Celtic Park (Scottish Gaelic: Pàirc Cheilteach) is a football stadium, currently the home of Scottish Premiership team Celtic Football Club, in the Parkhead area of Glasgow, Scotland. With a capacity of 60,832, it is the largest football stadium in Scotland, and the eighth-largest stadium in the United Kingdom. It is also known as Parkhead or Paradise.

Celtic was formed in 1887 and the first Celtic Park opened in Parkhead in 1888. The club moved to the current site in 1892, after the rental charge was greatly increased on the first. The new site was developed into an oval-shaped stadium, with vast terracing sections. The record attendance of 83,500 was set at an Old Firm derby on 1 January 1938. The terraces were covered and floodlights installed between 1957 and 1971. The Taylor Report mandated that major clubs should have all-seater stadia by August 1994. Celtic was in a poor financial position in the early 1990s and no major work was carried out until Fergus McCann took control of the club in March 1994. The old terraces were demolished to develop a new stadium in a phased rebuild completed in August 1998. A section of rail seating was installed in 2016.

A UEFA category four stadium, Celtic Park has been used as a venue for Scotland internationals and Cup Finals when Hampden Park has been unavailable. Before the First World War, Celtic Park hosted composite rules shinty-hurling, track and field and the 1897 Track Cycling World Championships. Open-air Masses and First World War recruitment drives were also held there. Celtic Park hosted the opening ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games and has also been used for concerts by the Who and U2.

History

Original Celtic Park (1888–1892)
Celtic F.C. was formed in November 1887. The original Celtic Park was built at the north east junction of Springfield Road and London Road in Parkhead by a volunteer workforce within six months of formation. Its opening game was a match between Hibernian and Cowlairs. Celtic played its first match on 28 May 1888 at Celtic Park, against Rangers, which Celtic won 5–2. It hosted a British Home Championship match between Scotland and Ireland on 28 March 1891. Celtic was forced to leave this site in 1892, however, when the landlord increased the annual rent from £50 to £450.

New Celtic Park (1892–1904)

The new stadium was built in a disused brickyard at Janefield Street, 200 yards from the old site. The first turf, which had been transported from County Donegal, was laid by Irish patriot Michael Davitt and planted with shamrocks. He recited a verse that said the turf would "take root and flourish", but it was stolen soon afterwards. A journalist said the move was like "leaving the graveyard to enter paradise", which led to the ground being nicknamed "Paradise", although it is also often referred to as "Parkhead". The new Celtic Park was opened on 20 August 1892 with a match against Renton. A journalist writing in the Athletic News described Celtic Park as the best ground in Britain at the time, a title for which it may only have been challenged by Goodison Park, the home of Everton. Celtic Park was immediately successful, attracting record gate receipts and an attendance of 45,107 for the Scotland v England game in the 1894 British Home Championship. Celtic F.C. purchased the site for £100,000 in 1897.

The new stadium initially consisted of terracing with a capacity of approximately 40,000. It was an elongated oval shape, similar to Hampden Park. A running track and concrete cycling track were also constructed around the periphery of the pitch. On the northern side of the pitch there was a pavilion and a seated stand. In 1894, Celtic built the first ever press box at a football stadium in Britain, located high up on the main stand at Celtic Park. Later in the 1890s, club director James Grant financed the construction of an enclosed windowed stand (completed in 1899), built on stilts on the south side of the pitch. The spectators watched through sliding windows from padded seats, but they had to climb four flights of stairs to reach their position and the windows frequently steamed up.

Fire and rebuilding (1904–1957)

In May 1904, a fire destroyed the older north grandstand and severely damaged the adjacent pavilion; this prompted Celtic to buy the newer Grant Stand outright. The north enclosure was rebuilt by the following year.

By 1927 the Grant Stand had become unsafe and was demolished, to be replaced in summer 1929 by a new single-tier Main Stand, designed by Duncan and Kerr. This stand, which cost £35,000 and provided 4,800 seats, was smaller and less ornate than the Main Stand at Ibrox. The Celtic Park main stand had a similar feature to Ibrox, however, in the pedimented roof gable over the press box. Prior to its completion, the old pavilion on the opposite side of the field which dated from the original construction of the ground in 1892 and had partly escaped the 1904 fire (it had been 'reduced to cinders' in that blaze according to hastily filed contemporary reports) burned down entirely in March 1929, destroying some of the club's old records and photographs (the trophies were stored elsewhere).
 The club had to play the rest of their matches in the 1928–29 season at nearby Shawfield Stadium (reciprocating an earlier arrangement in 1914 when Clyde suffered similar damage to their ground) and also had to replace the roof of the stand next to the pavilion, which then became known as the "Hayshed".

Although it was only the third biggest ground in Glasgow, the rebuilt Celtic Park had a greater capacity than any club stadium in England. The record attendance for a Celtic match at Celtic Park was set by an Old Firm derby against Rangers on New Year's Day 1938. Some sources give the attendance for this game as 92,000, but contemporary sources suggest that the attendance was approximately 83,500.

Stadium improvements (1957–1990)

Significant improvements were carried out between 1957 and 1971, partly due to the great success Celtic achieved under the management of Jock Stein. A roof was built over the back of the western "Celtic End" terrace in 1957, while floodlights were installed in 1959. They were first used on 12 October, in a friendly match against Wolves. The northern "Hayshed" terrace, which became known as the "Jungle", was concreted in 1966 and a new roof was erected. A roof was built over the eastern "Rangers End" terrace in 1967, using the same design as the Rangers End at Hampden Park. All of this work meant that Celtic had more covered terracing than any other stadium in Britain, except Wembley. There were 4,800 seats, all in the Main Stand, in an overall capacity of 80,000. A further 3,900 seats were installed in the Main Stand paddock area in 1971. A new roof was erected over the Main Stand in 1971, which cost £250,000. It was supported by a "goalpost" framework, with the top girder measuring 97.5 metres long. The design was flawed, however, as the roof provided little shelter to the paddock seats, and retractable columns had to be installed to provide stability in case of high winds or heavy snow. Celtic later sued the designers and won damages.

The regulations in the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 reduced the capacity of Celtic Park to 56,500, but the club then increased the terracing to raise capacity to 67,000. In 1986, £1 million was spent on replacing the western terrace roof with a replica of the eastern terrace, which had been designed nearly twenty years earlier. The original red brick facade to the Main Stand was replaced during the club's centenary year in 1988, while lounges and offices were installed. Although the Main Stand had been modernised, terracing was still predominant at Celtic Park. This stood in contrast to most other major stadia in Britain, particularly Ibrox, where seating capacities had been increased. This left Celtic badly placed when the Taylor Report mandated that all major clubs had to have an all-seater stadium.

Celtic difficulties and fully seated stadia (1990–1994)

Celtic was heavily in debt and had been significantly outgrown by Rangers commercially in the early 1990s. The Celtic board initially prevaricated in response to the Taylor Report, partly due to divisions in the board. Celtic director Brian Dempsey proposed a development on land he controlled at Robroyston, but he was opposed by fellow directors, Michael Kelly and Chris White, who had Dempsey removed from the board. Despite these divisions, a proposal to build a new 52,000-seat stadium on industrial waste ground at Cambuslang was unveiled in April 1992. The £100 million scheme was meant to include wider commercial developments that would fund the completed stadium, which would have only provided 32,000 seats in a first phase of construction. There was scepticism about the plan, however, as it was unclear how Celtic or their partner in the project, Superstadia, would raise the necessary finance. The proposed site would have had to be decontaminated, and contradictory statements about the ownership structure of the development were issued. Outline planning permission was granted in May 1993.

A deadline of August 1994 had been set to convert all major grounds to be fully seated. Even with planning permission granted, the first phase of the Cambuslang scheme would not be ready until 1995. As a stop-gap measure, Celtic installed 5,033 seats in the Jungle at the end of the 1992–93 season, at a cost of £350,000. The board hoped Celtic would be given a special dispensation from the rules. Installing seats in the Jungle itself caused an emotional reaction. Due to redevelopment work at Hampden, the 1993 Scottish Cup Final between Rangers and Aberdeen was to be played at Celtic Park. This meant that in the last competitive game in front of the Jungle, it would have been occupied by Rangers fans. To give the Celtic supporters last use, a friendly match between veteran Celtic and Manchester United players was arranged.

During the 1993–94 season, the board continued to talk optimistically about their plans. They claimed in February to have £20 million of funding in place from Gefinor, a Swiss financial institution. The claim was denied by Gefinor, who denied that they had even had any contact with the club. Celtic then came under severe pressure from the Bank of Scotland, who demanded a £1 million reduction in the club's overdraft, placing the club under threat of bankruptcy. With minutes to spare before a deadline set by the Bank, the board capitulated and sold control to Scots-Canadian businessman Fergus McCann.

Redevelopment (1994–2011)

McCann quickly discarded the Cambuslang scheme and instead started plans to bring Celtic Park into compliance with the Taylor Report. The capacity would have been only 34,000 if seats had been installed in the remaining terraces, which nevertheless was greater than Celtic's average attendance in the previous six seasons. McCann, who believed the club could fill a much larger stadium, decided instead to effectively build a new stadium. In the summer of 1994, the Jungle, East Terracing and West Terracing were demolished, with only the structure of the Main Stand left intact. The relatively new Jungle seats were used to refresh the seating in the Main Stand. Celtic played their home games at Hampden Park during the 1994–95 season, which cost the club £500,000 in rent. Celtic raised over £26 million to fund the work from two share issues: £12.3 million in a rights issue (£9.4 million invested by McCann) and £14 million in a public offering. 10,000 ordinary fans bought into the public offering, while season ticket sales rose from 7,000 to 26,000.

The detailed plans were finalised in December 1994. The club intended to build a 60,000-seat stadium, to be completed in three phases. The first phase was the new North Stand, which was designed by Percy Johnson-Marshall Associates, engineered by Hutter Jennings Titchmarsh, and built by Miller Construction. Celtic Park reopened with a friendly against Newcastle on 5 August 1995, with the new 26,970-capacity North Stand and the existing 7,850-capacity Main (South) Stand in place. This was augmented by a temporary stand, holding 2,800 seats, on the site of the former West Terracing. Phase two of the redevelopment was completed in August 1996, with the opening of the 13,006-capacity East Stand. Phase 3a was completed in February 1998 with the opening of the South West Corner. This was followed by Phase 3b, the Jock Stein Stand on the former West Terracing site, which was opened in August 1998 with a match against Liverpool. This third phase added another 13,006 seats, bringing the total capacity of the new Celtic Park to . Phases 2 and 3 were built by Barr Construction. The whole redevelopment, which made Celtic Park the biggest club stadium in Britain, cost £40 million. In the 1998–99 season the average attendance was 59,224 and season ticket sales exceeded 53,000, the highest number in Britain at the time.

Safe standing (2011–present)
In September 2011, Celtic started a feasibility study into creating a safe standing section in Celtic Park. In June 2015, Celtic received safety approval for a proposal to install rail seating. A section of 2,975 rail seats was installed in the Lisbon Lions Stand during the 2016 close season.

Structure and facilities

Stadium design

Celtic Park was an oval stadium, but has been converted to a rectangular stadium. It is intended to create an enclosed and intimidating atmosphere for big games. The ground is split into four geographic sections, officially known as the North, Jock Stein (West), Lisbon Lions (East) and Main (South) Stands. The North, East and West stands form a continuous two tier loop. The two end stands each have a capacity of 13,000, while the North Stand holds 27,000. The Main Stand holds just under 8,000, giving a total capacity of . It received 60% of the votes when BBC Radio Five Live conducted a poll in 2002 to find the favourite sports venue in the United Kingdom.

Stands of Celtic Park

The North Stand is squeezed into a tight space between the pitch and the Eastern Necropolis cemetery. Part of the upper tier is cantilevered over the graveyard. To save at least £1 million of additional steelwork, fourteen internal pillars were installed to support the roof. Some local residents objected to the North Stand because of the shadow cast over the cemetery, which Celtic believed was necessary to complete the overall project. The proposals were passed because the local officials felt that Celtic had come up with the best solution possible to the problem. Celtic paid £10,000 to compensate residents who had been promised open space "from the centre of the earth to the sky". The structure also had to take account of the need to maintain access into the North Stand along Janefield Street, which has been closed to the public since the redevelopment. Between the two tiers there are 18 executive boxes and a restaurant. There are 1600 seats in the lower section of the North Stand which have a heated element, operated by a foot switch.

The Main (South) Stand is now the oldest part of the stadium, having first been built in 1929, although a new roof was installed in 1971 and the facade was rebuilt in 1988. Translucent sheets were added to the Main Stand roof in 1998, to allow more sunlight to reach the pitch. Suspended from the roof girder of the Main Stand is a glass-fronted box, which used to house the press box, but was converted into two executive boxes in 1988. Alongside the main horizontal truss are two retractable columns. These can swing down to a fixing point on the rear wall of the former paddock, which provides additional stability in case of high winds or heavy snow.

The East Stand opened in 1996; it was renamed in 2000 after the Lisbon Lions, the Celtic team that won the 1967 European Cup Final. The renaming ceremony was a few days after a Scottish Cup tie had to be postponed after strong winds had damaged guttering in the stand. Away team fans are housed in the Lisbon Lions Stand, in the south east corner of the ground. Some of the away section has its view restricted by one of the supporting pillars of the Main Stand. Celtic offer a discounted price on these seats.

Writing in 1996, Simon Inglis noted that the approaches to the Main Stand were an area of urban deprivation "reminiscent of Belfast during the Troubles". Redevelopment work was carried out in the land surrounding the stadium ahead of the 2014 Commonwealth Games, in a scheme dubbed the Celtic Triangle, in addition to extensive rebuilding of housing in the nearby Barrowfield, Dalmarnock and Parkhead residential districts and the construction of the Commonwealth Arena and Sir Chris Hoy Velodrome directly opposite the stadium. Since 2005, statues of Brother Walfrid, Jimmy Johnstone, Jock Stein and Billy McNeill have been erected outside the Main Stand.

In summer 2015, the exterior of the stadium was adorned with a display of printed banners which will remain permanently. Fifteen green-coloured sections at either end of the stadium – each 21 metres high – form a display which reads 'Paradise' and depicts images of noted players from throughout the club's history (58 players in total, with a different set shown on each stand). Photographic banners of significant events and trophy wins are displayed on further panels at the corners between the main stand and the end stands. The project was controlled by the Frame agency with design input from Coatbridge-based artist Jim Scullion.

Possible developments
Celtic have considered the possibility of increasing the capacity of Celtic Park by redeveloping the Main Stand. A completed two-tier bowl stadium would give Celtic Park a capacity of nearly 75,000. Celtic chief executive Peter Lawwell stated in April 2007 that another 8,000 could be added to the capacity, but the work was not considered cost-effective. This position was re-iterated in November 2022, when Celtic chief executive Michael Nicholson estimated that redeveloping the main stand would cost up to £100 million.

In February 2017, Celtic published plans for a hotel and museum development in an area of land between the Main Stand and London Road. Those outline plans were approved in September 2017, with conditions about the size of any retail space. Amended plans were submitted in July 2020.

Other uses

Celtic Park has been a home venue for the Scotland national football team over 20 times, the most of any ground apart from the national stadium, Hampden Park. Scotland secured qualification for the 1998 FIFA World Cup with a 2–0 win against Latvia at Celtic Park having beaten Austria there by the same scoreline earlier in the qualifying process, and in 2006 achieved a 6–0 scoreline against the Faroe Islands at the stadium after Hampden was double-booked with a Robbie Williams concert.

The ground most recently hosted a Scotland game in November 2014 (a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier against Republic of Ireland, won 1–0) when Hampden was unavailable because it had been reconfigured for use as an athletics stadium during the 2014 Commonwealth Games. Celtic Park also hosted both national cup finals during the 2013–14 season for this reason. While Hampden Park was being redeveloped during the 1990s, Celtic Park hosted the 1993 and 1998 Scottish Cup Finals and the 1993, 1996 and 1998 Scottish League Cup Finals, all five featuring Rangers, which were played before, during and after Celtic Park's own major redevelopments.

Before the First World War, Celtic Park was a multi-event venue. It hosted the first ever composite rules shinty-hurling match in Scotland, in 1897. Track and field meetings were held every summer, while the only World Cycling Championship to be staged in Scotland was held at Celtic Park in 1897. An experimental floodlit football game was played on Christmas Day 1893. This was unsuccessful due to the ball repeatedly striking the lamps, which were hung over the pitch by wiring. Rugby league football was first played in Scotland at Celtic Park, when it hosted a game between a Northern Rugby Football Union representative side and the touring Australian team in 1909. Open-air Masses and a parade for the Coronation of King George V were staged. Celtic Park, along with many other football stadiums, hosted recruitment drives during the First World War. During one such event at Celtic Park, a demonstration of trench warfare was carried out. The first pukka speedway race meeting in Scotland was held at Celtic Park on 28 April 1928. It staged 12 meetings in all before closing in July 1928 (although some of the events may have been staged at the neighbouring Nelson Recreation Ground).

Celtic Park has been used for concerts by the Who (1976), Bryan Adams (1992), Prince (1992) and U2 (1993). Wet Wet Wet played there in September 1997, but their performance had to be postponed by a day to avoid clashing with the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales. Paul McCartney planned a Celtic Park date in his 2003 Back in the World tour, but it was cancelled. American evangelical Christian missionary Billy Graham held an outdoor event at the ground in 1991, his first visit to Scotland since 1955. One of the supporting speakers was Aberdeen player Brian Irvine, who had scored the winning penalty kick against Celtic in the 1990 Scottish Cup Final.

Celtic Park was used for the opening ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games opened by Queen Elizabeth II. With Hampden also being used for the Games, Celtic played two European ties at Murrayfield Stadium instead. Owing to further redevelopment work on Celtic Park in 2015, Celtic scheduled three pre-season games for St Mirren Park.

Celtic Park hosted the 2018–19 final of the Pro14, contested by Leinster and Glasgow, which was the first rugby union match played on the ground.

Transport

The main railway stations in Glasgow, Central and Queen Street, are approximately 45 minutes walking distance from Celtic Park. Local trains from Glasgow Central on the Argyle Line serve Dalmarnock railway station, which is about 10 minutes walking distance from the ground. Fans travelling to Celtic Park also use Bellgrove and Bridgeton stations, which are both approximately one mile away. Between 1897 and 1964, Celtic Park was served by the eponymous Parkhead Stadium railway station. The stadium is served by First Glasgow bus route numbers 2 ,  8 , 61 , 64 , 240 and 255 along with McGills service 164 . Celtic Park sits adjacent to the A74 (London Road), near to the M74 and M8 motorways. Visitors to the ground travelling by car can park in the surrounding streets. The new Glasgow East End Regeneration Route, which links the two motorways, runs close by Celtic Park.

See also
Stadium relocations in Scottish football

Notes

References

 Sources

Celtic F.C.
Tourist attractions in Glasgow
Sports venues in Glasgow
Football venues in Glasgow
2014 Commonwealth Games venues
Scottish Premier League venues
Scottish Football League venues
Parkhead
Defunct speedway venues in Scotland
Scottish Professional Football League venues
Sports venues completed in 1892
1892 establishments in Scotland
Scotland national football team venues
Cycle racing in Scotland
Defunct velodromes in the United Kingdom

Celtic Park


Merkez Bosna Kantonu Bosna-Hersek Federasyonu'nun 10 kantonundan biridir. Boşnak-Hırvat karışık kantondur. Yani her iki etnisiteye de ait sayılır. Başkenti Travnik'tir.

Coğrafya
Adından da anlaşılacağı üzere ülkenin merkezinde, Saraybosna'nın batısında yer alır.

Belediyeleri
Bugojno, Busovača, Dobretići, Donji Vakuf, Fojnica, Gornji Vakuf - Uskoplje, Jajce, Kiseljak, Kreševo, Novi Travnik, Travnik, Vitez.

Etnik Gruplar
En büyük etnik grup Boşnaklardır (Çoğunlukla Travnik, Donji Vakuf, Bugojno, Gornji Vakuf - Uskoplje ve Fojnica'da otururlar.), ikinci büyük etnik grup Hırvatlardır. (Çoğunlukla Jajce, Dobretići, Novi Travnik, Vitez, Busovača, Kiseljak ve Kreševo'da otururlar.).

Kaynakça

Merkez Bosna


Asylbarn - Solén, Jeg altid husker far er en børnefilm instrueret af Jannik Hastrup efter manuskript af Maria Stevnbak Andersen.

Handling
Solen er ti år og bor med sin mor og to store søstre i et asylcenter. Hun har mange bamser, men Susu er den bedste. De holder fødselsdag for far med en stor lagkage som den ældste søster har lavet. Solén tænker tit på far. Han er fængslet i Syrien. Og hun drømmer om en dag at flytte ud og få et sted at bo. Så vil hun rejse til Syrien og hente far ud af fængslet.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2013
Børnefilm fra Danmark

Asylbarn - Solén, Jeg altid husker far


Willy Bakeroot est un musicothérapeute et conteur belge, né à  le 3 novembre 1933 et décédé à Viroflay le 8 mars 2022.

Biographie

Bibliographie
 Musicothérapie active ; rebâtir le temps de la mémoire, Dunod, 17 Mars 2021
 Bois d'oeuvre, in Lettre de Maredsous, août 2021, pp. 85-107, et décembre 2021, pp. 168-189

Notes et références

Liens externes
 Site Carmina
 une interview audio sur la méthode Orff
 Le rythme verbo-musical en musicothérapie active : une question joussienne

Musicothérapeute
Naissance en novembre 1933
Décès en mars 2022
Décès à Viroflay
Décès à 88 ans

Willy Bakeroot


Saveznička okupacijska uprava u Njemačkoj bila je uprava država pobjednica u Drugom svjetskom ratu nad njemačkim teritorijem od poraza Nacističke Njemačke 1945. do osnivanja Istočne i Zapadne Njemačke 1949. godine.

Saveznici su uspostavili zajedničku vlast i suverenitet nad Njemačkom u cjelini, dakle svim teritorijima bivšeg Njemačkog Reicha zapadno od linije Odra – Nisa proglasivši poraz nacističke Njemačke smrću Adolfa Hitlera (Berlinska deklaracija 1945.). Četiri su sile u administrativne svrhe podijelile Njemačku u cjelini na četiri okupacijske zone pod trima zapadnim saveznicima (Sjedinjene Države, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo, Francuska) i Sovjetskim Savezom. Ova je podjela ratificirana na Potsdamskoj konferenciji u kolovozu 1945. godine. Četiri zone dogovorile su Sjedinjene Američke Države, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo i Sovjetski Savez na konferenciji u Jalti u veljači 1945. odbacujući raniju podjelu na tri zone (isključujući Francusku) predloženu Londonskim protokolom iz rujna 1944. godine.

Odstupajući od okupacijskih zona planiranih prema Londonskom protokolu 1944., Sjedinjene Američke Države, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo i Sovjetski Savez odlučile su odvajanje teritorija istočno od linije Odra – Nisa od Njemačke, a točna granična linija trebala se odrediti konačnim njemačkim mirovnim ugovorom. Od ožujka 1945. do srpnja 1945. ta su bivša istočna njemačka područja bila pod vlašću sovjetskih vojnih okupacijskih vlasti, ali nakon konferencije u Potsdamu predana su sovjetskim i poljskim civilnim upravama i prestala su biti dio savezničke Njemačke.

U posljednjim tjednima borbi u Europi snage Sjedinjenih Američkih Država probile su dogovorene granice budućih okupacijskih zona i prodrle na nekim mjestima čak 320 km u dubinu. Takozvana linija dodira između sovjetskih i američkih snaga na kraju neprijateljstava, koja je uglavnom ležala istočno od unutarnje njemačke granice uspostavljene u srpnju 1945., bila je privremena. Nakon dva mjeseca okupacije područja koja su bila dodijeljena sovjetskoj zoni američke su se snage povukle prvih dana srpnja 1945. To je bio ključan potez koji je uvjerio Sovjetski Savez da dopusti američkim, britanskim i francuskim snagama ulazak u pripadajuće okupacijske sektore u Berlinu, a to se dogodilo otprilike u isto vrijeme.

Teritoriji koje je Njemačka pripojila između 1938. i 1945. godine
Svi teritoriji Austrije i Čehoslovačke koje je Njemačka pripojila prije rata vraćeni su tim zemljama. Litvanski teritorij koji je Njemačka anektirala prije Drugog svjetskog rata, tzv. teritorij Memela, Sovjetski Savez je pripojio 1945. i prenio u Litvansku SSR. Svi belgijski, francuski, luksemburški, poljski i jugoslavenski teritoriji koje je Njemačka pripojila tijekom rata vraćeni su pripadajućim zemljama.

Okupacijske zone

Američka zona
Američku zonu u južnoj Njemačkoj činile su Bavarska (bez Falačkog porajnja i okruga Lindau koja su pripala francuskoj zoni) i Hessena (bez regije Rhenish Hessen i regije Montabaur, također dijelom francuske zone) s novim glavnim gradom u Wiesbadenu, te sjevernih dijelova Württemberga i Badena. Zajedno su formirali saveznu državu Württemberg-Baden i postali sjeverni dijelovi današnje njemačke pokrajine Baden-Württemberg osnovane 1952.

Luke Bremen (na donjoj rijeci Weser) i Bremerhaven (na ušću rijeke Weser u Sjeverno more) također su stavljene pod američku kontrolu zbog zahtjeva Sjedinjenih Država da imaju kontrolu nad dijelom teritorija u sjevernoj Njemačkoj. Krajem listopada 1946. u američkoj zoni živjelo je:

 8.7 milijuna stanovnika u Bavarskoj
 3,97 milijuna stanovnika u Hessenu
 3.6 milijuna stanovnika u Württemberg-Badenu
 0,48 milijuna stanovnika u Bremenu

Sjedište američke vojne vlade bila je bivša zgrada konglomerata kemijske industrije IG Farben u Frankfurtu na Majni.

Nakon potpunog zatvaranja svih nacističkih njemačkih medija, pokretanje i rad potpuno novih novina započelo je licenciranjem pomno odabranih Nijemaca za izdavače. Nijemci koji nisu bili uključeni u nacističku propagandu dobili su dozvole za osnivanje novina, uključujući Frankfurter Rundschau (kolovoz 1945.), Der Tagesspiegel (Berlin, rujan 1945.) i Süddeutsche Zeitung (München, listopad 1945.). Radiostanicama je upravljala vojna vlada. Kasnije su Radio Frankfurt, Radio München (München) i Radio Stuttgart ustupili mjesto Hessischer Rundfunku, Bayerischer Rundfunku, odnosno Süddeutscher Rundfunku. Radiopostaja RIAS u Zapadnom Berlinu ostala je pod američkom kontrolom.

Britanska zona

Do svibnja 1945. britanska i kanadska vojska oslobodile su Nizozemsku i osvojile sjevernu Njemačku. Kanadske snage povukle su se u domovinu nakon njemačke predaje, ostavljajući sjevernu Njemačku pod britanskom okupacijom.

U srpnju su se Britanci povukli iz glavnog grada Mecklenburga Schwerina koji su preuzeli od Amerikanaca nekoliko tjedana prije, jer je prethodno bilo dogovoreno da ga okupira Crvena armija. Kontrolno povjerenstvo za Njemačku (britanski element) (CCG/BE) prepustilo je Sovjetskom Savezu više dijelova svog okupacijskog područja, konkretno Amt Neuhaus iz Hannovera i neke eksklave i rubove Braunschweiga, primjerice okrug Blankenburg, te su u skladu sa sporazumom Barber-Lijaščenko razmijenili neka sela između britanskog Holsteina i sovjetskog Mecklenburga.

Unutar britanske okupacijske zone, CCG/BE je ponovno uspostavio grad Hamburg kao saveznu državu, ali s granicama koje je nacistička vlada formirala 1937. Britanci su također stvorili nove njemačke savezne države:

 Schleswig-Holstein nastaje 1946. iz pruske pokrajine Schleswig-Holstein,
 Donja Saska nastaje spajanjem Braunschweiga, Oldenburga i Schaumburg-Lippea s državom Hannover 1946. godine; i
 Sjeverna Rajna-Vestfalija nastaje spajanjem Lippea s pruskim pokrajinama Rajnland (sjeverni dio) i Vestfalija tijekom 1946. – 1947.

Također 1947. godine američka okupacijska zona koja se nalazila u unutrašnjosti nije imala lučkih gradova, tako su Slobodni Hanzeatski grad Bremen i Bremerhaven postali eksklave unutar britanske zone.

Krajem listopada 1946. u Britanskoj zoni živjelo je:

 11.7 milijuna stanovnika u Sjevernoj Rajni - Vestfaliji
 6.2 milijuna u Donjoj Saski
 2.6 milijuna u Schleswig-Holsteinu
 1.4 milijuna u Hamburgu

Britansko sjedište je od 1946. izvorno bilo u gradu Bad Oeynhausenu, ali je 1954. preseljeno u Mönchengladbach gdje je bilo poznato kao JHQ Rheindahlen.

Belgijske, Poljske i Norveške zone
Vojne jedinice iz drugih zemalja bile su smještene unutar britanske okupacijske zone. Belgiji je dodijeljen teritorij kojeg je okupirala njena vojska. Belgijski teritorij okupacije protezao se oko 200 kilometara duž belgijsko-njemačke granice na jugu britanske zone i obuhvaćao je važne gradove poput Kölna i Aachena. Belgijska okupacijska vojska u Njemačkoj (od 1951. "Belgijske snage u Njemačkoj") postala je autonomna 1946. pod zapovjedništvom Jean-Baptiste Pirona. Belgijsko vojno osoblje ostalo je u Njemačkoj do 31. prosinca 2005.

Poljske jedinice uglavnom iz 1. oklopne divizije bile su stacionirane u sjevernom području okruga Emsland, kao i u područjima Oldenburg i Leer. Ova je regija graničila s Nizozemskom i prostirala se površinom od 6 500 km2. Raniji britanski prijedlozi da ovaj teritorij postane formalna poljska okupacijska zona ubrzo su napušteni zbog protivljenja Sovjeta. U zoni se nalazio veliki logor za prihvat uglavnom raseljenih osoba, a njime je upravljala poljska vlada u egzilu. Administrativno središte poljske okupacijske zone bio je grad Haren čije je njemačko stanovništvo privremeno deportirano, a grad je preimenovan u Maczków (po Stanislavu Maczeku) od 1945. do 1947. godine. Nakon što su Britanci priznali prosovjetsku vladu u Poljskoj i povukli priznanje poljske vlade u egzilu sa sjedištem u Londonu, poljska okupacijska zona okruga Emsland postala je izvor tenzija sa Sovjetskim Savezom. Poljske su jedinice u sastavu britanske vojske demobilizirane u lipnju 1947. godine. Deportiranom njemačkom stanovništvu Emslanda dopušten je povratak, a posljednji poljski stanovnici otišli su 1948. godine.

Godine 1946. norveške brigade u Njemačkoj brojale su 4 000 vojnika stacioniranih u Hannoveru, među kojima je bio i budući kancelar Willy Brandt (tada norveški državljanin) kao ataše za tisak.

Još jedno posebno obilježje britanske zone bila je Bonnska enklava. Nastala je u srpnju 1949. i nije bila pod britanskom ili bilo kojom drugom savezničkom kontrolom, već pod kontrolom Savezničkog visokog povjerenstva. U lipnju 1950. Ivone Kirkpatrick postaje britanski visoki povjerenik za Njemačku. Kirkpatrick je imao na sebi golemu odgovornost, posebno tijekom pregovora o bonsko – pariškoj konvenciji tijekom 1951. – 1952., koja je prekinula okupaciju i dopustila Zapadnoj Njemačkoj ponovo formiranje vlastite vojske.

Francuska okupacijska zona

Francuskoj Republici isprva nije bila dodijeljena okupacijska zona u Njemačkoj, ali su britanska i američka vlada kasnije pristale ustupiti neke zapadne dijelove svojih okupacijskih zona Francuskoj vojsci. U travnju i svibnju 1945. francuska 1. armija zauzela je Karlsruhe i Stuttgart te osvojila teritorij koji se protezao do Hitlerova "Orlovog gnijezda" i najzapadnijeg dijela Austrije. U srpnju su Francuzi prepustili Stuttgart Amerikancima, a u zamjenu su dobili kontrolu nad gradovima zapadno od Rajne, primjerice Mainza i Koblenza. Francuska je tako kontrolirala dva susjedna njemačka područja duž francuske granice koja su se dodirivala u samo jednoj točki uz rijeku Rajnu. U francuskoj okupacijskoj zoni osnovane su tri njemačke savezne države: Rheinland-Pfalz na sjeveru i zapadu, te Württemberg-Hohenzollern i Južni Baden, koje su kasnije formirale Baden-Württemberg zajedno s Württemberg-Badenom iz američke zone.

Francuska okupacijska zona uključivala je i Saarski protektorat, koji je odvojen u posebnu državu izvan savezničke jurisdikcije 16. veljače 1946. Do 18. prosinca 1946. uspostavljena je carinska kontrola između područja Saara i Njemačke okupirane od saveznika. Francuska zona ustupila je dodatna područja Saarskom protektoratu (sredinom 1946., početkom 1947. i početkom 1949.). Francuskoj je zoni pripadao i grad Büsingen am Hochrhein, njemačka eksklava odvojena od ostatka zemlje uskim pojasom neutralnog švicarskog teritorija. Švicarska vlada pristala je dozvoliti ograničenom broju francuskih vojnika prolaz kroz njezin teritorij radi očuvanja reda u Büsingenu.

Krajem listopada 1946. u Francuskoj zoni je živjelo:

 2,7 milijuna stanovnika u Rheinland-Pfalzu
 1,2 milijuna stanovnika u južnom Badenu
 1,05 milijuna stanovnika u Württemberg-Hohenzollernu

(Saarski protektorat imao je 0,8 milijuna stanovnika.)

Luksemburška zona
Studenoga 1945. Luksemburgu je dodijeljena jedna zona unutar francuskog sektora. Luksemburška 2. pješačka bojna bila je stacionirana u Bitburgu, a 1. bojna poslana je u Saarburg. Posljednje luksemburške vojne snage u Bitburgu, napustile su Njemačku 1955.

Sovjetska zona

Sovjetska okupacijska zona uključivala je Tiringiju, Sasku, Sasku-Anhalt, Brandenburg i Mecklenburg-Zapadnu Pomorinu. Sovjetska vojna uprava u Njemačkoj imala je sjedište u Berlinu.

Krajem listopada 1946. u sovjetskoj je zoni živjelo:

 5,5 milijuna stanovnika u Saskoj
 4,1 milijun stanovnika u Saskoj-Anhaltu
 2,9 milijuna stanovnika u Tiringiji
 2,5 milijuna stanovnika u Brandenburgu
 2,1 milijun stanovnika u Mecklenburgu.

Berlin
Iako se u potpunosti nalazio u sovjetskoj zoni, zbog svoje simbolične važnosti kao glavnog grada i sjedišta bivše nacističke vlade, grad Berlin zajednički su okupirale savezničke sile i podijelile ga na četiri sektora. Sve četiri okupacijske sile držale su određene privilegije u cijelom Berlinu koje nisu bile prisutne u ostalim dijelovima Njemačke, što je vrijedilo i za sovjetski sektor Berlina, koji je bio pravno odvojen od ostatka sovjetske zone.

Krajem listopada 1946. u Berlinu je živjelo:

 Zapadni sektor 2,0 milijuna
 Sovjetski sektor 1,1 milijuna stanovnika.

Ostali njemački teritoriji
Na Potsdamskoj konferenciji 1945. svi njemački teritoriji istočno od linije Odra - Nisa (Istočna Pomeranija, Neumark, Šleska i južni dio Istočne Pruske) dodijeljeni su Poljskoj kao teritoriji "pod privremenom upravom" do konačnog mirovnog ugovora o Njemačkoj. Prema mirovnom sporazumu iz rujna 1990. sjeverni dio Istočne Pruske postao je Kalinjingradska oblast u sastavu Sovjetskog Saveza. Malo područje zapadno od Odre u blizini Szczecina, također je pripalo Poljskoj. Većina njemačkih državljana s prebivalištem u tim područjima protjerana je, a njihova je nepokretna imovina eksproprirana.

Saarska oblast, važno njemačko područje bogato ležištima ugljena, pretvoreno je u Saarski protektorat. Saarski protektorat je izuzet iz francuske okupacijske zone 16. veljače 1946. i proglašen je nezavisnim entitetom. U svom poznatom Stuttgartskom govoru 6. rujna 1946. američki državni tajnik James F. Byrnes izjavio je u vezi odvajanja Saarske oblasti da "Sjedinjene Države ne osjećaju da mogu odbiti zahtjev Francuske za pripojenje teritorija Saara, pošto ju je Njemačka u 70 godina tri puta napala."

Do 18. prosinca 1946. uspostavljena je carinska kontrola između Saarskog protektorata i okupirane Njemačke. Većini njemačkih državljana s prebivalištem u području Saara bilo je dopušteno da ostanu i zadrže svoju imovinu. Povratnicima koji su pobjegli od ratnih djelovanja bilo je dopušteno da se vrate, osobito su bile dobrodošle izbjeglice koje su pobjegle od nacističke diktature, primjerice Židovi i politički disidenti.

Protektorat je bio nominalno neovisna država spram Njemačke i Francuske, ali njegovo je gospodarstvo čvrsto integrirano u ono francusko. Područje Saara naknadno je više puta prošireno pripojenjem teritorija iz francuske okupacijske zone, najprije sredinom 1946., pa početkom 1947. (kada je 61 općina vraćena u francusku zonu) i početkom 1949. godine. Dana 15. studenog 1947. francuska je valuta postala zakonsko sredstvo plaćanja u Saarskom protektoratu, a nedugo nakon toga uslijedila je potpuna integracija Saara u francusko gospodarstvo (carinska unija od 23. ožujka 1948.). U srpnju je stanovništvu Saara oduzeto njemačko državljanstvo i dodijeljeno autonomno saarsko državljanstvo.

Stanovništvo
U listopadu 1946. stanovništvo različitih zona i sektora bilo je sljedeće:

Uprava i nastanak dviju njemačkih država
Izvorni saveznički plan o upravljanju Njemačkom kao jedinstvenom jedinicom kroz Savezničko nadzorno vijeće propao je 1946. – 1947. zbog rastućih napetosti među saveznicima. Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo i SAD zalagale su se za suradnju među saveznicima, Francuska je ometala svaku suradnju i promicala politiku podjele Njemačke na više nezavisnih država, a Sovjetski Savez je od početka jednostrano primjenjivao elemente marksističkog političko-ekonomskog sustava (prisilna preraspodjela zemljišta, nacionalizacija poduzeća). Dodatni je spor bila preraspodjela poslijeratnih prognanika među okupacijskim zonama. Dok su se Velika Britanija, SAD i Sovjetski Savez složili prihvatiti, smjestiti i hraniti oko šest milijuna prognanih njemačkih državljana iz bivše istočne Njemačke i četiri milijuna protjeranih Nijemaca iz Čehoslovačke, Poljske, Mađarske i Jugoslavije u svoje zone, Francuska općenito nije pristala na prisilnu seobu stanovništva odlučenu Potsdamskim sporazumom (odluka donesena bez doprinosa Francuske). Stoga je Francuska odbijala prihvatiti u vlastitu okupacijsku zonu one ratne izbjeglice kojima je uskraćen povratak u njihove domove na teritorijima Istočne Njemačke ili siromašne poslijeratne prognanike koji su tamo eksproprirani, a pogotovo se protivila njihovom prihvatu u Saarski protektorat. Njemačkom stanovništvu, koje se vratilo nakon nacističkog progona (npr. Židovi i politički disidenti) i izbjeglicama od ratnih razaranja (npr. evakuacije prilikom zračnih napada), bilo je dopušteno da se vrate svojim kućama u područje pod francuskom kontrolom. Ostali su saveznici snažno izražavali negodovanje što moraju snositi teret zbrinjavanja prognanika iz područja iz kojih su protjerani.

U praksi, svaka od četiri okupacijske sile imala je ovlaštenja suverene države u svojim zonama i provodila je različitu politiku prema stanovništvu te lokalnim i državnim vlastima. S vremenom se u zapadnim zonama razvila uniformna uprava, najprije kao tzv. Bizone spajanjem američke i britanske zone 1. siječnja 1947., a kasnije i Trizone (nakon uključivanja francuske zone). Potpuni slom savezničke suradnje istok – zapad i zajedničke uprave u Njemačkoj postao je jasan sovjetskim nametanjem Berlinske blokade koja se provodila od lipnja 1948. do svibnja 1949. godine. Tri zapadne zone spojene su u Saveznu Republiku Njemačku u svibnju 1949., a sovjetski odgovor na taj potez uslijedio je u listopadu 1949. uspostavom Njemačke Demokratske Republike (DDR).

Na zapadu se okupacija nastavila do 5. svibnja 1955., sve do stupanja na snagu Općeg ugovora (njem. Deutschlandvertrag). Međutim, stvaranjem Savezne Republike Njemačke u svibnju 1949., vojne guvernere zamijenili su visoki civilni povjerenici (njem. Hochkommissar), čije su ovlasti bile između ovlasti guvernera i ovlasti veleposlanika. Kad je Deutschlandvertrag stupio na snagu okupacija je prestala, zapadne okupacijske zone prestale su postojati, a visoke povjerenike zamijenili su veleposlanici. Zapadnoj Njemačkoj također je bilo dopušteno uspostaviti vojsku, a Bundeswehr ili Federalne obrambene snage osnovane su 12. studenoga 1955. godine.

Slična situacija dogodila se u Istočnoj Njemačkoj. Demokratska Republika Njemačka (DDR) osnovana je 7. listopada 1949. Dana 10. listopada sovjetsku vojnu upravu u Njemačkoj zamijenilo je Sovjetsko nadzorno povjerenstvo, iako je ograničeni suverenitet dodijeljen vladi DDR-a tek 11. studenoga 1949. godine. Nakon smrti Josipa Staljina u ožujku 1953., Sovjetsko nadzorno povjerenstvo zamijenjeno je 28. svibnja 1953. uredom sovjetskog visokog povjerenika. Taj je ured ukinut (i zamijenjen veleposlanikom), a (opći) suverenitet dodijeljen je DDR-u, kada je Sovjetski Savez 20. rujna 1955. s njom zaključio državni ugovor (njem. Staatsvertrag). DDR je 1. ožujka 1956. osnovala vlastitu vojsku, Nacionalnu narodnu armiju (NVA).

Unatoč dodjeli općeg suvereniteta objema njemačkim državama 1955., niti jedna od dviju njemačkih država nije uživala potpunu i neograničenu suverenost prema međunarodnom pravu, sve do ponovnog ujedinjenja Njemačke u listopadu 1990. Iako je Zapadna Njemačka bila neovisna, zapadni saveznici zadržali su ograničenu pravnu nadležnost nad "Njemačkom u cjelini" u odnosu na Zapadnu Njemačku i Berlin. Istovremeno, Istočna Njemačka je od satelitske države Sovjetskog Saveza dobivala sve veću neovisnost djelovanja, osim u pitanjima sigurnosti, gdje se uvijek oslanjala na sovjetsku vlast. Odredbe Ugovora o konačnom statusu Njemačke, poznate i kao "Ugovor dva plus četiri", kojim se ujedinjenoj Njemačkoj daju puna suverena ovlaštenja, postale pravomoćne tek 15. ožujka 1991., nakon što su sve vlade sudionice ratificirale ugovor. Kako je predviđeno Ugovorom, posljednje okupacijske trupe napustile su Njemačku 1994. kada su ruske trupe napustile njezin teritorij, iako su belgijske snage ostale na njemačkom teritoriju do kraja 2005. godine.

Plebiscitom iz 1956. okončana je francuska uprava Saarskog protektorata, koja se 1. siječnja 1957. pridružila Saveznoj Republici Njemačkoj kao Saarland, postavši tako njezina deseta savezna država.

Grad Berlin nije bio dijelom nijedne države i nastavio je postojati pod savezničkom okupacijom sve do ponovnog ujedinjenja Njemačke u listopadu 1990. Tri su zapadna sektora Berlina u administrativne svrhe spojena u entitet Zapadni Berlin. Sovjetski sektor postao je poznat kao Istočni Berlin i, premda ga zapadne sile nisu priznale kao dio Istočne Njemačke, DDR ga je proglasio svojim glavnim gradom (njem. Hauptstadt der DDR).

Okupacijska politika

Sa završetkom Drugog svjetskog rata na zapadu, general Dwight Eisenhower proglasio je politiku nebratimljenja između američkih vojnika pod njegovim zapovjedništvom u okupiranoj Njemačkoj i mjesnoga stanovništva. Ta se politika s vremenom postupno ublažavala. Do lipnja 1945. zabrane razgovora s njemačkom djecom postala je manje stroga. U srpnju je u određenim okolnostima postalo moguće razgovarati s odraslim Nijemcima. U rujnu je ta politika potpuno odbačena i u Austriji i u Njemačkoj.

Zatvaranja
Zbog velikog broja razoružanih neprijateljskih snaga zatvorenih u logorima za vojne zarobljenike (njem. Rheinwiesenlager) diljem zapadne Njemačke, Amerikanci i Britanci, ali ne i Sovjeti, koristili su naoružane jedinice tzv. Feldgendarmerie za održavanje nadzora i discipline u logorima. U lipnju 1946. godine ove njemačke jedinice vojne policije postale su posljednje postrojbe Wehrmachta koje su predale svoje oružje zapadnim silama.

Do prosinca 1945. preko 100 000 njemačkih civila zatvoreno je zbog prijetnji sigurnosti i zbog mogućeg suđenja i osude kao članova zločinačkih organizacija.

Pothranjenost
Do proljeća 1946. službeni obroci za civile u američkoj zoni nisu prelazili 1 275 kalorija (5 330 kJ) dnevno, a u nekim su područjima bili oko 700 kalorija (2 900 kJ) dnevno. U britanskoj zoni prehrana je bila vrlo oskudna, što je javnosti otkriveno tek tijekom posjeta britanskog (i židovskog) izdavača Victora Gollancza u listopadu i studenom 1946. godine. U Düsseldorfu je uobičajena 28-dnevna količina hrane trebala iznositi 1548 kalorija (6 480 kJ) dnevno uključujući 10 kilograma kruha mjesečno, ali kako je došlo do manjka pšenice, količina kruha po stanovniku bio je samo 8,5 kilograma mjesečno. No, kako je kruha bilo dovoljno samo za oko 50% toga "službenoga" obroka, ukupni manjak hrane za civilno stanovništvo iznosio je oko 50%, a ne 15% kako je navedeno u vladinom očitovanju Britanskome parlamentu 11. prosinca (dakle, samo oko 770 kalorija ili 3 200 kJ).  U knjizi Victora Gollancza nalaze se fotografije snimljene tijekom posjeta i njegova kritička pisma i novinski članci objavljeni u nekoliko britanskih novina (Times, Daily Herald, Manchester Guardian) itd.

Pitanje očinstva djece američkih vojnika
Neki su saveznički vojnici iskoristili očajnu situaciju s hranom i koristili se zalihama hrane i cigaretama predviđenima za savezničke okupacijske snage kako bi došli do seksualnih usluga mjesnih njemačkih djevojaka. Ta je praksa kasnije postala poznata kao frau bite i opisana je u The New York Timesu 25. lipnja 1945.

Njemačke žene koje su zatrudnjele i imale djecu sa savezničkim vojnicima obično nisu dobivale pomoć za uzdržavanje djece. U ranom razdoblju okupacije američki vojnici nisu smjeli plaćati uzdržavanje za dijete čak i ako su priznali očinstvo, pošto se to smatralo "pomaganjem neprijatelju". Brak između bijelih američkih vojnika i Austrijanki bio je dopušten tek u siječnju 1946., a s njemačkim ženama od prosinca 1946.

Djeca afroameričkih vojnika, obično zvana Negermischlinge (njem. "crnački mješanci"), koja čine oko tri posto od ukupnog broja djece čiji su očevi američki vojnici, bila su u posebno nepovoljnom položaju zbog svoje nemogućnosti prikrivanja očeva identiteta. Za mnoge bijele američke vojnike onoga doba, miješanje rasa bilo je nepodnošljiva uvreda, čak iako se radilo o bijelim ženama "neprijateljskoga" stanovništva. Afroamerički vojnici stoga nisu htjeli priznati svoje očinstvo jer bi to izazvalo odmazdu bijelih američkih vojnika, pa čak i optužbe za silovanje, zločin kojeg su vojne vlasti mnogo agresivnije kažnjavale kada je riječ o Afroamerikancima u usporedbi s bijelim vojnicima. Vjerojatnost osuđujuće presude vojnoga suda bila je vrlo velika, dijelom i zbog toga što se smatralo da njemačke žene ne bi nikad imale voljni seksualni odnos s Afroamerikancem. Kazna za silovanje mogla je biti i smrtna kazna. Čak i u rijetkim slučajevima u kojima je afroamerički vojnik bio spreman preuzeti odgovornost za očinstvo djeteta, američka je vojska zabranila međurasne brakove sve do 1948.

Između 1950. i 1955. Visoko savezničko povjerenstvo za Njemačku zabranilo je "postupak utvrđivanja očinstva ili odgovornosti za uzdržavanje djece", a i nakon ukidanja zabrane, zapadnonjemački sudovi imali su male ovlasti nad američkim vojnicima.

Britanske su vlasti općenito bile manje stroge od američkih u pogledu bratimljenja, dok su francuske i sovjetske vlasti bile strože.

Dok je savezničkim vojnicima bilo naređeno poštivanje mjesnih zakona dok su bili u Njemačkoj, njemački sudovi nisu mogli procesuirati vojnike za zločine počinjene nad njemačkim građanima bez odobrenja okupacijskih vlasti. Ako je saveznički vojnik bio optužen za kriminal, okupacijske su vlasti radije procesuirale vojnika u okviru vojnoga pravosudnoga sustava. To je ponekad dovodilo do oštrijih kazni nego što bi to bilo predviđeno prema njemačkom zakonu. Primjerice, američki vojnici mogli su na vojnome sudu dobiti i smrtnu kaznu ako su osuđeni za silovanje.

Uništavanje knjiga
Direktivom JCS 1067 do srpnja 1947. samo u američkoj, a nakon toga u svim okupacijskim zonama uređena je zapljena i uništavanje "literature i materijala nacističke i militarističke prirode". Zaplijenjena knjižna građa nije spaljena, nego je tretirana kao stari papir za oporabu. Na popisu se našlo oko 35 000 naslova te je zabranjena sva literatura tiskana između 1933. i 1945. Sve knjige iz toga razdoblja uklonjene su iz knjižnica, škola, fakulteta, znanstvenih ustanova, knjižara, tiskara i privatnih domova. Zapljenjivanje su i knjige Friedricha Velikoga, Otta von Bismarcka i sve dostupne tiskovine o Olimpijskim igrama 1936. Zbog nestručnosti provoditelja zapljene uništeno je i nekoliko primjeraka Gutenbergove Biblije, neke od skladbi Richarda Straussa, djela braće Grimm te antikvarne knjige starije od razdoblja nacionalsocijalizma.

Politika protjerivanja
Na Potsdamskoj konferenciji, na kojoj su pobjednički saveznici izradili planove za budućnost Njemačke, u članku XIII. Potsdamskoga sporazuma od 1. kolovoza 1945. zabilježeno je da će "morati biti poduzet transfer njemačkog stanovništva iz Poljske, Čehoslovačke i Mađarske u Njemačku...", ali stihijsko je protjerivanje već započelo.

Mađarska, koja je bila u savezništvu s Njemačkom i čije se stanovništvo protivilo protjerivanju njemačke manjine, pokušala se oduprijeti transferu. Mađarska je morala popustiti pritisku koji su vršili uglavnom Sovjetski Savez i Savezničko nadzorno vijeće. Milijuni ljudi protjerani su s bivših istočnih teritorija Njemačke, Poljske, Čehoslovačke, Mađarske i drugdje u okupacijske zone UK-a, SAD-a i SSSR-a, koji su u Potsdamskom sporazumu pristali apsorbirati poslijeratne prognanike u svoje zone. Mnogi su prognanici dugo ostali u izbjegličkim logorima. Neki Nijemci ostali su u Sovjetskom Savezu i godinama su korišteni u prisilnome radu.

Francuska nije bila pozvana na konferenciju u Potsdamu, stoga je odlučila selektivno usvojiti neke odluke iz Potsdamskih sporazuma, a druge odbaciti. Francuska je ostala pri stavu da ne odobrava poslijeratna protjerivanja i da stoga nije dužna osigurati smještaj i prehranu prognanika u svojoj zoni. U prosincu 1946. francuska vojna vlada za Njemačku primila je u svoju zonu njemačke izbjeglice iz Danske, gdje je 250 000 Nijemaca našlo utočište od Sovjeta između veljače i svibnja 1945. To su očito bile ratne izbjeglice iz istočnih dijelova Njemačke, a ne poslijeratni prognanici.

Izvori

Dodatna literatura
 Bark, Dennis L.; Gress, David R.: A History of West Germany Vol 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963, 1992.
 Bessel, Richard: Germany 1945: from war to peace, Simon and Schuster, 2012.
 Campion, Corey. "Remembering the 'Forgotten Zone': Recasting the Image of the Post-1945 French Occupation of Germany", French Politics, Culture & Society, sv., 37, br. 3 (2019.), str. 79-94.
 Erlichman, Camilo; Knowles, Christopher (ur.): Transforming Occupation in the Western Zones of Germany: Politics, Everyday Life and Social Interactions, 1945-55 Bloomsbury, 2018.
 Golay, John Ford: The Founding of the Federal Republic of Germany, University of Chicago Press, 1958.
 Jarausch, Konrad H: After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–1995 (2008)
 Junker, Detlef, (ur.): The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 22004. izvadak iz prvoga izdanja;  izvadak iz drugoga izdanja
 Knowles, Christopher: "The British Occupation of Germany, 1945–49: A Case Study in Post-Conflict Reconstruction", The RUSI Journal, sv. 158, br. 6 (2013.), str. 84–91.
 Knowles, Christopher: Winning the Peace: the British in Occupied Germany, 1945–1948. King's College London, 2014.mrežni oblik, kasnije objavljeno kao Winning the Peace: The British in Occupied Germany, 1945-1948, 2017., Bloomsbury Academic
 Main, Steven J. "The Soviet Occupation of Germany. Hunger, Mass Violence and the Struggle for Peace, 1945–1947.", Europe-Asia Studies, sv. 66, br. 8 (2014.), str. 1380–1382.
 Phillips, David: Educating the Germans: People and Policy in the British Zone of Germany, 1945-1949, 2018. mrežna recenzija
 Schwarz, Hans-Peter: Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction, 21995. prvo izdanje
 Taylor, Frederick: Exorcising Hitler: the occupation and denazification of Germany (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2011)
 Weber, Jurgen: Germany, 1945–1990, Central European University Press, 2004. mrežno izdanje

Primarni izvori
 Beate Ruhm Von Oppen, ed. Documents on Germany under Occupation, 1945–1954 (Oxford University Press, 1955) mrežno izdanje
 Clay, Lucius D. The papers of General Lucius D. Clay: Germany, 1945–1949, 21974.
 Miller, Paul D. "A bibliographic essay on the Allied occupation and reconstruction of West Germany, 1945–1955.", Small Wars & Insurgencies, sv. 24, br. 4 (2013.), str. 751–759.

Vanjske poveznice

 The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War by Melvyn P. Leffler

Povezani člnanci
 Okupacija Japana
 Saveznička okupacija Austrije

Hladni rat
Njemačka u Drugom svjetskom ratu
Teritoriji pod okupacijom
Francuska u Drugom svjetskom ratu
SAD u Drugom svjetskom ratu
SSSR u Drugom svjetskom ratu
Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo u Drugom svjetskom ratu

Saveznička okupacija Njemačke


The Constitutional Court of Hungary () is a special court of Hungary, making judicial review of the acts of the Parliament of Hungary. The official seat of the Constitutional Court is Budapest. Until 2012 the seat was Esztergom.

The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 justices since September 1, 2011 (previously, the Court was composed of 11 justices). The members then elect the President of the Court (Chief Justice) from among its members in a secret ballot. One or two vice-presidents, appointed by the President of the Court, stand in for the President in the event of his absence for any reason. The constitutional court passes on the constitutionality of laws, and there is no right of appeal on these decisions. The Constitutional Court serves as the main body for the protection of the Constitution, its tasks being the review of the constitutionality of statutes, and the protection of constitutional order and fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution. The Constitutional Court performs its tasks independently. With its own budget and its justices being elected by Parliament it does not constitute a part of the ordinary judicial system.

Establishment
On 19 October 1989, the Hungarian Parliament passed a resolution on the establishment of the Constitutional Court. Its organization and authority, however, had been determined earlier in the framework of the trilateral political roundtable negotiations preparing the democratic transformation of the political system.
The basic provisions on the Constitutional Court were laid down in October 1989 by Parliament by way of amending the Constitution (Article 32/A). The court was set up in order to promote the establishment of a state governed by the rule of law as well as the protection of constitutional order and fundamental rights. Act XXXII of 1989 on the Constitutional Court was passed by Parliament on 19 October 1989, and the Constitutional Court started its work on 1 January 1990.

Changes made by the 2011 Constitution

The following changes were drafted:

Chief Justices

 László Sólyom (July 1, 1990 – November 24, 1998)
 János Németh (November 24, 1998 – July 31, 2003)
 András Holló (August 1, 2003 – November 12, 2005)
 Mihály Bihari (November 12, 2005 – July 2, 2008)
 Péter Paczolay (July 3, 2008 – February 24, 2015)
 Barnabás Lenkovics  (February 25, 2015 – April 21, 2016)
 Tamás Sulyok (April 21, 2016 – )

Justices
The Hungarian Constitution declares that members of the Constitutional Court shall be elected by Parliament. It also determines the rules of such elections. Impartiality is guaranteed by having proposed members of the Constitutional Court to be put forward by a nominating committee consisting of one member each from the factions of parties represented in Parliament and shall be elected by a two-thirds majority of all Members of Parliament. Hungarian law provides that only jurists of outstanding theoretical knowledge or having at least twenty years of legal practice may be elected members of the Constitutional Court. Membership is for a term of nine years and members may be re-elected once. In December 2013,the upper age limit in place for Constitutional Court justices was abolished.

The current composition of the court includes the following justices:

 Elemér Balogh (1958)
 István Balsai (1947)
 Egon Dienes-Oehm (1945)
 Imre Juhász (1963)
 László Kiss (1951)
 Barnabás Lenkovics (1950)
 Miklós Lévay (1954)
 Péter Paczolay (1956)
 Béla Pokol (1950)
 László Salamon (1947)
 István Stumpf (1957)
 Tamás Sulyok (1956)
 Péter Szalay (1960)
 Mária Szívós (1949)
 András Zs. Varga (1968)

Controversy over new constitution

On 1 March 2013, the Princeton University international constitutional law scholar and Hungary specialist Kim Lane Scheppele reported that the Hungarian ruling party's supermajority is re-introducing in one "mega-amendment" multiple constitutional amendments which had been introduced before and nullified by the Constitutional Court or changed at the insistence of European bodies. The new constitutional mega-amendment again puts an end to the independence of the judiciary, brings universities under still more governmental control, opens the door to political prosecutions, criminalizes homelessness, makes the recognition of religious groups dependent on their cooperation with the government and weakens human rights guarantees across the board. In addition, the constitution will now buffer the government from further financial sanctions by permitting it to pass on all fines for noncompliance with the constitution or with European law to the Hungarian population as special taxes, not payable by the normal state budget. The mega-amendment annuls all of the decisions made by the Court before 1 January 2012 so that they have no legal effect. Henceforth no longer can anyone in the country – neither the Constitutional Court, nor the ordinary courts, nor human rights groups nor ordinary citizens – rely on the Court's prior string of rights-protecting decisions.

Mr. György Schöpflin—formerly Jean Monnet Professor of Politics at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University College London and currently member of the European Parliament for Viktor Orban's party, Fidesz—has stated that the assertions of Kim Lane Scheppele "are teeming with misunderstandings, errors of fact, misreadings and ill-will." Analyzing the blog entry of the Princeton constitutional law professor, Mr. Ferenc Kumin—Deputy State Secretary for International Communication of the Hungarian Government—also states that on the one hand it has conceptual errors, because it constructs a narrative based on half-information gained only from opposition sources. A typical example of this is the case of homelessness, which is of course not criminalized in Hungary. The amendment declares that "in order to preserve the public order, public safety, public health and cultural values" the government may prohibit living in the streets, but the same amendment also says that the government is to ensure the right to housing, and the government has invested a considerable amount in shelters in the interest of the homeless as well as the general public. These are not mentioned in the blog entry of Miss Scheppele. On the other hand, according to Mr. Kumin, the entry is full of factual mistakes as well, of which the worst is the question of the decisions of the previous Court, which are and will be valid – contrary to Miss Scheppele's text. Therefore, Mr. Kumin – quoting her other mistakes as well - concludes that the blog-entry did not meet the criteria of an objective analysis, and can be seen only as a political opinion.

On 5 March 2013, Michael Link, undersecretary in the German Foreign Ministry, in "Hungary must remain a country of the law," called on Hungary "to demonstrate that the country has an effective separation of power between the legislative and the judicial."

On 6 March 2013, Europe's main human rights watchdog, Council of Europe President Thorbjorn Jagland, said that the amendments set to be voted on next week by Hungarian lawmakers may be incompatible with European legal principles and asked Hungary to postpone the approval of a series of constitutional amendments so legal experts can review the changes.

On 7 March 2013, Deputy Prime Minister Navracsics sent a letter to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe Thorbjorn Jagland, to give some additional written explanations to the Proposal on the Fourth Amendment to Fundamental Law of Hungary.

On 8 March 2013, the government of the USA raised its concerns both about the content of the proposed amendments "as they could threaten the principles of institutional independence and checks and balances that are the hallmark of democratic governance" and about the process by which they were to be accepted: "[The USA] "urges the Government of Hungary and the Parliament to ensure that the process of considering amendments to the constitution demonstrates respect for the rule of law and judicial review, openness to the views of other stakeholders across Hungarian society, and continuing receptiveness to the expertise of the Council of Europe's Venice Commission."

On 8 March 2013, in a letter to the European commission, Guido Westerwelle, the German foreign minister, and counterparts in Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland called for the European Union to be given new powers allowing it to freeze EU budget funds to a member state in breach of Europe's "fundamental values." On the same day, European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso too expressed concerns to Prime Minister Viktor Orban over the amendment vote in Hungary's parliament next week to change the constitution, arguing it contravenes EU rules in areas such as the judiciary.

On 8 March 2013, Minister of Foreign Affairs, János Martonyi sent letter to the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of EU-member states, in which he gave details on the text of the amendment.

On 11 March 2013, "Hungary's parliament, dominated by Prime Minister Viktor Orban's Fidesz party, adopted changes to the country's constitution on Monday despite warnings from the European Union and the U.S. government that the changes could weaken Hungary's democracy. The legislation was supported by 265 lawmakers in the 386-seat chamber, with 11 votes against and 33 abstentions."

In The New York Times  column of Nobel Laureate economist Paul Krugman, Princeton University international constitutional scholar and Hungary specialist Professor Kim Lane Scheppele writes:
"The Hungarian Parliament [on March 11, 2013] passed a 15-page amendment to its one-year-old constitution against a storm of protest from both home and abroad. If it is signed by the Hungarian President, János Áder, the "Fourth Amendment" will wipe out more than 20 years of Constitutional Court decisions protecting human rights and it will reverse concessions made to Europe over the last year of difficult bargaining as the Fidesz government has tightened its grip on power…. But Hungary's allies should see through the fog of amendment. By now it should be clear that Prime Minister Viktor Orbán and his Fidesz party recognize no limitations in their quest for power."

Critiques have also been made in the official working documents of the European Parliament

 and by the Venice Commission on Hungary.

See also
Supreme Court of Hungary
Constitution
Constitutionalism
Constitutional economics
Jurisprudence
Judiciary
Rule of law
Rule According to Higher Law

References

External links
 Official website

1989 establishments in Hungary
Organizations established in 1989
Government agencies of Hungary
Hungary
Organisations based in Budapest
Law of Hungary
Esztergom

Constitutional Court of Hungary


Le camp familial de Theresienstadt (, ), également connu sous le nom de camp familial tchèque, est composé d'un groupe de détenus juifs originaires du ghetto de Theresienstadt en Tchécoslovaquie, détenus dans la section BIIb du camp de concentration d'Auschwitz II-Birkenau du  au .

Déportés du ghetto en sept convois en septembre et décembre 1943 et mai 1944, les prisonniers ne sont pas triés à leur arrivée, contrairement à ce qui se fait habituellement à Auschwitz, et se voient accorder plusieurs « privilèges », dont la création d'un bloc pour enfants qui devient la seule tentative d'éducation organisée du camp d'Auschwitz. Les conditions de vie restent néanmoins difficiles et le taux de mortalité est élevé. La plupart des habitants qui ne sont pas morts de faim ou de maladie sont assassinés lors des liquidations des camps, les 8 et 9 mars et 10 et 12 juillet 1944. La première de ces deux liquidations est le plus grand massacre de citoyens tchécoslovaques de l'histoire. Sur les  déportés vers le camp familial, seuls  ont survécu à la guerre.

Contexte
Établi fin 1941, le ghetto de Theresienstadt fonctionne en partie comme un centre de transit pour les Juifs de Tchécoslovaquie, d'Allemagne et d'Autriche en route vers des centres d'extermination. Le premier transport de Juifs de Theresienstadt à Auschwitz a lieu le , après la déportation de  vers d'autres destinations, en particulier le ghetto de Minsk, Treblinka, et Lublin. Seuls  de la première heure survivent. Après le ,  sont envoyées à Auschwitz et 90 ailleurs. Sur les  déportées à Auschwitz depuis Theresienstadt en janvier et février 1943,  sont immédiatement gazées et 96 survivent à la guerre, alors que les convois étaient à l'origine pensés pour faire travailler des personnes valides dans le camp.

Aucun document retrouvé après la guerre n'indique le raisonnement qui sous-tend l'établissement du camp familial. Il est probable que les prisonniers du camp familial aient été maintenus en vie afin que leurs lettres rassurent les habitants de Theresienstadt et montrent que la déportation vers l'Est n'est pas synonyme de mort. À l'époque, les SS préparent une visite de la Croix-Rouge à Theresienstadt et veulent peut-être convaincre le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR) que les Juifs déportés n'ont pas été assassinés. Le camp familial sert également de destination pour soulager la surpopulation du camp. L'historien Yehuda Bauer suggère que les prisonniers du camp familial étaient peut-être utilisés comme otages en attendant l'issue positive des , comme pour la déportation des enfants de Białystok, mais cette théorie n'est pas prouvée et ne fait pas consensus.

Certains chercheurs suggèrent que les SS avaient prévu une visite du CICR au camp familial de Birkenau pour tromper le monde extérieur sur le véritable objectif d'Auschwitz. Lorsque Himmler autorise des représentants du CICR à visiter Theresienstadt, il autorise en parallèle une visite dans un « camp de travail juif », selon les historiens , Otto Dov Kulka et Nili Keren, désignant par ces mots le camp familial de Birkenau. Kárný, témoin de  de Theresienstadt avant la visite de la Croix-Rouge, écrit que les nazis auraient pu cacher la nature de Birkenau aux visiteurs de la Croix-Rouge, alors même que les chambres à gaz continuent à fonctionner ailleurs dans le camp. D'autres historiens estiment que la mauvaise condition physique des détenus ne ferait pas illusion.

Création du camp

Au cours du mois d'août 1943, des rumeurs circulent à Theresienstadt sur une reprise des déportations. Le , une annonce dans les « Ordres quotidiens » de l'auto-administration juive affirme que  seront déportées trois jours plus tard, un record. Contrairement aux transports précédents, la sélection n'est pas effectuée par le Département des transports de l'auto-administration juive, mais directement par le commandant SS Anton Burger. Les prisonniers qui ont auparavant bénéficié d'exemptions de déportation, tels que l'Aufbaukommando, le groupe de travail arrivé en premier à Theresienstadt, ainsi que 150 membres de la police du ghetto dissoute sont déportés. La majeure partie du transport se compose de jeunes que Himmler craint de voir organiser un soulèvement dans le ghetto. Le transport est presque entièrement tchèque ; sur , on compte 124 Allemands, 83 Autrichiens et 11 Hollandais. Pour la première fois, la destination du convoi est annoncée aux déportés, et on leur dit qu'ils vont établir un camp de travail appelé . Des personnalités de premier plan de l'auto-administration, dont Leo Janowitz, secrétaire du Conseil des anciens, et Fredy Hirsch, chef adjoint du Bureau de la protection de la jeunesse, sont inclus dans le transport pour aider à gérer le nouveau camp.

Le 6 septembre, deux convois transportant  partent à 14h00 et à 20h00 de la gare de Bauschowitz. Ils arrivent à Auschwitz II-Birkenau deux jours plus tard. Une personne meurt pendant le voyage. Les survivants sont  et , qui reçoivent les matricules  et , respectivement. 918 déportés ont plus de 60 ans et 290 moins de 15 ans. Il n'y a pas de tri et personne n'est envoyé aux chambres à gaz. Tous les arrivants sont tatoués et enregistrés, mais contrairement à la procédure habituelle, ils gardent leurs vêtements et ne sont pas tondus. Les habitants du camp familial sont tenus d'écrire à leurs proches de Theresienstadt et à ceux qui n'avaient pas encore été déportés pour nier l'existence de la Solution Finale ; une censure stricte les empêche de transmettre des informations exactes. Ils doivent abandonner leurs bagages et leurs vêtements, mais reçoivent des vêtements civils pris aux arrivants précédents. Les dossiers des prisonniers portent la mention « SB 6 », qui signifie qu'ils doivent être assassinés 6 mois après leur arrivée.

En décembre, deux transports supplémentaires arrivent de Theresienstadt ; les nouveaux arrivants étaient traités de la même manière et détenus dans le camp familial.  sont déportées en décembre : 43 meurent dans le train,  arrivent le  et 2 473 le .

Ces transports sont composés de 88,5% de Juifs tchèques. Plusieurs dirigeants de l'auto-administration de Theresienstadt se trouvent dans le convoi de décembre, après avoir été expulsés comme punition pour avoir prétendument aidé des évadés ou avoir commis d'autres fautes.

Conditions

Le chef SS responsable de la section est le SS-Unterscharführer , connu pour sa cruauté et condamné à mort après la guerre. Le Lagerältester dans le camp est un Allemand condamné pour meurtre, nommé Arno Böhm. Lorsque Böhm rejoint les SS en mars 1944, il est remplacé par un autre Allemand, Wilhelm Brachmann. Brachmann est aussi un prisonnier condamné, mais seulement pour un larcin et il tente régulièrement d'aider les prisonniers juifs dans la mesure du possible. Initialement, les chefs de bloc dans le camp sont des prisonniers polonais qui ont passé des années à Auschwitz. Plus tard, les arrivants de septembre les plus brutaux sont nommés chefs de bloc.

Miroslav Kárný note que les conditions du camp sont décrites favorablement par les prisonniers d'Auschwitz dans d'autres parties du camp, mais très durement par les prisonniers du camp familial lui-même. Il penche du côté des habitants du camp familial, car le taux de mortalité global dû aux décès  est le même dans le camp familial que partout ailleurs dans le camp, et dû aux mêmes causes : la faim, la maladie, la saleté, le froid et l'épuisement. Sur les arrivées de septembre, , soit environ le quart, meurent au cours des six premiers mois. BIIb ne mesure que  et est décrit comme . Contrairement aux autres prisonniers juifs d'Auschwitz, ils sont autorisés à recevoir des colis du CICR en Suisse et de leurs proches en république tchèque, en théorie ; en pratique, la plupart des colis sont volés par les SS. Quelques enfants naissent dans le camp. Les conditions sanitaires sont particulièrement mauvaises, puisqu'il n'y a que trois latrines, chacune avec trois dalles de béton portant . Les latrines servent aussi de lieux de rencontre clandestins pour les familles, car c'est le seul endroit sans surveillance.

Bien que BIIb ne soit qu'à quelques centaines de mètres des chambres à gaz et des fours crématoires, on ne les voit pas depuis le camp. Sur les 32 baraquements, 28 servent au logement, deux sont des infirmeries, une est le campement des enfants, et une dernière sert d'usine de tissage dans laquelle les femmes cousent des bandes de munitions. À l'arrivée des convois de septembre, le camp n'est pas terminé et la plupart des détenus participent à sa construction tout en y vivant. Les prisonniers sont réveillés à 5 heures du matin et ont trente minutes pour se préparer avant l'appel ; après le travail, ils ont une heure à consacrer à leur famille avant l'appel du soir. Les femmes sont régulièrement victimes d'agressions sexuelles par les gardes SS.

Baraquement des enfants

Hirsch persuade Arno Böhm d'allouer un bâtiment, le bloc 31, pour les enfants de moins de quatorze ans, et il devient le surveillant de cette caserne. Les enfants passent les nuits en famille et la journée à la caserne spéciale. Hirsch convainc les gardes qu'il faut que les enfants apprennent l'allemand. En se basant sur les maisons d'enfants à Theresienstadt, il organise un système d'éducation destiné à préserver le moral des enfants. Les enfants sont levés tôt pour le petit déjeuner, puis font des exercices de gymnastique suédoise, et reçoivent six heures d'instruction par jour en petits groupes séparés par âge, dirigés par des anciens enseignants du ghetto. Les matières enseignées comprennent l'histoire, la musique et le judaïsme, en tchèque, ainsi que quelques phrases allemandes à réciter lors des inspections.

Le camp a douze livres et presque pas de fournitures, les enseignants doivent donc réciter leurs leçons de mémoire. Le manque d'éducation des enfants, exclus de l'école avant d'arriver au camp, leur rend leur tâche plus difficile. Un chœur répète régulièrement, on joue un opéra pour enfants et des fournitures sont récupérées pour décorer les murs de la caserne, peints avec des personnages de Disney par Dina Gottliebová. Une production d'une adaptation tchèque de Robinson Crusoé écrite par l'un des soignants est apprise puis jouée. Le baraquement des enfants est montré en exemple aux SS qui travaillent dans d'autres parties du camp. Des SS qui ont directement participé au processus d'extermination, en particulier Josef Mengele, visitent fréquemment le camp et s'assurent que les enfants sont bien nourris.

Utilisant son influence auprès des Allemands, Hirsch obtient une meilleure nourriture pour les enfants, notamment des colis alimentaires destinés aux prisonniers décédés. La soupe pour les enfants est plus épaisse que pour les autres prisonniers et contient de la semoule. Les SS donnent du sucre, de la confiture et parfois même du pain blanc ou du lait aux enfants. Il convainc également les Allemands de faire l'appel à l'intérieur de la caserne pour éviter aux enfants de passer plusieurs heures dehors chaque jour indépendamment de la météo. Après l'arrivée du transport de décembre, il y a environ 700 enfants dans le camp familial. Hirsch obtient une deuxième baraque pour les enfants âgés de trois à huit ans afin que les enfants plus âgés puissent préparer une représentation de Blanche-Neige que la SS a demandée ; la pièce est jouée le  devant beaucoup de SS, y compris Mengele. En imposant une discipline stricte aux enfants, Hirsch s'assure qu'il n'y a pas d'actes de violence ou de vol. Il exige que les enfants fassent de la gymnastique suédoise chaque matin et organise des matchs de football et de softball. Hirsch se montre strict concernant l'hygiène des enfants, car il insiste pour qu'ils se lavent tous les jours même pendant l'hiver glacial de 1943-1944 et il organise des inspections régulières pour dépister des poux ; cette discipline réduit les taux de mortalité. Presque aucun enfant n'est mort avant la liquidation.

Hirsch, tué lors de la première liquidation, a nommé Josef Lichtenstein comme son successeur, et les éducateurs décident de continuer à s'occuper des enfants comme si tout allait bien. En avril 1944, les enfants célèbrent un Séder de Pessa'h improvisé. Un chœur mixte de  chante des sections de la Symphonie n° 9 de Ludwig van Beethoven. En mai, les enfants ne vivent plus avec leurs parents.

Liquidation

Première liquidation

En février 1944, une délégation du Reichssicherheitshauptamt et de la Croix-Rouge allemande visitent le camp. Les visiteurs étaient surtout intéressés par la caserne des enfants, la seule tentative d'organiser l'éducation à Auschwitz. Après la visite, Adolf Eichmann se déclare satisfait de l'activité culturelle des enfants à Birkenau. La résistance d'Auschwitz informe Hirsch et d'autres dirigeants du camp familial que la liquidation est imminente. Avant la liquidation, il y a environ  survivants dans le camp familial.

Le commandant d'Auschwitz II-Birkenau, lObersturmführer Johann Schwarzhuber, visite le camp le  et dit aux arrivants de septembre qu'ils seront bientôt transportés à Heydebreck pour y fonder un nouveau camp de travail. Les prisonniers reçoivent l'ordre de remplir des cartes postales datées du 25 mars pour leurs proches à Theresienstadt ; la postdatation est une pratique courante permettant le temps nécessaire à la censure. Dans ces lettres, ils demandent à leurs proches de leur envoyer des colis contenant de la nourriture. Le 6 mars, Schwarzhuber ordonne l'enregistrement de tous les prisonniers de septembre et nomme les chefs de chaque équipe de travail. Des rumeurs contradictoires circulent, certaines disant que tous les prisonniers seront tués, d'autres que les promesses d'un nouveau camp de travail sont vraies. Le lendemain, les SS ordonnent aux prisonniers de rester dans leur caserne après l'appell du matin pour séparer les arrivées de septembre de celles de décembre. Entre-temps, les prisonniers du bloc de quarantaine adjacent (BIIa) sont évacués, à l'exception d'un médecin autrichien, Otto Wolken, et du commis du bloc, Rudolf Vrba.

D'abord les hommes et plus tard les femmes sont déplacés du camp familial au camp de quarantaine. Ils sont autorisés à apporter tous leurs effets personnels et il semble que la plupart aient été trompés en pensant qu'il s'agissait simplement d'un autre déménagement. Les arrivants de décembre accompagnent les personnes âgées et les malades, et le déménagement se termine à 17h00. Les patients de l'infirmerie ne sont pas envoyés au bloc de quarantaine, les Nazis jugeant que ça aurait été trop inquiétant pour les habitants. Erich Kulka réussit à cacher sa femme et son fils dans l'infirmerie, ce qui leur sauve la vie. Certains SS sauvent également leurs petites amies juives en les déplaçant temporairement dans d'autres parties du camp.

Vrba rend visite à Hirsch le matin du 8 mars pour l'informer de la liquidation du camp familial et l'exhorter à diriger un soulèvement. Hirsch demande une heure pour réfléchir, et quand Vrba revient, il le trouve dans le coma. On ne sait pas s'il s'est suicidé ou s'il a été empoisonné par des médecins achetés par Mengele. L'après-midi du 8 mars, les nazis entrent dans le bloc de quarantaine pour en retirer onze paires de jumeaux pour des expérimentations médicales, des médecins et l'artiste Dina Gottliebová. Environ 60 ou 70 personnes des transports de septembre survivent à cette liquidation ; 38 survivent jusqu'à la fin de la guerre. À vingt heures le 8 mars, un couvre-feu strict est imposé et le baraquement de quarantaine est encerclé par une demi-compagnie de SS et leurs chiens. Deux heures plus tard, douze camions bâchés arrivent et les hommes ont reçu l'ordre de monter à bord. Ils laissent leurs biens derrière eux, assurés que ces derniers seront transportés séparément. Pour entretenir la supercherie, les camions tournent à droite, vers la gare, alors que les chambres à gaz sont à gauche. Après que les hommes sont conduits au crématorium III, les femmes sont transportées par camion au crématorium II. Ce processus prend plusieurs heures. Quand des prisonniers effrayés dans une caserne décident de chanter, à deux heures du matin, les SS tirent des coups de semonce. Même les salles de déshabillage sont camouflées pour que les Juifs ne se rendent compte de leur sort qu'après avoir reçu l'ordre de se déshabiller. Selon les prisonniers du Sonderkommando, ils chantent l'hymne national tchèque, Hatikvah, et l'Internationale avant d'entrer dans les chambres à gaz. Au total,  ou  personnes ont été assassinées.

Après la liquidation, les prisonniers restants s'attendent à être assassinés de la même manière. À cette époque, il est évident pour les prisonniers que les Allemands vont perdre la guerre et certains espèrent une victoire rapide des Alliés avant que leurs six mois de sursis ne parvienne à terme. Les gardiens des enfants continuent les leçons pour les distraire de leur destin éventuel. Selon la survivante Hanna Hoffman, le taux de suicide augmente à mesure que la date de liquidation approche pour les arrivées de décembre ; les gens s'approchent de la barrière électrifiée et sont généralement abattus par des gardes SS avant d'y arriver. Un événement notable au cours de cette période est l'évasion de Siegfried Lederer, un juif tchèque et doyen du bloc dans le camp familial, avec Viktor Pestek, un garde roumain Volksdeutscher, le 7 avril. Lederer tente d'alerter le monde extérieur sur le sort des prisonniers dans le camp familial et d'organiser la résistance armée à Theresienstadt, en vain.

Couverture médiatique
Le camp familial est mentionné dans un article à la page neuf du Jewish Chronicle à Londres le  :  Le 9 juin, le journal officiel du gouvernement polonais en exil signale que  tchèques ont été assassinés dans les chambres à gaz d'Auschwitz et qu'ils ont été contraints de d'écrire des cartes postales postdatées à leurs familles. Ces déclarations sont confirmées quelques jours plus tard par la diffusion du rapport Vrba-Wetzler, qui fournit plus de détails sur les Juifs du camp familial et leur sort. Le 14 juin, , un diplomate tchécoslovaque en Suisse, transmet une copie du rapport au CICR. Le rapport mentionne la première liquidation du camp familial et dit que les autres détenus seront assassinés le 20 juin.

Le gouvernement provisoire tchécoslovaque presse la BBC et la radio américaine de publier des nouvelles du camp familial dans l'espoir d'empêcher le meurtre des détenus restants. Le service européen de la BBC diffuse l'information sur le programme féminin de son service allemand le  à midi, avertissant les Allemands qu'ils seront tenus pour responsables des massacres.

 écrit qu'il y a probablement eu une autre diffusion avant le 16 juin, la directive d'information de la BBC ce jour-là disant :  Selon l'historien polonais Danuta Czech, ces rapports ont probablement retardé la liquidation du camp jusqu'en juillet.

Visite du CICR
En novembre 1943, le CICR demande l'autorisation de visiter le ghetto de Theresienstadt. En préparation de la visite, les SS mènent un programme « d'embellissement » qui comprenait la déportation de  supplémentaires à Auschwitz en mai 1944 pour réduire la surpopulation du camp. La plupart des nouveaux arrivants sont germanophones et seulement  provenaient du Protectorat. Ces nouveaux arrivants sont traités de la même manière que les premiers arrivés, mais le camp familial devient très encombré. Le , le représentant du CICR  et deux fonctionnaires danois se rendent à Theresienstadt. Leur visite est soigneusement planifiée par les SS, et Rossel rapporte à tort que Theresienstadt est la destination finale des Juifs déportés. En conséquence, selon Kárný et Kulka, le CICR n'insiste pas pour visiter Birkenau et les SS n'ont plus l'utilité du camp familial.

Deuxième liquidation
Fin juin, les arrivants de décembre devraient être emmenés pour être assassinés, mais rien ne se passe, sauf l'assassinat des proches de Jakob Edelstein. Le 20 juin, Edelstein est témoin du meurtre de sa famille avant d'être lui-même tué. L'été 1944 est le point culminant des meurtres de masse à Auschwitz et la liquidation du camp familial coïncide avec le meurtre de plus de  de mai à début juillet 1944.

Le besoin croissant de main-d'œuvre pour l'industrie de guerre allemande empêche les convois ultérieurs d'être complètement liquidés comme ceux de septembre. Le 1 ou 2 juillet, Mengele revient au camp et commence à sélectionner les prisonniers. Ils sont déshabillés jusqu'à la taille et passent un à un devant les médecins SS. Des individus sains âgés de 16 à 45 ans sont sélectionnés pour vivre et transférés dans d'autres parties du camp. Les SS forcent les filles et les femmes à se déshabiller et à sauter sur place pour prouver leur forme physique ; pour survivre, beaucoup prétendent posséder des compétences utiles telles que le jardinage ou la couture. Les mères sont autorisées à vivre si elles se séparent de leurs enfants, mais, selon Ruth Bondy, presque toutes choisissent de rester sur place. Certains enfants plus âgés passent la sélection en mentant sur leur âge ou en revenant pour une deuxième sélection après avoir été envoyés dans la file de gauche. D'autres choisissent de rester avec leurs parents.

Plus tard, Johann Schwarzhuber organise une sélection dans la caserne des garçons pour en séparer ceux entre quatorze et seize ans, bien que certains garçons plus jeunes réussissent à passer. Hermann Langbein dit que c'est grâce à Fredy Hirsch, déclarant que les visites des SS au bloc pour enfants les ont rendus plus empathiques. Même les gardes SS les plus brutaux tentent d'épargner les enfants dont ils ont vu les pièces de théâtre. Otto Dov Kulka, alors âgé de onze ans, a été sauvé par Fritz Buntrock, un gardien connu pour son traitement violent des détenus. Environ quatre-vingts ou quatre-vingt-dix garçons sont sélectionnés pour vivre. Les efforts du garde SS Stefan Baretzki et d'autres pour épargner certaines des filles sont bloqués par le médecin SS Franz Lucas. Au total, environ  ont été retirées du BIIb ; les  restants sont assassinés dans les chambres à gaz entre le 10 et le .

Parmi ceux qui ont survécu à la sélection,  sont envoyées au camp de concentration du Stutthof ou dans des camps près de Hambourg tandis que  sont envoyés à Sachsenhausen. Les garçons restent à Auschwitz, dans le bloc BIId du camp des hommes. Deux tiers meurent plus tard d'extermination par le travail ou lors des marches de la mort ;  seuls 1 294 prisonniers du camp familial ont survécu à la guerre. En septembre et octobre 1944, le bloc est utilisé pour loger des prisonniers polonais venus d'un camp de transit à Pruszków, pour la plupart des civils capturés pendant le soulèvement de Varsovie. A partir de novembre, il accueille les détenues du BIb.

Postérité
La liquidation du camp les 8 et 9 mars est le plus grand meurtre de masse de citoyens tchécoslovaques pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Cependant, pendant de nombreuses années, l'histoire du camp familial est presque inconnue en dehors de la communauté juive tchèque, recevant beaucoup moins d'attention que les crimes contre les Tchèques non juifs, comme le massacre de Lidice.

Certains survivants affirment que la liquidation avait effectivement eu lieu le 7 mars, le jour de l'anniversaire de l'homme d'État tchèque Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, ou même que les SS ont choisi la date pour cette raison. Il est cependant très peu probable que les SS connaissent cette date anniversaire, et encore moins probable que l'extermination ait eu lieu le 7 mars.

En 2017, le Parlement de la République tchèque a officiellement reconnu le 9 mars comme jour de commémoration du massacre.

Au sujet de la sélection finale au camp familial, la psychologue israélienne Deborah Kuchinsky et d'autres survivants déclarent qu'au lieu d'enseigner aux enfants la décence et la générosité, les éducateurs auraient dû apprendre à leurs accusés à mentir, tricher et voler pour survivre. Le camp familial a fait l'objet de plusieurs mémoires littéraires d'enfants survivants, dont Ruth Klüger,  et Otto Dov Kulka .

Convois vers le camp familial

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Histoire des Juifs en Tchéquie
Croix-Rouge
Theresienstadt
Auschwitz
Theresienstadt

Camp familial de Theresienstadt


Ontario Mills is a shopping and outlet mall located in Ontario, California, within the Los Angeles metropolitan area.  With 28 million annual visitors, it is one of the top shopping and tourist destinations in California. It is one of three Mills landmarks in California that are now managed by Simon Property Group since April 2007. Simon owns 50% of it. The Outlets at Orange and The Great Mall are the others. Ontario Mills was designed by the architectural firm, F+A Architects.

The mall is near the Ontario International Airport and Auto Club Speedway, as well as the interchange between the Ontario Freeway (Interstate 15) and the San Bernardino Freeway (Interstate 10), one of the busiest in Southern California.

Size
According to the mall's former owners, the Mills Corporation, it is the largest one-level shopping mall in Western North America (there are larger malls, but they have two or more levels). In addition, it is California's largest outlet and value retail shopping destination.

Like other Mills malls, Ontario Mills is divided into neighborhoods. This mall has the most out of the Mills malls with ten.

Tenants
Some of the mall's major tenants include Off 5th Saks Fifth Avenue, H&M, Skechers Factory Store, Nike Factory Store, Forever 21, Nordstrom Rack, Marshalls, Burlington Coat Factory, Uniqlo, a 30-screen AMC Theatres megaplex, the dining and entertainment venue Dave & Buster's video game arcade, and the Ontario IMPROV comedy club.

Ontario Mills is home to many designer-label outlet stores, including Tory Burch, Ann Taylor, Ralph Lauren, Hugo Boss, DKNY, Tommy Hilfiger, Perry Ellis, Calvin Klein, Coach, Kate Spade, LACOSTE and Michael Kors. Other stores include GameStop, LEGO Store, The Disney Store Outlet, Tumi, Movado, J. Crew, ULTA Beauty, Express, and  Levi's.

The mall also has a large food court called "Market", formerly called "Big Food", with about 1,000 seats and tenants like Panda Express, Burger King, Chipotle Mexican Grill, Sbarro, Starbucks Coffee, and Cinnabon. Restaurants outside the food court include Rainforest Cafe, Market Broiler, and Blaze Pizza.

History
Ontario Mills opened to the public on November 14, 1996, across the highway from the site of the Ontario Motor Speedway (built on the site of the old speedway parking lot). Like all other Mills properties, it was first developed and once owned by the Mills Corporation. Ontario Mills is the first Mills landmark center to have the racetrack layout and themed neighborhoods.  On December 13, 1996, AMC Ontario Mills 30 opened, making it the largest theatre in the world at the time.

An IMAX-like UltraScreen theater and a California Welcome Center operated by the entrance near the food court until 2000, when it was replaced by the Ontario IMPROV comedy club, Market Broiler, and a Nike Factory Store. Ontario Mills was formerly home to a Vans Skate Park, which in early 2005 was closed and converted into Steve & Barry's. In 2009, Steve & Barry's and Virgin Megastore were closed due to their chains' liquidations. Sports Authority closed its  store in 2004 when the company merged with Gart Sports; Sports Authority then reopened in the mall next to the Nike Factory Store in 2012, but closed again in August 2016 due to Chapter 11 Bankruptcy of the company, leading to the liquidation of all stores; it is now occupied by Aki Home. The well-known Wolfgang Puck Cafe closed in early 2005 and was replaced by the Polo Ralph Lauren Factory Store. A Neiman Marcus Last Call opened in 2012 on the former Steve & Barry's, along with an expansion of the existing Forever 21 and Nordstrom Rack stores and a new renovated food court. Ontario Mills also had one of the few JCPenney 5 Star outlets in the country, but it closed after JCPenney liquidated them in 2013 and was replaced by Fashion Q in 2014. Bed Bath & Beyond moved its store out of the mall across the street into a new shopping center in 2015; Restoration Hardware opened an outlet store in the former Bed Bath & Beyond space in 2016, and an Ulta Beauty also opened that year at the mall. Neiman Marcus Last Call closed on December 31, 2016 and was replaced by the Skechers Factory Store. One of the former video game arcade tenants opened on July 20, 1997, GameWorks closed in July 2017 after 20 years in Ontario Mills and was replaced by the Under Armour Factory Store. On May 13, 2018 (Mother's Day), after opening the previous year, Toys R Us Outlet closed due to Chapter 11 Bankruptcy after the company announced they would be going out of business.
The mall's first expansion opened in the former JCPenney 5 Star Outlet building in the Summer of 2016, including an expanded Tommy Hilfiger store, and new tenants including Uniqlo, The North Face, Coach, and a Blaze Pizza with an outdoor patio. A new mall entrance was also added to the area with a more contemporary and modernized look.

Like other premium outlet centers, Ontario Mills was built in an area that had ample land available. The development of the mall has since contributed to the further urbanization of the eastern Ontario area and adjacent cities.

Gallery

References

External links
 Ontario Mills
 Mills Corporation

Shopping malls established in 1996
Outlet malls in the United States
Simon Property Group
Ontario, California
Shopping malls in San Bernardino County, California

Ontario Mills


William Wilkinson () a fost cel de-al doilea reprezentant diplomatic britanic în Principatele Române, fiind desemnat la sfârșitul războiului ruso-turc din 1812 consul în Țara Românească și Moldova după plecarea lui Francis Summerers.

Biografie
Poarta Otomană și-a dat consimțământul ca Wilkinson să funcționeze în calitate de "consul general al Marii Britanii în Principate", având sarcina de a apăra interesele comerțului englez și a asigura trecerea curierilor si a corespondenței diplomatice bntanice prin Țările Române.
În timpul șederii sale de patru ani aici, s-a dovedit un fin observator al realităților politice și socio-economice. În pofida serviciilor aduse Companiei Levantului, postul britanicului a fost desființat la 11 iulie 1816.

Opere
An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia with various political observations relating to them, publicată la 1820, este prima monografie în limba engleză consacrată exclusiv Principatelor Române. Cuprinde nouă capitole, cu o descriere geografică, un scurt istoric, detalii legate de sistemul administrativ fanariot, de comerț și producție, de moravurile și viața cotidiană a românilor. Lucrarea abundă în detalii privitoare la bogățiile naturale ale Țărilor Române. Wilkinson aduce o critică vehementă fanarioților interesați doar de exploatarea surselor și poporului în folosul lor.

Note

Nașteri în secolul al XVIII-lea
Decese în 1822
Diplomați britanici
Oameni din secolul al XIX-lea

William Wilkinson


A competição do aerials misto do esqui estilo livre nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2022 ocorreu no dia 10 de fevereiro no Parque de Neve Genting, em Zhangjiakou.

Medalhistas

Resultados

Aerials feminino

Esqui estilo livre nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2022 - Aerials misto


Mr.sc. Branka Batinić (Vinkovci, 8. svibnja 1958.), hrvatska stolnotenisačica, stolnoteniska trenerica i magistrica ekonomije.

Životopis
Rođena je 8. svibnja 1958. u Vinkovcima, gdje je završila osnovnu školu i Vinkovačku gimnaziju. Od malena je trenirala i igrala za STK "Lokomotiva" Vinkovci.

S trenerima Hermanom Vukušićem i Joletom (Ljubinko) Skakićem postala je vrhunska hrvatska i jugoslavenska stonoteniska reprezentativka još dok je igrala za matični klub i pohađala gimnaziju.  Godine 1976. pobijedila je tri kineske igračice na Međunarodnom prvenstvu Jugoslavije u stolnom tenisu. U proljeće 1977. Branka Batinić i D. Jurčić su su sastavu jugoslavenske stolnoteniske reprezentacije pozvani u Kinu na prijeteljski susret dviju reprezentacija. To je predstavio početak poboljšavanja odnosa između SFR Jugoslavije i NR Kine, koje su bile zavađene od Titova sukoba sa Staljinom. Svega tri mjeseca kasnije Josip Broz Tito posjetio je Kinu.

U Zagrebu je studirala vanjsku trgovinu te igrala za stolnoteniski klub "Mladost". Godine 1981. u paru s D. Šurbekom osvojila 3. mjesto na Svjetskom prvenstvu, 2. mjesta na Europskim prvenstvima 1982. i 1984. i 3. mjesto 1986. Osvajačica je i ekipnog (SFRJ) srebrnog odličja na Europskom prvenstvu 1984. Osvojila je i 1. mjesto u europskoj Superligi. Pojedinačmo je bila 15 puta prvakinja Hrvatske, 12 puta prvakinja SFRJ i trostuka prvakinja Balkana.

Na kraju igračke karijere Batinić je igrala u zapadnonjemačkim saveznim ligama. Tamo je završila školu za stolnotenisku trenerica i trenirala nekoliko njemačkih ligaša. U međuvremenu je magistrirala na Ekonomskom fakultetu u Zagrebu 2002.

Nagrade
Nagrađena je sljedećim nagradama:
 Nagrada Grada Zagreba (1982.)
 Nagrada SFKH-a (1982.)
 Najbolja športašica Hrvatske (1975. i 1984.)
 Najbolja športašica SFRJ (1975.)
 Najbolja športašica Grada Zagreba

Izvori

Životopisi, Vinkovci
Hrvatski stolnotenisači
Hrvatski ekonomisti

Branka Batinić