කැතරින්, වේල්සයෙහි කුමරිය (කැතරින් එලිසබෙත් "කේට්"; විවාහයට පෙර මිඩ්ල්ටන්; උපත 9 ජනවාරි 1982), යනු  විලියම් කුමරු, වේල්සයෙහි කුමරුගේ භාර්යාවයි.  පොදු රාජ්‍ය මණ්ඩල අධිකාරි ප්‍රදේශ 15 හී සිංහාසනයන්ට උරුමක්‍රම පෙළෙහි පළමු ලෙසින් සිටින්නේ විලියම් කුමරු වෙයි. විලියම් කුමරුගේ  සිංහසානාරූඨය හා සමගම, කැතරින් කුමරිය වල්ලභ රැජිණ වනු ඇත.

අධෝසටහන්

ආශ්‍රිත

බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය රාජකීයයන්

කැතරින්, වේල්සයෙහි කුමරිය


Maria Hilf war eine katholische Pfarr- und Wallfahrtskirche in Koblenz. Sie wurde 1953 im Stadtteil Lützel fertiggestellt und war an die bereits 1905 bis 1907 errichtete Maria-Hilf-Kapelle angebaut. Sie steht unter dem Patrozinium der heiligen Maria, der Mutter Jesu, in ihrer Funktion als Hilfe der Christen. Im Januar 2017 wurde die Kirche profaniert und im Mai desselben Jahres abgerissen, die ältere Kapelle blieb aber erhalten und wird restauriert.

Geschichte

Kapelle

Die Geschichte der Wallfahrt in Lützel geht auf die Erzählung zurück, dass ein Bauer aus dem Maifeld auf dem Heimweg von Koblenz in Lützel von Räubern überfallen wurde und in seiner Not Maria anrief. Als Dank dafür, dass er heil entkommen war, hängte er um das Jahr 1700 an einem Baum ein Marienbild auf. In der Folgezeit wurde die Stelle von weiteren Besuchern zu einem Bildstock erweitert. Schließlich erbaute man hier eine kleine Kapelle, die erstmals 1732 erwähnt ist. Auf Anordnung der französischen Behörden, Koblenz war von 1794 bis 1814 französisch besetzt, wurde diese erste Kapelle jedoch 1808 im Zuge der Säkularisation abgebrochen.

Die Wallfahrt bestand aber weiter und so erbaute man 1814 eine neue Kapelle, die 1845 ein Glockentürmchen erhielt. Im Jahr 1868 wird die Verwaltung der Kapelle der Pfarrei St. Peter in Neuendorf übertragen. Um 1900 wurde der Plan gefasst, die Kapelle neu zu errichten. So entstand von 1905 bis 1907 nach Plänen des Koblenzer Architekten Jakob Beyerle die heute noch bestehende Maria-Hilf-Kapelle im neugotischen Stil, die am 7. Juni 1907 geweiht wurde. Die alte Kapelle von 1814 blieb aber erhalten und wurde von den Bewohnern des benachbarten Josefinenstifts (Altenheim) genutzt.

Im Jahr 1926 erwarb der Orden der Barmherzigen Brüder von Maria Hilf die alte Kapelle, da ihr Ordensgründer Peter Friedhofen (1819–1860) hier oft gebetet hatte. Die Kapelle wurde abgebaut und nach Trier versetzt. In der umgesetzten Maria-Hilf-Kapelle in Trier liegt seit 1928 Peter Friedhofen begraben.

Der kleine Glockenturm der Kapelle wurde 1991 erneuert. Dabei erhielt er auch eine neue Glocke von einer Glockengießerei aus Brockscheid.

Wallfahrtskirche

Bei Luftangriffen im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde die ursprüngliche Pfarrkirche St. Antonius in Lützel zerstört. Die Gottesdienste fanden nach dem Krieg in Notkirchen statt. Da diese mit der Zeit zu klein wurden, überließ die Pfarrei St. Peter in Neuendorf die Maria-Hilf-Kapelle und das dazugehörige Grundstück der Pfarrei in Lützel. Obwohl die Antoniuskirche noch wiederaufbaufähig war, entschieden sich die Verantwortlichen unter Pfarrer Peter Plein für einen Neubau, da die alte Kirche für die Gemeinde schon vor dem Krieg nicht mehr ausgereicht hatte und eine Erweiterung nach keiner Seite möglich war. Der Grundstein für eine neue Pfarrkirche wurde am 12. Oktober 1952 neben der Maria-Hilf-Kapelle gelegt, die in das neue Kirchengebäude integriert wurde. Die Pläne für den Neubau stammten von dem Koblenzer Architekten H. J. Heinrichs.

Die neue Maria-Hilf-Kirche wurde am 4. Oktober 1953 geweiht. Um die Kirche wurde bis 1959 ein Pfarrzentrum errichtet. Der Ausbau im Inneren der Kirche und die Fenster konnten erst 1964 vollendet werden. Die Pfarrei behielt zunächst den Namen St. Antonius, bis 1968–1969 eine neue Pfarrkirche in Lützel errichtet wurde.

Abriss der Wallfahrtskirche

Im August 2014 wurde bekannt, dass das Gebäude der Wallfahrtskirche schon seit einiger Zeit Schäden aufwies. Die Heizung der Kirche war defekt, in den Wintermonaten konnte sie deswegen nicht genutzt werden, das Dach war marode. Die Kirchengemeinde sah sich finanziell nicht in der Lage, die Schäden beseitigen zu lassen. Hinzu kam, dass immer weniger Gläubige die Wallfahrtskirche nutzten und der religiöse Mittelpunkt des Stadtteils Lützel schon seit langem in der Pfarrkirche St. Antonius liegt. Daher wurde ein Abbruch der Kirche aus den 50er Jahren ins Auge gefasst. Von diesen Überlegungen ausgenommen war von vorneherein die alte Kapelle, die unter Denkmalschutz steht.
Vor der alten Kapelle sollte nach damaligen Planungen (2015) ein "multifunktionales Foyer" entstehen, Pfarrhaus und Pfarrzentrum wurden von der Pfarrgemeinde zum Verkauf ausgeschrieben.

Im Januar 2017 wurde die Pfarrkirche profaniert und Mitte Mai abgerissen. Die 1907 fertiggestellte neugotische Kapelle blieb aber erhalten. Auf dem ehemaligen Kirchengrundstück entstand ein 2019 eröffnetes Altersheim, die Kapelle wurde durch einen Zwischentrakt an diesen Neubau angeschlossen und kann seither von den Bewohnern des Altersheims genutzt werden, ist aber auch der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich.

Bau und Ausstattung

Kapelle

Die neugotische Maria-Hilf-Kapelle ist ein Saalbau zu drei Jochen mit einem niedrigeren Chor aus einem Joch und einem 5/8-Schluss. Von außen sind an Schiff und Chor Strebepfeiler angebracht, am Chor mit aufgesetzten Säulchen mit Wasserspeiern. Die alte Eingangstür zur Kapelle wurde mit Bau der Wallfahrtskirche an die Südseite versetzt. Sie hat einen Sandsteinrahmen und Türflügel mit schmiedeeisernen Bändern mit Rankenwerk.

Im Inneren hat die Kapelle ein Netzrippengewölbe sowie Maßwerkfenster mit Fischblasen und Buntverglasung von 1962, die das Leben der heiligen Maria darstellen. Im Chor steht als Gnadenbild seit 1953 eine spätgotische Plastik mit einem textilen Gewand aus jüngster Zeit. Die aus dem 15. Jahrhundert stammende Statue wurde von der Pfarrei Herschwiesen im Hunsrück erworben. Das ursprüngliche Gnadenbild, eine Kopie des Gnadenbildes Mariahilf von Lucas Cranach dem Älteren, erhielt die Pfarrei St. Peter in Neuendorf zurück, der die Maria-Hilf-Kapelle bis zum Bau der neuen Kirche gehörte.

Das Walmdach aus Schiefer trägt einen 1991 erneuerten achteckigen Dachreiter mit zwei Welschen Hauben. Die Glocke in diesem Turm zeigt auf der Vorderseite zur Erinnerung an das alte Gnadenbild die Madonna von Cranach und die Umschrift "Maria Hilfe der Christen erhalte uns den Frieden". Auf der Rückseite steht: "Eifeler Glockengießerei H. A. Mark-Brockscheid/Katholische Kirchengemeinde Maria-Hilf Koblenz-Lützel 1991".

Wallfahrtskirche

Das Innere der Maria-Hilf-Kirche war schlicht gehalten. An der östlichen Wand des Kirchenschiffs waren 14 in Stein gehauene Kreuzwegstationen aus den 1950er-Jahren eingelassen und an dem Pfeiler rechts am Übergang zum Chor stand auf einer Konsole eine Figur des heiligen Pilgers Rochus (18. Jahrhundert). Der Altar ruhte auf vier Pfeilern mit figürlichen Symbolen der vier Evangelisten, dahinter stand der Tabernakel. Im kleinen Seitenschiff war eine Figur des heiligen Antonius von Padua aufgestellt. An der gegenüberliegenden Seite am Ende des Seitenschiffs war Dechant Peter Plein, der frühere Pfarrer von Maria Hilf und Erbauer der Pfarrkirche, beigesetzt. Rechts auf der Empore stand die 1952 für eine Düsseldorfer Kirche erbaute und ca. 1979 in die Maria-Hilf-Kirche versetzte Orgel von der Orgelbauwerkstatt Klais; vor dem Abbruch der Kirche wurde sie 2017 nach Neuendorf verkauft. Eine zweite kleinere Orgel stand links neben dem Chorraum im Übergang zur Kapelle; sie war 1956 von den Gebrüdern Späth erbaut worden.

Den nördlichen Abschluss der Kirche bildete die am 7. Juni 1954 eingeweihte Taufkapelle, zu der einige Stufen hinabführten und die durch Teile der Kommunionbank aus einer der Lützeler Notkirchen zum Kirchenschiff hin abgeschlossen war. Die Notkirchen waren unmittelbar nach dem Krieg eingerichtet worden. Das Taufbecken war in Maria Laach geschaffen worden. Die Fenster der Taufkapelle waren ein Werk des Glasmalers Alois Stettner, zu dessen bekanntesten Werken die Fenster in der Basilika St. Kastor, in der Herz-Jesu-Kirche und im Westchor des Mainzer Doms gehören.

Pfarreiengemeinschaft

Die Pfarrkirche St. Antonius wurde 1968 bis 1969 in Lützel neu errichtet. Maria Hilf und St. Antonius bilden seit dem 1. Februar 2011 zusammen mit St. Peter in Neuendorf sowie St. Martin in Kesselheim eine Pfarreiengemeinschaft.

Denkmalschutz

Die Maria-Hilf-Kapelle ist ein geschütztes Kulturdenkmal nach dem Denkmalschutzgesetz (DSchG) und in der Denkmalliste des Landes Rheinland-Pfalz eingetragen. Sie liegt in Koblenz-Lützel in der Mayener-Straße 82.

Seit 2002 ist die Maria-Hilf-Kapelle Teil des UNESCO-Welterbes Oberes Mittelrheintal.

Siehe auch

 Liste von Sakralbauten in Koblenz

Literatur

 Energieversorgung Mittelrhein GmbH (Hrsg.): Geschichte der Stadt Koblenz. Gesamtredaktion: Ingrid Bátori in Verbindung mit Dieter Kerber und Hans Josef Schmidt. Theiss, Stuttgart 1992–1993;
 Band 1: Von den Anfängen bis zum Ende der kurfürstlichen Zeit. 1992, ISBN 3-8062-0876-X;
 Band 2: Von der französischen Stadt bis zur Gegenwart. 1993, ISBN 3-8062-1036-5.
 Birgit Johnen: Kirchenführer für die Pfarrkirche Wallfahrtskapelle Maria-Hilf, Koblenz 2009.
 Fritz Michel: Die Kunstdenkmäler der Stadt Koblenz. Die profanen Denkmäler und die Vororte, München Berlin 1954, (Die Kunstdenkmäler von Rheinland-Pfalz Erster Band).
 75 Jahre katholische Pfarrgemeinden St. Antonius – Maria-Hilf Koblenz-Lützel 1911-1986. Ein Überblick über ihre Geschichte, hrsg. von den Katholischen Pfarrgemeinden St. Antonius und Maria-Hilf, Koblenz 1986.
 Michael Friedrich: Die Maria-Hilf-Kapelle und die Kongregation der Barmherzigen Brüder von Maria Hilf. Zum 70. Jahrestag der Übertragung der Maria-Hilf-Kapelle von Koblenz nach Trier, Trier 1998 [behandelt S. 7–29 die Frühgeschichte der Maria-Hilf-Kapelle in Koblenz].
 100 Jahre katholisches Pfarrgemeindeleben in Koblenz-Lützel. Festschrift, hrsg. von der Pfarreiengemeinschaft Maria-Hilf und St. Antonius, Koblenz 2011.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Maria Hilf
Koblenz Maria Hilf
Koblenz
Koblenz
Koblenz
Koblenz Luetzel
Kulturdenkmal in Koblenz
Kulturlandschaft Oberes Mittelrheintal
Erbaut in den 1900er Jahren
Erbaut in den 1950er Jahren
Bauwerk des Historismus in Koblenz

Maria Hilf (Koblenz)


The Avro Type 694 Lincoln is a British four-engined heavy bomber, which first flew on 9 June 1944. Developed from the Avro Lancaster, the first Lincoln variants were initially known as the Lancaster IV and V; these were renamed Lincoln I and II. It was the last piston-engined bomber operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF).

The Lincoln attained operational status in August 1945. It had been initially assigned to units of the Tiger Force, a Commonwealth heavy bomber force which had been intended to play a role in the Japan campaign in the closing stages of the Second World War, but the war ended before the Lincoln could participate. Production of the type proceeded and the type was adopted in quantity, complementing and progressively replacing the Lancaster in RAF service during the late 1940s.

The Lincoln was deployed on operations during the 1950s. RAF squadrons equipped with the type fought against guerrilla fighters during the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya; the RAF and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) also operated the Lincoln during the Malayan Emergency. The type also saw significant peacetime service with the RAF, RAAF and the Argentine Air Force. Lincolns were also operated in civil aviation, including use as aerial test beds for aero-engine research.

In RAF service, the Lincoln was replaced by a new generation of bombers harnessing newly developed jet propulsion. Chief amongst these was the English Electric Canberra, which was also adopted by a wide range of operators across the world, including the RAAF and Argentine Air Force. During the 1950s, the RAF also adopted a total of three advanced jet-powered strategic bombers to carry Britain's new nuclear deterrent – collectively known as the V Force – the Vickers Valiant, Handley Page Victor and the Avro Vulcan. In 1967, the last Lincoln bombers in Argentinian service were retired.

Design and development

Origins

The Avro Lincoln originated from a design produced by Roy Chadwick as a development of the earlier Lancaster bomber which had been produced with the purpose of conforming with the requirements of the Specification B.14/43. Known initially as the Lancaster IV and Lancaster V, the envisioned aircraft, while bearing considerable similarity to the Lancaster, featured numerous improvements, such as the adoption of stronger, longer span, higher aspect ratio (10.30 compared with 8.02) wings along with two-stage supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 engines fitted within Universal Power Plant (UPP) installations. The new bomber also possessed an enlarged fuselage that accommodated increased fuel and bomb loads and allowed up to 11 tons of various armaments and equipment fittings including the Grand Slam bomb to be carried. It had a higher operational ceiling and longer range than its Lancaster predecessor, being capable of a maximum altitude of  and a maximum range of .

The prototype Lancaster IV, later renamed the Lincoln I, was assembled by Avro's experimental flight department at Manchester's Ringway Airport. According to aviation author Kev Delve, development of the Lincoln had proceeded relatively smoothly. On 9 June 1944, the prototype conducted its maiden flight from Ringway Airport. Testing of the prototype quickly proved it to have favourable flight characteristics. In February 1945, the first production Lincoln was completed.

The type was mainly produced at Avro's Woodford, Cheshire and Chadderton Lancashire factories; additional aircraft were also constructed by Armstrong Whitworth at their Coventry facilities. Separate production lines were also established in Canada and Australia, although, as a consequence of the end of the war, production in Canada was halted after only a single aircraft had been constructed. Production in Australia went ahead: the Lincolns that were manufactured there were operated by the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).

During early 1945, the British Government immediately set about restoring the country to a peacetime stance, which involved the demobilisation of the military and, more specifically, the disbanding of many squadrons of the Royal Air Force (RAF) as a part of cost-saving measures. A new emphasis was soon placed on 'quality over quantity' during the rationalisation process, seeking to employ fewer but more capable aircraft to perform their envisioned roles; while there was no longer any urgency in bringing new types of aircraft into service, limited procurement of equipment that fell within this ethos did proceed. In accordance with this aim, the British Air Ministry proceeded to formulate and release Specification B.14/43, which sought an improved piston-engined heavy bomber to replace the wartime four-engine bombers, the Short Stirling, the Handley Page Halifax, and the Avro Lancaster.

Further development
One Lincoln B Mk XV pattern aircraft was completed in Canada by Victory Aircraft; a follow-up order for a total of six RCAF variants was cancelled shortly following the end of hostilities. Along with two additional Lincoln (Mk I and Mk II) aircraft on loan from the RAF, the type was briefly evaluated postwar by the RCAF. The Lancaster V/Lincoln II differed mainly in that it was fitted with Merlin 68A engines.

Prior to the Lincoln being developed, the Australian government had already formulated plans for its Department of Aircraft Production (DAP), later known as the Government Aircraft Factory (GAF), to construct the earlier Lancaster Mk III. In its place, it was decided to proceed with manufacturing a variant of the Lincoln I to replace the Consolidated Liberators, which was re-designated the Lincoln Mk 30. This model was manufactured between 1946 and 1949; it has the distinction of being the largest aircraft ever constructed in Australia. Orders for a total of 85 Mk 30 Lincolns were placed by the RAAF, although only 73 were ever produced.

The first five Australian examples (A73–1 to A73–5), were assembled at Fishermans Bend using a large proportion of imported British-made components. On 17 March 1946, A73-1 conducted its début flight; the first entirely Australian-built Lincoln, A73-6, was formally delivered in November 1946. The Mk 30 initially featured four Merlin 85 engines, this arrangement was later changed to a combination of two outboard Merlin 66s and two inboard Merlin 85s. A further improved later version, designated Lincoln Mk 30A, featured a total of four Merlin 102s.

During the 1950s, the RAAF heavily modified some of their Mk 30 aircraft to perform anti-submarine warfare (ASW) missions, re-designating them Lincoln GR.Mk 31. These examples had a  longer nose to house acoustic submarine detection gear and its operators, larger fuel tanks to provide the aircraft with a 13-hour flight endurance and a modified bomb bay to accommodate torpedoes. According to pilot feedback, the Lincoln Mk 31 was particularly difficult to land at night, as the bomber had a tailwheel undercarriage and the long nose obstructed the pilot's view of the runway. In 1952, 18 aircraft were rebuilt to this standard, and were reallocated new serial numbers accordingly. Ten were subsequently upgraded to the MR.Mk 31 standard, which included the adoption of an updated radar.

Further aircraft were also derived from the Lincoln. A dedicated maritime patrol aircraft, designated the Avro Shackleton, was developed for the RAF and the South African Air Force (SAAF). Additionally, Avro decided to develop a commercial airliner, known as the Tudor, which harnessed elements of the Lincoln, such as its wings, in combination with various new elements, such as the adoption of a pressurised fuselage, to perform passenger operations.

Operational history

Royal Air Force

During 1945, the RAF received its first Lincoln, which was delivered to No. 57 Squadron based at RAF East Kirkby, Lincolnshire. In August 1945, No. 75 (New Zealand) Squadron began to re-equip with the Lincoln at RAF Spilsby, Lincolnshire. However, No. 75 (NZ) Sqn had received just three aircraft prior to VJ Day, and was disbanded quickly thereafter.

During the postwar climate, the Lincoln quickly equipped the bomber squadrons of the RAF. Nearly 600 Lincolns were constructed to equip a total of 29 RAF squadrons, the majority of which were based in the United Kingdom. They were supplemented and partially replaced by 88 Boeing Washingtons, on loan from the USAF, which had longer range and could reach targets inside the Iron Curtain. Small numbers remained in use with Nos 7, 83 and 97 Squadrons until the end of 1955, at which point the type was phased out, having been replaced by the first of the V bombers.

During the 1950s, RAF Lincolns participated in operations in Kenya against Mau-Mau insurgents. During this action, they were operated from Eastleigh. The Lincoln was also deployed to Malaya during the Malayan Emergency, where it was used against insurgents aligned to the Malayan Communist Party. In Malayan theatre, RAF Lincolns were operated from Changi Air Base and Tengah Air Base. In excess of 3,000 sorties were flown during their -year deployment, during which half a million pounds of bombs dropped, 85 per cent of the total bomb tonnage dropped during the Malayan emergency.

On 12 March 1953, an RAF Lincoln (RF531 "C") of Central Gunnery School was shot down 20 mi (32 km) NE of Lüneburg, Germany by several Soviet MiG-15s as it flew to Berlin on a radar reconnaissance flight, killing the seven crew members.

In November 1955, four Lincolns of No. 7 Squadron RAF were detached for duties in British territories in the Middle East. In Bahrain, they carried out border patrols of the then Trucial States. When 7 Sqn was disbanded in December 1955, the four detached crews and aircraft became No. 1426 Flight RAF, officially a photographic reconnaissance unit. It was later sent to Aden, carrying out patrols in the lead-up to the Aden Emergency.

As the RAF Lincolns became unserviceable, primarily due to progressive wear and tear, they were replaced by a variety of jet-powered aircraft. The Lincolns of Bomber Command were phased out from the mid-1950s and had been completely replaced by jet bombers by 1963. The last Lincolns in RAF service were five operated by No. 151 Squadron, Signals Command, at RAF Watton, Norfolk, which were retired on 12 March 1963.

Royal Australian Air Force
From late 1946, Australian-built Lincolns were phased into No. 82 Wing, based at RAAF Base Amberley, Ipswich, Queensland. The type quickly replaced the Liberator bombers that had been operated by 12, 21 and 23 Squadrons. In February 1948, these units were renumbered 1, 2 and 6 Squadrons respectively; a fourth RAAF Lincoln squadron, No. 10 was formed on 17 March 1949 at RAAF Townsville as a reconnaissance unit.

During the 1950s, RAAF Lincolns participated in combat operations in Malaya, operating alongside RAF examples. The RAAF based the B.Mk 30s of No.1 Squadron at Tengah, for the duration of operations in Malaya.

These Lincolns served with 10 Squadron RAAF at RAAF Base Townsville, Garbutt, Queensland; the discovery of corrosion in the wing spars led to the type's premature retirement in 1961. The Lincoln MR.Mk 31 was the final variant to see service in Australia.

Argentine Air Force

From 1947, the Lincoln bomber served with the Fuerza Aerea Argentina; Argentina had procured a total of 30 aircraft, together with a batch of 15 secondhand Lancasters. The adoption of the Lincoln effectively gave Argentina the most powerful bombing force in South America. Eighteen of these Lincolns were newly built, along with twelve ex-RAF aircraft. In 1947, the type entered service with I Grupo de Bombardeo of V Brigada Aérea. By the beginning of 1965, eleven of these remained in operational use, the majority of these were retired during the next year. In 1967, the final examples of the Lincoln were retired.

The Argentine aircraft were used in bombing missions against domestic rebels. Lincolns were deployed during an attempted military coup conducted in September 1951, the type was also used by both the government and rebel forces during the 1955 Revolución Libertadora coup which resulted in Argentinian President Juan Perón being deposed.

Argentine Lincolns were also used to conduct supply airdrops in support of Argentine operations in the Antarctic region. In 1948, one of the bombers was returned to Avro for modification at RAF Langar in Nottinghamshire to allow it to operate these Antarctic support flights; the changes included the addition of Lancastrian nose and tail cones, additional fuel tanks, and removal of armament; this led to the aircraft becoming the first Avro Lincolnian. Modified as such, the aircraft received a civilian registration and was named Cruz del Sur; it undertook its first aerial supply flight to the Antarctic San Martín Base in December 1951.

Use in aero-engine research

Lincolns were frequently employed as testbeds in new jet engine development. RF403, RE339/G and SX972 flew with a pair of Armstrong Siddeley Python turboprops outboard in place of the Merlins, and was used for the ballistic casing drop-test programme for the Blue Danube atomic weapon. SX972 was further modified to fly with a pair of Bristol Proteus turboprops. RA716/G had a similarly placed pair of Bristol Theseus turboprops and later also flew with Rolls-Royce Avon turbojets replacing the pair of turboprops. Lincoln Test Bed RF530 kept its Merlins but had a Napier Naiad turboprop in the nose. It later flew, bearing the civilian "Class B" test registration G-37-1, with a similarly placed Rolls-Royce Tyne which it displayed at the 1956 Society of British Aircraft Constructors (SBAC) show, making a low level flypast on just the nose Tyne, the four Merlins being shut down and propellers feathered.SX973 had a Napier Nomad diesel turbo-compound installed in a similar nose-mounted installation. RA643 flew with a Bristol Phoebus turbojet in the bomb bay, and SX971 had an afterburning Rolls-Royce Derwent mounted ventrally.

Commercial service
A pair of Lincoln IIs were operated by D. Napier & Son Ltd. for icing research from 1948 to 1962. A transport conversion of the Lincoln II, using the streamlined nose and tail cones of the Lancastrian and a ventral cargo pannier, was known as the Avro 695 Lincolnian.

One Lincoln Freighter Mk.2  G-ALPF, former RAF RE290, converted by Airflight Ltd. was used on the Berlin Air Lift by Surrey Flying Services Ltd.

Four Lincolnian conversions by Field Aircraft Services for use as meat haulers in Paraguay were not delivered and subsequently scrapped.

Variants
Avro Type 694
Prototypes to Air Ministry Specification 14/43, three-built
Lincoln I
Long-range bomber version for the RAF. Powered by four 1,750 hp (1,305 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 inline piston engines.
Lincoln II
Long-range bomber version for the RAF. Powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlin 66, 68A and 300 inline piston engines. Built by Avro, Armstrong-Whitworth and Vickers-Metropolitan.
Lincoln III
The Lincoln III was intended to be a maritime reconnaissance, anti-submarine warfare aircraft. The aircraft later became the Avro Shackleton.
Lincoln IV
Lincoln II converted to Merlin 85 power.
Lincoln U.5
Lincoln II converted to drone aircraft, only two aircraft modified.
Lincoln Mk 15 (B Mk XV)
This designation was given to one aircraft, built by Victory Aircraft in Canada.
Lincoln Mk 30
Long-range bomber version for the RAAF.
Lincoln Mk 30A
Long-range bomber version for the RAAF, fitted with a longer nose and Australian manufactured Merlin 102s.
Lincoln Mk 31 (GR 31)
General reconnaissance version of Mk.30 for the RAAF, fitted with a longer nose. Four Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 or 1,650 h.p. Merlin 102 powerplants.
Lincoln MR 31
Anti-submarine warfare/maritime reconnaissance version of Mk 31 for the RAAF.
Avro 695 Lincolnian
Transport derivative similar to the Avro Lancastrian
Lincoln ASR.3
Initial designation of the Avro Shackleton, which was based on the Lincoln.

Operators

 Argentine Air Force
 I Grupo de Bombardeo of V Brigada Aerea.
 Fuerza Aerea de Tareas Antarticas (FATA)

 Royal Australian Air Force – 54 Avro Lincolns were in service with the RAAF from 1946 to 1961.
 No. 1 Squadron RAAF
 No. 2 Squadron RAAF
 No. 6 Squadron RAAF
 No. 10 Squadron RAAF
 No. 12 Squadron RAAF (redesignated No. 1 Squadron in 1948)
 Heavy Bomber Crew Conversion Unit RAAF
 Lincoln Conversion Flight RAAF

 Royal Canadian Air Force
 Three Avro Lincolns were in service with the RCAF from 1946 to 1948.

 Royal Air Force
 No. 7 Squadron RAF 1949–55 at RAF Upwood.
 No. 9 Squadron RAF 1946–52 at RAF Binbrook, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 No. 12 Squadron RAF 1946–52 at RAF Binbrook and RAF Hemswell, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 No. 15 Squadron RAF 1947–50 at RAF Wyton, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 No. 35 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 No. 44 Squadron RAF 1945–51 at RAF Mildenhall and RAF Wyton, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 No. 49 Squadron RAF 1949–55 at RAF Upwood, RAF Waddington and RAF Wittering.
 No. 50 Squadron RAF 1949–51 at RAF Waddington.
 No. 57 Squadron RAF 1945–51 at RAF West Kirby, RAF Elsham Wolds, RAF Scampton, RAF Lindholme and RAF Waddington, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 No. 58 Squadron RAF 1951 at RAF Benson and RAF Wyton
 No. 61 Squadron RAF 1946–54 at RAF Waddington and RAF Wittering, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 No. 75 (New Zealand) Squadron RAF 1945 at RAF Spilsby.
 No. 83 Squadron RAF 1945–55 at RAF Coningsby and RAF Hemswell.
 No. 90 Squadron RAF 1947–50 at RAF Wyton, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 No. 97 Squadron RAF 1946–55 at RAF Coningsby and RAF Hemswell.
 No. 100 Squadron RAF 1946–54 at RAF Lindholme, RAF Hemswell, RAF Waddington and RAF Wittering, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 No. 101 Squadron RAF 1946–51 at RAF Binbrook, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 No. 115 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 No. 116 Squadron RAF 1952–54 at RAF Watton
 No. 138 Squadron RAF 1947–60 at RAF Wyton and RAF Scampton.
 No. 148 Squadron RAF 1950–55 at RAF Upwood.
 No. 149 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 No. 151 Squadron RAF 1962–63 at RAF Watton
 No. 192 Squadron RAF 1951–53 at RAF Watton
 No. 199 Squadron RAF 1951–57 at RAF Watton and RAF Hemswell, converted to the Vickers Valiant
 No. 207 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 No. 214 Squadron RAF 1950–54 at RAF Upwood.
 No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF 1949–1953 at RAF Lindholme and RAF Upwood, became the Bomber Command Bombing School
 No. 527 Squadron RAF 1952–57 at RAF Watton
 No. 617 Squadron RAF 1946–52 at RAF Watton, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 No. 1321 Flight RAF 1954–58 at RAF Hemswell
 No. 1426 Flight RAF 1956–57 at RAF Khormaksar
 No. 1689 Flight RAF 1951–52 at RAF Aston Down
 Bomb Ballistic Unit 1947–48 at RAF Woodbridge
 Bomber Command Bombing School (BCBS) 1952–1960 at RAF Scampton and RAF Lindholme, converted to the Handley Page Hastings
 Central Navigation and Control School 1951–55 at RAF Shawbury
 Coastal Command Gunnery School 1955 at RAF Leconfield
 Empire Air Navigation School 1947–48 at RAF Shawbury
 Empire Air Navigation School 1946–50 at RAF Manby
 Empire Central Flying School 1945–46 at RAF Hullavington
 Empire Radio School 1947–50 at RAF Debden
 Radar Research Flight 1951–57 at RAF Wyton
 Flight Refuelling Ltd (FRL) – used some converted as tankers for flight refuelling
 Empire Test Pilots School

Accidents and incidents

Aircraft on display

Argentina
On display
 Lincoln II B-004 – on display as B-010 at the National Museum of Aeronautics, Buenos Aires.
 Lincoln II B-016 – a gate guardian at the Villa Reynolds airbase, San Luis Province.

Australia
Stored or under restoration
 Lincoln II RF342 is in storage for future restoration at the Australian National Aviation Museum, Melbourne.
 The nose section of Australian-made Lincoln B.30 A73-27 is at the Camden Museum of Aviation at Narellan, New South Wales.

United Kingdom
On display
 Lincoln II RF398 at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford.

Specifications (Lincoln I)

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography
 Buttler, Tony. Avro Lincoln (Warpaint series no. 34). Denbigh East, Bletchley, UK: Hall Park Books, 2000.
 Delve, Ken. Bomber Command: 1936–1968: An Operational & Historical Record. Pen and Sword, 2005. .
 Franks, Richard A. The Avro Lancaster, Manchester and Lincoln. Bedford, United Kingdom: SAM Publications, 2000. .
 Garbett, Mike and Brian Goulding. Lincoln at War. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 1979. .
 Grant, Jim. Lincoln Test Beds Model Aircraft Monthly, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2003, SAM Publications,
 Jackson, A.J. Avro Aircraft since 1908, 2nd edition. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1990. .
 Lake, Alan. Flying Units Of The RAF. London: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1999. .
 Lake, Jon. Type Analysis: Avro Lincoln International Air Power Review, Volume 1, 1997, Airtime publishing. .
 Mantelli, Brown, Kittel, Graf. "Avro Lancaster – Handley Page Halifax – Short S.29 Stirling." Edizioni R.E.I., 2017. .
 Marino, Atilo, Vladimiro Celleto and Javier Mosquera. "Argentina's 'Heavies': Avro Lancaster, Lincoln and Lancastrian in Military Service: Part One." Air Enthusiast, No. 95, September/October 2001, pp. 64–70. .
 Marino, Atilo, Vladimiro Celleto and Javier Mosquera. "Argentina's 'Heavies': Avro Lancaster, Lincoln and Lancastrian in Military Service: Part Two." Air Enthusiast, No. 97, January/February 2002, pp. 36–43. .
 Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam, 1994. .
 Scholefield, R.A. Manchester Airport. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998. .
 Thetford, Owen. Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57. London: Putnam, 1957.

 Wilson, Stewart. Lincoln, Canberra and F-111 in Australian Service. Weston Creek, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1989. .
 World Aircraft Information Files, File # 022. London: Bright Star Publishing, 1997.

Further reading

External links

 Avro Lincoln in World War II
 Avro Lincoln articles and publications
 Avro Lincoln B2
 The Avro Lincoln – Flight archive – 1946

Lincoln
Avro Lancaster
1940s British bomber aircraft
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1944
Four-engined piston aircraft
Twin-tail aircraft

Avro Lincoln


Werner Carl August Bokermann (Werner Carlos Augusto Bokermann) (, Botucatu-, São Paulo) fue un herpetólogo y ornitólogo brasileño de origen alemán.

Biografía
Werner nació en la ciudad de Botucatu, en el interior de São Paulo, en 1929. Era hijo de Werner Bokermann y Lauiz Stricker. Trabajó en la "Fundación Parque Zoológico de São Paulo"

Honores

Epónimos

 Cochranella bokermanni Taylor & Cochran, 1953
 Hyla bokermanni Goin, 1960
 Leptodactylus bokermanni Heyer, 1973
 Lonchophylla bokermanni Sazima, Vizotto & Taddei, 1978

 Eleutherodactylus bokermanni Donoso-Barros. 1979
 Crossodactylodes bokermanni Peixoto, 1983
 Physalaemus bokermanni Cardoso & Haddad, 1985
 Crossodactylus bokermanni Caramaschi & Sazima, 1985
 Cynolebias bokermanni Carvalho & Cruz, 1985

 Phrynomedusa bokermanni Cruz, 1991
 Aparasphenodon bokermanni Pombal Jr. 1993
 Dendrophryniscus bokermanni Izecksohn, 1993
 Antilophia bokermanni Coelho & Silva 1998
 Crossodactylus werneri Pimenta, Cruz & Caramaschi, 2014

Referencias biográficas
 Alvarenga, 1995: In memoriam: Werner C. A.. Bokermann. Ararajuba, vol. 3 : 101-102
 Santos, 1995: In memoriam: Werner C. A.. Bokermann. Bol. CEO N.º. 12 : 2-19 ()

Algunos taxones descritos

 Colostethus alagoanus
 Colostethus capixaba
 Colostethus carioca
 Colostethus goianus
 Cycloramphus diringshofeni
 Hyla acreana
 Hyla alvarengai
 Hyla anataliasiasi
 Hyla astartea
 Hyla berthalutzae

 Hyla biobeba
 Hyla cymbalum
 Hyla dentei
 Hyla haraldschultzi
 Hyla langei
 Hyla leali
 Hyla limai
 Hyla martinsi
 Hyla nahdereri
 Hyla nanuzae
 Hyla novaisi

 Hyla oliveirai
 Hyla pinima
 Hyla saxicola
 Hyla schubarti
 Hyla tritaeniata
 Hyla walfordi
 Phasmahyla cochranae
 Phasmahyla jandaia
 Phyllodytes acuminatus
 Phyllodytes tuberculosus
 Phyllomedusa centralis

 Scinax albicans
 Scinax ariadne
 Scinax eurydice
 Scinax machadoi
 Scinax rizibilis
 Sphaenorhynchus bromelicola
 Sphaenorhynchus palustris
 Sphaenorhynchus pauloalvini
 Sphaenorhynchus prasinus
 Trachycephalus atlas

Referencias

Herpetólogos de Brasil
Ornitólogos de Brasil

Werner Bokermann


The King's Men was the acting company to which William Shakespeare (1564–1616) belonged for most of his career. Formerly known as the Lord Chamberlain's Men during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, they became the King's Men in 1603 when King James I ascended the throne and became the company's patron.

The royal patent of 19 May 1603 which authorised the King's Men company named the following players, in this order: Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare, Richard Burbage, Augustine Phillips, John Heminges, Henry Condell, William Sly, Robert Armin, Richard Cowley, "and the rest of their associates...." The nine cited by name became Grooms of the Chamber. On 15 March 1604, each of the nine men named in the patent was supplied with four and a half yards of red cloth for the coronation procession.

Chronologically typed

To 1610
In their first winter season, between December 1603 and February 1604 the company performed eight times at Court and eleven times in their second, from November 1604 through February 1605, including seven plays by Shakespeare and two by Ben Jonson. This represented a workload twice as great as was typical under Elizabeth. The King's Men needed more men, and in 1604 the number of sharers was increased from eight or nine, ten, eleven and twelve. The new sharers included John Lowin, Alexander Cooke, and Nicholas Tooley.

May 1605 brought the death of Augustine Phillips. In his will, Phillips left legacies to Shakespeare, Burbage, and eight other members of the company, plus two apprentices, and £5 to the hired men "of the company which I am of". (Phillips also leaves a bequest to Christopher Beeston, as a former "servant". Beeston was almost certainly another former apprentice.)

The company gave ten court performances in the winter of 1605–06 and, unusually, three Court performances in the summer of 1606, during a state visit by the King of Denmark. Each Court performance earned them £10. They also toured that summer, and were in Oxford at the end of July, among other stops. Nine performances at Court marked the winter of 1606-07, including a performance of 26 December of King Lear; the following winter, 1607–08, saw thirteen Court appearances.

From July to December 1608 the theatres were closed due to plague. The King's Men toured the countryside; they were in Coventry in late October. The Blackfriars Theatre, owned by the Burbage family, was organised into a partnership in August that year, with five of the seven shares going to members of the King's Men – Shakespeare, Burbage, Heminges, Condell, and Sly. Sly, however, died soon after, and his share was split among the other six. (The two non-actors involved in the arrangement were Cuthbert Burbage, Richard's brother, and Thomas Evans, agent for theatre manager Henry Evans.)

The acquisition of the Blackfriars represented an enormous advantage for the company. It allowed the company to perform year round instead of only in clement weather. The Blackfriars hall is thought to have been , including the stage; its maximum capacity was likely in the hundreds of spectators. This can be compared with the maximum capacity at the Globe Theatre of 2500 to 3000. Yet the ticket prices at the Blackfriars were five to six times higher than those at the Globe. Globe tickets ranged from a penny to sixpence (1d. to 6d.); tickets at the Blackfriars ranged from sixpence to two shillings sixpence (6d. to 2s. 6d.; 1 shilling = 12 pence). The cheapest admission at the Blackfriars equalled the most expensive at the Globe; the most expensive seat at the Blackfriars cost five times as much as its Globe counterpart. Adding the Blackfriars to the Globe should have allowed the King's Men to at least double their income from public performances.

Their new wealth allowed the King's Men to overcome major adversity: when the Globe Theatre burned down in 1613 (see below), the company could afford an expensive rebuild, replacing the vulnerable thatch roof with tile. The fact that the King's Men had a second theatre meant that they did not lose all their playscripts and costumes, as happened to the Admiral's/Palsgrave's Men in the Fortune Theatre fire of December 1621 (a disaster that was, for that company, the beginning of the end).

1609 was another plague year during which the company travelled, although nine plays were still performed at Court. (Royal patronage was an advantage in difficult times: special payments in times of plague were made to the company in 1603, 1608, 1609, and 1610.)

1610 was a better year, with public performances at the Globe – Othello and Jonson's Sejanus among others. By this time the company had been augmented by John Underwood and William Ostler, both veterans of the Children of the Chapel/Queen's Revels company. The company left London and performed in Oxford in August, 1610. They were paid by the Oxford Municipal Authorities. A letter by Oxford student at Corpus Christi, Henry Jackson and dated September 1610 and in latin, describes the King's Men performing Ben Jonson's The Alchemist and describes Desdemona (in Othello) both of which had been performed earlier that year in London. The record is held at Corpus Christi and a copy can be viewed at the Folger Exhibition, Shakespeare Documented.

To 1616
In 1611 Jonson's Catiline was performed; apart from Richard Robinson's substitution for Armin, the cast roster was the same as for Sejanus the previous year. This may have been John Heminges' last production; in 1613 he's described as "stuttering." Heminges normally received the payments for the company's Court performances, as far back as 1595; he continued to be active in the company's financial affairs even after he left the stage.

Between October 1611 and April 1612 the King's Men performed 22 plays at Court, including The Winter's Tale and The Tempest. Their connection with The Second Maiden's Tragedy also dates from this period; the manuscript of that play reveals that Robert Gough was cast as Memphonius, while Richard Robinson was the Lady.

On Sunday 12 and Monday 13 January 1612, the King's Men joined with Queen Anne's Men to give Court performances of two Queen's Men's plays by Thomas Heywood, The Silver Age and The Rape of Lucrece. No cast list for these performances has survived; but given the two companies' known personnel, this might have been the first time Christopher Beeston acted with his old colleagues since leaving the Lord Chamberlain's Men nearly a decade earlier.

In the winter of 1612–13, great Court festivities celebrating the marriage of the Elector Palatine to King James' daughter Princess Elizabeth were held. The King's Men gave 20 performances, including seven plays by Shakespeare (Much Ado About Nothing twice), one by Jon
Cardenio was performed again at Court on 8 June 1613, before the ambassador from Savoy. The second Beaumont and Fletcher folio of 1679 provides partial cast lists for three King's Men productions from the c. 1613 period, for Fletcher's Bonduca and Valentinian and the Beaumont and Fletcher collaboration The Captain.

{| class="wikitable"
|-son – and four by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, reflecting their growing popularity with audiences and dominance in the King's Men's repertoire. The mysterious Cardenio, allegedly by Shakespeare and [[John Fletcher (playwright)|F'letcher]], was also performed.<ref>In addition to Much Ado, the Shakespearean plays performed were Othello, The Tempest, The Winter's Tale, [[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]], and both parts of Henry IV. Jonson's play was The Alchemist; the Beaumont and Fletcher plays were The Maid's Tragedy, The Captain, A King and No King, and Philaster (which was also performed twice). In addition to Cardenio, the other plays performed were Cyril Tourneur's lost play The Nobleman, and four anonymous works, The Merry Devil of Edmonton, The Twins' Tragedy, The Knot of Fools, and A Bad Beginning Makes a Good Ending – twenty performances of eighteen plays. The specific dates of the performances are not in the extant records. Chambers, Vol. 2, p. 217.</ref>

|
! Cook! Bonduca! Valentinian|-
| Richard Burbage
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
|-
| Henry Condell
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
|-
| William Ostler
| ✔
| ✔
| ✔
|-
| John Lowin
| ...
| ✔
| ✔
|-
| Alexander Cooke
| ✔
| ...
| ...
|-
| John Underwood
| ...
| ✔
| ✔
|-
| Nicholas Tooley
| ...
| ✔
| ...
|-
| William Ecclestone
| ...
| ✔
| ...
|-
| Richard Robinson
| ...
| ✔
| ...
|-
|}

On 29 June 1613, the Globe Theatre burned down, its thatch roof set afire by squibs set off during a lavish performance of the Shakespeare/Fletcher Henry VIII. The Globe was rebuilt by the following spring, at a cost of £1400. The thatch roof was replaced with tile. During the winter of 1613–14 the company played at Court sixteen times.

In 1614 Alexander Cooke and William Ostler both died; their places as sharers were taken, perhaps, by William Ecclestone and Robert Benfield. Ostler's death may have been sudden, and was problematic in that he died intestate. His father-in-law, John Heminges, seized control of his theatre shares. Ostler's widow, Thomasine Heminges Ostler, sued her father in 1615 for control of the shares – a suit that was apparently unsuccessful.

In the winter of 1614–15 the King's Men performed at Court only eight times, half their workload of the previous year. During the next winter, 1615–16, they were back up to fourteen Court performances.

On 23 April 1616, Shakespeare died. His role as the King's Men's leading playwright would be filled by Fletcher and his various collaborators through the coming years, with Philip Massinger assuming greater prominence in the 1630s. Nathan Field joined the company in 1616; already a prominent actor, he would go on to write plays for the King's Men in his all-too-brief career with the company.

To 1623
Nathan Field's contribution to the King's Men is illustrated by the play The Knight of Malta, which Field wrote with Fletcher and Massinger. The first Beaumont and Fletcher folio of 1647 gives a list of the principal cast in the company's production of the play, which included Burbage, Field himself, John Underwood, Richard Sharpe, Henry Condell, Robert Benfield, John Lowin, and Thomas Holcombe. (Sharpe and Holcombe were boy actors with the company.) The date of this production is unknown, but it must have occurred in the 1616–19 era, between Field's joining the company and Burbage's death. Field may also have played the title role in George Chapman's Bussy D'Ambois in this period. He is reported to have played the role at some time in his career, and the King's Men had the play in their repertory for many years.

1619 was a pivotal year in the company's history. The residents of the upscale Blackfriars neighbourhood, many of whom were wealthy and influential politically and socially, had never been happy about the presence of a theatre in their midst; in the spring of 1619 they complained more loudly than usual about the traffic problems associated with the theatre, which blocked access to the local churches. (All the playing companies were required to cease activity during Lent – a requirement they flouted whenever possible, often with impunity.) In response to this local opposition, the King's Men obtained a renewal of their royal patent dated 27 March 1619. The patent named the twelve current shareholders in the company; in addition to the veterans Burbage, Lowin, Heminges, and Condell, the list includes William Ecclestone, Robert Gough, Richard Robinson, Nicholas Tooley, and John Underwood, and the newest members, Nathan Field, Robert Benfield, and John Shank.

Shank would be the company's primary clown in the years to come; his specialties were dancing and knockabout physical comedy. He was a veteran of several troupes over the previous decades, going back perhaps to Pembroke's Men and Queen Elizabeth's Men in the reign of Elizabeth; he had been with the Admiral's/Prince Henry's/Palsgrave's company in the 1610–13 period. Shank may have taken Robert Armin's place in the King's Men after Armin's death in 1615. Shank also trained apprentices for the company – Thomas Holcombe, John Thompson, Thomas Pollard, and John Honyman. Robert Gough had been associated with the actors of the company perhaps as far back as 1591, when he may have been a boy player in The Seven Deadly Sins; he received a legacy in the 1603 will of Thomas Pope, and he witnessed the 1605 will of Augustine Phillips, whose sister he most likely married. Gough was never a prominent actor, and little is known about the roles he played.

In one particular, the new patent was out of date the day it was issued. On 13 March 1619, Richard Burbage died. In April or May Joseph Taylor transferred from Prince Charles's Men to take Burbage's place; he would play Hamlet and the other great Shakespeare/Burbage roles. Yet Burbage was missed: in May 1619 the Lord Chamberlain, William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, wrote to a colleague that while others had gone to see a play, "I being tender-hearted, could not endure to see so soon after the loss of my old acquaintance Burbage."

In August 1619, the company premiered its production of the controversial play John van Olden Barnavelt. And sometime in this immediate post-Burbage period, they must also have staged Fletcher's The Humorous Lieutenant. The cast list for that play in the 1679 Beaumont and Fletcher folio is the only surviving list that includes both Taylor and Condell. Not long after this, Condell must have retired from the stage.

Another blow hit the company in the following year, 1620, when Nathaniel Field died at the young age of 33. His place as sharer was taken by John Rice.

The works of Fletcher and his collaborators, especially Massinger, continued to make up a significant portion of the company's repertory in the 1619–22 era. Fletcher's Women Pleased and the Fletcher/Massinger collaborations The Custom of the Country and The Little French Lawyer were acted by the King's Men in this period. Casts lists in the first Beaumont and Fletcher folio give the same roster for all three plays: Taylor, Lowin, Underwood, Benfield, Tooley, Ecclestone, and the boys Richard Sharpe and Thomas Holcombe.

Around 1621, the King's Men performed The Duchess of Malfi again. When the play was first printed two years later, in 1623, the quarto featured a combined cast list for both the King's Men's productions, c. 1614 and c. 1621 (the latter occurred between the deaths of Burbage in 1619 and Tooley in 1623). Together these cast lists give a mixed picture of change and stability in the company in this era.

In both productions, Tooley and Underwood played the Madmen in addition to their other roles. Along with the permanent company members or sharers, the cast included four hired men or boys, Pallant, Pollard, Sharpe, and Thompson; note also the doubling (and in the case of Pallant, more than doubling) of roles.

The Fletcher/Massinger collaboration The Sea Voyage was licensed by the Master of the Revels on 22 June 1622. On St. Stephen's Day, 26 December 1622, The King's Men acted another Fletcher/Massinger play, The Spanish Curate, at Court.

1623: The First Folio gives a list of names of the 26 "principal actors" in Shakespeare's plays, providing a fairly comprehensive roster of important members of the Lord Chamberlain's/King's Men through the previous thirty years. In addition to eight men on the original 1603 royal patent (Shakespeare, Burbage, Heminges, Condell, Phillips, Cowley, Sly, and Armin), the list includes William Kempe, Thomas Pope, George Bryan, John Lowin, Samuel Crosse, Alexander Cooke, Samuel Gilburne, William Ostler, Nathan Field, John Underwood, Nicholas Tooley, William Ecclestone, Joseph Taylor, Robert Benfield, Robert Gough, Richard Robinson, John Shank, and John Rice.

Sometime in 1623, the veteran clown William Rowley joined the King's Men for the final two years in his stage career. He would play the Fat Bishop in the next year's A Game at Chess. Richard Perkins, a leading actor from Queen Anne's Men and the Red Bull company, also joined the King's Men late in 1623.

To 1642
1624: Eliard Swanston left the Lady Elizabeth's Men to join the King's Men. Previous Lady Elizabeth's veterans to join include Nathan Field, John Rice, and (via Prince Charles's Men) Joseph Taylor. Swanston is reported to have played Othello and Richard III during his years with the company (which extended at least through 1642).

Robert Gough died in 1624.

Also in 1624, the King's Men gave their sensational production of Middleton's A Game at Chess, which ran for an unprecedented nine days straight (6–16 August, Sundays excepted), and also got them prosecuted and fined by the Privy Council. The company got into more trouble in December, for performing Massinger's The Spanish Viceroy without a license from the Master of the Revels.

The sharers in the King's Men depended upon a crew of hired men to make their performances work. On 27 December 1624, Sir Henry Herbert issued a list of the company's 21 hired men who could not be arrested or "press'd for soldiers" without the allowance of the Lord Chamberlain or the Master of the Revels. The list includes supporting actors like Robert Pallant, musicians, and functionaries like Edward Knight the prompter and John Rhodes the wardrobe keeper.

The spring of 1625 brought a period of uncertainty. The new king, Charles I, had long had his own troupe of actors, Prince Charles's Men; would he make them the new King's Men? The existing company's established prestige – they were widely recognised the best in the land – led to a continuance of royal patronage. The Prince Charles's company folded after their patron became king, with three of its members, Thomas Hobbs, William Penn, and Anthony Smith, joining the King's Men. Though the early-to-mid-1620s was a period of economic depression in England, the King's Men prospered: the company had fifteen sharers in 1625. This abundance of personnel allowed the company to stage productions with larger casts than before [see: The Lover's Melancholy; The Novella].

Also in 1625, Richard Perkins terminated his brief period with the King's Men to become the leading man of the newly formed Queen Henrietta's Men.

When the King's Men premiered Massinger's The Roman Actor late in 1626, the cast included a new boy player, John Honyman, aged 13. William Trigg was another boy playing female roles for the company in the 1626–32 period; but after that his activities are unknown.

Henry Condell died in December 1627. He left shares in the company's theatres, the Blackfriars and the Globe, to his surviving family.

Opposition from the King's Men's Blackfriars neighbours reached another peak around 1630. In 1631 a commission investigated the possibility of buying out the Blackfriars property, and concluded that the company's investment in the property, over the coming fourteen years of their unexpired lease, was £2900 13s. 4d. This figure, however, covered only theatre rent and interest; in response the King's Men produced an itemised account of their investment, valuing the whole at £21,990, more than seven times as much as the commission's figure. The company's interest in the theatre was never bought out.

Upon John Heminges' death in 1630, his shares in the Globe and Blackfriars Theatres passed to his son William. William Heminges's disposal of his shares five years later would cause a major controversy within the company; see 1635 below.

The boy player Stephen Hammerton joined the King's Men in 1632. Richard Sharpe died in the same year; he was the boy actor who played in both productions of The Duchess of Malfi, and later graduated to young male leads, as Hammerton would do over the coming decade.

In 1633, the company had difficulties with Sir Henry Herbert, the Master of the Revels, over the content of their plays. On 19 October, Herbert forbad the performance of The Woman's Prize, Fletcher's sequel to Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew, because of its "foul and offensive" content. The company acted the Fletcher/Beaumont play The Scornful Lady instead. On 21 October, Herbert addressed a letter to Edward Knight, the "book-keeper" or prompter of the company, on the subject of the "oaths, profaneness, and public ribaldry" in their plays. And on 24 October, John Lowin and Eliard Swanston apologised to Herbert for giving offence. (Joseph Taylor and Robert Benfield were reportedly present at the meeting, but were uninvolved in either the offence or the apology; apparently Swanston and Lowin were in the cast of The Woman's Prize but Benfield and Taylor were not.) After this incident, the King's Men had their old play texts re-examined by Herbert for new productions, something that was previously not required. This meant more fees paid to Herbert.

The text of Fletcher's play was repaired adequately by the next month, when the company performed The Taming of the Shrew and The Woman's Prize before the King and Queen at St. James's Palace on 26 and 28 November 1633. According to Herbert, Shakespeare's play was "liked", but Fletcher's play was "very well liked."

On 7 April 1634, the King's Men played George Chapman's Bussy D'Ambois at Court. The title role was reportedly played by Eliard Swanston; Joseph Taylor, at this point in his career, was too "grey" for the role of a young firebrand. The company played the same play at Court again on 27 March 1638.

In the early 1630s, William Heminges sold off the theatre shares he'd inherited from his father upon John Heminges's death (1630). He sold (clandestinely, perhaps) two shares in the Blackfriars and three in the Globe to King's Man John Shank, for £506. In response to the sale, three other King's Men, Eliard Swanston, Thomas Pollard, and Robert Benfield, appealed to the Lord Chamberlain (then Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke) for a chance to buy shares for themselves. Several documents in this matter, including back-and-forth statements from the three petitioners and from Cuthbert Burbage and John Shank, still exist; they contain abundant information on the company's business c. 1635.

When the petitioners began their campaign, the eight Blackfriars shares were distributed this way: Shank held two, and Taylor, Lowin, Underwood, Cuthbert Burbage, Mrs. Condell (Henry Condell's widow), and Winifred Robinson (Richard Burbage's widow and Richard Robinson's wife) had one each. Of the sixteen shares in the Globe, Cuthbert Burbage and Mrs. Robinson each owned three and a half shares, Shank had three, and Taylor, Lowin, and Mrs. Condell each owned two. Herbert ordered the existing shareholders to sell shares to Swanston, Benfield, and Pollard, though Burbage and Shank resisted.

The King's Men accompanied Charles I on a royal progress in 1636. In so doing they evaded, at least to some degree, the consequences of the prolonged theatre closing due to plague in 1636–37. Comedian John Shank died in 1636, as did Cuthbert Burbage. A royal warrant of 1636 reveals that Shakespeare's nephew William Hart (1600–39), the son of the poet's younger sister Joan, was an actor in the company at the time.

In the later 1630s the company took up the practice of staging plays written by courtiers favoured by Queen Henrietta Maria, like William Cartwright's The Royal Slave (1636) or Sir John Suckling's Aglaura (1637); they were rewarded with the lavish costumes of the productions. The company's repertory narrowed in this era; they produced fewer new plays, and those they did stage were mainly these subsidised courtly works. Their economic situation also worsened; from a high of fifteen in 1625, the number of sharers dropped to nine by 1636.

Unable to foresee the coming collapse of 1642, the King's Men undertook a major expansion around 1640. They brought in five new men as actors and sharers: William Allen, Theophilus Bird, Michael Bowyer, Hugh Clark, and William Robbins. All five were veterans of Queen Henrietta's Men; and all five were made Grooms of the Chamber on 22 January 1641, along with Stephen Hammerton. With Massinger's death in 1640, the troupe also needed a new house dramatist; James Shirley was recruited for the job. The company staged Shirley's The Cardinal in 1641, and his The Sisters in the Spring of 1642. The production of Shirley's next work, The Court Secret, was prevented by the theatre closure in September 1642.

Aftermath
1642: the Puritans in Parliament gained control over the city of London at the beginning of the English Civil War, and ordered the closing of all theatres on 2 September. The theatres remained officially closed until the Restoration in 1660.

In 1646, the King's Men received back-pay from Parliament, money they were still owed for pre-1642 performances.

Clandestine and sporadic theatre activity occurred. 1647 was a year of relative official leniency, when theatrical performances were not uncommon. Ten actors signed the dedication in the 1647 Beaumont and Fletcher folio as the King's Men; these were Robert Benfield, Theophilus Bird, Hugh Clark, Stephen Hammerton, John Lowin, Thomas Pollard, Richard Robinson, Joseph Taylor, Eliard Swanston, and William Allen. The first seven men on that list also signed a contract as sharers in the King's Men on 28 January 1648, showing that the company was re-activating, or attempting to re-activate, at that time. This iteration of the company collapsed in July the same year when it failed to make a payment.

Another attempt to revive the troupe followed during the winter of 1648–49, with a younger group of actors than the previous crew of veterans; this new group of 16 included Walter Clun and Charles Hart, who had played with the King's Men as boys before the 1642 closing. These two plus eight others signed a contract on 27 December 1648 with one Walter Conway, an upholsterer who was their financier. This effort also failed, and was producing litigation as late as 1661.

Repression grew stronger after 1647: in February 1648 and January 1649, King's Men players were arrested in the midst of performances. [See: Rollo Duke of Normandy.]

Some company members chose alternative careers; Eliard Swanston became a jeweller, while hired men Alexander Gough and Andrew Pennycuicke became stationers.

By the time the theatres formally re-opened in 1660, few of the old players and playwrights remained, and the old theatrical practices and traditions had largely been lost. Female roles were soon performed by women rather than boys [see Edward Kynaston; Margaret Hughes], and the open-air playhouses common in the past were no more; the more elite higher-priced indoor theatres became the norm.

Although a new King's Company was established, it had little in common with its predecessor other than a royal patron (though a few members of the old company, like Charles Hart and Walter Clun, made the transition). The Restoration drama in which it participated was largely a new foundation. While Elizabethan and Jacobean classics were the mainstay of the Restoration repertory, many, particularly the tragedies, were adapted to conform to new tastes influenced by the French theatre of Louis XIV. The Elizabethan features of multitude of scenes, multitude of characters, and melange of genres lived on primarily in Restoration comedy.

Footnotes

References
 Aaron, Melissa D. Global Economics: A History of the Theatre Business, the Chamberlain's/King's Men, and Their Plays, 1599–1642. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press, 2003.
 Bentley, G. E. The Jacobean and Caroline Stage. 7 Volumes, Oxford: the Clarendon Press, 1941–68.
 Cook, Ann Jennalie. The Privileged Playgoers of Shakespeare's London, 1576–1642. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.
 Chambers, E. K. The Elizabethan Stage. 4 Volumes, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923.
 Gurr, Andrew. The Shakespearian Playing Companies.  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
 Gurr, Andrew. The Shakespearean Stage 1574–1642. Third edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
 Halliday, F. E. A Shakespeare Companion 1564–1964. Baltimore: Penguin, 1964.
 Oliphant, E. H. C. The Plays of Beaumont and Fletcher: An Attempt to Determine Their Respective Shares and the Shares of Others.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1927.

1603 establishments in England
1642 disestablishments in England
Organizations established in 1603
Organizations disestablished in 1642
William Shakespeare
James VI and I

King's Men (playing company)


La route régionale 502 () est une route régionale allant de Ylämylly à Liperi jusqu'à Maarianvaara à Kaavi en Finlande.

Présentation
La seututie 502 est une route régionale de Carélie du Nord et de Savonie du Nord.

Parcours

 Liperi
 Härkinvaara
 Polvijärvi
 Sotkuma
 Haapovaara
 Hukkala
 Saarivaara
 Kaavi
 Syrjävaara
 Maarianvaara

Références

Annexes

Liens externes

Cartes

Articles connexes
 Seututie

502
Transport à Liperi
Transport à Polvijärvi
Transport à Kaavi

Seututie 502


La estación de Elne es una estación ferroviaria francesa de la línea Narbona - Portbou, situada en la comuna de Elne, en el departamento de los Pirineos Orientales, en la región de Languedoc-Rosellón. Por ella transitan tanto trenes de larga distancia como trenes regionales.

Situación ferroviaria
La estación se sitúa en el PK 481,198 de la línea férrea Narbona - Portbou. Antiguamente, era el punto de partida de la línea férrea Elne - Arles-sur-Tech, la cual fue cerrada al tráfico de viajeros en 1939 y parcialmente abandonada. Una pequeña parte se sigue usando para el tráfico de mercancías.

Historia
La estación fue inaugurada en 1878 con la apertura del tramo Perpiñán-Portbou por la Compañía de Ferrocarriles del Mediodía. En 1935, la compañía que disponía de la concesión inicial fue absorbida por la Compañía de Ferrocarriles de París a Orléans dando lugar a la Compañía PO-Mediodía. Dos años después, la explotación pasó a manos de la SNCF.

Servicios ferroviarios

Larga distancia
A pesar de ser una estación menor, varios trenes de grandes líneas hace su parada en ella.

 Línea París - Cerbère. Tren Téoz.
 Línea París - Cerbère. Tren Lunéa.
 Línea Luxemburgo / Estrasburgo - Cerbère / Portbou. Tren Lunéa. Fines de semana y vacaciones.

Regionales
Los TER cubren los siguientes trayectos:
 Línea Toulouse ↔ Cerbère
 Línea Narbona / Nîmes / Aviñón ↔ Cerbère

Enlaces externos

Estaciones de ferrocarril de Francia inauguradas en el siglo XIX
Estaciones de ferrocarril de la región de Occitania
Estaciones de ferrocarril del departamento de Pirineos Orientales
Estaciones de ferrocarril inauguradas en 1878
Francia en 1878
Edificios y estructuras de Pirineos Orientales

Estación de Elne


Olaylar
 İmparator Augustus'un kızı Julia, Augustus'un en yakın arkadaşı ve generali Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa ile evlendi.
 Lucius Cornelius Balbus, Afrika prokonsül'ü olarak ortaya çıktı.

Doğumlar
 Naevius Sutorius Macro, Romalı asker ve devlet adamı (ö. 38)

Ölümler

MÖ 21


William "Bill" Jefferson Clinton (19 Ağustos 1946; Hope, Arkansas), Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin 42. başkanı.

1993 ile 2001 yılları arasında başkanlık görevini sürdürdü. ABD Başkanı seçilmeden önce Arkansas'ın 40. ve 42. valisi olarak yaklaşık 12 yıl görev yaptı. Bill Clinton şu anda kurucusu olduğu William J. Clinton Foundation (William J. Clinton Vakfı) başkanlığını yapmaktadır.

Bill Clinton'un başkan olduğu dönemde, ülkesi tüm tarihinin en barışçı ve en parlak ekonomik dönemlerinden birini yaşadı. Franklin Roosevelt'ten bu yana ilk defa bir demokrat parti adayı ikinci kez başkan seçildi.

Tarihinin en düşük işsizlik oranlarından birine, 30 yılın en az enflasyonuna, halkın en fazla ev sahibi olduğu, suç oranının en fazla düştüğü ve insanların ekonomik olarak en güçlü olduğu dönemlerden birine imzasını attı. Uzun yıllardır ilk defa bütçenin eşitlendiği ve hatta bütçe fazlası yaşandığı günler getirdi.

2000 yılı kutlamalarını Clinton, ırk farklılıklarını yok etme yolunda önemli gelişmeler katedilen bir dönem olarak tarihe geçirdi. Başkanlığının ikinci yılında halka sağlık reformu başarısızlığa ulaşınca, Clinton bir dönemi değiştirerek; "büyük devlet dönemi sona ermiştir" diyerek; kanunları insanların işlerini koruyabileceği, ailelerin hasta çocuklarına ücretsiz olarak bakabileceği, silah satışlarının sınırlandırıldığı, eğitime yeni katkılar sağlayarak doğa koruma planlarına adım attı.

Hayatı
Clinton, 19 Ağustos 1946 yılında Arkansas'ın Hope şehrinde dünyaya geldi. Doğumundan 3 ay sonra babası bir trafik kazasında öldü. 4 yaşındayken annesi üvey babası Roger Clinton ile evlendi. Lise döneminde, William Jeferson kendi isteğiyle üvey babasının soyadını aldı. Okulu birçok defa profesyonel bir müzisyen olmak için bırakmayı düşündü; ancak Boys Nation üyesiyken Beyaz Saray'da Başkan John F. Kennedy ile tanıştı. Bu da onun halk hizmetine ilk adımı atmasını sağladı.

1968 yılında Georgetown Üniversitesinden mezun olduktan sonra; burslu olarak Oxford Üniversitesinde okudu. 1973 yılında Yale Üniversitesinden hukuk eğitimi aldıktan sonra politikaya atıldı. İlk kez seçimlere 1974'te Arkansas'ta girdi ve başarılı olamadı. Bir sonraki sene Hillary Rodham ile evlendi. Chelsea isimli bir kızları oldu.

1976 yılında Arkansas'ta bölge savcısı olduktan sonra; 1978 yılında vali seçildi. 1980'de dönemi bittiğinde tekrar aday olmasına rağmen seçilemedi. Fakat 2 yıl sonra 1982'de tekrar vali oldu ve 1992 yılında başkan seçilene kadar valilik görevine devam etti. 1992'de başkanlık dönemi bitmek üzere olan George H. W. Bush'u yenerek Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin 42. başkanı oldu.

1998 yılında, Monica Lewinsky ile olan ilişkisini yalan söyleyerek gizlemekten dolayı Beyaz Saray tarihinde ikinci kez resmen suçlanan (İngl. impeach) başkan oldu. ABD senatosunda yapılan yargılama sonucunda aklandı. Tüm halktan bu ilişki yüzünden özür diledi ve işine devam etti.

Dünyada; Bosna'da zor da olsa barışı sağladı, Saddam Hüseyin'in Birleşmiş Milletler karşısında aldığı kararlardan sonra Irak'ı bombaladı (Yine de asker göndermeye ihtiyaç duymadı). NATO'nun gelişmesini sağlayarak daha açık bir uluslararası ticaret sağladı, uyuşturucu karşısında uluslararası anlamda savaştı. Güney Amerika, Avrupa, Rusya, Afrika ve Çin'e yaptığı gezilerle Amerika'nın dış dünya ile ilişkilerinin en iyi olduğu döneme imzasını attı.

Hâlen liderlik ve yöneticilik üzerine seminerler vermekte, birçok insan tarafından Amerika Birleşik Devletleri tarihinin en büyük başkanlarından biri olarak kabul edilmektedir.

Beyaz Saray'dan ayrıldıktan sonra da William J. Clinton Vakfı'nı kurarak ABD ve dünya halklarının küresel karşılıklı-bağımlılık çağının zorluklarına karşı güçlenmesini sağlama misyonunu üstlendi. Bugün Vakıf, dünya çapında acil çözümler ve ölçülebilir sonuçlar bekleyen sorunları gündemine almaktadır; bunların arasında iklim değişimi, gelişmekte olan dünyada HIV/AIDS, ABD'de çocuk obezitesi ve ekonomik fırsat eşitliği ve Afrika ve Latin Amerika'da ekonomik yer almaktadır. Clinton bunlara ek olarak, Clinton Küresel İnisiyatif Üniversitesi yoluyla üniversite öğrencilerini bu çabaya dâhil etmeye ve Clinton Vakfı ve Amerika Kalp Cemiyeti arasında bir ortaklık olan Daha Sağlıklı Bir Kuşak İçin İttifak yoluyla da öğrenciler ve eğiticiler için daha sağlıklı eğitim ortamları yaratmak amacıyla okulları desteklemeye de çalışmaktadır.

2009 yılında Haiti Cumhurbaşkanı ve Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Sekreteri tarafından BM Haiti Özel Elçisi olarak görevlendirilmiştir. Ocak 2010'daki Haiti depreminden sonra Başkan Obama'nın isteğiyle, eski Başkan George W. Bush ile birlikte Haiti'ye acil insani yardım ve uzun vadeli yeniden yapılandırma amacıyla Clinton-Bush Haiti Fonu'nu kurmuştur. Mart ayında Başkan Clinton Haiti hükûmetinin ricasıyla, ülkenin yeniden yapılanmasını yönetecek olan Geçici Haiti İyileşme Komisyonu eş başkanlığı görevini üstlenmiştir.

Bill Clinton, Nisan 2010'da Laureate International Universities ağının Onursal Başkanlığı görevini kabul etmiştir. Türkiye'den İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesinin de dâhil olduğu bu üniversiteler ağı içinde 50'den fazla üniversite yer almaktadır. Clinton Laureate International Universities network'ün Onursal Başkanı olarak, farklı ülkelerdeki üniversiteleri ziyaret etmekte, öğrencilerle buluşmakta ve farklı düzeylerdeki deneyimlerini gençlerle paylaşmaktadır. 2016 Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Başkanlık Seçimleri'nde karısı Hillary Clinton'u desteklemiştir.

Sağlık sorunları
Eylül 2004'te bypass ameliyatı geçirdi. Mart 2005'te de kısmi olarak işgörmez olan akciğeri için ameliyata girdi. Şubat 2010'da göğüs ağrıları şikâyetiyle gittiği Columbia Presbyterian Hospital'da (New York) kalbine iki adet koroner stent yerleştirildi. Bütün bu deneyimlerin ardından, doktorları Dean Ornish ve Caldwell Esselstyn'in tavsiyesine uyarak eti ve diğer tüm hayvansal besinleri bıraktı, vegan beslenmeye başladı.

Dış bağlantılar

 Photos of Bill Clinton's actions to bring peace to the Middle East
 Bill Clinton, Laureate International Universities, Onursal Başkanı

Kaynakça

1946 doğumlular
Arkansas doğumlular
20. yüzyıl Amerikalı siyasetçileri
21. yüzyıl Amerikalı siyasetçileri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri devlet başkanları
Amerikalı siyasetçilerin eşleri
Amerikalı veganlar
Arkansas valileri
Demokrat Parti (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri) mensubu siyasetçiler
Yale Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Yale Law School'da öğrenim görenler
Georgetown Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Grammy Ödülü sahipleri
Charlemagne Ödülü sahipleri
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Nişanı sahipleri
Başkanlık Özgürlük Madalyası sahipleri
Aziz George Zafer Nişanı sahipleri
Monica Lewinsky skandalı
1992 Amerika Birleşik Devletleri başkanlık seçimleri
Hillary Clinton
Yaşayan insanlar
20. yüzyılda Amerikalı avukatlar
21. yüzyılda Amerikalı avukatlar
Amerikalı siyasetçiler
Time Yılın Kişisi
Amerikalı liberaller

Bill Clinton


CEST or cest may refer to:

 Central European Summer Time (UTC+2), daylight saving time observed in the central European time zone
 Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory
 Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer, a subset of Magnetization transfer in MRI
 Cest, a woman's girdle
 Cest or Cesti, informal or plural for Cestus, an ancient battle glove
The "Check Employment Status for Tax" online tool used for assessing contractors' employment status for IR35 purposes under UK tax law

See also
 Cesta, Kočevje

CEST


تويوتا 2000 جي تي كانت سيارة رياضية أنتجت بأعداد محدودة جداً من قبل شركة تويوتا للسيارات في اليابان. كان أول ظهور لها في معرض طوكيو للسيارات عام 1965م، تم إنتاجها بين عام 1967م وعام 1970م. كانت ثورة في عالم السيارات حيث غيّر العالم نظرته لليابان في عالم السيارات،
فبعد ما كان معروفاً عن سياراتها أنها تقليدية عملية اقتصادية أثبتت بأن مصنعي السيارات اليابانيين بإمكانهم صناعة سيارات رياضية خارقة ومنافسة لسيارات أوروبا وأمريكا.

وبتقييم السيارة قبل إنتاجها في عام 1967م، لخصت مجلة رود آند تراك الـ2000 جي تي بأنها : "إحدى أكثر السيارات المثيرة والممتعة التي قدنا"، وتم تفضيلها على بورش 911. اليوم، هي السيارة اليابانية الأولى في الاقتناء، أول سيارة خارقة يابانية، وتمثيل للثمن الباهظ العادل.

مراجع

أنت فقط تعيش مرتين (فيلم)
سيارات اخترعت في 1967
سيارات تويوتا
سيارات خارقة
سيارات خلفية الدفع
سيارات رياضية
سيارات عقد 1960
سيارات عقد 1970
سيارة سياحية

تويوتا 2000جي تي


An Maxillaria strictissima in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Friedrich Fritz Wilhelm Ludwig Kraenzlin, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Pedro Ortiz Valdivieso. An Maxillaria strictissima in nahilalakip ha genus nga Maxillaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Colombia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Maxillaria

Maxillaria strictissima


Yıldırım şu anlama gelebilir:

Coğrafya
 Şimşek ve yıldırım, bir yeryüzü olayı

Eğitim
 Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt Üniversitesi, Ankara'nın beşinci devlet üniversitesi

Kişiler
 Yıldırım Akbulut (1935-2021), Türkiye 20. başbakanı
 Yıldırım Aktuna (1930-2007), Türk hekim ve siyaset adamı
 Yıldırım Demirören (d.1964), Türk sanayici ve spor yöneticisi
 Yıldırım Gencer (1936-2005), Türk oyuncu
 Yıldırım Güvenç (d.1953), Eski Özel Kuvvetler Komutanı
 Yıldırım Önal (1931-1982), Türk oyuncu ve yönetmen
 Yıldırım Tuğrul Türkeş (d.1954), Türk ekonomist ve siyasetçi

Spor
 Yıldırım Bosnaspor, İstanbul da bir spor kulübü

Yapılar
 Yıldırım Külliyesi, Bursa'da 14. yüzyıl yaptırılmış yapı topluluğu
 Yıldırım Tren İstasyonu, Ankara da bir tren istasyonu

Yerleşim yerleri
 Yıldırım Beyazıt, Melikgazi, Kayseri de bir mahalle
 Yıldırım, Bursa, Bursa iline bağlı ilçe
 Yıldırım, Diyadin, Ağrı ili Diyadin ilçesine bağlı köy
 Yıldırım , Edirne, Edirne ili merkez ilçesine bağlı semt

Diğerler
 Yıldırım Harekatı, 1965 yapımı ABD filmi
 Yıldırım Ordular Grubu, Osmanlı Devleti'nin cephelerini savunmak için teşkil ettiği ordular grubu

Ayrıca bakınız

Dış bağlantılar
 Türk Dil Kurumu' nda kelime arama

Yıldırım (anlam ayrımı)


The Peak District Lead Mining Museum is located at Matlock Bath, Derbyshire, England. The museum has a mockup of a lead mine in which children may safely experience and explore how the miners, and in particular how children, were used in this dangerous aspect of England's industrial past.
The museum is housed inside Grand Pavilion, Matlock Bath.

See also

Derbyshire lead mining history

External links

Peak District Lead Mining Museum

Peak District Mines Historical Society

Tourist attractions of the Peak District
Museums in Derbyshire
Mining museums in England

Peak District Lead Mining Museum


මීකොං කැට් ෆිෂ් මත්ස්‍යා වඳවී යන සත්ව විශ්ෂයක් වන අතර මොවුන් ගිනිකොණදිග ආසියාව සහ චීනය අතර බහුලව ව්‍යාප්ත වී පවතී.

මීකොං කැට් ෆිෂ්


La Louis & Rachel Hammer Barn est une grange américaine située dans le comté de Johnson, au Kansas. Construite vers 1874, elle est inscrite au Registre national des lieux historiques depuis le .

Liens externes

Grange inscrite au Registre national des lieux historiques au Kansas
Registre national des lieux historiques en 2022
Comté de Johnson (Kansas)

Louis & Rachel Hammer Barn


Carl Heinrich Willink (* 28. Oktober 1807 in Hoffnungsthal; † 12. September 1875 in Lokstedt) war ein Hamburger Kaufmann und Politiker.

Leben

Willink lebte von 1832 bis 1845 in St. Thomas, Dänisch-Westindien und war dort Teilhaber der Firma Schön, Willink & Co., die ihm zusammen mit August Joseph Schön gehörte.
Er wurde anschließend Mitinhaber der Hamburger Firma Aug. Jos. Schön & Co. und kehrte um 1849 nach Hamburg zurück. Neben seiner beruflichen Tätigkeit war Willink in der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung engagiert.
1856 und 1857 wirkte er als Handelsrichter, von 1858 bis 1864 war er Mitglied der Finanzdeputation, der Teerhofdeputation und der Feuerkassendeputation.

Von 1859 bis 1871 gehörte Willink der Hamburgischen Bürgerschaft an. Er verstarb im Alter von 67 Jahren im damals noch preußischen Lokstedt und wurde in der Familiengrabstätte auf dem Alten Niendorfer Friedhof beigesetzt.

Um 1850 erwarb Willink Grundbesitz in Lokstedt und ließ sich dort ein Landhaus errichten. 1898 erhielt eine Straße in der Nähe den Namen Willinks Park. Sie existiert noch heute.

Familie
Willinks Tochter Emily Henriette Willink (14. März 1840 – 27. März 1858) heiratete am 28. Mai 1857 Wilhelm Amsinck. Am 7. November 1863 heiratete eine weitere Tochter Willincks, Laetitia Sophie Willink den verwitweten Schwager Wilhelm Amsinck.

Weblinks
 Deutsches Geschlechterbuch, Band 23, S. 433.

Einzelnachweise

Kaufmann
Unternehmer (Hamburg)
Unternehmer (19. Jahrhundert)
Mitglied der Hamburgischen Bürgerschaft
Deutscher
Geboren 1807
Gestorben 1875
Mann

Carl Heinrich Willink


This is a list of notable events in the history of LGBT rights that took place in the year 1985.

Events
 France prohibits discrimination based on lifestyle ("moeurs"), including homosexuality, in employment and services, public and private.

March
 26 — The Supreme Court of the United States, being divided 4—4, affirms the ruling of the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals which struck down an Oklahoma state law allowing teachers to be fired for "advocating, soliciting, imposing, encouraging or promoting public or private homosexual activity in a manner that creates a substantial risk that such conduct will come to the attention of school children or school employees". The appellate court found that the law infringed on First Amendment guarantees of free speech.

April
 1
 Harvey Milk High School holds its first classes in New York City.
 Governor Toney Anaya of New Mexico issues an executive order banning public-sector sexual orientation discrimination.

May
 12 — The first memorial to the LGBT victims of the Nazis, a pink granite stone monument at the former Neuengamme concentration camp inscribed "Dedicated to the Homosexual victims of National Socialism, 1985", is unveiled.
 21 — The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Hardwick v. Bowers strikes down the state of Georgia's sodomy law as unconstitutional.

August
 26 — The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit reverses the lower court in Baker v. Wade, finding no constitutional violation in the sodomy law of Texas. Two months later the Court refuses plaintiff Donald Baker's request for a rehearing.

September
 30 — A three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, in a 2—1 opinion written by Anthony Kennedy, affirms in the case of Adams v. Howerton that the Immigration and Naturalization Service did not abuse its authority when it refused to recognize the marriage of Australian Anthony Sullivan and Richard Adams, under a license issued by Boulder County, Colorado, in 1975, for purposes of Sullivan's immigration. The couple leave the United States but eventually return, with Sullivan living as an illegal alien.

October
 4 — First openly gay member of parliament elected in West Germany.
 8 — Austin Latino/a Lesbian and Gay Organization (ALLGO) is formed in Austin, Texas.
 9 — New York City mayor Ed Koch asks the American Legion's Veterans Day parade to allow gay veterans to march. He is ignored.
 21 — Dan White, assassin of Harvey Milk and San Francisco mayor George Moscone, dies by suicide.

November
 5 — San Francisco extends anti-discrimination protection to people with AIDS.
 13 — Margaret Roff is elected mayor of Manchester, becoming the first openly lesbian mayor in the United Kingdom.

December
 24 — Governor Booth Gardner of Washington issues an executive order banning public-sector sexual orientation discrimination.

See also

Timeline of LGBT history — timeline of events from 12,000 BCE to present
LGBT rights by country or territory — current legal status around the world
LGBT social movements

Notes

References
 Murdoch, Joyce and Deb Price (2001). Courting Justice: Gay Men and Lesbians v. the Supreme Court. New York, Basic Books, a member of the Perseus Books Group.

LGBT rights by year
1985 in LGBT history

1985 in LGBT rights


An Triglochin elongata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Franz Georg Philipp Buchenau. An Triglochin elongata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Triglochin, ngan familia nga Juncaginaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Triglochin

Triglochin elongata


Die Falaj-2-Klasse ist eine Klasse von zwei Patrouillenbooten der Marine der Vereinigten Arabischen Emirate.

Einsatzprofil
Wichtigste Aufgaben der Patrouillenboote der Falaj-2-Klasse sind der Patrouillendienst, die Seeraumüberwachung, die Aufklärung und Bekämpfung von See- und Landzielen in nationalen und internationalen Einsätzen. Daneben gehört zu den Anforderungen ein guter Selbstschutz gegen See- und Luftziele. Eine Besonderheit bildet dabei die auffallend minimierte Radarreflexionsfläche des Entwurfes, die ihm besondere Tarneigenschaften verleiht. Darüber hinaus wurde großer Wert auf gute Unterbringung und Sicherheit der Besatzung gelegt.

Entwicklung
Die Falaj-2-Klasse basiert auf dem italienischen Entwurf des Patrouillenbootes der Diciotti-Klasse der italienische Küstenwache. Die Diciotti-Klasse ihrerseits ist eine Weiterentwicklung des Schnellboot-Entwurfes der Saettia-Klasse der Werft Fincantieri.

Der Vertrag über die Patrouillenboote wurde 2009 unterzeichnet, nach anderen Quellen im Januar 2010. Er enthielt die Option auf zwei weitere Boote, die durch Etihad Ship Building in Abu Dhabi, ein neu vereinbartes Joint Venture zwischen der italienischen Fincantieri und den lokal ansässigen Firmen Melara Middle East und Al Fattan Ship Industry gebaut werden sollen. Der Technologietransfer in die V.A.E. ist Teil der Vereinbarung.

Das Typboot Ganthoot, benannt nach dem Gebiet in der Nähe von Abu Dhabi, lief am 25. Januar 2012 in der Werft Fincantieri in Muggiano (La Spezia), die zweite Einheit am 8. Juni 2012 vom Stapel.

Einheiten

Varianten
Anfang Juni 2020 gab es im Rahmen des Verkaufes der zwei FREMM-Fregatten der Bergamini-Klasse Spartaco Schergat und Emilio Bianchi an Ägypten Medienberichte, denen zufolge als Teil eines großen Paketes auch 20 Patrouillenboote nach dem Vorbild der Falaj-2-Klasse geliefert werden sollen.

Siehe auch
 Abu Dhabi-Klasse (Vereinigte Arabische Emirate)
 Baynunah-Klasse (Vereinigte Arabische Emirate)

Weblinks
 Fincantieri launches ASW corvette (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Militär (Vereinigte Arabische Emirate)
Patrouillenbootsklasse
Fincantieri
Schifffahrt (Vereinigte Arabische Emirate)

Falaj-2-Klasse


Cà Mau este un oraș în sudul Vietnamului. Este capitala provinciei Cà Mau, o provincie din regiunea Mekong Delta din sudul Vietnamului. Prim-ministrul Vietnamului, Nguyen Tan Dung s-a născut și a crescut aici.

Populația orașului este de aproximativ 204.895 (în 2010). Din punct de vedere administrativ Cà Mau este împărțit în 8 phuong urbane și 7 xa rurale.

Referințe

Orașe din Vietnam

Cà Mau


Ross Croft Taylor (* 26. April 1902 in Toronto, Ontario; † 3. Mai 1984) war ein kanadischer Eishockeyspieler. Bei den Olympischen Winterspielen 1928 gewann er als Mitglied der kanadischen Nationalmannschaft die Goldmedaille.

Karriere
Ross Taylor spielte von 1926 bis 1928 für die Toronto Varsity Grads, mit denen er 1927 den Allan Cup, den kanadischen Amateurmeistertitel, gewann. Im folgenden Jahr vertrat er mit den Varsity Grads Kanada bei den Olympischen Winterspielen. Vor seiner Zeit bei den Varsitiy Grads hatte er bereits für den Toronto Canoe Club in der Seniorenmeisterschaft der Ontario Hockey Association gespielt.

International
Für Kanada nahm Taylor an den Olympischen Winterspielen 1928 in St. Moritz teil, bei denen er mit seiner Mannschaft die Goldmedaille gewann. Im Turnierverlauf erzielte er in drei Spielen zwei Tore.

Erfolge und Auszeichnungen
 1927 Allan-Cup-Gewinn mit den Toronto Varsity Grads
 1928 Goldmedaille bei den Olympischen Winterspielen

Weblinks

Eishockeynationalspieler (Kanada)
Olympiateilnehmer (Kanada)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1928
Olympiasieger (Eishockey)
Kanadier
Geboren 1902
Gestorben 1984
Mann

Ross Taylor (Eishockeyspieler)


Adenandra (lat. Adenandra), biljni rod iz porodice rutovki. Postoji 18 priznatih vrsta korisnih mirisnih vazdazelenih grmova rasprostranjenih po Južnoafričkoj Republici

Vrste

 Adenandra acuta Schltr.
 Adenandra brachyphylla Schltdl.
 Adenandra × caledonensis Dümmer
 Adenandra coriacea Licht. ex Schult.
 Adenandra dahlgrenii Strid
 Adenandra fragrans (Sims) Schult.
 Adenandra gracilis Eckl. & Zeyh.
 Adenandra gummifera Strid
 Adenandra lasiantha Sond.
 Adenandra marginata (L.f.) Schult.
 Adenandra multiflora Strid
 Adenandra mundiifolia Eckl. & Zeyh.
 Adenandra obtusata Sond.
 Adenandra odoratissima Strid
 Adenandra rotundifolia Eckl. & Zeyh.
 Adenandra schlechteri Dümmer
 Adenandra uniflora (L.) Willd.
 Adenandra villosa (P.J.Bergius) Licht. ex Schult.
 Adenandra viscida Eckl. & Zeyh.

Sinonimi
 Glandulifera Dalla Torre & Harms
 Glandulifolia J.C.Wendl.
 Haenkea F.W.Schmidt
 Ockea F.Dietr.
 Okea Steud.

Izvori

Zanthoxyloideae

Adenandra


An Isachne pauciflora in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Eduard Hackel. An Isachne pauciflora in nahilalakip ha genus nga Isachne, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Isachne

Isachne pauciflora


Primijenjena etika odnosi se na praktičnu primjenu moralnih razmatranja.

To je etika usredotočena na djela stvarnoga svijeta i njihova moralna razmatranja u područjima privatnoga i javnog života, zanimanja, zdravlja, tehnologije, zakona i poduzetništva. Bioetička zajednica bavi se identificiranjem korektnoga pristupa moralnim pitanjima znanosti o životu, kao što su: eutanazija, pobačaj ili upotreba ljudskih embrija u istraživanju. Ekološka etika bavi se ekološkim pitanjima, poput odgovornosti vlade i poduzeća, da smanje zagađenje. Poslovna etika obuhvaća pitanja, odnosa zaposlenih i poslodavaca.

Primijenjena etika proširila je opseg etičkih studija izvan područja akademskoga filozofskoga diskursa. Polje primijenjene etike, u njegovom današnjem obliku, proisteklo je iz rasprava o brzom medicinskom i tehnološkom napretku tijekom ranih 1970.-ih i sada je uspostavljeno kao poddisciplina moralne filozofije. Međutim, primijenjena etika je po svojoj prirodi multidisciplinarni predmet, jer zahtjeva specijalizirano razumijevanje potencijalnih etičkih pitanja u područjima kao što su: medicina, poduzetništvo ili informacijska tehnologija. U današnje vrijeme, etički kodeksi ponašanja postoje u gotovo svakoj profesiji.

Primijenjeni etički pristup ispitivanju moralnih dilema može poprimiti mnoštvo različitih oblika. Jedan od najutjecajnijih i najčešće korištenih pristupa u bioetici i zdravstvenoj etici je četveroprincipni pristup koji su razvili Tom Beauchamp i James Childress. Njihov pristup, koji se obično naziva principlizam, uključuje razmatranje i primjenu četiri prima facie etička principa: autonomija, nezlonamjernost, dobročinstvo i pravda.

Izvori

Etika

Primijenjena etika


කාල මණ්ඩලය UTC – 4.30
මං තීරැව - දකුණ
අන්තර්ජාල TLD - Ve
දුරකථන සංකේත - +58

වෙනුසීවේලා ( ඉංග්‍රීසි:Venezuela ) නිල වශයෙන් වෙනුසිවේලා බොල්වියන් සමුහාණ්ඩුව වශයෙන් හදුන්වන අතර දකුණු ඇමරිකාවේ  උතුරු වෙරලේ පිහිටි නිවර්තන කලාපීය රටකි. එය මහාද්වීපික ප්‍රධාන භුමියක් වන අතර කැරබියානු මුහුදේ හි වෙරල තීරයේ එහි විවිධ දුපත් පිහිටා ඇත. 1821 නිදහස ලද මෙය පෙර පැවති ස්පාඤ්ඤ කොලනියකි. එය මායිම් වන්නේ නැගෙනහිර ගුයානා, දකුණු බ්‍රසීලය, බටහිර කොලොම්බියාව, වෙනුසිවේලා වෙරල තිරයෙන් එපිට උතුරට වන්නට ට්‍රිනිඩෑඩ්, ටොබ‍ෑගෝ, ග්‍රෙනාඩ්, ශාන්ත ලුසියා, බාබඩෝස්, තුරකාවෝ, වෝනියේර්, අරෑබා, ශාන්ත වින්සන්ට් හා ග්‍රැනඩයින් හා ලීබාඩ් ටය. වර්ග කි. මි. 916 445 හා ජගහනය 26 414 816 හා අගනුවර වන්නේ තරකස්ය. වෙනිසුවේලා ජාතික ධජයේ වර්ණ වන්නේ කහ, නිල් හා රතුය. කහ පාට භුමිය, නිල් පාට මුහුද හා අහස රතු වර්ණ නිදහස වෙනුවෙන් ජිවිත පුජා කල වීරයන් පිළිඹිඹු කරයි. වෙනිසුවේලාවට දේශසීමා පිළිබද ගුෂානා සමග ආරවුල් ඇත. 1895 ඉසෙතුයි‍ෙබා් ගග පිළිද පැවැති මතභේද පුළුල් වු අතර එය මධ්‍යස්ථ තට්ටුවකට (සාමාජිකයන් ලෙස එක්සත් රාජධානිය, ඇමරිකාව සහ රැසියාව) යොමු වු අතර 1899 දී වෙනිසුවේලා ඉල්ලීමට විරැද්ධව තීරණයකට එළඹීය. වෙනිසුවේලාව වඩා ප්‍රචලිත වන්නේ එහි ඇති පෙට්රෝලියම් කර්මාන්තය ප්‍රදේශය තුල ඇති පාරිසරික විවිධත්වය සහ එහි ඇති ස්වභාවික ලක්ෂණයන්ටය. වෙනිසුවේලා ලොව ජෛව විවිධත්වය අතින් 17 වන ස්ථානයේ සිටින අතර ලතින් ඇමරිකාව තුල ඇති බොහෝ නාගරිකරණය වු රටවල් වලින් වෙනිසුවේලාව විශාල වශයෙන් ජනතාව උතුරැ ප්‍රදේශයේ නගරවල ජිවත් වන අතර විශේෂයෙන් අගනුවර හා විශාලතම නගරය වන කරනාස් වලය. අනෙකුත් නගර වන්නේ මරනයිබෝ, ව‍ැලෙන්ඩයා, මරතේ, බාතුයියිමෙටෝ, මෙරීඩා, බාසිලෝනා, පෙට්ටෝ කෲස්, සහ සියුඩෑඩ් ගුහානාය.

 වෙනිසුවේලා
 පින්තූරය - කොඩිය
 ආදර්ශ පාඨය - දෙවියන් සහ
 ජාතික ගීය
 අගනුවර - කැරකස් 100 30' N 660 58 W
 රාජ්‍ය භාෂාව - ස්පාඤ්ඤ
 ජාතික භාෂාව - ස්පාඤ්ඤ
 ජන වර්ග - 67% මෙස්ටිසෝ, 21% වයිට්, 1% ඇමරින්දියන් වෙනත් 9% (ඇෆ්රිකානු, අරාබි, ආසියානු)
 රජය - ඒකාබද්ධ ජනාධිපති සමුහාණ්ඩුව
 ජනාධිපති - ප්‍රාගෝ චැගස් ෆ්‍රියස්
 නියෝජ්‍ය ජනාධිපති - ඒ ලියස් ජයුආ
 නිදහස ස්පාඤ්ඤයේ සිට - 05 ජුලි 1811
 පිලිගැනිම - 30 මාර්තු 1845
 වර්ග ප්‍රමාණය -	එකතුව	-	916 445 Km2
			353 841 sq mi
 ජලය (%) – 0.32
 ජනගහනය - ජුලි 2009 තක්සේරැව - 26 814 843
 2001 ඝනත්වය	-	30.2 / Km2
			77 / sq mi
 GDP (PPP) – 2008 තක්සේරැව
 එකතුව - $  359.210 බිලියන
 සාමාන්‍ය - $ 12 806
 GDP (සාමාන්‍ය) – 2008 තක්සේරැව
 එකතුව - $ 319.443 බිලියන
 සාමාන්‍ය - $ 11 388
 ගිනි (2007) 42.2 (ඉහළ)
 HDI (2007) – 0.844 (ඉහළ)
 මුදල් - බොලිවර් ෆියු‍ට්

වෙනුසීවේලා


Avola est une communauté située dans la province de la Colombie-Britannique, dans le District régional de Thompson-Nicola.

Notes et références

Municipalité en Colombie-Britannique

Avola (Colombie-Britannique)


ගෝරම්ගේ ගුහාව යනු,  ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටා  බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය පාරසමුද්‍ර බලප්‍රදේශයෙහි  පිහිටි ස්වභාවික මුහුදු ගුහාවක් වන අතර, යුරෝපයේ  නියැන්ඩර්තාල්වරුන්ගේ අවසන් ජනාවාස ලෙසින් දන්නා ස්ථාන අතුරින් එකක් වෙයි. එය පිහිටා ඇත්තේ  ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටා පාෂාණයේ අග්නිදිග මුහුණතෙහිය. මුලින්ම ජනාවාසව පැවතියදී, එය වෙරළෙහි සිට දළ වශයෙන් කිලෝමීටර් පහක් පමණ ඈතින් පැවතුනා විය හැකි වුවද, මුහුදු මට්ටමෙහි වෙනස්කම් නිසා, එය දැනට මධ්‍යධරණී මුහුදේ සිට මීටර කිහිපයක් පමණක් ඈතින් පවතියි. මහත් වැදගත් කමක් ඇති බැවින් යුනෙස්කෝ ලෝක උරුම අඩවියක් ලෙසින් යෝජිත ප්‍රභින්න ගුහා සතරක සංකලනයක් වන  ගෝරම්ගේ ගුහා  සංකීර්ණයට එම නම ලබා දී ඇත්තේ ගෝරම්ගේ ගුහාව විසිනි.  අනෙකුත් ගුහා තුන වන්නේ වෑන්ගාඩ් ගුහාව, හයීනා ගුහාව සහ බෙනට්ස් ගුහාව යන්නන්ය.

සොයාගැනීම

මුහුදු බිංගෙයක පසුපස පිහිටි  පැලුමක් විවෘත කිරීමේදී, 1907 වසරේදී එය සොයාගත්, රාජකීය මෙන්ස්ටා ෆියුසිලියර්ස්   දෙවන බලඇණියේ කපිතාන් ඒ. ගෝරම් අනුව යමින් මෙම ගුහාව නම් කර ඇත. ලාම්පු-දැළි භාවිතා කරමින් ඔහුගේ නම සහ සොයාගත් දිනය ගෝරම් විසින් ගුහා බිත්තියේ අභිලේඛනය කළ අතර, එතැන් පටන් මෙම ගුහාවට ඔහුගේ නම භාවිතා විය. මෙම මුල් සොයාගැනුමෙන් පසුව, බැලූ බැල්මට මෙම ගුහාව—අවම වශයෙන් නිල මට්ටමෙන් හෝ— අමතක වී ඇති සෙයක් පෙනෙන්නේ ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටානු ඉතිහාසඥයෙක් සහ ගල් වන පිරික්සන්නෙක්වූ ජෝර්ජ් පලොව් විසින් ජේ. ජේ. ඩේවිස් 1943 යන්න ගුහා බිත්තියේ කොටා තිබියදී කියවු බවක් මෙනෙහි කළ බැවිනි.

පුරාවිද්‍යාව
පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක උනන්දුවක්  ඇති කල අඩවියක් බවට ගෝරම්ගේ ගුහාව පත්වූයේ එහි වැදගත්බව මුලින්ම හඳුනාගත් පසුවය. ඉන් ඉහළ පැවති ප්‍රපාතයෙහි සිට, ගුහාවට පහළින් වූ වෙරළ (ගවනර්ස් වෙරළ) අනාගම්‍යව පැවතුණි; කෙසේවෙතත්, ගල්කුළෙහි උමං කැණීම් ව්‍යාපෘතියක එක් අදියරකින් පසුව නිර්මාණය වූ,  වැඩකට ගත නොහැකි ද්‍රව්‍ය ගොඩ නිසා, වෙරළ සහ ගුහාව වෙතට පිවිසිය හැකි විය.

ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටා පුවත්පත් හරහා, ගුහාවේ පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක උනන්දුවක් ඇතිකරලන මානවකෘති ඇති බවට වාර්තා කල පළමුවැන්නන්  වූයේ  කිහ්ලි සහ වෝඩ් යන  රාජකීය ඉංජිනේරුවරුන්  දෙදෙනාය. ඔවුන් හට හමුවී තිබුණේ  මැටි භාණ්ඩ සහ ශිලා මෙවලම් වෙති. තවදුරටත්, ඔවුන් වාර්තා කළේ, ගෝරම්ගේ ගුහාවේ තිබී මානව සහ සත්ත්ව නෂ්ටාවශේෂ සොයාගෙන ඇති බවයි. ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටා සංගමයේ  ගෞර්වාර්භ එෆ්. ඊ. බ්‍රවුන් විසින් මෙම සොයාගැනුම් පිළිබඳව  ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටාවේ ආණ්ඩුකාරවරයා වෙත වාර්තා කර සිටි අතර, ඔහු විසින් මෙම අඩවිය වෙත කළ සංචාරයකින් පසුව තවදුරටත් විමර්ශනයන් සිදු කරන ලෙසට ඉල්ලා සිටියේය. ඔවුන්ගේ විචාරණයන් සඳහා, මෙම විමර්ශනයන්, බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය කෞතුකාගාරය වෙත වාර්තා කෙරිණි.

රාජකීය ඉංජිනේරුවෙකු සහ කේම්බ්‍රිජ් විශ්වවිද්‍යාලයෙහි උපාධිධාරී භූවිද්‍යාඥයෙක් වූ ලුතිනන් ජෝර්ජ් බේකර් ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩර්, 1945 වසරෙහිදී ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටාව වෙත ලඟා විය. විස්තරාත්මක භූවිද්‍යාත්මක සිතියමක් නිමැවුම අරමුණු කර ගෙන ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටාවේ භූවිද්‍යාත්මක පිරිමැනුමක් සිදු කිරීමට හේ තීරණය කළේය. ගෝරම්ගේ ගුහාව කැණීම පළමුවෙන් සිදු කළේ ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩර් වන අතර, ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටා කෞතුකාගාරය විසින් ඔහුගේ ක්‍රමවේදයන් අභියෝගයට ලක් කිරීම නිසා, 1948දී ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටාවෙන් පිටව යන තෙක් ඔහු එය සිදු කළේය.

1945දී, ආණ්ඩුකාරවරයා විසින් බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය කෞතුකාගාරය වෙත ලිපි යවමින් එය වෙතින් ඉල්ලා සිටියේ, ගුහාවේ විමර්ශනයන් තවදුරටත් සිදු කර ගෙන යන ලෙසය. මේ සඳහා අවශ්‍ය සම්පත් කෞතුකාගාරය වෙත නොතිබුනද, 1920 ගණන් වලදී ජිබ්‍රෝල්ටාවේදී සිදුකල ඇයගේ පූර්ව කර්තව්‍යයන්හිදී ඩෙවිල්ස් ටවර් ගුහාව වෙතින් නියැන්ඩර්තාල් හිස්කබලක් සොයා ගත්, කේම්බ්‍රිජ්  මහාචාර්ය ඩොරති ගැරඩ් වෙත ආණ්ඩුකාරවරයාගේ ආයාචනය ඉදිරිපත් කළහ. ගැරඩ් විසින්,  ඇන්කරා හී  බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය පුරාවිද්‍යා ආයතනයේ  අධිසාමාජිකයෙක් වූ ආචාර්ය  ජෝන් ඩාසි වෙෂ්ටර්ගේ උපකාරය පැතිණි. 1948 සැප්තැම්බරයේදී පැමිණි වෙෂ්ටර්, දෙමසත් තිස්සේ පරික්ෂණ වළවල් සෑරුවේ තවදුරටත් කැණීම් යුක්ති සහගතද යන්න නිර්ණය කරගැනුමටය.

ආශ්‍රිත

ගෝරම්ගේ ගුහාව


Tanyaradzwa Adel Muzinda, née le 30 avril 2004, est une sportive zimbabwéenne de moto-cross, qui  donne à ce sport et sa pratique par les jeunes femmes une notoriété grandissante en Afrique australe.

Biographie

Muzinda naît à Harare en 2004. Elle commence à faire de la moto à l'âge de cinq ans encouragée par son père, Tawanda. Sa mère s'appelle Adiyon et Tanya Muzinda est l'aînée d'une fratrie de quatre enfants.

En 2017, après avoir s'être distinguée dans plusieurs compétitions de son pays, elle participe à sa première course à l'étranger, dans le Championnat britannique Master Kids de HL Racing qui se tient sur la piste Motoland près de Mildenhall. Elle arrive troisième.

L'union africaine la reconnaît comme la sportive junior de l'année en 2018. Fin 2019, elle déménage avec sa famille en Floride, soutenue par la pilote Italienne de moto-cross , triple championne du monde, avec qui elle est en contact depuis 2013 et qui l'a entraînée. Bau devient sa manager.

Faisant bénéficier son sport de sa notoriété, Tanya Muzinda est également ambassadrice honoraire de l'Union européenne pour la jeunesse, le genre, les sports et le développement au Zimbabwe.
Ses gains lui permettent de payer les frais de scolarité d'enfants à Harare.
En 2021, elle figure parmi la liste annuelle des 100 femmes remarquables de la BBC.

Références

Naissance en avril 2004
Naissance à Harare
Pilote de moto-cross
Sportive zimbabwéenne
100 femmes de la BBC

Tanya Muzinda


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Turnee

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