Swiftlets are birds from the four genera Aerodramus, Collocalia, Hydrochous and Schoutedenapus, which form the tribe Collocaliini within the swift family Apodidae. The group contains around thirty species mostly confined to southern Asia, south Pacific islands, and northeastern Australia, all within the tropical and subtropical regions. They are in many respects typical members of the Apodidae, having narrow wings for fast flight, with a wide gape and small reduced beak surrounded by bristles for catching insects in flight. What distinguishes many but not all species from other swifts and indeed almost all other birds is their ability to use a simple but effective form of echolocation to navigate in total darkness through the chasms and shafts of the caves where they roost at night and breed.

The nests of some species are built entirely from solidified threads of their saliva, which are edible and thus collected for human consumption as the famous Chinese delicacy, the bird's nest soup.

Description and ecology
The swift family remains one of the more complicated groups of birds in taxonomic research, but the swiftlet tribe is a rather well-defined group. Its internal systematics is confusing; the plumage is usually dull, with shades of black, brown, and gray; from their outward appearance, most species are very similar. Swiftlets have four toes, except the Papuan swiftlet which lacks the hallux (back toe). Their legs are very short, preventing the birds from perching, but allowing them to cling to vertical surfaces. Flight is mainly gliding due to very long primary feathers and small breast muscles.  The larger Aerodramus swiftlets weigh about 14 grams and are 10 cm long.

Swiftlets are insectivores; hymenopterans and dipterans being the most abundant prey. Typically, they leave the cave during the day to forage and return to their roost at night. Males and females look similar; as usual in such cases, these birds are monogamous and both partners take part in caring for the nestlings.  Males perform aerial displays to attract females and mating occurs at the nest.  The breeding season overlaps the wet season, which corresponds to an increased insect population. Clutch size depends on the location and the food source, but it is generally not large; Aerodramus swiftlets lay 1 to 2 eggs.  The eggs are a dull white color and are laid every other day. Many if not all species are colonial nesters; some build their nests in high, dark corners on cave walls.  Swiftlets in temperate zones do migrate, but most Aerodramus swiftlets live in the tropical Indo-Pacific region and do not migrate.  These birds usually remain in one cave or other roosting/nesting site.  Some examples of caves include the Niah Caves at Niah National Park & Gunung Mulu National Park which are all located in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo.

The genus Aerodramus is of special interest due to its use of echolocation and its intricately constructed saliva nests which in some species contain no other material such as feathers, moss or twigs and are collected, selling at extremely high prices (see Bird's nest soup). It has been argued that the high demand for these nests could have had an adverse effect on their populations, but other authorities have shown that modern techniques of nest farming have increased the bird population.

The use of echolocation was once used to separate Aerodramus from the non-echolocating genera Collocalia and Hydrochous (virtually nothing is known about Schoutedenapus).  But recently, the pygmy swiftlet Collocalia troglodytes was discovered making similar clicking noises in and outside its cave. Characteristics of behavior, such as what materials other than saliva the nests contain, can be used to differentiate between certain species of Aerodramus.

Echolocation
The genus Aerodramus was thought to be the only echolocating swiftlets.  These birds use echolocation to locate their roost in dark caves.  Unlike a bat's echolocation, Aerodramus swiftlets make clicking noises that are well within the human range of hearing.  The clicks consist of two broad band pulses (3–10 kHz) separated by a slight pause (1–3 milliseconds).  The interpulse periods (IPPs) are varied depending on the level of light; in darker situations the bird emits shorter IPPs, as obstacles become harder to see, and longer IPPs are observed when the bird nears the exit of the cave.  This behavior is similar to that of bats as they approach targets.  The birds also emit a series of low clicks followed by a call when approaching the nests; presumably to warn nearby birds out of their way. It is thought that the double clicks are used to discriminate between individual birds.  Aerodramus sawtelli, the Atiu swiftlet, and Aerodramus maximus, the black-nest swiftlet are the only known species which emit single clicks.  The single click is thought be used to avoid voice overlap during echolocation.  The use of a single click might be associated with an evolutionary shift in eastern Pacific swiftlets; determining how many clicks the Marquesan swiftlet emits could shed light on this.  It was also discovered that both the Atiu swiftlet and the Papuan swiftlet emit clicks while foraging outside at dusk; the latter possibly only in these circumstances, considering that it might not nest in caves at all. Such behavior is not known to occur in other species, but quite possibly does, given that the Papuan and Atiu swiftlets are not closely related. However, it has recently been determined that the echolocation vocalizations do not agree with evolutionary relationship between swiftlet species as suggested by DNA sequence comparison. This suggests that as in bats, echolocation sounds, once present, adapt rapidly and independently to the particular species' acoustic environment.

Three hypotheses are considered to describe how echolocation evolved in the genus Aerodramus and, as determined more recently, other taxa in the Apodidae.  One hypothesis states that echolocation evolved from an ancestral species of swiftlets and was lost in the genera which lack echolocation.  A second hypothesis is that echolocation evolved independently several times.  The third scenario involves a combination of the first two, i.e. a gain-loss-regain scenario.

Several functional subunits (like vocal muscles and brain areas) are needed to produce the echolocating system.  Past studies have thought that the loss of one of these subunits was more likely to occur than acquiring all the traits needed to echolocate. Yet a recent study suggests that the echolocation subunits were mainly located in the central nervous system, while the subunits in the vocal apparatus were already present and capable of use before echolocation even evolved.  This study supports the second hypothesis of independent evolution of echolocation in Aerodramus and Collocalia, with the subsequent evolution of complex behavior needed to complement the physical echolocation system, or even the third approach, as the vocal apparatus-parts of the echolocation system might even be inherited from some prehistoric nocturnal ancestor.

Culinary use

Authentic bird's-nest soup is made from nests of some species of swiftlet, mainly the edible-nest (or white-nest) swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) and the black-nest swiftlet. Instead of twigs, feathers and straw, these swiftlets make their nest only from strands of their gummy saliva, which hardens when exposed to air. Once the nests are harvested, they are cleaned and sold to restaurants. Eating swiftlet nest material is believed to help maintain skin tone, balance qi ("life energy") and reinforce the immune system,. It is also believed to strengthen the lungs and prevent coughs, improve the constitution and prolong life. The nutritional value of 100 g of dry nest includes 49.9 g of water-soluble protein (including amido nitrogen, monoamine nitrogen, non-amino nitrogen, arginine, humin, histidine, lysine and cysteine), 30.6 g carbohydrate (glycoprotein and mucin), 4.9 g iron, 2.5 g inorganic salt (including potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, phosphorus, silica and other trace elements), and 1.4 g fiber (Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The History of Chinese Medicine and the Nutrition Table).

The energy contained in 100 g of swiftlet nest is 345 kcal.  The nests are often served simmered in chicken broth.

Authentic bird's-nest soup is quite popular throughout Asia. It is also extremely expensive; many western restaurants serve a less expensive version consisting of soup with noodles shaped to resemble a bird's nest.

Cave ecology
Guano from both the swiftlets and the many bats that inhabit the caves supports a huge array of specialized animals that feed on the dung. There are yet other creatures that have evolved to feed on these dung eaters as well as on the bats and the swiftlets themselves, including snakes that can climb the sheer walls to snatch a passing meal and huge carnivorous crickets that prey on chicks and bat pups. This cave fauna ecosystem is self-sustaining, the only link with the outside being the birds and the bats that bring the nutrients into the caves in the first place.

The Philippine municipality of El Nido in Palawan, known for its limestone cliffs and pristine beaches, is home to a thriving bird's-nest market. The name El Nido is the Spanish term for literally "The Nest". Many locals still practice manual climbing of the limestone caves to gather swiftlet nests.

Species
The Papuan swiftlet is apparently closer to the waterfall swift than to the other Aerodramus species and probably best placed in a separate genus, whereas Thomassen et al. (2005) advocate reuniting all swiftlets in Collocalia. Schoutedenapus is one of the least-known genera of birds.

Genus Collocalia
 Plume-toed swiftlet, Collocalia affinis
 Grey-rumped swiftlet, Collocalia marginata
 Ridgetop swiftlet, Collocalia isonota
 Tenggara swiftlet, Collocalia sumbawae
 Drab swiftlet, Collocalia neglecta
 Glossy swiftlet, Collocalia esculenta
 Satin swiftlet, Collocalia uropygialis
 Bornean swiftlet, Collocalia dodgei
 Cave swiftlet, Collocalia linchi
 Christmas Island swiftlet, Collocalia natalis
 Pygmy swiftlet, Collocalia troglodytes
Genus Aerodramus
 Seychelles swiftlet, Aerodramus elaphrus
 Mascarene swiftlet, Aerodramus francicus
 Indian swiftlet, Aerodramus unicolor
 Philippine swiftlet, Aerodramus mearnsi
 Moluccan swiftlet, Aerodramus infuscatus
 Mountain swiftlet, Aerodramus hirundinaceus
 White-rumped swiftlet, Aerodramus spodiopygius
 Australian swiftlet, Aerodramus terraereginae
 Himalayan swiftlet, Aerodramus brevirostris
 Indochinese swiftlet, Aerodramus rogersi
 Volcano swiftlet, Aerodramus vulcanorum
 Whitehead's swiftlet, Aerodramus whiteheadi
 Bare-legged swiftlet, Aerodramus nuditarsus
 Mayr's swiftlet, Aerodramus orientalis
 Palawan swiftlet, Aerodramus palawanensis
 Mossy-nest swiftlet, Aerodramus salangana
 Uniform swiftlet, Aerodramus vanikorensis
 Palau swiftlet, Aerodramus pelewensis
 Guam swiftlet, Aerodramus bartschi
 Caroline Islands swiftlet, Aerodramus inquietus
 Mangaia swiftlet, Aerodramus manuoi (prehistoric)
 Atiu swiftlet, Aerodramus sawtelli
 Polynesian swiftlet, Aerodramus leucophaeus
 Marquesan swiftlet, Aerodramus ocistus
 Black-nest swiftlet, Aerodramus maximus
 Edible-nest swiftlet, Aerodramus fuciphagus
 Brown-rumped swiftlet, Aerodramus (fuciphagus) vestitus
 German's swiftlet, Aerodramus germani
 Papuan swiftlet, Aerodramus papuensis – probably a distinct genus
Genus Hydrochous
 Giant swiftlet, Hydrochous gigas
Genus Schoutedenapus
 Scarce swift, Schoutedenapus myoptilus

References

Further reading
 Camfield, Alaine (2004) Apodidae. Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed August 24, 2006.
 Gausset, Quentin (2004): Chronicle of a Foreseeable Tragedy: Birds' Nests Management in the Niah Caves (Sarawak).  Human Ecology 32(4): 487–506.  (HTML abstract)

Apodidae
Cave birds
Animals that use echolocation

Swiftlet


مقبس 370  وهو وصلة لوحدات المعالجة المركزية أنتجته شركة إنتل لمعالجاتها بنتيوم 3 وسيليرون، وهي استبدلت شق 1 للحواسيب الشخصية. وكانت تستخدم في لوحات الأم بشكل مني أيتكس و الأنظمة المضمنة. وفي الأصل صممت لوحدات المعالجة سيليرون، ولاحقا أصبح المقبس المعتمد لوحدات بنتيوم 3 من نوع كوبر ماين (Coppermine) و تولتين (Tualatin)، وبالإضافة إلى وحدات فيا سيريكس 3 والتي أعيد تسميتها إلى سي 3. بعض لوحات الأم دعمات مقبس 370 و شق 1 في نفس اللوحة، ولكن ليس في نفس الوقت. وكان من موصفاتها أن مبردها لا ينبغي أن يتجاوز 180 غرام، لأن المبردات الأثقل قد توأذي الوحدة المركبة. وما تزا شركة فيا تستخدم هذا المقبس حاليا، لكنها تحول منتجاتها إلى معالجات بنظام شبكة كرات مصفوفة.

مراجع

مقابس وحدة المعالجة المركزية

مقبس 370


An Paracaleana disjuncta in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni David Lloyd Jones. An Paracaleana disjuncta in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paracaleana, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Paracaleana

Paracaleana disjuncta


الصيغة البارومترية أو الأس الجوي هي صيغة نموذج رياضي تبين مدى تغير ضغط الهواء مع الارتفاع.
تتغير كثافة الهواء وبالتالي يتغير الضغط الجوي بالارتفاع عن سطح الأرض. ويمكن القول بالتقريب أن الضغط الجوي ينخفض بمعدل 1 هكتوباسكال (أي 100 باسكال) كلما ارتفعنا 8 أمتار عن سطح الأرض.

الصور الرياضية

صيغة الضغط
توجد معادلتان لحساب الضغط على ارتفاعات مختلفة (حتى 86 كم). تستعمل الأولى عندما لا يكون معدل انخفاض درجة الحرارة القياسية صفرا مع الارتفاع، بينما الثانية عندما نعتبر تغير درجة الحرارة بالارتفاع صفرا. (درجة الحرارة القياسية 15 درجة مئوية وتعادل 288 كلفن).

المعادلة الأولى:

المعادلة الثانية:

حيث
 = الضغط الساكن (باسكال)
 = الحرارة القياسية (كلفن)
 = معدل هبوط الحرارة القياسية (كلفن لكل متر)
 = الارتفاع فوق مستوى سطح البحر (بالأمتار)
 = الارتفاع في قاع الطبقة b (بالأمتار، مثلا,  = 11,000 متر)
 = ثابت الغاز للهواء: 8.31432 نيوتن·متر / (مول·كلفن)
 = التسارع الأرضي (9.80665 م/ث²)
 = كتلة هواء الأرض الجزيئية (0.0289644 كيلوغرام/مول)

 ملحوظة : المعادلة الأسية للأساس الطبيعي e تعادل معادلة أرينيوس.

معادلات الكثافة
تشبه تعبيرات حساب الكثافة تلك المستخدمة في حساب الضغط إلى حد كبير والفرق الوحيد هو الأس في المعادلة الأولي.
المعادلة الأولى:

المعادلة الثانية:

حيث
 = كثافة الكتلة (كغ/م³)
 = الحرارة القياسية (كلفن)
 = معدل هبوط الحرارة القياسية (كلفن لكل متر)
 = الارتفاع فوق مستوى سطح البحر (بالأمتار)
 = ثابت الغاز للهواء: 8.31432 نيوتن·متر / (مول·كلفن)
 = التسارع الأرضي (9.80665 م/ث²)
 = كتلة هواء الأرض الجزيئية (0.0289644 كيلوغرام/مول)

تعيين دالة التغير

نتخيل حجما dV من الهواء في شكل مكعب ذو ضلع طوله  يحتوي على هواء كثافته  ونتخيل تغير بسيط في الارتفاع مقداره . تعمل على السطح من أسفل قوة الضغط الجوي p وتبلغ بالنسبة للمساحة المختارة .
وأما القوة المؤثرة على المساحة الأرضية للمكعب من أعلى فهي تتكون من القوة الناشئة عن وزن كمية الهواء في المكعب dm بالإضافة إلى ضغط الجو الماثل على المساحة من أعلى p+dp). A).

في حالة التوازن حيث لا يحدث تغير في حالة مكعب الهواء تحت النظر نحصل على معادلة القوى:

حيث g عجلة الجاذبية الأرضية (81 و9 متر /ثانية/ثانية).
وبتغيير طرفي المعادلة نحصل على:

وبمراعاة قانون الغازات في حالة الغاز المثالي، يمكننا كتابة كثافة الهواء  كالآتي:

فنحصل على:

M كتلة مولية لغازات الجو (0,02896 kg mol−1),

R ثابت الغازات = 8,314 J K−1 mol−1

T درجة الحرارة كلفن

تعطي هذه المعادلة كمية تغير الضغط  عندما يتغير الارتفاع تغيرا طفيفا .وكما تبين علامة الناقص لتغير الضغط بالناقص عندما يزيد الارتفاع. أي ينقص الضغط بزيادة الارتفاع عن سطح الأرض. وبناء على ذلك يقل متوسط الضغط الجوي على مستوى البحر ( = 1013 hPa) عند درجة حرارة 288 كلفن (15 درجة مئوية) بمقدار 12 و0 هكتوباسكال لكل متر نرتفعه، أي بمعدل 100 باسكال لكل 3 و8 متر فرق للارتفاع.وعند الارتفاعات الكبيرة يقل كثافة الهواء كما تتغير درجة الحرارة بالارتفاع، فيقل معدل تغير الضغط بالارتفاع.

اشتقاق تقريبي
بافتراض ثبات درجة الحرارة T ، واجراء التكامل في المعادلة السابقة نحصل على:

وباجراء التبسيط بواسطة ما يسمى مدرّج الارتفاع  نحصل على :

فكل زيادة للارتفاع بمقدار  يقل الضغط الجوي بمقدار . لهذا يعتبر مدرّج الارتفاع مقياس طبيعي للضغط الجوي وتغيره. وهو يبلغ في مثالنا الحالى عند درجة حرارة 15 مئوية 8.4 كيلومتر.

كما ينطبق ذلك على تغير كثافة الهواء بالارتفاع :

حيث:

 كثافة الهواء عند سطح البحر

 كثافة الهواء عند العلو.

اقرأ أيضا

 معامل بولتزمان
 حركة براونية
 ضغط جوي
 المجسات

مراجع

ضغط
غلاف جوي
فيزياء
كيمياء فيزيائية
الوضع الرأسي

تغير الضغط بالارتفاع


Desukije u derviši desukijskog tarikata (derviškog reda) koji je osnovao Ibrahim Desuki. Red je osnovan u Egiptu. Tijekom osmanskog razdoblja ovaj red imao je brojne tekije u Istanbulu, zajedno s bedevijskim redom. Ove tekije su zatvorene kada je osnovana Republika Turska.

Vanjske povezice
 Sve podjele u islamu (V)

Derviški redovi

Desukije


Rudolf 3. af Burgund, kaldet Rudolf den Dovne (; ), (971 – 6. september 1032) var den sidste konge af det uafhængige kongerige Burgund fra 993 til 1032. Han var søn af Konrad af Burgund og det sidste mandlige medlem af det ældre welfiske hus.

Rudolfs regeringstid var præget af turbulens. Da Rudolf ikke havde arvinger, udnævnte han kejser Konrad 2. af det tysk-romerske rige som arving til sit kongerige, til trods for tidligere uoverensstemmelser mellem de to. Konrad måtte dog med hærmagt tvinge de burgundiske vasaller til at anerkende ham som konge, og lod sig gentagne gange krone med den burgundiske kongekrone, men Burgund kom dog kun til at stå i en meget løs forbindelse med det tysk-romerske rige og kom i de nærmest følgende århundreder helt bort fra dette.

Konger af Burgund
Personer i 1000-tallet
Personer fra middelalderen

Rudolf 3. af Burgund


Stofskifte er en dansk eksperimentalfilm fra 1990 instrueret af Christian Skeel og Morten Skriver efter deres manuskript.

Handling
Gør din egen lort til en guldklump, siger Jytte Abildstrøm, der viser rundt i sin kolonihave og formidler et elementært økologisk budskab. Helt uden moralsnak og løftede pegefingre taler Abildstrøm om spildevandet, om kompostering, læser digte op af Thøger Larsen, går til forelæsning om fraktal matematik, taler med gode venner og får sine tarme scannet! Med meget mere i dette uhøjtidelige og på én gang abstrakte og konkrete TV-program. Del af serien »Video- og TV-Laboratoriet 1990«.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Eksperimentalfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1990

Stofskifte (eksperimentalfilm)


Hanımın Çiftliği, Orhan Kemal'in 1961 yılında yazdığı aynı adlı romanından uyarlanarak, 1990 yılında TRT 1'de yayımlanmış olan dram ve macera türündeki Türk televizyon dizisidir. Dizi, 8. bölümü ile sona erdi.

Oyuncu kadrosu ve seslendirme
Seslendirme Yönetmeni: Ayşin Atav

Yayın takvimi

Kaynakça

1990'da başlayan Türk televizyon dizileri
1990'da sona eren Türk televizyon dizileri
Türk dramatik televizyon dizileri
Türk macera televizyon dizileri
TRT dizileri
Türk romanlarından uyarlanan televizyon dizileri
1990'larda Türkçe televizyon dizileri

Hanımın Çiftliği (dizi, 1990)


Denden işareti, bir noktalama işareti. Bir yazı veya çizelgede alt alta yinelenen sözcük veya sözcük gruplarının yeniden yazılmaması için kullanılır. Metin okunurken, denden işareti yerine, metnin eksiksiz yazıldığı satırda aynı yere denk gelen sözcük veya sözcük grubu getirilir.

Örnek:

 Çarpma işleminin bazı özellikleri aşağıda sıralanmıştır.
 1. Kapalılık özelliği
 2. Dağılma      ″
 3. Birleşme     ″

Noktalama işaretleri

Denden (noktalama)


Tristramskvæði er íslenskt fornkvæði, vikivaki eða sagnadans. Kvæðið er einn fárra sagnadansa sem telst séríslenskur.

Sögusviðið er tekið úr niðurlagi Tristrams sögu ok Ísöndar eftir Bróður Róbert en sagan var þýdd á norræna tungu úr frönsku einhvern tímann á 13. öld. Talið er að Hákon Hákonarson hinn gamli (1204-1263) konungur Noregs hafi pantað norræna þýðingu á Tristrams sögu.

Tristramskvæði hefur varðveist í mörgum pappírshandritum en hefur gleymst á vörum Íslendinga einhvern tímann undir lok 18. aldar. Kvæðið er talið ort hér á landi einhvern tímann á 15. öld og telst því meðal elstu sagnadansa á Íslandi. Kvæðið er laust við erlend tökuorð.

Tristrams kvæði er af mörgum talinn vera einn fegursti sagnadansinn á íslenskri tungu.

Efni kvæðisins
Tristram berst við heiðingja við Lundúnabrú en hann særist illa í bardaganum. Hann vill ekki láta græða sár sín nema af hendi Ísoddar hinnar björtu, ástkonu sinnar, sem þá var stödd í fjarlægu landi. Tristram sendir menn sína til þess að sækja hana, þó með þeim skilyrðum að þeir skyldu sigla til baka undir bláum seglum, ef Ísodd kæmi með þeim, en ef ekki, þá svörtum. Sendimennirnir sigla yfir haf til hennar og reka erindi hins særða Tristrams. Ísodd biður um leyfi til fararinnar af konungi sínum en hann bregst illa við og segist ekki vera hlynntur þessari för með þeim rökum að Tristram væri þegar við dauðans dyr. Ísodd blíðkar konung með faðmlögum og loks gefur hann henni leyfi til fararinnar. Skipin sigla þá til baka með björtu Ísodd, undir bláum seglum, og eru komin nálægt ströndinni. Þá kemur til sögunnar Ísodd hin svarta en hún virðist hafa verið stödd með hinum særða Tristrami. Ísodd hin svarta kemur auga á skipin í fjarska en lýgur að Tristrami, að seglin væru ekki blá, heldur svört.

Tristram hinn helsærði bregst illa við þessum tíðindum og hjartað hans springur (deyr). Í sömu andrá er Ísodd hin bjarta stigin á land og gengur meðfram strandlengjunni en heyrir klukknahljóð (pípnahljóð) í fjarska og grunar hana þegar hvað orðið hafði um Tristram. Ísodd hin bjarta hleypur í kirkju og sér þar ástmann sinn Tristram örendan og presta syngjandi yfir honum. Ísodd hin bjarta faðmar lík Tristrams og springur loks af harmi í þeim faðmlögum. Í sömu andrá hringja Rínarklukkur og prestar syngja sálma yfir þeim.

Undir lok kvæðist tekur Ísodd hin svarta til máls og segir að þau Tristram og Ísodd hin bjarta myndu ekki njóta samvista í himnaríki. Tristram og Ísodd hin bjarta eru að lokum sett í helgan stein. Síðasta erindi kvæðisins er að lokum á þessa leið: "Runnu upp af leiðum þeirra / lundar tveir, / upp af miðri kirkjunni / mætast þeir."

Varðveisla kvæðisins
Tristrams kvæði er varðveitt heilt í fjórum uppskriftum. Tvær eru frá 17. öld og hinar tvær frá 18. öld. Kvæðið hefur gleymst á vörum manna einhvern tímann undir lok 18. aldar. Lag við Tristrams kvæði má finna í bókinni sem ber heitið Vikivakar og söngleikir eftir Helga Valtýsson, gefin út árið 1930.
Sagnadansar

Tristramskvæði


William George Montagu Hay,  marquis de Tweeddale ( - ) est un aristocrate écossais, propriétaire terrien et militaire.

Jeunesse
William George Montagu Hay est né le 4 novembre 1884. Il est le fils aîné de William Hay (10e marquis de Tweeddale) (1826-1911) et de Candida Louisa Bartolucci, marquise de Tweeddale. Son frère, Arthur Hay (qui a épousé Menda Ralli) est tué en 1914 lors de la bataille de l'Aisne, et son plus jeune frère (et héritier présomptif), est le colonel Edward Douglas Hay.

Son père est le troisième fils de George Hay (8e marquis de Tweeddale) et de Susan Montagu, une fille de William Montagu (5e duc de Manchester). Sa mère est la troisième fille de Vincenzo Bartolucci (fils du général Luigi Bartolucci) et Clementina Dundas (deuxième fille du lieutenant-colonel Thomas Dundas, petit-fils d'Alexander Home (9e comte de Home), et de Charlotte Anna Boultbee). Son oncle, Arthur Hay (9e marquis de Tweeddale), est marié à Julia Mackenzie, et après sa mort, elle se remarie à John Rose,  baronnet et William Evans-Gordon, député. Un autre oncle, John Hay, est amiral de la flotte en 1888.

Son grand-père maternel est de Cantiano dans les Marches, en Italie et une tante, Evelyn Bartolucci, est la deuxième épouse d'Astley Cooper Key.

Il fait ses études au Collège d'Eton de Windsor avant de fréquenter la Christ Church d'Oxford.

Carrière
De 1903 à 1905, il est sous-lieutenant avec les Lothians and Berwickshire Imperial Yeomanry et les  Life Guards de 1905 à 1908. Il sert comme lieutenant avec les  Life Guards de 1908 à 1909 et pendant la Première Guerre mondiale en France avec les Guards de 1914 à 1915. De 1915 à 1917, il est major temporaire de la  brigade de plaine.

En 1944, il succède à Walter Hepburne-Scott,  Lord Polwarth comme Lord-lieutenant du East Lothian, servant jusqu'à sa mort en 1967. De 1952 à 1967, il est l'un des quatre enseignes de la Royal Company of Archers. Lord Tweeddale est juge de paix pour East Lothian en 1955.

Vie privée
Le 7 décembre 1912, Lord Tweeddale épouse Marguerite Christine Ralli, une cousine de la femme de son frère. Marguerite est la fille d'Alexander Ralli et d'Helen (née Carew) Ralli. Après le divorce de ses parents, sa mère s'est remariée à Lewis Einstein, ministre américain en Tchécoslovaquie. Sa tante, Katherine Jane Carew, est la seconde épouse d'Edward Bosc Sladen, et Jessie Philippa Carew, une autre tante, est l'épouse de Francis Stonor (4e baron Camoys). Ensemble, William et Marguerite sont les parents de :

 Hélène Candida Hay (née en 1913), qui épouse Lionel Berry (2e vicomte Kemsley) en 1933
  (1916–2003), qui épouse le capitaine Arthur Nicholas Coleridge (1915–1988), petit-fils de Stephen Coleridge et Arthur Godley (1er baron Kilbracken), en 1941.
 Christine Daphne Hay (1919–2000), qui épouse le lieutenant-colonel David Morley-Fletcher, fils de Bernard Morley-Fletcher, en 1939. Ils divorcent en 1947 et elle se remarie avec le lieutenant-colonel Francis Robert Cameron Stewart, fils de Francis Hugh Stewart, en 1957
 Frances Elizabeth Anne Hay (née en 1926), qui épouse Nigel Arthur Pearson (décédé en 1975), fils unique de Neville Pearson,  baronnet, en 1956
 Lord Hay (1928-1928), un fils sans nom décédé à la naissance.

Après la mort de sa première épouse le 15 octobre 1944, Lord Tweeddale se remarie avec Marjorie Helen (née Wagg) Nettlefold le 24 mars 1945. Marjorie est l'ancienne épouse du lieutenant-colonel Joseph Henry Nettlefold et une fille de Henry John Wagg.

Lord Tweeddale est décédé le 30 mars 1967. Comme son fils unique est décédé avant lui, il est remplacé dans ses titres par son neveu, David George Montagu Hay, qui devient le  marquis de Tweeddale. Après sa mort le domaine familial, Yester House, est vendu à la fin des années 1960 à deux antiquaires et, en 1972, il est racheté par le compositeur italo-américain Gian Carlo Menotti en raison de l'acoustique de la salle de bal . Sa veuve, la marquise douairière de Tweeddale est décédée le 24 novembre 1977 .

Références

Liens externes

Lord-lieutenant du East Lothian
Étudiant de Christ Church (Oxford)
Élève du collège d'Eton
Marquis de la pairie d'Écosse au XXe siècle
Militaire écossais du XXe siècle
Baron de la pairie du Royaume-Uni
Baron britannique du XXe siècle
Décès en mars 1967
Naissance en novembre 1884
Décès à 82 ans
Marquis de Tweeddale

William Hay (11e marquis de Tweeddale)


Grantorto ist eine nordostitalienische Gemeinde (comune) mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) in der Provinz Padua in Venetien. Die Gemeinde liegt etwa 24 Kilometer nordnordwestlich von Padua. Die östliche Gemeindegrenze bildet die Brenta.

Gemeindepartnerschaften
Grantorto unterhält zwei inneritalienische Partnerschaften mit den Gemeinden Fagnano Olona in der Provinz Varese und Grottole in der Provinz Matera.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Venetien

Grantorto


This list of cities in Mali tabulates all the largest communes in the country of Mali (including those in the north-eastern portion where the Mali Government no longer exercises de facto control). Besides the largest cities and towns (all urban communes are shown), this table also includes other large rural communes with a population in excess of 50,000.

By far the largest agglomeration in Mali is the capital, Bamako, with a population of 1,809,106 (at the 2009 Census). Thus about 12½ percent of Mali's population lives in Bamako.

Cities
The following table lists all communes with over 50,000 population from the 1 April 2009 census, together with the higher-level administrative unit (région) and second-level unit (cercle) in which each is situated. The population figures refer to the real city (i.e. commune) without any suburbs in neighbouring communes.

Bamako is a separate capital district and is not within any région or cercle; it comprises six urban communes (not individually listed in the table below), which are numbered rather than named.

The next table lists all the remaining urban communes with under 50,000 population from the 1 April 2009 census, together with the higher-level administrative unit (région) and second-level unit (cercle) in which each is situated. The population figures refer to the real city (i.e. commune) without any suburbs in neighbouring communes.

References

External links

Mali, List of cities in

Mali
Cities

List of cities in Mali


بلدية فيانويفا ديل أثيرال (بالإسبانية: Villanueva del Aceral) هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة آبلة التابعة لمنطقة قشتالة وليون وسط إسبانيا.

الديموغرافيا
بلغ عدد سكان بلدية فيانويفا ديل أثيرال 158 نسمة عام 2011 (وفقاً للمعهد الوطني للإحصاء الإسباني).

مراجع

مصادر
  الموقع الرسمي لبلدية فيانويفا ديل أثيرال

أماكن مأهولة في آبلة
بلديات آبلة

فيانويفا ديل أثيرال


أزمة جنون البقر ، ظهرت في التسعينات، وتسببت في انهيار سوق لحوم الأبقار نظرا للشعور بالقلق من قبل المستهلكين بعد انتشار وباء التهاب الدماغ الإسفنجي البقري والذي يعرف بـ جنون البقر الذي أثر على المزارع الأوروبية منذ عام 1986. ويشتبه في أن ينتقل للبشر وهو بديل لـ مرض كروتزفلدت - جاكوب وهو مرض يمس الجهاز العصبي للحيوانات

بعد تردد طويل من الشراكة الأوروبية والتي عوضت السوق الأوروبية المشتركة مند غرة نوفمبر 1993 قامت بإقرار مرسوم في عام 1996 يحظر استيراد لحوم البقر من بريطانيا العظمى، حيث تم التفطن لأول ظهور لمرض سواف. المرض انتشر تدريجيا في بقية أوروبا، وللحد من تطور انتشاره قررت العديد من البلدان ذبح العديد من القطعان التي تحمل هذا المرض.
وفي هذه المناسبة، اكتشف العامة على أن الماشية لم تستهلك فقط النباتات والأعشاب، بل استهلكت أيضا متممات غذائية من مصدر معدني (اصطناعية أو حيوانية).

كإجراء وقائي، قلل المستهلكون شراء لحوم البقر، مما أسفر عن سقوط السوق، بينما في عام 1995، بلغ نصيب الفرد من استهلاك لحوم البقر في فرنسا 27.7 كيلوجرام، مما كان سببا في انخفاض المشتريات بنسبة 15 ٪ في عام 1996، تصل إلى 25 % (45% للأمعاء والأعضاء الداخلية للذبيحة) بعد إعلان الانتقال من جنون البقر إلى أنواع أخرى. استفادت الدواجن من الأزمة، ويظهر ذلك تسجيل في زيادات والتي بلغت 25 ٪ للدجاج وحتى 33 ٪ للدجاج الفرعوني. الاتحاد الأوروبي والبلدان المعنية قامت بتوريد الأبقار والدواجن من خلال اعتماد قوانين لطمأنة المستهلكين وضمان تحسين الأمن الغذائي: مراقبة استيراد وتربية المواشي، قواعد النظافة الصحية والصرامة في تنفيذ نظم التتبع.

تاريخ
 نوفمبر 1986 ظهور مرض جنون البقر في المملكة المتحدة.
 ديسمبر 1987 التحليل الأولي خلص إلى أن المرض يأتي من إدراج الحيوان وجبة الطحين الحيواني في علف الماشية.
 1988 في بريطانيا، مرض جنون البقر يخضع للإبلاغ الإلزامي، وجميع الماشية المصابة بهذا المرض ينبغي أن تكون قد ذبحت كتدبير وقائي، والسلطات البريطانية تفرض حظرا على تغذية المواشي مع وجبة طحين من الأصل الحيواني.
 1989 الحكومة البريطانية حظرت استهلاك بعض الأعضاء الداخلية والأمعاء (الأمخاخ، والأمعاء، والحبل الشوكي، وما إلى ذلك). أما فرنسا قررت حظر استيراد الطحين الحيواني من بريطانيا كوجبة للحيوانات المجترة. والشراكة الأوروبية حظرت تصدير الأبقار البريطانية أو التي يشتبه في أنها تحمل مرض جنون البقر لأكثر من سنة واحدة.
 1990 الشراكة الأوروبية ترى أن الحيوانات المصابة بمرض جنون البقر لا تشكل خطرا على صحة الإنسان. إمكانية استأناف استيراد اللحوم البريطانية، وذلك يدين فرنسا، وسويسرا قررت حظره. فرنسا تفرض الإبلاغ الإلزامي من الماشية المصابة بجنون البقر، وحظرت استخدام الطحين الحيواني في تغذية الأبقار.
 1991 اكتشاف أول حالة إصابة بمرض جنون البقر في فرنسا، حيث أمرت الحكومة بذبح القطعان التي تحمل هذا المرض. اكتشف الباحثون في إمكانية انتقال مرض جنون البقر إلى أنواع أخرى.
 1993 المرض وصل إلى ذروته في المملكة المتحدة، (ما يقرب من 800 حالة في الأسبوع). مربوا الأبقار في اتصال معهم ويحملون مرض جنون البقر، وتوفوا بسبب مرض كروتزفلدت - جاكوب.
 1994 الاتحاد الأوروبي يحظر البروتين من أنسجة الأبقار في تغذية الحيوانات المجترة وتصدير لحوم البقر بسبب ارتفاع وجود حالات من مرض جنون البقر.
 1995 الكثير من المزارعين كانوا ضحايا مرض كروتزفلدت - جاكوب. وظهر شكل جديد من المرض في بريطانيا وألمانيا، حيث أعلنت وسائل الإعلام أنه من الممكن انتقال مرض جنون البقر إلى البشر.
 1996 بعد فرنسا وغيرها من البلدان، فرض الاتحاد الأوروبي حظرا على جميع الماشية ومنتجاتها من المملكة المتحدة. مما ساهم في سقوط سوق لحوم الأبقار. والعديد من البلدان الأوروبية قامت بإنشاء مؤسسة وطنية لنظام تحديد الهوية خاصة باللحوم.
 1997 دعا الاتحاد الأوروبي إلى الرفع الجزئي للحظر المفروض على صادرات لحوم البقر البريطانية، وأنه من السابق لأوانه النظر من البلدان الأعضاء.
 1998 تأسس في فرنسا الصندوق الوطني للأمن الصحي من قبل معهد الصحة والوكالة الفرنسية للأمن الصحي.
 1999 فرنسا ترفض رفع الحظر خلافا لقرار أصدرته اللجنة الأوروبية وتناقش «المبدأ الوقائي».
 2000 الاتحاد الأوروبي يعلن عن برنامج من الاختبارات التشخيصية السريعة لمرض جنون البقر. في فرنسا، محلات السوبر ماركت كارفور تتطلب من حرفائها إرجاع لحوم البقر المشترية منها والذي يشتبه في أنه آت من الحيوانات المصابة بمرض جنون البقر. وقد علقت الحكومة استخدام اللحوم والعظام وجبة في لإطعام الخنازير، والدواجن والأسماك والحيوانات الأليفة. مجلة الطبيعة نشرت دراسة بريطانية قائلة أن 300 7 من الحيوانات مصابة بمرض جنون البقر، والتي دخلت السلسلة الغذائية في فرنسا منذ العام 1987، مما سبب أزمة جديدة لمرض جنون البقر.
 2002 أعلنت فرنسا رفع الحظر عن لحوم الأبقار البريطانية. عدد الحالات من الماشية المصابة بمرض جنون البقر تراجع باطراد عالميا من 1646 في عام 2003 إلى 878 في عام 2004 و474 في عام 2005.

المراجع

المملكة المتحدة في 1986
أيرلندا في 1989
أمراض منقولة بالغذاء
اعتلالات دماغية إسفنجية قابلة للانتقال
سلامة الغذاء في الاتحاد الأوروبي
كوارث صحية
كوارث صحية في المملكة المتحدة
كوارث صحية في فرنسا

أزمة جنون البقر


Shohei Mishima (født 20. november 1995) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub FC Gifu.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Shohei Mishima


Sarah Pind Kristensen (født 22. april 2002) er en dansk skuespiller.

Siden 2016 har hun medvirket i DR Ultras tv-serie Klassen, hvor hun spiller Emma. Hun har også medvirket i mini-tv-serien Mit 50/50 Liv, hvor hun spillede rollen som Maya.

Sarah går på hanebjerg skole i Hillerød, tidligere elev på Hillerød byskole.

Sarah har været model siden hun var barn, da har hun medvirket i diverse reklamer som for Legoland og Kvickly.

Filmografi

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra Danmark

Sarah Pind Kristensen


L'église de Nossa Senhora da Lapa dos Mercadores est située sur la Rua do Ouvidor, dans le centre-ville de Rio de Janeiro, au Brésil.

Histoire
Le temple remonte à un petit oratoire construit en 1743 par des marchands et des habitants de la région, au coin d'une maison sur le tronçon devant la Rua da Cruz (derrière l'actuelle église de Santa Cruz dos Militares), sous l'invocation de Nossa Senhora da Lapa des Marchands . Quelques années plus tard, le 20 juin 1747, ces marchands s'unirent et formèrent une confrérie pour construire un temple sous l'invocation de Notre Dame de Lapa, également connu sous le nom d'« Église des marchands ».

La disposition royale pour sa construction fut émise le 4 novembre de la même année et, en décembre suivant, les fondations du temple furent posées. Les travaux progressent rapidement, si bien que le 6 août 1750, la partie du temple prête pour le culte est consacrée. De 1753 à 1755, les travaux se poursuivirent jusqu'à son achèvement. La décoration intérieure est achevée en 1766.

Dans la seconde moitié du , entre 1869 et 1879, l'église subit d'importants travaux de remaniement.

Lors du déclenchement de la deuxième révolte de la marine brésilienne, un coup de feu tiré par le cuirassé Aquidabã atteint le clocher de l'église (le 25 septembre 1893), renversant la statue faisant allusion à la religion, qui, bien qu'elle soit tombée de plus de 25 mètres de hauteur, a subi peu de dégâts, considérés comme miraculeux à l'époque. La statue et le projectile qui l'a frappée sont maintenant exposés dans la sacristie. Le premier carillon de la ville a ensuite été installé dans la tour, avant celui de l'église de São José.

Description
De petite taille, elle a un plan elliptique.

La décoration intérieure est de couleurs vives, conformément au goût de la classe commerciale, de style rococo tardif. La sculpture sur bois d'Antônio de Pádua e Castro, se confond avec les stucs, exécutés par Antônio Alves Meira. Ce dernier était issu d'une famille de plâtriers, dont le frère avait travaillé à l'intérieur de l'église de la Candelária.

Références

Architecture baroque au Brésil
Édifice religieux à Rio de Janeiro
Édifice religieux du XVIIIe siècle au Brésil
RioJaneiroÉgliseNotreDameLapaMarchands
Édifice religieux fondé en 1743
RioJaneiroÉgliseNotreDameLapaMarchands
RioJaneiroÉgliseNotreDameLapaMarchands
Édifice religieux du XIXe siècle au Brésil

Église Notre-Dame de Lapa des Marchands de Rio de Janeiro


Giovanna Carmella Babbo (September 22, 1930 – February 20, 2022), known professionally as Joni James, was an American singer of traditional pop music.

Biography
Giovanna Carmella Babbo was born to an Italian-American family in Chicago, Illinois, on September 22, 1930, as one of six children supported by her widowed mother. As an adolescent, she studied drama and ballet, and on graduating from Bowen High School, located in the South Chicago neighborhood, went with a local dance group on a tour of Canada. She then took a job as a chorus girl in the Edgewater Beach Hotel in Chicago.

After doing a fill-in in Indiana, she decided to pursue a singing career, and picked the stage name Joni James at the urging of her managers. Some executives at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) spotted her in a television commercial, and she was signed by MGM in 1952. Her first hit, "Why Don't You Believe Me?", sold over two million copies. She had a number of hits following that one, including "Your Cheatin' Heart" (a cover of Hank Williams' hit) and "Have You Heard?". She was the first American to record at London's Abbey Road Studios, and recorded five albums there. She was also very popular across parts of the Asia-Pacific region, particularly in the Philippines where she performed at Manila's now defunct EM Club in 1957. She also scored a big hit in Manila with Filipino composer Salvador Asuncion's work titled "In Despair".

Joni James had seven Top 10 hits on any of the different Billboard charts that existed previously to the Hot 100. "Why Don't You Believe Me?" (No. 1 in 1952) "Have You Heard?" (No. 4 in 1953)  "Your Cheatin' Heart" (No. 2 in 1953) "Almost Always" (No. 9 in 1953) "My Love, My Love" (No. 8 in 1953) "How Important Can It Be?" (No. 2 in 1955) and "You Are My Love" (No. 6 in 1955) as well as sixteen other Top 40 hits from 1952 to 1960. She has sold more than 100 million records and recorded more than 25 albums.

Personal life
James married composer-conductor Anthony "Tony" Acquaviva at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York in 1956. In 1964, she retired from the music industry in part because Acquaviva was in bad health and needed her attention. She cared for him until his death in 1986.

Shortly after her first husband's death, James met retired Air Force General Bernard Schriever, two decades her senior. He had led the crash program that developed U.S. ballistic missiles — both ICBMs and IRBMs in 1953–62. The couple wed on October 5, 1997, in Arlington, Virginia. They honeymooned in France and the Greek Isles, then took up residence in Schriever's home in Washington, D.C. Bernard Schriever died on June 20, 2005, aged 94.

James is mentioned by Snoopy in the last panel of the May 1, 1976 comic strip of Charles M. Schulz's Peanuts. Schulz was a fan and friend of James who had Snoopy featured on the cover of her Jukebox Joni 1999 compilation album.

Later years
For many years she was out of the public eye, but began touring again in the mid-1990s some years after she was widowed, performing memorable concerts at New York's Town Hall, Carnegie Hall and Avery Fisher Hall.

In October 2001, just a few weeks after 9/11, she appeared at the Academy of Music in Philadelphia, accompanied by the Count Basie orchestra. The streets of the city were still lined with armed soldiers, and she was a guest of honor at the American Film Institute's Life Achievement Tribute to Barbra Streisand. With her renewed popularity, nearly her entire body of work was released on the Capitol-EMI, DRG and Taragon labels under her personal supervision and, in 2000, she released a new recording, Latest and Greatest.

James died at a hospital in West Palm Beach, Florida, on February 20, 2022, at the age of 91. She was interred at Arlington National Cemetery.

For her contributions to the entertainment industry, James has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Singles

Albums
 Let There Be Love MGM (1954)
 Joni James' "Award Winning Album" MGM 3346 (1954)
 Little Girl Blue MGM (1955)
 When I Fall in Love MGM (1955)
 In the Still of the Night MGM (1956)
 Songs by Victor Young and Songs by Frank Loesser MGM (1956) – later reissued as My Foolish Heart
 Merry Christmas from Joni MGM (1956)
 Give Us This Day (Songs of Inspiration) MGM (1957)
 Sings Songs by Jerome Kern and Songs by Harry Warren MGM (1957)
 Among My Souvenirs MGM (1958)
 Je T'aime... I Love You MGM (1958)
 Songs of Hank Williams MGM (1959)
 Joni Swings Sweet MGM (1959)
 Joni Sings Irish Favo(u)rites MGM (1959)
 100 Strings and Joni MGM 3755 (1959)
 Joni at Carnegie Hall MGM (1960)
 I'm In the Mood for Love MGM (1960)
 100 Strings & Joni In Hollywood MGM (1960) – also known as Joni Sings Hollywood
 One Hundred Voices... One Hundred Strings & Joni MGM (1960) – also stylized as 100 Voices, 100 Strings & Joni
 100 Strings & Joni On Broadway MGM (1960)
 The Mood is Blue MGM (1961)
 The Mood is Romance MGM (1961)
 The Mood is Swinging MGM (1961)
 Folk Songs by Joni James MGM (1961) – also known as Joni Sings Folksongs
 Ti Voglio Bene... I Love You MGM (1961)
 Joni After Hours MGM (1962)
 I'm Your Girl MGM (1962)
 Country Style MGM (1962)
 I Feel a Song Coming On MGM (1962)
 Like 3 O'Clock in the Morning MGM (1962)
 Something for the Boys MGM (1963)
 Beyond The Reef MGM (1964)
 Joni Sings the Gershwins MGM (1964)
 My Favorite Things MGM (1964)
 Put On A Happy Face MGM (1964)
 Italianissima! MGM (1964)
 Bossa Nova Style MGM 4286 (1965)
 Why Don't You Believe Me? Bygone Days BYD77053 (2010) – compilation

References

External links
 Sangley Naval Station Message Board

 Gary James Interview with Joni James

1930 births
2022 deaths
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women
American people of Italian descent
American women pop singers
MGM Records artists
Singers from Chicago
Traditional pop music singers
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery

Joni James


Wireless power transfer (WPT), wireless power transmission, wireless energy transmission (WET), or electromagnetic power transfer is the transmission of electrical energy without wires as a physical link. In a wireless power transmission system, an electrically powered transmitter device generates a time-varying electromagnetic field that transmits power across space to a receiver device; the receiver device extracts power from the field and supplies it to an electrical load. The technology of wireless power transmission can eliminate the use of the wires and batteries, thereby increasing the mobility, convenience, and safety of an electronic device for all users. Wireless power transfer is useful to power electrical devices where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or are not possible.

Wireless power techniques mainly fall into two categories: near field and far-field.  In near field or non-radiative  techniques, power is transferred over short distances by magnetic fields using inductive coupling between coils of wire, or by electric fields using capacitive coupling between metal electrodes.  Inductive coupling is the most widely used wireless technology; its applications include charging handheld devices like phones and electric toothbrushes, RFID tags, induction cooking, and wirelessly charging or continuous wireless power transfer in implantable medical devices like artificial cardiac pacemakers, or electric vehicles.

In far-field or radiative techniques, also called power beaming, power is transferred by beams of electromagnetic radiation, like microwaves or laser beams.  These techniques can transport energy longer distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed applications for this type include solar power satellites and wireless powered drone aircraft.

An important issue associated with all wireless power systems is limiting the exposure of people and other living beings to potentially injurious electromagnetic fields.

Overview

Wireless power transfer is a generic term for a number of different technologies for transmitting energy by means of electromagnetic fields.  The technologies, listed in the table below, differ in the distance over which they can transfer power efficiently, whether the transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver, and in the type of electromagnetic energy they use: time varying electric fields, magnetic fields, radio waves, microwaves, infrared or visible light waves.

In general a wireless power system consists of a "transmitter" device connected to a source of power such as a mains power line, which converts the power to a time-varying electromagnetic field, and one or more "receiver" devices which receive the power and convert it back to DC or AC electric current which is used by an electrical load.  At the transmitter the input power is converted to an oscillating electromagnetic field by some type of "antenna" device.  The word "antenna" is used loosely here; it may be a coil of wire which generates a magnetic field, a metal plate which generates an electric field, an antenna which radiates radio waves, or a laser which generates light.  A similar antenna or coupling device at the receiver converts the oscillating fields to an electric current.  An important parameter that determines the type of waves is the frequency, which determines the wavelength.

Wireless power uses the same fields and waves as wireless communication devices like radio, another familiar technology that involves electrical energy transmitted without wires by electromagnetic fields, used in cellphones, radio and television broadcasting, and WiFi.  In radio communication the goal is the transmission of information, so the amount of power reaching the receiver is not so important, as long as it is sufficient that the information can be received intelligibly.  In wireless communication technologies only tiny amounts of power reach the receiver.  In contrast, with wireless power transfer the amount of energy received is the important thing, so the efficiency (fraction of transmitted energy that is received) is the more significant parameter.  For this reason, wireless power technologies are likely to be more limited by distance than wireless communication technologies.

Wireless power transfer may be used to power up wireless information transmitters or receivers. This type of communication is known as wireless powered communication (WPC). When the harvested power is used to supply the power of wireless information transmitters, the network is known as Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT); whereas when it is used to supply the power of wireless information receivers, it is known as a Wireless Powered Communication Network (WPCN).

These are the different wireless power technologies:

Field regions
Electric and magnetic fields are created by charged particles in matter such as electrons.  A stationary charge creates an electrostatic field in the space around it.  A steady current of charges (direct current, DC) creates a static magnetic field around it.  The above fields contain energy, but cannot carry power because they are static.  However time-varying fields can carry power.  Accelerating electric charges, such as are found in an alternating current (AC) of electrons in a wire, create time-varying electric and magnetic fields in the space around them.  These fields can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in a receiving "antenna", causing them to move back and forth.  These represent alternating current which can be used to power a load.

The oscillating electric and magnetic fields surrounding moving electric charges in an antenna device can be divided into two regions, depending on distance  Drange from the antenna.
 The boundary between the regions is somewhat vaguely defined. The fields have different characteristics in these regions, and different technologies are used for transferring power:
 Near-field or nonradiative region – This means the area within about 1 wavelength (λ) of the antenna. In this region the oscillating electric and magnetic fields are separate and power can be transferred via electric fields by capacitive coupling (electrostatic induction) between metal electrodes, or via magnetic fields by inductive coupling (electromagnetic induction) between coils of wire. These fields are not radiative, meaning the energy stays within a short distance of the transmitter. If there is no receiving device or absorbing material within their limited range to "couple" to, no power leaves the transmitter. The range of these fields is short, and depends on the size and shape of the "antenna" devices, which are usually coils of wire. The fields, and thus the power transmitted, decrease exponentially with distance, so if the distance between the two "antennas"  Drange is much larger than the diameter of the "antennas"  Dant very little power will be received.  Therefore, these techniques cannot be used for long range power transmission.

Resonance, such as resonant inductive coupling, can increase the coupling between the antennas greatly, allowing efficient transmission at somewhat greater distances, although the fields still decrease exponentially.  Therefore the range of near-field devices is conventionally divided into two categories: Short range –  up to about one antenna diameter: Drange ≤ Dant.  This is the range over which ordinary nonresonant capacitive or inductive coupling can transfer practical amounts of power.Mid-range – up to 10 times the antenna diameter:  Drange ≤ 10 Dant."...strongly coupled magnetic resonance can work over the mid-range distance, defined as several times the resonator size."     Agbinya (2012) Wireless Power Transfer, p. 40  This is the range over which resonant capacitive or inductive coupling can transfer practical amounts of power.
 Far-field or radiative region – Beyond about 1 wavelength (λ) of the antenna, the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and propagate as an electromagnetic wave; examples are radio waves, microwaves, or light waves.  This part of the energy is radiative, meaning it leaves the antenna whether or not there is a receiver to absorb it.  The portion of energy which does not strike the receiving antenna is dissipated and lost to the system. The amount of power emitted as electromagnetic waves by an antenna depends on the ratio of the antenna's size Dant to the wavelength of the waves λ, which is determined by the frequency: λ = c/f.  At low frequencies f where the antenna is much smaller than the size of the waves, Dant << λ, very little power is radiated.  Therefore the near-field devices above, which use lower frequencies, radiate almost none of their energy as electromagnetic radiation.  Antennas about the same size as the wavelength  Dant ≈ λ  such as monopole or dipole antennas,  radiate power efficiently, but the electromagnetic waves are radiated in all directions (omnidirectionally), so if the receiving antenna is far away, only a small amount of the radiation will hit it.  Therefore, these can be used for short range, inefficient power transmission but not for long range transmission.

However, unlike fields, electromagnetic radiation can be focused by reflection or refraction into beams.  By using a high-gain antenna or optical system which concentrates the radiation into a narrow beam aimed at the receiver, it can be used for long range power transmission.  From the Rayleigh criterion, to produce the narrow beams necessary to focus a significant amount of the energy on a distant receiver, an antenna must be much larger than the wavelength of the waves used: Dant >> λ = c/f.  Practical beam power devices require wavelengths in the centimeter region or below, corresponding to frequencies above 1 GHz, in the microwave range or above.

Near-field (nonradiative) techniques
At large relative distance, the near-field components of electric and magnetic fields are approximately quasi-static oscillating dipole fields.  These fields decrease with the cube of distance: (Drange/Dant)−3  Since power is proportional to the square of the field strength, the power transferred decreases as (Drange/Dant)−6. or 60 dB per decade.  In other words, if far apart, increasing the distance between the two antennas tenfold causes the power received to decrease by a factor of 106 = 1000000. As a result, inductive and capacitive coupling can only be used for short-range power transfer, within a few times the diameter of the antenna device Dant.  Unlike in a radiative system where the maximum radiation occurs when the dipole antennas are oriented transverse to the direction of propagation, with dipole fields the maximum coupling occurs when the dipoles are oriented longitudinally.

Inductive coupling

In inductive coupling (electromagnetic induction or inductive power transfer, IPT), power is transferred between coils of wire by a magnetic field.  The transmitter and receiver coils together form a transformer (see diagram). An alternating current (AC) through the transmitter coil (L1) creates an oscillating magnetic field (B) by Ampere's law.  The magnetic field  passes through the receiving coil (L2), where it induces an alternating EMF (voltage) by Faraday's law of induction, which creates an alternating current in the receiver.  The induced alternating current may either drive the load directly, or be rectified to direct current (DC) by a rectifier in the receiver, which drives the load.  A few systems, such as electric toothbrush charging stands, work at  50/60 Hz so AC mains current is applied directly to the transmitter coil, but in most systems an electronic oscillator generates a higher frequency AC current which drives the coil, because transmission efficiency improves with frequency.

Inductive coupling is the oldest and most widely used wireless power technology, and virtually the only one so far which is used in commercial products.  It is used in inductive charging stands for cordless appliances used in wet environments such as electric toothbrushes and shavers, to reduce the risk of electric shock. Another application area is "transcutaneous" recharging of biomedical prosthetic devices implanted in the human body, such as cardiac pacemakers and insulin pumps, to avoid having wires passing through the skin.  It is also used to charge electric vehicles such as cars and to either charge or power transit vehicles like buses and trains.

However the fastest growing use is wireless charging pads to recharge mobile and handheld wireless devices such as laptop and tablet computers, computer mouse, cellphones, digital media players, and video game controllers.   In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) provided its first certification for a wireless transmission charging system in December 2017.

The power transferred increases with frequency and the mutual inductance  between the coils, which depends on their geometry and the distance  between them. A widely used figure of merit is the coupling coefficient .  This dimensionless parameter is equal to the fraction of magnetic flux through the transmitter coil  that passes through the receiver coil   when L2 is open circuited.  If the two coils are on the same axis and close together so all the magnetic flux from  passes through ,  and the link efficiency approaches 100%.  The greater the separation between the coils, the more of the magnetic field from the first coil misses the second, and the lower  and the link efficiency are, approaching zero at large separations.  The link efficiency and power transferred is roughly proportional to .  In order to achieve high efficiency, the coils must be very close together, a fraction of the coil diameter , usually within centimeters, with the coils' axes aligned.  Wide, flat coil shapes are usually used, to increase coupling. Ferrite "flux confinement" cores can confine the magnetic fields, improving coupling and reducing interference to nearby electronics, but they are heavy and bulky so small wireless devices often use air-core coils.

Ordinary inductive coupling can only achieve high efficiency when the coils are very close together, usually adjacent.  In most modern inductive systems resonant inductive coupling (described below) is used, in which the efficiency is increased by using resonant circuits.  This can achieve high efficiencies at greater distances than nonresonant inductive coupling.

Resonant inductive coupling

Resonant inductive coupling (electrodynamic coupling, strongly coupled magnetic resonance) is a form of inductive coupling in which power is transferred by magnetic fields (B, green) between two resonant circuits (tuned circuits), one in the transmitter and one in the receiver (see diagram, right).  Each resonant circuit consists of a coil of wire connected to a capacitor, or a self-resonant coil or other resonator with internal capacitance.  The two are tuned to resonate at the same resonant frequency.  The resonance between the coils can greatly increase coupling and power transfer, analogously to the way a vibrating tuning fork can induce sympathetic vibration in a distant fork tuned to the same pitch.

Nikola Tesla first discovered resonant coupling during his pioneering experiments in wireless power transfer around the turn of the 20th century,  but the possibilities of using resonant coupling to increase transmission range has only recently been explored.  In 2007 a team led by Marin Soljačić at MIT used two coupled tuned circuits each made of a 25 cm self-resonant coil of wire at 10 MHz to achieve the transmission of 60 W of power over a distance of  (8 times the coil diameter) at around 40% efficiency.

The concept behind resonant inductive coupling systems is that high Q factor resonators exchange energy at a much higher rate than they lose energy due to internal damping.  Therefore, by using resonance, the same amount of power can be transferred at greater distances, using the much weaker magnetic fields out in the peripheral regions ("tails") of the near fields.  Resonant inductive coupling can achieve high efficiency at ranges of 4 to 10 times the coil diameter (Dant). This is called "mid-range" transfer, in contrast to the "short range" of nonresonant inductive transfer, which can achieve similar efficiencies only when the coils are adjacent.  Another advantage is that resonant circuits interact with each other so much more strongly than they do with nonresonant objects that power losses due to absorption in stray nearby objects are negligible.

A drawback of resonant coupling theory is that at close ranges when the two resonant circuits are tightly coupled, the resonant frequency of the system is no longer constant but "splits" into two resonant peaks, so the maximum power transfer no longer occurs at the original resonant frequency and the oscillator frequency must be tuned to the new resonance peak.

Resonant technology is currently being widely incorporated in modern inductive wireless power systems.  One of the possibilities envisioned for this technology is area wireless power coverage.  A coil in the wall or ceiling of a room might be able to wirelessly power lights and mobile devices anywhere in the room, with reasonable efficiency.  An environmental and economic benefit of wirelessly powering small devices such as clocks, radios, music players and remote controls is that it could drastically reduce the 6 billion batteries disposed of each year, a large source of toxic waste and groundwater contamination.

A study for the Swedish military found that 85kHz systems for dynamic wireless power transfer for vehicles can cause electromagnetic interference at a radius of up to 300 kilometers.

Capacitive coupling

Capacitive coupling also referred to as electric coupling, makes use of electric fields for the transmission of power between two electrodes (an anode and cathode) forming a capacitance for the transfer of power. In capacitive coupling (electrostatic induction), the conjugate of inductive coupling, energy is transmitted by electric fields between electrodes such as metal plates. The transmitter and receiver electrodes form a capacitor, with the intervening space as the dielectric.  An alternating voltage generated by the transmitter is applied to the transmitting plate, and the oscillating electric field induces an alternating potential on the receiver plate by electrostatic induction, which causes an alternating current to flow in the load circuit.  The amount of power transferred increases with the frequency the square of the voltage, and the capacitance between the plates, which is proportional to the area of the smaller plate and (for short distances) inversely proportional to the separation.

Capacitive coupling has only been used practically in a few low power applications, because the very high voltages on the electrodes required to transmit significant power can be hazardous, and can cause unpleasant side effects such as noxious ozone production. In addition, in contrast to magnetic fields, electric fields interact strongly with most materials, including the human body, due to dielectric polarization.  Intervening materials between or near the electrodes can absorb the energy, in the case of humans possibly causing excessive electromagnetic field exposure.  However capacitive coupling has a few advantages over inductive coupling.  The field is largely confined between the capacitor plates, reducing interference, which in inductive coupling requires heavy ferrite "flux confinement" cores.  Also, alignment requirements between the transmitter and receiver are less critical. Capacitive coupling has recently been applied to charging battery powered portable devices as well as charging or continuous wireless power transfer in biomedical implants, and is being considered as a means of transferring power between substrate layers in integrated circuits.

Two types of circuit have been used:
 Transverse (bipolar) design: In this type of circuit, there are two transmitter plates and two receiver plates.  Each transmitter plate is coupled to a receiver plate. The transmitter oscillator drives the transmitter plates in opposite phase (180° phase difference) by a high alternating voltage, and the load is connected between the two receiver plates.  The alternating electric fields induce opposite phase alternating potentials in the receiver plates, and this "push-pull" action causes current to flow back and forth between the plates through the load.  A disadvantage of this configuration for wireless charging is that the two plates in the receiving device must be aligned face to face with the charger plates for the device to work.
 Longitudinal (unipolar) design: In this type of circuit, the transmitter and receiver have only one active electrode, and either the ground or a large passive electrode serves as the return path for the current.  The transmitter oscillator is connected between an active and a passive electrode. The load is also connected between an active and a passive electrode. The electric field produced by the transmitter induces alternating charge displacement in the load dipole through electrostatic induction.

Resonant capacitive coupling
Resonance can also be used with capacitive coupling to extend the range.  At the turn of the 20th century, Nikola Tesla did the first experiments with both resonant inductive and capacitive coupling.

Electrodynamic Wireless Power Transfer
An electrodynamic wireless power transfer (EWPT) system utilizes a receiver with a mechanically resonating or rotating permanent magnet. When subjected to a time-varying magnetic field, the mechanical motion of the resonating magnet is converted into electricity by one or more electromechanical transduction schemes (e.g. electromagnetic/induction, piezoelectric, or capacitive). In contrast to inductive coupling systems which usually use high frequency magnetic fields, EWPT uses low-frequency magnetic fields (<1 kHz), which safely pass through conductive media and have higher human field exposure limits (~2 mTrms at 1 kHz), showing promise for potential use in wirelessly recharging biomedical implants.
For EWPT devices having identical resonant frequencies, the magnitude of power transfer is entirely dependent on critical coupling coefficient, denoted by , between the transmitter and receiver devices.  For coupled resonators with same resonant frequencies, wireless power transfer between the transmitter and the receiver is spread over three regimes – under-coupled, critically coupled and over-coupled. As the critical coupling coefficient increases from an under-coupled regime () to the critical coupled regime, the optimum voltage gain curve grows in magnitude (measured at the receiver) and peaks when  and then enters into the over-coupled regime where  and the peak splits into two. This critical coupling coefficient is demonstrated to be a function of distance between the source and the receiver devices.

Magnetodynamic coupling
In this method, power is transmitted between two rotating armatures, one in the transmitter and one in the receiver, which rotate synchronously, coupled together by a magnetic field generated by permanent magnets on the armatures.  The transmitter armature is turned either by or as the rotor of an electric motor, and its magnetic field exerts torque on the receiver armature, turning it.  The magnetic field acts like a mechanical coupling between the armatures.  The receiver armature produces power to drive the load, either by turning a separate electric generator or by using the receiver armature itself as the rotor in a generator.

This device has been proposed as an alternative to inductive power transfer for noncontact charging of electric vehicles.  A rotating armature embedded in a garage floor or curb would turn a receiver armature in the underside of the vehicle to charge its batteries.  It is claimed that this technique can transfer power over distances of 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) with high efficiency, over 90%.  Also, the low frequency stray magnetic fields produced by the rotating magnets produce less electromagnetic interference to nearby electronic devices than the high frequency magnetic fields produced by inductive coupling systems.  A prototype system charging electric vehicles has been in operation at University of British Columbia since 2012.  Other researchers, however, claim that the two energy conversions (electrical to mechanical to electrical again) make the system less efficient than electrical systems like inductive coupling.

Zenneck Wave Transmission
A new kind of system using the Zenneck type waves was shown  by Oruganti et al., where they demonstrated that it was possible to excite Zenneck wave type waves on flat metal-air interfaces and transmit power across metal obstacles.
Here the idea is to excite a localized charge oscillation at the metal-air interface, the resulting modes propagate along the metal-air interface.

Far-field (radiative) techniques
Far field methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the distance is much greater than the diameter of the device(s). High-directivity antennas or well-collimated laser light produce a beam of energy that can be made to match the shape of the receiving area. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by diffraction.

In general, visible light (from lasers) and microwaves (from purpose-designed antennas) are the forms of electromagnetic radiation best suited to energy transfer.

The dimensions of the components may be dictated by the distance from transmitter to receiver, the wavelength and the Rayleigh criterion or diffraction limit, used in standard radio frequency antenna design, which also applies to lasers. Airy's diffraction limit is also frequently used to determine an approximate spot size at an arbitrary distance from the aperture. Electromagnetic radiation experiences less diffraction at shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies); so, for example, a blue laser is diffracted less than a red one.

The Rayleigh limit (also known as the Abbe diffraction limit), although originally applied to image resolution, can be viewed in reverse, and dictates that the irradiance (or intensity) of any electromagnetic wave (such as a microwave or laser beam) will be reduced as the beam diverges over distance at a minimum rate inversely proportional to the aperture size. The larger the ratio of a transmitting antenna's aperture or laser's exit aperture to the wavelength of radiation, the more can the radiation be concentrated in a  compact beam

Microwave power beaming can be more efficient than lasers, and is less prone to atmospheric attenuation caused by dust or aerosols such as fog.

Here, the power levels are calculated by combining the above parameters together, and adding in the gains and losses due to the antenna characteristics and the transparency and dispersion of the medium through which the radiation passes. That process is known as calculating a link budget.

Microwaves

Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer-distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back into electricity. Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized. Power beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the beaming of power to spacecraft leaving orbit has been considered.

Power beaming by microwaves has the difficulty that, for most space applications, the required aperture sizes are very large due to diffraction limiting antenna directionality. For example, the 1978 NASA study of solar power satellites required a  transmitting antenna and a  receiving rectenna for a microwave beam at 2.45 GHz. These sizes can be somewhat decreased by using shorter wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have difficulties with atmospheric absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets. Because of the "thinned-array curse", it is not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the beams of several smaller satellites.

For earthbound applications, a large-area 10 km diameter receiving array allows large total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density suggested for human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe power density of 1 mW/cm2 distributed across a 10 km diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power level. This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants. For comparison, a solar PV farm of similar size might easily exceed 10,000 megawatts (rounded) at best conditions during daytime.

Following World War II, which saw the development of high-power microwave emitters known as cavity magnetrons, the idea of using microwaves to transfer power was researched. By 1964, a miniature helicopter propelled by microwave power had been demonstrated.

Japanese researcher Hidetsugu Yagi also investigated wireless energy transmission using a directional array antenna that he designed. In February 1926, Yagi and his colleague Shintaro Uda published their first paper on the tuned high-gain directional array now known as the Yagi antenna. While it did not prove to be particularly useful for power transmission, this beam antenna has been widely adopted throughout the broadcasting and wireless telecommunications industries due to its excellent performance characteristics.

Wireless high power transmission using microwaves is well proven. Experiments in the tens of kilowatts have been performed at the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex in California in 1975 and more recently (1997) at Grand Bassin on Reunion Island. These methods achieve distances on the order of a kilometer.

Under experimental conditions, microwave conversion efficiency was measured to be around 54% across one meter.

A change to 24 GHz has been suggested as microwave emitters similar to LEDs have been made with very high quantum efficiencies using negative resistance, i.e., Gunn or IMPATT diodes, and this would be viable for short range links.

In 2013, inventor Hatem Zeine demonstrated how wireless power transmission using phased array antennas can deliver electrical power up to 30 feet. It uses the same radio frequencies as WiFi.

In 2015, researchers at the University of Washington introduced power over Wi-Fi, which trickle-charges batteries and powered battery-free cameras and temperature sensors using transmissions from Wi-Fi routers. Wi-Fi signals were shown to power battery-free temperature and camera sensors at ranges of up to 20 feet. It was also shown that Wi-Fi can be used to wirelessly trickle-charge nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion coin-cell batteries at distances of up to 28 feet.

In 2017, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) certified the first mid-field radio frequency (RF) transmitter of wireless power.  In 2021 the FCC granted a license to a over-the-air (OTA) wireless charging system that combines near-field and far-field methods by using a frequency of about 900 MHz. Due to the radiated power of about 1 W this system is intended for small IoT devices as various sensors, trackers, detectors and monitors.

Lasers

In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to the visible region of the spectrum (.2 to 2 micrometers), power can be transmitted by converting electricity into a laser beam that is received and concentrated onto photovoltaic cells (solar cells). This mechanism is generally known as 'power beaming' because the power is beamed at a receiver that can convert it to electrical energy. At the receiver, special photovoltaic laser power converters which are optimized for monochromatic light conversion are applied.

Advantages compared to other wireless methods are:
 Collimated monochromatic wavefront propagation allows narrow beam cross-section area for transmission over large distances. As a result, there is little or no reduction in power when increasing the distance from the transmitter to the receiver.
 Compact size: solid state lasers fit into small products.
 No radio-frequency interference to existing radio communication such as Wi-Fi and cell phones.
 Access control: only receivers hit by the laser receive power.

Drawbacks include:
 Laser radiation is hazardous. Without a proper safety mechanism, low power levels can blind humans and other animals. High power levels can kill through localized spot heating.
 Conversion between electricity and light is limited. Photovoltaic cells achieve a maximum of 40%–50% efficiency.
 Atmospheric absorption, and absorption and scattering by clouds, fog, rain, etc., causes up to 100% losses.
 Requires a direct line of sight with the target. (Instead of being beamed directly onto the receiver, the laser light can also be guided by an optical fiber. Then one speaks of power-over-fiber technology.)

Laser 'powerbeaming' technology was explored in military weapons and aerospace applications. Also, it is applied for the powering of various kinds of sensors in industrial environments. Lately, it is developed for powering commercial and consumer electronics. Wireless energy transfer systems using lasers for consumer space have to satisfy laser safety requirements standardized under IEC 60825.

The first wireless power system using lasers for consumer applications was demonstrated in 2018, capable of delivering power to stationary and moving devices across a room. This wireless power system complies with safety regulations according to IEC 60825 standard. It is also approved by the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA).

Other details include propagation, and the coherence and the range limitation problem.

Geoffrey Landis is one of the pioneers of solar power satellites and laser-based transfer of energy, especially for space and lunar missions. The demand for safe and frequent space missions has resulted in proposals for a laser-powered space elevator.

NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center has demonstrated a lightweight unmanned model plane powered by a laser beam. This proof-of-concept demonstrates the feasibility of periodic recharging using a laser beam system.

Scientists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences have developed a proof-of-concept of utilizing a dual-wavelength laser to wirelessly charge portable devices or UAVs.

Atmospheric plasma channel coupling

In atmospheric plasma channel coupling, energy is transferred between two electrodes by electrical conduction through ionized air. When an electric field gradient exists between the two electrodes, exceeding 34 kilovolts per centimeter at sea level atmospheric pressure, an electric arc occurs. This atmospheric dielectric breakdown results in the flow of electric current along a random trajectory through an ionized plasma channel between the two electrodes. An example of this is natural lightning, where one electrode is a virtual point in a cloud and the other is a point on Earth. Laser Induced Plasma Channel (LIPC) research is presently underway using ultrafast lasers to artificially promote development of the plasma channel through the air, directing the electric arc, and guiding the current across a specific path in a controllable manner. The laser energy reduces the atmospheric dielectric breakdown voltage and the air is made less insulating by superheating, which lowers the density () of the filament of air.

This new process is being explored for use as a laser lightning rod and as a means to trigger lightning bolts from clouds for natural lightning channel studies, for artificial atmospheric propagation studies, as a substitute for conventional radio antennas, for applications associated with electric welding and machining, for diverting power from high-voltage capacitor discharges, for directed-energy weapon applications employing electrical conduction through a ground return path, and electronic jamming.

Energy harvesting

In the context of wireless power, energy harvesting, also called power harvesting or energy scavenging, is the conversion of ambient energy from the environment to electric power, mainly to power small autonomous wireless electronic devices.  The ambient energy may come from stray electric or magnetic fields or radio waves  from nearby electrical equipment, light, thermal energy (heat), or kinetic energy such as vibration or motion of the device.  Although the efficiency of conversion is usually low and the power gathered often minuscule (milliwatts or microwatts), it can be adequate to run or recharge small micropower wireless devices such as remote sensors, which are proliferating in many fields.  This new technology is being developed to eliminate the need for battery replacement or charging of such wireless devices, allowing them to operate completely autonomously.

History

19th century developments and dead ends
The 19th century saw many developments of theories, and counter-theories on how electrical energy might be transmitted. In 1826, André-Marie Ampère discovered a connection between current and magnets.  Michael Faraday described in 1831 with his law of induction the electromotive force driving a current in a conductor loop by a time-varying magnetic flux. Transmission of electrical energy without wires was  observed by many inventors and experimenters, but lack of a coherent theory attributed these phenomena vaguely to electromagnetic induction. A concise explanation of these phenomena would come from the 1860s Maxwell's equations by James Clerk Maxwell, establishing a theory that unified electricity and magnetism to electromagnetism, predicting the existence of electromagnetic waves as the "wireless" carrier of electromagnetic energy. Around 1884 John Henry Poynting defined the Poynting vector and gave Poynting's theorem, which describe the flow of power across an area within electromagnetic radiation and allow for a correct analysis of wireless power transfer systems. This was followed on by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz' 1888 validation of the theory, which included the evidence for radio waves.

During the same period two schemes of wireless signaling were put forward by William Henry Ward (1871) and Mahlon Loomis (1872) that were based on the erroneous belief that there was an electrified atmospheric stratum accessible at low altitude. Both inventors' patents noted this layer connected with a return path using "Earth currents"' would allow for wireless telegraphy as well as supply power for the telegraph, doing away with artificial batteries, and could also be used for lighting, heat, and motive power. A more practical demonstration of wireless transmission via conduction came in Amos Dolbear's 1879 magneto electric telephone that used ground conduction to transmit over a distance of a quarter of a mile.

Tesla

After 1890, inventor Nikola Tesla experimented with transmitting power by inductive and capacitive coupling using spark-excited radio frequency resonant transformers, now called Tesla coils, which generated high AC voltages.  Early on he attempted to develop a wireless lighting system based on near-field inductive and capacitive coupling and conducted a series of public demonstrations where he lit Geissler tubes and even incandescent light bulbs from across a stage. He found he could increase the distance at which he could light a lamp by using a receiving LC circuit tuned to resonance with the transmitter's LC circuit. using resonant inductive coupling. Tesla failed to make a commercial product out of his findings but his resonant inductive coupling method is now widely used in electronics and is currently being applied to short-range wireless power systems.

Tesla went on to develop a wireless power distribution system that he hoped would be capable of transmitting power long distance directly into homes and factories. Early on he seemed to borrow from the ideas of Mahlon Loomis, proposing a system composed of balloons to suspend transmitting and receiving electrodes in the air above  in altitude, where he thought the pressure would allow him to send high voltages (millions of volts) long distances. To further study the conductive nature of low pressure air he set up a test facility at high altitude in Colorado Springs during 1899. Experiments he conducted there with a large coil operating in the megavolts range, as well as observations he made of the electronic noise of lightning strikes, led him to conclude incorrectly that he could use the entire globe of the Earth to conduct electrical energy. The theory included driving alternating current pulses into the Earth at its resonant frequency from a grounded Tesla coil working against an elevated capacitance to make the potential of the Earth oscillate. Tesla thought this would allow alternating current to be received with a similar capacitive antenna tuned to resonance with it at any point on Earth with very little power loss. His observations also led him to believe a high voltage used in a coil at an elevation of a few hundred feet would "break the air stratum down", eliminating the need for miles of cable hanging on balloons to create his atmospheric return circuit. Tesla would go on the next year to propose a "World Wireless System" that was to broadcast both information and power worldwide. In 1901, at Shoreham, New York he attempted to construct a large high-voltage wireless power station, now called Wardenclyffe Tower, but by 1904 investment dried up and the facility was never completed.

Near-field and non-radiative technologies
Inductive power transfer between nearby wire coils was the earliest wireless power technology to be developed, existing since the transformer was developed in the 1800s.  Induction heating has been used since the early 1900s and is used for induction cooking.

With the advent of cordless devices, induction charging stands have been developed for appliances used in wet environments, like electric toothbrushes and electric razors, to eliminate the hazard of electric shock.  One of the earliest proposed applications of inductive transfer was to power electric locomotives.  In 1892 Maurice Hutin and Maurice Leblanc patented a wireless method of powering railroad trains using resonant coils inductively coupled to a track wire at 3 kHz.

In the early 1960s resonant inductive wireless energy transfer was used successfully in implantable medical devices including such devices as pacemakers and artificial hearts.  While the early systems used a resonant receiver coil, later systems implemented resonant transmitter coils as well. These medical devices are designed for high efficiency using low power electronics while efficiently accommodating some misalignment and dynamic twisting of the coils. The separation between the coils in implantable applications is commonly less than 20 cm. Today resonant inductive energy transfer is regularly used for providing electric power in many commercially available medical implantable devices.

The first passive RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technologies were invented by Mario Cardullo (1973) and Koelle et al. (1975) and by the 1990s were being used in proximity cards and contactless smartcards.

The proliferation of portable wireless communication devices such as mobile phones, tablet, and laptop computers in recent decades is currently driving the development of mid-range wireless powering and charging technology to eliminate the need for these devices to be tethered to wall plugs during charging. The Wireless Power Consortium was established in 2008 to develop interoperable standards across manufacturers.  Its Qi inductive power standard published in August 2009 enables high efficiency charging and powering of portable devices of up to 5 watts over distances of 4 cm (1.6 inches). The wireless device is placed on a flat charger plate (which can be embedded in table tops at cafes, for example) and power is transferred from a flat coil in the charger to a similar one in the device. In 2007, a team led by Marin Soljačić at MIT used a dual resonance transmitter with a 25 cm diameter secondary tuned to 10 MHz to transfer 60 W of power to a similar dual resonance receiver over a distance of  (eight times the transmitter coil diameter) at around 40% efficiency.

In 2008 the team of Greg Leyh and Mike Kennan of Nevada Lightning Lab used a grounded dual resonance transmitter with a 57 cm diameter secondary tuned to 60 kHz and a similar grounded dual resonance receiver to transfer power through coupled electric fields with an earth current return circuit over a distance of . In 2011, Dr. Christopher A. Tucker and Professor Kevin Warwick of the University of Reading, recreated Tesla's 1900 patent 0,645,576 in miniature and demonstrated power transmission over  with a coil diameter of  at a resonant frequency of 27.50 MHz, with an effective efficiency of 60%.

Microwaves and lasers
Before World War II, little progress was made in wireless power transmission. Radio was developed for communication uses, but could not be used for power transmission since the relatively low-frequency radio waves spread out in all directions and little energy reached the receiver. In radio communication, at the receiver, an amplifier intensifies a weak signal using energy from another source. For power transmission, efficient transmission required transmitters that could generate higher-frequency microwaves, which can be focused in narrow beams towards a receiver.

The development of microwave technology during World War II, such as the klystron and magnetron tubes and parabolic antennas,  made radiative (far-field) methods practical for the first time, and the first long-distance wireless power transmission was achieved in the 1960s by William C. Brown.  In 1964, Brown invented the rectenna which could efficiently convert microwaves to DC power, and in 1964 demonstrated it with the first wireless-powered aircraft, a model helicopter powered by microwaves beamed from the ground.  A major motivation for microwave research in the 1970s and 1980s was to develop a solar power satellite.  Conceived in 1968 by Peter Glaser, this would harvest energy from sunlight using solar cells and beam it down to Earth as microwaves to huge rectennas, which would convert it to electrical energy on the electric power grid. In landmark 1975 experiments as technical director of a JPL/Raytheon program, Brown demonstrated long-range transmission by beaming 475 W of microwave power to a rectenna a mile away, with a microwave to DC conversion efficiency of 54%. At NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, he and Robert Dickinson transmitted 30 kW DC output power across 1.5 km with 2.38 GHz microwaves from a 26 m dish to a 7.3 x 3.5 m rectenna array. The incident-RF to DC conversion efficiency of the rectenna was 80%. In 1983 Japan launched Microwave Ionosphere Nonlinear Interaction Experiment (MINIX),  a rocket experiment to test transmission of high power microwaves through the ionosphere.

In recent years a focus of research has been the development of wireless-powered drone aircraft, which began in 1959 with the Dept. of Defense's RAMP (Raytheon Airborne Microwave Platform) project which sponsored Brown's research.  In 1987 Canada's Communications Research Center developed a small prototype airplane called Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP) to relay telecommunication data between points on earth similar to a communications satellite.  Powered by a rectenna, it could fly at 13 miles (21 km) altitude and stay aloft for months. In 1992 a team at Kyoto University built a more advanced craft called MILAX (MIcrowave Lifted Airplane eXperiment).

In 2003 NASA flew the first laser powered aircraft.  The small model plane's motor was powered by electricity generated by photocells from a beam of infrared light from a ground-based laser, while a control system kept the laser pointed at the plane.

See also

 Beam-powered propulsion
 Beam Power Challenge – one of the NASA Centennial Challenges
 Electricity distribution
 Electric power transmission
 Electromagnetic compatibility
 Electromagnetic radiation and health
 Energy harvesting
 Friis transmission equation
 Microwave power transmission
 Qi (standard)
 Space-based solar power
 Resonant inductive coupling
 Thinned array curse
 uBeam – acoustic energy transfer system
 Wardenclyffe Tower
 Wi-Charge – far-field infrared wireless power
 World Wireless System

References

Further reading

Books and articles

   Latest work on AirFuel Alliance class 2 and class 3 transmitters, adaptive tuning, radiated EMI, multi-mode wireless power systems, and control strategies.
   Comprehensive, theoretical engineering text
   Engineering text

 Thibault, G. (2014). Wireless Pasts and Wired Futures. In J. Hadlaw, A. Herman, & T. Swiss (Eds.), Theories of the Mobile Internet. Materialities and Imaginaries. (pp. 126–154). London: Routledge.  A short cultural history of wireless power

Patents

 , Microwave powered aircraft, John E. Martin, et al. (1990).
 , Solid state solar to microwave energy converter system and apparatus, Kenneth W. Dudley, et al. (1976).
 , Microwave power receiving antenna, Carroll C. Dailey (1970).

External links
 Howstuffworks "How Wireless Power Works" – describes near-range and mid-range wireless power transmission using induction and radiation techniques.
 Microwave Power Transmission, – its history before 1980.
 The Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP), – microwave beam powered.
 Marin Soljačić's MIT WiTricity – wireless power transmission pages.
 Rezence – official site of a wireless power standard promoted by the Alliance for Wireless Power
 Qi – official site of a wireless power standard promoted by the Wireless Power Consortium
 PMA – official site of a wireless power standard promoted by the Power Matters Alliance
 WiPow – official site of the WiPow Coalition, promoting standardized wireless power for medical, mobility and wheeled devices

Emerging technologies
Energy development
Electric power distribution
Electromagnetic compatibility
Microwave transmission
Inventions by Nikola Tesla

Wireless power transfer


بوكاتشاتشا  هي مدينة في مقاطعة زابايكالسكي كراي في روسيا.

مراجع

مدن زابايكالسكي كراي

بوكاتشاتشا (سيتا)


اقتصاد افتراضي هو اقتصاد طارئ يتواجد في عالم مثابر افتراضي ويتم فيه تبادل السلع الافتراضية.

مراجع

أنظمة اقتصادية
مصطلحات ألعاب فيديو

اقتصاد افتراضي


Vedii Tosuncuk (1921, İstanbul - 10 Mayıs 2011, İstanbul), başarıları ile Beşiktaş tarihine geçmiş sol kanat defans oyuncusudur. Beşiktaş tarihinin Hüsnü Savman'dan sonraki en büyük sol bek oyuncusudur. 10 Mayıs 2011'de ölmüştür.

Kariyeri
Futbola oldukça geç sayılacak bir yaşta, yani 22'sinde İzmir'de başlamıştır. Kısa zamanda Karşıyaka takımına girmiştir. Tıp eğitimi için İstanbul'a gelmek zorunda kaldığında, çocukluğundan beri tuttuğu Beşiktaş'a transfer olmuştur. Beşiktaş'ın sol kanadında uzun yıllar başarılı maçlar çıkarmıştır. Fiziki üstünlüğüne eklediği mükemmel tekniği ile, Beşiktaş'ın yaşadığı şampiyonluklarında önemli roller oynamıştır. Ayrıca Beşiktaş'ta kaptanlık mertebesine ulaşmış yıldızlarındandır. Uzun, sert vuruşları sayesinde maçın kaderini değiştiren oyuncular arasında yer almıştır.

Vedii Tosuncuk, Türkiye millî futbol takımının formasını 10 kez giymiştir. Bu maçlardan bir tanesine de kaptan olarak çıkmıştır.

Ailesi
Kendisinden üç yaş küçük olan çok sevdiği kardeşi Ali Haydar Tosuncuk da kendisi gibi eski Karşıyakalı bir futbolcudur. En küçük kardeşleri Nezihi Tosuncuk, 1978-79 sezonunda kiralık olarak Beşiktaş forması giymiş ancak Sakaryaspor ve Fenerbahçe'de oynamıştır. Vedii Tosuncuk, İstanbul Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi'nden mezun olmuş, KBB uzmanı bir doktordu.

Kaynakça

1921 doğumlular
İstanbul doğumlu futbolcular
2011 yılında ölenler
İstanbul'da ölenler
Türk erkek futbolcular
Türkiye millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Karşıyaka SK futbolcuları
Beşiktaş JK futbolcuları
Türk Olimpiyat futbolcuları
1948 Yaz Olimpiyatları futbolcuları
Defans futbolcuları
Kanat futbolcuları

Vedii Tosuncuk


King Arthur's Hall ist ein historisches Gebäude in Tintagel, Cornwall, England. Erbaut in den frühen 1930er Jahren von Frederick Thomas Glasscock (gestorben 1934), ist es ursprünglich Sitz für eine soziale Organisation wie den Orden der Gefährten von den Rittern der Tafelrunde (Order of the Fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table) gewesen. Es enthält Kunstwerke und Gegenstände im Zusammenhang mit der Artus-Sage und ist heute ein beliebter Anziehungspunkt für Besucher.

Glasscock gründete den Orden im Jahr 1927, um christliche Ideale und Vorstellungen der mittelalterlichen Artus-Ritter zu fördern. Glasscock wohnte im Haus Eirenicon, das er zuerst gebaut hatte. King Arthur's Hall war eine Erweiterung des Trevena-Hauses, das Wohnsitz von John Douglas Cook war und auf dem Gelände des ehemaligen Rathauses und der Markthalle an der Fore Street errichtet worden war. Für den Bau war eine Vielzahl heimischer Natursteine verwendet worden. Die 73 Glasfenster dienen der Veranschaulichung der Artus-Geschichten und wurden von Veronica Whall geschaffen. Es gibt auch mehrere Gemälde mit Szenen aus König Artus' Leben von William Hatherell.

Heutzutage treffen sich hier regelmäßig drei Freimaurer-Logen (Datum der Gründung in Klammern): King Arthur Loge Nr. 7134 (13. November 1951), King Arthur Kapitel Nr. 7134 (8. November 1961) und Tintagel Castle Lodge von Mark Master Masons Nr. 1800 (23. April 1999).

Siehe auch
 King Arthur's Hall (Bodmin Moor)

Weblinks

 Tourismus-Information (englisch)

Bauwerk in Cornwall
Artusepik
Erbaut in den 1930er Jahren

King Arthur’s Hall (Tintagel)


Agrilus motschulskyi é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Théry, em 1904.

Referências

motschulskyi

Agrilus motschulskyi


Piglet's Big Movie (La gran película de Piglet en Hispanoamérica y España) es una película de dibujos animados dirigida por Francis Glebass y secuela directa de La película de Tigger. Es la segunda película de las aventuras de Winnie the Pooh llevada al cine por Walt Disney (la primera fue La película de Tigger, del 2000).

Está basada en los libros escritos por A. A. Milne (1882-1956).

Argumento

Winnie Pooh, Conejo, Tigger e Igor están recogiendo miel de una colmena. Todos están ocupados realizando partes muy importantes del gran plan, excepto Piglet, que se siente impotente y muy pequeño para hacer el trabajo, y acaba perdiéndose en el bosque.

Al darse cuenta de que les falta el miembro más pequeño, Winnie Pooh, Tigger, Conejo, Igor, Cangu y Rito,  empiezan a buscarle con el álbum de dibujos de Piglet como guía. Gracias a las dibujos recuerdan los momentos en los que Piglet fue un héroe y aprenden a aceptarle como tal. A medio camino, les sorprende un vendaval y se les rompe el álbum. Vuelven a casa a refugiarse y se ponen a hacer sus propios dibujos donde sale Piglet. Al final, deciden buscarle otra vez y, poco a poco, van recomponiendo el álbum. Al fin, llegan a una enorme cascada junto a un precipicio y un tronco, derrumbado por la tormenta. Es ahí donde descubren el álbum. Al intentar cogerlo, aparece Piglet. Aun así, el libro se cae. Todos celebran con entusiasmo la aparición de Piglet y, al llegar a casa, Piglet ve emocionado los dibujos que han hecho para él. Después hacen una fiesta. Por último, Pooh le enseña a Piglet la modificación del título de una cerca que aparecía en una de las historias del álbum.

Elenco

 John Fiedler como Piglet.
 Jim Cummings como Pooh y Tigger.
 Ken Sansom como Conejo.
 Nikita Hopkins como Rito.
 Kath Soucie como Kanga.
 Peter Cullen como Ígor.
 André Stojka como Búho.
 Tom Wheatley como Christopher Robin.

Producción

La producción comenzó en marzo de 2000 con la dirección artística, el diseño de los personajes, el guion gráfico y las voces en Disney Toon Studios. La mayor parte de la animación de la película se realizó en Walt Disney Animation Japan.

Recepción

En Estados Unidos, la película logró recaudar un total de 36,95 millones de dólares estadounidenses (unos 13 millones de euros).

Referencias
Ficha de la película en Zinema.com.
Taquilla en Sensacine.com

Enlaces externos
Cómo se hizo, en La Butaca.

Películas de Walt Disney Pictures
Películas musicales
Películas de aventuras

La gran película de Piglet