The  is a foldable handheld game console produced by Nintendo, released globally across 2004 and 2005. The DS, an initialism for "Developers' System" or "Dual Screen", introduced distinctive new features to handheld games: two LCD screens working in tandem (the bottom one being a touchscreen), a built-in microphone and support for wireless connectivity. Both screens are encompassed within a clamshell design similar to the Game Boy Advance SP. The Nintendo DS also features the ability for multiple DS consoles to directly interact with each other over Wi-Fi within a short range without the need to connect to an existing wireless network. Alternatively, they could interact online using the now-defunct Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service. Its main competitor was Sony's PlayStation Portable during the seventh generation of video game consoles.

Prior to its release, the Nintendo DS was marketed as an experimental "third pillar" in Nintendo's console lineup, meant to complement the Game Boy Advance family and GameCube. However, backward compatibility with Game Boy Advance titles and strong sales ultimately established it as the successor to the Game Boy series. On March 2, 2006, Nintendo launched the Nintendo DS Lite, a slimmer and lighter redesign of the original Nintendo DS with brighter screens and a longer lasting battery. On November 1, 2008, Nintendo released the Nintendo DSi, another redesign with several hardware improvements and new features, although it lost backwards compatibility for Game Boy Advance titles and a few DS games that used the GBA slot. On November 21, 2009, Nintendo released the Nintendo DSi XL, a larger version of the DSi.

All Nintendo DS models combined have sold 154.02 million units, making it the best-selling Nintendo system, the best-selling handheld game console, and the second-best-selling video game console of all time, overall, behind Sony's PlayStation 2. The Nintendo DS was succeeded by the Nintendo 3DS in February 2011.

History

Development
Development on the Nintendo DS began around mid-2002, following an original idea from former Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi about a dual-screened console. On November 13, 2003, Nintendo announced that it would be releasing a new game product in 2004. The company did not provide many details, but stated it would not succeed the Game Boy Advance or GameCube. On January 20, 2004, the console was announced under the codename "Nintendo DS". Nintendo released only a few details at that time, saying that the console would have two separate, 3-inch TFT LCD display panels, separate processors, and up to 1 gigabit (128MB) of semiconductor memory. Current Nintendo president at the time, Satoru Iwata, said, "We have developed Nintendo DS based upon a completely different concept from existing game devices in order to provide players with a unique entertainment experience for the 21st century." He also expressed optimism that the DS would help put Nintendo back at the forefront of innovation and move away from the conservative image that had been used to describe the company in years past. In March 2004, a document containing most of the console's technical specifications was leaked, also revealing its internal development name, "Nitro". In May 2004, the console was shown in prototype form at E3 2004, still under the name "Nintendo DS", which Reggie Fils-Aimé announced would change for launch. On July 28, 2004, Nintendo revealed a new design that was described as "sleeker and more elegant" than the one shown at E3 and announced Nintendo DS as the device's official name. Following lukewarm GameCube sales, Hiroshi Yamauchi stressed the importance of its success to the company's future, making a statement which can be translated from Japanese as, "If the DS succeeds, we will rise to heaven, but if it fails we will sink to hell."

Launch
President Iwata referred to Nintendo DS as "Nintendo's first hardware launch in support of the basic strategy 'Gaming Population Expansion because the touch-based device "allows users to play intuitively". On September 20, 2004, Nintendo announced that the Nintendo DS would be released in North America on November 21, 2004, for US$149.99. It was set to release on December 2, 2004, in Japan for JP¥15,000; on February 24, 2005, in Australia for A$199.95; and on March 11, 2005, in Europe for €149.99 (£99.99 in the United Kingdom). The console was released in North America with a midnight launch event at Universal CityWalk EB Games in Los Angeles, California. The console was launched quietly in Japan compared to the North America launch; one source cited the cold weather as the reason.

North America and Japan
The Nintendo DS was launched in North America for US$149.99 on November 21, 2004; in Japan for JP¥15,000 on December 2 in the color "Titanium". Well over three million preorders were taken in North America and Japan; preorders at online stores were launched on November 3 and ended the same day as merchants had already sold their allotment. Initially, Nintendo planned to deliver one million units combined at the North American and Japanese launches; when it saw the preorder numbers, it brought another factory online to ramp up production. Nintendo originally slated 300,000 units for the U.S. debut; 550,000 were shipped, and just over 500,000 of those sold through in the first week. Later in 2005, the manufacturer suggested retail price for the Nintendo DS was dropped to US$129.99.

Both launches proved to be successful, but Nintendo chose to release the DS in North America prior to Japan, a first for a hardware launch from the Kyoto-based company. This choice was made to get the DS out for the largest shopping day of the year in the U.S. (the day after Thanksgiving, also known as "Black Friday"). Perhaps partly due to the release date, the DS met unexpectedly high demand in the United States, selling 1 million units by December 21, 2004. By the end of December, the total number shipped worldwide was 2.8 million, about 800,000 more than Nintendo's original forecast. At least 1.2 million of them were sold in the U.S. Some industry reporters referred to it as "the Tickle Me Elmo of 2004". In June 2005, Nintendo informed the press that a total of 6.65 million units had been sold worldwide.

As is normal for electronics, some were reported as having problems with stuck pixels in either of the two screens. Although return policies for LCD displays vary between manufacturers and regions, in North America, Nintendo chose to replace a system with faulty pixels only if the owner claimed that it interfered with their gaming experience. There were two exchange programs in place for North America. In the first, the owner of the defective DS in question would provide a valid credit card number and, afterward, Nintendo would ship a new DS system to the owner with shipping supplies to return the defective system. In the second, the owner of the defective DS in question would have shipped their system to Nintendo for inspection. After inspection, Nintendo technicians would have either shipped a replacement system or fixed the defective system. The first option allowed the owner to have a new DS in 3–5 business days.

Multiple games were released alongside the DS during its North American launch on November 21, 2004. At launch there was one pack-in demo, in addition to the built-in PictoChat program: Metroid Prime Hunters: First Hunt (published by Nintendo and is a demo for Metroid Prime Hunters, a game released in March 2006). At the time of the "Electric Blue" DS launch in June 2005, Nintendo bundled the system with Super Mario 64 DS.

In Japan, the games were released at the same time as the system's first release (December 2, 2004). In the launch period, The Prince of Tennis 2005 -Crystal Drive- (Konami) and Puyo Puyo Fever (Puyo Pop Fever) (Sega) were released.

Europe
The DS was released in Europe on March 11, 2005, for €149. A small supply of units was available prior to this in a package with a promotional "VIP" T-shirt, Metroid Prime Hunters - First Hunt, a WarioWare: Touched! demo and a pre-release version of Super Mario 64 DS, through the Nintendo Stars Catalogue; the bundle was priced at £129.99 for the UK and €189.99 for the rest of Europe, plus 1,000 of Nintendo's "star" loyalty points (to cover postage). On 23 January 2006, 1 million DS units had been sold in Europe, setting a sales record for a handheld console.

The European release of the DS, like the U.S., was originally packaged with a Metroid Prime Hunters: First Hunt demo. The European game cases are additionally about 1/4 inch thicker than their North American counterparts and transparent rather than solid black. Inside the case, there is room for one Game Boy Advance game pak and a DS card with the instructions on the left side of the case.

Australia and New Zealand
The DS launched in Australia and New Zealand on February 24, 2005. It retailed in Australia for AU$199 and in New Zealand for NZ$249. Like the North American launch, it includes the Metroid Prime Hunters - First Hunt demo. The first week of sales for the system broke Australian launch sales records for a console, with 19,191 units sold by the 27th.

China
"iQue DS", the official name of the Chinese Nintendo DS, was released in China on June 15, 2005. The price of the iQue DS was 980 RMB (roughly US$130) as of April 2006. This version of the DS includes updated firmware to block out the use of the PassMe device, along with the new Red DS. Chinese launch games were Zhi Gan Yi Bi (Polarium) (Nintendo/iQue) and Momo Waliou Zhizao (WarioWare: Touched!) (Nintendo/iQue). The iQue name was first used for a device that was based on Nintendo 64 hardware in 2003, after China banned sales of home video games in that region years prior.

Games available on launch

Promotion
The system's promotional slogans revolve around the word "Touch" in almost all countries, with the North American slogan being "Touching is good."

The Nintendo DS was seen by many analysts to be in the same market as Sony's PlayStation Portable, although representatives from both companies stated that each system targeted a different audience. Time magazine awarded the DS a Gadget of the Week award.

At the time of its release in the United States, the Nintendo DS retailed for . The price dropped to  on August 21, 2005, one day before the releases of Nintendogs and Advance Wars: Dual Strike.

Nine official colors of the Nintendo DS were available through standard retailers. Titanium-colored units were available worldwide, Electric Blue was exclusive to North and Latin America. There was also a red version which was bundled with the game Mario Kart DS. Graphite Black, Pure White, Turquoise Blue, and Candy Pink were available in Japan. Mystic Pink and Cosmic Blue were available in Australia and New Zealand. Japan's Candy Pink and Australia's Cosmic Blue were also available in Europe and North America through a Nintendogs bundle, although the colors are just referred to as pink and blue; however, these colors were available only for the original style Nintendo DS; a different and more-limited set of colors were used for the Nintendo DS Lite.

Sales

As of March 31, 2016, all Nintendo DS models combined have sold 154.02 million units, making it the best-selling handheld game console to date, and the second best-selling video game console of all time.

Legacy

The success of the Nintendo DS introduced touchscreen controls and wireless online gaming to a wide audience. According to Damien McFerran of Nintendo Life, the "DS was the first encounter many people had with touch-based tech, and it left an indelible impression."

The DS established a large casual gaming market, attracting large non-gamer audiences and establishing touchscreens as the standard controls for future portable gaming devices. According to Jeremy Parish, writing for Polygon, the Nintendo DS laid the foundations for touchscreen mobile gaming on smartphones. He stated that the DS "had basically primed the entire world for" the iPhone, released in 2007, and that the DS paved the way for iPhone gaming mobile apps. However, the success of the iPhone "effectively caused the DS market to implode" by the early 2010s, according to Parish.

The DS also enlarged the market for female gamers. According to Nintendo in 2006, 44% of DS owners were female, with the majority of Nintendogs owners being female.

The success of the DS paved the way for its successor, the Nintendo 3DS, a handheld gaming console with a similar dual-screen setup that can display images on the top screen in stereoscopic 3D.

On January 29, 2014, Nintendo announced that Nintendo DS games would be added to the Wii U's Virtual Console, with the first game, Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day!, being released in Japan on June 3, 2014.

Hardware

The Nintendo DS design resembles that of the multi-screen games from the Game & Watch line, such as Donkey Kong and Zelda, which was also made by Nintendo.

The lower display of the Nintendo DS is overlaid with a resistive touchscreen designed to accept input from the included stylus, the user's fingers, or a curved plastic tab attached to the optional wrist strap. The touchscreen lets users interact with in-game elements more directly than by pressing buttons; for example, in the included chatting software, PictoChat, the stylus is used to write messages or draw.

The handheld features four lettered buttons (X, Y, A, B), a directional pad, and Start, Select, and Power buttons. On the top of the device are two shoulder buttons, a game card slot, a stylus holder and a power cable input. The bottom features the Game Boy Advance game card slot. The overall button layout resembles that of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System controller. When using backward compatibility mode on the DS, buttons X and Y and the touchscreen are not used as the Game Boy Advance line of systems do not feature these controls.

It also has stereo speakers providing virtual surround sound (depending on the software) located on either side of the upper display screen. This was a first for a Nintendo handheld, as the Game Boy line of systems had only supported stereo sound through the use of headphones or external speakers. A built-in microphone is located below the left side of the bottom screen. It has been used for a variety of purposes, including speech recognition, chatting online between and during gameplay sessions, and minigames that require the player to blow or shout into it.

Technical specifications

The system's 3D hardware consists of rendering engine and geometry engine which perform transform and lighting, Transparency Auto Sorting, Transparency Effects, Texture Matrix Effects, 2D Billboards, Texture Streaming, texture-coordinate transformation, perspective-correct texture mapping, per-pixel Alpha Test, per-primitive alpha blending, texture blending, Gouraud Shading, cel shading, z-buffering, W-Buffering, 1bit Stencil Buffer, per-vertex directional lighting and simulated point lighting, Depth Test, Stencil Test, Render to Texture, Lightmapping, Environment Mapping, Shadow Volumes, Shadow Mapping, Distance Fog, Edge Marking, Fade-In/Fade-Out, Edge-AA. Sprite special effects: scrolling, scaling, rotation, stretching, shear. However, it uses point (nearest neighbor) texture filtering, leading to some titles having a blocky appearance. Unlike most 3D hardware, it has a set limit on the number of triangles it can render as part of a single scene; the maximum amount is about 6144 vertices, or 2048 triangles per frame. The 3D hardware is designed to render to a single screen at a time, so rendering 3D to both screens is difficult and decreases performance significantly. The DS is generally more limited by its polygon budget than its pixel fill rate. There are also 512 kilobytes of texture memory, and the maximum texture size is 1024 × 1024 pixels.

The system has 656 kilobytes of video memory and two 2D engines (one per screen). These are similar to (but more powerful than) the Game Boy Advance's single 2D engine.

The Nintendo DS has compatibility with Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi is used for accessing the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, compete with other users playing the same Wi-Fi compatible game, PictoChat or with a special cartridge and RAM extension, browse the internet.

Nintendo claims the battery lasts a maximum of 10 hours under ideal conditions on a full four-hour charge. Battery life is affected by multiple factors including speaker volume, use of one or both screens, use of wireless connectivity, and use of backlight, which can be turned on or off in selected games such as Super Mario 64 DS. The battery is user-replaceable using only a Phillips-head screwdriver. After about 500 charges the battery life starts dropping.

Users can close the Nintendo DS system to trigger its 'sleep' mode, which pauses the game being played and saves battery life by turning off the screens, speakers, and wireless communications; however, closing the system while playing a Game Boy Advance game will not put the Nintendo DS into sleep mode, and the game will continue to run normally. Certain DS games (such as Animal Crossing: Wild World) will also not pause, but the backlight, screens, and speakers will turn off. Additionally, when saving the game in certain games the DS will not go into sleep mode. Some games, such as The Legend of Zelda: Phantom Hourglass, used the closing motion needed to enter sleep mode as an unorthodox way of solving puzzles. Looney Tunes: Duck Amuck is another game that used the closing motion as well, which has a game mode that required the player to close the DS in order to play, helping Daffy Duck hunt a monster with the shoulder buttons.

Accessories

Although the secondary port on the Nintendo DS does accept and support Game Boy Advance cartridges (but not Game Boy or Game Boy Color cartridges), Nintendo emphasized that the main intention for its inclusion was to allow a wide variety of accessories to be released for the system.

Due to the lack of a second port on the Nintendo DSi, it is not compatible with any accessory that uses it.

Rumble Pak

The Rumble Pak was the first official expansion slot accessory. In the form of a Game Boy Advance cartridge, the Rumble Pak vibrates to reflect the action in compatible games, such as when the player bumps into an obstacle or loses a life. It was released in North America and Japan in 2005 bundled with Metroid Prime Pinball. In Europe, it was first available with the game Actionloop, and later Metroid Prime Pinball. The Rumble Pak was also released separately in those regions.

Headset
The Nintendo DS Headset is the official headset for the Nintendo DS. It plugs into the headset port (which is a combination of a standard 3.5 mm (1/8 in) headphone connector and a proprietary microphone connector) on the bottom of the system. It features one earphone and a microphone, and is compatible with all games that use the internal microphone. It was released alongside Pokémon Diamond and Pearl in North America, and Australia.

Browser

On February 15, 2006, Nintendo announced a version of the cross-platform web browser Opera for the DS system. The browser can use one screen as an overview, a zoomed portion of which appears on the other screen, or both screens together to present a single tall view of the page. The browser went on sale in Japan and Europe in 2006, and in North America on June 4, 2007. Browser operation requires that an included memory expansion pak is inserted into the GBA slot. The DSi has an internet browser available for download from the Nintendo DSi shop for free.

Wi-Fi USB Connector

This USB-flash-disk-sized accessory plugs into a PC's USB port and creates a miniature hotspot/wireless access point, allowing a Wii and up to five Nintendo DS units to access the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service through the host computer's Internet connection. When tried under Linux and Mac, it acts as a regular wireless adapter, connecting to wireless networks, an LED blinks when there is data being transferred. There is also a hacked driver for Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 to make it function the same way. The Wi-Fi USB Connector was discontinued from retail stores.

MP3 Player

The Nintendo MP3 Player (a modified version of the device known as the Play-Yan in Japan) was released on December 8, 2006, by Nintendo of Europe at a retail price of £29.99/€30. The add-on uses removable SD cards to store MP3 audio files, and can be used in any device that features support for Game Boy Advance cartridges; however, due to this, it is limited in terms of its user-interface and functionality, as it does not support using both screens of the DS simultaneously, nor does it make use of its touch-screen capability. It is not compatible with the DSi, due to the lack of the GBA slot, but the DSi includes a music player via SD card. Although it stated on the box that it is only compatible with the Game Boy Micro, Nintendo DS and Nintendo DS Lite, it is also compatible with the Game Boy Advance SP and Game Boy Advance.

Guitar grip controller
The Guitar grip controller comes packaged with the game Guitar Hero: On Tour and is plugged into the GBA game slot. It features four colored buttons like the ones found on regular Guitar Hero guitar controllers for the stationary consoles, though it lacks the fifth orange button found on the guitar controllers. The DS Guitar Hero controller comes with a small "pick-stylus" (which is shaped like a guitar pick, as the name suggests) that can be put away into a small slot on the controller. It also features a hand strap. The game works with both the DS Lite and the original Nintendo DS as it comes with an adapter for the original DS. The Guitar Grip also works with its sequels, Guitar Hero On Tour: Decades, Guitar Hero On Tour: Modern Hits, and Band Hero.

Revisions

The Nintendo DS Lite is the first redesign of the Nintendo DS. While retaining the original model's basic characteristics, it features a sleeker appearance, larger stylus, longer lasting battery, and brighter screens. Nintendo considered a larger model of the Nintendo DS Lite for release, but decided against it as sales of the original redesign were still strong. It was the final DS to have backwards compatibility with Game Boy Advance games. As of March 31, 2014, shipments of the DS Lite had reached 93.86 million units worldwide, according to Nintendo.

The Nintendo DSi is the second redesign of the Nintendo DS. It is based on the unreleased larger DS Lite model. While similar to the previous DS redesign, new features include two inner and outer 0.3 megapixel digital cameras, a larger 3.25 inch display, internal and external content storage, compatibility with WPA wireless encryption, and connectivity to the Nintendo DSi Shop.

The Nintendo DSi XL features larger screens, and a greater overall size, than the original DSi. It is the fourth DS model, the first to be available as a pure size variation. It features larger screens with wider view angles, improved battery life, and a greater overall size than the original DSi. While the original DSi was specifically designed for individual use, Nintendo president Satoru Iwata suggested that DSi XL buyers give the console a "steady place on a table in the living room", so that it might be shared by multiple household members.

Software and features

Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection

Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection was a free online game service run by Nintendo. Players with a compatible Nintendo DS game could connect to the service via a Wi-Fi network using a Nintendo Wi-Fi USB Connector or a wireless router. The service was launched in North America, Australia, Japan & Europe throughout November 2005. An online compatible Nintendo DS game was released on the same day for each region.

Additional Nintendo DS Wi-Fi Connection games and a dedicated Nintendo DS web browser were released afterwards. Nintendo later believed that the online platform's success directly propelled the commercial success of the entire Nintendo DS platform. The Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection served as part of the basis of what would become the Wii. Most functions (for games on both the DS and Wii consoles) were discontinued worldwide on May 20, 2014.

Download Play

With Download Play, it is possible for users to play multiplayer games with other Nintendo DS systems, and later Nintendo 3DS systems, using only one game card. Players must have their systems within wireless range (up to approximately 65 feet) of each other for the guest system to download the necessary data from the host system. Only certain games supported this feature and usually played with much more limited features than the full game allowed.

Download Play is also utilized to migrate Pokémon from fourth generation games into the fifth generation Pokémon Black and White, an example of a task requiring two different game cards and two handheld units, but only one player.

Some Nintendo DS retailers featured DS Download Stations that allowed users to download demos of current and upcoming DS games; however, due to memory limitations, the downloads were erased once the system was powered off. The Download Station was made up of 1 to 8 standard retail DS units, with a standard DS card containing the demo data. On May 7, 2008, Nintendo released the Nintendo Channel for download on the Wii. The Nintendo Channel used WiiConnect24 to download Nintendo DS demos through it. From there, a user can select the demo they wish to play and, similar to the Nintendo DS Download Stations at retail outlets, download it to their DS and play it until it is powered off.

Multi-Card Play
Multi-Card Play, like Download Play, allows users to play multiplayer games with other Nintendo DS systems. In this case, each system requires a game card. This mode is accessed from an in-game menu, rather than the normal DS menu.

PictoChat

PictoChat allows users to communicate with other Nintendo DS users within local wireless range. Users can enter text (via an on screen keyboard), handwrite messages or draw pictures (via the stylus and touchscreen). There are four chatrooms (A, B, C, D) in which people can go to chat. Up to sixteen people can connect in any one room.

On Nintendo DS and Nintendo DS Lite systems, users can only write messages in black. However, in the DSi and DSi XL, there is a function that allows the user to write in any colour from the rainbow that cycles through the spectrum, meaning the user cannot choose a color.

PictoChat was not available for the subsequent Nintendo 3DS series of systems.

Firmware
Nintendo's own firmware boots the system. A health and safety warning is displayed first, then the main menu is loaded. The main menu presents the player with four main options to select: play a DS game, use PictoChat, initiate DS Download Play, or play a Game Boy Advance game. The main menu also has secondary options such as turning on or off the back light, the system settings, and an alarm.

The firmware also features a clock, several options for customization (such as boot priority for when games are inserted and GBA screen preferences), and the ability to input user information and preferences (such as name, birthday, favorite color, etc.) that can be used in games.

Japanese, American, and European consoles support the following languages: English, Japanese, Spanish, French, German, and Italian.

On consoles from mainland China, Chinese replaces Japanese and on Korean consoles, Italian is replaced by Korean.

Games

Compatibility

The Nintendo DS is backward compatible with Game Boy Advance (GBA) cartridges. The smaller Nintendo DS game cards fit into a slot on the top of the system, while Game Boy Advance games fit into a slot on the bottom. The Nintendo DS, like the Game Boy Micro, is not backward compatible with games made for the original Game Boy and Game Boy Color because the required hardware is not included and the console has physical incompatibility with Game Boy and Game Boy Color games.

The handheld does not have a port for the Game Boy Advance Link Cable, so multiplayer and GameCube–Game Boy Advance link-up modes are not available in Game Boy Advance titles. Only single-player mode is supported on the Nintendo DS, as is the case with Game Boy Advance games played via the Virtual Console on the Nintendo 3DS (Ambassadors only) and Wii U.

The Nintendo DS only uses one screen when playing Game Boy Advance games. The user can configure the system to use either the top or bottom screen by default. The games are displayed within a black border on the screen, due to the slightly different screen resolution between the two systems (256 × 192 px for the Nintendo DS, and 240 × 160 px for the Game Boy Advance).

Nintendo DS games inserted into the top slot are able to detect the presence of specific Game Boy Advance games in the bottom slot. In many such games, either stated in-game during gameplay or explained in its instruction manual, extra content can be unlocked or added by starting the Nintendo DS game with the appropriate Game Boy Advance game inserted. Among those games were the popular Pokémon Diamond and Pearl or Pokémon Platinum, which allowed the player to find more/exclusive Pokémon in the wild if a suitable Game Boy Advance cartridge was inserted. Some of the content can stay permanently, even after the GBA game has been removed.

Additionally, the GBA slot can be used to house expansion paks, such as the Rumble Pak, Nintendo DS Memory Expansion Pak, and Guitar Grips for the Guitar Hero: On Tour series. The Nintendo DSi and the DSi XL have an SD card slot instead of a second cartridge slot and cannot play Game Boy Advance games or Guitar Hero: On Tour. In certain Wii games such as Band Hero, the player can use a Nintendo DS for additional features.

Regional division
The Nintendo DS is region free in the sense that any console will run a Nintendo DS game purchased anywhere in the world; however, the Chinese iQue DS games cannot be played on other versions of the original DS, whose firmware chip does not contain the required Chinese character glyph images; this restriction is removed on Nintendo DSi and 3DS systems. Although the Nintendo DS of other regions cannot play the Chinese games, the iQue DS can play games of other regions. Also, as with Game Boy games, some games that require both players to have a Nintendo DS game card for multiplayer play will not necessarily work together if the games are from different regions (e.g. a Japanese Nintendo DS game may not work with a North American copy, even though some titles, such as Mario Kart DS and Pokémon Diamond and Pearl versions are mutually compatible). With the addition of the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, certain games can be played over the Internet with users of a different region game.

Some Wi-Fi enabled games (e.g. Mario Kart DS) allow the selection of opponents by region. The options are "Regional" ("Continent" in Europe) and "Worldwide", as well as two non-location specific settings. This allows the player to limit competitors to only those opponents based in the same geographical area. This is based on the region code of the game in use.

The Nintendo DSi, however, has a region lock for DSiWare downloadable games, as well as DSi-specific cartridges. It still runs normal DS games of any region, however.

Media specifications

Nintendo DS games use a proprietary solid state mask ROM in their game cards. The mask ROM chips are manufactured by Macronix and have an access time of 150 ns. Cards range from 8–512 MiB (64 Mib to 4 Gib) in size (although data on the maximum capacity has not been released). Larger cards have a 25% slower data transfer rate than more common smaller cards. The cards usually have a small amount of flash memory or an EEPROM to save user data such as game progress or high scores. The game cards are  (about half the width and depth of Game Boy Advance cartridges) and weigh around 3.5 g ( oz).

Hacking and homebrew

In South Korea, many video game consumers exploit illegal copies of video games, including the  DS. In 2007, over 500,000 copies of DS games were sold, while the sales of the DS hardware units was 800,000.

Another modification device called Action Replay, manufactured by the company Datel, is a device which allows the user to input cheat codes that allows it to hack games, granting the player infinite health, power-ups, access to any part of the game, infinite in game currency, the ability to walk through walls, and various other abilities depending on the game and code used.

Notes

References

External links

Products introduced in 2004
Backward-compatible video game consoles
Handheld game consoles
Regionless game consoles
2000s toys
2010s toys
IQue consoles
Seventh-generation video game consoles
Discontinued handheld game consoles
Spike Video Game Award winners

Nintendo DS


An Rhetinantha ophiodens in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John T. Atwood, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Mario Alberto Blanco. An Rhetinantha ophiodens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Rhetinantha, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Bolivia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Rhetinantha

Rhetinantha ophiodens


يحيى جامع  أو يحيى جامي (ولد في 25 مايو 1965) هو الرئيس الثاني لجمهورية غامبيا من 22 يوليو 1994 حتى 19 يناير 2017 وانضم إلى الجيش الوطني الغامبي في عام 1984، وعُين ملازما ثانيا في عام 1989. تمكن من الوصول إلى الحكم عن طريق انقلاب غير دموي في يوليو عام 1994، وانتُخب بعدها بعاميْن رئيسًا للجمهورية. أعيد انتخاب يحيي جامع في 2006 و2011؛ إلّا أنّ مرشّح المعارضة الموّحّد آداما بارو هزمه في انتخابات 2016. أعلن جامع سنة 2015 أن بلاده أصبحت جمهورية إسلامية قائلاً: .

اعترف يحيي جامع بخسارته للانتخابات الرّئاسيّة في ديسمبر 2016، إلا أنّه تراجع عن اعترافه ورفض نتيجة الانتخابات التي قال إنها شهدت خروقات، وطالب بإعادتها

. طالبت الدوّل الأعضاء في المجموعة الاقتصادية لغرب إفريقيا، بمساندة من مجلس الأمن الدّولي، يحيي جامع بالتخلّي عني السلطة، مهدّدةً بالتدخّل العسكري. قبِل يحيي جامع التنحّي عن السّلطة بعد وساطة من الرئيسيْن الموريتاني محمد ولد عبد العزيز والغيني ألفا كوندي؛ مؤكّدًا أنه تعرّض لحملات كاذبة وأنّ تنحيه جاء .

إعادة الانتخاب
أسس حزب '"التحالف الوطني لإعادة التوجيه والبناء"' كحزبه الخاص، وتم إعادة انتخابه بنسبة فوز 53%. وقد عبر المراقبون عن نزاهة وحرية هذة الانتخابات بشكل عام، رغم الثغرات.

رشح جامع نفسه في الانتخابات الرئاسية للبلاد للمرة الثالثة عام 2006. كانت الانتخابات مقررة أن تبدأ في شهر سبتمبر، لكن تم تأجيلها لشهر أكتوبر، لتعارض شهر رمضان. حيث ربح الانتخابات بنسبة 67.3% وأعلن فائزاً ورئيساً للبلاد، من ناحية أخرى، جاء المرشح اوساينو داربوا في المرتبة الثانية.

وفي 11 ديسمبر 2015، أعلن تحويل بلاده إلى جُمهوريَّة إسلاميَّة في خُطوةٍ اعتبرها تخليصًا لِغامبيا من ماضيها الاستعماري.

تركه لحكم البلاد
في يوم الجمعة الثاني من كانون الأول/ديسمبر أعلن رئيس الهيئة العليا للانتخابات الجامبية خسارة الرئيس جامع وفوز مرشح المعارضة آداما بارو بأغلبية أصوات الناخبين لتنتهي رسميًا فترة حكم الرئيس جامع للبلاد التي استمرت قرابة 22 سنة. وعلى الرغم من اعترافه في البداية بالهزيمة في الانتخابات، إلا أن جامع عاد ليغير موقفه رافضا التنحي عن منصبه وتسليم السلطة سلميا، وأعلن حالة الطوارئ في البلاد لمدة ثلاثة أشهر، مبررا قراره بوجود مخالفات في العملية الانتخابية، وسط دعوات دول إكواس التي طالبته باحترام نتائج الانتخابات، والتي قامت فيما بعد بنشر قواتها في غامبيا.

بعد محادثات مع رئيسي غينيا وموريتانيا، اللذين سعيا إلى التوسط في الأزمة السياسية، والتوصل إلى حل سلمي، قَبِل جامع التنحي عن السلطة، في 21 يناير 2017، من خلال خطاب بثه التلفزيون الرسمي.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 غامبيا

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من قسم الساحل الغربي
الأزمة الدستورية الغامبية 2016–2017
الأزمة الدستورية الغامبية في 2016–17
حاصلون على الدكتوراه الفخرية من جامعة سانت ماري في هاليفاكس
رهاب المثلية
رؤساء حكومات سجنوا لاحقا
رؤساء غامبيا
عسكريون غامبيون
غامبيون من أصل سنغالي
قادة دول إفريقيا
قادة وصلوا إلى السلطة عن طريق انقلاب
مسلمون غامبيون
مواليد 1385 هـ
مواليد 1965
حاصلون على مراتب تشريفية وأوسمة وميداليات السنغال

يحيى جامع


Betulaceae Fagales takımına bağlı bir bitki familyasıdır.

Özellikler
Ağaç veya çalı şeklinde olan bitkilerdir. Yapraklarını dökerler, yapraklar basit, almaşık dizilişli, kulakçıklı, kenarları testere dişlidir.

Çiçekler tek eşeyli, bitkiler bir evcikli. Erkek çiçekler kedicik, dişi çiçekler başak adını alır. Primer, sekonder ve tersiyer brahte sistemleri mevcut.

Erkek çiçekler bazı cinslerde 4 çanak yapraklı ve 2-20 Stamenli; taç yapraklar yoktur.

Dişi çiçeklerde çiçek örtüsü yaprakları eksik, dişi organ 2 bileşik karpelli, 2 stiluslu, ovaryum alt durumlu, 1 veya 2 ovüllü, ancak bir ovül bir tohuma gelişir.

Taksonomi
Betulaceae familyasına bağlı cinsler:
 Alnus - Mill.
 Betula - L.
 Carpinus - L.
 Corylus - L.
 Ostrya - Scop

Dış bağlantılar

Kaynakça

Fagales
John Edward Gray tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Betulaceae


Framhaldsskólinn í Vestmannaeyjum, the comprehensive secondary school of Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland, was founded 1979 when the mechanical engineering, common trades (is. iðnskóli) and the higher education department of the secondary school merged into one.

Then in 1997, it also took over the school of maritime navigation.

Currently there are seven departments in the school: Natural sciences, social sciences, linguistics, job training (for the disabled), medical aide training, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering.

The school is also currently used as the teaching facility for the Vestmannaeyjar department of the University of Iceland and has hosted many remote lectures, to Ísafjörður and Bíldudalur as well as a few other countries.

Education in Iceland
Gymnasiums in Iceland
Educational institutions established in 1979
1979 establishments in Iceland

Framhaldsskólinn í Vestmannaeyjum


Kronološki popis svjetske baštine u Rusiji po godini upisa na UNESCO-ov popis:

 1990. – Povijesni centar Petrograda i pripadajući ansambl (Kronstadt, Lomonosov, Pavlovsk,  Peterhof,  Puškin)
 1990. – Crkve Kiži Pogosta na otoku Kiži na Onješkom jezeru
 1990. – Moskovski kremlj i Crveni trg u Moskvi
 1992. – Stari dio Novgoroda s kremljem i Sofijinom katedralom
 1992. – Soloveckijevi otoci s utvrđenim manastirom
 1992. – Kremlj i katedrala u Vladimiru i Suzdalju
 1993. – Utvrda-manastir u Sergijevom Posadu
 1994. – Crkva Uskrsnuća u Kolomenskoju
 1995. – Komijske prašume
 1996. – Bajkalsko jezero
 1996. – Vulkansko područje i park prirode na Kamčatki
 1998. – Altajsko gorje
 1999. – Zapadni Kavkaz
 2000. – Kazanski kremlj
 2000. – Ferapontov manastir
 2000. – Kurska prevlaka
 2001. – Sihote-Alinj i Nacionalni park Bikin (prošireno 2018.)
 2003. – Stari dio grada, utvrda i citadela Derbenta
 2003. – Bazen zatvorenenog sliva Uvs-Nuur
 2004. – Novodjevičanski manastir u Moskvi
 2004. – Prirodni rezervat Vrangelov otok
 2005. – Stari dio Jaroslavlja
 2005. – Struveov luk
 2010. – Visoravan Putorana
 2012. – Park prirode Stupovi Lene
 2014. – Bolğar
 2017. – Krajolici Daurije (Daurski rezervat biosfere)
 2017. – Katedrala Uznesenja i samostan na gradu-otoku Svijažsku
 2019. – Crkve Pskovske škole arhitekture
2021. – Petroglifi na Onješkom jezeru i Bijelom moru

Popis predložene svjetske baštine u Rusiji

 1996. – Valamski arhipelag
 1996. – Povijesna i kulturna Džeirahska regija, Ingušetija
 1996. – Šeremetov dom za strance u Moskvi, arhitektonski i povijesni kompleks
 1998. – Povijesno središte Irkutska
 1998. – Katedrala Krista Spasitelja u Moskvi
 1998. – Rostovski kremlj
 2000. – Povijesno središte Jenisejska
 2001. – Crkva princa Dimitrija na krvi
 2003. – Petroglifi Sikači-Aljana
 2005. – Rezervat prirode Komandorski otoci
 2005. – Rezervat prirode Magadan
 2007. – Stupovi Krasnojarska
 2007. – Vasjuganska močvara
 2008. – Ilmensko gorje
 2008. – Astrahanski kremlj
 2009. – Arheološki lokalitet Tanais
 2010. – Ruski kremljevi (Uglič, Astrahan i Pskov)
 2011. – Izmajlovo, arhitektonski carski park
 2012. – Baškirski Ural
 2014. – Kenozerski nacionalni park

Poveznice
 Popis mjesta svjetske baštine u Europi
 Popis mjesta svjetske baštine u Aziji

R

Svjetska baština Ruske Federacije


Femeia din Ursa Mare este un film românesc din 1982 regizat de Adrian Petringenaru. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Florina Cercel, Dorel Vișan și Emanoil Petruț.

Rezumat

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

 Florina Cercel — Maria, o țărancă tânără din Țara Oașului, care a fost crescută de muncitorii forestieri și are grijă de treburile casnice ale coloniei
 Dorel Vișan — Nicolae Murgu, artificier pe șantierul de construcții
 Emanoil Petruț — Anton Ciortea, șeful de brigadă al șantierului de construcții
 Petru Felezeu — baciul Mihai Urca, conducătorul coloniei de muncitori forestieri
 Ioana Crăciunescu — Ana Ciortea, soția lui Anton, amanta lui Murgu
 Matei Alexandru — ing. Constant, directorul șantierului de construcții
 Simion Hetea — Zdrenghea, contabilul șantierului de construcții
  — Ghio, muncitorul forestier care afirmă că nu a văzut nicio decorație (menționat Andrei Török)
 Alexandru Virgil Platon — muncitor forestier 1 (menționat Al. Virgil Platon)
 Octavian Cosmuța — muncitor forestier 2
 Rodica Popescu Bitănescu — dna Marinescu, fosta soție a lui Murgu (menționată Rodica Popescu)
 Marietta Rareș — Parasta, mama Mariei (menționată Marieta Rareș)
 Tudor Petruț — Văsâi, muncitor forestier tânăr
 Adrian Ștefănescu — Stan, tehnician topograf, secretarul organizației de partid a șantierului de construcții
 Igor Dobrescu — muncitor forestier 3
 Mihai Oroveanu
 Gheorghe Oprea
 Sandu Lungu
 Ștefan Velniciuc — poștașul comunei
 Niță Pampu — muncitor forestier 4
 Gheorghe Mazilu — muncitor forestier 5
 Constantin Toma
 Dumitru Modruș
 Anton Tănase
 Titus Gorgoi
 Ioan Mureșan
 Coloman Totu
 Ricardo Jigmond — copil
 Marius Ilinca — copil

Primire
Filmul a fost vizionat de 1.772.819 spectatori de spectatori în cinematografele din România, după cum atestă o situație a numărului de spectatori înregistrat de filmele românești de la data premierei și până la data de 31 decembrie 2014 alcătuită de Centrul Național al Cinematografiei.

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1982 în film

Filme din 1982
Filme regizate de Adrian Petringenaru
Filme românești
Filme în limba română

Femeia din Ursa Mare


El tucanete de Natterer, pichilingo dentado, tucancito de pico corto o tucancito pico rojo (Selenidera nattereri) es una especie de ave de la familia Ramphastidae que se encuentra en Brasil, Colombia, Guayana francesa, Guyana y Venezuela.

Hábitat
Vive en el las áreas de suelo arenoso y claros dentro del bosque húmedo, preferentemente a menos de 160 m de altitud, e incluso hasta los 300

Descripción
Mide 32 a 33 cm de longitud y pesa entre 148 y 165 g. El macho plumaje negro, con piel alrededor del ojo color azul verdoso a verde amarillento brillante y una ancha banda amarilla a anaranjada sobre y tras los oídos; un parche en el flanco amarillo dorado a óxido y una banda amarilla en el manto superior; pico rojo en la línea basal,culmen verde a verde lima, con un parche azul cuadrado cerca de la base de la maxila y la mandíbula, dientes verdosos o blancuzcos, el resto del pico castaño a rojo y verdoso.

Alimentación
Se alimenta principalmente de frutos y semillas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

nattereri
Aves de América del Sur
Animales descritos en 1836
Taxones descritos por John Gould

Selenidera nattereri


Yeniçeri  askerlerinin  ve komutanları (Sanadid-i Bektaşiyan) Ağa ve Çorbacıları'nın toplananıp cem ettikleri, "seğirtme" denen yarışmaları ve talimlerini yaptıkları, zaman zaman koyun keserek yedikleri  meydandır. "Yeni Odalar" denen Yeniçeri kışlalarının bulunduğu ve Yeniçeri ayaklanmalarının genellikle başladığı yer olan Etmeydanı'nın bulunduğu bölge günümüzde İstanbul Üniversitesi arkasındaki Ağa Kapısı civarındadır. Bu meydanda Etmeydanı Tekkesi de bulunur ve Bektaşi Ocağına mensup Yeniçeriler ibadetlerini bu tekkede yaparlardı.

İkinci Mehmet zamanında inşa edilmiş olan Yeni Odalar burada bulunmaktaydı. İstanbul'daki ilk Yeniçeri kışlası olan Eski Odalar ise bugünkü Şehzadebaşı Caminin karşısında yer almaktaydı. Etmeydanı'nda aynı zamanda Yeniçeriler'e ait bir de Orta Cami bulunmaktaydı ki bu cami bugün Ahmediye Cami adı ile halen ibadete açıktır. Aslında Etmeydanı'ndan kalan tek hatıra bu cami ile karşısında yer alan Ortaçeşme'dir. Bu çeşmenin de kanlı bir tarihi vardır. Çeşmeyi yaptıran Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Paşa'nın cesedi kaderin garip bir cilvesi olarak bu çeşmede sergilenmiştir.

Ağa Kapısı

1826 yılına kadar Yeniçeri Ağası'nın resmi makamı olan binadır.

Süleymaniye'de İstanbul Müftülüğü ile İstanbul Üniversitesi'nin Botanik Enstitüsü olarak kullanılan yerinde idi. Ağa Kapısı daha önceleri Çarşıkapı'da iken 17. yüzyıl ortalarında buraya taşındı.

1826 yılında Yeniçeri, Bektaşi ve Ahi Ocakları'nın kaldırılışına kadar Yeniçeriler'in en büyük subayı olan Yeniçeri Ağası burada yaşardı. Burası, Yeniçeri Ağası'nın komutanlık makamıydı. Yanında ağanın lojmanı ve harem kısmı da vardı. Osmanlılarda "kapı" sözcüğü resmi daire anlamına geldiği için buraya Ağa Kapısı, Ağa Dairesi de denmiştir.

1622 yılında II. Osman, ayaklanan Yeniçeriler'den kaçarak Ağa Kapısı'na sığınmıştır.

Birçok defa yanan bu bina her seferinde yeniden selamlık ve harem kısımları ile bir saray gibi yapıldı. 1659 yılında İstanbul'un dörtte üçünü yakan yangında Ağa Kapısı harabeye döndü. 1749'da Küçükpazar Yangınından sonra da yanan Ağa Sarayı yeniden inşa edilirken kâgir kule yerine ahşap bir yangın kulesi yapıldı. Fakat 1774 yılındaki Cibali Yangınında saray ve kule tekrar yandı. Ali Emiri Efendi Kütüphanesi'nde, Ali Emiri Efendi'nin kitapları arasındaki bir yazma risalede, H. 1196 (M.1774) Cibali yangınına dair geniş bilgi vardır. İstanbul'u kasıp kavuran bu yangının Ağa Kapısı bölümüne de değinilmiştir.

Ağa Kapısı binası Yeniçeri Ocağı'nın kaldırılmasından sonra yeniden yapılırcasına tamir edildi. Tamirden sonra binanın Bâb-ı Meşihat (Şeyhülislam Kapısı) olarak kullanılmasına karar verildi. Şeyhülislamlık buraya taşınacağı zaman da Hocapaşa Yangını çıktı. Serasker Bahçesi'nde çadırlarda bulunan sadrazam ve maiyeti, Babıali yangını dolayısıyla Babıali'ye taşınamadıkları için bu binaya yerleştiler. Buranın adı bir süre Serasker Kapısı oldu.

Serasker Dairesi, şimdiki İstanbul Üniversitesi binasının yerinde bulunan Eski Saray'a geçince de buraya Meşihat Dairesi taşındı. Bahçedeki yanmış olan ahşap yangın kulesi 1849 yılında kâgir olarak (Bayezid Kulesi) yeniden yapıldı. Saltanatın kaldırılışına kadar bina Şeyhülislam Dairesi olarak kullanıldı.

Cumhuriyet döneminde bina bir süre İstanbul Kız Lisesi'ne verildi. Kız lisesi iken çıkan bir yangın sonunda bina tamamen yandı. Sadece, şimdiki müftülük binası olarak kullanılmakta olan Fetvahane binası kurtarılabildi. Yanan yere de son yıllarda Botanik Enstitüsü için bir bina yapılmıştır.

Tarihte Ağa Kapısı olayları pek çoktur. Bunların en önemlileri, Asakir-i Mansure'ye mensup olanların isyanlarıdır. Bunlar Yeniçerilik gayretiyle yangın kulesinin altında toplanarak başkaldırmışlar ve kuleyi ateşe vermişlerdir. Maaşlarını ve diğer sosyal haklarını alamadıkları gerekçesiyle isyan eden Yeniçeriler Serasker Paşa'yı indirmek istediler, ancak  çabaları başarıya ulaşamadı ve elebaşları Üsküdar'a geçerken yakalanarak idam edildi. Ağa Kapısı'ndaki diğer önemli olay Patrona Halil İsyanıdır. Patrona Halil'in başlattığı ayaklanmanın hızla büyüyerek İstanbul'u korku ve heyecana vermesinden sonra bir kısım Yeniçerilerin Et Meydanı'na kazan koymaları, Bostan Kapısı'nda arkadaşlarından ayrılan Patrona Halil'in Ağa Kapısı'na gelerek oradaki mahkûmları salıverip peşine takması ve oradan Cebehane'ye gitmesi, Beşinci Bölük'ün kazanını zorla çıkartması gibi tarihimizdeki önemli olaylar bu dönemde yaşanmıştır.

Fatih'teki meydanlar
Osmanlı döneminde İstanbul

Etmeydanı


Kenneth Harry "Ken" Olsen  (February 20, 1926 – February 6, 2011) was an American engineer who co-founded Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in 1957 with colleague Harlan Anderson and his brother Stan Olsen.

Background
Kenneth Harry Olsen was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut and grew up in the neighboring town of Stratford, Connecticut. His father's parents came from Norway and his mother's parents from Sweden. Olsen began his career working summers in a machine shop. Fixing radios in his basement gave him the reputation of a neighborhood inventor.

After serving in the United States Navy between 1944 and 1946, Olsen attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he earned both a BS (1950) and an MS (1952) degree in electrical engineering.

Career

Pre-DEC
During his studies at MIT, the Office of Naval Research of the United States Department of the Navy recruited Olsen to help build a computerized flight simulator. Also while at MIT he directed the building of the first transistorized research computer. Olsen was an engineer who had been working at MIT Lincoln Laboratory on the TX-2 project.

Olsen's most important connection to Project Whirlwind was his work on the Memory Test Computer (MTC), described as "a special purpose computer built to test core memory for the Whirlwind." Unlike the 18-bit TX-0, which was "designed to be a predecessor for a larger 36 bit machine, the TX-2," Whirlwind and the MTC used 16 bits.

Digital Equipment Corporation
In 1957, Olsen and an MIT colleague, Harlan Anderson, decided to start their own firm. They approached American Research and Development Corporation, an early venture capital firm, which had been founded by Georges Doriot, and founded Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) after receiving $70,000 for a 70% share. In the 1960s, Olsen received patents for a saturable switch, a diode transformer gate circuit, an improved version of magnetic-core memory, and the line printer buffer.  (Note that MIT professor Jay W. Forrester is generally credited with inventing the first practical magnetic-core memory).

Olsen was known throughout his career for his management style and his fostering of engineering innovation. Olsen's valuing of innovation and technical excellence spawned and popularized techniques such as engineering matrix management, that are broadly employed today throughout many industries. Olsen valued humility, driving an economy car and keeping a simple office in an old mill building. He also was an accomplished pilot and flew his own plane.

In 1977, referring to computers used in home automation at the dawn of the home computer era, Olsen is quoted as saying "There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home." Olsen admitted to making the remark, even though he says his words were taken out of context and he was referring to computers set up to control houses, not PCs. According to Snopes.com, "the out-of-context misinterpretation of Olsen's comments is considered much more amusing and entertaining than what he really meant, so that is the version that has been promulgated for decades now".

In 1986, Fortune Magazine named Olsen "America's most successful entrepreneur", and the same year he received the IEEE Engineering Leadership Recognition Award. Olsen was the subject of a 1988 biography, The Ultimate Entrepreneur: The Story of Ken Olsen and Digital Equipment Corporation written by Glenn Rifkin and George Harrar.

In 1993, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers awarded Olsen their IEEE Founders Medal.

He was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum in 1996.  He was awarded the Vermilye Medal in 1980. He was inducted as an Honorary Member of UPE (the International Honor Society for the Computing and Information Sciences) on October 8, 1975.

In 2011, he was listed at #6 on the MIT150 list of the top 150 innovators and ideas from MIT for his work on the minicomputer.

Later career history
Commencing in 1987, Olsen in public appearances described UNIX as "snake oil".  Some believed he was making a general characterization of UNIX, while others believed he was specifically referring to its marketing exaggerating its benefits.   While Olsen believed VMS was a better solution for DEC customers and often talked of the strengths of the system, he did approve and encourage an internal effort to produce a native BSD-based UNIX product on the VAX line of computers called Ultrix. However, this line never got enthusiastic comprehensive support at DEC.

Olsen was forced to retire from DEC, stepping down as president in 1992. He subsequently became the chairman of Advanced Modular Solutions. Olsen was also a major contributor to The Family, a religious and political organization.

Olsen was a trustee of Gordon College in Wenham, Massachusetts. There, the Ken Olsen Science Center was named after him in 2006, and dedicated on 27 September 2008. Its lobby features a Digital Loggia of Technology, documenting Digital's technology and history, and an interactive kiosk to which former employees have submitted their stories.

Death
Olsen died while in hospice care in Indianapolis, Indiana on February 6, 2011, aged 84. Gordon College, where he was a trustee and board member, announced his death, but did not reveal the cause. His family also did not comment on any details surrounding his death.

Awards
 1993: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers  in 1993 awarded Olsen the IEEE Founders Medal.
 1996: The Computer History Museum in 1996 named Olsen a Museum Fellow "for his introduction of the minicomputer and co-founding of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)."
 1999: Olsen was elected to the American Philosophical Society

See also

 Digital Federal Credit Union

References

Further reading
 Earls, Alan R. Digital Equipment Corporation. Arcadia Publishing, 2004.
 Schein, Edgar H. DEC Is Dead, Long Live DEC: The Lasting Legacy of Digital Equipment Corporation Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2004.

External links

 1988 Transcript of an Oral History Interview with Ken Olsen
 Ken Olsen, New England Economic Adventure
 Ken Olsen, co-founder of DEC, dies at 84, Mass High Tech
 DEC co-founder Kenneth Olsen mourned by computer industry Network World
 DEC : The mistakes that led to its downfall Birbeck College, University of London

Archives and records
Kenneth H. Olsen Collection at Baker Library Special Collections, Harvard Business School.

1926 births
2011 deaths
Businesspeople from Bridgeport, Connecticut
Businesspeople in computing
Digital Equipment Corporation people
Computer hardware engineers
MIT School of Engineering alumni
National Medal of Technology recipients
American computer businesspeople
American people of Norwegian descent
MIT Lincoln Laboratory people
20th-century American businesspeople

Ken Olsen


Gudbrand Hvite (Gudbrand el Blanco) fue un caudillo vikingo de Oppland, Noruega (). Gudbrand es un personaje de la protohistoria escandinava que aparece en diversas fuentes de las sagas nórdicas. Gudbrand y Thorkel Leira eran subordinados de Eirik Håkonsson que acompañaban al jarl de Lade Håkon Sigurdsson (Haakon Jarl) junto a otros nobles noruegos en la legendaria batalla de Hjörungavágr donde vencieron a los jomsvikings de Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson. Ambos estaban encargados de la defensa del flanco derecho de la flota de Haakon Jarl.

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Hollander, Lee M. (1955) The Saga of the Jómsvíkings, University of Texas Press, Austin. ISBN 978-0-292-77623-4 (inglés)
 Sturluson, Snorri, Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway, tr. Lee M. Hollander. Reprinted University of Texas Press, Austin, 1992. ISBN 0-292-73061-6 (inglés)

Vikingos de Noruega
Nobles de Noruega del siglo X

Gudbrand Hvite


Onthophagus propinquus é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por MacLeay em 1888.

Referências

Ligações externas

propinquus
Coleópteros descritos em 1888

Onthophagus propinquus


Hotelul Împăratul Traian din Corabia este un monument istoric din orașul Corabia, județul Olt. Această clădire, reprezentativă pentru stilul arhitectural neoromânesc, a fost construită în 1910 și deține o suprafață utilă de 500 mp și 20 de camere.

Monumente istorice din județul Olt
Turismul în județul Olt

Hotelul Împăratul Traian din Corabia


Urban Tigner Holmes, Jr. (* 13. Juli 1900 in Washington, D.C.; † 12. Mai 1972) war ein US-amerikanischer Romanist und Mediävist.

Leben und Werk

Holmes studierte an der University of Pennsylvania, an der Harvard University, sowie bei Joseph Bédier und Mario Roques in Paris. Er lehrte an der University of Western Ontario, der  University of Missouri und ab 1925 an der University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, wo er 1945 zum Kenan Professor of Romance Philology berufen wurde.

1940 begründete er die Reihe "North Carolina studies in the romance languages and literatures".

Holmes war Ritter der Ehrenlegion (1950).

Weitere Werke
Books of travel, Chapel Hill 1927, 1929
The French novel in English translation. An outline for individual and group study, Chapel Hill 1930
(Hrsg. mit Hugh Giduz) Sept contes de la vielle France, Boston/New York 1930
 Mediaeval gem stones. In: Speculum 9, 1934, S. 195–204
A history of Old French literature, from the origins to 130, Chapel Hill 1937, New York 1962
(mit Alexander Herman Schutz): A history of the French language, Columbus 1935, New York 1938, 1967
(Hrsg. mit Hugo Giduz) Les contes des sept sages, New York 1938
(Hrsg. mit John Coriden Lyons und Robert White Linker) The Works of Guillaume de Salluste, Sieur du Bartas. A critical edition, 3 Bde., Chapel Hill 1934-1940; 2 Bde., Genf 1977
(Hrsg. mit Alexander Herman Schutz) A source book for the History of the French language, Columbus 1940
(Hrsg.) Adenet le Roi's Berte aus grans pies, Chapel Hill 1946
(Hrsg.) Mediaeval period, Syracuse, N. Y. 1947, 1952 (A critical bibliography of French literature, hrsg. von David Clark Cabeen, vol. 1)
A new interpretation of Chrétien's "Conte del Graal", Chapel Hill 1948
(Hrsg. mit Alexander Joseph Denomy) Mediaeval studies in honor of Jeremiah Denis Matthias Ford, Smith professor of French and Spanish literature, emeritus, Cambridge, Mass. 1948
(Hrsg. mit Alfred G. Engstrom and Sturgis E. Leavitt) Romance studies presented to William Morton Dey, on the occasion of his seventieth birthday by his colleagues and former students, Chapel Hill 1950
Daily living in the twelfth century based on the observations of Alexander Neckham in London and Paris, Westport, Conn. 1952, 1980
Samuel Pepys in Paris, and other essays, Chapel Hill 1954
(mit Sister Mary Amelia Klenke) Chrétien, Troyes, and the Grail, Chapel Hill 1959
(Hrsg. mit Kenneth R. Scholberg) French and Provençal lexicography. Essays presented to honor Alexander Herman Schutz, Columbus, Ohio 1964
Chrétien de Troyes, New York 1970
(Hrsg. mit Raymond J. Cormier) Essays in honor of Louis Francis Solano, Chapel Hill 1970

Literatur
Mediaeval studies in honor of Urban Tigner Holmes, Jr., hrsg. von John Mahoney and John Esten Keller, Chapel Hill 1965
Ruth J. Dean, Grace Frank, William Roach: Memoirs of Fellows and Corresponding Fellows of the Mediaeval Academy, in:  Speculum 48, 1973, S. 624–625
The Old French Crusade cycle. Dedicated to the memory of Professor Urban Tigner Holmes, Jr. 1900-1972, University of Alabama Press 1977
Urban Tigner Holmes, Jr ., Medieval man. His understanding of himself, his society, and the world, hrsg. von Urban T. Holmes, III, Chapel Hill 1980

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Romanist
Hochschullehrer (Chapel Hill, North Carolina)
Hochschullehrer (University of Western Ontario)
Mitglied der Ehrenlegion (Ritter)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1900
Gestorben 1972
Mann

Urban Tigner Holmes, Jr.


Le papyrus Boulaq 18 est un ancien document administratif égyptien. Il contient un compte rendu du palais thébain datant de la  (environ 1750 avant notre ère). Le papyrus dresse la liste des fonctionnaires du palais et des rations qu'ils recevaient jour après jour. Les fonctionnaires importants mentionnés sont, par exemple, le vizir Ânkhou, mais aussi la reine Ay. Ce document revêt donc une grande importance historique. Il rapporte également le voyage du roi vers le temple de Montou (Médamoud) et signale l'arrivée d'une délégation de Nubiens.

Découverte
En 1860, le papyrus Boulaq 18 a été découvert dans la tombe du scribe de la grande enceinte Néferhotep à Dra Abou el-Naga par Auguste Mariette. Il se trouve maintenant au Musée égyptien du Caire.

Personnes mentionnées
 [...] (roi) nom détruit
 Aya (reine)
 Ânkhou (vizir)
 Âabeni (grand intendant)
À côté de la reine, d'autres membres de la famille du roi sont mentionnés. Il s'agit notamment du fils du roi, Rêdinefni, ainsi que de plusieurs sœurs du roi : Senetsen, Renrê, Bebiaaat, Bebisheryt, Pesshou, Horemhab, Neferetiou, Khememet et Zathanthor.

Datation
La datation exacte du document est contestée. Le nom du roi est fortement détruit. Autrefois, les érudits identifiaient le pharaon en question comme étant Sekhemrê-Khoutaouy Sobekhotep, mais des études récentes, en particulier par Kim Ryholt, ont conduit à l'identification du roi comme étant soit Imyrêmeshaw, soit Sehetepkarê Antef. La nouvelle publication complète du papyrus en 2019 par Schafik Allam lit le cartouche partiellement détruit comme étant « Ameni..... Sobekhotep » (Sekhemrê-Khoutaouy Sobekhotep).

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 A. Mariette, Les papyrus égyptiens du Musée de Boulaq, , Paris, 1872 ;
 A. Scharff, « Ein Rechnungsbuch des königlichen Hofes aus der 13. Dynastie », dans Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 57, 1922,  ;
 Schafik Allam, Hieratischer Papyrus Bulaq 18'', 2 volumes, Tübingen, 2019.

Index égyptologique
Boulaq 18
XIIIe dynastie égyptienne

Papyrus Boulaq 18


Güneş enerjisi, kaynağı Güneş olan ısı ve parlak ışıktır. Güneş'in çekirdeğinde yer alan füzyon süreci ile açığa çıkan ışınım enerjisidir. Güneşteki hidrojen gazının helyuma dönüşmesi füzyon sürecinden kaynaklanır. Güneş'in yüzeyinde güneş radyasyonunun yoğunluğu yaklaşık 6,33 x 107 W/m2dir. Dünya atmosferinin dışında Güneş ışınımının şiddeti, aşağı yukarı sabit ve 1370 W/m2 (Watt/m2) değerindedir; ancak yeryüzünde 0-1100 W/m2 değerleri arasında değişim gösterir. Bu enerjinin Dünya'ya gelen küçük bir bölümü dahi, insanlığın mevcut enerji tüketiminden kat kat fazladır. Güneş enerjisinden yararlanma konusundaki çalışmalar özellikle 1970'lerden sonra hız kazanmış, Güneş enerjisi sistemleri teknolojik olarak ilerleme ve maliyet bakımından düşme göstermiş, Güneş enerjisi çevresel olarak temiz bir birincil enerji kaynağı olarak kendini kabul ettirmiştir.

Güneş'ten elde edilebilecek enerji
Dünyanın yörüngesi üzerinde, uzayda, birim alana ulaşan Güneş ışınları, Güneş'e dik bir yüzey üzerinde ölçüldükleri zaman 1,366 W/m2dir. Bu değer Güneş enerjisi sabiti olarak da anılır. Gezegen atmosfer bu enerjinin %6'sını yansıtır, %16'sını da sönümler ve böylece deniz seviyesinde ulaşılabilen en yüksek Güneş enerjisi 1,020 W/m2dir. Bulutlar gelen ışımayı, yansıtma suretiyle yaklaşık %20, sönümleme suretiyle de yaklaşık %16 azaltırlar. Sağdaki resim 1991 ve 1993 yılları arasında uydu verilerine dayanarak elde edilebilen ortalama Güneş enerjisinin W/m2 cinsinden gösterimidir. Örneğin Kuzey Amerika'ya ulaşan Güneş enerjisi 125 ile 375 W/m2 arasında değişirken günlük elde edilebilen enerji miktarı, 3 ila 9 kWh/m2 (kilowatt.saat/metrekare) arasında değişmektedir.

Bu değer, elde edilebilecek mümkün en yüksek değer olup Güneş enerjisi teknolojisinin sağlayacağı en yüksek değer anlamına gelmez. Örneğin, PV panelleri (fotovoltaik panel), bugün için yaklaşık %15'lik bir verime sahiptirler. Bu nedenle, aynı bölgede bir güneş paneli, 19 ile 56 W/m2 ya da günlük 0,45-1,35 kWh/m2 enerji sağlayacaktır. Bugünkü %8 verime dayalı teknoloji ile dahi, işaretli bölgelere yerleştirilecek Güneş panelleri, bugün fosil yakıtlar, hidroelektrik vb kaynaklara dayalı tüm santrallerin ürettiği elektrik enerjisinden biraz daha fazlasını üretebilecektir.

Hava kirliliğinin neden olduğu küresel loşluk ise daha az miktarda güneş ışının yeryüzüne ulaşmasına neden olduğu için, Güneş enerjisinin geleceği ile ilgili az da olsa endişe yaratmaktadır. 1961-90 yılları arasını kapsayan bir araştırmada, aynı dönem içerisinde deniz seviyesine ulaşan ortalama Güneş ışını miktarında %4 azalma olduğu gözlenmiştir.

Güneş enerjisi teknolojileri
Güneş ışınlarından yararlanmak için pek çok teknoloji geliştirilmiştir. Bu teknolojilerin bir kısmı Güneş enerjisini ışık ya da ısı enerjisi şeklinde direkt olarak kullanırken diğer teknolojiler Güneş enerjisinden elektrik elde etme şeklinde kullanmaktadır. Güneş enerjili sıcak su sistemleri, suyu ısıtmak için Güneş ışınlarından yararlanır. Bu sistemler evsel sıcak su ya da bir alanı ısıtmak için kullanılabildiği gibi çoğunlukla bir havuzu ısıtmak için de kullanılır. Bu sistemler çoğunlukla bir termal güneş paneli ile bir de depodan oluşur. Güneş enerjili su ısıtıcıları üç grupta toplanır.

 Aktif sistemler, suyun ya da ısı transfer sıvısının çevirimi için pompa kullanırlar.
 Pasif sistemler suyun ya da ısı transfer sıvısının devrini doğal çevirim ile sağlarlar.
 Kütle sistemleri su tankının doğrudan Güneş ışığı ile ısınmasını amaçlarlar.
 Agrivoltaik tarım
Yaygın güneş enerjisi uygulamaları şunlardır

 Düzlemsel güneş kollektörleri: Türkiye'de de çok yaygın olarak kullanılan, evlerde sıcak su elde etmede kullanılan sistemlerdir.
 Yek-odaklı güneş enerjisi santralleri: Bunlarda, doğrusal, çanak şeklinde ya da merkezi bir odağa yönlendirilmiş dev aynalar kullanılarak odak noktasında çok yüksek sıcaklıkta ısı elde edilir. Genellikle elektrik üretiminde kullanılır. Ancak henüz bir yaygınlık kazanamamışlardır.
 Vakum tüplü güneş enerjisi sistemleri: Vakum tüplü güneş enerjisi kolektörleri: iç içe geçmiş 2 adet silindirik cam tüpün ısı yolu ile birbirine bağlanması ve bu işlem sırasında arasındaki havanın alınması ile üretilir. Dış silindirik tüpün yüzeyine düşen Güneş ışınları aradaki havasız ortamdan geçerek iç kısımdaki silindirik tüpün yüzeyinde absorbe edilmesi ile çalışır. Arada madde olmadığından dolayı sadece ışıma ile ısınan sistem suyu dış hava sıcaklığından bağımsızdır.
 Güneş ocakları: Çanak şeklinde ya da kutu şeklinde güneş ısısını toplayan yapılardır. Gelişmekte olan ülkelerde daha yaygın kullanılır.
 Trombe duvarı: Sandviç şeklinde cam ve hava kanalları ile paketlenmiş bir pasif Güneş enerjisi sistemidir. Güneş ışınları gün boyunca, duvarın altında ve üstünde yer alan hava geçiş boşluklarını tahrik ederek doğal çevirim ile termal kütleyi ısıtırlar. Gece ise trombe duvarı biriktirdiği enerjiyi ışıma yolu ile yayar.
 Geçişli hava paneli: Aktif Güneş enerjili ısıtma ve havalandırma sistemidir. Termal güneş paneli gibi davranan, Güneş'e bakan delikli (perfore) bir duvardan oluşur. Panel, binanın havalandırma sistemine ön ısıtma uygular. Ucuz bir yöntemdir. %70'e kadar verime ulaşılabilir.

Araştırmaya konu olmuş; ancak yaygınlaşamamış bazı ısıl Güneş enerjisi teknolojieri

 Güneş havuzları: Havuza atılan tuzların yardımı ile dip tarafta sıcaklık elde edilir. Bunlar daha çok deneysel sistemler olarak kalmışlar, bir yaygınlık gösterememişlerdir.
 Güneş bacaları: Bir binanın zemininde toplanan ısı, yüksek ve dar bir bacaya yönlendiğinde, bacada kurulu türbini çalıştırır. Bu da, deneysel aşamada kalmış Güneş enerjisi türlerinden biridir.
 Su arıtma sistemleri: Bunlar da bir çeşit havuz sistemidir. Havuzun üstüne eğimli cam kapak yerleştirilir, buharlaşan su tuzdan arınarak bu kapakta yoğunlaşır.
 Ürün kurutma sistemleri.
 Temiz ve içilebilir su elde etmek: Güneşin sıcaklığı ile bazı basit materyaller bir araya getirilerek temiz su elde etmek mümkündür. Güneşin sıcaklığı ile mevcut nemin buharlaştırılması ile su elde etme yöntemidir.

Güneş pilleri
Güneş pilleri ya da fotovoltaik piller diye anılan cihazlar, yarı iletkenlerin fotovoltaik etki özelliğini kullanarak, Güneş ışığından elektrik enerjisi üretirler. Güneş pilleri, kurulan sisteme bağlı olarak birkaç kW'tan (kilowatt) birkaç MW'a (megawatt) kadar elektrik üretebilir. Yüksek üretim maliyetleri nedeniyle, yakın zamana kadar oldukça az kullanılmıştır. 1956'lardan bu yana uzayda uydularda,1970'li yıllarda, elektrik hattından uzak yerlerde, yol kenarlarındaki acil telefon cihazları ya da uzaktan algılama gibi uygulamaların enerji gereksiniminin karşılanmasında kullanılmıştır. Son yıllarda, evlerde elektrik şebekesi ile birlikte çalışan sistemler de yaygınlaşmıştır.

2005 sonu itibarı ile toplam 5,300 MW olduğu zannedilen kurulu Güneş pili kapasitesinin, gelişmiş ülkelerin, Güneş pillerinin evsel amaçlı kullanımına verdiği teşvikler nedeniyle, 2006 yılında da ciddi artış göstermesi beklenmektedir. Gerek kullanımdaki artış, gerekse teknolojik gelişmeler nedeniyle Güneş pillerinin üretim maliyetinde her yıl azalış görülmektedir. Bir Güneş pili panelinin watt başına maliyeti 1990 yılında yaklaşık 7.5 USD iken, 2005 yılında bu rakam yaklaşık 4 USD seviyesine inmiştir. Gelişmiş ülkelerin sunmuş olduğu teşvikler, Güneş pillerinin yatırım maliyetinin 5 ile 10 yıl arasında geri dönebilmesini sağlamaktadır. Evsel amaçlı kullanılan Güneş pilleri bir inverter aracılığı ile elektrik şebekesine bağlanmakta, böylece üretilen elektriğin akülerde depolanmasından tasarruf edilmektedir. 2003 yılı içerisinde tüm Dünya'da gerçekleşen Güneş pili üretiminde %32'lik bir artış gözlenmiştir. Güneş pili kullanımındaki artış o kadar büyüktür ki, yarı iletken üretiminin talebi karşılayamaması, Güneş pili üretiminin artışında kısıtlamaya neden olmuştur. Bu sorunun 2006 ve 2007'de de devam edebileceği sanılmaktadır. 2016 yılı itibarı ile dünya genelinde üretim fazlası durumunda bulunan güneş panellerinde her geçen sene gelişen teknoloji ile maliyetler de düşmektedir. Teknolojik ilerlemelere bağlı olarak 2020 yılına kadar güneş paneli maliyetinin watt başına 0.25$ (0.25$/W) olması beklenmektedir.

Türkiye ve Güneş enerjisi

Türkiye Dünya üzerinde 36o-42o kuzey enlemleri ve 26o-45o doğu boylamları arasında bulunmaktadır. Türkiye'nin yıllık ortalama Güneş Işınımı 1527.46 kWh/m2yıl, ortalama yıllık güneşlenme süresi ise 2,741 saattir. Bu rakam günlük 4.2 kWh/m2 güce, günde yaklaşık 7.5 saat, toplamada ise 114 günlük bir güneşlenme süresine denk gelmektedir. 9.8 milyon TEP (ton eşdeğer petrol) ısıl uygulamalara olmak üzere yıllık 26.2 milyon TEP enerji potansiyeli mevcuttur. Yılın 10 ayı boyunca teknik ve ekonomik olarak ülke yüzölçümünün %63'ünde ve tüm yıl boyunca %17'sinden yararlanılabilir.

Termal Güneş enerjisi kullanım miktarı 2007 verilerine göre Türkiye'deki kurulu güç 7,105 MWth (th:termal) ve 10,150,000 m²'dir. Bu sıralama içinde Türkiye 10 milyon m² kurulu Güneş kollektörleri ile son derece iyi bir yerde bulunmaktadır.

Fotovoltaik Güneş enerjisi kullanım miktarı 2009 verilerine göre 4MW değerine ulaşmış bulunmaktadır. 2016 sonu itibarı ile 760MW seviyelerinde kurulmuş ve geçici kabulü yapılmış santral olup, 3000MW seviyelerinde bulunan santraller ise projelendirme ve proje onay aşamasındadır.

Mimaride Güneş enerjisi
Güneş enerjisinden yararlanan tasarımlar, çok az daha ilave enerji kullanmak suretiyle, konfor sıcaklığı ve ışık seviyesinin elde edilmesini hedefler. Bunlar pasif Güneş enerjisinde olduğu gibi soğuk ortamlarda daha fazla Güneş ışığı ile sıcak su elde edilmesi şeklinde ya da aktif Güneş enerjisinde olduğu gibi, pompa ve fanlar kullanarak, sıcak ve soğuk havanın (ya da sıvının) yönlendirilmesi şeklinde de olabilir.

Seralar da bir çeşit Güneş mimarisi örneğidir.

Termal Güneş enerjisinden elektrik üretimi

Isıl Güneş enerjisi sistemleri, yaygın olarak, bir ısı eşanjörünü yüksek sıcaklıklara kadar ısıtarak, elde edilen ısının elektrik enerjisine dönüştürülmesi şeklinde kullanılırlar.

Enerji kuleleri
Enerji kuleleri bir ağ şeklinde yerleştirilmiş, çok sayıda düz ve hareketli olurlar.

Yoğunlaştırıcılı kollektörler ve buhar motorları
Bir yoğunlaştırıcılı kollektörde ısıya dönüştürülen Güneş enerjisi, nükleer ya da kömürlü elektrik santrallerinde olduğu gibi, suyun kaynatılarak buhara dönüştürülmesi ve elde edilen buharla da bir buhar motoru ya da bir buhar türbininin tahrik edilmesi suretiyle elektrik enerjisi elde edilir.

Stirling motoru buharla çalışan motorlara benzer. Bu tür motorlarda buhar yerine gaz kullanılır. Bir stirling motoru herhangi bir tür ısı kaynağı ile tahrik edilir. Stirling motoru, içinde belirli bir gaz bulunan ve kapalı devre çalışan bir ısı motorudur. Stirling motorunun çalışma sistemi sıcak ve soğukluk farkına dayanır. Kapalı devre bir sisteme sahip motorun içine dışarıdan bir yakıt verilmez. Stirling motorunun çalışması için gerekli enerji dışarıdan ısı şeklinde verilir.

Güneş enerjisinin elektriğe dönüştürülmesinde stirling motorunun kullanımı, %30'luk bir verim ile en yüksek verime sahip bir sistem olarak kabul edilir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Ege Üniversitesi Güneş Enerjisi Enstitüsü
 'Yenilenebilir Enerji Teknolojileri Geliştirme Merkezi' Projesi
 ODTÜ Güneş Enerjisi Araştırma Merkezi

Ayrıca bakınız

Sürdürülebilir enerji<
Enerji dönüşümü
Fotovoltaik

Güneş enerjisi


Der Quamby Bluff ist ein Berg im Norden des australischen Bundesstaates Tasmanien. Er liegt ca. 23 km südlich von Deloraine in den Great Western Tiers, südlich der Gemeinde Golden Valley am Lake Highway (A5). Der Quamby Brook, ein Nebenfluss des Meander River, entspringt an seinen Nordhängen.

Aufstieg
Der Quamby Bluff ist einer der einfacher zu ersteigenden Berge in den Great Western Tiers. Er ist leicht in einem Nachmittag zu erklimmen.

Die leichteste Route beginnt ca. 22 km südlich von Deloraine am Lake Highway. Gegenüber dem Abzweig der Stichstraße zum Berg befindet sich ein Parkplatz. Von dort wandert man ca. 100 m die Straße hinauf und folgt dann dem gut ausgeschilderten Weg.

Weblinks und Quellen

LISTmap (Quamby Bluff). Department of  Primary Industries and Water. Tasmanian Government

Einzelnachweise

Berg in Australien und Ozeanien
Berg in Tasmanien
Tasmanische Wildnis

Quamby Bluff


Pedro Alonso López (born 8 October 1948), also known as The Monster of the Andes, is a Colombian serial killer, child rapist, and fugitive who murdered a minimum of 110 people, mostly young women and girls, from 1969 to 1980. López claimed to have murdered over 300 people. He is considered by many as one of the most prolific serial killers and rapists in history.

Early life
Pedro Alonso López was born in Colombia in 1948, in the municipality of Venadillo, Tolima. Pedro López was the seventh of thirteen children born to Benilda López de Castañeda, a prostitute, and had a difficult childhood due to the violence of the household and the absence of a father figure. His father, Megdardo Reyes, was murdered in La Violencia six months before his birth.

López was banished from the house at age eight, when his mother caught him attempting to molest his sister. Homeless, López wandered the streets of Bogotá and was frequently sexually abused. After the incident, he joined a gang of street children for protection. At age twelve, he was adopted by an American immigrant family, but fled after he was sexually assaulted by a teacher.

In 1969, López was sentenced to seven years in prison for auto theft. During this period of incarceration, he was brutally gang-raped by four other inmates. Days later, López hunted down the inmates and killed them in retaliation. The killings were ruled as self-defense, and two years were added to his sentence.

Murders
Upon his release from prison in 1978, López began wandering throughout the northwestern area of South America, eventually arriving in Peru. He later claimed that, during this period, he had killed over 100 girls, mainly street children and from indigenous tribes. While these claims are unverifiable, it is known that López was briefly captured by an Ayacuchoan indigenous tribe in south-central Peru after attempting to abduct a 9-year-old girl. The Ayacuchoans stripped López of his clothes and belongings and buried him in the sand. However, an American missionary convinced the tribe to release López and turn him over to the police. The police did not detain López, and he was instead expelled from the country.

After his deportation from Peru, López resumed travelling throughout South America, and although authorities began to notice an increase of missing persons, more specifically young girls, throughout areas where he travelled, they concluded the disappearances were most likely cases of human trafficking.

In April 1980, the areas surrounding Ambato, Ecuador were hit by flash flooding, unearthing the remains of several young girls who had been previously reported missing. This revelation prompted the police to reopen their investigations and contributed towards López's ultimate arrest later that same year.

Arrest and confession
Not long after the flooding, a local woman named Carvina Poveda was on her way to the market with her 12-year-old daughter Marie when López attempted to abduct the girl. Local merchants were able to overpower López and hold him until the police arrived.

While in police custody after his arrest, López initially refused to cooperate during his interrogation, choosing to remain silent. Eventually, he began to confess his crimes to Police Captain Pastor Cordova, who had been placed in the same cell as him while posing as a prisoner. López boasted that in total, he had murdered "Over two hundred in Ecuador, some tens in Peru, and many more in Colombia". He described his modus operandi as first luring the victim away from public spaces with a trinket, before raping and strangling them with his bare hands. He additionally claimed that he would occasionally exhume the victim's bodies from their burial site and have "tea parties" with them. When asked about his motive for the murders, López reportedly said: "I lost my innocence at age of eight. So I decided to do the same to as many girls as I could." Soon after his confession, he directed the authorities to the bodies of 53 victims, and his confessions soon led to the confirmation of a total of 110 in Ecuador.

Later in 1980, López was convicted of murder and sentenced to 16 years in prison, the maximum prison sentence available in Ecuador at the time.

Imprisonment and release
López served his prison sentence at the Garcia Moreno prison near Quito and was released from prison two years early, on August 31, 1994. In an interview shortly before his release, López described himself as "the man of the century" and said he was being released for "good behavior". After his release, López was deported to Colombia and was detained as an illegal immigrant on arrival, before being handed over to Colombian authorities. Prosecutors were unable to make a case against him, and he was instead declared insane and committed to a mental hospital.

In 1998, López was declared sane and released on $70 bail, on the condition that he would periodically report to the authorities; he almost immediately absconded.

The last reported sighting of López was in September 1999, when he visited the National Civil Registry to renew his citizenship card.

In 2002, Colombian National Police and Interpol issued warrants for López's arrest over a murder bearing similarities to his modus operandi. The Interpol warrant was deactivated in 2005, but López remains a fugitive. López has also been named as a possible suspect in a homicide committed in Tunja, Colombia in 2012.

Coverage
Editions of Guinness World Records up to 2006 credited Lopez as being the "most prolific serial killer". The listing was removed on newer editions after complaints that it made a competition out of murder.

See also
 List of fugitives from justice who disappeared
 List of serial killers in Colombia
 List of serial killers by number of victims

References

1948 births
1970s murders in Colombia
1970s murders in Ecuador
1970s murders in Peru
1980s murders in Colombia
1980s murders in Ecuador
1980s murders in Peru
1983 murders in Ecuador
1985 murders in Colombia
2002 murders in Colombia
20th-century criminals
Child sexual abuse in Colombia
Child sexual abuse in Ecuador
Colombian murderers of children
Colombian people convicted of murder
Colombian people imprisoned abroad
Colombian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Colombian rapists
Colombian serial killers
People convicted of murder by Colombia
People convicted of murder by Ecuador
People from Tolima Department
Possibly living people
Vigilantism against sex offenders
Violence against women in South America
Incidents of violence against boys
People with antisocial personality disorder

Pedro López (serial killer)


Jasenov este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Sobrance din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 300 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Jasenov este atestată documentar din 1279.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Jasenov, Sobrance


Teorija povratne informacije lica (engleski, facial feedback hypothesis) zasnovana je na ideji da izraz lica ne pokazuje samo emociju nego i to da su izraz lica i doživljaj povezani aferentnom senzornom povratnom informacijom od same facijalne akcije (izraza lica) koja utječe na emocionalni doživljaj. Osnova za teoriju izvedena je iz Darwinove tvrdnje iz 1872. godine da će emocija koja je slobodno izražena vanjskim signalima biti pojačana, dok će emocija čiji je izraz potisnut biti slabija. William James je otišao korak dalje predloživši 1890. da fiziološke promjene, što uključuje i izraz lica, jesu emocije.

S obzirom na postojanje razlika u mjeri u kojoj će facijalna ekspresija utjecati na afektivni doživljaj predložene su slabija i jača verzija ove teorije. Prema jačoj verziji teorije izraz lica u potpunosti determinira emocionalni doživljaj, dok prema slabijoj verziji samo utječe na emocionalni doživljaj. Ipak, na osnovu istraživanja samo je slabija verzija dobila podršku. U prilog te verzije idu i istraživanja provedena na pacijentima koji pate od paralize lica, u kojim se nije dobila značajna razlika između njih i kontrolne grupe.

Pozadina teorije
Ideja kako izraz lica utječe na emocije se adaptirala i mutirala tijekom godina, pružajući varijabilnost i održivost za daljnje istraživanje. Psiholozi koji istražuju efekte izraza lica na emocije svoju inspiraciju povlače od Charles Darwina i William Jamesa. Darwin je 1872. istaknuo kako pojačavanje ili inhibiranje izraza lica emocije mijenja sam intenzitet te emocije. Također je istaknuo važnost izraza lica u socio-komunikacijskoj funkciji. Drugim riječima, neke fiziološke reakcije utječu na subjektivni doživljaj emocija; inhibicijom izraza lica emocionalni doživljaj je manje intenzivan, dok slobodnim izrazom dolazi do povećanog intenziteta emocionalnog doživljaja.

William James je 1890. otišao korak dalje, predloživši kako fiziološke promjene, uključujući i izraze lica, jesu emocije. Kako se tijelo mijenja, tako se mijenja i subjektivni doživljaj emocija. Naglasak je postavljen na somatski input.

"Rekao sam kako je sama kvaliteta emocija određena organima koji su predodređeni da sudjeluju u njoj"

Prema modelu James-Langeove teorije percepcija podražaja dovodi do fizioloških promjena i senzacija nastalih mišićnim i visceralnim pokretima koje um prepoznaje kao emocije. Jamesovim riječima, ljudi ne bježe zato što osjećaju strah, nego osjećaju strah zato što bježe.

Iako je Jamesova teorija bila kritizirana te se u današnje vrijeme smatra nevaljanom i na teorijskoj i empiričkoj razini, generirala je seriju istraživanja koja proučavaju povezanost emocionalnog doživljaja i tijela. Već u kasnim 1970-im istraživanja su dala u opticaj ideju kako pokreti lica mogu utjecati na emocije gotovo cijelo stoljeće nakon Darwinove prvotne pretpostavke. Osim toga, sam naziv teorija povratne informacije lica skovan je zbog toga što je efekt postao odvojen od svojih teoretskih roditelja. No taj naziv je dobio na popularnosti početkom 1980-ih kada se pojavila jedna od prvih definicija za ovu teoriju prema kojoj povratna informacija skeletnih mišića izraza lica ima neformalnu ulogu u regulaciji emocionalnog doživljaja i ponašanja.

Razvoj teorije
James je u nastajanje emocija uključio sve tjelesne promjene, visceralne, mišićne i kožne. Ipak, kada je riječ o muskulaturi lica, skeletne mišiće nije specifično razlikovao kao izvor povratne informacije u doživljaju emocija, iako je gotovo svaki njegov primjer uključivao facijalni efekt. Većina današnjih istraživanja usmjerena je na aktivnost muskulature lica. Silvan Tomkins (1963) jedan je od prvih istraživača koji se usmjerio na muskulaturu lica. Objasnio je kako su ostali fiziološki odgovori tek drugi po redu, u odnosu na izražavanje emocija putem lica, jer lice izražava afekt i prema drugima i prema sebi putem povratne informacije, koji je brži i kompleksniji u odnosu na druge podražaje za koje su drugi visceralni organi sposobni.

Razlikuju se dvije varijacije ove teorije, slabiji i snažniji oblik teorije povratne informacije lica.

 Slabijom verzijom objašnjeno je kako u kožna povratna informacija muskulature i kože lica modificira intenzitet trenutne emocije. Često se ispituje s onim što Kraut (1982) naziva paradigmom dinamične facijalne poze. Ispitanici su inducirani u različite intenzitete izraza lica podražajima koji se javljaju prirodno kao što su bol, neki ugodni podražaji ili neugodan miris, te kompleksnim kognitivnim podražajima koji uključuju filmove, crtiće i sl. Nalazi su ponovljeno išli u prilog slabijem obliku teorije povratne informacije lica.
 Snažnijom verzijom je objašnjeno kako je povratna informacija lica dovoljan da inducira i specificira emociju. Najčešće se ispituje s Krautovom (1982) paradigmom statične facijalne poze. Razlikuju se dva testa za ovu paradigmu. Prvi je demonstracija emocionalne reaktivnosti, na način da ispitanici kontrahiraju facijalne mišiće u emocionalne izraze. U drugom testu ispitanici moraju kontrahirati mišiće u pozu koja odražava određenu emociju, te se od njih zatim traže da ukažu na emociju koju osjećaju i njezin intenzitet. Ipak nalazi za snažniji oblik su bili nedosljedni.

Još od Darwinovog zapisa veliki je broj istraživanja bio proveden na temu teorije povratne informacije lica. Neka od najznačajnijih istraživanja provedena su tijekom sedamdesetih i osamdesetih godina dvadesetog stoljeća. Jedno takvo istraživanje, diskutabilno i najpoznatije istraživanje teorije povratne informacije lica, jest ono koje su proveli Fritz Strack, Leonard L. Martin i Sabine Stepper 1988. godine. Budući da je glavna prepreka u istraživanjima osnove koja leži iza teorije povratne informacije lica te kako je emocionalno značenje iza namještenog izraza lica eksplicitno ili lako prepoznatljivo ispitanicima, istraživači su osmislili originalan postupak kojim su ispitanike uvjerili kako se zapravo istražuje psiho-motorička koordinacija. Točnije, objasnili su kako istražuju sposobnost ljudi da koriste dijelove tijela koje inače ne koriste za obavljanje različitih zadataka, te kao primjer za ovakve situacije naveli osobe s invaliditetom za koje bi istraživanje također imalo direktne implikacija za pomoć takvim osobama. Od ispitanika je traženo da procijene niz humorističnih stripova, no ispitanici su podijeljeni u tri grupe: jednu koja je olovku držala između zuba, drugu koja je olovku držala između usana i treću grupu koja je zadatak obavljala pišući nedominantnom rukom. Autori su pretpostavili da bi držanje olovke u zubima trebalo kontrahirati facijalne mišiće zygomaticus major koji su uključeni u izraz smijeha, a držanje olovke u usnama bi kontrahiralo mišiće orbicularis oris koji inhibiraju izraz smijeha. Istraživači su dobili rezultate u skladu s očekivanjima te potvrdili modulirajući efekt teorije povratne informacije lica, odnosno oni ispitanici koji su olovku držali između zuba su stripove procijenili zabavnijim u odnosu na one koji su olovku držali među usnama. Ovo istraživanje je imalo veliki utjecaj na prihvaćanje teorije povratne informacije lica, ali i na druga istraživanja koja su se koristile elementima ovog istraživanja.

Jedan od primjera istraživanja koje se koristilo sličnom metodologijom i elementima navedenog istraživanja istraživanje je Larsena, Kasimatis i Freya (1992) koji su nalaze Stracka i suradnika proširili i na negativne emocije. U svom su istraživanju blokirali ili izazvali kontrakciju mišića corrugator superciliia koji se javlja kod ekspresije tuge te su, očekivano, dobili da su ispitanici koji su imali izazvanu kontrakciju mišića izvještavali o većim razinama tuge u odnosu na one koji su inhibirali kontrakciju mišića.

Metodološke poteškoće
Prvobitna istraživanja teorije povratne informacije lica proučavala su utjecaj pojačavanja ili potiskivanja facijalnog efekta na emocije u kontekstu pravih i spontanih emocija, koristeći podražaje. Ovo je dovelo do nemogućnosti razdvajanja korelacije od uzroka kod istraživanja koja koriste spontane efekte. Laird je 1974. koristio obmanu, odnosno lažnu priču (mjerio je mišićnu facijalnu aktivnost s elektrodama) da bi inducirao kontrakcije određenih facijalnih mišića bez spominjanja emocionalnih stanja. Međutim, veće ocjene smiješnosti crtića koje su dali ispitanici zavarani u smiješenje mogli su biti uzrokovani time što su prepoznali mišićne kontrakcije i tome odgovarajuće emocije: "samoperceptivni mehanizam", za koji je Laird (1974) mislio da je u korijenu fenomena povratne informacije lica. Percipirajući psihološke promjene, ljudi popune praznine tako što osjećaju odgovarajuću emociju. U originalnim istraživanjima, Laird je morao isključiti 16% (istraživanje 1) i 19% (istraživanje 2) ispitanika jer su postali svjesni fizičke i emocionalne povezanosti tijekom istraživanja.

Adekvatni testovi teorije povratne informacije lica zahtijevaju izraze koji predstavljaju valjan analog emocija. Matsumoto (1987) navodi pet stavki koje upućuju na to da je nemoguće znati jesu li izrazi koje su ispitanici napravili doista bili prepoznatljivi kao emocionalni izrazi i od ovoga pati većina istraživanja emocionalne povratne informacije. Te su poteškoće: 1. izrazi možda neće biti toliko prepoznatljivi kao što se prvobitno očekivalo, 2. koji je intenzitet pokreta mišića, 3. koliko je trajanje izraza, 4. izrazi se mogu mijenjati tijekom vremena, 5. koja je metoda manipulacije lica.

Rutledge i Hupka (1985) također navodi niz ograničenja s kojima se mogu susresti istraživači, a to su: 1. ispitanici nisu dali točno tražene izraze, 2. upute za poziranje izraza lica mogle su nenamjerno sugerirati emociju ispitanicima, 3. stimulirani izrazi lica različitih emocija možda nisu bili jednako teški za pozirati i zbog toga ih je teško usporediti, 4. možda su se pojavili izrazi lica koji nisu željeni i time su mogli posredovati u mjerenju emocija, 5. ispitanici su možda samo djelomično pozirali zadane izraze, 6. podražaji koji se koriste za izazivanje emocija nisu bili unaprijed definirani u smislu intenziteta ili kvalitete izazvanih emocija, 7. znakovi za izraze lica bili su prisutni u podražajima koji izazivaju emocije, 8. složene obmane koje se koriste za prikrivanje svrhe eksperimenta mogle su utjecati na odgovore ispitanika, 9. ni svijest subjekta o svrsi eksperimenta niti moguće karakteristike potražnje nisu opširno istražene, 10. tehnike za određivanje subjektivnog doživljaja emocija korištene su bez navođenja pilot istraživanja ili prethodnog istraživanja o valjanosti tehnika, 11. nisu dobivene osnovne mjere emocija, 12. podražaji koji izazivaju emocije, poziranje izraza lica i samo iskazi emocija bili su neprikladno tempirani (npr. procjena emocija nakon završetka podražaja i poze, a ne tijekom podražaja i poze), 13. korištene su dugačke checkliste emocija koje povećavaju vrijeme između početnog poziranja i završetka samo izvještavanja o emocijama.

Zatim je moguće da je proces manipulacije mišića lica uzrokovao toliko napora i umora da su oni djelomično ili u cijelosti izazvali fiziološke promjene, a potom i emociju. Konačno, prisutnost fizioloških promjena mogla je biti izazvana ili modificirana kognitivnim procesom.

Eksperimentalni dokazi
U pokušaju da daju jasnu procjenu teorije da čisto fizička promjena lica, koja uključuje samo određene mišiće lica, može rezultirati emocijom, Strack, Martin i Stepper (1988) osmislili su obmanu koja bi osigurala da ispitanici poprime željeni izraz lica bez da mogu percipirati ili odgovarajuću emociju ili istraživačev pravi motiv. Ispitanicima je rečeno da sudjeluju u eksperimentu da bi se otkrila težina obavljanja određenih zadataka bez korištenja ruku. Ispitanici su držali olovku u ustima na jedan od dva načina. Usna pozicija bi kontrahirala mišić orbicularis oris i rezultirala bi mrštenjem. Zubna pozicija uključila bi mišić zygomaticus major ili mišić risorius i to bi rezultiralo osmijehom. Kontrolna grupa držala bi olovku u nedominantnoj ruci. Svi su morali popuniti upitnik u toj poziciji i ocijeniti težinu. Zadnji zadatak, koji je bio pravi cilj testa, bio je subjektivno ocjenjivanje smiješnosti stripova. Test se razlikovao od prethodnih metoda po tome što nije bilo emocionalnih stanja koja bi se oponašala, prikrivala ili pretjerivala

Kao što je predviđeno ispitanici u "zubnom" uvjetu prijavili su značajno više ocjene zabave nego ispitanici u "usnom" uvjetu. Obmana i procedura su bili jako uspješni inicirajući tražene kontrakcije mišića bez dizanja sumnje i izbjegavajući značajne efekte potražnje i redoslijeda. Soussignan (2002) koristio je metodu koju su uveli Strack, Martin i Stepper (1988) da bi facilitirao ili inhibirao osmijeh u ispitanika dok su gledali isječke videa pozitivnog i negativnog sadržaja. Rezultati su pokazali da su ispitanici koji su se smijali ocijenili pozitivne podražaje kao pozitivnije nego ispitanici koji se nisu smijali, ali nije bilo razlike za negativni podražaj. To jest, modulirajući efekt povratne informacije lica demonstriran je samo za uvjet pozitivnog podražaja.

Bilo je sugerirano da je u istraživanju Stracka, Martina i Steppera (1988) više truda uključeno u držanju olovke usnama nego zubima. Da bi se izbjegli mogući problemi truda Zajonc, Murphy i Inglehart (1989) zadali su ispitanicima da ponavljaju različite samoglasnike, izazivajući osmijehe s "ah" zvukovima i mrštenje s "uh" zvukovima na primjer i ponovno pronašli su mjerljiv efekt povratne informacije lica (10). Ritualno izgovaranje samoglasnika osmijeha pokazalo se ugodnije nego izgovaranje samoglasnika mrštenja, što može objasniti njihovu komparativnu rasprostranjenost u religijskim tradicijama mantre.

Međutim, sumnje oko snage ovih nalaza javile su se 2016. godine kada replikacija originalnog eksperimenta iz 1988. pod koordincijom Eric-Jana Wagenmakersa i provedena u 17 laboratorija nije pronašla značajne sistematske efekte povratne informacije lica. Naknadna analiza Noah i suradnika identificirala je nesklad u metodi originalnog eksperimenta iz 1988. kao mogući razlog nedostatka sistematskog efekta u repliciranim istraživanjima. Pronašli su da su se originalno istraživanje i replikacija razlikovali u prisutnosti kamere. U svom istraživanju efekt povratne informacije lica nisu pronašli kada su ispitanici snimani i upozoreni su da će se njihova izvedba pratiti, u usporedbi s uvjetom u kojem kamera i snimanje nisu bili prisutni, kada je došlo do efekta povratne informacije lica.

Jedno od novijih istraživanja, Dimberg i Söderkvist (2011), dobilo je značajne efekte povratne informacije lica. Ispitanici su u rotiranim uvjetima morali skupiti obrve (uvjet mrštenja) ili podići obraze (uvjet osmijeha) na slike prirode i lica. Rezultati su pokazali da su ispitanici ocjenjivali podražaje kao pozitivnije kad su se smiješili u odnosu na to kad su se mrštili. Istraživači navode da se tehnika voljne facijalne akcije može koristiti za testiranje povratne informacije lica, čak i u uvjetima kada je efekt mjeren neko vrijeme nakon manipulacije.

Coles, Larsen i Lench  proveli su 2019. godine metaanalizu 138 istraživanja i utvrdili su da je sveukupni efekt povratne informacije lica značajan ali malen. Rezultati su također indicirali da su efekti jači u nekim situacijama nego u drugim. Postoje tri moguća moderatora povezana s razlikom u veličini efekta:

 Vrsta emocionalnog ishoda: povratna informacija lica utjecala je na emocionalno iskustvo (npr. izjavljenu zabavu) i u većoj mjeri na afektivne procjene podražaja (npr. objektivna smiješnost crtića).
 Prisutnost emocionalnog podražaja: efekti povratne informacije lica na emocionalno iskustvo bili su veći u odsutnosti emocionalno evokativnih podražaja (npr. crtanih filmova).
 Vrsta podražaja: kada je ispitanicima prezentiran emocionalno evokativan podražaj, efekti povratne informacije lica bili su veći u prisutnosti nekih vrsta podražaja (npr. emocionalne rečenice) nego drugih (npr. slike).

Izvori

Psihologija

Teorija povratne informacije lica


Trolden i Æsken er en kortfilm instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr. efter manuskript af Johs. Baack.

Handling

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1916

Film instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr.
Kortfilm fra Danmark

Trolden i Æsken


CONCACAF Women's Championship, i nogle år kaldet CONCACAF Women's Gold Cup eller CONCACAF Women's VM-kvalifikationen, er en fodboldturnering arrangeret af CONCACAF, der ofte fungerer som kvalifikationsrunde til VM i kvindefodbold. I år hvor turneringen har været afholdt uden for VM-kvalifikationscyklus, har ikke-CONCACAF medlemmer har været inviteret. CONCACAF (Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football) er det styrende organ for fodbold for Nordamerika, Mellemamerika og Caribien. De mest succesfulde lande har været USA, der vandt deres syvende titel i 2014.

Se også

 CONCACAF Gold Cup
 CONCACAF Championship

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 CONCACAF Kvinders Gold Cup på RSSSF

Kvindefodbold

CONCACAF Women's Championship


Fald er den næststørste årsag til dødsulykker på verdensplan, og er en stor årsag til personskade, især for ældre. Fald hos ældre er en vigtig del af skader der kan forebygges. Bygningsarbejdere, elektrikere, minearbejdere og malere er erhverv hvor der er høje rater af faldskader.

Referencer

Ulykker
Traumatologi
Tryghed

Fald (ulykke)