The Folland Gnat is a British compact swept-wing subsonic fighter aircraft that was developed and produced by Folland Aircraft. Envisioned as an affordable light fighter in contrast to the rising cost and size of typical combat aircraft, it was procured as a trainer aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) as well as by export customers, who used the Gnat in both combat and training capacities.

Designed by W. E. W. Petter, the Gnat has its origins in the preceding private venture Folland Midge. The issuing of Operational Requirement OR.303 by the British Air Ministry served to motivate the type's development; the Gnat was later submitted to meet this requirement. Its design allowed for its construction and maintenance tasks to be carried out without specialised tools, making it suitable for use in countries that had not yet become highly industrialised. The Gnat has been viewed as a major motivating factor towards the issuing of the NATO NBMR-1 requirement, which sought to make available a common strike/attack light fighter with which to equip the air forces of the various NATO members.

Although never used as a fighter by the Royal Air Force (RAF), the Gnat T.1 jet trainer variant was adopted and operated for some time. In the United Kingdom, the Gnat became well known due to its prominent use as the display aircraft of the RAF's Red Arrows aerobatic team. The Gnat F.1 was exported to Finland, Yugoslavia and India. The Indian Air Force became the largest operator and eventually manufactured the aircraft under licence. Impressed by its performance during combat, India proceeded to develop the improved HAL Ajeet, a modified variant of the Gnat. In British service, the Gnat was replaced by the Hawker Siddeley Hawk.

Development

Origins
In October 1950, W. E. W. "Teddy" Petter, a British aircraft designer formerly of Westland Aircraft and English Electric, joined Folland Aircraft as its managing director and chief engineer. Almost immediately upon joining the firm, Petter conducted a study into the economics behind modern fighter manufacturing, and concluded that many combat aircraft entailed far too great a cost in terms of man-hours and material to be readily mass-produced during a major conflict. While the British Air Staff emphasised quality over quantity, the economics involved in the anticipated vast wartime production of many of the RAF's aircraft of the time, such as the Hawker Hunter and the Gloster Javelin interceptors, were viewed as questionable.

Petter examined the prospects for producing a more affordable but capable "light fighter", including a survey of available modern engines to power the type. Having identified suitable powerplant arrangements along with methods of making multiple key design aspects, such as the manufacturing of the fuselage and wings, more affordable, Folland promptly commenced work upon this lightweight fighter concept, financing the project using existing company funds. The light fighter project soon received the Fo-141 designation along with the name Gnat. Development of the Gnat and the specifics of its design were heavily influenced by the issuing of Operational Requirement OR.303, which sought a capable lightweight fighter aircraft. Work to develop the Gnat went ahead, irrespective of any external orders or financing; there was no funding provided to support the type's early development from any British government department, such as the Ministry of Supply.

Petter believed that a compact and simplified fighter would offer the advantages of low purchase and operational costs, and that the Gnat should be capable of being manufactured both cheaply and easily. The emergence of new lightweight turbojet engines, several of which were well advanced in their own development process, also enabled the envisioned light fighter concept to be realised. The Gnat was initially intended to be powered by a Bristol BE-22 Saturn turbojet engine, capable of generating 3,800 lbf (16.9 kN 1,724 kgp) of thrust. However, development of the Saturn was cancelled; in its place, the more capable but not immediately available Bristol Orpheus turbojet engine was adopted instead.

In order that the project would not be delayed before reaching the prototype stage, Petter's unarmed proof-of-concept demonstrator for the Gnat was instead powered by the less powerful Armstrong Siddeley Viper 101 turbojet engine, capable of generating 1,640 lbf (7.3 kN / 744 kgp) of thrust. While using a different powerplant from later-built prototypes and production aircraft, the demonstrator still used a nearly-identical airframe along with similar onboard systems so that these could be proved in advance of the Gnat itself being built. This demonstrator was designated Fo-139 Midge. On 11 August 1954, the Midge performed its maiden flight, piloted by Folland's chief test pilot Edward Tennant. Despite the low-powered engine, the compact jet was able to break Mach 1 while in a dive and proved to be very agile during its flying trials. On 20 September 1955, the Midge was destroyed in a crash, which had possibly been due to human error by a pilot from a potential overseas purchaser.

The Midge, partly due to its nature as a private venture, had only a short lifespan, however had served as a proof-of-concept demonstrator for the subsequent aircraft. It had failed to interest the RAF as a combat aircraft at that time, but officers did issue encouragement of the development of a similar aircraft for training purposes. The larger Gnat, which was being developed in parallel with the Midge, was an improved version of the original fighter design; it was differentiated by larger air intakes to suit the Orpheus engine, a slightly larger wing, and provision for the installation of a 30 mm ADEN cannon in each intake lip. The first prototype Gnat was built as a private venture by Folland. Subsequently, six further aircraft were ordered by the British Ministry of Supply for evaluation purposes. On 18 July 1955, the Folland prototype, serial number G-39-2, first flew from RAF Boscombe Down, Wiltshire.

Although the evaluation by the British brought no orders for the lightweight fighter, orders were placed by Finland and Yugoslavia. India placed a large order for the type, which included a licence for production by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). Although the Gnat's development is considered a factor which motivated the Mutual Weapons Development Team to issue the NATO NBMR-1 requirement for a low level strike/attack light fighter, the Gnat itself was not evaluated in the competition, which was won by the Fiat G.91. However, the Gnat was evaluated in 1958 by the RAF as a replacement for the de Havilland Venom, as well as other light aircraft such as the BAC Jet Provost. The Hawker Hunter was selected as the eventual winner of the fly-off competition.

Trainer

Although RAF interest in the possibilities for using the Gnat as a fighter had waned, Folland identified a potential use for the type as a trainer aircraft. Accordingly, the aircraft was modified to conform with the requirements of Specification T.185D, which had called for an advanced two-seat trainer aircraft that could transition pilots between the current de Havilland Vampire T 11 and operational fighters, such as the supersonic English Electric Lightning.

Folland proposed the two-seat Fo. 144 Gnat Trainer. The trainer model featured several changes, including the adoption of a new wing with additional fuel capacity, which in turn allowed for more internal space within the fuselage to be allocated for additional equipment. A more powerful variant of the Orpheus engine was also used, while the length of the forward fuselage area was increased, and the tail surfaces were enlarged. The inboard ailerons of the fighter variant were reconfigured to an arrangement of outboard ailerons and conventional flaps. On 7 January 1958, an initial contract for 14 pre-production Gnat trainers was issued.

On 31 August 1959, the prototype Gnat Trainer conducted its maiden flight from Chilbolton airfield, Hampshire. The Ministry did not at first place a production order as they were concerned about the size and ability of the company to take on a large order. Following the take over of Folland by Hawker Siddeley Aviation (becoming the Hamble division), further orders for 30, 20 and 41 trainers were placed between February 1960 and March 1962, receiving the designation Gnat T Mk. 1. The final Gnat T.1 for the RAF was delivered in May 1965.

Further development
Folland sought to develop more capable versions of the Gnat; one of the more substantial of these proposals was tentatively designated as the Gnat Mk.5. This model was to be capable of supersonic speeds and was intended to be made available in both single-seat and twin-seat configurations, enabling its use in the trainer and interceptor role. The Gnat 5 was to be powered by either a pair of Rolls-Royce RB153R engines or two Viper 20 engines; in the interceptor role, it would be also equipped with a Ferranti AI.23 Airpass radar and armed with a pair of de Havilland Firestreak air-to-air missiles. Featuring an estimated maximum speed around  and a time to  of 3 minutes, Folland estimated that a prototype could be flown as early as the end of 1962 and that the Gnat 5 could be readied for operational service within four or five years.

In 1960, Maurice Brennan joined Folland as its chief engineer and director. Hawker Siddeley wanted to use his knowledge of variable-geometry wings in future designs. Under his direction, a variable geometry wing was applied to the basic Gnat 5 design to produce two different configurations – one tailless and one with a conventional tail – for a multipurpose fighter/strike/trainer, designated the Fo.147. The design used a unique mechanism to sweep the wings; this mechanism used a combination of tracks positioned on the fuselage sides, the centerline, and on the underside of the wings, and was actuated by hydraulically-driven ball screws positioned at the inner ends of the wings. The wings could be swept from 20 degrees to 70 degrees; at the 70-degree position, longitudinal control was maintained by wing tip-mounted elevons, and at the 20-degree position by a retractable canard arrangement. Auto-stabilisation was also to be used. By providing trimming with the canard, a large tailplane was not needed, as would have been on designs without a canard configuration.

The Fo.147 was to have been capable of speeds in excess of Mach 2, with the speed limit set by the temperature of the structure as a result of kinetic heating. It had a maximum all-up weight of , comparing well with the Gnat 5's more restrictive  maximum. According to aviation author Derek Wood, the Fo.147: "would have provided a first-class flying test-bed for variable geometry theories...even a VG conversion of the standard Gnat Mk 2 fighter would have been an invaluable research tool". However, neither the Fo.147 nor its successor, the Fo.148, would be developed to the prototype stage; the RAF showed little interest in the need for a variable-geometry trainer, although it intended to procure the General Dynamics F-111K strike aircraft.

Design

The Folland Gnat was a purpose-built light fighter aircraft, suitable as both a trainer and a combat aircraft in ground-attack and day-fighter roles. The cockpit offered many features expected in standard fighter aircraft: full pressurisation, climate control, and an ejection seat.

According to Folland, the Gnat offered advantages over conventional fighter aircraft in terms of cost, man-hours, handling, serviceability, and portability. Its tricycle landing gear let it operate from austere grass airstrips, thanks to the aircraft's low weight.

The Gnat design used a conventional metal stressed-skin structure, with extensive flush-rivetting. To reduce workload and cost, intensive fabrication methods such as machining, forging, and casting were minimised. The airframe could be constructed using simple jigs without any specialised skills or tooling. The wing (for example) could be produced at a quarter of the cost, with less than one-fifth the labour, required for the wings of other contemporary fighter aircraft. Similarly, the layout and construction techniques used allow the airframe to be rapidly disassembled into its major subsections, without the use of cranes or ladders; the Gnat was vastly easier to service than most other aircraft.

Operational history

Finland

The Finnish Air Force received the first of its 13 Gnats (11 fighters and 2 photo-reconnaissance planes) on 30 July 1958. It was soon found to be a problematic aircraft in service and required a lot of ground maintenance. In early 1957 a licence agreement was reached to allow Valmet to build the Gnat at Tampere in Finland, although, in the end, none were built. On 31 July 1958, Finnish Air Force Major Lauri Pekuri, a fighter ace of the Second World War, became the first Finnish pilot to break the sound barrier while flying a Gnat at Lake Luonetjärvi.

Gnat F.1 proved initially problematic in the harsh Finnish conditions. Finland was the first operational user of Gnat F.1, and the plane still had many issues yet to be resolved. All Gnats were grounded for half a year on 26 August 1958 after the destruction of GN-102 due to a technical design error in its hydraulic system, and the aircraft soon became the subject of severe criticism. Three other aircraft were also destroyed in other accidents, with two pilots ejecting and one being killed. Once the initial problems were ironed out, the plane proved to be extremely manouevreable and had good performance in the air, but also to be very maintenance intensive. The availability of spare parts was always an issue, and its maintenance a challenge to the conscript mechanics. The Gnats were removed from active service in 1972 when the Häme Wing moved to Rovaniemi, and when the new Saab 35 Drakens were brought into use.

India

In September 1956 the Indian government signed a contract for the production of the aircraft and Orpheus engine in India. The first 13 aircraft for the Indian Air Force (IAF) were assembled at Hamble-le-Rice, they were followed by partly completed aircraft and then sub-assemblies as Hindustan Aircraft slowly took over first assembly, and then production of the aircraft. The first flight of an Indian Air Force Gnat was in the United Kingdom on 11 January 1958, it was delivered to India in the hold of a C-119, and accepted by the Air Force on 30 January 1958. The first Gnat squadron was the No. 23 (Cheetah), which converted from Vampire FB.52 on 18 March 1960 using six Folland-built Gnats. The first aircraft built from Indian-built parts first flew in May 1962. The last Indian-built Gnat F.1 was delivered on 31 January 1974.

The Gnat was an extremely difficult aircraft to handle in the early stages of training. Unlike the RAF, the IAF did not buy a trainer version. Inductees were brought in from Hunter aircraft squadrons, having gained experience on powered controls. They then flew dual checks on the Hunter trainer. The pilot would do a brief full throttle run on the runway before flying solo. The Gnat had a tendency to pitch up sharply on raising the undercarriage; almost all new pilots would find it difficult to control the anticipated pitch up.  With sufficient experience, pilots would exploit the nimble mini-sized aircraft to its limits.

The Gnat is credited by many independent and Indian sources as having shot down seven Pakistani North American F-86 Sabres in the 1965 war. During the initial phase of the 1965 war, an IAF Gnat, piloted by Squadron Leader Brij Pal Singh Sikand, landed at an abandoned Pakistani airstrip at Pasrur and was captured by the PAF. Two Lockheed F-104 Starfighters claimed to have forced the Gnat down. Sikand — who had a complete electrical failure on his Gnat while he got separated from the IAF flight to fight a Sabre — had to make an emergency landing at the PAF field at Pasrur. This Gnat is displayed as a war trophy in the Pakistan Air Force Museum, Karachi. After the ceasefire, one Pakistani Cessna O-1 was shot down on 16 December 1965 by a Gnat.

The Gnats were used again by India in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The most notable action was the Battle of Boyra where the first dogfights over East Pakistan (Bangladesh) took place. The Indian Air Force (IAF) Gnats shot down two PAF Canadair Sabres and badly damaged one. The Pakistan Air Force also claimed that one Gnat was shot down during the dogfight but however gun cameras showed that no Gnat was shot down. Another notable dogfight involving a Gnat was over Srinagar airfield where a lone Indian pilot held out against six Sabres, shooting two Sabres in the process, before being shot down. Gnat pilot Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon was posthumously honoured with the Param Vir Chakra (India's highest gallantry award), becoming the only member of the IAF to be given the award.

By the end of 1971, the Gnat proved to be a frustrating opponent for the larger, heavier and older Sabre. The Gnat was referred to as a "Sabre Slayer" by the IAF since most of its combat "kills" during the two wars were against Sabres despite the Canadair Sabre Mk 6 being widely regarded as the best dogfighter of its era. Tactics called for Gnats taking on the Sabres in the vertical arena, where the Sabres were at a disadvantage. As the Gnat was lightweight and compact in shape, it was hard to see, especially at the low levels where most dogfights took place. Apart from air defence operations, in the Bangladesh Liberation War, Gnats flew anti-shipping operations, ground attack, bomber/transport escort and close air support operations.

The IAF was impressed by the Gnat's performance in the two wars but the aircraft had many technical problems including hydraulics, a temperamental pair of Aden 30 mm cannons which often failed in-flight, significant 'bent thrust' on take-off, leading to many aborted take-offs  and an unreliable control system. To address these failings, the IAF issued a requirement for an improved "Gnat II" in 1972, at first specifying that the new version was to be optimised as an interceptor but then expanding the specification to include ground-attack. Over 175 of the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited-built licensed version, the Ajeet ("Unconquerable"), were produced in Bangalore. Several Gnats remain in use in private hands. Some IAF Gnats, one of which had participated in the 1971 war in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), were presented to the Bangladesh Air Force.

United Kingdom

The first production Gnat T.1s for the Royal Air Force were delivered in February 1962 to the Central Flying School at RAF Little Rissington. The major operator of the type was 4 Flying Training School at RAF Valley, the first aircraft being delivered in November 1962. In 1964 4 FTS formed the Yellowjacks aerobatic team with all-yellow painted Gnats. The team reformed in 1965 as part of the Central Flying School as the Red Arrows which operated the Gnat until 1979 as the RAF aerobatic demonstration team. On 14 May 1965 the last Royal Air Force Gnat T.1 to be built was delivered to the Red Arrows.

Once pilots graduated from basic training on the BAC Jet Provost and gained their wings they were selected for one of three streams: fast jet, multi-engined, or helicopter. Those selected for fast jets were posted to RAF Valley for advanced training on the Gnat T.1, typically 70 hours of flying. Students would then move on to operational training using the Hawker Hunter, followed by a posting to an operational conversion unit for the type of aircraft to be flown.

Following the introduction of the Hawker Siddeley Hawk into the training role as a replacement the Gnats were withdrawn from service. The largest operator 4 FTS retired its last Gnat in November 1978. Most of the retired Gnats were delivered to No. 1 School of Technical Training at RAF Halton and other training establishments to be used as ground training airframes. When the RAF had no need for the Gnats as training airframes they were sold off. Many were bought by private operators and a number are still flying today.

Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia ordered two Gnat F.1s for evaluation; the first aircraft flew on 7 June 1958 and both were delivered to Yugoslavia by rail. The aircraft were flown by the flight test centre but no further aircraft were ordered. One aircraft was destroyed in a crash in October 1958 while the other is preserved and on display in Serbia.

Variants

Fo.140 Gnat
Private-venture prototype fighter, one built.
Fo.141 Gnat
Gnat F.1
Single seat lightweight fighter exported to Finland, India and Yugoslavia, 50 built by Folland at Hamble. This was also built in India under licence as the HAL Gnat.
Gnat FR.1
One aircraft for Finland was built with three nose-mounted 70mm Vinten cameras and designated FR.1, it was joined by a Ministry of Supply aircraft purchased by Folland and modified to the same standard. Both aircraft were delivered to Finland on 12 October 1960.
Fo.142 Gnat / Gnat F.2
This was to be an improved F.1 using a wing with a 6% thickness-to-chord ratio and powered by a Bristol Orpheus with simplified reheat (BOr.12SR), developing 8000 lbF (35.6 kN) thrust. A prototype wing was built but not mated to a fuselage or engine. It was anticipated that this would be capable of M 1.5 and have a "marked increase in rate of climb" Development was ended because Bristol declined to back development of the reheat.
Fo.143 Gnat / Gnat F.4
Proposed improved F.2 with air intercept radar and ability to carry guided weapons, not built.
Fo.144 Gnat Trainer / Gnat T.1
Two-seat advanced trainer aircraft for the Royal Air Force, 105 built by Hawker Siddeley.
Gnat F.5
Proposed development from January 1960, with larger wing (and flap) area. It was to be powered by two Rolls-Royce RB153 engines with reheat. The design also considered operation from aircraft carriers.
Fo.146
This was a two-seat design with variable geometry wings based on a combination of the Gnat Mk5 and the Gnat Trainer. It was to be powered by two Rolls-Royce RB153 engines with reheat and thrust-reversers. it was to be produced as either an advanced trainer with weapons capability or as a fighter. This, and later studies were led by Maurice Brennan.
HAL Ajeet
Indian development of the Gnat F.1
HAL Ajeet Trainer
Two-seat tandem trainer version for the Indian Air Force. This version was derived from the HAL Ajeet and differed considerably from the Gnat T.1 used by the RAF.

Operators

 Finnish Air Force
 Häme Wing
 HävLLv 11
 HävLLv 21

 Indian Air Force
 No.2 Squadron
 No.9 Squadron
 No.15 Squadron
 No.18 Squadron
 No.21 Squadron
 No.22 Squadron
 No.23 Squadron
 No.24 Squadron

 Royal Aircraft Establishment operated one former Royal Air Force Gnat T.1 from Bedford for trials work.
 Royal Air Force
 Central Flying School
 Yellowjacks aerobatic team
 4 Flying Training School, RAF Valley
 Red Arrows aerobatic team

 SFR Yugoslav Air Force two aircraft for evaluation.

Accidents and incidents
 31 July 1956 the prototype G-39-2 crashed at Stockbridge and was destroyed after structural failure caused by tailplane flutter.
 15 October 1958 a development F.1 XK767 fatally crashed at Stapleford, Wiltshire following presumed control failure.
 13 April 1966 RAF Gnat T.1 XP507 of 4FTS flew into the sea on approach to RAF Valley.
 23 August 1967 RAF Gnat T.1 XP512 abandoned overhead RAF Valley at  following seizure of Hobson Unit in tailplane during previous roller landing. Instructor seriously injured; student pilot uninjured. Aircraft flew on for about five minutes in large circle before crashing on Rhosneigr beach amongst bathers but inflicted no injuries on the public.
 26 March 1969 RAF Gnat T.1 XR573 of the Red Arrows crashed into tree during formation display practice.
 20 January 1971 RAF Gnat T.1s XR545 and XR986 of the Red Arrows collided and both crashed during practice display flying at RAF Kemble.
 3 September 1975 RAF Gnat T.1 XS103 of the CFS collided with an Italian Air Force Lockheed F-104 Starfighter near Leck in Germany; both aircraft landed safely but due to damage the Gnat was written off.
 28 October 1975 RAF Gnat T.1 XR571 of the 4 FTS RAF had a hard landing and declared a write off at RAF Valley, Anglesey.
 30 April 1976 two RAF Gnat T.1s XP536 and XR983 of 4FTS collided and both crashed over North Wales.
 30 June 1976 RAF Gnat T.1 XM707 of the Red Arrows was abandoned near RAF Kemble following loss of control of tailplane.
 8 October 1976 RAF Gnat T.1 'XR996' of 4FTS crashed on approach at RAF Shawbury. Both crew killed.
 10 January 1991 Shreveport, LA N3XR crashed, attributed to fuel starvation. 2 fatalities. NTSB Id: FTW91FA028
 29 July 2013 Gnat T.1 XS105 (N18GT) crashed near Georgetown, SC, USA. The aircraft was destroyed.
 1 August 2015, Gnat T.1 XP504 (though labelled XS111) of a Gnat display team crashed at the 'CarFest North' motoring festival at Oulton Park in Cheshire, during a display at the event; no ground injuries. Pilot Kevin Whyman died in the incident.

Surviving aircraft

Several Gnats survive including some airworthy examples (particularly in the United States and the United Kingdom) and others on public display.

Specifications (Gnat F.1)

Notable appearances in media
The Gnat portrayed the fictional carrier-based "Oscar EW-5894 Phallus Tactical Fighter Bomber" flown by US Navy pilots in the 1991 comedy Hot Shots!.

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Bridgman, Leonard. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1958–59. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Ltd., 1958.
 Burnet, Charles. "Folland's (G)Natty Fighters." AIR Enthusiast Twenty-four, April–July 1984. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press, 1984.

 Chopra, Pushpindar. "Fly with a Sting." Air International, Volume 7, No. 2, August 1974.
 "Folland Midge: The Viper Powered Precursor of the Gnat begins Flying Trials." Flight, 20 August 1954, Vol. 66, No. 2378. pp. 228–229.
 Frédriksen, John C. International Warbirds: An Illustrated Guide to World Military Aircraft, 1914–2000. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001. .
 Ross, Andrew L. The Political Economy of Defense: Issues and Perspectives. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991. .
 Spick, Mike. Illustrated Directory of Fighters. Osceola, WI: Zenith Press, 2002.  .

 Taylor, John W.R. "Folland Gnat." Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the present. New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1969. .
 "Thoughts on the Gnat." Flight, 3 April 1953. pp. 425–426.
 Willis, David. "The Folland Gnat (Database)." Aeroplane, September 2008.
 Wood, Derek. Project Cancelled. Macdonald and Jane's Publishers, 1975. .

External links

 "Aspects of the Gnat"
 Folland Gnat Trainer – description in Flight with cutaway
  De Havilland Aviation Ltd operates the only airworthy former Red Arrows Gnat in Europe, XR537 (G-NATY).
 Thunder and Lightnings
 Cockpit restoration of XM692
 The Wolfpack in action

1950s British fighter aircraft
1950s British military trainer aircraft
Gnat
Single-engined jet aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1955

Folland Gnat


An Paspalum pubiflorum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Eugène Pierre Nicolas Fournier. An Paspalum pubiflorum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paspalum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Paspalum

Paspalum pubiflorum


William Eaton (23 February 1764 – 1 June 1811) was a United States Army officer and the diplomatic officer Consul General to Tunis (1797–1803). He played an important diplomatic and military role in the First Barbary War between the United States and Tripoli (1801–1805). He led the first foreign United States military victory at the Battle of Derne by capturing the Tripoli subject city of Derne in support of the restoration of the pasha (local monarch), Hamet Caramelli. He also gave testimony at the treason trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr.
Eaton served one term in the General Court of Massachusetts, which is the state legislature both during and after the colonia era. Eaton died on June 1, 1811, at the age of 47.

Early life
William Eaton was born in Woodstock, Connecticut. He was one of thirteen children of Nathaniel and Sarah (née Johnson) Eaton. His father was a middle class farmer, who worked as a school teacher in the winter, "an employment for which he is represented as having been well qualified by more than ordinary means for a farmer". When he was ten years old, William's family moved to Mansfield, Connecticut.

Military career
Eaton ran away at the age of sixteen to enlist in the army. He joined the Continental Army in 1780 and served until 1783, attaining the rank of sergeant at the age of 19. He earned money for college working as a school teacher in Windsor, Vermont. In 1790, he graduated from Dartmouth College. He and a classmate presented a poetic dialogue at the commencement. Between 1791 and 1792, he worked as a clerk in the lower house of the Vermont legislature

In 1792, Eaton accepted a captain's commission in the Legion of the United States and began training at Legionville (Baden, Pennsylvania). He also married Eliza, the widow of General Timothy Danielson. In 1795, Eaton faced court-martial for charges resulting in a "misunderstanding" between himself and Lieutenant Colonel Henry Gaither. For the charges, which included those of profiteering and "liberating from confinement" a murder suspect, Eaton was sentenced to two months' suspended commission. Despite the conviction, Eaton held his commission until July 11, 1797, when he was appointed U.S. Consul at Tunis. He served at that post until war with Tripoli broke out in 1801. Other sources say he left the consul post in 1803.

Tunis (1799–1803)

Eaton's main task in Tunis was to negotiate peace and trade agreements with the bey (governor). During the nineteenth century, European and American merchant ships were under threat by pirates from what was called "The Barbary Coast". The Barbary Coast was made up of several Muslim states, under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, that bordered the Mediterranean Sea in Northern Africa. They acquired revenue from raiding merchant vessels of their cargo, ransoming their crews or selling them into slavery. The European nations opted to pay tribute to the Barbary states to prevent such raids. After the American Revolution, the United States was left without Britain's protection in Mediterranean, thus the Washington and Adams administrations chose paying tribute to the Barbary states as a cost-effective alternative to military action.

By 1796, the United States was behind in payments to the dey of Algiers. In 1797, Joel Barlow, United States Consul to Algiers, negotiated with the dey and promised him a frigate, at the cost of nearly one million dollars. He then sent a French merchant, Joseph Stephen Famin, to negotiate with the bey of Tunis. An agreement was reached, but Congress would not ratify it. United States President John Adams appointed William Eaton as Consult to Tunis to negotiate more agreeable terms. It took two years to accomplish the task. In that time, as the demands of Algiers and Tripoli increased, Eaton had come to believe that it was better to use military force to secure trade in the region, than to continually pay tribute. He wrote an impassioned letter to the Secretary of State, James Madison, voicing the opinion that, "The more you give the more the Turks will ask for."

Jack Kelly, of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, wrote in the a 2009 article, Kill The Pirates, that Thomas Jefferson favored an international military intervention to the payment of tribute. Kelly said that Jefferson was unable to convince Europe to take such a course. When he became president of the United States, in 1801, he refused to pay tribute to Tripoli. The Atlantic Monthly (1860), called the belief that the United States was the first to refuse tribute to the Barbary pirates a "patriotic delusion". The article, flouting what it called "the popular view" of events said, "The money question between the President and the pasha was simply one of amount". It went on to say that Jefferson was motivated in his actions toward Tripoli by pressure from powerful merchants. The pasha of Tripoli, Yusef Caramelli (sometimes referred to as Caramelli or Karamanli), responded to the lack of payment by declaring war on the United States.

Tunis was the closest neighbor to Tripoli and the deposed pasha of Tripoli, Hamet Caramelli, was exiled there. He was, in fact, the elder brother of the reigning pasha, Yusuf Caramelli. William Eaton devised a plan in which the United States would support the restoration of Hamet Caramelli as pasha thereby creating fear of the U.S. within the rest of the Muslim world. He borrowed $22,000 to support the plan, but at this point did not receive the backing of the U.S. government. While the demands for tribute from the bey of Tunis continued, Eaton refused to convey the demands to the United States. He requested that he be recalled, as he felt he could no longer negotiate with the bey. In addition, a U.S. fleet, under the command of Commodore Richard Morris, had recently captured a Tunisian vessel that was headed for Tripoli. Morris came ashore in Tunis to visit Eaton and was arrested for Eaton's debt of $22,000. Eaton borrowed the money to pay the debt from the French Consul-General. At that point the bey ordered him to leave Tunis, which he did in the company of Morris. Hamet Caramelli, having failed at his attempt to regain Tripoli, fled to Egypt.

War with Tripoli and the Battle of Derne
Eaton returned to the Barbary region in 1804, this time on a military mission. It had taken months for word of Tripoli's declaration of war on the United States to reach President Jefferson, but he had already sent naval forces to the Barbary Coast because William Eaton had informed him that the situation in Tripoli was "nearing a breaking point." Among the vessels that were sent was the USS Philadelphia which, in October, 1803, under the command of Captain William Bainbridge, was sent to blockade Tripoli. The frigate ran aground off the coast of Tripoli and was captured along with its crew of 306 men. Bainbridge had failed to scuttle the ship before being captured, but Stephen Decatur, commander of the USS Intrepid, in a covert mission, destroyed the Philadelphia by burning it, to prevent Tripoli from using it.

In May 1804, Eaton was given the commission of a navy lieutenant and sent back to the Barbary regencies, under the supervision of Commodore James Barron, to find Hamet Caramelli and enlist his cooperation in the war. Eaton found Caramelli in Alexandria and signed an agreement with him, although it is unclear if he had the authority to do so. This contract, which was forwarded to Secretary of State Madison, specified that the United States would provide cash, ammunition and provisions for Ahmed Caramelli's re-installation as pasha. It also designated William Eaton as "General and Commander in Chief" of the land forces that were to be used to carry out the operation. The agreement defined the relationship between Caramelli and Eaton as well as their mission, but was never ratified by the United States Senate.

The Americans included eight marines and two navy midshipmen. It was with that force that Eaton and Caramelli made the 600 mile trek from Alexandria to Derne, a coastal city within the realm of Tripoli. By the time the band had reached the Gulf of Bomba, they had eaten their last rations and the Arab factions were on the verge of mutiny. Eaton had written to Captain Isaac Hull of the USS Argus requesting that the ship meet them there with supplies, but when they arrived on April 15, there was no ship to be seen. The next day, however, the Argus appeared as Hull had seen the smoke from their fires. After resupplying, they continued their journey, and on April 27, 1805, Eaton's forces attacked and took control of Derne. "Captain Presley O'Bannon of the U.S. Marine Corps raised the American flag for the first time over a conquered foreign city." At the Battle of Derne, one marine was killed and two were wounded. Eaton was wounded in the left wrist.

Twice Yusef Caramelli's forces tried and failed to take back the city. With the bey of Derne on the run and Hamet Caramelli reestablished in Derne, Eaton thought to march toward Tripoli. He requested reinforcements from Barron but instead received word that US Consul-General Tobias Lear was negotiating peace with Yusef Caramelli. Then he received word from Lear himself that he was to surrender Derne as peace had been reached on June 4. The terms of the treaty required the US to pay $60,000 for the release of the crew of the Philadelphia. Hamet Caramelli and his entourage of about 30 were allowed to leave, but his wife and family were held captive until 1807, as provided in the treaty.

Aftermath
Although Eaton returned to the United States to a hero's welcome, he was disappointed and embittered by the treaty and outraged that ransom had to be paid for the freeing of the hostages. He had been denied victory in Tripoli and his agreement with Hamet Caramelli was left unkept. Furthermore, the government owed him money that he had fronted for the expedition. He complained loudly that the government was guilty of duplicity in regard to Hamet Caramelli. His complaints drew the attention of Jefferson's enemies in the Federalist party.

In January 1806, Congress was presented with a petition from Hamet Caramelli for money and the release of his family from his brother's custody. The issue became partisan with the Federalists supporting Caramelli's and Eaton's claims that the government had rescinded its agreement to re-establish Caramelli as Tripolitan pasha. Jefferson, and his supporters, on the other hand, denied that administration ever intended the arrangement, contending that Eaton had lacked the authority to broker the deal. Nevertheless, despite the Federalist opposition, the treaty with Tripoli was ratified by the Senate in April 1806, and the United States entered into an agreement with a Barbary state that, for the first time, did not include the payment of tribute.

Initially, Eaton's victory in Derne was viewed by both parties as the motivating factor for Tripoli in the settlement of the war. However, his willingness to become involved in the partisan bickering cost Eaton official recognition for his accomplishment. It had been proposed that Congress present Eaton with a sword, but Federalists argued that he be given a gold medal. The debate was never resolved thus he did not receive "a sword, a medal, a tract of public land or simply a resolution of thanks". He did however, receive  from Massachusetts in present-day Maine.

Trial of Aaron Burr
Eaton was a principal witness in the 1807 treason trial of former United States Vice-President Aaron Burr. Burr was Vice-President during President Thomas Jefferson's first term (1801-1805). Avoiding murder charges resulting from the death of his political rival Alexander Hamilton in a duel (1804), Burr traveled throughout the west. During this time, he met with many military men who were disgruntled with the government, including Eaton and General James Wilkinson. According to Eaton's later testimony, he and Burr met several times, and Eaton came to believe that Burr was planning to raise an army to invade Spanish territory in the southwest and to establish an independent state, with himself as sovereign. Eaton then met with Jefferson to suggest that Burr be given an overseas post, warning that if he was not sent out of the country he would stage an insurrection within eighteen months. The President responded that he felt secure enough in the unity of the American people not to feel threatened by such an insurrection. Eaton again warned of Burr's plans, in the fall of 1806, when he forwarded to the State Department a letter that he had received from his stepson, Timothy Danielson, Jr., sent to him by a friend in Ohio, Morris Belknap. The letter said that Burr had been purchasing boats in Ohio, and offering young men army posts. Finally, Wilkinson sent Jefferson a letter including what he claimed was a decryption of ciphered treasonous correspondence received from Burr.

In 1807, Burr was arrested for treason. Although Jefferson privately confided to Senator William Plumber of New Hampshire that he did not think there was enough evidence to convict Burr of treason, his public condemnation of Burr, along with Wilkinson's letter and the deposition of William Eaton, insured an indictment. On January 26, 1807, Eaton gave a deposition regarding his conversations with Burr. The affidavit stated that, as he listened to Burr's ambitions, Eaton came to believe that Burr was planning the overthrow of the United States government. He further stated that Burr offered him the rank of General in his army. Eaton continued to say,

"He [Burr] said, if he could gain over the marine corps, and secure the naval commanders, Truxton, Preble, Decatur, and others, he would turn Congress neck and heels out of doors; assassinate the President; seize on the treasury and navy; and declare himself the protector of an energetic government."

Burr's treason trial in Richmond, Virginia, began in August, 1807 with Eaton as the first prosecution witness. Eaton reiterated what he had said in his deposition. To discredit Eaton, the defense questioned Eaton about $10,000 he had received from the federal government since giving his deposition, implying that the administration had paid him for his testimony. Eaton countered that the $10,000 was, in fact, reimbursement for money he spent in the Barbary War (which one source contends was less than what he was owed). Historians are divided on the status of Eaton's testimony. While one states that it was wildly exaggerated, another counters that "Burr apologists" are responsible for that point of view. Whatever the case, presiding judge John Marshall and the jury were unconvinced, and Burr was acquitted.

Eaton was subpoenaed again for another trial, in Ohio. This time the defense sought to discredit Eaton's testimony by bringing up the court-martial brought against him while he was a captain. By this time the records of the court-martial had been destroyed in a fire. It scarcely mattered anyway, as the trial itself never took place.

Final days
After peace with Tripoli was made, William Eaton returned to Brimfield, Massachusetts, the place he had called home for most of his life. He was elected to the state legislature, but only served one term. Burr's trial had proved to be a partisan issue, dividing the Federalists and the Jeffersonian Republicans. After the trial Eaton was verbal about the treatment that he had received from the Federalists, notably Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall. Having lost the Federalist vote in Brimfield because of his outspokenness, Eaton failed at his bid for re-election.

Eaton suffered from rheumatism and gout, and by all accounts he had taken to drinking heavily. He was also in debt from gambling. He died in Brimfield, June 1, 1811. Eaton predeceased his wife Eliza (née Sikes) Danielson, his stepson, Timothy Danielson and a stepdaughter, and five other children-three daughters; Eliza (married Goodwin), Charlotte (married Sprague) and Almira (married Hayden) and two sons; William Sikes and Nathaniel Johnson. Both of his sons graduated from West Point.

Legacy

William Eaton is the namesake of three U.S. towns, Eatonton, Georgia, Eaton, New York, and Eaton, Ohio. He was also the namesake of the Fletcher-class destroyer USS Eaton.

The Tripoli Monument, in memory of the first American military casualties overseas in the battle at Derne, was sculpted of Italian marble by artist Giovanni Micali in 1806, and transported to the United States by the frigate USS Constitution ("Old Ironsides") and placed at the new national capital of Washington, D.C. at the Washington Navy Yard on the East Branch (now the Anacostia River) of the Potomac River in 1808. Considered the first war monument in the United States, it was unfortunately vandalized by the British during the War of 1812 in August 1814, when they attacked and occupied Washington, burning the public buildings and facilities. Later in 1831, it was relocated to the west front of the United States Capitol, overlooking the National Mall. In 1860, it was relocated to the campus of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, where although moved several more times over the decades, remains there today. In 2001, it underwent repairs and a physical restoration.

In popular culture
Consul General Eaton and his actions at Derne with other U.S. Navy personnel along with Greek mercenaries, were loosely portrayed in the 1950 historical feature film Tripoli, starring John Payne, Maureen O'Hara, and Howard da Silva.

References

Bibliography
Adams, Henry. The History of the United States During the First Administration of Jefferson, Part II. Library of America. 2005
The Life of the Late General William Eaton: Principally Collected from his Correspondence and Other Manuscripts. Edited by Charles Prentiss. Printed by E. Merriam and Company, Brookfield, 1813.

Further reading
 Bow, C. B. "Waging War for the Righteous: William Eaton on Enlightenment, Empire, and Coup d'état in the First Barbary War, 1801–1805." History 101.348 (2016): 692–709. Argues  that the First Barbary War was not a 'Holy War' nor the first American war on Islamic terrorism.
 Edwards, Samuel.  Barbary General; the life of William H. Eaton  (1968), popular history online
London, Joshua E. Victory in Tripoli: How America's War with the Barbary Pirates Established the U.S. Navy and Shaped a Nation. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.
Roberts, Kenneth. Lydia Bailey. New York: Doubleday, 1947. . Eaton appears as a major character in this historical novel.
Smethurst, David. Tripoli: The United States' First War on Terror. New York: Presidio Press, 2006.
Wheelan, Joseph. Jefferson's War: America's First War on Terror, 1801–1805. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. .
 Wright, Louis B. and Julia H Macleod.  The First Americans in North Africa: William Eaton's Struggle for a Vigorous Policy Against the Barbary Pirates, 1799–1805 (Princeton UP, 1945), 227pp
Zacks, Richard. The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805. New York: Hyperion, 2005. .

External links

The Aaron Burr Trial
 On the Shores of Tripoli, William Eaton's Journey from Alexandria to Derna, March - April 1805. Abby Mullen has plotted Eaton's journey on a map, along with his daily journal entries.

1764 births
1811 deaths
18th-century American diplomats
19th-century American diplomats
American consuls
American expatriates in Tunisia
American military personnel of the First Barbary War
American people of English descent
American people of the Northwest Indian War
Continental Army soldiers
Dartmouth College alumni
People from Brimfield, Massachusetts
People from Woodstock, Connecticut
People of Connecticut in the American Revolution

William Eaton (soldier)


هنري بلهام  سياسي بريطاني (25 سبتمبر 1694-6 مارس 1754). تولى رئاسة الوزارة في بريطانيا من 27 أغسطس 1743 إلى 6 مارس 1754. هو الأخ الأصغر لتوماس بلهام هولز (دوق نيوكاسل). توفي أثناء فترة حكمه فخلفه أخوه دوق نيوكاسل.

مراجع

أشخاص توفوا أثناء شغلهم لمنصب
أشخاص في الثورة خمسة عشر
خريجو كلية الملك (كامبريدج)
خريجو كلية هيرتفورد (أكسفورد)
رؤساء حكومات في القرن 18
رؤساء وزراء بريطانيا العظمى
زملاء الجمعية الملكية
سياسيون توفوا أثناء شغلهم لمنصب
قادة مجلس العموم في بريطانيا العظمى
مدافن في سوسيكس
مواليد 1694
وفيات 1754
وفيات في لندن

هنري بلهام


ජෝධා අක්බර් යනු සී ටීවී නාළිකාව ඔස්සේ විකාශය වූ ඉන්දියානු ඓතිහාසික කතාමාලාවකි. 2013 ජූනි 18 දින විකාශය ඇරඹි මෙය සඳදා සිට සිකුරාදා දක්වා සවස් කාලයේ විකාශය කෙරිණි. මෙය නිෂ්පාදනය කරන ලද්දේ ඒක්තා කපූර් විසින් බාලාජි ටෙලිෆිල්ම්ස් යන සන්නාමය යටතේය. රජත් තොකාස් සහ පරිධි ෂර්මා මෙහි ප්‍රධාන චරිත නිරූපණය කරති. වර්තමානයේ සී අන්මොල් ඔස්සේ එහි නැවත විකාශය සිදුවුවද, නව කතාමාලා අභිබවා ඉහළම නාට්‍ය 5 තුළ රැඳීසිටීමට එය තවමත් සමත් වී ඇත.

කථා සාරාංශය
වීරකථාවක් වන ජෝධා අක්බර් කතාමාලාව දහසයවන සියවසේ මෝගල් අධිරාජයකු වූ අක්බර් සහ රාජ්පුත් කුමරියක වූ ජෝධා බායි අතර සිදු වූ දේශපාලන විවාහය තේමාකොට නිමැවුණකි. ඔවුන්ගේ දේශපාලන විවාහය ක්‍රමයෙන් ආදරයක් බවට පෙරළෙන අයුරුත්, ඉන් මුළු මහත් ඉන්දියාවේම සිදු වූ වෙනස්කම් ද මෙමගින් නිරූපිත ය. ඉන්දියාවේ මෝගල්වරුන් සහ රාජ්පුත්වරුන් අතර පැවති සම්බන්ධතා මෙන්ම ඓතිහාසික යුද්ධ පවා මෙම කතාමාලාව තුළ අන්තර්ගතය. අක්බර් සහ ජෝධා බායිගේ ප්‍රේම වෘත්තාන්තයට පසුබිමින් රැජිණියන්, මාලිගා, නගරශෝභිනියන්, සහ අමාත්‍යවරුන්ගේ පුවත් ද දිවෙයි. එසේම ජලාලුද්දීන් අධිරාජයා ජනතාවගෙන් අක්බර් යන නාමය හිමිකරගත් අයුරු ද මෙම කතාමාලාව මගින් වටහාගත හැක.

චරිත නිරූපණය
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 රජත් තොකාස්, ජලාලුද්දීන් මොහම්මද් අක්බර්/අක්බර් ලෙස
 පරිධි ෂර්මා, ජෝධා බායි (මරියම්-උස්-සමානි) ලෙස
 රවි භාටියා, නූරුද්දීන් මොහම්මද් සලිම් ජහාන්ගිර් ලෙස
 හීනා පර්මාර්, අනර්කලි ලෙස
 ලවිනා ටන්ඩන්, රුඛයියා සුල්තාන් බෙගම් ලෙස
 ගෝපාල් සිං, බිර්බාල් ලෙස
 මනිෂා යාදව්, සලිමා සුල්තාන් බෙගම් ලෙස
 අංකිත් අයිසාදා, දෙවන මාන් සිං ලෙස
 ආයුෂ් ආනන්ද්, අබ්දුල් රහිම් ඛාන්-ඉ-ඛානා ලෙස
 ශීසන් කේ මොහ්ඩ්, සුල්තාන් මුරාද් මිර්සා ලෙස
 ගෞරව් ෂර්මා, සුල්තාන් දනියල් මිර්සා ලෙස
 චයියා අලි ඛාන්, හමිදා බානු බෙගම් ලෙස
 රෝහිත් ජෝෂි, ෆර්හාන් (සලීම්ගේ මිතුරා) ලෙස
 අංකිතා චෞධරි, මෝති බායි ලෙස
 අනුරාග් ෂර්මා, මහරාණා ප්‍රතාප් ලෙස
 ෂෞර්ය සිං, රාජා තෝදර්මල් ලෙස
 අශෝක් දේවාලියා, හොෂියාර් ඛාන් ලෙස
 අශ්විනි කල්සේකාර්, මහම් අංගා ලෙස
 විකි බට්‍රා, කුන්වාර් සුජාමල් ලෙස
 ප්‍රණාව් මිශ්රා, මිර්සා මුහම්මද් හකිම් ලෙස
 පරාග් ත්‍යාගි, ෂරිෆුද්දින් හුසේන් ලෙස
 කුණාල් ඛොස්ලා, කුටුබුද්දින් කෝකා  ලෙස
 සෝනාක්ෂි මෝර්, බක්ෂි බානු බෙගම්  ලෙස
 මිතා වශිෂ්ත්, මා චුචක් බෙගම් ලෙස
 ලෝකේන්ද්‍ර රාජවත්, ෂම්සුද්දින් අතාග ඛාන් ලෙස
 අමර්ප්‍රීත් රායිත්, ජිජි අංග ලෙස
 චේතන් හංස්රාජ්, අධාම් ඛාන් / හේදර් ඛාන් ලෙස
 නාවෙද් අස්ලාම්, භෛරම් ඛාන් ලෙස
 රජීව් සක්සේනා, රාජා භර්මාල් ලෙස
 නටාෂා සිංහා, රාණි මෛනාවති ලෙස
 කුණාල් භාටියා, රාජ්කුමාරි භග්වන්ත් දාස් ලෙස
 නුපුර් සක්සේනා, සා භගවති ජි සහිබා ලෙස
 භක්ති නරුලා, රාණි ලීලාවතී ලෙස
 ගාන්ධර්ව පර්දේශි, රාජ්කුමාර් ජගනාත් ලෙස
 දේව් බිෂිත්, රාජ්කුමාර් ඛාන්ගාර් ලෙස
 අංඛිල් වේද්, රාජ්කුමාර් රාජ් සිං ලෙස
 අජේ පෝල් සිං අන්දෝත්‍රා, මන්ත්‍රී ලක්ෂ්මන් දාස් ලෙස
 ප්‍රින්ස් සිං, සූර්යභාන් සිං ලෙස
 කල්‍යාණි ත්‍රිවේදි, ෂගුනිබායි ලෙස
 මේඝ්නා නායිදු, බෙනාසිර් ලෙස
 කේතන් කරන්දේ, ඛයිබර් සාරා ලෙස
 මනෝජ් සිං, රේෂම් ඛාන් ලෙස
 ශිල්පා රයිසාදා, නිගාර්/ෂෙහ්නාස් ලෙස
 රාන්වීර් චහාල්, රෂීද් ඛාන් ලෙස
 ධාර්ති භාට්, සුකන්‍යා ලෙස
 සානියා තෝකීර්, ළමා අනර්කලී ලෙස
 අයාන් සුබායිර් රහ්මානි, ළමා සලීම් ලෙස
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ඓතිහාසික නිරවද්‍යතාව
මෙම කතාමාලාවේ නිරූපිත බොහෝ සිදුවීම් සත්‍ය සිදුවීම් පාදක කරගත් ඒවායි. ජෝධා සහ අක්බර් විවාහ නොවූ බවට ඇතැම් වාර්තාවල සඳහන් බැවින්, ඇතැම් රාජ්පුත් කණ්ඩායම් ප්‍රකාශ කළේ ජෝධා විවාහ වූයේ අක්බාර් සමග නොව, අක්බාර්ගේ පුත් ජහාන්ගිර් සමග බවයි. ඔවුහු මෙම කතාමාලාව සහ සෝනි ටීවී නාළිකාව ඔස්සේ විකාශය වූ තවත් ඓතිහාසික කතාමාලාවක් වූ භාරත් කා වීර් පුත්‍ර - මහාරාණා ප්‍රතාප් යන කතාමාලා ද්විත්වයට විරෝධය පලකළහ. රාජ්පුත් ප්‍රජාවේ සාමාජිකයින් විසින් මෙම කතාමාලාවේ තේමාව ද විවේචනයට ලක්කළේ එය වැරදි වැටහීමක් ඇතිකරන බව පවසමිනි. රාජස්ථාන්හි පැවති එක් විරෝධතාවක දී, ඔවුන් ප්‍රකාශ කළේ මෙහි නම වෙනස් නොකළහොත් බාලාජි ටෙලිෆිල්ම්ස් ආයතනයේ කිසිදු චිත්‍රපටයක් සිය ප්‍රාන්තය තුළ මුදාහැරීමට අවසර නොදෙන බව පවසමිනි. ඒක්තා කපූර් පැවසූයේ, "මා හැමවිටම විශ්වාස කරන්නේ එය 20%ක් ඉතිහාසය බවත්, අනෙක් 80% ජනප්‍රවාද බවයි" යනුවෙනි.

නිෂ්පාදනය

මෙම කතාමාලාවේ නිෂ්පාදිකාව වූ ඒක්තා කපූර් ආභාසය ලැබූයේ බොලිවුඩයේ අශුතෝෂ් ගෝවාරිකර් විසින් අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කළ 2009 පුළුල් තිර චිත්‍රපටයක් වූ ජෝධා අක්බර් සිනමාපටය මගිනි.

මීට පෙර ඒක්තා කපූර් සමග තේරේ ලියේ නැමැති සෝප් ඔපෙරාවේ කටයුතු කළ රජත් තෝකාස් නම් රංගන ශිල්පියා මෙහි ප්‍රධාන චරිතයක් වන අක්බර්'' රජුගේ චරිතය සඳහා තෝරාගැනිණි.

මෙහි එන ජෝධා දේවියගේ චරිතය සඳහා නිළියක තෝරාගැනීමට ඒක්තා කපූර්ට රටපුරා තිර පරීක්ෂණ 7000ක් පවත්වන්නට සිදු වූ අතර, පසුව ඒ සඳහා පරිධි ෂර්මා තෝරාගැනිණි.

අක්බාර්ගේ ප්‍රධාන භාරකාරිණිය සහ ආරක්ෂිකාව වූ මහම් අංගාගේ චරිතය සඳහා අශ්විනි කල්සේකාර් තෝරාගැනිණි.

සම්මාන සහ නිර්දේශ

මූලාශ්‍ර

බාහිර සබැඳි
 ජෝධා අක්බර්: නිල නාළිකා වෙබ්අඩවිය

අක්බර්
ඉන්දියානු කාලාන්තර රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
සී ටීවී රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
ඉන්දියානු ඓතිහාසික රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
2013 ඉන්දියානු රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා ඇරඹීම්
2015 ඉන්දියානු රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා අවසන් වීම්

ජෝධා අක්බර් (රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලාව)


Villa TV fue un canal de televisión abierta peruano que emitía desde el distrito de Villa El Salvador, en la provincia de Lima. Contaba con programación de índole cultural. Fue lanzado el 2 de agosto de 1992 y sus estudios se ubicaban en el Centro de Comunicación Popular y Promoción del Desarrollo (CECOPRODE) en el distrito de Villa El Salvador, en Lima. Fue reemplazado por Anqa TV el 31 de diciembre de 2013.

Historia
Desde su lanzamiento, el canal emitió 6 horas diarias de programación de lunes a viernes, mientras que los fines de semana emitía por 8 horas. En el 2013, CECOPRODE y la Asociación de Comunicadores TV Cultura llegaron a un acuerdo para crear una nueva empresa conjunta llamada «Televisión Ciudadana SAC» para relanzar el canal como Anqa TV, actualmente con cobertura total en Villa el Salvador, pero limitada en el resto de Lima. La señal fue relanzada el 31 de diciembre de 2013.

PROGRAMAS
Programas que destacaron, sin duda en primer lugar, "Tip Top Musical" fue un programa juvenil que inició bajo la producción de Elena Llerena, sin embargo alcanzó su mayor auge,con la llegada de dos adolescentes productoras; Erika Abarca, poseedora de una gran capacidad  creativa y Ayda Montes, con una facilidad para la ejecución, ambas hicieron una dupla ganadora, la cual le dio luz al canal con un programa hecho sin presupuesto que lo respalde, el Tip Top Musical rompió esquemas al poner como asientos, un tronco de arbol, cámaras de llantas y cajas de frutas, donde recibian invitados de la talla de Pedro Suarez Vertiz, Rossi War,Los Mojarras, Christian Thorsen, Mónica Sánchez, entre otros, grupos y artistas del momento;esto dio pie que diversos diarios incluido el comercio les ďediquen notas y otros canales opten por ese estilo de programas e incluso el mismo MTV deje de lado las escenografías caras y opten por escenografias recicladas. El programa estuvo bajo la conducción de jovenes de la zona que fueron seleccionados por diversos castings, entre ellos Ivan Valencia quien se dedicaría posteriormente al rubro de la belleza y el estilismo, Jimmy Ampuero quien enrumbaría a Brasil y se dedicaría al diseño de vitrinas publicitarias, Karol Bojorquez, quien radica actualmente en los Estados Unidos con su esposo e hijos y Martin Pratolongo, sería el último conductor, actualmente dedicado a la cardiofusión;así también sus productoras, Elena Llerena se dedica a la realización de documentales, Erika Abarca, fue fichada como productora general por un canal de la competencia, y ha transitado por la  produccion y direccion de radio y televisión, prensa escrita y redes sociales, marketing y publicidad, actualmente es mentorig y coach en habilidades blandas y Ayda Montes ha trabajado con Laura Bozo, tanto en Perú como en México, actualmente es parte  del proyecto entre primas.
Otros programas de Villa TV, fueron Caracolores, Encuentro, Latinos PPT, Deporvida.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Villa TV 45

Empresas de medios de comunicación de Perú
Empresas de televisión
Canales de televisión desaparecidos de Perú

Villa TV


The Ontario Science Centre (OSC, originally the Centennial Museum of Science and Technology), is a science museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is located near the Don Valley Parkway about  northeast of downtown on Don Mills Road in the former city of North York. It is built down the side of a wooded ravine formed by one branch of the Don River located in Flemingdon Park.

On April 23, 2023, Premier of Ontario Doug Ford announced the Ontario government's general plan to replace the Ontario Science Centre with a smaller new institution on the Toronto waterfront. The controversial proposal has aroused significant opposition.

History
Planning for the Science Centre started in 1961 during Toronto's massive expansion of the late 1950s and 1960s. In August 1964, Premier of Ontario John Robarts announced the creation of the Centennial Centre of Science and Technology as a Centennial Project. Toronto architect Raymond Moriyama was hired to design the site. Construction started in 1966 with plans to open the Centennial Centre of Science and Technology as part of the Canadian Centennial celebrations in 1967.

However, construction was not completed in 1967, and the Science Centre did not open to the public until two years later, on September 26, 1969. The official opening was held on the morning of September 27 and attended by VIPs, and was followed by opening to 30,000 invited guests  in early afternoon. It opened to the general public on September 28, drawing 9,000 visitors. Its advertising slogan at launch was "Come see what would happen if Albert Einstein and Walt Disney had gotten together."

The buildings and design were part of a broader change in Canadian architecture, and remain an example of the brutalist style.

When it first opened, the Science Centre was a pioneer for its hands-on approach to science, along with San Francisco's Exploratorium and the Michigan Science Center in Detroit. Unlike a traditional museum, where exhibits are for viewing only, the majority of the exhibits at the Science Centre were interactive, while many others were live demonstrations (e.g. metalworking). The Communications room contained a number of computerized displays, including a very popular tic-tac-toe game, run on a PDP-11 minicomputer.

By 1974, it hosted about 250,000 students on field trips annually.

In 1990, the Ontario Science Centre announced a contract with Oman to design a children's museum. The Ontario Science Centre had agreed to boycott Israeli goods and services while under contract. The Ontario Science Centre later amended the contract to specify that all goods sold to Oman would be produced in North America. The centre's Director General Mark Abbott was later fired for knowingly signing the original contract.

In 2001, the Centre embarked on a capital project called "Agents of Change", which focused on innovation and renewed about 85% of the Centre's public space, including the creation of seven new experience areas. The Centre received $47.5 million in contributions from the government of Ontario, private sector companies, and individuals. The Agents of Change transformation was completed 2007, culminating with the opening of the Weston Family Innovation Centre and the Teluscape plaza.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, the Science Centre received $500,000 from the Government of Canada to promote COVID-19 vaccine uptake among children and their families.

Due to structural decay which required closing of the pedestrian bridge leading to the exhibits, a shuttle bus line temporarily runs, bringing people from the main entrance to Level 6, the main exhibits area at the bottom of a ravine. The detour uses Mercedes and Ford custom-built minibuses. , plans to rebuild or replace the decayed bridge have not been announced.

On 18 April 2023, Doug Ford, premier of the province of Ontario, announced the Ontario government's general plan to replace the Ontario Science Centre with a smaller new institution on the Toronto waterfront, specifically onto the grounds of Ontario Place, a former theme park. This would create a naming conflict with the Line 5's (Eglinton Crosstown) yet to be opened Science Centre station, which possibly could be renamed to "Concorde", reflecting the northern neighbourhood.

The relocation proposal has triggered significant opposition among many community and professional groups. The proposed new location would be smaller, requiring the Ontario Science Centre to squeeze into perhaps half its original space, and forcing it to discard exhibits. The municipal government of Toronto strongly opposes the Ontario provincial demolition plans, and is investigating alternative ways to continue museum operations in the current location. The Architectural Conservancy of Ontario (ACO) and Toronto Society of Architects (TSA) have issued separate statements opposing the demolition of the original buildings.

Grounds

Building

Designed in the early 1960s, the original buildings incorporate Brutalist designs. The building complex is made up of three main buildings connected by a series of bridges and escalators set in a parkland of over 100 acres. The buildings were constructed while avoiding removal or damage to the mature trees in the area, so that "the buildings seem to fit naturally into their environment". They follow the natural contours of the Don River ravine, into which the Centre descends. Ontario's only IMAX Dome theatre opened in 1996.

The Great Hall is an event venue at the Ontario Science Centre and is home to Cloud, a massive, computer-controlled kinetic sculpture by Toronto installation artist David Rokeby, which consists of an array of blue and transparent squares that rotate in various ways to simulate the three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.

For most of the time since opening in 1969, the Science Centre has hosted a demonstration amateur radio station. Formerly located in the Hall of Space, the station is now located on Level 4 of the Centre, next to the elevator. The station has the call sign "VE3OSC", and licensed amateur radio operators volunteer there daily from 10 am to 3 pm.

Plaza

Lotic Meander by Stacey Levy is an outdoor installation in polished and blasted granite and cast glass set into the solar terrace of the Ontario Science Centre. The work depicts the patterns of water as it moves through a stream bed. In 2007, the Ontario Science Centre unveiled the Teluscape Exploration Plaza, providing several interactive exhibits adjacent to the science centre's exterior main entrance.

FUNtain Aquatic Play

As originally built, the Science Centre had a large fountain area directly in front of the entranceway, located to create a traffic roundabout. The fountain virtually screened views of the building from the street, and provided cooling for the building. The original water fountain has been rejuvenated to provide a more welcoming and accessible entrance to the Science Centre.  The new plaza, named "Teluscape", was designed by Reich + Petch Architects and EDA Collaborative. It opened to the public on September 20, 2006, and is accessible 24 hours a day.

The new fountain is also a hydraulophone designed by installation artist Steve Mann. It is a hydraulic-action pipe organ which can be played by anyone walking into the space. Blocking the flow of any one of the 57 water jets in the fountain forces the water across to a corresponding organ pipe, where it makes a loud sound as the water is forced out through the speaking mouth of the pipe. The lowest 12 notes in each pipe division of the organ are visible as pipes arranged in a circle. The North Division consists of stopped hydrapasons (similar to diapasons but running on water rather than air), whereas the South Division pipes are open at both ends (sound emerges from the ends rather than from a mouth as with the North pipes).  The North organ console consists of 12 water jets, whereas the south console consists of 45 water jets.

The organ is supplied with water from three Pentair pumps, supplying water at a rate of , each by way of a  diameter water line. Air is supplied from three Ingersol Rand four-cylinder air compressors, each having a  motor. Since the instrument runs on both air and water, it may be regarded as a hybrid hydraulophone and pneumatophone, but because it is played by blocking water jets rather than air holes, it is principally a hydraulophone.

The fountain must be shut down and drained to avoid freezing damage during the cold season. On November 21, 2007, the aquatic play facility was temporarily switched from water operation to air operation, effectively becoming perhaps one of the first pneumatic-play facilities, where visitors can frolic in a fountain of air jets. In this mode of operation, the fountain becomes a wind instrument. The hydraulophone may not be operational during the winter months.

, the hydraulophone has not been operational, due to algae buildup, leaks, and pump problems.

Exhibitions
The Science Centre has hosted a number of traveling exhibits since its opening. In 1982, the exhibition China: 7,000 Years of Discovery broke all attendance records and attracted more than 1.5 million visitors.

In 2003, the Strange Matter exhibition opened, and the Body Worlds 2 exhibition attracted almost half a million visitors over five months when it came to the Centre in 2005. The exhibition Facing Mars ran in 2008. The Centre hosted Harry Potter: The Exhibition, a collection of props from the film series in 2010. Leonardo da Vinci's Workshop (2011) featured physical models of da Vinci's inventions, built from drawings in his Codices. It also included interactive touch-screen digital reproductions of his Codices, the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. Circus: The Exhibition ran in 2012. Game On 2.0, a video game history exhibition, ran March 9 to September 2, 2013.

In June 2014, the Centre welcomed The Science of Rock 'N' Roll, which explores how advances in science and technology have revolutionized music. The exhibition features eight areas that comprise different interactive components, historical artifacts, informational walls, documentary videos and more. The exhibition was followed by In Knowledge We Trust (October 4 to December 7, 2014), which explored the role trust plays in making us willing to share or use the knowledge we receive.

During summer 2015, the Centre hosted MythBusters: The Explosive Exhibition, based on the popular television series MythBusters. On June 4, 2016, the Centre hosted a one-day exhibit promoting the Nintendo 3DS game Kirby: Planet Robobot, which also featured activities pertaining to the Kirby video game series and a visit by a performer in a full Kirby costume. In 2017, to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Canada, the Centre opened the exhibition Canada 150: Discovery Way, featuring Canadian stories behind transformational inventions and innovations.

Permanent galleries and exhibits

The science centre has several hundred interactive and passive permanent exhibits, featuring geology, the science of nature (in the west wing), astronomical science, how to play music and technology in the south wing, human anatomy, communication and bias, and some miscellaneous artifacts of science.

A Question of Truth
A Question of Truth is an exhibit that explores the methodologies, biases, and beliefs of scientific research. The exhibit provides visitors an opportunity to test controversial theories.

AstraZeneca Human Edge
The AstraZeneca Human Edge replaced the original human anatomy gallery, opened in December 2013 with sponsorship from AstraZeneca. In addition to detailing anatomy, the exhibit explores the possibilities of the human body with activities to simulate the experiences of adventure-seekers, elite athletes, and extreme-sports enthusiasts. There are more than 80 exhibits in the hall, which were all developed and built by the Science Centre's staff with input from more than 120 neuroscience, physiology, bio-mechanics and sports medicine experts. The exhibit also features a climbing wall.

Cohon Family Nature Escape

The Cohon Family Nature Escape is an outdoor exhibit, situated within the Don River Valley to the back of the science centre. The exhibit features a giant Baltimore oriole nest, concrete wall canvas for moss graffiti, and a playground slide made from a fallen 125-year-old eastern white pine.

Forest Lane
Forest Lane houses a number of trees and tree trunks from across Canada. The exhibit includes a 464-year-old Douglas fir, with markings on its growth rings denoting notable world events during the tree's lifetime.

KidSpark
KidSpark is a designated space for children eight and under to explore and learn through play. The exhibition was opened in 2003. The exhibition also has a rolling ball machine built by George Rhoads, and a music studio.

Living Earth
The Living Earth hosts simulated environments around the world, including rainforests, coral reefs, and caves, including live animals. It was opened in 1993.

Science Arcade
The Science Arcade is amongst the oldest exhibits at the science centre, having been a permanent fixture in the building since its opening in 1969. The Science Arcade houses a number of "arcade-styled" games.

Space Hall and the Planetarium

The Space Hall was refurbished in the late 2000s and features meteorites from Mars and one of the few Moon rocks on public display in Canada. The Ontario Science Centre also holds Toronto's only operating public planetarium, since McLaughlin Planetarium was closed in 1995.

Weston Family Innovation Centre
The Weston Family Innovation Centre is an exhibit designed to encourage experimentation, and features exhibits that allow visitors to prototype a new type of shoe, and to test their aviation abilities. The Weston Family Innovation Centre houses Pipe Dreams by Bruce Shapiro, a bubble art installation.

Science School
The Ontario Science Centre Science School (OSCSS) offers grade 12 University Preparation courses in STEM subjects: physics, biology, chemistry, calculus, and advanced functions. All students also complete an interdisciplinary studies credit in science communication while enrolled with the OSCSS. The credits are issued by either the Toronto District School Board or the Toronto Catholic District School Board, which also fund the program so it is available at no cost to students from anywhere in Ontario. While at the Science Centre, students earn practicum hours through volunteering and interacting with visitors.

Governance
As an Agency of the Government of Ontario, the Ontario Science Centre is overseen by Trustees appointed by the Lieutenant Governor in Council, who selects not fewer than sixteen and not more than twenty-six trustees, and designates one of them as chair and another as vice-chair.  Meetings are held four times a year, and Trustees serve for a term not exceeding three years but may be reappointed for one or more terms.

Affiliations
The Ontario Science Centre is affiliated with the Canadian Museums Association (CMA), Canadian Heritage Information Network (CHIN), and Virtual Museum of Canada. The Ontario Science Centre is a member of the international Association of Science-Technology Centers (ASTC).

Cultural references
Ontario Science Centre was used by David Cronenberg as a location for his 1970 film Crimes of the Future.

Media
Ontario Science Centre was featured on the Rick Mercer Report in 2016. In his CBC news satire program, Rick Mercer visited numerous scientists' exhibits, took part in a wildlife conservation show, and partook in a psychological fear study during a workshop there.

See also
 List of science centers

References

External links

Opening of Teluscape, 2006 Sept. 20th, including audiovisual recording of the water pipe organ
How to play in/on the Science Centre's South fountain
"Ontario Science Centre", part of Centennial Ontario, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website

Brutalist architecture in Canada
Canadian Centennial
Crown corporations of Ontario
Museums in Toronto
North York
Science museums in Canada
Raymond Moriyama buildings
Museums established in 1969
Science and technology in Toronto
Buildings and structures completed in 1969
Science museums
Association of Science-Technology Centers member institutions
Amateur radio
1969 establishments in Ontario

Ontario Science Centre


Pterospermataceae, porodica zelenih algi u redu Pyramimonadales. Postoji 22 priznate vrste u tri roda.

Taksonomski ili nomenklaturni status roda Sphaeropsis Meunier, 1910 je neriješen i zahtijeva daljnje istraživanje.

Rodovi
 Glyphospermopsis Molinari & Guiry, 2
 Pterosperma Pouchet, 17
 Pterospermella Eisenack, 3

Izvori

Pyramimonadales

Pterospermataceae


Der Europäische Hof ist ein ehemaliges Hotelgebäude in Bad Soden am Taunus. Es lag an der Königsteiner Straße.

Geschichte
Der Europäische Hof wurde 1845 als Kurhotel gebaut. 1855 wurde das Gebäude von Herrn Phillip Colloseus gekauft. Dieser war davor Pächter des Kurhauses am Alten Kurpark. Im Jahr 1860, dem sogenannten "Russenjahr", gastierten viele Russen im Hotel, wie zum Beispiel der Dichter Iwan Sergejewitsch Turgenew.

Bis 1909 bestand der Europäische Hof aus zwei Gebäuden, welche durch einen kleinen Garten getrennt waren. 1911 jedoch wurde ein Zwischenbau hinzugefügt, um die beiden Gebäude zu verbinden. Des Weiteren wurden die beiden Gebäude noch um 1–2 Geschosse aufgestockt.

In den beiden Weltkriegen wurde das Gebäude von den jeweiligen Besatzern beschlagnahmt. Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg hausten hier die Franzosen, im Zweiten Weltkrieg dann die Amerikaner. 1959 wurde das Gebäude wieder an den Bund zurückgegeben, welcher es sofort verkaufte. 1965 wurde es abgerissen und durch einen modernen Bau ersetzt. Heute befindet sich hier ein Wohnhaus und eine kleine Gewerbefläche, die bis zum Sommer 2012 von der Drogeriekette Schlecker genutzt wurde.

Bis zum Abriss 1965 besaß das Gebäude eine riesige Gartenanlage. Diese wurde komplett durch moderne Blockbebauung ersetzt.

Weblinks

Literatur
 Rudolf von Nolting: Bad Soden am Taunus in alten Ansichten. Band 2, 1980.
 Gunther Krauskopf: Archivbilder Bad Soden am Taunus. Sutton Verlag, Erfurt 2009, ISBN 978-3-86680-386-2.

Bauwerk in Bad Soden am Taunus
Ehemaliges Hotel in Hessen
Erbaut in den 1840er Jahren
Zerstört in den 1960er Jahren
Gegründet 1845
Aufgelöst 1965
Unternehmen (Bad Soden am Taunus)
Hotelbau in Hessen
Hotelbau in Europa
Ehemaliges Unternehmen (Main-Taunus-Kreis)

Europäischer Hof


Calasetta (sardinski: Cal 'e Sèda, Câdesédda) je grad i općina (comune) u pokrajini Južnoj Sardiniji u regiji Sardiniji, Italija. Nalazi se na nadmorskoj visini od 9 metara i ima populaciju od 2 923 stanovnika. Prostire se na teritoriju od 31,06 km². Gustoća naseljenosti je 94 st/km².Susjedne općine su: Sant'Antioco.

Izvori

Gradovi na Sardiniji

Calasetta


Mascot Records er et hollandsk pladeselskab, der har specialiseret sig i rockmusik. Blandt selskabets kunstnere er Black Label Society, Bootsy Collins, Volbeat, Gojira, Black Country Communion, and Steve Lukather.

Mascot Records helt store succes har været det dansk heavy metalband Volbeat, som hor modtaget 10 platinplader. Derudover har de solgt over 1.000.000 albums i Europa, 100.000 fysiske plader i USA og mere end 500.000 digitale downloads.
I juni 2012 nåede Black Country Communion #1 på Storbritanniens rock albumhitliste og nåede gode placeringer i 10 andre europæiske lande.

Kunstnere
 Black Country Communion
 Black Label Society
 Bootsy Collins
 Dublin Death Patrol
 Gojira
 Heathen
 Pestilence
 Steve Lukather
 Tracer
 Vandenberg's MoonKings
 Volbeat

Eksterne henvisninger
 Official Website
 Youtube

Etableret i 1990
Pladeselskaber fra Nederlandene

Mascot Records


Hæren i arbejde er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1945 instrueret af Gunnar Wangel og efter manuskript af K. B. Andersen.

Handling
Da mandskabet ved de første indkaldelser efter Befrielsen kom i trøjen, mødte de store vanskeligheder. Tyskerne havde stjålet alt materiel, uniformer, og udrustningsgenstande, og de fleste kaserner var fyldt med flygtninge. Efterhånden overvandtes besværlighederne, og uddannelsen kom i gang under nye former og med våben fra Sverige og de allierede.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1945

Hæren i arbejde (dokumentarfilm fra 1945)


Mirjana Krizmanić (Zagreb, 28. siječnja 1936.) je hrvatska psihologinja. Nakon dugogodišnje akademske karijere na Filozofskom fakultetu u Zagrebu, nastavila je raditi u mirovini, pišući stručne i knjige popularno-psihologijske tematike.

Životopis

Rođena je i školovana u Zagrebu, a u istom gradu je, na Filozofskom fakultetu, diplomirala psihologiju 1960. godine. Ostaje raditi na fakultetu, gdje je 1971. i doktorirala. Predavala je predmete iz područja kliničke i zdravstvene psihologije, a 1972. je osnovala Katedru za kliničku psihologiju, kojoj je bila predstojnica gotovo trideset godina, do mirovine krajem 2000.

Glavna područja njezinog znanstvenog interesa bili su koncepti smisla za humor i kvalitete života, ali i njihovih međusobnih veza. Razvila je, prilagodila i prevela nekoliko mjernih instrumenata u tom periodu karijere, uglavnom u suradnji s Vladimirom Kolesarićem, a najpoznatiji su Skala kvalitete življenja i Test za ispitivanje smisla za humor: HOPA. Ove skale je koristila u vlastitim istraživanjima, ali pokazale su se pouzdanima te se i dalje upotrebljavaju prilikom ispitivanja kvalitete života i humora. Postale su uobičajeni mjerni instrumenti tih konstrukata na našem govornom području.

Tijekom i nakon Domovinskog rata posvetila se radu koji je uključivao pomoć stradalima, prije svega invalidima i izbjeglicama. Bila je i jedna od osnivačica nevladine humanitarne udruge "Dobrobit" koja se, osim samog pružanja pomoći, bavila i edukacijom te pisanjem tekstova o psihosocijalnoj pomoći. Nakon odlaska u mirovinu nastavlja raditi na pisanju stručne literature, ali počinje se baviti i pisanjem popularno-psihologijskih knjiga s tematikom koja je usko vezana uz njezinu znanstvenu karijeru. Tada postaje poznatija i u široj javnosti. Iako objavljuje knjige koje su na istim policama s onima o samopomoći, izrazito je kritična prema takvom površnom pristupu psihologiji te u svojim popularno-znanstvenim radovima pokušava prenijeti samo znanja koja su znanstveno dokazana, ali ih prikazuje jezikom dostupnim cijeloj populaciji.

Bibliografija

Objavila je 70-ak radova u stručnim časopisima, dvije stručne knjige, dvadesetak poglavlja u knjigama drugih urednika i deset popularno-psihologijskih knjiga. Također je objavila ili prevela dvadeset mjernih instrumenata i sedam priručnika za uporabu istih.

Neki od radova su:
 Tolerancija u svakidašnjem životu: psihologija tolerancije, Krizmanić, M. i Kolesarić, V., Zagreb: Naklada Slap, 2003.
 HOPA – 86 Test za ispitivanje smisla za humor, Krizmanić, M. i Kolesarić, V., Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap, 1994.
 Psihosocijalna rehabilitacija invalida, Krizmanić, M., u Havelka, M. (ur.) Zdravstvena psihologija, Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap,  str. 124-137, 1998.
 Psihologijski rječnik, Furlan, I., Kljaić, S., Kolesarić, V., Krizmanić, M., Petz, B., Szabo, S. i Šverko, B., Zagreb: Naklada Slap, 2005.
 Tkanje života, Krizmanić, M., Zagreb: Profil, 2009.
 U ljubavi i bez nje, Krizmanić, M., Zagreb: Profil, 2011.
 O životinjama i njihovim ljudima: dobrobit koja proizlazi iz zajedništva ljudi i životinja, Krizmanić, M., Zagreb: V.B.Z, 2016.

Nagrade i priznanja

 1985. – Republička nagrada za znanstveni rad "Božidar Adžija",
 1993. – nagrada "Ramiro Bujas" za osobito vrijedno ostvarenje na društvenoj afirmaciji psihologije (s nekoliko članova udruge "Dobrobit")
 1999. – povelja Filozofskog fakulteta
 2005. – nagrada "Ramiro Bujas" za "Psihologijski rječnik" (s drugim autorima)
 2007. – nagrada "Marko Marulić" za osobit doprinos primijenjenoj psihologiji
 2007. – nagrada "Ramiro Bujas" za životno djelo
 2009. – nagrada "Zagrepčanka godine" od Zagrebačke skupštine
 2013. – nagrada "Miko Tripalo" za rad, nesebični javni angažman u zaštiti dostojanstva čovjeka, obrani sloboda i promicanju društvene pravednosti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Mirjana Krizmanić, Hrvatska enciklopedija

Hrvatski psiholozi

Mirjana Krizmanić


Sora-Q (, officiellement Lunar Excursion Vehicle 2 (LEV-2)) est un robot lunaire japonais transformable ultra-compact conçu par le fabricant de jouets Takara Tomy en coopération avec l'agence spatiale japonaise, la JAXA, Mitsubishi Electric, Sony et l'Université Dōshisha. Il a la forme d'une boule de 8 cm de diamètre, est mobile et manœuvrable à la surface de la Lune et est capable d'acquérir des données de la surface lunaire et de les transmettre à la Terre.

Un premier exemplaire a été envoyé sur la Lune à bord de la mission Hakuto-R M1 et un deuxième doit être expédié sur la Lune par la JAXA en 2023, à bord de la mission SLIM.

Origine du nom
Le nom Sora-Q  est composé de ソラ : ciel, univers et de Q pour « Question » et « Quest » (Quête en français), associé à 球 (kyū), sphère et sa silhouette de côté, ressemblant à la lettre Q,

Historique
C'est un mini robot transformable dont on doit les principales conceptions à Kenta Hashiba, au Professeur Kimitaka Watanabe de l'Université Dōshisha et à Yosuke Yoneda qui a participé au développement initial.

Caractéristiques

Le Sora-Q est fabriqué à partir d'un type spécial d'aluminium et de plastique spécialement conçu pour résister aux températures lunaires extrêmes. Il ne pèse que 250 grammes.

Il attire l'attention sur le fait qu'il a la possibilité de se changer en une sphère d'un diamètre d'environ 8 cm et de 250 grammes. Son mécanisme de déformation est né du savoir-faire de la société de fabrication de jouets Takara Tomy. Kenta Hashiba dit s'être directement inspiré des Transformers pour la conception et plus précisément des Zoids, des jouets robots qui se transforment en dinosaures et autres créatures. Avec l'axe de rotation de la roue centrale du robot, le sable du régolithe lunaire n'exerce aucun frottement même sur le dessus, les roues qui sortent devant pourront avancer tout en compactant le sable malgré le poids très réduit de ce dispositif. Ce déplacement de l'essieu était un dispositif pour le déplacement des jouets Zoids. Le robot se transforme en boule parce que la forme sphérique avant la déformation est résistante aux chocs. Étant donné que le corps lui-même est une roue, le nombre de pièces est réduit, et il est léger et difficile à casser. Équipé de deux caméras, il peut prendre des photos et observer l'environnement sélénite. Il doit être utilisé dans des environnements tels que les pentes et le sable.

Le robot est alimenté par une batterie à usage unique qui lui donne une durée de vie de deux heures.

Missions

Hakuto-R M1
Le premier robot Sora-Q est lancé en 2022 à bord de la mission Hakuto-R M1 qui s'écrase finalement sur la Lune en 2023.

SLIM
Sora-Q est l'un des deux démonstrateurs technologiques embarqués à bord de la mission SLIM, les LEV (Lunar Excursion Vehicle). Le premier, LEV-1, est un robot sauteur. Le second, LEV-2, est le robot à roues Sora-Q.

Notes et références

Exploration de la Lune
Rover lunaire
Sonde spatiale
Programme spatial japonais
Exploration de l'espace en 2023

Sora-Q


13150 Paolotesi este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
13150 Paolotesi este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la San Marcello Pistoiese de Luciano Tesi și Andrea Boattini. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,12 ua, o excentricitate de 0,15 și o înclinație de 17,3° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 13001-14000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1995
Centura de asteroizi

13150 Paolotesi


Mitul Pământului plat este concepția modernă greșită că viziunea cosmologică majoră din Evul Mediu din Europa ar fi fost că Pământul ar fi plat, în loc de a fi sferic.

De-a lungul Evului Mediu aproape toți învățații susțineau viziunea Pământului sferic, exprimată inițial de grecii antici. Începând cu cel puțin din secolul al XIV-lea, credința în Pământul plat era virtual absentă printre cei educați, în ciuda imaginilor fantastice din artă, cum ar fi exteriorul faimosului triptic al lui Hieronymus Bosch Grădina desfătărilor umane, în care un Pământ în formă de disc este pictat drept plutind într-o sferă transparentă.

Conform lui Stephen Jay Gould, "nu a existat nicio perioadă de întuneric al Pământului plat printre învățați (indiferent de cum marile mase or fi gândit planeta atunci sau acum). Cunoașterea pe care o aveau grecii despre sfericitatea Pământului nu a apus niciodată, iar toți marii învățați medievali acceptau că Pământul e rotund drept fapt clar al cosmologiei." Istoricii științei David Lindberg și Ronald Numbers arată că "nu prea exista niciun învățat creștin din Evul Mediu care să nu recunoască sfericitatea [Pământului] și ei chiar îi știau circumferința aproximativă".

Istoricul Jeffrey Burton Russell afirmă că acest mit a înflorit între 1870 și 1920, având de a face cu contextul ideologic creat de lupta pentru afirmarea teoriei evoluției. Russell afirmă "cu extrem de puține excepții, nicio persoană educată din istoria civilizației occidentale nu credea în Pământul plat, începând cu secolul al III-lea î.Hr.", și atribuie popularizarea mitului Pământului plat istoriilor lui John William Draper, Andrew Dickson White și Washington Irving.

Istoric
În Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians, Jeffrey Russell descrie teoria Pământului plat drept o fabulă folosită pentru a ataca civilizația pre-modernă și creaționismul.

James Hannam a scris:

La începutul Epocii Moderne
Dramaturgul francez Cyrano de Bergerac în capitolul 5 din a sa Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon (publicată la doi ani după moartea sa, adică în 1657) îl citează pe Sf. Augustin drept afirmând "că în această zi Pământul era la fel de plat precum un capac de oală și plutea pe apă precum o jumătate de portocală." Robert Burton, în a sa The Anatomy of Melancholy scria:

Deci, există dovezi că acuzațiile de Pământ plat, deși un pic obscure (Burton își sfârșește digresiunea printr-un citat real din Sf. Augustin: "Mai bine ne-ndoim de lucrurile ascunse decât să ne certăm pe lucruri incerte, cum ar fi unde sunt sânul lui Avraam și focul iadului") au fost folosite pentru a discredita autoritățile câteva secole înaintea secolului al XIX-lea. Altă mențiune timpurie din literatură este comedia lui Ludvig Holberg Erasmus Montanus (1723). Erasmus Montanus întâlnește opoziție considerabilă când susține că Pământul ar fi rotund, deoarece toți țăranii cred că el este plat. Lui nu i se permite căsătoria cu logodnica sa până nu strigă "Pământul este plat precum o clătită". În cartea lui Thomas Jefferson Notes on the State of Virginia (1784), structurată drept răspunsuri la o serie de întrebări, Jefferson folosește întrebarea referitoare la religie pentru a ataca ideea de religii oficiale sponsorizate de stat. Într-un capitol, Jefferson relatează o serie de credințe oficiale eronate referitoare la natură pe care autoritățile îi silesc pe oameni să le accepte. Una din aceastea este episodul luptei lui Galileo cu autoritățile, pe care Jefferson în mod eronat o redă drept asupra formei globului:

Secolul al XIX-lea
Secolul al XIX-lea a fost o perioadă în care imaginea antagonismului dintre știință și religie a fost foarte puternică. Disputele cu privire la revoluția științifică inițiată de Darwin au contribuit la nașterea tezei conflictului, o viziune asupra istoriei în care orice interacțiune dintre religie și știință ar duce inevitabil la ostilități deschise, de obicei religia având rolul de agresor contra noilor idei științifice.

Biografia lui Columb, scrisă de Irving
În 1828, Washington Irving a scris biografia foarte romanțată A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus, ea fiind publicată drept lucrare academică și eronat considerată astfel de către mulți. În Cartea a II-a, capitolul IV al acestei biografii Irving a redat în mod preponderent ficțional întrunirile unei comisii numită de suveranii spanioli pentru a examina propunerile lui Columb. Una din ficțiunile sale exagerate era o poveste extrem de improbabilă că membrii mai ignoranți și mai bigoți ai comisiei ar fi adus obiecții scripturale contra afirmației lui Columb că Pământul era sferic.

Problema lor din anii 1490 nu era forma Pământului, ci mărimea sa și poziția coastei de Est a Asiei, ceea ce de altfel Irving recunoaște în lucrare.  Estimatele datând de la Ptolemeu încoace plasau coasta Asiei la circa 180° Est de Insulele Canare. Columb a adoptat o idee mai timpurie (deja respinsă) de distanță de 225°, a adăugat 28° (bazat pe călătoriile lui Marco Polo) și a plasat apoi Japonia cu alte 30° mai la Est. Începând de la Capul Sf. Vincențiu din Portugalia, Columb a considerat Eurasia întinzându-se 283° spre Est, ceea ce lăsa Atlanticului doar 77°. Deoarece el plănuia să plece din Insulele Canare (9° ceva mai la Vest), călătoria lui spre Japonia ar fi cuprins doar 68° de longitudine.

Columb a asumat în mod greșit că mila la care se refereau estimatele arabe de 56⅔ mile pentru mărimea unui grad ar fi fost aceeași cu mila italiană (mult mai scurtă), de . Estimatul lui asupra mărimii gradului și a circumferinței Pământului era prin urmare cu 25% prea mică. Efectul combinat al acestor greșeli a fost că el a estimat distanța spre Japonia drept doar 5 000 km (sau doar spre marginea estică a Caraibelor) în timp ce mărimea adevărată era în jur de 20 000 km. Învățații spanioli s-ar putea să nu fi cunoscut distanța exactă spre coasta Asiei, dar ei credeau că e mult mai departe decât credea el; aceasta a fost baza criticii contra lui din Spania și Portugalia, fie venind din partea învățaților, fie din partea marinarilor.

Chestiunea în dispută nu era forma Pământului și nici ideea că plecând către Vest va ajunge cândva în Japonia și China, ci capacitatea navelor europene de a naviga până acolo doar pe ape. Navele mici din timpul respectiv (cele trei nave ale sale aveau între 20,5 și 23,5 m și aveau un personal de 90 de oameni) pur și simplu nu puteau căra suficientă mâncare și apă pentru a ajunge în Japonia. Navele sale de-abia au ajuns în estul Caraibelor. Deja echipajul era pornit pe răzmeriță, nu pentru că s-ar fi temut "să pice peste marginea Pământului", ci pentru că aproape epuizaseră mâncarea și apa fără șanse de alimentare de pe apă. Ei erau aproape morți de foame. Ceea ce l-a salvat pe Columb a fost existența Americilor, pe care cei care au echipat navele nu o cunoșteau, tocmai în locul în care se aștepta să ajungă în Japonia. Posibilitatea de a realimenta navele cu apă și mâncare din Insulele Caraibe i-a permis să se întoarcă în siguranță în Europa. Altfel echipajul ar fi murit, iar navele ar fi fost pierdute.

Popularizatorii științei

În 1834, la câțiva ani după publicarea cărții lui Irving, Jean Antoine Letronne, un universitar francez cu idei puternic antireligioase, i-a caricaturizat pe Părinții  Bisericii și pe continuatorii lor medievali drept crezând în Pământul plat în a sa On the Cosmographical Ideas of the Church Fathers. Apoi în 1837, filozoful englez al științei William Whewell, în a sa History of the Inductive Sciences, l-a identificat pe Lactanțiu, autorul Institutiones Divinae (c. 310), și pe Cosmas Indicopleustes, autorul Christian Topography (c. 548), drept dovezi pentru credința medievală într-un Pământ plat. Lactanțiu fusese deja ridiculizat de Copernic în De revolutionibus din 1543 drept cineva care "Vorbește foarte copilărește despre forma Pământului atunci când ii ridiculizează pe cei care cred că Pământul are forma unui glob".

Alți istorici l-au urmat rapid pe Whewell, deși nu au putut să identifice prea multe alte exemple. Chimistul american John William Draper a scris History of the Conflict between Religion and Science (1874), folosind teza că Părinții Bisericii credeau că Pământul ar fi plat drept dovadă a ostilității Bisericii față de progresul științific. Povestea referitoare la o credință solidă în Pământul plat a fost repetată de Andrew Dickson White în anul 1876 în lucrarea The Warfare of Science și consolidată douăzeci de ani mai târziu în cele două volume ale History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, care exagera numărul și importanța adepților ei din Evul Mediu pentru a da apă la moară modelului lui White de conflict între dogmele teologice și progresul științific. Odată ce metafora lui Draper și lui White de conflict continuu între progresul științific din Iluminism și obscurantismul religios al Evului Întunecat a devenit acceptată pe larg, ea a răspândit teza credinței medievalilor în Pământul plat.

Gravura de largă circulație a unui om scoțând capul prin firmamentul care înconjoară Pământul pentru a observa Empireul, executată în stilul din secolul XVI a fost publicată în lucrarea lui Camille Flammarion L'Atmosphère: Météorologie Populaire (Paris, 1888, p. 163). Gravura ilustrează afirmația din text că un misionar medieval ar fi susținut că "a atins orizontul în locul în care Pământul și cerul se întâlnesc". În original gravura includea o margine decorativă care o plasa în secolul XIX. În edițiile ulterioare, din care unele susțineau că gravura datează din secolul XVI, marginea fusese eliminată.

Secolul XX și ulterior

Începând cu secolul XX, un număr de cărți și articole au documentat eroarea Pământului plat ca făcând parte din greșelile acceptate pe larg despre Evul Mediu. Atât cartea lui E. M. W. Tillyard The Elizabethan World Picture și cea a lui C. S. Lewis The Discarded Image sunt dedicate unei largi treceri în revistă a modului cum era văzut Universul în Renaștere și Evul Mediu, ambele discută pe larg cum clasele educate știau că lumea este rotundă. Lewis atrage atenția asupra faptului că în Divina Comedie a lui Dante, referitoare la o călătorie în infern, purgatoriu și cer Pământul este sferic, gravitația fiind înspre centrul Pământului. Când Diavolul este înghețat într-un bloc de gheață în centrul Pământului, Dante și Virgiliu se cațără pe bustul Diavolului pornind de la mijlocul acestuia, mijlocul său fiind situat în centrul Pământului.

Jeffrey Burton Russell a respins ponderea credinței medievale în Pământul plat într-o monografie și două articole. Louise Bishop afirma că aproape orice gânditor și scriitor din cei o mie de ani ai Evului Mediu susținea forma sferică a Pământului.

Deși acest mit a fost respins frecvent în lucrările istorice academice începând cu cel puțin 1920, el a persistat în cultura populară și în unele manuale școlare din secolul XXI. Un manual școlar american de Emma Miller Bolenius publicat în 1919 are această introducere pentru lectura pentru Ziua lui Columb (12 octombrie):
 Edițiile anterioare ale lucrării lui Thomas Bailey The American Pageant afirmau că  "Marinarii superstițioși [din echipajul lui Columb] ... voiau să se răscoale ... deoarece le era frică de a nu trece de marginea lumii"; totuși, istoria nu a păstrat nimic în acest sens.

O trecere în revistă din 2009 a manualelor școlare din Austria și Germania a arătat că mitul Pământului plat devenise dominant în a doua jumătate a secolului XX și persista în cele mai multe din manualele de istorie pentru școlile germane și austriece.

În 1983 Daniel Boorstin a publicat o trecere în revistă a istoriei, The Discoverers, care afișa gravura lui Flammarion pe coperta sa și proclama că "din anul 300 d.Hr și până cel puțin 1300 ... credințele și dogmele creștine au suprimat imaginea folositoare asupra lumii  care fusese atât ... de scrupulos descrisă de geografii antici." Boorstin a dedicat un capitol Pământului plat, în care îl descria pe Cosmas Indicopleustes drept fondatorul geografiei creștine. Modelul Pământului plat  fusese adesea în mod greșit considerat dogmă bisericească de cei care doreau să susțină că Biserica Catolică s-ar fi împotrivit progresului sau ar fi fost ostilă cercetărilor științifice. Această teză a fost repetată chiar în cercuri academice, cum ar fi în aprilie 2016, când profesorul de teologie de la Boston College și fostul preot Thomas Groome a susținut în mod eronat că "Biserica Catolică nu a afirmat niciodată că Pământul ar fi rotund, ci doar s-a oprit din a spune că este plat."

În cântecul popular din 1937 They All Laughed există cupletul "Toți au râs de Cristofor Columb/Când el a spus că lumea e rotundă". În desenul animat de la Warner Bros. Merrie Melodies numit Hare We Go (1951) Cristofor Columb și Ferdinand cel Catolic se certau despre forma Pământului, regele susținând că este plat. În desenul animat de la Walt Disney din 1963 The Sword in the Stone, vrăjitorul Merlin (care călătorise în viitor) îi explică tânărului Artur că "un om va descoperi în secolele următoare" că Pământul este rotund și că se rotește.

Istoriografia mitului Pământului plat

Istoricii au identificat un număr de circumstanțe istorice care au contribuit la ivirea și larga acceptare a mitului Pământului plat. Istoricul american Jeffrey Burton Russell a trasat originile acestuia din secolul al XIX-lea la ceea ce a numit Eroarea Plată a unui grup de savanți anticlericali francezi, în special Antoine-Jean Letronne și, indirect, la profesorii săi Jean-Baptiste Gail și Edme Mentelle. Mentelle a descris Evul Mediu ca douăsprezece secole de ignoranță, de "noapte profundă", o temă exemplificată de mitul Pământului plat din lucrarea lui Letronne "On the Cosmological Opinions of the Church Fathers".

Istoricul științei Edward Grant a observat un teren fertil pentru dezvoltarea acestui mit într-un atac mai general asupra Evului Mediu și a gândirii scolastice, care poate fi trasat Francesco Petrarca în secolul XIV. Grant observă "unul din cele mai extreme atacuri la adresa Evului Mediu" în lucrarea lui Draper History of the Intellectual Development of Europe, care a apărut cu un deceniu înainte ca Draper să prezinte acest mit în a sa History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science.

Motivele lui Andrew Dickson White au fost mai complexe. El a fost primul președinte al Cornell University, și a pledat ca ea să fie liberă de influențe religioase pentru a fi un "loc de adăpost pentru știință". În plus, el era un ferm darwinist, văzând în clerici oponenții principali ai evoluției darwiniste și a căutat să proiecteze acel conflict dintre teologie și știință asupra întregii epoci creștine. Dar așa cum au subliniat unii istorici, conflictul din secolul al XIX-lea despre darwinism încorpora dispute despre relațiile dintre autoritatea oamenilor de știință și cea a clericilor în domeniile științei și educației. White a exprimat aceasta în prefața la a sa History of the Warfare of Science and Theology in Christendom, în care a explicat lipsa de educație avansată din multe colegii și universități americane prin "caracterul lor sectar".

Mitul Pământului plat, la fel ca alte mituri, a preluat forme artistice prin multe opere de artă care îl arată pe Columb drept apărător al sfericității Pământului în fața Consiliului din Salamanca. Artiștii americani l-au zugrăvit pe un puternic Columb înfierând "prejudecățile, erudiția amestecată cu ignoranță și bigotismul pedant" al clericilor. Abrams vede în asta imaginea unui erou romantic, un practic om de afaceri și un yankeu întreprinzător ca fiind menite să placă americanilor din secolul XIX.

Russell sugera că eroarea Pământului plat a entuziasmat imaginația modernă datorită prejudecăților și prezentismului. El menționa cu precădere "prejudecățile protestanților cu privire la Evul Mediu privit drept catolic ... prejudecățile raționaliste contra iudeo-creștinătății ca întreg" și "premiza superiorității punctelor 'noastre' de vedere asupra celor ale culturilor anterioare".

Vezi și
 Listă de concepții greșite

Note

Referințe

Pseudoistorie

Mitul Pământului plat


Eduardo Dato (d. 12 Ağustos 1856, A Coruña - ö. 8 Mart 1921, Madrid), İspanyol politikacı ve hukukçu.

3 kez İspanya başbakanlığı görevinde bulundu. Çok genç yaşlarda "Muhâfazakâr Parti"ye üye oldu; 1913'ten 1921 yılında ölümüne kadar partinin başkanlığını yaptı.

Eduardo Dato, Madrid'de parlamento binasından çıkarken Katalan militanlarca öldürüldü.

Kaynakça

1856 doğumlular
1921 yılında ölenler
Suikast sonucu ölen İspanyollar

Eduardo Dato