Gladys Hulette (21 de julio de 1896 – 8 de agosto de 1991) fue una actriz cinematográfica estadounidense de la época del cine mudo.

Actriz infantil
Nacida en Arcade (Nueva York), su carrera se inició en los primeros años del cine mudo y continuó hasta mediada la década de 1930. Su primera actuación teatral tuvo lugar a los tres años de edad, y a los siete debutaba en la pantalla. Su madre era una estrella de la ópera, y Hulette estaba entre los principales intérpretes de la obra Sappho and Phaon, la cual se estrenó en Providence (Rhode Island) el 4 de octubre de 1907, y en la cual actuaba Bertha Kalich bajo producción de Percy MacKaye.

De niña también actuó en Romeo y Julieta (1908) y The Smoke Fairy (1909). En la pieza Blue Bird encarnó a la niña maravilla. Además fue Beth en Mujercitas, obra de Louisa May Alcott.

Actriz de cine mudo

En sus primeras producciones cinematográficas Hulette trabajó bajo contrato con Vitagraph Studios. En 1917 los filmes de Hulette eran producidos por el director William Parke. En ese año hizo el que fue su título más popular hasta la fecha, Streets of Illusion, en el cual encarnaba a Beam actuando en compañía de Richard Barthelmess y J.H. Gilmour.

En 1917 Hulette se casó con William Parke Jr., hijo del director, divorciándose la pareja en 1924.

Hulette volvió a trabajar con Barthelmess en Tol'able David, interpretando a la ingenua Esther Hatburn. Posteriormente buscó papeles de comedia y drama como los que encarnó en Jack O' Hearts (1926) y A Bowery Cinderella (1927).

Últimos años
Hulette debutó en el cine sonoro con el film  Torch Singer (1933), siendo sus últimas actuaciones la que hizo ese mismo año en Her Resale Value (1933) y dos papeles sin créditos en dos producciones de 1934, The Girl From Missouri y One Hour Late.

Gladys Hulette falleció en Montebello (California) en 1991. Tenía 95 años de edad. Sus restos fueron incinerados y las cenizas entregadas a sus allegados.

Selección de su filmografía

 Be Your Age (1926)
 The Mystic (1925)
 The Family Secret (1924)
 El caballo de hierro (1924)
 Hoodman Blind (1923)
 Enemies of Women (1923)
 Tol'able David (1921)
 The Active Life of Dolly of the Dailies (1914)
Alicia en el país de las maravillas 1910
 A Midsummer Night's Dream (1909)
 Princess Nicotine; or, The Smoke Fairy (1909)

Véase también
 El caballo de hierro

Referencias

 Fort Wayne (Indiana) News, Gladys Hulette, 13 de septiembre de 1917, Página 5.
 Los Angeles Times, She's Champion of Dance Hall Girls, 13 de abril de 1924, Página B19.
 Los Angeles Times, Tell Us What You Think, 14 de diciembre de 1924, Página C32.
 Oakland, California Tribune, Gladys Hulette Talks of Old Days as Child in Vitagraph, Sunday Morning, 28 de agosto de 1921, Página 21.
 New York Times, Amusement Notes, 9 de septiembre de 1907, Página 7.
 Reno Evening Gazette, Old Favorite Is Seen Again, 9 de septiembre de 1933, Página 8.

Enlaces externos

Retrato de Gladys Hulette

Actrices infantiles de Estados Unidos
Actrices de teatro de Estados Unidos
Actrices de cine de Estados Unidos
Actrices de cine mudo de Estados Unidos

Gladys Hulette


Amanda N. Nguyen (nascida  1991) é uma empreendedora social, ativista dos direitos civis e CEO e fundadora da Rise, uma organização não governamental de direitos civis. Ela esteve envolvida na proposta e redação da Lei dos Direitos dos Sobreviventes de Agressões Sexuais, que foi aprovada por unanimidade no Congresso. Nguyen também recebeu o crédito por iniciar o movimento para impedir a violência contra asiático-americanos depois que seu vídeo pedindo cobertura da mídia se tornou viral em 5 de fevereiro de 2021. Em reconhecimento ao seu trabalho, Nguyen foi nomeada para o Prêmio Nobel da Paz de 2019 e foi nomeada uma das Mulheres do Ano de 2022 pela revista Time. Ela também recebeu o 24º Prêmio Heinz Anual em Políticas Públicas, Time 100 Next, Forbes 30 Under 30 e foi creditada como uma das 100 melhores pensadoras globais pela Política Externa. Além disso, Nguyen é destaque na antologia de 2022 We Are Here: 30 Inspiring Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Who Have Shaped the United States, de Naomi Hirahara e publicado pela Smithsonian Institution e Running Press Kids.

Educação e carreira
Nguyen obteve um diploma de Bacharel em Artes na Universidade de Harvard, graduando-se em 2013.

Ela estagiou na NASA em 2013, e também trabalhou no Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian. Ela trabalhou como representante da Casa Branca para o Departamento de Estado dos EUA. Ela deixou o emprego no Departamento de Estado em 2016 para trabalhar em tempo integral na Rise. Incentivada por seus mentores durante seu tempo na NASA, ela aspira se tornar uma astronauta. Nguyen também faz parte do conselho de administração da GivingTuesday.

Ativismo
Em 2013, Nguyen foi estuprada enquanto cursava a faculdade em Harvard, em Massachusetts. Nguyen optou por não prestar queixa imediatamente, pois achava que não tinha o tempo e os recursos necessários para participar de um julgamento que poderia durar anos. Depois que os policiais a informaram que havia um estatuto de limitações de 15 anos para estupro em Massachusetts, ela decidiu que apresentaria queixa posteriormente, quando estivesse pronta. Ela mandou fazer um kit de estupro e descobriu que, se não denunciasse o crime às autoridades policiais, seu kit de estupro seria destruído depois de seis meses se não fosse feito um pedido de prorrogação. Ela também não recebeu instruções oficiais sobre como solicitar uma prorrogação. Nguyen considerou esse sistema falho, em parte porque o pedido de extensão seria um lembrete desnecessário de uma experiência traumatizante. Nguyen conheceu outros sobreviventes com histórias semelhantes e concluiu que as proteções legais atuais eram insuficientes. Ela criou eventos divulgados, como um desfile de moda durante a Semana de Moda de Nova York no Museu de Arte Moderna, com modelos sobreviventes de abuso sexual.

Rise
Em novembro de 2014, Nguyen fundou a Rise, uma organização sem fins lucrativos que visa proteger os direitos civis de sobreviventes de abuso sexual e estupro. Nguyen chefiou a organização em seu tempo livre até setembro de 2016. Todos os que trabalham na Rise são voluntários, e a organização arrecadou dinheiro por meio do GoFundMe. Nguyen explicou que a organização recebeu o nome de Rise para "nos lembrar que um pequeno grupo de cidadãos atenciosos e comprometidos pode se levantar e mudar o mundo". O objetivo de Nguyen é que a Rise aprove uma Declaração de Direitos de Sobreviventes de Abusos Sexuais em todos os 50 estados dos EUA, bem como em nível nacional. Ela também viajou para o Japão, onde um projeto de lei semelhante foi apresentado.

Lei dos Direitos dos Sobreviventes de Abusos Sexuais
Em julho de 2015, Nguyen se reuniu com a senadora de New Hampshire, Jeanne Shaheen, para discutir a legislação que protegeria os direitos dos sobreviventes no nível federal. A legislação que Nguyen ajudou a redigir foi apresentada ao Congresso em fevereiro de 2016 por Shaheen. Nguyen colaborou com o Change.org e o site de comédia Funny or Die para chamar a atenção para a legislação e encorajar os eleitores a apoiá-la. Nguyen lançou uma petição Change.org que pedia ao Congresso que aprovasse a legislação. O vídeo Funny or Die e a petição Change.org receberam apoio de Judd Apatow e Patricia Arquette no Twitter. Em 28 de fevereiro de 2016, a petição Change.org obteve 60.000 das 75.000 assinaturas solicitadas. Em outubro de 2016, havia mais de 100.000 assinaturas.

O projeto de lei foi aprovado no Senado em maio e na Câmara dos Deputados em setembro. Foi aprovado por unanimidade em ambas as câmaras do Congresso, e foi sancionado em outubro de 2016 pelo presidente Barack Obama. A nova lei protege, entre outros direitos, o direito de ter a evidência de um kit de estupro preservado gratuitamente durante o prazo de prescrição.

Em 12 de outubro de 2017, o governador da Califórnia, Jerry Brown, aprovou um projeto de lei intitulado "Vítimas de abuso sexual: direitos".

Retrato "We the Future"
Em 2018, Shepard Fairey criou um retrato de Amanda Nguyen para a campanha "We the Future" da Amplifier, uma série de peças de arte encomendadas que foram enviadas para 20.000 escolas de ensino fundamental e médio nos Estados Unidos para ensinar sobre vários movimentos populares.

Prêmios e Reconhecimentos
 2016 – Prêmio de Honra para Jovens Mulheres, Marie Claire
 2016 – Top 100 Pensadores Globais, Política Externa
 2017 – 2017 Marcha das Mulheres Convidada e Oradora Homenageada
 2017 – Forbes 30 Under 30, Forbes
 2017 – 40 Mulheres para Assistir, A Tempestade
 2018 - A lista Frederick Douglass 200
 2019 – Prêmio Nelson Mandela Changemaker
 2019 – 24º Prêmio Anual Heinz em Políticas Públicas
 2019 – Metas Globais da Vanity Fair, Vanity Fair
 2019 – Time 100 Next, Time
 2021 - Ela foi reconhecida como uma das 100 mulheres da BBC
 2022 - Time Mulher do Ano, Time

Vida pessoal
Nascida na Califórnia,Nguyen reside em Washington, DC

Ligações externas

 Rise Sexual Assault Bill of Rights Achievement Timeline image.

Pessoas na lista BBC 100 Mulheres de 2021
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos na década de 1990
Norte-americanos de ascendência vietnamita
Alunos da Universidade Harvard

Amanda Nguyen


Brian Samuel Epstein (n. 9 septembrie  1934 – d.  27 august  1967) a fost un om de afaceri englez, evreu de origine, care a fost impresarul formației Beatles și al altor formații și artiști din Liverpool.

Fiu al unei familii evreiești înstărite din Liverpool, în anul 1955 Epstein s-a angrenat în afacerile familiei, ca director al magazinului de discuri "NEMS". Sub conducerea sa creativă și novatoare, magazinul s-a transformat într-unul din magazinele de discuri cele mai prospere din oraș. Epstein nu s-a mulțumit cu acest succes, ci și-a dorit să devină impresarul uneia din formațiile din mediul muzical foarte animat din Liverpool. Aceasta i s-a prilejuit la finele anului 1961, când a intrat în magazinul său un client care a solicitat discul "My Bonnie" de Tony Sheridan și The Beatles. Discul fusese înregistrat în acel an la Hamburg, unde Beatles l-au acompaniat pe Tony Sheridan. Discul i-a trezit curiozitatea lui Epstein, care s-a dus să-i audă pe Beatles la clubul The Cavern ("Peștera"). După show Epstein s-a întâlnit cu membrii formației (în acea vreme toboșarul era încă Pete Best, care ulterior a fost înlocuit de Ringo Star) și nu mult după aceea a devenit impresarul lor.

Epstein a produs o schimbare dramatică în înfățișarea exterioară a formației și în modul de derulare al concertelor lor. El a limitat timpul performanței la o jumătate de oră și a cerut membrilor formației să-și schimbe pieptănătura și să renunțe la hainele de piele și la imaginea de "Teddie Boy". În acelaș timp Epstein a căutat o companie de discuri care să accepte să semneze un contract cu tinerii artiști. Prima lui încercare, cu compania Decca a dat greș. O altă încercare cu compania EMI a fost mai reușită, chiar dacă în funcția de producător a fost numit George Martin, care până atunci se specializase în muzica clasică și umor.

Formidabilul succes pe care l-a avut Epstein cu Beatles i-a sporit renumele și el a devenit, drept urmare, și impresarul altor formații și soliști din Liverpool (Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J.Kramer, Cilla Black). Talentul său teatral și simțurile sale ascuțite pentru afaceri l-au ajutat în organizarea lungilor turnee ale formației The Beatles în anii 1963-1966, în timpul cărora formația a susținut sute de concerte. Totuși, a anumită lipsă de experiență l-a făcut să eșueze în câteva afaceri cu produse auxiliare și în contractele pentru înregistrări în Statele Unite. În anii 1964-1966 s-au vândut discuri ale Beatles și alte produse auxiliare în valoare de miliarde de dolari (în valoarea lor de azi), dar Beatles au avut din aceasta doar încasări infime.

Cu timpul Beatles s-au săturat de turnee și din toamna anului 1966 au încetat cu totul să se producă în public, preferand înregistrările.
În aceste împrejurări, în preajma reînnoirii contractului său cu Beatles, Epstein s-a văzut îngrijorat de incertitudinea poziției sale ca impresar.
La 27 august 1967, în vreme ce Beatles se aflau în vizită la Maharishi în nordul Angliei, Epstein a fost găsit mort în casa sa din Londra, din cauza unei supradoze de droguri.

Epstein era homosexual, iar orientarea sa sexuală era cunoscută anturajului său, dar nu a fost comunicată publicului larg în timpul vieții sale.

Note

Oameni de afaceri englezi
Oameni de afaceri evrei
The Beatles
Persoane LGBT din Regatul Unit
Nașteri în 1934
Nașteri pe 19 septembrie
Decese pe 27 august
Decese în 1967

Brian Epstein


Heinrich Schreiber ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Heinrich Schreiber (Politiker) (um 1445–nach 1531), Parteigänger der Reformation, Bergbauunternehmer in Wernigerode und Bürgermeister von Halberstadt
 Heinrich Schreiber (Mathematiker) (1492–1525), deutscher Mathematiker und Astronom
 Heinrich Schreiber (Historiker) (1793–1872), deutscher Historiker und Moraltheologe
 Heinrich Schreiber (Pastor) (1864–1936), deutscher Theologe, Pastor, Publizist
 Heinrich Schreiber (Bibliothekar) (1900–1942), deutscher Bibliothekar

Heinrich Schreiber


Hostovice este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Snina din regiunea Prešov, pe malul râului . Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 285 de locuitori. Se învecinează cu Osadné, , Stakčín, , Čukalovce, Nechválova Polianka, Nižná Jablonka, Nechválova Polianka și Vyšná Jablonka.

Istoric
Localitatea Hostovice este atestată documentar din 1567.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Hostovice, Snina


La Ruta Estatal de California 36, y abreviada SR 36 (en inglés: California State Route 36) es una carretera estatal estadounidense ubicada en el estado de California. La carretera inicia en el Oeste desde la  hacia el Este en la . La carretera tiene una longitud de 400,5 km (248.856 mi).

Mantenimiento
Al igual que las autopistas interestatales, y las rutas federales y el resto de carreteras estatales, la Ruta Estatal de California 36 es administrada y mantenida por el Departamento de Transporte de California por sus siglas en inglés Caltrans.

Cruces
La Ruta Estatal de California 36 es atravesada principalmente por la .
{| class=wikitable
!Condado
!Localidad
!Miliario
!Destinos
!Notas
|-
|rowspan=2|HumboldtHUM 0.00-45.68
|Alton
|0.00
|
|
|-
|Bridgeville
|R23.92
|Alderpoint Road – Blocksburg
|
|-
|rowspan=5|TrinityTRI 0.00-R41.14
|
|
|Van Duzen River Road – Zenia
|
|-
|
|R3.32
|Lower Mad River Road – Ruth
|
|-
|
|27.23
|
|
|-
|
|
|Wildwood Road – Wildwood, Hayfork
|
|-
|
|
|Harrison Gulch Road – Deer Lick Springs
|
|-
|ShastaSHA 0.00-11.93
|Platina
|8.87
|
|
|-
|rowspan=12|TehamaTEH 0.00-104.00
|
|23.20
|
|
|-
|rowspan=4|Red Bluff
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|L39.73
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|Extremo Oeste de la I-5 Bus.
|-
|L41.15
|
|Sirve al Shasta College
|-bgcolor=#ddffdd
|L41.29
|/
|Extremo este de la I-5 Bus.
|-
|41.85
|
|Interchange
|-
|
|44.00
|
|
|-
|Dales
|55.26
|
|
|-
|Paynes Creek
|58.18
|Lanes Valley Road – Manton
|
|-
|Mineral
|83.14
|
|
|-
|
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|87.68
|bgcolor=#ddffdd| – Lassen Volcanic National Park
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|Extremo Oeste de la SR 89
|-
|Morgan Springs
|91.25
|
|
|-
|
|99.94
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2|PlumasPLU 0.00-18.42
|Chester
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|6.29
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|
|bgcolor=#ddffdd|Extremo este de la SR 89
|-
|
|R13.93
|
|
|-
|rowspan=7|LassenLAS 0.00-R29.39
|
|0.76
|
|
|-
|Westwood
|3.71
|
|
|-
|
|R19.20
|, Monte Shasta
|
|-
|
|22.06
| – Eagle Lake
|
|-
|rowspan=2|Susanville
|25.36
|, Klamath Falls, North Shore Eagle Lake
|Sirve al Lassen College
|-
|R26.22
|
|
|-
|
|R29.39
|, Klamath Falls, Reno
|
|-

Véase también

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Página oficial de Caltrans

 Lista de Autopistas por estado
 Lista de sitios web de carreteras para cada estado

Carreteras estatales de California
36
36
36
36
36
36

Ruta Estatal de California 36


ربيعة جلطي الزَرْهوني، شاعرة وروائية جزائرية، من مواليد الجزائر عام 1964، نالت شهادة الدكتوراه في الأدب المغاربي الحديث، شغلت منصب استاذة في جامعة وهران و هي الآن أستاذة في جامعة الجزائر العاصمة، كاتبة ومترجمة، لها خمس مجموعات شعرية ورواية بعنوان نادي الصنوبر.

تعتبر ربيعة جلطي راهنا من أهم الشاعرات الجزائريات فهي الوحيدة تقريبا من بين شعراء جيل السبعينات التي بقيت تكتب وتنشر مجموعاتها الشعرية، وهي كما تقول في بعض افاداتها الصحفية لم تكتب ضمن الجوقة السياسية لتلك المرحلة ولم تسقط في فخ التبشير الايديولوجي الذي وقع فيه الجميع. متزوجة من الروائي أمين الزاوي.

أصدرت العديد من الدواوين كان أولها
 تضاريس لوجه غير باريسي
وآخر ما صدر لها:
 من التي في المرآة
 الذروة
 ارائك القصب
 نادي الصنوبر (رواية)

ترجم شعرها إلي الفرنسية الشاعر المغربي عبد اللطيف اللعبي في ديوان ـ وحديث في السر ـ أما رشيد بوجدرة فترجم مجموعتها الأخيرة.

مؤلفاتها

الرواية

 الذروة، دار الآداب، بيروت، 2010.

 نادي الصنوبر، دار الاختراف، الجزائر، 2011.
 عرش معشق، دار الاختلاف، الجزائر، 2013.
 حنين بالنعناع، دار الاختلاف، الجزائر، 2015.
 عازب حي المرجان، دار الاختلاف، الجزائر، 2016.
 قوارير شارع جميلة بوحيرد، دار ضفاف، بيروت، 2018.
 قلب الملاك الآلي، دار الاختلاف، الجزائر، 2019.
• جلجامش والراقصة، منشورات ضفاف ومنشورات الإختلاف، 2021 .

دواوين الشعر

 تضاريس لوجه غير باريسي، 1981.
 التهمة، 1984.
 شجر الكلام، 1991.
 كيف الحال، 1997.
 حديث في السر، 2002.
 من التي بالمرآة، 2003.
 حجر حائر، 2008.

المراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من وهران
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة مدينة الجزائر
جامعة وهران
روائيون جزائريون
شاعرات جزائريات
شعراء جزائريون في القرن 20
شعراء جزائريون في القرن 21
كاتبات جزائريات
مواليد 1373 هـ
مواليد 1954
مواليد 1964
شعراء بالعربية في القرن 21

ربيعة جلطي


Sofu, Sinop ilinin Ayancık ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köy, 1487 yılı kayıtlarında Alaçam adıyla geçmekte olup, 1907 yılından beri aynı adı taşımaktadır.

Coğrafya
Köy, Sinop il merkezine 73 km, Ayancık ilçe merkezine 12 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Ayancık belde ve köyleri

Sofu, Ayancık


A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. The term can also be used to refer to trade over bodies of water. Allowing goods to reach distant markets, a single trade route contains long-distance arteries, which may further be connected to smaller networks of commercial and noncommercial transportation routes. Among notable trade routes was the Amber Road, which served as a dependable network for long-distance trade. Maritime trade along the Spice Route became prominent during the Middle Ages, when nations resorted to military means for control of this influential route. During the Middle Ages, organizations such as the Hanseatic League, aimed at protecting interests of the merchants and trade became increasingly prominent.

In modern times, commercial activity shifted from the major trade routes of the Old World to newer routes between modern nation-states. This activity was sometimes carried out without traditional protection of trade and under international free-trade agreements, which allowed commercial goods to cross borders with relaxed restrictions. Innovative transportation of modern times includes pipeline transport and the relatively well-known trade involving rail routes, automobiles, and cargo airlines.

History

Development of early routes

Early development
Long-distance trade routes were developed in the Chalcolithic period. The period from the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE to the beginning of the Common Era saw societies in Southeast Asia, Western Asia, the Mediterranean, China, and the Indian subcontinent develop major transportation networks for trade.

One of the vital instruments which facilitated long-distance trade was portage and the domestication of beasts of burden. Organized caravans, visible by the 2nd millennium BCE, could carry goods across a large distance as fodder was mostly available along the way. The domestication of camels allowed Arabian nomads to control the long-distance trade in spices and silk from the Far East to the Arabian Peninsula. Caravans were useful in long-distance trade largely for carrying luxury goods, the transportation of cheaper goods across large distances was not profitable for caravan operators. With productive developments in iron and bronze technologies, newer trade routes – dispensing innovations of civilizations – began to rise.

Maritime trade

Navigation was known in Sumer between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE. The Egyptians had trade routes through the Red Sea, importing spices from the "Land of Punt" (East Africa) and from Arabia.

In Asia, the earliest evidence of maritime trade was the Neolithic trade networks of the Austronesian peoples among which is the lingling-o jade industry of the Philippines, Taiwan, southern Vietnam and peninsular Thailand. It also included the long-distance routes of Austronesian traders from Indonesia and Malaysia connecting China with South Asia and the Middle East since approximately 500 BCE. It facilitated the spread of Southeast Asian spices and Chinese goods to the west, as well as the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to the east. This route would later become known as the Maritime Silk Road, although that is a misnomer, since spices, rather than silk, were traded along this route. Many Austronesian technologies like the outrigger and catamaran, as well as Austronesian ship terminologies, still persist in many of the coastal cultures in the Indian Ocean.

Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. South Asia had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to Southeast Asia, thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult. Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes. By making use of the maritime trade routes, bulk commodity trade became possible for the Romans in the 2nd century BCE. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one-sixtieth the cost of over-land routes.

Visible trade routes

The peninsula of Anatolia lay on the commercial land routes to Europe from Asia as well as the sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. Records from the 19th century BCE attest to the existence of an Assyrian merchant colony at Kanesh in Cappadocia (now in modern Turkey). Trading networks of the Old World included the Grand Trunk Road of India and the Incense Road of Arabia. A transportation network consisting of hard-surfaced highways, using concrete made from volcanic ash and lime, was built by the Romans as early as 312 BCE, during the times of the Censor Appius Claudius Caecus. Parts of the Mediterranean world, Roman Britain, Tigris-Euphrates river system and North Africa fell under the reach of this network at some point of their history.

According to Robert Allen Denemark (2000):

"The spread of urban trading networks, and their extension along the Persian Gulf and eastern Mediterranean, created a complex molecular structure of regional foci so that as well as the zonation of core and periphery (originally created around Mesopotamia) there was a series of interacting civilizations: Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley; then also Syria, central Anatolia (Hittites) and the Aegean (Minoans and Mycenaeans). Beyond this was a margin which included not only temperate areas such as Europe, but the dry steppe corridor of central Asia. This was truly a world system, even though it occupied only a restricted portion of the western Old World. Whilst each civilization emphasized its ideological autonomy, all were identifiably part of a common world of interacting components."

These routes – spreading religion, trade and technology – have historically been vital to the growth of urban civilization. The extent of development of cities, and the level of their integration into a larger world system, has often been attributed to their position in various active transport networks.

Historic trade routes

Combined land and waterway routes

Incense Route

The Incense Route served as a channel for trading of Indian, Arabian and East Asian goods. The incense trade flourished from South Arabia to the Mediterranean between roughly the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE. This trade was crucial to the economy of Yemen and the frankincense and myrrh trees were seen as a source of wealth by its rulers.

Ptolemy II Philadelphus, emperor of Ptolemaic Egypt, may have forged an alliance with the Lihyanites in order to secure the incense route at Dedan, thereby rerouting the incense trade from Dedan to the coast along the Red Sea to Egypt. I. E. S. Edwards connects the Syro-Ephraimite War to the desire of the Israelites and the Aramaeans to control the northern end of the Incense route, which ran up from Southern Arabia and could be tapped by commanding Transjordan.

Gerrha – inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon – controlled the Incense trade routes across Arabia to the Mediterranean and exercised control over the trading of aromatics to Babylon in the 1st century BCE. The Nabateans exercised control over the routes along the Incense Route, and their hold was challenged – without success – by Antigonus Cyclops, emperor of Syria. The Nabatean control over trade further increased and spread in many directions.

The replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with the East and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of the south. According to Milo Kearney (2003) "The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden. In response, the Romans destroyed Aden and favored the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea." Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power.

Pre-Columbian trade

Some similarities between the Mesoamerican and the Andean cultures suggest that the two regions became a part of a wider world system, as a result of trade, by the 1st millennium BCE. The current academic view is that the flow of goods across the Andean slopes was controlled by institutions distributing locations to local groups, who were then free to access them for trading. This trade across the Andean slopes – described sometimes as "vertical trade" – may have overshadowed the long-distance trade between the people of the Andes and the neighboring forests. The Callawaya herbalists traded in tropical plants between 6th and the 10th centuries, while copper was dealt by specialized merchants in the Peruvian valley of Chincha. Long-distance trade may have seen local elites resorting to struggle in order for manipulation and control.

Prior to the Inca dominance, specialized long-distance merchants provided the highlanders with goods such as gold nuggets, copper hatchets, cocoa, salt etc. for redistribution among the locals, and were key players in the politics of the region. Hatchet shaped copper currency was produced by the Peruvian people, in order to obtain valuables from pre Columbian Ecuador. A maritime exchange system stretched from the west coast of Mexico to southernmost Peru, trading mostly in Spondylus, which represented rain and fertility and was considered the principal food of the gods by the people of the Inca empire. Spondylus was used in elite rituals, and the effective redistribution of it had political effect in the Andes during the pre-Hispanic times.

Predominantly overland routes

Silk Road

The Silk Road was one of the first trade routes to join the Eastern and the Western worlds. According to Vadime Elisseeff (2000):

"Along the Silk Roads, technology traveled, ideas were exchanged, and friendship and understanding between East and West were experienced for the first time on a large scale. Easterners were exposed to Western ideas and life-styles, and Westerners, too, learned about Eastern culture and its spirituality-oriented cosmology. Buddhism as an Eastern religion received international attention through the Silk Roads."

Cultural interactions patronized often by powerful emperors, such as Kanishka, led to development of art due to introduction of a rich variety of influences. Buddhist missions thrived along the Silk Roads, partly due to the conducive intermixing of trade and cultural values, which created a series of safe stoppages for both the pilgrims and the traders. The Silk Roads led to the creation of a merchant class urban centers and the growth of trade-based economies. Among the frequented routes of the Silk Route was the Burmese route extending from Bhamo, which served as a path for Marco Polo's visit to Yunnan and Indian Buddhist missions to Canton in order to establish Buddhist monasteries. This route – often under the presence of hostile tribes –  also finds mention in the works of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.

Grand Trunk Road

The Grand Trunk Road – connecting Chittagong in Bangladesh to Peshawar in Pakistan – has existed for over two and a half millennia. One of the important trade routes of the world, this road has been a strategic artery with fortresses, halting posts, wells, post offices, milestones and other facilities. Part of this road through Pakistan also coincided with the Silk Road.

This highway has been associated with emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Sher Shah Suri, the latter became synonymous with this route due to his role in ensuring the safety of the travelers and the upkeep of the road. Emperor Sher Shah widened and realigned the road to other routes, and provided approximately 1700 roadside inns through his empire. These inns provided free food and lodgings to the travelers regardless of their status.

The British occupation of this road was of special significance for the British Raj in India. Bridges, pathways and newer inns were constructed by the British for the first thirty-seven years of their reign since the occupation of Punjab in 1849. The British followed roughly the same alignment as the old routes, and at some places the newer routes ran parallel to the older routes.

Vadime Elisseeff (2000) comments on the Grand Trunk Road:
"Along this road marched not only the mighty armies of conquerors, but also the caravans of traders, scholars, artists, and common folk. Together with people, moved ideas, languages, customs, and cultures, not just in one, but in both directions. At different meeting places – permanent as well as temporary – people of different origins and from different cultural backgrounds, professing different faiths and creeds, eating different foods, wearing different clothes, and speaking different languages and dialects would meet one another peacefully. They would understand one another's food, dress, manner, and etiquette, and even borrow words, phrases, idioms and, at times, whole languages from others."

Amber Road

The Amber Road was a European trade route associated with the trade and transport of amber. Amber satisfied the criteria for long-distance trade as it was light in weight and was in high demand for ornamental purposes around the Mediterranean. Before the establishment of Roman control over areas such as Pannonia, the Amber Road was virtually the only route available for long-distance trade.

Towns along the Amber Road began to rise steadily during the 1st century CE, despite the troop movements under Titus Flavius Vespasianus and his son Titus Flavius Domitianus.
Under the reign of Tiberius Caesar Augustus, the Amber Road was straightened and paved according to the prevailing urban standards. Roman towns began to appear along the road, initially founded near the site of Celtic oppida.

The 3rd century saw the Danube river become the principal artery of trade, eclipsing the Amber Road and other commercial routes. The redirection of investment to the Danubian forts saw the towns along the Amber Road growing slowly, though yet retaining their prosperity. The prolonged struggle between the Romans and the barbarians further left its mark on the towns along the Amber Road.

Via Maris

Via Maris, literally Latin for "the way of the sea", was an ancient highway used by the Romans and the Crusaders. The states controlling the Via Maris were in a position to grant access for trade to their own citizens and collect tolls from the outsiders to maintain the trade route. The name Via Maris is a Latin translation of a Hebrew phrase related to Isaiah. Due to the biblical significance of this ancient route, many attempts to find its present-day location have been made by Christian pilgrims. 13th-century traveler and pilgrim Burchard of Mount Zion refers to the Via Maris route as a way leading along the shore of the Sea of Galilee.

Trans Saharan trade

Early Muslim writings confirm that the people of West Africa operated a sophisticated network of trade, usually under the authority of a monarch who levied taxes and provided bureaucratic and military support to his kingdom. Sophisticated mechanisms for the economic and political development of the involved African areas were in place before Islam further strengthened trade, towns and government in western Africa. The capital, court and trade of the region find mention in the works of scholar Abū 'Ubayd 'Abd Allāh al-Bakrī; the mainstay of the trans Saharan trade was gold and salt.

The powerful Saharan tribes, Berber in origin and later adapting to Muslim and Arab cultures, controlled the channels to western Africa by making efficient use of horse-drawn vehicles and pack animals. The Songhai engaged in a struggle against the Sa'di dynasty of Morocco over the control of the trans Saharan trade, resulting in damage on both sides and a weak Moroccan victory, further strengthening the uninvolved Saharan tribes. Struggles and disturbances continued till the 14th century, by which the Mandé merchants were trading with the Hausa, between Lake Chad and the Niger. Newer trade routes developed following extension of trade.

Predominantly maritime routes

Austronesian maritime trade network

The first true maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean was by the Austronesian peoples of Island Southeast Asia. They established trade routes with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 500 BCE, ushering an exchange of material culture (like catamarans, outrigger boats, sewn-plank boats, and paan) and cultigens (like coconuts, sandalwood, bananas, and sugarcane); as well as connecting the material cultures of India and China. They constituted the majority of the Indian Ocean component of the spice trade network. Indonesians, in particular were trading in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia) with East Africa using catamaran and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the Westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This trade network expanded to reach as far as Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by the first half of the first millennium AD. It continued up to historic times, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road. This trade network also included smaller trade routes within Island Southeast Asia, including the lingling-o jade network, and the trepanging network.

In eastern Austronesia, various traditional maritime trade networks also existed. Among them was the ancient Lapita trade network of Island Melanesia; the Hiri trade cycle, Sepik Coast exchange, and the Kula ring of Papua New Guinea; the ancient trading voyages in Micronesia between the Mariana Islands and the Caroline Islands (and possibly also New Guinea and the Philippines); and the vast inter-island trade networks of Polynesia.

Roman-India routes

The Ptolemaic dynasty (305 to 30 BC) had initiated Greco-Roman maritime trade contact with India using the Red Sea ports. The Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt, indicating that monsoon was known and manipulated for trade in his time. By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India, trading in a diverse variety of goods. Arsinoe, Berenice Troglodytica and Myos Hormos were the principal Roman ports involved in this maritime trading network, while the Indian ports included Barbaricum, Barygaza, Muziris and Arikamedu.

The Indians were present in Alexandria and the Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the Roman empire, which resulted in Rome's loss of the Red Sea ports, previously used to secure trade with India by the Greco-Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Hanseatic trade

Shortly before the 12th century the Germans played a relatively modest role in the north European trade. However, this was to change with the development of Hanseatic trade, as a result of which German traders became prominent in the Baltic and the North Sea regions. Following the death of Eric VI of Denmark, German forces attacked and sacked Denmark, bringing with them artisans and merchants under the new administration which controlled the Hansa regions. During the third quarter of the 14th century the Hanseatic trade faced two major difficulties: economic conflict with the Flanders and hostilities with Denmark. These events led to the formation of an organized association of Hanseatic towns, which replaced the earlier union of German merchants. This new Hansa of the towns, aimed at protecting interests of the merchants and trade, was prominent for the next hundred and fifty years.

Philippe Dollinger associates the downfall of the Hansa to a new alliance between Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen, which outshadowed the older institution. He further sets the date of dissolution of the Hansa at 1630 and concludes that the Hansa was almost entirely forgotten by the end of the 18th century. Scholar Georg Friedrich Sartorius published the first monograph regarding the community in the early years of the 19th century.

From the Varangians to the Greek

The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks (, Put' iz varyag v greki, , , Emporikḗ Odós Varángōn-Ellḗnōn) was a trade route that connected Scandinavia, Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire. The route allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with Byzantium, and prompted some of them to settle in the territories of present-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.

The route began in Scandinavian trading centres such as Birka, Hedeby, and Gotland, crossed the Baltic Sea entered the Gulf of Finland, followed the Neva River into the Lake Ladoga. Then it followed the Volkhov River, upstream past the towns of Staraya Ladoga and Velikiy Novgorod, crossed Lake Ilmen, and up the Lovat River. From there, ships had to be portaged to the Dnieper River near Gnezdovo. A second route from the Baltic to the Dnieper was along the Western Dvina (Daugava) between the Lovat and the Dnieper in the Smolensk region, and along the Kasplya River to Gnezdovo. Along the Dnieper, the route crossed several major rapids and passed through Kiev, and after entering the Black Sea followed its west coast to Constantinople.

Maritime republics' Mediterranean trade

The economic growth of Europe around the year 1000, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, eased the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean. The growing independence of some coastal cities gave them a leading role in this commerce: Maritime Republics, Italian "Repubbliche Marinare" (Venice, Genoa, Amalfi, Pisa, Gaeta, Ancona and Ragusa), developed their own "empires" in the Mediterranean shores.

From the 8th until the 15th century, Venetian and genoese merchants held the monopoly of European trade with the Middle East. The silk and spice trade, involving spices, incense, herbs, drugs and opium, made these Mediterranean city-states phenomenally rich. Spices were among the most expensive and demanded products of the Middle Ages.  They were all imported from Asia and Africa. Muslim traders – mainly descendants of Arab sailors from Yemen and Oman – controlled maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean, tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping for trading emporiums in India, westward to Ormus in Persian Gulf and Jeddah in the Red Sea. From there, overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts. Venetian merchants distributed then the goods through Europe until the rise of the Ottoman Empire, that eventually led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, barring Europeans from important combined-land-sea routes.

Spice Route

As trade between India and the Greco-Roman world increased spices became the main import from India to the Western world, bypassing silk and other commodities. The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the 7th and 8th centuries.

The Abbasids used Alexandria, Damietta, Aden and Siraf as entry ports to India and China. Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of musk, camphor, ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad, the sultan of Yemen. Moluccan products shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka. Indian exports of spices find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850 CE), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century). After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports, spices were sometimes shipped to East Africa, where they were used for many purposes, including burial rites.

On the orders of Manuel I of Portugal, four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut. The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade.

Maritime Jade Road

The Maritime Jade Road was an extensive trading network connecting multiple areas in Southeast and East Asia. Its primary products were made of jade mined from Taiwan by animist Taiwanese indigenous peoples and processed mostly in the Philippines by animist indigenous Filipinos, especially in Batanes, Luzon, and Palawan. Some were also processed in Vietnam, while the peoples of Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, and Cambodia also participated in the massive animist-led trading network. Participants in the network at the time had a majority animist population. The maritime road is one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. It was in existence for at least 3,000 years, where its peak production was from 2000 BCE to 500 CE, older than the Silk Road in mainland Eurasia or the later Maritime Silk Road. A notable artifact that the trading network made, the Lingling-o artifacts, were made by artisans around 500 BCE. The network began to wane during its final centuries from 500 CE until 1000 CE. The entire period of the network was a golden age for the diverse animist societies of the region.

Maritime Silk Road

The Maritime Silk Road refers to the maritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, Somalia and all the way to Egypt and finally Europe. It flourished between 2nd-century BCE and 15th-century CE. Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the Maritime Silk Road was primarily established and operated by Austronesian sailors in Southeast Asia, and by Persian and Arab traders in the Arabian Sea.

The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier Austronesian spice trade networks of Islander Southeast Asians with Sri Lanka and Southern India (established 1000 to 600 BCE), as well as the earlier Maritime Jade Road, known for lingling-o artifacts, in Southeast Asia, based in Taiwan and the Philippines. For most of its history, Austronesian thalassocracies controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the polities around the straits of Malacca and Bangka, the Malay Peninsula, and the Mekong Delta; although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to the Indianization of these regions. Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them. The route was influential in the early spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to the east.

China later built its own fleets starting from the Song dynasty in the 10th century, participating directly in the trade route up until the end of the Colonial Era and the collapse of the Qing dynasty.

Modern routes

The modern times saw development of newer means of transport and often controversial free trade agreements, which altered the political and logistical approach prevalent during the Middle Ages. Newer means of transport led to the establishment of new routes, and countries opened up borders to allow trade in mutually agreed goods as per the prevailing free trade agreement. Some old trading route were reopened during the modern times, although in different political and logistical scenarios. The entry of harmful foreign pollutants by the way of trade routes has been a cause of alarm during the modern times. A conservative estimate stresses that future damages from harmful animal and plant diseases may be as high as 134 billion US dollars in the absence of effective measures to prevent the introduction of unwanted pests through various trade routes.

Wagonway routes

Networks, like the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail, became prominent in the United States with wagon trains gaining popularity as a mode of long-distance overland transportation for both people and goods. The Oregon–California routes were highly organized with planned rendezvous locations and essential supplies. The settlers in the United States used these wagon trains – sometimes made up of 100 of more Conestoga wagons – for westward emigration during the 18th and the 19th centuries. Among the challenges faced by the wagon route operators were crossing rivers, mountains and hostile Native Americans. Preparations were also made according to the weather and protection of trade and travelers was ensured by a few guards on horseback.
Wagon freighting was also essential to American growth until it was replaced by the railroad and the truck.

Railway routes

The 1844 Railway act of England compelled at least one train to a station every day with the third class fares priced at a penny a mile. Trade benefited as the workers and the lower classes had the ability to travel to other towns frequently. Suburban communities began to develop and towns began to spread outwards. The British constructed a vast railway network in India, but it was considered to serve a strategic purpose in addition to the commercial purpose. The efficient use of rail routes helped in the unification of the United States of America, and the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869.

The modern times saw nations struggle for the control of rail routes: The Trans-Siberian Railway was intended to be used by the Russian government for control of Manchuria and later China; the German forces wanted to establish Berlin-Baghdad Railway in order to influence the Near East; and the Austrian government planned a route from Vienna to Salonika for control of the Balkans.
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica (2002):

Railroads reached their maturity in the early 20th century, as trains carried the bulk of land freight and passenger traffic in the industrialized countries of the world. By the mid-20th century, however, they had lost their preeminent position. The private automobile had replaced the railroad for short passenger trips, while the airplane had usurped it for long-distance travel, especially in the United States. Railroads remained effective, however, for transporting people in high-volume situations, such as commuting between the centres of large cities and their suburbs, and medium-distance travel of less than about 300 miles between urban centres.

Although railroads have lost much of the general-freight-carrying business to semi-trailer trucks, they remain the best means of transporting large volumes of such bulk commodities as coal, grain, chemicals, and ore over long distances. The development of containerization has made the railroads more effective in handling finished merchandise at relatively high speeds. In addition, the introduction of piggyback flatcars, in which truck trailers are transported long distances on specially-designed cars, has allowed railroads to regain some of the business lost to trucking.

Modern road networks

The advent of motor vehicles created a demand for better use of highways. Roads evolved into two way roads, expressways, freeways and tollways during the modern times. Existing roads were developed and highways were designed according to intended use.

Trucks came into widespread use in the Western World during World War I, and quickly gained reputation as a means of long-distance transportation of goods. Modern highways, such as the Trans-Canada Highway, Highway 1 (Australia) and Pan-American Highway allowed transport of goods and services across great distances. Automobiles continue to play a crucial role in the economies of the Industrialized countries, resulting in rise of businesses such as motor freight operation and truck transportation.

The emission rate for cars using highways has been on a decline between 1975 and 1995 due to regulations and the introduction of unleaded petrol. This trend is especially notable since there has been a growth in vehicles and vehicle miles traveled by automobiles using these highways.

Modern maritime routes

A consistent shift from land based trade to sea-based trade has been recorded since the last three millennia. The strategic advantages of port cities as trading centers are many: they are both less dependent on vital connections and less vulnerable to blockages. Oceanic ports can help forge trading relationships with other parts of the world easily.

Modern maritime trade routes – sometimes in the form of artificial canals like the Suez Canal – had visible impact on the economic and political standing of nations. The opening of the Suez Canal altered British interactions with the colonies of the British Empire as the dynamics of transportation, trade and communication had now changed drastically. Other waterways, like the Panama Canal played an important role in the histories of many nations. Inland water transportation remained significantly important even as the advent of railroads and automobiles resulted in a steady decline of canals. Inland water transport is still used for the transportation of bulk commodities e.g. grains, coal, and ore.

Waterway commerce was historically important to Europe, particularly to Russia. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica (2002): "Russia has been a significant beneficiary. Not only have inland waterways opened vast areas of its interior to development, but Moscow – linked to the White, Baltic, Black, Caspian, and Azov seas by canals and rivers – has become a major inland port."

Oil spills are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries. Oil spills, amounting to as much as 7.56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year, occur due to damaged equipment or human error.

The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road is a current project of the Chinese government to expand and intensify trade on the maritime Silk Road. This is leading to major investments in ports, traffic routes and other infrastructure in Europe and Africa as well. The maritime silk road essentially runs from the Chinese coast to Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, via the Sri Lankan Colombo towards the southern tip of India, to the East African Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its international free port and its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe and the North Sea.

Free trade areas

Historically, many governments followed a policy of protection of trade. International free trade became visible in 1860 with the Anglo-French commercial treaty, and the trend gained further momentum during the period after World War II.
According to The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition:

"After World War II, strong sentiment developed throughout the world against protection and high tariffs and in favor of freer trade. The results were new organizations and agreements on international trade such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (1948), the Benelux Economic Union (1948), the European Economic Community (Common Market, 1957), the European Free Trade Association (1959), Mercosur (the Southern Cone Common Market, 1991), and the World Trade Organization (1995). In 1993, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was approved by the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. In the early 1990s, the nations of the European Union (the successor organization to the Common Market) undertook to remove all barriers to the free movement of trade and employment across their mutual borders."

In May 2004 the United States of America signed the American Free trade Agreement with five Central American nations.

Air routes

Air transport has become an indispensable part of modern society. People have come to use air transport both for long and middle distances, with the average route length of long distances being 720 kilometers in Europe and 1220 kilometers in the US. This industry annually carries 1.6 billion passengers worldwide, covers a 15 million kilometer network, and has an annual turnover of 260 billion dollars.

This mode of transportation links national, international and global economies, making it vital to many other industries. Newer trends of liberalization of trade have fostered routes among nations bound by agreements. One such example, the American Open Skies policy, led to greater openness in many international markets, but some international restrictions have survived even during the present times.

Express delivery through international cargo airlines touched US$20 billion in 1998 and, according to the World Trade Organization, is expected to triple in 2015. In 1998, 50 pure cargo-service companies operated internationally.

Air transport particularly favors light, expensive and small products: electronic media rather than books, for example, and refined drugs rather than bulk food.

Pipeline networks

The economic importance of pipeline transport – responsible for a high percentage of oil and natural gas transportation – is often unrecognized by the general public due to the lack of visibility of this mode. Generally held to be safer and more economical and reliable than the other modes of transport, this mode has many advantages over rival modes, such as trucks and railways. Examples of modern pipeline transport include Alashankou-Dushanzi Crude Oil Pipeline and Iran-Armenia Natural Gas Pipeline. International pipeline transport projects, like the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, presently connect modern nation states – in this case, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey – through pipeline networks.

In some select cases, pipelines can even transport solids, such as coal and other minerals, over long distances; short-distance transportation of goods such as grain, cement, concrete, solid wastes, pulp etc. is also feasible.

Notes

References

 Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books.

 Traderroute, Turkey (2023). The Turkish import and exporter. İstanbul Trader Faulkner

External links

 Trade Routes: The Growth of Global Trade. ArchAtlas, Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford.
 Ancient Trade Routes between Europe and Asia. Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Management cybernetics

Trade route


Ivan Kalagheorghe (în ) a fost un om de stat rus și guvernator al Basarabiei în anii 1816 – 1817.

Referințe

Guvernatori ai guberniei Basarabia
Nașteri în 1766

Ivan Kalagheorghe


Antwerpengade er en gade i Århusgadekvarteret i Nordhavnen i København, der ligger mellem Trelleborggade og Hamborg Plads. Gaden er opkaldt efter den belgiske havneby Antwerpen. Gaden blev etableret sammen med bebyggelsen omkring den i 2014-2016.

Historie
Gaden ligger ligesom resten af Århusgadekvarteret i et område, der indtil 2014 var en del af Københavns Frihavn med begrænset adgang for offentligheden. Endnu i 2012 lå der en lagerbygning ved Redhavnsvej, nu Trelleborggade, der imidlertid efterfølgende blev fjernet, foruden de stadigt eksisterende bygninger ved nuværende Bilbaogade og dobbeltsiloerne på nuværende Göteborg Plads. Området indimellem var derimod ubebygget. I forbindelse med områdets ophør som frihavn blev det imidlertid besluttet at omdanne det til en ny bydel med boliger og erhverv, hvilket blandt andet medførte anlæg af flere nye gader, heriblandt denne. Københavns Kommunes Vejnavnenævnet ønskede at følge traditionen med at give gadenavne efter et bestemt tema, i dette tilfælde internationale havnebyer. Indstillingen blev godkendt på Teknik- og Miljøudvalgets møde 21 januar 2014 med virkning fra 1. marts 2014, hvor den nye gade fik navnet Antwerpengade. De omkringliggende grunde var allerede solgt, og senere samme år var bygningerne i fuld færd med at skyde op på begge sider af den nye gade.

I 2016 anlagdes Lommeskoven på den østlige del af gaden mellem Hamborg Plads og Travemündegade. Den består af en gruppe paradisæbletræer samt en række firkantede stenblokke til brug som bænke.

Den vestlige del af gaden mellem Bordeauxgade og Bilbaogade blev indrettet som en mindre plads, hvor der blev etableret en legeplads ved navn Legehavet i sensommeren og efteråret 2017. Legepladsen er beregnet til børn i alderen 1-10 år. Den er maritimt inspireret med legeelementer inspireret af det gamle havnemiljø så som kasser, kran og skibsdel. Desuden er der plantet græs og træer på den sydlige del af legepladsen.

Bebyggelse
På den nordlige side af gaden ligger karreen Central Park, der blev opført af KPC og Danica Ejendomme efter tegninger af Årstiderne Arkitekter i 2015-2016. Karreen ligger som en overgang mellem nybyggeriet i kvarteret og de ældre ejendomme i det tilstødende kvarter Den røde by, som arkitekterne har ladet sig inspirere af. Trods navnet ligger den ikke ved en park, men til gengæld støder den op til den lille plads med legepladsen Legehavet på den vestlige del af Antwerpengade.

Ved siden af på den anden side af Travemündegade ligger boligbebyggelsen Havnehuset, der blev opført af Kuben Byg og Casa Nord efter tegninger af Tegnestuen Vandkunsten i 2014-2015. Boligbebyggelsen var den første af sin slags i Århusgadekvarteret og rummer butikker, 50 lejligheder, privat gårdmiljø i første sals højde og fælles taghaver. Næsten alle lejligheder har altaner, men trods bygningens navn har de færreste beboere udsigt til havnen på grund af omkringliggende byggeri. Til gengæld kan beboerne prale af at have været de første til at flytte ind det nye kvarter, hvilket skete fra 30. april 2015.

På den sydlige side ligger karreen Kajplads 109 med 91 lejligheder, der blev opført af PKA efter tegninger af Ernst + Kindt-Larsen Arkitekter i 2014-2016. Som navnet antyder ligger den modsatte side af karreen ud mod Sandkaj og Nordbassinet med udsigt til Marmormolen. Karreen selv byder på gårdmiljø med legeplads samt en fælles tagterrasse. Ved siden af på den anden side af Bordeauxgade ligger karreen Provianthuset med bolig og erhverv, der blev opført af PenSam efter tegninger af Henning Larsen Architects i 2015-2016.

Eksterne henvisninger

 Navngivning af veje og pladser i Nordhavnens første etape , Teknik- og Miljøudvalgets møde 21. januar 2014, Københavns Kommune.
 Interaktivt kort over Århusgadekvarteret , Nordhavn.

Noter

Gader i Nordhavnen

Antwerpengade


මායා යනු Wavefrant  ගවේෂකය හා  Alicap power Antimator යන දෙකෙහි තාක්ෂණය භාවිතා කරමින් ඒවා  මතම ක්‍රමක්‍රමයෙන් විකාශනය වූ  ජනප්‍රිය  මංසල් මුලික කරගෙන  කළ සංශෙෘ්හිත කළ තීවුරැ මෘදුකාංග කට්ටලකයකි.  මෙම මෘදුකාංග  අනුවාදන 2 කින් එලිදක්වා තිබේ. Maya හා  Maya සීමාරහිත Maya පුද්ගලික ඉගෙනුම් සංස්කරණය  (PLF) වාණිජ - නොවන භාවිතය සදහා  නොමිලේම පරිහරණය කළ හැක.  නමුත් මෙහි ප්‍රතිඵල  ලැබෙන විදැනුම් කරන ලද අනුරෑ දිය සලකුණු ගත කර තිබේ.

ආරම්භයේ දී Maya නිකුත් කර තිබුණේ  IRIX  නමැති  මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධතිය වෙනුවෙනි එය ඉන්පසුව  Miarosoft Linux  හා  Maco –osx  යන මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධති  සදහා කොටගත කරන ලදි. 6.5 වන අනුවාදනයේ නිකුතුවෙන්  පසු  IRIX  සදහා වූ අනුග්‍රහය නවතා දමන ලදි. 2005 දී ඔක්තෝබර් දී Auto dafk විසින් Aliaaf අත්පත් කර ගැනීමෙන් පසුව ඔවුහු Maya ප්‍රවරෟධනය කිරිම ඇරඹුහ. මෙහි නවතම අනුවාදනය  වන 2008  (90) 2007 සැප්තැම්බර් යේ දී එළි දැක්විණ.
Maya වැදගත්ම ලක්ෂණය වන්නේ තෙවැනි පාර්ශව මෘදුකාංග කෙරෙහි එය  දැක්වූ විවාත භාවයයිත මෙමගින් ආදල මෘදුකාංගයේ සම්මත මුහුණුවර ඉවත්කොට ඒ වෙනුවට කර්නලය පමණක් භාවිතයෙන් ඉතා උසස් ම අනිතීරැම් කෘති මෘදුකාංග අනුවාදනයක් බවට පත්කිරිමට ඇති සුවිශේෂ  හැකියාව ඉස්මතු විණ. මේ හේතුවෙන් දෙ ලද  මෘදුකාංග සංවර්ධන කට්ටල භාවිතා කර තම නිෂ්පාදන සදහා අසිරැම් කේත රචනා කිරිමට නැඹුරැ වූ විශාල චිත්‍රාගාරයක් පවත්වන්නට විය.

Maya හි හරිකාර්යයන් අහිරැම්කරණය කිරිමේ ක්‍රමවේදයන් ලෙස  Tcl ආකාර එකිනෙකට වෙනස් පද්ධති කිහිපයක් වෙනස්විය හැකි උපදේශවලින් භාෂාවන් ලෙස හදුනා Maya Embedded  Loryanap (MEL) සපයා දී ඇත. එහි මෙවලම් බො‍හොමයක් හා වටපිටාව කේන්ද්‍රගත කර ඇත්තේ එම භාෂාවනි) මීට අමතරව පරිශීලනය අන්තර්ක්‍රියා ක්‍රියාවට නැංවිම හා වාර්තාගත කොට  ඇතතේ MEL උපදේශවල් කේතු මෙවලම් තීරැවක ඇති ආකාරයටය. මෙමගින්  C හෝ C++ වැඩසටහන් කරණය පිළිබද දැනුමකින් තොරව කාර්යයන් අලුතින්  එකතු කිරීමට පරාගන්වන්නන් හට හැකියාව ලැබි ඇත. කෙසේ වෙතත් මෙම විශේෂාංගය  මෘදුකාංග සංවර්ධන කට්ටලක් සමගම  ලබා දී තීබිමත් විශේෂත්වයකි.  Python  උපදේශාවලිය මේ සදහා එක් කර ඇත්තේ 8.5 වන අනුවාදනය සමගිනි.

Maya හි තරග රචනා කර ඇත්‍තේ  C++ මගිනි ජ්‍යාමිතික හා  පරාගැන්විය හැකි සබැදි දත්ත ඇතුලත් ව්‍යාපෘති ගොනු ගබඩා කර ඇත්තේ  MEL   මෙහෙයුම් ලෙසය. මෙය විකල්පයක් ලෙස මිනිසාට කියවිය  හැකි ගොනුවක් ලෙස සුරැකිය හැක. තවදුරටත් මෙය  මායා වටපිටාවක් පරිබාහිර ඕනෑම පෙල සකසන යකින්  සකසා ගත හැකි  මීට පරිබාහිර මෙවලම් සමග කටයුතු කිරිම‍ේ දී දක්වන ඉඑල සුකැමි භාවය සදහා කදිම නිදසුනකි.
Hotbos   යන නමින් යුතුව ඉතා විශාල මෙනු පද්ධතියක් සදහා සපයා ඇති සලකුණු මෙනුව විසින් Maya හි ඇති බහුතරයක් විශේෂාංග සදහා තනි යතුරැ එබුමක් මගින් පිවිසිමේ පහසුව සපයා දි ඇත.

මෘදුකාංග

මායා මෘදුකාංග වල දළ විශ්ලේෂණය


Ihor Zînoviiovîci Pavliuk (în ucraineană І́гор Зино́війович Павлю́к, rusă: Игорь Зиновьевич Павлюк; ) este un scriitor, poet, cercetător și traducător ucrainean.

Este câștigător al premiului PEN 2013 în limba engleză și doctor în comunicare socială. De asemenea, este membru al Asociației Europene a Scriitorilor.,

Note

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1967
Nașteri pe 1 ianuarie
Scriitori ucraineni
Romancieri ucraineni
Poeți ucraineni
Ucraineni în viață
Scriitori din secolul al XX-lea
Scriitori din secolul al XXI-lea

Ihor Pavliuk


SkiFree is a single-player skiing computer game created by Chris Pirih and released with Microsoft Entertainment Pack 3 for Windows 3.0 in October 1991. The player controls a skier on a mountain slope, avoiding obstacles while racing against time or performing stunts for points, depending on the game mode.

SkiFree was well-received upon release, with critics focusing on its simplicity and graphics. The game was ported to Macintosh and, years later, to Game Boy Color and iOS. Pirih also released a free, updated 32-bit Windows version after rediscovering his original source code. SkiFree remains popular among the gaming community and is often remembered for its Abominable Snowman, which pursues the player after they finish a full run.

In 2020, Microsoft released Surf, a game included with Microsoft Edge heavily inspired by SkiFree. A winter skin where the player skis instead of surfs and must run from the SkiFree Abominable Snowman was added to the game in 2021.

Gameplay

SkiFree is a casual single-player sports simulator wherein the player uses the keyboard or the mouse to control a skier across a white background representing snow on a mountainside. The object of the game is to ski down an endless slope and avoid the obstacles (trees, stumps, dogs, etc.). The player can also opt to partake in three modes: slalom, freestyle, and tree slalom. In slalom, players must properly ski around flags in an attempt to complete the run with the shortest time possible. Tree slalom adds obstacles to the slalom run. In freestyle, players ski downhill and jump off ramps while racking up points by performing tricks. Deductions are imposed for colliding into obstacles or failing to land properly after a stunt. When the player passes the 2,000-meter mark, the Abominable Snowman appears and starts to chase the player, eating them when it catches them.

History
While SkiFree creator Chris Pirih was a student at the University of Puget Sound, he wrote a text-based game called Ski in Fortran for the VAX/VMS operating system, inspired by Activision's Atari 2600 game Skiing. Later, as a programmer for Microsoft he was writing programming utilities used in the development of software such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. He had been focused on developing for the OS/2 operating system, but in 1991 decided to learn to write for the newly released Windows 3.0, and so created a new version of his skiing game in the programming language C, replacing the text-based environment with graphics. He called the game WinSki, and added exploitable, fanciful elements to demonstrate the new operating system's functionality, such as staining the snow yellow after crashing into numerous dogs and certain tree stumps transforming into mushrooms when skied on backwards.

Although he developed it on his home computer for his own education and entertainment, WinSki attracted the attention of a program manager for the Microsoft Entertainment Pack (MEP) when he noticed Pirih playing it at work. At that time, the first MEP had become so successful that the MEP team was designing two more. In October 1991, Microsoft shipped MEPs 2 and 3 for Windows 3.0, the latter pack containing Pirih's game renamed and marketed by Microsoft as SkiFree. It was distributed on Verbatim 3.5-inch GameSampler floppy disks, bundled with packs of 10 other blank floppy disks in the early 1990s.

Ports and rereleases

Since its debut, SkiFree has seen several ports and rereleases. SkiFree was featured in the Best of Microsoft Entertainment Pack in 1994 and was available as a port for the Macintosh. It was also one of seven games included in the 2000 Game Boy Color title Best of Microsoft Entertainment Pack. On April 4, 2005, Pirih announced the creation and release of a 32-bit version of SkiFree on his website for free, after rediscovering the game's source code that year, which he had lost when he was developing a second version of the game in 1993, leading to its abandonment for other projects.

In January 2013, mobile games developer GearSprout developed and released iOS ports of SkiFree and Rodent's Revenge. The company had already released SkeeFree, a skiing game with identical assets. In a Destructoid interview with GearSprout co-founder Tommy Tornroos, he explained that the company contacted Microsoft about porting their titles, and Microsoft responded that they were "no longer claiming rights" to them. However, the SkiFree trademark was reserved by an unspecified entity, leading to the release of SkeeFree. The SkiFree trademark later expired, and the name of the GearSprout game was updated as SkiFree when it was released alongside Rodent's Revenge. SkiFree was included in The Windows 3.x Showcase and uploaded to the Internet Archive in February 2016, becoming the most popular item on the website within a week.

In May 2020, Microsoft released Surf, a surfing-themed game inspired by SkiFree into its Microsoft Edge browser, accessible by typing the special URL edge://surf on the address bar. It is also available when the browser is disconnected from the Internet, in a similar vein to the Dinosaur Game on Google Chrome. A 2021 update changed the game to depict a skier who is chased by the SkiFree Abominable Snowman instead of the game's usual kraken.

Reception
Upon release, SkiFree attained a cult status in the PC community. In his 1992 review for MEPs 2 and 3, Richard Mansfield of Game Player's PC Entertainment favorably rated them as "visually sophisticated and...entertaining" as the first Pack. While ranking Klotski as the best of the packs and only noting SkiFree as a "simple skiing simulation", he recommended all of the sixteen games and praised each of them for taking advantage of effects that "show off the visual beauty that Windows can bring to a computer." In another 1992 review, Barry Simon of PC Magazine described the game's graphics as humorous and "not very extensive", and while he chose Pipe Dream of Entertainment Pack 2 as the game to purchase as a standalone title, at a bargain of  per title, he recommended both of the packs. Computer Gaming World described the MEP franchise as providing short gaming experiences, and noted its lead in the "gaming lite" category. By September 1992, the first three MEPs sold a total of over 500,000 copies.

SkiFree continues to receive critical acclaim in retrospective reviews. Josh Augustine of PC Gamer cited it as one of his favorite games of his childhood. Lisa Foiles of The Escapist ranked it No. 1 on its list of Top 5 Ski / Snowboard Games, calling it an "undeniable classic." Computer Power User described the game as a "killer app", noting that SkiFree was not particularly groundbreaking, but as one of the MEP 3 titles, it "stood apart from Minesweeper and the various card and board-game translations that dominated the software bundles." Brittany Vincent of PC Gamer characterized it as an endless runner, rationalizing that SkiFree had no ending and that the course would loop to the top of the map when players reached the bottom. In another PC Gamer article highlighting the history of trees in video gaming, Matt Elliott characterized the game's trees as "mean, twisted little saplings" that threaten to ruin the player's course. Games journalist Alfie Bown described the way other popular Windows games required concentration or mental energy, playing into the operating system's reputation for usefulness and productivity. He contrasted it with the "totally anachronistic" SkiFree, a more casual "subversive alternative."

Retrospective reviews for SkiFree frequently focus on the obscure nature of the Abominable Snow Monster. Benj Edwards of PC Magazine rated SkiFree as the best of MEP 3 because of the humorous inclusion of the Abominable Snow Monster. James Kozanitis of Hardcore Gamer rated it No. 2 on their Top 5 Yetis in Video Games list. Alec Meer of Rock, Paper, Shotgun opined that the Monster changed the tone of the game from being a sports game to being "the world's most dangerous sport", where the only ending condition is the Monster's devouring the skier. Vincent noted fan theories that attempt to explain the Monster's background, as well as theories on how to supposedly outrun it (apart from pressing the  key to accelerate beyond the normal limits).

Notes

References

External links
"The Most Officialest SkiFree Home Page!" – Author Chris Pirih's website
 (DOS BOX / Windows 3.1 online Emulation )

1991 video games
Microsoft games
Skiing video games
Casual games
Endless runner games
Freeware games
Game Boy Color games
IOS games
Classic Mac OS games
Microsoft Entertainment Pack
Single-player video games
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Yeti in fiction

SkiFree


Cachuela Esperanza es una localidad de Bolivia, ubicada en el municipio de Guayaramerin de la provincia de Vaca Díez en el departamento del Beni, en pleno Amazonas. Esta localidad está a 43 km de la ciudad de Guayaramerin y es famosa por haber sido el asiento del emporio del magnate del caucho Nicolás Suárez Callaú, que en la época de esplendor de la fiebre del caucho contaba con los mayores adelantos de las ciudades de la época

La localidad fue declarada "Monumento Histórico Nacional" en 1982.

Historia
Las cachuelas o rápidos del departamento del Beni fueron descubiertas en 1846 por el científico boliviano José Agustín Palacios, enviado por el Estado boliviano para explorar la región.

El nombre "Esperanza" se debe a Ildefonso Roca, indígena que acompañó al inglés Edwin Heath en su exploración del oriente boliviano. Según cuenta Manuel Ballivián, en su edición anotada de la Exploración del Río Beni, de Heath, aliviado de no haber muerto en el viaje, Roca sugirió que el rápido que acababan de pasar fuera llamado Esperanza, pues ni él ni los otros miembros de la tripulación habían perdido la vida.

Luego, en 1872, atraído por la goma elástica, Nicolás Suárez se estableció en el lugar volviéndolo el centro de su imperio, con sucursales en Acre, Manaus, Belem  y Londres. Allí hizo construir un teatro, pistas de tenis, un hotel de lujo con vistas a los rápidos y un moderno hospital conducido por médicos alemanes especializados en enfermedades tropicales. Aquí estuvo el primer aparato de rayos X de Bolivia, y el primer hidroavión, en el cual los millonarios desde Río de Janeiro y São Paulo se transportaban.

Cuando el caucho fue sustituido en la década de 1920 por compuestos de caucho sintético, el valor estratégico de Cachuela Esperanza declinó, y finalmente, con la revolución boliviana de 1952 se hundió hasta convertirse en una pequeño poblado.

Con el fin de rescatar el patrimonio de la localidad, el 1 de abril de 1982 fue emitido el Decreto Supremo N.º 18903 durante el gobierno del presidente Celso Torrelio Villa. Dicho decreto declaró como Monumento Histórico Nacional a Cachuela Esperanza, valorizándola así dentro de la historia nacional.

Así mismo el 18 de diciembre de 2003, durante el gobierno de Carlos Mesa, se declaró mediante Ley N.º 2610 como Patrimonio Turístico Nacional, a la zona del denominado "Triángulo Amazónico". Esta zona está compuesta por Riberalta, Tumichucua, Guayaramerín, Cachuela Esperanza y Villa Bella, al extremo norte del departamento del Beni.

Geografía
Cachuela Esperanza se encuentra en las tierras bajas de Bolivia cerca de la frontera con el Brasil. Tiene una altitud promedio de 118  La región tiene un año tropical con el clima cálido y húmedo.

La temperatura media anual es de 27.1 °C, con diferencias entre la temperatura media mensual entre junio / julio, con poco más de 25 °C y en septiembre / octubre con sólo un poco más de 28 °C. La precipitación anual es de cerca de 2000 mm.

Población
La población del cantón de Cachuela Esperanza ha crecido en las últimas dos décadas a más del doble:

1992: 697 habitantes (censo)

2001: 1.364 habitantes (censo)

2010: 1.718 personas (actualización).

Personalidades
La personalidad más destacada del lugar, fue sin duda el rey del caucho Nicolás Suárez Callaú. No obstante Cachuela Esperanza fue también en 1925, el lugar de nacimiento de Eugen Gomringer, hijo de padre suizo y madre boliviana, que es considerado en la actualidad como el padre de la Poesía concreta.

Red de transportes
Cachuela Esperanza se encuentra a 93 kilómetros de Riberalta y a 660 kilómetros a  Trinidad, la capital del departamento del Beni.

Desde Cachuela Esperanza a 43 km saliendo por un camino de tierra que conduce al sur-este y cruza el Río Yata atravesando el bosque tropical y el bosque abierto, está la ciudad Guayaramerín en la margen izquierda del río Mamoré. Guayaramerín es el término final de los 1631 kilómetros de largo la carretera "Ruta 9" que se inicia hacia el sur de la frontera con Argentina en Yacuiba pasa por Trinidad y lleva a Guayaramerín.

Las cachuelas
Los poderosos rápidos en Cachuela Esperanza interrumpen el tráfico en el río Beni 30 km por encima de su desembocadura, y durante la estación seca, las ondas de marea puede alcanzar alturas de hasta 8 metros. A través de un acuerdo entre los gobiernos de Bolivia y Brasil en 1984, se pusieron en marcha planes para la construcción de una central hidroeléctrica que genere electricidad para exportar al Brasil.

Véase también
 Loma Suárez

Enlaces externos
 La Mística Cachuela Esperanza
 Municipio Guayaramerín - Política, Economía y población
 Municipio Guayaramerín - Detalles y Datos poblacionales (PDF; 1,11 MB)
 Departamento Beni - Indicadores Socio-demográficos de los Municipios (PDF-Datos; 3,82 MB)

Referencias

Localidades de Antonio Vaca Díez

Cachuela Esperanza


Altmuehlopterus (nombre que significa "ala del río Altmühl") es un género extinto de pterosaurio, perteneciente al suborden Pterodactyloidea. Vivió durante el Jurásico Superior en lo que ahora es Alemania. Fue conocido anteriormente como "Daitingopterus" (que significa "ala de Daiting"), un nomen nudum que fue acuñado informalmente en 2004.

Descubrimiento y denominación

En 1851, Johann Andreas Wagner nombró a una nueva especie de Ornithocephalus, Ornithocephalus ramphastinus. El nombre de la especie se refería al género de tucán Ramphastos, en consideración del gran hocico similar a un pico de este pterosaurio. En 1859/1860, Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer corrigió el nombre de la especie a rhamphastinus. Aunque esto es incorrecto según los estándares modernos,esta nueva denominación se ha vuelto válida al ser aceptada y usada por los subsiguientes autores, bajo el artículo 33.3.1 de la ICZN.

El espécimen holotipo, BSP AS.I.745, fue probablemente hallado en Mörnsheim cerca de Daiting en una capa de la unidad Malm Zeta 3, la cual data del Titoniense. Consiste en un esqueleto parcialmente articulado con cráneo, preservado en una cara y contracara.

En 1871, Harry Govier Seeley incluyó al espécimen en el material tipo de Diopecephalus; sin embargo, no lo había designado como el holotipo del género. Por esta razón, Peter Wellnhofer se sintió en libertad de nombrar al espécimen como una segunda especie de Germanodactylus en 1970: Germanodactylus rhamphastinus. En 2004, Michael Maisch et al. concluyeron que representaba un género distinto, para el cual lo nombraron como "Daitingopterus" en un diagrama. Este nombre permaneció como un nomen nudum.

En 2017, Steven Vidovic y David Martill le dieron un nuevo nombre al género de forma válida, Altmuehlopterus. El género combina la referencia al río Altmühl, el cual corre a lo largo de Solnhofen, con la forma latinizada del griego pteron, "ala".

Véase también
 Anexo: géneros de pterosaurios

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Restoration of "Daitingopterus" en The Grave Yard

Pterodactyloidea
Pterosaurios de Europa
Pterosaurios del Jurásico

Altmuehlopterus


The M24 Sniper Weapon System (SWS) or M24 is the military and police version of the Remington Model 700 rifle, M24 being the model name assigned by the United States Army after adoption as their standard sniper rifle in 1988. The M24 is referred to as a "weapon system" because it consists of not only a rifle, but also a detachable telescopic sight and other accessories.

The M24 SWS has the "long action" bolt version of the Remington 700 receiver but is chambered for the 7.62×51mm NATO "short action" cartridge that has an overall length of . The "long action" allows the rifle to be re-configured for dimensionally larger cartridges up to  in overall length.

The M24 originally came tapped for the Leupold Ultra M3A 10×42mm fixed-power scope, which came with a circle-shaped mil-dot glass-etched reticle. This was later replaced in 1998 by the Leupold Mk 4 LR/T M1 10×40mm fixed-power scope with an elongated-shaped mil-dot wire reticle. The rifle also comes with a detachable Harris 9–13" 1A2-LM or Harris 9–13" 1A2-L bipod unit.

The M24 SWS was to be replaced with the M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System, a contract awarded to Knight's Armament Company. However, the Army still continued to acquire M24s from Remington until February 2010 and upgraded to the A2 and M24E1 standard in many cases, continuing to serve. The Army chose to upgrade all its M24 rifles in the arsenals to the M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle, with the final M24 being converted in April 2014.

Specifications

Scope: Leupold Ultra M3A 10×42mm fixed power, or Leupold Mk 4 LR/T M3 10×40mm fixed power scope. Detachable emergency Redfield-Palma International back-up iron sights, they are attached to iron sight bases that are screwed into drilled and tapped holes machined into the front of the barrel and back on the left side of the receiver. In 2001 when Remington had the second contract to the U.S. military, minor changes were done to the M24. These changes included two piece Leupold Mark 4 scope ring bases instead of the one piece on the first series rifles, and a switch from Redfield-Palma International iron sights to another manufacturer OK Weber. Redfield was out of business by then, necessitating a change.

Barrel: Made of 416R stainless steel. The bore twist is 1-turn-in-11.25 inches [1:285.75 mm] and the rifling is five radial lands and grooves (5-R) with a right-hand (RH) twist. Because of the odd number of lands, none of the lands are 180° apart, i.e. in direct opposition. This results in less bullet deformation, which (at least in theory) produces more consistent point of impact. In 5-R rifling, the "side" of the land is cut at a 65° angle, rather than 90° in conventional rifling. This results in less barrel fouling, and more consistent point of impact, compared to conventional rifling when relatively high numbers of rounds are fired between cleaning, as might be expected in military applications.

Stock: H-S Precision PST-024, the model with the fixed cheek piece, adjustable LOP and hinged floorplate. The stock secures the action via an aluminum bedding block to keep it rigid. The barrel is free floating. A twin-strut extension that pulls out of the butt allows a 2-inch [50.8mm] adjustment to length-of-pull, as well as allowing for the weapon to fit inside the M-1950 Weapon Container for Airborne Operations. This is effected by a thick wheel on a central grooved pillar for adjusting the length and a thin locking ring behind it locks the thick wheel in place. The stock is primarily made from a polymer foam reinforced with fiberglass, carbon fiber, and Kevlar to reduce weight and then painted with a heavy duty polane paint. They were rigorously tested before being approved by Remington and the military.

Accuracy: According to MIL-R-71126(AR), 3.15.7 Targeting and Accuracy, The rifle shall achieve the dispersion set forth below when fired from a Government approved machine rest. The average mean radius shall be less than or equal to the values stated below. The minimum rate of fire for conducting this test shall be three rounds per minute.

Range / Average Mean Radius (AMR) — Mean Radius (MR) expresses the average distance of all the shots from the center of the shot group. AMR averages the MR of several shot groups.
 : 1.3 inches
 : 1.4 inches
 : 1.9 inches
The radial distance from the calculated center of impact of the first target compared to the calculated center of impacts of the subsequent targets shall be less or equal to 1.086 MOA (3.3 inches @ 300 yards, 2.2 inches @ 200 yards, 2.4 inches @ 200 meters) on an average basis.

The actual rifle requirements for accuracy were .35 MOA from a machine rest and according to Major John Mende (ret.), this accuracy had to be maintained to 10,000 rounds. He stated, "Interesting side note was there was a 10,000 round requirement for the barrel to maintain the original accuracy. In fact after some 10,000 round tests we discovered the accuracy improved. A few barrels were tested past 20,000 and accuracy never went below the original accuracy requirement."

Maximum effective range is given as , but record shots have been made with the M24 at over . Meanwhile, the standard optical sight has a maximum elevation adjustment of .

M24 variants

XM24A1
An experimental variant re-chambered for the .300 Winchester Magnum (7.62×67mm) round. It was not adopted by the US Army due to concerns that operators would not be able to acquire the special ammo. Also, the available .300 Winchester Magnum ammo that was procured sometimes misfired due to incompletely-burned propellant in the longer cartridge. Redick Arms Development further researched this concept, which eventually grew into the RAD M91A1 (7.62x51mm NATO) and M91A2 (.300 Winchester Magnum). These rifles were adopted by the US Navy SEALs.

M24A2
Remington has developed an improved version of the M24 rifle, known as the M24A2. The A2 model features a detachable 5-round magazine, top-mounted and adjustable side-mounted Picatinny rails (advertised by Remington as "MARS", or Modular Accessory Rail System), barrel modifications designed to accommodate a sound suppressor, and an improved H-S Precision PST-026 stock with adjustable cheek height and length of pull. Existing M24s can also be converted into M24A2s, which replaces the stock and adds the new detachable magazine feed. The conversion requires a re-barreling of the weapon so it can take the OPS silencer.

M24A3
Remington developed the M24A3 SWS, a variant of the M24 chambered for the .338 Lapua Magnum round (8.58×70mm) and feeding from a 5-round detachable box magazine. It comes tapped for the Leupold Mk 4 M1LR/T 8.5–25×50mm Variable Power day scope. It can also use detachable front and rear Back-Up Iron Sights in an emergency (BUIS units are standard accessories that can be fitted to the Picatinny Rail that runs on the top of the receiver and along the barrel).

U.S. Army 2009 solicitation for an M24 reconfiguration
The U.S. Army put out a solicitation in May 2009 for reconfiguring M24 Sniper Weapon Systems currently available in Army inventory consisting of a:
 Rebarreling/rechambering the SWS's barrel optimized to accommodate Mk 248 (DODIC A191) .300 Winchester Magnum ammunition.
 Replacement of existing weaver rails with a MIL-STD-1913 rail capable of accommodating both a day optic and in-line forward mounted, AN/PVS-26 (NSN 5855-01-538-8121) image intensified (I2) night vision device.
 Reconfiguring the stock with a stock that incorporates a detachable box magazine, adjustable comb and length of pull.
 Addition of a detachable sound suppressor as well as any necessary barrel modifications required for a sound suppressor interface.
 Replacement of the existing day optic sight (DOS) and rings with an Army specified variable power day optic and compatible rings.

The US government purchased MK 248 MOD 1 .300 Winchester Magnum match-grade ammunition in 2009 for use in .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifles like the U.S. Navy Mk.13 MOD 5 rifle or reconfigured M24 SWSs. This ammunition was developed as a .300 Winchester Magnum Match Product Improvement (PIP) and uses the 14.26 g (220 gr) Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail (HPBT) very-low-drag bullet fired at a nominal muzzle velocity of 869 m/s (2,850 ft/s) ± 15.2 m/s (50 ft/s). According to the U.S. Navy, this ammunition should increase the maximum effective range of .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifle systems to 1,370 m (1,500 yd), decrease wind deflection on bullets in flight and use a reduced muzzle flash propellant that remains temperature stable across an operational temperature range of −32 °C to 74 °C (−25 °F to 165 °F).

2010 M24E1 Enhanced Sniper Rifle reconfiguration competition

In September 2010, the United States Army's Joint Munitions and Lethality Contracting Center awarded Remington a Firm Fixed Price Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity contract (W15QKN-10-R-0403) for the upgrade of up to 3,600 M24 Sniper Weapon Systems currently fielded to the Army pending type classification as the M24E1 Enhanced Sniper Rifle (ESR). Later, the Enhanced Sniper Rifle was classified as the XM2010. The major configuration change for this system is the conversion from 7.62×51mm NATO to dimensionally larger .300 Winchester Magnum ammunition exploiting the M24's "long action" bolt to provide additional precision and range.

The M24E1/XM2010 is considered a "total conversion upgrade", by which the barrel, stock, magazines, muzzle brake, suppressor, and even the optics will be changed. Besides the rechambering and rebarreling with a 610 mm (24 in) long, 254 mm (1 in 10 inch) twist rate (5R) hammer-forged barrel the main reconfiguration changes compared to 7.62×51mm NATO chambered M24 rifles are:
 Fitting a new chassis (stock) assembly, which maximizes the amount of physical adjustments for the sniper to provide a better user customized fit. The chassis has a folding buttstock that shortens the system for easier transport and better concealment during movement and accommodates the mounting of accessories via removable MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny Rails.
 Fitting a 5-round detachable box magazine.
 Fitting a quick-attachable/detachable Advanced Armament Corp. sound suppressor with muzzle brake.
 Fitting a Leupold Mark 4 6.5–20×50mm ER/T M5 Front Focal variable power telescopic sight featuring a 30 mm tube diameter, first focal plane Horus Vision H-37 grid system range estimation reticle and Bullet Drop Compensation.
 Applying advanced corrosion resistant coatings throughout the system.

According to Remington Arms, each rifle is tested to meet (and typically exceeds) the requirement to fire ≤ 1 MOA (less than a 2-inch shot group at 200 yards) before being released for fielding.

Based on the results and feedback from troops, the U.S. Army decided in May 2011 to replace its entire fleet of M24s, ordering a total of 2,558 M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifles. By September 2012, the Army had fielded more than 1,400 systems as part of an urgent material release. The M2010 achieved Type Classification-Standard in July 2013 and Full Materiel Release in September 2013, supporting procurement for the balance of the Army requirement. On April 25, 2014, the 2,558th M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle was completed.

IDF modernized M24

In 2019, the Israel Defense Forces started to upgrade the M24 and replace the stock and receiver of the old M24 rifles with a modern MDT Defense M24 Chassis stock assembly with AR15/M16 pistol grip that increases the number of physical adjustments to individual ergonomic preferences, magazine feeding and an M-LOK forend with attachable MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rails around the barrel. The modernized M24 entered service in 2021.

Differences between M24 and M40
The U.S. Marine Corps also uses the Remington 700/40x action as the basis for its M40 Sniper Weapon System. The primary difference between the U.S. Army and the U.S. Marine Corps rifles is that while the U.S. Marine Corps M40 variants use the short-action version of the Remington 700/40x (which is designed for shorter cartridges such as the .308 Winchester/7.62×51 mm NATO), the U.S. Army M24 uses the Remington 700 Long Action. Despite the fact that the M24 comes fitted with a 7.62×51mm NATO barrel upon issue, retaining the longer action allows them to reconfigure the rifle in dimensionally larger cartridge chamberings if necessary (which has been the case during the longer engagement distances during Operation Enduring Freedom). Long actions also increase reliability and reduce jamming by reducing the angle of cartridges leaving the magazine and permit long, low-drag heavy-for-caliber bullets to be loaded in short-action cartridges that otherwise would not fit in short-action cartridges, magazines and receivers.

The U.S. Army reconfigured their M24 rifles to M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifles rechambering the original M24 rifles to .300 Winchester Magnum. The USMC M40A3 uses a  Schneider barrel and the U.S. Army M24 used a  Rock Creek 5R barrel.

Users

 : Used by the People's National Army

 : Used by Brazilian Special Operations Brigade and BOPE
 : Used by the Colombian Army, Colombian Navy and Colombian Air Force.

 : Bercsény László Különleges Műveleti Zászlóalj.
 : Iraqi Army, Iraqi special forces and Popular Mobilisation Units
 : Israel Defense Forces.
: Used by the JGSDF snipers, the paratroopers of the 1st Airborne Brigade, and the Special Forces Group as its main sniper rifle. Being replaced by the HK G28.

 : Philippine Army and Philippine Marine Corps.
 : Part of the United States military aid.
 : Used by the United States Army and United States Air Force. Also used by various police SWAT teams.

Former users
 : Standard issue sniper rifle of the Afghan National Army

Non-state actors
 Used by ISIL fighters in the Philippines as captured weapons.

See also
 List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
 List of crew-served weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces

References

External links

 Remington Law Enforcement M24 SWS page
 Operator's Manual
 Modern Firearms

7.62×51mm NATO rifles
Bolt-action rifles of the United States
Cold War firearms of the United States
Rifles of the Cold War
Sniper rifles of the United States
Remington Arms firearms
Military equipment introduced in the 1980s
.300 Winchester Magnum firearms

M24 Sniper Weapon System


Olaylar
 Lilybaeum Kuşatması sona erdi.
 Birinci Pön Savaşı, Batı Sicilya'yı alan Romalıların zaferiyle sona erdi.
 Pergamon Krallığı kuruldu (dağılışı MÖ 133).
 Roma Cumhuriyeti tarafından, prokonsüler bir vali tarafından yönetilecek şekilde organize edilen Romanın ilk eyaleti Sicilya kuruldu.
 I. Attalos, Pergamon Kralı oldu.
 Censor Gaius Aurelius Cotta, Via Aurelia adlı antik Roma yolunun yapılması emrini verdi.

Doğumlar
 III. Antiohos, Seleukos İmparatorluğu hükümdarı (ö. MÖ 187)

Ölümler
 Arkesilaos, Yunan düşünür ve şair (d. MÖ 315)
 I. Eumenis, Pergamon Krallığı yöneticisi

MÖ 241


Palmižana, točnije uvala Vinogradišće, ljetovalište na otoku Svetom Klementu. Premda nije na otoku Hvaru, ubraja se u hvarska izletišta, i najstarije je i najpoznatije hvarsko izletište.

Povijest naselja je u svezi s doseljavanjem tri brata Meneghella iz Mletaka na istočnu jadransku obalu: jedan je izabrao Split, drugi Boku kotorsku, a treći, Matteo otok Hvar. Iz ljubavi prema jednoj ženi kupio je veliko imanje na golom krševitom otoku Svetom Klementu. 1820. godine podignuta je kuća, koju je poslije njegov potomak profesor Eugen Meneghello preuredio u kuću za smještajni objekt za goste, koji je nazvao palačom Palmižanom. Turizam je započeo s poduzetničkim pothvatom Eugena Meneghella 1906. godine kad je ovdje sagradio ljetnikovac, na svom na 300 godina starom imanju. Meneghello je uvezao egzotično bilje iz svih krajeva svijeta čim je napravio botanički park, omiljen posjetiteljima Palmižane. Profesor je zaključio da treba urediti gostinjac ne da se gosti osjećaju kao kod kuće, nego da može nadomjestiti sve što nemaju kod kuće. Organizirani su balovi, jedrenja, lov i ribolov, točio se nadaleko poznati Meneghellov domaći pjenušac. Uredio je i arboretum. Galerija Meneghello danas je mjestom održavanja izložaba.

Na Palmižani je likovnu zbirku stvorila na otok doseljena Zagrepčanka, nekoć novinarka, Dagmar Meneghello. U zbirci su djela Vaska Lipovca, Đure Sedera, Borisa Bućana, Bojana Šumonje,Alane Kajfež i inih umjetnika.

Uvala u kojoj je Palmižana je pjeskovita.  Godine 1999. uvrštena je u 10 najljepših turističkih odredišta na Jadranu. Palmižana je poznata nautička marina. ACI marina Palmižana otvorena ke od početka travnja do kraja listopada i među najljepšim je marinama na Jadranu. Palmižanska kuhinja počiva na ribi, rakovima i školjkama te na povrću iz domaćeg uzgoja. U izboru prestižnih inozemnih časopisa proglašena je najboljom kuhinjom na Mediteranu.

Izvori

Sveti Klement (otok)
Naselja u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji

Palmižana


معرض برلين  يرجع تاريخ إقامة أول معرض تجاري بمدينة برلين إلى عام 1822 ويلتقي اليوم في العاصمة الألمانية مشاركون مختارون من مختلف القطاعات التجارية حيث يأتي على رأسها القطاع السياحي والإلكتروني والزراعي. يشرف معرض برلين ش.م.م على إدارة وتسيير أكبر مركز لعقد المؤتمرات على المستوى الأوروبي والمعروف باسم ICC Berlin.

الروابط الخارجية
 الموقع الرسمي للمعرض

انظر أيضاً
 معرض فرانكفورت.
 معرض لايبزغ.
 معرض ميونخ الدولي.
 معرض نورنبيرغ.
 معرض هامبورغ.

مراجع

مبان ومنشآت في مقاطعة شارلوتنبورغ فيلمسدورف
معارض تجارية في ألمانيا

معرض برلين


An Andropogon javanicus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel. An Andropogon javanicus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Andropogon, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Jawa. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Andropogon

Andropogon javanicus