is a 1995 action role-playing game developed by Quintet for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), with manga artist Kamui Fujiwara acting as the character designer. The game tells the story of the Earth's resurrection by the hands of a boy named Ark, and its progress from the evolution of life to the present day. The game is considered the third and final entry in an unofficial trilogy of action RPGs created by Quintet, also including Soul Blazer (1992) and Illusion of Gaia (1993).

Terranigma was published in Japan by Enix on October 20, 1995, and in Europe and Australia by Nintendo starting in December 1996; the game was not released in North America due to Enix having already closed its U.S. branch by the time localization had finished, and has not been re-released due to complicated issues relating to its rights. The game has been met with critical acclaim for its presentation, gameplay, and story, although it has been criticized for its difficulty.

Gameplay

The game keeps a top-down perspective view of the world and utilizes an action-based real-time battle system that allows the player to perform different techniques depending on whether the protagonist is running, jumping, attacking, or using a combination of these three actions. Each attack is meant for dealing more damage to certain kinds of enemies, though in most cases there is little to no difference regardless of the technique used. Projectiles launched at Ark can be blocked by the guard technique, which is otherwise ineffective against melee attacks.

With each victory, experience points are gained, increasing the protagonist's level and his maximum hit points, strength, defense, and luck. Slain enemies sometimes leave behind gems which can be used to buy weapons, armors, healing items, and spells. There are no magic points in the game, all spells take the form of one-time use items instead. The player must collect Magirocks and take them to a magic shop to have them transformed into magic rings and summon medals. Those items are used up when casting the corresponding spell and then turn back to Magirocks which may be exchanged for new spells again. Upon defeating bosses and completing miscellaneous tasks, new types of magic become available.

Synopsis

Setting and characters

In Terranigma, the planet is portrayed as a hollow sphere (though the map in the game is mathematically a torus) that has both an external and internal face. Since the beginning of the Earth, the external Lightside, the surface world, stood for growth whereas the internal Darkside, the underworld, represented decline. Over the course of billions of years, these two forces came to be called God and Devil. Regardless of this inner antagonism, rapid progress took root and primitive life forms evolved to plants, animals, and humans. Technology and industry further expanded civilization, but the fight between God and the Devil was still taking place, more fiercely than ever. The conflict culminated in a final battle in Antarctica, on the surface world. However, neither of the two forces was victorious. The continents of the surface world submerged into the sea and the underworld was sealed away.

Plot

The first chapter of the game, "The Outset", introduces Ark, a mischievous boy who lives in Crysta, the only village in the underworld. After opening a forbidden door and touching a mysterious box containing a friendly demon named Yomi, every citizen in the village is frozen. The only person not affected by the curse, the Elder, guides him to resurrect the continents of the surface world in order to unfreeze the people. A way out of his hometown appears, and for the first time ever, a human being leaves Crysta to explore the underworld, which is portrayed as a frozen wasteland of imposing crystal mountains, crossed by rivers of magma. He conquers the trials of the five towers, each representing one continent, and revives the mainland of the Earth. Upon returning to his hometown, the Elder instructs him to travel to the surface world and to resurrect all living beings. With a heavy heart, Ark says goodbye to his lifelong devoted friend Elle and sets out to the Lightside. In the second chapter, "Resurrection of the World", after having crossed a dimensional crevasse, Ark is confronted with the barren land that was once the Earth's surface. His first task is to free the giant tree Ra from a parasite that is afflicting him. This causes the resurrection of all plants in the world, helping Ark to cross the mountains of Guiana. He travels further into the world, reviving birds, the wind, animals, and eventually mankind.

In the third chapter, "Resurrection of the Genius", the Elder appears to Ark in a dream and tells him to keep helping humanity grow, as the world is still in the fledgling stages. He continues his journey, traveling and expanding cities, assisting with the invention of groundbreaking technologies, and also—much to his surprise—encountering a Lightside twin of Elle, who lives as the adopted daughter of a French king but was rendered mute by a traumatic event in her childhood. Ark manages to break this condition, and although Princess Elle at first stays away from Ark, she begins to grow close to him. In continuing to follow the Elder's commands, Ark ultimately awakes the ingenious Beruga, a scientist who survived the destruction of the previous world by hiding himself in cryogenic sleep. Beruga provides Ark with an insight into his personal image of paradise: a perfect world where all insignificant life is killed with a virus named Asmodeus and everyone else is made immortal by turning them into zombies. Ark tries to attack Beruga after this revealing twist but is stopped by robots, injuring him severely in the process.

The Elder once again appears to him, saying that his mission is fulfilled and he may now pass away. Ark realizes that he has been used by Dark Gaia (the "Devil"), whose plans of world domination required Ark to resurrect the planet. Just as he is about to die, Kumari, a wise human who watched the world's growth through reincarnation, teleports Ark out of Beruga's laboratory. He then instructs him to go search the five Starstones and to lay them at the grave at Time's End in order to call the Golden Child. Ark obtains the stones one after another and sets them into skull statues at Dryvale, the location at the South Pole where the final confrontation between God and the Devil once took place. This leads to the appearance of Ark's Lightside self; the person Dark Gaia used to create Ark himself. His Lightside self reveals to him that he, the underworld Ark, is the legendary hero and then kills him. However, in the fourth and final chapter, "Resurrection of the Hero", Ark is reborn as a baby through the soul of the surface world, Light Gaia. He is kidnapped by Darkside Elle, who was led there by Yomi to eliminate a threat to Crysta. When she realizes this threat is actually Ark, she allows him to awaken as the legendary hero and grow back into an adult in the process. Yomi then decides to kill Ark by himself and reveals he has been working for Dark Gaia all along. He fails, as Darkside Elle sacrifices herself to kill Yomi and save Ark's life. Yomi is conveniently replaced by a "Light Version".

Afterward, Ark departs to defeat Beruga. After he conquers the professor, he returns to the underworld to defeat Dark Gaia. The victory over that entity brings forth the destruction of the Darkside. In the end, Ark realizes that as a creation of Dark Gaia, he, along with the village of Crysta and the underworld, shall now vanish with the Devil's demise, though it is implied he and his loved ones in Crysta will be reincarnated. He goes to sleep, after being told by Light Gaia that he, as creator and defender, is what the humans would call a god. Ark's last dream pictures him as a bird flying above the world that he helped to exist, watching it grow older. An epilogue plays which shows Lightside Elle at her original home. There is a knock at the door, and she answers it. The game then ends.

Development
Terranigma was developed by the Japanese company Quintet, which had previously designed creation-themed Super NES games such as ActRaiser and Soul Blazer. It is considered to be part of an unofficial trilogy with the games Illusion of Gaia and Soul Blazer. This series is nicknamed either "Quintet Trilogy", "Soul Trilogy", "Gaia Trilogy" or "Heaven and Earth Trilogy" (after Terranigma's Japanese title, which translates to "the creation of Heaven and Earth") by fans. Publisher Enix commissioned the developers as a subcontractor and decided for the title to be an action role-playing game for strategic reasons, based on Quintet's experience in that particular genre and the good reception of their earlier games by Japanese players.

The theme of creation prevalent in Terranigma was introduced as a contrast to the destruction of enemies in other action titles, and to inspire the player's imagination concerning the effects their actions might have. The script was written by director and designer Tomoyoshi Miyazaki, the founder of Quintet, with the scenario provided by Reiko Takebayashi. Tatsuo Hashimoto created the computer graphics cover art and also rendered the background images for the resurrection scenes.

The music of Terranigma was composed by Miyoko Takaoka and Masanori Hikichi, the latter of whom was responsible for the design of the sounds as well. The English scripts of the game used in the European and Australian releases by Nintendo were translated by Colin Palmer, Dan Owsen, Hiro Nakamura and Nob Ogasawara.

Release
Terranigma was first previewed in mid-1995 and slated for an October launch window. Early previews prior to release showcased several differences compared to the final version such as the ability to climb the five towers outside using claws, different room layouts and plant decorations around the HUD. It was first released in Japan on October 20, 1995, by Enix for the Super Famicom under the name Tenchi Sōzō. The title was then released in Europe on December 19, 1996, by Nintendo. It was also released in Spain in April 1997 and in France on the summer of 1997. The game wound up never being published in North America because Enix had already closed its US subsidiary by the time the localization was finished.

Terranigma was released alongside several pieces of merchandise in Japan, including an official guide book, a world atlas, a novel by Saori Kumi, a novelization by Norio Nakai titled Logout Bunko Tenchi Sōzō, a gamebook featuring artwork by character designer Kamui Fujiwara, and the two-volume manga Gangan Fantasy Comics: Tenchi Sōzō by Mamiko Yasaka. Except for the guide book, none of these materials have been released outside Japan, though Club Nintendo published a 32-page comic illustrating scenes from the game up to the events of the third chapter in Germany. A Japanese soundtrack album titled Tenchi Sōzō Creative Soundtracks, with 33 compositions and six arranged tracks of the game's music, was released by Kitty Enterprises on October 25, 1995.

A petition by the game's Japanese fanbase, backed by artist Kamui Fujiwara and co-composer Miyoko Takaoka, began in July 2021 to either re-release or remaster Terranigma. This fan-led effort renewed speculation on the status of the rights to Quintet's games. According to Fujiwara, Quintet president Tomoyoshi Miyazaki had "disappeared" to his knowledge; he speculated this was why the rights to republish the game were complicated, that Miyazaki was not available for contact.

Reception

Terranigma garnered acclaim from critics. GameFans Kei Kuboki described it as Quintet's "best (...) effort" and being "among the [Super NES's] most memorable titles". The game holds a 74.14% rating based on seven reviews at review aggregator GameRankings, and was given the "Silver Hall of Fame" award from Famitsu. It received a 23.3 out of 30 score in a public poll taken by Family Computer Magazine. Quintet reported that 200,000 copies were sold in Japan.

Famitsus four reviewers gave Terranigma a score of 30 out of 40. Likewise, The Super Famicoms three reviewers gave it a 78 out of 100 scores. MAN!ACs Robert Bannert praised its atmospheric world, characters, stereo soundtrack, map design and sophisticated controls, regarding it as a good game in the Japanese action-adventure tradition. Total!s Michael Anton commended its varied locations, soundtrack, ease of play, and plot but several aspects such as the difficulty level were criticized. Nevertheless, Anton recommended the title for fans of the action-adventure genre, stating that it would tide over fans until the release of Lufia II. Computer and Video Gamess Paul Davies gave high remarks to its controls, artwork, music, presentation, and storytelling, regarding it as an outstanding addition to the SNES' action-adventure role-playing game library "with a powerful message". Mega Funs Rene Schneider gave positive comments to the graphics, music, controls and technical performance but criticized the game's strategy guide for revealing many of the puzzles, lowering its fun factor.

Video Games Jan Schweinitz regarded it as a "worthy successor" to Zelda III. Superjuegoss Marcos García also regarded Terranigma as one of the best and most ambitious action role-playing games for SNES, stating that it surpasses Illusion of Time and Secret of Evermore. García commended the Spanish translation, visual quality, graphical effects and epic soundtrack. Hobby Consolass Roberto Lorente praised its mix of action and role-playing elements, stating that it surpasses Zelda while capturing its spirit. Lorente also gave high remarks to the Mode 7 maps, audio, controls and absorbing plot. Nintendo Accións Javier Abad gave very positive comments to the varied scenery, carefully crafted plot involving secondary storylines and freedom of movement but criticized its dungeon maps. In November 1997, in its 60th monthly issue, Nintendo Acción listed it as the 11th best game they had ever reviewed. Joypads Grégoire Hellot regarded the game to be interesting and entertaining, stating that "Zelda fans will be in for a treat". Player Ones Christophe Pottier also stated that the game was excellent and "technically perfect" presentation-wise. Both Hellot and Pottier recognized the game's quality but panned its late French release date, stating that it should have been published before Final Fantasy VII.

Retrospective coverage
Terranigma continues to be regarded as one of the best action role-playing games of its era. RPGFans Jeremy Tan considered it as "one of Enix's greatest Action RPG games ever", praising the fast-paced combat system, visual presentation, varied soundtrack and simple controls but lamented the lack of a North American release. 1Up.coms Jeremy Parish described it as Quintet's best-known Super Nintendo action-RPG, noting the quality of the gameplay, music and deep story themes. Nintendo Lifes Corbie Dillard highly commended its easy-to-pick-up controls, graphics, emotional music score, sense of scale and evolving plot. Jeuxvideo.coms Zashy regarded its graphical effects as among the most beautiful on SNES while giving positive remarks to the playability, longevity, soundtrack and storyline. Zashy noted that its difficulty can put some players off but nevertheless claimed that "Terranigma will undoubtedly remain the title that marked the end of the reign of SNES in the most poetic way possible".

RPGamers Mike Moehnke noted its narrative to be interesting on a consistent basis and praised the varied locations, fast combat system and audiovisual presentation but criticized the low difficulty level and unnecessary magic system. Moehnke also questioned the lack of a North American release but regarded Terranigma as "Quintet's final hurrah on the SNES" nevertheless. USgamers Nadia Oxford concurred and expressed disappointment with the lack of an official North American release due to the closure of Enix's branch in the region and lack of a Virtual Console re-release but described its music as one of the best soundtracks on the SNES. Hardcore Gaming 101s David DiRienzo also agreed with the lack of a North American localization but regarded Terranigma as "the best of" both Soul Blazer and Illusion of Gaia, commending its less restrictive design, Zelda-style dungeon maps, refined gameplay mechanics and music score but criticized the inconsistent visual presentation, cumbersome magic system and certain aspects of its plot. Regardless, DiRienzo stated that the title was one of the better action RPGs on SNES.

Notes

References

External links

  via Internet Archive
  at Square Enix
  of Kamui Fujiwara

1995 video games
Action role-playing video games
Enix games
Existentialist video games
Fiction about Earth
Hollow Earth in fiction
Nintendo games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Quintet (company) games
Science fiction video games
Single-player video games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
Video games about evolution
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Miyoko Takaoka

Terranigma


Riga Football Club, sau Riga FC, este un club profesionist de fotbal cu sediul în Riga, Letonia.

Istoric
Riga Football Club a fost înființat în aprilie 2014. Lotul de jucători s-a format în 2015 în urma unificării loturilor de jucători ale cluburilor FC Caramba și FC Dinamo, ambele cu sediul în Riga. În același an, noul club participă sub numele de FC Caramba/Dinamo la jocurile din liga a doua letonă, în locul Lui FC Caramba care tocmai promovase. În liga a doua se clasează pe primul loc, obținând promovarea. Din 2016, clubul joacă în prima ligă sub numele de Riga Football Club.

Rezultate în ligă și cupă

Meciuri în cupele europene

Note

Legături externe
 Pagină oficială

Cluburi letone de fotbal
Fondări în 2014

Riga FC


Yujni Adası, (Rusça: Южный ya da bazı atlaslarda geçen adı ile Yuzhny Adası) Rusya'nın kuzeyinde, Rusya'ya bağlı Novaya Zemlya takımadalarının güneydeki üyesidir. Kuzeydeki Severny Adası'ndan daha küçük olmasına rağmen, Yujny Adası 33,275 km²lik yüzölçümü ile dünyanın en büyük adaları arasında yer alır. Aslen Nenetler tarafında yurt edinilmiş olan ada 1950'lerde nükleer silah denemeleri yaparken, güvenlik nedeni ile büyük ölçüde tahliye edilmiştir. Adanın genelinde tundra iklimi hâkimdir.

Rusya'nın adaları
Novaya Zemlya
Barents Denizi'ndeki yeryüzü şekilleri

Yujni Adası


بيتر فرويدفيلدت  ، من مواليد 14 نوفمبر 1963 في إسكيلستونا ، حكم كرة قدم سويدي دولي.

سيحكم في كأس الأمم الأوروبية لكرة القدم 2008.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
حكام بطولة أمم أوروبا 2008
حكام كرة قدم سويديون
مواليد 1963
مواليد في إسكيلستونا

بيتر فرويدفيلدت


Os guardas de aldeia ou guardas rurais (), oficialmente conhecidos como Türkiye Güvenlik Köy Korucuları ("Guardas de Aldeias de Segurança da Turquia"), são guardas de fronteira alinhados ao Comando Geral da Gendarmaria envolvidos no conflito curdo-turco, principalmente curdos, mas também circassianos, turcos, uzbeques e quirguizes. Originalmente, foram criados e financiados pelo Estado turco em meados da década de 1980, sob a direção de Turgut Özal. Seu objetivo declarado era atuar como uma milícia local em cidades e vilarejos, protegendo contra ataques e represálias dos insurgentes do Partido dos Trabalhadores do Curdistão (PKK). A lógica por trás do estabelecimento dos guardas de aldeia era que seria útil para o exército turco ter uma força adicional de pessoas que conhecessem a Região do Sudeste da Anatólia e o idioma para ajudar nas operações militares contra o PKK. Em 2019, a força consistia em aproximadamente 54.000 guardas de aldeia no total.

Organizações paramilitares
Política da Turquia
Conflito curdo na Turquia (1978–presente)

Guardas de aldeia


O Discurso do Estado da União de 2022 foi proferido pelo 46.º presidente dos Estados Unidos, Joe Biden, em 1º de março de 2022, às 21 horas (EST), na casa da Câmara dos Representantes dos Estados Unidos para o 117º Congresso dos Estados Unidos. Foi o primeiro Discurso sobre o Estado da União de Biden, e seu segundo discurso em uma sessão conjunta do Congresso dos Estados Unidos. Presidindo esta sessão conjunta estava a presidente da Câmara, Nancy Pelosi, acompanhada por Kamala Harris, a vice-presidente, na sua qualidade de presidente do Senado. Também marcou a primeira vez na história americana que duas mulheres, Harris e Pelosi, sentaram-se atrás do Presidente dos Estados Unidos durante o discurso do Estado da União.

O discurso foi caracterizado pela invasão da Ucrânia pela Rússia em 2022, iniciada seis dias antes, bem como pela divulgação de Biden das principais conquistas políticas e metas em torno da pandemia de COVID-19, economia e questões sociais.

Convidados especiais
 Oksana Markarova, Embaixadora da Ucrânia nos Estados Unidos
 Joseph Burgess, Instrutor de Organização de Novos Funcionários, United Steelworkers Local 1557
 Joshua Davis, 7ª série, Swift Creek Middle School, defensor das pessoas com diabetes
 Refynd Duro, Enfermeira da Unidade de Cuidados Intensivos, The Ohio State Wexner Medical Center
 Patrick Gelsinger, diretor executivo da Intel
 Frances Haugen, ex-gerente de produto líder em desinformação cívica do Facebook
 Melissa Isaac, Gizhwaasod ("Protetor do Jovem") na Iniciativa de Educação Indígena do Departamento de Educação de Michigan e fundadora do Projeto AWARE da Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe (SCIT)
 Danielle Robinson, cônjuge sobrevivente do sargento de primeira classe Heath Robinson
 Kezia Rodriguez, aluna-pai no Bergen Community College

Ligações externas
 Lista de convidados da primeira-dama

2022
Presidência de Joe Biden
2022 na política dos Estados Unidos
2022 em Washington, D.C.
Eventos de março de 2022

Discurso do Estado da União de 2022


ASIMO (Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility) is a humanoid robot created by Honda in 2000. It is displayed in the Miraikan museum in Tokyo, Japan. On 8 July 2018, Honda posted the last update of Asimo through their official page stating that it would be ceasing all development and production of Asimo robots in order to focus on more practical applications using the technology developed through Asimo's lifespan. It made its last active appearance in March 2022, over 20 years after its first, as Honda announced that they are retiring the robot to concentrate on remote-controlled, avatar-style, robotic technology.

There are four published models of the Asimo. A few years after the release in 2002 there were 20 units of the first Asimo model produced. As of February 2009, there were over 100 ASIMO units in existence.

Development

Honda began developing humanoid robots in the 1980s, including several prototypes that preceded ASIMO. It was the company's goal to create a walking robot. E0 was the first bipedal (two-legged) model produced as part of the Honda E series, which was an early experimental line of self-regulating, humanoid walking robot with wireless movements created between 1986 and 1993.
This was followed by the Honda P series of robots produced from 1993 through 1997. The research made
on the E- and P-series led to the creation of ASIMO. Development began at Honda's Wako Fundamental Technical Research Center in Japan in 1999 and ASIMO was unveiled in October 2000. ASIMO is an acronym which stands for Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility. The Japanese word Asi also stands for 'leg' and Mo for 'mobility'. ASIMO is pronounced as '' and means 'also legs'.

In 2018, Honda ceased the commercial development of ASIMO, although it will continue to be developed as a research platform and make public appearances.

Form
ASIMO stands  tall and weighs . Research conducted by Honda found that the ideal height for a mobility assistant robot was between 120 cm and the height of an average adult, which is conducive to operating door knobs and light switches. ASIMO is powered by a rechargeable 51.8 V lithium-ion battery with an operating time of one hour. Switching from a nickel metal hydride in 2004 increased the amount of time ASIMO can operate before recharging. ASIMO has a three-dimensional computer processor that was created by Honda and consists of a three stacked die, a processor, a signal converter and memory. The computer that controls ASIMO's movement is housed in the robot's waist area and can be controlled by a PC, wireless controller, or voice commands.

Abilities
ASIMO has the ability to recognize moving objects, postures, gestures, its surrounding environment, sounds and faces, which enables it to interact with humans. The robot can detect the movements of multiple objects by using visual information captured by two camera "eyes" in its head and also determine distance and direction. This feature allows ASIMO to follow or face a person when approached. The robot interprets voice commands and human gestures, enabling it to recognize when a handshake is offered or when a person waves or points, and then respond accordingly. ASIMO's ability to distinguish between voices and other sounds allows it to identify its companions. ASIMO is able to respond to its name and recognizes sounds associated with a falling object or collision. This allows the robot to face a person when spoken to or look towards a sound. ASIMO responds to questions by nodding or providing a verbal answer in different languages and can recognize approximately 10 different faces and address them by name.

There are sensors that assist in autonomous navigation. The two cameras inside the head are used as a visual sensor to detect obstacles. The lower portion of the torso has ground sensor which comprises one laser sensor and one infrared sensor. The laser sensor is used to detect ground surface. The infrared sensor with automatic shutter adjustment based on brightness is used to detect pairs of floor markings to confirm the navigable paths of the planned map. The pre-loaded map and the detection of floor markings help the robot to precisely identify its present location and continuously adjust its position. There are front and rear ultrasonic sensors to sense the obstacles. The front sensor is located at the lower portion of the torso together with the ground sensor. The rear sensor is located at the bottom of the backpack.

Impact and technologies
Honda's work with ASIMO led to further research on walking assist devices that resulted in innovations such as the Stride Management Assist and the Bodyweight Support Assist.

In honor of ASIMO's 10th anniversary in November 2010, Honda developed an application for the iPhone and Android smartphones called "Run with ASIMO." Users learn about the development of ASIMO by virtually walking the robot through the steps of a race and then sharing their lap times on Twitter and Facebook.

Specifications

Public appearances

Since ASIMO was introduced in 2000, the robot has traveled around the world and performed in front of international audiences. ASIMO made its first public appearance in the U.S. in 2002 when it rang the bell to open trade sessions for the New York Stock Exchange. From January 2003 to March 2005, the robot toured the U.S. and Canada, demonstrating its abilities for more than 130,000 people. From 2003 to 2004, ASIMO was part of the North American educational tour, where it visited top science and technology museums and academic institutions throughout North America. The goal of the tour was to encourage students to study science through a live show that highlighted ASIMO's abilities. Additionally, the robot visited top engineering and computer science colleges and universities across the US as part of the ASIMO Technology Circuit Tour in an effort to encourage students to consider scientific careers. In 2004, ASIMO was inducted into the Carnegie Mellon Robot Hall of Fame. In March 2005, the robot walked the red carpet at the world premiere of the computer-animated film, Robots. In June 2005, ASIMO became a feature in a show called "Say 'Hello' to Honda's ASIMO" at Disneyland's Innoventions attraction, which was a part of the Tomorrowland area of the park. This was the only permanent installation of ASIMO in North America until Innoventions was closed in April 2015.

The robot first visited the United Kingdom in January 2003 for private demonstrations at the Science Museum in London. ASIMO continued on a world tour, making stops in countries such as Spain, the United Arab Emirates, Russia, South Africa and Australia. In October 2008, ASIMO greeted Prince Charles during a visit to the Miraikan Museum in Tokyo, where it performed a seven-minute step and dance routine.

In a demonstration at Honda's Tokyo headquarters in 2007, the company demonstrated new intelligence technologies that enabled multiple ASIMO robots to work together. The demonstration showed the robot's ability to identify and avoid oncoming people, work with another ASIMO, recognize when to recharge its battery and perform new tasks, such as carrying a tray and pushing a cart.

In 2008, ASIMO conducted the Detroit Symphony Orchestra in a performance of "The Impossible Dream" to bring attention to its partnership with the Orchestra and support the performing arts in Detroit. A 49-foot replica of ASIMO made with natural materials, such as lettuce seed, rice and carnations led the 120th Rose Parade in celebration of Honda's 50th year of operation in the USA. Later that year, the robot made an appearance in Italy at the Genoa Science Festival.

In January 2010, Honda debuted its "Living With Robots" documentary at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah. The film focuses on the experience of human interaction with robots like ASIMO. ASIMO attended the Ars Electronica festival in Linz, Austria in September 2010, which allowed Honda to study the results of human and robot interaction and use the results to guide development of future versions of the robot. In April 2011, ASIMO was demonstrated at the FIRST Championship in St. Louis, Missouri, US to encourage students to pursue studies in math, science and engineering, and in November 2011 ASIMO was one of the star attractions at the first Abu Dhabi Science Festival.

ASIMO visited the Ontario Science Center in Toronto in May 2011 and demonstrated its abilities to Canadian students. The robot later traveled to Ottawa for the unveiling of an exhibit at the Canadian Museum of Civilization 19 May through 22 May 2011.

ASIMO appeared as a guest on the British quiz show QI on 2 December 2011. After serving water to host Stephen Fry and dancing with comedian Jo Brand, ASIMO won with 32 points.

ASIMO was also the inspiration behind 2012's film Robot & Frank, where a robot assists an aging man to commit his last job as a 'cat burglar'. The robot in the film, portrayed by an actor in costume, has the appearance of an ASIMO robot.

In April 2014, the robot was introduced to President Obama at the Miraikan science museum in Tokyo.

On 24 March 2017, Honda revealed ASIMO in Disneyland's Autopia attraction.

Failures
On multiple occasions, audience members at public showcasings of ASIMO have filmed the robot acting incorrectly and falling down stairs. These videos have been uploaded on YouTube, and some have become viral for their comedic nature.

See also

Humanoid robot
Japanese robotics
Tesla Bot
Actroid
Android
iCub
HRP-4C
HUBO
REEM-B
QRIO
TOPIO
Nao
DARwIn-OP
Manav
Musio

References

External links

Official website (Worldwide) – Honda
Official website (Japan) – Honda
Official website (United States) – Honda
"Humanoid robot learns how to run" – BBC News Online
"Humanoid robot gets a job as a receptionist" – New Scientist
Japan product demonstration
Honda unveils helmet that lets wearer control a robot by thought alone
Honda's ASIMO celebrates 10 years of existence

2000 robots
Androids
Animatronic robots
Articles containing video clips
Bipedal humanoid robots
Gesture recognition
Japanese inventions
Robotics at Honda

ASIMO


Allan Charles Spradling (* 1949 in Kalamazoo, Michigan) ist ein US-amerikanischer Embryologe und Genetiker an der Carnegie Institution for Science in Baltimore, Maryland.

Spradling studierte zunächst Mathematik und Physik und erwarb an der University of Chicago einen Bachelor in Physik, bevor er sich der Biologie zuwendete. 1975 erwarb er am Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) einen Ph.D. mit einer Arbeit über Polytänchromosomen und Hitzeschockproteine bei Drosophila. Als Postdoktorand arbeitete er an der Indiana University in Bloomington.

1980 ging Spradling an die Carnegie Institution in Baltimore, Maryland, wo er 1994 Direktor der dortigen Einrichtung für Embryologie wurde. Seit 1988 forscht Spradling zusätzlich für das Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI). Außerdem hat er eine Professur (Adjunct Professor) für Biologie an der Johns Hopkins University und eine für Genetik an der Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, beide ebenfalls in Baltimore.

In Bloomington konnte Spradling erstmals nachweisen, dass Protein-codierende Gene einer Amplifikation unterliegen können. An der Carnegie Institution entwickelte er 1982 gemeinsam mit Gerry Rubin eine Methode (Kopplung an ein Transposon), um DNA in das Genom von Drosophila zu schleusen. In der Folge konnte er cis-Elemente identifizieren, die an der Regulation und Amplifikation von Genen beteiligt sind. Ebenfalls mit Rubin gründete Spradling 1991 das Drosophila-Genomprojekt, das 2000 mit der Sequenzierung des gesamten Genoms abgeschlossen wurde. Spradling untersuchte Stammzellen in ihrer normalen Gewebsumgebung und beschrieb erstmals, dass sich Stammzellen jeweils selbst eine "Nische" suchen, eine Mikroumgebung, die sie für den Selbsterhalt und ihre bestimmungsgemäße Funktion benötigen.

Neuere Arbeiten Spradlings befassen sich mit epithelialen Stammzellen und der Entwicklung von Eizellen.

Auszeichnungen (Auswahl)
 1983 Passano Young Scientist Award
 1983 Newcomb Cleveland Prize
 1985 NAS Award in Molecular Biology
 1989 Genetics Society of America Medal
 1989 Mitglied der National Academy of Sciences
 1990/1991 Präsident der Society for Developmental Biology
 1991 Mitglied der American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 2003 George W. Beadle Award
 2003 Edwin G. Conklin Medal
 2007 Präsident der Genetics Society of America
 2008 Gruber-Preis für Genetik
 2016 Mitglied der American Philosophical Society
 2018 March of Dimes Prize in Developmental Biology
 Ehrendoktorat der University of Chicago

Weblinks
 Spradling Lab an der Carnegie Institution for Science (carnegiescience.edu); abgerufen am 11. April 2012
 Allan C. Spradling, Ph.D. und Research abstract beim Howard Hughes Medical Institute (hhmi.org); abgerufen am 11. April 2012
 Allan C. Spradlings Biografie bei der Gruber foundation (gruberprizes.org); abgerufen am 11. April 2012

Einzelnachweise

Genetiker
Embryologe
Hochschullehrer (Johns Hopkins University)
Mitglied der National Academy of Sciences
Mitglied der American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Ehrendoktor der University of Chicago
Mitglied der American Philosophical Society
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1949
Mann

Allan C. Spradling


"Roi" er en sang, der er udført af den franske sanger Bilal Hassani og skrevet af Hassani, Madame Monsieur og Medeline. Sangen vil repræsentere Frankrig i Eurovision Song Contest 2019 i Tel Aviv, Israel. Sangen blev udgivet som digital download den 11. januar 2019 gennem Low Wood som den ledende single fra hans debutstudiealbum Kingdom.

Hitlister

Referencer

Sange fra 2019
Sange fra Eurovision Song Contest 2019
Eurovision Song Contest-sange fra Frankrig

Roi (sang)


Florica Dimitrescu-Niculescu () este o lingvistă română, membru de onoare al Academiei Române din 2011.

Educație
Florica Dimitrescu s-a născut la 4 aprilie 1928 în București. Și-a făcut studiile liceale la Școala Centrală de Fete în perioada 1939–1947.  În perioada 1947- 1951 a urmat Facultatea de Filologie a Universității București, secția română-franceză. În 1949 Alexandru Rosetti o numește preparatoare la Catedra de istorie a limbii române din cadrul Facultății de litere.  A absolvit facultatea cu diplomă de merit.

În 1954 Dimitrescu s-a înscris la aspirantură și în anul 1955 și-a susținut teza de doctorat cu titlul Locuțiunile verbale în limba română, sub coordonarea prof. Iorgu Iordan.

Carieră
A fost cadru didactic la Universitatea din București, Facultatea de Filologie devenind conferențiar în 1961 și profesoară în 1982. A predat cursuri pe teme de limbă română contemporană, istoria limbii române, gramatică istorică, dialectologie, limbă literară, lingvistică romanică. A urmat stagii de perfecționare în Polonia și Cehoslovacia între anii 1958–1959 și a fost profesor-invitat în Germania,  Italia și Suedia.

În perioada 1964-1965 a fost primă femeie  care a ocupat funcția de pro-rector a Universității din București și în 1964, pentru implicarea ei în organizarea Centenarului Universității din București a fost distinsă cu Steaua României clasa a V-a.

După ce soțul și fiul ei cer azil politic în Franța în 1985, Florica Dimitrescu-Niculescu este obligată să se pensionez. După ce primește azil politic în Franța în 1986 ține cursuri și conferințe în Italia și la École Pratique des Hautes Études-Paris, în calitate de profesor asociat.

După revenirea în țară în 1990 a ținut cursuri la Facultatea de Litere din București și la cea din Cluj-Napoca În 2014 devine profesor emerit al Facultății de Litere de la Universitatea din București.

Lucrări
Selecție de lucrări publicate

 "Dicționar de cuvinte recente", Editura Albatros, 1982

Note

Legături externe
 Membrii Academiei Române din 1866 până în prezent – D

Nașteri în 1928
Lingviști români în viață
Membri de onoare ai Academiei Române
Bucureșteni

Florica Dimitrescu-Niculescu


Togba peut faire référence à

Localité
Togba, arrondissement béninois

Togba, ancienne ville Mauritanien

Personnalités

 Amadou Togba, aviateur et homme politique guinéen ;
 Togba-Nah Tipoteh (1941 - ), homme politique liberien ;
 Zébéla Togba, résistant guinéen.

Togba


Hocalı, Antalya ilinin Manavgat ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Daha önceleri Gebece köyüne bağlı bir mahalle iken, 13 Ocak 1956'da yine aynı köye bağlı Çırrıklı ve Yağırlı mahalleleri ile birleşerek köy statüsü kazandı. 2012 yılındaki yasa değişikliğinden sonra yeniden mahalle oldu.

Coğrafya
Antalya il merkezine 95 km, Manavgat ilçe merkezine 20 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Manavgat'ın mahalleleri

Hocalı, Manavgat


Stephen Owen Stephens (April 22, 1930 – January 29, 2021) was a broadcasting pioneer in Arkansas, who originally became well known as the host of Steve's Show, a hugely popular television program in the late 1950s and early 1960s. He remained a communication specialist well into the 21st century.

Early years
Born in 1930, to Allie and Owen Stephens in Newport, Arkansas, Stephens later attended Castle Heights Military Academy, and graduated from Newport High School. Following graduation, he attended the University of Arkansas until the Korean War erupted in 1950, when in his quest for adventure, he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps. Attaining the rank of sergeant, he received three battle stars in Korea. After the Korean armistice was signed in 1953, he was honorably discharged and returned to Newport.

Career
While in the Marines, he was occasionally asked if he had ever been a broadcaster, as he seemed to have a natural "radio voice." After returning to Newport, he began as a part-time announcer at radio station KNBY, and soon became known as the "Voice of the White River Valley."

His entry into radio coincided with the beginnings of rock and roll, and he soon became a popular proponent of this new type of music. His style began to capture the attention of Little Rock television station KTHV, the Arkansas affiliate of the CBS television network, who offered him an entry position as a station announcer.

Shortly after joining the station, he began hosting a television dance party in March 1957, which became an instant success. As bus loads of teenagers began arriving from all over the state, the show was expanded to six days a week.

Stephens helped launch the careers of Johnny Cash, Conway Twitty, Charlie Rich, Brenda Lee, Sonny Burgess, Fabian Forte and many others who appeared on Steve's Show during its 8-year run. As a result of his continuing popularity during that time, he was awarded a recording contract, recording "Pizza Pete," "Honey Bee," "How It Used To Be," and "Weird Session", and was voted "Arkansas Top Television Personality."

From 1957 until 1965, he served as senior weatherman for KTHV television at both 6:00 pm and 10:00 pm, and was also the first to use radar in his weathercast.  He new broke ground in another way when he became one of the first TV weathermen in the nation to use radar to detect Santa Claus flying into the state.

Stephens went on to produce other TV programs for KTHV, including Eye on Arkansas, which showcased such celebrities as Liberace, then-actor Ronald Reagan, Roy Rogers, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., the casts of the popular TV programs The Beverly Hillbillies and Bonanza, and many other notables.

Retirement from television
In 1965, Stephens left television after being invited by U.S. Senator John Little McClellan to join him on his staff in Washington, D.C. as a special assistant in charge of media relations. In 1968, he returned to Arkansas to form his own advertising, public relations, and travel agency.

In 1986, he was approached by financier Jackson T. Stephens, chairman of the investment banking firm of Stephens Inc., to join him as his assistant and director of corporate communications. He remained with Stephens Inc. until his retirement in 1998.  Following retirement, he continued to be active as a "voice talent" for numerous local and national radio and television commercials, as well as documentaries. In 2005, he created and began narrating a radio program for public radio station KUAR/AETN, Biography Arkansas.

Recognition
Stephens also served as a National Trustee for the March of Dimes Foundation for over a decade, and was named an Honorary Life Trustee of the organization in 1998.  During that time, he was awarded the "Jonas Salk Lifetime Achievement" award by the Salk Institute for his fund raising efforts on behalf of the March of Dimes.

In recognition of his pioneering achievements in broadcasting, he was inducted into the Arkansas Entertainers Hall of Fame, and later his name was added to the Arkansas Walk of Fame in Hot Springs. On April 22, 2010 (the anniversary of his birthday), he was recognized by the Eighth General Assembly of the Arkansas House of Representatives with a Lifetime Achievement Citation, "for maintaining a high degree of professionalism and integrity during his 50 years in the business and broadcasting community of Arkansas." In 2011, he was inducted into his hometown (Newport, Arkansas) High School Hall of Fame.

In 2018, Stephens was honored by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences MidAmerica Chapter with a Lifetime Achievement Award honoring individuals who have represented the very best of television, while making a significant contribution to broadcasting.

References

1930 births
2021 deaths
American television personalities
People from Newport, Arkansas
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Korean War
Military personnel from Arkansas
United States Marines

Steve Stephens


La Tchéquie est l'un des quarante pays participant au Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2022, qui se déroule à Turin en Italie. Le pays est représenté par le groupe We Are Domi et sa chanson Lights Off, sélectionnés via l'émission Eurovision Song CZ 2022. Le pays se classe  avec  lors de la finale.

Sélection
Le diffuseur ČT débute le processus de sélection le , sans confirmer sa participation au concours. Le , le diffuseur annonce que la sélection aura lieu en décembre et confirme par la même occasion que le pays sera bien présent à Turin.

Format
La sélection rassemble sept candidats, dont les noms sont annoncés le . Les chansons sont publiées le même jour. Contrairement aux années précédentes, chaque candidat enregistre une prestation live qui servira de base au vote. Le vote est constitué à 50% d'un jury rassemblant d'anciens participants à l'Eurovision, de 25% du télévote tchèque et de 25% du télévote international. Le résultat est annoncé le .

Jury
Le jury est composé de :
 Victor Crone (Estonie, 2019),
 TIX (Norvège, 2021),
 Maraaya (Slovénie, 2015),
 The Black Mamba (Portugal, 2021),
 Manizha (Russie, 2021),
 Blind Channel (Finlande, 2021),
 Go_A (Ukraine, 2021 et Ukraine, 2020),
 Daði Freyr (Islande, 2021 et Islande, 2020),
 Gjon's Tears (Suisse, 2021 et Suisse, 2020),
 Jay Aston (de Bucks Fizz, Royaume-Uni, 1981),
 Paul Harrington (Irlande, 1994),
 Charlie McGettigan (Irlande, 1994)

Résultats
Parmi les candidates, on note le retour d'Elis Mraz, deuxième en 2020. Elle participe ensuite à la sélection de Saint-Marin la même année.

La sélection se conclut sur la victoire de We Are Domi et leur chanson Lights Off.

À l'Eurovision
La Tchéquie participera à la deuxième demi-finale, le . Elle s'y classe  avec , se qualifiant donc pour la finale. Lors de celle-ci, elle termine à la  avec .

Notes et références

Tchéquie au Concours Eurovision de la chanson
Tchéquie
Concours Eurovision de la chanson

Tchéquie au Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2022


San Altmano de Passau (c. 1015 – 8 de agosto de 1091), fue obispo de Passau y fundador de numerosos monasterios. Es venerado como santo pero no oficialmente canonizado.

Biografía

Altmano nació entre 1013 y 1020 en Westfalia en el seno de una familia noble de Sajonia. Fue educado en la escuela de la catedral de Paderborn, del que más tarde se convertiría en director. También fue canónigo en Aquisgrán, capellán de la corte del emperador Enrique III y canónigo de Goslar.

En 1065 fue nombrado obispo de Passau y comenzó las reformas del clero. En 1070 fundó la abadía de San Nicolás de Passau como un monasterio de la Orden de canónigos regulares y en 1083 la abadía de Göttweig de Baja Austria, que en 1094 se convertiría en una orden benedictina. También reformó los monasterios existentes de San Florian Priorato, la abadía de Kremsmünster, la de Melk y la de San Pölten.

En 1074 anunció la reforma del papa Gregorio VII, a quien apoyó en la siguiente Querella de las investiduras. En 1076 ni él ni Gebardo de Salzburgo participaron en la Reichstag de Worms y, como Gebhard, Altmano también apoyó la lucha contra el rey Rodolfo de Rheinfelden. Fue expulsado por los partidarios del emperador Enrique IV, que en 1077 redujo a escombros la ciudad.

Altmano asistió a los sínodos de 1079 y 1080 en Roma, donde fue nombrado legado papal de Alemania, y fue capaz de ganar para la causa papal a Leopoldo II de Austria, de la Casa de Babenberg. En 1085 el emperador lo depuso como obispo de Passau, tras lo cual pasó la mayor parte de su tiempo en el territorio de la Babenberg. Murió en Zeiselmauer de la Baja Austria, y fue enterrado en la iglesia de la abadía de Göttweig. Es venerado como santo, aunque nunca oficialmente canonizado. Su festividad se celebra el 8 de agosto.

Bibliografía
 Boshof, Egon, 2003: Altmann von Passau. In: Lexikon der Heiligen und der Heiligenverehrung. (A-H) 1. Band. Freiburg i. B.: Herder. ISBN 3-451-28191-0
 Oswald, J., 1957: Altmann. In: Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche. 2nd ed., vol. 1. Freiburg i. B.: Herder.
 Tomek, Ernst, 1935-39: Kirchengeschichte Österreichs. Innsbruck - Wien - München: Tyrolia.
 Tropper, C., 1983: Der heilige Altmann. In: 900 Jahre Stift Göttweig 1083-1983. Ein Donaustift als Repräsentant benediktinischer Kultur. Göttweig.
 Wodka, Josef, 1959: Kirche in Österreich. Wegweiser durch ihre Geschichte. Vienna: Herder.
 Anon., 1929: Der heilige Altmann. Kleine historische Monographien.
 Anon., 1965: Der heilige Altmann Bischof von Passau.

Enlaces externos

 Mittelalter-Genealogie
 Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon

Religiosos de Alemania del siglo XI
Santos católicos de Alemania del siglo XI

Obispos de Alemania del siglo XI
Obispos católicos del siglo XI
Obispos católicos de Alemania
Fallecidos en Baja Austria

Altmano de Passau


Ruth er en dansk kortfilm med ukendt instruktør.

Medvirkende

 Edith Buemann
 Petrine Sonne
 Rigmor Jerichau
 Sofus Wolder
 Maggi Zinn

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Ruth (film)


Rastorf Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Plön iline bağlı belediye. 20,01 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 31 Aralık 2015 itibarıyla yaklaşık 839 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Kilometrekare başına yaklaşık 42 kişilik bir nüfus yoğunluğuna sahiptir. Belediye Başkanlığı Thomas Haß tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 http://www.rastorf.de

Kaynakça

Plön iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Rastorf


Historical Chinese phonology deals with reconstructing the sounds of Chinese from the past. As Chinese is written with logographic characters, not alphabetic or syllabary, the methods employed in Historical Chinese phonology differ considerably from those employed in, for example, Indo-European linguistics; reconstruction is more difficult because, unlike Indo-European languages, no phonetic spellings were used.

Chinese is documented over a long period of time, with the earliest oracle bone writings dated to c. 1250 BC. However, since the writing is mostly with logographic characters, which do not directly specify the phonology of the language, reconstruction is in general quite difficult, and depends to a large extent on ancillary sources that more directly document the language's phonology. On the basis of these sources, historical Chinese is divided into the following basic periods:
Old Chinese, broadly from about 1250 BC to 25 AD, when the Han dynasty came back to power after the Xin dynasty. More narrowly, reconstructed "Old Chinese" is based on the rhymes of early poetry such as the Shijing and the phonological components of Chinese characters, and is assumed to represent the language of c. 1000-700 BC. Proto-Min developed from Old Chinese.
Middle Chinese, broadly from about the 5th century AD (Northern and Southern dynasties, Sui, Tang, Song) through to 12th century AD. More narrowly, reconstructed "Middle Chinese" is usually based on the detailed phonetic evidence of the Qieyun rime dictionary (601 AD), later expanded into "Guangyun". The Qieyun describes a compromise between the northern and southern varieties and such rhyming dictionaries were essential to write and read aloud poetry with a rhyming pattern.
Modern varieties, from about the 13th century AD (beginning of the Yuan dynasty, in which Early Mandarin was developed) to the present. Most modern varieties appear to have split off from a Late Middle Chinese koine of about 1000 AD (although some remnants of earlier periods are still present, ex. stops without release at the end of the syllable in Hakka and Yue).

Overview
Middle Chinese had a structure much like many modern varieties, with largely monosyllabic words, little or no derivational morphology, four tone-classes (though three phonemic tones), and a syllable structure consisting of initial consonant, glide, main vowel and final consonant, with a large number of initial consonants and a fairly small number of final consonants. Not counting the glide, no clusters could occur at the beginning or end of a syllable.

Old Chinese, on the other hand, had a significantly different structure. Most scholars have concluded that there were no tones, a lesser imbalance between possible initial and final consonants, and a significant number of initial and final clusters. There was a well-developed system of derivational and possibly inflectional morphology, formed using consonants added onto the beginning or end of a syllable. This system is similar to the system reconstructed for Proto-Sino-Tibetan and still visible, for example, in the written Tibetan language; it is also largely similar to the system that occurs in the more conservative Mon–Khmer languages, such as modern Khmer (Cambodian).

The main changes leading to the modern varieties have been a reduction in the number of consonants and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones (typically through a pan-East-Asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones while eliminating the distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants). This has led to a gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables. In Standard Mandarin, this has progressed to a farther extent than elsewhere, with only about 1,200 possible syllables. The result, in Mandarin especially, has been the proliferation of the number of two-syllable compound words, which have steadily replaced former monosyllabic words, to the extent that the majority of words in Standard Mandarin are now composed of two syllables.

Periodization of Chinese

The terms "Old Chinese" and "Middle Chinese" refer to long periods of time in and of themselves, during which significant changes occurred. Although there is no standard system for subdividing these periods, the following is an approximate chronology leading from the oldest writings in the oracle bone script up through modern Standard Mandarin:

Axel Schuessler uses the term Early Zhou Chinese to refer to the language from the earliest records down to the end of the Western Zhou period (c. 1250 to 771 BC).
W. A. C. H. Dobson uses the term Early Archaic Chinese to refer to the same period ("10th to 9th century BC"), although Schuessler suggests that the term should refer to a slightly later period.
Dobson uses the term Late Archaic Chinese to refer to the "4th to 3rd century BC"; that is, the period near the beginning of the Han dynasty.
Late Han Chinese (LHC) is c. 200 AD. This is around the time that Min Chinese varieties diverged from the others.
Old Northwest Chinese (ONWC), c. 400 AD, is a reconstruction by Weldon South Coblin of the language of the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi that is immediately ancestral to a set of northwestern dialects documented by various early Tang dynasty authors.
Early Middle Chinese (EMC), c. 600 AD, is the language of the Qieyun rime dictionary, the first stage for which we have direct and detailed phonetic evidence. This evidence is not enough by itself to directly determine the sound system of the language, however, as it only subdivides characters into an initial consonant and non-initial portion, without further decomposing the latter into phonemes.
Late Middle Chinese (LMC), c. 1000 AD, is the native language of the authors of the Yunjing rime table and the oldest stage that can be reconstructed from modern non-Min varieties by the comparative method.
Early Mandarin, c. 1300 AD (sometimes specifically given as 1269–1455. The Yuan dynasty conquered the whole of China in 1279 and was overpowered by the Ming dynasty in 1368), was the language inferred in the 'Phags-pa script, the first alphabetic writing system for Chinese. It is also documented in the Zhōngyuán Yīnyùn ( "Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains", an opera manual of 1324 AD written by Zhou Deqing).
Middle Mandarin, up through c. 1800 (sometimes specifically given as 1455–1795), documented in numerous Chinese, Korean and European sources. Among these are Chinese-Korean pedagogical texts such as Hongmu Chôngyun Yôkhun (1455) and Sasông T'onghae (1517); the Portuguese-Chinese dictionary (1583–1588) of the Christian missionaries Matteo Ricci and Michele Ruggieri; a dictionary by a friar, Basilio Brollo (1692-1694), also known as Basile da Glemona, a grammar of Mandarin by Francisco Varo (1703) and Chinese rhyme manuals such as the Yunlüe Huitong (1642).
Modern Standard Chinese, a standardized form of the dialect of Beijing that is little changed from the 19th century. It was promulgated during the Republic of China in 1932. Today, it is the standard variety in the PRC, founded by Mao Zedong in 1949.

Chinese native phonological traditions

A native tradition of Chinese phonology developed in the Middle Chinese period. Chinese linguists had long compiled dictionaries and attempted to identify the pronunciation of difficult characters by specifying homophone characters. During the early centuries AD, however, the more advanced method of fanqie was developed, which allowed the pronunciation of any syllable to be specified unambiguously by using one character to indicate the initial consonant and another to indicate the remainder. By the sixth century AD, systematic attempts were made to compile lists of all characters and specify their pronunciation by way of fanqie, culminating in rime dictionaries such as the Qieyun (601 AD).

During the next few centuries, the increasing influence of Buddhism and Buddhist scholars brought Chinese linguists in touch with the tradition of Sanskrit grammar, which included a highly advanced understanding of phonology and phonetics, including a system of analyzing sounds by distinctive features, such as place of articulation and type of phonation. This led to rime tables such as the Yunjing (c. 1150 AD), a sophisticated analysis of the sound system of the Qieyun.

During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), scholars such as Duan Yucai diligently studied the sound system of Middle and Old Chinese. Through careful examination of rime tables, rime dictionaries and patterns of rhyming among poets of various eras, these scholars were able to work out the system of categories of rhymes in Old Chinese, and discover additional Middle Chinese categories that had previously been overlooked. However, progress in Chinese linguistics was seriously hampered by the lack of any concept of a phoneme — i.e. a basic unit of sound, including vowels and vowel-like segments as well as consonants. This made it impossible to go beyond determination of systems of rhyming categories to reconstruction of the actual sounds involved.

In some ways, the lack of native Chinese development of the concept of a unit of sound is surprising, as it had already been developed by Sanskrit grammarians such as Pāṇini by the 4th century BC at the latest, and the phonological analysis of the Yunjing shows a close familiarity with the tradition of Sanskrit grammar. Furthermore, some non-Chinese writing systems within the Chinese cultural orbit, such as the Korean script and especially the Tibetan script, were developed under the close influence of Indian writing systems and have the concept of phoneme directly embedded in them. (Furthermore, the 'Phags-pa script, an alphabetic script of Tibetan origin, had been used to write Chinese itself during the Mongolian Yuan dynasty, c. 1270–1360, although it later fell out of use.) It seems likely, however, that
The strong influence and long tradition of Chinese writing, which included no concept of an alphabet and always treated the rhyming part of a syllable as a single unit, made it difficult to independently develop the concept of a unit of sound.
Lack of knowledge of Sanskrit by most Chinese scholars precluded direct reading of the original works on Sanskrit grammar.
Cultural attitudes that treated Koreans, Tibetans, Mongolians and most other foreigners as "barbarians" made it difficult for scientific knowledge from these cultures to diffuse into China.

Modern methods of reconstruction
As a result, the first reconstructions of the actual sound systems of Old and Middle Chinese were only done in the early 20th century, by Swedish sinologist Bernhard Karlgren. Armed with his knowledge of Western historical linguistics, he performed field work in China between 1910 and 1912, creating a list of 3,100 Chinese characters and collecting phonological data on the pronunciation of these characters in 19 Mandarin dialects as well as the dialects of Shanghai (Wu), Fuzhou (Eastern Min), and Guangdong (Cantonese). He combined this with the Sino-Japanese and Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations as well as previously published material on nine other dialects, along with the fanqie analysis of the Guangyun rime dictionary (a later version of the Qieyun of 601 AD). In 1915, he published his reconstruction of Middle Chinese, which underlies in one form or another all subsequent reconstructions. Walter Simon and Henri Maspero also made great contributions in the field during the early days of its development. Karlgren himself had no direct access to the Qieyun, which was thought lost; however, fragments of the Qieyun were discovered in the Dunhuang Caves in the 1930s, and a nearly complete copy was discovered in 1947 in the Palace Museum.

Karlgren was also instrumental in early reconstruction of Old Chinese. His early work on Middle Chinese made various suggestions about Old Chinese, and a detailed reconstruction appeared in Grammata Serica (1940), a dictionary of Middle and Old Chinese reconstructions. An expanded version, Grammata Serica Recensa, was published in 1957 and is still a commonly cited source.

The reconstruction of Middle Chinese draws its data (in approximate order of importance) from:

Rime dictionaries and rime tables of the Middle Chinese era, such as the Qieyun (601 AD) and Yunjing (c. 1150 AD).
Modern Chinese speaking variants such as Yue, Hakka, Mandarin, Min, Wu etc.
Sino-Xenic data — Chinese loanwords borrowed in large numbers into Vietnamese, Japanese and Korean, especially during the period of 500–1000 AD. This large-scale borrowing led to the so-called Sino-Vietnamese, Sino-Japanese and Sino-Korean vocabularies of these languages.
Other early cases of Chinese words borrowed into foreign languages or transcribed in foreign sources, e.g. Sanskrit works in India.
Early cases of transliteration of foreign words from other languages such as Sanskrit and Tibetan into Chinese.
Chinese written in the 'Phags-pa script, a brief period (c. 1270–1360) when Chinese was written in an alphabetic script.
Transcriptions of Chinese by foreigners, especially the Hangul transcriptions of Koreans such as Sin Sukchu (15th century) and works by various Christian missionaries and other Westerners, the oldest of which is Matteo Ricci's Portuguese–Chinese dictionary of 1583–1588. (Although these transcriptions, as well as the 'Phags-pa evidence, are significant in providing extensive documentation of earlier forms of Mandarin Chinese, their importance for reconstructing Middle Chinese pales in comparison with the much greater breadth provided by the pronunciation of Chinese variants and Sino-Xenic languages, despite their later attestation.)

Karlgren suggested that the Middle Chinese documented in the Qieyun was a live language of the Sui-Tang period. Today, with direct access to the Qieyun, this notion has been replaced by the view that the sound system in the Qieyun represents (or proposes) a literate reading adopted by the literate class of the period throughout the country, not any live language that once existed. For example, in some cases a former three-way distinction A, B, C among initials or finals gave way to a situation where one dialect group of the Qieyun period merged AB vs. C, while another group merged A vs. BC. In these cases, the Qieyun specifies A, B, C as all distinct, even though no living dialect of the time period made such a three-way distinction, and any earlier dialect that did make this distinction would have differed in other ways from the Qieyun system.

The reconstruction of Old Chinese is more controversial than that of Middle Chinese since it has to be extrapolated from the Middle Chinese data. Phonological information concerning Old Chinese is chiefly gained from:

The rhymed texts written before the Qin dynasty, chiefly the Shijing, the earliest anthology of Chinese poetry.
The idea that characters sharing the same phonetic component were homophones or near-homophones when the characters were first created.
Comparison of Old Chinese with other Sino-Tibetan dialects.

Old Chinese phonology

There are disagreements over exactly what the Old Chinese (OC) syllable looked like. The following is an approximate consensus, based on the system of William Baxter and (earlier) Li Fang-Kuei:
A syllable consisted of an initial consonant, an optional medial glide  (but no  or ), a main vowel, an optional final (coda) consonant, and an optional post-final consonant  or . There were also various pre-initial consonants. (In recent systems, Baxter also constructs a distinction between "tightly bound" pre-initials  and "loosely bound" pre-initials . The tightly bound pre-initials interact in complex ways with the initial to produce EMC initials, but the loosely bound pre-initials mostly just disappear. Their presence, however, is revealed by the use of a "phonetic complement" with the corresponding tightly bound pre-initial in their character, and sometimes by early borrowings into other languages, especially Hmong–Mien languages and Tai languages.) Pre-initial and post-final consonants were frequently used in morphological derivation.
There was no MC-style tone, but there was a distinction of some sort between type-A and type-B syllables. Depending on the linguist, the distinction is variously thought to reflect either presence or absence of prefixes, an accentual or length distinction on the main vowel, or some sort of register distinction (e.g. pharyngealization of the initial consonant in type-A syllables). These different reconstructions may not be mutually exclusive (e.g. an earlier prefix distinction may have developed into a later register distinction).
Compared with EMC, there were no palatal or retroflex consonants, but there were labiovelar consonants (e.g. ). Baxter also reconstructs voiceless resonants, e.g. , .
There were on the order of six main vowels: , , , , ,  (or ).
The system of final (coda) consonants was similar to EMC; however, there was no . Baxter also reconstructs final , later becoming .

From Old Chinese to Early Middle Chinese

Initial consonants

Palatalisation of velar initials
William H. Baxter pointed out that some of the words that were reconstructed with Middle Chinese palatal initials were perhaps words that had velar initials in Old Chinese. For example, Baxter indicated that , reconstructed as nyet in Middle Chinese, was perhaps pronounced as ngjet in Old Chinese. He noted the distinction between  (tsye), which had a MC palatal initial, and , which had a velar initial in MC (gjeX, III), despite their common phonetic component. Some modern Min and Hakka varieties nonetheless retain velar initials in both. The two are reconstructed by Baxter to be kje and grjeʔ respectively in Old Chinese. Baxter posited that the medial -rj- cluster had blocked palatalisation.

Lenition of OC /ɡ/
The voiced velar plosive, *, was lenited to a voiced fricative (*) during this development from Old Chinese to Middle Chinese. According to Laurent Sagart, this change is reflected when the Old Chinese plosive occurred in type A syllables. This is supported by Baxter's observation that modern Min dialects show a difference in pronunciation between  and , both of which belong to the Middle Chinese  initial (reconstructed as *). For the first character, the Fuzhou dialect, Amoy Hokkien and the Teochew dialect, show pronunciations with a velar plosive (*). This pronunciation is consistent with an earlier pronunciation with a velar plosive, most likely the Old Chinese *. The second character is pronounced by these dialects with a null initial, possibly reflecting a voiced laryngeal in Old Chinese. The OC * remained intact in Type B syllables, which correspond to Division III Middle Chinese words.

Retroflex initials
The loss of the reconstructed OC medial "r", or the r-infix in Sagart's reconstruction, had not only influenced vowel quality in Middle Chinese but had also caused the retroflexion of coronal consonants.

Sonorant fortition
Both Baxter and Sagart have pointed out that Old Chinese had a series of voiceless sonorants, which typically do not occur in most modern varieties. These voiceless sonorants are  ,  ,  ,  ,  , and possibly  . Their reflexes in Middle Chinese are postulated to be:
{| cellspacing=5
|+ 'Old Chinese voiceless sonorants and corresponding Middle Chinese reflexes
!  sonorant !!  reflex
|-
|  || ,
|-
|  || , ,
|-
|  ||
|-
|  ||
|-
|  || , ,
|-
|  || , ,
|}

Additionally, the OC lateral consonant  is shown to have fortified to a coronal plosive  in Type A syllables. Meanwhile, it developed into  in Type B syllables, which palatalised in Middle Chinese. Sagart pointed out, however, that these changes are not true if the lateral is preceded by a reconstructed prefix. This position, whereby OC  underwent fortition to become a plosive, is upheld by Baxter. Baxter pointed out xiesheng contacts between plosive series, sibilants and MC , and made the following reconstructions:

Note that these reconstructions included voiceless sonorants, of which the developments have been consistent with their fortition and reflexes.

According to Sagart, this fortition was impeded if the lateral was preceded by an unspecified consonant or minor syllable. He reconstructs  as , yielding MC . Furthermore, MC  was said to have derived from an OC .

Medials and finals
The following are the main developments that produced Early Middle Chinese (EMC) from Old Chinese (OC):
Type-B syllables developed a  glide. This glide combined with a previous coronal consonant to produce new palatal consonants. It also sometimes turned a preceding velar or laryngeal into a palatal sibilant and/or raised a following main vowel. (Contrarily, type-A syllables often lowered a following main vowel, with a high vowel diphthongizing, e.g.  becoming .)
The  glide eventually disappeared, but before doing this it turned a previous coronal consonant into a retroflex consonant, and fronted (and often centralized) a following main vowel.
Changes to final consonants:  became ;  dropped after ;  dropped before ;  before  became  (which remained, even after ).
Tones developed from the former suffixes (post-final consonants), with MC tone 3 ("departing") developing from , tone 2 ("rising") developing from , and tone 1 ("level") from other syllables. As the suffixes were part of the derivational morphology of OC, this often produced MC tonal variation, either in a single word or in semantically related words.
Back vowels  and , when followed by a coronal consonant (, , , ), broke into  plus a front vowel.
Labiovelar initials were reanalyzed as a velar followed a  glide, which merged with  from breaking of  and .
The main vowel developed in various complicated ways, depending on the surrounding sounds. For example, in type-A syllables, according to Baxter's reconstruction, OC  became  after ; otherwise,  after coronal initials,  after velar initials, and  after labial initials. In type-B syllables, however, OC  became  after  or coronal initial, but  otherwise.

Note that OC type-B syllables correspond closely to division-III, and (in Baxter's reconstruction at least) to EMC syllables with  or .

From Early Middle Chinese to Late Middle Chinese
To a large degree, Late Middle Chinese (LMC) of c. 1000 AD can be viewed as the direct ancestor of all Chinese varieties except Min Chinese; in other words, attempting to reconstruct the parent language of all varieties excluding Min leads no farther back than LMC. See below for more information.

Exactly which changes occurred between EMC and LMC depends on whose system of EMC and/or LMC reconstruction is used. In the following, Baxter's EMC reconstruction is compared to Pulleyblank's LMC reconstruction. To the extent that these two systems reflect reality, they may be significantly farther apart than the 400 or so years normally given between EMC and LMC, since Baxter's EMC system was designed to harmonize with Old Chinese while Pulleyblank's LMC system was designed to harmonize with later Mandarin developments. Furthermore, Baxter considers all the distinctions of the Qieyun to be real, while many of them are clearly anachronisms that no longer applied to any living form of the language in 600 AD. Finally, some of the resulting "changes" may not be actual changes at all so much as conceptual differences in the way the systems have been reconstructed; these are noted below.

Changes mostly involve initials, medials, and main vowels.
The class of EMC palatals is lost, with palatal sibilants becoming retroflex sibilants and the palatal nasal becoming a new phoneme .
A new class of labiodentals emerges, from EMC labials followed by  and an EMC back vowel.
EMC complex medial  becomes  , producing a six-way medial distinction between none, , , , , . The phonemic glides  and  are vocalic  and  before short vowels  and , but semivocalic  and  before long vowel .
The eight-way EMC distinction in main vowels is significantly modified, developing into a system with high vowels , ,  and (marginally) , and non-high vowels , , . However, this is best analyzed as a system with a four-way main vowel distinction between no vowel and the three phonemic vowels , , ; high vowels are then analyzed as phonemically consisting of a medial and no main vowel ( is phonemically a syllable containing only a bare consonant, with no medial and no main vowel).
High front medials/main vowels  and  are lost after EMC retroflex sibilants, prior to merging with palatals; contrarily, a  sometimes appears after guttural consonants.

Few changes to final consonants occur; the main ones are the loss of  after a high vowel, the disappearance of  (which might or might not be reckoned as a final consonant) in the rhyme , and (potentially) the appearance of  and  (which are suspect in various ways; see below).

The tones do not change phonemically. However, allophonically they evidently split into a higher-pitched allophone in syllables with voiceless initials, and a lower-pitched allophone in syllables with voiced initials. All modern Chinese varieties reflect such a split, which produces a new set of phonemic tones in most varieties due to later loss of voicing distinctions.

The following changes are in approximate order.

Labiodentalization
Early Middle Chinese (EMC) labials () become Late Middle Chinese (LMC) labiodentals (, possibly from earlier affricates) in certain circumstances involving a following glide. When this happens, the glide disappears. Using Baxter's reconstruction, the triggering circumstances can be expressed simply as whenever a labial is followed by a glide  and the main vowel is a back vowel; other reconstructions word the rule differently. According to Baxter, however, labiodentalization might have occurred independently of each other in different areas. For example, some variants retain OC /m/ before the glide, while in other variants, it had developed into a labiodental initial (): compare Cantonese  man4 and Mandarin  wén.

Vowel changes and mergers

In approximate order:

a. Some early changes
  (without medial ) becomes  after labial, velar and glottal consonants,  elsewhere. (Along with certain later changes, this means that, synchronically, an LMC speaker cannot distinguish original Division IV syllables from original III-4 chongniu syllables; likewise for Division III vs. III-3 chongniu. This explains why these chongniu pairs end up in grades 3 and 4, respectively.) A change of this sort occurs in all modern reconstructions of EMC and LMC, and is responsible for the creation of Division IV.
  and  after a non-high front vowel (, , ) become  and  (often viewed as palatalized final consonants). This may not be a real change; Pulleyblank's EMC system already includes  and , whereas they are not present in any modern dialect. The most direct evidence for these sounds comes from Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary, which was borrowed from LMC and does reflect the sounds. In Pulleyblank's LMC system,  only occurs in the rhymes  and , which contrast with  and ; likewise for . ( and  do not contrast before velar finals, except possibly after EMC retroflex sibilants.) These contrasts would be reflected in some other way in a system without  and .
 The sequence  merges into . In some dialects, however, it instead remains separate (perhaps in the form , not otherwise occurring in Baxter's system). According to Abraham Y.S. Chan, the former change was characteristic of the Luoyang dialect, while the latter reflected the Jinling dialect. The distinction between the two surfaces in Standard Mandarin as a respective distinction between ai and ya, or pai/pei and pa.

b. Mergers of high-front finals
EMC finals , , ,  merge into ; likewise  (which occurs before  and ) becomes .
The hekou equivalents of the above (with additional medial ) become .
The III-4 chongniu equivalents of both of the above become  and , respectively.

c. Changes involving high back vowels, mostly generating
EMC final  becomes ; likewise,  becomes . (Possibly not a real change.)
The EMC sequence  becomes , and  becomes .
All remaining , except in the sequences  and , become .
All non-final  become , and  become .

d. Changes involving non-high vowels
When there is no medial , remaining  and  become .
All remaining , , ,  become .

e. Changes involving medials
Non-final  and  become , while  become .
The medials  and  merge into a single phoneme, with  occurring before  and , and  elsewhere (before  and high vowels). Medial  and  merge in the same way.

f. Medial and similar changes triggered by specific initials
 appears between a guttural consonant (velar or laryngeal) and a directly following . This sets the stage for palatalized syllables in Standard Mandarin such as jia and xian.
A final  directly following a dental sibilant becomes  (presumably ).
After an EMC retroflex sibilant, a directly following high-front vowel or glide ( or , along with front-rounded  or , if reconstructed) is removed, specifically:
A glide  is lost.
A main vowel  becomes  if non-final.
A main vowel  becomes  (presumably ) if final.
If high front-rounded vocalics are reconstructed, they unround ( -> ,  -> ).

Late changes to initial consonants

EMC palatals become retroflex, with palatal sibilants merging with retroflex sibilants and palatal  becoming a new phoneme  (still reflected as such in Standard Mandarin).
Voiced consonants are thought to have become breathy voiced. This is a non-phonemic change; it is postulated to account for the breathy-voiced consonants still present in Wu Chinese, and the common outcome elsewhere of originally voiced consonants as unvoiced aspirates. Karlgren reconstructed breathy voicing for EMC as well, but this is no longer thought to be the case due to lack of any evidence for it in borrowings to or from EMC (especially involving Sanskrit and Middle Indic languages, which had a distinction between normally voiced and breathy-voiced consonants). This may have occurred to differing extents in different places:
Among the two Chinese varieties that have not merged voiced and unvoiced consonants, Wu reflects the EMC voiced consonants as breathy voiced, but Old Xiang reflects them as normally voiced.
Gan and Hakka reflect all EMC voiced consonants as unvoiced aspirates, but many others (e.g. Mandarin) only have such aspirated consonants in syllables within the yang ping tone, the light-level tone. Similarly, many words in Hokkien Min that are read with the yang ping tone are unaspirated, developing from Old Chinese and Middle Chinese voiced initials. Some words have aspirated readings, however, which led some linguists to believe that there may be a voiced aspirated series in the Proto-Min language, which had branched off from Old Chinese before it developed into Middle Chinese.

From Late Middle Chinese to Standard Mandarin

Initials

Voiced stops and sibilants were devoiced; the stops became aspirated in syllables with tone 1 and unaspirated otherwise.
Retroflex stops merged into retroflex affricates.
Sonorants: retroflex nasal merged into alveolar nasal; , formerly palatal nasal in EMC, became  or sometimes the syllable er; velar nasal was dropped.
Before high front vowel or glide, velars ("back-tooth" stops and "throat" fricatives) and alveolar sibilants palatalized and merged as a new series of alveolo-palatal sibilants.
The glottal stop  was dropped; before a high front glide, the voiced velar fricative  was dropped.
Labiodentals: , devoiced, merged into ;  became . (LMC labiodentals resulted from EMC labials preceding  + back vowel.)

The following table illustrates the evolution of initials from Early Middle Chinese, through Late Middle Chinese, to Standard Mandarin.

Finals
In general, Mandarin preserves the LMC system of medials and main vowels fairly well (better than most other varieties) but drastically reduces the system of codas (final consonants). The systematic changes to medials and main vowels are loss of the chongniu distinctions i/ji and y/jy (which occur in all modern varieties) and loss of the distinction between  and . All final stop consonants are lost, and final nasals are reduced to a distinction between  and .

The exact changes involving finals are somewhat complex and not always predictable, in that in many circumstances there are multiple possible outcomes. The following is a basic summary; more information can be found in the table of EMC finals in Middle Chinese.

Changes to medials:
LMC medial classes  and  merge, losing the ; likewise for  and .
LMC front medials  and  (and corresponding main vowels) are lost after retroflex consonants. The operation of this change is exactly as for the similar change that occurred after EMC retroflexes. (Note that the difference between EMC retroflex and palatal sibilants is sometimes reflected in the Mandarin difference between e.g. she (EMC retroflex) and shi (EMC palatal).
LMC medial  is lost after labials, and  unrounds to .
LMC medial  is sometimes lost after  and .
Various other changes occur after particular initials.

Changes to main vowels:
Long vowel  shortens.
Various other complex changes; see Middle Chinese.

Changes to codas:
LMC coda  becomes .
LMC stop codas  are dropped, with  sometimes becoming  and .
LMC complex codas  and  become simple codas; likewise for  and , but often with effects on the preceding vowel.

Tones
A tone split occurs as a result of the loss of the voicing distinction in initial consonants. The split tones then merge back together except for Middle Chinese tone 1; hence Middle Chinese tones 1,2,3 become Mandarin tones 1,2,3,4. (Some syllables with original Mandarin tone 3 move to tone 4; see below.) Syllables with a final stop consonant, originally toneless, get assigned to one of the four modern tones; for syllables with Middle Chinese unvoiced initials, this happens in a completely random fashion.

The specific relationship between Middle Chinese and modern tones:

V− = unvoiced initial consonant (  or  )
L = sonorant initial consonant ( )
V+ = voiced initial consonant (not sonorant) ( )

Branching off of the modern varieties

Most modern Chinese varieties can be viewed as descendants of Late Middle Chinese (LMC) of c. 1000 AD. For example, all modern varieties other than Min Chinese have labiodental fricatives (e.g. ), a change that occurred after Early Middle Chinese (EMC) of c. 600 AD. In fact, some post-LMC changes are reflected in all modern varieties, such as the loss of the chongniu distinction (between e.g.  and , using Edwin Pulleyblank's transcription). Other changes occurring in most modern varieties, such as the loss of initial voiced obstruents and corresponding tone split, are areal changes that spread across existing dialects; possibly the loss of chongniu distinctions can be viewed in the same way.

Min Chinese, on the other hand, is known to have branched off even before Early Middle Chinese (EMC) of c. 600 AD. Not only does it not reflect the development of labiodental fricatives or other LMC-specific changes, but a number of features already present in EMC appear never developed. An example is the series of retroflex stops in EMC, which developed from earlier alveolar stops followed by , and which later merged with retroflex sibilants. In Min, the corresponding words still have alveolar stops. This difference can be seen in the words for "tea" borrowed into various other languages: For example, Spanish te, English tea vs. Portuguese chá, English chai, reflecting the Amoy (Southern Min)  vs. Standard Mandarin .

In the case of distinctions that appear to have never developed in Min, it could be argued that the ancestral language did in fact have these distinctions, but they later disappeared. For example, it could be argued that Min varieties descend from a Middle Chinese dialect where retroflex stops merged back into alveolar stops instead of merging with retroflex sibilants. However, this argument cannot be made if there are distinctions in Min that do not appear in EMC (and which reflect ancient features going back to Old Chinese or – ultimately – even Proto-Sino-Tibetan, so that they cannot be explained as secondary developments), and this does indeed appear to be the case. In particular, Proto-Min (the reconstructed ancestor of the Min varieties) appears to have had six series of stops corresponding to the three series (unvoiced, unvoiced aspirated, voiced) of Middle Chinese. The additional three series are voiced aspirated (or breathy voiced), unvoiced "softened", and voiced "softened".

Evidence for the voiced aspirated stops comes from tonal distinctions among the stops. When voiced stops became unvoiced in most varieties and triggered a tone split, words with these stops moved into new lowered (so-called yang) tone classes, while words with unvoiced stops appeared in raised (so-called yin) tone classes. The result is that the yin classes have words with both aspirated and unaspirated stops, while the yang classes have only one of the two, depending on how the formerly voiced stops developed. Min varieties, however, have both kinds of words in yang classes as well as yin classes. This has caused scholars to reconstruct voiced aspirates (probably realized as breathy voiced consonants) in Proto-Min, which develop into unvoiced aspirates in yang-class words.

In addition, in some Min varieties, some words with EMC stops are reflected with stops while others are reflected with "softened" consonants, typically voiced fricatives or approximants. Such "softened stops" occur in both yin and yang classes, suggesting that Proto-Min had both unvoiced and voiced "softened stops". Presumably "softened stops" were actually fricatives of some sort, but it is unclear exactly what they were.

Scholars generally assume that these additional Proto-Min sounds reflect distinctions in Old Chinese that vanished in Early Middle Chinese but remained in Proto-Min. Until recently, no reconstructions of Old Chinese specifically accounted for the Proto-Min distinctions, but the recent reconstruction of William Baxter and Laurent Sagart accounts for both voiced aspirates and softened stops. According to them, voiced aspirates reflect Old Chinese stops in words with particular consonant prefixes, while softened stops reflect Old Chinese stops in words with a minor syllable prefix, so that the stop occurred between vowels. The postulated development of the softened stops is very similar to the development of voiced fricatives in Vietnamese, which likewise occur in both yin and yang'' varieties and are reconstructed as developing from words with minor syllables.

See also
 Old Chinese phonology
 Standard Chinese phonology
 Sino-Xenic pronunciations

References

Works cited

External links
Chinese Phonological History, Dylan W.H. Sung
Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology, Guillaume Jacques
Traditional Chinese phonology
Periodization of Chinese Phonology, Marjorie K.M Chan
 Reconstruction of Middle Chinese and Old Chinese as well as intermediate forms done by Sergei Starostin

History of the Chinese language
Sound laws
Sino-Tibetan phonologies

Historical Chinese phonology


The Liberal Party of New York is a political party in New York. Its platform supports a standard set of socially liberal policies, including abortion rights, increased spending on education, and universal health care.

History
The Liberal Party was founded in 1944 by George Counts as an alternative to the American Labor Party (ALP) which had been formed earlier as a vehicle for leftists who supported the presidential candidacy of Franklin D. Roosevelt but were uncomfortable with the Democratic Party. Despite enjoying some electoral successes, the ALP had a schism as several avowed Marxists and communists gained influence in its organization.

Subsequently, several prominent ALP members founded the Liberal Party (LP) as a leftist yet explicitly anti-communist alternative. LP founders included David Dubinsky of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, Alex Rose of the Hat, Cap and Millinery Workers, theologian Reinhold Niebuhr, and activist Ben Davidson.

In the 1944 elections, both the ALP and LP nominated Roosevelt for President, but by 1948 the two parties diverged, with the Liberals nominating Harry S. Truman and the American Labor Party nominating Progressive Party candidate Henry Wallace. Non-Marxist ALP leaders like Dean Alfange helped lead a walkout to the Liberal Party.

At their founding, the Liberal Party had conceived a plan to become a national party, with former Republican presidential candidate Wendell Willkie as its national leader and candidate for Mayor of New York City in 1945. However, Willkie's unexpected death later in 1944 left the Liberals without any truly national figures to lead the party.

The Liberal Party was one of several minor parties that fulfill a role almost unique to New York State politics. New York law allows electoral fusion – a candidate can be the nominee of multiple parties and aggregate the votes received on all the different ballot lines. Several other states allow fusion, but only in New York is it commonly practiced. In fact, since each party is listed with its own line on New York ballots, multiple nominations mean that a candidate's name can be listed several times on the ballot.

The Liberal Party's primary electoral strategy was rarely to run their own candidates. Rather, they generally cross-endorsed the nominees of other parties who agreed with key elements of the LP philosophy. By supporting agreeable candidates and threatening not to support disagreeable ones, the Liberal Party hoped to influence candidate selection by the major parties.  Other currently active parties pursuing a similar strategy in New York include the Conservative Party and the Working Families Party.

In 1960, the Liberal Party endorsed John F. Kennedy for president. On September 14, 1960, he accepted the nomination, giving almost a 20-minute speech defending American Liberalism and his campaign. Here he also gave a famous quote about liberalism, stating "I'm proud to say I'm a Liberal."

While the Liberal Party generally endorsed Democratic candidates, this was not always the case. They occasionally supported Republicans such as John Lindsay and Rudy Giuliani for mayor of New York City, and Jacob Javits and Charles Goodell for U.S. Senator, and independents such as John B. Anderson (a former Republican) for President. The Liberal Party endorsed Anderson for president in 1980 instead of incumbent Democratic president, Jimmy Carter. Carter had been the Liberal candidate in 1976 even though many people considered the evangelical southerner Carter to be less liberal than his moderate northern Republican challenger, Gerald Ford.

In 1969, Lindsay, the incumbent Republican Mayor of New York City, lost his own party's primary but was reelected on the Liberal Party line alone, bringing along 'on his coat-tails' enough Liberal candidates for City Council to replace the Republicans as the Minority Party in city government. In 1977, after Mario Cuomo lost the Democratic nomination for mayor of New York to Ed Koch, the Liberal Party endorsed Cuomo, who proceeded to again lose narrowly in the general election.

The Liberal Party sometimes played the role of spoiler by being the possible cause of the defeat of Democrat Frank D. O'Connor in the race for governor in 1966 by naming Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr. as its candidate in the race against incumbent Republican Nelson Rockefeller. The Liberal Party played the role of spoiler even more in 1980 when they again decided to endorse long-serving liberal Republican senator Jacob Javits, instead of Democratic candidate Elizabeth Holtzman, despite the fact that Javits had recently been diagnosed with ALS and had lost in the Republican primary for United States Senator to his eventual successor, Al D'Amato. Later that year, in the 1980 general election for Senator, Javits took many Jewish votes and some liberal Republican votes away from Holtzman, as they both lost to the conservative D'Amato.

The Liberal Party declined in influence following the 1980 election. Its 1998 candidate for governor, Lieutenant Governor Betsy McCaughey Ross, received just 1.65% of the vote, with the party receiving criticism for its endorsement considering McCaughey's more conservative policies on healthcare in particular. The party endorsed Hillary Clinton's successful campaign for the United States Senate in 2000, but this did not revive its fortunes. After a very poor showing in the 2002 gubernatorial election when former Clinton administration Cabinet member Andrew Cuomo abandoned his campaign before the election but remained on the ballot as the Liberal candidate and received just 15,761 votes statewide, the party lost its automatic place on the ballot and ceased operations at its state offices.

Another hurdle to the efforts to reestablish the Liberal Party was the formation in mid-1998 of the Working Families Party, a party that enjoys, as the American Labor and Liberal Parties did in their prime, strong labor union support.

The Liberal Party also suffered allegations of corruption and of abandoning its liberal roots in favor of a system of patronage and nepotism – Harding relatives were given appointments in the Giuliani administration, and it was argued that it was a quid pro quo deal, since Giuliani is not generally considered a "liberal" by New York City standards. In 1999, The New York Observer called it an "ideologically bereft institution more interested in patronage than in policy." In 2009, Raymond Harding pleaded guilty to having accepted more than $800,000 in exchange for doing political favors for Alan G. Hevesi, a New York politician who was a frequent Liberal Party endorsee.

The Working Families Party became a new place for liberal or center-left voters to place their votes, and it did not help the Liberals that the Green Party, another left-wing organization, also expanded greatly at the same time. Around the same time that there was a surge in Working Families Party voting power, the Liberal Party failed to qualify for automatic ballot status, which robbed it of its inherent political power. The centrist campaigns of Tom Golisano boosted the Independence Party of New York into an automatic ballot line, due in large part to heavy campaigning against Republican George Pataki, which also helped siphon away potential Liberal Party votes.

In 2005, the New York Daily News reported that incumbent New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, then a liberal Republican who favors abortion rights and same-sex marriage, was seeking to revive the Liberal Party – and thereby run on a "Republican/Liberal" ticket – in an effort to win over Democratic voters in the overwhelmingly Democratic city.  Bloomberg was re-elected in 2005, but nothing came of these rumors of his campaign being used as a basis for a Liberal Party revival. In 2006, for the first time since the early 1940s, there was no Liberal candidate for Governor. Edward Culvert was the party's candidate for governor in 2010, but the party lacked the resources to muster the necessary petition with 15,000 valid signatures of registered voters to get him onto the ballot.

The Liberal Party's current chairman is Jack Olchin. Its executive director is Martin Hassner.  Prior to former New York City Parks Commissioner Henry Stern taking over as chairman in 2004, the Liberal Party's longtime leader was Raymond Harding (born Branko Hochwald; January 31, 1935 – August 9, 2012).

The Liberal Party cross-endorsed Republican candidate Bob Turner in the New York's 9th congressional district special election, 2011, marking one of the rare times the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party have agreed on a candidate other than an unopposed one.

Raymond Harding died August 9, 2012, in the Bronx of cancer, aged 77, depriving the Liberal Party of its best-known long-term figure.

While the Liberal Party still has a website, the last election in which it endorsed candidates, all on other party lines, was the New York City Council races in 2017.

Logo
The symbol of the New York Liberal Party is the Liberty Bell.

See also
Modern liberalism in the United States
Social liberalism
Contributions to liberal theory
Liberalism worldwide
List of liberal parties

References

Further reading
 Soyer, Daniel, "'Support the Fair Deal in the Nation; Abolish the Raw Deal in the City': The Liberal Party in 1949," New York History, 93 (Spring 2012), 147–81.
Soyer, Daniel. 2022. Left in the Center: The Liberal Party of New York and the Rise and Fall of American Social Democracy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Armato, Michael A. 2022. "'The One Who Spells It with a Capital L': Liberal Party Activism in the Hudson River Valley, 1948–1963." The Hudson River Valley Review 38 (2): 44-62.

External links
Liberal Party
An article on the history of the Liberal Party of New York
Anthony Weiss, "Harding Indictment a Symbol of Liberal Party's Downfall", The Forward, April 24, 2009 (last retrieved on April 26, 2009) — includes a brief history of the party
2009 New York Times article on decline and fall of the party
Liberal Party declaration and platform, founding document (1944)

1944 establishments in New York (state)
Political parties established in 1944
New York
Political parties in New York (state)
Regional and state political parties in New York (state)
New York
Progressive parties in the United States
Political parties in the United States
Party of New York

Liberal Party of New York


La Carretera de Nebraska 89, y abreviada NE 89 (en inglés: Nebraska Highway 89) es una carretera estatal estadounidense ubicada en el estado de Nebraska. La carretera inicia en el Oeste desde la  oeste de Danbury hacia el Este en la  sur de Alma. La carretera tiene una longitud de 116,7 km (72.52 mi).

Mantenimiento
Al igual que las autopistas interestatales, y las rutas federales y el resto de carreteras estatales, la Carretera de Nebraska 89 es administrada y mantenida por el Departamento de Carreteras de Nebraska por sus siglas en inglés NDOR.

Cruces
La Carretera de Nebraska 89 es atravesada principalmente por la  oeste de Beaver City noroeste de Stamford en Orleans.

Véase también

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Página oficial de NDOR

 Lista de Autopistas por estado
 Lista de sitios web de carreteras para cada estado

Carreteras estatales de Nebraska

Carretera de Nebraska 89