The Anaconda Plan was a strategy outlined by the Union Army for suppressing the Confederacy at the beginning of the American Civil War. Proposed by Union General-in-Chief Winfield Scott, the plan emphasized a Union blockade of the Southern ports and called for an advance down the Mississippi River to cut the South in two. Because the blockade would be rather passive, it was widely derided by a vociferous faction of Union generals who wanted a more vigorous prosecution of the war and likened it to the coils of an anaconda suffocating its victim. The snake image caught on, giving the proposal its popular name.

In the early days of the Civil War, Scott's proposed strategy for the war against the South had two prominent features. First, all ports in the seceding states were to be rigorously blockaded. Secondly, a strong column of perhaps 80,000 men should use the Mississippi River as a highway to thrust completely through the Confederacy. A spearhead, a relatively small amphibious force of army troops transported by boats and supported by gunboats, should advance rapidly, capturing the Confederate positions down the river in sequence. It would be followed by a more traditional army, marching behind to secure victories. The culminating battle would be for the forts below New Orleans. When they fell, the river would be in US hands from its source to its mouth, and the rebellion would be cut in two.

Origin of plan
The Anaconda had a logical development, both in its origin and the way it played out in the experience of battle. The blockade had already been proclaimed by Lincoln. On April 19, 1861, a week after the bombardment of Fort Sumter that marked the outbreak of the war, he announced that the ports of all the seceded states, from South Carolina to Texas, would be blockaded; later, when Virginia and North Carolina also seceded, their coastlines were added. The executive order was not rescinded until the end of the war and so the blockade existed independently of Scott's plan.

In the early days of the secession movement, the status of the border states Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, all of which allowed slavery, was unclear. All except Delaware had strong pro-Southern interests. Missouri was torn by internal conflict that mimicked in miniature the larger war that was convulsing the nation, Maryland was kept in the Union by jailing many of the opposition faction, and Kentucky tried to keep the peace by proclaiming its neutrality by aiding neither the North nor the South if both would agree to leave the state alone.

Because Congress was not in session to authorize presidential initiatives to suppress the rebellion, the burden of raising troops for the war fell on the loyal state governments. Ohio was particularly active in doing so and early acquired the services of George B. McClellan, who was to serve as the commander of its militia, with rank Major General of Volunteers. In a few weeks, as the state militias were incorporated into the national service, the militias of Indiana and Illinois were added to his command. From this power base, he felt enabled on April 27, 1861, to write a letter to General Winfield Scott outlining his strategy. He proposed an immediate march on Richmond, by now the capital of the Confederacy, directed up the Kanawha River. Alternatively, if Kentucky were to leave the Union, a march directly across that state should take Nashville, and then, he would "act on circumstances."

Scott's endorsement of McClellan's letter, which he submitted to the President, shows that he considered it but not favorably. Firstly, the Kanawha was not suited for water transport and so the march on Richmond would have to be overland and thus subject to breakdowns of men, horses, and equipment. More seriously, western Virginia (West Virginia had not yet parted from Virginia) was still very much pro-Union; according to Scott's estimate, its populace stood five out of seven opposed to secession. An invasion as proposed would alienate many of them and subject both enemies and friends to the ravages of war. The same argument could be applied to Kentucky. Perhaps most damagingly, the war as proposed would subjugate the Confederacy piecemeal, with by necessity the border states bearing most of the burden, "instead of enveloping them all (nearly) at once by a cordon of ports on the Mississippi to its mouth from its junction with the Ohio, and by blockading ships on the sea board."

The germ of Scott's Anaconda Plan for suppressing the insurrection is seen in the endorsement. After giving the plan more thought  he submitted his own proposal in a letter to McClellan on May 3, 1861. A second letter, dated May 21, was his final outline of the plan.

Scott was not able to impose his strategic vision on the government. Aged and infirm, he had to retire before the end of the year. He was replaced as General-in-Chief by McClellan.

Development of Mississippi River

Under McClellan and his eventual successor in the West, Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck, the Mississippi became a somewhat neglected theater for operations in the West. Halleck, with McClellan's approval, believed in turning the enemy's Mississippi River strongholds rather than attacking them directly, so he moved away from the river. As he saw it, the Tennessee rather than the Mississippi was the "great strategic line of the Western campaign."

The Navy Department, however, remained committed to the idea of opening the Mississippi. In the person of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Vasa Fox, it decided early on the capture of New Orleans by a naval expedition from the Gulf of Mexico, after which all other towns bordering the river would fall rather than face bombardment. The task of taking New Orleans was entrusted to Captain (later Admiral) David Glasgow Farragut, who followed his own plans for the battle; running his fleet past the forts that defended the city from the south on the night of April 24, 1862, he forced the city to surrender. After repairing his ships from the damage they had suffered while passing the forts, he sent them up the river, where they successively sought and obtained the surrender of Baton Rouge and Natchez. The string of easy conquests came to an end at Vicksburg, Mississippi, however, as the Confederate position there occupied bluffs high enough to render them impregnable to the naval gunnery of the day.

Following the loss of Island No. 10 shortly before Farragut took New Orleans, the Confederates had abandoned Memphis, Tennessee, leaving only a small rear guard to conduct a delaying operation. In early June, this was swept aside at the First Battle of Memphis by the gunboats of the Western Gunboat Flotilla (soon thereafter to be transformed into the Mississippi River Squadron) and the United States Ram Fleet, and the Mississippi was open down to Vicksburg. Thus that city became the only point on the river not in Federal hands.

Again, the Army under Halleck did not grasp the opportunity that was provided. He failed to send even a small body of troops to aid the ships, and soon Farragut was forced by falling water levels to withdraw his deep-draft vessels to the vicinity of New Orleans. The Army did not attempt to take Vicksburg until November, and then the Army was under the leadership of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, after Halleck had been called to Washington to replace McClellan as General-in-Chief.

By the time that Grant became commander in the West, the Confederate Army had been able to fortify Vicksburg and Port Hudson to the south. This 130 mile (210 km) stretch – measured along roads, somewhat longer on the river – including the confluence of the Red River with the Mississippi, became the last contact between the eastern Confederacy and the Trans-Mississippi. Having no doubt of its importance, the government of Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Richmond strengthened both positions. Command at Vicksburg in particular passed from Brig. Gen. Martin L. Smith to Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn to Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton; the size of the defending army increased in step with the advancing rank of its commander.

The campaign for Vicksburg eventually settled into a siege, which terminated on July 4, 1863, with Pemberton's surrender of all the forces under his command. At that time, his army numbered approximately 29,500 men.

When word of the loss of Vicksburg reached the garrison at Port Hudson, Maj. Gen. Franklin Gardner, the commander there, knew that further resistance was pointless. On July 9, 1863, he surrendered the post and its garrison to the Federal Army of the Gulf and its commander, Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks. Henceforth, in the phrase of Abraham Lincoln, "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea."

Development of blockade

The Anaconda Plan as proposed by Scott relied on the blockade, as he stated it, "so as to envelop the insurgent States and bring them to terms with less bloodshed than by any other plan."
Insofar as he foresaw direct combat, it was to be more or less confined to the central thrust down the Mississippi River. Almost surely he did not anticipate the level of violence that it provoked. For that matter, the blockade itself had to be modified by events, provoking much of the bloodshed that he hoped to avoid.

Scott's proposal for the blockade was not properly a strategy although it is often referred to as such by historians. It did not estimate the forces that would be needed to guard the at least 3000 mi (4800 km) of coastline in the seceded states. It did not consider an allocation of resources. It did not set out a timeline or even name points of particular concern. Much of that was later done by the Blockade Strategy Board, a group meeting at the request of the Navy Department but also with representatives from both the Army and the Treasury Department (Coast Survey). During the summer of 1861, the board issued a series of reports recommending how best to maintain the blockade, taking into account the topography of the coast, the relative merits of the various southern ports, the opposition likely to be encountered, and the nature of the ships that would be used by both sides. The board recommendations concerning the Gulf coast were rather rudimentary and largely ignored, but the blockade on the Atlantic coast followed their plan reasonably closely.

Atlantic blockade
All parties recognized from the start that the blockading ships would have to be powered by steam. The limited endurance of steamships then implied that one of the first requirements would be possession of a harbor that would serve as a coaling station near the southern end of the blockading line, as otherwise blockaders would spend too much of their time going to and from home port seeking replenishment. All suitable harbors south of the Chesapeake Bay, however, were held by seceded states. In order to establish the blockade, therefore, at least one of them would have to be taken by the Federal forces. Thus, the blockade was immediately transformed from a purely open-water operation to one of at least limited occupation of enemy territory.

Although the board recommended that Fernandina, Florida, be taken as the southern anchor of the blockade, two other positions were captured before Fernandina. A pair of minor forts on the Outer Banks of North Carolina near Cape Hatteras were taken by Union forces on August 28–29, 1861, and on November 7 a major fleet operation at Port Royal, South Carolina, resulted in the capture of a deep-water harbor midway between Savannah and Charleston. The Hatteras expedition had been planned as a raid; the plan called for it to be held only long enough to block up Hatteras Inlet. However, it was transformed into an incursion, and led early in the next year to a full invasion, the so-called Burnside Expedition, which included the capture of Roanoke Island and established the Union Army permanently in eastern North Carolina. Port Royal in Union hands was soon used a base to make the blockade of Savannah almost complete, but Charleston was not so easily sealed off. Use of its harbor by blockade runners was curtailed, but to close it completely required some of the bitterest and most persistent ground action of the war.

When Fernandina was seized in early March 1862, the war was almost a year old, and some important changes had taken place. Following the Confederate defeats at Forts Henry and Donelson in Tennessee and Roanoke Island in North Carolina, the War Department in Richmond decided to concentrate its armies in vital interior areas, removing them from much of the coast. Only a few major ports would be defended. Only three of these were on the Atlantic seaboard: Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah. In fact, only the first two were consequential; a mere eight steam-powered blockade runners entered Georgia or northern Florida ports throughout the entire war.

The blockade of Charleston merged into the campaign against the city waged by both the Army and the Navy, not completed until the last days of the war. (See Raising the Flag at Fort Sumter.) Rather early in the war, the Federal Navy tried to block the harbor entrance by sinking ballast-laden hulks in the channels, but this proved ineffective or worse. Later, ships used in the blockade were used for the abortive assault on Fort Sumter on April 7, 1863. They also provided artillery support for the infantry attacks on Battery Wagner on July 11 and July 18, 1863. After both of these attempts to take the battery failed, the ships remained active in the ensuing siege that eventually resulted in its capture. Then, the Union was able to mount its own guns at the mouth of the harbor, and although the city continued to resist, it was no longer the preferred terminus for blockade runners.

While all this was going on, the local defenders were not passive. Extensive efforts to break the blockade included the use of torpedoes (mines) and armored ships to sink or otherwise render inoperative the Federal vessels. Imaginative methods to achieve the same end resulted in the development and deployment of submarines and torpedo boats.

By contrast, the blockade of Wilmington was fairly conventional, and is the focus of most debate concerning the efficacy of the blockade. After the middle of July 1863, when Charleston was largely sealed off, most of the trade between the Confederacy and northern Europe was conducted through Wilmington. The port retained its primacy until near the end of the Rebellion, when Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, was captured by Union forces in January 1865.

Gulf blockade
The blockade of Confederate ports on the Gulf of Mexico was less important than that on the Atlantic. Not only were they farther from the centers of blockade-running activity in Bermuda and Nassau, but ships trying to reach them from the Atlantic Ocean would have to run past the Florida Keys, which remained in Federal control throughout the war and served as the base for the Gulf (later, East Gulf) Blockading Squadron. The same decision by the Confederate War Department that led to the abandonment of most of the Atlantic coast except for the major ports applied to the Gulf as well, with the result that only Mobile, New Orleans, and Galveston were defended. (Brownsville, Texas/Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, is a special case that will not be treated here because of its international implications.) Galveston was captured by Federal forces on October 4, 1862, but was retaken by the Rebels on New Year's Day of the next year. It remained accessible to blockade runners for the rest of the war but, like all of the Trans-Mississippi, was rendered worthless to the Rebellion when the loss of Vicksburg completed Federal control of the Mississippi River.

The Blockade Strategy Board had recommended that Ship Island, which lies in the Gulf between Mobile and New Orleans, be taken and used as a base for the (West) Gulf Blockading Squadron. This was easily done, as on September 16, 1861, it was abandoned by its Rebel defenders, who feared that they might be cut off from the mainland. Their fears were justified; the next day,  arrived and offloaded Federal troops to take possession. Almost immediately, however, the island was transformed from base and coaling station to a more important function; it became the staging area for the approaching attack on the Mississippi River forts that shielded New Orleans. Early in 1862, the Gulf Blockading Squadron was reconfigured into two separate entities, the East Gulf Blockading Squadron (EGBS) commanded by Flag-Officer James L. Lardner and the West Gulf Blockading Squadron (WGBS) led by Flag-Officer David G. Farragut.

After New Orleans fell to the Union fleet under Farragut on April 29, 1862, Mobile was the only serious problem for the blockade. It remained so, much like Wilmington, until late in the war. In August 1864, Farragut got permission from the Navy Department and troops from the War Department to seize the forts at the entrance to Mobile Bay. Following his famous "Damn the torpedoes" run past the forts, they fell and were occupied by Federal soldiers. Mobile itself remained in Confederate control, but it was no longer useful as a port. In July 1862, U.S. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, wrote a letter to the commanders of both Gulf blockading squadrons that they would need to start recruiting freed blacks in order to keep up with labor demands.

Evaluation
Although a century and a half has elapsed since the end of the Civil War, the importance of the Anaconda Plan remains to some extent a matter of debate. Clearly, the war was not the relatively bloodless affair that General Scott promised in his original proposal. Most historians regard this as merely a modification of the basic strategy in the course of events. At least one historian, however, denies that there ever was anything like a coherent strategy for subduing the South. Rowena Reed contends that the central government in Washington was unable to impose its will on the field commanders, so that the war was a series of independent campaigns, each of which was conducted according to the whims of whatever general happened to be in charge. According to her view, the Anaconda is a later conceptual imposition on events for which order did not exist at the time that they took place.

For the historians who contend that a rational plan existed, the debate, like the plan itself, has two parts. The importance of the campaign to capture the Mississippi River and thereby lop off the Trans-Mississippi is acknowledged. Virtually all present-day historians agree that the Union's Western campaign was at least as significant as that in the East. To the extent that fighting in the West before mid-1863 can be regarded as preparing for or culminating in the capture of Vicksburg, the Anaconda has been validated.

The worth of the Union blockade, however, remains controversial. No one seriously contends that it alone would have won the war for the North. But while it is conceded not to have been sufficient, the question remains if it was necessary, i.e. whether the South would have endured had the blockade not sapped the strength of the Rebel armies beyond the tipping point.

Those who deny the importance of the blockade advance two principal arguments. First, it was never very effective. Over the course of the war, more than three quarters of all attempts to evade the blockade were successful. The one quarter that did not get through can be written off as operational losses. That was because the blockade runners were small and built for speed, rather than capacity.

Second and perhaps more important, the Southern armies were not hamstrung for lack of material, at least owing to the blockade. The supply problems they did face were most often caused by the poor condition of Confederate railroads. However much of the deterioration of the Southern railroads was caused by overloading due to the blockade disrupting normal coastal sea traffic and control of inland waterways by the Union Navy.

Those who believe that the blockade was decisive argue that the Southern forces were strangled at the end. They point out that the collapse of the Army of Northern Virginia, which in 1865 was virtually all that remained of the Confederacy, followed soon after the loss of Wilmington to the Union. The timing, they contend, was not merely coincidental. Furthermore, the defeat of its armies was not the only way that the South lost.

The blockade was not only to capture the ships that attempted to evade it but also to discourage others. The blockade runners may have been numerous, but they were built for speed rather than the ability to carry cargo. The more conventional cargo vessels, and their spacious holds, went elsewhere. As a result, Southern exports of cotton fell by 95% from pre-war levels, devaluing its currency, and wrecking its economy. Additionally, the blockade disrupted coastal trade, overloading the marginal Southern railroads and prevented importation of salt, necessary for preserving food and tanning leather.  Unable to sell goods (particularly cotton) on the world market, the Confederate government was already strained financially as early as 1862. As its economy steadily degenerated, it suffered from a general loss of confidence on the part of its citizens.

However, the blockade was less successful in preventing arms and money from being smuggled into Southern ports by blockade runners consisting of lightweight shallow draft steamships built in and operating from British shipyards, mostly in Liverpool and Glasgow. Historians estimated that 2,500–2,800 attempts were made to run the blockade, with at least an 80% success rate. It was estimated the Confederates received thousands of tons of gunpowder, half a million rifles, and several hundred cannons from British blockade runners. As a result, the blockade runners operating from Britain escalated the war by two years and killed 400,000 additional soldiers and civilians on both sides.

See also

Postage stamps and postal history of the Confederate States § Blockade mail
List of ships captured in the 19th century § American Civil War
Bibliography of early American naval history § American Civil War

Notes

References

Note
Abbreviations used in these notes:
ORA (Official records, armies): War of the Rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate Armies.
ORN (Official records, navies): Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion.

Citations

Sources
Anderson, Bern, By sea and by river: the naval history of the Civil War. New York: Knopf, 1962; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, n.d.
Browning, Robert M. Jr., From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 1993.
Browning, Robert M. Jr., Success is all that was expected: the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Dulles, VA: Brassey's, 2002.
 Dufour, Charles L., The night the war was lost. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1960, .
 Elliott, Charles Winslow, Winston Scott: the soldier and the man. Macmillan, 1937.
 McPherson, James M., Battle cry of freedom: The Civil War era (Oxford History of the United States). Oxford University Press, 1988, .
 McPherson, James M., War on the Waters: The Union & Confederate Navies, 1861-1865  University of North Carolina Press, 2012,
 Reed, Rowena, Combined Operations in the Civil War. Naval Institute Press, 1978.
 Shea, William L., and Winschel, Terrence J., Vicksburg is the key: the struggle for the Mississippi River. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003, .
Simson, Jay W.,  Naval strategies of the Civil War: Confederate innovations and Federal opportunism. Nashville: Cumberland House, 2001.
Tucker, Spencer C., Blue and gray navies: the Civil War afloat. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2006.
Wise, Stephen R., Lifeline of the Confederacy: blockade running during the Civil War. Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1988.
US Navy Department, Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion. Series I: 27 volumes. Series II: 3 volumes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1894–1922.
US War Department, A compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I: 53 volumes. Series II: 8 volumes. Series III: 5 volumes. Series IV: 4 volumes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886–1901. The War of the Rebellion

External links
 Anaconda Plan in Encyclopedia Virginia

1861 in the United States
Military history of the American Civil War
Blockades
Metaphors referring to snakes

zh:南北战争#蟒蛇計劃及聯邦封鎖 1861

Anaconda Plan


Esta lista contém os 30 posts com mais curtidas na plataforma de rede social X. Embora o X não forneça uma lista oficial completa, as notícias e a grande mídia geralmente cobrem o tópico. Em dezembro de 2022, o post mais curtido tinha mais de 7 milhões de curtidas e foi tuitado da conta do ator americano Chadwick Boseman, anunciando sua morte por câncer. Quatro contas têm mais de um dos posts mais curtidos no top 30: a banda sul-coreana BTS tem dezessete, enquanto o ex-presidente dos EUA, Barack Obama, o atual presidente dos EUA, Joe Biden, o magnata dos negócios Elon Musk e a ativista ambiental Greta Thunberg têm dois cada.

Lista

Internacional
A tabela a seguir lista os 30 posts mais curtidos no X, a conta que o postou, o número total de curtidas arredondado para a centena de mil mais próxima e a data em que foi originalmente postado. Posts que têm um número idêntico de curtidas são listados em ordem de data com o post mais recente classificado como o mais alto. As notas incluem os detalhes em torno do post.

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Notas

Listas de superlativos relacionados à Internet
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Lista de tweets mais curtidos


Olaylar
 22 Ağustos - III. Ahmed, II. Mustafa'nın yerine tahta çıkarak Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun yeni padişahı oldu.
 2 Şubat - Japonya'da meydana gelen depremde 200.000 kişi öldü.

Doğumlar
 5 Şubat – Gilbert Tennent, İrlandalı dini lider (ö. 1764)
 5 Mart – Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, Rus şair (ö. 1768)
 14 Mayıs – David Brearly, Amerikalı siyasetci (ö. 1785)
 18 Mayıs - Erzurumlu İbrahim Hakkı, Osmanlı Devleti fikir adamı (ö. 22 Haziran 1780)
 17 Haziran – John Wesley, İngiliz kölelik karşıtı eylemci (ö. 1791)
 26 Haziran – Thomas Clap, Amerikalı eğitimci (ö. 1767)
 2 Ağustos – Lorenzo Ricci, İtalyan Cizvit lideri (ö. 1775)
 29 Eylül – François Boucher, Fransız ressam (ö. 1770)
 5 Ekim – Jonathan Edwards, Amerikalı vaiz (ö. 1758)
 28 Ekim – Antoine Deparcieux, Fransız matematikçi (ö. 1768)
 25 Kasım – Jean-François Séguier, Fransız astronom ve bitki bilimci (ö. 1784)
 26 Kasım – Theophilus Cibber, İngiliz oyuncu ve yazar (ö. 1758)
 2 Aralık – Ferdinand Konščak, Hırvat kâşif (ö. 1759)
Doğduğu ay ve gün bilinmeyenler
 Jack Broughton (ö. 1789)

Ölümler
 11 Ocak – Johann Georg Graevius, Alman hümanist ve eleştirmen (d. 1632)
 3 Mart – Robert Hooke, İngiliz bilim insanı (d. 1635)
 31 Mart – Johann Christoph Bach, Alman besteci (d. 1642)
 20 Nisan – Lancelot Addison, İngiliz din adamı (d. 1632)
 16 Mayıs – Charles Perrault, Fransız yazar (d. 1628)
 26 Mayıs – Samuel Pepys, İngiliz tarihçi (d. 1633)
 14 Haziran – Jean Herauld Gourville, Fransız maceracı (d. 1625)
 17 Temmuz – I. Roemer Vlacq, Hollandalı deniz kaptanı (d. 1637)
 22 Eylül – Vincenzo Viviani, İtalyan matematikçi (d. 1622)
 25 Eylül – Archibald Campbell, İskoç siyasetçi(d. 1658)
 29 Eylül – Charles de Saint-Évremond, Fransız asker (d. 1610)
 28 Ekim – John Wallis, İngiliz matematikçi (d. 1616)
 19 Kasım – The Man in the Iron Mask
 30 Kasım – Nicolas de Grigny, Fransız orgcu ve besteci (d. 1672)
 29 Aralık – II. Mustafa, 22. Osmanlı padişahı (d. 1664)
Öldüğü ay ve gün bilinmeyenler
 Phetracha, Ayutthaya kralı (d. 1632)

1703


ريتشارد أدينسيل ( بالإنجليزية Richard Addinsell ) (1904 – 1977) هو مؤلف موسيقي بريطاني، اشتهر بموسيقاه التصويرية في السينما، ومن أشهرها كونشيرتو وارسو الذي ألفه لفيلم «ضوء القمر الخطير» في عام 1941.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص من برايتون
أشخاص من لندن
أعلام إل جي بي تي إنجليزية في القرن 20
خريجو الكلية الملكية للموسيقى
خريجو كلية هيرتفورد (أكسفورد)
شخصيات مثلية القرن 20
ملحنو موسيقى خفيفة
ملحنون إنجليز في القرن 20
ملحنون بريطانيون في القرن 20
ملحنون كلاسيكيون مثليون
ملحنون مثليون
ملحنون مثليون إنجليز
ملحنون من لندن
مواليد 1904
مواليد في لندن
موسيقيون إنجليز في القرن 20
موسيقيون بريطانيون في القرن 20
موسيقيون ذكور بريطانيون في القرن 20
موسيقيون كلاسيكيون في القرن 20
موسيقيون كلاسيكيون مثليون
موسيقيون مثليون من إنجلترا
موسيقيون من برايتون أند هوف
موسيقيون من لندن
موسيقيون وموسيقيات بريطانيون
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام إنجليز
وفيات 1977
وفيات في لندن

ريتشارد أدينسيل


Ein Schreibring ist ein Kunststoffring mit zirka 11 cm Durchmesser, der bei Magnetbändern (Halbzollbänder, Bankkassetten, Datenverarbeitung) das versehentliche Überschreiben des Bandes verhindert.

Verwendung
Das Band ist auf dem Bandgerät nur beschreibbar, wenn der Schreibring in die Spule des Bandes eingelegt ist. Der Schreibring befindet sich auf der Rückseite der Spule, weshalb das Band zum Einsetzen/Entfernen des Schreibringes vom Bandgerät entladen werden muss.
Nach der Beschreibung in der Patentanmeldung sind "bei herausgenommenem Schreibring [...] die auf Magnetband gespeicherten Daten wirksam gegen Löschen, Überschreiben, Einwirkungen bei Netzausfall und Ein- und Ausschalten der Gerätestromversorgung infolge eines Gerätefehlers oder manueller Eingriffe während des Betriebes gesichert"

Weblinks
 Schreibring für Magnetbänder zur Speicherung digitaler Daten. 1974 DIN 66017:1974-04

Einzelnachweise

IT-Sicherheit

Schreibring


أُعجُوبَةُ لينُكس هي توزيعة لينكس عربية، مبنية على توزيعات فيدورا Fedora، يقوم بتطويرها فريق أعجوبة بإشراف مؤيد السعدي.

تاريخ وطبيعة الإصدارات
وقع بناء نسخ أعجوبة للحاسوب الشخصي على توزيعة فيدورا التي ترعاها ريدهات، على النحو الآتي:

تَعتمد التّوزيعة على مدير حزم آر بي إم وتدعم معماريات المعالجات 32 و64-بت. وتأتي الإصدارات عادة في قرص مضغوط حي (بسعة 699 م.ب) ووسيط تثبيت على شكل إسطوانة دي في دي (بسعة 4 ج.ب) (وهذه الأخيرة تحتوي على الحزم الإضافية لمن لا يمتلكون اتصالا مباشرا بالإنترنت). ويمكن تثبيت النظام مباشرة على القرص الصلب أو على ذاكرة يو أس بي.

بداية من الإصدار 35، تأتي التّوزيعة على شكل قرص دي في دي بسعة 1.1 ج.ب.

يمكن لنظام أعجوبة المكتبي أن يستخدم كذلك كنظام للخوادم بعد تثبيت حزم برمجيات لامب.

واجهات المستخدم
تأتي إصدارات أعجوبة لينكس افتراضيا بواجهة مكتب غنوم. إلا أنه من الممكن تثبيت سطوح مكاتب أخرى مثل كدي وإكسفس وإل إكس دي إي.

الرخصة
تصدر أعجوبة كمجموعة برمجية ونظام تشغيل تحت بنود الإصدار الثّاني من رخصة وقف العامة.

البرامج والمزايا المضمّنة

من ضمن ما تحتويه إصدارة أعجوبة لينكس 16 من الإضافات:
 بيئة سطح مكتب معرّبة افتراضيا.
 نظام توثيق يشتمل على وثائق أعجوبة لينكس وهي تغطي طريقة تنثبيت النظام والجوانب التقنية من الاستخدام والبرمجة.
 مركز تحكم أعجوبة وهي واجهة رسومية لإدارة النظام، مع مستودعات RPM Fusion مفعّلة افتراضيا.
 مجموعة من المرمزات وبرامج الوسائط المتعددة للصوت والصورة والفيديو وعدد من العينات.
 محول الوسائط المتعددة "ojuba-mimic".
 بريمج مناجاة للأدعية والأذكار والتذكير بأوقات الصلاة.
 بريمج هجرة للتقويم الهجري وهو مبني بلغة بايثون بخوارزمية جديدة تختلف عن خوارزمية أم القرى.
 بلازمويد أذكار و مواقيت بنسبة لمستعملي مكتب كدي 4.
 موسوعة ثواب (الإصدار الثالث) وهو برنامج قادر على الفهرسة والبحث المتقدم وعرض كتب المكتبة الإسلامية الشاملة.
 بريمج «مصحف عثمان الإلكتروني» لتصفح القرآن الكريم.
 بريمج « خزنة أعجوبة » لتشفير وفك تشفير المجلدات لحماية خصوصية البيانات.
 برنامج "Chmviewkit" عارض ملفات بصيغة "chm" (لعرض كتب الموسوعة الشاملة).

وتحتوي إصدارة أعجوبة لينكس 35 إلى جانب البرامج التي ذكرت أعلاه:
 إمكانية التّثبيت المباشر لبرنامج آيات (النّسخة المكتبية من موقع القرآن الكريم بجامعة الملك سعود).
 برنامج «دواوين العرب» (بدون أشعار).
 برنامج «المُحزّم» يسمح بتحزيم الملفات والبرامج بصيغ متعددة.
 برنامج "قُطرب" لتصريف الأفعال.
 لغة البرمجة العربية «كلمات».

انظر أيضا
 سبيلي توزيعة لينكس أخرى تدعم العربية وتحتوي على برامج إسلامية، وهي مبنية على توزيعة أوبونتو.

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 موقع أعجوبة
 منتدى أعجوبة بمجتمع لينكس العربي
 صفحة أعجوبة في مراقب التوزيعات distrowatch

توزيعات لينكس المعتمدة على آر بي إم

أعجوبة لينكس


Vlaho Constantini O.P. (Blaž; Dubrovnik, oko 1410. – 30. kolovoza 1481.) bio je prelat Katoličke Crkve koji je služio kao biskup trebinjsko-mrkanski od 1464. do 1481.

Životopis

Rođen je u Dubrovniku oko 1410. godine. Vrlo rano je pristupio Dominikanskom redu. Kao nadaren mladić dobio je novčanu potporu vlade Dubrovačke Republike za studij u Bologni. Godine 1434./35. spominje se kao student prve godine biblijskog tečaja. Od 1439. godine spominje se kao doktorand, a doktorirao je prije 24. svibnja 1439. godine.

Vrativši se kući nakon studija, obavljao je razne službe u samostanu te Dalmatinskoj provinciji. Generalni kapitul reda ovlastio ga je za provođenje reforme u samostanu sv. Križa u Gružu. Dva puta (1440.-1447. i 1458.-1460.) je obnašao službu priora samostana sv. Dominika te dva puta službu provincijala Dalmatinske provincije (1442.-1447.). Istu je provinciju 1444. godine zastupao kao delegat na generalnom kapitulu u Dijonu.

Godine 1451. imenovan je vikarom albanskih samostana koji su tada pripadali Dalmatinskoj provinciji. Uskoro ga je vlada Dubrovačke Republike poslala u Rim gdje je od pape Nikole V. isposlovao neke bule koje su se ticale kanonikata. Nakon toga imenovan je komendatarnim opatom benediktinskog samostana sv. Mihovila u Pakljenom na otoku Šipanu, a zatim mu je ponuđena služba opata benediktinske Mljetske kongregacije, ali samo pod uvjetom da nosi benediktinsko odijelo, što je on odbio.

Za vrijeme sukoba hercega Stjepana Vukčića Kosače  s Dubrovačkom Republikom, 9. lipnja 1451., s papom Nikolom V. razrađivao svojevrsni proglasa europskim vladarima koji su na bilo koji način podržavali Kosaču. Constantini je uvjerio papu kako Dubrovčani nisu izazvali sukob, nego herceg Stjepan. Unatoč tome, rat nije zaustavljen. Skupa s Bartolom Gučetićem, 17. ožujka 1452., još jednom je putovao u Rim. Kako bi riješao pitanje odvajanja Stonske od Korčulanske biskupije, koja je bila pod venecijanskom upravom, još jednom je 10. kolovoza 1452. putovao u Rim. Dubrovačka mu je vlada obećala ukoliko riješi to pitanje, biskupsko imenovanje u Stonu. Početkom studenoga, vjerojatno zbog velikog mletačkog otpora, neobavljenog posla vratio se kući. Dubrovačka vlada još ga jednom u listopadu 1454. šalje u Rim kako bi od pape isposlovali pravo imenovanja svojih nadbiskupa i drugih viših crkvenih službenika.

Dok se nalazio u Rimu, 24. ožujka 1455. umro je papa Nikola V. Dubrovačka vlada je Constantiniju, 24. travnja 1455. pisala da iskoristi izbor novoga pape Kalista III. kada pape obično lakše udjeljuju posebne povlastice. Ipak, ni to nije pomoglo. Početkom srpnja 1455. vratio se u Dubrovnik. Godine 1459. Dubrovačka Republika je donijela zakon da nijedan dubrovački klerik, pod prijetnjom desetogodišnjeg izgona sa područja Republike, od Svete Stolice ne smije tražiti nikakvu čast ili crkveni položaj. Jedini je od toga bio izuzet Vlaho zbog velikih zasluga za Dubrovačku Republiku. Bila mu je dana mogućnost odlaska u Rim gdje je mogao od pape zatražiti imenovanje trebinjsko-mrkanskim biskupom. Iapk, imenovanju se oštro suprotstavio Marcial Auribelli, vrhovni poglavar dominikanskog reda; vjerojatno kako ne bi izgubio vrijednog člana svoga reda.

Iapk, vlada Dubrovačke Republike nije odustala od svoje namjere kako bi se odužila svom vrijednom diplomatu. Dana 19. ožujka 1464. papa Pio II. imenuje ga biskupom biskupije nepoznate lokacije po imenu "Bario", "Barut(h)um" (Bayreut u Bavarskoj?), "Bodonum", "Bodinum" i sl. Nekii povjesničari identificiraju ovo mjesto s Beirutom u Libanonu ili Bodonium ili Bodiniumom. Kako je nakon smrti biskupa Mihovila Natalisa Trebinjsko-mrkanska biskupija bila upražnjena, Senat Dubrovačke Republike, 18. prosinca 1463., odobrio je da je može tražiti za sebe. Papa je 19. ožujka 1464. uvažio njegovu molbu. Imenovan je, 20. listopada 1464., biskupom trebinjsko-mrkanskim.

Blaž je kao sufragan dubrovačkoga nadbiskupa stanovao je u gradu te je zamjenjivao nadbiskupa u svim važnijim poslovima. Vrhovni poglavar dominikanskog reda Leonard de Mansuetis mu je, 1473. godine, dodijelio jednog redovnika kao tajnika i pomoćnika.

Umro je 30. kolovoza 1481. godine. Pokopan je u crkvi sv. Dominika u Dubrovniku.

Kao student teologije u Bologni napisao je dva sveska propovijedi pod naslovom "Conciones de tempore et de sanctis" i "Lectura", koji se čuvaju u knjižnici samostana sv. Dominika u Dubrovniku.

Izvori

Literatura

Knjige

Mrežna sjedišta

Životopisi, Dubrovnik
Hrvatski dominikanci
Trebinjsko-mrkanski biskupi

Vlaho Constantini


The term national bank generally refers to a bank that operates across and within a nation state or country, but its usage varies by country. In some cases it operates as the government's reserve bank (also known as central bank), while in others the name is used for commercial banks.

Definition and usage

The term "national bank" is sometimes in the name of a country's central bank (also known as "reserve bank"; a monetary authority that manages the currency and monetary policy of a country or monetary union). Examples include the National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic; National Bank of Ukraine; National Bank of Belgium; National Bank of Ethiopia; and National Bank of Cambodia.

In the United States, a national bank is an ordinary private bank operating within the federal government's regulatory structure, which usually but not always operates nationally, and is under the supervision of the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. It is legally required to be a member of the Federal Reserve System. A national bank in the U.S. is distinguished from a state bank, whose permit is granted by one of the U.S. states, and can only do business in that state.

In British English, the term "national bank" refers to any bank owned and operated by a government or state, and is more or less synonymous with the term "state bank". However the only bank with the name within the UK was the National Bank Ltd, a private bank that operated 1835-1970, a past constituent of the Royal Bank of Scotland.

The term is also used in the name of some ordinary private banks that operate nationally (as opposed to regionally, locally, or internationally), such as the National Bank of Canada and National Australia Bank.

By country

Afghanistan
Pashtany Bank is the government-owned bank in based in Kabul that controls Da Afghanistan Bank as well as the Afghan National Bank.

Argentina
Argentina's national bank is the Banco de la Nación Argentina, founded in 1891.

Australia
The Commonwealth Bank of Australia was founded by an Australian Act of Parliament in 1911. Bank Nationalisation was the policy of the Andrew Fisher Labor Government. In a rare move for the time, the bank was to have both savings and general bank business. The bank was also the first bank in Australia to receive a Federal Government guarantee.

In 1958 and 1959, there was a controversy concerning the dual function of the bank as the central bank on the one hand and a general bank on the other. As a result of this, the bank was split, giving the reserve bank function to the Reserve Bank of Australia and the general bank function to the Commonwealth Banking Corporation.

The Commonwealth bank was privatised in the 1990s by the Keating Labor government. As of 2016, it is one of the big four banks, along with the National Australia Bank which has always been privately owned.

Bulgaria
Bulgarian National Bank is the central bank of Bulgaria, founded in 1879 and it is the 13 oldest central bank in the world.

Canada
For Canada's central bank see Bank of Canada. The National Bank of Canada is a privately owned bank unrelated to the central bank.

Chile
The national bank in Chile is BancoEstado. It was created in 1953 by merging several state-owned financial institutions. The bank operates in competition with private banks but in addition to profitability its goals include having a positive social impact.

Colombia
The national bank in Colombia is the Bank of the Republic. Its primary role is to control the flow of money inside and outside the country and to issue the Colombian currency, the peso.

Denmark
Danmarks Nationalbank is the central bank of the Kingdom of Denmark.

India
India's central bank is the Reserve Bank of India.
There are 12 Public sector banks in which the majority stake is held by the Government of India. The largest of these by market capitalisation and market share is the State Bank of India.

Public Sector Banks (Government Shareholding %, as at end-June 2021)

State Bank of India (55.0%)
Bank of Baroda (64.0%)
Canara Bank (69.33%)
Punjab National Bank (73.1%)
Indian Bank (78.86%)
Union Bank of India (83.5%)
Bank of India (81.41%)
Central Bank of India (93.08%)
Bank of Maharashtra (93.33%)
UCO Bank (95.39%)
Indian Overseas Bank (96.4%)
Punjab and Sind Bank (98.07%)

Iran
Iran's national bank is Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran (CBI) (, Bank Markazi Jomhouri Islami Iran).
It was established in 1960.
National Bank of Iran is a large state commercial bank.

Kenya
National Bank of Kenya is a commercial bank founded in 1968. Its shares are listed on the Nairobi Stock Exchange and are majority owned (70%) jointly by the Government of Kenya and by the state owned National Social Security Fund of Kenya.

New Zealand
New Zealand currently has one state-owned bank, Kiwibank, established in 2001.

The New Zealand government formerly owned two other banks in New Zealand: The Bank of New Zealand, from 1945 to 1992 when it was privatised and sold, and Post Office Savings Bank, which was created as a separate entity with the privatisation of New Zealand Post. PostBank was sold to ANZ New Zealand in 1989.

The National Bank of New Zealand was a retail bank which, in 2003, was purchased by ANZ from its former owner, Lloyds TSB. In 2013 it was rebranded as ANZ.

Pakistan
National Bank of Pakistan is a major bank in Pakistan.

Palestine
The National Bank TNB is the leading bank in Palestine.

Serbia
National Bank of Serbia is the state-owned central bank in Serbia which regulates the currency Serbian dinar.

South Africa
First National Bank (South Africa) is a commercial bank and is one of the "Big Four" banks in South Africa.

United States

In the United States, the term national bank originally referred to the Revolutionary War–era Bank of North America, its successor, the First Bank of the United States, or that institution's successor, the Second Bank of the United States. The first survives as an acquisition of Wells Fargo, while the others are defunct.

In the modern United States, the term national bank has a precise meaning: a banking institution chartered and supervised by the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency ("OCC"), an agency in the U.S. Treasury Department, pursuant to the National Bank Act. Inclusion in the bank's name of the word National, the designation National Association, or its abbreviation N.A. is a required part of the distinguishing legal title of a national bank, as in "Farmers National Bank" or "Citibank, N.A." Many state banks, by contrast, are chartered by the applicable state government agencies (usually the state's department of banking). The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insures deposits at both national and state banks.

The advantage of holding a National Bank Act charter is that a national bank is not subject to state usury laws intended to prevent predatory lending. (However, see also Cuomo v. Clearing House Association, L. L. C., stating that federal banking regulations do not preempt the ability of states to enforce their own fair-lending laws.) There is currently no federal cap on rates. The federal government only requires that whatever rates, fees, or terms are set by issuers be disclosed to the consumer in accordance with the Truth in Lending Act.

Notwithstanding the name, many national banks do not have nationwide operations. Many have operations in only one city, county, or state.  This is because of the McFadden Act of 1927, which prohibited interstate branching by national banks. That restriction was not lifted until Congress enacted the Riegle-Neal Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act of 1994.  In August 2021, Chase Bank became the first national bank to establish a retail presence in all 48 states of the contiguous United States.

National banks should also be distinguished from federal savings associations, including federal savings and loans and federal savings banks, which are financial institutions chartered by the Office of Thrift Supervision, an agency of the U.S. Treasury Department that was merged with the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency on 21 July 2012. Likewise, a credit union licensed under the Federal Credit Union Act is legally not a bank, although it performs many or most of the same functions.

The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States; it is not a national bank but rather a unique system of institutions specially chartered by Congress to serve in this capacity.

References

External links
Alexander Hamilton: for the bank (February 23, 1791)
James Madison Debates the Constitutionality of a National Bank

Banks
Banking terms
Monetary reform
National institutions

National bank


1901 (MCMI), 20. yüzyılın ilk yılıdır.

Olaylar
 1 Ocak
 20. yüzyıl başlamıştır.
 Avustralya'nın daki Britany kolonileri federasyonlaşarak tek bir çatı altında birleşti.
 Nijerya, İngiliz himayesine girdi.
 Pentakostalizm mezhebi, Topeka, Kansas'ta Bethel Bible College'de ilk ayin sonrası kurulmuş oldu.
 24 Haziran - Pablo Picasso'nun eserleri ilk defa sergilendi.
 14 Eylül - Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin 25. Başkanı William McKinley, Leon Czolgosz adlı bir terörist tarafından öldürüldü.
 5 Kasım - Fransızlar, Osmanlı devletinden alacakları olan 500 bin altın ödeninceye kadar Midilli adasını işgal ettiler.
 9 Kasım - Mehmed Said Paşa 6. defa sadrazam oldu.
 10 Aralık
 İsveç Kralı ve Norveç Parlamentosu Nobel Komitesi ilk Nobel Ödüllerini dağıttı. Kızılhaç'ın kurucusu Isviçreli Jean Henry Dunant'a Nobel Barış Ödülü verildi.
 X ışınlarını keşfeden ve tıp dünyasında yeni bir çığır açan Alman fizikçi Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Nobel Fizik Ödülüne layık görüldü.
 12 Aralık - İtalyan kâşif Gugliemo Marconi, telsizle ilk bağlantıyı kurmayı başararak, Atlantik çevresinde mesaj yolladı.

Doğumlar

Ocak–Şubat
 1 Ocak – Julia Bathory, Macar cam sanatçısı (ö. 2000)
 3 Ocak – Ngo Dinh Diem, Güney Vietnam'ın ilk başbakanı (ö. 1963)
 4 Ocak – CLR James, Trinidad doğumlu gazeteci ve yazar (ö. 1989)
 9 Ocak – Chic Young, Amerikalı çizer (ö. 1973)
 11 Ocak – Kwon Ki-ok, Koreli pilot (ö. 1988)
 13 Ocak
 A. B. Guthrie, American tarihçi ve yazar (ö. 1991)
 Mieczysław Żywczyński, Polonyalı tarihçi (ö. 1978)
 14 Ocak
 Bebe Daniels, Amerikalı oyuncu (ö. 1971)
 Alfred Tarski, Polonyalı matematikçi ve siyasetçi (ö. 1983)
 16 Ocak
 Fulgencio Batista, Kübalı siyasetci (ö. 1973)
 Frank Zamboni, Amerikalı mucit (ö. 1988)
 20 Ocak – Mohammed Naguib, Mısır'ın ilk devlet başkanı (ö. 1984)
 21 Ocak – Marcellus Boss, Amerikalı politikacı (ö. 1967)
 24 Ocak
 Hans Erich Apostel, Avusturyalı besteci (ö. 1972)
 Harry Calder, Güney Afrikalı kriket oyuncusu (ö. 1995)
 26 Ocak – Stuart Symington, Amerikalı politikacı (ö. 1988)
 27 Ocak – Art Rooney, Amerikalı sporcu (d. 1988)
 29 Ocak – E. P. Taylor, Kanadalı iş insanı (ö. 1989)
 30 Ocak – Rudolf Caracciola, Alman yarış arabası pilotu (ö. 1959)
 1 Şubat
 Frank Buckles, I. Dünya Savaşı'nın Amerikalı yaşayan son gazisi (ö. 2011)
 Clark Gable, Amerikalı aktör (ö. 1960)
 2 Şubat – Jascha Heifetz, Litvanyalı müzisyen (ö. 1987)
 10 Şubat – Stella Adler, Amerikalı oyuncu (ö. 1992)
 15 Şubat – João Branco Núncio, Portekizli boğa güreşcisi (ö. 1976)
 22 Şubat – Mildred Davis, Amerikalı oyuncu (ö. 1969)
 25 Şubat – Zeppo Marx, Amerikalı komedyen (ö. 1979)
 27 Şubat – Horatio Luro, Arjantinli yarış atı çalıştırısı (ö. 1991)
 28 Şubat – Linus Pauling, Amerikalı kuantum kimyageri ve biyokimyager, Nobel Kimya Ödülü ve Nobel Barış Ödülü sahibidir (ö. 1994)

Mart–Nisan
 3 Mart – Claude Choules, İngiliz Birinci Dünya Savaşı gazisi
 4 Mart
 Charles Goren, Amerikalı briç oyuncusu (ö. 1991)
 Jean Joseph Rabearivelo, Fransız şair (ö. 1937)
 17 Mart – Alfred Newman, Amerikalı besteci (d. 1970)
 21 Mart
 Karl Arnold, Alman politikacı (d. 1958)
 Carmelita Geraghty, Amerikalı aktris (d. 1966)
 22 Mart – Greta Kempton, Amerikalı sanatçı (d. 1991)
 24 Mart – Ub Iwerks, Amerikalı çizer (d. 1971)
 27 Mart
 Carl Barks, Amerikalı çizer (d. 2000)
 Erich Ollenhauer, Alman politikacı (d. 1963)
 Eisaku Sato, Japonya Başbakanı, Nobel Barış Ödülü sahibi (d. 1975)
 Kenneth Slessor, Avustralyalı şair (d. 1971)
 28 Mart – Jack Weil, Amerikalı girişimci (d. 2008)
 1 Nisan – Whittaker Chambers, Amerikalı casus (d. 1961)
 15 Nisan – Joe Davis, İngiliz bilardo oyuncusu (d. 1978)
 16 Nisan - Nikolay Pavloviç Akimov, Sovyet tasarımcı ve tiyatro yönetmeni (ö. 1968)
 18 Nisan – Al Lewis, Amerikalı şarkı yazarı (d. 1967)
 29 Nisan – Hirohito, Japon imparatoru (d. 1989)
 30 Nisan – Simon Kuznets, Ukraynalı ekonomist, Nobel Ekonomi Ödülü sahibi (d. 1985)

Mayıs–Haziran
 7 Mayıs – Gary Cooper, Amerikalı aktör (ö. 1961)
 17 Mayıs – Werner Egk, Alman besteci (ö. 1983)
 18 Mayıs – Vincent du Vigneaud, Amerikalı kimyacı, Nobel Kimya Ödülü sahibidir (ö. 1978)
 20 Mayıs – Max Euwe, Hollandalı satranç oyuncusu (ö. 1981)
 21 Mayıs
 Manfred Aschner, Almanya doğumlu İsrailli mikrobiyolojist and entomoljist (ö. 1989)
 Horace Heidt, Amerikalı piyanist (ö. 1986)
 Sam Jaffe, Amerikalı film yapımcısı (d. 2000)
 Suzanne Lilar, Belçikalı deneme yazarı, romancı, oyun yazarı (ö. 1992)
 25 Mayıs – Antônio de Alcântara Machado, Brezilyalı romancı (ö. 1935)
 31 Mayıs – Alfredo Antonini, Amerikalı şef ve besteci (ö. 1983)
 3 Haziran – Chang Hsüeh-liang, Çinli askeri lider (ö. 2001)
 6 Haziran – Sukarno, Endonezya'nın ilk devlet başkanı (ö. 1970)
 13 Haziran – Tage Erlander, İsveçli politikacı (sosyal demokrat), 1946–1969 yılları arasında başbakanlık yapmıştır (ö. 1985)
 18 Haziran – Anastasia Nicolaievna Romanova, Rus prensesi (ö. 1918)
 23 Haziran – Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Türk yazar (ö. 1962)
 24 Haziran – Harry Partch, Amerikalı besteci (ö. 1974)
 29 Haziran – Nelson Eddy, Amerikalı şarkıcı ve aktör (ö. 1967)

Temmuz–Ağustos
 7 Temmuz – Eiji Tsuburaya, Japon yönetmen (ö. 1970)
 9 Temmuz – Barbara Cartland, İngiliz roman yazarı (ö. 2000)
 15 Temmuz – Nicola Abbagnano, İtalyan varoluşçu felsefeci (ö. 1990)
 17 Temmuz – Bruno Jasieński, Polonyalı şair (ö. 1938)
 21 Temmuz – Albert Hamilton Gordon, Amerikalı iş insanı (ö. 2009)
 31 Temmuz – Jean Dubuffet, Fransız ressam (ö. 1985)
 1 Ağustos – Francisco Guilledo, Filipinli boksör (ö. 1925)
 4 Ağustos – Louis Armstrong, Amerikalı müzisyen (ö. 1971)
 8 Ağustos – Ernest Lawrence, Amerikalı fizikçi, Nobel Fizik Ödülü sahibi (ö. 1958)
 10 Ağustos – Franco Rasetti, İtalyan bilim insanı (ö. 2001)
 18 Ağustos – Jean Guitton, Fransız yazar (ö. 1999)
 20 Ağustos – Salvatore Quasimodo, İtalyan yazar, Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahibidir (ö. 1968)
 26 Ağustos
 Maxwell Taylor, Amerikalı general (ö. 1987)
 Chen Yi, Çinli komutan ve siyasetçi (ö. 1972)
 30 Ağustos – John Gunther, Amerikalı yazar (ö. 1970)

Eylül–Ekim
 8 Eylül - Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, Güney Afrika Başbakanı (ö. 1966)
 9 Eylül
Jürgen Wagner, Alman general (ö. 1947)
 James Blades, İngiliz perküsyoncu (ö. 1999)
 12 Eylül
 Ben Blue, Kanada doğumlu aktör (ö. 1975)
 Shmuel Horowitz, Rus asıllı İsrailli ziraat mühendisi (ö. 1999)
 15 Eylül – Donald Bailey, İngiliz inşaat mühendisi (ö. 1985)
 22 Eylül – Charles B. Huggins, Kanada doğumlu kanser araştırmacısı, Nobel Tıp Ödülü sahibidir (ö. 1997)
 23 Eylül – Jaroslav Seifert, Çek yazar, Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahibi (ö. 1986)
 24 Eylül – Gerald Warner Brace, Amerikalı yazar (ö. 1978)
 26 Eylül – George Raft, Amerikalı film oyuncusu (ö. 1980)
 28 Eylül
 Ed Sullivan, Amerikalı iş insanı (ö. 1974)
 William S. Paley, Amerikalı iş insanı (ö. 1990)
 29 Eylül
 Enrico Fermi, İtalyan fizikçi, Nobel Fizik Ödülü sahibi (ö. 1954)
 Lanza del Vasto, İtalyan filozof, şair ve aktivist (ö. 1981)
 Ekim 2 – Alice Prin, Fransız şarkıcı (ö. 1953)
 Ekim 10 – Alberto Giacometti, İsveeçli heykeltıraş (ö. 1966)
 Ekim 24 – Gilda Gray, Polonya doğumlu aktris (ö. 1959)

Kasım – Aralık
 3 Kasım
 André Malraux, Fransız romancı, sanat tarihçisi ve devlet adamı (ö. 1976)
 III. Léopold, Belçika kralı (ö. 1983)
 4 Kasım – Masako Nashimoto, Kore prensesi (ö. 1989)
 7 Kasım – Norah McGuinness, İrlandalı ressam (ö. 1980)
 17 Kasım – Lee Strasberg, Amerikalı tiyatro yönetmeni ve aktör (ö. 17 Şubat 1982)
 18 Kasım – George Gallup, Amerikalı istatikçi (ö. 1984)
 22 Kasım – Joaquin Rodrigo, İspanyol besteci (ö. 1999)
 28 Kasım – Walter Havighurst, Amerikalı eleştirmen ve roman yazarı (ö. 1994)
 29 Kasım – Mildred Harris, Amerikalı aktris (ö. 1944)
 5 Aralık
 Milton Erickson, Amerikalı psychiatrist (ö. 1980)
 Walt Disney, Amerikalı iş insanı (ö. 1966)
 Werner Heisenberg, Alman fizikçi, Nobel Fizik Ödülü sahibi (ö. 1976)
 16 Aralık – Margaret Mead, Amerikalı cultural anthropologist (ö. 1978)
 19 Aralık – Rudolf Hell, Alman mucit (ö. 2002)
 25 Aralık – Prenses Alice (ö. 2004)
 27 Aralık – Marlene Dietrich, Alman sinema oyuncusu ve şarkıcı (ö. 1992)
 31 Aralık – Karl-August Fagerholm, Finlandiya başbakanı (ö. 1984)

Tarihi bilinmeyen
 Nadejda Alliluyeva-Stalina; Josef Stalin'in ikinci eşi (ö. 1932)

Ölümler

Ocak–Temmuz
 1 Ocak – Ignatius L. Donnelly, Amerikalı politikacı ve yazar (d. 1831)
 8 Ocak – John Barry, Victoria Haçı sahibi İrlandalı (d. 1873)
 10 Ocak – James Dickson, Queensland başbakanı, Avustralya Savunma Bakanı (d. 1832
 11 Ocak – Vasily Kalinnikov, Rus besteci (d. 1866)
 14 Ocak – Víctor Balaguer, İspanyol politikacı ve yazar (d. 1824)
 16 Ocak
 Arnold Böcklin, İsveçli oyuncu (d. 1827)
 Mahadev Govind Ranade, Hint reformcu (d. 1842)
 21 Ocak – Elisha Gray, Amerikalı mucit (d. 1835)
 22 Ocak – Kraliçe Victoria, Birleşik Krallık Kraliçesi ve Hindistan İmparatoriçesi (d. 1819)
 27 Ocak – Giuseppe Verdi, İtalyan besteci (d. 1813)
 31 Ocak - Peter Andreas Blix, Norveçli mimar ve mühendis (d. 1831)
 11 Şubat – I. Milan, Sırbistan kralı (d. 1854)
 22 Şubat – George Francis FitzGerald, İrlandalı matematikçi (d. 1851)
 26 Şubat – Lucyna Ćwierczakiewiczowa, Polonyalı yazar (d. 1829)
 13 Mart – Benjamin Harrison, 23. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri başkanı (d. 1833)
 3 Nisan – Richard D'Oyly Carte, İngiliz menajer (d. 1844)
 19 Nisan – Alfred Horatio Belo, Amerikalı iş insanı ve gazeteci (d. 1839)
 1 Mayıs – Lewis Waterman, Amerikalı mucit ve iş insanı (d. 1837)
 5 Mayıs – Axel Wilhelm Eriksson, İsveçli güney batı Afrika yerleşimcisi ve ticaret adamı (d. 1846)
 22 Mayıs – Gaetano Bresci İtalyan anarşist ve katil (d. 1869)
 24 Mayıs – Charlotte Mary Yonge, İngiliz roman yazarı (d. 1823)
 2 Haziran – George Leslie Mackay, Kanadalı misyoner (d. 1844)
 9 Haziran – Walter Besant, İngiliz yazar (d. 1836)

Temmuz–Aralık
 4 Temmuz – Johannes Schmidt, Alman dilbilimci (d. 1843)
 6 Temmuz – Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, Alman imparatorluk şansölyesi (d. 1819)
 7 Temmuz – Johanna Spyri, Heidi'nin yazarı İsviçreli yazar (d. 1827)
 5 Ağustos – Victoria; Alman prensesi (d. 1840)
 12 Ağustos – Francesco Crispi, İtalya eski başbakanı (d. 1819)
 24 Ağustos – Clara Maass, Amerikalı hemşire (d. 1876)
 5 Eylül – Ignacij Klemenčič, Sloven fizikçi (d. 1853)
 9 Eylül – Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Fransız ressam (d. 1864)
 14 Eylül – William McKinley, ABD'nin 25. başkanı (d. 1843)
 1 Ekim – Abdurrahman Han, Afganistan emiri (d. 1844)
 10 Ekim – Lorenzo Snow, Mormon lideri (d. 1814)
 19 Ekim – Carl Frederik Tietgen, Danimarkalı sanayici (d. 1829)
 29 Ekim – Leon Czolgosz, ABD eski başkanlarından William McKinley'in suikastçısı (d. 1873)
 7 Kasım – Li Hongzhang, Çinli general (d. 1823)
 27 Kasım – Clement Studebaker, Amerikalı sanayici (d. 1831)
 30 Kasım – Edward John Eyre, İngiliz kâşif (d. 1815)
 1 Aralık – George Lohmann, İngiliz kriket oyuncusu (d. 1865)

1901 Nobel ödülünü kazananlar
 Barış – Jean Henry Dunant ve Frédéric Passy
 Edebiyat – Sully Prudhomme
 Fizik – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
 Kimya – Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
 Tıp – Emil Adolf von Behring

Ayrıca bakınız

Kaynakça
 Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia...1901 (1902); dijital versiyon

1901


Félix Moreno Astray (1841 - 1880) exsacerdote católico, pastor y misionero protestante y escritor español.

Biografía
Fue sacerdote católico de la diócesis de Santiago de Compostela y uno de los escritores precursores, según su biógrafo Manuel Murguía, del regionalismo gallego. Como otro de los regionalistas, Curros Enríquez, empezó a aproximarse al presbiterianismo. Convertido ya al protestantismo, en sus últimos años se inscribió en la Iglesia Evangélica de Madrid para formarse como pastor. Marchó como misionero a la archidiócesis de Toledo en 1870 y allí, en el pueblo de Camuñas, con ayuda de su alcalde republicano federal, Luis Villaseñor, permanecerá varios años logrando convertir a noventa familias, éxito extraordinario, puesto que el culto protestante perdura hasta la actualidad. Allí celebró cultos domingos y jueves y junto con su esposa abrió una escuela de niños y niñas con un éxito tal que casi no cabían. Jorge Fliedner describe a Félix Moreno "como hombre bajito pero muy activo" que quiso llevar el evangelio a los pueblos limítrofes. En efecto, en 1874 Moreno Astray se trasladó a Alcázar de San Juan y allí, mientras colaboraba ocasionalmente con El Heraldo Gallego , comenzó a publicar un periódico, El Correo de la Mancha (1874-1875), retando, desde el primer número a discusión a los eclesiásticos del contorno. Aceptó uno de ellos; pero, llegado el día de la controversia, se excusó Astray, limitándose a continuar su campaña contra La Crónica de Ciudad Real. Sin embargo su éxito no pudo repetirse, porque murió prematuramente; están por recogerse sus interesantes artículos de prensa.

Obras
Santiago pintoresca, monumental, artística y literaria. Historia de la ciudad compostelana, Santiago de Compostela, Imprenta de José R. Rubial, 1863. En 1864 imprimió varios apéndices.
El viagero en la ciudad de Santiago Santiago: P. editor, 1865.

Bibliografía
Benito González Raposo, "Félix Moreno Astray, un heterodoxo gallego", en Compos-tella núm. 37 (1992/1-2), 231-270.
Manuel Murguía, Los Precursores (1886).

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Pastores reformados de España
Misioneros protestantes
Escritores de España del siglo XIX
Escritores en español del siglo XIX
Periodistas de España del siglo XIX
Nacidos en Santiago de Compostela

Félix Moreno (escritor)


Tophane, İstanbul'un Beyoğlu ilçesinde, boğaz kıyısında bir semttir. II. Mehmet İstanbul'u fethinden sonra 1455'te Tersane-i Amire (Haliç) ve 1460 Tophane-i Amire'yi (Tophane) kurarak İstanbul'da ilk sanayi hamlesini başlatmıştır. Tophane, bu özelliği nedeniyle Osmanlı döneminde İstanbul'un en eski sanayi bölgelerinden biridir denilebilir.

İstanbul'un Türkler tarafından fethinden önce Tophane semtinin Galata'nın Ceneviz surlarının hemen dışındaki bir yer olarak, oturulmayan kırlık ve bahçelik bir bölge olduğu bazı kaynaklarda ifade edilirken kimi yazarlara göre de burası bir ormanlıktı. Bizans devrinde semt adının "Metopon" olduğu kabul edilirken, daha yeni araştırmalar, yerinin güzel görünümünden dolayı "Gümüş Şehir" (Argyropolis) olduğu tezini ortaya atmıştır. Bizans'ta burada çok eski bir Apollon mabedi bulunduğu gibi, daha sonra Türklerin yaptıracağı kışlanın yerinde de, "St. Irene" veya "Hadrian ve Natalie Kilisesi"nin olduğu söylenmektedir.

Tophane binaları ve kışlası 1955-1956'da yıktırıldıktan sonra Nusretiye Camii karşısına isabet eden bir yerde bir Bizans Kilisesi'ne ait olması ihtimali olan bazı temel izleri ve tuğla duvar parçalarının ortaya çıktığı görülmüştür. Bu yapı parçalarının daha ilerisinde Sanatkarlar Mektebi Sokağı vardır. İçerisinde Tophane Ocağı Mescidi'nin de yer aldığı İmalat-ı Harbiye Usta Mektebi'nin (Sanatkârlar Mektebi) kalıntıları günümüze ulaşmıştır. Yapı topluluğunu inşa ettiren I. Süleyman'dır. 1946 yılında yapılan yol çalışması esnasında büyük oranda yıktırılmıştır. İstanbul Çevre Kültür ve Tarihi Eserleri Koruma Derneği (İSTED) tarafından yapılan araştırmalar sonucu elde edilen tarihî araştırma evrakı ile Nisan 2018'de ilgili kurula tescili için müracaat edilmiştir.

Tarihi
1267'lerde Galata'da "Pera" adlı bir koloni kuran Ceneviz Cumhuriyeti, 1335'ten itibaren doğuya doğru genişleyerek günümüzde Tophane'de yer alan Lagirio adlı kenar mahalleyi kurdu.

Tophane Binası olan Tophane-i Amire, Osmanlı Padişahı II. Mehmed zamanında top dökümü için inşa edilmişti. Melling gravüründe kıyıda görünen Tophane Kışlası, günümüzde varlığını sürdürmemektedir.

1823'te Firuz Ağa Yangını'nda yanan kışlalar, sonraları yenilenmişti. Bu yenileme sırasında Nusretiye Camisi de yapıldı. Tophane'deki eski askerî yapılardan en son ortadan kalkan, 1958'de yol genişletmesi nedeniyle, eski müşirlik binası ve Salı Pazarı'na dek uzanan sanayi kışlasıdır. Kışlalar sahasında bugün sadece, 1848 tarihli saat kulesi ile Mecidiye Kasrı (1848-1849) kalmıştır. 1580 yılında inşa edilen Kılıç Ali Paşa Camii, Külliyesi, Hamamı ve Padişah I. Mahmud tarafından 1732 yılında yaptırılan Tophane Çeşmesi de semtinin önemli sembol tarihi eserleri arasındadır. 1960'lı yıllardaki işçi hareketinin sembolü meydandaki heykel yakın zamanda ortadan kayboldu.

Nüfus
Tophane nüfusu önceleri çoğunlukla Rumlardan ve Ermenilerden oluşurken, yüzyılın başından itibaren limanda ve sanayi tesislerinde hamal olarak çalışmak için Anadolu'dan gelen Müslümanların yerleşmesi ve 6-7 Eylül Olayları sonrasındaki istimlâk hareketleri neticesinde semtte demografik yapı önemli ölçüde değişmiştir. Nüfus özellikle Siirt'in İkizbağlar (Tom) ve Bağtepe (Halenze) gibi köylerden gelen Araplarla artmış, ayrıca bu nüfusa Bitlis, Erzincan, Erzurum gibi illerden gelen göçmenler de katılmıştır. Kadim zamandan beri önemli sayılabilecek bir oranda da Roman nüfusu vardır. Semt halkı genel olarak muhafazakâr eğilimlidir. Kadiriler Yokuşu'nda bulunan Kadirî Âsitânesi (Tekkesi) 1630 yılında kurulmuştur. Hacı Pîrî Camii de buradadır.  1997 yılında büyük bir yangın sonunda yapı topluğu tamamen kullanılamaz hale geldi. Hacı Piri Camii, Tekkesi ve Haziresinin restorasyonu Ocak 2019 tarihi itibarıyla tamamlandı.

Kültürel etkinlikler
Tophane binası bugün Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi Kültür Merkezi olarak kullanılmaktadır. Her yıl mart ayının ilk haftası okulun kuruluş yıldönümü kutlamaları çerçevesinde geleneksel kıyafet balosuna da ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. Yakın zamana kadar nargilecileri ve Amerikan pazarıyla her gün birçok kişinin buraya uğramasını sağlamaktaydı. Günümüzde Amerikan pazarının olduğu bölgede dükkanlar boşaltılarak Galataport adı altında farklı bir proje ile yapılandırılmıştır. Taksim, Beşiktaş ve Karaköy arasındaki bu tarihi bölge canlılığını tarihte olduğu gibi günümüzde de sürdürüyor. Çağdaş sanat müzesi İstanbul Modern de bu semttedir.

Ulaşım

Otobüs  Hatları
T1 tramvay hattı üzerinde Tophane istasyonu bulunmaktadır.
 26 Dikilitaş - Eminönü
 26A Fulya Mahallesi - Eminönü
 26B Gayrettepe - Eminönü
 28 Topkapı/Edirnekapı - Beşiktaş
 28T Topkapı - Beşiktaş
 30D Ortaköy/Dereboyu - Yenikapı
 70KE Kurtuluş - Eminönü

Tramvay Hatları
  Bağcılar - Kabataş

Ayrıca bakınız
 Tophane-i Amire

Kaynakça

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar

Tophane


Gudi (în chineză: 贾湖骨笛, nume scris cu pinyin: gǔdí) sunt cele mai vechi instrumente muzicale din China, datând aproximativ din 6000 î.Hr.. Literal termenul gudi înseamnă "flaut de os".

Istorie
Aceste flaute de os au fost descoperite în 1986 într-un mormânt neolitic timpuriu din situl Jiahu din provincia Henan, în centrul Chinei.

Descriere
Aceste flaute de os au în medie dimensiunile de 20 centimetri × 1,1 centimetri (7,9 țoli × 0,4 țoli) și au fost confecționate din oasele aripilor unor păsări.

Galerie

Legături externe
Flutes under Wind Section

Natural History Magazine

Flaut
Arta în China

Gudi (instrument muzical)


The Hats () were a Swedish political faction active during the Age of Liberty (1719–1772). Their name derives from the tricorne hat worn by officers and gentlemen. They vied for power with the opposing Caps party. In 18th century Swedish politics, the Hats represented conservatives, the Caps represented liberals. The Hats, who ruled Sweden from 1738 to 1765, advocated an alliance with France and an assertive foreign policy, especially towards Russia. During their tenure, they involved Sweden in two expensive and disastrous wars, in the 1740s and 1750s.

Policy

Count Arvid Horn, leader of the Caps, had governed Sweden since 1719. Following Sweden's defeat in the Great Northern War, he had reversed the traditional policy of Sweden by keeping France at a distance, drawing near to Great Britain, and making no significant effort to regain Sweden's lost Baltic empire. Those opposed to this peaceful policy derisively nicknamed his adherents "Night-caps", and these epithets became party badges when the estates met in 1738. The Hats routed the government, and Horn was compelled to retire after 33 years in high office. Now in power, the Hats aimed at restoring Sweden to her former position as a great power, and sought to renew the traditional alliance with France. France welcomed the rise of a Swedish government which would uphold French interests in northern Europe, and Versailles generously financed the Hat party for the next two generations.

The first sign of weakness in the Hats' government came after the war with Russia, which ended in Swedish defeat. In the Riksdag, an inquiry into the conduct of the war was proposed. The Hats managed to avoid this prospect by obtaining precedence for the succession question. King Frederick I had no legitimate children, and it fell to the Riksdag to elect his successor. Negotiations were opened with the Russian empress, Elizabeth of Russia, who agreed to restore the greater part of Finland to Sweden if her heir's uncle, Adolph Frederick of Holstein, were elected successor to the Swedish crown. The Hats eagerly caught at the opportunity of recovering the grand duchy and their own prestige along with it. By the Treaty of Åbo, on 7 May 1743, the terms of the empress were accepted and only a small part which lay beyond the Kymi river, often called Old Finland, was retained by Russia.

In the 1750s, the Hats saw the utter collapse of their foreign system. At the instigation of France they entered the Seven Years' War in the Pomeranian theatre, and the result was ruinous. The French had not provided nearly enough money for a long war, and, after several years of unsuccessful fighting, the unhappy Hats made peace, withdrawing from a war which had cost the country 40,000 men. When the Riksdag met in 1760, the indignation against the Hat leaders was so violent that an impeachment seemed inevitable; but once more the superiority of their parliamentary tactics prevailed, and when, after a session of twenty months, the Riksdag was brought to a close by the mutual consent of both the exhausted factions, the Hat government was bolstered up for another four years. But the day of reckoning could not be postponed forever; and when the estates met in 1765 the Hats were comprehensively removed from power. The leader of the Caps, Ture Rudbeck, was elected marshal of the Diet over Frederick Axel von Fersen, the Hat candidate, by a large majority; and, out of the hundred seats in the secret committee, the Hats succeeded in getting only ten.

The Hats returned briefly to power in the Riksdag of 1769, but were soon once again defeated by the Caps. Against a backdrop of Russian encroachment, King Gustav III carried out a coup d'etat in 1772 and moved towards an absolute monarchy. During the political upheavals of the ensuing decades, both Hats and Caps disappeared as political forces.

Majority leaders
These representatives of the Hats were elected as Lantmarskalk (speaker) of the Riksdag of the Estates, signifying a parliamentary majority.

Carl Gustaf Tessin (1738–1739)
Henning Gyllenborg (1751–1752)
Axel von Fersen, senior (1755–1756, 1760–1762, 1769–1770)

See also
Carl Gyllenborg
Hats' Russian War
Privy Council of Sweden
 Hovpartiet

References

Political parties established in 1719
Defunct political parties in Sweden
1719 establishments in Sweden
Conservative parties in Sweden
Political parties with year of disestablishment missing
Sweden during the Age of Liberty

Hats (party)


Investigator je drugi EP norveškog avangardnog metal sastava Virus. EP je 21. travnja 2017. godine objavila diskografska kuća Karisma Records.

O albumu
Investigator se sastoji od dvije pjesme snimljene u doba smimanja prethodnog albuma sastava, Memento Collidera, ali koje na koncu nisu završile na samome albumu.

EP je bio objavljen u sedmoinčnoj vinilnoj inačici.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje

Virus
Carl-Michael "Czral" Eide – vokali, gitara
Einar "Einz" Sjursø – bubnjevi, udaraljke
Petter "Plenum" Berntsen – bas-gitara
Dodatni glazbenici
Bård Ingebrigtsen – harfa, orgulje, inženjer zvuka

Ostalo osoblje
Tom Kvålsvoll – mastering
Trine + Kim Design Studio – naslovnica, dizajn

Izvori

EP
Albumi sastava Virus
Albumi iz 2017.

Investigator


Sarı kemik iliği sadece uzun kemiklerde bulunmaktadır.

Sarı kemik iliğinin büyük ölçüde yağ hücrelerinden oluşur ve yağ hücrelerinin renginden ötürü bu adı alır. Yeni doğanlarda kemik iliğinin tamamı kırmızı kemik iliğiyken, büyümeyle birlikte, zamanla yerini sarı kemik iliğine bırakmaya başlar. Sarı kemik iliği, ağır kanamalar ya da hipoksi durumunda, aktif olarak kan hücresi üretme yeteneğine sahip olan kırmızı kemik iliğine dönüşebilir. Yani, bir anlamda, kırmızı kemik iliğine yedek görevi görür.

Kemik doku

Sarı kemik iliği


Almugaveri, (almogaveri, almogavari; arap. al-muğāwir: vojnik koji se bori u neprijateljskoj zemlji) pješaci iz Navare (Navarra), Aragonije (Aragón) i Katalonije (Cataluña) koji se javljaju u 13. stoljeću i koristili su se kao izvidači ili uhode.

Naoružani su prvenstveno za blisku borbu – kopljima, mačevima i kamama, imali su ručne praćke i džilite, a nosili su i male štitove.

Pješak (peón) je mogao postati časnik (almocadén) kada je položio ispit pred 12 časnika. Najhrabriji su postajali vođe (adalid) poslije ispita na kojemu su morali dokazati vještinu, odanost i snalažljivost. Istakli su se u pograničnim borbama protiv Maura. Kao vrlo dobri profesionalni ratnici almugaveri su stupali u službu stranih vladara gdje su, kao svi plaćenici toga vremena, stekli glas pljačkaša. Činili su najefikasniji element Katalonske kompanije.

Literatura

 "Amogavari ili Almovari", U: Vojna enciklopedija, sv. 1., Beograd: Izdanje redakcije Vojne enciklopedije, 1970., str. 101.
 B. Desclot, Cronica del rey en Pere e dels seus antecessors passats, Paris, 1840.
 F. Soldevila, Els Almogaveres, Revista de Catalunya, II 1925.

Povijest Španjolske

Almugaveri


مدينة رَيْبُون الأثرية (بخط المسند: ) تقع أطلال وخرائب مدينة ريبون إلى الجنوب الغربي من مدينة سيئون اليمنية، على بعد نحو (94 كيلو متر) اسفل وادي دوعن، وتعتبر من أقدم المدن التاريخية في وادي حضرموت، واكتشف فيها أقدم شواهد معروفة لخط المسند حتى الآن، محزوزة على كسرات فخارية، وقدر تاريخها بأواخر الألفية الثانية قبل الميلاد.

تشكل أطلالها وخرائبها عدة تلال آثرية وأعداد كثيرة من شبكات الري المتفرقة في عدة أماكن. تزيد مساحتها على (10 هكتار)، يعود تاريخ هذه المدينة إلى ما قبل القرن السابع قبل الميلاد وأستمر فيها الاستيطان حتى القرون الميلادية الأولى، جرت في خرائب هذه المدينة حفريات وأبحاث ودراسات أثرية من قبل البعثة الآثرية اليمنية السوفيتية في الفترة من (83-1988م)، وتوصلت إلى أن سكان المدينة كانوا قد زاولوا الزراعة، وتربية الحيوانات، وبنوا مجمعات سكنية جميلة خاصة للسكن، وأبنية أخرى خاصة لأنشطتهم الدينية كالمعابد، وقد كانت كل الأراضي المحيطة بالمدينة مغطاة بشبكات الري والقنوات والسدود وأحواض المياه، تدل كلها على ازدهار بلغ أوجه، ومن أهم المعالم الخاصة بالمدينة والتي تمت فيها الحفريات الآثرية هي كالأتي:

 معبد الإلهة (ذات حَمْيَم)
 معبد الإله (سِيان)
 شبكات وقنوات الري

معبد الإلهة (ذات حميم)
يتكون هذا المعبد من مجمع تعبدي يضم أربعة مباني، بنيت أساساتها من الأحجار وجدرانها من الهياكل الخشبية التي ملئت فراغاتها باللبن لتصبح الجدران قوية، ويعتبر اللبن الطين المادة الرئيسية للبناء في حضرموت منذ ما قبل القرن السابع قبل الميلاد، وجدران هذا المعبد أقيمت بهذه المادة، ويتميز بخفته وقوة تماسكه، ولم يكن اللبن فقط المادة الوحيدة، بل كان للأخشاب مكانة هامة في بناء الجدران والسقوف.

وفي هذا المجمع التعبدي عُثر أثناء التنقيب على بقايا هياكل خشبية وساعدت النيران التي التهمت المعبد على حفظ تصاميم هياكل الأخشاب واستعملت أعمدة خشبية ذات مقاطع دائرية ومستطيلة ومربعة، وكان المعماريون يضعون على أسس البناء الحجرية أعمدة قصيرة متوازية تفصل بينها فواصل غير كبيرة، وعليها توضع عوارض خشبية طويلة ومع هذه العوارض توضع أعمدة خشبية مقاطعها دائرية وأقطارها حوالي (12 سم)، وتربطها في أسفل وفي أعلى عوارض خشبية والتي بدورها مثبتة بأعمدة طويلة وبهذا يشكل الهيكل الخشبي التي تستند عليه جدران اللبن الني.وقد تم عمل نموذج تخيلي للكيفية التي كان بها هذا المجمع التعبدي الذي يكاد أن تكون معالمه اليوم مطموسة.

وقد عثرت البعثة الآثرية أثناء التنقيب في هذا المعبد على الكثير من النقوش وجدت متناثرة داخل مباني المعبد، في واجهة الجدران التي غطيت بقطع حجرية مصقولة منحوتة بشكل جميل ومتقن، وملصقة واحدة جنب الأخرى، بطريقة متناسقة، وعليها حفرت النقوش المكرسة للإلهة التي يتحدث فيها أصحابها عن تقديم القرابين للمعبد، ويضعون أنفسهم وأولادهم وما يملكون تحت حمايتها.

فما هي يا ترى نوع القرابين التي يقدمها هؤلاء للإلهة ؟

يحتمل أن الأحجار المنحوتة والمصقولة التي تغطي الجدران، وقد عملت على حساب المتعبدين لهذه الإلهة في هذه المدينة وخصوصاً العائلات الغنية وبعض الأسر ذات الوجاهة، ومن بين كتّاب هذه النقوش يبدن بصورة خاصة نساء كثيرات، ولهذا فأن تقديم الأحجار المصقولة للزينة الجدارية للمعبد كانت تعد تضحية للإلهة وتقديم قرباناً لها، لذا فالنقوش التي كتب عليها (فلان الفلاني قدم ضحى للإلهة ذات حميم)، ولم يوضح ذلك الشخص ماذا قدم بالضبط، فهي لا تدعوا للدهشة لأنه في الواقع قدم مبلغاً من المال لتجهيز جزء من الحجارة للزينة الجدارية للمعبد، وهو الجزء الذي كتب عليه إهداؤه، وهكذا كان ما يقدمه المتعبدون عبارة عن تجهيزات معمارية ومواد بناء وغيره، أما المتعبدين الأغنياء والوجهاء، فقد قدموا مبالغ مالية سخية لتغطية أجزاء كبيرة من الجدار بالأحجار المصقولة للزينة الجدارية.

ومن خلال معطيات النقوش، فقد وقف معبد الإلهة (ذات حميم)، متحدياً للزمن لفترة تزيد عن ستة قرون قبل أن يتعرض للهدم والتخريب وعلى امتداد هذه الحقبة الزمنية أعيد بناؤه وترميمه وتغيير قطاع الحجارة التي تزين جدرانية مراراً وتكراراً، والنقوش التي تعود إلى الفترة المتأخرة والتي قدمت معطيات أكثر تفصيلاً في محتواها، كالنقش الذي قدمه شخص يدعى(ث م أ ك ه م و) وهو نقش وجد في جدران المعبد الداخلية، وفي مثل هذه النقوش المتأخرة، تتحدث عن تقديم قرابين لتحقيق ما وعد به الشخص الإلهة، أو لأجل تقديم اعتذار لما أرتكبه الشخص من أخطاء أو ذنوب.

وقد تعرض هذا المعبد للخراب بنيران الحروب، وكثيراً من النقوش حملت معها آثار الحريق، واحترقت أعداد كثيرة منها.

معبد الإله (سِيان)
يقع المعبد في غربي المدينة على بعد (2 كيلو متر) عن مركزها، وهو معبد المدينة الرئيسي، ويتكون مجمع المعبد من معبدين على سفح أحد جوانب الوادي، أكبرهم بني على مصطبة حجرية تبلغ مساحتها (28×48 متراً)، وارتفاعاتها (9 أمتار)، أما الأخر فقد بني إلى الشمال من الأول وفي اسفل الجبل توجد أطلال بنايات حجرية وطينية من المحتمل أنها كانت ملحقة بالمعبد.

مكونات المعبد
 السور: بني سور المعبد من الحجر، وهو ذو تخطيط غير منتظم، طول جدار السور الشرقي (28 متراً) وارتفاعه (9 أمتار)، ويمكن تتبع (20 متراً) من طول الجدار الجنوبي، ثم ينقطع بسبب تهدمه، ويظهر عند سفح الجبل في الركن الجنوبي الغربي، أما الجدار الشمالي فأنه يصعد موازياً مع درج صغير بطول (13 متراً) تقريباً، ثم ينتهي عند صالة المدخل حيث يتصل بالسلم الرئيسي، أما الجهة الغربية فيشكل الجبل جزءاً من السور وقد بني جدار من اللبن والخشب ملاصق له ويحمل السقف الذي يغطي جزاءً من البهو، أن المساحة التي يشملها السور (28×48 متراً تقريباً) شديدة الانحدار في الجنوب والشرق، لهذا فقد ردمت هذه المنطقة لبناء مساحة البهو المقدس وعند التنظيف اسفل الجدار الشرقي وجدت كمية من الأحجار المشغولة جيداً، وكذلك كسر النقوش والمساند المزينة أعلاها بالزخارف الهندسية والحيوانية، ولا زالت ماثلة عند أساس هذا الجدار بعض هذه الألواح الحجرية، وخاصة في الجانب الشمالي وكذا بجانب الدرج مما يدل على أن جدران السور الخارجي كانت مزينة بالألواح الحجرية الزخرفية والنقوش، كما أن بعضها مطلي باللون الأحمر القاني.
 السلم:(الطريق الصاعد): يستند السلم الذي طوله (40 متراً) وعرضه (1,45 متراً) على منحدر الجبل ويمتد من اسفل الوادي في خط مستقيم نحو الأعلى، وينتهي عند المدخل الرئيسي أي عند قواعد الأعمدة التي لا زالت ثلاثة منها في مكانها.

أن درج ومصاطب السلم أصبحت غير واضحة المعالم (بعضها تم قلعه)، ولكن في الأسفل نجد أن الدرج بنيت بالأحجار المكتوبة وأن تقنيتها غير جيدة، ويوجد في اسفل السور الشمالي سَلم آخر مبني بالحجارة المنحوتة ومزين بالنقوش، يتكون من درجتين بعد كل مصطبة، ويستند على السلم جدار صغير مبني من الحجر، وأن نهاية هذا السلم الذي يتصل بالسلم الرئيسي لم يتم إظهار الجزء الأعلى منها بعد.

 البهو المقدس (قٌدس الأقداس): عبارة عن ساحة مبلطة بألواح حجرية وتوجد بها حفر لغرض تثبيت الأعمدة الخشبية وذلك من الجهة الغربية، أما في الجانب الشمالي والجنوبي فنجد أن الأعمدة وضعت على قواعد حجرية مقاساتها في المتوسط (22× 22 × 11 سم)، وقد عُثر في سطح هذه القواعد على آثار الأعمدة الخشبية المحروقة بمقاس (18 × 18 سم، و17×17 سم)، وهذه الحفر (التجويفات) والقواعد كانت تحمل الأعمدة الخشبية التي تحمل السقف الذي يغطي جوانب البهو وخلال التنقيبات تم رفع بعض النقوش والمساند والقطع الحجرية الديكورية والمذابح والمباخر والفخار، وفي الجانب الغربي يوجد مقعد بطول (17.70 متراً) وارتفاع (47 سم) مبني من الحجر، وتوجد في مقدمته بعدة أماكن منه كتابة تحمل اسم (ق ث م) والذي يعتقد بأنه الشخص باني هذا الجدار أو الممول لذلك، ويعلو المقعد جدار من الخشب واللبن ولا زالت البقايا الخشبية المحروقة في أماكنها، وفي الجانب الجنوبي عند نهاية المقعد توجد قاعدة تحمل مسنداً مكسوراً من الأعلى، وعند الجانب الشمالي للمقعد تم العثور على بناء بشكل حوض صغير مقاس (2.25×1.90 متراً)، وارتفاع (47 سم)، عليه كتابات في المقدمة ومن الأعلى، عند التنظيف لم يتم العثور فيه على دلائل استخدامه كحوض، ويعتقد بأنه أستخدم مكاناً لحرق البخور، وقد بني على الأرضية في وقت متأخر للبناء الأساسي.
 المعثورات الطقوسية: من المواد الطقوسية التي وجدت في المعبد، المذابح، ومنها تلك التي ينتمي ميزابها برأس ثور، وكذلك المباخر، أما بالنسبة للنقوش التي تم العثور عليها فتقدر بستمائة نقش هي في الغالب نقوش نذورية موجهة إلى الإله (سين)، الإله الرئيسي لحضرموت، وهي مختصرة جداً كالأتي: (فلان بن فلان من الأسرة الفلانية وهب لسين نفسه وأولاده وممتلكاته)، أما المساند التي كانت تزخرف بالوعول ورؤوس الثيران والرموز المقدسة والديكور الهندسي فإن محتواها أكثر تفصيلاً، فبالإضافة إلى نذر الكاتب نفسه وأولاده وما يملك فهي تعبر أيضاً عن الشكر للإله في التوفيق والخلاص من مصيبة، وشكر للرحمة الإلهية، ويعود تاريخ هذه المساند إلى القرنين الأول والثاني الميلادي.

وأهم نقوش المعبد هو النقش الموسوم ب (ريبون 14/87/1)، الذي يتحدث عن بناء المعبد ويعود تاريخه إلى القرن الخامس قبل الميلاد، وبذلك فأن المعبد ظل قائماً في الفترة الممتدة من القرن الخامس قبل الميلاد وحتى القرون الميلادية الثلاثة الأولى.

شبكات وقنوات الري
كانت مدينة ريبون في الماضي مركزاً لمنطقة زراعية كبيرة ممتدة في وسط مدخل وادي دوعن ومحاطة بمساحات واسعة من الأراضي الزراعية، وتقدر المساحة العامة للأراضي التي كانت تزرع في فترة ازدهار المدينة بحوالي (1500 هكتار)، وكانت المساحة الواقعة إلى جنوب المدينة تبلغ (750 هكتار) وكانت تروى بواسطة شبكة ري معقدة تبدأ بقناة من مجرى وادي دوعن وهي القناة الرئيسية ويصل طولها إلى قرابة (5,5 كيلو متر)، حيث تجتمع إليها مياه السيول فتوجهها هذه القناة إلى الشبكات الموزعة للمياه، والقنوات الصغيرة، ثم إلى الأراضي المزروعة.

أما الأراضي التي كانت إلى شمال المدينة فكانت تروى بواسطة مياه السدود وبقايا هذه السدود اكتشفت على بعد (1.5 كيلو متر) إلى الجنوب من قرية المشهد، وهي مبنية من جدران حجرية قوية، يصل عرضها في الأساس إلى (5 أمتار) وارتفاعها أكثر من (4 متر) تحجز مياه الوادي، وكانت لها فتحات في جزئها الأعلى لإخراج المياه الفائضة، وعلى امتداد الضفة الشرقية للوادي امتدت القناة الرئيسية الموصلة للمياه إلى الأراضي الواقعة إلى شمال قرية المشهد، وهناك بعض الأراضي غير الكبيرة المحيطة بضفتي الوادي التي كانت تروى بواسطة أحواض المياه، التي شيدت لحفظ وتجميع مياه الأمطار من صخور الوادي.

المراجع

آثار اليمن
مواقع أثرية في اليمن

مدينة ريبون الأثرية


Roschtschino (, ) ist ein Ort in der russischen Oblast Kaliningrad. Er gehört zur kommunalen Selbstverwaltungseinheit Stadtkreis Gurjewsk im Rajon Gurjewsk.

Geographische Lage
Roschtschino liegt zehn Kilometer südöstlich der Rajonshauptstadt Kaliningrad (Königsberg) und ist von Lugowoje (Gutenfeld) an der Regionalstraße 27A-083 (ex A196) über die Kommunalstraße 27K-116 zu erreichen. Die nächste Bahnstation ist Lugowoje Nowoje an der Bahnstrecke Kaliningrad–Tschernyschewskoje (ehemalige Preußische Ostbahn).

Geschichte
Das einstige Dalheim bestand vor 1945 aus einem großen Gut, einer Ziegelei sowie einem Vorwerk. Am 30. April 1874 wurde der Ort Amtsdorf des neu errichteten Amtsbezirks Dalheim im Landkreis Königsberg (Preußen) (1939 bis 1945 Landkreis Samland) im Regierungsbezirk Königsberg der preußischen Provinz Ostpreußen. Im Jahre 1910 waren in Dalheim 260 Einwohner registriert.

Am 15. November 1928 gab Dalheim seine Eigenständigkeit auf zugunsten der Eingemeindung nach Gutenfeld (heute russisch: Lugowoje) innerhalb des Amtsbezirks Steinbeck (Rybnoje). Der Amtsbezirk Dalheim wurde aufgelöst.

Auf Gut Dalheim fand 1938 eine Militärparade des I. Armeekorps vor dem Kommandierenden General Georg von Küchler statt.

Infolge des Zweiten Weltkrieges kam das nördliche Ostpreußen und mit ihm Dalheim zur Sowjetunion. Im Jahr 1950 erhielt der Ort den russischen Namen Roschtschino und wurde gleichzeitig dem Dorfsowjet Selenopolski selski Sowet im Rajon Kaliningrad zugeordnet. Später gelangte Roschtschino in den Lugowskoi selski Sowet im Rajon Gurjewsk. Von 2008 bis 2013 gehörte der Ort zur Landgemeinde Lugowskoje selskoje posselenije und seither zum Stadtkreis Gurjewsk.

Amtsbezirk Dalheim (1875–1928)
Zum neu gebildeten Amtsbezirk Dalheim gehörten anfangs eine Landgemeinde und fünf Gutsbezirke:

Kirche
Mit seiner überwiegend evangelischer Bevölkerung war Dalheim vor 1945 in das Kirchspiel Seligenfeld (heute russisch: Dalneje, Stadtteil im Moskauer Rajon der Stadt Kaliningrad (Königsberg)) eingepfarrt. Es gehörte zum Kirchenkreis Königsberg-Land I innerhalb der Kirchenprovinz Ostpreußen der Kirche der Altpreußischen Union.

Heute liegt Roschtschino im Einzugsgebiet der evangelisch-lutherischen Auferstehungskirche in Kaliningrad innerhalb der Propstei Kaliningrad der Evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche Europäisches Russland (ELKER).

Weblinks
 Roschtschino bei bankgorodov.ru

Einzelnachweise

Ort im Rajon Gurjewsk (Kaliningrad)

Roschtschino (Kaliningrad, Gurjewsk)


O Desastre ferroviário de Vila Franca de Xira foi um descarrilamento ocorrido em 16 de Agosto de 1947, nas imediações da Estação Ferroviária de Vila Franca de Xira, na Linha do Norte, em Portugal. Este acidente causou 17 mortos e cerca de 72 feridos.

Antecedentes
Este acidente envolveu um só comboio, com o número 1003, que era operado pela Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses. Era um serviço misto de passageiros e mercadorias, composto por várias carruagens de terceira classe e vagões, e saiu da Gare do Rossio às 21:18, com destino à cidade do Porto.

O acidente
Quando o comboio estava a circular junto à estação de Vila Franca de Xira, um dos rodados de um vagão de mercadorias quebrou-se, levando-o a descarrilar e atravessar-se na via férrea, e provocando igualmente ao descarrilamento dos veículos seguintes, compostos por vários vagões e de duas carruagens de terceira classe. Uma das carruagens, denominada de CT e com lotação para 62 pessoas, recuou e enfiou-se numa outra, a CD-TYF-758, tendo ambas ficado quase destruídas, e provocando um grande número de mortos e feridos entre os passageiros. Da primeira só sobreviveu o chassis, enquanto que a segunda perdeu cerca de dois terços da estrutura, tendo restado apenas 23 dos seus 82 lugares sentados.

Salvamento às vítimas e reestabelecimento da circulação
Os feridos foram encaminhados para os hospitais de Vila Franca de Xira, da Misericórdia em Alhandra, e de São José e de Dona Estefânia em Lisboa, onde alguns acabaram por falecer. No dia seguinte o Diário de Lisboa avançou um balanço provisório de 17 mortos e 72 feridos. Em 18 de Agosto morreu um dos feridos que se encontravam no Hospital de São José, levando à confirmação de dezassete como o número de vítimas mortais do acidente. Em 20 de Agosto faleceu mais uma vítima, desta vez no Hospital de D. Estefânia, mas um dos feridos que estavam no Hospital de São José, que tinha sido anunciado anteriormente pelo Diário de Lisboa como uma das vítimas mortais, ainda estava vivo. Nessa altura, ainda se encontravam internados nos hospitais 26 homens, doze mulheres e duas crianças.

Na manhã do dia seguinte iniciaram-se os trabalhos para o reestabelecimento da circulação, que incluíram a reparação da via férrea, e a remoção dos destroços e das bagagens e mercadorias espalhadas. Nessa altura, já tinha sido retomada a circulação ferroviária, embora de forma muito limitada, por uma linha de desvio. A carga do comboio acidentado incluía uma grande quantidade de peixe, que por ordem do presidente da Câmara Municipal, Cunha Nery, foi lavado e distribuído pelos pobres. Os operários foram guardados por elementos da Guarda Nacional Republicana, que também tinham como função evitar os roubos. Os trabalhos contaram com a presença de uma grua de grande potência, que foi utilizada para levar os restos da carruagem CT para fora da via férrea. No local esteve o Governador Civil de Lisboa, Mário Gusmão Madeira, e os engenheiros Valentim Bravo, José de Sousa Nunes, Gomes Viana e Baptista, e o director-geral da Companhia, Roberto de Espregueira Mendes. O engenheiro José de Sousa Nunes recebeu um louvor da Direcção-Geral de Caminhos de Ferro, pela forma como dirigiu os trabalhos de reparação dos danos causados pelo descarrilamento.

Às 15:30 do dia 18 de Agosto a via descendente foi considerada como livre, tendo o primeiro comboio comercial a passar por aquela linha sido o n.º 152, um correio com destino a Madrid.

Investigação
Em 18 de Agosto já a operadora tinha iniciado o inquérito às causas do acidente, tendo desde logo sido avançada a hipótese de que foi provocada pela quebra de um dos rodados num vagão de mercadorias.

Num artigo publicado em 1948 na Gazeta dos Caminhos de Ferro, José Lucas Coelho dos Reis alertou que este acidente tinha sido causado pelas más condições do material circulante da Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses, uma vez que que a sua situação financeira tinha impedido a aquisição de novo material, de forma a substituir o existente e ampliar o parque disponível.

Ver também
Acidentes ferroviários em Portugal

Vila Franca Xira
Vila Franca Xira
1947 em Portugal
Linha do Norte


Muzeul Tatra este un muzeu de istorie, cultură, natură și etnografie al Poloniei din regiunea Tatra. Sediul principal este situat în Zakopane, Polonia.

Istorie

Muzeul a fost înființat de către Societatea Muzeul Tatra, iar clădirea care astăzi servește ca sediu principal, situat în centrul orașului Zakopane, pe strada Krupówki nr. 10, a fost proiectat special pentru acest scop de către Stanisław Witkiewicz și Franciszek Mączyński. Clădirea este un exemplu de varietăți de "cărămidă și piatră" a arhitecturii stilului Zakopane. Proiectul a fost pregătit în 1913, iar construcția clădirii a început între 1913 și 1914. Contele Władysław Zamoyski, un membru al Societății Muzeul Tatra, a donat pietrele folosite pentru construcție. După primul război mondial, care a încetinit finalizarea clădirii, lucrările rămase și pregătirile pentru expoziții au fost posibile datorită unui împrumut de la Maria Skłodowska-Curie.

Colecții și sedii

În afară de sediul principal din Zakopane, pe strada Krupówki nr. 10, muzeul are 7 alte filiale în Zakopane și 4 alte filiale situate în Czarna Góra, Jurgów, Chochołów și Łopuszna.

Muzeul deține și prezintă:
 artefacte culturale și etnografice, îmbrăcăminte istorică, mobilier, obiecte de uz casnic, obiecte decorative, pictură pe sticlă
 istorie naturală, flora și fauna din munții Tatra; exponate geologice;
 arte plastice, în principal de pictură și sculptură create în regiunea Podhale.
În afară de sediul principal, în Zakopane mai sunt 11 sedii ale Muzeului Tatra:
 Muzeul Vila Koliba în stilul Zakopane;
 Galeria Władysław Hasior din Zakopane;
 Vila Oksza - galerie de artă din secolul XX;
 Muzeul Kornel Makuszyński;
 Galerie de artă din Koziniec
 Muzeul în stilul Zakopane - sursă de inspirație în Vila Dembowski.

Expoziții permanente

Expoziție istorică

Clădirea principală găzduiește o expoziție care prezintă istoria regiunii poloneze Tatra. Fotografii, documente de arhivă și publicații prezintă o istorie a regiunii Podhale din timpuri preistorice, prin primele așezări umane, dezvoltarea orașelor și a satelor, dezvoltarea Zakopane dintr-un mic sat într-o stațiune de sănătate și centru de artă și cultură în perioada interbelică. Expoziția prezintă perioada de dezvoltare rapidă a stațiunii Zakopane și apariția unei societăți de artiști activi și activiști sociali în Podhale la sfârșitul secolului al XIX-lea și începutul secolului XX. Tytus Chałubiński, Stanisław Witkiewicz și mulți alți artiști polonezi au ales Zakopane, fascinați de folclorul local și natură. Expoziția urmărește evoluțiile ulterioare ale orașului și a regiunii până în prezent.

Referințe

Legături externe
 Site-ul muzeului
Muzee în Voievodatul Polonia Mică
Muzee din Polonia

Muzeul Tatra din Zakopane


Euglypha, monotipski biljni rod iz porodice Aristolochiaceae, dio potporodice Aristolochioideae.. Jedna vrsta je E. rojasiana, puzava trajnica  u podruju Gran Chaca u Južnoj Americi.

Sinonimi
 Aristolochia rojasiana (Chodat & Hassl.) F.González

Izvori

Kopitnjakovke
Flora Bolivije
Flora Paragvaja
Flora Argentine
Flora Minas Geraisa
Flora brazilske države Mato Grosso do Sul

Euglypha (Plantae)


Amora Bettany est une artiste brésilienne travaillant dans le domaine du jeu vidéo. Elle a notamment travaillé pour les jeux Celeste et TowerFall.

Biographie
En 2010, Amora Bettany lance Miniboss, un studio de jeux vidéo indépendant. Elle y est spécialisée dans le domaine de l'art appliqué au domaine du jeu vidéo.

Elle travaille sur le concept art en haute résolution, puis celui-ci est ensuite transformé en pixel art par son partenaire Pedro Medeiros ou utilisé dans le jeu tel quel.

En 2014, son studio s'associe à Alpaca Team pour créer Indie House SP. Elle travaille alors notamment pour le jeu TowerFall, créé par Maddy Thorson.

À partir de 2018, elle travaille sur un autre jeu de Maddy Thorson : Celeste.

Jeux

Références

Personnalité liée à São Paulo
Artiste brésilien

Amora Bettany


William Caspar Graustein (né le  à Cambridge (Massachusetts) où il est mort le ) est un mathématicien américain.

Biographie
Graustein fait des études de mathématiques à l'université Harvard, où il obtient son baccalauréat en 1910. Il se spécialise ensuite en géométrie différentielle. En 1911, il obtient sa maîtrise à l'université  Harvard. En automne 1911, il rejoint Eduard Study à l'université de Bonn, où il obtient son doctorat
summa cum laude en 1913 avec une thèse intitulée Eine reelle Abbildung analytischer komplexer Raumkurven. Une relation personnelle étroite s'est développée et Study a eu une grande influence sur Graustein. Ce dernier est incité, par la lecture des livres de Felix Klein, à étudier la géométrie.

Après une courte période en tant qu'instructeur à l'université Harvard, Graustein part à Houston en 1914 en tant que professeur associé au Rice Institute nouvellement fondé qui devient plus tard l'université Rice. Au cours des quatre années qui ont suivi, lui et son ami Griffith Conrad Evans créent ce qui est alors devenu le meilleur centre mathématique des États du sud. Vers la fin de la première Guerre mondiale, Graustein sert comme sous-lieutenant au Aberdeen Proving Ground (le centre de recherche balistique de l'armée américaine). De 1919 jusqu'à sa mort dans un accident de la circulation, il est professeur de mathématiques à l'université Harvard. De 1932 à 1937, il y dirige le département de mathématiques.

Graustein a travaillé en géométrie complexe et sur les invariants de la géométrie différentielle classique, les parallèles sur les surfaces et les surfaces minimales harmoniques. Le théorème de Whitney-Graustein porte son nom et celui de Hassler Whitney.

De 1936 à 1941, Graustein est l'un des éditeurs des Transactions of the American Mathematical Society.

Graustein est marié depuis 1921 avec la mathématicienne Mary Graustein, avec qui il séjournait régulièrement en Europe avant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. En 1945, son frère aîné Archibald a fondé le William Caspar Graustein Memorial Fund à Havard, qui finance une chaire à son nom. En 1993, le fils d'Archibald, le géochimiste William C. Graustein, a ajouté 50 millions de dollars au fonds.

Honneurs
En 1924, Graustein est élu à l'Académie américaine des arts et des sciences.

Depuis 1970, l'American Mathematical Society décerne le prix Leroy P. Steele, en honneur de William Caspar Graustein, George David Birkhoff et William Fogg Osgood.

Écrits
Livres :
 avec W. F. Osgood, Plane and solid analytic geometry, 1921
 Introduction to higher geometry, 1930
 Differential Geometry, 1935

Articles :
 .
 .
 .

Notes et références

Liens externes

  — Article sur l'interaction entre William et sa femme Mary

Décès en janvier 1941
Naissance en novembre 1888
Membre de l'Académie américaine des arts et des sciences
Professeur à l'université Harvard
Mathématicien américain du XXe siècle
Décès à 52 ans

William Caspar Graustein


Ruus ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Ingrid Ruus, Geburtsname von Ingrid Rüütel (* 1935), estnische Volkskundlerin und Philologin
 Marcus Ruus (* 1994), schwedischer Skilangläufer
 Neeme Ruus (1911–1942), estnischer Politiker

Ruus


Gruzija je slavenski egzonim države na Kavkazu, koja se na svom narodnom, gruzijskom jeziku, naziva Sakartvelo (საქართველო).

I endonim i egzonim za zemlju potječu od iste državotvorne jezgre i središnje gruzijske regije Kartlije, zvane Iberija, do klasičnih i bizantskih izvora oko kojih je formirano ranosrednjovjekovno kulturno i političko jedinstvo Gruzijaca .

Vanjski zapadni i ruski egzonimi vjerojatno potječu od gorğān, perzijskog imenovanja Gruzijaca, koji se razvija od srednjoperzijskog wurğān / wirucān, i drevnog perzijskog vrkân (()) u značenju 'zemlja vukova'. To se odražava i u drevnom armenskom virk (վիրք), što je izvor starogrčkog iberia (ιβηρία), koja je latinski ušla kao Hiberia. Transformacija vrkān u gorgan i promjena v u g je fonetski pojava u tvorbi riječi u proto-indo-iranskim jezicima i drevnim iranskim jezicima. Svi su egzonimi jednostavno fonetske varijacije istog korijena vrk/vark (tj. vuk).

Puni službeni naziv države je Sakartvelo, kako je utvrđeno u gruzijskom ustavu. Prije stupanja na snagu Ustava iz 1995. godine ime države bilo je Republika Gruzija. Od 2005. godine, gruzijska vlada naporno radi na uklanjanju ruskog egzonima Gruzija iz upotrebe širom svijeta.

Naziv Georgia, za kojeg službeni Tbilisi želi da bude službeni naziv diljem svijeta i nema baš idiličnu rusko-gruzijsku povijest. U ruskom gradu Georgijevsku, 1783. godine potpisan je Ugovor iz Georgijevska, kojim je potvrđen ruski pravoslavni protektorat nad gruzijskim zemljama, tada razjedinjenim kraljevinama Kahetijom, Kartlijom i Imeretijom. Rusija je tadašnjem istočno-gruzijskom kraljevstvu jamčila teritorijalni integritet, ali je već 1801. godine anektirala tu zemlju.

Endonim
Izvorno gruzijsko ime za zemlju je Sakartvelo (საქართველო). Riječ se sastoji od dva dijela. Njegov korijen, kartvel-i (ქართველ-ი), prvi put potvrđen u staro-gruzijskom natpisu Um-Laisun u Jeruzalemu, izvorno se odnosi na stanovnika središnje gruzijske regije Kartli-Iberije iz klasičnih i bizantskih izvora. Početkom 9. stoljeća značenje "Kartli" prošireno je i na druga područja srednjovjekovne Gruzije koja su se držala zajedno s religijom, kulturom i jezikom. Gruzijski cirkumfiks sa-X-o je standardna geografska konstrukcija koja označava "područje u kojem X stanuje", gdje je X etnonim.

Najranija referenca za naziv "Sakartvelo" javlja se oko 800. godine u Gruzijskim kronikama Džuanšera Džuanšerianija:

Izvori

Povijest Gruzije

Ime Gruzije


Armensk Wikipedia blev lanceret i januar 2003.

Kilder

Eksterne henvisninger

Wikipedia efter sprog
Etableret i 2003
Armensk sprog

Armensk Wikipedia


Sayılar teorisi (ya da aritmetik), tamsayılar ve bunlarla ilgili işlemleri inceleyen bilim dalıdır.
Sayılar teorisi, tam sayıların (özellikle pozitif) özelliklerini inceleyen matematiğin bir alanıdır. Matematiğin en eski alanlarından biri olan bu alanda, uzun yıllar uygulama sahası çok az bulunmuştur. Fakat son yıllarda teknolojik gelişmelerin ve bilgisayar sistemlerinin temelinin sonlu sayıda işlem yapan makinelere dayanması bu alanı uygulama bulur hale getirmiştir. Aslen, matematiğin ihtiyaçtan değil de felsefi temellerden oluştuğunun bir kanıtıdır.

Sayılar teorisinin temel konularından olan kongrüans teorisi (modüler aritmetik) özellikle günümüzde takvim hesaplamaları, iletişim sistemlerinin ağ tasarımları, yüksek hızlı bilgisayar mimarisi ve güvenilir şifreleme sistemlerinin oluşturulması alanlarında bolca uygulanmaktadır.
Bilgisayarların donanımsal temelleri de göz önünde bulundurulduğunda kongrüans teorisinin uygulamalarının çok uygun olduğu düşünülmektedir. Sayılar teorisinin diğer uygulama alanları arasında Fizik, Kimya, Biyoloji, Müzik (nota sistemleri), Kriptografi, dijital iletişim, ekonomi ve iş dünyası vardır.

Alanda öne çıkmış matematikçiler Euclid, Fermat, Euler, Lagrange, Diophantus, Gauss olarak sayılabilir.

Kaynakça

Sayılar teorisi


The Elephant Man est une pièce de théâtre de Bernard Pomerance créée en 1977 au Hampstead Theatre de Londres.

Elle s'inspire de l'histoire de Joseph Merrick. Le rôle principal a été créé par David Schofield et repris par la suite par des acteurs comme Philip Anglim, David Bowie, Mark Hamill, Bruce Davison ou encore Bradley Cooper. Il est indiqué dans la pièce que le personnage principal ne doit pas être représenté avec des prothèses.

Argument
L'histoire de Joseph Merrick, atteint du syndrome de Protée.

Distinctions
Tony Awards 1979
Tony Award de la meilleure pièce
Tony Award de la meilleure mise en scène pour une pièce
Tony Award de la meilleure actrice dans une pièce pour Carole Shelley (ex æquo)

Notes et références

Pièce de théâtre de 1977
Pièce de théâtre américaine
Drame (théâtre)
Tony Award de la meilleure pièce

The Elephant Man (pièce de théâtre)