Carl Theodor Körner () a fost un poet și militar german. După ce a petrecut câtva timp la Viena, unde a scris comedii ușurele și alte piese pentru Burgtheater, s-a înrolat în Corpul de Voluntari Lützow în cadrul războiului german împotriva lui Napoleon. În cursul acestei campanii, s-a dovedit un luptător curajos și, încurajat de camarazii săi, a scris poezii cu un puternic fior patriotic precum "Schwertlied" (Cântecul sabiei), compus în timpul unei perioade de liniște între două lupte, cu doar câteva ore înainte de moartea sa, și "Lützows wilde Jagd" (Vânătoarea sălbatică a lui Lützow); ambele poezii au fost puse pe muzică de Carl Maria von Weber și Franz Schubert. Körner a fost numit adesea "Tirteul german".

Primii ani
S-a născut la Dresda, capitala Principatului Saxoniei, ca fiu al consilierului consistorial Christian Gottfried Körner și al soției lui, Minna Stock Körner. A fost crescut de părinți și de mătușa lui, artista Dora Stock, care locuia în aceeași casă. El a urmat cursurile de la Kreuzschule.

A început studii de inginerie la Academia Minieră din Freiburg (1808-1810), dar în 1810 s-a mutat la Universitatea din Leipzig unde a studiat istoria și filozofia. S-a mutat apoi la Viena, unde s-a împrietenit cu Wilhelm von Humboldt, ambasadorul Prusiei, cu Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel și cu alți oameni de știință și literați ai vremii sale. Aici, într-o perioadă scurtă de cincisprezece luni, el a scris mai multe drame, opere și farse, precum și mai multe poezii. Ca urmare a succesului obținut de scrierile sale, el a fost numit poet la Burgtheater (Teatrul Curții Imperiale din Viena). În această perioadă s-a logodit cu populara actriță Antonie Adamberger.

În timpul Războiului celei de-a Șasea Coaliții, a părăsit Viena în martie 1813 și, împreună cu Friedrich Friesen și Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, s-a alăturat Corpului de Voluntari Lützow, o unitate paramilitară de voluntari pe care maiorul Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow o forma atunci la Breslau, în Silezia. În mijlocul celor mai încrâncenate campanii, Körner a continuat să scrie poezii și alte lucrări. El a scris un singspiel, Der vierjährige Posten, care a fost pus pe muzică de Franz Schubert în 1815, dar piesa nu a fost interpretată până în 1869, când a fost pusă în scenă de Hofoper din Dresda. Ea a fost adaptată mai târziu în limba engleză ca The Outpost (Avanpostul).

Războaiele Napoleoniene

După ce a ajuns la Zobten, maiorul von Lützow a hotărât pe 28 martie 1813 efectuarea unei expediții în Saxonia și Turingia, cu patru escadroane de cavalerie și cincizeci de cazaci. Körner a ajuns la Dresda, pe 6 aprilie, având ocazia de a-și vizita familia. În Leipzig, Corpul de Voluntari a pierdut ocazia de a participa la luptele de la Möckern și Lützen. Maiorul von Lützow a mărșăluit spre nord, apoi, auzind de retragerea franceză de la Hamburg, s-a îndreptat din nou spre sud. Körner a fost frustrat de faptul că nu a participat la lupte, dar i-a cerut ferm comandantului permisiunea de a-l însoți, iar dorința i-a fost îndeplinită atunci când a fost numit adjutant de Lützow, care îl prețuia foarte mult și dorea să-l aibă în apropierea sa.

Ei au mărșăluit de la Halberstadt prin Eisleben și Buttstädt către Schleiz și au ajuns în cele din urmă la Eichigt, în apropiere de orașul Plauen din Vogtland în câteva zile — nu fără a se întâlni cu inamicul, care era împrăștiat prin aceste districte, dar, de asemenea, nu fără a obține niște rezultate importante. Au fost obținute informații, a fost capturată muniție și au fost luați prizonieri. Ca urmare, Napoleon a luat decizia de a distruge acest corp de voluntari, iar armistițiul din 1813 i-a oferit o oportunitate de a-și pune decizia în practică.

Maiorul von Lützow a primit informații oficiale despre armistițiul încheiat la Plauen pe 4 iunie. Fără a aștepta să întâlnească vreo opoziție, el a ales ruta cea mai scurtă pentru a se reuni cu trupele sale de infanterie, după ce a primit asigurări de la comandanții trupelor inamice că va fi în siguranță și s-a întors, fără întrerupere, înapoi la Kitzen lângă Leipzig; dar aici el s-a găsit înconjurat și amenințat de către o forță superioară. Körner a fost trimis pentru a cere o explicație, dar, în loc de răspuns, generalul francez François Fournier-Sarlovèze l-a lovit cu sabia și a ordonat efectuarea unui atac general asupra celor trei escadroane ale cavaleriei lui Lützow. Mulți voluntari au fost răniți și luați prizonieri, în timp ce alții au fost împrăștiați prin întreaga regiune, dar maiorul von Lützow a fost salvat cu ajutorul unui escadron de ulani, care înainta împreună cu un grup de cazaci. El a ajuns, cu un număr considerabil de militari, pe malul drept al Elbei, unde se aflau deja trupele sale de infanterie și un escadron de cavalerie.

Körner a primit prima lovitură de sabie, fără să fie pregătit să o pareze, pe măsură ce s-a apropiat de comandantul inamic pentru a-și prezenta mesajul, și a fost grav rănit la cap. El a reușit să scape călare în pădurea din apropiere. După ce și-a îngrijit un camarad rănit, el a observat o trupă inamică ce pornise în căutarea lui și a strigat din toate puterile: "Escadronul patru - înainte!" Trucul i-a reușit — inamicul a renunțat la urmărire și el a putut să se retragă și mai mult în pădure. Durerea de cap a devenit foarte severă. În această situație el a compus sonetul "Abschied vom Leben" (Rămas bun de la viață).

În timpul nopții a auzit inamicul scotocind pădurea în apropierea sa, dar după aceea a ațipit și a fost salvat dimineața de doi țărani. El a fost transportat în secret la Leipzig, care era atunci sub control francez și unde era interzisă ascunderea oricărui militar din Corpul de Voluntari Lützow, sub amenințarea unor pedepse aspre. Călăuzit la Castelul Gnandstein și ulterior la Carlsbad (Boemia), el a călătorit ulterior la Berlin și, după ce s-a recuperat fizic de pe urma rănii, s-a alăturat Corpului lui Lützow în Mecklenburg.

Moartea
Ostilitățile s-au reluat pe 17 august 1813; Körner și-a petrecut noaptea de 25 august în conacul Gottesgabe, unde a cântat la pian. În dimineața zilei următoare, a avut loc o luptă în pădurea învecinată Rosenow, de lângă Gadebusch, în care Körner a căzut. El se afla în urmărirea unui grup de inamici, atunci când pușcașii francezi, care găsiseră un loc bun de tragere, au trimis o ploaie de gloanțe asupra urmăritorilor lor. Körner a fost rănit de un glonte în abdomen, ficat și coloana vertebrală și și-a pierdut cunoștința. El a fost transportat în pădurea din apropiere, dar nu a putut fi resuscitat. A fost îngropat sub un stejar din satul Wöbbelin, la aproximativ o milă de Ludwigslust. Pe mormântul său a fost așezată o piatră tombală, înconjurată de un perete din stânci. Körner a murit la vârsta de douăzeci și unu de ani. O selecție din Poetischer Nachlass au fost editate de tatăl său și publicată la Leipzig în 1815.

Potrivit lui J. R. Miller în "Homemaking" (publicat acum sub titlul "The Family"), Körner avut o prietenie foarte strânsă cu sora lui, Emma, și când el a murit, "ea i-a supraviețuit suficient de mult pentru a-i termina portretul lui și a desena cu creionul dragostei o schiță a ultimului său loc de odihnă". (În fapt, Emma Körner i-a supraviețuit doi ani fratelui ei, murind de febră în Dresda la patru săptămâni, după ce a făcut o vizită la mormântul fratelui ei. A fost înmormântată alături de el în Wöbbelin.) Miller citează un poem scris de "Doamna Hemans" despre devotamentul lor reciproc.

Scrieri

Primul său volum de poezii a fost publicat sub titlul Knospen (Muguri, 1810).
Cele mai de succes dintre comediile sale ușurele au fost Die Braut (Mireasa, 1812) și Der grüne Domino (Domino-ul verde, 1812), iar Der Nachtwächter (Străjerul de noapte, 1812) a devenit la fel de celebră precum poezia Cântecul sabiei. Drama Zriny, o tragedie istorică, este cea mai ambițioasă dintre lucrările sale. Multe din poeziile scrise în anii în care a luptat în cadrul Corpului de Voluntari Lützow au fost puse pe muzică de către Carl Maria von Weber.

O selecție a cântecelor sale de luptă a fost pregătită de către tatăl său și publicată sub titlul de Leyer und Schwerdt (după ortografia germană modernă Leier und Schwert, "Liră și spadă") (Berlin, 1814). Operele sale complete au fost publicate prin grija mamei sale, și editate de Streckfuss (1 vol., Berlin, 1834; 4 vol., 1838).

Biografie și studii critice
Biografia Life, written by his Father, with his Selections from his Poems, Tales, and Dramas, tradusă din germană de G. F. Richardson, a apărut la Londra în anul 1845. Studii biografice și critice au fost realizate de Bauer (Stuttgart, 1883), Rogge (Wittenberg, 1891), Kregenberg (Dresda, 1892), Jaden, (Dresda, 1896), Peschel și Wildenow (Leipzig, 1898) și Peschel (Dresda, 1901).

Publicații
 Zelner, Körner als Dramatiker (Stockerau, 1900)
 Strucker, Beiträge zur kritischen Würdigung der dramatischen Dichtungen Körners (fără loc, 1910)

Referințe

Legături externe

 Project Gutenberg article
 http://www.zeit.de/zeitlaeufte/koerner (in German)
  by EPOCHE NAPOLEON
  by EPOCHE NAPOLEON
  by EPOCHE NAPOLEON

Nașteri în 1791
Decese în 1813
Scriitori germani din secolul al XIX-lea
Poeți din secolul al XIX-lea
Poeți germani
Oameni din Dresda

Theodor Körner (scriitor)


Bishopov prsten (po havajskom misionaru Serenu Edwardu Bishopu koji ga je 1883. prvi opisao) je optička pojava u atmosferi što se vidi kao bjelkasti prsten oko Sunca ili Mjeseca s lagano plavkastim tonom iznutra i crvenkastosmeđim izvana. Srednji je polumjer prstena od 15 do 30°. Pojava je uzrokovana ogibom svjetlosti kroz tanki sloj naoblake ili na finim česticama vulkanske prašine u atmosferi. Što su kapi kiše ili čestice prašine sitnije, polumjer prstena je veći. Primjećuje se osobito nakon velikih erupcija vulkana, kao na primjer Krakatoa 1883.

Bishopov vijenac ima veliku kutnu širinu (do 10°), obojen je crvenkastosmeđe, a zapaža se na udaljenostima od 20° do 30° od Sunca. Opaža se osobito često poslije vulkanskih erupcija, a i kad se u atmosferi nalazi mnogo krutih čestica. Prva poznata pojava ovog vijenca zapažena je nakon erupcije vulkana Krakatoa 1883. Bishopov vijenac postigao je najveću jakost u proljeće 1884. i postupno je poslije dvije i po godine isčezao.

Izvori

Atmosferske optičke pojave

Bishopov prsten


Beskrivelse af Guineeiske planter (abreviado Beskr. Guin. Pl.) es un libro con descripciones botánicas que fue escrito por Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher y publicado en el año 1829 con el nombre de Beskrivelse af Guineeiske Planter som ere Fundne af Danske Botanikere, Isaet af Etatsraad Thonning ved F. C. Schumacher. Kjöbenhavn. El libro recoge la descripción de plantas de Guinea descubiertas por botánicos daneses, especialmente por el supervisor real Peter Thonning.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
en IPNI

Libros de botánica del siglo XIX
Ciencia de 1829
Libros de 1829
Libros de Dinamarca
Libros en danés

Beskrivelse af Guineeiske planter


Le traité de Saint-Louis de 1804 est un traité signé le  entre les États-Unis et des représentants des Sauks et des Mesquakies. En échange de paiements annuels de  ( pour les Sauks et  pour les Mesquakies), les Amérindiens devaient abandonner une grande partie de leurs terres situées à l'est du fleuve Mississippi, dans les États actuels de l'Illinois et du Wisconsin ainsi qu'une partie de leurs terrains de chasse situés à l'ouest du fleuve, dans l'actuel État du Missouri.

Annexes

Bibliographie
 .

Traité entre les États-Unis et les Amérindiens
Traité de 1804
1804 aux États-Unis
Novembre 1804
Histoire de l'Illinois

Traité de Saint-Louis (1804)


Carl Friedrich Eduard Warnstorf (Sommerfeld, Prússia, 2 de dezembro de 1837 — Berlim, 28 de fevereiro de 1921) foi um professor e briólogo que se distinguiu pelos seus estudos sobre a florística das turfeiras e sobre a taxonomia do género Sphagnum.

Biografia
Carl Warnstorf nasceu na cidade de Sommerfeld, então parte da região de Lausitz da Prússia (hoje redenominada Lubsko após a expulsão da população alemã em 1946), filho de um sapateiro. Depois de frequentar a escola secundária e o instituto preparatório em Sommerfeld, completou o curso do seminário para professores em Neuzelle em 1855-1858. Em 1861 foi nomeado professor em Arnswalde (hoje Choszczno), onde casou com Emilie Hübler (falecida em 1917), transferido em 1867 para uma escola de Neuruppin, onde trabalhou como pedagogo por 32 anos até se aposentar em 1899. Para além do seu trabalho como docente, dedicou toda a sua via ao estuda da florística das turfeiras e da briologia, especializando-se no estudo das Sphagnaceae. Após se ter aposentado do ensino, mudou-se para Berlim, onde se dedicou em exclusivo à preparação da sua obra Sphagnologia universalis, na qual laborou intensamente até falecer.

Dedicou-se principalmente ao estudo da flora das turfeiras, matéria sobre a qual publicou extensamente, sendo reconhecido como o mais reputado autor especialista do seu tempo. Concentrou-se no estudo do género Sphagnum, cujo número de espécies conhecidas aumentou consideravelmente, ao mesmo tempo que alargava o conhecimento da morfologia daquele grupo de musgos, descrevendo e sistematizando de forma pioneira características como a distribuição dos poros nos folíolos ou a formação de bulbilhos e nódulos rizóides. O seu extenso herbário de musgos foi na maior parte destruído pelos efeitos da Segunda Guerra Mundial, tendo apenas uma porção remanescente sido preservado.

Em 1917, foi agraciado com o título de professor honorário pelos seus serviços ao conhecimento da briologia das turfeiras. Além disso, o género de musgos Warnstorfia foi assim denominado em sua homenagem e o seu nome é epónimo para o epíteto específico de 18 espécies. Faleceu aos 83 anos de idade no seu apartamento de Berlin-Schöneberg (na Cranachstrasse, 36). Está sepultado no Südwestkirchhof Stahnsdorf, Block Schöneberg, Feld 4a.

Obras publicadas
Entre outras, é autor das seguintes obras:
 Die europäischen Torfmoore. Eine Kritik und Beschreibung derselben, Berlin 1881; Les sphaignes d'Europe, Auch 1888; The European Sphagneaceae, London 1901.
 Die Torfmoose im Kgl. Botanischen Museum in Berlin. Eine bryologische Studie, Cassel 1882.
 Sphagnologische Rückblicke, Regensburg 1884.
 Moosflora der Provinz Brandenburg. Eine systematische Zusammenstellung der bisher in diesem Gebiet beobachteten Leber-, Torf- und Laubmoose, Berlin 1885.
 Leber- und Torfmoose, Leipzig 1903; Laubmoose, Leipzig 1906. (= Kryptogamenflora der Mark Brandenburg und angrenzender Gebiete, Bd. 1 u. 2).
 Sphagnales-Sphagnaceae (Sphagnales universalis), Leipzig 1911. (= Adolf Englers Pflanzenreich Bd. 51); ND Weinheim 1958; Leipzig 1965; Vaduz 1976.
 Zur Bryo-Geographie des Russischen Reiches: Eine Erinnerung an Dr. E. Zickendraht, Dresden 1913.
 Bryophyta (Sphagnales, Bryales, Hepaticae). (= Die Süßwasserflora Deutschlands, Österreichs und der Schweiz, H. 14), Jena 1914. (mit W. Mönkemeyer und V. Schiffner).
 Pottia-Studien als Vorarbeiten zu einer Monographie des Genus "Pottia Ehrh" sensstr., Dresden 1917.

Referências

Bibliografia
 Wolfram Schultze-Motel: Das Moosherbar von Carl Warnstorf. In: Willdenowia, Bd. 3, H. 2 (Dec. 31, 1962), S. 289–313.
 Jens Eggers: Lebensdaten deutscher Bryologen. In: Bryologische Rundbriefe Nr. 26 (1999), S. 1–17.
 S. Rätzel / V. Otte / A. Schaepe: Bericht vom 1. Brandenburgischen Mooskartierungstreffen in Klosterheide bei Rheinsberg – auf den Spuren von Carl Warnstorf. In: Verhandlungen des Botanischen Vereins von Berlin und Brandenburg 113(2000), S. 527–537.
 Jan-Peter Frahm / Jens Eggert: Lexikon deutschsprachiger Bryologen, Bd. 2, Norderstedt 2001, S. 544–549. (mit Literaturverz.)

Links

Briólogos da Alemanha
Cientistas da Alemanha

Carl Warnstorf


Le Flambeau : Les Aventuriers de Chupacabra est une série télévisée française en 9 épisodes d'environ 31 minutes, créée par Jonathan Cohen, Jérémie Galan et Florent Bernard et diffusée entre le  et le  sur Canal+.

Il s'agit de la suite de La Flamme (2020), conçue comme une parodie d'émissions de télé-réalité d'aventures comme Koh-Lanta.

Synopsis
Marc repart à l'aventure sur une île déserte : Chupacabra. Aux côtés d'anciennes prétendantes et de nouveaux candidats, il devra faire face aux manipulations mentales, aux épreuves physiques et aux trahisons de ses coéquipiers.

Distribution

Personnages principaux
 Jonathan Cohen : Marc, ex-pilote d'avions / Marco, narcotrafiquant et « pâtissier » mexicain (épisode 7)
 Jérôme Commandeur : le présentateur de l'émission
 Ramzy Bedia : Abdel, dit Tony Tonic, coach des stars, ex-mari de Carole
 Leïla Bekhti : Alexandra, ex-juriste et ex-amoureuse de Marc
 Camille Chamoux : Chataléré, esthéticienne pas vraiment fan de vêtements
 Sébastien Chassagne : Soisson, dit Soso, enfant-bulle
 Gérard Darmon : Philippe Machette, ancien militaire reconverti dans l'écriture d'ouvrages de survie
 Adèle Exarchopoulos : Soraya, ex-gardienne de zoo transplantée d'un cœur de gorille
 Laura Felpin : Annick, circassienne de rue
 Ana Girardot : Anne, enseignante
 Jonathan Lambert : Hervé, fonctionnaire dans une secte
 Natacha Lindinger : Carole, championne sportive et ex-femme de Tony Tonic
 Kad Merad : Patrice (dit Patoche), gérant d'un bistrot à Nîmes
 Mister V : William, influenceur débutant en recherche de followers
 Géraldine Nakache : Marina, policière lesbienne
 Thomas Scimeca : Yvan Boutboul, complotiste
 Jacky Ido : Jean-Guy, urgentiste (épisode 8)
 Pierre Niney : , psychologue de l'émission (épisodes 2, 3 et 8)

Personnages secondaires
 Claire Droyer : l'infirmière aux côtés de Soraya et de Jean-Guy aux urgences (épisodes 1 et  8)
 Frédéric Lopez : lui-même (épisode 7)
 Nicolas Zaaboub-Charrier : le chef Bernardin, cuisinier de l'émission (épisode 8 )
 Jérémie Galan : l'infirmier de l'émission (épisodes : 2, 7)
 Jean-Toussaint Bernard : Lionel Boutboul, star de la chanson et ancien frère siamois d'Yvan (épisode 5)
 Cédric Chevalme : Lionel, gagnant de la saison précédente de l'émission (épisode 1)
 Charlotte Baillon : Géraldine, finaliste de la saison précédente (épisode 1)
 Steve Tran : Jean Jack, spécialiste animalier en tout genre (épisode 2)
 Thierry Moya : le Mexicain qui fête la Jean-Guile (épisode 4)
 Vincent Macaigne : Magic Ludo (épisode 5)
 Djimo : Hilarino (épisode 5)
 Squeezie : lui-même (épisode 6)
 Joseph de Gabriel : le majordome du Palace (épisode 6)
 Edouardo Sainz : José (épisode 7)
 Montassar Alaya : l'homme de la tribu (épisode 7)
 Christine Moquet : la mère de la malade dans la série « Donde esta mi bandera » (épisode 7)
 Ariel Munoz : le médecin dans la série « Donde esta mi bandera » (épisode 7)
 Yacine Belhousse : Frère Guili Guido (épisode 8)
 Dédo : Frère Guili Roberto (épisode 8)
 Stanislas Wawrinka : lui-même (épisode 8)
 Grand Corps Malade : lui-même (épisode 9)
 Romain Vissol : le faux Yvan (épisode 9)
 Romain Cottard : , psychiatre d'Anne (épisode 9)

Production

Tournage
Le tournage s'est déroulé en Corse et à Paris.

Épisodes

Tableau des votes et des éliminations

Diffusion et audiences
Les deux premiers épisodes du Flambeau sont également diffusés en avant-première mondiale au festival Canneseries lors de la cérémonie de clôture. Lors de la sortie du Flambeau, près de  regardent le premier épisode diffusé en clair sur Canal+. La série est très largement plébiscitée par les jeunes sur les réseaux sociaux grâce à son humour très décalé.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Série télévisée française des années 2020
Série télévisée créée en 2022
Série télévisée disparue en 2022
Série télévisée de Canal+
Spin-off de série télévisée
Parodie
Série télévisée de comédie
Série télévisée satirique
Série télévisée sur la télévision
Œuvre traitant de la téléréalité
Série télévisée se déroulant dans une ville fictive
Île dans la fiction
Série télévisée tournée en Corse
Série télévisée en français


The Little Belt Bridge (), also known as the Old Little Belt Bridge (), is a truss bridge over the Little Belt strait in Denmark. It spans from Snoghøj on the Jutland side to Middelfart on Funen.

The bridge is owned by the state and Banedanmark, the Danish railway authority, is responsible for its maintenance.  It was the first bridge constructed over the strait, beginning the connection of the three main parts of Denmark by road and rail, which was completed with the Great Belt Bridge in June 1998. Previously, only ferries and other boats had transported people over the belts.

Construction
The Little Belt Bridge was built by Monberg & Thorsen. Construction of the bridge began in 1929 and it was opened for traffic on 14 May 1935.  It is 1,178 metres long, 20.5 metres wide and 33 metres high, with a main span of 220 metres.  On the bridge there are two railway tracks, two narrow lanes for cars to cross as well as a sidewalk for pedestrians. No mass machinery was used in the construction of the bridge at the time.  The bases of the piles were lowered into the sea from boats according to precise calculations, and molds both for the piles and each end of the bridge were first constructed of wood and later manually filled with cement from buckets.

Conversion to railway use
When the new Little Belt Bridge came into use in 1970, the old bridge lost its function as the main traffic line for cars between Funen and Jutland; however, it is still used as the only railway bridge between Jutland and Funen and thus the only railway line connecting Jutland with Zealand as well, as well as to carry traffic between Fredericia and Middelfart and their neighbouring villages.

Maintenance

The bridge requires constant maintenance.  During the first decades after its construction, a group of workers would begin painting the entire steel structure from one end, proceed to the other and begin all over again once that was finished.

Five to thirteen people work on the bridge at all times.

All road traffic was closed major parts of 2018 and 2019 due to renovation work. Train traffic went most of the time as it is the only connection over Little Belt.

Tours
In 2015, guided 'bridgewalking' tours on top of the framework were introduced at the Little Belt Bridge. A standard tour will take two hours and is offered among high security measures.

See also
New Little Belt Bridge

References

External links

The Old Little Belt Bridge – Highways-Denmark.com
Picture gallery
Pictures of the bridge
Picture of and information about the bridge

Bridges in Denmark
Truss bridges in Denmark
Cantilever bridges
Road bridges in Denmark
Railway bridges in Denmark
Road-rail bridges
Bridges completed in 1935
1935 establishments in Denmark
Connections across the Baltic Sea
Buildings and structures in Fredericia Municipality
Buildings and structures in Middelfart Municipality

Little Belt Bridge


Benzalkonium chloride (BZK, BKC, BAK, BAC), also known as alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC) and by the trade name Zephiran, is a type of cationic surfactant. It is an organic salt classified as a quaternary ammonium compound. ADBACs have three main categories of use: as a biocide, a cationic surfactant, and a phase transfer agent. ADBACs are a mixture of alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chlorides, in which the alkyl group has various even-numbered alkyl chain lengths.

Solubility and physical properties
Depending on purity, benzalkonium chloride ranges from colourless to a pale yellow (impure).  Benzalkonium chloride is readily soluble in ethanol and acetone. Dissolution in water is ready, upon agitation. Aqueous solutions should be neutral to slightly alkaline. Solutions foam when shaken.  Concentrated solutions have a bitter taste and a faint almond-like odour.

Standard concentrates are manufactured as 50% and 80% w/w solutions, and sold under trade names such as BC50, BC80, BAC50, BAC80, etc. The 50% solution is purely aqueous, while more concentrated solutions require incorporation of rheology modifiers (alcohols, polyethylene glycols, etc.) to prevent increases in viscosity or gel formation under low temperature conditions.

Cationic surfactant
Benzalkonium chloride possesses surfactant properties, dissolving the lipid phase of the tear film and increasing drug penetration, making it a useful excipient, but at the risk of causing damage to the surface of the eye.
 Laundry detergents and treatments.
 Softeners for textiles.

Phase transfer agent

Benzalkonium chloride is a mainstay of phase-transfer catalysis, an important technology in the synthesis of organic compounds, including drugs.

Bioactive agents
Especially for its antimicrobial activity, benzalkonium chloride is an active ingredient in many consumer products:
 Pharmaceutical products such as eye, ear and nasal drops or sprays, as a preservative.
 Personal care products such as hand sanitizers, wet wipes, shampoos, soaps, deodorants and cosmetics.
 Skin antiseptics and wound wash sprays, such as Bactine.
 Throat lozenges and mouthwashes, as a biocide
 Spermicidal creams.
 Cleaners for floor and hard surfaces as a disinfectant, such as Lysol and Dettol antibacterial spray and wipes.
 Algaecides for clearing of algae, moss, lichens from paths, roof tiles, swimming pools, masonry, etc.
Benzalkonium chloride is also used in many non-consumer processes and products, including as an active ingredient in surgical disinfection. A comprehensive list of uses includes industrial applications.

During the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, from time to time there have been shortages of hand cleaner containing ethanol or isopropanol as active ingredients. The FDA has stated that benzalkonium chloride is eligible as an alternative for use in the formulation of healthcare personnel hand rubs. However, in reference to the FDA rule, the CDC states that it does not have a recommended alternative to ethanol or isopropanol as active ingredients, and adds that "available evidence indicates benzalkonium chloride has less reliable activity against certain bacteria and viruses than either of the alcohols." In November 2020 the Journal of Hospital Infection published a study on benzalkonium chloride formulations; it was found that laboratory and commercial disinfectants with as little as 0.13% benzalkonium chloride inactivated the SARS-CoV-2 virus within 15 seconds of contact, even in the presence of a soil or hard water. This resulted in a growing consensus that BZK sanitizers are just as effective as alcohol-based sanitizers despite the CDC guidelines. As a hand sanitizer, use of BZK may be advantageous over ethanol in some situations because it has significantly more residual antibacterial action on the skin after initial application. Benzalkonium chloride has demonstrated persistent antimicrobial activity for up to four hours after contact whereas ethanol-based sanitizer demonstrate skin protection for only 10 minutes post-application.

Medicine
Benzalkonium chloride is a frequently used preservative in eye drops; typical concentrations range from 0.004% to 0.01%. Stronger concentrations can be caustic and cause irreversible damage to the corneal endothelium.

Avoiding the use of benzalkonium chloride solutions while contact lenses are in place is discussed in the literature.

Due to its antimicrobial activity when applied to skin, some topical medications for acne vulgaris have benzalkonium chloride added to increase the products' efficiency or shelf-life.

Benzalkonium chloride has also been shown to be a spermicide. In Russia and China, benzalkonium chloride is used as a contraceptive. Tablets are inserted vaginally, or a gel is applied, resulting in local spermicidal contraception. It is not a wholly reliable method, and can cause irritation.

Beekeeping
It is used in beekeeping for the treatment of rotten diseases of the brood.

Adverse effects
Although historically benzalkonium chloride has been ubiquitous as a preservative in ophthalmic preparations, its ocular toxicity and irritant properties, in conjunction with consumer demand, have led pharmaceutical companies to increase production of preservative-free preparations, or to replace benzalkonium chloride with preservatives which are less harmful.

Many mass-marketed inhaler and nasal spray formulations contain benzalkonium chloride as a preservative, despite substantial evidence that it can adversely affect ciliary motion, mucociliary clearance, nasal mucosal histology, human neutrophil function, and leukocyte response to local inflammation. Although some studies have found no correlation between use of benzalkonium chloride in concentrations at or below 0.1% in nasal sprays and drug-induced rhinitis, others have recommended that benzalkonium chloride in nasal sprays be avoided. In the United States, nasal steroid preparations that are free of benzalkonium chloride include budesonide, triamcinolone acetonide, dexamethasone, and Beconase and Vancenase aerosol inhalers.

Benzalkonium chloride is an irritant to middle ear tissues at typically used concentrations. Inner ear toxicity has been demonstrated.

Occupational exposure to benzalkonium chloride has been linked to the development of asthma. In 2011, a large clinical trial designed to evaluate the efficacy of hand sanitizers based on different active ingredients in preventing virus transmission amongst schoolchildren was re-designed to exclude sanitizers based on benzalkonium chloride due to safety concerns.

Benzalkonium chloride has been in common use as a pharmaceutical preservative and antimicrobial since the 1940s. While early studies confirmed the corrosive and irritant properties of benzalkonium chloride, investigations into the adverse effects of, and disease states linked to, benzalkonium chloride have only surfaced during the past 30 years.

Toxicology
RTECS lists the following acute toxicity data:

Benzalkonium chloride is a human skin and severe eye irritant. It is a respiratory toxicant, immunotoxicant, gastrointestinal toxicant, and neurotoxicant.

Benzalkonium chloride formulations for consumer use are dilute solutions. Concentrated solutions are toxic to humans, causing corrosion/irritation to the skin and mucosa, and death if taken internally in sufficient volumes. 0.1% is the maximum concentration of benzalkonium chloride that does not produce primary irritation on intact skin or act as a sensitizer.

Poisoning by benzalkonium chloride is recognised in the literature. A 2014 case study detailing the fatal ingestion of up to 8.1 oz (240 ml) of 10% benzalkonium chloride in a 78-year-old male also includes a summary of the currently published case reports of benzalkonium chloride ingestion. While the majority of cases were caused by confusion about the contents of containers, one case cites incorrect pharmacy dilution of benzalkonium chloride as the cause of poisoning of two infants. In 2018 a Japanese nurse was arrested and admitted to having murdered approximately 20 patients at a hospital in Yokohama by injecting benzalkonium chloride into their intravenous drip bags.

Benzalkonium chloride poisoning of domestic pets has been recognised as a result of direct contact with surfaces cleaned with disinfectants using benzalkonium chloride as an active ingredient.

Biological activity
The antimicrobial activity is dependent on the chain length. For example, yeast and fungi are most affected by C12, gram positive by C14, and gram negative by C16.

The greatest biocidal activity is associated with the C12 dodecyl and C14 myristyl alkyl derivatives. The mechanism of bactericidal/microbicidal action is thought to be due to disruption of intermolecular interactions. This can cause dissociation of cellular membrane lipid bilayers, which compromises cellular permeability controls and induces leakage of cellular contents. Other biomolecular complexes within the bacterial cell can also undergo dissociation. Enzymes, which finely control a wide range of respiratory and metabolic cellular activities, are particularly susceptible to deactivation. Critical intermolecular interactions and tertiary structures in such highly specific biochemical systems can be readily disrupted by cationic surfactants.

Benzalkonium chloride solutions are fast-acting biocidal agents with a moderately long duration of action. They are active against bacteria and some viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Bacterial spores are considered to be resistant. Solutions are bacteriostatic or bactericidal according to their concentration. Gram-positive bacteria are generally more susceptible than gram-negative bacteria. Its activity depends on the surfactant concentration and also on the bacterial concentration (inoculum) at the moment of the treatment. Activity is not greatly affected by pH, but increases substantially at higher temperatures and prolonged exposure times.

In a 1998 study using the FDA protocol, a non-alcohol sanitizer with benzalkonium chloride as the active ingredient met the FDA performance standards, while Purell, a popular alcohol-based sanitizer, did not. The study, which was undertaken and reported by a leading US developer, manufacturer and marketer of topical antimicrobial pharmaceuticals based on quaternary ammonium compounds, found that their own benzalkonium chloride-based sanitizer performed better than alcohol-based hand sanitizer after repeated use.

Newer formulations using benzalkonium blended with various quaternary ammonium derivatives can be used to extend the biocidal spectrum and enhance the efficacy of benzalkonium based disinfection products. Formulation techniques have been used to great effect in enhancing the virucidal activity of quaternary ammonium-based disinfectants such as Virucide 100 to typical healthcare infection hazards such as hepatitis and HIV. The use of appropriate excipients can also greatly enhance the spectrum, performance and detergency, and prevent deactivation under use conditions. Formulation can also help minimise deactivation of benzalkonium solutions  in the presence of organic and inorganic contamination.. However, recent studies have demonstrated the capacity of environmental microorganisms to develop reduced susceptibility to benzalkonium chloride by employing strategies such as modifying bacterial membranes: increasing pump activity, and reducing the expression of certain porins.

Degradation

Benzalkonium chloride degradation follows consecutive debenzylation, dealkylation, and demethylation steps producing benzyl chloride, an alkyl dimethyl amine, dimethylamine, a long chain alkane, and ammonia. The intermediates, major, and minor products can then be broken down into CO2, H2O, NH3, and Cl–. The first step to the biodegradation of BAC is the fission or splitting of the alkyl chain from the quaternary nitrogen as shown in the diagram. This is done by abstracting the hydrogen from the alkyl chain by using a hydroxyl radical leading to a carbon centered radical. This results in dimethylbenzylamine as the first intermediate and dodecanal as the major product.

From here, dimethylbenzylamine can be oxidized to benzoic acid using the Fenton process. The trimethyl amine group in dimethylbenzylamine can be cleaved to form a benzyl that can be further oxidized to benzoic acid. Benzoic acid uses hydroxylation (adding a hydroxyl group) to form p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Dimethylbenzylamine can then be converted into ammonia by performing demethylation twice, which removes both methyl groups, followed by debenzylation, removing the benzyl group using hydrogenation. The diagram represents suggested pathways of the biodegradation of BAC for both the hydrophobic and the hydrophilic regions of the surfactant. Since stearalkonium chloride is a type of BAC, the biodegradation process should happen in the same manner.

Regulation
Benzalkonium chloride is classed as a Category III antiseptic active ingredient by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Ingredients are categorized as Category III when "available data are insufficient to classify as safe and effective, and further testing is required".

In September 2016, the FDA announced a ban on nineteen ingredients in consumer antibacterial soaps citing a lack of evidence for safety and effectiveness. A ban on three additional ingredients, including benzalkonium chloride, was deferred to allow ongoing studies to be completed.

Benzalkonium chloride was deferred from further rulemaking in the 2019 FDA Final Rule on safety and effectiveness of consumer hand sanitizers, "to allow for the ongoing study and submission of additional safety and effectiveness data necessary to make a determination" on whether it met these criteria for use in OTC hand sanitizers, but the agency indicated it did not intend to take action to remove benzalkonium chloride-based hand sanitizers from the market. There is acknowledgement that more data are required on its safety, efficacy, and effectiveness, especially with relation to:
 Human pharmacokinetic studies, including information on its metabolites
 Studies on animal absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
 Data to help define the effect of formulation on dermal absorption
 Carcinogenicity
 Studies on developmental and reproductive toxicology
 Potential hormonal effects
 Assessment of the potential for development of bacterial resistance
 Risks of using it as a contraceptive method.

See also

  – an alternative preservative for contact lens solutions

References

Further reading

 Thorup I: Evaluation of health hazards by exposure to Quaternary ammonium compounds, The Institute of Food Safety and Toxicology, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration,

External links
 International Programme on Chemical Safety, International Chemical Safety Card (ICSC) - Benzalkonium Chloride
 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), International Chemical Safety Card (ICSC) - Benzalkonium Chloride
 International Programme on Chemical Safety, Poisons Information Monograph (PIMs) - Benzalkonium Chloride
 Haz-Map Category Details - Benzalkonium Chloride
 Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs, Sixth Edition, 2013
 CDC Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC), Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities, 2008
 Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. MSDS
 Spectrum Labs "Clear Bath" Algae Inhibitor MSDS
 Nile Chemicals MSDS
 TCI America MSDS
 Sciencelab.com, Inc. MSDS
 Nasal Saline Sprays - The Additives May Be the Problem

Algaecides
Antiseptics
Benzyl compounds
Cationic surfactants
Chlorides
Disinfectants
Quaternary ammonium compounds

Benzalkonium chloride


Rheidae ilk olarak Paleosende ortaya çıkmış uçamayan kuşlardan oluşan bir kuş familyasıdır. Günümüzde yaşayan tek cinsi Rhea cinsinin yanı sıra soyu tükenmiş cinslerde bu familya da sınıflandırılır. Rheiformes takımının tek yaşayan kuşlarını barındıran familyasıdır.

Taksonomi
Takım: Rheiformes (Forbes, 1884) Furbringer, 1888 [Rheimorphae Bonaparte, 1849; Rheae Forbes 1884]
 Familya †Opisthodactylidae Ameghino 1895
 Cins ?†Diogenornis de Alvarenga 1983 (Geç Paleosen) – muhtemelen Casuariiformes takımının bir üyesi olabilir.
 Cins: †Opisthodactylus Ameghino 1895 (Miyosen) – Nandu türü mü?
  Familya: Rheidae (Bonaparte 1849) Bonaparte, 1853
 Cins: †Heterorhea Rovereto 1914 (Pliosen)
 Cins: †Hinasuri Tambussi 1995
 Cins: Rhea Brisson 1760

Dış bağlantılar

Kaynakça

Rheiformes
Kuş familyaları
Güney Amerika kuşları
Charles Lucien Bonaparte tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Rheidae


Norður-Karelía (finnska: Pohjois-Karjala) er hérað í austur-Finnlandi. Það er um 21,600 km2 og deilir 300 kílómetra landamærum við Rússland. Íbúar eru 161.000 (2019). Joensuu er höfuðborgin og stærsta borgin.

Héruð Finnlands

Norður-Karelía


{{DISPLAYTITLE:H2O (disambiguation)}}
H2O is the chemical formula for water, meaning that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms.

H2O or H2O may also refer to:

Arts, entertainment and media

Music
 H2O (American band), a punk band
 H2O (H2O album), 1996
 H2O (Scottish band), a pop band
 H2O (Puerto Rican band), a boy band
 H "Two" O, a British garage duo
 H2O (Hall & Oates album), 1982
 "H2O", a song by Leslie Cheung from Leslie, 1984
H2O VR graffiti kings

Film and television
 H2O (1929 film), a short silent film by Ralph Steiner
 H2O (2002 film), an Indian Kannada-Tamil bilingual film
 H2O (miniseries), a Canadian TV drama
 H2O: Footprints in the Sand, a Japanese visual novel, game, manga and anime
 H2O: Just Add Water, an Australian TV drama series
 H2O: Mermaid Adventures, an animated web TV series

Other uses
 Properties of water
 H2O Networks, a British telecommunications company
 H2O Wireless, an American telecommunications company
 H2O (web server), a free and open-source web server software
 List of soft drinks by country

See also

 H20 (disambiguation) (H twenty)
 Hoh (disambiguation) (Hoh or HOH)
 Water (disambiguation)
 Dihydrogen monoxide parody

H2O (disambiguation)


The Celtic Revival (also referred to as the Celtic Twilight) is a variety of movements and trends in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries that see a renewed interest in aspects of Celtic culture.  Artists and writers drew on the traditions of Gaelic literature, Welsh-language literature, and so-called 'Celtic art'—what historians call Insular art (the Early Medieval style of Ireland and Britain). Although the revival was complex and multifaceted, occurring across many fields and in various countries in Northwest Europe, its best known incarnation is probably the Irish Literary Revival. Irish writers including William Butler Yeats, Lady Gregory, "Æ" Russell, Edward Martyn, Alice Milligan and Edward Plunkett (Lord Dunsany) stimulated a new appreciation of traditional Irish literature and Irish poetry in the late 19th and early 20th century.

In aspects the revival came to represent a reaction to modernisation. This is particularly true in Ireland, where the relationship between the archaic and the modern was antagonistic, where history was fractured, and where, according to Terry Eagleton, "as a whole [the nation] had not leapt at a bound from tradition to modernity". At times this romantic view of the past resulted in historically inaccurate portrayals, such as the promotion of noble savage stereotypes of the Irish people and Scottish Highlanders, as well as a racialized view that referred to the Irish, whether positively or negatively, as a separate race.

A widespread and still visible result of the revival was the reintroduction of the High cross as the Celtic cross, which now forms a familiar part of monumental and funerary art over much of the Western world.

History
Research into the Gaelic and Brittonic cultures and histories of Britain and Ireland gathered pace from the late 17th century, by antiquaries and historians like Owen Jones in Wales and Charles O'Conor in Ireland. The key surviving manuscript sources were gradually located, edited and translated, monuments identified and published, and other essential groundwork in recording stories, music and language done.

The Welsh antiquarian and author Iolo Morganwg fed the growing fascination in all things Brittonic by founding the Gorsedd, which would in turn spark the Neo-druidism movement.

Interest in Scottish Gaelic culture greatly increased during the onset of the Romantic period in the late 18th century, with James Macpherson's Ossian achieving international fame, along with the novels of Sir Walter Scott and the poetry and lyrics of Thomas Moore.

Throughout Europe, the Romantic movement inspired a great revival of interest in folklore, folk tales, and folk music; even Beethoven was commissioned to produce a set of arrangements of Scottish folk-songs.  A growing sense of Celtic identity encouraged and fed off a rise in nationalism throughout the United Kingdom, which was especially intense in Ireland.

In the mid-19th century the revival continued, with Sir Samuel Ferguson, the Young Ireland movement, and others popularising folk tales and histories in countries and territories with Celtic roots. At the same time, archaeological and historical work was beginning to make progress in constructing a better understanding of regional history. Interest in ornamental 'Celtic' art developed, and 'Celtic' motifs began to be used in all sorts of contexts, including architecture, drawing on works like the Grammar of Ornament by the architect Owen Jones. Imitations of the ornate Insular penannular brooches of the 7–9th centuries were worn by figures such as Queen Victoria, many produced in Dublin by West & Son and other makers.

In Scotland were John Francis Campbell's (1821–1885) works the bilingual Popular Tales of the West Highlands (4 vols., 1860–62) and The Celtic Dragon Myth, published posthumously in 1911. The formation of the Edinburgh Social Union in 1885, which included a number of significant figures in the Arts and Craft and Aesthetic movements, became part of an attempt to facilitate a revival in Scotland, similar to that taking place in contemporaneous Ireland, drawing on ancient myths and history to produce art in a modern idiom. Key figures were the philosopher, sociologist, town planner and writer Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), the architect and designer Robert Lorimer (1864–1929) and stained-glass artist Douglas Strachan (1875–1950). Geddes established an informal college of tenement flats for artists at Ramsay Garden on Castle Hill in Edinburgh in the 1890s. Among the figures involved with the movement were Anna Traquair (1852–1936), who was commissioned by the Union to paint murals in the Mortuary Chapel of the Hospital for Sick Children, Edinburgh, (1885–86 and 1896–98) and also worked in metal, illumination, illustration, embroidery, and book binding. The most significant exponent of the artistic revival in Scotland was Dundee-born John Duncan (1866–1945). Among his most influential works are his paintings of Celtic subjects Tristan and Iseult (1912) and St Bride (1913). Duncan also helped to make Dundee a major centre for the Celtic Revival movement along with artists such as Stewart Carmichael and the publisher Malcolm C. MacLeod.

The Irish Literary Revival encouraged the creation of works written in the spirit of Irish culture, as distinct from English culture. This style fed a growing Irish identity, which also found inspiration in Irish history, myths and folklore. There was an attempt to revitalize the native rhythm and music of Irish Gaelic. Figures such as Lady Gregory, WB Yeats, George Russell, J .M. Synge and Seán O'Casey wrote plays and articles about the political state of Ireland. Gaelic revival and Irish nationalism frequently overlapped in places such as An Stad, a tobacconist on Dublin's North Frederick Street owned by the writer Cathal McGarvey and frequented by literary figures like James Joyce and Yeats, along with leaders of the Nationalist movement such as Douglas Hyde, Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins. These were connected with another great symbol of the literary revival, the Abbey Theatre, which served as the stage for many new Irish writers and playwrights of the time.

In 1892, Sir Charles Gavan Duffy said,
"A group of young men, among the most generous and disinterested in our annals, were busy digging up the buried relics of our history, to enlighten the present by a knowledge of the past, setting up on their pedestals anew the overthrown statues of Irish worthies, assailing wrongs which under long impunity had become unquestioned and even venerable, and warming as with strong wine the heart of the people, by songs of valour and hope; and happily not standing isolated in their pious work, but encouraged and sustained by just such an army of students and sympathizers as I see here to-day".

The Celtic Revival was an international movement. The Irish-American designer Thomas Augustus "Gus" O'Shaughnessy made a conscious choice to use Irish design roots in his artwork. Trained in stained glass and working in an Art Nouveau style, O'Shaughnessy designed a series of windows and interior stencils for Old Saint Patrick's Church in Chicago, a 10-year project begun in 1912. Louis Sullivan, the Chicago architect, incorporated dense Art Nouveau and Celtic-inspired interlace in the ornament of his buildings. Sullivan's father was a traditional Irish musician and they both were step-dancers. In England, the Watts Mortuary Chapel (1896–98) in Surrey was a thoroughgoing attempt to decorate a Romanesque Revival chapel framework with lavish Celtic reliefs designed by Mary Fraser Tytler.

The "plastic style" of early Celtic art was one of the elements feeding into Art Nouveau decorative style, very consciously so in the work of designers like the Manxman Archibald Knox, who did much work for Liberty & Co., especially for his Tudric and Cymric ranges of metalwork, respectively in pewter and silver or gold. Many of the most extravagant examples of the plastic style come from the modern Czech Lands and influenced the Czech Art Nouveau designer and artist Alphonse Mucha (Mucha, in turn, influenced the Irish-American O'Shaughnessy, who had attended a series of Mucha's lectures in Chicago).
The interlace design motif remains popular in Celtic countries, above all Ireland where it is a national style signature. In recent decades, it had a re-revival in 1960s designs (for example, in the Biba logo) and has been used worldwide in tattoos and in various contexts and media in fantasy works with a quasi-Dark Ages setting. The Secret of Kells is an animated feature film of 2009 set during the creation of the Book of Kells which makes much use of Insular design.

In France, sublime descriptions of Celtic landscape were found in the works of Jacques Cambry. The Celtic Revival was strengthened by Napoleon's idea that the "French were a race of empire-building Celts," and became institutionalized by the foundation of the Académie Celtique in 1805, by Cambry and others.

John Duncan was one of the leading artists of the Celtic Revival and Symbolism. He was inspired by the early Italian Renaissance and made works in the medieval medium of tempera. He was a prolific artist working in a range of mediums including stained glass, illustrating and painting.

Linguistic and cultural revivals, after 1920

In the Celtic nations

Brittany

In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded the Breton-language review Gwalarn. During its 19-year run, Gwalarn tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language. Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946, Al Liamm replaced Gwalarn. Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.

In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion. They taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school. See the education section for more information.

The Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including The Adventures of Tintin, Spirou, Titeuf, Hägar the Horrible, Peanuts and Yakari.

Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom, Ken Tuch, is in Breton. Radio Kerne, broadcasting from Finistère, has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies (Lancelot du Lac, Shakespeare in Love, Marion du Faouet, Sezneg) and TV series (Columbo, Perry Mason) have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including Yann-Ber Kalloc'h, Roparz Hemon, Anjela Duval, Xavier de Langlais, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Youenn Gwernig, Glenmor and Alan Stivell are now known internationally.

Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language that is not recognized by national government as an official or regional language.

The first Breton dictionary, the Catholicon, was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A new generation[clarification needed] is determined to gain international recognition for Breton. The monolingual dictionary, Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here (1995), defines Breton words in Breton. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.

In the early 21st century, the Ofis ar Brezhoneg ("Office of the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the Spilhennig to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an Internationalization and localization policy asking Google, Firefox and SPIP to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the Breton Wikipedia started, which now counts more than 50,000 articles. In March 2007, the Ofis ar Brezhoneg signed a tripartite agreement with Regional Council of Brittany and Microsoft for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages, after three years of talks between the Ofis and Facebook.

Cornwall

The Cornish cultural Celtic revival of the early twentieth century was characterised by an increased interest in the Cornish language started by Henry Jenner and Robert Morton Nance in 1904. The Federation of Old Cornwall Societies was formed in 1924 to "maintain the Celtic spirit of Cornwall", followed by the Gorseth Kernow in 1928 and the formation of the Cornish political party Mebyon Kernow in 1951.

Ireland

Due to the revival of Irish in educational settings and bilingual upbringing, there has been an increase in young Irish people speaking the language in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. It is said it is more common to hear it spoken in Irish cities. Additionally, there is a "modest" revived interest in North America in learning Irish.

Isle of Man

Scotland

Wales
The Welsh language has been spoken continuously in Wales throughout recorded history, and in recent centuries had been the most widely spoken Celtic language by far.  By 1911 it had become a minority language, spoken by merely 43.5% of the Welsh population. While this decline continued over the following decades, the language did not die out. By the start of the 21st century, numbers began to increase once more.

The 2004 Welsh Language Use Survey showed that 21.7% of the population of Wales spoke Welsh, compared with 20.8% in the 2001 census, and 18.5% in 1991. The 2011 census, however, showed a slight decline to 562,000, or 19% of the population.
The census also showed a "big drop" in the number of speakers in the Welsh-speaking heartlands, with the number dropping to under 50% in Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire for the first time. According to the Welsh Language Use Survey 2013-15, 24% of people aged three and over were able to speak Welsh.

Historically, large numbers of Welsh people spoke only Welsh. Over the course of the 20th century this monolingual population "all but disappeared", but a small percentage remained at the time of the 1981 census.  In Wales, 16% of state school pupils now receive a Welsh medium education, and Welsh is a compulsory subject in English medium schools, up to the age of 15-16.

Americas

Welsh in Argentina
Welsh is spoken by over 5,000 people in Chubut province of Argentina. Some districts have recently incorporated it as an educational language.

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia holds the largest population of Scots Gaelic speakers outside of Scotland.

France
The Gaulish language used to be widely spoken in France and beyond around the period of the Roman Empire. There have been attempts at revivals and reconstructions, despite very limited evidence for the exact original form of the language. Eluveitie is a folk metal band that writes songs in revived form of  Gaulish.

Auvergne
In Auvergne, chants are sung around bonfires remembering a Celtic god. There are also modern attempts to revive the polytheistic religion of the Gauls.

Auvergne is also a hotpot for the Gaulish revival movement, being the location of numerous important Gaulish sites and the home of the legendary Gaulish warrior, Vercingetorix.

Elsewhere in Europe
The Celtic cultural revivals in Cornwall have spread towards Northern England, with the attempted reconstructions of numerous types of bagpipe (such as the Lancashire Great-pipe) and an increased interest in the Northumbrian smallpipes. There are also attempts to reconstruct the Cumbric language, the ancient Brythonic language of Northern (particularly Northwestern) England, a remnant of the Brittonic kingdoms of Hen Ogledd.

There are small areas of Celtic revival in Galicia (Spain).

See also
Cuala Press
Gaelic revival (Irish)
Galician Institute for Celtic Studies
Highland Revival
Irish Literary Revival
Modern Celts
Scottish Gaelic Renaissance
Scottish Renaissance

References
Citations

Bibliography

Brown, Terence (ed.), Celticism (1996), .
Castle, Gregory. Modernism and the Celtic Revival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Foster, R. F. (1997). W. B. Yeats: A Life, Vol. I: The Apprentice Mage. New York: Oxford UP. .
Foster, R. F. (2003). W. B. Yeats: A Life, Vol. II: The Arch-Poet 1915–1939. New York: Oxford UP. .
Gardiner, M. (2005). Modern Scottish Culture. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. .
MacDonald, M. (2000) Scottish Art. London: Thames and Hudson. .

External links

 The National Library of Ireland's exhibition, Yeats: The Life and Works of William Butler Yeats
 Gallaic Revival Movement Home Page

Celtic studies
Celtic nationalism
Galician culture
History of Ireland (1801–1923)
Irish nationalism
Revival architectural styles
Celtic art

Celtic Revival


Musa ibn Nusayr ( Mūsá bin Nuṣayr;  640 – c. 716) served as an Umayyad governor and an Arab general under the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I. He ruled over the Muslim provinces of North Africa (Ifriqiya), and directed the Islamic conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania (Gibraltar, Spain, Portugal, Andorra and part of southern France).

Background
Various suggestions have been made as to his ancestry. Some say his father belonged to the Lakhmid clan of semi-nomads who lived east of the Euphrates and were allies of the Sassanians, while others claim he belonged to the Banu Bakr confederation. One account stated that Musa's father was taken captive after the fall of the Mesopotamian city of Ayn al-Tamr (633). According to this account, he was an Arab Christian who was one of a number being held hostage there. However, al-Baladhuri, relating the same events, states he was an Arab of the Balī tribe, from Jabal al-Jalīl in Palestine .

As a slave, Musa's father entered the service of Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan (governor of Egypt and son of the caliph Marwan I) who gave him his freedom. He returned to Syria where Musa was born at a place called Kafarmara or Kafarmathra. The date of his birth has been given as 640.

Musa was made co-governor of Iraq by the caliph Abd al-Malik, together with the caliph's brother Bishr ibn Marwan. There was some quarrel over missing tax money, and Musa was given the choice: pay a huge fine, or pay with his head. His father's patron, Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, had a high opinion of Musa, and paid the ransom; he was later responsible for appointing Musa to be governor of Ifriqiya.

Islamic conquest of Maghreb
Hasan ibn al-Nu'man was sent to continue the Islamic conquest in North Africa all the way to Morocco.He was relieved of his command for allowing continuing Byzantine attacks. Musa bin Nusayr was then sent to renew the attacks against the Berbers. But he did not impose Islam by force, rather, he respected Berber traditions and used diplomacy in subjugating them. This proved highly successful, as many Berbers converted to Islam and even entered his army as soldiers and officers, possibly including Tariq bin Ziyad who would lead the later Islamic expedition in Iberia.

Governor
In 698 Musa was made the governor of Ifriqiya and was responsible for completing the conquest of North Africa and of the Balearic Islands and Sardinia. He was the first governor of Ifriqiya not to be subordinate to the governor of Egypt. He was the first Muslim general to take Tangiers and occupy it; his troops also conquered the Sous, effectively taking control of all of the northern half of Morocco. He also had to deal with constant attacks from the Byzantine navy and he built a navy that would go on to conquer the islands of Ibiza, Majorca, and Menorca.

Conquest of Al-Andalus

(Note: Most of what follows in this section is to be found first in Ibn Abd al-Hakam, then repeated by others, e.g. the Akhbār majmūʿa, with more detail but little real variation.)

Background
Muslim and Christian sources quote that while Musa bin Nusayr was eager to cross the Straits of Gibraltar to Hispania, he determined to do so only when a Visigoth nobleman, Julian, Count of Ceuta, had encouraged him to invade Iberia, telling him of the people's sufferings and the injustice of their king, Roderic, while giving him cause for conquest by telling him of the riches that would be found, and of the many palaces, gardens and beauties of Hispania. Legend tells that Julian wished for the fall of the Visigothic kingdom because his daughter, Florinda la Cava, had been raped by Roderic.

Invasion

After a successful minor raid on the Spanish coast at Tarifa where the raiding force returned with a booty captured without any reported resistance, Musa decided to land a larger invasion force. Tariq bin Ziyad crossed the strait with approximately 7,000 Berbers and Arabs, and landed at Gibraltar (from Jebel Tariq, meaning Tariq's mountain in Arabic). The expedition's purpose must have been to conduct further raids and explore the territory. Tariq's army contained some guides supplied by Julian. Three weeks after his landing, the Muslims were faced with a superior Visigoth royal army of 100,000 troops under Roderic. The Muslims won the Battle of Guadalete, and the entire Visigoth nobility was all but exterminated at the battle. The Muslims then marched towards Córdoba, bypassing several strong fortifications. The well-defended city fell, and Tariq established a garrison there consisting mainly of the city's Jews who welcomed the invaders, having been subjected to conversion from the Visigoths for centuries. Tariq then continued on his way to Toledo.

Musa, learning of Tariq's successes, landed in Iberia with an army of 18,000 Berbers and Arabs. He planned to rendezvous with Tariq at Toledo, but first proceeded to take Seville, which Tariq had bypassed, and where Musa met stiff resistance, and succeeded after three months of siege. He then campaigned in the province of Lusitania, eliminating the remaining Gothic resistance there. His last destination before meeting Tariq was to subdue Mérida, capital of Lusitania. After five months of siege and inconclusive fighting, a group of Ceutans pretended to be Christian reinforcements and managed to convince the guards into opening the gates. Once inside, the "reinforcements", nearly 700, overwhelmed the guards and managed to keep the gates open for the Muslims to enter the city and capture it.

After Mérida, Musa divided his forces, taking the majority with him to meet Tariq at Toledo where he would remain for winter. The remainder of his forces were led by his son 'Abd al-Aziz, who would return to Seville to deal with an uprising. 'Abd al-Aziz made short work of the rebellion. He then conducted several campaigns on the return journey in the territories of Lusitania. Coimbra and Santarém were captured in the spring of 714. 'Abd al-Aziz then campaigned in Murcia. The Duke of Murcia, Theodemir, or Tudmir as he was called by the Muslims, surrendered to 'Abd al-Aziz after several hard-fought engagements in April 713. The terms imposed on Theodemir declared that the duke would keep the citadel of Orihuela and several other settlements, including Alicante and Lorca on the Mediterranean, that his followers will not be killed, taken prisoner, forced into Islam, and that their churches will not be burned. It also demanded that Theodemir not encourage or support others to resist the Muslims, and that he and every citizen of his dominion pay an annual tax in money and other goods.

Musa finally met up with Tariq where there was an argument over the latter's booty, which reportedly included a gold table covered with gems and other precious stones that had reputedly once belonged to Solomon. Meanwhile, Musa's messenger, Mughith al-Rumi (the Roman) who had been sent to Caliph al-Walid I to inform him of the situation in Hispania, had returned. The Caliph requested Musa to withdraw and to report in person to Damascus. Musa chose to ignore this order temporarily, knowing that if he did not continue his advance, Visigoth resistance may increase and turn the tables against the Muslims. Having done so, he continued with Tariq to the north; Musa heading for Zaragoza, to which he lay siege, while Tariq continued to the provinces of León and Castile, capturing the towns of León and Astorga. Musa continued after taking Zaragoza to the north, taking Oviedo and reaching as far as the Bay of Biscay. The Islamic conquest of Iberia now complete, Musa proceeded to place governors and prefects throughout the newly conquered Al-Andalus, before returning to Damascus with most of the booty captured from the Jihad.

Return to Damascus
Both conquerors of Spain were therefore summoned by the caliph to Damascus. Tariq arrived first, according to some accounts. But then the caliph was taken ill. So the caliph's brother, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik became temporarily in charge, and asked Musa, who was arriving with a cavalcade of soldiers and spoils, to delay his grand entry into the city. He most certainly intended to claim the glories brought from the conquest for himself. But Musa dismissed this request, triumphantly entered Damascus anyway, and brought the booty before the ailing Al-Walid I, which brought Musa and Tariq unprecedented popularity amongst the people of Damascus. Al-Walid I then died a few days later and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman, who demanded that Musa deliver up all his spoils. When Musa complained, Sulayman stripped him of his rank and confiscated all the booty, including the table which had reputedly once belonged to Solomon.

One of Musa's sons, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, married Egilona who was wife of Roderic. She asked 'Abd al-Aziz why his guests did not bow to him as they used to do in the presence of his father. It was reported that he began to force guests to bow to him. It was rumoured that he had secretly become a Christian, and a group of Arabs assassinated him, cut off his head and sent it to the caliph. Sulayman had Musa in his audience when the head arrived, and seeing whose it was, callously asked Musa if he recognized it. Musa maintained his dignity, saying he recognized it as belonging to someone who had always practiced the faith fervently, and cursed the men who had killed him. Another son, Abd Allah, who had acted as governor of Ifriqiya after Musa, was executed on the orders of the caliph on suspicion of having had killed the man who had replaced him.

Death
Musa died naturally while on the Hajj pilgrimage with Sulayman in about the year 715–716. Because of his disgrace, and the misfortunes of his sons, there was a tendency among medieval historians of the Maghreb to attribute his deeds (the conquest of Tangiers and the Sous) to Uqba ibn Nafi.

The Moroccan peak Jebel Musa is named for Musa bin Nusayr according to the 14th-century Berber Muslim geographer Ibn Battuta.<ref name="htn">H.T. Norris, Ibn Battutah's Andalusian Journey", The Geographical Journal, 1959.</ref>

Al-Bakri in his al-Maslik wa al-Mamalik, mentions that Musa Ibn Nusayr was buried in Zaragoza.

In legend

Less than 200 years after his death, Musa ibn Nusayr became the subject of fantastic legends. These tales were first recorded in the late 9th or early 10th century by ibn al-Faqih, who wrote that Musa was ordered by the caliph to investigate reports of a strange city called al-Baht. Musa marched from Qayrawan to the deserts of Spain and came upon a city that was surrounded by walls with no entrance. Those who attempted to look over the wall became entranced and jumped, laughing deliriously. Musa then proceeded to a nearby lake, which contained copper jars. When opened, a genie emerged from each one.

A more extensive version of the same legend is recorded in "The City of Brass," a tale in One Thousand and One Nights, in which Musa encounters many other marvels, such as a palace filled with jewels, whose only human occupant was the embalmed corpse of a beautiful woman, guarded by two robot warriors.

The 17th-century historian Ibn Abi Dinar used Musa's decline in fortune as an object lesson in the vagaries of human existence, with some exaggerations: "Musa, who had conquered half the inhabited world, who had acquired so many riches, died in poverty, begging alms from passers-by, after having been abandoned by the last of his servants. Overcome by shame and misery, he wished for death, and God gave it to him. I only mention the details of Musa's death to give my contemporaries, who are poorly read, a striking example of the vicissitudes of human life".

Probably the most extensive work to be inspired by the life of Musa is a section of the anonymous Kitāb al-imāma w'as-siyāsa, which contains a lengthy description of his deeds accompanied by many supposed speeches and sayings. Unlike many other authors, such as Ibn Abd al-Hakam, the work is entirely favourable to Musa.

See also
 Umayyad conquest of North Africa
 Umayyad conquest of Hispania
 Timeline of the Muslim Occupation of the Iberian peninsula
 Al-Andalus

Notes

References
 Al-Bakri, Kitāb al-masālik w'al-mamālik. Spanish translation of extracts relating to Spain, E. Vidal Beltran,  Geografia de España, Textos Medievales vol. 53, Zaragoza, 1982.
al-Baladhuri, Kitab Futuh al-Buldan, translated by Phillip Hitti in The Origins of the Islamic State (1916, 1924).
 Anon., Akhbār majmūa fī fath al-andalūs wa dhikr ūmarā'ihā. Arabic text edited with Spanish translation: E. Lafuente y Alcantara, Ajbar Machmua, Coleccion de Obras Arabigas de Historia y Geografia, vol. 1, Madrid, 1867.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Kitab Futuh Misr wa'l Maghrib wa'l Andalus. English translation  by Torrey of portion of this 9th century work covering the period: "The Mohammedan conquest of Egypt and North Africa in the Years 643-705 A.D., translated from the Original Arabic of Ibn 'Abd-el Hakem'", Biblical and Semitic Studies vol. 1 (1901), 279-330 (covers North Africa only, not Spain). Critical Arabic edition of the whole work published by Torrey, Yale University Press, 1932. Spanish translation by Eliseo Vidal Beltran of the North African and Spanish parts of Torrey's Arabic text: "Conquista de Africa del Norte y de Espana", Textos Medievales #17, Valencia, 1966. An online copy of an older and less reliable (19th-century) English translation of the portion dealing only with Spain is at: Medieval Sourcebook: The Islamic conquest of Spain
A. Benabbès: "Les premiers raids arabes en Numidie Byzantine: questions toponymiques." In Identités et Cultures dans l'Algérie Antique, University of Rouen, 2005 ()
 Muhammad ibn Abi Dinar al-Qayrawānī, Al-Mu'nis fi Akhbar Ifriqiya wa Tunis (1681). French translation by E. Pellisier & E. Rémusat, Histoire de l'Afrique, Paris, 1845.
Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadānī, Kitāb al-buldān. French translation by H. Massé: Abrégé du Livre des Pays, Damascus, 1973.
 Pascual de Gayangos y Arce, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain. vol. 1. 1840. English translation of al-Maqqari and other authors.
Anon., Kitāb al-imāma w'as-siyāsa (9th-10th century?). English translation: Appendix E of Gayangos' The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain. Robert Brunschvig, "Ibn 'Abdalh'akam et la conquête de l'Afrique du Nord par les Arabes." Annales de l'Institut d'Etudes Orientales, v. 6 (1942–44) 108-155. Reprinted in Al-Andalus, 40 (1975), pp. 129–179.
 M.J. Viguera Molina, "The Muslim settlement of Spania/al-Andalus", p. 13-38 in The Foundation of al-Andalus. Part 1: History and Society (ed. M. Martin), Ashgate, UK, 1998 (vol. 46 of The Foundation of the Classical Islamic World'' series). Reviews all Arabic sources.

640 births
716 deaths
Generals of the Umayyad Caliphate
Umayyad governors of Ifriqiya
Arab generals
Umayyad governors of Al-Andalus
7th-century Arab people
8th-century Arab people
7th-century Muslims
Umayyad conquest of Hispania
Al-Andalus military personnel
One Thousand and One Nights characters

Musa ibn Nusayr


La Torre de Hércules es una torre funeraria romana que se encuentra a tres kilómetros al noreste de Villajoyosa (España), antigua ciudad romana de Allon (Hispania Tarraconensis). Está declarada Bien de Interés Cultural desde 1990. Anteriormente fue conocida como Torre de San José. Se trata de uno de los principales iconos de la arqueología romana de la Comunidad Valenciana.

Historia

El primer historiador que da noticias sobre el monumento es Gaspar Escolano (1610). En el s. XVIII el primer arqueólogo alicantino, Antonio de Valcárcel, Conde de Lumiares, realizó excavaciones en la zona. A finales del s. XVIII, Alexandre de Laborde visita y describe el monumento en su obra Voyage pittoresque et historique de l'Espagne, publicado en 1806 e ilustrado con espléndidos grabados del monumento, obra de François Dequevauviller.

Lorenzo Abad y Manuel Bendala publicaron el primer estudio detallado del monumento en 1985, y recientemente el primero de ellos ha publicado una revisión y actualización del mismo. Según estos investigadores se construyó hacia el 2º cuarto del s. II d. C. Estos monumentos solían ubicarse junto a las calzadas, como todas las tumbas romanas. Sin embargo, la Torre de San José es excepcional porque parece haberse erigido no para ser contemplada desde un camino de tierra sino desde el principal camino de la Antigüedad: la mar. De hecho, se encuentra situada sobre un talud en primera línea de costa, en la cala del Torres, de forma que destaca claramente en el paisaje cuando se navega frente a ella. Se trata del mayor de los tres monumentos funerarios turriformes de la época romana mejor conservados de la península ibérica, junto con la Torre de los Escipiones (Tarragona) y la Torre Ciega (Cartagena).

El año 2007 fue muy importante en la historia de la torre: el Ayuntamiento de Villajoyosa, dentro de la urbanización de la zona, acometió la demolición del cuerpo superior moderno construido sobre la torre y de la casa anexa al monumento. También se acometieron las excavaciones del entorno, ya propiedad municipal, dentro del Proyecto Villajoyosa Romana: de la República a la Antigüedad Tardía, desarrollado por Vilamuseu (Sección Municipal de Arqueología, Etnografía y Museos) y el Área de Arqueología de la Universidad de Alicante, bajo la codirección de Lorenzo Abad, Sonia Gutiérrez e Ignacio Grau (Universidad de Alicante), y de Diego Ruiz, Amanda Marcos y Antonio Espinosa (Vilamuseu).

En 2011 se ha retomado el proyecto de restauración de la torre por la Dirección General de Patrimonio de la Generalidad Valenciana y el Ayuntamiento de Villajoyosa. El proyecto original, obra del arquitecto Santiago Varela, está siendo revisado y adaptado a los recientes descubrimientos e investigaciones, para una próxima ejecución. En 2012 han comenzado a realizarse visitas guiadas al monumento, así como eventos de recreación con la colaboración del grupo recreacionista Legio VIIII Hispana de la Asociación Hispania Romana, para su puesta en valor incluso antes de su restauración.

En la actualidad se encuentra completamente reconstruida.

Características arquitectónicas
Es un monumento turriforme (es decir, en forma de torre), de los llamados "de edicula cerrada", es decir, que su interior no tenía acceso alguno. Está construida con sillares rectangulares. Tiene un basamento escalonado, sobre el que, tras una moldura en cyma recta, se asienta el cuerpo principal, que también es de sección rectangular, con el eje mayor orientado E-O. Está decorado con pilastras de esquina con su basa, fuste y capitel corintio sencillo. El tercio superior se desmontó probablemente en el s. XVI con la intención de aprovechar la piedra en las murallas de Villajoyosa, aunque muchos sillares quedaron en sus inmediaciones, y entre ellos elementos de todas sus partes, como un capitel de esquina; fragmentos de arquitrabe, friso y cornisa; e incluso un sillar con un rebaje rectangular frontal que pudo albergar una placa con la inscripción del difunto. Según L. Abad y M. Bendala, el monumento pudo estar coronado por un pyramidium, o remate en forma de pirámide, como muchas torres similares, aunque no se conservan restos del mismo. En la tercera hilada de las caras E y O del monumento hay sendos orificios de sección inclinada hacia el interior, para hacer las libaciones (ofrendas funerarias de líquidos, especialmente vino) al difunto.

La torre es muy similar a la de Daimuz (Valencia), que fue desmontada en el s. XIX.

La torre se declaró bien de interés cultural con su nombre más reciente, Torre de Hércules, derivado del apellido de uno de sus últimos propietarios. Sin embargo, durante siglos se conoció como Torre de Joseph y más tarde este nombre derivó en el de Sant Josep, por una santificación de topónimos frecuente en la cultura popular cuando se pierde la explicación del origen de un nombre. Se ha pensado que Josep pudo ser un antiguo propietario, aunque recientemente se ha propuesto también que la propuesta de Gaspar Escolano (1610) de que el nombre de Josep derivara del de Josa no ande desencaminada, porque en la Edad Moderna el nombre valenciano de Villajoyosa (Vila Joiosa) aparece frecuentemente contraído en la forma Vilajosa, con lo cual el nombre antiguo podría haber sido Torre de (Vila) Josa, y de ahí derivar al de Sant Josep.

Al parecer en el s. XIV, tras la conquista por la Corona de Aragón, se practicó un portillo en la cara norte para expoliar el interior. En las excavaciones de 2011 se ha constatado diferentes zanjas de expolio, hasta mediados del . No quedaba rastro del difunto ni de su ajuar funerario, salvo dos dientes humanos sin trazas de haber sido quemados, lo que hace pensar en la posibilidad de que se trate de una de las primeras torres con rito de inhumación de la península ibérica, ya que durante el s. II se produce el cambio del rito funerario de la cremación del cadáver a su enterramiento sin quemar.

Véase también
 Bienes de interés cultural de la provincia de Alicante

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 "Las legiones romanas regresan a Allon", en www.villajoyosa.com
 Enlace a página de Facebook de Vilamuseu, con información actualizada de eventos en el monumento
 Artículo digital en Diario Información, 2 de febrero de 2012
 Edición impresa en Diario Información, 2 de febrero de 2012, a través de www.hispaniaromana.es
 Agenda de las actividades de recreación histórica en la Torre de Sant Josep en el sitio web de la Asociación Hispania Romana

Bienes de interés cultural de la provincia de Alicante
Villajoyosa
Mausoleos romanos en España
Arquitectura de España del siglo II
Arquitectura de la Antigua Roma en la Comunidad Valenciana

Torre de Hércules (Villajoyosa)


An Phyllostachys verrucosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Guang Han Ye ngan Zheng Ping Wang. An Phyllostachys verrucosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Phyllostachys, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Phyllostachys

Phyllostachys verrucosa


التجريف أو الكَرْي ويكون ذلك باستخدام الجرافة المائية وتسمى الكَرَّاءَة أو الكرَّاكة، هي نوع من أنواع أعمال الحفريات التي تجري على الغالب تحت الماء في مناطق البحار الضحلة أو في مناطق المياه العذبة بغرض تجميع الطمي المترسب ورميه في مكان آخر بأهداف تسهيل عمليات الملاحة للسفن ومنع ارتطام قاعها بقعر المسطح المائي.

الجرافة هي آلة للقيام بعملية التجريف وسحب الرمال من قعر المسطح المائي. وتكون على الغالب على شكل سفينة طافية على سطح الماء.

الكَرَّاءَة أو الجرافة المائية هي جهاز مجهز لحفر الطين والرمل والصخور والرسوبيات الأخرى من قاع المجاري المائية.

التأثيل

كراءة
الكَرَّاءة اسم آلة على وزن فَعَّالة من الفعل كَرَى، جاء في المعجم الوسيط: كَرَى النهرَ كَرْيًا: حفر فيه حفرة جديدة.

كراكة
الكرَّاكة: آلةٌ تطَهَّرُ بها الأَنْهرُ والقَنوات العظيمة مما ترسَّب فيها من رمل أَو طين طارئ، وهي كلمة دخيلة،، ويبدو أن أصلها من carraca الإسبانية وهو نوع من السفن لنقل البضائع.

أسباب التجريف
 يتراكم الكثير من الرمال والطمي في الخلجان التي تصب فيها الأنهار الكبيرة والصغيرة. فمثلاً منذ عام 1986 وحتى عام 1996 كانت كميات الرمال التي تتجمع في خليج طوكيو على مدى السنوات العشرة تتراوح بين سماكة 0.5 سم إلى 5.1 سم سنوياً. حيث يتوقع أن كميات الرمال التي تصب في الخليج سنوياً تقدر بحوالي 420 ألف متر مكعب سنوياً.
 هناك حاجة من أجل توسيع مناطق الموانئ في مناطق المياه الضحلة من أجل تخديم سفن أكبر حجماً تحتاج أعماق ملاحة أكبر.

آلية عمل الجرافة
الجرافة سفينة لها مغرفة من نوع ما لالتقاط المواد، وآلية تشبه الرافعة لرفع المغرفة بحمولتها وتفريغها. تتكون وحدة التجريف الكاملة عادة من الجرافة نفسها، ومن قوارب النفايات، وزورق سريع، وقوارب الإمداد بالمياه والوقود، ورافعة لإرساء المراسي.

تثبت الجرافة بعد تعويمها فوق موقع العمل، بوساطة أعمدة ثقيلة تهبط من خلال فتحات في الجرافة وترتكز على قاع المجرى المائي. وهناك عادة ثلاثة أعمدة، عمودان عند طرف المغرفة، وآخر في مؤخرة الجرافة. تصنع هذه الأعمدة التي قد يبلغ طولها 21 متراً من العوارض الخشبية التي يبلغ مساحة مقطعها نحو 100سم، أو من الأنابيب الثقيلة جداً. تكون الأعمدة ذات رأس مستدق كي تخترق القيعان الصلبة، ويمكن تزويدها بنعال ذات مساحات مختلفة من أجل القيعان اللينة. تثبت الجرافة في موقعها في حال القيعان اللينة جداً، بوساطة المراسي فقط.

بعد أن تزيل الجرافة جميع المواد التي يمكن أن تصل إليها، ترفع الأعمدة، وتحرك الجرافة قدماً مسافة 1.5 إلى 3 أمتار إلى الموقع التالي عن طريق السحب أو القطر.

أنواع سفن التجريف
هناك أنواع كثيرة من سفن التجريف منها:

تجريف بواسطة النزع
 طريقة النزع تقوم بتعبئة الدلو (يكون على شكل فكين) بالرمل وتجميعه في السفينة.
 لأن النزع يتم عند أماكن محددة فيصبح قاع البحر بشكل مموج.
 من الصعب تسوية قاع البحر بشكل مستوي
 بسبب أن عملها ليس آلياً فيجب تحديد منطقة العمل ومنع السفن الأخرى من دخولها أثناء التجريف.
 تكون مساحة العمل التي تشغلها صغيرة.

تجريف بنظام الدلاء المتحركة

 تعمل بنظام تدوير عدد من الدلاء بشكل دوري وجرف الرمال من قاع البحر بشكل منتظم.
 تستطيع هذه الطريقة بشكل نسبي جرف كمية كبيرة من الرمال بالإضافة إلى أن قاع البحر يكون مستوياً.
 بسبب تأرجح السفينة العاملة بهذه الطريقة بشدة فإنه يجب إنزال المرساة، وتحديد مكان العمل ومنع مرور السفن الأخرى في منطقة العمل.

تجريف بنظام الجر
إن سفينة الجر هي سفينة تجريف رمال تتحرك بواسطة مروحة وأثناء حركتها تقوم مضخة نفاثة موصولة بأنبوب يمس قاع البحر بشفط الرمال، يتم شفط الرمال الملامسة لرأس الأنبوب ونقلها إلى خزان الطمي في السفينة حيث تجمع هناك. وعندما يمتلئ الخزان يتم الانتقال إلى منطقة البحر المفتوح وهناك يفتح صمام موجود في قاع السفينة وترمى الرمال الموجودة في خزانها خارجاً.

يفضل استخدام سفينة التجريف بالجر في تجريف طرق الملاحة في حال تم تأمين مكان التخلص من الرمال في البحر المفتوح حيث أنه في حالة سفينة المضخة فإنه يجب إنزال المرساة الخاصة بعمل السفينة ضمن منطقة طريق الملاحة، بالإضافة إلى أنها قد تسبب الضرر للسفن الأخرى العابرة للطريق بسبب حركة جسم السفينة أو الرمال. بالإضافة إلى أنه يفضل رمي الرمال في البحر المفتوح لأنه يكون أقل تأثيراً على البيئة من رمي الرمال على اليابسة.

إلا أن المسافة الواجب قطعها حتى مكان رمي الرمال في البحر المفتوح بعيدة كثيرة عن مكان أعمال التجريف، ولضرورة المرور ضمن طريق الملاحة الضيق بشكل آمن يجب خفض سرعة ملاحة سفينة الجر. وعليه وبما أن مكان رمي الرمال بعيد عن المجرى العلوي حيث تجري عمليات التجريف فإن كلفة وحدة أعمال التجريف ورمي الرمال سوف ترتفع.

إن سفينة الجر لا تستخدم مرساة وبسبب أن التجريف يتم فقط بقوة الشفاط الدوار فإنه لا يمكن التجريف فيما حول الأجسام الكبيرة أو عند الأماكن ذات الزوايا الحادة أو القائمة التي تصادف في الميناء لذلك تنخفض كفاءة العمل بشدة، ويكون هناك الكثير من كميات الرمل المتبقي. وفي حال استخدامها من أجل تجريف رمال قاسية فإن رأس الشفط قد يعلق في أخدود ويكون من الصعب شفط الرمال المتبقية على الحواف العليا للأخدود.

وبالنظر من ناحية التكلفة، فإنه باستخدام سفينة جر ذات حجم كبير ومع أن مكان رمي الرمال بعيد إلا أنه يمكن تخفيض كلفة العمل، إلا أن هكذا سفينة ستحتاج إلى عمق إبحار يصل إلى 10 أمتار عندما تكون ممتلئة، وحتى عندما تكون فارغة فإنها تحتاج إلى عمق إبحار 8 أمتار وعلى اعتبار أن عمق المياه الحالي في منطقة الجريان العلوي هي أقل من 8 أمتار فإنه يتوقع عدم إمكانية إبحار السفينة في تلك المنطقة بحرية.

تجريف بنظام الشفط أو المضخة

 عبارة عن سفينة تجريف رمال تعمل على مضخة، كما يوجد على ظهر السفينة حاوية (لتجميع الطمي) حيث تقوم بتجميع الرمل في ذات السفينة.
 تستخدم من أجل تجريف الرمل الناعم.
 تكون جودة سطح التجريف عالية.

إن استخدام سفينة المضخة في تنفيذ أعمال تجريف الرمل وردم البحر برمال التجريف هو عملية اقتصادية ذات كفاءة عالية. يضاف إلى جسم السفينة العادية عمودين يسميان «سباد» وتتم عملية التجريف بواسطة السلك المتأرجح الموضوع على جانبي السفين اليميني واليساري.

عادة ما يتم ضخ الرمال لردم أمكنة رمي الرمال التم تم بنائها على الشواطئ ونقلها إلى هناك باستخدام أنابيب نقل الرمال التي تمد فوق البحر أو ضمن البحر. هناك حاجة لتأمين أماكن ردم كبيرة بسبب خصائص رمال

اختيار طريقة العمل، وآلات التجريف
عند القيام باختيار طريقة العمل ونوعية آلات التجريف يجب مراعاة النقاط التالية:
 كمية الأعمال وفترة العمل
 نوعية التربة الواجب تجريفها، ارتفاع طبقة المنطقة، جريان المياه، الأمواج، حالة الطقس وغيرها من العوامل التي تؤثر على كفاءة سفن التجريف
 أمكنة التخلص من الرمال المجرفة وآحجام الأماكن
 احتياطات تخفيف الآثار البيئية
 سهولة تزويد الوقود وأسعاره

أعمال القياسات قبل تنفيذ أعمال التجريف

الكشف المغناطيسي
قبل البدء بتنفيذ الأعمال، تجري أعمال الكشف المغناطيسية لمناطق التجريف من أجل تأمين إجراء الأعمال بشكل آمن، حيث من الضروري البحث عن الأجسام المعيقة والخطرة المستقرة في قاع البحر وإزالتها. يتم استقصاء الاستوائية داخل منطقة الكشف باستخدام سفينة مجهزة بنظام GPS.
يتم الحصول على بيانات عن كمية المغناطيسية (غاوس/سم مربع)، درجة العمق تحت الأرض، المكان من البيانات التي تم الحصول عليها بنتيجة استقصاء الاستوائية. إذا ما تم اكتشاف خلل يقدر بقيمة (10 غاوس / سم مربع) يتم إجراء كشف غاطس وإزالة الجسم المعيق.

الكشف الغاطس
يتم إجراء الكشف الغاطس في حال تم اكتشاف أجسام غريبة. يتم التأكد من وجود الجسم الغريب باستخدام سفينة الاكتشاف المزودة بجهاز GPS حيث توضع راية في مكان اكتشاف الجسم المغناطيسي الغريب. وهنا يقوم الكشف المغناطيسي بإنزال غطاس يحمل جهاز كشف مغناطيسي في مكان الراية، ويقوم بالبحث ضمن مناطق صغيرة يكون أبعادها عادة حوالي 1.5 متر إلى 2 متر، وتكون منطقة الكشف العظمى بنصف قطر يعادل 15 متر.
أما في حال اكتشاف أجسام قابلة للانفجار أو غيرها من الأجسام الخطرة يتم إيقاف العمل بشكل فوري ويتم طلب التعامل مع الأجسام المتفجرة من قبل وحدات القوات المسلحة المختصة بالمتفجرات.

أعمال القياسات الأولية
قبل البداية بأعمال التجريف، يتم إجراءات قياسات الأعماق للمناطق التجريف من أجل التأكد من كمية الأعمال.وفي حال أن التجريف سيتم على طريق ملاحة ضيق وطويل، فإنه من المفضل إجراء القياسات بشكل مستعرض، حيث أنه مؤخراً أصبح من الممكن إجراء القياسات بشكل مستعرض بشكل دقيق وسريع وفي اتجاه الناظم وذلك بمزج جهاز قياس الأعماق مع جهاز GPS. وإذا ما تم استخدام نظام القياس هذا في قياس شكل الأخاديد أثناء العمل، فسيكون من الممكن الحصول على تحكم ذو جودة عالية في الوقت الحقيقي للعمل. ومن أجل مراقبة التأثيرات البيئية، وأعمال رمي التربة، فمن الضروري إجراءات قياسات أيضاً لأمكنة الردم على اليابسة وأمكنة رمي الأتربة في البحر المفتوح.

رمي المواد
يخرج نتيجة عملية التجريف كميات كبيرة من الرمال والطمي التي يكون هناك حاجة للتخلص منها. تلجأ العديد من الدول مثل اليابان إلى استخدام هذه المواد في ردم البحر وإنشاء مناطق توسع عمرانية لليابسة. كما أن عدد من دول شرق آسيا تجري أبحاث للاستفادة من هذه المواد في تصنيع الآجر والإسمنت. أما عند عدم الحاجة لهذه المواد من أجل إعادة الاستخدام فمن الممكن التخلص منها بردم الحفر العميقة في قيعان البحار.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

آليات هندسية
جرافات
مصطلحات بحرية
منشآت ساحلية
هندسة الشواطئ

تجريف


Hochzeit auf Bärenhof ist der Titel einer Literaturverfilmung von 1942 unter der Regie von Carl Froelich. Das Drehbuch beruht auf Hermann Sudermanns Novelle Jolanthes Hochzeit, Untertitel Die Geschichte einer Liebe aus besseren Tagen. Bekannt ist der Film teils auch unter dem Titel Jolanthes Hochzeit. In den Hauptrollen agieren neben Heinrich George und Ilse Werner, Paul Wegener und Ernst von Klipstein.

Handlung
Unsere Ulanen: 16. August 1870 – Attacke bei Mars-la-Tour während des Deutsch-Französischen Krieges – "Doch ein Blutritt war es, ein Todesritt, tief die Lanzen – hoch die Fahnen! So haben wir sie auseinandergesprengt – Kürassiere und Ulanen!"

25 Jahre später, 16. August 1895: Auf Gut Bärenhof im Hause des Barons Maximilian von Hanckel, der 1870 einer der tapfersten und forschesten Ulanen war, findet ein rauschendes Fest statt. Der Ulanenoffizier Lothar von Pütz, dem Baron von Hanckel ein väterlich verbundener Freund ist, lernt hier Roswitha von Krakow kennen. Die beiden jungen Menschen verstehen sich sofort und tanzen den ganzen Abend miteinander. Als er sich Roswitha mit vollem Namen vorstellt, erschrickt die junge Frau. Ihre Familien sind so lange sie zurückdenken kann miteinander verfeindet. Es geht um die Rechte an einem Wiesengrundstück, das beide Parteien für sich beanspruchen. Lothar jedoch setzt sich über Roswithas Bedenken hinweg und meint, was sie denn mit der Feindschaft ihrer Väter zu tun hätten. In die ausgelassene Stimmung platzt ein Diener hinein, der Lothar von Pütz ein Telegramm überreicht. Lothar muss sofort nach Hause; sein Vater liegt im Sterben. Liebevoll verabschiedet er sich von Roswitha.

Gut Poggenhagen, das Lothar von seinem Vater geerbt hat, ist hoch verschuldet. Als der junge Offizier mit den Gedanken spielt, den Besitz abzustoßen, greift Baron von Hanckel ein, der sich seinem einzigen Freund und dessen Sohn verpflichtet fühlt, und steht für die Schulden ein. Er liebt Lothar, als sei es sein eigener Sohn. Er will auch dafür sorgen, dass der unselige zwischen den Familien von Pütz und von Krakow bestehende Rechtsstreit endlich beigelegt wird. Als er mit Leonhard von Krakow darüber sprechen will, preist der poltrige Ostpreuße ihm erst einmal seine Tochter Roswitha an und meint zu Frau und Tochter, ein Freier sei da. Die Damen sind mehr als peinlich berührt. Als von Hanckel den Prozess ansprechen will, reagiert von Krakow über und empört sich, dass der Name "von Pütz" in seinem Hause tabu sei. Nur Roswithas flehendem Blick ist es zu verdanken, dass dies nicht von Hanckels erster und letzter Besuch im Hause von Krakow gewesen ist. Leonhard von Krakow wäre mit Baron von Hanckel, auch wenn er wesentlich älter ist als seine Tochter, als Schwiegersohn mehr als einverstanden, denn immerhin ist der Baron der vermögendste Mann im gesamten Umkreis.

Als Lothar von Pütz und Roswitha sich endlich wiedersehen, fallen sie sich glücklich in die Arme und küssen sich. Lothar erzählt Roswitha von einem Pferderennen, das er zu gewinnen gedenke, um dann hoch erhobenen Hauptes vor ihren Vater treten zu können. Roswitha schleicht sich nachts aus dem Haus, um Lothar beim Armee-Rennen, das in Berlin-Karlshorst stattfindet, zu unterstützen. Lothars Freude ist groß. Er gibt der jungen Frau seine, wie er betont, letzten 3000 Mark und bittet sie, alles auf ihn und sein Pferd zu setzen, da er Außenseiter sei, sei der Gewinn bei einem Sieg entsprechend hoch. Roswitha zögert und entschließt sich dann, das Geld lieber nicht zu setzen, damit Lothar nicht völlig mittellos dasteht. Voller Entsetzen muss sie dann mit ansehen, wie Lothar als Erster durchs Ziel prescht. Als er kurz darauf freudestrahlend auf sie zueilt und sie fragt, ob sie die 60.000 gewonnenen Mark schon abgeholt habe, muss sie ihm die Wahrheit gestehen. Es kommt zu einem Streit zwischen beiden, an dessen Ende sie sich enttäuscht voneinander trennen. Wieder Zuhause, bekommt Roswitha Ärger mit dem Vater, der ihr Baron von Hanckel als zukünftigen Mann offeriert. Zu seinem großen Erstaunen willigt Roswitha ein. Bei einem Besuch bei den von Krakows gesteht Roswitha Baron von Hanckel, der den Kummer der jungen Frau bemerkt, dass es der Wunsch der Eltern sei, dass er ihr einen Antrag mache. Sie erzählt ihm aber auch, dass sie sich sehr wohl in seiner Nähe fühle. Von Hanckel, ein grundanständiger Mann, bittet Roswitha, alles noch einmal zu überdenken und ihm einen Brief zu schreiben, wenn sie wisse, was sie wirklich wolle. Erst dann würde er bei ihren Eltern vorstellig werden. Nachdem Roswitha ihm ihre Entscheidung brieflich mitgeteilt hat, hält von Hanckel bei ihren Eltern um ihre Hand an. Er versichert der jungen Frau, dass er alles tun werde, um sie glücklich zu machen. Da Baron von Hanckel nichts von den engen Banden zwischen Roswitha und Lothar von Pütz weiß, bekommt sein junger Freund natürlich auch eine Einladung zum Polterabend. Lothars Einwand, dass er nicht an dem Fest teilnehmen könne, lässt er nicht gelten. Gegenüber seinem Schwiegervater, Leonhard von Krakow, macht der Baron deutlich, dass seine einzige Bedingung bei einer Hochzeit die Niederlegung des Streits mit Lothar von Pütz sei. Krakow, immer auf seinen Vorteil bedacht, meint, wenn er den Rubens bekomme, dann wolle er auf die paar Morgen Wiese verzichten und der Streit mit von Pütz könne beigelegt werden.

Als Max von Hanckel am Abend des Festes Roswitha und Lothar einander vorstellt, ist er erstaunt darüber, wie reserviert die beiden miteinander umgehen. Von Hanckel versucht seine Nervosität unter Kontrolle zu bekommen, indem er dem Alkohol reichlich zuspricht. Als der redselige Regierungsrat eine Rede hält, die mit den Worten endet "Drum prüfe, wer sich ewig bindet" … ergänzt er den Schluss "ob sich das Herz zum Herzen findet!" und will dann ebenfalls eine Ansprache halten, die jedoch zum Desaster gerät. Roswitha stoppt ihn liebevoll und unter dem Lachen Einzelner verlässt er den Festsaal. Roswitha und Lothar folgen ihm. Er bittet die beiden, den Brauttanz zu tanzen, er brauche jetzt ein wenig Zeit, um nachzudenken. Abseits stehend schaut Max von Hanckel etwas später der sich amüsierenden Gesellschaft zu, als er Zeuge eines Gespräches zwischen Lothar von Pütz und Roswitha wird, die seinen Ziehsohn beschwört, er dürfe sie doch nicht allein lassen. Als der Baron Lothar wegschicken will, meint Roswitha, dass sie ohne Lothar nicht leben könne. Von Hanckel will nun alles wissen. Als die beiden mit ihrer Geschichte geendet haben, zeigt sich wieder einmal das gute Herz des Herrn vom Bärenhof. Er meint, wenn zwei junge Menschen sich lieben, dann sei es ihre Pflicht, sich über alle Zweifel hinwegzusetzen. Pragmatisch wie er ist, findet er sich mit der Situation ab und gibt den beiden ihm liebsten Menschen seinen Segen. Er sichert ihnen außerdem seine Unterstützung beim Aufbau von Gut Poggenhagen zu. Zusammen betreten die drei den Festsaal. Von Hanckel teilt seinen Gästen mit, dass er kein Bräutigam mehr sei, er habe auf dieses reizende Wesen an seiner Seite schweren Herzens verzichtet, weil Roswitha nur an der Seite von Lothar von Pütz wirklich glücklich werden könne. Als Roswithas Vater protestiert, er habe seine Tochter doch als Herrin auf Bärenhof sehen wollen, meint er lachend, er solle sich nicht aufregen, denn Bärenhof würden sie ja sowieso bekommen. "So", meint er, "und nun macht aus diesem missglückten Polterabend noch eine vergnügliche Verlobung und eure Hochzeit findet bei mir auf dem Bärenhof statt!"

Produktion

Produktionsnotizen

Die Dreharbeiten fanden zwischen dem 18. August und Anfang November 1941 statt. Gedreht wurde in Berlin-Karlshorst und in der Ufastadt in Babelsberg.

Es handelt sich um einen Film der Universum Film (UFA). Er zählt zu den Unterhaltungsfilmen im Nationalsozialismus und befand sich auf der Liste der unter alliierter Militärzensur verbotenen deutschen Filme.

Stummfilmstar Rudolf Klein-Rogge spielte hier mit dem Sanitätsrat seine letzte Filmrolle im Dritten Reich. Das Lied Ich lieb Dich viel zu sehr wurde von Ilse Werner vorgetragen.

Produktionskosten, Veröffentlichung
Die Produktionskosten lagen bei 1,531 Mio. RM.

Am 8. Juni 1942 fand die Uraufführung des Films in zwei Berliner Lichtspielhäusern statt. In Österreich lief die Verfilmung unter dem Titel Jolanthes Hochzeit. Anfang des Jahres 1943 wurde der Film in Finnland und Dänemark veröffentlicht. Weitere Veröffentlichungen erfolgten in Belgien, Ungarn, Italien und Schweden. Der internationale Titel des Films lautet Wedding in Barenhof.

Rezeption

Kritik
Das Lexikon des internationalen Films stellte fest: "Komödiantisch-burleske Liebesgeschichte aus den Kreisen ostpreußischer Landjunker um 1900, routiniert, aber arg theatralisch inszeniert. Überzeugend nach wie vor die Darstellungskunst Heinrich Georges und Paul Wegeners, die den Film auf ein beachtliches Niveau heben."

Ähnlich fiel die Kritik auch auf der Seite Kino.de aus. Dort hieß es: "In ostpreußischen Landadelskreisen um die Jahrhundertwende angesiedelte Liebeskomödie, mit der Carl Froehlich ('Es war eine rauschende Ballnacht') versuchte, das deutsche Publikum während des Zweiten Weltkriegs auf heiterere Gedanken zu bringen. Während sich das junge Liebespaar Ilse Werner und Ernst von Klipstein redlich müht, sind es vor allem die beiden Altstars Heinrich George und Paul Wegener, die durch ihre schauspielerischen Leistungen dem Film einen gewissen Reiz verleihen."

Der Autor und Kritiker Falk Schwarz war begeistert, er schrieb: "'Meisterhaft' wäre noch untertrieben! Prachtvoll. Aus des Lebens ganzer Fülle." Schwarz schilderte einzelne Szenen, um dann festzustellen: "Ein schauspielerisches Fest. George kann nicht nur wüst poltern, sondern auch flüstern und flüsternd gesteht er sich ein: sie liebt einen anderen. Sein Kopf bleibt im Halbdunkel, aber jede Modulation in der Stimme in diesem Monolog verrät seine Tragik. Da wächst er über sich hinaus und verzichtet. Das ist mit einer solchen Bravour gespielt, dass kein Auge trocken bleibt. Kritik? Eskapismus ins Biedermeier, Idylle, die niemals so war – alles 'bullshit' angesichts einer derartigen Leistung!"

Medien
DVD-Veröffentlichung
 Hochzeit auf Bärenhof – Reihe 'Deutsche Filmklassiker' – Warner Home Video, Erscheinungstermin: 17. Juni 2005
 Hochzeit auf Bärenhof – DVD/BLU-RAY – Black Hill Pictures GmbH, Erscheinungstermin 29. Januar 2010 (Zusatzinfos: Bio- und Filmographie von Heinrich George, Ilse Werner, Paul Wegener, Lina Carstens und Ernst von Klipstein, Bildergalerie)

Siehe auch
 Liste der während der NS-Zeit im Deutschen Reich uraufgeführten deutschen Spielfilme

Weblinks

 Hochzeit auf Bärenhof Filmplakat bei filmportal.de
 Hochzeit auf Bärenhof Abb. Titelblatt Illustrierter Film-Kurier Nr. 3264 (im Bild: Ilse Werner, Heinrich George, Ernst von Klipstein)
 Hochzeit auf Bärenhof Abb. Titelblatt Illustrierte Film-Bühne Nr. 1682 (im Bild wie zuvor)
 Hochzeit auf Bärenhof murnau-stiftung.de

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1942
Deutscher Film
Schwarzweißfilm
Filmkomödie
Liebesfilm
Hermann-Sudermann-Verfilmung

Hochzeit auf Bärenhof