The ordination of women to ministerial or priestly office is an increasingly common practice among some contemporary major religious groups. It remains a controversial issue in certain religious groups in which ordination was traditionally reserved for men.

In some cases, women have been permitted to be ordained, but not to hold higher positions, such as (until July 2014) that of bishop in the Church of England. Where laws prohibit sex discrimination in employment, exceptions are often made for clergy (for example, in the United States) on grounds of separation of church and state.

Ancient pagan religions

Sumer and Akkad

 Sumerian and Akkadian EN were top-ranking priestesses distinguished by special ceremonial attire and holding equal status to high priests. They owned property, transacted business, and initiated the hieros gamos ceremony with priests and kings. Enheduanna (2285–2250 BC), an Akkadian princess, was the first known holder of the title "EN Priestess".
 Ishtaritu were temple prostitutes who specialized in the arts of dancing, music, and singing and served in the temples of Ishtar.
 Puabi was a NIN, an Akkadian priestess of Ur in the 26th century BC.
 Nadītu, sometimes described as priestesses in modern literature, are attested from various cities from the Old Babylonian period. They were recruited from various social groups, ranging from craftsmen to royal families, and were supposed to remain childless; they owned property and transacted business.
 In Sumerian epic texts such as Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, Nu-Gig were priestesses in temples dedicated to Inanna, or may be a reference to the goddess herself.
 Qadishtu, Hebrew Qedesha (קדשה) or Kedeshah, derived from the root Q-D-Š, are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as sacred prostitutes usually associated with the goddess Asherah.

Ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egyptian religion, God's Wife of Amun was the highest ranking priestess; this title was held by a daughter of the High Priest of Amun, during the reign of Hatshepsut, while the capital of Egypt was in Thebes during the second millennium BC (circa 2160 BC).

Later, Divine Adoratrice of Amun was a title created for the chief priestess of Amun. During the first millennium BC, when the holder of this office exercised her largest measure of influence, her position was an important appointment facilitating the transfer of power from one pharaoh to the next, when his daughter was adopted to fill it by the incumbent office holder. The Divine Adoratrice ruled over the extensive temple duties and domains, controlling a significant part of the ancient Egyptian economy.

Ancient Egyptian priestesses:
 Gautseshen
 Henutmehyt
 Henuttawy
 Hui
 Iset
 Karomama Meritmut
 Maatkare Mutemhat
 Meritamen
 Neferhetepes is the earliest attested priestess of Hathor.
 Neferure
 Tabekenamun a priestess of Hathor as well as a priestess of Neith.

Ancient Greece

In ancient Greek religion, some important observances, such as the Thesmophoria, were made by women. Priestesses, Hiereiai, served in many different cults of many divinities, with their duties varying depending on the cult and the divinity in which they served.

Priestesses played a major role in the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which they served on many levels, from the High Priestess of Demeter and Dadouchousa Prietess to the Panageis and Hierophantides.  The Gerarai were priestesses of Dionysus who presided over festivals and rituals associated with the god.

A body of priestesses might also maintain the cult at a particular holy site, such as the Peleiades at the oracle of Dodona. The Arrephoroi were young girls ages seven to twelve who worked as servants of Athena Polias on the Athenian Acropolis and were charged with conducting unique rituals under the surveillance of the High Priestess of Athena Polias. The Priestess of Hera at Argos served at the Heraion of Argos and enjoyed great prestige in all Greece.

At several sites women priestesses served as oracles, the most famous of which is the Oracle of Delphi. The priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi was the Pythia, credited throughout the Greco-Roman world for her prophecies, which gave her a prominence unusual for a woman in male-dominated ancient Greece. The Phrygian Sibyl presided over an oracle of Apollo in Anatolian Phrygia. The inspired speech of divining women, however, was interpreted by male priests; a woman might be a mantic (mantis) who became the mouthpiece of a deity through possession, but the "prophecy of interpretation" required specialized knowledge and was considered a rational process suited only to a male '"prophet" (prophētēs).

Ancient Rome

The Latin word sacerdos, "priest", is the same for both the grammatical genders. In Roman state religion, the Vestal Virgins were responsible for the continuance and security of Rome as embodied by the sacred fire that they were required to tend on pain of extreme punishment. The Vestals were a college of six sacerdotes (plural) devoted to Vesta, goddess of the hearth, both the focus of a private home (domus) and the state hearth that was the center of communal religion. Freed of the usual social obligations to marry and rear children, the Vestals took a vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals that were off-limits to the male colleges of priests. They retained their religious authority until the Christian emperor Gratian confiscated their revenues and his successor Theodosius I closed the Temple of Vesta permanently.

The Romans also had at least two priesthoods that were each held jointly by a married couple, the rex and regina sacrorum, and the flamen and flaminica Dialis. The regina sacrorum ("queen of the sacred rites") and the flaminica Dialis (high priestess of Jupiter) each had her own distinct duties and presided over public sacrifices, the regina on the first day of every month, and the flaminica every nundinal cycle (the Roman equivalent of a week). The highly public nature of these sacrifices, like the role of the Vestals, indicates that women's religious activities in ancient Rome were not restricted to the private or domestic sphere. So essential was the gender complement to these priesthoods that if the wife died, the husband had  to give up his office. This is true of the flaminate, and probably true of the rex and regina.

The title sacerdos was often specified in relation to a deity or temple, such as a sacerdos Cereris or Cerealis, "priestess of Ceres", an office never held by men. Female sacerdotes played a leading role in the sanctuaries of Ceres and Proserpina in Rome and throughout Italy that observed so-called "Greek rite" (ritus graecus). This form of worship had spread from Sicily under Greek influence, and the Aventine cult of Ceres in Rome was headed by male priests.  Only women celebrated the rites of the Bona Dea ("Good Goddess"), for whom sacerdotes are recorded.  The Temple of Ceres in Rome was surved by the Priestess of Ceres, Sacerdos Cereris, and the Temple of Bona Dea by the Priestess of Bona Dea, Sacerdos Bonae Deae. Other Priestesses were the Sacerdos Liberi, Sacerdos Fortunae Muliebris and the Sacerdos Matris Deum Magnae Idaeae; sacerdos also served as priestesses of the Imperial cult.

From the Mid Republic onward, religious diversity became increasingly characteristic of the city of Rome. Many religions that were not part of Rome's earliest state religion offered leadership roles as priests for women, among them the imported cult of Isis and of the Magna Mater ("Great Mother", or Cybele). An epitaph preserves the title sacerdos maxima for a woman who held the highest priesthood of the Magna Mater's temple near the current site of St. Peter's Basilica. Inscriptions for the Imperial era record priestesses of Juno Populona and of deified women of the Imperial household.

Under some circumstances, when cults such as mystery religions were introduced to Romans, it was preferred that they be maintained by women. Although it was Roman practice to incorporate other religions instead of trying to eradicate them, the secrecy of some mystery cults was regarded with suspicion. In 189 BCE, the senate attempted to suppress the Bacchanals, claiming the secret rites corrupted morality and were a hotbed of political conspiracy. One provision of the senatorial decree was that only women should serve as priests of the Dionysian religion, perhaps to guard against the politicizing of the cult, since even Roman women who were citizens lacked the right to vote or hold political office. Priestesses of Liber, the Roman god identified with Dionysus, are mentioned by the 1st-century BC scholar Varro, as well as indicated by epigraphic evidence.

Other religious titles for Roman women include magistra, a high priestess, female expert or teacher; and ministra, a female assistant, particularly one in service to a deity. A magistra or ministra would have been responsible for the regular maintenance of a cult. Epitaphs provide the main evidence for these priesthoods, and the woman is often not identified in terms of her marital status.

Buddhism

The tradition of the ordained monastic community in Buddhism (the sangha) began with the Buddha, who established an order of monks. According to the scriptures, later, after an initial reluctance, he also established an order of nuns. Fully ordained Buddhist nuns are called bhikkhunis. Mahapajapati Gotami, the aunt and foster mother of Buddha, was the first bhikkhuni; she was ordained in the sixth century BCE.

Prajñādhara is the twenty-seventh Indian Patriarch of Zen Buddhism and is believed to have been a woman.

In the Mahayana tradition during the 13th century, the Japanese Mugai Nyodai became the first female Zen master in Japan.

However, the bhikkhuni ordination once existing in the countries where Theravada is more widespread died out around the 10th century, and novice ordination has also disappeared in those countries. Therefore, women who wish to live as nuns in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts.  Neither laywomen nor formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or status enjoyed by Buddhist men in their countries.  These "precept-holders" live in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, and Thailand. In particular, the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has ruled that there can be no valid ordination of women in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree. However, in 2003, Saccavadi and Gunasari were ordained as bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka, thus becoming the first female Burmese novices in modern times to receive higher ordination in Sri Lanka. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations, the precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better training than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests. In Tibet there is currently no bhikkhuni ordination, but the Dalai Lama has authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination.

The bhikkhuni ordination of Buddhist nuns has always been practiced in East Asia. In 1996, through the efforts of Sakyadhita, an International Buddhist Women Association, ten Sri Lankan women were ordained as bhikkhunis in Sarnath, India. Also, bhikkhuni ordination of Buddhist nuns began again in Sri Lanka in 1998 after a lapse of 900 years. In 2003 Ayya Sudhamma became the first American-born woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination in Sri Lanka.
Furthermore, on February 28, 2003, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, formerly known as Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became the first Thai woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination as a Theravada nun (Theravada is a school of Buddhism).
Dhammananda Bhikkhuni was ordained in Sri Lanka. Dhammananda Bhikkhuni's mother Venerable Voramai, also called Ta Tao Fa Tzu, had become the first fully ordained Thai woman in the Mahayana lineage in Taiwan in 1971.

A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen, became the first woman ordained as a monk in Thailand, in 2002. Since then, the Thai Senate has reviewed and revoked the secular law passed in 1928 banning women's full ordination in Buddhism as unconstitutional for being counter to laws protecting freedom of religion. However Thailand's two main Theravada Buddhist orders, the Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika Nikaya, have yet to officially accept fully ordained women into their ranks.

In 2009 in Australia four women received bhikkhuni ordination as Theravada nuns, the first time such ordination had occurred in Australia. It was performed in Perth, Australia, on 22 October 2009 at Bodhinyana Monastery. Abbess Vayama together with Venerables Nirodha, Seri, and Hasapanna were ordained as Bhikkhunis by a dual Sangha act of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in full accordance with the Pali Vinaya.

In 1997 Dhamma Cetiya Vihara in Boston was founded by Ven. Gotami of Thailand, then a 10 precept nun; when she received full ordination in 2000, her dwelling became America's first Theravada Buddhist bhikkhuni vihara. In 1998 Sherry Chayat, born in Brooklyn, became the first American woman to receive transmission in the Rinzai school of Buddhism. In 2006 Merle Kodo Boyd, born in Texas, became the first African-American woman ever to receive Dharma transmission in Zen Buddhism.
Also in 2006, for the first time in American history, a Buddhist ordination was held where an American woman (Sister Khanti-Khema) took the Samaneri (novice) vows with an American monk (Bhante Vimalaramsi) presiding. This was done for the Buddhist American Forest Tradition at the Dhamma Sukha Meditation Center in Missouri. In 2010 the first Tibetan Buddhist nunnery in America (Vajra Dakini Nunnery in Vermont) was officially consecrated. It offers novice ordination and follows the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism. The abbot of the Vajra Dakini nunnery is Khenmo Drolma, an American woman, who is the first bhikkhuni in the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism, having been ordained in Taiwan in 2002. She is also the first westerner, male or female, to be installed as an abbot in the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism, having been installed as the abbot of the Vajra Dakini Nunnery in 2004. The Vajra Dakini Nunnery does not follow The Eight Garudhammas. Also in 2010, in Northern California, four novice nuns were given the full bhikkhuni ordination in the Thai Theravada tradition, which included the double ordination ceremony. Bhante Gunaratana and other monks and nuns were in attendance. It was the first such ordination ever in the Western hemisphere. The following month, more bhikkhuni ordinations were completed in Southern California, led by Walpola Piyananda and other monks and nuns. The bhikkhunis ordained in Southern California were Lakshapathiye Samadhi (born in Sri Lanka), Cariyapanna, Susila, Sammasati (all three born in Vietnam), and Uttamanyana (born in Myanmar).

The first bhikkhuni ordination in Germany, the Theravada bhikkhuni ordination of German nun Samaneri Dhira, occurred on June 21, 2015, at Anenja Vihara.

The first Theravada ordination of bhikkhunis in Indonesia after more than a thousand years occurred in 2015 at Wisma Kusalayani in Lembang, Bandung. Those ordained included Vajiradevi Sadhika Bhikkhuni from Indonesia, Medha Bhikkhuni from Sri Lanka, Anula Bhikkhuni from Japan, Santasukha Santamana Bhikkhuni from Vietnam, Sukhi Bhikkhuni and Sumangala Bhikkhuni from Malaysia, and Jenti Bhikkhuni from Australia.

Christianity

In the liturgical traditions of Christianity, including the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy, Lutheranism and Anglicanism, the term ordination refers more narrowly to the means by which a person is included in one of the orders of bishops, priests or deacons. Among these historic branches of Christianity, the episcopacy and priesthood have been reserved for men, although women have served as deacons and apostles. This is distinguished from the process of consecration to religious orders, namely nuns and monks, which are typically open to women and men. Some Protestant denominations understand ordination more generally as the acceptance of a person for pastoral work.

Historians Gary Macy, Kevin Madigan and Carolyn Osiek claim to have identified documented instances of ordained women in the early Church. In 2021, excavations at the site of a 1600-year-old Byzantine basilica revealed mosaics that provided evidence of women serving primarily as diaconal ministers in early Christendom, although there has been speculation of other females in ministry as leaders of convents. Additionally, Paul's letter to the Romans, written in the first century AD, mentions a woman deacon:

In the late second century AD, the Montanist movement ordained women priests and bishops.

In 494 AD, in response to reports that women were serving at the altar in the south of Italy, Pope Gelasius I wrote a letter condemning female participation in the celebration of the Eucharist. However, according to O'Brien, he never specified the scriptural or theological foundation for restricting priesthood to men only. Because of several textual ambiguities and silences, the letter is open to more than one interpretation modern researchers argue. Not surprisingly, scholars have been polarized about its meaning. Roger Gryson asserts that it is "difficult to form an idea of the situation which Pope Gelasius opposed" and observes that "it is regrettable that more details" about the situation are not available.

The Protestant Reformation introduced the dogma that the authority of the Bible exceeds that of Roman Catholic popes and other church figures. Once the Roman Catholic hierarchy was no longer accepted as the sole authority, some denominations allowed women to preach. For example, George Fox founded the Quaker movement after stating he felt the "inner light" of Christ living in the believer was discovered in 1646. He believed that the inner light worked in women as well as in men, and said:

The ordination of women has once again been a controversial issue in more recent years with societal focus on social justice movements. Still, some Christians believe that, though men and women are equal, they are not identical and that New Testament scripture outlays a division between roles of men and women in the Christian Church, so it would be inappropriate to assign women the role or responsibilities of a pastor in a New Testament church. For example, in reference to Anglicanism, some Anglo-Catholics or Evangelicals—while theologically very different—may share opposition to female ordination in the presbyterate and episcopacy. Nevertheless, the majority of the Anglican communion agrees to ordain women as deacons, priests and bishops. Evangelical Christians who place emphasis on the infallibility of the Bible base their opposition to women's ordination as deacons and pastors partly upon the writings of the Apostle Paul, such as Ephesians 5:23, 1 Timothy 2:11–15, and 1 Timothy 3:1–7, which they interpret as demanding male leadership in the Church. Some Evangelicals also look to the levitical priesthood and historic rabbinate, being male only. Other evangelical denominations officially authorize the full ordination of women in churches. Catholics may allude to Jesus Christ's choice of disciples as evidence of his intention for an exclusively male apostolic succession, as laid down by early Christian writers such as Tertullian and reiterated in the 1976 Vatican Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood.

Supporters of women's ordination interpret the above-mentioned New Testament texts as being specific to certain social and church contexts and locations and addressing problems of church order in the early Church period. They regard Jesus as setting the example of treating women with respect, commending their faith and tasking them to tell others about him and Paul as treating women as his equals and co-workers. They point to notable female figures in the Bible such as Phoebe, Junia (considered an apostle by Paul) and others in Romans 16:1, the female disciples of Jesus, and the women at the crucifixion who were the first witnesses to the Resurrection of Christ, as supporting evidence of the importance of women as pastoral or episcopal leaders in the early Church.

Roman Catholic

The teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, as emphasized by Pope John Paul II in the apostolic letter , is "that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgement is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful".

This teaching is embodied in the current canon law (1024) and the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992), by the canonical statement: "Only a baptized man () validly receives sacred ordination." Insofar as priestly and episcopal ordination are concerned, the Roman Catholic Church teaches that this requirement is a matter of divine law; it belongs to the deposit of faith and is unchangeable.

In 2007, the Holy See issued a decree stating that attempted ordination of a woman would result in automatic excommunication for the women and bishops attempting to ordain them, and in 2010, that attempted ordination of women is a "grave delict".

An official Papal Commission ordered by Pope Francis in 2016 was charged with determining whether the ancient practice of having female deacons (deaconesses) is possible, provided they are non-ordained and that certain reserved functions of ordained male permanent or transitional deacons—proclaiming the Gospel at Mass, giving a homily, and performing non-emergency baptisms—would not be permitted for the discussed female diaconate. In October 2019, the Synod of Bishops for the Pan-Amazon region called for "married priests, pope to reopen women deacons commission." Pope Francis later omitted discussion of the issue from the ensuing documents.

Mariavites

Inspired by a mystically inclined nun, Feliksa Kozłowska, the Mariavite movement originally began as a response to the perceived corruption of the Roman Catholic Church in the Russian Partition of 19th century Poland. The Mariavites, so named for their devotion to the Virgin Mary, attracted numerous parishes across Mazovia and the region around Łódź and at their height numbered some 300,000 people. Fearing a schism, the established church authorities asked for intervention from the Vatican. The Mariavites were eventually excommunicated by Papal Bull in 1905 and 1906. Their clergy, cut loose from the Catholic Church, found sanctuary with the Old Catholic Church and in 1909 the first Mariavite bishop, Michael Kowalski, was consecrated in Utrecht. Twenty years later, the now constituted Mariavite Church was riven by policy differences and a leadership struggle. Nevertheless, Archbishop Kowalski ordained the first 12 nuns as priests in 1929. He also introduced priestly marriage. The split in the church took effect, in part, over the place of the feminine in theology and the role of women in the life of the church. By 1935, Kowalski had introduced a "universal priesthood" that extended the priestly office to selected members of the laity. The two Mariavite churches survive to this day. The successors of Kowalski, who are known as the Catholic Mariavite Church and are based in the town of Felicjanów in the Płock region of Poland, are headed by a bishop who is a woman, although their numbers are dwarfed by the adherents of the more conventionally patriarchal Mariavites of Płock.

Dissenters

Various Catholics have written in favor of ordaining women. Dissenting groups advocating women's ordination in opposition to Catholic teaching include Women's Ordination Worldwide, Catholic Women's Ordination, Roman Catholic Womenpriests, and Women's Ordination Conference. Some cite the alleged ordination of Ludmila Javorová in Communist Czechoslovakia in 1970 by Bishop Felix Davídek (1921–1988), himself clandestinely consecrated due to the shortage of priests caused by state persecution, as a precedent. The Catholic Church treats attempted ordinations of women as invalid and automatically excommunicates all participants.

Eastern Orthodox
The Eastern Orthodox Church follows a line of reasoning similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church with respect to the ordination of bishops and priests, and does not allow women's ordination to those orders.

Thomas Hopko and Evangelos Theodorou have contended that female deacons were fully ordained in antiquity. K. K. Fitzgerald has followed and amplified Theodorou's research. Metropolitan Kallistos Ware wrote:

On October 8, 2004, the Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church of Greece voted to permit the appointment of monastic deaconesses—women to minister and assist at the liturgy within their own monasteries. The document however does not use the term , although the rites that are to be used are rites of ordination of clergy.

Protestant

Many Protestants believe female ministry is justified by the fact that Mary Magdalene was chosen by Jesus to announce his resurrection to the apostles.

A key theological doctrine for Reformed and most other Protestants is the priesthood of all believers—a doctrine considered by them so important that it has been dubbed by some as "a clarion truth of Scripture":

Most Protestant denominations require pastors, ministers, deacons, and elders to be formally ordained. The early Protestant reformer Martin Bucer, for instance, cited Ephesians 4 and other Pauline letters in support of this. While the process of ordination varies among the denominations and the specific church office to be held, it may require preparatory training such as seminary or Bible college, election by the congregation or appointment by a higher authority, and expectations of a lifestyle that requires a higher standard. For example, the Good News Translation of James 3:1 says, "My friends, not many of you should become teachers. As you know, we teachers will be judged with greater strictness than others."

Usually, these roles were male preserves. However, Quakers, who have no ordained clergy, have had women preachers and leaders from their founding in the mid-17th century. Women's ministry has been part of Methodist tradition in the UK for over 200 years. In the late 18th century in England, John Wesley allowed for female office-bearers and preachers. The Salvation Army has allowed the ordination of women since its beginning in 1865, although it was a hotly disputed topic between William and Catherine Booth. The fourth, thirteenth, and nineteenth Generals of the Salvation Army were women. Similarly, the Church of the Nazarene has ordained women since its foundation in 1908, at which time a full 25% of its ordained ministers were women.

Many Protestant denominations are committed to congregational governance and reserve the power to ordain ministers to local congregations. Because of this, if there is no denomination-wide prohibition on ordaining women, congregations may do so while other congregations of the same denomination might not consider doing likewise.

Since the 20th century an increasing number of Protestant Christian denominations have begun ordaining women. The Church of England appointed female lay readers during the First World War. Later the United Church of Canada in 1936 (Lydia Emelie Gruchy) and the American United Methodist Church in 1956 also began to ordain women. The first female Moderator of the United Church of Canada—a position open to both ministers and laypeople—was the Rev. Lois Miriam Wilson, who served 1980–1982.

In 1918, Alma Bridwell White, head of the Pillar of Fire Church, became the first woman to be ordained bishop in the United States.

Today, over half of all American Protestant denominations ordain women, but some restrict the official positions a woman can hold. For instance, some ordain women for the military or hospital chaplaincy but prohibit them from serving in congregational roles. Over one-third of all seminary students (and in some seminaries nearly half) are female.

Church of the Nazarene
The Church of the Nazarene has ordained women since its foundation as a denomination in 1908, at which time fully 25% of its ordained ministers were women.  According to the Church of the Nazarene Manual, "The Church of the Nazarene supports the right of women to use their God-given spiritual gifts within the church, affirms the historic right of women to be elected and appointed to places of leadership within
the Church of the Nazarene, including the offices of both elder and deacon."

Lutheranism

The Church of Denmark became the first Lutheran body to ordain women in 1948. The largest Lutheran churches in the United States and Canada, The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), have been ordaining women since 1970. The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod, which also encompasses the Lutheran Church-Canada, does not ordain women; neither do the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod or the Evangelical Lutheran Synod. The first local woman cleric ordained in the Holy Land was Sally Azar of the Lutheran church in 2023.

Anglican

In 1917 the Church of England licensed women as lay readers called bishop's messengers, many of whom ran churches, but did not go as far as to ordain them.

From 1930 to 1978 the Anglican Group for the Ordination of Women to the Historic Ministry promoted the ordination of women in the Church of England.

Within Anglicanism the majority of provinces now ordain women as deacons and priests.

The first three women ordained as priests in the Anglican Communion were in Hong Kong: Li Tim-Oi in 1944 and Jane Hwang and Joyce M. Bennett in 1971.

On July 29, 1974, Bishops Daniel Corrigan, Robert L. DeWitt, and Edward R. Welles II of the U.S. Episcopal Church, with Bishop Antonio Ramos of Costa Rica, ordained eleven women as priests in a ceremony that was widely considered "irregular" because the women lacked "recommendation from the standing committee", a canonical prerequisite for ordination. The "Philadelphia Eleven", as they became known, were Merrill Bittner, Alison Cheek, Alla Bozarth (Campell), Emily C. Hewitt, Carter Heyward, Suzanne R. Hiatt (d. 2002), Marie Moorefield, Jeannette Piccard (d. 1981), Betty Bone Schiess, Katrina Welles Swanson ( 2006), and Nancy Hatch Wittig. Initially opposed by the House of Bishops, the ordinations received approval from the General Convention of the Episcopal Church in September 1976. This General Convention approved the ordination of women to both the priesthood and the episcopate.

Reacting to the action of the General Convention, clergy and laypersons opposed to the ordination of women to the priesthood met in convention at the Congress of St. Louis and attempted to form a rival Anglican church in the US and Canada. Despite the plans for a united North American church, the result was division into several Continuing Anglican churches, which now make up part of the Continuing Anglican movement.

The first woman to become a bishop in the Anglican Communion was Barbara Harris, who was elected a suffragan bishop in the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts in 1988 and ordained on February 11, 1989. The majority of Anglican provinces now permit the ordination of women as bishops, and as of 2014, women have served or are serving as bishops in the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Ireland, South Africa, South India, Wales, and in the extra provincial Episcopal Church of Cuba. Libby Lane became the first woman consecrated a bishop of the Church of England in 2015. It had ordained 32 women as its first female priests in March 1994. In 2015 Rachel Treweek was consecrated as the first female diocesan bishop in the Church of England (Diocese of Gloucester). She and Sarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be consecrated and ordained bishop in Canterbury Cathedral. Also that year Treweek became the first woman to sit in the House of Lords as a Lord Spiritual, thus making her at the time the most senior ordained woman in the Church of England.

On June 18, 2006, the Episcopal Church became the first Anglican province to elect a woman, the Most Rev. Katharine Jefferts Schori, as a primate (leader of an Anglican province), called the "Presiding Bishop" in the United States.

Methodism

Methodist views on the ordination of women in the rite of holy orders are diverse.

Today some Methodist denominations practice the ordination of women, such as in the United Methodist Church (UMC), in which the ordination of women has occurred since its creation in 1968, as well as in the Free Methodist Church (FMC), which ordained its first woman elder in 1911, in the Methodist Church of Great Britain, which ordained its first female deacon in 1890 and ordained its first female elders (that is, presbyters) in 1974, and in the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, which ordained its first female elder in 1853, as well as the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches, which has always ordained women to the presbyterate and diaconate.

Other Methodist denominations do not ordain women, such as the Southern Methodist Church (SMC), Evangelical Methodist Church of America, Fundamental Methodist Conference, Evangelical Wesleyan Church (EWC), and Primitive Methodist Church (PMC), the latter two of which do not ordain women as elders nor do they license them as pastors or local preachers; the EWC and PMC do, however, consecrate women as deaconesses. Independent Methodist parishes that are registered with the Association of Independent Methodists do not permit the ordination of women to holy orders.

Religious Society of Friends
From their founding in the mid-17th century, Quakers have allowed women to preach. They believed that both genders are equally capable of inspiration by the Holy Spirit and thus there is a tradition of women preachers in Quaker Meetings from their earliest days. In order to be a preacher, a Friend had to obtain recognition by a Quaking Meeting. In the 18th century, ministers typically sat at the front of the meeting house, with women on one side and men on the other, all on the same raised platform.

Women ministers were active from the earliest days. In 1657, Mary Howgill, one of the Valiant Sixty (an early group of Quaker preachers), rebuked Oliver Cromwell for persecuting Quakers, saying, "When thou givest account of all those actions, which have been acted by thee,[...] as my soul lives, these things will be laid to thy charge." Later, in 1704, Esther Palmer of Flushing, Long Island, and Susanna Freeborn of Newport, Rhode Island, set out on a 3,230 mile journey across eight colonies of North America, including visits to preach in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina.

Other well-known Quaker women preachers were Mary Lawson of Philadelphia, Mary Bannister of London, England, Mary Ellerton of York, England, Rachel Wilson of Virginia, Catharine Payton of Pennsylvania, Ann Moore of New York, Susanna Hatton of Delaware, and Mary Dyer of Boston.

Baptist
American Clarissa Danforth, a member of the Free Will Baptist tradition, was ordained a pastor in 1815, being the first woman Baptist pastor. Other ordinations of women pastors took place thereafter. In 1882, in the American Baptist Churches USA, in 1965 in the National Baptist Convention, USA, and the Progressive National Baptist Convention in 1969.

The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) expelled Saddleback Church in 2023 after Rick Warren ordained several women as pastors. In response, Warren launched a website attacking the SBC position.

Pentecostal
The Assemblies of God of the United States accepted women's ordination in 1927. In 1975, the ordination of women began in the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, founded by female evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson. As Pentecostal churches are often independent, there is a variety of differing positions on the issue, with some of them appointing women as pastors and in other missional roles, and others not.

Seventh-day Adventist
According to its Working Policy, the Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) Church restricts certain positions of service and responsibility to those who have been ordained to the gospel ministry. The General Conference (GC) in session, the highest decision-making body of the church, has never approved the ordination of women as ministers, despite the significant foundational role and ongoing influence of a woman, Ellen G. White. Adventists have found no clear mandate or precedent for or against the practice of ordaining women in Scripture or in White's writings. In recent years the ordination of women has been the subject of heated debate, especially in North America and Europe. In the Adventist church, candidates for ordination are recommended by local conferences (which usually administer 50–150 local congregations) and approved by union conferences (which administer 6–12 local conferences). The church's Fundamental Beliefs and its worldwide practice as set forth in its Church Manual, including the worldwide qualifications for ordination currently restricted to men, can be revised only at a GC session.

In 1990, the GC session voted against a motion to establish a worldwide policy permitting the ordination of women. In 1995, GC delegates voted not to authorize any of the 13 world divisions to establish policies for ordaining women within its territory. After a delegate at the 2010 GC session recommended it, the GC administration on September 20, 2011 established the Theology of Ordination Study Committee, which included representatives from each of its 13 world division biblical research committees, to study the issue and prepare a recommendation for 2015 GC session. In October 2011 at its Annual Council meeting, the GC Executive Committee voted 167–117 against a request from the North American Division (NAD)—supported by the Trans-European Division—to permit persons (including women) with commissioned minister credentials to serve as local conference presidents. Later that month, the NAD ignored the GC action and voted to permit women with commissioned minister credentials to serve as conference presidents.

In the wake of the Annual Council vote, a small group of Adventists in the Southeastern California Conference (SECC) organized the Ordination Political Action Committee (OPAC) with the goal of bringing political pressure on the SECC leadership to unilaterally adopt the policy of pastoral ordination without regard to gender. The group launched the OPAC on January 1, 2012 with the stated intention of achieving its objective by March 31, 2012. After creating a comprehensive web site, a widely distributed petition, and a presence on various social media platforms and after holding multiple meetings with various groups, including SECC officials, the OPAC reached its goal on March 22, 2012, when the SECC Executive voted 19-2 to immediately implement the policy of ordaining pastors without regard to gender.

Meanwhile, early in 2012, the GC issued an analysis of church history and policy, demonstrating that worldwide divisions of the GC do not have the authority to establish policy different from that of the GC. However, in their analysis, the GC confirmed that the "final responsibility and authority" for approving candidates for ordination resides at the union conference level. Several union conferences subsequently voted to approve ordinations without regard to gender.

After achieving its initial objective in the SECC, the OPAC shifted its focus to the Pacific Union Conference (PUCon), which, by policy, must review and act on all ordination recommendations from its local conferences. For many years the PUCon had supported the concept of ordaining women pastors. It took up the matter again on March 15, 2012 but tabled any action until May 9, 2012, when it voted 42-2 to begin processing ministerial ordinations without regard to gender as soon as it could amend its bylaws. The vote also included the call for a constituency meeting on August 19, 2012, when it would consider such a bylaws change. The PUCon constituents voted 79% (334-87) to support this recommendation and amend the bylaws accordingly. Some local conferences within the PUCon began to implement the new policy immediately. By mid-2013, about 25 women had been ordained to the ministry in the Pacific Union Conference.

Stimulated at least in part by the international reach of the OPAC and even before it achieved its ultimate objective with the PUCon, other church administrative entities took similar actions. On April 23, 2012, the North German Union voted to ordain women as ministers but by late 2013 had not yet ordained a woman. On July 29, 2012, the Columbia Union Conference voted to "authorize ordination without respect to gender". On May 12, 2013, the Danish Union voted to treat men and women ministers the same and to suspend all ordinations until after the topic would be considered at the next GC session in 2015. On May 30, 2013, the Netherlands Union voted to ordain female pastors, recognizing them as equal to their male colleagues and ordained its first female pastor on September 1, 2013. When Sandra Roberts was elected president of the SECC on October 27, 2013, she became the first SDA woman to serve as president of a local conference, However, the GC never recognized her in that role. Eight years later, Roberts was elected executive secretary of the Pacific Union Conference on August 16, 2021. On September 12, 2021, the Mid-America Union Conference Constituency voted 82% to authorize the ordination of women in ministry, becoming the third union conference in the NAD to do so.

At the 60th GC session in San Antonio on July 8, 2015, Seventh-day Adventists voted not to permit regional church bodies to ordain women pastors. The President of the GC, Ted N. C. Wilson, opened the morning session on the day of the vote with an appeal for all church members to abide by the vote's outcome and underscored before and after the vote that decisions made by the GC in session carry the highest authority in the Adventist Church. Prior to the GC vote, dozens of delegates spoke for and against the question: "After your prayerful study on ordination from the Bible, the writings of Ellen G. White, and the reports of the study commissions; and after your careful consideration of what is best for the church and the fulfillment of its mission, is it acceptable for division executive committees, as they may deem it appropriate in their territories, to make provision for the ordination of women to the gospel ministry?" By secret ballot, the delegates passed the motion 1,381 to 977, with 5 abstentions, thus ending a five-year study process characterized by open, vigorous, and, sometimes, acrimonious debate.

Philippine Independent Church

The Philippine Independent Church is an independent Catholic church in the Philippines founded in 1902. It has approved women's ordination since 1996. In 1997 it ordained its first female priest in the person of Rev. Rosalina Rabaria. , it has 30 women priests and 9 women deacons. On May 5, 2019, the church consecrated its first female bishop in the person of Right Reverend Emelyn G. Dacuycuy and installed her as an ordinary of Batac Diocese, Ilocos Norte. According to Bishop Maximo XIII Rhee Timbang, the ordination of women has enabled the church to become more relevant to its time and to society.

Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses consider qualified public baptism to represent the baptizand's ordination, following which he or she is immediately considered an ordained minister. In 1941, the Supreme Court of Vermont recognized the validity of this ordination for a female Jehovah's Witness minister. The majority of Witnesses actively preaching from door to door are female. Women are commonly appointed as full-time ministers, either to evangelize as "pioneers" or missionaries, or to serve at their branch offices. Nevertheless, Witness deacons ("ministerial servants") and elders must be male, and only a baptized adult male may perform a Jehovah's Witness baptism, funeral, or wedding. Within the congregation, a female Witness minister may only lead prayer and teaching when there is a special need, and must do so wearing a head covering.

Latter Day Saint movement

Community of Christ
The Community of Christ adopted the practice of women's ordination in 1984, which was one of the reasons for the schism between the Community of Christ and the newly formed Restoration Branches movement, which was largely composed of members of the Community of Christ church (then known as the RLDS church) who refused to accept this development and other doctrinal changes taking place during this same period. For example, the Community of Christ also changed the name of one of its priesthood offices from evangelist-patriarch to evangelist, and its associated sacrament, the patriarchal blessing, to the evangelist's blessing. In 1998, Gail E. Mengel and Linda L. Booth became the first two women apostles in the Community of Christ. At the 2007 World Conference of the church, Becky L. Savage was ordained as the first woman to serve in the First Presidency. In 2013, Booth became the first woman elected to serve as president of the Council of Twelve.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) does not ordain women. Some (most notably former LDS Church members D. Michael Quinn and Margaret Toscano) have argued that the church ordained women in the past and that therefore the church currently has the power to ordain women and should do so; however, there are no known records of any women having been ordained to the priesthood. Women do hold a prominent place in the church, including their work in the Relief Society, which is one of the largest and longest-lasting women's organizations in the world. Women thus serve, as do men, in unpaid positions involving teaching, administration, missionary service, humanitarian efforts, and other capacities. Women often offer prayers and deliver sermons during Sunday services. Ordain Women, an activist group of mostly LDS Church women founded by feminist Kate Kelly in March 2013, supports extending priesthood ordinations to women.

Liberal Catholic
Of all the churches in the Liberal Catholic movement, only the original church, the Liberal Catholic Church under Bishop Graham Wale, does not ordain women. The position held by the Liberal Catholic Church is that the Church, even if it wanted to ordain women, does not have the authority to do so and that it would not be possible for a woman to become a priest even if she went through the ordination ceremony. The reasoning behind this belief is that the female body does not effectively channel the masculine energies of Christ, the true minister of all the sacraments. The priest has to be able to channel Christ's energies to validly confect the sacrament; therefore the sex of the priest is a central part of the ceremony hence all priests must be male. When discussing the sacrament of Holy Orders in his book Science of the Sacraments, Second Presiding Bishop Leadbeater also opined that women could not be ordained; he noted that Christ left no indication that women can become priests and that only Christ can change this arrangement.

Old Catholic
On 19 February 2000, Denise Wyss became the first woman to be ordained as a priest in the Old Catholic Church.

Hinduism

Bhairavi Brahmani is a guru of Sri Ramakrishna. She initiated Ramakrishna into Tantra. Under her guidance, Ramakrishna went through sixty four major tantric sadhanas which were completed in 1863.

In 2014 an all-female akhada (group of sadhus) was formed; it is believed to be the first such group in India.

Ramakrishna Sarada Mission is the modern 21st century monastic order for women. The order was conducted under the guidance of the Ramakrishna monks until 1959, at which time it became entirely independent. It currently has centers in various parts of India, and also in Sydney, Australia.

There are two types of Hindu priests, purohits and pujaris. Both women and men are ordained as purohits and pujaris. Chanda Vyas, born in Kenya, was Britain's first female Hindu priest.

Furthermore, both men and women are Hindu gurus. Shakti Durga, formerly known as Kim Fraser, was Australia's first female guru.

Islam

Although Muslims do not formally ordain religious leaders, the imam serves as a spiritual leader and religious authority. There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which women may act as imams—that is, lead a congregation in salat (prayer). Three of the four Sunni schools, as well as many Shia, agree that a woman may lead a congregation consisting of women alone in prayer, although the Maliki school does not allow this. According to all currently existing traditional schools of Islam, a woman cannot lead a mixed gender congregation in salat (prayer). Some schools make exceptions for Tarawih (optional Ramadan prayers) or for a congregation consisting only of close relatives. Certain medieval scholars—including Al-Tabari (838–932), Abu Thawr (764–854), Al-Muzani (791–878), and Ibn Arabi (1165–1240)—considered the practice permissible at least for optional (nafila) prayers; however, their views are not accepted by any major surviving group. Islamic feminists have begun to protest this.

Women's mosques, called nusi, and female imams have existed since the 19th century in China and continue today.

In 1994, Amina Wadud (an Islamic studies professor at Virginia Commonwealth University, born in the United States), became the first woman in South Africa to deliver the jum'ah khutbah (Friday sermon), which she did at the Claremont Main Road Mosque in Cape Town, South Africa.

In 2004 20-year-old Maryam Mirza delivered the second half of the Eid al-Fitr khutbah at the Etobicoke mosque in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, run by the United Muslim Association.

In 2004, in Canada, Yasmin Shadeer led the night 'Isha prayer for a mixed-gender (men as well as women praying and hearing the sermon) congregation. This is the first recorded occasion in modern times where a woman led a congregation in prayer in a mosque.

On March 18, 2005, Amina Wadud gave a sermon and led Friday prayers for a Muslim congregation consisting of men as well as women, with no curtain dividing the men and women. Another woman, Suheyla El-Attar, sounded the call to prayer while not wearing a headscarf at that same event. This was done in the Synod House of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York after mosques refused to host the event. This was the first known time that a woman had led a mixed-gender Muslim congregation in prayer in American history.

In April 2005, Raheel Raza, born in Pakistan, led Toronto's first woman-led mixed-gender Friday prayer service, delivering the sermon and leading the prayers of the mixed-gender congregation organized by the Muslim Canadian Congress to celebrate Earth Day in the backyard of the downtown Toronto home of activist Tarek Fatah.

On July 1, 2005, Pamela Taylor, co-chair of the New York-based Progressive Muslim Union and a Muslim convert since 1986, became the first woman to lead Friday prayers in a Canadian mosque, and did so for a congregation of both men and women. In addition to leading the prayers, Taylor also gave a sermon on the importance of equality among people regardless of gender, race, sexual orientation and disability.

In October 2005, Amina Wadud led a mixed gender Muslim congregational prayer in Barcelona.

In 2008, Pamela Taylor gave the Friday khutbah and led the mixed-gender prayers in Toronto at the UMA mosque at the invitation of the Muslim Canadian Congress on Canada Day.

On 17 October 2008, Amina Wadud became the first woman to lead a mixed-gender Muslim congregation in prayer in the United Kingdom when she performed the Friday prayers at Oxford's Wolfson College.

In 2010, Raheel Raza became the first Muslim-born woman to lead a mixed-gender British congregation through Friday prayers.

In 2014, Afra Jalabi, a Syrian Canadian journalist and peace advocate delivered Eid ul-Adha khutbah at Noor cultural centre in Toronto, Canada.

Judaism

While several women engaged in the Torah and Talmudic study associated with rabbinic study in the middle ages, women were not ordained until the twentieth century. A possible exception is Asenath Barzani of Iraq, who is considered by some scholars as the first woman rabbi of Jewish history.  The title referred to Barzani by the Jews of Afghanistan was Tannit, the feminine equivalent of Tanna, the title for a Jewish sage of the early Talmudic rabbis. According to some researchers, the origin of the Barzani story is the travelogue of Rabbi Petachiah of Regensburg. Another exception is the female Hasidic rebbe, Hannah Rachel Verbermacher, also known as the Maiden of Ludmir, active in the 19th century.

In 1935 Regina Jonas was ordained privately by a German rabbi and became the world's first female rabbi. In the mid-20th century, American Jewish movements began ordaining women. Sally Priesand became the first female rabbi in Reform Judaism in 1972;
Sandy Eisenberg Sasso became the first female rabbi in Reconstructionist Judaism in 1974; Lynn Gottlieb became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981;
Amy Eilberg became the first female rabbi in Conservative Judaism in 1985;
and Tamara Kolton became the very first rabbi of either sex (and therefore, since she was female, the first female rabbi) in Humanistic Judaism in 1999. Women in Conservative, Reform, Reconstructionist, Renewal, and Humanistic Judaism are routinely granted semicha (ordination) on an equal basis with men.

In June 2009, Avi Weiss ordained Sara Hurwitz with the title "maharat" (an acronym of manhiga hilkhatit rukhanit Toranit) rather than "Rabbi". In February 2010, Weiss announced that he was changing Maharat to a more familiar-sounding title "Rabba". The goal of this shift was to clarify Hurwitz's position as a full member of the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale rabbinic staff. The change was criticised by both Agudath Yisrael and the Rabbinical Council of America, who called the move "beyond the pale of Orthodox Judaism". Weiss announced amidst criticism that the term "Rabba" would not be used anymore for his future students. Also in 2009, Weiss founded Yeshivat Maharat, a school which "is dedicated to giving Orthodox women proficiency in learning and teaching Talmud, understanding Jewish law and its application to everyday life as well as the other tools necessary to be Jewish communal leaders". Maharat alumnae take a variety of titles upon ordination, including Maharat, Rabba, and Rabbanit. In 2015, Lila Kagedan was ordained as Rabbi by that same organization, making her their first graduate to take the title Rabbi. Hurwitz continues to use the title Rabba and is considered by some to be the first female Orthodox rabbi.

In the fall of 2015 Rabbinical Council of America passed a resolution which states, "RCA members with positions in Orthodox institutions may not ordain women into the Orthodox rabbinate, regardless of the title used; or hire or ratify the hiring of a woman into a rabbinic position at an Orthodox institution; or allow a title implying rabbinic ordination to be used by a teacher of Limudei Kodesh in an Orthodox institution." Similarly in the fall of 2015 Agudath Israel of America denounced moves to ordain women, and went even further, declaring Yeshivat Maharat, Yeshivat Chovevei Torah, Open Orthodoxy, and other affiliated entities to be similar to other dissident movements throughout Jewish history in having rejected basic tenets of Judaism.

Only men can become cantors (also called hazzans) in most of Orthodox Judaism, but all other types of Judaism allow and have female cantors.  In 1955 Betty Robbins, born in Greece, became the world's first female cantor when she was appointed cantor of the Reform congregation of Temple Avodah in Oceanside, New York, in July.
Barbara Ostfeld-Horowitz became the first female cantor to be ordained in Reform Judaism in 1975.
Erica Lippitz and Marla Rosenfeld Barugel became the first female cantors in Conservative Judaism in 1987.
However, the Cantors Assembly, a professional organization of cantors associated with Conservative Judaism, did not allow women to join until 1990. In 2001 Deborah Davis became the first cantor of either sex (and therefore, since she was female, the first female cantor) in Humanistic Judaism, although Humanistic Judaism has since stopped graduating cantors. Sharon Hordes became the first cantor of either sex (and therefore, since she was female, the first female cantor) in Reconstructionist Judaism in 2002. Avitall Gerstetter, who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002. Susan Wehle became the first American female cantor in Jewish Renewal in 2006; however, she died in 2009. The first American women to be ordained as cantors in Jewish Renewal after Wehle's ordination were Michal Rubin and Abbe Lyons, both ordained on January 10, 2010.

In 2019, Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance created an initiative to support the hiring of female Jewish spiritual leaders and has released a statement supporting the ordination and hiring of women with the title Rabbi at Orthodox synagogues.  Open Orthodox Jewish women can become cantors and rabbis.

Ryukyuan religion
The indigenous religion of the Ryukyuan Islands in Japan is led by female priests; this makes it the only known official mainstream religion of a society led by women.

Shinto

In Shintoism, Saiin (斎院, saiin?) were unmarried female relatives of the Japanese emperor who served as high priestesses at Ise Grand Shrine from the late 7th century until the 14th century. Ise Grand Shrine is a Shinto shrine dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu-ōmikami. Saiin priestesses were usually elected from royalty (内親王, naishinnō) such as princesses (女王, joō). In principle, Saiin remained unmarried, but there were exceptions. Some Saiin became consorts of the Emperor, called Nyōgo in Japanese. According to the Man'yōshū (The Anthology of Ten Thousand Leaves), the first Saiō to serve at Ise Grand Shrine was Princess Ōku, daughter of Emperor Tenmu, during the Asuka period of Japanese history.

Female Shinto priests were largely pushed out of their positions in 1868. The ordination of women as Shinto priests arose again during World War II. See also Miko.

Sikhism
Sikhism does not have priests, which were abolished by Guru Gobind Singh, as the guru had seen that institution become corrupt in society during his time. Instead, he appointed the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh holy book, as his successor as Guru instead of a possibly fallible human. Due to the faith's belief in complete equality, women can participate in any religious function, perform any Sikh ceremony or lead the congregation in prayer. A Sikh woman has the right to become a Granthi, Ragi, and one of the Panj Piare (5 beloved) and both men and women are considered capable of reaching the highest levels of spirituality.

Taoism

Taoists ordain both men and women as priests.  In 2009 Wu Chengzhen became the first female fangzhang (principal abbot) in Taoism's 1,800-year history after being enthroned at Changchun Temple in Wuhan, capital of Hubei province, in China. Fangzhang is the highest position in a Taoist temple.

Wicca
In Wicca, as many women are ordained as men. Many traditions elevate the importance of women over that of men and women are frequently leaders of covens. Members are typically considered Priests and Priestesses when they are given the rite of Initiation within the coven, though some may choose to undergo additional training to become High Priestess who often has the final say in matters and who may choose who can be her High Priest. Some, who have gone through enough experience, may leave to create their own coven.

Yoruba

The Yoruba people of western Nigeria practice an indigenous religion with a religious hierarchy of priests and priestesses that dates to 800–1000 CE. Ifá Oracle priests and priestesses bear the titles Babalawo and Iyanifa respectively. Priests and priestesses of the varied Orisha, when not already bearing the higher ranked oracular titles mentioned above, are referred to as babalorisa when male and iyalorisa when female. Initiates are also given an Orisa or Ifá name that signifies under which deity they are initiated; for example a priestess of Oshun may be named Osunyemi and a priest of Ifá may be named Ifáyemi.

Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrian priests in India are required to be male. However, women have been ordained in Iran and North America as mobedyars, meaning women mobeds (Zoroastrian priests). In 2011 the Tehran Mobeds Anjuman (Anjoman-e-Mobedan) announced that for the first time in Iran and of the Zoroastrian communities worldwide, women had joined the group of mobeds (priests) in Iran as mobedyars (women priests); the women hold official certificates and can perform the lower-rung religious functions including initiating people into the religion.

See also

 Buddhist feminism
 Christian views of women
 Christian feminism
 Deaconess
 Feminist theology
 Islamic feminism
 Jewish feminism
 List of ordained Christian women
 List of the first 32 women ordained as Church of England priests
 List of the first women ordained as priests in the Anglican Church of Australia in 1992
 Mormon feminism
 Ordination of women in Protestant denominations
 Timeline of women hazzans in America
 Timeline of women hazzans
Timeline of women in religion
 Timeline of women in religion in the United States
 Timeline of women rabbis in America
 Timeline of women rabbis
 Women as imams
 Women as theological figures
 Women in the Bible
 Women in Judaism
 Women rabbis

Notes

References

Further reading
 Canon Law Society of America. The Canonical Implications of Ordaining Women to the Permanent Diaconate, 1995. .
 Davies, J. G. "Deacons, Deaconesses, and Minor Orders in the Patristic Period," Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 1963, v. 14, p. 1-23.
 Elsen, Ute E. Women Officeholders in Early Christianity: Epigraphical and Literary Studies, Liturgical Press, 2000. .

 Grudem, Wayne. Evangelical Feminism and Biblical Truth: An Analysis of Over 100 Disputed Questions, Multnomah Press, 2004. 1-57673-840-X.
 Gryson, Roger. The Ministry of Women in the Early Church, Liturgical Press, 1976. . Translation of: Le ministère des femmes dans l'Église ancienne, J. Duculot, 1972.
 LaPorte, Jean. The Role of Women in Early Christianity, Edwin Mellen Press, 1982. .
 Madigan, Kevin, and Carolyn Osiek. Ordained Women in the Early Church: A Documentary History, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. .
 Martimort, Aimé Georges, Deaconesses: An Historical Study, Ignatius Press, 1986, . Translation of: Les Diaconesses: Essai Historique, Edizioni Liturgiche, 1982.
  McGrath, Elsie Hainz (Editor), Meehan, Bridget Mary (Editor), and Raming, Ida (Editor). Women Find a Way: The Movement and Stories of Roman Catholic Womenpriests, Virtualbookworm.com Publishing, 2008. .
 Miller, Patricia Cox. Women in Early Christianity: Translations from Greek Texts, Catholic University America Press, 2005. .
 Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889–1985, Beacon Press, 1998. .
 Sered, Susan. Women of the Sacred Groves: Divine Priestesses of Okinawa, Oxford University Press, 1999. .
 Spaeth, Barbette Stanley. The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996.
 Tisdale, Sallie. Women of the Way: Discovering 2,500 Years of Buddhist Wisdom, HarperOne, 2006.
 Weaver, Mary Jo. New Catholic Women, Harper and Row, 1985, 1986. .
 Wijngaards, John, The Ordination of Women in the Catholic Church. Unmasking a Cuckoo's Egg Tradition, Darton, Longman & Todd, 2001. ; Continuum, New York, 2001. .
 Wijngaards, John. Women Deacons in the Early Church: Historical Texts and Contemporary Debates, Herder & Herder, 2002, 2006. .**NO WOMEN IN HOLY ORDERS? The women deacons of the Early Church
 Winter, Miriam. Out of the Depths: The Story of Ludmila Javorova, Ordained Roman Catholic Priest, Crossroad General Interest, 2001. .
 Zagano, Phyllis. Holy Saturday: An Argument for the Restoration of the Female Diaconate in the Catholic Church, Herder & Herder, 2000. .
 Zagano, Phyllis. "Catholic Women Deacons: Present Tense,"  Worship 77:5 (September 2003) 386–408.

Priestesses
Women's rights in religious movements

Ordination of women


An Lithachne humilis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Thomas Robert Soderstrom. An Lithachne humilis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Lithachne, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Lithachne

Lithachne humilis


Marcos Aoás Corrêa () cunoscut sub numele de "Marquinhos", este un fotbalist brazilian. Este apărător central, dar poate juca, de asemenea, ca lateral de bandă dreaptă. În prezent joacă pentru Paris Saint-Germain din Ligue 1 din Franța. El are 3 copii, Maria Eduarda Cabrino Corrêa, Enrico Cabrino Corrêa și Martina Cabrino Corrêa.

Echipa națională
Pe octombrie 25, 2013, Marquinhos a primit prima sa chemare la Echipa Națională a Braziliei de Luiz Felipe Scolari, pentru a juca meciuri amicale împotriva lui Honduras și Chile în luna noiembrie a aceluiași an.

Cluburi

Palmares

Campionatele naționale

Campionate internaționale

Cluburi

Echipa națională

Referințe

Nașteri în 1994
Fotbaliști brazilieni
Fotbaliști ai lui AS Roma
Fotbaliști ai Paris Saint-Germain FC
Oameni din São Paulo
Fotbaliști internaționali brazilieni
Fotbaliști ai Campionatului Mondial de Fotbal 2018
Fotbaliști la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016

Marcos Aoás Corrêa


Scleria er en slægt i halvgræs-familien (Cyperaceae). Scleria forekommer overalt i troperne, og hist og her også i subtropisk og tempereret klima. Der er ca. 200 arter..

Slægtsnavnet Scleria er græsk og betyder "hårdt" - en henvisning til de hårde frø.

De forskellige arter er meget forskellige. De er oftest flerårige, men nogen er kun et-årige. Nogen har jordstængler. Stråene kan vokse enkeltvis eller i tuer. Fra få centimere høje til pænt over en meter. Få eller mange blade. Også blomsterstanden varierer fra et enkelt aks mange i et bundt.

Se også
 Scleria annularis

Kilder

Halvgræs-familien

Scleria


Normoblast (veya eritroblast) hâlâ hücre çekirdeği barındıran bir alyuvar (eritrosit) tipi. Normal bir eritrositin anlık öncülüdür.

Bir normoblastın gelişimi dört evreye ayrılır: Pronormoblast, Bazofilik normoblast, Polikromatik (veya polikromatofilik) normoblast, Ortokromatik (veya ortokromatofilik) normoblast.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Eritropoiez
 Hematopoiez
 Pluripotent hemopoetik hücre

Kan hücreleri

Normoblast


Le 1,2-bis(dichlorophosphino)éthane est un chlorure organophosphoré de formule chimique . C'est un liquide incolore précurseur de diphosphines chélatrices.

On l'obtient en faisant réagir de l'éthylène , du phosphore blanc et du trichlorure de phosphore  :
3  +   + 4  ⟶ 3 .

Il réagit avec les réactifs de Grignard et les amines secondaires pour donner des ligands chélateurs. On l'utilise par exemple avec l'iodure de méthylmagnésium  pour produire le DMPE :
 + 4  ⟶  + 4 MgICl.

Notes et références

Bisphosphane
Chlorure

1,2-Bis(dichlorophosphino)éthane


بالعربي سندريلا  هو فيلم مصري من إنتاج 2006 من تاليف محمد القواتشي وإخراج كريم ضياء الدين، ويحكي حكاية سندريلا ولكن بمفهوم عصري يناسب الواقع المصري.

ملخص الأحداث
تدور أحداث الفيلم في إطار اجتماعي كوميدي، حول فتاة رقيقة حالمة تعمل لبيسة بإحدى الفرق المسرحية، يقع في غرامها مخرج الفرقة وابن صاحب الفرقة، يرى فيها المخرج صورة عصرية من سندريلا، بسبب حياتها الصعبة شبيهة بالفعل بحياة سندريلا، حيث تعاملها زوجة أبيها بقسوة شديدة وتفضل عليها بناتها في كل شئ، تتيقن هذه الفتاة في النهاية أن الحياة على الرغم من قسوتها إلا أنها مليئة بأشياء جميلة.

الشخصيات
 ريهام عبد الغفور.
 بوسي سمير.
 أحمد هارون.
 حسن حسني.
 نشوى مصطفى.
 هالة فاخر.
 عمرو مهدي.
 شمس.
 ميمي جمال.
 عبد الله مشرف.
 علي ماهر.

روابط خارجية

المصادر

 صفحة الفيلم على موقع ماشى

أفلام حسن حسني
أفلام مصرية إنتاج 2006
أفلام ريهام عبد الغفور
أفلام هالة فاخر
أفلام ميمي جمال
أفلام عبد الله مشرف
أفلام نشوى مصطفى

بالعربي سندريلا (فيلم)


The Strange Door este un film de groază britanic din 1951 regizat de Joseph Pevney. Rolurile principale sunt interpretate de actorii Charles Laughton și Boris Karloff.

Distribuție
 Charles Laughton
 Boris Karloff
 Sally Forrest
 Richard Stapley
 Alan Napier
 Norgan Farley
 Paul Cavanagh
 Michael Pate

Filme din 1951
Filme în limba engleză
Filme americane
Filme de groază din anii 1950
Filme bazate pe lucrările lui Robert Louis Stevenson
Filme Universal Pictures
Filme horror americane
Filme de groază
Filme cu acțiunea în Franța

The Strange Door


තාරකාවක් යනු, එහි  ගුරුත්වය විසින්ම බැඳ තබා ගන්නාවූ දීප්ත ප්ලාස්මා ගෝලයකි. තරුවක ආයු කාලය අවසානයේ එය තුල පිරිහුණු පදාර්ථ ප්‍රමාණයක්ද අඩංගු වේ. පෘථිවියට ළඟම තාරකාව සූර්යයා වන අතර පෘථිවිය මත ඇති ශක්තියෙන් බොහෝ ප්‍රමාණයක මූලාශ්‍රය වනුයේ සූර්යයාය. අනෙකුත් තාරකා රාත්‍රි කාලයේදී පෘථිවියට දර්ශනය වන අතර සූර්යයා වඩා දීප්තියෙන් නොබබළන අවස්ථාවන්හිදී හෝ වායුගෝලීය සංසිද්ධි වලින් අවහිර නොවූ අවස්ථාවන්හිදී අචල දීප්තිමත් ලක්ෂ්‍ය සමූහයක් ලෙස බොහෝ විට දැක ගත හැක. ඉතිහාසයෙහි අහසේ වඩා හොඳින් මතු වී පෙනුනු තාරකා එකට එකතු කොට තාරකා රාශි සහ තාරකා මණ්ඩල වශයෙන් හඳුනාගත් අතර වඩාත්ම දීප්තිමත් තාරකා සුදුසු ලෙස නම් කරනු ලැබීය. තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයින් විසින් සකස් කරන ලද සවිස්තර තාරකාවන්ගේ නාමාවලිය සම්මත වූ තාරකාවන්ගේ තත්වයන් පිළිබඳ විස්තර අඩංගු වේ.

අවම වශයෙන් තරුවක ආයු කාලයෙහි එක් කොටසකදී හෝ එහි මධ්‍යයේ පවතින හයිඩ්‍රජන්, තාපන්‍යෂ්ටික විලයනයෙන් මුදා හරින ශක්තිය තරුවෙහි අභ්‍යන්තරය හරහා ගමන් කර පිටත අවකාශයට නිකුත් කිරීම නිසා එහි දීප්තිය විහිදීම සිදු වේ. තාරකාවක ජීවිත කාලය තුල සිදුවන තාරීය න්‍යෂ්ටිකසංස්ලේශණය හෝ තාරකා පිපිරීමට ලක් වන අවස්ථාවේදී සිදුවන අද්භූත තාරකා න්‍යෂ්ටිකසංස්ලේශණය මගින් ස්වභාවිකව පවතින හීලියම් වලට වඩා බරින් වැඩි මූලද්‍රව්‍ය සියල්ලක්ම පාහේ නිර්මාණය වීම සිදු වේ. තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් හට තාරකාවක වර්ණාවලිය, දීප්තිය සහ අභ්‍යවකාශය තුලින් චලිතය නිරීක්ෂණය කිරීම මගින් තාරකාවක ස්කන්ධය, වයස, රසයනික සංයෝජනය සහ තවත් අනෙකුත් ගුණාංග නිර්ණය කර ගත හැක. තාරකාවක සම්පූර්ණ ස්කන්ධය එහි පරිණාමයෙහි හා අවසාන ඉරණමෙහි ප්‍රධානතම නිර්ණායකය වේ. පරිණාමීය ඉතිහාසය, විශ්කම්භය, පරිභ්‍රමණය, සංචලනය සහ උෂ්ණත්වය මගින් තාරකාවක අනෙකුත් ලක්ෂණ නිර්ණය කරනු ලබයි. බොහෝ තාරකා වල උෂ්ණත්වය, එහි දීප්තියට එදිරිව අඳින ලද ප්‍රස්තාරය, හර්ට්ස්ප්‍රන්ග් - රසල් ප්‍රස්තාරය (H - R ප්‍රස්තාරය) ලෙස හඳුන්වන අතර එය තාරකාවක වයස සහ පරිණාමීය තත්වය නිර්ණය කිරීමට උපකාරී වේ.

මූලික වශයෙන් හීලියම් සමග හයිඩ්‍රජන් සහ බරින් වැඩි මූලද්‍රව්‍ය) සුලු ප්‍රමාණ වලින් සෑදුනු බිඳ වැටෙන ද්‍රව්‍යමය වළාකුලක් ලෙස තාරකාවක ආරම්භය සිදුවේ. තාරකා මධ්‍යය අවශ්‍ය පමණට ඝන වූ පසු න්‍යෂ්ටික විලයන ක්‍රියාවලිය මගින් හයිඩ්‍රජන් වලින් කොටසක් හීලියම් බවට ක්‍රමයෙන් පරිවර්තනය වේ. තාරකාවෙහි අභ්‍යන්තරයෙහි අවශේෂ ශක්තිය විකිරණශීලී සහ සංවාහී ක්‍රියාවලි වල සංයෝජනයක් ලෙස එහි මධ්‍යයෙන් ඉවතට ගෙන යනු ලබයි. තාරකාවෙහි අභ්‍යන්තර පීඩනය එය තවදුරටත් එහි ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණය යටතේ බිඳ වැටීමෙන් වලකනු ලබයි. තාරකාවක හරයෙහි ඇති හයිඩ්රජන් ඉන්ධන අඩපණ වූ පසු, එම තාරකා වල ස්කන්ධය අවම වශයෙන් සූර්යයාගේ ස්කන්ධයෙන් 0.4ගුණයක් වන අතර රතු යෝධයකු බවට පත් වීමට ප්‍රසාරණය වීම සිදු වේ. තවද ඇතැම් අවස්ථාවලදී බරින් වැඩි මූලද්‍රව්‍ය තාරකාවෙහි හරයෙහි හෝ හරය අවට ඇති කවච වලදී විලයනය වීම සිදු වේ. පසුව තාරකාව පිරිහුනු තත්වයකට පත් වන අතර පදාර්ථයෙන් කොටසක් තාරකා අතර පවත්නා පරිසරය බවට ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණය කර වැඩි ප්‍රමාණයක් බරින් වැඩි මූලද්‍රව්‍ය වලින් සමන්විත තාරකා නව පරම්පරාවක් ඇති කරනු ලබයි.

යුගල සහ බහු තාරකා පද්ධති ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ බලයෙන් බැඳුනු තාරකා දෙකකින් හෝ වැඩි ප්‍රමාණයකින් සමන්විත වන අතර ඒවා එකිනෙක වටා ස්ථායි කක්ෂ වල චලනය වීම සිදු වේ.එවැනි තාරකා දෙකකට සාපේක්ෂ වශයෙන් සමීප කක්ෂ ඇති විට ඒවායේ ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ අන්තර් ක්‍රියාව ඒවායේ පරිණාමය කෙරෙහි සැලකිය යුතු බලපෑමක් ඇති කළ හැකිය. තාරකා වලට පොකුරු හෝ මන්දාකිණි වැනි තරමක් විශාල ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ බන්ධන ආකෘතිද පිහිටවා ගත හැකිය.

නිරීක්ෂණ ඉතිහාසය

ඓතිහාසිකව, ලොව පුරා ශිෂ්ටාචාර වලට තාරකා වැදගත් වී ඇත.ඒවා ආගමික සිරිත් වල කොටසක් ලෙස පැවති අතර දිශානතිය දැක්වීම සඳහාද භාවිතා කෙරිණි. බොහෝ අතීත තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් තාරකා ස්ථිරව දිව්‍යමය ප්‍රදේශයකට සම්බන්ධ වී ඇති බව සහ ඒවා වෙනස් කළ නොහැකි බව විශ්වාස කළෝය. පොදු සම්මතයකට අනුකූලව තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් විසින් තාරකා , තාරකා මණ්ඩල වලට කාණ්ඩ කල අතර ඒවා ග්‍රහලෝක වල චලිතය සහ සූර්යයාගේ අධ්‍යාහාර පිහිටීම හඳුනා ගැනීමට භාවිත කළෝය. පසුබිම් තාරකා වලට එදිරිව සූර්යයාගේ චලිතය දින දර්ශණ නිර්මාණය කිරීම සඳහා යොදා ගත් අතර කෘෂිකාර්මික කටයුතු පාලනය සඳහාද එය භාවිතා කෙරිණි. වර්තමානයේ ලෝකයේ සෑම තැනකම පාහේ භාවිතා වන ජෝර්ජියානු දින දර්ශණය, සූර්ය දින දර්ශණයක් වන අතර සූර්යයාට සාපේක්ෂව පෘථිවියෙහි භ්‍රමණ අක්ෂයේ ආනතිය මත පදනම් වී ඇත.

පැරණිතම නිවැරදි ලෙස දාතම දරණ තරු සිතියම ක්‍රි.පූ.1534 හි ඊජිප්තියානු තාරකා ශාස්ත්‍රයෙහි සඳහන් වේ. පැරණිතම තාරකා නාමාවලිය ක්‍රි.පූ. දෙවන සහශ්‍රයෙහි මෙසපොතේමියාවේ විසූ පුරාණ බැබිලෝනියානු තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් විසින් සම්පාදනය කරන ලද්දකි.

ග්‍රීක තාරකා ශාස්ත්‍රයෙහි ප්‍රථම තාරකා නාමාවලිය, ආසන්න වශයෙන් ක්‍රි.පූ.300 දී ටිමෝකරිස්ගේ සහයෝගයෙන් ඇරිස්ටිලස් විසින් නිර්මාණය කරන ලද්දකි. හිපාර්චස්ගේ තාරකා නාමාවලියෙහි තාරකා 1200 අඩංගු වන අතර ටොලෙමිගේ තාරකා නාමාවලිය සකස් කිරීමට භාවිතා කරන ලදී. පළමු වාර්තාගත නෝවාව හිපාර්චස් විසින් සොයා ගන්නා ලදී. වර්තමානයේ භාවිතා වන බොහෝ තාරකා මණ්ඩලවල සහ තාරකාවල නාමයන් ග්‍රීක තාරකා විද්‍යාවෙන් පැවත ගෙන එන ඒවාය.

අහසෙහි නොවෙනස් ස්වභාවයක් පෙනෙන්නට තිබියදී පවා චීන තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් නව තාරකා ඇති විය හැකි යැයි අවදානයෙන් සිටියෝය. ක්‍රි.ව.185 දී අද්භූත තාරකා පිළිබඳ අධ්‍යනය කිරීමට හා රචනා කිරීමට මූලික වූයේ ඔවුන් වන අතර වර්තමානයේ SN185 ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලබයි. වාර්තාගත ඉතිහාසයෙහි තාරකා සම්බන්ධව හොඳන්ම කැපී පෙනුනු අංගය වූයේ SN1006 අද්භූත තාරකාව වන අතර 1006 දී ඊජිප්තියානු තාරකා විද්‍යාඥ අල් ඉබ්න් රිඩ්වාන් සහ තවත් චීන තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් කිහිප දෙනෙකු විසින් එය අධ්‍යනය කිරීම සහ එය පිළිබඳ රචනා කිරීම සිදු කරන ලදී.කකුළු නිහාරිකාවකට උපත දුන්, SN1054 අද්භූත තාරකාවද අධ්‍යනය කරන ලද්දේ චීන සහ ඉස්ලාමීය තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් විසිනි.

මධ්‍යකාලීන තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් විසින් බොහෝ තාරකා සඳහා අරාබි නාමයන් ලබා දුන් අතර ඒවා අදටත් භාවිතයෙහි පවතී. තවද ඔවුන් විසින් තාරකා වල ස්ථානයන් ගණනය කල හැකි තාරකා විද්‍යාත්මක උපකරණ බොහෝමයක් නිපදවන ලදී. සිජ් තාරකා නාමාවලි නිෂ්පාදනය සඳහා ප්‍රථම විශාල නිරීක්ෂණ මධ්‍යස්ථානයද ඔවුන් විසින් ගොඩ නගන ලදී. මේවා අතරින් ස්ථාවර තාරකා පිළිබඳ ග්‍රන්ථය රචනා කරන ලද්දේ තාරකා, තරු පොකුරු(ඔමක්රෝගන් වෙලෝරම් බ්රොකීගේ පොකුරු ඇතුළුව), සහ මන්දාකිණි(ඇන්ඩ්රොමීඩා චක්‍රාවාටය) ඇතුළුව විශාල ප්‍රමාණයක් සොයා ගන්නා ලද පර්සියානු තාරකා විද්‍යාඥ අබ්ඩ් අල්-රාහ්මන් අල්-සුෆි විසිනි. 11 වන සියවසේදී අබු රේහන් බිරුනි නැමැති පර්සියානු ජාතික බහුශාස්ත්‍රඥ විද්වතා විසින්, කිරිසයුර චක්‍රාවාටය, වළාකුල් වැනි තාරකා වල ලක්ෂණ සහිත කැබලි රාශියක් ලෙස විස්තර කල අතර, තවද 1019 දී චන්ද්‍රග්‍රහණය අතරතුර විවිධ තාරකා වල අක්ශාංශ පිළිබඳවද සඳහන් කරන ලදී.

කිරි සයුර සෑදී ඇත්තේ බොහෝ තාරකා සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම පාහේ එකිනෙක ස්පර්ශ වීමෙන් බවත්,උපචන්ද්‍රීය ද්‍රව්‍ය වලින් වර්තනය නිසා ඇතිවන අඛණ්ඩ ප්‍රතිබිම්භයක් ලෙස දර්ශණය වන බවත් අන්දාලුසියානු තාරකා විද්‍යාඥ ඉබ්න් බජ්ජාහ් විසින් යෝජනා කල අතර ඔහුගේ බ්‍රහස්පති සහ අඟහරු අතර සම්බන්ධය නිරීක්ශණය සාක්ෂියක් ලෙස උපුටා දක්වයි.

ටයිකෝ බ්‍රාහි වැනි ආදී යුරෝපියානු තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් විසින් රාත්‍රී අහසෙහි අලුත් තාරකා හඳුනාගත් අතර ආකාශයන් නොවෙනස්ව පවතින බවද ඉදිරිපත් කළේය. ආදී ග්‍රීක දාර්ශණිකයන් වන ඩිමොක්‍රිටස්, එපිකරස් සහ ෆකර් අල්-දින් අල් -රාzසි වැනි මධ්‍යකාලීන ඉස්ලාමීය විශ්වන්‍යායික වේදීන් විසින් ඉදිරිපත් කරන ලද අදහස,තාරකා සූර්යයා මෙන් බවත් ඒවා වටා ඇති කක්ශයන්ගේ පෘථිවිය වැනි තවත් ග්‍රහ ලෝක පැවතිය හැකි බවත්,1954 දී ජියෝ බෘනෝ විසින් ඉදිරිපත් කරන ලදී. මීළඟ සියවසේ සිට තාරකා වල පැවත්ම සූර්යයාගේ වැනි යැයි යන අදහසට තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් එකඟතාවයකට පැමිණියෝය. මෙම තාරකා සෞරග්‍රහ මණ්ඩලය මත ශුද්ධ ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ බලපෑමක් ඇති නොකරන්නේ ඇයිද යන්න පැහැදිලි කිරීමට,තාරකා සෑම දිශාවකටම සමානව පැතිරී ඇතැයි යන්න අයිසැක් නිව්ටන් විසින් ඉදිරිපත් කළ අතර එය රිචඩ් බෙන්ට්ලි නැමැති දේවධර්මධරයාට හටගත් අදහසක් විය.

සමීපව පිහිටි අචල තරු යුගලයක යථා චලිතයෙහි ප්‍රථම මිනුම් එඩ්මන්ඩ් හැලේ ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කළ අතර ටොලමි සහ හිපාර්චස් යන ග්‍රීක තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන්ගේ කාලයේ සිට ඔවුන්ගේ ස්ථානයන් වෙනස් වී ඇති බවත් නිරූපණය කරන ලදී.අසම්පාත මිනුම්, අහසෙහි තාරකා වල අති විශාල වශයෙන් සිදුවන ඈත් වීම නිරූපණය කළේය.

අහසෙහි තාරකාවල ව්‍යාප්තිය නිර්ණය කිරීමට උත්සහා කළ ප්‍රථම තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයා වූයේ විලියම් හර්ෂල්ය. ඔහු විසින් 1780 ගණන් වලදී දිශා 600කට පරිමාණ මාලාවක් පවත්වන ලද අතර දර්ශණ පථයෙහි සෑම රේඛාවකම නිරීක්ෂණය වන තරු ගණනය කිරීම සිදු කරන ලදී. මෙය මගින් ඔහු, කිරි සයුරෙහි මධ්‍යය දෙසට, අහසෙහි එක් දිශාවකට ක්‍රමයෙන් වැඩි වන තාරකා සංඛ්‍යාව අපෝහනය කළේය. ඔහුගේ පුතා වන ජෝන් හර්ෂල්, ඔහුගේ මෙම අධ්‍යනයන් දකුණු අර්ධ ගෝලයෙහි නැවත සිදු කළ අතර, එම දිශාවටම අනුරූපී වැඩි වීමක් සොයා ගන්නා ලදී. ඔහුගේ අනෙක් කෞෂල්‍යන් වලට අමතරව,සමහර තාරකා දර්ශණ පථයෙහි හුදෙක් එකම රේඛාවෙහි නොපිහිටන බවද යුගල තාරකා පද්ධති සාදන භෞතික සහයකයන් සොයා ගැනීම සඳහාද විලියම් හර්ෂල් අවදානයට ලක් විය.

ජෝසප් හොන් ෆ්‍රවුන්හොෆර් සහ ඇන්ජෙලෝ සෙචී තාරීය වර්ණාවලි පිළිබඳ විද්‍යාවෙහි පුරෝගාමී වූහ. ඔවුන් සිරියස් සිට සූර්යයා දක්වා තාරකා වර්ණාවලි සංසන්දනයෙන්,ශක්තියෙහි සහ අවශෝෂණ රේඛාවන්ගේ- වායුගෝලය මගින් නිශ්චිත සංඛ්‍යාතයන් අවශෝෂණය නිසා ඇති වන තාරීය වර්ණාවලි වල අඳුරු රේඛාවන්ගේ වෙනස්කම් සොයාගත්තෝය.1985 දී තරු වර්ණාවලි වර්ග වලට කාණ්ඩ කිරීම සෙචී විසින් සිදු කරන ලද්දේය. කෙසේ වුවත්, තාරීය වර්ගීකරණ ක්‍රමයෙහි නවීන සංස්කරණය වැඩි දියුණු කරන ලද්දේ ඇනී ජේ. කැනොන් විසින් 1900 ගණන් අතරතුරදීය.

ද්විත්ව තරු නිරීක්ෂණය 19 වන සියවස අතරතුරදී වර්ධනයවන වැදගත්කමක් ලබා ගත්තේය.1834 දී ෆෙඩ්‍රික් බෙසල් විසින් සිරියස් තාරකාවෙහි යථා චලිතයෙහි සිදුවන වෙනස්කම් නිරීක්ෂණය කළ අතර සැඟවුණු සහයකයා අනුමාන කළේය. 1899 දී දින 104ක කාල සීමාවක් තුල මිzසාර් තාරකාවෙහි වර්ණාවලි රේඛාවල ආවර්තික විභේදනය නිරීක්ෂණය කරන අවස්ථාවේදී එඩ්වර්ඩ් පිකරින් විසින් ප්‍රථම වර්ණාවලීක්ෂ යුගලය සොයාගත්තේය. බොහෝ යුගල තාරකා පද්ධතිවල සවිස්තර නිරීක්ෂණ විලියම් ස්ටෲව් සහ එස්.ඩබ්. බර්න්හැම් වැනි තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයන් විසින් එකතු කරන ලද අතර කාක්ෂික අංගයන්ගේ ගණනයෙන් තාරකාවන්ගේ ස්කන්ධයන් නිර්ණය කිරීමට ඉඩ ලබා දෙන ලදී. 1827දී ෆීලික්ස් සේවරි විසින් දුරේක්ෂ නිරීක්ෂණ වලින්, යුගල තාරකා වල කාක්ෂික ආරම්භය පිළිබඳ ගැටලුවට ප්‍රථම විසඳුම නිර්මාණය කරන ලදී.

20 වන සියවසේදී තරු පිළිබඳ විද්‍යාත්මක අධ්‍යනයේ වර්ධනය වන ශීඝ්‍ර ප්‍රගමනයක් දක්නට ලැබිණි. ඡායාරූප වටිනා තාරකා විද්‍යාත්මක උපකරණයක් බවට පත් විය.කාර්ල් ස්ක්වාස්චයිල්ඩ් තරුවක වර්ණයද එම නිසා එහි උෂ්ණත්වයද සොයාගත් අතර, ඡායාරූපී විශාලත්වය දෘශ්‍ය විශාලත්වයට එදිරිව සංසංදනයෙන් එය නිර්ණය කරගත හැකි විය. තරංග ආයාම ප්‍රාන්තර කිහිපයක විශාලත්වයෙහි ඉතා නිවැරදි මිනුම් ලබා ගැනීමට ප්‍රකාශවිද්‍යුත් ප්‍රකාශමානයෙහි වර්ධනය ඉඩ ප්‍රස්ථාව ලබා දෙන ලදී. 1921 දී ඇල්බර්ට් ඒ. මයිකල්සන් විසින් හූකර් දුරේක්ශයෙහි නිරෝධමානය උපයෝගී කරගෙන තාරීය විශ්කම්භයෙහි මිනුම් ප්‍රථම වරට නිර්මාණය කරන ලදී.

තාරකාවල භෞතික පදනම මත, වැදගත් සංකල්පිත කාර්යයක් 20 වන සියවසේ මුල් දශක තුලදී සිදු විය.1913දී හර්ට්ස්ප්‍රන්ග් රසල් ප්‍රස්ථාරය සංවර්ධනය වූ අතර තාරකාභෞතික විද්‍යාත්මක අධ්‍යනය වේගයෙන් ඉදිරියට ගෙන යන ලදී. තාරීය විකසනය සහ තරු වල අභ්‍යන්තරය පැහැදිලි කිරීමට සාර්ථක ආකෘති සංවර්ධනය විය. තාරකා වල වර්ණාවලිද, ක්වොන්ටම් භෞතික විද්‍යාවේ ප්‍රගතිය හරහා සාර්ථකව පැහැදිලි කළ හැකි විය. මෙය තාරීය වායුගෝලයේ රසායනික සංයුතිය නිර්ණය කිරීමට අවස්ථාව සලසාදේ.

අද්භූත තාරකාව හැර, අපගේ ප්‍රාදේශීය මන්දාකිණි කාණ්ඩය තුලද,තවද විශේෂයෙන් කිරි සයුරෙහි දෘශ්‍ය කොටසෙහිද තනි තනි තාරකා මූලික වශයෙන් නිරීක්ෂණය ලදී. සමහර තාරකා, පෘථිවියෙන් ආලෝක වර්ශ මිලියන සියයක් පමණ ඈතින් පිහිටි වර්ගෝ වලාවෙහි මන්දාකිණි 100ක් තුල නිරීක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. ප්‍රාදේශීය සුපිරි වලාව තුල තාරකා වලාවන් දැකිය හැකි අතර ප්‍රාදේශීය වලාව තුල දීප්තියෙන් හීන තනි තනි තාරකා වර්තමාන දුරේක්ශ මගින් මූලිකව නිරීක්ෂණය කළ හැක. ආලෝක වර්ෂ මිලියන සිය ගණනක් ඈතින් වනතුරු වඩාත්ම ඈතින් පිහිටි තාරකා නිශ්චය කරන ලදී. කෙසේ වුවත්, මන්දාකිණි වල ප්‍රාදේශීය සුපිරිවලාවන්ට එපිටින් තනි තනි තරු හෝ තරු වලාවන් නිරීක්ෂණය කර නොමැත. එකම අත් හැර දමන ලද්ද වනුයේ ආලෝක වර්ශ බිලියනයක් ඈතින් පිහිටි තාරකා සිය දහස් ගණනක් අඩංගු විශාල තාරකා වලාවක දීප්තියෙන් අඩු ප්‍රතිබිම්භයයි. - කලින් නිරීක්ෂණය කරන ලද වඩාත්ම ඈතින් පිහිටි තාරකා වලාවට ඇති දුර ප්‍රමාණය මෙන් දස ගුණයක්

පදවි නාමයන්
තාරකා මණ්ඩල පිළිබඳ සංකල්පය බැබිලෝනියානු කාලසීමාවෙහි සිට පැවත එන ලද්දක් ලෙස පැහැදිලිය. පුරාණ ආකාශ නිරීක්ෂකයන් රටාවන් නිර්මාණය කරන විශිෂ්ට තරු සැකසුම් සංකල්පනය කරන ලද අතර,ඔවුන් මේවා ස්වභාදහමෙහි විශේෂ ලක්ෂණ සමග හෝ ඔවුන්ගේ පුරාවෘත්ත සමග සම්බන්ධ කළෝය. මෙවැනි සැකසුම් වලින් දොළහක් සූර්යයාගේ ගමන් පථය දිගේ පිහිටන අතර මේවා නක්ෂත්‍ර විද්‍යාවෙහි මූලික පදනම විය.
වඩාත් ඉස් මතු වී පෙනෙන තනිව පිහිටන තාරකා වලින් බොහෝමයකට, විශේෂයෙන් අරාබි හෝ ලතින් පදවි නාමයන් සමග නම් ලබා දෙන ලදී.

ඇතැම් තාරකා මණ්ඩල සහ සූර්යයා මෙන්ම තාරකා සියල්ලම එකට ගත් කල ඒවාටම සුවිශේෂ වූ පුරාවෘත්ත පවතී. ආදී ග්‍රීකයන්ට, ඇතැම් තාරකා, ග්‍රහලෝක(ග්‍රීක πλανήτης (planētēs), "සංචාරකයා" යන අර්ථය ), මෙන් හඳුනාගෙන සිටි අතර, විවිධ වැදගත් දෙවියන් නියෝජනය කිරීම සඳහා බුධ,සිකුරු,අඟහරු, බ්‍රහස්පති සහ සෙනසුරු වැනි ග්‍රහලෝක වල නම් යොදා ගැනිනි. ( යුරේනස් සහ නෙප්චූන්ද ග්‍රීක සහ රෝම දෙවිවරු වනමුත් මෙම ග්‍රහලෝක වල අඩු දීප්තතාව නිසා, මේවා පුරාතන යුගයේදී දැන සිටියේ නැත. ඔවුන්ගේ නම් යොදන ලද්දේ පසුකාලීන තාරකාවිද්‍යාඥයන් විසිනි. )

ආසන්න වශයෙන් 1600 දී, තාරකා මණ්ඩල වල නම්, අහසෙහි අනුරූප ප්‍රදේශ වල තාරකා නම් කිරීම සඳහා යොදා ගැනිනි. ජර්මානු තාරකා විද්‍යාඥ ජොහෑන් බේයර් තරු සිතියම් මාලාවක් නිර්මාණය කළ අතර එක් එක් තාරකා මණ්ඩලවල තරුවල තරාතිරම් ලෙස ග්‍රීක අකුරු භාවිතා කරන ලදී. පසුව තරුවල දකුණට ආරෝහණය පාදක කරගනිමින් අංක ක්‍රමයක් නිර්මාණය කරන ලද අතර ජෝන් ෆ්ලැම්ස්ටීඩ්ගේ "Historia coelestis Britannica" ( 1712 වැනි මුද්‍රණය ) නැමැති ග්‍රන්ථයේ තරු නාමාවලියටද ඇතුලත් කරන ලදී. එමගින් මෙම අංක ක්‍රමය ෆ්ලැම්ස්ටීඩ් පදවිය හෝ ෆ්ලැම්ස්ටීඩ් අංකකරණය ලෙස හඳුන්වනලදී.

අභ්‍යාවකාශ නීතිය යටතේ, අභ්‍යාවකාශ සංවිධාන නාමකරණය සඳහා ඇති අන්තර්ජාතික වශයෙන් පිළිගත් එකම අධිකාරිය වන්නේ අන්තර්ජාතික තාරකා විද්‍යාත්මක සහයෝගීතාව(IAU )යි.
පෞද්ගලික ආයතන ගණනාවක් තරුවල නම් විකිණීමේ යෙදී සිටින අතර බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය පුස්තකාලය විසින් ලියාපදිංචි නොකළ වෙළඳ සමාගම් ලෙස ඒවා හඳුන්වනු ලබයි. කෙසේවුවත්, IAU ආයතනය මෙවැනි වාණිජමය ක්‍රියා වලින් ඈත්වී සිටින අතර මෙම නම් පිළිගැනීම හෝ භාවිතා කිරීමද සිදු නොකරයි. එවැනි තරු නම් කිරීම සිදු කරනු ලබන ආයතනයක් ලෙස අන්තර්ජාතික තාරකා ලියාපදිංචි කාර්යාලය (ISR) හැඳින්විය හැකි අතර, එය 1980 ගණන් වලදී,යොදන ලද නාමය කූට ක්‍රියාවක් මගින් නිල ලෙස ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කිරීම සම්බන්ධයෙන් චෝදනා ලැබීය. මෙම වර්තමානයේ අත්හිටුවා තිබෙන අන්තර්ජාතික තාරකා ලියාපදිංචි කාර්යාලයේ ක්‍රියාව වංචාවක් සහ ප්‍රෝඩාවක් ලෙස අවිධිමත් ලෙස නම් කළ අතර නිව්යෝර්ක් නගරයේ පාරිභෝගික කටයුතු දෙපාර්තමේන්තුව මගින් අන්තර්ජාතික තාරකා ලියාපදිංචි කාර්යාලයට විරුද්ධව වංචාකාරී වෙළඳ ක්‍රියාවක යෙදීම සම්බන්ධයෙන් උල්ලංඝනය කිරීමක් නිකුත් කරනලදී.

මිනුම් ඒකක
බොහෝ තරු සම්බන්ධ පරාමිතීන් සම්මත අන්තර්ජාතික ඒකක වලින් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කර ඇතිමුත්, සෙ.ග්‍රෑ.ත ඒකකද භාවිතා කෙරිණි ( උදා.දීප්තිය තත්පරයකට අර්ග වලින් ප්‍රකාශ කිරීම ). ස්කන්ධය, දීප්තිය සහ අරය සාමාන්‍යයෙන් සූර්ය ඒකක වලින් දෙන අතර ඒවා සූර්යයාගේ ලක්ෂණ පදනම් කරගෙන ඇත:

{|
|සූර්ය ස්කන්ධය:
| kg
|-
|සූර්ය දීප්තිය:
| watts
|-
|සූර්ය අරය:
| m
|}

යෝධ තරු වල අරයන් හෝ යුගල තරු පද්ධති වල අඩ-මහා අක්ෂය වැනි විශාල දිග ප්‍රමාණයන්,බොහෝවිට තාරකා විද්‍යාත්මක ඒකක (AU) වලින් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කර ඇත - ආසන්න වශයෙන් පොළව සහ සූර්යයා අතර මධ්‍යන්‍යය දුර ප්‍රමාණය (කි.මී. මිලියන 150 හෝ මයිල මිලියන 93).

නිර්මාණය සහ විකසනය

තරු නිර්මාණය වීම සිදුවන්නේ අන්තර් තාරීය මාධ්‍යයක ඉහළ ඝනත්වයක් ඇති විස්තීර්ණ වූ ප්‍රදේශ තුල වුවත්,ඝනමය රික්ත කුටියක අභ්‍යන්තරයට වඩා තවමත් ඝනත්වය අඩුය. මෙම ප්‍රදේශ අණුක වලාවන් ලෙස හඳුන්වන අතර වැඩි වශයෙන් හයිඩ්‍රජන් සමග හීලියම් 23 -    28% පමණ සහ සුළු ප්‍රතිශතයක් බරින් වැඩි මූලද්‍රව්‍යද අන්තර්ගතවේ. ඔරායන් නිහාරිකාව එවැනි තාරකා නිර්මාණයවන ප්‍රදේශයකට උදාහරණයකි. අතිවිශාල තාරකා අණුක වලාවලින් නිර්මාණය වන්නාසේ, ඒවා ප්‍රබල ලෙස එම වලාවන් දීප්තිමත් කරනු ලබයි. තවද ඒවා හයිඩ්‍රජන් අයනීකරණය කරන අතර H II ප්‍රදේශයක් නිර්මාණය කරනු ලබයි.

මූලතාරකා නිර්මාණය

තරුවක් නිර්මාණය වීම ආරම්භ වන්නේ අණුක වලාවක් තුල ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ අස්ථායිතාවක් ඇතිවීමත් සමග වන අතර බොහෝවිට අද්භූත තාරකා වලින් නිකුත්වන කම්පන තරංග වලින් (අති විශාල තාරීය පිපිරීම්) හෝ මන්දාකිණි දෙකක සංඝට්ටනය (තරුපිපුරුම් මන්දාකිණියක් තුල මෙන්) තුලින් ක්‍රියාරම්භය සිදු වේ. පදාර්ථයෙහි ඝනත්වය ජීන්ස් අස්ථායිතාව සඳහා නිර්ණායක තෘප්ත කිරීමට ප්‍රමාණවත් තරමට ප්‍රදේශය එළඹි පසු, එය තම ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ බලය නිසා බිඳවැටීමට පටන් ගනී.

වලාව බිඳවැටෙන විට, ඝන බවට පත් වූ දූවිලි සහ වායු වලින් සෑදුනු එක් එක් ගුළි, බොක් ගෝලිකාවන් ලෙස දැන සිටින දෙය නිර්මාණය කරනු ලබයි. ගෝලිකාව බිඳවැටෙන විට සහ ඝනත්වය ඉහළ යන විට, ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ ශක්තිය තාපය බවට පරිවර්තනය වන අතර උෂ්ණත්වය ඉහළයෑම සිදුවේ. මූලතාරීය වලාව ආසන්න වශයෙන් ද්‍රවස්ථිති සමතුලිතතාව වැනි ස්ථායි තත්වයකට ළඟා වී ඇති විට, හරයේදී මූලතාරකාව සකස්වීම සිදු වේ.
මෙම පූර්ව-ප්‍රධාන තරු අනුක්‍රමය බොහෝවිට මූලග්‍රහ තැටියකින් වටකොට පවතී.ගුරුත්වාකර්ශණ සංකෝචනය සිදුවන කාලසීමාව අවුරුදු මිලියන 10-15 පමණ කාලයකින් අවසන් වීම සිදුවේ.

මුලදී සූර්ය ස්කන්ධ 2 කට වඩා අඩු තරු T Tauri තරු ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලබන අතර විශාලතර ස්කන්ධයක් පවතින ඒවා Herbig Ae/Be තරු ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලබයි. මෙම අලුතින් උපන් තාරකා ඔවුන්ගේ භ්‍රමණ අක්ෂය ඔස්සේ වායු ක්ෂේපයන් විමෝචනය කිරීම, ඇතැම්විට බිඳ වැටෙන තරුවෙහි කෝණික ගම්‍යතාවය අඩු කරන අතර හර්බිග්-හැරෝ ද්‍රව්‍ය ලෙස හඳුන්වන කුඩා නොපැහැදිලි අනුපොකුරු ඇතිකිරීමට හේතු වේ.මෙම ක්ෂේපයන්, අසල පිහිටි අති විශාල තරු වලින් නිකුත් කරන විකිරණ සමග සංයෝජනය වී, තරුව නිර්මාණය වන විට අවට පිහිටි වළාව ඉවතට ගෙනයෑමට උපකාරී විය හැක.

ප්‍රධාන අනුක්‍රමය
තරු තමන්ගේ ජීවිත කාලයෙන් 90% පමණ ගත වන්නේ හීලියම් නිෂ්පාදනය කිරීමට හරය ආසන්නයේ ඉහළ-උෂ්ණත්ව සහ ඉහළ-පීඩන ප්‍රතික්‍රියාවලදී හයිඩ්‍රජන් සංයෝජනය වෙමින්ය. එවැනි තරු ප්‍රධාන අනුක්‍රමයෙහි පිහිටන බව පැවසෙන අතර ඩ්වාෆ් තරු ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලබයි. ශූන්‍යය-වයසින් ප්‍රධාන අනුක්‍රමය ආරම්භ වන අතර, තරුවෙහි හරයෙහි ඇති හීලියම් ප්‍රමාණය ක්‍රමයෙන් වර්ධනය වීම සිදුවේ.

තරු
Galaxce

තරු


Peter Brocco (* 16. Januar 1903 in Reading, Pennsylvania; † 20. Dezember 1992 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler.

Leben
Peter Brocco studierte Theologie am College und entschied sich für eine Schauspielkarriere. 1932 trat er im Drama Die Frau im U-Boot zum ersten Mal vor der Kamera auf. Wie dieser Auftritt, waren viele seiner anderen Filmauftritte nicht im Abspann erwähnt. Parallel zu seinen Filmrollen spielte Brocco Theater. In den 1950er Jahren stand er während der McCarthy-Ära kurzzeitig auf einer Schwarzen Liste, was ein Berufsverbot zur Konsequenz hatte.

Peter Brocco verstarb im Dezember 1992, weniger als einen Monat vor seinem 90. Geburtstag, bei sich zu Hause an einem Herzinfarkt.

Filmografie (Auswahl)

Film

Serie

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmschauspieler
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1903
Gestorben 1992
Mann

Peter Brocco


Dodean ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Adrian Dodean (* 1985), rumänischer Tischtennisspieler
 Daniela Dodean (* 1988), rumänische Tischtennisspielerin

Dodean


Gospina crkva na Durmiševcu nalazi se u Donjem Prološcu, općina Proložac, na adresi Ulica hrvatskih branitelja.

Opis
Gospina crkva na Durmiševcu u Prološcu sagrađena je 1873., nedaleko od stare Gospine crkve na Opačcu. Jednobrodna građevina, duga 16 i široka 8.5 m., građena od kamenih klesanaca s kvadratičnom apsidom na istoku. Na glavnom pročelju je jednostavni ulaz iznad kojeg je veća rozeta, a u zabatu pročelja je zvonik na preslicu s tri zvona. Na južnom pročelju, zapadno od ulaza je mala Gospina kapelica lučnog oblikovanja. Bočni zidovi crkve raščlanjeni su s po tri monofore. U svetištu crkve je veliki drveni oltar s Gospinom slikom, izrađen u drvodjeljskoj radionici Rako u Imotskom. Na koru crkve čuva se stara drvena propovjedaonica koja je nekada bila uz trijumfalni luk.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-5340 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "sakralna graditeljska baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene sakralne građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Katoličke crkve u Hrvatskoj

Gospina crkva na Durmiševcu


Herrmann August Ludwig Degener (né le  à Leipzig et mort le  à Berlin) est un éditeur allemand et rédacteur en chef de l'ouvrage de référence biographique très répandu Degener's Wer ist's?.

Biographie
Le fils d'un grossiste effectue un apprentissage de libraire à Leipzig puis poursuit sa formation à Heidelberg, Oxford et Londres. En novembre 1904, Degener fonde la maison d'édition HA Ludwig Degener à Leipzig, dont il est un partenaire actif jusqu'en 1921. Depuis 1905, le dictionnaire personnel « Degener's Wer ist's ? ". Cet ouvrage est publié en dix éditions en 1935 et devient l'ouvrage de référence biographique le plus important de son époque en Allemagne. En avril 1910, l'éditeur de magazines Degener & Co est fondé à Leipzig, dont Degener quitte fin 1919.

De 1911 à 1927, Degener est également président du Deutschen Buchhändler-Lehranstalt. Pendant ce temps, il est également le trésorier de l'. En 1921, il signe un contrat par lequel ce bureau central est intégré à la Deutsche Bücherei de Leipzig. De 1921 jusqu'à sa mort en 1943, Degener est directeur général de la nouvelle société Verlag Chemie. Degener, qui souffrait d'angine de poitrine, décède en 1943 le jour de ses 69 ans.

Degener est marié à Cécile Louise Lonchamp depuis 1900.

Honneurs
  de 1915 ou 1916
 1931 Plaque August-Wilhelm-von-Hofmann de la société chimique allemande
 1931 Sénateur honoraire de l'Université technique de Karlsruhe

Bibliographie
 Wer ist's? 10. Ausgabe, Berlin 1935, S. 276.
 Walter Ruske: Verlag Chemie 1921–1971. Weinheim (Bergstraße) 1971, S. 19–35 (mit Foto).

Références

Liens externes

Éditeur allemand
Naissance en août 1874
Naissance à Leipzig
Naissance dans le royaume de Saxe
Décès en août 1943
Décès à Berlin
Décès à 69 ans

Herrmann A. L. Degener


Hans Karl Ferdinand John (* 7. September 1936 in Bad Freienwalde) ist ein habilitierter deutscher Musikwissenschaftler und ehemaliger Hochschullehrer.

Leben
Johns Vater war Kantor und Organist und ermöglichte ihm den Besuch der Dresdner Kreuzschule. Vom Jahr 1946 bis zum Abitur im Jahr 1954 war er Mitglied des Dresdner Kreuzchores. Er studierte an der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg und an der Humboldt-Universität Berlin Musikerziehung und -wissenschaft sowie Klassische Philologie. 1961 wurde er bei Fritz Reuter an der Philosophischen Fakultät in Berlin mit der Dissertation Die Musikerziehung im antiken Griechenland und ihre Aktualität für unsere Zeit promoviert.

Nach dem Staatsexamen lehrte er an der Humboldt-Universität und an der Hochschule für Musik Franz Liszt Weimar. Anschließend wirkte er 25 Jahre an der Hochschule für Musik Carl Maria von Weber Dresden als Dozent und Professor für Musikwissenschaft. Im Jahr 1993 wurde er an dieser Hochschule Dresdens zum Leiter des Instituts für Musikwissenschaft bestellt, dessen Begründer er war. Seit dem Jahr 2002 befindet er sich im Ruhestand.

Schwerpunkte von Johns Forschungstätigkeit sind die Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts, die Musikgeschichte Dresdens, die evangelische Kirchenmusik und die Musik der Romantik.

Hans John publizierte zahlreiche musikwissenschaftliche Beiträge, unter anderem über Carl Maria von Weber, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Karol Lipiński, Richard Wagner und die Geschichte der Hochschule für Musik Carl Maria von Weber Dresden. Darüber hinaus gab John mehrere Reihen zur Dresdner Musikgeschichte heraus.

John war stellvertretender Vorsitzender der Internationalen Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesellschaft, Mitglied des Sächsischen Musikrats und Vorsitzender der Dresdner Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. An zahlreichen internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongressen nahm er als Referent teil, unter anderem in Oxford, Sintra, Kopenhagen St. Petersburg, Breslau, Berlin und Dresden.

Veröffentlichungen (Auswahl)
 Herausgeber und Mitherausgeber zahlreicher Schriftenreihen und Kongressberichte.
 Der Dresdner Kreuzkantor und Bach-Schüler Gottfried August Homilius. Ein Beitrag zur Musikgeschichte Dresdens im 18. Jahrhundert. Hans Schneider, Tutzing 1980, ISBN 978-3-7952-0292-7.
 Der Dresdner Kreuzchor und seine Kantoren, Berlin 1982 und 1984.
 Hans John: Musikstadt Weimar, Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1985 und 1987.
 Michael Heinemann und Hans John (Hrsg.): Die Dresdner Oper im 19. Jahrhundert (= Musik in Dresden, 1), Laaber 1995.

 Michael Heinemann und Hans John (Hrsg.): Die Dresdner Oper im 20. Jahrhundert (= Musik in Dresden, 7), Laaber 2005.

Ehrungen
 1990: Martin-Andersen-Nexö-Kunstpreis, Dresden
 2012: Ehrensenator der Hochschule für Musik Carl Maria von Weber Dresden
 2016: Max-Reger-Symposion zu Ehren des 80. Geburtstages

Einzelnachweise

Musikwissenschaftler
Opernforscher
Hochschullehrer (HfM Dresden)
Ehrensenator der Hochschule für Musik Carl Maria von Weber Dresden
Deutscher
Geboren 1936
Mann

Hans John (Musikwissenschaftler)


المصرف الصناعي العراقي هو مصرف عراقي حكومي، تأسس المصرف الصناعي الزراعي عام 1935 ثم أستقل كمصرف صناعي تنموي عام 1946 من اجل تنمية وتطوير قطاع الصناعة الوطنية في العراق من خلال دعم القطاعين الخاص والمختلط حيث ساهم المصرف في تأسيس العديد من الشركات الصناعية التي شكلت هيكل الصناعة الوطنية للقطاع الصناعي المختلط كونه قطاع.حيوي وله أهميته في تطوير الاقتصاد الوطني.

فروع البنك
للمصرف عدد من الفروع في بغداد والمحافظات.

فروعه في بغداد :
 فرع ساحة الخلاني ( الفرع الرئيسي)
 فرع باب الحوائج في الكاظميه
 فرع الزعفرانيه
 فرع ساحة بيروت - شارع فلسطين
 فرع شركة التأمين العراقية - الكرادة ساحة التحريات
 فرع المفوضيا العليا المستقلة للانتخابات - المنطقة الخضراء
 فرع التقاعد العامة - ساحة الوثبة
فروع المحافظات العاملة في العراق هي :
 فرع نينوى
 فرع بابل
 فرع الكرار في النجف
 فرع البصرة
 فرع كربلاء

مراجع

اقتصاد العراق
بنوك العراق
منظمات مقرها في بغداد

المصرف الصناعي العراقي


تمت صياغة مسألة الأريكة المتحركة من قبل ليو موسر في عام 1966.

المسألة هي في مستوي ثنائي الأبعاد لمشكلة تحريك الأثاث وتسعى للحصول على المساحة العظمى لشكل هندسي يكون من الممكن المناورة لنقله عبر منطقة بشكل حرف L. يطلق على اسم هذه المساحة العظمى للشكل اسم «ثابت الأريكة».

مراجع

استحداثات 1966
رياضيات مسلية
مسائل غير محلولة في الرياضيات
هندسة متقطعة

مسألة الأريكة المتحركة


Catherine Sueur, née le  à Orléans, est une haute fonctionnaire française.

Elle est la fille cadette de Jean-Pierre Sueur, universitaire et homme politique socialiste, et de son épouse Monique Pontier, universitaire et mathématicienne.

Formation
Elle est élève à l'École polytechnique (entrée en 1996), puis à l'ENA (2001 à 2003, promotion René Cassin). Elle devient alors inspectrice des finances.

Carrière
Après quelques inspections de services administratifs, elle devient administratice générale adjointe du musée du Louvre en 2007.

Elle est secrétaire générale du journal Le Monde de 2011 à 2012.

De retour dans l'administration publique, elle  est directrice générale déléguée de Radio France de 2012 à 2015, auprès de Jean-Luc Hees.

Elle est ensuite nommée directrice générale adjointe de l'Assistance publique - Hôpitaux de Paris de 2017 à 2018. Cette institution traverse alors une crise financière, et Catherine Sueur s'occupe d'un plan de réorganisation.

Elle réintègre l'inspection générale des finances en 2018.

Peu après, Louis Dreyfus l'appelle à nouveau à rejoindre le groupe Le Monde, pour l'aider à guider les magazines du groupe. Elle préside Télérama en 2019.

Le , elle est nommée cheffe du service de l'Inspection générale des finances à compter du , en remplacement de Marie-Christine Lepetit.

Références

Liens externes

Inspecteur des finances
Élève de l'École polytechnique
Élève de l'École nationale d'administration (France)
Naissance à Orléans
Naissance en décembre 1975
Chevalier de l'ordre national du Mérite
Officier des Arts et des Lettres

Catherine Sueur


Splachnaceae, biljna porodica pravih mahovina u redu Splachnales, po nekima u Funariales. Oko 70 vrsta u 7 rodova. Ime je dobila po rodu Splachnum

Rodovi
 Genus  Aplodon R. Br.
 genus: Apodanthus Bach. Pyl., sinonim
 genus: Brachymitrion Taylor
 genus: Bryomnium Cardot
 genus: Cyrtodon (R. Br.) Hook.
 genus: Dissodon Grev. & Arn.
 genus: *Eremodon Brid. nom. illeg.
 genus: **Haplodon R. Br. ex I. Hagen nom. inval.
 genus: *Hookeria Schwägr. nom. illeg.
 genus: Hymenocleiston Duby
 genus: Krauseella Müll. Hal.
 genus: Moseniella Broth.
 genus: Orthodon Bory ex R. Br.
 genus: **Phrissotrichia Brid. nom. inval.
 genus: Pycnapophyscium (Rchb. ex Endl.) Müll. Hal.
 genus: Raineria De Not.
 genus: Splachnum Hedw.
 genus: **Systilium Hornsch. ex Hook. nom. inval.
 genus: Systylium Hornsch.
 genus: Tayloria Hook.
 genus: Tetraplodon Bruch & Schimp.
 genus: Voitia Hornsch.

Izvori

Splachnales

Splachnaceae


Abel Dhaira (9. september 1987 – 27. marts 2016) var en ugandisk international fodboldspiller der spillede som målmand, senest for den islandske klub ÍB Vestmannaeyja.

Dhaira døde af cancer, 27. marts 2016 i en alder af 28.

Kilder

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Uganda

Abel Dhaira


Les Grands Moulins de Reims est une entreprise française spécialisée dans la production de farine.
Son siège social est situé 136 rue Vernouillet à Reims. Cet établissement, acheté par les Grands Moulins de Paris, est devenu un établissement secondaire de cette entité.

Historique
En 1910, les frères Brisson, Eugène et Edmond, châlonnais d'origine, installent un commerce de grains et farines à l'emplacement actuel des Grands Moulins de Reims, près du canal de l'Aisne à la Marne. Ils y fondent la minoterie actuelle en 1926.
En 1973, Champagne-Céréales rachète les Grands Moulins de Reims.
Le 1er juillet 1988 voit la création d'EUROMILL NORD, qui intègre les moulins de Reims.
En 2000, un nouveau moulin est construit sur le site de Reims, capable d'écraser 600 tonnes de blé par jour.
En avril 2015, EUROMILL NORD est absorbé par la société GRANDS MOULINS DE PARIS.
Le site de Reims devient un établissement secondaire des Grands Moulins de Paris et perd son appellation des Grands Moulins de Reims.
En 2015, le bâtiment en brique des Grands moulins de Reims, avec le marquage «Grands Moulins de Reims »  et avec son horloge à l'ancienne, est démoli.

Caractéristiques
Le site est constitué de quatre secteurs :
Le secteur du moulin proprement dit, avec le silo de stockage et le moulin qui, depuis 2000, est capable d'écraser 600 tonnes de blé par jour et de produire 450 tonnes de farine.
Le secteur du laboratoire et fournil (moulin d'essai), qui permet d'évaluer la qualité des différents lots de grains de blé pour les futurs assemblages.
Le secteur levure dans le bâtiment nouvellement créé.
Enfin le secteur d'emballage.

Les Grands Moulins de Reims sont repris à l'Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel de la région Grand-Est.

Liens externes
 https://inventaire-chalons.grandest.fr/gertrude-diffusion/dossier/minoterie-des-grands-moulins-de-reims/7310dae7-55e2-419c-8252-7b21de0bc489

Données économiques

Notes et références

Entreprise ayant son siège à Reims
Minoterie
Usine agroalimentaire en France
Industrie agro-alimentaire en France

Grands Moulins de Reims


2007-08 මූල්‍ය අර්බුදය ( ගෝලීය මූල්‍ය අර්බුදය )

2007-08 මූල්‍ය අර්බුදය ( ගෝලීය මූල්‍ය අර්බුදය ) ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන්නේ එම වසරවල  ලොව පුරා සිදුවු  දැඩි ආර්ථික අර්බුදයකි. 1930 දශකයේ සිදූවූ මහා අවපාතයෙන් පසු ඇති වූ බරපතලම මූල්‍ය අර්බුදය ලෙස බොහෝ ආර්ථික විද්‍යා  විසින්   සැලකේ. [1] [2] [3] [4]

මෙම අර්බුදය 2007 දී ආරම්භ වූයේ එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ප්‍රථමික සුරැකුම්  වෙළඳපොලේ අවප්‍රමාණය වීමත් සමඟ ය. එය 2008 සැප්තැම්බර් 15 වන දින ලේමන් බ්‍රදර්ස්  ආයෝජන බැංකුවේ බිඳවැටීමත් සමඟ ජාත්‍යන්තර බැංකු අර්බුදයක් දක්වා වර්ධනය විය.  ලෙමන් බ්‍රදර්ස් වැනි බැංකු විසින් අසීමාන්තික අවදානම් දැරීම නිසා ගෝලීය වශයෙන් මූල්‍යමය බලපෑම  ත්‍රව්ර  කිරීමට හේතු පාදක විය.  ලෝක මූල්‍ය පද්ධතියේ බිඳවැටීමක් වැළැක්වීම සඳහා මූල්‍ය ආයතනවල දැවැන්ත ඇපදීම් සහ වෙනත් සහනදායී මූල්‍ය හා මූල්‍ය ප්‍රතිපත්ති යොදා ගන්නා ලදී. කෙසේවෙතත්, අර්බුදය ගෝලීය ආර්ථික පසුබෑමක් වූ මහා පසුබෑමෙන් පසුව විය. ආසියානු වෙලඳපොලවල් (චීනය, හොංකොං, ජපානය, ඉන්දියාව යනාදිය) එක්සත් ජනපදයේ උප ප්‍රමුඛ අර්බුදයෙන් පසු වහාම බලපෑමට ලක් වූ අතර අස්ථාවර විය.  යුරෝව භාවිතා කරන යුරෝපීය රටවල බැංකු පද්ධතියේ අර්බුදයක් වූ යුරෝපීය ණය අර්බුදය පසුව අනුගමනය විය.

"එක්සත් ජනපදයේ මූල්‍ය ස්ථායිතාව ප්‍රවර්ධනය කිරීම" සඳහා වූ අර්බුදයෙන් පසුව 2010 දී එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ඩොඩ්-ෆ්‍රෑන්ක් වෝල් වීදියේ ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණ හා පාරිභෝගික ආරක්ෂණ පනත බලාත්මක කරන ලදී.  බාසල් III ප්‍රාග්ධනය සහ ද්‍රවශීලතා ප්‍රමිතීන් ලොව පුරා රටවල් විසින් සම්මත කරන ලදී.

الأزمة المالية 2007-2008