HMS Formidable was an  ordered for the Royal Navy before the Second World War. After being completed in late 1940, she was briefly assigned to the Home Fleet before being transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet as a replacement for her crippled sister ship . Formidables aircraft played a key role in the Battle of Cape Matapan in early 1941, and they subsequently provided cover for Allied ships and attacked Axis forces until their carrier was badly damaged by German dive bombers in May.

Assigned to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean in early 1942, Formidable covered the invasion of Diego Suarez in Vichy Madagascar in mid-1942 against the possibility of a sortie by the Japanese into the Indian Ocean. Formidable returned home for a brief refit before participating in Operation Torch, the invasion of French North Africa in November. She remained in the Mediterranean and covered the invasions of Sicily and mainland Italy in 1943 before beginning a lengthy refit.

Formidable made several attacks on the  in Norway in mid-1944 as part of the Home Fleet. She was subsequently assigned to the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) in 1945 where she played a supporting role during the Battle of Okinawa and later attacked targets in the Japanese Home Islands. The ship was used to repatriate liberated Allied prisoners of war and soldiers after the Japanese surrender and then ferried British personnel across the globe through 1946. She was placed in reserve the following year and sold for scrap in 1953.

Background and description

The Royal Navy's 1936 Naval Programme authorised the construction of two aircraft carriers. Admiral Sir Reginald Henderson, Third Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy, was determined not to simply modify the previous unarmoured  design. He believed that carriers could not be successfully defended by their own aircraft without some form of early-warning system. Lacking that, there was nothing to prevent land-based aircraft from attacking them, especially in confined waters like the North and Mediterranean Seas. This meant that the ship had to be capable of remaining in action after sustaining damage, and that her fragile aircraft had to be protected entirely from damage. The only way to do this was to completely armour the hangar in which the aircraft would shelter, but putting that much weight so high in the ship allowed only a single-storey hangar due to stability concerns. This halved the aircraft capacity of the Illustrious class compared with the older unarmoured carriers, trading offensive potential for defensive survivability.

Formidable had a length of  overall and  at the waterline. Her beam was  at the waterline and she had a draught of  at deep load. She displaced  at standard load as completed. Her complement was approximately 1,299 men upon completion in 1940. The ship had three Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one shaft using steam supplied by six Admiralty 3-drum boilers. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , enough to give a maximum speed of . On sea trials, Formidable reached  with . She carried a maximum of  of fuel oil, which gave her a range of  at .

The  armoured flight deck had a usable length of , due to prominent "round-downs" at bow and stern to reduce air turbulence, and a maximum width of . A single hydraulic aircraft catapult was fitted on the forward part of the flight deck. The ship was equipped with two unarmoured lifts on the centreline, each of which measured . The hangar was  long and had a maximum width of . It had a height of , which allowed storage of Lend-Lease Vought F4U Corsair fighters once their wingtips were clipped. The ship could accommodate up to 54 aircraft rather than the intended 36 after the adoption of "outriggers" on the flight deck during the war and the flattening of the "round-downs" that increased the usable length of the flight deck to  to facilitate the use of a permanent deck park. The additional crewmen, maintenance personnel and facilities needed to support the extra aircraft severely crowded the ship. She was provided with  of petrol.

Armament, electronics and protection
The ship's main armament consisted of sixteen quick-firing (QF)  dual-purpose guns in eight twin-gun turrets that were mounted in sponsons on the side of the hull. The roofs of the gun turrets protruded above the level of the flight deck to allow them to fire across the deck at high elevations. The gun had a maximum range of . Her light anti-aircraft defences consisted of six octuple mounts for QF two-pounder ("pom-pom") anti-aircraft (AA) guns, two each fore and aft of the island and two in sponsons on the port side of the hull. The two-pounder gun had a maximum range of .

While under repair in late 1941, Formidables light AA armament was augmented by the addition of 10 Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon in single mounts with a maximum range of . By the time of her last recorded refit in March 1944, she had exchanged one octuple "pom-pom" mount for a quadruple mount and had a total of 20 twin and 14 single  mounts. Before seeing combat against the Japanese, some were replaced by 40 mm Bofors AA guns as the 20 mm shell was unlikely to destroy a kamikaze before it hit the ship. The Bofors gun had a maximum range of . By the war's end the ship had all six of her original octuple "pom-pom" mounts, five single power-operated  mounts, seven single 40 mm "Boffin" mounts and 11 twin and 12 single 20 mm mounts.

Formidable was completed with a Type 79 early-warning radar. The specifics of the additional radars fitted during the war are not readily available, but she probably had, by the end of the war, a Type 277 surface-search/height-finding radar on top of the bridge and a Type 293 target-indicator radar on the foremast. She also probably mounted Type 279 and Type 281B early-warning radars, based on those fitted aboard her sister ship . In addition, Type 282 and Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on the fire-control directors.

The Illustrious-class ships had a flight deck protected by  of armour, and the internal sides and ends of the hangars were  thick. The hangar deck itself was  thick and extended the full width of the ship to meet the top of the 4.5-inch waterline armour belt. The belt was closed by 2.5-inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft. The underwater defence system was a layered system of liquid- and air-filled compartments backed by a  splinter bulkhead.

Construction and service

Formidable was ordered as part of the 1937 Naval Programme from Harland & Wolff. She was laid down at their Belfast shipyard on 17 June 1937 as yard number 1007 and launched on 17 August 1939. Just before the launch ceremony was to begin, the wooden cradle supporting the ship collapsed, and the ship slid down the slipway while workmen were still underneath and around the ship. One spectator was killed by flying debris and at least 20 others were injured; Formidable, however, was not damaged. Because of the incident, the carrier was referred to as "The Ship That Launched Herself". She was commissioned on 24 November 1940.

After a very brief work up, the Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers of 826 and 829 Squadrons and the Fairey Fulmar fighters of 803 Squadron flew aboard and she joined the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow on 12 December. Her stay there was brief as she, escorted by the heavy cruisers  and , sailed on 18 December to protect convoys and search for the , which had recently attacked Convoy HX 84 in the North Atlantic. They failed to find the commerce raider and escorted a convoy to Cape Town, South Africa, arriving on 22 January 1941. Four days later the ship was ordered north to replace her sister Illustrious with the Mediterranean Fleet after she had been badly damaged by German dive bombers. En route, she took the opportunity to attack Italian forces in Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. They sank the  steamer  on 12 February for the loss of two Albacores.

Battle of Cape Matapan

Several weeks later, she made a cautious transit of the recently mined Suez Canal and reached Alexandria on 10 March. 829 Squadron was issued Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers to replace its losses around this time. On 20 March Formidable escorted a convoy to Malta and flew off five aircraft for Crete while returning to Alexandria. On the morning of 27 March, major elements of the Italian Fleet were spotted en route to the sea lanes between Egypt and Greece, and the carrier sailed later that afternoon with a force of three battleships, cruisers and destroyers under the command of Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, to intercept them. Reinforced by three Fulmars from 806 Squadron, her air group only numbered 13 Fulmars, 10 Albacores and 4 Swordfish. An Albacore spotted the leading Italian ships the next morning; a strike force of six Albacores was loaded with torpedoes and began to attack the . Two German Junkers Ju 88 bombers intervened, but they were driven off by the escorting pair of Fulmars. The attack was unsuccessful, and another strike force of three Albacores and two Swordfish was prepared. Shortly after launching them at 12:22, Formidable was unsuccessfully attacked by a pair of torpedo-carrying Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 bombers. Around 14:50, one Albacore succeeded in torpedoing the Italian battleship, although the other aircraft missed. The hit briefly knocked out her engines and caused heavy flooding. Another air strike of six Albacores and two Swordfish was launched at 17:30 to finish off the crippled battleship, but they mistook the  for the battleship in the fading light. The cruiser was struck by a single torpedo from one of the aircraft, possibly from one of two Swordfish from 815 Squadron from Maleme, Crete, that linked up with Formidables aircraft before the attack. The mistake allowed the battleship to reach port. One Albacore was shot down by Vittorio Veneto, and two others were forced to ditch after running out of fuel during the day's operations. Cunningham however continued the pursuit of the Italian ships into the night. Unaware of Cunningham's pursuit, a squadron of cruisers and destroyers was ordered to return and help Pola. This squadron included Polas sister ships, Zara and Fiume while Vittorio Veneto and the other ships continued to Taranto. In the darkness and without radar the Italian cruisers were taken completely by surprise and the three battleships plus Formidable were able to close to 3,800 yards (3,500 m) – point-blank range for battleship guns – at which point they opened fire. After just three minutes, Fiume and Zara had been destroyed. Formidable which was third in line behind  and  and ahead of  received the order to open fire with her 4.5-inch guns although the order was almost immediately countermanded and she was ordered out of line to starboard as soon as it was realised such a valuable ship was in such close proximity to enemy surface units. At least some of Formidables 4.5-inch guns did actually fire off one salvo in what was one of the few occasions in the Second World War in which an aircraft carrier fired her main armament at enemy warships.

On 18 April the Mediterranean Fleet sortied to bombard the primary Axis supply port of Tripoli and was attacked by a pair of torpedo-carrying SM.79s from Rhodes. They were intercepted by a pair of Fulmars that damaged one bomber badly enough that it crash-landed back at its base, although one Fulmar was also forced to crash-land aboard Formidable. The next day Fulmars from 806 Squadron shot down one CANT Z.1007 bomber flying from Cyrenica to Sicily and a pair of Junkers Ju 52 transports flying fuel to North Africa. On the morning of 21 April, the carrier's aircraft dropped flares to illuminate the port so it could be shelled by three battleships and a light cruiser. On the way home, a pair of Fulmars shot down a Dornier Do 24 flying boat.

During the Evacuation of Greece, Formidable provided air cover for Convoy GA-15 on 29 April. A Fulmar from 803 Squadron was forced to ditch on 2 May before the carrier returned to Alexandria the next day. She put to sea on 6 May to provide air cover for the convoys involved in Operation Tiger. On the morning of 8 May, a pair of Fulmars claimed to have shot down a pair of Z.1007s searching for the fleet; one Fulmar failed to return. Later that afternoon, the fighters shot down four German Heinkel He 111 bombers at the cost of one Fulmar forced to crash-land. Two Albacores and a Fulmar crashed due to non-combat causes during the day. The next day a pair of Fulmars from 806 Squadron badly damaged a Ju 88 reconnaissance bomber that crash-landed at its base in Sicily. As the fleet and the Tiger convoy approached Alexandria on 11 May, a pair of Fulmars attacked a formation of Ju 88s, damaging one bomber; one Fulmar and another Ju 88 were seen falling together towards the sea. Many of the Fulmars had been rendered unserviceable during the operation and Formidable was unable to provide air cover until they were repaired.

On 26 May the fleet sortied for a dawn raid on the base at Scarpanto the next day; the carrier could only muster a total of 12 Fulmars and 15 Albacores and Swordfish. Six Albacores and four Fulmars attacked the airbase, destroying one Ju 88 and damaging two others. Also damaged were an Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 transport and six Fiat CR.42 Falco fighters. Later that morning, as the fleet was returning to Egypt, the Fulmars shot down a He 111 and two Ju 88s for the loss of one Fulmar forced to land aboard the carrier and another forced to ditch. At 13:10 a formation of Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers was spotted from II./StG 2; based in Cyrenica; they were searching for supply ships bound for Tobruk and not involved in the Battle of Crete. They hit Formidable with two  bombs and blew the bow off her escorting destroyer . The bombs killed 12 men and wounded 10; one bomb passed completely through the outer part of the starboard forward flight deck and detonated before it hit the water, riddling the side of the hull with holes. A near miss also blew a large hole in the ship's starboard side underwater. The pair of Fulmars on Combat Air Patrol (CAP) shot down one of the Stukas after it had dropped its bomb and were able to land aboard shortly afterwards, although takeoffs could not be made until 18:00.

Formidable arrived at Alexandria the following day and disembarked her air group. She received emergency repairs before departing on 24 July for permanent repairs at Norfolk Navy Yard in the United States, 829 Squadron flying aboard with its Albacores to provide anti-submarine patrols during the voyage. She arrived on 25 August, and the repairs were completed in early December. After several days of sea trials, she sailed for Britain in company with Illustrious on 12 December. During the night of 15/16 December, Illustrious collided with Formidables stern, but neither ship was seriously damaged. She was repaired at Belfast from 21 December 1941 to 3 February 1942 and embarked the Albacores of 818 and 820 Squadrons and the Grumman Martlet fighters of 888 Squadron.

Indian Ocean Raid

Formidable sailed on 17 February to join the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean, escorting a convoy to Freetown, Sierra Leone, en route. One of her passengers on the voyage was Admiral Sir James Somerville, about to take up his appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Eastern Fleet. The ship arrived at Colombo, Ceylon, on 24 March and Somerville hoisted his flag aboard the battleship  that same day. Two days after Formidables arrival, the Japanese First Air Fleet departed from Celebes (Sulawesi) in the Dutch East Indies to attack British forces in the Indian Ocean. Somerville was notified that the Japanese were planning to attack Ceylon on 28 March and ordered his fleet to assemble southeast of the island on 30 March to intercept them. Force A, consisting of Formidable, her sister  and Warspite, was ordered to Addu Atoll to refuel on 3 April after the Japanese failed to attack as the British expected. A Royal Air Force Consolidated Catalina flying boat spotted them within range of Ceylon just three and a half hours after Force A arrived at the atoll on 4 April. Too far away to intercept them before they could attack Ceylon, Force A departed about eleven hours after arrival on a course that Somerville thought would allow him to attack by night while avoiding detection during the day. One of Indomitables Albacores spotted some of the Japanese carriers just before nightfall on 5 April, after the Japanese attacked Colombo, but further searches failed to locate them until 8 April when the Japanese were one day away from their intended target, Trincomalee, and still too far away to intercept. Force A refuelled at Addu Atoll on 9 April and was then ordered to Bombay to calm fears of a Japanese attack on India's west coast.

Somerville was still uneasy about the possibility of another attack on Ceylon and ordered Force A to Kilindini Harbour, Mombasa, Kenya, on 24 April. En route (5–7 May), Force A helped protect the invasion of Vichy Diego Suarez, Madagascar, against a Japanese attack. Formidable arrived at Kilindini on 10 May and remained there until she departed on 29 May bound for Colombo. The ship alternated between Colombo and Kilindini for the rest of her time with the Eastern Fleet. During this time she took part in Operation Stab, a decoy invasion of the Andaman Islands, with Illustrious. Rear-Admiral Denis Boyd hoisted his flag over the ship on 24 August and she departed six days later to return home for a refit. She arrived at Rosyth on 21 September and her refit lasted until 18 October. She sailed that day for Scapa Flow where she embarked 24 Martlets of 888 and 893 Squadrons, 12 Albacores of 820 Squadron and 6 Supermarine Seafire fighters of 885 Squadron in preparation for the invasion of French North Africa.

Operation Torch

Assigned to Force H for Operation Torch, Formidable sailed on 30 October and provided cover in the Western Mediterranean against any attempt to interfere with the landings by Axis forces in Italy or France. Her Martlets shot down a pair of Ju 88s on 6 November and her Albacores laid a smoke screen in support of the landings at Algiers on 8 November. Two of her Albacores torpedoed and sank the  on 17 November, after it had surrendered to a Supermarine Walrus amphibian which then departed the scene. She remained off the Algerian coast providing air support for Allied forces for the rest of the month, and one of her Seafires shot down a Ju 88 on 28 November.

Formidable was the only carrier in the Mediterranean after Torch until she was joined by Indomitable in mid-June 1943 as part of the buildup for the Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky). The two carriers were east of the island in a position to intercept any attempt by the Italian fleet to attack the landings. After Sicily was secured, Formidable became the first carrier to enter Grand Harbour, Malta, since Illustrious in January 1941. The latter ship joined Formidable as a replacement for the torpedoed Indomitable in Force H for the landings at Salerno (Operation Avalanche) on 9 September. As in Husky, their role was to protect the invasion fleet from interference by the Italian Navy.  The fighters aboard the smaller carriers protecting the forces ashore suffered heavy attrition during the early days of the operation and Formidable transferred 2 Seafires and 15 Martlets to  as replacements for their losses.

Norwegian operations

In October, the carrier was transferred to the Home Fleet and departed Gibraltar for Greenock on 13 October together with the battleship . Six days later she was in Scapa Flow to begin patrols to Iceland in company with the battleships  and  and the American carrier  that lasted for the next three weeks. On 13 November she flew off her air group and sailed for Belfast to begin a lengthy refit, arriving on 19 November. The refit was completed in early June and the ship spent the rest of the month working up. The 18 Corsairs of 1841 Squadron and the 24 Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 827 and 830 Squadrons flew aboard on 29 June and Formidable sailed for Scapa Flow to train with the carriers  and  before launching an attack on the Tirpitz in Kaafjord on 17 July (Operation Mascot). Her Corsairs escorted the strike aircraft from the other carriers to the target; one was shot down by German flak. A smoke screen prevented most of the Barracudas from seeing their target and they failed to hit the Tirpitz. Upon the ship's return to Scapa Flow, 827 and 830 Squadrons were replaced by 826 and 828 Squadrons, also flying Barracudas.

Formidables air group was reinforced by a dozen Corsairs of 1842 Squadron on 7 August in preparation for further attacks on Tirpitz (Operation Goodwood). The two Corsair squadrons were assigned to No. 6 Naval Fighter Wing aboard the carrier on 14 August. The first attack was on the morning of 22 August when Formidable launched 24 Corsairs and 12 Barracudas against the German battleship and nearby targets, all of which returned. A smoke screen again protected the Tirpitz and no damage was inflicted. Another attack scheduled for the afternoon had to be cancelled because of low clouds. A further attack could not be mounted until 24 August because of bad weather. The carrier contributed 23 Corsairs and 16 Barracudas, and 3 of the fighters were shot down over the target. The Tirpitz was lightly damaged by two bomb hits during this attack. A final attack was made five days later, again without effect.

The carrier arrived at Scapa Flow on 2 September where both Barracuda squadrons disembarked. She later sailed to Gibraltar, arriving on 21 September to begin a refit that, among other things, augmented her anti-aircraft outfit in preparation for operations in the Pacific. The Corsairs of No. 6 Naval Fighter Wing flew aboard on 1 January 1945, as did 18 Grumman TBF Avengers of 848 Squadron. After several weeks of working up, Formidable departed Gibraltar on 14 January to join the British Pacific Fleet (BPF). She arrived in Sydney, the BPF's main base, on 10 March after several stops en route to refuel and embark stores and ammunition. On 20 March, Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, commander of the BPF, inspected the ship and her crew.

Pacific operations

By this time Formidables air group had a strength of 36 Corsairs and 18 Avengers. She arrived in San Pedro Bay in the Philippines on 4 April to await the return of the BPF from their efforts to neutralise airfields on the Sakishima Islands, between Okinawa and Formosa, as part of the preparations for the landings on Okinawa. Formidable was called forward six days later to join the 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron (1st ACS) of the BPF on operations as a replacement for Illustrious, which was in poor mechanical shape. She arrived on 14 April and contributed aircraft when the attacks recommenced two days later. The commander of 1842 Squadron was killed on the first day of operations while strafing buildings at Nobara airfield. After refuelling and two more days' attacks, the BPF sailed on 20 April for San Pedro Bay to replenish its ships for further operations.

The fleet returned to waters off Okinawa on 4 May and renewed its attacks on the airfields on the Sakishima Islands. Vice-Admiral Bernard Rawlings, second in command of the BPF, and his staff had determined that bombardment of Japanese gun positions by the heavy guns of battleships and cruisers might be a more effective method of destroying them than aerial attack. They detached King George V and Howe, as well as five cruisers, that morning to bombard Nobara and Hiara airfields while fighters flew a protective CAP over them and spotted the fall of their shells. The loss of the most effective anti-aircraft ships was more important than anticipated and the Japanese were able to take advantage of the opportunity. The carrier had just launched two Corsairs for bombardment-spotting duties and the deck park of eleven Avengers was being moved forward to allow aircraft to land when an undetected Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter attacked at 11:31. The Zero first strafed the flight deck before any of Formidables guns could open fire and then turned sharply to dive into the forward flight deck despite the ship's hard turn to starboard. The fighter released a bomb shortly before it would have impacted the deck and was destroyed by the bomb's blast, although the remnants of the Zero struck Formidable.

 The detonation of the bomb put a large dent in the flight deck, around  by  and  deep, with a  hole in the center and much spalling from the underside. It killed 2 officers and 6 ratings, wounding 55 other crewmen. A fragment from the flight deck armour penetrated the hangar deck armour and passed through the centre boiler uptakes, the centre boiler room itself, and an oil tank before it came to rest in the inner bottom. The fragment severed the steam pipes in the centre boiler room and forced its evacuation, cutting the ship's speed to . The blast on the flight deck blew the Avenger closest to it over the side and set another one on fire. Shrapnel from the blast peppered the island, causing the bulk of the casualties, and severed many electrical cables, including those for most of the ship's radars. The fires on the flight deck and in the hangar were extinguished by 11:55, and seven Avengers and a Corsair which were damaged beyond repair were dumped over the side. The bomb struck at the intersection of three armour plates and dented the plates over an area . The dent was filled by wood and concrete and covered by thin steel plates tack-welded to the deck so that she was able to operate aircraft by 17:00 and steam at a speed of . Thirteen of her Corsairs had been airborne at the time of the attack and they operated from the other carriers for a time. The damage to the boiler room and its steam pipes was repaired so that the centre boilers could be reconnected to the engines at 02:00 the next day.

The bombardment significantly reduced Japanese aerial activity on 5 May, although several of Formidables Corsairs, temporarily operating from her sister Victorious, shot down a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft at an altitude of . That evening the fleet withdrew to refuel and was back on station on 8 May although heavy rains forced the cancellation of the planned air strikes. On 9 May, another kamikaze pilot, Yoshinari Kurose, penetrated the CAP at low altitude and crashed his plane into Formidables flight deck and deck park at 17:05. The impact did little damage to the ship, but caused an explosion and large fire that destroyed 18 of her aircraft. One crewman, Petty Officer George Hinkins, was killed and four were wounded. The carrier was able to resume operations fifty minutes later, but with only four Avengers and eleven Corsairs still serviceable. Rawlings decided to immediately withdraw to give Victorious and Formidable more time to make repairs and to replenish their depleted air groups. He also revised the deployment of the BPF to counter the new low-level tactics of the Japanese by stationing the battleships and cruisers closer to the carriers, keeping the carriers closer together, and positioning radar picket cruisers in the most likely directions of attack.

The BPF returned to action on 12 May and no Japanese aircraft were seen or detected that day or the next. One of Formidables Avengers made a successful landing aboard Indomitable with only one landing gear leg extended and no flaps on 13 May. The BPF continued its routine of two days of operations alternating with one or two days to replenish its ships for the next several days with minimal interference by the Japanese. On the morning of 18 May, armourers were loading ammunition into aircraft when a Corsair's guns were accidentally fired into an Avenger, which caught fire. The overhead fire sprinklers were immediately turned on, but the fire could not be extinguished for nearly an hour, not least because the electric motors driving the steel fire curtains had been damaged in the first kamikaze attack and could only be repaired by a dockyard. Twenty-one Corsairs and seven Avengers were either damaged or destroyed in the incident. Rawlings decided to detach Formidable early to give her extra time for repairs in Sydney and she was ordered to depart on 22 May.

Operations off the Japanese coast
The ship arrived on 31 May and was taken into the Captain Cook Dock at the Garden Island Dockyard for repairs, with the dock's labour force being augmented with workers from the Cockatoo Island Dockyard. Two of the three armour plates damaged on 4 May were repaired, but the third had to be replaced by two 1.5-inch high-quality steel plates as there were not any armour plates of the required thickness available in Australia. Repairs were also made to the ship's machinery, boilers and electrical systems. The island was enlarged with an admiral's staff cabin and a radar workshop. Rear-Admiral Sir Philip Vian, commander of the 1st ACS, transferred his flag to Formidable when her repairs were complete.

Together with Victorious and King George V, Formidable departed Sydney on 28 June, bound for the BPF's advance base at Manus Island, in the Admiralty Islands. Her air group now consisted of 36 Corsairs, 12 Avengers and 6 Grumman F6F Hellcats of 1844 Squadron. Two of the latter aircraft were photoreconnaissance versions. No. 6 Naval Fighter Wing was absorbed into the 2nd Carrier Air Group that controlled all of the aircraft on the carrier. The ships arrived on 4 July, refuelled, and departed two days later to join the American Third Fleet, already operating off the Japanese Home Islands. The BPF rendezvoused with the Americans on 16 July and commenced operations the next morning. Formidable flew off 28 Corsairs bound north of Tokyo on 17 July, but some of them were unable to locate their targets because of bad weather. Twenty-four Corsairs attacked targets near Tokyo the next day, before more bad weather halted flying operations until 24–25 July, when the BPF's aircraft attacked targets near Osaka and the Inland Sea, crippling the escort carrier . After replenishing, airstrikes resumed on 28 and 30 July, sinking the escort  near Maizuru. A combination of bad weather, refuelling requirements and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima delayed the resumption of air operations until 9 August.

During the morning, Formidable flew off a fighter sweep of a dozen Corsairs followed an hour later by Avengers that attacked Matsushima Air Field. A second fighter sweep, led by Lieutenant Robert Hampton Gray, RCNVR, senior pilot of 1841 Squadron, was diverted to attack Japanese warships located in Onagawa Wan, Miyagi Prefecture, with his eight Corsairs. Gray spotted two escort ships and led his aircraft into the attack. Intense flak set his engine on fire, but Gray continued his attack, skip bombing a  bomb into the Etorofu-class escort Amakusa. The ship sank within five minutes with the loss of 157 lives. Gray's aircraft rolled inverted shortly after releasing the bomb and crashed into the sea; he did not survive. Gray was later posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross (VC).

The attacks were repeated the next day, sinking two warships and numerous small merchantmen and destroying numerous railway locomotives and parked aircraft. The BPF had been scheduled to withdraw after 10 August to prepare for Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November, and the bulk of the force, including Formidable, departed for Manus on 12 August. The Japanese surrender a few days later ended the war.

Post-war actions

Formidable arrived at Sydney on 24 August, and had her hangar refitted to accommodate Allied ex-prisoners of war and soldiers for repatriation. Having left her air group behind to maximise the numbers of passengers she could carry, the ship arrived at Manila on 30 September, where she loaded over 1,000 Australian former prisoners of war on 4 October and unloaded them at Circular Quay in Sydney on 21 October. She departed three days later, bound for Karavia Bay, New Britain, where she loaded 1,254 men of the Indian Army and continued on to Singapore where she loaded Indian ex-PoWs before delivering them to Bombay. There Formidable loaded an Indian Army infantry battalion for transport to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies to maintain law and order until Dutch colonial troops could take over. The ship then loaded elements of the 7th Australian Division and their equipment at Tarakan Island, Borneo, and picked up more Australians at Morotai; she arrived at Sydney on 6 December.

Vice-Admiral Vian addressed the ship's crew on 27 December before she departed the following day with 800 naval personnel embarked for passage home. She arrived at Portsmouth on 5 February 1946. The dockyard there fitted her with more permanent accommodations in the hangar for more trooping duties and she loaded 480 personnel before departing for Sydney on 2 March. Formidable arrived there a month later and loaded 1,336 naval personnel as well as some Wrens and VAD nurses. She sailed on 12 April, stopping in Colombo to refuel and drop off 576 naval personnel, before arriving in Devonport on 9 May. She made her next voyage to Bombay and Colombo between 15 June and 25 July. The ship loaded 114 officers, 958 ratings and 11 VAD nurses in Singapore in August and another 319 ratings in Trincomalee before stopping in Malta to load 41 men of the Merchant Navy. Formidable made her last trooping voyage between Portsmouth and Singapore, delivering 1,000 Royal Marine Commandos to the latter, between 3 December and 3 February 1947.

Decommissioning and disposal
In early March 1947, Formidable steamed north to Rosyth for a brief refit before being reduced to reserve. She was paid off on 12 August and a later survey revealed that her wartime damage and poor material shape meant the ship was beyond economical repair at a time when money was very tight. She was towed to Spithead in mid-1949 and then to Portsmouth Royal Dockyard in November 1952. Formidable was sold for scrap in January 1953 and towed to Inverkeithing where she was broken up.

Squadrons embarked

Notes

Footnotes

Bibliography

External links

Armoured aircraft carrier action and damage reports, 1940-1945
Links to surviving members of the ship and "friends of" HMS/HMAC Formidable You may still contact survivors of the ship's complement and view photos of their annual reunions with hundreds of photos of the ship itself on this website.
Huge gallery of photos of Formidable
Found photos in Sydney. Geoffrey St Maur Mills archive scanned and posted. Includes rare scans of messages including "War Is Over" Formidable
Maritimequest HMS Formidable photo gallery
Fleet Air Arm entry for Formidable
Link to HMS Formidable Facebook
Roll of Honour

1939 ships
Illustrious-class aircraft carriers
Ships built by Harland and Wolff
Ships built in Belfast
World War II aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom
Maritime incidents in May 1945

HMS Formidable (67)


බක් යනු චන්ද්‍ර මාසයකි.
 බෞද්ධ දිනදසුන අනුව අවුරුද්දේ දොලොස්වැනි (12) මාසය වේ.
 සිංහල දිනදසුන අනුව අවුරුද්දේ පළමුවැනි (1) මාසය වේ.
 ඉස්ලාම් දිනදසුන අනුව අවුරුද්දේ හයවැනි (6) මාසය වේ.

ආශ්‍රිත
 සිංහල අළුත් අවුරුද්ද

චන්ද්‍ර මාස
බක්

බක් මාසය


Neptun may refer to:

Neptun, Romania, resort town on the southeast Black Sea coast of Romania
Neptun (radar), a World War II German radar set
SK Neptun, Swedish swim team
Neptunkryssare, a sailboat design
R-360 Neptune ("Neptun"), a Ukrainian cruise missile
Neptun Electronics, an Albanian consumer electronics retail chain

Ships
 , a warship of the city of Zurich
 , steamboat that operated from 1865 to 1939 on Lake Constance
 , steamship that sank in 1880 in Lake Biel
 , passenger ship
 , combined cable-layer and tanker
 , a  commissioned in 1943 and decommissioned in 1966.
 , a  commissioned in 1980 and decommissioned in 1998. Now a museum ship.

See also
 Neptune (disambiguation)
 Neptuno (ship)

Neptun


Wayang, poznat i kao wajang, tradicionalni je oblik lutkarske kazališne predstave nastao na indonezijskom otoku Java . Wayang se odnosi na cijelu dramsku predstavu. Ponekad se i sama lutka naziva wayang. Izvedbe wayang lutkarskih predstavi prati gamelanski orkestar na Javi. Predstave prikazuju dramatične priče iz mitologije, poput epizoda iz hinduističkih epova Ramayana i Mahabharata, kao i adaptacije lokalnih legendi. Tradicionalno, wayang izvodi duhovni vođa dalang, a predstava se izvodi u vremenu između ponoći i zore.

Ove izvedbe i dalje su vrlo popularne među Indonežanima, posebno na otocima Javi i Baliju. Wayang predstave obično se izvode na događajima, pa čak i kao turistička atrakcija. U ritualnom kontekstu, lutkarske predstave koriste se za molitvene rituale (održavaju se u hramovima na Baliju), ruwatan ritual (čišćenje djece Sukerto od zle sreće) i ritual sedekah bumi (zahvala Bogu na obilnim usjevima). U kontekstima ceremonija obično se koristi za proslavu javanske svadbene ceremonije i sunatana ceremonije obrezivanja. U nekim se slučajevima koristi za proslavu Dana neovisnosti, godišnjice općina, tvrtki i nečijeg rođendana, obilježavanja određenih dana i mnogih drugih.

Wayang je jedan od vrhunaca indonezijske kulture, koji je najistaknutiji među mnogim drugim kulturama. Tradicije Wayanga uključuju glumu, pjevanje, glazbu, dramu, književnost, slikarstvo, kiparstvo, rezbarenje i simboličke umjetnosti. Tradicija Wayang, koja se s vremena na vrijeme razvijala kroz više tisuća godina, također se koristi i kao informiranje, propovijedanje, obrazovanje, filozofsko razumijevanja te zabava.

UNESCO je zaštitio Wayang kao nematerijalnu svjetsku baštinu 7. studenoga 2008. godine.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Povijesni razvoj lutkarstva: scenske sjene (uključuje informacije o wayang beberu, kulitu, klitiku i goleku)
 Seleh Notes članak o identificiranju srednjojavanskog wayang kulita
 Wayang Orang (wayang wong) tradicionalni ples iz Indonezijskog turizma
 Wayang Klitik: stalni postav Muzeja lutkarske umjetnosti
 Fotogalerija Wayang Golek uključuje opis, povijest i fotografije pojedinih lutaka Waltera O. Koeniga
 Wayang Kulit: Likovni oblik predstave Balinese Shadow  Lisa Gold
 Kazalište lutaka Wayang na indonezijskom mjestu UNESCO-a
 Lutke od drvenog štapa Wayang Golek iz Jave, Indonezija  (komercijalno mjesto)
 Pregled tradicije Lutke iz sjene (s mnogo slika) na mjestu za otkrivanje Indonezije
 Izložba Wayang Kulit u Muzeju međunarodne narodne umjetnosti
 Zbirka Lutki iz sjene Wayang Kulit, Muzej arheologije i etnologije Sveučilišta Simon Fraser digitaliziran na internetskoj stranici Multikulturalne Kanade
 Suvremena arhiva Wayanga, Nacionalno sveučilište u Singapuru
 Wayang Kontemporer, interaktivna doktorska disertacija o suvremenoj arhivi Wayang

Lutkarstvo
Svjetska baština u Indoneziji
Nematerijalna svjetska baština u Aziji

Wayang


Jacobus Deketh (eller de Keth) (født i 1726 i Harlingen, død 26. juli 1764 i Zeewijk (Almenum),) var en kaptajn i det frisiske admiralitet, en af de fem admiraliteter i Den hollandske Republik. I 1744 i en alder af 18 år deltog Deketh i Amsterdams Admiraltet. Han blev først løjtnant og senere ekstraordinær kaptajn og sejlede til Det hollandske ostindien. I 1758 fortsatte Deketh sin karriere i den frisiske admiralitet. Han blev kaptajn på et skib, Edam. Han blev udnævnt til fuld kaptajn af det frisiske admiralitet i 1760.

Tidlige liv og familie

Jacobus Deketh var den yngste søn af Jan Goverts Deket(h) og Anna Gardin(g)ius. Den 9. april 1726 blev han døbt i Grote Kerk (Store Kirke) i Harlingen. Han havde tre brødre: Govardus, født 1717, Reiner, født 1719, og Everhardus, født i 1722.

Selv om hans faders oprindelse er ukendt, er det sandsynligt, at han kom fra Jylland i Danmark. [3] I 1701 fik faderen et job i modtagerens generals kontor for det frisiske admiralitet, og i 1721 blev Jacobus Deketh selv modtagergeneral. Hans mor, Anna Gardinius, var også forbundet med det frisiske admiralitet, idet hun var enke af kaptajn Peter Coderq, inden hun blev Jan Goverts Dekeths tredje kone.

Karriere

I 1744 i en alder af 18 deltog Deketh i Amsterdams Admiraltet. Under sin tjeneste blev han først løjtnant og senere ekstraordinær kaptajn og sejlede til Hollandske Ostindien som beskytter af handelsskibe. Efter 1758 fortsatte Deketh sin karriere i den frisiske admiralitet. Han fik befalingen over skibet Edam. I 1759 blev han udnævnt til fuld kaptajn og i 1760 fik han befalingen over Prins Willem, en fregat med 36 kanoner. I dette skib eskorterede han adskillige konvojer, der sejlede til Italien, England og Frankrig. Han foretog fire rejser til Middelhavet mellem 1761 og 1763. På vegne af Den Nederlandske Republik foretog han flere diplomatiske besøg i Algier. Han bragte gaver med sig på disse rejser for at formilde Barbaresk-piraterne, som på den tid gjorde Middelhavet usikkert.

Deketh døde hjemme i Almenum den 26. juli 1764, kun 38 år gammel. Hans død er optegnet på en plakette i Grote Kerk i Harlingen. Dekeths ejendom omfattede stald, orangeri, havehus, vognhus og hovedbygning/stuehus.

Portrættet
Hans portræt blev malet den 13. juli 1761 i Livorno af Ranieri Ducci. I maleriet holder han i hånden en bog med den engelske titel "Guardian Volume 1", som under en restaurering af billedet overraskende viste sig at have været en senere pentimento (ændring), der dækker en miniature af en dame. Fries Scheepvaartmuseum købte maleriet fra en mand fra 's-Hertogenbosch, som blev opdaget Som ejer, da han viste det i en episode af Tussen Kunst & Kitsch, den hollandske version af et tv-program om antikviteter.

Noter

Litteratur
 Journaal, gehouden door den schrijver H. van den Burch op 's Lands schip Edam, onder bevel achtereenvolgens van den kapitein F. Wijs en den commandeur J. Deketh, gedurende zijn reis naar de Middellandsche zee. 1757–1758 ship's log in two parts 14 July 1757 – 4 January 1758 and 5 January 1758  – 26 August 1758 found in the Netherlands National Archive.
 Payrolls of the Prins Willem, with Captain J. Deketh. 1760–1763 Archive File
 Journaal, gehouden door den schrijver J. Blom op 's Lands schip Prins Willem, onder bevel van den kapitein J. Deketh, gedurende zijn reis naar de Middellandsche zee. 25 November 1760 – 26 July 1762 Nationaal Archief, Den Haag, Admiraliteitscolleges, 1586–1795, nummer toegang 1.01.46, inventarisnummer 3346 Archive File
 Journal, gehouden door den kapitein J. Deketh op 's Lands schip Prins Willem gedurende zijn reis naar de Middellandsche zee. 1761–1763 3 parts (12 Feb 1761 – 30 April 1762, 1 May 1762 – 28 Feb 1763, 1 March 1763 – 27 July 1763) Nationaal Archief, Den Haag, Admiraliteitscolleges, 1586–1795, nummer toegang 1.01.46, inventarisnummer 3348 3349 and 3350
 Varend Personeel van de Friese Admiraliteit Eimert Smits FAzn, Dokkum 1994 A list of ships and captains in the Frisian Admiralty
  Prins Willem arrived on 12 March from Livorno captained by Jacobus de Keth
  Warship Prins Willem 21 March from Tessel after Livorno captained by Jacobus de Keth length 6°40min
   Twee Konvooijen zyn in deze Lentemaend uit de Havenen dezer Landen in zee geftoken Den 12 namelyk zeilde uit Tessel het Oorlogschip Prins Willem de Vyfde onder het bevel van Kapitein Jacobus de Keth om de Nederlandsche Koopvaerdyschepen near de Middelandsche Zee tot Livorno toe te geleiden.
 Amsterdam den 28 December Den 27 is te Tessel uytgezeyld 's Lands schip Prins Willem Kapiteyn Jacobus de Keth na Livorno en het Oostindisch Compagnie schip de Jonge Lieven Schipper Carslen Sunniksen na Ceylon voor deze Kamer. (27 December 1762)

Personer fra Nederlandene
Frisland

Jacobus Deketh


Charles Dana Gibson (Roxbury, Massachusetts, 14 de septiembre de 1867 -  Nueva York,  23 de diciembre de 1944) fue un dibujante que se hizo famoso por haber sido el creador de la Gibson girl, considerada como el primer arquetipo de belleza femenina estadounidense.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Dibujantes de Estados Unidos
Fallecidos en Manhattan

Charles Dana Gibson


Endlagendämpfung stellt eine Möglichkeit dar, den Kolben eines Zylinders abzubremsen und somit Beschädigungen am Kolben oder den Endlagen der Kammern durch ein schnelles Aufschlagen des Kolbens zu vermeiden.

Dies wird durch Ergänzung von Dämpfungskolben mit kleinerem Querschnitt in den Endlagen realisiert.

Funktionsprinzip
Hierbei wird kinetische Energie in Wärmeenergie umgewandelt. Bei konstanter Verzögerung gilt der Energieerhaltungssatz:

mit

      kinetische Energie bei geradliniger Bewegung

      Energie bzw. gespeicherte Arbeit des Dämpfungskolbens

Siehe auch
Liste der Schaltzeichen (Fluidtechnik)
Hydraulikzylinder
Pneumatikzylinder

Fluidtechnik
Pneumatik

Endlagendämpfung


AstraZeneca plc () is an Anglo-Swedish multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company with its headquarters at the Cambridge Biomedical Campus in Cambridge, England. It has a portfolio of products for major diseases in areas including oncology, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, infection,  neuroscience, respiratory, and inflammation. It has been involved in developing the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine.

The company was founded in 1999 through the merger of the Swedish Astra AB and the British Zeneca Group (itself formed by the demerger of the pharmaceutical operations of Imperial Chemical Industries in 1993). Since the merger it has been among the world's largest pharmaceutical companies and has made numerous corporate acquisitions, including Cambridge Antibody Technology (in 2006), MedImmune (in 2007), Spirogen (in 2013) and Definiens (by MedImmune in 2014). It has its research and development concentrated in three strategic centres: Cambridge, England; Gothenburg, Sweden and Gaithersburg in Maryland, U.S.

AstraZeneca traces its earliest corporate history to 1913, when Astra AB was formed by a large group of doctors and apothecaries in Södertälje. Throughout the twentieth century, it grew into the largest pharmaceutical company in Sweden, and was considered a large company by the time of the merger. Its British counterpart, Zeneca PLC was formed in 1993 when ICI divested its pharmaceuticals businesses; Astra AB and Zeneca PLC merged six years later, with the chosen headquarters in the United Kingdom.

AstraZeneca's primary listing is on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index; it also has a secondary listing on the Nasdaq Stockholm. AstraZeneca has one of the highest market capitalisations of pharmaceutical companies worldwide.

History
Astra AB was founded in 1913 in Södertälje, Sweden, by 400 doctors and apothecaries. In 1993 the British chemicals company ICI (established from four British chemical companies) demerged its pharmaceuticals businesses and its agrochemicals and specialities businesses, to form Zeneca Group PLC. Finally, in 1999 Astra and Zeneca Group merged to form AstraZeneca plc, with its headquarters in London. In 1999, AstraZeneca identified a new location for the company's US base, the "Fairfax-plus" site in North Wilmington, Delaware.

2000–06
In 2002, its drug Iressa (gefitinib) was approved in Japan as monotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer. On 3 January 2004 Dr Robert Nolan, a former director of AstraZeneca, formed the management team of ZI Medical.

In 2005, the company acquired KuDOS Pharmaceuticals, a UK biotech company, for £120 million. and entered into an anti-cancer collaboration agreement with Astex It also announced that it had become a Diamond Member of the Pennsylvania Bio commerce organisation.

In 2006, following a collaborative relationship begun in 2004, AstraZeneca acquired Cambridge Antibody Technology for £702 million.

2007–12: The patent cliff and subsequent acquisitions

In February 2007, AstraZeneca agreed to buy Arrow Therapeutics, a company focused on the discovery and development of anti-viral therapies, for US$150million. AstraZeneca's pipeline, and "patent cliff", was the subject of much speculation in April 2007 leading to pipeline-boosting collaboration and acquisition activities. A few days later AstraZeneca acquired US company MedImmune for about US$15.2 billion to gain flu vaccines and an anti-viral treatment for infants; AstraZeneca subsequently consolidated all of its biologics operations into a dedicated biologics division called MedImmune.

In 2010, AstraZeneca acquired Novexel Corp, an antibiotics discovery company formed in 2004 as a spin-off of the Sanofi-Aventis anti-infectives division. Astra acquired the experimental antibiotic NXL-104 (CEF104) (CAZ-AVI) through this acquisition.

In 2011, AstraZeneca acquired Guangdong BeiKang Pharmaceutical Company, a Chinese generics business.

In February 2012, AstraZeneca and Amgen announced a collaboration on treatments for inflammatory diseases. Then in April 2012, AstraZeneca acquired Ardea Biosciences, another biotechnology company, for $1.26 billion. In June 2012, AstraZeneca and Bristol Myers Squibb announced a two-stage deal for the joint acquisition of the biotechnology company Amylin Pharmaceuticals. It was agreed that Bristol Myers Squibb would acquire Amylin for $5.3 billion in cash and the assumption of $1.7 billion in debt, with AstraZeneca then paying $3.4 billion in cash to Bristol Myers Squibb, and Amylin being folded into an existing diabetes joint venture between AstraZeneca and Bristol Myers Squibb.

2013 restructuring and beyond

2013
In March 2013 AstraZeneca announced plans for a major corporate restructuring, including the closure of its research and development activities at Alderley Park in Cheshire and Loughborough in the UK and at Lund in Sweden, investment of $500million in the construction of a new research and development facility in Cambridge and the concentration of R&D in three locations: Cambridge, Gaithersburg, Maryland (location of MedImmune, where it will work on biotech drugs), and Gothenburg in Sweden, for research on traditional chemical drugs. AstraZeneca also announced that it would move its corporate headquarters from London to Cambridge in 2016. That announcement included the announcement that it would cut 1,600 jobs; three days later it announced it would cut an additional 2,300 jobs. It also announced that it would focus on three therapeutic areas: Respiratory Inflammation & Autoimmunity, Cardiovascular & Metabolic Disease, and Oncology. In October 2013, AstraZeneca announced it would acquire biotech oncology company Spirogen for around US$440 million.

2014
On 19 May 2014 AstraZeneca rejected a "final offer" from Pfizer of £55 per share, which valued the company at £69.4billion (US$117billion). The companies had been meeting since January 2014. If the takeover had proceeded, Pfizer would have become the world's biggest drug maker. The transaction would also have been the biggest foreign takeover of a British company. Many in Britain, including politicians and scientists, had opposed the deal. In July 2014 the company entered into a deal with Almirall to acquire its subsidiary Almirall Sofotec and its lung treatments including the COPD drug, Eklira. The US$2.1 billion deal included an allocation of US$1.2 billion for development in the respiratory franchise, one of AstraZeneca's three target therapeutic areas announced the year before. In August 2014 the company announced it had entered into a three-year collaboration with Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma on diabetic nephropathy. In September 2014 the company would join forces with Eli Lilly in developing and commercialising its candidate BACE inhibitor – AZD3292 – used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The deal could yield up to US$500 million for the company. In November 2014 the company's biologics R&D operation, MedImmune, agreed to acquire Definiens for more than US$150 million. The company also began a Phase I/II trial collaboration with Pharmacyclics and Janssen Biotech investigating combination treatments. Also in November of the same year, the company agreed to sell its lipodystrophy treatment business to Aegerion Pharmaceuticals for more than US$325 million. In December, the company received accelerated FDA approval for Olaparib in the treatment of women with advanced ovarian cancer who have a BRCA genetic mutation. A major criterion governing the drugs approval was, on average, its ability to shrink tumours in patients for 7.9 months.

2015
In February 2015, the company announced it would acquire the US and Canadian rights to Actavis's branded respiratory drug business for an initial sum of US$600 million. Later in the same month the company announced it would partner with Orca Pharmaceuticals to develop retinoic acid-related orphan nuclear receptor gamma inhibitors for use in the treatment of a number of autoimmune diseases, which could generate up to US$122.5 million for Orca. The company also announced its plan to spend US$40 million creating a new subsidiary focused on small molecule anti-infectives – primarily in the research of the gyrase inhibitor, AZD0914, which is currently in Phase II for the treatment of gonorrhea. The company underwrote twenty out of thirty-two seats of a new Cambridge– Gothenburg service by Sun-Air of Scandinavia.

In mid-March the company announced it would co-commercialise naloxegol along with Daiichi Sankyo in a deal worth up to US$825 million. Towards the end of April the company announced a number of collaborations worth an estimated US$1.8 billion; first, to develop and commercialise MEDI4736, with Celgene, for use against non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, myelodysplastic syndromes, and multiple myeloma with AstraZeneca receiving US$450 million. The second of two deals is an agreement to study a combination treatment of MEDI4736 and Innate Pharma's Phase II anti-NKG2A antibody IPH2201 for up to US$1.275 billion. The company's MedImmune arm also launched collaborative clinical trials with Juno Therapeutics, investigating combination treatments for cancer. The trials will assess combinations of MEDI4736 and one of Juno Therapeutics' CD19 directed chimeric antigen receptor T-cell candidates. In late June the company announced it has entered into a partnership agreement with Eolas Therapeutics on the Eolas Orexin-1 Receptor Antagonist (EORA) program for smoking cessation and other treatments. In July the company announced it would sell off its rights to Entocort (budesonide) to Tillotts Pharma for US$215 million. In July 2015, Genzyme announced it would acquire the rare cancer drug Caprelsa (vandetanib) from AstraZeneca for up to US$300 million. In August, the company announced it had acquired the global rights to develop and commercialise Heptares Therapeutics' drug candidate HTL-1071, which focuses on blocking the adenosine A2A receptor, in a deal worth up to US$510 million. In the same month the company's MedImmune subsidiary acquired exclusive rights to Inovio Pharmaceuticals' INO-3112 immunotherapy, currently in Phase I/II, under an agreement which could net more than US$727.5 million for Inovio. INO-3112 targets Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18. In September, Valeant licensed Brodalumab from the company for up to US$445 million. On 6 November it was reported that AstraZeneca had acquired ZS Pharma for US$2.7 billion. In December the company announced its intention to acquire the respiratory portfolio of Takeda Pharmaceutical – namely Alvesco and Omnaris – for US$575 million A day later, the company announced it had taken a 55% majority stake in Acerta for US$4 billion. As part of the transaction the company will gain commercial rights to Acerta's irreversible oral Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor, acalabrutinib (ACP-196), which is currently in Phase III development for B-cell blood cancers and in Phase I or II clinical trials in solid tumours. In 2015, it was the eighth-largest drug company in the world based on sales revenue.

2017
In July 2017, the company's CEO Pascal Soriot said that Brexit would not affect its commitment to its current plans in the United Kingdom. However, it had slowed decision making for new investment projects waiting for a post-Brexit regulatory regime to settle down.

In September 2017, the company's chairman Leif Johansson planned in taking the "first steps" in moving its research and manufacturing operations away from the United Kingdom, if there is a hard Brexit.

In 2017, it was the eleventh largest drug company in the world based on sales and ranked seventh based on R&D investment.

In January EVP Pam Cheng stated that AstraZeneca has ignited startup of duplicate QA testing facility in Sweden and has initiated hiring in Sweden.

2018
In February 2018, AstraZeneca announced it was spinning off six early-stage experimental drugs into a new biotechnology company, known as Viela Bio, valued at US$250 million.

On 6 December 2018, AstraZeneca purchased nearly 8% of the American pharmaceutical business, Moderna.

2019
In March 2019, AstraZeneca announced it will pay up to US$6.9 billion to work with Daiichi Sankyo Co Ltd on an experimental treatment for breast cancer. AstraZeneca plans to use some of the proceeds of a US$3.5 billion share issue to fund the deal. The deal on the drug known as trastuzumab deruxtecan sent shares in Japan's Daiichi soaring 16%.

In September 2019, the company announced that it would cease drug production at its German headquarters in Wedel, leading to the loss of 175 jobs by the end of 2021.

In October 2019, AstraZeneca announced it would sell the global commercial rights for its drug to treat acid reflux to German pharmaceutical company Cheplapharm Arzneimittel GmbH for as much as US$276 million.

2020
In February 2020, AstraZeneca agreed to sublicense its global rights (except Europe, Canada and Israel) to the drug Movantik, to Redhill Biopharma.

In June 2020, AstraZeneca made a preliminary approach to Gilead Sciences about a potential merger, worth almost US$240 billion. However, these plans were subsequently dropped because it would have distracted the company from its own pipeline and ongoing COVID-19 vaccine efforts.

In July 2020, the business entered into its second collaboration with Daiichi Sankyo, centred around the development of DS-1062, an antibody drug conjugate. The deal could potentially be worth up to US$6 billion for Daiichi.

In September 2020, AstraZeneca acquired the preclinical oral PCSK9 inhibitor program from Dogma Therapeutics.

On 27 December 2020, AstraZeneca CEO Pascal Soriot said that they have "figured out the winning formula" with their two-dose system with the Oxford University's COVID-19 vaccine.

On 30 December 2020, the United Kingdom approved the emergency use of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine.

2021
In July 2021, AstraZeneca acquired Alexion Pharmaceuticals. In October 2021, the company, through Alexion, acquired Caelum Biosciences and its monoclonal treatment (CAEL-101) for light chain (AL) amyloidosis for up to $500 million.

2022
In July, the company announced it would acquire TeneoTwo for up to $1.3 billion, increasing its blood cancer drug offering. In October 2022 it was announced that the company would acquire LogicBio Therapeutics, which was active in clinical-stage genomic medicine.

In November 2022, it was announced AstraZeneca had acquired the Amsterdam-headquartered clinical-stage biotechnology company, Neogene Therapeutics.

2023
In January, AstraZeneca announced it would acquire CinCor Pharma for $1.8 billion.

Vaxzevria, AstraZeneca's COVID-19 pandemic response

The road to authorisation by the European Medicines Agency
In March 2020, the company announced that it would be donating PPE, including 9 million face masks, to help support various international health organisations mitigating the COVID-19 pandemic.

In April 2020, Chief Executive Pascal Soriot, reported that the company was working with GlaxoSmithKline and the University of Cambridge to develop a new laboratory capable of conducting 30,000 COVID-19 tests per day. The company also announced plans for a clinical trial to assess the potential use of Calquence in the treatment of COVID-19.

In June 2020, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) confirmed that the third phase of testing for potential vaccines developed by Oxford University and AstraZeneca would begin in July 2020. One of them, AZD1222, reached phase III trials.

On 23 November 2020, Oxford–AstraZeneca announced the vaccine's successful trial, preventing 70% of people developing symptoms. The researchers thought that the figure might be as high as 90% if they tweaked the dose.

In January 2021, India approved the use of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine, paving the way for a mass immunisation campaign in the world's second most populous country. It was announced that the Oxford–AstraZeneca shot would be made locally by the Serum Institute of India (SII) with a brand name COVISHIELD.

Side-effects
On 29 January 2021, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended granting a conditional marketing authorisation for AZD1222 in people from 18 years of age. By mid-March 2021, The Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Bulgaria and Ireland had suspended the use of the AstraZeneca vaccine due to worries over six cases of a "rare combination" of blood clots with lowered blood platelets, see embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination. The temporary halt was against the advice of the European Union's medicines regulator who said the benefits of the vaccine still outweigh any potential risks.

EMA issued a statement on 18 March 2021 stating that no association between vaccination with AstraZeneca vaccines and clot-related cases had been found, but this could not be ruled out and further investigations were being carried out. The EMA also stressed that the benefits of AstraZeneca vaccine outweigh the risks of possible side effects.

Name change
On 30 March 2021, the Swedish Medicines Agency, Läkemedelsverket, announced that following the prior approval of the EMA it would change the name of the vaccine to Vaxzevria, stressing that only the name of the vaccine would change, not the composition.

Side-effects
On 6 April 2021, EMA head of vaccines Marco Cavaleri announced that it could be declared that there was a link between the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 (Vaxzevria) vaccine and rare blood clots associated with low platelet counts. In a statement the following day, the EMA confirmed the link, but continued to recommend the vaccine, saying the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks. Later, a Scottish vaccine efficacy study confirmed the validity of this statement, showing an 88 percent reduction in the risk of hospitalization after the first dose of Vaxzevria from the fourth week onwards. The  European Medicines Agency also identified, over time, the development of the rare neurological disease Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) as a possible side effect of Vaxzevria. By the time of the EMA's decision in September 2021, Guillain-Barré syndrome was unlikely to have occurred, with only 833 cases of GBS reported in 8 months following the administration of 592 million doses of the vaccine. In December 2021, the scientists from Arizona State University and Cardiff University identified "the trigger" behind blood clots. Professor Alan Parker said: "Our data confirms PF4 can bind to adenoviruses, an important step in unravelling the mechanism underlying VITT. Establishing a mechanism could help to prevent and treat this disorder."

Lawsuits
In April 2021, the European Commission announced that it would sue Astra Zeneca for delaying the timely delivery of Vaxzevria at a time when "every vaccine counts, because every vaccine can save lives". In September 2021, the lawsuit was finally settled with AstraZeneca agreeing to deliver 60 million doses of vaccines to EU member states by October, 75 million by the end of the year, and 65 million more by April 2022.

Acquisition history
The following is an illustration of the company's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors:

 AstraZeneca
 AstraZeneca (Merged 1999)
 Astra AB (Founded 1913)
 Tika (Acq 1939)
 Zeneca (Spun off from Imperial Chemical Industries, 1993)
 Salick Health Care (Acq 1996)
 Ishihara Sangyo Kaisha (US fungicide operations, Acq 1997)
 KuDOS Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2005)
 MedImmune Biologics
 Cambridge Antibody Technology (Acq 2006)
 Aptein Inc (Acq 1998)
 MedImmune (Acq 2007)
 Definiens (Acq 2014)
 Arrow Therapeutics (Acq 2007)
 Novexel Corp (Acq 2010)
 Guangdong BeiKang Pharmaceutical Company (Acq 2011)
 Ardea Biosciences (Acq 2012)
 Amylin Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2012 jointly with Bristol-Myers Squibb)
 Spirogen (Acq 2013)
 Pearl Therapeutics (Acq 2013)
 Omthera Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2013)
 ZS Pharma (Acq 2015)
 Alexion Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2021)
 Proliferon Inc (Acq 2000, restructured into Alexion Antibody Technologies Inc)
 Enobia Pharma Corp (Acq 2011)
 Synageva BioPharma (Acq 2015)
 Wilson Therapeutics (Acq 2018)
 Syntimmune (Acq 2018)
 Achillion Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2019)
 Portola Pharmaceuticals (Acq 2020)
 Caelum Biosciences (Acq 2021)
 TeneoTwo (Acq 2022)
 LogicBio Therapeutics (Acq 2022)
 Neogene Therapeutics (Acq 2022)
 CinCor Pharma (Acq 2023)

Operations

AstraZeneca develops, manufactures and sells pharmaceutical and biotechnology products to treat disorders in the oncology, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, infection,  neuroscience, respiratory and inflammation areas.

AstraZeneca has its corporate headquarters in Cambridge, United Kingdom, and its main research and development (R&D) centres are in Cambridge (UK), Gaithersburg (Maryland, US), Gothenburg (Sweden) and Warsaw (Poland).

Orphan drugs

In April 2015, AstraZeneca's drug tremelimumab was approved as an orphan drug for the treatment of mesothelioma in the United States. In February 2016, AstraZeneca announced that a clinical trial of tremelimumab as a treatment for mesothelioma failed to meet its primary endpoint.

Senior management
As of 2008, David Brennan was paid US$1,574,144 for his role as chief executive officer.

On 26 April 2012, it was announced that Brennan was to retire in early June of that year. In August 2012, Pascal Soriot was named CEO of AstraZeneca.

It was also announced that Leif Johansson would succeed Louis Schweitzer as non-executive chairman on 1 June 2012, three months earlier than previously announced, and would become Chairman of the Nomination and Governance Committee after the 2012 Annual General Meeting.

The company's non-executive Board directors are Philip Broadley, Euan Ashley, Michel Demaré, Deborah DiSanzo, Diana Layfield, Sheri McCoy, Tony Mok, Nazneen Rahman, Andreas Rummelt, and Marcus Wallenberg.

Outreach

Political lobbying
AstraZeneca is a member of the Personalized Medicine Coalition, a medical research advocacy group that lobbies on behalf of the pharmaceutical industry.

Controversies

Following 2008 Sichuan earthquake
AstraZeneca's reputation in China was tarnished following the failure of its Chinese subsidiary to timely donate to relief efforts following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Typically, donations for disaster relief in China are made through funds established through the Chinese Ministry of Civil Affairs and its subordinate organization the Red Cross Society of China. AstraZeneca had a corporate rule prohibiting foreign subsidiaries from making donations to local governments and the company construed this rule as prohibiting donations for Sichuan earthquake relief efforts. AstraZeneca's Chinese subsidiary received major backlash for its failure to donate. While corporate approval was ultimately given for the Chinese subsidiary to donate, the approval came after long delay.

Seroquel
In April 2010, AstraZeneca settled a qui tam lawsuit brought by Stefan P. Kruszewski for US$520 million to settle allegations that the company defrauded Medicare, Medicaid, and other government-funded health care programs in connection with its marketing and promotional practices for the blockbuster atypical antipsychotic, Seroquel. According to the settlement agreement, AstraZeneca targeted its illegal marketing of the anti-psychotic Seroquel towards doctors who do not typically treat schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, such as physicians who treat the elderly, primary care physicians, pediatric and adolescent physicians, and in long-term care facilities and prisons.

In March 2011, AstraZeneca settled a lawsuit in the United States totalling US$68.5 million to be divided up to 38 states.

Nexium
The company's most commercially successful medication is esomeprazole (Nexium). The primary uses are treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease, treatment and maintenance of erosive esophagitis, treatment of duodenal ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori, prevention of gastric ulcers in those on chronic NSAID therapy, and treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers associated with Crohn's disease. When it is manufactured the result is a mixture of two mirror-imaged molecules, R and S. Two years before the omeprazole patent expired, AstraZeneca patented S-omeprazole in pure form, pointing out that since some people metabolise R-omeprazole slowly, pure S-omeprazole treatment would give higher dose efficiency and less variation between individuals. In March 2001, the company began to market Nexium, as it would a brand new drug.

The (R)-enantiomer of omeprazole is metabolized exclusively by the enzyme CYP2C19, which is expressed in very low amounts by 3% of the population. Treated with a normal dose of the enantiomeric mixture, these persons will experience blood levels five-times higher than those with normal CYP2C19 production. In contrast, esomeprazole is metabolized by both CYP2C19 and CYP3A4, providing less-variable drug exposure. While omeprazole is approved only at doses of up to 20 mg for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux, esomeprazole is approved for doses up to 40 mg.

In 2007, Marcia Angell, former editor-in-chief of the New England Journal of Medicine and a lecturer in social medicine at the Harvard Medical School, said in Stern, a German-language weekly newsmagazine, that AstraZeneca's scientists had misrepresented their research on the drug's efficiency, saying: "Instead of using presumably comparable doses [of each drug], the company's scientists used Nexium in higher dosages. They compared 20 and 40 mg Nexium with 20 mg Prilosec. With the cards having been marked in that way, Nexium looked like an improvement – which however was only small and shown in only two of the three studies."

Bildman fraud, sexual harassment and faithless servant clawback
On 4 February 1998, Astra USA sued Lars Bildman, its former president and chief executive officer, seeking US$15 million for defrauding the company. The sum included US$2.3 million in company funds he allegedly used to fix up three of his homes, plus money the company paid as the result of the EEOC investigation. Astra's lawsuit alleged Bildman sexually harassed and intimidated employees, used company funds for yachts and prostitutes, destroyed documents and records, and concocted: "tales of conspiracy involving ex-KGB agents and competitors. This was in a last-ditch effort to distract attention from the real wrongdoer, Bildman himself." Bildman had already pleaded guilty in US District Court for failing to report more than US$1 million in income on his tax returns. In addition, several female co-workers filed personal sexual-harassment lawsuits against Bildman. In April 1998, Bildman was sentenced to 21 months in prison three months after he pled  guilty to filing false Federal tax returns.

In February 1998, AstraZenaca's U.S. affiliate Astra U.S.A. agreed to a $10 million settlement after an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission investigation which started in May 1996 found that sexual harassment against female employees. 120 former female employees of Astra were interviewed during the inquiry, with about 80 of them being identified as able to file claims. Astra U.S.A. also issued a statement of apology for the hostile work environment.

In Astra USA v. Bildman, 914 N.E.2d 36 (Mass. 2009), applying New York's faithless servant doctrine, the court held that a company's employee who had engaged in financial misdeeds and sexual harassment must "forfeit all of his salary and bonuses for the period of disloyalty". The court held that this was the case even if the employee "otherwise performed valuable services", and that the employee was not entitled to recover restitution for the value of those other services. The decision attracted a good deal of attention by legal commentators.

CAFÉ study
In 2004, University of Minnesota research participant Dan Markingson committed suicide while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics: Seroquel (quetiapine), Zyprexa (olanzapine), and Risperdal (risperidone). University of Minnesota Professor of Bioethics Carl Elliott noted that Markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution. A 2005 FDA investigation cleared the university. Nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued. A Mother Jones article resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university Board of Regents urging an external investigation into Markingson's death.

Transfer mispricing
In 2010, AstraZeneca agreed to pay £505 million to settle a UK tax dispute related to transfer mispricing.

Conflicting commitments to the UK and the EU

In August 2020 AstraZeneca declared towards the European Commission and the EU member states:
"13.1. AstraZeneca represents, warrants and covenants to the Commission and the Participating Member States that: [...] (e) it is not under any obligation, contractual or otherwise, to any Person or third party in respect of the Initial Europe Doses or that conflicts with or is inconsistent in any material respect with the terms of this Agreement or would impede the complete fulfilment of its obligation under this Agreement;"

However, the UK Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, Matt Hancock, declared in March 2021 that the United Kingdom had been given "exclusivity" and that the EU's treaty was "inferior". After placing the order for AstraZeneca's vaccine, the European Commission mistakenly assumed that it had enough vaccines and initially ordered only 200 million doses from Pfizer–BioNTech when the manufacturers offered 500 million doses to the EU in November 2020.

However, the contract that AstraZeneca reached with the UK was very similar to that it reached with the EU, and it also contained the phrase "best reasonable efforts"; the UK contract was signed on 28 August 2020, a day after the contract with the EU. The key difference seems to be that AstraZeneca entered into a preliminary agreement with the U.K. back in May 2020 which arranged for "the development of a dedicated supply chain for the U.K." The failure to produce the vaccine in the anticipated quantities contributed to the low vaccination rates of vulnerable populations of the European Union at the beginning of the outbreak of more virulent variants of SARS-CoV-2 in early 2021.

China comments
In May 2023, AstraZeneca's China president said that the company aims to be a "patriotic" company in China that "loves the Communist Party."

See also

 Pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom
 List of pharmaceutical companies

Notes

References

External links

British companies established in 1999

British brands
Companies based in Cambridge
Biotechnology companies established in 1999
Pharmaceutical companies established in 1999
Multinational companies headquartered in England
Pharmaceutical companies of England
Biotechnology companies of the United Kingdom
Life sciences industry
Orphan drug companies
Vaccine producers
Medical research
Södertälje Municipality
Companies related to the Wallenberg family
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
Companies listed on Nasdaq Stockholm
COVID-19 vaccine producers
Companies related to the Engwall family

AstraZeneca


Chet Allen puede referirse a:
 Chet Allen (actor), actor estadounidense, nacido el 17 de agosto de 1928.
 Chet Allen (actor infantil), actor infantil estadounidense, 1939 – 1984.

Chet Allen


Luthela est un genre d'araignées mésothèles de la famille des Heptathelidae.

Distribution
Les espèces de ce genre sont endémiques de Chine.

Liste des espèces
Selon  :
 Luthela asuka Wei & Lin, 2023
 Luthela badong Xu, Yu, Liu & Li, 2022
 Luthela beijing Wei & Lin, 2023
 Luthela dengfeng Xu, Yu, Liu & Li, 2022
 Luthela handan Xu, Yu, Liu & Li, 2022
 Luthela kagami Wei & Lin, 2023
 Luthela luotianensis (Yin, Tang, Zhao & Chen, 2002)
 Luthela schensiensis (Schenkel, 1953)
 Luthela taian Xu, Yu, Liu & Li, 2022
 Luthela yiyuan Xu, Yu, Liu & Li, 2022
 Luthela yuncheng Xu, Yu, Liu & Li, 2022

Systématique et taxinomie
Ce genre a été décrit par Xu et Li en 2022 dans les Liphistiidae. Il est placé dans les Heptathelidae par Li en 2022.

Publication originale
 Xu, Yu, Liu & Li, 2022 : « Delimitation of the segmented trapdoor spider genus Luthela gen. nov., with comments on the genus Sinothela from northern China (Araneae, Mesothelae, Liphistiidae). » Zootaxa, , .

Liens externes

Notes et références

Heptathelidae
Genre d'araignées (nom scientifique)
Faune endémique de Chine

Luthela


No Direction #1 er en dansk eksperimentalfilm fra 2005 instrueret af Catherine Kunze.

Handling
Altid på en rejse, men hvornår kommer man frem?

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Eksperimentalfilm fra Danmark
Filmskolefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2005

No Direction number 1


El chochín cejirrufo o chivirín ceja rufa (Troglodytes rufociliatus) es una especie de ave paseriforme de la familia Troglodytidae nativa de América Central.

Distribución y hábitat
Se encuentra en El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, y sur de México y Nicaragua. Su hábitat natural es el bosque húmedo montano tropical. No tiene subespecies reconocidas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

rufociliatus
Aves de América Central
Taxones descritos por Richard Bowdler Sharpe
Animales descritos en 1881

Troglodytes rufociliatus


Skovbrynet Skole (tidligere Værebro Skole) er en kommunal grundskole i Gladsaxe Kommune. Skolen er en international og digital profilskole (Go Global), der er certificeret af Cambridge International Examinations. Fra 1968 - 2012 hed skolen Værebro Skole.

Eksterne henvisninger

Referencer

Folkeskoler
Gladsaxe_Kommune

Skovbrynet Skole


"El campesino embejucao" es una canción folclórica colombiana en ritmo de bambuco escrita y compuesta por Óscar Humberto Gómez Gómez.  Dio origen al personaje del mismo nombre.

La letra de la canción gira alrededor de la realidad de los habitantes del campo colombiano, quienes frecuentemente se ven inmersos en la problemática de violencia del país debido a su continuo contacto involuntario con los distintos actores del conflicto.

El tema fue compuesto en el año 2001. En los años siguientes se difundió en emisoras de Colombia, México, Inglaterra y Estados Unidos.

En su momento de mayor popularidad la canción fue considerada un éxito en ventas. Algunos medios e instituciones la catalogaron como "emblemática del folclor colombiano" y "casi un himno para los campesinos", esto último en relación con la amplia recepción que tuvo la canción entre los habitantes del campo, quienes han llegado a utilizarla para ambientar algunas protestas pacíficas.

En 2009 su autor lanzó una versión alternativa en ritmo de vallenato.

Véase también
 Música andina (Colombia)
 Tiple

Referencias

Canciones de la música tradicional de Colombia
Canciones de 2001

El campesino embejucao


Regatul Slavoniei (în ; în ; în ; în ) a fost o provincie a Monarhiei Habsburgice (inclusiv a Imperiului Austriac) care a existat din 1699 până în 1868. Provincia cuprindea părțile nordice ale regiunilor Slavonia (aflată astăzi în Croația) și Srem (aflată astăzi în Serbia și în Croația). Părțile sudice ale acestor regiuni istorice formau Granița Militară Slavonă, care era o secțiune a Graniței Militare.

Vezi și
 Regatul Croației și Slavoniei

Legături externe

Ante Vranković: Ivan Komersteiner - Ikonograf čudesno obnovljenog Hrvatskog Kraljevstva, Hrvatsko slovo, br. 1099, 13. 5. 2016., str. 28 i br. 1100, 20. 5. 2016., str. 28-29

Monarhia Habsburgică
Regiuni istorice ale Croației
Regatul Ungariei
Foste monarhii din Europa

Regatul Slavoniei (1699–1868)


(23032) Fossey ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 3. Dezember 1999 vom australischen Amateurastronomen John Broughton am Reedy-Creek-Observatorium (IAU-Code 428) in Queensland, Australien entdeckt wurde.

Der Asteroid ist nach der US-amerikanischen Zoologin und Verhaltensforscherin Dian Fossey (1932–1985) benannt, die vor allem durch ihre Forschungen über Berggorillas Weltruf erlangte.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Asteroiden

Weblinks
 Asteroid Fossey: Discovery Circumstances gemäß dem Minor Planet Center der Internationalen Astronomischen Union bei dem Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, USA

Hauptgürtelasteroid unter 50 km Durchmesser

(23032) Fossey


තේ නිෂ්පාදන ක්‍රියාවලියේ අවම වශයෙන්ම ඔක්සිකරණයට ලක්වන කැමේලියා සිනෙන්සිස් ශාඛයේ පත්‍ර භාවිතයෙන් මෙම හරිත තේ නිෂ්පාදනය කරයි. හරිත තේ බොහෝ ආසියාතික රටවල් සමග සම්බන්ධ නමුත් එහි ආරම්භය සිදුවන්නේ චීනයෙහිය. කළු තේ සාම්ප්‍රදායිකව භාවිතා කරන බටහිර රටවල් වලද හරිත තේ වේගයෙන් ප්‍රචලිත විය. හරිත තේ විවිධ අවස්ථා වල අමුද්‍රව්‍යක් ලෙසද යොදා ගනී. එනම් මධ්‍යසාර වල අහිතකර දැ උරා ගැනීමට ,සෞඛ්‍ය සම්පන්න ආහාර සදහා , භෝජන අතිරේකයක් ලෙස සහ සුවද විලවුන් සදහා ද අමුද්‍රව්‍යක් ලෙස යොදා ගනී. හරිත තේ වල විවිධ ප්‍රබේද ලෝකයේ බොහෝ රටවල භාවිතා වේ.මෙසේ විවිධ වර්ග අැති වීමට හේතුව වන්නේ තේ වගාව වැවීමට බලපාන සාධක ,වැවීමේ ශිල්ප ක්‍රම, නිෂ්පාදන ක්‍රියාවලිය සහ අස්වනු නෙළීමේ කාලය යනාදියයි.

පසුගිය දශක කිහිපය ඇතුළත විවිධ විද්‍යාත්මක අධ්‍යයන සදහා හරිත තේ මාතෘකාවක් විය.හරිත තේ පානය කරන්නන්ට විවිධ සෞඛ්‍ය ප්‍රතිලාබ ලැබෙන අතර [[හෘදයාබාධ] අවදානම අවම වීම  සහ පිළිකා අවදානම අවම වීම ඒ අතරින් විශේෂිත වේ. ක්ෂණික බර අඩු වීමකට ප්‍රමාණවත් වේගවත් පරිවෘත්තීය ක්‍රියා හරිත තේ භාවිතයෙන් සිදුනොවුනත් ,පොලිෆීනෝල්ස් සහ කැෆ්‍රීන් අඩංගු ඉතා ස්වල්ප හරිත තේ ප්‍රමාණයක වුවත් තාප උත්පාදනය සහ මේද ඔක්සිකරණය ඉහළ නංවයි.එමෙන්ම මෙමගින් හෘද ස්පන්දනය වැඩිවීමකින් තොරව පරිවෘත්තීය ක්‍රියාවේ 4% සීඝ්‍ර වර්ධනයක් ඇති කරයි.

හරිත තේ වීදුරුවක අඩංගු ෆ්ලවෝනොයිඩ්ස් ප්‍රමාණය ,සාම්ප්‍රදායිකව සෞඛ්‍ය සම්පන්නයයැයි පොදු භාවිතයේ පවතින නැවුම් පළතුරු ,එළවළු සහ වයින් වල සමාන ප්‍රමාණයක ෆ්ලවෝනොයිඩ්ස් ප්‍රමාණයට වඩා ඉහළ අගයක් ගනී. ෆ්ලවෝනොයිඩ්ස් යනු ශාක වල පවතින රසායනික ද්‍රව්‍යයක් වන අතර එමගින් ප්‍රති ඔක්සිකරණය වැනි විවිධ ප්‍රතිලාභ ලැබේ. නමුත් මෙම ෆ්ලවෝනොයිඩ්ස් ප්‍රමාණය විව්ධ තේ නිෂ්පාදන මත වෙනස් වේ.

ඉතිහාසය

පුරාවෘතයන්හි සදහන් පරිදි චිනයේ තේ පාරිභෝජනය වසර 4000 පැරණි වේ. හරිත තේ ප්‍රථමයෙන් වගා කරන ලද්දේ ක්‍රි:පූ:2737 හි චෙන් නුන්ග් අධිරාජ්‍යාගේ රාජ්‍ය කාලයේදීය.හරිත තේ පානයක් ලෙස සහ ඖෂධයක් ලෙස බොහෝ ආසියතික රටවල ,එනම් චීනය,ජපානය,වියට්නාමය සහ තායිලන්තය යන රටවල භාවිතා වේ.මෙය තුළ ලේ ගැළීම් නැවැත්වීමේ හැකියාවක් ,තුවාළ සුව කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් ,රුධිරගත සීනි අඩු කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් මෙන්ම ආහාර ජීර්ණය වේගවත් කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් පවතී.

හරිත තේ වල ඉතිහාසය හැදැරීමේදී ටැන්ග් ඩිනස්ටි ඔෆ් චයිනා(Tang Dynasty of China) යන ග්‍රන්ථය ඉතා වැදගත් වේ.ලූයූ නම් රචකයකු විසින් රචනා කරන ලද මෙම  ග්‍රන්ථය උසස් තේ හෙවත් චා චින්ග් ලෙස හැදින්වේ.මෙය ක්‍රි:ව: 600 සහ 900 ඇතුළත ලියන ලද කෘතියක් වන අතර රසවත් තේ කොප්පයක් රස විදින ආකාරය සහ රස විදිය හැකි ස්ථාන මෙහි සදහන් වේ.  .එසායි විසින් ක්‍රි:ව:1191 දී ලියන ලද තේ පිළිබද ග්‍රන්ථයට අනුව හරිත තේ මගින් පද්ධති පහකට විශේෂ සුවයක් ලබා දේ.විශේෂයෙන් හෘදයෙහි යහපත් පැවැත්මට මෙය උපකාරී වේ.මෙම ග්‍රන්ථයෙහි තේ වල අඩංගු ලෙඩ සුව කිර්‍ර්මේ හැකියාව පිලිබද සදහන් වේ.එනම් මධ්‍යසාර වල අහිතකර බලපැම් අවම කිරීම,උත්තේජකයක් ලෙස කටයුතු කිරීම,හම මත ඇති පැල්ලම් ඉවත් කිරීම ,පිපාසය නැති කිරීම,ආහාර ජීර්ණය පහසු කිරීම,බැරිබැරියාව සුව කිරීම ,විඩාව සුව කිරීම,මුත්‍රා සහ මොළයේ කාර්යයන් නියමාකාරයෙන් සිදු කිරීම දැක්විය හැක.මෙම ග්‍රන්ථයෙහි පළමු කොටසෙහි තේ පැළ , තේ මල් , තේ කොළ පිළිබද සදහන් වන අතරම තේ පැළ සාදාගන්නා ආකාරය සහ තේ කොළ වල ක්‍රියාවලිය පිළිබද සදහන් වේ.එමෙන්ම මෙම ග්‍රන්ථයෙහි දෙවන කොටසෙහි විව්ධ කායික රෝග සදහා අවශ්‍ය හරිත තේ පරිමාත්‍රය යනාදිය සදහන් වේ.

පැසවීම සහ පිළිගැන්වීම

තේ කොළ ජලයේ පෙගවීම මගින් තේ කෝප්පයක් පිළියෙළ කළ හැක. එය තේ කොළ තැම්බීම ලෙසද හැදින්වේ.සාමාන්‍යයෙන් ග්‍ර්‍ර්‍රෑම් 2ක තේ මි.ලි. 100ක පමණ ජල කෝප්පයකට දැමීමෙන් හෝ අවුන්ස පහක පමණ කෝප්පයකට තේ හැන්දක් ප්‍රමාණයේ හරිත තේ දැමිමෙන් තේ කෝප්පයක් පිළියෙළ කළ හැක.නමුත් ගුණත්වයෙන් ඉහළ ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ සදහා මෙයට වඩා තේ කොළ ප්‍රමාණයක් යොදා ගනී.මෙවිට අඩු කාලයකින් තේ කෝප්පයක් සාදාගත හැක.

හරිත තේ ජලයේ තැම්බීමේ කාලය සහ උෂ්ණත්වය විවිධ තේ වර්ග මත වෙනස් වේ.හරිත තේ පැසුණු උණු වතුරේ තැම්බීමේදී සෙල්සියස් අංශක 81 ත් 87 ත් අතර ප්‍රමාණයක උෂ්ණත්වයක ජලයෙන් විනාඩි 2ක් හෝ 3ක් තැම්බිය යුතුය.හරිත තේ සිසිල් ජලයෙන් පිළියෙළ කරන විට සෙල්සියස් අංශක 61 ත් 69 ත් අතර ප්‍රමාණයක උෂ්ණත්වයක ජලයෙන් තප්පර 30ක් පමණ වේලාවක් තැම්බිය යුතුය.සාමාන්‍යයෙන් ඉහළ ගුණත්වයෙන් යුතු හරිත තේ සිසිල් ජලයේ අඩු කාලයකින් පිළියෙල කළ හැකි අතර අවම ගුණාත්වයෙන් යුතු හරිත තේ පිළියෙළ කිරීමට වැඩි කාලයක් උණු ජලයේ තැම්බිය යුතුය.හරිත තේ විශාල වේලාවක් උණු ජලයේ තැම්බීමේදී ලැබෙන තිත්ත රසයට හේතුව වන්නේ හරිත තේ වල ඇති ඇස්ට්‍ර්ගන්ට් එකතුවීමයි.නමුත් හරිත තේ වල රසය නොසලකා හරින්නේ එමගින් විශාල ප්‍රමාණයක ටනිනස් ප්‍රමාණයක් එකතු වන බැවිනි. ඉහළ ගුණත්වයෙන් යුතු හරිත තේ කිහිප වතාවක් ජලයේ තැම්බීම සදහා යොදා ගත හැකිය.තේ බහාලන භාජනය සහ තේ පෝච්චිය වියළි ස්වාභාවයකින් කල්තබා ගත යුතුය.නමුත් සාමාන්‍ය භාවිතයේදී අපට දැකිය හැක්කේ තේ පෝච්චියක හෝ තේ බදුනක තේ කොළ දමා එහි රසය අඩු වන තුරු භාවිතා කරන තත්ත්වයකි.

හරිත තේ වල ප්‍රභේද

චීන හරිත තේ
හුනන් ප්‍රදේශය
 君山银针 ජුන්ශාන් යින්සෙන් (රිදී ඉදිකටු තේ)
මෙය ඉතා ප්‍රසිද්ධ චීන තේ වර්ග 10න් එකකි.මෙය හුඕ කන්දෙහ සහ මෙන්ජින් කන්දෙහි ඇති කහ තේ දළු වලට සමාන වන තේ ප්‍රභේදයකි.මෙම තේ වගා කරනු ලබන්නේ හුනාන් ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටි යුයැන් නගරයේ පිහිටි ජුන්ශාන් දිවයිනෙහිය.
සෙජිආන්ග් ප්‍රදේශය මෙම ප්‍රදේශය තේ සදහා විශේෂ ප්‍රසිද්ධියක් දක්වයි.ලෝන්ජින්ග් නම් ඉතා ප්‍රසිද්ධ තේ වර්ගය පිහිටා ඇත්තේ මෙම ප්‍රදේශය තුළය.එමෙන්ම ඉහළ ගුණත්වයෙන් යුතු අනෙකුත් තේ වර්ගද  මෙම ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා ඇත.
 龙井 ලෝන්ජින්ග්
 සෙජිආන්ග් ප්‍රදේශයේ අගනගරය වන හන්හොයු නම් ප්‍රදේශයෙන් මෙම තේ වර්ගය පැවත එයි.ලෝන්ජින්ග් චීනයේ ජනප්‍රියම තේ වර්ගය වේ. චීන භාෂාවට අනුව ලෝන්ජින්ග් යන වචනයෙහි අර්ථය වන්නේ මකර ළිද යන්නයි.එය තැටියක බදින අතර එහි පෙනුම ඉතා මනහර වේ.මෙය බැදීමට යොදා ගන්නා තෙල් තේ බීජ සහ අනෙකුත් පැළ වලින් ලබා ගනී. මෙම තේ වර්ගයෙන් බොහොමයක්  වෙළදපොළට පැමිණෙන්නේ සිචුවාන් ප්‍රදේශයෙන් වන නිසා මෙම තේ වර්ගය ලෝන්ජින්ග්  ප්‍රදේශයේ තේ තරම් විශ්වාසදායී නොවන හෙයින් තේ නිෂ්පාදකයන්ට පැමිණිලි ලැබේ.
 景宁惠明茶 හුයිමින්ග්
 සෙජිආන්ග් ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටි පන්සලක නමකින් මෙම තේ වර්ගය නම් කරන ලදී.
 开化龙顶 කයිහුවා ලෝන්ජින්ග්
කයිහුවා ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා ඇති නිසා මෙම තේ වර්ගය කයිහුවා ලෝන්ජින්ග් යන නමින් හදුන්වනු ලබයි. එසේම මකර කන්ද යන නමින්ද මෙය හදුන්වයි.
 华顶云雾 හුආඩින්ග්
 ටිආන්ටයි ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා ඇති මෙම තේ වර්ගය හුආඩින්ග් ලෙස හදුන්වයි.ටිආන්ටායි කදු පෙදෙස තුළ පිහිටි නිසා මෙම නමින් හදුන්වනු ලබයි
 天目青顶 කුයින්ග් ඩින්ග්
 ටිආන් මූ ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා ඇති මෙම තේ වර්ගය හුආඩින්ග් ලෙස හදුන්වයි.එසේම මෙම තේ වර්ගය හරිත අග්‍රය ලෙසද හදුන්වයි. 平水珠茶 වෙඩි බෙහෙත් තේ
සෙජිආන්ග් ප්‍රදේශයෙන් පැවත එන වන මෙම තේ වර්ගය සුආචා ලෙස හදුන්වයි.නමුත් වර්තමානයේ  මෙම තේ චීනයේ සැම ප්‍රදේශයකම වගා කරයි.

ජිඅන්ගුසු  ප්‍රදේශය

 洞庭碧螺春  බි ලූඕ චුන් තේ
මෙම ජනප්‍රිය තේ වර්ගය කොළ ගොළුබෙළි තේ ලෙසද හදුන්වයි.මෙම තේ වර්ගය ලෝන්ජින්ග්  තේ ලෙසද වෙළදපළට යොමු කරනු දැකිය හැක.
 南京雨花茶 වැසි මල්
 නන්ජින්ග් ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා ඇති මෙම තේ වර්ගය වැසි මල් ලෙස හදුන්වයි.
 金坛雀舌 කිවු ශී
 ජින් ටැන් ප්‍රදේශයෙන් පැවත එන වන මෙම තේ වර්ගය කිවු ශී ලෙස හදුන්වයි.
 太湖白云 සුදු වළාකුල

ෆුජිආන් පෙදස කදුකරයේ වැඩෙන කාබනික හරිත තේ සදහා මෙම ප්‍රදේශය ප්‍රචලිත අතරම සුදු තේ සහ ඕලොන්ග් තේ සදහාද මෙම පෙදෙස යෝග්‍ය වේ.වෙරළාශිත කදුකරයෙහි තේ වර්ධනය සදහා ප්‍රශස්ථ වටපිටාවක් දැකිය හැක.හරිත තේ ගිම්හාන සමයෙහි නෙළනු ලබයි.
 茉莉花茶 සමන්පිච්ච තේ (මෝ ලි හුආ චා)
 මෙම තේ සදහා සමන්පිච්ච මල් එකතු කරනු ලබයි
 毛峰 මඕ ෆින්ග් තේ
 ලොම් සහිත මුදුන මෙහි අර්ථය වේ.
 翠剑 කුයි ජින්
 මෙම තේ වර්ගයෙහි අර්ථය වන්නේ ජේඩ් අසිපත යන්නයි.

හුබෙයි ප්‍රදේශය
 玉露 යුලූ
 හුමාලයෙහි තම්බන ලද මෙම තේ ග්යෝකුරු ලෙස ජපන් භාෂාවෙන් හදුන්වයි.මෙම තේ සාදන්නේ ජපන් ක්‍රමයටයි..

හෙනන් ප්‍රදේශය
.
 信阳毛尖 සින් යන්ග් මඕ ජින්
මෙම ජන්ප්‍රිය තේ වර්ගය කොළ අග ලෙස හදුන්වයි

ජින්ගසිප්‍රදේශය
 珍眉 [[චුන් මී]]
 මෙය වර්තමානයෙහි චීනයෙහි සැමතැනම වැවෙන අතර මෙහි අර්ථය වන්නේ ඇහි බැම යන අර්ථයයි.
 狗牯 ගොව් ගූ නඕ
 මෙය චීනයෙහි ඉතා ජනප්‍රිය තේ වර්ගයක් වන අතර විව්ධ ජාතික සම්මාන රාශියක් මෙයට ලැබී ඇත.
 云雾 යුන් වූ
 මෙම තේ වර්ගය වළාකුළ හෝ මීදුම යන නමින් හදුන්වයි

අන්හුය් ප්‍රදේශය  මෙය තේ වර්ග කිහිපයකට නිවහන වන අතරම චීනයේ ජනප්‍රිය තේ වර්ග තුනකට ද නිවහන වේ.ඒවානම්:
 大方 ද ෆැන්ග්
 හුඅන්ග්ශන් ප්‍රදේශයෙහි වැවෙන තේ මෙම නමින් හදුන්වයි..
 黄山毛峰 හුඅන්ග්ශන් මඔෆෙග්
 හුඅන්ග්ශන් ප්‍රදේශයෙහි වැවෙන චීනයෙහි ජනප්‍රිය තේ වර්ගයකි
 六安瓜片 ලිඔඅන් කොළ
 චීනයෙහි ජනප්‍රිය තේ වර්ගයක් වන මෙය කැකිරි බීජය ලෙසද හදුන්වයි
 猴魁 හොව් කුයි
 චීනයෙහි ජනප්‍රිය තේ වර්ගයක් වන මෙය වදුරු තේ ලෙසද හදුන්වයි
 屯绿 ටුන් ලූ
ටුන්ක්සි ප්‍රදේශයෙහි වැවෙන තේ මෙම නමින් හදුන්වයි.
 火青 හොව් කුන්ග්
 ජින් ප්‍රදේශයෙහි වැවෙන තේ මෙම නමින් හදුන්වයි.
 雾里青 වුලි කුඉන්ග්
 ටිඇන්ෆැන්ග් සමාගමේ මුල් සැකසීමේ ක්‍රියාවලියට අනුව මෙම තේ වර්ගය 2002 වසරේ සිට නිපදවයි.අන්හුයි කෘෂිකාර්මික විශ්වවිද්‍යාලයේ තේ පිළිබද මහාචාර්ය  සන් ලුජිවු ගේ අධීක්ෂණය අනුව මෙහි නිෂ්පාදන ක්‍රියාවලිය සකසයි.
 හයිසොන්
 මෙය මධ්‍යම ගුණාත්වයෙන් යුතු තේ වර්ගයකි.මෙහි ඉක්මනින් අස්වනු නෙළිය හැක.

සිචිවාන් ප්‍රදේශය
 竹叶青茶 සු යේ කුයින්ග්
 මෙම තේ වර්ගය මෙන්ග් ඩින් කුයි සු ලෙස ද හදුන්වයි
 蒙顶甘露 මෙන්ග් ඩින් ගන් ලු
 මෙම තේ වර්ගය සුවිශේෂ රසයකින් යුතු කහ පැහැයට හුරු තේ වර්ගයකි.

ජපාන හරිත තේ

හරිත තේ ජපානයෙහි සැම තැනම පවතින අතර එම නිසා එය තේ යන නමින් හදුන්වයි.හරිත තේ ලෙස විශේෂ නමකින් හැදින්වීමක් කරන්නේ නැත.එය ජපාන තේ ලෙසද හදුන්වයි.හරිත තේ චීනයේ මුල් වරට භාවිතා වූයේ සෝග් ඩිනස්ටි සමයේ වන අතර එය ජපානයට මුල් වරට රැගෙන එන ලද්දේ රින්සායි සෙන් පාසල හදුන්වා දුන් මියෝන් එයිසායි ජපාන බෞද්ධ භික්ෂුන්වහන්සේ නමකි.

තේ වර්ග පොදුවේ වෙන් කරනු ලබන්නේ ගුණත්වය,ශාඛ කොටස් සහ ක්‍රියාවලිය මතයි. එම නිසා මෙම පුළුල් වර්ග අතර මිළෙහි සහ ගුණත්වයෙහි විශාල වෙනස් කමක් දැකිය හැක.නමුත් මෙම ස්වාභාවයෙන් වෙනස් තේ වර්ග ද දැකිය හැක.හොදම ජපාන තේ දැකිය හැක්කේ ෆුකුටා ප්‍රාන්තයේ පිහිටි යමේ ප්‍රදේශයේ සහ ක්යෝටෝ ප්‍රාන්තයේ පිහිටි යිජි ප්‍රදේශයේය.යිජි ප්‍රදේශයේ වසර හාරසිය ගණනක සිටම යුජී තේ නිෂ්පාදනය කරයී.නමුත් වර්තමානයේ එය ශිගා,නරා,ක්යොටෝ සහ මිආ ප්‍රදේශ වලටද ව්‍යාප්ත වී ඇත.සොරකු ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටි ක්යෝටෝ තේ නිෂ්පාදනය කරන ප්‍රදේශ අතර විශේෂ ස්ථානයක් ගනී.ජපානයේ තේ දළු වලින් 40% නිෂ්පාදනය කරන්නේ ශිශෝකා ප්‍රදේශයේය.

 හරිත තේ වල පළමු සහ දෙවන දළු අස්වැන්න නෙළා ඒවා හිරු එළියේ වියළා ගැනීමෙන් මෙම තේ වර්ගය සකසා ගනී.මෙය ජපානයේ ඉතා ජනප්‍රිය තේ වර්ගයක් වන අතර මෙය බොහෝ දුරට බීම වර්ග සදහා යොදා ගනී.

 ෆුකමුසිචා යනු සෙන්චා තේ කොළ වලට වඩා දෙගුණයක් වැඩියෙන් හුමාලයේ තම්බා ගන්නා තේ වේ.මෙම තේ මගින් ඉතා තද පැහැයක් ලැබේ.

මෙය මිළෙන් අධික තේ වර්ගයකි.මෙය හිරු එළියට නිරාවරණය නොවන සෙවණෙහි වැඩෙන තේ වර්ගයකි.මෙය ආසන්න ලෙස දින 20ක් පමණ සෙවණහි වැඩෙයි. මෙම නමෙහි අර්ථය වන්නේ ජේඩ් මීදුම යන්නයි.මෙය සෙවණෙහි වැඩීම හේතුවෙන් මෙහි ඇමයිනෝ අම්ල සහ කැෆ්‍රීන් වැඩිපුර අන්තර්ගත වේ.එම නිසා තේ වල තිත්ත රසයට හේතුවන කැඩෙචින් අඩුවෙන් අන්තර්ගත වේ.  එම නිසා මෙමගින් නැවුම් රසයක් ලැබේ.

 කබුසේචා තේ වර්ගය සෙවණෙහි වැඩුණු හරිත තේ අස්වැන්නට පෙර නෙළාගත් තේ වේ.මේවා ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ අස්වැන්න නෙළාගැනීමට පෙර නෙළා ගනියි,මෙය සෙන්චා තේ වලට වඩා රසවත්ය.සමහර අවස්ථා වල ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ ලෙසද වෙළදපොළහි දැකිය හැක.

 ගුරිචා ලෙසද හදුන්වන මෙය බෙරි රසයකින් යුක්ත වේ.එමෙන්ම මෙහි බෙරි, තෘණ සහ පැගිරි වලින් යුතු සුවදක් දක්නට ලැබීම විශේෂත්වයකි.

 මෙය සෙන්චා තේ වල පහළ මට්ටමේ තේ වේ.මෙම තේ අස්වැන්න නෙළාගන්නේ තුන්වන සහ හතර වන අස්වැන්න ලෙස ග්‍රීෂ්ම සහ සරත් සමයෙහිය.සරත් සමයෙහිය නෙළා ගන්නා බෙන්චා වලින් සම්පූර්ණ කොළයම නිෂ්පාදනයට යොදා නොගනී.ඉන් අනවශ්‍ය කොටස් ඉවත් කෙරේ.

 මෙම හරිත තේ බොහොමයක් ජපන් හරිත තේ මෙන් හුමාලයෙහි තැම්බීමක් නොකරන අතර එම නිසා මෙම තේ වල බොහොමයක් ජපන් හරිත තේ වල දක්නට ලැබෙන තිත්ත රසයක් දක්නට නොමැත.
 සෙන්චා සහ ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ

 මෙම තේ නිෂ්පාදනය කරන්නේ තේ නාරටුව යොදා ගෙනය.මෙම තේ වල ඉමිහිරි රසයක් ඇත

 වසන්ත කාලයෙහි අස්වනු නෙළන මෙම තේ වර්ගයේ තේ නිෂ්පාදනය සදහා තේ දල්ල යොදා ගනී.මෙම තේ වර්ගය සෙන්චා සහ ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ ගුණත්ව අතර පිහිටයි.

 සෙන්චා සහ ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ නිෂ්පාදන ක්‍රියාවලියේදි ඉතිරිවන කුඩා කොටස් යොදා ගෙන මෙම තේ නිෂ්පාදනය කරයි.මෙය සෙන්චා මෙන් මිළෙන් අධික නැත.මෙම තේ බොහොමයක් සුශී අවන්හල් වල පිළිගන්වනු දැකිය හැක.
 අනෙකුත්

 ටෙන්චා වලින් නෙළා ගන්නා ඉතා අනර්ග තේ වර්ගයකි.ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ වලට සමාන වගා පිළිවතක් දක්නට ඇත.මෙම තේ ඉතා මිළෙන් අධික වන අතර මෙම තේ ජපාන තේ උත්සව සදහා යොදා ගනී.මෙම රසයෙන් යුතු අයිස් ක්‍රීම් සහ අනෙකුත් රස කැවිලි ජපානයෙහි ජනප්‍රියය.

 මට්චා වල අර්ධයක් අවසන් නිෂ්පාදන මෙම නමින් හදුන්වයි.මෙම ටෙන්චා නමට හේතුව වන්නේ නිෂ්පාදන අවසානයේ සිදුවන ඇඹරීමයි.මෙම තේ වර්ගය ග්යෝකුරෝ තේ වර්ගයට සමාන වේ. එනම් මෙම තේ වර්ගය සෙවණෙහි වැඩෙන අතර මෙම තේ වලද සුවිශේෂ රසයක් ඇත.මෙම තේ නිෂ්පාදන ක්‍රියාවලියේ සුවිශේෂතාව වන්නේ මෙම තේ වේලීමේදී රෝල් නොකිරීමයි.එම නිසා නැවුම් තේ කොළ වලට හානියක් සිදුනොවේ.

 බන්චා(සමහර විට සෙන්චා) සහ රෝස් කරන ලද ගෙන්මායි මිශ්‍ර කිරීමෙන් මෙය සාදා ගනී.සමහර අවස්ථා වල මේ සදහා මට්චා සුළු ප්‍රමාණයක් එක් කරයි.එසේ එක් කරන්නේ පැහැයක් ලබා ගැනීමටයි.

 සාමාන්‍ය බෙන්චා වලට වඩා රෝස් කරන ලද හරිත තේ මෙලෙස හදුන්වයි.

 සෙන්චා සහ ග්යෝකුරෝ නිෂ්පාදනයේ අර්ධයට නිමවුන නිෂ්පාදන වලින් මෙය නිෂ්පාදනය කරයි.මෙහි තේ වල සියළු කොටස් අන්තර්ගත වේ.

 තේ වල පළමු දල්ලෙන් මෙම තේ නිපදවයි.මෙම තේ සෙන්චා සහ ග්යෝකුරෝ යන නම් වලින්ද හදුන්වයි.

 අඹරන ලද හරිත තේ වේ.ක්ෂණික කෝපි සදහා ද යොදා ගනී.ටොකේරු මොචා යන නමින්ද මෙම තේ හදුන්වයි.

අනෙකුත් හරිත තේ
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ හරිත තේ
 කහ්වා

පරීක්ෂණ සහ සෞඛ්‍ය බලපෑම

හරිත තේ වල විවිධ එන්සයිම,ඇමයිනෝ අම්ල,කාබෝහයිඩ්‍රේට් ,ලිපිඩ,ස්ටෙරොල්ස්,ශාඛ රසායනික ද්‍රව්‍ය සහ යකඩ අන්තර්ගත වේ.හරිත තේ වල පවතින රසායනික සංයුතිය සදහා බොහෝ අදහස් ඉදිරිපත් වී ඇත.විට්‍රෝ සහ සත්ව අධ්‍යයන කටයුතු වල ප්‍රාථමික පර්යේෂණ වලදී මෙම  මෙම මත සනාථ කර ඇති අතර තව දුරටත් සනාථ කිරීම් සදහා පර්යේෂණ කරනු ලබයී. විශාල ලෙස හරිත තේ පානය කිරීම නිසා ඔක්සිකාරක ආතතිය සහ අක්මා රෝග සුව වන බව පර්යේෂණ මගින් සාක්ෂි සහිතව ඔප්පු වී ඇත.

2012 වසරේදී විධිමත් සමාලෝචනයකින් ප්‍රකාශ කළ පරිදි හරිත තේ මගින් පිළිකා සුවකළ හැකි බව අවිනිශ්චිත වුවද සමහර සාක්ෂි වලින් පෙන්වා දෙන ආකාරයට හරිත තේ මගින් ඇතැම් පිළිකා ඇතිවීම අවම කළ හැකිබව සනාථ කළ ඇත.එම පිළිකා නම් පපුවේ හට ගන්නා පිළිකා,පුරහස්ථියේ හට ගන්නා පිළිකා,ඩිම්බ වල හට ගන්නා පිළිකා සහ ගර්භාශයේ හට ගන්නා පිළිකා වේ.හරිත තේ මගින් රුධිරයේ අඩංගු ප්‍රෝටීන් ප්‍රමාණය සහ කොලෙස්ට්‍රෝල් ප්‍රමාණය පහළ දමයි.කෙටි කලකදී කරන ලද අධ්‍යන කටයුතු මගින් මෙමගින් මරණ ප්‍රමාණය අඩුවන බව සොයා ගෙන ඇති අතර හෘද රෝග ඇති වීමේ අවදානමද හරිත තේ මගින් අවම කෙරේ.සමහර අධ්‍යයන මගින් හරිත තේ භාවිතයෙන් ශරීරයේ බර අඩුවන බව සොයා ගෙන ඇති අතර එය බොහෝ පුද්ගලයන් සදහා යහපත් ආකල්පයක් ගොඩ නගයි. එක් අධ්‍යයනයකින් පෙන්වා දෙන ආකාරයට හරිත තේ වල අඩංගු කැටචින් මගින් හානි වු ඩී.එන්.ඒ යථා තත්ත්වයට පත් කිරීමට සියගුණයක හැකියාවක් ඇත.  එමෙන්ම හරිත තේ වල මිනිස් සිරුරට අවශ්‍ය විටමින් C සහ විටමින් E අන්තර්ගත වේ.තවදුරටත් ජපානය වැනි එක්සත් රාජධානියෙන් පිටත කරන ලද පර්යෙෂණ මගින් හරිත තේ පරිභෝජනය කිරිමෙන් පිළිකා අවදානම, හෘදය සම්බන්ධ රෝග සහ උමතුව  අවම කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් ඇති බව සොයාගෙන ඇත.

අධ්‍යයන කටයුතු වලින් පෙන්වා දෙන ආකාරයට හරිත තේ පාරිභෝජනය මගින් ස්නායු රෝග සුව කිර්‍ර්මේ හැකියාවක් සහ ස්නායු රෝග අවම කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් පවතී.හරිත තේ වල අඩංගු පොලිපිනොල්ස් නම් රසායනික ද්‍රව්‍ය මගින් ස්නායු සම්බන්ධ මෙම රෝගය සුව කිරීමට හැකියාව ඇත.

එමෙන්ම හරිත තේ මගින් ප්‍රති පිළිකා කාරකක් වන බ්‍රොටෙසොමිබ් නම් ඔෟෂධයේ බලපෑම නිෂ්ජේදනය කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් ඇත.

නිෂ්පාදනය

වගා කිරීම , අස්වනු නෙළීම සහ සකස් කිරීම

හරිත තේ වගා කිරීම සහ සකස් කිරීමේ ශිල්ප ක්‍රම එක් එක් තේ වර්ගය අනුව වෙනස් වේ.මෙම ශිල්ප ක්‍රම වල ප්‍රථිඵලයක් ලෙස විශාල ප්‍රමාණයක් වන පොලිෆිනොල්ස් සහ ඇන්ටිඔක්සිඩන්ට්ස් රදවා ගැනීමේ හැකියාව ලැබේ.එමගින් හරිත තේ මගින් ලැබිය හැකි ප්‍රථිලාභ සියල්ලක්ම පාහේ ලැබිය හැක.හරිත තේ වගා කරන ආකාර ප්‍රධාන ලෙස ක්‍රම දෙකකි.ඒවා නම් හිරු එළියේ වගා කිරීම සහ සෙවණෙහි වගා කිරීමයි.හරිත තේ පැළ එක පෙළට වගා කිරීම මගින් පැළෑටි කප්පාදුව පසු වන අතර එමගින් අතු පතර ප්‍රමාණවත් ලෙස සෑදේ.සාමාන්‍යයෙන් හරිත තේ අස්වැන්න වසරකට තුන් වතාවක් ලබා ගත හැක.හටගන්නා පළමු දළු පළමු අස්වැන්න ලෙස අප්‍රෙල් සහ මැයි මාස වලදී නෙළා ගන්නා අතර දෙවන අස්වැන්න ජුනි සහ ජූලි මාස වලදී නෙළා ගනී.තුන්වන අස්වැන්න නෙළා ගන්නේ ජූලි හෝ අගෝස්තු කාල වලදීය.සමහර අවස්ථා වලදී හතර වන අස්වනු නෙළීමක් ද දැකිය හැක.

හරිත තේ සකස් කිරීම සදහා ක්‍රම දෙකක් යොදා ගැනීමක් දැකිය හැක. ඒවානම් සාම්ප්‍රදායික ක්‍රම සහ නවීන ක්‍රම වේ.හිරු එළියේ වියළීම,ගල් අගුරු යොදා පිළිස්සීම,තැටියක ආධාරයෙන් පිළිස්සීම සාම්ප්‍රදායික ක්‍රම සදහා කදිම උදාහරණ වේ. පෝරණුවක වියළීම , හුමාලයේ වියළීම තේ සකස් කිරීම සදහා යොදා ගන්නා නවීන ක්‍රම වේ. සකස් කළ හරිත තේ "අරචා" ලෙස හදුන්වනු ලබයි.මේවා තෙතමනය අඩු ශීතකරණ වල කිලෝ 30 සහ 60 මළුවල ගබඩා කර සෙ.අ.0-5 අතර උෂ්ණත්වයක ගබඩා කරයී.මෙම "අරචා" තව දුරටත් සකස් කළ යුතු වේ.එය මෙම තේ කලවම් කිරීමට,තේරීමට සහ ඇසිරීමට පෙර සිදුකරනු ලබයි.මෙම තේ වසර පුරා අවශ්‍ය වන පරිදි වියළාගත හැක.එමගින් මෙම තේ වැඩි කාලයක් තබා ගැනීමට හැකිවන අතරම තේ වලින් නැවුම් රසයකුත් ලබා ගත හැක.නැවත වියළා ගැනීමේ කාර්යය අවසානයේ එම තේ හලාගැනීමක් සිදුකරන අතර එම ක්‍රියාවලිය අවසානයේ මෙම තේ සුදුසු පරිදි වර්ගීකරණය කරනු ලබයි.අවසානයේ මෙම තේ රසකාරක මගින් පරීක්ෂා කිරීමෙන් අනතුරුව වෙළදපළට යවනු ලබයි.

හරිත තේ නිෂ්පාදනය රටවල් අනුව

ජපාන තේ ආනයනය
2011 වසරේ ජූනි 17 වන දින  ප්‍රංශයට යවන ලද හරිත තේ කිලෝවක විකිරණශීලී ද්‍රව්‍ය ඒකක 1038ක් අඩංගු බව ප්‍රංශ ගුවන්තොටුපළක් වන චාර්ල්ස් ගව්ලී වලදී සනාථ විය.මෙම තේ ආනයනය කරන ලද්දේ ජපානයේ ශිසෝකා ප්‍රදේශයෙනි.මෙම තේ කිලෝවක විකිරණශීලී ද්‍රව්‍ය 500 මෙන් දෙගුණයකට වඩාත් ඇති බව යුරෝපා සංගමය මගින්ද ප්‍රකාශ කරන ලදී.එමෙන්ම ප්‍රංශය රජය මගින් මෙම තේ කිලෝ 162 ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කරන ලදී. මෙයට පිළිතුරු ලෙස ශිසෝකා ප්‍රදේශයේ පාලකයා ප්‍රකාශ කළේ ඔවුන් පානයට ගන්නේ එම තේ බවත් ප්‍රංශය කළ එම තේ වල විකිරණශීලී ද්‍රව්‍ය මැණීම සම්බන්ධයෙන් ගැටළු පවතින බවත්ය.නිවැරදි ලෙස  එම තේ කිලෝවක විකිරණශීලී ද්‍රව්‍ය 10ක් ඇති බවත්, එය 1000 වූයේනම් ඔවුන් නිෂ්පාදනයේ පරීක්ෂා කිරීමෙදී ඔප්පුවන බවත් ප්‍රකාශ කළේය. ජපාන ආහාර සෞඛ්‍ය පිළිබද අමාත්‍ය රෙන්හෝ මහතා ප්‍රකාශ කර තිබුණේ "අරචා" නම් තේ වර්ගය ෆුරිකේක් ලෙස අලෙවි කිරීම මගින් මෙම තත්ත්වය උදා වී ඇති බවත් එබැවින් පාරිභෝගික ආරක්ෂාව සදහා තේ පරීක්ෂාවේදි අරචා අඩන්ගුදැයි පරීක්ෂාව ඉතා වැදගත් බව එතුමා ප්‍රකාශ කළේය.

විමසන්න

 හරිත තේ වල අඩංගු පොලිෆිනොල්ස්
 චීන තේ කර්මාන්තය
 ජපාන තේ උත්සව
 තේ මගින් වන සෞඛ්‍ය බලපෑම
 ප්‍රතිකාරක ඔක්සිජන් වර්ග
 කහ තේ
 කොරියන් තේ
 සුදු තේ
 යර්බා මෙට්
 ඉලෙස් ගුඅයුසා

සැදහුම්

වැඩිපුර කියවීම්
 Evans, John C. Tea in China: The History of China's National Drink. Greenwood Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-313-28049-8
 Lam, K.C./Lam, K.S. The Way of Tea: The Sublime Art of Oriental Tea Drinking.'' Barron's Educational Series, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7641-1968-2

බාහිර ඇමුණුම්
 Green Tea (an overview from the University of Maryland Medical Center)
 Green Tea's cancer fighting potential (audio interview)
 WebMD review about the health benefits of green tea

Chinese tea
Dietary antioxidants

Japanese tea
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

හරිත තේ