الحافظون العهد  وهي منظمة مسيحية دولية عضويتها مفتوحة للرجال فقط. يقع مقرها في دنفر كولورادو بالولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، تعرف نفسها بأنها (منظمة متمحورة حول المسيح لتأهيل وتقديم الرجال لمخلصهم وربهم يسوع المسيح، ومساعدتهم على أن ينشؤوا كمسيحين). الحافظون العهد ترفع وجهة النظر القائلة بأن الأزواج يجب أن يتحملوا المسئولية كأرباب لمنازلهم بطريقة محبة ولطيفة. وتكريس حياتهم لزوجاتهم اقتداءً بالمسيح. حتى تستطيع بدورها وعن طيب خاطر أن تنصاع لقيادة الزوج. كما أن حافظ العهد يشارك في تعليم المراهقين العفة.

الحافظون العهد منظمة غير ربحية. كما أنها لا تخضع لأي طائفة أو كنيسة مسيحية. تقوم هذه المنظمة بتنظيم فعاليتها الجماهيرية من خلال الحضور المكثف في المباريات الرياضية والتجمعات المشابهة. كما أنها تبيع مجموعة متنوعة من المنتجات الترويجية لأفكارها تحت شعار (لمساعدة الرجال على حفظ وعدهم) كالملابس والكتب والموسيقى. ومن ضمن هذه المنتجات حلقات فيديو للدكتور بروس ويلكنسون تسمى التطهر الشخصي (أو القداسة الشخصية) في زمن الإغراء كجزء من الإنجيل الإنساني لسلسة الحافظون العهد.

المعتقدات الأساسية لحفظة الوعد مبنية على سبعة وعود وهي كالآتي.

1- حافظ العهد ملتزم بتكريم السيد المسيح من خلال العبادة والصلاة والطاعة لكلمة الرب في قوة الروح القدس.

2- حافظ العهد ملتزم بالتواصل الحيوي في العلاقات مع بضع رجال آخرين لأنهم بحاجة لأخوة آخرين في مساعدتهم لحفظ وعودهم.

3- حافظ العهد ملتزم بالنقاء الروحي والمعنوي والأخلاقي والجنسي.

4- حافظ العهد ملتزم بحماية قيم المحبة الإنجيلية لبناء زواج وأسرة قوية.

5- حافظ العهد ملتزم بدعم الرسالة الكنيسة بالصلاة والاحترام لراعيه (قسه) وبتنشيط عطائه من وقته وطاقاته.

6- حافظ العهد ملتزم بعبور أي حاجز عرقي أو مذهبي لإظهار قوة الوحدة التوراتية.

التاريخ

أسسها في عام 1990 بيل مكارتني وهو مدرب كرة القدم الأمريكية لفريق جامعة كولورادو ببولدر، ووفقا لموقع المنظمة قد أتى بيل مكارتني الإلهام الإلهي لإنشاء المنظمة أثناء حضوره لوليمة أعدت لها الزمالة المسيحية الرياضية في 20 مارس 1990، في بويبلو كولورادو أثناء محادثة مع ديف وارديل والذي كان بدوره مدعو أيضا.

فقد ترآى له ان ملعب فريقه من شأنه أن يكون مكان للاجتماع للتدريب والتعليم بشكل يعني أن يكون الرجال ربانيين.

في يوليو من عام 1990 أجتمع 72 رجل في كنيسة وادي بولدر لتنظيم أول نشاط لهم في جامعة كولورادو. ومنذ ذلك الحدث التبشيري بدأت المنظمة بالنمو بشكل تدريجي. في ديسمبر 1990 تم إشهار المنظمة في ولاية كولورادو على أنها منظمة غير ربحية. وفي المؤتمر الأول للمنظمة في يوليو عام 1991 كان مجموع الحضور هو 4200 رجل.

ما يَصنع رجلا كان الكتاب الأول الذي نشرته المنظمة وقد تم نشره عن طريق دار النشر التابعة لمنظمة الملاحون وذلك في عام 1992. وتم توزيعة في يونيو من نفس العام خلال أول تجمع مفتوح للمنظمة. وفي نفس الشهر استضاف الدكتور جيمس دوبسون بيل مكارتني في برنامجة على إذاعة منظمة التركيز على العائلة. استقال مكارتني من مهنة التدريب في عام 1994 لتركيز أكثر على مهمته في المنظمة.

أحداث وفعاليات

يعتبر أضخم حدث لهذه المنظمة كان الوقوف على الفجوة في 4 أكتوبر 1997 وهو اللقاء المقدس للرجال بالوقوف في الهواء الطلق بالناشونال مول في العاصمة واشنطن وقد شارك في هذا الحدث أكثر من مليون رجل وقد غطت هذا الحدث بأسره محطة سي - سبان التلفزيونية. وأفيد في وقتها أنها أكبر تجمع للرجال في التاريخ الأمريكي وبهذا تفوقت على مسيرة المليون رجل التي نظمتها في وقت سابق أمة الإسلام، في عام 1998 بدأت منظمة الحافظون العهد تعاني أزمة مالية وهناك تكنهات ان سبب هذه الأزمة هي مسيرة واشنطن. لأن الحضور في التجمعات الإقليمية يستوجب دفع رسم مشاركة قدرها 60 دولار تم خفضها في مسيرة واشنطن إلى 50% بسبب رغبة كثير من الرجال في حضور تلك المسيرة، أصبح الحضور في فاعلياتها اقل نسبيا منذ العام 1998 بسبب خفض التكاليف. تم ألغاء فاعلية كان مخطط لها بمناسبة الألفية وهو التجمع في عاصمة كل ولاية بالتزامن مع التجمعات الأخرى، أعلن عن تسريح العمالين فيها عام 2000 وأصبح العمل التطوعي هو الخيار الوحيد.

استقال بيل مكارتني من منصبه كرئيس للمنظمة في 1 أكتوبر 2003 وذلك بهدف رعاية زوحتة التي تدهورت صحتها بشكل متزايد. تولى رئاسة المنظمة توماس س. فورتسون وقد كان نائب الرئيس التنفيذي لإدارة العمليات منذ عام 1996 وقد أصبح المسؤول التنفيذي ورئيس المنظمة في نفس اليوم الذي استقال فيه مكارتني.

الحافظون العهد منظمة غير طائفية وعضويتها متاحة للرجال فقط وتقول انها تركز على مسئوليات الزوج متعدية في ذلك العرق أو الثروة أو الوطن وبهذا الصدد تصرح المنظمة (نؤمن أن لدينا رسالة موكلة من الرب لتوحيد الرجال الذين فصلت بينهم العرقيات والجغرافيا والثقافة والطائفية والاقتصاد). 40 % من العاملين في المنظمة هم من الأقليات.

الانتقادات

المنظمة الوطنية للنساء وهي منظمة نسائية أمريكية أعربت عن رأي مفادة أن الحافظون العهد تشكل تهديدا لحقوق المرأة، وتدعي أن منظمة الحافظون العهد تشجع عدم المساواة بين الجنسين واستخدام إسلوب ديكتاتوري في الإسرة وتنمي عقيدة التفوق الذكوري.

تقول آمي شيندلر أن الخطاب الذكوري يتولد في داخل الحركات الدينية المحافظة كالحافظون الوعد وحركة المسيحية المفتولة التي وجدت في العصر الفيكتوري وهي بطبيعتها سياسية. وأي مشروع ذكوري يهدف في نهاية الامر إلى إعادة السيطرة للدور الذكوري التقليدي للرجل الأبيض.

أيضا تتعرض المنظمة للنقد بسبب بعض التنازلات والتفسيرات الفقهية غير الملائمة.

وجهة نظر أخرى

قامت الصحفية دونا مينكوويتز من مجلة ميس عام 1995 بالتنكر في زي فتى والدخول في تجمع المنظمة في بيترسبورج بولاية فلوريداوقد وجدت ان الجماعة مناهضة للمثليين والإجهاض وقد صرحت أن المنظمة تحاول تغيير الرجال بشكل يرضي الإناث ولكنها في نفس الوقت ضد الإنوثة والتوجه اليميني هو الغالب داخل المنظمة ولكن تجاهل الجانب الجيد لديهم لا يخدم أحد.

مصادر

مزيد من القراءة
 أصول التطرف، اليمين المسيحي في أمريكا-كيمبرلي بلاكر ترجمة (هبة رءوف وتامر عبد الوهاب)-سلسلة الفكر-مكتبة الأسرة-المشروع القومي للترجمة-الهيئة المصرية العامة للكتاب.

وصلات خارجية
 موقع الحافظون العهد
 العهود السبعة (من موقع الحافظون العهد)
 موقع الحافظون العهد بنيوزيلندة

المسيحية في دنفر (كولورادو)
المسيحية في كولورادو
تأسيسات سنة 1990 في كولورادو
ثقافة بولدر (كولورادو)
منظمات مسيحية أسست في 1990
منظمات مسيحية
منظمات مقرها في دنفر (كولورادو)
منظمات مقرها في كولورادو سبرينغس (كولورادو)
منظمات غير ربحية مقرها في كولورادو
منظمات إنجيليون أسست في القرن 20

الحافظون العهد


es uno de los once distritos de Kioto, en la Prefectura de Kioto, Japón.

Sitios de interés
Algunos de los sitios de interés de Fushimi-ku son el jinja Fushimi Inari-taisha, con cientos de torii rodeando el lugar y bajando una montaña; el Castillo Fushimi-Momoyama, construido por Toyotomi Hideyoshi, con sus torres reconstruidas y una sala de té de oro; y Teradaya, un puerto donde Sakamoto Ryōma fue atacado y herido. Otro lugar destacado es el santuario Gokōgu, que alberga una piedra usada en la construcción del Castillo Fushimi. El agua del templo es particularmente famosa y se la considera una de las cien mejores fuentes de agua límpida en Japón.

Toponimia y economía
Aunque en la actualidad se escribe con caracteres diferentes, el nombre Fushimi (que solía ser su propio "pueblo" hasta la anexión en 1931) proviene de fusu y mizu, que significa "agua oculta" o "agua subterránea". En otras palabras, el sitio era conocido por la óptima calidad de su agua. El agua de Fushimi tiene características especiales, lo que la convierte en un componente esencial de un tipo particular de sake que se prepara en el pueblo y lo que explica por qué el área se convirtió en un centro importante en el desarrollo de sake en Kioto. Hoy, Fushimi es la segunda zona más grande de Japón en lo que refiere a la producción de sake, y el sitio donde se fundó la compañía Gekkeikan.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Distritos de Japón
Kioto

Fushimi-ku


Un bărbat ca Eva (în ) este un film german din 1984 regizat de Radu Gabrea. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Eva Mattes, Lisa Kreuzer și Werner Stocker.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1984 în film

Filme germane
Filme în limba germană
Filme din 1984
Filme regizate de Radu Gabrea

Un bărbat ca Eva


Salvia espirito-santensis é uma espécie de planta do gênero Salvia e da família Lamiaceae.

Taxonomia
A espécie foi descrita em 1947 por A. Barbosa Pereira e Alexander Curt Brade.

Forma de vida
É uma espécie terrícola, arbustiva e subarbustiva.

Conservação
A espécie faz parte da Lista Vermelha das espécies ameaçadas do estado do Espírito Santo, no sudeste do Brasil. A lista foi publicada em 13 de junho de 2005 por intermédio do decreto estadual nº 1.499-R.

Distribuição
A espécie é endêmica do Brasil e encontrada no estado brasileiro de Espírito Santo. A espécie é encontrada no domínio fitogeográfico de Mata Atlântica, em regiões com vegetação de mata ciliar e floresta ombrófila pluvial.

Ligações externas
 Salvia espirito-santensis no projeto Flora e Funga do Brasil

Salvia
Plantas descritas em 1947
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo

Salvia espirito-santensis


Buzdağı; büyük bir su kütlesinde serbest yüzen, tatlı sudan müteşekkil, büyük buz kütlesi. Buzdağlarına Kuzey ve Güney Kutbu çevresindeki denizlerde ve Arktik bölgelerdeki buzul göllerinde ve haliçlerinde (fiyord) rastlanır.

Oluşumu
Buzdağları genellikle buzullardan kopmuş büyük parçalardan oluşur. Devamlı soğuk olan bölgelerde karın üst üste yığılması, kardan bir dağ ve sonra da bir buz katmanı teşekkül ettirir. Bu katman zamanla kıyıya doğru kayar ve denizde parçalanır. Böylece muazzam buzdağları meydana gelir. Uzunlukları birkaç kilometreyi ve kalınlıkları 300 metreyi bulabilir. Deniz üstünde sallanmadan dururlar. Her yıl Güney Kutbu Antarktika, her boydan binlerce buzdağı teşkiline sebep olur.

Kuzey kutbundaki Grönland Adasının iki milyon km²ye yaklaşan yüzeyi tamamen buz tabakası ile kaplıdır. Her sene buradan da 10-15 bin kadar buz dağı kopar. Buzdağları zamanla meydana gelen çatlak veya dalgaların aşındırması ile yerlerinden büyük bir gürültü ile ayrılırlar. Ayrılır ayrılmaz deniz içinde harekete geçerler. Özgül ağırlığı 0,9 g/cm³ olan buzdağının deniz üstünde görünen kısmının sekiz veya on katı su içindedir. Başıboş büyük denizlerde dolaşan bu buz dağlarının ağırlığı milyonlarca tonu bulur.

Grönland'dan kopup gelen buz dağları ilkbaharda ve yazın ilk aylarında Kuzey Atlas Okyanusunda sefer yapan gemiler için büyük tehlike teşkil ederler. Bunların yanında Kanada'nın kuzeydoğu kesiminden gelen buzdağları Labrador Akıntısı ile Yeniel kıyılarından güneye doğru sürüklenir. Buralardan Golfstream Akıntısına kapılarak Ekvator'a doğru yol alırlar. Bazıları tamamen erimeden önce 27°'lik arz derecesine kadar ulaşırlar. Antarktika buzullarından kopanlar ise kuzeye doğru yol alırlar. Bunlar Hint ve Büyük Okyanusta çalışan gemiler için pek tehlike teşkil etmezler. En fazla kuzeye gidebilen buzdağı, Avustralya'nın 100 mil kuzeyine kadar yaklaşabilmiştir.

Buzdağlarının rengi genellikle beyazdır. Mavi ve yeşil de olabilir. Güneşli havalarda eriyen kısımlar yüzeyde gölcükler meydana getirir. Suları tatlıdır. Bu sebepten büyük buzdağlarından istifade edilmesi düşünülmektedir. Su sıkıntısı çeken, bilhassa Aden Körfezi devletlerine getirilmesinin yolları araştırılmaktadır. Büyük römorklarla konvoy halinde getirilmesi düşünülen buz dağlarının Aden Körfezine gelmesi tahminen 6-7 ay sürecektir. Güç gibi görünmesine rağmen, milyonlarca insanın susuzluk çekmesi göz önünde tutulursa, gayretli bir çalışma sonunda netice vereceği tahmin edilmektedir.

Denizciliğe etkisi
Buzdağları gemiler için büyük tehlikedir. Zamanının en büyük transatlantik gemisi olan Titanik, 14/15 Nisan 1912'deki ilk seferinde gece bir buzdağına çarparak parçalandı. Çarpışmadan 2 saat 40 dakika sonra gemi tamamen battı ve içinde bulunan 2224 yolcudan 1513'ü boğulup, 711 kişi ancak kurtarılabildi. Bu olay üzerine, buzdağlarının sebep olacağı felaketleri önlemek için tedbirler alındı. ABD'nin kıyı koruma teşkilatına ait gemiler, Kuzey Atlas Okyanusundaki buzdağlarını gözetleme görevlerini de yaparlar. Ayrıca Seyir ve Hidrografi Bürosu, Buzdağlarının bulunduğu yerleri, bunlardan emin olan yolları belirten haritalar yayınlar. Alınan bu tedbirlerden başka deniz suyu sıcaklığı ölçülerek de buz dağlarının yerleri bulunabilir. Bu işlem çok hassas, santigrat derecenin (°C) birkaç binde birini gösterebilen özel aletlerle yapılır. Bugünkü gemiler hassas radarlarla donatıldığından, buzdağları bunlar için büyük tehlike teşkil etmez.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Antarktika coğrafyası

Buzdağı


Mediaskare Records ist ein 2005 gegründetes Independent-Label mit Sitz in Los Angeles. Gründer von Mediaskare Records, das sich vor allem auf Bands aus den Bereichen Death- und Metalcore sowie Stilrichtungen des Hardcore Punks spezialisiert hat, ist Baron Bodnar. Bekannte Bands, die bei Mediaskare Records unter Vertrag stehen, sind unter anderem As Blood Runs Black, Bury Your Dead, Deez Nuts, The Ghost Inside und Suffokate.

Geschichte
Das Musiklabel wurde 2005 von Baron Bodnar gegründet. Im Februar des Jahres 2008 gab das Label eine Partnerschaft mit dem deutschen Musikunternehmen Century Media bekannt. Im März 2011 wurde mit Rite of Passage Records das erste Sublabel von Mediaskare Records gegründet, mit welchem sie aufkommende Bands aus der Hardcore-Punk- und Metal-Szene unterstützen wollen.

Bands (Auswahl)

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website
 Offizielle Website von Rite of Passage Records

Einzelnachweise

Independent-Label
Metal-Label
Musiklabel (Los Angeles)

Mediaskare Records


عين بغزي ، هي عين ماء سميت نسبة إلى صاحبها بغزي المطيري وهي التسمية القديمة لمنطقة الفردوس وتقع في محافظة الفروانية في دولة الكويت.

بيئة الكويت
عيون ماء

عين بغزي


Conacul Brătianu din Ștefănești este un ansamblu de monumente istorice aflat pe teritoriul orașului Ștefănești.

Ansamblul este format din cinci monumente:
 Conacul Brătianu - Vila "Florica" ()
 Capela funerară "Nașterea Sf. Ioan Botezătorul" ()
 Clădiri - anexă, ulterior Stațiunea de Cercetări Viticole ()
 Anexe ()
 Parc ()

Note

Galerie

Monumente istorice din județul Argeș
Ștefănești, Argeș

Conacul Brătianu din Ștefănești


In Canada, a premier ( ) is the head of government of a province or territory. Though the word is merely a synonym for prime minister, it is employed for provincial prime ministers to differentiate them from the prime minister of Canada. There are ten provincial premiers and three territorial premiers. In most provinces and all territories, these persons are styled the Honourable only while in office, unless they are admitted to the King's Privy Council for Canada, in which case they retain the title even after leaving the premiership. In Nova Scotia and Alberta, former premiers are honorary members of the provincial Executive Council and thereby retain the style the Honourable for life.

The prime minister–premier distinction does not exist in French, with both federal and provincial first ministers being styled  (masculine) or  (feminine).

Name

In a number of provinces, premiers were previously known by the title prime minister, with premier being an informal term used to apply to all prime ministers, even the prime minister of Canada. This practice was eventually phased out to avoid confusing the provincial leaders with the federal prime minister, as well as to indicate the distinct nature of the provincial offices. Officially, the last such case outside Quebec was that of W. A. C. Bennett, who served as premier of British Columbia and styled himself as prime minister until leaving office in 1972. The title premier is typically not granted by written law. The formal name of the government position held by the premier is president of the Executive Council or some similar term, but that formal term is rarely used.

The French language does not make a distinction between premier, prime minister and first minister, which are all rendered as "". Thus, "The prime minister of Canada and the premier of Ontario" will be translated as "".

The terms prime minister and premier come from the United Kingdom, where there is only one prime minister / premier. Heads of government of constituent countries in the UK are titled first minister. Collectively, Canada's federal prime minister and the premiers are collectively referred to as first ministers, another synonym of British origin.

Role

Under Canada's system of responsible government, the premier is both a member of the provincial legislative assembly and the head of the executive. The premier normally holds a seat in the legislative assembly, being elected in one of the electoral constituencies of the province. The leader of the party which commands a majority in the assembly is then legally appointed the premier by the lieutenant governor, representing the Canadian monarch in right of the province. While most often the leader of the largest party in a provincial or territorial legislature is invited to become premier, this is not always the case, the most recent exception occurring after the 2021 general election in Yukon.

Premiers advise the lieutenant governor on whom to appoint to the cabinet and they guide legislation through the legislature. Premiers thus exercise a significant amount of power within the Canadian federation, especially in regard to the federal government. In many ways they remain the most effective representatives of provincial interests to the federal government, as parliament's strong party discipline and other factors have impaired provincial representation there. This reality is acknowledged in annual "first ministers conferences" in which the federal prime minister and the 10 premiers meet to discuss provincial-federal relations. The Meech Lake Accord proposed that these meetings be constitutionally mandated, and some premiers have even proposed that these meetings become a formal branch of government, active in the legislative process (see Council of the Federation). However, only one Canadian provincial premier has ever gone on to serve as prime minister: John Thompson. Canada's first and sixth prime ministers (John A. Macdonald and Charles Tupper) had also been co-premier and premier of British provinces that became part of Canada, but no one who has led a victorious general election campaign in a Canadian province has ever been prime minister.

Canada's three territories have premiers as well, though they are technically known as "government leaders". The premier of Yukon is chosen in the usual fashion, but the premiers of Nunavut and Northwest Territories are selected from within the small and non-partisan elected territorial councils.

Current premiers

Timeline

See also
 Premiers of the Australian states
 Governor (United States) (the head of government in the states of the United States)
 Deputy Premier (Canada)

References

Government in Canada
Canadian first ministers
Provincial and territorial ministers in Canada

Premier (Canada)


Nobila Casă (în ) este un roman de James Clavell. A fost publicat în 1981, iar acțiunea se petrece în Hong Kong în 1963.

Cartea are peste 1.000 de pagini, iar povestea conține foarte multe personaje și fire de narațiune. Romanul a fost ecranizat în 1988 în serialul de televiziune Nobila casă, cu Pierce Brosnan în rolul principal, unde povestea a fost adaptată anilor '80.

În carte, "Nobila Casă" este numele dat companiei fictive Struan's, în jurul șefului căreia au loc acțiunile din roman.

Romane din 1981
Romane istorice americane
Romane istorice engleze

Nobila Casă


تيكال Tikal (وتهجأ Tik'al في إملاء لغة المايا الحديث) هي آثار مدينة قديمة، ومن المحتمل أن اسمها كان ياش موتال Yax Mutal، وتم اكتشافها في غابة غواتيمالا المطيرة. وقد اكتشفها جامع صمغ يدعى أمبروسيو توت، وأبلغ صحيفة لا غاسيتا الغواتيمالية التي سمت الموقع تيكال. تم نشر التقرير في مجلة أكاديمية العلوم في برلين في عام 1853، وبدأ علماء الآثار وصيادو الكنز بزيارة الموقع. اليوم، فإن السياحة في الموقع تساعد في حماية الغابات المطيرة. وهي إحدى أكبر المواقع الأثرية والمراكز الحضرية في أرض المايا قبل الاكتشاف. وهي تقع في المنطقة الأثرية من حوض بيتين في شمال غواتيمالا. تقع في قسم إل بيتين، الموقع هو جزء من حديقة تيكال الوطنية في غواتيمالا، وفي عام 1979 تم الإعلان عن إدخال المدينة ضمن مواقع اليونسكو للتراث العالمي.

كانت تيكال عاصمة دولة أصبحت واحدة من أقوى ممالك المايا القديمة. تعود العمارة الأثرية في الموقع إلى القرن الرابع قبل الميلاد، إلا أن تيكال وصلت أوجها خلال الفترة الكلاسيكية، حوالي 200 إلى 900 ميلادي. سيطرت المدينة خلال هذه الفترة على جزء كبير من منطقة المايا سياسيا واقتصاديا وعسكريا، في حين تفاعلت مع جميع أنحاء أمريكا الوسطى مثل مدينة تيوتيهواكان العظيمة في وادي المكسيك البعيد. هناك أدلة على أن تيكال غزاها أهل تيوتيهواكان في القرن الرابع الميلادي. لم تبنى أي معالم رئيسية جديدة في تيكال بعد نهاية العصر الكلاسيكي المتأخر، وكما توجد أدلة على أن قصور النخبة تم حرقها. رافق هذه الأحداث انخفاض تدريجي في عدد السكان، وبلغ التراجع السكاني ذروته بهجر الموقع بحلول نهاية القرن العاشر.

يمكن فهم تيكال بشكل أفضل من أي من المدن الكبيرة في منخفضات أرض المايا، حيث توجد قائمة طويلة عن أفراد السلالة الحاكمة، وتم اكتشاف مقابر العديد من الحكام على هذه القائمة والتحقيق في آثارها ومعابدها وقصورها.

أصل الاسم

اسم تيكال قد تكون مشتقة من ti ak'al في لغة المايا اليوكاتية؛ ويقال أنه اسم حديث نسبيا بمعنى «في حفرة الماء». ويبدو أن الاسم كان يطلق على أحد خزانات المياه القديمة من قبل الصيادين والمسافرين في المنطقة. وقد تم تفسير الاسم أيضا على أنه يعني «مكان الأصوات» في لغة مايا إيتزا. لكن تيكال لم يكن هو الاسم القديم للموقع ولكن تم اعتماده بعد فترة وجيزة من اكتشاف الموقع في عقد 1840. تشير النقوش الهيروغليفية على الأنقاض إلى المدينة القديمة باسم ياش موتال أو ياش موتول، وتعني «موتال الأولى».  يحتمل أن الاسم جاء من استخدام موقع دوس بيلاس لنفس الحرف الرمزي؛ وبهذا فيعتقد أن حكام المدينة أرادوا تمييز أنفسهم كأول مدينة تحمل الاسم. كانت المملكة ككل تسمى موتول،  وهي قراءة لرمز «حزمة الشعر» التي تظهر في الصورة المصاحبة. ولا يزال المعنى الدقيق لها غامضا.

الموقع

أقرب المستوطنات الحديثة الكبيرة هي فلوريس وسانتا إيلينا، على بعد 64 كيلومترا تقريبا (40 ميلا) عن طريق البر إلى الجنوب الغربي. تبعد تيكال ما يقرب من 303 كيلومترا (188 ميل) شمال مدينة غواتيمالا. على بعد 19 كيلومترا (12 ميل) جنوب مدينة واكساكتون المايانية و30 كيلومترا (19 ميل) شمال غرب ياكسا. كانت المدينة تقع على بعد 100 كيلومتر (62 ميل) جنوب شرق منافستها الكلاسيكية الكلاسيكية، كالاكمول، و 85 كيلومترا (53 ميل) شمال غرب من مدينة كاراكول حليفة كالاكمول، وهي الآن في بليز.

غطت المدينة بالكامل مساحة أكبر من 16 كيلومترا مربعا (6.2 ميل مربع) تضم حوالي 3000 مبنى. وتتكون تضاريس الموقع من سلسلة من التلال الجيرية المتوازية التي ترتفع فوق أراضي المستنقعات المنخفضة. وتتجمع العمارة الرئيسية للموقع على مناطق مرتفعة وترتبط بدروب مرتفعة تمتد على المستنقعات. وقد تم الإعلان عن منطقة حول تيكال بأنها منتزه تيكال الوطني، وتغطي المنطقة المحمية 570 كيلومترا مربعا (220 ميل مربع).

تقع الأطلال بين الغابات الاستوائية المطيرة في شمال غواتيمالا التي شكلت مهد حضارة المايا في المنخفضات. المدينة نفسها تقع بين تربة المرتفعات الخصبة، وربما هيمنت على طريق التجارة بين الشرق والغرب الطبيعي عبر شبه جزيرة يوكاتان. وتشمل الأشجار الكبيرة في حديقة تيكال شجرة القابوق العملاقة (سيبا بنتاندرا) وهي شجرة مقدسة من المايا؛ الإرز الاستوائي (سيدريلا أودوراتا)، والماهوجني الهندوراسي (سويتينيا ماكروفيلا). وفيما يتعلق بالحيوانات، يمكن رؤية الأغوتي، الكواتي أبيض الأنف، الثعالب الرمادية، قرود جيوفروي العنكبوتية، القرود العواءة، نسور الهاربي، الصقور، والديك الرومي، طيور الغوان والطوقان، والببغاوات الخضراء والنمل قاطع الأوراق. كما يقال إن اليغور واليغورندي والبوما تتجول في الحديقة. كانت هذه المدينة مغطاة تماما تحت الغابة لقرون. متوسط هطول الأمطار السنوي في تيكال هو 1945 ملم (76.6 بوصة).

تيكال هي إحدى أكبر مدن المايا الكلاسيكية، ولم تملك أي مصدر مياه عدا ما تم جمعه من مياه الأمطار وتخزينه في عشرة خزانات. قام علماء الآثار الذين يعملون في تيكال خلال القرن العشرين بتجديد أحد هذه الخزانات القديمة لتخزين المياه لاستخدامهم الخاص.

تغطي تيكال الوطنية مساحة 575.83 كيلومتر مربع (222.33 ميل مربع). وقد أنشئت في 26 مايو 1955 تحت رعاية معهد الأنتروبولوجيا والتاريخ في غواتيملا وكانت أول منطقة محمية في غواتيمالا.

تعداد السكان

تتراوح التقديرات السكانية لمدينة تيكال من 10,000 إلى 90,000 نسمة، مع أن الرقم الأكثر احتمالا هو في الطرف العلوي من هذا النطاق.

بدأ سكان تيكال ينمو بمنحنى مستمر بدءا من الفترة ما قبل الكلاسيكية (حوالي 2000 قبل الميلاد - 200 ميلادي)، مع وصوله الذروة في العصر الكلاسيكي المتأخر حيث تسارع النمو السكاني بين عامي 700 إلى 830، ثم يليه انخفاض حاد. وبلغت الكثافة السكانية 517 فرد في الكيلومتر المربع (1340 في الميل المربع) في المنطقة التي تبلغ مساحتها 120 كيلومتر مربع (46 ميل مربع) التي تقع ضمن الدفاعات الأرضية في المناطق النائية. وفي المنطقة التي تقع ضمن دائرة نصف قطرها 12 كيلومترا (7.5 ميل) من الموقع الأساسي، قدرت الذروة السكانية بنحو 120,000 نسمة؛ وقدرت الكثافة السكانية بنحو 265 لكل كيلومتر مربع (689 لكل ميل مربع). وفي المنطقة ضمن دائرة نصف قطرها 25 كيلومترا (16 ميلا) من الموقع، بما في ذلك بعض المواقع الساتلية، قدرت ذروة السكان بنحو 425,000 نسمة بكثافة 216 فرد لكل كيلومتر مربع (515 لكل ميل مربع). وتعتبر هذه الأرقام مثيرة للاهتمام بسبب وقوع المدينة في منطقة مستنقعات واسعة لم تكن صالحة للسكن أو الزراعة. ومع ذلك، يعتقد بعض علماء الآثار، مثل ديفيد وبستر، أن هذه الأرقام مرتفعة جدا.

مراجع

مصادر

آثار حضارة المايا
أماكن مأهولة سابقا في غواتيمالا
أماكن مأهولة أسست في القرن 4 ق م
حدائق وطنية في غواتيمالا
مدن قديمة
مواقع أثرية في غواتيمالا
مواقع التراث العالمي في غواتيمالا
تأسيسات القرن 4 ق م في غواتيمالا
تأسيسات القرن 4 ق م في مايا
انحلالات القرن 10 في مايا

تيكال


Kelvin Geoffrey Davis  (* 29. September 1976 in Bedford) ist ein ehemaliger englischer Fußballspieler und heutiger Trainer.

Spielerkarriere

Luton Town und FC Wimbledon (1994–2003)
Kelvin Davis debütierte in der Saison 1993/94 für Luton Town in der zweitklassigen Football League First Division. Nach drei Jahren als Ersatztorhüter bestritt er 1997/98 zweiunddreißig Ligaspiele für seine inzwischen in der dritten Liga spielenden Mannschaft. 1998/99 beendete der 22-jährige Stammtorhüter (44 Ligaspiele) mit Luton die Drittligasaison als Tabellenzwölfter.

Am 14. Juli 1999 wechselte Davis für £600.000 Ablöse zum Erstligisten FC Wimbledon. Für seinen neuen Verein blieb er in der Premier League 1999/2000 ohne Ligaeinsatz und stieg mit der Mannschaft aus London als Drittletzter in die zweite Liga ab. Nach dem Abstieg avancierte Kelvin Davis zum Stammtorhüter, verpasste jedoch mit Wimbledon als Tabellenachter die Rückkehr in die Premier League. Auch in den beiden anschließenden Spielzeiten blieb ihm der Platz zwischen den Pfosten seiner Mannschaft, ehe er 2003 den Verein verließ. Bereits 2002 hatte der Verein die Erlaubnis für den umstrittenen Umzug von London nach Milton Keynes bekommen.

Ipswich Town und AFC Sunderland (2003–2006)
Am 6. August 2003 wechselte der ablösefrei Torhüter zum Zweitligisten Ipswich Town und unterzeichnete einen Dreijahresvertrag. Mit seiner neuen Mannschaft zog Davis (45 Ligaspiele) als Tabellenfünfter in die Play-offs 2003/04 ein, scheiterte dort jedoch vorzeitig an West Ham United. Nach einem dritten Platz in der neu eingeführten Football League Championship 2004/05 und einem erneuten Aus in der ersten Play-off-Runde gegen West Ham, wechselte Davis am 14. Juni 2006 für £ 1.250.000 Ablöse zum Erstligaaufsteiger AFC Sunderland. Als Auszeichnung für seine guten Leistungen wurde er ins PFA Team of the Year der zweiten Liga gewählt. In der Premier League 2005/06 setzte ihn der Trainer Mick McCarthy regelmäßig ein, jedoch kam Sunderland in der neuen Spielklasse nicht zurecht und stieg als abgeschlagener Tabellenletzter wieder in die zweite Liga ab.

FC Southampton (2006–2016)
Nach einer auch für ihn persönlich unglücklichen Saison wechselte der inzwischen 29-jährige Torhüter am 21. Juli 2006 zum Zweitligisten FC Southampton. Mit Southampton erreichten er über einen sechsten Platz in der Football League Championship 2006/07 die Play-offs, scheiterte jedoch bereits in der ersten Runde im Elfmeterschießen an Derby County. Nach einer deutlichen Verschlechterung der Leistung 2007/08 stieg die Mannschaft aus Südengland in der Football League Championship 2008/09 in die dritte Liga ab. Dort verpasste der Verein um den ins PFA Team of the Year gewählten Kelvin Davis 2010 die Rückkehr in die zweite Liga. Nach einer Leistungssteigerung in der Football League One 2010/11 erreichte der erneut in die Mannschaft des Jahres gewählte Torhüter mit Southampton die Vizemeisterschaft und damit den Aufstieg.

Bereits ein Jahr später gelang Southampton mit Davis, der Ende Juni 2011 seinen Vertrag bis Mitte 2014 verlängert hatte, der direkte Durchmarsch in die Premier League. In der höchsten englischen Spielklasse rückte er zurück ins zweite Glied und war fortan nur noch Ersatztorhüter hinter Artur Boruc sowie ab 2014 hinter Fraser Forster. Als Forster sich schließlich im März 2015 schwer am Knie verletzte und Boruc zwischenzeitlich an den AFC Bournemouth ausgeliehen war, feierte Davis nach einer weiteren Verlängerung seines Kontrakts gegen den FC Burnley (2:0) ein gefeiertes Comeback. Dabei wurde er als bester Spieler ("Man of the Match") ausgezeichnet.

Trainerkarriere
Ende Dezember 2017 wurde Davis Co-Trainer von Mauricio Pellegrino beim FC Southampton. Nach dessen Entlassung arbeitete er ab Mitte März 2018 an der Seite von Mark Hughes. Nachdem dieser Anfang Dezember 2018 entlassen worden war, betreute Davis die Mannschaft am 15. Spieltag bei der 1:3-Niederlage bei den Tottenham Hotspur als Interimstrainer. Anschließend wurde Ralph Hasenhüttl neuer Cheftrainer und Davis kehrte auf seine Position als Co-Trainer zurück.

Weblinks

 Kelvin Davis, Profil auf der Homepage des FC Southampton (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Fußballtorhüter (Luton Town)
Fußballtorhüter (Torquay United)
Fußballtorhüter (Hartlepool United)
Fußballtorhüter (FC Wimbledon)
Fußballtorhüter (Ipswich Town)
Fußballtorhüter (AFC Sunderland)
Fußballtorhüter (FC Southampton)
Fußballtrainer (FC Southampton)
Brite
Engländer
Geboren 1976
Mann

Kelvin Davis


Indre Ringvej kan henvise til:

 Indre Ringvej (Fredericia) – gade i Fredericia
 Indre Ringvej (Viborg) – omfartsvej, der går igennem Viborg
 Indre Ringvej (Aarup) – ringvej der går igennem det indre Aarup

Indre Ringvej


Félix Laurent, né le  à Langeais et mort le  à Tours, est un peintre français.

Biographie
Félix Laurent est le fils de François Laurent, gendarme à cheval, et de Catherine Greff.

Il devient le conservateur du Musée des Beaux-Arts de Tours et directeur de l'École supérieure des beaux-arts et conservateur du Musée des Beaux-Arts de Tours.

Sous sa direction (1876 à 1905), l'école accède au statut d'école régionale des beaux-arts (en 1881) et 6 de ses élèves obtiennent le Prix de Rome (Edmond Grasset, Laloux, Roulleau, Chiquet, Sicard, Chaussemiche).

Il meurt au musée à l'âge de 83 ans.

Distinction
 Officier d'académie en 1878
 Officier de l'instruction publique en 1884
 Diplôme d'honneur à l'exposition de la Louisiane en 1885
 Médaille d'or à l'exposition universelle de 1900
 Chevalier de l'ordre national de la Légion d'honneur en 1900.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Peintre français du XIXe siècle
Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur
Naissance en janvier 1821
Naissance en Indre-et-Loire
Décès en novembre 1905
Décès à Tours
Décès à 83 ans

Félix Laurent


Lookout Records (stylized as Lookout! Records) was an independent record label, initially based in Laytonville, California, and later in Berkeley, focusing on punk rock. Established in 1987, the label is best known for having released Operation Ivy's only album, Energy, and Green Day's first two albums, 39/Smooth and Kerplunk.

Following the departure of co-founder Larry Livermore in 1997, the label departed from its "East Bay sound" and proved unable to match early success. In 2005 the label ran into financial difficulties after several high-profile artists rescinded the rights to their Lookout Records material. After a period of rapid contraction the label slowly expired, terminating operations and removing its music from online distribution channels early in 2012.

History

Background

During the fall of 1984 Larry Livermore (née Larry Hayes), a resident of the small town of Laytonville, California, of countercultural proclivities, felt the urge to opine about the problems of his community and the world in a small-circulation periodical. Thus in October of that year was launched a circulation magazine called Lookout, the first issue of which was typed and photocopied with a "press run" of just 50 copies. Opposition emerged to the controversial local topics upon which Livermore opined and so he turned to the theme punk rock, a form of music he had followed in the late 1970s.

Livermore began to reacquaint himself with the ongoing punk music scene by listening to the Maximum Rocknroll (MRR) radio show, broadcast weekly from Berkeley and featuring prominent scenester and future fanzine publisher Tim Yohannan and his cohorts. Livermore also decided to start a band, drafting a 12-year-old neighbor to play drums — given the punk rock name "Tré Cool" by Livermore. Cool would later gain fame as the drummer of Green Day.

After a few ill-attended shows in 1985 Livermore took his band, The Lookouts, into a local recording studio to record their songs, with a 26-song demo tape resulting. He also began living part-time in the San Francisco Bay Area, splitting his time between the city and his home in the mountains of Mendocino County.

The Lookouts began playing out more in San Francisco and Berkeley and began to develop a fan following and to make the acquaintance of other local bands, including a melodically friendly group called The Mr. T Experience. A vibrant local scene began to congeal, based around the Gilman Street Project, an all-ages venue inspired, bankrolled, and coordinated by the popular Maximum Rocknroll, launched the night of December 31, 1986.

Early in 1987 Livermore decided that it was time for The Lookouts to release a record. Livermore chose to take the Do It Yourself route to create such an album, self-releasing the one-off LP under "Lookout Records." At the same time, the new bands emerging around the vibrant 924 Gilman Street venue, including Operation Ivy, Crimpshrine, Sewer Trout, Isocracy, and others were documented for the first time by local scenester David Hayes on a 17-song double 7-inch compilation entitled Turn It Around, released through Mordam Distribution on the Maximum Rocknroll Records label. The duo would soon join forces as co-founders of a permanent label.

Establishment
Both Lawrence Livermore (née Larry Hayes) and David Hayes (not related) were deeply inspired by the energetic East Bay punk rock scene and sought to further document its leading bands. David Hayes initially wanted to start a new label of his own for the purpose, to be known as Sprocket Records, with a view to a first release for the band Corrupted Morals. Livermore, a columnist for Maximum Rocknroll (MRR) who knew Hayes as a so-called "shitworker" for the publication, convinced the latter that a partnership was in order to advance their common goal. As Livermore's release had an independently controlled label name, Lookout Records, while Hayes's debut release borrowed the well-known MRR moniker, the former name was decided upon as the label name for the releases of the duo moving forward.

According to Livermore, the name "Lookout" was chosen for his magazine and band and thus the label from whence it sprung was selected in reference to the United States Forest Service fire watch tower on Iron Peak, the highest point in Livermore's rural Mendocino County neighborhood. The company's iconic "beady eyes" logo was the early creation of David Hayes, who also handled much of the artwork for the label's early sleeves and LP jackets.

With Hayes's Corrupted Morals project moving forward as LK-02, a 7-inch EP entitled Chet, Livermore and Hayes jointly worked to bring about a third release later in 1987. This would be yet another 7-inch EP, a record by raw-edged ska-punkers Operation Ivy called Hectic. This third release proved to be an aural document of the right band at the right moment, with the release by the high energy local favorites selling through its first pressing of 1,000 copies within a month.

In an effort to make a splash, four 7-inch vinyl records were released simultaneously, including also releases by popular 924 Gilman bands Crimpshrine (LK-04) and Isocracy (LK-05). This initial barrage of new releases went far in cementing Lookout's place as a cutting edge local label for the Berkeley punk scene.

The "Gilman bands" began to form friendships amongst themselves and to play out together at other venues on the road. One important contact was made in the person of 14-year-old Christopher "Chris" Appelgren, a resident of the small town of Garberville, California who worked as a volunteer at community radio station KMUD and who had learned of The Lookouts and the burgeoning East Bay punk rock scene through the pages of Lookout magazine, which was distributed in the area. Appelgren attended a show held at Humboldt State University in Arcata, California played by Lookout Records bands Operation Ivy, Crimpshrine, Isocracy, and The Lookouts and was wowed by what he saw, meeting Livermore for the first time and making the acquaintance of Tim "Lint" Armstrong of Op Ivy — later a leading member of Rancid. Before long Appelgren would be traveling to Livermore's Laytonville home to help with the stuffing of 7-inch vinyl into sleeves and packaging records for mailorder, becoming the label's first paid employee.

Departure of David Hayes
Livermore and Hayes began to become estranged from one another, and the label's projects began to be bifurcated between the two principals — "Larry's bands" and "David's bands," with the eclectic Hayes next turning to releases by post punk band Plaid Retina and country punks Sewer Trout. In addition to differences in musical taste which became more apparent over time, the pair were temperamentally ill-suited, with Hayes understated and reserved and Livermore boisterous and gregarious.

In addition, Hayes and Livermore differed greatly with respect to commercial motivation. In a 2015 memoir, Livermore recalled that

Although the winds of change had begun to blow even in 1988, David Hayes would remain very active with Lookout through the summer of 1989, albeit with dissatisfaction regarding the label's direction growing, and  his expressed desires of departure becoming more frequent. Hayes had gradually come to find working with Livermore to be insufferable and sought peace and artistic freedom through formation of his own record label.

Believing that Hayes's participation in the Lookout project as bookkeeper and skilled mitigator of the demands of demanding bands was essential, the 16-year old Appelgren clearly not being ready for the role, Livermore tried a last-ditch effort to retain Hayes with the label, offering to take over all mundane operational tasks while leaving Hayes with "half the profits" as financial coordinator and public face of the organization. The anti-commercial Hayes flatly rejected this proposal with the declaration that "there's too much golden light around Lookout right now," adding that work on his label of love had come to feel "too much like a job."

With a quiet determination, Hayes declared that his departure would take effect on January 1, 1990, adding "I don't want anything more to do with Lookout, and I don't want anything more from Lookout." The speechless Livermore was left with full ownership and control of the label on the very eve of its commercial success. David Hayes would go on to start his own label, Very Small Records, releasing dozens of records over the coming decade that ran the gamut of punk styles, maintaining fidelity to his artistic and ethical vision — while the label that he exited would go on to become a multimillion-dollar commercial enterprise.

Punk rock rising (1989-1993)
Many different punk rock bands, such as Green Day, were signed to Lookout in this time. Green Day released their debut EP, 1,000 Hours, in 1989. Green Day also released 39/Smooth (1990), Slappy (1990), Sweet Children (1990), and, with their new drummer, Kerplunk! (1992). After the breakup of Operation Ivy, some of the members formed Rancid. They released their debut EP, Rancid, in 1992 with Lookout Records. Screeching Weasel released their third and fifth to seventh albums, My Brain Hurts (1991), Wiggle (1993), Anthem for a New Tomorrow (1993), and How to Make Enemies and Irritate People (1994). Many other Bay area punk bands were getting signed by Lookout Records, giving them a start to a career.

"Golden years" (1993–1997)
Lookout became famous for releasing albums that featured a very distinctive "Ramonescore" pop punk sound including bands such as Screeching Weasel, The Mr T Experience, The Queers, Crimpshrine, Green Day, Sweet Baby, Squirtgun, The Wanna-Bes and others.

In the spring of 1994 Lookout principal Larry Livermore made a very public break with Tim Yohannan and his Maximum Rocknroll, for which Livermore had written since 1987. With punk exploding in popularity and various tangential musical forms attaching themselves to the movement and swamping MRR with promotional material, a tightening of musical focus was demanded by Yohannan — a move which led to the launch of the more eclectic rival publication Punk Planet. Livermore rebelled at the new line, charging that MRR had increasingly become "a lifestyle journal for retro-punks" who "think if they dress up in the same clothes they wore 15 years ago, if they drink the same beer and play the same guitar riffs, that somehow it'll be the glory days of punk all over again." Despite Yohannan's radical politics, Maximum had been revealed to be "simply another business," Livermore provocatively declared.

In 1995, with the help of Green Day's "1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours" and "Kerplunk", Lookout Records made $10 million in sales.

Co-founder Larry Livermore left the label in 1997.

Under new management (1998–2004)
After Livermore's departure, Chris Appelgren took over as the label's president while his wife Molly Neuman became vice president and label employee Cathy Bauer took over as general manager. Screeching Weasel resigned with the label in 1998 for their album Emo. As part of an agreement, Lookout also purchased Ben Weasel's label Panic Button Records and would release albums from Panic Button acts including The Eyeliners, Enemy You and The Lillingtons. The move would be a major financial loss that would effect the label's royalty payouts in the following years. The label also switched its long time distribution affiliation with Mordam to RED Distribution.

In 1998, the label signed Palo Alto-based band The Donnas and would release 3 albums from the band between 1998 and 2001 as well as reissue their debut album. Despite decent sales and heavy coverage of the band from mainstream media outlets, The Donnas would depart for Atlantic Records in 2002. Other veteran acts such as The Queers, Pansy Division and Avail would depart in the early 2000s citing poor promotion and the label's increasing attention and spending on new acts.

By 2002, Lookout began to shift focus from its East Bay pop punk roots to a more diverse sound by releasing albums from bands such as Pretty Girls Make Graves, Ted Leo And The Pharmacists, The Oranges Band and Neuman's own band Bratmobile. The shift in direction and new releases from veteran acts like The Smugglers and The Mr. T Experience could not offset declining album sales and financial mismanagement including unprofitable showcases at the Warped Tour and CMJ. By 2004, the label had closed its retail store on University Avenue in Berkeley.

Demise (2005–2012)
On August 1, 2005, Green Day followed Avail, Blatz, Filth, Operation Ivy, Screeching Weasel, Riverdales, Lillingtons and Enemy You in announcing they had rescinded the master rights for their Lookout Records material. They cited continuing breach of contract regarding unpaid royalties. This led to the label laying off six of nine staff members. Appelgren told Punknews.org that the label would carry on in a scaled back form. Lookout Records turned 20 years old in 2008.

In December 2009, the company entered a major financial reconstruction period.

The label officially closed in January 2012. The label returned any remaining inventory, masters and artwork to the bands. Appelgren said he hoped bands would "... revisit their Lookout releases, with interesting and cool results."

Artists

List of bands Lookout Records released at least one EP or full-length for:

 Alkaline Trio
 American Steel
 Ann Beretta
 Auntie Christ
 Avail
 The Avengers
 The Basicks
 Big Rig
 Bis
 Black Cat Music
 Black Fork
 Blatz
 The Bomb Bassets
 Boris the Sprinkler
 Born Against
 Bratmobile
 Brent's T.V.
 Citizen Fish
 Cleveland Bound Death Sentence
 Common Rider
 Communiqué
 Corrupted Morals
 The Cost
 Couch of Eureka
 The Criminals
 Crimpshrine
 Cringer
 The Crumbs
 Cub
 The Cuts
 The Donnas
 The Dollyrots
 Downfall
 Dr. Frank
 The Enemies
 Enemy You
 Engine Down
 Even in Blackouts
 Evening
 Eyeball
 The Eyeliners
 Fifteen
 Filth
 The Frumpies
 Fuel
 Fun Bug
 Furious George
 The Gaza Strippers
 Gene Defcon
 The Go-Nuts
 Go Sailor
 Green Day
 The Groovie Ghoulies
 The Hi-Fives
 Hockey Night
 The Invalids
 Isocracy
 Jack Acid
 The Jackie Papers
 The Jimmies
 Judy and the Loadies
 Juke
 Kamala and the Karnivores
 The Lashes
 The Lillingtons
 The Lookouts
 Mary Timony
 Monsula
 The Mopes
 Moral Crux
 The Mr. T Experience
 The Ne'er Do Wells
 Neurosis
 Nuisance
 One Time Angels
 Operation Ivy
 The Oranges Band
 The Outrights
 Pansy Division
 Parasites
 The Pattern
 The PeeChees
 The Phantom Surfers
 Pinhead Gunpowder
 Pitch Black
 Plaid Retina
 The Potatomen
 Pot Valiant
 Pretty Girls Make Graves
 The Queers
 Rancid
 Raooul
 The Reputation
 Rice
 Riverdales
 Samiam
 Scherzo
 Screeching Weasel
 Servotron
 Sewer Trout
 The Shangri-Lows
 The Shotdowns
 The Skinflutes
 Skinned Teen
 Sludgeworth
 Small Brown Bike
 The Smugglers
 Spitboy
 The Splash Four
 Squirtgun
 Stikky
 Surrogate Brains
 Sweet Baby
 Swollen Boss Toad
 Ted Leo and the Pharmacists
 Tilt
 Toilet Böys
 The Tourettes
 Towards an End
 Troubled Hubble
 Twenty-Nineteen
 Uranium 9-Volt
 The Vagrants
 The Vindictives
 The Wanna-Bes
 Washdown
 Wat Tyler
 Worst Case Scenario
 The Wynona Riders
 Yeastie Girlz
 Yesterday's Kids
 (Young) Pioneers
 The Zero Boys

See also
 List of record labels
 Mordam Records

Footnotes

Further reading

Articles

 Chris Appelgren, "Hard to Say Goodbye," Lookout Records official website, June 2010.
 Matthew Artz, "Green Day Bolts from Berkeley's Lookout Records," Berkeley Daily Planet, Aug. 5, 2005.
 Rob Harvilla, "Kerplunk: The Rise and Fall of the Lookout Records Empire,", East Bay Express, Sept. 14, 2005.
 Larry Livermore,  "How I Became a Capitalist: The Lookout Records Story, Part One," Lookout magazine no. 39 (Summer 1994). —Only part published.
 Matthew Perpetua, "Lookout Records Shuts Down Completely," Rolling Stone, Jan. 17, 2012.
 Maria Sherman, "Lookout Records Co-Founder Larry Livermore on Label's Shuttering," Billboard, Jan. 19, 2012.
 Aidin Vaziri, "Green Day Pulls the Plug on Iconic Berkeley Indie Label Lookout Over Unpaid Royalties," San Francisco Chronicle, Aug. 6, 2005.

Books

 Kaitlin Fontana, Fresh at Twenty: The Oral History of Mint Records. Toronto, ON: ECW Press, 2011.
 Larry Livermore, Spy Rock Memories. Kingston, NJ: Don Giovanni Records, 2013.
 Larry Livermore, How to Ru(i)n a Record Label: The Story of Lookout Records. New Brunswick, NJ: Don Giovanni Records, 2015.
 Kevin Prested, Punk USA: The Rise and Fall of Lookout Records. Portland, OR: Microcosm Publishing, 2014.
 Stacy Thompson, Punk Productions: Unfinished Business. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2004.

External links

 "Interview with Larry Livermore (Lookout Records)," Big Bombo Punk webzine, Aug. 17, 2013.

Record labels established in 1987
Record labels disestablished in 2012
Companies based in Berkeley, California
American independent record labels
Punk record labels
Pop punk record labels

Lookout Records


حسن علي الإبراهيم، وزير كويتي سابق.

عين وزيرا للتربية في 3 مارس 1985 في الحكومة الثانية عشر. وهو عضو مجلس أمناء المؤسسة العربية للديمقراطية.

مراجع

صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الولادة (أشخاص أحياء)
وزراء تربية كويتيون

حسن الإبراهيم


Adolphoduckea, monotipski biljni rod iz porodice broćevki. Jedina je vrsta A. maynensis iz sjevernog Brazila, Kolumbije, Perua, Ekvadora i Bolivije.

Rod je opisan 2018. Po životnom obliku je fanerofit

Sinonimi
 Cinchona maynensis (Poepp.) Brign.
 Exostema maynense Poepp.

Izvori

Cinchonoideae

Adolphoduckea


Bibi, usa na bivalvia na mollusc na may duha na nagtatakopay na tipaka. An lawas natatagu san duha na tipaka, waray ulo ngan radula. Ginsasara nira an plankton tikang sa tubig ngan amo ini an kanra pagkaon.

Mga kasarigan

hayop

Bibi (mollusc)


Bluffport bezeichnet mehrere

Orte in den Vereinigten Staaten:
 Bluffport (Alabama)
 Bluffport (Montana)

Bluffport


Motosiklet, iki ya da üç tekerlekli, bisiklet benzeri, içten yanmalı motora sahip bir ya da iki kişilik ulaşım aracıdır.

İlk örnekleri bisikletlere motor takma girişimleriyle ortaya çıkmıştır. 1869 yılında ABD Massachusetts'li Sylvester Roper buhar gücüyle çalışan motosiklet benzeri bir taşıtı geliştirmeye çalışmıştır. 1893 yılında Felix Millet beş silindirli bir motoru bir bisikletin ön tekerleğine takarak bugünkü motosiklete oldukça benzeyen bir taşıt gerçekleştirmiştir.

Başarılı ilk iki tekerlekli motorlu taşıt tasarımını Fransız mucitler Michael ve Eugene Werner gerçekleştirmiştir. Werner kardeşler aracın motorunu, kadronun altına iki teker arasına yerleştirdiler. O tarihten sonra motosiklet tasarımlarında motor hep aynı yerde kalmıştır.

Üretilen motosikletlerde tip ayrımından çok kullanıcıların tercihleri öne çıkmaktadır. Örneğin hem gezi hem de spor motosikletlerinin özelliklerini tek motosiklette barındırma çabası sonucu üretilen gezi-spor motosikletleri çok fazla motor sever tarafından tercih edilmektedir. Tabii ki bu motosiklette gezi motosikletinin sürüş rahatlığı olmamasının yanında bir spor motosikletteki hız da beklenmemelidir. Sonuç olarak gezi motosikletinden daha iyi performansa sahip olup spor motosikletinden daha iyi sürüş rahatlığı sunan bir motosiklettir.

Motosiklet Türleri

 Scooter
 Off-Road motosiklet
 Mobilet
 Bobber
 Touring motosikleti
 Cep motosikleti
 Spor motosikleti
 Spor gezi motosikleti
 Chopper motosiklet
 Naked motosiklet
 Spor motosiklet
 Enduro motosiklet
 Cruiser motosiklet
 Supermoto motosiklet (Hypermotard)

Motosiklet Üreticileri
 Mobilet ve scooter üreticileri listesi
 Motosiklet üreticileri ve markaları

Teknik yönler

Motosikletlerin üretimi
Kullanılmakta olan modern motosikletler aşağıdaki parçaların standart üretimi ile yapılmaktadır.

Şasi
Bir motosikletin şasisi alüminyum ya da çelik desteklerin kaynak yardımı ile birleştirilmesi sonucu üretilir ve motorun ana iskeletini oluşturur. Bazı özel üretim motosikletlerde karbon-fiber ve titanyum kullanılır ki bu şekilde üretilmiş bir motosikletin maliyeti oldukça yüksektir. Motosikleti taşıyan ve dengesini sağlayan şasidir ve sağlamlığı önemlidir. Profesyonel motosikletlerin şasileri milimetrik hesaplarla dengelenir.

Ön Çatal
Motosikletlerde ön tekerin takıldığı ve sürücünün motosikleti kontrol edebilmesi için gerekli olan motosiklet gidonunun eklendiği parçadır.

Motor
Şu ana kadar üretilmiş hemen hemen tüm motosikletler benzinle çalışan içten yanmalı motorlar yardımı ile çalışmaktadır. Ancak bazı küçük Scooter tipi modeller elektrik motoru ile de çalışmaktadır.

Vites
Modern motosikletlerde genellikle beş ya da altı ileri vites bulunur. Yalnızca bazı özel motosikletlerde (Honda Goldwing ve BMW K1200LT modeli) geri vites sistemi de kullanılmaktadır.

Gidon
Genellikle birbirine kaynak yardımı ile eklenmiş çelik ve alüminyum parçalardan oluşur. Bazı motosikletlerde gidon kaynak yapılmaksızın tek parça halinde de üretilmektedir.

Tekerlekler
Motosikletin en önemli bölümlerinden biridir. Çünkü motosikletin hareket yeteneği ve hızı tekerleklerin temas ettiği yüzeyin fiziksel yapısından fazlasıyla etkilenir. Dolayısıyla tekerleklerin üretimi artık neredeyse bir bilim dalı haline gelmiştir.

Frenler
Motosikletlerde birbirinden bağımsız iki çeşit fren sistemi bulunur. Bunlar ön ve arka fren sistemleridir. Bazı modellerde bu iki sistem birbiriyle etkileşimli olarak dizayn edilmiştir. Ön fren arka frene göre daha güçlü ve etkilidir.

Süspansiyonlar
Modern dizayn motosikletlerde ön ve arka süspansiyonlar olmak üzere iki tip süspansiyon sistemi vardır ve bunlar doğrudan şasiye bağlıdır.

Aygıtlar
Özel arazi motosikletleri hariç hemen hemen tüm motosikletlerde hız göstergesi odometre (yol göstergesi) ve takometre standarttır. Yağ göstergesi ve benzin göstergeleri de günümüz modellerinde mevcuttur.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Motosikletçilik
 Motosiklet kulübü
 Motosiklet kaskı
 Motosiklet yarışı
 Motosiklet sporu

Dış bağlantılar

Alman icatları
Tekerlekli taşıtlar

Motosiklet


Cartaxo belediyesi, Portekiz'in Alentejo bölgesine bağlı Lezíria do Tejo altbölgesinin belediyelerinden biridir.

Bucaklar
Belediyede 8 bucak (Por.: freguesia) yer almaktadır.

 Cartaxo
 Ereira
 Lapa
 Pontével
 Valada
 Vale da Pedra
 Vale da Pinta
 Vila Chã de Ourique

Lezíria do Tejo'nun belediyeleri

Cartaxo


Hartwig Beseler (* 20. März 1920 in Verden (Aller); † 24. März 2005) war ein deutscher Kunsthistoriker, Denkmalpfleger und von 1963 bis 1985 Landeskonservator von Schleswig-Holstein.

Leben
Hartwig Beseler, der in Kiel seine Kindheit und Schulzeit verbrachte, begann in den späten 1930er-Jahren ein Studium der Kunstgeschichte, Geschichte und Archäologie an der Philipps-Universität Marburg. 1940/41 nahm er an der Kunstschutzkampagne des Bildarchivs Foto Marburg im besetzten Frankreich als Fotograf teil.
Beseler setzte anschließend sein Studium in Kiel und München fort und promovierte nach einer Unterbrechung durch Kriegsdienst und Verwundung 1946 bei Hans Jantzen in München über die Baugeschichte der Hildesheimer Michaeliskirche.

Dem folgten Anstellungen als wissenschaftlicher Assistent in Frankfurt am Main und Bonn, wo er 1952 die Gelegenheit erhielt, im Amt des Landeskonservators Rheinland die Wiederaufbaumaßnahmen an den zerstörten Kirchen Kölns zu koordinieren. Bis 1963 arbeitete er als Gebietsreferent beim Rheinischen Amt für Denkmalpflege in Bonn und wechselte dann nach Kiel, um dort als Landeskonservator bis 1985 das Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Schleswig-Holstein zu leiten.

Hartwig Beseler war neben seiner Kieler Tätigkeit in zahlreichen Vorständen und Gremien vertreten, unter anderem im Verband Deutscher Kunsthistoriker, der Vereinigung der Landesdenkmalpfleger, im Planungsbeirat des Berliner Bau- und Wohnungswesens, des Deutschen Nationalkomitees für Denkmalschutz und im Expertenbeirat des Programms "National wertvolle Kulturdenkmäler" des Beauftragten der Bundesregierung für Kultur und Medien. 1974 berief man ihn in den Arbeitskreis "Historische Stadtkerne" der Deutschen UNESCO-Kommission. Beseler war Mitglied der Freien Akademie der Künste Hamburg, in Anerkennung seiner Tätigkeiten für den Denkmalschutz erhielt Beseler 1986 den Kulturpreis der Stadt Kiel.

Wirken für die Denkmalpflege
Beseler organisierte in seinen Kieler Jahren die Denkmalpflege, die er als generationenübergreifende Aufgabe verstand, neu und modernisierte die Institution. Er weitete den Fokus von den historisch bedeutenden Einzelbauwerken auf jüngere Bauten und Ensembles aus. Wichtig war ihm die Vermittlung der denkmalpflegerischen Inhalte und Tätigkeiten in der Öffentlichkeit; dies begleitete er mit zahlreichen Publikationen.

Im September 2011 verlieh der Denkmalfonds Schleswig-Holstein erstmals den mit 1000 Euro dotierten "Hartwig-Beseler-Preis", um damit Personen zu ehren, die sich ganz im Sinne Beselers für die Belange der Denkmalpflege und des Denkmalschutzes eingesetzt haben. Erster Preisträger war der Architekt Horst von Bassewitz.

Schriften (Auswahl)
 (mit Hans Roggenkamp) Die Michaeliskirche in Hildesheim. Mann, Berlin 1954.
 Niederrhein (Deutsche Lande – Deutsche Kunst). München/Berlin 1962
 Die Kunstdenkmäler des Landes Schleswig-Holstein. Wachholtz, Neumünster 1966–1989.
 Kulturdenkmale in Not! Eine Fibel. Denkmalfonds Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel 1978.
 Bauten in Schleswig-Holstein zwischen Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (1830–1930). 2. Auflage. Westholsteinische Verlagsanstalt Boyens, Heide in Holstein 1980, ISBN 3-8042-0105-9.
 (mit Klaus Detlefsen und Kurt Gelhaar) Architektur in Schleswig-Holstein 1900–1980. Wachholtz, Neumünster 1980.
 (mit Niels Gutschow) Kriegsschicksale deutscher Architektur: Verluste – Schäden – Wiederaufbau. Eine Dokumentation für das Gebiet der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Wachholtz, Neumünster 1988, ISBN 3-529-02685-9.
 Wir Konservatoren und die Denkmalpflege. Ein paar skeptische Anmerkungen. In: Die Denkmalpflege als Plage und Frage. Festgabe für August Gebessler. Hrsg. Georg Mörsch, Richard Strobel. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München 1989, ISBN 3-422-06037-5, S. 33–37.

Literatur
 Johannes Habich: Hartwig Beseler. In: Die Denkmalpflege. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Vereinigung der Landesdenkmalpfleger in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Band 63, 2005, Heft 2, S. 199–204, .
 Michael Paarmann: Dr. Hartwig Beseler †. Landeskonservator von Schleswig-Holstein 1963–85. In: Der Maueranker. Baupflege in Nordfriesland, Dithmarschen und Angeln. 24. Jg., 2005, Heft 3–4, Dezember, S. 31–34, .

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Landeskonservator (Schleswig-Holstein)
Kunsthistoriker
Deutscher
Geboren 1920
Gestorben 2005
Mann

Hartwig Beseler


An Carex echinata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Johan Andreas Murray. An Carex echinata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 C. e. echinata
 C. e. phyllomanica

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Carex

Carex echinata


Angerberg er en kommune i Kufsteindistriktet i Østrig. Det er beliggende 2,7 kilometer nord for Wörgl og 14 kilometer sydvest for Kufstein. Landsbyen blev nævnt for første gang i dokumenter i 1190.

Befolkningen

Henvisninger

Eksterne henvisninger

 Officiel hjemmeside

Byer i Tyrol

Angerberg


Erlik Han, Türk ve Altay mitolojisinde kötülük yapan Tanrı ruhudur. Erlik Han, Gök Tanrı'nın oğlu ve eski Türklerin  inancı Tengricilik'te yer altı âleminin efendisidir. (Yerlik/Erlik de denir). Moğollar ise Erleg veya Yerleg derler. Macar mitolojisindeki Ördög ile eşdeğerdir. Ülgen'in kardeşidir. Yer Tengri'nin yeğeni ve Kayra Han'ın oğludur.

Özellikleri
Günümüzde "kötü cin" olarak kullanılan bir tür cin olmasına rağmen kötülüğü simgeleyen bir tanrı ruhudur. Altayların bir yaradılış efsanesine göre Erlik Han, dünyanın yaradılışında Tengri'ye karşı fenalık yapmış ve Tengri onu ceza olarak yer altı âleminin efendisi yapmıştır. Erlik Han, yer altı âleminin en alt katında yeşil demirden bir sarayda, gümüşten bir tahtın üzerinde oturur. Orada kendine koyu kırmızı parlayan ve çok az ışık veren bir güneş yaratmıştır. Emirinde dokuz semerli boğası vardır.

Erlik Han lanetlenmiştir, Tanrı [Ülgen] ve yarattığı karada dokuz dallı çam ağacının dokuz dalından kendi halkını türetir. Erlik tanrıya: "Bu halk benim olsun." der. Tanrı da ona: "Git kendi halkını kendin bul." deyip Erlik'i geri çevirir. Tanrının halkının bu ağacın yalnız doğuya bakan 5 dalından istifade etmelerine izin verilmiştir. Kalan dört dal yasaklamıştır. Erlik gidip bu halkı baştan çıkarır. Erkek olan Törüngey ile dişi olan Eje, Erlik'in şu sözüne kanarlar "Bu dört dal aslında size yasak değildir, meyveleri de pek tatlıdır. Dilediğinizce yiyin." Erlik sonra ağaca bekçi bulunan yılan uyurken ağzına girer ve ağaca çıkar, Ece'ye müsaade ettiğini söyler. Bunun üstüne Ece meyveden yer, Törüngey'in de ağzına sürer. Tanrı durumu fark eder ve Erlik'i yer altına gönderir. Eje'ye, "Sen benim sözümü tutmadın, bundan sonra gebe kalasın ve doğum sancıları çekesin" der. Yılana "Sen benim sözümü tutmadın, bundan böyle Şeytan diye bilinesin, herkes seni ezmeye öldürmeye çalışsın" der. Törünge'ye, "Sen benim sözümü tutmadın, 9 kızın 9 oğlun olacak ve hepsinden sen sorumlu olacaksın, insan neslini sen çoğaltacaksın" der. "Hepinizi hanemden kovuyorum, dünyaya gönderiyorum, burada sizi ben beslerdim, ben korurdum, artık kendinizi besleyip koruyacaksınız, bir daha da sesimi duymayacaksınız" diye ekler. Böylece Erlik insanoğluna ilk kötülüğünü etmiş olur.

Erlik; sağlam gövdeli, atletik yapılı yaşlı bir varlık olarak düşünülür. Gözleri, kaşları kara renklidir. Çatal sakalı dizlerine değin uzanmıştır. Yaban domuzunun azı dişlerine benzeyen bıyığı kulakları üzerine yerleşmiştir. Kara ve kıvırcık saçlıdır. Çenesi tokmağa, boynuzları ağaç köklerine benzer. Kana benzer parlak yüzlü Erlik'in, kara demirden kılıcı ve kalkanı vardır. Bineği kara at ya da kara boğadır (belki de öküz). Erklig Kan, Eski Uygur sanatında boğa ya da öküze binmiş olarak tasvir edilmiştir.

Kötülüklerin kaynağıdır. Yer altında yaşar. Saçları, gözleri ve kaşları ile atı karadır. Çatal (çiftli) sakalı dizlerine kadar uzamıştır. Boynuzları ağaç köklerine, bıyıkları yaban domuzunun dişlerine benzer.  Yatağı kunduz derisindendir. Kadehi insan kafatasındandır. Kamçısı karayılandandır. Körüğü, çekici ve örsü vardır. Dokuz oğlu ile dokuz kızı vardır. Çenesi tokmak gibidir. Eyerlenmiş dokuz boğası vardır. Gümüş bir tahtı vardır. Yer altında demir sarayında yaşar. Yassı demirden bir kalkanı bulunur. Kılıcı geniş ağızlı bir paladır. İhtiyar ve çirkin bir görüntüye sahiptir. Kara renkle simgelenir. Kendisine kara at kurban edilir. Kayra Han ilk önce bir varlık yaratmış onun aracılığı ile de yeryüzünü, dağları, vadileri meydana getirmiştir. Bu varlığın kendisine baş kaldırması üzerine, ona "Erlik" adını vererek ışık evreninden yer altına atmış, ayrıca yerden dokuz dallı bir ağaç büyüterek her dalında değişik bir cins insan yaratmıştır. Sonsuz suların içinden toprak (balçık) çıkarma görevi ona verilmiş fakat Erlik yeryüzü yaratılırken ağzında kendisi için bir parça toprak saklamış fakat bu yaptığı anlaşılınca cezalandırılmıştır. Bazı yaratılış efsanelerinde cezalandırılan canlı ördektir. Suyun altından çıkardığı toprağı ağzında saklamıştır. Macar efsanelerinde Aran Ata ördeğin bacaklarını kırdığı için paytak kalmıştır. Macar mitolojisinde Erlik'e eşdeğer olan Ördög'ün adının Ördek sözcüğüne benzemesi de bu bakımdan ilgi çekicidir. Evenk mitolojisinde ise cezalandırılan canlı köpektir. Bu ceza nedeniyle kıllı ve kirlidir. Erlik  bilgisiz, yıkıcıdır. Düzen ve barış istemez. Huzura karşıdır, yeryüzünü karıştırmak ister. Sonsuz karanlıkların içinde yaşar. İradesi yoktur. İradesizliği simgeler. Affedilir fakat hemen ardından kötülüğe dalar. Evrenin başlangıcında yalnızca Ülgen ve Erlik vardır. Kaz ve kuğu kılığına girerek sonsuz suyun üzerinde uçarlar. Kayra Han ise evrenden önce de mevcuttur. İki köpeğinin adı Kazar ve Pazar'dır. Yer altındaki ırmağın kenarında, yüksek bir dağın eteğinde kırk köşeli taş evinde yaşar. Çelik mızrak şeklinde bir tılsımı vardır. Bir insanın eline geçtiğinde ölümcül bir silah olur. Tüm düşmanları yok eder. Gözkapakları bir karış, saçları dimdik, yüzü kan gibi kırmızıdır. Bıyığı kıvrılarak kulağına asılmıştır. Vücudu yılanlarla kaplıdır. Domuz boynuzlu öküzünün sırtında yolculuk yapar. Kızlarının hiçbirinin adı yoktur. Kötü ruhların tamamı onun egemenliği altındadır. Pora Ninci ve Kara Ninci adlı iki yardımcısı vardır. Gökten kovulduğunda yardımcı ve hizmetkarları da onunla birlikte yere dökülmüştür. O hızla toprağın altına saplanmışlardır. Erliğin gelişiyle aleme aniden karanlık çöker, rüzgâr eser, fırtına kopar, yer sarsılır. Yer altını kara bir güneşle aydınlatır. 1980 yılında Moğolistan'da bulunan bir dinozora Erlik ismine istinaden Erlikosaurus adı verilmiştir.

Erlik Han'ın çocukları
Erlik'in dokuz oğlu ve dokuz kızı vardır. Kara Oğlanlar olarak anılan Dokuz oğlu, adlarıyla birlikte şunlardır:
Karaş Han, Matır Han, Şıngay Han, Kömür Han, Badış Han, Yabaş Han, Temir Han, Uçar Han, Kerey Han.

Altay Şamanizmine göre Erlik'in oğulları yer altına inen şamana yol gösterirler. Erlik ve oğulları için zayıf ve hasta hayvanlar kurban edilir. Çünkü Altaylılar'ın inançlarına göre Erlik, kötü (zayıf ve sakat) kurbanlardan hoşlanır. Erlik'e asla at kurban edilmez. Ayrıca, Erlik'i simgeleyen şeyler ve tasvirler yapmak yasaktır. Erlik Han'ın oğulları her zaman babaları gibi kötü değildir. Bunlar, kötü ruhlardan insanları korurlar. Babaları için yapılan kurban törenlerinde hazır bulunurlar ve töreni yöneten kamın Erlik Han'ın yanına gitmesine öncülük ederler. Yeryüzündeki görevlerinden ayrı olarak Erlik'in oğulları yer altındaki gölleri, ırmakları, denizleri yönetirler...

Kızları olan Kara Kızlar kuttörenleri sırasında kamları baştan çıkarıp, onların başarısız olmalarına neden olurlar. Erlik ile iletişime geçen şamanlara Kara Kam denir.

Erlik'in kızları, kam Gök Tanrı'ya (Ülgen'e) kurban vermek için göğe çıkarken, kamı yataklarına çağırıp yolundan alıkoymağa çalışırlar. Kam, işini unutup Erlik'in kızlarının cilvelerine kanarsa başka ruhlarca cezalandırılır ve Tanrı'nın kurbanı kabul etmesi işi de tehlikeye düşer. Erlik'in kızlarından ikisi Kiştey Ana ile Erke Solton'dur.

Erlik Han'ın mamutları
Sibirya'nın kuzeyinde yaşayan ve doğaya bağlı bir yaşam sürdüren Türk halkından olan Dolganlarda anlatılan bir efsaneye göre, Erlik han mamutları yeryüzünden alıp yer altı âlemine götürmüştür. Mamutlar orada pis kokuların, sıcağın ve karanlığın içinde Erlik Han'a hizmet etmek zorundadırlar. Eğer bir mamut oradan kaçıp tekrar yeryüzüne ulaşmaya çalışırsa derhal buz kesilip ölür.

Popüler Kültürde Erlik
Senfonik Metal grubu Therion, 17 Ekim 2023 tarihinde "Leviathan III" adlı albümünde "Ruler of Tamag" adlı parçasında Erlik Han'dan, Karaş Han'dan ve Çıngay Han'dan bahsetmiştir. Tamag, Türk mitolojisinde cehennem ile ilişkilendirilebilecek mitolojik bir mekandır.

Etimoloji
(Er/Yer) kökünden türemiştir. Kişi, güç ve yer, yer altı kelimeleri ile bağlantılıdır. Buryatçada kan içen anlamında kullanılır.

Dış bağlantılar
 Türk Mitoloji Sözlüğü, Pınar Karaca

Kaynakça

 Çoban, Ramazan Volkan. (2012). Türk Mitolojisinde Kötülük Tanrısı Erlik'in İnanıştaki Yeri, Tasviri ve Kökeni. Simitçay Dergisi, Sayı 2, 1-6. Kaynak
 Çoban, Ramazan Volkan. (2013). Türk Mitolojisinde İyilik Tanrısı Ülgen'in İnanıştaki Yeri, Tasviri ve Kökeni. Bilim ve Kültür Dergisi, Sayı 1, 192-198. Kaynak
 Çoban, Ramazan Volkan. (2019). Türk Mitolojisinin Karanlık ve Aydınlık Yüzleri Ülgen Erlik Aktüel Arkeoloji Dergisi, Aktüel Arkeoloji, Sayı 70, 34-43. Kaynak
 Türk Söylence Sözlüğü, Deniz Karakurt, Türkiye, 2011 (OTRS: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Ayrıca bakınız
 Kara Oğlanlar
 Kara Kızlar

Türk mitolojisi
Yeraltı tanrıları
Türk tanrıları
Moğol mitolojisi
Altay ilahları
Altay mitolojisi
Türk iblisleri
Türk ilahları

Erlik


Stillehavets Grand Prix var et Formel 1-løb som blev kørt 2 gange, i  og , på TI Circuit Aida i Japan. Michael Schumacher vandt løbet begge gange det blev kørt.

Vindere af Stillehavets Grand Prix

Løb markeret med rosa baggrund var ikke en del af Formel 1-verdensmesterskabet.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Chicane F1 – Pacific GP

Stillehavets Grand Prix


A prior probability distribution of an uncertain quantity, often simply called the prior, is its assumed probability distribution before some evidence is taken into account. For example, the prior could be the probability distribution representing the relative proportions of voters who will vote for a particular politician in a future election. The unknown quantity may be a parameter of the model or a latent variable rather than an observable variable.

In Bayesian statistics, Bayes' rule prescribes how to update the prior with new information to obtain the posterior probability distribution, which is the conditional distribution of the uncertain quantity given new data. Historically, the choice of priors was often constrained to a conjugate family of a given likelihood function, for that it would result in a tractable posterior of the same family. The widespread availability of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods, however, has made this less of a concern.

There are many ways to construct a prior distribution. In some cases, a prior may be determined from past information, such as previous experiments. A prior can also be elicited from the purely subjective assessment of an experienced expert. When no information is available, an uninformative prior may be adopted as justified by the principle of indifference. In modern applications, priors are also often chosen for their mechanical properties, such as regularization and feature selection.

The prior distributions of model parameters will often depend on parameters of their own. Uncertainty about these hyperparameters can, in turn, be expressed as hyperprior probability distributions. For example, if one uses a beta distribution to model the distribution of the parameter p of a Bernoulli distribution, then:
 p is a parameter of the underlying system (Bernoulli distribution), and
 α and β are parameters of the prior distribution (beta distribution); hence hyperparameters.
In principle, priors can be decomposed into many conditional levels of distributions, so-called hierarchical priors.

Informative priors
An informative prior expresses specific, definite information about a variable.
An example is a prior distribution for the temperature at noon tomorrow.
A reasonable approach is to make the prior a normal distribution with expected value equal to today's noontime temperature, with variance equal to the day-to-day variance of atmospheric temperature,
or a distribution of the temperature for that day of the year.

This example has a property in common with many priors,
namely, that the posterior from one problem (today's temperature) becomes the prior for another problem (tomorrow's temperature); pre-existing evidence which has already been taken into account is part of the prior and, as more evidence accumulates, the posterior is determined largely by the evidence rather than any original assumption, provided that the original assumption admitted the possibility of what the evidence is suggesting. The terms "prior" and "posterior" are generally relative to a specific datum or observation.

Weakly informative priors
A weakly informative prior expresses partial information about a variable, steering the analysis toward solutions that align with existing knowledge without overly constraining the results and preventing extreme estimates. An example is, when setting the prior distribution for the temperature at noon tomorrow in St. Louis, to use a normal distribution with mean 50 degrees Fahrenheit and standard deviation 40 degrees, which very loosely constrains the temperature to the range (10 degrees, 90 degrees) with a small chance of being below -30 degrees or above 130 degrees.  The purpose of a weakly informative prior is for regularization, that is, to keep inferences in a reasonable range.

Uninformative priors
An uninformative, flat, or diffuse prior expresses vague or general information about a variable. The term "uninformative prior" is somewhat of a misnomer. Such a prior might also be called a not very informative prior, or an objective prior, i.e. one that's not subjectively elicited.

Uninformative priors can express "objective" information such as "the variable is positive" or "the variable is less than some limit". The simplest and oldest rule for determining a non-informative prior is the principle of indifference, which assigns equal probabilities to all possibilities. In parameter estimation problems, the use of an uninformative prior typically yields results which are not too different from conventional statistical analysis, as the likelihood function often yields more information than the uninformative prior.

Some attempts have been made at finding a priori probabilities, i.e. probability distributions in some sense logically required by the nature of one's state of uncertainty; these are a subject of philosophical controversy, with Bayesians being roughly divided into two schools: "objective Bayesians", who believe such priors exist in many useful situations, and "subjective Bayesians" who believe that in practice priors usually represent subjective judgements of opinion that cannot be rigorously justified (Williamson 2010).  Perhaps the strongest arguments for objective Bayesianism were given by Edwin T. Jaynes, based mainly on the consequences of symmetries and on the principle of maximum entropy.

As an example of an a priori prior, due to Jaynes (2003), consider a situation in which one knows a ball has been hidden under one of three cups, A, B, or C, but no other information is available about its location.  In this case a uniform prior of p(A) = p(B) = p(C) = 1/3 seems intuitively like the only reasonable choice.  More formally, we can see that the problem remains the same if we swap around the labels ("A", "B" and "C") of the cups.  It would therefore be odd to choose a prior for which a permutation of the labels would cause a change in our predictions about which cup the ball will be found under; the uniform prior is the only one which preserves this invariance.  If one accepts this invariance principle then one can see that the uniform prior is the logically correct prior to represent this state of knowledge. This prior is "objective" in the sense of being the correct choice to represent a particular state of knowledge, but it is not objective in the sense of being an observer-independent feature of the world: in reality the ball exists under a particular cup, and it only makes sense to speak of probabilities in this situation if there is an observer with limited knowledge about the system.

As a more contentious example, Jaynes published an argument based on the invariance of the prior under a change of parameters that suggests that the prior representing complete uncertainty about a probability should be the Haldane prior p−1(1 − p)−1.  The example Jaynes gives is of finding a chemical in a lab and asking whether it will dissolve in water in repeated experiments.  The Haldane prior gives by far the most weight to  and , indicating that the sample will either dissolve every time or never dissolve, with equal probability.  However, if one has observed samples of the chemical to dissolve in one experiment and not to dissolve in another experiment then this prior is updated to the uniform distribution on the interval [0, 1].  This is obtained by applying Bayes' theorem to the data set consisting of one observation of dissolving and one of not dissolving, using the above prior.  The Haldane prior is an improper prior distribution (meaning that it has an infinite mass).  Harold Jeffreys devised a systematic way for designing uninformative priors as e.g., Jeffreys prior p−1/2(1 − p)−1/2 for the Bernoulli random variable.

Priors can be constructed which are proportional to the Haar measure if the parameter space X carries a natural group structure which leaves invariant our Bayesian state of knowledge. This can be seen as a generalisation of the invariance principle used to justify the uniform prior over the three cups in the example above.  For example, in physics we might expect that an experiment will give the same results regardless of our choice of the origin of a coordinate system. This induces the group structure of the translation group on X, which determines the prior probability as a constant improper prior. Similarly, some measurements are naturally invariant to the choice of an arbitrary scale (e.g., whether centimeters or inches are used, the physical results should be equal). In such a case, the scale group is the natural group structure, and the corresponding prior on X is proportional to 1/x. It sometimes matters whether we use the left-invariant or right-invariant Haar measure. For example, the left and right invariant Haar measures on the affine group are not equal. Berger (1985, p. 413) argues that the right-invariant Haar measure is the correct choice.

Another idea, championed by Edwin T. Jaynes, is to use the principle of maximum entropy (MAXENT). The motivation is that the Shannon entropy of a probability distribution measures the amount of information contained in the distribution. The larger the entropy, the less information is provided by the distribution. Thus, by maximizing the entropy over a suitable set of probability distributions on X, one finds the distribution that is least informative in the sense that it contains the least amount of information consistent with the constraints that define the set. For example, the maximum entropy prior on a discrete space, given only that the probability is normalized to 1, is the prior that assigns equal probability to each state. And in the continuous case, the maximum entropy prior given that the density is normalized with mean zero and unit variance is the standard normal distribution.  The principle of minimum cross-entropy generalizes MAXENT to the case of "updating" an arbitrary prior distribution with suitable constraints in the maximum-entropy sense.

A related idea, reference priors, was introduced by José-Miguel Bernardo. Here, the idea is to maximize the expected Kullback–Leibler divergence of the posterior distribution relative to the prior. This maximizes the expected posterior information about X when the prior density is p(x); thus, in some sense, p(x) is the "least informative" prior about X. The reference prior is defined in the asymptotic limit, i.e., one considers the limit of the priors so obtained as the number of data points goes to infinity.  In the present case, the KL divergence between the prior and posterior distributions is given by

Here,  is a sufficient statistic for some parameter .  The inner integral is the KL divergence between the posterior  and prior  distributions and the result is the weighted mean over all values of .   Splitting the logarithm into two parts, reversing the order of integrals in the second part and noting that  does not depend on  yields

The inner integral in the second part is the integral over  of the joint density .  This is the marginal distribution , so we have

Now we use the concept of entropy which, in the case of probability distributions, is the negative expected value of the logarithm of the probability mass or density function or   Using this in the last equation yields

In words, KL is the negative expected value over  of the entropy of  conditional on  plus the marginal (i.e. unconditional) entropy of .  In the limiting case where the sample size tends to infinity, the Bernstein-von Mises theorem states that the distribution of  conditional on a given observed value of  is normal with a variance equal to the reciprocal of the Fisher information at the 'true' value of .  The entropy of a normal density function is equal to half the logarithm of  where  is the variance of the distribution.  In this case therefore  where  is the arbitrarily large sample size (to which Fisher information is proportional) and  is the 'true' value.  Since this does not depend on  it can be taken out of the integral, and as this integral is over a probability space it equals one.  Hence we can write the asymptotic form of KL as

where  is proportional to the (asymptotically large) sample size.  We do not know the value of .  Indeed, the very idea goes against the philosophy of Bayesian inference in which 'true' values of parameters are replaced by prior and posterior distributions.  So we remove  by replacing it with  and taking the expected value of the normal entropy, which we obtain by multiplying by  and integrating over .  This allows us to combine the logarithms yielding

This is a quasi-KL divergence ("quasi" in the sense that the square root of the Fisher information may be the kernel of an improper distribution).  Due to the minus sign, we need to minimise this in order to maximise the KL divergence with which we started.  The minimum value of the last equation occurs where the two distributions in the logarithm argument, improper or not, do not diverge.  This in turn occurs when the prior distribution is proportional to the square root of the Fisher information of the likelihood function.  Hence in the single parameter case, reference priors and Jeffreys priors are identical, even though Jeffreys has a very different rationale.

Reference priors are often the objective prior of choice in multivariate problems, since other rules (e.g., Jeffreys' rule) may result in priors with problematic behavior.

Objective prior distributions may also be derived from other principles, such as information or coding theory (see e.g. minimum description length) or frequentist statistics (so-called probability matching priors). Such methods are used in Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference. Constructing objective priors have been recently introduced in bioinformatics, and specially inference in cancer systems biology, where sample size is limited and a vast amount of prior knowledge is available. In these methods, either an information theory based criterion, such as KL divergence or log-likelihood function for binary supervised learning problems and mixture model problems.

Philosophical problems associated with uninformative priors are associated with the choice of an appropriate metric, or measurement scale. Suppose we want a prior for the running speed of a runner who is unknown to us. We could specify, say, a normal distribution as the prior for his speed, but alternatively we could specify a normal prior for the time he takes to complete 100 metres, which is proportional to the reciprocal of the first prior. These are very different priors, but it is not clear which is to be preferred.  Jaynes' often-overlooked method of transformation groups can answer this question in some situations.

Similarly, if asked to estimate an unknown proportion between 0 and 1, we might say that all proportions are equally likely, and use a uniform prior. Alternatively, we might say that all orders of magnitude for the proportion are equally likely, the , which is the uniform prior on the logarithm of proportion. The Jeffreys prior attempts to solve this problem by computing a prior which expresses the same belief no matter which metric is used. The Jeffreys prior for an unknown proportion p is p−1/2(1 − p)−1/2, which differs from Jaynes' recommendation.

Priors based on notions of algorithmic probability are used in inductive inference as a basis for induction in very general settings.

Practical problems associated with uninformative priors include the requirement that the posterior distribution be proper. The usual uninformative priors on continuous, unbounded variables are improper. This need not be a problem if the posterior distribution is proper. Another issue of importance is that if an uninformative prior is to be used routinely, i.e., with many different data sets, it should have good frequentist properties. Normally a Bayesian would not be concerned with such issues, but it can be important in this situation. For example, one would want any decision rule based on the posterior distribution to be admissible under the adopted loss function. Unfortunately, admissibility is often difficult to check, although some results are known (e.g., Berger and Strawderman 1996). The issue is particularly acute with hierarchical Bayes models; the usual priors (e.g., Jeffreys' prior) may give badly inadmissible decision rules if employed at the higher levels of the hierarchy.

Improper priors
Let events  be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. If Bayes' theorem is written as

then it is clear that the same result would be obtained if all the prior probabilities P(Ai) and P(Aj) were multiplied by a given constant; the same would be true for a continuous random variable.  If the summation in the denominator converges, the posterior probabilities will still sum (or integrate) to 1 even if the prior values do not, and so the priors may only need to be specified in the correct proportion. Taking this idea further, in many cases the sum or integral of the prior values may not even need to be finite to get sensible answers for the posterior probabilities.  When this is the case, the prior is called an improper prior.  However, the posterior distribution need not be a proper distribution if the prior is improper. This is clear from the case where event B is independent of all of the Aj.

Statisticians sometimes use improper priors as uninformative priors.  For example, if they need a prior distribution for the mean and variance of a random variable, they may assume p(m, v) ~ 1/v (for v > 0) which would suggest that any value for the mean is "equally likely" and that a value for the positive variance becomes "less likely" in inverse proportion to its value.  Many authors (Lindley, 1973; De Groot, 1937; Kass and Wasserman, 1996) warn against the danger of over-interpreting those priors since they are not probability densities. The only relevance they have is found in the corresponding posterior, as long as it is well-defined for all observations. (The Haldane prior is a typical counterexample.)

By contrast, likelihood functions do not need to be integrated, and a likelihood function that is uniformly 1 corresponds to the absence of data (all models are equally likely, given no data): Bayes' rule multiplies a prior by the likelihood, and an empty product is just the constant likelihood 1. However, without starting with a prior probability distribution, one does not end up getting a posterior probability distribution, and thus cannot integrate or compute expected values or loss. See  for details.

Examples
Examples of improper priors include:
 The uniform distribution on an infinite interval (i.e., a half-line or the entire real line).
 Beta(0,0), the beta distribution for α=0, β=0 (uniform distribution on log-odds scale).
 The logarithmic prior on the positive reals (uniform distribution on log scale).

These functions, interpreted as uniform distributions, can also be interpreted as the likelihood function in the absence of data, but are not proper priors.

Prior probability in statistical mechanics
While in Bayesian statistics the prior probability is used to represent initial beliefs about an uncertain parameter, in statistical mechanics the a priori probability is used to describe the initial state of a system. The classical version is defined as the ratio of the number of elementary events (e.g. the number of times a die is thrown) to the total number of events—and these considered purely deductively, i.e. without any experimenting. In the case of the die if we look at it on the table without throwing it, each elementary event is reasoned deductively to have the same probability—thus the probability of each outcome of an imaginary throwing of the (perfect) die or simply by counting the number of faces is 1/6. Each face of the die appears with equal probability—probability being a measure defined for each elementary event. The result is different if we throw the die twenty times and ask how many times (out of 20) the number 6 appears on the upper face. In this case time comes into play and we have a different type of probability depending on time or the number of times the die is thrown. On the other hand, the a priori probability is independent of time—you can look at the die on the table as long as you like without touching it and you deduce the probability for the number 6 to appear on the upper face is 1/6.

In statistical mechanics, e.g. that of a gas contained in a finite volume , both the spatial coordinates  and the momentum coordinates  of the individual gas elements (atoms or molecules) are finite in the phase space spanned by these coordinates. In analogy to the case of the die, the a priori probability is here (in the case of a continuum) proportional to the phase space volume element  divided by , and is the number of standing waves (i.e. states) therein, where  is the range of the variable   and  is the range of the variable  (here for simplicity considered in one dimension). In 1 dimension (length ) this number or statistical weight or a priori weighting  is . In customary 3 dimensions (volume ) the corresponding number can be calculated to be . In order to understand this quantity as giving a number of states in quantum (i.e. wave) mechanics, recall that in quantum mechanics every particle is associated with a matter wave which is the solution of a Schrödinger equation. In the case of free particles (of energy ) like those of a gas in a box of volume  such a matter wave is explicitly
,
where  are integers. The number of different   values and hence states in the region between  is then found to be the above expression  by considering the area covered by these points.
Moreover, in view of the uncertainty relation, which in 1 spatial dimension is
,
these states are indistinguishable (i.e. these states do not carry labels). An important consequence is a result known as Liouville's theorem, i.e. the time independence of this phase space volume element and thus of the a priori probability. A time dependence of this quantity would imply known information about the dynamics of the system, and hence would not be an a priori probability. Thus the region

when differentiated with respect to time  yields zero (with the help of Hamilton's equations): The volume at time  is the same as at time zero. One describes this also as conservation of information.

In the full quantum theory one has an analogous conservation law. In this case, the phase space region is replaced by a subspace of the space of states expressed in terms of a projection operator , and instead of the probability in phase space, one has the probability density

where  is the dimensionality of the subspace. The conservation law in this case is expressed by the unitarity of the S-matrix. In either case, the considerations assume a closed isolated system. This closed isolated system is a system with (1) a fixed energy  and (2) a fixed number of particles  in (c) a state of equilibrium. If one considers a huge number of replicas of this system, one obtains what is called a microcanonical ensemble. It is for this system that one postulates in quantum statistics the "fundamental postulate of equal a priori probabilities of an isolated system." This says that the isolated system in equilibrium occupies each of its accessible states with the same probability. This fundamental postulate therefore allows us to equate the a priori probability to the degeneracy of a system, i.e. to the number of different states with the same energy.

Example
The following example illustrates the a priori probability (or a priori weighting) in (a) classical and (b) quantal contexts.

(a) Classical a priori probability

Consider the rotational  energy E of a diatomic molecule with moment of inertia I in spherical polar coordinates  (this means  above is here ), i.e.

The -curve for constant E and  is an ellipse of area
.
By integrating over  and  the total volume of phase space  covered for constant energy E is
,
and hence the classical a priori weighting in the energy range  is
  (phase space volume at ) minus  (phase space volume at ) is given by

(b) Quantum a priori probability

Assuming that the number of quantum states in a range  for each direction of motion is given, per element, by a factor , the number of states in the energy range dE is, as seen under (a)  for the rotating diatomic molecule. From wave mechanics it is known that the energy levels of a
rotating diatomic molecule are given by

each such level being (2n+1)-fold degenerate. By evaluating
one obtains

Thus by comparison with  above, one finds that the approximate number of states in the range dE is given by the degeneracy, i.e.

Thus the a priori weighting in the classical context (a) corresponds to the a priori weighting here in the quantal context (b).
In the case of the one-dimensional simple harmonic oscillator of natural frequency  one finds correspondingly: (a) , and (b)  (no degeneracy).
Thus in quantum mechanics the a priori probability is effectively a measure of the degeneracy, i.e. the number of states having the same energy.

In the case of the hydrogen atom or Coulomb potential (where the evaluation of the phase space volume for constant energy is more complicated) one knows that the quantum mechanical degeneracy is  with . Thus in this case .

Priori probability and distribution functions

In statistical mechanics (see any book) one derives the so-called distribution functions  for various statistics. In the case of Fermi–Dirac statistics and Bose–Einstein statistics these functions are
respectively

These functions are derived for (1) a system in dynamic equilibrium (i.e. under steady, uniform conditions) with (2) total (and huge) number of particles  (this condition determines the constant ), and (3) total energy , i.e. with each of the  particles having the energy . An important aspect in the derivation is the taking into account of the indistinguishability of particles and states in quantum statistics, i.e. there particles and states do not have labels. In the case of fermions, like electrons, obeying the Pauli principle (only one particle per state or none allowed), one has therefore

Thus  is a measure of the fraction of states actually occupied by electrons at energy  and temperature . On the other hand, the a priori probability  is a measure of the number of wave mechanical states available. Hence

Since  is constant under uniform conditions (as many particles as flow out of a volume element also flow in steadily, so that the situation in the element appears static), i.e. independent of time , and  is also independent of time  as shown earlier, we obtain

Expressing this equation in terms of its partial derivatives, one obtains the Boltzmann transport equation. How do coordinates  etc. appear here suddenly? Above no mention was made of electric or other fields. Thus with no such fields present we have the Fermi-Dirac distribution as above. But with such fields present we have this additional dependence of .

See also
 Base rate
 Bayesian epistemology
 Strong prior

Notes

References

Bayesian statistics
Probability assessment

Prior probability


William Seward Burroughs II ya da takma adıyla William Lee (5 Şubat 1914 – 2 Ağustos 1997), Amerikalı roman ve deneme yazarı.

Jack Kerouac ve Allen Ginsberg ile birlikte Beat Akımı'nı başlatan yazarlardan biri olarak tanınır. Yazılarının çoğu yarı otobiyografik olarak tanımlanabilir.

Beat kuşağının en renkli yazarlarından biri olan William S. Burroughs, oldukça ilginç bir yaşam sürmüştür.

5 Şubat 1914'te St. Louis, Missouri'de doğan Burroughs, hayli rahat şartlarda büyüdü. 1936'da Harvard Üniversitesi'nden mezun oldu. Açıkça ifade ettiği eşcinsel eğilimleriyle tanınırdı ve sıklıkla uyuşturucularla ilgili deneyimlerini yazardı.

Burroughs, 1951'deki bir Meksika gezisinde, Giyom Tell'den bir sahne canlandırmaya çalışırken, kazayla ikinci karısı Joan'u vurdu. Bu olaydan sonra hayatının büyük bölümünü Güney Amerika'yı dolaşıp pek çok uyuşturucu deneyerek ve gelecekteki yazıları için araştırma yaparak geçirdi. The Black Rider adlı, tiyatroya uyarlanan eserinde yaşadığı bu olaydan esinlenmiştir.

Yazılarında, birçok kişinin "kafa karıştırıcı ve ukalaca" olarak nitelendirdiği kolaj (cut up) tekniğini kullanırdı. Ele aldığı konular çoğunlukla yer altı dünyası ve uyuşturucu alt-kültürleriydi. Burroughs'un aynı adlı romanından sinemaya uyarlanan Naked Lunch (Çıplak Şölen), bir kült film olmuştur.

Burroughs, Gus Van Sant'ın Drugstore Cowboy'unda da Matt Dillon'ın canlandırdığı uyuşturucu bağımlısı karakterin akıl hocası olarak yer aldı.

Eserleri arasında The Ticket That Exploded, Nova Express, The Last Words of Dutch Schultz, The Wild Boys, Exterminator, Cities of the Red Night ve kendi eşcinselliğini incelediği Queer sayılabilir.

Çoğu eleştirmen, Burroughs'un eserlerinin uyuşturucu kullanımı ve ahlaksızlığı yücelten, özelliksiz yazılar olduğunu düşünmektedir. Ancak onun sanatsal yeterliliğini takdir eden ve yazılarını ileri görüşlülüğünün kanıtı olarak kabul eden eleştirmenler de bulunmaktadır.

"William Seward Burrougs II: el hombre invisible", "old bull lee", "inspector lee", "punk'ın büyükbabası", "heavy metal kid" unvanlarını kazandı. James Graham Ballard'a göre "II. Dünya Savaşı sonrasındaki en önemli yazar", Norman Mailer için "dehanın hükmettiği tek Amerikalı yazar"dır. Samuel Beckett'a Burroughs hakkındaki görüşü sorulduğunda ise "Evet, o bir yazar" demiştir.

İlaç bağımlılığı ve eşcinsellik, çalışmalarının çoğuna egemendir. Kitaplarının birçoğunda, güçlü bir karışım yaratmak için popüler kültürün tüm alanlarından, filmlerden, karikatürlerden, Western'lerden ve bilimkurgu yapıtlarından düşünceler ödünç alarak kolaj tekniğini denedi. İktidarın kötüye kullanılmasından büyük rahatsızlık duyması nedeniyle ilaç bağımlılığını, yaşamlarımızın denetlenme yollarının tümünü kapsayan bir mecaz olarak kullandı.

Burroughs 1997'de, 83 yaşında hayatını kaybetti.
1997 yapımı Good Will Hunting (Can Dostum) filmi William S. Burroughs ve Beat Akımı'ndan arkadaşı Allen Ginsberg'e ithaf edilmiştir.

Bibliyografi
 Junkie/Canki (1953/1994)- roman
 Naked Lunch/Çıplak Şölen (1959/1998) - roman
 Minutes To Go (1960)
 The Exterminator (1960)
 The Soft Machine (1961) - roman
 The Ticket That Exploded (1962) - roman
 Dead Fingers Talk (1963) - roman
 The Yage Letters (1963) (Allen Ginsberg ile birlikte)
 Nova Express (1964) -roman
 Valentine's Day Reading (1965)
 Roosevelt After Inauguration and Other Atrocities (1965) - kısa öyküler
 Time (1965)
 APO-33 (1966)
 So Who Owns Death TV? (1967)
 The Dead Star (1969)
 The Job (1969) (Daniel Odier ile)
 The Last Words of Dutch Schultz (1969)
 Jack Kerouac (1970) (Claude Pelieu ile)
 Ali's Smile (1971)
 The Wild Boys (1971) -roman
 Electronic Revolution (1971)
 Bryon Gysin Let the Mice In (1973) (Gysin ile)
 Exterminator! (1973) - kısa öyküler
 White Subway (1973)
 Mayfair Academy Series More or Less (1973)
 Port of Saints (1973) - roman
 The Book of Breething (1974)
 Sidetripping (1975) (Charles Gatewood ile)
 Snack... (1975)
 Cobble Stone Gardens (1976)
 The Retreat Diaries (1976)
 Colloque de Tangier (1976) (Bryon Gysin ile)
 Letters to Allen Ginsberg 1953-1957 (1976)
 The Third Mind (1977) (Gysin ile)
 Ali's Smile/Naked Scientology (1978)
 Colloque de Tangier Vol. 2 (1979) (Bryon Gysin ve Gérard-Georges Lemaire ile)
 Blade Runner, A Movie (1979)
 Dr. Benway (1979)
 Ah Pook is Here! (1979)
 Streets of Chance (1981)
 Early Routines (1981)
 Cities of the Red Night (1981) -roman
 Ah Pook is Here, Nova Express, Cities of the Red Night (1981)
 Sinki's Sauna (1982)
 The Place of Dead Roads (1983) - roman
 Ruski (1984)
 The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1984)
 The Burroughs File (1984)
 The Adding Machine: Collected Essays (1985)
 Queer (1985) - roman
 The Cat Inside/İçerdeki Kedi (1986/2003) (Bryon Gysin ile) - roman
 The Western Lands (1987) - roman
 The Whole Tamale (c.1987-88)
 Interzone/Ara Bölge (1987/2006) - kısa öyküler
 Apocalypse (1988) (Keith Haring ile)
 Tornado Alley (1989) - kısa öyküler
 Uncommon Quotes Vol. 1 (1989)
 Ghost of Chance/Şans Hayaleti (1991)
 Seven Deadly Sins (1992)
 Paper Cloud; Thick Pages (1992)
 Selected Letters (1993)
 My Education: A Book of Dreams (1995) -roman
 Word Virus : The William Burroughs Reader (1998)
 Burroughs Live : The Collected Interviews of William S. Burroughs, 1960-1997 (2000)
 Last Words: The Final Journals of William S. Burroughs (2000)

Kaynakça

1914 doğumlular
St. Louis, Missouri doğumlular
1997 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyıl Amerikalı yazarları
Beat Kuşağı yazarları
Postmodern yazarlar
LGBT yazarlar
Biseksüel yazarlar
Okültistler
American Academy of Arts and Letters üyeleri
Eroin
Eskiden Scientolojist olanlar
Amerikalı LGBT şairler

William S. Burroughs