The Pacific Fur Company (PFC) was an American fur trade venture wholly owned and funded by John Jacob Astor that functioned from 1810 to 1813. It was based in the Pacific Northwest, an area contested over the decades among the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Spanish Empire, the United States of America and the Russian Empire.

Management, clerks and fur trappers were sent both by land and by sea to the Pacific Coast in the Autumn of 1810. The base of operations was constructed at the mouth of the Columbia River in 1811, Fort Astoria (present-day Astoria, Oregon). The destruction of the company vessel the Tonquin later that year off the shore of Vancouver Island took with it the majority of the annual trading goods. Commercial competition with the British-Canadian North West Company began soon after the foundation of Fort Astoria. The Canadian competitors maintained several stations in the interior, primarily Spokane House, Kootanae House and Saleesh House. Fort Okanogan was also opened in 1811, the first of several PFC posts created to counter these locations. The Overland Expedition faced military hostilities from several Indigenous cultures and later had an acute provision crisis leading to starvation. Despite losing men crossing the Great Plains and later at the Snake River, they arrived in groups throughout January and February 1812 at Fort Astoria.

A beneficial agreement with the Russian-American Company was also planned through the regular supply of provisions for posts in Russian America. This was planned in part to prevent the rival Montreal based North West Company (NWC) to gain a presence along the Pacific Coast, a prospect neither Russian colonial authorities nor Astor favored.

The lack of military protection during the War of 1812 forced the sale of PFC assets to the NWC. While the transactions were not finalized until 1814, due to the distance from Fort Astoria to Montreal and New York City, the company was functionally defunct by 1813. A party of Astorians returning overland to St. Louis in 1813 made the important discovery of the South Pass through the Rocky Mountains. This geographic feature would later be used by hundreds of thousands of settlers traveling over the Oregon, California, and Mormon routes, collectively called the Westward Expansion Trails. The emporium envisioned by Astor was a failure for a number of reasons, including the loss of two supply ships, the material difficulties of crossing the North American continent and competition from the North West Company. Historian Arthur S. Morton concluded that "The misfortunes which befell the Pacific Fur Company were great, but such as might be expected at the initiation of an enterprise in a distant land whose difficulties and whose problems lay beyond the experience of the traders."

Formation

John Jacob Astor was a merchant of New York City and founder of the American Fur Company. To create a chain of trading stations spread across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Northwest, he incorporated an AFC subsidiary, the Pacific Fur Company. The commercial venture was originally designed to last for twenty years. Unlike its major competitor the Canadian owned NWC, the Pacific Fur Company was not a Joint-stock company. Capital for the PFC amounted to $200,000 divided into 100 shares individually valued at $2,000 and was funded entirely by Astor. The American Fur Company held half of the stock and the other half divided among prospective management and clerks. The chief representative of Astor in the daily operations was Wilson Price Hunt, a St. Louis businessman with no outback experience who received five shares. Each working partner was assigned four shares with the remaining shares held in reserve for hired clerks. Fellow partners in the venture were recruited from the NWC, the members being Alexander McKay, David Stuart, Duncan McDougall, and Donald Mackenzie. Astor and the partners met in New York on 23 June 1810 to sign the Pacific Fur Company's provisional agreement.

To establish the fledgling PFC trade posts in the distant Oregon Country, Astor's plan called for an extensive movement of large groups of employees overland following the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition and navally by sailing around Cape Horn. The venture was planned on methods used in the AFC for the collection of fur pelts. Complements of employees (later called "Astorians") would operate in various parts of the region to complete trapping excursions. Outposts maintained by the PFC would be freighted necessary foodstuffs and supplies by annual cargo ships from New York City. Trade goods such as beads, blankets, and copper would be exchanged with the local Native Americans for fur pelts.

Ongoing supply issues faced by the Russian-American Company were seen as a means to gain more furs. Cargo ships en route from the Columbia were planned to then sail north for Russian America to bring much needed provisions. By cooperating with Russian colonial authorities to strengthen their material presence in Russian America, it was hoped by Astor to stop the NWC or any other British presence to be established upon the Pacific Coast. A tentative agreement for merchant vessels owned by Astor to ship furs gathered in Russian America into the Qing Empire was signed in 1812. Company ships then were directed to sail to the port of Guangzhou, where furs were then sold for impressive profits. Chinese products like porcelain, nankeens and tea were to be purchased; with the ships then to cross the Indian Ocean and head for European and American markets to sell the Chinese wares.

Labor recruitment
The PFC required a sizable number of laborers, fur trappers and in particular Voyageurs to staff company locations. Recruiting for the company's two expeditions were led by Wilson Hunt and Donald Mackenzie for the overland party and Alexander McKay for the naval bound group. All three men were based out of Montreal throughout May to July 1810. Hunt was designated to lead the Overland Expedition, despite his inexperience in dealing with Indigenous cultures, or residing in the wilderness. It was suggested that Hunt instead trade positions with McKay and travel on the Tonquin. However, it was determined to keep Hunt in charge of the land party.

The customary time for free agents to be sent into the interior from Montreal was in May, leaving few men left in the city available for hire. The recruitment effort stalled in part from the bitter treatment by the NWC and Hunt's lack of prior experience as a fur merchant, the source of many issues later on. PFC contracts were atypically favorable for hired men when compared to its Montreal competitors. Terms included a forty percent larger annual salary, double the cash advanced prior to departure and a length of service lasting five years, rather than the more common two or three year employment.

McKay's efforts

During the summer of 1810, Alexander McKay hired thirteen French-Canadians for the Tonquin. The majority of the group remained in Montreal until late July, when they given directives to withdraw to New York City. A canoe provided transportation for the trip down the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. At Whitehall additional men that were employed by McKay joined the southbound party, among them Ovide de Montigny. On 3 August they reached New York City, with the group's "hats decorated with parti-colored ribands and feathers..." causing some Americans to believe them to Natives. The following day lodgings at Long Island were reached and the scene was described by clerk Gabriel Franchère:"We sang as we rowed; which, joined to the unusual sight of a birch bark canoe impelled by nine stout Canadians, dark as Indians, and as gayly adorned, attracted a crowd upon the wharves to gaze at us as we glided along." While waiting to depart for the Pacific, McKay met with British diplomatic official Francis James Jackson. The official assured McKay that in the event of war between the United States and United Kingdom, all PFC employees that were British employees would be treated as such.

Hunt's efforts

Thirteen men signed contracts in Montreal to join Hunt on the journey to the Pacific coast by land. Notably only one had previously operated under a contract lasting longer than a year. The generous cash advancements were taken advantage by three men who deserted before Hunt and the remaining group left the city for Michilimackinac in July. The party reached Mackinac Island on 28 July 1810. Acting as a major depot for the regional Great Lakes fur trade, the island was where Hunt focused on hiring more men for the company. The veteran fur merchant Ramsay Crooks was convinced to join the company and assisted in recruiting additional men. Over the sixteen days spent there, a total seventeen men were recruited to the concern with sixteen being French-Canadian. This group of men, unlike those hired in Montreal, had extensive experience working in the fur trade as voyageurs and other roles. Likely suggested by Crooks, interested men already hired by other companies would have their contracts purchased from their employers.

After the men were finally gathered in early August, Hunt and the party departed for St. Louis and arrived there on 3 September. The hired voyageurs and fur trappers completed many transactions with various merchants in St. Louis and in the nearby French-Canadian settlement of Ste. Genevieve throughout September and October. These were recorded on the company ledger and particular purchases been argued as the men collecting goods to trade with various Indigenous nations they would visit. In particular, these negotiations by the French-Canadians have been thought to be steps towards later establishing themselves as independent traders in relatively unexploited fur regions. Most of the men in the Overland Party were engaged as hunters, interpreters, guides and voyageurs.

Oceanic component
The advanced party was sent to create the initial base of operations at the mouth of the Columbia River. Necessary trade goods for deals with Indigenous and needed supplies to establish the station were shipped on the same vessel In addition to beginning the company headquarters, this party would block any attempts by the NWC to create a station in the area. The ship Tonquin was purchased by Astor in 1810 to start commercial operations on the Pacific Ocean. The majority of the company partners. Duncan McDougall, David and Robert Stuart, and Alexander McKay would head this detachment. In addition, clerks Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross would join them on the planned voyage.

The Tonquin

Under the command of Jonathan Thorn the Tonquin left New York on September 8, 1810. PFC employees numbered thirty-three men in total on board. The vessel landed at the Falkland Islands on 4 December to make repairs and take on water supplies at Port Egmont. Captain Thorn attempted to abandon eight of the crew still on shore, among them clerks Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross. The stranded men were taken on board after Robert Stuart threatened to kill Thorn. Communication between company workers was no longer held in English to keep the captain excluded from discussions. Company partners held talks in their ancestral Scottish Gaelic and the laborers used Canadian French. On December 25 the Tonquin rounded Cape Horn and sailed north into the Pacific Ocean.

The ship anchored at the Kingdom of Hawaii in February 1811. Due to the possibility of men abandoning their posts to live in the tropical islands, Thorn assembled all of the crew and PFC employees to harass them to remain on the ship. Commercial transactions with Hawaiians saw the crew purchasing cabbage, sugar cane, purple yams, taro, coconuts, watermelon, breadfruit, hogs, goats, two sheep, and poultry in return for "glass beads, iron rings, needles, cotton cloth". Upon entering Honolulu, the crew was greeted by Isaac Davis and Francisco de Paula Marín, the latter acting an interpreter in negotiations with Kamehameha I and prominent government official Kalanimoku. 24 Native Hawaiian Kanakas were hired with the approval of Kamehameha I, who appointed Naukane to oversee their interests.

The Columbia River was reached in March 1811. Despite stormy conditions, over several days Thorn ordered two boats dispatched to scout a safe route over the treacherous Columbia Bar. Both boats would capsize and eight men lost their lives. Finally on March 24, the Tonquin crossed the bar, passing into the Columbia's estuary and laid anchor in Baker's Bay. Captain Thorn stressed the urgency for the Tonquin to start trading further north along the Pacific Coast as instructed by Astor. After 65 days on the Columbia River, the Tonquin departed with a crew of 23 with McKay was aboard the ship as supercargo. At Vancouver Island she was boarded by the Tla-o-qui-aht people of Clayoquot Sound, where Thorn caused an uproar by hitting a Tla-o-qui-aht noble with a pelt. In the ensuing conflict all of men brought on the Tonquin were killed besides an interpreter from the Quinault nation and the ship was destroyed. This put the occupants of Fort Astoria in a tough position, having no access to seaborne transport until the following year.

Fort Astoria

Construction on Fort Astoria, an "emporium of the west", began in the middle of April 1811. It was built upon Point George, the location being about  from the Lewis and Clark Expedition winter camp of Fort Clatsop. The terrain and thick forests made clearing a foundation exceedingly difficult. Late in the month, McDougall reported that there was "little progress in clearing, the place being so full of half decayed trunks, large fallen timber & thick brush." No one among the party had previous experience in the logging industry and many hadn't used an axe before in general. Trees had a layer of hardened resin and were of a massive size. Four men worked as a team on platforms at least eight feet above the ground to effectively cut a tree, with it taking typically two days for a single tree to be felled. Medical issues quickly became another major issue for the party as there was not a single medical officer among the passengers brought on the Tonquin. This left treatments rudimentary at best. During the initial months on the Columbia River at any time upwards of half of the expedition was unable to perform manual labor due to illness.

Fort Okanogan

Kaúxuma Núpika, a Two-Spirit from the Ktunaxa people, and his wife arrived at Fort Astoria on 15 June 1811 with a letter from John Stuart. Kaúxuma offered accounts of the interior and recommended that the station be opened at the confluence of the Columbia and "the Okannaakken River" among the Syilx peoples. It was determined that David Stuart would take a party to with Kaúxuma to the Syilx. Before they left however the inhabitants of Astoria were surprised by the arrival of David Thompson on 15 July. Thompson later stated that his group "set off on a voyage down the Columbia River to explore this river in order to open out a passage for the interior trade with the Pacific Ocean." The competing fur traders were cordially received at Astoria.

A party of eight led by David Stuart departed on 22 July for the Syilx territories. The personnel assigned to join Stuart were eight men, including Alexander Ross, François Benjamin Pillet, Ovide de Montigny, and Naukane. The group joined David Thompson and his eight men in traveling up the Columbia, staying together until the Dalles. Upon entering Watlala Chinookan territory, Stuart failed establish favorable relations with them. Watlala men performed several military displays and stole a small amount of goods. Naukane agreed to join the NWC shortly after this episode and the two parties separated. Stuart was able to secure the protection of Wasco-Wishram leadership in early August. Groups of Chinookan laborers were used to cross the portages of the Columbia in their homeland.

Stuart's party soon began to travel through the Sahaptin nations and on the 12th of August an assembly of Walla Walla, Cayuse and Nez Perce welcomed the fur traders. Once the reception was complete, the PFC men continued up the Columbia and passed by the future site of Fort Nez Percés. Towards the end of August the party began to become troubled with Western Rattlesnake populations and rapids, almost losing one canoe and the men aboard it to a section of swift currents. Stuart and his men were greeted by Wenatchi leadership at the Wenatchee River, who gave two horses to the fur traders as a gift in addition to several more being purchased. While passing through other Indigenous homelands the PFC continued financial dealings for food supplies. Members of the Chelan nation traded "some salmon, roots, and berries" and later Methows offered their "abundance of salmon" and "many horses" to the fur trappers for sale.

While at the junction of the Columbia and Okanogan River, a large encampment of Syilx were encountered. Prominent members of the nation entreated the fur traders to reside among their people, proclaiming "themselves to be always be our friends, to kill us plenty of beavers, to furnish us at all times with provisions, and to ensure our protection and safety." The cargo of the canoes were taken to land on 1 September and work soon began on Fort Okanogan. A residence crafted from driftwood acquired from the Okanogan River. While construction of the post was ongoing, four men that included Pillet were detailed to inform the progress of inland trade. The party arrived back at the company headquarters on 11 October and gave its favorable report.

Stuart led Montigny and two other men to follow the course of the Okanogan, leaving only Ross at the post. As promised, the Syilx provided security for the station, frequently alerting Ross when intruders from other nations came near. Despite planning on exploring the Okanogan watershed for a month, Stuart and his three men did not return until 22 March 1812. Upon reaching the Okanogan headwaters the party then went over to the Thompson River. Snows in mountain passes made it exceedingly difficult for the party to travel. Detained among the Secwepemc, Stuart developed cordial relations with them. Finding their areas rich in beaver populations, he promised to return later that year to create a trading post.

The Lower Chinookan peoples

Diplomatic relationships with the Chinookan villages near the Columbia were critical for the viability of Fort Astoria. Scholars have affirmed that the American company and its "economic success depended on mutually beneficial economic exchanges with Indian groups... who controlled trade." Many of the settlements near the station were under the influence of headman Comcomly.

Assistance in exploration
Chinookans were highly important in company explorations of the Pacific Coast. In particular, they were instrumental in finding a suitable location for what became Fort Astoria. In early April 1811 McDougall and David Stuart visited Comcomly, who advised them not to return to the Columbia River as it was then quite tumultuous. The two men didn't listen and shortly afterward their canoe capsized in the river. The "timely succor" of Comcomly and his villagers ensured the partners were saved before they drowned. After recuperating there for three days, they returned to the PFC camp.

Additional services tendered was the relaying information from more distant peoples to the Astorians. Reports were circulated by them in late April 1811 of a trade post maintained by white men in the interior. This was correctly conjectured by PFC employees to be their NWC rivals, later found to be Spokane House. Departing on 2 May, McKay led Robert Stuart, Franchère, Ovide de Montigny and a number of voyaguers up the Columbia, with Clatsop noble Coalpo acting as guide and interpreter. The following day they explored the Cowlitz River and soon encountered a large canoe flotilla of Cowlitz warriors. McKay was able to request a parlay, during which the Cowlitz stated they were armed for combat against the nearby Skilloot Chinookan village near the river mouth. Reaching the Dalles on 10 May, no trade station was found at the important fishery. Due to Coalpo's fear of reprisal from his enemies among the Wasco and Wishram, the party went back to Fort Astoria, returning on 14 May.

Despite not finding the NWC post, management at Fort Astoria soon became "anxious to acquire a knowledge of the country & the prospects of trade... within our reach". On 6 June 1811, Robert Stuart went north on a tour of western Olympic Peninsula with Calpo acting as a guide again. Returning on 24 June, Stuart reported that the Quinault and nearby Quileute nations would kill Sea otters and trade their pelts for the valuable Dentalium shells sold by the Nuu-chah-nulth on Vancouver Island. Stuart felt that a company trade post in Grays Harbor offered the best location to secure these furs. Additionally he gave the opinion that Alutiiq in Russian America should be recruited to hunt various fur bearing animals at the hypothetical factory.

However, Chinookans were not always willing to help Astorians in visiting distant locations. This was a means of delaying the Astorians from making commercial connections with Indigenous peoples on the Upper Columbia. One particular incident has been described by historian Robert F. Jones as "an effort to keep Comcomly's Chinooks as middlemen between the natives of the upper Columbia and the Astorians." François Benjamin Pillet was ordered to make a trading trip along the Columbia. Accompanied by a Chinook headman, they left Fort Astoria in late June 1811. Small trade deals were completed with Skilloots near modern Oak Point. Afterwards, the headman cited the seasonal flooding as making the Columbia unsafe to travel further upriver. This forced Pillet to return to Astoria with what pelts he had purchased from the Skilloots.

Commercial ties

Consistently small stockpiles of foodstuffs at Fort Astoria created the need for frequent transactions with Chinookans for sustenance. Seasonal fish runs provided the major nutritional sources for the Columbian River-based Natives. After ceremonial rituals during each major fish run, trade for caught fish would begin in earnest with the Astorians. A constant task for Hawaiians would be to perform fisherman duties. Major fish populations active in the Columbia included the Candlefish smelt, White sturgeon, Sockeye salmon and Chinook salmon. This dependence on fish made it a primary food source for the Astorians, which caused some discontent among employees desiring a more familiar diet.

Terrestrial animals like members of the family Cervidae such as Roosevelt elk and black-tailed deer were not found in large numbers around Fort Astoria. This made them another important source of trade for the Chinookans when visiting the PFC station. Another frequent item sold when fish supplies were low in the winter was the Wapato root. Wapato provided a common source of calories for Chinookans and other nations. The Astorians described the tuber as "a good substitute for potatoes" Purchases of Wapato occurred in such volumes that a small cellar had to be created specifically to house the produce. Other typical purchases from Chinookans included manufactured goods. In particular woven hats were frequently bought for protection against the seasonal rains. These hats were tightly interwoven, making them essentially waterproof. Of benefit to the Astorians was that they were typically wide enough to cover the shoulders. Ross described the common artwork depicted them as "chequered" with various animal designs that were "not painted, but ingeniously interwoven."

Chinookans near Fort Astoria employed various means of retaining their valuable middle man position between various neighboring Indigenous peoples and the PFC. Additional tactics involved manipulating the perception neighboring Natives had of the American company. In August 1811, a small party of Chehalis visited Fort Astoria. In dialogue with them McDougall inquired why they would rarely directly trade with the PFC. The Chehalis merchants responded that Chinooks affiliated with Comcomly claimed that the Astorians were "very inveterate against their nation." McDougall concluded this story was used by Comcomly to continue his commercial hegemony over the area.

Fear of hostilities
It wasn't always that the Astorians, especially McDougall trusted Comcomly or Chinookans in general. His judgment of them, despite eventually marrying a daughter of Comcomly was that they were often ready to attack the fort. In particular Jones noted that he "seems to place implicit faith in any possible hostile actions by the natives."

In June 1812, the number of men at Fort Astoria were reduced to 11 Hawaiians and 39 European descendants. Fear of attack by Chinookans was high and drills were directed by McDougall frequently. A delegation of Chinookans visited Fort Astoria on 2 July quickly left after witnessing these military demonstrations. This fear by the natives convinced the Astorians that "they are not friendly disposed towards us..." having "a desire to harm us." According to Jones, this "latent distrust" of Chinookans by Astorians from this incident was probably unfounded, as they entered the post "for an innocent purpose" and were frightened by the drills.

Fears of attack didn't disappear and Astorians kept themselves guarded in dealing with natives. After the Beaver left for Russian America rumors spread of a coming attack on Astoria in August 1812. There were large numbers of Chinookans and Chehalis near Comcomly's village at the time. This expedited construction on two bastions and the fort was "put in readiness for an attack." Jones has pointed out that these movements of Indigenous was very likely a part of seasonal fishing, rather than a supposed hostile gathering.

Overland Expedition
As the leader of the expedition Hunt would make a number of decisions which were disastrous. The movement of Hunt's group has been described as "a company of traders forging westward in [a] haphazard fashion."  He ordered the expedition to leave St. Louis just before the winter to reduce company expenses of supporting employees. The group departed on October 21, 1810 for Fort Osage. The expedition traveled  up the Missouri River before setting up winter camp on Nodaway Island, at the mouth of Nodaway River in Andrew County, Missouri, just north of St. Joseph. French-Canadian employees made frequent purchases from the company store during the idle season, especially those hired at Michilimackinac. Small items like blue beads, vermilion, brass rings, tobacco "carrots", small axes among others were used in transactions with Missouria neighboring the camp.

On January 1811, Hunt sailed down the Missouri River to complete several pending transactions at St. Louis. It was during this time he recruited Pierre Dorion Jr., as he was the only qualified speaker of the Sioux languages in St. Louis at the time. Notably he was in debt to Manuel Lisa and the Missouri Fur Company (MFC), something that would lead to tensions between the fur companies later in the year. In the end Hunt was able to secure Dorion, on the condition that Marie and his two children be brought along as well. Once finalized, he took British naturalists John Bradbury and Thomas Nuttall with him to the Nodaway camp, as previously agreed upon. The party left St. Louis on 12 March and reached Fort Osage on the 8th of April. Early into the travel Dorion physically abused his wife and caused her to flee for a day. At the station Ramsay Crooks was waiting for them and the group recuperated for two days. The group left Fort Osage on the 10th of April and during the day Dorion "severely beat his squaw" as Marie desired to stay with newly made Osage acquaintances rather than continue with the expedition. The group reached the winter camp on the 17th. The overland group at this point amounted to almost sixty men, forty being French-Canadian voyageurs.

Following the Missouri

Hunt's expedition broke the Nodaway winter camp on April 21. The Astorians reached a major Omaha village in early May. Active commercial transactions were completed there, with Omaha merchants offering "jerked buffalo meat, tallow, corn, and marrow" for vermilion, beads and tobacco carrots. Bradbury detailed that the Omaha village had plots of nicotiana rustica, melons, beans, squashes, and corn under cultivation. While at the Omaha settlement, Hunt received information from several visiting Yankton Sioux that a group of Sioux was gathering further up the river to stop the expedition from traveling further.

Proceeding further the Missouri River, the Sioux party was encountered on 31 May. The Sioux bands were a conglomeration of Yankton and Lakota and had around six hundred armed men. Tensions quickly arose between the two disparate groups and both took up positions by the Missouri River. The two company howitzers and single Swivel gun were loaded with powder and fired to intimidate the Sioux bands. The artillery were then loaded with live ammunition, but the Sioux across the river began to "spread their buffalo robes before them, and moved them side to side." Dorion stopped the firing of the armaments a second time, as he understood this action by the Sioux meant they desired a parley. Peace talks were held and the Sioux explained that they had formed to prevent the PFC from trading with the neighboring nations they were at war with, the Arikara, Mandan and the Gros Ventre. Hunt explained that the expedition intended to travel to the Pacific Ocean and they had no interest in the neighboring Indigenous groups. This was found to be acceptable by the Sioux leaders, and the PFC was allowed to depart further north.

On 3 June, employees of the Missouri Fur Company under the command of Manuel Lisa were encountered on the Missouri River. Lisa reminded Dorion of his pending debt to the company, and a duel between the two men was narrowly averted by Bradbury and Henry Marie Brackenridge intervening. After this incident the rival fur companies refrained from interacting and camped on opposite sides of the Missouri River. Despite this, Lisa and Hunt led their parties north towards an Arikara village and reached it on 12 June. In a council with local leadership Lisa declared that if any of Hunt's party were harmed he'd take it as an offense against him as well. In setting the standard rate for purchasing horses, "carbines, powder, ball, tomahawks knives" were in high demand as the Arikara were planning an attack upon the Sioux. Lisa and Hunt made a deal allowing for Hunt's boats to be exchanged for additional horses, kept at Fort Lisa further up the Missouri River. Crooks was sent with a small group to fetch the horses and while they reached Fort Lisa on the 23rd, they had to wait until the 25th for Lisa to arrive to finalize the transaction. The party left the following day and returned south to Hunt's camp.

The Rocky Mountains

While at the Arikara village, Hunt met and employed several American trappers that had previously worked for the MFC in modern Idaho. The men advised strongly against going into the Piikáni homelands of modern Montana. The Piikáni and other Niitsitapi nations at the time were typically unreceptive to trespass from European descendants and made a showing of military force against the Lewis and Clark Expedition. This changed Hunt's plans, who according determined it best to avoid the Niitsitapi peoples.

The expedition left their Arikara hosts in late July for the nearby Grand River. After following the Little Missouri River, the party to rest for several days while transactions were made with a band of Cheyenne. In total 36 horses were purchased from the Cheyenne. The expedition broke camp on 6 August and Hunt ordered six men to hunt Bison. Hunt's party continued southwest through the modern state of Wyoming and the hunting party rejoined on the 18th of August, having killed 8 Bison. While at the base of Cloud Peak on 30 August, a scouting party of Apsáalooke visited the camp. The following day a delegation of Apsáalooke on horseback invited them to visit their nearby village. Hunt recalled the importance of mercantile deals with the Apsáalooke stating that:"We spent the first day of September buying some robes and belts and trading our tired, maimed horses for fresh ones... thereby augmenting the number of our horses to about 121, most of which were well-trained and able to cross the mountains." Continuing westward towards the Continental Divide of the Americas, the PFC party followed the course of the Wind River, crossed the Divide and followed the Gros Ventre River.

Snake River

The expedition reached Fort Henry on 8 September, made by MFC employee Andrew Henry the previous year, near present-day St. Anthony and made a camp there. The post was later abandoned. While at the location work began creating enough canoes necessary to take the party down Henry's Fork and later the Snake River or so called "Mad River" to the Columbia. This was done as it felt no longer necessary to travel with pack horses, a decision that would soon cause more issues for the party. On the 10th, four men and two Natives under the command of Joseph Miller departed to begin trapping in the area. The horses that remained in the possession of the PFC, amounting to seventy-seven, were left in the care of "two young Snakes". The party departed from Fort Henry on 19 September on the newly made canoes.

Traveling down the Snake River proved highly difficult due to the many rapids such as Caldron Linn. The party was forced to perform multiple portages due to these fierce currents. Over course of the remainder of September through early November, four incidents of canoes capsizing killed one man meant major losses in trade goods and food supplies. In addition to the hardships caused from attempting to follow the course of the Snake more problems arose due to dwindling food stockpiles. By 31 October there was enough provisions to last for five days. In early November there were not many animals in the area to gather for food, the few that were caught by the hunting parties were beaver. The traveling partners agreed to end travel by canoe, finding the mode of transportation too difficult continue using. Hunt ordered several groups go in various directions to contact neighboring Indigenous for material support. In the meantime the PFC expedition began to deposit its trade goods in small caches to lighten the workload of the men.

At the suggestion of Ramsay Crooks, the expedition was divided into two parties of nineteen men each, with each member receiving 5 pounds of dried meat. A third small group was led by Donald MacKenzie to reach Fort Astoria ahead of the main contingent. All that remained in the company stores was "forty pounds of corn, twenty of fat, and nearly five pounds of bouillon tablets." On 9 November the two groups began traveling on either side of the Snake. Soon the cliffs became too steep to allow an easy descent to the river banks for water. Sources of hydration became very limited and despite intercourse with several groups of Indigenous the situation didn't improve. Water was collected on 20 November after it rained the previous night. Up to that point "several Canadians had begun to drink their urine" in desperation.

Crooks reunited with Hunt's party in early December alone. Crooks was so weakened from starvation that his pace would have slowed the expedition immensely. Hunt left two men to tend to Crooks while the main group pushed forward. Several villages of Northern Shoshone were visited and vitally needed food sources such as horses along with "some dried fish, a few roots, and some pounded dried cherries" were purchased. A Shoshone was convinced to act as a scout to guide the PFC group to the Umatilla River. On 23 December, thirteen men assigned to Crooks party were met who gave the unfortunate news that they hadn't seen him since he left Hunt's group.

Reaching the Columbia

Donald Stuart and his party of Robert McClellan, John Reed, Étienne Lucier and seven other men continued to march ahead of the two main PFC groups. While traversing the lands of the Niimíipu, a stranded employee of the PFC, Archibald Pelton, was found and brought along with the party. They finally arrived at Fort Astoria on 18 January 1812. The party was described as clothed in "nothing but fluttering rags." While waiting for the main contingent under Hunt to arrive, the men informed the personnel of the overland journey's progress from St. Louis.

Hunt's group found a band of Liksiyu on 8 January, whom hosted the downtrodden expedition for a week. Meals of dried Mule deer meat and loafs of pounded Camas bulbs were provided during their stay. While exploring the area, Hunt found out from particular Liksiyu that there was an active white fur trader in the area. This would turn out to be Jacques Raphaël Finlay, located at the NWC Spokane House. On 21 January, the expedition finally reached the banks of the Columbia River. Hunt soon entered discussions with the Wasco-Wishram when entering their villages. It was here he learned the destruction of the Tonquin the previous year. The remaining three horses of the party were used to purchase two canoes from Wasco merchants. Several portages were required on the Columbia, especially at the Cascade Rapids. The main body of the expedition reached Fort Astoria on 15 February to much fanfare. Besides Hunt there was thirty men, along with Marie Aioe Dorion and her two children on six canoes. McDougall was apprehensive about feeding all these additional people, a sentiment Franchère shared, as the post had recently faced issues with provisions. Due to seasonal salmon runs harvested by various Chinookans however, there was a sizable food supply at Fort Astoria.

Activities in 1812

Attempted expedition to interior
In late March, three clerks in command of fourteen men were ordered to depart for the hinterlands. Robert Stuart was take needed trade goods to Fort Okanogan. John Reed was to take food supplies to the stranded Crooks and Day, in addition to later taking dispatches for Astor to St. Louis. Russel Farnham was to retrieve the caches left by Hunt near Fort Henry. To complete several of the necessary portages at the Dalles, Wascos were hired to help freight the trade goods. Two bales of trade goods and later some personal items were however stolen. Stuart ordered his men to complete the portages during the night. A skirmish arose at sunrise between arriving Wascos and Reed, who was defending several bales of goods with one man. After being grievously injured, Reed lost the box containing the dispatches. Additional PFC arrived at the scene and two natives were reportedly killed in the struggle. The Chinookans returned in larger numbers and armed several hours later. To avoid more bloodshed Stuart was able to negotiate a settlement with the aggrieved families. In return for a reported six blankets and tobacco, the Astorians were able to continue their journey up the Columbia.

The conflict raised security concerns of crossing into further Indigenous nations, forcing the three parties to all travel to Fort Okanogan. Arriving there on the 24th of April, the clerks, voyageurs and trappers departed for Fort Astoria on the 29th, leaving Alexander Ross and two men at the station. Stockpiles of pelts accumulated there amounted to an estimated 2,500 were taken as well. Near the mouth of the Umatilla River the party was surprised to loudly hear English shouted among an assembled group of Indigenous, perhaps Umatilla. Ramsay Crooks and John Day were there them, exhausted from several months of tribulations. Wandering over a large area, the two men at one point received the help of an Umatilla noble, Yeck-a-tap-am, who "in particular treated us like a father." After being robbed by another band of Natives, Crooks and Day were able to find the Umatilla once more. Taking two worn men with them, the party reached Fort Astoria on 11 May.

The Beaver

The Beaver was the second supply ship sent by Astor to the Pacific Coast, with Cornelius Sowle as its captain. It sailed from New York City in October 1811 and reached Fort Astoria on 9 May 1812. While stopping at the Kingdom of Hawaii, more men were recruited as Kanakas for the company. After unloading necessary supplies to the Fort, the Beaver sailed to Russian America. Hunt joined the crew to negotiate with RAC governor Alexander Andreyevich Baranov at New Archangel. The cargo was purchased by the Russians amounted to ₽124,000 in value, with payment in seal skins located on Saint Paul Island. Orders from Astor dictated that the ship to return to the Columbia, but the Beaver was in poor repair and sailed for the Kingdom of Hawaii instead. Hunt was left there as the Beaver went west to Guangzhou. News of the War of 1812 kept the ship at the port for the remainder of the conflict. The Beaver then proceeded to New York City and entered the city harbor in 1816.

Second interior expedition

Failure to accomplish many of the tasks set for work the hinterland earlier in 1812 did not discourage the Astorians. The supplies and reinforcements brought aboard the Beaver made management consider "grander schemes" for the summer. New establishments would be created to challenge the NWC across the region in addition to pursuing trading expeditions among various Indigenous nations. A total of almost 60 men were directed to locations from the Willamette Valley of Oregon to the Bitterroot Valley of Montana and the vicinity of modern Kamloops in British Columbia. The movement of workers to their assigned locales began in late June. Robert Stuart led a party bound for St. Louis to send information to Astor as Reed had attempted earlier in the year. His group was composed two French-Canadians and four Americans. John Day became afflicted by mental instability and Stuart paid several Multnomah men of Cathlapotle village to transport him back to Fort Astoria. The group would make the important discovery of the South Pass, critical for the later westward movement of tens of thousands of American migrants.

Liquidation
Funds provided by Astor established several major trading stations across the Pacific Northwest. While intended to gain control of the regional fur trade, the Pacific Fur Company would ultimately flounder. This came from a variety of issues, many caused by the tumultuous diplomatic relationship between the United Kingdom and the United States. The destruction of the Tonquin left Fort Astoria under supplied and heavily reliant upon neighboring Chinookans for sustenance. Competition from the interior based North West Company threatened to the loss of major fur producing Oregon Country regions. The Overland Expedition would arrive many months later than planned by Astor. Wilson Hunt's inexperience in the outback in along with dwindling supplies would leave the majority of the expedition facing starvation.

While the arrival of the Beaver brought much needed trading goods, foodstuffs and additional employees, events would soon see the ending of the PFC. News of the War of 1812 was relayed to the Astorians at Fort Spokane, information that Donald McKenzie brought to Fort Astoria in January 1813. As Franchere recalled, a council of clerks and management noted that the Astorians were "almost to a man British subjects", forcing them to agree to "abandon the establishment" of Fort Astoria and its secondary stations. A British warship was learned from NWC clerks to be en route to capture the station. The PFC management agreed to sell its assets across the Oregon Country, formalized on 23 October 1813 with the raising of the Union Jack. On 30 November  arrived at the Columbia River and in honor of George III of the United Kingdom Fort Astoria was renamed Fort George. On board the Racoon was John MacDonald who oversaw the formal takeover of PFC properties. Later in March 1814, the NWC's ship  arrived on the Columbia, delivering much-needed supplies to Fort George. She then sailed on to China, and England. She carried some PFC personnel, many of whom were former employees of the NWC, back to England, from where they returned to Montreal.

Legacy

During a NWC shareholder meeting in July 1814, the partners declared that the sale "greatly facilitated the getting out of the [Pacific] Country our competitors the American Fur Company. They also concluded that the sale of Astoria and other PFC properties gave "considerable" advancements for their company. Plans were considered to use the stations much in the same manner Astor meant, for trade with China. The Columbia also offered a less costly means of supplying the interior NWC posts in the region.

The Treaty of 1818 established a "joint occupancy" of the Pacific Northwest between the United States and the United Kingdom was confirmed, each nation agreeing not to inhibit the activities of each other's citizens. During 1821, the British Government ordered the NWC to be merged in their long time rivals, the Hudson's Bay Company. In a short time the HBC controlled the majority of the fur trade across the Pacific Northwest. This was done in a manner that "the Americans were forced to acknowledge that Astor's dream" of a multi-continent economic web "had been realized... by his enterprising and far-sighted competitors." The PFC held additional influence on the region in some particular and subtle ways. The book Astoria was written by Washington Irving in 1836, after interviewing some men connected to the venture and consulting documents held by Astor. Two surviving members of the Astorians, Étienne Lucier and Joseph Gervais, would later become farmers on the French Prairie and participate in the Champoeg Meetings.

See also
 Maritime Fur Trade
 North West Company

References

Citations

Primary sources

Secondary sources

Astor family
Astoria, Oregon
Botanical expeditions
Expeditions from the United States
Fur trade
American Fur Company
Oregon Country
Pre-Confederation British Columbia
Pre-statehood history of Oregon
Pre-statehood history of Idaho
Pre-statehood history of Montana
Pre-statehood history of Washington (state)
Clothing companies established in 1810
American companies established in 1810

Pacific Fur Company


An Euanthe sanderiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Schltr.. An Euanthe sanderiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Euanthe, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Euanthe

Euanthe sanderiana


Some famous ciphertexts (or cryptograms), in chronological order by date, are:

See also
 Undeciphered writing systems (cleartext, natural-language writing of unknown meaning)

External links
 Elonka Dunin's list of famous unsolved codes and ciphers

Cryptography lists and comparisons
History of cryptography
Undeciphered historical codes and ciphers

List of ciphertexts


Chessel () is a municipality in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland, located in the district of Aigle.

History
Chessel is first mentioned in 1364 as Chessey.

Geography
Chessel has an area, , of .  Of this area,  or 61.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while  or 20.7% is forested.   Of the rest of the land,  or 10.9% is settled (buildings or roads),  or 6.2% is either rivers or lakes.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.8%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 3.6%.  Out of the forested land, 19.6% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.1% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees.  Of the agricultural land, 54.1% is used for growing crops and 5.9% is pastures, while 1.7% is used for orchards or vine crops.  All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

The municipality is located in the Aigle district, on the right bank of the Rhone river.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms was originally D'or à la fasce ondée d'azur, symbolizing the Rhône which runs through Chessel. In 1926, the communal authorities placed a crescent in the higher part of the flag: this represented the old "Café de la Turquie" (Café of Turkey) and was removed in 1958. The Council of State of the Canton of Vaud has accepted a request in 2004 to place the crescent back on the flag.

Demographics
Chessel has a population () of .  , 7.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 12.4%.  It has changed at a rate of 5.2% due to migration and at a rate of 8.2% due to births and deaths.

Most of the population () speaks French (285 or 90.8%), with English being second most common (7 or 2.2%) and Portuguese being third (5 or 1.6%).  There are 2 people who speak German, 3 people who speak Italian.

Of the population in the municipality 99 or about 31.5% were born in Chessel and lived there in 2000.  There were 119 or 37.9% who were born in the same canton, while 41 or 13.1% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 54 or 17.2% were born outside of Switzerland. In  there were 2 live births to Swiss citizens and 3 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 4 deaths of Swiss citizens.  Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 2 while the foreign population increased by 3.  There .  At the same time, there was 1 non-Swiss man who emigrated from Switzerland to another country and 1 non-Swiss woman who immigrated from another country to Switzerland.  The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 2 and the non-Swiss population decreased by 7 people.  This represents a population growth rate of -1.4%.

The age distribution, , in Chessel is; 45 children or 13.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 52 teenagers or 15.1% are between 10 and 19.  Of the adult population, 31 people or 9.0% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old.  45 people or 13.1% are between 30 and 39, 54 people or 15.7% are between 40 and 49, and 55 people or 16.0% are between 50 and 59.  The senior population distribution is 29 people or 8.4% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 23 people or 6.7% are between 70 and 79,there are 9 people or 2.6% who are 80 and 89, and there is 1 person who is 90 and older.

, there were 130 people who were single and never married in the municipality.  There were 160 married individuals, 11 widows or widowers and 13 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 111 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.7 persons per household. There were 25 households that consist of only one person and 11 households with five or more people.  Out of a total of 116 households that answered this question, 21.6% were households made up of just one person.  Of the rest of the households, there are 27 married couples without children, 54 married couples with children There were 2 single parents with a child or children.  There were 3 households that were made up of unrelated people and 5 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.

 there were 72 single-family homes (or 74.2% of the total) out of a total of 97 inhabited buildings.  There were 9 multi-family buildings (9.3%), along with 14 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (14.4%) and 2 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (2.1%).  Of the single-family homes 6 were built before 1919, while 22 were built between 1990 and 2000.  The greatest number of single-family homes (19) were built between 1981 and 1990.  The most multi-family homes (4) were built before 1919 and the next most (2) were built between 1919 and 1945.

 there were 119 apartments in the municipality.  The most common apartment size was 4 rooms of which there were 37.  There were 2 single-room apartments and 54 apartments with five or more rooms.  Of these apartments, a total of 103 apartments (86.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 14 apartments (11.8%) were seasonally occupied and 2 apartments (1.7%) were empty.  , the construction rate of new housing units was 0 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 29.63% of the vote.  The next three most popular parties were the FDP (20.88%), the SP (15.3%) and the Green Party (15.08%).  In the federal election, a total of 132 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 55.9%.

Economy
, Chessel had an unemployment rate of 3.9%.  , there were 58 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 13 businesses involved in this sector.  3 people were employed in the secondary sector and there was 1 business in this sector.  25 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 13 businesses in this sector. There were 144 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 39.6% of the workforce.

 the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 66.  The number of jobs in the primary sector was 44, all of which were in agriculture.  The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 2, all of which were in construction.  The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 20.  In the tertiary sector; 2 or 10.0% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 7 or 35.0% were in a hotel or restaurant, 1 was in the information industry, 3 or 15.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 1 was in education.

, there were 22 workers who commuted into the municipality and 97 workers who commuted away.  The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 4.4 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 6.3% used public transportation to get to work, and 63.2% used a private car.

Religion
From the , 73 or 23.2% were Roman Catholic, while 195 or 62.1% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.  Of the rest of the population, there were 12 individuals (or about 3.82% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church.  There were 13 (or about 4.14% of the population) who were Islamic.  There were 2 individuals who were Buddhist.  19 (or about 6.05% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist.

Education

In Chessel about 111 or (35.4%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 29 or (9.2%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).  Of the 29 who completed tertiary schooling, 79.3% were Swiss men, 17.2% were Swiss women.

, there were 7 students in Chessel who came from another municipality, while 69 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

References

Chessel


Esterzili (sardisk: Istersìli, Stersìli) er en by og en kommune (comune) i provinsen Sud Sardegna i regionen Sardinien i Italien. Byen ligger i 731 meters højde og har 643 indbyggere (2016). Kommunen har et areal på 100,74 km² og grænser til kommunerne Escalaplano, Nurri, Orroli, Sadali, Seui og Ulassai.

Referencer

Henvisninger

Kommuner i provinsen Sud Sardegna

Esterzili


Den udelukkede midte er et logisk princip, som påpeger, at udsagn må være enten sande, eller også må deres negation være sand.

Den udelukkede midte er et af de tre klassiske grundprincipper inden for logikken. De to andre er henholdsvis kontradiktionsprincippet og identitetsloven.

Traditionelt set anses Aristoteles for at være den første til at formulere den udelukkede midte i værket Metafysikken, der er en samling af hans noter.

Den udelukkede midte er tæt tilknyttet princippet om bivalens, der påpeger, at noget enten må være sandt eller falsk.

Forskellen på de to principper kan ses på denne måde:
 Princippet om bivalens påpeger, at der kun er to sandhedsværdier: Sandt og falsk.
 Den udelukkede midte påpeger, at disse to værdier må være gensidigt udelukkende.

Se også
 Argumentationsteori
Logik

Referencer

Logik

Den udelukkede midte


Kvindernes kårdekonkurrence ved sommer-OL 2016 i Rio de Janeiro blev afholdt den 6. august på Carioca Arena 3.

Resultater

Finale

Reference

Kårde (damer)
Kvindesport under OL

Fægtning under sommer-OL 2016 – Kårde (damer)


In population genetics, directional selection is a mode of negative natural selection in which an extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes, causing the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype. Under directional selection, the advantageous allele increases as a consequence of differences in survival and reproduction among different phenotypes. The increases are independent of the dominance of the allele, and even if the allele is recessive, it will eventually become fixed.

Directional selection was first described by Charles Darwin in the book On the Origin of Species as a form of natural selection.  Other types of natural selection include stabilizing and disruptive selection.  Each type of selection contains the same principles, but is slightly different.  Disruptive selection favors both extreme phenotypes, different from one extreme in directional selection. Stabilizing selection favors the middle phenotype, causing the decline in variation in a population over time.

Evidence
Directional selection occurs most often under environmental changes and when populations migrate to new areas with different environmental pressures. Directional selection allows for fast changes in allele frequency, and plays a major role in speciation. Analysis on QTL effects has been used to examine the impact of directional selection in phenotypic diversification. This analysis showed that the genetic loci correlating to directional selection was higher than expected; meaning directional selection is a primary cause of phenotypic diversification, which leads to speciation.

Detection methods
There are different statistical tests that can be run to test for the presence of directional selection in a population.  A few of the tests include the QTL sign test, Ka/Ks ratio test and the relative rate test.  The QTL sign test compares the number of antagonistic QTL to a neutral model, and allows for testing of directional selection against genetic drift.  The Ka/Ks ratio test compares the number of non-synonymous to synonymous substitutions, and a ratio that is greater than 1 indicates directional selection.  The relative ratio test looks at the accumulation of advantageous against a neutral model, but needs a phylogenetic tree for comparison.

Examples
An example of directional selection is fossil records that show that the size of the black bears in Europe decreased during interglacial periods of the ice ages, but increased during each glacial period. Another example is the beak size in a population of finches. Throughout the wet years, small seeds were more common and there was such a large supply of the small seeds that the finches rarely ate large seeds. During the dry years, none of the seeds were in great abundance, but the birds usually ate more large seeds. The change in diet of the finches affected the depth of the birds' beaks in future generations. Their beaks range from large and tough to small and smooth.

African cichlids
African cichlids are known to be some of the most diverse fish and evolved extremely quickly. These fish evolved within the same habitat, but have a variety of morphologies, especially pertaining to the mouth and jaw. Albertson et al. 2003 tested this by crossing two species of African cichlids with very different mouth morphologies. The cross between Labeotropheus fuelleborni (subterminal mouth for biting algae off rocks) and Metriaclima zebra (terminal mouth for suction feed) allowed for mapping of QTLs affecting feeding morphology. Using the QTL sign test definitive evidence was shown to prove that directional selection was occurring in the oral jaw apparatus.  However, this was not the case for the suspensorium or skull (suggesting genetic drift or stabilizing selection).

Sockeye salmon
Sockeye salmon are one of the many species of fish that are anadromous.  Individuals migrate to the same rivers in which they were born to reproduce.  These migrations happen around the same time every year, but Quinn et al. 2007 shows that sockeye salmon found in the waters of the Bristol Bay in Alaska have recently undergone directional selection on the timing of migration.  In this study two populations of sockeye salmon were observed (Egegik and Ugashik).  Data from 1969-2003 provided by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game were divided into five sets of seven years and plotted for average arrival to the fishery.  After analyzing the data it was determined that in both populations average migration date was earlier and was undergoing directional selection.  The Egegik population experienced stronger selection and shifted 4 days. Water temperature is thought to cause earlier migration date, but in this study there was no statistically significant correlation.  The paper suggests that fisheries can be a factor driving this selection because fishing occurs more in the later periods of migration (especially in the Egegik district), preventing those fish from reproducing.

Ecological impact
Directional selection can quickly lead to vast changes in allele frequencies in a population.  Because the main cause for directional selection is different and changing environmental pressures, rapidly changing environments, such as climate change, can cause drastic changes within populations.

Timescale
Typically directional selection acts strongly for short bursts and is not sustained over long periods of time. If it did, a population might hit biological constraints such that it no longer responds to selection. However, it is possible for directional selection to take a very long time to find even a local optimum on a fitness landscape. A possible example of long-term directional selection is the tendency of proteins to become more hydrophobic over time, and to have their hydrophobic amino acids more interspersed along the sequence.

See also
 Adaptive evolution in the human genome
 Balancing selection
 Disruptive selection
 Frequency-dependent foraging by pollinators
 Negative selection (natural selection)
 Stabilizing selection
 Peppered moth evolution
 Fluctuating selection

References

Further reading

 Types of Selection
Natural Selection
Modern Theories of Evolution

Selection

Directional selection


ලැරි සිල්වා ලෙසින් ජනප්‍රිය, ක්ලැරන්ස් රිචඩ් සිල්වා (උපත අගෝස්තු 6, 1949), යනු,  රෝමානු කතෝලික සභාවේ  රදගුරු තුමෙකි.

ක්ලැරන්ස් රිචඩ් සිල්වා


معاهدة لندن (1840) - بين الدولة العثمانية وكل من الإمبراطورية الروسية وبروسيا والمملكة المتحدة والإمبراطورية النمساوية للحد من توسعات محمد علي باشا حاكم مصر على حساب أراضي الدولة العثمانية.

 اتفاقية لندن (1906) -اتفاق بين بريطانيا، فرنسا وإيطاليا، يتحدث البند الرابع منها عن عدم التأثير على روافد نهر النيل.
 معاهدة لندن (1913) - إتفاقية سلام بين الأطراف المتحاربة في حرب البلقان الأولى
 اتفاقية لندن (1915) - اتفاق سري بين حكومة إيطاليا (دون علم البرلمان) مع ممثلين عن دول الوفاق الثلاثي إبان الحرب العالمية الأولى
 معاهدة لندن (1946) - بين بريطانيا وإمارة شرق الأردن
 اتفاقية لندن (1987) - اتفاقية سرية بين الملك الأردني حسين بن طلال ووزير الخارجية الإسرائيلي شمعون بيرس، تسعى لإعادة الضفة الغربية إلى الإدارة الأردنية ولكنها فشلت ولم تطبق أبدا.

قوائم معاهدات
مؤتمرات دبلوماسية في المملكة المتحدة
قوائم متعلقة بلندن

اتفاقية لندن (توضيح)


نادي مينييرو الرياضي  والمعروف باسم أتلتيكو مينييرو هو نادِ كرة قدم برازيلي يلعب في دوري الدرجة الأولى. تم تأسيس النادي في سنة 1908.

تاريخ النادي
حصل 45 مرة على لقب كامبيوناتو مينيرو (بطولة ولاية ميناس جرايس البرازيلية) وهو العدد الأكبر في تاريخ البطولة. كان اللقب الأول في 1915 وفاز بالنسخة الأخيرة من البطولة في عام 2020.

فاز بدوري الدرجة الأولى مرة وحيدة في 1971. وأيضًا فاز مرة واحدة بكأس البرازيل في 2014.

شارك سنة 2013 لثاني مرة في تاريخه في كأس العالم للأندية حيث تأهل لنصف النهائي ضد فريق الرجاء الرياضي إذ خسر بثلاثية مقابل هدف وحيد أتى إثر ضربة حرة نفذها رونالدينهو وتسجيل الرجاء هدفين في آخر عشر دقائق.

إنجازات وبطولات

قاريًا
 كوبا ليبرتادوريس
 الفائز (1): 2013
 كوبا أمريكا الجنوبية
 الفائز (2): 1992 ، 1997 (تسجيل)
 ريكوبا سوداميريكانا
 الفائز (1): 2014

محليًا
 الدوري البرازيلي الدرجة الأولى
 الفائز (1): 1971
 كوبا دو برازيل
 الفائز (1): 2014
 Copa dos Campeões Estaduais
 الفائز (1): 1937
 Copa dos Campe Brases Brasileiros
 الفائز (1): 1978
 الدوري البرازيلي الدرجة الثانية
 الفائز (1): 2006
 كامبيوناتو مينيرو
 الفائز (46): 1915 ، 1926 ، 1927 ، 1931 ، 1932 ، 1936 ، 1938 ، 1939 ، 1941 ، 1942 ، 1946 ، 1947 ، 1949 ، 1950 ، 1952 ، 1953 ، 1954 ، 1955 ، 1956 ، 1958 ، 1962 ، 1963 ، 1970 ، 1976 ، 1978 ، 1979 ، 1980 ، 1981 ، 1982 ، 1983 ، 1985 ، 1986 ، 1988 ، 1989 ، 1991 ، 1995 ، 1999 ، 2000 ، 2007 ، 2010 ، 2012 ، 2013 ، 2015 ، 2017 ، 2020 ، 2021
 تاسا ميناس جيرايس
 الفائز (5): 1975 ، 1976 ، 1979 ، 1986 ، 1987

مراجع

مقالات مع مصادر باللغة الألمانية (de)
اتلتيكو مينيرو
اتلتيكو مينيرو
أندية كرة قدم في بيلو هوريزونتي
أندية كرة قدم في ميناس جيرايس
اتلتيكو مينيرو
نادي أتلتيكو مينيرو

أتلتيكو مينيرو


es el nombre de varios barrios de Japón.

Se puede referir a:
Midori-ku (Chiba)
Midori-ku (Nagoya)
Midori-ku (Sagamihara)
Midori-ku (Saitama)
Midori-ku (Yokohama)

Midori-ku


Frederiksgade i Aarhus går fra Immervad til Rådhuspladsen, hvor gaden bliver til Frederiks Allé. Fra Østergade til Immervad fungerer den som gågade.

Efter at man i middelalderen havde lavet en bro over åen ved vadestedet Immervad, fik vejen mod sydvest, der gik op over en stejl bakke, navnet Brobjerg. Bebyggelse langs vejen Brobjerg opstod i løbet af 1400-tallet bl.a. med opførelsen i 1482 af karmelitterklosteret nær toppen af bakken. Der har gennem tiderne ligget flere store gårde langs vejen beboet af kendte købmandsfamilier.

I 1824 blev gaden op ad Brobjerg opkaldt efter den danske kong Frederik 6. (1768-1839), der under et besøg i Aarhus var inddraget i fornyelsen af Brobjerg Port. I anledning af Kongens besøg fik den nyopførte byport navnet Frederiksport og gaden blev til Frederiksgade.

I 1830 købte købmand Christian Bang (1794-1870) oliepressen fra oliemøllen i Frederiksgade og flyttede firmaet til nr. 50 i Mejlgade.

Kilder og henvisninger

Gader i Aarhus

Frederiksgade (Aarhus)


Gabriela Cano Ortega (Ciudad de México, 18 de mayo de 1960) es una historiadora mexicana, dedicada a la investigación académica, docencia universitaria y divulgación cultural de temas históricos. Sus investigaciones se han centrado en la historia de las mujeres y de la diversidad sexual en México durante los períodos porfiriano, revolucionario y posrevolucionario. El eje conceptual de sus trabajos de investigación es el análisis de género.

Estudios
Obtuvo el doctorado en Historia (1996), por la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México donde también cursó la maestría y la licenciatura en la misma disciplina.

Trayectoria académica
Se desempeña como investigadora y profesora en El Colegio de México y, anteriormente, lo hizo en la Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana. Imparte cátedra de posgrado en la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Fue académica visitante en la Universidad de Stanford. Ha impartido conferencias en diversas universidades: Harvard, Yale, York, California, Duke, Buenos Aires, entre otras. Fue directora de Signos históricos, revista de investigación publicada por la Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana.
La relevancia de sus contribuciones a la historia de género ha sido señalada en reseñas publicadas, tanto en revistas académicas de México, Estados Unidos, Gran Bretaña y otros países (Historia mexicana, Hispanic American Historical Review, J. of Latin American Studies, Mexican Studies) como en la prensa mexicana: en el semanario Proceso, en las revistas culturales Nexos y Letras Libres y en diversos periódicos impresos y medios electrónicos.

Obras publicadas
 1989, Los maestros rurales. Una memoria colectiva, coordinadora con Ana Lidia García, Secretaria de Educación Pública, Unidad de Publicaciones Educativas. ISBN 969-29-33-3363-3
 1989, Ganando espacios (1920-1940). Historias de vida: Alura Flores, Josefina Vicens y Guadalupe Zúñiga, coordinadora con Verena Radkau, Universidad Autónoma de México, (Colección correspondencia). ISBN 968-840-685-6
 2001, Cuatro estudios de género sobre el México urbano del siglo XIX, coordinadora con Georgette José, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México/Porrúa. ISBN 970-701-201-3
 2006, Historia de las mujeres en España y América Latina. Del siglo XX a los umbrales del XXI, vol. 4, coordinadora con Isabel Morant, Guadalupe Gómez-Ferrer, Dora Barrancos y Asunción Lavrin, Ediciones Cátedra. ISBN 84-376-2290-5
 2006, Historia de las mujeres en España y América Latina. Del siglo XIX a los umbrales del XX, vol. 3, coordinadora con Isabel Morant, Guadalupe Gómez-Ferrer, Dora Barrancos y Asunción Lavrin, Ediciones Cátedra. ISBN 84-376-2288-3
 2006, Sex in Revolution. Gender, Power and Politics in Modern Mexico, coordinadora con Jocelyn Olcott y Mary Kay Vaughan, Duke University. ISBN 082-233-899-8
 2009, Género, poder y política en el México posrevolucionario, coordinadora con Mary Kay Vaughan y Jocelyn Olcott, Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 978-607-16-0141-4
 2010, Se llamaba Elena Arizmendi, Tusquets, 1ª y 2ª. Edición. ISBN 978-607-421-154-2
 2011, Amalia de Castillo Ledón. Mujer de letras, mujer de poder. Antología, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, (CONACULTA). ISBN 978-607-455-707-7
2016, Amalia González Caballero de Castillo Ledón: entre las letras el poder y la diplomacia, coautoría con Patricia Vega, Gobierno del Estado de Tamaulipas, Secretaría de Cultura y el Instituto Tamaulipeco para la Cultura y las Artes. ISBN 978-607-8452-34-7

Reconocimientos y distinciones
Es miembro del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores y de la Academia Mexicana de Ciencias. Obtuvo en 2004 una mención honorífica del Premio Salvador Azuela otorgado por el Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones en México y la distinción Martin Duberman otorgada por la Universidad de la Ciudad de Nueva York. En 2010 le fue dado el Premio Nacional de Comunicación José Pagés Llergo en la categoría Equidad de Género. En 2017, el Frente Feminista Nacional (FFN) le otorgó, junto con 101 otras feministas el reconocimiento "Juana Belén Gutiérrez de Mendoza" por su trayectoria y aportación en la construcción de conocimiento que garantice "el ejercicio de los derechos de las mujeres, el acceso a la justicia y la ciudadanía plena".

Referencias

Nacidos en Ciudad de México
Historiadoras de México
Escritores de divulgación científica
Alumnado de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la UNAM
Académicos e Investigadores de El Colegio de México
Académicos e investigadores de la Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana
Profesoras de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
Historiadores de Ciudad de México

Gabriela Cano Ortega


Inge Bryderup er dansk professor i socialt arbejde ved Institut for Sociologi og Socialt Arbejde ved Aalborg Universitet. Inge Bryderup beskæftiger sig i sin forskning hovedsageligt med socialpolitik og socialt udsatte børn og unge og deres familier.

Uddannelse
Inge Bryderup blev i 1981 kandidat i sociologi fra Københavns Universitet.

Karriere
Inge Bryderups forskning spænder vidt inden for de sociale og socialpolitiske områder. Hun har blandt andet forsket i og udgivet flere bøger om de anbragte børn og unges skole- og uddannelsesforhold både nationalt og i form af internationalt forskningssamarbejde i forbindelse med EU's 7. Rammeprogram.
Hun har endvidere forsket i børnesyn, diagnoser, social arv, tidlig indsats, familiedøgninstitutioner, ungdomskriminalitet mv. Inge Bryderup er derfor en hyppigt anvendt forsker og ekspert inden for disse områder i mange medier.

Inge Bryderup er medlem af en række internationale og nationale redaktioner, udvalg og bestyrelser. Hun er blandt andet bestyrelsesmedlem i European Social Work Association (ESWRA).

Inge Bryderup har været medlem af mange danske følgegrupper og bestyrelser som for eksempel medlemskab af Advisory Board i Egmontfondens signaturprojekt Lær for Livet.

Hædersbevisninger
I 2017 modtog Inge Bryderup Børnesagens Fællesråds børnepris for sin mangeårige forskning i forhold til forskellige aspekter omkring anbragte børn og unges liv samt forskningen på familieplejeområdet med publicering samme år.

Kilder

Videnskabsfolk fra Danmark
Professorer fra Aalborg Universitet
Ansatte ved Aalborg Universitet

Inge Bryderup


Sputnikmusic, eller blot Sputnik, er en musikside med musikanmeldelser og nyheder om musik. Formatet på hjemmesiden er ualmindeligt, idet det typisk tillader materiale skrevet af både professionelle og amatører stå sammen, hvilket adskiller det fra lignende sider som Pitchfork Media og Tiny Mix Tapes, samt samler og præsenterer metadata i en wiki-stil på en måde der kan sammenlignes med Rate Your Music og IMDb.

Over tid er stiden blevet etableret som en valid kilde, og er blandt kilderne som Metacritic, og andre sider på internettet benytter. Generelt fokuserer medarbejderne på nyudgivelser, men alle brugere er dog velkomne til skrive anmeldelser om alle albums, der er blevet officielt udgivet. Alle genre musik bliver dækket på siden, med undersektioner dedikeret til heavy metal, punk, indie, rock, hip hop og pop.

De ansattes musikfokus er ofte på grupper og kunstnere som ikke er mainstream, som Burial, Kidcrash, Cynic, Kayo Dot, Off Minor og The Tallest Man On Earth, der alle har ligget højt på medarbejdernes liste over bedste kunstnere i 2006, 2007, 2008 og 2010 features.

Bedste albums ifølge medarbejderne

Referencer

Musiktjenester
Etableret i 2005

Sputnikmusic


Sir Ben Golden Emuobowho Okri  (born 15 March 1959) is a Nigerian-born British poet and novelist. Okri is considered one of the foremost African authors in the post-modern and post-colonial traditions, and has been compared favourably to authors such as Salman Rushdie and Gabriel García Márquez. In 1991, Okri won the Booker Prize with his novel The Famished Road. He received a knighthood in the 2023 Birthday Honours for services to literature.

Biography
Ben Okri is a member of the Urhobo people; his father was Urhobo, and his mother was half-Igbo ("from a royal family"). He was born in Minna in west central Nigeria to Grace and Silver Okri in 1959. His father, Silver, moved his family to London when Okri was less than two years old so that he could study law. Okri thus spent his earliest years in London and attended primary school in Peckham. In 1966, Silver moved his family back to Nigeria, where he practised law in Lagos, providing free or discounted services for those who could not afford it. After attending schools in Ibadan and Ikenne, Okri began his secondary education at Urhobo College at Warri, in 1968, when he was the youngest in his class. His exposure to the Nigerian civil war and a culture in which his peers at the time claimed to have seen visions of spirits, later provided inspiration for Okri's fiction.

At the age of 14, after being rejected for admission to a short university programme in physics because of his youth and lack of qualifications, Okri experienced a revelation that poetry was his chosen calling. He began writing articles on social and political issues, but these never found a publisher. He then wrote short stories based on those articles, and some were published in women's journals and evening papers. Okri claimed that his criticism of the government in some of this early work led to his name being placed on a death list, and necessitated his departure from the country. In 1978, Okri moved back to England and went to study comparative literature at Essex University with a grant from the Nigerian government. When funding for his scholarship fell through, however, Okri found himself homeless, sometimes living in parks and sometimes with friends. He describes this period as "very, very important" to his work: "I wrote and wrote in that period... If anything [the desire to write] actually intensified."

Okri's success as a writer began when he published his debut novel Flowers and Shadows in 1980, at the age of 21. From 1983 to 1986, he served as poetry editor of West Africa magazine, and was also a regular contributor to the BBC World Service between 1983 and 1985, continuing to publish throughout this period.

His reputation as an author was secured when his novel The Famished Road won the Booker Prize for Fiction in 1991, making him the youngest ever winner of the prize at the age of 32. The novel was written during the time from 1988 that Okri lived in a Notting Hill flat that he rented from publisher friend Margaret Busby, and he has said: "Something about my writing changed round about that time. I acquired a kind of tranquillity. I had been striving for something in my tone of voice as a writer — it was there that it finally came together.... That flat is also where I wrote the short stories that became Stars of the New Curfew."

Literary career

Since the publication in 1980 of his first novel, Flowers and Shadows, Okri has risen to an international acclaim, and he often is described as one of Africa's leading writers. His best known work, The Famished Road, which was awarded the 1991 Booker Prize, along with Songs of Enchantment (1993) and Infinite Riches (1998) make up a trilogy that follows the life of Azaro, a spirit-child narrator, through the social and political turmoil of an African nation reminiscent of Okri's remembrance of war-torn Nigeria.

Okri's work is particularly difficult to categorise. Although it has been widely categorised as post-modern, some scholars have noted that the seeming realism with which he depicts the spirit-world challenges this categorisation. If Okri does attribute reality to a spiritual world, it is claimed, then his "allegiances are not postmodern [because] he still believes that there is something ahistorical or transcendental conferring legitimacy on some, and not other, truth-claims." Alternative characterisations of Okri's work suggest an allegiance to Yoruba folklore, New Ageism, spiritual realism, magical realism, visionary materialism, and existentialism.

Against these analyses, Okri has always rejected the categorisation of his work as magical realism, claiming that this categorisation is the result of laziness on the part of critics and likening this categorisation to the observation that "a horse ... has four legs and a tail. That doesn't describe it." He has instead described his fiction as obeying a kind of "dream logic," and stated that his fiction often is preoccupied with the "philosophical conundrum ... what is reality?" insisting that:

"I grew up in a tradition where there are simply more dimensions to reality: legends and myths and ancestors and spirits and death ... Which brings the question: what is reality? Everyone's reality is different. For different perceptions of reality we need a different language. We like to think that the world is rational and precise and exactly how we see it, but something erupts in our reality which makes us sense that there's more to the fabric of life. I'm fascinated by the mysterious element that runs through our lives. Everyone is looking out of the world through their emotion and history. Nobody has an absolute reality."

He notes the effect of personal choices, "Beware of the stories you read or tell; subtly, at night, beneath the waters of consciousness, they are altering your world."

Okri's short fiction has been described as more realistic and less fantastic than his novels, but these stories also depict Africans in communion with spirits, while his poetry and nonfiction have a more overt political tone, focusing on the potential of Africa and the world to overcome the problems of modernity.

Okri was made an honorary vice-president of the English Centre for International PEN and a member of the board of the Royal National Theatre. On 26 April 2012, Okri was appointed the new vice-president of the Caine Prize for African Writing, having been on the advisory committee and associated with the prize since it was established 13 years prior.

In April 2019, Okri gave the keynote address at the second Berlin African Book Festival, curated by Tsitsi Dangarembga.

Okri's volume of collected poems, A Fire in My Head: Poems for the Dawn, was published in 2021, its title inspired by a line in Wole Soyinka's poem "Death in the Dawn": "May you never walk / when the road waits, famished."

In 2023, Okri collaborated with artist Rosemary Clunie in Firedreams, at the Bomb Factory, Marylebone, an exhibition of "WordArt" that featured large-scale paintings and sculptural obstructions.

Influences

Okri has described his work as influenced as much by the philosophical texts in his father's book shelves, as it was by literature, and Okri cites the influence of both Francis Bacon and Michel de Montaigne on his A Time for New Dreams. His literary influences include Aesop's Fables, Arabian Nights, Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, and Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner". Okri's 1999 epic poem, Mental Fight, also is named after a quotation from the poet William Blake's "And did those feet ...", and critics have noted the close relationship between Blake and Okri's poetry.

Okri also was influenced by the oral tradition of his people, and particularly, his mother's storytelling: "If my mother wanted to make a point, she wouldn't correct me, she'd tell me a story." His first-hand experiences of civil war in Nigeria are said to have inspired many of his works.

On the final day of the 2021 COP26 climate meeting in Glasgow, Okri wrote about the existential threat posed by the climate crisis and how illequipped humans seem to be to confront the prospect of their own self-inflicted extinction.  Indeed, Okri says, "[w]e have to find a new art and a new psychology to penetrate the apathy and the denial that are preventing us making the changes that are inevitable if our world is to survive."

Honours and awards

Okri was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2001 Birthday Honours for services to literature and knighted in the 2023 Birthday Honours, also for services to literature.
 1987: Commonwealth Writers Prize (Africa Region, Best Book) – Incidents at the Shrine
 1987: Aga Khan Prize for Fiction – The Dream Vendor's August
 1988: Guardian Fiction Prize – Stars of the New Curfew (shortlisted)
 1991–1993: Fellow Commoner in Creative Arts (FCCA), Trinity College, Cambridge
 1991: Booker Prize – The Famished Road
 1993: Chianti Ruffino-Antico Fattore International Literary Prize – The Famished Road
 1994: Premio Grinzane Cavour (Italy) -The Famished Road
 1995: Crystal Award (World Economic Forum)
 1997: Honorary Doctorate of Literature, awarded by University of Westminster
 1999:  (Italy) – Dangerous Love
 2002: Honorary Doctorate of Literature, awarded by University of Essex
 2003: Chosen as one of 100 Great Black Britons
 2004: Honorary Doctor of Literature, awarded by University of Exeter
 2008: International Literary Award Novi Sad (International Novi Sad Literature Festival, Serbia)
 2009: Honorary Doctorate of Utopia, awarded by Universiteit voor het Algemeen Belang, Belgium
 2010: Honorary Doctorate, awarded by School of Oriental and African Studies
 2010: Honorary Doctorate of Arts, awarded by the University of Bedfordshire
 2014: Honorary Fellow, Mansfield College, Oxford
 2014: Bad Sex in Fiction Award, Literary Review

Works

Novels
 Flowers and Shadows (Harlow: Longman, 1980)
 The Landscapes Within (Harlow: Longman, 1981)
 The Famished Road (London: Jonathan Cape, 1991)
 Songs of Enchantment (London: Jonathan Cape, 1993)
 Astonishing the Gods (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995)
 Dangerous Love (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1996)
 Infinite Riches (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998)
 In Arcadia (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2002)
 Starbook (London: Rider Books, 2007)
 The Age of Magic (London: Head of Zeus, 2014)
 The Freedom Artist (London: Head of Zeus, 2019)
 Every Leaf a Hallelujah (London: Head of Zeus, 2021)

Poetry, essays and short story collections
 Incidents at the Shrine (short stories; London: Heinemann, 1986)
 Stars of the New Curfew (short stories; London: Secker & Warburg, 1988)
 An African Elegy (poetry; London: Jonathan Cape, 1992)
 Birds of Heaven (essays; London: Phoenix House, 1996)
 A Way of Being Free (essays; London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1997; London: Phoenix House, 1997)
 Mental Fight (poetry: London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999; London: Phoenix House, 1999)
 Tales of Freedom (short stories; London: Rider & Co., 2009)
 A Time for New Dreams (essays; London: Rider & Co., 2011)
 Wild (poetry; London: Rider & Co., 2012)
 The Mystery Feast: Thoughts on Storytelling (West Hoathly: Clairview Books, Ltd, 2015)
 The Magic Lamp: Dreams of Our Age, with paintings by Rosemary Clunie (Apollo/Head of Zeus, 2017)
 Rise Like Lions: Poetry for the many (as editor; London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2018)
 Prayer for the Living: Stories (London: Head of Zeus, 2019)
 A Fire in My Head: Poems for the Dawn (London: Head of Zeus, 2021)

Film
 N – The Madness of Reason (feature film, directed by Peter Krüger, 2014)

Online fiction

References

Relevant literature
 Irene, Michael Oshoke. 2015. Re-inventing oral tradition in Ben Okri's trilogy : The Famished Road, Songs of Enchantment and Infinite Riches. Anglia Ruskin University, doctoral dissertation.

External links
 Official website
 Ben Okri's AALBC.com Author Profile
 Ben Okri's official Facebook Page
 Ben Okri's MySpace page
 Ben Okri's official page on the Booker Prizes website.
 Full length You Tube video of Ben Okri winning the 1991 Booker Prize.
 The Ben Okri Bibliography – an extensive bibliography of works by and about Okri, also including a short biography and an introduction to his work.
 Audio: Ben Okri in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion programme The Forum, 19 July 2009.
 Ben Okri on RSA Audio, 4 April 2011.
 "The Awakening Age", a poem by Ben Okri.
 "Draw", a poem by Ben Okri.
 "Lines in Potentis" , a poem by Ben Okri.
 "Children of the Dream", a poem by Ben Okri.
 "Dancing With Change", a poem by Ben Okri.
 "I sing a new freedom", a poem by Ben Okri.
 "As clouds pass above our heads...", a poem by Ben Okri.
 "O That Abstract Garden" , a poem by Ben Okri.
 Ben Okri: An extended film interview with transcripts for the Why Are We Here? documentary series.
 Réhab Abdelghany, "A Question of Power: Ben Okri's 'Meditations on Greatness' at Africa Writes", Africa in Words, 24 August 2015.

1959 births
Living people
20th-century English novelists
20th-century male writers
20th-century Nigerian novelists
21st-century male writers
21st-century Nigerian novelists
Alumni of the University of Essex
Black British writers
Booker Prize winners
English fantasy writers
English male novelists
English people of Nigerian descent
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Knights Bachelor
Magic realism writers
The New Yorker people
Nigerian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Nigerian fantasy writers
Nigerian male novelists
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Minna
People from Peckham
Urhobo people
Weird fiction writers

Ben Okri


This list shows an overview of postal code notation schemes for all countries that have postal or ZIP Code systems.

List
[Lists of postal codes].

 Legend
 A = letter
 N = number
 ? = letter or number
 CC = ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code

On the use of country codes
The use of the country codes in conjunction with postal codes started as a recommendation from CEPT (European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations) in the 1960s. In the original CEPT recommendation the distinguishing signs of motor vehicles in international traffic ("car codes") were placed before the postal code, and separated from it by a "-" (dash). Codes were only used on international mail and were hardly ever used internally in each country.

Since the late 1980s, however, a number of postal administrations have changed the recommended codes to the two-letter country codes of ISO 3166. This would allow a universal, standardized code set to be used, and bring it in line with country codes used elsewhere in the UPU (Universal Postal Union). Attempts were also made (without success) to make this part of the official address guidelines of the UPU. Recently introduced postal code systems where the UPU has been involved have included the ISO 3166 country code as an integral part of the postal code.

At present there are no universal guidelines as to which code set to use, and recommendations vary from country to country. In some cases, the applied country code will differ according to recommendations of the sender's postal administration. UPU recommends that the country name always be included as the last line of the address.

In the list above, the following principles have been applied:

 Integral country codes have been included in the code format, in bold type and without brackets. These are also used on internal mail in the respective countries.
 The ISO 3166 codes is used alone for countries that have explicitly recommended them.
 Where there is no explicit recommendation for ISO 3166 codes and the codes differ, both "car codes" and ISO 3166 codes are listed, with the "car code" listed first.

See also
 Universal Postal Union
 International Postcode system using Cubic Meters (CubicPostcode.com)
 International Postcodes database (mapanet.eu)

References

Footnotes

Notations
 Updated!

Postal codes, List of
Postal codes L
Lists by country

List of postal codes


Erenköy veya Koççina (Yunanca: Κόκκινα / Kokkina), Kıbrıs adasında, sivil nüfusa sahip olmayan bir köydür. De jure olarak Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti'nin Lefkoşa kazasına, de facto olarak ise Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti'nde Lefke ilçesine bağlıdır. Dillirga yöresinin köylerindendir. Erenköy ile Kuzey Kıbrıs'ın kalanı arasında kara bağlantısı bulunmamaktadır ve köy Birleşmiş Milletler kontrolündeki Ara Bölge ile çevrilidir.

Köyün halkı tamamıyla Kıbrıslı Türklerden oluşmaktaydı. Bir liman kasabası olan köy, 1950'lerden itibaren Türk Mukavemet Teşkilatının Türkiye'den silah sevkiyatına sahne oldu. 1964 yılındaki Erenköy Direnişi'nde bölgede çatışmalar yaşandı. Bu çatışmalarda Dillirga bölgesindeki diğer Türk köyleri olan Bozdağ, Selçuklu, Mansur ve Alevkaya köyleri Rum Millî Muhafız Ordusunun eline geçtiğinden bölgedeki Türk nüfusu Erenköy'e sığındı. 1971 yılında köydeki göçmen sayısı 671 olarak kaydedildi. 1974 Kıbrıs Harekâtı'nda Türk ordusu bölgedeki Yeşilırmak köyüne kadar gelse de aradaki Rum köyü olan Aşağı Pirgo dolayısıyla Erenköy'e ilerlemesi mümkün olmadı. 1976 yılının kasım ayına dek Erenköy'de kalan Erenköy halkı ve göçmenler, bu tarihte Karpaz bölgesindeki Yalusa'ya yerleştirildiler. Yalusa'nın adı "Yeni Erenköy" olarak değiştirilirken Erenköy o tarihten bu yana askerî bölge olarak kalmıştır.

Bu yerleşim biriminde 13 asker mezarı bulunmaktadır. Bu 13 asker Türkiye ve Kıbrıs Türkleri her sene bir kez bir tören ile anılmaktadır.

Erenköy'de sivil halk yaşamamakta ancak Türk askerleri bulunmaktadır.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Yeşilırmak Kapısı

Dış bağlantılar
 Erenköy sınırından fotoğraflar

Erenköy, Kıbrıs


Brachyodes es un  género de coleópteros adéfagos de la familia Carabidae.

Especies
Comprende las siguientes especies:

 Brachyodes peguensis Bates, 1892
 Brachyodes subolivaceus LaFerte-Senectre, 1851
 Brachyodes virens Wiedemann, 1823

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Brachyodes en ION
 Nomenclator Zoologicus
 Carabidae of the World

Oodini

Brachyodes


පරිගණකය නැමති යන්ත්‍රය මගින් විවිධ  ශබ්ද,පින්තුර,සංඛ්‍යා සහ අක්ෂර නිරූපණය කරන්නේ කෙසේද යන්න පිළිබඳ ව ඔබ පුදුම වනවා ඇත.සරලව කිවහොත් අපි දකින සැබෑ ලෝකයේ සියලුම දේ මෙම යන්ත්‍රය තුළ ගොඩ නංවා ඉදිරිපත් කරන්නේ කෙසේ ද යන්න පිළිබඳ ව ඔබ මවිත වනවා ඇති.එසේම එම ක්‍රියාවලිය බෙහෙවින් සංකීර්ණ බව ඔබ සිතනවා ඇති. නමුත් එය එසේ නොවේ. ඔබ පරිගණකය තුළින් දකින සියලු ම වර්ගයේ බහු මාධ්‍ය අංගයන් සරල සංවෘත හා විවෘත ස්විචයන් රාශියක් සංකලනය වීමෙන් නිර්මාණය වූවකි.එම ස්විචයන් ප්‍රමාණයෙන් මිලියන ගණනක් වුව ද කරනු ලබන කාර්යය සාමාන්‍ය ස්විචයක ක්‍රියාව ම වේ.මෙහිදී යොදා ගනු ලබන ක්‍රමෝපාය වන්නේ අප දකින සත්‍ය ලෝකයේ ඇති සියලුම ශබ්ද,පින්තුර හා සංඛ්‍යා දත්තයන් ලෙස ගෙන ඒවා ස්විචයන් මගින් නිරූපණය කල හැකි ආකාරයේ දත්තයන් බවට පරිවර්තනය කර ගැනීමයි.පහත සටහනින් එය මැනවින් නිරූපණය වේ.

පරිගණකයේ දත්ත සැකසීම හා ගබඩා කිරීමට යොදා ගනු ලබන්නේ විදුලියයි. විදුලිය  ඉතා වේගයෙන් කම්බි තුලින් ගමන් කිරීම සිදු වේ.එසේම යාන්ත්‍රික කොටස් වලට වඩා විද්‍යුත් කොටස් වැඩි නිසා පරිගණකයේ සිදුවන දෝෂ ප්‍රමාණය සම්පුර්ණයෙන්ම යාන්ත්‍රික කොටස් වලින් පමණක් සමන්විත යන්ත්‍රයක සිදුවන දෝෂ ප්‍රමාණයට වඩා අවම වේ.

විද්‍යුතයට ස්විචයන් හරහා ගමන් කළ හැකිය.ස්විචය වසා ඇති විට දී විද්‍යුතය ගමන් කරන අතර(මෙය 1 යන සංඛ්‍යාවෙන් නිරූපණය කරයි), විවෘත කර ඇති විට දී  විද්‍යුතය එය හරහා ගමන්නොකරයි(මෙය 0 යන සංඛ්‍යාවෙන් නිරූපණය කරයි).සත්‍යලෝකයේ තොරතුරු පරිගණකය  තුළ සැකසීමට නම් ස්විචයන් උපයෝගී කරගනිමින් එම දත්ත නිරූපණයට ක්‍රමයක් අවශ්‍ය වේ. මේ සඳහා විවිධ කේත ක්‍රමයන්  යොදා ගනු ලබයි.මේ සඳහා යොදා ගනු ලබන ප්‍රධාන කේතමය ක්‍රමයන් පහත විස්තර කර ඇත.

පරිගණනයෙහි අක්ෂර සංඛ්යාංක හා සංකේත නිරූපණය


Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Savunma Bakanlığı, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığına bağlı olarak çalışan, savunma politikaları ve Türk vatandaşlarının askerlik işlerinden sorumlu olan bakanlık.

Tarihçe
Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisinin açılışından sonra; 2 Mayıs 1920 günü çıkartılan "Büyük Millet Meclisi İcra Vekillerinin Suret-i İntihabına Dair Kanun" (Yürütmeyi Sağlayacak Bakanların Seçilmesine Yönelik Yasa Tasarısı) sonucunda milletvekilleri arasından ilk bakanlar kurulu oluşturuldu. O zamanki kabul edilen esaslara göre TBMM başkanı, aynı zamanda hükümetin de başkanıydı. Bu sıfat ile Mustafa Kemal Paşa, hükümetin başkanlığına getirilmişti. Bakanlar kurulunun üyeleri; Din İşleri Bakanı Mustafa Fehmi Gerçeker, Milli Savunma Bakanı Fevzi Paşa (Çakmak), Dışişleri Bakanı Bekir Sami (Kunduk), Maliye Bakanı Hakkı Behiç (Bayiç), Bayındırlık Bakanı İsmail Fazıl Paşa, Ekonomi Bakanı Yusuf Kemal (Tengirşek), Adalet Bakanı Celalettin Arif, İçişleri Bakanı Cami  (Başkut), Milli Eğitim Bakanı Dr. Rıza Nur, Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım Bakanı Dr. Adnan (Adıvar) ve Genelkurmay Başkanı İsmet (İnönü) olmuştu.

Görevleri
Millî Savunma Bakanlığının görev ve yetkileri şunlardır:
 Millî Savunma görevlerinin siyasi, hukuki, sosyal, askeri okullardaki (harp okulları ve astsubay meslek yüksekokulları) eğitim, mali ve bütçe hizmetlerini yürütmek.
 Silahlı Kuvvetlerin Cumhurbaşkanınca kararlaştırılacak savunma politikası çerçevesinde, Genelkurmay Başkanlığı tarafından tespit olunacak ilke, öncelik ve ana programlarına göre:
 Barışta ve savaşta personel temini ile asker alma hizmetlerini yürütmek.
 Silah, araç, gereç ve her çeşit lojistik ihtiyaç maddelerinin tedariki hizmetlerini yürütmek.
 Askeri fabrikalar ve tersaneler dahil harp sanayii hizmetlerini yürütmek.
 Sağlık ve veteriner hizmetlerini yürütmek.
 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti sınırları dâhilinde gerçekleştirilecek insani amaçlı mayın ve/veya patlamamış mühimmat temizliğine yönelik faaliyetlerini yürütmek.
 24/2/2000 tarihli ve 4536 sayılı Denizlerde ve Yurt Yüzeyinde Görülen Patlayıcı Madde ve Şüpheli Cisimlere Uygulanacak Esaslara İlişkin Kanun kapsamında faaliyetlerini yürütmek.
 İnşaat, emlak, iskan ve enfrastrüktür hizmetlerini yürütmek.
 Teftiş, inceleme ve soruşturma hizmetlerini yürütmek.
 Bakanlık merkez ve taşra teşkilatı ile bağlı, ilgili ve ilişkili kuruluşlarında görev alacak personelin güvenlik soruşturması ve arşiv araştırması hizmetlerini Millî İstihbarat Teşkilatı ve Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü aracılığıyla yürütmek.

Bağlı kurumlar

Merkez teşkilatı
 Askeri Fabrikalar Genel Müdürlüğü
 Askeri Sağlık Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü
 Tersaneler Genel Müdürlüğü
 Askeralma Genel Müdürlüğü
 Harita Genel Müdürlüğü
 Personel Genel Müdürlüğü
 Savunma ve Güvenlik Genel Müdürlüğü
 Bütçe ve Mali Hizmetler Genel Müdürlüğü
 Lojistik Genel Müdürlüğü
 Tedarik Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü
 Savunma ve Güvenlik Genel Müdürlüğü
 Teftiş Kurulu Başkanlığı
 Muhabere ve Bilgi Sistem Dairesi Başkanlığı
 Millî Mayın Faaliyet Merkezi Dairesi Başkanlığı
 Teknik Hizmetler Dairesi Başkanlığı
 Hukuk Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü
 Basın ve Halkla İlişkiler Müşavirliği
 Özel Kalem Müdürlüğü

Bağlı komutanlıklar
 Genelkurmay Başkanlığı
 Kara Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı
 Deniz Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı
 Hava Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı

İlgili kuruluşlar
 Makine ve Kimya Endüstrisi A.Ş.
 Türk Havacılık ve Uzay Sanayii
 Askeri Fabrika ve Tersane İşletme A.Ş.

Bağlı kuruluşlar
 Milli Savunma Üniversitesi
 Ordu Yardımlaşma Kurumu

Millî savunma bakanları

Kaynakça

1920'de Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda kurulan oluşumlar
Savunma bakanlıkları

Millî Savunma Bakanlığı (Türkiye)