El Tipo textual bizantino (también llamado Mayoritario, Tradicional, y por Eclesiástico, Constantinopolitano, o Sirio) es uno de varios tipos textuales usados en la crítica textual para describir los caracteres textuales del griego de los manuscritos del Nuevo Testamento. Es la forma encontrada en la mayor parte de manuscritos sobrevivientes, aunque no en los más antiguos, aunque hay quien discute eso, ya que hay traducciones y citas de autores cristianos que van del  en adelante que aluden claramente al Texto Mayoritario. El texto del Nuevo Testamento de la Iglesia Ortodoxa griega, la edición Patriarcado de Constantinopla de 1904 está basada en este tipo textual. Aunque varía considerablemente, también es la base del texto griego del Texto Recibido utilizado por la mayoría de las traducciones del Nuevo Testamento en lenguas vernáculas en la era de la Reforma. Las traducciones modernas principalmente usan las ediciones eclécticas que se ajustan con más frecuencia al tipo textual alejandrino.

El texto bizantino también se encuentra en unas cuantas ediciones griegas ortodoxas, debido a que la tradición textual bizantina ha continuado en la Iglesia Ortodoxa del Este hasta la actualidad. El texto utilizado por la Iglesia Griega coincide con los últimos manuscritos minúsculas. Comúnmente se acepta el texto bizantino como estándar.

La forma textual bizantina con frecuencia se marca con las abreviaturas 𝔐 o Biz.

Manuscritos del texto bizantino

Durante algún tiempo en el  se encontraban diferentes tipos de texto en el Este, pero al final el texto bizantino "desplazó casi por completo al resto". El tipo textual bizantino tiene por mucha diferencia el mayor número de manuscritos de los que han sobrevivido, varios de ellos escritos un el estilo más reciente, minúsculas y en escritura de ortografía politónica, que fue inventado en el  por Aristófanes de Bizancio, pero que tomo varios siglos para ser aceptado en el círculo erudito. Por ejemplo, de los 522 manuscritos completos o casi completos de las Epístolas generales reunidos por el Instituto de Investigación textual del Nuevo Testamento en Muñiste (Münster), Alemania, 372 de ellos atestigüan lecturas bizantinas en al menos el 90% de los 98 lugares de examen. Entre los manuscritos más antiguos que sobreviven, la situación se invierte. Existen seis manuscritos de antes del  que se ajustan al tipo textual bizantino; de los del  el Códice Alejandrino, (el más antiguo), es bizantino únicamente en los Evangelios siendo el resto alejandrino.

En comparación, el tipo textual alejandrino es atestigüado por nueve unciales sobrevivientes más antiguos al  (incluyendo al Códice Alejandrino sin los Evangelios); también se considera que es mostrado en tres papiros muy antiguos. Las ediciones críticas modernas del Nuevo Testamento tienden a ajustarse con más frecuencia a los testimonios alejandrinos — especialmente al Códice Sinaítico y el Códice Vaticano. El primer Padre de la Iglesia en dar testimonio en un tipo textual bizantino en citas importantes del Nuevo Testamento fue Juan Crisóstomo (346 — 407); aunque las obras fragmentarias que han sobrevivido de Asterio el Sofista († 341) también han sido consideradas conforme al texto bizantino. Crisóstomo y Asterio usaron el texto sono un 75% de acuerdo al texto estándar bizantino. La traducción más antigua que atestigüa una base griega generalmente conforme al texto bizantino en los Evangelios es la Peshitta siríaca (aunque tiene varias lecturas alejandrinas y occidentales; usualmente fechada al ; además con respecto a varias lecturas muy controvertidas, como lo es Marcos 1:2 y Juan 1:18, la Peshitta coincide más bien con los testimonios alejandrinos.

La forma del texto bizantino encontrada en los testimonios más antiguos no es en una totalidad monolítica, y a veces difiere de un subgrupo bizantino de manuscritos que proliferaron a partir del . Entre la mayor parte de los manuscritos de más adelante, sin embargo, generalmente es posible demostrar una lectura claramente en su mayoría bizantina para cada variante; por ello un texto griego del Nuevo Testamento se basa en esa mayoría del lecturas,  — "El Texto Mayoritario" — ha sido creado por Zane C. Hodges y Arthur L. Farstad, aunque este texto no corresponde a ningún manuscrito en particular.

Sin duda es la familia catalogada por los críticos que dispone de una mayor concordancia entre sus diferentes testimonios, siendo sin duda fruto de un mayor cuidado y reverencia. Pues recordemos que la zona a la que pertenece es la que recibió de los mismos Apóstoles y sus ayudantes los Originales, lo que hace pensar si es o no lógico creer que las iglesias que recibieron de los mismos Apóstoles los Originales los sustituiría por un nuevo texto de origen desconocido. Pues Tertuliano en el  que los escritos originales aún se podían examinar en las iglesias que lo recibieron de los Apóstoles. Así que el Texto Mayoritario y por ende el Texto Recibido merecen mayor crédito del que se le da.

Manuscritos bizantinos notables

Otros manuscritos
 Papiros
𝔓73
 Unciales
Codex Mutinensis, Codex Cyprius, Codex Mosquensis I, Campianus, Petropolitanus Purp., Sinopensis, Guelferbytanus A, Guelferbytanus B, Nitriensis, Nanianus, Monacensis, Tischendorfianus IV, Sangallensis (excepto Marcos), Tischendorfianus III, Petropolitanus, Rossanensis, Beratinus, Dionysiou, Vaticanus 2066, Uncial 047, 049, 052, 053, 054, 056, 061, 063, 064, 065, 069 (?), 093 (Hechos), 0103, 0104, 0105, 0116, 0120, 0133, 0134, 0135, 0136, 0142, 0151, 0197, 0211, 0246, 0248, 0253, 0255, 0257, 0265, 0269 (mezclado), 0272, 0273 (?).

 Minúsculas
Más del 80% de los minúsculas presentan el texto bizantino.

2, 3, 6 (Evangelios y Hechos), 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28 (excepto Marcos), 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61 (Evangelios y Hechos), 63, 65, 66, 68, 69 (excepto Pablo), 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 89, 90, 92, 93, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 104 (excepto Pablo), 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 155, 156, 159, 162, 167, 169, 170, 171, 177, 180 (excepto Hechos), 181 (solo Rev.), 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205 (Epístolas), 206 (excepto Cat.), 207, 208, 209 (excepto los Evangelios y Rev.), 210, 212, 214, 215, 217, 218 (excepto Cat. y Pablo), 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227, 231, 232, 235, 236, 237, 240, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 250, 254 (excepto Cat.), 256 (excepto Pablo), 259, 260, 261, 262, 263 (excepto Pablo), 264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 275, 276, 277, 278a, 278b, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 297, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 309, 313, 314, 316, 319, 320, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329, 330 (excepto Pablo), 331, 334, 335, 337, 342, 343, 344, 347, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 364, 365 (excepto Pablo), 366, 367, 368, 369, 371, 373, 374, 375, 376, 378 (excepto Cat.), 379, 380, 381, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 390, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 398 (excepto Cat.), 399, 401, 402, 404, 405, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 417, 418, 419, 422, 425, 426, 429 (Pablo y Rev.), 431 (excepto Hechos y Cat.), 432, 438, 439, 443, 445, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451 (excepto Pablo), 452, 454, 457, 458, 459 (excepto Pablo), 461, 465, 466, 469, 470, 471, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 504, 505, 506, 507, 509, 510, 511, 512, 514, 516, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522 (excepto Hechos y Cat.), 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 538, 540, 541, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 553, 554, 556, 558, 559, 560, 564, 568, 570, 571, 573, 574, 575, 577, 578, 580, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 592, 593, 594, 596, 597, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 607, 610 (en Cat.), 614 (en Cat.), 616, 618, 620, 622, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 632, 633, 634, 637, 638, 639, 640, 642 (excepto Cat.), 644, 645, 648, 649, 650, 651, 655, 656, 657, 660, 662, 663, 664, 666, 668, 669, 672, 673, 674, 677, 680, 684, 685, 686, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 694, 696, 698, 699, 705, 707, 708, 711, 714, 715, 717, 718, 721, 724, 725, 727, 729, 730, 731, 734, 736, 737, 739, 741, 745, 746, 748, 750, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 768, 769, 770, 773, 774, 775, 777, 778, 779, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 789, 790, 793, 794, 797, 798, 799, 801, 802, 806, 808, 809, 811, 818, 819, 820, 824, 825, 830, 831, 833, 834, 835, 836, 839, 840, 841, 843, 844, 845, 846, 848, 852, 853, 857, 858, 860, 861, 862, 864, 866, 867, 868, 870, 877, 880, 884, 886, 887, 889, 890, 893, 894, 896, 897, 898, 900, 901, 902, 904, 905, 906, 910, 911, 912, 914, 916, 917 (Pablo), 918 (Pablo), 919, 920, 921, 924, 928, 936, 937, 938, 942, 943, 944, 945 (Hechos y Cat.), 950, 951, 952, 953, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 969, 970, 971, 973, 975, 977, 978, 980, 981, 987, 988, 991, 993, 994, 995, 997, 998, 999, 1000, 1003, 1004, 1006 (Evangelios), 1007, 1008, 1010 (?), 1011, 1013, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1017, 1018, 1019, 1020, 1023, 1024, 1025, 1026, 1028, 1030, 1031, 1032, 1033, 1036, 1044, 1045, 1046, 1050, 1052, 1053, 1054, 1055, 1056, 1057, 1059, 1060, 1061, 1062, 1063, 1065, 1067 (excepto Cat.), 1068, 1069, 1070, 1072, 1073, 1074, 1075, 1076, 1077, 1078, 1080, 1081, 1083, 1085, 1087, 1088, 1089, 1094, 1099, 1100, 1101, 1103, 1104, 1105, 1107, 1110, 1112, 1119, 1121, 1123, 1129, 1148, 1149, 1150, 1161, 1168, 1169, 1171, 1172, 1173, 1174, 1176, 1177, 1185, 1186, 1187, 1188, 1189, 1190, 1191, 1193, 1196, 1197, 1198, 1199, 1200, 1201, 1202, 1203, 1205, 1206, 1207, 1208, 1209, 1211, 1212, 1213, 1214, 1215, 1217, 1218, 1220, 1221, 1222, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227, 1231, 1241 (solo Hechos), 1251 (?), 1252, 1254, 1255, 1260, 1264, 1277, 1283, 1285, 1292 (excepto Cat.), 1296, 1297, 1298, 1299, 1300, 1301, 1303, 1305, 1309, 1310, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1315, 1316, 1317, 1318, 1319 (excepto Pablo), 1320, 1323, 1324, 1328, 1330, 1331, 1334, 1339, 1340, 1341, 1343, 1345, 1347, 1350a, 1350b, 1351, 1352a, 1354, 1355, 1356, 1357, 1358, 1359 (excepto Cat.), 1360, 1362, 1364, 1367, 1370, 1373, 1374, 1377, 1384, 1385, 1392, 1395, 1398 (excepto Pablo), 1400, 1409 (Evangelios y Pablo), 1417, 1437, 1438, 1444, 1445, 1447, 1448 (excepto Cat.), 1449, 1452, 1470, 1476, 1482, 1483, 1492, 1503, 1504, 1506 (Evangelios), 1508, 1513, 1514, 1516, 1517, 1520, 1521, 1523 (Pablo), 1539, 1540, 1542b (solo Lucas), 1543, 1545, 1547, 1548, 1556, 1566, 1570, 1572, 1573 (excepto Pablo?), 1577, 1583, 1594, 1597, 1604, 1605, 1607, 1613, 1614, 1617, 1618, 1619, 1622, 1628, 1636, 1637, 1649, 1656, 1662, 1668, 1672, 1673, 1683, 1693, 1701, 1704 (excepto Hechos), 1714, 1717, 1720, 1723, 1725, 1726, 1727, 1728, 1730, 1731, 1732, 1733, 1734, 1736, 1737, 1738, 1740, 1741, 1742, 1743, 1745, 1746, 1747, 1748, 1749, 1750, 1752, 1754, 1755a, 1755b, 1756, 1757, 1759, 1761, 1762, 1763, 1767, 1768, 1770, 1771, 1772, 1800, 1821, 1826, 1828, 1829, 1835, 1841 (except Rev.), 1846 (only Acts), 1847, 1849, 1851, 1852 (solo en Rev.), 1854 (excepto Rev.), 1855, 1856, 1858, 1859, 1860, 1861, 1862, 1869, 1870, 1872, 1874 (except Pablo), 1876, 1877 (except Pablo), 1878, 1879, 1880, 1882, 1883, 1888, 1889, 1891 (excepto Hechos), 1897, 1899, 1902, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1911, 1914, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1919, 1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1936,1937, 1938, 1941, 1946, 1948, 1951, 1952, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1964, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1986, 1988, 1992, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2009, 2013, 2048, 2096, 2098, 2111, 2119, 2125, 2126, 2127 (excepto Pablo), 2132, 2133, 2135, 2138 (solo en Rev.), 2139, 2140, 2141, 2142, 2144, 2160, 2172, 2173, 2175, 2176, 2177, 2178, 2181, 2183, 2187, 2189, 2191, 2199, 2218, 2221, 2236, 2261, 2266, 2267, 2273, 2275, 2277, 2281, 2289, 2295, 2300, 2303, 2306, 2307, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2352, 2355, 2356, 2373, 2376, 2378, 2381, 2382, 2386, 2389, 2390, 2406, 2407, 2409, 2414, 2415, 2418, 2420, 2422, 2423, 2424, 2425, 2426, 2430, 2431, 2437, 2441, 2442, 2445, 2447, 2450, 2451, 2452, 2454, 2455, 2457, 2458, 2459, 2466, 2468, 2475, 2479, 2483, 2484, 2490, 2491, 2496, 2497, 2499, 2500, 2501, 2502, 2503, 2507, 2532, 2534, 2536, 2539, 2540, 2545, 2547, 2549, 2550, 2552, 2554, 2555, 2558, 2559, 2562, 2563, 2567, 2571, 2572, 2573, 2578, 2579, 2581, 2584, 2587, 2593, 2600, 2619, 2624, 2626, 2627, 2629, 2631, 2633, 2634, 2635, 2636, 2637, 2639, 2645, 2646, 2649, 2650, 2651, 2653, 2656, 2657, 2658, 2660, 2661, 2665, 2666, 2671, 2673, 2675, 2679, 2690, 2691, 2696, 2698, 2699, 2700, 2704, 2711, 2712, 2716, 2721, 2722, 2723, 2724, 2725, 2727, 2729, 2746, 2760, 2761, 2765, 2767, 2773, 2774, 2775, 2779, 2780, 2781, 2782, 2783, 2784, 2785, 2787, 2790, 2791, 2794, 2815, 2817, 2829.

Distribución de los manuscritos del tipo bizantino por siglo

461, 1080, 1862, 2142, 2500

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399

14, 27, 29, 34, 36e, 63, 82, 92, 100, 135, 144, 151, 221, 237, 262, 278b, 344, 364, 371, 405, 411, 450, 454, 457, 478, 481, 564, 568, 584, 602, 605, 626, 627, 669, 920, 1055, 1076, 1077, 1078, 1203, 1220, 1223, 1225, 1347, 1351, 1357, 1392, 1417, 1452, 1661, 1720, 1756, 1829, 1851, 1880, 1905, 1920, 1927, 1954, 1997, 1998, 2125, 2373, 2414, 2545, 2722, 2790

 /
994, 1073, 1701

7p, 8, 12, 20, 23, 24, 25, 37, 39, 40, 50, 65, 68, 75, 77, 83, 89, 98, 108, 112, 123, 125, 126, 127, 133, 137, 142, 143, 148, 150, 177, 186, 194, 195, 197, 200, 207, 208, 210, 212, 215, 236, 250, 259, 272, 276, 277, 278a, 300, 301, 302, 314, 325, 331, 343, 350, 352, 354, 357, 360, 375, 376, 422, 458, 465, 466, 470, 474, 475, 476, 490, 491, 497, 504, 506, 507, 516, 526, 527, 528, 530, 532, 547, 548, 549, 560, 583, 585, 596, 607, 624, 625, 638, 639, 640, 651, 672, 699, 707, 708, 711, 717, 746, 754, 756, 773, 785, 809, 831, 870, 884, 887, 894, 901, 910, 919, 937, 942, 943, 944, 964, 965, 991, 1014, 1028, 1045, 1054, 1056, 1074, 1110, 1123, 1168, 1174, 1187, 1207, 1209, 1211, 1212, 1214, 1221, 1222, 1244, 1277, 1300, 1312, 1314, 1317, 1320, 1324, 1340, 1343, 1373, 1384, 1438, 1444, 1449, 1470, 1483, 1513, 1514, 1517, 1520, 1521, 1545, 1556, 1570, 1607, 1668, 1672, 1693, 1730, 1734, 1738, 1770, 1828, 1835, 1847, 1849, 1870, 1878, 1879, 1888, 1906, 1907, 1916, 1919, 1921, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1946, 1955, 1980, 1981, 1982, 2001, 2007, 2098, 2132, 2133, 2144, 2172, 2176, 2181, 2183, 2199, 2275, 2277, 2281, 2386, 2295, 2307, 2381, 2386, 2430, 2442, 2447, 2451, 2458, 2468, 2475, 2539, 2547, 2559, 2563, 2567, 2571, 2587, 2637, 2649, 2661, 2723, 2746, 2760, 2782, 2787
2306 (composición de partes desde el  al )

 /
665, 657, 660, 1013, 1188, 1191, 1309, 1358, 1340, 1566, 2389, 2415, 2784

2e, 2ap, 3, 9, 11, 15, 21, 32, 44, 46, 49, 57, 73, 76, 78, 80, 84, 95, 97, 105, 110, 111, 116, 119, 120, 122, 129, 132, 134, 138, 139, 140, 146, 156, 159, 162, 183, 187, 193, 196, 199, 202, 203, 217, 224, 226, 231, 240, 244, 245, 247, 261, 264, 267, 268, 269, 270, 275, 280, 281, 282, 297, 304, 306, 319, 320, 329, 334, 337, 347, 351, 353, 355, 356, 366, 374, 387, 392, 395, 396, 401, 407, 408, 419, 438, 439, 443, 452, 471, 485, 499, 502, 505, 509, 510, 514, 518, 520, 524, 529, 531, 535, 538, 550, 551, 556, 570, 571, 580, 587, 618, 620, 622, 637, 650, 662, 673, 674, 688, 692, 721, 736, 748, 750, 760, 765, 768, 770, 774, 777, 778, 779, 782, 787, 793, 799, 808, 843, 857, 860, 862, 877, 893, 896, 902, 911, 916, 922, 924, 936, 950, 967, 971, 973, 975, 980, 987, 993, 998, 1007, 1046, 1081, 1083, 1085, 1112, 1169, 1176, 1186, 1190, 1193, 1197, 1198, 1199, 1200, 1217, 1218, 1224, 1231, 1240, 1301, 1315, 1316, 1318, 1323, 1350a, 1355, 1360, 1364, 1375, 1385, 1437, 1539, 1583, 1673, 1683, 1714, 1737, 1752, 1754, 1755a, 1755b, 1800, 1821, 1826, 1872, 1889, 1914, 1915, 1917, 1926, 1951, 1970, 1971, 1974, 1986, 1988, 2013, 2096, 2126, 2135, 2139, 2173, 2177, 2189, 2191, 2289, 2282, 2426, 2437, 2445, 2459, 2490, 2491, 2507, 2536, 2549, 2550, 2552, 2562, 2639, 2650, 2657, 2671, 2700, 2712, 2725, 2727, 2781, 2785, 2791, 2794
632 y 1227 (composición de partes desde el  al )

 /
905, 906, 1310, 1341, 1897, 2311

52, 55 60, 74, 107, 121, 128, 136, 141, 147, 167, 170, 192, 198, 204, 219, 220, 227, 248, 260, 284, 291, 292, 293, 303, 305, 309, 327, 328, 342, 359, 361, 362, 384, 388, 390, 410, 449, 469, 473, 477, 479, 482, 483, 484, 496, 500, 501, 511, 519, 533, 534, 546, 553, 554, 558, 573, 574, 592, 593, 597, 601, 663, 666, 677, 684, 685, 689, 691, 696, 705, 714, 715, 725, 729, 737, 757, 759, 775, 811, 820, 825, 830, 835, 840, 897, 898, 900, 912, 914, 966, 969, 970, 981, 995, 997, 999, 1000, 1004, 1008, 1011, 1015, 1016, 1031, 1050, 1052, 1053, 1057, 1069, 1070, 1072, 1087, 1089, 1094, 1103, 1107, 1129, 1148, 1149, 1150, 1161, 1177, 1201, 1205, 1206, 1208, 1213, 1215, 1226, 1238, 1255, 1285, 1339, 1352a, 1400, 1594, 1597, 1604, 1622, 1717, 1717, 1728, 1731, 1736, 1740, 1742, 1772, 1855, 1858, 1922, 1938, 1941, 1956, 1972, 1992, 2111, 2119, 2140, 2141, 2236, 2353, 2376, 2380, 2390, 2409, 2420, 2423, 2425, 2457, 2479, 2483, 2502, 2534, 2540, 2558, 2568, 2584, 2600, 2624, 2627, 2631, 2633, 2645, 2646, 2658, 2660, 2665, 2670, 2696, 2699, 2724, 2761

 /
266, 656, 668, 1334, 2499, 2578

18, 45, 53, 54, 66, 109, 155, 171, 182, 185, 190, 201, 214, 223, 232, 235, 243, 246, 290, 308, 316, 324, 358, 367, 369, 381, 386, 393, 394, 402, 404, 409, 412, 413, 414, 415, 417, 425, 426, 480, 492, 494, 498, 512, 521, 523, 540, 577, 578, 586, 588, 594, 600, 603, 604, 628, 633, 634, 644, 645, 648, 649, 680, 686, 690, 698, 718, 727, 730, 731, 734, 741, 758, 761, 762, 763, 764, 769, 781, 783, 784, 786, 789, 790, 794, 797, 798, 802, 806, 818, 819, 824, 833, 834, 836, 839, 845, 846, 848, 858, 864, 866a, 867, 889, 890, 904, 921, 928, 938, 951, 952, 953, 959, 960, 977, 978, 1020, 1023, 1032, 1033, 1036, 1061, 1062, 1075, 1099, 1100, 1119, 1121, 1185, 1189, 1196, 1234, 1235, 1236, 1248, 1249, 1252, 1254, 1283, 1328, 1330, 1331, 1345, 1350b, 1356, 1377, 1395, 1445, 1447, 1476, 1492, 1503, 1504, 1516, 1543, 1547, 1548, 1572, 1577, 1605, 1613, 1614, 1619, 1637, 1723, 1725, 1726, 1732, 1733, 1741, 1746, 1747, 1761, 1762, 1771, 1856, 1859, 1899, 1902, 1918, 1928, 1929, 1952, 1975, 2085, 2160, 2261, 2266, 2273, 2303, 2309, 2310, 2355, 2356, 2406, 2407, 2431, 2441, 2454, 2466, 2484, 2503, 2593, 2626, 2629, 2634, 2651, 2653, 2666, 2668, 2679, 2698, 2716, 2765, 2767, 2773, 2774, 2775, 2780, 2783

30, 47, 58, 70, 149, 285, 286, 287, 288, 313, 368, 373, 379, 380, 385, 418, 432, 446, 448, 493, 525, 541, 575, 616, 664, 694, 739, 801, 841, 844, 853, 880, 955, 958, 961, 962, 1003, 1017, 1018, 1024, 1026, 1059, 1060, 1105, 1202, 1232, 1233, 1247, 1250, 1260, 1264, 1482, 1508, 1617, 1626, 1628, 1636, 1649, 1656, 1745, 1750, 1757, 1763, 1767, 1876, 1882, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1964, 1978, 2003, 2175, 2178, 2221, 2352, 2418, 2452, 2455, 2554, 2673, 2675, 2691, 2704, 2729

 /
99, 1367

90, 335, 445, 724, 745, 755, 867, 957, 1019, 1030, 1065, 1068, 1088, 1239, 1362, 1370, 1374, 1618, 1749, 1768, 1861, 1883, 1911, 1930, 1931, 1936, 1937, 1979, 2009, 2218, 2378, 2422, 2496, 2501, 2532, 2555, 2572, 2573, 2579, 2635, 2636, 2690, 2711, 2721, 2779

 /
1371

  y en adelante
289, 868, 956, 963, 988, 1044, 1063, 1101, 1104, 1303, 1748, 1869, 2267, 2450, 2497, 2581, 2619, 2656.

Características del texto bizantino
Comparado a los manuscritos del tipo textual alejandrino, las diversas lecturas bizantinas suelen mostrar una gran tendencia hacia el griego simple y bien formado, propio del Koiné en pocos casos muestran variación entre los pasajes paralelos de los Evangelios sinópticos, también es menos probable que presenten contradicciones o cuestiones "difíciles" de exégesis. Por ejemplo, en Marcos 1:2 se lee: "como está escrito en los profetas..." en el texto bizantino; mientras que el mismo versículo se lee "como está escrito en Isaías el profeta..." en los demás testimonios textuales antiguos.

Otra característica es la gramática (por ejemplo οι δε ειπον, y en el texto alejandrino: οι δε ειπαν) en diferente orden de palabras. Por ejemplo:

Juan 6:49
εν τη ερημω το μαννα – en los códices B, C, D, T, W, Θ
το μαννα εν τη ερημω – en los códices ﬡ, A, L, Ψ, f1, f13, mss. del tipo textual bizantino

Marcos 1:9
εις τον Ιορδανην υπο Ιωανου – en los códices ﬡ, B, D
υπο Ιωανου εις τον Ιορδανην – en los códices A, W, y en los manuscritos del tipo textual bizantino

Además, el texto bizantino no contiene los versículos incluidos en el Texto Recibido: Lucas 17:36; Hechos 8:37; 15:34.

No hay testimonios bizantinos consistentes entre los primeros papiros del Nuevo Testamento. No obstante, los casos de diversas lecturas no son inusuales en los textos más antiguos — a pesar de que los demás se ajustan más a otros tipos textuales o a ninguno. Por lo tanto, muchas (y posiblemente la mayoría) de las diversas lecturas bizantinas es probable que sean de fecha antigua. Existen dos explicaciones generales que han sido ofrecidas para esta observación:

 que el tipo textual bizantino transmite un texto más cercano a la forma primaria de los libros del Nuevo Testamento; los testimonios en manuscritos antiguos no han sobrevivido porque este tipo textual predominó en regiones en donde el clima no favorece a la preservación de papiros, y fue por la conservación más respetuosa y concienzuda por la que ha llegado a la mayoría y no un texto marginal;

 que el texto bizantino representa un ejercicio consistente de compilación y corrección textual cerca del , los editores habían seleccionado eclécticamente esas lecturas de un rango de manuscritos antiguos que se ajustaban mejor a su estándar presupuesto de las características que se esperaban en el texto del Nuevo Testamento, dicha suposición no esta demostrada, como la resención luciana en lo referente al Nuevo Testamento.

Relación con otros tipos textuales

Evangelio de Mateo 2:18
 κλαυθμος — Códice Sinaítico, Vaticano, 0250, f1, it(q), aur,b,c,f, ff1,g1, k, l, 1, vg, syrp, pal, copsa, bo, eth
 θρηνος και κλαυθμος — C, D, K, L, W, Δ, Π, f13, 28, 33, 565, 700, 892, 1009, 1010, 1071, 1079, 1195, 1216, 1241, 1253, 1365, 1546, 1646, 2148, 2174, Biz

Mateo 5:25
 ὁ κριτής — mss alejandrinos f1 f13
 δώσει — D
 ὁ κριτής σε παραδῷ — K L W Δ Θ Π 28 33 565 700 mss bizantinos

Mateo 10:4
 Θαδδαιος — mss alejandrinos f13 Leccionario 185 vg
 Λεββαιος — D, d, (k)
 Λεββαιος ο επικληθεις Θαδδαιος — bizantinos
 Θαδδαιος ο επικληθεις Λεββαιος — 13 346 543 826 828

Mateo 14:12
 σωμα — W 0106 0136 Biz lat sirh copsa
 πτωμα — א B C D L Θ f1 f13 33 565 700 892 1010 1241 1424 e k sirs, c, p copbo

Mateo 15:6
 η την μητερα αυτου — C L W Θ 0106 f1 Biz it vgcl sirp, h
 και την μητερα αυτου — Φ 565 1241 copbo
 η την μητερα — 084 f13 33 70 892
 omitido — א B D pc a e sirc copsa geo1

Mateo 15:6
 τον λογον (véase Marcos 7:13) — mss alejandrinos, Θ, 700, 1230
 τον νομον — א*, C, 084, f13, 1010
 την εντολην — K, L, W, X, Δ, Π, 0106, f1, 33, 565, 1009, Biz

Mateo 15:8
 εγγιζει μοι ο λαος ουτος τω στοματι αυτων και (Este pueblo se acerca a mí con sus boca pero) — C W 0106 (f1) Biz
 ο λαος ουτος (Este pueblo) — א B D L Θ 084 f13 33 700 892 1424

Evangelio de Marcos 1:13
 και ην εν τη ερημω — א, A, B, D, L, Θ, 33, 579, 892, 1342, 2427
 και ην εκει εν τη ερημω — W, Δ, 157, 1241, Biz, TR
 και ην εκει — 28, 517, 565, 700, f1, Familia Π, sirs
 Omite — f13
 Laguna — C, Ψ, sirc

Evangelio de Marcos 4:24
 και προστεθησεται υμιν — mss alejandrinos
 και προστεθησεται υμιν τοις ακουουσιν — mss del tipo textual bizantino
 omite — D, W, 565

Evangelio de Marcos 6:33
 εκει και προηλθον αυτους — Códice Sinaítico, Vaticano, 0187 (omite εκει), 892, ℓ 49, ℓ 69, ℓ 70, ℓ 299, ℓ 303, ℓ 333, ℓ 1579, (ℓ 950 αυτους), itaur, vg, (copsa, bo)
 εκει και προσηλθον αυτοις — Códice Regio, 1241, (Δ, Θ, ℓ 10 αυτοις), ℓ 12, ℓ 80, ℓ 184, ℓ 211, ℓ 1127, arm, geo
 εκει και συνηλθον αυτου — Códice de Beza (gr), 28, 700
 εκει και ηλθον αυτου — 565, it(a),d, ff,i,r, Diatesarón
 και ηλθον εκει — f1
 προηλθον αυτον εκει — Peshitta
 προς αυτους και συνηλθον προς αυτον — 33
 εκει και προηλθον αυτοις και συνηλθον προς αυτον — K, Π, (f13 συνεισηλθον προς αυτους), 1009, 1010, 1071, 1079, 1195, 1216, 1230, 1242, 1365, 1546, 1646, 2148, 2174, Biz
 εκει και προηλθον αυτοις και συνεδραμον προς αυτον — A
 εκει — códice W, ℓ 150, itc

Marcos 6:51
 εξισταντο — mss alejandrinos, 28, vg, sirs, copsa, bo geo
 εξεπλησσοντο — f1
 εξισταντο και αθαυμαζον — A D K W X Θ Π f13 33 565 700 mss bizantinos
 αθαυμαζον και εξισταντο — 517 1424 Peshitta

Marcos 7:8
 βαπτισμους ξεστων και ποτηριων και αλλα παρομοια τοιαυτα πολλα ποιειτε (el lavado de jarras y copas, y muchas otra cosas que hacen) – (Α) f13 Biz vg (syrp) syrh

Marcos 9:49
 πας γαρ πυρι αλισθησεται – mss alejandrinos y cesáreos
 πασα γαρ θυσια αλι αλισθησεται – mss occidentales
 πας γαρ πυρι αλισθησεται και πασα θυσια αλι αλισθησεται – mss bizantinos

Lucas 2:38
 καὶ αὐτῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ (y en aquella hora) — alejandrinos
 καὶ αὕτη αὐτῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ (y ella en aquella hora) — cesáreo y bizantino

Lucas 7:10
 δουλον — p45 א B L W f1 700 892 1241 it sirs, pal copsa, bo ath? geo
 ασθενουντα — D d
 ασθενουντα δουλον — A C K X Δ Θ Π f13 28 33 565 892 1009 1010 1071 1079 1195 1216 1230 1242 1253 1344 1365 1546 1646 2148 2174 Biz Lec itf vg sirp, h goth arm eth? Diatesarón

Lucas 12:14
 κριτην η μεριστην — mss alejandrinos, f1, f13, 700, 1241
 δικαστην η μεριστην — A, K, W, X, Δ, Θ, Π, Ψ, 565, 1009, 1010, 1071, 1079, 1195, 1216, 1230, 1242, 1253, 1344, 1365, 1546, 1646, 2148, 2174, Biz
 μεριστην η δικαστην — 472, ℓ 1642, eth
 κριτην η δικαστην — 69
 αρχοντα και δικαστην — 157
 κριτην — D, it(a), c, d
 δικαστην — 28
 μεριστην — copsamss

El último versículo del Evangelio de Lucas (24:53)
 ευλογουντες τον θεον ("bendiciendo a Dios") — alejandrinos
 αινουντες τον θεον ("alabando a Dios") — occidentales
 αινουντες και ευλογουντες τον θεον ("alabando y bendiciendo a Dios") — bizantinios

Juan 1:18
 ο μονογενης υιος — A, C3, K, X, Δ, Θ, Π, 063, 0234, f1, f13, 28, 565, 700, 892, 1009, 1010, 1071, 1079, 1195, 1216, 1230, 1241, 1242, 1253, 1344, 1365, 1546, 1646, 2148, Biz
 ο μονογενης θεος — p75, אc, 33, copbo
 μονογενης θεος — mss alejandrinos

Hechos 20:28
 του Θεου (de Dios) — א B 614 1175 2495 al vg sy boms
 του κυριου (del Señor) — Papiro 74 A C* D E Ψ 33 36 453 945 1739 1891
 του κυριου και του Θεου (del Señor y Dios) — C3 Biz

Hechos 27:41
 υπο της βιας των κυματων — 74, C, P, 049, 056, 0142, (אc, 104 απο), 33, 81, 88, 181, 326, 330, 436, 451, 614, (629 των ανεμων), 630, 945, 1241, 1505, 1739, 1877, 2127, 2412, 2492, 2495, Biz, Lec, sirp, h, cop, ethpp
 υπο της βιας — א, A, B, arm, geo
 υπο των κυματων — Ψ (ℓ 1441 των κυματων con un óbelo y omitió υπο)

En Romanos 8:1
 Ιησου – א, B, D, G, 1739, 1881, itd, g, copsa, bo, eth
 Ιησου μη κατα σαρκα περιπατουσιν – A, Db, Ψ, 81, 629, 2127, vg
 Ιησου μη κατα σαρκα περιπατουσιν αλλα κατα πνευμα – אc, Dc, K, P, 33, 88, 104, 181, 326, 330, (436 omite μη), 456, 614, 630, 1241, 1877, 1962, 1984, 1985, 2492, 2495, Biz, Lec

1 Corintios 2:1
 μυστηριον – 46, א, Α, C, 88, 436, ita,r, syrp, copbo
 μαρτυριον – B D G P Ψ 33 81 104 181 326 330 451 614 629 630 1241 1739 1877 1881 1962 1984 2127 2492 2495 Biz Lec it vg syrh copsa arm eth
 ευαγγελιον – Teodoreto
 σωτηριον – 489, ℓ 598pt, ℓ 599

1 Corintios 7:5
 τη προσευχη (oración) junto con el 11, 46, א*, A, B, C, D, G, P, Ψ, 33, 81, 104, 181, 629, 630, 1739, 1877, 1881, 1962, it vg, cop, arm, eth
 τη νηστεια και τη προσευχη (ayuno y oración) – אc, K, L, 88, 326, 436, 614, 1241, 1984, 1985, 2127, 2492, 2495, Biz, Lec, sirp,h, got; también existe la lectura τη προσευχη και νηστεια (oración y ayuno) – 330, 451, Juan Damasceno.

1 Corintios 11:24
 υμων — 46, א*, A, B, C*, 33, 1739, arm
 υμων κλωμενον — אc,  C3, Db,c, G, K, Ψ, 81, 88, 104, 181, 326, 330, 436, 451, 614, 629, 630, 1241, 1739mg, 1877, 1881, 1962, 1984, 1985, 2127, 2492, 2495, Biz, Lec
 υμων θρυπτομενον — Dgr
 υμων διδομενον — c, dem, f, t, x, zc, vg, cop, eth

En Marcos 6:33 y Lucas 24:53 el tipo textual bizantino parece ser una combinación de los textos alejandrino y cesáreo. En otros casos la situación es más complicada. Marcos 1:13 parece ser una combinación de los textos alejandrino y cesáreo.

Origen del texto bizantino
Entre aquellos que creen que el texto bizantinio es solo un testiminio secundario de los autógrafos, hay un debate cocerniente al origen del texto bizantino, y es la razón de su amplio uso. Las propuestas que han sido presentadas son:

 Que Luciano de Antioquía utilizó su habilidad crítica textual para producir una recensión. (Jerónimo hizo referencia únicamente a la recensión de Luciano del antiguo testamento).
 Que Constantino I pagó para la amplia distribución de los manuscritos que venían de una fuente común. (Existen varias referencias de que Eusebio de Cesarea le pagó a Constantino por la producción de manuscritos).
 Que después que el Imperio romano de Occidente dejó de usar el griego, y debido a las invasiones de los bárbaros y musulmanes se eliminó la posibilidad de Jerusalén o Cesarea de ejercer alguna influencia sobre el texto griego del Nuevo Testamento. La única iglesia que preservó activamente el texto griego fue la Iglesia bizantina, que ejerció el control central de la sede apostólica de Antioquía y resistió a los musulmanes hasta el , véase también Iglesia Estatal del Imperio romano.

El texto bizantino estándar usado por la Iglesia Ortodoxa griega coincide con los manuscritos en minúscula de más adelante, y los manuscritos más antiguos fueron escritos en el . El primer texto bizantino es diferente a los textos bizantinos de más adelante en 3000 lugares y está más cerca al texto alejandrino. A las primeras familias bizantinas como la familia E y Π, Kurt Aland no las clasificó como manuscritos bizantinos, y a algunas de ellas las ubicó en la Categoría III de los manuscritos griegos del Nuevo Testamento. A todos los manuscritos con texto bizantino estándar Aland los ubicó a la Categoría V.

El Texto Recibido (Textus Receptus)
La primera edición impresa del Nuevo Testamento griego fue completada por Erasmo y publicada por Johann Froben de Basilea en el 1 de marzo de 1516 (Novum Instrumentum omne). Debido a la presión de esta editorial para traer su edición al mercado antes que la competencia de la Políglota Complutense, lo que no quita su impresionante cuidado y erudición en dicha edición, Erasmo basó su trabajo en alrededor de media docena de manuscritos, todos ellos fechados desde el  en adelante, además de muchas correspondencias con eruditos que le aportaban más información que no podía cotejar personalmente, además de escritos del cristianismo primitivo como predicas y sermones del  y  en adelante; y únicamente uno de ellos no era del tipo textual bizantino. Seis versículos que no fueron atestigüados en ninguna de esas fuentes, el los tradujo de la Vulgata latina pero que fueron corregidas en las siguientes ediciones, las cuales eran muy pocas, y también introdujo varias lecturas de la Vulgata y de los Padres de la Iglesia por la notable antigüedad que les precedía. Este texto vino a ser conocido como el Textus Receptus o texto recibido, después pasó a ser denominado por Bonaventura Elzevir, una editorial emprendedora de Holanda, en su edición de 1633 de Erasmo'. El Nuevo Testamento de la Biblia del rey Jacobo fue traducido de ediciones de lo que se convertiría en el Texto Recibido. Si el "Texto Mayoritario" de Hodges y Farstad se toma como el estándar para el tipo textual bizantino, entonces el Texto Recibido difiere de este en las 1,838 lecturas griegas, de las cuales 1,005 presentan diferencias "traducibles".

Textos críticos modernos

Karl Lachmann (1850) fue el primer crítico textual del Nuevo Testamento en producir una edición que desplazó al Texto Recibido. La mayoría de los críticos textuales en la actualidad favorecen a un texto que sea alejandrino en complexión, especialmente después de la publicación de la edición de Westcott y Hort, aunque quedan algunos defensores del tipo textual bizantino como el tipo de texto más similar a los autógrafos. Estos críticos incluyen a los editores del texto Hodges y Fastad (citado anteriormente), y el texto de Robinson y Perpoint. Dependiendo de que texto crítico moderno se acepte como un ejemplar de tipo textual alejandrino, este diferirá del texto de Hodges y Fastad en aproximadamente 6,500 lecturas (Wallace 1989).

Para dar una idea de la diferencia entre la forma del texto bizantino y el texto ecléctico, que principalmente está en caracteres alejandrinos, de las 800 unidades de variación en la Epístola de Santiago reunidas por el Instituto de Investigación Textual del Nuevo Testamento, los textos bizantino y ecléctico están de acuerdo en 731 lugares (un rango del 92.3%). Varios de los 69 desacuerdos envuelven diferencias en el orden de las palabras y otras variantes que no aparecen como diferencias traducibles en las versiones en inglés. Según el prefacio de la Biblia del rey Jacobo, el Texto Recibido, el  tipo textual alejandrino y el tipo textual bizantino son 85% idénticos (que es de las variaciones que ocurren en algún manuscrito; en realidad solo el 15% difiere entre esos tres).

El tipo textual bizantino también se encuentra en ediciones modernas griegas ortodoxas. Hay una nueva edición erudita del texto bizantino del Evangelio de Juan, (financiada por las Sociedades Bíblicas Unidas en respuesta a una petición de los Eruditos ortodoxos del Este), fue iniciada en Birmingham RU. y en 2007, como resultados de esos esfuerzos, se usó en la tradición bizantina The Gospel According to John (El Evangelio según Juan).

Von Soden dividió los manuscritos del texto bizantino en cinco grupos:
 Kx — sin uncials, cientos de minúsculas, entre ellas los códices 2, 3, 8, 14, 45, 47, 49, 51, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 73, 75, 76, 78, etc.
 Kr — sin unciales, sin manuscritos antiguos minúsculas, cientos de menúsculas: 18, 35, 55, 66, 83, 128, 141, 147, 155, 167, 170, 189, 201
 K1 (subfamilia de Kx) — S V Ω 461
 Ki (Familia E) — E F G H
 Ik (también Ka), ahora Familia Π — (A) K Y Π; este subgrupo es el más antiguo, pero solo el 5% de los manuscritos pertenecen a él. La mayoría de ellos tienen un texto mezclado con otras subfamilias bizantinas.

Desde el descubrimiento del Papiro 45, el Papiro 46 y el Papiro 47 hay una prueba de que ocasionalmente el texto bizantino preserva una lectura que data de testimonios antiguos. Ejemplos:

Lucas 10:39
 Ιησου — p45 p75 A W Biz b
 κυριου — א B D L Ξ 579 892 copbo sirc
Lucas 10:42
 ενος δε εστιν χρεια — p45 p75 A C W Biz
 ολιγων δε χρεια εστιν η ενος — B
 ολιγων δε εστιν η ενος — א
 ολιγων δε εστιν χρεια — 38 sirpal
Lucas 11:33
 φῶς — א B F Θ f1 f13
 φέγγος — p45 33 Biz
Juan 10:29
 ὃ ... μεῖζον — B it
 ὃς ... μείζων — p66 f1 f13 Biz
Juan 11:32
 πρός — א B C* D L X
 εἰς — p66 Θ Biz
Juan 13:26
 βάψας — א B C L X 33
 καὶ ἐμβάψας — p66c A Θ
Hechos 17:13
 ταράσσοντες —
 omitted — p45 E Biz
1 Corintios 9:7
 τὸν καρπόν — א* A B D* G P
 ἐκ τοῦ καρποῦ — p46 Biz
Efesios 5:9
 φωτός — א* A B D* G P
 πνεύματος — p46 Biz

Filipenses 1:14
 του θεου – א A B (D*) P Ψ 33 81 104 326 365 629 1175 1241 2464
 omitted – p46 D2 Biz
Se encuentran otros ejemplos de lecturas bizantinas en el p66 en Juan 1:32; 3:24; 4:14.51; 5:8; 6:10.57; 7:3.39; 8:41.51.55; 9:23; 10:38; 12:36; 14:17. Esto está de acuerdo al punto de vista de los eruditos como Harry Sturz y Maurice Robinson en que la raíz del texto bizantino podría ir a una fecha muy antigua; aunque Bruce Metzger señala que esto no puede ser tomado en cuenta para demostrar que esas lecturas estaban en el texto original. Algunos autores han interpretado esto como una rehabilitación del Texto Recibido. Varias de esas lecturas han coincidido con substancialmente con otros tipos textuales y ellos no son diferentes al texto bizantino. Daniel Wallace encontró solamente dos diferencias de conformidad entre papiro y bizantino. El punto más fuerte de Sturzs es la omisión de Filipenses 1:14, la lectura adoptada en NA26/UBS.

Véase también

Familias del tipo textual bizantino
 Familia Π
 Familia E
 Familia K1
 Familia Kr
 Familia Kx
 Familias asociadas con el texto bizantino
 Familia 1424
 Familia 1739

Otros tipos textuales
 Categorías de los manuscritos del Nuevo Testamento
 Tipo textual alejandrino
 Tipo textual cesareo
 Tipo textual occidental
 Texto Recibido

Texto crítico
 Novum Testamentum Graece
 Crítica textual

Notas

Lectura adicional
 The Greek New Testament for Beginning Readers - Byzantine Textform, The Greek Text & Verb Parsing as Compiled by Maurice A. Robinson & William G. Pierpont, Lexical Information & Layout by John Jeffrey Dodson, VTR Publications, 2010. ISBN 978-3-941750-24-1.
 Harry A. Sturz, The Byzantine Text-Type & New Testament Textual Criticism (1984).
 The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text, Second Edition, Edited by Zane C. Hodges and Arthur L. Farstad, Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nashville, 1985. ISBN 0-8407-4963-5.
 The New Testament in the Original Greek - Byzantine Textform 2005, Edited by Maurice A. Robinson and William G. Pierpont, Chilton Book Publishing. ISBN 0-7598-0077-4.
 The King James Only Controversy 2009, James R White, Bethany House. ISBN 0764206052.
 "Some Second Thoughts on the Majority Text", Daniel B. Wallace, Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 146, 1989. 270-290.
 The Identity of the New Testament Text II, Wilbur N. Pickering, http://www.revisedstandard.net/text/WNP/
 What about the Majority Text?, Michael D. Marlowe www.bible-researcher.com
 Bruce M. Metzger, Bart D. Ehrman, The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration, 1968 etc., Oxford University Press.
 B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary On The Greek New Testament: A Companion Volume To The United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament, 1994, United Bible Societies, London & New York, pp. 7*-9*, 15*-16*.
 M. A. Robinson, "The Case for Byzantine Priority", in: "Rethinking New Testament Textual Criticism", ed. D. A. Black, Baker Academic, Grand Rapids: 2002, pp. 125–139
 Klaus Wachtel, Der Byzantinische Text Der Katholischen Briefe (Universität Münster, 1994).

Enlaces externos
 Online version of The New Testament in the Original Greek – Byzantine Textform 2005, Edited by Maurice A. Robinson and William G. Pierpont
 Comparison of the Byzantine/Majority Text with other manuscript editions on the Manuscript Comparator
 The Byzantine Priority Hypothesis At the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism
 The Gospel According to John in the Byzantine Tradition
 Paulo José Benício, O Texto Bizantino na Tradição Manuscrita do Novo Testamento Grego PDF
 Center for Study and Preservation of the Majority Text

Tipos textuales del Nuevo Testamento
Versiones y traducciones de la Biblia
Términos cristianos

Tipo textual bizantino


الفيروسات التنفسية المعوية اليتيمة  هي عائلة من الفيروسات التي يمكنها أن تصيب الجهاز الهضمي (مثل الفيروسة العجلية) والمجاري التنفسية. اشتق اسم (Reoviridae) من (respiratory enteric orphan viruses) وتعني بالعربي (فيروسات تنفسية معوية يتيمة) كلمة يتيمة تشير إلى أن الفيروسات ليست مرتبطة بأي مرض معروف. الفيروسات في عائلة الفيروسات الجرمية لها جينومات مجزأة، مزدوجة سلسلة الرنا.

العدوى غالبا ما تحدث لدى الاٍنسان، ولكن في معظم الحالات تكون معتدلة. ويمكن بسهولة الكشف عن الفيروس في البراز، ويمكن أيضا الكشف عنها في إفرازات الحلق أو الأنف، البول، السائل النخاعي، والدم. على الرغم من سهولة إيجاد الفيروسات الجرمية في العينات السريرية، دورها في اٍمراض أو علاج الاٍنسان لا يزال غير مؤكد.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 نطاق فيروسي فيروسات جرمية

عائلات فيروسية
فيروسات ثنائية سلسلة آر إن أيه
فيروسات ريوية

فيروسات تنفسية معوية يتيمة


El calamoncillo celeste (Porphyrio flavirostris), también denominado polla celeste, polla llanera y gallito claro, es una especie de ave gruiforme de la familia Rallidae que vive principalmente en América del Sur.

Descripción

Su pico y escudo facial son de color amarillo verdoso claro. Las coberteras de las alas son de color azul verdoso mientras que la espalda y la cola son de color pardo. Su cabeza y cuello son grises mientras que su garganta y las partes inferiores son blancas. Sus patas son amarillas.

Distribución y hábitat

Se encuentra en el norte de Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, la Guayana francesa, Guyana, Paraguay, Perú, Surinam, Trinidad y Tobago, los Estados Unidos y Venezuela.

Su hábitat natural son las zonas pantanosas de agua dulce con vegetación flotante, además de los márgenes de los ríos y los lagos.

Comportamiento

Su dieta consta de invertebrados, insectos y semillas que recolecta en el agua o entre la vegetación. Suele encaramarse a los juncos para buscar comida entre ellos.

Construye su nido de hojas en forma en forma de cuenco que esconde entre la vegetación del suelo. Sus puestas suelen constar de 4-5 huevos, que son incubados por ambos miembros de la pareja.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

flavirostris
Aves de América del Sur
Taxones descritos por Johann Friedrich Gmelin
Animales descritos en 1789

Porphyrio flavirostris


La Quinta do Beau-Séjour (Granja Bienestar) está situada en la freguesia de São Domingos de Benfica, en la Estrada de Benfica.
Hoy en día pertenece al Municipio de Lisboa, pero su historia comenzó en 1840 cuando fue adquirida por D. Allen Ermelinda Monteiro de Almeida, la baronesa de la Regaleira. En la granja se construyó una residencia de verano rodeada de un jardín exótico y romántico.
La propiedad en el momento de la compra era conocida como la Quinta das Loureiras, más tarde llegó a ser conocido como el "Beau Séjour".

Lisboa

Quinta do Beau-Séjour


Philotheca verrucosa, es una especie de arbusto perteneciente a la familia de las rutáceas. Es un endemismo del sudeste de Australia.

Descripción
Es un pequeño arbusto que alcanza un tamaño de 60 cm de alto, las ramillas glandular-verrugosas, glabras, las hojas sésiles; de 6-15 x 4-7 mm, glabras, glandular-verrugosas en la superficie inferior. La inflorescencia axilar, con 1-3 de flores, los sépalos redondeados, de 1 mm de largo, márgenes escasos; pétalos elípticos, de 5-6 mm de largo, blancos, a veces color rosa, estambres con filamentos aplanados, escasamente ciliados; carpelos 1-1,5 mm de alto, glabros. Las semillas comprimidas, de 4.5 mm de largo, lisas y negras.

Taxonomía
La especie fue descrita por primera vez en el año 1834 por el botánico francés Achille Richard quien le dio el nombre de Erisotemon verrucosum, más tarde modificado a Eriostemon verrucosus. Fue transferida al género Philotheca por Paul G.Wilson en 1998.

Philotheca verrucosa fue descrita por (Achille Richard) Paul G.Wilson] y publicado en Voyage de découvertes de l'Astrolabe . . . Botanique pt. 2: Atlas t. 26, en el año 1833.
Sinonimia
 Eriostemon dolobratus Rchb.
 Eriostemon obcordatus A.Cunn. ex Hook.
 Philotheca verrucosa (A. Rich.) Paul G. Wilson
 Eriostemon verrucosum orth. var. A.Rich.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

verrucosa

Philotheca verrucosa


An Indosasa sondongensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni To Quyen Nguyen. An Indosasa sondongensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Indosasa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Indosasa

Indosasa sondongensis


In computing, SQL injection is a code injection technique used to attack data-driven applications, in which malicious SQL statements are inserted into an entry field for execution (e.g. to dump the database contents to the attacker). SQL injection must exploit a security vulnerability in an application's software, for example, when user input is either incorrectly filtered for string literal escape characters embedded in SQL statements or user input is not strongly typed and unexpectedly executed. SQL injection is mostly known as an attack vector for websites but can be used to attack any type of SQL database.

SQL injection attacks allow attackers to spoof identity, tamper with existing data, cause repudiation issues such as voiding transactions or changing balances, allow the complete disclosure of all data on the system, destroy the data or make it otherwise unavailable, and become administrators of the database server. Document-oriented NoSQL databases can also be affected by this security vulnerability.

In a 2012 study, it was observed that the average web application received four attack campaigns per month, and retailers received twice as many attacks as other industries.

History

The first public discussions of SQL injection started appearing around 1998; for example, a 1998 article in Phrack Magazine.

Form
SQL injection (SQLI) was considered one of the top 10 web application vulnerabilities of 2007 and 2010 by the Open Web Application Security Project. In 2013, SQLI was rated the number one attack on the OWASP top ten. There are four main sub-classes of SQL injection:
 Classic SQLI
 Blind or Inference SQL injection
 Database management system-specific SQLI
 Compounded SQLI

 SQL injection + insufficient authentication
 SQL injection + DDoS attacks
 SQL injection + DNS hijacking
 SQL injection + XSS

The Storm Worm is one representation of Compounded SQLI.

This classification represents the state of SQLI, respecting its evolution until 2010—further refinement is underway.

Technical implementations

Incorrectly constructed SQL statements
This form of injection relies on the fact that SQL statements consist of both data used by the SQL statement and commands that control how the SQL statement is executed. For example, in the SQL statement select * from person where name = 'susan' and age = 2 the string 'susan' is data and the fragment and age = 2 is an example of a command (the value 2 is also data in this example).

SQL injection occurs when specially crafted user input is processed by the receiving program in a way that allows the input to exit a data context and enter a command context. This allows the attacker to alter the structure of the SQL statement which is executed.

As a simple example, imagine that the data 'susan' in the above statement was provided by user input. The user entered the string 'susan' (without the apostrophes) in a web form text entry field, and the program used string concatenation statements to form the above SQL statement from the three fragments select * from person where name=', the user input of 'susan', and ' and age = 2.

Now imagine that instead of entering 'susan' the attacker entered ' or 1=1; --.

The program will use the same string concatenation approach with the 3 fragments of select * from person where name=', the user input of ' or 1=1; --, and ' and age = 2 and construct the statement select * from person where name='' or 1=1; -- and age = 2. Many databases will ignore the text after the '--' string as this denotes a comment. The structure of the SQL command is now select * from person where name='' or 1=1; and this will select all person rows rather than just those named 'susan' whose age is 2. The attacker has managed to craft a data string which exits the data context and entered a command context.

A more complex example is now presented.

Imagine a program creates a SQL statement using the following string assignment command :

var statement = "SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = '" + userName + "'";

This SQL code is designed to pull up the records of the specified username from its table of users. However, if the "userName" variable is crafted in a specific way by a malicious user, the SQL statement may do more than the code author intended. For example, setting the "userName" variable as:

' OR '1'='1
or using comments to even block the rest of the query (there are three types of SQL comments). All three lines have a space at the end:
' OR '1'='1' --
' OR '1'='1' {
' OR '1'='1' /*

renders one of the following SQL statements by the parent language:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = '' OR '1'='1';
SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = '' OR '1'='1' -- ';

If this code were to be used in authentication procedure then this example could be used to force the selection of every data field (*) from all users rather than from one specific user name as the coder intended,  because the evaluation of '1'='1' is always true.

The following value of "userName" in the statement below would cause the deletion of the "users" table as well as the selection of all data from the "userinfo" table (in essence revealing the information of every user), using an API that allows multiple statements:

 a';DROP TABLE users; SELECT * FROM userinfo WHERE 't' = 't

This input renders the final SQL statement as follows and specified:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = 'a';DROP TABLE users; SELECT * FROM userinfo WHERE 't' = 't';

While most SQL server implementations allow multiple statements to be executed with one call in this way, some SQL APIs such as PHP's mysql_query() function do not allow this for security reasons. This prevents attackers from injecting entirely separate queries, but doesn't stop them from modifying queries.

Blind SQL injection
Blind SQL injection is used when a web application is vulnerable to an SQL injection but the results of the injection are not visible to the attacker. The page with the vulnerability may not be one that displays data but will display differently depending on the results of a logical statement injected into the legitimate SQL statement called for that page.
This type of attack has traditionally been considered time-intensive because a new statement needed to be crafted for each bit recovered, and depending on its structure, the attack may consist of many unsuccessful requests. Recent advancements have allowed each request to recover multiple bits, with no unsuccessful requests, allowing for more consistent and efficient extraction. There are several tools that can automate these attacks once the location of the vulnerability and the target information has been established.

Conditional responses
One type of blind SQL injection forces the database to evaluate a logical statement on an ordinary application screen. As an example, a book review website uses a query string to determine which book review to display. So the URL https://books.example.com/review?id=5 would cause the server to run the query
SELECT * FROM bookreviews WHERE ID = '5';
from which it would populate the review page with data from the review with ID 5, stored in the table bookreviews. The query happens completely on the server; the user does not know the names of the database, table, or fields, nor does the user know the query string. The user only sees that the above URL returns a book review. A hacker can load the URLs https://books.example.com/review?id=5 OR 1=1 and https://books.example.com/review?id=5 AND 1=2, which may result in queries
SELECT * FROM bookreviews WHERE ID = '5' OR '1'='1';
SELECT * FROM bookreviews WHERE ID = '5' AND '1'='2';
respectively. If the original review loads with the "1=1" URL and a blank or error page is returned from the "1=2" URL, and the returned page has not been created to alert the user the input is invalid, or in other words, has been caught by an input test script, the site is likely vulnerable to an SQL injection attack as the query will likely have passed through successfully in both cases. The hacker may proceed with this query string designed to reveal the version number of MySQL running on the server: https://books.example.com/review?id=5 AND substring(@@version, 1, INSTR(@@version, '.') - 1)=4, which would show the book review on a server running MySQL 4 and a blank or error page otherwise. The hacker can continue to use code within query strings to achieve their goal directly, or to glean more information from the server in hopes of discovering another avenue of attack.

Second order SQL injection
Second order SQL injection occurs when submitted values contain malicious commands that are stored rather than executed immediately.  In some cases, the application may correctly encode an SQL statement and store it as valid SQL.  Then, another part of that application without controls to protect against SQL injection might execute that stored SQL statement.  This attack requires more knowledge of how submitted values are later used.  Automated web application security scanners would not easily detect this type of SQL injection and may need to be manually instructed where to check for evidence that it is being attempted.

Mitigation
An SQL injection is a well known attack and easily prevented by simple measures. After an apparent SQL injection attack on TalkTalk in 2015, the BBC reported that security experts were stunned that such a large company would be vulnerable to it.

Object relational mappers
Developers can use ORM frameworks such as Hibernate to create database queries in a safe and developer-friendly way. Since database queries are no longer constructed as strings, there is no danger of an injection vulnerability.

Web application firewalls
While WAF products such as ModSecurity CRS cannot prevent SQL injection vulnerabilities from creeping into a codebase, they can make discovery and exploitation significantly more challenging to an attacker.

Parameterized statements

With most development platforms, parameterized statements that work with parameters can be used  (sometimes called placeholders or bind variables) instead of embedding user input in the statement. A placeholder can only store a value of the given type and not an arbitrary SQL fragment. Hence the SQL injection would simply be treated as a strange (and probably invalid) parameter value. In many cases, the SQL statement is fixed, and each parameter is a scalar, not a table. The user input is then assigned (bound) to a parameter.

Enforcement at the coding level
Using object–relational mapping libraries avoids the need to write SQL code. The ORM library in effect will generate parameterized SQL statements from object-oriented code.

Escaping
A popular, though error-prone, way to prevent injections is to attempt to escape all characters that have a special meaning in SQL. The manual for an SQL DBMS explains which characters have a special meaning, which allows creating a comprehensive blacklist of characters that need translation. For instance, every occurrence of a single quote (') in a parameter must be replaced by two single quotes ('') to form a valid SQL string literal. For example, in PHP it is usual to escape parameters using the function mysqli_real_escape_string(); before sending the SQL query:
$mysqli = new mysqli('hostname', 'db_username', 'db_password', 'db_name');
$query = sprintf("SELECT * FROM `Users` WHERE UserName='%s' AND Password='%s'",
                  $mysqli->real_escape_string($username),                  $mysqli->real_escape_string($password));
$mysqli->query($query);

This function prepends backslashes to the following characters: \x00, \n, \r, \, ', " and \x1a.
This function is normally used to make data safe before sending a query to MySQL. PHP has similar functions for other database systems such as pg_escape_string() for PostgreSQL. The function addslashes(string $str) works for escaping characters, and is used especially for querying on databases that do not have escaping functions in PHP.  It returns a string with backslashes before characters that need to be escaped in database queries, etc. These characters are single quote ('), double quote ("), backslash (\) and NUL (the NULL byte).
Routinely passing escaped strings to SQL is error prone because it is easy to forget to escape a given string. Creating a transparent layer to secure the input can reduce this susceptibility to error, if not entirely eliminate it.

Pattern check
Integer, float, or boolean string parameters can be checked to determine if their value is a valid representation of the given type. Strings that must adhere to a specific pattern or condition (e.g. dates, UUIDs, phone numbers) can also be checked to determine if said pattern is matched.

Database permissions
Limiting the permissions on the database login used by the web application to only what is needed may help reduce the effectiveness of any SQL injection attacks that exploit any bugs in the web application.

For example, on Microsoft SQL Server, a database logon could be restricted from selecting on some of the system tables which would limit exploits that try to insert JavaScript into all the text columns in the database.
deny select on sys.sysobjects to webdatabaselogon;
deny select on sys.objects to webdatabaselogon;
deny select on sys.tables to webdatabaselogon;
deny select on sys.views to webdatabaselogon;
deny select on sys.packages to webdatabaselogon;

Examples
 In February 2002, Jeremiah Jacks discovered that Guess.com was vulnerable to an SQL injection attack, permitting anyone able to construct a properly-crafted URL to pull down 200,000+ names, credit card numbers and expiration dates in the site's customer database.
 On November 1, 2005, a teenaged hacker used SQL injection to break into the site of a Taiwanese information security magazine from the Tech Target group and steal customers' information.
 On January 13, 2006, Russian computer criminals broke into a Rhode Island government website and allegedly stole credit card data from individuals who have done business online with state agencies.
 On March 29, 2006, a hacker discovered an SQL injection flaw in an official Indian government's tourism site.
 On June 29, 2007, a computer criminal defaced the Microsoft UK website using SQL injection. UK website The Register quoted a Microsoft spokesperson acknowledging the problem.
 On September 19, 2007 and January 26, 2009 the Turkish hacker group "m0sted" used SQL injection to exploit Microsoft's SQL Server to hack web servers belonging to McAlester Army Ammunition Plant and the US Army Corps of Engineers respectively.
 In January 2008, tens of thousands of PCs were infected by an automated SQL injection attack that exploited a vulnerability in application code that uses Microsoft SQL Server as the database store.
 In July 2008, Kaspersky's Malaysian site was hacked by the "m0sted" hacker group using SQL injection.
 On April 13, 2008, the Sexual and Violent Offender Registry of Oklahoma shut down its website for "routine maintenance" after being informed that 10,597 Social Security numbers belonging to sex offenders had been downloaded via an SQL injection attack
 In May 2008, a server farm inside China used automated queries to Google's search engine to identify SQL server websites which were vulnerable to the attack of an automated SQL injection tool.
 In 2008, at least April through August, a sweep of attacks began exploiting the SQL injection vulnerabilities of Microsoft's IIS web server and SQL Server database server. The attack does not require guessing the name of a table or column, and corrupts all text columns in all tables in a single request.  A HTML string that references a malware JavaScript file is appended to each value. When that database value is later displayed to a website visitor, the script attempts several approaches at gaining control over a visitor's system. The number of exploited web pages is estimated at 500,000.
 On August 17, 2009, the United States Department of Justice charged an American citizen, Albert Gonzalez, and two unnamed Russians with the theft of 130 million credit card numbers using an SQL injection attack. In reportedly "the biggest case of identity theft in American history", the man stole cards from a number of corporate victims after researching their payment processing systems. Among the companies hit were credit card processor Heartland Payment Systems, convenience store chain 7-Eleven, and supermarket chain Hannaford Brothers.
 In December 2009, an attacker breached a RockYou plaintext database containing the unencrypted usernames and passwords of about 32 million users using an SQL injection attack.
In July 2010, a South American security researcher who goes by the handle "Ch Russo" obtained sensitive user information from popular BitTorrent site The Pirate Bay. He gained access to the site's administrative control panel and exploited an SQL injection vulnerability that enabled him to collect user account information, including IP addresses, MD5 password hashes and records of which torrents individual users have uploaded.
From July 24 to 26, 2010, attackers from Japan and China used an SQL injection to gain access to customers' credit card data from Neo Beat, an Osaka-based company that runs a large online supermarket site. The attack also affected seven business partners including supermarket chains Izumiya Co, Maruetsu Inc, and Ryukyu Jusco Co. The theft of data affected a reported 12,191 customers. As of August 14, 2010 it was reported that there have been more than 300 cases of credit card information being used by third parties to purchase goods and services in China.
 On September 19 during the 2010 Swedish general election a voter attempted a code injection by hand writing SQL commands as part of a write-in vote.
 On November 8, 2010 the British Royal Navy website was compromised by a Romanian hacker named TinKode using SQL injection.
 On February 5, 2011 HBGary, a technology security firm, was broken into by LulzSec using an SQL injection in their CMS-driven website
 On March 27, 2011, www.mysql.com, the official homepage for MySQL, was compromised by a hacker using SQL blind injection
 On April 11, 2011, Barracuda Networks was compromised using an SQL injection flaw. Email addresses and usernames of employees were among the information obtained.
Over a period of 4 hours on April 27, 2011, an automated SQL injection attack occurred on Broadband Reports website that was able to extract 8% of the username/password pairs: 8,000 random accounts of the 9,000 active and 90,000 old or inactive accounts.
On June 1, 2011, "hacktivists" of the group LulzSec were accused of using SQLI to steal coupons, download keys, and passwords that were stored in plaintext on Sony's website, accessing the personal information of a million users.
 In June 2011, PBS was hacked by LulzSec, most likely through use of SQL injection; the full process used by hackers to execute SQL injections was described in this Imperva blog.
 In May 2012, the website for Wurm Online, a massively multiplayer online game, was shut down from an SQL injection while the site was being updated.
 In July 2012 a hacker group was reported to have stolen 450,000 login credentials from Yahoo!. The logins were stored in plain text and were allegedly taken from a Yahoo subdomain, Yahoo! Voices. The group breached Yahoo's security by using a "union-based SQL injection technique".
 On October 1, 2012, a hacker group called "Team GhostShell" published the personal records of students, faculty, employees, and alumni from 53 universities including Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, Cornell, Johns Hopkins, and the University of Zurich on pastebin.com. The hackers claimed that they were trying to "raise awareness towards the changes made in today's education", bemoaning changing education laws in Europe and increases in tuition in the United States.
 In February 2013, a group of Maldivian hackers, hacked the website "UN-Maldives" using SQL Injection.
 On June 27, 2013, hacker group "RedHack" breached Istanbul Administration Site.  They claimed that, they've been able to erase people's debts to water, gas, Internet, electricity, and telephone companies. Additionally, they published admin user name and password for other citizens to log in and clear their debts early morning. They announced the news from Twitter.
 On November 4, 2013, hacktivist group "RaptorSwag" allegedly compromised 71 Chinese government databases using an SQL injection attack on the Chinese Chamber of International Commerce. The leaked data was posted publicly in cooperation with Anonymous.
 On February 2, 2014, AVS TV had 40,000 accounts leaked by a hacking group called @deletesec
 On February 21, 2014, United Nations Internet Governance Forum had 3,215 account details leaked.
 On February 21, 2014, Hackers of a group called @deletesec hacked Spirol International after allegedly threatening to have the hackers arrested for reporting the security vulnerability. 70,000 user details were exposed over this conflict.
 On March 7, 2014, officials at Johns Hopkins University publicly announced that their Biomedical Engineering Servers had become victim to an SQL injection attack carried out by an Anonymous hacker named "Hooky" and aligned with hacktivist group "RaptorSwag". The hackers compromised personal details of 878 students and staff, posting a press release and the leaked data on the internet.
 In August 2014, Milwaukee-based computer security company Hold Security disclosed that it uncovered a theft of confidential information from nearly 420,000 websites through SQL injections. The New York Times confirmed this finding by hiring a security expert to check the claim.
 In October 2015, an SQL injection attack was used to steal the personal details of 156,959 customers from British telecommunications company TalkTalk's servers, exploiting a vulnerability in a legacy web portal.
 In August 2020, an SQL injection attack was used to access information on the romantic interests of many Stanford students, as a result of insecure data sanitization standards on the part of Link, a start-up founded on campus by undergraduate Ishan Gandhi.
 In early 2021, 70 gigabytes of data was exfiltrated from the far-right website Gab through a SQL injection attack. The vulnerability was introduced into the Gab codebase by Fosco Marotto, Gab's CTO. A second attack against Gab was launched the next week using OAuth2 tokens stolen during the first attack.

In popular culture
 A 2007 xkcd cartoon involved a character Robert'); DROP TABLE Students;-- named to carry out an SQL injection. As a result of this cartoon, SQL injection is sometimes informally referred to as "Bobby Tables".
 Unauthorized login to websites by means of SQL injection forms the basis of one of the subplots in J.K. Rowling's 2012 novel The Casual Vacancy.
 In 2014, an individual in Poland legally renamed his business to Dariusz Jakubowski x'; DROP TABLE users; SELECT '1 in an attempt to disrupt operation of spammers' harvesting bots.
 The 2015 game Hacknet has a hacking program called SQL_MemCorrupt. It is described as injecting a table entry that causes a corruption error in an SQL database, then queries said table, causing an SQL database crash and core dump.

See also

 Code injection
 Cross-site scripting
 Metasploit Project
 OWASP Open Web Application Security Project
 Prompt injection, a similar concept applied to artificial intelligence
 SGML entity
 Uncontrolled format string
 w3af
 Web application security

References

External links
 OWASP SQL Injection Cheat Sheets, by OWASP.
 WASC Threat Classification - SQL Injection Entry, by the Web Application Security Consortium.
 Why SQL Injection Won't Go Away , by Stuart Thomas.
 SDL Quick security references on SQL injection by Bala Neerumalla.
 How security flaws work: SQL injection

Injection exploits
SQL
Articles with example SQL code

SQL injection


James Benton Grant (January 2, 1848 – November 1, 1911) was an American mining magnate, mining engineer, Confederate Army soldier who served as the third Governor of Colorado from 1883 to 1885.

Early life, American Civil War, and education
Grant was born on January 2, 1848, on a plantation in Russell County, Alabama. Prior to the American Civil War, Grant's family owned a plantation. At the outbreak of the American Civil War, Grant enlisted as a private in the 20th Alabama Light Artillery regiment in the Confederate Army.

While his immediate family was financially destroyed after the American Civil War, a wealthy uncle of Grant's who lived in Davenport, Iowa paid for Grant's secondary education. After the war, Grant attended what is now Iowa State University for two years and then transferred to Cornell University, which he attended from 1873 to 1874. He then attended Germany's Freiberg University of Mining, which was, at the time, one of the leading schools in the world for mineral engineering. There, he studied metallurgy. Grant then worked in the mines of Austria to gain practical mining experience before returning to the United States two years later.

Colorado life

Early years
Returning to the United States He first settled briefly in the Colorado town of Central City. In either 1877 or 1878, Grant moved to the newly founded Colorado town of Leadville. He started his career as a metallurgic engineer and smelting magnate there. In Leadville, Grant constructed the  tall Grant Smelter stack, which was at the time of its completion the third largest smelter in the world and the tallest in the United States. Grant was also involved in the construction of the  long Yak Tunnel, which facilitated deep mining.

In Leadville, Grant married into the Goodell family, esteemed in Colorado, by marrying the young Mary Goodell, the daughter of Roswell Eaton Goodell and granddaughter of former Illinois governor Joel Aldrich Matteson. The two wed in Leadville's newly built St. George's Episcopal Church. The ceremony was presided over by James J. Mackay. The wedding was a major social event in the community, and was the newly opened church's first-ever wedding ceremony. After the wedding ceremony, a small reception was held at her family's home. The following day, a larger reception took place at Denver's Windsor Hotel. The couple left for their honeymoon in San Francisco soon after.

After the Grant Smelter was lost in a fire in 1882, Grant and his wife relocated to Denver, where Grant relocated his business and built a new smelter under the name Omaha and Grant. It was believed to the largest smelter in the world at the time. Its   tall smokestack, completed in 1892, stood for decades as one of the most recognizable landmarks in Denver's skyline until its 1950 demolition. The site of this smelter was near where the Denver Coliseum sits today. Denver had economic and rail transportation advantages. The Grants' move to Denver likely also was related to James' ambitions to run for governor of Colorado.

Governorship
Grant ran as the Democratic Party nominee in the 1882 Colorado gubernatorial election. Grant was never very interested in politics. However, he was urged by Democrats to run, and agreed to. At the time, Colorado was seen as a Republican Party stronghold due to the fact that most individuals that had moved there were northerners who had supported the Union Army's cause in the American Civil War. This made Grant an underdog in the election. Grant benefited from a major divide that year in the state's Republican Party, as well as his marriage into a prominent family and his ever-increasing notability as a successful smelting businessman. He won on the election, becoming the first Democrat to win a Colorado gubernatorial election in the state's young history.

On January 9, 1883, Grant was inaugurated as governor. He was the state's first Democratic Party governor. Grant, having been only a week past his 35th birthday at the time of his inauguration, remains the youngest governor to serve after Colorado's statehood, and the second-youngest ever governor of Colorado, after only territorial governor Edward McCook. As governor, he worked to expand the state's mining industry and its commerce. Many mines opened in the state's southwestern portion during his governorship, especially in the "Gunnison Country" area that was formerly a part of the Ute Indian reservation. Mining growth and other factors led to a prosperous economy during his governorship. Grant also proposed the bill which authorized the construction of the Colorado State Capitol. Grant also succeeded in achieving his priority of extending the length of the legislative session of Colorado s state legislature.

During his governorship, Grant and his wife welcomed their first child, son Lester Eames, on March 21, 1884.

Grant, still not very interested in politics, declined to seek reelection in the 1884 Colorado gubernatorial election.

Post-governorship
Grant and his wife remained major society figures after he left office as governor, and he remained a major industry figure. Grant became a major figure in finance and industry of the Western United States. Grant also served eight years as the president of the Denver Board of Education from 1892 to 1897. He also helped organize the creation of the Denver National Bank and served tenures as a member of the board of directors and as its vice-president. and was involved in the founding of the Colorado Women's College. He was involved in organizing the Colorado Scientific Society.

On May 6, 1888, the Grants welcomed their second and final child, son James Jr.

By 1900, Grant's Denver smelter had produced $130 million of gold, silver, and lead. In 1899, Grant's smelting business interests were merged with the newly founded American Smelting and Refining Company. Grant continued to earn profits from his investment in mining and ore-processing facilities across Colorado.

In 1902, the Grants completed construction on and moved into an elaborate house now known as the Grant-Humphreys Mansion. While his wife would entertain extensively at the residence, Grant himself receded from business and the social scene after his heart attack that year, instead spending much of the rest of his life concentrating on pleasurable outdoor activities such as the ranching on his ranch in Littleton, Colorado, as well as hunting and fishing.

Grant died of heart disease on November 1, 1911, in Excelsior Springs, Missouri. He is buried at Denver's Fairmount Cemetery, and his wife was later buried beside him after her 1941 death.

See also
Politics of the United States
Politics of Colorado

References

1848 births
1911 deaths
Cornell University alumni
Democratic Party governors of Colorado
American mining engineers
People from Russell County, Alabama
Iowa State University alumni
19th-century American politicians
Confederate States Army personnel
School board members in Colorado

James Benton Grant


Shunya Mori (født 10. april 1995) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Zweigen Kanazawa.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Shunya Mori


Haworthia retusa es una especie de planta suculenta perteneciente a la familia Xanthorrhoeaceae. Es originaria de Sudáfrica.

Descripción
Es una planta suculenta perennifolia con tallo corto, con 10-15 hojas dispuestas en una roseta, son deltoides, muy recurvadas, de 1 a 4 cm de largo, 2 cm de ancho, de color verde pálido, suave en ambas superficies, marcado en la mitad superior con líneas verticales, cuspidadas en la punta, redondeada en la espalda. La inflorescencia con pedúnculo simple; en forma de racimo laxo, de 12 cm de largo, pedicelos muy cortos, y brácteas pequeñas, deltoides.

Distribución
Esta especie tiene un área de distribución natural reducida, siendo autóctona en un área alrededor de Riversdale, Provincia del Cabo Occidental, Sudáfrica. Aquí crece desde Bredasdorp a Mosselbaai.

Su hábitat natural son las colinas más bajas y el terrenos más planos. Su pariente cercano, Haworthia turgida, habita el terreno más escarpado, rocoso y montañoso del norte. Es una tendencia que los alooides se adapten a los acantilados rocosos escarpados volviéndose más pequeños y prolíficos/agrupados. Este parece ser el caso de H. turgida. Como las dos especies son extremadamente similares y nunca se superponen en la distribución, es probable que H. turgida es simplemente la forma montañosa de H. retusa.

Taxonomía
Haworthia retusa fue descrita por (Linneo) Duval y publicado en  Pl. Succ. Horto Alencon. 7, en el año 1809.
Variedades aceptadas
 Haworthia retusa var. retusa
Sinonimia
 Aloe retusa L.
 Apicra retusa (L.) Willd.
 Catevala retusa'' (L.) Medik.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

retusa

Haworthia retusa


An Gymnadenia crassinervis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Achille Eugène Finet. An Gymnadenia crassinervis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Gymnadenia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo nangangarat-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Gymnadenia

Gymnadenia crassinervis


මැදින් පසළොස්වක පෝය පෝය 12 න් එකකි.

බුද්ධ චරිතය සහ මැදින් පසළොස්වක පෝය වැදගත්කම.
කාලුදායි ඇමතිවරයාගේ ආරාධනයෙන් ගෞතම බුදුන් වහන්සේ බුද්ධත්වයෙන් පසු පළමුවරට සිය නැදෑ හිතමිතුරාදින්ට සහ ජන්ම භූමියට කෘතගුණ සැලකිම සඳහා කිඹුල්වත් පුරයට වැඩම කිරීම.
ශාක්‍යන් විසින් නීග්‍රෝධාරාමය පූජා කිරිම.
කිඹුල්වත් නුවරට වැඩමකොට සුද්ධෝදන රජුට දහම් දෙසු අවස්ථාවේ සුද්ධෝදන රජතුමා සකෘධාගාමී වීම.
සුද්ධෝදන රජතුමා තෙවන වරට තම පුත් වු ගෞතම බුදුරජානණ්වහන්සේට නමස්කාරය කිරිම.
යසෝධරා දේවිය උදෙසා චන්ද කින්නර ජාතකය දේශනා කිරිම.
රාහුල කුමාරයා සහ නන්ද කුමාරයා පැවිදි කරවිම.
ශාක්‍යන්ගේ මානය බිද දැමිම සදහා යමාමහා පෙළහැර පෑම.
බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සේ විසින් තම පියාණන්ගේ ඉල්ලීම අනුව දෙමාපියන්ගේ අවසරයකින් තොරව දරුවන් පැවිදි නොකරන ලෙස ප්‍රථම විනය ශික්ෂාව පැනවීම.

රටවල් අනුව මැදින් පසළොස්වක පොහොය

 ශ්‍රී ලංකාව: සෑම මැදින් පසළොස්වක පොහොය තිථියකටම වඩාත්ම අනුරූපී සම්මත දිනය රජයේ සහ වෙළඳ නිවාඩුවකි.

මැදින්
පසළොස්වක පෝය

මැදින් පසළොස්වක පෝය


Manuel Isidoro Belzu Humérez (4 April 1808 – 27 March 1865) was a Bolivian military officer and statesman who served as the 11th president of Bolivia from 1848 to 1855. Under his presidency, the current national anthem and flag of Bolivia were adopted.

Early life and education
Belzu was born in La Paz to mestizo parents Gaspar Belzu and Manuela Humérez. He was educated as a youth by Franciscan friars. However, Belzu admired the heroes of the Spanish American wars of independence such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín and hoped to emulate them. For this reason, he decided to join Army of Liberation when he was fifteen, in hopes to join the fight against the Spanish in his homeland of Upper Peru. He joined the wars of independence, fighting under Andrés de Santa Cruz at Zepita (1823). After serving as an aide-de-camp to Agustín Gamarra, he left the Peruvian army when the latter entered Bolivia in 1828.

Marriage and family
Assigned as garrison commander to Tarija, where Francisco Burdett O'Connor was military governor at the time, Belzu married "up" by wedding a beautiful and intellectual Argentine lady, Juana Manuela Gorriti, who resided there with her family. General O'Connor would be one of the witnesses to the wedding and would later be a supporter of Belzu. They had two daughters, Edelmira and Mercedes. Edelmira would later marry General Jorge Córdova, who became Belzu's successor.

Military career and plots

Belzu fought in the battles of the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, during which he was promoted to the post of Army commander by President José Ballivián.  He had fought bravely under his orders at the Battle of Ingavi (1841).

Originally a close friend and supporter of President Ballivián, Belzu turned against him about 1845. Ballivián had reportedly attempted to seduce Belzu's wife in his own Oruro home. Surprising the President there, Belzu shot at him and barely missed. The event sealed an undying enmity between the two that would never abate. Political ambitions—typical of upper-level Bolivian military officers at the time—may have played a role in addition to the personal reasons. Belzu decided at that point to try to topple the "Hero of Ingavi" from the presidency. Withdrawing to the countryside (orders for his arrest for the attempted murder of the President had been issued), Belzu never ceased to conspire against his former friend.

Ideology and rise to power
Belzu's political stance became more populist as he embraced his mestizo heritage, railed against the power of the "white" oligarchy, and vowed to advance the cause of the poor and the Indian should he come to the presidency. In his travels as a fugitive, Belzu had seen the deplorable conditions under which most of the population lived, with scarcely any improvements or public works by the government. His position established a strong base of support among the peasants, who came to know him as "Tata (Father, or Protector) Belzu."

Another, more conventional anti-Ballivián insurgent group was commanded by the ambitious former president, José Miguel de Velasco. As a warlord, he led his army in competition with that of Belzu in the race to topple the President. The embattled Ballivián found the country ungovernable, and in December 1847 he fled to exile abroad.  He left the government in the hands of General Eusebio Guilarte, head of the Council of State and legally second-in-line to the presidency.

At this point Belzu made a pact with Velasco to support the latter's accession to the Presidency while Belzu took the position of Minister of War. Belzu quickly betrayed Velasco and had his troops proclaim him as President. A bloody counter-coup by General Velasco had to be put down, with Belzu commanding the troops that crushed Velasco's. By the end of the year, Belzu had destroyed the opposition (both Ballivián and Velasco) and consolidated his power as the sole de facto president of Bolivia.

President of Bolivia
As promised, Belzu led his government in undertaking populist measures, but he also wanted to maintain strong control over power. Most of Belzu's reforms were cosmetic, although his political statements were more liberal than any president's had been since Sucre. During his seven year presidency Belzu attempted to modernize the country through division of wealth and by rewarding poor workers. Belzu also defended the small, indigenous producers by implementing protectionist economic policies as well as enacting a nationalist mining code that kept the nations resources in the hands of Bolivian companies, which in turn provoked many influential British as well as Peruvian and Chilean shipping and mining companies. Belzu also promoted communal state-sponsored social welfare projects that resonated with local Indians, since communalism was more representative of indigenous values than private property.

As a result of Belzu's appeal to the country's poor and indigenous groups, he had gained a number of powerful enemies who would want to destroy the state-run projects he created though at the same time gained large support and power. capitalizing on his relative popularity, Belzu managed to legitimize his rule by becoming democratically elected.  He faced constant opposition and rebellions from the pro-Ballivián camp, from ambitious fellow military warlords, and later, from the pro-Linares faction that coalesced as a united front against military caudillism.  Belzu's protectionist economic policies were opposed by Great Britain and the United States, and isolated Bolivia from the global economy and ongoing intellectual trends. Although popular with the masses due to his statist policies (contrary to prevailing notions), Belzu never lacked enemies among the powerful, whose interests he threatened. He barely survived a well-planned assassination attempt in Sucre, carried out by Agustin Morales, then an obscure mid-ranking officer but one who would later become president.

Lieut. Lardner Gibbon, US Navy, while exploring the valley of the Amazon, met with President Belzu in Bolivia and wrote the following account:
"Upon inquiring how the President came by some wounds in his face, I was told that in September, 1850, Belzu was invited to take a walk in the alameda [market] of Sucre. A friend persuaded him to continue on outside the usual promenade, where they met some persons riding on horseback, upon the report of whose pistols Belzu fell, three balls having entered his head. The ruffians escaped from the country; the friend was shot in the plaza of the capitol (sp) before Belzu was well enough to interfere in his behalf. The plan was well laid, and so sure were the intended murderers that his days were ended, they rode off, leaving him on the ground, shouting "viva Ballivián," an ex-president, who at that time was known to be lingering along the boundary line between Bolivia and the Argentine republic. This attempt to assassinate Belzu made him the more popular. The country is taught that his escape was Providential, and he had been spared for the good of the people." (Ch.5, p.135)

Retirement and the presidency of General Córdova
By the early 1850s, Belzu dispensed with any pretense of democratic norms and ruled despotically. After seven years, a weary Belzu decided to "retire" in 1855. He ran elections in which he sponsored the candidacy of his loyal son-in-law, General Jorge Córdova. The latter was duly elected over José María Linares (perhaps with the help of at least some degree of official fraud), and for two years ruled Bolivia as a virtual proxy of the powerful former president. During this time, Belzu served as his country's plenipotentiary in Europe.

In 1857, Córdova was overthrown in a coup d'état. Still acting as Belzu's proxy, he was murdered after being caught plotting against President José María de Achá in 1862. This galvanized Belzu despite his age; he returned to Bolivia and raised an army, with the hope of returning to the presidency and avenging the death of his son-in-law.

The Constitutionalist Uprising of 1865-1865
Even after Belzu had been eliminated, Melgarejo still faced widespread discontent from several sector of society and would face nearly a year of rebellions by a collective group called "Constitutionalists". Having seized power only in December 1864, less than a month later Melgarejo clashed with rebel forces in Tacaquira, located in the southern area of the Chuquisaca Department, on January 24, 1865. The rebels would win this encounter, facing government troops again in a bigger battle on the banks of the Oscara River on February 3 and ultimately retreating.

Assassination
To Melgarejo's dismay, former President Manuel Isidoro Belzu, who was exiled in Europe, returned to Bolivia to dispute the rise of Melgarejo, sparking a full civil war. On March 22, 1865, Belzu's army defeated the government forces in La Paz with the help of the popular masses. On March 27, Melgarejo and Quintín Quevedo attacked La Paz with his army but was defeated, with several of his men choosing to side with Belzu.

However, as soon as Belzu entered the Palacio Quemado for the meeting, Melgarejo and his men murdered him. New investigations have come up with the theory that since Melgarejo's revolver failed (the seller found out that only 1 bullet came out of 5 shots), then the bullet that killed Belzu came from the revolver of some soldier who was behind him.

According to legend, when Melgarejo's presence was known, a crowd gathered in the Plaza Murillo, located in front of the Bolivian Government Palace, cheering Belzu's name. However, Melgarejo appeared on a balcony instead and announced, "Belzu is dead. Who lives now?" and the crowd shouted: "Long live Melgarejo!"

External links
 Biography on Bolivian Government site in Spanish

Sources
Mesa José de; Gisbert, Teresa; and Carlos D. Mesa, Historia De Bolivia, 5th edition.

References

1808 births
1865 deaths
19th-century Bolivian politicians
Assassinated Bolivian politicians
Bolivian diplomats
Bolivian generals
Bolivian people of Spanish descent
Defense ministers of Bolivia
Flag designers
People from La Paz
People murdered in Bolivia
People of the War of the Confederation
Presidents of Bolivia
Velasco administration cabinet members
19th-century murders in Bolivia
19th-century murders in Mexico
1865 murders in South America
Bolivian exiles
Assassinated presidents of Bolivia
Assassinated presidents in South America
1860s assassinated politicians
19th-century assassinated national presidents

Manuel Isidoro Belzu


George Abramovich Koval (, Zhorzh Abramovich Koval, 25 de diciembre de 1913 - 31 de enero de 2006) fue un espía soviético. Según fuentes rusas, la infiltración de Koval del Proyecto Manhattan como agente del Departamento Central de Inteligencia (GRU) «redujo drásticamente la cantidad de tiempo que demoró a Rusia desarrollar armas nucleares»

Koval nació de inmigrantes judíos en Sioux City, Iowa, en Estados Unidos. Poco después de alcanzar la mayoría de edad, viajó con sus padres a la Unión Soviética para asentarse en el Óblast autónomo Hebreo, cerca de la frontera china. Koval fue reclutado por el Departamento Central de Inteligencia, fue entrenado y se le asignó el nombre en clave Delmar. En 1940, regresó a Estados Unidos y fue reclutado por el ejército de Estados Unidos a inicios de 1943. Koval trabajo en laboratorios de investigación atómica y, de acuerdo al gobierno ruso, retransmitía información sobre los procesos y volúmenes de producción de polonio, plutonio y uranio utilizado en el armamento atómico estadounidense. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Koval partió de vacaciones a Europa y nunca regresó a los Estados Unidos. En 2007, el presidente ruso Vladímir Putin otorgó a Koval póstumamente la condecoración de Héroe de la Federación Rusa por su «valentía y heroísmo en el desempeño de misiones especiales».

Primeros años
El padre de George Koval, Abram dejó su pueblo natal de Telekhany en Bielorrusia para inmigrar a Estados Unidos en 1910. Carpintero de oficio, se asentó en Sioux City, Iowa que, a inicios del , era hogar de una población judía considerable de comerciantes y artesanos. Él y su esposa Ethel Shenitsky Koval criaron a tres hijos: Isaya, nacido en 1912; George (o Zhorzh), nacido en 1913; y Gabriel, nacido en 1919.

George Koval asistió a la Central High School, un edificio victoriano de ladrillos rojos, mejor conocido como "el castillo en la colina". Vecinos de la zona recuerdan que Koval hablaba abiertamente de sus creencias comunistas. Mientras asistió a la Central High School, fue miembro de la Sociedad Honoraria y del equipo de debate. Se graduó en 1929 a la edad de 15 años. Koval estudió ingeniería eléctrica en la Universidad de Iowa los siguientes dos años y medio. Mientras tanto, sus padres se marcharon de Sioux City cuando la Gran Depresión se profundizó. Abram Koval se convirtió en el secretario de la Organización para la colonización judía en la Unión Soviética. Fundado por comunistas judíos estadounidenses en 1924, el grupo ayudó a financiar y promocionar el desarrollo de la Región Autónoma Judía, la respuesta comunista al proyecto palestino, entonces defendido por el movimiento sionista. La familia Koval emigró en 1932, con un pasaporte familiar estadounidense. Se asentaron en Birobidzhán, cerca de la frontera de Manchuria.

La familia Koval trabajó en una granja colectiva y fueron retratados por un diario comunista estadounidense en la ciudad de Nueva York. El periodista Paul Novick escribió a sus lectores que la familia «había cambiado la incertidumbre de una vida como pequeños comerciantes [...] por una existencia libre de preocupaciones para ellos y sus hijos». Mientras Isaya se convirtió en un conductor de tractor, George Koval mejoró sus habilidades lingüísticas en ruso y comenzó estudios en el Instituto Mendeleev de Tecnología Química en 1934. En esta universidad, conoció y se casó con una condiscípula, Lyudmila Ivanova. Koval se graduó con honores en cinco años y recibió la ciudadanía soviética.

Reclutamiento y espionaje
Koval fue reclutado por el Departamento Central de Inteligencia Soviética (Главное Разведывательное Управление) o GRU. Para cuando obtuvo su grado académico, había dejado Moscú como parte de un subterfugio. Fue enlistado en el ejército en 1939 para explicar su desaparición repentina de la ciudad. Aunque sus padres habían renunciado a su pasaporte familiar, Koval regresó a Estados Unidos en 1940, después de que otro espía fue llamado durante las purgas de Stalin. Llegó a San Francisco, desde donde se dirigió a la ciudad de Nueva York. Según Arnold Kramish, un colega estadounidense que se hizo su amigo y con quien restableció contacto en el año 2000, fue allí donde Koval asumió el comando provisional de la célula local del GRU y operó bajo la cubierta de la Compañía Eléctrica Raven, un proveedor de compañías tales como General Electric. Koval dijo a sus compañeros de trabajo que era neoyorquino e hijo único. Si bien Koval trabajó originalmente bajo un seudónimo, sus superiores decidieron que debía trabajar bajo su nombre real para la recolección de información sobre toxinas para fabricar armas químicas.

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Svetlana Chervonnaya. Koval, George Abramovich (1913-2006)  DocumentsTalk.com. Consultado el 9 de septiembre de 2010.

Personas de Iowa
Militares estadounidenses de la Segunda Guerra Mundial
Espías de Estados Unidos
Comunistas de Estados Unidos
Espías de la Segunda Guerra Mundial
Personas del Proyecto Manhattan
Programa nuclear de la Unión Soviética
Servicios de inteligencia de la Unión Soviética
Héroes de la Federación Rusa
Fallecidos en Moscú

George Koval


6532 Scarfe este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
6532 Scarfe este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Victoria de David D. Balam. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,17 ua, o excentricitate de 0,11 și o înclinație de 5,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 6001-7000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1995
Centura de asteroizi

6532 Scarfe