The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language: Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli. Although the systems differ in appearance, their letters share the same names and alphabetical order and are written horizontally from left to right. Of the three scripts, Mkhedruli, once the civilian royal script of the Kingdom of Georgia and mostly used for the royal charters, is now the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages, whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only by the Georgian Orthodox Church, in ceremonial religious texts and iconography.

Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established; however, in strictly structural terms, their alphabetical order largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet, with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds, which are grouped at the end. Originally consisting of 38 letters, Georgian is presently written in a 33-letter alphabet, as five letters are obsolete. The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies. Mingrelian uses 36: thirty-three that are current Georgian letters, one obsolete Georgian letter, and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan. Laz uses the same 33 current Georgian letters as Mingrelian plus that same obsolete letter and a letter borrowed from Greek for a total of 35. The fourth Kartvelian language, Svan, is not commonly written, but when it is, it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian, with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels.

The "living culture of three writing systems of the Georgian alphabet" was granted the national status of intangible cultural heritage in Georgia in 2015 and inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2016.

Preview

Origins

The origin of the Georgian script is poorly known, and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation, who designed the script, and the main influences on that process.

The first attested version of the script is Asomtavruli, which dates back to the 5th century; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia (not to be confused with the Iberian Peninsula), a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli. The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III (326 or 337) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430. It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian, by monks in Georgia and Palestine. Professor Levan Chilashvili's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions, discovered by him at the ruined town of Nekresi, in Georgia's easternmost province of Kakheti, in the 1980s, to the 1st or 2nd century has not been accepted.

A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of Kartli (ca. 800), assigns a much earlier, pre-Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet, and names King Pharnavaz I (3rd century BC) as its inventor. This account is now considered legendary, and is rejected by scholarly consensus, as no archaeological confirmation has been found. Rapp considers the tradition to be an attempt by the Georgian Church to rebut the earlier tradition that the alphabet was invented by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots, and is a Georgian application of an Iranian model in which primordial kings are credited with the creation of basic social institutions. Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternative interpretation of the tradition, in the pre-Christian use of foreign scripts (alloglottography in the Aramaic alphabet) to write down Georgian texts.

Another point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process. According to medieval Armenian sources and a number of scholars, Mesrop Mashtots, generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet, also created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets. This tradition originates in the works of Koryun, a fifth-century historian and biographer of Mashtots, and has been quoted by Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell, but has been rejected by Georgian scholarship and some Western scholars who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation. In his study on the history of the invention of the Armenian alphabet and the life of Mashtots, the Armenian linguist Hrachia Acharian strongly defended Koryun as a reliable source and rejected criticisms of his accounts on the invention of the Georgian script by Mashtots. Acharian dated the invention to 408, four years after Mashtots created the Armenian alphabet (he dated the latter event to 404). Some Western scholars quote Koryun's claims without taking a stance on its validity or concede that Armenian clerics, if not Mashtots himself, must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script.

Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet, as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet, or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic. Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems, most notably the order and numeric value of letters. Some scholars have also suggested certain pre-Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers as a possible inspiration for particular letters.

Asomtavruli

Asomtavruli (; ) is the oldest Georgian script. The name  means "capital letters", from  () "letter" and  () "principal/head". It is also known as Mrgvlovani () "rounded", from  () "round", so named because of its round letter shapes. Despite its name, this "capital" script is unicameral.

The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century and are Bir el Qutt and the Bolnisi inscriptions.

From the 9th century, Nuskhuri script started becoming dominant, and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced. However, epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script. Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative. In the majority of 9th-century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script, Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters. However, some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century.

Form of Asomtavruli letters
In early Asomtavruli, the letters are of equal height. Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli, like that of Greek, was initially boustrophedon, though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right.

In most Asomtavruli letters, straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles. The only letter with acute angles is  (jani). There have been various attempts to explain this exception. Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ, composed of  (ini) and  (kani). According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze, the cross-like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet, and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw (), Greek chi (Χ), and Latin X, though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician, Greek, or Latin.

 Coins of Queen Tamar of Georgia and King George IV of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script, 1200–1210 AD.

From the 7th century, the forms of some letters began to change. The equal height of the letters was abandoned, with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders.

Asomtavruli illumination
In Nuskhuri manuscripts, Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals. The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text. In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts, Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink. Later, from the 10th century, the letters were illuminated. The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text. For example, in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era, when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia, capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals.

 Decorative Asomtavruli capital letters, Ⴋ (m) and Ⴇ (t), 12–13th century.

From the 11th-century "limb-flowery", "limb-arrowy" and "limb-spotty" decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed. The first two are found in 11th- and 12th-century monuments, whereas the third one is used until the 18th century.

Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself.

Asomtavruli letter Ⴃ (doni) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds.

The "Curly" decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other, or the smaller letters are written inside other letters. It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books, although there are complete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli "Curly" form only.

The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli "Curly" decorative form.

Handwriting of Asomtavruli
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter:

Nuskhuri

Nuskhuri (; ) is the second Georgian script. The name  comes from  (), meaning "inventory" or "schedule". Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts. The combination is called Khutsuri (, "clerical", from  ( "cleric"), and it was principally used in hagiography.

Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli. The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD. The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD. Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century.

Form of Nuskhuri letters
Nuskhuri letters vary in height, with ascenders and descenders, and are slanted to the right. Letters have an angular shape, with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli. This enabled faster writing of manuscripts.

 → 15px → Asomtavruli letters ⴍ (oni) and ⴣ (vie). A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri, ⴓ uni.

Note: Without proper font support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters.

Handwriting of Nuskhuri
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Nuskhuri letter:

Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today
Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography, murals, and exterior design, especially in stone engravings. Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences, as in the Latin script, but it did not catch on. Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli. Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts.

Mkhedruli

Mkhedruli (; ) is the third and current Georgian script. Mkhedruli, literally meaning "cavalry" or "military", derives from  () meaning "horseman", "knight", "warrior" and "cavalier".

Mkhedruli is bicameral, with capital letters that are called Mkhedruli Mtavruli () or simply Mtavruli (; ). Nowadays, Mkhedruli Mtavruli is only used in all-caps text in titles or to emphasize a word, though in the late 19th and early 20th centuries it was occasionally used, as in Latin and Cyrillic scripts, to capitalize proper nouns or the first word of a sentence. Contemporary Georgian script does not recognize capital letters and their usage has become decorative.

Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century. The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD. The second oldest Mkhedruli-written text is found in the 11th-century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia. Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters, historical documents, manuscripts and inscriptions. Mkhedruli was used for non-religious purposes only and represented the "civil", "royal" and "secular" script.

Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts, though Khutsuri (Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli) was used until the 19th century. Mkhedruli became the universal writing Georgian system outside of the Church in the 19th century with the establishment and development of printed Georgian fonts.

Form of Mkhedruli letters
Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters. Mkhedruli letters are written in the four-linear system, similar to Nuskhuri.
Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing. It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops.

Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli-written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia, 11th century.
"Gurgen : King : of Kings : great-grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates"

Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli, 1187 AD.

Modern Georgian alphabet
The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters:

Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet
The Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians, founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879, discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant:

ჱ (he) /eɪ/, Svan /eː/, sometimes called "ei" or "e-merve" ("eighth e"), was equivalent to ეჲ ey, as in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist'ey 'Christ'.
ჲ (hie) /je/, also called yota, appeared instead of ი (ini) after a vowel, but came to have the same pronunciation as ი (ini) and was replaced by it. Thus, ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist'ey "Christ" is now written ქრისტე krist'e.
ჳ (vie) /uɪ/, Svan /w/ came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence, as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi "others'".
ჴ (qari, hari)  came to be pronounced the same as ხ (khani), and was replaced by it. e.g. ჴელმწიფე qelmts'ipe became ხელმწიფე khelmts'ipe "sovereign".
ჵ (hoe) /oː/ was used for the interjection hoi! and is now spelled ჰოი. Also used in Bats for the  or  sound.

All but ჵ (hoe) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet; ჲ (hie) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well, for the y-sound . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script.

Letters added to other alphabets
Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian. Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian, while others required additional letters:

ჶ (fi "phi") is used in Laz and Svan, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian. It derives from the Greek letter Φ (phi).
ჷ (shva "schwa"), also called yn, is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian.
ჸ (elifi "alif") is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian. It is a reversed  (q'ari).
ჹ (turned gani) was once used for  in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages.
ჼ (modifier nar) is used in Bats. It nasalizes the preceding vowel.
ჺ (aini "ain") is occasionally used for  in Bats. It derives from the Arabic letter  (ʿayn)
ჽ (aen) was used in the Ossetian language when it was written in the Georgian script. It was pronounced .
ჾ (hard sign) was used in Abkhaz for velarization of the preceding consonant.
ჿ (labial sign) was used in Abkhaz for labialization of the preceding consonant.

Handwriting of Mkhedruli
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter:

ზ, ო, and ხ (zeni, oni, khani) are almost always written without the small tick at the end, while the handwritten form of ჯ (jani) often uses a vertical line,  (sometimes with a taller ascender, or with a diagonal cross bar); even when it is written at a diagonal, the cross-bar is generally shorter than in print.

Only four letters are x-height, with neither ascenders nor descenders: ა, თ, ი, ო.
Thirteen have ascenders, like b or d in English: ბ, ზ, მ, ნ, პ, რ, ს, შ, ჩ, ძ, წ, ხ, ჰ
An equal number have descenders, like p or q in English: გ, დ, ე, ვ, კ, ლ, ჟ, ტ, უ, ფ, ღ, ყ, ც
Three letters have both ascenders and descenders, like þ in Old English: ქ, ჭ, and (in handwriting) ჯ. წ sometimes has both ascender and descender in handwriting.

Variation

There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters. For example, the top circle of ზ (zeni) and the top stroke of რ (rae) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart (that is, counter-clockwise starting at 3 o'clock, and upwards – see the external-link section for videos of people writing).

Other common variants:

 გ (gani) may be written like ვ (vini) with a closed loop at the bottom.
 დ (doni) is frequently written with a simple loop at top, .
 კ, ც, and ძ (k'ani, tsani, dzili) are generally written with straight, vertical lines at the top, so that for example ც (tsani) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side.
 ლ (lasi) is frequently written with a single arc, . Even when all three are written, they're generally not all the same size, as they are in print, but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it.
 Rarely, ო (oni) is written as a right angle, .
 რ (rae) is frequently written with one arc, , like a Latin .
 ტ (t'ari) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl, rather than two small circles as in print, or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top. It may also be rotated a bit clockwise, with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top.
 წ (ts'ili) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom, . Another variation features a triangular bowl.
 ჭ (ch'ari) may be written without the hook at the top, and often with a completely straight vertical line.
 ჱ (he) may be written without the loop, like a conflation of ს and ჰ.
 ჯ (jani) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin "X"

Similar letters

Several letters are similar and may be confused at first, especially in handwriting.
For ვ (vini) and კ (k'ani), the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a (more-or-less) vertical line.
For ვ (vini) and გ (gani), it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed (a loop). The same is true of უ (uni) and შ (shini); in handwriting, the tops may look the same. Similarly ს (sani) and ხ (khani).
For კ (k'ani) and პ (p'ari), the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x-height, and whether it's written top-down or bottom-up.
ძ (dzili) is written with a vertical top.

Ligatures, abbreviations and calligraphy

Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures, intertwined letters, and placed letters within letters or other such monograms.

A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ (და, da) "and"

Nuskhuri, like Asomtavruli, is also often highly stylized. Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra, including diacritics called karagma, which resemble titla. Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious, abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century.

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი (romeli) "which"

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე (iesu kriste) "Jesus Christ"

Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adherence to a complex system.
A Mkhedruli ligature of და (da) "and"

Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil of Imereti

Typefaces
Georgian scripts come in only a single typeface, though word processors can apply automatic ("fake") oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text. Traditionally, Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles, where Latin script might use bold or italic type.

Punctuation
In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation, various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases, clauses, and paragraphs. In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries, these were written as dashes, like −, = and =−. In the 10th century, clusters of one (·), two (:), three (჻) and six (჻჻) dots (later sometimes small circles) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text. One dot indicated a "minor stop" (presumably a simple word break), two dots marked or separated "special words", three dots for a "bigger stop" (such as the appositive name and title "the sovereign Alexander", below, or the title of the Gospel of Matthew, above), and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence. Starting in the 11th century, marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use. An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word, and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence. From the 12th century on, these were replaced with the semicolon (the Greek question mark). In the 18th century, Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again, with commas, single dots, and double dots used to mark "complete", "incomplete", and "final" sentences, respectively. For the most part, Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script.

Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti, with the divider ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე"The sovereign Alexander"

Summary

This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns, including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets (shown with a blue background), obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets (green background), or additional letters in languages other than Georgian (pink background). The "national" transliteration is the system used by the Georgian government, whereas "Laz" is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey. The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters.

Use for other non-Kartvelian languages

Ossetian language until the 1940s.
Abkhaz language until the 1940s.
Ingush language (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times.
Chechen language (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times.
Avar language (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times.
Turkish language. A Turkish Gospel, dictionary, poems, medical book dating from the 18th century.
Persian language. The 18th-century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi.
Armenian language. In the Armenian community in Tbilisi, the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries, and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi.
Russian language. In the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Azerbaijani language.  Used by Azeris in Georgia.
Other Northeast Caucasian languages. The Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century.

Computing

Unicode
The first Georgian script was included in Unicode Standard in October 1991 with the release of version 1.0. In creating the Georgian Unicode block, important roles were played by German Jost Gippert, a linguist of Kartvelian studies, and American-Irish linguist and script-encoder Michael Everson, who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems. Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili (not to be mistaken with the Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili).

Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia's internationalized domain name script for (.გე).

Mtavruli letters were added in Unicode version 11.0 in June 2018. They are capital letters with similar letterforms to Mkhedruli, but with descenders shifted above the baseline, with a wider central oval, and with the top slightly higher than the ascender height. Before this addition, font creators included Mtavruli in various ways. Some fonts came in pairs, of which one had lowercase letters and the other uppercase; some Unicode fonts placed Mtavruli letterforms in the Asomtavruli range (U+10A0-U+10CF) or in the Private Use Area, and some ASCII-based ones mapped them to the ASCII capital letters.

Blocks

Georgian characters are found in three Unicode blocks. The first block (U+10A0–U+10FF) is simply called Georgian. Mkhedruli (modern Georgian) occupies the U+10D0–U+10FF range (shown in the bottom half of the first table below) and Asomtavruli occupies the U+10A0–U+10CF range (shown in the top half of the same table). The second block is the Georgian Supplement (U+2D00–U+2D2F), and it contains Nuskhuri. Mtavruli capitals are included in the Georgian Extended block (U+1C90–U+1CBF).

Mtavruli is defined as the upper case, but not title case, of Mkhedruli, and Asomtavruli as the upper case and title case of Nuskhuri.

Non-Unicode encodings
Mac OS Georgian is an unofficial character encoding created by Michael Everson for Georgian on classic Mac OS. It is an extended ASCII encoding, using the 128 code points from 0x80 through 0xFF to represent the characters of the Asomtavruli and Mkhedruli scripts plus a number of widely-used symbols not included in 7-bit ASCII.

Keyboard layouts

Below is the standard Georgian-language keyboard layout, the traditional layout of manual typewriters.

Gallery
Gallery of Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts.

Gallery of Asomtavruli

Gallery of Nuskhuri

Gallery of Mkhedruli

References

Sources

*

Further reading

Barnaveli, T. Inscriptions of Ateni Sioni Tbilisi, 1977
Gamkrelidze, T. Writing system and the old Georgian script Tbilisi, 1989
Javakhishvili, I. Georgian palaeography Tbilisi, 1949
Kilanawa, B. Georgian script in the writing systems Tbilisi, 1990
Khurtsilava, B. The Georgian asomtavruli alphabet and its authors: Bakur and Gri Ormizd, Tbilisi, 2009
Pataridze, R. Georgian Asomtavruli Tbilisi, 1980

External links

 Gallery of Mkhedruli, Omniglot page on Mkhedruli which shows some stylistic variations mentioned above
 , produced by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia. Gives the sound of each letter, illustrates several fonts, and shows the stroke order of each letter.
 Lasha Kintsurashvili and Levan Chaganava, submissions to the 2014 International Exhibition of Calligraphy
 Reference grammar of Georgian by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)

Georgian scripts


Robert Gabriel Mugabe ( pinganak: Pebrero 21, 1924), usa revolusyonaryo ngan politiko ngan naging presidente sa Zimbabwe. Usa si Mugabe san mga rebelde na grupo na nakontra san white minority rule ngan napili siya bilang Prime Minister san Zimbabwe, sadton 1980, ngan nagserbe tubtob 1987-2017, ngan nagin una na ehekutibo na head of state san iya nasud. Tubtob yana, siya an namumuno san iya nasod. Ginpamunuan naman niya an Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF) tikang pa sadton 1975.

Mga Kasarigan

Robert Mugabe


HMS Ark Royal (R09) was an  aircraft carrier of the Royal Navy and, when she was decommissioned in 1979, was the Royal Navy's last remaining conventional catapult and arrested-landing aircraft carrier.  She was the first aircraft carrier to be equipped with angled flight deck at its commissioning; her sister ship, , was the Royal Navy's first angle-decked aircraft carrier after modification in 1954.  Ark Royal was the only non-United States vessel to operate the McDonnell Douglas Phantom at sea.

Construction and modifications

Ark Royal was the sister ship to , which was initially named HMS Audacious, hence the name of the class.  Four Audacious-class ships were laid down, but two (HMS Africa and the original HMS Eagle) were cancelled when the Second World War ended, and construction of the other two was suspended for several years.  Both completed ships were extensively upgraded throughout their lifetimes.

A contract was placed with Cammell Laird on the River Mersey on , to build the first ship of the class.  While it had been originally planned to name the ship Irresistible, this was changed to Ark Royal before ordering to commemorate the aircraft carrier lost in 1941.  The ship, which was the largest warship ever to be built by Cammell Laird, was laid down at Laird's Birkenhead shipyard on , as yard number 1119.  Construction was slow, and was suspended after the end of the Second World War to allow the ship's design to be updated to better suit her for the operation of modern aircraft.  Ark Royal was launched by Queen Elizabeth, wife of King George VI, on .  She was completed on , and commissioned the next day at Devonport.

In this time, she underwent redesign and, when completed, she was markedly different from her sister ship.  Shortly before her launch from the Cammell Laird shipyard, an image of the ship painted with her white undercoat was captured by the pictorialist photographer E. Chambré Hardman.  This has been exhibited many times under the name 'Where Great Ships Are Built' and later 'Birth of the Ark Royal'.  When commissioned, she had a 5.5° partially angled flight deck, two steam catapults capable of launching aircraft weighing up to , a deck-edge lift on the port side (the first British ship to be fitted with such a device), modified armament, and the new mirror landing system.  Ark Royal was the first ship to be constructed with an angled flight deck and steam catapults, as opposed to having them added after launching.  These innovations allowed aircraft to land and take off from the carrier at the same time.  Her flight deck as built was .

A further four years passed before she commenced her sea trials.

About a year after commissioning, her forward port  guns were removed to improve aircraft operations over the angled deck.  Four years later, the port deck-edge lift and the forward starboard 4.5 inch guns were also removed.  After the 1964 refit, only one twin 4.5 inch gun mount remained aft on port and starboard side.  From 1967 to February 1970, she underwent a refit which was a major rebuild to her structure, but only an austere update to her electronic equipment, and was confined to changes needed to operate the RN's version of the Phantom.  Prior to, and during the refit, concerns over costs, the age of the hull, and changing political opinions over naval requirements threatened the refit, and even a possibility that the ship could be scrapped.  However, convincing arguments to retain and upgrade the carrier won through.

The refit cost around £30 million, far less than the modernisation of Eagle, but also added several improvements, which allowed her to comfortably operate the larger Phantom and Buccaneer Mk.2 aircraft.  Her modifications included a full 8.5° angled flight deck, new and far more powerful steam catapults, bridle-catchers, heavy-grade jet-blast deflectors (both of which Eagle did not receive), and heavy-weight arrestor cables.  Twelve hundred miles of new cabling was installed, but the ship was not completely rewired and retained old DC electrics.  A modified island (with a different arrangement from Eagle), and a partially new electronic suite were also added, though some of her original radars, such as 983 height-finders were retained, and she did not receive the 3-D air-search radar set that her sister had fitted, instead two double-array 966 versions of the standard RN 965 long-range system were fitted and one of the new 986 sets.  Significantly, Ark Royal was the first and only RN carrier fitted with a USN carrier approach system, the AN/SPN-35 radar, increasing night aircraft operational capability and safety.  Her flight deck size was increased port aft, giving her extra deck-park space for her air group that Eagle did not have.  She was also fitted for four Seacat missile launchers, which were never installed, so she emerged from refit with no defensive armament except for Corvus decoy launchers.  Significantly, there was little more than an overhaul of her steam turbines and boilers, meaning that mechanically she was very dated; however, the stripping-out of Eagle meant that for a time essential spares were available.  Ark Royal was then scheduled for at the most only five years' more service by a new government policy to scrap the carriers by 1975.  Intensive maintenance as well as a new programme of continuous servicing and repair (with RN maintenance ships always in her task groups) kept her going until late 1978, though increasing mechanical and electrical failures led to her decommissioning in early 1979.

At her entry into service, the ship had a complement of up to 50 aircraft, comprising Sea Hawks, Sea Venoms, Gannets, Skyraiders, and various helicopters.  As later aircraft types grew in size and complexity, her air group fell to below 40 when she left service in 1978.

Operational history

Ark Royal participated in many exercises as part of the British fleet and NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) squadrons, but saw no combat duty.  She was not involved in the Suez Crisis in Egypt of 1956, about a year after her commissioning; she was on her way there when she ran a main propeller shaft bearing, and had to return to Devonport for a major refit.  Eagle replaced her at Suez.  In 1963, she carried out trials for a new type of Vertical/Short Take Off and Landing (V/STOL) aircraft, the Hawker P.1127, which later developed into the Hawker Siddeley Harrier.  The same aircraft, now having been redesigned and developed as the British Aerospace Sea Harrier, was later accepted as the primary strike capability of the future third and last Ark Royal from 1980 onwards.

She was part of the Beira Patrol enforcing the naval blockade of Rhodesia in 1965.  The 1966 Defence White Paper planned the end of British aircraft carriers in the early 1970s, but she went into dock for her refit to head off dockyard redundancies and the likely political issues.  A new government re-examined the case for carriers, finding that shore-based aircraft could not provide adequate cover for British concerns 'East of Suez'.

On 9 November 1970, whilst in the Mediterranean to participate in a NATO exercise, Ark Royal collided with Bravyy, a Soviet Navy  which was shadowing her (a common practice during the Cold War).  Ark Royal was slightly damaged, while the Soviet destroyer sustained minor damage and two missing crew.  Ark Royals commanding officer, Captain Raymond Lygo, was cleared of blame at the subsequent court martial.

The ship featured in the 1960s British television series Not Only... But Also starring Peter Cook and Dudley Moore.  When commissions ended, items were fired off the catapult into the sea, including pianos and once a toilet complete with paying-off pennant.

By 1970, Ark Royal had a complement of 39 aircraft.  This typically comprised twelve Phantom FG Mk.1s, of 892 Naval Air Squadron, fourteen Buccaneer S Mk.2s of 809 Squadron, four Gannet AEW (Airborne Early Warning) Mk.3s of B Flight 849 Squadron, six Sea King HAS Mk.1s of 824 Squadron, two Wessex HAR Mk.1s of the Ship's Flight, and one Gannet COD Mk.4. later replaced by an AEW3.  The Buccaneers doubled as tanker aircraft, using buddy refuelling pods, and as long-range reconnaissance aircraft with bomb bay-mounted camera packs.  In July 1976, she represented Britain at the United States Bicentennial Celebration in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

In 1972, the Buccaneers aboard Ark Royal took part in a long-range strike mission over British Honduras in Central America shortly before its independence as a constitutional monarchy named Her Majesty's Government of Belize to deter a possible invasion by Guatemala, which had long-standing territorial claims.

In 1977, under the flag of Admiral Sir Henry Leach KCB Commander-in-Chief Fleet, Ark Royal led the Royal Navy's tribute to and celebrations of Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee at Spithead.

In the mid-1970s, the ship made a return to television.  A major BBC documentary series, one of the earliest fly on the wall documentaries, Sailor was made, showing life on board the ship during a February-to-July 1976 Western Atlantic deployment.  Her commanding officer at this time was Captain Wilfred Graham, a later Flag Officer Portsmouth, and the ship's Commander (executive officer) was Commander David Cowling.  The theme tune for the programme was Sailing by Rod Stewart – a song that came to be associated with the ship and her successor.  She visited Fort Lauderdale, Florida, from 30 May until 14 June 1978.

She entered HMNB Devonport on , and decommissioned on .  Like her sister Eagle, she had a relatively short (24 year) life, and when the White Ensign lowered for the last time, the Royal Navy no longer had fixed-wing aircraft at sea, a situation that persisted until the acceptance into service of HMS Invincble in March 1980 and the completion of the conversion of HMS Hermes to operate the Sea Harrier in mid-1981.  On , the Ministry of Defence (MOD) announced that she would be sold for scrap, and so ended plans to preserve her.  She left Devonport on 22 September 1980 under tow, to be scrapped at Cairnryan near Stranraer in Scotland, arriving on 28 September.  When arriving at the breakers, her sister ship Eagle was in the final process of being broken up there.  Breaking-up of Ark Royal took until 1983.  During this period, many former crew travelled to the breakers' jetty at the remote corner of Loch Ryan to pay their last respects; some were reduced to tears when seeing the ship being torn to pieces.  However, various parts of the ship remain as souvenirs or memorials; for instance, an anchor (along with an anchor from her sister ship Eagle) outside the Fleet Air Arm Museum at RNAS Yeovilton.  One of her other anchors is in Armada Way, Plymouth, near Plymouth Hoe.

Legacy
While Ark Royals career spanned 24 years from the time of her commissioning (her name was a household word), she spent as much time in refit; repair and reserve and modernisation as in commissioned service (12 years).  It required a lot of effort from her engineers to keep her serviceable between yard periods.  Ark Royal had been poorly preserved during her lengthy construction from 1942 to 1955, and much of her machinery was obsolete by her completion, including her dated DC electrics, supplemented later by some AC systems, resulting in a ship that experienced regular defects and mechanical failure.  Eagle was a more reliable and well-built ship, and spent far more time at sea than her sister.  The scrapping of Ark Royal in 1980, two years after Eagle, marked the end of conventional fixed-wing aircraft operations aboard Royal Navy carriers.  She had borne so many innovations, yet her replacement was not equipped with any of these.  There was some discussion about preserving her as a museum ship, and some private funds were raised; the MOD would not sanction these efforts.  The Fleet Air Arm Museum has subsequently mimicked the ship's island and flight deck in its central hall as an Aircraft Carrier Experience exhibition.

The   remained in service after her, but had been converted to a helicopter commando carrier in 1971, and then as a V/STOL carrier.  The much smaller  could carry only vertical/short takeoff and landing aircraft and helicopters.  The two new  carriers, which were commissioned in 2017 and 2019, were originally designed to operate V/STOL aircraft.  Despite expert advice, and in an attempt to reduce costs, the UK government requested that the new carriers be modified to operate conventional CATOBAR (catapult-assisted takeoff and barrier/arrested recovery) aircraft.  Fitting electromagnetic catapults would have required huge structural changes and an upgrade of the ships' energy generation, which proved unfeasible, and resulted in a decision to return to the original configuration.

Aircraft and squadrons

Hawker Sea Hawk
de Havilland Sea Venom
Fairey Gannet
Westland Wyvern
Grumman Avenger
McDonnell Douglas Phantom FG1
Blackburn Buccaneer
Supermarine Scimitar
de Havilland Sea Vixen
Westland Dragonfly
Westland Sea King
Westland Wessex

Commanding officers
1954–1956: Captain Dennis Cambell RN
1956–1958: Captain Frank Hopkins RN
1959–1961: Captain Peter Hill-Norton RN
1961–1963: Captain Donald Gibson RN
1963–1964: Captain Michael Pollock RN
1964–1965: Captain Anthony Griffin RN
1965–1967: Captain Michael Fell RN
1969–1971: Captain Raymond Lygo RN
1971–1972: Captain John Roberts RN
1972–1973: Captain Desmond Cassidi RN
1973–1975: Captain John Gerard-Pearse RN
1975–1976: Captain Wilfred Graham RN
1976–1978: Captain Edward R Anson RN

See also
CVA-01
HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08)

References

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading
Britain's Atomic Age Carrier, September 1955, Popular Mechanics early article after Ark Royal's commission with drawing and illustrations

External links

HMS Ark Royal Association website
Maritimequest HMS Ark Royal photo gallery

Ark Royal: The Last Commission '76–78

Audacious-class aircraft carriers
Ships built on the River Mersey
1950 ships
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom
Maritime incidents in 1970

HMS Ark Royal (R09)


An Quisqueya ekmanii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Donald Dungan Dod. An Quisqueya ekmanii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Quisqueya, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Quisqueya

Quisqueya ekmanii


Zheleznodorozhnoi stantsi Variúsinkaya  es un posiólok del raión de Dinskaya del krai de Krasnodar del sur de Rusia. Está situado en las tierras bajas de Kubán-Azov, al norte del embalse de Krasnodar, 16 km al este de Dinskaya y 30 km al nordeste de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Tenía 124 habitantes en 2010.

Pertenece al municipio Vasiúrinskoye.

Transporte

Está junto a una estación del ferrocarril Krasnodar-Kropotkin.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 ''Este artículo es una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Железнодорожной станции Васюринская
 El municipio en el sitio web del raión .

Localidades del raión de Dinskaya del krai de Krasnodar

Zheleznodorozhnoi Stantsi Vasiúrinskaya


Vivir para contarla es el primero de tres volúmenes de relatos autobiográficos del premio Nobel colombiano Gabriel García Márquez, y que publicó en 2002.

Cuenta la historia de la infancia y juventud de García Márquez, entre 1927 y 1950, finalizando con la propuesta de matrimonio a su esposa. Se centra especialmente en su familia, la escuela y sus primeros años como periodista y escritor de cuentos cortos. También incluye referencias a numerosos acontecimientos de su vida que acabaron reflejándose de algún modo en sus novelas, como la masacre de las Bananeras que aparece en Cien años de soledad. También se refiere a aquellos amigos cuya vida y muerte sirvieron de modelos para Crónica de una muerte anunciada, y a sus propios padres, que sirvieron de inspiración para El amor en los tiempos de cólera..

Véase también
Bibliografía de Gabriel García Márquez

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Obras de Gabriel García Márquez
Libros de 2002

Vivir para contarla


Saint-Sulpice () is a station on Line 4 of the Paris Métro. It is located on the Rive Gauche, in the 6th arrondissement. In 2018, 2,350,813 travelers entered this station which places it at the 234th position of Métro stations for its traffic.

Location

The station is located under the Rue de Rennes at the intersection with the Rue du Vieux-Colombier.

History
The station was opened on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. It is named after the nearby Church of Saint-Sulpice, famous for its gnomon.

In the spring of 2010, the station underwent renovations as part of the Un métro + beau operation. From June to July 2019, platform doors were installed on the platforms as part of the line's ongoing full automation.

Passenger services

Access
The station has three entrances:
 Entrance 1: Rue de Rennes, Rue du Four side in front of 65 Rue de Rennes
 Entrance 2: in front of 69 Rue de Rennes
 Entrance 3: rue de Rennes, rue de Mézières (escalator)

The two entrances located on the Rue de Rennes on either side of the Rue du Vieux-Colombier are decorated with a Val d'Osne candelabra.

Station layout

Bus connections
 RATP buses 39, 63, 70, 84, 87, 95, 96
 Night buses N01, N02, N12, N13

Nearby
Also nearby are the Church of Saint-Sulpice of Paris, Luxembourg Palace, the Saint-Germain-des-Prés neighbourhood, Rue Bonaparte, Institute of Intercultural Management and Communication and the mairie of the 6th arrondissement.

Gallery

References

Roland, Gérard (2003). Stations de métro. D'Abbesses à Wagram. Éditions Bonneton.

Paris Métro stations in the 6th arrondissement of Paris
Railway stations in France opened in 1910

Saint-Sulpice station (Paris Métro)


Crkva sv. Antuna Opata (crkva sv. Krševana), zaštićeno kulturno dobro u Šibeniku.

Opis dobra
Crkva sv. Antuna Opata je objekt romaničkog stila građen u 12. stoljeću. Pregradnjom u 15. stoljeću dobila je mnogo gotičkih odlika, a kasnijim pregradnjama i renesansnih i baroknih stilskih obilježja. Pravilne je orijentacije, jednobrodna, s polukružnom apsidom. S južne strane joj je dograđena sakristija s krovištem na jednu vodu. Apsida je zasvedena polukalotom, a nad lađom je otvoreno drveno krovište. Građena je od kamena, izvana neožbukana. Krovište broda je dvovodno, s kupom kanalicom i kamenim pločama nad apsidom. Na glavnom pročelju su romanička vrata s lunetom. Danas se koristi kao izložbeni prostor.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-2037 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificiranog kao sakralno-profana graditeljska baština.

Izvori

Katoličke crkve u Šibeniku
Zaštićene sakralne građevine u Šibensko-kninskoj županiji

Crkva sv. Antuna Opata u Šibeniku


Bruno Kuzuhara, né le  à São Paulo, est un joueur de tennis américain d'origine brésilienne. En janvier 2022, il remporte le tournoi junior de l'Open d'Australie en simple et en double.

Biographie
Né au Brésil de parents d'origine japonaise, il s'installe avec eux aux États-Unis alors qu'il est encore enfant. Il a pour entraîneur Brian Baker.

Carrière junior
Tête de série numéro 1 du tournoi junior de l'Open d'Australie en simple, il remporte son premier Grand chelem en battant en finale le Tchèque Jakub Menšík. Il gagne aussi le tournoi en double, associé au Hongkongais Coleman Wong.

Références

Liens externes

Joueur américain de tennis
Naissance en avril 2004
Naissance à São Paulo

Bruno Kuzuhara


David Sebastian Klement Rozehnal (n. 5 iulie 1980) este un fotbalist ceh care joacă pe postul de fundaș pentru clubul de amatori Sokol Kožušany. El a jucat în trecut pentru mai multe cluburi europene, jucând peste 400 de meciuri într-o carieră de aproape două decenii și s-a retras din fotbalul profesionist în aprilie 2018.

Cariera pe echipe
Rozehnal și-a început cariera la SK Sigma Olomouc, unde meciurile bune l-au făcut să fie convocat echipa sub 21 de ani a Cehiei. În 2003, a semnat cu gruparea belgiană Club Brugge. În 2004, Rozehnal a jucat pentru Cehia la Campionatul European, în care echipa sa a ajuns la semifinale, fiind eliminată de Grecia. A câștigat Cupa Belgiei în primul său sezon cu Brugge și Prima Ligă Belgiană în 2005. El a semnat cu Paris Saint-Germain în iunie 2005.

Rozehnal a jucat în toate cele trei meciuri ale Cehiei la Campionatul Mondial din 2006 și este cel de-al 33-lea jucător ca număr de selecții din naționala țării sale. La Paris Saint Germain, în sezonul 2006-2007, a fost numit jucătorul anului. Forma sa a bună l-a făcut să fie urmărit de echipe precum Borussia Dortmund, Newcastle United și Sevilla. În 2007 Newcastle i-a făcuto ofertă.

Pe 22 iunie 2007, impresarul jucătorului a confirmat transferul la Newcastle United. El a fost supus unui control medical la 25 iunie, iar Newcastle a confirmat că transferul a fost finalizat la 29 iunie, pentru suma de 2,9 milioane de lire sterline.

La 11 august, Rozehnal a debutat pentru Newcastle împotriva lui Bolton Wanderers.

Rozehnal a părăsit-o pe Newcastle pentru Lazio, unde a fost împrumutat până la sfârșitul sezonului 2007-2008, la 31 ianuarie 2008, în ciuda faptului că a fost adus în iunie 2007. După ce a jucat de șapte ori pentru Lazio în timpul perioadei cât a fost împrumutat, nu se știa sigur dacă jucătorul va continua la echipa italiană. La 9 iunie 2008, Lazio a anunțat în mod oficial că l-a transferat definitiv pe Rozehnal, iar Newcastle a recuperat suma de 2,9 milioane de lire sterline pe care o plătise inițial pentru fundaș.

După numai un an în Italia, Rozehnal a plecat de la SS Lazio, pe 29 iulie 2009, la clubul  Hamburger SV din Bundesliga, cu care a semnat un  contract valabil până pe 30 iunie 2012. După un sezon prostă, cu câteva greșeli grave făcute de către Rozehnal, a fost scos din lot și i s-a cerut să-și găsească un nou club. La 31 august 2010, HSV a confirmat faptul că Rozehnal va pleca la echipa franceză Lille OSC pe un împrumut gratuit de un an, iar clubul german va plăti o parte din salariu. În timp ce juca la Lille, echipa sa a ajuns la finala Coupe de France din 2011, unde s-a confruntat cu fosta sa echipă PSG. Lille a triumfat cu 1-0 în finală, câștigând pentru prima dată Cupa Franței din 1955 încoace. După sezonul 2010-2011 la Lille, Rozehnal a fost transferat permanent de Lille.

Rozehnal s-a retras din fotbalul profesionist la 4 aprilie 2018 și s-a alăturat echipei Sokol Kožušany, care joacă în liga a șaptea din Cehia. Fratele său, Marek, joacă, de asemenea, pentru același club. El și-a făcut debutul pentru club în următorul weekend.

Cariera la națională
Rozehnal și-a reprezentat țara sa la Euro 2004, Campionatul Mondială din 2006 și Euro 2008.

Viața personala
Rozehnal este căsătorit cu Petra cu care are un copil, Luka, care s-a născut la 3 octombrie 2007.

Referințe

Legături externe

Fundași
Fotbaliști ai Premier League
Fotbaliști ai Campionatului Mondial de Fotbal 2006
Fotbaliști ai Hamburger SV
Fotbaliști ai lui Lazio Roma
Fotbaliști ai Newcastle United FC
Fotbaliști ai Paris Saint-Germain FC
Fotbaliști internaționali cehi
Fotbaliști cehi
Oameni în viață
Nașteri în 1980

David Rozehnal


Pseuduvarus es un género de coleópteros adéfagos de la familia Dytiscidae.

Especies
Pseuduvarus secundus	Bilardo & Rocchi 2002
Pseuduvarus vitticollis	(Boheman 1848)

Referencias

 ;  2002: Haliplidae and Dytiscidae (Coleoptera) from Gabon (fourth part). Atti della Società italiana di scienze naturali e del Museo civico di storia naturale di Milano, 143(2): 147-182. [not seen]
  1988: Generic review of the Bidessini (Coleoptera, Dytiscidae). Acta zoologica fennica, (184): 1-41.
  2007: Pseuduvarus vitticollis (Boheman): an emigrant from Afrotropical to Palearctic region? (Insecta Coleoptera Dytiscidae). Quaderno di studi e notizie di storia naturale della Romagna, (24): 65-67. [in Italian with English abstract] PDF

Enlaces externos

 Nomenclator Zoologicus

Bidessini

Pseuduvarus


Les Nepoidea sont une super-famille d'insectes aquatiques hémiptères du sous-ordre des hétéroptères (punaises), de l'infra-ordre des Nepomorpha. On les rencontre sur l'ensemble des continents excepté l'Antarctique.

Description
Ces punaises sont aquatiques, et ont des antennes très courtes, invisibles vue de dessus. L'apex de l'abdomen comporte une paire de processus respiratoires, sous forme de long siphon (Nepidae), soit sous forme de processus courts et rétractiles (Belostomatidae). Corps cylindrique ou ovale et plat. Pattes antérieures ravisseuses. Taille de .

Systématique
À partir de Popov (1971), les Nepoidea sont considérés comme le groupe frère de tous les autres Nepomorpha. Ils seraient apparus il y a environ 215 millions d'années. Le plus ancien fossile retrouvé remonte au Norien, au Trias supérieur. Elles contiennent deux familles, les Belostomatidae, qui contiennent les plus grandes punaises du monde, et les Nepidae.

Biologie
Ces punaises sont prédatrices de petits animaux aquatiques, y compris de petits poissons. Les pattes avant sont modifiées pour pouvoir saisir les proies. Leur système respiratoire est également adapté à la vie aquatique avec un siphon respiratoire placé au bout de l'abdomen. De même, les antennes sont adaptées à la vie aquatiques, et sont repliées et cachées dans des rainures derrière les yeux (Belostomatidae) ou couchées sous la tête (Nepidae), et comportent des structures sensorielles particulières.

Liste des familles
Selon  :
 famille Belostomatidae Leach, 1815
 famille Nepidae Latreille, 1802

Galerie

Liens externes

Notes et références

Nepomorpha
Super-famille d'Hémiptères (nom scientifique)
Hétéroptère (nom scientifique)

Nepoidea


The title Baron Renton can refer to:

A senator of the College of Justice:

John Home, Lord Renton (1600–1671)

Members of the House of Lords:

David Renton, Baron Renton (1908–2007; created a life peer in 1979).
Tim Renton, Baron Renton of Mount Harry (1932–2020; created a life peer in 1997).

As David Renton was created a peer some years before Timothy Renton, the title Baron Renton, without qualification, is more likely to refer to David Renton. The two are not related.

Noble titles created in 1979
Noble titles created for UK MPs

Baron Renton


البيصرية الهرتية  هي نوع من الفطريات من الفصيلة البيصرية  التي تتبع رتبة الدخانيات . وهي سبب مرض البيصرية السوداء.

مراجع

أمراض فطرية
بيصرية
سخاماوات
فطريات وصفت في 1913

بيصرية هرتية


Tenten Amerika'da (Tintin en Amérique) Belçikalı yazar ve illüstratör Hergé'in klasik çizgi romanının bölümlerinden bir tanesidir. Serinin kahramanı genç muhabir Tenten'dir.

Tenten Amerika'da serinin üçüncü bölümüdür. İlk şerit "Le Petit Vingtième" gazetesinde 3 Eylül 1931'de basılmıştır.

1932 yılında siyah beyaz halde albüm olarak basılmıştır. Albüm 1945'te yeniden çizilmiş ve renklendirilerek yayımlanmıştır; bu versiyon standart 62 sayfalık düzene indirilmiştir. İlk Amerikan versiyonuysa 1973 yılında çıkartılmıştır. Bu olay nedeniyle çoğu zenci karakterin ırkı beyaz veya belirsiz çizilmiştir.

Bu İngiliz çevirisinde bulunan en eski Tenten albümüdür; bundan önceki iki albüm bulunabilse de bu kolay değildir.

Hikâye
Tenten bir önceki serüven "Tenten Kongo'da" kitabında Al Capone'un gangsterleriyle karşılaştıktan sonra şehrin suçlulardan arındırmak için Chicago'ya gönderilir. Birkaç kez gangsterler tarafından saldırıya uğradıktan sonra, Al Capone'un karşısındaki çetenin lideri olan Bobby Smiles'ı ABD boyunca takip eder ve sonunda yakalar. Tenten onu Chicago polisine bir koli içerisinde yollar. Birkaç diğer çeteyi de yakaladıktan sonra Tenten için bir geçit resmi yapılır ve sonra Belçika'ya döner.

Notlar
Kitap tarihsel hatalarla doludur - özellikle Vahşi Batı'nın kovboylar ve Kızılderililer ile resmedilmesi yanlıştır. Çeşitli noktalarda Amerikan arabalarının direksiyonlarını sağa koymuştur - belki de Hergé, Amerikalıların Güney Afrika, Jamaika, Avustralya ve Yeni Zelanda gibi diğer eski İngiliz kolonilerinde olduğu gibi sol taraftan gittiğini düşünmüş olabilir. Bu tip tutarsızlıklara Mavi Lotus'dan önce Hergé'nin eserlerinde sıkça rastlanırdı.

Hergé Kızılderililere sempati gösterir: ilk siyah beyaz çiziminde Tenten elinde dilenme kasesi taşıyan bir Kızılderili'nin fotoğrafını çekmektedir. Hikâyenin sonrasında Kızılderili kabilesi topraklarından silahlı askerler tarafından kovulurlar ve topraklarına gökdelenler kurulur.

Bu kitapta Tenten'in baş düşmanı Roberto Rastapopoulos'un her ne kadar bir kareliğine de olsa ilk defa göründüğü tartışması vardır. Ona çok benzeyen biri kahramanımız bir ziyafette kaçırılmadan önce hemen onun yanında oturmaktadır. Hemen onun yanında ise genç sarışın bir kadın vardır: bu kitabın 1932 siyah-beyaz basımında kadına aktris Mary Pickford olarak hitap edilmektedir, bu da bir sinema patronuna yakışır bir eştir.

Kaynakça

Amerika
1932 kitapları
Hergé kitapları
Fransızca kitaplar
Al Capone ile ilgili eserler
Kurguda Chicago

Tenten Amerika'da


Die Rheinnixen (Les Fées du Rhin en francés) es una ópera romántica en tres o cuatro actos con música de Jacques Offenbach y libreto en alemán de Alfred von Wolzogen basado en otro en francés de Charles-Louis-Etienne Nuitter. Se estrenó el 4 de febrero de 1864 en el Hofoper de Viena.

La canción de los elfos de Die Rheinnixen fue posteriormente usada por Ernest Guiraud cuando completó Los cuentos de Hoffmann, donde se convirtió en la "barcarola" (Belle nuit, ô nuit d'amour), interpretada en el llamado "Acto de Giulietta".

Historia
La primera representación se dio (en una forma truncada debida a la enfermedad del tenor Alois Ander) el 4 de febrero de 1864 en el Hofoper de Viena.

La primera representación íntegra se dio en el Corum, de Montpellier el 30 de julio de 2002 con Regina Schörg, Nora Gubisch, Piotr Beczala, y Dalibor Denis, y la Orquesta Nacional de Montpellier, dirigido por Friedemann Layer. Esta fue grabada (véase más abajo).

Esta obra rara vez se representa en la actualidad; en las estadísticas de Operabase aparece con sólo 12 representaciones en el período 2005-2010. Entre ellas está la primera representación plenamente dramatizada se dio en Liubliana por la Ópera Nacional Eslovena bajo dirección de Dieter Rossberg el 13 de enero de 2005. Le siguieron representaciones en Tréveris y en la Ópera de Lyon con dirección de Marc Minkowski más tarde en 2005, y en Cottbus en 2006. Estas representaciones, como el estreno original en Viena, se hicieron todas en alemán. La New Sussex Opera hizo el estreno británico, bajo el título de The Rhine Fairies, en octubre de 2009, dirigido por Nicholas Jenkins.

Personajes

Argumento
La historia, que implica a soldados y campesinos así como elfos y hadas, tiene lugar en y alrededor del castillo de Franz von Sickingen, cerca de Kreuznach a orillas del Rin, durante las guerras del .

Grabaciones
Hay dos grabaciones de Die Rheinnixen en operadis:
Friedemann Layer Friedemann (director). Dalibor Jenis (Conrad), Regina Schörg (Armgard), Nora Gubisch (Hedwige), Piotr Beczala (Franz), Peter Klaveness (Gottfried), Uwe Peper (Un militar, un campesino), Gaële Le Roi (El hada). Orquesta Nacional de Montpellier Languedoc-Roussillon y coro de la Radio Lituana. CD: Accord 472 920-2 (2002). En francés.
Dieter Rossberg (director). Joze Vidic (Conrad), Martina Zadro (Armgard), Natela Nicoli (Hedwige), Branko Robinsak (Franz), Sasa Cano (Gottfried), Simona Rafanelli Kranjc (El hada). Orquesta y coro del Teatro Nacional Eslovena. DVD: Premiere Opera Ltd. DVD 6595 (2005)

Referencias
Notas

Fuentes
Amadeus Almanac, acceso 19 de noviembre de 2008
Boosey and Hawkes page
Jean-Christophe Keck's Documentation 2002-2006; Berlin 2006 pdf, acceso 19 de noviembre de 2009
Edición crítica
Offenbach (1864), Les fees du Rhin (Die Rheinnixen). Arreglos de Jean-Christophe Keck, partitura vocal 574 páginas. Bote & Bock ISBN 9790202530399

Enlaces externos
Crítica de la grabación en Opera Today, acceso 19 de noviembre de 2009
Crítica de la grabación en Musicweb International, acceso 19 de noviembre de 2009
Vídeo de una selección de Die Rheinnixen (Concierto de Año Nuevo, Viena, 2010)

Óperas de Jacques Offenbach
Óperas en alemán
Óperas de 1864
Óperas estrenadas en Viena

Die Rheinnixen