The Berlin U-Bahn (; short for , "underground railway") is a rapid transit system in Berlin, the capital and largest city of Germany, and a major part of the city's public transport system. Together with the S-Bahn, a network of suburban train lines, and a tram network that operates mostly in the eastern parts of the city, it serves as the main means of transport in the capital.

Opened in 1902, the  serves 175 stations spread across nine lines, with a total track length of , about 80% of which is underground.  Trains run every two to five minutes during peak hours, every five minutes for the rest of the day and every ten minutes in the evening. Over the course of a year, U-Bahn trains travel , and carry over 400 million passengers. In 2017, 553.1 million passengers rode the U-Bahn.  The entire system is maintained and operated by the , commonly known as the BVG.

Designed to alleviate traffic flowing into and out of central Berlin, the U-Bahn was rapidly expanded until the city was divided into East and West Berlin at the end of World War II.  Although the system remained open to residents of both sides at first, the construction of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent restrictions imposed by East Germany limited travel across the border. The East Berlin U-Bahn lines from West Berlin were severed, except for two West Berlin lines that ran through East Berlin (U6 and U8). These were allowed to pass through East Berlin without stopping at any of the stations, which were closed. Friedrichstraße was the exception because it was used as a transfer point between U6 and the West Berlin S-Bahn system, and a border crossing into East Berlin.  The system was reopened completely following the fall of the Berlin Wall and German reunification.

The Berlin U-Bahn is the most extensive underground network in Germany.
In 2006, travel on the U-Bahn was equivalent to 122.2 million km (76 million mi) of car journeys.

History

The Berlin U-Bahn was built in three major phases:
 Up to 1913: the construction of the  (small profile) network in Berlin, Charlottenburg, Schöneberg, and Wilmersdorf;
 Up to 1930: the introduction of the  (large profile) network that established the first north–south lines;
 From 1953 on: further development after World War II.

In a bid to secure its own improvement, Schöneberg also wanted a connection to Berlin. The elevated railway company did not believe such a line would be profitable, so the city built the first locally financed underground in Germany (intentionally using standard of ). It was opened on 1 December 1910. Just a few months earlier, work began on a fourth line to link Wilmersdorf in the southwest to the growing Berlin U-Bahn.

The early network ran mostly east to west, connecting the richer areas in and around Berlin, as these routes had been deemed the most profitable.  In order to open up the network to more of the workers of Berlin, the city wanted north–south lines to be established. In 1920, the surrounding areas were annexed to form Groß-Berlin ("Greater Berlin"), removing the need for many negotiations, and giving the city much greater bargaining power over the private  ("elevated railway company"). The city also mandated that new lines would use wider carriages—running on the same, standard-gauge track—to provide greater passenger capacity; these became known as the Großprofil ("large profile") network.

Construction of the  ("North-South railway") connecting Wedding in the north to Tempelhof and Neukölln in the south had started in December 1912, but halted for the First World War. Work resumed in 1919, although the money shortage caused by hyperinflation slowed progress considerably.  On 30 January 1923, the first section opened between Hallesches Tor and Stettiner Bahnhof (Naturkundemuseum), with a continuation to Seestraße following two months later.  Desperately underfunded, the new line had to use trains from the old Kleinprofil network; the carriages exits had to be widened to fill the gap to the platforms with wooden boards that passengers jokingly referred to as Blumenbretter ("boards for flower pots"). The line branched at Belle-Alliance-Straße, now (Mehringdamm); the continuation south to Tempelhof opened on 22 December 1929, the branch to Grenzallee on 21 December 1930.

In 1912, plans were approved for AEG to build its own north–south underground line, named the  after its termini,  Gesundbrunnen and Neukölln, via Alexanderplatz.  Financial difficulties stopped the construction in 1919; the liquidation of AEG-Schnellbahn-AG, and Berlin's commitment to the Nord-Süd-Bahn, prevented any further development until 1926. The first section opened on 17 July 1927 between Boddinstraße and Schönleinstraße, with the intermediate Hermannplatz becoming the first station at which passengers could transfer between two different Großprofil lines. The completed route was opened on 18 April 1930. Before control of the U-Bahn network was handed over completely to the BVG in 1929, the Hochbahngesellschaft started construction on a final line that, in contrast to its previous lines, was built as part of the Großprofil network. The major development was stopped in 1930.

The seizure of power by the National Socialists brought many changes that affected Germany, including the U-Bahn. Most notably, the new national flag was hung in every station, and two of the stations were renamed. Extensive plans—mostly the work of architect Albert Speer—were drawn up that included the construction of a circular line crossing the established U-Bahn lines, and new lines or extensions to many outlying districts. Despite such grand plans, no U-Bahn development occurred. In the Nazi period the only addition to Berlin's underground railways was North–South Tunnel of S-Bahn, opened 1936–1939.

During the Second World War, U-Bahn travel soared as car use fell, and many of the underground stations were used as air-raid shelters; however, Allied bombs damaged or destroyed large parts of the U-Bahn system. Although the damage was usually repaired fairly quickly, the reconstructions became more difficult as the war went on.  Eventually, on 25 April 1945, the whole system ground to a halt when the power station supplying the network failed. Upon unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany following the Battle for Berlin there were 437 damaged points and 496 damaged vehicles.

The war had damaged or destroyed much of the network; however,  of track and 93 stations were in use by the end of 1945, and the reconstruction was completed in 1950. Nevertheless, the consequent division of Berlin into East and West sectors brought further changes to the U-Bahn. Although the network spanned all sectors, and residents had freedom of movement, West Berliners increasingly avoided the Soviet sector and, from 1953, loudspeakers on the trains gave warnings when approaching the border, where passage of East Germans into the Western sectors also became subject to restrictions imposed by their government. There was a general strike on 17 June 1953 which closed the sections of the Berlin U-Bahn that traveled through East Berlin. Just after the strike, on the following day, train service on the line A was resumed and the service C was resumed to provide connections to Nordbahnhof and Friedrichstraße.

Between 1953 and 1955, the 200-Kilometre-Plan was drawn up, detailing the future development of the U-Bahn, which would grow to . Extending the C line to run from Tegel to Alt-Mariendorf was considered the highest priority: the northern extension to Tegel was opened on 31 May 1958. In order to circumvent East Berlin, and provide rapid-transport connections to the densely populated areas in Steglitz, Wedding, and Reinickendorf, a third north–south line was needed.  The first section of line G was built between Leopoldplatz and Spichernstraße, with the intention of extending it at both ends. It had been planned to open the G line on 2 September 1961, but an earlier opening on 28 August was forced by the announcement of the construction of the Berlin Wall.

The next crisis was followed by the Berlin Wall construction on 13 August 1961, which had split the city between east and west. The U2 was split into two sections, and for the north–south lines, trains were not allowed to stop for passengers and become Geisterbahnhöfe ("ghost stations"), patrolled by armed East-German border guards. Only at Friedrichstraße, a designated border crossing point, were passengers allowed to disembark. A further consequence over the years is that most of the Berlin S-Bahn passengers boycotted the Deutsche Reichsbahn, and transferred to the U-Bahn with numerous expansion.

From 9 November 1989, following months of unrest, the travel restrictions placed upon East Germans were lifted. Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard the statement live on television and flooded the border checkpoints, demanding entry into West Berlin. Jannowitzbrücke, a former ghost station, was reopened two days later as an additional crossing point. It was the first station to be reopened after the opening of the Berlin Wall. Other stations, Rosenthaler Platz and Bernauer Straße on the U8 soon followed suit; and by 1 July 1990, all border controls were removed. In the decade following reunification, only three short extensions were made to U-Bahn lines.

In the 1990s some stations in the eastern portion of the city still sported bullet-riddled tiles at their entrances, a result of World War II battle damage during the Battle of Berlin. These were removed by 21 December 2004.

U-Bahn network

Routes

The U-Bahn has nine lines:

Stations

Among Berlin's 170 U-Bahn stations there are many with especially striking architecture or unusual design characteristics:

Hermannplatz station resembles something of a U-Bahn cathedral. The platform area is 7 metres high, 132 metres long and 22 metres wide. It was built in connection with the construction of the first North-South Line (Nord-Süd-Bahn), now the U8. The architecturally important department store Karstadt adjacent to the station, was being constructed at the same time. Karstadt contributed a large sum of money towards the decoration of the station and was in return rewarded with direct access from the station to the store. Hermannplatz was also the first U-Bahn station in Berlin to be equipped with escalators. Today, Hermannplatz is a busy interchange between the U7 and U8.

Alexanderplatz station is another of the more notable U-Bahn stations in Berlin, and is an important interchange between three lines (U2, U5 and U8). The first part of the station was opened in 1913 along with an extension of today's U2 line. In the 1920s Alexanderplatz was completely redesigned, both above and below ground. The U-Bahn station was expanded to provide access to the new D (today's U8) and E (today's U5) lines, then under construction. The result was a station with a restrained blue-grey tiled colour-scheme and Berlin's first underground shopping facilities, designed by Alfred Grenander. Over the last few years Alexanderplatz station has, in stages, been restored; the work was due to be finished in 2007.

Wittenbergplatz station is also unusually designed. It opened in 1902 as a simple station with two side platforms, designed to plans created by Paul Wittig. The station was completely redesigned by Alfred Grenander in 1912, with five platform faces, accommodating two new lines, one to Dahlem on today's (U3), and the other to Kurfürstendamm, today's Uhlandstraße (Berlin U-Bahn) on the (U1). A provision for a sixth platform was included but has never been completed. The redesign also featured a new entrance building, which blended into the grand architectural styles of Wittenbergplatz and the nearby KaDeWe department store. The interior of the entrance building was again rebuilt after considerable war damage during World War II, this time in a contemporary 1950s style. This lasted until the early 1980s when the interior was retro-renovated back into its original style. Wittenbergplatz station was presented with a London style "Roundel type" station sign in 1952, the 50th Anniversary of the Berlin U-Bahn. Today's station is an interchange station between the U1, U2 and U3 lines.

The name of the Gleisdreieck (rail triangle) station is reminiscent of a construction which can only be imagined today. The wye was built in the opening year 1902. Plans for a redesign were made soon after, because the wye was already obsolete. An accident on 26 September 1908, which claimed 18 to 21 lives, was the final straw. The redesign and expansion of the transfer station, during which the station was still used, took until 1912. After World War II the station was put back into service on 21 October 1945 (lower platform) and 18 November 1945 (upper platform). However, service was interrupted again by the construction of the Berlin Wall. From 1972 onwards no trains ran on the lower platform, because servicing the U2 was no longer profitable due to the parallel traffic on the U1. The lower platform was reactivated in 1983, when the test line of the M-Bahn was built from the Gleisdreieck to the Kemperplatz station. It was broken down again after the fall of the Berlin Wall, since it obstructed parts of the reopened U2. Since 1993 the U1 and U2 trains both service the station again.

Tickets

Berlin public transit passes are available from many places, automated and non-automated, from BVG, Bahn, and authorized third-parties. The Ring-Bahn Line and the other S-Bahn lines are included, as are all U-Bahn lines, buses, trams, ferries, and most trains within the city limits: tickets are valid for all transportation considered part of the Berlin-Regional public transit system.

The Berlin U-Bahn mostly runs on an honor system and has been noted for its relative lack of turnstiles in its stations; instead transportation agents will inspect tickets and fine fare evaders.

Ride-passes (tickets) are available in fare classes: Adult and Reduced. Children between the ages of six and 14 and large dogs qualify for the reduced fare. Children below the age of six and small dogs travel free. There are senior discounts in the form of an annual ticket. Residents who have applied for and received a German Disability Identification card confirming 80% or more disability (ID's available from the Versorgungsamt, German Disability Office), can ride without a pass, including an additional person (as a helper). The disability identification card must be in the owner's possession when traveling.

With unemployment in the east averaging 15%, another common fare class in Berlin is the S(ocial)-Class. These identification cards are cleared through the normal government offices, then fulfilled at a BVG ride-pass non-automated location. Provided either by the Job Center (Arbeitsamt) for out-of-work residents or by the Sozialamt for people who cannot work or are disabled, the S-Class ride-passes normally restrict travel to the AB zones and must be renewed (a new pass purchased at a non-automated location) on the 1st of each month.

Additional passes are available for those which want to bring a bicycle on the public transit system. A bicycle-pass is included in the Student-class ride-pass, which is provided through the universities.

For small dogs which can be carried there is no additional fare requirement. For each "large dog", a reduced fare ride-pass must be purchased. Tourist ride-passes, all-day, group passes, and season passes include a dog fare.

BVG ride-passes are issued for specific periods of time, and most require validation with a stamping machine before they are first used. The validation shows the date and time of the first use, and where the ticket was validated (in code), and therefore when the ticket expires. For example, once validated, an all-day pass allows unlimited use from the time of purchase to 3:00 am the following day. Unlike most other metro systems, tickets in Berlin are not checked before entering tram, U-Bahn or S-Bahn stations. They are however checked by the bus drivers upon entering. On the tram, S-Bahn and U-Bahn, a proof-of-payment system is used: there are random spot checks inside by plain-clothed fare inspectors who have the right to demand to see each passenger's ticket. Passengers found without a ticket or an expired/invalid ticket are fined €60 per incident. The passenger may be required to pay on the spot, and is required on the spot to give a valid address to which the relevant fine notice can be mailed (it does not have to be in Germany). On the third incident, the BVG calls the offender to court, as there is now a history of 'riding without paying'.

 Fare zones

 Berlin is a part of the Verkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg (Berlin-Brandenburg Transit Authority, VBB), which means ticketing and fare systems are unified with that of the surrounding state of Brandenburg. Berlin is divided into three fare zones, known as A, B, and C. Zone A is the area in the centre of Berlin and is demarcated by the S-Bahn urban rail ring line. Zone B covers the rest of the area within the city borders, and Zone C includes the immediate surroundings of Berlin. Zone C is divided into eight parts, each belonging to an administrative district. The Potsdam-Mittelmark area is included in the city district of Potsdam.

 Tickets can be bought for specific fare zones, or multiple zones. Most passengers who live in Berlin buy AB fare zone tickets, while commuters coming in from the suburbs need ABC fare zone tickets. If a ticket not valid for travel in a tariff zone is checked by a ticket inspector, the passenger is subject to a fine.

 Short-term tickets
 Single-journey tickets (Einzeltickets) are issued for use within specific fare zones, namely AB, BC, and ABC. They are only valid for two hours after validation, and cannot be extended. The BVG also offers single-day tickets (Tageskarte), which are valid for the entire day when first validated until 3 a.m. the next morning.

 Long-term tickets
 Long-term paper tickets are issued with validity periods of seven days (7-Tage-Karte), one month (Monatskarten), or one year (Jahreskarte). The BVG is in the process of introducing the plastic MetroCard as a yearly ticket that also has additional features. The Metrocard also permits passengers to make reservations for hire cars at specific times, for example on weekends. It is expected that plastic Metrocards without such features will also be made available as they are more durable and ecofriendly than the paper tickets.

 Tourist passes

 The BVG offers tickets directed specifically for non-resident tourists of Berlin called the WelcomeCard and CityTourCard . WelcomeCards are valid for either 48 or 72 hours, and can be used by one adult and up to three children between the ages of six and 14. WelcomeCards are valid in fare zones ABC, and have the additional benefit of a reduction on entry fees to many museums and tourist attractions. See the Current Prices and Descriptions link for more information.

Underground facilities
A full GSM (GSM-900 and GSM-1800) mobile phone network for Germany's four carriers is in place throughout the U-Bahn system of stations and tunnels. This system was in place by 1995 for the E-Plus network, and was one of the first metro systems in the world to allow mobile telephone use; by the late-1990s the other networks could be used in some portions as well. Since 2015, UMTS and LTE is also available for E-Plus and O2 (LTE since 2016) customers,  and since 2020 mobile reception in some underground sections has also been extended to Deutsche Telekom and Vodafone Germany customers, with complete reception for the latter two telcos expected to be realised by mid-2021.

Many of the carriages on the U-Bahn feature small flat screen displays that feature news headlines from BZ, weekly weather forecasts, and ads for local businesses.

Most major interchange stations have large shopping concourses with banks, supermarkets, and fast food outlets.

Unused stations and tunnels
There are several stations, platforms and tunnels that were built in preparation for future U-Bahn extensions, and others that have been abandoned following planning changes. For example, platforms have already been provided for the planned "U3" at Potsdamer Platz on the planned line to Weißensee. It is unlikely that this line, which had the working title "U3" will ever be built, so the platforms have been partially converted into a location for events and exhibitions. The line number "U3" has been used to re-number the branch to Krumme Lanke, which had been part of "U1".

Line D, today's U8, was intended to run directly under Dresdner Straße via Oranienplatz to Kottbusser Tor. This segment of tunnel was abandoned in favour of a slightly less direct route in order to provide the former Wertheim department store at Moritzplatz with a direct connection. This involved the construction of a 90-degree curve of the line between Moritzplatz and Kottbusser Tor stations. The construction of the tunnel under Dresdner Straße had only been partially completed before abandonment, leaving it with only one track. This tunnel is separated into three parts, as it was blocked by a concrete wall where it crossed the border between East and West Berlin. Another concrete wall separates this tunnel, which now houses a transformer for an electricity supplier, from the never-completed Oranienplatz Station which is located partially under the square of the same name.

Stralauer Tor was a station on the eastern bank of the Spree between Warschauer Straße and Schlesisches Tor stations. It was completely destroyed in World War II. It had been opened in 1902 and was renamed Osthafen in 1924.  Today, only struts on the viaduct remain to indicate its location. In the post-Second World War period it was not thought necessary to rebuild the station, due its close proximity to the Warschauer Straße station. Also its location was directly on the border between the Soviet and American sectors. Although a Berlin map dated 1946 shows the station renamed as Bersarinstraße after the Soviet General responsible for restoring civil administration of the city, this name was used later at another location.

Nürnberger Platz station was closed on 1 July 1959. It was replaced by two new stations on either side, Augsburger Straße and an interchange station to the U9 at Spichernstraße. Today, nothing remains of the station as a third track siding was constructed in its place.

Another tunnel, which once connected the U4 to its original depot and workshop at Otzenstraße (Schöneberg), is still in existence. The connection from Innsbrucker Platz station to the depot was severed when a deep level motorway underpass was constructed in the early 1970s; however, the continuation of the tunnel at Eisackstraße is still in existence for a distance of 270 metres and now ends at the former junction to the workshop of the Schöneberg line.

Platforms at five stations, Rathaus Steglitz, Schloßstraße, Walther-Schreiber-Platz, Innsbrucker Platz, and Kleistpark, were provided for the planned but never constructed U10. The U10 platform at Kleistpark has been converted into office space for the BVG. At Schloßstraße, U9 and U10 were planned to share two directional platforms at different levels; the would-be U10 tracks have been abandoned, leaving both platforms used by U9 trains only. The other U10 platforms remain unused and are not generally open to the public.

During the construction of Adenauerplatz (U7) station, which was built in conjunction with an underpass, platforms were also provided for a planned U1 extension from Uhlandstraße to Theodor-Heuss-Platz. A short tunnel section was also constructed in front of the Internationales Congress Centrum (ICC), beneath the Messedamm/Neue Kantstraße junction. This tunnel was built concurrently with a pedestrian subway and was also intended for the planned extension of the U1.  The tunnel section, approximately 60 metres long, ends at the location of the planned Messe station adjacent to Berlins central bus station (ZOB). The tunnel is used as a storage area for theater props.

At Jungfernheide station, double U-Bahn platforms similar to those at Schloßstraße were built for the planned extension of the U5. The unused platform sides are fenced off. The finished (U5) tunnel section which leads off towards Tegel airport is now used for firefighting exercises.

On 4 December 2020, the U5 extension between Alexanderplatz and Brandenburger Tor was opened. This included the new Unter den Linden station, which acts as a transfer point between the lines U5 and U6. Französische Straße station on the U6 was simultaneously closed due to its short distance to the new station.

Future development
Berlin's chronic financial problems make any expansion not mandated by the Hauptstadtvertrag—the document that regulates the necessary changes to the city as the capital of Germany—unlikely. Furthermore, there is still great rivalry for construction money between the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn. After the construction boom that followed the reunification of the city, enthusiasm for further growth has cooled off; many people feel that Berlin's needs are adequately met by the present U- and S-Bahn.  As of 2020, the only proposals receiving serious consideration aim to facilitate travel around the existing system, such as moving Warschauer Straße's U-Bahn station closer to its S-Bahn station.

There are several long-term plans for the U-Bahn that have no estimated time of completion, most of which involve closing short gaps between stations, enabling them to connect to other lines. This would depend on demand, and new developments in the vicinity. New construction of U-Bahn lines is frequently the subject of political discussion with the Berlin chapters of the CDU, FDP and AfD who usually advocate in favor of U-Bahn expansion while the SPD, Alliance 90/The Greens and The Left typically advocate for tram construction instead.

After the last extension of U5 opened on 4 December 2020, there are no immediate plans to expand the metro system due to lack of budgetary conditions, although there are several extensions of railway lines that can be discussed over time:

Berlin Transport Minister Manja Schreiner (CDU) and Economy Minister Franziska Giffey (SPD) have underlined the local government's plans to extend the ends of each of the city's nine underground lines so that they reach the city's limits with the neighbouring state of Brandenburg.

"We must radically extend all the U-Bahn lines," Giffey told the Tagesspiegel newspaper. "We must offer Berliners a vision as to which routes we will tackle first," Schreiner added. Speaking to the dpa, Schreiner added that "Masterplan 2030" was crucial for many reasons: "More public transport means better climate protection, a better quality of life and more suitable mobility for everyone in the city."

Here's how the city plans to expand Berlin's nine existing underground lines - as well as building an additional two lines to serve travellers:

Ringlinie U0 - The outer Ringbahn
This is perhaps the biggest part of the project and one that will impact the most people. While Berlin's current Ringbahn - a circular line which rides an hour-long stretch around the city, connects U-Bahn lines to each other about mid-way through their routes - the local government plans for the U0 Ringlinie to connect the ends of each U-Bahn line that sprawls to near the outskirts of the city.

Since this part of the expansion project is particularly ambitious, it may be many, many years before you can step onto a U0 Ringlinie train.

U1 - Spandau to Weißensee
Currently, the U1 is simply a horizontal route which connects the east and west of central Berlin. Under the new plans, the U1 will reach Heerstraße in Spandau at one end and run through to Antonplatz in Weißensee at the other. With the plans, Antonplatz is set to become a new connection hotspot, where the U0 Ringlinie, the U1 and U3 will intersect.

U2 - Spandau to Pankow
This line will be expanded again into Spandau and towards the northeast to Pankow. The final stop in the northeast will be Pankow Kirche in the Pankow Altstadt.

U3 - Zehlendorf / Kleinmachnow to Falkenberg
This will be the only U-Bahn line that may even cross outside Berlin's borders with Brandenburg, reaching into Düppel-Kleinmachnow.

For now, though, the plans are just for the line to be extended to Mexikoplatz (S1), which reaches the border of Schlachtensee. If the funding is secured, the expected five-year-long construction process should begin swiftly and the U3 could reach Mexikoplatz by 2030.

U4 - Lichterfelde to Marzahn
This line will connect two very different parts of Berlin in what will be the biggest line extension of the project by far. At the moment the U4 is Berlin's baby U-Bahn line; the yellow one that stretches a modest four stops between Innsbrucker Platz and Nollendorfplatz without leaving the central southwest of the city.

Under the new plans, the line will be hugely extended at both ends, ultimately connecting Lichterfelde to Marzahn.

U5 - Charlottenburg to Hönow
Only recently was the U5 extended from Alexanderplatz to Hauptbahnhof and the line is already set for another development, but one not quite as ambitious as the U4 development.

Since the U5 already reaches quite far on its eastern side, to Hönow, it will only be extended in the west and even then only to Jungfernheide, the Ringbahn station that lies in northern Charlottenburg.

U6 - Tegel to Lichtenrade
As with the U5, the U6 will only be extended at one end of the line, in the south of the city. The new line will continue to run from Alt-Tegel, but instead of ending its journey at Alt-Mariendorf, will continue on to Naharlystraße in Lichtenrade.

U7 - Spandau to BER Airport
Already one of the city's longer U-Bahn routes, the U7 will be extended from Rathaus Spandau in the west, adding a new stop so it comes to meet the new U1 line at its terminal. In the southeast, the train will basically replace the current X7 bus route, which runs from Rudow to BER Airport.

U8 - Reinickendorf to Buckow
One of Berlin's most infamous lines, shamelessly voted to have the highest number of "disgusting" stations, the northern part of U8 will be expanded from Wittenau to reach the Märkisches Viertel in Reinickendorf. In the south, it will extend from Hermannstraße to Buckow-Süd.

U9 - Pankow to Buckow
Another of Berlin's most important north-south lines, the U9 will see considerable expansion at both ends. In the north the orange line will extend out from Wedding into Pankow and, in the south, the line will go quite far south of Steglitz to reach Buckower Chausee, south of Tempelhof-Schöneberg.

U10 - Alexanderplatz to Weißensee
And a new addition! The highly-awaited U10 should run from Alexanderplatz to Weißensee. Portions of the U10 have remained under the city's streets since the plans for the line were scrapped in the 1970s, earning it the name Phantomlinie (Phantom line). And when the U5 line was extended to Hauptbahnhof in 2020 an extra platform was built at U-Bahnhof Rotes Rathaus with the future U10 in mind.

New U-Bahn stops to expect on the U10 line are; Am Friedrichshain, Marienburger Straße, Danziger Straße, Greifswalder Straße, Gürtelstraße and Falkenberger Straße - but don't get too excited, the funds are yet to be secured for this one.

Rolling stock

The Berlin U-Bahn uses 750-volt DC electric trains that run on standard gauge ( ) tracks. The first trains were based on trams; they have a width of , and take their power from an upward facing third rail. To accommodate greater passenger numbers without lengthening the trains—which would require costly extended platforms—trains that ran on lines built after World War I were required to be wider. The original trains and lines, which continued to operate, were designated Kleinprofil (small profile), and the newer, wider trains and lines were designated Großprofil (large profile). Großprofil trains are  wide, and take their power from a downward facing third rail. This is similar to New York City's A Division and B Division systems, where the B Division trains are wider than A Division trains (though B Division trains are also longer, while Großprofil trains are generally about the same length as Kleinprofil ones).

Although the two profiles are generally incompatible, Kleinprofil trains have been modified to run on Großprofil lines during three periods of economic difficulty. Between 1923 and 1927 on the Nord-Süd-Bahn, and between 1961 and 1978 on the E line, adapted Kleinprofil trains were used to compensate for the lack of new Großprofil trains: they were widened with wooden boards to reach the platforms; and had their power pickups adapted to accept power from the negatively charged downward-facing third rail, instead of positively charged upward-facing third rail. As of 2017, Class IK Kleinprofil trains are in operation on the Großprofil line U5, after refurbishing the existing F79 rolling stock was deemed unfeasible. They were widened with metal boards by  on each side and elevated by  to close the gap to the platforms; their power pickups were designed reversible to work on both profiles. As of October 2019, IK rolling stock is still used on the U5; it is intended to move the trains to Kleinprofil lines once new Großprofil rolling stock has been delivered.

As of 2007, Kleinprofil trains run on the U1, U2, U3, U4 and U5 lines; and Großprofil trains operate on the U5, U55, U6, U7, U8, and U9 routes.

Kleinprofil (small profile)

Kleinprofil trains are  wide, and  high. When the U-Bahn opened in 1902, forty-two multiple units, and twenty-one railroad cars, with a top speed of , had been built at the Warschauer Brücke workshop. In contrast to the earlier test vehicles, seating was placed along the walls, facing inward, which was considered more comfortable.  Until 1927, U-Bahn trains had smoking compartments and third-class carriages.  The trains were first updated in 1928; A-II carriages were distinguished by only having three windows, and two sliding doors.

After the division of the city, West Berlin upgraded its U-Bahn trains more rapidly than did East Berlin.  The A3 type, introduced in 1960, was modelled on the Großprofil D type, and received regular modifications every few years.  Meanwhile, A-I and A-II trains operated exclusively in East Berlin until 1975, when G-I trains, which had a top speed of , started to travel the Thälmannplatz–Pankow route.  These were superseded in 1988 by the G-I/1 type, which used couplings that were incompatible with the older G-I carriages.

Following reunification, the A3L type was again upgraded as the A3L92. In 2000, prototypes for a Kleinprofil variant of the H series were built; the HK, the first Kleinprofil type to use AC induction motors like their large counterparts, differs from its Großprofil counterpart by not being fully interconnected—carriages are only interconnected within each of the two half-trains.

As of 2005, only trains of the HK, G-I/1 and A3(U/L) types are in active service.

From 2017, new IK-type trains will enter service to replace the remaining examples of type A3L71. Like HK-type trains they will be interconnected and as a result of their regenerative braking will recuperate up to 20% of the energy they require.

Großprofil (large profile)

Großprofil trains are  wide, and  high. The first sixteen multiple units and eight ordinary carriages entered active service on the Nord-Süd-Bahn in 1924, after a year of using modified Kleinprofil trains.  Designated B-I, the cars were  long and each had three sliding doors; the large elliptical windows at the front of the train earned them the nickname, Tunneleulen (tunnel owls). Upgraded B-II trains were introduced in 1927, and continued to be used until 1969. The first  C-I trains were trialled in 1926, and two upgrades were produced before the end of the decade.  The first U-Bahn trains to use aluminium in their construction, the C-IV types, were introduced in 1930.  Many C-type trains were seized by Soviet forces in 1945, to be used in the Moscow Metro.

The first D-type trains, manufactured in 1957, were built from steel, making them very heavy and less efficient; however, the DL type that followed from 1965 used metals that were less dense, allowing a 26% reduction in weight. In East Berlin, D-type trains bought from the BVG were designated D-I. Difficulties there in trying to develop an E series of trains led, in 1962, to the conversion of S-Bahn type 168 trains for use on the E line. These E-III trains were desperately needed at the time to allow modified Kleinprofil trains to return to the increasingly busy A line but, following reunification, high running costs led to their retirement in 1994.

In West Berlin, the successor to the D-type was the F-type, which debuted in 1973. They varied from other models in having seats that were perpendicular to the sides of the train; from 1980, they also became the first U-Bahn trains to use three-phase electricity. In 1995, the original seating arrangement returned as the H series took up service. H-type trains are characterised by the interconnection of carriages throughout the length of the train; and they can only be removed from the tracks at main service depots.

As of 2005, only F, H, and a variation of the IK-type trains are in active service.

Depots

Depots of the Berlin U-Bahn fall into one of two classes: main workshops (, abbreviated as Hw); and service workshops (, abbreviated Bw).  The main workshops are the only places where trains can be lifted from the tracks; they are used for the full inspections required every few years, and for any major work on trains.  The service workshops only handle minor repairs and maintenance, such as replacing windows, or removing graffiti.

As of 2005, the only dedicated Kleinprofil depot is at Grunewald (Hw Gru/Bw Gru), which opened on 21 January 1913.  The first Großprofil depot opened at Seestraße (Hw See/Bw See) in 1923, to service the Nord-Süd-Bahn.  It has 17 tracks—2 for the main workshop, and 15 for the service workshop—but its inner-city location prevents any further expansion.  Due to BVG budget cuts, the Seestraße depot also services Kleinprofil trains.  Two further Großprofil service workshops are located at Friedrichsfelde (Bw Fri), and Britz-Süd (Bw Britz).

In the past, there were other workshops.  The first opened in 1901 at Warschauer Brücke, and was the construction site for most of the early U-Bahn trains.  The division of the U-Bahn network on 13 August 1961 forced its closure, although it was reopened in 1995 as a storage depot.  A small depot operated at Krumme Lanke between 22 December 1929 and 1 May 1968; and, while the network was split, East Berlin's U-Bahn used the S-Bahn depot at Schöneweide, along with a small service workshop at Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz, which was closed following reunification.

Accidents
The Berlin  ranks among the safest modes of transport: its history features few accidents.

The most severe accident occurred at the original  (rail triangle), where the main and branch lines were connected by switches that allowed the tracks to cross.  On 26 September 1908, a train driver missed a stop signal.  As a result, two trains collided at the junction, and one fell off the viaduct.  The accident killed eighteen people, and severely injured another twenty-one.  's triangular layout had already been deemed unsuitable for future developments; this incident—and a later, less-serious one—triggered its reconstruction as a multi-level station, starting in 1912.

On 30 June 1965, a train with brake failure stopped on the G line—today's U9—between  and .  Unaware of the faulty train, a mechanic working at the  signal tower noticed that the signal for the affected section had been set to "Stop" for a long time.  Thinking it was a fault of his, after several attempts he manually overrode the signal, in defiance of regulations that strictly prohibited such actions.  The following train, which had been waiting at , then left the station on the same track.  With emergency brakes unable to prevent the accident, the two trains collided.  One passenger was killed in the crash, and 97 were injured.  The mechanic was fined 600,000 DM.

Fires can be particularly dangerous and damaging within an underground system.  In October 1972, two trains and a 200 m length of tunnel were completely destroyed when the trains caught fire; the reconstructed tunnel is clearly distinguishable from the old one.  Another train burned out in the connecting tunnel between Klosterstraße and Alexanderplatz in 1987.  On 8 July 2000, the last car of a GI/I train suffered a short circuit, burning out at the rear of the Deutsche Oper station.  The single exit of the station was unreachable, forcing the passengers to run through the tunnel to reach the next emergency exit.  The fire also damaged the station, which remained closed until that September.  The Portuguese Ambassador, João Diogo Nunes Barata, presented the BVG with  (tiled paintings), specially designed for the station, by the artist José de Guimarães.  Installation of Portugal's gift to the city was completed on 30 October 2002.

As a consequence of the Deutsche Oper incident, BVG decided to post an employee at every station with only one exit until a second exit could be built.  Over the following few years, many of those stations—including Britz-Süd, Schillingstraße, Viktoria-Luise-Platz, Uhlandstraße, and Theodor-Heuss-Platz—were retrofitted with additional exits.  By June 2008, the only remaining stations with no second exit, Konstanzer Straße and Rudow, had been fitted with second exits.  Despite these changes, several passenger organisations—such as Pro Bahn, and IGEB—demand that stations with exits in the middle of the platform also be fitted with additional emergency exits. Many stations are built this way; meeting those demands would place a heavy financial burden on both the BVG and the city.

The U6 saw a particularly costly, though casualty-free, incident on 25 March 2003.  Scheduled repair work on the line limited the normal service to between Alt-Mariendorf and Kurt-Schumacher-Platz; one train then shuttled back and forth between Kurt-Schumacher-Platz and Holzhauser Straße, sharing a platform at Kurt-Schumacher-Platz with the normal-service trains departing for their return journey to Alt-Mariendorf.  Needing to pass several stop signals on the shuttle service, the driver had been given special instructions how to proceed.  Unfortunately, he ignored the signal at the entry to Kurt-Schumacher-Platz, and ploughed into the side of a train heading back to Alt-Mariendorf.  The impact wrecked both trains, and caused considerable damage to the tracks.  Normal service did not resume for two days, and the removal of the two wrecked trains—which, surprisingly, could still roll along the tracks—also took nearly 48 hours.

Films, music and merchandising
The Berlin U-Bahn has appeared in numerous films and music videos.  Offering access to stations, tunnels, and trains, the BVG cooperates with film-makers, although a permit is required.

Whether set in Berlin or elsewhere, the U-Bahn has had at least a minor role in a large number of movies and television programmes, including Emil and the Detectives (2001), Otto – Der Film (1985),  (1987) featuring Ingolf Lück, Run Lola Run (1998), and several Tatort episodes.  The previously unused Reichstag station was used to shoot scenes of the movies Resident Evil and Equilibrium.  The U Bahn station Messe was used as coverage in the films Hanna and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2.

Möbius 17, by Frank Esher Lämmer and Jo Preussler from Berlin, tells the story of an U-Bahn train that, caught in a Möbius strip, travels through alternate universes after a new line is built.

Alexanderplatz station plays an essential role in Berlin Alexanderplatz—a film of thirteen hour-long chapters and one epilogue—produced in 1980 by Rainer Werner Fassbinder, based on the book by Döblin.  The film's scenes feature a recreation of the station as it was in 1928—rather darker and dirtier than in the 21st century.  In the surrealistic two-hour epilogue, Fassbinder transforms parts of the station into a slaughterhouse where people are killed and dissected.

Since 2001, the Berlin U-Bahn has hosted the annual short-film festival Going Underground.  Short films (up to 90 seconds long) are shown on the monitors found in many of the U-Bahn trains.  Passengers on board vote for the festival winner.

Sandy Mölling, former singer of the pop band No Angels, shot the video for her single "Unnatural Blonde" in the U-Bahn station Deutsche Oper. Kate Ryan, Overground, Böhse Onkelz, Xavier Naidoo, Die Fantastischen Vier, and the DJ duo Blank & Jones have all used the U-Bahn and its stations for their videos as well.

"Linie 1", a musical performed by Berlin's Grips-Theater, is set completely in stations and trains of the Berlin U-Bahn; a movie version has also been produced.

In 2002, the BVG cooperated with design students in a project to create underwear with an U-Bahn theme, which, in English, they named "Underwear".  They used the names of real stations that, in the context of underwear, appeared to be mild sexual double entendres: men's underpants bore labels with Rohrdamm (pipe dam), Onkel Toms Hütte (Uncle Tom's Cabin), and Krumme Lanke (crooked lake); the women's had Gleisdreieck (triangle track), and Jungfernheide (virgin heath).  After the first series sold out quickly, several others were commissioned, such as Nothammer (emergency hammer), and Pendelverkehr (shuttle service; though Verkehr also means "intercourse" and Pendel also means "pendulum").  They were withdrawn from sale in 2004.

See also

 Berlin S-Bahn
 Berlin Straßenbahn
 Ghost station
 List of metro systems
 M-Bahn
 Metro systems by annual passenger rides

References

Bibliography

 Brian Hardy: The Berlin U-Bahn, Capital Transport, 1996,
 Ulf Buschmann: U-Bahnhöfe Berlin. Berlin Underground Stations. Berlin Story Verlag, Berlin 2012,
 Jan Gympel: U-Bahn Berlin – Reiseführer. GVE-Verlag, Berlin 2002,
 AG Berliner U-Bahn: Zur Eröffnung der elektrischen Hoch-und Untergrundbahn in Berlin. GVE-Verlag, Berlin 2002,
 Jürgen Meyer-Kronthaler und Klaus Kurpjuweit: Berliner U-Bahn – In Fahrt seit Hundert Jahren. be.bra Verlag, Berlin 2001,
 Petra Domke und Markus Hoeft: Tunnel Gräben Viadukte – 100 Jahre Baugeschichte der Berliner U-Bahn. kulturbild Verlag, Berlin 1998,
 Ulrich Lemke und Uwe Poppel: Berliner U-Bahn. alba Verlag, Düsseldorf,
 Robert Schwandl: Berlin U-Bahn Album. Alle 192 Untergrund- und Hochbahnhöfe in Farbe. Robert Schwandl Verlag, Berlin Juli 2002,
 Jürgen Meyer-Kronthaler: Berlins U-Bahnhöfe – Die ersten hundert Jahre. be.bra Verlag, Berlin 1996,

External links

 VSWB – Disused Rails and Lanes in Berlin
 Photo tour of U-Bahn stations including map of architectural styles
 Photos of Berlin Metro
 Track map of the Berlin U-Bahn
 Photographing the Berlin U-Bahn (archived)

U-Bahn
Underground rapid transit in Germany
Articles containing video clips
750 V DC railway electrification

Berlin U-Bahn


Pesimismul se definește ca atitudinea omului care privește cu neîncredere viața și pe semenii săi și care consideră că toate situațiile au un deznodământ fatal. În sens filozofic, pesimismul este un concept opus optimismului și potrivit căruia răul, iluzia, suferința predomină în lume și nu pot fi înlăturate, fiindu-i inerente. Optimismul și pesimismul, deși reprezintă două moduri opuse de a gândi și de a interpreta lucrurile, pot fi cel mai bine explicate dacă sunt plasate pe un continuum, pentru că aceeași persoană poate evolua în timp în ceea ce privește gradul de optimism sau poate avea doze diferite de optimismul cu care privește aspectele vieții sale (familie, carieră, relații etc.).

Într-o perspectivă simplistă, pesimismul este o alegere. Oamenii nu se nasc pesimiști, ei devin așa într-un anumit context de viață. Printre emoțiile negative pe care le pot experimenta sunt anxietatea, furia, dezgustul, vinovăția, teama sau stima de sine redusă. Toate descriu stabilitatea sau instabilitatea emoțională a unei persoane. Mai mult, aceste persoane predispuse la aceste emoții sunt și vulnerabile la situații stresante. Din acest motiv, deseori situațiile obișnuite sunt interpretate ca fiind amenințătoare, iar frustrările minore trec drept dificultăți de nedepășit.

Există studii conform cărora persoanele negativiste performează mai bine în situații legate de înșelătorie, manipulare, formarea impresiilor și etichetare, sunt foarte atente la detalii, ceea ce scade șansa de eroare și crește gradul de acuratețe. În general însă, persoanele cu negativitate crescută prezintă un nivel mai ridicat de insatisfacție și tind să se concentreze pe aspectele neplăcute legate de sine, de viitor și alți oameni.

Specialiștii fac diferența între două tipuri de pesimism: pesimismul defensiv și pesimismul deprimant. Pesimismul defensiv se referă la anticiparea unor potențiale evenimente negative sau efecte ale acțiunilor noastre și pregătirea mentală pentru a le depăși. În acest sens persoana se mobilizează să le preîntâmpine, dar în același timp se așteaptă la ce e mai rău, pentru a se proteja cumva de ce va urma. Pesimismul deprimant este o trăsătură extremă care constă în tendința exacerbată de a vedea exclusiv aspectele negative, indiferent de situație.

Reprezentanți notabili

Albert Camus

Într-un articol din 1945, Albert Camus scria că "ideea că o filozofie pesimistă este în mod necesar una a descurajării este o idee puerilă". Camus a contribuit la popularizarea ideii "absurdului", un termen-cheie în celebrul său eseu Mitul lui Sisif. Ca și filozofii pesimiști anteriori, Camus vedea conștiința și rațiunea umană ca fiind ceea ce "mă pune în opoziție cu întreaga creație". Pentru Camus, această confruntare dintre o minte rațională care își dorește să afle sensul și o lume "tăcută" este ceea ce produce cea mai importantă problemă filosofică, "problema sinuciderii". Camus credea că oamenii fac față adesea absurdului prin "eludare" (l'esquive), ceea ce reprezintă o "trădare" pentru "cei care nu trăiesc pentru viață în sine, ci pentru o idee mare care îi va supraviețui, o va rafina, îi va da un sens și o va trăda". El considera sinuciderea, religia și marxismul drept forme neautentice de a evita sau de a scăpa de problema existenței. Pentru Camus, singura alegere era aceea de a accepta și de a trăi absurdul într-un mod rebel, pentru că "nu există o soartă care să nu poată fi învinsă de dispreț". Răspunsul lui Camus la problema absurdului este ilustrat prin folosirea personajului mitologic grec Sisif, condamnat de zei să împingă un bolovan pe un deal pentru veșnicie. Camus și-l imaginează pe Sisif în timp ce împinge bolovanul, dându-și seama de inutilitatea sarcinii sale, dar continuând să o facă oricum dintr-un spirit de revoltă.

Note

Bibliografie
  Dienstag, Joshua Foa, Pessimism: Philosophy, Ethic, Spirit, Princeton University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-691-12552-X
  Nietzsche, Friedrich, The Birth of Tragedy and The Case of Wagner, New York: Vintage Books, 1967, ISBN 0-394-70369-3

Legături externe

Epistemologie
Motivație
Teorii filozofice
Filozofia vieții
Emoții

Pesimism


An Homolepis glutinosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Olof Swartz, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Fernando Omar Zuloaga och Thomas Robert Soderstrom. An Homolepis glutinosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Homolepis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Homolepis

Homolepis glutinosa


An Bromus gracillimus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Aleksandr Andrejevitj Bunge. An Bromus gracillimus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Bromus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Bromus

Bromus gracillimus


Alfred Hein (Pseudonym: Julius Beuthen, * 7. Oktober 1894 in Beuthen/Oberschlesien; † 30. Dezember 1945 in Halle (Saale)) war ein deutscher Schriftsteller.

Leben

Alfred Hein war der Sohn eines Volksschullehrers. Er wuchs in Oberschlesien auf und zeigte früh eine musikalische und literarische Begabung; seine erste Veröffentlichung erfolgte 1906 in Westermanns Monatsheften. Hein nahm als Freiwilliger am Ersten Weltkrieg teil.
Er gehörte einer Feldluftschiffer-Einheit an; später war er Meldegänger bei Infanterieeinheiten an der Westfront und nahm 1916 an der Schlacht um Verdun teil. Im gleichen Jahr erschien in der Liller Frontzeitung sein Gedicht Eine Kompanie Soldaten, das als Marschlied weite
Verbreitung fand.

Nach dem Ende des Ersten Weltkriegs gehörte Alfred Hein als Theaterkritiker der Redaktion der Hartungschen Zeitung in Königsberg an. Von 1923 bis 1930 leitete er ebendort die Landesabteilung der Reichszentrale für Heimatdienst. Ab 1930 lebte Alfred Hein als
freier Schriftsteller in Berlin.

Ab 1943 nahm Alfred Hein im Range eines Unteroffiziers am Zweiten Weltkrieg teil. Nach letzten Kämpfen seiner Einheit in Oberschlesien geriet er am 8. Mai 1945 in sowjetische Kriegsgefangenschaft und wurde zur Ableistung von Zwangsarbeit in den Osten der Ukraine verbracht. Dort erkrankte er so schwer, dass im Oktober 1945 der Rücktransport in die Heimat erfolgte. Nach zwischenzeitlicher Erholung erkrankte er Mitte Dezember 1945 erneut und fand Aufnahme in einem Heimkehrerlazarett in Halle (Saale), wo er zwei Wochen später verstarb.

Alfred Heins literarisches Werk umfasst Romane, Erzählungen, Kinder- und Jugendbücher, Essays, Gedichte und Hörspiele. Viele seiner Prosawerke sind beeinflusst vom Erlebnis des Ersten Weltkriegs; in seinen Gedichten pflegte er häufig einen volksliedhaften Ton.

Heins literarischer Nachlass wurde von seiner langjährigen Lebensgefährtin Annke-Margarethe Knauer betreut und befindet sich heute im Deutschen Literaturarchiv in Marbach am Neckar.

Werke

 Sammelnde Trommel, Berlin 1917
 Die Terzinen an die tote Isot, Berlin 1918
 Die Lieder vom Frieden, Weimar 1919
 Der Unerlöste, Stettin 1919
 Der Lindenfrieden, Stettin 1920
 Tod ..., Stettin 1920
 Die Frauenburger Reise, Dresden [u. a.] 1921
 Kurts Maler, Freiburg i. B. 1922
 Immanuel Kant und Königsberg zu seiner Zeit, Berlin 1924 (zusammen mit Albert Goedeckemeyer und K. H. Clasen)
 Neue Gedichte, Berlin 1924
 Pan und Elysia, Königsberg/Pr. 1925
 Oberschlesien, Leipzig 1926 (zusammen mit Wilhelm Müller-Rüdersdorf)
 Eine Kompagnie Soldaten - In der Hölle von Verdun, Minden i.W. 1929
 Annke, Stuttgart 1931
 Die Erstürmung des "Toten Manns" am 20. Mai 1916, Langensalza [u. a.] 1932
 Der Sinn des Kriegserlebnisses, Stuttgart 1932
 Der Alte vom Preußenwald, Langensalza [u. a.] 1933
 Sturmtrupp Brooks, Leipzig 1933
 Über zertrümmerte Brücken - vorwärts!, Langensalza [u. a.] 1933
 Gloria! Viktoria!, Langensalza [u. a.] 1934
 Das kleine Buch vom Großen Krieg, Langensalza [u. a.] 1934
 Fridericus und mein Vorfahr, Langensalza [u. a.] 1936
 Der Trommler schlägt Parade!, Halle 1936
 Leuchtfeuer über Preußen, Langensalza [u. a.] 1937
 Greift an, Grenadiere!, Berlin 1939
 Beates Vater, Leipzig 1940
 Kleine Geschichten von großen Leuten, Stuttgart 1940
 Ein Teufelskerl, Berlin 1940
 General Rössel greift ein, Berlin 1941
 Die Meistergeige, Berlin 1941
 Schach dem Sonnenkönig, Berlin 1941
 Verliebte Ferienreise, Magdeburg 1941
 Du selber bist Musik, Berlin 1942
 Höhe 304, Leipzig 1942
 's Nannerl, Berlin 1942
 Paul rettet die Verschleppten, Berlin 1942
 Der Zauberlehrling, Berlin 1942
 Seydlitz, Berlin 1943
 Susanne und Jucunda, Magdeburg [u. a.] 1943
 Ruhig Blut, Gustav! und andere Erzählungen, Berlin 1944
 Zuhausmusik, Augsburg 1968
 Unter den Sternen, Darmstadt 1969
 Zu Haus in Oberschlesien, Dülmen/Westfalen 1982
 Der blaue Vogel, Dülmen/Westf. 1984
 Delta des Lebens, Dülmen 1984

Weblinks

 Artikel über Alfred Hein im "Ostpreußenblatt" von 1979 (S. 9) (PDF; 12,3 MB)
 Beschreibung von Alfred Heins Nachlass im Deutschen Literaturarchiv

Autor
Roman, Epik
Lyrik
Essay
Kinder- und Jugendliteratur
Literatur (Deutsch)
Deutscher
Geboren 1894
Gestorben 1945
Mann

Alfred Hein (Schriftsteller)


El pato petrel picofino (Pachyptila belcheri), también denominado petrel paloma de pico delgado, petrel azul de pico delgado y prion picofino, es una especie de ave procelariforme de la familia Procellariidae que vive en los océanos meridionales. Cría en las islas Malvinas, Kerguelen, Crozet y Noir.

Taxonomía
El pato petrel picofino pertenece al género Pachyptila que forma parte del orden de los Procellariiformes, y como el resto de miembros de este grupo presenta ciertas características identificativas. En primer lugar presentan unos conductos nasales tubulares prominentes adosados a la parte superior del pico, en este caso en lo más alto del pico. Los picos de los procelariformes destacan por estar divididos en 7 y 9 placas corneas. Además producen en sus estómagos un aceite compuesto de ésteres con alcoholes de cadena larga y de triglicéridos. Utiliza esta sustancia tanto para alimentar a sus crías como de reserva energética para sus largos vuelos como para lanzársela a los depredadores. También presentan glándulas para excretar sal en la parte superior de los conductos nasales, por la cual segregan una solución de alta concentración salina que les permite reducir la concentración de sal de sus cuerpos pudiendo permanecer así en los medios de salada donde habita.

Etimología
El término Pachyptila procede de las palabras griegas pakhus and ptilon que significan respectivamente grueso y pluma.

Descripción
Como otros miembros de su género sus partes superiores son de color gris azulado y las inferiores blancas, con una mancha oscura en forma de «M» que va desde su espalda hasta la punta de su alas. Presentan una lista superciliar blanca y franja oscura que va desde la parte inferior de su ojo hasta casi el cuello. Su cola en forma de es gris con los bordes oscuros. Su pico es de color gris azulado y sus patas son de color azul claro.

Comportamiento

Reproducción

Crían anualmente un pollo. Ambos progenitores se encargan de la incubación del huevo y de cuidar del pollo hasta que deje el nido.

Alimentación
Como los demás patos petreles se alimenta de zooplacton, que filtra con su pico.

Distribución y hábitat
El pato petrel pasa todo el periodo no reproductivo sobrevolando los océanos del sur. Cría en las islas Crozet, las islas Kerguelen, las islas Malvinas y la isla Noir.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Fotos del pato petrel picofino

Belcheri
Aves del océano Atlántico
Aves del océano Índico
Taxones descritos por Gregory Macalister Mathews
Animales descritos en 1912

Pachyptila belcheri


Google Ngram Viewer sau Google Books Ngram Viewer este un motor de căutare online care permite utilizatorilor să observe frecvența folosirii unui cuvânt în textele tipărite între 1500 și 2008.

Este deocamdată disponibil în limbi de circulație internațională: limba engleză americană, engleza britanică, franceză, germană, spaniolă, rusă, ebraică, chineză, italiană etc.

Pentru Ngram Viewer, Google a digitalizat aproximativ 5 milioane de cărți tipărite, care conțin circa 500 de miliarde de cuvinte. Serviciul poate calcula de câte ori a apărut un cuvânt în textele respective de-a lungul unui an. Programul poate căuta un singur cuvânt sau o frază, dar și greșeli de ortografie.

Note

Legături externe
 Pagina Google Ngram Viewer
 Syntactic Annotations for the Google Books Ngram Corpus, a whitepaper presenting the 2012 edition of the Google Books Ngram Corpus

Motoare de căutare
Google

Google Ngram Viewer


Cueva Belmont (en inglés: Belmont Cave) es una cueva de piedra caliza blanca y seca en Cockpit Country en la isla caribeña de Jamaica. También es conocida como la Drip Cave, siendo una sola cueva con dos entradas cercanas.

Al igual que muchas cuevas en Jamaica, Belmont es un importante refugio de murciélagos. El guano de murciélago, a su vez es compatible con una gran población de invertebrados de cucarachas troglobias (Nelipophygus), grillos de cueva, moscas y arañas de cueva, además de ser el hogar de la rana Eleutherodactylus cundalli.

Véase también
Cueva Bashian
Cueva Bat
Cueva Batatotalena
Cueva Bat (San Vicente y las Granadinas)

Referencias

Cuevas de Jamaica

Cueva Belmont


Marquard Slevogt (auch Marquardt Slevogt, * 22. März 1909 in Karlsruhe; † 25. Mai 1980) war ein deutscher Eishockeyspieler.

Karriere
Marquardt Slevogt nahm mit Deutschland an den Olympischen Winterspielen 1928 in St. Moritz und 1932 in Lake Placid teil. Bei den Winterspielen 1932 gewann er mit seiner Mannschaft die Bronzemedaille. Bei der Weltmeisterschaft 1930 gewann er mit seiner Mannschaft die Silbermedaille. Als bestes europäisches Team wurde Deutschland zudem Europameister.

Auf Vereinsebene spielte der Angreifer erst für den MEV 1883 München und wechselte dann anschließend zum SC Riessersee, wo er bis 1934 spielte. Mit der Mannschaft gewann er 1927 den deutschen Meistertitel.

Erfolge und Auszeichnungen
 1927 Deutscher Meister mit dem SC Riessersee
 1988 Aufnahme in die Hockey Hall of Fame Deutschland

International
 1930 Silbermedaille bei der Weltmeisterschaft
 1932 Bronzemedaille bei den Olympischen Winterspielen

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Eishockeynationalspieler (Deutschland)
Eishockeyspieler (SC Riessersee)
Olympiateilnehmer (Deutschland)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1928
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1932
Deutscher Meister (Eishockey)
Europameister (Eishockey)
Mitglied der Hockey Hall of Fame Deutschland
Deutscher
Geboren 1909
Gestorben 1980
Mann

Marquard Slevogt


Ciccolini ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Aldo Ciccolini (1925–2015), italienisch-französischer Pianist
 Félix Ciccolini (1916–2010), französischer Politiker und Bürgermeister von Aix-en-Provence

Ciccolini


සාමාන්‍ය ලෝකයේදී නොකළ හැකියයි සම්මත දේ කර අන් අයව සතුටු කිරීම සඳහා පෙන්වීම මැජික් ලෙස හැඳින්වේ.

මැජික්


Olaylar
 4-22 Temmuz - Belgrad Kuşatması gerçekleşti.
 Halley kuyruklu yıldızı, Dünya'nın yakınından geçti. (önceki: 1378 (teorik olarak); sonraki: 1531)

Doğumlar
 1 Mart - II. Vladislaus, Bohemya, Macaristan ve Hırvatistan kralı (ö. 1516)
 11 Haziran - Anne Neville,  Galler Prensesi ve İngiltere Kraliçesi (ö. 1485)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Alonso Fernández de Lugo, Kanarya Adaları'nın Kastilya Krallığı'na katılmasını sağlayan İspanyol fatihi (ö. 1525)
 Müeyyedzâde Abdurrahman Çelebi, Osmanlı şair, hattat, kazasker (ö. 1516)

Ölümler
 11 Ağustos - János Hunyadi, ya da Hünyadi Yanoş, Orta Çağ Macar ordu komutanı (d. y. 1407)
 24 Aralık - Đurađ Branković, Sırbistan Despotu (d. 1377)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Turahan Bey, Osmanlı askeri ve devlet adamı

1456


أوتسو  هي مدينة عاصمة محافظة شيغا، اليابان.

في عام 2007، وصل التعداد السكاني للمدينة إلى 32,9355 نسمة والكثافة السكانية 88049 نسمة في الكيلومتر مربع، والمساحة الإجمالية 374.06 كم مربع. تأسست المدينة في 1 أكتوبر 1898.

تشتهر المدينة ببحيرة بيوا أكبر بحيرة في اليابان وهي مصدر جذب سياحي لمحافظة شيغا عامة ومدينة أوتسو خاصة.

تاريخ
في الفترة بين 667 إلى 672 بنى الإمبراطور تينجي قصر أومي أوتسو.
بنيت المدينة في تسعينات القرن التاسع عشر وتوسعت في فترة تايشو، حيث لعبت قناة بحيرة بيوا دوراً هاما في وصل مدينة أوتسو بمدينة كيوتو العاصمة السابقة لليابان.

مدن توأم
 لانسنغ، ميشيغان، الولايات المتحدة.
 فورتسبورغ، ألمانيا.

أعلام

 الإمبراطور تينجي
 كوجي ناكاتا
 ساتورو موتشيزوكي
 إيكا ميتسوي
 كازوكي كورانوكي
 تارو سوغاوارا

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
    موقع مدينة أوتسو باللغة اليابانية

مدن محافظة شيغا

أوتسو (شيغا)

أوتسو (شيغا)


Canoe er en dansk kortfilm fra 2007 med instruktion og manuskript af Mikkel Sørensen.

Handling

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2007

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Canoe


ඌව පලාතේ අගනගරය වන බදුල්ල ශ්‍රි ලංකා‍වේ පිහිටා ඇත. මහනුවරට ගිණිකොණ දෙසින් පිහිටා ඇති බදුල්ල සිසාරා බදුලු ඔය විහිදී පවතී. මුහුදු මට්ටමේ සිට මීටර 680ක උසින් පිහිටි මෙය තේවතු වලින්ද වටවී පවතියි. මෙම නගරය නමුනුකුල කඳු වැටියෙන් වටවී පැවතීම විශේෂ ලක්ෂණයකි. නමුණුකුල කඳු වැටියේ මුදුන මුහුදු මට්ටමේ සිට මිටර 2016ක උසින් පවතියි. බ්‍රිතාන්‍යය අධිරාජ්‍යයවාදීන්ට යටත් වීමට පෙර මෙම නගරය පාලනය කරන ලද්දේ සිංහල රජවරැන් විසින්ය. පසුව මෙම නගරය බ්‍රිතාන්‍යය අධිරාජ්‍යයවාදීන්ගේ පාලන මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් බවට පත් විය. බ්‍රිතාන්‍යයන් විසින් නිපදවන ලද උඩරට දුම්රිය මාර්ගය අවසන් වන්නේ මෙම නගරයෙනි. මෙහි අරමුණ වනුයේ කොළඹ ප්‍රදේශයට වැවිලි නිශ්පාදන ප්‍රවාහනය කිරීමයි.

බදුල්ල සිට කොලඹ දෙසට මධ්‍යම කඳුකර බැවුමේ සිට කිලෝමිටර් 230ක දුර ප්‍රමාණයක් පවතියි. බදුල්ලේ සිට නුවර, කොළඹ, ගාල්ල දෙසට මාර්ග කිහිපයක් පවතියි. කොළඹ සිට බදුල්ලට රත්නපුර, බලන්ගොඩ, හපුතලේ, බණ්ඩාරවෙල සහ හාලිඇල හරහා ගමන්කල හැක. මෙම ගමන සදහා පැය 5-6 පමණ ගතවෙයි. නුවර සිට බදුල්ල දෙසට දිවෙන මාර්ග දෙකක් පවතියි. එම මාර්ග දෙක  වන්නේ රජමාවත හරහා හෝ නුවරඑළිය හරහායි. ගාල්ල සිට බදුල්ලට ගමන් කිරීම සදහා වඩාත් සුදුසුම මාර්ගය වන්නේ මාතර, හම්බන්තොට, වැල්ලවාය, දෙමෝදර සහ හාලිඇල හරහායි. බදුල්ල දෙසට දිවෙන සැම මාර්ගයක්ම දර්ශනීය වන අතර මනා භුගෝලීය වෙනසක්ද දැක ගත හැක. බදුල්ල සහ එහි අවට පිහිටි දෑ විදේශිකයන් සදහා මනා තෝතැන්නක් වෙයි. හෝටන්තැන්න ජාතික වනෝද්‍යානය සහ නකලස් කඳු වැටිය බදුල්ලේ සිට සැතපුම් කිහිපයක් දුරින් පිහිටා ඇත.

සංචාරක ආකර්ෂණ
මුතියංගන රජ මහා විහාරය - ගෞතම බුදුන් වහන්සේ සිය බුද්ධත්වයෙන් අටවන වස වෙසක් පුන් පොහොය දා පන්සියයක් මහ රහතන් වහන්සේලා සමගින් කැළණියට වැඩම කල අවස්ථාවේ ඌවේ නමුණුකුලට අධිපති ඉන්දික දෙවියන්ගේ ආරාධනාව මත මෙහි වැඩම කරන ලදී.
බෝගොඩ පැරණි විහාරය - බෝගොඩ පෞරාණික පන්සල සහ දාගැබ හාලිඇල නගරයට ආසන්නවද පිහිටා ඇත.
දුන්හිඳ ඇල්ල - බදුල්ල නගරයේ කි.මි 5ක් පමණ දුරින් පිහිටි දුන්හිඳ දිය ඇල්ල ලංකාවේ ඇති සුන්දරතම දිය ඇලි වලින් එකකි. එහි උස අඩි 210 ක් පමණ වේ.
බදුල්ල කතරගම දේවාලය - 17 වන සියවසේ මහනුවර යුගයේ රජකම් කල පළමුවන විමලධර්ම සූරිය රජ විසින් බදුල්ල නගර මධ්‍යයෙහි බදුල්ල කතරගම දේවාලය දේවාලය ඉදිකරනු ලැබූ තිබෙයි.
බදුලු ටැම් ලිපිය - බදුල්ල නගර මධ්‍යයේ පිහිටි සෙනරත් පරණවිතාන මහජන පුස්තකාල භූමි පරිශ්‍රය තුල බදුලු ටැම් ලිපිය පිහිටුවා තිබේ. එය මෙරට සෙල්ලිපි අතර සුවිශේෂ තැනක් ලබා ගන්නා පුරාවස්තුවක් සේ සැළකේ.
බදුල්ල වෙලේකඩේ පැරණි වෙළඳපොළ - බදුල්ල මහ රෝහල අසල බදුල්ල වෙලේකඩේ පැරණි වෙළඳපොළ ගොඩනැගිල්ල ඉදිකොට තිබේ. 1818 උඩරට ගිවිසු‍මෙන් පසුව ඉංග්‍රීසි ආණ්ඩුව මගින් බදුල්ල නගර‍යේ සාදන ලද විශේෂ වෙළඳ මධ්‍යස්ථානය ලෙස මෙය හඳුනාගෙන තිබේ.
බදුල්ල ඔරලෝසු කණුව - බදුල්ල නගර මධ්‍යයේ වූ බදුල්ල ඔරලෝසු කණුව මෙරට පැරණිතම ඔරලෝසු කණු අතරින් එකකි.

ජන සංඛ්‍යානය

ගැලරිය

සිතියම්
<li>බදුල්ල අවට සහ ශ්‍රි ලංකා සිතියම </li>

මූලාශ්‍ර

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නගර සහ ගම්මාන
බදුල්ල

බදුල්ල


Magh mela, également orthographié Magha mela, est un festival annuel avec des foires organisées au mois de Magha (janvier/février) sur les berges des rivières et des réservoirs sacrés (bâoli) proches des temples hindous. Environ tous les douze ans, le Magha mela coïncide avec ce que les fidèles considèrent comme une position astrologique propice de Jupiter, du Soleil et de la Lune, appelé alors Kumbh Mela, comme celui d'Allahabad (officiellement, Prayagraj). Au sud de l'Inde, une fête importante se déroule au bassin de Mahamaham du Kumbhakonam ; et à l'est, sur l' île de Sagar dans le Bengale occidental et à Konark, Puri. Le festival Magha, ainsi que les rituels du bain comme forme de pénitence, sont également observés par la communauté hindoue de Bali, en Indonésie.

Certaines dates telles que l'Amavasya et le Makar Sankranti sont considérées comme particulièrement sacrées, attirant un plus grand rassemblement. La fête est marquée par un bain rituel dans les eaux, mais c'est aussi une célébration du commerce communautaire avec des foires, des programmes culturels, des discours religieux de saints, du dāna (charité) et des repas communautaires pour les moines et les pauvres, ainsi que des spectacles de divertissement.

Le fondement religieux du Magh Mela est la croyance que le pèlerinage est un moyen de prāyaścitta (expiation, pénitence) pour les erreurs passées : l'effort purifie des péchés et se baigner dans les rivières sacrées lors de ces fêtes a une valeur salvifique, moksha – un moyen de se libérer du cycle des renaissances (samsara). Selon Diane Eck, professeur de religion comparée et d'études indiennes, ces festivals sont de « grandes foires culturelles » rassemblant les gens et les soudant dans la dévotion religieuse, avec des manifestations commerciales, des échanges et des divertissements laïques.

Le festival Magha Mela est mentionné dans le Mahabharata et dans de nombreux Puranas majeurs. Le Magh Mela fait partie des fêtes fluviales qui suivent la transition de Jupiter dans divers signes du zodiaque. Ces festivals fluviaux, appelés Pushkaram (ou Pushkaralu), se déroulent tout au long de l'année autour des ghats (gradins) et des temples situés le long des principaux fleuves de l'Inde, chaque fleuve étant vénéré comme une déesse sacrée. Ils comprennent le bain rituel ainsi que les prières aux ancêtres, les discours religieux, la musique et le chant dévotionnels, la charité, les programmes culturels et les foires.

Un festival annuel de bain est également mentionné dans les anciennes anthologies tamoules de la période Sangam. Par exemple, neuf des poèmes conservés de la collection Paripatal sont dédiés à la déesse de la rivière Vaikai. Ces poèmes mentionnent les festivals de bain du mois tamoul de Tai (janvier/février) après le mois de Margazhi, une période qui chevauche le mois du calendrier septentrional de Magh. Ces festivals de bain sont décrits comme spirituellement propices et des occasions de sports nautiques, de foires et de rassemblements communautaires.

Dans le sikhisme, le Magha mela, avec Diwali et Vaisakhi, sont  trois festivals reconnus par Guru Amar Das qui a exhorté les sikhs à se rassembler pour un festival communautaire (1552-1574 EC). Populairement connu sous le nom de Maghi, ce festival commémore aussi la mémoire des quarante martyrs lors d'une guerre musulmano-sikhe (1705 EC) à l'époque du gourou Gobind Singh. Le plus grand rassemblement de Maghi se trouve à Muktsar. Selon Pashaura Singh et Louis Fenech, Guru Amar Das a construit Goindwal Sahib comme lieu de pèlerinage sikh (tirath). Il a également construit un baoli (réservoir d'eau à gradins) à Goindwal pour le bain rituel.

Galerie

Références

Fête hindoue
Rituel hindouiste

Magh Mela


Kerbogha (în , în ; ) a fost atabegul Mosulului între anii 1096–1102. El era cunoscut ca un comandant talentat, însă a suferit o înfrângere zdrobitoare la Antiohia în timpul primei Cruciade.

Prima cruciadă
În 1098, când a auzit că cruciații asediază pe Antiohia, el și-a adunat trupele și s-a îndreptat pentru a elibera orașul. Pe drum, a încercat să recucerească și Edessa în urma cuceririi sale recente de către Balduin de Boulogne, pentru a nu lăsa în urmă garnizoane france în drum spre Antiohia. Timp de trei săptămâni el a asediat orașul fără vreun rezultat, înainte de a decide să continue spre Antiohia. Întăririle sale ar fi putut pune capăt cruciadei înaintea zidurilor Antiohiei și, într-adevăr, întreaga cruciadă a fost probabil salvată de timpul petrecut la Edessa. În momentul în care a sosit, în jurul zilei de 7 iunie (1098), cruciații deja câștigaseră și stăpâneau orașul de patru zile. Cu toate acestea, ei nu reușiseră să restaureze orașul înainte ca Kerbogha să sosească, care la rândul său, a început asediul orașului devenit cruciat.

În timpul asediului, pe 27 iunie, Petre Sihastrul a fost trimis ca emisar către Kerbogha de către cruciați pentru a sugera că părțile să soluționele toate diferențele printr-un duel. Probabil, simțindu-și poziția în siguranță, Kerbogha nu a dat curs acțiunii și a refuzat.

Între timp, în interiorul orașului,  a pretins că a descoperit Lancea Sfântă printr-o viziune. Această descoperire a re-energizat armata creștină. În același timp, conflictele și luptele au izbucnit în armata atabegului. Armata puternică a lui Kerbogha era efectiv alcătuită din partide din Bagdad, Persia, Palestina și Damasc, iar disputele interne cu emirul au depășit și unitatea comună împotriva cruciaților. Singurul lucru care îi unea pe musulmani era o teamă comună de obiectivul real al lui Kerbogha, care era cucerirea tuturor terenurilor lor. Dacă Antiohia ar fi căzut, ar fi devenit invincibil.

La 28 iunie, când Boemund, liderul armatei creștine, a decis să atace, emirii au decis să-l umilească pe Kerbogha abandonându-l în momentul critic. Kerbogha a fost surprins de organizarea și disciplina armatei creștine. Această armată creștină motivată, unificată, a fost de fapt atât de mare încât strategia lui Kerbogha de a-și împărți propriile forțe era ineficientă. A fost rapid încercuit de cruciați, și forțat să se retragă și să se reîntoarcă la Mosul ca un "om ruinat".

Note

Decese în 1102
Atabegi
Selgiucizi
Prima cruciadă
Musulmani ai Primei Cruciade

Kerbogha


Diervila (zanica, vajgelija, lat. Diervilla), rod listopadnog grmlja iz porodice Caprifoliaceae. Postoje tri priznate vrste porijeklom iz Sjeverne Amerike i jedna hibridna.

Diervilla sessilifolia uvrezena je i u Hrvatsku

Opis
Rod Diervilla od tri vrste niskih grmova koji pripadaju obitelji Caprifoliaceae (prije Diervillaceae), porijeklom iz istočne Sjeverne Amerike. Često se brkaju s blisko srodnim tatarskom kozokrvinom (Lonicera tatarica) i drugim kultiviranim članovima roda Lonicera, koji su invazivne vrste u mnogim dijelovima Sjedinjenih Država. Vrste Diervilla privlačne su leptirima i kolibrićima i obično se koriste u uređenju domaćeg krajolika.

Ove vrste su listopadne trajnice i imaju ovalne listove i grozdove cjevastih cvjetova na vrhovima grana. Šire se rizomima (podzemnim stabljikama) i stvaraju mrlje u kamenitim suhim područjima. Cvatnja se javlja početkom ljeta. Žuti ili crvenkasto žuti cvjetovi praćeni su tankim kljunastim plodovima. D. lonicera i D. rivularis slični su osim manje veličine i šiljatijih listova vrste D. lonicera. D. sessilifolia ima listove bez peteljki i ukošene grane.

Vrste
 Diervilla lonicera Mill.
 Diervilla rivularis Gatt.
 Diervilla sessilifolia Buckley
 Diervilla × splendens (Carrière) G.Kirchn.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Diervilloideae

Diervila


Mihail Fokin (francuska transliteracija Michel Fokine; engleska transliteracija Mikhail Fokin; rus. Михаи́л Миха́йлович Фо́кин) (Petrograd, 23. travnja 1880. – New York, 22. kolovoza 1942.) bio je ruski koreograf i baletan.

Fokin je rođen u Sankt Peterburgu u dobrostojećoj trgovačkoj obitelji i u svojoj je devetoj godini bio primljen u Carsku baletnu školu u Sankt Peterburgu (Vaganovu baletsku akademiju). Iste godine debitirao je u "Talismanu" u režiji Mariusa Petipe. Godine 1898., na svoj 18. rođendan, debitirao je na pozornici Marijinskog kazališta u baletu "Pahita", s Carskim ruskim baletom. Pored toga što je bio talentiran plesač, Fokin se također strastveno bavio slikarstvom i iskazivao talent u tom području. Također je svirao glazbala, uključujući mandolinu (svirao je na pozornici u ansamblu pod vodstvom Ginislao Parisa), domru i balalajku (svirao je u Velikom ruskom orkestru Vasilija Andrejeva).

Godine 1909., Sergej Djagiljev pozvao je Fokina da postane rezidentni koreograf prve sezone Ruskog baleta u Parizu. U Ruskom baletu surađivao je s brojnim umjetnicima kako bi postavio balet "Šeherezada" Nikolaja Rimskog-Korsakova, koji je praizveden 1910. godine. Taj balet nadahnule su simfonijske poeme koje je skladao Rimski-Korsakov i "Tisuću i jedna noć". Scena koju je dizajnirao Lion Bakst odgovarala je seksualiziranoj koreografiji. Usprkos nedostatku povijesne vjerodostojnosti, balet je bio uspješan zbog svojih sjajnih boja, egzotičnosti i putenosti. Postava iz 1910. godine imala je Vaclava Nižinskog u ulozi Zlatnog roba.

U baletu "Petruška" (1912.), uz glazbu koju je skladao Igor Stravinski, a scenografiju postavio Aleksandera Benoisa Petroučke, Fokin je uključio ulične plesače, dadilje, dresirane medvjede i veliki ansambl likova koji nadopunjuju zaplet. Fokinov balet "Le Spectre de la Rose" (1911.) predstavio je Nižinskog kao duha ruže danog mladoj djevojci. Fokin je 1912. postavio uprizorenje baleta "Daphnis i Chloé".

Napustio je Ruski balet 1912. godine. Djagiljev je 1914. godine uvjerio u povratak te je za Ruski balet postavio nove balete. Pariška praizvedba "Zlatnog pijetla" u izvođenju Ruskog baleta 1914. godine bila je opera-balet koji je vodio Fokin, a scenografiju je dizajnirala Natalija Gončarova.

Izvori

Baletani
Koreografi
Ruski umjetnici

Mihail Fokin


José Ponciano Díaz de Bedoya (Asunción, 19 de noviembre de 1820-Buenos Aires, 9 de diciembre de 1872) fue un militar y político paraguayo, triunviro del Paraguay de 1869 a 1870. Residía exiliado en Buenos Aires por mostrarse contrario al gobierno de Francisco Solano López.

Biografía
Fue miembro y luego presidente de la Asociación Paraguaya, con sede en Buenos Aires; además se integró a la Legión Paraguaya, que era una milicia de paraguayos destinada a combatir al gobierno de López.

Luego de la ocupación de Asunción durante la Guerra de la Triple Alianza, se realizó una asamblea que lo designó como representante del gobierno y asume el 15 de agosto de 1869, conjuntamente con Cirilo Antonio Rivarola y Carlos Loizaga, quedando constituido así el Triunvirato. Renunció en mayo de 1870, según crónicas de la época, renunció en Buenos Aires luego, de vender los candeleros donados por la iglesia para la reconstrucción del Paraguay,y en lugar de enviar lo obtenido por las ventas, envío  su renuncia, por cuyo acto fue conocido como José Candelero. Se marchó a vivir en Buenos Aires hasta su muerte en 1881.

Referencias

 Portal Guaraní - El Triunvirato de 1869
 ABC Digital - El Triunvirato

Políticos de Paraguay del siglo XIX
Militares de Paraguay

José Díaz de Bedoya


Manuel Aurelio "Manolo" Tavárez Justo (2 de janeiro de 1931 – 21 de dezembro de 1963) foi um advogado, líder político, revolucionário e guerrilheiro dominicano.

Vida profissional e pessoal
Graduado como Bacharel em Filosofia e Letras na Escuela Normal de Varones. Anos depois obteve o título de Doutor em Direito na Universidade Autônoma de Santo Domingo.

Durante seus anos universitários conheceu Minerva Mirabal, com quem se casou em 30 de novembro de 1955, e tiveram dois filhos: Manuel Enrique e Minerva Josefina.

Luta antitrujillista
Enquanto estava preso com seus companheiros do Movimiento 14 de Junio  na prisão de Puerto Plata em 1960, sua esposa Minerva Mirabal foi brutalmente assassinada, juntamente com outras duas irmãs, por agentes do Servicio de Inteligencia Militar (SIM), quando foram visitá-lo na prisão. O trágico fim das Irmãs Mirabal, os múltiplos suplícios sofridos pelos catorcistas nas prisões trujillistas e o carisma pessoal de Manolo e de vários de seus dirigentes, fizeram do Movimiento 14 de Junio a organização política mais prestigiada e atrativa para a juventude dominicana.

No final da ditadura, com a morte de Rafael Trujillo em 1961, Manuel Tavares Justo foi libertado da prisão, passando de imediato a liderar a luta contra os resquícios da tirania e a reorganizar o seu grupo político, que converteu em Movimiento Revolucionario 14 de Junio.

Morte
Em 21 de novembro de 1963, ele e os demais membros do Movimiento 14 de Junio se levantaram em armas nas montanhas dominicanas em guerra aberta contra o triunvirato para exigir a restituição do governo de Juan Bosch deposto por um golpe de Estado e o retorno da Constituição de 1963. Em 21 de dezembro, Manuel Aurelio Tavárez Justo é fuzilado na seção Las Manaclas de San José de las Matas, na Cordilheira Central.

Ligações externas
Manolo, historias
 Árbol genealógico de Marco Aurelio Tavárez
Políticos da República Dominicana
Assassinados em 1963

Manolo Tavárez Justo


An Schizachyrium dolosum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Stanley Thatcher Blake. An Schizachyrium dolosum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Schizachyrium, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Schizachyrium

Schizachyrium dolosum


بلدية توبار , هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برغش, التي تقع في منطقة قشتالة وليون, والتي تقع في شمال غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 49 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

معرض صور

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في مقاطعة برغش
بلديات برغش

توبار


Sveta Margareta Ward (engl. Margaret Ward; Congleton, Cheshire, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo, oko. 1500. – Tyburn, London, 30. kolovoza 1588.) engleska rimokatolička mučenica i svetica, jedna od Četrdeset mučenika iz Engleske i Walesa.

Životopis
O životu Margarete Ward prije njena mučeništva poznato je malo podataka. Potjecala je iz ugledne engleske obitelji iz Congletona u Cheshiru. Posljednje je razdoblje života provela je u Londonu, u kući plemenite gospođe Whital, kojoj je bila počasna dama.

Saznavši da je žrtva tadašnjih progona protiv katolika u Engleskoj postao i svećenik Villiam Watson, kao i za muke kojima je u zatvoru bio izložen, posjećivala ga je, pružala mu pomoć, tješila ga i bodrila te činila sve što je bilo u njezinoj moći da mu olakša patnje. Pomogla mu je i u bijegu iz zatvora.

Nakon Watsonova bijega sumnja je pala na Margaretu, te je bila zatvorena. Pred sudom je priznala svoj čin i odbila otkriti skrovište bjegunca Watsona. Ponuđeno joj je pomilovanje, uz uvjet da kraljicu Elizabetu moli za oproštenje i obeća sudjelovati u protestantskom bogoslužju. Odbila je ponude i bila osuđena na smrt zbog veleizdaje. Pogubljena je 30. kolovoza 1588. godine na stratištu Tyburn u Londonu.

Štovanje
Blaženom ju je proglasio papa Pio XI. 15. prosinca 1929. godine, a svetom 25. listopada 1970. godine papa Pavao VI. (Četrdesest mučenika iz Engleske i Walesa).

Izvori
Bilješke i literatura
 Josip Antolović, Duhovni velikani: sveci Katoličke crkve, Filozofsko-teološki institut Družbe Isusove, Zagreb, 1998., svezak II., str 250-251,  (djelomično dostupno na Blažena margareta Ward, sveci.net)
 Clement Tigar, Četrdeset mučenika iz Engleske i Walesa proglašenih svetima 25. listopada 1970. (preveo Petar Ribinski), Filozofsko-teološki institut Družbe Isusove, Zagreb, 2003.,

Vanjske poveznice
Mrežna mjesta
 St. Margaret Ward, Catholic Encyclopedia ,www.newadvent.org

Engleski sveci

Margareta Ward


Italiens U/16-fodboldlandshold er Italiens landshold for fodboldspillere, som er under 16 år og administreres af Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio (FIGC).

U/16-fodboldlandshold
U/16-fodboldlandshold i Europa

Italiens U/16-fodboldlandshold


An Pentameris oreophila in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni N.P.Barker. An Pentameris oreophila in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pentameris, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pentameris

Pentameris oreophila


One Foot in the Grave sedamnaesti je studijski album njemačkog thrash metal sastava Tankard. Album je objavljen 2. lipnja 2017. godine, a objavila ga je diskografska kuća Nuclear Blast.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje
Frank Thorwarth — bas-gitara
Andreas "Gerre" Geremia — vokali
Olaf Zissel — bubnjevi
Andy Gutjahr — gitara
Dodatni glazbenici
C — vokali (na 9. pjesmi)
Ostalo osoblje
Patrick Strogulski — omot albuma
Martin Buchwalter  — produciranje, miksanje, mastering
Axel Jusseit — fotografija
Buffo Schnädelbach — fotografija
Thomas Ewerhard — dizajn

Izvori

Albumi iz 2017.
Albumi sastava Tankard

One Foot in the Grave


Læn Dem ikke ud er det tredje album fra den danske gruppe Bifrost udgivet i 1979 på CBS Records.

Gruppen var siden Til en sigøjner udvidet med guitaristen John Teglgaard. Albummet var det sidste, hvor flere af de oprindelige medlemmer af gruppen medvirkede: Annapurna, Torben Andersen, Asger Skjold og Mogens Fischer.

Numre
Albummet indeholder følgende numre (her opdelt på de to oprindelige sider):

Medvirkende
På albummet medvirkede følgende:
Gruppens medlemmer
 Tom Lundén: sang, keyboards, guitar
 Ida Klemann: sang, guitar, synthesizer
 Annapurna: sang, percussion
 Torben Andersen: keyboards
 Asger Skjold: bas, sang, synthesizer
 Mogens Fischer: trommer, percussion, guitar
 Mikael Miller: guitar, sang, percussion
 John Teglgaard: guitar, citar, percussion, sang

Øvrige medvirkende
 Stig Kreutzfeldt: piano, percussion, sang samt producer

Referencer

Bifrost-album
Album fra 1979

Læn Dem ikke ud


Los Gómez de Navas [Nabas] fueron una familia de músicos españoles de la segunda mitad del  formada por Francisco, padre, Francisco y Juan, hijos, y Juan Francisco hijo de Juan.
 Francisco. Como dato biográfico se conoce que era vecino de Madrid en 1644.
 Francisco. Hijo de Francisco y hermano de Juan. En 1649 residía en Calatayud (Zaragoza).
 Juan. Hijo de Francisco y hermano de Francisco. La biografía de este músico se confunde con la de su hijo Juan Francisco, su hermano Francisco y su padre.
En la catedral de Zaragoza se conservan manuscritos con los nombres de Juan de Navas, Juan Gómez y Juan Gómez de Navas, parece que se trata del mismo músico perteneciente a la Capilla Real de Madrid.
 Juan Francisco Gómez de Navas y Sagastiberri. Hijo de Juan. No siempre se citaron sus dos nombres de pila ni los apellidos completos, frecuentemente citado como Juan de Navas,  lo que ha dado lugar a confundirlo con su padre, con su tío y con su abuelo.

Referencias

 ESQUERRO ESTEBAN, Antonio: Gómez de Navas [Nabas] en Diccionario de la música española e hispanoamericana. Vol. V. Emilio Casares, director, Madrid. SGAE, 1999. Pág. 717.

Músicos de España del siglo XVII

Gómez de Navas


Alex hugdjarfi (franska: Alix L'intrépide) eftir Jacques Martin er fyrsta bókin í bókaflokknum um Ævintýri Alexar. Bókin kom út árið 1956, en sagan sem hún hefur að geyma birtist fyrst í fransk-belgíska teiknimyndablaðinu Tintin þann 16. september 1948. Bókin var gefin út af Fjölva árið 1974 í íslenskri þýðingu Þorsteins Thorarensen. Þetta er jafnframt fyrsta bókin í íslensku ritröðinni.

Söguþráður

Árið er 53 f.k. og herferð Markúsar Krassusar hershöfðingja Rómarveldis til Mesópótamíu í austri stendur sem hæst. Orrustu um hina fornu borg Korsabad er lokið með sigri Rómverja og foringi þeirra, Flavíus Marsalla, heldur innreið í borgina. Ungur þræll, Alex, fylgist með af svölum húss, en fyrir slysni hrynur grjót úr svölunum og fellur á Marsalla. Alex er handsamaður og ævareiður Marsalla skipar honum að upplýsa um felustað mikilla auðæfa í höll Sargons Assýríukonungs. Eftir að Marsalla finnur fjársjóðinn í kjallara konungshallarinnar færir sendiboði honum tíðindi af ósigri og dauða Krassusar ræðismanns í Orrustunni við Carrhae. Örvænting grípur Marsalla og hann fyrirskipar tafarlaust undanhald úr borginni. Rómverjarnir bera eld að höllinni og skilja Alex eftir til að deyja, en örlögin grípa í taumana og honum tekst að flýja brennandi höllina við illan leik. Örþreyttur leggst Alex til hvílu, en er vakinn af hermönnum Parþa sem komnir eru til borgarinnar. Alex nær að sannfæra Súrena, foringja Parþa, um hollustu sína og er leyft að yfirgefa borgina. Alex heldur til fjalla en er tekinn höndum af íbúum í afskekktu þorpi. Höfðingi þorpsins, Góra, vill láta svíða augun úr Alex svo hann geti ekki uppljóstrað um staðsetningu þorpsins, en hinn risavaxni Toraja kemur Alexi til bjargar og saman ná þeir félagar að flýja. Þeir eru síðar handsamaðir af herflokki Sarmata sem flytur þá til borgarinnar Trebisond við strönd Svartahafsins. Alex og Toraja eru færðir fyrir fulltrúa hins Rómverska valds sem selur þá í hendur Arbakosi, slóttugum, grískum kaupmanni og svörnum andstæðingi Marsalla sem einnig er kominn til Trebisond ásamt hjálparhellu sinni Markúsi. Arbakos siglir með Alex og Toraja áleiðis til Ródos. Marsalla og félagar veita eftirför, en verða fyrir árás Skýþverskra sjóræninga. Alex og Toraja fer að gruna Arbakos um græsku og þegar til Ródos er komið reynir hann að eitra fyrir Toraja. Alex og Toraja forða sér burt, en eru gripnir höndum og færðir fyrir landstjóra Rómverja, Honorus Galla. Landstjórinn er Alex velviljaður og tekur hann með sér til Rómar. Í Róm ræðst flokkur grímuklæddra manna á landstjórann í húsi hans og særa hann til ólífis. Á banasænginni segir hann Alex frá því að Alex sé sonur gallversks höfðingja sem landstjórinn seldi í ánauð þegar Alex var á barnsaldri. Nagaður af samviskubiti ákvað landstjórinn því að ættleiða Alex. Alex grunar Marsalla og Markús um að standa á bak við árásina og tekur áskorun um að mæta Markúsi í kappreið á leikvanginum í Róm að bæði Júlíusi Sesar og Pompeius viðstöddum. Alex ber sigur úr býtum, en þegar í ljós kemur að skemmdarverk voru unnin á hestvagni Markúsar lætur Pompeius taka Alex höndum og mælir svo fyrir að Alex og Markús skuli gera upp um málin í skylmingaeinvígi næsta dag. Það sem Alex veit ekki er að skemmdarverkið var að undirlagi Arbakosar, flugumanns Pompeiusar, og liður í að þvinga Marsalla hershöfðingja á band Pompeiusar í valdabaráttu við Sesar. Sesar fær veður af atburðum og sendir flokk manna til að nema Alex og Markús á brott af leikvanginum á meðan einvígi þeirra stendur sem hæst. Arbakos og félagar veita eftirför og ná að klófesta Alex sem er í kjölfarið dæmdur til dauða í sýndarréttarhöldum á vegum Pompeiusar. Á síðustu stundu tekst Toraja og Rúfusi, trúnaðarmanni Sesars, að bjarga Alex frá aftöku á ævintýralegan hátt, en á flóttanum særist Toraja til ólífis. Marsalla og Markús týna sömuleiðis lífi í hildarleiknum sem á eftir fylgir, en Arbakos nær að komast undan og er í kjölfarið sendur af Pompeiusi til Egyptalands þar sem bíða skal frekari fyrirmæla. Sesar fer með herlið sitt til vígstöðva í Gallíu og Alex ákveður að fylgja með og heimsækja ættland sitt í norðri.

Fróðleiksmolar

 Höfundurinn Jaques Martin teiknaði nokkra fyrstu rammana í sögunni án þess að hafa ákveðið nokkuð um framhald og sendi útgefanda teiknimyndablaðsins Tintin til kynningar. Þegar sá hafði samband síðar og vildi sjá meira þurfti Martin að halda áfram með söguna. Framvinda sögunnar framan af ber þess og glöggt merki að vera spunnin jafnóðum af fingrum fram.

Heimildir

 https://www.lambiek.net/artists/m/martin_jacq.htm Sótt 28. nóv. 2017
 https://sveppagreifinn.blogspot.com/search/label/Alex%20hugdjarfi Sótt 27. nóv. 2020

Myndasögur

Alex hugdjarfi


Der Wasserfall Véu da Noiva befindet sich im Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Guimarães in der Nähe der Stadt Cuiabá, Chapada dos Guimarães in Brasilien. Er hat eine Fallhöhe von 86 Metern.
In Laufweite befinden sich weitere kleine Wasserfälle, die zum 'Kunstspringen' oder Baden geeignet sind.

Wasserfall in Südamerika
Wasserfall in Brasilien
Geographie (Mato Grosso)
WVeu da Noiva

Véu da Noiva


I Do Not Hook Up este al doilea single de pe albumul All I Ever Wanted (2009) al cântăreței Kelly Clarkson.  Piesa a fost compusă de Greg Wells, Kara DioGuardi și Katy Perry, care dorea inițial să folosească piesa pentru propriul album. A ajuns pe locul 20 în Billboard Hot 100 și s-a vândut în peste 700.000 de exemplare.

Note

Legături externe

Discuri single din 2009
Cântece de Kelly Clarkson

I Do Not Hook Up


David Aubin est un historien des sciences et historien des mathématiques québécois, né en 1967. On ne doit pas le confondre avec son homonyme, politologue à l'Université catholique de Louvain.

Biographie
Après une thèse de doctorat en histoire des mathématiques intitulée A Cultural history of catastrophes and chaos: around the Institut des hautes études scientifiques, France, à l'Université de Princeton, sous la direction de M. Norton Wise en 1998, David Aubin a enseigné à l'Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie.

Il est professeur d'histoire des sciences à Sorbonne Université, où il a soutenu une habilitation à diriger des recherches en 2007. Il a été chargé de médiation à la Cité des sciences et de l'industrie de la Villette entre 2000 et 2001.

Il est un spécialiste de l'histoire des mathématiques anciennes et contemporaines (théorie du chaos, théorie des catastrophes, théorie des systèmes dynamiques, Nicolas Bourbaki) et a participé à la rédaction de l'Encyclopædia Universalis.

Sélection de publications
 The Withering immortality of Nicolas Bourbaki: a cultural connector at the confluence of mathematics, Science in Context, 1997.
 A Cultural history of catastrophes and chaos: around the Institut des hautes études scientifiques, France 1958-1980, thèse de doctorat en histoire des mathématiques, sous la direction de M. Norton Wise, Université de Princeton, 1998.
 Writing the history of dynamical systems and chaos: longue durée and Revolution, disciplines and cultures, avec Amy Dahan, Historia Mathematica, 2002.
 Le Sabre et l'éprouvette: l'invention d'une science de guerre 1914-1939, avec Patrice Bret, Éditions Noésis/Agnès Viénot, 2003.
 Systèmes dynamiques et chaos : convergences et recompositions, un aperçu historique, avec Amy Dahan, in: Chaos et systèmes dynamiques: éléments pour une épistémologie, dirigé par Sara Franceschelli, Tatiana Roque et Michel Paty, Paris, Hermann, 2007.
 Les mathématiciens français dans la Grande Guerre, 1914-1918, avec Catherine Goldstein et Hélène Gispert, in: Identités troublées: les appartenances sociales et nationales à l'épreuve de la Grande Guerre, dirigé par François Bouloc, Rémy Cazals et André Loez, Privat, Toulouse, 2011.
 L'Élite sous la mitraille : les mathématiciens normaliens « morts pour la France », 1914-1918, in: Aventures de l'analyse de Fermat à Borel, mélanges en l'honneur de Christian Gilain, dirigé par Suzanne Féry, Presses universitaires de Nancy, Nancy, 2012.
 L'Élite sous la mitraille. Les Normaliens, les mathématiques et la Grande Guerre, 1900–1925, préface de Claude Viterbo, Éditions de la Rue d'Ulm, Paris, 2018.
 Femmes, vulgarisation et pratique des sciences au siècle des Lumières : les dialogues sur l'astronomie et la lettre sur la figure de la Terre de César-François Cassini de Thury, Brepols, 2020.

Références

Liens externes

 « Cartes populaires du ciel : planisphères célestes dans la France du 19e siècle », sur Umotion, 16 octobre 2020.

Naissance en 1967
Historien des sciences
Historien des mathématiques
Docteur de l'université de Princeton
Enseignant à l'université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie
Professeur à Sorbonne Université

David Aubin


Yuki Kawabe (født 2. april 1987) er en japansk professionel fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder FC Machida Zelvia, AC Nagano Parceiro og FC Ryukyu.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Yuki Kawabe


Les règles de Baldwin en chimie organique sont une série de règles décrivant modes de cyclisation favorables pour les composés alicycliques. Elles ont été proposées pour la première fois par Jack Baldwin en 1976.

Les règles de Baldwin portent sur les vitesses relatives des différents modes de cyclisation. Elles ne sont pas destinées à décrire la probabilité absolue qu'une réaction se produise ou non, elles sont plutôt utilisées pour donner une probabilité relative. Une réaction défavorisée (lente) n'a pas une vitesse capable de rivaliser efficacement avec une réaction qui est favorisée (rapide). Cependant, le produit défavorisé peut être observé, si aucune réaction alternative n'est plus favorisée.

Les règles classent les cyclisations de trois manières :

 le nombre d'atomes dans le cycle nouvellement formé
 en fermetures de cycle exo et endo, selon que la liaison rompue pendant la fermeture de cycle se trouve à l'intérieur ( endo ) ou à l'extérieur ( exo ) de l'anneau en formation
 dans tet, trig et dig géométrie de l'atome étant attaqué, selon que le carbone électrophile est tetraédrique (hybridé sp3), trigonal (hybridé sp2) ou digonal (hybridé sp).

Ainsi, une réaction cyclisation pourrait être classée comme, par exemple, un 5 -exo-trig.

Baldwin a découvert que les exigences de recouvrement orbitalaire pour la formation de liaisons favorisent uniquement certaines combinaisons de taille de cycle et les paramètres exo/endo/dig/trig/tet. Des modèles 3D interactifs de plusieurs de ces états de transition peuvent être consultésici (javascript requis).

Il existe des exceptions aux règles de Baldwin. Par exemple, les cations ne respectent que rarement les règles de Baldwin, tout comme les réactions dans lesquelles un atome de la troisième période est inclus dans le cycle. Une version étendue et révisée des règles est disponible:

Les règles s'appliquent lorsque le nucléophile peut attaquer la liaison selon un angle idéal. Ces angles sont de 180° ( inversion de Walden ) pour les réactions exo-tet, de 109° ( angle de Bürgi-Dunitz ) pour la réaction exo-trig et de 120° pour les réactions endo-dig. Les angles d'attaque nucléophile sur les alcynes ont été revus et redéfinis récemment. L'« angle aigu » d'attaque postulé par Baldwin a été remplacé par une trajectoire similaire à l'angle de Bürgi-Dunitz.

Applications
Dans une étude, des cycles à sept chaînons ont été construits dans une réaction d'addition en tandem 5 -exo-dig / réarrangement de Claisen:

Un modèle 6-endo-dig a été observé dans une addition 1,2-tandem allène - alcyne / cyclisation de Nazarov catalysé par un composé d'or:

Une réaction de fermeture de cycle 5-endo-dig faisait partie d'une synthèse de (+)-Preussin:

Règles pour les énolates
Les règles de Baldwin s'appliquent également aux aldolisations intramoléculares impliquant des énolates. Deux nouveaux descripteurs doivent être définis : enolendo et enolexo, qui indiquent si les deux carbones du fragment énolate CC sont respectivement incorporés ou non dans le cycle formé.

Les règles sont les suivantes:

Exceptions
Ces règles sont basées sur des preuves empiriques et de nombreuses « exceptions » sont connues. Les exemples incluent :

 les cyclisations des cations
 les réactions impliquant des atomes de troisième rangée, comme le soufre

Notes et références

Réaction de cyclisation

Règles de Baldwin


Stefano Incerti (* 25. Juli 1965 in Neapel) ist ein italienischer Filmregisseur.

Leben
Incerti begeisterte sich früh für den Film und drehte Amateurproduktionen, so einige kurze Super8-Filme. Nach dem Studium der Rechtswissenschaften an der Universität Neapel begann er 1989 als Regieassistent und arbeitete mit etlichen bedeutenden Regisseuren der neuen Generation wie Enzo Decaro, Pappi Corsicato und Mario Martone zusammen; mit letzterem war er auch am Theater tätig. 1995 legte Incerti sein eigenes Debüt vor, den in Neapel spielenden und von einem sehr guten Hauptdarsteller, Antonio Iurio, getragenen Il verificatore. Der Film wurde u. a. mit dem David di Donatello ausgezeichnet. Seither erscheinen regelmäßig Kinoproduktionen, darunter der 1999 erschienene gewalttätige und sarkastische Prima del tramonto, der ungewöhnliche L'uomo di vetro 2007 und der im Argentinien der 1970er Jahre spielende Complici del silenzio.

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 1995: Il verificatore
 1999: Prima del tramonto
 2007: L'uomo di vetro
 2009: Complici del silenzio
 2010: Gorbaciof

Weblinks

 Incerti bei mymovies (italienisch)

Einzelnachweise

Filmregisseur
Drehbuchautor
Italiener
Geboren 1965
Mann

Stefano Incerti