Barclaycard Arena (oprindeligt Color Line Arena og tidligere kendt som O2 World Hamburg) er en multiarena i Hamborg, Tyskland. Det åbnede i 2002 og kan rumme op til 16.000 personer (13.800 eller 12,947 til sportsbegivenheder). Det er placeret på Altona Volkspark, der støder op til fodboldstadion Volksparkstadion og den nye Volksbank Arena i Hamborgs vestlige Bahrenfeld distrikt.

Arenaen bruges primært til pop/rock-koncerter og var hjemsted for håndbold klubben HSV Hamburg og ishockey side Hamburg Freezers indtil begge hold gik konkurs i 2016. Barclaycard Arena er blandt de mest moderne steder i Europa.

Kilder

Eksterne henvisninger

Official Websted
Billeder fra O2 World Hamborg

Idrætsanlæg i Tyskland
Etableret i 2002
Bygninger, konstruktioner og anlæg i Hamborg
Håndboldarenaer i Tyskland
Multiarenaer i Tyskland

Barclaycard Arena (Hamborg)


Las siguientes fortificaciones reciben el nombre de castillo de Agüero:

Castillo de Agüero, situado en la comunidad autónoma de Cantabria, España.
Castillo de Agüero, situado en la provincia de Palencia, España.

 Nombres similares
Castillo de los Mallos de Agüero, situado en la comunidad autónoma de Aragón, España.
Torre de Agüero, situado en la comunidad autónoma de Cantabria, España.

Castillo de Agüero


Atsushi Kurokawa (født 4. februar 1998) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Mito HollyHock.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Atsushi Kurokawa


Da si ti ja trinaesti je studijski album hrvatske grupe Magazin. Album su 1998. godine objavile diskografske kuće Orfej (sadašnji Campus) i Tonika. Ovo je drugi album grupe Magazin s Jelenom Rozgom kao vodećim vokalom.

Pozadina
Godine 1996. Jelena Rozga postala je novom pjevačicom grupe Magazin. Iste godine, u prosincu je objavljen album Nebo boje moje ljubavi na kojem su se našle uspješnice Nebo boje moje ljubavi, Minut srca tvog, Suze biserne i Samo navika (duet s Oliverom). Grupa je već sljedeće godine počela raditi na novim pjesmama pa je tako 1997. obilježio nastup na Dori i to s pjesmom Opijum, a nakon toga i nastup na Melodijama hrvatskog Jadrana '97. s pjesmom Ime mi spominje. Dvije godine nakon albuma Nebo boje moje ljubavi, 1998. godine, objavljen je album Da si ti ja.

O albumu
Naziv album temeljen je na stihu pjesme Glas. Na albumu se nalazi 10 pjesama (zapravo, devet pjesama, jer je deseta pjesma instrumentalna verzija pjesme Briga me). Autori pjesama su Vjekoslava Huljić i Tonči Huljić. Producent gotovo svih pjesama je Fedor Boić (osim pjesama Gutljaj vina i Opium; na prvoj pjesmi radio je Remi Kazinoti, a na drugoj Stipica Kalogjera). Producenti albuma su Tonči Huljić i Fedor Boić. Album je zvukovno kohezivan i prevladava pop zvuk.

Komercijalni uspjeh
Da si ti ja je jedan od najuspješnijih albuma grupe Magazin. Album je dosegao platinastu tiražu u Hrvatskoj i Sloveniji. Gotovo su sve pjesme ostvarile značajan komercijalni uspjeh i gotovo su sve pjesme (osim pjesama Glas, Luna i Na sve svete) bile popraćene video spotovima. Posebno su se izdvojile pjesme: Gutljaj vina, Ginem, Opium, Na svijetu sve i Idi i ne budi ljudi.

Popis pjesama

Izvori

Albumi iz 1998.
Albumi sastava Magazin

Da si ti ja


The qeleshe, plis, qylaf or kësul is a white brimless felt skull cap traditionally worn by Albanians. It has spread throughout Albanian-inhabited territories, and is today part of the traditional costume of the Albanians. The height and shape of the cap varies region to region.

Etymology

In Albanian:   or ,   or ,   or .

The word qeleshe comes from the Albanian word for wool (lesh). According to Vladimir Orel, the word plis comes from Proto-Albanian , related to Old High German  id., Latin  id. and Greek πῖλος  id., Proto-Slavic *pьlstь id.; according to Michael Driesen, Orel's reconstruction of Proto-Albanian  is incorrect.

Process
There are many ways to make the plis.  The most common way, in Kosovo, is using soap on the wool. The plis is always hand made. In the bazaar of Krujë, it is constructed by first getting a small chunk of wool that is placed on a table. Then, an instrument similar to a bow is used to beat the wool by hammering the string with a stone or a sturdy piece of wood. The wool is beaten and pressed until the wool strands become knotted around each other. Finally, it is washed, and shrinks.

It is then pressed by a flat wooden instrument on top of it, multiple times, until the wool becomes completely flat and smooth. Then, it is sealed in a flattener for 24 hours and soaked in hot water and salt. The hat is made by two finished, flattened and pressed wool.  The corners are removed to form a round shape. Afterwards, soap is added as a glue substitution to finely keep the fibres smooth while both pieces of wool are rubbed together.  Then it is washed and beaten to strengthen the fabric, and placed on a wooden model.
The shape of the plis is determined by the wooden model on which it is left to dry, and then rubbed with soap again to fix the shape. The wool will be smoothened with a razor. Lastly, a wooden instrument is firmly rubbed on the plis.

History
The Albanian plis/qeleshe has been handed down from Illyrian times.

The Illyrian hemispherical cap dates from the Iron Age, found both in men's and women's graves, hence it can be assumed that it was worn both by men and women. A monument from Illyrian times that was found in Zenica shows a calotte-shaped cap, very similar to the plis. The Albanian/Illyrian cap has been classified in a broader and general Mediterranean framework, relying on illustrations on situlae and girdle plates from the later Iron Age in Northern Italy and the Southern Alps. They also feature figures with hemispherical headgear with a small spike. The wearers of such caps are depicted carrying agricultural tools which leads to consider them as country people. Furthermore, in monuments from the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD from Bosnia, Illyrians under Roman rule are depicted with similar cap shapes. Such caps are absent in the eastern half of the Balkans, in the Pannonian-Carpathian region and in eastern Europe.

The 1542 Latin dictionary  equated an Albanian hat with a kyrbasia, and described it as a "tall pileus [hat] in the shape of a cone" (). An early depiction of the hemispherical plis can be seen on Johann Theodor de Bry depiction of Moisi Golemi from 1596, however, earlier Italian and documents exist depicting Albanians wearing the plis from earlier centuries. It is also argued by Nopcsa that it may have been coloured red. During the 17-19 centuries, the appearances description and appearances steadily multiplied, depicting it as a common Albanian headdress as it became more widespread and easily accessible to wear. The white version became the most popular one and was finally declared a specific Albanian national costume during the Albanian Renaissance.

In the 18-19 century, the plis became popularly depicted in painting depicting Arnaut, painters like Jean-Léon Gérôme, Charles Bargue and Marie-Gabriel-Florent-Auguste de Choiseul-Gouffier would paint Albanian subjects of the Osman Empire with the plis, as a diverse presentation of the orient. It would be casually depicted in a formal setting, such as in The Albanian Marriage by Jean Pierre Louis Laurent Hoüel in 1785, where the priest is depicted with a plis.

During the 19-20 century, Albanologists started taking photographs of Albanian national attires, many of which would include the Plis. Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás is photographed multiple times wearing the headdress. It then became a popular headdress for Albanian soldiers to wear during the battle for independence, Shota Galica, Isa Boletini and Azem Galica are depicted wearing the plis while fighting Italian, Turkish, Greek, Serbian and Montenegrin troops during the Partition of Albania. The plis formed part of the official uniform of the Waffen-SS Skanderbeg division and Albanian Legion.

Overview
The cap is part of the traditional costume of the Albanian highlanders and is considered as a national symbol among a large number of Albanian communities. During the Ottoman period, the hat as a white colored fez cap was the characteristic Albanian national headgear, in particular of Muslim Albanians.</ref>

In the northern Albanian highlands, the shape is hemispherical, while in Kukës, it is truncated. In southern Albania, the cap is taller than in northern Albania, especially in the Gjirokastër and Vlorë regions, with the exception of the Myzeqe low plains region. In some areas of southern Albania the cap has a small protrusion. The cap is made from one single piece of woolen felt, usually white, that is molded to the shape of the head.

The town of Kruja is particularly known for Albania's traditional felt-makers who also produce the felt caps qeleshe. The cap is used by men during the traditional weddings of the Tirana region.

Gallery

See also

Culture of Albania
List of hats and headgear
Pileus
 Labbadeh, similar headdress of Lebanese origin
Opinga
Traditional clothing of Kosovo

References

Bibliography

Caps
Albanian clothing
Culture of Kosovo

Qeleshe


Debbie Ann Clary (born August 29, 1959 in Shelby, North Carolina) is a  Republican member of the North Carolina General Assembly representing the state's 46th Senate district, including constituents in Rutherford and Cleveland counties. She previously served in the state House serving the 110th district.

Clary is a marketing professional from Cherryville, North Carolina. In 2008, Clary retired her house seat to run for N.C. Senate District 46. On November 4, 2008, Clary defeated former Rutherford County Clerk of Court Keith H. Melton to win the seat.

In June 2011, Clary announced that she would be retiring from the State Senate. Her resignation became effective January 10, 2012.

Electoral history

2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

References

External links

|-

|-

1959 births
Living people
People from Shelby, North Carolina
People from Cherryville, North Carolina
Gardner–Webb University alumni
American marketing people
Marketing women
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women politicians
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
Women state legislators in North Carolina
Republican Party members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
Republican Party North Carolina state senators

Debbie A. Clary


Damir Milačić (Slavonski Brod, 25. veljače 1975.), hrvatski košarkaški trener i bivši košarkaš.

Trenerska karijera
Svoju trenersku karijeru Damir Milačić započeo je kao izbornik hrvatske košarkaške reprezentacije do 20 godina u 2012. godini.

2015. godine postao je glavni trener KK Alkar. Alkar je doveo do nemogućega u prvenstvu A-1 Lige. Ostvario je s Alkarom i Ligu za prvaka sezone 2014./15.

Milačić potom odlazi u šibenski Jolly u kojem je bio dva mjeseca.

2015./16. sezona započela je loše za Milačićev Alkar nakon što se vratio u Sinj. Nakupilo se mnogo poraza pa je u travnju 2016. Milačić i smijenjen na klupi Alkara. Naslijedio ga je Mladen Vušković.

Nije dugo Milačiću trebalo da traži angažman, vratio se u – Alkar. S Alkarom je dobro i solidno započeo sezonu 2016./17.

Životopisi, Zagreb
Hrvatski košarkaši
Hrvatski košarkaški treneri

Damir Milačić


Walsholaria, rod glavočika smješten u podtribus Brachyscominae,  dio tribusa Astereae.

Ovaj rod opisan je 2020. izdvajanjem četiri vrste iz australskog roda  Olearia.

Vrste
 Walsholaria calcarea (F. Muell. ex Benth.) Nesom. Sinonimi: Olearia calcarea F.Muell. ex Benth.
 Walsholaria cuneifolia (Bean & Mathieson) Nesom Sinonimi: Olearia cuneifolia A.R.Bean & M.T.Mathieson
 Walsholaria magniflora (F. Muell.) Nesom; tip. Sinonimi: Olearia magniflora F.Muell.; Olearia magniflora (F.Muell.) Benth.; Aster magniflorus F.Muell.
 Walsholaria muelleri (Sond.) Nesom. Sinonimi: bazionym: Eurybia muelleri Sond.; Olearia muelleri (Sond.) Benth.; Aster muelleri (Sond.) F.Muell.

Izvori

Brachyscominae

Walsholaria


Bagbundet er en kortfilm fra 1996 instrueret af Michael Katz Krefeld efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Den første danske håndkolorerede tonefilm. En ekspressionistisk komedie om kunsten at skrive - og især ikke at kunne. Kill your darlings, før de dræber dig.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1996

Bagbundet


مرشح ثنائي الجانب هو ذلك النوع من المرشحات المستخدمة لمعالجة الصور مع المحافظة على حدود تفاصيل الصورة. في حين أن العديد من المرشحات يجري تطبيقها باستخدام أسلوب الالتفاف "convolution" في مجال الصورة، إلا أن المرشح ثنائي الجانب يعمل أيضاً على مدى الصورة (القيمة لكل بكسل). عوضاً عن استبدال قيمة البكسل بمتوسط موزون جيرانه، فإن قيمة البكسل هنا مستبدلة بمتوسط موزون جيرانها في الاتجاهات س وص وفي شدة الإشارة "intensity" لذلك البكسل أيضاً. تلك العملية تحافظ على حدود تفاصيل صورة حادة، وذلك عن طريق الاستثناء المنتظم للبكسلات من الجهة الأخرى من الانقطاع "discontinuity".

مراجع

تقنيات خفض الضوضاء في الصور
رسوميات الحاسوب
مصطلحات حوسبة

مرشح ثنائي الجانب


El birro belicoso (Hirundinea bellicosa) es una especie —o el grupo de subespecies Hirundinea ferruginea bellicosa/pallidor, dependiendo de la clasificación considerada— de ave paseriforme de la familia Tyrannidae perteneciente al género Hirundinea. Es nativo del este y centro oeste de América del Sur.

Distribución y hábitat
Se distribuye en dos grandes áreas disjuntas: desde el noreste y centro oeste de Brasil, por el este de Bolivia, este de Paraguay, sur de Brasil, Uruguay y noreste de Argentina; y desde el noroeste de Bolivia, oeste de Paraguay, hasta el centro oeste de Argentina. Existe apenas un registro en Chile, en Temuco, en 1992.

Esta especie es considerada localmente bastante común en sus hábitats naturales: los peñascos, zonas rocosas, tepuyes, barrancas de rutas y hasta en edificaciones. Es más numerosa en dirección al sur, principalmente entre el nivel del mar y los 2000 m de altitud, aunque localmente puede llegar hasta los 3500 m. en el noroeste argentino.

Sistemática

Descripción original
La especie H. bellicosa fue descrita por primera vez por el naturalista francés Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot en 1819 bajo el nombre científico Tyrannus bellicosus; la localidad tipo es «Paraguay».

Etimología
El nombre genérico femenino «Hirundinea» deriva del latín «hirundineus» que significa 'relativo a las golondrinas'; y el nombre de la especie «bellicosa», proviene del latín «bellicosus» que significa 'agresivo''.

Taxonomía
El grupo de subespecies H. ferruginea bellicosa, incluyendo pallidior ya fue tratado como una especie separada del birro común  Hirundinea ferruginea en el pasado y así es considerado por las clasificaciones Aves del Mundo (HBW) y Birdlife International (BLI) con base en diferencias morfológicas como el plumaje, desde la rabadilla hasta la cola de color rufo y no negruzco, el moteado blanco ausente o reducido de las mejillas, región malar, mentón y de la difusa lista superciliar, bordes rufos de las cobertoras, secundarias y terciarias, y alas más cortas; y de vocalización, el canto más rico, decididamente de timbre más bajo, con una nota de partida más larga y que alcanza ritmo más rápido. Sin embargo, esta separación no es seguida por otras clasificaciones, como el Congreso Ornitológico Internacional (IOC) y Clements Checklist/eBird.

Subespecies
Se reconocen dos subespecies con su correspondiente distribución geográfica:

 Hirundinea bellicosa bellicosa  (, 1819) - sur y este de Brasil, este de Bolivia (este de Santa Cruz), este de Paraguay, noreste de Argentina (Misiones) y Uruguay.
 Hirundinea bellicosa pallidior  (, 1917) - noroeste de Bolivia, hacia el sur hasta el oeste de Paraguay y noroeste de Argentina (al sur hasta Mendoza y San Luis).

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Videos, fotos y sonidos de Hirundinea ferruginea bellicosa/pallidior en eBird.
 Fotos y sonidos de gibão-de-couro Hirundinea ferruginea bellicosa en Wikiaves.

bellicosa
Aves de América del Sur
Taxones descritos por Louis Pierre Vieillot
Animales descritos en 1819

Hirundinea bellicosa


Gente de Zona, uneori stilizată ca Gente D'Zona, este un grup cubanez (cubatón) fondat de Alexander Delgado în 2000. Grupul combină ritmurile reggaeton cu formele mai tradiționale de muzică cubaneză.

Trupa a avut primul succes international după colaborarea cu Enrique Iglesias in 2014 cu "Bailando". Cântecul a fost premiat cu trei premii latine Grammy și, în plus, a primit o atenție internațională. Alte hit-uri mari din 2015 au fost "La Gozadera" și, mai târziu, "Traidora", ambele în colaborare cu cântărețul Marc Anthony.

Historia
Grupul a început în anul 2000, când mai multe rapperi întâlnit în Alamar, inclusiv drivere fostul membru Ernesto Taxi, o zonă urbană din Havana, cunoscut sub numele de locul de naștere al hip hop cubanez. Numele grupului, Gente D 'Zona, reflectă nașterea sa în Alamar, o zonă sau cartier din Havana.

Alexander întâlnit "Michel Delgado," "The Karo" și ambele au început să joace la petreceri și baluri oficiale ale Guanabacoa, Regla și mai ales Alamar. Grupul a câștigat repede sprijinul publicului din aceste zone și în curând a început să aibă spectacole la festivaluri internaționale. Aceste festivaluri au fost în plus față de performanțele rap care au avut loc anual în Cuba, unde Alexander a fost responsabil de animație timp de trei ani la rând.

Mai târziu, au făcut parte din Asociația Hermanos Saiz, și nu este până în 2002, că Alexandru a început cariera în compania "Antonio María Romeu", care apare în întreaga țară. În iulie 2005, grupul era încă compus din "Alexander și Michel" și a devenit parte a catalogului Agenției Cubaneze Rap. Aceasta a dus la o muncă mai matură, mereu amestecată cu ritmurile cubaneze și luând în considerare cerințele pieței.

În 2005, Michel a părăsit grupul. Odată cu plecarea lui Michel, Alexander numit Jacob totdeauna, director al grupului de non-profesionale Made in Cuba, care a făcut o muncă importantă cu Pachito Alonso si Eddy K, printre altele. Nando Pro a devenit, de asemenea, un producător de muzică și DJ, iar Gente D'Zona și-a schimbat gama originală de la doi membri la trei: Jacob Forever, Alexander și Nando Pro.

Pe scenă, formația poate stabili o comunicare strânsă cu un număr mare de tineri și cu publicul larg care își urmează prezentările datorită performanței lor pe scenă și calității muncii care crește zilnic. Fără îndoială că au devenit unul dintre cele mai proeminente grupări, exponenți ai reggaetonului din Cuba, convinși că au venit aici să rămână.

Faima sa a devenit evident cu albumele Cel mai bun lucru sunete acum vol.1 și cel mai bun de sondare acum vol.2, mai ales cu piese ca "Îmi place artiști" și "Animale", care a venit să conducă topurile din Cuba , Miami și Europa, un continent pe care îl vizitează cel puțin de două ori pe an cu turneele lor.

În martie 2013 trio-ul a anunțat separarea lor. Alexander a continuat Gente De Zona cu Randy, excantante La Charanga Habanera, Jacob a continuat cariera ca solist cu Dani Nando Pro și un fost membru al grupului DpuntoD.

În 2014, trupa a intrat Enrique Iglesias și Descemer bun pentru a produce hit-ul "Dancing", care a catapultat gruparea la faima internațională finală. Piesa a rămas la partea de sus a listelor de succes internațional, dându-i un loc privilegiat în Statele Unite, în cazul în care este foarte dificil de a obține muzică de la artiștii cubanezi încă trăiesc în țara lor. În iunie 2014, cântecul a reușit să se poziționeze în numărul 1 al Top Songs Latin. Ei au participat la ceremonia de decernare a premiilor Billboard, interpretând o melodie, care a deschis ușile mai multor artiști cubanezi.

În 2015 grupul a lansat două probleme care au fost aclamate de critici, [1] "The Gozadera" și "Traitor", atât în colaborare cu Marc Anthony.

Pe 22 aprilie 2016, ei au lansat al treilea album intitulat Visualizate, sub marca Sony Music Entertainment US Latin LLC și Magnus Media LLC. În timpul lansării 14 iulie Mai multe Macarena același an, o nouă versiune a Macarena cântec de Los del Rio, care prezintă problema pentru prima dată în Premios Juventud. Videoclipul oficial al piesei a fost publicat pe data de 19 august a aceluiași an.

Printre premiile primite de formația se numără un tânăr scrisul meu Premiul favorit pentru tema dans cu Enrique Iglesias și Descember bun în 2015, un premiu Tu Mundo Cel mai bun cântec Începe Festivități de către Algo Contigo în 2016 și Premiul pentru tineret, la an în categoria combinația perfectă cu Marc Anthony Cel mai bun album tropical o AMA Latinã cu Envision și, de asemenea, un premiu Grammy pentru albumul latin Cel mai bun tropical Fusion cu același premiu album.

La 7 aprilie 2017, ei și-au prezentat noul cântec, Si No Vuelves și pe 21 aprilie clipul video respectiv. La 11 iulie, ei au colaborat cu artistul Jennifer Lopez pe piesa "Nici tu și nici eu", scoțând videoclipul respectiv.

Pe 22 februarie 2018, duo-ul lui Randy și al lui Alexander a fost prezentat la Festivalul Internațional de Cântece de la Viña del Mar din Chile. Închiderea, astfel, a doua noapte a concursului câștigând premiul Pescărușul de argint și Pescarul de aur.

Muzicieni cubanezi
Formații de hip hop

Gente de Zona


Na física matemática, a estrutura causal de uma variedade Lorentziana descreve as relações causais entre pontos na variedade.

Introdução
Na física moderna (especialmente na relatividade geral), o espaço-tempo é representado por uma variedade Lorentziana. As relações causais entre pontos na variedade são interpretadas como descrevendo quais eventos no espaço-tempo podem influenciar quais outros eventos.

A estrutura causal de uma variedade lorentziana arbitrária (possivelmente curva) torna-se mais complicada pela presença de curvatura. As discussões sobre a estrutura causal de tais variedades devem ser formuladas em termos de curvas suaves que unem pares de pontos. As condições nos vetores tangentes das curvas definem então as relações causais.

Vetores tangentes

Se  é uma variedade Lorentziana (para a métrica  na variedade ) então os vetores tangentes diferentes de zero em cada ponto na variedade podem ser classificados em três tipos disjuntos. Um vetor tangente  é:

 semelhante ao tempo se
 nulo ou semelhante a luz se
 semelhante ao espaço se

Aqui usamos a assinatura métrica . Dizemos que um vetor tangente não é semelhante ao espaço se for nulo (semelhante a luz) ou semelhante ao tempo.

A variedade Lorentziana canônica é o espaço-tempo de Minkowski, onde  e  é a métrica de Minkowski plana. Os nomes dos vetores tangentes vêm da física desse modelo. As relações causais entre pontos no espaço-tempo de Minkowski assumem uma forma particularmente simples porque o espaço tangente também é  e, portanto, os vetores tangentes podem ser identificados com pontos no espaço. O vetor quadridimensional  é classificado de acordo com o sinal de , onde  é uma coordenada cartesiana no espaço tridimensional,  é a constante que representa o limite de velocidade universal e  é o tempo. A classificação de qualquer vetor no espaço será a mesma em todos os referenciais relacionados por uma transformação de Lorentz (mas não por uma transformação de Poincaré geral porque a origem pode ser deslocada) por causa da invariância da métrica.

Orientabilidade temporal
Em cada ponto em , os vetores tangentes semelhantes ao tempo no espaço tangente do ponto podem ser divididos em duas classes. Para fazer isso, primeiro definimos uma relação de equivalência em pares de vetores tangentes semelhantes ao tempo.

Se  e  são dois vetores tangentes semelhantes ao tempo em um ponto, dizemos que  e  são equivalentes (escrito ) se .

Existem então duas classes de equivalência que entre elas contêm todos os vetores tangentes do tipo tempo no ponto. Podemos (arbitrariamente) chamar uma dessas classes de equivalência dirigida ao futuro e chamar a outra de dirigida ao passado. Fisicamente, essa designação das duas classes de vetores temporais direcionados ao futuro e ao passado corresponde a uma escolha de uma seta de tempo no ponto. As designações dirigidas ao futuro e ao passado podem ser estendidas para vetores nulos em um ponto por continuidade.

Uma variedade Lorentziana é orientável no tempo se uma designação contínua de direção ao futuro e direção ao passado para vetores não-espaciais puder ser feita em toda a variedade.

Curvas
Um caminho em  é um mapa contínuo  onde  é um intervalo que não é degenerado (ou seja, um conjunto conectado contendo mais de um ponto) em . Um caminho suave tem  diferenciável um número apropriado de vezes (normalmente ) e um caminho regular tem derivada que não é nula.

Uma curva em  é a imagem de um caminho ou, mais propriamente, uma classe de equivalência de imagens de caminho relacionada por reparametrização, ou seja, homeomorfismos ou difeomorfismos de . Quando  é orientável no tempo, a curva é orientada se for necessário que a alteração do parâmetro seja monotônica.

Curvas regulares suaves (ou caminhos) em  podem ser classificadas dependendo de seus vetores tangentes. Tal curva é
 cronológica (ou semelhante ao tempo) se o vetor tangente for semelhante ao tempo em todos os pontos da curva. Também chamada de linha mundial.
 nula (semelhante à luz) se o vetor tangente for nulo (semelhante à luz) em todos os pontos da curva.
 semelhante ao espaço se o vetor tangente for semelhante ao espaço em todos os pontos da curva.
 causal (ou que não é semelhante ao espaço) se o vetor tangente for semelhante ao tempo ou nulo (semelhante à luz) em todos os pontos da curva.

Os requisitos de regularidade e não degenerescência de  garantem que curvas causais fechadas (como aquelas que consistem em um único ponto) não sejam automaticamente admitidas por todos os espaços-tempos.

Se a variedade é orientável no tempo, então as curvas que não são semelhantes ao tempo podem ainda ser classificadas dependendo de sua orientação em relação ao tempo.

Uma curva cronológica, nula (semelhante à luz) ou causal, em  é
 orientada ao futuro se, para cada ponto na curva, o vetor tangente for direcionado ao futuro.
 direcionada ao passado se, para cada ponto na curva, o vetor tangente é direcionado ao passado.
Essas definições aplicam-se apenas às curvas causais (cronológicas ou nulas), porque apenas vetores tangentes semelhantes ao tempo ou nulos (semelhante à luz) podem receber uma orientação em relação ao tempo.

 Uma curva semelhante ao tempo fechada é uma curva fechada que é semelhante ao tempo direcionada ao futuro (ou semelhante ao tempo direcionada ao passado) em todos os lugares.
 Uma curva nula (semelhante à luz) fechada é uma curva fechada que é nula (semelhante à luz) em toda parte direcionada ao futuro (ou nula (semelhante à luz) em toda parte direcionada ao passado).

A holonomia da razão da taxa de mudança do parâmetro afim em torno de uma geodésica nula (semelhante à luz) fechada é o fator de desvio para o vermelho.

Relações causais
Existem várias relações causais entre os pontos  e  na variedade .

  precede cronologicamente  (muitas vezes denotado ) se existe uma curva cronológica (semelhante ao tempo) dirigida ao futuro de  para
  estritamente precede causalmente  (muitas vezes denotado ) se existe uma curva causal (que não é semelhante ao espaço) direcionada ao futuro de  para .
  causalmente precede  (muitas vezes denotado  ou ) se  precede estritamente causalmente  ou .
  horismos  (muitas vezes denotado  ou ) se  ou existe uma curva nula direcionada ao futuro de  para   (ou equivalentemente,  e  implica  (isso decorre trivialmente da definição)
 ,  implica
 ,  implica
 , ,  são transitivas.  não é transitiva.
 ,  são reflexivas

Para um ponto  na variedade  definimos

 O futuro cronológico de , denotado , como o conjunto de todos os pontos  em  tal que  cronologicamente precede :

 O passado cronológico de , denotado , como o conjunto de todos os pontos  em  tal que  cronologicamente precede :

Nós definimos similarmente

 O futuro causal (também chamado de futuro absoluto) de , denotado , como o conjunto de todos os pontos  em  tal que  preceda causalmente :

 O passado causal (também chamado de passado absoluto) de , denotado , como o conjunto de todos os pontos  em  tal que  preceda causalmente :

 O cone nulo futuro de  como o conjunto de todos os pontos  em  tal que .
 O cone nulo passado de  como o conjunto de todos os pontos  em  tal que .
 O cone de luz de  como os cones nulos futuros e passados de  juntos.
 em outro lugar como pontos fora do cone de luz, futuro causal ou passado causal.

Os pontos contidos em , por exemplo, podem ser alcançados a partir de  por uma curva semelhante ao tempo direcionada ao futuro.
O ponto  pode ser alcançado, por exemplo, a partir de pontos contidos em  por uma curva que não é espacial direcionada ao futuro.

No espaço-tempo de Minkowski o conjunto  é o interior do cone de luz futuro em . O conjunto  é o cone de luz futuro completo em , incluindo o próprio cone.

Esses conjuntos
definidos para todo  em , são chamados coletivamente de estrutura causal de .

Para , um subconjunto de , definimos

Para  dois subconjuntos de  definimos

 O futuro cronológico de  relativo a , , é o futuro cronológico de  considerado como uma subvariedade de . Observe que este é um conceito bem diferente de  que fornece o conjunto de pontos em  que pode ser alcançado por curvas semelhantes ao tempo direcionadas ao futuro começando em . No primeiro caso, as curvas devem estar em , no segundo caso, não. Veja Hawking e Ellis.
 O futuro causal de  relativo a , , é o futuro causal de  considerado como uma subvariedade de . Observe que este é um conceito bem diferente de  que fornece o conjunto de pontos em  que pode ser alcançado por curvas causais direcionadas ao futuro começando em . No primeiro caso, as curvas devem estar em , no segundo caso, não. Veja Hawking e Ellis.
 Um conjunto futuro é um conjunto fechado sob o futuro cronológico.
 Um conjunto passado é um conjunto fechado sob o passado cronológico.
 Um conjunto passado indecomponível (P.I.) é um conjunto passado que não é a união de dois subconjuntos próprios passados abertos diferentes.
 Um P.I. que não coincide com o passado de qualquer ponto em  é chamado de conjunto passado indecomponível terminal (P.I.T.).
 Um conjunto passado indecomponível própeio (P.I.P.) é um P.I. que não é um P.I.T.  é um conjunto passado indecomponível adequado (P.I.P.).
 O desenvolvimento de Cauchy futuro de ,  é o conjunto de todos os pontos  para os quais toda curva causal inextensível direcionada ao passado através de  intercepta  pelo menos uma vez. Da mesma forma para o desenvolvimento passado de Cauchy. O desenvolvimento de Cauchy é a união dos desenvolvimentos de Cauchy do futuro e do passado. Os desenvolvimentos de Cauchy são importantes para o estudo do determinismo.
 Um subconjunto  é acronal se não existir  tal que , ou equivalentemente, se  for disjunto de .

 Uma superfície de Cauchy é um conjunto acronal fechado cujo desenvolvimento de Cauchy é .
 Uma métrica é globalmente hiperbólica se puder ser folheada por superfícies de Cauchy.
 O conjunto de violação de cronologia é o conjunto de pontos através dos quais passam curvas fechadas semelhantes ao tempo.
 O conjunto de violação de causalidade é o conjunto de pontos pelos quais passam as curvas causais fechadas.
 O limite do conjunto de violação de causalidade é um horizonte de Cauchy. Se o horizonte de Cauchy for gerado por geodésicas nulas fechadas, haverá um fator de desvio para o vermelho associado a cada uma delas.
 Para uma curva causal , o diamante causal é  (aqui estamos usando uma definição mais ampla de "curva" na qual é apenas um conjunto de pontos), sendo o ponto  no passado causal de . Em palavras: o diamante causal da linha de mundo de uma partícula  é o conjunto de todos os eventos que se encontram no passado de algum ponto em  e no futuro de algum ponto em . Na versão discreta, o diamante causal é o conjunto de todos os caminhos causais que conectam  a partir de .

Propriedades

 Um ponto  está em  se e somente se  está em .

 O horismos é gerado por congruências geodésicas nulas.

Propriedades topológicas:
  é aberto para todos os pontos  em .
  é aberto para todos os subconjuntos .
  para todos os subconjuntos . Aqui  é o  fechamento de um subconjunto .

Geometria conforme
Duas métricas  and  são conformemente relacionadas se  para alguma função real  chamada de fator conforme.

Observando as definições de quais vetores tangentes são semelhantes ao tempo, nulos (semelhantes à luz) e semelhantes ao espaço, vemos que eles permanecem inalterados se usarmos  ou . Como exemplo, suponha que  seja um vetor tangente semelhante ao tempo em relação à métrica . Isso significa que . Temos então que  então  é um vetor tangente semelhante ao tempo em relação ao  também.

Segue-se disso que a estrutura causal de uma variedade lorentziana não é afetada por uma transformação conforme.

Uma geodésica nula permanece uma geodésica nula sob um redimensionamento conforme.

Infinito conforme
Uma métrica infinita admite geodésicas de comprimento infinito/tempo próprio. No entanto, às vezes podemos fazer um redimensionamento conforme da métrica com um fator conforme que cai suficientemente rápido para 0 à medida que nos aproximamos do infinito para obter o limite conforme da variedade. A estrutura topológica do limite conforme depende da estrutura causal.

 As geodésicas semelhantes ao tempo direcionadas para o futuro terminam em i + , o infinito futuro semelhante ao tempo.
 Geodésicas semelhantes ao tempo direcionadas ao passado terminam em , o infinito passado semelhante ao tempo.
 Geodésicas nulas (semelhantes à luz) direcionadas para o futuro terminam em ℐ+, o infinito futuro nulo (semelhante à luz).
 Geodésicas nulas (semelhantes à luz) direcionadas ao passado terminam em ℐ−, o passado infinito nulo (semelhante à luz).

Em vários espaços:
 Espaço de Minkowski:  são pontos, ℐ± são folhas nulas e infinito semelhante ao espaço tem codimensão 2.
 Antiespaço de de Sitter: não há infinito semelhante ao tempo ou nulo (semelhante à luz), e o infinito semelhante ao espaço tem codimensão 1.
 Espaço de de Sitter: o infinito futuro e passado semelhantes ao tempo tem codimensão 1.

Singularidade gravitacional

Se uma geodésica termina após um parâmetro afim finito e não é possível estender a variedade para estender a geodésica, então temos uma singularidade.

Para buracos negros, o limite futuro semelhante ao tempo termina em uma singularidade em alguns lugares.

Para o Big Bang, o limite passado semelhante ao tempo também é uma singularidade.

O horizonte de eventos absoluto é o cone nulo passado do infinito futuro semelhante ao tempo. É gerado por geodésicas nulas que obedecem à equação óptica de Raychaudhuri.

Ver também

 Conjuntos causais
 Curva semelhante ao tempo fechada
 Diagrama de Penrose
 Espaço-tempo
 Hipótese da censura cósmica
 Teoremas de singularidade de Penrose – Hawking

Notas

Referências

Bibliografia

Leitura adicional

 G. W. Gibbons, S. N. Solodukhin; The geometry of small causal diamonds arXiv:hep-th/0703098 (intervalos causais) (em inglês)
 S.W. Hawking, A. R. King, P. J. McCarthy; A new topology for curved space–time which incorporates the causal, differential, and conformal structures; J. Math. Phys. 17 2:174 – 181 (1976);  (geometria, estrutura causal) (em inglês)
 A. V. Levichev; Prescribing the conformal geometry of a lorentz manifold by means of its causal structure; Soviet Math. Dokl. 35:452 – 455, (1987); (geometria, ) (em inglês)
 D. Malament; The class of continuous timelike curves determines the topology of spacetime; J. Math. Phys. 18 7:1399 – 1404 (1977);  (geometria, ) (em inglês)
 A. A. Robb ; A theory of time and space; Cambridge university press, 1914; (geometria, estrutura causal) (em inglês)
 A. A. Robb ; The absolute relations of time and space; Cambridge university press, 1921; (geometria, estrutura causal) (em inglês)
 A. A. Robb ; Geometry of time and space; Cambridge university press, 1936; (geometria, estrutura causal) (em inglês)
 R. D. Sorkin, E. Woolgar; A causal order for spacetimes with C^0 Lorentzian metrics: Proof of compactness of the space of causal curves; Classical & quantum gravity 13: 1971 – 1994 (1996); arXiv:gr-qc/9508018 (estrutura causal) (em inglês)

Ligações externas
 Turing machine causal networks (de Enrique Zeleny, o Projeto de demonstrações da Wolfram, em inglês)

Física teórica
Relatividade
Relatividade geral

Estrutura causal


عقد 790 هو عقد امتد بين 1 يناير 790 و31 ديسمبر 799 بحسب التقويم الميلادي. سبقه عقد 780 ولحقه عقد 800.

أحداث

 معركة لودوس (794)
 معركة نهر بوربيا (791)

مواليد

 الوافي أحمد (795)
 فاطمة بنت موسى الكاظم (790)
 فيفولاكت (793)
 أبو عثمان المازني (791)
 أدريان الثاني (792)
 عريب المأمونية (797)
 أبو إسحاق الجوزجاني (796)
 إدريس الثاني (791)
 لاندولف الأول من كابوا (795)
 المعتصم بالله (794)
 برنارد ملك إيطاليا (797)

وفيات

 أدريان الأول (795)
 برمودو الأول ملك أستورياس (797)
 يعقوب بن طارق (796)
 مالك بن أنس (795)
 الوضاح بن عبد الله اليشكري (793)
 هشام بن الحكم الكوفي (795)
 موسى الكاظم (799)
 مروان بن أبي حفصة (798)
 سيف بن عمر (796)
 علي بن يقطين (798)
 الفضل بن روح بن حاتم المهلبي (794)

كتب

 موسوعة حضارة العالم (2002) لأحمد محمد عوف.

مراجع

روابط خارجية

 تصفح سنة بسنة عقد 790 ابتداءً من

عقد 790


Miljacka Nehri (Milyatska diye okunur) Bosna-Hersek'te bir ırmaktır. Saraybosna Irmağı olarak da adlandırılır. Nehrin etrafında birçok insan bulunmasına rağmen nehir sadece yağmur suları ve rüzgarın uçuşturduğu birkaç adet çöple kirlenmiştir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Saraybosna

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Miljacka

Saraybosna
Saraybosna Kantonu
Bosna-Hersek'teki nehirler

Miljacka


An Paramapania parvibractea in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Charles Baron Clarke, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Hendrik Uittien. An Paramapania parvibractea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paramapania, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Paramapania

Paramapania parvibractea


Filbert Street was a football stadium in Leicester, England, which served as the home of Leicester City F.C. from 1891 until 2002. Although officially titled the City Business Stadium in the early 1990s, it remained known almost exclusively by its address, like many English football stadiums.

History

Early years
Leicester City was formed in 1884. The club was then named Leicester Fosse, as its founders mostly lived in the west end of the city, through which the Fosse Way ran. In 1884–85 it played at a ground known as the Racecourse, before sharing Victoria Park with the Leicester Tigers rugby club for two years. Leicester Fosse played at the Belgrave Road Cycle Track for a year, but returned to Victoria Park after the rugby club offered a higher rent to the owners of the Cycle Track.

Leicester Fosse became a professional club in 1889 and laid out its own ground at Mill Lane, just north of Filbert Street. The club was soon forced to move, however, as the local Corporation requested the land for development. The site of what was to become Filbert Street was prepared during the summer of 1891, while Leicester Fosse temporarily played at the Aylestone Road Cricket Ground. Local legend suggests that the new ground was identified by a Miss Westland, the niece of one of the club's founders, Joseph Johnson.

The stadium initially consisted of simple earth banks and a small main stand on the west side, until 1921, when a new and much larger main stand was built. In 1927, a new stand was built at the south end (known as the Spion Kop), and became known as the "Double Decker". The roof which had previously covered the Kop was rebuilt at the north, or Filbert Street end of the ground. It was in this form that Filbert Street saw its record attendance of 47,298 for the Fifth Round FA Cup tie, against Tottenham Hotspur, on 18 February 1928. This game also saw many more spectators watch the match from the roof of the Filbert Street end. The first phase of ground development concluded with the covering of the East or Popular side in 1939.

Second World War and after
The middle section of the Main Stand suffered bomb damage in 1940, and was later further damaged by a serious fire. By 1949, the stand had been rebuilt, with much of the labour, ironically, being supplied by German POWs at a nearby camp. The ground's maximum capacity was now around 42,000. Floodlights were installed and first used for a match against German club Borussia Dortmund in October 1957.

After just surviving a council vote to terminate their lease in the late 1940s, City purchased the freehold of the ground in 1962, for the sum of £30,500. In 1971, the first moves towards an all-seater stadium were taken, as the North and East sides were converted to seating. Four years later, 20 basic executive boxes were added to the North Stand. A pioneering polythene cover was introduced to protect the pitch in 1971. The Air Dome covered an area of 90,000 square feet, weighed 24 cwt and took 15 men two hours to lay out and inflate using four electric fans. The Air Dome was removed in 1982.

All-seater stadium
At the beginning of the 1990s, after considering moving to a new stadium, and a total redevelopment of Filbert Street which would have seen the pitch rotated by 90 degrees, onto the car park behind the Main Stand, City opted to build a new Main Stand, demolishing the existing structure in the summer of 1992. It was anticipated that further modernisation work would take place in the future.

Completed in December 1993, the Carling Stand held 9,500 seated spectators and expanded corporate facilities, costing £6 million. In 1994, the final terraced area – the Kop – was converted to seating giving Filbert Street an all-seated capacity of 21,500, and bringing it into compliance with the Taylor Report which required all Premier League and Division One teams to have all-seater capacity.

Move and demolition

Following the success of the club under Martin O'Neill during the later part of the 1990s, an expanded stadium was required for higher attendances and to provide better facilities. Expansion of Filbert Street would have been very difficult, as the North and East Stands backed onto housing which would have been expensive to place under a compulsory purchase order. Although expansion was considered, by 1998 the decision had been taken to move to a completely new stadium. After a failed attempt to build a 40,000 all-seater stadium at Bede Island South (on the other bank of the nearby River Soar), the club purchased Freeman's Wharf, a former power station site 200 yards south of Filbert Street. Work began on a 32,500 seater stadium during 2001 and it was opened in July 2002.

Filbert Street was sold to a development company for £3.75 million in March 2002, two months before the last game was played there. The last game to be played at Filbert Street was the last game of the 2001–02 season, a 2–1 victory against Tottenham Hotspur – one of just five league games that Leicester won during that season, culminating in relegation to Division One. Matt Piper scored the last goal scored at the ground, bringing to an end 111 years of football there. In the autumn of 2002, Rotherham United expressed interest in purchasing the Carling Stand and moving it to their Millmoor stadium, but these plans were soon abandoned and the decade-old stand would soon be demolished along with the rest of Filbert Street.

Demolition of Filbert Street was begun in March 2003. Part of the site is now home to the 'Filbert Village' development, built as accommodation for students for the nearby De Montfort University and University of Leicester. The road running through the development is called Lineker Road after one of Leicester City's most famous players, Gary Lineker. The rest of the site was meant to be developed for housing, but this work was cancelled due to the financial crisis of 2007–2008. It was then leased to a car parking company, but this arrangement was terminated by Leicester City Council in March 2012.

References

Sources

External links
 Filbert Street history
 Filbert Street Gallery and Information at Worldstadia
 Demolition of Filbert Street
Football Grounds Guide Article

Defunct football venues in England
Leicester City F.C.
Sports venues in Leicester
Premier League venues
Sports venues completed in 1891
1891 establishments in England
Sports venues demolished in 2003
English Football League venues
Demolished sports venues in the United Kingdom

Filbert Street


Bizerte Vilayeti (Arapça: ولاية بنزرت) Tunus'un kuzeyinde yer alan bir vilayet.

3.685 km2 yüzölçümündeki vilayetin nüfusu 2014 nüfus sayımına göre 568.219 kişidir. Vilayetin merkezi Bizerte şehridir. Calte Adaları, Utica antik kentinin kalıntıları gibi valiliğin bir parçasıdır.

Binzert (il)


Os motores aeronáuticos Szekely eram motores radiais de três cilindros fabricados em Holland, Michigan, nas décadas de 1920 e 1930.

Utilização
Os motores Szekely foram usados para equipar ultraleves e aviões leves, como o Rearwin Junior, o Taylor H-2 e o American Eagle Eaglet. Muitas vezes criticado por problemas de confiabilidade e falhas de projeto, muitos foram substituídos por motores melhores em suas fuselagens originais. Ainda existem poucos exemplos, mas um exemplo de qualidade de museu está em exibição no Holland Museum em Holland, Michigan.

Variantes
Dados de: Jane's all the World Aircraft 1931
SR-3 OCâmara de combustão da válvula suspensa,taxa de compressão 4,6:1,  a 1.750 rpm.
SR-3 LCâmara de combustão da válvula lateral,taxa de compressão 5:1,  a 1.750 rpm.

Aplicações
 American Eagle Eaglet
 Buhl Bull Pup
 Curtiss-Wright Junior
 Lambach HL.1
 Nicholson Junior KN-2
 Prest Baby Pursuit
 Rearwin Junior
 Taylor H-2

Ver também
Desenvolvimentos comparáveis
 Blackburne Thrush
 Bristol Lucifer
 Salmson AD.3

Ligações externas

 Szekely SR-3-0 45hp
 Szekely SR-3 / Model L
 , vídeo

Szekely SR-3


ඇදුම රෝගය ශ්වසන පද්ධතියේ ශ්වසන නාලයන් නොයෙක් සාධකවල ප්‍රතික්‍රියා දැක්වීමක් ලෙස සංකෝචනය වීම, ආසාදනය වීම හා අධිකව ස්‍රාවයන් නිකුත් කිරීම නිසා ඇතිවන කල් පවත්නා රොගී තත්වයකි. එය බොහෝ විට උත්තේජනයන් එකක් හෝ කිහිපයක් නිසා ඇතිවිය හැක. අවට පරිසරයේ ඇති අසාත්මික කාරකයන් . දුම් කොළ දුම , සිසිල් හෝ රස්නය ඇති වාතය , සුවද විලවුන් වර්ග . සුරතල් සතුන්ගේ ලෝම , ව්‍යායාම් කිරීම හෝ මානසිකව ආතතිය ඇතිවන අවස්ථාවන්හිදි යටපත් වී ඇති රෝගය නැවත මතුවිය හැකිය. කුඩා ළමුන්ගේ මෙම රෝගය නැවත නැවතත් මතු වීම සිදු කරනුයේ වෛරස් ආසාදනයක් නිසා ඇතිවන සෙම්ප්‍රතිශ්‍යාව නිසාවෙනි. ශ්වාසනාලයන් සංකෝචනය වීම හේතුවෙන හුස්ම ගැනීමේ අපහසුතාවය ඇතිවීම , පපුවේ ඇතිවන රූං රූං ශබ්දය , හති ගතිය . පපුව හිරවීම හා කැස්ස ඇතිවිය හැකිය. ශ්වාසනාල සංකෝචනය වීම ඒවා විස්ථාරනය කරන ෙඖෂධ මගින් යථාතත්වයට පත්කර ගත හැකිවේ.රෝගය ඇතිවන අවස්ථාවන් දෙකක් අතර ෙ‍බාහෝ විට රෝගියා නිරෝගී වන නමුත් සුළු සුළු රෝග ලක්ෂණයන් පැවතීම සහ දිගු ව්‍යායාමයන්ගෙන් පසුව නිරෝගී පුද්ගලයකු‍ට වඩා වැඩි කාල සීමාවක් තුළ පවතින හුස්ම ගැනීමේ අපහසුතාවයන් බොහෝ විට ඇති විය හැක. ඇදුම රෝගයෙහි රෝග ලක්ෂණ ඉතා සුලු රෝග ලක්ෂණයන්හි සිට මාරාන්තික ජීවිතය අවධානමකට ලක්කරන රෝග ලක්ෂණයන් දක්වා වුවද ඇතිවිය හැකිය. නමුත් මේවා ජීවත් වන වටාපිටාවේ සිදුකරගනු ලබන වෙනස් වීම් මගින් සහ ෙඖෂධ මගින් පාලනය කිරීමට පුලුවන.

දියුණු රටවල මහජනතාවගේ අවධානය මෑතක සිට ඇදුම රෝගය කෙරෙහි යොමුවී ඇත. මෙයට ප්‍රධානතම හේතුවක් වන්නේ නාගරිකව ජීවත්වන ළමුන් හතරකින් එක් අයෙකුට ඇදුම රෝගයට ගොදුරුවීමේ ප්‍රවණතාවයක් ඇති වී තිබීමයි.

රෝග ලක්ෂණ

ඇතැම් පුද්ගලයන් තුල ඇදුම රෝගය කල්ගතවු රෝගයක් ලෙස දීර්ඝ කාලීනවමට දක්නට ඇත. ඇතැමුවන්ගේ මෙය වරින්වර උත්සන්න වන රෝගයක් ලෙස ඇති වන්නේ ශ්වසන පද්ධතින් ඉහල කොටසේ ඇතිවන ආසාදන , මානසික ආතතිය , සුළග මගින් ව්‍යාප්ත වන අසාත්මික ද්‍රව්‍යය, දුම් හෝ ව්‍යායාම වැනි අවස්ථාවන් හා ද්‍රව්‍යවලට ප්‍රතික්‍රියා දැක්වීමක් ලෙසටය. හුස්ම ගැනීමේ අපහසුතාව, පපුවේ ඇතිවන හති ගතිය, හුස්ම ගැනීමේදී ශබ්දයක් පිටවීම, කැස්ස, එදිනෙදා ක්‍රියාවන් කර ගැනීමට ඇති අපහසුතාව යන රෝග ලක්ෂණ වලින් කිහිපයක් හෝ සියල්ලම මෙම රෝගියකුට තිබිය හැකිය. ඇතැම් ඇදුම රෝගීන්ට දරුණු ලෙස හුස්ම ගැනීමේ අපහසුතාවයක් හා පපුව හිරකරන ගතියක් ඇතත් හති ගතිය හෝ හුස්ම ගැනීමේදී ශබ්දයක් පිට නොවන අතර මේ නිසා ඔවුන් COPD වර්ගයට අයත් වෙනත් ශ්වසන රෝගයක් ඇති රෝගීන් ලෙස වරදවා වටහා ගනී.

හදිසියේ ඇතිවන ඇදුම රෝග උත්සන්න වීමක් ක්ෂණික රෝග උත්සන්න වීමක් ලෙස හඳුන්වයි. මෙය දරුණු ලෙස ඇතිවන හුස්ම ගැනීමේ අපහසුතාවය	, හතිය සහ හුස්ම ගැනීමේදී ශබ්දයක් පිටවීම යන රෝග ලක්ෂණ වලින් හදුනාගත හැකිය. සමහර රෝගීන්ට මුල් අවස්ථාවලදී ඇති වන්නේ කැස්ස පමණක් වුවද රෝගය උත්සන්න වත්ම ශ්වසන පද්ධතියට වායු ඇතුලු වීම කොතෙක් දුරට අඩ පණ වේද යත් හතිය ඇතිවීම හා ශ්වසනයේදි ඇතිවන ශබ්දය ද නෑසී යයි. හතිය ඇති සමහර අවස්ථාවන්හිදි කැස්ස සමග පැහැදිලි , දුර්වර්ණ නොවු සෙම පිටවේ. ක්ෂණිකව ඇතිවන පපුවේ හිරකිරීමක් වැනි දැනීමක් සමගම හුස්ම ගැනීමේ අපහසුතාවයක් ඇතිවී හති ගතිය ඇතිවේ. මෙම හතිගතිය හුස්ම පිටකිරීමේදි ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන් ශ්‍රවණය වුවද හුස්ම ඉහලට ගැනීමේදීද ඇතිවිය හැකිය.

ඇදුම රෝගය උත්සන්න වීම , හතිය , ප්‍රාශ්වාසය දීර්ඝ වීම , හෘද ස්පන්දන වේගවත් වීම , වෙද නලාවට ඇසෙන පෙනහලුවල ශබ්දය , ආශ්වාසයේදී දුර්වල වන සහ ප්‍රශ්වාසයේදී ශක්තිමත් වන නාඩි වැටීමේ ක්‍රියාවලිය සහ උරස් කුහරය සාමාන්‍ය ප්‍රමාණයට වඩා පිම්බී තිබීම වැනි ලක්ෂණ මගින් වෛද්යවරයකුට රෝගියා පරීක්ෂා කිරීමෙන් හඳුනාගත හැකිය. රෝගය උත්සන්න වු අවස්ථාවකදී ශ්වසනය සඳහා භාවිතා වන අතිරේක බෙල්ලේ පේශීන්ද භාවිතයට ගැනීම නිසා පර්ශු සහ බෙල්ලේ හා පපුවේ අස්ථි අතර පටක කොටස් ඇතුලට ඇදීමක් සිදුවේ.

රෝගීන් උච්චතම අවස්ථාවකදි ඇදුම රෝගීන් රුධිර යේ ඔක්සිජන් හිගවීම නිසා රෝගියා නිල් පැහැති වේ. තවද ඔවුන්ට පපුවේ වේදනාව ඇතිවිම හා සිහිනොමැති වීම සිදුවිය හැකිය. සිහිය නොමැතිවීමට සුලු වේලාවකට ප්‍රථම අත්වල හා පාදවල හිරිගතියක් ඇති වීම සහ දහඩිය දැමීම සිදුවීම ඇතිවේ. මෙමගින් රෝගීන්ගේ දෙපා අයිස් මෙන් සීතල වේ.

සම්මත ප්‍රතිකාර ක්‍රමවලට ප්‍රතිරෝධී වන අයුරු උත්සන්න වු ඇදුම රෝගී අවස්ථාවක් ජීවිතයට අවධානමක් ඇති කරන අතර මෙමගින් ශ්වසනය අක්‍රිය වී මරණය පවා ඇතිවිය හැකිය. නමුත් සුවය ලැබු පසුව නැවතත් රෝගය උත්සන්න වීමක් ඇති වන තෙක් මෙම රෝගීන් කිසිදු රෝග ලක්ෂණයක් නොමැතිව හෝ සුළු වශයෙන් රෝග ලක්ෂණ පෙන්විය හැකිය.

ඇදුම රෝගය

ඇදුම


War All the Time is the third studio album by American rock band Thursday. Following the release of their second album Full Collapse (2001), the group had a series of negative experiences with their label Victory Records regarding promotion. While this was happening, the group was contacted by major labels, and in May 2002, signed to Island Records. The signing was made official later in the year when an exit agreement was made with Victory Records. In November, the group started writing new material. In January 2003, they began recording their next album with Sal Villanueva at Big Blue Meenie Recording Studios in Jersey City, New Jersey. Sessions lasted six months, aside from a break in April to play shows. In late April, "For the Workforce, Drowning" was released as a single, followed by "Signals Over the Air" in August.

War All the Time was released through Island Records on September 16. Selling 74,000 copies in the first week, the album charted at number seven on the Billboard 200. In addition, it charted within the top 75 in the UK. Following this, keyboardist Andrew Everding, who had performed on a few songs on the album, became a member of the group. The group then went on a short US tour, before embarking on a UK tour. Between October and December, the group went on another US tour, toured with Deftones, and filmed a video for "War All the Time". In early 2004, the group toured Japan, Australia and New Zealand, before supporting AFI in North America in February and March. In April, the band went on another tour and appeared on Warped Tour.

Background
In 2001, Thursday signed to independent label Victory Records. After signing, the band received warnings from their friends that they would find themselves in "a situation that we would regret." The group was unsure what they meant, but thought things would turn out fine due to their contract with the label. They initially thought that part of the contract meant they could sign with a different label if they chose to. However, they realized the deal had in fact stated they could only leave Victory if it was to join a major label, which they thought was "a far-fetched idea to say the least." Later in the year, they released their second album Full Collapse through the label, eventually reaching number 178 on the Billboard 200. Before appearing on Warped Tour, the group visited Victory's offices and learned about Thursday-branded whoopee cushions that the label was planning to sell at the tour. Vocalist Geoff Rickly discussed this matter with Victory founder Tony Brummel, and according to the band, responded that Victory "was a big company and that they didn't have time to run everything by the band." The band were perplexed when the label suggested releasing singles and making music videos, as they felt hardcore bands did not need to do singles and believed they would not appear on radio.

On a number of occasions, the group attempted to have better communication with the label in regards to promotion. On one occasion, Brummel informed them they were not living up to his expectations. Sometime afterwards, the group was touring with Saves the Day. Around this time, Thursday had started writing material for their next album; guitarist Tom Keeley said they had two older songs that were almost close to completion before they had started promoting Full Collapse. Also during this period, Brummel became more positive in his interactions, frequently calling the band "just to say hello, or to ask how record sales at shows were going." The group was disappointed that his positivity "wasn't there from the beginning. ... Instead of Tony's relationship with us being based on a love for music, it was based entirely on numbers." While all the interactions with the label were occurring, the group was being contacted by major labels. The group, who "didn't understand [anything] about major labels", pondered about other independent labels they would join. However, due to their contract they wouldn't be allowed to move to another independent label. Throughout 2001, people from major label Island Records had been to the band's shows since they became a full-time touring act. Soon after, the label expressed interest in signing the band. In February 2002, keyboardist Andrew Everding joined the band.

In late May 2002, the group announced they had signed to Island Records, following a bidding war between other major labels. Victory tried to get the band to sign to a different major label in a deal that would have enabled Victory to serve as a sub-label for them. Up to this point, Full Collapse had sold 111,000 copies. On September 9, the group's signing to Island Records was made official following negotiations of an exit agreement with Victory Records. The agreement required parent company Island/Def Jam to buy out Victory's contract claim for the group's next two albums. Rickly said as a result of the deal, Victory Records received $1,200,000, which meant the band would be "[paying off] that bill for as long as we were on the new label." In addition, their next two albums were required to feature the Victory logo. With expectation building for their follow-up album, Rickly wanted their next album to be "really aggressive and progressive ... and have all these boundary pushing ideas". In September and October, the group went on the Plea for Peace Tour, and were planning to work on their next album following its conclusion. They said they had accumulated a lot of ideas but were unable to work on them due touring. In mid-November, the group continued writing new material; over the course of the next two months, they wrote the majority of what would become the album. Up to now, the members had made notes on their laptops and made Pro Tools set-ups in the back of their touring buses to record ideas they had accumulated. While the band did have writer's block, they worked through it as they were short on time.

Production
In January 2003, Kludge reported that Thursday were in the process of recording their next album, which was expected for release in summer or fall. Recording took place at Big Blue Meenie Recording Studios in Jersey City, New Jersey and lasted six months. Though they had thought about working with other producers, they decided to work with Full Collapse producer Sal Villanueva again. Joe Pedulla, Arun Venkatesh, Erin Farley and Villanueva engineered the sessions with assistance from Lee Zappas and Mike LaPierre. With Full Collapse, the band members' home lives felt separate from the recording, according to Rickly. However, for War All the Time, "Life resumed for each us ... and all the stresses of life came in." He mentioned that some of the members got married, and family members had died. He added, "I feel like all the stress is reflected in the way the album sounds."

Rickly thought they were "doing things that were kind of excessive", mentioning that they recorded four different recordings of every track "just to see which one turned out the best." While this was occurring, the group was writing new material. Rickly said three of these new songs would not have been tracked had they not had the time, specifically mentioning "Division St." and "Signals Over the Air". Villanueva noticed the group getting burned out and took them to a farmhouse studio, which was Longview Farm Studios in North Brookfield, Massachusetts. Rickly said it was located in the "woods, basically it's a log cabin with a fireplace, it's just really beautiful." The studio had a grand piano on which the group fleshed out a piano part that Everding had previously written. Rickly said Everding repeatedly played the part and recorded it. The group took a break from recording to play a few shows in late April.

While working on lyrics for the final three songs, he was unable to write any words and became unhappy with the songs. He subsequently suffered from writer's block for a month. Rickly said that after recording was completed, the rest of the band wrote three more songs, which they "liked even better". The label gave the band money to record the new tracks; sessions continued into May 2003. The recordings were mixed by Rumblefish with assistance from Coady Brown, and then mastered by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering in Portland Maine. Everding played keyboards on "Division St.", "Marches and Maneuvers", "Asleep in the Chapel", "This Song Brought to You by a Falling Bomb", "Steps Ascending", "M. Shepard" and "Tomorrow I'll Be You". Tim Gilles played keyboards on "Between Rupture and Rapture" and "Signals Over the Air". Gretta Cohn of Cursive and Jonah Matranga of Onelinedrawing appeared on "Steps Ascending", providing cello and vocals respectively. Arun Venkatesh performed programming on "M. Shepard". Keri Levens, Marc Meltser and Dave Ciancio provided vocals on "War All the Time".

Composition

Overview
All of the music was written by Thursday except for "This Song Brought to You by a Falling Bomb", which was co-written between Everding and the band. All of the lyrics were written by Geoff Rickly. The material on Full Collapse was written over a two-year period, while for War All the Time, the tracks were done in two months. During this time period, they spent every day working on songs from 11AM to 8PM. Guitarist Steve Pedulla said they expanded further on ideas from Full Collapse, in addition to channelling the music they were listening to. He explained that what someone listens to can influence their playing, and despite the group listening to "a lot of mellower stuff", the music came out "a lot heavier". While on tour, they listened to Godspeed You! Black Emperor and Mogwai. Prior to the album, the group was asked if it would sound closer to "Jet Black New Year", a track Pedulla called "the heaviest song we wrote". Pedulla and Keeley initially denied it; the former stated that the song was a direction they "went for a little while, and we are going somewhere else now." Keeley added that it "definitely runs thematically" throughout War All the Time.

Speaking of the title, Rickly said: "I think a title like War All the Time for a record about love seems to demonstrate what our band is about — that balance between violence and grace." He added that he had been "afraid to talk about the idea of romantic love in songs because I feel like it's such a cliché". Rickly got the notion of tackling romance from writer Charles Bukowski, who wrote a poem where the album took its title from.  He said it soon became a substantial part of his life, and he "felt like I was stifling myself by not writing about it." Discussing the lack of hooks on the album, Rickly said "When you write music, you hear what you've done, and you immediately find what you're missing with what you did." He added, "If this were a really hooky record, I'd say it weren't complex enough." Musically, the album's sound has been classified as post-hardcore and emo.

Songs
Rickly compared "For the Workforce, Drowning" to a "super heavy" Fugazi. "Division St." describes an evening in which Rickly visited a group of his friends. Upon learning they were using heavy drugs, he left and was mugged and stabbed in the leg. When he went to visit a girl he liked for help, he found out she was with someone else. He said the track was about how "it can sometimes seem like your whole world is coming apart and you find out that everything you thought you knew is not how you thought it was." The music for the song was influenced by Sigur Rós. When Rickly showed the song to the rest of the group, they were only partially interested in it. After they saw Sigur Rós at a concert, they "decided to bring in some of their noisy qualities into our music", according to Rickly. Rickly said "Signals Over the Air" was about "being scared of sexuality", which he has "always kind of had issues with" to the point "where it always seemed very predatory to me". "Marches and Maneuvers" talks about Rickly and his ex-girlfriend's opinions on abortion and children. He said it "addresses living together and having all those pressures, and then eventually blaming each other for things that happen". Discussing "This Song Brought to You by a Falling Bomb", Rickly said he had "this feeling of wanting to escape the outside world and escape the news." He added that, "On the news every day there would be all these things about the war going on and that terrified me ... It gave an impulse for me to want to block it out." It was intended to solely be an instrumental interlude; however, Rickly "kept hearing things", and asked Everding if it was alright to sing over it.

Referring to the title-track, Rickly said they had the phrase War All the Time as the album title first before it appeared in the song. He said that it wasn't the first title they had in mind, but soon realized that the song "really is the center of the record." Rickly said the song was about his upbringing in New Jersey. He added that it was "sort of like love all the time, and the price of trying to have love all the time." The song talks about three important occasions in Rickly's life, which he attempted to model it after Magnolia (1999). The first part details moving to a town where one of his friends' brothers fell off a cliffside, and some of his friends subsequently committed suicide. The second part discusses Rickly discovering music, and the third part talks about love and how that can affect a person's sense of self and confidence. The rhythm and melody of the song came out during a soundcheck. Keeley was playing a part repeatedly and drummer Tucker Rule joined playing a variety of beats. Pedulla then began playing along, playing what Rickly called "these beautiful, glistening guitar parts". Rickly said "M. Shepard" was "not directly" about Matthew Shepard, but also about his friend who was afraid to come out and "how complex sexuality is". "Tomorrow I'll Be You" was originally going to be the opening track as the group adored the song. However, they soon realized that it "didn't seem right to have this redeeming, beautiful" track began an album that had a "lot of ugliness and darkness in it."
It initially started out as an ending to "Jet Black New Year", as it was a "redemption for that song in a lot of ways."

Release

Keeley said that upon showing their label the album, he was unsure how they would react to it. He said that "for the most part it was a very positive" reaction. On March 25, 2003, War All the Time was announced for release in August. On April 28, "For the Workforce, Drowning" was released as a single; around this, the band performed at Skate and Surf Fest. In June and July, the group toured the US alongside Rival Schools, This Day Forward, Murder by Death and Every Time I Die. In addition, they performed at the Field Day and Hellfest festivals. "For the Workforce, Drowning" was released on a split 7-inch vinyl record with "Under a Killing Moon" by Thrice on July 1. Following this, the band took a two-week break, their first since November 2002, and then spent the next four weeks rehearsing. "Signals Over the Air" was released to radio on August 12. Having the song as a single, Rickly said he "like[d] the idea of a song about the exploitation of sexuality being on major media outlets like radio and television." The music video for the track, released on August 28, was directed by Joakim Åhlund. Initially announced for release on August 19, the album's release was delayed so that the group could record new material. War All the Time was eventually released on September 16 through Island Records. It was previously made available for streaming nine days prior to release. The UK version of the album was released through Mercury Records. The Japanese version included a cover of Sigur Rós' "Ný batterí" (2000) as a bonus track. Bassist Tim Payne said they were listening to that band's Ágætis byrjun (1999) album when he suggested Thursday should cover one of their songs.

Later in September, the group went on a brief tour of North America with Year of the Rabbit and Death by Stereo. In October, the group went on a UK tour with Coheed and Cambria and Further Seems Forever. In October and November, the group went on a tour of North America with Thrice and Coheed and Cambria. On October 31, the band performed on The Late Late Show. Following this, the group toured with Deftones until early December. On December 15, a music video was filmed for "War All the Time" in New Jersey with director Marc Klasfeld. Jon Wiederhorn of MTV said the video uses "war-coverage techniques to create an atmosphere of extreme urgency" and "infrared and green night-vision filters to imitate war footage". Some of the scenes in the video were styled after films by Godfrey Reggio: Koyaanisqatsi (1983), Powaqqatsi (1988), and Naqoyqatsi (2002). In January 2004, the group went on a tour of Japan, followed by appearances at Big Day Out in New Zealand and Australia. Following this, the group supported AFI on their North American tour in February and March, and played a handful of shows with the Bronx, Head Automatica, and Piebald. A tour with Poison the Well, Engine Down, and Spitalfield started in April, which lead into an appearance on the main stage at the Warped Tour. A music video was released for "For the Workforce, Drowning" on June 18, 2004, directed by Pedulla and filmed on the tour with Poison the Well. They supported the Cure on their US tour in July and August 2004, and appeared at Strhessfest.

Reception

Critical response
Critics gave the album a varied response. AllMusic reviewer Johnny Loftus wrote that the record "rocks on the dynamics between singing and screaming, between rage unleashed and thoughts cast inward." He also said that in spite of the album's "righteous gospel, startling dynamic shifts, and hurtling minor-chord choruses", it unavoidably starts to "resemble one long, 40-minute song." CMJ New Music Report Amy Sciarretto compared the band to Bruce Springsteen in that they use "vivid detail and gruff emotion to paint pictures that aren't beautiful". She mentioned that the tracks were "more like emotional earthquakes than songs, making an album for today's youth looking to art for salvation and survival." Drowned in Sound writer James Parrish said the album, when compared to Full Collapse, "falls flat on its face through trying too hard." He added that the melodies were "haphazard and overtly awkward and the instrumentation, while competent and intricate, is nothing you couldn't hear" before on Full Collapse.

Contactmusic.com reviewer Mark Danson wrote "there's just nothing special here, either in the playing, writing or the production." He also said the group's "only saving grace" was "their vocalist 'sounds-a-bit-like-the-guy-from-The-Cure'." In a review for Entertainment Weekly, Greg Kot called the album "[s]ensitive as a teardrop, but hitting with the impact of a two-by-four across the jaw", adding that it gave "good elegy with its mix of emo-punk sincerity and metal-tinged-roar." Stuart Green of Exclaim! said the album "suffer[s] the same terminal fate" as the group's contemporaries – "one of tedious sameness ... [happy to] rehash the stuff they've done in the past." IGN's Jesse Lord said it was a "really good CD that verges on being great", however, "there are simply too many songs that sound alike." He noted that while the intros on the majority of the songs reveal "the diversity of the band", they then revert to "the screaming and the overdriven guitars." Ink19 reviewer Daniel L. Mitchell gave a very positive review of the album, praising the writing (especially "Division St.", "For The Workforce, Drowning" and "M. Shepard") and production on the record. Mitchell also appreciated "This Song Brought to You by a Falling Bomb", despite that in his opinion, it "should, in theory, suck". He concluded, "War All The Time is "emo" done correctly, and while others will try to copy it, they will undoubtedly fail."

Kludge magazine reflected positively on War All the Time, with reviewer Adam Newman stating "The CD is truly commanding as its abrupt and urgent conclusions are as nicely inserted as the dramatic ups and downs of the chorus." Newman chose "Division St." and "Signals Over the Air" as highlights from the album. Melodic writer Kaj Roth said the group lacked "the same heavyweight production" as contemporary act From Autumn to Ashes, and that the songs felt like "an enduro to get through". Punknews.org founder Aubin Paul wrote that a "leap in songwriting prowess is apparent" in a number of tracks where "things are more toned down, but the dynamic range is clearly larger." Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album a "dud". Music journalist Christian Hoard wrote that, in a review for Rolling Stone, the album "brims over with all the jagged guitars and bad thoughts a bunch of suburban New Jersey kids can muster." He also said that the group created an album that was "desperate and intense enough to resonate outside their corner of the underground." Spin Andrew Beaujon said Rickly "sings like Ben Folds after a particularly messy breakup", and manages to fill the beginning "moment [of each song] with starved romanticism." Beaujon mentioned that the record's "artier tracks ... will probably enervate longtime fans who worry that major-label cash is clouding their heroes' worldview."

Commercial performance and legacy
The album sold over 74,000 copies, giving the band their best sales week. It charted at number seven on the Billboard 200 in the process. In the UK, it charted at number 62. By April 2004, the album had sold 259,000 copies and 355,000 copies by mid-2006. As of April 2007, it had sold 364,000 copies. "Signals Over the Air" charted at number 30 on the Alternative Songs chart in the US, and at number 62 in the UK. Drowned in Sound included it on their top albums of 2003 list, while Exclaim! ranked it at number two on their Best Punk Album of the year list behind Scandinavian Leather by Turbonegro.

In a retrospective review for Sputnikmusic in 2008, staff member Davey Boy said it was "rather inconsistent, but gets by on its highlights and its ability to grow on the listener over time" and in "an attempt at crossover appeal, this release is only partially successful." In 2014, Rickly was asked to rank the band's albums and discuss his thoughts on them. He listed War All the Time at number four, saying that he hated the album upon release. He then added, "In retrospect I think that's a mistake. I think it's a really cool record". They performed the album in its entirety in October 2009, while in the midst of promoting their fifth studio album, Common Existence. From April 2018 to December 2019, the group performed a run of two-night shows where they played Full Collapse on the first night, and War All the Time on the other, in their entirety.

Track listing
All music written by Thursday except "This Song Brought to You by a Falling Bomb", which was written by Andrew Everding and Thursday. All lyrics written by Geoff Rickly.

 "For the Workforce, Drowning" – 3:16
 "Between Rupture and Rapture" – 3:03
 "Division St." – 4:14
 "Signals Over the Air" – 4:10
 "Marches and Maneuvers" – 4:27
 "Asleep in the Chapel" – 3:46
 "This Song Brought to You by a Falling Bomb" – 2:16
 "Steps Ascending" – 4:26
 "War All the Time" – 4:33
 "M. Shepard" – 3:36
 "Tomorrow I'll Be You" – 4:07

Japanese bonus track
"Ný batterí" (Sigur Rós cover) – 6:34

Personnel
Personnel per booklet.

Thursday
Geoff Rickly – lead vocals
Tucker Rule – drums, backing vocals
Tom Keeley – lead guitar, backing vocals
Tim Payne – bass, backing vocals
Steve Pedulla – rhythm guitar, backing vocals

Additional musicians
Andrew Everding – keyboards (tracks 3, 5–8, 10 and 11)
Tim Giles – keyboards (tracks 2 and 4)
Gretta Cohn – cello (track 8)
Jonah Matranga – vocals (track 8)
Keri Levens – vocals (track 9)
Arun Venkatesh – programming (track 10)
Marc Meltser – backing vocals (track 9)
Dave Ciancio – backing vocals (track 9)

Production
Sal Villanueva – producer, engineer
Rumblefish – mixing
Coady Brown – assistant
Joe Pedulla – engineering
Arun Venkatesh – engineering
Erin Farley – engineering
Lee Zappas – assistant
Mike LaPierre – assistant
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Morning Breath Inc. – art direction, illustration, design
Ken Schles – photography

Charts

References
Footnotes

Citations

Sources

External links

War All the Time at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)

2003 albums
Thursday (band) albums
Island Records albums
Albums produced by Sal Villanueva

War All the Time (Thursday album)


Strandvejen er en kystvej i Aarhus der strækker sig fra Oddervej i syd til centralgaden Spanien i Midtbyen. Vejen er præget af høje boligkarréer på vestsiden, mens Sydhavnens industri ligger på østsiden. Længere mod syd bliver karréerne erstattet af herskabsvillaer og mod øst bliver havnen til kyst og strand med udsyn over Aarhus Bugten, Mols og Samsø.

Historie
I mange århundrede har der langs kysten syd for byen gået en lille primitiv vej. Vejen, som gik i gennem private herregårdsjorde, blev i starten af 1800-tallet omtalt som Norsminde Landevej. I 1845 blev vejen udvidet og omdøbt til Hads Herreds Vej.

Igen i år 1900 gennemgik vejen en fornyelse og udvidelse hen til Carl Nielsens Vej, så vejen nu bestod ad spadser-, cykel- og ridesti samt en kørebane. Ved samme lejlighed blev vejen omdøbt til Strandvejen.

I 1896 købte Aarhus Kommune, Marselisborg Gods og i 1899 blev godsets tilhørende jord og skov indlemmet under kommunen. Det indbefattede blandt andet Marselisborgskovene. Indlemmelsen åbnede op for jordudstykning langs kysten til private og store villaer begyndte at skyde op. Strandvejens nye beboer talte blandt andre prominente aarhuspersonligheder som Frederik Lausen, Hack Kampmann og Christian Gøtzsche Filtenborg.

I 1915 blev Strandvejen forlænget, så den nu gik hen til Oddervej og igen i 1940 blev vejen forlænget ud til Varna. Ved samme lejlighed blev ridestien droppet til fordel for en udvidelse af cykelstien, der blev anlagt fortov og kørebanen blev udvidet.

Transport til Marselisborgskovene foregik indtil 1938 dog ofte over vandet med skovbådene Turisten og Marselisborg.

Kendte personer fra Strandvejen
Ferdinand Salling boede fra 1946 til 1953 på Strandvejen 36.
Thomas Helmig - dansk popmusiker, boede en overgang med sin hustru Renée på Strandvejen 36.
Renée Toft Simonsen - dansk forfatter, psykolog og fotomodel, boede med sin mand Thomas på ovennævnte adresse.

Kilder og henvisninger

Gader i Aarhus

Strandvejen (Aarhus)


Mafia je prvi EP talijanskog simfonijskog death metal-sastava Fleshgod Apocalypse. EP je 8. lipnja 2010. godine objavila diskografska kuća Willowtip Records.

O albumu
EP je bio snimljen u siječnju 2010. godine u studiju 16th Cellar u Rimu. Miksanje, mastering i produkciju albuma izvršio je Stefano Morabito.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje

Fleshgod Apocalypse
 Tommaso Riccardi – grubi vokali, gitara
 Cristiano Trionfera – gitara, prateći vokali
 Paolo Rossi – čisti vokali, bas-gitara
 Francesco Paoli – bubnjevi, gitara, prateći vokali

Dodatni glazbenici
 Francesco Ferrini – klavir
 Maria Letizia Massetti – violina (na pjesmi 1)
Ostalo osoblje
 Stefano "Saul" Morabito – produkcija, miksanje, mastering
 Marco Hasmann – naslovnica
 Chiara Battistoni – ilustracije, raspored ilustracija, dizajn

Izvori

EP
Albumi iz 2010.
Albumi Fleshgod Apocalypsea

Mafia


Momberg steht für:

 Momberg, Stadtteil von Neustadt (Hessen), Landkreis Marburg-Biedenkopf
 Burg Momberg in Momberg
 Momberg (Saarland), Berg bei Gronig im Hunsrückvorland
 Oppidum Momberg bei Gronig, antike Befestigung auf dem Momberg (Saarland)

Momberg ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Carl Momberg (1901–1988), deutscher Opernsänger und Regisseur
 Jannie Momberg (1938–2011), südafrikanischer Botschafter

Momberg (Begriffsklärung)


Electromigration is the transport of material caused by the gradual movement of the ions in a conductor due to the momentum transfer between conducting electrons and diffusing metal atoms.  The effect is important in applications where high direct current densities are used, such as in microelectronics and related structures. As the structure size in electronics such as integrated circuits (ICs) decreases, the practical significance of this effect increases.

History
The phenomenon of electromigration has been known for over 100 years, having been discovered by the French scientist Gerardin. The topic first became of practical interest during the late 1960s when packaged ICs first appeared. The earliest commercially available ICs failed in a mere three weeks of use from runaway electromigration, which led to a major industry effort to correct this problem. The first observation of electromigration in thin films was made by I. Blech. Research in this field was pioneered by a number of investigators throughout the fledgling semiconductor industry. One of the most important engineering studies was performed by Jim Black of Motorola, after whom Black's equation is named. At the time, the metal interconnects in ICs were still about 10 micrometres wide. Currently interconnects are only hundreds to tens of nanometers in width, making research in electromigration increasingly important.

Practical implications of electromigration

Electromigration decreases the reliability of integrated circuits (ICs). It can cause the eventual loss of connections or failure of a circuit. Since reliability is critically important for space travel, military purposes, anti-lock braking systems, medical equipment like Automated External Defibrillators and is even important for personal computers or home entertainment systems, the reliability of chips (ICs) is a major focus of research efforts.

Due to difficulty of testing under real conditions, Black's equation is used to predict the life span of integrated circuits.
To use Black's equation, the component is put through high temperature operating life (HTOL) testing. The component's expected life span under real conditions is extrapolated from data gathered during the testing.

Although electromigration damage ultimately results in failure of the affected IC, the first symptoms are intermittent glitches, and are quite challenging to diagnose. As some interconnects fail before others, the circuit exhibits seemingly random errors, which may be indistinguishable from other failure mechanisms (such as electrostatic discharge damage). In a laboratory setting, electromigration failure is readily imaged with an electron microscope, as interconnect erosion leaves telltale visual markers on the metal layers of the IC.

With increasing miniaturization, the probability of failure due to electromigration increases in VLSI and ULSI circuits because both the power density and the current density increase. Specifically, line widths will continue to decrease over time, as will wire cross-sectional areas. Currents are also reduced due to lower supply voltages and shrinking gate capacitances. However, as current reduction is constrained by increasing frequencies, the more marked decrease in cross-sectional areas (compared to current reduction) will give rise to increased current densities  in ICs going forward.

In advanced semiconductor manufacturing processes, copper has replaced aluminium as the interconnect material of choice. Despite its greater fragility in the fabrication process, copper is preferred for its superior conductivity. It is also intrinsically less susceptible to electromigration. However, electromigration (EM) continues to be an ever-present challenge to device fabrication, and therefore the EM research for copper interconnects is ongoing (though a relatively new field).

In modern consumer electronic devices, ICs rarely fail due to electromigration effects.  This is because proper semiconductor design practices incorporate the effects of electromigration into the IC's layout.  Nearly all IC design houses use automated EDA tools to check and correct electromigration problems at the transistor layout-level.  When operated within the manufacturer's specified temperature and voltage range, a properly designed IC device is more likely to fail from other (environmental) causes, such as cumulative damage from gamma-ray bombardment.

Nevertheless, there have been documented cases of product failures due to electromigration.  In the late 1980s, one line of Western Digital's desktop drives suffered widespread, predictable failure 12–18 months after field usage.  Using forensic analysis of the returned bad units, engineers identified improper design-rules in a third-party supplier's IC controller.  By replacing the bad component with that of a different supplier, WD was able to correct the flaw, but not before significant damage to the company's reputation.

Electromigration due to poor fabrication processes was a significant cause of IC failures on Commodore's home computers during the 1980s. During 1983, the Commodore 64 computer for a time had a nearly 50% customer return rate.

Electromigration can be a cause of degradation in some power semiconductor devices such as low voltage power MOSFETs, in which the lateral current through the source contact metallisation (often aluminium) can reach the critical current densities during overload conditions.  The degradation of the aluminium layer causes an increase in on-state resistance, and can eventually lead to complete failure.

Fundamentals
The material properties of the metal interconnects have a strong influence on the life span. The characteristics are predominantly the composition of the metal alloy and the dimensions of the conductor. The shape of the conductor, the crystallographic orientation of the grains in the metal, procedures for the layer deposition, heat treatment or annealing, characteristics of the passivation and the interface to other materials also affect the durability of the interconnects. There are also important differences with time dependent current:  direct current or different alternating current waveforms cause different effects.

Forces on ions in an electrical field
Two forces affect ionized atoms in a conductor: 1) The direct electrostatic force Fe, as a result of the electric field , which has the same direction as the electric field, and 2) The force from the exchange of momentum with other charge carriers Fp, toward the flow of charge carriers, is in the opposite direction of the electric field. In metallic conductors Fp is caused by a so-called "electron wind" or "ion wind".

The resulting force Fres on an activated ion in the electrical field can be written as

where  is the electric charge of the ions, and  the valences corresponding to the electrostatic and wind force respectively,  the so-called effective valence of the material,  the current density, and  the resistivity of the material
.
Electromigration occurs when some of the momentum of a moving electron is transferred to a nearby activated ion. This causes the ion to move from its original position. Over time this force knocks a significant number of atoms far from their original positions. A break or gap can develop in the conducting material, preventing the flow of electricity. In narrow interconnect conductors, such as those linking transistors and other components in integrated circuits, this is known as a void or internal failure (open circuit). Electromigration can also cause the atoms of a conductor to pile up and drift toward other nearby conductors, creating an unintended electrical connection known as a hillock failure or whisker failure (short circuit).  Both of these situations can lead to a malfunction of the circuit.

Failure mechanisms

Diffusion mechanisms

In a homogeneous crystalline structure, because of the uniform lattice structure of the metal ions, there is hardly any momentum transfer between the conduction electrons and the metal ions. However, this symmetry does not exist at the grain boundaries and material interfaces, and so here momentum is transferred much more vigorously. Since the metal ions in these regions are bonded more weakly than in a regular crystal lattice, once the electron wind has reached a certain strength, atoms become separated from the grain boundaries and are transported in the direction of the current. This direction is also influenced by the grain boundary itself, because atoms tend to move along grain boundaries.

Diffusion processes caused by electromigration can be divided into grain boundary diffusion, bulk diffusion and surface diffusion. In general, grain boundary diffusion is the major electromigration process in aluminum wires, whereas surface diffusion is dominant in copper interconnects.

Thermal effects

In an ideal conductor, where atoms are arranged in a perfect lattice structure, the electrons moving through it would experience no collisions and electromigration would not occur.  In real conductors, defects in the lattice structure and the random thermal vibration of the atoms about their positions causes electrons to collide with the atoms and scatter, which is the source of electrical resistance (at least in metals; see electrical conduction).  Normally, the amount of momentum imparted by the relatively low-mass electrons is not enough to permanently displace the atoms.  However, in high-power situations (such as with the increasing current draw and decreasing wire sizes in modern VLSI microprocessors), if many electrons bombard the atoms with enough force to become significant, this will accelerate the process of electromigration by causing the atoms of the conductor to vibrate further from their ideal lattice positions, increasing the amount of electron scattering.  High current density increases the number of electrons scattering against the atoms of the conductor, and hence the rate at which those atoms are displaced.

In integrated circuits, electromigration does not occur in semiconductors directly, but in the metal interconnects deposited onto them (see semiconductor device fabrication).

Electromigration is exacerbated by high current densities and the Joule heating of the conductor (see electrical resistance), and can lead to eventual failure of electrical components. Localized increase of current density is known as current crowding.

Balance of atom concentration
A governing equation which describes the atom concentration evolution throughout some interconnect segment, is the conventional mass balance (continuity) equation

where  is the atom concentration at the point with a coordinates  at the moment of time , and  is the total atomic flux at this location. The total atomic flux  is a combination of the fluxes caused by the different atom migration forces. The major forces are induced by the electric current, and by the gradients of temperature, mechanical stress and concentration. .

To define the fluxes mentioned above:

 .
Here  is the electron charge,  is the effective charge of the migrating atom,  the resistivity of the conductor where atom migration takes place,  is the local current density,  is the Boltzmann constant,  is the absolute temperature.  is the time and position dependent atom diffusivity.

 .  We use  the heat of thermal diffusion.

 ,
here  is the atomic volume and  is initial atomic concentration,  is the hydrostatic stress and  are the components of principal stress.

 .

Assuming a vacancy mechanism for atom diffusion we can express  as a function of the hydrostatic stress  where  is the effective activation energy of the thermal diffusion of metal atoms. The vacancy concentration represents availability of empty lattice sites, which might be occupied by a migrating atom.

Electromigration-aware design

Electromigration reliability of a wire (Black's equation)

At the end of the 1960s J. R. Black developed an empirical model to estimate the MTTF (mean time to failure) of a wire, taking electromigration into consideration. Since then, the formula has gained popularity in the semiconductor industry:

.

Here  is a constant based on the cross-sectional area of the interconnect,  is the current density,  is the activation energy (e.g. 0.7 eV for grain boundary diffusion in aluminum),  is the Boltzmann constant,  is the temperature in kelvins, and  a scaling factor (usually set to 2 according to Black). The temperature of the conductor appears in the exponent, i.e. it strongly affects the MTTF of the interconnect. For an interconnect of a given construction to remain reliable as the temperature rises, the current density within the conductor must be reduced. However, as interconnect technology advances at the nanometer scale, the validity of Black's equation becomes increasingly questionable.

Wire material
Historically, aluminium has been used as conductor in integrated circuits, due to its good adherence to substrate, good conductivity, and ability to form ohmic contacts with silicon. However, pure aluminium is susceptible to electromigration. Research shows that adding 2-4% of copper to aluminium increases resistance to electromigration about 50 times. The effect is attributed to the grain boundary segregation of copper, which greatly inhibits the diffusion of aluminium atoms across grain boundaries.

Pure copper wires can withstand approximately five times more current density than aluminum wires while maintaining similar reliability requirements. This is mainly due to the higher electromigration activation energy levels of copper, caused by its superior electrical and thermal conductivity as well as its higher melting point. Further improvements can be achieved by alloying copper with about 1% palladium which inhibits diffusion of copper atoms along grain boundaries in the same way as the addition of copper to aluminium interconnect.

Bamboo structure and metal slotting
A wider wire results in smaller current density and, hence, less likelihood of electromigration. Also, the metal grain size has influence; the smaller grains, the more grain boundaries and the higher likelihood of electromigration effects. However, if you reduce wire width to below the average grain size of the wire material, grain boundaries become "crosswise", more or less perpendicular to the length of the wire. The resulting structure resembles the joints in a stalk of bamboo. With such a structure, the resistance to electromigration increases, despite an increase in current density. This apparent contradiction is caused by the perpendicular position of the grain boundaries; the boundary diffusion factor is excluded, and material transport is correspondingly reduced.

However, the maximum wire width possible for a bamboo structure is usually too narrow for signal lines of large-magnitude currents in analog circuits or for power supply lines. In these circumstances, slotted wires are often used, whereby rectangular holes are carved in the wires. Here, the widths of the individual metal structures in between the slots lie within the area of a bamboo structure, while the resulting total width of all the metal structures meets power requirements.

Blech length
There is a lower limit for the length of the interconnect that will allow higher current carrying capability. It is known as "Blech length". Any wire that has a length below this limit will have a stretched limit for electromigration. Here, a mechanical stress buildup causes an atom back flow process which reduces or even compensates the effective material flow towards the anode. The Blech length must be considered when designing test structures to evaluate electromigration. This minimum length is typically some tens of microns for chip traces, and interconnections shorter than this are sometimes referred to as 'electromigration immortal'.

Via arrangements and corner bends
Particular attention must be paid to vias and contact holes. The current carrying capacity of a via is much less than a metallic wire of same length. Hence multiple vias are often used, whereby the geometry of the via array is very significant: multiple vias must be organized such that the resulting current is distributed as evenly as possible through all the vias.

Attention must also be paid to bends in interconnects. In particular, 90-degree corner bends must be avoided, since the current density in such bends is significantly higher than that in oblique angles (e.g., 135 degrees).

Electromigration in solder joints
The typical current density at which electromigration occurs in Cu or Al interconnects is 106 to 107 A/cm2. For solder joints (SnPb or SnAgCu lead-free) used in IC chips, however, electromigration occurs at much lower current densities, e.g. 104 A/cm2.
It causes a net atom transport along the direction of electron flow. The atoms accumulate at the anode, while voids are generated at the cathode and back stress is induced during electromigration. The typical failure of a solder joint due to electromigration will occur at the cathode side. Due to the current crowding effect, voids form first at the corners of the solder joint. Then the voids extend and join to cause a failure. Electromigration also influences formation of intermetallic compounds, as the migration rates are a function of atomic mass.

Electromigration and technology computer aided design
The complete mathematical model describing electromigration consists of several partial differential equations (PDEs)  which need to be solved for three-dimensional geometrical domains representing segments of an interconnect structure. Such a mathematical model forms the basis for simulation of electromigration in modern technology computer aided design (TCAD) tools.
Use of TCAD tools for detailed investigations of electromigration induced interconnect degradation is gaining importance. Results of TCAD studies in combination with reliability tests lead to modification of design rules improving the interconnect resistance to electromigration.

Electromigration due to IR drop noise of the on-chip power grid network/interconnect

The electromigration degradation of the on-chip power grid network/interconnect depends on the IR drop noise of the power grid interconnect.
The electromigration-aware lifetime of the power grid interconnects as well as the chip decreases if the chip suffers from a high value of the IR drop noise.

Machine Learning Model for Electromigration-aware MTTF Prediction

Recent work demonstrates MTTF prediction using a machine learning model. The work uses a neural network-based supervised learning approach with current density, interconnect length, interconnect temperature as input features to the model.

Electromigrated nanogaps
Electromigrated nanogaps are gaps formed in metallic bridges formed by the process of electromigration. A nanosized contact formed by electromigration acts like a waveguide for electrons. The nanocontact essentially acts like a one-dimensional wire with a conductance of . The current in a wire is the velocity of the electrons multiplied by the charge and number per unit length,   or . This gives a conductance of . In nano scale bridges the conductance falls in discrete steps of multiples of the quantum conductance .

Electromigrated Nanogaps have shown great promise as electrodes in use in molecular scale electronics. Researchers have used feedback controlled electromigration to investigate the magnetoresistance of a quantum spin valve.

Reference standards
 EIA/JEDEC Standard EIA/JESD61: Isothermal Electromigration Test Procedure.
 EIA/JEDEC Standard EIA/JESD63: Standard method for calculating the electromigration model parameters for current density and temperature.
 Fundamentals of electromigration, Chapter 2

See also
Kirkendall effect
 Sealing current

References

Further reading

 Ghate, P. B.: Electromigration-Induced Failures in VLSI Interconnects, IEEE Conf. Publication, Vol. 20:p 292 299, March 1982.

 Lienig, J.: , (Download paper) Proc. of the Int. Symposium on Physical Design (ISPD) 2006, pp. 39–46, April 2006.
 Lienig, J., Thiele, M.: , (Download paper), Proc. of the Int. Symposium on Physical Design (ISPD) 2018, pp. 144–151, March 2018.
 Louie Liu, H.C., Murarka, S.: "Modeling of Temperature Increase Due to Joule Heating During Elektromigration Measurements. Center for Integrated Electronics and Electronics Manufacturing", Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings Vol. 427:p. 113 119.

Books

External links

  What is Electromigration?, Computer Simulation Laboratory, Middle East Technical University.
  Electromigration for Designers: An Introduction for the Non-Specialist, J.R. Lloyd, EETimes.
 Semiconductor electromigration in-depth at DWPG.Com
 Modeling of electromigration process with void formation at UniPro R&D site
 DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Electromigration"

Electric and magnetic fields in matter
Electronic design automation
Semiconductor device defects
Transport phenomena
Electrochemistry

Electromigration


Itaguajé es un municipio brasileño de la región noroeste del estado del Paraná.
Durante algún tiempo Itaguajé perteneció a la comarca de Jaguapitã, hoy pertenece a la Comarca de Colorado/PR. Su primer Prefecto fue el Sr. José Gregório de Oliveira.

Su población estimada en 2004 era de 4.626 habitantes y su extensión territorial es de 251,313 km².

Patrimonio Cultural

Ruinas Nuestra Señora del Loreto.

Hidrografía

 Río Paranapanema
 Río Pirapó
 Central Hidroeléctrica de Taquaruçu

Referencias

Véase también
 Paraná

Enlaces externos

 Posadas y Hoteles en Itaguajé (en portugués)
 Fotos de Itaguajé (en portugués)

Localidades de Paraná

Itaguajé


Gairo (sardinski: Gàiru) je grad i općina (comune) u pokrajini Nuoru u regiji Sardiniji, Italija. Nalazi se na nadmorskoj visini od 670 metara i ima 1 444 stanovnika. Prostire se na 77,49 km². Gustoća naseljenosti je 19 st/km².Susjedne općine su: Arzana, Cardedu, Jerzu, Lanusei, Osini, Seui, Tertenia, Ulassai i Ussassai.

Izvori

Gradovi na Sardiniji

Gairo