The interference theory is a theory regarding human memory. Interference occurs in learning. The notion is that memories encoded in long-term memory (LTM) are forgotten and cannot be retrieved into short-term memory (STM) because either memory could interfere with the other. There is an immense number of encoded memories within the storage of LTM. The challenge for memory retrieval is recalling the specific memory and working in the temporary workspace provided in STM. Retaining information regarding the relevant time of encoding memories into LTM influences interference strength.
There are two types of interference effects: proactive and retroactive interference.

History
John A. Bergström is credited with conducting the first study regarding interference in 1892. His experiment was similar to the Stroop task and required subjects to sort two decks of cards with words into two piles. When the location was changed for the second pile, sorting was slower, demonstrating that the first set of sorting rules interfered with learning the new set. German psychologists continued in the field with Georg Elias Müller and Pilzecker in 1900 studying retroactive interference. To the confusion of Americans at a later date, Müller used "associative Hemmung" (inhibition) as a blanket term for retroactive and proactive inhibition.

The next major advancement came from American psychologist Benton J. Underwood in 1957. Underwood revisited the classic Ebbinghaus learning curve and found that most of the forgetting was due to interference from previously learned materials.

In 1924, John G. Jenkins and Karl Dallenbach showed that everyday experiences can interfere with memory, employing an experiment that showed that retention was better throughout sleep than over the same amount of time devoted to the activity. The United States again made headway in 1932 with John A. McGeoch suggesting that decay theory should be replaced by an interference theory. The most recent major paradigm shift came when Underwood proposed that proactive inhibition is more important or meaningful than retroactive inhibition in accounting for forgetting.

Proactive interference
Proactive interference is the interference of older memories with the retrieval of newer memories. Of the two effects of interference theory, proactive interference is the less common and less problematic type of interference compared to retroactive interference. Previously, it had been hypothesized that forgetting working memories would be nonexistent if not for proactive interference.

Context
Proactive interference build-up occurs with memories being learned in similar contexts. A common example is observing previous motor abilities from one skill interfering with a new set of motor abilities being learned in another skill from the initial. Proactive interference is also associated with poorer list discrimination, which occurs when participants are asked to judge whether an item has appeared on a previously learned list. If the items or pairs to be learned are conceptually related to one another, then proactive interference has a greater effect. Delos Wickens discovered that proactive interference build-up is released when there is a change to the category of items being learned, leading to increased processing in STM. Presenting new skills later in practice can considerably reduce proactive interference desirable for participants to have the best opportunity to encode fresh new memories into LTM.

Brain structures
The leading experimental technique for studying proactive interference in the brain is the "recent-probes" task. Initially, this is when participants must commit a set of items to memory. They then ask them to recall a specific item. Assessing them is shown by a probe. Thus, using recent-probes task and fMRIs, the brain mechanisms involved in resolving proactive interference identify as the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and the left anterior prefrontal cortex.

Research

With lists
Researchers have studied the joint influence of proactive and retroactive interference using a list of items to be remembered. As expected, the recall was hampered by increasing the number of items in a given list. Proactive interference also affected learning when dealing with multiple lists. Researchers had participants learn a list of ten paired adjectives. The experimenters would consider a list to be learned if the participant could correctly recall eight of the ten items. After two days, participants could recall close to 70% of the items. However, those asked to memorize a new list the day after learning the first one had a recall of only 40%. Those who learned a third list recalled 25% of the items. Therefore, proactive interference affected the correct recall of the last list learned, because of the previous one, or two. In terms of forgetting, the effect of proactive interference was supported by further studies using different methods. The effect of proactive interference was reduced when the test was immediate and when the new target list was different from the previously learned lists.

Span performance
Span performance refers to working memory capacity. It is hypothesized that span performance is limited in language comprehension, problem-solving, and memory.  Proactive Interference affects susceptibility to span performance limitations, as span performance in later experimental trials were worse than performance in earlier trials. With single tasks, proactive interference had less effect on participants with high working memory spans than those with low ones. With dual tasks, both types were similarly susceptible.

To differ, others have tried to investigate the relation of proactive interference when cued to forget. Turvey and Wittlinger designed an experiment to examine the effects of cues such as "not to remember" and "not to recall" with currently learned material. While "not to remember" had a significant effect in reducing proactive interference, cued to "not to recall" previously encoded and stored information did not significantly reduce the effect. Therefore, these associated cues do not directly control the potential effect of proactive interference on short-term memory span.

Proactive interference has shown an effect during the learning phase in terms of stimuli at the acquisition and retrieval stages with behavioral tasks for humans, as found by Castro, Ortega, and Matute. With 106 participants, they investigated two main questions: if two cues are learned as predictors of the same outcome (one after the other), would the second-cue outcome association be retarded? And secondly, once the second association is fully learned, will there still be an effect on subsequent trials? The research, as predicted, showed retardation and impairment in associations, due to the effect of Proactive Interference.

Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference, also known as Retroactive inhibition, is the interference of newer memories with the retrieval of older memories. In other words, subsequently learned memories directly contributes to the forgetting of previously learned memories. The effect of retroactive interference takes place when any type of skill has not been rehearsed over long periods. Of the two effects of interference theory, retroactive interference is considered the more common and more problematic type of interference compared to proactive interference.

RI is a classic paradigm that was first officially termed by Muller. These memory research pioneers demonstrated that filling the retention interval (defined as the amount of time that occurs between the initial learning stage and the memory recall stage) with tasks and material caused significant interference effects with the primary learned items.

As compared to proactive interference, retroactive interference may have larger effects because there is not only competition involved but also unlearning.

Iconic research

Modified (free) recall
Briggs's (1954) study modeled McGeoch's work on interference by setting the stage for a classic design of retroactive interference. In his study, participants were asked to learn 12 paired associates to a criterion of 100%. To ensure parsimony, these pairs can be labeled as A1-B1-, A2-B2-...A I -B I  (also called AB/AC paradigm). Briggs used a "modified free recall" technique by asking participants to recall an item when cued with B I . Over multiple anticipation trials, participants learned B I   items through the prompt of B I  items. After perfecting A I - B I  learning, participants were given a new list of paired associates to learn; however B I  items were replaced with C I  items (now given a list of A1-C1-, A2-C2-...A I -C I ). As the learning of A I -C I  pairs increased, the learning of A I -B I  pairs decreased. Eventually recalling the C I  items exceeded the recall of the B I  items, representing the phenomenon of retroactive interference.
A significant part of Briggs's (1954) study was that once participants were tested after a delay of 24 hours the Bi responses spontaneously recovered and exceeded the recall of the Ci items. Briggs explained the spontaneous recovery illustration as an account of A I -B I  items competing with A I -C I  items or, as McGeoch would define it: "a resultant [of] momentary dominance".

Modified modified free recall
J.M. Barnes and B.J. Underwood (1959) expanded Briggs's (1954) study by implementing a similar procedure. The main difference in this study, however, was that, unlike Briggs's (1954) "modified free recall"  (MFR) task where participants gave one-item responses, Barnes and Underwood asked participants to give both List 1 and List 2 responses to each cued recall task. Participants' ability to recall both items was termed the "modified modified free recall" (MMFR) technique. Equivocally to Briggs's (1954) results, RI occurred when C I  recalled responses gradually came to exceed B I  responses. Barnes and Underwood argued that because there was "unlimited recall time" to produce multiple-item responses, the fact that A I -C I  responses still trumped A I -B I  responses represented an account of unlearning.

Notable research concepts

Forgetting
Since German psychologist H. Ebbinghaus (1885, 1913) made the first scientific studies on forgetting in the late nineteenth century, further research on the rate of forgetting presented information was found to be steep. While a variety of factors play a role in affecting the rate of forgetting, the general conclusion made is that 70% of originally recalled information is initially forgotten in 24 hours after a session of practice, followed by 80% of information forgotten within 48 hours. Afterwards, forgetting diminishes at a gradual rate, which leaves about 5% to 10% of retained information available for learners to access from practice until the next session. Despite the numbers, retroactive interference can be reduced significantly by implementing over-learning practice schedules, periodic refresh sessions when practicing skills, and skill rehearsal time for the inactive periods of practicing. Continuous skills are more resistant to the rate of forgetting compared to discrete skills, which indicates that the types of skills being practiced and retroactive interference significantly interact with one another.

Theories
The phenomenon of retroactive interference is highly significant in the study of memory as it has sparked a historical and ongoing debate in regards to whether the process of forgetting is due to the interference of other competing stimuli, or rather the unlearning of the forgotten material. The important conclusion one may gain from RI is that "forgetting is not simply a failure or weakness of the memory system" (Bjork, 1992), but rather an integral part of our stored knowledge repertoire. Although modern cognitive researchers continue to debate the actual causes of forgetting (e.g., competition vs. unlearning), retroactive interference implies a general understanding that additional underlying processes play a role in memory.

Competition
A standard explanation for the cause of RI is Competition. New associations compete with older associations and the more recent association would win out making it impossible to remember earlier associations. Spontaneous Recovery in MFR supports the claim of competition since after a rest period participants spontaneously remembered original pair associations that they were not able to remember right after the second test.

Associative unlearning
The associative unlearning hypothesis explains  RI by saying that new associations replace the old associations in memory causing the participant to forget the initial associations. Barnes and Underwood argued that A I -C I  responses still outnumber A I -B I  responses after the delay period supports the Associative Unlearning Hypothesis over Competition.

Brain structures
Retroactive Interference has been localized to the left anterior ventral prefrontal cortex by magnetoencephalography (MEG) studies investigating Retroactive Interference and working memory in elderly adults. The study found that adults 55–67 years of age showed less magnetic activity in their prefrontal cortices than the control group. Executive control mechanisms are located in the frontal cortex and deficits in working memory show changes in the functioning of this brain area.

Research

Pitch perception
Retroactive Interference has also been investigated using pitch perception as the learning medium. The researcher found that the presentation of subsequent stimuli in succession causes a decrease in recalled accuracy. Massaro found that the presentation of successive auditory tones, confused perceptual short-term memory, causing Retroactive Interference as the new tone inhibits the retrieval of previously heard tones.

Motor movement
Wohldmann, Healey, and Bourne found that Retroactive Interference also affects the retention of motor movements. Researchers found that retroactive interference affects the performance of old motor movements when newly acquired motor movements are practiced. Physical practice of newly executed motor movements decreased the retention and recall of previously learned movements. Despite the retroactive interference noted by Wohldmann et al., researchers noted that mental practice decreased the amount of retroactive interference, suggesting that mental practice is more flexible and durable over time.  This study of the superiority effect of physical practice is similar to the Word Superiority Effect made famous by Cattell.

Word tasks
Retroactive Interference increases when the items are similar, therefore increasing association between them as shown by spreading activation. Barnes and Underwood found that when participants in the experimental condition were presented with two similar word lists, the recollection of the first-word list decreased with the presentation of the second-word list. This finding contrasts the control condition as they had little Retroactive Inference when asked to recall the first-word list after a period of unrelated activity.

Output interference
Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information.  An example scenario in which Output Interference might occur would be if one had created a list of items to purchase at a grocery store, but then, neglected to take the list when leaving home. The act of remembering a couple of items on that list decreases the probability of remembering the other items on that list.

Research

Short-term memory
Henry L. Roediger III and Schmidt found that the act of retrieval can serve as the source of the failure to remember, using multiple experiments that tested the recall of categorized and paired associative lists. Three experiments were carried out where subjects were first presented with category lists, and then, asked to recall the items in the list after being shown the category name as a cue. The further the test position from the category resulted in a decline of the recall of words. A fourth experiment revealed that only recent items were present in output interference in paired associative lists.

Long-term memory
Smith found that if categories with corresponding items were successfully recalled, a systematic decline would occur when recalling the items in a category across the output sequence. He conducted multiple experiments to determine the input conditioned necessary to produce Output Interference. In his first experiment word recall per category was greater at 60 sec than 30 sec when taking the last input category out to prevent recency effect. In his second experiment he changed the instructions, words used, and nature of the retention test, and showed with the recognition procedure, there was Output Interference but the effect was limited to the first three output positions. Even if retrieving items is necessary for a recall, it is not crucial to performance in a recognition tack. Recall of the organized information from long-term memory hurt the following item recalled. In long-term memory, Smith suggests that Output Interference has effects on extra-core material, which is represented as contextual information, rather than the core material, which is highly available as a result of organization.

Effects of age
In both short-term memory and long-term memory Smith measured output interference in three age groups (aged 20–39, 40–59, 60–80 years). The results of recall performance revealed significant differences due to age where the older group recalled fewer items than the middle group who recalled fewer items than the youngest group. Overall Smith concluded that memory decline appears with increased age with long-term memory forgetting rather than short-term memory forgetting and short-term memory was unaffected by age. However, output interference was unable to explain the memory deficit seen in older subjects.

Recent research of adults free recall and cognitive triage displayed similar findings of recall performance being poorer in older adults compared to younger adults. Although it was also indicated that older adults had an increased susceptibility to output interference compared to younger adults and the difference increased as additional items were recalled.

Similar theories

Decay theory
Decay theory outlines that memories weaken over time despite consolidation and storage. This is to say that although you remember a specific detail, over time you may have greater difficulty retrieving the detail you encoded. It has been suggested that the time interval between encoding and retrieval determines the accuracy of recall.

A practical example of decay theory is seen in the financial sector. If you open a bank account and do not deposit or withdraw money from the account, after some time, the bank will render the account dormant. The owner of the account, then, has to reopen the account for it to remain active. The bank account (the memory) is rendered dormant (the memory weakened) over time if there is no activity on the account (if the memory is not retrieved after some time).

Similarities
Decay theory is similar to interference theory in the way that old memories are lost over time. Memories are lost in Decay Theory by the passing of time. In Interference Theory, memories are lost due to newly acquired memories. Both Decay and Interference Theories are involved in psychological theories of forgetting.

Differences
Decay and interference theory differ in that Interference Theory has a second stimulus that impedes the retrieval of the first stimulus. Decay Theory is caused by time itself. Decay Theory is a passive method of forgetting as no interference is produced. Interference Theory is an active process because the act of learning new information directly impedes the recollection of previously stored information.

Dual task interference
Dual-task interference is a kind of interference that occurs when two tasks are attempted simultaneously. Harold Pashler wrote a paper summing up the theoretical approaches to dual-task interference. The basis of his research looked at when one attempts two or more tasks at the same time, why in some cases is one successful in completing their task and in other cases not.

Capacity sharing
Pashler proposed that the brain contains one mental entity where all tasks must be carried out. A real-life example of this could be going to the dentist; the only place to have cavities filled is at a dentist's office. When the brain is attempting to complete two tasks, both tasks are present in the same mind area and compete for processing ability and speed. This relates to interference theory as the tasks compete. Interference theory says that the learning of new information decreases the retrieval of older information, and this is true for dual-task interference. The dominant task of the two inhibits the other task from completion. It is presumed that the dominant task would be a new task as a previously accomplished task would already be stored in memory. The new task would, then, be completed successfully as more mental effort is required to complete a novel task, and the previously completed task would not be completed as the new task dominated the mental capacity. Just as Interference Theory states, the completion of new tasks inhibits the completion of previously completed tasks due to capacity sharing.

Cross talk models
Cross-talk is the communication between sensory inputs, processing, and the thoughts of the individual. The theory is that if two processes are being activated, and they are not similar in any way (making cookies and going on vacation), the brain will be confused as separate cognitive areas are being activated, and there is conflicting communication between the two. Contrastingly, if the two processes are similar (making cookies and pouring milk), there will be less crosstalk and more productive and uninterrupted cognitive processing.

Crosstalk is used by engineers to discuss the degradation of communication channels due to context dependence.

Navon and Miller claim that Dual-Task Interference is caused by an outcome conflict, which is a result of one task producing, "outputs, throughputs, or side effects that are harmful to the processing of the [another task]". This is the concept of Interference Theory. The thoughts, outputs, and side effects of one task either affect the previous or subsequent recall.

Neurobiology

Event-related fMRI studies

Stroop and Simon task
The performance of Stroop and Simon tasks were monitored on 10 healthy young adults using magnetic resonance image (MRI)  scanning. Functional images were acquired at specific time intervals during each subject's scan. Brain activation during the Stroop and Simon task was remarkably similar including anterior cingulate, supplementary motor cortex, visual association cortex, inferior temporal cortex, inferior parietal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and caudate nuclei. Interference effects in the Stroop and Simon tasks activate similar brain regions at similar time distributions.

Application

Advertising
It has been demonstrated that recall will be lower when consumers have afterward seen an ad for a competing brand in the same product class. Exposure to later similar advertisements does not cause interference for consumers when brands are rated on purchasing likelihood. This shows that information processing objective can moderate the effects of interference of competitive advertising. Competitive brand advertising not only interferes with consumer recall of advertising in the past but also interferes with learning new distinctive brand information in the future.

Reducing competitive ad interference
Repetition improves brand name recall when presented alone. When competitive advertising was presented, it was shown that repetition provided no improvement in brand name recall over a single exposure. The competitive ads interfered with the added learning from repetition. However, when the target brand name was shown using varying ad executions interference was reduced. Presenting ads in multi-modalities (visual, auditory) will reduce possible interference because there are more associations or paths to cue recall than if only one modality had been used. This is the principle of multimedia learning. Also, interference is increased when competing ads are presented in the same modality. Therefore, by presenting ads in multiple modalities, the chance that the target brand has unique cues is increased.

See also
 Neuroimaging
 Working memory
 Memory inhibition
 Memory conformity
 Einstellung effect
 Language transfer (interference between languages)
 Forgetting curve

References

Bjork, R. A. (1992). Interference and memory. In L. R. Squire (Ed.), Encyclopedia of learning and memory (pp. 283–288). New York: Macmillan.

Memory

Interference theory


In music, a radio edit or radio mix is a modification, typically truncated or censored, intended to make a song more suitable for airplay. It may be censored for profanity, vulgarities, or subject matter; or adjusted for length, instrumentation, or form. Radio edits may also be used for commercial single versions, which may be denoted as the 7" version (as opposed to the 12" version which are extended versions of a song).

Not all "radio edit" tracks are played on the radio.

Time constraints
Radio edits often shorten a long song to make it more commercially viable for radio stations. The normal length for songs played on the radio is between three and five minutes. The amount of cut content differs, ranging from a few seconds to effectively half of a song being cut. It is common for radio edits to have shortened intros and/or outros. In the intro, any kind of musical buildup is removed, or, if there is no such build-up, an extensive intro is often halved. In the outro, occasionally, the song will simply fade out earlier, common on tracks with long instrumental endings, or, if it doesn't fade out, a part before the ending will be cut out or in some cases, a fade out was added in the radio edit. It is also frequent that a chorus is repeated less often towards the end. If necessary, many radio edits will also edit out verses, choruses, bridges, or interludes in between.

An example is the radio edit of "'Heroes'" (1977) by David Bowie, which fades in shortly before the beginning of the third verse and fades out shortly before the vocal vamping at the end of the song. Another example is B.o.B's song, "Nothin' On You" (2009) featuring Bruno Mars, whose radio edit skips the first five seconds and starts with the sixth second in which Bruno Mars starts singing the first chorus. The second half of the first chorus is sometimes skipped, along with the last 24 seconds which is the normal fadeout part in which B.o.B says, "Yeah, and that's just how we do it/And Ima let this ride/B.o.B and Bruno Mars", and the radio edit ends with the fourth and last chorus with an earlier fade-out. Another example is on Robbie Williams' track "No Regrets", where it removes the first part of the song and the instrumental break after the first verse. A third example would be the song, "The Man" (2014) by Aloe Blacc, in which the radio edit skips the "I'm the man/Go ahead & tell everybody/What I'm saying ya all" part and the first ten seconds. Also, the third chorus of the song is shortened.
Another example of this case is Justin Timberlake's "Mirrors" (2013), where the radio edit cuts the entire "You are the love of my life" part.  Another example would be Juvenile's "Back That Thang Up" (1999) where Lil' Wayne's outro is faded out in the "wobble de wop" part. Another example for this case would be Lenny Kravitz's "Fly Away" (1998), whose radio edit has a shortened intro, the first half of the third verse is omitted, and final chorus is shortened. A seventh example would be the song, "I Believe I Can Fly" (1996) by R. Kelly, in which the radio edit cuts the entire intro.

Some songs will be remixed heavily and feature different arrangements than the original longer versions, occasionally even being completely different recordings. A popular example of this is "Revolution" (1968) by the Beatles which is a completely different recording from the version which appears on The White Album. Another example is Miley Cyrus's "Adore You" (2013), whose original album version is a slow, quiet version clocking in at 4 minutes 37 seconds; the radio edit is a completely different version which is a remix done by Cedric Gervais running at 3 minutes, 36 seconds. Likewise, an attempt at a radio edit for Arlo Guthrie's 18-minute epic "Alice's Restaurant" (1967) scrapped the entire monologue that served as the main base of the song's popularity and instead was a 4-minute, three-verse rock and roll song. This also became more prevalent with the rise of the 12" record, as artists like New Order started making songs specifically for the format. Many of the 7" mixes aimed for pop radio airplay of their songs feature very different arrangements, such as "Bizarre Love Triangle" (1986), or even a completely different recording, such as "Temptation" (1982).

Some long songs do not have a radio edit, despite being as long as 5, 6, 7, or 8 minutes in length, presumably due to listener demand from radio stations. Examples of this include the following songs: "Vicarious" (2006) by Tool at 7 minutes and 6 seconds, "Hey Jude" (1968) by the Beatles at 7 minutes and 11 seconds long,  "You're the Voice" (1986) by John Farnham at 5 minutes and 4 seconds long, "Stairway to Heaven" (1971) by Led Zeppelin at 8 minutes and 3 seconds, "Georgia Dome" (2004) by Ying Yang Twins (which actually has a radio edit but only removing profanity and not shortening it) at 6 minutes and 6 seconds, "Like a Rolling Stone" (1965) by Bob Dylan at 6 minutes and 13 seconds, "Someone Saved My Life Tonight" (1975) by Elton John at 6 minutes and 45 seconds, and "Again" (2015) by Fetty Wap at 5 minutes and 13 seconds. The idea of extended songs receiving airplay on commercial radio was extremely rare until the birth of progressive radio in the mid-1960s; most rock music formats descend from progressive radio, and as such, rock songs tend to be played at their original length, longer than songs of other genres.

On rare occasions, a radio edit may even be longer than the original album version. This may occur when the song is edited for form, such as in the cases of "Creep" (1992) by Radiohead, "2 On" (2014) by Tinashe, and "Miserable" (1999) by Lit. "Creep"s radio edit has a four-second drumstick count off before the regular first second, "2 On" repeats part of the chorus one more time than it does on the original album version, and "Miserable"s radio edit adds the chorus between the first and second verses. Some radio edits lengthen some parts of the song while shortening others. For example, the radio edit of "Thinking Out Loud" (2014) by Ed Sheeran has a six-second introduction before the first verse but later in the song cuts from the end of the second verse to the beginning of the last chorus, omitting the second chorus and the guitar solo. Another example is the radio edit of Maroon 5's "Beautiful Mistakes" (2021) in which the second verse is cut while the third verse, performed by Megan Thee Stallion, is split into two verses with the chorus added in between. Different radio stations may edit songs differently for length; an example is "Uptown Funk" (2014) by Mark Ronson and Bruno Mars. Another example is Timbaland's song "The Way I Are" (2007) featuring Keri Hilson, where the radio edit cuts the last two verses and repeats the chorus in the outro.

The syndicated radio format "QuickHitz", notably adopted and then quickly abandoned by the Calgary radio station CKMP-FM in August-September of 2014, utilized even shorter edits of songs, from 1 minute 30 seconds to 2 minutes in length.

In the song "The Entertainer" (1974) by Billy Joel, he alludes directly to radio edits for time:

"You've heard my latest record,
It's been on the radio;
Ah, it took me years to write it,
They were the best years of my life,
It was a beautiful song,
But it ran too long,
If you're gonna have a hit,
You gotta make it fit,
So they cut it down to 3:05."

Offensive content

Radio edits often come with any necessary censorship done to conform to decency standards imposed by government agencies, such as the Federal Communications Commission in the United States, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission in Canada, the Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas in the Philippines, the Korea Communications Commission in South Korea, the Australian Communications and Media Authority in Australia, and Ofcom in the United Kingdom. The offending words may be silenced, reversed, distorted, or replaced by a tone or sound effect. The edits may come from the record label itself, broadcasters at the corporate level before the song is sent for airplay to their stations, or in rarer cases, at a radio station itself depending on local standards.

One example of censoring profanity is "Talk Dirty" (2014) by Jason Derulo featuring 2 Chainz, in which the radio edit omits three of the words present in the song: "penis", "sex" and "pussy". "Penis" is replaced with an elephant sound effect, and "sex" is replaced by an echo of the word "oral" which precedes it in the standard album version from Tattoos (2013) and Talk Dirty (2014), and "pussy" is replaced with a sound effect of a cat meowing. Occasionally, the song may be re-recorded with different lyrics, ranging from just the replacement of one line being re-recorded, like James Blunt's "You're Beautiful" (2005), which replaces "fucking high" from the original version on his album Back to Bedlam (2004) with "flying high" in the second verse, to the entire song be completely changed, such as D12's "Purple Hills" (2001), which replaces profanity, drug references, and other inappropriate lyrics from the original "Purple Pills". Another example of the first type (one-line replacement) is the Black Eyed Peas song "Let's Get It Started" (2004), whose original title was "Let's Get Retarded" but was changed to make it suitable for radio play. Sean Kingston's "Beautiful Girls" (2007), in some radio edits, changed "You got me suicidal" to "in denial". The whole chorus of CeeLo Green's "Fuck You" (2010) substituted the word "Fuck" with "Forget", thus changing the title to "Forget You" on the radio edit. In Bruno Mars' song "That's What I Like" (2017), as played on The Steve Harvey Morning Show, "You and your ass invited" is replaced by an instrumental version; the same occurs in the line, "Sex by the fire at night". Taylor Swift's song "Betty" (2020) from her album Folklore, substitutes the line "Would you tell me to go , or take me to the garden?" to "Would you tell me to go , or take me to the garden?". Another example is in Fetty Wap's "Again" when played on SiriusXM The Heat the song is shortened to 4 minutes and 20 seconds with the last 23 seconds playing an instrumental intro version after "I ain't playing no games I need you".

Radio edits may have more or fewer words edited than the "clean version", because of the stations' or agencies' standards.  A "dirty" radio edit preserving the sound of the offensive word or words but maintaining the shorter play time may be produced, which may be aimed at club play, nighttime radio, and non-terrestrial radio stations. After two million copies of Michael Jackson's "They Don't Care About Us" (1996) had already been shipped, the lyrics of the original track with the words "Jew me" and "Kike me" were replaced with "do me" and "strike me" due to its controversial anti-Semitic references. Radio edit versions of the track remained with the original version until the edited version was pressed and released. An example occurs in Lady Gaga's song "Poker Face" (2008), where the line "P-p-p-poker face, p-p-fuck her face" has barely noticeable profanities. Some radio stations repeated the word "poker" from the first part of the line, while others played the original version. A promotional CD single is available containing both of these versions. The edited version is also available on the compilation Now 31 in the US.

In an unusual case, Lizzo's "Truth Hurts" (2017) was edited locally in June 2019 by the market-leading Top 40 station WIXX in Green Bay, Wisconsin, not because of inappropriate content, but due to Lizzo's reference in a lyric to an unnamed new player on the Minnesota Vikings. As WIXX is one of three flagship stations for the Green Bay Packers' radio network and features wraparound content involving the Packers, the station determined that referencing their hometown football team's closest rival positively would be jarring to local listeners.

Some individual stations may be more lenient with words that tread the broadcast-appropriate line, depending on their management and programming format; for instance, a rhythmic AC, classic hits, adult contemporary or urban contemporary station may indeed make several radio edits to a song to appeal to a broad base of listeners, while a rhythmic contemporary, modern rock or hip hop-focused station might be more apt to have a light hand in their radio edits to appeal both to listeners and artists who would be favorable to the station's reputation. Some edits might even be done for promotional reasons; for instance a song that mentions a city's name or a certain radio station might see a special 'station cut' where the station and its community are mentioned in the song (as heard in Lady Gaga's "You and I" (2011), which has a reference to Nebraska that is easily substituted with another region, state or city; similarly, Sia's "Cheap Thrills" (2015) is sometimes edited to replace the line "turn the radio on" with "...turn [station name] on" to promote the radio station on which the song is playing).

Other terms

Other terms for a "radio edit"

 "UK radio edit" (for radio edits made for the British market).
 "Album edit" (Sometimes a different version from the 'radio edit')
 "F.M. Version"
 "Station edit/ID"(when a radio station replaces a part of a song with its name to promote it)
 "LP edit" (Also sometimes a different version from the 'radio edit')
 "Airplay edit"
 "7" edit"
 "7" mix"
 "7" remix"
 "7" version"
 "Radio mix"
 "Radio cut"
 "Radio remix"
 "Edit"
 "Edited mix"
 "Edited remix"
 "Edited version"
 "Short edit"
 "Short mix"
 "Short radio edit"
 "Short radio mix"
 "Short radio remix"
 "Short version"
 "Short radio version"
 "Radio version"
 "Clean edit"
 "Clean radio edit"
 "Clean radio version"
 "Clean version"
 "Squeaky Clean Edit"
 "Child-friendly version"
 "Children's version"
 "Family-friendly version"
 "Single version" (Typically used to reference a stand-alone single that isn't issued to an album, singles taken from soundtracks, or lead singles from an album)
 "Soundtrack version" (Typically used like the previous term above, but not to reference a studio album's lead single)
 "Single edit" (Shortened version of a single version typically)
 "Short single edit"
 "Hit radio"
 "Single edit"
 "Single mix"
 "Single remix"
 "Main version" (Can also be the album version but typically is the radio formatted version)
 "Main edit" (If the "main version" is the album version, then the "main edit" is typically the radio edit)
 "New edit"
 "Amended"
 "Amended version"
 "Original edit"
 "A/C Mix" (Is an alternative edit of the mainstream version formatted for Adult Contemporary radio)
 "Alternative remix"
 "Alternative Mix"
 "RD version" (For songs edited to play on Radio Disney)
 "Video version"
 "Video edit"

 "videoclip version"

See also
Censorship on MTV
List of "songs with questionable lyrics" following the September 11, 2001 attacks
Loudness war
Parental Advisory: Explicit Content

References

Censorship of music
Censorship of broadcasting
Radio broadcasting
Self-censorship

Radio edit


ESB may refer to:

Education
 École supérieure du bois, a French engineering College
 Edwards School of Business, at the University of Saskatchewan in Canada
 English Speaking Board, a British educational charity
 ESB Business School, at Reutlingen University in Germany
 European School, Bergen, in the Netherlands

Sport
 E.S.B. (horse), a racehorse
 Elias Sports Bureau, a North American statistical and historical sports information organisation
 Entente Sportive de Bingerville, an Ivorian football club

Other uses
 Basque Socialist Party (Basque: )
 The E Street Band, an American rock band primarily associated with Bruce Springsteen
 Enterprise service bus, a computer software abstraction layer
 ESB Group, a multinational energy group based in Ireland
 Electric Ireland, formerly ESB Customer Supply, an Irish electricity supplier
 The Empire Strikes Back, a 1980 film in the Star Wars series
 Equilibrium partitioning sediment benchmark
 Ankara Esenboğa Airport, serving Ankara, Turkey
 Expert Soldier Badge, a proposed badge of the US Army
 Extra special bitter, a style of ale
 Fuller's ESB, an extra special bitter ale
 Electric Storage Battery Company, now Exide, an American battery manufacturer
Empire State Building, a skyscraper in New York City
Expeditionary Mobile Base, a ship type designation for the US Navy
European Union's, abbreviation in Icelandic

ESB


Föhrenbach heißen folgende geographische Objekte:

:
 Föhrenbach (Böhmische Schwarzach), rechter Zufluss der Böhmischen Schwarzach gegenüber der Bahlsäge, Stadt Waldmünchen, Landkreis Cham, Bayern
 Föhrenbach (Donau), linker Zufluss vom Ostrong der Donau bei Fahrenbach, Hofamt Priel, Bezirk Melk, Niederösterreich
 Föhrenbach (Großer Bach), linker Zufluss vom Alpstein des hier noch Großer Bach genannten Reichramingbach im Reichraminger Hintergebirge, Bezirk Steyr-Land, Oberösterreich
 Föhrenbach (Kirnach), linker Zufluss der Kirnach beim Behringer Hof von Unterkirnach, Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis, Baden-Württemberg
 Föhrenbach (Lainsitz), linker Zufluss der Lainsitz vom Wachberg in Roßbruck, Gemeinde St. Martin, Bezirk Gmünd, Niederösterreich
 Föhrenbach (Mosel), linker Zufluss der Mosel bei Schweich, Landkreis Trier-Saarburg, Rheinland-Pfalz
 Föhrenbach (Reißbach), linker Zufluss des Reißbachs durch die Schlucht Höllgraben nach Schönau bei Litschau, Stadt Litschau, Bezirk Gmünd, Niederösterreich
 Föhrenbach (Schiltach), rechter Zufluss des Schiltach nach Langenschiltach, Stadt St. Georgen im Schwarzwald, Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis, Baden-Württemberg

 Kleiner Föhrenbach, rechter Zufluss vom Kieneck des Föhrenbach (Großer Bach) kurz vor der Mündung
 Föhrenbach, abgegangener Weiler auf der Gemarkung der Gemeinde Remshalden im baden-württembergischen Rems-Murr-Kreis, siehe Vehrenbach

Föhrenbach ist der Familienname folgender Personen:
 Adolf Föhrenbach (1845–1928), badischer Staatsbeamter
 Friedrich Föhrenbach (1873–1942), badischer Staatsbeamter
 Jonas Föhrenbach (* 1996), deutscher Fußballspieler
 Maria Föhrenbach (1883–1961), Ordensgründerin
 Mathias Föhrenbach (1766–1841), badischer Jurist und Politiker

Siehe auch:
 Fehrenbach
 Fohrenbach
 Föhrenbächle
 Förrenbach
 Vöhrenbach

Föhrenbach


حنظلة بن الربيع. الصحابي أبو ربعي حنظلة بن الربيع الصيفي الكاتب الأُسيِّدي التميمي ويقال له: الكاتب، وهو أحد الصحابة الذين كتبوا لرسول الإسلام ـ صلى الله عليه وسلم ـ، وروى عنه ومن كتبة وحي القرآن. شهد القادسية، ونزل الكوفة، وتخلّف عن علي بن أبي طالب في قتال أهل البصرة يوم الجمل، وتوفي في خلافة معاوية بن أبي سفيان سنة اثنتين وخمسين غازيا بالقسطنطينية,ولا عقب له.

اسمه ونسبه
 حنظلة بن الربيع بن صيفي بن رباح بن الحارث بن مُخَاشن بن معاوية بن شريف بن جُروة بن أسيد بن عمرو بن تميم بن مر الأسيدي العمروي التميمي، يكنى أبا ربعي، ويقال له حنظلة الكاتب، والأسيدي لإنه كان يكتب للنبي صل الله عليه وسلم، وهو ابن أخي حكيم العرب أكثم بن صيفي التميمي

المراجع

صحابة
وفيات 52 هـ

حنظلة بن الربيع


Tudor Panțîru () este un jurist și politician român din Republica Moldova, care a deținut funcția de deputat în primul Parlament al Republicii Moldova (1990-1994) și membru al Camerei Deputaților din Parlamentul României în legislatura 2008-2012.

În Parlamentul Republicii Moldova a fost președinte al comisiei juridice (1990-1992).

Din 2002 până în prezent este judecător internațional la Curtea Constituțională din Bosnia și Herțegovina, iar din februarie 2013 până în ianuarie 2018 a fost și judecător la Curtea Constituțională a Republicii Moldova.

Biografie
Tudor Panțîru s-a născut pe 26 octombrie 1951 în satul Baraboi din raionul Dondușeni, RSS Moldovenească, URSS. În 1977 a absolvit facultatea de drept a Universității de Stat din Moldova. Între anii 1977-1980 a lucrat ca avocat și a fost membru al Asociației Avocaților din Republica Moldova. Apoi a devenit judecător la Judecătoria [raionului] Frunze din Chișinău (1980-1990), fiind președinte al acesteia în perioada 1987-1990. În anii 1988-1990 a fost președinte al Comisiei de evaluare, admitere și promovare a judecătorilor. În 1990 a devenit deputat în primul Parlament al Republicii Moldova, funcție deținută până în 1994, iar în primii doi ani de mandat (1990-1992) a fost și președinte al comisiei juridice în din parlament.

În anii 1992-1996 a fost ambasador și reprezentant permanent al Republicii Moldova pe lângă ONU. În 1995-2001 a fost judecător internațional la Curtea Europeană a Drepturilor Omului (CEDO), iar în 2001-aprile 2002 – consultant juridic la Departamentul Monitorizare al Consiliului Europei, la Strasbourg. În perioada aprilie 2002-ianuarie 2004 a fost judecător internațional la Secția Penală a Curții Supreme din Kosovo, iar în ianuarie 2004 - decembrie 2008 – judecător internațional la Misiunea ONU în Kosovo și președinte al Tribunalului Comercial ONU.

Începând cu anul 2002 este judecător internațional la Curtea Constituțională din Bosnia și Herțegovina. În perioada decembrie 2008 – decembrie 2012 a fost deputat în Parlamentul României, ales în circumscripția electorală nr.43 "DIASPORA", colegiul uninominal nr.2 pe listele Alianței Politice Partidul Social Democrat + Partidul Conservator.

Din februarie 2013 este judecător la Curtea Constituțională a Republicii Moldova. A fost numit judecător la Curtea Constituțională la propunerea Consiliului Superior al Magistraturii. Prin cumul este și consultant juridic și coordonator de program în cadrul Programului Națiunilor Unite pentru Dezvoltare pe segmentul consolidării sistemului legislativ și judiciar.

Distincții
Ordinul Republicii
Medalia "Meritul Civic"

Referințe

Nașteri în 1951
Nașteri pe 26 octombrie
Avocați moldoveni
Juriști moldoveni
Judecători moldoveni
Politicieni moldoveni
Deputați moldoveni
Deputați români 2008-2012
Judecători ai Curții Constituționale a Republicii Moldova
Președinți ai Curții Constituționale a Republicii Moldova
Decorați cu Ordinul Republicii al Republicii Moldova
Decorați cu Medalia Meritul Civic (Republica Moldova)
Oameni din raionul Dondușeni
Români basarabeni
Moldoveni în viață
Juriști români în viață
Politicieni români în viață

Tudor Panțîru


Ta može označavati:
 Ta, kemijska oznaka za tantal.
 Ta (indijansko selo), nekadašnje selo Haida Indijanaca
 Ta (klan), klan Tewa i Hano Indijanaca
 Ta (gens), drugi gens Kansa.

Ta (razdvojba)


708 (DCCVIII) pazar günü başlayan bir artık yıldır.

Olaylar
 Tarık bin Ziyad, Tanca valisi oldu.

Doğumlar
 Theudoald, Avusturasya saray bekçisi

Ölümler
 4 Şubat - Papa Sisinnius
 Drogo, Champagne dükü (d. 670)

708


Ittireddu (sardinski: Itirèddu) je grad i općina (comune) u pokrajini Sassariju u regiji Sardiniji, Italija. Nalazi se na nadmorskoj visini od 313 metara i ima 504 stanovnika. Prostire se na 23,69 km². Gustoća naseljenosti je 21 st/km².Susjedne općine su: Bonorva, Mores, Nughedu San Nicolò i Ozieri.

Izvori

Gradovi na Sardiniji

Ittireddu


Thaumasius é um gênero de aves apodiformes pertencente à família dos troquilídeos, que inclui os beija-flores. O gênero possui duas espécies reconhecidas, anteriormente classificadas dentro do gênero Leucippus, atualmente um táxon monotípico; se distribuem principalmente nas florestas equatorianas próximas à região andina do continente sul-americano em altitudes muito divergentes que estão entre 350 e 2800 metros acima do nível do mar. Ambas as espécies são encontradas no extremo-oeste de Equador, do qual uma das espécies é endêmica, e no caso do beija-flor-malhado, no Peru.

Embora não possuam uma área ampla de distribuição geográfica natural, ambas espécies representantes deste gênero são consideradas espécies "pouco preocupantes", devido à sua distribuição ocorrer dentro das áreas protegidas locais ou nacionais. Além disso, devido às temperaturas baixíssimas dos Andes, ameaças por perda de habitat devido ao aumento do desmatamento e agricultura não são possíveis na mesma intensidade do que as espécies distribuídas na região amazônica.

Descrição
As duas espécies são extremamente similares visualmente, podendo, muitas vezes, ser confundidas entre si por observadores de aves iniciantes. Esses beija-flores possuem entre oito a 12 centímetros de comprimento, com o beija-flor-malhado sendo ligeiramente maior. Ambos os sexos são visualmente similares, com as fêmeas sendo geralmente mais pálidas em sua plumagem e um pouco maiores do que os machos, uma característica comum aos troquilíneos. Esses beija-flores possuem plumagem marrom-acinzentada ou bege com bico preto levemente curvado. Sua mandíbula pode ser cinza-marrom ou ainda amarela, com a ponta enegrecida. As partes superiores são verde-acinzentadas ou verde-bronzeadas com a coroa e coberteiras bronzeadas. As penas internas da cauda são verde-acinzentadas a verde-bronze que progridem acinzentadas nas áreas externas, também possuem uma faixa de bronze próximo ao final. Suas partes inferiores são cinzentas com manchas verdes douradas no queixo, garganta e flancos. As coberteiras infracaudais têm centros castanhos claros e bordas esbranquiçadas.

Distribuição e habitat
Uma destas espécies, o beija-flor-malhado, se distribui exclusivamente pelo território peruano, apresentando um endemismo nesta região, embora alguns registos de aparições não-documentadas no Equador liderem a lista de razões do South American Classification Committee para considerá-la uma espécie hipotética na região. A outra espécie, conhecida pelo nome de beija-flor-de-tumbes, apresenta distribuição ao extremo-oeste sul-americano, em províncias mais ao norte peruano e ao extremo sudoeste equatoriano. Essa espécie é relatada nas províncias de El Oro e Loja ao departamento de Lambayeque. Esses beija-flores possuem habitats na cordilheira dos Andes e nas florestas decíduas encontradas nesta região.

Sistemática e taxonomia
Esse gênero foi introduzido originalmente em 1879, pelo naturalista inglês Philip Lutley Sclater, inicialmente introduzido para a descrição do beija-flor-malhado (Thaumasius taczanowskii), que baseou a descrição em espécimes coletados em Guajungo, na cidade de Cajamarca, ao noroeste do Peru. Em 1901, seria descrita, dessa vez pelo ornitólogo francês Eugène Simon, o beija-flor-de-tumbes (Leucippus baeri), por meio de espécimes encontrados na localidade que nomeia este beija-flor. Posteriormente, a espécie Thaumasius taczanowskii seria movida para o gênero Leucippus, que incluía as espécies beija-flor-camurça (Leucippus fallax) e o beija-flor-de-tumbes. Entretanto, um estudo filogenético molecular publicado em 2014 descobriu que o gênero Leucippus era polifilético, decidindo reclassificar o beija-flor-malhado e o beija-flor-de-tumbes no ressurgido Thaumasius. Embora o International Ornithological Committee, a taxonomia de Clements e South American Classification Committee considerarem esta classificação, Handbook of the Birds of the World (HBW) da BirdLife International usa a classificação desatualizada. Ambas as espécies são monotípicas.

Espécies

 Thaumasius taczanowskii (Sclater, 1879), beija-flor-malhado – pode ser encontrado desde o norte do Peru, na encosta oeste dos Andes Ocidentais, no Vale de Marañon ao extremo-sul do Equador, em Zamora-Chinchipe
 Thaumasius baeri (Simon, 1901), beija-flor-de-tumbes – pode ser encontrado no litoral árido do extremo-sudoeste do Equador e nordeste adjacente do Peru

Ligações externas
 Thaumasius taczanowskii no Avibase
 Thaumasius baeri no Avibase

Géneros de beija-flor
Troquilídeos
Aves da América do Sul
Thaumasius

Thaumasius


El perfecto anfitrión es una película de 2010 escrita y dirigida por Nick Tomnay. La película está protagonizada por David Hyde Pierce y Clayne Crawford. La filmación tuvo lugar en Los Ángeles, California. Fue filmada en 17 días. La edición tuvo lugar en Nueva York.

Sinopsis

El fugitivo John Taylor (Clayne Crawford) huye de un delito inicialmente no especificado, con un pie herido. Los flashbacks y los informes de noticias revelan que robó un banco junto a su novia Simeone Demarchi (Megahn Perry), quien era la cajera. Se detiene en una tienda de conveniencia para tomar desinfectante, solo unos momentos antes de que sea robado; se las arregla para darle la vuelta al ladrón, pero ella se escapa con su billetera. El televisor de la tienda identifica a John y su automóvil, por lo que rápidamente lo abandona y se dirige a pie a un vecindario caro. Con una triste historia sobre ser asaltado, consigue entrar a la casa de Warwick Wilson (David Hyde Pierce). John se hace pasar por un amigo de uno de los amigos de Warwick después de encontrar una postal en el buzón de correo de una mujer llamada "Julia". Warwick está preparando una cena. John habla y bebe vino tinto mientras trata de descubrir su próximo movimiento y cómo evitar que se descubran sus mentiras. Cuando las noticias de radio hacen un anuncio sobre John, él enoja a Warwick y se revela. John amenaza con matar a Warwick si no coopera y lo obliga a llamar a sus invitados para cancelar. De repente, John se desploma; el vino ha sido drogado, y Warwick no es la persona que parece ser.

Cuando John se recupera, se encuentra atado a una silla, y la fiesta está en su apogeo, pero todos los invitados con los que Warwick está interactuando son producto de la imaginación de Warwick. Warwick toma una Polaroid de John y revela un álbum de recortes de sus cenas pasadas, cada una con una víctima de asesinato y una línea de tiempo de las cosas que Warwick le hará. A medida que avanza la noche, John está más aterrorizado, drogado e incapacitado, y aprende varias cosas sobre el extraño estilo de vida de Warwick. Una vecina de Warwick, una anciana entrometida (a quien John también trató de engañar para que lo dejara entrar a su casa antes) escucha a John gemir y se va a investigar. Warwick puede engañarla para que se vaya, culpando a un invitado borracho de la cena por el ruido. Warwick cauteriza la herida de John con el atizador de fuego después de que el vecino se va. John también descubre que Julia es otro producto de la imaginación de Warwick cuando ve que Warwick se escribe una postal para él.

Más tarde, John y Warwick juegan al ajedrez, y el premio es la libertad de John; John, que es un excelente jugador, gana. Warwick deja ir a John según lo acordado, pero se burla de él antes de que pueda irse, llamándolo inútil y secundario. John toma el tantō (espada japonesa) en exhibición en la sala de Warwick y lo apuñala con él, pero resulta ser un cuchillo de utilería plegable, por lo que Warwick noquea a John. Cuando una vez más recupera la conciencia, están en el baño de Warwick, John atado en la bañera, mientras Warwick tiene un encuentro. A la luz del día, coloca una foto en su álbum de recortes en la que aparentemente cortó la garganta de John.

El cuerpo de John queda afuera con la basura. Se despierta y descubre que la mayoría de sus heridas son falsas; Warwick es un maestro del maquillaje de películas. L.A.P.D. El detective Morton llega a la puerta de Warwick. Warwick es en realidad un teniente de policía que está trabajando en el robo de John. Warwick esconde el álbum de recortes, la medicina y el kimono, luego altera su comportamiento e incluso su voz. Mientras tanto, John sospecha de su novia Simone y descubre que hizo arreglos de viaje alternativos fuera de Los Ángeles que no lo incluyen. Warwick y el detective Morton se unen a otro detective que vigila el apartamento de Simone. John localiza a Simone en un estacionamiento, tomando su auto y el dinero, dejándola capturada por los detectives. Warwick impide que John se vaya y lo chantajea por el dinero, dejándole unos $ 20,000 para pasar la frontera mexicana, por lo que John dice gracias.

Un par de meses después, el detective Morton recibe una carta de México: es una Polaroid de Warwick y John juntos, de la cena, con una advertencia por escrito. Morton, sospechoso, se enfrenta a Warwick, quien lo destruye; pero, cuando Morton persiste, Warwick lo invita a una cena y le pregunta qué tipo de vino le gustaría. Warwick luego sale de la oficina, junto con sus amigos imaginarios, con una sonrisa en su rostro.

Elenco
David Hyde Pierce como Warwick Wilson.
Clayne Crawford como John Taylor.
Nathaniel Parker como Det. Morton
Helen Reddy como Cathy Knight.
Megahn Perry como Simone Demarchi.
Joseph Will como Det. Valdez

Referencias

El perfecto anfitrión


ක්‍රීඩා () යනු නීතිරීති හෝ ව්‍යවහාරයන් මාලාවන් විසින් පාලනය කරනු ලැබෙන හා බොහෝ විට තරගකාරී ලෙස නිරත වන ක්‍රියාකාරකම් ය. ක්‍රීඩා ලෙස සාමාන්‍යයෙන් හඳුන්වන්නේ තරගකරුගේ කායික ශක්‍යතාවයන් අවසාන ප්‍රතිඵලයේ (දිනුම හෝ පරාජය) එකම සහ මූලික නිර්ණය සාධකය වන ක්‍රියාකාරකම්ය. නමුත් බුද්ධිය භාවිතා කරන ක්‍රීඩා (වාසනාවට ඉතා අඩු ඉඩකඩක් ඇති "කාඩ් සෙල්ලම්" හා පුවරු ක්‍රීඩා" හැඳින්වීම බහුලව යොදන නමකි) සහ මානසික තීක්ෂණභාවය හෝ උපකරණවල තත්වය ප්‍රධාන සාධක වන "මෝටර් රථ ක්‍රීඩා" වැනි ක්‍රියාකාරකම් හැඳින්වීමට ද මෙම යෙදුම භාවිතා කරනු ලැබේ. කායික ක්‍රීඩා සමහරකට සහයෝගීතාව අවශ්‍ය වන අතර ඊට පාපන්දු, පැසිපන්දු, ජල පන්දු ක්‍රීඩාව සහ බේස් බෝල් ක්‍රීඩාව ඇතුළත් වේ.

ක්‍රීඩා ඉතිහාසය
ක්‍රීඩාවේ ඉතිහාසය මිනිසුන්ගේ මුල් ආරම්භය තෙක් විහිදීමට බොහෝ දුරට ප්‍රයෝජනවත් වේ. ක්‍රීඩාව මිනිසුන්ගේ ස්වභාවය සහ පරිසරය ප්‍රගුණ කිරීමට බොහෝ දුරට ප්‍රයෝජනවත් වේ. ක්‍රීඩාවේ ඉතිහාසයෙන් අපට සමාජ වෙනස්වීම් ගැන බොහෝ ඉගැන්වීම් සිදු කරයි, එමෙන්ම ක්‍රීඩාවේ ස්වභාවය ද විස්තර වේ. මිනිසුන් ඔවුන්ගේ යහපැවැත්ම සඳහාම තමන්ගේ දක්ෂතාවයන් වර්ධනය කර ගැනීම සහ පුහුණු කිරීම ක්‍රීඩාවට අන්තර් ගත වන අතර මීට සමාන්තරව තමන්ගේ ප්‍රයෝජනවත් භාවය පුහුණු කිරීම සිදුවේ. බොහෝ ඈත අතීතය දෙස බලන විට ක්ෂය වී යන සාධක මෙම කාර්යයට උදව්කර ගැනීම වඩා අපහසු කරයි. එසේම එම සමාජය එහි විශ්වාසය වෙනස් කළ ආකාරයත් එම නිසාම ක්‍රීඩාවේ නීතිරීති වෙනස් කළ ආකාරයත් පෙනී යයි.

නිරුක්ති ශාස්ත්‍රය
ක්‍රීඩාව යන වචනය ප්‍රංශ භාෂාවෙන් විවේකය යන තේරුම ඇතිව බිහි වන්නකි.වචනය ප්‍රංශ භාෂාවෙන් විවේකය යන තේරුම ඇතිව බිහි වන්නකි.

පාරීභාෂික ශබ්ද මාලාව

බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ඉංග්‍රීසියෙහි ක්‍රීඩා ක්‍රියාකාරකම් පොදුවේ විස්තර කරන්නේ සමූහවාචී නාම පදයක් වූ "ස්පොර්ට්" යන වචනයෙනි. ඇමරිකන් ඉංග්‍රිසියෙහි වැඩි වශයෙන් යෙදෙන්නේ 'ස්පොට්ස්' යන්නයි. සියලු ඉංග්‍රිසි ව්‍යවහාරයන්හි එක් නිශ්චිත ක්‍රීඩාවකට වඩා හැඳින්වීමේදි "ස්පෝට්ස්" වචනය භාවිතාවේ. උදාහරණයක් වශයෙන් "Foot ball and swimming are my favorite sports" යනුවෙන් ව්‍යවහාර කෙරේ. මෙම භාවිතය ඉංග්‍රීසි කථා කරන සියලු දෙනා සාමාන්‍යයෙන් නිවැරදි යැයි පිළිගනිති. "I enjoy sport" කියනවාට වඩා "I enjoy sports" යනුවෙන් කථා කිරීම වඩා සුදුසු බව උතුරු අමෙරිකානුවන්ගේ මතයයි.

ස්පොර්ට් (ක්‍රීඩා) යන යෙදුම සමහර විට සියලු තරඟකාරී ක්‍රියාවන් හැඳින්වීමට යොදා ගැනෙයි. එහිදි ශරීරය ක්‍රියාත්මක වන මට්ටම වැදගත් නො‍වේ.

පුහුණුව සහිත ක්‍රීඩා සහ මෝටර් රථ තරඟ යන දෙකම පුහුණුව, ක්‍රීඩා ලෝලීත්වය යනාදි, ශාරීරික ක්‍රියාවන්හි බොහෝ ගති ලක්ෂණ ප්‍රදර්ශණය කරයි. ගුවනේ කෙරෙන ක්‍රීඩා, බිලියඩ්, චෙස්, මෝටර් සයිකල් ධාවන තරඟ සහ බෝට්ටු තරඟ ආදී සියල්ල අන්තර් ජාතික ඔලිම්පික් කමිටුව විසින් ක්‍රීඩා වශයෙන් පිළිගනු ලබයි.

ආශ්‍රිත

 Outline of sports
 List of sports
 List of sportspeople
 List of sports attendance figures
 List of professional sports leagues
 New Media and Sports

ආශ්‍රිත මාතෘකා

 Athletic sports
 Animals in sport
 Combat sport
 Disabled sports
 Electronic sports
 Fan (person)
 Handedness#Advantage in sports
 International sport
 Lawn game
 Mind sport
 Motor sports
 Multi-sport events
 National sport
 Nationalism and sports
 ඔලිම්පික්
 Paralympic Games
 Physical education
 ශාරීරික යෝග්‍යතාව
 Spalding Athletic Library
 Sponsorship
 Sport in film
 Sport psychology
 ක්‍රීඩා සමාජ
 Sports coaching
 Sports commentator
 Sports entertainment
 ක්‍රීඩා උපකරණ
 Sports fan
 Sports governing body
 Sports injuries
 Sports league attendances
 ක්‍රීඩාව අලෙවිය
 Sports nutrition
 Sports terms named after people
 Sports trainer
 Sportsperson
 Sportswear
 Sunday sporting events
 Team sport
 Underwater sports
 Women's sports
 Water sports
 Winter sport

මූලාශ්‍ර

ප්‍රධාන මාතෘකා ලිපි
Books about sports
Social gatherings
සංස්කෘතිය

ක්‍රීඩා


Molossia, cunoscută și sub numele de Republica Molossia, este o micronațiune învecinată cu Statele Unite ale Americii, fondată de Kevin Baugh, având sediul la domiciliul său din apropierea Dayton, Nevada. Republica Molossia s-a proclamat o națiune, dar nu este recunoscută ca o țară de către Națiunile Unite sau orice guvern major. Pe 16 aprilie 2016, Baugh a găzduit un tur al orașului Molossia, sponsorizat de site-ul Atlas Obscura .  Kevin Baugh continuă să plătească impozite pe teren în județul Storey (guvernului local recunoscut), deși îl numește "ajutor străin". Kevin Baugh a declarat: "Vrem cu toții să credem că avem propria noastră țară, dar știți că SUA este mult mai mare".

Istorie
Originile Molossiei provin dintr-un proiect de micronațiune de copilărie, numit Marea Republică Vuldstein, fondată de Baugh și James Spielman la 26 mai 1977.  Vuldstein a fost condus și populat de regele James I (Spielman) și prim-ministrul Baugh, deși James a părăsit la scurt timp Vuldstein. Baugh a folosit acest nume pentru a denumi mai multe "regate" în timp ce călătorea prin Europa. Din 1998 până în 1999, Molossia a fost membru al Protopopirilor Unite ale Utopiei 3. La 3 septembrie 1999, Baugh a înființat Republica Molossia ca țară succesoare la Vuldstein și s-a proclamat președinte.

La 13 noiembrie 2012, Kevin Baugh a creat o petiție pe site-ul Whitehouse.gov intitulată "Noi, oamenii, pentru a obține recunoașterea oficială a micronațiunii" (petiția "Noi oamenii"). Acesta a declarat la ultimul recensământ al populației (18 martie 2012) 27 de locuitori (Newsbites Molossia).

Teritoriu

Molossia este alcătuită din trei proprietăți (anterior patru) care sunt deținute de Kevin Baugh, în Statele Unite și cuprinzând o suprafață totală de    : Provincia Harmony, aflată în apropierea orașului Dayton, Nevada, este cea mai mică dintre teritoriile Molossiei, la puțin mai mult de      . Este locul principal de reședință al familiei Baugh și locul de destinație al capitalei Molossia, Baughston. Baughston a fost redenumit din Espera în 30 iulie 2013 pentru a comemora ziua de 51 de ani a președintelui Baugh.  Adresa străzii Statelor Unite ale Americii pentru casa lui Kevin Baugh este 226 Mary Lane Road, Dayton, Nevada 89403.

În august 2003, Baugh a achiziționat o mică bucată de teren rural în California de Nord. A fost vorba de Colonia lui Farfalla . Proprietatea a fost vândută la sfârșitul anului 2005, după ce Baugh a moștenit mai multe terenuri pe care ulterior le-a numit provincia Desert Homestead din California de Sud.  Desert Homestead fusese deținută de bunicul lui Baugh, iar proprietatea a fost declarată monument național dedicat lui. La începutul anului 2015 o colonie Farfalla a devenit din nou teritoriu molossian.

Economie
Moneda Molossiei este valora, care este împărțită în 100 de băuturi spirtoase și este legată de valoarea relativă a aluatului cookie Pillsbury .  Aluatul de tip cookie este stocat într-un ansamblu numit Bank of Molossia, din care sunt vândute monede valora fabricate din chips-uri și bancnote imprimate.   Marea poveste mare a lui CNN a inclus, de asemenea, Molossia și Baugh.

Război revendicat cu Germania de Est
Republica Molossia susține că se află în război cu Germania de Est, pretinzând că sunt responsabili pentru exercițiile militare efectuate de Kevin Baugh, în timp ce se află la Militarul Statelor Unite din Germania de Vest și, prin urmare, sunt responsabili de lipsa de somn care rezultă.   În timp ce Germania de Est a încetat în mod oficial să existe în 1990 prin Tratatul de soluționare finală cu privire la Germania, Molossia susține că insula Ernst Thälmann, prin dedicația Cubei către politicianul german Weimar Ernst Thälmann și lipsa menționării în Tratatul privind soluționarea finală sau de către națiunea Cubei, este încă o țară din estul Germaniei, permițând războiul să continue.

Simboluri nationale
Steagul Molossiei este un tricolor orizontal albastru, alb și verde. Barul albastru reprezintă puterea națiunii și cerul deșertului, bara albă reprezintă puritatea și munții din jur, iar barul verde reprezintă prosperitatea și peisajul molossian.

Alte simboluri naționale ale Molossiei includ mustangul, animalul național; pusul desert, pasărea națională; și ienupărul comun și cornul de păianjen comun, arborele național și flora Molossiei, respectiv.

Note

Legături externe

 Site -ul oficial [http://www.molossia.org/ al Republicii Molossia

Comitatul Storey, Nevada
Micronațiuni
Geografia statului Nevada
Istoria statului Nevada

Republica Molossia


Beyyayla, Eskişehir ilinin Sarıcakaya ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Köy halkının soyu Karakeçili Yörüklerinden oluşmaktadır.

Coğrafya
Eskişehir iline 68 km, Sarıcakaya ilçesine 20 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

Sarıcakaya'nın mahalleleri

Beyyayla, Sarıcakaya


est un court-métrage d'animation japonais réalisé par Masaaki Ōsumi. Il s'agit de la toute première adaptation du manga Lupin III, crée par Monkey Punch en 1967. Ce film de 12 minutes fut créé par Tokyo Movie et était destiné à générer de l'intérêt et à assurer un financement pour une plus grande production. Vers 1971, il fut adapté à la télévision avec de nouveaux doubleurs et la série fut prise en main par Yomiuri Television, menant à la création de Lupin the Third Part I.

Synopsis
Le film pilote, librement adapté du chapitre Camera Tricks, sert principalement d'introduction aux cinq personnages principaux, ainsi qu'à un détective retraité nommé Kogoro Akechi. Chaque personnage est introduit au spectateur à travers plusieurs vignettes avec une narration. Lupin III, Daisuke Jigen et Fujiko Mine sont dans un manoir encerclé par la police dirigée par l'inspecteur Zenigata et Akechi. Goemon Ishikawa offre son aide aux policiers en entrant dans la maison pour aller tuer Lupin. En revanche, Lupin est déjà sorti du bâtiment sous un déguisement d'Akeshi et facilite l'évasion de Jigen et de Fujiko.

Fiche technique

 Titre original :
 Réalisation : Osamu Kobayashi, Masaaki Ôsumi
 Scénario : Osamu Kobayashi, d'après le manga Lupin III de Monkey Punch
 Musique : Norio Maeda
 Direction artistique : Tsutomu Shibayama
 Décors : Reiji Koyama
 Son : Atsumi Tashiro
 Animation : Osamu Kobayashi, Tsutomu Shibayama, Gisaburō Sugii, Yasuo Otsuka
 Production : Yutaka Fujioka
 Société de production : TMS Entertainment
 Pays de production :
 Langue originale : japonais
 Format : couleur —  — 2,35:1 (CinemaScope)
 Durée : 12 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
 Japon : 10 novembre 1969

Distribution

Version Cinemascope

 Taichirō Hirokawa: Lupin III
 Kiyoshi Kobayashi : Jigen
 Eiko Masuyama : Fujiko Mine
 Shinsuke Chikaishi : l'inspecteur Zenigata / narrateur
 Gorō Naya : Goemon Ishikawa
 Hitoshi Takagi : Kogoro Akechi

Version télé

 Nachi Nozawa: Lupin III
 Kiyoshi Kobayashi : Jigen
 Eiko Masuyama : Fujiko Mine
 Chikao Ōtsuka: l'inspecteur Zenigata
 Osamu Kobayashi : Goemon Ishikawa
 Kōichi Kitamura : Kogoro Akechi
 Nobuo Tanaka : narrateur

Production
L'adaptation en animation du manga de Monkey Punch fut suggéré en premier par l'animateur Gisaburō Sugii à Yutata Fujioka, le fondateur de Tokyo Movie Shinsha (connu alors sous le nom de Tokyo Movie). Bien que Fujioka était intéressé par l'idée, Tokyo Movie n'avait pas assez de ressources financières pour pouvoir produire un tel projet. Cela mena à la création d'un pilote en CinemaScope nommé Pilot Film, dont l'intention était de produire de l'intérêt dans le projet et d'assurer du financement de producteurs potentiels. La bande sonore vocale du Pilot Film fut écrite et animé par Sugii, Yasuo Otsuka, Tsutomu Shibayama et Osamu Kobayashi, avec la supervision par Masaaki Ōsumi et les décors par Reiji Koyama. La bande sonore musicale fut composée par Norio Meida, tandis que le dialogue fut écrit par Jiro Saito et Toshiaki Imaizumi.

Yasuo Otsuka avait quitté Toei Animation pour rejoindre Tokyo Movie, vu qu'en travaillant sur Lupin, il pourrait utiliser ses connaissances et son intérêt sur les armes et les transports dans son animation. L'équipe étudia le style de Monkey Punch en détail, incluant l'influence du dessinateur américain Mort Drucker sur le manga, et analysa les personnages de tous les angles; ils étaient initialement assistés par Monkey Punch lui-même jusqu'à ce qu'il sente que le projet était trop pour lui. Des scripts et des traitements furent aussi écrits pour une adaptation en long-métrage, dont l'un d'eux montrait Lupin avant le début de sa carrière de voleur en tant qu'hippie à Shinjuku, et expliquait comment il en vint à être poursuivi par la police et par d'autres criminels.

Bien que la qualité du pilote était élevée pour son époque, peu d'investisseurs étaient intéressés dans le projet en raison de ses thèmes adultes de violence et de sexualité. Un an plus tard, le projet n'avait toujours pas été vendu et le pilote fut adapté pour la télévision. L'animation de cette version était majoritairement identique à la version CinemaScope, mais contenait une distribution différente : seules les voix de Kiyoshi Kobayashi (Jigen) et de Eiko Masuyama (Fujiko) avaient été retenues pour les deux versions. En 1971, Yomiuri Television accepta de produire une adaptation télévisée du manga.

Diffusion
Une partie de l'animation de la version télé du pilote fut recyclée dans plusieurs génériques de la série Edgar de la Cambriole, malgré le fait que Lupin porte une veste rouge dans ces séquences (elle devint verte pour la série à l'insistance de Yasuo Otsuka).

Le Pilot Film fut diffusé sur Yomiuri TV le 17 août 1988 et les deux versions furent incluses dans l'OAV  en 1989. Elles sont sorties en Amérique du Nord en tant que bonus de l'édition DVD de la série par  en 2012.

En France, le film fait partie des bonus de l'édition collector DVD/Blu-Ray de la première série par Black Box en 2019.

Références

Liens externes

Téléfilm japonais des années 1960
Téléfilm diffusé en 1969
Court métrage d'animation japonais
Lupin III
Épisode pilote

Lupin the Third: Pilot Film


An Scindapsus rupestris in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Henry Nicholas Ridley. An Scindapsus rupestris in nahilalakip ha genus nga Scindapsus, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Scindapsus

Scindapsus rupestris


Frammi við Gjónna er et gårdbrug på Færøerne. Gården her blev opført under niðursetutíðin i 1815, men stedet har sandsynligvis været bebygget tidligere. Gården ligger ved Leynavatn i Kvívíkar kommuna på Streymoy. Frammi við Gjónna er et typisk eksempel på en færøsk bondegård, hvor beboerne boede i lange stenhuse med græstag og ernærede sig ved fårehold. I dag huser gården restauranten Koks. De flade sletter nedenfor ved gården ved Leynavatn er stadig opdyrket. Frammi við Gjónna var motiv for to frimærker graveret af Czesław Słania og udgivet af Postverk Føroya i 1987.

Referencer

Fraflyttede bygder på Færøerne
Streymoy

Frammi við Gjónna


مرض بهجت أو متلازمة بهجت  أو مرض طريق الحرير، هو مرض نادر وشكل من أشكال التهابات الأوعية الدموية التي تظهر في معظم الأحيان مع تقرّح الاغشية المخاطية ومشاكل بصرية. سُمي هذا المرض عام 1937 على اسم مكتشفه الطبيب التركي خلوصي بهجت في جامعة اسطنبول بعد أن وصفه بثلاثة أعراض متلازمة وهي: التقرحات الفموية والتناسلية والتهاب القزحية. يُصنف على أنه مرض شامل يصيب كامل الجسم، فيؤثر على الأعضاء الداخلية مثل: الجهاز الهضمي والتنفسي والعضلي الهيكلي والدوران والعصبي. وهذه المتلازمة يمكن أن تسبب الوفاة نتيجة لتمزق الأوعية الدموية المتمددة «انيورسم» أو مضاعفات عصبية حادة.

العلامات والأعراض

تبدأ أعراض هذا المرض بالظهور في العشرينات والثلاثينات من عمر المريض، ولكنه قد يصيب كل الأعمارحيث يمر المرض بحالتين متعاقبتين على الدوام.
 الحالة الحادة: وهي التي تظهر فيها الأعراض.
 الحالة الكامنة: وهي التي تختفي فيها الأعراض

وتتعاقب هاتان الحالتان باستمرار، وتبعا لذلك فقد نجد المريض يعاني من الأعراض بصفة دائمة أو دورية، وكذلك ربما تكون الأعراض قوية ومؤلمة وربما تكون خفيفة.

الأغشية المخاطية والجلد
تقريباً يعاني جميع المرضى من تقرحات جلدية مخاطية مؤلمة تظهر على الفم على شكل تقرحات فموية أو تقرحات لا تترك ندب  تشبه تلك التي نجدها في داء الأمعاء الالتهابي ويمكن ان تنهار، بالإضافة إلى تقرحات تناسلية مؤلمة حول الفرج وفتحة الشرج وكيس الخصيتين، وتسبب ندب عند 75% من المرضى. بالإضافة إلى ذلك قد يرافق المصابين ظهور عقد حمراء صلبة على الذقن والقدمين (حالة جلدية)، التهاب الأوعية الدموية الجلدية البثرية، وتقرحات مشابهة لتقيح الجلد الغنغريني.

الجهاز البصري
قد يصاب المريض بالتهابات العين في بدايات المرض التي تؤدي إلى فقدان النظر الدائم في 20% من الحالات، إصابة العين قد تكون على شكل التهاب العنبية الأمامي، التهاب العنبية الخلفي، والتهاب الأوعية الشبكية.
 التهاب العنبية الامامي: ألم واحمرار وقيح في العين وانخفاض حدة الرؤية
 التهاب العنبية الخلفي: غير مؤلم مع انخفاض في حدة ومدى الرؤية
 التهاب الاوعية الشبكية: غير مؤلم مع انخفاض في الرؤية وووجود خلل بصري
وجود خلل في العصب البصري في مرض بهجت قليل جدا، وإذا وجد، يتمثل بضمور وفقدان البصر. مع ذلك لوحظ حدوث حالات من الإصابة بالأمراض العصبية البصرية الحادة وخصوصا نقص في التروية في الجهة الامامية للعين. ضمور عصب العين هو المسبب الأكثر شيوعا لخلل البصر. وقد ينتج مرض بهجت من شمول العصب البصري الأولي والثانوي
- وَذَمَةُ حُلَيمَةِ العَصَبِ البَصَرِيّ نتيجة الانسداد الجيبي  وضمور ناتج من أمراض الشبكية عرف كالمسبب الثاني لضمور العصب البصري في مرض بهجت.

أعراض الاعتلال العصبي البصري
 ألم.
 فقدان البصر لعين واحدة أو كلتيهما.
 انخفاض حدة البصر.
 انخفاض الرؤية الملونة.
 تضيق في بؤبؤ العين (الحدقة) عند تعرضه للضوء.
 عتمة مركزية.
 تورم القرص البصري.
 تجمع السوائل في شبكية العين.
 ألم خلف المقلة.

- ظهور هذه الاعراض بالتزامن مع تقرحات مخاطية جلدية قد تشير إلى وجود اعتلال بصري حاد في مرض بهجت. الضمور البصري التدريجي قد يؤدي إلى انخفاض حدة البصر أو رؤية الألوان. قد يصاحب ذلك ارتفاع ضغط الدم في العين وانتفاخ قرص العين.

الأمعاء
آلام في البطن، غثيان، إسهال مع أو بدون دم، وغالباً ما يؤثر على الصمام الأعوري اللفائفي.
يعاني الأشخاص المصابون بالتهابات الأمعاء من صلابة في البطن وانتفاخ وألم حاد وعدم راحة في البطن مشابه لمتلازمة القولون العصبي.

الرئتان

دم مصاحب للمخاط، التهاب الجنبة، وهي الغشاء المحيط بالرئتين، سعال أو حمى، في الحالات الشديدة يمكن أن يكون مهدد للحياة إذا كان هناك انهيار حاد بالأوعية الدموية ونزيف بسبب تمزق وتمدد الأوعية في الشريان الرئوي، عقيدات، وجود العقد وتجمع السوائل وكتل في التجويف الرئوي  ويحدث أحيانا تجلط في الشريان الرئوي.

الجهاز العضلي الهيكلي
ألم مفاصل عند نصف المرضى في المفاصل الكبيرة للأطراف السفلية

الجهاز العصبي
التهاب السحايا المزمن كتل في الدماغ، أو جذع الدماغ أو المادة البيضاء في النصف العميق للمخ، وقد تشبه تلك التي نراها في التصلب اللويحي. وقد نلاحظ ضمور في جذع المخ في الحالات المزمنة.
تتراوح الأعراض من التهاب السحايا العقيم إلى تجلط الأوعية الدموية مثل جيب الام الجافيه "dural sinus"، متلازمة المخ العضوية المتمثلة في نوبات، ارتباك، فقدان في الذاكرة.
غالبا ما تظهر في مراحل متقدمة من المرض ولكنها تكون مرتبطة بالتنبؤ الخاطئ لتطور المرض.

القلب
التهاب التامور، وقد نرى قلس أبهري مزمن بسبب مرض في الجذر الابهري.

مشاكل في عمل الكلى

تعب عام في جميع انحاء الجسم والهزال

التهاب الاوردة تحت الجلد، وحدوث جلطات وخثرات في هذه الأوردة

الأسباب
السبب ليس واضحاً لكن يتمثل أساساً بوجود التهاب الأوعية الدموية الذاتي على الرغم من استبعاده حيث يتم التشخيص من خلال فحص باثولوجي للمناطق المتضررة.
المناعة الذاتية هي السبب الأولي في حدوث الضرر، وتعرف بفرط نشاط نظام المناعة الذي تهاجم خلاياه جسم المريض نفسه لسبب غير معروف حتى الآن.في الحقيقة لا أحد يعرف لماذا يبدأ جهاز المناعة بالتصرف بهذه الطريقة في مرض بهجت.. ويظهر أن هناك سبب وراثي؛ الأقارب من الدرجة الأولى يمثلون الشريحة الأكبر من المرضى.
وجود خلل في كروموسوم 7 . الجينات المسؤوله GIMAP1، GIMAP2 و .

الفيسيولوجيا المرضية

يعتبر مرض بهجت من أكثر الأمراض انتشاراً في المناطق المحيطة ب«طريق الحرير»،  أحد الطرق التجارية قديما في الشرق الأوسط واسيا الوسطى، لكنه لا يقتصر على أهل هذه المناطق فقط.
عدد كبير من الدراسات السيرولوجية، علم دراسة الأمصال، أظهرت أن العلاقة بين مرض بهجت ونوع من الأمصال HLA-B51 .

HLA-B51 أكثر ما وجد من الشرق الأوسط إلى جنوب شرق سيبيريا.
لكن أظهرت دراسات أخرى أن انتشار B51 أكثر ثلاث مرات من الناس الطبيعيين، مع ذلك لا يظهر B51 عندما يرتبط المرض بجين   ، والأعراض تكون أكثر اعتدالاً بوجود HLA-B27 .

في الوقت الحالي لم يُؤكَّد وجود أساس عدوى مشابه تؤدي إلى مرض بهجت. لكن تم العثور على سلالات بكتيرية Streptococcus sanguinis لها مولدات مضاده متماثلة.
تحدث مجموعة من التبدلات أهمها:

1-الإصابة الوعائية.

2-فرط نشاط العدلات (أكثر أنواع كريات الدم البيضاء غزارة لدى الإنسان).

3-اضطرابات المناعة.

التهاب الأوعية الدموية المؤدي إلى انسداد الأوعية الدموية التي تمد العصب البصري قد يكون سبب اعتلال العصب البصري الحاد وضموره التدريجي في مرض بهجت. الفحص النسجي للحالات المصابة باعتلال العصب البصري الحاد أظهر وجود خلايا نجمية ليفية مكان محور العصب بدون أي تغيرات في الشبكية.
إصابة الجهاز العصبي قد تؤدي إلى ارتفاع ضغط الدم داخل الجمجمة بسبب تجلط الأوعية الدموية  وضمور العصب البصري الثانوي لاحقا.

التشخيص
لا يوجد أي اختبار مرضي معين أو أسلوب متاح لتشخيص المرض، على الرغم من أن معايير مجموعة الدراسة الدولية للمرض حساسة للغاية ومحددة، حيث تنطوي على المعايير السريرية واختبار الأرجية المتعددة.
مرض بهجت يتشابه بدرجة كبيرة مع الأمراض المسببة للآفات الجلدية المخاطية، مثل: الهربس الفموي البسيط، فيبقى الشك السريري إلى أن يتم استبعاد كافة الآفات الفموية الأخرى باستخدام التشخيص التفريقي.

ظهور أعراض مرض بهجت ووجود آفات مخاطية جلدية بالتزامن مع فقدان حدة البصر والقدرة على رؤية الألوان قد يشير إلى إصابة العصب البصري.
تشخيص المرض يعتمد على النتائج السريرية، بما في ذلك ظهور تقرحات الفم والأعضاء التناسلية والآفات الجلدية، مثل: حُمامَى عَقِدَة، حب الشباب، التهاب الجريبات، التهابات العين، والأرجية المتعددة. قد ترتفع نسب علامات الالتهابات مثل ESR وCRP (فحوصات للدلالة على وجود التهابات). فحص العين الشامل قد يتضمن: فحص المصباح الشقي تصوير مقطعي للتماسك البصري للكشف عن فقدان العصب، فحص مجال الرؤية، استخدام الفندوسكوب لتقييم ضمور العصب وأمراض الشبكية، تصوير الأوعية باستخدام الفندوسكوب، تحفيز امكانية النظر، والتي توضح زيادة فترة التاخير. يمكن تحسين العصب البصري من خلال التصوير بالرنين المغناطيسي في بعض المرضى الذين يعانون من اعتلال بصري حاد، مع ذلك الدراسات لم تستبعد وجود اعتلال بصري. تحليل السائل الدماغي (CSF)قد يظهر ارتفاعاً في البروتين مع أو بدون خلايا السائل النخاعي، تصوير الأوعية قد يشير إلى وجود انسداد في الأوعية الجيبية؛ كسبب لارتفاع ضغط الدم داخل الجمجمة وضمور العصب البصري.

مبادئ التشخيص

وفقاً لمجموعة الدراسة الدولية لتشخيص مرض بهجت ، يجب أن يكون لدى المريض تقرحات فموية، أي حجم أو شكل أو عدد، على الأقل 3 خلال 1 شهر، إلى جانب ظهور عرضين من الأربعة أعراض المميزة التالية:
 تقرحات في الأعضاء التناسلية: تقرحات فتحة الشرج، بقع، التهاب البربخ، تورم الخصية.
 تكتلات جلدية: التهاب جريبي، بثور، عقدة حمامية، حب شباب في مرحلة ما بعد المراهقة (ليس بسبب الكورتيزول)
 التهابات العين: التهاب القرنية، التهاب القزحية، التهاب أوعية الشبكية، والخلايا في السائل الزجاجي
 حالة جلدية بسبب ضربة أو كدمة (papule>2 mm dia. 24-48 ساعة بعد وخز الإبر. اختبار الارجية المتعددة له خصوصية عالية من 95% - 100% ، لكن غالباً ما تظهر النتيجة سلبية عند الأمريكيين الأوروبيين.
في بعض الحالات لا تتحقق تلك الأعراض الأربعة، لكن هذه الأعراض قد تساعه في التشخيص المبدئي:
 قرحة الفم
 التهاب المفاصل
 أعراض الجهاز العصبي
 التهاب الأمعاء والمعدة
 تجلطات
 التهاب الوريد الخثاري السطحي
 التهاب البربخ
 مشاكل القلب والأوعية الدموية الناتجة عن الاتهابات
 التهابات في الصدر والرئتين
 مشاكل في السمع والتوازن
 ارهاق شديد
 تغير في الشخصية، ذهان
 وجود شخص آخر في العائلة مصاب بمرض بهجت

العلاج
حتى اللحظة لا يوجد علاج لهذه الحالة. يهدف العلاج الحالي إلى: تقليل الأعراض، الحد من الاتهابات، والسيطرة على الجهاز المناعي .
 عادة ما يتم استخدام جرعة عالية من الكورتيكوستيرويد في حالة الأعراض الشديدة للمرض  فقط، ولا تعطى في حالات الهوادة وإلا سيؤدي إلى فقد البصر أو الموت
 استخدام مضاد عامل نخر الورم (مثبط عامل نخر الورم) مثل انفلكسيماب أظهر الأمل لعلاج التهاب القزحية.
 هناك ANTI-TNF آخر «ايتانرسبت» قد يكون مفيداً في الحالات الجلدية والمخاطية.
 في حالة التقرحات التناسلية والفموية قد يكون النترفيرون الفا 2-A علاج بديل فعال بالأخص إذا استخدم مع الازاثيوبرين.
 كولشيسين قد يكون مفيداً في حالات التقرحات التناسلية والتهاب المفاصل والعقدة الحمامية.
 يمكن استخدام الثايلدوميد بسبب تأثيره على الجهاز المناعي.
 الريباميبيد والدابسون أظهرا فائدة علاجية في حالات الآفات المخاطية الجلدية.
نظراً لندرته، لم يثبت وجود علاج أمثل في حالات الاعتلال البصري الحاد المصاحب لمرض بهجت، الكشف المبكر والعلاج مهم .
هناك استجابة لسيكروسبورين، تريامسينولون المحيط بالعين، ميثلبريدنيزون IV متبوعاً بريدنيزون عن طريق الفم على الرغم من حدوث انتكاسات قد تؤدي إلى فقدان البصر.
مثبطات المناعه قد تحسن الأعراض المرتبطة بالعين.
في الحلات المعقدة يستخدم Intravenous immunoglobulin ]

انتشار المرض
ينتشر هذا المرض بكثرة في دول (طريق الحرير) الذي يمتد من الشرق الأوسط إلى الصين، ويشمل دول الشرق الأوسط والأقصى معا، وفي هذه الدول يصيب هذا المرض الرجال أكثر من النساء، وأما في دول العالم الأخرى فيوجد هذا المرض بنسبة أقل ويصيب النساء أكثر من الرجال.
 نادر الانتشار في أميركا لكنه شائع في آسيا والشرق الأوسط، مما يشير إلى سبب متوطن في المناطق الاستوائية.
 ليس له صلة بالسرطان، وارتباطه بالأنسجة قيد الدراسة
 لا يتبع النمط المعتاد لأمراض المناعه الذاتية
 إحدى الدراسات كشفت وجود علاقه مع حساسية الطعام خاصة منتجات الألبان
 تم تشخيص ما يقارب 15,000 إلى 20,000 حالة في أميركا، أما في بريطانيا فمن بين كل 100,000 هناك حاله مصابة بهذا المرض. Globally, males are affected more frequently than females.
 على الصعيد العالمي يتاثر الذكور أكثر من الإناث.
 56% من المرضى يعانون من تأثر العين في عمر ال30
 أظهر الفندوسكوب إصابة 17.9% بضمور العصب البصري و 17.4% بشحوب القرص البصري
 23.7% مصابون بتغلف الأوعية الدموية ، 9% نزيف شبكية العين ، 11.3% وذمة البقعة الصفراء ، 5.8% انسداد الوريد الشبكي ، 6,6% تورم الشبكية.
 السبب الرئيسي في اعتلالات العين، سببها عند 54%، هو ضمور العصب البصري

يزداد انتشار المرض عند الانتقال من الشمال إلى الجنوب.

مراجع

المصادر
 المنتدى الطبي
 Behcet's disease
 http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Behcets-disease/Pages/introduction.aspx?url=Pages/what-is-it.aspx
 Escudier M, Bagan J, Scully C (March 2006). "Number VII Behçet's disease (Adamantiades syndrome)". Oral Dis 12 (2): 78–84.

وصلات خارجية
مرض بهجت

أمراض المناعة الذاتية
أمراض نادرة
اضطرابات النسيج الضام
التهابات
حالات الأغشية المخاطية
حالات التهابية تستجيب للستيرويدات
متلازمات
متلازمات التهابية ذاتية

مرض بهجت


The Orlov revolt () was a Greek uprising in the Peloponnese and later also in Crete that broke out in February 1770, following the arrival of Russian Admiral Alexey Orlov, commander of the Imperial Russian Navy during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), at the Mani Peninsula. The revolt, a major precursor to the Greek War of Independence (which erupted in 1821), was part of Catherine the Great's so-called "Greek Plan" and was eventually suppressed by the Ottomans.

Background

Rise of the Russo-Turkish conflict
The first attempts of the nascent Russian Empire, under Tsar Peter the Great, to expand south to Ottoman-ruled territories in the Crimea and the Sea of Azov failed, and it was not until the Treaty of Niš in 1739 that their possession of Azov was recognized. Russo-Ottoman antagonism continued to grow over the following decades, as the two powers rivalled over influence in their borderlands in Crimea, Ukraine, Poland, and Moldavia, leading finally to the outbreak of war in 1768.

During the same period, Russian influence began to spread among the Christians living under Ottoman rule. Prophecies of a 'golden nation' or 'blonde nation' that would destroy the Ottoman Empire began circulating already in the 1690s, during the height of the Russo-Turkish War of 1686–1700. At the same time, the Franco-Ottoman alliance resulted in advantages for the Catholics in the Ottoman Empire, and particularly the Holy Land. This caused the Greek Orthodox patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem to turn to Russia for support in recovering their privileges. The Austrian advance into the northwestern Balkans during the Great Turkish War also caused concern, with the Serbian patriarch and the ruler of Wallachia, Șerban Cantacuzino, seeking Russian support as early as 1688. The presence of a Russian ambassador at the Ottoman court from 1700 on also allowed direct contacts of Russian officials with the Ottoman Christians, while an increasing number of the latter sought refuge and employment in Russia, where Greek colonies were established.

Outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774

The Ottoman Empire had its longest period of peace between 1739 (Treaty of Belgrade) and 1768 - three decades when it did not engage any of its European rivals. Europe was caught up in costly and bloody conflicts while the Ottomans stayed out and tended to economy and politics, and rebuilding social and administrative organization.

This peaceful period came to an end on 23 October 1768, when the Porte declared war on Russia. Causes included aggressive Russian foreign policy, Russian interference in Crimea (an Ottoman vassal), and the power struggle in Poland-Lithuania. There were insignificant events in 1768–69, as both sides prepared for a long campaign.

Meanwhile, Greek rebels were readied. Wishing to weaken the Ottoman Empire and establish a pro-Russian independent Greek state, Russian emissaries had been sent to Mani in the mid-1760s to make a pact with the strongest local military leaders, and at the same time notable Greeks approached various Russian agents, discussing plans for the liberation of Greece. In preparation for war, Russian agents promoted Greek rebellion to support military actions in the north. Russian artillery captain Grigorios Papadopoulos (or Georgios Papasoglu), a Greek, was dispatched to Mani. Georgios Papazolis, another Greek officer of the Russian army, cooperated with the brothers Grigory and Alexei Orlov in preparations for a Greek insurrection in the Morea during the Russian military operations against the Ottoman Empire in 1769. The organization of the Greek rebellion was put under brothers Orlov, with Alexei as the Russian fleet commander.

Some Greek notables joined the Russian side, and promised them men and supplies, while in return they expected massive Russian aid (10,000 soldiers and military equipment). Russia planned to incite Orthodox Christians to revolt, and sent agents to Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Crete and the Morea. Another Orlov brother, , was sent to coordinate rebels in Morea, deemed the most important strategic area in mainland Greece (due to its ports). Russia assembled a war fleet for deployment in the Mediterranean, described as "one of the most spectacular events of the 18th century", which caught the Ottomans off-guard. The first fleet contingent (out of two) departed in August 1769 and arrived in the Aegean in December. This expedition of four ships, a few hundred soldiers and inadequate arms supplies greatly disappointed the Greeks. Nevertheless, combined Russian-Greek forces attempted a campaign.

Progress of the revolt

Peloponesse
The arrival of the Russian fleet in Mani in February 1770 saw the establishment of local armed groups in Mani and Kalamata. However, the small Russian expeditionary force could not convince a part of the local Greeks to take arms. The Russian manpower was much fewer than expected and mutual distrust developed between the Greek and Russian leaders. Among the Greek leaders that were approached were Panagiotis Benakis, a notable from Kalamata, the local metropolitan bishop Anthimos, and Cretan shipping magnate John Vlachos "Daskalogiannis". Initially an army of 1,400 men was formed, but additional reinforcement of Cretans arrived the following days. The Greek forces were divided into major units (called legions) with the help of a small number of Russian officers and soldiers. The "Eastern Spartan Legion" in Laconia, with 1,200 men, was organized by P. P. Dolgorukov and led by Georgios "Yiorgakis" Mavromichalis, while the "Western Spartan Legion" in Messenia was led by G. M. Barkov and Antonios Psarros.

The Greek rebels were initially successful and managed to defeat Ottoman forces in Laconia and eastern Messenia in southern Morea. The revolt however failed to effectively spread, thus the fortresses of Navarino, Methone and the administrative center of Morea, Tripolitsa (modern Tripoli), remained in Ottoman hands. The rebels did manage to control the fortress of Mystras, where they set up a local government.

The population of Corinth rose in revolt and began to besiege nearby Nafplio. The Ottoman guard of the citadel of Monemvasia was also threatened. A total of 5,000 volunters from the Ionian islands of Cephalonia and Zakynthos also reinforced the revolutionary forces in Peloponesse. Gastouni was also taken, while Patras was found under siege by the Greek units. Additional uprisings occurred around the towns of Mesolongi and Nafpaktos in central Greece.

In March 12 the western legion and the Russian fleet began to siege the fortress of Koroni. However, after six week the garisson couldn't be taken.

Crete
Meanwhile, the Greek revolt in Crete was led by Daskalogiannis. Soon after Sfakians refused to pay taxes and revolted in great numbers. However, the support promised by the Russian emissaries never arrived at Crete and Daskalogiannis was left to his own devices. He managed to organize a band of 2,000 well armed men who descended from the mountains onto the plains of western Crete. There with messianic overtones they prepared for a week with feasting and in formations of small bands started to kill local Muslims in an unsuccessful effort to convince other Cretans to join them in their quest to overthrow the Ottomans. The Cretan uprising was soon suppressed by numerically superior Ottoman units.

Ottoman response
In April the revolutionaries managed to capture the fortress of Navarino however the uprising was already doomed and the Russian fleet abandoned the region in following June.

As soon as the first news of the Russian-backed Greek revolt reached the Ottoman capital, the first anti-Greek pogroms broke out in various cities of the Ottoman Empire, including Smyrna.

With the assistance of Greek islanders, the Russian fleet was able to score a major victory against the Ottoman Navy in the Battle of Cesme, but this did not help the Greek army in Morea. As the Russians failed to bring the forces they promised, the revolt was soon crushed. Greek reinforcements from Macedonia and Olympus region faced opposition in their descent to Morea and thus were unable to assist the revolutionaries. Meanwhile, one of the Ottoman Empire's most competent military commanders and former Grand Vizier, Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha, took up the command of the garrison at Nafplion and, after calling for militia from some northern provinces, he crushed the Russo-Greek expedition at Tripolitsa.

Aftermath

The Muslim Albanian mercenaries hired by the Ottomans remained in the Peloponnese for several years after the suppression of the revolt, periodically launching reprisals against the Greeks, thus taking frightful revenge for the Christian forces that had massacred Muslim civilians and destroyed property during the uprising. Referred to by the local Greek populace as "Turk-Albanians", those forces had also destroyed many cities and towns in Epirus during 1769–70. In Patras nearly no one was left alive after the Turkish-Albanian invasion. The city of Mystras was left in ruins and the metropolitan bishop Ananias was executed despite having saved the life of several Turks during the uprising. A great number of local Greeks were killed by the Albanian groups, while several children were sold to slavery. In nine years following the revolt c. 20,000-30,000 local Greeks either succumbed or left their homeland.

The Ottoman government was unable to pay the wages the Albanian mercenaries demanded for their service, causing the latter to ravage the region. In 1774 the Russo-Turkish War ended with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca which granted general amnesty to the population. Nevertheless, attacks by Muslim Albanian mercenaries in the region continued not only against the Greek population but also against Turks. The extensive destruction and lack of control in the Peloponnese forced the central Ottoman government to send a regular Turkish military force to suppress those Albanian troops in 1779, and eventually drive them out from Peloponnese.

From the Russian point of view, Count Orlov's mission was mostly a success, damaging the Ottoman fleet, directing Ottoman troops south, and contributing to the victory that led to the signing of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca.

From the Greek point of view, the revolt had significant consequences. On the one hand, it cost a huge number of lives (both in battle, and in the Ottoman reprisals that followed). On the other hand, the Milet-i Rum, of which Greek were a part, did well out of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Greek ships, for example, gained the right to sail under the Russian flag and had open access to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Russia gained the right to protect the Orthodox population and its churches and to build an Orthodox cathedral in Istanbul. Russia also obtained the right to appoint Consuls throughout the empire, and most of these were Greeks. The treaty ushered in major changes to the Greek world.

Greek connections to Russia became even stronger because of the influence of prominent Greeks in Russia such as Count Demetrio Mocenigo, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias, Alexandros Ypsilantis, Skarlatos D. Sturdza, Spyridon Destunis, and others who occupied high positions in the Russian imperial administration. In the decades after the revolt, tens of thousands of Greeks emigrated from the Ottoman to the Russian empire, establishing colonies in the Crimea and along the shores of the Sea of Azov. Cities like Mariupol and Taganrog became booming commercial centers dominated by Ottoman Greek immigrants and their Greek-Russian successors. They would play prominent roles in the history of Greece and the Greeks until their destruction in the 1930s.

In popular culture
The revolt was a crucial event for the further development of Philhellenism as an important literary movement in the Western world. As such, the protagonist in Friedrich Hölderlin's novel Hyperion participates in a 1770 revolt inspired by the Orlov Revolt.

Gallery

Annotations

References

Sources

Conflicts in 1770
Conflicts in 1771
18th-century rebellions
Ottoman Greece
Wars involving Mani
Greek rebellions against the Ottoman Empire
Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Greece–Russia relations
Rebellions in Greece

Orlov revolt


An Calamagrostis srilankensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Gerrit Davidse. An Calamagrostis srilankensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Calamagrostis, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Sri Lanka. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Calamagrostis

Calamagrostis srilankensis


Kernevekçe ( veya ), Güneybatı İngiltere'de Cornwall kontluğunda konuşulan bir Kelt dilidir. Dil %80 oranla Fransa'da konuşulan Bretonca ile ortak kelime hazinesine sahiptir. Bu oran Galce ile %75'tir. Cornwall kontluğunda yaklaşık 3.500 kişinin bu dili konuştuğu tahmin edilmektedir. Dil düzenleyici kurumları; Kesva an Taves Kernewek (KK), Agan Tavas (UC, UCR) ve Cussel an Tavas Kernuak (RLC)'dır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Ferdinand, Siarl (2013). Brief History of the Cornish language, its Revival and its Current Situation. ''E-Keltoi'', Vol. 2, 2 Dec. pp. 199–227
 Cornwall County Council web sitesi
 Kornischer Text von "Bewnans Ke" (pdf)
 Vocabularium Cornicum
 Radyo an Gernewegva (podcast)

Kelt dilleri
Doğal diller
Ölmek üzere olan diller

Kernevekçe


Çiçekdağı, Erzurum ilinin Tekman ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Çiçekdağı Köyü, Hittik, Kuneruvi ve Çırık mezralarının birleşmesiyle 1960'lı yıllarda oluşturulmuştur.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Tekman'ın mahalleleri

Çiçekdağı, Tekman


Parthenocissus (hrv. lozica, lozika), biljni rod u porodici lozovki raširen poglavito po umjerenoj Aziji i Sjevernoj Americi; jedna vrsta u Rusiji.

Vrste
Postoji 14 vrsta listopadnih, drvenastih grmastih penjačica među kojima i tri koje rastu i u Hrvatskoj: peterolističava lozica i Petolisna lozika (P. quinquefolia), umetnuta lozika (P. inserta) i trošiljasta lozika (P. tricuspidata).

 Parthenocissus chinensis C. L. Li
 Parthenocissus dalzielii Gagnep.
 Parthenocissus feddei (H. Lév.) C. L. Li
 Parthenocissus henryana (Hemsl.) Diels & Gilg
 Parthenocissus heptaphylla Britton ex Small
 Parthenocissus inserta (A. Kern.) Fritsch
 Parthenocissus laetevirens Rehder
 Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.
 Parthenocissus renukae Anto & Pradeep
 Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch.
 Parthenocissus sichuanensis Y. F. Deng
 Parthenocissus suberosus Hand.-Mazz.
 Parthenocissus tricuspidata (Siebold & Zucc.) Planch.
 Parthenocissus vicaryana (Kurz) H. B. Naithani

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Lozolike

Parthenocissus


În chimia organică, grupa fenil este o grupă funcțională de tip aril cu formula C6H5-. Radicalul fenil este derivat de la benzen, deși denumirea poate fi confundată (radicalul benzil este derivat de la toluen). Fenilul are șase atomi de carbon legați în formă de hexagon, dintre care cinci sunt legați de atomi de hidrogen. Carbonul rămas este legat de un substituent (în imagine R). Grupele fenil sunt adesea întâlnite în chimia organică.  Deși majoritatea reprezentărilor acestei grupe și a compușilor ce conțin nuclee benzenice se face cu legături duble, grupa fenil este aromatică, iar legăturile dintre atomii de carbon din catena hexagonală sunt aproape egale.

Printre exemplele de compuși organici care conțin grupa fenil se numără și clorura de fenil, fenolul și anilina (și derivații acestora: fenolii și aminele aromatice).

Referințe

Vezi și
 Benzen
 Toluen

Arene

Fenil