Fort Greene is a neighborhood in the northwestern part of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The neighborhood is bounded by Flushing Avenue and the Brooklyn Navy Yard to the north, Flatbush Avenue Extension and Downtown Brooklyn to the west, Atlantic Avenue and Prospect Heights to the south, and Vanderbilt Avenue and Clinton Hill to the east. The Fort Greene Historic District is listed on the New York State Registry and on the National Register of Historic Places, and is a New York City designated historic district.

The neighborhood is named after an American Revolutionary War era fort that was built in 1776 under the supervision of General Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island. General Greene aided General George Washington during the Battle of Long Island in 1776. Fort Greene Park, originally called "Washington Park" is Brooklyn's first. In 1864, Fort Greene Park was redesigned by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux; the park notably includes the Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument and crypt, which honors some 11,500 patriots who died aboard British prison ships during the American Revolution.

Fort Greene contains many examples of mid-19th century Italianate and Eastlake architecture, most of which is well preserved. It is known for its many tree-lined streets and elegant low-rise housing. Fort Greene is also home to the Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower, which, for over 80 years, was the tallest building in Brooklyn. The neighborhood is close to the Atlantic Terminal station of the Long Island Rail Road and has access to many New York City Subway services.

Fort Greene is part of Brooklyn Community District 2, and its primary ZIP Codes are 11201, 11205, 11217, and 11238. It is patrolled by the 88th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. Politically it is represented by the New York City Council's 35th District.  Fort Greene is a historically African-American neighborhood that has been significantly gentrified over the years, with the Black population decreasing from 41.8% in 2000 to 25.8% in 2017.

History

Early history

In approximately A.D. 800, a gradual movement of Native Americans advanced from the Delaware area into lower New York, ultimately settling as part of the Canarsie tribe among 13 tribes of the Algonquin Nation. In 1637, Walloon reformed Joris Jansen Rapelje purchased  of Native American land from Dutch West India Company in the area of Brooklyn that became known as Wallabout Bay (from Waal Boght or "Bay of Walloons"). This is the area where the Brooklyn Navy Yard now stands on the northern border of Fort Greene. An Italian immigrant named Peter Caesar Alberti started a tobacco plantation near the bay in Fort Greene in 1649 but was killed six years later by Native Americans. In 1776, under the supervision of General Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island the American Revolutionary War era Fort Putnam was constructed. Later renamed after Greene, the fort was a star-shaped earthwork that mounted six 18-pound cannons, and was the largest on Long Island. After the American defeat in the Battle of Long Island, George Washington withdrew his troops from the Fort under the cover of darkness, a brilliant move that saved the outnumbered American army from total defeat by the British. Although the fort was repaired in advance of an expected attack on Brooklyn by the British during the War of 1812, it thereafter slowly deteriorated.

19th century

Settlement

In 1801, the U.S. government purchased land on Wallabout Bay for the construction of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, stimulating some growth in the area. Ferry service linking Manhattan and Brooklyn launched in 1814, and Brooklyn's population exploded from 4,000 to nearly 100,000 by 1850. Fort Greene was known as The Hill and was home to a small commuter population, several large farms—the Post Farm, the Spader farm, the Ryerson Farm, and the Jackson farm—and a burial ground. As early as the 1840s the farms' owners began selling off their land in smaller plots for development. Country villas, frame row houses, and the occasional brick row house dotted the countryside, and one of them was home to poet Walt Whitman, editor of the Brooklyn Eagle newspaper.

Since the early 19th century, African Americans have made significant contributions to Fort Greene's development. New York State outlawed slavery in 1827 and 20 years later "Coloured School No. 1," Brooklyn's first school for African-Americans, opened at the current site of the Walt Whitman Houses. Abolitionists formed the Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church in 1857, and hosted speakers such as Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman and also aided in the work of the Underground Railroad. Skilled African-American workers fought for their rights at the Navy Yard during the tumultuous Draft Riots of 1863 against armed hooligan bands. The principal of P.S. 67 in the same year was African American, and Dr. Phillip A. White became the first black member of Brooklyn's Board of Education in 1882. By 1870, more than half of the Black population in Brooklyn lived in Fort Greene, most of them north of Fort Greene Park.

Crowding
In the 1850s, Fort Greene's growth spread out from stagecoach lines on Myrtle Avenue and Fulton Street that ran to Fulton Ferry, and The Hill became known as the home of prosperous professionals, second only to Brooklyn Heights in prestige. During the 1850s and 1860s, blocks of Italianate brick and brownstone row houses were built on the remaining open land to house the expanding upper and middle class population. The names of the most attractive streets (Portland, Oxford, Cumberland, Carlton, and Adelphi) came from fine Westminster terraces and streets of the early 19th century. By the 1870s, construction in the area had virtually ended, and the area still maintains hundreds of Italianate, Second Empire, Greek Revival, Neo-Grec, Romanesque Revival and Renaissance Revival row houses of virtually original appearance.

As Manhattan became more crowded, people of all classes made Fort Greene their home. The unoccupied areas of Myrtle Avenue became an Irish shanty town known as "Young Dublin," In response to the horrible conditions found there, Walt Whitman called for a park to be constructed and stated in a column in the Eagle, "[as] the inhabitants there are not so wealthy nor so well situated as those on the heights...we have a desire that these, and the generations after them, should have such a place of recreation..." The park idea was soon co-opted by longtime residents to protect the last open space in the area from development.

However, The New York Times soon found that the area was too expensive for some, and that many in the area were penurious:

Focusing on a certain section of the east Brooklyn area defined as "between Flushing and DeKalb Avenues, as far east as Classon Avenue and as far west as Ryerson, extending across Fulton Avenue," the Times item said the real estate boom has resulted in class conflict among a majority of the area's longtime residents (identified as "renters or squatters") and its new neighbors—middle to upper income homeowners (identified as out-priced Manhattanites attracted to the spatial wealth of Brooklyn and able to afford the high price of its grand scale Neo-Gothic brownstones.) The paper further explained the conflict as one that had existed for some time, evidenced perhaps by a letter to the editor of a local Brooklyn paper published prior to the Times profile. The author, a new homeowner, wrote:

Washington Park, renamed Fort Greene Park in 1897, was established as Brooklyn's first park in 1847 on a  plot around the site of the old Fort. In 1864, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, by now famous for their design of Central Park, were contracted to design the park, and constructed what was described in 1884 as "one of the most central, delightful, and healthful places for recreation that any city can boast." Olmsted and Vaux's elegant design featured flowering chestnut trees along the periphery, open grassy spaces, walking paths, a vine-covered arbor facing a military salute ground, a permanent rostrum for speeches, and two lawns used for croquet and tennis. The park's success prompted the creation of the larger Prospect Park. At the highest point of the park, The Prison Ship Martyrs Monument and vault was erected in 1908 to house the bones of some of the 12,000 Revolutionary soldiers and civilians whose bodies were thrown off British prison ships and later washed ashore. The monument, designed by the firm of McKim, Mead, and White, was the world's largest Doric column at  tall, and housed a bronze urn at its apex. Restoration work on the monument was completed in the late 2000s.

On April 24, 1888, the Fulton Street Elevated began running from Fulton Ferry to Nostrand Avenue, shortening the commute of Fort Greene residents, while also blocking light and adding street noise to residents facing Fulton Street. Elevated lines also ran along Lafayette Avenue and Myrtle Avenue.

20th century

Fort Greene in the early 20th century became a significant cultural destination. After the original Brooklyn Academy of Music in Brooklyn Heights burned down in 1903, the current one was built in Fort Greene, and opened in 1908 with a production of Charles Gounod's Faust featuring Enrico Caruso and Geraldine Farrar. At the time, BAM was the most complexly designed cultural center in Greater New York since the construction of Madison Square Garden 15 years earlier. Fort Greene also showcased two stunning movie theaters, built in the 1920s: the Paramount Theater, which was ultimately incorporated into Long Island University's Brooklyn campus; and the Brooklyn Fox Theatre at the intersection of Flatbush Avenue and Fulton Street, which was demolished in 1971. Built from 1927–1929, the Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower, one of Brooklyn's tallest buildings, is located next to the Brooklyn Academy of Music. Brooklyn Technical High School, one of New York's most selective public high schools, began construction on Fort Greene Place in 1930.

The poet Marianne Moore lived and worked for many years in an apartment house on Cumberland Street. Her apartment, which is lovingly recalled in Elizabeth Bishop's essay, "Efforts of Affection", has been preserved exactly as it existed during Moore's lifetime at the Rosenbach Museum & Library in Philadelphia by the Rosenbach brothers, renowned collectors of literary ephemera. Richard Wright wrote Native Son while living on Carlton Avenue in Fort Greene.

During World War II, the Brooklyn Navy Yard employed more than 71,000 people. Due to the resulting demand for housing, the New York City Housing Authority built 35 brick buildings between 1941 and 1944 ranging in height from six to fifteen stories collectively called the Fort Greene Houses. Production at the yard declined significantly after the war and many of the workers either moved on or fell on hard times. In 1957–58, the houses were renovated and divided into the Walt Whitman Houses and the Raymond V. Ingersoll Houses. One year later. Newsweek profiled the housing project as "one of the starkest examples" of the failures of public housing. The article painted a picture of broken windows, cracked walls, flickering or inoperative lighting, and elevators being used as toilets. Further depressing the area was the decommissioning of the Navy Yard in 1966 and dismantling of the Myrtle Avenue elevated train in 1969 which made the area much less attractive to Manhattan commuters.

From the 1960s through the 1980s, Fort Greene fought hard times that came with citywide poverty, crime, and the crack epidemic. While some houses were abandoned, artists, preservationists and Black professionals began to claim and restore the neighborhood in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Herbert Scott Gibson, a resident of the street called Washington Park, organized the Fort Greene Landmarks Preservation Committee which successfully lobbied for the establishment of Historic District status. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated two districts, the Fort Greene and BAM Historic Districts, in 1978. Spike Lee established his 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks company in Fort Greene in the mid 1980s, further strengthening the resurgence of the neighborhood. From 1981 to 1997, this resurgence included the South Oxford Tennis Club, which became an important cultural hub. The Fort Greene Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 and expanded in 1984.  As a historically African-American neighborhood, the cultural revival in the 1980s and 1990s has often been compared to that of the Harlem Renaissance.

21st century

The late 1990s and early 2000s saw the influx of many new residents and businesses to Fort Greene. While issues of gentrification are raised with the Black population steeply declining from 41.8% in 2000 to 25.8% in 2017 (according to the Furman Center at New York University), Fort Greene stands to others as one of the best examples of a racially and economically diverse neighborhood. Commentary in The New York Times referred to the neighborhood as having a "prevailing sense of racial amity that intrigues sociologists and attracts middle-class residents from other parts of the city". GQ describes it as "one of the rare racial mucous membranes in the five boroughs—it's getting white-ified but isn't there yet, and so is temporarily integrated".

The controversial Atlantic Yards/Pacific Park project to build an arena (later known as the Barclays Center) for the then-New Jersey Nets (now the Brooklyn Nets) and a complex of large commercial and residential high-rises on the border of Fort Greene and Prospect Heights garnered opposition from many neighborhood residents who formed coalitions.

In 1994 Forest City Ratner promised that the project, which would be funded by taxpayers, would bring 2,250 units of affordable housing, 10,000 jobs, publicly accessible open space, and would stimulate development within ten years. , four of the fifteen planned buildings had opened, but the deadline was delayed by about 10 years from 2025 to 2035.

Fort Greene and Clinton Hill was the focus of The Local, a blog produced by The New York Times in collaboration with CUNY Graduate School of Journalism. It relied on community participation with content written by CUNY students and members of the community.

From 2001 to 2011, it was home to a popular bar called Moe's, frequented by journalists, artists, cooks, and people in the entertainment industry. It closed and was replaced by a new bar, controversially called Mo's.

In 2015, a group of anonymous artists illicitly installed a 100-pound bust of Edward Snowden, the National Security Agency leaker, atop one of the four columns at the edge of the Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument in Fort Greene Park, using a permanent adhesive. It was removed the same day by Parks Department personnel.

Demographics
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Fort Greene was 26,079, a decrease of 2,256 (8.0%) from the 28,335 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .

The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 52% White, 20% African American, 0.3% Native American, 11% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 3.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12% of the population.
The entirety of Community Board 2, which comprises Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights, had 117,046 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 80.6 years. This is slightly lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are middle-aged adults and youth: 15% are between the ages of 0–17, 44% between 25–44, and 20% between 45–64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 9% and 12% respectively.

As of 2016, the median household income in Community Board 2 was $56,599. In 2018, an estimated 22% of Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights residents lived in poverty, compared to 21% in all of Brooklyn and 20% in all of New York City. One in twelve residents (8%) were unemployed, compared to 9% in the rest of both Brooklyn and New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 39% in Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights, lower than the citywide and borough-wide rates of 52% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights are considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.

According to the 2020 census data from New York City Department of City Planning, there are between 10,000 to 19,999 White residents, and the Hispanic, Black and Asian populations are each between 5,000 to 9,999 residents. Some news articles from the mid 2010s to 2021 have spoken about the significant growing Asian population, especially the Chinese speaking population and most particularly in the affordable NYCHA housing developments of Walt Whitman Houses and Ingersoll Houses.

Boundaries

Fort Greene is bounded by Flushing Avenue to the north, Flatbush Avenue to the west, Vanderbilt Avenue to the east, and Atlantic Avenue to the south. Its main arteries are Fulton Street, Lafayette Avenue, and DeKalb Avenue, and the Brooklyn–Queens Expressway (Interstate 278) passes through the neighborhood's northern edge.

Police and crime
Fort Greene is patrolled by the 88th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 298 Classon Avenue. A second precinct building, the 84th Precinct at 301 Gold Street, is physically located in Fort Greene but does not serve the neighborhood.

The 88th Precinct ranked 64th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. This was attributed to a high rate of crimes relative to its low population, especially in the public housing developments in Fort Greene. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 40 per 100,000 people, Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights' rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 401 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.

The 88th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 82.9% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 1 murder, 12 rapes, 100 robberies, 181 felony assaults, 101 burglaries, 402 grand larcenies, and 48 grand larcenies auto in 2018.

Fire safety
Fort Greene is served by two New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations. Engine Co. 207/Ladder Co. 110/Satellite 6/Battalion 31/Division 11 is located at 172 Tillary Street, serving the western part of the neighborhood, while Engine Co. 210 is located at 160 Carlton Avenue, serving the eastern part of the neighborhood.

Health
, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights than in other places citywide. In Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights, there were 74 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 11.6 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights have a relatively low population of residents who are uninsured, or who receive healthcare through Medicaid. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 4%, which is lower than the citywide rate of 12%. However, this estimate was based on a small sample size.

The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights is , lower than the citywide and boroughwide averages. Eleven percent of Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights residents are smokers, which is slightly lower than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights, 24% of residents are obese, 6% are diabetic, and 25% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 14% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.

Eighty-eight percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is slightly higher than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 86% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," more than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights, there are 12 bodegas.

Post offices and ZIP Codes
Fort Greene is covered by ZIP Codes 11201, 11205, 11217, and 11238, which respectively cover the northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast parts of the neighborhood. The United States Post Office operates three locations nearby: the Times Plaza Station at 539 Atlantic Avenue, the Times Plaza Annex at 594 Dean Street, and the Adelphi Station at 950 Fulton Street.

Education
Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights generally have a higher ratio of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . The majority of residents (64%) have a college education or higher, while 11% have less than a high school education and 25% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 40% of Brooklynites and 38% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights students excelling in math rose from 27 percent in 2000 to 50 percent in 2011, and reading achievement rose from 34% to 41% during the same time period.

Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights' rate of elementary school student absenteeism is about equal to the rest of New York City. In Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights, 20% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, the same as the citywide average. Additionally, 75% of high school students in Fort Greene and Brooklyn Heights graduate on time, equal to the citywide average.

Educational and cultural institutions
Fort Greene is home to Brooklyn Technical High School, one of New York City's most competitive public schools, and Bishop Loughlin Memorial High School. Success Academy Charter Schools opened Success Academy Fort Greene in 2013 as an elementary school. There are two public elementary schools serving the area: PS 20, which also serves Clinton Hill, and The Urban Academy of Arts and Letters, open to all students in school district 13.

The prestigious Pratt Institute is in neighboring Clinton Hill.

Fort Greene is also home to the Brooklyn Academy of Music, the Brooklyn Music School, The Museum of Contemporary African Diasporan Arts, BRIC Arts, UrbanGlass, 651 Arts performing center for African-American presenters, The Irondale Center for Theater, Education, and Outreach, the Mark Morris Dance Center and Lafayette Church.

Library
The Brooklyn Public Library (BPL)'s Walt Whitman branch is located at 93 Saint Edwards Street. The current Carnegie library structure opened in 1908, though a library had existed in Fort Greene since 1900.

Transportation

The neighborhood is served by the New York City Subway at DeKalb Avenue (), Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center (), Lafayette Avenue (), and Fulton Street (). The LIRR's Atlantic Terminal station is also here, and the neighborhood is also served by the  bus routes.

Fort Greene is served by NYC Ferry's Astoria route, which stops at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The Brooklyn Navy Yard stop opened on May 20, 2019.

There are plans to build the Brooklyn–Queens Connector (BQX), a light rail system that would run along the waterfront from Red Hook through Fort Greene to Astoria in Queens. However, the system is projected to cost $2.7 billion, and the projected opening has been delayed until at least 2029.

Notable residents

Politicians and political activists

 Letitia James (born 1958), Attorney General of New York
 Hakeem Jeffries (born 1970), U.S. representative for New York's 8th congressional district
 Velmanette Montgomery (born 1942), State Senator
 Walter T. Mosley (born 1967), Assemblyman
 Eli Pariser (born 1980), activist and co-founder of MoveOn.org, Avaaz.org, and CEO of Upworthy
 Zephyr Teachout (born 1971), associate law professor at Fordham University and 2014 Democratic gubernatorial candidate
Conrad Tillard (born 1964), politician, Baptist minister, radio host, author, and civil rights activist

Writers

 Helen Adam (1909–1993), Scottish poet, collagist and photographer
 Gwendolyn B. Bennett (1903-1981), Harlem Renaissance writer and artist
 Uli Beutter Cohen, documentarian
 Truman Capote (1924–1984), novelist
 Colin Channer, novelist
 Jennifer Egan, novelist
 Sasha Frere-Jones, writer and former music critic for The New Yorker
 Nelson George, music journalist and novelist
 Amitav Ghosh, novelist
 Clara Whitehill Hunt (1871-1958), children's novelist
 David Henry Hwang, playwright
 Jhumpa Lahiri, novelist
 Karan Mahajan, novelist
 Marianne Moore, poet who lived at 260 Cumberland Street from 1929 to 1966. Moore worshiped at the Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church and fought to save the boathouse and camperdown elm in Prospect Park.
 Carl Hancock Rux, novelist, poet, playwright, and recording artist
 John Steinbeck, novelist
 Adario Strange, writer-filmmaker
 Touré, novelist, music journalist and TV host
 Michael Weller, playwright
 Colson Whitehead, novelist, lived in the area early in his career
 Walt Whitman, poet who was influential in the creation of Fort Greene Park in 1843
 Richard Wright, novelist, wrote Native Son while living at 175 Carlton Avenue

Artists

Photographers and visual artists

 Ernest Crichlow (1914-2005), social realist artist
 Kyle DeWoody (born 1984/85), gallery owner and curator
 Akiko Ichikawa, artist and activist
 Gertrude Käsebier (1852-1934), photographer
 Robert Mapplethorpe (1946–1989), photographer
 Chris Ofili, artist
 José Parlá, artist
 David Salle, painter
 Ken Schles (born 1960), photographer.
 Lorna Simpson, photographer
 Mickalene Thomas, visual artist
 Kara Walker, visual artist
 Carrie Mae Weems, photographer
 Robert Wilson, artist and theater director

Musicians

 Erykah Badu, musician
 Gary Bartz, musician
 Lester Bowie (1941-1999), musician
 Betty Carter, musician
 Steve Coleman, musician
 Carla Cook, musician
 Dana Dane, musician
 Slide Hampton, musician
 John Wesley Harding, singer
 El-P, underground hip-hop artist and founder of Definitive Jux Records; his album "I'll Sleep When You're Dead" was recorded at his residence in Fort Greene
 Ol' Dirty Bastard, rapper (deceased), grew up in Fort Greene
 Digable Planets, hip-hop group
 Free Murda, rapper, cousin of ODB and RZA
 Popa Wu, patriarch of the Wu-Tang Clan
 Just-Ice, rapper
 Lisa Fischer, musician, born in Fort Greene
 Mary Halvorson, guitarist
 Talib Kweli, rapper
 Vernon Reid, musician of Living Colour
 Chubb Rock, rapper
Justine Skye, singer
 Patti Smith, musician, now lives in the Rockaways
 Cecil Taylor (1929-2018), jazz musician
 Johnny Temple, musician with the bands Soulside and Girls Against Boys
 Citizen Cope, musician
 Bill Lee, musician and father of Spike Lee; Rented rooms on Carlton Avenue to musicians Eric Dolphy, Freddie Hubbard, Wes Montgomery, and Wayne Shorter.
 Branford Marsalis, musician
 Toshi Reagon, musician
 Rev. Hezekiah Walker, musician
 Mos Def, actor, rapper
 John Flansburgh and John Linnell of the band They Might Be Giants
Jalal Mansur Nuriddin, founding member of The Last Poets

TV and movie industry

Directors, producers, choreographers

 Alan Ball (born 1957), screenwriter and producer; creator and writer of Six Feet Under and True Blood
 Ernest Dickerson, film director and cinematographer
 Lee Hirsch, documentary filmmaker; writer-director of Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony (2002) and Bully (2011)
 Spike Lee, film director; lives now in Harlem but maintains his movie studio 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks there, and several of his films, including She's Gotta Have It, and She Hate Me were partially shot in Fort Greene.
 Sonya Tayeh, (born 1977/78) choreographer
 Robert Verdi (born 1968), fashion stylist

Actors and performers

 Uzo Aduba (born 1981), Golden-Globe-winning star of Netflix's Orange Is the New Black
 Wyatt Cenac (born 1976), comedian, actor, producer and Emmy Award winning writer, who hosts and produces the HBO series Wyatt Cenac's Problem Areas
 Adrian Grenier (born 1976), actor who now lives in Clinton Hill
 Gaby Hoffmann (born 1982), actress best known for her roles in Sleepless in Seattle, Transparent and Girls
 Holly Hunter (born 1958), actress
 Kyle Jean-Baptiste (1993-2015), actor
 Denis O'Hare (born 1962), actor
 Rosie Perez (born 1964), The View host and Academy Award-nominated actor.
 Christina Ricci (born 1980), actress.
 Chris Rock, now lives in Alpine, New Jersey
 Keri Russell
 Roger Guenveur Smith (born 1955), actor, director and writer
 Alek Wek
 Saul Williams, singer, musician, poet, writer, and actor (now lives in Paris)
 Jeffrey Wright

Athletes

 Taj Gibson (born 1985), NBA player
 Ronald Holmberg (born 1938), ranked World No. 7 in tennis 1960 and in the U.S. Top 10 for nine years.
 Michael Jordan (born 1963), entrepreneur, owner/chairman of the Charlotte Hornets, and former NBA player
 Albert King (born 1959), former NBA player and younger brother of Bernard King
 Bernard King (born 1956), former NBA player
 Lia Neal (born 1995), 2012 US Olympic bronze-winning swimmer
 Mike Tyson (born 1966), professional boxer who was undisputed heavyweight champion from 1987-90.

Criminals
 Al Capone, born in Fort Greene
 Nicky Cruz, former leader of a notorious New York City gang, The Mau-Maus; later became a Christian evangelist
 Kelvin Martin, an infamous robbery expert and criminal also known as the original 50 Cent

Other notables
 Brigadier General (Brevet) Edward Brush Fowler, American Civil War. Commander, 14th Regiment, also known as the 14th Brooklyn, nicknamed the Red Legged Devils at the First Battle of Bull Run; for whom Fowler Square is named
Georgianna Glose, Dominican religious sister and founder/director of the Fort Greene Strategic Neighborhood Action Partnership
 William Quan Judge, mystic, esotericist, and occultist, and one of the founders of the original Theosophical Society
 Dr. Susan McKinney Steward, first African American woman to receive a medical degree in New York State and the third in the U.S.

References
Notes

Further reading

 Lockwood, Charles, Bricks and Brownstone, The New York Townhouse 1783–1928, Abbeville Press, 1988. .
 Morrone, Francis, An Architectural Guidebook to Brooklyn, Gibbs Smith, Publisher, 2001. .
 History of Fort Greene. Retrieved May 9, 2006.
 Former resident Colson Whitehead writes about Fort Greene gentrification

External links

 Fort Greene Association
 Fort Greene Park Conservancy

Neighborhoods in Brooklyn
Populated places on the Underground Railroad

Fort Greene, Brooklyn


Shāh Chérāgh () é um monumento funerário, mausoléu e mesquita em Xiraz, Irã, que abriga o túmulo dos irmãos Ahmad e Muhammad, filhos de Mūsā al-Kādhim e irmãos de 'Alī ar-Ridhā. Os dois se refugiaram na cidade durante a perseguição abássida aos muçulmanos xiitas. Shāh-é-Chérāgh é persa para "Rei da Luz".

História
O mausoléu Shah Cheragh é o local de peregrinação mais importante da cidade de Xiraz. Os túmulos tornaram-se famosos centros de peregrinação no século XIV, quando a rainha Tashi Khatun ergueu uma mesquita e uma escola teológica nas proximidades. O local recebeu esse nome devido à natureza da descoberta do local por Ayatullah Dastghā'ib. É classificada por muitos viajantes como a mesquita mais bonita do mundo. O santuário foi popularizado no ocidente quando, em outubro de 1976, a revista Interview publicou uma sessão de fotos Firooz Zahedi de Elizabeth Taylor como matéria de capa.

Atentado terrorista em 2022

Em 26 de outubro de 2022, pelo menos 15 pessoas foram mortas em um tiroteio em massa no mausoléu de Shah Cheragh. O Estado Islâmico reivindicou a responsabilidade pelo ataque.

Mesquitas do Irão
Mausoléus do Irã
Lugares sagrados do islão
Arquitetura safávida
Xiraz

Shah Cheragh


Våbenbrødre er en dansk animationsfilm fra 2014 instrueret af Cav Bøgelund.

Handling
Ørn er delingsfører i Afghanistan og samarbejder med den lokale politikaptajn, Fareed. På tværs af kulturelle skel kæmper deres mænd side om side i den krigshærgede region. Men da en af de afghanske betjente pludselig vender sit våben mod danskerne og trykker af, bliver samarbejdet mellem de to ledere sat på en hård prøve. Før soldaterne når at reagere, er forræderen stukket af, efterladende Ørn såret på jorden og hans tolk dræbt. Ørn sendes hjem til Danmark, men vender hurtigt tilbage til Afghanistan, for at fortsætte arbejdet som om intet er hændt. Således drager danskerne igen på patrulje med Fareed og hans betjente, men mistilliden ulmer under overfladen, og det bliver sværere og sværere for Ørn, ikke kun at holde sine mænds paranoia i skak, men også sin egen. I et land hvor intet er sort og hvidt og hvor korruption gennemsyrer alt, er det svært at skelne venner fra fjender - og tillid et spørgsmål om liv og død. Filmen er inspireret af virkelige hændelser og har danske soldater i rollerne som Ørn og hans mænd.

Medvirkende

  Kilde: DanskeFilmStemmer.dk

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Animationsfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2014
Dramafilm fra Danmark

Våbenbrødre (film)


An Staurochilus ionosmus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John Lindley, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Schltr.. An Staurochilus ionosmus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Staurochilus, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Philippines. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Staurochilus

Staurochilus ionosmus


Diofizitizm, ilahi ve insani iki tabiatın Tanrı İsa Mesih'in eşsiz şahsında bir arada var olduğu Kristolojik görüştür.

İskenderiyeli Aziz Athanasius'a göre, İsa tamamen insan ve tamamen Tanrı'ydı.

Kadıköy Konsili, Doğu Ortodoks Kilisesi, Roma Katolik Kilisesi, Doğu Katolik Kiliseleri dahil olmak üzere Hristiyan kiliselerinin çoğunluğu ve ayrıca Anglikan Kilisesi, Eski Katolik Kilisesi ve ayrıca Reformcu, Lutherci ve diğer çeşitli Hristiyan mezhepleri tarafından günümüze kadar sürdürülen İsa Mesih'in iki doğasına ilişkin Kristolojik doktrinin temeli oldu. Bu tanım, Mesih'in iki doğasının tek hipostazda olduğunu belirtir. Bunların dışında Süryani Kilisesi ise Monofizit görüşü ve Antakya Kateşistik Okulu geleneğini izlemeyi seçmiştir.

Ayrıca bakınız
Monofizitizm
Miafizitizm
Nesturilik
Birinci Efes Konsili
İkinci İstanbul Konsili
Oryantal Ortodoks Kilisesi

Kaynakça

Hristiyanlık

Diofizitizm


ملعب جاسم بن حمد هو استاد رياضي متعدد الاستخدامات يقع في الدوحة في قطر. بني عام 1974 م. يستطيع الاستاد تحمل 15 ألف متفرج.

مراجع

الرياضة في الدوحة
مبان ومنشآت اكتملت في 2004
ملاعب رياضية في الدوحة
ملاعب رياضة اكتملت في 1974
ملاعب كرة قدم في قطر
ملاعب متعددة الاستخدام في قطر
نادي السد (قطر)

ملعب جاسم بن حمد


Caretta caretta, Caretta cinsine bağlı bir deniz kaplumbağası türüdür.

Yumurtlamak haricinde karaya hiç çıkmaz. Sırt tarafı kırmızımsı kahverengi, alt tarafı ise beyazımsı açık sarı renklidir. Bacakları yüzmeye yarayacak biçimde kürek biçimi almıştır ve dış kenarlarında en fazla 2 tırnak bulunur.  Erkekleri  hem daha uzun hem de geriye doğru kıvrılmış tırnakları ve uzun kuyrukları ile dişilerinden ayrılır. Oksijeni havadan almasına rağmen uzun süre su altında kalabilir. Yumurtalarını gece kumsallarda açtıkları çukurlara gömerler. Tek seferde 100 yumurta bırakabilir (162'ye kadar tespit edilmiştir). Yavrular 2 aylık kuluçka döneminden sonra gece vakti yumurtadan çıkarak denize giderler.

Akdeniz sahillerine yayılmıştır. En önemli yumurtlama bölgesi Adana'nın Yumurtalık ilçesi ve Belek, Anamur, Köyceğiz, Dalyan sahilidir. Belek kıyıları, Caretta caretta'ların Akdeniz'deki ikinci (Yunanistan'ın Zakintos adasının ardından) ve Türkiye'nin en büyük yumurtlama alanıdır. 2006 yılı içinde Belek'te 1000 civarında, Anamur'da 2007 yılında 1040 adet yuva tespit edilmiş ve koruma altına alınmıştır. Kabuk boyları 1 metre kadar büyüyebilir. Balıklar, kabuklular ve su canlıları (özellikle deniz anaları) ile beslenir.

Yaklaşık Eosen'den beri yeryüzünde oldukları bilinmektedir. İnsanoğlunun yerleşme ve çoğalma kapasitesi yüzünden ve ışık kirliliği nedeniyle bugün sayıları giderek azalmaktadır. Nesli tükenme tehlikesi altında olduğu için koruma altında tutulmaktadır.

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar

Arnold EN, Burton JA (1978). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe. London: Collins. 272 pp. . (Caretta caretta, p. 95 + Figure 2 on p. 99).
Behler JL, King FW (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 743 pp., 657 color plates. . (Caretta caretta, pp. 475–476 + Plate 265).

Boulenger GA (1889). Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and Crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural History). New Edition. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, Printers). x + 311 pp. + Plates I-III. (Thalassochelys caretta, pp. 184–186).
Goin CJ, Goin OB, Zug GR (1978). Introduction to Herpetology, Third Edition. San Francisco, California: W.H. Freeman and Company. xi + 378 pp. . (Caretta caretta, pp. 122, 124, 267).
Gulko D, Eckert KL (2004). Sea Turtles: An Ecological Guide. Honolulu, Hawai'i: Mutual Publishing. .
Linnaeus C (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, diferentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 824 pp. (Testudo caretta, new species, pp. 197–198). (in Latin).

Powell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp., 47 plates, 207 figures. . (Caretta caretta, p. 192 + Plate 14 + Figure 81 on p. 174).
Smith HM, Brodie ED Jr (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. . (Caretta caretta, pp. 36–37).
Stejneger L, Barbour T (1917). A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 125 pp. (Caretta caretta, p. 123).

Dış bağlantılar
 A 3D animation of a sea turtle.

Kaynakça

Caretta
Avrupa sürüngenleri
Türkiye'deki sürüngenler
Carl Linnaeus tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Caretta caretta


På landsholdet er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1982.

Handling
Kombineret kampreportage fra 2 EM-kvalifikationskampe og portrætter af henholdsvis Ole Qvist og Allen Simonsen. Del 1 er om kampen imod Jugoslavien og Ole Qvist, der fortæller om arbejdet på banen og forberedelserne for en målmand, mens vi ser et resume af kampen. Del 2 er om kampen imod Grækenland og Allan Simonsen, der kritiserer landsholdets korte forberedelsestid og taler om forskellige spillestile.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1982

På landsholdet


Demetrio es el título de una ópera seria que el italiano Pietro Metastasio (1698 – 1782) escribió como poeta oficial del  Emperador de Austria. El libreto es el noveno de los 27 que escribió Metastasio, situándose entre Artaserse (1730) e Issipile (1732).

En 1731 el compositor italiano Antonio Caldara, a la sazón maestro de capilla de la corte imperial de Viena, musicó el texto de Metastasio. La ópera, cantada en italiano y dividida en 3 actos, fue estrenada el Teatro Imperial de la Corte de Viena el 4 de noviembre, con motivo de la onomástica del emperador  Carlos VI  de Austria.

Composición
Las fuentes a las que acudió Metastasio para escribir el libreto de Demetrio fueron: la Geografía del historiador griego Estrabón y los trabajos de Diodoro de Sicilia.

Estreno
En 1732 el compositor alemán Johann Adolph Hasse (Bergedorf, 1699 – Venecia, 1783) retomó el libreto de Metastasio para componer una ópera homónima, cantada en italiano y dividida en tres actos, cuyo estreno tuvo lugar en el Teatro San Juan Crisóstomo de Venecia durante la temporada de carnaval.

Personajes

{| class="wikitable"
! Personaje
!  Tesitura
! Reparto en 1732Director: Johann Adolph Hasse
|-
| Demetrio / Alceste  (Príncipe bajo el nombre de Alceste)
|castrato
| Antonio Bernacchi
|-
|Alejandro (Usurpador del trono seléucida)
|¿?
|¿?
|-
| Cleonice  (Hija de Alejandro y enamorada de Demetrio)
|soprano
| Faustina Bordoni Hasse
|-
| Fenicio  (Preceptor de Demetrio)
|sopranista
| Antonio Barbieri
|-
| Olinto
|sopranista
| Giuseppe Appiani
|-
|Barsene |soprano
| Barbara Stabili Scarlatti
|-
|Mitrane '|soprano
| Anna Cattarina della Parte
|}

Escenografía: Girolamo Mengozzi Colonna
Coreografía: Giovanni Gallo
Vestuario: Natale Canziani

 Argumento

Demetrio I Sóter , rey seléucida de Siria, expulsado de su propio reino por el usurpador Alejandro Balas, murió desterrado entre los cretenses, únicos amigos que le quedaron en su adversa fortuna. No obstante, antes de su fuga, entregó a su hijo menor, el pequeño  Demetrio, a Fenicio, el más fiel entre sus vasallos, para que lo custodiase hasta que se presentara la oportunidad de la venganza.

Creció el príncipe real desconocida su condición, incluso para sí mismo, bajo el falso nombre de Alceste, durante un tiempo en la selva, donde la prudencia de Fenicio consiguió ocultarlo a las pesquisas del susodicho Alejandro, y después en Seleucia junto al propio Fenicio, que tan generoso se mostró con él como ejemplo de su fe inviolable. En poco tiempo, el creído Alceste llegó a ser la admiración del reino, tal que fue elevado a considerable grado en la milicia de su enemigo Alejandro, y ardientemente querido por Cleonice, hija de éste, princesa digna de padre más generoso.

Cuando le pareció momento oportuno, el muy observador Fenicio empezó a tentar el ánimo de los vasallos, haciendo hábilmente esparcir en el pueblo que el joven Demetrio vivía, aunque bajo nombre desconocido. A esta voz, que se extendió en un momento, los cretenses se declararon defensores del legítimo príncipe. Y Alejandro, para extinguir el incendio antes de que fuera más grande, intentó reprimirlos, pero fue vencido por ellos y muerto. En la pugna se vio envuelto Alceste por necesidad de su grado militar, y durante algún tiempo no se tuvo en Seléucida más noticia de él.

Por tanto, la muerte de Alejandro, tan deseada por Fenicio, vino a suceder en un momento inoportuno para sus cálculos, tanto porque Alceste no estaba en Seléucia, como porque conocía que, en esta situación, la codicia de los altos cargos, cada uno de los cuales aspiraba a la corona, habría hecho pasar por impostor al legítimo heredero. Por tanto, suspirando por el retorno y solicitando ocultamente el socorro de los cretenses, dejó de publicar su secreto.

Mientras tanto, se convino entre los pretendientes que la princesa Cleonice, reconocida por todos como reina, eligiera de entre ellos a un marido. Esta difirió largamente la elección bajo distintos pretextos, para esperar la llegada de Alceste, el cual llegó oportunamente cuando la afligida reina estaba ya a punto de tener que elegir.

Luego, tras varias vicisitudes, descubierto en Alceste al verdadero Demetrio, recobró éste la paterna corona.

 Influencia
Metastasio tuvo gran influencia sobre los compositores de ópera desde principios del  a comienzos del . Los teatros de más renombre representaron en este período obras del ilustre italiano, y los compositores musicalizaron los libretos que el público esperaba ansioso. Demetrio'' fue utilizada por más de 50 compositores para componer otras tantas óperas; sin embargo el paso del tiempo ha hecho caer en el olvido a todas ellas.

Véase también
 Anexo: Óperas tituladas "Demetrio" que tienen por libretista a Metastasio.
 Anexo: Óperas con libreto de Metastasio

Referencias

 New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2ª Ed. (2001)

Óperas de Johann Adolph Hasse
Óperas en italiano
Óperas de 1732
Óperas estrenadas en Venecia

Demetrio (Hasse)


ام 113 ناقلة جنود مدرعة مجنزرة طورت بواسطة موسسة فوود ماشينري كورب (FMC Corporation) واختبرت أول مرة من قبل وحدات المشاة الالية في الجيش الأمريكي في فيتنام نيسان / أبريل 1962 . وال ام 113 أكثر المدرعات الأمريكية استخداما خلال حرب فيتنام ، حيث استخدمت لاختراق الادغال وسط الغابات الكثيفة واجتياح مواقع العدو (وكان الثوار الفيتنامين يسمونها التنين الأخضر).

ام 113 استخدمت درع المنيوم جديد مما جعل المدرعة اخف من سابقاتها ، ولكنها قوية كفاية لحماية الطاقم والركاب بداخلها من نيران الاسلحة الصغيرة لكن خفيفة بما يكفي لتُحمل جوا إضافة لكونها برمائية .
وقد استبدلت ال ام 113 بمدعات احدث من نوع أم2 برادلي كمدرعة صف أول ، لكن اعداد كبيرة من ال ام 113 ماتزال في الخدمة وتلعب ادوار الدعم مثل مدرعة اسعاف ، حاملة هاون ، مدرعة اصلاح ، مدرعة قيادة ، الخ .
أنتجت ام 113 بانواع متعددة وانتشر استخدامها في جميع انحاء العالم ، وفي الولايات المتحدة تشكل ال ام 113 بانواعها المختلفة حوالي نصف مدرعات الجيش الأمريكي اليوم ، وحتى اليوم يقدر عدد ما انتج من ام 113 80,000 مدرعة تستخدم في حوالي 50 بلدا حول العالم مما يجعلها من بين أكثر مدرعات العالم انتشارا. يخطط الجيش الأمريكي لاستبدال ال ام 113 ب (مركبات مدرعة متعددة الاغراض) وتعرف اختصاراً ب (AMPV) بحلول عام 2018 .

تم وقف إنتاج الإم-113 في عام 2007. وبدأ الجيش برنامج المركبة المدرعة متعددة الأغراض (AMPV) للبحث عن بديل. في عام 2014، اختار الجيش الأمريكي مقترح بي أيه إي سيستمز لنسخة بدون برج من مركبة برادلي القتالية لتحل محل أكثر من 2800 إم-113 في الخدمة.

التطوير

كان الجيش الأمريكي يستخدم نوعين من المدرعات الأولى ثقيلة وتسمى ام 75 والاخرى اخف وزنا واقل تدريعا وتسمى ام 59 ولكل من النوعين عيوبه ف ام 75 كانت ثقيلة وغير برمائية ولايمكن نقلها جواً بالإضافة إلى كلفتها الباهضة، بينما ابرز عيوب ال ام 59 فكان درعها الخفيف .وكان الجيش الأمريكي يتطلع إلى مدرعة تجمع المميزات في كلا التصميمين  وقد عملت موسسة فوود ماشينري كورب (التي أنتجت المدرعتين السابقتين)مع شركة كيسر المنيوم اند كيميكل كو . اواخر عقد الخمسينات لتطوير درع من الالمنيوم باستخدامه يمكن إنتاج مدرعة قادرة على توفير حماية ام 57 , وخفة وزن وحركية ال ام 59 .
قدمت موسسة فوود ماشينري نموذجين الأول باسم تي 113 والثاني باسم تي 117 , وقد اختير ال تي 113 لوزنه الاخف مقارنة بمنافسه مع توفيره نفس القدر من الحماية .

الاستخدام العام في القتال
لعبت ناقلات الإم-113 دورًا فعالًا في عمليات الاستطلاع بالقوة (RIF)، ومهام البحث والتدمير، والتوغلات في خطوط العدو. مثلما فعلت الولايات المتحدة في غزو كمبوديا في 1 مايو 1970 وبعد ذلك لاوس (عملية لام سون 719) في عام 1971؛ استخدمت جميعها إم-113 كسلاح فُرسان ورأس حربة الجيوش البرية. أثناء العمل مع سلاح الفرسان والوحدات المدرعة، غالبًا ما عملت ناقلات الإم-113 جنبًا إلى جنب مع دبابات إم-48 باتون  الأمريكية.

استخدم جيش جمهورية فيتنام أيضًا ناقلات الجنود المدرعة إم-113. في عام 1963 أثناء حرب فيتنام كان أول من قام بإستخدامها كـ"مركبة فرسان هجومية مدرعة" أو "ACAV"، حيث كان مفهومًا وتعديلًا ميدانيًا جديدًا. استخدمها الجيش كناقلة جنود مدرعة وكمركبة قتال مشاة، وفي أغلب الأحيان، كدبابة خفيفة بدلاً من أن تكون "كناقلة جُند قتالية" كما تُمليه عقيدة الجيش الأمريكي. في عام 1975، ومع أخر مراحل الحرب وسقوط مدينة سايجون عاصمة الجنوب، تم تدمير والاستيلاء على 1381 ناقلة إم-113.

التسليح

تسلح ناقلة الجنود المدرعة ام 113 اساساً بعدد من انظمة الاسلحة . أكثر سلاح مستخدم هو المدفع الرشاش المفرد ام 2 عيار 50 , ويمكن ان تزود المدرعة ب قاذف رمان اوتوماتيكي ام كي 19 عيار 40 ملم . ويمكن ان تزود المدرعة بعدد من الاسلحة المضادة للدبابات وقد طور الجيش الأمريكي طقم لاستخدام صواريخ مضادة للدبابات «ام 47 دراغون»، و«بي جي ام - 71 تاو» ، في حالة ام 47 يتم تركيب منظومة الصواريخ دون الحاجة إلى نزع المدفع الرشاش ،وهذا يمكن القائد من استخدام كلا السلاحين . ويمكن نصب مدافع بذخائر شديدة الانفجار بعيار يتراوح من 20 ملم إلى 105 ملم مما يجعل المدرعة تتحول إلى سلاح هجومي ومدرعة اسناد ناري مع احتفاضها بمقصورة لنقل جنود المشاة الراجلة أو جنود الدروع.

الدرع

صنعت مدرعة ام 113 من خليط المنيوم يسمى(5083 aircraft-quality aluminum alloy) مما يمنح المدرعة نفس قوة الفولاذ مع خفة الوزن
نسبياً .

الحركة
يسمح وزنها الخفيف باستخدام محرك صغير نسبيًا لتشغيلها، وهو محرك ديترويت 6V53 V6 ديزل ثنائي الشوط بسعة 5,210 سم٣ مع ناقل حركة أوتوماتيكي Allison TX-100-1 ثلاثي السرعات. وهذا يسمح للمركبة بحمل حمولة كبيرة عبر مسافات شاسعة أو نقلها بطائرات ثابتة ودوارة. يمكن للنسخ الأولية من الإم-113 الإبحار دون نشر ستائر التعويم، ويتم دفعهم في الماء بواسطة مساراتهم.

الدول المُستخدمة

المُستخدمون الحاليون

  حزب الله

معرض الصور

اقرأ ايضاً
 إف في510 واريور
 بي إم بي-3

المراجع

عربات قتال مدرعة أمريكية
مركبات عسكرية
مركبات عسكرية 1960–1969
ناقلات أفراد مدرعة ألمانية
ناقلات جنود مدرعة

إم-113


Olivia Smart est une patineuse artistique britannique puis espagnole, née le  à Sheffield. Elle est la partenaire de danse sur glace de Joseph Buckland de 2011 à 2015 puis d'Adrià Díaz à partir de 2016. Avec Díaz, elle participe aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022, terminant , obtenant ainsi un diplôme olympique.

Biographie

Carrière sportive
Olivia Smart patine le début de sa carrière sportive avec Joseph Buckland pour son pays de naissance, le Royaume-Uni, jusqu'en 2015. Avec son partenaires, elle participe à trois mondiaux juniors et un mondial senior.

Olivia Smart obtient la nationalité espagnole en juillet 2017. Elle est ainsi éligible avec Adrià Díaz pour participer aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2018. Le couple n'est pas sélectionné, la place espagnole revenant à Kirill Khaliavin et Sara Hurtado.

Quatre ans plus tard, Smart et Díaz dominent leurs compatriotes dans le processus de sélection pour les Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022. Lors de ces Jeux, ils sont tout d'abord neuvièmes de la danse rythmique. Sixième de la danse libre disputée sur la musique du masque de Zorro, ils se classent sixièmes avec 121.41 points soit un nouveau record d'Espagne. Avec 199.11 points au classement final, là aussi un nouveau record national, ils remplissent leur objectif d'obtenir un diplôme olympique en se classant huitièmes.

Après la fin de la carrière sportive de son partenaire Adrià Díaz, elle patine depuis 2023 avec l'allemand Tim Dieck.

Palmarès
Avec deux partenaires :
  Joseph Buckland (4 saisons : 2011-2015)
  Adrià Díaz (6 saisons : 2016-2022)
  Tim Dieck (1 saison : 2023-2024)

Notes et références

Lien externe

Patineuse artistique espagnole
Patineuse artistique britannique
Patineuse artistique aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022
Naissance en avril 1997
Naissance à Sheffield

Olivia Smart


An Panicum amarum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Stephen Elliott. An Panicum amarum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Panicum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Panicum

Panicum amarum


Juan Benito Díaz de Gamarra y Dávalos (1745-1783) fue un filósofo mexicano del periodo novohispano. Fue una figura representativa de la ilustración en el continente americano.

Vida
Nace en Zamora, Michoacán, el 21 de marzo de 1745 del matrimonio formado por Diego Díaz de Gamarra, oriundo de Vizcaya y Ana Dávalos de Martínez Aldana, una criolla de la élite novohispana. Ingresa al Colegio San Ildefonso de la Ciudad de México en 1756, donde estudia rétorica, artes y cánones. Posteriormente, entra a la Congregación de San Felipe Neri en 1764, a la edad de diecinueve años. Es nombrado procurador de la Congregación y viaja por España, Portugal y Roma, entre 1767 y 1770. Logró cumplir con su papel de procurador al incorporar la Iglesia del Oratorio de San Miguel el Grande a la de San Juan de Letrán. Además, obtiene su Doctorado en cánones en la Universidad de Pisa y es admitido como miembro de la Academia de Ciencias de Bolonia. A su regreso a México en 1770, funge como rector y catedrático de filosofía en el Colegio de San Francisco de Sales, en San Miguel el Grande. Reforma el plan de estudios para ponerlo a la altura de los mejores de Europa. Es destituido de la rectoría y de su cátedra de filosofía, y nombrado prefecto de estudios, cargo que también perderá debido a posturas intelectuales y a su posesión de libros prohibidos. Muere el 1 de noviembre de 1783.

Pensamiento
La filosofía de Díaz de Gamarra muestra una actitud científica antiperipatética y constituye un buen ejemplo del eclecticismo ilustrado hispánico, en el que intentan conciliarse ideas de sistemas filosóficos compatibles, que Díaz de Gamarra describe a veces como "sectas filosóficas". Recibe principalmente la influencia directa de Descartes y de Tomás Vicente Tosca, y la influencia indirecta de Leibniz a través de Christian Wolff. Los valores principales de la filosofía de Díaz de Gamarra son indisociables de su espíritu ilustrado: el buen sentido, la racionalidad, la tolerancia y la utilidad para el hombre. Se le considera un precursor de la Independencia de México.

Obra
Entre las principales obras filosóficas de Díaz de Gamarra, cabe destacar: Elementos de filosofía moderna (1774), Academias filosóficas (1774), Errores del entendimiento humano (1781) y Memorial ajustado (1790).

Bibliografía
 Juan Benito Díaz de Gamarra, Tratados, México D.F., UNAM, 1995

Referencias

Juan Benito Díaz de Gamarra y Dávalos (1745-1783)
 EMETERIO VALVERDE TÉLLEZ (1864-1948) · Crítica filosófica o Estudio bibliográfico y crítico de las obras de Filosofía escritas, traducidas o publicadas en México desde el siglo XVI hasta nuestros días (1904), Capítulo IV Influencia del Padre Gamarra en los estudios filosóficos.

Nacidos en Zamora de Hidalgo
Filósofos de México
Escritores de Michoacán

Juan Benito Díaz de Gamarra y Dávalos


Impalers er et dansk thrash metal-band dannet i Haderslev i 2007. Bandet består af Søren Crawack (guitar og vokal), Thomas Carnell (lead guitar), Kenneth Frandsen (basguitar) og Rasmus Kjær (trommer).

Gruppens debutalbum, Power Behind The Throne, udkom i 2013, og fik gode anmeldelser. Det næste album udkom i 2015 under navnet God from The Machine, og det modtog ligeledes pæn modtagelse på Heavymetal.dk. Gruppens tredje album, The Celestial Dictator, udkom i 2017 og fik pæne anmeldelser.

Diskografi

Albummer
 Power Behind The Throne (2013)
 God From The Machine (2015)
 The Celestial Dictator (2017)

Singler
 "Styx Demon" (2017)
 "Sun" (2017)
 "From Ashes To Iron" (2019)

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Impalers på Discogs
 Impalers på heavymetal.dk
 Impalers på Encyclopaedia Metallum

Musikgrupper fra Danmark
Musikgrupper fra 2007
Thrash metal-grupper

Impalers


القتل الجماعي، على النحو الذي حدده عالم الإبادة الجماعية إرفين ستوب، هو «قتل أعضاء من جماعة دون نية للقضاء على المجموعة بأكملها أو قتل أعداد كبيرة من الناس دون تعريف دقيق لعضوية المجموعة».  يستخدم هذا المصطلح عدد من علماء الإبادة الجماعية لأن مصطلح «الإبادة الجماعية» (تعريفه الدقيق) لا يغطي أحداث القتل الجماعي عندما لا يتم استهداف مجموعة عرقية أو دينية محددة، وعندما لا يكون الجناة مقصودين للقضاء على المجموعة بأكملها أو جزء كبير منها. تناقش هذه المقالة بشكل أساسي النماذج المختلفة التي يستخدمها علماء الإبادة الجماعية لشرح وتوقع بداية أحداث القتل الجماعي.

المصطلح
وفقًا لـ Weiss-Wendt، فإن أي محاولات لتطوير مصطلحات مقبولة عالميًا تصف عمليات القتل الجماعي لغير المقاتلين كانت فاشلة تمامًا  فيما يلي قائمة بالمصطلحات التي يستخدمها علماء الإبادة الجماعية لوصف عمليات القتل الجماعي.

الطرد ضد القتل الجماعي القسري

يرى بينجامين فالنتينو دوافع الحاكم كعامل رئيسي يفسر بداية عمليات القتل الجماعي، يحدد فئتين رئيسيتين من عمليات القتل الجماعي، وعمليات القتل الجماعي الطاردة والقتل الجماعي القسري. شملت الفئة الأولى التطهير العرقي، والقتل الذي يصاحب الإصلاحات الزراعية في بعض الولايات بقيادة الشيوعيين، والقتل الجماعي خلال التوسع الاستعماري، وما إلى ذلك. تشمل الفئة الثانية عمليات القتل الجماعي خلال حرب العصابات المضادة، وعمليات القتل خلال الفتوحات الإمبريالية لمحور المحور خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية، إلخ. على الرغم من أن فالنتينو لا يعتبر الأيديولوجية أو نوع النظام عاملاً مهمًا يفسر عمليات القتل الجماعي،  أنه يحدد القتل الجماعي في ظل الأنظمة الشيوعية كنوع فرعي من عمليات القتل الجماعي الطاردة، والتي تعتبر من مضاعفات النظرية الأصلية التي يستند إليها كتابه.

المراجع

القتل حسب النوع
قتل عمد

قتل جماعي


Gjettum Station (Gjettum stasjon) var en metrostation på Kolsåsbanen på T-banen i Oslo. Stationen lå ved foden af Kolsåstoppen og var første stop på naturstien op til toppen.

Stationen blev nedlagt 1. juli 2006, da Kolsåsbanen blev lukket for opgradering til metrostandard. I stedet åbnedes en ny Gjettum Station, der også erstattede Valler Station, 12. oktober 2014.

Noter

Nedlagte T-banestationer i Oslo
Etableret i 1930
Ophørt i 2006

Gjettum Station (1930-2006)


Dirk-Alexander Grams (* August 1957 in Brück) ist ein deutscher Maler und Kunstdozent, der sich auf Hinterglasmalerei spezialisiert hat.

Ende der 1970er Jahre entstanden die ersten eigenständigen künstlerischen Arbeiten Grams. Die folgenden Jahre sind von der intensiven Förderung in verschiedenen Maltechniken durch Peter-Michael Glöckner geprägt.

Noch vor dem Mauerfall floh Dirk-Alexander Grams in die Bundesrepublik. Die folgenden Jahre verbrachte er in Donaueschingen, wo er weiterhin als Künstler und zuweilen als Dozent für Hinterglasmalerei an der Kunstschule Hofgut Hohenstein, sowie als Dozent für freie Malerei an der Kunstschule Donaueschingen tätig war.

Neben der Malerei arbeitete er auch für das Museum Art.Plus und restaurierte im Auftrag der Stadt Donaueschingen und des Fürstentum Fürstenberg diverse alte Gemälde und Statuen.

2013 zog er nach Brandenburg zurück.

Grams stellte unter anderem in Versailles (bei Paris), Berlin, Stuttgart, Frankfurt am Main und Zürich aus.

Einzelnachweise

Maler (Deutschland)
Person (Brück)
Deutscher
DDR-Bürger
Geboren 1957
Mann

Dirk-Alexander Grams


L'île de Bornéo se situe sur le plateau continental de Sunda, qui est une région d'Asie du Sud-Est d'une importance exceptionnelle du point de vue de la biodiversité, de la biogéographie et de la phylogéographie de la faune et de la flore, qui a éveillé l'intérêt de nombreux biologistes. Bornéo est traversée dans la plus grande longueur par l'équateur.

La biodiversité de Bornéo est remarquablement riche en raison du climat équatorial de l'île, chaud et humide. La pluviométrie à Bornéo est très importante, en moyenne de  sur les côtes à  dans l'intérieur. En moyenne la température est de 30° à 33° le jour, elle baisse en altitude à 20° la nuit, et à 14° en montagne au-dessus de  d'altitude. Ce sont des facteurs favorables à la croissance de la végétation.

Flore

.

Forêt tropicale

Il existe différentes catégories de la forêt tropicale humide à Bornéo, dont les principales sont les suivantes (de la côte vers les zones montagneuses) :
 forêt de mangroves ;
 forêts du littoral ;
 forêts des marais ;
 forêts de plaines ;
 forêts du long des rivières ;
 forêts de tourbières ;
 forêts des massifs karstiques ;
 forêts de piémonts ;
 forêts de montagnes ;
 forêts d'altitude.

Espèces d'arbres

Les botanistes ont recensé plus de .

Les forêts denses de plaine sont les plus riches à Bornéo. Il faut citer l'arbre « roi de la forêt », le Koompassia (K. malaccensis, K. excelsa), qui atteint jusqu'à 70 mètres de haut (genre des Légumineuses). Le fameux « bois de fer »
de Bornéo, belian ou ulin d'après ses noms malais, Eusideroxylon zwageri T. de B., est imputrescible et résistant au climat équatorial. Il donne notamment du bois pour la charpente et l'ossature des maisons et greniers dayak et malais. C'est aussi le domaine particulier de la famille des diptérocarpacées, dont le berceau se trouve à Bornéo. On estime à plus de 400 le nombre d'espèces de diptérocarpacées. Le genre Shorea, également un peuplement de la forêt de plaine, est l'un des plus exploités dans la construction et le mobilier, l'artisanat en général.

Les variétés de bois les plus recherchées sont actuellement les suivantes (il s'agit de bois plus connus par leurs noms malais-indonésiens) :

Faune

La faune, avec plus de 220 espèces de mammifères, dont le fameux « homme de la forêt » l'orang-outan, et d'autres primates comme le nasique – Nasalis larvatus ou beketan appelé aussi monyet belanda à cause de sa couleur rougeâtre et de la forme de son nez – comprend aussi des gibbons et d'autres singes, sans oublier le tarsier occidental (Tarsius bancanus).

Parmi les mammifères de taille plus imposante se trouvent le rhinocéros à deux cornes (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), aujourd'hui en voie d'extinction, et les éléphants nains qui forment une espèce endémique de l'éléphant d'Asie à Bornéo (Elephas maximus borneensis, il vit seulement au Sabah).

Il faut mentionner les dauphins d'eau douce des lacs du fleuve Mahakam (Orcaella brevirostris ou ikan pesut)
à Kalimantan Est, et les dugong dans les zones côtières. Ils coexistent avec des sauriens, grandes tortues de terre et de rivière, les crocodiles des estuaires et des rivières, des varans de taille respectable, des serpents (pythons, cobras…).

Menaces sur la biodiversité

Les principales menaces qui pèsent sur la biodiversité de l'île sont :
 le braconnage et le commerce illégal d'espèces sauvages ;
 l'exploitation de bois tropicaux donnant lieu à une déforestation ;
 l'exploitation minière (notamment le charbon), visant à satisfaire la demande en pleine croissance tant au niveau national qu'international, également responsable de la déforestation ;
 l'agriculture, notamment la production d'huile de palme tant dans la partie indonésienne que dans la partie malaise, qui engendre aussi de la déforestation.

Selon une étude de 2016 parue dans Scientific reports, 18,7 millions d'hectares de forêts primaires ont  disparu sur l'île de Bornéo sur les 55 millions d'hectares recensés en 1973. Mais les mécanismes en œuvre sont complexes. Les chercheurs ont ainsi déterminé que l'huile de palme est la troisième cause de déforestation derrière l'exploitation du bois et la culture d'arbres à croissance rapide pour l'industrie papetière.

Conséquences de la perte de biodiversité

Les estimations du WWF indiquent que si l'île de Bornéo maintient le rythme actuel de déforestation, elle sera sévèrement touchée par le changement climatique, avec des risques d'inondations et d'incendies de forêt amplifiés, des répercussions sur la santé humaine, des bouleversements des rendements agricoles et des dommages causés aux infrastructures. Enfin, les espèces marines, les reptiles et amphibiens seront gravement affectés et potentiellement décimés par tout réchauffement au-dessus des deux degrés.

La déforestation affecte gravement les peuples autochtones (Dayak, Punan, etc.) qui vivent de la forêt.

En particulier, la culture des Dayaks, un peuple riche d'environ 4 millions d'âmes qui vit dans et de la forêt de Bornéo, est durement menacée par la déforestation qui ravage leurs terres ancestrales, l'un des écosystèmes les plus riches en biodiversité de la terre. Benyamin Efraim, directeur de l'Institut Dayakologi, alerte : « Les traditions, les rituels, la médecine, bref l'identité des Dayaks est étroitement liée au cycle agricole et à leur gestion des ressources naturelles. L'extinction de leurs pratiques agricoles et forestières entrainera irrémédiablement l'extinction de leur culture ».

Sources
 Antoni Guerreiro, « Conservation de la biodiversité et gestion des ressources. Le dilemme du développement à Kalimantan », Revue Le Banian, 15 : 70-87, 2012

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

 Environnement en Indonésie
 Déforestation en Indonésie
 Faune de l'Indonésie

Faune endémique de Bornéo
Environnement en Malaisie

Biodiversité de Bornéo


Cynon Valley () is a former coal mining valley in Wales. It lies between Rhondda and the Merthyr Valley and takes its name from the River Cynon. Aberdare is located in the north of the valley and Mountain Ash in the south. From 1974 to 1996, Cynon Valley was a local government district.

At the 2001 census, the Cynon Valley had a population of 63,512, 12.1% of whom were Welsh speakers. In common with some of the other South Wales Valleys, Cynon Valley had a high percentage of Welsh speakers until the early 20th century.

Former district
From 1974 to 1996, the borough of Cynon Valley was one of thirty-seven districts of Wales. The district was formed from the Aberdare and Mountain Ash urban districts, the parish of Rhigos from Neath Rural District and the parish of Penderyn from Brecknockshire. It was one of six districts of Mid Glamorgan, and in 1996 was merged into the larger unitary authority of Rhondda Cynon Taf. Throughout the council's existence, the Labour Party held a majority of the seats on the council. The council was based at Rock Grounds on High Street in Aberdare, which was built in 1938 for one of the council's predecessors, Aberdare Urban District Council.

Parliamentary and Senedd constituency
In 1983, the parliamentary constituency of Cynon Valley was formed for the election of a member of parliament to the House of Commons. The constituency had identical boundaries to the local government district.

In 1999, a Welsh Assembly constituency with the same boundaries was formed.

In 2010, the constituency was redefined as consisting of 15 electoral divisions of the county borough of Rhondda Cynon Taf: Aberaman North, Aberaman South, Abercynon, Aberdare East, Aberdare West/Llwydcoed, Cilfynydd, Cwmbach, Glyncoch, Hirwaun, Mountain Ash East, Mountain Ash West, Penrhiwceiber, Pen-y-waun, Rhigos, Ynysybwl.

The two main towns are Aberdare and Mountain Ash.

Villages near Aberdare
Aberaman
Abercwmboi
Abernant
Cefn Rhigos
 Croesbychan
Cwm-Hwnt
Cwmaman
Cwmbach
Cwmdâr
 Gadlys
 Godreaman
Hirwaun
Llwydcoed
Trecynon
Penderyn
Penywaun
Rhigos

Villages near Mountain Ash
Abercynon
Mountain Ash/Aberpennar
Caegarw
Carnetown
Cefnpennar
Cwmpennar
Fernhill
Miskin
Newtown
Penrhiwceiber
Perthcelyn
Pontcynon
Tyntetown
Ynysboeth

College
Coleg y Cymoedd has a campus in the Cynon Valley based in Aberdare.

Comprehensive schools
 Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun – Welsh-medium
 Mountain Ash Comprehensive School
 Aberdare Community School
 St. John the Baptist School (Aberdare)

See also
 The Cynon Valley Party
 River Cynon

References

External links
Sketches by the Bacon sisters; the pre-industrial Cynon valley of the 1830s

Mid Glamorgan
Former subdivisions of Wales
1974 establishments in Wales
Valleys of Rhondda Cynon Taf

Cynon Valley


257296 Jessicaamy este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
257296 Jessicaamy este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Zadko de M. Todd. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,58 ua, o excentricitate de 0,12 și o înclinație de 13,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 257001-258000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2009
Centura de asteroizi

257296 Jessicaamy


Bluffton est un village américain situé dans les comtés d'Allen et de Hancock, dans l'Ohio. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de .

Liens externes

Village dans l'Ohio
Comté d'Allen (Ohio)
Comté de Hancock (Ohio)

Bluffton (Ohio)


This article gives a list of the High Priests (Kohen Gadol) of Ancient Israel up to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD. Because of a lack of historical data, this list is incomplete and there may be gaps.

The High Priests, like all Jewish priests, belonged to the Aaronic line. The Bible mentions the majority of high priests before the Babylonian captivity, but does not give a complete list of office holders. Lists would be based on various historical sources. In several periods of non-Jewish rule, high priests were appointed and removed by kings, but still most high priests came from the Aaronic line. One exception is Menelaus, who may not have been from the Tribe of Levi at all, but from the Tribe of Benjamin.

List

From the Exodus to Solomon's Temple
The following lineage appears in :
 Aaron
 Eleazar, son of Aaron
 Phinehas, son of Eleazar
 Abishua, son of Phinehas
 The Samaritans insert Sashai as the son of Abishua and father of Bukki.
 Bukki, son of Abishua
 Uzzi, son of Bukki
Although Phinehas and his descendants are not directly attested as high priests, this portion of the genealogy is assumed by other sources to give the succession of the high priesthood from father to son.

At some time, the office was transferred from descendants of Eleazar to those of his brother Itamar. The first known and most notable high priest of Itamar's line was Eli, a contemporary of Samuel.

 Eli, descendant of Ithamar, son of Aaron
 Ahitub, son of Phinehas and grandson of Eli
 Ahijah, son of Ahitub
 Ahimelech, son of Ahijah (or brother of Ahijah and son of Ahitub)
 Abiathar, son of Ahimelech

Abiathar was removed from the high priesthood for conspiring against King Solomon, and was replaced by Zadok, son of Ahitub, who oversaw the construction of the First Temple. According to the genealogies given in , Zadok was a descendant of Uzzi (through Zerahiah, Meraioth, Amariah and Ahitub) and thus belonged to the line of Eleazar.

First Temple period

Priestly lists for this period appear in the Bible, Josephus and the Seder Olam Zutta, but with differences. While Josephus and Seder 'Olam Zuta each mention 18 high priests, the genealogy given in  gives 12 names, culminating in the last high priest Seriah, father of Jehozadak. However, it is unclear whether all those mentioned in the genealogy between Zadok and Jehozadak were high priests, and whether high priests mentioned elsewhere (such as Jehoiada and Jehoiarib) are simply omitted or did not belong to the male line in this genealogy.

Some name Jehozadak, son of Seriah, as a high priest prior to being sent to captivity in Babylonia, based on the biblical references to "Joshua, son of Jehozadak, the high priest". According to the commentary attributed to Rashi, this is a misreading of the phrase, as "the high priest" does not refer to Jehozadak (who was exiled without having served as high priest), but to his son Joshua.

After the Babylonian captivity

The high priests following the exile were:
 Joshua, son of Jehozadak, after the building of the Second Temple. Contemporary of Cyrus the Great (reigned 538–530 BCE) and Darius I (reigned 522–486 BCE).
 Joiakim, son of Joshua ().
 Eliashib, son of Joiakim (Nehemiah 12:10). Mentioned in the time of Nehemiah in 444 BCE.
 Joiada, son of Eliashib (Nehemiah 12:10). (A son married a daughter of Sanballat the Horonite, for which he was driven out of the Temple by Nehemiah)
 Johanan, son of Joiada (Nehemiah 12:11). Mentioned in the Elephantine papyri in 410 BCE.
 Jaddua, son of Johanan (Nehemiah 12:11). Contemporary of Alexander the Great (reigned 336–323 BCE). Some have identified him as Simeon the Just.

The chronology given above, based on Josephus, however is not undisputed, with some alternatively placing Jaddua during the time of Darius II (423–405/4 BC) and some supposing one more Johanan and one more Jaddua in the following time, the latter Jaddua being contemporary of Alexander the Great.

 Onias I, son of Jaddua. Contemporary of Areus I of Sparta (reigned 309–265 BCE).
 Simon I, son of Onias. Josephus identified him as Simeon the Just
 Eleazar, son of Onias and brother of Simon I. Contemporary of Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt (reigned 283–246 BCE).
 Manasseh, son of Jaddua, brother of Onias I and uncle of Simon I and Eleazar.
 Onias II, son of Simon I. Contemporary of Ptolemy III Euergetes of Egypt (reigned 246–221 BCE).
 Simon II, son of Onias II. Contemporary of Ptolemy IV Philopator of Egypt (221–204 BCE).
 Onias III, son of Simon II (?–175 BC), murdered 170 BCE
 Onias IV, son of Onias III, fled to Egypt and built a Jewish Temple at Leontopolis (closed between 66–73 CE).
 Jason, son of Simon II, 175–172 BCE (the last of the Zadokite dynasty).
 Menelaus, 172–165 BCE
 Judas Maccabeus, son of Mattathias, 165–162 BCE (held the office after the consecration of the Temple)
 Alcimus, 162–159 BCE

Inter-sacerdotium
It is unknown who held the position of High Priest of Jerusalem between Alcimus' death and the accession of Jonathan Apphus. Josephus relates that the office was vacant for seven years, but this is highly unlikely, if not impossible. As the Yom Kippur Temple service requires the high priest, that service would not have been omitted for so long so soon after the restoration of the Temple service. Politically, Israel's overlords probably would not have allowed a power vacuum to last for so long.

Elsewhere, Josephus suggests that Judas Maccabeus, the brother of Jonathan, held the office for three years, succeeding Alcimus. However, Judas actually predeceased Alcimus by one year. The nature of Jonathan's accession to the high priesthood makes it unlikely that Judas held that office during the inter-sacerdotium. The Jewish Encyclopedia tries to harmonise the contradictions found in Josephus by supposing that Judas held the office "immediately after the consecration of the Temple (165–162), that is, before the election of Alcimus"

It has been argued that the founder of the Qumran community, the Teacher of Righteousness, was High Priest (but not necessarily the sole occupant) during the inter-sacerdotium and was driven off by Jonathan.

Hasmonean dynasty
 Jonathan Apphus, 153–143 BCE
 Simon Thassi, brother of Jonathan Apphus, 142–134 BCE
 John Hyrcanus I, son of Simeon Tassi, 134–104 BCE
 Aristobulus I, son of John Hyrcanus, 104–103 BCE
 Alexander Jannaeus, son of John Hyrcanus, 103–76 BCE
 John Hyrcanus II, son of Alexander Jannaeus, 76–66 BCE
 Aristobulus II, son of Alexander Jannaeus, 66–63 BCE
 Hyrcanus II (restored), 63–40 BCE
 Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, 40–37 BCE

Herodian-Roman period
 Ananelus, 37–36 BCE
 Aristobulus III, grandson of Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, 36 BCE (He was the last of the Hasmoneans; brother of Herod's second wife Mariamne I)
 Ananelus (restored), 36–30 BCE
 Joshua ben Fabus, 30–23 BCE
 Simon ben Boethus, 23–5 BCE (his daughter Mariamne II was the third wife of Herod the Great)
 Matthias ben Theophilus, 5-4 BCE
 Joazar ben Boethus, 4 BCE
 Eleazar ben Boethus, 4–3 BCE
 Joshua ben Sie, 3 BCE – ?
 Joazar ben Boethus (restored), ? – 6 CE
 Ananus ben Seth, 6–15
 Ishmael ben Fabus (Phiabi), 15–16
 Eleazar ben Ananus, 16–17
 Simon ben Camithus, 17–18
 Joseph ben Caiaphas, 18–36 (son-in-law of the high priest Ananus ben Seth)
 Jonathan ben Ananus, 36–37
 Theophilus ben Ananus, 37–41
 Simon Cantatheras ben Boethus, 41–43
 Matthias ben Ananus, 43
 Elioneus ben Simon Cantatheras, 43–44
 Jonathan ben Ananus, 44 (restored)
 Josephus ben Camydus, 44–46
 Ananias son of Nedebeus, 46–58
 Jonathan, 58
 Ishmael II ben Fabus, 58–62 (relation to priest of same name from 15–16 CE?)
 Joseph Cabi ben Simon, 62–63
 Ananus ben Ananus, 63
 Jesus son of Damneus, 63
 Joshua ben Gamla, 63–64 (his wife Martha belonged to family of Boethus)
 Mattathias ben Theophilus, 65–66
 Phannias ben Samuel, 67–70

See also
 Josephus' chain of high priests (from the Second Temple)
 Samaritan High Priest

References

External links
 Article in the Jewish Encyclopedia
  Seder Olam Zutta chronology
  Seder Olam Zutta chronology

Israel religion-related lists
Lists of Jewish religious leaders
High Priests
High Priests
Priesthood (Judaism)

List of High Priests of Israel


Paul Bruns ist der Name folgender Personen:

*Paul von Bruns (1846–1916), deutscher Chirurg
 Paul Bruns-Molar (1867–1934), deutscher Gesangspädagoge und Musikschriftsteller
Paul Jakob Bruns (1743–1814), deutscher Theologe, Geograph, Philologe und Hochschullehrer

Paul Bruns


The Infancy Gospel of Thomas is a biographical gospel about the childhood of Jesus, believed to date at the latest to the second century.
The Infancy Gospel of Thomas is generally considered to be Gnostic in origin because of references in letters (by Hippolytus of Rome and Origen of Alexandria) to a "Gospel of Thomas", but it is unclear whether those letters refer to the Infancy Gospel or the Gospel of Thomas, a sayings gospel discovered near Nag Hammadi, Egypt in 1945.

Proto-orthodox Christians regarded the Infancy Gospel of Thomas as inauthentic and heretical. Eusebius rejected it as a heretical "fiction" in the third book of his fourth-century Church History, and Pope Gelasius I included it in his list of heretical books in the fifth century.

Dating
The first known quotation of the Infancy Gospel of Thomas is from Irenaeus of Lyon around AD 180, who calls it spurious and apocryphal. Scholars generally agree on a date in the mid-to-late-2nd century AD. There are two 2nd-century documents, the Epistula Apostolorum and Irenaeus' Adversus haereses, that refer to a story of Jesus's tutor telling him, "Say alpha," and Jesus replied, "First tell me what is beta, and I can tell you what alpha is." At least some period of oral transmission of the source material is generally believed to have occurred, either wholly or as several different stories before it was first transcribed and over time redacted. Thus, both of these documents and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas possibly all refer to the oral versions of this story. The area of origin for the work is unknown and many proposed locations of origin have been put forward.

Besides the difficulty in its name, given that the work is not related to the Gospel of Thomas, the work is not a gospel but possibly an appendage to the Gospel of Luke or a stand-alone work that has a dependent association to the canonical Gospel texts. This infancy story ends with Jesus in the temple at age 12 quoting parts of the gospel of Luke. (see Infancy 19:1–12 and ).

Authorship
The author of the gospel is unknown.  In the earliest Syriac manuscripts, no author is indicated at all, indicating either a truncated introduction, an author who wished to remain anonymous, or a compilation of existing stories by an editor.  In later manuscripts dating from the Middle Ages, the Gospel opens with a prologue where "Thomas the Israelite" introduces himself, but with no further explanation.  It is possible that this was meant to hint that the author was Judas Thomas, better known as Thomas the Apostle, thought by some Christians to be a brother of Jesus and thus familiar with young Jesus's activities.

Manuscript tradition
Whether the original language of the Infancy Gospel of Thomas was Greek or Syriac is unknown. The few surviving Greek manuscripts provide no clues themselves because none predate the 13th century, whereas the earliest authorities, according to the editor and translator Montague Rhodes James, are a much abbreviated sixth-century Syriac version, and a Latin palimpsest of the fifth or sixth century, which has never been fully translated and can be found in Vienna. Many manuscripts, translations, shortened versions, alternates, and parallels have slight, nuanced differences. James found that their large number makes the compilation of an urtext very difficult. This number of texts and versions reflects the great popularity of the work during the High Middle Ages.

Of the many different versions and alternate forms (e.g. Greek, Syriac, Latin, Slavonic, etc.), the three principal forms are commonly referred to as given by Constantin von Tischendorf. Two of those are Greek texts which are called Greek Text A (Greek A); Greek Text B (Greek B); and the third is Latin. The first known publication of the Infancy Gospel of Thomas was by J Fabricius and has come to be known as Greek A. The Greek A is the most well-known form often used and in its full form is the longer of the two Greeks, based on at least 2 manuscripts. It consists of nineteen chapters with several alternate other manuscripts with abbreviated forms. The Greek B was found by Tischendorf on a trip to Mount Sinai in 1844, which is not only shorter (11 chapters), but is a different version of the well-known A text. It has some chapters abbreviated, other entire chapters left out completely, and few new lines. The Latin translations has two distinct form of versions from the Old Latin with the Late Latin. The Latin was notable as it was the first discovered with an Egyptian prologue.

Parts of the Latin version were translated into Old Irish poetry, probably around 700 CE according to James Carney, making this translation one of the earliest of this gospel.

Content
The text describes the life of the child Jesus from the ages of five to twelve, with fanciful, and sometimes malevolent, supernatural events. He is presented as a precocious child who starts his education early. The stories cover how the young Incarnation of God matures and learns to use his powers for good and how those around him first respond in fear and later with admiration. One of the episodes involves Jesus making clay birds, which he then proceeds to bring to life, an act also attributed to Jesus in , and in a medieval Jewish work known as Toledot Yeshu, although Jesus's age at the time of the event is not specified in either account. In another episode, a child disperses water that Jesus has collected. Jesus kills this first child, when at age one he curses a boy, which causes the child's body to wither into a corpse. Later, Jesus kills another child via curse when the child apparently accidentally bumps into Jesus, throws a stone at Jesus, or punches Jesus (depending on the translation).

When Joseph and Mary's neighbors complain, Jesus miraculously strikes them blind. Jesus then starts receiving lessons, but tries to teach the teacher, instead, upsetting the teacher who suspects supernatural origins. Jesus is amused by this suspicion, which he confirms, and revokes all his earlier apparent cruelty. Subsequently, he resurrects a friend who is killed when he falls from a roof, and heals another who cuts his foot with an axe.

After various other demonstrations of supernatural ability, new teachers try to teach Jesus, but he proceeds to explain the law to them instead. Another set of miracles is mentioned, in which Jesus heals his brother, who is bitten by a snake, and two others, who have died from different causes. Finally, the text recounts the episode in Luke in which Jesus, aged 12, teaches in the temple.

Although the miracles seem quite randomly inserted into the text, three miracles are before and three are after each of the sets of lessons. The structure of the story is essentially:

Bringing life to a dried fish (this is present only in later texts)
(First group)
Three Miracles - Breathes life into birds fashioned from clay; curses a boy, who then becomes a corpse (not present in Greek B); curses a boy who falls dead and his parents become blind
Attempt to teach Jesus, which fails, with Jesus doing the teaching
Three Miracles - Reverses his earlier acts (this would include resurrecting the two boys and healing the blind parents), resurrects a friend who fell from a roof, heals a man who chopped his foot with an axe
(Second group)
Three Miracles - carries water on cloth, produces a feast from a single grain, and stretches a beam of wood to help his father finish constructing a bed
Attempts to teach Jesus, which fail, with Jesus doing the teaching
Three Miracles - heals James from snake poison, resurrects a child who died of illness, and resurrects a man who died in a construction accident
Incident in the temple paralleling Luke

Episodes from Jesus's childhood as depicted in the Klosterneuburger Evangelienwerk, a 14th-century gospel translation:

See also
Acts of Thomas
List of Gospels
Unknown years of Jesus

Further reading
 Barnstone, Willis (ed.). The Other Bible, Harper Collins, 1984, pp. 398–403.

References

External links

 Early Christian Writings: Infancy Gospel of Thomas
 Gnostic Society Library: Infancy Gospel of Thomas introduction and translations by M.R. James, 1924

2nd-century manuscripts
3rd-century manuscripts
Thomas
Thomas, Infancy Gospel of
Thomas the Apostle
Treatises

Infancy Gospel of Thomas