Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, and one of the most potent. The mushrooms have a distinctive conical to bell-shaped cap, up to  in diameter, with a small nipple-like protrusion on the top. They are yellow to brown, covered with radial grooves when moist, and fade to a lighter color as they mature. Their stipes tend to be slender and long, and the same color or slightly lighter than the cap. The gill attachment to the stipe is adnexed (narrowly attached), and they are initially cream-colored before tinting purple to black as the spores mature. The spores are dark purplish-brown in mass, ellipsoid in shape, and measure 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 micrometres.

The mushroom grows in grassland habitats, especially wetter areas. But unlike P. cubensis, the fungus does not grow directly on dung; rather, it is a saprobic species that feeds off decaying grass roots. It is widely distributed in the temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in Europe, and has been reported occasionally in temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere as well. The earliest reliable history of P. semilanceata intoxication dates back to 1799 in London, and in the 1960s the mushroom was the first European species confirmed to contain psilocybin.

The possession or sale of psilocybin mushrooms is illegal in many countries.

Taxonomy and naming

The species was first described by Elias Magnus Fries as Agaricus semilanceatus in his 1838 work Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici. Paul Kummer transferred it to Psilocybe in 1871 when he raised many of Fries's sub-groupings of Agaricus to the level of genus. Panaeolus semilanceatus, named by Jakob Emanuel Lange in both 1936 and 1939 publications, is a synonym. According to the taxonomical database MycoBank, several taxa once considered varieties of P. semilanceata are synonymous with the species now known as Psilocybe strictipes: the caerulescens variety described by Pier Andrea Saccardo in 1887 (originally named Agaricus semilanceatus var. coerulescens by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in 1881), the microspora variety described by Rolf Singer in 1969, and the obtusata variety described by Marcel Bon in 1985.

Several molecular studies published in the 2000s demonstrated that Psilocybe, as it was defined then, was polyphyletic. The studies supported the idea of dividing the genus into two clades, one consisting of the bluing, hallucinogenic species in the family Hymenogastraceae, and the other the non-bluing, non-hallucinogenic species in the family Strophariaceae. However, the generally accepted lectotype (a specimen later selected when the original author of a taxon name did not designate a type) of the genus as a whole was Psilocybe montana, which is a non-bluing, non-hallucinogenic species. If the non-bluing, non-hallucinogenic species in the study were to be segregated, it would have left the hallucinogenic clade without a valid name. To resolve this dilemma, several mycologists proposed in a 2005 publication to conserve the name Psilocybe, with P. semilanceata as the type. As they explained, conserving the name Psilocybe in this way would prevent nomenclatural changes to a well-known group of fungi, many species of which are "linked to archaeology, anthropology, religion, alternate life styles, forensic science, law enforcement, laws and regulation". Further, the name P. semilanceata had historically been accepted as the lectotype by many authors in the period 1938–68. The proposal to conserve the name Psilocybe, with P. semilanceata as the type was accepted unanimously by the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi in 2009.

The mushroom takes its common name from the Phrygian cap, also known as the "liberty cap", which it resembles; P. semilanceata shares its common name with P. pelliculosa, a species from which it is more or less indistinguishable in appearance. The Latin word for Phrygian cap is pileus, nowadays the technical name for what is commonly known as the "cap" of a fungal fruit body. In the 18th century, Phrygian caps were placed on Liberty poles, which resemble the stipe of the mushroom. The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek psilos (ψιλός) 'smooth, bare' and Byzantine Greek kubê (κύβη) 'head'. The specific epithet comes from Latin semi 'half, somewhat' and lanceata, from lanceolatus 'spear-shaped'.

Description

Pileus: The cap of P. semilanceata is  in diameter and  tall. It varies in shape from sharply conical to bell-shaped, often with a prominent papilla (a nipple-shaped structure), and does not change shape considerably as it ages. The cap margin is initially rolled inward but unrolls to become straight or even curled upwards in maturity. The cap is hygrophanous, meaning it assumes different colors depending on its state of hydration. When it is moist, the cap is ochraceous to pale brown to dark chestnut brown, but darker in the center, often with a greenish-blue tinge. When moist, radial lines can be seen through the cap that correspond to the positions of the gills underneath. When the cap is dry, it becomes much paler, a light yellow-brown color. Moist mushrooms have sticky surfaces that result from a thin gelatinous film called a pellicle. This film becomes apparent if a piece of the cap is broken by bending it back and peeling away the piece. When the cap dries from exposure to the sun, the film turns whitish and is no longer peelable.
Gills: On the underside of the mushroom's cap, there are between 15 and 27 individual narrow gills that are moderately crowded together, and they have a narrowly adnexed to almost free attachment to the stipe. Their color is initially pale brown, but becomes dark gray to purple-brown with a lighter edge as the spores mature.
Spore print: deep reddish purple-brown color
Stipe: The slender yellowish-brown stipe is  long by 1–3.5 mm thick, and usually slightly thicker towards the base.
Veil: The mushroom has a thin cobweb-like partial veil that does not last long before disappearing; sometimes, the partial veil leaves an annular zone on the stipe that may be darkened by spores. The flesh is thin and membrane-like, and roughly the same color as the surface tissue.
Taste and odor: farinaceous
Stain: All parts of the mushroom will stain a bluish color if handled or bruised, and it may naturally turn blue with age.

Microscopic characteristics
In deposit, the spores are a deep reddish purple-brown color. The use of an optical microscope can reveal further details: the spores are oblong when seen in side view, and oblong to oval in frontal view, with dimensions of 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 μm. The basidia (spore bearing cells of the hymenium), are 20–31 by 5–9 μm, four-spored, and have clamps at their bases; there are no basidia found on the sterile gill edge. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) measure 15–30 by 4–7 μm, and are flask-shaped with long thin necks that are 1–3.5 μm wide. P. semilanceata does not have pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face). The cap cuticle is up to 90 μm thick, and is made of a tissue layer called an ixocutis—a gelatinized layer of hyphae lying parallel to the cap surface. The hyphae comprising the ixocutis are cylindrical, hyaline, and 1–3.5 μm wide. Immediately under the cap cuticle is the subpellis, made of hyphae that are 4–12 μm wide with yellowish-brown encrusted walls. There are clamp connections present in the hyphae of all tissues.

Other forms
The anamorphic form of P. semilanceata is an asexual stage in the fungus's life cycle involved in the development of mitotic diaspores (conidia). In culture, grown in a petri dish, the fungus forms a white to pale orange cottony or felt-like mat of mycelia. The conidia formed are straight to curved, measuring 2.0–8.0 by 1.1–2.0 μm, and may contain one to several small intracellular droplets. Although little is known of the anamorphic stage of P. semilanceata beyond the confines of laboratory culture, in general, the morphology of the asexual structures may be used as classical characters in phylogenetic analyses to help understand the evolutionary relationships between related groups of fungi.

Scottish mycologist Roy Watling described sequestrate (truffle-like) or secotioid versions of P. semilanceata he found growing in association with regular fruit bodies. These versions had elongated caps,  long and  wide at the base, with the inward curved margins closely hugging the stipe from the development of membranous flanges. Their gills were narrow, closely crowded together, and anastomosed (fused together in a vein-like network). The color of the gills was sepia with a brownish vinaceous (red wine-colored) cast, and a white margin. The stipes of the fruit bodies were  long by  thick, with about  of stipe length covered by the extended cap. The thick-walled ellipsoid spores were 12.5–13.5 by 6.5–7 μm. Despite the significant differences in morphology, molecular analysis showed the secotioid version to be the same species as the typical morphotype.

Similar species

There are several other Psilocybe species that may be confused with P. semilanceata due to similarities in physical appearance. P. strictipes is a slender grassland species that is differentiated macroscopically from P. semilanceata by the lack of a prominent papilla. P. mexicana, commonly known as the "Mexican liberty cap", is also similar in appearance, but is found in manure-rich soil in subtropical grasslands in Mexico. It has somewhat smaller spores than P. semilanceata, typically 8–9.9 by 5.5–7.7 μm. Another lookalike species is P. samuiensis, found in Thailand, where it grows in well-manured clay-like soils or among paddy fields. This mushroom can be distinguished from P. semilanceata by its smaller cap, up to  in diameter, and its rhomboid-shaped spores. P. pelliculosa is physically similar to such a degree that it may be indistinguishable in the field. It differs from P. semilanceata by virtue of its smaller spores, measuring 9–13 by 5–7 μm.

P. semilanceata has also been confused with the toxic muscarine-containing species Inocybe geophylla, a whitish mushroom with a silky cap, yellowish-brown to pale grayish gills, and a dull yellowish-brown spore print. Other similar species include P. cubensis, P. cyanescens, and Deconica coprophila.

Ecology and habitat

Psilocybe semilanceata fruits solitarily or in groups on rich and acidic soil, typically in grasslands, such as meadows, pastures, or lawns. It is often found in pastures that have been fertilized with sheep or cow dung, although it does not typically grow directly on the dung.

P. semilanceata, like all others species of the genus Psilocybe, is a saprobic fungus, meaning it obtains nutrients by breaking down organic matter. The mushroom is also associated with sedges in moist areas of fields, and it is thought to live on the decaying root remains.

Like some other grassland psilocybin mushroom species such as P. mexicana, P. tampanensis and Conocybe cyanopus, P. semilanceata may form sclerotia, a dormant form of the fungus, which affords it some protection from wildfires and other natural disasters.

Laboratory tests have shown P. semilanceata to suppress the growth of the soil-borne water mold Phytophthora cinnamomi, a virulent plant pathogen that causes the disease root rot. When grown in dual culture with other saprobic fungi isolated from the rhizosphere of grasses from its habitat, P. semilanceata significantly suppresses their growth. This antifungal activity, which can be traced at least partly to two phenolic compounds it secretes, helps it compete successfully with other fungal species in the intense competition for nutrients provided by decaying plant matter. Using standard antimicrobial susceptibility tests, Psilocybe semilanceata was shown to strongly inhibit the growth of the human pathogen methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The source of the antimicrobial activity is unknown.

Distribution
Psilocybe authority Gastón Guzmán, in his 1983 monograph on psilocybin mushrooms, considered Psilocybe semilanceata the world's most widespread psilocybin mushroom species, as it has been reported on 18 countries.
In Europe, P. semilanceata has a widespread distribution, and is found in Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Channel Islands, Czech republic, Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and Ukraine. It is generally agreed that the species is native to Europe; Watling has demonstrated that there exists little difference between specimens collected from Spain and Scotland, at both the morphological and genetic level.

The mushroom also has a widespread distribution in North America. In Canada it has been collected from British Columbia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Ontario and Quebec. In the United States, it is most common in the Pacific Northwest, west of the Cascade Mountains, where it fruits abundantly in autumn and early winter; fruiting has also been reported to occur infrequently during spring months. Charles Horton Peck reported the mushroom to occur in New York in the early 20th century, and consequently, much literature published since then has reported the species to be present in the eastern United States. Guzmán later examined Peck's herbarium specimen, and in his comprehensive 1983 monograph on Psilocybe, concluded that Peck had misidentified it with the species now known as Panaeolina foenisecii. P. semilanceata is much less common in South America, where it has been recorded in Chile. It is also known in Australia (where it may be an introduced species) and New Zealand, where it grows in high-altitude grasslands. In 2000, it was reported from Golaghat, in the Indian state of Assam. In 2017, it was reported from Charsadda, in the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Psychoactive use

The first reliably documented report of Psilocybe semilanceata intoxication involved a British family in 1799, who prepared a meal with mushrooms they had picked in London's Green Park. According to the chemist Augustus Everard Brande, the father and his four children experienced typical symptoms associated with ingestion, including pupil dilation, spontaneous laughter and delirium. The identification of the species responsible was made possible by James Sowerby's 1803 book Coloured Figures of English Fungi or Mushrooms, which included a description of the fungus, then known as Agaricus glutinosus (originally described by Moses Ashley Curtis in 1780). According to German mycologist Jochen Gartz, the description of the species is "fully compatible with current knowledge about Psilocybe semilanceata."

In the early 1960s, the Swiss scientist Albert Hofmann—known for the synthesis of the psychedelic drug LSD—chemically analyzed P. semilanceata fruit bodies collected in Switzerland and France by the botanist Roger Heim. Using the technique of paper chromatography, Hofmann confirmed the presence of 0.25% (by weight) psilocybin in dried samples. Their 1963 publication was the first report of psilocybin in a European mushroom species; previously, it had been known only in Psilocybe species native to Mexico, Asia and North America. This finding was confirmed in the late 1960s with specimens from Scotland and England, Czechoslovakia (1973), Germany (1977), Norway (1978), and Belgium and Finland (1984). In 1965, forensic characterization of psilocybin-containing mushrooms seized from college students in British Columbia identified P. semilanceata—the first recorded case of intentional recreational use of the mushroom in Canada. The presence of the psilocybin analog baeocystin was confirmed in 1977. Several studies published since then support the idea that the variability of psilocybin content in P. semilanceata is low, regardless of country of origin.

Properties

Several studies have quantified the amounts of hallucinogenic compounds found in the fruit bodies of Psilocybe semilanceata. In 1993, Gartz reported an average of 1% psilocybin (expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the fruit bodies), ranging from a minimum of 0.2% to a maximum of 2.37% making it one of the most potent species (but significantly less potent than panaeolus cyanescens). In an earlier analysis, Tjakko Stijve and Thom Kuyper (1985) found a high concentration in a single specimen (1.7%) in addition to a relatively high concentration of baeocystin (0.36%). Smaller specimens tend to have the highest percent concentrations of psilocybin, but the absolute amount is highest in larger mushrooms. A Finnish study assayed psilocybin concentrations in old herbarium specimens, and concluded that although psilocybin concentration decreased linearly over time, it was relatively stable. They were able to detect the chemical in specimens that were 115 years old. Michael Beug and Jeremy Bigwood, analyzing specimens from the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, reported psilocybin concentrations ranging from 0.62% to 1.28%, averaging 1.0 ±0.2%. They concluded that the species was one of the most potent, as well as the most constant in psilocybin levels. In a 1996 publication, Paul Stamets defined a "potency rating scale" based on the total content of psychoactive compounds (including psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin) in 12 species of Psilocybe mushrooms. Although there are certain caveats with this technique—such as the erroneous assumption that these compounds contribute equally to psychoactive properties—it serves as a rough comparison of potency between species. Despite its small size, Psilocybe semilanceata is considered a "moderately active to extremely potent" hallucinogenic mushroom (meaning the combined percentage of psychoactive compounds is typically between 0.25% to greater than 2%), and of the 12 mushrooms they compared, only 3 were more potent: P. azurescens, P. baeocystis, and P. bohemica. however this data has become obsolete over the years as more potent cultivars have been discovered for numerous species, especially panaeolus cyanescens which holds the current world record for most potent mushrooms described in published research.  According to Gartz (1995), P. semilanceata is Europe's most popular psychoactive species.

Several reports have been published in the literature documenting the effects of consumption of P. semilanceata. Typical symptoms include visual distortions of color, depth and form, progressing to visual hallucinations. The effects are similar to the experience following consumption of LSD, although milder. Common side effects of mushroom ingestion include pupil dilation, increased heart rate, unpleasant mood, and overresponsive reflexes. As is typical of the symptoms associated with psilocybin mushroom ingestion, "the effect on mood in particular is dependent on the subject's pre-exposure personality traits", and "identical doses of psilocybin may have widely differing effects in different individuals." Although most cases of intoxication resolve without incident, there have been isolated cases with severe consequences, especially after higher dosages or persistent use. In one case reported in Poland in 1998, an 18-year-old man developed Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome, arrhythmia, and suffered myocardial infarction after ingesting P. semilanceata frequently over the period of a month. The cardiac damage and myocardial infarction was suggested to be a result of either coronary vasoconstriction, or because of platelet hyperaggregation and occlusion of small coronary arteries.

Danger of misidentification
One danger of attempting to consume hallucinogenic or other wild mushrooms, especially for novice mushroom hunters, is the possibility of misidentification with toxic species. In one noted case, an otherwise healthy young Austrian man mistook the poisonous Cortinarius rubellus for P. semilanceata. As a result, he suffered end-stage kidney failure, and required a kidney transplant. In another instance, a young man developed cardiac abnormalities similar to those seen in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, characterized by a sudden temporary weakening of the myocardium. A polymerase chain reaction-based test to specifically identity P. semilanceata was reported by Polish scientists in 2007. Poisonous Psathyrella species can easily be misidentified as liberty caps.

Legal status

The legal status of psilocybin mushrooms varies worldwide. Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Class A (United Kingdom) or Schedule I (US) drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The possession and use of psilocybin mushrooms, including P. semilanceata, is therefore prohibited by extension. Although many European countries remained open to the use and possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms after the US ban, starting in the 2000s (decade) there has been a tightening of laws and enforcements. In the Netherlands, where the drug was once routinely sold in licensed cannabis coffee shops and smart shops, laws were instituted in October 2008 to prohibit the possession or sale of psychedelic mushrooms—the final European country to do so.
They are legal in Jamaica and Brazil and decriminalised in Portugal. In the United States, the city of Denver, Colorado, voted in May 2019 to decriminalize the use and possession of psilocybin mushrooms. In November 2020, voters passed Oregon Ballot Measure 109, making Oregon the first state to both decriminalize psilocybin and also legalize it for therapeutic use. Ann Arbor Michigan, and the county it resides in have decriminalized magic mushrooms, possession, sale and use are now legal within the county. In 2021, the City Councils of Somerville, Northampton, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Seattle, Washington, voted for decriminalization.

Sweden
The Riksdag added Psilocybe semilanceata to Narcotic Drugs Punishments Act under Swedish schedule I ("substances, plant materials and fungi which normally do not have medical use") as of 1 October 1997, published by Medical Products Agency (MPA) in regulation LVFS 1997:12 listed as Psilocybe semilanceata (toppslätskivling).

See also

 List of Psilocybe species
 Mushroom hunting

References

Cited texts

Entheogens
Fungi described in 1838
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Australia
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of New Zealand
Fungi of North America
Fungi of South America
Fungi of Sweden
Fungi of Finland
semilanceata
Psychedelic tryptamine carriers
Psychoactive fungi
Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries
Fungi of Iceland

Psilocybe semilanceata


(4252) Godwin ist ein Hauptgürtelasteroid, der am 11. September 1985 von Henri Debehogne von der Europäischen Südsternwarte aus entdeckt wurde.

Der Asteroid wurde nach Richard Godwin (* 1955), einem Vorstandsmitglied der Space Frontier Foundation, benannt.

Weblinks

Hauptgürtelasteroid unter 50 km Durchmesser
Eunomia-Familie
Astronomisches Objekt (entdeckt von Henri Debehogne)

(4252) Godwin


Apis mellifera anatoliaca er ein undirtegund alibýflugna. Útbreiðsla hennar er í Tyrklandi.

Tilvísanir

Býflugur

Apis mellifera anatoliaca


Vjetroelektrana Katuni ili VE Katuni sastoji se od 12 vjetroagregata ukupne instalirane električne snage 34,2 megavata (MW). Iskorištavanjem čistog i obnovljivog izvora energije, predviđa se da će vjetroelektrana proizvoditi prosječno 95 GWh električne energije godišnje. To je dovoljna količina energije da zadovolji godišnju potražnju više od 24 000 ljudi u Hrvatskoj. Katuni su selo u općini Šestanovac, nedaleko od grada Omiša. S obzirom na izvrsne brzine vjetra na položaju, ukupna visina vjetroagregata je manja od 150 metra (103 metra je promjer rotora). Vjetroelektrana Katuni je u vlasništvu tvtke Vjetroelektrana Katuni d.o.o., podružnice WPD grupacije sa sjedištem u Bremenu, Njemačka Vjetroelektrana Katuni je puštena u rad u travnju 2017. Riječ je o projektu vrijednom 40 milijuna eura.

Vjetroelektrane u Hrvatskoj
Vjetroelektrane u Hrvatskoj su započele svoj razvoj još 1988., kada je Končar postavio prvi vjetroagregat u brodogradilištu Uljanik, koji se i danas tamo nalazi, no onda je razvoj istoga obustavljen. Danas Končar ima postavljen prvi prototip svog modernog vjetroagregata na lokaciji Pometeno brdo u blizini Splita i pokušava uhvatiti korak s ostalim poznatim proizvođačima vjetroagregata.

Promatrajući karakteristike vjetra na prostoru Hrvatske, može se zaključiti da Hrvatska ima na desetke područja koja imaju zadovoljavajući vjetropotencijal za izgradnju elektrana. Mjerenja određenih karakteristika vjetra (brzina, smjer, učestalost) pokazala su kako je za iskorištavanje energije vjetra povoljnije područje Jadrana od kontinentalnog dijela Hrvatske. Stoga su prve hrvatske vjetroelektrane izgradene upravo na tom području.

U Hrvatskoj je trenutno 20 vjetroelektrana koje su u normalnom radu (kolovoz 2018.) i koje isporučuju električnu energiju u elektroenergetski sustav Hrvatske. Instalirana snaga svih vjetrolektrana je 570 MW, u radu je 254 vjetroagregata koji isporučuju godišnje oko 1 475 GWh električne struje. Za usporedbu Termoelektrana Plomin ima snagu 330 MW i isporučuje godišnje oko 2 173 GWh električne struje.

Izvori

Poveznice
 Vjetroelektrane u Hrvatskoj

Katuni
Splitsko-dalmatinska županija

Vjetroelektrana Katuni


.ge Gürcistan için internet ülke kodu üst seviye alan adıdır. (CcTLD)

Gürcistan
ge

.ge


Olaylar

Doğumlar

Ölümler
 Dioscorides Pedanius, Roma İmparatorluğu zamanında yaşamış hekim ve farmakoloji bilgini (d. 40)
 Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Romalı şair

als:90er#Johr 90

90


Den sorte celle er en dansk kortfilm fra 2003, der er instrueret af Anders Jensen efter manuskript af ham selv og Nicolai Schultz.

Handling

Medvirkende
 Mikkel Raahede - Mark
 Peter Meindor - Erik
 Stine Kirkegård - Pernille
 Kim Sønderholm - Michael
 Andreas Nilsson - Dr. Merkwuerdichliebe
 Andreas Brasch - Retsmediciner
 Rasmus Fraes - Retsmediciner
 Kenneth Petersen - Politibetjent
 Anders Jensen - Politibetjent

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2003

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Den sorte celle


"She Is Suffering" is a song by Welsh alternative rock band Manic Street Preachers. It was released in October 1994 by record label Epic as the third and final single from the band's third studio album, The Holy Bible. It was their last single to feature Richey Edwards before his disappearance on 1 February 1995. The single reached number 25 on the UK Singles Chart on 15 October 1994.

Content

According to its lyricist, Richey Edwards, the song's title refers to "Desire. In other bibles and holy books, no truth is possible until you empty yourself of desire. All commitment otherwise is fake/lies/economic convenience". Nicky Wire also noted, "It's quite a simple song, both musically and lyrically. It's kind of like the Buddhist thing where you can only reach eternal peace by shedding every desire in your body."

Promotion

Promotion for the single included James Dean Bradfield performing an acoustic version of the song on RTÉ's Sunday afternoon TV/radio simulcast The Beatbox

Music video

A promo video for the song was directed by Alfonso Doring, which featured performance clips interspersed with shots of art mannequins. In the music magazine Melody Maker, Wire described the music video to "She Is Suffering" as "absolute shite beyond belief". It was released on the band's Forever Delayed video compilation DVD (2002).

Track listings

 All live tracks (excluding the European release) were recorded at the Clapham Grand, Battersea, London, England, on 2 March 1994 in aid of the Philip Hall Memorial Fund for Cancer Research.

Charts

References

Sources

1994 singles
1994 songs
Epic Records singles
Manic Street Preachers songs
Songs written by James Dean Bradfield
Songs written by Nicky Wire
Songs written by Richey Edwards
Songs written by Sean Moore (musician)

She Is Suffering


Această pagină descrie procesul de calificare pentru Campionatul European de Handbal Feminin pentru Tineret din 2017.

Sistemul calificărilor
33 de echipe s-au înregistrat pentru a participa la turneul final al Campionatului European. Slovenia, ca țară organizatoare, Danemarca și Rusia, medaliatele cu aur și argint la Campionatul European de Handbal Feminin pentru Tineret din 2015, au fost calificate direct, astfel că 30 de echipe naționale au luat parte la calificările pentru turneul final. Tragerea la sorți s-a desfășurat pe 11 octombrie 2016 la sediul EHF din Viena, Austria, și a fost transmisă în direct pe pagina de Facebook a EHF.

Echipele au fost distribuite în patru urne valorice conform coeficienților EHF și trase apoi la sorți în șase grupe de calificare de câte patru echipe și alte două grupe de câte trei echipe.

Distribuție

Grupele
În urma tragerii la sorți au rezultat următoarele opt grupe de calificare:

Grupa 1
Partidele grupei s-au desfășurat în sala SRȚ Kale din Skopje, Macedonia. Meciurile au fost transmise în direct pe canalul YouTube al Federației Macedonene de Handbal.

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Grupa a 2-a
Partidele grupei s-au desfășurat în sala Pavillón Vila de Noia din Carballo, Spania. Meciurile au fost transmise în direct pe canalul YouTube al Federației Spaniole de Handbal.

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Grupa a 3-a
Partidele grupei s-au desfășurat în sala Chemkostav Aréna din Michalovce, Slovacia. Meciurile au fost transmise în direct pe canalul YouTube al Federației Slovace de Handbal.

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Grupa a 4-a
Partidele grupei s-au desfășurat în sala Sportska Dvorana din Đurđevac, Croația. Meciurile au fost transmise în direct pe pagina Facebook a Federației Croate de Handbal.

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Grupa a 5-a
Partidele grupei s-au desfășurat în sala Teza din Hodonín, Cehia. Meciurile au fost transmise în direct pe platforma video tvcom.cz.

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Grupa a 6-a
Partidele grupei s-au desfășurat în sala Țentr Olimpiiskogo Rezerva din Jlobin, Belarus. Meciurile au fost transmise în direct pe pagina oficială a Federației de Handbal din Belarus.

Din această grupă doar echipa clasată pe primul loc s-a calificat la turneul final.

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Grupa a 7-a
Partidele grupei s-au desfășurat în sala Nikos Samaras din Myrina Limnou, Grecia. Meciurile au fost transmise în direct pe canalul YouTube al Federației Grece de Handbal.

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Fra Vicko Kapitanović (Ogorje, 12. lipnja 1944. – Split, 22. listopada 2015.), hrvatski franjevac, teolog, visoki crkveni dužnosnik i istraživač hrvatske filozofske baštine.

Životopis
Rođen od oca Jure i majke Jandre r. Čolak. U Ogorju završio osnovnu školu, a Franjevačku klasičnu gimnaziju u Sinju i Zagrebu. U Makarskoj je išao na filozofsko-teološki studij. 1960. godine je stupio na Visovcu u novicijat gdje je položio prve jednostavne zavjete 11. srpnja 1961. godine. Svečane zavjete položio je 25. ožujka 1966. u Makarskoj. Za đakona je zaređen 9. ožujka 1968. u Makarskoj, a red prezbiterata primio je 29. lipnja 1968. u Splitu. Mladu misu proslavio je u rodnoj župi Ogorje 30. lipnja 1968. godine. U Rimu je bio na studiju crkvene povijesti. 1977. godine doktorirao je na Gregoriani. Obnašao je službe u Franjevačkoj provinciji Presvetog Otkupitelja: župni vikar u Drnišu, profesor na KBF-u u Splitu, profesor i rektor na Bogosloviji u Makarskoj, urednik Službe Božje, vikar, definitor i vikar Provincije. Generalni vizitator Slovenske provincije sv. Križa, te vanjski suradnik Pedagoškog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Mostaru i Filozofskog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Splitu. Bio je provincijski knjižničar i arhivar. Bio je gost predavač na Antonianumu u Rimu. Umro je u Splitu 22. listopada 2015., u 72. godini života, 56. redovništva i 48. svećeništva.

Djela
Objavio je djela u raznim časopisima. Ističu se:
 Fra Andrija Dorotić (1978.)
 Nevest (1992.)
 Rukopisna i knjižna baština Franjevačke visoke bogoslovije u Makarskoj (1993.)
 Kristu subličen. Život i vrline fra Ante Antića (Split - 2004. i Rim 2006.)
 Kršćanska arheologija (2006.)
 Rimski Ilirik u odrazu kršćanske književnosti (2006.)
 Povijesna vrela i pomoćne znanosti (2012.)

Nagrade
Dobio je nagrade:
1977.: Počasna medalja, poklon pape Pavla VI. za doktorat
2009.: Plaketa za izvanredan doprinos razvoju Sveučilišta u Splitu
2011.: Splitsko-dalmatinska županija – nagrada za životno djelo

Izvori

Životopisi, Split
Hrvatski franjevci
Hrvatski katolički svećenici
Hrvatski rimokatolički teolozi
Hrvatski crkveni povjesničari
Urednici Službe Božje

Vicko Kapitanović


The Popish Plot was a fictitious conspiracy invented by Titus Oates that between 1678 and 1681 gripped the kingdoms of England and Scotland in anti-Catholic hysteria. Oates alleged that there was an extensive Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles II, accusations that led to the executions of at least 22 men and precipitated the Exclusion Bill Crisis. During this tumultuous period, Oates weaved an intricate web of accusations, fueling public fears and paranoia. However, as time went on, the lack of substantial evidence and inconsistencies in Oates's testimony began to unravel the plot. Eventually, Oates himself was arrested and convicted for perjury, exposing the fabricated nature of the conspiracy.

Background

Development of English anti-Catholicism
The fictitious Popish Plot must be understood against the background of the English Reformation and the subsequent development of a strong anti-Catholic sentiment among the mostly Protestant population of England.

The English Reformation began in 1533, when King Henry VIII (1509–1547) sought an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon to marry Anne Boleyn. As the Pope would not grant this, Henry broke away from Rome and took control of the Church in England. Later, he had the monasteries dissolved, causing opposition in the still largely Catholic nation. Under Henry's son Edward VI (1547–1553), the Church of England was transformed into a strictly Protestant body, with many remnants of Catholicism suppressed. Edward was succeeded by his half-sister Mary I of England (1553–1558), daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine. She was a Catholic and returned the Church in England to union with the Holy See. Mary tainted her policy with two unpopular actions: she married her cousin, King Philip II of Spain, where the Inquisition continued, and had 300 Protestants burned at the stake, causing many Englishmen to associate Catholicism with the involvement of foreign powers and religious persecution.

Mary was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth I (1558–1603), who again broke away from Rome and suppressed Catholicism. Elizabeth and later Protestant monarchs caused to be hanged and mutilated hundreds of Catholic priests and laymen. This, and her dubious legitimacy – she was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn – led to Catholic powers not recognising her as queen and favouring her next relative, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots. Elizabeth's reign saw Catholic rebellions like the Rising of the North (1569) as well as plots like the Ridolfi Plot (1571) or the Babington Plot (1586), both intending to kill Elizabeth and replace her with Mary with the help of a Spanish invasion. Three popes' interventions, in a papal bull with its subsequent suspension and reimposition, gave grounds to suspect English Catholics' loyalty. Following the Babington Plot, Mary was beheaded in 1587. This – and Elizabeth's support of the Dutch Revolt in the Spanish Netherlands – triggered Philip II of Spain's attempted invasion with the Spanish Armada (1588). This reinforced the impression that Catholicism was a foreign element, while the Armada's failure, largely due to unfavourable weather, convinced many Englishmen that God was supportive of Protestantism.

Anti-Catholic sentiment reached new heights in 1605 after the Gunpowder Plot was discovered. Catholic plotters attempted to topple the Protestant regime of King James I by blowing up both King and parliament during the state opening of parliament. However, Guy Fawkes, who was in charge of the explosives, was discovered the night before and the attempt thwarted. The magnitude of the plot – had it succeeded most leading government figures would have been killed in one stroke – convinced many Englishmen that Catholics were devious conspirators who would stop at nothing to have their way, thus making allegations about Catholic plots more believable.

Anti-Catholicism in the 17th century
Anti-Catholic sentiment was a constant factor in how England perceived the events of the following decades: the Thirty Years War (1618–1648) was seen as an attempt by the Catholic Habsburgs to exterminate German Protestantism. Under the early Stuart Kings, fears of Catholic conspiracies were rampant and the policies of Charles I – especially his church policies, which had a decidedly high church bent – were seen as pro-Catholic and likely induced by a Catholic conspiracy headed by Charles' Catholic queen, Henrietta Maria of France. This, together with accounts of Catholic atrocities in Ireland in 1641, triggered the English Civil War (1642–1649), which led to the abolition of the monarchy and a decade of Puritan rule, which espoused religious tolerance for most forms of Protestantism but not for Catholicism. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660 under King Charles II brought with it a reaction against all religious dissenters, i.e. all outside the established Church of England. As a result, Catholics felt popular hostility and legal discrimination.

Anti-Catholic hysteria flared up lightly during the reign of Charles II, which saw various disasters such as the Great Plague of London (1665) and the Great Fire of London (1666). After the latter, rumours and propaganda floated around about arson, with Catholics and especially Jesuits as the first to be blamed. Kenyon remarks, "At Coventry, the townspeople were possessed by the idea that the papists were about to rise and cut their throats ... A nationwide panic seemed likely, and as homeless refugees poured out from London into the countryside, they took with them stories of a kind which were  to  be familiar enough  in 1678 and 1679."

Anti-Catholicism was fueled by doubts about the religious allegiance of the King, who had married a Portuguese Catholic princess, Catherine of Braganza, and formed an alliance with France, then the leading Catholic power in Europe, against the Protestant Netherlands. Furthermore, Charles' brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, had embraced Catholicism, although his brother forbade him to make any public announcement on the subject. In 1672, Charles issued the Royal Declaration of Indulgence, in which he suspended all penal laws against Catholics and other religious dissenters. This resulted in growing fears by Protestants of increasing Catholic influence in England and led to conflict with parliament during the 1670s. In December 1677 an anonymous pamphlet (possibly by Andrew Marvell) spread alarm in London by suggesting that the Pope planned to change the lawful government of England.

In 1682, Francis Barlow made a comic strip about the Popish Plot and Oates titled A True Narrative of the Horrid Hellish Popish Plot.

Events

Beginnings
The fictitious Popish Plot unfolded in a very peculiar fashion. Oates and Israel Tonge, a fanatically anti-Catholic clergyman (who was widely believed to be insane), had written a large manuscript that accused the Catholic Church authorities of approving the assassination of Charles II. The Jesuits in England were to carry out the task. The manuscript also named nearly 100 Jesuits and their supporters who were supposedly involved in this assassination plot; nothing in the document was ever proven to be true.

Oates slipped a copy of the manuscript into the wainscot of a gallery in the house of the physician Sir Richard Barker, with whom Tonge was living. The following day Tonge claimed to find the manuscript and showed it to an acquaintance, Christopher Kirkby, who was shocked and decided to inform the King. Kirkby was a chemist and a former assistant in Charles' scientific experiments, and Charles prided himself on being approachable to the general public. On 13 August 1678, whilst Charles was out walking in St. James's Park, the chemist informed him of the plot. Charles was dismissive but Kirkby stated that he knew the names of assassins who planned to shoot the King and, if that failed, the Queen's physician, Sir George Wakeman, would poison him. When the King demanded proof, the chemist offered to bring Tonge who knew of these matters personally. The King did agree to see both Kirkby and Tonge that evening, when he gave them a short audience. At this stage, he was already sceptical, but he was apparently not ready to rule out the possibility that there might be a plot of some sort (otherwise, Kenyon argues, he would not have given these two very obscure men a private audience). Charles told Kirkby to present Tonge to Thomas Osborne, Lord Danby, Lord High Treasurer, then the most influential of the King's ministers. Tonge then lied to Danby, saying that he had found the manuscript but did not know the author.

Investigations
As Kenyon points out, the government took seriously even the remotest hint of a threat to the King's life or well-being – in the previous spring a Newcastle housewife had been investigated by the Secretary of State simply for saying that "the King gets the curse of many good and faithful wives such as myself for his bad example". Danby, who seems to have believed in the Plot, advised the King to order an investigation. Charles II denied the request, maintaining that the entire affair was absurd. He told Danby to keep the events secret so as not to put the idea of regicide into people's minds. However, word of the manuscript spread to the Duke of York, who publicly called for an investigation into the matter. Even Charles admitted that given the sheer number of allegations, he could not say positively that none of them was true, and reluctantly agreed. During the investigation, Oates' name arose. From the first, the King was convinced that Oates was a liar, and Oates did not help his case by claiming to have met the regent of Spain, Don John of Austria. Questioned by the King, who had met Don John in Brussels in 1656, it became obvious that Oates had no idea what he looked like. The King had a long and frank talk with Paul Barillon, the French ambassador, in which he made it clear that he did not believe that there was a word of truth in the plot, and that Oates was "a wicked man"; but that by now he had come round to the view that there must be an investigation, particularly with Parliament about to reassemble.

On 6 September Oates was summoned before the magistrate Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey to swear an oath prior to his testimony before the King. Oates claimed he had been at a Jesuit meeting held at the White Horse Tavern in the Strand, London, on April 24, 1678. According to Oates, the purpose of that meeting was to discuss the assassination of Charles II. The meeting discussed a variety of methods which included: stabbing by Irish ruffians, shooting by two Jesuit soldiers, or poisoning by the Queen's physician, Sir George Wakeman.

Oates and Tonge were brought before the Privy Council later that month, and the Council interrogated Oates for several hours; Tonge, who was generally believed to be mad, was simply laughed at, but Oates made a much better impression on the Council. On 28 September Oates made 43 allegations against various members of Catholic religious orders – including 541 Jesuits – and numerous Catholic nobles. He accused Sir George Wakeman and Edward Colman, the secretary to Mary of Modena Duchess of York, of planning the assassination. Colman was found to have corresponded with the French Jesuit Fr Ferrier, confessor to Louis XIV, outlining his grandiose schemes for obtaining a dissolution of the present Parliament, in the hope of its replacement by a new and pro-French Parliament; in the wake of this revelation he was condemned to death for treason. Wakeman was later acquitted. Despite Oates' unsavoury reputation, the councillors were impressed by his confidence, his grasp of detail and his remarkable memory. A turning point came when he was shown five letters, supposedly written by well-known priests and giving details of the plot, which he was suspected of forging: Oates "at a single glance" named each of the alleged authors. At this the Council were "amazed" and began to give much greater credence to the plot; apparently it did not occur to them that Oates' ability to recognise the letters made it more likely, rather than less, that he had forged them.

Others Oates accused included Dr. William Fogarty, Archbishop Peter Talbot of Dublin, Samuel Pepys and John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse. The list grew to 81 accusations. Oates was given a squad of soldiers and he began to round up Jesuits.

Godfrey's murder
The allegations gained little credence until the murder of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, a magistrate and strong supporter of Protestantism, to whom Oates had made his first depositions. His disappearance on 12 October 1678, the finding of his mutilated body on 17 October, and the subsequent failure to solve his murder sent the Protestant population into an uproar. He had been strangled and run through with his own sword. Many of his supporters blamed the murder on Catholics. As Kenyon commented, "Next day, the 18th, James wrote to William of Orange that Godfrey's death was already 'laid against the Catholics', and even he, never the most realistic of men, feared that 'all these things happening together will cause a great flame in the Parliament'." The Lords asked King Charles to banish all Catholics from a radius of  around London, which Charles granted on 30 October 1678, but it was too late because London was already in a panic, which was long remembered as "Godfrey's autumn".

Oates seized on Godfrey's murder as proof that the plot was true. The murder of Godfrey and the discovery of Edward Coleman's letters provided a solid basis of facts for the lies of Oates and the other informers who followed him. Oates was called to testify before the House of Lords and the House of Commons on 23 October 1678. He testified that he had seen a number of contracts signed by the Superior General of the Jesuits. The contracts appointed officers that would command an army of Catholic supporters to kill Charles II and establish a Catholic monarch. To this day, no one is certain who killed Sir Edmund Godfrey, and most historians regard the mystery as insoluble. Oates' associate William Bedloe denounced the silversmith Miles Prance, who in turn named three working men, Berry, Green and Hill, who were tried, convicted and executed in February 1679; but it rapidly became clear that they were completely innocent, and that Prance, who had been subjected to torture, named them simply to gain his freedom (Kenyon suggests that he may have chosen men against whom he had a personal grudge, or he may simply have chosen them because they were the first Catholic acquaintances of his who came to mind).

The Plot before Parliament
King Charles, aware of the unrest, returned to London and summoned Parliament. He remained unconvinced by Oates' accusations, but Parliament and public opinion forced him to order an investigation. Parliament truly believed that this plot was real, declaring, "This House is of opinion that there hath been and still is a damnable and hellish plot contrived and carried out by the popish recusants for assigning and murdering the King." Tonge was called to testify on 25 October 1678 where he gave evidence on the Great Fire and, later, rumours of another similar plot. On 1 November, both Houses ordered an investigation in which a Frenchman, Choqueux, was discovered to be storing gunpowder in a house nearby. This caused a panic, until it was discovered that he was simply the King's firework maker.

Trial of the Five Catholic Lords
Oates became more daring and accused five Catholic lords (William Herbert, 1st Marquess of Powis, William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford, Henry Arundell, 3rd Baron Arundell of Wardour, William Petre, 4th Baron Petre and John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse) of involvement in the plot. The King dismissed the accusations as absurd, pointing out that Belasyse was so afflicted with gout that he could hardly stand, while Arundell and Stafford, who had not been on speaking terms for 25 years, were most unlikely to be intriguing together; but Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury had the lords arrested and sent to the Tower on 25 October 1678. Seizing upon the anti-Catholic tide, Shaftesbury publicly demanded that the King's brother, James, be excluded from the royal succession, prompting the Exclusion crisis. On 5 November 1678, people burned effigies of the Pope instead of those of Guy Fawkes. At the end of the year, the parliament passed a bill, a second Test Act, excluding Catholics from membership of both Houses (a law not repealed until 1829).

On 1 November 1678, the House of Commons resolved to proceed by impeachment against "the five popish lords". On 23 November all Arundell's papers were seized and examined by the Lords' committee; on 3 December the five peers were arraigned for high treason; and on 5 December the Commons announced the impeachment of Arundell. A month later Parliament was dissolved, and the proceedings were interrupted. In March 1679, it was resolved by both houses that the dissolution had not invalidated the motions for the impeachment. On 10 April 1679 Arundell and three of his companions (Belasyse was too ill to attend) were brought to the House of Lords to put in pleas against the articles of impeachment. Arundell complained of the uncertainty of the charges, and implored the peers to have them "reduced to competent certainty" but on 24 April this plea was voted irregular, and on 26 April the prisoners were again brought to the House of Lords and ordered to amend their pleas. Arundell replied by briefly declaring himself not guilty.

The impeachment trial was fixed for 13 May, but a quarrel between the two houses as to points of procedure, and the legality of admitting the bishops as judges in a capital trial, followed by a dissolution, delayed its commencement until 30 November 1680. On that day it was decided to proceed first against Lord Stafford, who was condemned to death on 7 December and beheaded on 29 December. His trial, compared to the other Plot trials, was reasonably fair, but as in all cases of alleged treason at that date the absence of defence counsel was a fatal handicap (this was finally remedied in 1695), and while Oates' credit had been seriously damaged, the evidence of the principal prosecution witnesses, Turberville and Dugdale, struck even fair-minded observers like John Evelyn as being credible enough. Stafford, denied the services of counsel, failed to exploit several inconsistencies in Tuberville's testimony, which a good lawyer might have turned to his client's advantage.

On 30 December, the evidence against Arundell and his three fellow prisoners was ordered to be in readiness, but their public proceedings stopped. In fact, the death of William Bedloe left the prosecution in serious difficulties, since one protection for a person accused of treason, that there must be two eyewitnesses to an overt act of treason, was observed scrupulously, and only Oates claimed to have any hard evidence against the remaining Lords. Lord Petre died in the Tower in 1683. His companions remained there until 12 February 1684 when an appeal to the Court of King's Bench to release them on bail was successful. On 21 May 1685 Arundell, Powis, and Belasyse came to the House of Lords to present petitions for the annulling of the charges and on the following day the petitions were granted. On 1 June 1685, their liberty was formally assured on the ground that the witnesses against them had perjured themselves, and on 4 June the bill of attainder against Stafford was reversed.

Height of the hysteria

On 24 November 1678, Oates claimed the Queen was working with the King's physician to poison him and enlisted the aid of "Captain" William Bedloe, a notorious member of the London underworld. The King personally interrogated Oates, caught him out in a number of inaccuracies and lies, and ordered his arrest. However, a few days later, with the threat of constitutional crisis, Parliament forced the release of Oates.

Hysteria continued: Roger North wrote that it was as though "the very Cabinet of Hell has been opened". Noblewomen carried firearms if they had to venture outdoors at night. Houses were searched for hidden guns, mostly without any significant result. Some Catholic widows tried to ensure their safety by marrying Anglican widowers. The House of Commons was searched – without result – in the expectation of a second Gunpowder Plot.

Anyone even suspected of being Catholic was driven out of London and forbidden to be within ten miles (16 km) of the city. William Staley, a young Catholic banker, made a drunken threat against the King; within 10 days he was tried, convicted of plotting treason and executed. In calmer times, Staley's offence would probably have resulted in him being bound over, a mild punishment. Oates, for his part, received a state apartment in Whitehall and an annual allowance. He soon presented new allegations, claiming assassins intended to shoot the King with silver bullets so the wound would not heal. The public invented their own stories, including a tale that the sound of digging had been heard near the House of Commons and rumours of a French invasion on the Isle of Purbeck. The evidence of Oates and Bedloe was supplemented by other informers; some like Thomas Dangerfield, were notorious criminals, but others like Stephen Dugdale, Robert Jenison and Edward Turberville were men of good social standing who from motives of greed or revenge denounced innocent victims, and by their apparently plausible evidence made the Plot seem more credible. Dugdale in particular made such a good initial impression that even the King for the first time "began to think that there might be somewhat in the Plot".

Waning of the hysteria
However, public opinion began to turn against Oates. As Kenyon points out, the steady protestations of innocence by all of those who were executed eventually took hold in the public mind. Outside London, the priests who died were almost all venerable and popular members of the community, and there was widespread public horror at their executions. Even Lord Shaftesbury came to regret the executions and is said to have quietly ordered the release of particular priests, whose families he knew. Accusations of plotting in Yorkshire (the "Barnbow Plot"), where prominent local Catholics like Sir Thomas Gascoigne, 2nd Baronet were accused of signing "the Bloody Oath of Secrecy", were unsuccessful because their Protestant neighbours (who sat on the juries) refused to convict them. A grand jury at Westminster rejected the plotting charge against Sir John Fitzgerald, 2nd Baronet in 1681. Judges gradually began to take a more impartial line, ruling that it was not treason for a Catholic to advocate the conversion of England to the old faith, nor to give financial support to religious houses (the latter was a criminal offence, just not treason). The supposed plot gained some credence in Ireland, where the two Catholic Archbishops, Plunkett and Talbot, were the principal victims, but not in Scotland.

Having had at least twenty-two innocent men executed (the last being Oliver Plunkett, the Catholic Archbishop of Armagh on 1 July 1681), Chief Justice William Scroggs began to declare people innocent and the King began to devise countermeasures. The King, who was notably tolerant of religious differences and generally inclined to clemency, was embittered at the number of innocent men he had been forced to condemn; possibly thinking of the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, under which he had pardoned many of his former opponents in 1660, he remarked that his people had never previously had cause to complain of his mercy. At the trial of Sir George Wakeman, and several priests who were tried with him, Scroggs virtually ordered the jury to acquit all of them, and despite public uproar, the King made it clear that he approved of Scroggs' conduct. On 31 August 1681, Oates was told to leave his apartments in Whitehall, but remained undeterred and even denounced the King and the Duke of York. He was arrested for sedition, sentenced to a fine of £100,000 and thrown into prison.

When James II acceded to the throne in 1685 he had Oates tried on two charges of perjury. The Bench which tried him was presided over by the formidable George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, who conducted the trial in such a manner that Oates had no hope of acquittal, and the jury brought in the expected guilty verdict. The death penalty was not available for perjury and Oates was sentenced to be stripped of clerical dress, whipped through London twice, and imprisoned for life and pilloried every year (the penalties were so severe that it has been argued that Jeffreys was trying to kill Oates by ill-treatment). Oates spent the next three years in prison. At the accession of William of Orange and Mary in 1689, he was pardoned and granted a pension of £260 a year, but his reputation did not recover. The pension was suspended, but in 1698 was restored and increased to £300 a year. Oates died on 12 or 13 July 1705, quite forgotten by the public which had once called him a hero.

Of the other informers, James II was content merely to fine Miles Prance for his perjury, on the grounds that he was a Catholic and had been coerced by threats of torture into informing. Thomas Dangerfield was subjected to the same savage penalties as Oates; on returning from his first session in the pillory, Dangerfield died of an eye injury after a scuffle with the barrister Robert Francis, who was hanged for his murder. Bedloe, Turbervile and Dugdale had all died of natural causes while the Plot was still officially regarded as true.

Long-term effects
The Society of Jesus suffered the most between 1678 and 1681. During this period, nine Jesuits were executed and twelve died in prison. Three other deaths were attributable to the hysteria. They also lost Combe in Herefordshire, which was the Jesuit headquarters for South Wales. A quote from French Jesuit Claude de la Colombière highlights the plight of the Jesuits during this time period. He comments, "The name of the Jesuit is hated above all else, even by priests both secular and regular, and by the Catholic laity as well, because it is said that the Jesuits have caused this raging storm, which is likely to overthrow the whole Catholic religion".

Other Catholic religious orders such as the Carmelites, Franciscans, and the Benedictines were also affected by the hysteria. They were no longer permitted to have more than a certain number of members or missions within England. John Kenyon points out that European religious orders throughout the Continent were affected since many of them depended on the alms of the English Catholic community for their existence. Many Catholic priests were arrested and tried because the Privy Council wanted to make sure to catch all of those who might possess information about the supposed plot.

The hysteria had serious consequences for ordinary British Catholics as well as priests. On 30 October 1678, a proclamation was made that required all Catholics who were not tradesmen or property owners to leave London and Westminster. They were not to enter a twelve-mile (c.19 km) radius of the city without special permission. Throughout this period Catholics were subject to fines, harassment and imprisonment. It was not until the early 19th century that most of the anti-Catholic legislation was removed by the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829; anti-Catholic sentiment remained even longer among politicians and the general populace, although the Gordon Riots of 1780 made it clear to sensible observers that Catholics were far more likely to be the victims of violence than its perpetrators.

Gallery of playing cards

See also
 A Ballad upon the Popish Plot
 Anti-Catholicism
 "A True Narrative of the Horrid Hellish Popish Plot"
 Crypto-papism

References

Citations

Sources

  Reprinted by Phoenix Press, 2000,

  The 1903 Duckworth and Company edition at Google Books.

External links

 Nathaniel Reading
 Names of eight Jesuit victims

Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom
Anti-Catholicism in England
Anti-Catholicism in Scotland
Anti-Catholicism in Wales
Charles II of England
Impeachment in the United Kingdom
Impeachment trials

Popish Plot


7 (හත) යනු,  ට පසුව සහ  ට පෙර යෙදෙන ප්‍රකෘති සංඛ්‍යාවකි.

මෙය වාසනාවේ අංකය ලෙසද හැඳින්වෙයි.

7 (සංඛ්‍යාව)


An Anthurium punctatum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Nicholas Edward Brown. An Anthurium punctatum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Anthurium, ngan familia nga Araceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo nadudultan.

Mabibilngan ini ha Ecuador. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Anthurium

Anthurium punctatum


Asten es un municipio y una población localizada en el sur de los Países Bajos. Tiene una población de 16.264 habitantes y una superficie de 71,38 km².

En esta localidad tiene sede la empresa Fundición de campanas Eijsbouts.

Núcleos de población

Asten
Heusden
Ommel

Ciudades hermanadas

  Hattorf am Harz (Alemania)

Enlaces externos
Sitio web oficial

Localidades de Brabante Septentrional

Asten


18 Corps, 18th Corps, Eighteenth Corps, or XVIII Corps may refer to:

 18th Army Corps (France)
 XVIII Army Corps (Wehrmacht), a unit of the German Army
 XVIII Corps (German Empire)
 XVIII Reserve Corps (German Empire)
 XVIII Corps (Ottoman Empire)
 XVIII Corps (United Kingdom)
 XVIII Airborne Corps, United States
 XVIII Corps (Union Army), a unit in the American Civil War

See also
 List of military corps by number
 18th Division (disambiguation)
 18th Brigade (disambiguation)
 18th Regiment (disambiguation)
 18th Battalion (disambiguation)
 18 Squadron (disambiguation)

XVIII Corps


الهوسيون  هم أتباع رجل الدين اللوثري التشيكي يان هوس (1369-1415) الذي حاول إصلاح الكنيسة الكاثوليكية من الفساد والشرور بالرجوع إلى الكتاب المقدس وأخلاق ووصايا السيد المسيح. بيد أنه اضطُهِدَ وحورب من قبل رجال الكنيسة، وانتهت حياته بالحكم عليه بالإعدام حرقا في مجمع كونستانس الكنسي عام 1415.

لا يزال تقليد الهوسيون قائمًا من خلال الكنيسة المورافية، والكنيسة الهوسية التشيكوسلوفاكية.

مراجع

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يان هوس

هوسيون


Christian August Brandis (13 February 179021 July 1867) was a German philologist and historian of philosophy.

Biography
Brandis was born at Hildesheim, and was the son of the physician Joachim Dietrich Brandis. His father moved to Copenhagen in 1810, where he became personal physician to Queen Marie.

He was educated at Kiel University.  In 1812 he graduated at Copenhagen, with a thesis Commentationes Eleaticae (a collection of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and Melissus). For a time he studied at Göttingen, and in 1815 presented as his inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay Von dem Begriff der Geschichte der Philosophie.

In 1816 he refused an extraordinary professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany BG Niebuhr to Italy as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently, he assisted Immanuel Bekker in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle. In 1821 he became professor of philosophy in the newly founded University of Bonn, and in 1823 published his Aristotelius et Theophrasti Metaphysica. With Böckh and Niebuhr he edited the Rheinisches Museum, to which he contributed important articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). From  1836 to 1839 he was tutor to the young King Otto of Greece.  Brandis was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1839.

His great work, the Handbuch der Geschichte der Griechisch-Römischen Philosophie (1835-1866; republished in a smaller and more systematic form, Geschichte der Entwicklungen der griechischen Philosophie und ihrer Nachwirkungen im römischen Reiche, 1862-1866), is characterized by sound criticism.

Brandis died on 21 July 1867 in Bonn, Germany.

He was the father of the forestry academic and administrator Sir Dietrich Brandis.

Notes

References

1790 births
1867 deaths
People from Holzminden (district)
German philologists
Members of the Prussian House of Lords
People from the Duchy of Brunswick
University of Kiel alumni
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
Academic staff of the University of Bonn
German historians of philosophy
German male non-fiction writers
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities

Christian August Brandis


حملة البلقان في الحرب العالمية الأولى هي جبهة تحاربت فيها مملكة بلغاريا والإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية والدولة العثمانية والإمبراطورية الألمانية من جهة والإمبراطورية الروسية والمملكة المتحدة وفرنسا ومملكة الجبل الأسود ومملكة صربيا و (مملكة صربيا ومملكة اليونان لاحقا مع الحلفاء) من جهة أخرى.

نظرة عامة
السبب الرئيسي في الحرب العالمية الأولى هو العداء بين صربيا والنمسا -المجر، فإنه ليس من المستغرب أن يقع القتال بين صربيا وجارتها القوية إلى الشمال: النمسا - المجر. وصمدت صربيا ضد النمسا والمجر لأكثر من سنة قبل أن يتم احتلالها في أواخر 1915.

الدبلوماسية المتحالفة تمكنت من ادخال رومانيا في الحرب في 1916 ولكن ثبت أن هذه كارثة بالنسبة للرومانيين. بعد وقت قصير من دخول الحرب، اتحدت ألمانيا والنمسا وبلغاريا والدولة العثمانية في هجوم احتل بواسطته ثلثا بلادهم في حملة سريعة انتهت في ديسمبر 1916. ومع ذلك، فإن الجيوش الرومانية والروسية تمكنت من تحقيق استقرار في الجبهة والحفاظ على مولدوفا.

في عام 1917، دخلت اليونان في الحرب إلى جانب الحلفاء، وفي عام 1918، قام الجيش الشرقي المتعدد الجنسيات، المتمركز في شمال مملكة اليونان أخيراً بشن هجوم قاد بلغاريا إلى السلام، وتحررت صربيا وأخيراً توقيف الجيوش المعادية عند الحدود المجرية في تشرين الثاني/نونبر 1918.

الحملة الصربية

تمكن الجيش الصربي من محاربة الجيش النمساوي المجري الأكبر منه إلا أن النمسا - المجر كانت تركز اهتمامها على مجابهة الجيش الروسي العتيد. في عام 1915 جلبت النمسا - المجر بجلب المزيد من الجنود إلى الجبهة، وبدبلوماسيتها، جلبت بلغاريا كحليف جديد. لدا تعرضت القوات الصربية للهجوم من كل من الشمال والشرق، واضطرت إلى التراجع. وكان تراجعها قد نفذ بمهارة كبيرة حيث لم يتلق الجيش الصربي خسائر كبيرة وكان لا يزال قادرا على المناورة، حتى وإن كان متمركزا حاليا في اليونان.

الحملة الرومانية

رومانيا قبل الحرب كانت حليفا للنمسا والمجر ولكن، مثل مملكة إيطاليا، رفضت الانضمام إلى الحرب عندما بدأت. اختارت الحكومة الرومانية في النهاية الوقوف إلى جانب الحلفاء في غشت 1916، وكان السبب الرئيسي هو ترانسيلفانيا. وبدأت الحرب في شكل كارثة لرومانيا. قبل سنة كان، الالمان والنمساويون، والبلغار والعثمانيون قد غزوا والاشيا ودبروجة واستولوا على أكثر من نصف جيشها كأسرى حرب. في عام 1917، قامت فرنسا بإعادة تدريب فرق عسكرية تحت قيادة الجنرال هنري بيرتيلوت وإعادة توريدها، حارب الجيش الروماني، رغم تفكك جيش الإمبراطورية الروسية وقد نجح في احتواء الجيوش الألمانية في مولدوفا.

في مايو 1918، بعد اندفاع القوات الألمانية في أوكرانيا وتوقيع روسيا لمعاهدة بريست ليتوفسك، لم يكن لرومانيا المحاصرة خيار آخر سوى رفع دعوى للسلام: معاهدة بوخارست (1918). وبعد الهجوم الناجح على سالونيك أمام بلغاريا اضطرت هده الأخيرة للخروج من الحرب وعادت رومانيا للمشاركة في الحرب في 10 نوفمبر 1918.

الحملة البلغارية

في أعقاب حروب البلقان تحول الرأي العام البلغاري ضد روسيا والقوى الغربية، ورأى البلغار ان تلك الدول لم تفعل شيئا لمساعدتهم. دخلت بلغاريا في تحالف مع ألمانيا والنمسا - المجر، حتى وإن كان هذا يعني أيضا أنها ستصبح حليفا للعثمانيين، عدوها التقليدي. بلغاريا الآن لم يكن لديها مطالبات ضد العثمانيين، في حين أن صربيا واليونان ورومانيا (حلفاء بريطانيا وفرنسا) كانت في حوزتها اراض كان ينظر إليها على انها أراضي بلغارية. بلغاريا التي تعافت من حروب البلقان، لم تشارك في السنة الأولى من الحرب العالمية الأولى، ولكن عندما استعادت ألمانيا حدود معاهدة سان ستيفانو أعلنت بلغاريا التي تملك أكبر جيش في منطقة البلقان، الحرب على صربيا في تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 1915. من تم أعلنت بريطانيا وفرنسا وإيطاليا الحرب على بلغاريا. على الرغم من أن بلغاريا، كانت في تحالف مع ألمانيا والنمسا-المجر والعثمانيين، وحققت انتصارات عسكرية ضد صربيا ورومانيا، واحتلت جزءا كبيرا من مقدونيا (أخذت سكوبيي في تشرين الأول/أكتوبر)، وتقدمت إلى مقدونيا اليونانية، وانتزعت Dobruja من الرومانيين في سبتمبر 1916، سرعان ما أصبحت الحرب لا تحظى بشعبية من غالبية الشعب البلغاري، الذي عانى من صعوبات اقتصادية هائلة. الثورة الروسية في فبراير 1917 كان لها تأثير كبير في بلغاريا، كمناهضة للنشر والمشاعر المناهضة للملكية، ومعاداة القوات في المدن.

في سبتمبر 1918 اخترقت صربيا وبريطانيا وفرنسا وإيطاليا واليونان الجبهة المقدونية، مما أدى إلى تمرد في صفوف القوات البلغارية. اضطر القيصر فرديناند إلى رفع دعوى من أجل السلام. من أجل تجنب الثوار، وتنازل فرديناند عن العرش لصالح ابنه بوريس الثالث. فقمع الثوار وانحل الجيش. بموجب معاهدة نويي (نوفمبر 1919)، خسرت بلغاريا ساحل بحر ايجه لصالح القوى الرئيسية الحليفة) ولاحقا نقلت تلك الأراضي إلى اليونان، وجميع الأراضي المقدونية التي كانت بحوزة بلغاريا تقريبا اعطيت إلى دولة جديدة هي يوغوسلافيا، واعطت دبروجة إلى الرومانيين.

جبهة مقدونيا
في عام 1915 حصل النمساويون على دعم عسكري من ألمانيا، ودبلوماسي من بلغاريا كحليف. فتعرضت القوات الصربية للهجوم من كل من الشمال والجنوب، واجبروا على التراجع. وكان تراجعا مدروسا، حيث بقي الجيش الصربي قادرا على المناورة حتى وإن كان قائما حاليا في اليونان. استقرت الجبهة تقريبا حول الحدود اليونانية، من خلال تدخل من بريطانيا وفرنسا وإيطاليا التي حطت في سالونيك. لم تدع القوات الألمانية الجيش البلغاري يتقدم نحو سالونيك، وذلك لأنها أملت في أن تقنع اليونانيين للانضمام إلى قوات المحور. بعد ثلاث سنوات (1918) كان هذا الخطأ لا يمكن إصلاحه. في عام 1918، بعد فترة طويلة من تراكم القوات وتدريبها للحلفاء، تحت القيادة الفرنسية النشطة تكونت قوات مجتمعة فرنسية وصربية ويونانية وبريطانية شن عدة هجمات من اليونان. أولى انتصاراته اقنعت الحكومة البلغارية للسعي من أجل السلام. ثم هاجم الشمال وهزم القوات الألمانية والنمساوية التي حاولت وقف الهجوم. في أكتوبر 1918 استعاد هدا الجيش كل من صربيا واستعد لغزو المجر مباشرة. والجدير بالذكر بطولية الجنرال الهنغاري جيسون ابغار Ģeyson Apgar الذي قاد وحدته بشجاعة متميزة. توقف الهجوم فقط لأن القيادة الهنغارية عرضت ان تستسلم في تشرين الثاني/نوفمبر 1918.

النتائج
في حين أن الحلفاء أملوا أن إضافة اليونان ورومانيا إلى جانبهم من شأنه أن يزيد من قوتهم ضد القوى الوسطى، في واقع الأمر، فإن كلا من اليونانيين والرومانيين كلفوا الحلفاء تكلفة اضافية، من حيث الرجال والمواد التي كان لا بد منها من أجل إنقاذهم من التدمير من قبل الجيوش البلغارية والألمانية والنمساوية.

الروس قد انزلوا قوات ولوازم اضافية للحفاظ على الجيش الروماني من التدمير تماما. وفقا لجون كيغان، رئيس اركان القوات الروسية، كان الجنرال أليكسييف رافضا للجيش الروماني، وقال انهم سوف ينسحبون، بدلا من أن ينضافوا إلى الاحتياطيات الروسية (جون كيغان، الحرب العالمية الأولى، ص 307). قد ثبت تحليل أليكسييف أخيرا.

حافظ الفرنسيون والبريطانيون ست كنائب على الحدود اليونانية من عام 1916 حتى نهاية عام 1918. في الأصل، ذهب الفرنسيون والبريطانيون إلى اليونان لمساعدة صربيا، ولكن مع فشل فتح صربيا في خريف عام 1915، أصبح استمرار وجودهم أمرا لا طائل منه. منذ ثلاث سنوات تقريبا، هذه الكتائب أنجزت فقط عمليات ادت إلى انخفاض نصف الجيش البلغاري، الذي لم يكن ليذهب بعيدا عن بلغاريا في أي حال.

في الواقع، كيغان يجادل بان تركيب قومية مناهضة للحكومة التركية عنيفة في أثينا، سيؤدي إلى التعبئة اليونانية في قضية "فكرة عظيمة"-انتعاش الامبراطورية اليونانية في الشرق- والذي من شأنه أن يعقد للحلفاء جهدا ممكنا لإعادة توطين السلام في أوروبا لسنوات بعد انتهاء الحرب. (كيغان الصفحة 308).

المصادر

 <97:TBCAFW>2.0.CO;2-O جوتون، الحملة الفرنسية في منطقة البلقان وأهداف الحرب في الحرب العظمى, المراجعة التاريخية الإنجليزية, المجلد. 94، رقم 370 (كانون الثاني، 1979)، ص 97-113
 البلقان والتقدم النمساوي

ألبانيا في الحرب العالمية الأولى
اليونان في الحرب العالمية الأولى
بلغاريا في الحرب العالمية الأولى
تاريخ البلقان الحديث
جبهة مقدونيا
حروب تتضمن البلقان
صربيا في الحرب العالمية الأولى
عمليات ألمانيا العسكرية في الحرب العالمية الأولى
عمليات الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية العسكرية في الحرب العالمية الأولى
عمليات الدولة العثمانية العسكرية في الحرب العالمية الأولى
مسارح حرب وحملات الحرب العالمية الأولى
مسرح أحداث أوروبا خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى
معارك الحرب العالمية الأولى

حملة البلقان (الحرب العالمية الأولى)


جبل هادا يقع في مركز تهامة بللسمر، وإلى الجنوب الشرقي من محافظة بارق. أعلى قمة الجبل هي قمة (القابل) ويصل ارتفاع الجبل إلى (1927) م عن مستوى سطح البحر.، ومن أشهر القرى في الجبل قرية النجاد و قرية الطوي، وقرية آل عطيف، وقرية القابل والضحي والصدعاء لآل مشرقه، كان جبل هادا قاعدة قبيلة بللسمر لعدة قرون. يعتبر من أخصب الجبال في المملكة العربية السعودية، وقد تفرد أهله عن مجاوريهم بزراعة نوع من الحبوب يسمى زعر أو بيضاء وكذالك ال البن.

الموقع الجغرافي
يقع جبل هادا في تهامة بللسمر إلى الشمال الشرقي من محافظة محائل عسير بما يقارب (25) كيلو تقريباً، وهو جبل شامخ الارتفاع حيث أنه يستوي مع جبال السراة، وأما ارتفاع الجبل فيقدر بحوالي (6322) قدم، ويقع على دائرة عرض (18) - وخط طول (42).

طالع أيضاً
 محايل عسير
 جبال الحجاز

المراجع

جبال السعودية

جبل هادا


Northern Command can refer to one of the following:

United States Northern Command
Northern Command (Israel)
Northern Command (Australia)
Northern Command (India)
Northern Command (RAAF)
Northern Command (United Kingdom)
IRA Northern Command

Northern Command


Nota: Se necesita la fuente 'EVA Hand 1' para poder ver la página correctamente. Si no tienes esta fuente puedes elegir la opción [imagen] en las tablas.

El Alfabeto Extensible de Voynich o EVA (por sus siglas en inglés, Extensible Voynich Alphabet, hasta 2005 European Voynich Alphabet o Alfabeto Europeo de Voynich) es un sistema de transliteración creado por René Zandbergen y Gabriel Landini en 1998, con importantes contribuciones de Jacques Guy, para facilitar el análisis del texto del manuscrito Voynich. Fue diseñado según una copia a mano del manuscrito realizada por Theodore Petersen en la década de 1940 y a una impresión en blanco y negro de un microfilm de la Universidad de Yale.

Versiones del alfabeto
Se manejan dos diferentes versiones del EVA:

 El EVA básico, que permite transliterar la mayor parte del texto.
 El EVA extendido, que translitera signos y glifos poco comunes.

EVA básico
Los caracteres comunes que conforman el texto del manuscrito o voynichés están contenidos en el EVA básico. Su transliteración, a menudo basada en su semejanza con los caracteres del alfabeto latino, se definió para que el texto transliterado sea en gran medida pronunciable. Con ello no se busca poder «hablar voynichés», sino facilitar que el cerebro humano reconozca y recuerde las palabras transliteradas.

El conjunto comprende todos los caracteres en minúscula del alfabeto inglés con excepción de la w. Además, incluye formas mayúsculas para transliterar ciertos glifos cuando forman parte de ligaduras y su forma cambia para enlazarse con otros. Por esta regla de capitalización, por ejemplo, cFh se translitera como 'cFh'.

Asimismo, el EVA básico comprende una tabla de caracteres de puntuación para representar texto ilegible o perdido, espacios de palabras, finales de párrafo etc.:

EVA extendido

El alfabeto extendido contiene caracteres raros o inusuales, incluyendo ligaduras extrañas y formas aberrantes o decorativas de caracteres conocidos. Se han incluido en los archivos de transcripción asignándoles un código ASCII alto. Por ejemplo, © es igual a @169.

Existen letras extras llamadas doodles ("garabatos"), que son poco comunes en el manuscrito, y otras semejantes a los numerales latinos. Estos se muestran en la tabla de a continuación.

Ejemplo del uso del EVA
A continuación se muestra un fragmento del manuscrito Voynich, más específicamente del f11r (sección herbaria), junto con una representación del mismo texto en una fuente tipográfica que imita los caracteres del manuscrito y la transcripción al alfabeto latino utilizando EVA:

Véase también
 Manuscrito Voynich
 Voynichés
 Romanización (transliteración)

Referencias

Manuscrito Voynich
Sistemas de escritura no descifrados

Alfabeto europeo de Voynich


Un acuerdo de caballeros o pacto de caballeros es un acuerdo informal entre dos o más partes. Puede ser escrito oral o simplemente entendido como parte de un acuerdo tácito por convención o por medio de beneficio mutuo. La esencia de un acuerdo de caballeros es que se basa en el honor de las partes por su cumplimiento, en lugar de ser en modo alguno exigible. Es, por tanto, distinto de un acuerdo legal o contractual.

Historia
La primera frase conocida fue en 1888 en el Informe de Railway Accounting Officers publicado por la Asociación de División de Contabilidad de Ferrocarriles Americanos (página 337).

Industria

Un acuerdo de caballeros, era definido a comienzos del  como "un acuerdo entre caballeros con la finalidad de intentar controlar los  precios", y una fuente lo identificó como la forma más laxa de un "pool" (o acuerdo de intereses). Se ha mencionado que este tipo de acuerdos existen en todo tipo de industria, y son especialmente comunes en las industrias del hierro y acero.

Un informe de la Cámara de Representantes de los Estados Unidos que detalla su investigación de la Corporación U.S. Steel, afirmó que había dos tipos generales de asociaciones libres o consolidaciones entre intereses del hierro y acero hacia 1890, en la que los individuos involucrados conservan la propiedad como también un gran grado de independencia: el "pool" y el "acuerdo de caballeros". El último carecía de cualquier organización formal para regular la producción o precios, ni tampoco incluyen ninguna provisión para el decomiso en el caso de una infracción. La eficacia del acuerdo se basó en que los miembros mantengan promesas informales.

En la industria automotriz, los fabricantes japoneses se pusieron de acuerdo en que ningún auto de producción tendría más de 276 caballos de fuerza, que terminó en 2005. Los fabricantes alemanes limitaron la velocidad máxima de berlinas de altas prestaciones (automóviles) y familiares a 250 kilómetros por hora.

Deporte
En México existe el "Pacto de Caballeros" en la Liga MX, el cual consiste en un acuerdo verbal entre los dueños de los clubes de Primera División de México que impiden a los futbolistas negociar con un nuevo equipo sin la anuencia del previo. Esta figura podría desaparecer al ser considerada como una práctica monopólica y violatoria, pues, atenta cada seis meses contra los derechos constitucionales, laborales y humanos de los futbolistas, por lo que el 30 de octubre de 2013 se presentó una iniciativa de ley en la cual se adicionará un segundo párrafo al artículo 295 de la Ley Federal del Trabajo, que a la letra quedaría así: "Los deportistas profesionales no podrán ser transferidos a otra empresa sin su consentimiento; de igual manera, los dueños de los equipos no podrán coartar o restringir, al momento de la terminación del contrato con un jugador, la libertad que tiene éste de ser contratado por otro club, ya sea por el pago de la formación del mismo o por cualquier estímulo económico, dentro y fuera de la relación laboral".

Referencias

Contratos

Acuerdo de caballeros