaving the UK on 4 April 1982 until 20 July 1982 under Captain J N Morris with an all-civilian crew from Portland Naval Base. She also carried 2 Royal Naval Personnel, 1 for comms and 1 medic, they had the distinction of being first to leave and returned home 24 September 1982 as did HMS Hydra docking in last that day 24 September 1982 in Portsmouth.
Captain Morris and his civilian crew flew back from Port Stanley when Capt Stephens and the relief crew arrived in Port Stanley 20 July 1982. Under the command of Captain Bruce Stephens she returned to Portland with her new civilian crew.  the 2 Royal Navy Crew remained on board until the vessel docked on 24 September 1982. She was the first ship – albeit a civilian vessel – to leave the UK ahead of the task force, and a member of the crew, the tugs bosun placed the Welsh flag on board RFA Sir Galahad just before Typhoon towed her out to sea to be scuttled by a submarine. During the war, the ship was heavily involved in logistic duties, transferring fresh water to the task force at a rate of 18 tons per trip, and loading part of 17 Brigade onto the MV Norland in preparation for the San Carlos landings. The ship was sold in 1989 and later converted into a trawler in 1992.

References

Auxiliary ships of the Royal Navy
Ships of the Fishery Protection Squadron of the United Kingdom
Falklands War naval ships of the United Kingdom
1960 ships
Ships built in Leith

RMAS Typhoon (A95)


Mehmet Ali Ağaoğulları (d. 1950, Edirne), Türk yazardır.

Saint Joseph Erkek Lisesi'nden sonra Strazburg Institut de l'Etude Politique'i bitirdi (1973). Aynı yıl Paris'teki Sorbonne Üniversitesi'nde yüksek lisans çalışmalarına başladı. 1979'da aynı yerde Doctorat d'Etat (devlet doktorası) derecesini alan Ağaoğulları, siyasal teoriler bilim dalında 1987'de doçent, 1993'te de profesör oldu. 1980 yılından başlayarak Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi'nde "Siyasal Düşünceler Tarihi" dersleri vermiş, Nisan 2017 tarihinde emekli olmuştur. Kendisine yapılması planlanan emeklilik töreni rektör tarafından engellenmiş, tören fakülte yerine Mülkiyeliler Birliği'nde yapılmıştır.

Ağaoğulları'nın Bibliyografyası

 L'islam dans la vie politique de la Turquie (AÜ SBF Yayınları, 1983)
 Kent Devletinden İmparatorluğa (Eski Yunan'da Siyaset Felsefesi adıyla, V Yayınları, 1989; İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 1994, 2000, 2002)
 İmparatorluktan Tanrı Devletine (Levent Köker ile birlikte, İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 1991, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2004)
 Tanrı Devletinden Kral-Devlete (Levent Köker ile birlikte, İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 1991, 1997, 2001, 2004)
 Ahlaksız (André Gide'den çeviri, İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 1992, 2002)
 Kral-Devlet ya da Ölümlü Tanrı (Levent Köker ile birlikte, İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 1994, 2000, 2004)
 Yeni Ortaçağ (Alain Ming'ten çeviri, İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 1995)
 Kral-Devletten Ulus-Devlete (İmge Kitabevi Yayınları)
 Ulus-Devlet ya da Halkın Egemenliği (İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 2006)
 Fransız Devrimi'nde Siyasal Düşünceler ve Mücadeleler 1789-1794 (3 Cilt) (Dipnot Yayınları, 2021)

Kaynakça

1950 doğumlular
Edirne doğumlular
Türk akademisyenler
20. yüzyıl Türk yazarları
21. yüzyıl Türk yazarları
Resim aranan yazarlar
Türk çevirmenler
Yaşayan insanlar
Saint Joseph Fransız Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
Fransızcadan Türkçeye çeviri yapanlar
Edirne doğumlu çevirmenler

Mehmet Ali Ağaoğulları


العرق القوقازي (القوقازيون أو الشعوب الأوروبية)، هو مجموعة من البشر الذين يُعتبرون أصنوفةً حيوية من الناحية التاريخية. يضم العرق القوقازي -بحسب التصنيفات العرقية التاريخية- المجموعات السكانية القديمة والحديثة لكل من أوروبا وغرب آسيا وآسيا الوسطى وجنوب آسيا وشمال أفريقيا والقرن الأفريقي.

طرح بعض أعضاء مدرسة غوتينغن للتاريخ هذه المصطلح للمرة الأولى في ثمانينات القرن الثامن عشر، إذ يشير المصطلح إلى أحد الأعراق الثلاثة المُفترضة للجنس البشري (القوقازيون، المغوليون، النغريون). اسُتخدم مصطلح القوقازيون في مجال الأنثروبولوجيا الحيوية للإشارة إلى مجموعات متشابهة من الناحية الظاهرية ومنتمية إلى مجموعة مختلفة من المناطق، مع تركيز الاهتمام على التشريح الهيكلي مثل البنية القحفية على وجه الخصوص، وبغض النظر عن لون البشرة. لم تكن المجموعات السكانية «القوقازية» القديمة والحديثة منتمية إلى «العرق الأبيض» على وجه الحصر، بل تراوح لون البشرة من الأبيض إلى البني الداكن.

تخلى علماء الأنثروبولوجيا الفيزيائية عن الفهم النموذجي للتنوع الحيوي البشري منذ حلول النصف الثاني من القرن العشرين، إذ صبّوا اهتمامهم على المنظور الجينومي والمنظور القائم على المجموعات السكانية، وبدأوا بإدراك مفهوم العلوم الاجتماعية المتمثل بأن العرق هو تصنيف اجتماعي للبشر وقائم على مبدأ النمط الظاهري والأصل والعوامل الثقافية. استمر بعض علماء الأنثروبولوجيا باستخدام مصطلح القوقازيون/القوقاز وغيره من المصطلحات المقابلة له مثل النغريون والمغوليون، وذلك على الرغم من قلة استخدامهم باعتبارهم تصنيفًا حيويًا في الأنثروبولوجيا الطبية الشرعية (حيث يُستخدمون أحيانًا باعتبارهم وسيلةً لتحديد أصل البقايا البشرية بناءً على تفسيرات القياسات العظمية).

غالبًا ما يُستخدم مصطلح القوقاز -سواء باللهجة العامية أو من قبل مكتب الإحصاء الأمريكي- باعتباره مرادفًا لمصطلح العرق الأبيض في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية. ينظر علماء الأنثروبولوجيا وغيرهم من العلماء إلى هذا الاستخدام باعتباره خاطئًا، إذ يعتبرونه خلطًا بين تصنيف أنثروبولوجي صحيح (القوقازيون) والبنية الاجتماعية لـ «العرق الأبيض». يُعتبر الخلط بين العرق القوقازي والعرق الأبيض أمرًا مضللًا من الناحية الديموغرافية أيضًا، إذ يُعتبر تصنيف القوقاز في بعض الأحيان شاملًا لمجموعات سكانية مختلفة مثل المجموعات في جنوب آسيا وشمال أفريقيا، وهي مجموعات لا يُمكن اعتبارها منتمية إلى العرق الأبيض من الناحية الاجتماعية.

أظهرت دراسة جينية حديثة نُشرت في «المجلة الأوروبية لعلم الوراثة البشرية» في الطبيعة (2019) أن السكان في غرب آسيا والأوروبيين وشمال إفريقيا وجنوب آسيا (الهنود) وبعض الآسيويين المركزيين وثيق الصلة ببعضهم البعض. يمكن تمييزها عن الأفارقة جنوب الصحراء أو سكان شرق آسيا.

تاريخ المفهوم

كريستوف مينيرز
أشار مصطلح القوقاز بمعناه الضيق في بادئ الأمر إلى السكان الأصليين في منطقة القوقاز. استخدم الفيلسوف الألماني كريستوف مينيرز مفهوم العرق «القوقازي» لأول مرة بمعناه العرقي الأوسع في كتابه موجز تاريخ البشرية (1785).

اقر مينيرز أن العرق القوقازي يشمل جميع المجموعات السكانية الأصلية القديمة في الشرق الادنى(شعوب ساميه مثل الكنعانيين والفينيق والعرب والعبريين والادوم والاراميين)، والشعوب الأصلية في شمال أفريقيا (البربر والمصريون والحبشيون والجماعات المجاورة لهم)، بالإضافة إلى الهنود والغوانش القدماء وايضا السكان الجدد في أوروبا.

يوهان فريدريش بلومنباخ
كان يوهان فريدريش بلومنباخ استاذًا ألمانيًا في الطب وعضوًا في الجمعية الملكية البريطانية، واعتُبر أحد مؤسسي الأنثروبولوجيا. أعطى بلومنباخ لمصطلح العرق القوقازي تعريفًا أوسع، وذلك من خلال استناده على النهج الجديدة لقياس القحف وتصنيف لينيوس.

لم ينسب بلومنباخ الفضل لمينيرز في تصنيفه هذا، وذلك على الرغم من أن جميع مبرراته تشير جليًا إلى منظور مينيرز الجمالي بشأن الأصول القوقازية.

كان بلومنباخ -على النقيض من مينيرز- مؤمنًا بالأصل الواحد للبشر، أي أنه اعتبر أن جميع البشر يتشاركون أصلًا ونوعًا واحدًا. صنّف كل من بلومنباخ ومينيرز المجموعات القوقازية على أنها أعلى مرتبةً من المجموعات الأخرى، وذلك من ناحية الملكات العقلية وإمكانية تحقيق الإنجازات.

صنف بلومنباخ العرق القوقازي -جنبًا إلى جنب مع عالم الأنثروبولوجيا جورج كوفييه- من خلال القياسات القحفية، وبنية العظام، بالإضافة إلى لون البشرة.

وصف بلومنباخ العرق القوقازي على أنه يضم كل من السكان الأصليين في أوروبا وغرب آسيا وشبه الجزيرة الهندية وشمال أفريقيا، بما في ذلك المناطق جنوبي المغاربة والحبشيين والمجموعات المجاورة لهم.

كارلتون كون
لم يكن هناك أي إجماع بين مؤيدي هذا المفهوم حول وجود ما يُسمى بـ «العرق القوقازي» من الناحية التي تجعله مختلفًا عن المجموعات العرقية المُقترحة الأخرى، مثل العرق المغولي. ضم كارلتون إس. كون (1939) كل من السكان الأصليين في وسط وشمال أفريقيا -بما في ذلك شعب الآينو- تحت مسمى القوقاز. وعلى الرغم من ذلك، حافظ العديد من العلماء على التصنيفات العرقية للألوان -التي أرستها أعمال مينيرز وبلومنباخ جنبًا إلى جنب مع العديد من الأعمال المبكرة الأخرى في الأنثروبولوجيا- منذ أواخر القرن التاسع عشر وحتى أواخر القرن العشرين، إذ استُخدمت هذه التصنيفات مرارًا وتكرارًا لتبرير الخطط السياسية مثل الفصل والقيود المفروضة على الهجرة وغيرها من الآراء القائمة على التحيز. على سبيل المثال، صنف توماس هنري هكسلي (1870) جميع سكان الدول الآسيوية على أنهم مغوليون، بينما صنف لوثروب ستودارد (1920) معظم سكان الشرق الأوسط وشمال أفريقيا والقرن الأفريقي وآسيا الوسطى وجنوب آسيا على أنهم «ذوي بشرة بنية». اعتبر ستودارد أن الأوروبيون وأحفادهم هم الشعوب الوحيدة التي تُصنف على أنها منتمية إلى «العرق الأبيض»، وأضاف إلى هذه القائمة عدد قليل من السكان في المناطق المجاورة أو المقابلة لأوروبا الجنوبية، بما في ذلك أجزاء من الأناضول وأجزاء من جبال الريف والأطلس.

المراجع

تحديدات تاريخية للأعراق
تفوق البيض
عرق
علم الإنسان الحيوي
علم الإنسان الطبيعي
علوم زائفة

عرق قوقازي


Han Ying-chieh (; * 1927 in Shanghai, China; † 1991 in Hongkong, China) war ein chinesischer Schauspieler, der überwiegend in Martial-Arts- und Kung-Fu-Filmen mitspielte. Seine bekannteste Rolle war die des Hsiao Mi in dem Film Die Todesfaust des Cheng Li. Er war auch als Stuntman und Kampfkunstchoreograph tätig.

Leben
Im Alter von drei Jahren zog Han nach Peking, wo er im Alter von neun Jahren der Peking-Oper beitrat und dort bis zum achtzehnten Lebensjahr blieb. 1946 zog er nach Shanghai, wo er im Alter von 19 Jahren als Stuntman in der Filmindustrie debütierte. Im nächsten Jahr kehrte er dem Film vorübergehend den Rücken, um Kampfkunst zu betreiben.

Später ging Han nach Hongkong, wo er den Shaw Brothers beitrat. Er arbeitete dort als Stuntman und choreografierte Kämpfe. Er trat außerdem in einigen der Filmen in einer Nebenrolle auf, was ihn bekannter machte. 1966 traf Han, als er die Shaw Brothers verließ und nach Taiwan ging, auf den Regisseur King Hu, mit welchem er des Öfteren zusammenarbeitete. 1970 kehrte er nach Hongkong zurück. Dort trat er Golden Harvest bei, wo er dann schließlich neben Bruce Lee in Die Todesfaust des Cheng Li unter Regie von Lo Wei seine bekannteste Rolle spielte. 1972 spielte er in Todesgrüße aus Shanghai wieder an der Seite von Bruce Lee und unter der Regie von Lo Wei. Mit Lo Wei drehte Han noch einige Zeit zusammen.

Han starb 1991 in Hongkong an Krebs.

Familie
Er war der Ehemann der Hongkonger Schauspielerin Yu So Chow (, 1930–2017), Tochter des bekannten Leiter der Pekinger Theater- und Schauspielschule in Hongkong Yu Jim-Yuen, also der Meister von Jackie Chan, Sammo Hung, Corey Yuen u. v. a.

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 1964: The Story of Sue San
 1964: Lady General Hua Mu-Lan
 1964: The Shepherd Girl
 1964: The Amorous Lotus Pan
 1964: Between Tears and Smiles
 1964: A Story of Three Loves (Part 1)
 1964: A Story of Three Loves (Part 2)
 1965: The Mermaid
 1965: Sons of Good Earth
 1965: The Lotus Lamp
 1966: Die Herberge zum Drachentor
 1966: Das Schwert der gelben Tigerin
 1967: Angel with the Iron Fists
 1967: The Iron Horse
 1968: Death Valley
 1968: The Black Butterfly
 1968: The Angel Strikes Again
 1968: Killer Darts
 1968: Travels with a Sword
 1969: Dragon Swamp
 1969: Killers Five
 1969: Iron Bones
 1970: The Eagle's Claw
 1971: Die Todesfaust des Cheng Li
 1971: Ein Hauch von Zen
 1971: The Invincible Eight
 1971: The Angry River
 1972: Todesgrüße aus Shanghai
 1972: Iron Bull
 1973: Der Letzte Kampf des Lee Khan
 1973: The Fighter – Flucht ins Chaos
 1973: None but the Brave
 1973: Back Alley Princess
 1973: A Man Called Tiger
 1973: Fist of Shaolin
 1973: Unsubdued Furies
 1974: Tornado of Pearl River
 1974: Fists for Revenge
 1975: Die Mutigen
 1975: Die Falle des gelben Drachen
 1975: The Silent Guest from Peking
 1975: Heroes in Late Ming Dynasty
 1976: Zwei Fäuste stärker als Bruce Lee
 1976: Die Pranke des gelben Tigers
 1976: Todeskommando Queensway
 1976: One Armed Swordsmen
 1976: The Himalayan
 1976: Die Letzte Schlacht von Yang Chao
 1977: Broken Oath
 1977: The Martyrs
 1977: Six Kung Fu Heroes
 1978: Bruce Lee – Der reißende Puma
 1978: The Jade Hairpin Alliance
 1978: The Prominent Eunuch Chen Ho
 1979: Duell der 7 Tiger
 1980: The Magnificent Kick
 1981: End of the Wicked Tigers
 1984: Last Hero in Chin
 1987: Killer's Nocturne
 1990: Meister des Schwertes

Weblinks

 Han Ying-Chieh in der Hong Kong Movie Database (chinesisch, englisch)
 Han Ying-Chieh bei MTime (chinesisch)

Filmschauspieler
Chinese (Hongkong)
Chinese
Geboren 1927
Gestorben 1991
Mann

Han Ying-chieh


Gert Sibande es un distrito municipal de Sudáfrica en la provincia de Mpumalanga.

Comprende una superficie de 31 846 km².

El centro administrativo es la ciudad de Secunda.

Municipios locales
El distrito contiene los siguientes municipios locales:

Referencias

Gert Sibande

Distrito Municipal de Gert Sibande


دارت معركة فردان في الفترة من 21 فبراير حتى 18 ديسمبر عام 1916 على الجبهة الغربية في فرنسا. كانت هذه المعركة الأطول في الحرب العالمية الأولى ووقعت على التلال شمال فردان سور الميز. هاجم الجيش الألماني الخامس دفاعات منطقة فردان المحصنة (RFV, Région Fortifiée de Verdun) ودفاعات الجيش الفرنسي الثاني على الضفة اليمنى (الشرقية) لنهر الميز. باستخدام تجربة معركة شمبانيا الثانية في عام 1915، خطط الألمان للاستيلاء على مرتفعات الميز، وهو موقع دفاعي ممتاز مع مراقبة جيدة لنيران المدفعية في فردان. وكان الألمان يأملون بأن يلتزم الفرنسيون باحتياطيهم الاستراتيجي لاستعادة الوضع وتكبد خسائر فادحة بتكلفة قليلة للألمان.

أخر الطقس السيئ بداية الهجوم حتى 21 فبراير لكن الألمان استولوا على حصن دومان في الأيام الثلاثة الأولى. ثم تباطأ التقدم لعدة أيام، على الرغم من وقوع العديد من الضحايا الفرنسيين. بحلول 6 مارس، تواجدت 20 فرقة فرنسية في منطقة فردان المحصنة وجرى بناء دفاع أكثر شمولًا في العمق. أمر فيليب بيتان بعدم التراجع وأن الهجمات الألمانية يجب أن تواجه بهجوم مضاد، على الرغم من تعريض المشاة الفرنسيين لنيران المدفعية الألمانية. وبحلول 29 مارس، بدأت المدافع الفرنسية على الضفة الغربية قصفًا مستمرًا للألمان على الضفة الشرقية، ما تسبب في سقوط العديد من ضحايا المشاة. امتد الهجوم الألماني إلى الضفة اليسرى (الغربية) لنهر الميز، للحصول على المراقبة والقضاء على نيران المدفعية الفرنسية فوق النهر لكن الهجمات فشلت في الوصول إلى أهدافها.

في أوائل مايو، غير الألمان تكتيكاتهم مرة أخرى وقاموا بهجمات محلية وهجمات مضادة؛ استعاد الفرنسيون جزءًا من حصن دومان، لكن بعد ذلك طردهم الألمان واعتقلوا العديد من الأسرى. حاول الألمان جعل هجماتهم متناوبة على جانبي نهر الميز، وفي يونيو استولوا على حصن فو. تقدم الألمان نحو الأهداف الجغرافية الأخيرة للخطة الأصلية، في فلوري دوفان دومان وحصن سوفيل، وشكلوا نتوءًا ضمن الدفاعات الفرنسية. واحتلت فلوري وجاء الألمان على بعد 4 كيلومترات (2 ميل) من قلعة فردان ولكن في يوليو توقف الهجوم لتوفير القوات والمدفعية والذخيرة لمعركة السوم، ما أدى إلى نقل مماثل للجيش العاشر الفرنسي إلى جبهة السوم. ومن 23 يونيو حتى 17 أغسطس، تبدلت السيطرة على فلوري ست عشرة مرة، وفشل هجوم ألماني على حصن سوفيل. وجرى إبطاء الهجوم بشكل أكبر ولكن لإبقاء القوات الفرنسية في منطقة فردان المحصنة، بعيدًا عن السوم، واستخدمت الخدع لتمويه التغيير.

في سبتمبر وديسمبر، استعادت الهجمات الفرنسية المضادة الكثير من الأراضي على الضفة الشرقية واستعادت حصن دوماون وحصن فو. استمرت المعركة 302 يومًا، وهي الأطول والأكثر تكلفة في تاريخ البشرية. في عام 2000، قدر هاينس هير وكلاوس ناومان أن الفرنسيين خسروا 377.231 ضحية والألمان 337.000، أي ما مجموعه 714.231 ضحية، ومتوسط 70.000 في الشهر. في عام 2014، كتب ويليام فيلبوت عن 976.000 ضحية في عام 1916، و1.250.000 في المنطقة المجاورة أثناء الحرب. وفي فرنسا، أصبحت المعركة ترمز إلى تصميم الجيش الفرنسي والدمار الذي خلفته الحرب.

الخلفية

التطورات الاستراتيجية
بعد توقف الغزو الألماني لفرنسا في معركة مارن الأولى في سبتمبر عام 1914، انتهت حرب الحركة في معركة إيسر ومعركة إيبرس الأولى. بنى الألمان تحصينات ميدانية للاحتفاظ بالأرض التي جرى الاستيلاء عليها في عام 1914 وبدأ الفرنسيون حرب الحصار لاختراق الدفاعات الألمانية واستعادة الأراضي المفقودة. وفي أواخر عام 1914 وعام 1915، فشلت الهجمات على الجبهة الغربية في كسب الكثير من الأرض وكانت مكلفة للغاية من ناحية الخسائر. ووفقًا لمذكراته التي كتبها بعد الحرب، يعتقد رئيس أركان حرب ألمانيا، إريش فون فالكنهاين أنه على الرغم من أنه لم يعد من الممكن تحقيق النصر بمعركة حاسمة، لكن كان ما يزال من الممكن هزيمة الجيش الفرنسي إذا تكبد عددًا كافيًا من الضحايا. قدم فالكنهاين خمسة فيالق من الاحتياطي الاستراتيجي لشن هجوم على فردان في بداية فبراير عام 1916، ولكن فقط لشن هجوم على الضفة الشرقية لنهر الميز. اعتبر فالكنهاين أنه من غير المحتمل أن يكون الفرنسيون راضين عن فردان. وكان يعتقد أنهم قد يرسلون جميع احتياطاتهم إلى هناك ويبدأون هجومًا مضادًا في مكان آخر أو يقاتلون للسيطرة على فردان بينما يشن البريطانيون هجوم إغاثة. وبعد الحرب، كتب القيصر فيلهلم الثاني وغيرهارد تابين، مسؤول العمليات في القيادة العليا للجيش القيصري الألماني (المقر العام)، أن فالكنهاين يعتقد أن الاحتمال الأخير كان الأرجح.

من خلال الاستيلاء على فردان أو التهديد باحتلالها، توقع الألمان أن يرسل الفرنسيون جميع احتياطاتهم، والتي ستضطر بعد ذلك إلى مهاجمة مواقع دفاعية ألمانية آمنة مدعومة باحتياطي مدفعي قوي. في هجوم غورليس - تارنو (من 1 مايو حتى 19 سبتمبر عام 1915)، هاجمت الجيوش الألمانية والنمساوية المجرية الدفاعات الروسية من الأمام، بعد سحقها بكميات كبيرة من المدفعية الثقيلة. خلال معركة شامبانيا الثانية (معركة خريف Herbstschlacht) من 25 سبتمبر حتى 6 نوفمبر عام 1915، عانى الفرنسيون من «خسائر غير عادية» من المدفعية الألمانية الثقيلة، والتي اعتبرها فالكنهاين تقدم مخرجًا من معضلة الدونية المادية وتزايد قوة الحلفاء. وفي الشمال، كان من شأن هجوم الإغاثة البريطاني أن يضعف الاحتياطات البريطانية، دون أي تأثير حاسم، لكنه يخلق الظروف لهجوم مضاد ألماني بالقرب من أراس.

التقطت المخابرات العسكرية الهولندية تلميحات حول مخطط فالكنهاين ونقلتها إلى البريطانيين في ديسمبر. كانت الاستراتيجية الألمانية هي خلق حالة عملياتية مواتية دون هجوم جماعي، والتي كانت مكلفة وغير فعالة عندما جربها الفرنسيون والبريطانيون، من خلال الاعتماد على قوة المدفعية الثقيلة لإلحاق خسائر جماعية. كان هجوم محدود في فردان من شأنه أن يؤدي إلى تدمير الاحتياطي الاستراتيجي الفرنسي في هجمات مضادة غير مثمرة وهزيمة الاحتياطيات البريطانية في هجوم إغاثة غير مجدي، مما يؤدي إلى قبول الفرنسيين بسلام منفصل. إذا رفض الفرنسيون التفاوض، تبدأ المرحلة الثانية من الاستراتيجية، وهي مهاجمة الجيوش الألمانية للجيوش الفرنسية البريطانية الضعيفة بشكل قاضٍ، وإزالة بقايا الجيوش الفرنسية وطرد البريطانيين من أوروبا. لتحقيق هذه الاستراتيجية، احتاج فالكنهاين إلى تأخير الاحتياطي الاستراتيجي بما يكفي لهجمات الإغاثة الأنجلو-فرنسية ثم شن هجوم مضاد، ما حد من عدد الفرق التي يمكن إرسالها إلى الجيش الخامس في فردان، من أجل Unternehmen Gericht (عملية الحكم).

تقع منطقة فردان المحصنة في نتوء تشكل خلال الغزو الألماني عام 1914. وكان القائد العام للجيش الفرنسي، الجنرال جوزيف جوفري، قد انتهى من الاستيلاء السريع على الحصون البلجيكية في معركة لياج. وفي حصار نامور عام 1914، أصبحت الدفاعات الثابتة قديمة بسبب مدافع الحصار الألمانية. وفي توجيه من هيئة الأركان العامة في 5 أغسطس عام 1915، كان من المقرر تجريد منطقة فردان المحصنة من 54 بطارية مدفعية و128000 طلقة ذخيرة. ووضعت خطط لهدم حصني دومان وفو لحرمان الألمان منهما، وأضيف 5000 كغم (11000 رطل) من المتفجرات بحلول وقت الهجوم الألماني في 21 فبراير. وترك 18 حصنًا كبيرًا وبطاريات أخرى حول فردان بأقل من 300 بندقية واحتياطي صغير من الذخيرة بينما تم تحويل حامياتهم إلى أطقم صيانة صغيرة. وقطع خط السكك الحديدية من الجنوب إلى فردان خلال معركة فليري في عام 1914، مع خسارة سان ميخيل؛ قطع الخط الغربي الممتد من فردان إلى باريس في أوبريفيل في منتصف يوليو 1915 من قبل الجيش الألماني الثالث، الذي هاجم جنوبًا عبر غابة أرغون لمعظم العام.

مصادر

Neville Williams, "Chronology of the Modern World 1763-1965", Penguin Books, Great Britain, 1975.

فرنسا في 1916
الإمبراطورية الألمانية في الحرب العالمية الأولى
العلاقات الألمانية الفرنسية العسكرية
تاريخ موز (إقليم فرنسي)
فيليب بيتان
معارك ألمانيا في الحرب العالمية الأولى
معارك البرتغال في الحرب العالمية الأولى
فردان
معارك فرنسا في الحرب العالمية الأولى
معارك في غراند إيست
نزاعات في 1916

معركة فردان


An Didymoplexis seidenfadenii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Sath.Kumar ngan Paul Ormerod. An Didymoplexis seidenfadenii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Didymoplexis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Didymoplexis

Didymoplexis seidenfadenii