Fairy Tail Sezonul 1 (2009-2010)

Episoadele din sezonul unu al seriei anime Fairy Tail se bazează pe seria manga Fairy Tail de Hiro Mashima. Sezonul unu din Fairy Tail, serie de anime, este regizat de Shinji Ishihira și produs de A-1 Pictures și Satelight și a început să fie difuzat pe data de 12 octombrie 2009 la TV Tokyo și s-a încheiat la data de 27 septembrie 2010.

Episoadele din sezonul unu al seriei anime Fairy Tail fac referire la Natsu ce se împrietenește cu Lucy care se alătură breslei și mai târziu merg în misiuni pentru a câștiga bani împreună cu colegii lor Grey Fullbuster și Erza Scarlet, precum și pisica zburătoare a lui Natsu, Happy. Cei cinci pleacă într-o misiune interzisă de clasa S pentru a salva Insula Galuna și a lupta împotriva rivalului lui Gray, Lyon Vastia. La scurt timp după aceea, breasla este atacată de către breasla lor rivală, Phantom Lord, conducând un război al breslelor. După războiul cu Phantom Lord, grupul află trecutul lui Erza ca sclav în Turnul Raiului și se confruntă cu Jellal Fernandez pentru a distruge turnul. În cele din urmă, Natsu și ceilalți se confruntă cu Laxus Dreyar și cu Tribul Raijin, în timp ce aceștia fac o lovitură de stat în Fairy Tail.

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Tahmasp I ( or  ; 22 February 1514 – 14 May 1576) was the second shah of Safavid Iran from 1524 until his death in 1576. He was the eldest son of Ismail I and his principal consort, Tajlu Khanum. Ascending the throne after the death of his father on 23 May 1524, the first years of Tahmasp's reign were marked by civil wars between the Qizilbash leaders until 1532, when he asserted his authority and began an absolute monarchy. He soon faced a long-lasting war with the Ottoman Empire, which was divided into three phases. The Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, tried to install his own candidates on the Safavid throne. The war ended with the Peace of Amasya in 1555, with the Ottomans gaining sovereignty over Iraq, much of Kurdistan, and western Georgia. Tahmasp also had conflicts with the Uzbeks of Bukhara over Khorasan, with them repeatedly raiding Herat. In 1528, at the age of fourteen, he defeated the Uzbeks in the Battle of Jam by using artillery.

Tahmasp was a patron of the arts and was an accomplished painter himself. He built a royal house of arts for painters, calligraphers and poets. Later in his reign, he came to despise poets, shunning many and exiling them to the Mughal court of India. Tahmasp is known for his religious piety and fervent zealotry for the Shia branch of Islam. He bestowed many privileges on the clergy and allowed them to participate in legal and administrative matters. In 1544 he demanded that the fugitive Mughal emperor Humayun convert to Shi'ism in return for military assistance to reclaim his throne in India. Nevertheless, Tahmasp still negotiated alliances with the Christian powers of the Republic of Venice and the Habsburg monarchy who were also rivals of the Ottoman Empire.

His succession was disputed before his death. When Tahmasp died, a civil war followed, leading to the death of most of the royal family. Tahmasp's reign of nearly fifty-two years was the longest of any member of the Safavid dynasty. Although contemporary Western accounts were critical, modern historians describe him as a courageous and able commander who maintained and expanded his father's empire. His reign saw a shift in the Safavid ideological policy; he ended the worshipping of his father as the Messiah by the Turkoman Qizilbash tribes and instead established a public image of a pious and orthodox Shia king. He started a long process followed by his successors to end the Qizilbash influence on Safavid politics, replacing them with the newly introduced 'third force' containing Islamized Georgians and Armenians.

Name
"Tahmasp" () is a New Persian name, ultimately derived from Old Iranian *ta(x)ma-aspa, meaning "having valiant horses." The name is one of the few instances of a name from the epic poem Shahnameh () being used by an Islamic-era dynasty based in Iran. In the Shahnameh, Tahmasp is the father of Zaav, the penultimate shah of the mythical Persian Pishdadian dynasty.

Background
Tahmasp was the second shah of the Safavid dynasty, a family of Kurdish origin, who were sheikhs of a Sufi  (school of Sufism) known as the Safavid order and centred in Ardabil, a city in the northwestern Iran. The first sheikh of the order and eponym of the dynasty, Safi-ad-din Ardabili (d. 1334), married the daughter of Zahed Gilani (d. 1301) and became the master of his father-in-law's order, the Zahediyeh. Two of Safi-ad-Din's descendants, Shaykh Junayd (d. 1460) and his son, Shaykh Haydar (d. 1488), made the order more militant and unsuccessfully tried to expand their domain.

Tahmasp's father, Ismail I (), who inherited the leadership the Safavid order from his grandfather, Shaykh Haydar, became shah of Iran in 1501, a state mired in civil war after the collapse of the Timurid Empire. He conquered the territories of the Aq Qoyunlu tribal confederation, the lands of the Chinggisid (Descendant of Genghis Khan) Uzbek Shaybanid dynasty in the eastern Iran, and many city-states by 1512. Ismail's realm included the whole territory of modern Iran, in addition to sovereignty over Georgia, Armenia, Daghestan, and Shirvan in the west, and Herat in the east. Unlike his Sufist ancestors, Ismail believed in Twelver Shia Islam and made it the official religion of the realm. He forced conversion on the Sunni population by abolishing Sunni Sufi orders, seizing their property, and giving the Sunni  (Islamic clergymen) a choice of conversion, death, or exile. From this, a power vacuum emerged which allowed the Shia  to create a clerical aristocracy filled with  (descendant of Muhammad) and  (Islamic scholar expert in the Islamic law) landowners.

Ismail established the Qizilbash Turkoman tribes as inseparable members of the Safavid administration since they were the "men of the sword" who brought him to power. These "men of the sword" clashed with the other major part of his bureaucracy, the "men of the pen", who controlled the literati and were mainly Persian. Ismail created the title of  (deputy to the king) to resolve the dispute. The title of  surpassed both the  (commander-in-chief; mostly bestowed upon Qizilbash leaders), and the  (minister and head of the bureaucracy) in authority. The holder of the title was the vicegerent of Ismail and represented him in the royal court. The creation of this new superior title could not cease the clashes between the Qizilbash leaders and Persian bureaucrats, which eventually climaxed in the Battle of Ghazdewan between the Safavids and the Uzbeks, in which Ismail's , the Persian Najm-e Sani, commended the army. The Uzbek victory, during which Najm was captured and executed afterwards, was the result of the desertion of many of the Qizilbash.

The Uzbeks of Bukhara were a recurring problem on the Iranian eastern borders. The Safavids and the Shaybanids rose to power almost simultaneously at the turn of the sixteenth century. By 1503, when Ismail I had taken possession of large parts of the Iranian plateau, Muhammad Shaybani, Khan of Bukhara (), had conquered Khwarazm and Khorasan. Ismail defeated and killed Muhammad Shaybani in the Battle of Marv in 1510, returning Khorasan to Iranian possession, though Khwarazm and the Persianate cities in Transoxiana remained in Uzbek hands. Thereafter the possession of Khorasan became the main bone of contention between Safavids and Shaybanids.

In 1514, Ismail's prestige and authority were damaged by his loss in the Battle of Chaldiran against the Ottoman Empire. Before the war with the Ottomans, Ismail promoted himself as a reincarnation of Ali or Husayn. This belief weakened after Chaldiran, and Ismail lost his theological-religious relationship with the disappointed Qizilbash tribes who had previously seen him as invincible. This affected Ismail, who began drinking heavily and never again led an army; this permitted the seizure of power by the Qizilbash tribes which overshadowed Tahmasp's early reign.

Early life
Abu'l-Fath Tahmasp Mirza was born on 22 February 1514 in Shahabad, a village near Isfahan, as the eldest son of Ismail I and his principal consort, Tajlu Khanum. According to the narrative told by Iranian s (coffeehouse storytellers), on the night of Tahmasp's birth, a storm erupted, with wind, rain, and lightning. Tajlu Khanum, feeling her labour pains beginning, suggested that the royal caravan camp in some village. The royal caravan thus headed to Shahabad. The  (warden) of the village was a Sunni and did not let Tajlu Khanum enter his house, but a Shia resident of the village welcomed her into his modest house. By then, Tajlu Begum's pain had made her faint, and shortly after entering the house gave birth to a son. When the news reached Ismail, he was reportedly "heaped" with utmost joy and happiness, but refrained from seeing his son until his astrologers gave him an auspicious date to do so. When the auspicious hour arrived, the young boy was presented to Ismail and astrologers foresaw his future to be one entwisted with war and peace and that he would have many sons. Ismail named the boy Tahmasp after Ali, the first Imam, told him to do so in his dream.

In 1516, when Tahmasp Mirza was two years old, the province of Khorasan became his fief by Ismail's order. This appointment was specially done to emulate the Timurid dynasty, that followed the Turco-Mongol tradition of appointing the eldest son of a sovereign to govern a prominent province like Khorasan. The centre of this major province, the city of Herat, would go on to be the city where Safavid crown princes were raised, trained, and educated throughout the sixteenth century. In 1517, Ismail appointed the Diyarbakr governor Amir Soltan Mawsillu as Tahmasp's  (tutor) and governor of Balkh, a city in Khorasan. He replaced the Shamlu and Mawsillu governors of Khorasan, who did not join his army during the Battle of Chaldiran for fear of famine. Placing Tahmasp in Herat was an attempt to reduce the growing influence of the Shamlu tribe, which dominated Safavid court politics and held a number of powerful governorships. Ismail also appointed Amir Ghiyath al-Din Mohammad, a prominent Herat figure, as Tahmasp's religious tutor.

A struggle for control of Herat emerged between the two tutors. Amir Soltan arrested Ghiyath al-Din and executed him the following day, but was ousted from his position in 1521 by a sudden raid by the Uzbeks who crossed the Amu Darya and seized portions of the city. Ismail appointed Div Sultan Rumlu as Tahmasp's , and the governorship was given to his younger son, Sam Mirza Safavi. During his years in Herat, Tahmasp developed a love for writing and painting. He became an accomplished painter and dedicated a work to his brother, Bahram Mirza. The painting was a humorous composition of a gathering of Safavid courtiers, featuring music, singing, and wine-drinking.

In the spring of 1524, Ismail became ill on a hunting trip to Georgia and recovered in Ardabil on his way back to the capital.  But he soon developed a high fever which led to his death on 23 May 1524 in Tabriz.

Regency

The ten-year-old Tahmasp ascended the throne after his father's death under the guardianship of Div Sultan Rumlu, his , the de facto ruler of the realm. Rule by a member of the Rumlu tribe was unacceptable to the other Turkoman tribes of the Qizilbash, especially the Ostajlu and Takkalu. Kopek Sultan, governor of Tabriz and leader of Ostajlu, along with Chuha Sultan, leader of the Takkalu tribe, were Div Sultan Rumlu's strongest opponents. The Takkalu were powerful in Isfahan and Hamadan, and the Ostajlu held Khorasan and the Safavid capital, Tabriz. Rumlu proposed a triumvirate to the two leaders which was accepted, the terms were for sharing the office of . The triumvirate proved unsustainable, since all sides were dissatisfied with their share of power. In the spring of 1526, a series of battles in northwest Iran between these tribes expanded into Khorasan and became a civil war. The Ostajlu faction was quickly excluded and their leader, Kopek Sultan, was killed by order of Chuha Sultan. During the civil war, the Uzbeks raiders temporarily seized Tus and Astarabad. Div Sultan Rumlu was blamed for the raids and was executed. His execution was performed by Tahmasp himself.

At the behest of the young king, Chuha Sultan, the sole remaining member of the triumvirate, became de facto ruler of the realm from 1527 to 1530. Chuha tried to remove Herat from Shamlu dominance, which led to a conflict between the two tribes. In early 1530, the Herat governor, Hossein Khan Shamlu, and his men killed Chuha and executed every Takkalu in the retinue of the shah in the royal camp. This provoked the Takkalu tribe to rebellion, and a few days later, in an act of retaliation, they attacked the shah's retinue in Hamadan. One of the tribesman attempted to abduct the young Tahmasp, who had him put to death. Then Tahmasp ordered the general slaughter of the Takkalu tribe; many were killed, and many fled to Baghdad, where the governor, himself a Takkalu, put some to death to prove his loyalty. Eventually, the remaining Takkalu managed to flee to the Ottoman Empire. In the contemporary chronicles, the downfall of Chuha Sultan and the massacre of his tribe is dubbed "the Takkalu pestilence". Hossein Khan Shamlu thereafter assumed Chuha Sultan's position with the consent of the Qizilbash leaders.

While the civil war was ongoing among the Qizilbash, the Uzbeks under Ubayd Allah Khan conquered the borderlands. In 1528, Ubayd reconquered Astarabad and Tus and besieged Herat. Fourteen-year-old Tahmasp commanded the army and defeated the Uzbeks, distinguishing himself at the Battle of Jam. Safavid superiority in the battle was due to many different factors, one of them being their use of artillery, which they had learned from the Ottomans. The then governor of Herat and Tahmasp's regent, Hossein Khan Shamlu, distinguished himself during the battle and earned the respect of the shah. The victory, however, reduced neither the Uzbek threat nor the realm's internal chaos, since Tahmasp had to return to the west to suppress a rebellion in Baghdad. That year, the Uzbeks captured Herat; however, they allowed Sam Mirza to return to Tabriz. Their occupation did not last long, and Tahmasp drove them out in the summer of 1530. He appointed his brother, Bahram Mirza, governor of Khorasan and Ghazi Khan Takkalu, as Bahram's tutor.

By this point, Tahmasp had turned seventeen, and thus no longer needed a regent. Hossein Khan Shamlu  circumvented this challenge by having himself named as the steward to Tahmasp's newborn son, Mohammad Mirza. Hossein Khan constantly undermined the shah's power and had angered Tahmasp many times. His confidence in his power, combined with the rumours that Hossein Khan intended to depose Tahmasp and place his brother, Sam Mirza, on the throne, finally led Tahmasp to rid himself of the powerful Shamlu amir. Thus Hossein Khan was overthrown and executed in 1533. His fall was a turning point for Tahmasp, who now knew that each Turkoman leader would favour his tribe. He reduced the influence of the Qizilbash and gave the "men of the pen" bureaucracy greater power, ending the regency.

Reign

Ottoman war

Suleiman the Magnificent (), sultan of the Ottoman Empire, may have considered a strong Safavid empire a threat to his ambitious plans in the west and northwest of his realm. During the first decade of Tahmasp's reign, however, he was preoccupied with fighting the Habsburgs and the unsuccessful attempt to seize Vienna. In 1532, while the Ottomans were fighting in Hungary, Suleiman sent Olama Beg Takkalu with 50,000 troops under Fil Pasha to Iran. Olama Beg was one of many Takkalu members who, after Chuha's death, took refuge in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans seized Tabriz and Kurdistan, and tried to obtain support from Gilan province. Tahmasp drove the Ottomans out, but news of another Uzbek invasion prevented him from defeating them. Suleiman sent his grand vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, to occupy Tabriz in July 1534 and joined him two months later. Suleiman peacefully conquered Baghdad and Shia cities such as Najaf. Whilst the Ottomans were on the march, Tahmasp was in Balkh, campaigning against the Uzbeks.

The first Ottoman invasion caused the greatest crisis of Tahmasp's reign. Its events however are difficult to reconstruct; on an unknown date, an agent from the Shamlu tribe unsuccessfully tried to poison Tahmasp; they revolted against the shah, who had recently asserted his authority by removing Hossein Khan. Seeking to dethrone Tahmasp, they chose one of his younger brothers, Sam Mirza (who had a Shamlu guardian) as their candidate. The rebels then contacted Suleiman and asked him for support in enthroning Sam Mirza, who promised to follow a pro-Ottoman policy. Suleiman recognised him as ruler of Iran, which panicked Tahmasp's court. Tahmasp reconquered the seized territory when Suleiman went to Mesopotamia, and Suleiman led another campaign against him. Tahmasp attacked his rearguard, and Suleiman was forced to retreat to Istanbul at the end of 1535 after losing all his gains except Baghdad. After confronting the Ottomans, Tahmasp rushed to Khorasan to defeat his brother. Sam Mirza surrendered and sought mercy from Tahmasp. The shah accepted his brother's pleads and banished him to Qazvin but otherwise executed many of his advisors, namely, his Shamlu guardian.

Relations with the Ottomans remained hostile until the revolt of Alqas Mirza, another one of Tahmasp's younger brothers, who had led the Safavid army during the 1534–35 Ottoman invasion and was governor of Shirvan. He led an unsuccessful revolt against Tahmasp, who conquered Derbant in the spring of 1547 and appointed his son Ismail as governor. Alqas fled to Crimea with his remaining forces and took refuge with Suleiman. He promised to restore Sunni Islam in Iran and encouraged the Sultan to lead another campaign against Tahmasp. The new invasion sought the quick capture of Tabriz in July 1548; it soon became clear, however, that Alqas Mirza's claims of support from all the Qizilbash leaders were untrue. The long campaign focused on looting, plundering Hamadan, Qom, and Kashan before being stopped at Isfahan. Tahmasp did not fight the exhausted Ottoman army but laid waste the entire region from Tabriz to the frontier; the Ottomans could not permanently occupy the captured lands, since they soon ran out of supplies.

Eventually, Alqas Mirza was captured on the battlefield and imprisoned in a fortress, where he died. Suleiman ended his campaign, and by the fall of 1549 the remaining Ottoman forces retreated. The Ottoman sultan launched his last campaign against the Safavids in May 1554, when Ismail Mirza (Tahmasp's son) invaded eastern Anatolia and defeated Erzerum governor Iskandar Pasha. Suleiman marched from Diyarbakr towards Armenian Karabakh and reconquered the lost lands. Tahmasp divided his army into four corps and sent each in a different direction, indicating a Safavid army that had grown much larger than it was in the previous wars. With Tahmasp's Safavids holding the advantage, Suleiman had to retreat. The Ottomans negotiated the Peace of Amasya, in which Tahmasp recognised Ottoman sovereignty in Mesopotamia and much of Kurdistan; furthermore, as an act of obeisance towards Sunni Islam and Sunnis, he banned the holding of  (a festival commemorating the assassination of the second caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab) and expressing hatred towards the Rashidun caliphs, who are held dear by the Sunni Muslims. The Ottomans allowed Iranian pilgrims to travel freely to Mecca, Medina, Karbala, and Najaf. Through this treaty, Iran had time to increase its forces and resources as its western provinces had the opportunity to recuperate from the war. This peace also demarcated the Ottoman-Safavid frontier in the north-west without the cession of large areas of territory on the Safavid side. These terms, in circumstances favourable to the Safavids, were evidence of the frustration felt by Suleiman the Magnificent at his inability to inflict a greater defeat on the Safavids.

Georgian campaigns
Tahmasp was interested in the Caucasus, especially Georgia, for two reasons: to reduce the influence of the Ostajlu tribe (who kept their lands in southern Georgia and Armenia after the 1526 civil war) and a desire for booty, similar to that of his father. Since the Georgians were mainly Christian, he used the pretext of  (Islamic armed struggle against nonbelievers) to justify the invasion. Between 1540 and 1553, Tahmasp led four campaigns against the Georgian kingdoms. The Safavid army looted Tbilisi, including its churches and the wives and children of the nobility, in the first campaign. Tahmasp also forced the governor of Tbilisi, Golbad, to convert to Islam. The King of Kartli, Luarsab I (), managed to escape and went to hiding during Tahmasp's raiding. During his second invasion, ostensibly to ensure the stability of Georgian territory, he looted the farms and subjugated Levan of Kakheti (). One year before the Peace of Amasya in 1554, Tahmasp led his last military campaign into the Caucasus. Throughout his campaigns, he took many prisoners, and this time he brought 30,000 Georgians to Iran. Luarsab's mother, Nestan Darejan was captured during these campaigns, but committed suicide upon incarceration. The descendants of these prisoners formed a "third force" in the Safavid administration and bureaucracy with the Turkomans and Persians and became a main rival to the other two during the later years of the Safavid Empire. Although this "third force" came to power two generations later during the reign of Tahmasp's grandson, Abbas the Great (), it began infiltrating Tahmasp's army during the second quarter of his reign as  (slave warriors) and  (royal bodyguards of the shah) and became more influential at the apex of the Safavid empire.

In 1555, following the Peace of Amasya, eastern Georgia remained in Iranian hands and western Georgia was ruled by the Turks. Never again did Tahmasp appear on the Caucasus frontier after the treaty. Instead, the Governor of Georgia, Shahverdi Sultan, represented Safavid power north of the Aras River. Tahmasp sought to establish his dominance by imposing several Iranian political and social institutions and placing converts to Islam on the thrones of Kartli and Kakheti; one was Davud Khan, brother of Simon I of Kartli (). Son of Levan of Kakheti, Prince Jesse also appeared in Qazvin during the 1560s and converted to Islam. In return, Tahmasp granted him favours and gifts. The prince was given the old royal palace for his residence in Qazvin, and became the governor of Shaki and adjacent territories. The conversion of these Georgian princes did not dissuade the Georgian forces who tried to reconquer Tbilisi under Simon I and his father, Luarsab I of Kartli, in the Battle of Garisi; the battle ended in a stalemate, with Luarsab and the Safavid commander Shahverdi Sultan both slain in battle.

Royal refugees

One of the most celebrated events of Tahmasp's reign was the visit of Humayun (), the eldest son of Babur () and emperor of the Mughal Empire, who faced rebellions by his brothers. Humayun fled to Herat, travelled through Mashhad, Nishapur, Sabzevar, and Qazvin, and met Tahmasp at Soltaniyeh in 1544. Tahmasp honoured Homayun as a guest and gave him an illustrated version of Saadi's Gulistan dating back to the reign of Abu Sa'id Mirza (), Humayun's great-grandfather; however, he refused to give him political assistance unless he converted to Shia Islam. Humayun reluctantly agreed, but reverted to Sunni Islam when he returned to India; however he did not force the Iranian Shias, who came with him to India, to convert. Tahmasp also demanded a quid pro quo in which the city of Kandahar would be given to his infant son, Morad Mirza. Humayun spent Nowruz in the Shah's court and left in 1545 with an army provided by Tahmasp to regain his lost lands; his first conquest was Kandahar, which he ceded to the young Safavid prince. Morad Mirza soon died, however, and the city became a bone of contention between the two empires: the Safavids claimed that it had been given to them in perpetuity, while the Mughals maintained that it had been an appanage that expired with the death of the prince. Tahmasp began the first Safavid expedition to Kandahar in 1558, after the death of Humayun, and reconquered the city.

Another notable visitor to Tahmasp's court was Şehzade Bayezid, the fugitive Ottoman prince who rebelled against his father, Suleiman the Magnificent, and went to the Shah in the autumn 1559 with an army of 10,000 to persuade him to begin a war against the Ottomans. Although he honoured Bayezid, Tahmasp did not want to disturb the Peace of Amasya. Suspecting that Bayezid was planning a coup, he had him arrested and returned to the Ottomans; Bayezid and his children were immediately executed.

Later life and death

Although Tahmasp rarely left Qazvin from the Peace of Amasya in 1555 to his death in 1576, he was still active during this period. A 1564 rebellion in Herat was suppressed by Masum Bek and the Khorasan governors, but the region remained troubled and was raided by the Uzbeks two years later. Tahmasp became seriously ill in 1574 and neared death twice in two months. Since he had not chosen a crown prince, the question of succession was raised by members of the royal family and Qizilbash leaders. His favourite son, Haydar Mirza, was supported by the Ustajlu tribe and the powerful Georgian court faction; the imprisoned prince Ismail Mirza was supported by Pari Khan Khanum, Tahmasp's influential daughter. The pro-Haydar faction tried to eliminate Ismail by winning the favour of the castellan of Qahqaheh Castle (where Ismail was imprisoned), but Pari Khan learned about the plot and informed Tahmasp; the shah, who was still fond of his son, ordered him to be guarded by Afshar musketeers.

Tahmasp, recovered from his illness, returned his attention to affairs of state. Remaining court tensions, however, triggered another civil war when the shah died on 14 May 1576 from poisoning. The poisoning was blamed on Abu Naser Gilani, a physician who attended Tahmasp when he was ill. According to Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Abbasi, "He unwisely sought recognition of his superior status vis-à-vis the other physicians; as a result, when Tahmasp died, Abu Nasr was accused of treachery in the treatment he had prescribed, and he was put to death within the palace by members of the ". Tahmasp I had the longest reign of any member of the Safavid dynasty: nine days short of fifty-two years. He died without a designated heir and the two factions in his court clashed for the throne. Haydar Mirza was murdered not long after his father's death, and Ismail Mirza became king and was crowned Ismail II (). Less than two months after his enthronement, Ismail ordered a mass purge of all male members of the royal family. Only Mohammad Khodabanda, already nearly blind, and his three toddler sons survived this purge.

Policies

Administration
Tahmasp's reign after the civil wars between the Qizilbash leaders became a "personal rule" that sought to control Turkoman influence by empowering the Persian bureaucracy. The key change was the 1535 appointment of Qazi Jahan Qazvini, who extended diplomacy beyond Iran by establishing contact with the Portuguese, the Venetians, the Mughals, and the Shiite Deccan sultanates. English explorer Anthony Jenkinson, who was received at the Safavid court in 1562, also sought to promote trade. The Habsburgs were eager to ally with the Safavids against the Ottomans. In 1529, Ferdinand I () sent an envoy to Iran with the objective of a two-front attack on the Ottoman Empire the following year. The mission was unsuccessful, however, since the envoy took over a year to return. The first extant Safavid letters to a European power were sent in 1540 to Doge of Venice Pietro Lando (). In response, the Doge and the Great Council of Venice commissioned Michel Membré to visit the Safavid court. In 1540, he visited Tahmasp's encampment at Marand, near Tabriz. Membré's mission lasted for three years, during which, he wrote the Relazione di Persia, one of the few European sources which describe Tahmasp's court. In his letter to Lando, Tahmasp promised to "cleanse the earth of [Ottoman] wickedness" with the help of the Holy League. The alliance, however, never bore fruit.

One of the most important events of Tahmasp's reign was his relocation of the Safavid capital, which began what is known as the Qazvin period. Although the exact date is uncertain, Tahmasp began preparations to have the royal capital moved from Tabriz to Qazvin during a 1540s period of ethnic re-settlement. The move from Tabriz to Qazvin discontinued the Turco-Mongol tradition of shifting between summer and winter pastures with the herds, ending Ismail I's nomadic lifestyle. The idea of a Turkoman state with a center in Tabriz was abandoned for an empire centered on the Iranian plateau. Moving into a city that linked the realm to Khorasan through an ancient route, allowed a greater degree of centralisation as distant provinces such as Shirvan, Georgia, and Gilan were brought into the Safavid fold. The incorporation of Gilan in particular was vital to the Safavids. To ensure his permanent control on the province, Tahmasp arranged royal marriages with the influential families in Gilan. Qazvin's non-Qizilbash population allowed Tahmasp to bring new members to his court who were unrelated to the Turkoman tribes. The city, associated with orthodoxy and stable governance, developed under Tahmasp's patronage; the era's foremost building is Chehel Sotoun.

From the transition of capitals, a new era in history-writing emerged under Tahmasp's rule. The Safavid historiography, which until then relied only on historians outside of Safavid's influence, matured and became a valued project in Tahmasp's new court. Tahmasp is the only Safavid monarch to have recorded his memories, known as Tazkera-ye Shah Tahmasb. On the shah's behalf, Abdi Beg Shirazi, a secretary-accountant in the royal chancellery, wrote a world history named Takmelat al-akhbar, which he dedicated it to Pari Khan Khanum, Tahmasp's daughter. Although intended to be a world history, only the last part of the book which covers the reigns of Ismail I and Tahmasp up until 1570 was published. He also commissioned Abol-Fath Hosseini to rewrite Safvat as-safa, the oldest surviving text regarding Safi-ad-din Ardabili and the Sufi beliefs of the Safavids, in order to legitimise his  claim. All of the historians under Tahmasp's patronage centred their works around one main goal: to tell the history of the Safavid dynasty. They defined themselves as 'Safavid' historians, as living in a Safavid period of Iranian history, a concept that had not been seen in the earlier chronicles of the dynasty. This new definement has its roots in the change of the capital and the urbanisation of the Safavid nomadic lifestyle. Historians such as Charles Melville and Sholeh Quinn thus consider Tahmasp's reign as the start of the "real flourishing of Safavid historiography".

Military
The Safavid military evolved during Tahmasp's reign. The first corps of gunners () and musketeers (), developed initially during Ismail I's reign, came to be used in his army. A court chronicle's retelling of Battle of Jam and a military review in 1530 show that the Safavid army was armed with several hundred light canons and several thousand infantrymen. , military slaves developed by Tahmasp from Caucasus prisoners, commanded the  and . To lessen Qizilbash power, he discontinued the titles of  and . The  (the commander of the s), formerly subordinate to the , became the chief Safavid military officer.

After the Peace of Amasya in 1555, Tahmasp became an avaricious person who did not care how and where his troops obtained their pay, even if it was through criminal means. By 1575, Iran's troops had not been paid for four years. They are said to have accepted this because, as one chronicler put it, 'they loved the shah so much'.

Religion

Tahmasp described himself as a "pious Shia mystic king". His religious views and the extent to which they influenced Safavid religious policy is the most interesting aspect of his reign for historians, both contemporary and modern. As the Italian historian Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti has noted, "the modern originality of Persian Shi'ism has its roots [with Shah Tahmasp]." Until 1533, the Qizilbash leaders (worshipping Ismail I as the promised Mahdi) urged the young Tahmasp to continue in his father's footsteps; that year, he had a spiritual rebirth, performed an act of repentance and outlawed irreligious behaviour. Tahmasp rejected his father's claim of being a mahdi, becoming a mystical lover of Ali and a king bound to sharia, but still enjoyed villagers travelling to his palace in Qazvin to touch his clothing. Tahmasp held firmly to the controversial Shia belief in the imminent coming of the Mahdi. He refused to allow his favourite sister, Shahzada Sultanim, to marry, because he was keeping her as a bride for the Mahdi. He claimed connections with Ali and Sufi saints, such as his ancestor Safi al-Din, through dreams in which he foresaw the future. Tahmasp had other superstitious beliefs too; for instance, his obsession with the occult science of geomancy. According to the Venetian diplomat, Vincenzo degli Alessandri, the shah was so devoted to practice geomancy that he had not left his palace for a decade. He also observed that Tahmasp was worsipped by his people as a godlike being possessing a frail and old body. Tahmasp wanted the poets of his court to write about Ali, rather than him. He sent copies of the Quran as gifts to several Ottoman sultans; overall, during his reign, eighteen copies of the Quran were sent to Istanbul and all were encrusted with jewels and gold.

Tahmasp saw Twelverism as a new doctrine of kingship, giving the  authority in religious and legal matters, and appointing Shaykh Ali al-Karaki as the deputy of the Hidden Imam. This brought new political and court power to the  (Islamic clerics), , and their networks, intersecting Tabriz, Qazvin, Isfahan, and the recently incorporated centres of Rasht, Astarabad, and Amol. As observed by Iskandar Beg Munshi, the court chronicler, the  as a class of landed elite enjoyed considerable power. During the 1530s and 1540s, they hegemonised the Safavid court in Tabriz and according to Iskandar Beg, "any wish of theirs was translated into reality almost before it was uttered… although they were guilty of unlawful practices." During Tahmasp's reign, Persian scholars accepted the Safavid claims to  heritage and called him "the Husaynid". Tahmasp embarked on a wide-scale urban program designed to reinvent the city of Qazvin as a centre of Shiite piety and orthodoxy, expanding the Shrine of Husayn (son of Ali al-Rida, the eighth Imam). He was also attentive to his ancestral Sufi order in Ardabil, building the Janat Sarai mosque to encourage visitors and hold  (Sufi spiritual ceremony). Tahmasp ordered the practice of Sufi rituals and had Sufis and  come to his palace and perform public acts of piety and  (a form of Islamic meditation) for Eid al-Fitr (and renew their allegiance to him). This encouraged Tahmasp's followers to see themselves as belonging to a community too large to be bound by tribal or other local social orders. Although Tahmasp continued the Shia conversion in Iran, unlike his father he did not coerce other religious groups; he had a long-established acknowledgment and patronage of Christian Armenians.

Arts

In his youth, Tahmasp was inclined towards calligraphy and art and patronised masters in both. His preeminent and acclaimed contribution to the Safavid arts was his patronage of Persian miniature manuscripts that took place during the first half of his reign. He was the namesake of one of the most celebrated illustrated manuscripts of the Shahnameh, which was commissioned by his father around 1522 and completed during the mid-1530s. He encouraged painters such as Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, bestowing a royal painting workshop for masters, journeymen, and apprentices with exotic materials such as ground gold and lapis lazuli. Tahmasp's artists illustrated the Khamsa of Nizami, and he worked on Chehel Sotoun's balcony paintings. The Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Abbasi calls Tahmasp's reign the zenith of Safavid calligraphic and pictorial art. Tahmasp lost interest in the miniature arts around 1555 and, accordingly, disbanded the royal workshop and allowed his artists to practice elsewhere. His patronage of arts, however, has been praised by many modern art historians such as James Elkins and Stuart Cary Welch. The American historian, Douglas Streusand, calls him 'the greatest Safavid patron'. Colin P. Mitchell associates Tahmasp's patronage with the revival of Iranian artistic and cultural life.

The reigns of Tahmasp and his father, Ismail I, are considered as the most productive era of the history of the Azeri Turkish language and literature. The renowned poet, Fuzuli, who wrote in Azeri Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, flourished during this era. In his memoir, Tahmasp denotes his love for both Persian and Turkish poetry. During the later years of his life, however, he came to despise poets and poetry; as his devotion to the Quran increased, he no longer counted poets as pious men, for many of them were addicted to wine, an irreligious behaviour. Tahmasp refused to allow poets in his court and ceased to regard them with favour. According to Tazkera-ye Tohfe-ye Sāmi by his brother, Sam Mirza, there were 700 poets during the reigns of the first two Safavid kings. After Tahmasp's religious conversion, many joined Humayun; those who remained and wrote erotic  (sonnets), such as Vahshi Bafqi and Mohtasham Kashani, were shunned. Other poets such as Naziri Nishapuri and 'Orfi Shirazi chose to leave Iran and emigrate to the Mughal court, where they pioneered the rise of Indian-style poetry (), known for its high-rhetorical texts of metaphors, mystical-philosophical themes and allegories.

Coinage

Tahmasp I's coins were characterised by the region they were minted in. The  was used in Shirvan; in Mazandaran,  was minted, and Khuzestan used the  currency. By the 1570s, most of these autonomous monetary were unified. The weight of the shahi coins decreased significantly from  at the beginning of Tahmasp's reign to  in the western parts of the realm and  in the east at the end. These weight reductions were the results of Ottoman and Uzbek invasions as well as the Ottoman trade ban which had a devastating impact on trade, and thus on the shah's revenues. According the Venetian Michel Membré, no merchant could have travelled to Iran through Ottoman borders without permission from the sultan. All travellers were stopped and arrested if they had no royal permit.

In his coins, Arabic is no longer the only language used, in his  (folus-i shahi) coins, the phrase "May be eternally [condemned] to the damnation of God / He, who alters [the rate of] the royal folus" is minted in Persian. Old copper coins were released anew with the countermarks folus-i shahi, 'adl-e shahi, etc. that showed their new value.

Family

Tahmasp, unlike his ancestors who married Turkomans, took Georgians and Circassians as wives; most of his children had Caucasian mothers. His only Turkoman consort was his chief wife, Sultanum Begum of the Mawsillu tribe (a marriage of state), who gave birth to two sons: Mohammad Khodabanda and Ismail II. Tahmasp had a poor relationship with Ismail, whom he imprisoned on suspicion that his son might attempt a coup against him. However, he was attentive to his other children; On his orders, his daughters were instructed in administration, art, and scholarship, and Haydar Mirza (his favourite son, born of a Georgian slave) participated in state affairs.

Tahmasp had seven known consorts:
 Sultanum Begum (c. 15161593 in Qazvin), Tahmasp's chief wife, from the Mawsillu tribe, mother of his two older sons
 Sultan-Agha Khanum, a Circassian, sister of Shamkhal Sultan Cherkes (governor of Sakki), mother of Pari Khan Khanum and Suleiman Mirza
 Sultanzada Khanum, a Georgian slave, mother of Haydar Mirza
 Zahra Baji, a Georgian, mother of Mustafa Mirza and Ali Mirza
 Huri Khan Khanum, a Georgian, mother of Zeynab Begum and Maryam Begum
 A sister of Waraza Shalikashvili
 Zaynab Sultan Khanum (m. 1549; died in Qazvin October 1570 and buried in Mashhad), widow of Tahmasp's younger brother Bahram Mirza

He had thirteen sons:
 Mohammad Khodabanda (1532 – 1595 or 1596), Shah of Iran (r. 1578–1587)
 Ismail II (31 May 1537 – 24 November 1577), Shah of Iran (r. 1576–77)
 Murad Mirza (d. 1545), nominal governor of Kandahar; died in infancy
 Suleiman Mirza (d. 9 November 1576), Governor of Shiraz, killed during Ismail II's purge
 Haydar Mirza (28 September 1556 – 15 May 1576), self-proclaimed Shah of Iran for a day after Tahmasp's death; killed by his guards in Qazvin
 Mustafa Mirza, (d. 9 November 1576), killed during Ismail II's purge; his daughter married Abbas the Great
 Junayd Mirza (d. 1577), killed during Ismail II's purge
 Mahmud Mirza (d. 7 March 1577), governor of Shirvan and Lahijan, killed during Ismail II's purge
 Imam Qoli Mirza (died 7 March 1577), killed during Ismail II's purge
 Ali Mirza (d. 31 January 1642), blinded and imprisoned by Abbas the Great
 Ahmad Mirza (died 7 March 1577), killed during Ismail II's purge
 Murad Mirza (d. 1577), killed during Ismail II's purge
 Zayn al-Abedin Mirza, died in childhood
 Musa Mirza, died in childhood

Tahmasp probably had thirteen daughters, eight of whom are known:
 Gawhar Sultan Begum (d. 1577), married Sultan Ibrahim Mirza
 Pari Khan Khanum (d. 1578), died by the orders of Khayr al-Nisa Begum
 Zeynab Begum (d. 31 May 1640), married Ali-Qoli Khan Shamlu
 Maryam Begum (d. 1608), married Khan Ahmad Khan
 Shahrbanu Khanum, married Salman Khan Ustajlu
 Khadija Begum (d. after 1564), married Jamshid Khan (grandson of Amira Dabbaj, a local ruler in western Gilan)
 Fatima Sultan Khanum (d. 1581), married Amir Khan Mawsillu
 Khanish Begum, married Shah Nimtullah Amir Nizam al-Din Abd al-Baqi (leader of the Ni'matullāhī order)

Legacy
Tahmasp I's reign started in an era of civil wars between the Qizilbash leaders after the death of Ismail I, whose charismatic characterisation as Messiah, which had driven the Qizilbash to follow him, came to an end with Tahmasp's succession. In contrast to his father, Tahmasp did not possess charisma in any political or spiritual sense, nor was he old enough to prove himself a fierce warrior on the battlefield, a quality valued by the Qizilbash. Eventually, Tahmasp did overcome that challenge; he proved himself a worthy military commander in the Battle of Jam against the Uzbeks and, instead of facing the Ottomans directly in the battlefield, he preferred to loot their rearguards. Even the ability to survive against the much larger Ottoman army marks him as a master of Fabian tactics. Tahmasp knew that he could not replace his father as a charismatic spiritual leader, and while he struggled to restore his family's legitimacy amongst the Qizilbash, he also had to craft a public figure of himself to convince the wider population of his right to rule as the new Safavid shah. Thus, he became a devout follower of Shi'ism and maintained this image with exaggerated piety until the end of his reign. This zealous image helped him to break the influence of the Qizilbash, and he became able to take the reins of power within ten years, after the realm had been through the civil war between the plotting tribal chieftains. He thus established a standard public image for Safavid kings: a zealous monarch who functioned as a representative of the Hidden Imam. However, none of his successors kept this image as zealously as him. Even after consolidating his power, Tahmasp had little political leverage compared to the Ottoman Empire. However, he successfully laid the foundation for Abbas the Great's transformation of the Safavid polity by bringing Caucasian slaves into his realm. He thus created the core of the force that changed the political balance of the empire in his grandson's time.

Tahmasp I made little impression on Western historians, who often compared him with his father. He is portrayed as a "miser" and a "religious bigot". He was accused of never leaving the harem and it was said that he divided his time between sexual liaisons with his favourites and foretelling the future. This characterisation has made an obscure figure out of Tahmasp as a king and a person. However, there are several instances recorded by the contemporary historians which denoted the more favourable sides of the shah's character: the fact that, despite his greed, piety led him to forgo taxes of about 30,000 tomans because collecting them would offend the religious law; his speech to the envoys of Suleiman the Magnificent, who had come to collect the fugitive Şehzade Bayezid, showed his political skill; he patronised the arts and had a highly cultured mind. According to Colin P. Mitchell, it is an achievement that he was able to not only maintain his father's empire from dissolution but also expanded it whilst being contemporaneous with Suleiman the Magnificent, the most successful Ottoman sultan. It was during Tahmasp's reign that the Safavid right to rule was established and gradually accepted among the Shia people, who were endeared to the idea of a descendent of  (Family of the prophet of Islam, Muhammad) ruling over them. Thus the Safavid dynasty gained an ideological underpinning much stronger than the initial premise of the right of conquest. By the end of his reign, Tahmasp's success in keeping the empire together allowed the Persian elite of the bureaucracy to assume bureaucratic and ideological custodianship of the Safavid empire. This allowed Tahmasp and his successors to gain dynastic legitimacy and to cultivate an imperial cult of personality that prevented another civil war, even when the empire was at its most fragile position.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

A king's book of kings: the Shah-nameh of Shah Tahmasb, an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)

Critics of Sunni Islam
Safavid monarchs
16th-century people from Safavid Iran
Modern child monarchs
1514 births
1576 deaths
Azerbaijani-language poets
16th-century monarchs in the Middle East
Mawsillu
People from Isfahan
Deaths by poisoning
Patrons of the arts
Burials at Imam Reza Shrine
16th-century Iranian people
Iranian slave owners

Tahmasp I


Caniçada Portekiz'de Vieira do Minho belediyesine bağlı olan, 6,49 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 446 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia). 1515-1834 yılları arasında ilçe merkezi gören şehir, sonradan bucağa dönüştürülmüştür.

Portekiz'in freguesiaları
Vieira do Minho

Caniçada


Siloam je kanadski kršćanski rock sastav. Glazba koju sviraju je spoj melodičnog hard rocka, melodičnog rocka s komercijalnim arenskim heavy metal tendencijama.
Ime Siloam dolazi od lokacije u Jeruzalemu.

Članovi
Postava:
 Lee Guthrie – vodeći vokal
 Tim Laroche – gitara
 Ken Maris – klavijature
 Chad Everett – bas-gitara
 Brian Lutes - bubnjevi

Diskografija
Objavili su albume:
 Sweet Destiny, Image 7, 1991.
 Dying To Live, Ocean Records, 1995.
 Crock, 1997.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
(eng.) Heavenly Hard-Rock Siloam 'Dying To Live' (1995)
(eng.) Heavenly Hard-Rock Siloam 'Crock' (1996)
(eng.) Discogs
(eng.) Rate Your Music Siloam - Sweet Destiny

Kršćanski glazbeni sastavi
Kanadski sastavi heavy metala

Siloam (kršćanski rock sastav)


Fray Gabriel Grotti (19 de abril de 1837 - 14 de diciembre de 1914) fue un sacerdote franciscano nacido en Italia, que al llegar al Chaco cumplió el importante papel de ser el primer cura párroco de la naciente Resistencia.

Biografía
Nació el 19 de abril de 1837 en Italia
Fray Gabriel Grotti llegó a Corrientes en 1861 con el Padre Agustín Bortacca. Perteneció a la Segunda Misión de San Carlos del Colegio de la Merced.

Fue el primer sacerdote franciscano que actuó esporádicamente en 1875, en la naciente Resistencia. El Superior del Convento de la Merced de Corrientes autorizó al reverendo padre Grotti a realizar misión en la nueva colonia, a pedido de los inmigrantes friulanos radicados desde 1878; por tal motivo, el 19 de julio de 1879, el sacerdote fue trasladado al Puerto San Fernando en el vapor "Resguardo". Al día siguiente, 20 de julio, ofició la Santa Misa. La permanencia del Padre Grotti se prolongó por diez días más, para atender a los fieles con otras misas y dar los distintos sacramentos (bautismo, confesión, comunión, matrimonio).

Su labor se desarrolló durante los fines de semana por espacio de varios años consecutivos. Desde septiembre de 1882, fue designado como Misionero delegado en forma estable.

Inició sus trabajos misioneros en un galpón de la Comandancia Militar; pero a consecuencia de los ruidos y gritos molestos de los soldados, se trasladó a la casaquinta del Coronel Ávalos.

En 1882, comenzó a celebrar Misa también en la Capilla de San Buenaventura del Monte Alto, reconstruida por los colonos, y en el Palmar. Conoció la reducción de San Buenaventura del Monte Alto desde su nacimiento. Dejó amplias y valederas "memorias" para la historia de esta reducción.

En 1883, se agregó una nueva capilla y cementerio en Colonia Popular, donde el Padre Grotti llegaba con su misión.

El 16 de abril de 1883, el Capellán de la Gobernación, Fray Gabriel Grotti, frente a la tropa de expedición a cargo del Coronel Francisco B. Bosch, formada y lista para la marcha, celebró la Misa de Campaña. Se imploró la protección de Dios sobre los que iban a internarse en el "temido desierto".

Después de unos años, le correspondió misionar Formosa.

El 3 de enero de 1898, integró el Concejo Municipal de esta localidad por elección del pueblo.

El 19 de diciembre de 1898, las autoridades eclesiásticas lo designaron cura párroco interino de Formosa.

En 1900, fue nombrado cura vicario de Formosa. Desarrolló en este lugar una activa labor religiosa, social y cultural. Proyectó e hizo realidad, con Santiago Cavenago, el primer hospital de esa ciudad.

Referencias
La versión original del artículo, o parte de él, procede de chapay.com.ar, que edita bajo licencia Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento Compartir Igual 3.0. Consúltense las restricciones de uso.

Sacerdotes católicos de Italia del siglo XIX
Franciscanos de Italia del siglo XIX
Sacerdotes católicos de Italia del siglo XX
Franciscanos de Italia del siglo XX

Gabriel Grotti


Avangart (Fransızca: avant-garde), Fransızca askeri bir terim olan öncü birlik sözcüğünden gelir. Gerek Fransızcada gerek diğer dillerde kültür, sanat ve politika ile bağlantılı olarak, "yenilikçi" kişiler veya "deneysel" işler anlamına gelir.

Sanat ve siyaset alanında kullanılan avangard terimi, Rönesans'ın askeri teorisinden devşirilmiş bir metafordur: Battaglia, retrogard, avangard, hareket halindeki bir ordunun üç bölümünü temsil eder. Bu terimi sanat alanında kullanan ilk kişi Saint-Simon'dur. Bundan sonra devrimci siyasi hareketlerin, özellikle komünist hareketlerin jargonuna girer.

Avangart sanat; kültür, gerçeklik tanımları içindeki kabul edilmiş normları sarsıp sınırlarını değiştirmeyi amaç edinir. Bu normlar sosyal reformdan estetik deneyimlerin değişimine kadar çeşitlilik gösterebilir.

Kaynakça

Kültürel hareketler
Modern sanat
Sanat terimleri
Sanat akımları

Avangart


Alperen Ocakları Eğitim Kültür ve Dayanışma Vakfı ya da kısaca Alperen Ocakları, kimi zaman Alperenler olarak anılan, Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları ismiyle kurulmuş olan gençlik yapılanmasıdır.

Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu'nun kurucusu olduğu Büyük Birlik Partisi'ne (BBP) yakınlığı ile bilinen, amacını İ'lay-ı Kelimetullah için Nizam-ı Âlem olarak yani Allah'ın adını yüceltmek için âlemin düzeni şeklinde açıklayan ve genellikle Türk-İslam ülküsünü ve Türk milliyetçiliğini benimseyen bir kuruluş olarak tanımlanır.

Temel ilke olarak İslamiyet'i Allah ile kul arasında kabul etmenin bir sınır oluşturduğunu, İslamiyet'in yaşamın her alanına hükmetmesi gereken bir din olduğunu savunurlar. Seyyid Ahmet Arvasi'yi davanın önderi kabul ederler.

Vakfın, dernek statüsünde faaliyetlerini gerçekleştirdiği döneme ait tüzüğünde; sivil toplum faaliyetlerinin etkinleştirilmesi ve geliştirilmesini sağlamak ve bu konuda çalışmalar yapan kişi ve kuruluşlara destek vermek, ülkenin geleceği olan gençlerin kişisel gelişimlerine katkıda bulunmak, gençlerin faydalanacağı eğitim kursları düzenlemek, gençlerin millî ve manevi hassasiyetlere sahip olmasını sağlamanın amaçlandığı yer almaktadır.

Tarihçe
1 Ekim 1992'de Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu'nun talimatıyla Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları ismi ile kuruldu. İlk ve kurucu genel başkanlığını Servet Avcı yaptı. Temmuz 1994'te Genel Başkan Servet Avcı, genel başkanlık görevini, Emir Kuşdemir'e devretti.

Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları Türkiye genelinde aktivite ve etkinliklerini arttırdı. Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları'nın İstanbul ve Ankara temsilcilikleri başta olmak üzere bazı illerdeki oluşumlarının Bosna-Hersek ile Çeçenistan'a destek gösterileri, Çeçenistan'a gıda ve giyecek yardımında bulunmaları, bu dönemde Nizam-ı Âlem hareketinin önünü açtı.

Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları'nın ve yayın organı Alperen Dergisi'nin yayımlanan sayılarının ardından, yazılara ve dergiye davalar açılmaya başladı. Açılan davaların ardından, Genel Başkan Yardımcısı ve derginin yazarlarından Abdullah Çevik, 8 ay hapis cezasına çarptırıldı.

Haziran 1995'te Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları Genel Başkanı Emir Kuşdemir, genel başkanlık görevini Süleyman Doğan'a devretti.

Süleyman Doğan döneminde yurt çapında Çeçenistan'a destek olmak amacıyla yardım kampanyaları ve protestolar düzenlendi. Bosna'da, Filistin'de, Cezayir'de, Çeçenistan'da Müslümanların durumu görmezden gelindiği gerekçesiyle Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Sekreteri Butros Butros-Gali'nin Türkiye'ye yapacağı ziyaret, Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları'nın protesto gösterileriyle engellendi.

Süleyman Doğan, Aralık 1995'te genel başkanlık görevini Yavuz Ağıralioğlu'na devretti.

1996 yılı Mart ayında Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları, "Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları Vakfı" olma sürecine girdi.

8 Mart 1997 tarihinde Yavuz Ağıralioğlu, genel başkanlık görevini Ege Bölge Başkanı görevinde bulunan Tuna Koç'a devretti. Tuna Koç, yeni başladığı görevinde eğitim çalışmalarına fazlaca yüklenerek, tüm teşkilatlarda bir eğitim seferberliği başlattı. Üniversiteli Öğrenciler Birliği ve Liseli Öğrenciler Birliği gibi yapısal değişiklikleri de teşkilatlar üzerinde uygulandı.

Bu dönemde Kosova'daki yaşanan olayları dünya kamuoyuna duyurabilmek ve Birleşmiş Milletler'i harekete geçirebilmek amacıyla birçok faaliyet düzenlendi. 2000 yılına girerken yılbaşı gecesi Ankara Sakarya Caddesi'nde 1999 Gölcük depremi sonrası depremzedelerin sıkıntılarını yurt gündeminde diri tutabilmek ve böyle bir hüzün ortamında eğlence yapmanın Müslüman-Türk toplumunun ahlakına ters düştüğünü ifade edebilmek için yoğun katılımlı bir protesto düzenledi.

Şubat 2000'de Genel Başkan Tuna Koç görevini Yüksel Türkay'a devretti. Bu dönemde Ocağın ismi "Alperen Gençlik Ocakları" olarak değiştirildi.

12 Temmuz 2006 tarihinde göreve gelen Serkan Tüzün, genel başkanlık görevini Eyüp Gökhan Özekin'e devretti.

Özekin döneminde Yerli Düşünce isimli yeni bir yayın organı oluşturuldu ve bu dergi fikir çevrelerinde olumlu tepkiler aldı. Alperen Ocakları'na kurumsal kimlik oluşturma adına önemli faaliyetler yapan Özekin, dönemin BBP Genel Başkanı Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu ile birlikte de Kosova ziyaretlerine katılarak çeşitli temaslarda bulundu. Çeçenistan'a yardım gecesi de organize eden Özekin, genel başkanlık görevini 20 Aralık 2008 tarihinde bu görevi Abdullah Gürgür'e devretti.

Kasım 2015'te göreve gelen Murat Aslan, beş yıllık genel başkanlık görevini 21 Aralık 2019 tarihinde Samet Bağcı'ya devretti. Bağcı, hâlen Alperen Ocakları Eğitim Kültür ve Dayanışma Vakfı genel başkanıdır.

İsim ve amblem
Alp eski Türkçede cesur, savaşçı ruhlu, yiğit kişilere verilen sıfattır. Türklerin İslamiyet'i kabul etmesiyle beraber Alplerin "erenliğe" çağrıldığına inanılır. Allah ve Peygamber yolunda savaşanlar böylece mücahid anlamına gelen Alperenler olarak anılmaya başlar. Türklerin üç kıtaya Alperenlik ismi ile yayıldığına inanılır. Türk-İslam ülküsüne inanan Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları, "Alperen" kelimesinin kuruluşunda da gündeme gelmesi sebebiyle 2000 yılında Alperen Ocakları adını alır. Bu değişim, hem 28 Şubat döneminde irticai faaliyetlerle suçlanmanın önüne geçmek hem de gençlere daha rahat ulaşabilmek amacıyla yapılmıştır.

Alperen Ocakları amblemi hilal ve üç tuğdan oluşur. Hilal İslamiyeti, içindeki üç tuğ devlet, millet ve hâkimiyet kavramlarını temsil eder ve bu unsurlar şöyle açıklanır:

 Hilal: Küfrün karşısında imanın, haçın karşısında İslâm'ın işareti olduğuna inanılır.
 Devlet: Birliğin, beraberliğin, gücün ve otoritenin adıdır. Alperen Ocakları'nın devlet anlayışı "millet için devlet" anlayışıdır. Şeyh Edebali'nin "İnsanı yaşat ki devlet yaşasın." sözü Alperenlerin devlet kavramını şekillendirir.
 Millet: Devlet içerisinde yaşayan unsurların tümüne verilen isimdir. Alperen Ocakları'nın millet anlayışı; dil, din, ortak tarih şuuru, kültür bakımından farklı unsurların bir arada yaşamasını zenginlik olarak kabul eder. Farklılıklar ve millet içerisinde ayrılık gerekçesi olarak gösterilen unsurlar reddedilir.
 Hâkimiyet: Mutlak hâkimiyet sahibinin Allah olduğuna inanılır.

İdeoloji
Alperen Ocakları, İslam'ı daha önde tutmak kaydıyla Türk milliyetçiliğine bağlı kalmaktadır. Millî kimliği oluşturan ve uzun tarihî geçmişte kader birliği yaptığına inandığı topluluklar ile köken farkına bakmaksızın omuz omuza ilerlemeyi savunur. Ülkedeki problemlerin çözülmesinde ortak bilinci güçlü kılmayı ve birlikte yaşama idealini perçinleyecek millî bir kültür üretme amacını hedefler. Hiçbir kesimi ötekileştirmeden, bütün insanları ilk insan ve peygamber Âdem'in çocukları olarak görerek bu ölçü çerçevesinde Türk milletine karşı duyduğu derin sevgi, bağlılık ve sorumluluk şuurunu yerleştirmeyi amaçlar. Milliyetçilik anlayışını İslam ile bütünleşmiş, Türk-İslam medeniyeti ülküsünü esas alan ve "İ'lay-ı Kelimetullah için Nizam-ı Âlem" diyen Alperenlik davası olarak açıklar.

Yayınları

Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları Dergisi
1 Ekim 1992'de kurulan Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları, Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları Dergisi ile yayın hayatına atıldı. Dergi, maddi yetersizlik ve sıkıntılardan dolayı 8 ay süreyle dört sayı olarak çıkarılabildi. Son sayısı 1993 yılı Nisan ayında yayımlandı. 1997'de Tuna Koç'un genel başkan olarak göreve başlamasının ardından Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları Dergisi tekrar yayın hayatına atıldı ve beraberinde Genç Alperen Dergisi ile birlikte çıkarılmaya başlandı.

Alperen Dergisi
Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları Dergisi'nin yayın hayatına son verilmesinin ardından Nizam-ı Âlem Ocakları, 1 Aralık 1993'te Alperen Dergisi adıyla yeniden yayın hayatına girdi ve çalışma faaliyetlerini bu derginin etrafında sürdürdü. Derginin yayın hayatına 3. sayı çıkarıldıktan sonra, Temmuz 1994'e kadar ara verilmek durumunda kalındı. Tekrar yayın hayatına başlayan dergi, yayımlanan yazılara ve dergiye açılan davalar nedeniyle maddi sıkıntıya düştü ve Ekim 1994'te yayın hayatına ara verildi. Mart 1995'te tekrar yayın hayatına başlayan Alperen Dergisi'nin açılan davalar ve cezalar sebebiyle tirajlarında düşüş yaşandı.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Twitter'da Alperen Ocakları
 Youtube'da Alperen Ocakları

1992'de kurulan kuruluşlar
Milliyetçi kuruluşlar
İslami kuruluşlar

Alperen Ocakları


En fanøkvinde sætter sit hovedtøj er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1951 instrueret af Erik R. Knudsen.

Handling
Filmens formål er at fastholde en beskrivelse af en gammel, næsten uddød dragtskik: binding af hovedtøj på Fanø. Det vises, at hovedtøjet består af flere enkelte dele, som må lægges og bindes på en ganske bestemt måde for at sidde rigtigt.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1951

En fanøkvinde sætter sit hovedtøj


Die Polish International 2004 im Badminton fanden vom 24. bis zum 28. März 2004 statt.

Medaillengewinner

Weblinks
http://tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=976470F7-DFB9-49DB-AE01-6C9737E67FF4

 2004
Badminton 2004

Polish International 2004


Tchad deltog første gang i olympiske lege under Sommer-OL 1964 i Tokyo. De har siden deltaget i alle efterfølgende sommerlege, undtaget Sommer-OL 1976 i Montréal og Sommer-OL 1980 i Moskva, som de boykottede. De har aldrig deltaget i vinterlege. Tchad har aldrig vundet nogen medalje.

Medaljeoversigt

Eksterne henvisninger
 Tchads OL-statistik  på Sports-reference.com

Tchad ved sommer-OL
OL

Tchad ved OL


Sir Robertson Huntly "Bob" Stewart (Ordre de l'Empire britannique), né le 21 septembre 1913 et mort le 13 août 2007, était un industriel et exportateur néo-zélandais. Il est le premier à avoir manufacturé des produits en plastique en Nouvelle-Zélande.

Jeunesse
Robertson Stewart est né à Christchurch en 1913. Il est le fils du comptable Robertson McGregor Stewart et d'Ivy Emily Stewart (née Wooles). Ses parents se séparent alors qu'il a six ans, lui et son jeune frère Max restent alors avec leur mère. Ils vivent à Sydenham puis à Linwood. Il fréquente l'école primaire Linwood North, la Christchurch West High School et un trimestre la Christchurch Boys' High School. A l'âge de 13 ans, la scarlatine le force à quitter l'école, il se fait soigner à l'hôpital de Bottle Lake à Burwood. Il ne retourne pas à l'école après son rétablissement.

Il suit une formation en cours du soir pour devenir ingénieur électricien pendant cinq ans. Son premier employeur en 1929 est Harry Urlwin. Il lui apprend à ne jamais avoir peur de rien ni de personne. En 1935, Harry Urlwin l'envoie en Angleterre pour se renseigner sur les plastiques. Il importe une machine de moulage en Nouvelle-Zélande et devient ainsi le premier à fabriquer avec ce matériau dans le pays.

Il commence à travailler pour Plastic & Die Casting Ltd en 1947, une entreprise fondée dix ans plus tôt. En 1957, il réunit suffisamment d'argent pour acheter l'entreprise, qu'il rebaptise PDL. La société est cotée à la Bourse de Nouvelle-Zélande en 1971 et, à son apogée, emploie 2 200 personnes et a un chiffre d'affaires annuel de 350 millions de dollars néo-zélandais. Il exporte dans 50 pays et sur trois continents. Il installe des usines dans de nombreux pays, dont une en Malaisie en 1974. Son dicton préféré était : .

Robertson Stewart prend sa retraite au milieu des années 1990, remettant PDL à son fils, Mark Robertson. La participation familiale de 60 % dans PDL est vendue en 2001 à la société française Schneider Electric pour 97 millions de dollars néo-zélandais.

Robertson Stewart est nommé Compagnon de l'Ordre de l'Empire britannique lors des distinctions honorifiques du Nouvel An de 1970 et Chevalier Bachelor lors des distinctions honorifiques du Nouvel An de 1979, pour ses services rendus à la fabrication et à la communauté. Il est conseiller municipal de Christchurch de 1969 à 1972. En 1995, il est intronisé au New Zealand Business Hall of Fame. En raison de son manque d'éducation formelle, la reconnaissance dont il est le plus fier est son doctorat honorifique en ingénierie de l'Université de Canterbury.

Sa relation d'affaires avec la Malaisie l'a amené à devenir consul honoraire de Malaisie, poste qu'il occupe pendant 28 ans. Le roi de Malaisie l'a nommé Compagnon de l'Ordre de la Loyauté à la Couronne de Malaisie (JSM) pour ses liens commerciaux et culturels.

Fontaine Stewart

Dans les années 1960, Robertson Stewart propose un financement pour la construction d'une fontaine dans une petite réserve publique au coin des rues Colombo, High et Hereford. Il verse initialement 5 000 £ pour sa construction, mais ce montant augmente par la suite pour atteindre la somme de 14 000 $ NZ. La fontaine, comprend quatre murs en acier inoxydable sur lesquels coule de l'eau. Elle est construite au début des années 1970 et constitue sa première contribution philanthropique à Christchurch. En 1987, il décide que la fontaine doit être repensée, ce qui est fait en 1988. Des problèmes d'entretien continus conduisent à la décision de 1993 de remplacer la fontaine. À ce moment-là, son emplacement était devenu une partie du City Mall.

La fontaine de remplacement, connue sous le nom de fontaine Stewart, a été construite en 1998 pour 700 000 $ NZ, dont 200 000  $ NZ sont financés par Robertson Stewart. Elle est décorée de centaines de carreaux peints par des écoliers de Christchurch. La fontaine devient un lieu de prédilection pour les jeunes. La démolition de l'ancienne fontaine commence le 13 août 2007 et 13 jeunes sont arrêtés alors qu'il manifestent leur opposition à la démolition. Le retrait de la fontaine est soutenu par les propriétaires d'entreprises locales, qui se plaignaient depuis longtemps des jeunes trainant près de la fontaine, et nuisant à leur commerce.

Le conseil municipal de Christchurch a officiellement nommé la réserve Stewart Plaza en 2008. Le legs de Stewart a financé en partie la sculpture de remplacement, « Flour Power », à condition que l'installation soit permanente et que le terrain soit connu sous le nom de Stewart Plaza.

Famille et mort
En 1937, Robertson Stewart épouse Gladys Gunter dont il divorce plus tard. Ils ont eu trois enfants :

 Sir Robert John Stewart (né en 1940), fait chevalier en 2014 lors de l'anniversaire de la reine.
 Elizabeth "Lee" Stewart (née en 1943).
 Peter Maxwell Stewart (né en 1945) marié depuis 1968 à la fondatrice de la Fashion Week de Nouvelle-Zélande, Dame Pieter Stewart (qui a été nommée Dame Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit lors des Birthday Honours 2012 ).

Peter est emprisonné en 2008 pendant trois ans et demi pour des accusations de relations sexuelles avec des enfants, mais une accusation de viol est rejetée par la Haute Cour de Christchurch après avoir purgé une peine de prison pour son autre infractions. Il est libéré sur parole après 14 mois.

En 1970, il épouse sa secrétaire, Ellen Adrienne Cansdale, née à Melbourne (qui a été nommée Dame Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit lors des honneurs du Nouvel An 2015 ). Deux enfants naissent de ce second mariage :

 Mark James Stewart
 Todd Huntly Stewart

Robertson Stewart décède à Christchurch le 13 août 2007. Il laisse derrière lui sa seconde épouse, Adrienne, et ses cinq enfants.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Personnalité néo-zélandaise du monde des affaires du XXe siècle
Naissance en septembre 1913
Décès en août 2007
Pages avec des traductions non relues
Décès à 93 ans

Robertson Stewart


Le raïon de Prylouky (en ) est un raïon situé dans l'oblast de Tchernihiv en Ukraine. Son chef-lieu est Prylouky.

Avec la réforme administrative du 18 juillet 2020, le raïon est étendu aux dépens des raïons de Ichnia, Sribne, Talalaivka et Varva.

Lieux d'intérêt
Le parc national d'Itchnia, le Monastère de la Sainte-Trinité de Goustynia.

Références

Prylouky

Raïon de Prylouky


Lionel Frost Bowen  (28 December 1922 – 1 April 2012) was an Australian politician and senior Labor Party figure, serving in the ministries of Gough Whitlam and Bob Hawke. He was Deputy Prime Minister of Australia from 1983 to 1990.

Personal life
Bowen was born in the Sydney suburb of Ultimo. His father left the family when Bowen was aged 10 years and Bowen's mother looked after her invalid brother and elderly mother, while working as a cleaner. Bowen was educated at Cleveland Street public school, Marcellin College Randwick and Sydney University where he graduated with a LLB in 1946 and became a solicitor. He served in the Second Australian Imperial Force from 1941 to 1945, reaching the rank of corporal.

Bowen and his wife, Claire, married in 1953 and had three daughters and five sons. He lived in the same home in Kensington for 73 years. His son, Tony, was a mayor of the City of Randwick.

Political career
Bowen was elected to Randwick Council and became Mayor in 1948. He served in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly from 1962 to 1969, representing Randwick, before being elected to the Parliament of Australia in 1969, to the seat of Kingsford Smith in the House of Representatives. From 1972 to 1975, he served successively as Minister for Manufacturing Industry, Special Minister of State and Postmaster-General in the Whitlam cabinet.

Bowen played a relatively quiet role in politics, preferring to work behind the scenes. A significant achievement came when he served as acting education minister in the Whitlam government (during the illness and hospitalization of incumbent education minister Kim Beazley Senior), when he managed to split the opposition and win National Party support in the Senate for needs-based funding for non-government schools.

When Whitlam resigned as Labor leader after his defeat at the 1977 election, Bowen contested the party leadership but was defeated by Bill Hayden and became Deputy Leader. He retained this position when Bob Hawke became Leader in February 1983. When Hawke won the March 1983 election, Bowen became Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Trade in the first Hawke Ministry. In July 1983, he was appointed Vice-President of the Executive Council and in the second Hawke ministry, he became Attorney-General, losing the Trade portfolio.

In 1988, Bowen sponsored four referendums to reform the Australian Constitution (see 1988 Australian referendum), but all were defeated. He retired from federal politics prior to the March 1990 election, and was succeeded as Deputy Prime Minister by Paul Keating.

Post political career
Bowen served as Chairman of the National Gallery of Australia between 1990 and 1995 and shared a strong interest in horseracing.

In 1990, he was awarded the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal, and in 1991, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia "in recognition of service to the community and politics." In 2001, he received a Centenary Medal.

Bowen died from pneumonia on 1 April 2012. after years afflicted with Alzheimer's disease. He was given a state funeral on 11 April 2012.

Legacy
The Family Court of Australia and the Federal Magistrates Court are located in the Lionel Bowen Building in Goulburn Street, Sydney. The City of Randwick main library is known as the Lionel Bowen Library. Lionel Bowen Park is situated in the suburb of Mascot.

Gallery

References

1922 births
2012 deaths
1975 Australian constitutional crisis
Deputy Prime Ministers of Australia
Australian Army soldiers
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Australia
Australian republicans
Labor Right politicians
Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Kingsford Smith
Members of the Australian House of Representatives
Leaders of the Australian House of Representatives
Members of the Cabinet of Australia
Attorneys-General of Australia
Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
Companions of the Order of Australia
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Deaths from dementia in Australia
Deaths from pneumonia in New South Wales
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of New South Wales
20th-century Australian politicians
Mayors of Randwick
Councillors of Sydney County Council

Lionel Bowen


Agrilus frenchi é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Blackburn, 1891.

Referências

frenchi

Agrilus frenchi


Ftalna kiselina (prema naftalen) ili 1,2-benzendikarboksilna kiselina, C6H4(COOH)2, je najvažnija aromatska dvobazična kiselina, s dvije skupine –COOH na susjednim ugljikovim atomima aromatskoga prstena. Dobiva se u obliku bezbojnih kristala katalitičkom oksidacijom naftalena te alkalnom hidrolizom tako nastala ftalnog anhidrida (ftalanhidrida), C8H4O3. Ftalna kiselina lako gubi vodu dajući ftalanhidrid, a u tome se obliku najčešće i upotrebljava, i to u sintezi organskih bojila (ftaleina, ftalocijanina), lijekova, plastifikatora (omekšavala) i poliesterskih smola. Toksičnost ftalne kiseline je mala s LD50 (miš) od 550 mg/kg.

Ksantenska bojila

Ksantenska bojila formalno su ciklički analozi di- i trifenilmetanskih spojeva; u njima su dva aromatska prstena spojena jednim atomom kisika u orto-položaju prema metanovom ugljiku. Teorijski se izvode od heterocikličkog sistema ksantena, dibenzo-y-pirana, ali se od njega ne pripravljaju. Sam ksanten je bezbojan, no derivati s auksokromnim grupama u molekuli su obojeni. Prema supstituentima koji se nalaze u molekuli dijele se ksantenska bojila u tri podgrupe. Prva sadrži hidroksi-derivate, druga amino-derivate, a treća amino-hidroksi-derivate. Kromofor je ovih bojila u slučaju aminoderivata rezonantni hibrid oksonijskog, amonijskog i karbonijskog oblika molekule (I, II, III). Hidroksi-derivati se gubitkom protona stabiliziraju dajući električki nenabijen sistem čiji je kromofor kinonoidna struktura IV.

Ova su bojila i po svojstvima bojenja bliza arilmetanskim bojilima. Obojenja koja se njima postižu vrlo su čista i jarka. Najbrojnije su zastupana crvena i ružičasta s nekoliko žutih i ljubičastih. Neka od ovih bojila snažno fluoresciraju u otopini, pa i na obojenom materijalu. I u ovoj se grupi nalaze bojeni lakovi pripremljeni taloženjem s fosfor-volfram-molibdenskom kiselinom. Niz crvenih i narančastih bojila ove skupine važan je za bojenje kozmetičkih preparata, živežnih namirnica i ljekovitih pripravaka.

Među značajnije predstavnike ksantenskih bojila ide sulforodamin B, C.I. 45100; priprema se tako da se kondenzira benzaldehid-2,4-disulfonska kiselina s m-dietilaminofenolom, produkt dehidrira sumpornom kiselinom, oksidira željeznim kloridom i prevede u natrijevu sol. Rodamin B, C.I. 45170, jedno od prvih bojila ove grupe, dobiva se kondenzacijom anhídrida ftalne kiseline s m-dietilaminofenolom; ako se kao aminska komponenta upotrijebi 3-etilamino-p-krezol i tako nastali produkt esterificira alkoholom, nastaje rodamin 6G, C. I. 45160. Echtsáureviolett ARR, C.I. 45190, dobiva se obradom fluoresceina fosfornim trikloridom, kondenzacijom tako nastalog 3',6'-diklorfluorana s o-toluidinom i sulfuriranjem. Fluorescein, C. I. 45350, priprema se kondenzacijom anhídrida ftalne kiseline s rezorcinom. Njegove alkalne soli, poznate pod imenom uranin neobično jako fluoresciraju u otopini (i u razređenju 1 : 40 000 000), pa se stoga upotrebljavaju za označavanje i ispitivanje vodenih tokova. Bromiranjem fluoresceina priprema se tetrabromfluorescein, eozin G, C.I. 45380, a jodiranjem dijodfluorescein, Eritrozin 6G, C. I. 45425. Coerulein S, C.I. 45510, nastaje obradom Galleina (C.I. 45445) koncentriranom sumpornom kiselinom. Gallein se dobiva kondenzacijom pirogalola ili galne kiseline s anhidridom ftalne kiseline.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Organske kiseline

Ftalna kiselina


was a town located in Watarai District, Mie Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 9,907 and a density of 90.15 persons per km². The total area was 109.89 km².

On October 1, 2005, Nansei, along with the town of Nantō (also from Watarai District), was merged to create the town of Minamiise and thus no longer exists as an independent municipality.

It is known, medically, for having a high incidence of Motor Neuron Disease amongst its population; it is one of 3 global "hot spots". Reasons for this are yet unknown.

External links
 Official website of Minamiise

Dissolved municipalities of Mie Prefecture

Nansei, Mie


Eamon Duffy  (born 1947) is an Irish historian. He is the Emeritus Professor of the History of Christianity at the University of Cambridge, and a Fellow and former president of Magdalene College.

Early life
Duffy was born on 9 February 1947, in Dundalk, Ireland. He describes himself as a "cradle Catholic". He was educated at St Philip's School and the University of Hull. He undertook postgraduate research at the University of Cambridge, where his doctoral advisers were Owen Chadwick and Gordon Rupp.

Academic career
Duffy specialises in 15th- to 17th-century religious history of Britain. He is also a former member of the Pontifical Historical Commission. His work has done much to overturn the popular image of late-medieval Catholicism in England as moribund, and instead presents it as a vibrant cultural force. On weekdays from 22 October to 2 November 2007, he presented the BBC Radio 4 series 10 Popes Who Shook the World – those popes featured were Peter, Leo I, Gregory I, Gregory VII, Innocent III, Paul III, Pius IX, Pius XII, John XXIII, and John Paul II.

Duffy moved to Magdalene College in the University of Cambridge in 1979, and was professor of the history of Christianity from 2003 to 2014. Since 2014 he has been Emeritus Professor. In 2004 he was elected as a Fellow of the British Academy.

Prizes and awards
 Longman–History Today Award for book of the year (1994): The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 1400–1580
 Hawthornden Prize for Literature (2002): The Voices of Morebath: Reformation and Rebellion in an English Village
 Honorary fellow, St Mary's College, Twickenham (2003). (He later resigned from the position in protest of management decisions at the college made by its principal, Philip Esler)
President of the Ecclesiastical History Society (2004–2005)
 Honorary doctorates from the universities of Durham, Hull, and King's College London, and from the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, Toronto
 Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy (2012)
 Honorary Canon, Ely Cathedral (2014)

Books
 Humanism, Reform and the Reformation: The Career of Bishop John Fisher (1989), with Brendan Bradshaw
The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, c.1400 to c.1580 (1992; subsequent editions in 2005 and 2022)
  (1997; subsequent editions in 2002, 2006, and 2014)
 The Voices of Morebath: Reformation and Rebellion in an English Village (2001; subsequent edition in 2003)  (2001)  (2003)
 "The Shock of Change: Continuity and Discontinuity in the Elizabethan Church of England", in Anglicanism and the Western Catholic Tradition (2003)
 Faith of Our Fathers: Reflections on Catholic Tradition (2004; subsequent edition in 2006)  (2004)  (2006)
 Walking to Emmaus (2006)
 Marking the Hours: English People and Their Prayers, 1240–1570 (2006)
 Fires of Faith: Catholic England Under Mary Tudor (2009)
 Ten Popes Who Shook the World (2011)
 Saints, Sacrilege and Sedition: Religion and Conflict in the Tudor Reformations (2012)
 Reformation Divided: Catholics, Protestants, and the Conversion of England (2017)
 The Hope That Is Within You – Eamon Duffy in Conversation with Raymond Friel (2017)
 Royal Books and Holy Bones: Essays in Medieval Christianity (2018)
 John Henry Newman: A Very Brief History (2019)
 A People's Tragedy: Studies in Reformation (2020)

References

Further reading
 Eamon Duffy, "Far from the Tree" (review of Rob Iliffe, Priest of Nature: the Religious Worlds of Isaac Newton, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017, ), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 4 (8 March 2018), pp. 28–29.

External links

 Duffy's faculty page
 PBS interview with Duffy
 Red Cross Lecture 2015: Fact, Fiction And The Tudor Past

1947 births
Living people
20th-century Irish historians
20th-century Irish male writers
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century Irish historians
21st-century Irish male writers
21st-century Roman Catholics
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Hull
Fellows of Magdalene College, Cambridge
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Historians of the Catholic Church
Irish emigrants to the United Kingdom
Irish historians of religion
Irish Roman Catholics
New Blackfriars people
People educated at St Philip's School
People from Dundalk
Presidents of the Ecclesiastical History Society
Reformation historians
Roman Catholic scholars

Eamon Duffy


is a district located in Shimane Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the district has an estimated population of 24,500 and a density of 70.79 people per km2. The total area is 346.10 km2.

The Oki District encompasses the Oki Islands, historically called Oki Province.

Towns and villages
Ama (Nakanoshima Island)
Chibu (Chiburijima Island)
Nishinoshima (Nishinoshima Island)
Okinoshima (Dōgo Island) - formed from the merger of Fuse, Goka, Saigō and Tsuma on October 1, 2004

Districts in Shimane Prefecture

Oki District, Shimane


Ruckertshofen ist ein Gemeindeteil der Gemeinde Adelshofen im Landkreis Ansbach (Mittelfranken, Bayern).

Geografie
Der Weiler liegt an einem linken Zufluss des Gickelhäuser Baches, der ein rechter Zufluss der Tauber ist. Die Kreisstraße AN 8 führt nach Gickelhausen (1,3 km nördlich) bzw. nach Adelshofen zur Staatsstraße 2416 (0,8 km südlich).

Geschichte
1801 gab es in Ruckertshofen 12 Haushalte, die alle der Reichsstadt Rothenburg untertan waren. Mit dem Gemeindeedikt (frühes 19. Jahrhundert) wurde der Ort dem Steuerdistrikt und der Ruralgemeinde Adelshofen zugewiesen.

Einwohnerentwicklung

Religion
Der Ort ist seit der Reformation evangelisch-lutherisch geprägt und nach St. Nikolaus (Adelshofen) gepfarrt. Die Einwohner römisch-katholischer Konfession sind nach St. Johannis (Rothenburg ob der Tauber) gepfarrt.

Literatur

Weblinks

Fußnoten

Geographie (Adelshofen, Mittelfranken)
Ort im Landkreis Ansbach
Weiler in Mittelfranken

Ruckertshofen


Kemer, bele dolayarak toka ile tutturulan, kumaş, deri veya metalden yapılan bel bağıdır. Giysilere bağlı olarak üretilmiş olabileceği gibi, giysilerden bağımsız bir biçimde aksesuar amacı ile de kullanılabilir. Bir kemeri oluşturan ögeler, zaman içinde moda olgusu nedeni ile biçim ve özellikleri değişebilen kemer tokası ve beli en rahat biçimde kavraması için üzerine açılmış deliklerdir.

Kemer, Tunç Çağı'ndan bu yana hem kadınlar için hem erkekler için kullanılagelmiş bir giyim aracıdır. Orta Çağ'a kadar kadın giyiminde erkeklere oran ile daha az yer almış olsa da o dönemden itibaren günümüze dek hem kadınlar hem erkekler için biçimleri farklılık gösteren kemerler ortaya çıkmıştır.

Türleri

 Kol bandı
 Bandolier
 Baldric
 Kemer tokası
 Kemer kancası
 Siyah kuşak (savaş sanatları)
 Kırmızı kuşak (savaş sanatları)
 Kuşak (giysi)
 Polis kemeri
 Kemer çantası
 Gartel
 Jartiyer
 Haramaki
 Megingjörð
 Obi (kuşak)
 Senninbari
 Omuz kemeri
 Pantolon askısı
 Uwa-obi
 Perdeli kemer
 Zunnar

Dış bağlantılar

 Giyim ''

Giyim kemerleri
Giyim
Tekstil terimleri
Aksesuarlar

Kemer (giyim)


20 වන සියවසේ වර්ණ න්‍යායේ පදනම නිර්මාණය වී ඇත්තේ භෞතික ලෝකයේ ලක්‍ෂණ මත පදනම්ව නොව සංවේදන අත්දැකීම් විසින් පෙන්වාදෙන 'ශුද්ධ' හෝ ආදර්ශ වර්ණ මතය. මෙය විසින්  සාම්ප‍්‍රදායික වර්ණ න්‍යායේ නොහැකියාවන් රැසක් පෙන්වා දෙනු ලැබ ඇති අතර නූතන න්‍යායගතකිරීම් විසින්ද මේ සමහරකට පිළිතුරු සපයා නොමැත.

වඩාත් තීරණාත්මක ගැටළුව වී ඇත්තේ ආකලන වර්ණ ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන ආලෝක මිශ‍්‍රණයන්ගේ හැසිරීම් සහ ව්‍යාකලන වර්ණ ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන සායම් හෝ තීන්ත මිශ‍්‍රණ (වියලි හෝ තෙත්) අතර පවත්නා වියවුලයි. මෙම ගැටළුව ඇතිවන්නේ භෞතික ද්‍රව්‍යාත්මක බව විසින් උරාගනු ලබන ආලෝකය ඇසට ලැබෙන ආලෝකය අනුගමනය කරන රීතීන්ට වෙනස් රීතීන් අනුගමනය කිරීම හේතුවෙනි.

දෙවන ගැටළුව වන්නේ ප‍්‍රබල දීප්තතාවයන්ගේ බලපෑම් මතුපිට වර්ණයන් හි (තීන්ත හෝ සායම් මෙන්) පෙනුම වෙනසකට ලක්කිරීමයි. ආලෝක මිශ‍්‍රණයන් තුල අළු, දුඹුරු හෝ සිවන්ගුරු පැහැයන් නොපෙනී යයි. ප‍්‍රබල දීප්තතාවය ප‍්‍රභාමත් සුදු පැහැය මැද මධ්‍යස්ථ කහ පැහැයක් පවතිනවිට කහ, කොළ හෝ දුඹුරු වර්ණයකින් පෙනෙනු ඇත.

තුන්වන ගැටළුව වන්නේ වර්ණයන්ගේ බලපෑම් සාකල්‍ය ලෙස හෝ නියත ලෙස විස්තර කිරීමේ ප‍්‍රවනතාවයයි. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස සියළු වර්ණයන්ට අදාල වන්නාවූ සාපේක්‍ෂ ගුණාංගයන් එනම් ලූහුවත් බව (ආලෝකය එදිරිව අඳුර හෝ සුදු එදිරිව කළු), සන්තෘප්තිය (තීව‍්‍ර සහ අඳුරු) සහ පැහැය (උදා රතු, කහ, කොළ, නිල් හෝ දම්) යන තුනෙහි වෙනස හේතුවෙන් බොහොමයක් වර්ණවල බලපෑම සිදුවුවද 'කහ' සහ 'නිල'' වර්ණයන් අතර වෙනසට හේතුව ඒවා සමජාතීය වර්ණවීම ලෙස සැලකීම දැක්විය හැක. මෙලෙස ද්‍රෘෂ්‍ය නිර්මාණයක'කහ' එදිරිව 'නිල්' පැහැයන්හි හි දෘෂ්‍ය ගැටුම පැහැයන්ගේ ලූහුවත්බව සහ තීව‍්‍රතාවය අතර සාපේක්‍ෂ බව මත රඳා පවතී.

මෙම ව්‍යාකූලතාවයන් අර්ධවශයෙන් ඵෙතිහාසික වන අතර 19 වන සියවසේ අවසන් භාගය දක්වා සෞන්දර්යාත්මක මතයන් විසින් ආවරනය කොටගෙන සිටි වර්ණ සංජානනය පිලිබඳ විද්‍යාත්මක අවිනිශ්චිතතාවය හේතුවෙන් පැනනැගුනු ඒවා වෙයි. කෙසේවෙතත් වර්ණ සංජානනයේ පවත්නා සන්දර්භීය සහ නම්‍යශීලී හැසිරීම විස්තර කිරීම සඳහා දරන ලද උත්සාහයන්ද මීට බලපාන ලදී.

බොහෝ ඵෙතිහාසික 'වර්ණ න්‍යායන්' මඟින් මූලික 'ශුද්ධ' වර්ණයන් තුන සංයෝග කිරීම මඟින් අනෙකුත් පැවතිය හැකි සියලූම වර්ණයන් නිර්මාණය කළහැකි බවට උපකල්පනය කෙරින. යම්හෙයකින් මෙම දර්ශීය කි‍්‍රයාකාරීත්වය පෙන්වීමට කිසියම් සායම් වර්ගයක් හෝ තීන්ත වර්ගයක් අසමත් වන්නේ නම් එය සංශුද්ධ නොවීම හෝ වර්ණකයන්ගේ දුබලතාවයක් හේතුවෙන් සිදුවන්නක් ලෙස සැලකින. නමුත් යතාර්ථයේදී සියලූ දෘශ්‍යමාන වර්ණයන් නිර්මාණය කළහැක්කේ වර්ණමිතියේදී යොදාගන්නා පරිකල්පනීය 'මූලික වර්ණයන්' මිශ‍්‍ර කිරීමෙන් පමණකි. නමුත් ද්‍රෘෂ්‍යමාන වර්ණ පරාසයට එහා ගිය වර්ණයන් රැසක්ද පවතී. ආලෝකය තීන්ත හෝ සායම්වල සැබෑ 'මූලික' වර්ණ 3 ක් මිශ‍්‍ර කිරීමෙන් නිර්මාණය කළහැක්කේ සීමිත පරාසයක වර්ණ සංඛ්‍යාවක් පමණකි. එය හැමවිටම මිනිසාට සංජානනය කරගත හැකි සම්පූර්ණ වර්ණ පරාසයට වඩා කුඩාවූවකි.

වර්ණ න්‍යායේ නොහැකියාවන් රැසක් පෙන්වා දෙනු ලැබ ඇති වර්ණ වියුක්තනය


Der Kulturpreis der Stadt Fürth würdigt seit 1970 Personen mit herausragenden Leistungen im Bereich Kunst, die durch Geburt, Leben oder Wirken mit Fürth verbunden sind. Die heute gültigen Richtlinien traten nach Beschluss des Stadtrats vom 21. Dezember 2011 zum 1. Januar 2012 in Kraft.

Für die Vergabe der Preise stehen alle 2 Jahre 12.000 € (je 6.000 € aus zwei Haushaltsjahren) zur Verfügung. Sollten durch die Preiswürdigkeit von vorgeschlagenen Personen oder Gruppen in der Zusammensetzung der Preisgelder 13.000 € benötigt werden, sind 1.000 € aus dem frei verfügbaren Fonds derselben Haushaltsstelle zu entnehmen.
 Das Preisgeld für den Kulturpreis der Stadt Fürth beträgt 6.000 €.
 Die Kulturförderpreise der Stadt Fürth sind mit je 2.000 € ausgestattet.
 Der Sonderpreis Kultur der Stadt Fürth ist mit je 3.000 € ausgestattet.
 Der Leonhard und Ida Wolf-Gedächtnispreis ist mit je 1.500 € ausgestattet.

Seit 1996 verleiht die Stadt zu Ehren ihres großen Sohnes den Jakob-Wassermann-Literaturpreis.

Preisträger: Kulturpreis der Stadt Fürth
Der Kulturpreis der Stadt Fürth kann an eine durch Geburt, Leben oder Werk mit Franken verbundene Persönlichkeit zur Würdigung ihrer außergewöhnlichen Leistungen und/oder dauerhaften Verdienste auf dem Gebiet von Kunst und Kultur verliehen werden. Stand 2020 ist er mit 4.000 Euro dotiert.
 1970: Werner Heider, Komponist, Pianist und Dirigent
 1993: Kunihiko Kato, Bildhauer
 1995: Jutta Czurda, Tänzerin
 1996: Johann Helmut Schmidt-Rednitz, Maler
 2000: Christel Opp, Dirigentin
 2002: Ortwin Michl, Maler und Kunstprofessor
 2004: Thilo Wolf, Jazzpianist und Big-Band-Leader
 2007: Ewald Arenz, Autor
 2009: Oliver Boberg, bildender Künstler
 2012: Heinrich Hartl, Komponist, Pianist
 2014: Andreas Oehlert, Objektkünstler, Zeichner
 2018: Matthias Egersdörfer, Kabarettist
 2022: Leonhard F. Seidl, Schriftsteller; Lutz Krutein, Künstler; Maximilian Heimler, Jazzmusiker

Preisträger: Großer Kulturpreis der Stadt Fürth
Seit 2020 wird der Große Kulturpreis vergeben. Er ist mit 8.000 Euro dotiert.

 2020: Naomi Blume, Historikerin
 2022: Inge Gutbrod, bildende Künstlerin

Preisträger: Kulturförderpreise der Stadt Fürth
Kulturförderpreise der Stadt Fürth können an Personen oder Gruppen verliehen werden, die durch Geburt, Leben oder Werk mit Franken verbunden sind, die förderungswürdige Leistungen auf dem Gebiet von Kunst und Kultur erbracht haben und dabei weitere positive Entwicklungen erkennen lassen.
 1971: Harald Hubl, Walter Zimmermann
 1972: Ortwin Michl, Maler; Gerd Scherm, Schriftsteller
 1976: Chris Bruder, bildender Künstler
 1986: Thilo Wolf, Jazzpianist und Big-Band-Leader
 1989: Hjalmar Leander Weiss, Maler, bildender Künstler; Jutta Czurda, Tänzerin
 1998: Inge Gutbrod, bildende Künstlerin
 2001: Peter Stutzmann, bildender Künstler
 2005: Elisen Quartett: Anja Schaller und Maria Schalk (Violinen), Karoline Hofmann (Viola), Irene von Fritsch (Violoncello); Christoph Müller, Posaunist, Komponist
 2006: Sabine Härting, Malerin; Elke Fenneteau, bildende Künstlerin; Kammerorchester KlangLust!
 2008: Sascha Banck, bildende Künstlerin; Daniela Holweg, Musikerin; Theater aus dem Kultur Kammer Gut
 2010: Bianca Schelling, Malerin; Mathias Wehr, Dirigent; Theater Jugend Club Fürth
 2012: Julia Frischmann, Malerin; Christoph Schedler, Tänzer
 2014: Sigrun Arenz, Schriftstellerin; Kathrin Hausel, bildende Künstlerin
 2016: Ursula Kreutz, Malerin; Benjamin Zuber, bildender Künstler; John Lidfors, Chordirigent
 2018: Lara Ermer, Literatur; Pawel Zalejski, Musik
 2020: Barbara Engelhard, Kunst; Moritz König, Musik

Preisträger: Sonderpreise Kultur der Stadt Fürth
Der Sonderpreis Kultur der Stadt Fürth wird seit 2012 an Personen, Gruppen und Einrichtungen vergeben, die im Kulturleben der Stadt Fürth kontinuierliche und/oder herausragende Akzente setzen und nachhaltig wirken.
 2012: Bernd Noack, Journalist
 2014: Sirka Schwartz-Uppendieck und Ingeborg Schilffarth, künstlerische Leiterinnen der Fürther Kirchenmusiktage
 2016: Franz Janetzko, bildender Künstler; Ingrid Lamatsch, Brauchtumspflegerin
 2018: Günter Derleth, Fotograf
 2020: Kunstkeller o27 e.V.

Preisträger: Stadtratspreis
Seit 2020 wird ein Kulturpreis durch den Stadtrat der Stadt Fürth vergeben.
 2020: Comödie Fürth

Preisträger: Leonhard und Ida Wolf-Gedächtnispreis

Das Fürther Geschwisterpaar Leonhard (1897–1983) und Ida (1892–1993) Wolf stiftete einen Gedächtnispreis zur Förderung junger Künstler aus den Bereichen Musik und Bildende Kunst, die in Mittelfranken, bevorzugt in Fürth und Nürnberg, leben. Der Preis wird seit 1995 verliehen.
 1995: Lilian Gern (Klavier), Christof Kuen (Viola), Stefan Nützel (Malerei), Marion Reinhard (Fagott), Stefan Schultz (Trompete)
 1996: Birgit Kölbl (Musik), Xenia Löffler (Musik), Heidi Schiekofer (Musik), Doris Webersberger-Maier (Bildende Kunst), Corinna Zimprich (Musik)
 1998: Karsten Friedrich (Schlagzeug), Stefan Raith (Violine), Julia Rempe (Sopran), Dieter Wittmann (Bildende Kunst)
 2001: Konrad Hütten (Violoncello), Hildegard Kuen (Viola), Katja Lunkenheimer (Klavier), Tine Melzer (Bildende Kunst), Christine Michler (Viola)
 2003: Wolfgang Auer (Flöte), Christine Michler (Viola), Nina Riedmann (Violoncello), Lisa Maria Schachtschneider (Klavier), Florian Tuercke (Bildende Kunst)
 2005: Monika Lück (Blockflöte), Roland Klappstein (Bariton), 4rhythm (Musik)
 2007: Julia Frischmann (Bildende Kunst), Katharina Schmerer (Gesang), Fløtscum (Musik)
 2009: Eva Landendörfer, Georg Stanka, Bastus Trump, Sixphones
 2012: Julius Beck, Carina Madsius
 2014: Lena Dobler (Singer-Songwriterin), Oliver Riedmüller (Saxophon), Michael Höfner (Schlagzeug)
 2016: Imke Hagedorn (Klavier), Waldemar Darscht (Violine), Moritz König (Violine)
 2017: Laura Reicher (Klavier), Mortiz Neukam (Bass), Victor König (Fagott)
 2020: Elena Steri (Singer-Songwriterin), Elena Trägler (Tanz, Ballett), Jan Gemeinhardt (Bildende Kunst, freie Malerei)
Außer in Fürth wird ein Leonhard und Ida Wolf-Gedächtnispreis auch in München verliehen.

Weblinks
 Richtlinien für die Verleihung des Kulturpreises, der Kulturförderpreise und der Anerkennungspreise der Stadt Fürth (PDF; 85 kB)
 FürthWiki: Kulturpreis der Stadt Fürth

Kultur (Fürth)
Kulturpreis (Bayern)
Liste (Preisträger)
Erstverleihung 1970

Kulturpreis der Stadt Fürth


An area denial weapon is a defensive device used to prevent an adversary from occupying or traversing an area of land, sea or air. The specific method may not be totally effective in preventing passage, but is sufficient to severely restrict, slow down, or endanger the opponent. Some area denial weapons pose risks to civilians entering the area even long after combat has ended,  and consequently are often controversial.
An area denial weapon can be part of an anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) strategy.

Historical methods

Anti-cavalry
In medieval warfare, sturdy stakes were stuck into the ground at the bottom of long lines of ditches, positioned with a sharp end pointing up diagonally, in order to prevent cavalry charges in a given area. Even if the stakes were spotted, horsemen would be forced to dismount and effectively give up their advantage as cavalry, and become easier targets. The correct layout of these extensive lines of ditches and the control of stake size, form and placement were part of the craft of war.

An alternative cavalry deterrent, allowing quicker dispersal and providing the advantage of being hidden more easily, was the deployment of, for example, small balls with spikes, used during most of antiquity. Many variants were used, such as boards with metal hooks, as described as used by Julius Caesar. A  more modern version of this are caltrops.
Passive fortification—ditches and obstacles such as dragon's teeth and Czech hedgehogs—were used as anti-tank measures during World War II.

Anti-infantry
Simple rows or clusters of sharpened sticks (nowadays also known as punji sticks), and small caltrops have been used in anti-infantry warfare since antiquity. However, due to the difficulty of mass-producing them in the pre-modern age, they were rarely used except in the defense of limited areas or chokepoints, especially during sieges, where they were used to help seal breaches. Increasing ease of production still did not prevent these methods from slowly falling out of favor from the late Middle Ages onward.

Caltrops are still sometimes used in modern conflicts, such as during the Korean War, where Chinese troops, often wearing only light shoes, were particularly vulnerable. In modern times, special caltrops are also sometimes used against wheeled vehicles with pneumatic tires. Some South American urban guerrillas such as the Tupamaros and Montoneros, who called them "miguelitos," have used caltrops to avoid pursuit after ambushes.

Modern methods

Explosives

The most common area denial weapons are land mines of various types, planted by hand or dispersed by artillery. Some modern prototypes experiment with automatic guns or artillery-delivered ammunitions that are fired only after remote sensing detects enemies.

Booby traps or improvised explosive devices in sufficient concentration also qualify as area denial weapons, though they are much easier to clear and usually pose less long-term danger. Temporary area denial can be achieved on a tactical level by artillery barrage.

During an armed conflict there are several methods of countering land mines. These include using armored vehicles to negate the effects of anti-personnel land mines. Land mines can also be cleared either by hand, or by using specialised equipment such as tanks equipped with flails. Explosives can also be used to clear mine fields, either by artillery bombardment, or with specialised charges such as Bangalore torpedoes, the Antipersonnel Obstacle Breaching System and the Python Minefield Breaching System.

156 states are parties to the Ottawa Treaty under which they have agreed not to use, stockpile, produce or transfer anti-personnel mines.

CBRNE agents
Various CBRNE (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive) weapons can be used for area denial, as long as the agent is long-lasting. Fallout from nuclear weapons might be used in such a role. While never actually employed in this form, its use had been suggested by Douglas MacArthur during the Korean War, who proposed spreading radioactive waste across transportation corridors to inhibit the movement of Chinese and North Korean forces.

Anthrax spores can contaminate the ground for long periods of time, thus providing a form of area denial. However, the short-term (tactical) effects are likely to be low - the psychological effects on an opponent would likely be more significant.

The massive use of defoliants such as Agent Orange can be used as an interdiction measure because they leave areas empty of any form of vegetation cover. In the desert-like terrain that ensues, it is impossible for the enemy to travel without being seen, and there is little cover in case of an attack, especially from the air.

Many chemical weapons also produce toxic effects on any personnel in an affected area. However, this usually has no tactical value, as the effects of indirect exposure do not develop fast or substantially enough - though again, the psychological effect upon an enemy aware of the chemical usage may be considerable. There are however some chemical agents that are by design non-degrading, such as the nerve agent VX. Sulfur mustard (mustard gas) was extensively used by both German and allied forces on the west front in World War I as an effective area-denial weapon, usually through contaminating large land stripes by extensive shelling with HD/Gelbkreuz ordnance. Since sulfur mustard is very persistent, involatile, hard-to-decontaminate and highly effective in inflicting debilitating casualties at even low doses, this tactic proved to be very effective.

Targeted

To address some of the problems with land-mines (see ), weapons manufacturers are now experimenting with area-denial weapons which need human command to operate. Such systems are usually envisioned as a combination of either explosives, pre-targeted artillery shelling or smartguns with remote sensing equipment (sound, vibration, sight/thermal). By not posing a long-term risk, and by having some level of IFF capability (automatic or human-decision-based), these systems aim to achieve compliance with the Ottawa Treaty, as for example the Metal Storm ADWS (Area Denial Weapons System).

Drawbacks

As area denial weapons do not discriminate between friend, foe, or civilian, they make the affected zone hazardous for all trying to enter. Concepts for area denial weapons which do discriminate (by active sensing) have often been proposed, but have not yet reached a stage of general usefulness, due to their high complexity (and cost) and the risk of misidentification.

Explosive-based area-denial weapons (mines) may be intentionally equipped with detonators which degrade over time, either exploding them or rendering them relatively harmless. Even in these cases, unexploded munitions often pose significant risk.

See also

 Active Denial System
 Anti-access/area denial
 Area Denial Artillery Munition
 Decontamination foam
 Denied area
 Scorched earth
 Sea denial
 Sentry gun
 Suppressive fire

References

External links

Chemical weapons

Military engineering

Area denial weapon


Purhus Pastorat er et pastorat i Randers Nordre Provsti (Århus Stift). Pastoratet blev oprettet 1. april 2019.

I pastoratet er der 4 sogne:

Fårup Sogn
Læsten Sogn
Nørbæk Sogn
Sønderbæk Sogn

I pastoratet er der 4 kirker
Fårup Kirke
Læsten Kirke
Nørbæk Kirke
Sønderbæk Kirke

Pastorater i Århus Stift
Etableret i 2019

Purhus Pastorat