În lingvistică, noțiunea de conector nu are o definiție general acceptată, și nici ceea ce se consideră că reprezintă nu este denumit de toți autorii cu acest termen. Ceea ce este general admis despre conector este că acesta este un cuvânt sau un grup de cuvinte cu funcția de a conecta între ele unități lingvistice în cadrul unor unități lingvistice mai complexe decât cele care sunt interconectate: membri de sintagmă într-o sintagmă, sintagme într-o propoziție, propoziții într-o frază, fraze într-un paragraf, paragrafe într-un discurs sau text), și că este una din categoriile de entități lingvistice care asigură coeziunea și coerența unităților lingvistice.

Lingvistica a luat termenul "conector" din logica formală, care ia în seamă conectori logici. Aceștia realizează operații logice și corespund unor cuvinte gramaticale din limbajul natural, de exemplu conjuncția logică (corespunzătoare lui și) sau disjuncția logică, corespunzătoare lui sau. Lingvistica a extins semnificația termenului la orice cuvânt sau grup de cuvinte cu funcția menționată mai sus.

Atât în privința unităților lingvistice în care funcționează conectori, cât și în cea a entităților denumite prin termeni gramaticali (prepoziție, conjuncție, adverb etc.) care pot avea această funcție, părerile sunt împărțite.

Entități lingvistice care constituie conectori

Unii lingviști consideră aceste entități o mulțime deschisă, în care unele formează o regiune cetrală marcantă. Posibilitatea folosirii acestora drept conectori este evidentă. Alte entități se situează la periferia mulțimii, distincția dintre funcția lor de conector și altă funcție nefiind clară. Acestea pot fi considerate conectori ocazionali. Alte entități intră cu totul ocazional în această mulțime, dar de fapt toate devin conectori numai în cursul comunicării prin limbă. Clasificarea de mai jos a conectorilor este făcută folosindu-se categorii din gramatica tradițională.

Sunt considerați conectori în primul rând conjuncțiile coordonatoare: și, sau, dar, deci.

Unele conjuncții subordonatoare sunt de asemenea considerate conectori ( because –  mert "pentru că",  while "în timp ce"), altele fiind excluse dintre aceștia, de exemplu  que –  hogy "că".

Conectori mai pot fi și unele cuvinte considerate în mod tradițional adverbe, numite în engleză conjuncts sau conjunctive adverbs "adverbe conjunctive":  so "așa că, astfel că", therefore "deci, astfel, așadar, prin urmare",  however – nevertheless –  pourtant –  allerdings –  mégis "totuși, cu toate acestea".

Unele locuțiuni adverbiale constituie și ele conectori:  on the other hand "pe de altă parte",  au contraire "dimpotrivă",  ezzel szemben "în schimb", en somme "una peste alta".

Grupuri de cuvinte, dintre care unele sunt la origine propoziții gramaticale, numite de unii "expresii curente", au de asemenea funcție de conector:  il est vrai que… "este adevărat că…", cela dit… "acestea fiind zise…", admettons que… "să admitem că…", ce qui veut dire que… "adică", quoi qu'il en soit… "oricum", toujours est-il que… "rămâne valabil faptul că…".

Se întâlnește și părerea că unele prepoziții și locuțiuni prepoziționale sunt conectori, în special cele care se folosesc cu un verb la infinitiv sau cu un substantiv nume de acțiune, construcțiile acestea putând avea același sens cu al construcțiilor conjuncție + verb la un mod personal:  depuis "de la" (sens temporal), durant "în timpul", pour "pentru", en dépit de "în ciuda" etc.. Exemple în propoziții:  Grâce aux efforts que vous avez fournis, vous avez réussi "Ați reușit datorită eforturilor voastre", À cause de la pollution, on ne peut plus pêcher dans cette rivière "Din cauza poluării nu se mai poate pescui în râul acesta".

Conectori ocazionali pot fi, de exemplu, unele adverbe. Bunăoară,  toujours, care are sensul de bază "totdeauna" (adverb de timp), devine conector în anumite contexte: Allons au bistro! On y sera toujours au chaud "Hai la birt! Măcar o să stăm la căldură".

Propoziții gramaticale oarecare pot de asemenea deveni conectori în anumite situații de comunicare. Exemple:
  – Ez a Kati igazán csinos lány. – Ez nem akadályozza meg abban, hogy pocsékul főzzön. "– Kati asta este o fată într-adevăr drăguță. – Asta n-o împiedică să gătească groaznic de prost" (frază echivalentă cu "Dar ce prost gătește!", cu conectorul "dar");
  Tous les jours, l'été, lorsque le soleil commençait à baisser,… "În fiecare zi, vara, când soarele începea să apună,…" – conector cu sens temporal care introduce un paragraf într-o legendă.

Chiar și elemente prozodice pot deveni conectori, cum ar fi intonația exclamativă în propoziția  – Pocsékul főz! "– Gătește groaznic de prost", echivalentă cu cea de mai sus, ba chiar și un element extralingvistic, precum un gest sau o mimică.

Unități lingvistice legate între ele prin conectori

Din cele de mai sus reiese că, după unii lingviști, unitățile cele mai mici legate între ele prin conectori se află în interiorul sintagmelor și propozițiilor, adică sunt părți de propoziție. Acești conectori sunt conjuncții și prepoziții.

Unități superioare sintagmelor sunt propozițiile din cadrul frazelor, propoziții conectate între ele prin conjuncții și unele adverbe. Propoziții independente nefăcând parte din aceeași frază și fraze învecinate în cadrul paragrafului (unitate a unui text scris și, prin extensie, a unui discurs oral) sau al dialogului sunt interconectate prin conjuncții, adverbe și entități mai complexe decât acestea. De menționat că unii lingviști nu vorbesc de conectori în cazul unităților mai mici decât paragraful.

Considerând că unitatea lingvistică cea mai extinsă este discursul sau textul, și că acesta este compus din unități de niveluri inferioare, la nivelurile amintite până aici, conectorii contribuie la realizarea microstructurii și mezostructurii discursului/textului. Acești conectori sunt numiți de unii autori  marqueurs de relation "marcatori de relație" sau coordonnants "coordonatori".

Macrostructura discursului/textului este realizată prin legături între paragrafe, la care contribuie conectori numiți de unii lingviști  organisateurs textuels "organizatori de text". Aceștia sunt o parte din marcatorii de relație, plus alte entități. De exemplu, o locuțiune prepozițională precum  grâce à "datorită" nu este organizator de text, dar de exemplu conjuncția donc "deci", adverbul ensuite "apoi", locuțiunea adverbială en premier lieu "în primul rând", expresia curentă il est vrai que "este adevărat că", propozițiile gramaticale conectori ocazionali sunt organizatori de text.

Nu se face totdeauna deosebire între marcatori de relație și organizatori de text. Se găsesc pentru aceste entități și termenii comuni articulateur "articulator", marqueur de discours "marcator de discurs" sau marqueur discursif "marcator discursiv".

Funcții ale conectorilor

Funcția principală a conectorilor este de a lega între ele unități lingvistice pentru a contribui la realizarea coeziunii și coerenței structurale a părților mai mari ale discursului/textului și ale întregului acestuia.

Funcții semantico-logice și semantico-pragmatice

Unii autori disting categorii de conectori după două tipuri de legături realizate. Conectorii logici sunt elemente lingvistice care exprimă în logica formală conjuncția (și), disjuncția (sau), implicarea (dacă…, atunci…) etc., și entități lingvistice echivalente cu acestea. Conectorii logici leagă între ele propoziții în sensul din logică al termenului, adică exprimări ale factualității unei stări de lucruri date, alfel spus cărora li se poate atribui o valoare de adevăr (adevărat sau fals). Conectorii care nu intră în această categorie sunt numiți pragmatici, de exemplu conjuncția  because "pentru că". Conform altei păreri nu este pertinent să se distingă conectori logici și pragmatici, pentru că cei numiți logici nu leagă totdeauna între ele propoziții în sens logic, prin urmare se poate vorbi despre conectori în general, care au funcția de a realiza conexiuni semantico-logice și semantico-pragmatice.

La nivel micro- și mezostructural

Din punct de vedere semantico-logic și semantico-pragmatic, conectorii realizează în primul rând raporturi de coordonare în sensul celor definite în gramaticile tradiționale, inclusiv cele ale limbii române, pentru conjuncțiile coordonatoare, dar nu numai conjuncții participă la acestea, și nu numai în propoziție/frază. Exemple:
 coordonare copulativă: Dan împodobește pomul și Maria îl ajută.;  Internet est une source inépuisable d'informations. De plus, c'est un remarquable outil de communication. "Internetul este o sursă inepuizabilă de informații. În plus, este un instrument de comunicare remarcabil." ;
 coordonare adversativă: Eu nu-mi petrec Crăciunul în România, ci mă duc în Franța.;  Michel est d'accord avec le projet. Par contre, il refuse de travailler avec cette équipe. "Michel este de acord cu proiectul. În schimb refuză să lucreze cu această echipă.";
 coordonare disjunctivă: Te duci la școală azi sau stai acasă?;  Tout le monde a une métaphysique. Patente, latente. Je l'ai assez dit. Ou alors on n'existe pas. "Toți avem o metafizică. Patentă, latentă. Am spus-o de destule ori. Sau dacă nu, nu existăm." (Charles Péguy);
 coordonare conclusivă: Muncesc, deci câștig;  There has been no rainfall for some time. The ground is therefore very dry. "N-a mai plouat de o vreme. De aceea pământul e foarte uscat.".

În gramaticile unor limbi este luată în seamă și coordonarea cauzală:  He is happy, for it is raining "E fericit, căci plouă";  Partons, car il se fait tard. "Să plecăm, căci se face târziu.".

Conectorii realizează și alte tipuri de relații. Chartrand 1999 menționează :

 enumerare: Internet est une source d'informations facilement accessible. Premièrement, de plus en plus de gens sont « branchés » au bureau ou à la maison. Deuxièmement, ces dernières années, une multitude de cafés Internet ont vu le jour, partout dans le monde. "Internetul este o sursă de informații ușor accesibilă. În primul rând, din ce în ce mai mulți oameni sunt conectați la birou sau acasă. În al doilea rând, în ultimii ani au văzut lumina zilei o mulțime de cafenele Internet, în toată lumea.";
 concesie: La Toile est un outil de communication d'une rare efficacité. Bien sûr, il arrive parfois que le réseau soit débordé […] "Web-ul este un instrument de comunicare de o rară eficacitate. Desigur, se întâmplă uneori ca rețeaua să fie supraîncărcată […]";
 explicație: Internet est un instrument de recherches remarquable. En effet, en quelques minutes seulement, l'utilisateur du Net peut accéder […] "Internetul este un instrument de căutare remarcabil. Într-adevăr, numai în câteva minute, utilizatorul Netului poate accesa […]";
 ilustrare: L'autoroute électronique comporte tout de même certains désavantages. Ainsi, la publicité inonde […] les internautes. "Autostrada electronică are totuși unele dezavantaje. Astfel, publicitatea îi inundă […] pe internauți.";
 sinteză: Bien qu'Internet soit perfectible et que la qualité des informations qu'on y retrouve laisse parfois à désirer, de plus en plus de gens […] en découvrent les multiples possibilités. En somme, l'inforoute demeure un merveilleux outil d'information et de communication. "Deși Internetul este perfectibil, iar calitatea informațiilor care se găsesc pe acesta lasă uneori de dorit, din ce în ce mai mulți oameni […] îi descoperă multiplele posibilități. Pe scurt, infostrada rămâne un minunat instrument de informare și comunicare.";
 situare în timp: En 2001, 46 % des Québécois naviguaient dans Internet mensuellement. On peut maintenant présumer que la moitié des Québécois visitent la Toile fréquemment. "În 2001, 46% dintre locuitorii Québec-ului navigau lunar pe Internet. Acum se poate presupune că jumătate din locuitorii Québec-ului vizitează frecvent Web-ul."

În afară de acestea mai sunt și alte relații exprimate de conectori. Čirgić 2010 menționează:

 situare în spațiu: Ušli su u jednu sobicu na kraju hodnika. Onđe nije bilo ničega. "Au intrat într-o odăiță de la capătul coridorului. Acolo nu era nimic.";
 mod: Obilazio je pogon triput dnevno. Tako je mogao imati uvid u sve što se događa. "Trecea prin fabrică de trei ori pe zi. Astfel putea avea o privire asupra a tot ce se întâmpla.";
 scop: Hoćahu da obiđu sve glavne gradove južne Evrope. S tom namjerom krenuše na put krajem prošle neđelje. "Au vrut să treacă prin toate capitalele din Europa de Sud. Cu acest scop au pornit la drum săptămâna trecută.";
 condiție: Ljekove nikako ne smijete prestati uzimati. U tome slučaju bilo bi uzaludno sve što smo dosad napravili. "Nicidecum să nu încetați să luați medicamentele. Într-un asemenea caz ar fi zadarnic tot ce am făcut până acum."
 excludere: Svi su bili onđe već u osam. Samo se on pojavio tek poslije devet. "Toți au fost acolo deja la ora opt. Numai el a apărut abia după nouă."
 intensificare: Mislim da je krajnje vrijeme za odlazak. Štoviše trebali smo otići i prije. "Cred că e timpul să plecăm. Ba chiar trebuia să plecăm mai demult."

Sunt și conectori caracteristici pentru anumite tipuri de limbaj, cum este limbajul științific. Exemple în franceză:
 anunț: Je me propose de passer en revue… "Îmi propun să trec în revistă…", Nous verrons que… "Vom vedea că…", Nous esquissons ci-dessous… "Schițăm mai jos…;
 digresiune: Notons au passage que... "Să notăm în trecere că…", Soit dit en passant, … "În treacăt fie spus…";
 exemplificare: Soit… "Fie…", (Prenons) un seul exemple… "(Să luăm) un singur exemplu…", Qu'il suffise de citer… "Este suficient să cităm…";
 ipoteză: On peut supposer que… "Se poate presupune că…", Supposons que… "Să presupunem că…";
 inferență: Il ressort de ce qui précède que… "Reiese din cele precedente că…", Il découle de ces constatations que… "Din aceste constatări decurge că…";
 introducere tematică: Abordons maintenant… "Să abordăm acum…", Passons à… "Să trecem la…";
 scoatere în evidență: Encore faut-il remarquer que…  "Mai trebuie să remarcăm că…", Notons que… Să notăm că…", Précisons que… "Să precizăm că…";
 reformulare: (Pour le dire) en d'autres termes,… "Cu alte cuvinte,…" ;
 trimitere și atribuire: X affirme que… "X afirmă că…", Comme dit X… "După cum spune X…, Nous renvoyons sur ce point à X "Trimitem în legătură cu aceasta la X";
 sugestie: Il va sans dire que… "Se înțelege că…", Force est de constater que… "Trebuie să constatăm că…", On peut penser que… "Se poate crede că…".

La nivel macrostructural

La acest nivel funcționează organizatori de text, care fac trecerea între paragrafe. Sunt de regulă la începutul acestora, marcând ordinea și progresia ideilor, mai ales în discursuri/texte argumentative. De exemplu, primul paragraf numește tema discursului și formulează o teză referitoare la ea, al doilea paragraf, care poate începe cu  D'abord,… "Mai întâi,…" sau Premièrement,… "În primul rând,…", prezintă un prim argument, al treilea paragraf, începând de pildă cu Ensuite,… "Apoi,…" sau Deuxièmement,… "În al doilea rând,…", avansează un al doilea argument. Al patrulea paragraf prezintă eventual o concesie, începând cu Bien sûr,… "Desigur,…", pe care vorbitorul o poate respinge în cadrul aceluiași paragraf, începând o frază cu Mais… "Dar…" sau Cependant,… "Totuși,…". Ultimul paragraf este conclusiv, putând începe cu En somme,… "Pe scurt,…" sau En conclusion,… "În concluzie,…".

Organizatorii textuali pot fi și cu totul ocazionali. Tipologia lor este parțial aceeași ca și a marcatorilor de relație. Există organizatori textuali de timp ( ensuite "apoi", au cours du XXe siècle "în cursul secolului al XX-lea"), de spațiu și loc (à côté "alături", au bord de la rivière "pe malul râului"), de enumerare, ordine sau succesiune (pour commencer "pentru început", enfin "în fine"), de explicare sau justificare (autrement dit "altfel spus", pour cette raison "din acest motiv"), de ierarhizare (surtout "mai ales", par-dessus tout "înainte de toate"), de opoziție și de concesie (au contraire "dimpotrivă", certes "desigur"), de concluzie (en somme "pe scurt", en conclusion "în concluzie").

Sunt și organizatori textuali care nu există și ca marcatori de relație, uneori având forma unei propoziții întregi. Majoritatea lor sunt tot la început de paragraf. Exemple de organizatori de text temporali dintr-o legendă: : Une vingtaine d'étés durant,… "Timp de vreo douăzeci de veri,…", Elle était toute jeune encore… "Era încă foarte tânără…", Depuis que le vieillard était disparu,… "De când dispăruse bătrânul,…", Tous les jours, l'été, lorsque le soleil commençait à baisser,… "În fiecare zi, vara, când soarele începea să apună,…", Cet automne-là,… "În toamna aceea,…", Et puis un soir,… "Apoi, într-o seară,…".

Alte funcții

În afară de conexiuni, la coeziunea și coerența părților de discurs/text și a întregului acestuia contribuie și referiri la ceva precedent în acesta ([[Anaforă lingvistică)|anaforă), la ceva următor (cataforă), și la ceva din realitatea exterioară discursului/textului (deixis).
Unii autori consideră aceste funcții secundare pentru unii conectori, fără să considere conectori toate entitățile lingvistice anaforice, cataforice și deictice. De exemplu, conectorii  pour cette raison "din această cauză" sau ceci dit "acestea fiind zise" sunt și entități anaforice care se referă la ceea ce a fost spus/scris imediat mai înainte.

Alți autori includ printre conectori și entități lingvistice cu funcție numai anaforică sau cataforică. Exemple:
 pronume personal:  Ce peintre est très admiré; il a exposé ses œuvres dans plusieurs pays. "Acest pictor este foarte admirat; (el) și-a expus operele în mai multe țări." (anaforă);
 pronume demonstrativ:  Ezt kóstold meg! Ilyen jó halászlét még nem ettél. "Asta s-o guști! Așa bună ciorbă pescărească n-ai mai mâncat." (cataforă);
 articol hotărât:  Tegnap hárman kértek szállást a fogadóban. A vendégek két napig maradtak. "Ieri au fost trei care au cerut cazare la han. Clienții au stat două zile." (anaforă).

Note

Surse bibliografice

  Bussmann, Hadumod (coord.), Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (Dicționarul limbii și lingvisticii), Londra – New York, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-203-98005-0 (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

  Cadre europeen commun de reference pour les langues : apprendre, enseigner, evaluer (Cadrul european comun de referință pentru limbi: învățare, predare evaluare), Unité des Politiques linguistiques, Strasbourg, Consiliul Europei, Paris, Didier, 2001, ISBN 227805075-3 (CECR) (accesat la 29 noiembrie 2022)

  Chartrand, Suzanne-G. et al., Grammaire pédagogique du français d'aujourd'hui (Gramatica pedagogică a limbii franceze de astăzi), Graficor, 1999, ISBN 2-892242-560-3

  Čirgić, Adnan; Pranjković, Ivo; Silić, Josip, Gramatika crnogorskoga jezika (Gramatica limbii muntenegrene), Podgorica, Ministerul Învățământului și Științei al Muntenegrului, 2010, ISBN 978-9940-9052-6-2 (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

 Cojocaru, Dana, Romanian Grammar, SEELRC, 2003 (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

  Crystal, David, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics  (Dicționar de lingvistică și fonetică), ediția a VI-a, Blackwell Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-1-4051-5296-9 (accesat la 10 noiembrie 2018)

  Csűry, István, Kis könyv a konnektorokról (Carte mică despre conectori), Debrecen, Kossuth Egyetemi Kiadó, colecția Officina Textologica, nr. 13, 2005, ISBN 963-472-946-0 (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

  Eastwood, John, Oxford Guide to English Grammar  (Ghidul Oxford al gramaticii engleze), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-19-431351-4 (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

  Grevisse, Maurice și Goosse, André, Le bon usage. Grammaire française (Folosirea corectă a limbii. Gramatică franceză), ediția a XIV-a, Bruxelles, De Boeck Université, 2007, ISBN 978-2-8011-1404-9

 Mic dicționar academic, ediția a II-a, București, Univers Enciclopedic, 2010, ISBN 978-606-8162-26-3; online: Dexonline, MDA2 (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

  Trésor de la langue française informatisé (Tezaurul limbii franceze informatizat) (TLFi) (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

  Tolcsvai Nagy, Gábor, 6. fejezet – Szövegtan (Capitolul VI – Textologie), Bajor, Péter et al. (coord.), A magyar nyelv (Limba maghiară), Akadémiai kiadó, 2006, Digitális Tankönyvtár (Bibliotecă didactică digitală) (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

  Vitrine linguistique, Banque de dépannage linguistique (Bancă de ajutor lingvistic) (BDL), Office québécois de la langue française (accesat la 12 martie 2023)

Legătură externă

  BDL, pagina Liste de charnières (Listă de conectori) (accesat la 29 ianuarie 2019)

Vezi și

 Discurs
 Paragraf

Lingvistică

Conector (lingvistică)


O 1º Campeonato Europeu de Halterofilismo foi realizado em Rotterdam, nos Países Baixos em 9 ou em 11 de março de 1896.

Medalhistas

Quadro de medalhas

Ligações externas
Site da Federação Europeia de Halterofilismo

1896
Europeu
Halterofilismo
Halterofilismo

Campeonato Europeu de Halterofilismo de 1896


سلك اللحام ذو القلب الصهور  هو سلك لولبي معبأ بمواد مصهورة ومزيج من المعادن. ويستخدم لعمليات اللحام التي يطلق عليها الماج. السلك مصنوع من صفيحة مشكلة على البارد على شكل حرف U، وبعدها يعبأ بالمعادن المصهورة، ومن هنا يتشكل السلك المطلوب حسب القطر والسماكة المطلوبة.

اكتشاف أسلاك اللحام ذات القلب الصهور
في عام 1920 كانت تقنيات اللحام مازلت بدائية وغير متطورة. كانت المعادن تلحم بإسلاك لحام صلبة بدون الفلكس مما جعل من عملية اللحام عملية ضعيفة وغير دقيقة، أما اليوم فقد أصبحت عمليات اللحام أكثر دقة وأكثر صلابة مما كانت عليه في السابق.

في عام 1927 قام Franz Letiner Seelendraht، والذي كان يعمل رئيسا لأعمال الصلب والتي تأسست على يد ألبرت بوهلر Albert Böhler لاحقا Böhler Uddeholm وهنا كانت بداية الثورة في عالم تقانة اللحام.

أسلاك اللحام ذات القلب الصهور أصبحت اليوم تحتوي على معادن وعناصر مصهورة والتي تعطي ميزات لحام متميزة. أول قضبان مغطاة كانت من بوهلر هي FOX SPE and FOX EV 50 والتي طورت في عام 1930. وفي عام 1934 طور أول قضيب إلكترود لمعالجة وصيانة الفولاذ غير القابل للصدأ والذي ما زال يستخدم حتى يومنا هذا.

أنواع
نوع واحد من أنواع اللحام بسلك ذي قلب صهور  FCAW لا يتطلب غاز التدريع. أصبح هذا ممكنًا من خلال قلب التدفق الحراري في القطب الكهربائي الأنبوبي القابل للاستهلاك. ومع ذلك ، يحتوي هذا القلب على أكثر من مجرد تدفق. كما أنه يحتوي على مكونات مختلفة والتي عند تعرضها لدرجات حرارة عالية من اللحام تولد غازًا واقيًا لحماية القوس. هذا النوع من FCAW جذاب لأنه محمول وله بشكل عام اختراق جيد للمعادن الأساسية. أيضا .  تتمثل بعض العيوب في أن هذه العملية يمكن أن تنتج دخانًا زائدًا وضارًا (مما يجعل من الصعب رؤية حوض اللحام). كما هو الحال مع جميع عمليات اللحام  يجب اختيار القطب المناسب للحصول على الخصائص الميكانيكية المطلوبة. تعتبر مهارة المشغل عاملاً رئيسياً حيث أن التلاعب غير الصحيح بالقطب الكهربي أو إعداد الآلة يمكن أن يسبب المسامية.

يستخدم نوع آخر من FCAW غازًا واقيًا يجب توفيره بواسطة مصدر خارجي. يُعرف هذا بشكل غير رسمي باسم لحام "الدرع المزدوج". تم تطوير هذا النوع  بشكل أساسي من أجل لحام الفولاذ الإنشائي. في الواقع ، نظرًا لأنه يستخدم كلاً من قطب كهربائي ذي قلب متدفق وغاز تدريع خارجي ، يمكن للمرء أن يقول أنه مزيج من
لحام قوسي بالمعدن والغاز GMAW و FCAW. غازات التدريع الأكثر استخدامًا هي إما ثاني أكسيد الكربون المباشر أو مزيج من ثاني أكسيد الكربون و الأرجون. المزيج الأكثر شيوعًا هو 75٪ أرجون و 25٪ ثاني أكسيد الكربون. هذا النمط المعين من FCAWاللحام بسلك ذو قلب تدفق مفضل للحام المعادن السميكة والخارجية . من السهل أيضًا إزالة الخبث الناتج عن التدفق. تتمثل المزايا الرئيسية لهذه العملية في أنها تعمل  بيئة الورشة  المغلقة ، فإنها تنتج بشكل عام لحامات ذات خصائص ميكانيكية أفضل وأكثر اتساقًا ، مع وجود عيوب لحام أقل مقارنة بعمليات SMAW أو عمليات GMAW. من الناحية العملية فهي تسمح أيضًا بمعدل إنتاج أعلى ، نظرًا لأن المشغل لا يحتاج إلى التوقف بشكل دوري لجلب قطب كهربائي جديد ، كما هو الحال في SMAW. ومع ذلك ، مثل GMAW ، لا يمكن استخدامه في بيئة عاصفة لأن فقدان غاز التدريع من تدفق الهواء سيؤدي إلى المسامية في اللحام.

اقرأ أيضا

لحام قوسي معدني محجب
لحام قوسي بالمعدن والغاز

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 موقع بوهلر
 FOX EV 50
 FOX SPE pdf
 FOX A7 pdf

لحام قوسي

لحام بسلك ذو قلب صهور


A streamliner is a vehicle incorporating streamlining in a shape providing reduced air resistance. The term is applied to high-speed railway trainsets of the 1930s to 1950s, and to their successor "bullet trains". Less commonly, the term is applied to fully faired upright and recumbent bicycles. As part of the Streamline Moderne trend, the term was applied to passenger cars, trucks, and other types of light-, medium-, or heavy-duty vehicles, but now vehicle streamlining is so prevalent that it is not an outstanding characteristic. In land speed racing, it is a term applied to the long, slender, custom built, high-speed vehicles with enclosed wheels.

Trains

Before World War II

Europe

 Germany, 1930: The first high-speed streamliner in Germany was the Schienenzeppelin, an experimental propeller driven single car, built in 1930. On 21 June 1931, the car set a speed record of  on a run between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1932 the propeller was removed and a hydraulic system installed. The Schienenzeppelin made  in 1933.
 1932: The Schienenzeppelin led to the construction of the diesel-electric DRG Class SVT 877 "Flying Hamburger". This two-car train set had 98 seats and a top speed of . In regular service with the Deutsche Reichsbahn, starting on 15 May 1933, this train ran the  between Hamburg and Berlin in 138 minutes with an average speed of .
 1934/1935: The SVT 877 was the prototype for the DRG Class SVT 137, first built in for use in the FDt express train service. In test drives, the SVT 137 "Bauart Leipzig" set a world speed record of  in 1936. The fastest regular service with the SVT 137 was between Hannover and Hamm with an average speed of . This service lasted until 22 August 1939.
 1935: Henschel & Son, a major manufacturer of steam locomotives, introduced the 4-6-4 DRG Class 05 high speed streamliner locomotives for use on the Deutsche Reichsbahn Frankfurt am Main to Berlin route. Three examples were built in 1935–36. Built for top speeds of over , the DRG Class 05 locomotives soon proved much faster in test runs. The DRG 05-002 made seven runs in 1935–36 during which it attained top speeds of more than  with trains up to  weight.
 11 May 1936: The DRG 05-002 set the world speed record for steam locomotives after reaching  on the Berlin–Hamburg line while hauling a  train. The locomotive's engine power was more than .
 30 May 1936: The DRG 05-002 set an unbroken start-stop speed record for steam locomotives. During the return run from a 190 km/h test on the Berlin-Hamburg route it did the ~ from Wittenberg to a signal stop before Berlin-Spandau in 48 min 32 s, meaning  average between start and stop. The DRG 05-002 was for a time the official holder of the world top speed record for steam locomotives.

 Austria/Poland, 1933: In the 1930s, streamlined Luxtorpeda diesel units that Austrian and later Polish manufacturers constructed were reaching speeds of up to  in Poland.
1937: The first Polish streamlined steam locomotive Pm36-1 (140 km/h) pulled the Nord Express between Poland and France (Paris). This locomotive was awarded golden medal in the World Expo in Paris in 1937.

 United Kingdom, 1934: Development of streamlined passenger services began in the UK. The Great Western Railway introduced relatively low-speed streamlined railcars, while the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) introduced the "Silver Jubilee" service using streamlined A4 class steam locomotives and full length trains rather than railcars.
 1938: The LNER locomotive Mallard, which had been built for "Silver Jubilee" service, set on a test run a still unsurpassed official record for the highest top speed attained by a steam locomotive (breaking the regord set by DRG 05-002 in 1936), . Soon afterwards, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway introduced the Princess Coronation Class streamlined locomotives shortly before World War II began in 1939.

 Czechoslovakia, 1934: Czechoslovak State Railways ordered two motor railcars with maximum speed . They were constructed by Tatra company, which was producing the first streamlined mass-produced automobile Tatra 77 at that time. The railcar project was led by Tatra chief designer Hans Ledwinka and received streamlined design by Paul Jaray. The railcars were unique thanks to the patented transmission system invented by Josef Sousedík – at lower speeds, it worked like petrol-electric transmission and at around  it automatically switched to direct mechanical transmission without any gear. Thanks to this the railcars had good acceleration, low fuel consumption and were easy to drive. Both ČSD Class M 290.0 were delivered in 1936, one of them reached  during a test run. They were run on the Czechoslovak prominent route Bratislava-Prague under "Slovenská strela" (Slovak for "Slovak Arrow") brand.

 Italy, 1934: State-owned railway company Ferrovie dello Stato (FS) developed the FS Class ETR 200, a three-unit electric streamliner. The first of those trains entered revenue service in 1937.
 6 December 1937: An ETR 200 made a top speed of  between Campoleone and Cisterna on the run Rome-Naples.
 1939: The ETR 212 made . The  journeys from Bologna to Milan were made in 77 minutes, meaning an average of .

 Netherlands, 1934: Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) introduced in the Materieel 34 (DE3), a three unit  streamlined diesel-electric trainset. An electric version, Materieel 36, went into service in 1936.
 1930s: The NS developed in the 1930s a streamlined version of the class 3700/3800 steam locomotive, nicknamed "potvis" (sperm whale).
 1940: The "Dieselvijf" (DE5), a  top speed five unit diesel-electric trainset based on DE3, completed the Dutch streamliner fleet. In test runs, a DE5 ran
 1940: The electric Materieel 40 was built.

 Soviet Union, 1937: On the occasion of the twentieth anniversary of the October Revolution, the Soviet Kolomna Locomotive Factory produced two examples of the wind-tunnel designed SŽD series 2-3-2К (4-6-4 Whyte Notation) streamliner locomotive for Moscow-Leningrad service. In testing, it was shown capable of speeds greater than  (170 km/h or 105 mph in test ride), and it entered service in 1938. Production of the series was canceled with the onset of World War II.

United States

The earliest known streamlined rail equipment in the United States were McKeen rail motorcars that the company built for the Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific Railroads  between 1905 and 1917. Most McKeen cars sported a pointed "wind splitter" front, a rounded rear  and round porthole style windows in a style that was as much nautically as aerodynamically inspired. The McKeen cars were unsuccessful because the internal combustion drive technology for that application was unreliable at the time. Further, the lightweight frames dictated by the cars' limited power tended to break. Streamlined rail motorcars would appear again in the early 1930s after the internal combustion-electric propulsion technology that  General Electric developed and that the Electro-Motive Company (EMC) promoted became the accepted technology for use rail motorcars in the 1920s.

Streetcar builders sought to build electric cars with improved speed for interurban lines through the 1920s. In 1931, the J. G. Brill Company introduced the Bullet, a lightweight, wind-tunnel designed car with a rounded front that could run either singly or in multiple-unit sets, capable of speeds over . Although Depression-era economics cut into sales, the design was highly successful in service, lasting into the 1980s.

In 1925, the recently-formed Pullman Car & Manufacturing Corporation experimented with lightweight self-propelled railcars in co-operation with the Ford Motor Company concurrent with Ford's development of its Trimotor aircraft. In 1931, Pullman enlisted the services of the Trimotor design contributor William Bushnell Stout to apply airplane fuselage design concepts to railcars. The result was the Railplane (not the Bennie Railplane), a streamlined self-propelled railcar with a tapered cross-section, lightweight tubular aluminum space frame and duralumin skin. In testing with the Gulf, Mobile and Northern Railroad in 1932, it reportedly reached . The Union Pacific had been seeking improvements to self-propelled railcars based on European design ideas. The performance of the Railplane encouraged the railroad to increase its efforts in partnership with Pullman-Standard.

In 1931, the Budd Company reached an agreement with the French tire company Michelin to produce pneumatic-tired rail motorcars in the US, as an improvement on the heavy, underpowered and shimmy-prone "doodlebugs" that ran on American tracks. In that endeavor, Budd would produce lightweight rail equipment utilizing unibody construction and the high strength alloy stainless steel, enabled by shot welding, a breakthrough in electrical welding technique. The venture produced articulated power-trailer car sets with streamlined styling, which left the Budd Company just a (much) more powerful engine away from producing a history-making streamlined trainset.

The Great Depression caused a catastrophic loss of business for the rail industry as a whole and for manufacturers of motorized railcars whose primary markets, branch line services, were among the first to be cut. The interests of lightweight equipment manufacturers and rail operators therefore focused on the development of a new generation of lightweight, high speed, internal combustion-electric powered streamlined trainsets that were primarily designed for mainline service.

The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (Burlington) and the Union Pacific sought to increase the efficiency of their passenger services by looking to the lightweight, petroleum-powered technology that Budd and Pullman-Standard were developing. The Union Pacific named its project the M-10000 (designated first as The Streamliner and later as the City of Salina when in revenue service from 1935 to 1941). The Burlington initially named its first train the Burlington Zephyr. The two railroads' trains each entered service as three-car articulated sets (including the power car). The Winton Engine Corporation, a subsidiary of General Motors (GM), manufactured the engines for both locomotives. The prime mover for the Burlington Zephyrs diesel-electric propulsion was a new 600 hp diesel engine. The Union Pacific's M-10000 had a 600 hp spark-ignition engine that ran on "petroleum distillate", a fuel similar to kerosene. The two trainsets were star attractions at the 1934 World's Fair ("A Century of Progress") in Chicago, Illinois. During its set's demonstration period, the Union Pacific named the M-10000 as the Streamliner, providing the first use of the term with respect to trains. The Streamliners publicity tour in February–May 1934 attracted over a million visitors and gained attention in national media as the herald of a new era in rail transportation.

On 26 May 1934, the Burlington's Zephyr made a record-breaking "Dawn to Dusk" run from Denver, Colorado, to Chicago for its grand entry as a Century of Progress exhibit. The Zephyr covered the distance in 13 hours, reaching a top speed of  and running an average speed of . The fuel for the run cost US$14.64 at 4¢ per U.S. gallon (equivalent to $ and $ per gallon respectively in  after inflation). The Burlington's event was covered live on radio and drew large, cheering crowds as the "silver streak" zipped by. Adding to the sensation of the Zephyr were the striking appearance of its fluted stainless steel bodywork and its raked, rounded, aerodynamic front end that symbolized its modernity. The train's design echoed in steam locomotive styling throughout the following years.

After its Worlds Fair display and a nationwide demonstration tour, the Zephyr entered revenue service between Kansas City, Missouri, and Lincoln, Nebraska, on 11 November 1934. A total of nine Zephyr trainsets were built for the Burlington between 1934 and 1939. Each ran as named trains on various Burlington midwestern routes. The Burlington later renamed the Burlington Zephyr as the Pioneer Zephyr in honor of that  train's status as the first of the fleet. In April 1935, two Twin Cities Zephyrs that bore the same three-car configuration entered service on the railroad's Chicago and Minneapolis-St. Paul route. Larger trainsets with more powerful Winton engines were built for the Burlington and put into service over longer routes. Twin-engine power units and eventually booster power units met the trainsets' additional power requirements. The Burlington's four-car Mark Twain Zephyr entered revenue service in October 1935 on the railroad's Saint Louis – Burlington, Iowa, route. Two partially-articulated six-car trainsets entered service in May 1936 on the Burlington's Denver Zephyr route, which connected Chicago and Denver. The Burlington then replaced those sets with a pair of partially-articulated ten-car trainsets in November 1936. The Burlington moved the Denver Zephyrs six-cat sets to the Twin Cities Zephyr, transferring that train's original streamlined cars to other Burlington routes.

The last of the classic Zephyrs was built for the Burlington's Kansas City – Saint Louis General Pershing Zephyr route. That trainset, which contained GM's newest 1000 hp engine and conventional coupling, entered service in June 1939. The Burlington's original Zephyr trainsets remained in service in the postwar era. The railroad retired the last of its six-car sets in 1968 after using it as the Nebraska Zephyr.

On 31 January 1935, the Union Pacific's three-car M-10000 went into service between Kansas City, Missouri,  and Salina, Kansas, as The Streamliner. The train subsequently became the City of Salina under the railroad's naming convention for its expanding fleet of diesel-powered streamliners. The Union Pacific operated the M-10000 as a three-car set until the railroad was retired the set in 1941.  The trainset's 1942 scrapping provided Duralumin that was recycled for use in war-time military aircraft.
The Union Pacific also commissioned the construction of five modified trainsets that had evolved from the initial M-10000 design. Those streamlined trains inaugurated the railroad's high-speed service out of Chicago while bearing the names City of Portland (June 1935), City of Los Angeles (May 1936), City of San Francisco (June 1936) and City of Denver (June 1936). The M-10001 set had a single power unit that contained a 1200 hp Winton diesel engine. The power unit pulled six tapered low-profile cars that had the form of the original three-car M-10000 trainset. The M-10002s set consisted of a 1200+900 hp cab/booster locomotive pulling nine cars of the same form. Automotive-styled cab/booster locomotive sets with 1200 hp engines powered the Union Pacific's City of San Francisco and City of Denver sets. The two City of Denver sets started service two cars shorter than the M-10002 and M-10004 sets, with roomier and heavier straight-sided cars.

The Union Pacific's initial streamliner service to the west coast consisted of five runs monthly for each route. The railroad maintained its daily overnight service on the Chicago – Denver run by assigning three locomotive sets for two trains. The railroad then augmented that stable with locomotive equipment taken from other runs. Despite the breakthrough schedule times of the long-distance M-1000x "City" trains, the records of the Union Pacific's fleet reflected the limitations of the locomotives' technology when meeting the demands of long-distance and higher capacity service. The M-10001 ran for only 32 months as the City of Portland before it was replaced, re-entered service on the Portland – Seattle run and retired in June 1939.

Similarly, the M-10002 spent 19 months as the Union Pacific's City of Los Angeles, 39 months as the City of Portland and ten months out of service starting in July 1941. The locomotive then served on the  Portland – Seattle run until the railroad took it out of service again in March 1943. After running for 18 months as the City of San Francisco M-10004, the locomotive spent six months being refurbished and then served from July 1938 as a second unit on the City of Los Angeles. The Union Pacific retired the locomotive in March 1939. The Union Pacific converted the M-10001 and M-10004 power units to additional boosters for the City of Denver trains. The train's cars then became spare equipment. The two City of Denver trainsets (M–10005 and M–10006), after cannibalizing power from the M-10001 and M-10004, remained in service until 1953.

Class GG1 electric locomotives brought streamlined styling to the Pennsylvania Railroad's fleet of electric locomotives in late 1934. Meanwhile, the Boston and Maine's Flying Yankee, identical to the original Zephyr, entered service between Boston and Portland, Maine, on 1 April 1935.

The Gulf, Mobile and Northern Railroad Rebel trainsets were similar to the Zephyr in form, but were not articulated. Designed by Otto Kuhler, the ALCO powered diesel-electrics that the American Car and Foundry Company constructed were placed into service on 10 July 1935.

While streamlining on steam locomotives was more about marketing than performance, newly designed locomotives with state-of-the-art steam technology were able to travel at high speeds. The Milwaukee Road class A Atlantics, built in 1935 to compete with the Twin Cities Zephyr, were the first "steamliners" equipped to back up their styled claim to extra speed. In a 15 May 1935 run by locomotive #2 and a dynamometer car, the railroad documented a top speed of . This was the fastest authenticated speed reached by a steam locomotive at the time, making #2 the rail speed record holder for steam and the first steam locomotive to top . That record lasted until a German DRG Class 05 locomotive exceeded it the following year.

The Illinois Central 121 trainset was the first of the Green Diamond streamliners running between Chicago and St Louis. It was a five-unit (including power car) articulated trainset for day service. The Pullman-built set had the same power format and 1200 hp Winton diesel engine as M-10001, with some style aspects that resembled the later M1000x trainsets. The Illinois Central ran the 121 trainset on the Green Diamond from May 1936 to 1947. After an overhaul, the railroad placed the set on the Jackson Mississippi – New Orleans run until it  retired and scrapped the set in 1950. The visual styling of the new trainsets made the existing fleets of locomotives and railcars suddenly look obsolete. Rail lines soon responded by adding streamlined shrouding and varying degrees of mechanical improvement to older locomotives and re-styling heavyweight cars.

The first American steam locomotive to receive that treatment was one of the New York Central Railroad's (NYC's) J-1 Hudson class locomotives built in 1930, which was re-introduced with streamlined shrouding and named the Commodore Vanderbilt in December 1934. The Vanderbilt styling was a one-off design by Carl Kantola. The NYC's next venture in streamlined styling was Henry Dreyfuss' 1936 full-length exterior and interior design of the railroad's Mercury trainsets. Raymond Loewy also designed in 1936 art-deco shrouding with a bullet-front scheme for the Pennsylvania Railroad's class K4 locomotives. In 1937, Otto Kuhler used a variation of the bullet-front design on a 4-6-2 locomotive constructed for the Baltimore & Ohio's streamlined Royal Blue. Henry Dreyfuss used a similar variation for the J-3a Super Hudsons that pulled the 20th Century Limited and other NYC express trains.

In 1937, the Milwaukee Road introduced the class F7 Hudsons on the Twin Cities Hiawatha run. The Hudsons could cruise above  and were said to exceed  on occasion. Otto Kuhler designed the Milwaukee Road's speedsters with "shovel nose" styling. Some of the class 7's details were evocative of those of the Zephyrs.

Also in 1937, the Electro-Motive Corporation (EMC) (later incorporated into GM's Electro-Motive Division (EMD)) started production of streamlined diesel-electric passenger locomotives, incorporating the lightweight carbody construction and raked, rounded front end introduced with the Zephyr and the high-mounted, behind-the-nose cab of the M-1000x locomotives. One of the first, EMC's TA, was a 1200-hp version produced for the Rock Island Rockets, a series of six lightweight, semi-articulated three and four-car trainsets. EMC/EMD manufactured streamlined E-unit diesel-electric locomotives from 1937 to 1963. These incorporated two features of the earlier EMC 1800 hp B-B development design locomotives, the twin-engine format and multiple-unit control systems that facilitated cab/booster locomotive sets.

The E-units brought sufficient power for full-sized trains such as the B&O Capitol Limited, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway's (AT&SF's) Super Chief, and the Union Pacific's upgraded City of Los Angeles and City of San Francisco, which challenged steam power in all aspects of passenger service. EMC introduced standardized production to the locomotive industry, with its attendant economies of scale and simplified processes for ordering, producing and servicing locomotives. As a result, EMC was able to offer a variety of support services that decreased technological and initial cost barriers that would otherwise deter conversions to diesel-electric power. With power and reliability of new diesel-electric units improved with the 2000 hp EMC E3 locomotive in 1938, the advantages of diesel became compelling enough for a growing number of rail lines to select diesel over steam for new passenger equipment. The power and top speed advantages of state-of-the-art steam locomotives were more than offset by diesel's advantages in service flexibility, downtime, maintenance costs and economic efficiency for most operators.

The American Locomotive Company (ALCO), the builder of the Hiawatha speedsters, saw diesel as the future of passenger service and introduced streamlined locomotives influenced by the design of the E units in 1939. The replacement of steam with diesel power was interrupted by the US entry into World War II, with a military premium on diesel technology that stopped all production of diesel locomotives for passenger service between September 1942 and January 1945.

Streamlined steam locomotives continued to be produced into the early postwar era. Among the most distinctive were the Pennsylvania Railroad's duplex-drive 6-4-4-6 type S1 and 4-4-4-4 type T1 locomotives that Raymond Loewy styled. In terms of service longevity, the most successful were the Southern Pacific GS-3 Daylight locomotives introduced in 1938 and the Norfolk and Western class J locomotives introduced in 1941. In contrast to designs that completely encased the boiler in shrouding, streamlining of the GS-3/GS-4 series locomotives consisted of skyline casing flush with the smokestack and smoke-lifting skirting along the boiler that left the silver-painted smokebox on full display.

 Japan

The trend of streamliners also came to Japan. In 1934, the Ministry of Railways (Japanese Government Railways, JGR) decided to convert one of its 3-cylinder steam locomotives class C53 into a streamlined style. The selected locomotive was No.43 of class C53. However Hideo Shima, the chief engineer of the conversion, thought streamlining had no practical effect on reducing air resistance, because Japanese trains at that time did not exceed a speed of .

Shima therefore designed the locomotive to create airflow that lifted exhaust smoke away from the locomotive. He had expected no practical effect on reducing air resistance completely, therefore he never tried to test fuel consumption or tractive force of the converted locomotive. The Japanese government planned to use this one converted streamline locomotive on the passenger express route between Osaka and Nagoya.

The converted locomotive gained much popularity from the public. JGR therefore decided to build 21 new streamlined versions of the class C55 locomotive(Japanese). Additionally, JGR built 3 streamlined class EF55 electric locomotives. Kiha-43000 diesel multiple units and Moha-52 electric multiple units also received a streamlined style.

The South Manchuria Railway, which was under Japanese control at that time, also designed the Pashina class streamlined locomotive. The Railway operated the Asia Express, whose style was coordinated with that of Pashina locomotives.

These streamlined steam locomotives took many man-hours to repair due to their casing. After the outbreak of World War II, the lack of an experienced labor force made the problems worse. As a result, many of the locomotives had their casings removed.

 Australia around World War II

Streamliner locomotives arrived relatively late in Australia. In 1937 streamlined casings were fitted on four Victorian Railways S class locomotives for the Spirit of Progress service between Melbourne and Albury. Similar casings were then fitted on two Tasmanian Government Railways R class narrow-gauge locomotives for the Hobart to Launceston expresses.

Despite — or perhaps because of — the strategic priorities of World War II, some new streamliner locomotives were built in Australia during and immediately after the war. The first five New South Wales C38 class locomotives were modestly streamlined with distinctive conical noses, while the twelve South Australian Railways 520 class locomotives featured extravagant streamlining in the style of the Pennsylvania Railroad's T1.

In all cases, the streamlining on Australian steam locomotives were purely aesthetic, with negligible impacts on train speeds.

 After World War II

 Europe

In Europe, the streamliner tradition gained new life after World War II. In Germany, DRG Class SVT 137 trains resumed service, but at slower speeds than before the war. Based on the Kruckenberg SVT 137, the Deutsche Bundesbahn's (DB's) streamlined diesel-electric Class VT 11.5 (later renamed to DB Class 601) built in 1957 was used as the "Trans Europ Express (TEE)" for international high-speed trains.

From 1965, the DB used the streamlined electric locomotives DB Class 103 with regular trains for high-speed service. From 1973, the DB used the DB Class ET 403, a fully streamlined four-unit electric train with tilting technology. In East Germany, the DR Class VT 18.16 was built for international express service.

The Swiss SBB and the Dutch NS procured five diesel-electric RAm TEE I (Swiss) and NS DE4 (Dutch) trainsets for Zurich-Amsterdam and Amsterdam-Brussels-Paris services. One set was lost in an accident 1971. The remaining four sets operated as TEE trains until 1974, were transferred to Canada for use on the Ontario Northland Railway (ONR) in 1976. The ONR operated three trains on its Toronto–Moosonee line as the Northlander until 1992.

From 1961, the SBB used for TEE service the RAe TEE II, a set of five streamlined electric trains compatible with four different railway electrification systems. Italy used pre-war trains and new trains that the Italian State Railways (Ferrovie dello Stato (FS)) developed. The new trains included the FS Class ETR 250 ("Arlecchino"), the ETR 300 ("Settebello"), the ETR 401 ("Pendolino"), the ETR 450 ("Pendolino") and the ETR 500.

Streamliner service temporarily ended in the United Kingdom with the outbreak of WWII. During the war, the LNER and LMS streamlined locomotives had part of their streamlining removed to aid maintenance. By the late 1940s and early 1950s, the state of the railways was improving as deteriorated track conditions caused by delayed maintenance work were corrected. The repairs and new improvements enabled the railways to provide additional mainline trackage for high speed trains.

The first experiments with diesel streamliner services in the United Kingdom were the Blue Pullman trains introduced in 1960 and withdrawn in 1973. These provided  luxury business services, but were marginally successful and ran only a little faster than mainstream services. The Blue Pullman was followed by research into streamlined trains and tilting trains which led to the iconic InterCity 125 (Class 43) offering  train services across the United Kingdom.

High-speed service with the electric German ICE 1 (Class 401) began in 1991. The train, which has traveled at speeds of up to  in revenue service, broke the speed record that the first DMU "Flying Hamburger" had set 1933 traveling between Hamburg and Berlin.

A TGV high-speed test train set a world record for the fastest wheeled train, reaching  in 2007. Conventional TGV services operate at up to  on the LGV Est, LGV Rhin-Rhône and LGV Méditerranée. The power cars of the TGV Euroduplex (2N2), which began commercial operations in 2011, have a more streamlined nose than do previous TGVs.

In 2015, Eurostar began to operate the electric multiple unit (EMU) British Rail Class 374, also known as the Eurostar e320, on its high-speed services through the Channel Tunnel. The train serves destinations beyond Eurostar's core routes to the Gare du Nord station in Paris and the Brussels-South railway station. Owned by Eurostar International Limited and capable of operating at  , the aluminum trains are sixteen-unit versions of the Siemens Velaro.

 United States
High-speed steam service continued in the United States after World War II, but became increasingly uneconomical. The New York Central's Super Hudsons went out of service in 1948 as the line converted to diesel for passenger service. The Milwaukee Road retired its high speed Hiawatha steam locomotives between 1949 and 1951. The last of the Pennsylvania Railroad's short-lived T1 class locomotives went out of service in 1952. All of those iconic locomotives were scrapped. The last steam streamliners built were three Norfolk and Western class J locomotives in 1950, which operated until 1959.

In 1951, the Interstate Commerce Commission implemented regulations restricting most trains to speeds of  or below unless automatic train stop, automatic train control, or cab signalling were installed. The new regulations minimized one of the key advantages of rail travel over the automobile, which became an increasingly attractive alternative as postwar construction of highway systems progressed. Rail operators marketed their services on the basis of luxurious sightseeing, as airlines increasingly competed with rail lines for long-distance travel.

In the mid-1950s, there were several attempts to revive the lightweight custom streamliner concept. None of these projects achieved any lasting impact on passenger service.

The Train X project, first promoted by Robert R. Young no later than 1948, resulted in low-profile Baldwin RP-210 locomotives paired with articulated aluminum cars from Pullman-Standard. Two trainsets were built in 1956 for the New York Central Railroad's Ohio Xplorer and the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad's Dan'l Webster. The pair were problematic and were withdrawn from service by 1960.

GM's project, originally called Train Y, was marketed as the Aerotrain. It featured a futuristic, automotive-styled EMD LWT12 diesel–electric locomotive pulling aluminum coaches adapted from GM's long-distance bus design. Two trainsets were produced in 1955 and were trialed by several railroads, but no orders were forthcoming. The two demonstration units were eventually sold to the Rock Island Line, which was already operating an EMD LWT12 paired with Talgo II cars from ACF Industries as the Jet Rocket. Rock Island operated them in commuter service until 1966.

The Speed Merchant project also produced only two examples. They consisted of Fairbanks-Morse P-12-42 locomotives paired with Talgo II cars from ACF Industries, and were used by the Boston and Maine Railroad for commuter service and by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad's John Quincy Adams. Both were retired by 1964.

In 1956, the Budd Company produced a single streamlined, lightweight, six car DMU trainset that the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad operated as the Roger Williams. After a short period of time in high speed service, the train was split up and the cars were used in service with the New Haven's other RDCs.

The advent of jet air travel in the late 1950s brought forth a new round of price competition from airlines for long-distance travel, severely affecting the ridership and profitability of long-distance passenger rail service. Government regulations forced railroads to continue to operate passenger rail service, even on long routes where, the railroads argued, it was almost impossible to make a profit.

Unlike air and automotive infrastructure, which federal and state governments subsidize, operating revenues entirely support privately-owned rail infrastructure in the United States.  By the late 1960s, most rail operators were therefore seeking to completely discontinue passenger service.

The lightweight custom streamliner concept was revived again in the 1960s with the UAC TurboTrain.  These articulated trainsets used gas turbine engines instead of reciprocating diesel engines for traction power.  They were operated by Penn Central and then Amtrak from 1969 to 1976, and in Canada by Canadian National and then Via Rail from 1969 to 1982.

Some GG1 electric locomotives that the Pennsylvania Railroad once operated remained in service until 1983. The last EMD E-units in regular service were retired in 1993.

Amtrak has operated nearly all long-distance passenger rail systems in the United States since 1971. The publicly-financed rail company's quest for greater fuel efficiency has led them to acquire and operate GE Genesis diesel-electric locomotives. In so doing, Amtrak reintroduced the lightweight, aerodynamic carbody construction that the Zephyr had pioneered in the 1930s.

Since 2000, Amtrak has operated high-speed Acela (named Acela Express until 2019) passenger trains that travel at speeds of up to  in the Boston - Washington, D.C. Northeast Corridor. State governments and others in many areas throughout the United States have considered the construction of new high-speed lines, but rail travel is much less common in the U.S. than in Europe or Japan.

In 2008, California voters approved bonds to initiate construction of the California High-Speed Rail line, which would connect the San Francisco Bay Area, the Central Valley and Southern California. Construction of the first segment, between Bakersfield and Merced in the Central Valley, began in 2015.

Preserved examples (United States)

After 26 years of service and traveling over , the Pioneer Zephyr went to Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry. The Flying Yankee, the third streamliner to enter service, is undergoing restoration to operational condition. The Silver Charger locomotive of the General Pershing Zephyr trainset remained in service until 1966 and is also undergoing restoration.

In December 1974, the streamlined steam-powered Southern Pacific 4449 "Daylight" came off an outdoor public display to undergo a restoration and re-painting that enabled it pull the American Freedom Train, which toured the 48 contiguous United States as part of the nation's 1976 Bicentennial celebration. With the exception of occasional interruptions for maintenance and inspections, the restored locomotive has operated in excursion service throughout that area since 1984.

The twice-restored streamlined Norfolk and Western Railway's steam-powered class J1 locomotive Number 611 operated in excursion service within the United States from 1982 to 1994 and from 2015 to 2017. The locomotive has traveled for display at special events.

Examples of the pre-World War II "slant nose" EMC EA, E3, E5, and E6 locomotives are on display at the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Museum, the North Carolina Transportation Museum, the Illinois Railway Museum, and the Kentucky Railway Museum. The stainless steel clad E5 is occasionally matched with one of the original Denver Zephyr car sets for excursion service. As of 2017, the Rock Island No. 630 E6 unit was under restoration for display in Iowa.

The EMD LWT12 locomotives and several passenger cars of GM's two Aerotrains are presently on display within the United States. The National Railroad Museum in Green Bay, Wisconsin now exhibits the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad's Aerotrain locomotive No. 2 and two passenger cars.(1)  Note: Page contains a description of the Aerotrain and an image of the front of Aerotrain locomotive number 2.(2) .Note: Photograph shows a train apparently consisting of Rock Island Aerotrain locomotive number 2, two Aerotrain coaches and additional non-Aerotrain coaches. The National Museum of Transportation in Kirkwood, Missouri (near St. Louis) exhibits the Rock Island's locomotive No. 3 and two passenger cars.(1) (2) .(3) .(4)  Video: 9:12 minutes.(5)  Video: 8:06 minutes.

 Japan

After World War II, Japanese railroads favored multiple unit trains, even on their mainlines. In 1949, the Japanese National Railways (JNR) released the 80 series EMUs for use on long-distance trains. Lead coaches of the 80 series built after 1950 incorporated a streamlined design.

In 1957, Odakyu Electric Railway released the 3000 series EMUs. The exterior design was developed using a wind tunnel intended for aircraft.

An Odakyu 3000 set a world railway speed record of () for a narrow-gauge train. Multiple unit trains were thus shown to be suitable for long-distance trains by the JNR Series 80 and for high-speed trains by the Odakyu 3000.

These experiences led to the development of the first Shinkansen, the 0 Series. The Odakyu 3000 strongly influenced the 0 series, which was also developed using a wind tunnel.

The lead coaches of the 0 series were developed using a Douglas DC-8 for a reference. At a speed of , the aerodynamic style of the 0 series "bullet train" had a substantial effect on reducing air resistance.

In 2020, the Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) began operating the N700S, the most recent addition to the N700 Series Shinkansen. The 16-car train reached its design speed of  in trials conducted in 2019 on the Tokaido Shinkansen.

The JR Central is presently developing and testing the L0 series high-speed maglev train. The JR Central plans to use the streamlined train on the Chūō Shinkansen railway line between Tokyo and Nagoya, which is under construction. The railroad expects to open the line in 2027 and to later extend it to Osaka.

A seven-car L0 series train set a world railway speed record of 374 mph (603 km/h) in 2015. The railway plans to operate the train at a maximum speed of 310 mph (500 km/h) when in revenue service. The train's speed would exceed that of the world's fastest commercial electric train, the Chinese Shanghi maglev, whose cruising speed is 268 mph (431 km/h).

 High speed train services today
Worldwide many, if not most, high speed passenger trains are now streamlined. Speeds continue to rise as high-speed rail services become the normal long-distance rail service.

 Specific trainsets

 Streetcars and high-speed interurbans

Early versions of the PCC (Presidents' Conference Committee) streetcars were referred to as Streamliners in North America. However, aerodynamic research appeared much earlier on the interurban scene, i.e. among the forerunners of the recent light rail. In 1905, the Electric Railway Test Commission started a series of test runs to develop a carbody design that would reduce wind resistance at high speeds.

Vestibule sections of different shapes were suspended independent of the carbody, with a dynamometer to measure the resistance of each. Over 200 test runs were made at speeds up to 70 mph (c. 112 km/h) with parabolic, wedge, standard, and flat vestibule ends.

The test results indicated that a parabolic-shaped front end reduced wind resistance at high speeds below that of the conventional rounded profile. However, with that time's heavy railcars and moderate speeds, no significant operating economies were realized. Streamlining was discarded for another quarter-century.

From the 1920s, however, stronger alloys, lightweight metals, and better design were all used to reduce carbody weight – which in turn permitted the use of smaller bogies and motors with corresponding economies in power consumption. In 1922, the G. C. Kuhlman Car Company built ten lightweight cars for the Western Ohio Railway.

After an elaborate wind tunnel investigation, the first in the railway industry, the J. G. Brill Company made in 1931 its first Bullet railcars, capable to speeds above 90 mph (145 km/h). With 52 seats, they weighed only 26 tons. Some remained in use for almost 60 years.

 Buses

Many buses adopted a stylish streamline look in the 1930s with tests showing that streamlined design reduced fuel costs.

Starting in 1934, Greyhound Lines worked with the Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company for its Series 700 buses, first for Series 719 prototypes in 1934, and from 1937 as the exclusive customer for Yellow's Series 743 buses. Greyhound named these the "Super Coach" and purchased a total of 1,256 between 1937 and 1939.

General Motors also custom-built twelve streamlined Futurliners for its 1936 Parade of Progress and, later the 1939 New York World's Fair and traveling exhibits. The popular two-level GMC PD-4501 Scenicruiser, which GM manufactured for Greyhound Lines between 1954 and 1956, exemplified the further streamlining that occurred in the company's bus designs in the years that followed World War II.

Automobiles
Beginning in the 1910s, engineers tried to incorporate aerodynamics into the shape of automobiles. Some such cars entered production.

Experimental and prototype vehicles

Chronologically:
ALFA 40/60 HP Aerodinamica Prototype by Castagna (1914)
Persu car (1922–23), designed by Romanian engineer Aurel Persu, who improved on the Tropfenwagen by placing the wheels inside the car body
Burney car (1929-1931), working prototypes designed by Dennis Burney and manufactured by Streamline Cars
 Dymaxion (1933–1934), U.S. "teardrop" car
Stout Scarab (1932–35, 1946), aerodynamic US car
 Porsche Type 12 prototype (1934), the model for the 1938 Volkswagen Beetle
Schlörwagen (1939), German prototype aerodynamic car, never produced

Production vehicles

Many production automobiles have had streamlined bodies. Among these were, chronologically by first production year:
Rumpler Tropfenwagen (1921), first aerodynamic "teardrop" car to be designed and serially produced (about 100 units built, already wind tunnel optimized)
Pontiac Economy Eight Series 601 (1933)
Pierce Silver Arrow (1933)
Tatra 77 (1934), first serial-produced and truly aerodynamic optimized automobile after the Tropfenwagen
Chrysler Airflow (1934) streamlined car
Steyr 100 (1934) was presented to the public at the latest in January 1934, just like the Chrysler Airflow.
Citroën Traction Avant (1934)
Toyota AA (1935)
Buick Roadmaster (1936)
Lincoln-Zephyr (1936)
Volkswagen Beetle (1938)
International Harvester Metro Van (1938)
 Pontiac Torpedo (1940)
Hudson Commodore (1941)
Tucker 48 (1947), also known as Tucker Torpedo
Saab 92 (1949)
Cadillac Eldorado (1952)
Chevrolet Corvette (1953)
Citroen DS (1955)
Edsel Citation (1958)
Mercedes-Benz W111 (1959)
General Motors EV1 (1996)

 Record-setting streamlined racing cars

Racing cars setting world land speed records have extensive streamlining. These include:

 Electric
 White Lightning: Electric-powered vehicle land speed record of 246 mph (395 km/h) (1999)
 Buckeye Bullet 3: Electric-powered vehicle land speed record of  341 mph (549 km/h) (2016)

 Fuel cell
 Buckeye Bullet 2: Hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicle land speed record of 286 mph (461 km/h) (2008)

 Internal combustion
 Bluebird-Proteus CN7: Wheel-driven land speed record of 403 mph (649 km/h) (1964)
 Goldenrod: Wheel-driven land speed record of 409 mph (659 km/h) (1965)
 Spirit of Rett: Wheel-driven land speed record of  (2010)
 Speed Demon: Wheel-driven land speed record of 439 mph (706.5 km/h) (2012)
 JCB Dieselmax: Diesel-powered land speed record of 350 miles per hour (560 km/h) (2006)

 Rocket and jet
 Blue Flame (rocket): Land speed record of 622 mph (1,001 km/h) (1970)
 Thrust SSC (jet): Land speed record of 763 mph (1,228 km/h) (1997)

Trucks

Many small trucks and tractor units for pulling semi-trailer trucks have streamlining to improve aerodynamics.

 Trailers

Camping (caravan) and animal trailer manufacturers use streamlining to make trailers easier to tow. Current and past manufacturers include Airstream, Avalon, Avion, Boles Aero, Bonair Oxygen, Curtis Wright, Knaus Tabbert, Silver Streak, Spartan, Streamline, and Vagabond.

 Motorcycles

 Land-speed records

Streamlined motorcycles setting land-speed records include:
 NSU Delphin I: 1951
 NSU Delphin III: 211 mph (340 km/h) (1956)
 Gyronaut X-1: 246 mph (395 km/h) (1966)
 Big Red: 253 mph (405 km/h) (1970)
 Silver Bird: 304 mph (489 km/h) (1975)
 Lightning Bolt: 319 mph (512.734 km/h) (1978)
 BUB Seven Streamliner: held record from 2006 to 2008 and again from 2009 to 2010
 Ack Attack: 376 mph (606 km/h) (2010)

 Energy efficiency
Streamlined motorcycles designed to reduce energy usage include:
 Vetter Streamliner
 Craig Vetter Fuel Economy Challenge
 Ecomobile - Swiss cabin motorcycle

Gallery of streamlined motorcycles

 Bicycles and tricycles

Bicycle fairings help to streamline the vehicle and the rider.  Human powered upright and recumbent bicycles and tricycles termed velomobiles that are partially or completely enclosed for aerodynamic advantage and weather protection take streamlining even further. Although many velomobiles are recreational, two-wheeled velomobiles have set a number of cycling speed records.

 Ships
 The Streamline Moderne–style automobile/passenger ferry MV Kalakala received its streamlining during a 1933–1935 reconstruction. The ship operated in Puget Sound near the northwestern coast of the U.S. state of Washington until 1967. It was scrapped in 2015.

 Sterling Streamliner diners
Many American roadside diners built since the 1930s have had streamlined exteriors and interiors. In 1939, Roland Stickney designed a diner named the Sterling Streamliner. Built by the John B. Judkins Company, a firm that also made custom car bodies, the prefabricated diner's production ceased in 1942 at the beginning of American involvement in World War II.

The rounded shapes of one or both ends of the Sterling Streamliner diners resembled the sloping curved nose of the Burlington Zephyrs streamlined silver locomotive.(1) (2)  and photographs (3)
One such Sterling Streamliner with two rounded ends was built in 1940 and installed as the Jimmy Evans Flyer in New Bedford, Massachusetts. In the 1960s, the building was moved to the village of Pocasset in the town of Bourne, Massachusetts, on Cape Cod, where it was named the My Tin Diner.

In 2000, an arsonist severely damaged the My Tin Diner when he set it on fire.  In 2003, the structure was moved into a field next to the Handy Hill Creamery near Hix Bridge Road in Westport, Massachusetts, while plans were being made to restore it to working condition. However, although restoration began, it was not completed. Visible from the Road, the derelict structure was the only Sterling Streamliner with two rounded ends known to still survive in 2019.

Only one Sterling Streamliner was open for business in 2020: the Modern Diner in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. That structure, which was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, has both a rounded sloped end and a flat vertical end. Although the building's roof was once silver, it is now maroon.

Notes

References
Streamliners: America's Lost Trains – The American Experience

External links

The interurban era Middleton, William D. 1961, Fourth printing 1968, Kalmbach Publishing
All Aboard the Silver Streak: Pioneer Zephyr exhibit at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry.
 The Wilson Quarterly'' (on the Internet Archive)
Streamlined Transportation in the Art Deco Era  – Streamlining in the Cars, Trains and Planes of the 1930s.
Streamlined Locomotives of the Swing Era
"Driver's Cab is Placed at Front of Streamlined Engine" Popular Mechanics, October 1934 bottom page 560

Locomotives
Automotive styling features

Streamliner


Algeriets håndboldlandshold er det nationale håndboldlandshold i Algeriet for mænd, som kontrolleres af landets håndboldforbund, Algeriets håndboldforbund.

Resultater

VM

Afrikamesterskabet

Eksterne henvisninger
 IHF profil

Håndboldlandshold (herrer)
Herrehåndboldlandshold

Algeriets håndboldlandshold (herrer)


Caesar Department () or simply Caesar () is a department of Colombia located in the north of the country in the Caribbean region, bordering to the north with the Department of La Guajira, to the west with the Department of Magdalene and Department of Bolivar, to the south with Department of Santander, to the east with the Department of North Santander, and further to the east with the country of Venezuela (Zulia State). The department capital city is Valledupar.

The region was first inhabited by indigenous peoples known as Euparis in the Valley of Upar and Guatapuris in the Valley of the Caesar river, among these were the Orejones pertaining to the Toupeh, Acanayutos pertaining to the Motilon and Alcoholades pertaining to the Chimila. The first European to explore the area was Spanish Captain Peter Vadillo, but German Ambrose Alfinger savagely conquered the region in 1532.

From 1996–2006 paramilitary groups committed gross human rights violations affecting tens of thousands of victims in the Caesar mining region.

Etymology

The "Cesar" name is an adaptation from the Chimila indigenous word Chet-tzar or Zazare ("calm water") into Spanish, in reference to the Cesar River. The valley that its basin covers is also named after the river and extends through most of the department. The department of Cesar was created in 1967 by decree and the name officially adopted.

Geography

The department of Cesar is located in northern Colombia bordering to the north with the department of La Guajira, to the east with the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, to the west with the department of Magdalena, to the southwest with the Department of Bolivar and to the south with the departments of North Santander and Santander covering a total area of 22,905 km².

The majority of the Department is flat in 57% of the total area and 43% mountainous mainly in the Serranía del Perijá and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain ranges.

Ecoregions

The Department of Cesar contains five Ecoregions; the Serranía del Perijá mountain range, the valley of the Cesar River, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, the valley of the Magdalena River and the Cienaga de Zapatosa marshes complex.

Serranía del Perijá mountain range

The Serranía del Perijá mountain range covers most of the eastern side of the Department of Cesar between its border with Venezuela and the Department of North Santander, approximately 300 km in length penetrating into the Department of La Guajira to the north and covering 27% of the total area of Cesar. The Serranía del Perijá covers, partially or totally the area of 17 municipalities in the Department of Cesar; Aguachica, Codazzi, Becerril, Chimichagua, Chiriguana, Curumani, Gonzalez, La Gloria, La Jagua de Ibirico, Los Robles La Paz, Manaure, Pailitas, Pelaya, Rio de Oro, San Alberto, San Diego and San Martin. There are also the indigenous reserves pertaining to the Yukpas people; Iroka, Socorpa and Menkue-Misaya-La Pista; and to the Wiwas people; Caño Padilla, El Rosario-Bella Vista-Yucatán and Campoalegre.

Approximately 70% of the mountain range preserves unique flora and fauna and some 20 rivers are born in the mountain range among other minor streams, flowing into the Department of Cesar and feeding the Magdalena and Cesar river basins and the Cienaga de Zapatosa marshes. The Colombian government declared it a National Forest Reserve.

Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range

The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range is an isolated mountain range located in the northwestern region of the Department of Cesar. The mountain range is shared with by Department of La Guajira, which covers the northern area, the Department of Magdalena to the western side and the Department of Cesar which covers the southern face, covering a total area of 16,615 km² (1'661,500 ha) of which 380,000 ha pertain to the Department of Cesar. The Cesar River and the western side of its basin is born on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, including the Guatapuri, Badillo, Ariguani, Cesarito, Los Clavos, Garupal and Rio Seco rivers. The mountains are within the boundaries of the municipalities of Pueblo Bello, Valledupar, El Copey and Bosconia.

The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta was declared by UNESCO as a Biosphere Reserve on October 29, 1993.

Valley of the Cesar river

Valley of the Magdalena river

Cienaga de Zapatosa marshes
Ciénaga de Zapatosa

Climate
Climate in the Department of Cesar presents variations in climate depending on altitude, as well as rainfall precipitations. Mountain climate in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Serranía del Perijá become cooler with higher altitude, reaching freezing low temperatures on the snowy peaks. Lowlands average a temperature throughout the year of . These lower lands present a hot and drier climate, with annual precipitation less than  a year. The mountainous regions are characterized by low temperatures with snow on high altitude peaks and precipitation reaching more than  a year.

History

Pre-Columbian

The region was first inhabited by indigenous peoples known as Euparíes in the Valley of Upar and Guatapuríes in the Valley of the Cesar river, among these were the Orejones pertaining to the Tupe, Acanayutos pertaining to the Motilon and Alcoholados pertaining to the Chimila.

Spanish chronicles describe the tribes as being part of a federation of tribes led by a single chief (Cacique), with the village of Eupari as the largest and central to the other villages. These tribes are believed to be related to the Mesoamerican culture, the Caribs and Arawaks, directly associated to the Muisca culture in the Colombian eastern branch of the Andes.

Archeological findings has shown that the indigenous in the area worked with stones and wood, including a boomerang shaped weapon found in a cemetery at Los Robles La Paz.

Spanish conquest and colonization

The first European to explore the area was Spanish Captain Pedro de Vadillo, but German Ambrosio Alfínger savagely conquered the region in 1531. In 1550 the village of Valle de Upar was founded by Hernando de Santana and Juan de Castellanos.<

Republican era

In 1813, María de la Concepción Loperena proclaimed the independence of Valledupar and donated 300 horses to Simón Bolívar. In 1829 Valledupar became a Cantón of the Province of Santa Marta. By Law 15 of 1850, Valledupar was segregated from Santa Marta becoming the Province of Valledupar. In 1857 became a province of the State of Magdalena and by Law of December 29, 1864 became the Department of Valledupar pertaining to State of Magdalena. On December 21, 1967 the Department of Cesar was created officially.

Modern era
From 1996–2006 paramilitary groups committed gross human rights violations affecting tens of thousands of victims in the Cesar mining region. Prodeco, a subsidiary of Glencore, and the US Drummond Company collaborated with the paramilitaries in order to continue coal mining.

Politics

Government and politics

Governors

Department Assembly

Administrative divisions

Municipalities

The Department of Cesar is formed by 25 municipalities, some 171 corregimientos, 990 veredas and 10 indigenous reserves.

For administrative reasons the Department of Cesar is subdivided into 4 strategic regions:

 the Northern Subregion covering the municipalities of Valledupar, Codazzi, Pueblo Bello, La Paz, Manaure and San Diego;
 the Northwestern Subregion covering the municipalities of Bosconia, El Copey, El Paso and Astrea;
 the Central Subregion covering the municipalities of Curumani, Becerril, Chiriguana, La Jagua de Ibirico, Chimichagua, Tamalameque and Pailitas; and
 the Southern Subregion covering the municipalities of Aguachica, Gamarra, Gonzalez, La Gloria, Pelaya, Rio de Oro, San Alberto and San Martin.

Economy

The economy of the César Department is sustained by the agricultural sector, secondly by a services industry following with commercial industry and mining. Cattle raising is exploited extensively (using large farms), and for this reason large portions of forests have been chopped off to create corrals. In agriculture, plantations of cotton, rice, sugar cane, oil palm, cassava and plantain. Services are centered on commerce and the industry is represented by oil products, fats and milk derived products. As one of the biggest water resources areas of Colombia, if not America, part of the Magdalena River crosses the Department and helps create the Cienaga de Zapatosa (Zapatosa Marsh) along with the Cesar river. It has a great potential to develop a fishing industry also.

The area between La Loma and La Jagua de Ibirico is the major coal-producing region of Colombia.

Notes

References

.

External links

 Cesar 30 Años de Progreso - Gobernacion del Cesar (1997) booklet

 INGEOMINAS: Geography of the Department of Cesar
 Poverty in the Department of Cesar
 Forced displacement in the Department of Cesar

Departments of Colombia
Caribbean region of Colombia
States and territories established in 1967

Cesar Department


El USS Prairie (AD-5), anteriormente conocido como Morgan Liner S.S. El Sol, fue un buque construido en 1890 por William Cramp and Sons en Filadelfia, Pensilvania. El buque fue comprado por la Armada de los Estados Unidos el 6 de abril de 1898 a la Southern Pacific Company y puesto en servicio dos días después en Nueva York.

Historia
El Prairie se convirtió en un crucero auxiliar asignado al Escuadrón de la Patrulla del Norte y más tarde a la North Atlantic Fleet (Flota del Atlántico Norte). Durante la Guerra hispano-estadounidense, sirvió en aguas cubanas entre julio y agosto de 1898, regresando a Massachusetts el 28 de agosto del mismo año. Fue desarmado el 15 de marzo de 1899 en Filadelfia.

Pasó a situación de reserva el 23 de marzo de 1899, destinado a la milicia naval de la costa atlántica, hasta que fue dado de baja en Nueva York el 18 de febrero de 1901. Transportó a miembros del gobierno a la Exposición Universal de París de 1900 y fue devuelto al servicio activo en Boston el 9 de noviembre de 1901 como buque escuela, realizando esta misión hasta que se dio de nuevo de baja en Boston el 14 de junio de 1905.

Fue puesto en servicio de nuevo el 26 de septiembre de 1906 en Boston como buque de transporte, en servicio en la Flota del Atlántico. Protegió los intereses estadounidenses en Cuba desde marzo hasta abril de 1907. Más tarde volvió a las tareas de formación con la milicia naval desde mayo hasta septiembre de 1907.

Participó en la Ocupación estadounidense de Veracruz de 1914.

Las primeras tropas invasoras que desembarcaron en los muelles de Veracruz bajaron del Prairie, que estaba anclado cerca de San Juan de Ulúa. Llegaron al Muelle en lanchas remolcadas por lanchones de vapor ("Picket Boats").

El Prairie apoyó los primeros avances con su artillería. Por la tarde del día 21 de abril, disparó sus cañones de 3-pulgadas contra la Escuela Naval, apoyando la retirada de los tres lanchones remolcadores, comandados por John McCloy que habían atacado sorpresivamente a la Escuela Naval desde el malecón, con sus pequeños cañones de una libra.

Bitácora del 21 de abril de 1914 del buque británico HMS Essex
3.20 [15:20 h] Los lanchones ("Pick B/S": "Picket Boats" - remolcadores comandados por John McCloy) apoyando el flanco de las tropas de desembarco, entraron en acción cerca de la "caseta de prácticos" pero fueron rechazados por fuego de fusil.

4.0 [16:00 h] El U.S. Prairie continuó apoyando tropas en tierra, bombardeando partes de la ciudad ocupadas por francotiradores, y también atacó a la Escuela Naval.

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial fue utilizado como buque nodriza de destructores hacia finales de 1917.

El buque fue dado de baja definitivamente el 22 de noviembre de 1922 en San Diego, California, siendo vendido el 22 de junio de 1923 a Luis Rothenberg, Oakland, California .

Bibliografía
 Bitácoras de buques británicos durante 1914

Notas

Referencias
 Historia del Praine en History.navy Consultado el 18-2-12

P

USS Prairie (AD-5)


The Legend of Luke is a fantasy novel by Brian Jacques, published in 1999. It is the 12th book and fourth chronologically in the Redwall series.

Plot summary
The book begins during the construction of Redwall Abbey, when a roving female hedgehog named Trimp visits the abbey and sings a song to help the workers lifting a beam. Martin the Warrior recognises his father, Luke the Warrior, mentioned in the lyrics and asks Trimp more about him. He decides to go on a quest to learn more about his father. Martin, Gonff the Mousethief, Dinny, and Trimp befriend an orphaned woodlander squirrel named Chugger, the bird Krar Woodwatcher, as well as two brother otters, Folgrim (who is very close to becoming feral, having filed his teeth to points, and even eating vermin after he kills them) and his older brother Tungro. When they reach the northlands, Martin meets his father's friends: the old mouse, Vurg, and Beauclair Fethringsol Cosfortingham, an exuberant old hare. They show him a book titled In the Wake of the Red Ship, an account of Luke's life.

The plot then flashes back to Martin's birth to Luke and Sayna. Luke was the leader of a tribe of mice who lived an idyllic life for many seasons until Vilu Daskar, the murderous captain of the pirate ship Goreleech, attacked the settlement and killed Sayna, as well as many others with his Sea Rogues. Luke vowed revenge upon Daskar and soon had an opportunity when Reynard Chopsnout, pirate captain of the Greenhawk, sailed in, hoping to fix his broken vessel. Luke and his tribe slew Chopsnout and his crew and captured the ship. Together with Vurg, Beau, and others, they sailed off. Martin, now older, wished to accompany his father, but Luke declined, giving Martin his sword, and the chance to name the ship, which he dubbed Sayna.

The account of Luke's life contains the scene where Luke gives his sword to his son. The same scene occurs in the beginning of Martin the Warrior, when Martin receives a flashback of his childhood, as he was captured and put out for the seagulls by Badrang the Tyrant. Therefore, the events in part two of The Legend of Luke occurred around the same time as Martin the Warrior.

At one point, Beau was believed to be dead, but survived. Luke, however, was captured and forced into slavery by Daskar when the Sayna was destroyed. He befriended a black squirrel, Ranguvar Foeseeker, who also wanted her revenge. Luke was quite a bit like his son. For instance, he threatened to strangle the slavedriver; similarly, Martin tried to choke a Marshank hordebeast with the creature's own whip. Luke was able to convince Daskar that he knew the location of a hidden treasure that only he could steer to. Vurg and Beau sneaked aboard to free the slaves as Ranguvar and Luke killed foebeasts. Initially planning to run the ship aground where his tribe could join the fight to take the ship, upon realising his tribe had abandoned the area, Luke ordered the slaves to take the ship, trapped Daskar at one end of the ship, then smashed it against two rocks, breaking it. The ship's stern sinks instantly and Luke, Ranguvar, Daskar, and much of the vermin crew upon it were drowned. The bow becomes stuck between the two rocks and the surviving vermin are massacred by the liberated slaves.

Beau and Vurg presented Martin with a tapestry of his ancestor, which looked a lot like Martin himself. They returned to Redwall, and Martin allegedly chose to put down his sword and live a life of peace. The tapestry Martin received was later made into part of the large tapestry that hangs in the Abbey throughout the Redwall series.

Characters in The Legend of Luke

Martin the Warrior
Luke the Warrior
Gonff the Mousethief
Columbine
Abbess Germaine
Bella of Brockhall
Dinny
Krar Woodwatcher
Folgrim and Tungro
Beauclair Fethringsol Cosfortingham (Beau)
Vilu Daskar
Ranguvar Foeseeker
Reynard Chopsnout
Ferdy Stickle and Coggs Stickle
Spike and Posy Stickle
Log a Log Furmo

Book divisions (English)
Book 1: Martin
Book 2: Luke
Book 3: A Warrior's Legacy

Translations
(French) Rougemuraille : Le Guerrier disparu
(Italian) La Leggenda di Luca
(Russian) Легенда о Льюке

References

External links

 Plot summary

Children's fantasy novels
British children's novels
British fantasy novels
Redwall books
1999 British novels
Hutchinson (publisher) books
1999 children's books
1999 fantasy novels
Fictional mice and rats

The Legend of Luke


Héctor M. Timerman (* 16. Dezember 1953 in Buenos Aires; † 30. Dezember 2018 ebenda) war ein argentinischer Politiker, Journalist und Außenminister in der Regierung von Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.

Werdegang
Timermans Vater war der argentinisch-jüdische Verleger Jacobo Timerman und seine Mutter Risha Timerman, geborene Mindlin. Als Journalist war Héctor Timerman für die Zeitung La Tarde tätig. Als sein Vater im April 1977 entführt wurde, setzte er sich als Menschenrechtsaktivist ein und musste während der Diktatur in Argentinien in die Vereinigten Staaten fliehen. Timerman lebte in New York. An der Columbia University studierte Timerman Internationale Beziehungen, wo er 1981 mit einem Master abschloss. Er schrieb Kolumnen für Zeitungen und Magazine wie die New York Times, die Los Angeles Times, Newsweek und The Nation und war einer der Gründer der Organisation Americas Watch.

1989 kehrte Timerman nach Argentinien zurück und gründete die beiden Nachrichtenmagazine Tres Puntos und Debate. Regelmäßig schrieb er auch für Noticias und Ámbito Financiero. Des Weiteren war er als Gastgeber der Fernsehsendung Diálogos con Opinión tätig. Politisch unterstützte er zunächst die Abgeordnete Elisa Carrió und wurde dann Anhänger von Néstor Kirchner. Im Juli 2004 wurde Timerman zum Generalkonsul in New York City ernannt und im Dezember 2007 wurde er als Nachfolger von José Octavio Bordón argentinischer Botschafter in den Vereinigten Staaten. Von 2010 bis 2015 war Timerman als Nachfolger von Jorge Taiana im Regierungskabinett von Cristina Fernández de Kirchner Außenminister von Argentinien.

Timerman wurde Ende 2017 unter dem Vorwurf verhaftet, die iranische Beteiligung an dem AMIA-Bombenanschlag von 1994 zu vertuschen, bei dem 85 Menschen starben. Er starb am 30. Dezember 2018 im Gefängnis an Krebs.

Sonstiges
Timerman war mit der Architektin Anabella Selecki verheiratet und hatte mit ihr zwei Kinder.

Weblinks
 Clarin: Timerman será el nuevo canciller, 2010 (spanisch)
 Angaben zur Person auf der Seite des argentinischen Außenministeriums (span.)

Einzelnachweise

Außenminister (Argentinien)
Argentinischer Botschafter in den Vereinigten Staaten
Journalist (Argentinien)
Argentinier
Geboren 1953
Gestorben 2018
Mann

Héctor Timerman


قلعة إيدو  وتعرف أيضاً باسم قلعة تشيودا  هي قلعة يابانية على شكل مدينة بنيت عام 1457 من قبل الحاكم الإقطاعي أوتا دوكان. تقع في تشيودا، طوكيو والتي كانت تعرف باسم إيدو، مقاطعة موساشي، وكانت المكان الذي أسس فيه توكوغاوا إيئه-ياسو حكومة توكوغاوا شوغون. كانت مقر إقامة الشوغون ومركز الحكومة ولعبت دور عسكري هام أثناء فترة إيدو. وبعد انتهاء حكم الشوغون في إصلاح ميجي تحولت إلى قصر طوكيو الإمبراطوري. لا زال الخندق وبعض أجزاء السور قائمة حتى اليوم، إلا أنها كانت تشغل مساحة أوسع من الأرض في فترة إيدو انحسرت مع بناء محطة طوكيو، وحي مارونوأوتشي، بالإضافة إلى أنها كانت تضم حديقة كيتانومارو وقاعة نيبون بودوكان ومناطق أخرى محيطة.

تاريخ
في 21 أبريل 1701 سحب أسانو ناغانوري سيفه القصير محاولا قتل كيرا يوشيناكا بسبب إهانته، هذه أدت إلى أحداث السبعة وأربعون ساموراي فيما بعد.

تاريخ طوكيو
مبان ومنشآت في طوكيو
قلاع في اليابان
قلعة إيدو

قلعة إيدو


Migros Ticaret A.Ş., Türkiye'deki süpermarket zincirlerinden biridir. Migros'un temelleri 1954 yılında İstanbul Belediyesi'nin aldığı kararla, İsviçre'de "Ucuzluğun Kralı" sloganıyla bilinen Migros perakendecisinin benzerinin Türkiye'de kurulması ile atıldı. İstanbullulara tanzim satışlarını da sunan Migros, dönemin İstanbul Valisi ve Belediye Başkanı Fahrettin Kerim Gökay tarafından açılmıştır.

Tarihçe
İstanbul Belediyesi iktisat müdürü Ferruh İlter'in 5 Ekim 1953 tarihinde Migros'un kurucusu Duttweiller'e yazdığı mektup Migros'un İstanbul'da kuruluşuna ait ilk adımı oluşturdu. Böylece Migros 1954'te Türkiye pazarına girerek İstanbul Belediyesi iş birliğiyle Migros Türk'ü kurdu.

İsviçre Migros'un sahip olduğu çoğunluk hisseleri 1975 yılında Vehbi Koç'un istek ve yönlendirmesiyle Koç Holding tarafından satın alındı. 1990 yılının sonundan itibaren büyük mağazacılık uygulamasına başlayan Migros 1991 yılında halka açıldı. 2005 yılında perakende zinciri Tansaş'ı satın aldı.

2007 yılında Koç grubu Migros hisselerini satışa çıkardı. 14 Şubat 2008'de Koç Holding'in  %50,83'lük hissesini 1,9 milyar liraya İngiliz BC Partners tarafından kontrol edilen Moonlight Capital satın aldı. 2015 yılı başında Migros'un %40,25 hissesini Anadolu Grubu satın aldı.

Migros 10 Haziran 2016'da Tesco/Kipa'nın %95,5 hissesini 302 milyon liraya satın aldı. 16 Mart 2018 tarihinde şirketten yapılan açıklamada Makro Market'in sahibi olduğu Uyum Market'in toplam 56 şubesi ile Antalya'da faaliyet gösteren 17 adet Makro Market şubesinin 105 milyon lira bedel karşılığında Migros tarafından satın alındığı açıklandı. Bu satın almayla birlikte Migros bünyesine 48 hipermarket, 48 süpermarket, 72 Express mağaza ile toplam 320.000 m² net satış alanı daha eklendi. Tesco Kipa'nın 20 ilde bulunan 26 AVM'si ile yurt içi alışveriş merkezi sayısını da 30'a ulaştırdı.

Migros insan ve iyi yaşam konularında 2014-2015 yıllarında BİST'in sürdürülebilirlik endeksine giren ilk ve tek perakendeci şirket olmuştur.

2020 yılı itibarıyla 2213 Migros şubesine, 61 Macrocenter şubesine yurt dışı operasyonları için 30 Ramstore şubesine sahiptir. Online operasyonlar için ise Migros Sanal Market ve Migros Hemen vardır.

Hizmetler

Migros Hemen
Migros'un, çevrimiçi satın alınan ürünleri evlere getiren çevrimiçi market uygulamasıdır. Migros Hemen 2019 yılında kurulmuştur. Türkiye'nin yaklaşık 25 şehrinde hizmet vermektedir.

Migros Yemek
Migros'un çevrimiçi yemek teslimatı alanında 13 Haziran 2022 tarihi itibarıyla hizmet vermeye başlamıştır.

Eleştiriler
2023 yılında Migros'un endüstriyel kafeslerde eziyet gören hayvanlardan gelen yumurtaları satması ve bu yumurtaların satışına ne zaman son vereceği konusunda bir taahhüt yayınlamaması tepki gördü. Migros'un endüstriyel kafesleri terk etmesi için açılan imza kampanyası 130.000'in üzerinde imza topladı.

Dış bağlantılar
 Migros Sanal Market
 Migros Hemen

Kaynakça

Türkiye merkezli süpermarketler
Türk perakendeci şirketler
Türk markaları
1954'te Türkiye'de kurulan oluşumlar
1954'te kurulan perakendeci şirketler

Migros (Türkiye)


Newland Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Newland Township (Pasquotank County, North Carolina)
 Newland Township (Ramsey County, North Dakota)
 Newland No. 1 Township, Avery County, North Carolina
 Newland No. 2 Township, Avery County, North Carolina

Newland Township


Michael Connell Biehn (født 31. juli 1956 i Anniston i Alabama) er en amerikansk skuespiller.

Michael Biehn fik sit store gennembrud i og er fremdeles bedst kendt fra James Camerons The Terminator (1984), hvor han portrætterer hovedrollen Kyle Reese. Han er også med i to andre Cameron-filmer, Aliens (1986) og The Abyss (1989), hvor han endnu engang spiller hovedroller. Han har også været med i andre kendte film, som Tombstone (1993), The Rock (1997) og Planet Terror (2007). Han har udover dette en lille cameorolle i Director's Cut på DVD-udgivelsen af Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991).

Han var også i diskussioner om en rolle i Avatar (2009), endnu en James Cameron-film, men Cameron følte at at have både Biehn og Sigourney Weaver i filmen ville minde mange for meget om Aliens, hvor de to spillede hovedrollerne.

Udvalgt filmografi
 2011 - Take Me Home Tonight .... Bill Franklin
 2007 - Planet Terror .... Sheriff Hague
 2005 - Havoc .... Stuart Lang
 2000 - The Art of War .... Robert Bly
 1996 - The Rock .... Commander Charles Anderson
 1993 - Tombstone .... Johnny Ringo
 1990 - Navy Seals .... Lt. James Curran
 1989 - The Abyss .... Lt. Hiram Coffey
 1988 - Det syvende tegnet .... Russell Quinn
 1986 - Aliens .... Cpl. Dwayne Hicks
 1984 - The Terminator .... Kyle Reese

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra Alabama

Michael Biehn


دار الأوبرا الخديوية أو دار الأوبرا الملكية كانت دار الأوبرا الأصلية في العاصمة المصرية القاهرة. افتتحت الدار في 1 نوفمبر 1869 وشابها حريق كبير في 28 أكتوبر 1971، واعتبرت أول دار أوبرا في أفريقيا والشرق الأوسط.

الإنشاء
بنيت دار الأوبرا بأمر من الخديوي إسماعيل للاحتفال بافتتاح قناة السويس وقام المعماريان «بيترو أفوسكاني» (من ليفورنو) و«روتسيي» بتصميم مبني الأوبرا. وقد صنعت من الخشب وكانت تسع 850 مقعدا. أما موقعها فكان بين منطقة الأزبكية وميدان الإسماعيلية (ميدان التحرير حاليا) في عاصمة مصر.

تم اختيار معزوفة ريغوليتو  لجوزيبي فيردي لكي تكون أول عزف في حفل افتتاح الأوبرا في 1 نوفمبر 1869، لكن الخديوي إسماعيل كان يخطط في احتفال أكثر فخامة لافتتاح الأوبرا، بعد أشهر من التأجيل وبانتهاء الحرب البروسية - الفرنسية، تم تقديم عمل فيردي الأوبرالي عايدة في افتتاح عالمي في دار الأوبرا الخديوية في 21 ديسمبر 1871.

في ساعات الصباح الباكر من يوم 28 أكتوبر 1971، احترقت دار الأوبرا عن آخرها. ودمر المبني المصمم من الخشب، في حين لم ينجَ من الحريق سوى تمثالان من تصميم محمد حسن.

بعد أن دمرت دار الأوبرا الأصلية، ظلت القاهرة بدون دار للأوبرا قرابة العقدين من الزمن، إلى أن تم افتتاح دار أوبرا القاهرة في 1988.

موقع دار الأوبرا القديمة لا زال موجودا، إلا أنه قد تم بناء مرآب متعدد الطوابق للسيارات ذا شكل "عادي"، عكس الشكل المميز الذي كان يميز دار الأوبرا، لكن الميدان الذي كانت الأوبرا تطل عليه لا زال يحتفظ باسمه القديم (ميدان الأوبرا).

انظر أيضا
 دار أوبرا القاهرة
 دار أوبرا الأسكندرية
 دار أوبرا دمنهور
 ميدان الأوبرا

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 تاريخ من الموقع الإلكتروني لدار أوبرا القاهرة
 دار الأوبرا المصرية، الهيئة العامة للاستعلامات / مصر

انحلالات سنة 1971
تأسيسات سنة 1869 في مصر
تاريخ القاهرة
ثقافة في القاهرة
دور أوبرا في مصر
صالات الموسيقى اكتملت في 1869
فنون مصرية
مبان ومنشآت في القاهرة
مسارح اكتملت في 1869
عمارة القرن 19 في مصر

دار الأوبرا الخديوية