A Operação Aço () foi uma operação transfronteiriça das Forças Armadas Turcas no norte do Iraque entre 20 de março e 4 de maio de 1995 contra o Partido dos Trabalhadores do Curdistão (PKK). O objetivo da ofensiva era acabar com os ataques transfronteiriços do PKK e esmagar a insurgência. O grupo curdo não foi derrotado na operação.

A batalha
Em 20 de março de 1995, cerca de 35.000 soldados turcos lançaram uma invasão ao norte do Iraque. O efeito do ataque foi, no entanto, relativamente limitado, apesar das altas baixas do PKK, já que a maioria das suas forças abandonaram a região antes mesmo do início da ofensiva. Eles haviam notado a escalada militar na fronteira e estavam antecipando a ofensiva. Em 25 de abril, a Turquia retirou 20.000 de seus 35.000 soldados. Em 3 de maio, depois que a delegação do Partido Democrático do Curdistão na Turquia disse que interromperia as atividades do PKK no Curdistão iraquiano, a Turquia retirou suas forças remanescentes em 4 de maio. A operação militar prejudicou as relações entre a Turquia e os Estados Unidos e a Europa, já que mais de 15.000 civis curdos iraquianos foram deslocados pelas forças turcas.

Baixas
Mais de 35.000 soldados participaram da operação. A Turquia anunciou mortes de um total de 64 do seu pessoal: 4 oficiais comissionados, 5 suboficiais e 55 soldados. Também anunciou um número total de feridos em 185 do seu pessoal: 13 oficiais comissionados, 8 suboficiais e 164 soldados. Os turcos contabilizaram um total de 568 militantes neutralizados, com 555 mortos e 13 capturados vivos ou feridos. O PKK alegou ter matado 261 soldados e que apenas 18 de seus combatentes foram mortos durante a operação.

Ver também
Operação Martelo (1997)
Operação Amanhecer (1997)
Guerra Civil no Curdistão Iraquiano

Operações transfronteiriças da Turquia no Iraque
Conflitos em 1995
1995 no Iraque

Operação Aço


Sea Wolf is a naval surface-to-air missile system designed and built by BAC, later to become British Aerospace (BAe) Dynamics, and now MBDA. It is an automated point-defence weapon system designed as a short-range defence against both sea-skimming and high angle anti-ship missiles and aircraft. The Royal Navy has fielded two versions, the GWS-25 Conventionally Launched Sea Wolf (CLSW) and the GWS-26 Vertically Launched Sea Wolf (VLSW) forms. In Royal Navy service Sea Wolf is being replaced by Sea Ceptor.

History

The earliest point-defence missile used by the Royal Navy was the Seacat, which had been rapidly developed from an earlier anti-tank missile design, the Malkara. As a weapon originally designed to operate against slow-moving ground vehicles, the missile had subsonic performance and was of limited capability against even early jet aircraft. It was used largely due to the ease which it could be adapted to the role simply by replacing the original wire guidance system with a radio command link, and that its small size allowed multi-round launchers to be fitted to ships in place of their Bofors 40 mm guns. It entered service in 1961, the first point-defence missile to do so.

The limited performance was understood to be a problem from the start and a requirement for a higher performance replacement was published in 1964. British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) won a 1967 development contract along with Vickers and Bristol Aerojet. Although only slightly longer and heavier than Seacat, Sea Wolf offered dramatically higher performance, with a top speed on the order of Mach 3, an effective range roughly double that of Seacat, and a fully automated guidance system that made engagements much simpler.

Testing lasted from 1970 until 1977, with shipborne trials on a modified Leander class frigate, , from 1976. Sea Wolf was tested with a vertical launch system early in the development period on a modified Loch class frigate,  but for obscure reasons work did not continue in this direction: the GWS-26 "VL Seawolf (VLS)" being a much later (1980s) development. During trials, the missile performed impressively, once intercepting a  shell.

The first deployment, in the GWS-25 form, was on the Type 22 frigate (2 systems) and later on modified Leander class frigates (1 system) in six-round, manually-loaded trainable launchers. It entered service with the Royal Navy in 1979 and was used during the Falklands War. The current version is the GWS-26 Mod 1 system on Type 23 frigates, fielding 32 vertical launch missiles (VL Sea Wolf) in its missile silo. It is expected to remain in service until 2020.

Description
Sea Wolf is powered by the Blackcap solid-fuel rocket to a maximum velocity of Mach 2, and can intercept targets at ranges between  and altitudes from  to . The warhead weighs  and is a proximity fuzed HE-fragmenting type. In the manually loaded form, the missiles are stored on board in maintenance-free canisters, sealed until use and handled like a round of ammunition.

Fire control

The standard mode is fully automated and uses radar tracking. Target detection is carried out using the ship's surveillance radars. In the Type 22- and Sea Wolf-equipped Leander class, this was the radar Type 967–968 combination; the D-band Type 967 providing long-range surveillance and the E-band Type 968 providing short-range target indication. On the Type 23 frigates, these functions have been taken over by the Type 996 3D surveillance radar. Target data is processed by the ship's computers and when the system is live, targets are automatically assigned and engaged automatically (although this can be over-ridden by the Missile Director (MD) in the Operations Room).

When a target is to be engaged, the ship's computer slews one of the two Sea Wolf trackers onto the target (there was a single tracker on a Sea Wolf Leander). Originally the Type 910, with an I-band radar, was used but this suffered from poor performance locking onto low-altitude targets hidden in the background sea clutter in the Falklands War. Low-level targets had to be engaged using the 910's secondary TV mode to manually track the target. The lighter Type 911 supplanted the Type 910, adding a second radar (a K-band set based on the Blindfire tracker of the Rapier missile, to control engagements at low level) and was fitted in the 7th Type 22 Frigate onwards. Unlike Type 910, Type 911 does not have any TV function; the TV camera is retained only to allow the Missile Director to visually confirm targets and to provide a record of engagements.

When lock has been achieved with the missile tracker a round is fired and tracked by a pair of radio beacons in the missile's tail. The ship-board system constantly measures the angle differences between the target and the missile and issues guidance commands to the missile through an Automatic Command to Line of Sight (ACLOS) device transmitting on a microwave link controlling the rear fins of the missile. It is possible for a tracker to control a salvo of two missiles. The radar and CCTV guidance system were developed by Marconi Radar at Great Baddow, Essex.

Combat performance

During the Falklands War, Sea Wolf was the Royal Navy's only modern point-defence weapon. It equipped the Type 22 frigates HMS Brilliant,  and the Batch 3A Leander class frigate . These ships were assigned "goalkeeper" duties, to provide close anti-aircraft defence of the carrier task force.

In an attempt to overcome the fleet's overall air defence deficiency following the loss of , a new tactic was devised, which saw each of the two Type 22 frigates paired with each of the two remaining Type 42 (area air defence) destroyers. The pairing was unofficially termed "Type 64", the sum of both classes numbers. The two pairs were deployed some distance from the main fleet, covering likely attack routes, in an attempt to draw attacking aircraft into a "missile trap", the intention being that, if the Type 42 was unable to engage targets at longer ranges with its Sea Dart missiles, the Type 22 would use its short-range Sea Wolf missiles to defend both ships.

On 12 May 1982, Brilliant and  were operating in combination and were attacked by two flights of four Argentine Douglas A-4 Skyhawk aircraft. Brilliant shot down two of these and caused a third to crash trying to avoid the missile. The second wave of aircraft attacked during a failure of the missile system and the Type 42 Glasgow sustained damage.

On 25 May 1982,  and Broadsword also operating in a 22/42 combination to the north-west of Falkland Sound came under attack by two waves of two A-4 Skyhawks.  Broadsword attempted to target the first pair with Sea Wolf but the tracking system locked down and could not be reset before the aircraft released their bombs.  Broadsword was hit by one bomb, which bounced up through the deck and destroyed her Westland Lynx helicopter.  The second pair of Skyhawks headed for Coventry 90 seconds later at a 20-degree angle to her port bow. On Broadsword the Sea Wolf system had been reset and acquired the attacking aircraft but Coventrys evasive manoeuvring took her through the line of fire and the lock was lost.  Coventry was struck by three bombs and sank shortly after.

Sea Wolf suffered from problems with hardware failure causing launches to fail, broken locks from the extreme sea conditions and the Argentines' low-altitude hit-and-run tactics with multiple, crossing targets which it was not designed to intercept.

Sea Wolf accounted for three confirmed "kills" and two further possibles from eight launches.

Variants

Vertical launch (VL) Sea Wolf GWS-26
Instead of a launcher that is aimed at the target by the fire-control system, VL Sea Wolf uses a vertical-launch system (VLS). Missiles are launched vertically by a Cadiz booster motor and turnover pack, to clear the ship's superstructure and rapidly flipped onto their flight path by thrust vectoring. The booster motor, which also increases the range of VL Sea Wolf from  to , then separates from the missile, which flies on to engage the target.

Although vertical launch had been explored much earlier in Sea Wolf's development, it was not until the 1980s that a production design was undertaken. VLS went into service, using the GWS-26 system, on the Type 23 frigate . Type 23 frigates have a 32-cell VLS, each cell holding one VL Sea Wolf for a total of 32 missiles. The cells, or canisters, are housed vertically in the ship's magazine such that the top of the canisters protrude from the magazine.

Block 2
Block 2 Sea Wolf is a replenishment upgrade to the existing stocks of Sea Wolf missiles. Block 2 missiles have replaced all Sea Wolf missiles, both on Type 22 and Type 23 frigates, as part of normal ammunition replenishment operations. In a parallel programme ("Sea Wolf Mid-Life Update") the associated Type 911 tracker is being upgraded by the addition of an infra-red camera, enhanced tracking software and new operator's consoles.

GWS-27
Proposed "fire-and-forget" development with an active radar seeker instead of command guidance for dealing with saturation attacks. GWS-27 was cancelled in 1987.

Lightweight Sea Wolf

Sea Wolf was not designed as a particularly lightweight system, the original GWS-25 variant with Type 910 tracking required  of tracking and below-decks fire-control equipments, reduced to  with the upgraded Type 911 tracker. The "broad-beam" Leander-class frigate of  standard displacement could carry only a single missile system, and required some significant structural "surgery" of the upperworks to counteract the weight of the new missile system. Sea Wolf in its original guise cannot therefore be easily added to existing vessels. For this reason, the Lightweight Sea Wolf variant was designed to use a four-missile launcher, similar in form to that of the obsolete Sea Cat system. It was intended to equip the Royal Navy's Invincible class carriers and Type 42 destroyers to supplement the medium range Sea Dart system, which was not as capable of intercepting sea-skimming missiles. However, it was cancelled before it entered service.

Replacement

At the DSEi conference in September 2007 it was announced that the UK Ministry of Defence was funding a study by MBDA to investigate a replacement for Sea Wolf which is scheduled to leave service about 2018. MBDA was later contracted to replace the Vertical-Launch Sea Wolf weapons system on the Royal Navy's Type 23 frigates as part of the Future Local Anti-air Defence System (Maritime) or FLAADS(M). The system chosen is the Common Anti-Air Modular Missile (CAMM) which will be known in Royal Navy service as "Sea Ceptor". It will enter service on all of the Type 23 frigate from around 2016 onwards and will be migrated in time to the Type 26 global combat ships early in the next decade, providing a local air defence capability for the Royal Navy for the next 30 years or so. The CAMM will share components with the ASRAAM missile in service with the RAF.

Operators

Current operators

Former operators

See also
List of missiles
CAMM - Also known as 'Sea Ceptor' will replace the Sea Wolf missile in service with the Royal Navy.
Barak 1
RIM-113

References

Citations

Bibliography

Tras un manto de neblina. Breve crónica de la Guerra de las Malvinas, Mario Díaz Gavier, Córdoba, 2004

Naval Armament, Doug Richardson, Jane's Publishing, 1981

External links

Jane's Defence news on Seawolf Block 2, April 2006
Global Security
Seawolf v Exocet - test detailed (Flight International 1983)

Close-in weapon systems
Naval weapons of the United Kingdom
Naval surface-to-air missiles
British Aircraft Corporation
Surface-to-air missiles of the United Kingdom
Military equipment introduced in the 1970s

Sea Wolf (missile)


Saxon are  an English heavy metal band formed in Barnsley in 1975. As leaders of the new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM), they had eight UK Top 40 albums during the 1980s including four UK Top 10 albums and two Top 5 albums. They had numerous hit singles on the UK Singles Chart and experienced success all over Europe and Japan, as well as in the United States.

During the 1980s, Saxon established themselves among Europe's most successful metal acts. The band tours regularly and have sold more than 15 million records worldwide.

History

Formation and early years (1975–1979)
Saxon came together from components of two Yorkshire bands: S.O.B. and Coast. The former was initially called Blue Condition, forming in 1970 with Graham Oliver on guitar, Steve "Dobby" Dawson on bass, and John Walker on drums. Their style was blues rock and hard rock. Shifting the line-up, Blue Condition changed their name to S.O.B. in 1974, taking inspiration from the 1972 Free album Tons of Sobs.  Meanwhile, Coast was a local rival rock band named after the 1972 song "Coast to Coast" by Trapeze. Coast contained a singing bass player Peter "Biff" Byford, and guitarist Steve Quinn. In 1975, Coast was falling apart, and S.O.B.'s lead singer and guitarist Steve Furth left to go solo, so in November 1975 a new band was formed by S.O.B.'s Oliver, Dawson and Walker, and Coast's Byford and Quinn. Byford became the new lead singer. They adopted the name Son of a Bitch for its more aggressive tone, and they pushed toward a heavier sound. They recorded a demo known as Tapestry in late 1975, and gigged extensively during 1975–1978. Walker quit after a couple of years, and was replaced briefly by Dave Cowell in 1977. Former Glitter Band member Pete Gill soon replaced Cowell as drummer.

In 1978, the band began negotiating with the French disco-oriented record label Carrere Records, run by Freddy Cannon in the UK. Carrere refused the band name Son of a Bitch because it would be impossible to obtain radio airplay, so the band changed their name to Saxon in July, and signed a contract with Carrere in September. They began by supporting established bands such as Motörhead and Ian Gillan Band, and released their first album Saxon in 1979.

Success in the UK (1980–1982)
Wheels of Steel, released in 1980, charted at No. 5 in the UK Albums Chart. It resulted in two hit songs: the title track and the crowd favourite "747 (Strangers in the Night)". As a result, Saxon began a series of long UK tours. On 16 August, they earned a positive reception at the first Monsters of Rock festival, commemorated by the following year's "And the Bands Played On". Their set was recorded, but not officially released until 2000. In April, Saxon made the first of many appearances on Top of the Pops, performing the hit "Wheels of Steel".

Strong Arm of the Law was released later in the year, charting at No. 11 in the UK. Two singles were issued: the title track and "Dallas 1PM", the latter about the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy. Sold-out tours of Europe and the UK followed as the album charted in several European countries. The band was also popular in Japan, where the single "Motorcycle Man" stayed in the charts for almost six months.

"On the Strong Arm of the Law tour, in 1981, we met Harry Shearer," Dawson recalled. "We thought he was just an American journalist. He spent three days on the road with us. [When] we all went to see This Is Spinal Tap, I didn't recognise Harry. I was too busy laughing my head off. But some of the other guys didn't see the funny side."

In 1981, the band released their fourth album Denim and Leather, dedicated to their fan base. Still popular today, its title track "Denim and Leather" is regarded as a metal anthem. The album also featured fan favourites such as "Princess of the Night", "Never Surrender", and "And the Bands Played On" – all UK Top 20 hits. Denim and Leather followed its predecessor's success and went Gold in several European countries, including the UK. By this time, the band was seen as the leaders of the NWOBHM movement, with future greats Iron Maiden and Def Leppard following close behind.

Just as the band was to embark on a long tour to follow the success of Denim and Leather, drummer Pete Gill left, after injuring his hand. The band quickly replaced him with Nigel Glockler, formerly of Toyah, who had to learn the entire set within a day and a half. Glockler is still with the band today.

Headlining tours around the UK and a sold-out tour in Europe with support act Ozzy Osbourne resulted in The Eagle Has Landed (1982, UK No. 5). It was planned as a double album, but the record company decided to release it as a single live album, despite protests from the band. Saxon also played the Monsters of Rock festival again in 1982, becoming the first band to appear there twice.

Power & the Glory and EMI years (1983–1987)
As the NWOBHM movement began to fade, 1983's Power & the Glory, their best-selling album to date, saw Saxon confirmed as one of the leading metal acts in Europe, along with Iron Maiden and Judas Priest. The "Power and Glory Tour" was an arena tour that began in Europe and was a huge success. The US leg of the tour, as special guest to Iron Maiden, along with Fastway, proved to be successful and Saxon found themselves becoming a major act in the US as the album, in its first week of release, sold more than 15,000 copies in Los Angeles alone. The cover art of the album was produced by Hollywood film director Ridley Scott.

In late 1983, Saxon left Carrere and signed with EMI Records in 1984, with their first release on the label being Crusader. Though still heavy, critics felt the album had a more commercial sound, and fans began to wonder what direction the band was taking. Despite its commercial sound, the title track became a fan favourite. The album sold over two million copies and the 1984 world tour "The World Crusade" was a success both in Europe and America. In the US, the band toured with Accept as their special guests, as well as supporting Mötley Crüe for some shows of a yearlong tour.

With the release of Innocence Is No Excuse in 1985, the band continued to take a more commercial direction, and this divided fans as the band's once raw, heavy sound had been watered down for the large US market.  A huge sold out world tour in support of the album followed, but tensions began to appear within the band and, by early 1986, bassist Steve Dawson was fired, and Saxon was forced to record their eighth studio album Rock the Nations without a replacement. With Elton John making guest appearances as pianist on two tracks, and Byford recording the bass parts, the album charted higher than its predecessor and was considered a success. They hired bassist Paul Johnson to play for the band's European arena tour that followed. In the summer of 1986, Saxon headlined the Reading Festival and toured the United States.

In 1987, the band took time off from the constant touring and recording that had begun in the mid 1970s, and only a minor tour of the U.S. and Canada was scheduled. In early 1987, Nigel Glockler left the band and was replaced by Nigel Durham.

Decline of fan base and continued European success (1988–1993)
The band found it hard to attain chart success in America; the release of Destiny (1988) did not change this, and Saxon were later dropped by EMI. In 1988, Paul Johnson was replaced by Nibbs Carter. Nigel Glockler also decided to return to the band. 1989 saw the release of Rock n Roll Gypsies, a live album recorded on an arena tour of eastern Europe in 1988, but by 1989, the gigs at the big stadiums and arenas of Europe and the US were few and far between and, with no record deal, Saxon's future was uncertain.

The band eventually decided to embark on a European tour titled '10 Years of Denim and Leather' which proved to be a successful move as the band was re-established as a popular act. In 1990, they signed to Virgin Records and started work on their new album Solid Ball of Rock, which was released in 1991 and proved to be successful. In 1992, Saxon sustained this success with the release of Forever Free. The album was produced by Biff Byford and Herwig Ursin. A UK version of the album featured an alternate cover with a "Space Marine" from the Warhammer 40,000 tabletop wargame. "Iron Wheels" was released as a single. The song was written about and dedicated to Byford's father who worked in the coal mines of Yorkshire.

Departure of Graham Oliver and return to heavier sound (1994–2002)

During 1994, Saxon recorded the album Dogs of War. Shortly afterwards, Graham Oliver was fired by the band in 1995. The band replaced Oliver with Doug Scarratt, a longtime friend of drummer Nigel Glockler. Saxon recorded a new music video for Dogs of War. 1996 saw the release of another live album, The Eagle Has Landed Pt II. They also recorded a cover of the Judas Priest song "You've Got Another Thing Comin'", for a tribute album entitled A Tribute to Judas Priest: Legends of Metal.

Saxon released Unleash the Beast, produced by Kalle Trapp and Saxon, in 1997. Saxon began their Unleash The Beast tour in May, where they played in Europe. Unleash the Beast reached the top 100 in the charts in Sweden, Germany and Switzerland. In November, they played two gigs in Brazil (São Paulo and Santos) and ended the year with a Christmas show in Belgium. In 1998, the band toured the US, as well as playing the Brazilian Monsters of Rock. After relentless touring, drummer Nigel Glockler took time off to recover from a neck and shoulder injury and was temporally replaced by Fritz Randow.

September 1999 saw the release of Metalhead. The album was praised in Germany where Saxon had begun to play the Wacken Open Air Festival, where they later became a regular fixture. Saxon also headlined the first Bloodstock Festival in the UK. In 2001, they again headlined the Wacken Open Air Festival and recorded the live DVD "Saxon Chronicles". Saxon also released the album Killing Ground during the same year. In 2002, Saxon released Heavy Metal Thunder, a compilation album featuring re-recorded versions of songs from the band's biggest selling albums.

Battle for band name and Lionheart (2003–2006)
In 1999, former members Graham Oliver and Steven Dawson registered 'Saxon' as a trademark. They then maintained that they had exclusive rights to the name and tried to prevent Biff Byford and Saxon's promoters and merchandisers from using the name. Byford applied to the Trade Mark Registry to have the trademark declared invalid. He applied on the basis that the registration had been obtained in bad faith and that he was entitled to prevent use of the trademark by bringing an action for 'passing off', that is an action to stop others misrepresenting themselves as Saxon. In 2003, the High Court declared that it was Byford and the current members of the band who owned the name, and were therefore in a position to prevent Oliver and Dawson passing themselves off as Saxon. After this Oliver and Dawson renamed their band Oliver/Dawson Saxon.

Fritz Randow left the band in 2004. His replacement was former Stratovarius member Jörg Michael. 2004 also saw the release of Lionheart their 16th studio album. The album title was inspired from Richard Lionheart, King of England. "Beyond the Grave" was released as a single and a music video. The album received positive reviews and the title track remains a fan favourite. Nigel Glockler rejoined the band in 2005. In 2006, the band released the live album, The Eagle Has Landed – part 3. The band were due to play that year's Dubai Desert Rock Festival and perform alongside Megadeth. Just before the band were due to play Dubai's Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing had withdrawn the band's permission to play the festival. It was rumoured that the historical lyrics in Crusader were the reason for this.

Re-establishment in the UK (2007–2010)

In 2007, Saxon were the subject of an episode of Harvey Goldsmith's Get Your Act Together. As part of his programme, Goldsmith wanted to try and restore their popularity and reputation. He drafted in two new producers to oversee the production of a new single "If I Was You" (a song about gun culture), which went to number one in the Rock Charts in over 10 countries (becoming their most successful single for over 12 years). At the end of the programme, Saxon played at the half sold out Sheffield City Hall. Saxon also performed at the 2008 Download Festival.

Saxon's The Inner Sanctum album, released in Europe on 5 March 2007, and North America on 3 April, was seen by critics as their best work in years. The band then started a world tour in support of the album.

Saxon released a new studio album, Into the Labyrinth, on 12 January 2009. The album received positive reviews and continued the success that The Inner Sanctum had created. The band also headlined the Wacken Open Air Festival in Germany. In February, it was announced that the band were cancelling the Spanish leg of their European tour with Iced Earth, due to scheduling issues. At the start of 2009, they toured the UK with Doro, and again at the end of the year they did a UK tour, co-headlining with Motorhead. In August of that year, they played at Sonisphere. In September Saxon announced the release of Heavy Metal Thunder - The Movie, a documentary on the band's history from the beginning.

Continuing their success in the UK, Saxon performed at the 2010 Download Festival, which took place at Donington Park between 11 and 13 June. The band played the Wheels of Steel album in its entirety to mark the 30th anniversary of its release.

Call to Arms and Sacrifice (2011–2014)

Saxon released their nineteenth studio album, Call to Arms, on 3 June 2011. It debuted at number 6 on the UK Rock Albums chart. The band embarked on a world tour which saw them visit the US; Saxon also revisited the UK for a second leg of the tour. The band announced on their Call To Arms tour that a number of fans at each venue, each paying £10, would be able to watch them soundcheck. This was donated to the Nordoff Robbins Music Therapy and Childline charities.

Saxon were billed as special guests supporting Judas Priest at Hammersmith Apollo on 26 May 2012. Saxon also played Download Festival 2012, and were recorded playing "Wheels of Steel" for the festival's Highlights show shown on Sky Arts. On 13 February 2012, the band announced that they were releasing a new live DVD and CD package entitled Heavy Metal Thunder - Live: Eagles Over Wacken, which compiled their 2004, 2007 and 2009 performances at the Wacken Open Air across various formats. In March, Saxon won the Metal Hammer 2012 Golden God award for 'Best UK band'.

In October, the band announced that their next studio album would be titled Sacrifice and it was released in March 2013. On 11 December 2012 Heavy Metal Thunder - The Movie saw an international release and was the first Blu-ray release for the band. 2013 also saw the release of a new compilation album Unplugged and Strung Up. 2014 saw the release of a new live album named St. George's Day Sacrifice - Live in Manchester. The band also embarked on a tour in October of that year named Warriors of the Road.

Battering Ram, Thunderbolt, Inspirations, Carpe Diem (2015–2022)

During an interview in November 2014, Biff Byford revealed that: "We're making the new album in January, February and March". In a March 2015 interview, Byford described the album as a mixture of rock and roll and heavy metal. When asked about a possible release date, Byford said: "We're looking at maybe at a summer release. It just depends on whether it's ready or not. We're looking at finishing the album by the end of April. We're keeping our fingers crossed."

On 1 August 2015, the band announced 16 October as the release date of Battering Ram and also premiered the official video of the title track.

On 14 September 2016, Biff Byford announced on Facebook that Saxon were working on a new album with producer Andy Sneap, for an early 2017 release. In October 2016, the band announced a tour in the U.S. for the early spring of 2017 with UFO. In a 16 March 2017 interview with former Anthrax vocalist Neil Turbin on Canada's The Metal Voice in Los Angeles, California, Biff Byford gave an update on the new album saying that several songs were already recorded with a few more to complete, with an estimated release date for early 2018.

On 15 June 2017, Byford revealed that the title of their new studio album was Thunderbolt. Saxon and UFO teamed up again for another round of shows in North America for the fall. On 7 November 2017, the band announced that the album would be officially released on 2 February 2018. To support the album, they briefly toured Europe and the UK with Diamond Head, Rock Goddess and Magnum from late February to early March 2018, and was the support act along with Black Star Riders for Judas Priest's Firepower World Tour from mid March to early May 2018.

Saxon released their first covers album Inspirations on 19 March 2021. Their 24th studio album Carpe Diem, was released on 4 February 2022, with the band embarking on the Seize The Day tour in support of the album.

More Inspirations and next studio album (2023–present)
The follow-up covers album More Inspirations was released on 24 March 2023, with a further new studio album to be released in 2024.

On 10 March 2023, the band announced that guitarist and founding member Paul Quinn would retire from touring, although they stated that he would continue to work with the band in the studio. Diamond Head guitarist Brian Tatler was announced as their touring guitarist, but would continue to remain a member of his main band. Byford said that the band began the demo sessions for the next album.

Legacy
Saxon have been cited as a major influence or inspiration by numerous bands, including Mötley Crüe, Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Pantera, Testament, Dokken, Skid Row, Dream Theater, Exodus, Overkill, King Diamond and Celtic Frost.

Band members

Current members

Former members

Temporary musicians

Timeline

Discography

Studio albums
 Saxon (1979)
 Wheels of Steel (1980)
 Strong Arm of the Law (1980)
 Denim and Leather (1981)
 Power & the Glory (1983)
 Crusader (1984)
 Innocence Is No Excuse (1985)
 Rock the Nations (1986)
 Destiny (1988)
 Solid Ball of Rock (1991)
 Forever Free (1992)
 Dogs of War (1995)
 Unleash the Beast (1997)
 Metalhead (1999)
 Killing Ground (2001)
 Lionheart (2004)
 The Inner Sanctum (2007)
 Into the Labyrinth (2009)
 Call to Arms (2011)
 Sacrifice (2013)
 Battering Ram (2015)
 Thunderbolt (2018)
 Carpe Diem (2022)

Cover albums
 Inspirations (2021)
 More Inspirations (2023)

See also
 List of new wave of British heavy metal bands

References

External links

 Saxon albums playlists

1975 establishments in England
Articles which contain graphical timelines
EMI Records artists
English heavy metal musical groups
English musical quintets
Musical groups from South Yorkshire
Musical groups established in 1975
Virgin Records artists
New Wave of British Heavy Metal musical groups
Musicians from Barnsley
Carrere Records artists
CMC International artists

Saxon (band)


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الأعصاب الشوكية أو الأعصاب النخاعية أو الأعصاب الفقارية  هي الأعصاب الناشئة من النخاع الشوكي على عكس الأعصاب القحفية التي تنشأ من الدماغ. وتعتبر الأعصاب الشوكية جزء من الجهاز العصبي المحيطي. يحوي جسم الإنسان على 31 زوج من الأعصاب الشوكية، حيث يخرج كل عصب شوكي من بين فقرتين في العمود الفقري.

البنية
يعد كل عصب شوكي عصبًا مختلطًا، ويتشكل من اجتماع الألياف العصبية لجذوره الظهرية والبطنية. يمثل الجذر الظهري الجذر الحسي الوارد وينقل المعلومات الحسية إلى الدماغ. يمثل الجذر البطني الجذر الحركي الصادر وينقل المعلومات الحركية من الدماغ. ينشأ العصب الشوكي من العمود الشوكي عبر فتحة (ثقبة بين فقرية) بين الفقرات المتجاورة. ينطبق ذلك على كل الأعصاب الشوكية عدا زوج الأعصاب الشوكية الأول (الزوج الرقبي الأول) الذي يخرج بين العظم القذالي والأطلس (الفقرة الأولى). بالتالي، تُرقم الأعصاب الرقبية وفق الفقرة التي تحتها عدا العصب الرقبي الثامن الذي يقع تحت الفقرة الرقبية السابعة وفوق الفقرة الصدرية الأولى. تُرقم الأعصاب الصدرية والقطنية والعجزية حسب الفقرة الواقعة أعلاها. في حال تقطّن الفقرة العجزية الأولى (التي تُدعى الفقرة القطنية السادسة) أو تعجّز الفقرة القطنية الخامسة، يبقى ترقيم الفقرات حتى القطنية الخامسة وتُدعى الفقرة التالية بالعجزية الأولى.

ينقسم العصب خارج العمود الفقري إلى فروع. يحوي الفرع الظهراني الأعصاب المسؤولة عن القسم الخلفي من الجذع والتي تنقل المعلومات الحشوية الحركية والجسمية الحركية والحسية من جلد وعضلات الظهر وإليهما (الظهرانية). يحوي الفرع البطني الأعصاب المسؤولة عن الأجزاء الأمامية الباقية من الجذع والطرفين العلويين والسفليين (البطنية) والتي تنقل المعلومات الحركية الحشوية والحركية الجسمية والحسية من سطح الجسم البطني الوحشي وبنى جدار الجسم والأطراف وإليها. تتشكل الفروع السحائية (الأعصاب السحائية الراجعة أو الجيبية الفقرية) من العصب الشوكي وتعاود الدخول في الثقبة بين الفقرية لتعصب الأربطة والأم الجافية والأوعية الدموية والأقراص بين الفقرية والمفاصل الوجهية وسمحاق الفقرات. يحوي الفرع الواصل الأعصاب الذاتية المسؤولة عن الوظائف الحشوية والتي تنقل المعلومات الحشوية الحركية والحسية من الأعضاء الحشوية وإليها.

تجتمع بعض الفروع الأمامية مع الفروع المجاورة لتشكل ضفيرة عصبية، وهي شبكة من الأعصاب المترابطة والمتصلة. تحوي الأعصاب الناشئة من الضفيرة على ألياف من عدة أعصاب شوكية، وتصل معًا إلى الموقع المطلوب. تشمل الضفائر الكبرى الضفيرة الرقبية والعضدية والقطنية والعجزية.

الأعصاب الناحية

الأعصاب الرقبية
تعرف الأعصاب الرقبية بأنها الأعصاب الشوكية الخارجة من الفقرات الرقبية في الشدفة الرقبية من الحبل الشوكي. يوجد لدى الإنسان سبع فقرات رقبية، ولكنه يتمتع بثماني أعصاب رقبية. تنشأ الأعصاب الرقبية من الأول إلى الثامن أعلى الفقرة الموافقة، في حين ينشأ العصب الرقبي الثامن أسفل الفقرة الرقبية السابعة. تنشأ الأعصاب في ما تبقى من النخاع الشوكي أسفل الفقرة الموافقة بالرقم.

يشمل التوزع الخلفي كل من العصب تحت القذالي (الرقبي الأول) والعصب القذالي الكبير (الرقبي الثاني) والعصب القذالي الثالث (الرقبي الثالث). يشمل التوزع الأمامي الضفيرة الرقبية (الرقبي الأول حتى الرابع) والضفيرة العضدية (الرقبي الخامس حتى الصدري الأول).

تعصب الأعصاب الرقبية العضلات القصية اللامية والقصية الدرقية والكتفية اللامية.

تتشكل عروة عصبية تدعى العروة الرقبية وتمثل جزءًا من الضفيرة الرقبية.

الأعصاب الصدرية
تعرف الأعصاب الصدرية بأنها 12 عصبًا شوكيًا ينشأ من الفقرات الصدرية. يخرج كل عصب صدري من الأول حتى الثاني عشر من أسفل الفقرة الصدرية الموافقة. تغادر فروع من النخاع الشوكي وتذهب مباشرة إلى العقد المجاورة للفقرات التابعة للجهاز العصبي الذاتي وتشارك في وظائف الأعضاء والغدد في الرأس والعنق والصدر والبطن.

التفرعات الأمامية
تتشكل الأعصاب بين الضلعية من الأعصاب الصدرية ص1- ص12، وتمر بين الأضلاع. تشكل عدة فروع أخرى العصب الوربي العضدي عند مستوى الفقرتين الصدريتين الثانية والثالثة. ينشأ العصب تحت الضلعي من العصب الصدري ص12، ويمر تحت الضلع الثانية عشرة.

التفرعات الخلفية
تمر الفروع الإنسية للفروع الخلفية من الأعصاب الصدرية الستة العليا بين العضلة الشوكية النصفية الظهرية والعضلة متعددة الفلوح، وتعصبهما ثم تخترق العضلتين المعينة وشبه المنحرفة، وتصل إلى الجلد إلى جانبي النواتئ الشوكية. يُدعى هذا الفرع الحساس بالفرع الجلدي الإنسي.

تتوزع الفروع الإنسية من الأعصاب الستة السفلى إلى العضلتين الطويلة الظهرية ومتعددة الفلوح بصورة رئيسية، وتعطي عادةً خيوطًا عصبية إلى الجلد القريب من الخط المتوسط. يُدعى هذا الفرع الحساس بالفرع الجلدي الخلفي.

الأعصاب القطنية
الأعصاب القطنية هي خمسة أعصاب شوكية تنشأ من الفقرات القطنية. تُقسم إلى أقسام خلفية وأمامية.

الأقسام الخلفية
تمر الفروع الإنسية من الأقسام الخلفية للأعصاب القطنية بالقرب من النواتئ المفصلية للفقرات وتنتهي في العضلة متعددة الفلوح.

تعصب الفروع الوحشية العضلات الناصبة للفقار.

تعطي الأعصاب الثلاث العليا الفروع الجلدية التي تخترق سفاق العضلة الظهرية العريضة في الحدود الوحشية للعضلات الناصبة للفقار، وتنزل على امتداد القسم الخلفي من عرف الحرقفة إلى جلد الأرداف، وتمر بعض فروعها الانتهائية على مستوى المدور الكبير.

الأقسام الأمامية
يزداد حجم الأقسام الأمامية من الأعصاب القطنية (الفروع الأمامية) من الأعلى وباتجاه الأسفل. تتحد بالقرب من منشئها عبر الفروع الواصلة الرمادية من العقد القطنية للجذع الودي. تتكون هذه الفروع من تفرعات طويلة ورفيعة تترافق مع الشرايين القطنية حول جوانب الأجسام الفقرية تحت العضلة القطنية الكبيرة. يعد توضعها مختلفًا إلى حد ما، إذ قد تعطي عقدة واحدة فروعًا إلى عصبين قطنيين، أو قد يتلقى عصب قطني واحد فروعًا من عقدتين.

يرتبط العصبان الأول والثاني، وقد يُضاف إليهما العصب الثالث الرابع، كل على حدة مع القسم القطني من الجذع الودي عبر الفروع الواصلة البيضاء.

تعبر الفروع بصورة مائلة نحو الخارج خلف العضلة المربعة القطنية والعضلة القطنية الكبيرة، أو بين حزمها العضلية، وتزودها بخيوط عصبية.

تتصل الأعصاب الثلاث الأولى والقسم الأعظم من الرابع مع بعضهم البعض في هذا الموقع عبر عروات اتصال، وتشكل الضفيرة القطنية.

ينضم القسم الأصغر من العصب الرابع إلى العصب الخامس ليشكلا الجذع القطني العجزي، والذي يساعد في تكون الضفيرة العجزية. يسمى العصب الرابع بالعصب الأفرق الشويكي نظرًا لأنه يعطي تحت انقسامات بين الضفيرتين.

الأعصاب العجزية
تضم الأعصاب العجزية خمسة أزواج من الأعصاب الشوكية تخرج من العجز في النهاية السفلى من العمود الفقري. تبدأ جذور هذه الأعصاب داخل العمود الفقري في مستوى الفقرة القطنية الأولى عند منشأ ذنب الفرس، وتنزل بعد ذلك نحو العجز.

يوجد خمسة أعصاب عجزية متصلة، يظهر نصفهم عبر العجز على الجانب الأيسر، والنصف الآخر على الجانب الأيمن. ينشأ كل عصب في قسمين، أولهما عبر الثقبة العجزية الأمامية والثاني عبر الثقبة العجزية الخلفية.

ينقسم العصب إلى فروع وتتحد الفروع الناشئة من أعصاب مختلفة مع بعضها، وقد تتحد بعضها مع الفروع العصبية القطنية أو العصعصية. تشكل هذه الاتصالات العصبية الضفيرتين العجزية والقطنية العجزية. تعطي فروع هاتين الضفيرتين الأعصاب التي تعصب القسم الأعظم من الورك والفخذ والساق والقدم.

تمتلك الأعصاب العجزية أليافًا صادرة وواردة، وتعد بالتالي مسؤولة عن قسم من الإدراك الحسي وحركات الأطراف السفلية من جسم الإنسان. ينشأ من الأعصاب العجزية الثاني والثالث والرابع العصب الفرجي والألياف نظيرة الودية التي يعصب جهدها الكهربائي الكولون النازل والمستقيم والشرج والمثانة والأعضاء التناسلية. تتمتع هذه السبل بألياف صادرة وواردة وتعد مسؤولة عن نقل المعلومات الحسية من هذه الأعضاء الحوضية إلى الجهاز العصبي المركزي (سي إن إس) ونقل النبضات الحركية من الجهاز العصبي المركزي إلى الحوض للتحكم في حركات أعضاء الحوض.

الأعصاب العصعصية
يعد العصب العصعصي ثنائي الجانب الزوج الواحد والثلاثين من الأعصاب الشوكية. ينشأ من المخروط النخاعي ويساعد فرعه البطني في تشكيل الضفيرة العصعصية. لا ينقسم إلى فروع وحشية وإنسية. تتوزع أليافه إلى الجلد السطحي والخلفي للعظم العصعصي عبر العصب الشرجي العصعصي والضفيرة العصبية العصعصية.

عدد الأعصاب الشوكية
يتم تصنيف الأعصاب الشوكية حسب جزء النخاع الشوكي التي تخرج منه:
 منطقة الرقبة: يخرج من هنا 8 أعصاب شوكية، ويرمز لها ب ر1 - ر8
 منطقة الصدر: يخرج منها في الجسم البشري 12 عصب شوكي، ويرمز لها ب ص1 - ص12
 منطقة القَطَن (ماتحت الصدر): يخرج منها في الجسم البشري 5 أعصاب شوكية، ويرمز لها ب ق1 - ق5
 منطقة العجُز (أسفل الظهر): يخرج منها في الجسم البشري أيضاً 5 أعصاب شوكية، ويرمز لها ب ع1 - ع5
 منطقة العصعص: يخرج منها في الجسم البشري عصب واحد، يرمز له ب CO1

انظر أيضا
 قائمة مصطلحات تشريح الأعصاب

مراجع

مصادر
 Martin Trepel: Neuroanatomie. Struktur und Funktion. 4. neu bearbeitete Auflage. Elsevier, Urban & Fischer, München u. a. 2008, ISBN 978-3-437-41298-1.
 Franz-Viktor Salomon: Nervensystem, Systema nervosum. In: Franz-Viktor Salomon, Hans Geyer, Uwe Gille (Hrsg.): Anatomie für die Tiermedizin. Enke, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8304-1007-7, S. 464–577.

أعصاب شوكية
جهاز عصبي محيطي

عصب شوكي


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 Calypso (album) – album af Harry Belafonte
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 Calypso (måne) – måne omkring Saturn
 Calypso (skib) – forskningsskib brugt af Jacques-Yves Cousteau
 Calypso (slægt) – planteslægt af Gøgeurt-familien

Calypso


Schüptitz ist ein Ortsteil von Weida im Landkreis Greiz in Thüringen.

Lage
Schüptitz liegt südlich von Weida auf einer nach Osten neigenden langgezogenen erhöhten Ebene des Thüringer Schiefergebirges über dem Weidatal, in dem die Bahnstrecke Werdau–Mehltheuer mit Haltepunkt im Ortsteil verläuft. Westlich des Dorfes führt die Landesstraße 2331 vorbei. Heute leben hier ca. 115 Einwohner.

Geschichte
1320 wurde Schüptitz erstmals urkundlich genannt. In der Gemeindechronik geht man von 1346 aus. Die Vögte von Weida bestätigen Schuptytz in einer Urkunde. In dieser Gemeindechronik wird auch auf die sehenswerte und berühmte Wehrkirche mit romanischen Chorturm neben der naturnahen Landschaft  hingewiesen.

Im Lehenbuch des Weidaer Jungfrauenklosters wurde 1533–1539 die im Weidatal unterhalb des Dorfes gelegene Valentinsmühle  erstmals urkundlich erwähnt. Bis 1970 hat die Antriebswelle des Wasserrades den Mahlgang betrieben. Danach kam es zum Abriss der Schneidemühle. Das Mühlenhaus ist Wohnhaus geworden und die anderen Gebäude nutzte ein Ferienheim, die zwischenzeitlich auch Wohnzwecken zugeführt worden sind.

Schüptitz gehörte bis 1815 zum Kurfürstentum Sachsen bzw. Königreich Sachsen (Amt Weida im Neustädter Kreis).  Durch den Wiener Kongress wurde der Neustädter Kreis mit Schüptitz an das Großherzogtum Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach abgetreten, innerhalb dessen der Ort 1850 dem Verwaltungsbezirk Neustadt/Orla zugewiesen wurde. Haltepunkt Schüptitz an der 1876 eingeweihten Bahnstrecke Werdau–Mehltheuer wurde am 1. Oktober 1904 eröffnet. Mit dem Ende des Ersten Weltkriegs 1918 und der anschließenden Gründung der Weimarer Republik gelangte Schüptitz in den Hoheitsbereich des im selben Jahr gegründeten Freistaats Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach. Am 1. Mai 1920 kam es dann zur Gründung des Landes Thüringen, dem Schüptitz innerhalb des Landkreises Gera (seit 1922) angegliedert war. Bei der Verwaltungsreform von 1952 in der DDR wurde das Land Thüringen aufgelöst und der Landkreis Gera aufgeteilt, wodurch Schüptitz seitdem zum Kreis Gera-Land im Bezirk Gera gehörte. Am 1. Januar 1974 wurde Schüptitz nach Steinsdorf eingemeindet.

Seit 1990 lag Schüptitz im thüringischen Landkreis Gera, der 1994 im Landkreis Greiz aufging. Nachdem der Eisenbahnhalt in Schüptitz 2011 eingestellt worden war, wurde er nach Bürgerprotesten im Jahr 2012 wieder eingeführt. Am 31. Dezember 2013 wurde die Gemeinde Steinsdorf aufgelöst und nach Weida eingemeindet, wodurch Schüptitz seitdem ein Ortsteil von Weida ist.

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Ort im Landkreis Greiz
Weida
Ersterwähnung 1320
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Greiz)
Gemeindeauflösung 1974

Schüptitz


Sanjida Islam Choya (em bengalí: সানজিদা ইসলাম ছোঁয়া)  (nascida no século XXI, em Mymensingh, em Bangladesh) é uma ativista bangladeshiana contra o casamento infantil.

Vida pregressa e educação
Sanjida Islam Choya e filha de Liza Akhter, mulher que foi obrigada a se casar muito jovem. Em 2014, Sanjida Islam Choya estudava na escola Nandail Piloto Girls High School, na cidade de Mymensingh, em Bangladesh, onde estava envolvida num fórum infantil sobre os direitos da infância. Por isso, três colegas relataram a ela que os pais de uma aluna da escola tinham marcado seu casamento. Sanjida Islam Choya decidiu levantar a voz contra esta tradição, foi à ONU e à polícia, e todos juntos foram à casa da menina e conseguiram cancelar seu casamento infantil.

Desde que entrou na faculdade, Sanjida tem promovido pesquisas nessa área. Seis amigos se reúnem na organização Glashoforing para denunciar tentativas de casamento infantil e, dessa forma, já impediram 50 casamentos infantis.

Reconhecimento
Em 2022, Sanjida Islam Choya foi incluída na lista da BBC das 100 mulheres mais inspiradoras do mundo.

Veja também

 100 Mulheres (BBC)
 Mulheres na categoria BBC 100 Mulheres

Pessoas na lista BBC 100 Mulheres de 2022
Quirguizes
Pessoas vivas
Ativistas de Bangladesh

Sanjida Islam Choya


NUnit is an open-source unit testing framework for the .NET Framework and Mono. It serves the same purpose as JUnit does in the Java world, and is one of many programs in the xUnit family.

Features
 Tests can be run from a console runner, within Visual Studio through a Test Adapter, or through 3rd party runners.
 Tests can be run in parallel.
 Strong support for data driven tests.
 Supports multiple platforms including .NET Core, Xamarin Mobile, Compact Framework and Silverlight.
 Every test case can be added to one or more categories, to allow for selective running.

NUnit provides a console runner (nunit3-console.exe), which is used for batch execution of tests. The console runner works through the NUnit Test Engine, which provides it with the ability to load, explore and execute tests. When tests are to be run in a separate process, the engine makes use of the nunit-agent program to run them.

The NUnitLite runner may be used in situations where a simpler runner is more suitable. It allows developers to create self-executing tests.

Assertions
NUnit provides a rich set of assertions as static methods of the Assert class. If an assertion fails, the method call does not return and an error is reported. If a test contains multiple assertions, any that follow the one that failed will not be executed. For this reason, it's usually best to try for one assertion per test.

Nunit 3.x is supporting multiple assertions.

[Test]
public void ComplexNumberTest()
{
    ComplexNumber result = SomeCalculation();

    Assert.Multiple(() =>
    {
        Assert.AreEqual(5.2, result.RealPart, "Real part");
        Assert.AreEqual(3.9, result.ImaginaryPart, "Imaginary part");
    });
}

Classical
Before NUnit 2.4, a separate method of the Assert class was used for each different assertion. It continues to be supported in NUnit, since many people prefer it.

Each assert method may be called without a message, with a simple text message or with a message and arguments. In the last case the message is formatted using the provided text and arguments.

// Equality asserts
Assert.AreEqual(object expected, object actual);
Assert.AreEqual(object expected, object actual, string message, params object[] parms);

Assert.AreNotEqual(object expected, object actual);
Assert.AreNotEqual(object expected, object actual, string message, params object[] parms);

// Identity asserts
Assert.AreSame(object expected, object actual);
Assert.AreSame(object expected, object actual, string message, params object[] parms);

Assert.AreNotSame(object expected, object actual);
Assert.AreNotSame(object expected, object actual, string message, params object[] parms);

// Condition asserts
// (For simplicity, methods with message signatures are omitted.)
Assert.IsTrue(bool condition);
Assert.IsFalse(bool condition);

Assert.IsNull(object anObject);
Assert.IsNotNull(object anObject);

Assert.IsNaN(double aDouble);

Assert.IsEmpty(string aString);
Assert.IsNotEmpty(string aString);

Assert.IsEmpty(ICollection collection);
Assert.IsNotEmpty(ICollection collection);

Constraint based
Beginning with NUnit 2.4, a new Constraint-based model was introduced. This approach uses a single method of the Assert class for all assertions, passing a Constraint object that specifies the test to be performed. This constraint-based model is now used internally by NUnit for all assertions. The methods of the classic approach have been re-implemented on top of this new model.

Example
Example of an NUnit test fixture:
using NUnit.Framework;

[TestFixture]
public class ExampleTestOfNUnit
{
    [Test]
    public void TestMultiplication()
    {
        Assert.AreEqual(4, 2*2, "Multiplication");

        // Equivalently, since version 2.4 NUnit offers a new and
        // more intuitive assertion syntax based on constraint objects
        // [http://www.nunit.org/index.php?p=constraintModel&r=2.4.7]:
        Assert.That(2*2, Is.EqualTo(4), "Multiplication constraint-based");
    }
}

// The following example shows different ways of writing the same exception test.

[TestFixture]
public class AssertThrowsTests
{
    [Test]
    public void Tests()
    {
        // .NET 1.x
        Assert.Throws(typeof(ArgumentException),
            new TestDelegate(MethodThatThrows));

        // .NET 2.0
        Assert.Throws<ArgumentException>(MethodThatThrows);
        Assert.Throws<ArgumentException>(
	    delegate { throw new ArgumentException(); });

        // Using C# 3.0
        Assert.Throws<ArgumentException>(
            () => { throw new ArgumentException(); });
    }

    void MethodThatThrows()
    {
        throw new ArgumentException();
    }
}

// This example shows use of the return value to perform additional verification of the exception.

[TestFixture]
public class UsingReturnValue
{
    [Test]
    public void TestException()
    {
        MyException ex = Assert.Throws<MyException>(
            delegate { throw new MyException("message", 42); });
        Assert.That(ex.Message, Is.EqualTo("message"));
        Assert.That(ex.MyParam, Is.EqualTo(42));
    }
}

// This example does the same thing using the overload that includes a constraint.

[TestFixture]
public class UsingConstraint
{
    [Test]
    public void TestException()
    {
        Assert.Throws(Is.Typeof<MyException>()
                                 .And.Message.EqualTo("message")
                                 .And.Property("MyParam").EqualTo(42),
            delegate { throw new MyException("message", 42); });
    }
}

The NUnit framework discovers the method ExampleTestOfNUnit.TestMultiplication() automatically by reflection.

Extensions
FireBenchmarks is an addin able to record execution time of unit tests and generate XML, CSV, XHTML performances reports with charts and history tracking. Its main purpose is to enable a developer or a team that work with an agile methodology to integrate performance metrics and analysis into the unit testing environment, to easily control and monitor the evolution of a software system in terms of algorithmic complexity and system resources load.

NUnit.Forms is an expansion to the core NUnit framework and is also open source. It specifically looks at expanding NUnit to be able to handle testing user interface elements in Windows Forms.  As of January 2013, Nunit.Forms is in Alpha release, and no versions have been released since May 2006.

NUnit.ASP is a discontinued expansion to the core NUnit framework and is also open source. It specifically looks at expanding NUnit to be able to handle testing user interface elements in ASP.Net.

See also

 Test automation
 List of unit testing frameworks for .NET programming languages (includes column indicating which are based on xUnit)
 XUnit.net
 JUnit

References

Bibliography
 Hunt, Andrew; Thomas, David (2007). Pragmatic Unit Testing in C# with NUnit, 2nd Ed. The Pragmatic Bookshelf (Raleigh), 2007. .
 Newkirk, Jim; Vorontsov, Alexei (2004). Test-Driven Development in Microsoft .NET. Microsoft Press (Redmond), 2004. .
 Hamilton, Bill (2004). NUnit Pocket Reference. O'Reilly (Cambridge), 2004. .

External links

GitHub Site
Launchpad Site (no longer maintained)
Test-driven Development with NUnit & Test-driven.NET video demonstration
NUnit.Forms home page
NUnitAsp homepage
Article Improving Application Quality Using Test-Driven Development provides an introduction to TDD with concrete examples using Nunit
Open source tool, which can execute nunit tests in parallel
Charlie Poole, co-developer
Rob Prouse, co-developer
Simone Busoli, co-developer

.NET software
Extreme programming
Unit testing frameworks
Free software programmed in C Sharp
Articles with example C Sharp code
Software using the MIT license

NUnit


Silindirlerin düzenine göre çok çeşitli motor yapı şekilleri vardır (Motorların Sınıflandırılması şablonunda silindir birleştirme şekillerine göre motorlar satırından ayrıntılı bilgi alınabilir) Silindirler DIN 73021'e uygun bir şekilde ifade edilir. Silindirlerin sayılmasına güç çıkışının karşı tarafından başlanır. Boksör motorlarda ve V tipi motorlarda güç çıkışının karşı tarafından soldaki silindirden başlanır ve sıra takip edilir.
Genelde 4 zaman ilkesine göre çalışırlar. 2 zaman ilkesine göre çalışan tipleri de mevcuttur. Hava veya su ile soğutulan çeşitleri vardır.

Silindir sayıları

İki silindirli motorlar

Otomobil motorlarında çok az kullanılırlar. Örneğin DAF firması Hollanda'da ürettiği otomobillerde yatık I tipi subap mekanizmasına sahip bir motor kullanmıştır. Genelde hava soğutmalı olup 2 zaman prensibine göre çalışan motorlardır.

Üç silindirli motorlar

Buji ile veya sıkıştırma ile ateşlemeli, 2 zamanlı veya 4 zamanlı olabilirler. Hyundai Accent Admire 1,5 CRDI model otomobiller sıralı 3 silindirli, dizel, su soğutmalı 1500 cc hacminde motorlara sahiptirler. Bir diğer 3 silindirli motor da VW Polo 1.4 TDI marka araçta bulunmaktadır. 1422 cc hacmindeki Turbo beslemeli motor 4000 d/d de 75 hp güç 2200 d/d de 195 Nm Tork üretebilmektedir.

Dört silindirli motorlar

En çok kullanılan silindir sayısıdır. Çeşitli kombinasyonlarda (buji ile ateşlemeli, su soğutmalı v tipi – sıkıştırma ile ateşlemeli, sıralı, su soğutmalı –buji ile ateşlemeli, boksör, hava soğutmalı gibi ) yapılabilirler.

 Volkswagen kaplumbağa : Buji ile ateşlemeli, benzinli, boksör, hava ile soğutmalı
 Ford Taunus : Buji ile ateşlemeli, v tipi, su ile soğutmalı, benzinli
 Hyundai Accent Era CRDI : Sıkıştırma ile ateşlemeli, mazotlu, sıralı, su ile soğutmalı
 Mazda 3 1.6 : Üstten çift egzantrikli, zincir tahrikli, benzin püskürtme sistemli ve değişken emiş kontrol üniteli.

Altı silindirli motorlar

Avrupa'da genelde kullanılmayan ağırlıklı olarak ABD'de üretilen otomobillerde kullanılan motorlardır. Sıralı veya V tipinde yapılabilirler.

Sekiz silindirli motorlar

Genelde eski otomobillerde kullanılmıştır. Sıralı tiplerinin boyu çok uzun olduğundan ve otomobillerin ön kısmının uzamasına sebep olduğundan motor parçalarının dengelenmesi problemlerinden ötürü genelde V tipinde yapılırlar.

Oniki ve Onaltı silindirli motorlar

Genellikle deniz vasıtalarında, lokomotiflerde ve sanayi işlerinde kullanılan motorlardır. Otomotiv sektöründe ise otobüs ve kamyonlarda kullanılmasına rağmen spor otomobillerde kullanılan tipleri de vardır . Ferrari 12 silindirli motorları bazı modellerinde kullanırken, Bugatti Veyron modelinde 16 silindirli bir motor kullanmıştır. Silindir birleştirme şekillerine göre dengeleme probleminden ötürü sıralı tip kullanılmamaktadır. V tipi, boksör tipi, iki sıralı yıldız, yıldız, W tipi, üç sıralı X veya sıra halinde X tipi olarak yapılırlar.

Kaynakça

 Benzin Motorları (kitap), Milli Eğitim bakanlığı Yayınları, İbrahim Özdamar – Bilal Yelken, 1986 baskısı
 Motorlu Taşıt Tekniği (kitap), Milli Eğitim bakanlığı Yayınları, Wilfried Staudt, 1995 baskısı, Yayın hakkı : Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn Braunschweig / Wiesbaden

Çok silindirli motorlar