The Rolls-Royce Trent is a family of high-bypass turbofans produced by Rolls-Royce.

It continues the three spool architecture of the RB211 with a maximum thrust ranging from .

Launched as the RB-211-524L in June 1988, the prototype first ran in August 1990.

Its first variant is the Trent 700 introduced on the Airbus A330 in March 1995,
then the Trent 800 for the Boeing 777 (1996),
the Trent 500 for the A340 (2002),
the Trent 900 for the A380 (2007),
the Trent 1000 for the Boeing 787 (2011),
the Trent XWB for the A350 (2015),
and the Trent 7000 for the A330neo (2018).
It has also marine and industrial variants like the RR MT30.

Development

Despite the RB211 success, the large civil turbofan market was dominated by General Electric and Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce share was only 8% when it was privatised in April 1987.
In June, Rolls-Royce was studying whether to launch a RB211-700, a  development for the Airbus A330 twin-jet, the long-range Boeing 767 and the MD-11, derived from the 747-400's -524D4D, with growth potential to .
By June 1988, Rolls-Royce was investing over $540 million to develop the uprated RB-211-524L with a new  fan up from  for the -524G/H and a fourth LP turbine stage up from three, targeting .

At the September 1988 Farnborough Airshow, the  -524L development was confirmed, estimated at £300 million, to power the MD-11 and A330 as a full-scale model was unveiled by Frank Whittle.
In June 1989, the RB211-524L Trent was confirmed for the A330, rated at .
Rated at  for the MD-11, the Trent made it first run on 27 August 1990 in Derby.
By September 1992, the  Trent 600 for the MD-11 was abandoned and prototypes were rebuilt as Trent 700 engines for the A330 with a  fan.

In keeping with Rolls-Royce's tradition of naming its jet engines after rivers, this engine is named after the River Trent in the Midlands of England.

The UK government granted Rolls-Royce £450 million repayable launch investment, repaid with interest, to develop the RB.211 engine and the Trent family up to the Trent 900.
Rolls-Royce obtained £200 million for the Trent 8104, 500 and 600 variants in 1997, and £250 million for the Trent 600 and 900 variants in 2001, no aid was sought for Trent 1000 variant.

New proposed planes required higher thrust and customers wanted the Boeing 777 and Airbus A330 twinjets to fly Extended-range Twin-engine Operations at introduction.
Rolls-Royce decided to offer an engine for every large civil airliner, based on a common core to lower development costs, and the three-shaft design provided flexibility, allowing each spool to be individually scaled.
The engine family is named after the River Trent, a name previously used for the RB.50, Rolls-Royce's first working turboprop engine; and the 1960s RB.203, a  bypass turbofan and the first three-spool engine, designed to replace the Spey but never introduced.

In 2019, Rolls-Royce delivered 510 Trent engines.

Design

Like its RB211 predecessor, the Trent uses a concentric three-spool design rather than a two-spool configuration.
The Trent family keeps a similar layout, but each spool can be individually scaled and can rotate more closely to its optimal speed.
The core noise levels and exhaust emissions are lower than those of the RB211.

Hollow titanium fan blades with an internal Warren-girder structure achieve strength, stiffness and damage tolerance at low weight.
To operate in temperatures above their melting point, cooling air is bled from the compressor through laser-drilled holes on the hollow turbine blades, made from a single-crystal of a nickel alloy and covered by thermal barrier coatings.
Each turbine blade removes up to  from the gas stream.

In April 1998, the RB211-524HT was introduced for the 747-400 with the Trent 700 core, replacing the previous RB211-524G/H with 2% better TSFC, up to a 40% lower NOx emissions and a 50 °C cooler turbine.
The Trent 800 LP spool rotates at 3300 rpm, its  diameter fan tip travels at  m/s.
The Trent 900's  fan keeps a low mean jet velocity at take-off to lower the Airbus A380 noise.

Variants

First Trent 600
At the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 program launch at the end of 1986, it was only offered with GE CF6-80C2 or PW4000 engines, but Rolls-Royce was studying to propose the 747-400's RB211-524D4D rated at .
By June 1988, Rolls-Royce was investing over $540 million to develop the uprated RB-211-524L with a new  fan up from  for the -524G/H and a fourth LP turbine stage up from three, targeting .
Rated at , the Trent made its first run on 27 August 1990 in Derby.
By July 1991, the MD-11 Trent was abandoned after the demise of Air Europe, its only customer.
By February 1992, there were four Trent 600 engines with a  fan.
By September 1992, three were rebuilt as #Trent 700 engines for the A330 with a  fan.

Trent 700

Rolls-Royce was studying a RB211 development for the Airbus A330 at its launch in June 1987.
The Trent 700 was first selected by Cathay Pacific in April 1989, first ran in summer 1992, was certified in January 1994 and put into service in March 1995.

Keeping the characteristic three-shaft architecture of the RB211, it is the first variant of the Trent family.
With its  fan for a 5:1 bypass ratio, it produces 300.3 to 316.3 kN (67,500-71,100 lbf) of thrust and reaches an overall pressure ratio of 36:1.
It competes with the GE CF6-80E1 and the PW4000 to power the A330.

Trent 800

The Trent 800 is one of the engine options for the early Boeing 777 variants.

Launched in September 1991, it first ran in September 1993, was granted EASA certification on 27 January 1995, and entered service in 1996.
It reached a 40% market share, ahead of the competing PW4000 and GE90, and the last Trent-powered 777 was delivered in 2010.

The Trent 800 has the Trent family three shaft architecture, with a  fan.
With a 6.4:1 bypass ratio and an overall pressure ratio reaching 40.7:1, it generates up to 413.4 kN (92,940 lbf) of thrust.

Trent 8100

In the early Trent 800 studies in 1990, Rolls-Royce forecast a growth potential from  with a new HP core.
By March 1997, Boeing studied 777-200X/300X growth derivatives for a September 2000 introduction: GE was proposing a  GE90-102B, while P&W offered its  PW4098 and Rolls-Royce was proposing a  Trent 8100.
Rolls-Royce was also studying a Trent 8102 over .
By December 1997, the -300X MTOW grew to .
The 454 kN (102,000 lbf) Trent 8104 design was to be completed by June 1998, while the -200X entry into service slipped to mid-2002.
Higher thrust was obtained with new swept fan blades while keeping a  fan.

The  Trent 8104 first ran on 16 December 1998, and exceeded 110,000 lbf (490 kN) of thrust five days later, before two other engines would join by mid-1999.
The swept fan blades produce 2-3% more flow at a given speed with the same  fan, for an additional  of thrust, while fan efficiency is 1% better.
The HP compressor rotors and stators and the IP compressor stators were designed with 3D aerodynamics.
As the 777-200X/300X grew to a MTOW of 340,500 kg (750,000 lb), thrust requirements drifted to .
The fan diameter was to reach 2.9 m (114 in) to increase the thrust.

By June 1999, the 8104 served as a basis for the proposed 115,000 lbf (510 kN) Trent 8115, with a scaled core by 2.5% geometrically and 5% aerodynamically and a fan enlarged from , while keeping the Trent 800 architecture: an eight-stage IP compressor and a six-stage HP compressor both driven by a single-stage turbine, and a five-stage LP turbine.
In July 1999, Boeing selected the General Electric GE90 over the Trent 8115 and P&W offer to power exclusively the longer-range 777s, as GE offered to substantially finance the jet development, for around $100 million.
Rolls-Royce later dropped the Trent 8115 but continued to work on the Trent 8104 as a technology demonstrator.

Trent 500

The Trent 500 exclusively powers the larger A340-500/600 variants.

It was selected in June 1997, first ran in May 1999, first flew in June 2000, and achieved certification on 15 December 2000.
It entered service in July 2002 and 524 engines were delivered on-wing until the A340 production ended in 2011.

Keeping the three spool architecture of the Trent family, it has the Trent 700's 2.47 m (97.5 in) fan and a Trent 800 core scaled down.
It produces up to 275 kN (61,900 lbf) of thrust at take-off and has a bypass ratio up to 8.5:1 in cruise.

Trent 900

The Trent 900 powers the Airbus A380, competing with the Engine Alliance GP7000.

Initially proposed for the Boeing 747-500/600X in July 1996,
this first application was later abandoned but it was offered for the A3XX,
launched as the A380 in December 2000.
It first ran on 18 March 2003,
made its maiden flight on 17 May 2004 on an A340 testbed,
and was certified by the EASA on 29 October 2004.

Producing up to 374 kN (84,000 lbf), the Trent 900 has the three shaft architecture of the Trent family with a  fan.
It has an 8.5-8.7:1 bypass ratio and a 37–39:1 overall pressure ratio.

Second Trent 600

In March 2000, Boeing was to launch the longer range 767-400ERX powered by  engines, with deliveries planned for 2004.
In July, Rolls-Royce was to supply its Trent 600 for the 767-400ERX and Boeing 747X, while the European Union was limiting the Engine Alliance offer on quadjets.
The  Trent 600 was scaled from the Trent 500 with a swept fan diameter raised to  for a higher bypass ratio and lower fuel burn.
Boeing offered the longer-range 767-400ERX with a higher MTOW and a higher thrust for better takeoff performance.
The 767-400ERX was dropped in 2001 to favor the Sonic Cruiser.
When Boeing launched the 747-8 in November 2005, it was exclusively powered by the General Electric GEnx.

Trent 1000

The Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 is one of the two engine options for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, competing with the General Electric GEnx.

It first ran on 14 February 2006 and first flew on 18 June 2007 before a joint EASA/FAA certification on 7 August 2007 and service introduction on 26 October 2011.

The  engine has a Bypass ratio over 10:1, a  m fan and keeps the characteristic three-spool layout of the Trent series.

The updated Trent 1000 TEN with technology from the Trent XWB and the Advance3 aims for up to 3% better fuel burn, it first ran in mid-2014, was EASA certified in July 2016, first flew on a 787 on 7 December 2016 and was introduced on 23 November 2017.

Corrosion-related fatigue cracking of IP turbine blades was discovered in early 2016, grounding up to 44 aircraft and costing Rolls-Royce at least £ million.

By early 2018 it had a % market share of the decided order book.

The Trent 7000 is a version with bleed air used for the Airbus A330neo.

Trent 1500

When the  MTOW A340-600HGW first flew in November 2005, Airbus was studying an enhanced version of the larger A340 variants to enter service in 2011.
It would better compete with the 777-300ER and its 8-9% lower fuel burn than the A340-600: improved General Electric GEnx or Trent 1500 engines would erode this by 6-7%.
The Trent 1500 would keep the Trent 500's 2.47 m (97.4 in) fan diameter and nacelle, with the smaller, advanced Trent 1000 core and a revised LP turbine for a bypass ratio increased from 7.5-7.6:1 to 9.5:1. The last A340 was delivered in 2011 as it was replaced by the updated A350XWB design.

Trent XWB

The Trent XWB was selected in July 2006 to power exclusively the Airbus A350 XWB.

The first engine was run on 14 June 2010,
it first flew on an Airbus A380 testbed on 18 February 2012,
it was certified in early 2013,
and it first flew on an A350 on 14 June 2013.

It keeps the characteristic three-shaft layout of the Trent, with a 3.00 m (118 in) fan, an IP and HP spool.
The XWB-84 generates up to  of thrust and the XWB-97 up to .
The engine has a 9.6:1 Bypass ratio and a 50:1 Pressure ratio

It had its first in-flight shutdown on 11 September 2018, as the fleet accumulated 2.2 million flight hours.
It is the most powerful among all Trent engines.

Trent 7000

The Rolls-Royce Trent 7000 powers exclusively the Airbus A330neo.

Announced on 14 July 2014, it first ran on 27 November 2015.
It made its first flight on 19 October 2017 aboard on the A330neo.
It received its EASA type certification on 20 July 2018 as a Trent 1000 variant.
It was first delivered on 26 November,
and was cleared for ETOPS 330 by 20 December.

Compared to the A330's Trent 700, the  engine doubles the bypass ratio to 10:1 and halves emitted noise. Pressure ratio is increased to 50:1 and it has a  fan and a bleed air system.
Fuel consumption is improved by 11%.

Non-aircraft variants

MT30 (Marine Turbine)

The MT30 (Marine Turbine) is a derivative of the Trent 800 (with a Trent 500 gearbox fitted), producing 36 MW for maritime applications. The current version is a turboshaft engine, producing 36 MW, using the Trent 800 core to drive a power turbine which takes power to an electrical generator or to mechanical drives such as waterjets or propellers. Amongst others, it powers the Royal Navy's s.

Industrial Trent 60 Gas Turbine
This derivative is designed for power generation and mechanical drive, much like the Marine Trent. It delivers up to 66 MW of electricity at 42% efficiency. It comes in two key versions DLE (Dry Low Emission) and WLE (Wet Low Emission). The WLE is water injected, allowing it to produce 58 MW at ISO conditions instead of 52 MW. It shares components with the Trent 700 and 800. The heat from the exhaust, some 416–433 °C, can be used to heat water and drive steam turbines, improving efficiency of the package. Besides Rolls-Royce, a leading packager of the Trent 60 is UK-based Centrax LTD, a privately owned engineering firm based in Newton Abbot, UK.

Operational history

First run in August 1990 as the model Trent 700, the Trent has achieved significant commercial success, having been selected as the launch engine for all three of the 787 variants (Trent 1000), the A380 (Trent 900) and the A350 (Trent XWB). Its overall share of the markets in which it competes is around 40%. Sales of the Trent family of engines have made Rolls-Royce the second biggest supplier of large civil turbofans after General Electric, relegating rival Pratt & Whitney to third position.
By June 2019, the Trent family had completed over 125 million hours.

Singapore Airlines is currently the largest operator of Trents, with five variants in service or on order, followed by British Airways with four variants in service.

Incidents

On 17 January 2008, a British Airways Boeing 777-236ER, operating as BA038 from Beijing to London, crash-landed at Heathrow after both Trent 800 engines lost power during the aircraft's final approach. The subsequent investigation found that ice released from the fuel system had accumulated on the fuel-oil heat exchanger, leading to a restriction of fuel flow to the engines. This resulted in Airworthiness Directives mandating the replacement of the heat exchanger. This order was extended to the 500 and 700 series engines after a similar loss of power was observed on one engine of an Airbus A330 in one incident, and both engines in another. The modification involves replacing a face plate with many small protruding tubes with one that is flat.

On 4 November 2010, an uncontained engine failure (explosion) occurred in a Trent 972-84 powered Airbus A380-842 (Registration VH-OQA) of Qantas Flight QF32 while en route from Singapore to Sydney. The cause was traced to an incorrectly manufactured oil feed stub pipe. For further details refer to the article on the Trent 900.

Research

Affordable Near-Term Low Emissions

Between 1 March 2000 and 28 February 2005, the EU funded the  project, aiming to design and test two programs to reduce CO2 by 12–20% and nitrous oxides by up to 80% from 2007/2008, with an overall budget of €101.6 Million including €50.9 from the EU and coordinated by Rolls-Royce plc. It was equally shared between the  demonstrator and the CLEAN program for longer term technology applications. The ANTLE program targeted reductions of 12% in  emissions, 60% in NOx emissions, 20% in acquisition cost, 30% in life cycle cost and 50% in development cycle, while improving reliability by 60%. The test phase ended by summer 2005.

The ANTLE engine was based on a Rolls-Royce Trent 500. Rolls-Royce Deutschland was responsible for the high pressure compressor, Rolls-Royce UK for the combustion chamber and the high pressure turbine, Italian Avio for the intermediate pressure turbine, and ITP for the Low Pressure Turbine (LPT) and the external casing for an investment of €20.5 million, a 20% stake in the program. Volvo Aero was responsible for the rear turbine structures. It has a new 5 stage HP compressor, a lean burn combustor and unshrouded HP turbine and a variable-geometry IP turbine. Hispano Suiza's new accessory gearbox, Goodrich's new distributed control system, and Techspace Aero's new oil system were also fitted.

Advanced Low-Pressure System (ALPS)
After flight tests in 2014 of CTi fan blades with a titanium leading edge and carbon casing, they had indoor and outdoor tests in 2017, including crosswind, noise and tip clearance studies, flutter mapping, performance and icing conditions trials.
Rolls-Royce will ground test in 2018 its ALPS demonstrator: a Trent 1000 fitted with composite fan blades and case, including bird strike trials.

Advance

On 26 February 2014, Rolls-Royce detailed its Trent future developments. The Advance is the first design, which could be ready from the end of the 2020s and aims to offer at least 20% better fuel burn than the first generation of Trents.
The Advance bypass ratio should exceed 11:1 and its overall pressure ratio 60:1.

In previous Trents, the HP spool was similar in all models and the engine grew by increasing the intermediate pressure spool's work. The Advance reverses this trend and the load is shifted towards the high pressure spool, with a greater pressure ratio, up to 10 compressor stages compared to 6 on the Trent XWB and a two-stage turbine replacing the current single-stage. The IP compressor will shrink from the 8 stages of today's XWB to 4 and the IP turbine will be single- rather than  of two stages.

The Advance3 ground-based demonstrator includes lean burn, run before on a Trent architecture only; ceramic matrix composite (CMC) for turbine high-temperature capability in the first stage seal segments and cast-bond first stage vanes; hybrid ball bearings with ceramic rollers running on metallic races, required to manage high load environments inside smaller cores.

Opened in 2016, R-R's $30 million CMC facility in California produced its first parts, seals, for the start of their deployment before being used in the static components of the second-stage HP turbine.
The twin fuel-distribution system in the lean-burn combustor adds complexity with a sophisticated control and switching system and doubles the pipework but should improve fuel consumption and reduce NOx emissions.
Hybrid ceramic bearings are newly configured to deal with loading changes and will cope with higher temperatures.

More variable vanes in one IP and four HP compressor stages will be optimised for constant changes through the flight envelope.
An air pipe is produced by additive manufacturing and prototype components come from new suppliers.
The Advance3 will survey bearing load, water ingestion, noise sources and their mitigation, heat and combustor rumble while blade-tip, internal clearances and adaptive control operation are radiographed in-motion to verify the thermo-mechanical modelling.
The Boeing New Midsize Airplane needs falls in its thrust range.
Advanced cooled metallic components and ceramic matrix composite parts will be tested in a late 2018 demonstrator based on a Trent XWB-97 within the high temperature turbine technology (HT3) initiative.

The core will be combined with a Trent XWB-84 fan and a Trent 1000 LP turbine for mid-2017 ground testing.
The Advance3 demonstrator was sent from the Bristol production facility to the Derby test stand in July 2017 to be evaluated till early 2018.
The demonstrator began initial runs at Derby in November 2017.

In early 2018, the demonstrator attained 90% core power, reaching a  P30 pressure at the rear of the  compressor, while measuring bearing loads, changed by the different compressor arrangement.
The lean burn combustor did not generate any rumble as further tests will cover water ingestion, noise, X-rays of the engine operating, and core-zone and hot-end thermal surveys.
By July 2018, the Advance3 core ran at full power.
By early 2019, the engine had run over 100 hours.

Advanced low-emission combustion system (ALECSys)

A standalone engine will test the ALECSys on ground before another will be flight tested. Indoor ground tests of the lean-burn combustor were concluded on a modified Trent 1000 in January 2018, before being sent to Manitoba for cold-weather trials in February 2018, covering start-ups and ice ingestion. Noise testing will follow on an outside rig, then flight tests in the next couple of years after 2018.

UltraFan

After the Advance comes the UltraFan, initially aimed to be ready for service from 2025. A geared turbofan with a variable pitch fan system that promises at least 25% improvement in fuel burn, the UltraFan aims for a 15:1 bypass ratio and 70:1 overall pressure ratio.

The Ultrafan keeps the Advance core, but also contains a geared turbofan architecture with variable-pitch fan blades. As the fan will vary pitch to be optimised for each flight phase, it won't need a thrust reverser. Rolls-Royce will use carbon composite fan blades instead of its usual hollow titanium blades, and along with new material adoption will save  per engine.

The variable pitch fan will facilitate low pressure ratio fan operability. Rolls-Royce will work with Industria de Turbo Propulsores to test IP turbine technologies that will go into the UltraFan. In Dahlewitz near Berlin, Rolls-Royce has built a power rig simulating loading conditions in flight, sized for  gear systems; and recruits 200 engineers. The ratio of the initial test gear will approach 4:1 and thrust could be up to . The specially constructed test rig is an €84 million ($94 million) investment.

In partnership with Liebherr, the  UltraFan gearbox was first run in October 2016.
After the initial set of low-speed fan rig tests and the casting of second-generation titanium aluminide IP turbine blades, the initial UltraFan demonstrator concept design should be frozen in 2017.
Tests simulated aircraft pitch and roll on an attitude rig in September 2016 to assess oil flow in the gearbox.
The gearbox went through high-power tests in May 2017.
The UltraFan will be 3 m (118 in) in diameter and its fan blades with titanium leading edges are evaluated under the ALPS programme.

At the September 2017 International Society for Air Breathing Engines (ISABE) conference in Manchester, UK, Rolls-Royce's Chief Technology Officer Paul Stein announced it reached .
In early 2018, a third gearbox was tested as testing assessed on endurance and reliability.
The first gearbox was disassembled for evaluation, confirming the component's performance predictions.
A complete demonstrator will be built in a few years from 2018.
In April 2018, Airbus agreed to provide aircraft integration and its nacelle and for flight testing, co-funded by the European Union research programme Clean Sky 2.

At the April 2018 ILA Berlin Air Show, flight testing was confirmed on Rolls-Royce's Boeing 747-200.
The demonstrator will generate  of thrust, exploiting current testing on the Advance 3 and the  gearbox.
Its fan diameter could be up to , compared to the Trent XWB's  and the GE9X's .

Higher bypass and lower fan pressure ratio induce low-speed fan instability remedied by variable-pitch blades instead of a variable area jet nozzle.
Along with eliminating the thrust reverser, a short slim nacelle would be lighter and less draggy, but in reverse-thrust the flow would be distorted, having to be turned around the nozzle into the bypass duct, and then partly reversed again into the intermediate compressor.
The large fan could lead to gull-wing airframes.
By July 2018, the UltraFan configuration was frozen before detailed design and then component manufacture, for 2021 ground tests.
The  diameter planetary gearbox has five planet gears, is sized to power  turbofans and amassed over 250 hours of run time by early 2019.

In February 2019, potential introduction was delayed to 2027, to re-engine current aircraft, after full-scale ground tests in 2021.
A variable-pitch fan or a more electric architecture would be needed beyond the 25% improvement over the Trent 800, for the 2030s-2040s.
A  integrated starter-generator on the shaft cold end would allow a smaller accessory drive.
It could drive an aft-fuselage boundary layer suction fan for a 35% better efficiency than in 2000.

By February 2020, Rolls-Royce was manufacturing the 355 cm (140 in) diameter carbon fibre fan blades in Bristol, UK, saving with the composite fan case up to 700 kg (1,540 lb) on a twinjet.
By March 2022, Rolls-Royce had transferred the power gearbox, tested to , from Dahlewitz to its UK site for assembly,

By May 2023, the first run was made with an  demonstrator having a 14:1 bypass ratio, carbon-titanium fan blades, an Advance3 core and a new combustor. With 10% better fuel efficiency than the Trent XWB, the architecture could cover a 25,000-100,000 lbf (111-444 kN)-thrust range for single- or twin-aisles in the 2030s.

Applications
 Airbus A330 (Trent 700)
 Airbus A330neo (Trent 7000)
 Airbus A340 (-500 and -600 series only) (Trent 500)
 Airbus A350 (Trent XWB)
 Airbus A380 (Trent 900)
 Boeing 777 (-200, -200ER and -300 series only) (Trent 800)
 Boeing 787 Dreamliner (Trent 1000)

Specifications

See also

Footnotes

Notes

1.Engine interchangeability makes the 787 a more flexible asset to airlines, allowing them to change from one manufacturer's engine to the other's in light of any future engine developments which conform more closely to their operating profile. The cost of such a change would require a significant operating cost difference between the two engine types to make it economical. A difference that does not exist with the engines today.
2.Singapore Airlines has 58 Trent 800 powered 777s and 5 Trent 500 powered A340-500s; it also has a further 19 Trent 700 powered A330-300s, 19 Trent 900 powered A380-800s and 20 Trent XWB powered A350 XWB-900s on order.  Should it select the Trent 1000 for its order of 20 787-9s, it will become the first airline to operate 6 different versions of the Trent.

References

External links

Rolls-Royce plc
Trent 500 series
Trent 700 series
Trent 800 series
Trent 900 series
Trent 1000 series
Trent XWB
Trent 60
MT30

High-bypass turbofan engines
Trent
1990s turbofan engines
Three-spool turbofan engines

Rolls-Royce Trent


Alfonso Varano, né le  à Ferrare et mort dans cette même ville le , est un poète italien.

Biographie
Alfonso Varano naquit à Ferrare le 13 décembre 1705. Quoiqu'il mît beaucoup de prix au nom historique qu'il portait, il ne s'en tint pas à ce genre d'illustration, et voulut y réunir le mérite littéraire. Après avoir passé plusieurs années au collège des Nobles de Modène, où il eut pour maître l'abbé Tagliazucchi, qui de son école répandit le bon goût en Italie, il revint dans sa patrie, à l'âge de dix-neuf ans. C'était l'époque où les jeunes gens des premières familles se livraient à une oisiveté complète et à tous les désordres qui en sont la suite. Varano se voua au contraire entièrement aux lettres et surtout à la poésie. Le seul tribut qu'il paya aux travers de son temps fut de choisir pour sujet de ses premières poésies une Philis vraie ou supposée. Cependant ses vers érotiques mêmes se distinguaient de ceux qu'on faisait alors par la nouveauté des idées et des images, et par une élocution sobre et choisie. Bientôt, quittant tout à fait les traces de ses contemporains, il rendit le premier à la poésie italienne cette gravité, cet accent mâle et cette élévation que Dante lui avait donnés, et dont on s'était tant écarté depuis. Plus tard, Varano s'essaya avec peu de succès dans l'art dramatique. Après une vie longue et paisible, remplie de sentiments religieux et passée dans la culture des Muses, il mourut le 23 juin 1788.

Œuvres

 Opere poetiche, Parme, 1789, 3 vol. ; le premier contient Rime giovanili, pastorali, sacre, profane, anacreontiche e scherzevoli ; le second contient Visioni sacre e morali. Cette œuvre poétique donna une nouvelle direction à la poésie italienne. Les Muses de ces contrées ne chantaient plus que les amours. Dans les autres sujets mêmes, on ne pouvait saisir la pensée noyée dans un déluge de mots. Au milieu de cette aberration universelle, les Visions de Varano frappèrent vivement les esprits. On y vit l'enthousiasme soumis à la règle. On sentit tout ce qu'il y avait de profond dans la pensée, de fini dans les vers. Varano, imitant le Paradis du Dante, n'en fut que plus sublime ; mais il cessa quelquefois d'être clair. Le spiritualisme des sujets et la manière originale de les traiter forcent parfois Varano à s'envelopper de nuages ; mais il en sort avec des traits de lumière. Ces Visions eurent un autre avantage. Elles éveillèrent un génie encore plus poétique, qui, au lieu du Paradis, prit pour modèle l'Enfer et le Purgatoire du Dante, où les passions humaines sont mises en jeu avec une grande énergie. Monti, en prêtant les charmes de l'imagination à des objets et à des intérêts plus sensibles, a complété la réforme poétique et a répandu le goût épuré et sévère dont Varano avait donné le signal. Le troisième volume des Œuvres poétiques de celui-ci renferme le Demetrio, tragédie qui eut six éditions, dont la dernière est de Parme, 1789 ; Giovanni di Giscala, tiranno del tempio di Gerusalemme ; et Agnese, martire del Giappone, tragédies.

Notes

Sources

Liens externes

Naissance en décembre 1705
Décès en juin 1788
Naissance à Ferrare
Décès à Ferrare
Membre de l'Académie d'Arcadie
Décès à 82 ans

Alfonso Varano


The Société de télédiffusion du Québec (; ), branded as Télé-Québec () (formerly known as Radio-Québec), is a Canadian French-language public educational television network in the province of Quebec. It is a provincial Crown corporation owned by the Government of Quebec. The network's main studios and headquarters are located at the corner of de Lorimier Street and East René Lévesque Boulevard in Montreal.

Télé-Québec is equivalent to Ontario's TVOntario and their French counterpart TFO, and British Columbia's Knowledge Network, and similar to the American Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and its affiliated state networks, in that it is somewhat modest in scope, runs mostly educational or cultural programming and doesn't try to compete with privately owned television networks or with the ICI Radio-Canada Télé network owned and operated by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, unlike TFO and the anglophone educational networks, it runs commercials during its programming.

All programming on Télé-Québec is in French, although there are a few shows and movies that are presented in the original language (predominantly English), with French subtitles.

Télé-Québec operates local offices in Val-d'Or, Trois-Rivières, Rimouski, Gatineau, Sept-Îles, Quebec City, Sherbrooke, Saguenay and Carleton-sur-Mer.

Télé-Québec is one of the partners in the TV5 Québec Canada and TV5Monde consortiums. It also had a 25% stake in the French-Canadian arts specialty channel, Ici ARTV, which it sold to the CBC in 2010.

History
On April 20, 1945, the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, under the mandate of Premier Maurice Duplessis, passed a law allowing Quebec to create and run a public broadcasting network, as a provincial counterpart to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.

However, it never got beyond the planning stages until February 22, 1968, when the Daniel Johnson Sr. administration created a new public broadcasting agency, "Radio-Québec", under the auspices of the Ministry of Education. Shortly afterward, the first Radio-Québec program, a radio program on the history of Canada called En montant la rivière, was produced. Produced later that year was its first television program, Les Oraliens, where space aliens taught kids how to properly pronounce French words and phrases.

In 1969, a new law was passed by the National Assembly of Quebec, creating l'Office de radio-télédiffusion du Québec ("Quebec Office of Radio and Television Broadcasting"), where Radio-Québec was placed.

Radio-Québec began broadcasting on its own on September 1, 1972, as a cable channel, which broadcast evenings on community channels in Montreal and Quebec City, then expanded in 1973 to Hull, Gatineau and Sherbrooke. As a cable network, Radio-Québec was generally on the air weeknights from 8 pm to 10 pm. The network of over-the-air transmitters was launched on January 19, 1975 with the sign-ons of CIVM-TV in Montreal and CIVQ-TV in Quebec City, making its programming available to an even wider audience. In its early days after the terrestrial network began, Radio-Québec would provide week-delay videotapes of its programming line-up to cable systems in communities not served by a Radio-Québec station. Some Radio-Québec programs were also seen on most Radio-Canada stations, not only in Quebec but throughout Canada as well; this arrangement continued into the 1980s.

In 1977, Radio-Québec opened its third station, CIVO-TV in Hull, serving the greater Ottawa area—the station was built after acquiring the facilities of a failed TVA affiliate, CFVO-TV. That same year, Passe-Partout premiered.

Radio-Québec was off the air during most of 1978, due to a lockout of its employees in a labour dispute.

In 1979, Radio-Québec's agency was restructured as a provincial crown corporation, Société de radio-télévision du Québec ("Quebec Radio and Television Broadcasting Corporation"). The network had also adopted the slogan, L'autre télévision ("The other television"). From about 1980 to 1985, the Radio-Québec theme song that played when the station concluded its broadcast day was sung nightly by pop singer Veronique Beliveau who was also at the time the official face on television for the Simpsons department store chain in Quebec.

On January 1, 1985, Radio-Québec began providing its programming to its stations and cable systems via satellite, using Anik C-3. Also that year, the CRTC granted Radio-Québec permission to show commercials during some of its programming, initially for a two-year trial run. This authorization became permanent—by the 2002–03 fiscal year, Télé-Québec's revenues from advertising would account for 45.8% of its total revenue.

In 1994, the Quebec government announced budget cuts for Radio-Québec, in which its budget was reduced by $10 million. In 1995, Radio-Québec president Jean Fortier announced that the network was virtually bankrupt. As a result, over 150 staffers were laid off (out of over 750 people employed), with plans for further layoffs to trim the employee count to 300 staffers. Programming produced in-house would either be cancelled or transferred to independent companies. In addition, the network would adopt the "Télé-Québec" name the following year, in 1996, with the crown corporation renamed as "Société de télédiffusion du Québec". A proposal for the new Télé-Québec to carry strictly educational programming was never carried out. Instead, it retained its mixed educational-entertainment schedule.

The monetary shortfall was short-lived, as by 1997, Télé-Québec resumed productions on its own and increased its amount of original programming.

Since August 17, 2018, the children's programs have been branded as Squat for youths and Coucou for preschoolers, each with its website and mobile app.

Programming

Over 40% of Télé-Québec's programming is children's programming. In 2005, Ramdam was a popular show for 2- to 11-year-olds. Other children's shows have included Cornemuse, Zoboomafoo, Dora l'exploratrice, Bob le bricoleur, IDragon, Les Mélodilous, Le Petit tracteur rouge, and Toupie et Binou. For 6 to 8 year-olds, shows have included Macaroni tout garni, Nickelodeon's Rocket Power, Esprits-fantômes, and Le Petit roi Macius. Ramdam and Banzaï are both aimed at pre-teens (9 to 12) and ADN-X is a teen show that provides practical solutions to everyday problems.

Télé-Québec's cultural programming reflects Quebec's diverse cultural expression in fiction, songs, music, cinema, visual art, and drama. Télé-Québec shows such as Belle et Bum, M'as-tu lu? and Pulsart help to promote Quebec artists and creators and their works. Belle et Bum is a music show that invited 160 performers or groups in 2005–2006, who performed 230 songs by Quebec songwriters or composers. M'as-tu lu? is a book show that covers books of all genres and for all audiences; in 2005–2006, 260 books were presented, 124 of which were by Quebec authors. Pulsart is a magazine show on cultural activities taking place all over Quebec.

A new weekly cultural magazine-style show, Libre échange, deals with a range of different creative arts, including dance, cinema, literature, sculpture, painting, television, music, and theatre. As well, a new series of "living portraits" will profile notable living creators such as authors, filmmakers, architects, and thinkers.

Télé-Québec presents a range of films, including "auteur" films by notable directors, feature-length documentaries, premiere showings, and Quebec films. All films are shown without commercial interruptions, compared to most French-language TV channels in Canada. During the last five years, Télé-Québec showed over 959 hours of documentaries, which made up 18% of its programming. Documentary topics included socio-political, cultural, historical, scientific, and travel. Between 2000 and 2006, 137 documentaries and 39 series were produced.

Télé-Québec also hosts debate and discussion-oriented shows that allow for an exchange of ideas and perspectives on social and political issues. Points chauds is a show on international political issues. Méchant contraste! is a pan-Quebec magazine show on social, political, and economic issues. Dussault-Débat is a debate show.

As a community service, Télé-Québec has a number of shows that present a regional perspective, such as Méchant contraste!, À la di Stasio, les Francs Tireurs, M'as-tu lu?, Une pilule, and Pulsart. Télé-Québec also has an Internet strategy, as part of its educational and cultural mission. In 2003, the extremis.tv website won a Gémeaux prize for the best Internet site. In 2004, du missionarctique.tv won the same award. The website for the teen-oriented show ADN-X has interactive activities including a comic strip-creating activity.

Programming in English

The only regular Télé-Québec shows that were entirely in English were the weekday, hour-long, instructional program Quebec School Telecasts and its successor Quebec Television School. The series Quebec School Telecasts was first telecasted on CBC Television outlets in Quebec in the early 1960s. Radio-Québec picked up the program in 1984 and aired it under that name until September 2, 1996. It was replaced on September 3, 1996 by Quebec School Television which aired on Télé-Québec until December 1999.

In 1985, Radio-Québec and TVOntario signed an exchange arrangement, in which English-language TVO programming would be seen on Radio-Québec, and Radio-Québec's French-language programming would be seen on TVO.

In 2018, English Language Arts Network (ELAN) filed an intervention to CRTC licence renewals for the service, seeking that Télé-Québec be required to devote 20% of its programming and budget to programs of interest to an anglophone, indigenous, and other visible minority communities of Quebec. The proposal called for at least 10% of this quota to be put towards English-language programming. The CRTC declined the request, stating that it was beyond the scope of licence renewal, and "should be the subject of a policy proceeding in which broadcasters as a whole are considered."

Télé-Québec HD and digital conversion

On June 12, 2008, Télé-Québec launched an HD simulcast of its Montréal station CIVM-TV called "Télé-Québec HD". It signed on over the air on channel 27 (PSIP 17.1) from Olympic Stadium in Montreal in January 2009, making CIVM-DT the first educational television station in Canada to broadcast digitally. After the analogue shutdown and digital conversion in Canada, scheduled for August 31, 2011, CIVM-DT will move to channel 26.

A digital terrestrial television transmitter requested and authorized for construction in Quebec City for CIVQ-TV did not sign on until August 2010, weeks before the September 25, 2010 deadline to sign on or file an extension. That transmitter broadcasts from Édifice Marie-Guyart in downtown Quebec City on channel 25 (PSIP 15.1). After the digital conversion in 2011, CIVQ moved its digital signal to channel 15.

Télé-Québec intended to convert all of its transmitters to digital by the digital transition deadline of August 31, 2011, including its transmitters that are not required to transition by this deadline.

Stations

Télé-Québec's network consists of 12 stations and five repeaters, originating at CIVM-DT in Montreal.

It can also be seen nationwide on Bell Satellite TV channel 138 and Shaw Direct channel 722. On terrestrial cable, however, it is generally seen only in Quebec and in communities in Ontario and New Brunswick which are within the broadcast range of a Télé-Québec transmitter. Outside of this area, few cable systems, such as MTS in Winnipeg, carry Télé-Québec in their digital tiers.

Télé-Québec (and its predecessor, Radio-Québec) was also assigned channel 2 in Rivière-du-Loup, channel 10 in Lithium Mines, and channel 21 in Mont-Laurier. As of 2009, service has yet to begin in these communities; in addition, it later lost its channel 2 slot at Rivière-du-Loup, after that channel was reallocated to Quebec City (CFAP-TV) and Rimouski (CJBR-TV). It is also unknown if the Lithium Mines transmitter was replaced by, or provided secondary service of, CIVA-TV, the Télé-Québec outlet serving nearby Val-d'Or.

See also

 List of Quebec television channels
 List of Quebec television series
 Television of Quebec
 Culture of Quebec

References

External links
 Official website
 Télé-Québec: Historique
 Canadian Communications Foundation - CIVM-TV History
  Montreal affiliate CIVM at TV Hat

Organizations based in Montreal
Television channels and stations established in 1968
1968 establishments in Quebec

Télé-Québec


Claudia Roden (Cairo, 1936) é uma escritora de livros de receitas britânica nascida no Egito e antropóloga cultural de ascendência sefardita e mizrahi. Ela é mais conhecida como autora de livros de culinária do Médio Oriente, incluindo A Book of Middle Eastern Food, The New Book of Middle Eastern Food e Arabesque — Sumptuous Food from Morocco, Turkey and Lebanon.

Primeiros anos
Filha de Cesar Elie Douek e sua esposa Nelly Sassoon,Roden nasceu em 1936 no Cairo, Reino do Egito. Seus pais eram de proeminentes famílias de comerciantes sírio-judeus que migraram de Aleppo no século anterior; ela cresceu em Zamalek, no Cairo, com dois irmãos, o cirurgião Ellis Douek e Zaki Douek.

Aos quinze anos de idade, ela foi campeã de natação, pela categoria nado costas, defendendo a seleção nacional do Egito.

Em 1953, ela foi para um colégio interno em Paris e, posteriormente, em Londres para estudar na Saint Martin's School of Art. Ela não retornou ao Egito por um quarto de século, bem depois de sua família e a maior parte da comunidade judaica do Cairo terem sido expulsas; muitos de seus livros refletem seu anseio pela cultura comunal próxima que foi perdida, especialmente como expressa nas artes culinárias e ocasiões sociais associadas a elas.

Carreira

Além de seus inúmeros volumes de culinária, Roden também trabalhou como escritora de culinária e apresentadora de programas de culinária para a BBC.

Ela é co-presidente com Paul Levy do Simpósio Oxford de Alimentos e Culinária. Ela é membro honorário da Escola de Estudos Orientais e Africanos da Universidade de Londres.

Escritores de culinária e chefs como Melissa Clark e Yotam Ottolenghi atribuíram a ela um grande papel na introdução da comida do Egito em particular e do Médio Oriente em geral na Grã-Bretanha e nos Estados Unidos. Paul Levy a classifica com outros escritores de culinária como Elizabeth David, Julia Child, Jane Grigson e Sri Owen, que, a partir da década de 1950, "aprofundaram a conversa sobre comida para abordar questões de cultura, contexto, história e identidade". Seus muitos livros de receitas, escreve Clark, "produziram um gênero de obras que são ao mesmo tempo literárias e profundamente pesquisadas enquanto ainda são, no fundo, manuais práticos sobre como fazer refeições deliciosas".

Roden foi nomeada Comandante da Ordem do Império Britânico (CBE) nas Honrarias do Ano Novo de 2022 por serviços à cultura alimentar.

Vida pessoal
Em 1959, casou-se com Paul Roden, importador de roupas, e se separaram após 15 anos.

Eles tiveram três filhos.

Ela mora em Hampstead Garden Suburb desde o início da década de 1970.

Filantropia e prêmios
Roden é uma patrocinadora da instituição de caridade The Food Chain, em Londres, que trata da nutrição de pessoas com HIV. Em 1999, Roden foi homenageada com o Prêmio Prince Claus, do Prince Claus Fund, uma organização internacional de cultura e desenvolvimento com sede em Amsterdã, no Países Baixos.

Em 1997, Roden foi premiada com o Prêmio Nacional do Livro Judaico, na categoria Cultura e Costumes Sefarditas e Ashkenazic, pela obra The Book of Jewish Food.

Bibliografia

 1968: A Book of Middle Eastern Food,  (em inglês)
 1970: A New Book of Middle Eastern Food,  (em inglês)
 1981: Picnic: The Complete Guide to Outdoor Food,  (em inglês)
 1981: Coffee,  (em inglês)
 1986: Middle Eastern Cooking,  (em inglês)
 1987: Mediterranean Cookery,  (em inglês)
 1990: The Food of Italy,  (em inglês)
 1992: Claudia Roden's Invitation to Mediterranean Cooking: 150 Vegetarian and Seafood Recipes,  (em inglês)
 1995: Everything Tastes Better Outdoors,  (em inglês)
 1996: The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand and Vilna to the Present Day,  (em inglês)
 1999: Coffee: A Connoisseur's Companion,  (em inglês)
 1999: Tamarind and Saffron: Favourite Recipes from the Middle East,  (em inglês)
 2000: The New Book of Middle Eastern Food,  (em inglês)
 2001: Picnics: And Other Outdoor Feasts,  (em inglês)
 2003: Claudia Roden's Foolproof Mediterranean Cooking,  (em inglês)
 2003: Foreword to Traditional Moroccan Cooking by Madame Guinaudeau,  (em inglês)
 2004: The Arab-Israeli Cookbook: The Recipes, with Robin Soans,  (em inglês)
 2005: Arabesque - Sumptuous Food from Morocco, Turkey and Lebanon,  (em inglês)
 2006: Arabesque: A Taste of Morocco, Turkey, and Lebanon,  (em inglês)
 2007: Simple Mediterranean Cookery,  (em inglês)
 2011: The Food of Spain,  (em inglês)
 2021: Claudia Roden's Mediterranean,  (em inglês)

Ligações externas

 Claudia Roden, entrada de Joan Nathan em Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia (Arquivo das Mulheres Judias). 20 de março de 2009. Recuperado em 5 de janeiro de 2010 (em inglês)
 Entrevista com Claudia Roden por Máirtín Mac Con Iomaire. Oxford Oral History Project. (em inglês)
 Pegue a Rota das Especiarias - artigo de Roden (em inglês)
 Biografia da cápsula na Penguin Books (em inglês)
 Biografia da cápsula . BBC. (em inglês)

Judeus do Reino Unido
Cidadãos naturalizados do Reino Unido
Escritoras de livros de cozinha
Culinária do Médio Oriente
Culinária judaica
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 1936
Judeus do Egito
Comendadores da Ordem do Império Britânico
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Wikiconcurso de edição)

Claudia Roden


Viață de câine este un film românesc din 1998 regizat de Alexandru Solomon.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1998 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1998
Filme regizate de Alexandru Solomon
Filme documentare românești

Viață de câine (film din 1998)


Vippetangenlinjen var en del af Oslos sporveje, der gik fra Tollbugata i centrum til Vippetangen mellem 1900 og 1967. Fra 1918 og indtil nedlæggelsen blev den trafikeret af Korntrikken, særlige sporvogne til transport af korn.

Historie
Linjen blev åbnet som den tredje og sidste af det kommunale selskab Kristiania Kommunale Sporveis (KKS) linjer 28. august 1900. Linjen gik gennem centrum til Anetheum og St. Hanshaugen. I 1905 blev KKS overtaget Kristiania Sporveisselskab (KSS), der forlængede linjen fra Festningsbryggen til Vippetangen 8. november 1905. Vippetangen var dengang et voksende havneområde med skibstrafik til ind- og udland, hvilket gav passagerer til linjen. Linjen selv fulgte med KSS, da det blev overtaget af Oslo Sporveier i 1924. Persontrafikken på linjen ophørte i august 1964 som en del af en planlagt afvikling af Oslos sporveje.

I 1918 begyndte KSS at transportere korn med sporvogne fra siloerne på Vippetangen til møllerne i Grünerløkka og Sandaker. Til at begynde med ombyggedes fire almindelige sporvogne til formålet, men i 1932 anskaffedes to specielt byggede vogne. Driften var meget rentabel, og mølleselskabet Bjølsen Valsemølle ønskede at fortsætte med den, men vejarbejde gjorde at sporvejen måtte fjernes efter sidste driftsdag, 15. februar 1967.

Fremtidsplaner
Der har gennem flere år været planer om at etablere en ny sporvej, der vil betjene Vippetangen. Den nye sporvej, der vil blive en del af Fjordbanen, vil følge halvøens kyst i stedet for at gå gennem den. Der er ikke fastsat noget nærmere tidspunkt for, hvornår den i givet fald kan blive det primære transportmiddel i byfornyelsesområdet, der går under navnet Fjordbyen.

Kilder

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger

Oslos sporveje
Etableret i 1900
Ophørt i 1967

Vippetangenlinjen


Bombinatoridele (Bombinatoridae) este o mică familie de amfibii anure acvatice diurne,  răspândite în Europa și estul Asiei,  care trăiesc tot timpul, cu excepția perioadei de iernare, în apă prin mlaștini, lacuri, râuri de munte cu fund pietros, băltoace puțin adânci. Au corpul turtit. Partea dorsală a corpului este foarte verucoasă, acoperită cu numeroși negi, iar abdomenul este viu colorat. Limba este discoidală și concrescută cu planșeul bucal, fiind neprotractilă. Familia bombinatoridelor cuprinde numai 10 specii, grupate în 2 genuri: Bombina și Barbourula.  În clasificările mai vechi aceste 2 genuri erau incluse în familia discogloside (Discoglossidae). În România trăiește numai genul  Bombina cu 2 specii: buhaiul de baltă cu burta roșie (Bombina bombina) și buhaiul de baltă cu burtă galbenă (Bombina variegata).

Sistematica
Familia cuprinde 10 specii, grupate în 2 genuri: Bombina și Barbourula.
 Genus Barbourula
 Barbourula busuangensis Taylor & Noble, 1924
 Barbourula kalimantanensis Iskandar, 1978
 Genus Bombina
 Bombina bombina
 Bombina lichuanensis
 Bombina fortinuptialis , considerat de unii autori sinonim cu Bombina lichuanensis
 Bombina microdeladigitora , considerat de unii autori sinonim cu Bombina maxima
 Bombina maxima
 Bombina orientalis
 Bombina pachypus
 Bombina variegata

Note

Bibliografie
 Laurie J. Vitt, Janalee P. Caldwell. Herpetology. An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Fourth Edition. Academic Press. 2014
 Ion E. Fuhn, Fauna Republicii Populare Române. Vol. XIV. Fascicula 1: Amphibia. București : Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romîne, 1960, 288 p.
 Ion E. Fuhn. Broaște, șerpi, șopîrle. Editura Științifică, București 1969.
 Z. Feider, Al. V. Grossu, St. Gyurkó, V. Pop. Zoologia vertebratelor. Autor coordonator: Prof. Dr. Doc. Al. V. Grossu. Editura didactică și pedagogică, București, 1967, 768 p.
 Victor Pop. Curs de zoologia vertebratelor. Vol. I. Procordatele, caracterele generale ale vertebratelor, peștii și amfibienii. Litografia Învățământului, Cluj 1957, 612 p.

Legături externe

Bombinatoride


List of military corps – List of Finnish corps in the Continuation War

This is a list of Finnish corps that existed during the Continuation War, 1941–1944.
 I Corps
 II Corps
 III Corps
 IV Corps
 V Corps
 VI Corps
 VII Corps

See also
 Finnish Army
 List of Finnish corps in the Winter War
 List of Finnish divisions in the Continuation War
 List of Finnish divisions in the Winter War

References

Continuation War
Finnish corps
Military units and formations of Finland in World War II
Continuation War


Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta (; 10 February 1950 – 23 March 1994) was a Mexican politician, economist, and Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) presidential candidate, who was assassinated at a campaign rally in Tijuana during the Mexican presidential campaign of 1994.

Political history
Colosio was the son of Luis Colosio Fernández and Ofelia Murrieta Armida García. Born into a family with a long political heritage in Magdalena de Kino, Sonora, Colosio's family was of Italian and Spanish descent.

Colosio-Murrieta studied economics at the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, better known by its initials ITESM, after which he joined the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1972. Shortly thereafter, he began postgraduate studies at the University of Pennsylvania and research at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Austria before returning to Mexico. In 1979, he joined the Secretariat of Budget and Planning under future president Carlos Salinas de Gortari.

He was elected to Congress as the federal deputy for his home town in 1985 and, in 1987, he was selected to serve on the PRI's National Executive Committee. In 1988, Salinas chose him as the campaign manager for his presidential campaign. In the same election, Colosio was elected to the Senate, representing Sonora.

In the early years of Salinas' presidency, Colosio served as the chairman of their party's National Executive Committee. In 1992, Salinas chose him to serve in his cabinet, in the newly created position of Social Development Secretary.

Campaign for president

After a slow start, with the spotlight focusing on former foreign minister Manuel Camacho's negotiations with the EZLN guerrillas, Colosio appeared to get the traditional support of the political machine of the PRI. Like all the PRI's previous presidential candidates, he was greeted by large crowds throughout his presidential campaign, although the PRI's waning popularity meant some reduction in initial enthusiasm.

Speech on 6 March 1994
On 6 March 1994, the anniversary of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (the PRI), Colosio delivered a controversial but popular speech in the nation's capital, in front of the Monument to the Mexican Revolution. In it, he spoke of indigenous communities, government abuse, and the people's independence from government, all hot button issues at a time when the Zapatistas were making similar statements. The speech is widely considered the moment when Colosio broke with then-president Salinas.

Camacho vs Colosio

Since Mexico's constitution permits presidents to remain in power for only one term, and as an extralegal rule presidents (until Salinas) handpicked their own successors (the party's first primary election in history took place in 1999), Colosio apparently continued to enjoy the president's favour, expressed in his famous declaration No se hagan bolas: el candidato es Colosio ("Don't get confused: Colosio is the candidate" would be an appropriate translation, literally it means "Don't get tied up in knots: Colosio is the candidate").

Salinas' declaration was motivated by persistent rumors that highly visible Camacho would replace Colosio, who was not doing well in his campaign. Camacho let speculation grow for some time, but eventually declared he would not run for office, concentrating his attention on the Chiapas rebellion instead. The day after Camacho's statement, Colosio was killed.

Assassination

At 5:05 PM PST, on 23 March 1994, at a campaign rally in Lomas Taurinas, a poor neighborhood of Tijuana, Baja California, Colosio was shot in the head with a .38 Special that was originally purchased in San Francisco. Colosio collapsed, and was subsequently rushed to the city's main hospital, after plans to fly him to an American hospital across the border were canceled. His death was announced a few hours later, amid contradicting eyewitness reports that remain to this day.

The shooter, Mario Aburto Martínez, was arrested at the site and never wavered from his story that he had acted alone. Nonetheless, many theories still surround Colosio's assassination. The authorities were criticized for their poor handling of Aburto, having shaved, bathed and given him a prison haircut before showing him to the media, which started rumors about whether that man, who looked so different from the one arrested, was really the murderer. Colosio received three bullet wounds, and it was never clear if they could have been fired by a single person or not. The case was officially closed after many different prosecutors investigated it, but after the many mishandlings of the investigation and contradictory versions, the controversy continues. Aburto remains imprisoned at the high-security La Palma facility in Almoloya de Juárez.

There are a number of conspiracy theories about the assassination, including that it was by narcotraffickers. However, the most accepted theory among the Mexican people is that he was betrayed by his own party and that the murder was orchestrated by high members of the PRI including President Salinas, as Colosio's speech was flouncing away from Salinas's political agenda to maintain influence during further Mexican administrations. Shortly after Colosio was assassinated, Salinas abruptly ended a meeting with Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, publicly referring to the slaying as an "act of infamy."

On 18 November 1994, Diana Laura Riojas, the wife of Colosio, died while investigating the murder of her husband; officially she died from pancreatic cancer. The newly elected president Ernesto Zedillo did not attend her funeral.

Aftermath

With only four months before the election, the PRI found itself hamstrung by the constitutional requirement that no presidential candidate can hold public office during the six months immediately prior to the election; this effectively disqualified the entire cabinet, where most of the more promising replacements were. Of the few potential candidates available, Salinas eventually chose Zedillo, who had just resigned as Education Minister to serve as Colosio's campaign manager, because Manlio Fabio Beltrones, a very close collaborator of the murdered candidate, showed a video where Colosio praised Zedillo. This stroke of luck for Zedillo, who would have never been a candidate under normal circumstances, gave rise to even more rumours – unfounded or not.

A few months later, Salinas' brother-in-law, José Francisco Ruiz Massieu, president of the PRI, was also murdered in plain daylight in Mexico City, eliminating the two most visible and powerful official heads of the PRI in Mexico, Colosio and Ruiz Massieu. Eventually Ernesto Zedillo was elected president.

Eight months after Colosio's assassination, his wife, Laura Riojas, died of cancer. News magazine Proceso reported Colosio's widow's first words upon learning of her husband's assassination: "Who did it?" Two children, now cared for by relatives, survived. Colosio's father continued determined to uncover what he strongly suspected are hidden truths behind his son's very public murder and, in 2004, he published a book about the case. He died in 2010.

On a visit to Lomas Taurinas on February 11, 2021, Luis Donaldo Colosio Riojas said he forgave ″the cowards″ who had killed his father. He also criticized the political class that kidnaps the power to serve their evil groups and interests and he condemned the fact that calls for unity and solidarity from the leaders are not heard.

Colosio in popular culture

Colosio: El asesinato (2012), directed by Carlos Bolado, explored the aftermath of the assassination of the candidate and various conspiracy theories. It notes that two investigations were conducted, and details the 15 associated people who were killed following the investigation, as well as widespread violence and unrest.

Mexican rock group El Tri wrote a song about the assassination of Colosio called "Con la cola entre las patas" (With the tail between the legs).

Two Netflix series released in 2019 cover the events leading up to and following Colosio's assassination: The documentary 1994, and the crime drama Crime Diaries: The Candidate.

References

Further reading
Castañeda, Jorge G. Perpetuating Power: How Mexican Presidents Were Chosen. New York: The New Press 2000.
Krauze, Enrique, Mexico: Biography of Power. New York: HarperCollins 1997.

External links
El Asesinato de Luis Donaldo Colosio, Books about the assassination of Colosio (Spanish)?
The Assassination of Luis Donaldo Colosio, Books about the assassination of Colosio (English),

1950 births
1994 deaths
Candidates in the 1994 Mexican presidential election
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Deaths by firearm in Mexico
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Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta


Régine Scelles, née le  à Mont-Saint-Martin (Meurthe-et-Moselle), et morte le  à Paris, est une psychologue clinicienne et universitaire française. Elle est professeure de psychopathologie à l'université Paris Nanterre de 2014 à 2022.

Ses travaux ont porté sur le handicap de l'enfant, et notamment son impact au sein de sa fratrie.

Biographie
Régine Scelles naît le  à Mont-Saint-Martin. Elle fait ses études de psychologie à l'université de Caen, puis elle soutient sa thèse de doctorat à l'université Paris VII, dirigée par Michèle Huguet, sous le titre : J'ai mal a mon frère : influence du handicap d'un enfant sur ses frères et sœurs.

Elle commence sa carrière universitaire en 1996, comme maîtresse de conférence à l'université de Tours, où elle obtient en 2002 son HDR, avec une mémoire intitulé Contribution de l'étude des situations de handicap à la compréhension de la vie psychique du sujet dans ses liens aux autres. Elle est nommée professeure de psychologie en 2003 à l'université de Rouen.

Elle est psychologue au Sessad de l'association CESAP à partir de 2001.

De 2013 à 2017, elle est déléguée scientifique à l'évaluation des programmes du Haut Conseil de l'évaluation de la recherche et de l'enseignement supérieur (HCERES)

En , elle rejoint l'université Paris-Nanterre comme professeure de psychopathologie. Elle dirige le laboratoire de recherche « Clinique psychanalyse et développement» (CLIPSYD). Elle est présidente du conseil d'administration de l'INSHEA et présidente de la Fédération nationale des écoles des parents.

Elle codirige à partir de 2005, puis dirige à partir de 2007 la revue Dialogue.

Elle cofonde en 2016 le Séminaire inter-universitaire international sur la clinique du handicap (SIICLHA), adossé à l'Association normande d'études psychologiques (ANEP).

Elle meurt à  à Paris, le , et elle est inhumée au cimetière d'Orsay.

En avril 2023, l'université Paris-Nanterre inaugure un espace Régine Scelles dans ses bâtiments, à l'occasion d'une journée en son hommage.

Travaux
Régine Scelles travaille principalement sur le handicap de l'enfant, et l'impact de ce handicap sur sa fratrie. Selon elle, le handicap "fait grandir précocement la fratrie", plaçant les enfants dans une position précoce pour leur âge. Le réflexe de "surprotection" d'un enfant handicapé par les parents, causé par une "culpabilité" de leur part, n'aide pas l'enfant handicapé, et peut provoquer deux réactions chez les membres de la fratrie : une adoption à leur tour d'un comportement de protection parental, ou d'ancrage dans leur position de membre d'une fratrie, qui se sentent délaissés dans leurs souffrances, provoquant une frustration, voire des comportements agressifs ou maltraitants.

Publications
 C. Dayan, R. Scelles (dir.), Handicap et relations entre pairs : la solitude n'est pas une fatalité, 2021, éd. Érès.
 M. Gargiulo, S. Korff-Sausse, R. Scelles (dir.), Dispositifs psychothérapeutiques : maladies graves et handicaps, Une nécessaire créativité, 2021, éd. Érès.
 R. Scelles, M. Wawrzyniak (dir.), Parentalités en mouvement, Des pratiques à inventer, 2021, éd. Érès.
 R. Scelles (dir.), Naître, grandir, vieillir avec un handicap, Transitions et remaniements psychiques, 2016, éd. Érès.
 D. Bedoin, R. Scelles (dir.), S'exprimer et se faire comprendre, Entretiens et situations de handicap, 2015, éd. Érès.
 R. Scelles (dir.), Famille, culture et handicap, 2013, éd. Érès.
 J-P. Raynaud, R. Scelles (dir.), Psychopathologie et handicap de l'enfant et de l'adolescent, Approches cliniques, 2013, éd. Érès.
 R. Scelles, G. Petitpierre (dir.), Polyhandicap : processus d'évaluation cognitive, Outils, théories et pratiques, 2013, éd. Dunod.
 F. Pommier, R. Scelles (dir.), Mort et travail de pensée, Points de vue théoriques et expériences cliniques, 2011, éd. Érès.
 R. Scelles, Liens fraternels et handicap, 2010, éd. Érès.
 (collectif.), Handicap, identité sexuée et vie sexuelle, 2010, éd. Érès.
 R. Scelles (dir.), Handicap : L'Éthique dans les pratiques cliniques, 2008, éd. Érès.
 A-E. Aubert, R. Scelles (dir.), Dispositifs de soins au défi des situations extrêmes, 2007, éd. Érès.
 A. Ciccone, S. Korff-Sausse, S. Missonnier, R. Scelles (dir.), Cliniques du sujet handicapé, 2007, éd. Érès.

Références

Liens externes

Psychologue français
Enseignant à l'université Paris-Nanterre
Étudiant de l'université Paris-Diderot
Naissance en juillet 1958
Naissance en Meurthe-et-Moselle
Décès en janvier 2022
Personnalité inhumée dans l'Essonne
Décès à 63 ans

Régine Scelles


Druga Uskrsna nedjelja ili Druga Vazmena nedjelja (Druga nedjelja po Uskrsu), ujedno i Nedjelja Božjega milosrđa, poznata i kao Tomina nedjelja i Bijela nedjelja, prva je nedjelja po svetkovini Uskrsa i posljednji dan Uskrsne osmine u liturgijskoj (crkvenoj) godini. Pučki je poznata pod nazivom Mali Uskrs. Naziva se i Svijetla nedjelja. Raznolikost naziva ukazuje na njezinu teološku, biblijsku, crkveno-povijesnu i liturgijsku višeznačnost.

Tominom se nedjeljom naziva jer se na euharistijskim slavljima čita evanđeoski odlomak o Isusovu posjetu apostolima nakon uskrsnuća i nevjeri Tome apostola (poradi toga prozvanoga "Nevjerni Toma" ili "Sumnjičavi Toma") u Isusovo uskrsnuće. Bijelom se naziva jer novokrštenici (katekumeni), koji su primili sakramente u liturgiji Vazmenoga bdijenja Velike subote, na svetu misu dolaze u bijelim haljinama, kao simboli čistoće, sakramentalnoga zajedništva i punine članstva u Crkvi, ali i kao simbol uskrsnuća tj. pobjede Života nad smrću.

Također, njome se obilježava i spomendan i svetkovina Božjega milosrđa, koja se razmatra u Vazmenom otajstvu (muci, smrti i uskrsnuću Kristovu). Blagdan je za štovanje i obilježavanje odredio papa Ivan Pavao II., koji je još kao krakowski nadbiskup 1978. prvi dao službeno Crkveno odobrenje proslave ove svetkovine.

U pravoslavnim je zajednicama na Tominu nedjelju prisutan običaj blagoslova (posvećenja) žita i hrane, kao i bojanja i poklanjanja pisanica djeci, u znak Kristove pobjede. U Srbiji je poznata i kao "vodena nedjelja", na koju mladići i djevojke bacaju u potoke i rijeke bacaju cvjetne vijence radi tjeranja vodenih demona.

Izvori

Uskrs

Druga Uskrsna nedjelja


O LMS-901 "Baikal" é um avião leve, multifuncional, monomotor, turboélice russo.

O "Baikal" destina-se a substituir o obsoleto Antonov An-2. O projeto foi desenvolvido pela "Indústria de Aviação Civil de Ural" (UZGA) (o contrato de desenvolvimento foi assinado por uma subsidiária da "UZGA Baikal-Engenharia") e o Instituto de Aviação de Moscou, sob instruções e com o apoio do Ministério da Indústria e Comércio, como parte do programa estatal para o desenvolvimento de pequenas aeronaves. O lançamento da produção em série do LMS-901 está planejado para começar em 2024, em Komsomolsk de Amur..

Projeto e desenvolvimento
O monoplano de asa alta, feito de alumínio, deve ser equipado com o turbohélice General Electric H80-200 e acomodar 9 passageiros. Menor e quase duas vezes mais leve que o An-2, deve custar menos de 120 milhões de rublos (US$ 1,6 milhão). Deve atingir 300 km/h a partir de uma velocidade de pouso de 95 km/h e cobrir 3.000 km. Motores elétricos opcionais podem oferecer redundância. Ele deve voar um alcance de 800 nmi (1.500 km) com uma carga útil de 2 t (4.400 lb) de pistas curtas não pavimentadas.

A Baikal Engenharia, subsidiária da "Indústria de Aviação Civil de Ural", projetou o LMS-901 para substituir o Antonov An-2 depois que o SibNIA TVS-2DTS foi adiado indefinidamente. O teste do túnel de vento foi concluído no final de novembro de 2020, pois as companhias aéreas regionais russas estavam interessadas em 200 aeronaves. Em abril de 2021, uma estrutura de protótipo do LMS-901 foi concluída.

Histórico
Inicialmente, o projeto da aeronave leve multifuncional "Baikal" para substituir o An-2 foi realizado pelo Instituto de Pesquisa de Aviação da Sibéria em homenagem a Chaplygin (SibNIA). A aeronave TVS-2MS (An-2 remotorizada) e TVS-2DTS (avião biplano totalmente composto) foram desenvolvidos. No entanto, a aeronave criada pela SibNIA não atendeu a vários requisitos do cliente. Primeiro de tudo, o avião acabou sendo superdimensionado. De acordo com os atuais padrões de aeronavegabilidade russos, o número de passageiros a bordo de uma aeronave monomotor não deve exceder 9 pessoas, o que não permitirá realizar plenamente o volume interno e a capacidade de carga do TVS-2DTS (projetado para 12-14 passageiros ). Além disso, o TVS-2DTS tem um peso de decolagem superior a 5700 kg, o que exclui o voo de tripulantes com licença de piloto privado (PPL) e comercial (CPL) e exige treinamento como piloto de linha para ser comissionado em um tipo específico. Além disso, em 2019 na Rússia não foi possível localizar os componentes críticos do TVS-2DTS: um motor turboélice com capacidade de 1100-1300 hp. E partes de fibra de carbono do tipo desejado. Como resultado, o Ministério da Indústria e Comércio abandonou o desenvolvimento do projeto TVS-2DTS e anunciou um novo concurso para a criação de uma aeronave leve multiuso.

Em setembro de 2019, soube-se que o Ministério da Indústria e Comércio identificou a Usina de Aviação Civil dos Urais (UZGA) como desenvolvedora de uma aeronave leve multiuso para substituir o An-2 na versão monoplano. No mesmo mês, o Instituto Central de Motores de Aviação (CIAM) emitiu uma aprovação para um projeto preliminar para o uso do motor VK-800 como uma usina de aeronaves com a recomendação de desenvolver um motor bimotor e um motor monomotor. versão da aeronave.

A UZGA afirmou que o monoplano teria um peso de decolagem de 4.800 kg. As características de decolagem e pouso da nova máquina devem corresponder ou exceder as do An-2: a aeronave deve ter uma velocidade de cruzeiro de 300 km/h, um alcance de pelo menos 1.500 km com uma carga de 2 toneladas. Presume-se que a nova aeronave será muito menos dependente de componentes críticos importados, em particular, os motores e os materiais compósitos da fuselagem serão russos.

O desenvolvimento do projeto da nova aeronave foi realizado, por ordem da UZGA, no Instituto de Aviação de Moscou (MAI). Um conjunto de documentação de projeto para um protótipo está planejado para ser criado antes de setembro de 2020, em dezembro foi planejado criar um protótipo para testes estáticos.

Em outubro de 2019, foi anunciado um contrato entre o Ministério da Indústria e Comércio e a Baikal Engenharia (subsidiária da UZGA) no valor de 1,25 bilhão de rublos.

Além disso, no âmbito da cooperação cazaque-russa, no projeto para a criação da aeronave LMS "Baikal", foi assinado um contrato para a aquisição pela empresa de produção de aviação cazaque "Kazakhstan Aviation Industry" de uma participação na Baikal-Engineering LLC. O programa do projeto prevê a organização a partir de 2024 da produção de aeronaves do tipo "Baikal" com base na indústria de aviação do Cazaquistão.

A estreia da aeronave ocorreu no Salão Internacional de Aviação e Espaço MAKS-2021.

Os testes de voo do LMS-901 "Baikal" deveriam começar em outubro de 2021, mas posteriormente o primeiro voo da aeronave foi adiado para o início de 2022.

Espera-se que a produção em série do Baikal seja lançada em 2024 no nível de 30 aeronaves por ano.

Também foi relatado que a aeronave leve multifuncional Baikal receberá um motor híbrido em 2024, incluindo um motor de marcha e elétrico.

Ligações externas
 ЛМС-901 "Байкал": конструктивные зарисовки
 Лёгкий многоцелевой самолёт ЛМС-901 «Байкал» на МАКС-2021
 Самолет «Байкал» выиграл воздушный бой за конвейер у ТВС-2ДТС
 Com ousado objetivo de ser um novo Antonov An-2, o LMS-901 faz seu 1º voo, assista
 , vídeo

Aeronaves propostas
Aviação na Rússia

LMS-901


Ines Curella née Giganti à Licata le , morte le , est une femme politique et dirigeante d'entreprise italienne.

Députée régionale sicilienne sous l'étiquette de la Démocratie chrétienne, elle est la première italienne à diriger une banque lorsqu'elle préside la Banca Popolare Sant'Angelo entre 1955 et 1961.

Biographie
Étudiante à Rome, elle est docteure en philologie classique à l'Université de Florence, Ines Giganti Curella revient à Licata où elle est née, et enseigne les lettres au lycée classique Vincenzo-Linares de la ville à partir de 1938.

Elle rencontre Angelo Curella, fondateur de la Banca Popolare Sant'Angelo en 1920 à Licata et podestat de la commune, qu'elle épouse le 31 octobre 1940. De quinze ans plus âgé, veuf d'un premier mariage dont est issue une fille, il a avec elle sept enfants.

Elle s'engage dans la vie publique comme dirigeante de la Fédération des universitaires catholiques italiens et dans les rangs de la Démocratie chrétienne. Soutenue par l'évêque d'Agrigente Giovanni Battista Peruzzo et les organisations féminines catholiques lors des premières élections régionales siciliennes en 1947, elle est l'une des trois femmes élues à l'Assemblée régionale. Lors de cette première législature, elle s'exprime sur les questions sociales et lors des discussions de la loi de réforme agraire. Son engagement lui vaut le surnom de  même si elle s'oppose vigoureusement à la gauche lors des débats parlementaires régionaux.

Elle ne se représente pas au scrutin suivant (peut-être à cause des ambitions électorales de son mari) et elle est élue en 1952 au conseil municipal de Licata dont elle devient la première femme maire. Elle obtient notamment la construction de l'aqueduc des Tre Sorgenti pour alimenter la ville en eau potable.

Poursuivant son engagement dans l'action sociale, elle est également conseillère provinciale d'Agrigente de 1960 à 1961, chargée de l'instruction publique.

A la suite de son mari, elle préside la Banca Popolare Sant'Angelo de 1955 à 1961. Elle en constitue le caractère local et mutualiste et amorce une politique de développement à l'échelle régionale, avant de laisser la direction à son fils.

Elle échoue à être élue au Sénat lors des élections générales italiennes de 1963.

Honneurs

 1954 : Commandeur de l'Ordre du Mérite de la République italienne
 A Licata, une rue et l'Institut technique des géomètres portent son nom.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

 Politique de la Sicile

Liens externes

Naissance en octobre 1914
Naissance à Licata
Décès à Licata
Décès en juin 1982
Personnalité de la Démocratie chrétienne (Italie)
Commandeur de l'ordre du Mérite de la République italienne
Conjoint de personnalité politique
Décès à 67 ans

Ines Giganti Curella


Okrug Rada'a (Arapski: مُدِيْرِيَّة رَدَاع) je okrug muhafaze Al Bayda u Jemenu. U 2003. godini okrug je imao 56,382 stanovnika. Najveći grad okruga je Rada'a, 49 km istočno od Zamara, grad poznat po svojoj Amresijskoj medresi i džamiji iz 16. stoljeća.

Izvori

Administrativna podjela Jemena
Administrativne jedinice drugog reda

Rada'a (okrug)


Zagrosia, maleni biljni rod iz porodice šparogovki. Jedini predstavnik je Zagrosia persica, koju je prvi opisao Heinrich Carl Haussknecht kao Scilla persica, da bi 1998. bila klasificirana kao zaseban rod. Ime roda je došlo po planinskom lancu Zagros, a ime vrste po Perziji (Iranu) a raširena je na području Irana, Iraka i Turske

Naraste 20 do 30 cm. visine, cvjeta od sredine do kasnog proljeća plavim cvjetovima. Voli sunčane položaje. Uzgaja se i po vrtovima kao ukrasna biljka.

Sinonimi
 Scilla persica Hausskn.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 The Plant List
 Tropicos
Hyacintheae
Flora Irana
Flora Iraka
Flora Turske

Zagrosia (Plantae)


ISO 3166-2:PL is the entry for Poland in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for Poland, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 16 voivodeships.

Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Poland. The second part is two digits.

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).

Subdivision names are sorted in Polish alphabetical order: a, ą, b-c, ć, d-e, ę, f-l, ł, m-n, ń, o, ó, p-s, ś, t-z, ź, ż.

Click on the button in the header to sort each column.

 Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO  in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.

Codes before Newsletter I-1

Codes before 2018-11-26 update

See also
 Subdivisions of Poland
 FIPS region codes of Poland
 NUTS codes of Poland
 Neighbouring countries: BY, CZ, DE, LT, RU, SK, UA

External links
 ISO Online Browsing Platform: PL
 Voivodships of Poland, Statoids.com

2:PL
ISO 3166-2
Poland geography-related lists

ISO 3166-2:PL


معبد الشمس بناه الملك «لي وسر رع» وهو سادس ملوك الأسرة الخامسة الفرعونية في أبو صير، وهو أكمل معابد الشمس الباقية.

وصف المعبد
يشتمل علي مبني ضخم يقوم فوق هضبة ويطل علي الوادي، حيث يتصل به طريق صاعد مكشوف لأشعة الشمس ينتهي عند المعبد الرئيسي الذي يتألف من بناء ضخم، يضم بهوًا رحبًا تغمره أشعة الشمس وتملأ أرجاءه. وتقوم فيه مسلة حجرية ضخمة ارتفاعها 36 متر، وتنتهي المسلة بقمة مدببة علي هيئة الهرم الصغير.

ومن أهم مميزات معبد الشمس الفناء الواسع، وخلوه من تماثيل الإله (الشمس)، ففي اعتقادهم أن إلههم واضح وموجود في السماء، ولا حاجة إلى إخفائه في تماثيل.

معابد

معبد الشمس


Dieser Artikel behandelt das Literaturjahr 1889.

Ereignisse

Prosa

 Jerome K. Jerome veröffentlicht den Roman Three Men in a Boat. Das Buch war ursprünglich als ernsthafter Reiseführer mit Erzählungen über die Geschichte von Plätzen entlang der Strecke geplant, doch die humoristischen Schilderungen gewannen letztlich die Oberhand. Die drei Männer basieren auf Jerome selbst und seinen Freunden George und Harris.
 Mark Twain veröffentlicht den satirischen Roman A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.

 Von Giovanni Verga erscheint der Roman Mastro-Don Gesualdo.

 Der Roman Sans dessus dessous (Der Schuss am Kilimandscharo) von Jules Verne wird im Verlag Pierre-Jules Hetzel veröffentlicht.
 Von Karl Gjellerup erscheint der Roman Minna.
 Bertha von Suttner veröffentlicht Die Waffen nieder! im Verlag Edgar Pierson in Dresden. Der pazifistische Roman erreicht innerhalb kurzer Zeit eine überragende Bekanntheit und Verbreitung.
 Detlev von Liliencron: Der Mäcen
 Theodor Fontane veröffentlicht den fünften und letzten Band der Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg mit dem Titel Fünf Schlösser.
 Von Peter Rosegger erscheint die Erzählung Der Edi und seine Nessel.
 Die Erstfassungen der Erzählungen Reichtum und Der Sohn von Arthur Schnitzler entstehen.
 In der Gartenlaube erscheint der Liebes- und Gesellschaftsroman Nicht im Geleise von Ida Boy-Ed.

Lyrik

 Theodor Fontane veröffentlicht unter anderem die Ballade Herr von Ribbeck auf Ribbeck im Havelland.

Periodika

 8. Juli: In New York erscheint die erste Ausgabe des Wall Street Journals.
 12. Juli: In Wien erscheint nach dem Verbot der Gleichheit die Erstausgabe der Arbeiter-Zeitung, erster Chefredakteur ist Victor Adler.

Drama

 12. Februar: Das im Vorjahr vom norwegischen Dichter Henrik Ibsen verfasste Schauspiel Fruen fra havet (Die Frau vom Meer) hat gleichzeitig an zwei Orten seine Uraufführung: am Hoftheater in Weimar und am Christiania Theater. Bei der norwegischen Aufführung führt Bjørn Bjørnson Regie. Das Stück wird überwiegend positiv aufgenommen.
 14. März: Die Tragödie Fräulein Julie des schwedischen Dramatikers August Strindberg wird in Kopenhagen uraufgeführt, die Hauptrolle spielt Strindbergs Frau Siri von Essen. Das Stück ist bis heute eines der meistgespielten des Autors. In seiner Heimat Schweden wird das Stück jedoch erst 1906 zum ersten Mal aufgeführt.
 5. April: In Berlin wird der Theaterverein Freie Bühne gegründet. Ziel des Vereins ist es, die preußische Zensur zu umgehen und seinen Mitgliedern moderne Theaterstücke in "geschlossener Aufführung" vorführen zu können. Am 29. September um 12 Uhr mittags wird am Lessingtheater Gespenster von Henrik Ibsen als erstes Stück der Freien Bühne aufgeführt. Am 20. Oktober folgt das Stück Vor Sonnenaufgang von Gerhart Hauptmann als Uraufführung und verursacht einen handfesten Theaterskandal.

Wissenschaftliche Werke, Essays

 Friedrich Nietzsches im Vorjahr entstandenes Werk Götzen-Dämmerung oder Wie man mit dem Hammer philosophiert wird veröffentlicht. Im Januar hat Nietzsche einen geistigen Zusammenbruch.
 Othniel Charles Marsh beschreibt erstmals die Dinosaurier-Gattung Triceratops.

Geboren

Erstes Halbjahr

 5. Januar: Julius Zerzer, österreichischer Schriftsteller († 1971)
 10. Januar: Joseph Santley, US-amerikanischer Regisseur, Autor und Produzent († 1971)
 15. Januar: Walter Serner, deutscher Essayist, Schriftsteller und Dadaist († 1942)
 23. Januar: Rikard Long, färöischer Dichter und Literaturkritiker († 1977)
 24. Januar: Victor Eftimiu, rumänischer Schriftsteller († 1972)
 24. Januar: Kuni Tremel-Eggert, deutsche Schriftstellerin († 1957)
 29. Januar: Bruno Ertler, österreichischer Schriftsteller († 1927)

 6. Februar: Hans Bellée, deutscher Archivar und Historiker († 1960)
 7. Februar: Ludwig Winder, österreichischer Schriftsteller, Journalist und Literaturkritiker († 1946)
 9. Februar: Aline Valangin, Schweizer Schriftstellerin und Psychoanalytikerin († 1986)
 26. Februar: Otto Riethmüller, deutscher Dichter († 1938)

 1. März: Okamoto Kanoko, japanische Schriftstellerin († 1939)
 6. März: Hamza Hakimzoda Niyoziy, usbekischer Sowjet-Schriftsteller († 1929)
 7. März: Heinrich Studer, Schweizer Verleger († 1961)
 31. März: Otto Friedländer, österreichischer Schriftsteller und Pazifist († 1963)

 3. April: Ignas Šeinius, litauisch-schwedischer Schriftsteller, Publizist und Diplomat († 1959)
 7. April: Gabriela Mistral, chilenische Dichterin und Diplomatin († 1957)
 14. April: Karl Schworm, deutscher Autor und Heimatdichter († 1956)
 17. April: Joseph Georg Oberkofler, österreichischer Jurist, Erzähler und Lyriker († 1962)
 22. April: Ludwig Renn, deutscher Schriftsteller († 1979)
 26. April: Ludwig Wittgenstein, österreichischer Philosoph († 1951)

 4. Mai: Richard Seewald, deutscher Maler und Schriftsteller († 1976)
 29. Mai: Uchida Hyakken, japanischer Schriftsteller († 1971)

 1. Juni: Charles Kay Ogden, britischer Linguist und Schriftsteller († 1957)
 17. Juni: Jan Skala, sorbischer Publizist und Schriftsteller († 1945)
 23. Juni: Anna Andrejewna Achmatowa, russische Dichterin und Schriftstellerin († 1966)
 23. Juni: Miki Rofū, japanischer Dichter, Kinderbuchautor und Essayist († 1964)
 24. Juni: Leopold Reitz, deutscher Schriftsteller († 1972)

Zweites Halbjahr

 3. Juli: Karla König, deutsche Journalistin, Schriftstellerin und Kulturfunktionärin († 1963)
 5. Juli: Jean Cocteau, französischer Schriftsteller, Regisseur, Choreograph, Maler († 1963)
 10. Juli: Noble Sissle, afroamerikanischer Sänger und Liedtext-Lyriker († 1975)
 13. Juli: Adam Scharrer, deutscher Schriftsteller († 1948)
 17. Juli: Erle Stanley Gardner, US-amerikanischer Krimi-Schriftsteller († 1970)

 5. August: Conrad Aiken, US-amerikanischer Schriftsteller und Gewinner des Pulitzer-Preises († 1973)
 9. August: Friedrich Burschell, deutscher Schriftsteller († 1970)
 10. August: Zofia Kossak, polnische Schriftstellerin, Widerstandskämpferin und Initiatorin der Żegota († 1968)
 14. August: Willi Münzenberg, deutscher Kommunist und Verleger († 1940)
 23. August: Alfred Lichtenstein, deutscher Jurist und expressionistischer Schriftsteller († 1914)

 4. September: Johannes Saß, deutscher Sprachwissenschaftler und Lexikograf († 1971)
 6. September: George Hively, Us-amerikanischer Drehbuchautor und Filmeditor († 1950)
 6. September: Ludwig Tügel, deutscher Schriftsteller († 1972)
 12. September: Heinrich Lersch, deutscher Kesselschmied und Arbeiterdichter († 1936)
 12. September: Joe Gould, US-amerikanischer Schriftsteller († 1957)
 23. September: Walter Lippmann, US-amerikanischer Schriftsteller († 1974)
 28. September: Hans Behrendt, deutscher Regisseur, Drehbuchautor und Schauspieler († 1942)

 3. Oktober: Carl von Ossietzky, deutscher Schriftsteller und Herausgeber († 1938)
 6. Oktober: Maria Dąbrowska, polnische Schriftstellerin († 1965)
 7. Oktober: Heinrich Eduard Jacob, deutscher Journalist und Schriftsteller († 1967)
 9. Oktober: Richard St. Barbe Baker, britischer Forstwissenschaftler, Umweltaktivist und Autor († 1982)
 12. Oktober: Dietrich von Hildebrand, katholischer Philosoph, Theologe und Autor († 1977)
 16. Oktober: Gottfried Kölwel, deutscher Lyriker, Dramatiker und Erzähler († 1958)
 19. Oktober: Fannie Hurst, US-amerikanische Schriftstellerin und Journalistin († 1968)
 27. Oktober: Rudolf Leonhard, deutscher Schriftsteller und Kommunist († 1953)

 5. November: Ilo Mitkë Qafëzezi, Schriftsteller, Historiker und Koranübersetzer aus Albanien († 1964)
 10. November: Julius Franz Schütz, österreichischer Dichter und Kulturhistoriker († 1961)
 11. November: Kubota Mantarō, japanischer Schriftsteller († 1963)
 12. November: Carl Haensel, deutscher Jurist und Schriftsteller († 1968)
 14. November: Taha Hussein, ägyptischer Schriftsteller († 1973)
 16. November: George Simon Kaufman, US-amerikanischer Autor († 1961)
 18. November: Hans Reimann, deutscher Schriftsteller, Dramatiker und Drehbuchautor († 1969)
 23. November: Hermann Asemissen, deutscher Übersetzer aus dem Russischen († 1965)

 2. Dezember: Margot Benary-Isbert, deutsche Autorin († 1979)
 6. Dezember: Max Pulver, Schweizer Psychologe, Graphologe, Lyriker, Dramatiker und Erzähler († 1952)
 8. Dezember: Hervey Allen, US-amerikanischer Schriftsteller († 1949)
 8. Dezember: Leopold Marx, deutscher Schriftsteller, Dichter und Fabrikant († 1983)
 12. Dezember: Väinö Albert Nuorteva, finnischer Schriftsteller und Journalist († 1967)
 14. Dezember: Maximilian Müller-Jabusch, deutscher Journalist († 1961)
 30. Dezember: Georg von der Vring, deutscher Schriftsteller († 1968)

Gestorben

 9. März: Paolo Ferrari, italienischer Lustspieldichter (* 1822)
 11. April: Émile de Najac, französischer Librettist (* 1828)
 4. April: Gisela von Arnim, deutsche Schriftstellerin (* 1827)
 16. April: Louis Ulbach, französischer Schriftsteller und Journalist (* 1822)
 29. April: Friedrich Ferdinand Löwe, deutscher Schriftsteller, Bibliothekar und Übersetzer (* 1809)

 10. Mai: Michail Saltykow-Schtschedrin, russischer Schriftsteller und Satiriker (* 1826)
 8. Juni: Gerard Manley Hopkins, britischer Lyriker und Jesuit (* 1844)
 15. Juni: Mihai Eminescu, rumänischer Dichter (* 1850)

 13. Juli: Robert Hamerling, österreichischer Schriftsteller (* 1830)
 5. August: Fanny Lewald, deutsche Schriftstellerin (* 1811)

 23. September: Wilkie Collins, britischer Schriftsteller und Verfasser der ersten Mystery Thriller (* 1824)
 25. Oktober: Émile Augier, französischer Dramatiker (* 1820)

 20. November: Louise Zeller, deutsche Autorin historischer Romane (* 1823)
 28. November: Richard von Volkmann, deutscher Chirurg und Schriftsteller (* 1830)

 10. Dezember: Ludwig Anzengruber, österreichischer Dichter, Erzähler und Dramatiker (* 1839)
 12. Dezember: Robert Browning, britischer Dichter (* 1812)

Siehe auch

Weblinks

Literaturjahr 1889


Ein Orangenpapier ist ein meist dünnes, mit bunten Motiven bedrucktes Papier, in das Orangen eingewickelt zum Verkauf angeboten werden. Seine ursprüngliche Schutzfunktion hat es verloren, heutzutage dient es Werbezwecken und als Sammelobjekt.

Da Orangen im Gegensatz zu anderem Obst wie Bananen ihren Reifeprozess unmittelbar nach der Ernte stoppen, war und ist es unabdingbar, sie vollreif zu ernten und rasch zu transportieren. Der zügige Transport von den mediterranen Anbaugebieten in weit entfernte Länder  wurde erst mit dem Aufkommen von Eisenbahn und Schnelldampfern möglich. Um das durch die Reife empfindliche Obst vor Stößen, Feuchtigkeit und Transportschäden zu schützen und um zu verhindern, dass sich etwaiger Schimmel von einer Orange auf die daneben liegende ausbreitet, wurden die Früchte in das 1878 zum Patent angemeldete Orangenpapier eingewickelt. Da dies ursprünglich der einzige Zweck des Orangenpapiers war, war dieses anfangs unbedruckt, bald wurde es allerdings als Träger für Werbung entdeckt. Durch automatisierte Vorgänge, Flugzeuge, möglich gewordenen schonenderen Transport und Kühleinrichtungen aller Art sowie durch die chemische Oberflächenbehandlung der Früchte ist die Schutzfunktion des Orangenpapiers weitgehend verloren gegangen.

Fand man auf frühen Orangenpapieren meist Zeichnungen und Werbesprüche, mit denen die Eigentümer der damals oft als Familienbetrieb geführten Orangenplantagen Italiens und Spaniens ihr Obst bewarben, so sind mit der Erfindung des Zwei-, Drei- und Vierfarbdrucks und später des Offsetdrucks die Motive und Texte äußerst mannigfaltig geworden. Es gibt Orangenpapiere mit Abbildungen von beispielsweise Struwwelpeter, Odysseus, Micky Maus und Ähnlichem; bildliche Darstellungen aus Märchen, Mythen und Sagen sind ebenso zu finden wie Porträts von Politikern und Sportlern, Tier- und Blumenmotive oder schlicht Ornamente.

Die Abbildungen auf Orangenpapieren hatten auch oftmals einen Bezug zu damals aktuellen Geschehnissen, Erfindungen oder Trends. So wurden etwa die Entwicklung des Telefons oder des Zeppelins auf Orangenpapieren verewigt, ebenso wie später die Vespa. Die Darstellungen wurden teilweise auch an das Zielland der Orangen angepasst. Für Orangen, die nach Großbritannien exportiert wurden, entwarf man etwa Papiere mit Robin-Hood- und Sherlock-Holmes-Motiven, Papiere für Deutschland zeigten unter vielem anderen Rotkäppchen, Martin Luther oder Max und Moritz, in die USA exportierte man Orangen mit dem Konterfei George Washingtons. Orangenpapiere illustrieren so einerseits die Werbegeschichte, andererseits auch die Zeit und Umstände, aus der sie stammen. So verloren die spanischen Papiere Ende der 1930er-Jahre ihre Kunstfertigkeit, da viele der Grafiker Republikaner waren und nach dem Sieg Francos ins Exil gingen. Diese Geschichtsträchtigkeit und die Vielfalt der Abbildungen haben Orangenpapiere zu Sammelobjekten werden lassen, sogar eigene Museen wurden eingerichtet.

Literatur
 Dirik von Oettingen: Verhüllt um zu verführen. Die Welt auf der Orange. vacat Verlag. Potsdam. 2007. ISBN 978-3-930752-47-8

Einzelnachweise

Papierprodukt

Orangenpapier