Arthur William Radford  (27 February 1896 – 17 August 1973) was an admiral and naval aviator of the United States Navy. In over 40 years of military service, Radford held a variety of positions including the vice chief of Naval Operations, commander of the United States Pacific Fleet and later the second chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

With an interest in ships and aircraft from a young age, Radford saw his first sea duty aboard the battleship  during World War I. In the inter-war period he earned his pilot wings and rose through the ranks in duties aboard ships and in the Bureau of Aeronautics. After the U.S. entered World War II, he was the architect of the development and expansion of the Navy's aviator training programs in the first years of the war. In its final years he commanded carrier task forces through several major campaigns of the Pacific War.

Noted as a strong-willed and aggressive leader, Radford was a central figure in the post-war debates on U.S. military policy, and was a staunch proponent of naval aviation. As commander of the Pacific Fleet, he defended the Navy's interests in an era of shrinking defense budgets, and was a central figure in the "Revolt of the Admirals," a contentious public fight over policy. As Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, he continued to advocate for aggressive foreign policy and a strong nuclear deterrent in support of the "New Look" policy of President Dwight Eisenhower.

Retiring from the military in 1957, Radford continued to be a military adviser to several prominent politicians until his death in 1973. For his extensive service, he was awarded many military honors, and was the namesake of the Spruance-class destroyer .

Early life
Arthur William Radford was born on 27 February 1896 in Chicago, Illinois, to John Arthur Radford, a Canadian-born electrical engineer, and Agnes Eliza Radford (née Knight). The eldest of four children, he was described as bright and energetic in his youth. When Arthur was six years old the family moved to Riverside, Illinois, where his father took a job as a managing engineer with Commonwealth Edison Company. John Radford managed the first steam turbine engines in the United States, at the Fisk Street Generating Station.

Arthur began his school years at Riverside Public School, where he expressed an interest in the United States Navy from a young age. He gained an interest in aviation during a visit to the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, Missouri. By fourth grade, he frequently drew detailed cross-section diagrams of the . He was shy, but performed very well in school. In mid-1910, Radford moved with his family to Grinnell, Iowa, and attended Grinnell High School for a year and a half, before deciding to apply to the United States Naval Academy. He obtained the local congressman's recommendation for an appointment to the academy, and was accepted. After several months of tutoring at Annapolis, Maryland, he entered the academy in July 1912, at the age of sixteen.

Although Radford's first year at the academy was mediocre he applied himself to his studies in his remaining years there. He participated in summer cruises to Europe in 1913 and 1914 and passed through the Panama Canal to San Francisco in 1916. Radford, known as "Raddie" to his fellow students, graduated 59th of 177 in the class of 1916, and was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Navy during the First World War.

Military career
Radford's first duty was aboard the battleship , as it escorted a transatlantic convoy to France in 1918. In his second post he was an aide-de-camp to a battleship division commander, and in his third, a flag lieutenant for another battleship division commander.

In 1920, Radford reported to Pensacola, Florida, for flight training, and was promoted to lieutenant soon thereafter. During the 1920s and 1930s his sea duty alternated among several aircraft squadrons, fleet staffs, and tours in the U.S. with the Bureau of Aeronautics. It was during this time, while he served under Rear Admiral William Moffett, that he frequently interacted with politicians and picked up the political acumen that would become useful later in his career. While he did not attend the Naval War College, as other rising officers did, Radford established himself as an effective officer who would speak his mind frankly, even to superiors.

Radford achieved the rank of lieutenant commander by 1927, and served with aircraft units aboard , , and . In 1936, he was promoted to commander and took charge of fighter squadron VF-1B aboard . By 1939, he was given command of Naval Air Station Seattle in Seattle, Washington. On 22 April 1939, he married Miriam J. (Ham) Spencer at Vancouver Barracks, Washington. Spencer (1895–1997) was a daughter of George Ham of Portland, Oregon, and the former wife of (1) Albert Cressey Maze (1891–1943), with whom she had a son, Robert Claude Maze Sr., Major, USMC who was killed in action in 1945 and (2) Earl Winfield Spencer Jr. In May 1940, Radford was appointed executive officer of the , a post he served in for one year.

In July 1941, Radford was appointed commander of the Naval Air Station in Trinidad, British West Indies. He protested this appointment because he feared he would remain there for years, sidelined as World War II loomed. In the event he only remained in this station for three months, following an organizational shift in the Bureau of Aeronautics. By mid-1941, thanks to a large expansion in the naval aviator program, squadrons could no longer train newly arrived aviators. Further, at that time, the vast difference in the performance of combat aircraft over training aircraft meant that pilots needed more time in combat aircraft before becoming proficient in them. Radford was subsequently visited by Artemus L. Gates, Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air. The latter was so impressed that he ordered Rear Admiral John H. Towers, chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, to transfer Radford to a newly formed training division.

World War II

Aviation Training Division
Radford took command of the Aviation Training Division in Washington, D.C., on 1 December 1941, seven days before the attack on Pearl Harbor that brought the United States into World War II. He was appointed as Director of Aviation Training for both the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Bureau of Navigation; the double appointment helped to centralize training coordination for all naval aviators. With the U.S. mobilizing for war, Radford's office worked long hours six days a week in an effort to build up the necessary training infrastructure as quickly as possible. For several months, this around-the-clock work took up all of his time, and he later noted that walking to work was his only form of exercise for several months. During this time, he impressed colleagues with a direct and no-nonsense approach to work, while maintaining a demeanor that made him easy to work for. He was promoted to captain soon after.

Throughout 1942 he established and refined the administrative infrastructure for aviation training. Radford oversaw the massive growth of the training division, establishing separate sections for administration; Physical Training Service Schools; and training devices; and sections to train various aviators in flight, aircraft operation, radio operation, and gunnery. The section also organized technical training and wrote training literature. He also engineered the establishment of four field commands for pilot training. Air Primary Training Command commanded all pre-flight schools and Naval reserve aviation bases in the country. Air Intermediate Training Command administered Naval Air Station Pensacola and Naval Air Station Corpus Christi where flight training was conducted. Air Operational Training Command was in charge of all education of pilots between pilot training and their first flying assignments. Finally, Air Technical Training Command trained enlisted men for support jobs in aviation such as maintenance, engineering, aerography, and parachute operations. Radford sought to integrate his own efficient leadership style into the organization of these schools.

Radford was noted for thinking progressively and innovatively to establish the most effective and efficient training programs. He sought to integrate sports conditioning programs into naval aviator training. Radford brought in athletic directors from Ohio State University, Harvard University and Penn State University under football player and naval aviator Tom Hamilton, to whom he gave the remit to develop the conditioning programs. Radford also suggested integrating women into intricate but repetitive tasks, such as running flight simulators. When commanders rejected the idea of bringing women into the service, he convinced Congressman Carl Vinson, chair of the House Naval Affairs Committee of the merit of the idea. This effort eventually led to the employment of the "Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service", and 23,000 WAVES would assist in aeronautical training in the course of the war. Radford also sought to best use the assets of businessmen and professionals who had volunteered for military service, establishing the Aviation Indoctrination School and Air Combat Intelligence School at Naval Air Station Quonset Point so as to enable these advanced recruits to become more experienced naval officers.

Sea duty

By early 1943, with Radford's training programs established and functioning efficiently, he sought combat duty. In April of that year, he was ordered to report to the office of Commander, Naval Air Forces, Pacific Fleet where he was promoted to rear admiral and tapped to be a carrier division commander. This was an unusual appointment, as most carrier division commanders were appointed only after duty commanding a capital ship. He then spent May and June 1943 on an inspection party under Gates, touring U.S. bases in the south Pacific. Following this, he was assigned under Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman, commander of Carrier Division 2 at Pearl Harbor. Radford spent several weeks observing flight operations and carrier tactics for various ships operating out of Hawaii. He was particularly impressed with how carrier doctrine had evolved in the time since his own assignment on a carrier, and in June 1943, he was ordered to observe operations on the light aircraft carrier , learning the unique challenges of using light carriers.

On 21 July 1943, Radford was given command of Carrier Division Eleven, which consisted of the new Essex-class carrier   as well as the light carriers USS Independence and . These carriers remained at Pearl Harbor through August, training and refining their operations. Radford got his first operational experience on 1 September 1943, covering a foray to Baker and Howland Islands as part of Task Force 11 under Rear Admiral Willis A. Lee. Radford commanded Princeton,  and four destroyers to act as a covering force for Lee's marines, who built an airfield on the islands. After this successful operation, and at the direction of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Task Force 11 was joined by Task Force 15, with Lexington, under Rear Admiral Charles A. Pownall. The two task forces then steamed for Tarawa Atoll to strike it. On the night of 17 September, the carriers launched six strikes of fighter aircraft, dive bombers, and torpedo planes to work over the Japanese defenses.

Next, Radford and his carriers took part in an air attack and cruiser bombardment of Wake Island on 5 to 6 October 1943. He shifted his flag to Lexington for the operation, which took two days. Though the effects on Japanese positions were not known, Radford and other leaders considered the operations useful for preparing their forces for the major battles to come in the Central Pacific.

Major combat operations
Major operations in the Central Pacific began that November. Radford's next duty was in Operation Galvanic, a campaign into the Gilbert Islands with the objective of capturing Tarawa as well as Makin Island and Apamama Atoll. It would be one of the first times that American carriers would be operating against Japanese land-based air power in force, as U.S. Army troops and U.S. Marines fought the Japanese on the ground. For this mission, Radford's carrier division was designated Task Group 50.2, the Northern Carrier Group, which consisted of ,  and . He did not agree with this strategy, maintaining until his death that the force should have gone on an offensive to strike Japanese air power instead of being tied to the ground forces. Despite his objections, the force left Pearl Harbor for the Gilbert Islands on 10 November.

The invasion began on 20 November. Radford's force was occupied with air strikes on Japanese ground targets, and faced frequent attack by Japanese aircraft in night combat, which U.S. aircrews were not well prepared or equipped for. He improvised a unit to counter Japanese night raids, and was later credited with establishing routines for nighttime combat air patrols to protect carriers; these were adopted fleetwide. He commanded Carrier Division Eleven around Tarawa for several more days, returning to Pearl Harbor on 4 December.

Returning from Tarawa, Radford was reassigned as chief of staff to Towers, who was Commander, Air Force, Pacific Fleet. He assisted in planning upcoming operations, including Operation Flintlock, the invasion of the Marshall Islands. He had hoped to return to combat duty at the end of this assignment, but in March 1944 he was ordered to Washington, D.C., and appointed as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations. He assumed this new duty on 1 April, a role which was primarily administrative in nature. His duties included establishing a new integrated system for aircraft maintenance, supply, and retirement, for which he was appointed the head of a board to study aircraft wear and tear. After six months in this duty, Radford was returned to the Pacific theater by Admiral Ernest J. King, the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commander in Chief, United States Fleet.

Radford returned to Pearl Harbor on 7 October 1944, where he was appointed as commander of First Carrier Task Force, Carrier Division Six. While flying to his new command, he was held over in Kwajalein and then Saipan, missing the Battle of Leyte Gulf which took place in the Philippines during the layover. He flew to Ulithi where he reported to Vice Admiral John S. McCain, Sr., commander of Task Force 58. For the next two months, Radford remained on "make learn" status, again under Sherman's command, observing the operations and employment of carrier-based air power as a passenger aboard , part of Task Group 38.3. During this time, he observed the strikes on Luzon and the Visayas, as well as air attacks on Japanese shipping and Typhoon Cobra.

On 29 December 1944, Radford was unexpectedly ordered to take command of Task Group 38.1 after its commander, Rear Admiral Alfred E. Montgomery, was injured. The next day the fleet sortied from Ulithi and headed for scheduled air strikes on Luzon and Formosa (Taiwan). Throughout January 1945, Radford's fleet operated in the South China Sea striking Japanese targets in French Indochina and Hong Kong. In February, the U.S. Third Fleet was re-designated the U.S. Fifth Fleet, and as a part of this reorganization Radford's force was redesignated Task Group 58.4. He continued striking Japanese targets in the Inland Sea during March. On 1 April, the force was moved to support the Battle of Okinawa. Over the course of the next two months, his force continued its use of night raids, which by this point were effective in repelling Japanese attacks on U.S. Navy ships. After two months supporting ground forces on Okinawa, Radford's fleet was detached from that operation.

Returning to the Third Fleet and being re-designated Task Group 38.4, the force began operating off the Japanese Home Islands in July 1945. It began an intense airstrike campaign against military targets on Honshu and Hokkaido, striking Japanese airfields, merchant shipping, and ground targets. Radford commanded the force in this duty until V-J Day, the end of the war in the Pacific. Upon receipt of the orders to end hostilities, he signaled his ships that he was proud of their accomplishments.

Post-war years
Radford was promoted to vice admiral in late 1945. For a time he was Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air under Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal. During the post-war period, Radford was a strong advocate that naval aviation programs be maintained. When Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King issued a post-war plan calling for the U.S. to maintain nine active aircraft carriers, Radford suggested he double the number, a politically unrealistic proposal.

After the war, Radford was a principal opponent to a plan to merge the uniformed services. A plan existed to split the Army and the Army Air Forces into separate branches and unite them and the Navy under one Cabinet-level defense organization. Fearing the loss of their branch's influence, Navy commanders opposed the formation of a separate Air Force and favored a more loose defense organization. Radford was picked by Forrestal to form the Secretary's Committee of Research and Reorganization. Months of discussion resulted in the National Security Act of 1947, a political victory for the Navy because it created the U.S. Air Force while resulting in a coordinated, not unified, U.S. Department of Defense with limited power and with the Navy maintaining control of its air assets. In 1947, Radford was briefly appointed commander of the Second Task Fleet, a move he felt was to distance him from the budget negotiations in Washington, but nonetheless preferred.

In 1948, Radford was appointed by President Harry S. Truman as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations (VCNO). Debates continued with military leaders about the future of the United States Armed Forces as Truman sought to trim the defense budget. Radford was relied on by Navy leaders as an expert who would fiercely defend the Navy's interests from budget restrictions, but his appointment as VCNO was opposed by Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, who feared his hard-line stance on the budget would alienate the generals in the other branches of the military. Some historians contend Radford brought strong leadership to the role. Naval aviation assets grew from 2,467 aircraft to 3,467 during this time, almost all aircraft for fast-attack carriers. He also oversaw the implementation of the "Full Air Program" which envisioned 14,500 total aircraft in the naval air force. Along with his predecessor John Dale Price, he favored reducing naval ship strength in order to develop stronger naval aviation capabilities. Then, in 1949, Truman appointed him as the High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.

Commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet
In April 1949, Truman appointed Radford to the position of Commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. A staunch anticommunist, Radford saw the greatest threat to U.S. security coming from Asia, not Europe. He traveled extensively throughout the Pacific as well as South Asia and the Far East. He became acquainted with political and military leaders in New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaya, Burma, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong, Formosa, and Japan, and learned about the sociopolitical issues facing each nation and the region as a whole.

"Revolt of the Admirals"

Despite his new office, Radford was soon recalled to Washington to continue hearings on the future of the U.S. military budget. He became a key figure in what would later be called the "Revolt of the Admirals", which took place during April 1949 when the supercarrier  was cancelled.

At the request of Congressman Carl Vinson, Radford strongly opposed plans by Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews to make the Convair B-36 the Air Force's principal bomber aircraft, calling it a "billion dollar blunder." Radford also questioned the Air Force's plan to focus on nuclear weapons delivery capabilities as its primary deterrent to war and called nuclear war "morally reprehensible". While the United States remained cancelled and the post-war cuts to the Navy were intact, funding was increasing during the Cold War era for conventional forces.

Korean War

Shortly after the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, control of Vice Admiral Arthur D. Struble's U.S. Seventh Fleet was transferred from Radford to Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy, who was serving as Commander, Naval Forces, Far East. Joy's superior was General of the Army Douglas MacArthur of the United Nations Command Korea (UNC). As such, Radford exercised no direct responsibility over forces involved in the conflict.

Radford was an admirer of MacArthur and a proponent of his "Asia First" strategy. He supported Operation Chromite in October 1950, as well as the United Nations mission of Korean reunification. He attended the Wake Island Conference between MacArthur and Truman on 15 October, and later recalled his belief that, should the Chinese intervene in the war, the U.S. could still prevail provided it was able to strike Chinese People's Liberation Army bases in Manchuria with air power. When the People's Volunteer Army did intervene in favor of North Korea the next month, Radford shared MacArthur's frustration at restrictions placed on the UN force in the war preventing it from striking Chinese soil. Once Truman relieved MacArthur in April 1951, Radford reportedly gave the general a "hero's welcome" in Hawaii as he was returning to the United States.

As commander of U.S. forces in the Philippines and Formosa, Radford accompanied President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower on his three-day trip to Korea in December 1952. Eisenhower was looking for an exit strategy for the stalemated and unpopular war, and Radford suggested threatening China with attacks on its Manchurian bases and the use of nuclear weapons. This view was shared by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and UNC Commanding General Mark W. Clark, but had not been acted on when the armistice came in July 1953, at a time when the Chinese were struggling with domestic unrest. Still, Radford's frankness during the trip and his knowledge of Asia made a good impression on Eisenhower, who nominated Radford to be his Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

Eisenhower's official nomination for Radford came in mid-1953. Eisenhower was initially cautious about him because of his involvement in the inter-service rivalry and "revolt" in 1949. Radford's anticommunist views, however, as well as his knowledge of Asia and his support of Eisenhower's "New Look" defense policy, made him an attractive nominee, particularly among Republicans, to replace Omar Bradley. Eisenhower was also impressed with his "intelligence, dedication, tenacity, and courage to speak his mind." During his nomination, Radford indicated a changed outlook from the positions he had taken during the "Revolt of the Admirals". As chairman, he was eventually popular with both the president and Congress.

Military budget

Radford was integral in formulating and executing the "New Look" policy, reducing spending on conventional military forces to favor a strong nuclear deterrent and a greater reliance on airpower. In this time, he had to overcome resistance from Army leaders who opposed the reduction of their forces, and Radford's decisions, unfettered by inter-service rivalry, impressed Eisenhower. In spite of his support of the "New Look", he disagreed with Eisenhower on several occasions when the president proposed drastic funding cuts that Radford worried would render the U.S. Navy ineffective. In late 1954, for example, Radford testified privately before a congressional committee that he felt some of Eisenhower's proposed defense cuts would limit the military's capability for "massive retaliation", but he kept his disagreements out of public view, working from within and seeking the funding to save specific strategic programs.

In 1956, Radford proposed protecting several military programs from funding cuts by reducing numbers of conventional forces, but the proposal was leaked to the press, causing an uproar in Congress and among U.S. military allies, and the plan was dropped. In 1957, after the other Joint Chiefs of Staff again disagreed on how to downsize force levels amid more budget restrictions, Radford submitted ideas for less dramatic force downsizing directly to Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson, who agreed to pass them along to Eisenhower.

Foreign military policy
While Radford remained Eisenhower's principal adviser for the budget, they differed on matters of foreign policy. Radford advocated the use of nuclear weapons and a firm military and diplomatic stance against China. Early in his tenure, he suggested to Eisenhower a preventive war against China or the Soviet Union while the U.S. possessed a nuclear advantage and before it became entangled in conflicts in the Far East. Eisenhower immediately dismissed this idea.

After France requested U.S. assistance for its beleaguered force at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, Radford suggested an aggressive stance toward the Viet Minh by promoting Operation Vulture in which 60 U.S. Air Force B-29 Superfortress bombers would conduct airstrikes on Viet Minh positions. Radford even believed in the U.S. threaten it with nuclear weapons, like earlier with the Chinese in Korea. He also advocated U.S. military intervention in the 1955 First Taiwan Strait Crisis and the 1956 Suez Crisis, but Eisenhower favored diplomatic approaches and threats of force.

Later life

After his second term as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, Radford opted to retire from the Navy in 1957 to enter the private sector. The same year Radford High School in Honolulu was named in his honor. Radford was called upon to serve as military campaign advisor for Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election, and again for Barry Goldwater in the 1964 election.

Radford died of cancer at age 77 on 17 August 1973 at Bethesda Naval Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland. He is buried with his wife Miriam J. Radford (1895–1997) at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. In 1975, the Navy launched the anti-submarine Spruance-class destroyer , named in his honor.

Dates of rank

 United States Naval Academy Midshipman – Class of 1916

Awards and decorations
Radford's awards and decorations include the following:

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

 Arthur W. Radford, Dictionary of Naval Fighting Ships, Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy.
 Arthur W. Radford Scrapbook, 1910–1975 (bulk 1912–1913), MS 502 held by Special Collections & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy

1896 births
1973 deaths
United States Navy personnel of World War I
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
High Commissioners of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
Honorary Companions of the Order of the Bath
Military personnel from Chicago
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Naval Aviators
United States Navy admirals
Vice Chiefs of Naval Operations
United States Navy World War II admirals
WAVES (Navy)

Arthur W. Radford


Sergej Milinković-Savić (født 27. februar 1995 i Lleida, Spanien), er en serbisk fodboldspiller (midtbane), der spiller for Saudi Professional League-klubben Al Hilal.

Klubkarriere
Milinković-Savić startede sin seniorkarriere i Serbien hos FK Vojvodina, der også havde været hans klub i en stor del af hans ungdomsår. I 2014 skiftede han til Genk i den belgiske liga.

I sommeren 2015 blev Milinković-Savić solgt til den italienske Serie A-klub Lazio.

Al Hilal

I juli 2023 skiftede Milinković-Savić til Saudi Professional League-klubben Al Hilal på en kontrakt frem til juni 2026 for ca. 34 mio. euro.

Landshold
Milinković-Savić debuterede for Serbiens landshold 10. november 2017 i en venskabskamp mod Kina. Han var en del af den serbiske trup til VM 2018 i Rusland.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Serbien
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2018
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2022
Fodboldspillere fra SS Lazio
Fodboldspillere fra KRC Genk
Personer fra Lleida

Sergej Milinković-Savić


Whiten c. Pilot Insurance Co. est un arrêt de principe de la Cour suprême du Canada concernant l'octroi de dommages-intérêts punitifs.

Les faits
L'affaire concernait la conduite abusive d'une compagnie d'assurances dans le traitement de la réclamation des assurés (Whiten) à la suite d'un incendie.

Jugement de la Cour suprême
Le pourvoi de Whiten est accueilli.

Motifs du jugement
L'opinion de la Cour a été rédigée par le juge Binnie; le juge Lebel était dissident.

Opinion de la Cour (Binnie)
La Cour suprême a souligné l'obligation contractuelle d'un assureur de traiter de bonne foi avec les assurés, dont la violation rendrait l'assureur responsable de dommages-intérêts punitifs. Écrivant au nom de la majorité, le juge Binnie a conclu que la compagnie d'assurances défenderesse avait manqué à son obligation contractuelle en raison de son traitement autoritaire et répréhensible des assurés demandeurs. Le juge Binnie a également rétabli l'octroi sans précédent d'un million de dollars par le  jury, que la majorité de la Cour d'appel de l'Ontario avait réduit à .

Le juge Binnie a accepté la norme d'imposition de dommages-intérêts punitifs énoncée dans l'arrêt Hill c. Église de scientologie de Toronto : « On peut accorder des dommages‑intérêts punitifs lorsque la mauvaise conduite du défendeur est si malveillante, opprimante et abusive qu'elle choque le sens de dignité de la cour. »..." Binnie a énoncé les principes suivants pour guider les juges du procès dans leurs exposés aux jurés :

Jugement dissident (Lebel)
Dans un jugement dissident, le juge LeBel a accepté le bien-fondé de l'octroi de dommages-intérêts punitifs, mais il a critiqué l'ampleur de l'indemnité en l'espèce et il fut sceptique quant à l'objectif de dissuasion de cette réparation par rapport aux faits en cause : il n'y a aucune preuve d'un comportement autoritaire endémique, que ce soit de la part de l'assureur défendeur envers ses titulaires de police ou dans l'industrie canadienne de l'assurance en général. En tout état de cause, a-t-il estimé, des mécanismes réglementaires et pénaux seraient plus appropriés pour toute préoccupation à l'échelle de l'industrie, que des dommages-intérêts moins prévisibles.

Le juge LeBel est généralement d'accord avec la description que les juges majoritaires ont fait des principes régissant les dommages-intérêts punitifs et, en particulier, l'importance de la raisonnabilité et de la proportionnalité dans l'élaboration d'une telle indemnité. Cependant, il pense que la décision initiale du jury dans cette affaire a échoué au critère de raisonnabilité  en raison de son seul objectif de punir la mauvaise foi de l'assureur. Il a également échoué au critère de proportionnalité en raison de l'écart entre le montant de l'indemnité et la perte subie par les demandeurs. La réduction de l'indemnité par la Cour d'appel, selon le juge Lebel, satisfaisait à ces deux critères, « sanctionne de façon non négligeable la mauvaise foi de Pilot sans compromettre le juste équilibre entre les fonctions compensatoire et punitive du droit de la responsabilité civile délictuelle ». Cette indemnité était suffisante et « compatible avec la nature et l'objet de cette sanction en droit de la responsabilité civile délictuelle ». Le montant accordé par les juges majoritaires, en revanche, est inapproprié dans le contexte du droit de la responsabilité délictuelle :

Importance de la décision
Le juge Binnie a souligné que cette décision parmi toutes ses décisions de la Cour suprême lui donnait une « satisfaction particulière » :

Notes et références

Lien externe
Texte intégral de la décision

Arrêt de la Cour suprême du Canada
Droit des obligations au Québec
Assurance

Whiten c. Pilot Insurance Co.


Jean-Dominique, comte de Cassini (30 June 174818 October 1845) was a French astronomer, son of César-François Cassini de Thury and great-grandson of Giovanni Domenico Cassini.

Cassini was born at the Paris Observatory. He succeeded his father as director of the observatory in 1784; but his plans for its restoration and re-equipment were wrecked in 1793 by the animosity of the National Assembly. His position having become intolerable, he resigned on 6 September and was thrown into prison in 1794, but released after seven months. He then withdrew to Thury, where he died in 1845.

In 1770, he published an account of a voyage to America in 1768, undertaken as the commissary of the French Academy of Sciences with a view to testing Pierre Le Roy's watches at sea.  In 1783, his father César-François Cassini de Thury had sent a letter to the Royal Society in London, in which he proposed a trigonometric survey connecting the observatories of Paris and Greenwich for the purpose of better determining the latitude and longitude of the latter. His proposal was accepted, resulting in the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790).
The results of the survey were published in 1791.

Dominique, comte de Cassini visited England with Pierre Méchain and Adrien-Marie Legendre, and the three met William Herschel at Slough. He completed his father's map of France, which was published by the Academy of Sciences in 1793. It served as the basis for the Atlas National (1791), showing France in departments. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788.

Cassini's Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de l'observatoire de Paris (1810) embodied portions of an extensive work, the prospectus of which he had submitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1774. The volume included his Eloges of several academicians, and the biography of his great-grandfather , Giovanni Cassini.

His wife was Claude Marie Louise de Lamyre-Mory Comtesse de Neuville (1754–1791) and their youngest son Henri was a botanist of some note.

References

See also : Paris Observatory digital library

External links

1748 births
1845 deaths
Scientists from Paris
French cartographers
18th-century French astronomers
French people of Italian descent
19th-century French astronomers
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society

Dominique, comte de Cassini


Klaus Bodinger (* 14. Mai 1932 in Breslau; † 6. April 1994 in Straßburg, Frankreich) war ein deutscher Schwimmer. 1954 wurde er Europameister.

Bodinger wurde von Herbert Neweklowsky trainiert, der vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg Wasserball bei Spandau gespielt hatte. 1952 gewann Bodinger für die BSG Stahl Nord-Leipzig seinen ersten DDR-Titel im 200-Meter-Brustschwimmen. Im Jahr darauf trat er für die BSG Motor Gohlis-Nord an. Er gewann erneut den DDR-Titel über 200 Meter Brust und belegte über 100 Meter Brust und mit der 4-mal-200-Meter-Bruststaffel jeweils den zweiten Platz. Nachdem er 1954 den DDR-Rekord auf der 200-Meter-Brust-Strecke auf 2:40,0 Minuten verbessert hatte, schwamm er bei den Schwimmeuropameisterschaften 1954 in Turin 2:40,9 Minuten und gewann damit den Titel.

Bereits während der Europameisterschaften hatten Neweklowsky und Bodinger Kontakt zu westdeutschen Funktionären aufgenommen, Anfang 1955 verließen die beiden die DDR und schlossen sich dem Karlsruher Schwimmverein Neptun 1899 an. Bei den Deutschen Meisterschaften 1955 gewann Bodinger über 200 Meter Brust seinen ersten Titel im Westen. 1957 und 1958 folgten zwei weitere Titel. Außerdem gewann Bodinger einen Kurzbahntitel und zwei Staffeltitel für die Karlsruher. Bei den Schwimmeuropameisterschaften 1958 in Budapest gewann er in 2:41,4 Minuten die Bronzemedaille hinter Leonid Kolesnikow aus der Sowjetunion und dem Italiener Roberto Lazzari.

Ende der 1950er Jahre beendete Bodinger seine sportliche Karriere und suchte sich eine Stelle als Büroangestellter. Am Ostermontag 1994 starb Bodinger in einem Hotelzimmer in Straßburg.

Literatur
 Bodo Harenberg (Red.): Die Stars des Sports von A–Z. Habel, Darmstadt u. a. 1970.
 Volker Kluge: Lexikon Sportler in der DDR. Verlag Neues Leben, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-355-01759-6, S. 42.

Einzelnachweise

Schwimmer (DDR)
Schwimmer (Deutschland)
DDR-Bürger
Deutscher
Europameister (Schwimmen)
DDR-Meister (Schwimmen)
Deutscher Meister (Schwimmen)
Geboren 1932
Gestorben 1994
Mann

Klaus Bodinger


Edward Patrick Francis Eagan (April 26, 1897 – June 14, 1967) was an American boxer and bobsledder who is notable as being the only person to win a gold medal at both the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in different disciplines. Eagan won his summer gold in boxing and his winter gold in four-man bobsled. Finally, Eagan is one of the few athletes who have competed in both the Summer and Winter Olympic games.

Early life

Eagan was born into a modest family in Denver, Colorado. He graduated from Longmont High School and attended college at Denver University for one year, during which time he won the western middleweight title. During World War I he was an artillery lieutenant and was the middleweight champion of the American Expeditionary Forces. After the war he attended Yale University. In 1919, he won the AAU's heavyweight title. After graduating from Yale in 1921, Eagan attended Harvard Law School and the University of Oxford. In 1923 he won Amateur Boxing Association heavyweight title.

Eagan wrote in his autobiography about how he had modeled his behavior after Frank Merriwell, a fictional athlete from Yale who was the subject of hundreds of widely read dime novels: "To this day I have never used tobacco, because Frank Merriwell didn't. My first glass of wine, which I do not care for, was taken under social compulsion in Europe. Frank never drank."

Olympics

Summer Olympics
In 1920, he competed as a boxer at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, and won the gold medal in the light-heavyweight division. He also competed at the 1924 Summer Olympics, but this time as a heavyweight. He failed to medal, having lost in the first round to Arthur Clifton (see Boxing at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's heavyweight).

Winter Olympics
Eagan returned to the Olympics eight years later, this time as a member of the bobsled crew of Billy Fiske, who steered to victory at the 1932 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. Eagan became the first of six Olympians to medal in both the Winter and Summer Games, followed by Jacob Tullin Thams (Norway), Christa Luding-Rothenburger (East Germany), Clara Hughes (Canada), and Lauryn Williams (United States). Eddy Alvarez joined Eagan and Williams in 2020 as the only Americans to win medals in both the Winter and Summer Olympics. Eagan is one of two competitors to win gold in both Olympic seasons (the other being Gillis Grafström whose only summer gold was in figure skating).

Personal life

In 1927 Eagan married Margaret Colgate, who was a member of the family that founded Colgate-Palmolive. In 1932 he was admitted to the New York bar and began a career in private practice. He spent five years as an Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York before joining the United States Army Air Forces. During World War II, he served in the Air Transport Command and visited nearly every place where the Army had planes. He retired with the rank of lieutenant colonel and earned numerous decorations. After the war, Egan was appointed chairman of the New York State Athletic Commission. He resigned in 1951 to focus on his law practice.

Eddie Eagan set a world record for the fastest circumnavigation of the globe by scheduled airlines on December 13, 1948.  He traveled 20,559 miles stopping at 18 different stations and beat the previous record by 20 hours and 15 minutes.

He died at age 70 in New York City and was interred at Greenwood Union Cemetery.

See also
 Adventurers' Club of New York
 List of Olympians who won medals in the Summer and Winter Games

Notes

References

External links

1897 births
1967 deaths
Boxers from Denver
American male bobsledders
American male boxers
United States Army personnel of World War II
Bobsledders at the 1932 Winter Olympics
Boxers at the 1920 Summer Olympics
Boxers at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Harvard Law School alumni
Medalists at the 1920 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1932 Winter Olympics
New York State Athletic Commissioners
Olympic boxers for the United States
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in bobsleigh
People from Rye, New York
Sportspeople from Westchester County, New York
United States Army colonels
Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in boxing
Light-heavyweight boxers

Eddie Eagan


Chanson catalane est le titre de plusieurs œuvres :
 Chanson catalane, mélodie d'Augusta Holmès (1886) ;
 Chanson catalane, mélodie de Mel Bonis (1931).

Chanson catalane


A Igreja Nativa Americana (NAC), também conhecida como Peyotismo e Religião Peyote, é uma religião nativa americana que ensina uma combinação de crenças tradicionais nativas americanas e cristianismo, com uso sacramental do peiote enteógeno. A religião se originou no território de Oklahoma (1890-1907) no final do século XIX, depois que o peiote foi introduzido nas Grandes Planícies do sul do México. Hoje é a religião indígena mais difundida entre os nativos americanos nos Estados Unidos (exceto nativos do Alasca e nativos havaianos), Canadá (especificamente povos das Primeiras Nações em Saskatchewan e Alberta) e México, com uma estimativa de 250.000 adeptos no final do século XX.

História

Historicamente, muitas denominações do cristianismo tradicional fizeram tentativas de converter os nativos americanos ao cristianismo no Hemisfério Ocidental. Esses esforços foram parcialmente bem-sucedidos, pois muitas tribos nativas americanas refletem o credo cristão, incluindo a Igreja Nativa Americana. Embora a conversão ao cristianismo tenha sido um processo lento, os princípios da Igreja Nativa Americana foram mais prontamente aceitos.

Originalmente formada no território de Oklahoma, a Igreja Nativa Americana é monoteísta, acreditando em um ser supremo, chamado de Grande Espírito. Os princípios da Igreja Nativa Americana consideram o peiote como um sacramento sagrado e o usam como meio de comunicação com o Grande Espírito (Deus), também conhecido como o Criador.

Crenças da igreja
Uma crença proeminente entre os membros da igreja é que todas as plantas são criadas propositalmente pelo Grande Espírito. Isso inclui o peiote que foi criado para fins medicinais, espirituais e de cura. Acredita-se que a doença e a morte sejam o resultado de um desequilíbrio no indivíduo. Além do peiote, outras plantas sagradas, oração e jejum são usados para curar esse desequilíbrio. O uso do peiote nunca é para fins recreativos e os efeitos alucinógenos da planta são considerados visões espirituais. Para a maioria dos nativos americanos, as visões são uma comunhão com o metafísico. No entanto, nem todos os membros experimentam efeitos alucinógenos durante os rituais de peiote. A planta destina-se a curar ou corrigir problemas sociais, pessoais e comunitários. Os membros acreditam que a planta é segura para crianças e mulheres grávidas. Os membros também acreditam na importância de ajudar o mundo para criar paz, saúde e liberdade. Eles buscam orientação do Grande Espírito para proteger a terra, continuar os caminhos de seus ancestrais e cuidar das gerações futuras. Além disso, eles praticam a inclusão e novos membros são bem-vindos para ingressar na igreja.

Relação com o cristianismo
Alguns nativos americanos não gostam das crenças do cristianismo por causa da história entre nativos e grupos cristãos europeus. As tentativas dos missionários de alterar ou remover aspectos da herança e cultura dos nativos americanos deixaram muitos incapazes de se reconciliar com o cristianismo. Por outro lado, alguns membros procuram restabelecer a relação entre a Igreja e os cristãos. Eles acreditam que o perdão é importante para o conceito nativo de "andar direito". A maioria dos membros acredita que Jesus Cristo e o Grande Espírito são um e o mesmo.

Diferentes lareiras
Na Igreja Nativa Americana, existem duas lareiras principais (altares cerimoniais de peiote transmitidos de geração em geração pela família) que são conduzidas: a lareira Meia-Lua e a lareira Fogo-Cruz.

Lareira meia-lua :

 Usa um altar de areia em forma de meia-lua, a cor da areia e o tamanho usado variando entre as tribos
 Usa tabaco e palha de milho durante as seções principais do serviço
 Os padrões de design de carvão diferem de tribo para tribo durante o serviço
 A equipe é passada ao redor do tipi durante as seções de canto
 Principais quatro canções cerimoniais cantadas.

Lareira de Fogo-Cruz:

 Usa um altar de areia em forma de ferradura, com um monte correspondente fora do tipi paralelo à fogueira - para representar o "túmulo de Jesus Cristo"
 Não utiliza tabaco
 A equipe é colocada de pé no chão e não é passada pela cerimônia durante as seções de canto
 As seções da Bíblia são recitadas e usadas de acordo com as preces da família
 Desenho cruzado dentro das brasas para representar certos elementos de Jesus Cristo.
 Canções de peiote principalmente cristãs cantadas, com as quatro principais canções cerimoniais anexadas ao fogo cruzado.

Existem muitas variações de cada lareira, e elas dependem muito da tribo e do ambiente. Existem também lareiras especiais que não se encaixam exatamente no molde de nenhum dos estilos principais, portanto, a lista acima não é de forma alguma autoritária.

Cerimônia e papéis
Os seguidores da Igreja Nativa Americana têm diferentes cerimônias, celebrações e formas de praticar sua religião. Por exemplo, entre os Teton, o grupo Fogo-cruz usa a Bíblia para sermões, que são rejeitados pelos seguidores da Meia-lua, embora cada um ensine uma moral cristã semelhante. As cerimônias geralmente duram a noite toda, começando no sábado à noite e terminando no domingo de manhã. Leitura das escrituras, oração, canto e percussão estão incluídos. Em geral, a Igreja Nativa Americana acredita em um Deus supremo, o Grande Espírito .

As cerimônias geralmente são realizadas em um tipi e exigem um padre, pastor ou ancião para conduzir o serviço. O condutor é referido como o Roadman. O Roadman é assistido por um homem do fogo, cuja tarefa é cuidar da lareira sagrada, certificando-se de que ela queime consistentemente a noite toda. O Roadman pode usar um cajado de oração, uma cabaça com contas e penas, um pequeno tambor, cedro e sua pena de águia como meio de conduzir os cultos. A esposa do Roadman ou outro parente do sexo feminino prepara quatro alimentos sacramentais e o "segundo café da manhã" que fazem parte dos cultos da igreja. Sua parte acontece bem cedo, entre 4h30 e 5h da manhã. Os quatro alimentos sacramentais são água, carne desfiada ou "carne doce", mingau de milho e alguma versão de baga. Para contrabalançar o amargor do peiote consumido durante os cultos, os alimentos doces foram adicionados posteriormente. O segundo café da manhã é como qualquer outro café da manhã. Geralmente inclui ovos cozidos, torradas, batatas fritas, café e suco. Esta refeição é servida bem após o nascer do sol e pouco antes do encerramento dos cultos da igreja.

Os serviços da igreja não são ocorrências regulares de domingo, mas são realizados de acordo com pedidos especiais de uma família para comemorar um aniversário ou para um serviço memorial ou funeral. Os serviços começam ao pôr do sol de uma sexta-feira ou sábado à noite e terminam ao nascer do sol. Assim, um participante "senta" a noite toda, abrindo mão de uma noite inteira de descanso como parte de um pequeno sacrifício ao Espírito Santo e a Jesus .

Os serviços da igreja culminam em uma festa para toda a comunidade no dia seguinte. Como o peiote é um estimulante, todos os membros participantes estão bem acordados, então eles também participam da festa. A necessidade de dormir geralmente é sentida no final da tarde, principalmente após a festa. Presentes são dados ao Roadman e a todos os seus ajudantes pela família patrocinadora na festa para mostrar profundo apreço por todo o seu trabalho árduo.
Razões comuns para realizar um culto incluem: o desejo de curar doenças, comemorações de aniversário, feriados cristãos, formaturas escolares e outros eventos significativos da vida.

Religiões sincréticas

Igreja Nativa Americana


Calcitonin is a 32 amino acid peptide hormone secreted by parafollicular cells (also known as C cells) of the thyroid (or endostyle) in humans and other chordates in the ultimopharyngeal body. It acts to reduce blood calcium (Ca2+), opposing the effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Its importance in humans has not been as well established as its importance in other animals, as its function is usually not significant in the regulation of normal calcium homeostasis. It belongs to the calcitonin-like protein family.

Historically calcitonin has also been called thyrocalcitonin.

Biosynthesis and regulation
Calcitonin is formed by the proteolytic cleavage of a larger prepropeptide, which is the product of the CALC1 gene (). It is functionally an antagonist with PTH and Vitamin D3. The CALC1 gene belongs to a superfamily of related protein hormone precursors including islet amyloid precursor protein, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and the precursor of adrenomedullin.

Secretion of calcitonin is stimulated by:
 an increase in serum Calcium [Ca2+]
 gastrin and pentagastrin.

Function

The hormone participates in calcium (Ca2+) metabolism. In many ways, calcitonin counteracts parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D.

More specifically, calcitonin lowers blood Ca2+ levels in two ways:

 Major effect: Inhibits osteoclast activity in bones, which break down the bone
 Minor effect: Inhibits renal tubular cell reabsorption of Ca2+ and phosphate, allowing them to be excreted in the urine

High concentrations of calcitonin may be able to increase urinary excretion of calcium and phosphate via the renal tubules. leading to marked hypocalcemia. However, this is a minor effect with no physiological significance in humans. It is also a short-lived effect because the kidneys become resistant to calcitonin, as demonstrated by the kidney's unaffected excretion of calcium in patients with thyroid tumors that secrete excessive calcitonin.

In its skeleton-preserving actions, calcitonin protects against calcium loss from the skeleton during periods of calcium mobilization, such as pregnancy and, especially, lactation. The protective mechanisms include the direct inhibition of bone resorption and the indirect effect through the inhibition of the release of prolactin from the pituitary gland. The reason provided is that prolactin induces the release of PTH related peptide which enhances bone resorption, but is still under investigation.

Other effects are in preventing postprandial hypercalcemia resulting from absorption of Ca2+. Also, calcitonin inhibits food intake in rats and monkeys, and may have CNS action involving the regulation of feeding and appetite.

Calcitonin lowers blood calcium and phosphorus mainly through its inhibition of osteoclasts. Osteoblasts do not have calcitonin receptors and are therefore not directly affected by calcitonin levels. However, since bone resorption and bone formation are coupled processes, eventually calcitonin's inhibition of osteoclastic activity leads to increased osteoblastic activity (as an indirect effect).

Receptor

The calcitonin receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor localized to osteoclasts as well kidney and brain cells. It is coupled to a Gsα subunit, thus stimulating cAMP production by adenylate cyclase in target cells. It may also affect the ovaries in women and the testes in men.

Discovery
Calcitonin was first purified in 1962 by Douglas Harold Copp and B. Cheney at the University of British Columbia, Canada. It was initially thought to be secreted by the parathyroid gland but was shown by Iain Macintyre and his team at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School, London, to be secreted by parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. Dr. Copp named the discovered hormone calcitonin because of its role in 'maintaining normal calcium tone'.

Clinical significance
Calcitonin assay is used in identifying patients with nodular thyroid diseases. It is helpful in making an early diagnosis of medullary carcinoma of thyroid. A malignancy of the parafollicular cells, i.e. Medullary thyroid cancer (MTC), typically produces an elevated serum calcitonin level. Prognosis of MTC depends on early detection and treatment.

Calcitonin also has significantly impacted molecular biology, as the gene encoding calcitonin was the first gene discovered in mammalian cells to be alternatively spliced, now known to be a ubiquitous mechanism in eukaryotes.

Pharmacology
Calcitonin has clinically been used for metabolic bone disorders for more than 50 years. Salmon calcitonin is used for the treatment of:
 Postmenopausal osteoporosis
 Hypercalcaemia
 Bone metastases
 Paget's disease
 Phantom limb pain

It has been investigated as a possible non-operative treatment for spinal stenosis.

The following information is from the UK Electronic Medicines Compendium

General characteristics of the active substance
Salmon calcitonin is rapidly absorbed and eliminated. Peak plasma concentrations are attained within the first hour of administration.

Animal studies have shown that calcitonin is primarily metabolised via proteolysis in the kidney following parenteral administration. The metabolites lack the specific biological activity of calcitonin. Bioavailability following subcutaneous and intramuscular injection in humans is high and similar for the two routes of administration (71% and 66%, respectively).

Calcitonin has short absorption and elimination half-lives of 10–15 minutes and 50–80 minutes, respectively. Salmon calcitonin is primarily and almost exclusively degraded in the kidneys, forming pharmacologically inactive fragments of the molecule. Therefore, the metabolic clearance is much lower in patients with end-stage kidney failure than in healthy subjects. However, the clinical relevance of this finding is not known.  Plasma protein binding is 30% to 40%.

Characteristics in patients
There is a relationship between the subcutaneous dose of calcitonin and peak plasma concentrations. Following parenteral administration of 100 IU calcitonin, peak plasma concentration lies between about 200 and 400 pg/ml. Higher blood levels may be associated with increased incidence of nausea, vomiting, and secretory diarrhea.

Preclinical safety data
Conventional long-term toxicity, reproduction, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity studies have been performed in laboratory animals. Salmon calcitonin is devoid of embryotoxic, teratogenic, and mutagenic potential.

An increased incidence of pituitary adenomas has been reported in rats given synthetic salmon calcitonin for 1 year. This is considered a species-specific effect and of no clinical relevance. Salmon calcitonin does not cross the placental barrier.

In lactating animals given calcitonin, suppression of milk production has been observed. Calcitonin is secreted into the milk.

Pharmaceutical manufacture
Calcitonin was extracted from the ultimobranchial glands (thyroid-like glands) of fish, particularly salmon.  Salmon calcitonin resembles human calcitonin, but is more active.  At present, it is produced either by recombinant DNA technology or by chemical peptide synthesis.  The pharmacological properties of the synthetic and recombinant peptides have been demonstrated to be qualitatively and quantitatively equivalent.

Uses of calcitonin

Treatments

Calcitonin can be used therapeutically for the treatment of hypercalcemia or osteoporosis.
In a recent clinical study, subcutaneous injections of calcitonin have reduced the incidence of fractures and reduced the decrease in bone mass in women with type 2 diabetes complicated with osteoporosis.

Subcutaneous injections of calcitonin in patients with mania resulted in significant decreases in irritability, euphoria and hyperactivity and hence calcitonin holds promise for treating bipolar disorder.  However no further work on this potential application of calcitonin has been reported.

Diagnostics

It may be used diagnostically as a tumor marker for medullary thyroid cancer, in which high calcitonin levels may be present and elevated levels after surgery may indicate recurrence. It may even be used on biopsy samples from suspicious lesions (e.g., lymph nodes that are swollen) to establish whether they are metastases of the original cancer.

Cutoffs for calcitonin to distinguish cases with medullary thyroid cancer have been suggested to be as follows, with a higher value increasing the suspicion of medullary thyroid cancer:
females: 5 ng/L or pg/mL
males: 12 ng/L or pg/mL
children under 6 months of age: 40 ng/L or pg/mL
children between 6 months and 3 years of age: 15 ng/L or pg/mL
When over 3 years of age, adult cutoffs may be used

A Cochrane systematic review assessed the diagnostic accuracy of basal and stimulated calcitonin for Medullary Thyroid cancer. Although both basal and combined basal and stimulated calcitonin testing presented high accuracy (sensitivity: between 82% and 100%; specificity: between 97.2% and 100%), these results had a high risk of bias due to design flaws of included studies. Overall, the value of routine testing of calcitonin for diagnosis and prognosis of Medullary Thyroid Cancer remains uncertain and questionable.

Increased levels of calcitonin have also been reported for various other conditions. They include: C-cell hyperplasia, nonthyroidal oat cell carcinoma, nonthyroidal carcinoma and other nonthyroidal malignancies, acute kidney injury and chronic kidney failure, hypercalcemia, hypergastrinemia, and other gastrointestinal disorders, and pulmonary disease.

Structure
Calcitonin is a polypeptide hormone of 32 amino acids, with a molecular weight of 3454.93 daltons. Its structure comprises a single alpha helix. Alternative splicing of the gene coding for calcitonin produces a distantly related peptide of 37 amino acids, called calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), beta type.

The following are the amino acid sequences of salmon  and human calcitonin:

 salmon:
Cys-Ser-Asn-Leu-Ser-Thr-Cys-Val-Leu-Gly-Lys-Leu-Ser-Gln-Glu-Leu-His-Lys-Leu-Gln-Thr-Tyr-Pro-Arg-Thr-Asn-Thr-Gly-Ser-Gly-Thr-Pro
 human:
Cys-Gly-Asn-Leu-Ser-Thr-Cys-Met-Leu-Gly-Thr-Tyr-Thr-Gln-Asp-Phe-Asn-Lys-Phe-His-Thr-Phe-Pro-Gln-Thr-Ala-Ile-Gly-Val-Gly-Ala-Pro

Compared to salmon calcitonin, human calcitonin differs at 16 residues.

Research
In addition to the injectable and nasal spray dosage forms of the salmon calcitonin, noninvasive oral formulations of the peptide are currently under clinical development. The short-half-life of this peptide in serum triggered several attempts to enhance plasma concentrations. The peptide is complexed with a macromolecule that acts as an absorption enhancer through the transcellular pathway and, additionally, protects the peptide from the harsh pH and enzymatic conditions of the GI tract. This complexation is weak, noncovalent and reversible and the drug remains chemically unmodified. After passage through the intestine, the delivery agent dissociates from the peptide. One of the extensively studied oral formulations is the disodium salts of 5-CNAC oral calcitonin. This novel oral platform in a number of clinical trials at different phases has demonstrated promising enhanced pharmacokinetic profile, high bioavailability, well-established safety and comparable efficacy to that of nasal calcitonin especially for treatment of postmenopausal bone loss.

See also
 Procalcitonin

References

Further reading

External links

The Calcitonin Protein

Peptide hormones
Hormones of the thyroid gland
Human hormones
Hormones of calcium metabolism
Tumor markers
Thyroid

Calcitonin


Montresta (sardisk: Montrèsta) er en by og en kommune (comune) i provinsen Oristano i regionen Sardinien i Italien. Byen ligger i 410 meters højde og har 489 indbyggere (2016). Kommunen har et areal på 31,16 km² og grænser til kommunerne Bosa, Padria og Villanova Monteleone.

Referencer

Henvisninger

Kommuner i provinsen Oristano

Montresta


Un parvenit este o persoană care a ajuns să dețină o bună situație materială, politică sau socială fără merite deosebite, fără muncă, adesea prin mijloace neoneste. Cuvântul provine din substantivul francez parvenu, format din participiul trecut al verbului parvenir (a ajunge, a reuși să facă ceva).

Origine
Cuvântul parvenit descrie în mod obișnuit o persoană care a urcat recent pe scara socială, mai ales un individ nou îmbogățit. Celebra Margaret Brown, care a supraviețuit scufundării Titanicului în 1912, a fost descrisă ca o persoană nou îmbogățită în musical-ul The Unsinkable Molly Brown, din cauza faptului că provenea dintr-o familie de imigranți irlandezi săraci și a lipsei de "sânge albastru".

Oxford English Dictionary definește parvenitul ca fiind: "o persoană dintr-un mediu umil, care s-a îmbogățit rapid sau a dobândit rapid o poziție socială influentă; un nou îmbogățit; un arivist. Folosit, de asemenea, într-un sens mai larg, cu implicația că persoana respectivă este nepotrivită noii sale poziții sociale din cauza lipsa de maniere sau a realizărilor."

Acest termen îi desemnează pe indivizii care nu sunt acceptați social de indivizii care fac deja parte din noua lor clasă socială.

Arivist
Un arivist este o persoană care caută, prin tot felul de mijloace, să ajungă la o poziție socială superioară printr-un comportament lipsit de scrupule. Termenul este folosit uneori ca sinonim cu parvenit și poate fi folosit ca insultă, sugerând o etică precară a muncii sau lipsa de respect față de origini.

Exemple
Cele mai cunoscute exemple de parveniți provin din domeniul sportului și divertismentului: unii dintre ei s-au născut și au crescut în sărăcie și s-au trezit brusc cu venituri semnificativ mai mari datorită dobândirii statutului de celebritate.

Familiile regale vechi ale Europei au considerat familia Bonaparte ca o familie de parveniți regali. Napoleon al III-lea a încercat să se căsătorească cu o prințesă germană și suedeză, dar nu a reușit pentru că era privit ca un parvenit. Același lucru s-a spus, de asemenea, în cazul căsătoriei prințesei egiptene Fawzia cu viitorul șah al Iranului, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Unul dintre motivele neoficiale ale divorțului lor este că familia Fawziei, inclusiv regele Farouk I, îi considera pe membrii familiei Pahlavi ca parveniți. Deși dinastia Muhammad Ali din Egipt și Sudan, căreia îi aparținea Fawzia, avea începuturi umile, ea și-a consolidat statutul în Egipt și în lumea arabă începând din 1805. Prin contrast, familia Pahlavi era o dinastie mult mai recentă, obținându-și poziția ca urmare a loviturii de stat a tatălui lui Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Reza Khan, în 1921.

Mulți parveniți din Statele Unite ale Americii au ajuns acolo ca imigranți săraci, apoi au urcat pe scara socială. Începându-și cariera ca muncitori, ei au profitat de oportunitățile economice mai bune din SUA, ajungând funcționari publici, funcționari de tipul "gulere albe" (afaceri / birouri) și, în final, membri respectabili ai societății. Un astfel de exemplu ar putea fi John Jacob Astor, a cărui familie a jupuit mai demult iepuri pentru a câștiga bani. Împreună cu fratele său, el a ajuns să construiască edificii reprezentative ale New York-ului precum Hotelul Waldorf-Astoria. Nepotul lui s-a mutat în Anglia, unde a devenit în cele din urmă primul viconte Astor.

În secolul al XIX-lea aristocrația franceză le considera ca parvenite pe femeile evreice care se converteau la creștinism pentru a se căsători cu bărbați din înalta societate. Profesorul Catherine Nicault de la Universitatea din Reims Champagne-Ardenne susținea că această atitudine era un exemplu al modului în care aristocrația franceză se manifesta ostil față de evrei.

Literatură
 În romanul Enigma Otiliei al scriitorului român George Călinescu, Stănică Rațiu este un personaj nou îmbogățit. El se îmbogățește prin furtul banilor unui bătrân bogat și prin căsătoria cu o curtezană de lux, pătrunzând în elita societății bucureștene.
 În romanul Marele Gatsby personajul Gatsby este un nou îmbogățit. El își obține bogăția prin contrabandă, face cheltuieli luxoase și se străduiește să fie acceptat în înalta societate americană.
 În romanul Roșu și negru protagonistul provincial Julien Sorel se consideră un parvenit după ce a intrat în serviciul marchizului de la Mole.
 În Livada de vișini, Gaev îl consideră pe Lopahin un parvenit, potrivit interpretărilor remarcilor sale de către criticii literari.
 Pip din romanul Marile speranțe al lui Dickens este considerat de mulți un parvenit.
 Edmond Dantès alias Contele de Monte Cristo din romanul omonim al lui Alexandre Dumas.
 John și Alisoun în "The Miller's Tale" de Geoffrey Chaucer.
 Franklin din The Franklin's Tale de Geoffrey Chaucer.
 Doamna Bennet și membrii familiei Bingley din romanul Mândrie și prejudecată al lui Jane Austen.
 Philip Elton din romanul Emma al lui Jane Austen.
 Jane Wilson din romanul Necunoscuta de la Wildfell Hall al Annei Brontë.
 Barry Lyndon, protagonistul romanului The Luck of Barry Lyndon al lui William Makepeace Thackeray, precum și din filmul eponim al lui Stanley Kubrick
 Povestirea "Colierul" a lui Guy de Maupassant relatează situația doamnei Mathilde Loisel și a soțului ei. Mathilde se imagina întotdeauna într-o poziție socială înaltă și posesoare a unor bijuterii opulente, dar, cu toate acestea, se căsătorește cu un funcționar prost plătit, care încearcă să o facă fericită.
 William Wilson, protagonistul povestirii "William Wilson" a lui Edgar Allan Poe, cunoaște un tiz al său provenit dintr-o familie plebee.

Filozofie
 Friedrich Nietzsche scrie în secțiunea 176 despre compasiune a cărții Știința voioasă că "les souverains rangent aux parvenus", adică "suveranii se plasează în fața parveniților".

Film și televiziune
 În Miss Potter, Beatrix Potter se referă la părinții săi ca "parveniți", după ce ei încearcă să o împiedice să se căsătorească cu editorul Norman Warne, deoarece este doar un comis-voiajor.
 În Ultimele zile ale lui Hitler, Adolf Hitler îl acuză furios pe Hermann Göring că ar fi un parvenit.
 În serialul The Crown regina Mary de Teck spune că prințul Filip "reprezintă o familie regală de profitori și de parveniți".
 Hyacinth Bucket, protagonistul sitcom-ului britanic [./https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeping_Up_Appearances Keeping Up Appearances].
 În Stan & Ollie, Stan Laurel îl numește pe Hal Roach un parvenit atunci când refuză să-i mărească salariul.

Note

Clase sociale

Parvenit


Williams Régala (28 de abril de 1937 - 23 de dezembro de 2018) foi um ex-membro do Conselho Nacional de Governo do Haiti. Ele foi membro do primeiro conselho de curta duração (7 de fevereiro de 1986 - 20 de março de 1986), bem como do segundo conselho, que governou até 7 de fevereiro de 1988, quando Leslie Manigat assumiu o cargo.

Régala tinha sido o chefe do serviço secreto sob Jean-Claude Duvalier, e foi Ministro do Interior sob o Conselho Nacional. Quando Manigat assumiu o cargo, nomeou Régala Ministro da Defesa.

Em um relatório de 1996, a Human Rights Watch escreveu que o coronel Régala "ostentava uma longa história de abuso" como parte da polícia secreta de Duvalier. Em 1991, sob o presidente Jean-Bertrand Aristide, foi emitido um mandado de prisão para Régala, o governo haitiano acusou Régala de ter ordenado o massacre do dia da eleição de 1987. No entanto, Régala fugiu do país, indo para a República Dominicana, que negou um pedido de extradição do Haiti.

Ele morreu em 23 de dezembro de 2018, em sua residência em Porto Príncipe.

Políticos do Haiti
Militares do Haiti
Nascidos em 1937
Mortos em 2018

Williams Régala


An Pitcairnia fusca in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Hans Edmund Luther. An Pitcairnia fusca in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pitcairnia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an.

Mabibilngan ini ha Ecuador. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pitcairnia

Pitcairnia fusca


În economie, serviciul este o activitate economică prin care se produce un schimb de valoare fără a implica transformarea materiei.

Legături externe

Termeni economici
Marketing

Serviciu (economie)


Općinska nogometna liga Slavonska Požega je okupljala klubove s područja tadašnje Općine Slavonska Požega, a danas to područje zauzimaju gradovi Požega, Pleternica, Kutjevo te općine Velika, Jakšić, Kaptol, Brestovac i Čaglin. Zbog ukidanja Međupodsavezne nogometne lige (N. Gradiška – Sl. Požega) iz lige su ispala četiri posljednjeplasirana kluba.

Tablica

Izvori
 Nikola Brekalo, Ivica Šulc, Stjepan Marković: 80 godina nogometa u Jakšiću (1932. – 2012.), Jakšić, 2012.

1969-70
Slavonska Požega

Podsavezna nogometna liga Slavonska Požega 1969./70.


منطقة سجون وادي النطرون، هي التسمية الرسمية لعدد من السجون المصرية، وتقع على أطراف منخفض وادي النطرون ومداخل مدينة السادات من الجهة الجنوبية الغربية على طريق مصر الإسكندرية الصحراوي.

 يقع أحدهما عند المدخل الصناعي لمدينة السادات على الكيلومتر 92 بالطريق الصحراوي، وقد تم الانتهاء من بنائه في سبتمبر عام 1994، ونقل إليه النزلاء من سجن استقبال طره وأبي زعبل الصناعي. وبه ثلاثة عنابر بها ما مجموعه 54 زنزانة.
 يقع الثاني في الكيلومتر 97 من الطريق الصحراوي على الطرلف الشمالي الغربي لمدينة السادات. ويتكون من سبعة عنابر.

مصادر

تأسيسات سنة 1994
وادي النطرون
سجون وادي النطرون

منطقة سجون وادي النطرون


An Leersia nematostachya in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Georg Oskar Edmund Launert. An Leersia nematostachya in nahilalakip ha genus nga Leersia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Leersia

Leersia nematostachya


Beisug  es un posiólok del raión de Primorsko-Ajtarsk del krai de Krasnodar en el sur de Rusia. Está situado en la orilla occidental del limán Beisugski por el que desemboca el río Beisug, en el mar de Azov, 44 km al sureste de Primorsko-Ajtarsk y 102 km al norte de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Tenía 94 habitantes en 2010.

Pertenece al municipio Olginskoye.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 Este artículo es una traducción parcial de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Бейсуг (хутор).
 Mapa en maps.vlasenko.net .
 El municipio en el sitio web del raión .

Localidades del raión de Primorsko-Ajtarsk del krai de Krasnodar

Beisug (Primorsko-Ajtarsk, Krasnodar)


Geo er et tidligere amerikansk bilmærke, som eksisterede i årene 1988 til 1998. Mærket tilhørte General Motors, og var frem til 1991 forbeholdt det amerikanske marked.

Historie
Mærket, som så dagens lys i 1988, solgte gennem de nordamerikanske Chevrolet-forhandlere udelukkende minibiler og små mellemklassebiler, fra modelår 1989 i USA og fra modelår 1992 ligeledes i Canada. Mærket eksisterede frem til 1998, hvor modellerne blev omdøbt til Chevrolet. I Canada eksisterede mellem 1992 og 1994 mærket Asüna som et modstykke til Geo, solgt gennem Pontiac-, Buick- og GMC-forhandlerne.

Geo-modellerne blev som oftest fremstillet i joint ventures mellem GM og japanske bilfabrikanter. Modellen Prizm blev fremstillet i den i samarbejde mellem GM og Toyota drevne NUMMI-fabrik i Californien, og Metro og Tracker på GM/Suzuki-fabrikken i Canada. Spectrum og Storm blev derimod bygget hos Isuzu i Japan.

Joint ventures

Modeller

Geo Metro
Geo Metro (1988−2001, fra 1998 Chevrolet Metro) var mærkets første model og efterfølger for Chevrolet Sprint. Minibilen, som fandtes med tre og fem døre, var baseret på Suzuki Swift. I USA blev Metro solgt som femdørs hatchback og mellem 1991 og 1994 som cabriolet, med motorer på 1,0 og 1,3 liter.

I Canada fandtes der også en fra Japan importeret sedanudgave. I 1994 fik Metro et facelift.

En kun i Canada markedsført søstermodel var Pontiac Firefly.

Geo Prizm
Geo Prizm (1988−2002, fra 1998 Chevrolet Prizm) var en lille mellemklassebil på basis af Toyota Corolla. Den fandtes som firedørs sedan og (frem til 1991) som femdørs combi coupé. Modellen fandtes med to 1,6-litersmotorer med 76 kW (103 hk) hhv. 97 kW (132 hk).

En ny model af Prizm kom i 1992 med motorer på 1,6 liter med 76 kW (103 hk) og 1,8 liter med 86 kW (117 hk).

I 1998 fandt et nyt modelskifte sted. Den nye Chevrolet Prizm var igen baseret på Toyota Corolla og var udstyret med en 1,8-liters Toyota-motor med 94 kW (128 hk).

Geo Spectrum
Geo Spectrum (1984−1989) var en mindre bilmodel i den lille mellemklasse, som var baseret på Isuzu Gemini og udstyret med en 1,5-liters firecylindret motor med 52 kW (71 hk). Den i Japan fremstillede Spectrum blev i Canada også solgt under navnet Pontiac Sunburst.

Geo Storm
Geo Storm (1989−1993) var en lille 2+2-personers coupé med forhjulstræk, baseret på den sidste modelgeneration af Isuzu Piazza. Den fandtes i en coupé- og en Shooting Brake-udgave. Topmodellen hed GSi. I Nordamerika fandtes modellen udelukkende med en 1,6-litersmotor med 71 kW (97 hk) eller 97 kW (132 hk) i GSi.

I 1992 gennemgik Storm et mindre facelift, hvor de hidtidige klapforlygter bortfaldt. GSi fik samtidig en 1,8-litersmotor med 104 kW (141 hk).

Geo Tracker
Geo Tracker (1989−2004, fra 1998 Chevrolet Tracker og GMC Tracker) var mærkets eneste offroader.

Modellen var en aflægger af Suzuki Vitara og fandtes i en lukket version med fem døre samt som todørs cabriolet. Begge modeller havde en 1,6-liters firecylindret motor med 60 kW (82 hk) eller 70 kW (95 hk).

Litteratur
 David Vivian: Encyclopedia of American Cars, Crescent Books, Brompton Books Corporation, Greenwich CT (1994),

Eksterne henvisninger

General Motors
Bilmærker
Etableret i 1988
Ophørt i 1998

Geo (bilmærke)


La Administración de Seguridad y Salud Ocupacional (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, OSHA) es una agencia del Departamento de Trabajo de los Estados Unidos. El congreso estableció la agencia bajo la Ley de la seguridad y salud ocupacional, firmada por el presidente Richard M. Nixon el 29 de diciembre de 1970. La misión de OSHA es "asegurar condiciones de trabajo seguras y saludables para los hombres y mujeres trabajadores mediante el establecimiento y aplicación de normas, y mediante la capacitación, divulgación, educación y asistencia". La agencia también se encarga de hacer cumplir diversas leyes y reglamentos relativos a denunciantes. Actualmente, la encabeza el Secretario Auxiliar del Trabajo, David Michaels.

OSHA se formó oficialmente el 28 de abril de 1971, el día en que la Ley OSH se hizo efectiva. George Guenther fue nombrado como el primer director de la agencia.

Cobertura OSHA
La Ley OSHA cubre a la mayor parte de los empleadores y trabajadores del sector privado, así como a algunos del sector público en los 50 estados de Estados Unidos y en ciertos territorios y jurisdicciones situados bajo la autoridad federal. Las jurisdicciones son District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Wake Island, Johnston Island, y las tierras de Outer Continental Shelf.

Empleados del sector privado

OSHA cubre a la mayor parte de los empleadores del sector privado en los 50 estados y en otras jurisdicciones de Estados Unidos — directamente mediante la OSHA federal o un plan OSHA aprobado por cada estado.

Los planes de estado son programas de seguridad de trabajo y de salud, aprobados por OSHA y operados por los estados en lugar de la administración federal OSHA. Esta aprueba y monitorea todos los planes de estado, proporcionando asimismo el cincuenta por ciento de los fondos para cada programa. Los programas operados por los estados deben ser igual de efectivos que los programas federales.

Los siguientes estados o territorios tienen programas de estado aprobados por OSHA: Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawái, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Míchigan, Minnesota, Nevada, Nuevo México, Carolina del Norte, Oregon, Puerto Rico, Carolina del Sur, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, y Wyoming.

La administración federal OSHA da cobertura a ciertos lugares de trabajo excluidos de los programas de estado. Por ejemplo, cubre el trabajo en industrias marítimas y en bases militares.

Gobiernos estatales y locales

Los trabajadores de agencias estatales y locales no están cubiertos por la OSHA federal, pero tienen la protección de la Ley OSH si trabajan en estados que cuenten con programas aprobados de estado OSHA. Las reglas OSHA también permiten a los estados y territorios desarrollar planes que cubran solamente a los trabajadores del sector público. En estos casos, los trabajadores del sector privado y los empleadores permanecen bajo la jurisdicción de la OSHA federal. Cinco estados y un territorio de los Estados Unidos cuentan con un plan de estado OSHA que cubre a los trabajadores del sector público exclusivamente: Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, Nueva Jersey, New York y Virgin Islands.

Agencias del gobierno federal

La protección OSHA aplica a todas las agencias federales. La sección 19 de la Ley OSH hace a los dirigentes de agencias federales responsables de proveer condiciones de salud y seguridad en el trabajo a los trabajadores. OSHA realiza inspecciones en las instalaciones federales en respuesta a los reportes levantados por trabajadores de los peligros bajo programas relativos a los lugares de trabajo de alto riesgo federales.

Las agencias federales tienen que tener programas de seguridad y salud que cumplan con las mismas normas que los empleadores privados. OSHA aplica "multas virtuales" a las agencias federales luego de encontrar alguna irregularidad en la inspección previa. Además, OSHA emite un comunicado de prensa indicando la magnitud que tendría la multa si la agencia federal fuera un empleador del sector privado. De acuerdo con una enmienda de 1998, la Ley OSH cubre al U.S. Postal Service como a cualquier empleador del sector privado.

No cubierto por la Ley OSH

Los trabajadores por cuenta propia, los familiares directos de los empleadores agrícolas y los riesgos de trabajo regulados por otras agencias federales (por ejemplo, la Administración de Salud y Seguridad Minera, el Department of Energy, y Coast Guard).

Derechos y responsabilidades bajo la ley OSHA

Los empleadores tienen la responsabilidad de proveer un lugar de trabajo seguro.

Por ley, empleadores deben proveer a los trabajadores lugares de trabajo que no cuenten con riesgos y que sigan los estándares OSHA de seguridad y salud. Los empleadores deben encontrar y corregir los problemas de seguridad y salud. Además, OSHA requiere que los empleadores primero traten de eliminar o reducir los riesgos haciendo cambios factibles en las condiciones de trabajo, en vez de confiar en el equipo de protección, como guantes, máscaras o tapones de oídos. Además, son ejemplos de maneras efectivas de reducir riesgos: cambiar a químicos más seguros, adjuntar procesos que contengan gases nocivos, o usar sistemas de ventilación para que limpien el aire.

Los empleadores deben:
 Informar a los trabajadores sobre riesgos químicos, mediante la capacitación, etiquetación, alarmas, sistemas de códigos de colores, hojas de información química, entre otros métodos.
 Proveer una capacitación segura en un lenguaje y vocabulario fácil de comprender.
 Llevar registros congruentes de lesiones y enfermedades por trabajo.
 Realizar pruebas en los lugares de trabajo, como pruebas del aire requeridas por los estándares OSHA.
 Proveer el equipo requerido de protección personal sin ningún costo a los trabajadores.
 Proveer pruebas de audición y otros exámenes médicos cuando sean requeridos por la OSHA.
 Publicar las citaciones de OSHA y, anualmente, publicar resúmenes de enfermedades y riesgos, en un lugar visible para los trabajadores.
 Notificar a OSHA de cualquier fatalidad en el trabajo, en un periodo de 8 horas. Notificar en 24 horas todo tipo de hospitalización, amputaciones o pérdidas de ojos, relacionados con el trabajo.(1-800-321-OSHA [6742]).
 Publicar en un lugar bien visible el póster oficial de OSHA "Job Safety and Health – It's the Law", que describe los derechos y las responsabilidades que se derivan de la Ley OSH.
 No tomar represalias o discriminar a los trabajadores por usar sus derechos, incluyendo el derecho de reportar las lesiones y enfermedades por trabajo.
Los trabajadores tienen el derecho a:
 Condiciones de trabajo que no supongan riesgos.
 Cumplimentar una solicitud confidencial para que la OSHA inspeccione el lugar de trabajo.
 Recibir información y capacitación sobre peligros, métodos para evitar riesgos, y los estándares OSHA aplicables a sus lugares de trabajo. La información y capacitación tiene que estar en un lenguaje y en vocabulario comprensible para los trabajadores.
 Recibir copias de los registros de las lesiones y enfermedades relacionadas con el trabajo que han ocurrido en los lugares de trabajo.
 Recibir copias de los resultados de los exámenes y monitoreos hechos para encontrar los riesgos en los lugares de trabajo.
 Recibir copias de los expedientes médicos.
 Participar en las inspecciones de OSHA y hablar en privado con el inspector.
 Formular una queja a OSHA si han sufrido represalias o discriminación por parte de sus empleadores por haber solicitado alguna inspección, o por haber ejercido algún derecho de la Ley OSH.
 Formular una queja a se han sufrido castigo o represalias por actuar como denunciante, de acuerdo con las 21 leyes federales adicionales para las que OSHA tiene jurisdicción.

Los trabajadores temporales deberán de ser tratados como empleados permanentes. Las agencias de empleo y empleadores anfitrionas comparten una responsabilidad conjunta sobre los trabajadores temporales. Por ello, ambas entidades están obligadas a cumplir con los requisitos de salud y seguridad en el trabajo y para garantizar la seguridad y la salud de los trabajadores. OSHA podría hacer responsables de la violación de cualquier condición tanto al anfitrión como a los empleadores temporales.

Estándares de salud y seguridad
La Ley OSH otorga a OSHA la autoridad de emitir regulaciones de seguridad y salud en lugares de trabajo. Estas regulaciones incluyen límites en la exposición química peligrosa, acceso a los empleados a información sobre peligros, requisitos para el uso de equipo de protección personal, y requisitos para prevenir peligros y caídas por operar con equipos de trabajo.

Los estándares actuales de construcción, industria general, marítimo y agrícola de OSHA están destinados a proteger a los trabajadores de una amplia gama de riesgos graves. Algunos ejemplos de estándares OSHA son requisitos para los empleadores de: proveer protección en caídas tales como la seguridad con arnés; prevenir derrumbes; prevenir exposición a enfermedades contagiosas; garantizar la seguridad de los trabajadores que entren a áreas restringidas; prevenir exposición a químicos peligrosos; poner seguridad en máquinas peligrosas; proveer respiradores y demás equipamiento de seguridad, y proveer capacitación para trabajos peligrosos en un lenguaje y vocabulario comprensible para los trabajadores.

OSHA establece límites máximos de exposición para proteger a los trabajadores contra los efectos nocivos para la salud de ciertas sustancias, incluidos los límites a la contaminación del aire con sustancias peligrosas. La mayoría de estos límites se introdujeron poco después de la entrada en vigor de la Ley OSH en 1970. La industria ha conseguido evitar la introducción de límites más rigurosos acudiendo a la Justicia, por lo que los límites no se han actualizado desde 1971. Como alternativa, la agencia ha publicado recomendaciones de límites de exposición con la intención de proteger mejor a los trabajadores.

Los empleadores también deben cumplir con la Cláusula de Obligaciones Generales de la Ley OSH. Esta cláusula requiere que los empleadores mantengan los lugares de trabajo libres de riesgos notorios. Se suele citar de forma genérica en aquellos casos en los que no existen estándares específicos de la OSHA.

En sus primeros años de funcionamiento, OSHA podía adoptar regulaciones basadas en los reglamentos de algunas organizaciones de estandarización, tales como la Conferencia Gubernamental de Higiene Industrial Americana, sin tener que pasar por todos los requisitos típicos de la creación de leyes. OSHA tiene autoridad para promulgar estándares que prescriben los métodos legalmente exigibles a los empleadores para proteger a sus trabajadores de peligros. Antes de que la OSHA dicte algún estándar, este debe de pasar por un extenso proceso que incluye un compromiso público, aviso y comentario sustanciales. La agencia debe demostrar que existen riesgos significativos para los trabajadores, y que hay medidas posibles para que los empleadores pueden tomar para protegerlos.

En el 2000, OSHA promulgó un estándar sobre ergonomía. En marzo de 2001, el congreso votó a favor de la derogación de la norma a través de la Ley de Revisión por el Congreso. La derogación, una de las primeras decisiones legislativas importantes firmadas por el presidente George W. Bush, es el único caso en que el Congreso ha utilizado con éxito la Ley de Revisión por el Congreso para bloquear un reglamento.

Desde el 2001, OSHA ha dictado los siguientes estándares:

2002: Rutas de evacuación, planes de emergencia y planes de prevención de incendios.

2004: Operaciones de buceo comercial

2004: Protección Contra Incendios en Astilleros

2006: La exposición ocupacional a cromo hexavalente

2006: Los factores de protección asignados para Equipos de Protección Respiratoria

2007: Instalación eléctrica estándar

2007: Equipo de Protección Personal de Pago (Aclaración)

2008: Tandem elevadores verticales

2010: Las grúas y torres de perforación en la construcción

2010: Condiciones Generales de Trabajo en Astilleros

2012: Actualización de la Norma de Comunicación de Riesgos

2014: Nuevos registros y requisitos de información para los empleadores

2014: Revisión de la generación, transmisión y distribución de energía eléctrica; equipos de protección eléctrica

2016: Exposición ocupacional a óxidos de silicio cristalinos respirables

2016: Mejora del seguimiento de lesiones y enfermedades en el lugar de trabajo

2016: Actualización de estándares sobre superficies de desplazamiento y trabajo para la industria en general, así como sobre la protección contra caídas

Aplicación

OSHA es responsable de hacer cumplir sus normas en las entidades reguladas. Los encargados del cumplimiento de seguridad y los oficiales de salud llevan a cabo inspecciones y evalúan las multas por violaciones de los reglamentos. Se prevén inspecciones para lugares de trabajo en industrias especialmente peligrosas. Las inspecciones también pueden ser provocadas por una fatalidad en el lugar de trabajo, múltiples hospitalizaciones, quejas de los trabajadores o de referencias.

OSHA es una agencia pequeña en comparación su misión: con sus socios en cada estado, OSHA cuenta con aproximadamente 2,400 inspectores que cubren más de 8 millones de lugares de trabajo y 130 millones de trabajadores contratados. En el año fiscal 2012 (terminado el 30 de septiembre), OSHA y sus socios en cada estado realizaron más de 83,000 inspecciones de lugares de trabajo a lo largo de Estados Unidos, siendo sólo una fracción de los lugares de trabajo de la nación. De acuerdo a un reporte de AFL-CIO, le llevaría 129 años a OSHA inspeccionar todos los lugares de trabajo.

Imponer el cumplimiento de la ley constituye una parte muy importante de los esfuerzo sde OSHA por reducir las lesiones, enfermedades y fatalidades en el trabajo. Las inspecciones se inician sin previo aviso, y se realizan a través de investigaciones in situ o mediante teléfono o fax. Las realizan oficiales de cumplimiento entrenados y se programan sobre la base de las siguientes prioridades, en orden descendente: peligro inminente; catástrofes – fatalidades u hospitalizaciones; quejas y referencias de los trabajadores; inspecciones específicas debidas a riesgos especiales, a altas tasas de lesiones y al seguimiento de una inspección previa.

Los trabajadores o sus representantes podrán presentar una queja y pedir a OSHA que inspeccione su lugar de trabajo si creen que hay un peligro grave o que su empleador no está siguiendo las normas de OSHA. Los trabajadores y sus representantes tienen el derecho de solicitar una inspección de OSHA sin decirle a su empleador que presentaron tal queja. Es una violación de la Ley OSH para un empleador despedir, degradar, transferir o de cualquier manera discriminar a un trabajador por presentar una queja o hacer uso de algún otro derecho de OSHA.

Cuando un inspector determina violaciones de las normas de OSHA o riesgos graves, OSHA puede emitir citaciones y multas. Una citación comprende los métodos que un empleador puede utilizar para solucionar un problema y la fecha en que las acciones correctivas deben ser completadas.

Las multas de OSHA son muy bajas en comparación con otras agencias gubernamentales. La multa máxima de OSHA por una violación grave o no, es de $13,260 por violación, y la multa máxima por una repetición o violación intencional es de $132,598 por violación. En la determinación del importe de la sanción propuesta, OSHA debe tener en cuenta la gravedad de la presunta violación y el tamaño del empleador de la empresa, la buena fe y el historial de violaciones anteriores. Los empleadores tienen el derecho de impugnar cualquier parte de la citación, incluyendo la negación de que exista tal violación. Por su parte, los trabajadores sólo tienen derecho a impugnar el plazo fijado para resolver problema. Las apelaciones de las citas son escuchadas por la una entidad independiente, la Comisión de Revisión de la Seguridad Ocupacional y la Salud (OSHRC).

OSHA impone el cumplimiento de las reglas a través de sus 10 oficinas regionales y 90 oficinas de zona. Las oficinas regionales de OSHA están localizadas en Boston, Nueva York, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, zona metropolitana de Kansas, Denver, San Francisco, y Seattle.

Requisitos de informes
Todos los empleadores deben informar de:
 Todas las fatalidades relacionadas con el trabajo en un periodo de 8 horas.
 Todas las hospitalizaciones relacionadas con el trabajo, todas las amputaciones y todas las pérdidas de un ojo en un periodo de 24 horas.
Los empleadores pueden reportarlo a OSHA mediante:
 Llamando a la línea OSHA, que es gratis y confidencial. El número es 1-800-321-OSHA (6742).
 Llamando a la oficina de área más cercana durante las horas de trabajo.
 Usando una plataforma en línea específica.

Requisitos de mantenimiento de registros
El seguimiento e investigación de lesiones y enfermedades laborales desempeñan un papel importante en la prevención de futuras lesiones y enfermedades. Bajo la regulación de registros de OSHA, se exige a ciertos empleadores de industrias de alto riesgo que preparen y mantengan registros de las lesiones y enfermedades ocupacionales graves. Esta información es importante para los empleadores, los trabajadores y para OSHA para la evaluación de la seguridad de un lugar de trabajo, la comprensión de los peligros de la industria, y la introducción de protección laboral para reducir y eliminar los riesgos.

Los empleadores con más de diez empleados y cuyos establecimientos no estén clasificados como industria parcialmente exenta deben registrar lesiones y enfermedades graves relacionadas con el trabajo utilizando los formularios de OSHA 300, 300A y 301. Los formularios de registros, los requisitos y la información sobre exenciones pueden descargarse del sitio web de la OSHA.

Protección de los denunciantes
OSHA hace cumplir las disposiciones sobre denunciantes de la Ley OSH y otras 21 leyes que protegen a los trabajadores que reportan violaciones de diversas leyes relativas a: aerolíneas, autotransportes comerciales, productos de consumo, medio ambiente, reforma financiera, seguridad alimentaria, reforma de la asistencia sanitaria, energía nuclear, actividades marítimas y de valores financieros. A través de los años, OSHA ha sido la responsable de hacer cumplir las leyes que protegen los derechos de los trabajadores de hablar sin temor a represalias, independientemente de la relación de estas leyes con cuestiones de seguridad y salud en el trabajo.

Asistencia para el cumplimiento

A lo largo de su historia, OSHA ha desarrollado varios programas de capacitación, asistencia para el cumplimiento, y de reconocimiento de la salud y de la seguridad.

OSHA cuenta con programas de capacitación, de asistencia para el cumplimiento y de reconocimiento de salud y seguridad. El instituto de formación OSHA, que capacita a personal de salud y seguridad de sectores públicos y privados, se fundó en 1972.

En 1978, la agencia inició un programa de becas, actualmente llamado Susan Harwood Training Grant Program, que capacita a trabajadores y empleadores para reducir peligros en el trabajo.

OSHA inició sus programas de protección voluntaria (VPP) en 1982, que otorga el reconocimiento de "lugares de trabajo ejemplares" a aquellos empleadores que cumplen ciertos requisitos. Se trata de empleadores de la industria privada y agencias federales que han implementado programas de gestión de seguridad y salud eficaces, y mantienen las tasas de lesiones y enfermedades por debajo del promedio nacional de sus respectivas industrias. En VPP, la gestión, el trabajo, y la OSHA trabajan en cooperación y de forma proactiva para evitar muertes, lesiones y enfermedades a través de un sistema que centraron en: la prevención de riesgos y el control, análisis de sitio de trabajo, capacitación y compromiso de la dirección y participación de los trabajadores.

El Programa de Consulta en las instalaciones de la OSHA ofrece asesoramiento gratuito y confidencial a las pequeñas y medianas empresas en todos los estados de todo Estados Unidos, dando prioridad a los lugares de trabajo de alto riesgo. Cada año, en respuesta a las peticiones de los pequeños empresarios que buscan crear o mejorar sus programas de gestión de seguridad y salud, el Programa de Consulta de OSHA lleva a cabo más de 29.000 visitas a los lugares de trabajo de pequeñas empresas que cubren más de 1,5 millones de trabajadores en todo el país. Los servicios en los lugares de consulta son independientes de la aplicación y no dan lugar a sanciones o citaciones. Los consultores de agencias estatales o universidades trabajan con los empleadores para identificar los peligros del lugar de trabajo, proporcionan asesoramiento sobre el cumplimiento de las normas de OSHA, y ayudan a establecer programas de gestión de seguridad y salud.

En el marco del programa de consulta, ciertos empleadores ejemplares pueden solicitar la participación en el Programa de Reconocimiento del Logro de Seguridad y Salud de OSHA (SHARP). Para poder participar se requiere, entre otras cosas: recibir una visita de consultas completa y detallada, corregir todos los peligros identificados y desarrollar un programa de seguridad y gestión de la salud eficaz. Los lugares de trabajo que reciben el reconocimiento SHARP están exentos de inspecciones programadas durante el período en que la certificación SHARP sea válida.

OSHA también ofrece asistencia para el cumplimiento a través de sus oficinas nacionales y de área. A través de cientos de publicaciones en diversos idiomas, páginas web sobre seguridad y temas de salud, y a través de la asistencia del personal de cumplimiento, OSHA proporciona información a los empleadores y trabajadores sobre los riesgos específicos y los derechos y responsabilidades impuestos por OSHA.  Se ofrece más información en OSHA Compliance Assistance webpage .

Efectos

Un estudio de 2012 publicado en la revista Science mostró que las inspecciones aleatorias de lugares de trabajo realizadas por OSHA provocaron una bajada del "9.4% de las tasas de lesiones" y un "26% de reducción en los costos por lesiones" para las empresas inspeccionadas. El estudio no encontró "evidencias de que estas mejoras perjudicaran el empleo, las ventas, la estimación del riesgo crediticio o la supervivencia de las empresas".

Controversia

Gran parte del debate acerca de las regulaciones de OSHA y las políticas de aplicación gira en torno al costo de las regulaciones y la aplicación, en comparación con el beneficio real de reducción de las lesiones, enfermedad y muerte de los trabajadores. Un estudio de 1995 de varios estándares de OSHA, realizado por la Oficina de Evaluación Tecnológica (OTA), determinó que OSHA "suele utilizar métodos que proveen un fundamento creíble para los hechos relevantes para crear reglamentos". Aunque determinó que los hallazgos y estimaciones de OSHA están "sujetos a fuertes revisión y cuestionamiento", afirmó que es normal porque "las partes interesadas y los expertos implicados en la formulación de reglamentos tienen una visión distinta de las cosas".

OSHA ha sido objeto de numerosas críticas por la ineficacia de sus penas, en particular de sus sanciones penales. La pena máxima es un delito menor, con 6 meses de cárcel. En respuesta a las críticas, OSHA y el Departamento de Justicia han llevado a cabo varios enjuiciamientos penales de alto perfil por violaciones a la Ley OSH. Además, se ha anunciado una iniciativa conjunta de imposición de la ley por OSHA y la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los Estados Unidos (EPA), teniendo esta última la capacidad de emitir multas mucho más altas que OSHA. A la vez, los representantes demócratas en el Congreso, los sindicatos y los defensores de la seguridad y la salud comunitarios están tratando de revisar la Ley OSH para que se considere un delito grave con penas mucho mayores la comisión de una violación intencionada que resulte en la muerte de un trabajador. Algunos fiscales locales están acusando a ejecutivos de compañías de homicidio y otros delitos graves cuando la negligencia penal conduce a la muerte de un trabajador.

Durante sus más de 40 años de existencia, OSHA ha asegurado sólo 12 condenas penales.

La OSHA ha sido acusada de tardar demasiado en desarrollar nuevas regulaciones. Al hablar sobre OSHA bajo la presidencia de George W. Bush sobre la explosión de polvo combustible, la representante de la Comisión sobre Seguridad Química, Caroly Merritt, dijo: "Lo que más decepciona es esa actitud de no introducir nuevas regulaciones. No quieren irritar a la industria. En algunos casos, hay que irritar a la industria para que cumpla como debe." Por este motivo, las asociaciones industriales y los sindicatos han recurrido a los tribunales para obligar a la OSHA promulgar nuevas normas, como la norma de cromo hexavalente.

Véase también
Agencia Europea para la Seguridad y la Salud en el Trabajo

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 File an OSHA complaint online

 OSHA in the Federal Register
 OSHA - Office of Education and Training
 OSHA - Current 29 CFR Books in Digital Format
 OSHA - List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals
 Occupational Safety and Health Act text
 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Gobierno de Estados Unidos
Códigos de seguridad