Tafsir ( ) refers to exegesis, usually of the Quran. An author of a tafsir is a  (; plural: ). A Quranic tafsir attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God's will.

Principally, a tafsir deals with the issues of linguistics, jurisprudence, and theology. In terms of perspective and approach, tafsir can be broadly divided into two main categories, namely tafsir bi-al-ma'thur (lit. received tafsir), which is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, and tafsir bi-al-ra'y (lit. tafsir by opinion), which is arrived through personal reflection or independent rational thinking.

There are different characteristics and traditions for each of the tafsirs representing respective schools and doctrines, such as Sunni Islam, Shia Islam, and Sufism. There are also general distinctions between classic tafsirs compiled by authoritative figures of Muslim scholarship during the formative ages of Islam, and modern tafsir which seeks to address a wider audience, including the common people.

Etymology
The word  is derived from the three-letter Arabic verbal root of  F-S-R (, 'interpreted'). In its literal meaning, the word refers to interpreting, explaining, expounding, or disclosing. In Islamic contexts, it is defined as understanding and uncovering God's will which has been conveyed by the Quranic text, by means of the Arabic language and one's own knowledge.

History

The first examples of tafsir can be traced back to Muhammad. According to Islamic belief, as the Quran was revealed to him, he recited the verses to his companions, usually explaining their meanings to teach them, as it was one of Muhammad's responsibilities. Elements of Muhammad's explanations including clarifying verses whose intents are not understood, the indication of names, places, times etc. which have not been mentioned in the verse, restriction of meanings which have been given as absolute and reconciliation of expressions which seem contradictory. Although scholars including ibn Taymiyyah claim that Muhammad has commented on the whole of the Quran, others including Ghazali cite the limited amount of narratives (hadith), thus indicating that he has commented only on a portion of the Quran.

After the death of Muhammad, his companions (sahabah) undertook the task of interpretation, thus starting a new age in tafsir. Most of the sahabah, including Abu Bakr, refrained from commenting based on their personal views, and only narrated comments by Muhammad. Others including ibn Abbas used their own knowledge from the Arabic language to interpret the Quran. At this stage, tafsir was selective and concise regarding its coverage, and only certain words, phrases and verses were explained. The Quran was still not fully interpreted, and commentaries were not separated from the hadith collection nor written separately, mainly due to other occupations such as the collection of the Quran.

By the time of the next generations ensuing the sahabah, scholars in the age of the successors (tabi'in) started using a wide range of sources for tafsir. The whole of the Quran is interpreted, and narrations are separated from tafsir into separate books and literature. Grammatical explanations and historical data are preserved within these books; personal opinions are recorded, whether accepted or rejected. During this time, a whole range of schools of tafsir came into existence in different scholastic centers, including Mecca, Medina and Iraq. Iraqi schools of tafsir came to be known for an approach relied on personal judgment aside from the transmitted reports, and Jewish apocryphal reports were also widely employed. Notable compilers on this age including Sufyan al-Thawri.

Until this age, tafsir had been transmitted orally and had not been collected independently in a book, rather, they had been gathered by muhaddithun (lit. scholars of hadith) in their hadith books, under the topic of tafsir, along with other narrations of Muhammad. This indicates that tafsir, in its formative age, used to be a special domain within hadith. Widening of the scope of tafsir and emergence of mufassirun in the age of the successors lead to the development of an independent discipline of tafsir.

Conditions

An author of tafsir is a  (; plural: ). According to Sunni Islamic scholar Al-Suyuti, mufassirs are required to master 15 fields from different disciplines such as linguistics, rhetoric, theology and jurisprudence before one can authoritatively interpret the Quran. The foremost discipline that constitutes the basis of tafsir learning is Arabic language. Arabic in this context specifically means Classical Arabic. One of the earliest Islamic scholars Mujahid ibn Jabr said, "It is not permissible for one who holds faith in Allah and the Day of Judgment to speak on the Qur'an without learning classical Arabic." Especially relevant expertise is how one learns the meaning of each word. In this respect, it should be known that classical Arabic must be mastered in its entirety because one word may have various meanings; a person may only know two or three of them whereas the meaning of that word in the Qur'an may be altogether different. Other fields related to Arabic language includes Philology of Arabic. It is important because any change in the diacritical marks affects the meaning, and understanding the diacritical marks depends on the science of Arabic philology. Morphology of Arabic language is also important because changes in the configuration of verb and noun forms change the meaning. Ibn Faris said, "A person who misses out on Arabic morphology has missed out on a lot." Lastly, Al-Ishtiqaaq is the science of etymology which explains the reciprocal relation and radical composition between the root and derived word. It should be learned because sometimes one word derives from two root words, the meaning of each root word being different. For example, a word masih derives from the root word massah (مَسَّة) which means "to feel something and to touch something with a wet hand," but also derives from the root word masaahat which means "to measure."

Another relevant discipline is the science of interpreting the Arabic sentence. Ilm al-Ma'ani is the science by which one figures the syntax through the meaning of a sentence. Ilm al-Bayaan is the science by which one learns the similes, metaphors, metonymies, zuhoor (evident meanings) and khafa (hidden meanings) of the Arabic language. Ilm al-Badi is the science by which one learns to interpret sentences in which the beauty and eloquence of the spoken and written word are considered hidden. The above-mentioned three sciences are categorized as Ilm-ul-Balagha (science of rhetoric). It is one of the most principal sciences to a mufassir as it is deemed by Muslims that there are literal and non-literal meanings of the Quran, and one is able to reveal the miraculous nature of the Quran through these three sciences. A field from Quranic teaching is called Ilm al-Qira'at. This is a system of dialecticism of the different readings of the Quran. This science is important because one qira'at (way of reading) of the Quran may differ in meaning from another, and one learns to favor one reading over another based on the difference in the meanings.

General sciences of Islamic theology and Islamic study are also imperative. Ilm al-Aqa'id and Ilm al-Kalam are comprehensive sciences in Islamic theology and philosophy. They are important because upon these understandings, one may understand issues such as invalidity of attributing the literal meaning of some ayah to God. In this case, one will be required to interpret the ayah as in 'the hand of Allah is over their hand'. Other key issues required to be addressed through comprehension of theology and philosophy includes that of free will and determinism, or the infallibility of the prophets. Comprehension of Fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence, is important because one cannot gain an overview of any issue until he has understood its particulars. Usul al-Fiqh, principles of Islamic jurisprudence, is also required so one understands the methodology of legal derivation and interpretation.

Other distinctive systems linked with tafsir study including Asbaab al-Nuzul, which is the field by which one learns the circumstances in which an ayah is revealed. It is important because the meaning of the ayah is more clearly understood once the circumstances in which it was revealed are known. Sometimes, the meaning of an ayah is wholly dependent on its historical background. Another is Ilm-ul-Naskh, which is knowledge of the abrogated ayah. In general, due to the Quran made up of revelations that revealed to Muhammad in the course of more than twenty years, certain verses are considered meant to be temporary and subsequently repealed by the following ones. Ilm-ul-Naskh is a science of identifying the abrogations, and it is important because abrogated rulings must be separated from the applied rulings. Ilm al-Hadith is knowledge of the hadith which explain mujmal (general) ayah, and Ilm al-Ladunni (علم اللدّني) is the endowed knowledge which is considered granted by God to his closest servants. This is for example a knowledge obtained directly from Allah through inspiration. They are the servants indicated in the hadith: "Allah will grant one who acts upon whatever he knows from a knowledge he never knew."

Principles
There are several frames of reference in which tafsir can be categorized. The main issue of framing constitutes its methodology. Tafsir can be broadly divided into two categories from the viewpoint of methodology employed in order to approach the interpretation. These categories are called tafsīr bi'l-ma'thūr (, also known as tafsīr bi'r-riwāyah ()) and tafsīr bi'r-ra'y (, also known as tafsīr bi'd-dirayah ).

Tafsir bi'l-Ma'thur (or Tafsir bi'r-Riwayah)
Tafsir bi'l-ma'thur, or commonly known as Tafsir bi'r-riwāyah, is the method of commenting on the Quran using traditional sources. Tafsir bi'r-riwāyah connotes tafsir using another portion of the Quran, or sayings of Muhammad, or saying of his companions. This classical tafsir method is agreed upon by all scholars, and is the most used method throughout history, partly because other methods have been criticized. Criticism of non-riwaya method is mostly based on two grounds; for one, Muhammad has condemned those who interpret the Quran from their own point of view, and for two, most companions of Muhammad have refrained from presenting their own ideas. Some important examples of tafsir bi'r-riwāyah are Jāmiʿ al-Bayān by al-Tabari and Tafseer al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓeem by ibn Kathir. The sources used for tafsir bi'r-riwāyah can be ordered by the rank of authority, as the Quran, hadiths, the reports by the sahabah and tabi'iun, classical Arabic literature, and Isra'iliyat.

The most authoritative source of the interpretation is the Quran itself. Interpretation of the Quran employing other Quranic reference is very common because of the close interrelatedness of the verses of the Quran with one another. The Quranic verses explain and interpret one another, which leads many to believe that it has the highest level of authenticity. Many verses or words in the Quran are explained or further clarified in other verses of the Quran. One example of the hadith which extensively employs this source of method is Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an by Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i. The authoritative source of method second to the Quran is Hadith, by using narratives of Muhammad to interpret the Quran. In this approach the most important external aids used are the collected oral traditions upon which Muslim scholars based Islamic history and law. Authority of this method is considered established by the statement made in the Quran that Muhammad is responsible for explanation and guidance. While some narratives are of revelation origin, others can be the result of reasonings made by Muhammad. One important aspect of these narratives is their origin. Narratives used for tafsir, and in general, must be of authentic origin (sahih). Narratives of such origin are considered requisite for tafsir.

Other source of the interpretation includes the accounts of Ṣaḥābah, companions of Muhammad, or tabi'un, the generation after sahabah, and Tabi' al-Tabi'in, the generation after tabi'un. Their authority is based on an account in hadith Sahih Bukhari, which accordingly, Muhammad said; "The best people are those living in my generation, then those coming after them (Tābi'un), and then those coming after (the third generation)". If nothing is found in the Quran or the Hadīth, the commentator has recourse to what the Ṣaḥābah reported about various verses. These are generally considered above personal opinion, because these people grew up with everyday interaction with Muhammad, and had often asked about the meanings of verses or circumstances of their revelation; and they were very knowledgeable in both Arabic literature and Islamic thought. Another non-scripture based source of the interpretation is classical Arabic literature. Classical Arabic poetry and the text of the Quran are two resources which can be used as foundational reference in ascertaining the meaning and signification of the remaining literal and figurative diction of the Quran and its style of expression. Using Arabic poetry for defining words is a long used practice, in fact there are very few scholars who haven't used this source. Less authoritative source of the interpretation is Isra'iliyat, which is the body of narratives originating from Judeo-Christian traditions, rather than from other well-accepted sources. The Isra'iliyat are mostly non-biblical explanatory stories and traditions (Hebrew: midrashim) giving extra information or interpretation about events or individuals recorded in the Hebrew scriptures. Scholars starting with the Sahabah have studied narrative accounts of other Abrahamic religions to further explain and clarify verses, especially parables, in the Quran. While some may be accurate, these narratives are not subject to hadith authenticity criteria, and are generally not favored for use.

Tafsir bi'r-Ra'y (or Tafsir bi'd-dirayah)
Tafsir bi'r-ra'y, or commonly known as tafsir bi-al-diraya, is the method of using one's independent rational reasoning and mind (ijtihad) to form an opinion-oriented interpretation. The most distinctive feature of tafsir bi-al-diraya is the inclusion of the opinions of the commentator, thus forming the more objective view on Quranic verses. The relative paucity of traditional sources is also a practical reason why the scope of the methodology is augmented. This is considered sanctioned by the Quran itself, as written in the surah Sad verse 29:  This method is not interpretation by mere opinion however, but rather opinions must be based on the main sources. Performing Quranic interpretation using solely one's own opinion is believed to be prohibited by some Muslims. This is based on an authenticated hadith of Muhammad which states "He who says (something) concerning the Qur'ân without knowledge, he has taken his seat of fire". However, this hadith can alternatively be interpreted to refer to the importance of first properly studying and learning the Quran before attempting to teach or preach it to others. Accordingly, the method of independent reasoning (ijtihad) has several qualifications and conditions that need to be satisfied. Due to the nature of orientation toward opinions, this method is rejected by certain scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah, and prohibited by Wahhabi Islamic doctrine. Some important examples of such tafsirs include Anwar al-Tanzil by al-Baydawi and Mafatih al-Ghayb by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. Some parameters used by these scholars including linguistic resources, historical sources, methodological concepts such as maqasid or socio-cultural environment taken into consideration.

In terms of linguistic resources, literary elements of the Arabic language, including morphology, eloquence, syntax are an integral part of tafsir, as they constitute the basis of understanding and interpretation. Arabic has a systematic way of shaping words so one can know the meaning by knowing the root and the form the word was coined from. If any word can be given a meaning that is compatible with the rules of grammar, Quranic text can be interpreted that way. In terms of historical resources, scholars may choose to interpret verses according to external factors, including their historical context and their place of revelation. Historical context (Asbab al-nuzul) is particularly important to interpret verses according to how the Quran was revealed, when and under which circumstances, and much commentary was dedicated to history. The early tafsirs are considered to be some of the best sources for Islamic history. Classification of the place of revelation, whether it was revealed in Mecca or Medina, is important as well. This is because in general Meccan verses tend to have an iman (loosely translated as faith) nature that includes believing in Allah, Muhammad, and the day of judgment, whether it be theological foundations or basic faith principles. On the other hand, Medinan verses constitute legislation, social obligations, and constitution of a state.

On the more conceptual level, the idea of maqasid (goals or purpose) can be taken into account. Verses may be interpreted to preserve the general goals of shariah, which may be considered simply as bringing happiness to a person in this life and the hereafter. That way, any interpretation that threatens to compromise the preservation of religion, life, lineage, intellect or property may be discarded or ruled otherwise in order to secure these goals. Further, the socio-cultural environment may also taken into consideration. This includes understanding and interpreting the Quran while taking into account the cultural and social environment to which it has been revealed; or according to the scholars' own time. Often than not, the distinction can be made between the amm (general) verses that aimed at universal conditions for Muslims, and khass (specific) verses that applied to specific conditions, time or need. This is considered an integral part of analyzing the universality of the Quran. Scholars usually do not favor to confine verses to a single time interval, but rather interpret according to the needs of their time.

Sects

Islamic theology is divided into myriad of schools and branches, and each of the schools' comments on the Quran with their own point of view.

Sunni

The time of Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari marks the classical period, which encompassed important Sunni tafsirs, such as Tafsir al-Thalabi, Tafsir of Al-Zamakhshari and Tafsir al-Tabari. Tafsir al-Tabari is one of the most important tafsir works in Sunni Islam. This work provides exegetical material for the whole Quran, also contains conflicting information, which Tabari tries either to harmonize or argues in support of the one he feels more correct. Further he includes different readings, which according to him, both might be correct and gives his own opinion after each argumentation. Both linguistical and theological subjects are discussed throughout his work.

Regarding Sunni tafsir, it seems that Ibn Taimiyya serves as transition points between the Classical and post-Classical exegesis. The post-classical period is marked by the exegetic methodology of Ibn Kathir. Although Ibn Kathir claimed to rely on the works of Tabari, he introduced new methods for his exegesis, based on the teachings of Ibn Taymiyyah. His monovalency and sceptical attitude towards Isra'iliyyat are significant for his tafsir. It is much more selective than previous tafsirs, and disregards intellectual disciplines of grammar, law and theology, which has been previously brought into debate, but played no role in his Quranic exegesis.

In contemporary scholarship, translations of previous tafsirs into the English language are usually abridged versions of their longer original. One widespread version of Tafsir Ibn Kathir is published under the editorship of Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman. Such translations are often omitting content, to guide the readers against "wrong" content, following the puritanical approaches. Ibn Kathir gained widespread popularity, probably due to his straight approach in his own work, and the lack of alternative translations of traditional tafsirs. Abridged translations into Western language also appeared for Tafsir Tabari. One French version provided by Pierre Godé appeared in 1983. He edited the work in a way, that the author appears 'orthodox'. An English translation of Tabari by J. Cooper appeared in 1986. Bayan Ul Quran is another orthodox sunni tafsir written by Ashraf Ali Thanwi.

Shi'ite
Tafsirs by Shia Muslims similarly deals with the issues concerned by Sunnis, and employs similar methodology as well, except for the adherence toward certain beliefs and creeds Shiism espouses. Distinctive features of Shia tafsirs include expounding of the concept of imamate, the heavier weight put on verses that considered to be the foundation of successorship to Muhammad within the Prophet's family begins with Ali, and the heavier authority put on interpretations attributed to The Twelve Imams. These characteristics result in distinction being made between the esoteric and the exoteric meaning of the Quran, and the esoteric meaning attributed to the imams preferred over the exoteric meaning. Certain Shia tafsirs are influenced by Mu'tazili thoughts as well, specifically on the theological issues. Some of the important examples of Shia mufassirs and their tafsir are Al-Tibbyan Fi Tafsir al-Quran by Shaykh Tusi (460/1067) and Majma al-Bayan lif'ulum al-Quran by Shaykh Tabarsi (d. 548/1153).

On the other hand, tafsir by Zaidi school of jurisprudence, which espouses the doctrine closest with Sunnis of all Shia sects, produces tafsir resembling Sunni tafsir in its quality. Some Zaidi tafsirs are considered popular among Sunnis as well as shia.

Mu'tazila
The Mu'tazila tradition of tafsir has received little attention in modern scholarship, owing to several reasons. First, several exegetical works by Mu'tazila scholars have been studied as books on theology rather than as works of tafsir. Secondly, the large Mu'tazilite tafsir at-Tahdib fi tafsir al-Qur'an by al-Hakim al-Jishumi has not been edited, and there is no complete copy of it available at any single location, which limits its accessibility to scholars.

Sufi
It is an interpretation of the Quran which includes attribution of esoteric or mystic meanings to the text by the interpreter. In this respect, its method is different from the conventional exegesis. Esoteric interpretations do not usually contradict the conventional (in this context called exoteric) interpretations; instead, they discuss the inner levels of meaning of the Quran. A hadith from Muhammad which states that the Quran has an inner meaning, and that this inner meaning conceals a yet deeper inner meaning, and so on (up to seven levels of meaning), has sometimes been used in support of this view. Islamic opinion imposes strict limitations on esoteric interpretations especially when interior meaning is against exterior one. Esoteric interpretations are found mainly in Sufism and in the sayings (hadiths) of Shi'a Imams and the teachings of the Isma'ili sect. But Muhammad and the imams gave importance to its exterior as much as to its interior; they were as much concerned with its revelation as they were with its interpretation. These are generally not independently written, however, they are found in the books of Sufis.

Among the most significant Sunni Sufi tafsirs are:
 Tafsir al-Qur'an al-'Azim by al-Tustari (d. 283/896)
 Haqa'iq al-Tafsir by al-Sulami (d. 412/1021)
 Lata'if al-Isharat by al-Qushayri (d. 465/1072)
 Ara'is al-Bayan fi Haqa'iq al-Qur'an by Ruzbihan al-Baqli (d. 606/1209)
 Ruh al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an by Isma'il Haqqi al-Brusewi (d. 1137/1725)
 Al-Bahr al-Madid fi Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Majid by Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba (d. 1224/1809)

Quranist
Quranists merely believe in the Qur'an and reject other oral traditions. Turkish Islamic theologian Yaşar Nuri Öztürk denounced contemporary Islamic practices as altered. He distinguished between what he defined as true Islam and what he saw as customs and traditions introduced in the Umayyad period. In 1992, he published a 760-page, tafsir-like exegetical work called Kur'an'daki Islam. Each chapter, which deals with one surah, is structured around certain verses of the surah, or words occurring in the text, which need to be explained.

Edip Yüksel, Layth Saleh al-Shaiban, and Martha Schulte-Nafeh wrote Quran: A Reformist Translation, an English translation and commentary of the Qur'an. Yüksel is a follower of Rashad Khalifa.

Ghulam Ahmed Perwez wrote Mafhoom-ul-Quran, translated into English as Exposition of the Holy Qur'an.

Methodologies

Scientific approach

Scholars deeply influenced by the natural and social sciences followed the materialists of Europe or the pragmatists. Under the influence of those secular theories, they declared that the religion's realities cannot go against scientific knowledge. What the religion claims to exist, but which the sciences reject should be interpreted in a way that conforms with the science; as for those things which the science is silent about, like the resurrection etc., they should be brought within the purview of the laws of matter; the pillars upon which the divine religious laws are based — like revelation, angel, Satan, prophethood, apostleship, Imamah (Imamate) etc. - are spiritual things, and the spirit is a development of the matter. As for the Quran itself, one should not explain it in the light of the old philosophy and theories, because they were not based on observations and tests — they were just a sort of mental exercise which has been totally discredited now by the modern science. Found by Ghazali and built upon by Razi, it is one of today's most abundant way of tafsir. A common example is Mafatih al-Ghayb by Fakhruddin al-Razi.

Legal approach

Legal tafsir deals mainly with verses that have a legislative meaning (see ahkam), and it strives to obtain Islamic law from the Quran. Its practice was common in both the classical and modern periods. There is a dispute over the number of verses that contain jurisprudential guidance, with numbers ranging from 5 to 200 being reported. Works of legal tafsir were typically written from the perspectives of the madhhab of their respective authors. For example, Aḥkam al-Qur'an by al-Jassas was written according to the Hanafi Madhhab, Aḥkam al-Qur'an by Qaḍi Abū Bakr ibn al-'Arabī and al-Jaami' Li'Aḥkam al-Qur'an by al-Qurtubi were written according to the Maliki Madhhab, and Aḥkam al-Qur'an by Ilkiya was written according to the Shafi'i Madhhab. Some also cite Zad al-Maseer of ibn al-Jawzi as an example of a legal tafsir according to the Hanbali Madhhab.

Linguistic
A newer work which incorporates and quotes the work of a multitude of previous scholars and analyzes the relevant Arabic root words (based on all available classic Arabic meanings), and references all relevant passages of the Quran, was done by Abdul Mannan Omar.

See also
 Esoteric interpretation of the Quran (Ta'wil)
 Quranic hermeneutics
 Islamic studies
 List of tafsir works
 Quran translations

References

Islamic terminology

Quran

Tafsir


Mahmut Yıldırım ya da bilinen ismiyle Yeşil veya Ahmet Demir (d. 3 Mayıs 1953 Yenidal, Solhan, Bingöl), Zaza asıllı istihbaratçı ve kontrgerilla. Mahmut Yıldırım ya da kod adıyla Yeşil her ne kadar öldüğü haberi verilse de bazı komplo teorisyenlerince öldüğü kabul edilmeyen biridir. Nitekim halk arasında dolaşan iddialara göre Yeşil; öldüğü haberinin gelmesinden bir kaç saat sonra Abdullah Çatlı'nın eşi Meral Aydoğan'ın evine gizlice girmiş, Aydoğan içeri girdiğinde bir koltukta oturur vaziyette onu beklediğini görmüş ve aralarında geçen kısa diyalogdan sonra tekrar sırra kadem basmıştır.

Hayatı
1974 yılında Kıbrıs Barış Harekatına katılmıştır ve sonrasında MİT'in bünyesinde çalışmaya başlamıştır. Dört yıl sonra farklı bir göreve soyunup, farklı bir isimle anılmaya başladı. Operasyonlarda PKK'lı gibi giyinen Mahmut Yıldırım, güvenlik görevlilerince ayırt edilebilmek için 'yeşil fular' takıyordu. Abdullah Öcalan'ı öldürmek için gönderildikten 3 ay sonra öldürülmemesi için emir verilmiştir ve Yıldırım'ın buna isyanı üzerine vatan haini ilan edilmiştir. Daha sonra ülkeyi terk ederek 1996'da Şam'da bulunduktan sonra tekrar kendisinden haber alınamamıştır.

Susurluk kazasından sonra ortaya dökülen ilişkiler, pek çok cinayetin tetikçisi olduğunu ortaya koydu ancak kendisi bulunamadı. Dönemin Başbakanı Mesut Yılmaz, aldığı bilgileri aktarırken Yeşil'in öldürüldüğünü söyledi.

Ancak kısa bir süre sonra Yeşil, İHD Başkanı Akın Birdal'ı vuranların arkasındaki isim olarak ortaya çıktı. Daha sonraki bilgiler Yıldırım'ın hâlâ hayatta olduğunu ortaya koydu. Susurluk Raporu'nda da Yıldırım'a 12 sayfalık özel bir yer ayrıldı.

Ahmet Demir, Mehmet Kırmızı sahte kimliklerini kullanan, Güneydoğu'da "Sakallı" adıyla bilinen Solhanlı Mahmut Yıldırım'ın geçmişi bir ölçüde deşifre edilebildi. Bir dönem MİT'te, bir dönem JİTEM'de görev aldığı anlaşıldı.

JİTEM subayı Ahmet Cem Ersever'in öldürülmesinden, Güneydoğu'daki pek çok fail-i meçhul cinayete kadar sayısız olayda tetikçilik yaptığı belirlendi. Hatta Abdullah Öcalan'ın Suriye'de öldürülmesi için görevlendirilen ekipte de yer aldı.

Afyon Cezaevi'nde Sabancı Suikastı sanıklarından DHKP-C'li Mustafa Duyar'ı Türkiye'nin Şam Büyükelçiliği'nden alıp getiren ekipte onun da adı sayıldı. Ancak istihbarat birimlerinin kamuoyuyla pek de paylaşmadığı kanıya göre, aslında Yeşil tek bir kişinin değil, birden fazla görevlinin kullandığı ortak kod adı.

Dönemin ünlü iş adamlarından ve devlete yakınlığınıyla bilenen Emin Değer'den 500 bin dolar para isteyen Yeşil'in çocukluk arkadaşı Zakir Selvi, Yeşil'in adını kullanarak Emin Değer'den ikinci şahıslar üzerinden haraç kesmiştir. Emin Değer'in abisi Aziz Değer, Yeşil'in abisini arayarak ofisine çağırır ve kendisi Aziz Değer'e "Gelenler Yeşil'in adamı değil, Yeşil hemşehrilerinden haraç istemez" der.

Ankara'da bir pavyonda eğlenirken olay çıkarttığı için gözaltına alınan, götürüldüğü Emniyet Müdürlüğü binasında Orhan Taşanlar ve ekibi tarafından kaburgaları kırılana kadar dövülen Yeşil'i polisin elinden alan ve MİT'te tedavi ettiren kişinin Mehmet Eymür olduğu öne sürüldü.

Üzerinde taşıdığı telefonla aradığı yerler arasında resmî kurumların yanı sıra Abdullah Çatlı, Sami Hoştan, Sedat Peker gibi isimler de bulunuyor. Mesut Yılmaz'a Budapeşte'te yumruk atanlar da Yıldırım'ın telefonundan arananlar arasında yer alıyor.

Yeşil adının korkuyla anılması Susurluk çetesi tarafından tahsilat amacıyla kullanıldı. Susurluk çetesinin tehditle para topladığı kişileri arayan hep Yeşil idi. Ömer Lütfü Topal'ın öldürülmeden önce para yatırdığı Ziraat Bankası Ankara Heykel Şubesi'ndeki hesabın sahibinin de Ahmet Demir kimliğini kullanan Yeşil olduğu ortaya çıktı.

Musa Anter, Cem Ersever, Tarık Ümit ve Behçet Cantürk olmak üzere birçok faili meçhul cinayette "zanlı" olarak isminden söz edilmektedir.

Murat ve Nevzat isminde 2 oğlu, Nuray isminde 1 kızı vardır.

Yaşadığına dair iddialar
Sabah gazetesinin internet sitesinde yer alan bir habere göre, ismi verilmeyen ve Yeşil'in oğlu Murat Yıldırım ile arkadaş olduğunu iddia eden biri, Murat Yıldırım ile birini almaya gittiklerini, adamı arabaya aldıktan sonra da kendisinin arabaya aldıkları kişinin Yeşil olduğunu fark ettiğini söyledi. Korkut Eken, Yeşil'in yaşadığını iddia edip, Yeşil'e "Çıkıp doğruları söyle!" diyerek seslenmiştir. OdaTV'de yer alan bir habere göre ise Yeşil'in, Suriye'nin İdlib eski Vakıflar Müdürü Rıdvan Hammudi ile beraber görüldüğü iddia edilmiştir. AK Parti Gaziantep milletvekili Şamil Tayyar, emekli bir albayın kendisine Yeşil'in yaşadığını, Sakarya'da yemek yediğini söylediğini iddia etmiştir. Beyaz TV'de yayınlanan Dinamit programının sunucusu Latif Şimşek, bir canlı yayında Yeşil'in yaşadığını ve akrabası aracılığıyla kendisine mesaj gönderdiğini iddia etmiş ve şunları söylemiştir: "Mahmut Yıldırım Türkiye'nin en güvenilir moderatörü olarak gördüğü için mesajı bana göndermek istemiş. Bir estetik operasyon geçirdiğini, yaşadığını bildirmek istemiş." Dağın Ardındaki Gerçekler kitabının yazarı ve 1997-99 yılları arasında JİTEM bünyesinde Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi'nde görev yapmış Bedran Akdağ'a göre ise Yeşil yaşıyor ve Diyarbakır'da görüldü. Oradan da Çukurova bölgesine götürüldü ve orada tutuldu. Konuyla ilgili yapılmış haberler 5-6 sene öncesine ait olduğu için hala Çukurova'da olup olmadığı hakkında bilgi yok. Mahmut Yıldırım'ın izi uzun süredir bulunamadı. Yaşayıp yaşamadığı konusunda da net bir bilgi yok.

Popüler kültürdeki yeri ve imajı
Sağır Oda dizisinde Cenap Dursun adlı bir istihbaratçı ve tetikçilik yapan bir karakter olarak sembolize edilmiştir. Kurtlar Vadisi Pusu dizisinde ise Kara adlı karakterle sembolize edilmiştir. Dizinin 232. bölümünde Kara karakteri Ebola virüsüne yakalanmış ve Siyah Sancak Timi tarafından kendi emriyle öldürülmüştür. Kamuoyu araştırmalarına göre bir kısım çevre, Kurtlar Vadisi Pusu dizisinin 232. bölümünde yer alan bu sahneden ötürü Mahmut Yıldırım'ın Türkiye'nin yurtdışında özel operasyon yapan ekiplerinin birinin başındayken gerçekten 2014'te Ebola'ya yakalanıp dizide belirtildiği şekilde öldüğüne inanmaktadır.

Hakkında
Oğlu Murat Yıldırım 2009 yılında Yeşil-Savaşçı Yeşil adlı bir kitap yazmıştır. Kitapta babasının hayat hikâyesini, katıldığı operasyonları anlatmış Yeşil hakkında merak edilen soruları cevaplamıştır.

Dipnotlar

Hakkında yazılan kitaplar
Ahmet Tahir Can - Derin Devletin Rengi: YEŞİL
Necdet Pekmezci - Yeşil - Derin Devletin Üvey Evladı
Murat Yıldırım - Yeşil: Savaşçı

Kaynakça

1951 doğumlular
Solhan doğumlular
JİTEM personeli
Türkiye tarafından aranan kaçaklar
Zaza asıllı Türkler
Türk katiller
Türk suikastçılar
Türk Sünniler
Yaşayan insanlar
Kıbrıs Harekâtı'ndaki Türk askerler

Mahmut Yıldırım


Robert Francis Boucher, CBE, FREng (25 April 1940 – 25 March 2009), usually known as Bob Boucher, was a British mechanical engineer, and Vice-Chancellor of both UMIST (1995–2001) the University of Sheffield (2001–2007).

Boucher was born in Wembley on 25 April 1940 and was educated at  St Ignatius' College, Stamford Hill, Borough Polytechnic, London, and gained a PhD from the University of Nottingham in Mechanical Engineering in 1966.   After postdoctoral work at the same university he moved to Queen's University Belfast as a researcher then a lecturer in mechanical engineering.

In 1970 he joined Sheffield University as a lecturer, rising to Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering  in 1987 and Pro-Vice-Chancellor for Research at Sheffield.  In 1995 he took up the position of Vice-Chancellor and Principal of UMIST.  In 2001 he returned to Sheffield as Vice-Chancellor until his retirement in 2007. Boucher was Chairman of the International Sector Group of Universities UK and Treasurer of the Association of Commonwealth Universities.

Bob Boucher was appointed a CBE in 2000 "for services to Engineering Research, Industry and Education".
He died suddenly on 25 March 2009.

References
 BOUCHER, Prof, Robert Francis (Bob), Debrett's People of Today, 2007.

External links
 University of Sheffield release on Professor Boucher's death

1940 births
2009 deaths
Academics from Wembley
Academics of the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
Academics of the University of Sheffield
Alumni of the University of Nottingham
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
British mechanical engineers
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Sheffield

Bob Boucher (educator)


An Oncidium alexandrae in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni James Bateman, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Mark W. Chase och Norris Hagan Williams. An Oncidium alexandrae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oncidium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Oncidium

Oncidium alexandrae


Catalan literature (or Valencian literature) is the name conventionally used to refer to literature written in the Catalan language. The focus of this article is not just the literature of Catalonia, but literature written in Catalan from anywhere, so that it includes writers from Andorra, the Valencian Community, Balearic Islands and other territories where any Catalan variant is spoken.

The Catalan literary tradition is extensive, starting in the early Middle Ages. A Romantic revivalist movement of the 19th century, Renaixença, classified Catalan literature in periods. The centuries long chapter known as Decadència that followed the golden age of Valencian literature, was perceived as extremely poor and lacking literary works of quality. Further attempts to explain why this happened (see History of Catalonia) have motivated new critical studies of the period, and nowadays a revalorisation of this early modern age is taking place. Catalan literature reemerged in the 19th and early 20th centuries, to experience troubled times from the start of the Spanish Civil War on. Many intellectuals were forced into exile and Catalan culture was repressed. However, this repression began to temper after the end of World War II. Catalan was repressed until Francisco Franco's death and the end of his dictatorship in 1975. Then, a development towards officiality and presence in schools and media started to this day.

Middle Ages

Origins
Catalan, a Romance language, evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages, when it became a separate language from Latin. Literary use of the Catalan language is generally said to have started with the religious text known as Homilies d'Organyà, written either in late 11th or early 12th century, though the earlier Cançó de Santa Fe, from 1054–76, may be Catalan or Occitan. Another early Catalan poem is the mid-13th century Augats, seyós qui credets Déu lo Payre, a planctus Mariae (lament of Mary).

Ramon Llull (13th century), one of the major medieval Majorcan writers in the Catalan language is not only saluted for starting a Catalan literary tradition clearly separated from the Occitan-speaking world of the time, but also credited with enriching the language with his coining of a large number of words, and his philosophy. See Llibre de Meravelles (including the famed Llibre de les bèsties) and Blanquerna (including Llibre d'Amic e Amat) for more details on his works.

Les quatre grans cròniques
These four major literary works are chronicles written between the 13th and 14th centuries narrating the deeds of the monarchs and leading figures of the Crown of Aragon. They are the following:
Crònica de Jaume I, also known as "The book of deeds" (see External links)
Crònica de Bernat Desclot, also known as "Book of the king, Peter of Aragon".
Crònica de Ramon Muntaner
Crònica de Pere el Cerimoniós

Lyric poetry
The first widespread vernacular writing in any Romance language was the lyric poetry of the troubadours, who composed in Occitan. Since Occitan and Catalan are often indistinguishable before the 14th century, it is not surprising that many Catalans composed in the Occitan poetic koiné. The first Catalan troubadour (trobadors) may be Berenguier de Palazol, active around 1150, who wrote only cançons (love songs in the courtly tradition). Guerau III de Cabrera and Guillem de Berguedà, active in the generation after, were noted exponents of the ensenhamen and sirventes genres respectively. During this early period Occitan literature was patronised by the rulers of Catalonia—not surprisingly considering their wide involvement in Occitanian politics and as Counts of Provence. Alfonso II patronised many composers, not just from Catalonia, and even wrote Occitan poetry himself. The tradition of royal troubadours continued with his descendants Peter III James II of Aragon, the anonymous known only as "Lo bord del rei d'Arago", and Frederick II of Sicily. The most prolific Catalan troubadour during the ascendancy of Occitan as language of literature, was Cerverí de Girona, who left behind more than one hundred works. He was the most prolific troubadour of any nationality.

In the early 13th century, Raimon Vidal, from Besalú, composed his poetic grammar, the Razos de trobar ("Purposes of Composition"). This was the earliest and perhaps most influential Occitan lyric treatise. The troubadour lyric followed the Catalans to Sicily later in the century, where Jaufre de Foixa composed a Regles de trobar ("Rules for Composing") modelled on Vidal's earlier work. A third Catalan treatise on the language of the troubadours and composing lyric poetry, the Mirall de trobar ("Mirror of Composition"), was written by a Majorcan, Berenguer d'Anoia.

The first golden age of this language was developed in the Kingdom of Valencia around the 15th century under the  variant of "Valenciano" . The Catalan language consolidated and clearly differentiated, even in lyrical poetry, from Occitan language. The prose is widely cultivated, with influences from Italian humanism. Authors as the humanist Bernat Metge the preacher Vincent Ferrer, Francesc Eiximenis or Anselm Turmeda write works now considered as classical models of Catalan prose. The narrative and the fiction are shown in novels as Història de Jacob Xalabín, Paris i Viana or the chivalric roman Curial i Güelfa. In the 15th century the main centre of literary production is Valencia: the lyric poetry has outstanding Petrarchian poets: Jordi de Sant Jordi or Ausiàs Marc, or the elaborate poetry and prose of Joan Roís de Corella. In fiction could be outlined Jaume Roig's Espill or Tirant lo Blanc.

Tirant lo Blanc

Written by the Valencian writer Joanot Martorell, this epic romance was among its time's most influential novels, and possibly the last major book in Catalan literature until the 19th century.

Modern era

La Decadència

The early modern period (late 15th-18th centuries), while extremely productive for Castilian writers of the Spanish Golden Age, was termed La Decadència by 19th century Catalan scholars and writers.  This "decadent" period in Catalan literature came about because of a general decline in the use of the vernacular language and a lack of patronage among the nobility as Aragonese institutions declined. The Catalan-language decadence accompanied the rise of Catalan commercial influence in the Spanish Empire in which the use of Spanish language was essential after the dynastic union that resulted from the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in 1474. Today, this is seen as a romantic view made popular by writers and thinkers of the 19th century national awakening movement known as Renaixença. The presumed period of decadence is being contested with the appearance of recent cultural and literary studies showing that there were indeed literary works of note in the period, from authors such as Cristòfor Despuig, Pere Serafí, Francesc Vicenç Garcia, Francesc Fontanella and Joan Ramis, among others.

Renaixença

The first Romantics in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands chose Spanish as their language, and did not resort to using the Catalan language until a national awakening movement, kickstarted by Romantic nationalism, appeared. The foundation of the basis of the movement is most often credited to Bonaventura Carles Aribau with his Oda a la Pàtria. Renaixença or "rebirth". Literary Renaixença shares with European Romanticism most of its traits, but created a style of its own through its admiration of the Middle Ages and its will to embellish the language and the need to create a new common standard. Realism and naturalism deeply influenced later authors. Their most important adherents were indeed Jacint Verdaguer, who penned Catalonia's national epic, and Àngel Guimerà, whose plays were translated and performed around Europe.

Modernisme

Literary Catalan modernisme was the natural follow-up of Renaixença, still showing Romantic traits and influences while focusing on dark themes, such as violence or the dark side of life and nature. As for poetry, it closely followed the style of Parnassians and Symbolists. The movement was subdivided into authors in whose work prevailed darker decadentism themes, classed under the name Bohèmia Negra, and those whose career embraced Aestheticism, known as participants of Bohèmia Daurada or Bohèmia Rosa. Santiago Rusiñol, Joan Maragall and Joan Puig i Ferreter were some of its most influential adherents. Furthermore, it is necessary to allude to the seminal work of Miquel Costa i Llobera and Joan Alcover, poets who developed their work parallel to the heyday of Art Nouveau, whilst raising a conception of literature certainly antagonistic relative to them, and more comparable to classical poetry.

Noucentisme

The cultural and political movement known as Noucentisme appeared in the early 20th century, a time of great economic growth in Catalonia, as a mostly conservative reaction against Modernisme and the Avantgarde, both in art and thought. Its Classicism was framed as a "return to beauty." The love of elaborated form, along with its much sought perfection of language, was accused by modernistes of being excessively affected and artificial. Poetry was its preferred genre, as evidenced by Josep Carner or Carles Riba's masterpieces.

Francoist Spain, exile and political transition
After what seemed to be a period of hope and rapid growth, the Spanish Civil War and the establishment of Francoist Spain (starting in 1939) forced many Catalan leftist intellectuals into exile, as many of them faced political persecution.

During the initial years of Francoist Spain the use of Catalan in the media became frowned upon. Publishing in Catalan never ceased completely, though, even though only a few notable authors like Salvador Espriu did publish in this language in the first years of Francoist Spain.
Those initial political restrictions on publishing in Catalan relaxed over time. By the 1950s publishing in Catalan was no longer extraordinary; by the 1960s it had become possible without restrictions other than the ideological ones which applied to all of Spain.

Some literary awards in Catalan had been established as early as 1947 (Premi Joanot Martorell). Also by the end of the 1940s well known authors such as Josep Maria de Sagarra were publishing again in Catalan (among others, El prestigi dels morts, 1946, L'Hereu i la forastera, 1949). Many other literary awards followed, like the Premi Carles de la Riba (1950), the Victor Català (1953) or the Lletra d'Or (1956). Since 1951, the most remarkable literary contest in Catalonia at the time (the Premio Ciudad de Barcelona) accepted originals in Catalan.

In 1962, Mercè Rodoreda published The Time of the Doves, possibly the book which paved the way of modern Catalan literature, since it could enjoy wider recognition due to the new media and the spreading of literacy in this language. In 1963, Spain won an international song contest with a piece sung in Catalan.

Later on that decade Josep Pla published what has been considered the masterpiece of the contemporary literature in Catalan, the seminal El Quadern Gris (1966). The Catalan cultural association Òmnium Cultural, which had been established in 1961, could begin its work in favour of Catalan literature by 1967 onwards. Salvador Espriu, who had published most of his works in Catalan, was a candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1971.

After the transition to democracy (1975–1978) and the restoration of the Catalan regional government Generalitat (1980), literary life and the editorial market have returned to normality and literary production in Catalan is being bolstered with a number of language policies intended to protect Catalan culture. Besides the aforementioned authors, other relevant 20th-century writers of the Francoist and democracy periods include Joan Brossa, Agustí Bartra, Manuel de Pedrolo, Pere Calders or Quim Monzó, Jesús Moncada or, in 21st century, Jaume Cabré or Albert Sánchez Piñol. The number of twenty-first century women writers increases like Dolors Miquel, Núria Perpinyà or Irene Solà.

Lists of Catalan-language writers and poets

Notes

References
Comas, Antoni.  La decadència.  Sant Cugat del Vallès: A. Romero, 1986.
Elliott, J. H.  Imperial Spain 1469-1716.  London: Penguin, 2002.
Riquer, Martí de.  Història de la literatura catalana.  6 vols.  Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1980.
Rossich, Albert. "És valid avui el concepte de decadència de la cultura catalana de l'època moderna? Es pot identificar decadència amb castellanizació?"  Manuscrits 15 (1997), 127-34.
Terry, Arthur.  A Companion to Catalan Literature. Woodbridge, Suffolk, U.K. / Rochester, N.Y.: Tamesis, 2003.
Jad Hatem, Le temps dans la poésie catalane contemporaine, Paris, Éd. du Cygne, 2011

External links

General
Catalan Poetry Selection (800 poems, 176 poets, 42 bios, 37 English versions)
LletrA, Catalan Literature Online (Open University of Catalonia)
Catalan literature at the British Library website
Relazioni fra la cultura catalana e quella italiana

E-books
James I the Conqueror's Chronicle (in English)
Muntaner's Chronicle (in English)
Tirant lo Blanc (in English)

Catalan literature


The year 1858 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.

Archaeology
 In Luxor, Egypt, the Rhind papyrus is found (named for Alexander Henry Rhind, the discoverer); it is sometimes called the Ahmes papyrus for the scribe who wrote it around 1650 BC.

Astronomy
 Donati's Comet, the first comet to be photographed, is discovered by Giovanni Battista Donati on 2 June and remains visible for several months afterwards.

Biology
 William Herschel initiates fingerprinting as a means of identification, in Bengal.
 Rudolf Virchow publishes Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre: 20 Vorlesungen, gehalten während der Monate Februar, März und April 1858 im Pathologischen Institut zu Berlin.
 George Bentham's Handbook of the British flora is published. This will be in use (in editions edited by Joseph Dalton Hooker) for a century.

Evolution
 Publication of Darwin's theory:
 June 18 – Charles Darwin receives papers from Alfred Russel Wallace setting out the latter's theory of natural selection which he forwards to Charles Lyell.
 July 1 – Darwin and Wallace's papers on their theories of evolution, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection (submitted with the support of Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker) are read by John Joseph Bennett to a meeting of the Linnean Society of London. They are first published on August 20.

Exploration
 February 13 – Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke become the first Europeans to discover Lake Tanganyika.
 May 14 – Dr David Livingstone's 6-year Second Zambesi Expedition, under the patronage of the Royal Geographical Society, arrives at the African coast with the prefabricated iron paddle steamer Ma Robert.
 August 3 – John Hanning Speke discovers Lake Victoria, source of the River Nile.

Mathematics
 The Möbius strip is discovered independently by German mathematicians August Ferdinand Möbius and Johann Benedict Listing.
 Arthur Cayley publishes "A memoir on the theory of matrices", introducing the modern concept of the matrix in mathematics.

Medicine
 August 2 – Medical Act 1858 passed "to Regulate the Qualifications of Practitioners in Medicine and Surgery" in the United Kingdom.
 First publication of Gray's Anatomy.
 Publication in London of Thomas B. Peacock's On Malformations, &c., of the Human Heart, with original cases which becomes a standard cardiology textbook.
 French pediatrician Eugène Bouchut develops a new technique for non-surgical orotracheal intubation to bypass laryngeal obstruction resulting from a diphtheria-related pseudomembrane.

Psychiatry
 First treatise on postpartum psychiatric disturbances, by Louis-Victor Marcé, MD.

Technology
 January 31 – I. K. Brunel's , the largest ship built to date, is launched on the River Thames using Tangye hydraulic rams.
 August – The first aerial photography is carried out by Nadar from a moored balloon in France using the collodion process.
 Hoffmann kiln patented in Germany by Friedrich Hoffmann for continuous production brickmaking.

Awards
 Copley Medal: Charles Lyell
 Wollaston Medal for geology: James Hall

Births
 January 2 – Bernard Sachs (died 1944), American neurologist.
 January 9 – Elizabeth Gertrude Britton, née Knight (died 1934), American botanist.
 January 28 – Eugène Dubois (died 1940), Dutch paleoanthropologist.
 February 7 – Herman Frederik Carel ten Kate (died 1931), Dutch anthropologist.
 March 18 – Rudolf Diesel (died 1913), German mechanical engineer.
 March 27 – Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (died 1945), German physician and bacteriologist.
 April 23 – Max Planck (died 1947), German theoretical physicist.
 May 19 – Thomas Allinson (died 1918), English physician and dietetic reformer.
 May 28 – T. H. E. C. Espin (died 1934), English astronomer, scientist and clergyman.
 July 9 – Franz Boas (died 1942), German-born anthropologist.
 August 11 – Christiaan Eijkman (died 1930), Dutch physiologist.
 August 19 – Ellen Willmott (died 1934), English horticulturist.
 August 27 – Giuseppe Peano (died 1932), Italian mathematician.
 October 4 – Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin (died 1935), Banat-born physicist.
 November 1 – Ludwig Struve (died 1920), Russian astronomer.
 November 30 – Jagadish Chandra Bose (died 1937), Bengali physicist.
 Laura Forster (died 1917), Australian physician.

Deaths
 April 28 – Johannes Peter Müller (born 1801), German physiologist.
 June 10 – Robert Brown (born 1773), Scottish botanist.
 June 28 – Jane Marcet (born 1769), British popular science writer.
 November 8 – George Peacock (born 1791), English mathematician.
 December 10 – Joseph Paul Gaimard (born 1793), French naval surgeon and naturalist.
 December 16 – Richard Bright (born 1789), English physician.
 date unknown – Amelia Griffiths (born 1768), British phycologist.

References

19th century in science
1850s in science

1858 in science


The Fulton–Favreau formula was a proposed formula of amendment of the Constitution of Canada developed by federal justice minister E. Davie Fulton and Quebec Liberal Guy Favreau in the 1960s. The Fulton–Favreau formula would have achieved the patriation of the Constitution.

Amending formula
Under the formula, all provinces would have to approve amendments that would be relevant to provincial jurisdiction including the use of the French and English languages, but only the relevant provinces would be needed to approve amendments concerned with a particular region of Canada.  Two-thirds of the provinces representing half of the population, as well as the federal Parliament, would be needed for amendments regarding education.

Debate
During the negotiations, a number of controversies arose over the Fulton–Favreau accord, including that the unanimity constituted a "strait jacket" that would make the Constitution too difficult to amend. The premier of Saskatchewan also argued that the debates over Canadian federalism, particularly the increasing decentralization being pushed for by regional leaders such as Quebec Premier Jean Lesage, threatened to render the federal government powerless, to the "point of no return", at which point Canada would no longer be a viable entity.  In turn, Lesage argued he was merely pushing for Quebec and French Canada to fully develop their rightful roles within Canada.

New Democratic Party leader Tommy Douglas also expressed concern that, while the patriation of the Constitution would be beneficial, the new Constitution would "entrench" property and civil rights.  This would make the jurisdictional issue amendable only by unanimity, which would potentially threaten growth of labour legislation, medicare and other social services.

Legacy
Though the formula officially died in 1965 when Quebec Premier Lesage withdrew his support, a modified version of this formula was finally adopted in 1982, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982 and the patriation of the Canadian Constitution.

References

Constitution of Canada
History of Canada (1960–1981)

Fulton–Favreau formula


, ubicado en Shibuya (Tokio), es un santuario sintoísta dedicado a los espíritus deificados del Emperador Meiji y su mujer, la Emperatriz Shōken.

Historia
Después de la muerte del emperador en 1912, la Dieta de Japón aprobó una resolución que quería conmemorar su papel en la Restauración Meiji. Un campo de lirios en una zona de Tokio que el Emperador Meiji y la Emperatriz Shōken tenían costumbre de visitar fue escogida como emplazamiento final.

La construcción comenzó en 1915, el templo fue construido en el estilo tradicional nagare-zukuri y hecho principalmente con ciprés y cobre japoneses. Fue consagrado oficialmente en 1920 y finalizado en 1921, los terrenos se terminaron oficialmente en 1926.  Hasta 1946, el Santuario Meiji fue oficialmente nombrado como uno de los Kanpei-taisha (官幣大社), que significaba que ocupaba el primer rango de santuarios con apoyo del gobierno.

El edificio original fue destruido durante el bombardeo de Tokio en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. La actual representación del santuario fue realizada mediante aportaciones de dinero público y se completó en octubre de 1958.

El santuario Meiji estuvo de actualidad por la visita realizada en 2009 por la secretaria de estado de EE. UU. Hillary Clinton. Después de llegar a Tokio en su primera visita oficial representando al recientemente elegido Presidente Barack Obama, ella acudió al santuario como antesala a la reunión con los líderes japoneses para mostrar respeto hacia la historia y cultura japonesa."

En enero de 2010, el ministro de exteriores alemán Guido Westerwelle demostró el mismo respeto cuando concluyó su viaje a Japón con una visita al santuario.

Complejo del Santuario
El Santuario Meiji está situado en un bosque que cubre un área de 700.000 m² (unos 175 acres). Esta zona está cubierta por un frondoso bosque que suma 120.000 árboles de 365 especies diferentes, que fueron donados por el pueblo de todo Japón cuando se construyó el santuario. El bosque es muy frecuentado como zona de recreo y tranquilidad en el centro de Tokio. El Santuario está compuesto por dos zonas principales:

Naien
El Naien es el recinto interior, que se centra en los edificios del santuario e incluye un museo del tesoro que contiene pertenencias del Emperador y la Emperatriz. El museo del tesoro está construido en el estilo azekura-zukuri.

Gaien
El Gaien es el recinto exterior, que incluye el Memorial de Galería pictórica Meiji que alberga una colección de 80 grandes murales ilustrativos de los sucesos en la vida del emperador y su esposa. También incluye una variedad de recintos deportivos, incluyendo el Estadio Nacional, y es reconocido como el epicentro deportivo en Japón. También incluye el Salón Memorial Maiji, que fue usado inicialmente para las reuniones del gobierno como los debates a cerca del borrador de la Constitución Meiji a finales del . Hoy es usado para celebrar bodas sintoístas.

Galería

Anotaciones

Referencias
 Richard Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959).  The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887

Enlaces externos

 Web oficial (Japonés e Inglés) Requiere Flash.
  Mapa en Inglés del recinto
 Panorama del santuario
 Recorrido Virtual del santuario

Meiji
Arquitectura de Japón del siglo XX
Meiji Tennō

Santuario Meiji


María Rosa Calviño de Gómez foi uma política argentina. Ela foi eleita para o Senado em 1951 como uma das primeiras mulheres parlamentares na Argentina.

Biografia
Calviño nasceu em Buenos Aires e tornou-se professora do ensino secundário. Casou-se com Alberto Manuel Gómez e teve dois filhos.

Nas eleições legislativas de 1951 foi candidata pelo Partido Peronista e uma das seis mulheres eleitas para o Senado, em representação da Capital Federal, passando a liderar o Comité de Educação e servindo também no Comité de Finanças e Orçamento e no Comité Municipal. No ano seguinte foi nomeada secretária geral da Fundação Eva Perón.

Mulheres da Argentina na política
Membros do Partido Justicialista
Educadores da Argentina
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Mulheres)

María Rosa Calviño de Gómez


Patronyme

 Aimeric de Péguilhan (vers 1175 - vers 1225 ou 1228), troubadour ;
 Charles Péguilhan (1903-1926), boxeur français.

Toponyme
 Péguilhan est une commune en France.

Homonymie de patronyme
Patronyme français

Péguilhan (homonymie)


El  es una elevación de 2805 metros situada en la región de Chūbu, Nagano, Japón. Es una de las ocho cumbres que conforman la cordillera de Monte Yatsugatake.

Montañas de Nagano
Dosmiles de Japón

Monte Amida (Chūbu)


Alex Felipe Nery (født 14. august 1975) er en tidligere brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Ventforet Kofu.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien

Alex Felipe Nery


توماس ريتشارد «توم» كاربر  هو سيناتور أمريكي عن ولاية ديلاوير والحاكم الحادي والسبعين عليها.

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من بيكلي
أشخاص من ويلمنغتون (ديلاوير)
أصحاب أعمال من ديلاوير
أعضاء مجلس الشيوخ الأمريكي من ديلوير
أعضاء مجلس النواب الأمريكي من الحزب الديمقراطي
أعضاء مجلس النواب الأمريكي من ديلاوير
أعضاء مجلس شيوخ الحزب الديمقراطي الأمريكي
أفراد البحرية الأمريكية في الحرب الفيتنامية
أفراد عسكريون من بيكلي (فيرجينيا الغربية)
أفراد عسكريون من فيرجينيا الغربية
أمناء خزينة ولاية ديلوير
حكام ولايات أمريكية من الحزب الديمقراطي
حكام ولاية ديلاوير
خريجو جامعة ديلاوير
خريجو جامعة أوهايو الحكومية
ديمقراطيون من ولاية ديلاوير
سياسيون أمريكيون
سياسيون أمريكيون في القرن 20
سياسيون أمريكيون في القرن 21
سياسيون من بيكلي (فيرجينيا الغربية)
مشيخيون أمريكيون
مواليد 1947
مواليد في بيكلي
شخصيات أعمال من بيكلي (فيرجينيا الغربية)
أعضاء الحزب الديمقراطي في مجلس النواب الأمريكي من ديلوير
أعضاء مجلس الشيوخ الأمريكي من الحزب الديمقراطي من ديلوير

توم كاربر


The American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) is an international nonprofit organization. Founded in 1911, the organization focuses on coordinating, analyzing, publishing, and archiving variable star observations made largely by amateur astronomers. The AAVSO creates records that establish light curves depicting the variation in brightness of a star over time. The AAVSO makes these records available to professional astronomers, researchers, and educators.

Professional astronomers do not have the resources to monitor every variable star. Hence, astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can make significant contributions to scientific research.  In 2011, the 100th year of the AAVSO's existence, the twenty-millionth variable star observation was received into their database. The AAVSO International Database (AID) has stored over thirty-five million observations as of 2019. The organization receives nearly 1,000,000 observations annually from an estimated amount of 2,000 professional and amateur observers, and is quoted regularly in scientific journals. The International Variable Star Index (VSX) website, maintained by the AAVSO, is cataloging (as of November 2023)  2,277,999 variable stars.

The AAVSO is also very active in education and public outreach. They routinely hold training workshops for citizen science and publish papers with amateurs as co-authors. In the 1990s, the AAVSO developed the Hands-On Astrophysics curriculum, now known as Variable Star Astronomy (with support from the National Science Foundation [NSF]). In 2009, the AAVSO was awarded a three-year $800,000 grant from the NSF to run Citizen Sky, a pro-am collaboration project examining the 2009-2011 eclipse of the star epsilon Aurigae.

As of September 16, 2022, the Executive Director of the AAVSO is Brian Kloppenborg. Before he assumed this role,  Kathy Spirer worked in this capacity for nine months, following the resignation of Styliani ("Stella") Kafka -who was in charge from February 2015 till the ember months of 2021. She succeeded Arne Henden. The previous director of the AAVSO for many decades was Janet Mattei, who died in March 2004 of leukemia.

The AAVSO headquarters was originally located at the residence of its founder William T. Olcott in Norwich, Connecticut.

After AAVSO's incorporation in 1918, it unofficially moved to Harvard College Observatory, which later served as the official AAVSO headquarters (1931–1953). Thereafter, it moved around Cambridge before their first building was purchased in 1985 - The Clinton B. Ford Astronomical Data and Research Center. In 2007, the AAVSO purchased and moved into the recently vacated premises of Sky & Telescope magazine.

Minor Planet (8900) AAVSO is named after the organization.

Current and former members
Recorders and Directors

Presidents

Other members
The AAVSO currently has over 2,000 members and observers, with approximately half of them from outside the United States. This list only consists of those with Wikipedia pages.

Publications
 AAVSO Alert Notice.
 Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers (JAAVSO).
 AAVSO Circular was published from 1970 until 2000 and edited by John E. Bortle.

See also
 List of astronomical societies

References

External links
AAVSO website
The International Variable Star Index (VSX)
History of the AAVSO
Amateur Astronomy Reaches New Heights Space.com, June 28, 2000
A New Foundation for the AAVSO article in the January 2007 issue of Sky & Telescope magazine
Red Hot News… Possible Nova in Sagittarius! Universe Today, August 9, 2009
 100 Years of Citizen Science (1 December 2010)

Harvard University
Amateur astronomy organizations
Astronomy organizations
Variable stars
1911 establishments in the United States
Scientific organizations established in 1911


Webb Lake may refer to:

 Webb Lake (Maine), a lake
 Webb Lake, Wisconsin, a town
 Webb Lake (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community within the town

Webb Lake


Rickling er en by og kommune i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Boostedt-Rickling i den nordlige del af Kreis Segeberg. Kreis Segeberg ligger i den sydøstlige del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

Geografi
Rickling ligger omkring 12 km sydøst for Neumünster og 11 km nordvest for Bad Segeberg ved Bundesstraße B205. Vandløbet Rothenmühlenau løber gennem den sydlige del af kommunen. Landsbyen Fehrenbötel og den tidligere KZ-lejr Kuhlen ligger i kommunen.

Byen har station på jernbanen mellem Neumünster og Bad Oldesloe.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Kommunens websted
 Statistikamt Nord – Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2014 (XLSX-Data) (Fortschreibung auf Basis des Zensus 2011)

Byer i Slesvig-Holsten
Kommuner i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Kreis Segeberg

Rickling


İdil Biret, (d. 21 Kasım 1941, Ankara), Türk piyano sanatçısı.

Çocukluğu ve müzik eğitimi

Müziğe olan ilgisi iki yaşında başlayan İdil Biret, dört yaşında Bach'ın prelüdlerini çalmaya başladı. Dayısı müzikolog Mahmut Ragıp Gazimihal'di. İlk derslerini Mithat Fenmen'den aldı. 1948 yılında, henüz yedi yaşındayken, ikinci cumhurbaşkanı İsmet İnönü, Biret'in yurt dışında eğitiminin gereksinimlerinin karşılanması için TBMM'ye bir teklif sundu. Bu teklif sonucunda İdil Biret için özel olarak çıkartılan kanun, "Harika Çocuklar Yasası" olarak bilinir. Bu kanun çerçevesinde eğitimi için ailesiyle birlikte Paris Konservatuvarı'na gönderilen Biret, burada 20. yüzyılın önemli pedagoglarından Nadia Boulanger ile çalıştı. Sekiz yaşında Paris Radyosu'nda ilk konserini verdi. Fransız piyanist Alfred Cortot'dan dersler aldı. İdil Biret'ten ömrü boyunca "en değerli öğrencim" olarak söz eden hocası Alman piyanist Wilhelm Kempff, onunla müzikal ilişkisini hayat boyu sürdürdü. Biret, 11 yaşındayken Kempff ile Mozart'ın İki Piyano İçin Konçertosu 'nu Paris Champs-Elysees Tiyatrosu'nda çaldı. Zaman zaman Kempff'in Positano'da verdiği usta sınıflara katıldı. Kempff'in 90. yaşı için düzenlenen konserde çaldı.

Sanat yaşamı
Biret, Paris Ulusal Konservatuvarı'nı yüksek piyano, eşlikçilik ve oda müziği dallarında birinci olarak bitirdiğinde 15 yaşındaydı. 16 yaşından itibaren çeşitli Dünya sahnelerinde yer aldı. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki ilk konserini 21 yaşında, Rachmaninoff'un Üçüncü Piyano Konçertosu'nu çalarak Erich Leinsdorf yönetimindeki Boston Filharmoni Orkestrası ile gerçekleştirdi. İlk Rusya turnesini piyanist Emil Gilels'in çağrısı üzerine yaptı ve bu ülkede büyük başarı kazandı. Yıllar içinde bu ülkede yüze yakın konser verdi. Biret beş kıtayı kapsayan konserlerinde Atzmon, Copland, Kempe, Keilberth, Sargent, Monteux, Fournat, Leinsdorf, Pritchard, Scherchen, Rozhdestvensky, Mackerras gibi ünlü şeflerle çaldı; Montreal, Berlin, Montpellier, Nohant, Royan, Dubrovnik, Atina, Ankara ve İstanbul festivallerine katıldı. Boston Symphony, Orchestre National de France, Orchestre Suisse Romande, London Symphony, Leningrad Philarmonic, Leipzig Gewandhaus, Dresden Staatcapelle, Tokyo Philarmonic, Sydney Symphony ve Cumhurbaşkanlığı Senfoni Orkestrası eşliğinde Dünya'nın her yerinde konserler verdi.

Kraliçe Elisabeth (Belçika), Van Cliburn (ABD), Busoni (İtalya), Liszt (Almanya) gibi birçok uluslararası piyano yarışmasında jüri üyeliği yapan İdil Biret'in aldığı ödüller arasında "Lili-Boulanger" (Boston), "Harriet Cohen/Dinu Lipatti" (Londra), Polonya hükûmetinin "kültür liyâkat" ve Fransız hükûmetinin "Chevalier de I'Ordre National de Merite" nişanları da bulunmaktadır. İdil Biret, 1971 yılından beri devlet sanatçısıdır.

Stüdyo kayıtları

Bugüne kadar sanatını icra ettiği plak ve CD'lerin sayısı 80'i geçmektedir. Biret'in 60 ile 70'ler de Atlantik ve Finnadar için yaptığı kayıtlar romantik repertuvardan çağdaş bestecilere uzanan bir yelpazededir. Sanatçı 1980'lerde plak tarihinde ilk kez Beethoven senfonilerinin Liszt tarafından yapılan uyarlamalarının tamamını seslendirmiştir. Daha sonra Frederic Chopin'in bütün piyano eserleri, Johannes Brahms'ın bütün solo piyano eserleri ve konçertoları, Sergei Rachmaninoff'un bütün piyano eserleri Biret tarafından kayda alınmıştır. Bu icralar pek çok eleştirmenin hayranlığı ile karşılanmış ve sanatçının "çağımızın en önde gelen piyano ustalarından biri" olarak nitelenmesine yol açmıştır.

1995'te Chopin'in bütün eserleri dizisi Varşova'da yapılan "Chopin Plakları Büyük Ödülü" yarışmasında jüri özel ödülünü almıştır. Aynı yıl kaydettiği Fransız besteci Pierre Boulez'in üç sonatını içeren CD Paris'te yılın "Altın Diyapozon" ödülünü almış ve Le Monde gazetesi tarafından 95 yılının en iyi plakları arasına seçilmiştir. 1997 yılında 100. ölüm yıldönümü nedeniyle Brahms'ın tüm solo piyano eserlerini beş konserlik bir dizide seslendirmiştir. Biret, ayrıca 2002'de Ligeti'nin etüdlerini kayda almıştır. Biret, Dünya'nın en geniş repertuvarlı piyanisti unvanını taşımaktadır. Biret'in Stravinsky'nin "Ateş Kuşu" süiti uyarlaması, hocası Kempff'in uyarlamalarını çaldığı plaklar da önemli kayıtlardandır. Biret, 2007 yılında Chopin yorumları nedeniyle Polonya Cumhurbaşkanı tarafından "Üstün Hizmet Nişanı" ile onurlandırılmıştır.

İdil Biret, daha önce tamamını plak haline getirdiği ve konserlerde seslendirdiği Beethoven senfonilerinin Liszt uyarlamaları dizisine 2000'lerde bestecinin tüm konçerto ve sonatlarını kayda alarak devam etmiştir. 2008'in Aralık ayında beş kıtada piyasaya çıkan "Beethoven edisyonu", bestecinin konçerto, sonat ve senfonilerinin ilk toplu sunumu olmaktadır. Bu serinin tümü sanatçıya ait bir etiketle çıkmıştır.

Hakkında yapılanlar

Kitaplar

 Dominique Xardel, "İdil Biret-Une pianiste Turque en France" (Fransa'da bir Türk Piyanist İdil Biret): 2006 yılının Eylül ayında Fransa'da yayımlanmıştır. Biret'in hayatının ve görüşlerinin anlatııldığı bu kitap, 2007'de "Dünya Sahnelerinde Bir Türk Piyanisti: İdil Biret" adıyla Türkçeye çevrilmiştir. 2007'nin Ekim ayında Almanya'da Stacatto-Verlag yayınevince "Idil Biret: Eine Türkische Pianistin auf den Bühnen der Welt" basılmıştır.
 Üner Birkan, "Piyanodaki Harika". Yazar, kitapta Biret'le iki söyleşi, sanatçıyla ilgili yabancı basında çıkmış yazılarına yer verdi.
 Dans Eden Parmaklar(2018) İdil Biret'in piyno da çocukluğundan itibaren yaşadıkları tecrübeleri deneyimlerini anlattığı bir kitaptır.

Belgesel

 Müzik dünyasının en büyük piyano virtüözlerinden biri kabul edilen, Türkiye'nin "harika çocuğu" İdil Biret'in yaşamını anlatan ve ilk gösterimi Nisan 2015'te 34. İstanbul Film Festivali'nde gerçekleştirilen İdil Biret: Bir Harika Çocuğun Portresi belgeseli ilk kez dijital erişime açıldı.

Ödül ve nişanları
 1952 yılında Paris Konservatuvarı'ndaki yüksek solfej ve deşifraj bölümlerini Birincilik Ödülü ile bitiren Biret, 1957 Haziranı'nda konservatuvarda devam ettiği piyano, oda müziği ve eşlikçilik sınıflarının her birinden birincilik ödülü ile mezun oldu ve "Birincilerin Birincisi" unvanını aldı. Reine Laurent Ödülü ve Popelin mükâfatlarını kazandı.
 1954 - Lily Boulanger Memorial, Boston
 1957 - Paris Konservatuvarı, Konservatuvar Birinciliği
 1961 - Harriet Cohen - Dinu Lipatti Altın Madalyası, Londra
 Adelaide Ristori Nişanı, İtalyan Hükûmeti
 Chevalier de l'Ordre du Mérite, Fransa
 1971: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Sanatçısı unvanı
 1974 - Kültür/Liyâkat Nişanı, Polonya Hükûmeti
 1988 - Boğaziçi Üniversitesi, Onursal Doktora
 Eskişehir Anadolu Üniversitesi Onursal Doktora aldı
 1995 - Uludağ Üniversitesi, Onursal Doktora
 1995 - Grand Prix du Disque Chopin, Varşova
 1995 - Altın Diyapozon, Fransa
 1996 - Sevda Cenap And Müzik Vakfı Onur Ödülü Altın Madalyası
 2003 - Ortadoğu Teknik Üniversitesi Onursal Doktora
 2006 - Polonya Üstün Hizmet Madalyası (Chopin eserleri kayıt ve seslendirmeleri nedeniyle)
 2007 - 35. Uluslararası İstanbul Müzik Festivali, Onur Ödülü'nü kazandı
 2021: Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kültür ve Sanat Büyük Ödülü

Diskografi
 The Art of Idil Biret: Bach - Brahms - Chopin - Debussy - Kempff Liszt/Berlioz - Rachmaninov - Schumann - Tschaikowsky 1997
 Johannes Brahms, The Complete Works for Piano Solo and both Piano Concertos 2001
 Brahms, Variations on a theme by Schumann op. 9 / Handel op. 24 / Paganini op. 3
 Brahms, Piano Sonata No. 1 in C op. 1, Piano Sonata No. 2 in F Sharp Minor op. 2
 Brahms, Piano Sonata No. 3 in F Minor op. 5 / Four Ballades op. 10
 Brahms, Piano Pieces op. 76 / Two Rhapsodies op. 79, Fantasies op. 116
 Brahms, Three Intermezzi op. 117 / Piano Pieces op. 118 & 119 Scherzo op. 4
 Brahms, Waltzes op. 39 / Hungarian Dances Nos. 1 - 10, Naxos,
 Brahms, Variations op. 21
 Brahms, Theme and Variations / Sarabandes / Gavottes, Gigues / Canons / Rakoczy March
 Brahms, 51 Exercises WoO 6
 Brahms, Waltzes op. 39 (2. versiyon)
 Brahms, Piano Concerto No. 1 op. 15; Schumann, Introduction and Allegro op. 134
 Piano Concerto No. 2 op. 83, R. Schumann: Introduction & Allegro appassionato op. 92
 Brahms, Piano Concerto No. 1 op. 15; Schumann, Introduction and Allegro op. 134
 Piano Concerto No. 2 op. 83, Schumann: Introduction & Allegro appassionato op. 92
 Boulez, Piano Sonatas Nos. 1 - 3
 Fryderyk Chopin, Complete Piano Music
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 1
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 2
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 3
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 4
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 5
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 6
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 7
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 8
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 9
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 10
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 11
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 12
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 13
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 14
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Vol. 15
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music, Piyano Konçerto No. 1 op. 11
 Chopin, Complete Piano Music  Piyano Konçerto No. 2 op. 21
 Piano Music for Children: Debussy, Tschaikovsky, Schumann
 Faure, Nocturne No. 13 B-Flat op. 119 from "Rarities of Piano Music at «Schloß vor Husum»" 1989
 Kempff, Italian Suite op. 68 - Piano Sonata op. 47, Transcriptions of Bach - Gluck - Händel - Mozart
 Berlioz/Liszt: Symphonie Fantastique
 Rachmaninov, Complete Works for Piano Solo, the four Piano Concertos, Paganini-Rhapsody
 Rachmaninov, Etudes Tableaux op. 33 & op. 39
 Rachmaninov, Préludes op. 23 / Cinq morceaux de fantaisie op. 3
 Rachmaninov, Transcriptions and Arrangements (Bach, Behr, Bizet, Kreisler, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakoff, Schubert)
 Rachmaninov, Piano Sonata No. 1 in D Minor op. 28 / No. 2 op. 36
 Rachmaninov, Morceaux de Salon op. 10 / Three Nocturnes, Four Pieces
 Rachmaninov, Piano Concertos Nos. 2 & 3
 Rachmaninov, Variations on a Theme of Chopin op. 22 and other Piano Works
 Rachmaninov, Piano Concertos Nos. 1 & 4, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini
 Rachmaninov, Piano Concertos Nos. 2 & 3
 Rachmaninov, Piano Concertos Nos. 1 & 4, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini
 Saint-Saens, Piano Concerto No. 2 in G Minor op. 22 & No. 4 in C Minor op. 44
 Bach, Piano Concerto No. 1 D minor BWV 1052 & W. A. Mozart - Violin Concerto No. 5 KV 219
 Beethoven, Piano Concertos No. 1 op. 15 & No. 4 op. 56
 Beethoven, Piano Concertos No. 2 op. 19 & No. 3 op. 37
 Piano Concerto No. 5 op. 73 "Emperor"
 Liszt, Six Transcendental Studies after Paganini, Sonata in B Minor
 Saint-Saens, Piano Concerto No. 5 in F op. 103 & Ravel, Piano Concertos in G Major & D Major for Left Hand
 Ludwig Van Beethoven, The Complete Piano Sonatas, Volume 1, No. 7 op. 10/3, No. 21 op. 53 «Waldstein», No. 25 op. 79
 Ludwig Van Beethoven, The Complete Piano Sonatas, Volume 2, No. 23 op. 57 «Appassionata», No. 28 op. 101, No. 31 op. 110
 Robert Schumann, Fantasiestücke (Fantasy pieces) op. 12 & Johannes Brahms, Three Intermezzi op. 117
 Johannes Brahms, Variations on a Theme of Haendel op. 24, Variations on a Theme of Paganini op. 35
 Sergei Prokofiev, Piano Sonate No. 7 & Bela Bartok, Six Roumanien Dances - Suite op. 14 - Six Bulgarian Dances - Allegro Barbaro
 Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata No. 15 "Pastoral" & Johannes Brahms, Eight Capricci and Intermezzi op. 76
 Sergei Rachmaninov, Variations on a Theme of Corelli op. 42, Moments musicaux op. 16
 Sergei Rachmaninov, Variations on a Theme of Corelli op. 42, Moments musicaux op. 16
 Pierre Boulez, Piano Sonata No. 2 & Anton Webern, Variations op. 27
 Alban Berg Piano Sonata op. 1 with chamber music of Schoenberg and Webern 1975
 Maurice Ravel: Serenade grotesque, Gaspard de la Nuit & Igor Strawinsky: The Five Fingers, A Waltz for Children, Three Scenes of Petrouchka, 1976
 Sergei Prokofiev, Piano Sonata No. 2 - Frédéric Chopin, Two Mazurkas - Alexander Scriabi, Piano Sonata No. 10,  1977
 İlhan Mimaroğlu (* 1926), Sessions, Castiglioni - Cangianti, Bouccourechliev - Archipel IV, Brouwer - Sonata «Pian e Forte», 1978
 Hector Berlioz, Symphony Fantastique op. 114, Piano version by Franz Liszt, 1979
 Sergei Rachmaninov, Prelude in C sharp minor - Nikolai Miaskovsky, Piano Sonatas No. 2 and No. 3 - Alexander Scriabin, Five Preludes op. 74, 1980
 Gustav Mahler, Piano Quartet - César Franck, Piano Quintet, 1982
 Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata No. 8 "Pathétique", Piano Sonata No. 29 "Hammerklavier", 1986
 Ludwig van Beethoven / Franz Liszt, Complete Symphonies, piano version by Liszt, 1986
 Beethoven / Liszt, Symphonies No. 6 and No. 9, piano transcriptions by Lizst, 1990
 Beethoven / Liszt, Symphonies No. 4 and No. 5, piano transcriptions by Lizst, 1990
 Beethoven / Liszt, Symphonies No. 3, piano transcription by Lizst, 1990
 Beethoven / Liszt, Symphony No. 9, 4th Movement with complete symphony in original version,
 Beethoven / Liszt, Symphony No. 6, 1st Movement with some other works for orchestra
 Franz Schubert, 13 Songs, piano version by Franz Liszt
 Richard Wagner, 7 Opera pieces, piano version by Franz Liszt
 Maurice Ravel, Gaspard de la Nuit - Miroirs - La Valse
 Frydyric Chopin, Selected Piano Works, Etudes op. 10 Nos. 3-6, 8, 12; Etudes op. 25 Nos. 1, 5, 7; Waltzes op. 18, op. 34/1-3, op. 42, op. 64/1-3, op. 69/1-2

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

1941 doğumlular
Ankara doğumlu müzisyenler
Türk piyanistler
Mutlak kulaklılar
Devlet Senfoni Orkestrası sanatçıları
Yaşayan insanlar
Türk klasik piyanistler

İdil Biret


Bend ili izvorno band označava glazbeni sastav koji izvodi neke od žanrova zabavne glazbe, pod kojima se najčešće podrazumijevaju pop, rock ili heavy metal. Izraz se često koristi kako bi opisao oblik glazbene skupine svojevrsne pretežito pop rock glazbi i njezinim inačicama.

Najčešći oblik benda je četveročlani bend, koji je bio popularan prije razvoja elektroničkih klavijatura i sintisajzera. Među njima su se isticali The Beatles, KISS i Franz Ferdinand i uglavnom su se sastojali od dva gitarista, bubnjara i pjevača (vokala). Uz razvoj klavijatura i različitih vrsta električnih gitara, nastaju i petero- i šesteročlani sastavi sa žanrovski, tematski i zvukovno raznovrsnijom glazbom. Među njima se najpoznatiji predstavnici "ranog rocka" The Who, The Monkees, Led Zeppelin, Queen i U2.

Povezani članci
 Big band
 Band glazba (band-music)
 Ritam sekcija

Izvori

Glazba

Bend


Balanophoraceae,  biljna porodica u redu santalolike iz tropskih područja Afrike, Azije i Pacifika. Neke vrste ovih biljaka žive kao holoparaziti na drugim biljkama, kao Dactylanthus taylorii i  Balanophora elongata. Postoji desetak rodova.

Opis
Balanophoraceae uključuje oko 14 rodova i oko 40 vrsta korijenskih parazita koji su rasprostranjeni prvenstveno u tropima. Biljke iz rodova Balanophora i Langsdorffia sadrže zapaljivi voštani materijal, a stabljike su se koristile kao svijeće u Južnoj Americi.

Rodovi

 Genus Balanophora
 Genus Chlamydophytum
 Genus Corynaea
 Genus Dactylanthus
 Genus Ditepalanthus
 Genus Hachettea
 Genus Helosis
 Genus Langsdorffia
 Genus Lathrophytum
 Genus Lophophytum
 Genus Mystropetalon
 Genus Ombrophytum
 Genus Rhopalocnemis
 Genus Sarcophyte
 Genus Scybalium
 Genus Thonningia

Izvori

Porodice santalolikih
Biljne porodice
Porodice dvosupnica

Balanophoraceae


'Paul Transon' est un cultivar de rosier grimpant obtenu en 1900 par le rosiériste français Albert Barbier. Il rend hommage à l'associé de Barbier, fondateur de la pépinière avant qu'elle ne soit complètement reprise par Barbier. Paul Transon (1837-1909) fut également maire d'Orléans de 1896 à 1898, et président de la Société horticole du Loiret.

Description

Il s'agit d'un grand rosier grimpant pouvant atteindre 5 mètres de hauteur et 2,45 cm de largeur aux rameaux souples, rougeâtres lorsqu'ils sont jeunes, et au feuillage vert sombre et brillant. Ses fleurs sont moyennes, très doubles (17-25 pétales) en coupe plate, ressemblant à de gros dahlias et fleurissant en bouquets. Leur coloris est d'un délicat rose carné vif devenant rose abricoté aux nuances cuivrées. Elles sont moyennement parfumées, rappelant la pomme. La première floraison est fort généreuse, suivie quelquefois de remontées légères. On peut le tailler après la floraison. Il tolère l'ombre, mais fleurit beaucoup mieux au soleil. Il résiste à des périodes de sécheresse si elles sont courtes et supporte des températures hivernales de l'ordre de -15° C.

'Paul Transon' est issu d'un croisement Rosa wichuraiana Crépin × 'L'Idéal' (rosier Noisette, Nabonnand, 1887). Il est parfois confondu avec 'Paul Noël' (Tanne, 1913), mais les roses de 'Paul Transon' montrent un cœur plus foncé et des pétales moins froissés.

La maison Barbier, à la pointe de l'obtention de grimpants hybrides de Rosa wichuraiana, lance à la même époque cinq cultivars marquants, 'Albéric Barbier', 'François Foucard', 'Auguste Barbier', 'Paul Transon' et 'René André'. Puis cinq autres en 1901, 'Adélaïde Moullé', 'Cramoisi Simple', 'Edmond Proust', 'Elisa Robichon' et 'Rubra'. D'autres suivent dans ses catalogues au fil des années.

Distinctions
Award of Garden Merit de la Royal National Rose Society (1993)

Notes et références

Bibliographie
François Joyaux, Nouvelle Encyclopédie des roses anciennes, éd. Ulmer, 2015, pp. 285-286
 Brigid & Charles Quest-Ritson, Encyclopedia of Roses, 2011, DK Publishing. p. 299.

Cultivar de rosier
Hybride de Rosa wichuraiana

Paul Transon


Forles Portekiz'de Sátão belediyesine bağlı olan, 6,67 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 93 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Portekiz'in freguesiaları
Sátão

Forles


An Ascolepis densa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Paul Goetghebeur. An Ascolepis densa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Ascolepis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Ascolepis

Ascolepis densa


بهرام جور أو بهرام كور أو بهرام غور (باللغة الفارسية: بهرام گور) بهرام الخامس (420- 438 م) كان ملكاً ساسانياً وذلك يوافق رواية الطبرى والبيروني أنه حكم ثمانى عشرة سنة وعشرة أشهر وعشرين يوما ويخالف رواية أخرى في الطبري ومروج الذهب أنه حكم ثلاثا وعشرين سنة.

و قد أطالت الأساطير حكمه وسيرته، كما في الشاهنامه وفي بهرام‌نامه وفي هفت بيكر، إذا كان ملكا شجاعا محببا إلى رعيته فاخترعوا له قصصا تبين عن مكانته في نفوسهم، كدأب العامة مع كل ملك عظيم أو بطل كبير.

وكان بهرام موفقا في سياسته فقد صالح الروم على شروط عادلة بعد أن هزموا جيشه، وهزم الهياطلة. وساس رعيته عادلا لا يحابى، وحث الناس على الزراعة وأعانهم عليها، ونفّق العلوم والآداب. ولم يمنعه حب اللهو والصيد أن يؤدى ما يجب عليه. ولما مات كانت فارس في أوج عظمتها.

و قد ذكرت سيرة بهرام في صباه وتربيته بين العرب في يمن، وقد بقيت ذكرى هذا في الأدب الفارسي والعربي. فالفرس يقولون أنه أوّل من قال الشعر ويروون له أبياتا فارسية. والعرب يروون من شعره العربي والفارسي.

انظر أيضا
 قائمة شاهنشاهات الإمبراطورية الساسانية
 شجرة عائلة الساسانيين

المصادر
 تاريخ الأمم والملوك للطبري، تهران، اساطير، 1370
 مروج الذهب للمسعودي، تهران، 1370
 http://www.hukam.net/family.php?fam=738

مراجع

أشخاص في الحروب الرومانية الساسانية
شخصيات من الشاهنامة
ملكيون ساسانيون في القرن 5
ملوك ساسانيون
مواليد 400
وفيات 438
وفيات عرضية في إيران

بهرام جور


The  () or  () was a primarily francophone political party in what is now Quebec founded by members of the liberal elite of Lower Canada at the beginning of the 19th century. Its members were made up of liberal professionals and small-scale merchants, including François Blanchet, Pierre-Stanislas Bédard, John Neilson, Jean-Thomas Taschereau, James Stuart, Louis Bourdages, Denis-Benjamin Viger, Daniel Tracey, Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, Andrew Stuart and Louis-Joseph Papineau.

Creation
The British Government established two oligarchic governments, or councils, to rule what is today Quebec and Ontario, then called Lower and Upper Canada. Upper Canada ruled by the Family Compact and Lower Canada ruled by the Chateau Clique. Both groups exerted monopolistic, uncontested rule over economic and political life. The councils were corrupt in their nature by strengthening their dominance by personal use of funds which eventually led to infrastructural problems around Upper and Lower Canada, including land distribution, poor road conditions, and lack of education funding.

Continuous frustration between the councils and the legislative assemblies over language differences and Lower Canada's discontent for treatment of French problems led to the beginning of the Parti Canadien.
English merchants and politicians in Canada pushed for an assemblage of the Canada's, which would lead to the assimilation of the French. Louis-Joseph Papineau rallied the people of Lower Canada to sign a petition against the proposition. Papineau later sailed to Britain to present the petition to the British Government and to rally for the rights of the people of Lower Canada, only to have the issue heard with little action to follow. Later, the British Parliament passed the Canada Land and Tenures Act which abolished the feudal and seigneurial systems in British North America. The act left property rights of many land owners in limbo and created much confusion and conflict in Lower Canada where the French Civil Code was in action, and thus infuriating the French people of Lower Canada even more. In July 1830, word of a liberal revolution in France sparked the youth of Lower Canada as liberalism was non-existent in Canada at the time. Upper and Lower Canada governments tried and failed to resolve the recent uprising and tension, even further-distancing the French people of Lower Canada from the English of Upper Canada.

History
Under the leadership of Pierre-Stanislas Bédard, the party campaigned for ministerial responsibility and a responsible government in which the members of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada would be appointed by the Legislative Assembly's majority party. Although the party controlled the assembly in Lower Canada, at that time the council, which held most of the power, was chosen by an appointed British governor, whom the  considered to be seriously corrupt and hostile to the interests of the majority of the population.

In 1806 the  imitated its political adversaries, the Tory Château Clique, in founding a newspaper named Le Canadien. In 1810 Governor Craig had Bédard and some of his colleagues at the newspaper arrested and imprisoned without trial for a comment published in Le Canadien.

In 1811 James Stuart became leader of the  in the assembly and, in 1815, reformer Louis-Joseph Papineau was elected Assembly Speaker. Papineau's reformist ideas gained in authority and popularity as he led the party in its fight against the union of the Canada's proposal in 1822, until the suspension of the Constitutional Act in 1837.

Parti Patriote
In 1826 the party took the name of Parti Patriote, reflecting a much stronger sense of French-Canadian nationalism and a change of strategy. The Patriotes largely favoured agriculture over commercialism and blocked many economic projects led by their adversaries. The party succeeded in delaying development of British capitalism within the colony, however their positions were often seen as unclear, and the new strategy was considered too radical even by some of its members, most notably John Neilson, who eventually left the party in 1830.

In 1834 Papineau and the Parti Patriote created the Ninety-Two Resolutions; an extensive list of demands for political reform which was sent to the British government. The British government ignored the resolutions for over three years until in 1837 it countered the Parti Patriote's requests with ten resolutions of its own, called the Russel Resolutions, while rejecting all proposed ninety-two resolutions made by Papineau and his party. These resolutions allowed the colony governor to obtain budgetary estimates without vote of the assembly, which brought about verbal and physical violence, and eventually led to the Rebellions of 1837. After the rebellions, many patriotes were exiled, hanged, or had their houses set ablaze, which marked the end of the party. However many party members became active members in politics of the new Province of Canada.

Newspapers
 Le Canadien (1806-1837)
 La Minerve (1826-1837)
 The Canadian Vindicator (1828-1837)
 Le Libéral  (1837)
 L'Écho du Pays (1834)

References

The History of Canada OnLine. " Background of Discontent", in "History of Canada OnLine", 2012
Canadian Politics OnLine. " Quebec", in "Canadian Politics OnLine", 2012

See also

Liberalism
Contributions to liberal theory
Liberalism worldwide
List of liberal parties
Liberal democracy
 Timeline of Quebec history
 Liberalism in Canada
 Lower Canada Rebellion
 List of Canadian political parties
 Parti rouge
 Bloc Québécois

Patriote movement
Political parties in Lower Canada
Canada 1800s

Parti canadien


Vrhovni orden Krista (Vrhovni orden križa). Jedan od petorih papinskih ordena.
 Hijerarhijski je najviši, ispred Ordena zlatne ostruge, Ordena bl. Pija IX., Ordena sv. Grgura Velikog i Ordena sv. Silvestra. Ustanovljen je 1319. godine. Danas ga Vatikan vrlo rijetko dodjeljuje a nakon odredabâ iz 1966. godine, smije se njime odlikovati samo katoličke šefove državâ.

Izvori

Odlikovanja
Vatikan

Vrhovni orden Krista


Die Monte Sarmiento (I) war ein 1924 in Dienst gestelltes Passagierschiff der deutschen Reederei Hamburg Südamerikanische Dampfschifffahrts-Gesellschaft (Hamburg Süd). Sie war das erste Schiff der Monte-Klasse und bei Indienststellung das größte Motorschiff der Welt.

Das Schiff
Das 16.625 BRT große Motorschiff Monte Sarmiento war das erste der fünf Schwesterschiffe der Monte-Klasse, die Hamburg Süd in der zweiten Hälfte der 1920er Jahre in Dienst stellte und die den Passagier- und Frachtverkehr nach Südamerika und Fernost abdecken sollten.

Das 159,7 Meter lange und 20,1 Meter breite Schiff wurde nach dem gleichnamigen Berg auf Feuerland benannt und lief am 31. Juli 1924 vom Stapel. Das Passagierschiff hatte zwei Masten, zwei Schornsteine und wurde von vier Dieselmotoren angetrieben, die auf zwei Propellern liefen und eine Höchstgeschwindigkeit von 14 Knoten ermöglichten. Das Schiff hatte eine Passagierkapazität von 1.328 in der zweiten und 1.142 in der dritten Klasse. Die Besatzung bestand aus insgesamt 280 Personen. Zur Ausstattung gehörten zwei Speisesäle, eine große Halle, ausgedehnte Promenadendecks, ein Rauchsalon sowie ein Lese- und Schreibsalon.

Die Monte Sarmiento war das erste deutsche Motorschiff mit einer Vermessung von über 10.000 BRT und zum Zeitpunkt der Indienststellung das größte Motorschiff der Welt. Am 12. November 1924 wurde sie fertiggestellt und drei Tage später lief sie in Hamburg zu ihrer Jungfernfahrt zum Río de la Plata aus. Zahlreiche Reisen zur südamerikanischen Ostküste folgten. Daneben war sie mit dem Schwesterschiff Monte Olivia vom Sommer bis zum Herbst 1936 für die KdF-Organisation in den Fjorden von Norwegen unterwegs.

Am 23. Januar 1930 ging das Schwesterschiff Monte Cervantes an der Südspitze Argentiniens unter, nachdem es am Vortag auf einen Felsen gelaufen war. Der Kapitän des Schiffs, Theodor Dreyer, kam dabei ums Leben. Die Trauerfeier für Kapitän Dreyer fand in Anwesenheit überlebender Passagiere und Besatzungsmitglieder an Bord der Monte Sarmiento statt.

Ab dem 21. Dezember 1939 diente das Schiff der deutschen Kriegsmarine als Wohnschiff in Kiel. Während eines alliierten Bombenangriffs am 26. Februar 1942 wurde die Monte Sarmiento getroffen, stark beschädigt und sank. 38 Besatzungsmitglieder kamen dabei ums Leben. 1943 wurde das Wrack gehoben, nach Hamburg geschleppt und verschrottet.

Weblinks
 Kurze Zusammenfassung der Schiffsgeschichte sowie einige Bilder (englisch)
 Technische Daten in der Wrackdatenbank
 Ein Foto der Monte Sarmiento aus dem Hamburger Fotoarchiv
 Ausführliche Geschichte mit Bildern der Monte Sarmiento

Monte-Klasse (1924)
Schiffsverlust 1942
Schiffsverlust im Zweiten Weltkrieg
Kreuzfahrtschiff

Monte Sarmiento (Schiff, 1924)


Baudenkmäler nach Ortsteilen

Wald

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Bergers

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Hofen

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Kippach

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Klosterhof

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Wetzlers

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Siehe auch
 Liste der Bodendenkmäler in Wald (Schwaben)

Anmerkungen

Literatur

Weblinks

 In dieser [ Kartenansicht] sind Baudenkmäler ohne Koordinaten mit einem roten bzw. orangen Marker dargestellt und können in der Karte gesetzt werden. Baudenkmäler ohne Bild sind mit einem blauen bzw. roten Marker gekennzeichnet, Baudenkmäler mit Bild mit einem grünen bzw. orangen Marker.

Wald #Schwaben
!

Liste der Baudenkmäler in Wald (Schwaben)


Erin Jackson (Ocala, 19 de setembro de 1992) é uma patinadora de velocidade, engenheira e roller derby estadunidense. Jackson classificou-se para os Jogos Mundiais de 2017 em Breslávia, na Polônia, onde competiu na patinação de velocidade em linha em várias distâncias na estrada e na pista.

Também classificou-se para competir no evento de patinação de velocidade em pista de 500 metros nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2018 em Pyeongchang, na Coreia do Sul.

Em novembro de 2021, ela venceu suas primeiras corridas da Copa do Mundo de Patinação de Velocidade de 500 metros na Polônia com dois recordes, tornando-se a primeira mulher negra americana a vencer nos jogos.

Em 13 de fevereiro de 2022, Jackson ganhou a medalha de ouro nos 500m femininos de patinação de velocidade nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de  2022, de Pequim. Ela é a primeira mulher negra americana a vencer a medalha na patinação de velocidade.

Biografia

Primeiros anos e educação
Erin Jackson nasceu na cidade de Ocala, no interior do estado da Flórida, no ano de 1992. Jackson patinou pela primeira vez aos oito anos de idade, quando ela tentou ingressa na patinação artística. Jackso iniciou seus estudos na Shores Christian Academy, posteriormente frequentou a Howard Middle School e a Forest High School. Após terminar os estudos básicos, ingressou na Universidade da Flórida, onde formou-se em 2015 com honras no programa de Ciência e Engenharia de Materiais.

Carreira
Jackson teve um início vencedor no esporte, ganhando o ouro na corrida de patinação em linha de 500 m no Campeonato Mundial Júnior de 2008-09, ouro no mesmo evento no Campeonato Pan-Americano de 2014 e foi nomeada Atleta Feminina do Ano do Comitê Olímpico dos Estados Unidos para Roller Sports em 2012 e 2013. Também competiu no roller derby com o Jacksonville RollerGirls da Women's Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA), ganhando o prêmio de MVP no WFTDA Division 1 Playoff de 2014 em Evansville, Indiana, e avançando para o WFTDA Championships em 2015. e 2016.

Em 2015, participou dos Jogos Pan-Americanos, realizados em Toronto no Canadá, na categoria de Patinação de velocidade de 500 m, onde garantiu a medalha de prata aos Estados Unidos, sendo superada apenas pela colombiana Hellen Montoya.

No ano de 2016, Erin Jackson iniciou sua transição para a patinação de velocidade no gelo. Classificou-se para os Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2018, realizados em Pyeongchang na Coreia do Sul, com apenas quatro meses de experiência em patinação de velocidade no gelo. Treinada por Renee Hildebrand, Jackson se classificou na distância de 500 metros e terminou a competição na vigésima quarta de 31 competidores na edição sul-coreana.

Na seguinte competição olímpica, em 2022, Jackson ganhou a medalha de ouro nos 500 metros femininos de patinação de velocidade nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2022, em Pequim, capital da China, correndo na 14ª dupla (de 15), e superando a adversária japonesa Miho Takagi por 0,08 segundos com um tempo de 37,04 segundos. Jackson quase perdeu a qualificação para as Olimpíadas depois de escorregar durante os testes dos EUA num evento classificatório. Sua companheira de equipe e amiga de longa data, Brittany Bowe, venceu o evento, mas cedeu sua vaga para Jackson se classificar. Jackson também é a primeira mulher americana a ganhar um ouro olímpico na patinação de velocidade desde Chris Witty nos 1000m em 2002, realizados em Salt Lake City nos Estados Unidos e a primeira mulher americana a ganhar os 500m feminino desde Bonnie Blair em 1994, realizado em Lillehammer na Noruega. Além disso, tornou-se primeira mulher negra americana a vencer uma medalha nessa categoria.

Ligações externas

 Erin Jackson no Twitter
 Erin Jackson no Instagram

Nascidos em 1992
Naturais de Ocala
Alunos da Universidade da Flórida
Engenheiros dos Estados Unidos
Patinadores de velocidade dos Estados Unidos
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2022
Campeões olímpicos dos Estados Unidos
Desportistas dos Estados Unidos nos Jogos Pan-Americanos de 2015
Patinadores de velocidade nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2018
Patinadores de velocidade nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2022
Desportistas afro-americanos

Erin Jackson