İlköğretim Okullarında Okutulacak 100 Temel Eser, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Eğitim Bakanlığının ilköğretim kurumlarındaki öğrencilere hem Türkçe dersi müfredatı ile ilişkilendirilerek okutulması hem de boş zamanlarını değerlendirmek üzere öncelikle başvurabilecekleri kaynak eserler olarak tavsiye edilmesi için 2005 yılında yayımladığı bir edebi eser listesidir.

Yaklaşık bir yılda hazırlanan bu liste, Millî Eğitim Bakanı Doç. Dr. Hüseyin Çelik tarafından 15 Temmuz 2005'te kamuya açıklanmış, 4 Ağustos 2005'te yayımlanan bir genelgeyle de 81 ilin valiliklerine duyurulmuştur.

Esasen 5, 6, 7 ve 8. sınıflara yönelik olarak ve "Türk edebiyatı", "Hazırlatılacak eserler" ve "Dünya edebiyatı" başlıkları altında derlenmiş olan kitapların seçiminde, aynı bakanlığın ortaöğretim için yapmış ve 19 Ağustos 2004'te bir genelgeyle kamuya duyurmuş olduğu 100 Temel Eser çalışmasında olduğu gibi, tartışma konusu olmaması için "Türk Edebiyatı" başlığı altında yaşayan yazarların eserlerine yer verilmemiştir. Ayrıca, kamuya ilk açıklanan listede sonradan değişikliğe gidilmiştir.

 "Dünya Edebiyatı" kitapları arasında yer alan, Antoine de Saint-Exupery'nin Küçük Prens ve "Türk Edebiyatı" kitapları arasında yer alan ve İbrahim Zeki Burdurlu'nun listede yer alan iki eserinden biri olan Anılardan Öyküler çıkarılmıştır. Çıkarılanların yerine, "Mehmet Âkif Ersoy'dan Seçmeler" ve "Necip Fazıl Kısakürek'ten Seçmeler" adlı eserler eklenmiştir.
 "Türk Edebiyatı" kitapları arasında yer alan Barbaros Hayreddin Geliyor adlı kitap, 2012 yılında bir Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretmenin başvurusu değerlendirilerek "müstehcen ifadelerin yer aldığı, çocukları şiddete özendirdiği" gerekçesiyle 2012'de listeden çıkarılmıştır.
 "Türk Edebiyatı" kitapları arasında yer alan Yonca Kız adlı kitap, Edirne Roman Eğitim Gönüllüleri Derneğinin de içinde yer aldığı Sivil Toplum Kamu Diyalog grubunun girişimleriyle, içeriğinde öğrenci seviyesine uygun olmayan davranış ve olumsuz ifadelerin yer aldığı gerekçesiyle listeden çıkarılmıştır.

Tartışmalar
MEB'in ücretsiz dağıtmayacağı ve piyasadan temin edilecek olan İlköğretim Okullarında Okutulacak 100 Temel Eser'in kamuya açıklanmasının ardından, eserlerin listeye dahil edilme kriterleri, dahil edilen ve ilköğretime yönelik olarak hazırlanan (çeviri vb.) eserlerin nitelikleri vb. konularda çeşitli tartışmalar yaşanmış ve yaşanmaktadır. Bunlar şöyle özetlenebilir:
 Listedeki eserleri çok sayıda yayınevinin hazırlaması ve piyasaya sürmesiyle birlikte, standart olmayan içeriğe sahip çok sayıda sürümün ortaya çıkması ve bunlardan
 çeviri eserlerde eksiltme, indirgeme ya da ideolojik uyarlama ve/veya söylem bulunabiliyor.

 bilmece, deyim ve mâni içerenlerde ise küfür ve argo kullanılabiliyor olması
 Listenin hazırlanması sırasında, bu çalışma için oluşturulmuş olan kurula MEB tarafında baskı yapıldığına yönelik iddiaların ortaya çıkması
 Listede, "polemik konusu olmaması için", "Türk Edebiyatı" başlığı altında yaşayan yazarların eserlerine yer verilmemesi
Bu tartışmalara MEB, basın açıklama ve duyurularıyla katılmıştır.

Eserler
Kamuoyuna ilk açıklandığı haliyle eserlerin listesi şöyledir:

Türk edebiyatı
 Dede Korkut Kitabı(İlköğretim İçin Uyarlama)
 Mevlana'nın Mesnevisinden Seçme Hikayeler(İlköğretim Çocukları İçin Seçme Hikayeler)
 Karagöz ile Hacivat(İlköğretim İçin Seçme Hikayeler)
 Vatan Yahut Silistre (Namık Kemal)
 Ömer'in Çocukluğu (Muallim Naci)
 Gulyabani (Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar)
 Şermin (Tevfik Fikret)
 Altın Işık (Ziya Gökalp)
 Yalnız Efe (Ömer Seyfettin)
 Çocuk Şiirleri (İbrahim Alaattin Gövsa)
 Hep O Şarkı (Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu)
 Peri Kızı ile Çoban Hikayesi (Orhan Seyfi Orhon)
 Uluç Reis (Halikarnas Balıkçısı)
 Damla Damla (Ruşen Eşref Ünaydın)
 Bağrıyanık Ömer (Mahmut Yesari)
 Domaniç Dağlarının Yolcusu (Şükûfe Nihal)
 Evvel Zaman İçinde (Eflatun Cem Güney)
 Cumhuriyet Öncesi Yazarlardan Çocuklara Hikayeler (Mehmet Seyda)
 Gururlu Peri (Mehmet Seyda)
 Akın (Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel)
 Havaya Uçan At (Peyami Safa)
 Benim Küçük Dostlarım (Halide Nusret Zorlutuna)
 Sevdalı Bulut (Nâzım Hikmet)
 Kuklacı (Kemalettin Tuğcu)
 Yer Altında Bir Şehir (Kemalettin Tuğcu)
 Arif Nihat Asya'dan Seçme Şiirler (Arif Nihat Asya)
 Sait Faik Abasıyanık'tan Seçme Hikayeler
 Koçyiğit Köroğlu (Ahmet Kutsi Tecer)
 Az Gittik Uz Gittik (Pertev Naili Boratav)
 Aritmetik İyi Kuşlar Pekiyi (Cemal Süreya)
 Çocuklara Şiirler (Vehbi Cem Aşkun)
 87 Oğuz (Rakım Çalapala)
 Yonca Kız (Kemal Bilbaşar)[**çıkarıldı]
 Bitmeyen Gece (Mithat Enç)
 Halime Kaptan (Rıfat Ilgaz)
 Gümüş Kanat (Cahit Uçuk)
 Vatan Toprağı (Mükerrem Kamil Su)
 Barbaros Hayrettin Geliyor (Feridun Fazıl Tülbentçi)[*çıkarıldı]
 Eşref Saati (Şevket Rado)
 Nasreddin Hoca Hikayeleri (Orhan Veli)
 İnci'nin Maceraları (Orhan Kemal)
 Allı ile Fırfırı (Oğuz Tansel)
 Tiryaki Sözleri (Cenap Şahabettin)
 Keloğlan Masalları (Tahir Alangu)
 Billur Köşk Masalları (Tahir Alangu)
 Osmancık (Tarık Buğra)
 Balım Kız Dalım Oğul (Ceyhun Atuf Kansu)
 Falaka (Ahmet Rasim)
 Bir Gemi Yelken Açtı (Ali Mümtaz Arolat)
 Üç Minik Serçem (Necati Cumalı)
 Memleket Şiirleri Antolojisi (Osman Atilla)
 Ülkemin Efsaneleri (İbrahim Zeki Burdurlu)
 Anılarda Öyküler (İbrahim Zeki Burdurlu) [çıkarıldı]
 Aldı Sözü Anadolu (Mehmet Önder)
 Göl Çocukları (İbrahim Örs)
 Miskinler Tekkesi (Reşat Nuri Güntekin)
 Tanrı Misafiri (Reşat Nuri Güntekin)
 Ötleğen Kuşu (Halil Karagöz)
 Arılar Ordusu (Bekir Yıldız)
 Yankılı Kayalar (Yılmaz Boyunağa)
 Yürekdede ile Padişah (Cahit Zarifoğlu)
 Serçe Kuş (Cahit Zarifoğlu)
 Bir Küçük Osmancık Vardı (Hasan Nail Canat)

Hazırlatılacak eserler
 Tekerlemeler
 Türkçede Deyimler
 Türk Atasözlerinden Seçmeler
 Türk Bilmecelerinden Seçmeler
 Türk Ninnilerinden Seçmeler
 Türkülerden Seçmeler
 Türk Manilerinden Seçmeler

Dünya edebiyatı
 Küçük Prens (Antoine de Saint-Exupery) [çıkarıldı]
 Şeker Portakalı (Jose Mauro de Vasconcelos)
 Oliver Twist (Charles Dickens)
 Alice Harikalar Ülkesinde (Lewis Carroll)
 Gülliver'in Gezileri (Jonathan Swift)
 Define Adası (Robert Louis Stevenson)
 Robin Hood (Howard Pyle)
 Tom Sawyer (Mark Twain)
 Ezop Masalları
 Andersen Masalları I-II
 Üç Silahşörler (Alexandre Dumas, père)
 La Fontaine'den Seçmeler
 Pinokyo (Carlo Collodi)
 Seksen Günde Devr-i Âlem (Jules Verne)
 İnci (roman) (John Steinbeck)
 Beyaz Yele (René Guillot)
 Peter Pan (James Matthew Barrie)
 Uçan Sınıf (Erich Kastner)
 Yağmur Yağdıran Kedi (Marcel Aymé)
 Ölümsüz Aile (Natalie Babbitt)
 Yaşlı Adam ve Deniz (Ernest Hemingway)
 Mutlu Prens (Oscar Wilde)
 Şamatalı Köy (Astrid Lindgren)
 Momo (Michael Ende)
 Heidi (Johanna Spyri)
 İnsan Ne İle Yaşar (Leo Tolstoy)
 Sol Ayağım (Christy Brown)
 Hikayeler (Anton Çehov)
 Değirmenimden Mektuplar (Alphonse Daudet)
 Pollyanna (Eleanor Porter)

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 MEB 100 temel eser listesi (ortaöğretim)

Dış bağlantılar
 Hayırlı sabahlar Hans!, Radikal, 19 Ağustos 2006
 MEB tavsiyeli korsan kitap serisi, Radikal, 27 Mart 2008

Çocuk kitapları
Kitap listeleri

MEB 100 temel eser listesi (ilköğretim)


Margarethe von Sydow (Pseudonym: Franz Rosen, * 16. Dezember 1869 in Berlin als Karoline Franziska Margarethe von Weiß; † 20. Februar 1945 in Stolzenfelde) war eine deutsche Schriftstellerin.

Leben
Margarethe von Sydow wuchs auf dem Lande auf. Ihr Vater war der Landrat Dr. jur. von Weiss. 1890 heiratete sie den Gutsbesitzer Konrad von Sydow. Die Eheleute lebten auf Sydows Gut Stolzenfelde bei Schönfließ (Neumark). Neben ihrer Tätigkeit als Hausfrau und Mutter begann Margarethe von Sydow mit dem Schreiben. Sie veröffentlichte bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg – meist unter dem Pseudonym Franz Rosen – eine Reihe von Romanen und Erzählungen, die vereinzelt bis in die Zwanzigerjahre Neuauflagen erfuhren. Die materiellen Erträge ihrer schriftstellerischen Arbeit stiftete sie für wohltätige Zwecke. Sie bekannte sich zur traditionellen Arbeitsweise und nahm an der Entwicklung der Moderne nicht teil. In ihren Romanen bemüht sie sich, dem inneren Leben der Menschen und der psychologischen Entwicklung der Charaktere nachzuspüren.

Werke
 Das Forum der Welt, Dresden [u. a.] 1897 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Aus dem Buch der Träume, Dresden [u. a.] 1898
 Chronik des Leidens, Dresden : E. Pierson 1899 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen) Digitalisat auf Hathitrust
 Geheimnisse, Dresden [u. a.] 1899 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Neigung und Pflicht, Dresden [u. a.] 1900 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Die Frau Patronin, Dresden [u. a.] (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 1 (1901)
 2 (1901)
 Der Mönch von Sanct Blasien, Dresden [u. a.] 1901 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Sachsenehre, Dresden 1901 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Svante Ohlsen, Stuttgart 1901 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Erloschnes Licht, Dresden [u. a.] 1902 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen) Velhagen & Klasings Roman-Bibliothek 11.1900/01, S. 105–306 Digitalisat auf Internet Archive
 Jungfrau Königin, Bielefeld [u. a.] 1902 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Die Kleine, Berlin 1902 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Anna Steinhofer, Leipzig 1904
 Erlöse uns von dem Alltag, Stuttgart [u. a.] 1904 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Letzte Rast, Stuttgart 1904 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Des Mannes Vorrecht, Dresden 1904 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Der Sünde Sold, Stuttgart 1904 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Hinrik Gehrts, Stuttgart 1906 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Ein Kampf ums Dasein, Berlin 1907 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Die Kinder vom Köbinghof, Dresden 1909 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Eines großen Mannes Liebe, Berlin 1910 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 7. Aufl. 1921 Digitalisat auf Hathitrust
 Wenn reife Frauen lieben, Berlin 1912
 Das große Labyrinth, Berlin 1913 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Der wilde gelbe Mohn, Berlin 1914 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Kraft, Berlin 1918 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Ein Büchlein vom Warten, Berlin 1921 (unter dem Namen Franz Rosen)
 Das Land, das ferne leuchtet, Bleicherode 1937

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Literatur (Deutsch)
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
⚭Margarethe
Deutscher
Geboren 1869
Gestorben 1945
Frau

Margarethe von Sydow


L'Accord international sur les céréales de 1995 est une convention internationale entrée en vigueur le  et administrée par le Conseil international des céréales (CIC), qui est un forum intergouvernemental de coopération sur les questions relatives au blé et aux céréales secondaires. Cet accord remplace l'Accord international sur le blé de 1986 venu à expiration le .
Il est composé de deux parties qui constituent deux instruments juridiques distincts : la Convention sur le commerce des céréales  et la  Convention sur l'aide alimentaire. Les deux Conventions, dont les textes anglais, espagnol, français et russe font également foi, ont été ouvertes à la signature, au Siège de l'Organisation des Nations unies à New York, du  au .

La Convention sur le commerce des céréales prévoit le partage d'informations, l'analyse et les consultations sur le marché des céréales et l'évolution des politiques. Elle a pour objectifs notamment de favoriser la coopération internationale dans tous les aspects du commerce des céréales, le développement du commerce international des céréales et d'assurer que ce commerce s'effectue le plus librement possible, de contribuer à la stabilité des marchés internationaux des céréales.

En vertu de la Convention relative à l'aide alimentaire, les pays donateurs s'engagent à fournir chaque année des quantités déterminées d'aide alimentaire aux pays en développement sous forme de céréales propres à la consommation humaine ou d'argent pour acheter des céréales appropriées dans les pays bénéficiaires. Cette convention doit permettre d'assurer, par un effort conjoint de la communauté internationale, la réalisation de l'objectif fixé par la Conférence mondiale de l'alimentation, qui est d'apporter chaque année aux pays en développement une aide alimentaire d'au moins  de tonnes de céréales. L'Accord international sur les céréales ne contient aucun mécanisme de stabilisation des approvisionnements, des prix ou des échanges.

Le texte de la Convention sur le commerce des céréales de 1995 a été amendé par le CIC en 2008 pour y inclure le riz et ses produits dérivés dans la définition du mot « céréale » et en 2012 pour y inclure les oléagineux et leurs produits dérivés.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Commerce des céréales
 Accord international sur le blé de 1933
 Convention internationale sur l'assistance alimentaire

Liens externes
 .

Traité des Nations unies
Céréale


Ide Julius Rudolf Wilhelm Franksen (* 1864 in Oldenburg (Oldb); † 9. Februar 1913 ebenda) war ein deutscher Jurist und Konsularbeamter.

Leben

Franksen begann an der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg Rechtswissenschaft zu studieren. 1882 wurde er Mitglied des Corps Suevia Freiburg. Als Inaktiver wechselte er an die Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen. 1886 machte er das Referendarexamen. 1890 wurde er Gerichtsassessor in Celle, später in Oldenburg und Zellerfeld. Noch als Assessor kam er an das  Auswärtige Amt. 1893 trat er in den konsularischen Dienst. Von 1886 bis 1900 war er Vizekonsul in Sankt Petersburg, danach bis 1902 in gleicher Position in New York City. Zwischenzeitlich war er geschäftsführender Konsul in Kiew (1899) und Montreal (1900). 1902/03 war er Geschäftsträger an der Gesandtschaft in Haiti. 1904 kehrte er für fünf Monate ins AA zurück, bis er als Konsul nach Montreal geschickt wurde. Von dort kam er als Generalkonsul nach New York City. Er starb mit 47 Jahren.
Sein gleichnamiger Sohn (* 1908) fiel im Zweiten Weltkrieg.

Weblinks
 Unruhen in Haiti (1902)

Einzelnachweise

Geboren 1864
Gestorben 1913
Corpsstudent (19. Jahrhundert)
Person (Oldenburg (Oldb))
Deutscher
Mann
Jurist im auswärtigen Dienst
Konsul

Rudolf Franksen


Gulbudin Hekmatiar ( - ; distrito de Imam Sahib, Provincia de Qundūz, 1 de agosto de 1949) es un líder muyahidín y genocida afgano, fundador y jefe de la organización terrorista Hezbi Islami, ideológicamente inspirado por los Hermanos Musulmanes, principalmente en los postulados de Sayyid Qutb. Además de ello fue en dos ocasiones primer ministro de Afganistán durante los años 90. Vinculado desde antes de la guerra con el narcotráfico y con los servicios de inteligencia pakistaníes, se le ha descrito como el más brutal de los muyahidines afganos.

Participó de la Guerra de Afganistán contra el gobierno local prorruso y luego contra la URSS. Hekmatiar se ganaría el apodo de "El carnicero", siendo considerado responsable de la masacre de alrededor de 50.000 civiles desarmados solo en Kabul. Durante la guerra, Hezbi Islami recibió financiación directa de la CIA, siendo uno de los principales receptores de ayuda estadounidenses. Entre las atrocidades de sus combatientes, se distinguían por desollar vivos a sus prisioneros y arrojar ácido en la cara de aquellas mujeres que no iban con burka.

Durante el conflicto, fue estrecho aliado de otro importante señor de la guerra, Ahmad Shah Massoud. Sin embargo, tras la caída del gobierno afgano en 1992 y el fin de la guerra, ambos muyahidines acabarían ferozmente enfrentados en una nueva guerra civil, en la cual Hekmatiar fue derrotado tras dos años de conflicto, cosa que le obligó a huir del país, sin embargo la paz no llegaría pues Massoud ahora tendría que enfrentarse a una nueva insurgencia liderada por el mullah Omar, y que tomaría el control del gobierno en 1996. Tras la invasión estadounidense a Afganistán en 2001 y la caída del gobierno talibán, Hekmatiar refundaría Hezbi Islami desde su exilio en Pakistán para combatir a la coalición internacional y al nuevo gobierno títere. En septiembre de 2016 hizo las paces con el gobierno afgano abandonando finalmente la lucha armada y pudiendo regresar a Afganistán tras 20 años de exilio. Se le ha intentado procesar en numerosas ocasiones bajo cargos de genocidio, pero sin éxito.

Biografía

Primeros años

Gulbudin Hekmatiar nació en 1949 en el distrito de Imam Sahib de la provincia de Kunduz, norte de Afganistán, miembro de la tribu kharoti de los pastunes ghilzai.

Inició sus estudios superiores en la Academia Militar Mahtab Qala en 1968, pero fue expulsado debido a sus opiniones políticas dos años más tarde. En 1970, ingresó en la Facultad de Ingeniería de la Universidad de Kabul, con lo que se ganó su apodo de «Ingeniero Hekmatiar», a pesar de no haber completado sus estudios. En 1972 fue expulsado por haber asesinado a un compañero universitario militante de una organización maoísta, Saidal Sojandan. Encarcelado, fue liberado en 1973 tras el golpe de Estado del general Mohammed Daud Khan.

Lucha contra el régimen de Daud

Daud inició tensiones con Pakistán, al reclamar amplias porciones territoriales (el Pastunistán completo), mientras reprimía a los fundamentalistas locales.

Los servicios de inteligencia de los gobiernos de Estados Unidos, Reino Unido y Pakistán comenzaron el reclutamiento y entrenamiento, en la Provincia de la Frontera del Noroeste, de fundamentalistas opuestos a Daud a comienzos de la década de 1970, entre los cuales estuvo Gulbudin Hekmatiar.

El extremismo religioso en Afganistán estaba dividido, principalmente entre dos facciones: Jamiati Islami, dirigida por Burhanuddin Rabbani, que buscaba tomar el poder mediante la infiltración en la sociedad y el aparato estatal, y Hezbi Islami, dirigida por Hekmatiar, que propugnaba una rápida insurrección violenta. Las autoridades pakistaníes confiaron en Hekmatiar y le apoyaron en una rebelión en octubre de 1975, que fue un rotundo fracaso.

Tanto Jamiati Islami como el Hezbi Islami de Hekmatiar tenían en los campos de refugiados afganos en Pakistán una sólida estructura política, incluyendo el funcionamiento de cárceles así como la aplicación de leyes impuestas por ellos, todo bajo la protección de las autoridades pakistaníes. Esta situación seguiría existiendo hasta el día que los muyahidines (combatientes de la «guerra santa») se hicieron con el control de Afganistán, en 1992.

Lucha anticomunista

En 1978 tuvo lugar en Afganistán una revolución comunista, por lo que la Agencia Central de Inteligencia (CIA) de Estados Unidos inició la «Operación Ciclón», multiplicando su apoyo a los fundamentalistas, entre ellos Hekmatiar y su banda, que recibieron cientos de millones de dólares.

En 1979, Gulbudin Hekmatiar entró en contacto con Hafizullah Amín, primer ministro de Afganistán, quien dio un golpe de Estado. Ambos llevaron a cabo acciones de desestabilización con el objetivo de abolir la República Democrática y establecer un Estado islámico, del cual Hekmatiar sería jefe de gobierno y Amín jefe de Estado.

En 1979, el dirigente Mulavi Younas Jalis se separó de Hekmatiar y estableció su propia Hezbi Islami, conocida como Hezbi Islami Jalis, con su base en Nangarhar. Los que se quedaron con Hekmatiar pasaron a ser conocidos como los Hezbi Islami Gulbudin.

En los últimos días de 1979 la URSS envió un contingente limitado de ayuda militar a Afganistán a pedido del Consejo Revolucionario, lo cual fue catalogado por EE. UU. de «invasión», por lo cual este país intensificó aún más su ayuda a los muyahidines en la guerra civil.

Hekmatiar y su banda fueron acusados de numerosas atrocidades durante el conflicto: robar recursos (dinero y medicamentos) destinados a civiles por Médicos Sin Fronteras, asesinato de periodistas y activistas extranjeros solidarios con civiles, docentes y ciudadanos afganos opuestos a los muyahidines.

Como todos los líderes de las facciones muyahidines, Hekmatiar saboteaba a los otros comandantes fundamentalistas.

Hekmatiar también se financió con el tráfico de drogas y con dinero del gobierno de Arabia Saudita.

Durante esta guerra, el gobierno de la República usaba a Gulbudin Hekmatiar como un ícono de barbarie, incluso llegando a influir en la cultura popular: cuando se buscaba asustar a un niño, se decía «¡Cuidado, que viene Gulbudin!» (de manera similar al cuco).

En 1990 se alió con el general Sahnavaz Tanai para dar un golpe de Estado contra el presidente Mohammad Najibulá, plan que fracasó.

Guerra entre los muyahidines

En abril de 1992, la República fue finalmente derrotada y las facciones muyahidines pasaron a controlar todo el territorio del país, así como a enfrentarse entre sí buscando extender su influencia.

El Hezbi Islami de Hekmatiar entró en sangrientos combates con el Jamiati Islami especialmente en Kabul, lo cual dejó la ciudad arrasada y decenas de miles de muertos y centenares de miles de desplazados. En 1994, Hekmatiar se unió a la milicia del general Dostum para derribar al gobierno de Rabbani y Masud, pero falló en el intento.

Paralelamente, en el sur de Afganistán comenzó a tomar fuerza la facción de los Talibanes, liderada por el mulá Omar, veterano de la guerra anticomunista. Hekmatiar se vio atrapado entre las fuerzas de Rabbani y las de Omar y entonces pactó con Rabbani, quien lo nombró Primer Ministro. Desde este cargo, Hekmatiar endureció el ya de por sí fanático religioso gobierno de Afganistán, que fue expulsado de la capital por el avance talibán en septiembre de 1996.

Hekmatiar abandonó el país en 1997, trasladándose a Irán, donde residió hasta 2002, cuando fue expulsado por el gobierno iraní por su oposición a la intervención de la OTAN en Afganistán en 2001.

Guerra contra la OTAN

Gulbudin Hekmatiar y los vestigios de su organización fueron acusados por el gobierno de Estados Unidos de dar apoyo al grupo paramilitar Al-Qaeda, así como a la resistencia talibán, lo cual fue negado por el acusado.

Desde 2008, Hekmatiar es señalado como uno de los líderes insurgentes, al notarse un aumento de la influencia y de ataques de Hezbi Islami.

Acuerdo de paz y perdón de 2016
El 22 de septiembre de 2016, Hekmatyar fue indultado por el gobierno afgano como parte de un acuerdo de paz entre Hezb-i-Islami y el gobierno. El acuerdo también permitió la liberación de los prisioneros de Hezb Islami y el regreso de Hekmatyar a la vida pública. El acuerdo llevó a un grupo de jóvenes activistas a organizar una protesta contra el indulto a menos de mil seiscientos miembros de la ceremonia de firma. Human Rights Watch calificó el acuerdo como "una afrenta a las víctimas de abusos graves". Hezb Islami acordó cesar las hostilidades, cortar los lazos con los grupos extremistas y respetar la Constitución afgana a cambio del reconocimiento gubernamental del grupo y el apoyo para la eliminación de Naciones Unidas y de las sanciones estadounidenses contra Hekmatyar (quienes lo consideraban terrorista), y también se le prometió un puesto honorario en el gobierno.

El acuerdo se formalizó el 29 de septiembre de 2016 con el presidente afgano Ashraf Ghani y Hekmatyar, quien apareció a través de un enlace de video en el palacio presidencial, firmando el acuerdo. Las sanciones de la ONU contra él se levantaron formalmente el 3 de febrero de 2017. El 4 de mayo de 2017, regresó a Kabul junto con sus combatientes para encontrarse con el presidente Ghani después de pasar dos décadas escondido.

Desde entonces, ha pedido a los talibanes que pongan fin a su insurgencia y dejen las armas. Hekmatyar se postuló para las elecciones presidenciales de 2019 en donde fue derrotado llegando en la tercera posición.

Referencias

Muyahidines de Afganistán
Señores de la guerra de Afganistán
Terroristas
Terroristas de Afganistán
Contrabandistas
Narcotraficantes
Criminales
Primeros ministros de Afganistán
Afganos del siglo XX
Afganos del siglo XXI
Genocidas
Asesinos
Alumnado de la Universidad de Kabul

Gulbudin Hekmatiar


Tillo, önceki adıyla Aydınlar, Türkiye'nin Siirt ilinin en az nüfuslu ilçesi.

Tillo, Doğu Anadolu'daki din eğitiminde önemli yeri olan medrese kültürünün önde gelen merkezlerinden birisiydi. Doğu illerinde ve Tillo'da doğmuş pek çok İslâm âlimi bu medreselerde yetişmiştir. Bunlardan bazıları; Şeyh Mansur, Şeyh Mücahid, Gavsü'l-Memduh, İsmail Fakirullah ve Erzurumlu İbrahim Hakkı'dır.

Tarihçe
1953 yılındaki 6068 sayılı kanunla Tillo köyünde nahiye (bucak) kuruldu. Tillo nahiyesinde Tillo köyü merkez olmak üzere 10 Ekim 1957'de belediye kuruldu. Tillo nahiyesi, 18 Mayıs 1990'daki 3647 sayılı kanun ile "Aydınlar" adıyla ilçe haline getirildi. İlçe adının eski adıyla değiştirilmesi için Ekim 2013 tarihinde TBMM Başkanlığına sunulan yasa teklifinin 30 Ekim 2013 tarihinde mecliste kabul edilerek yasalaşmasının ardından 7 Kasım 2013 tarihli Resmî Gazetede yayınlanmasıyla ilçenin adı Tillo olarak değiştirildi.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Tillo Kaymakamlığı
 Tillo Belediyesi

Tillo


Rowena Cade (Spondon,  - ) est une comédienne britannique.

Biographie

Elle est la sœur de la féministe Katharine Burdekin.

Elle est la fondatrice du Minack Theatre, situé dans les Cornouailles.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en août 1893
Décès en mars 1983
Décès à 89 ans
Actrice britannique de théâtre

Rowena Cade


Leopardus, kedigiller (Felidae) familyasından bir kedi cinsi. Leopardus, Amerika kıtasına özgü sekiz küçük kedi türünden oluşan bir cinstir. Bu cins, ortak atası geç Miyosen'de Asya'dan Kuzey Amerika'ya Bering kara köprüsünü geçen Amerika'daki küçük kedilerin genetik soyunun en eski dalı olarak kabul edilir.

Türler
 Oselo (Leopardus pardalis)
 Kaplan kedisi (Leopardus tigrinus)
 Maymun kedi (Leopardus wiedii)
And Kedisi
Geoffroy Kedisi
Şili orman kedisi
Margay
Pampa Kedisi
Güney kaplan kedisi

Leopardus


En algèbre linéaire et en géométrie, le déterminant de Cayley-Menger donne une expression de l'hypervolume d'un simplexe en fonction des carrés des distances entre ses sommets. Ce déterminant porte le nom d'Arthur Cayley et de Karl Menger.

Expression du déterminant
Soient   points d'un espace euclidien de dimension  avec . Ces points sont les sommets d'un simplexe de dimension  (triangle pour  , tétraèdre pour , pentachore pour ). Notant  la distance du sommet  au sommet , le volume  n-dimensionnel de ce simplexe s'exprime par les déterminants suivants  :

Le déterminant de Cayley-Menger  est celui de la deuxième formule. La matrice dont  est le déterminant est la matrice d'ordre  de terme général  , bordée par des 1 à droite et en dessous, complétée par un 0. On peut aussi mettre les 1 à gauche et en haut.

Exemples
Pour  , notant  les longueurs des côtés du triangle, on a les développements et factorisations :

Le carré de l'aire du triangle est , et l'on retrouve la formule de Héron.

C'est une expression polynomiale symétrique en les longueurs des côtés. Pour , elle n'est plus symétrique en les  variables , mais seulement invariante par les  permutations sur les indices des sommets ; elle n'est plus non plus factorisable .

Pour  , renommant  les sommets du tétraèdre, on a   et .

Cette dernière formule avait été obtenue (sous une forme développée) par Piero della Francesca ; elle est aussi connue sous le nom de « formule de Tartaglia ».

Cette formule est valable pour des points coplanaires, auquel cas  est nul, et fournit donc une relation entre les 6 distances mutuelles de quatre points dans un plan.

Démonstration
Si les vecteurs colonnes  sont les coordonnées de  points d'un espace euclidien de dimension , on a la formule du volume :

  où .

Le déterminant de  reste inchangé par ajout d'une ligne et d'une colonne supplémentaires comme suit :

où  est le carré de la norme du vecteur  . De plus la  matrice d'ordre

a pour déterminant   . Ainsi,

  .
Le premier déterminant est obtenu par combinaisons et développements sur les lignes et colonnes.

Voir une autre démonstration dans .

Généralisation aux géométries hyperbolique et sphérique
Il existe des généralisations sphériques et hyperboliques . Une démonstration peut en être trouvée ici .

Dans un espace sphérique de dimension  et de courbure constante ,   points satisfont à

où , et  est la distance sphérique entre les points numérotés  .

Dans un espace hyperbolique de dimension  et de courbure constante ,  points satisfont à

où , et  est la distance hyperbolique entre les points numérotés  .

Applications
Le déterminant pour  peut être utilisé pour démontrer le théorème de Descartes, ainsi que le théorème de Stewart.

Rayon de la sphère circonscrite d'un simplexe
Un n-simplexe non dégénéré, possède une n -sphère circonscrite, de rayon  . Le n + 1-simplexe composé des sommets du n -simplexe et du centre de la n-sphère est alors dégénéré. Ainsi, nous avons la nullité du déterminant d'ordre n + 3:

En particulier, lorsque , cela permet d'obtenir le rayon du cercle circonscrit à un triangle en fonction des longueurs de ses côtés.

Références

Voir aussi
Trigonométrie du tétraèdre

Déterminant
Pages avec des traductions non relues

Déterminant de Cayley-Menger


Ewa Farna ()  o cântăreață poloneză.

Nașteri în 1993
Nașteri pe 12 august
Cântărețe din secolul al XXI-lea
Femei din Polonia
Polonezi din secolul al XXI-lea

Ewa Farna


La métropole de Bordeaux possède 7 ponts qui traversent la Garonne ; du nord au sud : le pont d'Aquitaine, le pont Jacques-Chaban-Delmas, le pont de pierre, le pont Saint-Jean, le pont ferroviaire, la passerelle Eiffel et le pont François-Mitterrand (hors commune mais dans la métropole). Un huitième pont est en construction, le pont Simone-Veil.

Ponts sur la Garonne

Ponts au-dessus des bassins à flots

Ponts au-dessus de voies ferrées

Ponts au-dessus d'un axe routier

Passerelles piétonnes urbaines

Pont jamais achevé

Ponts détruits

== Bibliographie ==
 Ponts et passerelles de Bordeaux, Édition Les Dossiers d'Aquitaine, , 98 p.

Voir aussi

Liste de ponts sur la Garonne
Liste de ponts de la Gironde
Liste de ponts de France

Ponts
Bordeaux

Liste des ponts de Bordeaux


منظمة الابتكار في التكنولوجيا الحيوية ، وتختصر (BIO)، هي أكبر منظمة للتجارة في العالم، والتي تمثل التكنولوجيا الحيوية الصناعية. تأسست عام 1993 في العاصمة واشنطن. وجيمس جيم غرينوود هو الرئيس الحالي للمنظمة.
وهي أكبر منظمة في الولايات المتحدة والعالم في هذا المجال وتهدف إلى تطوير التقنية الحيوية وتطبيقاتها على أرض الواقع. وفي 4 يناير عام 2016 غيرت المنظمة اسمها من منظمة الصناعية للتقانة الحيوية إلى منظمة الابتكار في التكنولوجيا الحيوية.

الأنشطة

اجتماعات التجارة
المنظمة تعقد عدة مؤتمرات سنويا أساسية من أجل تطوير الأعمال وأنشطة الشراكة المطلوبة في قطاع التكنولوجيا الحيوية في تكلفة تطوير المنتجات، حيث أن الجدول الزمني المخصص لتطوير المنتجات طويلة، والمخاطر التنظيمية عالية. في عام 2013 بشيكاغو كان هناك مؤتمر حضره نحو 13,594 من المندوبين الذين أتو من 47 دولة.

كما أنه تكون عدة اجتماعات في دول مختلة، على سبيل المثال في الصين. الهند, وأوروبا.

قضايا الضغط السياسي
في عام 2013 أنفقت المنظمة 1.98 مليون دولار أمريكي من أجل الضغط السياسي في الولايات المتحدة. ومن تلك القضايا شملت تعديل قانون الإيرادات الداخلية لتوفير استثناء من الفقدان السلبي لقواعد الاستثمارات في التكنولوجيا العالية والبحوث التجارية الصغيرة التي تمر من خلال عدة كيانات، وتشمل اللقاحات ضد الأنفلونزا الموسمية ضمن التعريف الخاضع لضريبة اللقاحات، وتمديد وتوسيع وتحسين التأهيلية العلاجية واسطة مشروع قانون في عام 2010.

ومن أمثلة لجهود الضغط، التي تشمل على دعم تطوير الوقود الحيوي مثل تلك التي تنتج من الطحالب،  والمحاصيل المعدلة وراثيا، وقوة حقوق الملكية الفكرية

مراجع

الروابط الخارجية
 موقع المنظمة

تأسيسات سنة 1993 في الولايات المتحدة
صناعة علوم الحياة
منظمات أسست في 1993
منظمات تقانة حيوية
منظمات تمارس الضغط في الولايات المتحدة

المنظمة الصناعية للتقانة الحيوية


John Moores may refer to:
John H. Moores (1821–1880), American businessman and politician in the state of Oregon
Sir John Moores (British businessman) (1896–1993), British businessman who founded Littlewoods
John Moores Jr. (1928–2012), his son, businessman and chancellor of Liverpool John Moores University
John Moores (baseball) (born 1944), American entrepreneur and former owner of the San Diego Padres
Liverpool John Moores University, a university in Liverpool, England, named after Sir John Moores

See also
John Moore (disambiguation)

John Moores


Juan Alejandro Martín (1865-1963) fue un militar argentino que ejerció como ministro de Marina de su país durante la Presidencia de Manuel Quintana, entre 1904 y 1906.

Biografía

Estudió en el Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, y luego egresó Escuela Naval Militar, de la que egresó en 1884 como alférez. Dos años más tarde formó parte de la comisión que estudió los límites fluviales con Brasil. Posteriormente también formó parte de la comisión de límites con Chile, recorriendo el canal Beagle y el estrecho de Magallanes.

Ejerció también cargos administrativos, y fue subsecretario de Marina en 1897. En 1904, el presidente Manuel Quintana lo nombró Ministro de Marina. Durante su mandato, la escalada bélica con Chile quedó definitivamente atrás, de modo que su responsabilidad fue meramente administrativa; de hecho, algunos buques que habían sido comprados para una eventual guerra fueron vendidos en este período.

Posteriormente fue delegado técnico a la Conferencia de Paz celebrada en La Haya, director de la Escuela Naval Militar, y en 1918 fue director general de Aprovisionamiento. En 1910 había sido nombrado contraalmirante. Entre sus mandos militares, se destacó la comandancia del buque escuela Fragata Sarmiento.

Durante la presidencia de Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear llegó al grado de almirante y poco después pasó a retiro. Falleció a los 97 años de edad.

Referencias

Marinos de Argentina
Ministros de Marina de Argentina
Almirantes de Argentina del siglo XX

Juan A. Martín


El arco festoneado es un tipo de arco que posee un intradós decorado con diversas ondulaciones convexas o festones).

El arco, dependiendo del estilo arquitectónico podrá ser de medio punto, apuntado, o de herradura entre otras formas. Se denomina festoneado debido a que su diseño recuerda al perfil de una guirnalda, formada por motivos que decoran el intradós del arco.

El arco festoneado se podría considerar una variante del arco polilobulado en donde los lóbulos que forman el intradós del arco son convexos en lugar de cóncavos, formando una serie de pequeños cilindros transversales.

Arco festoneado en la arquitectura románica
El arco festoneado apareció por primera vez en el  a lo largo de la vía Tolosana, una de las principales rutas francesas de peregrinación a Santiago de Compostela, a través de la cual los arcos festoneados y polilobulados se extendieron por Francia y España.

En Francia puede verse, por ejemplo, en el portal de la capilla de San Hipólito de Loupian, en Languedoc, rematado por un arco de herradura.

La arquitectura románica de los reinos cristianos de España, muy posiblemente influida por los modelos de la arquitectura de la vecina al-Ándalus, utilizó los arcos festoneados y polilobulados con relativa frecuencia, uso del que se conservan numerosos ejemplos en el ámbito del Camino de Santiago.

Por su parte, el arco festoneado llegó a Francia en el  a través del Camino de Arlés, uno de los principales recorridos franceses del Camino de Santiago. Se encuentra, por ejemplo, en la portada de la Capilla de San Hipólito de Loupian en Languedoc, coronada por un arco de herradura. Para el historiador del arte Paul Héliot, el arco festoneado es un "arco cuya línea del intradós se interrumpe periódicamente por pequeños apéndices que suelen converger hacia el centro del arco ... Los festones son simples colgantes que no intervienen en el trazado del arco, cúspides delgadas, la mayoría de las veces ahuecadas, que parecen florituras insignificantes".

En la transición del románico al gótico
En este período tiene su origen como elemento propio el arco festoneado alternado ("arc festonné brisé" en francés), una variante del arco festoneado caracterizada porque en su intradós se disponen alternadamente ondulaciones convexas  pequeñas y grandes. Apareció en el  en la arquitectura de transición románico-gótica francesa, localizada principalmente en la Vía Francígena, que extendió el Camino de Arlés hasta Turín.

La iglesia del Monasterio de Ganagobie en Provenza, por ejemplo, tiene un soberbio portal románico-gótico con cinco arquivoltas, dos de las cuales están decoradas con festones de dos tamaños diferentes. La puerta en sí está enmarcada por festones, integrados en el dintel, con figuras de los apóstoles tallados en piedra.

Véase también
 Anexo:Tipos de arcos
 Arco de herradura
 Arco con lambrequines

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Paul Héliot, « Les portails polylobés de l'Aquitaine et des régions limitrophes », dans Bulletin monumental, 1946, páginas 63-89
 Paul Héliot, « Sur quelques arcs polylobés ou festonnés de l'époque romane en Europe occidentale », dans Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1950 (1959), XXXVII bis, páginas 39-54
 Éliane Vergnolle, Les arcs polylobés dans le centre-ouest de la France : Limousin, Poitou, Angoumois, Saintonge, dans L'information d'histoire de l'art, 1969, XIV, páginas 217-223

Enlaces externos

Festoneado
Elementos de arquitectura gótica
Elementos de arquitectura románica
Arte nazarí

Arco festoneado


El cangrejo negro o cangrejo zombie es una especie de cangrejo terrestre de la familia Gecarcinidae, nativo del mar Caribe. A veces también es llamado cangrejo halloween, aunque así generalmente solo se le llama a Gecarcinus quadratus.

Descripción
El caparazón es negro, las patas son rojas con tonos de amarillo, su apariencia es terrorífica y la gran migración ha hecho que en algunas partes se llama cangrejo zombie.

Distribución
Es una especie migratoria. Se encuentra principalmente en Cuba, y en Bahamas, es también reportado en Florida, Nicaragua, Dominica, Jamaica. Las poblaciones periféricas existen en las Islas del Cisne, fuera de Honduras, y en el Archipiélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina fuera de la costa de Colombia.

Reproducción
Esta especie es terrestre, pero de origen marino y es abundante, cada año, entre abril y julio, los adultos migran al mar para aparearse y desovar a millones de crias que retornan al bosque, esto obliga a las autoridades a cerrar las vías para que los vehículos no los pisen, sin embargo, no se ha reportado este número de cangrejos como el cangrejo rojo de la Isla de Navidad, los cuales se reproducen en las épocas de lluvia.

Gastronomía
En Colombia los isleños capturan a muchos cangrejos cada año solo en la época de la migración, utilizan sus pinzas como "muelas de cangrejo", y también se preparan "bolas de cangrejo" a partir de su caparazón, para estos isleños, si estos cangrejos se acaban tendrán que buscar una nueva forma de vivir, aunque por lo general no se encuentran en peligro de extinción.

Referencias

Crustáceos del mar Caribe
ruricola
Taxones descritos por Carlos Linneo
Animales descritos en 1758

Gecarcinus ruricola


Karl Borromäus Joseph Fürst von Liechtenstein (* 20. September 1730; † 21. Februar 1789) war ein kaiserlicher Feldmarschall.

Leben

Herkunft
Er war Sohn des Emanuel von Liechtenstein (1700–1771). Seine Mutter war Maria Anna (geb. Gräfin Dietrichstein) (1707–1777). Sein Bruder Franz Joseph war erster Fürst des souveränen Fürstentums Liechtenstein. Karl Borromäus war Erbe des aus der Fideikommiss-Primogeniturherrschaft Kromau bestehenden Kleinen Majorats und Begründer einer eigenen Linie des Hauses Liechtenstein.

Militärkarriere

Bereits in seiner Jugend trat er in ein österreichisches Kavallerieregiment ein. Er diente 1747 beim Feldzug in den Niederlanden im Rahmen des österreichischen Erbfolgekrieges. Er stieg vor allem während des Siebenjährigen Krieges rasch auf. Er war 1757 Oberst. Bei Reichenberg wurde er 1757 schwer verwundet. Er zeichnete sich bei der Eroberung von Schweidnitz besonders aus und gehörte zu den ersten, die in die Stadt eindrangen. Er wurde als Auszeichnung mit der Siegesmeldung zu Maria Theresia nach Wien entsandt. Diese veranlasste die Aufnahme in den Orden vom Goldenen Vlies. Außerdem wurde er Inhaber des 1. Dragonerregiments und Kommandant der Stadt Wien.

Im Jahr 1758 war er Generalfeldwachtmeister und 1760 Feldmarschallleutnant. 1765 war er Generalinspekteur der Kavallerie. Im Jahr 1771 war er kommandierender General in Preßburg und hatte 1775 das Generalkommando in Niederösterreich inne.

Während des bayerischen Erbfolgekrieges 1778/79 stand er im Rang eines Generals der Kavallerie. Er befehligte zu Beginn 28.000 Mann, die zunächst bei Leitmeritz standen. Damit versperrte er den Gegnern den Zugang nach Bayern. Später vereinigte er sich mit den Truppen von Laudon. Als die Lage der Österreicher problematischer geworden war, führte er eine Reihe von erfolgreichen Bewegungen aus.

Der Fürst war Freimaurer und Mitglied der Wiener Loge Zum heiligen Joseph, außerdem war er Ordensprotektor des kurzlebigen freimaurerischen Ordens der Asiatischen Brüder.

Liechtenstein zählte neben seiner Gattin zu den engsten Vertrauten Joseph II. Zuletzt war er Feldmarschall, wirklicher Geheimer Rat und Kämmerer. Im Türkenkrieg erhielt er 1788 den Oberbefehl über ein 36.000 Mann starkes Korps in Kroatien. Er war an der Belagerung von Dubitza beteiligt. Der Sturm scheiterte an den Verstärkungen der Verteidiger. In Folge seiner rastlosen Tätigkeit schwer erkrankt, suchte er Heilung im Kurort Petrinia, wo sich sein Zustand aber verschlimmerte. Nach Wien zurückgebracht, erlag er nach schweren Siechtum wenige Monate darauf.

Seine letzte Ruhestätte fand er im neu erbauten Mausoleum der jüngeren Linie des Hauses Liechtenstein auf dem Kirchhof der Allerheiligenkirche in Kromau, wo auch sein an Heiligabend 1795 verstorbener erstgeborener Sohn beigesetzt wurde.

Familie
Karl Borromäus war seit 1761 mit Eleonore (geb. Prinzessin von Oettingen-Spielberg) (1745–1812) verheiratet. Diese war eine Vertraute Josephs II.

Die Nachkommen waren:
 Maria Josepha (1763–1833) ⚭ Johann Nepomuk Ernst von Harrach (1756–1829)
 Karl Joseph Emanuel (1765–1795) ⚭ Marianne Josefa von Khevenhüller-Metsch (* 1770; † 1849)
 Joseph Wenzel (1767–1842)
 Kaspar Melchior (1770–1773)
 Moritz Joseph Johann (1775–1819) ⚭ Marie Leopoldine Esterházy von Galánthá (1788–1846)
 Franz Alois Crispin (1776–1794)
 Alois Gonzaga Joseph (1780–1833)

Literatur

 Allgemeine Militär-Enzyklopädie Bd. 5 Leipzig, 1870, S. 327–329
 Rupert Ritter: Kurze Geschichte und Stammbaum des fürstlichen Hauses Liechtenstein. S. 58 f. Online-Ausgabe (PDF; 853 kB)
 Europäische Aufklärung zwischen Wien und Triest : die Tagebücher des Gouverneurs Karl Graf von Zinzendorf 1776–1782 Wien, 2009, S. 333 f.
 Jacob von Falke, Geschichte des fürstlichen Hauses Lichtenstein, Volume 3, S.249ff

Einzelnachweise

Militärperson (österreichische Habsburger)
Regimentsinhaber der Frühen Neuzeit
Person in den Türkenkriegen
Person im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Österreich)
Person im Österreichischen Erbfolgekrieg (Österreich)
Ritter des Ordens vom Goldenen Vlies (Österreich, 18. Jahrhundert)
Titularfürst (Liechtenstein)
Kämmerer (Habsburgermonarchie)
Familienmitglied des Hauses Liechtenstein
Freimaurer (Deutschland)
Freimaurer (Österreich)
Freimaurer (18. Jahrhundert)
Geboren 1730
Gestorben 1789
Mann

Karl Borromäus von Liechtenstein


The submarine film is a subgenre of war film in which the majority of the plot revolves around a submarine below the ocean's surface. Films of this subgenre typically focus on a small but determined crew of submariners battling against enemy submarines or submarine-hunter ships, or against other problems ranging from disputes amongst the crew, threats of mutiny, life-threatening mechanical breakdowns, or the daily difficulties of living on a submarine.

The genre plays on the psychological tension of the submarine's crew and their unseen enemy, signified by a soundscape that may feature explosions, the ping of sonar, the creaking of the submarine's hull under extreme pressure, the alarm ordering the submarine to dive, and the threatening sound signatures of a destroyer's propeller or of an approaching torpedo.

Some 150 films have been made in the submarine genre between 1910 and 2010, variously depicting submarines in relatively realistic stories about World War I, World War II or the Cold War, or purely fictional and fantastic scenarios.

Characteristics
Submarine films have their own particular semantics and syntax, creating a film genre concerned specifically with submarine warfare. A distinctive element in this genre is the soundtrack, which attempts to bring home the emotional and dramatic nature of conflict under the sea. For example, in the 1981 Das Boot, the sound design works together with the hours-long film format to depict lengthy pursuit with depth charges, and as the critic Linda Maria Koldau writes,

Koldau identifies the basic syntactic structure of the submarine genre as "outside is bad, inside is good." The unseen outside means the enemy: this may be from nature, with elements such as water pressure threatening to crush the hull, sea monsters, or underwater rocks; or human opponents. Meanwhile, the inside of the submarine represents the human warmth and trust of the crew for each other and for their captain, their lives bound together by the situation. To this scenario can be added elements from within such as mutiny, fire, discord, or accidents including radiation leakage; and from outside such as water, terrorism, disease, and weapons, while the plot may feature sudden switches from being the hunter to being the hunted.

The soundscape may depict the creaking of the hull under pressure: as Koldau observes, this is both realistic and metaphoric, standing in for the fear and the responsibility on the shoulders of the crew. Stress may further be expressed in the acoustic signature of specifically submarine threats, such as the swelling sound of an approaching destroyer's propeller, the soft buzz of an enemy torpedo, or the submarine's own alarm ordering an immediate dive.

Another element of the soundscape less often remarked upon is simply silence, which can mean both safety (nothing is happening) and unseen danger, creating tension.

List of submarine movies

This is a list of movies, grouped by the era in which they were made, in which a submarine plays a significant role in the storyline. From 1910 to 2010, some 150 fictional films about submarines have been made. Many of these are set in World War I, World War II, or the Cold War; others depict relatively "authentic" terrorist scenarios.

Some movies depict historical events from actual battles or incidents, such as Above Us the Waves, a 1955 film which depicts the true story of the British Royal Navy's midget submarines attacks on the . Other submarine movies develop a fictional plot created using more or less realistic details of naval warfare, such as the film U-571, which tells the story of a fictional U-boat in World War II.

Other submarine films from the fantasy, science fiction or occasionally horror film genres depict entirely fictitious events, such as the various film versions of Jules Verne's novel 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea.

Set before World War I
 Hearts in Bondage (1936) – directed by Lew Ayres
 The Hunley (1999) – CSS Hunley attacks a U.S. Navy ship

Made before World War II
 The Secret of the Submarine (1915) – US action-adventure silent serial directed by George L. Sargent depicting prevention of US submarine from falling into enemy hands
 A Submarine Pirate (1915) – US heist-comedy-short directed by Charles Avery and Syd Chaplin, depicting waiter attempting to foil sea-heist of gold-filled cargo vessel by submarine
 Civilization (1916) – US allegorical-drama directed by Reginald Barker, Thomas H. Ince, Raymond B. West, et al. depicting pacifist German Count's construction of submarine with order to sink ocean liner Lusitania presumably also carrying enemy munitions; a.k.a. La cruz de la humanidad, a.k.a. Civilização
 The Little American (1917) – US action-drama directed by Cecil B. DeMille and Joseph Levering, depicting ship of young Americans returning to ancestral French home torpedoed by a German U-boat and witness to German brutality while imprisoned; a.k.a. A Pequena Americana, a.k.a. La petite américaine
 On the Jump (1918) – US comedy directed by Raoul Walsh, depicting US reporter who joins Liberty Loan campaign before he must rescue his girlfriend and stolen secret fuel formula from German agent rendezvousing with a German U-boat
 Patriotism (1918) – US mystery-drama directed by Raymond B. West, depicting search in Scotland for German agent sending vital information to German U-boat fleet off the Scottish coast
 Behind the Door (1919) – US action-drama directed by Irvin Willat, depicting German-American naval officer who takes revenge against the German U-boat commander who brutalized his wife after sinking his ship; a.k.a. Detrás de la puerta
 The False Faces (1919) – US espionage-drama directed by Irvin Willat, depicting a thief who becomes a reluctant US agent and infiltrates German U-boat to deliver vital enemy information; a.k.a. The Lone Wolf
 The Isle of Conquest (1919) – US adventure-drama directed by Irvin Willat, based on Arthur Hornblow novel, about a man and woman marooned on a deserted isle after their ship is sunk by a German U-boat
 Mare Nostrum (1926) – directed by Rex Ingram
 Submarine (1928) – directed by Frank Capra
 Men Without Women (1930) – fictional USS S-13
 The Sea Ghost (1931) – a.k.a. U-67
 A Woman of Experience (1931)
 Morgenrot (1933)
 Hell Below (1933) – USS AL-14
 Dark Journey (1937) – UK adventure-thriller directed by Victor Saville
 Submarine D-1 (1937)
 Submarine Patrol (1938) – directed by John Ford
  (1939) – the Soviet film
 The Spy in Black (1939) – a.k.a. U-Boat 29
 Thunder Afloat (1939)

Made during World War II
 Three Little Sew and Sews (1939) – US comedy short directed by Del Lord, depicting the Three Stooges as sailors working in a ships' tailor shop tricked into stealing a submarine by Nazi spies
 49th Parallel (1941) – a U-boat is sunk in Hudson's Bay, leaving the surviving crewmen stranded in northern Canada
 U-Boote westwärts! (U-Boat, Course West!) (1941) – German war film promoting Kriegsmarine and Unterseeboot service
 Crash Dive (1943) – fictional USS Corsair
  (1943) – the Soviet movie
 Destination Tokyo (1943) – fictional USS Copperfin
 Gung Ho (1943) – fictional account of the Makin Island raid
 The Silver Fleet (1943) – British drama directed by Vernon Sewell and Gordon Wellesley, depicting a Dutch submarine builder forced to work for the Nazis
 Submarine Alert (1943) – US thriller directed by Frank McDonald, depicting a former gangster supplying German U-boat commanders with torpedoes in South America
 Submarine Base (1943) – US drama directed by Albert H. Kelley, depicting Nazi spies using a stolen shortwave transmitter prototype to broadcast top secret shipping info to an offshore Imperial Japanese Navy submarine
 We Dive at Dawn (1943) – UK action-drama directed by Anthony Asquith, depicting fictional submarine HMS Sea Tiger on a mission to sink fictional German battleship Brandenburg
 Two-Man Submarine (1944) – US B-movie directed by Lew Landers

Later films depicting World War II
 The Damned (1947) – directed by René Clément
 Mystery Submarine (1950) – directed by Douglas Sirk, depicting a mission to destroy a U-boat off the coast of South America; a.k.a. Phantom Submarine
 Operation Pacific (1951) – fictional USS Thunderfish
 Submarine Command (1951) – US drama directed by John Farrow, depicting a US submarine commander forced to confront the consequences of sudden high-sea submersion while the crew remain outside the submarine
 Ubåt 39 (U-Boat 39) (1952) – Swedish drama directed by Hampe Faustman, depicting the crew of
 Torpedo Alley (1953) – US drama directed by Lew Landers, depicting a US Navy pilot rescued at sea by submarine before applying for submarine duty; a.k.a. Down Periscope
 Submarine Attack (La grande speranza) (1954) – Italian action-romance directed by Duilio Coletti, depicting an Italian submarine sinking Allied shipping during the Battle of the Atlantic; a.k.a. Torpedo Zone
 Above Us the Waves (1955) – Royal Navy midget submarines vs. German battleship Tirpitz
 Hellcats of the Navy (1957) – fictional USS Starfish
 Sea Wife (1957) – US action-drama directed by Bob McNaught and starring Richard Burton and Joan Collins, depicting a cargo ship dangerously jammed to excess capacity with evacuees fleeing the 1942 Japanese invasion and Battle of Singapore that is sunk by a Japanese Imperial Navy submarine; one scene depicts the submarine underwater while another scene shows the submarine on the surface
 The Enemy Below (1957) – US action-drama directed by Dick Powell, depicting a duel between an American destroyer escort and a German U-boat in South Atlantic
 Run Silent, Run Deep (1958) – fictional  (which loosely shares plot elements and the villain destroyer captain, Bungo Pete, with Edward L. Beach's novel, but not much of the plot)
 Submarine Seahawk (1958) – US action-drama directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet depicting a US submarine commander on a reconnaissance mission to locate a fleet of Imperial Japanese Navy fighting ships; a.k.a. Submarine X-2
 Torpedo Run (1958) – US drama directed by Joseph Pevney, depicting a US submarine commander confronted with destroying an Imperial Japanese Navy ship with Allied prisoners and civilians
 U 47 – Kapitänleutnant Prien (1958) – somewhat factual combat career of Günther Prien
 Battle of the Coral Sea (1959) – USS Dragonfish
 Operation Petticoat (1959) – US comedy directed by Blake Edwards, depicting fictional USS Sea Tiger; remade in 1977 TV series Operation Petticoat
 Orzeł (The Eagle) (1959) – Polish drama directed by Leonard Buczkowski, depicting ORP Orzeł and Orzeł incident
 Up Periscope (1959) – US drama directed by Gordon Douglas, depicting a US Navy frogman on mission aboard a submarine to be smuggled into Japanese-held island; a.k.a. Up Periscope!
 Nacht fiel über Gotenhafen (Darkness Fell on Gotenhafen) (1960) – German film about the sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff by the Soviet submarine S-13. The film is about the maritime disaster, not about the submarine.
 McHale's Navy (TV series), McHale and His Schweinhunds [Season 2, Episode 3] (1963) – US comedy episode directed by Sidney Lanfield, depicting a PT boat crew destroying a German U-boat rendezvousing with a Japanese patrol
 Mystery Submarine (1963) – UK action-drama directed by C.M. Pennington-Richards, depicting a British captured U-boat used for a mission
 Beta Som (Torpedo Bay) (1963) – Italian-French drama directed by Charles Frend and Bruno Vailati, depicting a British warship and Italian submarine operating in the Strait of Gibraltar and meeting in the neutral Rick's Cafe; a.k.a. Défi à Gibraltar
 Morituri (1965) – US drama directed by Bernhard Wicki, depicting German blackmailed by English to impersonate SS officer aboard ship; a.k.a. Saboteur: Code Name Morituri
 McHale's Navy (TV series), 36-24-73 [Season 4, Episode 23] (1966) – US comedy episode directed by Hollingsworth Morse, depicting a PT boat crew capturing a German U-boat
 Submarine X-1 (1969) – X class submarines
 Murphy's War (1971)
 Commander of the Lucky 'Pike' (1972), the Soviet movie
 Operation Petticoat (TV series) (1977–79) – comedy directed by Hollingsworth Morse, depicting fictional USS Sea Tiger; spinoff of 1959 film Operation Petticoat, producing 32 episodes
 1941 (1979) – US comedy directed by Steven Spielberg, depicting an Imperial Japanese Navy submarine terrorizing the California coast
 Das Boot (1981) – German movie about
  (1985), the Soviet film, about S-131
  (1985), the Soviet TV-movie
  (1986–87), the Soviet TV miniseries
 War and Remembrance (TV miniseries) (1988)
 Das letzte U-Boot (The Last U-Boat) (1993) – a German television film about U-234
 U-571 (2000) – fictional
 Below (2002) – fictional  (horror)
 In Enemy Hands (2004) – fictional USS Swordfish and U-429; a.k.a. U-Boat
 Ghostboat (2006) – mystery-thriller based on George E. Simpson and Neal R. Burger novel, directed by Stuart Orme, depicting fictional  lost during World War II and resurfacing near the end of the Cold War
 真夏のオリオン (Battle under Orion) (2009) – Japanese action-drama directed by Tetsuo Shinohara, depicting an Imperial Japanese Navy submarine against a US destroyer near the end of the war; a.k.a. Manatsu no Orion, Last Operations Under the Orion
 Die Gustloff (2008) – German television drama about the sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff. Really the story of the maritime disaster, but does feature a few scenes aboard the Soviet submarine S-13
 The Sinking of the Laconia (2010) – British-German historical drama directed by Uwe Janson about the sinking of the former British ocean liner  by , which then, with three other U-boats (including ) and an Italian submarine, attempted to rescue nearly 2,000 passengers
 Torpedo (Also known as U-235) – a Belgian film (2019)

Korean War
 Submarine Command (1951)  – fictional USS Tiger Shark

Cold War
 Morning Departure (1950) – British drama directed by Roy Ward Baker depicting the crew of a sunken British submarine trapped on the sea floor; a.k.a. Operation Disaster
 Hell and High Water (1954) – American action-adventure directed by Samuel Fuller, depicting a World War II surplus Japanese submarine battling a Chinese submarine
 On the Beach (1959) – fictional nuclear submarine USS Sawfish (SSN-623)
 Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (1961) – adventure-science fiction film directed by Irwin Allen, depicting fictional SSRN Seaview; remade in the 1964 TV series Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea
 Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (TV series) (1964) – adventure-science fiction, directed by Jus Addiss depicting fictional SSRN Seaview; spinoff of 1961 film Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea
 The Bedford Incident (1965)
 The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming (1966) – American comedy directed by Norman Jewison, depicting fictional Soviet submarine Спрут; a.k.a. The Russians Are Coming! The Russians Are Coming!
 Ice Station Zebra (1968) – fictional  (in novel: USS Dolphin)
 Mission Impossible (TV series), "Submarine" (1969) – American action-adventure episode directed by Paul Krasny, depicting former SS officer with plans to fund Neo-Nazis
 The Boatniks (1970) – comedy directed by Norman Tokar, depicting a salami in a submarine torpedo tube
 Assault on the Wayne (1971) – fictional missile submarine USS Wayne (also named in The Spy Who Loved Me)
 The Spy Who Loved Me (1977) – American, British and Soviet submarines
 Gray Lady Down (1978) – fictional USS Neptune
 Bear Island (1979) – fictional U.S. Science Year team on remote island discover a World War II submarine base to which the SS had dispatched two U-boats with holds full of gold bullion from the conquest of Europe.  SS, ex-Nazis, sons of U-boat commanders, Israelis, all try to recover the enormous wealth.
 Raise the Titanic (1980) – U.S. submarine confronts a Soviet warship and escorts the salvaged Titanic to port
 Virus (1980 film) (1980) – fictional HMS Nereid
 Never Say Never Again (1983) – fictional U.S. submarine
 Incident at Map Grid 36-80 (1984) – the Soviet movie, about U.S. submarine
 The Fifth Missile (1986) – fictional USS Montana
 The Dolphin's Cry (1986) – the Soviet movie
 Russkies (1987) – the Soviet submarine
 Full Fathom Five (1990) – fictional USS Aspen versus Alpha Victor Three class submarine CCCP Kirov'
 The Rift (1990) – fictional Siren II searches for lost Siren I The Hunt for Red October (1990) – fictional Red October (Красный Октябрь), fictional V.K. Konovalov (В. К. Коновалов), ,
 Going Under (1991)  – Comedy – An American submarine races to get a nuclear weapon before a Russian submarine.
 Buried on Sunday (1992)  – a Soviet submarine is used to launch a missile attack on Canada's Wonderland
 Silent Service (1995) – anime; JMSDF Seabat (Japan's first nuclear-powered submarine)
 Hostile Waters (1997) – K-219
 K-19: The Widowmaker (2002) – K-19
 Phantom (2013) – K-129, the plot has a basis in one theory about the events aboard the Soviet submarine's final voyage

Post-Cold War
 Crimson Tide (1995) –
 Down Periscope (1996) – comedy directed by David S. Ward, depicting fictional USS Stingray (SS-161)
 Peculiarities of the National Fishing (1998)
 Phantom: The Submarine (1999), about fictional South Korea's first nuclear-powered submarine Phantom.
 On the Beach (2000) – fictional  USS Charleston (SSN-704)
 Danger Beneath the Sea (2001)
 72 Meters (2004)
 Phantom Below (2005)
 Last Resort (2012–13) – TV series, fictional , USS Colorado (SSBN-753)
 Black Sea (2014)
 Hunter Killer (2018)
 Kursk (2018)
 The Wolf's Call (2019)

Other conflicts
 Ghazi Shaheed (1998)
 The Ghazi Attack (2017), first Indian underwater/war-at-sea film

 Future or fantastic past
 Le voyage à travers l'impossible (An Impossible Voyage) (1904) – French adventure-comedy silent short directed by Georges Méliès, depicting Geographic Society members on an around-the-world journey using various modes of transport including a submarine; a.k.a. The Voyage Across the Impossible, a.k.a. The Impossible Voyage; predecessor to 1907 silent film 20,000 lieues sous les mers 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1907, 1916, 1954, 1997, 1997) – Jules Verne's fictional Nautilus (science fiction/fantasy)
 The Secret of Two Oceans (1957) – based on Grigory Adamov's novel, about the crew of the Soviet submarine "Pioneer"
 The Atomic Submarine (1959) – fictional USS Tiger Shark battles an underwater alien spacecraft/submarine
 Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (1961) – Seaview nuclear submarine, the film was followed by a TV series 1964–68
 The Fabulous World of Jules Verne (1958) – based on Jules Verne's Facing the Flag, featuring
 The Three Stooges in Orbit (1962) – comedy directed by Edward Bernds, depicting the Three Stooges assisting an inventor with a new military hybrid (tank, helicopter, submarine) vehicle to aid in defense of a Martian invasion
 Atragon (1963) – fictional Gotengo (science fiction/fantasy)
 Stingray (1964–1965) – adventures of the WASPs (the World Aquanaut Security Patrol) (Supermarionation)
 Fantastic Voyage (1966) – set in the near future, an experimental submarine with special medical team aboard are reduced to microscopic size and injected into body of a brain-damaged scientist possessing military secrets in an attempt to repair his injury
 Around the World Under the Sea (1966)
 Yellow Submarine (1968) – (psychedelic animated fantasy)
 Captain Nemo and the Underwater City (1969) – Jules Verne's fictional Nautilus (science fiction/fantasy)
 The Neptune Factor (1973) – undersea rescue (science fiction)
 The Land That Time Forgot (1975) – depicts a stranded World War I U-boat crew on uncharted South-Atlantic sub-continent of "Caprona"
 The Return of Captain Nemo (1978) – Jules Verne's fictional Nautilus (science fiction/fantasy)
 Thundersub (1979) – (anime)
 Virus  (1980) – Japanese-made post-apocalyptic thriller featuring an international cast aboard a British sub, trying to find a cure to a global pandemic.
 The Abyss (1989) – fictional USS Montana (science fiction/fantasy)
 Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water (1989) – Jules Verne's fictional Nautilus (anime)
 seaQuest DSV (1993) – (science fiction/fantasy)
 Blue Submarine No. 6 (1998) – (anime)
 The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003) – Jules Verne's fictional Nautilus (fantasy)
 Submarine 707R (2004) – (anime)
 The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004) – US adventure-comedy-drama directed by Wes Anderson
 Lorelei: The Witch of the Pacific Ocean (2005) – (World War II, science fiction)
 Tide-Line Blue (2005) – (anime)
 The Land That Time Forgot (2009) – action-sci-fi directed by C. Thomas Howell, depicting a stranded World War II U-boat crew in a time void on an island inside the Bermuda Triangle
 Arpeggio of Blue Steel'' (2013) – (anime)

See also
 List of fictional ships
 Nautical fiction
 Sea in culture

References

External links

Submarine movies
Submarines
U-boats
 Films
Lists of World War II films

Films

Submarine films


Amstel Gold Race 2015 var den 50. udgave af cykelløbet Amstel Gold Race og var det ellevte arrangementet på UCI's World Tour-kalender i 2015 og blev arrangeret 19. april 2015. Løbet blev vundet af Michał Kwiatkowski fra .

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
Jakob Fuglsang kørte for
Jesper Hansen kørte for
Michael Valgren kørte for
Chris Anker Sørensen kørte for
Rasmus Guldhammer kørte for
Troels Vinther kørte for
Michael Reihs kørte for

Resultater

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

2015
UCI World Tour 2015

Amstel Gold Race 2015


الليبرالية الخضراء أو حماية البيئة الليبرالية هي الليبرالية التي تنطوي على السياسة الخضراء (البيئية) في أيديولوجيتها. عادةً ما يكون الليبراليون الخضر ليبراليين في القضايا الاجتماعية و«خضرًا» في القضايا الاقتصادية. صاغ مصطلح «الليبرالية الخضراء» الفيلسوف السياسي مارسيل ويسنبرغ في كتابه الذي نُشر في عام 1998 «ليبرالية خضراء: المجتمع الحرّ والأخضر». يجادل بأن الليبرالية يجب أن ترفض فكرة منح حقوق ملكية مُطلقة، وأن تسمح بفرض قيودٍ تحدّ من حرية إساءة استغلال الطبيعة والموارد الطبيعية. ومع ذلك، يرفض ويسنبرغ التحكم في النمو السكاني وأي سيطرة على توزيع الموارد بما لا يتعارض مع الحرية الفردية، وبدلًا من ذلك يفضّل التحكّم في جانب العرض: إنتاج أكثر فعالية وفرض قيودٍ على الإنتاج والاستغلال المفرطين. تهيمن وجهة النظر هذه على الحركة، على الرغم من أن النقاد يقولون إنها في واقع الأمر ترتّب أولوية الحريات الفردية فوق الاستدامة.

الفلسفة
تقدّر الليبرالية الخضراء الأرض تقديرًا كبيرًا، وتؤكّد على أهمية الحفاظ على الكوكب ليصل إلى الجيل التالي دون أن يصيبه الضرر. تقبل الليبرالية الخضراء فكرة أن العالم الطبيعي في حالة تدفّق ولا يسعى إلى الحفاظ على العالم الطبيعي كما هو. ومع ذلك، تسعى إلى تقليل الأضرار إلى أدنى حدٍّ من تلك التي تُحدثها الأنواع البشرية على العالم الطبيعي والمساعدة في تجديد المناطق المتضرّرة. تسعى الليبرالية الخضراء إلى دمج المؤسسات الديمقراطية الليبرالية ومبادئ مثل المساواة وحرية الفرد مع وسائل الحماية البيئة التي تسعى إلى الحدّ من التهديدات الرئيسية للبيئة مثل الاستهلاك المفرط وتلوّث الهواء.

فيما يتعلّق بالقضايا الاقتصادية، يتخذ الليبراليون الخضر مكانًا ما بين الليبرالية الكلاسيكية (في الوسط/يمين الوسط) والليبرالية الاجتماعية (في الوسط/يسار الوسط): قد يحبّذ الليبراليون الخضر مشاركة حكومية أقلّ بقليل من مشاركة الليبراليين الاجتماعيين، ولكن مشاركة أكثر بكثير من مشاركة الليبراليين الكلاسيكيين. يمارس بعض الليبراليين الخضر بيئية السوق الحرة، وبالتالي يتشاطرون بعض القيم مع الليبرالية الكلاسيكية اليمينية أو الليبرتارية. ويعتبر هذا أحد الأسباب القليلة التي تجعل التحالف الأزرق والأخضر ممكنًا في السياسة.

خصّص المؤرّخ كونراد راسل، وهو عضو ليبرالي ديمقراطي بريطاني في مجلس اللوردات،  فصلًا كاملًا من كتابه «دليل الشخص الذكي إلى الليبرالية» تحدّث فيه عن الليبرالية الخضراء. رغم ذلك، من صاغ مصطلح «الليبرالية الخضراء» بالمعنى الأدبي هو الفيلسوف السياسي مارسيل ويسنبرغ في كتابه الذي نُشر عام 1998 بعنوان «الليبرالية الخضراء: المجتمع الحر والأخضر»، من بين آخرين.

الديمقراطيون الأحرار الخضر
سبق وجود مجموعة ليبرالية خضراء في المملكة المتحدة كتاب ويسنبرغ بعشر سنوات على الأقل عندما تشكّلت مجموعة ضغط داخل الديمقراطيين الأحرار المتّحدة حديثًا في اجتماع عُقد في نوتنهام وتحدّث باسمها (كمتحدث رئيسي) النائب في البرلمان سيمون هيوز. انبثق الديمقراطيون الليبراليون الخضر من هذا الاجتماع الافتتاحي الذي نظّمه رئيس مجموعة علم البيئة الليبرالية (LEG)، الموجودة سابقًا والتي جرى تأسيسها قبل أحد عشر عامًا في عام 1977. كان كيث ميلتون، أحد أوائل أعضاء (LEG) (كان اسم المجموعة الطويل هو مجموعة علم البيئة الليبرالية للإصلاح الاقتصادي والاجتماعي)، في فترة الاتحاد بين الحزب الليبرالي والحزب الديمقراطي الاجتماعي في عام 1988، محاضرًا كبيرًا في التسويق الدولي في جامعة نوتنغهام ترنت، لذلك كان من المنطقي أن يُعقد هذا الاجتماع في نوتنغهام. كان معظم المندوبين في هذا الاجتماع أعضاءً في (LEG)، على الرغم من وجود فريق متواضع يمثّل «المجموعة الخضراء» التابعة للحزب الديمقراطي الاجتماعي.

كانت مجموعة علم البيئة الليبرالية تنظّم حملات داخل الحزب الليبرالي لسنوات، وتضغط من أجل استراتيجية نموٍ صفري مختلفة للاقتصاد، وفقًا للفلسفة المُوضّحة في تقرير نادي روما «قيود النمو». شنوا حملات تتعلّق بقضايا تلوّث الهواء، ودعوا إلى حظر الرصاص في البنزين على سبيل المثال وحظر مركبات الكربون الهيدروفلورية التي كان معروفة بإسهامها في الضرر على طبقة الأوزون.

كان الديمقراطيون الليبراليون الخضر مجموعة ضغط نشطة للغاية داخل حزب الديمقراطيين الليبراليين على مرّ السنين، وفي عام 2018، احتفلوا بمرور 30 عامًا على وجودهم خلال مؤتمر عُقد أيضًا في نوتنهام، نظّمه أيضًا كيث ميلتون وأيضًا كان (السير حينها) سيمون هيوز المتحدث الأوّل. برزت أهمية المجموعة وتأثيرها على الحزب بفضل متحدثين رئيسين آخرين في المؤتمر الذي عُقد عام 2018، بما في ذلك ربع النواب البرلمانيين الديمقراطيين الحاليين في مجلس العموم. صرّح السير إد ديفي (إدوارد ديفي) عضو مجلس النواب بالأثر البيئي للديمقراطيين الليبراليين في سنوات الائتلاف، حيث أنشأ مصرف الاستثمار الأخضر (أقدمت حكومة المحافظين على بيعه لاحقًا).

أقدم النائب ويرا هوبهاوس على تحديث المنهج الأخضر لتلوث الهواء، والنائب البرلماني السير فينس كيبل، زعيم الليبراليين الديمقراطيين والأستاذ الفخري للاقتصاد بجامعة نوتنهام، تكفّل في مراجعة كيفية صمود مفهوم التنمية المستدامة أمام مصائب الزمن. كان كيبل أحد المؤلفين المشاركين لتقرير لجنة بروندتلاند في عام 1987 والذي قدّم لأول مرة مفهوم التنمية المستدامة، التي كان غرو هارلم بروندتلاند، رئيس اللجنة (ورئيس وزراء النرويج ثلاث مرات)، يناصرها.

كان من أهم النجاحات المبكرة للديمقراطيين الليبراليين الخضر، ورئيسها الجديد، كيث ميلتون، التأكد من أن ديباجة دستور الديمقراطيين الليبراليين تحتوي على إشارة أساسية إلى القضايا الخضراء التي تعتبر محور اهتمام الحزب مع ظهور الجملة التالية على الفور بعد الفقرة الأولى التي تحدّد الفلسفة الليبرالية: «نعتقد أن كل جيل مسؤول عن مصير كوكبنا، وعن طريق الحفاظ على توازن الطبيعة والبيئة، وعن استمرارية الحياة بجميع أشكالها على المدى الطويل».

وضع الحزب الليبرالي الكندي بقيادة ستيفان ديون البيئة في مقدمة جدول أعماله السياسي، واقترح فرض ضريبة بيئية وتحويلًا ضريبيًا يسمّى التحوّل الأخضر. وبالمثل، اعتمد الديمقراطيون الليبراليون البريطانيون على نفس المفهوم لاقتراح «التحوّل الضريبي الأخضر».

انظر أيضاً
 تقدمية
 سياسة خضراء

مراجع

فلسفة اجتماعية
كلمات وجمل اخترعت في 1998
ليبرالية اجتماعية
نظريات سياسية

ليبرالية خضراء


Valéry Marie René Giscard d'Estaing  (2 Şubat 1926 - 2 Aralık 2020) Fransa'da Beşinci Cumhuriyeti'nin üçüncü cumhurbaşkanı olan merkez-sağ siyasetçi (1974-1981).

Yaşamı
Soylu bir aileden gelen gelen ünlü bir maliyeci ve iktisatçının en büyük oğludur. Paris'te Politeknik Okulu ile Ulusal İdare Okulu'nda öğrenim gördü.

II. Dünya Savaşı'nda Fransız Direnişine ve Paris'in Kurtuluşuna katıldı; Kurtuluş sırasında Alexandre Parodi'yi korumakla görevlendirildi. Daha sonra Fransız Birinci Ordusu'na katıldı ve savaşın sonuna kadar görev yaptı. Daha sonra askerlik hizmetinden dolayı Croix de guerre madalyası ile ödüllendirildi.

II. Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra Maliye Bakanlığı'nda çalıştı. 1956'da Puy-de-Dôme ilinden (département) Fransız Ulusal Meclisi'ne (Assemblée nationale) seçildi. 1959-1962 arasında maliyeyle görevli devlet bakanı olarak görev aldı. 1962-1966 arasında Cumhurbaşkanı Charles de Gaulle'ün maliye bakanlığını yaptı. Kurduğu ve ilk genel başkanlığını üstlendiği Bağımsız Cumhuriyetçiler Birliği (FNRI) de Gaulle'cülerle iş birliği yaptı. Giscard, Georges Pompidou'nun cumhurbaşkanlığı sırasında 1969'dan 1974'e değin maliye bakanlığı yaptı. 19 Mayıs 1974'te, solun adayı François Mitterrand'a karşı girdiği seçimin ikinci turunda cumhurbaşkanı oldu. Başbakanlığa getirdiği Jacques Chirac'ın bu görevden ve FNRI'dan ayrılarak kurduğu Cumhuriyet için Birlik'e (RPR) karşı Giscard yandaşları 1978'de Fransız Demokrasisi İçin Birlik (UDF) oluşturdular. Aynı yıl yapılan genel seçimlerde UDF'nin en kazançlı parti olmasına karşın, Giscard 10 Mayıs 1981'deki cumhurbaşkanlığı seçiminde Mitterrand'a yenildi.

1982'de Puy-de-Dôme'a bağlı Chamalières'den genel meclis üyeliğine seçildi. 1984'te Puy-de-Dôme'dan yeniden milletvekili oldu. 1988 genel seçimlerinde RPR gerilerken Giscard'ın önderliğindeki UDF parlamentoda sağın en büyük partisi durumuna geldi.1988-1996 arasında UDF başkanlığı döneminde, Haziran 1991'de UDF ve RPR, Fransa İçin Birlik (UPF) adıyla birleşti. 1995'teki cumhurbaşkanlığı seçimlerinde Chirac'ın adaylığını destekledi. 2000 yılında cumhurbaşkanlığı süresinin 7 yıldan 5 yıla indirilmesi için yaptığı teklif Chirac tarafından referanduma sunuldu ve kabul edildi. 2002-2003 arasında Avrupa Konvansiyonu başkanlığını yürüttü. 1987-1989 ve 1993-1997 yılları arasında Meclis Dışişleri Komisyonu Başkanı olarak görev yaptı.

Etnik, dini ve teknik nedenlerle Türkiye'nin Avrupa Birliği üyeliği'ne karşı olan d'Estaing, bunun Avrupa'nın sonu olabileceğini iddia etmiştir. Giscard, bu konuda 3 Eylül 2013'te yaptığı bir konuşmasında "Türkiye AB müktesabâtını hazmedemez. Türkiye'yi aldatmaya son verelim." demiştir.

Eski cumhurbaşkanı olarak Fransa Anayasa Konseyi doğal üyesi oldu; ayrıca 2003 yılı sonundan itibaren Fransız Akademisi'ndeki (Académie Française) 16. sandalyenin sahibiydi.

Mayıs 2020'de Fransız savcılar, 2018'deki kendisi ile yapılan bir röportajda Giscard'ın Alman bir gazetecinin kalçasını elle tacizde bulunduğu iddiaları üzerine soruşturma başlatmış, kendisi iddiaları reddetmişti.

Ölümü
14 Eylül 2020'de Giscard, Paris'teki Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou'da solunum komplikasyonları nedeniyle hastaneye kaldırıldı. Daha sonra akciğer enfeksiyonu teşhisi kondu. 15 Kasım'da tekrar hastaneye kaldırıldı, ancak 20 Kasım'da taburcu edildi. COVID-19 virüsü nedeniyle ölmüştür. 94 yıl 304 gün ile Fransa tarihinin en uzun ömürlü başkanı oldu.

Cumhurbaşkanı Emmanuel Macron, Giscard'ı "devletin hizmetkarı, ilerleme ve özgürlük politikacısı" olarak nitelendiren bir açıklama yaptı.

Görevleri
Yerel Yönetimler
 1958-1974 / 1982-1988 : Puy-de-Dôme genel konseyi üyesi
 1959-1977 : Chamalières belediye meclisi üyesi
 1967-1974 : Chamalières belediye başkanı
 1986-2004 : Auvergne bölgesel konseyi başkanı
 1995 : Clermont-Ferrand belediye meclisi üyesi

Meclis
 19 Ocak 1956 - 3 Haziran 1958 : Puy-de-Dôme milletvekili
 9 Aralık 1958 - 9 Şubat 1959 : Puy-de-Dôme 2. seçim çevresi milletvekili
 6 Aralık 1962 - 8 Ocak 1963 : Puy-de-Dôme 2. seçim çevresi milletvekili
 3 Nisan 1967 - 22 Temmuz 1969 : Puy-de-Dôme 2. seçim çevresi milletvekili
 6 Nisan 1967 - 30 Mayıs 1968 : Maliye Komisyonu Başkanı
 2 Nisan 1973 - 5 Mayıs 1973 : Puy-de-Dôme 2. seçim çevresi milletvekili
 24 Eylül 1984 - 1 Nisan 1986 : Puy-de-Dôme 2. seçim çevresi milletvekili
 2 Nisan 1986 - 14 Mayıs 1988 :  Puy-de-Dôme milletvekili
 7 Nisan 1987 - 14 Mayıs 1988 : Dışişleri Komisyonu Başkanı
 23 Haziran 1988 - 3 Kasım 1989 : Puy-de-Dôme 3. seçim çevresi milletvekili
 28 Haziran 1988 - 3 Kasım 1989 : Dışişleri Komisyonu Başkanı
 2 Nisan 1993 - 18 Haziran 2002 : Puy-de-Dôme 3. seçim çevresi milletvekili

Avrupa Parlamentosu
 25 Temmuz 1989 - 9 Haziran 1993 : Avrupa Parlamentosu milletvekili
 25 Temmuz 1989 - 11 Aralık 1991 : Reformcu, Demokratik ve Liberal Grup Başkanı

Hükûmet
 8 Ocak 1959 - 18 Ocak 1962 : Maliyeden sorumlu Devlet Sekreteri
 18 Ocak 1962 - 8 Ocak 1966 : Maliye ve Ekonomik İşler Bakanı
 22 Haziran 1969 - 27 Şubat 1974 : Maliye ve Ekonomi Bakanı
 1 Mart 1974 - 27 Mayıs 1974 : Devlet Bakanı, Maliye ve Ekonomi Bakanı

Cumhurbaşkanı
 27 Mayıs 1974 - 21 Mayıs 1981 : Fransa cumhurbaşkanı

Anayasa Konseyi
 21 Mayıs 1981 : Anayasa Konseyi tabii üyesi

Kaynakça

1926 doğumlular
Koblenz doğumlular

Fransa cumhurbaşkanları
Fransa'daki siyasi parti liderleri
Fransa maliye bakanları
Fransa ekonomi bakanları
Fransa devlet bakanları
Chamalières belediye başkanları
Fransa Anayasa Konseyi tabii üyeleri
Fransız muhafazakârlar
Fransız antikomünistler
Fransız liberaller
Fransız bürokratlar
École Polytechnique'te öğrenim görenler
Fransız Akademisi üyeleri
Ulusal İdare Okulunda öğrenim görenler
Charlemagne Ödülü sahipleri
Avrupa Parlamentosu Fransız üyeleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 1. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 2. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 3. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 4. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 5. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 7. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 8. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 9. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 10. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa Beşinci Cumhuriyet 11. dönem milletvekilleri
Fransa meclisi daimi komisyon başkanları
Fransa Yüksek Yargı Kurulu başkanları
Avrupa Parlamentosu grup başkanları
Fransa'da COVID-19 pandemisinden ölenler
2020 yılında ölenler
Pro Merito Melitensi Nişanı sahipleri
Fransız Demokrasisi için Birlik mensubu siyasetçiler

Valéry Giscard d'Estaing


Jean-Paul Riopelle,  (October 7, 1923 – March 12, 2002) was a Canadian painter and sculptor from Quebec. He had one of the longest and most important international careers of the sixteen signatories of the Refus Global, the 1948 manifesto that announced the Quebecois artistic community's refusal of clericalism and provincialism. He is best known for his abstract painting style, in particular his "mosaic" works of the 1950s when he famously abandoned the paintbrush, using only a palette knife to apply paint to canvas, giving his works a distinctive sculptural quality. He became the first Canadian painter since James Wilson Morrice to attain widespread international recognition.

Biography
Born in Montreal, Riopelle began drawing lessons in 1933 and continued through 1938. His parents encouraged his interest in art and allowed the young Riopelle to take classes with Henri Bisson (1900–1973), who taught drawing and painting out of his home on weekends. Bisson was a well-known artist and educator in Montreal at the time and was responsible for a number of public monuments that still exist today. Riopelle studied engineering, architecture and photography at the École polytechnique de Montréal in 1941. In 1942 he enrolled at the École des beaux-arts de Montréal but shifted his studies to the less academic École du meuble, graduating in 1945.

He studied under Paul-Émile Borduas in the 1940s and was a member of Les Automatistes, a group of Montreal artists who were interested in Surrealist techniques, particularly automatic drawing with its embrace of the imagination and creativity born out of the unconscious mind. Breaking with traditional conventions in 1945 after reading André Breton's Le Surréalisme et la Peinture, he began experimenting with non-objective (or non-representational) painting. He was one of the signers of the Refus global manifesto. In 1947 Riopelle moved to Paris and continued his career as an artist, where, after a brief association with the surrealists (he was the only Canadian to exhibit with them at the landmark exhibition International Exhibition of Surrealism at Galerie Maeght in 1947) and to sign Breton's manifesto the Rupture inaugurale) he capitalized on his image as a "wild Canadian". His first solo exhibition took place in 1949 at the Surrealist meeting place, Galerie La Dragonne (later known as the Galerie Nina Dausset) in Paris. In 1953, he signed with Pierre Loeb of Galerie Pierre which led to his work being included in the Guggenheim exhibition Younger European Artists the same year.

Riopelle married Françoise Lespérance in 1946; the couple had two daughters but separated in 1953. In 1959, he began a relationship with the American painter Joan Mitchell. Living together throughout the 1960s, they kept separate homes and studios near Giverny, where Monet had lived. They influenced one another greatly, as much intellectually as artistically, a facet of their art which has been explored by an exhibition at the Art Gallery of Ontario in 2018. Their association was a stormy one, fuelled by alcohol, which ended in 1979. His 1992 painting Hommage à Rosa Luxemburg is Riopelle's tribute to Mitchell, who died that year, and is regarded as a high point of his later work.

Work
Riopelle's style in the 1940s changed quickly from Surrealism to Lyrical Abstraction (related to abstract expressionism), in which he used myriad tumultuous cubes and triangles of multicolored elements, facetted with a palette knife, spatula, or  trowel, on often large canvases to create an overall sense of movement.

The presence of long filaments of paint in his painting from 1948 through the early 1950s has often been seen as resulting from a dripping technique like that of Jackson Pollock. Rather, the creation of such effects came from the act of throwing, with a palette knife or brush or directly from the paint tube, large quantities of paint onto the stretched canvas (positioned vertically).

Riopelle's voluminous impasto became just as important as color. His oil painting technique allowed him to paint thick layers, producing peaks and troughs as copious amounts of paint were applied to the surface of the canvas. Riopelle, though, claimed that the heavy impasto was unintentional: "When I begin a painting," he said, "I always hope to complete it in a few strokes, starting with the first colours I daub down anywhere and anyhow. But it never works, so I add more, without realizing it. I have never wanted to paint thickly, paint tubes are much too expensive. But one way or another, the painting has to be done. When I learn how to paint better, I will paint less thickly." This aspect of the "unintentional" is in keeping with Riopelle's interest in Surrealism and using "absolute chance" to create art.

When Riopelle started painting, he would attempt to finish the work in one session, preparing all the color he needed beforehand: "I would even go as far to say—obviously I don't use a palette, but the idea of a palette or a selection of colors that is not mine makes me uncomfortable, because when I work, I can't waste my time searching for them. It has to work right away."

A third element, range of gloss, in addition to color and volume, plays a crucial role in Riopelle's oil paintings. Paints are juxtaposed so that light is reflected off the surface not just in different directions but with varying intensity, depending on the naturally occurring gloss finish (he did not varnish his paintings). These three elements; color, volume, and range of gloss, would form the basis of his oil painting technique throughout his long and prolific career.

Riopelle received an Honorable Mention at the 1952 São Paulo Art Biennial. In 1953 he showed at the Younger European Painters exhibition at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City. The following year Riopelle began exhibiting at the Pierre Matisse Gallery in New York. In 1954, works by Riopelle, along with those of B. C. Binning and Paul-Émile Borduas represented Canada at the Venice Biennale. He was the sole artist representing Canada at the 1962 Venice Biennale in an exhibit curated by Charles Comfort.
Riopelle received an Honorable Mention at the Guggenheim Museum's Guggenheim International Award exhibition in 1958 and a major retrospective of his work was held at the Kölnischer Kunstverein, Cologne. Subsequent retrospectives of Riopelle's work were held at the National Gallery of Canada in 1963, a smaller exhibition at the Musée du Québec in 1967, at the Fondation Maeght (Saint Paul-de-Vence, France) in 1971, and at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris in 1972. He was made a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.

After diversifying his means of expression during the 1960s (turning to ink on paper, watercolours, lithography, collage and oils), he experimented with sculptural installations, including a fountain in Montreal's Olympic Stadium, called La joute. In 1972 he returned to Québec and built a studio at Sainte-Marguerite-du-Lac-Masson. He discovered the glacial landscapes of the Far North, inspiring in the black and white Icebergs series of 1977 and 1978. A large retrospective of Riopelle's work was held in 1981 at the Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, in Paris, then traveled to the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec and Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal (1981-1982). This exhibit also travelled to the Museo de Arte Moderno in Mexico City, the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Caracas, Venezuela in Caracas.

While expressing more representational subject matter in the 1980s, he abandoned traditional painting methods in favor of aerosol spray cans. In 1981 he became the first signatory of the Refus Global manifesto to be awarded the prestigious Prix Paul-Émile-Borduas. His painting Hommage à Rosa Luxemburg (1992, Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec), done after her death, is a tribute to love and to life, to the American painter Joan Mitchell who was his companion for 25 years and is a narrative sequence of 30 tableaux, integrated into a triptych measuring more than 40 meters in length. Riopelle established his studios at Estérel, Quebec, but lived his last years at Isle-aux-Grues, an isolated island situated in the St. Lawrence River.

Riopelle was arguably one of the most important Canadian artists of the 20th century, establishing his reputation in the burgeoning postwar art scene of Paris, where his entourage included André Breton, Sam Francis and Samuel Beckett. Riopelle produced over six thousand works (of which he produced more than two thousand paintings) during the course of his lifetime.

Art market
On May 24, 2017, Riopelle's painting Vent du nord sold at the Heffel Fine Art Auction House spring auction for $7,438,750 (CAD) (including buyer's premium), the second-highest price to date for a Canadian work of art. Heffel holds the current record for Riopelle's work.

Relocation of La Joute

Riopelle's 1969 work La Joute was originally located in the Parc Olympique, in the Hochelaga-Maisonneuve district of Montreal. Despite popular belief, the work is not an homage to hockey (in French a "joute de hockey," wherein the wrongful attribution lies), but is actually referring to the game "capture the flag". A menagerie of animals and mythological figures are caught up in the game, encircling a central structure that Riopelle called the "Tower of Life". Its relocation to the La Place Jean-Paul-Riopelle during the redevelopment of the Quartier international de Montréal in 2003 provoked controversy and outrage from residents of Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, who claimed that moving it from the Parc Olympique deprived it of the context required for its full meaning as an homage to sport.

Those who supported the move, including the Quebec government, Riopelle's heirs, and the artwork's owner the Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal, argued that moving it would allow a proper homage to Riopelle, and that it would allow the work to be more widely seen and exhibited as the artist intended, whereas its previous location had been inaccessible and had not included the fountain or fire elements Riopelle designed. In addition, the artist felt that the commercial venues around Parc Olympic trivialized the art.

Theft and Destruction of La Défaite
On August 1, 2011, Riopelle's sculpture La Défaite was stolen from its pedestal in Esterel, QC, where it had been on display since 1963. The sculpture was found the next day in a wooded area, broken into four pieces.

Legacy
Riopelle represented Canada at the 1962 Venice Biennale. In 1969 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada, and began to spend more time in Canada. He was specially recognized by UNESCO for his work. One of his largest compositions, Point de rencontre, was originally intended for the Toronto airport, but is at Rideau Hall on loan from France's Centre national des arts plastiques until 2024. In 1988 he was made an Officer of the National Order of Quebec and was promoted to Grand Officer in 1994. In 2000 Riopelle was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.

In June, 2006 the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts organized a retrospective exhibition which was presented at the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia and the Musée Cantini in Marseilles, France. The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts has a number of his works, spanning his entire career, in their permanent collection. In 2020, his indigenously inspired paintings were gathered in the travelling exhibition Riopelle: The Call of Northern Landscapes and Indigenous Cultures by the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts. The exhibition explores Riopelle's interest in non-Western art, as sparked by his "friend and collector Georges Duthuit and the writings of anthropologists and ethnologists, such as Marius Barbeau, Jean Malaurie and Claude Lévi-Strauss". In 2021, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, Quebec City announced that it will build a pavilion dedicated to Riopelle's work, "Espace Riopelle".

A set of postage stamps depicting portions of Riopelle's painting L'Hommage à Rosa Luxemburg was issued by Canada Post on Oct. 7, 2003.

Works

References

Bibliography
 Livingston, Jane, Joan Mitchell, Linda Nochlin and Yvette Y. Lee. The Paintings of Joan Mitchell. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 2002.
 Guy Robert, Riopelle ou la poétique du geste, Éditions de l'homme, Montréal, 1970
 Pierre Schneider (historien), Riopelle, Signes mêlés, Maeght Éditeur, Paris, 1972
 Pierre Schneider(historien), Preface of exhibition catalogue, Jean-Paul Riopelle, Paris, Musée National d'Art Moderne, 1981
 Guy Robert, Riopelle chasseur d'images, Éditions France-Amérique, Montréal, 1981
 Daniel Gagnon, Riopelle grandeur nature, Fides, Collection Approaches, Montréal, 1988
 François-Marc Gagnon, Jean Paul Riopelle: Life & Work, Art Canada Institute, Toronto, 2019.
 Jean-Paul Riopelle, D'hier et d'aujourd'hui, Fondation Maeght, 1990
 Riopelle, exhibition catalogue, Musée des beaux-arts de Montréal, 1991
 Entretiens avec Jean-Paul Riopelle; suivis de Fernand Seguin rencontre Jean-Paul Riopelle, Édition Liber, collection de vive-voix, Montréal, 1993
 Hélène de Billy, Riopelle, Édition Art Global, Montréal, 1996
 René Viau, Jean-Paul Riopelle, Édition Musée du Québec, 2003
 Lise Gauvin, Chez Riopelle, Visites d'Atelier, Éditions de L'Hexagone, 2005, Montréal
 Yseult Riopelle, Catalogue raisonné de Jean-Paul Riopelle, Tome 1, 1939-1953, Hibou Éditeurs, Montréal, 1999
 Yseult Riopelle, Catalogue raisonné de Jean-Paul Riopelle, Tome 2, 1954-1959, Hibou Éditeurs, Montréal, 2004
 Yseult Riopelle, Catalogue raisonné des estampes de Jean-Paul Riopelle, Hibou Éditeurs, Montréal, 2005
 Yseult Riopelle, Tanguy Riopelle, Catalogue raisonné de Jean-Paul Riopelle, Tome 3, 1960-1965,  Hibou Éditeurs, Montréal, 2009
 Yseult Riopelle, Tanguy Riopelle, François-Marc Gagnon, Catalogue raisonné de Jean Paul Riopelle Tome 4, 1961-1971, Hibou Éditeurs, Montréal, 2014

External links
The Art Institute of Chicago
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C.
National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh
National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa
Brooklyn Museum, New York City
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, LACMA, Database
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Montréal, Québec
Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, Quebec City
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Record price for Riopelle painting at a public auction, Christie's Paris, 1 June 2012
"The Rule of Chance: Jean Paul Riopelle's Break with Automatism," by François-Marc Gagnon, Art Canada Institute, Toronto, 2019

Canadian contemporary painters
Modern painters
Modern sculptors
1923 births
2002 deaths
Abstract painters
Artists from Montreal
Members of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts
Grand Officers of the National Order of Quebec
Companions of the Order of Canada
Alumni of the Académie de la Grande Chaumière
Canadian male painters
Sculptors from Quebec
20th-century Canadian painters
20th-century Canadian sculptors
Canadian male sculptors
20th-century Canadian male artists
École des beaux-arts de Montréal alumni
Burials at Notre Dame des Neiges Cemetery
Canadian contemporary artists
Canadian abstract artists

Jean-Paul Riopelle


Drijen (drin,  dren, drienak, drinja, drenić, drenovina, drinina, drinika, drenjak, drenjina, drenić, drnak, drenina, bila svibovina, crveni drijenak, drenak, drenjula, drinovina, rumeni dren, šupaljka lat. Cornus), rod polugrmova i drveća iz porodice drjenovki. Ime mu dolazi od latinske riječi cornu (rog), zbog čvrstoće i izgleda stabla koje može narasti do 5 metara.

Drijen je raširen po sjevernoj hemisferi Eurazije i Sjeverne Amerike, te na području Kine, Koreje i Japana. U Hrvatskoj raste nekoliko vrsta, to su crveni drijen, bijeli drijen ili bijeli svib i svib (Cornus sanguinea) s podvrstama C, s. subsp. australis i C. s. subsp. hungarica.

Drvo drijena je čvrsto i otporno na bolesti i štetočine, te su se od njega izrađivali tradicionalni alati. plod je crvena jajolika bobica poznata kao drenjina ili drenjula, koja postaje slatka tek kad skroz dozrije, a to bude pred kraj rujna.

Postoji 51 priznata vrsta

Vrste

 Cornus alba L.
 Cornus alternifolia L.f.
 Cornus amomum Mill.
 Cornus asperifolia Michx.
 Cornus austrosinensis W.P.Fang & W.K.Hu
 Cornus bretschneideri L.Henry
 Cornus canadensis L.
 Cornus capitata Wall.
 Cornus chinensis Wangerin
 Cornus controversa Hemsl.
 Cornus darvasica (Pojark.) Pilip.
 Cornus disciflora Moc. & Sessé ex DC.
 Cornus drummondii C.A.Mey.
 Cornus elliptica (Pojark.) Q.Y.Xiang & Boufford
 Cornus excelsa Kunth
 Cornus eydeana Q.Y.Xiang & Y.M.Shui
 Cornus florida L.
 Cornus foemina Mill.
 Cornus glabrata Benth.
 Cornus hemsleyi C.K.Schneid. & Wangerin
 Cornus hongkongensis Hemsl.
 Cornus iberica Woronow
 Cornus koehneana Wangerin
 Cornus kousa Bürger ex Hance
 Cornus macrophylla Wall.
 Cornus mas L.
 Cornus meyeri (Pojark.) Pilip.
 Cornus multinervosa (Pojark.) Q.Y.Xiang
 Cornus nuttallii Audubon ex Torr. & A.Gray
 Cornus obliqua Raf.
 Cornus oblonga Wall.
 Cornus officinalis Siebold & Zucc.
 Cornus oligophlebia Merr.
 Cornus papillosa W.P.Fang & W.K.Hu
 Cornus parviflora S.S.Chien
 Cornus peruviana J.F.Macbr.
 Cornus quinquenervis Franch.
 Cornus racemosa Lam.
 Cornus rugosa Lam.
 Cornus sanguinea L.
 Cornus schindleri Wangerin
 Cornus sericea L.
 Cornus sessilis Torr.
 Cornus suecica L.
 Cornus sunhangii T.Deng, Z.Y.Lv & Zhi M.Li
 Cornus ulotricha C.K.Schneid. & Wangerin
 Cornus volkensii Harms
 Cornus walteri Wangerin
 Cornus wardiana Rushforth & Wahlsteen
 Cornus wilsoniana Wangerin
 Cornus ×acadiensis Fernald
 Cornus ×arnoldiana Rehder
 Cornus ×elwinortonii Mattera, T.Molnar & Struwe
 Cornus ×friedlanderi W.H.Wagner
 Cornus ×rutgersensis Mattera, T.Molnar & Struwe
 Cornus ×slavinii Rehder
 Cornus ×unalaschkensis Ledeb.

Ostalo
Stablo drijena cvjeta među prvima na proljeće, a plodove daje među posljednjima u jesen. Zbog toga je nastala narodna priča prema kojoj je drijen zavarao i samoga vraga.
Stari Sloveni vjerovali u pravilo prema kojem od davnina na svijetu postoje samo tri "magična drveta" – drijen, hrast i tisa.
Za ljekovitost drijena znalo još od antičke Grčke.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Drjenovke

Drijen


Otto Pohl (* 28. März 1872 in Prag, Österreich-Ungarn; † Mai 1941 in Vaison-la-Romaine) war ein  österreichischer sozialistischer Journalist, Publizist, Politiker und Botschafter.

Leben
Otto Pohl war der Sohn des Prager Bankiers Wilhelm Pohl. Er studierte Rechtswissenschaft und Staatswissenschaft an der Karl-Ferdinands-Universität Prag, war Mitglied der Sozialdemokratie und dem Verband jugendlicher Arbeiter. Er wurde zum Doktor der Rechte promoviert.

Ab 1895 war er Korrespondent von Victor Adlers Arbeiter-Zeitung in Prag. Er verlegte ab 1897 die deutsch-tschechische Monatszeitschrift Die Akademie.
1898 siedelte er sich in Wien an, wo er von 1898 bis 1918 Redakteur der Arbeiter-Zeitung war. Im August 1900 heiratete er die Sozialistin und Frauenrechtlerin Lotte Glas, mit der er eine Tochter hatte. Von 1918 bis 1920 leitete er die Öffentlichkeitsarbeit des Außenministeriums.

Von 1920 bis 1922 leitete er die Kriegsgefangenen-Repatriierungskommission und war anschließend auf
Wunsch von Lenin Ministre plénipotentiaire der Republik Österreich in Moskau. Von 1924 bis 1927 war er außerordentlicher Gesandter in Moskau.

1927 wurde er nach innenpolitischen Auseinandersetzungen in Österreich in den Ruhestand versetzt. Von 1929 bis 1934 verlegte er in Wien die deutschsprachige Moskauer Rundschau. Nach der Machtübernahme durch das Schuschnigg-Regime hielt er sich in der Tschechoslowakei, der Schweiz, Frankreich und Finnland auf.

1937 wurde er Mitarbeiter des Pariser Tageblatts von Vladimir Poliakov. Nach der deutschen Besetzung Frankreichs 1940 floh er in das unbesetzte Südfrankreich. Dort beging er im Mai 1941 mit seiner Lebensgefährtin Margarete Schwarz Suizid.

Pohl erhielt 1927 das Große Goldene Ehrenzeichen für Verdienste um die Republik Österreich.

Schriften
 Der Arbeiter im kapitalistischen Staate und in der socialistischen Gesellschaft, Wien : Wiener Volksbuchh. Brand, 1902

Literatur

 Pohl, Otto, in: Werner Röder, Herbert A. Strauss (Hrsg.): Biographisches Handbuch der deutschsprachigen Emigration nach 1933. Band 1: Politik, Wirtschaft, Öffentliches Leben. München : Saur 1980, S. 568

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Journalist (Österreich)
Jurist im auswärtigen Dienst
Österreichischer Botschafter in der Sowjetunion
Botschafter (Republik Österreich)
Österreichischer Emigrant zur Zeit des Nationalsozialismus
NS-Opfer
Träger des Großen goldenen Ehrenzeichens für Verdienste um die Republik Österreich (1922)
Person (Cisleithanien)
Österreicher
Geboren 1872
Gestorben 1941
Mann

Otto Pohl