There is no universal agreement on the legal definition of terrorism,  although there exists a consensus academic definition created by scholars.

Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism, and governments have been reluctant to formulate an agreed-upon a legally binding definition. Difficulties arise from the fact that the term has become politically and emotionally charged. A simple definition proposed to the United Nations Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (CCPCJ) by terrorism studies scholar Alex P. Schmid in 1992, based on the already internationally accepted definition of war crimes, as "peacetime equivalents of war crimes", was not accepted.

Scholars have worked on creating various academic definitions, reaching a consensus definition published by Schmid and A. J. Jongman in 1988, with a longer revised version published by Schmid in 2011, some years after he had written that "the price for consensus [had] led to a reduction of complexity".

The United Nations General Assembly condemned terrorist acts by using the following political description of terrorism in December 1994 (GA Res. 49/60):
Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.

In the  United States of America, terrorism is defined in Title 22 Chapter 38, of the U.S. Code as "premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents".

Etymology

The term "terrorism" comes from French , from , "great fear", "dread", related to the Latin verb , "to frighten".

The French National Convention declared in September 1793 that "terror is the order of the day". The period 1793–94 is referred to as  (Reign of Terror). Maximilien Robespierre, a leader in the French revolution proclaimed in 1794 that "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible."
The Committee of Public Safety agents that enforced the policies of "The Terror" were referred to as "Terrorists". The word "terrorism" was first recorded in English-language dictionaries in 1798 as meaning "systematic use of terror as a policy".

Although the Reign of Terror was imposed by the French government, in modern times "terrorism" usually refers to the killing of people by non-governmental political activists for political reasons, often as a public statement. This meaning originated with Russian radicals in the 1870s. Sergey Nechayev, who founded the People's Reprisal (Народная расправа) in 1869, described himself as a "terrorist". German radicalist writer Johann Most helped popularize the modern sense of the word by dispensing "advice for terrorists" in the 1880s.

According to Myra Williamson (2009): "The meaning of "terrorism" has undergone a transformation. During the reign of terror a regime or system of terrorism was used as an instrument of governance, wielded by a recently established revolutionary state against the enemies of the people. Now the term "terrorism" is commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non-state or subnational entities against a state".

General criteria
Terrorism has been described as:
 The use of violence or of the threat of violence in the pursuit of political objectives
 Acts committed by non-state actors (or by undercover personnel serving on the behalf of their respective governments)
The intentional use of lethal force against  civilians, and/or destructive force against civilian areas, buildings or infrastructure.
 Acts reaching more than the immediate target victims and also directed at targets consisting of a larger spectrum of society
 Both mala prohibita (i.e., crime that is made illegal by legislation) and mala in se (i.e., crime that is inherently immoral or wrong)

The following criteria of violence or threat of violence usually fall outside of the definition of terrorism:
 Wartime (including a declared war) or peacetime acts of violence committed by a nation state against another nation state regardless of legality or illegality and are carried out by properly uniformed forces or legal combatants of such nation states
 Reasonable acts of self-defense, such as the use of force to kill, apprehend, or punish criminals who pose a threat to the lives of humans or property
 Legitimate targets in war, such as enemy combatants and strategic infrastructure that form an integral part of the enemy's war effort such as defense industries and ports
 Collateral damage, including the infliction of incidental damage to non-combatant targets during an attack on or attempting to attack legitimate targets in war

In international law

The need to define terrorism in international criminal law
Schmid (2004) summarised many sources when he wrote: "It is widely agreed that international terrorism can only be fought by international cooperation". If states do not agree on what constitutes terrorism, the chances of cooperation between countries is reduced; for example, agreement is needed so that extradition is possible.

Ben Saul has noted (2008): "A combination of pragmatic and principled arguments supports the case for defining terrorism in international law". Reasons for why terrorism needs to be defined by the international community include the need to condemn violations to human rights; to protect the state and its constitutional orders which protects rights; to differentiate public and private violence; to ensure international peace and security, and "control the operation of mandatory Security Council measures since 2001".

Carlos Diaz-Paniagua, who coordinated the negotiations of the proposed United Nations Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (proposed in 1996 and note yet achieved), noted (2008) the need to provide a precise definition of terrorist activities in international law: "Criminal law has three purposes: to declare that a conduct is forbidden, to prevent it, and to express society's condemnation for the wrongful acts.  The symbolic, normative role of criminalization is of particular importance in the case of terrorism.  The criminalization of terrorist acts expresses society's repugnance at them, invokes social censure and shame, and stigmatizes those who commit them.  Moreover, by creating and reaffirming values, criminalization may serve, in the long run, as a deterrent to terrorism, as those values are internalized." Thus, international criminal law treaties that seek to prevent, condemn and punish terrorist activities, require precise definitions:

Saul noted in this sense that, missing a generally agreed, all-encompassing, definition of the term:

Obstacles to a comprehensive definition
There are many reasons for the failure to achieve universal consensus regarding the definition of terrorism, not least that it is such a "complex and multidimensional phenomenon". In addition, the term has been used broadly, to describe so many different incidents and events that scholar Louise Richardson has said that the term "has become so widely used in many contexts as to become almost meaningless". An analysis of 73 different definitions in 2004 came up with only five common elements, which excluded any reference to victims, fear/terror, motive, non-combatant targets or the criminal nature of the tactics used.

Historically, the dispute on the meaning of terrorism arose since the laws of war were first codified in 1899. The Martens Clause was introduced as a compromise wording for the dispute between the Great Powers who considered francs-tireurs to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture, and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants.

More recently the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, which applies in situations Article 1. Paragraph 4 "... in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes...", contains many ambiguities that cloud the issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant.

In a briefing paper for the Australian Parliament in 2002, Angus Martyn resported that "[t]he international community [had] never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term foundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination." These divergences have made it impossible to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal-law definition of terrorism. In the meantime, the international community adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities.

Diaz-Paniagua (2008) has noted that, to "create an effective legal regime against terrorism, it would be necessary to formulate a comprehensive definition of that crime that, on the one hand, provides the strongest moral condemnation to terrorist activities while, on the other hand, has enough precision to permit the prosecution of criminal activities without condemning acts that should be deemed to be legitimate".  Nonetheless, due to major divergences at the international level on the question of the legitimacy of the use of violence for political purposes, either by states or by self-determination and revolutionary groups, this has not yet been possible." In this sense, M. Cherif Bassiouni (1988) notes:

Sami Zeidan, a diplomat and scholar, explained the political reasons underlying the current difficulties to define terrorism as follows (2004):

In the same vein, Jason Burke (2003), a British reporter who writes about radical Islamist activity, said:

The political and emotional connotation of the term "terrorism" makes difficult its use in legal discourse. In this sense, Saul (2004) notes that:

As scholar Bruce Hoffman (1998) has noted: "terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. (...) Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization 'terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism." For this and for political reasons, many news sources (such as Reuters) avoid using this term, opting instead for less accusatory words like "bombers", "militants", etc.

The term has been depicted as carrying racist, xenophobic and ethnocentric connotations when used as an ethnic slur aimed at Arabs or Middle Easterners, or at someone of Arab or Greater Middle Eastern descent or when used by white supremacists.

These difficulties led Pamala Griset (2003) to conclude that: "the meaning of terrorism is embedded in a person's or nation's philosophy. Thus, the determination of the 'right' definition of terrorism is subjective".

The sectoral approach
To elaborate an effective legal regime to prevent and punish international terrorism—rather than only working on a single, all-encompassing, comprehensive definition of terrorism—the international community has also adopted a "...'sectoral' approach aimed at identifying offences seen as belonging to the activities of terrorists and working out treaties in order to deal with specific categories thereof". The treaties that follow this approach focus on the wrongful nature of terrorist activities rather than on their intent:

Following this approach, the international community adopted 12 sectoral counter-terrorism conventions, open to the ratification of all states, between 1963 and 2005 (see below), relating to types of acts (such as aboard an aircraft, taking hostages, bombings, nuclar terrorism, etc.).

Analyzing these treaties, Andrew Byrnes observed that:

Byrnes notes that "this act-specific approach to addressing problems of terrorism in binding international treaties has continued up until relatively recently. Although political denunciation of terrorism in all its forms had continued apace, there had been no successful attempt to define 'terrorism' as such in a broad sense that was satisfactory for legal purposes. There was also some scepticism as to the necessity, desirability and feasibility of producing an agreed and workable general definition." Nonetheless, the same committee of the United Nations General Assembly which authored the 1997 Bombing Convention and the 1999 Financing Convention has been working on a proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, given renewed impetus by the September 11 attacks in 2001.

Comprehensive conventions
The international community has worked on two comprehensive counter-terrorism treaties, the League of Nations' 1937 Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism, which never entered into force, and the United Nations' proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, which has not yet been finalized.

League of Nations (1930s)
In the late 1930s, the international community made a first attempt at defining terrorism. Article 1.1 of the League of Nations' 1937 Convention for the prevention and punishment of Terrorism defined "acts of terrorism" as "criminal acts directed against a State and intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a group of persons or the general public". Article 2 included as terrorist acts, if they were directed against another state and if they constituted acts of terrorism within the meaning of the definition contained in article 1, the following:

These articles never entered into force, owing to lack of support.

UN Comprehensive Convention (1997–present)

In 1996 an Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism was set up, with the remit of drafting several conventions condemning various aspects of terrorism, with the intention of producing a final Comprehensive Convention which would either supplement or replace the series of sectoral conventions.

Since January 1997, the United Nations General Assembly has been negotiating a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism. The definition of the crime of terrorism on the negotiating table reads as follows (GA Resolution 51/210, Declaration to Supplement the 1994 Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, December 1996; adopted January 1997):

Among the negotiators, the 1996/7 definition is not controversial in itself; the deadlock in the negotiations arises instead  from the opposing views on whether such a definition would be applicable to the armed forces of a state and to self-determination movements. Thalif Deen described the situation as follows: "The key sticking points in the draft treaty revolve around several controversial yet basic issues, including the definition of ´terrorism´. For example, what distinguishes a "terrorist organisation" from a 'liberation movement'? And do you exclude activities of national armed forces, even if they are perceived to commit acts of terrorism? If not, how much of this constitutes 'state terrorism'?"

In 2002, the coordinator of the negotiations, supported by most western delegations, proposed the following exceptions to address those issues:

The state members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference proposed instead the following exceptions:

Sectoral conventions (1963–2005)
The various sectoral counter-terrorism conventions, or treaties, define as terrorist particular categories of activities. These include:

 The 1963 Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed On Board Aircraft
 The 1970 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft
 The 1971 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation
 The 1979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages
 The 1979 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material
 The 1988 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation
 The 1988 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation
 The 1988 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf
 The 1991 Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Identification
 The 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings
 The 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism
 The 2005 International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism

1997: Terrorist Bombings Convention

Article 2.1 of the 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings defines the offence of terrorist bombing as follows:

Article 19 expressly excluded from the scope of the convention certain activities of state armed forces and of self-determination movements as follows:

1999: Terrorist Financing Convention

Article 2.1 of the 1999 sectoral United Nations International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (Terrorist Financing Convention) defines the crime of terrorist financing as the offence committed by "any person" who "by any means, directly or indirectly, unlawfully and wilfully, provides or collects funds with the intention that they should be used or in the knowledge that they are to be used, in full or in part, in order to carry out" an act "intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian, or to any other person not taking an active part in the hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of such act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act."

2005: Nuclear Terrorism Convention

The 2005 United Nations International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism defines the crime of nuclear terrorism as follows:

Article 4 of the convention expressly excluded from the application of the convention the use of nuclear weapons during armed conflicts without, though, recognizing the legality of the use of those weapons:

Definitions of terrorism in other UN decisions
In parallel with the criminal law codification efforts, some United Nations organs have put forward some broad political definitions of terrorism.

The United Nations did not focus any debate on terrorism until 1972, after the terrorist attack at the Olympic Games in Munich.

UN General Assembly Resolutions (1972, 1994/6)
In 1972 the General Assembly passed a resolution titled "Measures to prevent international terrorism which endangers or takes innocent human lives or jeopardises fundamental freedoms, and study of the underlying causes of those forms of terrorism and acts ofviolence which lie in misery, frustration, grievance and despair, and which cause some people to sacrifice human lives, including their own, in an attempt to effect radical changes". An Ad Hoc Committee on International Terrorism, consisting of three sub-committees, was established, but no consensus was reached on the various draft proposals submitted, and the matter was again put aside until the Cold War had ended (1991).

In 1994, the General Assembly agreed on a declaration that terrorism was "criminal and unjustifiable", condemning all such acts "wherever and by whomever committed", in its Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (GA Res. 49/60).

A 1996 non-binding United Nations Declaration to Supplement the 1994 Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (which described terrorism as "Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them") annexed to the UN General Assembly Resolution 51/210, described terrorist activities in the following terms:

Antonio Cassese has argued that the language of this and other similar UN declarations "sets out an acceptable definition of terrorism."

Each year, a legal committee of the General Assembly meets to discuss international cooperation to counter terrorism, and in 2019 the committee "reaffirmed the importance of the negotiations on and successful conclusion of the draft comprehensive convention on international terrorism" and the need for consensus for this and in particular stressed "the importance of negotiating an internationally agreed definition of terrorism".

UN Security Council (1999, 2004)
In 1999, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1269 unanimously, which "unequivocally condemn[ed] all acts, methods and practices of terrorism as criminal and unjustifiable, regardless of their motivation".

In 2004, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1566 condemned terrorist acts as:

High-Level Panel (2004)

Also in 2004, a High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change composed of independent experts and convened by the Secretary-General of the United Nations called states to set aside their differences and to adopt, in the text of a proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, the following political "description of terrorism":

The following year, Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan endorsed the High Level Panel's definition of terrorism and asked states to set aside their differences and to adopt that definition within the proposed comprehensive terrorism convention before the end of that year. He said:

The suggestion of incorporating this definition of terrorism into the comprehensive convention was rejected. Some United Nations' member states contended that a definition such as the one proposed by the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, and endorsed by the Secretary General, lacked the necessary requirements to be incorporated in a criminal law instrument. Diaz-Paniagua stated that a comprehensive definition of terrorism to be included in a criminal law treaty must have "legal precision, certainty, and fair-labeling of the criminal conduct - all of which emanate from the basic human rights obligation to observe due process".

European Union
The European Union defines terrorism for legal/official purposes in Art. 1 of the Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002). This provides that terrorist offences are certain criminal offences set out in a list consisting largely of serious offences against persons and property that:

North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NATO defines terrorism in the AAP-06 NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions, Edition 2019 as "The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence, instilling fear and terror, against individuals or property in an attempt to coerce or intimidate governments or societies, or to gain control over a population, to achieve political, religious or ideological objectives".

In national law

Australia
, the Criminal Code Act 1995 (known as the Criminal Code), representing the federal government's criminal law and including Australia's laws against terrorism, defines "terrorist act" in Section 5.3. The definition, after defining in (a) the harms that may be caused (and excluding accidental harm or various actions undertaken as advocacy) defines a terrorist act as:

Within the Criminal Code, a variety of offences are defined with reference to the definition of a terrorist act, for example financing terrorism, activities which advocate violent terrorist acts, etc.

Argentina
The Argentine National Reorganization Process dictatorship, which lasted from 1976 to 1983, defined "terrorist" as "not only who set bombs and carry guns, but also those who spread ideas opposite to Christian and western civilization".

Brazil
In 2016, Brazil passed a law that defines acts of terrorism and establishes punishment for committing, planning, enabling, sponsoring, inciting and participating in terrorist acts. The bill lists a series of acts that provoke social and general terror or endanger people, property, infrastructure, or public peace, for reasons of xenophobia, discrimination or prejudice of race, color, ethnicity and religion. Shortly after the creation of the law, Federal Police's Operation Hashtag arrested eleven suspects of planning a terrorist attack in the run-up to the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.

Canada
In Canada, section 83.01 of the Criminal Code defines terrorism as an act committed "in whole or in part for a political, religious or ideological purpose, objective or cause" with the objective of intimidating the public "with regard to its security, including its economic security, or compelling a person, a government or a domestic or an international organization to do or to refrain from doing any act."

France
In 1986, France adopted its first "anti-terrorism" law. The French legal definition of "acts of terrorism" as in force since 2016 is to be found in the French Code pénal, article 421. The article starts with:

India
The Supreme Court of India quoted Alex P. Schmid's definition of terrorism in a 2003 ruling (Madan Singh vs. State of Bihar), "defin[ing] acts of terrorism veritably as 'peacetime equivalents of war crimes.'"

The now lapsed Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act specified the following definition of terrorism:

Pakistan
The Pakistan Anti-Terrorism (Amendment) Ordinance, 1999 states:

A person is said to commit a terrorist act if he,

(a) in order to, or if the effect of his actions will be to, strike terror or create a sense of fear and insecurity in the people, or any section of the people, does any act or thing by using bombs, dynamite or other explosive or inflammable substances, or such fire-arms or other lethal weapons as may be notified, or poisons or noxious gases or chemicals, in such a manner as to cause, or be likely to cause, the death of, or injury to, any person or persons, or damage to, or destruction of, property on a large scale, or a widespread disruption of supplies of services essential to the life of the community, or threatens with the use of force public servants in order to prevent them from discharging their lawful duties; or

(b) commits a scheduled offence, the effect of which will be, or be likely to be, to strike terror, or create a sense of fear and insecurity in the people, or any section of the people, or to adversely affect harmony among different sections of the people; or

(c) commits an act of gang rape, child molestation, or robbery coupled with rape as specified in the Schedule to this Act; or

(d) commits an act of civil commotion as specified in section &A."

Philippines
The Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020, officially designated as Republic Act No. 11479, is a counter-terrorism law intended to prevent, prohibit, and penalize terrorism in the Philippines. The law was passed by the 18th Congress and signed by President Rodrigo Duterte on July 3, 2020, effectively replacing the Human Security Act of 2007 on July 18, 2020.

The Act defines terrorism as:

 Engaging in acts intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to any person or endangers a person's life;
 Engaging in acts intended to cause extensive damage or destruction to a government or public facility, public place, or private property;
 Engaging in acts intended to cause extensive interference with, damage, or destruction to critical infrastructure;
 Developing, manufacturing, possessing, acquiring, transporting, supplying, or using weapons; and
 Releasing dangerous substances or causing fire, floods or explosions when the purpose is to intimidate the general public, create an atmosphere to spread a message of fear, provoke or influence by intimidation the government or any international organization, seriously destabilize or destroy the fundamental political, economic, or social structures in the country, or create a public emergency or seriously undermine public safety.

The definition states that "advocacy, protest, dissent, stoppage of work, industrial or mass action, and other similar exercises of civil and political rights" shall not be considered as terrorist acts only if they "are not intended to cause death or serious physical harm to a person, to endanger a person's life, or to create a serious risk to public safety."

Saudi Arabia
Saudi Interior Ministry issued a set of anti-terrorist laws in 2014. According to Article 1 and 2:

"Calling for atheist thought in any form, or calling into question the fundamentals of the Islamic religion on which this country is based" and anyone who questions the King or the government or supports any group, party, organization other than that of the ruling elite inside or outside the Kingdom is a terrorist.

References to atheism were absent from Saudi Arabia's public draft of Law on Combating the Financing of Terrorism as of October 2023.

Syria
After the United States attack on Abu Kamal, the Syrian Foreign Minister Walid Muallem defined terrorism as "Killing civilians in international law means a terrorist aggression."

Turkey
The definition of "Terrorism" in Article 1 of Anti-Terror Law 3713 is: "Terrorism is any kind of act done by one or more persons belonging to an organization with the aim of changing the characteristics of the Republic as specified in the Constitution, its political, legal, social, secular and economic system, damaging the indivisible unity of the State with its territory and nation, endangering the existence of the Turkish State and Republic, weakening or destroying or seizing the authority of the State, eliminating fundamental rights and freedoms, or damaging the internal and external security of the State, public order or general health by means of pressure, force and violence, terror, intimidation, oppression or threat."

United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's Terrorism Act 2000 defined terrorism as follows:

Section 34 of the Terrorism Act 2006 amended sections 1(1)(b) and 113(1)(c) of Terrorism Act 2000 to include "international governmental organisations" in addition to "government".

Successive Independent Reviewers of Terrorism Legislation (most recently in a report of July 2014) have commented on the UK's definition of terrorism.

United States

U.S. Code (U.S.C.)
Title 22, Chapter 38, Section 2656f, of the United States Code (regarding the Department of State) contains a definition of terrorism in its requirement that annual country reports on terrorism be submitted by the Secretary of State to Congress every year. It reads:

Title 18 of the United States Code (regarding criminal acts and criminal procedure) defines international terrorism as:

Commenting on the genesis of this provision, Edward Peck, former U.S. Chief of Mission in Iraq (under Jimmy Carter) and former ambassador to Mauritania said:

U.S. Code of Federal Regulations
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations defines terrorism as "the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives" (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85).

U.S. Department of Defense
The U.S. Department of Defense recently changed its definition of terrorism. Per Joint Pub 3-07.2, Antiterrorism, (24 November 2010), the Department of Defense defines it as "the unlawful use of violence or threat of violence to instill fear and coerce governments or societies. Terrorism is often motivated by religious, political, or other ideological beliefs and committed in the pursuit of goals that are usually political."

The new definition distinguishes between motivations for terrorism (religion, ideology, etc.) and goals of terrorism ("usually political"). This is in contrast to the previous definition which stated that the goals could be religious in nature.

U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency
The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) contains a definition of terrorism, which reads:

The new definition does not require that the act needs to be politically motivated. The FEMA also said that terrorism "include threats of terrorism; assassinations; kidnappings; hijackings; bomb scares and bombings; cyber attacks (computer-based); and the use of chemical, biological, nuclear and radiological weapons" and also states that "[h]igh-risk targets for acts of terrorism include military and civilian government facilities, international airports, large cities, and high-profile landmarks. Terrorists might also target large public gatherings, water and food supplies, utilities, and corporate centers. Further, terrorists are capable of spreading fear by sending explosives or chemical and biological agents through the mail."

U.S. National Counterterrorism Center
The U.S. National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) define terrorism the same as United States Code 22 USC § 2656f(d)(2). The Center also defines a terrorist act as a "premeditated; perpetrated by a sub-national or clandestine agent; politically motivated, potentially including religious, philosophical, or culturally symbolic motivations; violent; and perpetrated against a non-combatant target."

U.S. national security strategy
In September 2002, the U.S. national security strategy defined terrorism as "premeditated, politically motivated violence against innocents." This definition did not exclude actions by the United States government and it was qualified some months later with "premeditated, politically motivated violence against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents".

USA PATRIOT Act of 2001
The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 defines domestic terrorism as "activities that (A) involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the U.S. or of any state; (B) appear to be intended (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the U.S."

Terrorism Risk Insurance Act
Section 102(1)(a) of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act contains a definition of terrorism in order for insurance companies to provide coverage to all prospective policy holders at time of purchase and to all current policyholders at renewal and requires that the federal government pay 90 percent of covered terrorism losses exceeding the statutorily established deductible paid by the insurance company providing the coverage. It reads:

Insurance coverage
After the September 11 terrorist attacks in the U.S., many insurers made specific exclusions for terrorism in their policies, after global reinsurers withdrew from covering terrorism. Some governments introduced legislation to provide support for insurers in various ways.

In Australia, the Terrorism Insurance Act 2003 created a scheme to administer reinsurance scheme for insurance, relating to commercial properties and enterprises, but excluding residential properties, travel insurance, vehicles, and others. This legislation uses the same definition as specified in the Criminal Code (see above). The act's definition has  only been applied once, when in 2015 the Federal Treasurer declared the 2014 Lindt Café siege as a "declared terrorist incident" under the act, although there was some debate about the classification of this incident. Twenty insurers made 92 claims, for a total of , for various losses caused by the siege.
In the U.S., the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (2002) provides a government reinsurance backstop in case of large-scale terrorist attacks, requiring that commercial insurers offer terrorism coverage for the types of insurance included in the act. This Act includes a definition of terrorism (see above).

Some insurance companies exclude terrorism from general property insurance. An insurance company may include a specific definition of terrorism as part of its policy, for the purpose of excluding at least some loss or damage caused by terrorism. For example, RAC Insurance in Western Australia defines terrorism thus:

Timeline of political definitions
Listed below are some of the historically important understandings of terror and terrorism, and enacted but non-universal definitions of the term:

 1795. "Government intimidation during the Reign of Terror in France." The general sense of "systematic use of terror as a policy" was first recorded in English in 1798.
 1916. Gustave LeBon: "Terrorization has always been employed by revolutionaries no less than by kings, as a means of impressing their enemies, and as an example to those who were doubtful about submitting to them...."
 1937. League of Nations convention language: "All criminal acts directed against a State and intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a group of persons or the general public."
 1972, after the terrorist attack at the Olympic Games in Munich. UN General Assembly passed a resolution entitiled "Measures to prevent international terrorism which endangers or takes innocent human lives or jeopardises fundamental freedoms, and study of the underlying causes of those forms of terrorism and acts ofviolence which lie in misery, frustration, grievance and despair, and which cause some people to sacrifice human lives, including their own, in anattempt to effect radical changes". No consensu was reached.
 1987. A definition proposed by Iran at an international Islamic conference on terrorism: "Terrorism is an act carried out to achieve an inhuman and corrupt (mufsid) objective, and involving [a] threat to security of any kind, and violation of rights acknowledged by religion and mankind."
 1989. United States: premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents.
 1992. A definition proposed by Alex P. Schmid to the United Nations Crime Branch: "Act of Terrorism = Peacetime Equivalent of War Crime."
 1994/1996 United Nations General Assembly's 1994 Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, and 1996 Supplement, Paragraph 3:

 1996. UN General Assemby sets up an Ad Hoc Committee with the responsibility of drafting several conventions condemning various aspects of terrorism, as well as a final Comprehensive Convention to either supplement or replace the series of sectoral conventions.
 2002. European Union:

 2003. India: Referencing Schmid's 1992 proposal, the Supreme Court of India described terrorist acts as the "peacetime equivalents of war crimes."
 2014. Contained in a Saudi Arabia terrorism law taking effect 1 February 2014, the following definition has been criticized by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch for being overly broad:
Any act carried out by an offender in furtherance of an individual or collective project, directly or indirectly, intended to disturb the public order of the state, or to shake the security of society, or the stability of the state, or to expose its national unity to danger, or to suspend the basic law of governance or some of its articles, or to insult the reputation of the state or its position, or to inflict damage upon one of its public utilities or its natural resources, or to attempt to force a governmental authority to carry out or prevent it from carrying out an action, or to threaten to carry out acts that lead to the named purposes or incite [these acts].

 2016. Brazilian anti-terrorism law:
Terrorism consists in the practice, by one or more individuals, of the acts listed in this article for reasons of xenophobia, discrimination or prejudice of race, color, ethnicity and religion, when committed with the objective of provoking social or generalized terror, exposing people, property, the public peace or the public safety.

Academic definitions by scholars
Numerous scholars have proposed working definitions of terrorism.

Schmid and Jongman (1988) counted 109 definitions of terrorism that covered a total of 22 different definitional elements, and Walter Laqueur counted over 100 definitions, concluding that the "only general characteristic generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence". This is clearly inadequate, as many other actions involve both elements.

Bruce Hoffman (2006) has thus noted that:

Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:

A common trait that Terrorists often possess is having persistent childhood disobedience.
After surveying the various academic definitions of terrorism, Rhyl Vallis and others (2004) concluded that:

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette (2008), a German military officer serving at the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Academics and practitioners may also be categorized by the definitions of terrorism that they use. A distinction can be made between "act-centric" and "actor-centric" definitions. Actor-centric definitions of terrorism emphasize the characteristics of the groups or individuals who use terrorism. Whilst act-centric definitions emphasize the unique aspects of terrorism from other acts of violence. Max Abrahms (2010) introduced the distinction between what he calls "terrorist lumpers" and "terrorist splitters."  Lumpers define terrorism broadly, brooking no distinction between this tactic and guerrilla warfare or civil war.  Terrorist splitters, by contrast, define terrorism narrowly, as the select use of violence against civilians for putative political gain.  As Abrahms notes, these two definitions yield different policy implications:

In 2011 Alex Schmid published an updated academic consensus definition in The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research, which includes additional discussion of the UN struggle to find a legal definition, and 260 other definitions. The revised definition includes 12 points, the first of which is:

Academic vs legal definition
Schmid returns to the problem of legal definition in an October 2020 article in Contemporary Voices, in which he reviews the history of the efforts to arriving at agreement on a common legal definition of terrorism and names six reasons underlying the challenges faced in achieving this. In a new major work edited by Schmid, Handbook of Terrorism Prevention and Preparedness (2020–2021), he states:

In contrast to a consensus on the legal definition however, the 2011 academic definition of terrorism, which is social-scientific rather than legal in nature, has gained a fair degree of acceptance among scholars.

Timeline of academic definitions

See also
 -ism
 Bandenbekämpfung

Notes

References
Bockstette, Carsten  (December 2008). Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques, George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies no 20, p. 1-28
Burgess, Mark. A Brief History of Terrorism, Center for Defense Information.
Cassese, A. (2002), International Law, Oxford University Press, 2002,
Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context
Gardam, Judith Gail (1993). Non-combatant Immunity as a Norm of International Humanitarian, Martinus Nijhoff .
Griset, Pamala L. & Mahan, Sue (2003). Terrorism in perspective, SAGE, 2003, ,
Hoffman, Bruce (1998). "Inside Terrorism" Columbia University Press 1998 .
Hoffman, Bruce (2006),Inside terrorism, Edition 2, Columbia University Press, 2006. , .
Khan, Ali (Washburn University - School of Law. 1987). A Theory of International Terrorism, Connecticut Law Review, Vol. 19, p. 945, 1987
Novotny, Daniel D. (2007). "What is Terrorism?" in: Linden, Edward V., ed. Focus on Terrorism 8, ch. 2, pp. 23–32. ().
Primoratz, Igor (2007/2011). "Terrorism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
Record, Jeffrey (December 2003). Bounding the Global War on Terrorism, December 1, 2003 .
Smelser, Neil J.; et al. (2002). Terrorism: perspectives from the behavioral and social sciences, National Academies Press, 2002, ,
Ticehurst, Rupert. The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict 30 April 1997,  International Review of the Red Cross no 317, p. 125-134

External links
 Introductory note by A. Rohan Perera and procedural history note on the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism and the 1996 Supplementary Declaration thereto in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law

Terrorism

International law

Definition of terrorism


An Cryptocoryne keei in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Niels Henning Günther Jacobsen. An Cryptocoryne keei in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cryptocoryne, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cryptocoryne

Cryptocoryne keei


Aritmiler, kalbin ritmik çalışmasındaki bozulma sonucunda meydana gelen hastalıkların genel ismi.

Kalpte doğuştan olan bozukluklara bağlı olabileceği gibi sonradan gelişen hastalıklarada bağlı olabilir. Doğuştan kaynaklanan Aritmilerin çoğunluğu kalbin Atriyumu (kulakçık) ve Ventrikülü (karıncık) arasındaki normal iletim sistemine ilaveten aktif halde bulunan başka bir iletim yolunun bulunması sonucunda meydana gelmektedir. Bunlar arasında en fazla görülenleri WPW Sendromu ve AVNRT'dir. Bu bozukluklar hayati tehlike doğurabileceği gibi hiçbir tedavi gerektirmeyen bir durum olarak ortaya çıkabilmektedirler. Hastalarda en fazla çarpıntı şikayeti oluştururlar ve tanıları EKG ile konulabilmektedir.

Nedenleri ve tedavi
Tedavi gerektirip gerektirmediği hastanın şikeyetlerine göre karar verilmektedir. Tedavisinde ilaç ve kateter yöntemleri kullanılmaktadır. Doğuştan olmayan Aritmiler ise sonradan meydana gelen hastalıklar sonucunda oluşurlar ve hastanın günlük yaşam kalitesini bozan bir durumdan hayatı tehdit eden bir duruma kadar değişebilmektedirler. Neden olan hastalıklar arasında en çok görülenler Hipertansiyon, Koroner Arter hastalığı ve yaşlılığa bağlı olarak Kalp ileti sisteminde görülen bozukluklardır. Hastada en fazla oluşturdukları şikayet çarpıntı olmakla birlikte bayılma, baş dönmesi, sersemlik hali, yorgunluk ve ani ölüm de görülebilmektedir. Tedavilerinde ilaç, cerrahi girişimler, kalıcı Kalp pili, ICD gibi yöntemler kullanılmaktadır.

Kaynakça

Dolaşım sistemi
Kardiyovasküler hastalıklar

Aritmi


Musen er en dansk stumfilm fra 1908 med ukendt instruktør.

Medvirkende

 Agnes Nørlund

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Stumfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1908

Musen (film)


Katrine Greis-Rosenthal (døbt Katrine Murholt Rosenthal) (født 19. september 1985 i Gentofte) er en dansk skuespillerinde med jødiske aner, kendt for sin betydningsbærende rolle som den jødiske rigmandsdatter Jakobe Salomon i filmen Lykke-Per.

Karriere
Greis-Rosenthal, der blev uddannet fra 2008 til 2012 på Statens Teaterskole, blev oprindeligt optaget sammen med blandt andre Danica Curcic og Mikkel Boe Følsgaard. I sin scenetjeneste medvirkede hun i Christoffer Berdals opsætning af Jeppe på Bjerget på Det Kongelige Teater med Henning Jensen i titelrollen. Katrine Greis-Rosenthal blev den 4. august 2012 gift med skuespilleren Martin Greis-Rosenthal. Skuespillerparret, der sammen har børnene, Esther Liv og August Levy, har i fællesskab opnået roller i Thomas Vinterbergs filmprojekt Kursk.

Teaterroller

Filmografi

Spillefilm

Serier

Hædersbevisninger
 2019 - Robert for årets kvindelige hovedrolle for Lykke-Per

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Katrine Greis-Rosenthal  på Danskfilmogteater.dk

Filmskuespillere fra Danmark
Teaterskuespillere fra Danmark
Jøder fra Danmark
Personer fra Gentofte

Katrine Greis-Rosenthal


Le 14-X est le prototype du véhicule hypersonique brésilien en cours de développement depuis . Le premier vol du moteur Scramjet du Centre de lancement d'Alcântara a été effectué avec succès à l'Operação Cruzeiro, propulsé par la fusée VSB-30 V32.

Il utilise l'air atmosphérique comme comburant pour brûler de l'hydrogène liquide (carburant). Il n'utilise l'oxygène pour brûler le carburant que lors de la sortie de l'atmosphère terrestre et, après avoir atteint  d'altitude.

Notes et références

Articles connexes
 Agence spatiale Brésilienne ;
 VSB-30 (famille de fusées sondes).

Avion prototype

14-X


Léglise Sainte-Anne de Boukivtsovo (ukrainien :Церква святої Анни (Буківцьово)) est classée comme monument national ukrainien et au Patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO. Elle est située à Boukivtsovo en Ukraine.

C'est une église en bois du Parc national de l'Ouj qui est utilisée par la communauté gréco-catholique.

Elle est dans le village, sur une éminence, initialement de style boyko à trois sommets, le bâtiment actuel a été achevé en 1791.

Voir aussi

Notes et références

Articles connexes
 Art ukrainien.
 Culture ukrainienne.
 Liste des musées d'art en Ukraine.

Liens externes

Patrimoine classé d'Ukraine
Patrimoine mondial en Ukraine
Église grecque-catholique ukrainienne
Boukivtsovo
Boukivtsovo
Oblast de Transcarpatie

Église Sainte-Anne de Boukivtsovo


Joann Sfar (; born 28 August 1971) is a French comics artist, comic book creator, novelist, and film director.

Life and career
Sfar was born in Nice, the son of Lilou, a pop singer, who died when he was three, and André Sfar, a lawyer well known for prosecuting Neo-Nazis. As a result of his mother's early death, Sfar was raised by his father and maternal grandfather, a military doctor of Ukrainian origin in the Alsace-Lorraine Independent Brigade (France) during World War II. Sfar's grandfather reportedly saved the right hand of the brigade's leader, novelist André Malraux, for which he was awarded French citizenship.

A wildly prolific artist, he is considered one of the most important artists of the new wave of Franco-Belgian comics, though he has rejected the assertion that he, along with artists like Christophe Blain, Marjane Satrapi, and Lewis Trondheim, sought to create an alternative scene or a new movement in comics. Many of his comics were published by L'Association which was founded in 1990 by Jean-Christophe Menu and six other artists. He also worked with many of the group's main artists, e.g. David B. and Lewis Trondheim. The Donjon series, which he created with Trondheim, has a cult following in many countries.

Some of his comics are inspired by his Jewish heritage. Sfar is the son of Jewish parents (an Ashkenazi mother whose family was from Ukraine and a Sephardic father from Algeria). He himself says that there is Ashkenazi humor in his Professeur Bell series (loosely based on Joseph Bell), whereas Le chat du rabbin is clearly inspired by his Sephardic side. Les olives noires is a series about a Jewish child living in Israel at the time of Jesus. Like Le chat du rabbin, the series contains a lot of historical and theological information.

His main influences are Fred and André Franquin, as well as Marc Chagall, Chaïm Soutine, Will Eisner, Hugo Pratt and John Buscema.

From 2009 to 2010, Sfar wrote and directed Gainsbourg: Vie Héroïque, a biopic of the illustrious French songwriter and singer, of whom Sfar is a self-confessed fanatic. The film, which draws substantially on Sfar's abilities as a comic book artist through its extensive use of fantasy artwork, animation and puppetry, was released in 2010 to general critical acclaim.

Sfar's book L'Eternel has been adapted for a live-action drama entitled Monsters' Shrink by Canal plus.

Partial bibliography

In English
Klezmer: Tales of the Wild East, First Second Books, New York, 2006.
Vampire Loves, First Second Books, New York, 2006.
Sardine in Outer Space, 6 volumes, with Emmanuel Guibert, First Second Books, New York, 2006–2008.
The Professor's Daughter, with Emmanuel Guibert, First Second Books, New York, 2007.
The Rabbi's Cat, Pantheon, 2007.
The Rabbi's Cat 2, Pantheon, 2008.
, First Second Books, New York, 2008.
 Dungeon (since 1998, with Lewis Trondheim and collective)
The Little Prince (Comic Adaptation), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, New York, 2010.
Pascin, Uncivilized Books, 2016.

In French

 Petrus Barbygère (with Pierre Dubois, scenario)
L'elficologue (1996, Delcourt, )
Le croquemitaine d'écume (1997, Delcourt, )
 Les Potamoks (with José-Luis Munuera, art)
1. Terra Incognita (1996, Delcourt, )
2. Les fontaines rouges (1996, Delcourt, )
3. Nous et le désert (1997, Delcourt, )
 La Fille du professeur (1997, with Emmanuel Guibert (art), Dupuis, )
Published in English by First Second Books as The Professor's Daughter (2007),
 Donjon (since 1998, with Lewis Trondheim and collective)
 Le petit monde du Golem (1998, L'Association, )
 Troll (with Olivier Boiscommun, art)
3. Mille et un ennuis (1999, Delcourt, )
 Professeur Bell (from #3, with Hervé Tanquerelle, art)
1. Le mexicain à deux têtes (1999, Delcourt, )
2. Les poupées de Jérusalem (2000, Delcourt, )
3. Le cargo du Roi Singe (2002, Delcourt, )
4. Promenade des Anglaises (2003, Delcourt, )
5. L'Irlande à bicyclette (2006, Delcourt, )
 Urani (2000, with David B, Dargaud, )
 Grand Vampire
1. Cupidon s'en fout (2001, Delcourt, )
2. Mortelles en tête (2002, Delcourt, )
3. Transatlantique en solitaire (2002, Delcourt, )
4. Quai des brunes (2003, Delcourt, )
Books 1-4 published in English as Vampire Loves (2006, First Second, )
5. La Communauté des magiciens (2004, Delcourt, )
6. Le peuple est un Golem (2005, Delcourt, )
 Les olives noires (with Emmanuel Guibert, art)
1. Pourquoi cette nuit est-elle différente des autres nuits? (2001, Dupuis, )
2. Adam Harishon (2002, Dupuis, )
3. Tu ne mangeras pas le chevreau dans le lait de sa mère (2003, Dupuis, )
 Le chat du rabbin
1. La Bar-Mitsva (2002, Dargaud, )
2. Le Malka des Lions (2002, Dargaud, )
3. L'exode (2003, Dargaud, )
Books 1-3 published in English as The Rabbi's Cat (2005, Pantheon, )
4. Le Paradis Terrestre (2005, Dargaud, )
5. Jérusalem d'Afrique (2006, Dargaud, )
Books 4-5 published in English as The Rabbi's Cat 2 (2008, Pantheon, )
6. Tu n'auras pas d'autre dieu que moi (2015, Dargaud, )
 Klezmer
1. Conquête de l'Est (2005, Gallimard, )
2. Bon anniversaire Scylla (2006, Gallimard, )
3. Tous des voleurs! (2007, Gallimard, )
4. Trapèze volant! (2012, Gallimard )
5. Kishinev-des-fous (2014, Gallimard )
 Chagall en Russie
1. Première partie (2010, Gallimard )
2. Seconde partie (2011, Gallimard )

Filmography

Novels
L'éternel (2013, Albin Michel, )
Le Plus Grand Philosophe de France (2014, Albin Michel, )

Awards
1998: Award for First Comic Book and René Goscinny Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival, France
2000: Nominated for Best Comic Book and for the Youth Award (9 to 12 years) at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
Nominated for the Best Long Comic Strip at the Haxtur Awards Spain
Nominated for Best International Writer at the Max & Moritz Prizes, Germany
2001: Nominated for Best Scenario and for the Humour Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2002: Nominated for Best Artwork and the Canal BD Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2003: Oecumenic Jury Award and Polish award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
Nominated for Best Comic Book, for the Canal BD Award, and for the Prix de la critique at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2004: Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême: 30th anniversary prize, France
Award for Best Youth Album (7 to 8 years) at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
Best International Series at the Prix Saint-Michel, Belgium
Nominated for Best Series at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
Best International Writer at the Max & Moritz Prizes, Germany
2005: Nominated for Best Artwork at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2006: Best U.S. Edition of Foreign Material at the Eisner Awards, United States
Nominated for the Audience Award and for Best Series at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
2007: Sproing Award, for Best Foreign translated material, Rabbinerens katt (Le chat du rabbin), Norway
Nominated for Outstanding Series at the Ignatz Awards, United States

References

 Joann Sfar albums Bedetheque

Footnotes

External links

Le petit monde de Joan Sfar
Le vaste monde de Joann Sfar
Joann Sfar biography on Lambiek Comiclopedia
Joann Sfar interview on BDParadisio
Joann Sfar interview on Parutions
Joann Sfar interview on NPR

1971 births
Living people
21st-century French Jews
Artists from Nice
French comics artists
French comics writers
Jewish artists
École des Beaux-Arts alumni
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
French film directors
French male screenwriters
French screenwriters
French film producers
Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême winners
French people of Algerian-Jewish descent
French people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent

Joann Sfar


George Lusztig (la naștere:Gheorghe Lusztig, ) este un matematician american, evreu originar din România, profesor de matematică la catedra Abdun-Nur de la Institutul Tehnologic Massachusetts. Între anii 1999-2009 a fost profesor la catedra Norbert Wiener.
George Lusztig s-a făcut cunoscut pentru contribuțiile sale la teoria reprezentărilor, mai ales în grupurile algebrice. Acestea includ noi concepte fundamentale, între care varietatea Deligne-Lusztig și polinoamele Kajdan-Lusztig.
După  aprecierea lui R. W. Carter, "Opera lui Lusztig se caracterizează printr-un înalt nivel de originalitate, o tematică imensă, o remarcabilă virtuozitate tehnică și o deosebită profunzime în tratarea problemelor. Nu este nicio exagerare să afirmăm că George Lusztig este unul din cei mai mari matematicieni ai epocii noastre"". După opinia lui Solomon Marcus, Lusztig este, alături de János Bolyai și  Dan Virgil Voiculescu unul din cei trei matematicieni cei mai mari care s-au născut în spațiul locuit de români.

Biografie

Copilăria și studiile
S-a născut la Timișoara, în 1946, într-o familie de evrei. Ca elev de liceu a participat și a câștigat medalii de argint la Olimpiade Internaționale de Matematică în 1962 și 1963. Într-un interviu și-a amintit cu recunoștință de mentorii săi, inclusiv matematiciana Maria Neumann, conferențiară la Universitatea din Timișoara. Lusztig a absolvit Facultatea de Matematică a Universității din București în 1968.

Primele sale două cercetări, publicate în românește, au fost Un mod de geometrie plană afină pe un câmp finit (1965) și Construcția unui fascicul universal pe poliedre arbitrare (1966).

Lucrările publicate de George Lusztig în studenție au atras atenția lui Michael Atiyah. După luarea licenței în 1968, i s-a spus ca nu poate obține un post universitar, ci în cel mai bun caz unul de profesor de liceu la Sibiu. Însă profesorul Dan Papuc de la Universitatea din Timișoara i-a oferit totuși un loc în universitate, pe care Lusztig l-a acceptat de îndată. Ulteriori i s-a permis să participe la o conferință în Italia, iar de acolo a plecat în Anglia, la universitățile din Warwick și Oxford. La Oxford, unde a rămas două luni, l-a întâlnit prima dată pe Michael Atiyah, care l-a invitat la Institutul de Studii Avansate din Princeton, unde fusese numit recent ca profesor.

Întors la Timișoara, a făcut cerere autorităților comuniste din România pentru permisiunea de a pleca la Princeton, dar a fost refuzat. În schimb, i s-a aprobat cererea pentru plecare la la o conferință de o săptămână la Bonn. De la Bonn, Lusztig a plecat la Princeton și nu s-a mai întors în România.

La Institutul de Studii Avansate  din Princeton Lusztig a studiat cu Michael Atiyah timp de doi ani. Și-a luat al doilea titlu, apoi doctoratul în 1971, sub îndrumarea lui William Browder, cu o teză în domeniul teoremei indicelui operatorilor eliptici, intitulată "Novikov's Higher Signature and Families of Elliptic Operators".

Cariera academică
Din 1971 a lucrat ca Research Fellow la Universitatea Warwick în Anglia, iar în 1974 a fost numit profesor de matematică la această universitate, funcționând acolo vreme de trei ani (1977-1974).
Anul 1974 a fost deosebit de însemnat în activitatea sa științifică. În acel an a publicat împreună cu Roger Carter un articol de mare importanță On the modular representations of the general linear and symmetric groups. În toamna aceluiaș an a lucrat o vreme la Institutul de Înalte Studii Științifice din Paris, unde a colaborat cu Pierre Deligne. Ulterior el a raportat despre această cercetare în conferința On the discrete series representations of the classical groups over a finite field pe care a ținut-o la secția Grupuri algebrice din cadrul Congresului internațional al matematicienilor de la  Vancouver în august 1974. Lusztig a făcut o clasificare completă a reprezentărilor complexe ireductibile ale grupurilor finite Chevalley.
În Teoria Lusztig-Deligne (cu Pierre Deligne, Representations of reductive groups over finite fields, Annals of Mathematics, vol. 103, 1976, paginile 103-161) a folosit coomologia l-adică pentru a construi reprezentări lineare ale unor grupuri Lie finite.

Ìn 1978 a devenit profesor la facultatea de matematică a MIT  - Massachussets Institute of Technology. La MIT, George Lusztig este șef al catedrei Abdun-Nur de matematică și a al catedrei Norbert Wiener (1999-2009).
În 1984 a indicat toate reprezentările grupurilor Lie simple finite. În lucrarea Representation of Coxeter groups and Hecke algebras (Inventiones Mathematicae vol.53, 1979, p. 165) Kazhdan și Lusztig au introdus  polinomul purtând numele lor (și au formulat ipotezele Kazhdan-Lusztig), iar în 1980 au dat o interpretare coomologiei intersecție a lui Goresky și MacPherson.
La congresul international al matematicienilor la Kyoto în anul 1990 Lusztig a raportat despre aplicarea acestor metode "geometrice" în teoria reprezentărilor (Intersection Cohomology Methods in Representation Theory).La finele anilor 1980 el s-a ocupat și de grupuri cuantice (care au fost definite de Vladimir Drinfeld și Michio Jimbo).

În 1972 el s-a căsătorit cu Michal-Nina Abraham și din această relație li s-au născut două fiice. Ìn 2000 el a divorțat și în 2003 s-a căsătorit cu Gongqin Li. Una din fiicele sale, Irene Lusztig este cineastă, realizatoarea documentarului "Reconstruction". Începând din 1994 în timpul liber Lusztig practică yoga.

În legătură cu condiția de evreu, Lusztig s-a exprimat intr-un interviu:"... nu sînt religios. Dar evreitatea a avut un rol important, atît în alegerea matematicii, care mi se părea cel mai departe de atingerea politicului, cît și prin faptul că era un domeniu în care aveam șansele cele mai mari să fiu judecat obiectiv. A contat și la plecarea mea din țară. Faptul că nu am primit un post în cercetare în România s-a datorat aproape sută la sută originii mele evreiești, mi s-a și spus atunci acest lucru, apoi mi s-a confirmat. Mi s-a povestit și că atunci cînd se discuta dacă să mi se dea recomandare pentru Princeton, se credea că fusesem invitat datorită conexiunilor evreiești"..

Între elevii săi se numără matematicianul italian Corrado de Concini și matematicianul australian Ian Grojnowski.

Publicații (selecție)
Cursurile Representations of finite Chevalley groups la CBMS Regional Conference la Madison, Wisconsin în august 1974 - au fost publicate de American Mathematical Society în 1975.
The Discrete Series of GLn over a finite field, coll. Annals of Mathematical Studies n° 81 , Princeton University Press, 1974 online
Characters of reductive groups over a finite field, coll. Annals of Mathematical Studies, n° 107 , Princeton University Press, 1984 online
Introduction to Quantum Groups , 1 ed.  Birkhäuser , 1993),  Springer Verlag , 2010  - online
Hecke algebras with unequal parameters. 2003

Premii și distincții
1977 - Premiul Berwick al Societății Matematice din Londra
1983 - Membru al Societății Regale din Londra
1985 - Premiul Cole pentru algebră al Societății Americane de Matematică
1989 - profesor onorific al Universității din Cordoba
1991 - membru al Academiei Americane de Arte și Științe
1992 - membru al Academiei Naționale de Științe a Statelor Unite
1997 - doctor honoris causa al Universității Paris VII
1999 - Medalia Brouwer a Societății Olandeze de Matematică
2003 - Ordinul Național "Serviciul Credincios" în grad de comandor
2005 - Membru de onoare al Institutului de Matematică al Academiei Române
2007 - Diploma de Merit Academic a Academiei Române
2008 - Premiul AMS Leroy P. Steele "pentru completa reformulare a teoriei reprezentărilor și schimbarea pe parcurs a unei mari părți din matematică"
2014 - Premiul Shaw (în valoare de un milion de dolari) în științe matematice - "pentru contribuțiile sale fundamentale la algebră, geometria algebrică și teoria reprezentărilor și pentru conjugarea acestor subiecte în rezolvarea unor vechi probleme și descoperirea unor noi și elegante conexiuni"
2014 - Simons Fellowship in Mathematics
2022 - Premiul Wolf pentru matematică

Note

Legături externe
saitul MIT mathematics - biografie
biografie de J.J. O'Connor și E.F.Robertson pe saitul de istoria matematicii MacTutor al Universității St. Andrew
Mathematics Genealogy Project sait al Facultății de matematică al Universității Dakota de Nord,
Ornea: Interviu cu George Lusztig, 2007
George Lusztig, geniul român de la Massachussets Institute of Technology
R.W.Carter, A Survey of the Work of George Lusztig
performanțele lui Lusztig la Olimpiadele intrenaționale de matematică
Getta Neumann și al.- Minienciclopedia evreilor din Timișoara

Nașteri în 1946
Nașteri pe 20 mai
Americani de origine româno-evreiască
Membri ai American Mathematical Society
Fellows of the Royal Society
Guggenheim Fellows
Laureați ai Premiului Wolf pentru Matematică
Cercetători frecvent citați de Institute for Scientific Information
Membri ai Academiei Naționale de Științe a Statelor Unite
Absolvenți ai Universității Princeton
Evrei români
Absolvenți ai Facultății de Matematică a Universității București
Matematicieni români în viață
Matematicieni evrei
Evrei din Banat
Timișoreni
Matematicieni români din secolul al XX-lea
Matematicieni români din secolul al XXI-lea
Matematicieni americani din secolul al XX-lea
Matematicieni americani din secolul al XXI-lea
Cadre didactice ale Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Decorați cu Ordinul Național Serviciul Credincios în grad de Comandor

George Lusztig


An Anthurium phyllobaris in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Thomas Bernard Croat ngan D.C.Bay. An Anthurium phyllobaris in nahilalakip ha genus nga Anthurium, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Anthurium

Anthurium phyllobaris


Marquess of Northampton is a title that has been created twice, firstly in the Peerage of England (1547), then secondly in the Peerage of the United Kingdom (1812). The current holder of this title is Spencer Compton, 7th Marquess of Northampton.

First creation
The title of Marquess of Northampton was created for the first time in the Peerage of England in 1547 in favour of William Parr, brother of Catherine Parr, the sixth and last wife of King Henry VIII. The title was forfeited in 1554 after the accession of Queen Mary but restored in 1559 by Queen Elizabeth I. On Parr's death in 1571, the title became extinct.

Second creation
However, the title is chiefly associated with the Compton family. This family descends from Sir Henry Compton, who in 1572 was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Compton, of Compton in the County of Warwick. This title was in the Peerage of England. Lord Compton was later one of the peers at the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots. He was succeeded by his son, the second Baron. He served as Lord President of the Marches and of the Dominion of Wales and was also Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire. In 1618 he was created Earl of Northampton in the Peerage of England.

His son, the second Earl, was a supporter of King James I and served as Master of the Robes to Charles, Prince of Wales (later King Charles I). He fought in the Civil War and was killed at the Battle of Hopton Heath in 1643. He was succeeded by his son, the third Earl. He also fought as a Royalist in the Civil War and notably commanded the cavalry at the First Battle of Newbury in 1643. Lord Northampton was also Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire and Constable of the Tower of London. His eldest son, the fourth Earl, also served as Constable of the Tower of London and as Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire.

His eldest son, the fifth Earl, briefly represented Warwick in the House of Commons but in 1711 he was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in his father's junior title of Baron Compton. He married Elizabeth, 15th Baroness Ferrers of Chartley. They had no sons and Lord Northampton was succeeded in the barony of Compton, which could be passed on through female lines, by his daughter Lady Charlotte. The earldom passed to his younger brother, the sixth Earl. He had earlier represented Tamworth and Northampton in Parliament.

He was childless and was succeeded by his nephew, the seventh Earl. He was the son of the Hon. Charles Compton, third son of the fourth Earl. Lord Northampton died childless at an early age and was succeeded by his younger brother, the eighth Earl. He briefly represented Northampton in the House of Commons before he inherited the earldom and also served as Lord Lieutenant of Northamptonshire. His son, the ninth Earl, sat as Member of Parliament for Northampton and served as Lord Lieutenant of Northamptonshire. In 1812 he was created Baron Wilmington, of Wilmington in the County of Sussex, Earl Compton, of Compton in the County of Warwick, and Marquess of Northampton. These titles were in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

On his death, the titles passed to his son, the second Marquess. He represented Northampton in Parliament but is best remembered as a patron of science and the arts. Between 1838 and 1848 he served as president of the Royal Society. He was also instrumental in helping the new College of Preceptors (College of Teachers) of London receive its Royal Charter. Lord Northampton married Margaret Douglas-Maclean-Clephane, daughter of Major-General Douglas Maclean Clephane. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the third Marquess. In 1831 he assumed by Royal licence the additional and principal surname of Douglas. When he died the titles were inherited by his younger brother, the fourth Marquess. He was an admiral in the Royal Navy. Lord Northampton assumed in 1851 by Royal licence the additional surname of Maclean and in 1878 upon succeeding to the titles that of Douglas.

He was succeeded by his second but eldest surviving son, the fifth Marquess. He represented Stratford-on-Avon and Barnsley in Parliament as a Liberal and served as Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire. , the titles are held by his grandson, the seventh Marquess, who succeeded his father in 1978.

Other notable members of the Compton family
Several other members of the Compton family have gained distinction. Henry Compton, sixth son of the second Earl of Northampton, was Bishop of London. Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington, Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1742 to 1743, was the third son of the third Earl. Catherine Compton, daughter of the Hon. Charles Compton, third son of the fourth Earl, was created Baroness Arden in 1770. She was the wife of John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont, and the mother of another Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval. Lord Alwyne Compton, fourth son of the second Marquess, was Bishop of Ely. Lord Alwyne Compton, third son of the fourth Marquess, was a Unionist politician. He was the father of Captain Edward Robert Francis Compton. The latter married as his first wife Sylvia, daughter of Alexander Haldane Farquharson. Their son Alwyne Arthur Compton was officially recognised by warrant of the Lord Lyon in the surname of Farquharson of Invercauld and as Chief of Clan Farquharson in 1949.

Estates

The Compton family are major land owners. Their two major estates are Castle Ashby House in Northamptonshire and Compton Wynyates in Warwickshire. The family also owns land and property, including the 16th-century Canonbury Tower in Islington, north London, where many streets are named after names associated with the family. These include: Alwyne Road/Place/Villas/Square; Bingham Street; Compton Road/Terrace; Douglas Road; Northampton Road/Street/Square; Spencer Street; Percival (formerly Perceval) Street; and Wilmington Square.

Marquesses of Northampton; First creation (1547)
William Parr, Marquess of Northampton (1513–1571) (forfeit 1553; restored 1559; extinct 1571)

Barons Compton (1572)
Henry Compton, 1st Baron Compton (c. 1538-1589)
William Compton, 2nd Baron Compton (died 1630) (created Earl of Northampton in 1618)

Earls of Northampton (1618)
William Compton, 1st Earl of Northampton, 2nd Baron Compton (died 1630)
Spencer Compton, 2nd Earl of Northampton, 3rd Baron Compton (1601–1643)
James Compton, 3rd Earl of Northampton, 4th Baron Compton (1622–1681)
George Compton, 4th Earl of Northampton, 5th Baron Compton (1664–1727)
James Compton, 5th Earl of Northampton, 6th Baron Compton (1687–1754)
George Compton, 6th Earl of Northampton, 7th Baron Compton (1692–1758)
Charles Compton, 7th Earl of Northampton, 8th Baron Compton (1737–1763)
Spencer Compton, 8th Earl of Northampton, 9th Baron Compton (1738–1796)
Charles Compton, 9th Earl of Northampton, 10th Baron Compton (1760–1828) (created Marquess of Northampton, Earl Compton, and Baron Wilmington in 1812)

Marquesses of Northampton; Second creation (1812)
Charles Compton, 1st Marquess of Northampton, 1st Earl Compton, 10th Baron Compton, 1st Baron Wilmington (1760–1828)
Spencer Joshua Alwyne Compton, 2nd Marquess of Northampton, 2nd Earl Compton, 11th Baron Compton, 2nd Baron Wilmington (1790–1851)
Charles Douglas-Compton, 3rd Marquess of Northampton, 3rd Earl Compton, 12th Baron Compton, 3rd Baron Wilmington  (1816–1877)
William Compton, 4th Marquess of Northampton, 4th Earl Compton, 13th Baron Compton, 4th Baron Wilmington (1818–1897)
William George Spencer Scott Compton, 5th Marquess of Northampton, 5th Earl Compton, 14th Baron Compton, 5th Baron Wilmington (1851–1913)
William Bingham Compton, 6th Marquess of Northampton, 6th Earl Compton, 15th Baron Compton, 6th Baron Wilmington (1885–1978)
Spencer Douglas David Compton, 7th Marquess of Northampton, 7th Earl Compton, 16th Baron Compton, 7th Baron Wilmington (b. 1946)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, Daniel Bingham Compton, Earl Compton (b.  1973)
The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son, Henry Douglas Hungerford Compton, Lord Wilmington (b. 2018)

 William Compton, 4th Marquess of Northampton (1818–1897)
 William Compton, 5th Marquess of Northampton (1851–1913)
 William Compton, 6th Marquess of Northampton (1885–1978)
 Spencer Compton, 7th Marquess of Northampton (b. 1946)
(1). Daniel Bingham Compton, Earl Compton (born 1973)
(2). Henry Douglas Hungerford Compton, Lord Wilmington (born 2018)
Lord William James Bingham Compton (1947–2007)
(3). James William Compton (b. 1974)
(4). William Edward Richard Compton (b. 2010)
Lord Alwyne Frederick Compton (1855–1911)
Edward Robert Francis Compton (1891–1977)
Robert Edward John Compton (1922–2009)
male issue in succession

Family tree

See also
Baron Compton
Baroness Arden
Earl of Northampton
Earl of Wilmington
 Marquess

Notes

References
Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

David Beamish's Peerage Page
Cracroft's Peerage

Extinct marquessates in the Peerage of England
Marquessates in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Marquess

Noble titles created in 1547
Noble titles created in 1812

Marquess of Northampton


Albert Albin Funk (né le  à Zwickau, mort le  à Recklinghausen) est un homme politique et résistant allemand au nazisme.

Biographie
Albert Funk est issu d'une famille de mineurs. Après une période comme manœuvre, il devient lui-même mineur. En 1913, il adhère au syndicat allemand des mineurs. Pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, il fait d'abord son service militaire avant d'être réclamé comme mineur en 1917 et de travailler à Zwickau. En 1918, il rejoint l'USPD.

Il vient à Ahlen en Westphalie en 1918 en tant que mineur. Funk devient un cadre de l'Union des travailleurs manuels et intellectuels. Il devient président du comité d'entreprise de sa mine et dirige le comité d'action local pendant le putsch de Kapp. Licencié, les protestations des salariés obligent son employeur à le réintégrer. Il est ensuite chef de la section locale du KPD de Herringen et président du comité d'entreprise de la mine Heinrich-Robert.

En 1929, il est expulsé du syndicat allemand des mineurs et devint un cadre à plein temps de l' communiste. Il est membre de la direction nationale de cette organisation et à partir de 1930 responsable du travail du comité d'entreprise.

Funk est élu au Reichstag le , dont il est membre jusqu'en 1932. En , il devint président de l'association unifiée des mineurs d'Allemagne, qui collabore avec la RGO. En , il prend la direction de la section du KPD de Dortmund.

Après la prise du pouvoir des nazis, Funk est arrêté à Dortmund le  en raison d'une suspicion de reconstitution clandestine du KPD, transféré au siège de la police de Recklinghausen le , où il est interrogé et maltraité.

En , le tribunal de district de Bochum est certain . Funk ne meurt pas dans la chute, il a des blessures graves et décède le même jour au Prosper-Hospital. On explique à sa femme qu'il s'est suicidé avec du poison. En 1949, le tribunal de Bochum condamne l'officier de la Gestapo chargé de l'interrogatoire à douze ans de prison pour crimes contre l'humanité, extorsion de témoignages et atteintes physiques au pouvoir contre 46 personnes.

Commémoration
 En RDA, le combinat minier et métallurgique Albert-Funk à Freiberg existe jusqu'en 1990. Le BSG affilié et l'école professionnelle de l'entreprise portent également le nom de Funk. Au BSZ d'aujourd'hui pour la technologie et l'économie "Julius Weisbach", un monument rappelle Albert Funk.
 L'une des 96 plaques du Mémorial en souvenir des 96 membres du Reichstag assassinés par les nazis commémore Albert Funk.
 Depuis 2018, une Stolperstein dans la cour de la préfecture de police de Recklinghausen commémore Albert Funk.

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Liste de résistants allemands au nazisme

Liens externes

Résistant allemand au nazisme
Député du Reichstag (république de Weimar)
Personnalité du Parti communiste d'Allemagne
Naissance en octobre 1894
Naissance à Zwickau
Naissance dans le royaume de Saxe
Décès en avril 1933
Décès à 38 ans
Décès à Recklinghausen
Suicide par précipitation en Allemagne
Décès dans le Troisième Reich

Albert Funk


Die Yoshka ist ein Schiff der Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, das als Fischerei- und Naturschutzboot von den Galápagos-Inseln eingesetzt wird.

Geschichte
Das Schiff wurde 1955 als Küstenwachboot der United States Coast Guard mit dem Namen Cape Knox in Dienst gestellt. Das Boot ist Teil der 35 Patrouillenboote umfassenden Cape-Klasse. Alle Schiffe sind 29 Meter lang und verfügen über einen Stahlrumpf mit Aluminiumverstärkung. Sie wurden als U-Jagd-Boote konstruiert und alle auf der United States Coast Guard Yard in Curtis Bay, Maryland, gebaut. Die Cape Knox gehörte zur B-Subserie und war für SAR-Einsätze ausgestattet: Sie verfügte über Schleppwerkzeug, Netze und Suchscheinwerfer. 1979 wurden die Maschinen des Schiffes erneuert und verstärkt.

Die Sea Shepherd Conservation Society übernahm das Boot im November 1991 und benannte es zunächst nach dem Autor Edward Abbey. Im März 1993 wurde es unter dem Namen Sirenian als Kanadisches Forschungsschiff registriert. In dem Film Paul Watson – Bekenntnisse eines Öko-Terroristen ist es als Edward Abbey zu sehen.

Die Organisation setzte das Boot bei ihren Kampagnen gegen japanische Walfänger und gegen Walfänger in der Neah Bay, Washington ein. Bei diesen Einsätzen war es komplett schwarz angestrichen. Nach Angaben der Organisation wurde an dem Boot 1999 bei einem Hafenaufenthalt in Seattle Sabotage verübt. Im darauffolgenden Jahr wurde sie überholt, weiß gestrichen und zunächst für 5 Jahre an den Galapagos National Park Service (GNPS) übergeben.

2006 wurde das Schiff in Yoshka umbenannt, überholt und mit einem neuen Vertrag dauerhaft an den GNPS übergeben. Obwohl es jetzt nicht mehr von Sea Shepherd selbst betrieben wird, trägt es weiterhin ein Logo der Organisation, weil es von ihr an den GNPS gespendet wurde.

Einsatz auf den Galápagos-Inseln
Nach der Überholung im Jahr 2000 überführte Sea Sheperd das Boot auf seine neue Position in den Hafen der Galápagos-Insel Santa Cruz. Dort unterhält die Organisation auch ein lokales Büro.

Das Schiff wird neben den Schiffen Guadalupe River, Sierra Negra und einigen anderen kleineren Booten als Patrouillenboot des Nationalparks und des ecuadorianischen Umweltministeriums eingesetzt. Ziel ist es, illegale Fischerei zu unterbinden.

Einzelnachweise

Fischereischiff
Motorschiff
Sea Shepherd

Yoshka


.sr ist die länderspezifische Top-Level-Domain (ccTLD) des Staates Suriname. Sie existiert seit dem 3. September 1991 und wird vom Unternehmen Telesur mit Hauptsitz in Paramaribo verwaltet.

Eigenschaften
Jede natürliche oder juristische Person kann eine .sr-Domain anmelden, ein Wohnsitz oder eine Niederlassung im Land sind nicht erforderlich.

Sonstiges
Im Januar 2010 war .sr Gegenstand einer gerichtlichen Auseinandersetzung, das US-amerikanische Unternehmen Dot SR, Inc. mit Sitz in Florida machte Ansprüche auf die Top-Level-Domain geltend.

Weblink
 Offizielle Website der Vergabestelle

Einzelnachweise

Länderspezifische Top-Level-Domain
Medien (Suriname)

.sr


An Helictotrichon sempervirens in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Dominique Villars, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Pilg.. An Helictotrichon sempervirens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Helictotrichon, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Helictotrichon

Helictotrichon sempervirens


Palatul familiei Cantacuzino-Pașcanu din Pașcani este un monument istoric aflat pe teritoriul orașului Pașcani. În Repertoriul Arheologic Național, monumentul apare cu codul 95408.01.01.

Palatul Cantacuzino, proprietate a unor stăpâni puternici din perioada medievală, Cantacuzinii și Roznovenii, unde se presupune că au copilărit cronicarii Miron Costin si Ion Neculce (datorită legăturilor de rudenie cu Iordache Cantacuzino) și posesiune a marelui istoric  Gheorghe Brătianu, ocupă un loc special in inimile pașcănenilor.

Palatul Cantacuzino-Roznovanu-Brătianu, după numele celor care l-au administrat, a fost construit între anii 1640-1650 de marele vistiernic Iordache Cantacuzino. După o lungă perioadă în care acesta a fost stăpânitor asupra grandiosului domeniu, pe la 1812, palatul ajunge în posesia lui Iordache Rosetti Roznovanu, iar în secolul următor, trece în posesia familiei Brătianu de la care domeniul a fost expropriat.
La început, palatul a fost construit și folosit ca loc de adăpost pentru vânătoare datorită construcției masive din lemn de stejar sau nuc, piatră de granit și alte materiale rezistente. Din construcția inițială nu a mai rămas decât foișorul, restul clădirii fiind refăcut pe vechea fundație. Acesta se bucură de o impresionantă colecție de imagini reprezentând animale sau păsări specifice vânătorii și stema Cantacuzinilor. Datorită acestui fapt, este considerat cel mai bogat ansamblu de sculptură monumentală al unei clădiri civile din Moldova.
După ce familia Brătianu a fost deposedată de clădirea ce le servea drept avere și adăpost, în anii comunismului în cadrul palatul a funcționat Casa Pionerului care după 1990, s-a transformat în Clubul Copiilor. Aruncând o privire spre acei ani, realizăm că am avut posibilitatea să ne dezvoltăm și alte laturi ale personalității noastre luând parte la cursurile din cadrul Clubului; pasiunea pentru muzică și instrumente, dorința de a păși în lumea virtuală și dragostea pentru experimente într-ale științei, s-au dezvoltat o dată cu scorojirea zidurilor purtătoare de istorie ale palatului. Ironia sorții face ca odată cu revendicarea domeniului de către surorile Maria și Ileana Brătianu, Clubul Copiilor să-și încheie activitatea, iar tinerii să rămână cu noi orizonturi deschise în fața ochilor și cu dorința de continuitate în pasiunea lor. În prezent, palatul face parte din Patrimoniul Național și aparține Ministerului Educației, care împreună cu  Primăria Pașcani, caută surse de finanțare pentru renovarea lui.
Starea degradantă în care se află, a trezit în mintea tinerilor dornici de a reconstitui vremurile apuse, idei de proiecte prin care comunitatea din Pașcani să-și readucă aminte cultura de care se bucură acest oraș, istoria care este în mod paradoxal prezentă și faptul că valorile cu adevărat importante îmbină tradiția cu modernitatea.

În anul 2021, conducerea municipalității a demarat  lucrările pentru obiectivul "Reabilitare, conservare și revitalizarea Palatului Cantacuzino-Pașcanu și a terenului aferent" cu bani alocați în martie 2019, când a fost semnat un contract de finanțare europeană în cadrul Programului Operațional Regional 2014 – 2020.

Note

Monumente istorice din județul Iași


Sorin-Ioan Bumb (n. , Aiud, România) este un deputat român, ales în 2016.

Vezi și
 Legislatura 2016-2020 (Camera Deputaților)
 Parlamentul României

Legături externe
 Activitatea parlamentară

Politicieni români în viață
Deputați români 2016-2020
Membri ai Partidului Național Liberal
Senatori români 2020-2024

Sorin-Ioan Bumb


في التعمية، تعمية الاستبدال أو شفرة الاستبدال  هي طريقة في التشفير تستبدل فيها أجزاء من النص العادي بالنص المشفر وفقاً لنظام محدد. من الممكن أن تكون وحدات الاستبدال هي أحرف وحيدة (وهي الحالة العامة) أو أزواج محرفية أو ثلاثيات محرفية أو خليطاً مما سبق وهكذا.
يقوم مستلم الشفرة السرية بعملية معاكسة من أجل فك تعمية الرسالة والحصول على النص الأصلي العادي. من الممكن مقارنة تعمية الاستبدال بتعمية الترتيب، حيث أنه في التعمية الترتيبية يتم إعادة ترتيب وحدات النص العادي بترتيب مختلف معقد جداً، لكن تترك الوحدات نفسها بدون أي تغيير. مقارنة مع تعمية الاستبدال فإنه يتم استرجاع النص العادي عند القيام بعملية فك التعمية بنفس ترتيب النص المشفر، وإنما تكون وحدات النص مختلفة.

هناك عدة أنواع من تعمية الاستبدال:
 تعمية استبدال أحادية: إذا كان التشفير يتم على حرف واحد
 تعمية استبدال متعددة: إذا كان التشفير يتم على عدة محارف
 تعمية أحادية الأبجدية: يستخدم فيها نظام تشفير موحد في كامل الرسالة
 تعمية متعددة الأبجديات: يستخدم فيها عدة أنظمة استبدالية في عدة أماكن في الرسالة الواحدة.

استبدال بسيط

يطلق اسم الاستبدال البسيط على عملية استبدال محرف واحد فقط، ومن الممكن تمثيله بكتابة الأبجدية بترتيب مختلف يمثل الاستبدال. من الممكن إزاحة الترتيب الأبجدي أو عكسه للحصول على شفرة سرية قيصرية أو شفرة أتباش على الترتيب.

أمثلة
باستخدام هذا النظام فإن كلمة "zebras" تعطينا الأبجدية التالية:

الأبجدية العادية: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

الأبجدية المشفرة: ZEBRASCDFGHIJKLMNOPQTUVWXY

وعندها بتطبيق هذه الشفرة الاستبدالية على الرسالة التالية:
 flee at once. we are discovered!

ستعطي الشفرة السرية التالية:
 SIAA ZQ LKBA. VA ZOA RFPBLUAOAR!

انظر أيضا
 لائحة المواضيع المتعلقة بالتعمية

مراجع

تاريخ التعمية
تعمية
شيفرات سرية
لغات خيالية

تعمية استبدال


Das Steinheben ist ein vornehmlich in der alpenländischen Region beheimateter traditioneller Kräftevergleich, dessen Ursprünge weit in die Vergangenheit reichen. Ziel ist es hierbei, einen Stein mit dem Gewicht von 508 Pfund (254 kg) höher als die Mitbewerber zu heben (lupfen). Seit den 60er Jahren sind die Steinheber in einem Landesverband organisiert, der die Wettkämpfe mit festem Regelwerk und Gewichtsklassen ausrichtet.

Geschichte

Wissenschaftlich fundierte Erkenntnisse über den Ursprung dieses Sports sind nicht bekannt, doch reichen die Nachweise über das Heben von Steinen als Training und zu Wettkampfzwecken zurück bis zum Beginn der christlichen Zeitrechnung. Unweit von Olympia wurde ein Sandsteinblock mit 143 Kilogramm Gewicht gefunden, der in seiner Inschrift besagt, dass "BYBON" diesen Steinblock einhändig über seinen Kopf warf.

Im Rahmen der körperlichen Ertüchtigung und als Kraftbeweis behielt das Steinheben über das Mittelalter hinweg seine Bedeutung über die Stände hinweg und war fortan im Volksleben und Brauchtum verankert. Im Jahre 1859 wurden Schwingen, Ringen, Steinstoßen und Steinheben dann als "Nationalturnen" in eigenständigen Wettkämpfen der deutschsprachigen Länder zusammengefasst. Im Rahmen der zweiten olympischen Sommerspiele 1900 in Paris wurde im Rahmen des "Mehrkampfes" auch das Steinheben als Wettkampfsport durchgeführt.

In Japan gibt es die Tradition der Chikaraishi, der Reissackträger, die seit dem 17. Jahrhundert dem Steinheben ähnliche Wettkämpfe durchgeführt haben. Die Rekorde wurden in Listen geführt, die durch die Geistlichkeit bestätigt und in Tempeln aufgehängt wurden. Der Arbeitslohn der Reissackträger orientierte sich an ihren Bestmarken.

Der Steyrer Hans

Etwa zeitgleich machte in München Hans Steyrer, ein Metzger und Gastwirt, mit seinen Kraftleistungen von sich reden. – Noch heute wird er als Gründer des modernen Steinhebens geführt. Er vermochte einen 508 Pfund schweren Stein allein mit der Kraft des rechten Mittelfingers für einige Sekunden anzuheben. Dies spornte die Burschen aus München und der Umgebung an, es ihm bei allabendlichen Wettkämpfen in seinem Festzelt auf der Bühne gleichzutun.

Mehrere Wettkämpfer schlossen sich Ende der 60er Jahre in einem Maßkrugstemmer- und Steinheberverband zusammen. Da das Maßkrugstemmen auf Zeit hinsichtlich der Attraktivität in den Festzelten nicht mit dem Steinheben mithalten konnte, firmierte sich daraus der Landesverband der Steinheber e.V.

Landesverband der Steinheber

Dem Landesverband ist es zu verdanken, dass nach und nach feste Regeln und Strukturen hinsichtlich der Wettkampfbedingungen, der Gewichtsklassen und der Steinlasten eingeführt wurden. Die letzte große Neuerung war das Einführen von Damenklassen bei Wettkämpfen im Jahr 2007, zuvor das Anbringen eines Anschlags, der die Hebehöhe des Steins bei den Wettkämpfen begrenzt.

Wertungen

Bei offiziellen Wettkämpfen wird in vier Gewichtsklassen bei den Männern (-85 kg, -100 kg, -110 kg, +110 kg) und zwei Gewichtsklassen bei den Frauen (-70 kg, +70 kg) gehoben. Das Steingewicht wurde bei den Männern auf das traditionelle Gewicht von 508 Pfund (254 kg) festgelegt, bei den Frauen auf 125 kg. Anschlaghöhe bei den Männern ist 1 m, bei den Frauen 80 cm. – Wird die aufgelegte Last von mehr als zwei Athleten auf Anschlaghöhe "gelupft", wird das Steingewicht um weitere 25 Kilogramm erhöht.

Trainierte Athleten vermögen den Stein bis weit über 300 Kilogramm auf einen Meter anzuheben; der Frauenrekord liegt bei 200 Kilogramm.

Literatur
 Thorsten Moser: Hans Steyrer: Bayerischer Herkules, Norderstedt 2011, ISBN 978-3-8423-5946-8 (BoD)
 Hilmar Bürger, Klaus Weidt: Kraftproben : Starke Männer einst und jetzt, Sportverlag Berlin 1985

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Steinheber Landesverband Bayern e.V.
 Regelwerk des Landesverbandes der Steinheber
 Geschichtlicher Abriss vom Steinheben
 Auf der Spur der Steine - ein Weltreise

Kraftsportart

Steinheben


رولينغ هيلس  هي إحدى مدن مقاطعة لوس أنجليس، كاليفورنيا. تم إعطاءها لقب مدينة في 24 يناير، 1957.

أعلام
 لوسيل لوند
 سبنسر جونسون
 كولن باكستر

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1957
تأسيسات سنة 1957 في كاليفورنيا
شبه جزيرة بالوس فيرديس
مدن كاليفورنيا
مدن لوس أنجلوس (كاليفورنيا)

رولينغ هيلس (كاليفورنيا)


Sorin Mihai Cîmpeanu (Udtalelse: soˈrin miˈhaj kɨmˈpe̯anu, født 18. april 1968, Bukarest) er en rumænsk politiker, han er tidligere uddannelsesminister og siden 5. november 2015, den fungerende premierminister for Rumænien, efter at præsident Klaus Iohannis accepterede premierminister Ponta's tilbagetrædelse. Klaus Iohannis's udnævnelsen af Sorin Cîmpeanu anses som en lappeløsnings foranstaltning, indtil en ny kandidat er valgt til posten.

Referencer

Politikere fra Rumænien
Personer fra Bukarest

Sorin Cîmpeanu


Caradawg Freichfras [] ("Caradawg mit dem starken Arm"), auch Caradoc Vreichvras, in französischen Erzählungen Karadues Briebras, ist der Name einer Sagenfigur aus der walisischen Mythologie.

Walisische Erzählungen
In der Sage Breuddwyd Rhonabwy ("Rhonabwys Traum") ist Caradawg Freichfras der oberste Ratgeber von König Artus. In den Trioedd Ynys Prydein ("Triaden der Insel Britannien") wird er als wichtige Person genannt ("einer der drei Ritter der Insel Britannien"), ebenso seine Gattin Tegau Eurfron ("eine der drei schönen Frauen am Artus-Hof"), sowie ihre Ehe ("eine der drei unübertroffenen Liebesbeziehungen der Insel Britannien"). Auch in einigen walisischen Heiligenlegenden spielt er eine Rolle. Sein Beiname leitet sich vom kymrischen breich ("Arm") und bras ("stark") her.

Er wird auch manchmal mit dem britannischen König Caratacus in Verbindung gebracht, doch gibt es keine Belege für diese Theorie.

Französische Erzählungen
In der höfischen Literatur Frankreichs sind in den Artusromanen ebenfalls einige Erzählungen über Caradawg erhalten geblieben. Hier wird sein Beiname als "Kurzarm" gedeutet, aus dem französischen bref ("kurz") und bras ("Arm"). Chrétien de Troyes überliefert die Schreibweise Karadues Briebras. Die Titelrolle spielt er in der anonymen Erzählung Livre de carados aus dem 13. Jahrhundert, die Chrétien de Troyes in seinem Werk Li Contes del Graal verwendet hat. Seine glückliche Ehe wird ausgehend von den Trioedd Ynys Prydein immer wieder thematisiert.

Siehe auch
 Mythen und Sagen aus Wales und Britannien
 Liste keltischer Götter und Sagengestalten

Literatur
 Helmut Birkhan: Keltische Erzählungen vom Kaiser Arthur. Teil 2. 2. Auflage. Lit-Verlag, Wien 2004, ISBN 3-8258-7563-6.
 Bernhard Maier: Lexikon der keltischen Religion und Kultur (= Kröners Taschenausgabe. Band 466). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-46601-5, S. 68.

Walisische Sagengestalt

Caradawg Freichfras


දීඝගාමිණී යනු භද්දකච්චායනා දේවියගේ සහෝදරයෙකුවන දීඝායු කුමාරයාගේ පුත්‍රයා ය.

දීඝගාමිණි


Fernando Javier Pierucci (Arteaga, Provincia de Santa Fe, Argentina, 29 de noviembre de 1979) es un exfutbolista argentino; jugaba como delantero.

Carrera
Tras realizar las divisiones juveniles en Rosario Central, debutó en el primer equipo canalla el 5 de diciembre de 1998 en el cotejo correspondiente a la 18.° fecha del Torneo Apertura ante Huracán, con resultado favorable de 2-0; Pierucci marcó el segundo tanto. Su actuación más destacada en Central se produjo en el partido frente a Argentinos Juniors en cancha de Ferro por la penúltima jornada del Torneo Apertura 1999, remplazando a Juan Antonio Pizzi y convirtiendo los goles en la victoria auriazul 2-1 que le permitió llegar a la última fecha con chances de ser campeón, aunque finalmente obtuvo el segundo puesto. Se mantuvo en el club hasta fines de 2002 sin poder afirmarse como titular, con 75 presencias y 10 goles en su haber.

Sus siguientes pasos los dio por el fútbol sudamericano: en 2003 vistió la casaca de Universidad de Chile, con el que disputó 28 partidos y marcó 9 goles, tres de ellos en los últimos cinco minutos de partido ante Coquimbo Unido el 24 de mayo para que su cuadro venza 4-3. Luego, durante el primer semestre de 2004 jugó 18 partidos con 5 anotaciones en Espoli de Ecuador.

Retornó a Argentina para fichar por el recién ascendido a Primera División Almagro en la temporada 2004-05, pero no logró continuidad.

Prosiguió su carrera en el fútbol de ascenso europeo, firmando primeramente en Ragusa Calcio de la Serie C2 de Italia en 2005. Luego emigra a España, pasando por San Isidro (Segunda B, primer semestre de 2006), Sangonera Atlético CF (Tercera, segundo semestre de ese mismo año), Comarca de Níjar (Tercera, primer semestre de 2007) y Cerro de Reyes (desde mediados de 2007 hasta fines de 2010, las dos primeras temporadas en Tercera, luego en Segunda B). Con este último club logró el título del Grupo XIV de la Tercera División 2009 con un gol suyo en el minuto 93 para el 3-2 sobre Unión Polideportiva Plasencia, consiguiendo luego el ascenso a Segunda B en la promoción versus Unión Deportiva Los Barrios.

Clubes

Palmarés

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en BDFA
 Ficha en Playerhistory

Referencias

Futbolistas de la provincia de Santa Fe
Futbolistas de las inferiores del Club Atlético Rosario Central
Futbolistas del Club Universidad de Chile en los años 2000
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Rosario Central en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Rosario Central en los años 2000
Futbolistas del Club Almagro
Futbolistas del Club Social Cultural y Deportivo Espoli
Futbolistas del Club Deportivo Raqui San Isidro
Futbolistas del Cerro de Reyes Atlético

Fernando Pierucci