Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and hydrogeology are often used interchangeably.

Hydrogeology is the study of the laws governing the movement of subterranean water, the mechanical, chemical, and thermal interaction of this water with the porous solid, and the transport of energy, chemical constituents, and particulate matter by flow (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998).

Groundwater engineering, another name for hydrogeology, is a branch of engineering which is concerned with groundwater movement and design of wells, pumps, and drains. The main concerns in groundwater engineering include groundwater contamination, conservation of supplies, and water quality.

Wells are constructed for use in developing nations, as well as for use in developed nations in places which are not connected to a city water system. Wells must be designed and maintained to uphold the integrity of the aquifer, and to prevent contaminants from reaching the groundwater. Controversy arises in the use of groundwater when its usage impacts surface water systems, or when human activity threatens the integrity of the local aquifer system.

Introduction
Hydrogeology is an interdisciplinary subject; it can be difficult to account fully for the chemical, physical, biological and even legal interactions between soil, water, nature and society. The study of the interaction between groundwater movement and geology can be quite complex. Groundwater does not always follow the surface topography; groundwater follows pressure gradients (flow from high pressure to low), often through fractures and conduits in circuitous paths. Taking into account the interplay of the different facets of a multi-component system often requires knowledge in several diverse fields at both the experimental and theoretical levels. The following is a more traditional introduction to the methods and nomenclature of saturated subsurface hydrology.

Hydrogeology in relation to other fields

Hydrogeology, as stated above, is a branch of the earth sciences dealing with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow porous media (typically less than 450 m below the land surface). The very shallow flow of water in the subsurface (the upper 3 m) is pertinent to the fields of soil science, agriculture and civil engineering, as well as to hydrogeology. The general flow of fluids (water, hydrocarbons, geothermal fluids, etc.) in deeper formations is also a concern of  geologists, geophysicists and petroleum geologists.  Groundwater is a slow-moving, viscous fluid (with a Reynolds number less than unity); many of the empirically derived laws of groundwater flow can be alternately derived in fluid mechanics from the special case of Stokes flow (viscosity and pressure terms, but no inertial term).

The mathematical relationships used to describe the flow of water through porous media are Darcy's law, the diffusion and Laplace equations, which have applications in many diverse fields. Steady groundwater flow (Laplace equation) has been simulated using electrical, elastic and heat conduction analogies. Transient groundwater flow is analogous to the diffusion of heat in a solid, therefore some solutions to hydrological problems have been adapted from heat transfer literature.

Traditionally, the movement of groundwater has been studied separately from surface water, climatology, and even the chemical and microbiological aspects of hydrogeology (the processes are uncoupled). As the field of hydrogeology matures, the strong interactions between groundwater, surface water, water chemistry, soil moisture and even climate are becoming more clear.

California and Washington both require special certification of hydrogeologists to offer professional services to the public. Twenty-nine states require professional licensing for geologists to offer their services to the public, which often includes work within the domains of developing, managing, and/or remediating groundwater resources.

For example: aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water may be a contributing factor to sea-level rise.

Subjects

One of the main tasks a hydrogeologist typically performs is the prediction of future behavior of an aquifer system, based on analysis of past and present observations. Some hypothetical, but characteristic questions asked would be:
Can the aquifer support another subdivision?
Will the river dry up if the farmer doubles his irrigation?
Did the chemicals from the dry cleaning facility travel through the aquifer to my well and make me sick?
Will the plume of effluent leaving my neighbor's septic system flow to my drinking water well?

Most of these questions can be addressed through simulation of the hydrologic system (using numerical models or analytic equations). Accurate simulation of the aquifer system requires knowledge of the aquifer properties and boundary conditions. Therefore, a common task of the hydrogeologist is determining aquifer properties using aquifer tests.

In order to further characterize aquifers and aquitards some primary and derived physical properties are introduced below. Aquifers are broadly classified as being either confined or unconfined (water table aquifers), and either saturated or unsaturated; the type of aquifer affects what properties control the flow of water in that medium (e.g., the release of water from storage for confined aquifers is related to the storativity, while it is related to the specific yield for unconfined aquifers).

Aquifers

An aquifer is a collection of water underneath the surface, large enough to be useful in a spring or a well. Aquifers can be unconfined, where the top of the aquifer is defined by the water table, or confined, where the aquifer exists underneath a confining bed.

There are three aspects that control the nature of aquifers: stratigraphy, lithology, and geological formations and deposits. The stratigraphy relates the age and geometry of the many formations that compose the aquifer. The lithology refers to the physical components of an aquifer, such as the mineral composition and grain size. The structural features are the elements that arise due to deformations after deposition, such as fractures and folds. Understanding these aspects is paramount to understanding of how an aquifer is formed and how professionals can utilize it for groundwater engineering.

Hydraulic head

Differences in hydraulic head (h) cause water to move from one place to another; water flows from locations of high h to locations of low h. Hydraulic head is composed of pressure head (ψ) and elevation head (z). The head gradient is the change in hydraulic head per length of flowpath, and appears in Darcy's law as being proportional to the discharge.

Hydraulic head is a directly measurable property that can take on any value (because of the arbitrary datum involved in the z term); ψ can be measured with a pressure transducer (this value can be negative, e.g., suction, but is positive in saturated aquifers), and z can be measured relative to a surveyed datum (typically the top of the well casing). Commonly, in wells tapping unconfined aquifers the water level in a well is used as a proxy for hydraulic head, assuming there is no vertical gradient of pressure. Often only changes in hydraulic head through time are needed, so the constant elevation head term can be left out (Δh = Δψ).

A record of hydraulic head through time at a well is a hydrograph or, the changes in hydraulic head recorded during the pumping of a well in a test are called drawdown.

Porosity

Porosity (n) is a directly measurable aquifer property; it is a fraction between 0 and 1 indicating the amount of pore space between unconsolidated soil particles or within a fractured rock. Typically, the majority of groundwater (and anything dissolved in it) moves through the porosity available to flow (sometimes called effective porosity). Permeability is an expression of the connectedness of the pores. For instance, an unfractured rock unit may have a high porosity (it has many holes between its constituent grains), but a low permeability (none of the pores are connected). An example of this phenomenon is pumice, which, when in its unfractured state, can make a poor aquifer.

Porosity does not directly affect the distribution of hydraulic head in an aquifer, but it has a very strong effect on the migration of dissolved contaminants, since it affects groundwater flow velocities through an inversely proportional relationship.

Darcy's law is commonly applied to study the movement of water, or other fluids through porous media, and constitutes the basis for many hydrogeological analyses.

Water content

Water content (θ) is also a directly measurable property; it is the fraction of the total rock which is filled with liquid water. This is also a fraction between 0 and 1, but it must also be less than or equal to the total porosity.

The water content is very important in vadose zone hydrology, where the hydraulic conductivity is a strongly nonlinear function of water content; this complicates the solution of the unsaturated groundwater flow equation.

Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (K) and transmissivity (T) are indirect aquifer properties (they cannot be measured directly). T is the K integrated over the vertical thickness (b) of the aquifer (T=Kb when K is constant over the entire thickness). These properties are measures of an aquifer's ability to transmit water. Intrinsic permeability (κ) is a secondary medium property which does not depend on the viscosity and density of the fluid (K and T are specific to water); it is used more in the petroleum industry.

Specific storage and specific yield

Specific storage (Ss) and its depth-integrated equivalent, storativity (S=Ssb), are indirect aquifer properties (they cannot be measured directly); they indicate the amount of groundwater released from storage due to a unit depressurization of a confined aquifer. They are fractions between 0 and 1.

Specific yield (Sy) is also a ratio between 0 and 1 (Sy ≤ porosity) and indicates the amount of water released due to drainage from lowering the water table in an unconfined aquifer. The value for specific yield is less than the value for porosity because some water will remain in the medium even after drainage due to intermolecular forces. Often the porosity or effective porosity is used as an upper bound to the specific yield. Typically Sy is orders of magnitude larger than Ss.

Fault zone hydrogeology

Fault zone hydrogeology is the study of how brittlely deformed rocks alter fluid flows in different lithological settings, such as clastic, igneous and carbonate rocks. Fluid movements, that can be quantified as permeability, can be facilitated or impeded due to the existence of a fault zone. This is because different mechanism and deformed rocks can alter the porosity and hence the permeability within fault zone. Fluids involved generally are groundwater (fresh and marine waters) and hydrocarbons (Oil and Gas). As fault zone is a zone of weakness that helps to increase the weathered zone thickness and hence the help in ground water recharge. Along with faults, fractures and foliations also facilitate the groundwater mainly in hard rock terrains.

Contaminant transport properties

Often we are interested in how the moving groundwater will transport dissolved contaminants around (the sub-field of contaminant hydrogeology). The contaminants which are man-made (e.g., petroleum products, nitrate, Chromium or radionuclides) or naturally occurring (e.g., arsenic, salinity), can be transported through three main mechanisms, advection (transport along the main direction of flow at seepage velocity), diffusion (migration of the contaminant from high to low concentration areas), and dispersion (due to microscale heterogeneities present in the porous medium and non-uniform velocity distribution relative to seepage velocity). Besides needing to understand where the groundwater is flowing, based on the other hydrologic properties discussed above, there are additional aquifer properties which affect how dissolved contaminants move with groundwater.

Hydrodynamic dispersion
Hydrodynamic dispersivity (αL, αT) is an empirical factor which quantifies how much contaminants stray away from the path of the groundwater which is carrying it. Some of the contaminants will be "behind" or "ahead" the mean groundwater, giving rise to a longitudinal dispersivity (αL), and some will be "to the sides of" the pure advective groundwater flow, leading to a transverse dispersivity (αT). Dispersion in groundwater arises because each water "particle", passing beyond a soil particle, must choose where to go, whether left or right or up or down, so that the water "particles" (and their solute) are gradually spread in all directions around the mean path. This is the "microscopic" mechanism, on the scale of soil particles. More important, over long distances, can be the macroscopic inhomogeneities of the aquifer, which can have regions of larger or smaller permeability, so that some water can find a preferential path in one direction, some other in a different direction, so that the contaminant can be spread in a completely irregular way, like in a (three-dimensional) delta of a river.

Dispersivity is actually a factor which represents our lack of information about the system we are simulating. There are many small details about the aquifer which are effectively averaged when using a macroscopic approach (e.g., tiny beds of gravel and clay in sand aquifers); these manifest themselves as an apparent dispersivity. Because of this, α is often claimed to be dependent on the length scale of the problem — the dispersivity found for transport through 1 m3 of aquifer is different from that for transport through 1 cm3 of the same aquifer material.

Molecular diffusion
Diffusion is a fundamental physical phenomenon, which Albert Einstein characterized as Brownian motion, that describes the random thermal movement of molecules and small particles in gases and liquids. It is an important phenomenon for small distances (it is essential for the achievement of thermodynamic equilibria), but, as the time necessary to cover a distance by diffusion is proportional to the square of the distance itself, it is ineffective for spreading a solute over macroscopic distances. The diffusion coefficient, D, is typically quite small, and its effect can often be considered negligible (unless groundwater flow velocities are extremely low, as they are in clay aquitards).

It is important not to confuse diffusion with dispersion, as the former is a physical phenomenon and the latter is an empirical factor which is cast into a similar form as diffusion, because we already know how to solve that problem.

Retardation by adsorption
The retardation factor is another very important feature that make the motion of the contaminant to deviate from the average groundwater motion. It is analogous to the retardation factor of chromatography. Unlike diffusion and dispersion, which simply spread the contaminant, the retardation factor changes its global average velocity, so that it can be much slower than that of water. This is due to a chemico-physical effect: the adsorption to the soil, which holds the contaminant back and does not allow it to progress until the quantity corresponding to the chemical adsorption equilibrium has been adsorbed. This effect is particularly important for less soluble contaminants, which thus can move even hundreds or thousands times slower than water. The effect of this phenomenon is that only more soluble species can cover long distances. The retardation factor depends on the chemical nature of both the contaminant and the aquifer.

History and development

Henry Darcy: 19th century
Henry Darcy was a French scientist who made advances in flow of fluids through porous materials. He conducted experiments which studied the movement of fluids through sand columns. These experiments led to the determination of Darcy's law, which describes fluid flow through a medium with high levels of porosity. Darcy's work is considered to be the beginning of quantitative hydrogeology.

Oscar Edward Meinzer: 20th century
Oscar Edward Meinzer was an American scientist who is often called the "father of modern groundwater hydrology". He standardized key terms in the field as well as determined principles regarding occurrence, movement, and discharge. He proved that the flow of water obeys Darcy's law. He also proposed the use of geophysical methods and recorders on wells, as well as suggested pumping tests to gather quantitative information on the properties of aquifers. Meinzer also highlighted the importance of studying the geochemistry of water, as well as the impact of high salinity levels in aquifers.

Governing equations

Darcy's law

Darcy's law is a constitutive equation, empirically derived by Henry Darcy in 1856, which states that the amount of groundwater discharging through a given portion of aquifer is proportional to the cross-sectional area of flow, the hydraulic gradient, and the hydraulic conductivity.

Groundwater flow equation

The groundwater flow equation, in its most general form, describes the movement of groundwater in a porous medium (aquifers and aquitards). It is known in mathematics as the diffusion equation, and has many analogs in other fields. Many solutions for groundwater flow problems were borrowed or adapted from existing heat transfer solutions.

It is often derived from a physical basis using Darcy's law and a conservation of mass for a small control volume. The equation is often used to predict flow to wells, which have radial symmetry, so the flow equation is commonly solved in polar or cylindrical coordinates.

The Theis equation is one of the most commonly used and fundamental solutions to the groundwater flow equation; it can be used to predict the transient evolution of head due to the effects of pumping one or a number of pumping wells.

The Thiem equation is a solution to the steady state groundwater flow equation (Laplace's Equation) for flow to a well. Unless there are large sources of water nearby (a river or lake), true steady-state is rarely achieved in reality.

Both above equations are used in aquifer tests (pump tests).

The Hooghoudt equation is a groundwater flow equation applied to subsurface drainage by pipes, tile drains or ditches. An alternative subsurface drainage method is drainage by wells for which groundwater flow equations are also available.

Calculation of groundwater flow

To use the groundwater flow equation to estimate the distribution of hydraulic heads,
or the direction and rate of groundwater flow, this partial differential equation (PDE) must be solved. The most common means of analytically solving the diffusion equation in the hydrogeology literature are:

 Laplace, Hankel and Fourier transforms (to reduce the number of dimensions of the PDE),
 similarity transform (also called the Boltzmann transform) is commonly how the Theis solution is derived,
 separation of variables, which is more useful for non-Cartesian coordinates, and
 Green's functions, which is another common method for deriving the Theis solution — from the fundamental solution to the diffusion equation in free space.

No matter which method we use to solve the groundwater flow equation, we need both initial conditions
(heads at time (t) = 0) and boundary conditions (representing either the physical
boundaries of the domain, or an approximation of the domain beyond that
point). Often the initial conditions are supplied to a transient
simulation, by a corresponding steady-state simulation (where the time
derivative in the groundwater flow equation is set equal to 0).

There are two broad categories of how the (PDE) would be solved; either
analytical methods, numerical methods, or something possibly in between. Typically, analytic methods solve the groundwater flow equation under a simplified set of conditions exactly, while numerical methods solve it under more general conditions to an approximation.

Analytic methods
Analytic methods typically use the structure of mathematics to arrive at a simple, elegant solution, but the required derivation for all but the simplest domain geometries can be quite complex (involving non-standard coordinates, conformal mapping, etc.). Analytic solutions typically are also simply an equation that can give a quick answer based on a few basic parameters. The Theis equation is a very simple (yet still very useful) analytic solution to the groundwater flow equation, typically used to analyze the results of an aquifer test or slug test.

Numerical methods
The topic of numerical methods is quite large, obviously being of use to most fields of engineering and science in general. Numerical methods have been around much longer than computers have (In the 1920s Richardson developed some of the finite difference schemes still in use today, but they were calculated by hand, using paper and pencil, by human "calculators"), but they have become very important through the availability of fast and cheap personal computers. A quick survey of the main numerical methods used in hydrogeology, and some of the most basic principles are shown below and further discussed in the Groundwater model article.

There are two broad categories of numerical methods: gridded or discretized methods and non-gridded or mesh-free methods. In the common finite difference method and finite element method (FEM) the domain is completely gridded ("cut" into a grid or mesh of small elements). The analytic element method (AEM) and the boundary integral equation method (BIEM — sometimes also called BEM, or Boundary Element Method) are only discretized at boundaries or along flow elements (line sinks, area sources, etc.), the majority of the domain is mesh-free.

General properties of gridded methods
Gridded Methods like finite difference and finite element methods solve the groundwater flow equation by breaking the problem area (domain) into many small elements (squares, rectangles, triangles, blocks, tetrahedra, etc.) and solving the flow equation for each element (all material properties are assumed constant or possibly linearly variable within an element), then linking together all the elements using conservation of mass across the boundaries between the elements (similar to the divergence theorem). This results in a system which overall approximates the groundwater flow equation, but exactly matches the boundary conditions (the head or flux is specified in the elements which intersect the boundaries).

Finite differences are a way of representing continuous differential operators using discrete intervals (Δx and Δt), and the finite difference methods are based on these (they are derived from a Taylor series). For example, the first-order time derivative is often approximated using the following forward finite difference, where the subscripts indicate a discrete time location,

The forward finite difference approximation is unconditionally stable, but leads to an implicit set of equations (that must be solved using matrix methods, e.g. LU or Cholesky decomposition). The similar backwards difference is only conditionally stable, but it is explicit and can be used to "march" forward in the time direction, solving one grid node at a time (or possibly in parallel, since one node depends only on its immediate neighbors). Rather than the finite difference method, sometimes the Galerkin FEM approximation is used in space (this is different from the type of FEM often used in structural engineering) with finite differences still used in time.

Application of finite difference models
MODFLOW is a well-known example of a general finite difference groundwater flow model. It is developed by the US Geological Survey as a modular and extensible simulation tool for modeling groundwater flow. It is free software developed, documented and distributed by the USGS. Many commercial products have grown up around it, providing graphical user interfaces to its input file based interface, and typically incorporating pre- and post-processing of user data. Many other models have been developed to work with MODFLOW input and output, making linked models which simulate several hydrologic processes possible (flow and transport models, surface water and groundwater models and chemical reaction models), because of the simple, well documented nature of MODFLOW.

Application of finite element models
Finite Element programs are more flexible in design (triangular elements vs. the block elements most finite difference models use) and there are some programs available (SUTRA, a 2D or 3D density-dependent flow model by the USGS; Hydrus, a commercial unsaturated flow model; FEFLOW, a commercial modelling environment for subsurface flow, solute and heat transport processes; OpenGeoSys, a scientific open-source project for thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical (THMC) processes in porous and fractured media; COMSOL Multiphysics (a commercial general modelling environment), FEATool Multiphysics an easy to use MATLAB simulation toolbox, and Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM), but they are still not as popular in with practicing hydrogeologists as MODFLOW is.  Finite element models are more popular in university and laboratory environments, where specialized models solve non-standard forms of the flow equation (unsaturated flow, density dependent flow, coupled heat and groundwater flow, etc.)

Application of finite volume models
The finite volume method is a method for representing and evaluating partial differential equations as algebraic equations. Similar to the finite difference method, values are calculated at discrete places on a meshed geometry. "Finite volume" refers to the small volume surrounding each node point on a mesh. In the finite volume method, volume integrals in a partial differential equation that contain a divergence term are converted to surface integrals, using the divergence theorem. These terms are then evaluated as fluxes at the surfaces of each finite volume. Because the flux entering a given volume is identical to that leaving the adjacent volume, these methods are conservative. Another advantage of the finite volume method is that it is easily formulated to allow for unstructured meshes. The method is used in many computational fluid dynamics packages.

PORFLOW software package is a comprehensive mathematical model for simulation of Ground Water Flow and Nuclear Waste Management developed by Analytic & Computational Research, Inc., ACRi.

The FEHM software package is available free from Los Alamos National Laboratory.  This versatile porous flow simulator includes capabilities to model multiphase, thermal, stress, and multicomponent reactive chemistry.  Current work using this code includes simulation of methane hydrate formation, CO2 sequestration, oil shale extraction, migration of both nuclear and chemical contaminants, environmental isotope migration in the unsaturated zone, and karst formation.

Other methods
These include mesh-free methods like the Analytic Element Method (AEM) and the Boundary Element Method (BEM), which are closer to analytic solutions, but they do approximate the groundwater flow equation in some way.  The BEM and AEM exactly solve the groundwater flow equation (perfect mass balance), while approximating the boundary conditions.  These methods are more exact and can be much more elegant solutions (like analytic methods are), but have not seen as widespread use outside academic and research groups yet.

Water wells
A water well is a mechanism for bringing groundwater to the surface by drilling or digging and bringing it up to the surface with a pump or by hand using buckets or similar devices. The first historical instance of water wells was in the 52nd century BC in modern-day Austria. Today, wells are used all over the world, from developing nations to suburbs in the United States.

There are three main types of wells, shallow, deep, and artesian. Shallow wells tap into unconfined aquifers, and are, generally, shallow, less than 15 meters deep. Shallow wells have a small diameter, usually less than 15 centimeters. Deep wells access confined aquifers, and are always drilled by machine. All deep wells bring water to the surface using mechanical pumps. In artesian wells, water flows naturally without the use of a pump or some other mechanical device. This is due to the top of the well being located below the water table.

Water well design and construction

One of the most important aspects of groundwater engineering and hydrogeology is water well design and construction. Proper well design and construction are important to maintain the health of the groundwater and the people which will use the well. Factors which must be considered in well design are:
 A reliable aquifer, providing a continuous water supply
 The quality of the accessible groundwater
 How to monitor the well
 Operating costs of the well
 Expected yield of the well
 Any prior drilling into the aquifer

There are five main areas to be considered when planning and constructing a new water well, along with the factors above. They are:
 Aquifer Suitability
 "Well Design Considerations
 Well Drilling Methods
 Well Screen Design and Development
 Well Testing"

Aquifer suitability starts with determining possible locations for the well using "USGS reports, well logs, and cross sections" of the aquifer. This information should be used to determine aquifer properties such as depth, thickness, transmissivity, and well yield. In this stage, the quality of the water in the aquifer should also be determined, and screening should occur to check for contaminants.

After factors such as depth and well yield are determined, the well design and drilling approach must be established. Drilling method is selected based on "soil conditions, well depth, design, and costs." At this stage, cost estimates are prepared, and plans are adjusted to meet budgetary needs.

Important parts of a well include the well seals, casings or liners, drive shoes, well screen assemblies, and a sand or gravel pack (optional). Each of these components ensures that the well only draws from one aquifer, and no leakage occurs at any stage of the process.

There are several methods of drilling which can be used when constructing a water well. They include: "Cable tool, Air rotary, Mud rotary, and Flooded reverse circulation dual rotary" drilling techniques. Cable tool drilling is inexpensive and can be used for all types of wells, but the alignment must be constantly checked and it has a slow advance rate. It is not an effective drilling technique for consolidated formations, but does provide a small drilling footprint. Air rotary drilling is cost effective and works well for consolidated formations. It has a fast advance rate, but is not adequate for large diameter wells. Mud rotary drilling is especially cost effective for deep wells. It maintains good alignment, but requires a larger footprint. It has a very fast advance rate. Flooded reverse circulation dual rotary drilling is more expensive, but good for large well designs. It is versatile and maintains alignment. It has a fast advance rate.

Well screens ensure that only water makes it to the surface, and sediments remain beneath the Earth's surface. Screens are placed along the shaft of the well to filter out sediment as water is pumped towards the surface. Screen design can be impacted by the nature of the soil, and natural pack designs can be used to maximize efficiency.

After construction of the well, testing must be done to assess productivity, efficiency and yield of the well, as well as determine the impacts of the well on the aquifer. Several different tests should be completed on the well in order to test all relevant qualities of the well.

Issues in groundwater engineering and hydrogeology

Contamination

Groundwater contamination happens when other fluids seep into the aquifer and mix with existing groundwater. Pesticides, fertilizers, and gasoline are common contaminants of aquifers. Underground storage tanks for chemicals such as gasoline are especially concerning sources of groundwater contamination. As these tanks corrode, they can leak, and their contents can contaminate nearby groundwater. For buildings which are not connected to a wastewater treatment system, septic tanks can be used to dispose of waste at a safe rate. If septic tanks are not built or maintained properly, they can leak bacteria, viruses and other chemicals into the surrounding groundwater. Landfills are another potential source of groundwater contamination. As trash is buried, harmful chemicals can migrate from the garbage and into the surrounding groundwater if the protective base layer is cracked or otherwise damaged. Other chemicals, such as road salts and chemicals used on lawns and farms, can runoff into local reservoirs, and eventually into aquifers. As water goes through the water cycle, contaminants in the atmosphere can contaminate the water. This water can also make its way into groundwater.

Controversy

Fracking
Contamination of groundwater due to fracking has long been debated. Since chemicals commonly used in hydraulic fracturing are not tested by government agencies responsible for determining the effects of fracking on groundwater, laboratories at the United States Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, have a hard time determining if chemicals used in fracking are present in nearby aquifers. In 2016, the EPA released a report which states that drinking water can be contaminated by fracking. This was a reversal of their previous policies after a $29 million study into the effects of fracking on local drinking water.

California
California sees some of the largest controversies in groundwater usage due to the dry conditions California faces, high population, and intensive agriculture. Conflicts generally occur over pumping groundwater and shipping it out of the area, unfair use of water by a commercial company, and contamination of groundwater by development projects. In Siskiyou County in northern California, the California Superior Court ruled poor groundwater regulations have allowed pumping to diminish the flows in the Scott River and disturbed the natural habitat of salmon. In Owens Valley in central California, groundwater was pumped for use in fish farms, which resulted in the death of local meadows and other ecosystems. This resulted in a lawsuit and settlement against the fish companies. Development in southern California is threatening local aquifers, contaminating groundwater through construction and normal human activity. For example, a solar project in San Bernardino County would allegedly threaten the ecosystem of bird and wildlife species because of its use of up to 1.3 million cubic meters of groundwater, which could impact Harper Lake. In September 2014, California passed the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act, which requires users to manage groundwater appropriately, as it is connected to surface water systems.

Colorado
Due to its arid climate, the state of Colorado gets most of its water from underground. Because of this, there have been issues regarding groundwater engineering practices. As many as 65,000 people were affected when high levels of PFCs were found in the Widefield Aquifer. Groundwater use in Colorado dates back to before the 20th century. Nineteen of Colorado's 63 counties depend mostly on groundwater for supplies and domestic uses. The Colorado Geological Survey has three significant reports on groundwater in the Denver Basin. The first report Geology of Upper Cretaceous, Paleocene and Eocene Strata in the Southwestern Denver Basin, The second report Bedrock Geology, Structure, and Isopach Maps of the Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene Strata between Greeley and Colorado Springs, The third publication Cross Sections of the Freshwater Bearing Strata of the Denver Basin between Greeley and Colorado Springs.

New trends in groundwater engineering/hydrogeology
Since the first wells were made thousands of years ago, groundwater systems have been changed by human activity. Fifty years ago, the sustainability of these systems on a larger scale began to come into consideration, becoming one of the main focuses of groundwater engineering. New ideas and research are advancing groundwater engineering into the 21st century, while still considering groundwater conservation.

Topographical mapping
New advancements have arisen in topographical mapping to improve sustainability. Topographic mapping has been updated to include radar, which can penetrate the ground to help pinpoint areas of concern. In addition, large computations can use gathered data from maps to further the knowledge of groundwater aquifers in recent years. This has made highly complex and individualized water cycle models possible, which has helped to make groundwater sustainability more applicable to specific situations.

The role of technology
Technological improvements have advanced topographical mapping, and have also improved the quality of lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere simulations.  These simulations are useful on their own; however, when used together, they help to give an even more accurate prediction of the future sustainability of an area, and what changes can be made to ensure stability in the area. This would not be possible without the advancement of technology. As technology continues to progress, the simulations will increase in accuracy and allow for more complex studies and projects in groundwater engineering.

Growing populations
As populations continue to grow, areas which were using groundwater at a sustainable rate are now beginning to face sustainability issues for the future. Populations of the size currently seen in large cities were not taken into consideration when the long term sustainability of aquifers. These large population sizes are beginning to stress groundwater supply. This has led to the need for new policies in some urban areas. These are known as proactive land-use management, where cities can move proactively to conserve groundwater.

In Brazil, overpopulation caused municipally provided water to run low. Due to the shortage of water, people began to drill wells within the range normally served by the municipal water system. This was a solution for people in high socioeconomic standing, but left much of the underprivileged population without access to water. Because of this, a new municipal policy was created which drilled wells to assist those who could not afford to drill wells of their own. Because the city is in charge of drilling the new wells, they can better plan for the future sustainability of the groundwater in the region, by carefully placing the wells and taking growing populations into consideration.

Dependency on groundwater in the United States
In the United States, 51% of the drinking water comes from groundwater supplies. Around 99% of the rural population depends on groundwater. In addition, 64% of the total groundwater of the country is used for irrigation, and some of it is used for industrial processes and recharge for lakes and rivers. In 2010, 22 percent of freshwater used in US came from groundwater and the other 78 percent came from surface water. Groundwater is important for some states that don't have access to fresh water. most of the fresh groundwater 65 percent is used for irrigation and the 21 percent is used for public purposes drinking mostly.

See also
Environmental engineering is a broad category hydrogeology fits into;
Flownet is an analysis tool for steady-state flow;
Groundwater energy balance: groundwater flow equations based on the energy balance;
Fault zone hydrogeology: field specifically analyzing hydrogeology in fault zones
Hydrogeophysics: field integrating hydrogeology with geophysics
Hydrology (agriculture)
Isotope hydrology is often used to understand sources and travel times in groundwater systems;
List of important publications in geology#Hydrogeology  : important publications;
Oscar Edward Meinzer is considered the "father of modern groundwater hydrology";
SahysMod is a spatial agro-hydro-salinity model with groundwater flow in a polygonal network;
Spring (hydrology) and water supply network are subjects the hydrogeologist is concerned about;
Water cycle, hydrosphere and water resources are larger concepts which hydrogeology is a part of
Coastal hydrogeology

References

Further reading

General hydrogeology

 Domenico, P.A. & Schwartz, W., 1998. Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology Second Edition, Wiley. — Good book for consultants, it has many real-world examples and covers additional topics (e.g. heat flow, multi-phase and unsaturated flow).
 Driscoll, Fletcher, 1986. Groundwater and Wells,  US Filter / Johnson Screens. — Practical book illustrating the actual process of drilling, developing and utilizing water wells, but it is a trade book, so some of the material is slanted towards the products made by Johnson Well Screens.
 Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A., 1979. Groundwater, Prentice-Hall. — A classic text; like an older version of Domenico and Schwartz.
 de Marsily, G., 1986. Quantitative Hydrogeology: Groundwater Hydrology for Engineers, Academic Press, Inc., Orlando Florida. — Classic book intended for engineers with mathematical background but it can be read by hydrologists and geologists as well.
 Good, accessible overview of hydrogeological processes.
 Porges, Robert E. & Hammer, Matthew J., 2001. The Compendium of Hydrogeology, National Ground Water Association, . Written by practicing hydrogeologists, this inclusive handbook provides a concise, easy-to-use reference for hydrologic terms, equations, pertinent physical parameters, and acronyms
 Todd, David Keith, 1980. Groundwater Hydrology Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons. — Case studies and real-world problems with examples.
 Fetter, C.W. Contaminant Hydrogeology Second Edition, Prentice Hall.
 Fetter, C.W. Applied Hydrogeology Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall.

Numerical groundwater modeling

 Anderson, Mary P. & Woessner, William W., 1992 Applied Groundwater Modeling, Academic Press. — An introduction to groundwater modeling, a little bit old, but the methods are still very applicable.
 Anderson, Mary P., Woessner, William W., & Hunt, Randall J., 2015, Applied Groundwater Modeling, 2nd Edition, Academic Press. — Updates the 1st edition with new examples, new material with respect to model calibration and uncertainty, and online Python scripts (https://github.com/Applied-Groundwater-Modeling-2nd-Ed).
 Chiang, W.-H., Kinzelbach, W., Rausch, R. (1998): Aquifer Simulation Model for WINdows – Groundwater flow and transport modeling, an integrated program. - 137 p., 115 fig., 2 tab., 1 CD-ROM; Berlin, Stuttgart (Borntraeger).
 Elango, L and Jayakumar, R (Eds.)(2001) Modelling in Hydrogeology, UNESCO-IHP Publication, Allied Publ., Chennai,
 Rausch, R., Schäfer W., Therrien, R., Wagner, C., 2005 Solute Transport Modelling – An Introduction to Models and Solution Strategies. - 205 p., 66 fig., 11 tab.; Berlin, Stuttgart (Borntraeger).
 Rushton, K.R., 2003, Groundwater Hydrology: Conceptual and Computational Models. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
 Wang H. F., Theory of Linear Poroelasticity with Applications to Geomechanics and Hydrogeology, Princeton Press, (2000).
 Waltham T., Foundations of Engineering Geology, 2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, (2001).
 Zheng, C., and Bennett, G.D., 2002,  Applied Contaminant Transport Modeling Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons.

 Analytic groundwater modeling

 Haitjema, Henk M., 1995. Analytic Element Modeling of Groundwater Flow, Academic Press. — An introduction to analytic solution methods, especially the Analytic element method (AEM).
 Harr, Milton E., 1962. Groundwater and seepage, Dover. — a more civil engineering view on groundwater; includes a great deal on flownets.
 Kovacs, Gyorgy, 1981. Seepage Hydaulics, Developments in Water Science; 10. Elsevier. - Conformal mapping well explained. ,  (series)
 Lee, Tien-Chang, 1999. Applied Mathematics in Hydrogeology, CRC Press. — Great explanation of mathematical methods used in deriving solutions to hydrogeology problems (solute transport, finite element and inverse problems too).
 Liggett, James A. & Liu, Phillip .L-F., 1983. The Boundary Integral Equation Method for Porous Media Flow'', George Allen and Unwin, London. — Book on BIEM (sometimes called BEM) with examples, it makes a good introduction to the method.

External links
International Association of Hydrogeologists — worldwide association for groundwater specialists.
UK Groundwater Forum — Groundwater in the UK
Centre for Groundwater Studies — Groundwater Education and Research.
EPA drinking water standards — the maximum contaminant levels (mcl) for dissolved species in US drinking water.
US Geological Survey water resources homepage — a good place to find free data (for both US surface water and groundwater) and free groundwater modeling software like MODFLOW.
US Geological Survey TWRI index — a series of instructional manuals covering common procedures in hydrogeology. They are freely available online as PDF files.
International Ground Water Modeling Center (IGWMC)  — an educational repository of groundwater modeling software which offers support for most software, some of which is free.
The Hydrogeologist Time Capsule — a video collection of interviews of eminent hydrogeologists who have made a material difference to the profession.
IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre
 US Army Geospatial Center — For information on OCONUS surface water and groundwater.

Hydrogeology


Ralph Ince (n. 16 ianuarie 1887, Boston, Massachusetts - d. 10 aprilie 1937 (50 de ani), Londra, Anglia)  a fost un actor american, regizor și scenarist. Între anii 1911 și 1937, Ralph Ince a regizat 170 de filme. Ralph Ince a fost fratele lui  John Ince și a lui Thomas H. Ince.

Filmografie

Ca regizor

 The Mills of the Gods (1912)
 A Million Bid (1914)
 Our Mrs. McChesney (1918)
 The Panther Woman (1918)
 The Perfect Lover (1919)
 Wet Gold (1921)
 The Uninvited Guest (1924)
 Lady Robinhood (1925)
 Smooth as Satin (1925)
 Alias Mary Flynn (1925)
 The Better Way (1926)
 The Lone Wolf Returns (1926)
Breed of the Sea (1926)
 The Sea Wolf (1926)
 Bigger Than Barnum's (1926)
 Home Struck (1927)
 South Sea Love (1927)
 Shanghaied (1927)
 Enemies of Society (1927)
 Not for Publication (1927)
 Chicago After Midnight (1928)
 Hit of the Show (1928)
 The Wreck of the Singapore (1928)
 Danger Street (1928)
 A Real Girl (1929)
 Hurricane (1929)
 Lucky Devils (1933)
 Murder at Monte Carlo (1934)
 Love at Second Sight (1934)
 What's in a Name? (1934)
 No Escape (1934)
 Crime Unlimited (1935)
 Rolling Home (1935)
 The Black Mask (1935)
 Blue Smoke (1935)
 Twelve Good Men (1936)
 Fair Exchange (1936)
 Twelve Good Men (1936)
 Jury's Evidence (1936)
 Hail and Farewell (1936)
 It's You I Want (1936)
 The Perfect Crime (1937)
 The Vulture (1937)
 Side Street Angel (1937)

Ca actor
 Jean the Match-Maker (1910)
 A Tale of Two Cities (1911)
 Bigger Than Barnum's (1926)
 Wall Street (1929)
 The Big Fight (1930)
 Little Caesar (1931)
 The Star Witness (1931)
 Gentleman's Fate (1931)
 Hell Bound (1931)
 Law of the Sea (1932)
 The Lost Squadron (1932)
 Men of Chance (1932)
 The Mouthpiece (1932)
 The County Fair (1932)
 Love at Second Sight (1934)
 No Escape (1934)
 So You Won't Talk (1935)
 Blue Smoke (1935)

Referințe și note

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1887
Decese în 1937
Regizori de film americani
Scenariști americani
Actori americani

Ralph Ince


Fáni Mónakó er gerður upp af tveimur jafnstórum lágréttum borðum, rauðum fyrir ofan og hvítum fyrir neðan. Rauður og hvítur hafa verið litir Griimaldi-ættarinnar síðan 1339 en ýmsir aðrir eiginleikar fánans hafa breyst í gegnum tíðina. Núverandi fáni er óbreyttur síðan 4. apríl 1881.

Fánanum svipar til fána Indónesíu en sá er lengri og síður kubbóttur, og ennfremur fána Póllands, sem er í sömu litum en með sitt hvorn litinn í staðinn fyrir annan.

Mónakó
Mónakó

Fáni Mónakó


Olaylar

Doğumlar
 Gazzeli Procopius, Hristiyan bir sofist ve retorikçi (ö. 528)

Ölümler
 15 Ağustos - Libius Severus, Lucania kökenli Roma İmparatoru

465


Vulcanul stins este un film românesc din 1987 regizat de George Cornea. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Adrian Pintea, Mircea Andreescu, Alexandru Repan.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Primire
Filmul a fost vizionat de 1.094.840 de spectatori în cinematografele din România, după cum atestă o situație a numărului de spectatori înregistrat de filmele românești de la data premierei și până la data de 31 decembrie 2014 alcătuită de Centrul Național al Cinematografiei.

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1987 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1987
Filme regizate de George Cornea

Vulcanul stins


Et urglas er et cirkulært konkavt stykke glas, der bruges inden for kemi som en overflade til at lade væske fordampe, til at lade et fast stof blive tilbage, således at det kan vejes, eller til at dække over et bægerglas som et låg. Sidstnævnte bruges især til at forhindre forhindre støv eller andre partikler i at komme ned i bægeret. Urglasset dækker ikke et bægerglas fuldstændigt, så der vil stadig kunne udskiftes gas i glasset.

Det bruges også til at opvarme små mængde af stof. Når det bruges til at fordampe væsker, tillader urglasset at observere udfældning eller krystallisering og kan blive placeret på en overflade i kontrastfarve for at øge den overordnede synlighed.

Urglas bruges også nogle gange til at dække et glas med whisky for at koncentrere aromaerne i glasset og for at forhindre at man spilder whisky når man slynger det rundt.

Urglas er navngivet efter den lignende type glas, som sidder på gammeldags lommeure.

Brug

Som låg på bægerglas kan den hjælpe til begrænse fordampning og kontrollere damptrykket. Derudover bruges urglas ofte til at opbevare faste stoffer der skal vejes på en vægt. Før vejningen placeres urglasset på vægten, hvorefter den nulstilles og prøven placeres på glasset.

Referencer

Laboratorieudstyr
Beholdere

Urglas


Râpa Cișmichioi este un monument al naturii de tip geologic sau paleontologic în Găgăuzia, Republica Moldova. Este amplasată în partea de est a satului Cișmichioi. Are o suprafață de 3 ha. Obiectul este administrat de Primăria satului Cișmichioi.

Istoric
Prima descriere a amplasamentului geologo-paleontologic din râpa Cișmichioi a fost făcută de geologul rus N. A. Konstantinova. Investigări mai detaliate au fost întreprinse de K. I. Șușpanov în anii 1970–1974. Acesta a extras și sistematizat o colecție cuprinzătoare de reminiscențe scheletice de animale vertebrate, cu precădere micromamifere.

Descriere
"Râpa Cișmichioi" este numele dat unui fragment al râpei din dreapta șoselei care unește satele Cișmichioi și Etulia. Depozitele din râpa Cișmichioi pot fi atribuite terasei a VIII-a a Prutului, formată în pleistocenul inferior.

Stratigrafia depozitelor
Stratigrafia generală dezvăluie prezența a două pachete de aliuviuni, separate de un strat de argilă, facies de luncă inundabilă. Depozitele au în partea superioară câte un strat de granulație fină și medie, iar la bază amestecuri mai grosiere, până la pietriș.

Stratigrafia depozitelor arată în felul următor(ordinea în tabel corespunde stratificării de la suprafață în jos):

Valoare paleontologică
Materialul osteologic extras din sit este compus din peste 11 mii de resturi scheletice și dezvăluie viețuirea în zonă a peste 50 de specii de vertebrate terestre — reptile, păsări și mamifere.

Complexul de faună este raportat la etapa timpurie a Complexului faunistic Tamanian tardiv și numit după locul descoperirii: Complexul faunistic Cișmichioi.

Majoritatea osemintelor (cca 20 specii și 6 taxoni determinați până la nivelul de gen) sunt ale micromamiferelor, printre care Spermophilas nogaici, Allactaga cf. ucrainica, Spalax minor, Prolagurus (Lagurodon) arankae, Promimomys moldavicus, Mimomys reidi, Allophaiomys pliocaenicus etc. Printre cele 11 specii de reptile se numără Emys antiquae, Coronella austriaca, Natrix longivertebrata, Vipera cf. ammodytes ș.a. Mamiferele mari sunt reprezentate de elefantul Archidiskodon cf. tamanensis, calul Equus (Allohippus) aff. sussenbornensis, rinocerul Stephanorhinus etruscus, cerbul de talie mare Praemegacerus sp., cerbul-gigantic (elanul) Cervalces (Libralces) galicus și bizonul Bison (Eobison) cf. tamanensis. Aici au fost descoperite câteva specii noi de păsări, precum Gallus moldaviensis și Anas ganii.

Statut de protecție

Obiectivul a fost luat sub protecția statului prin Hotărîrea Sovietului de Miniștrii al RSSM din 8 ianuarie 1975 nr.5, iar statutul de protecție a fost reconfirmat prin Legea nr.1538 din 25 februarie 1998 privind fondul ariilor naturale protejate de stat. Deținătorul funciar al monumentului natural era, la momentul publicării Legii din 1998, Asociația de Producție "Nerudprom", dar între timp acesta a trecut la balanța Primăriei satului Cișmichioi.

Aflorimentul din râpa Cișmichioi este un stratotip-etalon al terasei a VIII-a (clasificarea nu este definitivă) a Prutului Inferior, cât și al depozitelor aluviene tamaniene din Republica Moldova. Datorită varietății faunei de vertebrate și descoperirii aici a unor specii noi, râpa Cișmichioi este relevată într-un complex faunistic separat.

Conform situației din anul 2016, aria protejată nu are un panou informativ, iar hotarele ei și suprafața nu sunt concretizate. În zona protejată au fost semnalate acțiuni ilegale, precum pășunatul animalelor și extragerea materiarelor de construcție. Specialiștii recomandă redenumirea sitului din "Râpa Cișmichioi" în "Aflorimentul geologo-paleontologic Cișmichioi".

Note

Bibliografie

Legături externe

Cișmichioi, Râpa
Găgăuzia

Râpa Cișmichioi


1. prosinca
Hrvatska je delegacija ostala pri dosad postignutim sporazumima u sklopu Ženevske konferencije i dogovorenoga na brodu Invincible, no muslimanska je delegacija povećala zahtjeve, rekao dr. Franjo Tuđman po povratku iz Ženeve u Zagreb.
Hrvatska je spremna osigurati gospodarski, prometni i trgovinski izlaz BiH na more, ali ne i teritorij, rekao hrvatski ministar vanjskih poslova dr. Mate Granić na zasijedanju KESS-a u Rimu.

2. prosinca
Predstavnici zemalja KESS-a okupljeni u Rimu dali podršku teritorijalnom integritetu Hrvatske, izjavio novinarima ministar dr. Mate Granić po povratku u Zagreb.

3. prosinca
Stalni predstavnik Hrvatske pri UN dr. Mario Nobilo predao predsjedniku Vijeća sigurnosti UN kineskom veleposlaniku Li Shaoxingu pismo u kojem se traži istraga zločina koje su Muslimani počinili nad bosanskim Hrvatima.
Između varaždinskog Telekomunikacijskog centra (TEC) i takvog centra u mađarskoj Nagykaniszi (TPC) uspostavljena optička telekomunikacijska veza, čime je Hrvatske preko Mađarske svjetlovodom povezana s 10 zapadnoeuropskih zemalja i uključena u TEL World, europski telekomunikacijski sustav.
Pariška skupština WEU (Zapadnoeuropske unije) potvrdila poznate europske stavove o rješenju jugoslavenske krize, a glavni tajnik NATO-a Manfred Woerner je rekao da se ne mogu ukinuti sankcije Srbiji dok se ne riješi pitanje Kosova i ljudskih prava u Srbiji, izjavio hrvatski predstavnik dr. Žarko Domijan po povratku iz Pariza u Zagreb.

4. prosinca
U Zagrebu objavljeno izvješće Boutrosa Ghalija Vijeću sigurnosti o provedbi Rezolucije 871, u kojem on smatra da je nepotrebno razmatrati mandat UNPROFOR-a u Hrvatskoj.
Boutros Ghali imenovao japanca Yasushija Akashija svojim novim posebnim izaslanikom za bivšu Jugoslaviju i šefom misije UNPROFOR-a.
U Korčulu stiglo 300 izbjeglica Hrvata iz Ljubuškog, Čitluka, Konjica i Kiseljaka.

5. prosinca
Bivša britanska premijerka lady Margaret Thatcher uputila pismo posebnom izvjestitelju Komisije UN za ljudska prava Tadeusu Mazowieckom, u kojem mu skreće pažnju na nepoznatu sudbinu nestalih bolesnika iz vukovarske bolnice, te još jednom naglašava svoju osudu srpske agresije na Hrvatsku i BiH.
Četnici iz okupiranog dijela sjeverne Dalmacije ponovo žestoko projektilima tuku priobalna mjesta zadarskog primorja, kao i dosad najnapadaniji Biograd i Pakoštane.
Nacionalna federacija američkih Hrvata (NFCA) - svojevrsni lobby američkih Hrvata za Hrvatsku, osnovat će se potkraj siječnja, a kako je u Washingtonu izjavio g. Stev Rukavina, član Privremenog upravnog odbora, na osnivačkoj skupštini 22. i 23. siječnja 1994, očekuje se oko 100 delegata.

6. prosinca
Hrvatska ne bi pristala zamijeniti Prevlaku samo za Neum, riječ je o sveobuhvatnom rješenju, koje bi osiguravalo područje Dubrovnika i donijelo mir, i u tom pogledu taj prijedlog međunarodne zajednice nismo prihvatili nego smo ga uzeli u razmatranje, rekao predsjednik Tuđman na tiskovnoj konferenciji u Zagrebu.
Takozvana SRJ posredno priznaje umiješanost svoje armije u tragična zbivanja u Hrvatskoj.
Obilježena dvogodišnjica napada na Dubrovnik.
Na osječkom području, prema podacima Regionalnog ureda za prognanike i izbjeglice, popisano ukupno 69.417 prognanih osoba.
Žestoki napadi MOS-a na većini bojišta HR Herceg-Bosne, najdramatičnije oko Žepča.
Najmanje pet osoba poginulo, a pet ih ranjeno od srpskog bombardiranja Sarajeva.
Kako se približavaju izbori za predsjednika tzv. republike srpske krajine, beogradski režim se sve više podržava Milana Martića, bivšeg policajca, kao idealnog čovjeka za to mjesto.

7. prosinca
U povodu hrvatsko-srpskih pregovora u Ženevi o razmjeni ratnih zarobljenika, šef jugoslavenske delegacije Željko Simić najavio da je jugoslavenska strana voljna osloboditi hrvatske komandose koji su pokušali srušiti most kog Batine, poznatije pod imenom somborska skupina.
Srpski teroristi nekoliko puta otvarali rafalnu paljbu iz pješačkog oružja na položaje hrvatskih snaga na karlovačkom području i time po tko zna koji puta prekršili dogovoreno primirje.
Pisma sarajevskih čelnika poslana u uredništva dvaju pariških listova optužuju za zločine u BiH uz Srbe i Hrvate.

 8. prosinca
Vođa bosanskih Srba Radovan Karadžić na okučanskoj radio-postaji izjavio da je sigurno da Hrvatska nema načina vratiti pod svoj suverenitet 'republiku srpsku krajinu', te istakao da je ovaj rat takav, da se ono što se vojno drži i priznaje.Srbijanska predizborna kampanja otkriva autore genocida i pljačke na hrvatskom tlu. 9. prosinca Prema podacima Vrhovnog suda Republike Hrvatske o sudskim postupcima za ratne zločine, do sada osuđeno 38, a protiv 3.826 osoba obustavljen kazneni postupak.Učestali topnički napadi Srba na zadarsko-biogradskom području, najčešće napadi na Paljuv i Pristeg te Novigrad i Posedarje.
Supredsjedatelj Konferencije o bivšoj Jugoslaviji lord David Owen ocijenio kako se čini da je podjela Bosne na tri republike, koje bi trebale činiti neku vrstu unije, konačna.
Ministarstvo vanjskih poslova Slovenije konstatira da u oređivanju državne granice između Slovenije i Hrvatske još nema napretka, Hrvati zastupaju kombinaciju katastarskih općina s prirodnim granicama, a to Sloveniji nije prihvatljivo, pogotovo za morsku granicu u Piranskom zaljevu.

 10. prosinca
Srbi teškim oruđem osuli paljbu po Slavonskom Brodu.
Nakon posjeta istočnoj Slavoniji veleposlavnik Ruske Federacije Leonid Keresteđijanc još jednom ponovio da nema prekrajanja hrvatskih granica.UNPROFOR priopćio da obustavlja isporuku goriva bosanskim Srbima(!) sve dok ne počnu propuštati humanitarne konvoje za Muslimane.Bosanski Srbi zadržavaju već deset dana 15 Francuza koji rade za jednu humanitarnu organizaciju u Sarajevu, gdje su dopremili 100 tona hrane i lijekova.Muslimanska vojska nastavlja provoditi sustavan genocid na srednjebosanskim prostorima, a osloboditelji se nadmeću tko će bolje očistiti hrvatska sela. 11. prosinca
Šefovi država i vlade ES-a (Europsko vijeće) pozvali srpske, bosanske i hrvatske rukovodioce na nove pregovore s Ministarskim vijećem 22. prosinca u Bruxellesu, to je i jedina konkretna odluka europskih državnika o krizi u bivšoj Jugoslaviji.
Hrvatski vojnici i policajci zaustavili kod Gospića cijeli konvoj cisterni punih goriva, koje je trebalo biti prošvercano na okupirana područja. Tako su sami pripadnici UNPROFOR-a uhvaćeni kako krše sankcije Vijeća sigurnosti.
Prema odluci predsjednika Hrvatske Republike Herceg-Bosne Mate Bobana, raspušteni svi zatočenički centri na teritoriju HR Herceg-Bosne.
Predsjednik Hrvatske Republike Herceg-Bosne Mate Boban donio odluku o utemeljenju Predsjedničkog vijeća.

 12. prosinca
Samozvane srpske vlasti na okupiranom dijelu Hrvatske organizirale nelegalne izbore, koje je Ustavni sud Hrvatske proglasio nelegalnim i nelegitimnim.
Pobunjeni Srbi odbili dogovor po kojem bi se cesta Sinj-Vrlika osposobila i omogućila za promet.Unatoč zabrani letenja, iz smjera Brčkog, u Batkušu se sputio helikopter opskrbljujući svježim snagama i streljivom iz Srbije postrojbe bosanskih Srba.Unatoč zabrani, oko 300 zdravstvenih djelatnika izbjeglih iz BiH zaposlilo se u Hrvatskoj.

 13. prosinca
Važno je stvoriti nove, djelotvorne, mehanizme traganja za nestalima na području bivše Jugoslavije, izjavio novinarima u Zagrebu T. Mazowiecki, specijalni izvjestitelj UN za ljudska prava, nakon posjeta BiH i Hrvatskoj.
T. Mazowiecki će ubuduće veću pozornost zaštiti hrvatskog stanovništva u BiH,posebice, u opoljenim enklavama središnje Bosne, izjavio dr. Mate Granić u Zagrebu, nakon što je primio posebnog izvjestitelja UN za ljudska prava.
U Voćinu obilježena dvogodišnjica masakra nad 24 hrvatska civila u Četekovcu i Balincima, pokolja koji je užasnuo Slavoniju.
U Franjevačkoj bolnici u Novoj Biloj oko 100 ranjenika, od kojih više od polovine teških slučajeva, sve nade kolažu dolazak konvoja Bijeli put.

 14. prosinca
Barbara Bush, - supruga bivšeg američkog predsjednika, posjetila kao članica humanitarne udruge Americares Hrvatsku, donijevši zrakoplovom u Split 35 tona humanitarne pomoći za Hrvatsku i BiH.
Hrvatska strana počela s heliodroma u Mostaru puštanje 700 zatočenika muslimanskih vojnih obveznika, koji su se najvećim dijelom izjasnili za odlazak u treće zemlje.Ministar vanjskih poslova Republike Hrvatske dr. Mate Granić poslao predsjedniku Vlade BiH dr. Harisu Silajdžiću i zapovjedniku UNPROFOR-a generalu Cotu pismo s molbom da učine sve kako bi, unatoč protivljenju nekih lokalnih zapovjednika, humanitarni konvoji za Novu Bilu i Maglaj nesmetano stigli na odredišta.
Prema prvim, neslužbenim, izvorima na tzv. predsjedničkim izborima u tzv. krajini, kninski zubar Milan Babić pobijedio beogradskog favorita milicajca Milana Martića.

 15. prosinca
Humanitarni konvoj za Novu Bilu i Bosnu srebrenu stigao nakon 5 dana putovanja, u Ramu stotinjak kilometara od svog cilja, a kada će nastaviti putovanje ovisit će o jamstvu Armije BiH.
Muslimani zatočeni u Gabeli, njih 434, pušteni od hrvatskih vlasti na lijevu obalu Neretve, na muslimanski teritorij.
Milan Martić, samozvani 'šef' tzv. 'srpske krajine', zatražit će poništenje izbora za predsjednika ove tvorevine, na kojima ga je pobijedio kninski zubar Milan Babić, javlja kninski radio.

 16. prosinca
Predsjedništvo BiH priopćilo da postrojbe HVO-a koje se još bore zajedno s Armijom BiH više neće imati samostalno zapovjedništvo i da će biti dio Armije BiH, javlja France Presse.
Na točki za prihvat Hrvata na cesti Miranje-Vrana na južnom bojištu, iz privremeno okupiranog Kijeva vozilima UNHCR-a na slobodni teritorij Hrvatske 19 Hrvata, uglavnom starije dobi.

 17. prosinca
Nakon gotovo tri dana čekanja u Rami, konvoj od 87 kamiona pomoći za Novu Bilu,kojemu će se priključiti i onaj za Maglajkreće na odredišta, jer on je dobiveno jamstvo Armije BiH.
Predstavnici 60.000 Hrvata prognanih iz Bosanske Posavine, smještenih u 416 izbjegličkih centara u RH, na konferenciji za novinare u Zagrebu iznijeli su svoje zahtjeve da se okupator povuče s okupiranog posavskog prostora i da se vrate kućama.

 18. prosinca
Modus Vivendi može biti samo kratki međukorak u izgradnji povjerenja za integraciju hrvatskih okupiranih područja u hrvatski politički i pravni sustav i za definiranje kulturne i lokalne autonomije za Srbe na tom području, iznio hrvatski veleposlanik dr. Mario Nobilo u svom govoru pred Generalnom skupštinom UN.
U nazočnosti generala Cota na kontrolnoj točki u Turnju hrvatska i srpska strana potpisale vojno primirje od 23. prosinca 1993. do 15. siječnja 1994. godine.Dosad je oslobođeno 2.718 zatočenika iz sabirnih centara na području Herceg-Bosne, izjavio Hrvatskom radiju predsjednik Hrvatske Republike Herceg-Bosne Mate Boban, dok muslimanska strana nije pustila nijednog Hrvata, no Boban se nada da će svijet pritisnuti da oslobode zatočene Hrvate.HDZ Neuma priopćenje, u kojem navodi da je Neum povijesno hrvatsko mjesto, koje je prema popisu 1991. imalo 90 posto Hrvata, a Hrvati su i katastarski posjednici 98 posto zemljišta.

 19. prosinca
Došao sam u Hrvatsku, a posjetit ću i BiH, kako bih izrazio svoju solidarnost s braćom franjevcima i hrvatskim narodom u Hrvatskoj i BiH, izjavio novinarima u Zagreb generalni ministar reda franjevačke Male Braće fra Herman Schauleck.Na Prvom Općem saboru Hrvata bosanske Posavine u Slavonskom Brodu osnovano Hrvatsko narodno vijeće i uspostavljena Pokrajina Bosanska Posavina, jedinstvena političko-teritorijalna zajednica povezana sa Herceg-Bosnom i ostalim hrvatskim dijelovima u sklopu države BiH.Predstavnici HDZ-a Tuzle i HVO-a Hrvatske zajednice Soli upozoravaju svjetsku javnost da su hrvatskom narodu na tuzlanskom području (oko 40.000) temeljna politička, ekonomska, kulturna i vjerska prava, te da su izloženi asimilaciji od strane Muslimana.
Humanitarni konvoj za Novu Bilu još nije stigao na odredište, u Pavlovici nestao je jedan kamion, a Muslimani pokušali oteti još vozila, priopćilo Ministarstvo obrane HR Herceg-Bosne.

 20. prosinca
Nakon 11 dana puta i neizvjesnosti prvi kamioni humanitarnog konvoja za Novu Bilu stigli na cilj, pred franjevačku bolnicu.
Konvoj akcije Bijeli put za Novu Bilu zadržan je dva dana na nadzornoj točki Armije BiH kod Pavlovice, nakon što mu je pronađeno podmetnuto oružje, navodi se u priopćenju zagrebačkog ureda akcije Bijeli put.

 21. prosinca
U Zagrebu objavljena Rezolucija o BiH, koju je 17. prosinca usvojila Generalna skupština UN, u kojoj se poziva Vijeće sigurnosti da hitno, i s pažnjom, razmotri izuzeće BiH od embarga na isporuke oružja,koji je uveden prema bivšoj Jugoslaviji u skladu s Rezolucijom br. 713(1991) Vijeća sigurnosti.
Uoči početka službenog dijela novog kruga pregovora u Ženevi, na osnovi izjava muslimanske i srpske delegacije moglo bi se naslutiti da u pregovore ne ulaze baš s osobitom željom za dogovorom i da kompromis neće biti lako postići.
Predsjednik Republike Hrvatske dr. Franjo Tuđman sastao se sa srbijanskim predsjednikom Slobodanom Miloševićem, a taj sastanak ocijenio ključnim glasnogovornik konferencije o bivšoj Jugoslaviji John Mills.Ako trojica bosanskih voća potpišu mirovni sporazum, Srbija i Crna Gora svoj će potpis uvjetovati suspenzijom sankcija, izjavio ministar vanjskih poslova SRJ Vladislav Jovanović.Čim je konvoj Bijeli put na povratku u Hrvatsku prešao s hrvatskog na teritorij pod muslimankom kontrolom uniformirane osobe napale 26 kamiona, opljačkale vozače, novinare HTV, Hrvatskog radija, Glas Istre, Večernjeg lista i Slobodne Dalmacije.Vlada Hrvatske Republike Herceg-Bosne prihvatila na sjednici u Orašju Prijedlog zakona o utemeljenju Županije Bosanske Posavine, koji će biti podnesen na usvojenje na sljedećoj sjednici Sabora HR HB.Svjetska je javnost osjetljiva samo za patnje Muslimana a ne vidi patnje Hrvatazatočenih već 175 dana na lijevoj obali Neretve u Mostaru, piše u prosvjedu roditelja 72 zatočena pripadnika HVO-a u dijelu Mostara koji nadziru Muslimani, upućenom Mirovnoj konferenciji u Ženevi. 22. prosinca
Pregovori u Ženevi završili bez dogovora, pregovarači se preselili u Bruxelles, a već na prvoj sjednici belgijski ministar Claes zatražio od srpske strane teritorijalna pomicanja, kako bi se trećinu teritorija cjelokupne BiH dalo republici s muslimanskom većinom.
Višesatni razgovori u Ženevi predsjednika Tuđmana i Miloševića.
Mostarski Okružni vojni sud pokrenuo istražni postupak protiv osoba za koje se sumnja da su u jeku najžešćih borbi u Mostaru protiv muslimanskih snaga srušile Stari most, javlja HABENA.
Iz iseljeništva stiže oko 2.000 tona hrane mjesečno, a još 5.000 tona osigurava EU, dok prognanicima i izbjeglicama treba mjesečno 12.000 tona hrane, priopćeno u Uredu za prognanike i izbjeglice Vlade Republike Hrvatske.
Velika ofenziva A BiH na cijelom području Uskoplja. Druga bojna pukovnija Ante Bruno Bušić je 23. prosinca vratila izgubljeni položaj Vedrine, 24. prosinca "Bušići" razbila A BiH kada je napala na pravcima Seoca-Vedrina i Dobrošin-Škarina Glava.Portal Hrvata Bosne i Hercegovine HR HB Livno: 19.obljetnica brigade HVO-a Ante Bruno Bušić' 14. lipnja 2013.  (pristupljeno 8. veljače 2020.)

 23. prosinca
Za vrijeme presudne faze pregovora u Ženevi i Bruxellesu počela jedna od najžešćih ofenziva muslimanskih postrojbi na preostala hrvatska područja u središnjoj Bosni...stoga osjećam potrebu i dužnost da smjesta svojim postrojbama naredite trenutačni prekid vatre, kao prvi korak i znak da se pregovori mogu nastaviti, stoji u pismu predsjednika Tuđmana Aliji Izetbegoviću.
O ustupanju Neuma Muslimanima ne može biti pregovora, jer ne dolaze u obzir cijepanje hrvatskog državnog teritorija, osim toga, poznato je, a to je potvrdila i posebna njemačko-francuska komisija, da u Neumu nema mogućnosti za izgradnju luke, rekao je predsjednik Tuđman ministru u Ministarstvu vanjskih poslova Velike Britanije Douglasu Hoggu u Zagrebu.

 24. prosinca
Dopredsjednik Hrvatske Republike Herceg-Bosne Dario Kordić izvijestio predsjednika HR HB Matu Bobana da su u sadašnjoj muslimanskoj ofenzivi u središnjoj Bosni poginule 24 osobe a ranjeno 47, samo u području Viteza, Križančevu selu, muslimanske snage izmasakrirale desetak žena i staraca.

 25. prosinca
Čelnik Srpske demokratske stranke Zoran Đinđić izjavio na austrijskoj TV da Srbija nije ni na koji način umiješana u rat u Bosni, gdje se bore Hrvati protiv Muslimana i Muslimana međusobno, te da je to etnički i građanski rat u kojem već odavno nema ni jednog srpskog vojnika.

 26. prosinca
Podatak o 10.000 prognanih Srba iz Vinkovaca, koji samozvane vlasti iz UNPA područja šalju Boutrosu Ghaliju i Vijeću sigurnosti, čista je laž, odgovaraju vinkovački čelnici, jer prema popisu iz 1994. godine, u Vinkovcima je od 35.347 stanovnika bilo 28.650 Hrvata a Srba svega 3.763, manje od 12 posto.

 27. prosinca
Na zagrebačkom groblju Mirogoj, u nazočnosti više tisuća građana, pokopan Ante Vlaić, vozač humanitarnog konvoja Bijeli put, kojeg su Muslimani ubili na povratku iz Nove Bile.
Naš je interes da se kriza okonča mirnim putem, ali je naša zadaća da hrvatske oružane snage budu uvježbane tako da u svakom trenutku, ako bude potrebno, same oslobode svaki pedalj hrvatskog teritorija, izjavio je predsjednik Tuđman na novogodišnjem primanju za dužnosnike oružanih snaga u Predsjedničkim dvorima.
Miniranje Eparhijskog doma SPC u Karlovcu je neprijateljski čin, po svojim posljedicama tragičan ne samo za eparhiju nego i za Hrvatsku, izjavio kardinal dr. Franjo Kuharić u povodu eksplozije u karlovačkoj eparhiji.U oružanom sukobu UNPROFOR-a i srpskih odmetnika kraj Dragovića, Argentinci ubili jednog terorista.Iz Tivta, gdje je bila najveća koncentracija Hrvata u Boki kotorskoj, u posljednje vrijeme iseljeno 250 hrvatskih obitelji.
U ministarstvu kulture Crne Gore nalazi se 120 umjetničkih djela i 468 skica i crteža opljačkanih s dubrovačkog područja izjavio crnogorski podministar kulture Rajko Kalezić.

 28. prosinca
Naš je dojam da se od svih strana u sukobu u BiH samo Hrvati pokušavaju držati sporazuma postignutih u Ženevi, stoji u pismu Mate Granića ministrima EU.U Makarsko primorje iz Herceg-Bosne organizirano stiglo još 500 izbjeglica iz Vareša.Prema istraživanjima britanskog bataljuna UNPROFOR-a, mudžahedini su u Križančevu selu mučili, vješali pa i razapinjali Hrvate, javlja HINA iz Viteza.
U drugom krugu demokratskih izbora u tzv. krajini kninski zubar Milan Babić pobijedio Miloševićeva favorita Milana Martića.Etničko čišćenje se nastavlja, UNPROFOR ucrtava granice na mjestima na kojima nam je zabranjeno braniti se od agresije obećavajući nam mirno rješenje, vrijeme je da napokon svoju sudbinu uzmemo u svoje ruke, stoji u zajedničkom priopćenju svih prognanika Hrvatske upućenog iz Zagreba.'''
Austrijanci bi još prihvatili kršćane kao nove susjede, ali 37 posto njih odbija muslimane kao nove sugrađane i zalaže se za ograničenje prihvaćanja političkih prognanika, rezultat ankete koju je proveo list Der Standard.

 29. prosinca
Prema podacima Odjela zdravstvene statistike Instituta za zaštitu majki i djece, od srpnja 1991. u ratu protiv Hrvatske poginulo 171 dijete, a 712 ih je ranjeno.
Muslimanska vojska ne dopušta UNPROFOR-u ulazak u Križančevo selo, gdje su Muslimani 22. prosinca masakrirali hrvatsko pučanstvo.

 30. prosinca
Kanadsko ministarstvo obrane priopćilo da je incident na mostu kod Visokog, u kojem su pijani bosanski Srbi zarobili 11 kanadskih vojnika pripadnika UNPROFOR-a, postrojili ih i pucali im pod noge, uobičajena opasnost kojoj je izložena operacija očuvanja mira.
Novinar britanskog Daily Telegrapha'' Robert Fox u srednjoj Bosni došao do otkrića da SS Handžar divizija vlada Fojnicom.

Izvori

1993/12

Kronologija Domovinskog rata: prosinac 1993.


Les élections législatives bahreïniennes de 2022 se déroulent les 12 et  afin de renouveler les quarante sièges du Conseil des représentants du royaume de Bahreïn. Des élections municipales ont lieu simultanément.

Contexte
Les précédentes élections en 2018 ont lieu dans un contexte de vive répression de l'opposition. Le chef de l'opposition Sheikh Ali Salman est condamné à la prison à vie le , la cour d'appel ayant annulé l'acquittement en sa faveur. Sheikh Ali Salman était accusé de «c ollusion » avec un pays étranger, le Qatar, au cours du soulèvement bahreïnien sept ans plus tôt, dans le but de « renverser l'ordre constitutionnel ». Bahreïn a coupé toutes relations diplomatiques avec le Qatar en 2017 lors de la crise du Golfe.

Bahreïn, un proche allié des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni qui y possède des bases navales stratégiques, a dissous les principaux groupes d'opposition, dont le Mouvement Al-Wefaq, mettant en prison plusieurs centaines d'opposants, ainsi que des douzaines de religieux.

Mode de scrutin
Le Conseil des représentants est la chambre basse du parlement bicaméral de Bahreïn, appelé Assemblée nationale, la chambre haute étant le Conseil consultatif dont les  sont nommés par le roi.

Le Conseil des représentants, ou Majlis Al-Nuwab, est pour sa part composé de  dont les membres sont élus pour quatre ans au scrutin uninominal majoritaire à deux tours dans autant de circonscriptions.

Notes et références

Bahreïn
2022
2022 à Bahreïn
Bahreïn

Élections législatives bahreïniennes de 2022


Ralph Lysholt Hansen (født 21. oktober 1916 i Silkeborg, død 15. december 1990 på Amager) var en dansk politiker, og medlem af Folketinget i perioden fra 1950 til 1979, valgt for Socialdemokratiet. Han var uddannet folkeskolelærer.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Ralph Lysholt Hansen  på bibliotekshistorie.dk
 Vagn Dybdahl: Ralph Lysholt Hansen i Dansk Biografisk Leksikon, 3. udg., Gyldendal 1979-84.

Personer fra Silkeborg
Personer fra Nykøbing Falster
Kommunalbestyrelsesmedlemmer fra Socialdemokraterne
Tidligere folketingsmedlemmer fra Socialdemokraterne
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog (afdøde)
Lærere fra Danmark
Personer i 3. udgave af Dansk Biografisk Leksikon

Ralph Lysholt Hansen


O Caso Golpe de Estado refere-se a um caso judicial desenvolvido na Bolívia desde 12 de novembro de 2020 contra os ex-chefes militares, comandantes da polícia e membros do governo de Jeanine Áñez devido a suas condutas durante os eventos de crise e instabilidade politica em novembro de 2019.

Os processos e julgamentos desenrolam-se durante o governo do presidente Luis Arce, sucessor de Áñez. Segundo a Anistia Internacional e a Organização dos Estados Americanos (OEA), o caso tem conotações políticas, uma vez que ocorre imediatamente após a crise decorrente da renúncia do presidente Evo Morales (cujo governo Arce era Ministro da Economia) e da ascensão de Jeanine Áñez como "presidente interina".

Altas autoridades que faziam parte do governo de Jeanine Áñez foram enviadas para o Cárcel de San Pedro na cidade de La Paz com prisão preventiva decretada pela justiça boliviana, incluindo a própria Jeanine Añez, encarcerada desde 16 de março de 2021 (detenta no centro penitenciário feminino de Obrajes), bem como o ex-ministro da Justiça e Transparência Institucional Álvaro Coimbra Cornejo, o ex-ministro da Energia Rodrigo Guzmán, o ex-vice-ministro da Coordenação Governamental e gerente da Entel Eddy Luis Franco, o vice-ministro da Justiça Guido Melgar e o ex-diretor-geral de Migração Marcel Rivas.

Contexto
Após o regresso ao poder do partido Movimento ao Socialismo de Evo Morales, através do presidente Luis Arce, o novo governo começou a desmantelar os vestígios do governo provisório anterior de Jeanine Áñez  como a revogação e modificação  de vários decretos presidenciais.

O governo Áñez também havia tentado capturar membros do governo Evo Morales por "sedição e terrorismo", o que levou a crise dos asilados bolivianos e a um conflito diplomático com os governos da Argentina, Espanha e México.

Autoridades detidas

Presidenta

Em 12 de março de 2021, a ex-presidenta Jeanine Áñez Chávez foi detida pela polícia boliviana na cidade de Trinidad e imediatamente levada para a cidade de La Paz para ser posteriormente enviada ao Presídio Feminino de Miraflores.

O Ministério Público da Bolívia (Fiscalía General) acusa Áñez de ter cometido os crimes de terrorismo, sedição e conspiração pelos eventos ocorridos em novembro de 2019.

Por outro lado, a Procuradoria-Geral do Estado da Bolívia acusa Áñez de ter cometido os delitos de violação de deveres e resoluções contrárias à constituição política do Estado.

Em 15 de julho de 2021, o promotor boliviano levantou o crime de genocídio à acusação de Áñez.

Ministros

Em 12 de março de 2021, Álvaro Coimbra, ex-ministro da Justiça e Transparência Institucional, foi apreendido pela polícia boliviana quando estava na cidade de Trinidad. O Ministério Público o acusa de terrorismo, sedição e conspiração.

Juntamente com Jeanine Áñez e Álvaro Coimbra, o ex-ministro de Energia Rodrigo Guzmán também foi preso em Trinidad no mesmo dia.

Processos

Membros das Forças Armadas
Os processos começaram em 12 de novembro de 2020 com o mandado de prisão para Williams Kaliman, comandante das Forças Armadas da Bolívia que "sugeriu" que o então presidente Evo Morales renunciasse ao cargo em 2019, depois que a já enfraquecida administração de Morales foi considerada como sem apoio popular e das forças armadas no quadro dos protestos contra seu governo em 2019 pela suposta fraude eleitoral de Morales para um novo mandato.

A Procuradoria da Bolívia, já dentro do governo Luis Arce, ordenou a prisão do militar Alfredo C. M. por decisão da promotora Lizeth Martínez. Ele foi o líder do Comando de Operações Estratégicas do Exército da região central de Cochabamba e estaria implicado no massacre de Sacaba. A prisão do militar deu início aos casos sobre a atuação e desenvolvimento do governo Áñez nos protestos antigovernamentais de 2019.

Em 11 de março, também foi preso o Almirante Flavio Gustavo Arce, que ocupou o cargo de Chefe do Estado Maior durante a gestão do Comandante das Forças Armadas Williams Kaliman.

No dia 16 de março, o general Jorge Pastor Mendieta foi preso sem ordem antecipada quando compareceu voluntariamente ao Ministério Público sem ter sido intimado previamente.

Funcionários públicos
A ex-deputada Lidia Patty do Movimento ao Socialismo (MAS) foi quem em 26 de novembro de 2020 acusou formalmente a administração Áñez, seus ministros, suas forças militares e policiais pelo ocorrido em 2019.

Os julgamentos começaram em março de 2021, tendo como protagonista principal a ex-presidente interina Jeanine Áñez, que em 14 de março recebeu ordem de prisão preventiva. Sua prisão ocorreu em 15 de março e foi mantida sob custódia pela Força Especial de Combate ao Crime até ser transferida para o Centro de Orientação Feminina Obrajes em La Paz para cumprir quatro meses de prisão preventiva. Da mesma forma, os ministros Coimbra e Guzmán foram conduzidos ao Presídio de San Pedro; os três foram acusados de "sedição, terrorismo e conspiração" no denominado "Caso Golpe de Estado" em referência à crise de 2019.

Também existe mandado de captura contra os ex-ministros Yerko Núñez (Presidência), Arturo Murillo (Governo) e Luis Fernando López (Defesa); Añez e vários de seus então ministros também foram demandados perante a Assembleia Legislativa Plurinacional, sendo a principal demanda os 327,2 milhões de dólares contraídos com o Fundo Monetário Internacional (FMI) e que o governo Arce cancelou.

Em 20 de março de 2021, a prisão preventiva de Áñez foi elevada para seis meses. Sendo, em seguida, transferida para a prisão feminina de Miraflores. O diretor geral do Regime Penitenciário, Juan Carlos Limpias, anunciou que a ex-presidente será supervisionado por uma equipe médica verificado pela ONU.

O Ministro da Justiça do governo Arce, Iván Lima, informou que Áñez está sendo julgada como ex-senadora e não como ex-presidente, o Ministério da Justiça e Transparência Institucional arguiu quatro processos criminais contra funcionários do governo de Áñez ao Ministério Público.

Asilo
A ex-ministra da Comunicação Roxana Lizárraga solicitou refúgio ao governo do Peru e a ministra do Meio Ambiente e Água María Elva Pinckert ao Brasil.

O ex-ministro Yerko Nuñez "declarou-se na clandestinidade".

Luis Fernando Lopez e Arturo Murillo fugiram da Bolívia após a posse de Luis Arce e são refugiados políticos nos Estados Unidos.

Entretanto, Murillo, que estava em Miami como refugiado, e associados foram detidos entre 25 e 26 de maio de 2021 pelos crimes de lavagem de dinheiro e corrupção após uma investigação realizada pelo FBI como resultado do caso "Gases Lacrimógenos". Ele encontra-se em prisão preventiva numa prisão federal em Miami.

Política da Bolívia
2020 na Bolívia
2021 na Bolívia
2022 na Bolívia

Caso Golpe de Estado


The voiced alveolar lateral fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiced dental, alveolar, and postalveolar lateral fricatives is  (sometimes referred to as lezh), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is K\.

Features
Features of the voiced alveolar lateral fricative:

Occurrence

Dental or denti-alveolar

Alveolar
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Language
! Word
! IPA
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
| colspan="2" | Adyghe
|
|
| 'town'
| Can also be pronounced as
|-
|Arabic
|Classical Arabic
|الأَرضِ
|
|'the earth'
|
|-
| colspan="2" | Bura
|
|
|
| Contrasts with  and .
|-
| colspan="2" | Kabardian
|
|
| 'seven'
| Can also be pronounced as
|-
| colspan="2" | Ket
|
|[ɔɮɨn]
| 'nose'
| Can also be pronounced as
|-
| colspan="2" | Moloko
|
|
| 'start, begin'
| Contrasts with ,  and
|-
| colspan="2" | Mongolian
|
|
| 'Mongol'
| Sometimes realized as
|-
| colspan="2" | Sassarese
| caldhu
|
| 'hot'
|
|-
| colspan="2" | Tera
| {{lang|ttr|dlepti'}}
|
| 'planting'
| Contrasts with both  and
|-
| colspan="2" | Zulu
|
|
| 'to eat'
| Contrasts with both  and ; realized as  after nasals
|}

In addition, a pharyngealized voiced alveolar lateral fricative  is reconstructed to be the ancient Classical Arabic pronunciation of ; the letter is now pronounced in Modern Standard Arabic as a pharyngealized voiced coronal stop, as alveolar  or denti-alveolar .

Related characters
There are several Unicode characters based on lezh (ɮ):
 is a superscript IPA letter
 is a superscript IPA letter
 is an extension to IPA for disordered speech (extIPA)

Notation

In 1938, a symbol shaped similarly to heng  was approved as the official IPA symbol for the voiced alveolar lateral fricative, replacing . It was suggested at the same time, however, that a compromise shaped like something between the two may also be used at the author's discretion. It was this compromise version that was included in the 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association'' and the subsequent IPA charts, until it was replaced again by  at the 1989 Kiel Convention. Despite the Association's prescription,  is nonetheless seen in literature from the 1960s to the 1980s.

See also
Index of phonetics articles
Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative

Notes

References

External links

Alveolar consonants
Fricative consonants
Lateral consonants
Pulmonic consonants
Voiced oral consonants

Voiced dental and alveolar lateral fricatives


In historical linguistics, a chain shift is a set of sound changes in which the change in pronunciation of one speech sound (typically, a phoneme) is linked to, and presumably causes, a change in pronunciation of other sounds as well. The sounds involved in a chain shift can be ordered into a "chain" in such a way that after the change is complete, each phoneme ends up sounding like what the phoneme before it in the chain sounded like before the change. The changes making up a chain shift, interpreted as rules of phonology, are in what is termed counterfeeding order.

A well-known example is the Great Vowel Shift, which was a chain shift that affected all of the long vowels in Middle English. The changes to the front vowels may be summarized as follows:

  →  →  →

A drag chain or pull chain is a chain shift in which the phoneme at the "leading" edge of the chain changes first. In the example above, the chain shift would be a pull chain if  changed to  first, opening up a space at the position of , which  then moved to fill. A push chain is a chain shift in which the phoneme at the "end" of the chain moves first: in this example, if  moved toward , a "crowding" effect would be created and  would thus move toward , and so forth. It is not known which phonemes changed first during the Great Vowel Shift; many scholars believe the high vowels such as  started the shift, but some suggest that the low vowels, such as , may have shifted first.

Examples

During the Great Vowel Shift in the 15th and 16th centuries, all of the long vowels of Middle English, which correspond to tense vowels in Modern English, shifted pronunciation. The changes can be summarized as follows:

Most vowels shifted to a higher place of articulation, so that the pronunciation of geese changed from  to  and broken from  to . The high vowels  and  became diphthongs (for example, mice changed from  to ), and the low back vowel  was fronted, causing name to change from  to .

The Great Vowel Shift occurred over centuries, and not all varieties of English  were affected in the same ways. For example, some speakers in Scotland still pronounce house similarly to its sound in Middle English before the shift, as .

A chain shift may affect only one regional dialect of a language, or it may begin in a particular regional dialect and then expand beyond the region in which it originated. A number of recent regional chain shifts have occurred in English.  Perhaps the most well-known is the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, which is largely confined to the "Inland North" region of the United States.  Other examples in North America are the Pittsburgh vowel shift, Southern vowel shift (in the Southern United States), the California vowel shift and the Canadian Shift (though the last two may be the same).  In England, the Cockney vowel shift among working-class Londoners is familiar from its prominence in plays such as George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion (and the related musical My Fair Lady):
  →  →  →  →

Many chain shifts are vowel shifts, because many sets of vowels are naturally arranged on a multi-value scale (e.g. vowel height or frontness).  However, chain shifts can also occur in consonants. A famous example of such a shift is the well-known First Germanic Sound Shift or Grimm's Law, in which the Proto-Indo-European voiceless stop consonants became fricatives, the plain voiced stops became voiceless, and the breathy voiced stops became plain voiced:
  →  →  →
  →  →  →
  →  →  →

Another is the High German consonant shift which separated Old High German from other West Germanic dialects such as Old English, Old Frisian, and Old Saxon:
{| class="wikitable"
|  →  → ,
|-
|  →  → ,
|-
|  →  → ,
|}

The Romance languages to the north and west of central Italy (e.g. French, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan and various northern Italian languages) are known for a set of chain shifts collectively termed lenition, which affected stop consonants between vowels:
  →  →  → ,
  →  →  →  (or vanishes)
  →  →  → ,  (or vanishes)
In this case, each sound became weaker (or more "lenited").

Synchronic shifts

It is also possible for chain shifts to occur synchronically, within the phonology of a language as it exists at a single point in time.

Nzebi (or Njebi), a Bantu language of Gabon, has the following chain shift, triggered morphophonologically by certain tense/aspect suffixes:

Examples follow:

{|
! Underlying form !! Chain-shifted form
|-
|  "to work" ||  →
|-
|  "to give" ||  →
|-
|  "to carry" ||  →
|-
|  "to refuse" ||  →
|-
|  "to go down" ||  →
|-
|  "to arrive" ||  →
|-
|  "to hide oneself" ||  →
|}

Another example of a chain from Bedouin Hijazi Arabic involves vowel raising and deletion:

In nonfinal open syllables,  raises to  while  in the same position is deleted.

Synchronic chain shifts may be circular. An example of this is Xiamen tone or Taiwanese tone sandhi:

The contour tones are lowered to a lower tone, and the lowest tone (21) circles back to the highest tone (53).

Synchronic chain shifts are an example of the theoretical problem of phonological opacity. Although easily accounted for in a derivational rule-based phonology, its analysis in standard parallel Optimality Theory is problematic.

See also
 Isogloss
 Sound change

References

Historical linguistics
Phonology
Sound changes

Chain shift


Die 10. Landwehr-Division war ein Großverband der Preußischen Armee im Ersten Weltkrieg.

Gliederung

Kriegsgliederung vom 15. Februar 1915
 9. Landwehr-Infanterie-Brigade
 Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 24
 Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 48
 Feld-MG-Zug Nr. 8
 Festungs-MG-Abteilung Nr. 2
 Mobile Ersatz-Brigade Königsberg (später 180. Infanterie-Brigade)
 Mobile Ersatz-Regimenter I. und III. (später Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 377 und Nr. 378)
 2. Landwehr-Eskadron/I. Armee-Korps
 2. Landsturm-Eskadron/I. Armee-Korps
 2. Landwehr-Eskadron/XVII. Armee-Korps
 3. Landsturm-Eskadron/XVII. Armee-Korps
 Ersatz-Abteilung/1. Ostpreußisches Feldartillerie-Regiment Nr. 16
 Ersatz-Abteilung/2. Litthauisches Feldartillerie-Regiment Nr. 37
 Ersatz-Abteilung/2. Ostpreußisches Feldartillerie-Regiment Nr. 52
 sechs Batterien/Reserve-Fußartillerie-Regiment Nr. 1
 vier Batterien/Garde-Reserve-Fußartillerie-Regiment Nr. 1
 1. Batterie/Garde-Landwehr-Fußartillerie-Bataillon
 2. Batterie/Reserve-Fußartillerie-Regiment Nr. 4
 ½ 2. Landwehr-Pionier-Kompanie/I. Armee-Korps
 ⅔ 1. Landwehr-Pionier-Kompanie/II. Armee-Korps
 2. Zug/Fernsprech-Abteilung Nr. 1
 leichter Scheinwerferzug Königsberg

Kriegsgliederung vom 27. Januar 1918
 180. Infanterie-Brigade
 Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 372
 Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 377
 Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 378
 5. Eskadron/Westfälisches Dragoner-Regiment Nr. 7
 Artillerie-Kommandeur Nr. 130
 Feldartillerie-Regiment Nr. 97
 Pionier-Bataillon Nr. 410
 Divisions-Nachrichten-Kommandeur Nr. 510

Auflösung
Die 10. Landwehr-Division wurde am 8. August 1918 aufgelöst.
Das Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 377 wurde am 15. August 1918 auf die 201. Infanterie-Division verteilt:
 das I. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon des Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 401
 das II. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon des Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 403
 das III. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon des Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 402

Das Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 378 wurde am 15. August 1918 auf die 36. Infanterie-Division verteilt:
 das I. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon/Grenadier-Regiment "König Friedrich I." (4. Ostpreußisches) Nr. 5
 das II. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon/Danziger Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 128
 das III. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon/8. Westpreußisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 175

Das Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 372 wurde am 15. August 1918 auf die 37. Infanterie-Division verteilt:
 das I. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon/1. Ermländisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 150
 das II. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon/2. Ermländisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 151
 das III. Bataillon wurde III. Bataillon/Infanterie-Regiment "Generalfeldmarschall von Hindenburg" (2. Masurisches) Nr. 147

Gefechtskalender
Die Division wurde am 3. Februar 1915 an der Ostfront zusammengestellt und befand sich bis zum dortigen Waffenstillstand bis Mitte Februar 1918 im Einsatz. Dann erfolgte die Verlegung an die Westfront, wo die Division aufgrund zu großer Verluste am 8. August 1918 aufgelöst wurde.

1915
 7. bis 22. Februar --- Winterschlacht in Masuren
 1. März bis 12. Juli --- Stellungskämpfe bei Lomsha-Osowiec
 13. Juli bis 26. August --- Narew-Bobr-Schlacht
 30. August bis 8. September --- Njemen-Schlacht
 9. September bis 2. Oktober --- Schlacht bei Wilna
 ab 3. Oktober --- Stellungskämpfe zwischen Krewo, Smorgon, Narotsch-See, Tweretsch

1916
 Schlacht am Naratsch-See
 bis 29. Juli --- Stellungskämpfe zwischen Krewo, Smorgon, Narotsch-See, Tweretsch
 30. Juli bis 4. November --- Schlacht bei Kowel
 ab 5. November --- Stellungskämpfe am oberen Styr-Stochod
 in der Gegend von Wladimir-Wolynsk als Teil des X. österreichischen Korps mit dem Frontabschnitt Lokatschi Richtung Szelwow

1917
 bis 1. Dezember --- Stellungskämpfe am oberen Styr-Stochod, im Sektor zwischen Synyavka und Kyssylyn
 2. bis 17. Dezember --- Waffenruhe
 ab 17. Dezember --- Waffenstillstand

1918
 bis 18. Februar --- Waffenstillstand
 18. März bis 3. Juni --- Stellungskämpfe vor Verdun: bei Manheulles und Saulx-lès-Champlon, auf dem Maashöhen bei Combres-sous-les-Côtes und Les Eparges
 Am 4. Juni wurde die Division von Conflans-en-Jarnisy mit dem Zug über Sedan und Mézières, Laon und La Malmaison verladen um dann in vier Tagesmärschen über den Chemin des Dames nach Fismes, Fresnes-en-Tardenois in die ferme de Favière zu ziehen.
 8. bis 13. Juni --- Schlacht bei Soissons und Reims
 14. Juni bis 4. Juli --- Stellungskämpfe zwischen Oise, Aisne und Marne bei Fère-en-Tardenois
 5. bis 14. Juli --- Stellungskämpfe zwischen Aisne und Marne
 15. bis 17. Juli --- Als Reserve für die Marneschlacht bei Mont-Saint-Père
 18. bis 25. Juli --- Abwehrschlacht zwischen Soissons und Reims
 26. bis 29. Juli --- Bewegliche Abwehrschlacht zwischen Marne und Vesle
 8. August --- Auflösung der Division in Charleville

Kommandeure

Literatur
 Ruhmeshalle unserer Alten Armee. Herausgegeben auf Grund amtlichen Materials des Reichsarchivs, Militär-Verlag, Berlin 1927, S. 64, 105.
 Histories of Two Hundred and Fifty-One Divisions of the German Army Which Participated in the War (1914–1918). United States War Office as War Department Document No. 905, Office of the Adjutant, 1920, S. 191–193.

Einzelnachweise

Landwehrdivision #::10
Gegründet 1915
Aufgelöst 1918

10. Landwehr-Division (Deutsches Kaiserreich)


Davutlar, Balıkesir ilinin Bigadiç ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe

Coğrafya
Balıkesir il merkezine 62, Bigadiç ilçesine 24 km. uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Bigadiç'in mahalleleri

Davutlar, Bigadiç


An Cyrtopodium paniculatum in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Hipólito Ruiz López ngan Pav., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Leslie Andrew Garay. An Cyrtopodium paniculatum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cyrtopodium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cyrtopodium

Cyrtopodium paniculatum


Atentat na Hrvatsku je hrvatski dokumentarni film o Domovinskome ratu. Film se bavi događajima od 7. i 8. listopada 1991. godine. Glavna je tema raketiranje Banskih dvora, atentat na hrvatski državni vrh 1991., uoči isteka moratorija na proglašenje hrvatske neovisnosti.

Izvršni producent: Intermedia Grupa, Miljenko Manjkas. Organizator snimanja Ivan Ilinić. Snimatelji Branimir Kurtanjek i Leon Hribljan. Tonski snimatelj Leon Hribljan. Operater drona Branko Drakulić. Scenografija Ivan Ivan. Transkripti Borna Marinić. Šminka Saša Knežević. Narator Mario Anduš. Montažer i finalna obrada slike i zvuka Alfon Jan Čerfalvi. Asisten montaže Maja Predrijevac. Tonska obrada Antun Tony Lović. Tehnička potpora Colloco. Urednik za HRT Vladimir Brnardić. Korišteni arhivski materijali HRT-a, Intermedija Grupe, HMDCDR-a i Stanka Szaboa. Proizvodnja Alfa za HRT 2019. godine.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
YouTube

Hrvatski dokumentarni filmovi o Domovinskom ratu

Atentat na Hrvatsku


ඔබට අවශ්‍ය ලිපිය තෝරාගන්න

දොන් ඩෙවිඩ්  හේවාවිතාරණ  නොහොත් අනගාරික ධර්මපාල  නොහොත් සිරි දෙවමිත්ත ධර්මපාල
 දොන් ජුවන් ධර්මපාල රජ
 ධර්මපාල විද්‍යාලය

වක්‍රෝත්තිහරණ පිටු

ධර්මපාල (බහුරුත්හරණය)


Aceasta este o listă de actori din Bosnia și Herțegovina.

A
 Selma Alispahić

B
Zoran Bečić
Enis Bešlagić

C
 Kaća Čelan

Đ

 Jasna Diklić
 Branko Đurić
Dinka Džubur

F
 Ines Fančović
 Tarik Filipović

G
 Vanessa Glodjo
 Emma Golijanin

H
 Emir Hadžihafizbegović
Ajla Hodžić
Ismet Horo

J
 Davor Janjić

K
 Fahro Konjhodžić

L
 Boris Ler

M

Zana Marjanović
Snježana Martinović
 Ivana Miličević
Mediha Musliović

N
 Mustafa Nadarević
 Natașa Ninkovici

P
Josip Pejaković
Saša Petrović (actor)

S
Amra Silajdžić
Semka Sokolović-Bertok
 Zijah Sokolović

T
 Velibor Topić

Z
Jasna Žalica
Luna Mijović

Note

Vezi și
 Listă de regizori bosniaci

bosniaci
Actori
 Listă
Cinematografia bosniacă

Listă de actori bosniaci