Edith Esther Frutos (Rosario, 1939-ib., ) fue una estadística, investigadora, profesora argentina. Fue integrante de la pléyade de estadísticos del INTA, que realizó importantes contribuciones a la ciencia agronónica de Argentina, trabajando en la Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Pergamino, INTA. Además trabajó activamente en el dictado de su disciplina, en las maestrías: de Mejoramiento Genético Vegetal Universidad de Rosario, Universidad Nacional del Noroeste de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, y de Producción Animal, y de Producción Vegetal de la Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata.

En 1963, obtuvo su licenciatura en Estadística, en la Escuela de Estadística, de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Estadística, de la UNL, que en 1967 se autonomizó como Universidad Nacional de Rosario.

Algunas publicaciones
Participó en 45 trabajos presentados en congresos nacionales y extranjeros, 85 publicaciones técnicas, y un capítulo de libro.

 . 1997. Evaluación de una colección de trébol blanco (Trifolium repens L.) Número 315 de Informe técnico. Editor INTA, 12 pp.

 . 1995. Caracterización probabilística del régimen térmico para la zona de Pergamino (Bs. As), República Argentina. Editor INTA, 24 pp.

 . 1991. Relación entre carga animal y ganancia de peso en la producción de carne. Número 252 de Informe técnico. Editor Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Estación Experimental Regional Agropecuaria Pergamino, 14 pp.

 . 1990a. Determinación del horario de ocurrencia de la temperatura mínima del aire en la región de Pergamino (Pcia. Buenos Aires, R. Argentina). Número 239 de Informe técnico. Editor Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Centro Regional Buenos Aires Norte, Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Pergamino, 12 pp.

 ----------------------, -----------------------, . 1990b. Probabilidades de ocurrencia de temperaturas mínimas y maximas del aire en la zona de Pergamino [Provincia Buenos Aires, República Argentina]. Editor INTA, 24 pp.

 . 1988. Caracterización del comportamiento de trigo a Fusarium graminearum mediante la utilización de parámetros de estabilidad. Editor INTA, 14 pp.

 . 1988b. Relaciones empíricas entre contenido de agua, textura y materia orgánica en suelos representativos de la pampa ondulada. Editor INTA, 1988, 30 pp.

 . 1983a. Influencia de algunos factores climáticos sobre la población del pulgón amarillo de los cereales Metopolophium dirhodum Walk. Número 182 de Informe técnico. Editor	Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Estación Experimental Regional Agropecuaria Pergamino, 19 pp.

 . 1983b. Análisis de la variación del rendimiento y sus componentes en trigo bajo diferentes densidades de siembra y dosis de fertilizante nitrógenado. Número 190 de Informe técnico. Editor Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Estación Experimental Regional Agropecuaria Pergamino, 15 pp.

 . 1980. Cadenas alimentarias en invernada. Editor INTA, 12 pp.

 -------------------, -----------------------, ------------. 1980b. Sistema integral de invernada en la región maicera Argentina. Editor INTA, 7 pp.

 . 1978. Las épocas de siembra más convenientes para linos oleaginosos en Pergamino. Editor INTA, 36 pp.

 . 1977. Producción de carne sobre pasturas permanentes. Número 139 de Informe técnico. Editor INTA, 12 pp.

 . 1970. Producción de forraje en festuca alta (Festuca arundinacea Screb.) fertilizada. Número 100 de Informe técnico. Editor Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, 16 pp.

 . 1967. Palatabilidad de gramíneas forrajeras perennes cultivadas en la Pampa Húmeda de Argentina. Volumen 60 de Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Pergamino Informe Técnico. 11 pp.

 . 1964. Labranza Cero en maíz, en Pergamino, Argentina. Editor INTA, 14 pp.

Honores
Docente invitado en la maestría Ingeniería de la Calidad, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán

Docente organizador de los cursos sobre Diseños Estadísticos de Experimentos

Miembro de
 Junta Académica de la maestría en Mejoramiento Genético Vegetal, convenio INTA-UNR.

 Sociedad Argentina de Estadística

 The International Biometric Society

Premios
 1973: Sociedad Rural Argentina
 1976: Mención Graduados, Bolsa de Comercio de Rosario

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Homenaje a la prof. Edith Ester Frutos, en YouTube

Mujeres estadísticas
Estadísticos de Argentina
Profesoras de Argentina
Investigadores del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria
Alumnado de la Universidad Nacional de Rosario
Profesores de la Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata
Profesores de la Universidad Nacional de Rosario
Nacidos en Rosario (Argentina)
Fallecidos por cáncer en Argentina
Fallecidos en Rosario (Argentina)

Edith Esther Frutos


Os Três Irmãos (também conhecidos como Three Brethren; inglês: Three Brothers; alemão: Drei Brüder; francês: Les Trois Frères) foi uma peça de joalheria criada no final do século XIV, que consistia em três espinélios vermelhos retangulares dispostos em torno de um diamante central. A joia é conhecida por pertencer a várias figuras históricas importantes. Após sua encomenda por João, Duque de Borgonha, a joia fez parte das joias da coroa da Borgonha por quase 100 anos, antes de passar para a posse do banqueiro alemão Jakob Fugger.

Os Irmãos acabaram sendo vendidos para Eduardo VI e se tornaram parte das Joias da Coroa da Inglaterra de 1551 a 1643. Eles foram usados com destaque pela Rainha Isabel I e pelos rei Jaime VI e I. No início da década de 1640, Henrietta Maria, esposa de Carlos I, tentou vender a joia para arrecadar fundos para a Guerra Civil Inglesa, mas não está claro se ela conseguiu. Seu paradeiro depois de 1645 permanece desconhecido.

Descrição
Os Três Irmãos permaneceram essencialmente inalterados por mais de 250 anos. Sabe-se que a joia foi redefinida pelo menos uma vez em 1623, mas uma variedade de descrições indica que sua forma e composição originais foram mantidas durante toda a sua vida útil. Originalmente feito como um fecho de ombro ou pingente, consistia em três espinélios vermelhos retangulares (então conhecidos como balas rubis) de 70 quilates cada em um arranjo triangular, separados por três pérolas brancas redondas de 10–12 quilates cada, com outras 18–20 quilates. pérola de quilates suspensa do espinélio mais baixo. O meio do pingente era um diamante azul profundo pesando cerca de 30 quilates, em forma de pirâmide, octaedro ou trisoctaedro regular. Como há poucas evidências de lapidação de diamante antes de 1400, é provável que o joalheiro tenha apenas esquadrado (descrito como "quarré" na fatura original) sua forma natural. Em sua forma original, a joia tinha um tamanho de 8,7 por 6,9 cm (3,4 por 2,7 pol.).

Quando os Irmãos fizeram sua primeira aparição em um inventário - o do Duque Filipe, o Bom da Borgonha em 1419 - a joia foi descrita como:

Uma fivela muito fina e rica, adornada no meio com um diamante pontiagudo muito grande, e ao redor dela estão três finas pedras quadradas chamadas de três irmãos, e três pérolas finas de tamanho considerável entre elas. Sob esta fivela está pendurada uma grande pérola fina em forma de pêra.Em 1587, os Três Irmãos foram listados entre as joias entregues à cortesã elisabetana Mary Radcliffe e descritos como:

Uma bela Flor de Goulde com três grandes Ballasses no meio, um grande Diamante pontiagudo e três grandes Pérolas fixas com um belo Pingente de Pérola, chamado de Irmãos.

História
A joia foi encomendada pelo duque João, o Destemido, da Borgonha, no final da década de 1380, e era um dos tesouros mais preciosos da Casa da Borgonha. Foi criado pelo ourives parisiense Herman Ruissel em 1389; a venda da joia é registrada por meio de nota de 11 de outubro e recibo de 24 de novembro, ambos arquivados no Arquivo Departamental da Côte-d'Or, em Dijon. Depois de recebê-la na década de 1390, o duque John penhorou a joia em 1412, mas a resgatou em algum momento antes de 1419. Quando o duque, que era uma figura importante na Guerra Civil Armagnac-Borgonha pelo trono francês, foi assassinado durante uma negociação com o delfim francês (o futuro rei Carlos VII) em 1419, os irmãos foram passados para seu filho Filipe, o Bom.

A joia permaneceu na Borgonha durante o reinado de Filipe e, com sua morte em 1467, foi herdada por seu filho Carlos, o Ousado. Carlos comandou um dos exércitos mais poderosos de seu tempo e viajou para as batalhas com uma série de artefatos inestimáveis como talismãs, incluindo tapetes pertencentes a Alexandre, o Grande, os ossos de santos, o diamante Sancy e os Três Irmãos. Em seu conflito com a Antiga Confederação Suíça durante as Guerras da Borgonha, Carlos sofreu uma derrota catastrófica em março de 1476, quando foi atacado fora da vila de Concise na Batalha de Neto. Forçado a fugir às pressas, Carlos deixou para trás sua artilharia e um imenso butim, incluindo seu banho de prata, o selo ducal e os Irmãos, todos saqueados de sua tenda pelo exército confederado. O pingente foi vendido aos magistrados da cidade de Basel, que tiveram a peça avaliada por um especialista veneziano. A cidade também encomendou uma pintura em aquarela em miniatura em uma escala de 1:1 para ajudar em uma eventual venda, que fornece o registro visual mais antigo dos Irmãos (em 2022 no Museu Histórico da Basileia). A joia desapareceu de vista nos anos seguintes, pois os magistrados temiam que a Casa dos Habsburgos, herdeiros do Ducado da Borgonha, reclamasse bens que consideravam roubados de Carlos. A joia foi finalmente colocada no mercado em 1502, com dois magistrados atuando como espantalhos para a cidade para garantir uma negação plausível.

Em 1504, Basel conseguiu vender os Três Irmãos ao banqueiro de Augsburg, Jakob Fugger, após um ano de negociações. Comerciante por profissão, Fugger se tornou um dos indivíduos mais ricos da história negociando com tecidos e metais e concedendo empréstimos à dinastia dos Habsburgos. A venda da Basiléia incluiu os Irmãos e três outras joias do tesouro de Carlos - o Federlin (pequena pena), o Gürtelin (pequena liga) e a Rosa Branca - por um preço total de 40.200 florins, o que na época foi suficiente para pagar 3.300 trabalhadores comuns por um ano. Embora isso constituísse uma despesa significativa, Fugger fez muitas dessas transações ao longo dos anos, e o preço empalidece em comparação com seus ativos totais, que chegaram a mais de 2 milhões de florins quando ele morreu em 1525. Para Fugger, joias e pedras preciosas eram um valor altamente reserva de capital fungível e um investimento a ser vendido ao cliente certo com lucro. Na verdade, Fugger já tinha o Imperador Maximiliano I em mente como comprador quando comprou os Irmãos, mas o Imperador recusou o exorbitante preço pedido por Fugger e comprou tudo em oferta, mas não o pingente.

A joia ficou com os Fuggers por várias décadas. Quando Johann Jakob Fugger encomendou uma história da Casa de Habsburgo em 1555, os Três Irmãos ainda eram descritos como um "tesouro conhecido por toda a cristandade" que os Fuggers possuíam. No entanto, o sobrinho de Jakob Fugger, Anton Fugger, que agora dirigia os negócios da família, decidiu liquidar parte dos bens da família na década de 1540. Ele primeiro ofereceu sem sucesso os irmãos ao rei Fernando I e ao imperador Carlos V, enquanto uma oferta do sultão otomano Suleiman, o Magnífico, foi recusada porque Anton não queria que a joia caísse em mãos não cristãs.

Quando os reis cristãos continentais não puderam ser convencidos a comprar a joia, os Fugger recorreram ao rei Henrique VIII, a quem foi conferido o título de "Defensor da Fé" em 1521. Como monarca renascentista, esperava-se que Henrique vivesse em grandeza e o rei consequentemente tinha uma paixão por joias: entre 1529 e 1532, Henrique gastou quase £ 11.000 em joias (equivalente a cerca de £ 7 milhões em 2021). Já em 1544, uma carta do escritório dos Fugger em Antuérpia mencionava a partida iminente de um funcionário com joias para serem vendidas a Henrique.  No entanto, as negociações se arrastaram até a morte de Henrique em 1547, e só foram concluídas em maio de 1551 sob seu sucessor, Eduardo VI, de 14 anos. Em seu diário, o rei escreveu que foi forçado a comprar a joia de "Anthony Fulker" (Anton Fugger) pela soma principesca de 100.000 coroas porque a monarquia devia £ 60.000 ao banco dos Fuggers (equivalente a cerca de £ 23 milhões em 2021). ). A transação foi registrada em uma atualização do Inventário de Henrique VIII da Inglaterra, após o que os Irmãos passaram a fazer parte das Joias da Coroa da Inglaterra.

Como uma joia da Coroa Inglesa

Eduardo deixou o pingente com seu Lord High Treasurer William Paulet para custódia em 7 de junho de 1551, onde permaneceu pelos anos seguintes. Quando Eduardo morreu após um reinado de seis anos, os irmãos foram herdados por sua meia-irmã Maria em sua ascensão como rainha em julho de 1553. A joia é descrita em uma lista de itens entregues a Maria em 20 de setembro de 1553 como "um grande pingente comprado dos Fuggers em Flandres com três grandes ballaces engastados sem falhas, um grande diamante pontiagudo e quatro grandes pérolas, das quais uma está pendurada por baixo", o que indica que tinha visto muito poucas, se alguma, alterações desde João, o Destemido havia encomendado mais de 150 anos antes. Na época da ascensão de Maria, o historiador alemão Peter Lambeck - neto de Johann Jakob Fugger - escreveu sobre sua esperança de que o casamento dela com Filipe II da Espanha traria os Três Irmãos de volta à posse dos Habsburgos e ao continente, mas isso não acontecerá. Após um reinado de apenas cinco anos, Maria morreu em 1558.

A joia reapareceu durante o reinado de sua sucessora, Isabel I. Assim como seu pai Henrique VIII, Isabel sabia quando e como usar exibições ostensivas de riqueza e evidentemente gostou da vistosa peça de joalheria vermelha e branca com o incomum disposição triangular. A rainha o usou como parte de suas joias da coroa em várias ocasiões, e é destaque em pelo menos dois retratos dela. Primeiro, no Retrato de Arminho (c. 1585, hoje em Hatfield House) atribuído a William Segar ou George Gower, no qual os Irmãos aparecem suspensos de um carcanette ou colar maciço cravejado de pérolas, dramaticamente compensado por um vestido preto. E segundo, na menos conhecida Isabel I da Inglaterra segurando um ramo de oliveira (c. 1587) por um pintor desconhecido, originalmente dado ao diplomata navarro François de Civille, onde o pingente ocupa um lugar de destaque como a única peça significativa de joalheria usada contra um vestido branco ricamente decorado. Isabel morreu em 1603, no final de um reinado de 45 anos, quando a joia se tornou tão ligada à sua personalidade que, quando um monumento de mármore para ela foi erguido na Abadia de Westminster em 1606, uma réplica dos Irmãos foi incluída na coleção. sua efígie tumular; o elemento foi totalmente restaurado em 1975.

Com a morte de Isabel, a joia passou para seu sucessor, Jaime I, que governou na Escócia como Jaime VI até sua ascensão. Em 1606, os Três Irmãos foram listados em um inventário das posses do monarca entre aquelas joias "que nunca devem ser alienadas da Coroa". O pingente era o favorito de Jaime, que o transformou em uma joia de chapéu. Um retrato de Jaime produzido por volta de 1605 pelo pintor da corte John de Critz mostra os irmãos em grande detalhe enquanto o rei o usava com uma faixa cravejada de pérolas em um chapéu preto. Ele usava outras joias da coroa de maneira semelhante, como o Espelho da Grã-Bretanha.

No final do reinado de Jaime, a joia foi redefinida, possivelmente pela primeira vez desde sua criação. Em 1623, o filho de Jaime e herdeiro aparente Carlos foi enviado em uma missão incógnita à Espanha para negociar um casamento entre ele e a infanta Maria Anna da Espanha em uma manobra diplomática conhecida como partida espanhola. Joias opulentas deveriam ser trazidas na viagem na tentativa de impressionar Filipe III da Espanha e convencê-lo a dar a mão de sua filha em casamento. O joalheiro George Heriot trabalhou quatro dias e quatro noites para repor as peças de joalheria escolhidas, com um relatório em 17 de março afirmando que ele havia retirado "o grande diamante pontiagudo [...] da joia chamada Irmãos, que ele ordena para ser a pedra mais completa que ele já viu" e que ele avaliou em £ 7.000 por conta própria (equivalente a cerca de £ 1,37 milhão em 2021). Jaime escreveu a Carlos no mesmo dia que ele iria "mandá-lo para você usar os Três Irmãos que você conhece muito bem, mas newlie sette".

História posterior e perda

Quando a partida espanhola não se concretizou e Jaime morreu em março de 1625, o recém-coroado Carlos I casou-se com a princesa francesa Henrietta Maria. Carlos brigou continuamente com o Parlamento da Inglaterra durante seu reinado; um ponto de discórdia era o 'direito divino dos reis', que o levou a considerar as joias da coroa como seus bens pessoais. Carlos estava atormentado por problemas financeiros e já havia penhorado os irmãos nos Países Baixos em 1626, resgatando-os apenas em 1639. Quando a monarquia enfrentou a falência em meados de 1640, Charles enviou Henrietta ao continente para vender o que pudesse das joias da coroa. A rainha chegou a Haia em 11 de março de 1642, apesar dos protestos do Parlamento de que ela havia levado com seu "tesouro, em joias, pratos e dinheiro pronto" que provavelmente "empobreceria o estado" e seria usado para fomentar a agitação na Grã-Bretanha. No entanto, Henrietta descobriu que os potenciais compradores hesitavam em tocar em peças importantes como os Três Irmãos, escrevendo ao marido: "O dinheiro não está pronto, pois em suas joias, eles não emprestarão nada. Sou forçado a prometer todos os meus pequeninos ". Em junho, Sir Walter Erle relatou ao Parlamento que os Irmãos ainda não haviam sido vendidos.

É no final da viagem de Henrietta em 1643 que o rastro da joia começou a desaparecer. Não há registro de que ela vendeu ou penhorou o pingente na Holanda, e é provável que os Irmãos tenham voltado com ela para a Inglaterra. Enquanto o país mergulhava na Primeira Guerra Civil Inglesa entre Carlos e o Parlamento, Henrietta fugiu para Paris em 1644, onde novamente tentou imediatamente levantar fundos. Mais uma vez, o mercado local mostrou pouco interesse, mas no início de 1645 ela conseguiu vender uma peça de joalheria sem nome pelo preço comparativamente baixo de 104.000 florins. A peça foi descrita como um "diamante piramidal, 3 rubis balas, 4 pérolas com a adição de um diamante lapidado à mesa de 30 quilates e dois diamantes pontiagudos", o que se aproxima da descrição original dos Três Irmãos se tivesse sido alterado adicionando diamantes menores. No entanto, não há nenhuma prova definitiva de que este era o mesmo item. Uma carta contemporânea à secretária de Henrietta identifica dois joalheiros e negociantes de pedras preciosas de Haia, Thomas Cletcher e Joachim de Wicquefort, como possíveis intermediários ou compradores da joia sem nome. Cletcher, que mais tarde se tornaria joalheiro da corte de Frederico Henrique, Príncipe de Orange, já havia estado envolvido na penhora do Espelho da Grã-Bretanha em 1625 e, portanto, era familiar de Charles e Henrietta.

O destino dos Irmãos depois de 1645 é desconhecido. Foi sugerido que a joia foi quebrada ou comprada pelo ministro-chefe francês, o cardeal Mazarin, um renomado colecionador de joias a quem Henrietta Maria devia profundamente. Também houve especulações de que o pingente foi modificado, criando uma joia chamada Três Irmãs no processo. As irmãs foram oferecidas ao príncipe Frederico Henry na época da venda de Henrietta em 1645. No entanto, além da semelhança possivelmente coincidente na nomenclatura, não há evidências concretas que sugiram que os irmãos se tornaram as irmãs. Não houve nenhum avistamento confirmado da joia desde então.

Na literatura
Tobias Hill publicou o romance The Love of Stones em 2001, que traça a vida de várias pessoas reais e fictícias que entram em contato com os Três Irmãos.

Joias da Coroa Britânica
1389
Joias
Isabel I de Inglaterra
Diamante

Três Irmãos (joia)


Mate Vukorepa (Hrvatska, 1978.) je hrvatski heavy metal pjevač. Najpoznatiji je kao vokalist splitskog heavy metal sastava Ultimatum.

Ultimatum
Godine 2001., zajedno s vokalistom Mihovilom Čerinom osnovao je sastav Ultimatum te u istomu pjeva dan danas.

Izvori

Ultimatum (sastav)
Hrvatski glazbenici
Glazbenici heavy metala

Mate Vukorepa


Ričardas ist  ein litauischer männlicher Vorname, abgeleitet von Richard.

Namensträger

 Ričardas Berankis (* 1990), Tennisspieler
 Ričardas Degutis (* 1966), Diplomat und Verkehrspolitiker, Botschafter, Vizeminister
 Ričardas Griaznovas (*  1973),  Biathlet
 Ričardas Juška (* 1960), Politiker von Jurbarkas, Bürgermeister
 Ričardas Malinauskas (*  1965), Politiker von Druskininkai, Bürgermeister
 Ričardas Piličiauskas (* 1969),  Richter
 Ričardas Sargūnas (*  1954), Politiker, Seimas-Mitglied
 Ričardas Tamulis (1938–2008), sowjetlitauischer Boxer
 Ričardas Vaitiekūnas (* 1953),  Geologe und Politiker, Bürgermeister der Rajongemeinde Klaipėda
 Ričardas Žitkus, Schachspieler
 Ričardas Žurinskas (* 1962), Politiker, Seimas-Mitglied

Männlicher Vorname
Litauischer Vorname

Ričardas


Lopes da Cruz ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Francisco Lopes da Cruz (* 1941), osttimoresischer Politiker und indonesischer Diplomat
 Manuel Lopes da Cruz (1899–1969), portugiesischer Geistlicher
 Renaldo Lopes da Cruz (* 1970), brasilianischer Fußballspieler

Lopes da Cruz


Hochschloß oder Hochschloss steht für
 Hochschloß, deutscher Name (1940–1944) für Ennery (Moselle), Frankreich
 Hochschloß, Ort in der Gemeinde Pähl, Bayern
 Hochschloss Pähl, schlossartige Villa in der Gemeinde Pähl, Bayern
Siehe auch:
 Hohes Schloss

Hochschloß


Kelt dilleri, Hint-Avrupa dil ailesinin bir koludur. Yaşayan dilleri Bretonca, Galce, İrlandaca, İskoçça, Kernevekçe ve Manksçadır.

Kaynakça

Kelt dilleri


A cutter is a name for various types of watercraft. It can apply to the rig (sail plan) of a sailing vessel (but with regional differences in definition), to a governmental enforcement agency vessel (such as a coast guard or border force cutter), to a type of ship's boat which can be used under sail or oars, or, historically, to a type of fast-sailing vessel introduced in the 18th century, some of which were used as small warships.

As a sailing rig, a cutter is a single-masted boat, with two or more headsails. On the eastern side of the Atlantic, the two headsails on a single mast is the fullest extent of the modern definition. In U.S. waters, a greater level of complexity applies, with the placement of the mast and the rigging details of the bowsprit taken into account  so a boat with two headsails may be classed as a sloop.

Government agencies use the term "cutter" for vessels employed in patrolling their territorial waters and other enforcement activities. This terminology is derived from the sailing cutters which had this sort of role from the 18th century to the end of the 19th century. (See below.) Whilst the details vary from country to country, generally these are small ships that can remain at sea for extended periods and in all usual weather conditions. Many, but not all, are armed. Uses include control of a country's borders and preventing smuggling.

Cutters as ship's boats came into use in the early 18th century (dating which roughly coincides with the decked sailing vessels described below). These were clinker-built open boats which were fitted for propulsion by both oar and sail. They were more optimised for sailing than the barges and pinnaces that were types of ship's boat used in the Royal Navy  one distinctive resulting feature of this was the washstrake added to increase the freeboard. It was pierced with rowlock cut-outs for the oars, so that the thwarts did not need to be set unusually high to achieve the right geometry for efficient use.

Cutters, as decked sailing vessels designed for speed, came into use in the early part of the 18th century. When first introduced, the term applied largely to the hull form, in the same way that clipper was used almost a hundred years later. Some of these 18th and 19th century examples were rigged as ketches or brigs. However, the typical rig, especially in Naval or revenue protection use, was a single-masted rig setting a huge amount of sail. Square sails were set, as well as a full complement of fore and aft sails. In civilian use, cutters were mostly involved in smuggling. The navy and coastguard therefore also used cutters in an attempt to catch those operating illegally.

Decked cutters of 18th and 19th centuries

The term cutter appeared in the early 18th century as a description of a hull type. These vessels were designed for speed and the name was used in a similar way to clipper in the next century. The concept of hull type was perpetuated by the term "cutter brig" which was used over the period circa 1781-1807 for those rigged as brigs. "Cutter built" was a description applied to a hull of this type and designed for speed. More generally, the unmodified word "cutter" soon became associated with a single-masted rig.

Fast vessels were often used for illegal purposes, such as smuggling, or by the authorities trying to prevent this illegality. Therefore, cutters were used for both. The Royal Navy bought and had built a large number for use in controlling smuggling, as "advice boats" (carrying dispatches), or against privateers.

The characteristic cutter hull shape was wide, many had a length to breadth ratio of 3 to 1. It had a lot of deadrise and fine lines. A huge amount of sail could be set on these beamy hulls. The rig became standardised as having one mast, a gaff-rigged mainsail, square sails and several headsailstogether with a full range of extra light weather sails. The mainsail had a boom that extended beyond the stern.  Square sails consisted of a course, topsail and topgallant. In earlier examples (before 1800) the topsail's foot had a large amount of roach and was sheeted to a separate yard that was set below the main yard (which carried the course). The headsails were a staysail, set on the forestay (which fastened to the stemhead), a jib, set flying to a traveller on the bowsprit and, in most cases, a flying jib (alternatively termed a jib-topsail) also set flying, but to a higher point on the mast. A cutter has a running bowsprit, which can be brought inboard when not needed, such as in rough weather or in harbour. The bowsprit was usually of great length, sometimes longer than the hull. The standard fair weather sails consisted of a ringtail to the mainsail and studding sails to the square sails. It was not unknown for cutters to use a removable mizzen mast for use when reaching, setting a lugsail. Since the boom of the mainsail overhung the stern, the mast would have to be removed to tack or gybe.

The dimensions of an 18th-century cutter purchased by the Royal Navy in 1763, and roughly in the middle of the size range of the batch of 30 bought that year (HMS Fly) are: length on deck , beam , measuring just over 78 tons bm. Smuggling cutters ranged from 30 tons (captured in 1747) to 140 tons. The Revenue cutters increased in size to match the vessels they attempted to catchRepulse, of 210 tons was built in 1778. A determining factor on size was the number of crew needed to handle the large gaff mainsail with its long boom. Larger cutters purchased by the Royal Navy were sometimes converted to brigs to make them easier to handle, but still utilising the fast hull.

Ship's boat
At about the same time that the decked, fast-sailing cutters of the 18th century appeared, the term was also applied to a new class of ship's boat. These were clinker-built open boats, optimised for sailing but capable under oars. They had finer lines than the boats of that time (which had more rounded bows) and a transom stern. A distinctive feature was that the washstrake had cut-outs (called rowlocks) in which the oars were worked, unlike most boats of the period, that used thole pins as the pivot point for the oars. This allowed a higher freeboard, which was helpful if sailingwhen the cut-outs were filled with wooden shutters (often mis-called poppets) to keep the water out. The alternative, if the correct geometry for an efficient rowing position was adopted, was to position the thwarts awkwardly high.

Like some other types of ship's boats used in the Royal Navy, the cutter appears to have originated in Deal. Some Navy Board correspondence of 1712 concerns disapproval of the captain of HMS Rochester for buying a cutter of about  in length as a replacement for her pinnace. In 1722, another ship had a cutter issued for a voyage to India, and by 1740 substantial numbers of cutters were being bought from Deal boatbuilders to equip Navy ships. The size of these boats varied from  in length.

The 1740 purchases coincided with a decision to increase the number of boats carried by warships. During the Seven Years' War cutters were found particularly useful for cruising ships, being seaworthy and useful for boarding.  However, they were more susceptible to damage than the heavier boats that they replaced and much less capable of carrying heavy weights, such as anchors and water casks. The range of sizes available steadily increased. By 1817 the cutters issued came in 17 different lengths, from . This big variety was reduced when the Royal Navy's warships moved to steam propulsion. Since drinking water could now be distilled on board, ships no longer needed to have the largest boats that they could carry to maximise the amount of water collected on each trip. The standard-issue cutters from 1877 to 1900 came in 11 different lengths, ranging from . This was cut to 5 sizes from  in 1914.

The sailing rig of the cutters used as ship's boats was usually two masted. In 1761, the larger Deal-built cutters had spritsails set on these masts, soon transitioning to a dipping lug fore-sail and a sprit mizzen. For much of the 19th century, and into the 20th, cutters were rigged with a dipping lug on the foremast and a standing lug on the mizzen. This made them similar to many of the luggers worked from the beaches and harbours of Britain. The sail plan illustration here (1880 Sail Plan) even replicates the civilian lugger terminology of having a fore and mizzen mast, and not using the term "main mast". A variation on this rig, seen for example in 1887, was to have two dipping lugs.

The number of oars pulled varied with the size of the boat. A schedule of ship's boats of 1886 shows  cutters pulling 12 oars, , 10 oars, , 8 oars and the two smallest sizes of , 6 oars. The smaller boats could be single banked whilst the larger and later examples were generally double-banked. For transporting large numbers of men, in moderate weather conditions, a 34 ft cutter could carry a total of 66 men, a 26 ft cutter, 36 men and a 20 ft cutter, 21 men.

Steam powered ship's boats saw a slow introduction to the Royal Navy from 1864. By 1877, three types were in use: steam launches, picket boats and steam cutters. However, right up to the time of the First World War, the majority of the boats in use continued to be propelled solely by sail and oar. The Royal Navy still has some cutters that can be worked under sail or oar.

Sailing rig
In the simpler definition, the sailing rig called "cutter" has a single mast with fore and aft sails which include more than one headsail. The mainsail (set abaft, or behind the mast) could be gaff, Bermuda, standing lug or gunter rigged. A more complex definition may be applied in American waters, where a boat with two headsails would be termed a sloop if the mast has a more forward position and the bowsprit is permanently rigged. An example of this is the Friendship Sloop. A traditional cutter, by contrast, has a running bowsprit and the jib is set flying on a traveller that is hauled out to the end of the bowsprit. In a vessel such as a Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter, a storm jib might be set on a reefed bowsprit, with the bowsprit partially run in from its most fully extended position.

Other Types

Rowing

The watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th and 18th centuries. The modern waterman's cutter is based on drawings of these boats. They are  long with a beam of . They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s and now many of the fleet of 24  compete annually in this "Marathon of the River". Watermen's cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals' Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas. In addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions.

Cutters have been used for record-breaking attempts and crews have achieved record times for sculling the English Channel (2 h 42 min) in 1996 and for sculling non-stop from London to Paris (4 days 15 min) in 1999.

Pilot

The pilot cutter developed from the need for a fast boat to take maritime pilots from harbour to incoming large trading vessels.

As most early pilots were local fisherman who undertook both jobs, although licensed by the harbour to operate within their jurisdiction, pilots were generally self-employed, and the quickest transport meant greater income. As their fishing boats were heavy working boats, and filled with fishing equipment, they needed a new type of boat; early boats were developed from single masted fishing cutter designs and twin masted yawls, and latterly into the specialist pilot cutter.

The natural dangers of the Bristol Channel brought about over many years the development of the specialist Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter. According to records from Pill, Somerset now housed in the Bristol Museum, the first official Bristol Channel pilot was barge master George James Ray, appointed by the Corporation of Bristol in May 1497 to pilot John Cabot's  from Bristol harbour to the open sea beyond. In 1837 Pilot George Ray guided Brunel's , and in 1844 William Ray piloted the larger  on her maiden voyage.

Customs services
The term cutter is also used for any seaworthy vessel used in the law enforcement duties of the United Kingdom's Border Force, the United States Coast Guard (because of its descent from the Revenue Cutter Service) or the customs services of other countries.

In the United States, the early Revenue Cutter Service operated customs cutters that were commonly schooners or brigs. In Britain, they were usually rigged as defined under Sailing (above). The British Board of Customs also used other vessels as hulks, which were moored in places such as tidal creeks.  Customs officers worked from the hulks in smaller boats.

In the UK, the Border Force (successor to the UK Border Agency and HM Customs and Excise) currently operates a fleet of 42 m corvette-type vessels throughout UK territorial waters as border cutters, inspecting vessels for illicit cargoes.

See also
 Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter
 Clipper

Notes

References

External links
 U. S. Coast Guard Historian's Office

Sailing ships
Sailboat types
Rowing racing boats
Ship's boats
Sailing rigs and rigging

Cutter (boat)


Okzidentaler Rationalismus ist eine Begriffsprägung des deutschen Soziologen und Nationalökonomen Max Weber (1864–1920). Damit meint er den neuen originär westlichen Kulturtypus, der seit der Renaissance zunehmend auf Rationalismus und Säkularismus basiert. Seine Entstehung ist nach Weber  die zentrale Voraussetzung für die Ausprägung und Ausbreitung des Kapitalismus in der Frühen Neuzeit. Weber stellte eingangs seiner Gesammelten Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie (erschienen 1920) die Frage nach den Ursachen der westlichen Entwicklung in Bezug auf die Entstehung eines rationalistisch-bürokratisch geprägten kapitalistischen Geistes:

Seine Antwort lautete: "Nur im Okzident gibt es 'Wissenschaft' in dem Entwicklungsstadium, welches wir heute als 'gültig' erkennen".

Weber beschrieb die Entstehung des okzidentalen Rationalismus durch einen Prozess, den er als die "Entzauberung der Welt" bezeichnete. Es handelt sich dabei um einen Intellektualisierungsprozess, einen Prozess der Modernisierung, vorrangig der Wirtschaft und der Gesellschaft, von einer von feudal-traditionalen Wirtschafts- und Herrschaftsstrukturen geprägten Gesellschaft hin zu einer bürokratisch organisierten kapitalistischen Industriegesellschaft auf der Basis von Rationalisierung und Technisierung.

Siehe auch
 Arbeitsethik
 Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus

Einzelnachweis

Philosophische Strömung
Max Weber

Okzidentaler Rationalismus


Una conferencia, también denominada ATC (Audio Tele-Conferencia), es una llamada telefónica en la que el que llama desea ser oído por más de una persona llamada en la parte de audio de la comunicación. Las llamadas de conferencia pueden estar diseñadas para permitir que la persona llamada participe en la comunicación, o pueden estar configuradas de forma que la parte llamada simplemente escucha y no puede hablar.

Las llamadas de conferencia se pueden diseñar para que una persona llame a los demás participantes y los agregue a la llamada. Sin embargo, los participantes suelen ser capaces de llamar a la conferencia por sí mismos, entrando en contacto con un número de teléfono especial que se conecta a un "puente de conferencias" (un tipo de equipo especializado que conecta las líneas telefónicas). Las empresas suelen utilizar un proveedor de servicios especializados que mantiene el puente de conferencia, o que proporciona los números de teléfono y los códigos PIN que los participantes marcan para acceder a la reunión o conferencia telefónica.

Las llamadas de tres vías están disponibles (generalmente con un cargo adicional) para muchos clientes en su línea de teléfono de casa o de la oficina. En la llamada de tres vías, se llama a la primera persona a quien se desea hablar. Entonces se pulsa el botón de colgado rápido (conocido también como botón de recuperación o de espera, en el Reino Unido y en otros lugares) y se marca el número de teléfono de otra persona. Mientras está sonando, se vuelve a presionar el botón de flash / rellamada para conectar las tres personas. Esta opción permite a quienes llaman agregar una segunda llamada saliente a una llamada que ya está conectada.

Véase también
 Llamada de grupo (en inglés)
 Teleconferencia

Enlaces externos
 Movistar lanza la multillamada
 Audio conferencias vs. vídeo conferencias

Referencias
 "The True Cost of Free Conference Calling". 2009-11-11. http://www.junctionnetworks.com/blog/mike/2009/11/11/the-true-cost-of-free-conference-calling. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
  "New Ofcom rules should soon make it cheaper to call 0870 numbers". 2009-04-23. http://www.ofcom.org.uk/consumer/2009/04/0870-numbers/. Retrieved 2010-05-17.

Servicios telefónicos

Conferencia (llamada)


The Hough transform is a feature extraction technique used in image analysis, computer vision, and digital image processing. The purpose of the technique is to find imperfect instances of objects within a certain class of shapes by a voting procedure. This voting procedure is carried out in a parameter space, from which object candidates are obtained as local maxima in a so-called accumulator space that is explicitly constructed by the algorithm for computing the Hough transform.

The classical Hough transform was concerned with the identification of lines in the image, but later the Hough transform has been extended to identifying positions of arbitrary shapes, most commonly circles or ellipses. The Hough transform as it is universally used today was invented by Richard Duda and Peter Hart in 1972, who called it a "generalized Hough transform" after the related 1962 patent of Paul Hough. The transform was popularized in the computer vision community by Dana H. Ballard through a 1981 journal article titled "Generalizing the Hough transform to detect arbitrary shapes".

History

It was initially invented for machine analysis of bubble chamber photographs (Hough, 1959).

The Hough transform was patented as  in 1962 and assigned to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission with the name "Method and Means for Recognizing Complex Patterns". This patent uses a slope-intercept parametrization for straight lines, which awkwardly leads to an unbounded transform space since the slope can go to infinity.

The rho-theta parametrization universally used today was first described in

although it was already standard for the Radon transform since at least the 1930s.

O'Gorman and Clowes' variation is described in

The story of how the modern form of the Hough transform was invented is given in

Theory

In automated analysis of digital images, a subproblem often arises of detecting simple shapes, such as straight lines, circles or ellipses. In many cases an edge detector can be used as a pre-processing stage to obtain image points or image pixels that are on the desired curve in the image space. Due to imperfections in either the image data or the edge detector, however, there may be missing points or pixels on the desired curves as well as spatial deviations between the ideal line/circle/ellipse and the noisy edge points as they are obtained from the edge detector. For these reasons, it is often non-trivial to group the extracted edge features to an appropriate set of lines, circles or ellipses. The purpose of the Hough transform is to address this problem by making it possible to perform groupings of edge points into object candidates by performing an explicit voting procedure over a set of parameterized image objects (Shapiro and Stockman, 304).

Detecting lines
The simplest case of Hough transform is detecting straight lines. In general, the straight line  can be represented as a point (b, m) in the parameter space. However, vertical lines pose a problem. They would give rise to unbounded values of the slope parameter m. Thus, for computational reasons, Duda and Hart proposed the use of the Hesse normal form

where  is the distance from the origin to the closest point on the straight line, and  is the angle between the  axis and the line connecting the origin with that closest point.

The intuition for this form, similarly to the plane equation, is that every vector on the line must be perpendicular (orthogonal) to the straight line of length  that comes from the origin. It can be seen that the intersection point of the function line and the perpendicular line that comes from the origin is at . So, for any point  on the line, the vector  must be orthogonal to the vector . Therefore, we get that for any point  on the function line, the equation  must be satisfied. Therefore, . Since  and , we get . Since , we get the final form of .

It is therefore possible to associate with each line of the image a pair . The  plane is sometimes referred to as Hough space for the set of straight lines in two dimensions. This representation makes the Hough transform conceptually very close to the two-dimensional Radon transform. In fact, the Hough transform is mathematically equivalent to the Radon transform, but the two transformations have different computational interpretations traditionally associated with them.

Given a single point in the plane, the set of all straight lines going through that point corresponds to a sinusoidal curve in the (r, θ) plane, which is unique to that point. A set of two or more points that form a straight line will produce sinusoids crossing at the (r, θ) for that line. Thus, the problem of detecting collinear points can be converted to the problem of finding concurrent curves.

Probabilistic interpretation
Given a shape parametrized by , taking values in the set  called the shape space, one can interpret the Hough transform as the inverse transform of a probability distribution on the image space to the shape space , and interpret shape detection as maximum likelihood estimation.

Explicitly, the Hough transform performs an approximate naive Bayes inference. We start with a uniform prior on the shape space. We consider only the positive evidence, and ignore all negative evidence, so that we can detect partially occluded shapes.

We add up the log-likelihood in the shape space up to an additive constant. The assumption of naive Bayes means that all pixels in the image space provide independent evidence, so that their likelihoods multiply, that is, their log-likelihoods add. The freedom in additive constant allows us to perform no operation on the "background pixels" in shape space.

Finally, we perform maximum likelihood estimation by picking out the peaks in the log-likelihood on the shape space.

Implementation

The linear Hough transform algorithm estimates the two parameters that define a straight line. The transform space has two dimensions, and every point in the transform space is used as an accumulator to detect or identify a line described by . Every point in the detected edges in the image contributes to the accumulators.

The dimension of the accumulator equals the number of unknown parameters, i.e., two, considering quantized values of  and  in the pair . For each pixel at  and its neighborhood, the Hough transform algorithm determines whether there is enough evidence of a straight line at that pixel. If so, it will calculate the parameters  of that line, then look for the accumulator's bin that the parameters fall into, and increment the value of that bin.

By finding the bins with the highest values, typically by looking for local maxima in the accumulator space, the most likely lines can be extracted, and their (approximate) geometric definitions read off (Shapiro and Stockman, 304). The simplest way of finding these peaks is by applying some form of threshold, but other techniques may yield better results in different circumstances – determining which lines are found, as well as how many. Since the lines returned do not contain any length information, it is often necessary, in the next step, to find which parts of the image match up with which lines. Moreover, due to imperfection errors in the edge-detection step, there will usually be errors in the accumulator space, which may make it non-trivial to find the appropriate peaks, and thus the appropriate lines.

The final result of the linear Hough transform is a two-dimensional array (matrix) similar to the accumulator—one dimension of this matrix is the quantized angle , and the other dimension is the quantized distance . Each element of the matrix has a value equal to the sum of the points or pixels that are positioned on the line represented by quantized parameters . So the element with the highest value indicates the straight line that is most represented in the input image.

Examples

Example 1

Consider three data points, shown here as black dots.

For each data point, a number of lines are plotted going through it, all at different angles. These are shown here in different colours.
The Hough transform accumulates contributions from all pixels in the detected edge. To each line, a support line exists which is perpendicular to it and which intersects the origin. In each case, one of these is shown as an arrow.
The length (i.e. perpendicular distance to the origin) and angle of each support line is calculated. Lengths and angles are tabulated below the diagrams.
From the calculations, it can be seen that in either case the support line at 60° has a similar length.
Hence, it is understood that the corresponding lines (the blue ones in the above picture) are very similar.
One can thus assume that all points lie close to the blue line.

Example 2

The following is a different example showing the results of a Hough transform on a raster image containing two thick lines.

The results of this transform were stored in a matrix. Cell value represents the number of curves through any point. Higher cell values are rendered brighter. The two distinctly bright spots are the Hough parameters of the two lines. From these spots' positions, angle and distance from image center of the two lines in the input image can be determined.

Variations and extensions

Using the gradient direction to reduce the number of votes
An improvement suggested by O'Gorman and Clowes can be used to detect lines if one takes into account that the local gradient of the image intensity will necessarily be orthogonal to the edge. Since edge detection generally involves computing the intensity gradient magnitude, the gradient direction is often found as a side effect. If a given point of coordinates (x,y) happens to indeed be on a line, then the local direction of the gradient gives the θ parameter corresponding to said line, and the r parameter is then immediately obtained. (Shapiro and Stockman, 305) The gradient direction can be estimated to within 20°, which shortens the sinusoid trace from the full 180° to roughly 45°. This reduces the computation time and has the interesting effect of reducing the number of useless votes, thus enhancing the visibility of the spikes corresponding to real lines in the image.

Kernel-based Hough transform (KHT)
Fernandes and Oliveira  suggested an improved voting scheme for the Hough transform that allows a software implementation to achieve real-time performance even on relatively large images (e.g., 1280×960). The Kernel-based Hough transform uses the same  parameterization proposed by Duda and Hart but operates on clusters of approximately collinear pixels. For each cluster, votes are cast using an oriented elliptical-Gaussian kernel that models the uncertainty associated with the best-fitting line with respect to the corresponding cluster. The approach not only significantly improves the performance of the voting scheme, but also produces a much cleaner accumulator and makes the transform more robust to the detection of spurious lines.

3-D kernel-based Hough transform for plane detection (3DKHT)
Limberger and Oliveira suggested a deterministic technique for plane detection in unorganized point clouds whose cost is  in the number of samples, achieving real-time performance for relatively large datasets (up to  points on a 3.4 GHz CPU). It is based on a fast Hough-transform voting strategy for planar regions, inspired by the Kernel-based Hough transform (KHT). This 3D kernel-based Hough transform (3DKHT) uses a fast and robust algorithm to segment clusters of approximately co-planar samples, and casts votes for individual clusters (instead of for individual samples) on a () spherical accumulator using a trivariate Gaussian kernel. The approach is several orders of magnitude faster than existing (non-deterministic) techniques for plane detection in point clouds, such as RHT and RANSAC, and scales better with the size of the datasets. It can be used with any application that requires fast detection of planar features on large datasets.

Hough transform of curves, and its generalization for analytical and non-analytical shapes
Although the version of the transform described above applies only to finding straight lines, a similar transform can be used for finding any shape which can be represented by a set of parameters. A circle, for instance, can be transformed into a set of three parameters, representing its center and radius, so that the Hough space becomes three dimensional. Arbitrary ellipses and curves can also be found this way, as can any shape easily expressed as a set of parameters.

The generalization of the Hough transform for detecting analytical shapes in spaces having any dimensionality was proposed by Fernandes and Oliveira. In contrast to other Hough transform-based approaches for analytical shapes, Fernandes' technique does not depend on the shape one wants to detect nor on the input data type. The detection can be driven to a type of analytical shape by changing the assumed model of geometry where data have been encoded (e.g., euclidean space, projective space, conformal geometry, and so on), while the proposed formulation remains unchanged. Also, it guarantees that the intended shapes are represented with the smallest possible number of parameters, and it allows the concurrent detection of different kinds of shapes that best fit an input set of entries with different dimensionalities and different geometric definitions (e.g., the concurrent detection of planes and spheres that best fit a set of points, straight lines and circles).

For more complicated shapes in the plane (i.e., shapes that cannot be represented analytically in some 2D space), the Generalised Hough transform is used, which allows a feature to vote for a particular position, orientation and/or scaling of the shape using a predefined look-up table.The Hough transform accumulates contributions from all pixels in the detected edge.

Circle detection process

Altering the algorithm to detect circular shapes instead of lines is relatively straightforward.

 First, we create the accumulator space, which is made up of a cell for each pixel. Initially each cell is set to 0.
 For each edge point (i, j) in the image, increment all cells which according to the equation of a circle  could be the center of a circle. These cells are represented by the letter  in the equation.
 For each possible value of  found in the previous step, find all possible values of  which satisfy the equation.
 Search for local maxima in the accumulator space. These cells represent circles that were detected by the algorithm.

If we do not know the radius of the circle we are trying to locate beforehand, we can use a three-dimensional accumulator space to search for circles with an arbitrary radius. Naturally, this is more computationally expensive.

This method can also detect circles that are partially outside of the accumulator space, as long as enough of the circle's area is still present within it.

Detection of 3D objects (planes and cylinders)
Hough transform can also be used for the detection of 3D objects in range data or 3D point clouds. The extension of classical Hough transform for plane detection is quite straightforward. A plane is represented by its explicit equation  for which we can use a 3D Hough space corresponding to ,  and . This extension suffers from the same problems as its 2D counterpart i.e., near horizontal planes can be reliably detected, while the performance deteriorates as planar direction becomes vertical (big values of  and  amplify the noise in the data). This formulation of the plane has been used for the detection of planes in the point clouds acquired from airborne laser scanning  and works very well because in that domain all planes are nearly horizontal.

For generalized plane detection using Hough transform, the plane can be parametrized by its normal vector  (using spherical coordinates) and its distance from the origin  resulting in a three dimensional Hough space. This results in each point in the input data voting for a sinusoidal surface in the Hough space. The intersection of these sinusoidal surfaces indicates presence of a plane. A more general approach for more than 3 dimensions requires search heuristics to remain feasible.

Hough transform has also been used to find cylindrical objects in point clouds using a two step approach. The first step finds the orientation of the cylinder and the second step finds the position and radius.

Using weighted features
One common variation detail. That is, finding the bins with the highest count in one stage can be used to constrain the range of values searched in the next.

Carefully chosen parameter space
A high-dimensional parameter space for the Hough transform is not only slow, but if implemented without forethought can easily overrun the available memory. Even if the programming environment allows the allocation of an array larger than the available memory space through virtual memory, the number of page swaps required for this will be very demanding because the accumulator array is used in a randomly accessed fashion, rarely stopping in contiguous memory as it skips from index to index.

Consider the task of finding ellipses in an 800x600 image. Assuming that the radii of the ellipses are oriented along principal axes, the parameter space is four-dimensional. (x, y) defines the center of the ellipse, and a and b denote the two radii. Allowing the center to be anywhere in the image, adds the constraint 0<x<800 and 0<y<600. If the radii are given the same values as constraints, what is left is a sparsely filled accumulator array of more than 230 billion values.

A program thus conceived is unlikely to be allowed to allocate sufficient memory. This doesn't mean that the problem can't be solved, but only that new ways to constrain the size of the accumulator array are to be found, which makes it feasible. For instance:

 If it is reasonable to assume that the ellipses are each contained entirely within the image, the range of the radii can be reduced. The largest the radii can be is if the center of the ellipse is in the center of the image, allowing the edges of the ellipse to stretch to the edges. In this extreme case, the radii can only each be half the magnitude of the image size oriented in the same direction. Reducing the range of a and b in this fashion reduces the accumulator array to 57 billion values.
 Trade accuracy for space in the estimation of the center: If the center is predicted to be off by 3 on both the x and y axis this reduces the size of the accumulator array to about 6 billion values.
 Trade accuracy for space in the estimation of the radii: If the radii are estimated to each be off by 5 further reduction of the size of the accumulator array occurs, by about 256 million values.
 Crop the image to areas of interest. This is image dependent, and therefore unpredictable, but imagine a case where all of the edges of interest in an image are in the upper left quadrant of that image. The accumulator array can be reduced even further in this case by constraining all 4 parameters by a factor of 2, for a total reduction factor of 16.
By applying just the first three of these constraints to the example stated about, the size of the accumulator array is reduced by almost a factor of 1000, bringing it down to a size that is much more likely to fit within a modern computer's memory.

Efficient ellipse detection algorithm

Yonghong Xie and Qiang Ji give an efficient way of implementing the Hough transform for ellipse detection by overcoming the memory issues. As discussed in the algorithm (on page 2 of the paper), this approach uses only a one-dimensional accumulator (for the minor axis) in order to detect ellipses in the image. The complexity is O(N3) in the number of non-zero points in the image.

Limitations
The Hough transform is only efficient if a high number of votes fall in the right bin, so that the bin can be easily detected amid the background noise. This means that the bin must not be too small, or else some votes will fall in the neighboring bins, thus reducing the visibility of the main bin.

Also, when the number of parameters is large (that is, when we are using the Hough transform with typically more than three parameters), the average number of votes cast in a single bin is very low, and those bins corresponding to a real figure in the image do not necessarily appear to have a much higher number of votes than their neighbors. The complexity increases at a rate of  with each additional parameter, where  is the size of the image space and  is the number of parameters. (Shapiro and Stockman, 310) Thus, the Hough transform must be used with great care to detect anything other than lines or circles.

Finally, much of the efficiency of the Hough transform is dependent on the quality of the input data: the edges must be detected well for the Hough transform to be efficient. Use of the Hough transform on noisy images is a very delicate matter and generally, a denoising stage must be used before. In the case where the image is corrupted by speckle, as is the case in radar images, the Radon transform is sometimes preferred to detect lines, because it attenuates the noise through summation.

See also
 Generalised Hough transform
 Randomized Hough transform
 Radon transform
 Fourier transform

References

External links
 hough_transform.cpp – C++ code – example of CImg library (open source library, C++ source code, Grayscale images)
 Interactive Demonstration on the Basics of the Hough Transform
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070827233423/http://www.rob.cs.tu-bs.de/content/04-teaching/06-interactive/Hough.html – Java Applet + Source for learning the Hough transformation in slope-intercept form
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070827191440/http://www.rob.cs.tu-bs.de/content/04-teaching/06-interactive/HNF.html – Java Applet + Source for learning the Hough-Transformation in normal form
 http://www.sydlogan.com/deskew.html – Deskew images using Hough transform (Grayscale images, C++ source code)
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070922090216/http://imaging.gmse.net/articledeskew.html – Deskew images using Hough transform (Visual Basic source code)
 http://www.mitov.com/products/visionlab – Delphi, C++ and .NET free for educational purposes library containing Line, Circle and Line segment Hough transform components.
 Tarsha-Kurdi, F., Landes, T., Grussenmeyer, P., 2007a. Hough-transform and extended RANSAC algorithms for automatic detection of 3d building roof planes from Lidar data. ISPRS Proceedings. Workshop Laser scanning. Espoo, Finland, September 12–14, 2007.
 Into contains open source implementations of linear and circular Hough transform in C++
 http://www.vision.ime.usp.br/~edelgado/defesa/code/hough.html Hough-transform for Ellipse detection, implemented in C.
 scikit-image Hough-transform for line, circle and ellipse, implemented in Python.
  Hough transform based on wavelet filtering, to detect a circle of a particular radius. (Matlab code.)
 Hough transform for lines using MATLAB
 Hough transform for circles in MATLAB
 KHT – C++ source code.
 3DKHT – C++ source code and datasets.

Feature detection (computer vision)

Hough transform


Hapkido (Korece: 합기도) Kore kökenli bir dövüş sanatıdır.

İçeriği
Hap: Beden ve ruhun uyumlu birlikteliği; Ki: Yaşam ve beden enerjisi, iç enerji; Do: Eğitim yolu, sanatı.

Bu üç sözcüğün birleşmesiyle oluşan "Hapkido" terimi, beden, ruh ve iç enerjinin uyumlu birlikteliği temeline dayanan Kore kökenli bir savunma sanatının, bunun da ötesinde, bir yaşam biçiminin adıdır.

Hapkido geniş bir yelpazede, kol ve ayak eklem kilitlemeleri, fırlatma, her türlü ayak teknikleri, el teknikleri ile akrobatik jimnastik, eğme, bükme ve sinir noktalarına baskı tekniklerinin yanında ateşsiz her türlü silahı ustaca kullanmayı, günlük hayatta kullanılan eşyaları birer silaha dönüştürmeyi öğretir. Örneğin: sopa, şemsiye, bıçak, yelpaze, toka gibi günlük araç gereçlerin kullanımı da hapkido da mevcuttur. Bir spordan ziyade meşru müdafaaya uygun bir sanat olduğunu söylemek daha doğrudur. Yaşa bağlı olmaksızın hem kadınlar hem de erkekler tarafından öğrenilebilir.

Tarihi

Hapkido, yani savunmanın dosdoğru yapıldığı yer anlamına gelen ve yaklaşık 3000 yıllık bir tarihi olan Kore savunma sanatının filizlendiği merkezlerde oluşmuştur. Bunların önde gelenleri hanedanlık sarayları, Budist tapınakları ve savunma ordusunun yetiştirildiği ordu karargahlarıdır.

Uzak Doğu savunma sanatı bir savaşın yöntemi olmaktan çok her insan ruhunda barınan yıkıcılık ve korkaklık gibi duyguların eğitilip onura ve erdeme götüren yola (Do) doğru mesafe kaydetmektir.

Savunma sanatlarında uygulanan teknikler dövüş kalıplarından çok ruhu ve bedeni eğiten egzersizlerdir. Bu yüzden sanat temeli kazanmış olan savaş tekniklerinin belli nefes teknikleri ve konsantrasyonla çalışılan meditasyon bölümleri vardır. Hapkido da Çigong gibi. Amaç düşmanı yok edip ortadan kaldırmak değil, ona karşı savunarak onu kazanmanın yolunu keşfetmektir.

WAHA

WAHA, 2012 yılında kurulan tüm hapkido sistemlerini birleştiren federasyonlar üstü bir kuruluştur. Açılımı World All Hapkido Association'dır. Başkanı seçimle belirlenir. İlk başkanı Kim Chang Sun olmuştur. Türkiye Hapkido Federasyonu başkanı Şükrü Kınataş'tır.

Dış bağlantılar
 http://www.facebook.com/pages/World-All-Hapkido-Association/250237258392605?fref=ts
 World All Hapkido Association-Facebook Page
 Turkish Hapkido Federation
 http://www.youtube.com/user/hapkidofederasyonu
 http://twitter.com/TRHapkido
 http://www.changmi.nl
 http://www.teukgong.com

Kore savaş sanatları

Hapkido


Union des démocrates pour la République (UDR) (dansk: Unionen af demokrater for republikken) (officielt: L'Union des démocrates pour la cinquième République (dansk: Den demokratiske union for den femte republik)) var et fransk gaullistisk parti, der blev oprettet i 1967 og nedlagt i 1976.

Partiet var en videreførelse af Unionen for den nye republik, der havde eksisteret siden 1958.

I 1976 blev partiet afløst af Samling for Republiken.

Præsidentvalg
Ved præsidentvalget i 1969 støttede partiet Georges Pompidou, der vandt valget. I 1974 støttede partiet Jacques Chaban-Delmas, der blev nummer tre, og som dermed blev én af valgets tabere.

Premierministre
Partiet havde følgende premierministre:
 Georges Pompidou (1962–1968)
 Maurice Couve de Murville (1968–1969
 Jacques Chaban-Delmas (1969–1972)
 Pierre Messmer (1972–1974)
 Jacques Chirac (1974–1976)

Gaullistiske partier
Etableret i 1967
Ophørt i 1976

Union des démocrates pour la République (1967–1976)


El escudo de armas de Charlottetown es la realización plena de armas usadas por el gobierno municipal como un símbolo oficial.

El escudo de armas es un escusón sencillo blanco y verde con la corona de coronación de la reina Sofía Carlota de Inglaterra en el centro.

Referencias

Charlottetown
Charlottetown
Charlottetown

Escudo de Charlottetown


වික්‍රමසිංහ යනු සිංහල වාසගමකි . නම සහිත කැපී පෙනෙන පුද්ගලයින්ට ඇතුළත් වන්නේ:

 වාසගම

 චන්ද්‍රා වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1939), බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ගණිතඥයෙක් සහ තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයෙක්
 දොන් මාර්ටිනෝ ද සිල්වා වික්‍රමසිංහ (මියගියේ 1937), ලංකා අභිලේඛනඥ සහ පුරාවිද්‍යාඥ
 ඩොරීන් යං වික්‍රමසිංහ, ලංකා දේශපාලඥයා
 ගාමිණී වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1965), ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයා
 ජගත් වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1966), ශ්‍රී ලාංකික සංගීතඥයා
 ලක්ෂ්මන් වික්‍රමසිංහ (1927-1983), ශ්‍රී ලාංකික පූජක
 මෛත්‍රී වික්‍රමසිංහ, ශ්‍රී ලංකා විද්‍යාඥයා
 මාර්ටින් වික්‍රමසිංහ (1890-1976), Ceylonese කතුවරයා
 නීලා වික්‍රමසිංහ (1954-2022), ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ගායිකාව
 නෙරංජන් වික්‍රමසිංහ (1961-2015), ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දේශපාලනඥයා
 නීරා වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1964), ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ශාස්ත්‍රීය
 ප්‍රමෝද්‍ය වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1971), ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයා
 රාජිකා වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1973), ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දේශපාලනඥයා
 රනිල් වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1949), ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දේශපාලනඥයා
 එස්.ඒ. වික්‍රමසිංහ (1901-1981), ලංකා දේශපාලනඥයා
 ෂෙලී වික්‍රමසිංහ (1926-2011), ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් නිලධාරිනිය
 සුනීතා වික්‍රමසිංහ, බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය වෛද්‍යවරිය සහ විද්‍යාඥවරියකි
 උදය වික්‍රමසිංහ (1939-2010), ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් නිලධාරි
 උමයංගනා වික්‍රමසිංහ (උපත 1980), ශ්‍රී ලාංකික නිළිය
 ඩබ්ලිව් වික්‍රමසිංහ (1899-? ), ලංකා දේශපාලනඥයා

 පෙර නාමයක් ලෙස

 වික්‍රමසිංහ ආචිලාගේ චන්ද්‍රාවතී (උපත 1981), ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩිකාව
 වික්‍රමසිංහ රාජගුරු (උපත 1938), ශ්‍රී ලංකා පොලිස් නිලධාරියා
 වික්‍රමසිංහ විමලදාස (උපත 1943), ශ්‍රී ලංකා මලල ක්‍රීඩකයෙකි

වික්‍රමසිංහ


Fritillaria meleagris is a Eurasian species of flowering plant in the lily family Liliaceae. Its common names include snake's head fritillary, snake's head (the original English name), chess flower, frog-cup, guinea-hen flower, guinea flower, leper lily (because its shape resembled the bell once carried by lepers),  Lazarus bell, chequered lily, chequered daffodil, drooping tulip  or, in the British Isles, simply fritillary. The plant is a bulbous perennial native to the flood river plains of Europe where it grows in abundance.

Etymology
The Latin specific epithet meleagris means "spotted like a guineafowl". The common name "snake's head" probably refers to the somewhat snakelike appearance of the nodding flower heads, especially when in bud, on their long stems.

Description and habitat
The flower has a chequered pattern in shades of purple, or is sometimes pure white. It flowers from March to May and grows between  in height. The plant has a button-shaped bulb, about  in diameter, containing poisonous alkaloids. It grows in grasslands in damp soils and river meadows at altitudes up to .

Distribution
Fritillaria meleagris is native to Europe and western Asia but in many places it is an endangered species that is rarely found in the wild but is commonly grown in gardens. In Croatia, the flower is known as  and is associated by some with the country's national symbol. It is the official flower of the Swedish province of Uppland, where it grows in large quantities every spring in the meadows of Kungsängen (King's Meadow), just outside Uppsala, which gives the flower its Swedish name,  ("king's meadow lily"). It is also found for example in Sandemar Nature Reserve, a nature reserve west of Dalarö in Stockholm Archipelago.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom there is some disagreement amongst botanists as to whether F. meleagris is a native species or a long-established garden escapee that has become naturalised over time. The plant was first described in the 16th century by herbalist John Gerard who had only known of it as a garden plant and it was not recorded in the wild until 1736, which has led some to argue that it must be an escapee. However, the fact that its habitat is usually confined to ancient hay meadows and it does not easily spread to adjoining land, leads others to the conclusion that it is a native species which became isolated from the European population when Britain was cut off from mainland Europe after the last glacial period. Clive Stace (2010) says that it is "doubtfully native".

The plant was once abundant in the UK, particularly in the Thames Valley and parts of Wiltshire, and was collected in vast quantities to be sold as a cut flower in the markets of London, Oxford and Birmingham. During World War II most of the ancient meadows were ploughed up and turned over to the production of food crops, destroying much of the plant's habitat. A popular garden plant, it is now rare in the wild, although there are some notable sites where it is still found, such as the meadows at Magdalen College, Iffley Meadows, Oxford and the Oxfordshire village of Ducklington, which holds a "Fritillary Sunday" festival. It is also found in the North Meadow National Nature Reserve, Wiltshire, Clattinger Farm Nature Reserve, Wiltshire, on Portholme in Cambridgeshire and Fox Fritillary Meadow and Mickfield Meadow nature reserves in Suffolk. In 2002 it was chosen as the County flower of Oxfordshire following a poll by the wild flora conservation charity Plantlife.

Cultivation
Now easily available as an ornamental spring bulb for the garden, it is commonly sold as a mixture of different coloured cultivars. The species and the pure white-flowered variety F. meleagris var. unicolor subvar. alba have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Pests
Like many plants in the lily family, F. meleagris is susceptible to the scarlet lily beetle, which can seriously damage or kill it. But deer and rabbits do not damage the plant.

Diseases
Fritillaria meleagris is generally disease free.

Uses
Fritillaria meleagris is used for landscaping, gardening and horticulture in a variety of planting situations such as in: borders, containers, cottage and informal gardens, woodland gardens, wildflower meadows, rock gardens or naturalized areas.

Gallery

Notes and references

External links

Kew plant profile: Fritillaria meleagris (snake's head fritillary)
Fritillaria meleagris - Schachbrettblume

meleagris
Flora of Europe
Flora of Asia
Garden plants
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Fritillaria meleagris


La bataille d'Izioum est un engagement militaire entre la Russie et l'Ukraine dans le cadre de l'invasion russe de l'Ukraine en mars 2022 pour la prise de la ville d'Izioum, dans l'oblast de Kharkiv.

Le , la Russie envahit l'Ukraine par de multiples offensives terrestres et aériennes. L'offensive du Nord-Est de l'Ukraine se dirige d'abord vers Kharkiv, où s'engage une bataille de longue durée. Début , les forces russes se lancent à l'assaut d'Izioum. L'armée ukraininenne leur oppose une forte résistance, et des combats intenses ont lieu pendant plusieurs semaines. Ils aboutissent à une prise progressive de la ville par la Russie qui en revendique le contrôle le .

Contexte

Izioum

Izioum (en  ; en ) est une ville de l'oblast de Kharkiv, en Ukraine, et le centre administratif du raïon d'Izioum. Sa population s'élevait à  en 2021. Elle est située au bord de la rivière Donets, à  au sud-est de Kharkiv, sur la  (E40). La gare d'Izioum est un important nœud ferroviaire.

En raison de l'importance de la ville en tant que nœud de transport, l'armée russe voulait s'en emparer afin que ses forces dans l'oblast de Kharkiv puissent rejoindre leurs troupes dans la région du Donbass.

Invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie

L'invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie de 2022 est une opération militaire déclenchée le  sur ordre du président russe Vladimir Poutine. La campagne militaire, dans le cadre du conflit russo-ukrainien, en cours depuis 2013, émerge d'une montée progressive des tensions débutée en 2021.

Les forces armées russes font une incursion dans la région du Donbass, dans l'est de l'Ukraine, le , avant une offensive aérienne, maritime et terrestre sur l'ensemble du territoire ukrainien le .

Début de l'offensive russe

Lors du premier jour de l'invasion, le 24 février, les forces russes pénètrent en Ukraine dans  plusieurs directions. L'objectif serait selon certains observateurs de renverser le gouvernement ukrainien et prendre le contrôle des institutions en le prenant de court. Les objectifs annoncés quant à eux sont la démilitarisation, la dénazification et la non entrée de l'OTAN du pays. Les assauts sont portés sur la capitale (Kiev), le Donbass (en guerre depuis 2014), le sud ainsi que le nord-est. Ces assauts sont précédés d'une vague de bombardements qui font la une dans les journaux.

L'offensive du Nord-Est de l'Ukraine traverse la frontière entre la Russie et l'Ukraine depuis l'oblast de Belgorod et l'oblast de Koursk. Elle a d'abord pour objectif principal la bataille de Kharkiv, où les forces russes se heurtent à une résistance ukrainienne plus forte qu'attendue, comme sur le reste du territoire envahi. Des combats ont lieu dans la périphérie de la ville, mais l'assaut est repoussé après quelques jours. Les troupes russes parviennent cependant à établir des positions autour de Kharkiv, qui devient la cible de tirs d'artillerie massifs et indiscriminés.

Les forces russes avancent dans toutes les directions et n'attendent pas les résultats du premier assaut sur Kharkiv pour contourner la ville et avancer plus loin. Elles empruntent la  et progressent rapidement vers le sud. Le 26 février, elles arrivent au village de  situé à 70km de Kharkiv et 50km d'Izioum.

Déroulement

Approche d'Izioum par l'armée russe
Début , la Russie détourne une partie des forces engagées dans la bataille de Kharkiv pour permettre la poursuite de l'offensive du Nord-Est de l'Ukraine. Elle maintient cependant la pression militaire sur Kharkiv en continuant les combats en périphérie de la ville et en recourant massivement aux bombardements d'artillerie, sans toutefois lancer de grands assauts. Les troupes ainsi libérées se dirigent notamment vers Izioum, d'où la Russie espère poursuivre l'offensive vers Sievierodonetsk et Novoaïdar et ainsi opérer une jonction avec l'offensive à l'Est de l'Ukraine dans l'oblast de Louhansk.

Les bombardements de la ville commencent le , et prennent de l'ampleur à partir du  où les tirs de roquettes russes se feront continus. Les dégâts sur la ville sont importants, les quartiers résidentiels sont coupés du gaz et de l'électricité tandis que l'hôpital est endommagé. Huit civils sont tués le 3 mars lors d'une frappe.

Assaut russe sur Izioum
La bataille d'Izioum s'engage le , lorsque les forces russes atteignent sa périphérie nord. Elles avancent depuis la zone de Kharkiv au nord-ouest par la , et depuis le nord-est depuis la direction de Koupiansk. Dans la soirée, des sites internet russes rapportent qu'Izioum aurait été prise par les forces russes, une affirmation qui n'est pas officiellement confirmée, et qui est contestée par le gouvernement ukrainien, qui précise que des combats sont en cours. L'Ukraine revendique le lendemain  avoir repoussé l'offensive.

Selon les autorités locales, les premiers combats, et notamment les bombardements d'artillerie, ont causé des destructions importantes à Izioum. L'hôpital central a notamment été touché, et les infrastructures d'électricité et d'eau ont été endommagées.

L'Ukraine organise le départ d'une partie des habitants d'Izioum qui fuient la guerre. Le , environ  prennent place à bord de  partant pour Dnipro. Cependant, le gouverneur de l'oblast de Kharkiv, , accuse la Russie de perturber l'évacuation des civils.

Combats pour la prise d'Izioum
La Russie fait de la bataille d'Izioum la priorité de l'offensive du nord-est de l'Ukraine, au détriment de ses efforts dans la bataille de Kharkiv. La 6e armée, la 20e armée et la 8e armée tentent de se réunir à Izioum en encerclant les forces ukrainiennes. Elles attaquent dans le même temps les villages de Petrivske et Hrouchouvakha, à une trentaine de kilomètres plus à l'ouest, afin de rejoindre la route P79 et d'attaquer Izioum par le sud-ouest. L'objectif russe est de prendre Izioum pour ensuite réaliser la jonction avec l'offensive de l'est, mais la résistance des soldats ukrainiens à Izioum montre que ses forces sont insuffisantes pour atteindre son but à court terme.

Les troupes russes parviennent à entrer dans Izioum, ouvrant une nouvelle phase de la bataille à l'intérieur de la ville. Le , elles s'emparent de la partie nord d'Izioum. La rive nord du Donets est occupée par la Russie, tandis que les forces ukrainiennes se sont repliées sur la rive sud, où elles sont assaillies de plusieurs côtés. Le lendemain , elles attaquent les villages au sud-ouest d'Izioum, Topolske, Chpakivka, et Donetsk, mais elles sont repoussées par l'armée ukrainienne.

Elles reprennent leur assaut le . Les 15 et , elles tentent d'achever l'encerlement d'Izioum, sans succès.

Le , le maire adjoint d'Izioum Volodymyr Matsokine déclare qu'après deux semaines d'attaques, la situation sociale est alarmante. Il rapporte que les habitants sont privés d'eau et d'électricité, et que les services essentiels tels que la distribution de nourriture, la santé et les pompes funèbres sont désorganisés.

Dans les jours qui suivent, la situation militaire à Izioum devient confuse pour les observateurs occidentaux. Le gouvernement des États-Unis affirme qu'elle a été conquise par les forces russes le . Celles-ci ont en effet lancé leur assaut sur la partie sud en traversant la Donets ; les combats continuent en périphérie de la ville, mais le centre reste contrôlé par les forces ukrainiennes.

La Russie maintient la pression militaire sur Izioum ; son ambition est de la mettre au service de l'enveloppement des forces ukrainiennes dans tout l'est de l'Ukraine. Les 19, 20, , elle lance plusieurs assauts vers le centre, qui sont mis en échec par la défense ukrainienne.

Pendant les combats, les troupes du génie russe commencent à construire un pont flottant sur la rivière Donets, afin de se substituer aux deux ponts pour véhicules partiellement détruits par les forces ukrainiennes dans le but d'arrêter l'avancée russe. Les forces ukrainiennes les prennent pour cible et revendiquent 19 soldats russes tués, et 46 blessés, dont la mort du commandant de l'unité du génie, le colonel Nikolaï Ovtcharenko.

Finalement, les forces russes réussissent à ériger deux ponts flottants, ce qui permet à leurs chars de traverser la rivière pour encercler la partie d'Izioum encore aux mains de l'armée ukrainienne, tandis qu'une contre-attaque de cette dernière est menée en vain.

Chute de la ville
Le 24 mars, le ministère de la Défense russe annonce avoir pris le contrôle total d'Izioum, ce qui est démenti par l'Ukraine, déclarant que les combats se poursuivaient. Selon , les forces russes tenaient la partie nord de la ville, tandis que les soldats ukrainiens se trouvaient au sud, la rivière Donets les séparant. Il a également confirmé qu'Izioum était encerclée et que la ville avait été « complètement détruite » à ce stade. Le 25 mars, le Wall Street Journal rapporte que l'armée russe s'est déjà emparée d'Izioum, les forces russes ayant franchi les lignes ukrainiennes au sud et ayant atteint la périphérie de deux villages (Topolskoïé et Kamenka), ce que les autorités de Kiev refusent de reconnaître.

Le  avril 2022, il est confirmé par la partie ukrainienne que la ville est entièrement tombée aux mains de l'armée russe.

La perte d'Izioum est un revers significatif pour l'Ukraine, parce qu'elle abritait une forte concentration de troupes, constituant une base arrière importante depuis huit ans dans la guerre du Donbass. Elle risque également d'exposer dangereusement l'arrière du dispositif défensif ukrainien établi depuis huit ans dans le Donbass et de donner la possibilité aux Russes d'avancer vers les villes de Sloviansk et de Kramatorsk, les principaux centres urbains encore tenus par les forces ukrainiennes dans le Donbass.

Suites

Le 29 avril, l'armée ukrainienne a choisi d'attaquer une caserne de la ville utilisée par les russes comme centre de commandement de la . L'objectif de Kiev était peut-être d'atteindre le général Valeri Guerassimov, chef d'état-major de l'armée russe, qui était possiblement sur les lieux. Selon le gouvernement ukrainien, cette opération aurait provoqué la mort de plus d'une centaine de soldats russes dont le général Andreï Simonov et probablement blessé Gerasimov. Près de 30 véhicules blindés seraient également touchés, voire détruits.

Début mai, le commandant en chef des forces armées ukrainiennes, Valeri Zaloujny, a annoncé le début d'une contre-offensive vers les régions de Kharkiv et Izioum.

Elle ne sera effective que début septembre 2022. En date du 10 septembre, des informations font état de l'entrée de militaires ukrainiens dans la ville.

Notes et références

Izioum
2022 en Ukraine
Mars 2022
Bataille 2022

Bataille d'Izioum


Cijene električne energije (koje se ponekad nazivaju tarifom za električnu energiju ili cijena električne energije) uvelike variraju od zemlje do zemlje i mogu se značajno razlikovati od lokaliteta do lokaliteta unutar određene zemlje. Mnogi čimbenici ulaze u određivanje tarife za električnu energiju, kao što su cijena proizvodnje električne energije, vladine subvencije, lokalni vremenski obrasci, infrastruktura za prijenos i distribuciju te regulacija industrije. "Cijene električne energije općenito odražavaju troškove izgradnje, financiranja, održavanja i upravljanja elektranama i električnom mrežom." Neke komunalne usluge su profitne, a njihove cijene također uključuju financijski povrat dioničarima i vlasnicima. Tarife za električnu energiju razlikuju se ovisno o vrsti kupca, obično prema stambenim, komercijalnim i industrijskim vezama. Predviđanje cijene električne energije je metoda kojom proizvođač, komunalno poduzeće ili veliki industrijski potrošač može s razumnom točnošću predvidjeti veleprodajne cijene električne energije. Trošak isporuke električne energije varira iz minute u minutu.

Struktura stopa
U standardno reguliranim monopolskim tržištima, cijene električne energije obično se razlikuju za stambene, komercijalne i industrijske korisnike. Stope se određuju kroz regulatorni proces koji nadzire komunalno povjerenstvo.

Cijene za pojedine klase kupaca električne energije mogu varirati ovisno o vremenu nazvanom TOU ili vremenu korištenja ili kapacitetu ili prirodi opskrbnog kruga (npr. 5 kW, 12 kW, 18 kW, 24 kW su tipični za neke velikih razvijenih zemalja); za industrijske kupce, jednofazne u odnosu na trofaznu, itd. Cijene su obično najviše za komercijalne i rezidencijalne potrošače zbog dodatnih troškova povezanih s povlačenjem distribucijskog napona. Cijena električne energije za industrijske potrošače je relativno ista kao i veleprodajna cijena električne energije, jer troše više energije pri višim naponima. Opskrba električnom energijom na visokim naponima na razini prijenosa učinkovitija je i stoga jeftinija.

Dvije najčešće razlike između korisničkih klasa su veličina opterećenja i profil upotrebe. U mnogim slučajevima, vrijeme upotrebe (TOU) i faktor opterećenja su značajniji čimbenici od veličine opterećenja. Doprinos vrhunskom opterećenju je iznimno važan čimbenik u određivanju klase kupaca. Opterećenja potrošača mogu se okarakterizirati kao vrhunac, izvan vršnog opterećenja, bazna opterećenja i sezonska opterećenja. Komunalne usluge različito ocjenjuju svako opterećenje, jer svaka od njih ima različite implikacije za elektroenergetski sustav.

Uključivanje distribuirane proizvodnje obnovljive energije i AMI u modernu električnu mrežu uvelo je mnoge alternativne strukture stopa. Jednostavna (ili fiksna) stopa, višestruka (ili stepenasta) stopa, TOU, stope potražnje, stupnjevane unutar TOU-a, sezonske i vikend / ljetne stope su među nekoliko stambenih struktura koje nude moderni uslužni programi. Jednostavna stopa naplaćuje određeni dolar po potrošenom kilovatu ($ / kWh). Stopa stopa je jedan od najčešćih stambenih stopa programa, i naplaćuje višu stopu kao kupac korištenje povećava. TOU i stope potražnje strukturirane su kako bi se pomoglo održavanju / kontroli vršne potražnje za komunalne usluge. Koncept u svojoj srži je odvratiti kupce od doprinosa u vrijeme najvećeg opterećenja tako što će im naplatiti više novca za korištenje struje u to vrijeme.

Feed-in tarifa (FIT) je politika opskrbe energijom koja podupire razvoj proizvodnje obnovljive energije. FIT daju financijsku korist proizvođačima obnovljive energije. U Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama, FIT politike jamče da će obnovljivi generatori koji imaju pravo na električnu energiju kupovati njihovu električnu energiju.  FIT ugovor sadrži zajamčeno vremensko razdoblje (obično 15-20 godina) da će se plaćanje u dolarima po kilovat satu ($ / kWh) izvršiti za puni output sustava.

Neto mjerenje je još jedan mehanizam naplate koji podržava razvoj proizvodnje obnovljive energije, posebice solarne energije. Mehanizam osigurava vlasnicima solarnih sustava za električnu energiju koju njihov sustav dodaje mreži. Stanovnici s krovnim fotonaponskim sustavom obično generiraju više električne energije nego što njihova kuća troši tijekom dana, tako da je neto mjerenje posebno povoljno. Za to vrijeme kada je proizvodnja veća od potrošnje, kućni električni brojilac će raditi unatrag kako bi osigurao kredit na računu za struju.

The cost also differs by the power source. Trošak se također razlikuje prema izvoru napajanja. Neto sadašnja vrijednost jediničnog troška električne energije tijekom životnog vijeka proizvodnog sredstva poznata je kao visina troška električne energije (LCOE). LCOE je najbolja vrijednost za usporedbu različitih metoda generiranja na dosljednoj osnovi.

U SAD-u je procijenjeni LCOE za različite izvore:

Usporedba cijena
Tablica u nastavku prikazuje jednostavnu usporedbu tarifa za električnu energiju u zemljama $0.14 i područjima širom svijeta, izraženih u američkim dolarima. Usporedba ne uzima u obzir čimbenike, uključujući fluktuirajuće međunarodne tečajeve, državu kupovna moć, državne subvencije električne energije ili popuste na malo koji su često dostupni u deregulirano tržište električne energije.

Primjerice, u 2012. Havaji stanovnici su imali najvišu prosječnu stopu električne energije u SAD ($7.34 kW/kWh), dok su stanovnici Louisiane imali najniže prosječne troškove električne energije za stanovanje 8.37¢/kWh. Čak iu susjednim SAD jaz je značajan, jer New York stanovnici imaju najveće prosječne stope stanovanja za struju u nižim 48 američkim državama 17.62¢ kW/kWh.

Eurostat

U sljedećoj tablici prikazane su cijene električne energije za kućanstva i potrošače koji nisu kućanstva unutar Europske unije (EU) i Islanda, Lihtenštajna, Norveške, Albanije, Republike Makedonije, Crne Gore, Srbije, Turske, Bosne i Hercegovine, Kosova, Moldavije i Ukrajine.

Predviđanje cijena električne energije
Predviđanje cijene električne energije proces je korištenja matematičkih modela za predviđanje cijena električne energije u budućnosti.

Metodologija prognoziranja
Najjednostavniji model za predviđanje dana unaprijed je tražiti od svake generacije izvora ponudu za blokove generacije i odabrati najjeftinije ponude. Ako nema dovoljno ponuda, cijena se povećava. Ako je podneseno previše ponuda, cijena može doseći nulu ili postati negativna. Cijena ponude uključuje trošak proizvodnje kao i troškove prijenosa, zajedno s dobiti. Energija se može prodati ili kupiti od susjednih pool pools.

Koncept neovisnih operatora sustava (ISO) potiče konkurenciju za generiranje među sudionicima na veleprodajnom tržištu razdvajanjem operacija prijenosa i proizvodnje. NOS koriste tržišta temeljena na licitaciji kako bi odredila ekonomsku otpremu.

Vjetar i solarna energija se ne otpremaju. Takva se moć obično prodaje prije bilo koje druge ponude, po unaprijed određenoj stopi za svakog dobavljača. Svaki se višak prodaje drugom operatoru mreže, ili pohranjuje, koristeći pumped-storage hydroelectricity, ili u najgorem slučaju, ograničen. Smanjenje bi potencijalno moglo značajno utjecati na ekonomske i ekološke prednosti solarne energije na većim razinama penetracije PV-a.

Utjecajni čimbenici
Električna energija se ne može pohraniti tako lako kao plin, ona se proizvodi u točno određenom trenutku. Stoga će svi čimbenici ponude i potražnje imati izravan utjecaj na cijenu električne energije na spot tržištu. Osim troškova proizvodnje, cijene električne energije određuju se prema ponudi i potražnji.

Na kratkoročne cijene najviše utječu vremenske prilike. Potražnja zbog zagrijavanja u zimskim mjesecima i hlađenja tijekom ljeta glavni su pokretači sezonskog rasta cijena. U 2017. godini u SAD-u je planirano da svojim kapacitetima doda 13 GW generacije prirodnog plina. Dodatni kapacitet loženja prirodnim plinom smanjuje cijenu električne energije i povećava potražnju.

Osiguranje prirodnih resursa jedne zemlje, kao i njihovi propisi, uvelike utječu na tarife sa strane ponude. Na ponudu opskrbe električnom energijom najviše utječu cijene goriva i cijene CO2. Cijene ugljika u EU udvostručile su se od 2017. godine, što ga čini značajnim pokretačkim čimbenikom cijene.

Vrijeme
Istraživanja pokazuju da općenito potražnja za električnom energijom uvelike potiče temperatura. Potražnja Grijanje u zimsko i hlađenje potražnji klima uređaji u ljeto je ono što prvenstveno pokreće sezonske vrhove u većini regija. Stupanj grijanja dans i stupanj hlađenja dans pomažu u mjerenju potrošnje energije upućivanjem na vanjsku temperaturu iznad i ispod 65 stupnjeva Fahrenheit, što je opće prihvaćena osnovna linija .

Što se tiče obnovljivih izvora poput sunca i vjetra, vrijeme utječe na opskrbu. Kalifornijska krivulja patke [cite] pokazuje razliku između potražnje za električnom energijom i količine solarne energije dostupne tijekom dana. Na sunčan dan, solarna energija preplavljuje tržište proizvodnje električne energije, a zatim pada tijekom večernje sunčane večeri, kada potražnja struje doseže vrhunac.

Dostupnost hidroenergije
Snowpack, flowflows, sezonalnost, losos, itd. Sve utječu na količinu vode koja može protjecati kroz branu u bilo kojem trenutku. Predviđanje ovih varijabli predviđa raspoloživu potencijalnu energiju za branu za određeno razdoblje. Neke regije kao što su Egipat, Kina i Pacific dobile su značajnu generaciju iz hidroelektrana brana. U 2015. godini SAIDI i SAIFI više su nego udvostručeni u odnosu na prethodnu godinu u Zambiji zbog niskih zaliha vode u hidroelektranama uzrokovanih nedovoljnim količinama oborina.

Prekidi u elektrani i prijenosu
Bilo da su planirane ili neplanirane, ispadi utječu na ukupnu količinu energije koja je dostupna mreži. Prekidi narušavanja opskrbe električnom energijom utječu na cijenu.

Ekonomsko zdravlje
Tijekom gospodarskih teškoća mnoge tvornice smanjile su proizvodnju zbog smanjenja potražnje potrošača i time smanjile potražnju za električnom energijom.

Globalna tržišta

Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo je već više od deset godina neto uvoznik energije, a kako kapacitet proizvodnje i rezerve smanjuju razinu uvoza doseže vrhunac svih vremena.  Njihova ovisnost o cijenama goriva na međunarodnim tržištima ima ogroman učinak na cijenu električne energije, posebno ako se tečaj smanji. Biti energetski ovisan čini njihovu cijenu električne energije osjetljivom i na svjetske događaje.

Vladina uredba

Vlade mogu odlučiti da tarife za električnu energiju učine pristupačnim za svoje stanovništvo putem subvencija proizvođačima i potrošačima. Većina zemalja za koje je karakteristično da imaju niskoenergetski pristup imaju elektroenergetska poduzeća koja ne dobivaju nikakve kapitalne i operativne troškove zbog visokih razina subvencija.

U Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama, federalne intervencije i subvencije za energiju mogu se klasificirati kao porezni izdaci, izravni rashodi, istraživanje i razvoj (R&D) i DOE kreditna jamstva. Većina federalnih subvencija u 2016. godini bila je podrška razvoju obnovljivih izvora energije i mjerama energetske učinkovitosti.

Kvaliteta energije
Prekomjerna Total Harmonic Distortions (THD), a ne jedinstvo Faktor snage (PF) je skupa na svim razinama tržišta električne energije. Trošak utjecaja PF i THD teško je procijeniti, ali oba mogu potencijalno uzrokovati toplinu, vibracije, neispravnost, pa čak i topljenje. Faktor snage je omjer stvarne i prividne snage u elektroenergetskom sustavu. Crtanje više struje rezultira nižim faktorom snage. Veće struje zahtijevaju skuplju infrastrukturu kako bi se smanjio gubitak snage, pa se potrošači s malim faktorima snage naplaćuju višom stopom električne energije.  Pravi faktor snage je faktor snage pomaka i THE. Kvaliteta električne energije obično se prati na razini prijenosa. Spektar kompenzacijskih uređaja ublažiti loše ishode, ali poboljšanja se mogu postići samo uređajima za ispravljanje u stvarnom vremenu (stari način zamjene stila, moderni mali brzinski DSP i gotovo u stvarnom vremenu). Većina modernih uređaja smanjuje probleme, a zadržava povrat ulaganja i značajno smanjuje struje tla. Problemi s kvalitetom energije mogu uzrokovati pogrešne odgovore mnogih vrsta analogne i digitalne opreme, gdje bi odgovor mogao biti nepredvidljiv.

Fazno uravnoteženje

Najčešća distribucijska mreža i generiranje je izvedeno s 3 fazne strukture, s posebnim naglaskom na fazno uravnoteženje i rezultirajuće smanjenje struje uzemljenja. To vrijedi za industrijske ili komercijalne mreže gdje se većina energije koristi u 3-faznim strojevima, ali laki komercijalni i rezidencijalni korisnici nemaju mogućnosti faznog uravnoteženja u stvarnom vremenu. Često ovaj problem dovodi do neočekivanog ponašanja ili neispravnosti opreme te u ekstremnim slučajevima požara. Primjerice, osjetljiva profesionalna analogna ili digitalna oprema za snimanje mora biti povezana s dobro uravnoteženim i uzemljenim mrežama za napajanje. Da bi se utvrdili i ublažili troškovi neuravnotežene električne mreže, električna poduzeća u većini slučajeva naplaćuju po potražnji ili kao zasebnu kategoriju za teška neuravnotežena opterećenja. Dostupno je nekoliko jednostavnih tehnika za balansiranje koje zahtijevaju brzo računanje i modeliranje u stvarnom vremenu.

Vanjske poveznice
 Globalne cijene benzina
 JCM Contour Map
 Electricity Price Forecasting
 Electricity Price Comparison Service UK

Izvori

Cijene električne energije


Arbejdet, grundlagt 1919, var et dansk dagblad, der blev udgivet seks gange om ugen frem til 1921. Avisen påbegyndt som ugeblad, der opslugte klassekampen. Gik op i Arbejderbladet ved forening med Solidaritet. Redaktionen bestod af typograferne  Ernst Christiansen (Partiformand) og Johs. Erwig (ansv.). Avisen var ejet af og blev udgivet af Danmarks Venstresocialistiske Parti, fra oktober 1920 Danmarks Kommunistiske Parti.

Historie
Socialdemokratisk Ungdomsforbund vedtog d. 27-10-1919 efter længerevarige konflikter, at ophæve samarbejdet med Socialdemokratiet som protest mod dettes reformistiske politik. Deraf dannedes det Venstresocialistiske Arbejderparti bestående af størstedelen af Socialdemokratisk Ungdomsforbund samt rester af Socialistisk Arbejderparti og de uafhængige Socialdemokrater. Disse udgav Ugebladet A,som man foranlediget af den medbør for partiet, de urolige påskedage 1920 medførte, gjorde til dagblad. Både bladet og især partiet var uden succes, idet partiets katastrofalt ringe tilslutning (fik ved valgene i april og september 1920 henholdsvis 3.859 og 5.160 stemmer) havde indvirkning på bladet, der lededes som rent partiorgan. Da partiet i foråret 1921 efter indgreb fra 3. Internationale sluttedes sammen med den syndikalistiske fagopposition (se Solidaritet, nr. 208), lagdes også de to partiers aviser sammen.

Navnevarianter
Arbejdet. Organ for Danmarks venstresocialistiske Parti (1919-1921)

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Digitaliserede udgaver af Arbejdet i Mediestream
 Arbejdet i opslagsværket "De Danske Aviser"

Aviser fra Danmark
Etableret i 1919

Arbejdet (1919-1921)


Takuro Nishimura (født 15. august 1977) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Omiya Ardija.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Takuro Nishimura


Step Ladder Blues er en film instrueret af Peter Land.

Handling
Et af de genkommende temaer i samtidskunsten drejer sig om kunstnerens identitet og mulighed for med kunstværket at etablere en meningsfuld forståelsesramme om denne - i forhold til samfundet som helhed, og til kunstinstitutionen i særdeleshed. Peter Land har i de seneste år anvendt sig selv som hovedperson i videoarbejder, hvor han udspiller en allegorisk rolle som evigt fejlende kunstner. Bogstavelig talt som en kunstscenes entertainer, der til stadighed må se sine forsøg strande på banale uheld. »Step Ladder Blues« viser ham, med en meget direkte metafor, som håndværksmaleren, der ustandselig falder ned ad stigen til tonerne af Wagners "Tannhäuser Ouverture".

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1995

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Step Ladder Blues