Branko Elsner (23. november 1929 - 17. november 2012) var en slovensk fodboldspiller og træner.

Han har tidligere trænet NK Olimpija Ljubljana, FC Wacker Innsbruck, Østrigs fodboldlandshold og Brummell Sendai.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Slovenien

Branko Elsner


Kaldezija (lat. Caldesia), rod jednosupnica, vodenastih trajnica iz porodice žabočunovki (Alismataceae) raširen na euroaziskom tlu, Africi i Australiji. Od 3 ili 4 vrste u Hrvatskoj raste samo strogo zaštićena vrsta (Caldesia parnassifolia).

Na popisu ugroženih vrsta nalaze se kao smanjeno rizične C. grandis, C. oligococca (danas Albidella oligococca) i C. parnassifolia.

Vrste
 Caldesia grandis Sam.
 Caldesia janaki-ammaliae Guha & M.S.Mondal
 Caldesia parnassifolia (L.) Parl.

Sinonimi
 Caldesia sagittarioides Ostenf. = Limnophyton obtusifolium (L.) Miq.
 Caldesia oligococca (F.Muell.) Buchanan = Albidella oligococca (F.Muell.) Lehtonen, (2017).

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Žabočunovke

Kaldezija


Kokitos (Kokytus), (Yunanca: Κωκυτός/) Yunan mitolojisinde Hades'in 5 ırmağından biridir. Aynı zamanda Dante'nin yazdığı İlahi Komedya'da "inferno" kısmında geçen, cehennemin en dibidir. İhanet edenler ve döneklerin gittiği yerdir.

İsim
Kokitos, eski Yunanca "acıdan çığlık atıyorum, yas tutuyorum" anlamına gelen "kokio" fiilinden gelmektedir.

Mitolojik Bağlamı
Odysseia'deki Homeros, Fiery Fire ile karıştığını ve Acheron'da gürültülü bir şelale ile birlikte döküldüğünü bildirdi.  Platonik diyalog
Phaidon'da (114a) Pyriflegethontas'a atılan patrisidlerin ve matricides'in aksine, katillerin atıldığı nehir olarak anılır. Bunlar, efsaneye göre, tövbe etmeyen veya soğukkanlı suçlular değildi (bir kez ve herkes için Tartarus'a atıldılar.), ancak sıcak veya benzer şekilde davranıp sonra yaptıklarından tövbe edenler için. Hepsi Tartarus ve Acherousia Gölü arasında iki nehir boyunca, yalvararak ve yalvararak yalvaran kurbanlarından af dileyene kadar ilerlediler.

Kokytos'un iyi bilinen bir perisi, Hades'in erotik ilgisini ve bunun sonucunda Persofoni veya Demeter'in intikam dolu öfkesini uyandıran Minthi'ydi.

Kaynakça

Yunan mitolojisinde yerler
Hades'teki nehirler

Kokitos


ليالي مسلسل مصري عرض في رمضان بالعام الميلادي 2009، من إنتاج عمرو حنفي، وبطولةزينة وصلاح عبد الله ويوسف الشريف وغيرهم من نجوم التلفزيون المصري واللبناني. ويعد المسلسل البطولة التلفزيونية المطلقة الأولى للنجمة الصاعدة زينة، كما أنه أول مسلسل درامي يضم طاقم عمل سبق له العمل في الأفلام السنيمائية مثل مدير التصوير شادي علي ومصمم الأزياء إسلام يوسف.

أحداث المسلسل
تدور أحداث المسلسل في ثلاثة محاور وهي المرأة والمال والسلطة حول «ليالي» فتاة من الإسكندرية وطالبة في كلية الصيدلة تتورط في الإدلاء بشهادة زور في قضية فساد فترفض مما يثير غضب والدها وتمضي أيام قليلة حتى يقرر تزويجها من مقاول يكبرها سناً فترفض وتهرب إلى القاهرة، وهناك تبدأ حياة فنية من نقطة الصفر حتى تصبح فنانة مشهورة، وترتبط بمنتج لبناني وتتزوجه ولكنها سرعان ما تكتشف أنه يستغلها وأن زواجه منها لكان من أجل إنجاب ابن لهما وليست لمشروعها الفني، وتحدث مشكلة بينه وبين والدها، فتهرب منه وتعود إلى القاهرة، ثم ترتبط برجل الأعمال حسام مرتضى وتضيع حياتها بسبب هذه العلاقة.

الشخصيات
 زينة : ليالي - فنانة صاعدة تتعدد علاقاتها حتى تفقد حياتها.
 صلاح عبد الله : عبد الحفيظ - والد ليالي ويعمل سمسار.
 سوسن بدر : نجمة - والدة ليالي.
 عزت أبو عوف : حسام مرتضى - رجل أعمال ترتبط به ليالي ولكنها تفقد حياتها بسبب هذه العلاقة.
 عمار شلق : وليد الزهار - منتج لبناني يتزوج من ليالي ولكنه يستغلها ويسئ معاملتها فتهرب منه ويستولي والدها عبد الحفيظ على بعض أمواله.
 يوسف الشريف : مسعد العنتري - ضابط أمن يعمل مع حسام مرتضى يقتل سامي طليق سمر.
 حنان مطاوع : سمر مرتضى - شقيقة حسام تطلق من زوجها سامي ثم يقتله حسام خوفاً من الفضيحة.
 ياسر فرج : سامي - طليق سمر يقتله مسعد بأمر من حسام بعد حبسه في فيلا لحسام بالشروق.
 أشرف زكي : د.شاكر - يتحالف معه عبد الحفيظ والد ليالي للانتقام من وليد الزهار.
 أحمد صفوت : عمرو - مخرج مصري يحب ليالي ويعاونها في مشكلاتها ظل يحبها ويساعدها لآخر حياتها.

ردود الأفعال والجدل حول ليالي
أثار المسلسل قبيل عرضه وحتى نهايته جدلاً كبيراً وردود أفعال عديدة حيث أنه بالرغم من النفي المستمر لمؤلفه أيمن سلامة وبطلته زينة إلا أنه لوحظ منذ بدايته تشابهه مع قصة الفنانة الراحلة سوزان تميم والمتهم في قتلها رجل الأعمال هشام طلعت مصطفى والضابط محسن السكري.

وجه التشابه

تسلسل حياة ليالي
استند الجدل القائم حالياً لقيام المسلسل بمحاكاة الصعود الفني الذي مرت به ليالي وخصوصاً المحطتين البارزتين في الأحداث الأولى هي المنتج اللبناني وليد الزهار الذي قام بدوره الفنان عمار شلق فهو يطلب الزواج من ليالي فتوافق لخدمة مشروعها الفني ولكنها تكتشف علاقاته العديدة وأن زواجه منها كان لمصلحته الشخصية (الإنجاب) إضافة إلى ذلك معاملته القاسية لها فتهرب منه لتعود إلى القاهرة لتتصاعد الأحداث وترتبط برجل أعمال لتحتمي به لكنها تفقد حياتها بسبب هذه العلاقة.
جدير بالذكر أن هذا الجزء حدثت فيه تعديلات درامية حيث أظهرت الأحداث أن والد ليالي (صلاح عبد الله) تحالف مع شخص (أشرف زكي) للإيقاع بوليد فاستولى على بعض أمواله.

عائلة حسام مرتضى
الأمر الثاني هو التشابه بين عائلتي حسام مرتضى (عزت أبو عوف) وهشام طلعت مصطفى حيث يظهر المسلسل أنه يعمل في مجالات العقارات والشقق، كما ظهرت أسماء عائلته بنفس أوزان أسمائهم الحقيقية فمثلاً شقيقه طارق تبدل اسمه بطاهر وسحر بسمر، أيضاً معه ضابط سابق باسم مسعد (يوسف الشريف) وهو في الواقع محسن السكري شريك هشام طلعت مصطفى حسب الإتهامات أما شخصية سامي (ياسر فرج) طليق سهر (حنان مطاوع) فيمكن القول بأنها إضافة في أحداث المسلسل.

مشروع حسام مرتضى
تظهر الأحداث أن حسام مرتضى رجل الأعمال كان يعد لمشروع عالمي (تشابهاً مع مدينتي) كذلك جملة حنان مطاوع التي قالت فيها بأن الصحف تتحدث عن شراء أراضي الدولة بـ150 قرش وتم بناء مدن جديدة بيعت بالملايين. .

النفي المستمر من صناع العمل
نفى أيمن سلامة مؤلف المسلسل تشبيه القصة بسوزان تميم وقال أن القصة معدة قبل حادث مقتل سوزان وأن التشابه جاء في الجزء الخاص برجل الأعمال فقط.

والد تميم يرفع دعوى قضائية
أعلن محامي عبد الستار تميم والد الراحلة سوزان تميم أنه سيتقدم بدعوى قضائية ضد صناع المسلسل لتناولهم حياة ابنة موكله دون الرجوع إليهم.

مسلسلات أحمد صفوت
مسلسلات سوسن بدر
مسلسلات تلفزيونية مصرية بدأ عرضها في 2009

ليالي (مسلسل)


The December 1910 United Kingdom general election was held from 3 to 19 December. It was the last general election to be held over several days and the last to be held before the First World War.

The election took place following the efforts of the Liberal government to pass its People's Budget in 1909, which raised taxes on the wealthy to fund social welfare programmes. The 1909 budget was only agreed to by the House of Lords in April 1910 after the January general election in which the Liberals and the Irish Parliamentary Party gained a majority. The Government called a further election in December 1910 to get a mandate for the Parliament Act 1911, which would prevent the House of Lords from permanently blocking legislation linked to money bills ever again, and to obtain King George V's agreement to threaten to create sufficient Liberal peers to pass that act (in the event this did not prove necessary, as the Lords voted to curtail their own powers).

The Conservative Party, led by Arthur Balfour with their Liberal Unionist allies, and the Liberal Party, led by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, almost exactly repeated the numerical result produced in the January election, with the Conservatives again winning the largest number of votes. The Liberal Party under Asquith remained in government with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. This was the last election in which the Liberals won the highest number of seats in the House of Commons. It was also the last United Kingdom general election in which a party other than Labour or the Conservatives won the most seats.

Results

|}

Voting summary

Seats summary

See also
List of MPs elected in the December 1910 United Kingdom general election
Parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom 1885–1918
December 1910 United Kingdom general election in Ireland

References

Further reading

External links
United Kingdom election results—summary results 1885–1979

Manifestos
December 1910 Conservative manifesto
December 1910 Labour manifesto
December 1910 Liberal manifesto

General elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom
General election
December 1910 events
1910 in British politics
H. H. Asquith
Arthur Balfour


Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris (abreviado Bull. Mens. Soc. Linn. Paris) es una revista ilustrada con descripciones botánicas que fue editada por la Société linnéenne de Paris desde 1874 a 1899.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Descripción en Biodiversity

Revistas de botánica
Revistas científicas en francés
Revistas científicas de Francia
Revistas desaparecidas de Francia
Publicaciones fundadas en 1874
Publicaciones desaparecidas en 1897


The Thatcher effect or Thatcher illusion is a phenomenon where it becomes more difficult to detect local feature changes in an upside-down face, despite identical changes being obvious in an upright face.  It is named after the then British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, on whose photograph the effect was first demonstrated. The effect was originally created in 1980 by Peter Thompson, professor of psychology at the University of York.

Overview
The effect is illustrated by two originally identical photos, which are inverted.  The second picture is altered so that the eyes and mouth are vertically flipped, though the changes are not immediately obvious until the image is viewed upright.

The Thatcher effect is thought to be due to specific psychological cognitive modules involved in face perception which are tuned especially to upright faces.  Faces seem unique despite the fact that they are  very similar.  It has been hypothesized that we develop specific processes to differentiate between faces that rely as much on the configuration (the structural relationship between individual features on the face) as the details of individual face features, such as the eyes, nose and mouth.

There is evidence that rhesus monkeys as well as chimpanzees experience the Thatcher effect, raising the possibility that some brain mechanisms involved in processing faces may have evolved in a common ancestor more than 30 million years ago.

The basic principles of the Thatcher effect in face perception have also been applied to biological motion. The local inversion of individual dots is hard, and in some cases, nearly impossible to recognize when the entire figure is inverted.

Further investigations

The Thatcher illusion has also been useful in revealing the psychology of face recognition. Typically, experiments using the Thatcher illusion look at the time required to see the inconsistent features either upright or inverted. Such measures have been used to determine the nature of the processing of holistic facial images.

By looking at the intermediate angles between upright and inverted, studies have explored the gradual or sudden appearance of the illusions. Sensitivity to the Thatcher illusion has been found in children, including children with autism.

However, people with congenital prosopagnosia have been shown to exhibit an overall much weaker response to the illusion compared to people without such condition. Their response time was shown to be weakly and linearly affected by the grotesque face's orientation. This last observation suggests that the part of the brain responsible for "configural processing" in face recognition is the fusiform face area of the cortex, which is affected in both the congenital and the acquired condition.

References

External links

 Thatcher illusion demonstration
 Open University YouTube Thatcher illusion demonstration
 BBC article on the Thatcher illusion
 Windows utility for "thatcherizing" the face in the webcam (open source)

Psychological effects
Vision
Optical illusions
Margaret Thatcher
Face perception

Thatcher effect


Land use planning is the process of regulating the use of land by a central authority. Usually, this is done to promote more desirable social and environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of resources. More specifically, the goals of modern land use planning often include environmental conservation, restraint of urban sprawl, minimization of transport costs, prevention of land use conflicts, and a reduction in exposure to pollutants. In the pursuit of these goals, planners assume that regulating the use of land will change the patterns of human behavior, and that these changes are beneficial. The first assumption, that regulating land use changes the patterns of human behavior is widely accepted. However, the second assumption - that these changes are beneficial - is contested, and depends on the location and regulations being discussed.

In urban planning, land use planning seeks to order and regulate land use in an efficient and ethical way, thus preventing land use conflicts. Governments use land use planning to manage the development of land within their jurisdictions. In doing so, the governmental unit can plan for the needs of the community while safeguarding natural resources. To this end, it is the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land use options.  Often one element of a comprehensive plan, a land use plan provides a vision for the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts, cities, or any defined planning area.

In the United States, the terms land use planning, regional planning, urban planning, and urban design are often used interchangeably, and will depend on the state, county, and/or project in question. Despite confusing nomenclature, the essential function of land use planning remains the same whatever term is applied. The Canadian Institute of Planners offers a definition that land use planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities. The American Planning Association states that the goal of land use planning is to further the welfare of people and their communities by creating convenient, equitable, healthful, efficient, and attractive environments for present and future generations.

History

Land use planning nearly always requires land use regulation, which typically encompasses zoning. Zoning regulates the types of activities that can be accommodated on a given piece of land, as well as the amount of space devoted to those activities, and the ways that buildings may be situated and shaped.

The ambiguous nature of the term "planning", as it relates to land use, is historically tied to the practice of zoning. Zoning in the US came about in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to protect the interests of property owners. The practice was found to be constitutionally sound by the Supreme Court decision of Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. in 1926. Soon after, the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act gave authority to the states to regulate land use. Even so, the practice remains controversial today.

The "taking clause" of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the government from taking private property for public use without just compensation. The case of Dolan v. City of Tigard demonstrated the criteria that determine the threshold of what is considered taking. One interpretation of the taking clause is that any restriction on the development potential of land through zoning regulation is a "taking". A deep-rooted anti-zoning sentiment exists in America, that no one has the right to tell another what he can or cannot do with his land. Ironically, although people are often averse to being told how to develop their own land, they tend to expect the government to intervene when a proposed land use is undesirable.

Conventional zoning has not typically regarded the manner in which buildings relate to one another or the public spaces around them, but rather has provided a pragmatic system for mapping jurisdictions according to permitted land use. This system, combined with the interstate highway system, widespread availability of mortgage loans, growth in the automobile industry, and the over-all post-World War II economic expansion, destroyed most of the character that gave distinctiveness to American cities. The urban sprawl that most US cities began to experience in the mid-twentieth century was, in part, created by a flat approach to land use regulations. Zoning without planning created unnecessarily exclusive zones. Thoughtless mapping of these zones over large areas was a big part of the recipe for suburban sprawl. It was from the deficiencies of this practice that land use planning developed, to envision the changes that development would cause and mitigate the negative effects of such change.

As America grew and sprawl was rampant, the much-loved America of the older towns, cities, or streetcar suburbs essentially became illegal through zoning. Unparalleled growth and unregulated development changed the look and feel of landscapes and communities. They strained commercial corridors and affected housing prices, causing citizens to fear a decline in the social, economic and environmental attributes that defined their quality of life. Zoning regulations became politically contentious as developers, legislators, and citizens struggled over altering zoning maps in a way that was acceptable to all parties.  Land use planning practices evolved as an attempt to overcome these challenges. It engages citizens and policy-makers to plan for development with more intention, foresight, and community focus than had been previously used.

Description and application

Description
Land use planning is defined as: the process by which optimum forms of land use and management are indicated, considering the biophysical, technological, social, economic and political conditions of a particular territory. The objective of planning land use is to influence, control or direct changes in the use of land so that it is dedicated to the most beneficial use and maintains the quality of the environment and promoting conservation of the land resources. The territorial diagnosis and the generation of alternatives of management and environmental protection for the planning of the use of the land produces the indispensable knowledge necessary for the formulation of the policies of use, contributing to the search of competitive and sustainable productive and extractive activities and systems. The methodological process of land use planning contributes to: orienting the location of economic and social activities regarding the aptitude of the land and providing solutions to conflicts of use; indicate the base of natural resources that should remain and protected areas; point out the areas exposed to natural hazards and their management; identify sustainable productive and extractive activities and systems; guide the planning of land uses and indicate the areas that require land adaptation or recovery projects

Planning process and parties involved
In most countries, the local municipal council/local government, the body responsible of the environment and oftentimes the national government assume all the functions of land use planning; among them the corresponding function to territorial ordering (OT). For this reason, the highlighted bodies have among other responsibilities the promotion of the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, establishing policies, criteria, tools and procedures of the most appropriate efficient and sustainable territorial order in coordination with any other relevant corresponding entities such as construction companies and the public.

Application
 "Developing cities and towns": land use planning is an important component of city planning. The nature of cities required to the most beneficial use in terms of maximization of economic factors and promoting convenience, while maintaining the quality of the environment and promoting conservation of the land. The only way to achieve this is the utilization of the elements of land use planning.
"The concept of Zoning": Zoning is the process by which areas of land are split into zones by appropriate establishments within which several users are assigned to each zone. Therefore, this makes zoning very important modus operandi in land use planning where it is used to design urban areas in many countries (Lewis-Roger, 1987). The topic of zoning is considered within the context of land use planning and design as a systemic perception. Zoning is used as a fundamental component of territorial planning, which is incorporated in the stages of the logical model of regional development. In the process of zoning, the actor divides land into units of different sizes, shapes and locations, according to the characteristics of the terrain and the corporality of a culture. The actor who generates a multiplicity of spaces using zoning, based on global spatial unit and the preferences of user who uses these spaces in multiple use form, decomposes his vision of it into four different dimensions namely; deontic, cognitive, expressive and aesthetics functions. Each of these dimensions represents land in different forms, intensities, positions and areas, which may not coincide with each other. The deontic space is that of the transforming actions of the world, of the duty to be and to do. The cognitive space is apprehended by the faculties of knowledge from the senses to the reason, such as the ecological and technological spaces. The aesthetic space refers to the scopes of feel and beauty. The expressive or indexical space corresponds to the internal and cultural expression of the identity of the person who organizes the space. Often, a fifth space is included, that is, the administrative space, which concerns the positioning of the legal, authoritative and legislative base being planned. Zoning should not be considered as the end in itself, but only as a means of approximation in relation to geographical reality. Instead of imposing pre-established categories, it is about looking for landscape discontinuities. The category system (taxonomy) must allow a deepening (level) of the landscapes according to their scale. For each order of phenomena there are thresholds of manifestation and "extinction" that by themselves can justify the systematic differentiation of landscapes into hierarchical units. The study and zoning of the coverage and land use requires first defining the concepts of land, coverage and use in order to avoid the problems of interpretation associated with the management of these concepts. The concept of land is defined as an entity formed by the mutual interaction of living and non-living nature in a recognizable portion of the Earth's surface. It is a more geographical than edaphological definition. The earth is conceived as the result of the integration of biophysical and socioeconomic elements whose interrelation generates certain particular spatial units or landscapes, therefore, land and landscape are considered in this guide as synonyms. Land cover, on the other hand, is defined as the different features that cover the land, such as water, forest, other types of vegetation, bare rocks or sand, man-made structures, etc. In general, these are the traits that can be directly observed in aerial photographs and frequently in satellite images. The concept of use, applies to the employment that man gives to different types of coverage, cyclically or permanently to meet his material or spiritual needs. Basically, this is where the need for zoning arises.

Conditions necessary
 Community relations: for any land planning activity, the actors involved must involve the community or the public to put into consideration their opinions on the proposed land planning initiatives. After all, the land is being planned so that the public can enjoy the benefits that comes from land use planning.
 Government and legal support: the government can support land use planning initiatives in a myriad of ways. The first is by financing or subsidizing a section of land use planning activities. The second way is by reducing bureaucracy and administration bottlenecks that comes with obtaining permits and licences.

Pros and cons

Pros
 Land use planning is an important growth framework: certainly, prosperous urban areas have a vision that they must follow through a framework to achieve a development in a well-ordered way. Hence, land use planning provides the framework.
 A well-planned urban area is a well-prepared urban area: anticipating the future allows for better preparedness. Indeed, the presence of natural phenomenon that represents a threat to human life activities implies a limitation in the use of land. It is necessary then to plan the use of the land taking into account its limitation in order to allow the containment of natural phenomenon and its manifestations either by restricting the presence of human life and/or activities, adapting infrastructure conditions in a manner that reduces its vulnerability to natural phenomenon or implementing plans conducive to risk mitigation. The absence of territorial planning plans, the lack of definition of areas exposed to threats and the lack of studies on natural phenomena that might bring threats, ensure an increase in the number and magnitude of disasters of natural origin. The process of land use planning developed putting into consideration those aspects, allows the identification, location and evaluation of areas exposed to natural phenomena, which allows the implementation of measures that guarantee risk mitigation.
 Good land use planning positively impacts the development of urban economy.
Promote the national territorial order and economic ecological zoning as a support for the conservation, use and sustainable use of natural resources and biological diversity, as well as the orderly occupation of the territory.
 The analysis of natural and anthropic risk in territorial planning processes is incorporated, as well as adaptation measures to climate change.
 Mechanisms to prevent the settlement of populations and the development of socioeconomic activities are promoted in areas with high potential for risks in the face of natural and anthropic hazards.
 Territorial planning is promoted as a basis for concerted development plans and border development, in the management of watersheds and coastal marine areas.
 The actions of regional and local governments are guided for the efficient fulfillment of their functions in this area of land use planning.

Cons
 The cost of land use planning is usually high, generally because of poor investment and the lack of anticipation of technology.
Land use planning theory has largely been shaped by case studies of cities in the Global North. Countries all over the world, particularly in the Global South, are seeing population booms and rapid urbanization. Many of the methods, practices, and assumptions about land use planning from 20th Century Europe and the United States are not relevant to the Global South, where conditions are quite different. Many fundamental concepts associated with traditional land use planning, like zoning, have persisted despite a rapidly-changing urban landscape.

Land use planning and environmental sustainability
In view of sustainable development, land use planning is seen as a political and technical-administrative decision-making process agreed with social, economic, political and technical factors, for orderly occupation and sustainable use of the land under development. On the other hand, it seeks regulation and promotion of the location and sustainable development of human settlements, economic and social activities, and spatial physical development, based on the identification of potentialities and limitations that consider environmental, economic, sociocultural, institutional and geopolitical criteria. By and large, these parameters are put in place in order to make sure that the environment is protected during land use or land development. Indeed, based on the recommendations of the United Nations in its Habitat conference, land is assigned a high importance for the development of human life as it is the fundamental support for its permanence and development, this being the most important objective of the policy of human settlements. That is, the land resource is recognized as an essential element, which supports the social, political and economic formation of society. As mentioned earlier, the use of land refers to the occupation of a certain area according to its agrological capacity and therefore its development potential, it is classified according to its location as urban or rural, it represents a fundamental element for the development of the city and its inhabitants since it is from these that its urban structure is formed and therefore its functionality is defined. For this reason, there is a need to ensure sustainability in order to ensure the we continue to enjoy the benefits that come from urban planning and to ensure that future generations will continue enjoying these benefits.

To guarantee this, land use planning come into the fold. In a broader sense, this is a tool through which State defines the type of use land will have within a settlement, e.g. a city, while also determining the guidelines for its use in order to ensure effectiveness and sustainability. Land use, in this case, is assigned on the basis on its physical and functional characteristics that they have in the urban structure, and with the aim of occupying the space in an orderly manner and according to their physical capacity (occupation of areas suitable for urban development and environmental sustainability), which finally it translates into a harmonious growth of the city. This tool is structured through a planning system at the national and local level, which establishes the general guidelines that should be taken into account for the development of urban development. Here, the authorities involved might formulate a number of restrictions to guarantee sustainability, for example, banning land development in riparian zones or in national parks. Basically, the goal here is to protect the environment.

Throughout the world, there are rising levels of environmental degradation due to unclean energy usage in the development and powering of cities and neighborhoods. In the 20th century, there was a global push to develop large cities quickly to accommodate the people who were migrating from rural areas to cities for jobs. The type of energy used for this was either coal or oil fuel, which meant that the environment was disregarded and damaged by numerous urban development projects. Today, the United Nations has found that over half of the world's population lives in cities that are still growing. In order to create environmentally viable urban landscapes, the UN advocated for green energy use, as well as urban development that encouraged green-friendly transportation. In the United States, about 75% of the energy used is allocated to power buildings and modes of transportation; land use planning can be a useful tool in changing these aspects of energy usage in a way that would be beneficial to both residents and the ecology.

A sustainable urban development includes:

 Methods for reducing waste, such as recycling and composting programs that are easily accessible to residents.
 Limiting pollution, with techniques such as protecting universal access to necessities and encouraging access to facilities, goods, and services in ways that do not require the use of a car.
 Encouraging public transportation usage and spread within a city.

The Partnership for Sustainable Communities, created by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, the U.S. Department Of Transportation, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 was intended to encourage sustainable land use planning. This partnership helps to ensure that federal housing projects, transportation, and other neighborhood infrastructure would help residents live closer to jobs, while also reducing pollution since there would be less commute time. Over the past decade, this federal partnership has funded 1,066 projects across the 50 States, as well as Washington D.C. and Puerto Rico. The total amount of grant money given to these projects has reached approximately $4.6 billion. Some of the programs that the partnership sponsors are the Housing and Urban Development's "Sustainable Communities Regional Planning" and "Community Challenge Grant Programs". These programs have made important strides in sustainable urban planning, with about 40 percent of U.S. citizens now having access to communities who were awarded these grants. Both of these programs make up $240 million in federal investment towards local land use planning efforts.

Types of planning

Various types of planning have emerged over the course of the 20th century. Below are the six main typologies of planning, as defined by David Walters in his book, Designing Communities (2007):

 Traditional or comprehensive planning: Common in the US after World War II, characterized by politically neutral experts with a rational view of the new urban development. Focused on producing clear statements about the form and content of new development.
 Systems planning: 1950s–1970s, resulting from the failure of comprehensive planning to deal with the unforeseen growth of post World War II America. More analytical view of the planning area as a set of complex processes, less interested in a physical plan.
 Democratic planning: 1960s. Result of societal loosening of class and race barriers. Gave more citizens a voice in planning for future of community.
 Advocacy and equity planning: 1960s & 70s. Strands of democratic planning that sought specifically to address social issues of inequality and injustice in community planning.
 Strategic planning: 1960s-present. Recognizes small-scale objectives and pragmatic real-world constraints.
 Environmental planning: 1960s-present. Developed as many of the ecological and social implications of global development were first widely understood.

Today, successful planning involves a balanced mix of analysis of the existing conditions and constraints; extensive public engagement; practical planning and design; and financially and politically feasible strategies for implementation.

Current processes include a combination of strategic and environmental planning. It is becoming more widely understood that any sector of land has a certain capacity for supporting human, animal, and vegetative life in harmony, and that upsetting this balance has dire consequences on the environment. Planners and citizens often take on an advocacy role during the planning process in an attempt to influence public policy.

Since the 1990s, the activist/environmentalist approach to planning has grown into the Smart Growth movement, characterized by the focus on more sustainable and less environmentally damaging forms of development. Moreover, there is changes on the requirements of land use planning overtime. For example, whilst most of the urban planners suggest the distance from the landfill that a housing estate should be built, they must also take wind direction into consideration

Smart growth supports the integration of mixed land uses into communities as a critical component of achieving better places to live. Putting uses in close proximity to one another has benefits for transportation alternatives to driving, security, community cohesiveness, local economies, and general quality of life issues. Smart growth strives to provide a means for communities to alter the planning context which currently renders mixed land uses illegal in most of the country.

Methods

Professional planners work in the public sector for governmental and non-profit agencies, and in the private sector for businesses related to land, community, and economic development. Through research, design, and analysis of data, a planner's work is to create a plan for some aspect of a community. This process typically involves gathering public input to develop the vision and goals for the community.

A charrette is a facilitated planning workshop often used by professional planners to gather information from their clients and the public about the project at hand. Charettes involve a diverse set of stakeholders in the planning process, to ensure that the final plan comprehensively addresses the study area.

Geographic information systems, or GIS, are very useful and important tools in land use planning. It uses aerial photography to show land parcels, topography, street names, and other pertinent information. GIS systems contain layers of graphic information and their relational databases that may be projected into maps that allow the user to view a composite of a specific area, adding an array of graphically oriented decision making tools to the planning process.

A transect, as used in planning, is a hierarchical scale of environmental zones that define a land area by its character, ranging from rural, preserved land to urban centers. As a planning methodology, the transect is used as a tool for managing growth and sustainability by planning land use around the physical character of the land. This allows a community to plan for growth while preserving the natural and historical nature of their environment.

Natural ecology and historical identity of the city are matched to its topography in the Urban Landscape System approach that intends to mitigate effects of climate change and improve city branding through the ontology of place.

Another approach to land use planning is the use of "traditional and local knowledge," or TLK, or local, Indigenous, and place-bound ways of knowing. Categories of TLK include 1) knowledge about the environment, 2) knowledge about the current use of areas, 3) knowledge of management systems, 4) values associate with the environment (i.e., spirituality and culture). There is growing literature about how to effectively incorporate and represent TLK in land use and management plans.

Basis of land use planning authority in the United States
Police power is the basis for land use planning authority in the United States. This authority is usually delegated by state governments to local governments, including counties and cities. It is these local governments that most frequently exercise police power in land use planning matters. The regulation of land use based on police power is distinct from the taking of private property by the government through the power of eminent domain. If the regulation of land use is done under the authority of the police power, the private property owner isn't typically entitled to compensation as they would be if property was taken under the power of eminent domain. The court decision in the case Commonwealth v. Alger was related to land use planning and dealt with the construction of a wharf on privately owned tidelands around Boston Harbor.

Practical examples

Milan
Milan city is located in northern Italy. It is the second most populous city in the country after Rome with a population of over 4 million (The CBD and its metropolitan Boroughs).

Every area in Milan is a segment that starts from the center and reaches the city limits, so that central areas and peripheral areas are part of the same area.  In Milan, zones are not identified by names but numbers. The city hall area 1 of Milan includes the entire historical center, starting from the geographical center of Milan in Piazza Duomo up to the Cerchia dei Bastioni. The town hall area 2 goes from Piazza della Repubblica to Crescenzago, Turro, Greco and Precotto. The town hall 3 goes from Porta Venezia to Lambrate, passing through Città Studi.

The town hall area 4 goes from Porta Vittoria to the Forlanini park, also including Porta Romana, Corvetto and Santa Giulia.  The town hall 5 goes from Porta Ticinese to the Agricultural Park, passing through Chiesa Rossa and Gratosoglio. The town hall 6 goes from the Darsena, up to Barona, Lorenteggio and Giambellino. The city hall area 7 goes from Porta Magenta to Baggio and Figino passing through San Siro. The town hall zone 8 goes from Porta Volta to Quarto Oggiaro, passing through QT8 and Gallaratese. And lastly, the town hall area 9 goes from Porta Nuova to Niguarda and Bovisa. The idea here, is to allow members of the nine zones to get easy access to the CBD. Effective measures have been put in place to limit the impact of human activities on the many water bodies in this city such as restricting land development in riparian areas. In fact, the drive for the establishment of the city on the land where it stands was easy accessibility to water.

Indigenous communities
Land use planning is an important method for sustainable development for Indigenous communities. Indigenous peoples in the United States and Canada often have fragmented or diminishing land bases with limited uses. Oftentimes, these land bases are also far from urban centers and with limited expansion ability. Since European settlers first began colonizing the American Continent, Indigenous peoples have lost 98.9% of their land, a Yale study found. The lands indigenous peoples were forced onto are facing current and future climate-change related risks. This fact leads to the perpetuation of systematic inequity for Indigenous peoples, since livelihoods, preservation of culture and tradition, access to adequate housing, and access to resources are all factors that are deeply rooted in land. Many Indigenous groups are embracing land use planning to determine the future of their territories. In Canada, for example, the Dehcho First Nations have developed a land use plan that honors cultural traditions and Elders' knowledge, and incorporates conservation, development zones, and other categories. This plan, which has been extensively researched, can serve as an excellent model for other Indigenous Nations, and for cities and areas across North America.

Examples in the Global South
While most of the examples discussed in this article were drawn from cities in the Global North, land use planning has been employed in cities all over the world. The Global North has traditionally been dominant in planning theory and practice. However, as the world continues to quickly urbanize, and the global population increases, most of the new global population growth is occurring in cities in the developing world, or the Global South. Many of the assumptions about land use planning do not hold true elsewhere in the world, especially as developing nations face urbanization at a more rapid scale than most countries in the Global North. In India, for example, land use planning, specifically as it pertains to siting industries, has been incorporated into the nation's constitution, and is controlled by the State and Federal levels of government.

The future of land use planning
Due to the increasing discussions in the issues of climate change and global warming, the future of land use planning will be dominated by environmental sustainability themes more than economic convenience. Also, due to the fact that the world is quickly urbanizing, and this massive population growth is mostly occurring in cities in the Global South, some of the assumptions we have formed about land use planning must be reimagined, as common theory and practice is no longer always relevant to those cities that are currently practicing land use planning.

See also

 Environmental planning
 Federal Land Use Policy Act of 1976
 Geographic Information Systems
 Inter-municipal land use planning
 Landscape architecture
 Landscape planning
 List of urban plans
 Regional planning
 Smart growth
 Spatial planning
 Sustainable development
 Transferable development rights
 Transportation planning
 Urban design
 Urban planning
 Village Development Committee (India)

Academic journals

Journal of Transport and Landuse
Environment and Planning
Journal of land use and Environmental Law
Journal of the American Planning Association
Planning Theory

References

Bibliography

 Barnet, J. (2004). Codifying New Urbanism: How to Reform Municipal Land Development Regulations, Chicago, IL.
 Southwestern NC Planning and Economic Development Commission, Community Foundation of WNC, & the Lawrence Group Architects of NC, Inc. (2009). Region A Toolbox, A Pilot of the Mountain Landscapes Initiative, Sylva, NC.
 Walters, David. (2007). Designing Community, Charrettes, Master plans and Form-based Codes, Oxford, UK.
 Young, Anthony. (1993). Guidelines for land use Planning, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

External links
 American Planning Association, Chicago, IL
 "Planning Is ...", Canadian Institute of Planners, Ottawa, ON
 Smart Growth Online, National Center for Appropriate Technology, Butte, MT
 "Arlington County, Virginia", U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
 "An overview of spatial policy in Asian and European countries", Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MILT), Japan

Land use

Land-use planning


Margareta "Margit" Ulrika Abenius () a fost o cercetătoare, autoare și critic literar suedez.

Biografie
Abenius a fost fiica chimistului Wilhelm Abenius și sora lui Håkan Abenius. Ea a fost membră a societății De Nio.

Abenius a obținut în 1931 un doctorat în istoria literaturii la Universitatea din Uppsala cu o teză despre proza lui Johan Henric Kellgren. În calitate de critic literar, ea a fost interesată mai ales de stilul literar și s-a referit în principal la valorile psihologice și artistice ale unei poezii. A analizat mai ales acele bucăți literare care i-au plăcut în mod deosebit.

Astfel, Abenius a analizat în principal operele scriitorilor moderni, atât suedezi, cât și străini, în special anglo-saxoni, fiind pasionată de lirica autoarelor Emily Dickinson, Virginia Woolf, Cora Sandel și Karin Boye.

Cea mai cunoscută lucrarea a ei este biografia scriitoarei Karin Boye, publicată inițial în 1950 sub titlul  Drabbad av renhet - en bok om Karin Boyes liv och diktning și în următorii ani au fost publicate alte două ediții. În 1965 a urmat o nouă ediție, intitulată acum doar Karin Boye. Abenius a editat Samlade skrifter a lui Boye în 11 volume publicate în perioada 1947-1949. Împreună cu Olof Lagercrantz ea a publicat în 1942 volumul Karin Boye, minnen och studier.

Abenius a fost din 1933 cronicar literar la Sveriges Radio și colaboratoare la revista literară Bonniers litterära magasin din același an. O selecție de eseuri a fost publicată în 1940 sub titlul Kontakter. Abenius a publicat, de asemenea, cărți despre Carl von Linné și Simone Weil și a tradus cartea Greutatea și harul a Simonei Weils.

Note

Legături externe
 Margit Abenius la LIBRIS

Nașteri în 1899
Decese în 1970
Critici literari suedezi

Margit Abenius


El UCI America Tour 2011-2012 fue la octava edición del calendario ciclístico internacional americano. Se inició el 2 de octubre de 2011 en Trinidad y Tobago, con la carrera Tobago Cycling Classic y finalizó el 15 de septiembre de 2012 en Estados Unidos con el Bucks County classic.

El campeón de esta edición del UCI America Tour fue el australiano Rory Sutherland miembro del equipo estadounidense UnitedHealthcare. Sutherland logró la mayoría de los puntos con victorias generales en los Tours de Gila y Beauce y con 26 puntos que obtuvo sobre el final del calendario en el USA Pro Cycling Challenge, logrando desplazar al segundo lugar al argentino Maximiliano Richeze, quién estuvo en primera posición gran parte del calendario gracias a los puntos obtenidos en el campeonato panamericano de ciclismo y la Vuelta a Venezuela. Tercero finalizó el venezolano Miguel Ubeto que logró sus principales puntos en el Campeonato de Venezuela en Ruta y en la vuelta a Venezuela.

Por equipos el ganador fue el brasileño Real Cycling Team quién subió al primer lugar también sobre el final del calendario al obtener 141 puntos en el Tour de Río, desplazando a otro equipo brasileño, el Funvic-Pindamonhangaba que acabó segundo.

Las clasificaciones por países y países sub-23 fueron dominadas por Colombia.

Carreras y categorías

Carreras suspendidas y eliminadas
Varias carreras que estaban en el calendario, o no se disputaron, o dejaron de pertenecer al circuito continental americano. Estas fueron el Tour de Santa Catarina, el Giro del Interior de San Pablo, la Vuelta de Paraná y la Vuelta de Gravataí, todas en Brasil.

Las competencias que salieron del calendario con respecto a la edición anterior fueron la Vuelta al Ecuador, la Vuelta del Paraguay y el Tour de Martinica.

Nuevas carreras y ascensos
En contrapartida, el Tobago Cycling Classic integró el calendario por primera vez, y dos carreras fueron ascendidas de categoría, puesto que el USA Pro Cycling Challenge fue nombrada en la máxima categoría (.HC), mientras que el Tour de Elk Grove pasó a la categoría 2.1.

Categorías
Fueron tres las carreras de máxima categoría y todas en Estados Unidos. Al Tour de California y al TD Bank International Cycling Championship se le sumó el USA Pro Cycling Challenge.

El Tour de San Luis, el Tour de Utah y el ascendido Tour de Elk Grove, fueron las tres carreras que le siguieron en importancia al ser categoría 2.1. El resto de las carreras fueron .2 (última categoría), que junto a la carrera sub-23, Coupe des Nations Ville Saguenay y las carreras en ruta y contrarreloj de los campeonatos panamericanos formaron el calendario 2011-2012.

Además de estas carreras, algunos campeonatos nacionales de ruta y contrarreloj también puntuaron para el UCI America Tour, dependiendo de la clasificación por países de la edición anterior.

Equipos
Los equipos que pueden participar en las diferentes carreras dependen de la categoría de las mismas. A mayor nivel de una carrera pueden participar equipos de más nivel. Los equipos UCI ProTeam, solo pueden participar de las carreras .HC y .1 pero tienen cupo limitado y los puntos que logran sus ciclistas no van a la clasificación.

Para favorecer la invitación a los equipos más humildes, la Unión Ciclista Internacional publicó un "ranking ficticio" de los equipos Continentales, sobre la base de los puntos obtenidos por sus ciclistas en la temporada anterior. Los organizadores de carreras .1 y .2 deben obligatoriamente invitar a los 3 primeros de ese ranking y de esta forma pueden acceder a un mayor número de carreras. En este circuito los invitados automáticamente a carreras de categoría .1 y .2 fueron el Funvic-Pindamonhangaba, Movistar Continental y EPM-UNE, aunque a diferencia del UCI WorldTour los equipos pueden rechazar dicha invitación.

Baremo de puntuación
Los puntos, en las carreras por etapas (2.HC, 2.1 y 2.2), se otorgan a la clasificación individual final, a cada una de las etapas y al líder de la individual en cada etapa.

En las carreras de un día (1.HC, 1.1 y 1.2), Campeonatos Panamericanos (CC) y campeonatos nacionales que puntúan (que varía dependiendo del ranking por equipos del UCI America Tour 2010-2011), se otorgan a la clasificación final.

Los puntos se reparten de la siguiente manera:

Además, excepcionalmente, el Campeonato Olímpico también podría puntuar siempre que un corredor americano finalice en un puesto con derecho a puntuación. Para ese baremo véase: Baremo de puntuación de los Circuitos Continentales UCI.

Calendario
En principio, la temporada contaba con 26 competiciones, número que se había reducido con respecto a la edición anterior, ya que varias habían quedado fuera del campeonato. Carreras como la Vuelta a Colombia, la Vuelta a Venezuela y la Vuelta al Táchira, que desde 2005 integraban el UCI America Tour, no fueron incluidas por diferentes motivos, quedando países como Colombia, Venezuela y México sin carreras en el calendario. Luego fue ampliado al retornar las tres mencionadas, más la Vuelta a México, la Vuelta Ciclista a Chiapas y los Tours de Battenkill y de Gila en Estados Unidos.

La Vuelta a Colombia, luego de haber sido excluida del calendario en una primera instancia (tras dos ediciones sin participación extranjera), fue finalmente incluida después de las gestiones del presidente de la Federación Colombiana de Ciclismo ante Patrick McQuaid, presidente de la UCI.

La Vuelta a Guatemala que se debió disputar en octubre de 2011 había sido cancelado a causa de inundaciones en el país, pero posteriormente se confirmó su realización en el mes de mayo de 2012.
Contó con las siguientes pruebas, tanto por etapas como de un día.

Octubre 2011

Noviembre 2011

Diciembre 2011

Enero 2012

Febrero 2012

Marzo 2012

Abril 2012

Mayo 2012

Junio 2012

Julio 2012

Agosto 2012

Septiembre 2012

Clasificaciones finales
 Para el detalle de los puntos véase:Clasificaciones del UCI America Tour 2011-2012

Individual

Equipos

Países

Países sub-23

Progreso de las clasificaciones

Referencias y notas

Enlaces externos
 Página oficial del UCI America Tour

UCI America Tour 2011-2012


Dish Network Corporation (o como la comunidad latina lo conoce, Dish Latino) () es el primer mayor proveedor de televisión de pago en los Estados Unidos, proporcionando servicio de satélite de emisión directa —incluyendo televisión por satélite, programación de audio, y servicios de televisión interactivos— a 14 337 000 clientes residenciales y comerciales en los Estados Unidos. Dish Network tiene aproximadamente 24 500 empleados, la mayoría de los cuales están ubicados dentro de los EE. UU. La oficina corporativa está situada en Meridian, Colorado, aunque el apartado de correos de la compañía se encuentra en Englewood (Colorado).

EchoStar Satellite L.L.C. fue fundada en 1980 por Charles Ergen, su esposa Candy, y su amigo Jim DeFranco, como un distribuidor de equipos de televisión por satélite. EchoStar se relanzó de forma oficial como DISH Network en marzo de 1996 tras la puesta en marcha de su primer satélite, EchoStar I, en diciembre de 1995, que marcó el comienzo de los servicios de televisión de suscripción ofrecidos por la compañía. Desde entonces, la compañía ha lanzado numerosos satélites, con 14 satélites propios arrendados en su flota a partir de abril de 2011.

A partir de enero de 2008, DISH Network se separó comercialmente de EchoStar, convirtiendo a cada compañía en una entidad separada. EchoStar es el socio principal de tecnología de DISH Network, y se enfoca únicamente en el marketing y la provisión de servicios de televisión por satélite. Desde el 20 de junio de 2011, Joseph Clayton es el presidente y director ejecutivo de la compañía.

A partir de 2011, la compañía compite principalmente con su rival en el mundo de televisión por satélite, DirecTV, así como con proveedores de televisión por cable. Es una empresa Fortune 500 y tiene planes para una diversificación del negocio a streaming de vídeo y servicio móvil de Internet.

Historia

Crecimiento temprano
Dish Network comenzó sus operaciones de forma oficial el 6 de marzo de 1996 como un servicio de EchoStar. EchoStar fue fundada en 1980 por su presidente y director ejecutivo, Charles Ergen, junto con sus colegas Candy Ergen y Jim DeFranco, como un distribuidor de sistemas de televisión por satélite de banda C. En 1987, EchoStar solicitó a la Comisión Federal de Comunicaciones una licencia de emisión para satélite de emisión directa, concediéndosele el acceso a la posición orbital de 119° de longitud oeste en 1992.

El 28 de diciembre de 1995, EchoStar realizó la compra de su primer satélite, el "EchoStar I". Posteriormente, con la construcción del centro de enlace ascendente de satélite en Cheyenne, Wyoming, se crea la marca de "The Dish Network", que ofrecería servicios de televisión por satélite para el ámbito doméstico. En marzo de 1996, la compañía emite por primera vez a sus clientes.

En 1998, EchoStar compra los activos de emisión de una joint venture de News Corporation y MCI Worldcom. Con esta compra EchoStar obtuvo 28 de las 32 licencias de transpondedor en la posición orbital de 110° al oeste, alcanzando así la capacidad de sus emisiones en los Estados Unidos continentales un valor total de 682,5 millones de dólares. La adquisición animó a la compañía a introducir un sistema de multisatélite llamado Dish 500, capaz en teoría de recibir más de 500 canales en una antena parabólica. En el mismo año, EchoStar, en asociación con Bell Canada, lanza Dish Network Canada.

Invirtiendo para el futuro
En enero de 1999, la compañía lanza el primer sintonizador de televisión de alta definición de la industria de la televisión. En agosto de 2003, la compañía lanza EchoStar IX, el primer satélite equipado con la carga comercial de banda Ka para servicio de banda ancha dentro de los Estados Unidos. Esto conduce a la compañía a convertirse en el primer servicio de TV por satélite que ofrece canales locales en los 50 estados. En ese año, la compañía también introduce la primera aplicación de picture-in en la televisión interactiva estadounidense para los Juegos Olímpicos, ofreciendo cobertura desde múltiples canales al mismo tiempo. Ese año la compañía también consigue su cliente número 10 000 000.

En enero de 2005, EchoStar compra los activos de teledifusión del proveedor de HDTV por satélite Voom, incluyendo su satélite Rainbow 1 co-ubicado con EchoStar 3 en la posición orbital de 61.5° oeste. El 29 de abril del mismo año, EchoStar anuncia que expande su programación en alta definición añadiendo 10 canales originales de Voom y que replicaría los canales en una posición orbital para los Estados Unidos continentales. Dish Network añade CNN HD en español junto con otros paquetes en su alineación "Latino HD".

El 1 de enero de 2008, la compañía completa la escisión de su empresa de tecnología y set-top boxes, creando una empresa cotizada independiente, EchoStar Corporation, y separando la EchoStar original en dos empresas autónomas. Dish Network Corporation, la mayor de las dos compañías resultantes, se enfoca en la programación, servicio y marketing de televisión por satélite, mientras EchoStar Corporation gestiona la mayoría de la flota de satélites y otras áreas de la infraestructura de señal; sin embargo, ninguna de las dos compañías depende de la otra, y la mayoría del poder de decisión sobre los activos de ambas compañías pertenece a Charles Ergen.

Adquisiciones y diversificación
En 2011, Dish gasta más de tres mil millones de dólares estadounidenses en adquisiciones de compañías en bancarrota. Esto incluye la compra de Blockbuster Inc. en un concurso de acreedores en Nueva York el 6 de abril de 2011, en donde Dish acuerda pagar 322 millones de dólares en dinero y asumir 87 millones de dólares en obligaciones para la compañía nacional de alquiler de vídeos. Dish también adquiere las compañías liquidadas DBSD y Terrestar. Asimismo Dish lanza una oferta para comprar Hulu en octubre de 2011, pero los propietarios de Hulu la rechazan. También se especula con que Dish podría comprar Sprint o Clearwire en el futuro. El director ejecutivo de Dish, Charles Ergen, planea añadir servicios de Internet inalámbrico y video móvil que puedan competir con Netflix y otras compañías de cable. Sobre los nuevos mercados, Egren afirma: "Teniendo en cuenta los activos que hemos ido acumulando, no creo que sea difícil ver que nos estamos moviendo en una dirección diferente a la de la simple idea de la televisión de pago, que es un mercado que se está saturando cada vez más."

Tras la adquisición de Blockbuster, Dish anuncia el "Blockbuster Movie Pass", que permite películas bajo demanda, alquileres de DVD y videojuegos, y servicios de streaming en línea por una tarifa fija mensual. Dish planea servicios similares para clientes de otros servicios. Como Blockbuster obtiene un acuerdo que le permite recibir los DVD 28 días antes que Netflix, el nuevo servicio podría implicar una competencia mayor para estas compañías.

Dish también planea ofrecer Internet a gran velocidad. La compañía planea un servicio móvil de banda ancha que es un híbrido del servicio terrestre y el servicio de satélite. En 2011, solicita a la FCC combinar el espectro de banda S que adquirió de DBSD y Terrestar, y combinar este espectro con Long Term Evolution (LTE). Al contrario que LightSquared, el espectro de Dish tiene un riesgo mínimo de interrumpir los sistemas de posicionamiento global.

Información técnica

Antenas parabólicas

Dish Network ofrece diferentes tipos de equipos para recibir las señales desde su variada flota de satélites. La mayoría de sus cajas (boxes) de consumo son fabricados por Sanmina-SCI Corporation de acuerdo a las especificaciones de EchoStar. Antes de la fusión de SCI Systems con Sanmina en diciembre de 2001, los receptores de Dish Network se producían en fábricas en Huntsville, Alabama y Fountain, Colorado. Actualmente el ensamblaje de receptores se lleva a cabo en Guadalajara, Jalisco e India.

La primera antena parabólica de Dish Network se denominó simplemente la "Dish Network Dish". Posteriormente se renombró como la "Dish 300" cuando una serie de problemas legales y técnicos forzaron el retraso del siguiente sistema "Dish 500", que utiliza un Low-Noise Block Downconverter para obtener señales desde la posición orbital de 119° oeste, y fue comúnmente usada como una segunda parabólica para recibir programación adicional en alta definición desde las posiciones orbitales de 148° oeste y 61.5° oeste. La posición orbital de 119° oeste es una de las dos posiciones orbitales primarias, siendo la otra la posicionada a 110° oeste, que proporciona servicios básicos.

Después de que EchoStar obtuviera los activos de transmisión de la joint venture fracasada entre ASkyB y MCI Worldcom, consigue doblar su capacidad añadiendo 28 transpondedores en la posición orbital de 110° oeste. Luego, debido a que EchoStar también obtiene la posición orbital adyacente de 119° oeste, se desarrolla la "Dish 500" para recibir las señales de ambas posiciones orbitales usando una parabólica y un diseño innovador de doble LNB. Aunque la "Dish 500", con 20 pulgadas, (51 cm) fue ligeramente más grande que la "Dish 300" y las parabólicas de DirecTV (que tenían 18 pulgadas, unos 46 cm), consiguió una ventaja notable al obtener señales desde las dos posiciones de satélite adyacentes de EchoStar para una capacidad teórica de 500 canales. La "Dish 500", como resultado de esto, proporcionó una capacidad muy amplia para el servicio "local-into-local", la programación emitida a escala nacional y servicios empresariales. Para migrar sus clientes existentes a la "Dish 500", Dish Network proporcionó canales de valor añadido que solamente podían ser recibidos con la "Dish 500" y sistemas más nuevos. Algunos de los canales exclusivos de estos sistemas más nuevos son: History Channel International, Boomerang, The Science Channel, Destination America, y Comedy Central.

A pesar de toda esta capacidad, EchoStar todavía vio necesario satisfacer su sueño del uso de televisión de alta definición a escala nacional, así que concibe el sistema "Dish 100" para recibir señales fuera de las posiciones orbitales de 110° oeste, 119° oeste, y 129° oeste. Originalmente, las suscriptores del servicio de alta definición de Dish Network requirían de dos parabólicas de satélite separadas. Actualmente, los suscriptores de Dish Network pueden recibir canales de alta definición a nivel nacional usando las posiciones orbitales de 129° oeste o 61.5° oeste. Debido a algunos problemas con la baja intensidad de señal, el modelo más antiguo de la "Dish 1000" se ha reemplazado con la "Dish 1000.2". La "Dish 1000.2" tiene un LNB integrado y un reflector que es un 10% más grande, lo que permite mejoras en la intensidad de la señal y una instalación más fácil. La "Dish 1000.2" tiene un diámetro de 23 pulgadas (58 cm). Incluso con el tamaño más grande, todavía hay muchos informes de clientes que continuamente pierden sus señales en la posición orbital de 129° oeste. Debido a esto, algunos clientes se han visto obligados a usar una segunda parabólica, de la marca "Dish Network", o una parabólica del mercado de accesorios de 30 pulgadas de diámetro (76 cm) que está destinada específicamente a la posición orbital de 129° oeste. En varios foros de soporte Web relacionados al tema satelital, algunos clientes han criticado que el modelo nuevo de "Dish 1000.2" no era lo suficientemente grande, y que debiera haber sido un 20%-30% más grande para hacer frente adecuadamente a la pérdida de señal por lluvia, siendo necesario un diámetro de entre 70 cm y 1 m.

En su búsqueda de mayor capacidad, Dish Network había ido acumulando una serie de tecnologías de transmisión por satélite, posiciones orbitales, y excedentes de capacidad, usando tecnologías no convencionales que requerían de tamaños más grandes de antenas de recepción. Para poder capitalizar estos activos de transmisión, Dish Network comienza a proporcionar una programación étnica extensa desde satélites de baja potencia que emiten en la porción no-DBS de la banda FSS. Dish Network ofrece equipos especializados para estos clientes, incluyendo antenas más grandes.

Los sistemas "SuperDish", "Dish 500+", y "Dish 1000+" reciben señales de emisión de satélite directo desde las posiciones orbitales primarias de 110° oeste y 119° oeste, así como señales de FSS de baja potencia que emiten dentro de las posiciones orbitales de 121° oeste, 105° oeste, y 118.75° oeste. Los sistemas "Dish 500" y "Dish 1000+" reciben señales circularmente polarizadas en la porción de la banda FSS que no recibe emisiones de satélite directo, a diferencia de otros servicios de televisión por satélite en los Estados Unidos.

Tecnología de transmisión
A pesar de que durante años Dish Network ha usado la tecnología estándar MPEG-2 para transmisiones, la puesta en marcha de HDTV de banda ancha en un ámbito limitado por la banda estrecha ha requerido que se migre a un sistema H.264/MPEG4 AVC. Dish Network anunció que a partir del 1 de febrero de 2006, todos los canales nuevos de alta definición estarían disponibles en un formato H.264 solamente, mientras mantiene su programa con MPEG-2. Dish Network tiene la intención de convertir totalmente su plataforma a H.264 para proporcionar más canales a sus suscriptores. En 2007, Dish Network redujo la resolución de los canales de 1080 líneas de 1920x1080 a 1440x1080. La reducción de la resolución horizontal y/o la velocidad de datos de vídeo en alta definición se conoce como "HD Lite" y se practica por otros proveedores de televisión así como por Dish Network.

Los suscriptores disponen de un receptor estándar así como un receptor con un grabador de vídeo digital incorporado. El Dish Network ViP722 HD DVR, que es capaz de grabar hasta 350 horas de emisiones en definición estándar y hasta 55 horas de emisiones en definición alta, y que fue creado como un reemplazo al ViP622, ha recibido comentarios generalmente positivos.

Flota de satélites
EchoStar Corporation es el propietario y operador de la mayoría de los satélites usados por Dish Network. Debido a que EchoStar frecuentemente mueve satélites entre sus muchas ranuras de órbita, esta lista no es totalmente precisa.

Críticas y controversias

Canales de red distante
Tras la pérdida de un juicio en octubre de 2006, Dish Network se vio obligado a eliminar todos los canales de red para las cadenas ABC, CBS, NBC, y Fox el 1 de diciembre del mismo año. Esta decisión afectó todos los suscriptores de esas cadenas que estaban fuera de su área local. Sin embargo, estos canales pueden todavía ser recibidos por vía del "My Distant Network Package" proporcionado por All American Direct.

Violaciones de telemarketing
Los distribuidores independientes de Dish Network han sido multados de forma reiterada y se les ha denunciado por emplear tácticas ilegales de telemarketing, tales como violar las listas de "Do Not Call" y hacer llamadas en las cuales un telemarketer no conecta prontamente después de que la llamada ha sido descolgada. Más recientemente, Dish Network ha llevado a cabo acciones legales contra distribuidores independientes que han cometido esas violaciones. Por otra parte, desde finales de 2008, Dish Network lanzó una campaña para terminar los acuerdos con distribuidores independientes con respecto a prácticas empresariales que defraudaban al cliente o a la misma Dish Network. Se han expedido comunicados de prensa casi mensualmente con una nueva lista de distribuidores que han terminado su asociación con Dish Network. A pesar de esto, en marzo de 2009 la Comisión Federal de Comercio denunció a Dish Network y a dos de sus distribuidores por múltiples violaciones de las leyes sobre ventas de telemarketing, así como del Acta de Protección al Consumidor Telefónico de 1991.

Divulgaciones de honorarios
En 2004, trece estados formularon cargos a EchoStar, entonces la empresa matriz de Dish Network, por no haber dado a conocer sus honorarios de terminación de contrato a clientes potenciales, y por haber generado deuda en las cuentas bancarias de sus clientes por honorarios ocultos. La compañía asentó el litigio, pagó 5 millones de dólares, y prometió divulgar todos los términos antes de firmar sus contratos con clientes potenciales.

Desacuerdos sobre programación
Dish Network ha tenido una historia extensa de desacuerdos sobre su programación. En años recientes, la compañía ha estado en varias disputas por transmitir sus canales locales en algunos mercados.

Gay Television Network
Dish Network comenzó negociaciones con GTN (Gay Television Network) para transmitir el canal. GTN emitió un comunicado de prensa el 2 de febrero de 2001, anunciando su estreno y declarando que el canal sería transmitido por Dish Network. Dish Network respondió negando que se hubiera firmado cualquier contrato, y declarando que el comunicado de prensa fue prematuro. El presidente de GTN respondió llamando a la Dish Network "homófobo". En abril de 2002, Dish Network firmó un contrato para transmitir GTN, que fue posteriormente renombrado como Triangle Television Network, y que es ahora conocido como Q Television Network. A partir del 29 de mayo de 2009, Dish Network ofrece The Logo Channel (HD solamente) en un paquete complementario ("Platinum HD"), junto con otros 10 canales de alta definición por un precio mensual de $10.

CBS/Viacom
A principios de 2004, Viacom retiró sus cadenas y canales locales de la Dish Network, incluyendo canales de MTV Networks (MTV, Nickelodeon, VH1, etc.), así como Black Entertainment Television y diez estaciones poseídas y operadas por la Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), después de disputas en negociaciones entre Viacom y EchoStar. El apagón duró sólo dos días después de que los dos partes llegaran a un acuerdo.

Conflicto entre Disney, ABC, y ESPN
El 4 de agosto de 2009, Dish Network demandó 1 millón de dólares de ESPN en un juicio federal, alegando que había infringido su contrato al no haber extendido los mismos términos de transmisión que el programador proporcionó a Comcast y DirecTV para ESPNU y ESPN Classic. El juicio afirma que ESPN violó la cláusula de "Nación más favorecida".

El día siguiente, ESPN anunció que lucharía contra el juicio, diciendo en un comunicado de prensa: "Hemos aconsejado repetidamente a Dish que estamos en cumplimiento total con nuestro acuerdo, y les hemos ofrecido una oportunidad de distribución con respecto a ESPNU y ESPN Classic, que es consistente con el resto de la industria. Nos abstendremos de renegociar los contratos establecidos, y defenderemos vigorosamente esta acción legal con el propósito exclusivo de obtener un mejor acuerdo."

Dish Network trasladó ESPNU de su paquete "America's Top 250" a su paquete "America's Top 120" el 30 de septiembre de 2009. Sin embargo, indicó que esto no tiene nada que ver con el juicio.

El 22 de junio de 2010, The Walt Disney Company (propietario de ESPN) retiró ESPNews HD, Disney Channel HD, Disney XD HD, y ABC Family HD de la lista de canales de la Dish Network, aunque los canales en definición estándar permanecieron.

The Weather Channel
El 20 de mayo de 2010, Dish Network anunció que estaba retirando The Weather Channel a la medianoche, hora del este, de ese día, en favor de su propio canal similar para información sobre el tiempo, The Weather Cast. El cambio se debió a las altas tasas que The Weather Channel demandó pagar a la Dish Network (The Weather Channel solicitó un aumento de tasas de 11 centavos por suscriptor por mes a 12 centavos. A partir del 24 de mayo de ese mismo año, The Weather Channel declaró que había entrado en un acuerdo con Dish Network que resultaría en que Dish Network transmitiría The Weather Channel durante los próximos años. A pesar del anuncio anterior que indicaba que The Weather Channel sería retirado, el canal nunca fue oficialmente retirado de la Dish Network. The Weather Cast fue descontinuado con la llegada de un servicio basado en Weatherscan que proporcionaría información local sobre el tiempo para los clientes de Dish Network. Hasta la fecha, los términos financieros del acuerdo no han sido revelados.

Disputa sobre FOX
El 1 de octubre de 2010, Dish Network perdió FX, National Geographic Channel, y los canales regionales de Fox Sports Net (FSN) debido a una disputa con Fox. La disputa derivó de lo que la Dish Network llamó un "crecimiento sin precedentes" en el precio inicial de Fox; Fox, por otra parte, afirmó que estaba simplemente pidiendo una compensación justa para sus canales. La disputa de tasas de los canales de Fox impidió el acceso a los espectadores de DISH Network a 19 de los "FOX Regional Sports Networks" y a algunos programas más. Dave Shull, el vicepresidente senior de programación para DISH Network, dijo: "DISH Network no va a permitir que FOX o cualquier programador tiranice a nuestros clientes pagando un precio aumentado de forma tan inconsciente. FOX tiene una historia larga de intentos de extorsionar a proveedores de televisión de pago, incluyendo Cablevision, Time Warner, y Bright House." Además, la cadena está negociando para sus estaciones poseídas y operadas, y está también actuando como negociador en lugar de Local TV LLC para sus afiliados que anteriormente eran propiedad de la cadena. Sin embargo, ambas partes llegaron a un acuerdo de largo plazo el 29 de octubre del mismo año, restaurando FX, National Geographic Channel, y los canales regionales de FSN; además, los espectadores continuarán viendo la programación de los canales locales poseídos y operados por Fox y MyNetworkTV en los años venideros. Los términos financieros del acuerdo nunca fueron revelados. Una disputa similar ocurrió entre Fox y DirecTV.

Disputa sobre MSG Network
El 1 de octubre de 2010, los suscriptores de Dish Network perdieron las cadenas regionales deportivas MSG Network y MSG Plus debido a una disputa de contrato con Madison Square Garden, Inc. MSG le pidió a Dish retomar sus negociaciones y reconsiderar sus propuestas, pero no ha habido todavía un acuerdo entre las partes a partir del 22 de diciembre de 2011. MSG está vinculando la transmisión de estas cadenas a su cadena hermana, Fuse TV, que fue reemplazado con "Palladia" en julio de 2010.

Belo Corporation
El 29 de octubre de 2010 se anunció que Belo Corporation y Dish Network tuvieron una disputa respecto a las tasas de transmisión. WFAA en Dallas y KVUE en Austin (ambos afiliados de ABC), KHOU-TV en Houston y WWL-TV en Nueva Orleans (ambos afiliados de CBS), KMSB en Tucson (un afiliado de Fox), y 10 otras estaciones fueron afectadas. Dos días más tarde, tanto Belo como Dish llegaron a un acuerdo, evitando una interrupción de servicio. Belo le había ofrecido a Dish una extensión mientras se llevaban a cabo las negociaciones. Si no hubiera habido un acuerdo en el 31 de octubre de ese año, por la medianoche (en todas zonas horarias), Belo habría retirado esas cadenas de Dish Network. Si la disputa sobre los Fox Networks hubiera continuado a lo largo de ese período de tiempo, esta combinación habría creado el golpe más grande a los clientes de la Dish Network desde el desacuerdo entre Echostar y Viacom en 2004.

SportsNet New York (SNY)
El 1 de abril de 2011, Dish Network retiró SportsNet New York (que emite los partidos de los New York Mets) de su alineación de canales debido a una disputa sobre transmisión. Como resultado, Dish se convierte en el único proveedor de satélite en no transmitir los Regional Sports Networks en el área de Nueva York.

Inspiration Network (INSP)
El 9 de agosto de 2011, Dish Network retiró INSP de su alineación de canales, pidiendo 10 millones de dólares para continuar sus emisiones de este canal. INSP retornó a la alineación de canales de Dish Network el 31 de agosto de 2011.

Heritage Broadcasting Group of Michigan
El 15 de diciembre de 2011, Dish Network retiró WWTV y WFQX-TV, dos estaciones en el mercado de televisión con base en Michigan del Norte, ambas propiedad de Heritage Broadcasting. La disputa, que resultó en un "crecimiento indignante de honorarios", se resolvió el 20 de diciembre de ese mismo año, y como resultado estos dos canales se restauraron a la alineación original.

Gestión
Charles Ergen, Fundador, Presidente, y Director Ejecutivo
Amir Ahmed, Vicepresidente Mayor de Ventas
Ira Bahr, Vicepresidente Mayor, Oficial Jefe de Marketing
W. Erik Carlson, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo de Operaciones
Thomas A. Cullen, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo de Programación, Ventas, y Marketing
James DeFranco, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo de Ventas y Distribución
R. Stanton Dodge, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo, Consejo General, y Secretario
Bernard L. Han, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo y Oficial Jefe de Operaciones
Michael Kelly, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo de Servicios Comerciales y Empresariales
Roger J. Lynch, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo de Tecnologías Avanzadas
Robert E. Olson, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo y Oficial Jefe de Finanzas
David Shull, Vicepresidente Mayor de Programación
Stephen W. Wood, Vicepresidente Ejecutivo y Oficial Jefe de Recursos Humanos

Comerciantes autorizados por Dish Network
Los comerciantes autorizados de Dish Network se subdividen según las regiones a las que sirven. Los comerciantes locales autorizados de emisión directa por satélite son numerosos, pero solamente dan servicio a una zona geográfica limitada. Los comerciantes nacionales autorizados proveen servicio a consumidores en múltiples localidades a lo largo de los EE. UU. e incluyen, pero no están limitados a proveedores como All American Dish, Sterling Satellite, Dish Pronto, US Dish, Infinity Dish, y VMC Satellite.

Véase también
 Dish México

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio web de DishLATINO
 Sitio web de Dish México

Empresas cotizadas en Nasdaq
Condado de Arapahoe
Operadores de satélites de comunicaciones
Empresas de Colorado
Empresas fundadas en 1996
Televisión por satélite
Servicios de satélite de difusión directa
Proveedores de televisión por suscripción de Estados Unidos

Dish Network


The New England Complex Systems Institute (NECSI) is an independent American research institution and think tank dedicated to advancing analytics and its application to the challenges of society, and the interaction of complex systems with the environment. NECSI offers educational programs, conducts research, and hosts the International Conference on Complex Systems. It was founded in 1996 and is located in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Overview
NECSI was established in 1996 by faculty of various New England academic institutions, including MIT, Harvard, Brandeis, and others, to encourage communication and collaboration among researchers studying complex systems.

The NECSI web site describes "complex systems" as follows:
Complex systems have multiple interacting components whose collective behavior cannot be simply inferred from the behavior of components. The recognition that understanding the parts cannot explain collective behavior has led to various new concepts and methodologies that are affecting all fields of science and engineering, and are being applied to technology, business and even social policy.

NECSI promotes collaboration and dissemination of new research among complex systems researchers in wide-ranging disciplines and numerous institutions. NECSI's activities for this purpose include hosting an international research conference and maintaining a roster of affiliated scholars and co-faculty.

International Conference on Complex Systems
NECSI hosts the International Conference on Complex Systems (ICCS), whose aims are:
first, to investigate those properties or characteristics that appear to be common to the very different complex systems now under study; and second, to encourage cross fertilization among the many disciplines involved.
ICCS takes place on an occasional basis, with the most recent (eighth conference) in 2011. ICCS conferences have featured notable computer scientists (e.g., Gerald Sussman), mathematicians (e.g., Stephen Wolfram), systems theorists (e.g., John Sterman), physicists (e.g. Sandy Pentland), economists (e.g., James Stock), and others.
Events at ICCS include research presentations and workshops, as well as pedagogical sessions aimed at a wider community.

Affiliates and co-faculty
NECSI provides a public platform for affiliates and co-faculty at numerous academic institutions, primarily in the New England region. These researchers also contribute to NECSI educational programs.

Faculty and co-Faculty

Yaneer Bar-Yam, President
Michel Baranger
Dan Braha
Charles Cantor
Richard Cooper
Terrence Deacon
Irving Epstein
William Gelbart
Ernest Hartmann
Jerome Kagan
Mehran Kardar
Les Kaufman
Eric Klopfer
Frannie Leautier
Blake LeBaron
Luci Leykum
Seth Lloyd
Sandy Pentland
Tom Petzinger
Stuart Pimm
Larry Rudolph
Thomas Schelling
Peter Senge
Temple Smith
John Sterman
James Stock
Nassim Nicholas Taleb
Hiroshi Tasaka
Günter Wagner
Peter Timmer

Affiliates

Marcus de Aguiar
Zvi Bar-Yam
Bruce Boghosian
Raffaele Calabretta
Jeffrey Cares
Gavin Crooks
Eric Feigl-Ding
Meghan Dierks
Melissa Gerber
Helen Harte
Steven Hassan
Sui Huang
Michael J. Jacobson
Fumiaki Katagiri
Andreas Kemper
Mark Klein
Greg Lindsay
David Meyer
Ali Minai
Joseph Norman
Hiroki Sayama
Paul Seguin
Tommaso Toffoli
Omer Trajman
Sheldon White
Uri Wilensky

Research areas

Evolution and ecology
NECSI researchers have contributed to the understanding of evolutionary dynamics, the evolution of altruism, the origin and characterization of biodiversity, and the interplay between evolution and ecology.

Much of the work done at NECSI has focused on the role of the spatial distribution of species, an often overlooked factor of evolutionary dynamics. In the case where portions of a population are geographically isolated from each other, for example, Yaneer Bar-Yam was able to demonstrate shortcomings in the gene-centered view of evolution, an approximation that is valid only if there is complete mixing of alleles in the gene pool.

Networks
Studies of network topologies have found surprising similarities between a variety of complex social, technological and biological networks.  NECSI research in networks focuses on the relationship between structure, dynamics and function. The study of networks has emerged in diverse disciplines as a means of analyzing complex relational data.

Social systems
NECSI research in social systems focuses on the collective actions that create revolutions, ethnic violence, urban health, fads and panics, global food and so on. The role of individuals and organization can be analyzed by techniques and tools of complex systems.

Representation
Complex systems exhibit behaviors at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. Researchers working at NECSI have developed a mathematical formalism for simultaneously describing systems on multiple scales. This formalism had been applied to physical systems, information systems, organizational behavior, engineering projects and military conflict.

An essential tool for multiscale analysis, the complexity profile, the relationship between the observed complexity of a system and the scale of observation.

Post-crisis focus on social and economic systems
Since 2009, the Institute's research focus has shifted to socio-economic systems, with particular attention to the causes and consequences of the 2008 financial crisis and dynamics of Twitter networks and social sentiment. Policy-relevant articles on stock market regulation and market crashes, food riots and the causes of high food prices, and the European bond crisis have been released straight to the press. Peer-reviewed articles continue to appear on other subjects.

Further fields of research
 Systems biology
 Systems engineering
 Organizational management
 Negotiation
 Network Science

Public attention
NECSI's work on the global food crisis has been widely cited by the press, by movements to curb financial speculation, and included among the top-10 discoveries in science in 2011 by Wired. NECSI's scientific visualizations have received multiple citations on top-10 lists.

NECSI has been called "a pioneer in using mathematics, computation and other quantitative methods to analyse topics like ethnic violence, economic crises and healthcare systems" by the press.

Early Warning on the COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic
Prior to global lockdowns, in January, 2020 Joseph Norman, Yaneer Bar Yam, and Nassim Taleb submitted a paper to the White House administration, urging them to take drastic steps to curtail the disease. NECSI later assembled EndCoronaVirus.org, which included over 4,000 volunteers by March 21, 2020. The network of volunteers built endCoronavirus.org with the goal to minimize the impact of COVID-19 by providing useful data and guidelines for action.

See also
Complex systems
Santa Fe Institute

References

External links
 NECSI
BarabasiLab
North Western Institute on Complex Systems
CABDyN Oxford
CNets Indiana
Center for Complexity Science, Warwick University

Research institutes in Massachusetts
Systems science institutes

New England Complex Systems Institute


The Gaza–Israel barrier (sometimes called the Iron Wall) is a border barrier located on the Israeli side of the Gaza–Israel border. The Erez Crossing, in the north of the Gaza Strip, is the only crossing point for people and goods coming from Israel into the Gaza Strip; there exists a second crossing point in the barrier, called the Kerem Shalom border crossing, which is exclusive for the crossing of goods coming from Egypt, as Israel does not allow goods to go directly from Egypt into Gaza through the Egypt–Gaza border.

A fence along the border was first constructed by Israel in 1994 as a security barrier, and has been rebuilt and upgraded since. It was constructed by Israel to control the movement of people as well as goods between the Gaza Strip and Israel, which it could not achieve by normal border crossings.

There is also one crossing along the Egypt–Gaza border, the Rafah Crossing, though it is limited to the crossing of people; as per Israel's demand, any cargo or goods that are to enter Gaza must go through Israel, usually through the Kerem Shalom border crossing.

Political background
In 1993, Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization signed the first of the Oslo Accords establishing the Palestinian Authority with limited administrative control of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Pursuant to the Accords, Israel continues to maintain control of the Gaza Strip's airspace, land borders (with the exception of Gaza's border with Egypt, abandoned by Israel in 2005), and territorial waters.

In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its troops from the Gaza Strip, along with thousands of Israeli settlers. Israel thus claims to have ended the occupation. However, this claim has been challenged on the basis that Israel continues to exercise control over Gaza's territorial waters and airspace, despite Gaza not being part of Israel and Gazans not having Israeli passports.

Barrier structure
Israel started construction of the first  long barrier along its border with the Gaza Strip in 1994. In the 1994 Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, it was agreed that "the security fence erected by Israel around the Gaza Strip shall remain in place and that the line demarcated by the fence, as shown on the map, shall be authoritative only for the purpose of the Agreement" (i.e. the barrier does not necessarily constitute the border). The initial barrier was completed in 1996.

Before the 2005 disengagement Israeli military maintained a one-kilometer buffer zone within Gaza along the border wall which prevented the militants to approach the border, sometimes with gunfire. After the IDF withdrawal the border became easily reachable by the Palestinians. Therefore Israel launched the construction of the enhanced security system along  the Gaza border, estimated to cost $220 million and to be completed in mid-2006.

It includes a 7-meter wall with sensors, remote-control machine guns and barbed wire in the three areas where the border runs adjacent to Israeli settlements. The land taken from the corresponding kibbutzim was compensated for, with some controversies.

Overall, the first barrier is a barbed-wire fence without sensors. The second barrier codenamed Hoovers A is  20 meters off and consist of a road and a fence with sensors. These existed before 2005. A new element is a 70-150 meter wide buffer zone codenamed Hoovers B with motion sensors in the ground and surrounded by a new sensor-equipped fence with watchtowers every 2 kilometers, equipped with  remote-control machine guns instead of soldiers, which could be targets of Palestinian snipers.

The barrier is patrolled both from the air and on the ground.

Response from Gaza
The barrier has met with opposition and protests from some Palestinians in Gaza.

The barrier was largely torn down by Palestinians at the beginning of the Al-Aqsa Intifada in September 2000, followed by many terror attacks. The barrier was rebuilt between December 2000 and June 2001. A one-kilometer buffer zone was added, in addition to new high technology observation posts. Soldiers were also given new rules of engagement, which, according to Ha'aretz, allow soldiers to fire at anyone seen crawling there at night illegally into Israeli territory. Palestinians attempting to cross the barrier into Israel by stealth have been shot and killed.

The barrier has been effective in preventing terrorists and suicide bombers from entering Israel from Gaza. Since 1996, virtually all suicide bombers trying to leave Gaza have detonated their charges at the barrier's crossing points and were stopped while trying to cross the barrier elsewhere. From 1994 until 2004 a suicide bomber originating from within the Gaza Strip successfully carried out an attack in Israel (on 14 March 2004 in Ashdod).

The barrier's effectiveness prompted a shift in the tactics of Palestinian militants who commenced firing Qassam rockets and mortars over the barrier.

On 27 December 2008, Israel launched the Gaza War, consisting of airstrikes and ground incursions against targets in the Gaza Strip, with the stated aim of stopping the rocket fire from and arms smuggling into the territory. The war ended on 18 January 2009, when both sides ceased military action. Israel completed its withdrawal on 21 January, and thousands of rockets and mortars have been fired from the Gaza Strip since.

Support for a similar Egypt–Gaza barrier

Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas declared support for the Egypt–Gaza barrier, adding: "It is the Egyptians' sovereign right in their own country. Legitimate supplies should be brought through the legal crossings", although he made no such comment towards Israel's sovereign rights. The United States announced its support for the Egypt-Gaza barrier saying it would prevent weapons smuggling. Cairo's main Al-Azhar University officially backed the government's decision for an Egypt-Gaza barrier saying that it was the "state's right to build along its walls facilities and obstacles that will enhance its security."

Tunnels under the barrier

Because of the effectiveness of the barrier in stopping infiltration of Israel by militants, they adopted a strategy of digging tunnels under the barrier. On 25 June 2006, Palestinians used an 800-metre tunnel dug over a period of months to infiltrate Israel. They attacked a patrolling Israeli armored unit, killed two Israeli soldiers, and captured another one, Gilad Shalit.

Between January and October 2013, three other tunnels were identified – two of which were packed with explosives. The discovery of similarly constructed tunnels in other parts of the world have led to updated threat assessment estimates.

During the 2014 Gaza war, Israel encountered Hamas militants who popped out of tunnels into Israel and attacked soldiers along the border. After the war, Israel located and destroyed 32 tunnels. In 2018, Israel destroyed three new tunnels.

Underground anti-tunnel barrier

In response to the large number of tunnels being dug, which could be used for infiltration by militants, in mid-2017, Israel began construction of an underground border wall several meters in depth along the entire 40-km length of the border. The wall is equipped with sensors that can detect tunnel construction. The wall is located entirely on Israeli land.

In October 2020, sensors in the underground structure identified a Hamas tunnel. An Israeli military official called the tunnel "The most significant tunnel we have seen to date, both in terms of depth and infrastructure".

The anti-tunnel barrier was completed in March 2021.

Crossing points
Since 2011, there are just two crossing points on the Israel-Gaza border: the northern Erez Crossing, for the crossing of people and goods coming from Israel, and the eastern Kerem Shalom border crossing, for the crossing of goods coming from Egypt, as Israel does not allow goods to go directly from Egypt into Gaza through the Egypt–Gaza border.

Previous crossing points between Israel and Gaza were the Sufa Crossing, permanently closed by Israel in 2008, and the Karni crossing, permanently closed by Israel in 2011.

From the Palestinian perspective, the crossings are crucial to the economy of the Gaza Strip and to the daily needs of the population. Chief Palestinian Authority negotiator Saeb Erekat analyzed the closures of the crossings and said they have "proven to be counter-productive".

Erez Crossing

The Erez Crossing is a pedestrian and cargo crossing into Israel, located in northern Gaza. The crossing is currently restricted to Arab residents under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority and to Egyptian nationals or international aid officials only, and is closed to tourists. Palestinians who have a permit to work in Israel or those with permits allowing them to receive free medical treatment or to visit immediate family who are in prisons may use this crossing when it is open for pedestrian travel.

Though 5,000 Palestinians are permitted to use the Erez Crossing to go to their places of work inside Israel, the crossing was frequently closed by the Israeli authorities, impeding their ability to get to work. Additionally, the permits issued have not always been honoured by soldiers, who in some cases confiscated them at the crossing.

Kerem Shalom crossing
The Kerem Shalom border crossing is a border crossing at the Gaza Strip–Israel border, managed by the Israel Airports Authority, used by trucks carrying goods from Israel or Egypt to the Gaza Strip.

See also
 2023 Israel–Hamas war
 Outline of the 2023 Israel–Hamas war
 Egypt–Gaza barrier
 Israeli West Bank barrier
 Egypt–Gaza border
 2018–2019 Gaza border protests
 Bar Lev Line
 Erez Crossing
 Negev

References

External links

Borders of the Gaza Strip
Borders of Israel
Border barriers
Fortifications in Israel
Fortifications in the State of Palestine
Counterterrorism in Israel
Gaza–Israel conflict
Barrier
1990s establishments in Israel

Gaza–Israel barrier


Lampsakoslu Anaksimenes (; ; 320) Milet Okulu'nun üçüncü ve sonuncu düşünürü.

Arkhe olarak hava, buğu ya da sis anlamına gelen aer'i öne sürmüştür. Aer, Anaksimenes'e göre, eşit olarak dağılım gösterdiği haliyle, görünmez atmosfer olup, yoğunlaşarak buğu ve suya, daha sonra da toprak ve taş benzeri katı maddelere dönüşür. Daha az yoğun olduğu zamanlarda ise, daha sıcak hale gelip, ateş olur. Başka bir deyişle, Anaksimenes'in felsefe alanındaki yeniliği, ilk kez olarak birlikten çokluğa geçiş süreci üzerinde, var olan her şeyin havadan nasıl varlığa geldiğini açaklama işinde yoğunlaşmış olmasıdır. Buna göre, Anaksimenes birlikten çokluğa geçiş sürecini açıklarken, dudaklarımızı birbirine yaklaştırıp avucumuza üflediğimiz zaman, ağzımızdan çıkan havanın soğuk, ağzımızı fazlaca açıp, avucumuza üflediğimiz zaman da, ağzımızdan çıkan havanın sıcak olması gözleminden yararlanarak, sıkışma ve seyrekleşme kavramlarına başvurmuştur. Yani, Anaksimenes'e göre, hava seyrekleştiği zaman, ateş, sıkıştığı zaman da rüzgar, bulut, su ve toprak haline gelebilir. Bu çerçeve içinde, o, havanın seyrekleştiği zaman, daha sıcak hale geldiğini ve böylelikle de ateş olma yoluna girdiğini, buna karşın sıkıştığı zaman, daha soğuk olup katılaşma yoluna girdiğini düşünmüştür. Anaksimenes'teki seyrekleşme ve sıkışma kavramları, birlikten çokluğa geçiş sürecini açıklamaya yaradıktan başka, her tür niteliği niceliğe indirgeme girişimini temsil eder.

MÖ 380 doğumlular
MÖ 320 yılında ölenler
MÖ 4. yüzyılda doğanlar
MÖ 4. yüzyılda ölenler
MÖ 4. yüzyılda Yunanlar
MÖ 4. yüzyıl yazarları
MÖ 4. yüzyıl tarihçileri
Antik Yunan yazarlar
Antik Yunan tarihçiler
Antik Makedonya
Milet Okulu
Antik Yunan retorikçiler
MÖ 4. yüzyıl şairleri

Anaksimenes (Lampsakoslu)