The Galactic Empire is an interstellar empire featured in Isaac Asimov's Robot, Galactic Empire, and Foundation series. The Empire is spread across the Milky Way galaxy and consists of almost 25 million planets settled exclusively by humans. For over 12 millennia the seat of imperial authority was located on the ecumenopolis of Trantor, whose population exceeded 40 billion, until it was sacked in the year 12,328. The official symbol of the empire is the Spaceship-and-Sun. Cleon II was the last Emperor to hold significant authority. The fall of the empire, modelled on the fall of the Roman Empire, is the subject of many of Asimov's novels.

Background
Asimov created the fictional Galactic Empire in the early 1940s based upon the Roman Empire, as a proposal to John W. Campbell, after reading Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire when he was working at the Philadelphia Navy Yard with Robert Heinlein. The concept evolved through short stories and novellas in Astounding Science Fiction magazine during the 1940s, culminating in the publication of the Foundation stories as a trilogy of books in the early 1950s.

As of 827 G.E. (Galactic Era, the number of years after its founding), the Galactic Empire comprises millions of inhabited worlds with 500 quadrillion residents. According to the Foundation series chronology established in the late 1990s, it comes into existence approximately 10,000 CE, year one of the Galactic Era. (The establishment of the Empire was originally 34,500 CE, according to Asimov's unofficial unpublished early 1950s chronology.) The Galactic Empire was made possible by the ability of humans to travel through hyperspace. The space navy of the Galactic Empire is called the "Imperial Navy". The empire's capital, named Trantor, is the closest habitable planet to the center of the galaxy, and the novels in the Foundation trilogy describe its fall, over a period of centuries, and a period of anarchy and decay, a parallel to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Dark Ages.

Asimov posits that two foundations are instituted to restore the empire to its former glory.  Through the use of psychohistory, a future science hypothesized by Asimov, a scientist on Trantor named Hari Seldon in about 12,000 Galactic Era predicts the fall of the empire, and institutes the two foundations.

The Periphery
The Periphery is a fictional location in Isaac Asimov's Foundation series and refers to the outer rims of the Galactic Empire, including planets such as Anacreon and Santanni. Imperial control is weakest in the periphery, as planet governors there frequently possess their own fleets. Santanni revolts during Forward the Foundation. About 50 years after the First Foundation is established on Terminus, the emperor will grant the periphery autonomy. This effectively removes them completely from Imperial control, making the dissolution of the Empire far more apparent than it had been before.

In the years preceding the fall of Trantor, the periphery became any area outside the Empire. As this area became larger the Empire became less and less great.

As the Empire decreased in size and power, the stagnation that would ultimately cause the collapse of the Empire increased.

Emperors
A complete list of Galactic emperors and their dynasties does not exist; however, a number of names and their rule are known:

Consensus cosmogony
Asimov's Galactic Empire was the first example after Olaf Stapledon's 1937 science fiction novel Star Maker of one of the eight stages of a "consensus cosmogony".  This is also called the Science Fiction Cosmology, identified by Donald A. Wollheim in the 1950s. Science fiction writers needed only hint at this cosmogony in their stories for experienced SF readers to slot into their perception of future history and envisage the background to the tale, without the writers needing to expend time and space explicitly explaining it.  These stages are:
The initial exploration, colonization, and exploitation of the solar system, including plots modeled on the American War of Independence where the human colonies on Mars, Venus, or other planets declare independence from Earth
The first flights to the stars, with plots similar to those of the preceding stage
The rise of a galactic empire, and possible contact, either friendly or hostile, with empires of alien species (in Asimov's Galactic Empire, only one intelligent nonhuman race is found; it leaves the galaxy in "Blind Alley")
The Galactic Empire at its height, with exploration occurring at its Rim
The Decline and Fall of the Galactic Empire, as explored by Asimov and later other authors
The Galactic Dark Ages, an interregnum with worlds reverting to barbarism, as also partially explored by Asimov
The Galactic Renaissance, where a new democratic Galactic Civilization arises, including the restoration of civilization to and communication with worlds that were isolated during the Fall—this stage was called by Stapledon the Galactic Community of Worlds, was called by Asimov the Foundation Federation, and is most commonly called by most authors the Galactic Federation
The Challenge to God, an effort to solve the last secrets of the universe by transcending matter and morphing into beings of pure energy, the end of time, and the investigation of the beginnings of new universes—Stapledon covers this in the last part of Star Maker and Asimov covers it in his short story "The Last Question".

Trantor

Trantor is a fictional planet depicted as the capital of the first Galactic Empire. Trantor was first mentioned in Asimov's short story "Black Friar of the Flame", later collected in The Early Asimov, Volume 1. It was described as a human-settled planet in the part of the galaxy not ruled by an intelligent reptilian race (later defeated). Later, Trantor gained prominence when the 1940s Foundation series first appeared in print (in the form of short stories). Asimov described Trantor as being in the center of the galaxy. In later stories he acknowledged the growth in astronomical knowledge by retconning its position to be as close to the Galactic Center as was compatible with human habitability.  (In reality at the galactic center is a very massive black hole and radio source known as Sagittarius A and humans could not possibly live there.)  The first time Trantor was acknowledged in novel form was in Pebble in the Sky.

Trantor represents several different aspects of civilization: it is both the center of power in the galaxy and its administrative headquarters. It is also an illustration of what could eventually happen to any urbanized planet. Asimov used the Roman Empire as the creative basis for the Foundation series, so Trantor is in some sense based on Rome at the height of the Roman Empire.

Geography and history
The earlier history of Trantor is recapitulated in The Currents of Space, mentioning the five worlds of the Trantorian Republic growing into the Trantorian Confederation and then Trantorian Empire (evidently modeled on the Roman Republic, originally ruling only part of central Italy, developing into the vast Roman Empire).

At the time when Currents takes place, Trantor controls about half of the worlds in the Galaxy, while the other half is divided into innumerable independent worlds and miniature empires – which naturally makes a Trantorian Ambassador a person of great consequence on any of the still-independent worlds. Later on, conquest of the entire galaxy made the Galactic Empire, with Trantor as its capital planet, a reality; the planet no longer sending out ambassadors, but only royal governors to subject worlds. This situation had already existed for hundreds of years at the time of Pebble in the Sky, the next chronological book on this timeline.

Its surface of 194,000,000 km (75,000,000 sq mi, approx. 40% of Earth's surface area), implying a radius of around 4000 km (somewhere in between the Earth and Mars), was, with the exception of the Imperial Palace, entirely enclosed in artificial domes. It consisted of an enormous metropolis (an ecumenopolis) that stretched deep underground, and was home to a population of 45,000,000,000 (45 billion) human inhabitants at its height (although Second Foundation mentions a figure ten times that of administrators alone), a population density of 232 per square kilometre (600 per square mile), similar to the current population density of Germany or Connecticut. Its population was devoted almost entirely to either administration of the Empire or to maintenance of the planet itself, including energy provided by "heatsinks" (geothermal core taps) and production of food via underground farming and yeasts, as described in Prelude to Foundation.

The Encyclopedia Galactica states further on Trantor: "As the centre of the Imperial Government for unbroken hundreds of generations and located, as it was, toward the central regions of the Galaxy among the most densely populated and industrially advanced worlds of the system, it could scarcely help being the densest and richest clot of humanity the Race had ever seen."

A Trantorian day lasted 1.08 Galactic Standard Days.

One of the prominent features of Trantor was the Library of Trantor (variously referred to as the Imperial Library, the University of Trantor Library, and the Galactic Library), in which librarians index the entirety of human knowledge by walking up to a different computer terminal every day and resuming where the previous librarian left off.

Near Trantor were twenty agricultural worlds which supplied food which the world-city could not grow for itself, and the "Summer Planets", where the Emperor went for vacation.
Around 260 FE, a rebel leader named Gilmer attempted a coup, in the process sacking Trantor and forcing the Imperial family to flee to the nearby world of Delicass, renamed Neotrantor.  After the sack, the population dwindled rapidly from 40 billion to less than 100 million.  Most of the buildings on Trantor were destroyed during the sack, and over the course of the next two centuries the metal on Trantor was gradually sold off, as farmers uncovered more and more soil to use in their farms. Eventually the farmers grew to become the sole recognised inhabitants of the planet, and the era of Trantor as the central world of the galaxy came to a close. It began to develop a dialect very different from Galactic Standard Speech, and the people unofficially renamed their planet "Hame", or "home".

As revealed to the reader at the end of Second Foundation, not all these farmers were what they seemed, with the now-rustic Trantor serving as the centre of the Second Foundation. From Trantor, the Second Foundationers secretly guided the development of the Galaxy (roughly parallel to the city of Rome becoming, after the fall of its empire, the headquarters of the Papacy, with its enormous influence on the development of Medieval Europe). Indeed, their self-perception as leaders of the future Second Empire is captured in the Second Foundationers' use of the word "Hamish" to describe the farmers despite reserving for themselves use of the word "Trantorian". It is noted that it was the Second Foundation which ensured that the famed library would survive the sacking of Trantor and the destruction of its urban culture – especially significant, considering that the library was vital to the Second Foundation itself.

In the Asimov canon, where events of this time are depicted mainly from a Foundation perspective, the Fall of Trantor is mentioned only as a piece of faraway news and in various later short references. However, Harry Turtledove attempted to fill in the details in his "Trantor Falls", focusing on the efforts by the Second Foundation to survive during the sacking of Trantor (published in the 1989 Foundation's Friends, where various writers took up the Foundation universe).

Food production
According to the original Foundation Trilogy (1951), Asimov states (by way of the Encyclopedia Galactica), "the impossibility of proper administration ... under the uninspired leadership of the later Emperors was a considerable factor in the Fall." To support the needs and whims of the population, food from twenty agricultural worlds brought by ships in the tens of thousands, fleets greater than any navy ever constructed by the Empire. "Its dependence upon the outer worlds for food and, indeed, for all necessities of life, made Trantor increasingly vulnerable to conquest by siege. In the last millennium of the Empire, the monotonously numerous revolts made Emperor after Emperor conscious of this, and Imperial policy became little more than the protection of Trantor's delicate jugular vein" (Encyclopedia Galactica).

In Prelude to Foundation (1989), Asimov indicates that this was not always so: originally, most of Trantor's basic food needs were fulfilled by Trantor's "vast microorganism farms". Yeast vats and algae farms produced basic nutrients, which were then processed with artificial flavors into palatable food. The subterranean farms, however, depended entirely on care provided by tik-toks (lesser robots), and their destruction following an abortive uprising (chronicled in Foundation's Fear) left the Imperial capital largely dependent upon food brought from other worlds. Foundation's Edge mentions algae growing on Trantor, which is called a totally inadequate source of food, so it is possible some of the later Emperors attempted to rectify the situation with limited success. Trantor is, of course, again able to produce its own food after the sack by Gilmer, with the increasing amount of usable land as the metal on the surface was removed and sold.

Races on Trantor
Although by 22,500 years in the future, there had been much racial intermarriage and most people were multiracial, according to Asimov, in the Galactic Empire as a whole as well as on Trantor itself,  there were still some recognizable populations primarily descended from the original races on Earth.  What we call whites were called Westerners, what we call East Asians were called Easterners, and what we call Black people were called Southerners.  No one could remember why these names were used because no one remembered human origins on Earth. Seldon himself openly wondered why there were no "Northerners".

Administrative sectors
Trantor was divided in over 800 administrative sectors, averaging 50,000,000 people each, in , about the size of Uganda or the U.S. state of Kansas.  The known sectors are:

Dahl—One of the poorer sections of Trantor.  The main job of the lower class is heatsinking, where workers supervise the conversion of heat from the planet's core directly into electric power by sinking extremely long rods into the inner core of the planet (the three other major sources of electric power were hydroelectric dams on the underground rivers, fusion energy, and solar energy from Trantor's sun, both from rooftop solar arrays and from solar energy satellites orbiting Trantor that  beamed microwave energy to the surface); 'heatsinkers' were generally looked down upon by other Dahlites, though they were better paid than anyone in Dahl due to their difficult working conditions. Naturally, most Dahlites hated the Empire and its soldiers (colloquially labelled 'sunbadgers'). Dahlites were black-haired, and fairly short; males wore large, thick mustaches, considered a sign of virility, and all carried knives (considered to be primitive weapons). Rather than using 'Mr.', 'Mrs.', or 'Dr.', as forms of address, Dahlites always used 'Master' and 'Mistress' (never 'Doctor'). Known Dahlites: Yugo Amaryl, Mother Rittah, Raych Seldon, Jirad and Casilia Tisalver.
Billibotton—A slum in Dahl, on the lower level.  This was where Mother Rittah lived, and where Hari Seldon and Dors Venabili met their future adoptive son, Raych Seldon.  Billibotton was (in)famous for its complete lawlessness. Without the help of Dors, Seldon never would have left it alive.
Ery—The sector in which Wanda Seldon and Stettin Palver met Bor Alurin.
Imperial—The sector in which the Imperial Palace and the Galactic Library lie. When Seldon first visited Trantor to deliver his speech at the Decennial Convention, fashion in the sector called for bold, bright colors and wearing hats without chinstraps.
Mandanov
Millimaru—The sector Raych claimed to be (and maybe was) born in when he infiltrated the Joranumite movement.
Mycogen— As Asimov explains in Prelude to Foundation, their name is formed from the Greek stems myco- (meaning 'yeast' or other types of fungi) and -gen (meaning 'maker' or 'producer'), which matches the description of Mycogen as specialized in breeding and exporting yeast, or "microfood", to other portions of Trantor. It kept the best for itself; the food eaten by Seldon in Mycogen was the best he had ever had on Trantor.  Mycogenians were descendants of the ancient Spacer world Aurora (also mentioned in The Naked Sun) and lamented the loss of their ancient homeworld and culture, including robots.  They lived by a strict religion they considered to be 'history'. The scripture of the Mycogenians mentions Aurora, robots, and other topics, and during the events of Prelude to Foundation Hari Seldon found a long-inactive robot, which was revered by the Mycogenians. The 'high priest' was the leader of the council of elders, the government of Mycogen. During an adolescent rite of passage, all Mycogenians were completely depilated, so they could differentiate between themselves and non-Mycogenians. Because hair is considered so repulsive, most Mycogenians are repelled by its appearance and rare foreign visitors must wear skincaps at all times. The sight and feel of hair was considered similar to pornography by Mycogenians. By tradition they usually wear a cloak called a 'kirtle'; men always wear a white kirtle, women a gray one. Mycogenian names are organised by 'cohort', and individuals are numbered as part of a series. Known Mycogenians: Mycelium 72, Raindrop 43, Raindrop 45, Sunmaster 14, Skystrip 2.
Nevrask— One of the last sectors to hold out against Gilmer during the Great Sack
North Damiano— A sector with a prominent University, involved in co-operative Nephelometry with Streeling University. North Damiano University operates Jet-downs equipped with sensory electronics.
Streeling—At the time Hari Seldon first arrived on Trantor, fashions in Streeling were not quite so boldly colorful as in the Imperial Sector. It was the site of Streeling University, a prestigious university noted for being almost completely out of the hands of the Empire. It later gained fame for housing Hari Seldon and his "Seldon Psychohistory Project".
Wye—The hereditary Mayoralty of the sector of Wye are the descendants of the ancient Dacian Dynasty of Emperors. Located by the South Pole, Wye exercised a good deal of political power, because it was the site where excess heat across the planet was released. If it shut down those systems, the heat would build up and destroy Trantor. During the time of Seldon's flight, Wye was preparing an army for a coup. This action was stopped by Eto Demerzel, and the military of Wye disbanded. Known Wyans: Mayor Mannix IV, Mayor Rashelle I.
Ziggoreth— A sector with a prominent University. Ziggoreth University is involved in co-operative Nephelometric research with Streeling University, and operates Jet-downs equipped with sensory electronics.

Retroactive continuity
 In the original Foundation Trilogy, there is no indication of Trantor being divided among wildly diverse cultures; likewise, the surface is described as covered with towers rather than domes.  Its depiction in Prelude to Foundation and Forward the Foundation may be considered another example of retconning.
 Although some have been confused by the apparent conflict between Trantorian self-sufficiency in terms of food supply in Prelude and the subsequent characterization in Encyclopedia Galactica of the planet as dependent upon twenty agricultural worlds for food, there is no conflict. Prelude depicts an earlier period of Imperial history, and as subsequently explained in Foundation's Fear, the food situation on Trantor changed precisely because its subterranean farms were shut down in the wake of the abortive tik-tok rebellion. That book directly establishes that it was this decision that made Trantor dependent on the produce of twenty agricultural worlds—ironically, the same worlds over which Neotrantor would hold its last, feeble sway.

Other authors and Asimov's universe
Bondanella (listed in Further reading) analyzes Asimov's Galactic Empire as an example of the influence of the myth and history of the Roman Empire upon modern fiction.  Asimov himself wrote two non-fiction books on the subject of the Roman Empire, aimed at the mass market and young readerships, The Roman Republic in 1966 and The Roman Empire in 1967, reflecting the positive view of the Roman Empire that then prevailed in the US, as it was considered the prototype of the rising American Empire.

After the cinematic release of the first Star Wars trilogy, another parallel to the Roman Empire that presents the negative view of the empire that became widely prevalent in late 20th and early 21st century popular culture as a result of the negative view of the American Empire resulting from the Vietnam War, Asimov revisited his Galactic Empire and wrote further novels in the Foundation series.

Other writers to have been influenced by the Roman Empire include, of course, those who have written novels set in Asimov's universe of the Galactic Empire, such as David Brin's Foundation's Triumph, and Robert Silverberg, who wrote of an alternative universe in which the Roman Empire never fell, and who edited Far Horizons (listed in Further reading) which contains several examples of Asimov's influence upon science fiction. Brian Herbert's and Kevin J. Anderson's Dune: House Atreides (1999) is, similarly, a Greek parallel to ancient Rome.

Other works to have been influenced by Asimov's Empire include Donald Kingsbury's Psychohistorical Crisis, whose galactic empire, and the scholar-empire that succeeds it, are clearly based upon Asimov's Galactic Empire and the Foundations, even though Kingsbury was not granted permission to set his work directly in Asimov's universe.  Seed calls this work "perhaps the most remarkable homage that any SF writer has received from another SF writer".

Asimov's Galactic Empire, its decline, fall, and rebirth, in particular, is characterized by Perelman as a simple repetition of the history of Western Civilization (as it was understood then) from the fall of the Roman Empire to the 20th century, borrowing freely from Toynbee, and a validation of postwar American culture of the 1940s and 1950s, with the Second Galactic Empire being "definitely suburban".

Other writers to explore the cycles of civilisations in their works include James Blish, who studied the works of Oswald Spengler and whose novel Cities in Flight (which includes 4 novels: They Shall Have Stars, A Life for the Stars, Earthman Come Home, and The Triumph of Time) portray the rise and fall of the galaxy as an inevitable cycle, of which (unlike in other dystopian SF stories of the 1940s and 1950s) the use of machine technology is merely a symptom not the actual cause, and culminate, as in Wollheim's eighth stage, with the end of the universe and the birth of a new one.

Colin Manlove characterizes Asimov's description of the Galactic Empire, its people, its culture, its history, and its planets, laid out in the Foundation novels as an aesthetic monotony: "persons are usually seen as typical rather than special, even as clichés … the mutant Mule […] is not given a personality, he is merely a powerful anomaly … Nor do we hear much of landscapes, apart from Trantor and one sea-scape … we do not know how one planet differs from another, as, say, Ursula K. Le Guin differentiates the desert Anarres from the lush twin Urras … Nor are we given details of battles, lingering accounts of love, different customs of civilisations.  There are no animals, only man.  …  Thought-processes and conversations largely fill the trilogy, and nearly all these are confined to finding things out and with gaining power."

Inspired by Trantor
There have been some serious attempts to illustrate a planet like Trantor in the Star Wars films by George Lucas, the first being Coruscant. Coruscant is a planet-covering open-air city, while Trantor's buildings are all subterranean or under domes due to worsening weather conditions. Asimov's Trantor thus differs from Coruscant in that Trantor is more practically adapted to inclement weather, although weather control devices are used on both planets.

The planet Helior in Harry Harrison's Bill, the Galactic Hero satirises Trantor, highlighting the problems of atmosphere, waste disposal and navigating about a world-sized city.

In the Runaway series of adventure games, Trantor is home planet of this universe's alien species. However, no connection besides the name are made to the original.

"TrantorCon 23309" was proposed by Larry Niven at Worldcon in 1976.

The Warhammer 40,000 sources mention dead cities upon the quarantine planet of Proxima Trantor.

Weber's World, the administration planet of the United Planets in the Legion of Super-Heroes's time, is an ecumenopolis and said to be in the Trantor system.

In the Bobiverse series, one of the human colony planets is named Trantor by Howard, in an explicitly stated homage to the Foundation series (though the planet is initially misspelled by an official who did not recognise the reference).

Primary sources

References

Further reading

Foundation universe
Galactic empires
Ecumenopolises

Galactic Empire (Asimov)


In statistics, a spurious relationship or spurious correlation is a mathematical relationship in which two or more events or variables are associated but not causally related, due to either coincidence or the presence of a certain third, unseen factor (referred to as a "common response variable", "confounding factor", or "lurking variable").

Examples
An example of a spurious relationship can be found in the time-series literature, where a spurious regression is one that provides misleading statistical evidence of a linear relationship between independent non-stationary variables. In fact, the non-stationarity may be due to the presence of a unit root in both variables. In particular, any two nominal economic variables are likely to be correlated with each other, even when neither has a causal effect on the other, because each equals a real variable times the price level, and the common presence of the price level in the two data series imparts correlation to them. (See also spurious correlation of ratios.)

Another example of a spurious relationship can be seen by examining a city's ice cream sales. The sales might be highest when the rate of drownings in city swimming pools is highest. To allege that ice cream sales cause drowning, or vice versa, would be to imply a spurious relationship between the two. In reality, a heat wave may have caused both. The heat wave is an example of a hidden or unseen variable, also known as a confounding variable.

Another commonly noted example is a series of Dutch statistics showing a positive correlation between the number of storks nesting in a series of springs and the number of human babies born at that time.  Of course there was no causal connection; they were correlated with each other only because they were correlated with the weather nine months before the observations.

In rare cases, a spurious relationship can occur between two completely unrelated variables without any confounding variable, as was the case between the success of the Washington Commanders professional football team in a specific game before each presidential election and the success of the incumbent President's political party in said election. For 16 consecutive elections between 1940 and 2000, the Redskins Rule correctly matched whether the incumbent President's political party would retain or lose the Presidency. The rule eventually failed shortly after Elias Sports Bureau discovered the correlation in 2000; in 2004, 2012 and 2016, the results of the Commanders' game and the election did not match. In a similar spurious relationship involving the National Football League, in the 1970s, Leonard Koppett noted a correlation between the direction of the stock market and the winning conference of that year's Super Bowl, the Super Bowl indicator; the relationship maintained itself for most of the 20th century before reverting to more random behavior in the 21st.

Hypothesis testing

Often one tests a null hypothesis of no correlation between two variables, and chooses in advance to reject the hypothesis if the correlation computed from a data sample would have occurred in less than (say) 5% of data samples if the null hypothesis were true. While a true null hypothesis will be accepted 95% of the time, the other 5% of the times having a true null of no correlation a zero correlation will be wrongly rejected, causing acceptance of a correlation which is spurious (an event known as Type I error). Here the spurious correlation in the sample resulted from random selection of a sample that did not reflect the true properties of the underlying population.

Detecting spurious relationships

The term "spurious relationship" is commonly used in statistics and in particular in experimental research techniques, both of which attempt to understand and predict direct causal relationships (X → Y). A non-causal correlation can be spuriously created by an antecedent which causes both (W → X and W → Y).  Mediating variables, (X → W → Y), if undetected, estimate a total effect rather than direct effect without adjustment for the mediating variable M.  Because of this, experimentally identified correlations do not represent causal relationships unless spurious relationships can be ruled out.

Experiments

In experiments, spurious relationships can often be identified by controlling for other factors, including those that have been theoretically identified as possible confounding factors. For example, consider a researcher trying to determine whether a new drug kills bacteria; when the researcher applies the drug to a bacterial culture, the bacteria die. But to help in ruling out the presence of a confounding variable, another culture is subjected to conditions that are as nearly identical as possible to those facing the first-mentioned culture, but the second culture is not subjected to the drug. If there is an unseen confounding factor in those conditions, this control culture will die as well, so that no conclusion of efficacy of the drug can be drawn from the results of the first culture. On the other hand, if the control culture does not die, then the researcher cannot reject the hypothesis that the drug is efficacious.

Non-experimental statistical analyses

Disciplines whose data are mostly non-experimental, such as economics, usually employ observational data to establish causal relationships. The body of statistical techniques used in economics is called econometrics. The main statistical method in econometrics is multivariable regression analysis.  Typically a linear relationship such as

is hypothesized, in which  is the dependent variable (hypothesized to be the caused variable),  for j = 1, ..., k is the jth independent variable (hypothesized to be a causative variable), and  is the error term (containing the combined effects of all other causative variables, which must be uncorrelated with the included independent variables).  If there is reason to believe that none of the s is caused by y, then estimates of the coefficients  are obtained.  If the null hypothesis that  is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis that  and equivalently that  causes y cannot be rejected.  On the other hand, if the null hypothesis that  cannot be rejected, then equivalently the hypothesis of no causal effect of  on y cannot be rejected.  Here the notion of causality is one of  contributory causality:  If the true value , then a change in  will result in a change in y unless some other causative variable(s), either included in the regression or implicit in the error term, change in such a way as to exactly offset its effect; thus a change in  is not sufficient to change y.  Likewise, a change in  is not necessary to change y, because a change in y could be caused by something implicit in the error term (or by some other causative explanatory variable included in the model).

Regression analysis controls for other relevant variables by including them as regressors (explanatory variables). This helps to avoid mistaken inference of causality due to the presence of a third, underlying, variable that influences both the potentially causative variable and the potentially caused variable: its effect on the potentially caused variable is captured by directly including it in the regression, so that effect will not be picked up as a spurious effect of the potentially causative variable of interest. In addition, the use of multivariate regression helps to avoid wrongly inferring that an indirect effect of, say x1 (e.g., x1 → x2 → y) is a direct effect (x1 → y).

Just as an experimenter must be careful to employ an experimental design that controls for every confounding factor, so also must the user of multiple regression be careful to control for all confounding factors by including them among the regressors. If a confounding factor is omitted from the regression, its effect is captured in the error term by default, and if the resulting error term is correlated with one (or more) of the included regressors, then the estimated regression may be biased or inconsistent (see omitted variable bias).

In addition to regression analysis, the data can be examined to determine if Granger causality exists. The presence of Granger causality indicates both that x precedes y, and that x contains unique information about y.

Other relationships
There are several other relationships defined in statistical analysis as follows.
Direct relationship
Mediating relationship
Moderating relationship

See also
Causality
Correlation does not imply causation
Illusory correlation
Model specification
Omitted-variable bias
Post hoc fallacy
Statistical model validation
One in ten rule

Literature
 David A. Freedman (1983) A Note on Screening Regression Equations, The American Statistician, 37:2, 152-155, DOI: 10.1080/00031305.1983.10482729

Footnotes

References

Causal fallacies
Logic and statistics
Independence (probability theory)

Spurious relationship


Ioan Nicola () a fost un pilot român de aviație, as al Aviației Române din cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial.

Adjutantul stagiar (r.) Ioan Nicola a fost decorat cu Ordinul "Virtutea Aeronautică" de Război cu spade, clasa Crucea de Aur (28 noiembrie 1941) - cu următoarea justificare: "A executat 51 misiuni de războiu. În atacurile contra aglomerărilor de trupe și A. c. A. inamic, a dovedit mult curaj și spirit de luptător. A executat numeroase misiuni de protecția aviației de observație" -, clasa Crucea de Aur cu o baretă (16 februarie 1944) "pentru eroismul dovedit în lupta aeriană dela 1 August 1943, contra bombardierelor americane, reușind să doboare un avion inamic. Fiind lovit în planul stâng al avionului a fost forțat a se înapoia la teren" și clasa Crucea de Aur cu 2 barete (6 octombrie 1944).

A fost înaintat în 1944 la gradul de adjutant aviator.

Decorații
  Ordinul "Virtutea Aeronautică" de Război cu spade, clasa Crucea de Aur (28 noiembrie 1941)
  Ordinul "Virtutea Aeronautică" cu spade, clasa Crucea de aur cu o baretă (16 februarie 1944)
  Ordinul "Virtutea Aeronautică" cu spade, clasa Crucea de Aur cu 2 barete (6 octombrie 1944)

Note

Nașteri în secolul al XX-lea
Decese în secolul al XX-lea
Ași ai aviației române din cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial
Decorați cu Ordinul Virtutea Aeronautică

Ioan Nicola


Raymond Batan, né le  à Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées) et mort le  dans la même ville, est un coureur cycliste français. Professionnel de 1960 à 1962, il effectue la majorité de sa carrière avec le statut d'indépendant.

Son fils Jean-Jacques et son petit-fils Nicolas ont également été coureurs cyclistes chez les amateurs.

Biographie

Palmarès
 1958
  de la Route de France
 1959
  de la Route de France
 1960
 b étape du Tour de l'Aude
  des Boucles du Bas-Limousin
  du Tour de Corrèze
 1961
  de Bordeaux-Saintes

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Liens externes

Coureur cycliste français
Naissance en avril 1934
Naissance à Tarbes
Décès en mai 2005
Décès à Tarbes
Décès à 71 ans

Raymond Batan


Pierre Eugène Bérégovoy (; 23 December 1925 – 1 May 1993) was a French politician who served as Prime Minister of France under President François Mitterrand from 2 April 1992 to 29 March 1993. He was a member of the Socialist Party and Member of Parliament for Nièvre's 1st constituency.

Early career
Pierre Bérégovoy was born in Déville-lès-Rouen to a French mother and a Ukrainian father (original family name Береговий in Ukrainian or Береговой in Russian) who had left the Russian Empire after the Russian Civil War.

He started his professional life at the age of 16 as a qualified metal worker. He got involved in politics following his activities in the French Resistance – while working at SNCF during World War II. A member of the socialist SFIO and of the trade unions confederation Workers Force, he joined the staff of the Minister of Public Works and Transport, Christian Pineau, as adviser for relations with the trade unions in 1949. One year later, he became a technical agent at Gaz de France.

In 1959, he left the SFIO and participated in the foundation of the dissident Unified Socialist Party (PSU). He became an adviser of Pierre Mendès-France. In 1967, with Alain Savary, he created the pro-Mendès-France Union of Clubs for the Renewal of the Left. This group joined the renewed Socialist Party (PS) in 1969. He joined the executive group of the party behind François Mitterrand, and participated notably in the negotiations of the Common Program of the Union of the Left.

In 1981, following Mitterrand's election as President of France, he was chosen as Secretary General of the Presidency. One year later, he joined the cabinet as Minister of Social affairs. He was among the Socialist politicians who advised President Mitterrand to leave the European Monetary System in order to continue Socialist economic policy. But in March 1983, Mitterrand listened to his Prime Minister Pierre Mauroy and ratified the change of economic policy.

Bérégovoy became Minister of the Economy and Finance, from 1984 to the 1986 Socialist electoral defeat.

Elected mayor of Nevers in 1983, and deputy of Nièvre département in 1986, in the electoral land of Mitterrand, he was manager of the latter's 1988 presidential campaign. After his re-election, at the time of each cabinet reshuffle, his name was mentioned as a possible Prime Minister. In the end, he returned to the Ministry of the Economy and Finance. In this function, he symbolized the adaptation of French socialism to the market economy and struck up hearty relations with employer representatives.

After the 1992 regional elections, which were a disaster for the PS, he was finally appointed Prime Minister and formed a new minority government. He promised to fight unemployment, economic decline and corruption. During his inaugural speech in the French National Assembly, he claimed he knew the names of politicians from the right-wing opposition implicated in corruption scandals, causing a great hue and cry. Bérégovoy forced Bernard Tapie, his Minister of Urban Affairs, to resign in May 1992 after his indictment by the French justice. He thus created the misnamed "Balladur jurisprudence". In social policy, a number of reforms were carried out. In November 1992 a law was passed that inserted a (arguably narrow) definition of sexual harassment into the labour code and empowered the labour inspectorate and workplace committees to enforce it. In May 1992, increased aid was provided to farmers, mainly comprising reductions in the agricultural land tax and increased grants for young farmers. In June 1992, the French parliament passed a bill which required mayors to encourage social mixing in public housing. A law of 12 July 1992 was aimed at enhancing both the status of child-minders and "the quality of day care for children in a family environment," and a law of 29 July 1992 improved entitlement to medical assistance. The Sapin law of January 1993 sought to prevent corruption and encourage transparency "in economic activities and public procedures," and a law of January 1993 established "the principle of joint parental authority in the legitimate family, even if a divorce occurs." In addition, the coverage of housing benefits was extended in 1993.

After nearly a year as Prime Minister, Bérégovoy led the Socialist Party into the electoral collapse of the March 1993 parliamentary elections: the governing party, which previously held 260 seats (29 short from an overall majority), was reduced to only 53 seats, thus constituting the worst electoral defeat in the French left's history and one of the worst ever suffered by a governing party in French history. He resigned as PM on 29 March 1993.

Political career

Secretary General of the Presidency of the Republic: 1981–1982.

Governmental functions

Prime Minister: 1992–1993.

Minister of Economy and Finances: 1984–1986 / 1988–1992.

Minister of Social Affairs: 1982–1984.

Electoral mandates

National Assembly of France

Member of the National Assembly of France for Nièvre: 1986–1988 (Became minister in 1988) / March–May 1993 (Died in May 1993). Elected in 1986, reelected in 1988, 1993.

General Council

General Councillor of the Nièvre: 1985–1993 (Died in May 1993). Reelected in 1992.

Municipal Council

Mayor of Nevers: 1983–1993 (Died in May 1993). Reelected in 1989.

Municipal councillor of Nevers: 1983–1993 (Died in May 1993). Reelected in 1989.

Death

Pierre Bérégovoy killed himself with a gunshot on 1 May 1993. Friends of Bérégovoy claimed that he had been depressed ever since he lost the March legislative election in which his Socialist Party won only 67 out of 577 parliamentary seats. Bérégovoy was also being investigated concerning a one-million-franc interest-free loan he received from businessman and close friend, Roger-Patrice Pelat. Pelat had died of a heart attack on 7 March 1989, shortly after being found guilty in the Péchiney-Triangle affair.

At Bérégovoy's funeral, held at Nevers in an atmosphere of tension and shock, François Mitterrand stated that media pressure in connection with the Pelat scandal was responsible for Bérégovoy's suicide. Targeting the press, he said Bérégovoy's "honour was thrown to the dogs", crediting him with "the grandeur of someone who chooses his destiny."

Bérégovoy's ministry, 2 April 1992 – 29 March 1993
 Pierre Bérégovoy – Prime Minister
 Roland Dumas – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 Pierre Joxe – Minister of Defense
 Paul Quilès – Minister of the Interior and Public Security
 Michel Sapin – Minister of Economy, Finance, and Privatization
 Michel Charasse – Minister of Budget
 Dominique Strauss-Kahn – Minister of Industry and External Commerce
 Martine Aubry – Minister of Labour, Employment, and Vocational Training
 Michel Vauzelle – Minister of Justice
 Jack Lang – Minister of National Education and Culture
 Louis Mermaz – Minister of Agriculture and Forests
 Ségolène Royal – Minister of Environment
 Frédérique Bredin – Minister of Youth and Sports
 Louis Le Pensec – Minister of Overseas Departments and Territories
 Jean-Louis Bianco – Minister of Transport, Housing, and Equipment
 Louis Mermaz – Minister of Relations with Parliament
 Bernard Kouchner – Minister of Health and Humanitarian Action
 Émile Zuccarelli – Minister of Posts and Telecommunications
 Michel Delebarre – Minister of Civil Service and Administrative Reform
 François Loncle – Minister of City, Minister of Planning
 Bernard Tapie – Minister of City
 Hubert Curien – Minister of Research and Space
 René Teulade – Minister of Social Affairs and Integration

Changes
 23 May 1992 – Bernard Tapie leaves the ministry and the office of Minister of City is abolished
 2 October 1992 – Martin Malvy succeeds Charasse as Minister of Budget. Jean-Pierre Soisson succeeds Mermaz as Minister of Agriculture, becoming also Minister of Rural Development
 26 December 1992 – The office of Minister of City is re-established, with Bernard Tapie again as Minister
 9 March 1993 – Pierre Joxe leaves the ministry of Defence and was succeeded by Pierre Bérégovoy (who remains also Prime minister)

References

External links

 Association Pierre Bérégovoy, in French only

1925 births
1993 deaths
People from Déville-lès-Rouen
French people of Ukrainian descent
Politicians from Normandy
French Section of the Workers' International politicians
Unified Socialist Party (France) politicians
Socialist Party (France) politicians
Prime Ministers of France
French Ministers of Budget
French Ministers of Finance
Deputies of the 8th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 9th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 10th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
French Resistance members
Grand Cross of the Ordre national du Mérite
1993 suicides
French politicians who committed suicide
Suicides by firearm in France

Pierre Bérégovoy


عين الرمانة هي منطقة مسيحية في قضاء بعبدا جبل لبنان، لبنان، وهي ضاحية من ضواحي بيروت وجزء من بيروت الكبرى. شهدت المنطقة حادثة بوسطة عين الرمانة في 13 نيسان 1975 بين حزب الكتائب اللبنانية واللاجئين الفلسطينيين في لبنان، مما يعتبر السبب الرئيسي لاندلاع شرارة الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية. كانت المنطقة خلال الحرب معقلاً مهماً للميليشيات المسيحية مثل القوات اللبنانية, الكتائب والأحرار، وشهدت معارك عنيفة إما مع المسلمين, عبر بيروت الغربية (خاصة من منطقة الشياح المقابلة), القوات السورية، أو الفلسطينية عبر خط التماس الذي يقع على حدودها، وقد عرفت «بقلعة الصمود» لقدرة صموضها، إلى جانب صراعات داخلية ما بين الاحزاب المسيحية.

ملخص
عين الرمانة تديرها بلدية فرن الشباك، والتي تدير أيضا تحويطة النهر (التحويطة). وهي محاطة بسن الفيل من الشمال, الشياح من الجنوب, الحازمية من الشرق وبيروت من الغرب. موقعها الاستراتيجي يجعلها منطقة ذات أهمية صناعية وتعليمية.

مجزرة البوسطة
في 13 نيسان 1975، كانت حافلة تمر في عين الرمانة، تقل فلسطينيين لاجئين عائدين من إحد المهرجانات، متوجهين إلى مخيمهم في تل الزعتر، فتم اطلاق النار عليهم من قبل عناصر حزب الكتائب، مما أسفر عن مقتل جميع ركابها ال27, ما عدا السائق، وكانت بداية الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية. الحادثة وقعت فقط بعد ساعات قليلة من مقتل 4 مسيحيين خارج كنيسة في عين الرمانة عند محاولة اغتيال زعيم الكتائب بيار الجميل.

انظر أيضًا

 اشرفية
 الدكوانة
 الحازمية
 سن الفيل

مراجع

أحياء بيروت
أماكن مأهولة في قضاء بعبدا
أماكن مأهولة في لبنان
تجمعات مارونية في لبنان
شوارع في بيروت

عين الرمانة (بعبدا)


Žumanka (lat. Neslia), monotipski bilji rod iz porodice krstašica (kupusnjača). Jedina vrsta je metličasta žumanka, jednogodišnja biljka raširena diljem Euroazije, a uvezena je i u Sjevernu Ameriku.

Podvrste
Neslia paniculata subsp. paniculata
Neslia paniculata subsp. thracica (Velen.) Bornm., ova podvrsta u hrvatskom jeziku poznata je kao zašiljena žumanka.

Sinonimi
 Rapistrum Scop.
 Vogelia Medik.
 Alyssum paniculatum (L.) Willd.
 Bunias paniculata (L.) L'Hér. ex DC.
 Chamaelinum paniculatum (L.) Host
 Crambe paniculata (L.) All.
 Crucifera neslia E.H.L.Krause
 Myagrum paniculatum L.
 Nasturtium paniculatum (L.) Crantz
 Rapistrum paniculatum (L.) Gaertn.
 Vogelia paniculala (L.) Hornem.

Galerija

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Camelineae

Žumanka


ملعب أحمد زبانة هو واحد من أكبر وأهم الملاعب في الجزائر يوجد بمدينة وهران، يلعب فيه نادي مولودية وهران لكرة القدم ونادي الملعب الوهراني للريغبي.

أهم المنافسات التي إحتضنها
 1958: مباراة ريال مدريد ضد ستاد ريمس (ودية)
 17 جوان 1965: مباراة منتخب الجزائر ضد منتخب البرازيل بقيادة الأسطورة بيليه
 1960: نهائيات كأس العالم العسكرية
 1989: مباراة مولودية وهران ضد الرجاء البيضاوي (نهائي دوري أبطال إفريقيا)
 1992: مباراة شبيبة القبائل ضد أولمبي الشلف (نهائي كأس الجمهورية الجزائرية)
 1999: مباراة مولودية الجزائر ضد شبيبة القبائل (نهائي بطولة الدوري الجزائري)

معرض الصور

مصادر

 البطاقة الفنية لملعب أحمد زبانة (موقع كورة)

تأسيسات سنة 1957 في الجزائر
مبان ومنشآت في الجزائر
ملاعب رياضية اكتملت في 1957
ملاعب رياضية في وهران
وهران
ملاعب وهران
مولودية وهران

ملعب أحمد زبانة


Karakalpakça (Qaraqalpaq tili / Қарақалпақ тили), Türk dillerinin Kıpçak grubuna bağlı bir dildir. Aynı gruba mensup olduğu Kazakça ile aralarında karşılıklı anlaşılabilirlik vardır.

Alfabe

Karakalpakça için Özbek-Latin alfabesi de kullanılır.

Kazak alfabesiyle farkları
Kazak alfabesinde bulunan "Ii" harfi Karakalpak Kirilinde görünmemektedir. Ayrıca Karakalpaklar'ın Özbek latinine geçme eğilimleri vardır. Karakalpakça'da "Ii" yerine "Ии" vardır.

Özellikler
 y>j (c) olayı bu lehçede de görülebilir. жазыўшы (jazıwşı)- yazar, yazıcı
 Eski Türkçe'deki "ğ"'lerin y'ye dönüştüğü söylenebilir. Mesela eski Türkçe mastar eki olan "-ığ" Karakalpakça'da "-ıw" şeklindedir.
 Özbekçe'den Arapça-Farsça kelimeler almıştır.
 Çoğul eklerinde Kazakçadaki gibi -lar, -ler'in dışında -dar, -der, -tar, -ter şekilleri yoktur. Yani Karakalpakçada bu ek sadece -lar, -ler şeklindedir. Örneğin Kazakça'da "kendilerinin" anlamındaki "өздерінің (özderiniñ)" Karakalpakça'da "өзлериниң (özleriniñ)" şeklindedir.
 Bazı değişmeler Kazakçadan farklı olarak olmamıştır. Mesela Kazakça'da "söylesetin" "konuşacak" anlamdadır. Mesela "söylesetin adam", "konuşacak, söyleşecek adam". Bu kelimedeki -tin kısmı Eski Türkçe'deki -tuğın şeklindeki ekten gelir. Karakalpakçadaysa bu ek değişmemiştir ve tek şekillidir: "söylesetuğın"
 Karakalpakça'da ş>s değişmesi de vardır: söyleş->söyles- gibi...
 Karakalpakça'da ç>ş değişmesi de görülür: qança>qanşa...

Ayrıca Vikipedi'nin Karakalpakça sürümü de bulunmaktadır.

1 - bir
2 - eki
3 - üş
4 - tört
5 - bes
6 - altı
7 - jeti
8 - segiz
9 - toğız
10 - on
20 - jigirma
30 - otız
40 - qırıq
50 - eliw
60 - alpıs
70 - jetpis
80 - seksen
90 - toqsan
100 - jüz
1000 - mıñ

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Karakalpak vikipedi

Karakalpakça
Kıpçak grubu
Özbekistan'daki diller

Karakalpakça


Ancistrorhynchus, rod orhideja smješten u podtribus Angraecinae, dio tribusa Vandeae, potporodica Epidendroideae. Postoji 18 vrsta koje rastu po tropskoj Africi.

Vrste
 Ancistrorhynchus akeassiae Pérez-Vera
 Ancistrorhynchus brevifolius Finet
 Ancistrorhynchus capitatus (Lindl.) Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus cephalotes (Rchb.f.) Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus clandestinus (Lindl.) Schltr.
 Ancistrorhynchus crystalensis P.J.Cribb & Laan
 Ancistrorhynchus laxiflorus Mansf.
 Ancistrorhynchus metteniae (Kraenzl.) Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus obovatus Stévart; ined.
 Ancistrorhynchus ovatus Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus parviflorus Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus paysanii Senghas
 Ancistrorhynchus recurvus Finet
 Ancistrorhynchus refractus (Kraenzl.) Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus schumannii (Kraenzl.) Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus serratus Summerh.
 Ancistrorhynchus straussii (Schltr.) Schltr.
 Ancistrorhynchus tenuicaulis Summerh.

Izvori

Angraecinae

Ancistrorhynchus (Plantae)


Hvidtoppet turako () er en turakoart, der lever det sydøstlige Nigeria, nordlige Uganda, sydvestlige Sudan og vestlige Kenya. IUCN kategoriserer arten som ikke truet.

Noter
 Avibase - The world bird database

Eksterne henvisninger

Fugle fra Centralafrika
Turakoer

Hvidtoppet turako


Olaylar
 9 Ocak - Ses hızını aşan ilk yolcu uçağı Concorde deneme uçuşunu başarıyla gerçekleştirdi.
 18 Ocak - Amerikalı bilim insanlarınca, düzenli elektromanyetik dalgalar yayan ilk pulsarlar bulundu.
 22 Ocak - SSCB lideri Leonid Brejnev'e suikast girişiminde bulunuldu.
 28 Ocak - ABD, Santa Barbara kıyılarında meydana gelen petrol sızıntısında 100,000 varil ham petrol çevreye yayıldı.
 8 Şubat - Allende meteoru Meksika üzerinde atmosfere giriş yaparak infilak etti.
 9 Şubat - Boeing 747 ilk uçuşunu gerçekleştirdi.
 2 Mart - Concorde ilk uçuşunu gerçekleştirdi.
 17 Mart - Golda Meir İsrail'in ilk kadın başbakanı oldu.
 1 Nisan - Harrier savaş uçakları Kraliyet Hava Kuvvetleri'nde hizmete girdi.
 4 Nisan - İlk geçici yapay kalp nakli gerçekleştirildi.
 13 Nisan - Tofaş (otomobil) fabrikasının temeli atıldı.
 15 Mayıs - ABD'de HIV virüsü sebebiyle ilk ölüm olayı gerçekleşti. Ölümün HIV sebebiyle yaşandığı 1984 yılında ortaya çıkartıldı.
 3 Haziran - Avustralya donanmasına ait HMAS Melbourne uçak gemisinin bir tatbikat esnasında Amerikan USS Frank E. Evans destroyerine çarpması sonucu 74 Amerikan denizcisi öldü.
 28 Haziran - ABD, New York'ta eşcinsellerin polis ve mafya şiddetine karşı tepkileri sonucu Stonewall ayaklanmaları patlak verdi.
 14 Temmuz - Honduras ve El Salvador arasında Futbol Savaşı başladı.
 20 Temmuz: Apollo 11 görevi ile tarihte ilk kez insanlı bir uzay aracı Ay'a iniş yaptı. Astronot Neil Armstrong Ay'a ayak basan ilk insan oldu. Ay'dan gerçekleştirilen naklen televizyon yayınını dünyada 500 milyon insan izledi.
 8 Ağustos - The Beatles'ın Abbey Road albümünün kapağını süsleyen ünlü yaya geçidi fotoğrafının çekimi gerçekleştirildi.
 9 Ağustos - Yönetmen Roman Polanski'nin 8 aylık hamile eşi aktris Sharon Tate ve dört arkadaşı, Charles Manson ve beraberindekiler tarafından evinde katledildi.
 15 Ağustos - 18 Ağustos, 1969 Woodstock Festivali İlki 1969'da yapılan müzik festivali.
 21 Ağustos - Mescid-i Aksa, akli dengesi yerinde olmayan bir Avustralya vatandaşı tarafından kundaklanılmaya çalışıldı.
 1 Eylül - Albay Muammer Kaddafi, I. İdris'e karşı gerçekleştirdiği başarılı darbe ile Libya'nın yönetimini ele aldı.
 13 Eylül - Scooby-Doo ABD'de yayınlanmaya başladı.
 25 Eylül - İslam İşbirliği Teşkilatı kuruldu.
 12 Ekim - 1969 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti genel seçimleri
 29 Ekim - ARPANET aracılığı ile ilk kez iki bilgisayar arasında mesaj iletimi gerçekleştirildi.
 3 Kasım - NET'nin kişiliği sonlandırılıp PBS kuruldu.
 10 Kasım - Susam Sokağı ABD'de yayınlanmaya başladı.
 15 Kasım - Sovyet nükleer denizaltısı K-19 ve Amerikan nükleer denizaltısı USS Gato, Barents Denizi'nde çarpıştı.
 19 Kasım - Apollo 12 görevi ile Ay'a iniş yapan Pete Conrad ve Alan Bean, Ay'da yürüyen üçüncü ve dördüncü insanlar oldular.
 13 Aralık - Kamaz kamyon ve otobüs fabrikasının temeli atıldı.
 HIV virüsü ABD topraklarına Haiti üzerinden giriş yaptı.

Doğumlar

Ocak
 1 Ocak - Erol Zavar, şair
 2 Ocak - Yavuz Seçkin, Türk komedyen, radyo ve tv programcısı, sinema ve dizi oyuncusu
 3 Ocak - Michael Schumacher, Alman Formula 1 pilotu
 12 Ocak - Gökhan Semiz, Grup Vitamin solisti, söz yazarı, besteci, müzisyen, tiyatro sanatçısı (ö. 1998)
 14 Ocak - Dave Grohl, Nirvana'nın davulcusu, Foo Fighters grubunun kurucusu ve solisti.
 21 Ocak - Karina Lombard, Amerikalı oyuncu

Şubat
 12 Şubat - Darren Aronofsky, Amerikalı yönetmen ve senarist
 12 Şubat - Alemayehu Atomsa, Etiyopyalı politikacı (ö. 2014)
 25 Şubat - Neslihan Yeldan, Türk oyuncu ve seslendirme sanatçısı

Mart
 12 Mart - Beyazıt Öztürk, radyocu, şov programı sunucusu, şovmen
 26 Mart - Mahsun Kırmızıgül, Türk şarkıcı

Nisan
 2 Nisan - Mariella Ahrens, Alman oyuncu
 9 Nisan - Linda Kisabaka, Alman atlet
 24 Nisan - Gülşah Alkoçlar, Türk oyuncu
 29 Nisan - İzel Çeliköz, Türk Pop Müziği yorumcusu

Mayıs
 14 Mayıs - Cate Blanchett, Avustralyalı aktris
 27 Mayıs - Valérie Barlois, Fransız eskrimci

Haziran
 12 Haziran - Heinz-Christian Strache, Avusturyalı politikacı
 20 Haziran - Paulo Bento, Portekizli eski futbolcu ve teknik direktör
 27 Haziran - Alessandro Esseno, İtalyan besteci
 30 Haziran - Uta Rohländer, Alman atlet

Temmuz
 20 Temmuz - Josh Holloway,Amerikalı oyuncu
 22 Temmuz - Despina Vandi, Yunan şarkıcı
 24 Temmuz
 Jennifer Lopez, Amerikalı aktris, latin pop müzik şarkıcısı, moda tasarımcısı ve dansçısı
 Uzay Heparı, Türk besteci (ö. 1994)
 25 Temmuz - Yvonne Sciò, İtalyan manken ve oyuncu
 27 Temmuz - Triple H, Amerikan güreşçisi, oyuncu
 31 Temmuz - Antonio Conte, İtalyan futbolcu ve teknik direktör

Ağustos
 6 Ağustos - Elliott Smith, Amerikalı müzisyen ve şarkıcı.
 7 Ağustos - Henrik Dagård, İsveçli atlet.
 14 Ağustos - Sylvia Jefferies, Amerikalı oyuncu
 18 Ağustos- Edward Norton, Amerikalı oyuncu.

Eylül
 7 Eylül - Angie Everhart, Amerikalı manken ve oyuncu
 8 Eylül
Yonca Gündüz Özçeri, Türk Abidjan büyükelçisi
Rachel Hunter, Yeni Zelandalı manken
Tetsuo Nakanishi, Japon eski futbolcu
Gary Speed, Galli millî futbolcu ve teknik direktör (ö. 2011)
 9 Eylül
Rachel Hunter, Yeni Zelandalı manken, oyuncu ve reality Tv şov sunucusu
Özlem Zengin, Türk avukat ve siyasetçi
 15 Eylül - Giuseppe D'Urso, İtalyan atlet.
 18 Eylül - Nezha Bidouane, Faslı atlet.

Ekim
 15 Eylül
 Márcio Santos, Brezilyalı futbolcu
 Kurthan Yılmaz, Türk futbolcu
 17 Ekim - Jesús Ángel García, İspanyol yürüyüşçü
 19 Ekim - Trey Parker, animatör, senaryo yazarı, film yönetmeni, seslendirme sanatçısı, oyuncu ve müzisyen
 20 Ekim - Lambros Papakostas, Yunan yüksek atlayıcısı

Kasım
 10 Kasım - Jens Lehmann, Alman kaleci
 27 Kasım - Mariusz Sordyl, Polonyalı voleybol antrenörü, eski voleybolcu
 29 Kasım - Pierre van Hooijdonk, Hollandalı futbolcu
 30 Kasım - Amy Ryan, Amerikalı oyuncu

Aralık
 13 Aralık - Tony Curran, oyuncu
20 Aralık - Alain de Botton, İsviçreli asıllı İngiliz yazar ve televizyon programları yapımcısı
 21 Aralık - Julie Delpy, Fransız oyuncu ve müzisyen
 28 Aralık - Linus Benedict Torvalds, Linux İşletim Sisteminin Yaratıcısı ve Geliştiricisi.

Tarihi bilinmeyenler
 Adam Wishart, İngiliz yazar ve yapımcı
 Marcelo Zarvos, Yunan asıllı Brezilyalı piyanist ve besteci.

Ölümler

Ocak
 31 Ocak - Stoyan Zagorçinov, Bulgar yazar (d. 1889)

Şubat
 9 Şubat - Manuel Plaza, Şilili sporcu (d. 1900)

Mart
 26 Mart - John Kennedy Toole, Amerikalı yazar.
 28 Mart - Ömer Faruk Efendi, son Osmanlı halifesi II. Abdülmecit'in oğlu ve bir dönem Fenerbahçe başkanlığı yapmıştır.

Nisan
 22 Nisan - Christina Montt, Şilili oyuncu (d. 1895)
 27 Nisan - René Barrientos, Bolivya Devlet Başkanı

Mayıs

Haziran

Temmuz
 14 Temmuz - Eero Berg, Finlandiyalı atlet (d. 1898)

Ağustos
31 Ağustos - Rocky Marciano, Amerikalı boksör (d. 1923)

Eylül
 2 Eylül - Ho Şi Mingh, Vietnamlı komünist lider, Vietnam Bağımsızlık Savaşının önder kişisi (d. 1890)
 23 Eylül - Taylan Özgür, Türk devrimci, THKO kurucularından (d. 1948)

Ekim
 21 Ekim - Jack Kerouac, Amerikalı yazar.
 24 Ekim - Behçet Kemal Çağlar, Türk şair.

Kasım

Aralık

Öldüğü gün ve ay bilinmeyenler
 Amalia Sánchez Ariño, Arjantinli oyuncu (d. 1883)

1969 Nobel ödülünü kazananlar

 Fizik –
 Kimya –
 Tıp –
 Edebiyat –
 Barış –
 Ekonomi – (ilk defa!)

1969


Jørgen Møllekær (født Keuchel; 21. august 1964 i Flensborg) er tidligere chefredaktør på Flensborg Avis.

Uddannelse
Han er student fra Duborg-Skolen i Flensborg 1984 og gjorde fra 1984 til 1986 tysk militærtjeneste som telegrafist. Fra 1986 til 1987 var han ansat som journalistvolontør på Flensborg Avis. Uddannet journalist på Journalisthøjskolen i 1991. I 2013 færdiggjorde Jørgen Møllekær en masteruddannelse i redaktionel ledelse ved Syddansk Universitet.

Karriere
Efter uddannelsen som journalist blev Jørgen Møllekær i 1991 ansat som reporter og redaktionssekretær på Flensborg Avis. Fra 1991 til 1993 var han politisk reporter på Berlingske Tidende på avisens redaktion på Christiansborg. Fra 1993 til 1996 var han reporter på TV2 Nyhederne. Fra 1996 til 1999 var han indlandskorrespondent på DR TV Avisen i Odense. Fra 1999 til 2002 nyhedsredaktør på TV Syd.

Fra 2002 til 2008 nyhedschef og medlem af ledelsen på TV 2/Fyn. 2008 til 2009 pressechef ved Energinet.dk. 2009 til 2010 vikar som nyhedsredaktør på TV Øst. Fra 2010 til 2013 produktchef hos CompuSoft i Odense. Fra 2013 chefredaktør på Flensborg Avis.

Jørgen Møllekær stoppede som chefredaktør på Flensborg Avis med udgangen af juni 2023. Ifølge Mediawatch var ønsket om en ny strategi samt trivselsproblemer blandt de redaktionelle medarbejdere årsag til, at kontrakten ikke blev forlænget.

Journalisternes fagblad Journalisten beskrev i foråret 2023 Flensborg Avis' trivselsmåling . I trivselsmålingens opsummering hed det, at »ledelsen ofte blev beskrevet som fraværende i det daglige, særligt i ydertimerne. Der er et udtalt ønske om en ledelse, der er mere synlig i hverdagen og til stede, indtil lyset slukkes (særligt når store begivenheder står på)«.

Fratrædelsen kom efter, at Jørgen Møllekær tilbage i marts 2023 blev sygemeldt efter et ildebefindende.

Referencer

Danske sydslesvigere
Journalister fra Danmark
Danskere i 1900-tallet
Danskere i 2000-tallet

Jørgen Møllekær


Mogens Scott Hansen (Scott) (født 1929 i Assens - død 2004 i Ulkebøl) var en dansk amatørhistoriker. Han er kendt for sit meget store ulønnede pionerarbejde med at registrere og formidle den glemte og delvis forsvundne tyske forsvarsstilling fra 1. verdenskrig, Sikringsstilling Nord.

Scotts baggrund
Scott var søn af en skolelærer, og fattede tidligt interesse for historie. Som syvårig flyttede Mogens Scott Hansen med faderen til Odense, hvor han boede de næste 18 år.

I 1955 dimitterede han som maskiningeniør fra Odense Maskinteknikum og efter forskellige kortere ansættelser, blev han i 1969 ingeniør på Danfoss på Als.

Hans første møde med Sikringsstilling Nord

I 1942 så den da 12 årige Mogens Scott Hansen første gang dele af Sikringsstilling Nord.

Det var observationsbunkeren på Store Borgbjerg, der dog ikke var beskrevet nogen steder.

Arkiverne.
I forbindelsen med sin ansættelse på Danfoss på Als var Mogens Scott Hansen flyttet til Guderup på Als. Han fattede igen interesse for det gamle tyske anlæg, men historisk var anlægget både væk og glemt.

I 1975 blev han opmærksom på nogle artikler om Sikringsstilling Nord i Sønderjysk månedsskrift. De var skrevet af Ulrich greve Holstein og dr. phil Thøger Bang. Her var den overordnede historie beskrevet, og Mogens Scott Hansen opdagede at det faktisk drejede sig om et enormt anlæg med hundredvis af konstruktioner.

Arbejdet med stillingen.
Med udgangspunkt i de gamle rapporter begyndte Scott i 1975 at søge og registrere anlæggene fra øst mod vest tværs over Sønderjylland.

Der var op mod ni hundrede anlæg. Nogle synlige, nogle tildækkede eller sprængte. Scott satte sig for at finde og registrere dem alle.

Ud over at finde, opmåle og registrere de enkelte anlæg, begyndte Scott nu også et kæmpeprojekt med at interviewe vidner og dermed samle et stort førstehåndsmateriale. I sidste øjeblik, for disse vidner var langt oppe i årene. Han optog over 700 interviews på bånd, hvilket blev et meget væsentligt bidrag til historieskrivningen.

I 1978 opsagde han sit arbejde som ingeniør for at hellige sig opgaven på fuld tid.

Da der ikke var meget økonomisk råderum, konstruerede ingeniøren Scott forskellige sindrige hjemmemodificerede maskiner og instrumenter. Samtidig kunne han trække på et stort netværk. Bl.a. lånte han en militær bombesøger på en nærliggende flyvestation. Denne kunne registrere metal, og dermed armerings-jernene i en sprængt og begravet bunker i op til otte meters dybde.

Sideløbende afholdt Scott et stort antal fordrag og rundvisninger. Disse var medvirkende til bevidstgørelsen af anlægget historie og de enkelte anlægs betydning. En del anlæg blev hermed reddet fra ødelæggelse.

Livsværket
Scott  døde i 2004. Han nåede i 1992 at udgive bogen "Sikringsstilling Nord" i samarbejde med Skov- og Naturstyrelsen.

Han efterlod sit store og omfattende livsværk, men med hjælp fra sin hustru og sine nærmeste samarbejdspartnere blev det meste bevaret. En del af arkiverne findes i dag i digitaliseret form på Institut for Sønderjysk Lokalhistorie (ISL) i Åbenrå. Blandt dette materiale er lydfilerne fra de mange interviews.

Scotts arkiver og mange af hans konstruktioner blev overført til den nystiftede Støtteforening for Sikringsstilling Nord i 2013.

Litteratur
 Thøger Bangs og Ulrich greve Holstein, Sønderjysk Månedsskrift 1975.
 Per Ole Schovsbo og Hans Ole Mathiessen, Sønderjysk Månedsskrift nr. 6, 1992. Tyske betonstillinger i Jylland 1916-1945.
 Mogens Scott-Hansen. Sikringsstilling Nord (1992)
 Leif O. Nørgaard, Tidsskriftet Ingeniøren nr. 25 1995. Sikringsstilling Nord blev hans livsværk.
 Hans Ole Mathiessen, Sønderjysk Månedsskrift nr. 4, 1995. Sikringsstilling Nord.
 Søren Østergaard. Scott (2018)

Referencer
 1.Pionerbataljons rapport til krigsministeriet vedr. demoleringen, 1928.
 https://denstorekrig1914-1918.dk/verdenskrigens-spor-soenderjylland/
 http://www.military-history-denmark.dk
 http://www.sikringsstillingnord.dk/

Noter

Militærhistorikere fra Danmark

Mogens Scott-Hansen


John Ryder (født 19. juli 1988 i Islington, London, England) er en britisk professionel bokser. Han har udfordret to gange om den britiske-mellemvægtstitel i 2013 og 2015 og en gang for den britiske super-mellemvægtstitel i 2017. Han er bedst kendt for at have knock outet Patrick Nielsen i 5. omgang på undercardet til WBA-verdensmesteren George Groves vs Jamie Cox som en del verdens-turneringen World Boxing Super Seriespå Wembley Arena i London, den 14. oktober 2017.

Amatørkarriere
Som en amatør kæmpede Ryder for Angel Amateur Boxing Club i sin Islington-fødeny og vandt 30 kampe ud af 35 kampe.

Professionelle karriere
Ryder blev professionel den 10. september 2010 og scorede en første omgangs teknisk knockout mod Ben Deghani. Efter at have vundet sine første femten kampe, mødte Ryder Billy Joe Saunders om den britiske og Commonwealth mellemvægtstitlerne den 21 September 2013, hvor han tabte en tæt enstemmig afgørelse (UD) hvor dommerstemmerne var 115-113, 115-113 og 115-114 til Saunders fordel.
Ryder vandt sit første regionale mesterskab - den ledige WBO Inter-Continental-mellemvægtstitel den 11. oktober 2014, da han stoppede Theophilus Tetteh inden for 5 omgange. Han forsvarede denne titel en gang imod Billi Facundo Godoy med en tiende omgangs KO. Efter Saunders efterlod den britiske mellemvægtstitel blev der holdt en kamp mellem topudfordrene Ryder og Nick Blackwell den 30. maj 2015. Ryder var langt foran på dommerstemmerne, da han blev stoppet på sine fødder af Blackwell i syvende omgang. Ryder kom tilbage den 30. januar 2016 og vandt sit andet regionale mesterskab - den ledige WBA International mellemvægts-titel - med en enstemmig afgørelse over hviderussiske Sergey Khomitsky.

Ryder stod overfor Jack Arnfield den 24. september 2016 og tabte en tæt og kontroversiel enstemmig afgørelse over tolv omgange. Ryder rejste sig i sin næste kamp ved at besejre Adam Etches på en enstemmig afgørlese i en 12-omganges kamp. Den 22. april 2017 rykkede Ryder op i super-mellemvægt mod Rocky Fielding om den britiske titel, men tabte en split decision. På trods af dommerstemmerne på 116-113 og 115-114 til Fielding fordel og 115-114 til Ryder følte mange observatører, at sidstnævnte vandt kampen.

Den 14. oktober, 2017 på Wembley Arena i London udboksede han og knock out besejrede han Patrick Nielsen i 5. omgang.

Referencer

Boksere fra England
Super-mellemvægtere
Personer fra London

John Ryder


لوك ويلسن  ممثل والمخرج و الكاتب أمريكي من مواليد 21 سبتمبر 1971. من اصل ايرلندى، هو الشقيق الأصغر ل أوين ويلسون و أندرو ويلسون ، تخرج من كلية اوكسيدنتال حيث اهتم لوك بقسم العاب القوى في المدرسة وبالدراما المسرحية .برع لوك في سباقات المضمار ولكن في نهاية المطاف جعل الدراما أول اهتماماته يليه الرياضة .التحق بمدرسة سانت مارك دالاس حيث كان من ضمن الخمس الاوائل في المدرسة . و كان عضوا في نادى بيل اير .والده كان مسؤول تنفيذى في برنامج تليفزيونى .

أفلامه

مواقع خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أمريكيون من أصل أيرلندي
خريجو الجامعة المسيحية في تكساس
خريجو كلية اوكسيدنتال
كتاب وكاتبات سيناريو أمريكيون
مخرجو أفلام أمريكيون
ممثلو أداء صوتي رجال أمريكيون
ممثلو أفلام أمريكيون
ممثلو تلفزيون أمريكيون
ممثلون أمريكيون في القرن 20
ممثلون أمريكيون في القرن 21
ممثلون أمريكيون
ممثلون ذكور من أصل أيرلندي
ممثلون من دالاس
ممثلون وممثلات من ولاية تكساس
مواليد 1971
مواليد في دالاس (تكساس)

لوك ويلسن


සුඛාවතී බුදු දහම (; ජපන්: 浄土仏教; Jōdo bukkyō; කොරියානු: ; වියට්නාම: Tịnh Độ Tông), හෙවත් ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින් Amidism ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන්නේ නැගෙනහිර ආසියාව පුරා වඩාත්ම පුළුල් ලෙස අනුගමනයට ලක්වූ මහායාන බුද්ධාගමේ ශාඛාවකි. සුඛාවතී බුදු දහම යනු අමිතාභ බුදුන් වහන්සේ ඉගැන්වීම් කෙරෙහි අවධානය යොමුකෙරෙන බෞද්ධ ඉගැන්වීම් සම්ප්‍රදායයකි. මෙම සම්ප්‍රදායයෙහි මූලික සූත්‍ර ත්‍රිත්වයක් වන අතර ඒවා "ත්‍රිත්ව සුඛාවතී සූත්‍ර" ලෙස හැඳින්වේ. එම සූත්‍රයන් වන්නේ දීර්ඝ සුඛාවතීව්‍යූහ සූත්‍රය (අනන්ත ජීව සූත්‍රය), කෙටි සුඛාවතීව්‍යූහ සූත්‍රය (අමිතාභ සූත්‍රය) සහ අමිතායුර්ධ්‍යාන සූත්‍රය (ධ්‍යානී
සූත්‍රය) වේ.

සටහන්

චීනයේ බුද්ධාගම
ජපානයේ බුද්ධාගම

සුඛාවතී බුදු දහම


Tiago Carneiro Peixoto (Araguari, 20 de fevereiro de 1977) é um cientista político brasileiro especialista em governança atuante pelo Banco Mundial. É reconhecido pelo seu trabalho na área da democracia direta digital e participativa, sendo apontado como uma das cem pessoas mais influentes na área de governo digital. Foi contribuinte em processos de implementação e de expansão de políticas participativas em regiões do Brasil e do exterior.

Possui doutorado e mestrado em ciência política pelo Instituto Universitário Europeu, além de mestrado em ação coletiva organizada pelo Instituto de Estudos Políticos de Paris.

Carreira profissional
Durante sua carreira Tiago gerenciou projetos e atuou como conselheiro e consultor para organizações como Comissão Europeia, OCDE e Nações Unidas, foi diretor de pesquisa do Centro de e-Democracia da Universidade de Zurique, membro do corpo docente da Academia GovLab na Universidade de Nova York e investigador associado do Centro e-Democracia de Genebra, tendo sido também nomeado como co-presidente do conselho editorial da plataforma colaborativa Open Governance Research Exchange (OGRX).

Em 2010, ao ingressar no Banco Mundial, tornou-se pesquisador do programa ICT4Gov e com o passar dos anos passou a atuar como líder multissetorial, tendo liderado a Equipe de Avaliação de Engajamento Digital (DEET), coordenando atividades de avaliação e pesquisa para examinar os efeitos da tecnologia na participação, transparência, responsabilidade e capacidade de respostas governamentais, e também liderando operações do Banco Mundial e da Associação Internacional de Desenvolvimento em auxílio e investimento a projetos governamentais em diversos continentes, desenvolvendo soluções digitais para o aprimoramento de políticas e serviços públicos, assim como para promover o acesso populacional a direitos civis.

Em 2020 tornou-se membro do conselho consultivo World Citizens' Assembly.

Pesquisas e publicações
Ao decorrer de sua carreira Tiago empenhou-se no mapeamento de experiências de orçamento participativo ao redor do mundo e desenvolveu linhas de pesquisas pioneiras sobre o impacto das TIC nos procedimentos democráticos, sobre os níveis de transparência do setor público e os efeitos de políticas participativas na arrecadação fiscal, assim como sobre o impacto tecnológico sobre a participação de gênero e seus efeitos na política, essas que repercutiram em instituições acadêmicas como nas universidades Harvard e Stanford, e também em meios de comunicação sociais e especializados, tais como The Economist, Forbes, The Guardian, The Washington Post, New Scientist entre outros.

Parte de suas pesquisas resultaram em painéis de debates em conferências mundiais e governamentais realizadas em instituições como o Parlamento do Reino Unido, a Casa Branca entre outros.

Reconhecimento e prêmios
Em 2012, ainda quando consultor do Banco Mundial, foi nomeado pelo site TechCrunch como uma das vinte pessoas mais inovadoras na democracia mundial ao lado de nomes como os dos ex-presidentes Barack Obama e Toomas Hendrik Ilves e também ao de Eric Schmidt, ex-CEO do Google.

Em 2018 e 2019 foi apontado como uma das 100 pessoas mais influentes na área de governo digital.

Também em 2018, recebeu o prêmio Louis Brownlow Award, concedido pela American Public Administration Society, pelo artigo The Effect of Bureaucratic Responsiveness on Citizen Participation

no qual demonstra de maneira empírica os efeitos  das respostas governamentais na participação cidadã.

Livros publicados
 e-AGORA: The White Book of Local e-Democracy: Reflections and Perspectives (2006)
 Civic Tech in the Global South: Assessing Technology for the Public Good (2017).

Ligações externas

 Artigos publicados por Tiago Peixoto
 Mapa de reconstituições de experiências de orçamento participativo
 Blog DemocracySpot

Naturais de Araguari
Cientistas políticos do Brasil
Pessoas do Banco Mundial
Nascidos em 1977

Tiago Peixoto


Roskilde Festival 2018 var en dansk musikfestival, der blev afholdt fra lørdag den 30. juni til lørdag d. 7 juli.

Optrædende
Blandt de optrædende var
 Cardi B (US) - 4. juli
 Khalid (US) - 5. juli
 Eminem (US) - 4. juli
 Bruno Mars (US) - 5. juli
 St. Vincent (US) - 4. juli
 Odesza (US) - 6. juli
 Alex Vargas (DK)
 Boris & Merzbow (JP) - 5. juli
 Cezinando (NO)
 Descendents (US) - 6. juli
 Heilung (INT) - 5. juli
 Kokoko (CD) - 7. juli
 Lekhfa (EG)
 The Minds of 99 (DK)
 Nathan Fake (UK)
 Palm (US)
 Preoccupations (CA) - 5. juli
 (Sandy) Alex G (US)
 Veto (DK)

2018
Begivenheder i 2018

Roskilde Festival 2018


Sankt Goarshausen (forkortet St. Goarshausen) er en by på højre bred af Rhinen (Mittelrhein) i Rhein-Lahn-Kreis i den tyske delstat Rheinland-Pfalz.

Sankt Goarshausen er kendt for sin centrale placering langs den "Romantiske Rhin", som blev optaget på UNESCOs Verdensarvsliste juli 2002. Der er to slotte på klipperne over byen, Burg Katz ("Katteborgen"), som tidligere hed "Burg Neu-Katzenelnbogen", og Burg Maus ("Museborgen"). Burg Katz ejes af en privat japaner, og den er ikke åben for besøgende. Fra Burg Maus er der god udsigt ud over byen og herfra kan man også se ruinerne af Burg Rheinfels på klippen over søsterbyen Sankt Goar på den anden side af Rhinen. Den berømte Lorelei klippe ligger lidt længere oppe ad floden på samme bred.

Byens økonomi er baseret på turisme og produktion af vin.

Seværdigheder
Der er oprettet et besøgscenter ved Lorelei klippen, som er den væsentligste seværdighed.

Galleri

Eksterne henvisninger
 Sankt Goarshausens officielle hjemmeside
 om distriktet Loreley, med kort

Noter

Byer i Rheinland-Pfalz

Sankt Goarshausen


عصر الأئمة هو مسلسل ديني تاريخي مصري بطولة محمد رياض وحمدي غيث، ومن إنتاج اتحاد الإذاعة والتلفزيون المصري ومن إخراج حسام الدين مصطفى يتناول سيرة الأئمة الثلاثة الشافعي ومالك وابن حنبل ويعتبر مكمل للمسلسل أبو حنيفة النعمان.

شخصيات المسلسل

فريق العمل

مراجع

روابط خارجية

مسلسلات تاريخية تلفزيونية مصرية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية دينية تاريخية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية إسلامية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية مصرية بدأ عرضها في 1997
مسلسلات حمدي غيث
مسلسلات تيسير فهمي
أحمد بن حنبل
مسلسلات محمد رياض
مسلسلات فايزة كمال
مسلسلات منال سلامة
مسلسلات صفاء الطوخي

عصر الأئمة (مسلسل)


Ripping is extracting all or parts of digital content from a container. Originally, it meant to rip music out of Commodore 64 games. Later, the term was used to mean to extract WAV or MP3 format files from digital audio CDs, but got applied as well to extract the contents of any media, including DVD and Blu-ray discs, and video game sprites.

Despite the name, neither the media nor the data is damaged after extraction. Ripping is often used to shift formats, and to edit, duplicate or back up media content. A rip is the extracted content, in its destination format, along with accompanying files, such as a cue sheet or log file from the ripping software.

To rip the contents out of a container is different from simply copying the whole container or a file. When creating a copy, nothing looks into the transferred file, nor checks if there is any encryption or not, and raw copy is also not aware of any file format. One can copy a DVD byte by byte via programs like the Linux dd command onto a hard disk, and play the resulting ISO file just as one would play the original DVD.

To rip contents is also different from grabbing an analog signal and re-encoding it, as it was done with early day CD-ROM drives not capable of digital audio extraction (DAE). Sometimes even encoding, i.e. digitizing audio and video originally stored on analog formats, such as vinyl records is incorrectly referred to as ripping.

Ripping software

A CD ripper, CD grabber or CD extractor is a piece of software designed to extract or "rip" raw digital audio (in format commonly called CDDA) from a compact disc to a file or other output. Some all-in-one ripping programs can simplify the entire process by ripping and burning the audio to disc in one step, possibly re-encoding the audio on-the-fly in the process.

For example, audio CDs contain 16-bit, 44.1 kHz LPCM-encoded audio samples interleaved with secondary data streams and synchronization and error correction info. The ripping software tells the CD drive's firmware to read this data and parse out just the LPCM samples. The software then dumps them into a WAV or AIFF file, or feeds them to another codec to produce, for example, a FLAC or MP3 file. Depending on the capabilities of the ripping software, ripping may be done on a track-by-track basis, or all tracks at once, or over a custom range. The ripping software may also have facilities for detecting and correcting errors during or after the rip, as the process is not always reliable, especially when the CD or the drive containing the CD itself is damaged or defective.

There are also DVD rippers which operate in a similar fashion. Unlike audio CDs, DVDs do contain data formatted in files for use in computers. However, commercial DVDs are often encrypted (for example, using Content Scramble System/ARccOS Protection), preventing access to the files without using the ripping software's decryption ability, which may not be legal to distribute or use. DVD files are often larger than is convenient to distribute or copy to CD-R or ordinary (not dual-layer) DVD-R, so DVD ripping software usually offers the ability to re-encode the content, with some quality loss, so that it fits in smaller files.

Legality

When the material being ripped is not in the public domain, and the person making the rip does not have the copyright owner's permission, then such ripping may be regarded as copyright infringement. However, some countries either explicitly allow it in certain circumstances, or at least don't forbid it. Some countries also have fair use-type laws which allow unauthorized copies to be made under certain conditions.

Asia

Europe

A directive of the European Union allows its member nations to instate in their legal framework a private copy exception to the authors and editors rights. If a member State chooses to do so, it must also introduce a compensation for the copyright holders. Most European countries, except for Norway, have introduced a private copying levy that compensates the owners directly from the country's budget. In 2009 the sum awarded to them was $55 million. In all but a few of these countries (exceptions include the UK and Malta), the levy is excised on all machines and blank materials capable of copying copyrighted works.

Under the directive, making copies for other people is forbidden, and if done for profit can lead to a jail sentence.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands, citizens are allowed to make copies of their legally bought audio and video. This includes CD, SACD, as well as DVD and Blu-ray. These copies are called "home copies" and may only be used by the ripper. Public distribution of ripped files is not allowed.

Spain
In Spain, anyone is allowed to make a private copy of a copyrighted material for oneself, providing that the copier has accessed the original material legally.

United Kingdom
Private copying of copyrighted material is illegal in the United Kingdom. According to a 2009 survey, 59% of British consumers believed ripping a CD to be legal, and 55% admitted to doing it.

In 2010, the UK government sought input on modernizing copyright exceptions for the digital age, and commissioned the Hargreaves Review of Intellectual Property and Growth. The review asserted that a private copying exception was overdue, citing that users were unaware of what was even legally allowed, and that a copyright law where "millions of citizens are in daily breach of copyright, simply for shifting a piece of music or video from one device to another" was not "fit for the digital age". The review recommended, among other things, that the government consider adopting the EU Copyright Directive's recommendation that member states enact an exception for private, noncommercial copying so long as the rights holders receive "fair compensation." Other EU member states chose to implement the exception paired with a tax on music purchases or widely varying levies on copying equipment and blank media. However, the Review reasoned that no such collections are necessary when implementing a copyright exception for format-shifting:

In August 2011, the government broadly accepted the recommendations of the Hargreaves Review. At the end of 2012, the government published "Modernising Copyright", a document outlining specific changes the government intends to make, including the Hargreaves-recommended exception for private, noncommercial copying.

Following each milestone in the reform process, press reports circulated that ripping non-DRM-protected CDs and DVDs was no longer illegal. However, the actual legislation to implement the changes is not yet in force; the Intellectual Property Office had only begun seeking review of draft legislation in June 2013, and the resulting Statutory Instruments (SIs) weren't laid out for Parliamentary approval until March 27, 2014, and weren't actually approved until July 14 (Commons) and July 27 (Lords); with an effective date of October 1, 2014. Anticipating approval, the Intellectual Property Office published a guide for consumers to explain the forthcoming changes and to clarify what would remain illegal. The private copying exception may seem to conflict with the existing Copyright Directive prohibition on overriding or removing any DRM or TPM (technical protection measures) that are sometimes used on optical media to protect the content from ripping. However, the "Modernising Copyright" report makes clear that any workarounds to allow access will not involve a relaxation of the prohibition.

On 17 July 2015, the private copying exemption was overturned by the High Court of Justice following a complaint by BASCA, Musicians' Union, and UK Music, making private copying once again illegal. The groups objected to the exclusion of a compensation scheme, presenting evidence contradicting an assertion that an exemption would cause "zero or insignificant harm" to copyright holders and thus did not require compensation.

North America

United States
U.S. copyright law (Title 17 of the United States Code) generally says that making a copy of an original work, if conducted without the consent of the copyright owner, is infringement. The law makes no explicit grant or denial of a right to make a "personal use" copy of another's copyrighted content on one's own digital media and devices. For example, space shifting, by making a copy of a personally owned audio CD for transfer to an MP3 player for that person's personal use, is not explicitly allowed or forbidden.

Existing copyright statutes may apply to specific acts of personal copying, as determined in cases in the civil or criminal court systems, building up a body of case law. Consumer copyright infringement cases in this area, to date, have only focused on issues related to consumer rights and the applicability of the law to the sharing of ripped files, not to the act of ripping, per se.

Canada
The Copyright Act of Canada generally says that it is legal to make a backup copy of any copyrighted work if the user owns or has a licence to use a copy of the work or subject-matter as long as the user does not circumvent a technological protection measure or give any of the reproductions away. This means that in most cases, ripping DVDs in Canada is most likely illegal.

Oceania

Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand a copy of any legally purchased music may be made by its owner, as long as it is not distributed to others and its use remains personal. In Australia, this was extended in 2006 to also include photographs and films.

Opinions of ripping
Recording industry representatives have made conflicting statements about ripping.

Executives claimed (in the context of Atlantic v. Howell) that ripping may be regarded as copyright infringement. In oral arguments before the Supreme Court in MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., MGM attorney Don Verrilli (later appointed United States Solicitor General by the Obama administration), stated: "The record companies, my clients, have said, for some time now, and it's been on their Website for some time now, that it's perfectly lawful to take a CD that you've purchased, upload it onto your computer, put it onto your iPod. There is a very, very significant lawful commercial use for that device, going forward."

Nevertheless, in lawsuits against individuals accused of copyright infringement for making files available via file-sharing networks, RIAA lawyers and PR officials have characterized CD ripping as "illegal" and "stealing".

Asked directly about the issue, RIAA president Cary Sherman asserted that the lawyers misspoke, and that the RIAA has never said whether it was legal or illegal, and he emphasized that the RIAA had not yet taken anyone to court over that issue alone.

Fair use

Although certain types of infringement scenarios are allowed as fair use and thus are effectively considered non-infringing, "personal use" copying is not explicitly mentioned as a type of fair use, and case law has not yet established otherwise.

Personal copying acknowledgments

According to Congressional reports, part of the Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA) of 1992 was intended to resolve the debate over home taping. However, 17 USC 1008, the relevant text of the legislation, didn't fully indemnify consumers for noncommercial, private copying. Such copying is broadly permitted using analog devices and media, but digital copying is only permitted with certain technology like DAT, MiniDisc, and "audio" CD-R—not with computer hard drives, portable media players, and general-purpose CD-Rs.

The AHRA was partially tested in RIAA v. Diamond Multimedia, Inc., a late-1990s case which broached the subject of a consumer's right to copy and format-shift, but which ultimately only ascertained that one of the first portable MP3 players wasn't even a "digital recording device" covered by the law, so its maker wasn't required to pay royalties to the recording industry under other terms of the AHRA.

Statements made by the court in that case, and by both the House and Senate in committee reports about the AHRA, do interpret the legislation as being intended to permit private, noncommercial copying with any digital technology. However, these interpretations may not be binding.

In 2007, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), a government office which requires business to engage in consumer-friendly trade practices, has acknowledged that consumers normally expect to be able to rip audio CDs. Specifically, in response to the Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal, the FTC declared that the marketing and sale of audio CDs which surreptitiously installed digital rights management (DRM) software constituted deceptive and unfair trade practices, in part because the record company "represented, expressly or by implication, that consumers will be able to use the CDs as they are commonly used on a computer: to listen to, transfer to playback devices, and copy the audio files contained on the CD for personal use."

A DVD ripper''' is a computer program that facilitates copying the content of a DVD to a hard disk drive. They are mainly used to transfer video on DVDs to different formats, to edit or back up DVD content, and to convert DVD video for playback on media players and mobile devices. Some DVD rippers include additional features such as Blu-ray support, DVD and Blu-ray Disc decryption, copy protection removal and the ability to make discs unrestricted and region-free.  While most DVD rippers only convert video to highly compressed MP4 video files, there are other rippers that can convert DVDs to higher quality compressed video.  These types of DVD rippers are used by the television and film industry to create broadcast quality video from DVD.  Video ripped by these professional DVD rippers is an exact duplicate of the original DVD video.

 Circumvention of DVD copy protection

In the case where media contents are protected using some effective copy protection scheme, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) of 1998 makes it illegal to manufacture or distribute circumvention tools and use those tools for infringing purposes. In the 2009 case RealNetworks v. DVD CCA'', the final injunction reads, "while it may well be fair use for an individual consumer to store a backup copy of a personally owned DVD on that individual's computer, a federal law has nonetheless made it illegal to manufacture or traffic in a device or tool that permits a consumer to make such copies." This case made clear that manufacturing and distribution of circumvention tools was illegal, but use of those tools for non-infringing purposes, including fair use purposes, was not.

The Library of Congress periodically issues rulings to exempt certain classes of works from the DMCA's prohibition on the circumvention of copy protection for non-infringing purposes. One such ruling in 2010 declared, among other things, that the Content Scramble System (CSS) commonly employed on commercial DVDs could be circumvented to enable non-infringing uses of the DVD's content. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) hailed the ruling as enabling DVD excerpts to be used for the well-established fair-use activities of criticism and commentary, and for the creation of derivative works by video remix artists. However, the text of the ruling says the exemption can only be exercised by professional educators and their students, not the general public.

See also

References

Copyright law
Audio storage
Video storage
Video conversion software
DVD

Ripping


İşkenceye Karşı Komite, Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Kurulu'nun 10 Aralık 1984 tarih ve 39/46 sayıyla kabul edilmiş olan Birleşmiş Milletler İşkence ve Diğer Zalimane, İnsanlık Dışı veya Küçültücü Muamele veya Cezaya Karşı Sözleşme'ye (İngilizce: Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, kısaca CAT) uyarınca, anlaşmaya tabi olan devletler tarafından seçilen komitedir.  Sözleşme'nin II. Bölüm'ü (17.-24. maddeler) Komite üyelerinin sayısını,  seçilme yönntemini, görev süresini ve görev ve işlevlerini içeren maddelerden oluşur. 17 maddeye göre komite 10 üyeden oluşur.  Her bir Taraf Devlet en fazla iki aday ile seçime katılabilir. Seçim gizli oyla yapılır. Komite üyeleri 4 yıl için seçilirler, her iki senede bir görevi biten beş üye için yeni seçim yapılır, daha önceki üyeler, tekrar aday olabilirler. Madde 18'e göre Komite Üyeleri mutlak çoğunluk (6 oy) ile kararı alabilirler. 19 madde raporları düzenler, buna göre Taraf Devletler, anlaşma yürürlüğü girdikten sonra (26 Haziran 1987) bir sene içinde anlaşma hükümlerini yerine getirebilmek için aldıkları önlemleri açıklayan rapor verirler. Üyelik boyunca her 4 yılda bir ve Komite'nin talebi olduğunda da rapor vermekle yükümlüdürler.  Ayrıca somut olaylara yönelik raporlar ve bunlara komite'nin verdiği yanıtlar düzenli olarak Birleşmiş Milletler İnsan Hakları yüksek Komiseliği 'nin sitesinde yayınlanmaktadır. Madde 20'de Komite sistematik işkence olduğu kanısına vardığı durumunda izlenecek prosedürün ana hatları verilmektedir. Böyle bir durum da, üye veya üyeler gizli araştırma yapmak ve rapor hazırlamak üzere görevlendirilebilir. İlgili devletlerin işbirliği istenir ve gerektiğinde ziyaretler yapılır.

Türkiye ve Sözleşme
Türkiye'de 25 Ocak 1988'de imzalanan sözleşme, 21 Nisan 1988 tarih ve 3441 sayılı kanunla kabul edilmiş. Söz konusu kanunu 29 Nisan 1988 tarih ve 19799 sayılı resmi gazete yayınlanmıştır ve o tarihte yürürlüğe girmiştir.  Daha sonra yayınlanacağı belirtilen beyan ve itirazi kayıt ise 10 Ağustos 1988 tarihinde 19895 saylı rasmi gazetede sözleşmenin Türkçe ve İngiiizce metni ile birlikte her iki dilde yayınmıştır. T.C. Hükümeti olarak İşkenceye Karşı Komite'nin sözleşmeden doğan yetkisinin kabul  edildiği beyan edilmiş; itirazi kayıtta ise 30. Madde'nin birinci fıkrasında  geçen, Taraf Devletler arasında sözleşmeden doğan anlaşmazlık durumunda Uluslararası Adalet Mahkemesi'ne başvurulacağı koşulunu kabul etmemiştir. İlgili Madde'nin  2. fıkrasında Taraf Devletlere tanınan Uluslararası Adalet  Mahkemesi'ne (Uluslararası Adalet Divanı) gitmeme seçeneğini kullanarak, itirazı kayıtla sözleşmeyi kabul etmiştir. Yani Türkiye ile ilgili, sözleşmenin yorumlanmasından kaynaklanan  bir anlaşmazlık olduğunda Uluslararası Adalet Mahkemesi'ne gidilmeyecektir.

Komite Üyeleri
31 Aralık 2017 tarihine kadar görevdeki Birleşmiş Milletler İşkenceye Karşı Komitesi'nin bütün üyeleri (soyadı sırasıyla), statü, İngilizce özgeçmiş ve üyeliklerinin bitim tarihleri aşağıdaki tabloda gösterilmiştir. Seçim kuralına göre her iki yılda bir üyelerin yarısı (5 üye) değişir.

Diğer dillerde son veya önceki seçimlere ilişkin üye ve adayların özgeçmişleri,güncel üyeler hakkında  bilgi edinmek için komitenin üyelik sayfasına bakılabilir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 İşkencenin Önlenmesi Komitesi
 İnsan Hakları
 İşkence

Kaynakça
 Birleşmiş Milletler - İşkenceye Karşı Komite'nin Resmi Sitesi (İngilizce)
 Sözleşme Kapsamasındaki Meselerle İlgili Taraf Devletlerin Yazıları (İngilizce)

Dış politika
Uluslararası kuruluşlar
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri merkezli insan hakları kuruluşları
İşkence
1987'de kurulan kuruluşlar
Birleşmiş Milletler örgütleri


Shiki may refer to:

Places
Shiki District, Afghanistan
Shiki District, Nara, Japan
Shiki, Saitama, Japan
Shiki language
Shiki Theatre Company, a Japanese theatre company

People
Masaoka Shiki (1867–1902), a Japanese haiku and tanka poet
, Japanese manga artist
, Japanese actor, voice actor, model and fashion designer
, Japanese writer
, Japanese racing cyclist

Fiction
Shiki (novel), a horror novel by Fuyumi Ono, adapted into a manga and anime series
Shiki (Black Cat), a character from Black Cat
Shiki (Samurai Shodown), a character from Samurai Shodown
Shiki Misaki, a character from The World Ends With You
Shiki Nanaya, a character from Tsukihime#Shiki Nanaya
Shiki Ryōgi, a character from Kara no Kyoukai
Senri Shiki, a character from Vampire Knight
Shiki Tohno, a character from Tsukihime
Shiki, a character from Togainu no Chi
Shiki the Golden Lion, the main antagonist of the anime movie One Piece Film: Strong World
Shiki Ando, a character from Paradox Live
Shiki Granbell, the main male protagonist from the manga and anime series Edens Zero

Japanese-language surnames
Japanese unisex given names

Shiki


Novo Horizonte es un municipio brasileño del Estado de Santa Catarina. Se localiza a una latitud 26º26'40" sur y a una longitud 52º50'01" oeste, estando a una altitud de 710 metros. Su población estimada en 2009 era de 2.954 habitantes.

Posee un área de 151,41 km².

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Santa Catarina

Novo Horizonte (Santa Catarina)


Bibliothek der Science Fiction Literatur ist eine von 1981 bis 2001 erschienene Buchreihe des Wilhelm Heyne Verlages München, die von Wolfgang Jeschke herausgegeben wurde.

Die Titel der Reihe sind Romane, Erzählungssammlungen und Themen-Anthologien bekannter Autoren aus den Bereichen Science-Fiction und Fantasy (sowie als Ausnahme ein einziges Sachbuch). Die Reihe versammelte "herausragende Werke dieser Literaturgattung, die als Meilensteine ihrer Geschichte gelten und als beispielhafte Versuche, Möglichkeiten denkbarer Entwicklungen aufzuzeigen und auf Gefahren und Probleme der Gegenwart und Zukunft hinzuweisen".
Viele Titel waren Neuauflagen von bearbeiteten Fassungen bereits in anderen Ausgaben erschienener Texte, es gab aber auch zahlreiche Titel, die ihre deutsche Erstausgabe (und mitunter auch ihre einzige Ausgabe) in der Bibliothek der Science Fiction Literatur erlebten.

Auf dem sonst komplett in weiß gehaltenen Cover (deswegen auch der Beiname Weiße Reihe) befand sich auf dem vorderen Umschlag der Kopftitel der Reihe und das Verlagslogo, darunter in der oberen Hälfte in schwarzer und farbiger Schrift zentriert Autor und Titel. Die untere Hälfte des Covers wurde von einem quadratischen, farbig gedruckten Motiv beherrscht, das jeweils exklusiv für den jeweiligen Band angefertigt worden war.

Titelliste

Siehe auch

Liste der mehrbändigen deutschsprachigen Science-Fiction-Taschenbuchanthologien

Weblinks
 Bibliothek der Science Fiction Literatur in der Internet Speculative Fiction Database (englisch)
 Heyne Bibliothek der SF-Literatur bei fictionfantasy

Einzelnachweise

Buchreihe zur phantastischen Literatur
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Literarisches Werk
Science-Fiction-Literatur
Fantasy