Ashley Castle var en fæstning i landsbyen Ashley i Hampshire i England.

Ashley Castle eller Gains Castle, blev bygget i 1138, hvor der lå et voldsted fra jernalderen. Stedet har givetvis haft strategisk betydning, da det lå højt med brønd og med kort afstand til den romerske vej fra Winchester til Sarum. Grundlæggeren var den magtfulde Henry de Blois, som var barnebarn af Vilhelm Erobreren, der var lillebror til Stefan af Blois, biskop af Winchester. Han opførte flere større bygningsværker som Wolvesey Palace i Winchester og var en af de mest magtfulde i sin tid. Borgen blev opført under Anarkiets uro og borgerkrig. Efter Henrik 2. blev konge i 1155, blev fæstningen ødelagt, men omstændighederne er ikke dokumenteret.

Under Henrik 2.s søn, kong John, blev borgen genopført på 50 år af William Briwere den ældre. Han ejede også godset Ashley og var en af kong Johns og Henrik 3.s ledende rådgivere. Han opført senere Mottisfont Abbey. I 1200 gav kong John lov til at krenelere ved Stockbridge eller Ashley, og han valgte Ashley (der blev refereret til som "Esleg"). Da Kronen så en bastion for oprørere i alle fæstninger, der var ejet af adelen, var tilladelse til at forskanse sig et sjældent privilegium. Det er dokumenteret at Kong John ofte boede på Ashley i forbindelse med jagtselskaber i den kongelige Forest of Bere - hvor den nærliggende flod Test var den vestlige grænse. Det vides, at flere af Kronens officielle opgaver er udført fra Ashley, da flere kongelige breve bærer påskriften 'Ashley'. Ashley var det administrative hovedkvarter for West Bere, som strakte sig fra floden Itchen til Test. Forpagteren havde sin herregård der og har boet på borgen. Mange engelske skove har haft en borg som hovedkvarter. Ud over at være residens blev borgen også brugt til tyveknægte og til skovens folk. Selv om den var administrativ base for Kronen, har Ashley Castle tilsyneladende mere været en del af godset Ashley end Kronens ejendom. Forpagerens ønsker er ofte efterkommet og har tilsidesat ønsker udefra.

Til midt i 1400-tallet var Ashley Castle residens for biskoppens af Winchester. Det blev forladt omkring 1600.

I sin tidligste form var borgen cirkulær; lukket af en voldgrav og et trætårn. Foran - på den ydre bailey på en høj - har der ligget økonomibygninger. Begge høje har været omkranset af en træpalisade.

Borgen har været en typisk normannisk fæstning efter størrelse, fæstningsværker og bailey. De nordøstlige dele af baileyen er stadig synlige med rester af fundamentet.

Området er et scheduled monument og fredet.

Se også
 Liste over borge og slotte i England

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Slotte i Hampshire
Borgruiner i Storbritannien

Ashley Castle


EDHEC Business School er en europæisk business school med campusser i Paris, London, Lille, Nice og Singapore. Skolen blev grundlagt i 1906. EDHEC blev placeret på en 25. plads blandt de europæiske business schools i 2015 af Financial Times. I 2015 blev EDHEC Master in Management-program placeret på en 18. plads på verdensplan af Financial Times. EDHEC har ligeledes fået en 84. plads på verdensplan for dens MBA. EDHEC har ligeledes et PhD-program såvel som adskillige Master-programmer inden for specifikke managementområder, såsom marketing, finans eller iværksætteri.
EDHEC programmer har de tre internationale akkrediteringer AMBA, EQUIS og AACSB. Skolen har over 30.000 alumner inden for handel og politik, herunder Delphine Arnault (Deputy CEO Louis Vuitton) og Jean-Jacques Goldman (Singer-songwriter).

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Officiel website

Uddannelsesinstitutioner i Frankrig
Lille

EDHEC Business School


NGC 7780 je prečkasta spiralna galaktika u zviježđu Ribama.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7780
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7780 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7780 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7750 - 7809

7780

NGC 7780


The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1819) was the final and decisive conflict between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in India. The war left the Company in control of most of India. It began with an invasion of Maratha territory by British East India Company troops, and although the British were outnumbered, the Maratha army was decimated. The troops were led by Governor General Hastings, supported by a force under General Thomas Hislop. Operations began against the Pindaris, a band of Muslim mercenaries and Marathas from central India.

Peshwa Baji Rao II's forces, supported by those of Mudhoji II Bhonsle of Nagpur and Malharrao Holkar III of Indore, rose against the East India Company. Pressure and diplomacy convinced the fourth major Maratha leader, Daulatrao Shinde of Gwalior, to remain neutral even though he lost control of Rajasthan.

British victories were swift, resulting in the breakup of the Maratha Empire and the loss of Maratha independence. Several minor battles were fought by the Peshwa's forces to prevent his capture.

The Peshwa was eventually captured and placed on a small estate at Bithur, near Kanpur. Most of his territory was annexed and became part of the Bombay Presidency. The Maharaja of Satara was restored as the ruler of his territory as a princely state. In 1848 this territory was also annexed by the Bombay Presidency under the doctrine of lapse policy of Lord Dalhousie. Bhonsle was defeated in the battle of Sitabuldi and Holkar in the battle of Mahidpur. The northern portion of Bhonsle's dominions in and around Nagpur, together with the Peshwa's territories in Bundelkhand, were annexed by British India as the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories. The defeat of the Bhonsle and Holkar also resulted in the acquisition of the Maratha kingdoms of Nagpur and Indore by the British. Along with Gwalior from Shinde and Jhansi from the Peshwa, all of these territories became princely states acknowledging British control. The British proficiency in Indian war-making was demonstrated through their rapid victories in Khadki, Sitabuldi, Mahidpur, and Satara.

The Marathas and the British

The Maratha Empire was founded in 1674 by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj the Bhosle dynasty. Shivaji Maharaj's capital was located at Raigad. Shivaji Maharaj successfully defended his empire from attacks by the Mughal Empire and his Maratha Empire went on to defeat and overtake it as the premier power in India within few decades. A key component of the Maratha administration was the council of eight ministers, called the Ashta Pradhan (council of eight). The senior-most member of the Ashta Pradhan was called the Peshwa or the Pant Pradhan (prime minister).

Growing British power
While the Marathas were fighting the Mughals in the early 18th century, the British held small trading posts in Mumbai, Madras and Calcutta. The British fortified the naval post of Mumbai after they saw the Marathas defeat the Portuguese at neighbouring Vasai in May 1739. In an effort to keep the Marathas out of Mumbai, the British sent envoys to negotiate a treaty. The envoys were successful, and a treaty was signed on 12 July 1739 that gave the British East India Company rights to free trade in Maratha territory. In the south, the Nizam of Hyderabad had enlisted the support of the French for his war against the Marathas. In reaction to this, the Peshwa requested support from the British, but was refused. Unable to see the rising power of the British, the Peshwa set a precedent by seeking their help to solve internal Maratha conflicts. Despite the lack of support, the Marathas managed to defeat the Nizam over a period of five years.

During the period 1750–1761, British defeated the French East India Company in India, and by 1793 they were firmly established in Bengal in the east and Madras in the south. They were unable to expand to the west as the Marathas were dominant there, but they entered Surat on the west coast via the sea.

The Marathas marched beyond the Indus as their empire grew. The responsibility for managing the sprawling Maratha empire in the north was entrusted to two Maratha leaders, Shinde and Holkar, as the Peshwa was busy in the south. The two leaders did not act in concert, and their policies were influenced by personal interests and financial demands. They alienated other Hindu rulers such as the Rajputs, the Jats, and the Rohillas, and they failed to diplomatically win over other Muslim leaders. A large blow to the Marathas came in their defeat on 14 January 1761 at Panipat against a combined Muslim force that gathered defeating Marathas led by the Afghan Ahmad Shah Abdali. An entire generation of Maratha leaders lay dead on the battlefield as a result of that conflict. However, between 1761 and 1773, the Marathas regained the lost ground in the north.

Anglo-Maratha relations
The Maratha gains in the north were undone because of the contradictory policies of Holkar and Shinde and the internal disputes in the family of the Peshwa, which culminated in the murder of Narayanrao Peshwa in 1773. Raghunathrao was ousted from the seat of Peshwa due to continuing internal Maratha rivalries. He sought help from the British, and they signed the Treaty of Surat with him in March 1775. This treaty gave him military assistance in exchange for control of Salsette Island and Bassein Fort.

The treaty set off discussions amongst the British in India as well as in Europe because of the serious implications of a confrontation with the powerful Marathas. Another cause for concern was that the Bombay Council had exceeded its constitutional authority by signing such a treaty. The treaty was the cause of the start of the First Anglo-Maratha War. This war was a Maratha victory and almost a stalemate, with no side strong being able to completely defeat the other. The war concluded with the treaty of Salabai in May 1782, mediated by Mahadji Shinde. The foresight of Warren Hastings was the main reason for the success of the British in the war. He had destroyed the anti-British coalition and created a division between the Shinde, the Bhonsle, and the Peshwa.

The Marathas were still in a very strong position when the new Governor General of British controlled territories Cornwallis arrived in India in 1786. After the treaty of Salabai, the British followed a policy of coexistence in the north. The British and the Marathas enjoyed more than two decades of peace, thanks to the diplomacy of Nana Phadnavis, a minister in the court of the 11-year-old Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao. The situation changed soon after Nana's death in 1800. The power struggle between Holkar and Shinde caused Holkar to attack the Peshwa in Pune in 1801, since the Peshwa sided with Shinde. The Peshwa Baji Rao II fled Pune to safety on a British warship. Baji Rao feared loss of his own powers and signed the treaty of Bassein. This made the Peshwa in effect a subsidiary ally of the British.

In response to the treaty, the Bhonsle and Shinde attacked the British, refusing to accept the betrayal of their sovereignty to the British by the Peshwa. This was the start of the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803. Both were defeated by the British, and all Maratha leaders lost large parts of their territory to the British.

Maratha-Hyderabad Relations
In 1762, Raghunathrao allied with the Nizam due to mutual distrust and differences with Madhavrao Peshwa. The Nizam marched towards Poona, but little did he know that Rughunathrao was going to betray him. In 1763, Madhavrao I along with Raghunathrao defeated Nizam at Battle of Rakshasbhuvan and signed a treaty with the Marathas. In 1795, he was defeated by Madhavrao II's Marathas at the Battle of Kharda and was forced to cede Daulatabad, Aurangabad and Sholapur and pay an indemnity of Rs. 30 million. A French general, Monsieur Raymond, served as his military leader, strategist and advisor.

The Battle of Kharda took place in 1795 between Nizam and Maratha Confederacy, in which Nizam was badly defeated. Governor General John Shore followed the policy of non-intervention despite that Nizam was under his protection. So this led to the loss of trust with the British. This was the last battle fought together by all the Maratha chiefs under leadership of Bakshibahaddar Jivabadada Kerkar. Maratha forces consisted of cavalry, including gunners, bowmen, artillery and infantry. After several skirmishes Nizams infantry under Raymond launched an attack on the Marathas but Scindia forces under Jivabadada Kerkar defeated them and launched a counterattack which proved to be decisive. The rest of the Hyderabad army fled to the fort of Kharda. The Nizam started negotiations and they were concluded in April 1795.

The British East India Company
The British had travelled thousands of miles to arrive in India. They studied Indian geography and mastered local languages to deal with the Indians. At the time, they were technologically advanced, with superior equipment in several critical areas to that available locally. Chhabra hypothesizes that even if the British technical superiority were discounted, they would have won the war because of the discipline and organization in their ranks. After the First Anglo-Maratha war, Warren Hastings declared in 1783 that the peace established with the Marathas was on such a firm ground that it was not going to be shaken for years to come.

The British believed that a new permanent approach was needed to establish and maintain continuous contact with the Peshwa's court in Pune. The British appointed Charles Malet, a senior merchant from Bombay, to be a permanent Resident at Pune because of his knowledge of the languages and customs of the region.

War preparations
The Maratha Empire had partly declined due to the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Efforts to modernize the armies were half-hearted and undisciplined: newer techniques were not absorbed by the soldiers, while the older methods and experience were outdated and obsolete. The Maratha Empire lacked an efficient spy system, and had weak diplomacy compared to the British. Maratha artillery was outdated, and weapons were imported. Foreign officers were responsible for the handling of the imported guns; the Marathas never used their own men in considerable numbers for the purpose. Although Maratha infantry was praised by the likes of Wellington, they were poorly led by their generals and heavily relied on Arab and Pindari mercenaries. The confederate-like structure that evolved within the empire created a lack of unity needed for the wars.

At the time of the war, the power of the British East India Company was on the rise, whereas the Maratha Empire was on the decline. The British had been victorious in the previous Anglo-Maratha war and the Marathas were at their mercy. The Peshwa of the Maratha Empire at this time was Baji Rao II. Several Maratha leaders who had formerly sided with the Peshwa were now under British control or protection. The British had an arrangement with the Gaekwad dynasty of the Maratha province of Baroda to prevent the Peshwa from collecting revenue in that province. Gaekwad sent an envoy to the Peshwa in Pune to negotiate a dispute regarding revenue collection. The envoy, Gangadhar Shastri, was under British protection. He was murdered, and the Peshwa's minister Trimbak Dengle was suspected of the crime.

The British seized the opportunity to force Baji Rao into a treaty. The treaty (The Treaty of Pune) was signed on 13 June 1817. Key terms imposed on the Peshwa included the admission of Dengle's guilt, renouncing claims on Gaekwad, and surrender of significant swaths of territory to the British. These included his most important strongholds in the Deccan, the seaboard of Konkan, and all places north of the Narmada and south of the Tungabhadra rivers. The Peshwa was also not to communicate with any other powers in India. The British Resident Mountstuart Elphinstone also asked the Peshwa to disband his cavalry.

Maratha planning

The Peshwa disbanded his cavalry, but secretly asked them to stand by, and offered them seven months' advance pay. Baji Rao entrusted Bapu Gokhale with preparations for war. In August 1817, the forts at Sinhagad, Raigad, and Purandar were fortified by the Peshwa. Gokhale secretly recruited troops for the impending war. Many Bhils and Ramoshis were hired. Efforts were made to unify Bhonsle, Shinde, and Holkar; even the mercenary Pindaris were approached. The Peshwa identified unhappy Marathas in the service of the British Resident Elphinstone and secretly recruited them. One such person was Jaswant Rao Ghorpade. Efforts were made to secretly recruit Europeans as well, which failed. Some people, such as Balaji Pant Natu, stood steadfastly with the British. Several of the sepoys rejected the Peshwa's offers, and others reported the matter to their superior officers. On 19 October 1817, Baji Rao II celebrated the Dassera festival in Pune, where troops were assembled in large numbers. During the celebrations, a large flank of the Maratha cavalry pretended they were charging towards the British sepoys but wheeled off at the last minute. This display was intended as a slight towards Elphinstone  and as a scare tactic to prompt the defection and recruitment of British sepoys to the Peshwa's side. The Peshwa made plans to kill Elphinstone, despite opposition from Gokhale. Elphinstone was fully aware of these developments thanks to the espionage work of Balaji Pant Natu and Ghorpade.

Maratha powers were estimated at 81,000 infantry, 106,000 horse or cavalry and 589 guns. Of these the Peshwa had the highest number of cavalry at 28,000, along with 14,000 infantry and 37 cannon. The Peshwa headquarters was in Pune. Holkar had the second largest cavalry, amounting to 20,000, and an infantry force supplemented with 107 artillery units. Shinde and Bhonsle had similar numbers of cavalry, artillery and infantry. Holkar, Shinde and Bhonsle were headquartered in Indore, Gwalior and Nagpur respectively. The Afghan leader Amir Khan was located in Tonk in Rajputana and his strength was 12,000 cavalry, 10,000 infantry and 200 guns. The Pindaris were located north of the Narmada valley in Chambal and Malwa region of central India. Three Pindari leaders sided with Shinde, these were Chitu, Karim Khan and Wasil Mohammad. They led horsemen with strengths of 10,000, 6,000 and 4,000 but most were armed only with spears. The rest of the Pindari chiefs, Tulsi, Imam Baksh, Sahib Khan, Kadir Baksh, Nathu and Bapu were allied with Holkar. Tulsi and Imam Baksh each had 2,000 horsemen, Kadir Baksh, 21,500. Sahib Khan, Nathu and Bapu had 1,000, 750 and 150 horsemen.

British planning
The East India Company viewed the killing of their envoy, Gangadhar Shastri, as definitive intent by the Peshwa to undermine British control over the Maratha, and operations were commenced in order to place the entire region effectually into the possession of the Company. Although some regard the war as a mopping-up operation of the earlier Second Anglo-Maratha war, historians note the fact that the British assembled the largest army they had ever at that time organised in India indicated the importance the British placed on defeating the Maratha. The army, numbering roughly 120,000 men, consisted of the Grand Army or Bengal Army under the command of the Marquess of Hastings, and the Army of the Deccan under General Hislop. This included over 60 battalions of Native Infantry, multiple battalions derived from British regiments, numerous sections of cavalry and dragoons, in addition to artillery, horse artillery and rocket troops, all armed with the most modern weapons and equipped with highly organised supply lines.

This massive force quickly induced Shinde, who was secretly planning with the Peshwa and the Nepal Ministry to form a coalition against the British, into coming to terms with the British. In early November 1817, he was forced to enter into a treaty in which he ceded all his armed forces and major forts. Amir Khan disbanded his army on condition of being guaranteed the possession of the principality of Tonk in Rajputana. He sold his guns to the British and agreed to prevent predatory gangs from operating from his territory. By these actions, the British kept two major allies of the Maratha out of the war before any hostilities had begun.

Major events of the war

Conflict in Pune and the pursuit of Baji Rao II

The war began as a campaign against the Pindaris, but the first battle occurred at Pune where the Peshwa, Baji Rao II, attacked the under-strength British cantonment on 5 November 1817. The Maratha forces comprised 20,000 cavalry, 8,000 infantry, and 20 artillery guns whereas the British had 2,000 cavalry, 1,000 infantry, and eight artillery units. What followed was the Battle of Khadki where the Maratha were initially successful in creating and exploiting a gap in the British lines, but were soon nullified by the advance of the British infantry, which firing volley after volley, caused the Maratha to retreat in a matter of four hours. The British soon claimed victory with the loss of 86 men compared to the 500 Maratha killed.

While Pune was surrendered to the British, the Peshwa and his forces fled first to Purandar and then toward the city of Satara. His commander-in-chief Bapu Gokhale organised the retreat to guard the Peshwa in flight.
The Peshwa then fled to the town of Koregaon where the Battle of Koregaon (also known as the battle of Koregaon Bhima) took place on 1 January 1818 on the banks of the river Bhima, north west of Pune. Captain Stauton arrived near Koregaon along with 500 infantry, two six-pounder guns, and 200 irregular horsemen. Only 24 of the infantry were of European origin; they were from the Madras Artillery. The rest of the infantry was composed of Indian sepoys employed by the British. A fierce battle ensued that lasted the entire day. Streets and guns were captured and recaptured, changing hands several times. Although Baji Rao's commander Trimabkji killed Lieutenant Chishom, the Marathas were forced to evacuate the village and retreated during the night. The British lost 175 men and about a third of the irregular horse, with more than half of the European officers wounded. The Marathas lost 500 to 600 men.

After the battle the British forces under general Pritzler pursued the Peshwa, who fled southwards towards Karnataka with the Raja of Satara. The Peshwa continued his flight southward throughout the month of January. Not receiving support from the Raja of Mysore, the Peshwa doubled back and passed General Pritzler to head towards Solapur. Until 29 January the pursuit of the Peshwa had not been productive. Whenever Baji Rao was pressed by the British, Gokhale and his light troops hovered around the Peshwa and fired long shots. Some skirmishes took place, and the Marathas were frequently hit by shells from the horse artillery. There was, however, no advantageous result to either party. On 7 February General Smith entered Satara and captured the royal palace of the Marathas. He symbolically raised the British flag.

On 19 February, General Smith got word that the Peshwa was headed for Pandharpur. General Smith's troops attacked the Peshwa at Ashti en route. During this battle, Gokhale died while defending the Peshwa from the British. The Raja of Satara was captured along with his brother and mother. The death of Gokhale and the skirmish at Ashti hastened the end of the war. By 10 April 1818, General Smith's forces had taken the forts of Sinhagad and Purandar. Mountstuart Elphinstone mentions the capture of Sinhagadh in his diary entry for 13 February 1818: "The garrison contained no Marathas, but consisted of 100 Arabs, 600 Gosains, and 400 Konkani. The Qiladar was a boy of eleven; the garrison was treated with great liberality; and, though there was much property and money in the place, the Qiladar was allowed to have whatever he claimed as his own."

On 3 June 1818 Baji Rao surrendered to the British and negotiated the sum of  eight lakhs as annual maintenance. Baji Rao obtained promises from the British in favour of the Jagirdars, his family, the Brahmins, and religious institutions. The Peshwa was sent to Bithur near Kanpur. While the downfall and banishment of the Peshwa was mourned all over the Maratha Empire as a national defeat, the Peshwa contracted more marriages and spent his long life engaged in religious performances and excessive drinking.

Conflict with the Pindaris

The Pindaris, who were mostly cavalry armed with spears, came to be known as the Shindeshahi and the Holkarshahi after the patronage they received from the respective Maratha leaders. The major Pindari leaders were Chitu, Karim Khan, and Wasil Mohammad and their total strength was estimated at 33,000. The Pindaris frequently raided villages in Central India and it was thought that this region was being rapidly reduced to the condition of a desert because the peasants were unable to support themselves on the land. In 1815, 25,000 Pindaris entered the Madras Presidency and destroyed over 300 villages on the Coromandel coast. Other Pindari raids on British territory followed in 1816 and 1817 and therefore Francis Rawdon-Hastings wanted the Pindaris extinguished.

In opposition to what the British forces expected as they entered the region in late 1817, they found that the Pindaris had not devastated the area. In fact the British found a super-abundance of food and forage, especially grain, which added immensely to the security of their supplies. The Pindaris were attacked, and their homes were surrounded and destroyed. General Hislop from the Madras Residency attacked the Pindaris from the south and drove them beyond the Narmada river, where governor-general Francis Rawdon-Hastings was waiting with his army. With the principal routes from Central India being occupied by British detachments, the Pindari forces were completely broken up, scattered in the course of a single campaign. Being armed only with spears, they made no stand against the regular troops, and even in small bands they were unable to escape the ring of forces drawn around them.

The Pindari forces proved unable to counter the British and the Pindari chiefs were soon reduced to the condition of hunted outlaws. Karim and Chitu had still 23,000 soldiers between them but such a force was no match for the armies that surrounded them. In whatever direction they turned they were met by British forces; defeat followed defeat. Many fled to the jungles, while others sought refuge in the villages, but were killed without mercy by local villagers who had not forgotten the sufferings inflicted upon them by the Pindaris. All the leaders had surrendered before the end of February 1818 and the Pindari system and power was brought to a close. They were removed to Gorakhptir where they obtained grants of land for their subsistence. Karim Khan became a farmer on the small estate he received beyond the Ganges in Gorakpur. Wasil Mohammed attempted to escape, and after he was found Mohammed committed suicide by imbibing poison. Chitu, another Pindari warrior, was hunted by John Malcolm from place to place until he had no followers left. He vanished into the jungles of Central India in 1819 and was killed by a tiger.

Events in Nagpur

Mudhoji Bhonsle, also known as Appa Saheb, consolidated his power in Nagpur after the murder of his cousin, the imbecile ruler Parsoji Bhonsle, and entered into a treaty with the British on 27 May 1816. He ignored the request of the British Resident Jenkins to refrain from contact with Baji Rao II. Jenkins asked Appa Saheb to disband his growing concentration of troops and come to the residency, which he also refused to do. Appa Saheb openly declared support for the Peshwa, who was already fighting the British near Pune. As it was now clear that a battle was in the offing, Jenkins asked for reinforcements from nearby British East India Company troops. He already had about 1,500 men under Lieutenant-Colonel Hopentoun Scott. Jenkins sent word for Colonel Adams to march to Nagpur with his troops. Like other Maratha leaders, Appa Shaeb employed Arabs in his army. They were typically involved in holding fortresses. While they were known to be among the bravest of troops, they were not amenable to discipline and mostly armed with only matchlocks and swords. The total strength of the Marathas was about 18,000.

The British Residency was to the west of the Sitabuldi Fort located close to Nagpur. The British East India Company troops occupied the north end of the hillock associated with the fort. The Marathas, fighting with the Arabs, made good initial gains by charging up the hill and forcing the British to retreat to the south. British commanders began arriving with reinforcements: Lieutenant Colonel Rahan on 29 November, Major Pittman on 5 December, and Colonel Doveton on 12 December. The British counterattack was severe and Appa Saheb was forced to surrender. A force of 5,000 Arabs and Hindustanis however remained secured within the walls of Nagpur with the British laying siege to the city from 19 December. Attempts by the British to breach the walls failed with the loss of over 300 men, of which 24 were Europeans. The British agreed to pay the defenders 50,000 rupees to abandon Nagpur, which they did on 30 December. A treaty was signed on 9 January 1818. Appa Saheb was allowed to rule over nominal territories with several restrictions. Most of his territory, including the forts, was now controlled by the British. They built additional fortifications on Sitabuldi.

A few days later Appa Saheb was arrested. He was being escorted to Allahabad when he escaped to Punjab to seek refuge with the Sikhs. They turned him down and he was captured once again by the British near Jodhpur. Raja Mansingh of Jodhpur stood surety for him and he remained in Jodhpur, where he died on 15 July 1849 at 44 years of age.

Events in Holkar

The Court of Holkar, based at Indore, was at this time practically nonexistent. The dynasty was headed by 11-year-old Malhar Rao Holkar III under the regency of his dead father's mistress Tulsi Bai Holkar. Tulsi Bai was executed by her own troops in December 1817 for allying with the British; soon after, the British advanced into Holkar's territory, encountering his army about 40 km north of Indore at the Battle of Mahidpur.

The battle of Mahidpur between Holkar and the British was fought on 21 December 1817, lasting from midday until 3:00 am. Lieutenant General Thomas Hislop was commander of the British forces which came in sight of the Holkar army at about 9:00 am. The British lost around 800 men but Holkar's force was destroyed, with about 3,000 killed or wounded. These losses effectively knocked the Holkar out of the conflict and broke the power of the Holkar dynasty. The Battle of Mahidpur also proved to be a major setback for the Marathas as well. Henry Durand wrote, "After the battle of Mahidpur not only the Peshwa's but the real influence of the Mahratta States of Holkar and Shinde were dissolved and replaced by British supremacy." The remnants of Holkar's army were pursued across the territory by the British, suffering further casualties in small-scale skirmishes. Holkar was captured and his ministers made overtures of peace, and on 6 January 1818 the Treaty of Mandeswar was signed; Holkar accepted the British terms in totality. Large quantities of spoils of war was taken by the British, which remained an acrimonious issue for many years afterwards. Holkar came under British authority as a puppet prince subject to the advice of a British Resident.

Operations against remaining Maratha forces

By mid 1818, all of the Maratha leaders had surrendered to the British. Shinde and the Afghan Amir Khan were subdued by the use of diplomacy and pressure, which resulted in the Treaty of Gwalior on 5 November 1817. Under this treaty, Shinde surrendered Rajasthan to the British and agreed to help them fight the Pindaris. Amir Khan agreed to sell his guns to the British and received a land grant at Tonk in Rajputana. Holkar was defeated on 21 December 1817 and signed the Treaty of Mandeswar on 6 January 1818. Under this treaty the Holkar state became subsidiary to the British. The young Malhar Rao was raised to the throne. Bhonsle was defeated on 26 November 1817 and was captured but he escaped to live out his life in Jodhpur. The Peshwa surrendered on 3 June 1818 and was sent off to Bithur near Kanpur under the terms of the treaty signed on 3 June 1818. Of the Pindari leaders, Karim Khan surrendered to Malcolm in February 1818; Wasim Mohammad surrendered to Shinde and eventually poisoned himself; and Setu was killed by a tiger.

During the last stages of the conflict, from 1818 to 1819, British military operations switch to capturing Maratha-held forts which were still holding out under the command of their qiladars. On February 27, 1818, British forces under the command of Sir Thomas Hislop approached Thalner Fort, assuming it was friendly; the fort's qilidar, Tulsiram Mama, ordered his troops to fire on the British, outraging Hislop who laid siege to the fort. After ordering several bombardments against the fort walls, he personally led a storming party which captured the fort and overwhelmed its garrison (which was composed mostly of Arab soldiers). Mama was tried and executed for perfidy, and was hung on a nearby tree. Other forts in the region, such as Naralla Fort and Malegaon Fort were gradually captured and occupied by the British. At Malegaon Fort, the British encountered unexpectedly strong resistance from the fort garrison, which led them to bring in a 2,600-strong reinforcement force consisting of a mixture of infantry and artillery, after which a storming party captured the fort.

In early 1819, almost all of the forts had been taken, with the lone holdout being Asirgarh Fort, which was under the command of qiladar Jeswant Rao Lar. In March of that year, a massive British contingent lay siege to Asirgarh, capturing and occupying the town next to the fort to serve as a temporary base of operations. The 1,200-strong garrison was subject to constant artillery bombardments before the British launched an assault, which led to the fort's capture on 9 April. With the capture of Asirgarh Fort, the British victory was complete and all military operations ceased.

Aftermath

The war left the British, under the auspices of the British East India Company, in control of virtually all of present-day India south of the Sutlej River, either through direct British rule, or through princely states. The famed Nassak Diamond was seized by the Company as part of the spoils of the war. The British acquired large chunks of territory from the Maratha Empire and in effect put an end to their most dynamic opposition. The terms of surrender Malcolm offered to the Peshwa were controversial amongst the British for being too liberal: The Peshwa was offered a luxurious life near Kanpur and given a pension of about 80,000 pounds. A comparison was drawn with Napoleon, who was then confined to a small rock in the southern Atlantic and given a small sum for his maintenance. Trimbakji Dengale was captured after the war and was sent to the fortress of Chunarin Bengal where he spent the rest of his life. With all active resistance over, John Malcolm played a prominent part in capturing and pacifying the remaining fugitives.

The Peshwa's territories were absorbed into the Bombay Presidency and the territory seized from the Pindaris eventually became the nucleus of the Central Provinces of British India. The princes of Rajputana were effectively reduced to feudal lords who accepted the British as the paramount power. Thus Hastings redrew the map of India to a state which remained more or less unaltered until the time of Lord Dalhousie. The British recognised Pratap Singh (Raja of Satara), a direct descendant of Shivaji as the ceremonial head of the Maratha Confederacy. Raghuji Bhonsle III, then not even ten years old, was appointed as the ruler of Nagpur under British guardianship. The Peshwa adopted a son, Nana Sahib, who went on to be one of the leaders of the Rebellion of 1857. After 1818, Mountstuart Elphinstone reorganized the administrative divisions for revenue collection, thus reducing the importance of the Patil, the Deshmukh, and the Deshpande.

The new government felt a need to communicate with the local Marathi-speaking population; Elphinstone pursued a policy of planned standardization of the Marathi language in the Bombay Presidency starting after 1820.

See also

 Maratha Empire
 First Anglo-Maratha War
 Second Anglo-Maratha War

Notes

Footnotes

Citations

References

 Finn, Margot C. "Material turns in British history: I. Loot." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 28 (2018): 5-32. online

Further reading

https://sites.google.com/vvdatalink.com/vv-datalink/knowledge/history/indian-history/mordern-history/anglo-maratha-wars

Anglo-Maratha War 3
Anglo-Maratha War 3
1817 in India
1818 in India
Conflicts in 1817
Conflicts in 1818
Wars involving British India
Wars involving the British East India Company

Third Anglo-Maratha War


Daletice este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Sabinov din regiunea Prešov. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 101 locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Daletice este atestată documentar din 1320.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Daletice


The Russian Constitution of 1906 refers to a major revision of the 1832 Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire, which transformed the formerly absolutist state into one in which the emperor agreed for the first time to share his autocratic power with a parliament.  It was enacted on  1906, on the eve of the opening of the first State Duma. This first-ever Russian Constitution was a revision of the earlier Fundamental Laws, which had been published as the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (, pre-1918 Russian orthography: Сводъ законовъ Россійской Имперіи) in 1832. It was granted during the Russian Revolution of 1905, in a last-ditch effort by the imperial government to preserve its own existence and keep the empire from disintegration.

The new constitution provided for a bicameral Russian parliament, without whose approval no laws were to be enacted in Russia.  This legislature was composed of an upper house, known as the State Council, and a lower house, known as the State Duma. Half of the members of the upper house were appointed by the Tsar, while the other half were elected by various governmental, clerical and commercial interests. Members of the lower house were to be chosen by different classes of the Russian people, through a complex scheme of indirect elections—with the system being weighted to ensure the ultimate preponderance of the propertied classes. While the Duma held the power of legislation and the right to question the Tsar's ministers, it did not have control over their appointment or dismissal, which was reserved to the monarch alone. Nor could it alter the constitution, save upon the emperor's initiative. The Tsar retained an absolute veto over legislation, as well as the right to dismiss the Duma at any time, for any reason he found suitable. The emperor also had the right to issue decrees during the Duma's absence—though these lost their validity if not approved by the new parliament within two months.

This charter had been granted under duress, and Nicholas abhorred its restrictions upon his power, which he had sworn at his coronation to pass on to his son. He dismissed the First and Second Dumas when they proved "unsatisfactory" to him, and unilaterally altered the election statutes (in violation of the constitution) to ensure that more landed persons would be elected to future Dumas. Although the resulting Third and Fourth Dumas proved more lasting, they still quarreled with the Tsar and his government over the general direction of state policy, and over the fundamental nature of the Russian state. Ultimately, with the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Duma took a leading role in bringing about the Tsar's abdication, which led in turn to the abolition of monarchy and the ascent to power of the Russian Provisional Government under Kerensky. However, that liberal government would be overthrown a few months later in the October Revolution, with the rise of the Bolsheviks signifying Russia's transition to a dictatorship.

Russian government prior to 1906

Prior to the enactment of the 1906 Russian constitution, the Russian Empire had been an absolute monarchy, ruled by an autocratic emperor, who was commonly referred to by his pre-imperial title of "Tsar". The precise regulations by which the Tsar exercised his imperial prerogatives were first codified in 1832, with the issuance of the Set of Laws of the Russian Empire (Свод законов Российскои империи), penned by Mikhail Speransky. These laws could be altered or repealed by the emperor.  However, the autocratic Tsars were generally limited by two constraints: they and their spouses must profess the Russian Orthodox faith, and they must obey the laws of succession laid down by Emperor Paul I. Beyond that, the power of the Russian emperor was virtually limitless.

Although a Boyar Duma had existed in Russia from Muscovite times until the rule of Peter I, it was an advisory institution, without legislative prerogatives. Peter abolished this organ in 1721, replacing it with the Governing Senate. This body consisted of nine (later ten) members, and was intended to oversee administration of the empire, under the direction of an Ober-Procurator, appointed (as were all members of this body) by the sovereign. The emperor might submit draft decree proposals to this committee for their deliberation and recommendations, but he was not bound to do so, nor was he required to accept their advice, once tendered. In later years, the Governing Senate took on an important role in administration and law, and by the late nineteenth century it had evolved into the highest judicial organ in Russia, with all officials and legal institutions under its control. Its decisions as to interpretation of the legal code, unless countermanded by the Tsar, were seen as absolutely authoritative. However, the Senate still remained at all times under the monarch's direct control: he named and dismissed its members, could alter its prerogatives, and was free to overrule its actions. As such, the Ruling Senate was never considered to be a "parliament" in the modern sense.

Various proposals for reform emerged during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: Alexander I formed a Privy Committee to investigate introducing a parliament and ministerial system; the latter was eventually introduced, but the former foundered due to the Napoleonic Wars and opposition from conservative members of the nobility.  Alexander did establish a State Council, with 35—later 60—members, whose major duty was the investigation, promulgation and abrogation of laws.  Its four departments were:

Legislative;
Civil and Ecclesiastical Administration;
State Economy; and
Industry, Science and Commerce.

Each department had its own presiding officer (called a State Secretary) and met separately to discuss matters assigned to it. There were also plenary sessions of the whole Council, called to peruse laws proposed by the Tsar's ministers, who were ex-officio members. While most sessions concerned the budget and state expenditures, the Council would examine anything submitted to it. It had no authority to propose changes to existing laws, nor to investigate anything not initiated by the Tsar. Decision-making authority rested with the emperor, who appointed and dismissed members of the Council.

Alexander's nephew Alexander II entertained reformist ideas, culminating in a project initiated by Count Mikhail Loris-Melikov, who had been appointed his Minister of Interior in August 1880.  One of these proposals would have established two Imperial commissions, to be populated by indirectly elected members, who would advise the Emperor on further reforms. Alexander's assassination, on the very day he intended to sign this proposal into law, effectively killed all mention of legislative reform in Russia—as the murdered Tsar's son, Alexander III, insisted upon preserving the autocracy intact. Nicholas II, who succeeded his father in 1894, was also committed to maintain absolute monarchy, even in the face of ever-increasing calls for reform, peasant unrest, and the rise of revolutionary organizations within his empire. When reforms became inevitable, Nicholas would insist upon retaining as much of his previous authority as possible. For instance, faced with demands from municipal and provincial dumas for the establishment of a national legislative assembly, Nicholas offered only a broadening of the local councils' authority, insurance for factory workers, and the abolition of censorship. This was not considered nearly enough for the liberals, who agitated even more for a constitution and far-reaching political reforms.

Adoption of the constitution

Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 combined with a rising tide of revolutionary feeling in Russia to produce the Russian Revolution of 1905. This upheaval was initially provoked by Bloody Sunday, in which thousands of unarmed protesters (largely urban workers and intellectuals) seeking to present a petition to the Tsar were met by imperial troops, who opened fire on them and killed several. As word of this tragedy spread across the empire, it combined with the catastrophic Russian defeat in the Far East to incite a major uprising against the emperor's authority. Although the Tsarist army largely remained loyal to the emperor, close advisors to the Tsar became convinced that some kind of fundamental change in State administration was inevitable, if the monarchy was to survive.

Count Sergei Witte, the Tsar's Minister of Finance and recent Russian plenipotentiary at the Treaty of Portsmouth negotiations (ending the war with Japan), was named chairman of the Tsar's Council of Ministers after returning home from New Hampshire. He proposed introduction of an elected legislature, the granting of basic civil rights, and the formation of a constitutional monarchy. Nicholas strenuously resisted these ideas, but gave in after his first choice to head a military dictatorship, Grand Duke Nicholas, threatened to shoot himself in the head if the Tsar did not accept Witte's suggestion. Nicholas unwillingly agreed, and issued what became known as the October Manifesto on  1905, promising basic civil rights and an elected parliament called the Duma, without whose approval no laws were to be enacted in Russia in the future.

Accordingly, three proposed drafts were prepared for a revision of Speransky's Fundamental Laws. The Tsar chose to accept the draft authored by Peter Kharitonov, Deputy State Secretary of the State Chancellory, as the basis for the new constitution. Other constitutions from Austria-Hungary, Japan and Prussia were also studied, as was a draft constitution authored by the Union of Liberation, and published abroad.  The State Chancellory prepared a draft, which was discussed during five sessions of the Council of Ministers, where alterations were made to further strengthen the emperor's prerogatives at the expense of the new parliament. Following this, the draft was further discussed and amended under the Tsar's chairmanship; Nicholas chose to officially publish this new constitution on  1906. With this act, Russia was officially transformed from an absolute monarchy into a constitutional one, though the exact extent of just how constitutional quickly became the subject of debate, based upon the emperor's subsequent actions.

Provisions
The Russian Constitution of 1906 contained an introduction and eleven chapters: comprising a total of 124 articles:

The Introduction (Articles 1–3) declared that Russia was "one and indivisible", and mandated the use of Russian in the armed forces and other public institutions.  It also acknowledged the Grand Principality of Finland as an "inseparable part of the Russian state", while ambiguously acknowledging its special legislative and political status.
Chapter One (Articles 4–24) concerned "the essence of the supreme autocratic power", declaring that the emperor possessed "supreme sovereign power", and that obedience to his commands was mandated by God himself.  It provided for the ruler's prerogatives, while making him personally inviolable.  The Tsar possessed an absolute veto over all legislation, legislative initiative on all matters, and the sole prerogative to initiate any revision of the constitution itself. The emperor had charge over Russia's administrative and external affairs, and sole power to declare war, make peace and negotiate treaties, as well as the supreme command of the armed forces.  The emperor also retained authority over the minting of money, as well as the right to grant pardons and quash judicial proceedings.  He appointed and dismissed his ministers at will, and decided the nature and scope of their duties.
Chapter Two (Articles 25–39) regulated the order of succession to the throne.  The thrones of Poland and Finland were declared "inseparable" from that of Russia, while precise rules on succession to the throne were spelled out. Females were eligible to succeed, though they were placed last in order behind all dynastically qualified male descendants of Romanov emperors.  A female ruler was guaranteed all the prerogatives and privileges of the imperial office, though her consort was not to take the title of "emperor".  Children born to a marriage between a dynastic Romanov and a person "not of corresponding dignity" (defined as "not belonging to any royal or sovereign house") were ineligible for the throne, as was any person who inherited the throne while ruling over another nation whose state religion was not Orthodox, if unwilling to renounce that other throne and faith.
Chapter Three (Articles 40–82) concerned issues of regency and guardianship, if the emperor was a minor. The age of majority was established at sixteen, and instructions were given concerning the appointment of a regent and a mandatory regency council, together with the prerogatives exercised by the same.
Chapter Four (Articles 53–56) concerned accession to the throne and the Oath of Allegiance to be sworn by all male citizens of the empire, aged twenty and above, each "according to his faith and law".
Chapter Five (Articles 57–58) concerned the coronation and anointing of a new sovereign, which was to take place "according to the rite of the Greco-Russian Orthodox Church."  Explanatory Note 1 at the end of this chapter indicated that the emperor was conjointly crowned Emperor of Russia and King of Poland. Explanatory Note 2 required him to recite the Nicene Creed according to the Orthodox Christian formula (without the filioque clause), and mandated a specific prayer for him to recite during the ceremony while wearing the Imperial Crown of Russia and holding the sceptre and orb.
Chapter Six (Articles 59–61) concerned the many formal titles held by the Russian sovereign, together with the precise makeup of the Russian state coat of arms and seal.
Chapter Seven (Articles 62–68) concerned the relationship of the Russian state to the various religions professed by its subjects. The Orthodox faith was declared the state religion, and both the emperor and his or her consort were required to profess that religion. The Tsar was named as the "supreme defender and guardian" of the Russian Orthodox Church, while those of other confessions were promised full religious liberty, which was also extended to "Jews, Muslims and heathens."

Chapter Eight (Articles 69–83) concerned the "rights and obligations" of Russian citizens. Citizens were guaranteed protection from arbitrary arrest and detention, the inviolability of their domiciles, protection from illegal search and seizure, the right to travel (subject to restriction), and the right to own private property.  Other rights promised in the document included freedom of assembly, freedom of expression, to organize unions and similar organizations, and freedom of religion.  Military service was mandatory for all male subjects called to it, regardless of social rank, and payment of taxes and performance of "other duties in accordance with lawful decrees" was required.
Chapter Nine (Articles 84–97) concerned the promulgation of laws. Article 86 required the approval of the emperor, Duma and State Council for all laws, while Article 87 permitted the Tsar and his cabinet to issue decrees during times when the Duma was not in session. However, these lost their validity if not introduced to the new Duma within two months of its convocation, or if the new Duma or Council refused to confirm them. This article furthermore prohibited the emperor from using this authority to change the Constitution itself, or to change the laws for election to the Duma or Council. Nicholas' violation of this provision during the so-called Coup of June 1907 would irreparably damage his reputation among Russian liberals, and led many to conclude that the entire Russian Constitution was ultimately a sham. This contributed to more revolutionary agitation, and to the Tsar's eventual overthrow in February 1917.  The Russian system did not offer any right of impeachment to the legislative branch of government.
Chapter Ten (Articles 98–119) regulated the modus operandi of the State Council and Duma. Both were required to meet at least once per year, though the duration of their sessions and the length of their recess were the emperor's prerogative.  The Tsar was granted the right to appoint up to one-half of the membership of the State Council, while members of the Duma were to be elected for a five-year term according to the state election statutes.  Both houses possessed equal rights in legislative matters, while either or both of them could be dissolved at any time by the emperor, though new elections for the Duma must be announced at the same time as its dissolution.  Both houses possessed the right of legislative initiative, save in respect to the constitution itself; amendments to the constitution could only be proposed by the monarch.  The Imperial Court Ministry was not subject to the Duma's control. Securing of governmental loans was also beyond the legislature's purview, nor was it permitted to refuse or reduce funds to repay such obligations.  The Duma was equally prohibited from using its budgetary power to deny manpower requests from the Army or Navy; should the legislature not approve such a petition, the military was allowed to call a new number of draftees equal to the previous year's number.
Chapter Eleven (Articles 120–124) concerned the Council of Ministers. It established the office of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and made all members of this council responsible to the emperor for their actions. "Regulations, instructions or orders" issued by this council, or any member thereof, could not contradict existing law. Ministers could be interrogated by either the State Council or Duma for their actions while in office, but only the Tsar could remove them.

Abolition of the 1906 constitution
With the abdication of Tsar Nicholas in February 1917 (Old Style), the government of Russia was initially taken over by a Provisional Government established by the Fourth Duma. Alexander Kerensky, who became the most prominent leader of this government, unilaterally abolished the Russian monarchy on  1917, thereby formally abrogating the 1906 Constitution. In November Russia was taken over by the Bolshevik party, leading ultimately to the establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on 30 December 1922. Prior to that time, the Communists had enacted a new constitution, firmly establishing Russia as a Bolshevik state. This was in turn superseded by the 1924 Soviet Constitution and the constitutions of 1936 and 1977, the last of which lasted until the fall of the Soviet Union and the adoption of Russia's current governing document in 1993, under which the nation is currently governed.

See also
Constitution of Russia

References

External links

The Russian Constitution of 1906

1906
Russia, 1906
Politics of the Russian Empire
Law of the Russian Empire
1906 in the Russian Empire
1906 in law
1906 documents
May 1906 events
1906 in politics

Russian Constitution of 1906


අ‍ශෝක රජු සමයේ සිට පැමිණ අනුබුදු මිහිදු මහරහතන් වහන්සේගේ ලංකාගමනයෙන් නව ජීවයක් ලැබු හෙළ කලා ශිල්ප ඉන් පසුව ලක්දිව රජවු රජ දරුවන්ගේ වීරබාහු තුලින් ඔපවත් වී  ගොඩනැගුනි.ඒ අනගි කලා දායාද අද පවා හෙළ කලාකරුවන්ගේ සුවිශේෂ නිපුනත්වය ලොවට හඩගා කියාපාන නි
හඩ සාක්ෂිව පවතින්නේය.

අනුරාධපුර යුගය

පෙර අපේ රජදරුවන්ගේ නිර්මාණශීලී බ‍වෙහි ස්වර්ණමය යුගය වු අනුරාධපුර යුගය සිරිලක කලා නිර්මාණවල ආරම්භක යුගය යැයි සැලකිය හැක. ලාංකික කලාකරුවා‍ගේ නිර්මාන තුලින් බිහිවු  විශිෂ්ට නිර්මාණයක් වන අනුරාධපුර බි‍සෝ මාලිග‍යේ සදකඩපහන අදද අ‍පේ  සිත් පහන් කරවන මනරම් දසුනකි. ක‍ඨෝර ගලක ඉතා  සියුම්  ලෙස ගැඹුරට කැටයම් කර ඇති අඩ පියුමකි.ඵ් වටා කවාකාර පටිවලින් ලියවැලක්ද, හංස පේලියක්ද නැවත ඵවැනිම විසිතුරැ ලියවැලක්ද ඵකි‍නෙකා පිටුපස ව‍මේ  සිට දුවන ඇත්, අස්, ගව, සිංහ පේලිද අවසාන‍යේ  මනරම් ගිනිදැල් මාලාවක්ද දක්නට ලැ‍බෙයි.
අනුරාධපුර සම‍යේ විසු ලක්දිව බුදුසමය වැලදගත් පළමු නරපතියා වන  දෙවන පෑතිස් නිරිඳුන්‍ගේ කලා දායාදයක් වන ඉසුරුමුනි පෙම් යුවල අද අ‍පේ කලා ශිල්ප අතර වැදගත් තැනක් ගනී.

කි.පු.4 වන සියව‍සේ තැනු මෙය ඉසුරුමුනි විහාරයට අයත්ව ඇත.ඉතා වටිනා ගල් කැටයමක් වන මේ  පෙම් යුවල ලෝකවාසී කලාකාමීන්‍ගේ ගෞරවයට ලක් වී ඇත.මීට අමතරව අනුරාධපුර‍යේ  විශිෂ්ට කලා නිර්මාණ  ලෙස අනුරාධපුර යුග‍යේ මැද භාග‍යේ ඉදිවු කුට්ටම් පොකුණ, සමාධි පිලිමය, මිහින්ත‍ලේ කණ්ඨක චෛත්‍යයේ වාහල්කඩ  මුල් තැනක් ගනී. ඉතා අලංකාර චිත්‍ර සමූහයකින් සමන්විත ලොව viii වැනි පුදුමය ලෙස සැලකෙන කාශ්‍යප රජු තැනූ සීගිරිය අපේ හෙළ කලාදායාද වල අපූර්වතම නිර්මාණයකි. අව් වැසි වලින් ආරක්ෂා වන ලෙස ඇද ඇති මෙම චිත්‍ර ඉන්දියාවේ අජන්තා ලෙනෙහි දක්නට ඇති සිතුවම් වලට සමානය

අනුරාධපුර යුගයේ සිතුවම්

පොලොන්නරු යුග‍ය

මුලු රටට සශ්‍රීකත්වයේ සංකේතයක් බවට පත් කළ,දහසක් වැව් බැදි රජරට පෝෂණය කල පොලොන්නරුව යුගය කලා ලොවට දුන් දායාද ඉමහත්ය.ඵ් අතර පොලොන්නරුවේ විසූ 1 වන පරාක්‍රමබාහු නිරිදුන්ගේ අනුගහය යටතේ ඉදිකල උත්තරාරාමය හෙවත් ගල් විහාරය වැදගත්ම අංගයකි. බුදුන් වහන්සේගේ හිටි පිළිමයක්, හිදි පිළිමයක් හා  සැතපෙන පිළිමයක් ලෙස මෙය සමන්විතය. ස්වභාවික කළුගල් පර්වතයක් විශ්මිත බුදුපිළිම තුනක් බවට පත් කිරීමට හෙළ කලාකරුවාගේ රන් දෑත කොතරම් සියුම් ලෙස හසුරැවා ඇත්ද යන්න දැන ගැනීමට අපට තවත් සාක්ෂි අවශ්‍ය නැත.ඵතරම් අපගේ හෙළ කලා දායාද නිර්මාණශීලීය.පොලොන්නරු යුග‍යේ ඉදිවූ තවත් කලා අංගයක් වන තිවංක පිළිම ගෙයද වැදගත් ස්ථානයක් ගන්නා කලා නිර්මාණයකි.බොකු වහලයකින් යුක්ත මෙය බුදු පිළිම තැන්පත් කිරීමට යොදාගෙන ඇත.මෙය අලංකාර කැටයම් මූර්ති රාශියකින් යුක්තය. සිව හා පාර්වතී ලෝකඩ පිළිමද පොලොන්නරු යුග‍යේ වැදගත් නිර්මාණ වේ. තවද නිශ්ශංකමල්ල රජුගේ දම්සභා මණ්ඩපය වන නිශ්ශංකලතාණ්ඩපයද,පොලොන්නරු යුග‍යේ වැදගත් ස්ථානයකි. මෙහි ඇති කුළුණු මත අඩක් පිපුණු නෙළුම් මල්,ලියවැල් ,හා පලාපෙති අලංකාර ලෙස කැටයම් කර ඇත.පොලොන්නරු යුග‍යේ තවත්  නිර්මාණ ලෙස ශිව දේවාලය, ලංකාතිලක විහාරය හැදින්විය හැක. දඹදෙණි යුග‍යේ සිට කෝට්ටේ යුගය දක්වා කලාශිල්ප  අනුරාධපුර  පොලොන්නරු  කලාශිල්ප වලට වඩා වෙනස් කමක් ගත්තේය. ඊට හේතුව රාජධානි නිතර නිතර මාරැවීම හා හින්දු ආගමික බලපෑමය. පොළොන්නරුව නෙළුම් පොකුණද සුවිශේෂී නිර්මාණයකි.

පොලොන්නරු යුග‍යේ සිතුවම් සහ නිර්මාණ

දඹදෙණි යුගය

දඹදෙණි යුගයේ කලා නිර්මාණ ලෙස අද ඉතිරිව ඇත්තේ ඉතා සුළු කොටසකි.ඵ්වා අතර තුන්වන විජයබා රජ විසින් තනවන ලද බෙලිගල දළදා මැදුර , රාජ මාලිගය හා විජය සුන්දරාරාමය වැදගත්ය.මේවායේ ඉතා වටිනා මූර්ති කැටයම් හා බුදු පිළිමද ඇත.

දඹදෙණි යුගයේ සිතුවම්

යාපහුව යුගය
ගල් කුලක් කපා ඉදිකල දර්ශනීය පියගැටපෙළක් වන යාපහුව පියගැටපෙළත් අභීත ලෙස සිංහලකම කියාපාන යාපහුවේ සිංහයාත් හෙළ කලාකරුවාගේ සුවිශේෂත්වය ලොවට කියාපායි. යාපහුවේ සිංහයා  හෙළ කලාශිල්පවල වැදගත් මෙන්ම නිර්මාණශීලී දායාදයකි.

යාපහුව යුගයේ සිතුවම්

කුරුණෑගල යුගය
දෙවන බුවනෙකබාහු රජතුමාගේ පුරවරය වන කුරැණෑගල රාජධානියේ අපට ඉතිරිව ඇති කලා නිර්මාණ ප්‍රමාණය ඉතා කුඩාය. ඵ් අතර තොටගමුවේ විජයබා පිරිවෙන, විදාගම ශ්‍රී ඝණානන්ද පිරිවෙන වැදගත් වේ.මෙම ස්ථාන දෙකෙන්  බුවනෙකබා රජකාලයේ තිබූ බුදු පිළිම වර්ග කිහිපයක් හා විශේෂ කලා නිර්මාන කිහිපයක් පමණක් අද අපට ඉතිරිව ඇත. වැසී පැවති  විදාගම ශ්‍රී ඝණානන්ද පිරිවෙන 1999 වර්ෂයේදී යලිත් ආරම්භ කර ඇත.

ගම්‍පොළ යුගය
ගඟසිරිපුරවරය නොහොත් ගම්‍පොළ රාජධානියේ කලා ශිල්ප නව ආරක් ගත් නම්‍යශීලී බවක් ඉසිලුවේය. ලංකාතිලක විහාරය හා ගඩලාදෙනිය විහාරය වැනි සුවිශේෂ විහාර කිහිපයක් ගම්පළ යුගයට අයත්ව ඇත. 1v වන බුවනෙකබාහු රජුගේ අනුගහය යටතේ තැනුණ අතර අද ද අපේ අනන්‍යතාවය කියාපායි. මීට අමතරව හෙළ වඩුවාගේ දෑතින්ම නිමවූ අලංකාර ලී කැටයම් රාශියකින් ගහන ඇම්බැක්කේ දේවාලය අතීත සිංහල වඩුවාගේ අගය අපට පෙන්වා දෙයි. හංස ජෝඩු, ඇත් පොරය , නාටිකාංගනාවන් ආදී  ලංකාවේ දුර්ලභ කැටයම් රාශියක් මෙහි දක්නට ඇත.

ගම්‍පොළ යුගයේ සිතුවම්

කෝට්ටේ යුගය
ශ්‍රී ලංකා ඉතිහාසයේ අවසාන සෞභාග්‍යමත් යුගයක් වන කෝට්ටේ යුගයේ පාලකයා වුයේ V වන පරාකමබාහු රජතුමාය. නිශ්ශංක අලගක්කෝනාර නැමති සෙන්පතියා විසින් තනන ලද කෝට්ටේ බලකොටුව හා සුනේත්‍රාදේවි පිරිවෙන කලාකෘතීන්ගෙන් පිරී ඇති ස්ථානයන්ය.

මෙසේ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දස දෙසින් පිහිටා ඇති  ඉපැරණි කලා දායාද බොහෝය.

මේවාද බලන්න
 පොලොන්නරුව
 ඉසුරුමුණිය

මූලාශ්‍ර
දහම් ලිපි සරණිය, බුද්ධ ශාසන අමාත්‍යාංශයේ ප්‍රකාශනය,2003

ශ්‍රී ලංකාව
අතීතය

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ඉපැරණි කලා නිර්මාණ


L'armée informatique d'Ukraine (en ) est une organisation de cyberguerre volontaire créée fin février 2022 pour lutter contre l'intrusion numérique de l'information ukrainienne et du cyberespace après le début de l'invasion russe de l'Ukraine le 24 février 2022. Le groupe mène également des opérations de cyberguerre offensives et le cyber-responsable du gouvernement ukrainien Victor Zhora a déclaré que ses pirates enrôlés n'attaqueraient que des cibles militaires.

Formation
Le 26 février 2022, le ministre de la Transformation numérique et premier vice-Premier ministre ukrainien, Mykhailo Fedorov, a annoncé la création de l'armée informatique et demande dans un tweet à toutes les personnes souhaitant participer à l'effort de guerre de la rejoindre.

Selon Reuters, le gouvernement ukrainien a demandé des volontaires parmi les hackers du pays pour aider à protéger les infrastructures critiques et mener des missions de cyberespionnage contre les troupes russes.

Objectifs
Les volontaires qui ont rejoint le groupe sont divisés en cyber-unités offensives et défensives. Alors que l'unité de volontaires offensifs aiderait l'armée ukrainienne à mener des opérations d'espionnage numérique contre les envahisseurs russes, l'unité défensive serait employée pour défendre des infrastructures telles que des centrales électriques et des systèmes d'approvisionnement en eau.

Le gouvernement ukrainien a utilisé Twitter et Telegram pour partager une liste de cibles russes et biélorusses à attaquer par l'armée. Les opérateurs russes de rançongiciels ont réagi en offrant leur aide pour contrer l'effort ukrainien.

Ralliements
Cette armée informatique d'Ukraine est ralliée par un collectif de hackers se présentant sous la bannière d'Anonymous qui annonce le 17 mars 2022 avoir déjà piraté plus de 2500 sites russes liés au pouvoir en place ou à des sociétés privées détenues par des oligarques russes. Elle compterait plusieurs dizaines de milliers de participants par jour coordonnés notamment sur Telegram par le ministère de la transformation numérique.

De nombreux citoyens occidentaux ont également souhaité rejoindre les différents collectifs numériques de soutien à l'armée ukrainienne, notamment au Royaume-Uni. Cependant, les autorités britanniques avertissent leurs ressortissants en soulignant leur méconnaissance des mesures à mettre en place pour se protéger lorsqu'on participe à une cyberguerre.

Le Financial Times souligne l'aide numérique apportée par le gouvernement américain et par certaines grandes firmes du numérique, comme Microsoft, aux forces armées ukrainiennes.

Activités

 Fedorov a demandé l'aide de cyberspécialistes et a tweeté un télégramme avec une liste de 31 sites Web d'entreprises et d'organisations étatiques russes,
 Le 28 février 2022, l'Armée informatique d'Ukraine a piraté le site Internet de la Bourse de Moscou. L'Armée informatique d'Ukraine a indiqué qu'il ne leur avait fallu que cinq minutes pour rendre le site Web inaccessible,
 Le même jour, l'armée informatique pirate le site Web de la Sberbank, la plus grande banque de Russie. L'armée informatique a également lancé des attaques contre d'autres sites russes et biélorusses, notamment les sites Web gouvernementaux de Russie et de Biélorussie, le Service fédéral de sécurité de la fédération de Russie et l'agence de presse d'État biélorusse BelTA, entre autres,
 Selon Reuters, le groupe cible les réseaux électriques et ferroviaires russes pour empêcher les unités russes d'atteindre l'Ukraine.
 L'armée informatique d'Ukraine utilise le système de reconnaissance faciale de Clearview afin d'identifier les corps de soldats russes morts au combat et informer leur famille de leur décès, dans le but de créer de la révolte interne en Russie. La chercheuse en surveillance Stephanie Hare qualifie cette activité de guerre psychologique et émet l'hypothèse qu'elle puisse a contrario renforcer le sentiment anti-ukrainien en Russie.

Références

Sécurité informatique

Hacking (sécurité informatique)
Guerre contemporaine
Invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie en 2022

Armée informatique d'Ukraine


DebRA U.K. (acrónimo de Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa Research Association) es una asociación caritativa británica dedicada a la investigación médica que permita curar la epidermólisis bullosa, una enfermedad genética que, en sus formas más severas, afecta a toda la piel del cuerpo y las mucosas. En los casos más graves, la piel se ampolla o se rasga de la carne ante la más mínima fricción, por ejemplo, cuando un enfermo gira la cabeza mientras duerme puede sufrir el desprendimiento de la piel de las orejas, despertando en la mañana con más de treinta ampollas.

No hay tratamiento para la epidermólisis bullosa, solo la punción y el drenaje de las ampollas para evitar su crecimiento. Los afectados por las formas más severas mueren prematuramente de cáncer de piel. La mayoría de estos tienen una esperanza de vida de entre treinta y cuarenta años, mientras que los menos afortunados fallecen en la infancia. Cada día, los enfermos de epidermólisis bullosa batallan contra la pérdida de fluidos y las infecciones que los amenazan por sus heridas abiertas. Los más afectados tienen dificultad para comer debido al crudo estado de sus bocas, por lo que tienen que alimentarse a través de tubos. Hay formas menos complejas de esta enfermedad que solo afectan a pies y manos.

DebRA U.K. provee de apoyo vital a los pacientes a través del sistema Specialist Outreach Nurses, o 'Enfermeras especialistas de extensión', que visitan al recién nacido en el hospital para aconsejar al personal y a los familiares sobre cómo cuidar al niño, un servicio que continúa en casa con visitas regulares. DebRA también posee un equipo de trabajadores de apoyo que colabora con las familias para enfrentar la carga económica que significa tener a un niño con epidermólisis bullosa, ayudando a conseguir el equipamiento necesario cuando el apoyo financiero no está disponible en otras partes.

DebRA U.K. fue creada el 22 de julio de 1978 por un grupo de padres de niños afectados por la epidermólisis bullosa. En ese entonces, solo se habían diagnosticado doscientos casos en el Reino Unido. Esta organización es poco conocida por lo rara que resulta esta enfermedad y, además, por el hecho de que DebRA no cuenta con presupuesto para publicidad, ya que la mayoría de los fondos son usados para ayudar a los enfermos y a sus familias y para realizar investigaciones que exploran diferentes aspectos de la condición con la esperanza de hallar un tratamiento efectivo que cure la enfermedad. Además de lo anterior, DebRA trabaja por una vida sin dolor para todos los afectados por la epidermólisis bullosa.

Enlaces externos
DebRA Gran Bretaña (en inglés).
DebRA Estados Unidos (en inglés).
DebRA Argentina.
DebRA Chile.
DebRA Colombia.
DebRA España.
DebRA México.

Organizaciones no gubernamentales del Reino Unido
Organizaciones fundadas en 1978
Asociaciones

DebRA


Jiří Provazník jr. (* 25. Januar 1978) ist ein tschechischer Badmintonspieler.

Karriere
Jiří Provazník gewann 2001 Silber im Mixed mit Dana Kosová bei den nationalen Titelkämpfen in Tschechien. 2010 und 2011 erkämpfte er sich in der gleichen Disziplin Bronze. 2012 gewann er im Doppel und im Mixed Silber. Mit dem Team von BK 73 Deltacar Benátky wurde er des Weiteren mehrfacher Mannschaftsmeister. 2005 nahm er an den Badminton-Weltmeisterschaften teil.

Referenzen
https://czechbadminton.cz/article/rozhovor-s-jirim-provaznikem-po-deviti-letech-bych-rad-zlato

Badmintonspieler (Tschechien)
Tscheche
Geboren 1978
Mann

Jiří Provazník


Koturne (gr. κόθορνος) er
en snørestøvle af læder der omslutter hele foden.

En sådan, der var udstyret med en
meget tyk korksål, anvendtes (efter sigende
indført af Aischylos) af de tragiske
skuespillere for at gøre dem højere, mere imponerende.

Senere brugtes ordet så i billedlig betydning til at
betegne den tragiske eller høje stil, "at være på koturnen".

Kilde
  side 566 af professor Claudius Wilkens (Cl. Wilkens, 1844-1929)

Eksterne henvisninger
 'Koturne' i Ordbog over det danske Sprog og 'koturne' i Den Danske Ordbog
  Se Wiktionarys definition på ordet Kothurn (de)

Note

Støvler
Grækenland i antikken
Teater

Koturne


الاتحاد السعودي للسيارات والدراجات النارية، تأسس هذا الاتحاد سنة 2007، وكانت سنة 2005 شهدت السماح بممارسة رياضة السيارات والدراجات النارية. في عام 2007 تم تنظيم أول رالي بالمملكة العربية السعودية هو رالي حائل. وبعد ذلك تم تأسيس الاتحاد السعودي للسيارات والدراجات النارية. يرأسه خالد بن سلطان بن عبد الله الفيصل. ساهم الاتحاد في تأسيس الاتحاد العربي للدراجات النارية في ديسمبر 2008 بتونس وقد أسندت إلى رئيس الاتحاد السعودية مهمة نائب أول للرئيس.

الأهداف
هدف الاتحاد العربي السعودي للسيارات والدراجات النارية إلى تطوير وتشجيع رياضة السيارات والدراجات النارية في العربية السعودية طبقاً لقواعد السلامة ونظام الاتحاد الدولي للسيارات والاتحاد العالمي للدراجات النارية.

مجلس الإدارة
أعضاء مجلس إدارة الاتحاد السعودي للسيارات والدراجات النارية هم:
 الأمير خالد بن سلطان العبد الله الفيصل، رئيس الاتحاد
 الأمير سعود بن تركي الفيصل، عضو
 فهر بن سيف الدين الشريف، عضو
 اسيل بنت سليمان الحمد، عضو

مراجع

انظر أيضًا
 راليات
 الاتحاد الدولي للسيارات
 الاتحاد العالمي للدراجات النارية

وصلة خارجية
 الاتحاد السعودي للسيارات والدراجات النارية

رياضة المحركات الآلية
رياضة محركات في السعودية
مجالس إدارية رياضية في السعودية
منظمات رياضة الدراجات النارية
اتحادات رياضية سعودية
منظمات رياضية في المملكة العربية السعودية


Den danske Brigade er en dokumentarfilm fra 1946 instrueret af Bjarne Henning-Jensen, Astrid Henning-Jensen efter manuskript af Bjarne Henning-Jensen.

Handling
Filmen skildrer livet i uddannelseslejrene i Sverige, hvor Den danske Brigade trænede med store opgaver for øje, og giver indtryk af den hårde uddannelse, mandsskabet måtte gennemgå.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1946

Brigade
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Film om Besættelsen

Den danske Brigade


المركز الوطني للإعلام في العراق هو المركز الإعلامي التابع لوزارة الإعلام والإذاعة في الحكومة العراقية، وتقع في منقة الكاظمية في بغداد، وقد تم افتتاحه في عام 2003، ويضم مكتب الإعلام الصحفي ومكاتب الدعاية للوزارة.

المركز الوطني للإعلام هو الهيئة الرسمية المسؤولة عن رصد وتقييم أداء البرامج المرئية، وسائل الإعلام المطبوعة والصوتية. إلا أن نشاطه يتركز أساسا على تحسين أداء وسائل الإعلام الحكومية التي تعد من أهم الإدارات التي يجب أن تقوم بدور فعال وفعال في مواجهة التحديات التي تواجهها حكومة الوحدة الوطنية في وسائل الإعلام.

تم حل المركز الوطني للاعلام عام 2011 اثر خلافات سياسية داخل الحكومة العراقية، وأصدر رئيس الوزراء حيدر العبادي قرار بحل المركز الوطني واناطة جزء من مهامه بالمستشار الاعلامي له، الذي كان يتولى منصب مدير المركز الوطني علي هادي محمد، وجزء اخر من المهام ربطها بالناطق الرسمي باسم الحكومة علي الدباغ. وتم نشر موظفي المركز وامكانياته في دوائر الدولة الأخرى.

مصادر

إعلام العراق
دوائر حكومية في العراق
مبان حكومية اكتملت في 2003
مبان حكومية في العراق
مبان ومنشآت في بغداد
منظمات اتصالات وإعلام
مؤسسات عراقية

المركز الوطني للإعلام في العراق


An Maxillaria torifera in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Schltr., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Pedro Ortiz Valdivieso. An Maxillaria torifera in nahilalakip ha genus nga Maxillaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Colombia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Maxillaria

Maxillaria torifera


Ruslands Jernbaner drives af det nationale statsejede russiske jernbaneselskab (; ). Selskabet etableredes i 2003 og er blandt de største jernbaneselskaber i verden med 835.800(2014) ansatte og er det vigtigste jerbaneselskab i Rusland. Selskabet har hovedkontor i Moskva. Den totale længde af jernbanenettet er 85.281 km, hvilket gør det til verdens næststørste jernbanenet efter USA. I 1970'erne og 1980'erne udførte Sovjetunionens statslige jernbaner (forgængeren af Ruslands statslige jernbaner) mere godstransport på jernbane end resten af verden tilsammen. Denne trafik blev opereret på et jernbanenet, der kun udgjorde 10% af verdens samlede sporlængde.

Ruslands Jernbaner overtog det meste infrastruktur og rullende materiel fra de sovjetiske jernbaner. Sporvidden er hovedsageligt 1520 mm, dvs. bredspor. Desuden er der også smalsporede (1067 mm) spor. Af den samlede jernbane længde på 85 500 km er 22.000 km elektrificeret med 25 kV 50 Hz AC og 18.800 km elektrificeret ved 3 kV DC. Ruslands Statsjernbaner driver et forskningsinstitut for jerbanedrift i Sjtjérbinka, syd for Moskva.

Jernbaner
Følgende jernbaneselskaber er datterselskaber af Ruslands Jernbaner:

:

 Kaliningrads Jernbaner
 Oktober Jernbaner
 Moskvas Jernbaner
 Gorkij Jernbaner
 Sydøstlige Jernbaner
 Nordkaukasiske Jernbaner
 Krims Jernbaner (de facto)
 Volgas Jernbaner
 Kujbysjev Jernbaner
 Sydurals Jernbaner
 Nordlige Jernbaner
 Sverdlovsk Jernbaner
 Vestsibirske Jernbaner
 Krasnojarsk Jernbaner
 Østsibirske Jernbaner
 Transbajkals Jernbaner
 Fjernøstlige Jernbaner

:
 Abkhasiens Jernbaner

 Sydkaukasiske Jernbaner

Litteratur
 Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В.Н.: Электрические железные дороги («Elektriske jernbanelinjer»), Москва, Транспорт, 1993.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Etableret i 2003

Ruslands Jernbaner


Frederick Calvert ( - ) est un noble anglais et dernier de la lignée des barons de Baltimore. Bien qu'il ait exercé un pouvoir presque féodal dans la province du Maryland, il n'a jamais mis les pieds dans la colonie, et contrairement à son père, il s'est peu intéressé à la politique, traitant ses domaines, notamment le Maryland, en grande partie comme des sources de revenus pour soutenir son extravagance, et son mode de vie souvent scandaleux. En 1768, il est accusé d'enlèvement et de viol par Sarah Woodcock, une beauté notoire qui tenait une boutique de modiste à Tower Hill. Le jury acquitte Calvert, mais il quitte l'Angleterre peu de temps après et ne s'est jamais remis du scandale public qui a entouré le procès. Harcelé par les critiques et sa santé fragile, il contracte la fièvre et meurt à Naples à l'âge de 40 ans.

Jeunesse
Frederick Calvert est né en 1731, le fils aîné de Charles Calvert (5e baron Baltimore), troisième propriétaire gouverneur du Maryland (1699-1751). Il porte le nom de son parrain, Frédéric, prince de Galles, fils aîné de George II et père de George III . Le jeune Frederick est envoyé au Collège d'Eton pour faire ses études, où il acquiert une certaine maîtrise des classiques . Calvert a deux sœurs, Caroline Calvert, née vers 1745, et Louisa Calvert.

L'âge adulte et l'héritage
En 1751, Charles Calvert meurt et Frederick, âgé d'à peine 20 ans, hérite de son père du titre de baron Baltimore et du gouvernorat propriétaire de la province du Maryland, devenant à la fois un riche noble en Angleterre et une figure puissante en Amérique. Le Maryland est alors une colonie britannique administrée directement par les Calvert. Frédéric bénéficie d'un revenu d'environ 10 000 £ par mois provenant des impôts et des loyers, une somme immense à l'époque. De plus, il contrôle des actions de la Banque d'Angleterre et un domaine à Woodcote Park, dans le Surrey .

Maryland
L'héritage de Calvert coïncide avec une période de mécontentement croissant dans le Maryland, au milieu des demandes croissantes de l'assemblée législative pour la fin du régime autoritaire de sa famille. Calvert s'intéresse cependant peu à la colonie et, contrairement à ses prédécesseurs, n'y met jamais les pieds. Au lieu de cela, il vit en Angleterre et sur le continent européen, en particulier en Italie et, pendant un temps à Constantinople, d'où il est finalement contraint de partir après avoir été accusé de tenir un harem privé. Calvert vit une vie de loisirs, écrivant des vers et considérant la province du Maryland comme à peine plus qu'une source de revenus.

Durant les années 1750, pendant la guerre de France et d'Inde, alors que des fonds sont nécessaires pour financer la défense commune des colonies, le Maryland seul refuse sa part. Calvert est prêt à adopter une loi augmentant les impôts, mais seulement si ses propres vastes domaines sont exemptés. Benjamin Franklin écrit plus tard : « C'est vrai, le Maryland n'a pas alors contribué sa proportion, mais c'était, à mon avis, la faute du gouvernement, et non du peuple ». La colonie est dirigée par des gouverneurs nommés par Calvert, tels que  et plus tard Robert Eden. Le gouverneur Sharpe est parfaitement conscient des difficultés imposées à ses sujets par l'intransigeance de Lord Baltimore, mais ses mains sont liées . Calvert supervise la fin du différend de longue date sur la frontière Penn-Calvert.

Mariage
Le 9 mars 1753, il épouse Lady Diana Egerton (3 mars 1732 – 13 août 1758), la plus jeune fille de Scroop Egerton,  duc de Bridgewater et de Lady Rachel Russell . L'union n'est pas un succès et le couple passe la majeure partie de sa vie conjugale séparément. Ils n'ont pas d'enfants et en mai 1756, ils sont formellement séparés en raison d'une « incompatibilité d'humeur » . En 1758, Lady Diana « mourut d'une blessure qu'elle reçut en tombant d'une voiture Phaéton », alors qu'elle est accompagnée de son mari. Bien que Calvert ait été soupçonné de jeu déloyal, aucune accusation n'a été portée .

voyages européens

La réputation de Calvert pour la vie exotique se répand rapidement. En 1764, James Boswell (1740-1795) commence son Grand Tour de l'Europe, après avoir entendu dire que Baltimore « vivait à Constantinople comme un Turc, avec son sérail tout autour de lui ». » . Boswell observe que Baltimore "... vivait luxueusement et enflammait son sang, puis il devint mélancolique et craintif, et prenait constamment des médicaments... il mène une vie étrange, sauvage, inutile à son pays, sauf lorsqu'il est élevé à un délire, et doit bientôt détruire sa constitution" .

Calvert passe beaucoup de temps en Italie, où l'historien de l'art allemand Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768) le décrit comme étant « l'un de ces êtres épuisés, un Anglais aux hanches, qui avait perdu tout goût physique et moral » .

La fascination de Calvert pour les Turcs ottomans est telle qu'en 1766, à son retour en Angleterre, il fait démolir une partie de sa maison londonienne, la reconstruisant dans le style d'un harem turc . En 1767, Calvert publie un récit de ses voyages en Orient, intitulé Une tournée vers l'Est, dans les années 1763 et 1764 : avec des remarques sur la ville de Constantinople et les Turcs. Sélectionnez également des morceaux d'esprit oriental, de poésie et de sagesse . Le livre, selon Horace Walpole, "ne méritait pas plus d'être publié que ses billets sur la route des chevaux de poste", ajoutant qu'il montrait comment "un homme peut voyager sans observation, et être un auteur sans idées". Il obtient une mention d'un personnage dans le roman épistolaire de Tobias Smollett L'expédition d'Humphry Clinker .

Les dépenses de Calvert sont prodigieuses et il dépense des sommes considérables dans le domaine familial de Woodcote Park. Selon Walpole, Calvert dépense beaucoup d'argent pour rendre l'intérieur de la maison « vulgaire » et « ridicule » dans le style « français » .

Procès, scandale et déclin

En 1768, Calvert est accusé d'enlèvement et de viol par Sarah Woodcock, une beauté notoire qui tenait une boutique de modiste à Tower Hill . Il est inculpé aux Assises de Kingston et mis en procès  plaidant non coupable en raison du consentement . Après avoir délibéré pendant une heure et vingt minutes, le jury acquitte Calvert, croyant que Woodcock n'a pas fait de tentatives adéquates pour s'échapper.

De nombreux potins salaces accompagnent le procès et, la même année, l'une des maîtresses de Calvert, Sophia Watson, écrit une autobiographie intitulée Memoirs of the Seraglio of the Bashaw of Merryland, by a Discarded Sultana (Londres, 1768) . Telle est la réputation de Baltimore et ses lecteurs ne doutaient pas de qui elle faisait référence .

Après son acquittement, Frédéric quitte l'Angleterre, espérant vraisemblablement que sa notoriété ne s'étendrait pas à l'Europe . En cela, il semble avoir eu au moins en partie raison, car en juillet 1769, l'ambassadeur britannique en Russie rapporte que « Lord Baltimore est arrivé ici la semaine dernière de Suède, j'ai eu l'honneur de le présenter à l'Impératrice qui était heureuse de recevoir son Ld extrêmement gracieusement". En tout état de cause, le démêlé de Calvert avec la justice ne semble pas avoir affecté ses conditions de vie non conventionnelles.

À cette époque, il est évident qu'il souffre de difficultés financières et, en 1768, il vend le grand domaine familial à Woodcote Park  apparemment à un riche tapissier de Soho .

Mort à Naples
Calvert n'est jamais retourné dans son Angleterre natale. Il reste sur le continent, « constamment en mouvement... afin de ne pas savoir où il devait être enterré », et c'est à Naples en septembre 1771 qu'il contracte la fièvre et meurt. Son corps est envoyé à Londres, gisant dans la Great Room of Exeter Exchange, Strand, et est enterré dans le caveau de sa famille à St. Martin " avec beaucoup de pompe funèbre, la cavalcade s'étendant de l'église à l'extrémité est d'Epsom "  . Selon Gentleman's Quarterly : « Sa Seigneurie avait blessé son caractère dans sa vie par séduction, de sorte que la population n'a pas tenu compte de sa mémoire lorsqu'elle est morte, mais a pillé la pièce où reposait son corps au moment où elle a été enlevée ».

Il est enterré à Epsom, Surrey .

Famille et enfants

Calvert a de nombreux enfants illégitimes de diverses femmes, bien qu'il semble avoir tenté de les reconnaitre. Il aurait laissé, à sa mort, « tout un sérail de blancs, de noirs, etc, à pourvoir » .

Calvert a deux enfants par Hester Whelan :

  (1758-1835), le dernier Lord Propriétaire du Maryland.
 Frances Mary Harford (1759-1822)  qui épouse William Frederick Wyndham (1763-1828) le 21 juillet 1784. Leur fils  devient le  comte d'Egremont.

En 1765, il engendre des jumelles avec Elizabeth Dawson du Lincolnshire, Sophia et Elizabeth Hales .

Il a une autre fille, Charlotte Hope, née à Hambourg en 1770, avec Elizabeth Hope de Münster, en Allemagne .

Maryland et la guerre d'indépendance
Dans son testament, Calvert lègue sa propriété du Maryland à son fils aîné illégitime, Henry Harford, alors âgé de seulement 13 ans. Cela est fait contre la volonté de sa famille, bien que Calvert ait prévu des paiements en espèces à ses sœurs, en particulier 20 000 £ à partager entre Louisa et Caroline . La colonie, peut-être reconnaissante d'être enfin débarrassée de Frederick, reconnait Harford comme l'héritier de Calvert. Cependant, le testament est contesté par la famille de la sœur de Calvert, Louisa Calvert Browning, qui ne reconnait pas Harford comme héritier. Avant que l'affaire ne puisse se frayer un chemin jusqu'à la Cour de chancellerie, les événements en Amérique changent le Maryland pour toujours. Malheureusement pour le jeune Henry, au moment où il atteint l'âge adulte, le Maryland est entrainé par la Révolution américaine et en 1776 est en guerre avec la Grande-Bretagne. Henry Harford perd finalement presque toutes ses possessions coloniales, bien qu'il soit resté riche en raison de son vaste héritage en Grande-Bretagne.

Ouvrages publiés

 Un voyage en Orient, dans les années 1763 et 1764 : avec Remarques sur la ville de Constantinople et les Turcs. Sélectionnez également des morceaux d'esprit oriental, de poésie et de sagesse , Londres (1767).
 Gaudia poetica Latina, Anglica, et Gallica Lingua Composita, Londres (1770)

Références

Sources
 Andrews, Matthew Page, Histoire du Maryland, Doubleday Doran & Co, New York (1929)
 Cross, Anthony, By the Banks of the Neva: Chapters from the Lives and Careers of the British in Eighteenth-Century Russia, Cambridge University Press (2007) . Récupéré le 24 janvier 2010
 Flynn, Carolo Houlihan, p. 55, Le corps dans Swift et Defoe . Récupéré le 26 janvier 2010
 Lamb, Susan, Bringing Travel Home to England: Tourism, Gender, and Imaginative Literature in the Eighteenth Century, University of Delaware Press, (2009) . Récupéré le 24 janvier 2010
 Russell, Georges, p. 9, L'Arche et les Aventuriers de la Colombe . . Récupéré le 28 janvier 2010
 Shearer, Benjamin F., p. 546, Les États-Unis : de la Louisiane à l'Ohio . . Récupéré le 28 janvier 2010
 Walpole, Horace, p. 278, Un catalogue des auteurs royaux et nobles d'Angleterre, d'Écosse et d'Irlande : avec les listes de leurs œuvres :, Vol 5. Récupéré le 24 janvier 2010
 Yentsch, Anne E., p. 262, Une famille Chesapeake et leurs esclaves : une étude en archéologie historique . . Récupéré le 22 mars 2010

Liens externes

Membre de la Royal Society
Élève du collège d'Eton
Décès en septembre 1771
Naissance en février 1731
Décès à 40 ans

Frederick Calvert (6e baron Baltimore)


Le Complexe multisports de la Mundi est un complexe multifonctionnel et espace hôtelier installé dans un cadre naturel dans la banlieue de Yaoundé au Cameroun.
Il accueille les Lions Indomptables du Cameroun dans leur préparation en vue de la CAN 2021.

Histoire
Les travaux de ce complexe durent 3 années. Il est livré le 14 novembre 2020.

Le complexe - couvrant environ 12 hectares et sécurisé par 2 kilomètres de clôture -  se trouve en bord de l'Autoroute Yaoundé - Nsimalen; pas loin de l'Aéroport international de Yaoundé-Nsimalen; dans la grande banlieue sud de Yaoundé.
Cependant malgré le partenariat avec l'équipe nationale de football du Cameroun ( Les lions indomptables) le tronçon reliant le complexe à la deuxième passerelle de l'autoroute Yaoundé-Nsimalen reste dépourvu de bitume depuis la fin des travaux.
La construction du complexe ouvre la localité de Ntoun au développement.

Le complexe est réalisé grâce à l'épargne de la mutuelle nationale des agents publics des services des impôts du Cameroun. Une mission de la CAF a homologué les installations de ce complexe qui héberge plusieurs délégations de joueurs de différents pays.

En décembre 2021, il héberge pour la 2e fois l'équipe nationale des Lions indomptables du Cameroun en vue de l'alimentation et de la préparation de la CAN 2021.

Description

Le complexe offre des espaces pour 6 disciplines sportives :
 1 Stade principal avec gazon naturel, piste d'athlétisme 6 couloirs, tribune couverte de 1000 places
 Stade annexe avec gradin non couvert pour entrainement et qui jouxte
 5 courts de tennis, 1 de basket-ball et 1 de volley
 1 Piscine semi-olympique de 4 mètres de profondeur et une piscine d'agrément moin profonde
 Un hôtel 3 étoiles de 56 chambres, 4 suites, restaurant et 1 salle de réunion, 1 salle de sports
 2,5 hectares de forêts et espaces verts avec chemins aménagés de pavés et des balises pour la promenade

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Centre sportif académique de Mbankomo
 Ntoun

Liens externes
 Site officiel
 Site de la Mutuelle des Impôts

Équipement sportif achevé en 2021
Stade multifonction au Cameroun
Stade de football au Cameroun
Salle de basket-ball au Cameroun
Salle de volley-ball au Cameroun
Piscine au Cameroun
Équipement de tennis
Centre d'entraînement de football au Cameroun
Stade portant le nom d'une ville
Région du Centre (Cameroun)

Complexe multisports de la Mundi


මූලද්‍රවය සියල්ල අතුරින් වාඩාත් ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරී වූත්  විද්‍යුත් වශයෙන් ඉතා රින  වුත් ෆ්ලුවොරින් එසේත් නැත්නම් ෆ්ලෝරීන් () -182 පමණ නටන පලාවන් කහ පැහැති ද්‍රවයක් බවට පත්කල හැකි කහ පැහැති වායුවකි.  කටුක ගඳක් ඇති වායුවේ අම්ලය  මස සමග ස්පර්ෂ වූ විට තදබල ලෙස  තුවාල සෑදේ. මෙම තුවාල වල ලාක්ෂනික කරුන නම් ඉතා දක්ෂ ලෙස වෙදකම් නොකලහොත් තුවාලය එන්න එන්නටම තදබල වීමයි.

ඉතිහාසය
ෆ්ලුවොරින් සංයොගයක් භාවිතයට ගත් ප්‍රථම අවස්ථාව වශයෙන් වාර්ථාගත වී ඇත්තේ   1670  ෂ්වන්හාඩට් විසින් ප්ලුවොස්පාර්වලත් සල්පියුරික් අම්ලයේත් මිශ්‍රණයකින් විදුරු නිරේඛනය කල අවස්තාව බව පෙනේ. 1771 දි  ෂෙල ,  හයිඩ්‍රොප්ලුවොරික් අම්ලයේ අශුද්ධ සැම්පලයක්  පිළියෙල කළ අතර ප්ලුවොස්පාර් මෙම අම්ලෙය්ත්   හුනුවලත් ලවණයක් බව  වටහා ගත්තේය. හයිඩ්‍රොප්ලුවොරික් අම්ලය  යනු  ක්ලෝරීන්වලට සදෘශ්‍ය , මෙතෙක් සොයා නොගත් මූලද්‍රවයක  ෆ්ලුවෝරින් වලත්  හයිඩ්‍රජන්  වලත් සංයෝගයක් විය හැකියැයි 1810 දි ඇම්පියර් (Ampere) යෝජනා කලේය. මීට ඉහත දී ගේ ලූසැක්  සහ තේනාඩ් විසින් එම අම්ලය  හොඳ හැටි අන්වේෂනය කර තිබුනි. එහෙත් එය අලුත් ඛන්ඩයක ඔක්සයිඩය යැයි සිතූහ.  එසේ වුවත්  ඉතා දක්ෂ ලෙස  වෙහෙස නොබලාත්  කළ පරික්ෂන ගණනාවකට  පසු  වත් ෆ්ලුවෝරින් වෙන්කර ගැනීමට  නොහැකිවා මෙන් පෙනෙන්නට විය. එහෙත් පරික්ෂන දුෂ්කරතා රාශියක් මැඩගෙන 1886 දී මොයිසාන් ජය අත්කරගත්තේය

මූලාශ්‍ර

මූලද්‍රව්‍යය

ෆ්ලූවොරින්


Vlaamse Vervoersmaatschappij De Lijn (Dansk: Det Flamske Trafikselskab De Lijn) De Lijn ("Linien"), er et offentligt trafikselskab drevet af den flamske lokalregering i Belgien. De Lijn blev grundlagt i 1991 efter at de offentlige trafikselskaber i Antwerpen og Gent blev fusioneret med den flamske del af NMVB (Nationale Maatschappij van Buurtspoorwegen, eller  "Nationale Selskab af Regionale Sporveje").

Den Socialistiske politiker Steve Stevaert fra Hasselt indførste en politik om at indbyggere over 65 med registreret adresse i Flandern kunne køre gratis overalt i Flandern. Der findes ligeledes programmer der gør det billigere for personer under 25. De Lijn anses for et vigtigt element til at lette den ofte svært fremkommelige trafik, sammen med NMBS/SNCB (Belgiens statsbaner)

I 2008, transporterede De Lijn mere end 508 mio. passagerer, i et område med ca. 6,5 mio. indbyggere.

De Lijn afdelinger:
 Antwerpen sporveje, med bane både på gadeniveau og underjordisk. (Antwerpen Pre-metro).
 Ghent sporveje, for det meste spor på veje, med enkelte strækninger for sig selv.
 Belgiens kyst sporveje bane langs hele den belgiske kyst mellem De Panne og Knokke.
 Alle busser med rute helt eller dellvist i Flandern. På grund af det tætte jernbanenetværk, virker intercitybusserne som lokal trafik mellem de store byer og de omgivende småsamfund. Rejsetiden mellem de store byer er ofte længere med intercitybusserne da de betjener de mange små byer undervejs, og derfor ikke kører en direkte rute. Busserne er indrettet som bybusser, og ikke som turistbusser. I Limburg provinsen der ikke har så mange jernbanelinier er intercitybusserne den vigtigste transportform. Her findes også express-intercitybusser.
 Flextrafik (er tilgængelig i tyndt befolkede områder).

Kilder

Transportvirksomheder fra Belgien
Transport i Belgien

De Lijn


كيرلس وميثوديوس (باليونانية: Κύριλλος και Μεθόδιος) هما أخوان يونانيان كان كلاهما أكاديميين ولاهوتيين ولغويين من الطراز الرفيع. وقد لعبا دوراً رائداً ورئيسياً في نشر المسيحية بين سلافيي الدانوب، وبفضل تأثيرهما الكبير في التطور الديني والثقافي للشعوب السلافية عامة دُعيا بلقب «رسل السلافيين».

حياتهما
ولدا في مدينة تسالونيكي في اليونان (كيرلس بين عامي 827 و828 وميثوديوس يبن عامي 815 و820)، ذهب كيرلس ("Kyrillos"، واسمه الأصلي قسطنطين) في رحلة تبشيرية بين العرب ودَرَّسَ الفلسفة في المدرسة البطريركية في القسطنطينية، وعمل مع ميثوديوس رئيس أحد الأديرة اليونانية في تبشير الخزر في شمال شرق البحر الأسود.

في عام 862 طلب روستيسلاف أمير مورافيا العظمى من القسطنطينية إرسال مجموعة من المبشرين، فأرسل الإمبراطور ميخائيل الثالث والبطريرك فوتيوس الأخوان كيرلس وميثوديوس. وفي عام 863 بدآ عملهما بين السلاف مستعملين اللغة السلافية في الصلاة والليتورجيا، وقاما بترجمة الكتاب المقدس إلى اللغة التي عرفت لاحقا باسم اللغة السلافية الكنسية القديمة (أو البلغارية القديمة). كما قاما بابتكار الأبجدية السلافية المبنية أساساً على طابع الحرف اليوناني والتي لا تزال تستعمل بشكلها السيريلي النهائي في الأبجدية المعاصرة في اللغة الروسية وفي مجموعة من اللغات السلافية الأخرى.

عام 867 قَبِلَ الأخوان دعوة البابا نيكولاس الأول لزيارة روما من أجل شرح موقفهما من النزاع الذي نشب فيما ببنهما وبين رئيس أساقفة سالزبورغ وأسقف باساو الألماني، حيث إدعى هذا الأخير أحقيته في السيطرة على نفس الأقاليم السلافية ورغب في تعزيز الاستخدام الحصري للغة اللاتينية في الليتورجيا.

وصل كيرلس وميثوديوس إلى روما عام 868 حيث أيد موقفهما البابا الجديد أدريانوس الثاني سامحاً باستخدام الليتورجيا السلافية. بعد وفاة كيرلس أرسل أدريانوس ميثوديوس مجدداً إلى السلافيين كممثله الرسمي وكرئيس أساقفة سيرميوم.

ضمت السلطة الكنسية لميثوديوس جميع أراضي مورافيا، وفي عام 880 استُدعي مرة أخرى لروما لينال تأكيداً آخر من البابا بالسماح باستعمال اللغة العامية السلافية في الليتورجيا. لكن بعد وفاة ميثودويوس منع البابا ستيفانوس الخامس الصلاة إلا باللغة اللاتينية.

بلغ تأثير كيرلس وميثوديوس بعد وفاتهما إلى أماكن بعيدة مثل كييف في روسيا وخلف أثراً عظيماً حتى بين الشعب السلافي في كرواتيا وبوهيميا وبولندا.

أُعلنا قديسين في الكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية واحتُفل بهما في الكنيسة الرومانية الكاثوليكية عام 1880.

وصلات خارجية
 Sts. Cyril and Methodius - Catholic Encyclopedia

مصادر

 Saints Cyril and Methodius Encyclopedia Britannica

أبجدية سيريلية
بيزنطيون في القرن 9
ثقافة سلافية
رهبان
عطلات رسمية في روسيا
قديسون أنجليكانيون
قديسون في القرن 9
قديسون في الكنيسة الكاثوليكية
قديسون يونانيون
كتاب بيزنطيون في القرن 9
لاهوتيون بيزنطيون
لاهوتيون مسيحيون في القرن 9
لغويون
مبتكرو أنظمة الكتابة
مبشرون
مبشرون مسيحيون يونانيون
مترجمون من الكتاب المقدس إلى سلافونية كنسية
مترجمون يونانيون
مدفونون في سان كليمينتي (كاليفورنيا)
مواليد 815
مواليد 827
مورافيا العظمى
وفيات 869
وفيات 885

كيرلس وميثوديوس


Le Frisco Football Classic 2021 est un match (bowl) de football américain de niveau universitaire joué après la saison régulière de 2021, le  au Toyota Stadium situé à Frisco dans l'État du Texas aux États-Unis.

Il s'agit de la  édition du Frisco Football Classic. La NCAA a approuvé la tenue de ce match pour que les 83 équipes éligibles puissent participer à un bowl. Sans le Frisco Football Classic, une équipe éligible n'aurait pu participer à un bowl. Ce nouveau bowl sert essentiellement à remplacer le défunt San Francisco Bowl (aussi dénommé Redbox Bowl).

Le match met en présence deux équipes issues du Group of Five soit l'équipe des Mean Green de North Texas issue de la Conference USA et l'équipe des Redhawks de Miami issue de la Mid-American Conference.

Il débute à  locales et est retransmis à la télévision par ESPN.

Miami gagne le match sur le score de 27 à 14.

Présentation du match

Il s'agit de la première rencontre entre les deux équipes.

Mean Green de North Texas

Avec un bilan global en saison régulière de 6 victoires et 6 défaites (5-3 en matchs de conférence), North Texas est éligible et accepte l'invitation pour participer au Frisco Football Classic de 2021.

Ils terminent  de la Division Ouest de la Conference USA derrière UTSA et UAB.

À l'issue de la saison 2021, ils n'apparaissent pas dans les classements CFP, AP et Coaches.

Redhawks de Miami

Avec un bilan global en saison régulière de 6 victoires et 6 défaites (5-3 en matchs de conférence), Miami (Ohio) est éligible et accepte l'invitation pour participer au Frisco Football Classic de 2021.

Ils terminent  de la Division Est de la Mid-American Conference derrière Kent State.

À l'issue de la saison 2021, ils n'apparaissent pas dans les classements CFP, AP et Coaches.

Résumé du match

Articles connexes
 Culture du football américain
 Football américain universitaire aux États-Unis
 Lexique du football américain et canadien
 Liste des College Bowls de football américain
 Championnat NCAA de football américain
 Championnat NCAA de football américain 2021

Lien externe

 Page officielle du match.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Mean Green de North Texas
Redhawks de Miami
Bowl universitaire américain en décembre 2021
Bowl universitaire au Texas

Frisco Football Classic


Jan Jacob Schultens (født 19. september 1716 i Franeker, død 27. november 1778 i Leiden) var en hollandsk filolog. Han var søn af Albert Schultens og far til Hendrik Albert Schultens.

Schultens arvede faderens lærestol ved Leidens Universitet. Alle tre bærere af navnet Schultens er typiske repræsentanter for den grundige ihærdighed og kritiske nøgternhed, som på den orientalske filologis område har karakteriseret den hollandske skole.

Kilder

Orientalister fra Holland
Ansatte ved Leidens Universitet
Nederlændere i 1700-tallet

Jan Jacob Schultens


Ivo Šprlje (MatijevićI, 14. kolovoza 1947. - Dubrovnik, 8. studenoga 2007.), župan Dubrovačko-neretvanske županije u dva mandata, član SDP-a, i poznati gospodarstvenik. Obnašao je istaknute dužnosti u gospodarstvu, politici i športu. U više navrata obnašao je dužnosti predsjednika nogometnog kluba "Neretva" i rukometnog kluba "Metković". Smatra se začetnikom ideje o izgradnji Pelješkog mosta kojim bi se spojilo Komarnu i Pelješac, te time ujedinilo Dubrovnik s maticom zemljom. Šprlje će ostati zapamćen i kao prvi SDP-ov, 'crveni' župan u Republici Hrvatskoj, koji je na čelu Dubrovačko-neretvanske županije ostao od 1998. do 2005. godine, a zbog svoje ideje o izgradnji Pelješkog mosta u kampanji za županijske izbore 2003. godine proglašen je županom koji povezuje i spaja.

Izvori

Životopisi, Metković
Dubrovačko-neretvanska županija
Hrvatski političari od 1989.
SDP

Ivan Šprlje