Alfonso de la Cueva-Benavides e Mendoza-Carrillo (Bedmar, 25 de julho de 1574 - Málaga, 10 de agosto de 1655) foi um cardeal do século XVII

Nascimento
Nasceu em Bedmar em 25 de julho de 1574. Filho de Luis de Cueva Benavides, senhor de Bedmar, e Elvira de Mendoza-Carrillo y Cárdenas. Seu primeiro nome também está listado como Alonso; e seu sobrenome apenas como Cueva Benavides. Outro cardeal da família foi Bartolomé de la Cueva y Toledo (1544).

Educação
(Nenhuma informação encontrada).

Início da vida
Seguiu ainda jovem a carreira militar ao lado do pai, capitão-general das Canárias; desde 1590, ocupou o lugar do pai em suas ausências; nomeado capitão de arcabuceros , 1591; com a morte de seu pai em 1599, tornou-se senhor de sua casa e título e comandante de uma companhia de cavalaria. Embaixador espanhol em Veneza, 23 de dezembro de 1606 por oito anos. O rei Felipe III de Espanha concedeu-lhe o hábito da Ordem de Alcántara, a 16 de abril de 1610 e nomeou-o marquês de Bedmar, em 1614; renunciou ao título quando foi promovido ao cardinalato. Encarregado pelo rei de Espanha de devolver ao duque de Sabóia os territórios conquistados pelas forças espanholas no Piemonte, em 1618. Mais tarde, embaixador extraordinário e conselheiro deInfanta-gobernadora Isabel Clara Eugenia e a Junta de Guerra na Flandres. Protonotário apostólico.

Ordens sagradas
(Nenhuma informação encontrada).

Cardinalado
Criado cardeal diácono no consistório de 5 de setembro de 1622. Não participou do conclave de 1623, que elegeu o Papa Urbano VIII. Recebeu o gorro vermelho e o título de S. Martino ai Monti, em 18 de julho de 1633. Camerlengo do Sagrado Colégio dos Cardeais, de 8 de janeiro de 1635 a 7 de janeiro de 1636. Optou pela ordem dos cardeais presbíteros e pelo título de S. Balbina, 9 de julho de 1635. Participou do conclave de 1644, que elegeu o Papa Inocêncio X.

Episcopado
Optou pela ordem dos cardeais bispos e pela sede suburbicária de Palestrina, em 17 de outubro de 1644. Consagrada, domingo, 23 de outubro de 1644, igreja dos Carmelitas Descalços, Roma, pelo cardeal Gil Albornoz, arcebispo de Taranto, auxiliado por Alfonso Gonzaga, arcebispo titular de Colossos, e por Juan Pastor, O. de M., bispo de Crotone. Nomeado bispo de Málaga, mantendo a diocese de Palestrina, 27 de julho de 1648; não tomou posse da diocese até 1651. Não participou do conclave de 1655, que elegeu o papa Alexandre VII.

Morte
Morreu em Málaga em 10 de agosto de 1655. Enterrado na catedral de Málaga. A notícia de sua morte chegou a Roma em 28 de agosto de 1655.

Cardeais nomeados pelo papa Gregório XV


නර්තන තාක්ෂණයේ දි නර්තන අංකනය හා ගවේෂණය පැති හතරක් තිබේ. එනම්,

•	අංකනය හා සංස්කරණය මෘදුකාංග අංක සදහා

•	යන්ත්‍ර භාවිතයෙන් කියවීම පවතින නර්තන පිටපත් වල.

•	ලිඛිත හා යන්ත්‍ර මගින් කියවීමේ නර්තන අංකන පරිගණක සජීවිකරණය හා මානව භාවිතය සදහා.

•	යන්ත්‍ර නියත චලන අංකනය චිත්‍ර හා තොරතුරු සදහා.

නර්තන අංකනය - අංකනය හා පරිගණක


تقارير كينسي  هما كتابان عن سلوك الإنسان الجنسي، الأول هو «السلوك الجنسي عند ذَكَر الإنسان» (نشر عام 1948)، والثاني هو «السلوك الجنسي عند أنثى الإنسان» (نشر عام 1953)، للدكتور الأمريكي ألفريد كينسي وزملائه.

وقد صعقت التقارير المجتمع آنذاك لأنها ناقشت أشياء ومواضيع كانت تعد آنذاك من تابوهات المجتمع.

نتائج التقرير
 46% من الرجال لهم توجه جنسي لأشخاص من الجنسين، ونسبة 37% لهم على الأقل تجربة جنسية مثلية واحدة في حياتهم.
 متوسط عدد مرات العلاقة الجنسية الزوجية هو 2.8 في الأسبوع عند النساء عند أواخر فترة المراهقة و 2.2 في الأسبوع عند سن ال 30 ومرة واحدة عند سن الخمسين.
 50% من المتزوجين الرجال قاموا بعلاقات جنسية خارج نطاق الزواج.

انظر أيضاً
 سلم كينسي

مراجع

تاريخ المثلية في عقد 1940
جنس
كتب أمريكية لا خيالية
كتب باللغة الإنجليزية
كتب غير خيالية 1953
كتب غير خيالية عن الجنسانية
كتب غير خيالية 1948

تقارير كينسي


Britanya edebiyatı, Birleşik Krallık, Man Adası ve Kanal Adaları'nın edebiyatıdır.  Bu edebiyat başlıca İngilizce yazılmış olmakla beraber Galce, İskoçça, İrlandaca ve diğer dillerin de edebiyatlarını da kapsar.

Eski Kelt Edebiyatı
Keltik dili edebiyatı Avrupa'nın en eski halk dili edebiyatıdır.  Bu dil grubuna ait olan Galcen'n edebiyat geleneği 6. yüzyıldan beri sürmektedir.  En eski örnekleri günümüz Galler Bölgesinde değil, kuzey İngiltere ve güney İskoçya'da bulunmuştur. Keltik grubunun bir diğer dili olan İrlandaca şiirler 6. yüzyıldan günümüze kesintisiz devam etmiş bir gelenektir.

Eski İngiliz Edebiyatı
Anglo-Saxonlar, Almanya'da yaşarken kendilerine özgü bir edebiyatları vardı ve İngiltere'ye bu edebiyatı getirmişlerdir. ilk İngiliz edebiyatını Anglo-Saksonların Almanya'dan getirdiği edebiyatları oluşturmaktadır. Anglo-Saksonlar pagan (putperest) insanlardı. Eski İngilizcenin en ünlü eseri Beowulf adlı epik şiirdir. Metnin tam tarihi tartışmalıdır ama çoğu tahmin yaklaşık 1000 yılı civarındadır.

Rönesans Dönemi İngiliz Edebiyatı 1500–1660

İngilizcenin yazı diline dönüşmesinde büyük katkıları olan ve Canterbury Hikâyeleri adlı eseri bulunan Chaucer (1340-1400) İngiliz edebiyatında Rönesans'a zemin hazırlayan yazarlardan birisidir. "Elizabeth Dönemi" adı verilen 16. yüzyılda tiyatro ve şiir türlerinde önemli eserler ortaya konmuştur.

Rönesans dönemi İngiliz edebiyatının en önemli tiyatro yazarı William Shakespeare (1564-1616)'dir. Shakespeare dram ve komedya türlerinde hem nazım, hem düzyazı, hem de her ikisini birlikte kullanarak başarılı oyunlar yazmıştır. Oyunlarının tamamı beşer perdeden oluşur. Kin, aşk, dostluk, yükselme, öç alma gibi hemen hemen tüm insanî boyutları derinlemesine irdelemiştir. Başlıca dramları arasında Romeo ve Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, Kral Lear; en önemli komedyaları arasında da Venedik Taciri, Yanlışlıklar Komedyası  sayılabilir

Marlowe (1564-1593) ve Ben Jonson (1573-1637) da dönemin önemli tiyatro yazarları arasında yer alırlar. İlk büyük İngiliz şairi olan Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) ise pastoral türde yazdığı şiirlerini Çoban Takvimi, alegorik olarak yazdığı bir destanını da Peri Kraliçesi adlı eserlerinde topladı.

Tasvir ve ruh çözümlemelerinde başarılı olan ve üslûba önem veren dönemin son büyük şairi John Milton (1608-1674)'un en önemli eseri Kaybolmuş Cennet adlı konusunu Tevrat'tan aldığı dinî destanıdır. Michel de Montaigne gibi deneme türünde başarılı ürünler veren Francis Bacon (1561-1626)'un en önemli eseri ise Denemeler'dir.

Neo-Klasik Dönem İngiliz Edebiyatı 1660–1798

Restorasyon (1660–1700)

Neoklasisizm akımı'nın Restorasyon donemi İngiltere'de çok kısa sürmüştür. Bu akımın İngiliz edebiyatında en önemli temsilcisi şiir ve oyunlarıyla John Dryden (1631-1700) olur. Yazdıkları gayet detaylı günlükler ile Londra hayatını ve dönemin kültürel akımlarını iyice ortaya çıkartan Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) ve John Evelyn (1620–1706) bu dönemde önemli yazarlardandır.

Protestan Puritan Hristiyan şahsi yasam idealini bir hacının hac gezisi olarak alegori seklinde ele alan John Bunyan (1628–88)'in (Birinci kısmı 1678'de, ikinci kısmı ise birinci kısmın devamı olarak 1684'da yayınlanan) Çarmıh Yolcusu, İngiliz edebiyatının en önemli eserlerinden biri olarak kabul edilir.

Augustuscu Dönem (1689–1750)

17. ve 18. yüzyıl başları (1689–1750) edebiyat tarihçileri tarafından "Augustuscu Dönem" olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Buna baş neden bu dönemde Britanya edebiyatına katkı veren yazarların çok kere Roma İmparatorluğu'nun ilk döneminde hazırlanan eserleri taklit etmeye çalışmaları ve devamlı olarak bu eserlere paralel eserler hazırlamalarıdır. Bu dönemde en önemli yazarlar Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), William Congreve, (1670–1729), Joseph Addison (1672–1719), Richard Steele (1672–1729), Alexander Pope (1688–1744), Henry Fielding (1707–54), Samuel Johnson (1709–84) olarak sayılabilir.

Britanya Edebiyatının Doğuşu

1707'de İskoçya ve İngiltere parlamentolarını birleştirme kanunu ile tek bir Birleşik Krallık kurulması İngiliz asıllı yazarlar arasında önemli bir değişmeye neden olmamıştır ve bu nedenle İngiliz asıllı yazarların edebiyata katkısında bu değişmenin izleri nispeten çok zayıf olarak görülmektedir. Buna karşılık İskoçya'da durum gayet değişik olmuştur. Bir İskoç kültürel hüviyetini korumak ve aynı zamanda standart İngilizce edebi dilini kullanıp İngiltere'de bulunan geniş edebiyat eserleri piyasasının avantajlarından yararlanmak İskoç asıllı yazarlar tarafından gayet ciddi bir ikilem olarak ele alınmıştır.

19. Yüzyılda Britanya Edebiyatı

Romantik Dönem Britanya Edebiyatı  1798 - 1837

İngiltere'nin kuzeybatısında yer alan Göller Bölgesinde bir süre yaşamış olan ve bundan dolayı kendilerine "Gölcüler" denilen Wordsworth (1770-1850), Coleridge (1772-1834) gibi şair sanatçılar, ayrıca Lord Byron (1788-1824), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) ve John Keats (1795-1821) gibi şairler bu akımın başlıca temsilcileri arasında yer alırlar.

Kraliçe Viktorya Dönemi Edebiyatı 1837 - 1901

Öykü

Avrupa edebiyatında 1790-1610 döneminde tek tek kısa öyküler hazırlanıp yayınlanmakla beraber gerçekte bir koleksiyon olarak hazırlanıp yayımlanan kısa hikâyeler 1810-1836'de geliştirilmiştir. Britanya edebiyatından ilk kısa hikâyeler koleksiyonları gotik hikâyelerden oluşmakta olup 18. yüzyılın sonundadır. . Viktorya döneminin önemli roman yazarlarından olan Walter Scott ve Charles Dickens'de kısa öyküler hazırlamışlardır. Fakat öykülerin popüler olarak hazırlanıp yayımlanması 19. yüzyılın başlarında gayet popüler olarak yayımlanan edebi dergilerin gelişmesine bağlıdır. Bu edebi dergilerin gelişmesi ayni dönemde genel olarak kitapların, dergilerin ve akademik yazıların gelişmesi ile birlikte olmuştur. Bu edebi dergiler başlarında edebi tenkitçiler olan Francis Jeffrey, Henry Brougham ve Sydney Smith tarafından 1820'de kurulan "Edinburh Review"; Westminster Review (1824); The Spectator (1828); ve Athenaeum (1828) anılabilir.

Kraliçe Viktorya Dönemi Edebiyatında Şiir
Kraliçe Viktorya Dönemi edebiyatının önemli şairleri olarak Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892), Robert Browning (1812–1889), Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–1861) ve  Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) sayılabilir.

20. Yüzyıl Britanya Edebiyatı

Modernizm 1901–1945

20. yüzyılda Britanya edebiyatı en çok roman türünde başarılı ürünler vermiştir. Eser veren ünlü yazarlardan Joseph Conrad (1857-1941) macera ve deniz romanları yazmıştır.

Modernist roman

İrlandalı romancı James Joyce (1882-1941) ise klâsik roman kurallarını bir tarafa bırakarak, modern roman tarzının örneklerini vermiştir. Kronolojik zaman akışını değil, insanın bilinçaltının belirlediği zaman sistemini esas almıştır. İnsanın iç dünyasını kendi mantıkî gerçekliği içinde olduğu gibi sunmaya çalışır. Bir olaydan başka bir olaya, bir zamandan başka bir zamana atlar, kalemini çağrışımların emrine verir, bazen dilin gramatikal sistemini bozar, başka dillerden alıntılar yapar, kahramanların iç konuşmalarına geniş yer verir. Onun romanları alışılmış klâsik roman kurgusuna uymaz. Dublinliler (1914) adlı eserinde on beş hikâye yer almaktadır. Üçü çocukluk, dördü gençlik, dördü orta yaşlılık, dördü de sosyal hayatla ilgilidir. Kitap, bütün bir roman olarak da okunabilir. Diğer önemli eseri ise Ulysses (1922) adlı romanıdır. O bu romanında Dublin özelinde çağdaş dünyanın bir destanını verirken, asıl olarak modern bireyin zihinsel hayatını tüm yoğunluğu ve düşünce karmaşıklığı ile sunmaktadır. Eserleri genellikle Dublin kenti etrafında yoğunlaşır.

Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) önemli bir İngiliz kadın roman yazarıdır. O da James Joyce gibi bilinç akımı tekniğine başvurmuştur. "Acı" ve "yalnızlık", "kadın sorunları" temalarına ağırlık vermiştir. Romanlarında insan zihninin herhangi bir günde algıladığı şeyleri aktarmaya çalışır. Eserlerinin başlıcaları Jacob'ın Odası (1922), Perde Arkası (1941), Mrs. Dalloway, Orlando, Dalgalar, Yıllar'dır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Britanya edebiyatı


سيرته الذاتية في وقت مبكر

الشباب
ولد في مدينة بولونيا، حيث درس القانون وتخرج في 1530. وبعد ذلك علم الفقه لبضع سنوات؛ وشمل طلابه عددا من الشخصيات البارزة مثل اليساندرو فارنيس، ريجنالد القطب وتشارلز بورروميو.

سيرته الوظيفية ما قبل البابوية
في سن الست وثلاثين استدعي إلى روما من قبل البابا بولس الثالث (1534-1549)، في إطار سلسلة من تعيينات متتالية كلف خلالها بمنصب أول قاض من رأس المال، مختصر، ونائب المستشار للكامبانيا؛ من قبل البابا بولس الرابع (1555-1559)، وعُيِّن بمنصب داتاريوس في جناح الكاردينال كارافا؛ ومن قبل البابا بيوس الرابع (1559-1565) تم تعيينه الكاردينال كاهن وأرسل إلى مجلس ترينت.

واحتل أيضا منصب مندوب للملك الإسباني فيليب الثاني (1556-1598)، حيث أرسله البابا للتحقيق مع الكاردينال توليدو. ومن هنا شكل علاقة وثيقة ودائمة مع الملك الأسباني الأمر الذي كان مهما جدا خلال تفويضاته السياسية الخارجية.

عند وفاة البابا بيوس الخامس (1566-1572)، حصل الاجتماع السري اختير الكاردينال بونكومباني، المكنى باسم غريغوريوس الثالث عشر، مع تقديرهم الكبير لإصلاحات البابا غريغوري الأول (590-604)، الملقب بالكبير. وكان الاجتماع السري وجيزًا جدًا، حيث كانت مدته أقل من 24 ساعة، يفترض العديد من المؤرخين أن ذلك كان بسبب تأثير ودعم الملك الإسباني. كانت شخصيته في ذلك الوقت مثالية لتلبية احتياجات الكنيسة. وخلافا لبعض من سبقوه، قاد غريغوريوس الثالث عشر حياة شخصية لا عيب فيها، وأصبحت نموذجًا للبساطة في الحياة. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، نباهته من الناحية القانونية وإدارة قدرات الذكاء يعني أنه كان قادرًا على الاستجابة والتعامل مع المشاكل الرئيسية التي تواجهه بشكل سريع وحاسم، وإن لم يكن دائمًا بنجاح.

الإنجازات

إصلاح الكنيسة
بعد وصوله إلى منصب الرئاسة في سان بطرس، لم يركّز غريغوريوس الثالث عشر على الاهتمامات العالمية، بل أصبحت هذه الاهتمامات ثانوية لديه وكرّس نفسه لإصلاح الكنيسة الكاثوليكية. نذر نفسه لوضع التوصيات موضع التنفيذ في مجلس ترينت. وقال أنه لا توجد استثناءات تسمح للكاردينالات والمطارنة بخرة القاعدة التي يجب أن تطبق، وعين لجنة لاستكمال فهرس الكتب المقدسة. بالإضافة إلى ذلك أصدر طبعة جديدة ومنقحة لمجموعة كوربوس جوريس كانونيسي كان ذلك أيضا بسبب قبوله الرعاية المعنية. في الوقت الذي كان له قدر كبير من تركيز السلطة، قام غريغوريوس الثالث عشر بإلغاء مجالس الكاردينالات، والاستعاضة عنها بالكليات، وتعيين المهام المحددة لهذه الكليات للعمل بها. وقيل أنه مشهور بتحقيق الاستقلال؛ مع وجود بضعة المستشارون الذين يقومون بتدخلات ليست دائما مرحبة ولا يسعون لتقديم المشورة. وظلت حينها سلطة البابوية في ازدياد، في حين أن نفوذ وسلطة الكاردينالات انخفضت انخفاضا كبيرًا.

تهيئة رجال الدين والترويج للفنون والعلوم
جزء أساسي من إستراتيجية غريغوريوس الثالث عشر للإصلاح كان تطبيق توصيات ترينت. وكان راعي الليبرالية التي شكلت حديثا المجتمع المسيحي في كل أنحاء أوروبا، التي كان قد أسس لها الكثير من الكليات الجديدة. الكلية الرومانية لليسوعيين، نمت بصورة كبيرة تحت رعايته، وأصبحت أهم مركز للتعلم في أوروبا لفترة من الزمن، جامعة للامم الأوروبية. وتسمى حاليا الجامعة البابوية الغريغورية. أسّس البابا غريغوريوس الثالث عشر كذلك العديد من المدارس لتدريب الكهنة، بدءًا من الكلية الألمانية في روما، ووضع هذه المدارس في عهدة الكهنة.

في 1575 أسس مركز لتجميع المصلين، ومجتمع دون إعلان الولاء لجماعة من الكهنة، مكرسة للصلاة والوعظ (أسسها سان فيليبو نيري).

التقويم الغريغوري

غريغوريوس الثالث عشر معروف في إصلاح التقويم وإصدار التقويم الغريغوري بمعونة من الكاهن الفلكي كريستوفر كلافيوس. الأسباب الموجبة للإصلاح هو أن متوسط طول السنة في التقويم اليولياني الذي كان متبعًا لحينه، أطول نسبيًا من السنة الفلكية، بحيث كان تاريخ الاعتدال الربيعي، أي اليوم الذي يتساوي فيه الليل والنهار، يقع في 10 آذار بدلًا من 21 آذار.

وكان ذلك بعد تصحيحه من قبل ملاحظات كلافيوس ويوهانز كيبلر، وتم تغيير الجدول الزمني عندما قال البابا غريغوري الثالث عشر أن اليوم التالي لـ 4 تشرين الأول، 1582 سيكون 15 تشرين الأول 1582. وأصدر البابوية بول بين غافيسيماس من أجل إصدار الجدول الزمني الجديد في 24 فبراير 1582. وفي 15 تشرين الأول 1582، حلّ هذا الجدول الزمني محل تقويم جوليان، الذي يستخدم منذ عام 45 قبل الميلاد، وأصبح استخدامه عالمي اليوم. ولشهرة الجدول الزمني الذي وضعه البابا غريغوريوس الثالث عشر، فقد سمي هذا الجدول الزمني بالغريغوري.

هذا التغيير في الجداول الزمنية عارضه بشدة الكثير من الناس، وخُشي أنه كان محاولة لخداع من جانب الملّاك لهم لسلب إيجار إسبوع ونصف. ومع ذلك، فإن البلدان الكاثوليكية من إسبانيا والبرتغال وبولندا وإيطاليا كانت قد التزمت. فرنسا وبعض الدول من جمهورية هولندا ومختلف الدول الكاثوليكية في ألمانيا وسويسرا (كان كلا البلدين منقسمان دينيًا)، وحذا حذوهم في غضون عام أو عامين المجر 1587.

ومع ذلك، فإن بقية أوروبا البروتيستانتية لم تحذُ حذوها لأكثر من قرن من الزمان. والدانمارك، وبقية دول الهولندية الجمهورية، آخر الدول البروتستانتية من الإمبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة واعتمد ذلك في 1700-1701 ميلادية. وبحلول ذلك الوقت، فإن الجدول الزمني الغريغوري تخلف عن الجدول الزمني لجوليان 11 يومًا. بريطانيا العظمى (أمريكا والمستعمرات) أخيرا حذا حذوهم في 1752، والأربعاء 2 سبتمبر 1752 كان يليه مباشرة يوم الخميس 14 سبتمبر 1752؛ كانوا من جانب آخر انضمت الدول البروتستانتية، والسويد إلى الجدول البروتستانتي، في 1 اذار / مارس 1753.

التقويم الغريغوري غير مقبول في المسيحية الشرقية لعدة مئات من السنين، وذلك فقط لأن الجدول الزمني مدني. التقويم الغريغوري تأسس في روسيا من قبل الشيوعيين في عام 1917، وآخر بلد أرثوذكسي شرقي لقبول الجدول الزمني اليونان في عام 1923.

وفي حين أن بعض الكنائس الأرثوذكسية الشرقية قد قبلت التقويم الغريغوري مواعيد «ثابتة» كالأعياد (الأعياد التي تحدث في نفس التاريخ من كل عام)، وتواريخ الأعياد من جميع الأموال المنقولة مثل عيد الفصح لا تزال تحسب في الكنائس الأرثوذكسية الشرقية بالرجوع إلى الجدول الزمني لجوليان.

السياسة الخارجية

على الرغم من أنه أعرب عن مخاوفه التقليدية من خطر الأتراك، إلا أن غريغوريوس الثالث عشر توجه باستمرار إلى التركيز على مخاطر البروتستانت.

وشجّع على خطط فيليب الثاني للانقلاب على ملكة إنكلترا اليزابيث الأولى (1558-1603) ومن ثم في تطوير جو من الفتنة والخطر الداهم بين البروتستانت، حيث كان أي كاثوليكي يعتبر خائنًا.

في 1578، إلى مزيد من خطط النفي الأيرلندية والإنكليزية والكاثوليك مثل نيكولاس ساندرز، الكاردينال وليام الن وفيتزموريس جيمس فيتزجيرالد، غريغوري أرسل المغامر توماس ستاكيلي ومع سفينة جيش من 800 رجل إلى أرض أيرلندا أملًا في وصول إليزابيث لإطاحة حكم الزعيم الكاثوليكي من خلال الزعيم السابق لحركة التمرد الأولى في ديزموند، فيتزموريس. انضمت قواته إلى قوات ستاكيلي الديزموندية مع قوات سبستيان الأول ملك البرتغال ضد الإمبراطور عبد الملك من المغرب بدلاً من ذلك. أبحرت بعثة بابوية أخرى لأيرلندا في 1579 مع مجرد 50 جنديًا تحت قيادة فيتزموريس، مصحوبة بساندرز بوصفه المندوب البابوي. بالنتيجة حركة ديزموند التمردية الثانية كانت فاشلة. حقق غريغوري أعظم نجاح في رعايته الكليات والمدارس التي كان قد أسسها على القارة الأيرلندية والإنكليزية، ضمن أمور أخرى. لم يكن للبابا غريغوري الثالث عشر بهنري، دوق ستار، وشقيقه، تشارلز، دوق مايين، لاغتيال إليزابيث الأول في 1582، وعلى الأرجح أنه لا يعلم أي شيء عن هذا الأمر مسبقًا.

مثلت مذبحة هاجينوت في فرنسا حرجًا للبابوية، رغم أنه من الشائع أن البابا كان يجهل طبيعة الأمر في ذلك الوقت، علما أنه كان أبلغ المسيحيين الفرنسيين بمحاولة الاستيلاء على الحكومة التي فشلت. ومن الملفت أنه احتفل بذكرى يوم المجزرة في سانت بارثولومو في 1572 مع تيدويم، ثلاثة النماذج الجصية التي تصف الأحداث التي وقعت موجودة في صالة ريجيا في الفاتيكان، وقد أثني الرسام جورجيو فاساري ومنح ميدالية تذكارية، مع صورة له وعلى الواجهة إنجيل، والسيف في يده وذكرت أسطورة أوغونوتوروم سترايجز «ذبح هاجينوت».

البابوية الثقافية
في روما بنى غريغوري الثالث عشر مصلى في كاتدرائية القديس بطرس، ووسع قصر كويرينال عام 1580. كما حولت حمامات ديوكليتيان إلى السايلو عام 1575.

وادعى أن ابنه جياكومو غير شرعي، من مواليد لعشيقته من بلدة بولونيا قبل البابوية، حيث كان ساكن أو مالك القلعة سانت انجلو وجونفالونيا الكنيسة؛ مدينة البندقية، حريصة على الرجاء، وسجلوه من بين النبلاء. الملك فيليب الثاني الإسباني عينه في جيشه. غريغوري كذلك ساعد ابنه على أن يصبح عاملا قويا من خلال اقتناء دوقية لسورا، على الحدود بين الدولة البابوية ومملكة نابولي.

من أجل جمع الأموال اللازمة لأمور مماثلة، صودرت نسبة كبيرة من المنازل والممتلكات في جميع أنحاء الولايات الكنسية، وهو إجراء زاد من ميزانية الخزانة، في الواقع، لفترة من الزمن، ولكن من جانب آخر أدى إلى التفريط الكبير لطبقة النبلاء وطبقة البرجوازية، وإحياء مبدأ الطبقات القديم، إلى تكوين أنماط جديدة منها، وأدت في نهاية المطاف إلى ضم الدول المجاورة ما أدى إلى الفوضى. هذا هو الموقف من المسائل والخطوات التي تم القيام بها في وقت وفاة غريغوري الثالث عشر، الذي حدث في 10 أبريل 1585.

المصادر

 ii.i.xi.html فيليب تشاف1911، تاريخ الكنيسة المسيحية المجلد7، المسيحية الحديثة، النهضة الألمانية
 الموسوعه الكاثوليكية: البابا غريغوري الثالث عشر
 «المكتبة البابوية»: غريغوري الثالث عشر
 النصب التذكاري لغريغوري الثالث عشر

أشخاص من بولونيا
إيطاليون في القرن 16
باباوات
باباوات إيطاليون
باباوات روما
بابوات في القرن 16
خريجو جامعة بولونيا
رجال دين من بولونيا
علماء مسيحيون
مدفونون في كاتدرائية القديس بطرس
معاداة البروتستانتية
مواليد 1502
مواليد في بولونيا (إيطاليا)
وفيات 1585
وفيات في روما

غريغوريوس الثالث عشر


بالرومانية (Craiova), مدينة جنوبي رومانيا تبعد عن بوخارست 227 كم، عاصمة محافظة دولج (Dolj) في إقليم أولتينيا. تقع على نهر جيو (Jiu)، عدد سكانها تقريبا 300.000 نسمة (إحصاء 2008)وهي احدا المذن الصناعية والزواعية في رومانية وتمتاز بكترة المصادر المائية العذبة وهي احذأقدم المدن في مجال التعليم

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لكرايوفا:

توأمة
لكرايوفا اتفاقيات توأمة مع كل من:

 باتراس
 كووبيو
 ليون
 نانتير
 شيان
 إسكوبية
 فراتسا
 فيغيراس
 فرارة

أعلام

 أدريان إيلي
 بافل باديا
 سيلفيو لونغ جونيور
 جان نيغلسكو
 غابرييل بوبيسكو

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في مقاطعة دولج
بلدات رومانيا
مقاطعات عواصم الرومانية

كرايوفا


is a character in the Final Fantasy series and the main antagonist of Final Fantasy VII developed by Square (now Square Enix). A former soldier of the megacorporation Shinra, his superhuman physiology is revealed to be the result of an experiment in which Shinra injected him with cells from the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova when he was still a fetus. Upon discovering this, Sephiroth becomes consumed by rage and decides to take control of the Planet, while Cloud and the game's other protagonists attempt to stop him. Sephiroth's background and role in the story are expanded upon in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII. Additionally, he appears as a guest character in other video games and media, such as a recurring boss in the Kingdom Hearts series and as a playable character in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.

Character designer Tetsuya Nomura conceived and designed Sephiroth as an antagonist and foil to the game's main character, Cloud Strife. The character was voiced by voice actor Toshiyuki Morikawa in Japanese in all of his appearances except for Shin-ichiro Miki in Ehrgeiz and Yūichirō Umehara in Ever Crisis. In English, Sephiroth has been voiced by Lance Bass in Kingdom Hearts (2002), and by George Newbern in Kingdom Hearts II (2005) and the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII metaseries (2004–present). For the Final Fantasy VII Remake, Newbern was succeeded by Tyler Hoechlin. Hoechlin also reprises the role in the remastered Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII Reunion (2022), replacing Newbern's English performance in the original game.

Sephiroth has been well-received within the video game community and is highly ranked on many lists of the best video game villains and Final Fantasy characters based on his role in the narrative and his high challenge level. He was also the subject of analysis as a Final Fantasy villain who lost his humanity upon learning of his alien heritage, and how he attempts to corrupt Cloud through the chaos he causes and by exploiting his mental weakness.

Concept and creation

Sephiroth was designed by Final Fantasy VIIs character designer Tetsuya Nomura. His name was derived from the Kabbalah, in which the ten sephirot on the Tree of life represent the ten attributes through which God reveals himself. His character existed from the earliest stages of development, as originally, Nomura thought that the game's plot would deal exclusively with Cloud Strife pursuing Sephiroth, who was always the game's main antagonist. Nomura wanted Sephiroth to appear early on in the game, and then have the plot dealing with the protagonists following him, so that gamers would not meet the final boss until extremely late in the game. Sephiroth was initially going to be Aerith Gainsborough's sibling, as indicated by their similar hairstyles. Later, however, he was changed to Aerith's past love, whom she would remember upon meeting Cloud. This character was then changed to Zack Fair, and Sephiroth's prior relationship with Aerith was dropped. In early drafts of the game, Sephiroth's personality was brutal and cruel, with a strong-willed and calm ego. He was to suffer from Mako addiction, resulting in a semi-conscious state as a result of high exposure to Mako energy. Sephiroth was also intended to manipulate Cloud into believing that he was a creation of his will, but this aspect of the story was later abandoned. In another cut scene, when Sephiroth's physical body is first seen in the Northern Crater, it was to be female. Yoshitaka Amano, who had handled character illustrations for previous Final Fantasy titles,  noted a contrast between Cloud, a "young, passionate boy", and Sephiroth, a "more mature and cool" individual, as "intriguing", though not unusual as a pairing. Jason Greenberg, the only artist working on the original PC port, recalled a crash bug that happened during Sephiroth's  technique. Near the end of the development cycle, many team members were done with their work and helped to test the game as much as possible. Greenberg spent nearly 24 hours playtesting battle during development.

Sephiroth has long silver hair and bright cyan eyes with catlike pupils, and wears a black coat decorated with metallic pauldrons. Since his transformation into Safer Sephiroth in the game's final battle, Sephiroth has had a single black wing on his back, referencing his theme song "One Winged Angel". When Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII was released, the staff claimed that the wing was black to suggest evil. Nomura has stated that Sephiroth was made to be a contrast to the game's main protagonist, Cloud, who was originally designed to have slicked-back, black hair. His weapon, the "Masamune", which has been featured in numerous Final Fantasy titles, is an elongated nodachi that he learned to use during his days in SOLDIER. The Masamune is named after the famous Japanese swordsmith Goro Nyudo Masamune, whose blades are considered national treasures in Japan. When designing Cloud and Sephiroth, Nomura was influenced by his view of their rivalry mirroring the legendary animosity between Miyamoto Musashi and Sasaki Kojirō, with Cloud and Sephiroth being Musashi and Kojirō respectively. Sephiroth's look was defined as "kakkoii", a Japanese term combining good looks with coolness.

Director Yoshinori Kitase believes Sephiroth's role in Final Fantasy VII to be one of the main reasons for the game's popularity. Nomura has called Sephiroth "the ultimate antagonist in the Final Fantasy VII saga, there can't be anyone else", and regards him as an enemy from a previous generation, in contrast to his "Remnants" who appear in Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children.

For Advent Children, the film sequel to Final Fantasy VII, scriptwriter Kazushige Nojima thought that the film's plot would be less entertaining without Sephiroth. His revival in the film was introduced in the early stages of development, but the official decision as to how to bring him back was not reached until later. Nomura originally planned to have him appear from the start, but as it took the staff two years to develop his design, the idea of his presence throughout the film was scrapped, and it was decided instead to have him only appear onscreen for a short time. Sephiroth was designed for the film to emphasize his other-worldliness, such as the fact that he is never seen blinking or breathing, and his voice is always monotone and calm. In the film, the staff stated that his strength had considerably increased, to the point that he had "ascended to a new level of existence".

Despite initially encountering problems as to who would voice him, Nomura said that once Toshiyuki Morikawa auditioned for the role, they knew they had their actor. Morikawa was instructed by the staff to speak all of Sephiroth's dialogue as if he felt superior to every other character in the film. The voice director and Morikawa agreed to make Sephiroth's voice sound calm to the point that he believes he cannot lose to Cloud, suggesting to Morikawa that he may reappear at some point in the future. In the prequel Crisis Core, Morikawa portrayed Sephiroth in a charismatic fashion, as early on Sephiroth is presented as a hero.

For Final Fantasy VII Remake, Yoshinori Kitase wanted Sephiroth to have more scenes than in the original game due to his popularity, and compared him with the build of the film Jaws. In the climax of the remake, Cloud encounters Sephiroth once again, and his words following the fight were kept as ambiguous. While Remake and Rebirth focus on the adult Sephiroth, the mobile phone Ever Crisis and First SOLDIER instead focus on Sephiroth's childhood where he was given a more sensitive characterization as he interacts with other characters related to SOLDIER. Nomura reworked the design to fit properly, focusing more on his shorter hair. Yuichiro Umehara was shocked upon being cast for Sephiroth's role in the game, pressured due to how Morikawa already established Sephiroth's popularity in previous installments. He was influenced by Morikawa's presence when recording for the game to the point he feared Sephiroth did not sound as young as requested by the demands. As a result, he often talked with the director and the rest of the staff about how he should sound.

Musical themes

In Final Fantasy VII, Sephiroth is the focus of two pieces of music written by series composer Nobuo Uematsu. His primary theme is , a piece utilizing bells, low drums, and a deep chorus, which accompanies his appearances throughout the game. In the final battle,  plays while the player fights Sephiroth's first form, "Bizarro Sephiroth" (also known as "Reverse Sephiroth"). The most well-known piece is  which is played during the final confrontation with Sephiroth. It contains Latin lyrics taken from sections of the Carmina Burana. In an interview featured on G4's Game Makers (formerly Icons), Uematsu revealed that this piece was designed to be a fusion of the musical styles of Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and rock musician Jimi Hendrix. The song revolves around his character, as this was what Uematsu was thinking about when writing it. Two official covers have been done of the song. The first is an orchestration used in Kingdom Hearts, arranged by the series' composer Yoko Shimomura. The second is used in Advent Children, which plays throughout the battle between Cloud and Sephiroth and features the progressive metal stylings of Nobuo Uematsu's former band The Black Mages, as well as orchestral elements and new lyrics. There is also a fourth version titled "Vengeance on the World", which plays in Crisis Core.

Appearances

In Final Fantasy VII

Sephiroth is the main antagonist in Final Fantasy VII, who first appears after assassinating President Shinra. It is revealed over the course of the game that Sephiroth was once the most powerful member of SOLDIER, Shinra's elite military division, who was celebrated as a heroic veteran of the Shinra-Wutai war. After the war, Sephiroth was sent on a mission to the village of Nibelheim, where he discovered that he was the product of a biological experiment that combined a human fetus with tissue from the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova. Upon discovering the truth of his origins and the experiments that created him, Sephiroth develops an intense hatred for Shinra, which develops into hatred for all life. After learning that Jenova, who he comes to consider his "mother", attempted to take control of the Planet 2,000 years ago, he decides to follow in her footsteps and become a god who would rule over the Planet. He burns down the entire village, resulting in the deaths of many people, but is assumed dead after a confrontation with Cloud inside a nearby Mako reactor. However, Cloud does not believe he killed Sephiroth, since his skill and might dwarfs his, and acknowledges Sephiroth most likely had won, but spared him for unknown reasons. However, a few years later, Sephiroth reappears and is determined to continue with his mission.

His plan to become a god is based upon his belief that he can merge with the Planet's Lifestream, taking control of it and the Planet itself. To do so, he must summon Meteor, a destructive meteorite entity from outer space capable of catastrophically damaging the Planet. At this point, the Lifestream will flow to attempt to heal the injury, allowing Sephiroth to merge with it and its Spirit Energy. Despite appearing multiple times throughout the game, it is revealed that Sephiroth's physical body is actually sealed in the Northern Crater. The Sephiroth Cloud and his allies fought were parts of Jenova's body taking on his appearance, which were remotely controlled by Sephiroth from the Planet's core. In the game's final battle, Sephiroth takes on two final forms: the first is called Bizarro Sephiroth, which is known as "Libath Sephiroth" in the original Japanese version (リバース・セフィロス, Ribāsu Sefirosu), meaning "The Core of Sephiroth" or "Sephiroth's Core" in Hebrew (ליבת ספירות). The second is called Safer Sephiroth, which is known as "Seifa Sephiroth" in the original Japanese version (セーファ・セフィロス, Sēfa Sefirosu), meaning "Final Sephiroth" or "The Last Part of Sephiroth" in Hebrew (סיפא ספירות). After his defeat, Sephiroth reappears in Cloud's mind, but is once again defeated. Despite his defeat, the Meteor still hits the planet; however, only the city of Midgar is destroyed, since Aerith's magic reduces the damage.

In Compilation of Final Fantasy VII
He makes several cameo appearances in the Final Fantasy VII prequel, Before Crisis, in which he supports Shinra in their battle against the eco-terrorist organization AVALANCHE. The incident at Nibelheim is also featured in the game. The OVA Last Order also depicts the Nibelheim incident. Sephiroth also appears in Advent Children, a CGI film set two years after Final Fantasy VII. In the film, Kadaj, Loz, and Yazoo, the "Remnants" of Sephiroth, try to reincarnate him. Although Kadaj eventually succeeds, Cloud once again defeats Sephiroth, whose body changes back to Kadaj's upon his defeat. Sephiroth is also the focus of the On the Way to a Smile novella "Case of the Lifestream — Black and White". Set after the end of Final Fantasy VII but prior to the events of Advent Children, the story centers on Aerith and Sephiroth's journeys through the Lifestream and Sephiroth's creation of Geostigma, a disease that infects anyone who came into contact with the tainted Lifestream. He makes a brief appearance in Dirge of Cerberus, a game set one year after Advent Children, in which his biological mother, Lucrecia Crescent discusses the experiments which gave birth to him.

He is one of the main characters in the Final Fantasy VII prequel Crisis Core, in which he and the protagonist Zack Fair search for two missing SOLDIERs, Genesis Rhapsodos and Angeal Hewley, This game also depicts the Nibelheim incident, where Sephiroth appears as a boss. Executive producer Yoshinori Kitase was pleased with Sephiroth's role in Crisis Core, feeling that he was given a more human side.

Other appearances
Sephiroth's first appearance outside Final Fantasy VII was as a selectable character in the fighting game Ehrgeiz. A redesigned Sephiroth also appears in the North American and European versions of Kingdom Hearts as an optional boss character in Olympus Coliseum. Lance Bass voiced Sephiroth in the game, while in subsequent titles he was replaced by George Newbern. In the Japanese re-release of the game, Final Mix, an additional scene was added in which Sephiroth fights Cloud, although the result of the fight is not revealed. Sephiroth was not included in the sequel Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, as director Tetsuya Nomura could not give him a storyline related to Cloud, and feared negative fan response if Sephiroth did not have a notable role in the story. He reappears as an optional boss in Kingdom Hearts II, where he is first encountered by the series' protagonist, Sora, and then Cloud, who is pursuing him. When Sephiroth battles Cloud, both of them disappear, with Sora believing that they went somewhere else to continue their fight. Nomura said that in this game, Sephiroth represents Cloud's dark side, in contrast to Tifa Lockhart, who represents his light side. Although Sephiroth does not appear in the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep, he is mentioned as a hero that Zack Fair aspires to be. The staff, however, did not know if they would portray him as a being of darkness like he was depicted as in other titles. Due to Sephiroth's many appearances as a boss in the Kingdom Hearts series, Square Enix decided he would not return in Kingdom Hearts III, as it would be redundant. Sephiroth also appears in the Itadaki Street games Special and Portable as an unlockable playable character.

Sephiroth was also the representative villain of Final Fantasy VII in Dissidia Final Fantasy, and is featured in his FFVII guise, while an alternative outfit features the "Safer Sephiroth" form. His fight against Cloud in the game was based on their fights from Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children. Along with the rest of the VII characters in Dissidia, Sephiroth appears in the prequel Dissidia 012. Tjr game includes a slightly altered Final Fantasy VII form for Sephiroth, as well as his Kingdom Hearts form. Sephiroth returns as a playable character opposite Cloud in the third entry, Dissidia NT. His form from Final Fantasy VII Remake also appeared in Final Fantasy Brave Exvius. He is featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy and its sequel, Curtain Call, as an unlockable character, representing Final Fantasy VII. He appears in the puzzle-platform game LittleBigPlanet, and its sequel as a character model; Media Molecule's Alex Evans felt "honored" that Sephiroth was allowed to appear in the games. He also appeared as a cameo in Monster Hunter 4 Ultimate as a weapon, which was designed as a single black wing, referencing Sephiroth's appearance during the last battle of Final Fantasy VII. Sephiroth appeared as a playable fighter in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, as the third fighter in Fighters Pass Vol. 2. Despite being officially released on December 22, 2020, he was made available five days prior for a limited time via an event called the Sephiroth Challenge, in which the player must defeat him in a Final Fantasy-themed stamina match.

Cultural impact

Merchandise
Sephiroth has served as a basis for several types of merchandise. These include the "Extra Knights" action figures first published by Bandai in Japan in 1997. A different model was released as part of the Play Arts collection, following the release of Advent Children. At the 2008 San Diego Comic-Con International, Kanji Tashiro, Square Enix's manager of merchandise, said that this figure was one of their best-selling items. With the release of the film, Sephiroth was also included in a series of promotional material, primarily consisting of posters. Kotobukiya has included the character in numerous merchandise, including a series of cold casts based on his appearance in both the original game and the film sequel. As a result of promotional campaigns organized in Japan by Square Enix and Coca-Cola, a version of Sephiroth drawn in a super deformed style was featured in the first two volumes of a promotional collection.

Products not connected to the release of the games or films have also been produced. These include a figure as part of the Final Fantasy Trading Arts Vol. 1 series, a set as part of the Square Minimum Collection alongside Cloud, and a rare figure of "Safer Sephiroth" as part of the Final Fantasy Creatures series (Chromium). "Reverse Sephiroth" was also released as a normal figure in volume 2. A figure based on his appearances in the Kingdom Hearts games was released in the second series of the Play Arts Kingdom Hearts sub-line. Some replica weapon companies have produced replicas of Sephiroth's sword, the Masamune, as a  katana with a stainless steel unsharpened blade. A statue at Kyoto University depicting Sephiroth was also made. Sephiroth received an amiibo figurine for use in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, which was released in January 2022.

Reception
On multiple occasions, numerous gaming magazines, including Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition, described Sephiroth as one of the best video game bosses, and best villains from both the Final Fantasy series in specific and in all of video games in general. Dave Smith of IGN called him the "heavyweight champion of Final Fantasy villains", and praised his appearance and backstory. Sephiroth was also named the 14th-best character of all time in Dengeki PlayStations retrospective awards feature about the original PlayStation. A professional wrestler Kenny Omega wore a Sephiroth-style ring outfit with a "One-Winged-Angel" entrance at Wrestle Kingdom 17, and additionally sported the attire as part of a downloadable content bundle in the 2023 remake of the 2014 game Like a Dragon: Ishin!.

Critical response
A reader's choice poll organized by GameSpot placed Sephiroth as the best boss of all time, receiving five times more votes than Bowser, who finished in second place; most of the comments noted the difficulty of the final fight against Sephiroth, as well as its distinctive elements when compared to other games. AnimeFringe called him "the most notorious villain in the entire Final Fantasy series" and "quintessential bishōnen in the eyes of many fans -- male and female", comparing him with Kefka and praising his complexity.

The scene in which Sephiroth kills Aerith during Final Fantasy VII has also prompted much commentary. GamesRadar+ called him "the biggest cock blocker in the gaming world", as writer Shane Patterson found Aerith's character to be appealing, and due to the fact Sephiroth killed her, players were unable to use her anymore. Also referring to the scene as a shocking moment, GameSpot suggested that the FMV sequence of Sephiroth appearing in front of the Nibelheim fire "might be one of the most recognizable cutscenes ever to grace video games".

However, some game editors have criticized Sephiroth's character. For example, IGNs Smith has stated that "Sephiroth was certainly a good-looking fellow, but his motivations were about as clear as mud". When comparing Sephiroth with the Final Fantasy VI villain, Kefka Palazzo, GamesRadar commented that he "seems as interesting as a dead accountant painted brown", while Screen Rant said that "Sephiroth is an iconic character, but not the most interesting villain to emerge from the Final Fantasy franchise". GameSpy editor Ryan Scott called Sephiroth the "King of Overrated Characters" during its villain feature for Dissidia Final Fantasy, arguing that gamers were impressed by him only because of his design and by how he killed Aerith during Final Fantasy VII.

Critics have also commented on Sephiroth's role in works. Destructoid noted there was a message within the writing of the film regarding the characters' lives in Midgar since the story ended with Cloud saving Midgar from Sephiroth's resurrection which would threaten it again especially when the spirit of Zack Fair reminds him that he has already defeated him. Kotaku saw the focus on the Midgar's ruins as a parallelism with psychological trauma due to how all of its survivors suffer a disease that cannot be fought with Cloud's striking weaponry on its own in contrast to his fights with the villain. Yoshinori Kitase stated that the fight between Cloud and Sephiroth was popular enough to make Japanese gamers do a remake of it for the crossover Dissidia Final Fantasy and expected Western fans also emulate it. In relation to Crisis Core, IGN AU said that "even Sephiroth gets his moments in the sun", praising the depth in his backstory, which would later make his boss battle more entertaining. IGN UK agreed, stating that his character was granted "a more human dimension" and enjoying some of the events from before his transformation into a villain. Though Meristation found Sephiroth more friendly in the prequel, his relationship with Genesis was panned for forcing his transformation into the emblematic villain he was known for in the original game rather than always acting on his own free will. His boss battle was also shown in 1UPs "25 More of the Most Badass Boss Fights Ever" in which the staff praised how the original battle from Final Fantasy VII was expanded in the title. The idea that there are four characters with Sephiroth's name led VG247 to note the remake still had its own mysteries that original players would not understand while the title. Siliconera described this incarnation of the antagonist as haunting, due to how he often appears within Cloud's hallucinations across the plot. Electronic Gaming Monthly felt the remake's Sephiroth was more menacing than in the original due to his constant threats towards Cloud. Tyler Hoechlin's work as Sephiroth was the subject of praise. During the reveal of its young version in Final Fantasy VII: Ever Crisis, fans have highly praised the character. Sephiroth being playable in Rebirth also attracted positive response due to his friendlier relationship with Cloud during their visit to Nibelheim as well as outstanding skills.

Several writers also noted Sephiroth's overpowered nature as a Kingdom Hearts boss, noting that regardless of the player's skill "walking away from this match unscathed" is not possible, to the point of saying that the fight was more difficult than the entirety of Final Fantasy VII. AnimeFringe stated that only advanced gamers would be able to defeat Kingdom Heartss Sephiroth because the player has no backup and that his "devastating attacks can kill in seconds". Masahiro Sakurai agreed that there are too many sword fighters after the addition of Sephiroth to Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. He said: "Well, even if it is another sword fighter, it will be fine as long as we balance them properly", implying that no one should blame him for the inclusion of sword-wielding fighters. Chris Carter of Destructoid and Ethan Gach of Kotaku both praised the addition of Sephiroth.

Analysis
In Reverse Design: Final Fantasy VII, Sephiroth was noted that his desire for world domination make him come across as simpleminded, but the lack of humanity in his background serves as the cause for such cause of characterization. Though Sephiroth might come across as lost in his own insanity, during Cloud's flashback when remembering him, the game's villain misses a late Shinra researcher in regards to his origins. In the book The World of Final Fantasy VII: Essays on the Game and Its Legacy, Sephiroth's realization of his connection with Jenova and his transformation into the game's villain, makes him lose his entire humanity. He threatens world peace with his mayhem and becomes comparable to Satan. Like Satan, Sephiroth claims he will never die, most notably in Advent Children upon being defeated by Cloud which causes him to say "I will never be a memory". The way he was born as a test subject by Gojo was created to the Frankenstein's monster from Mary Shelley's 1818 novel. Destructoid noted there was a message within the writing of the film regarding the characters' lives in Midgar, leading them to move on with their lives in a similar fashion to Final Fantasy VII gamers since the story ended with Cloud saving Midgar from Sephiroth's resurrection which would threaten it again especially when the spirit of Zack Fair reminds him that he has already defeated him already.

Although Sephiroth is not based on any mythical figurine, in The Secret Mythology of Final Fantasy Sephiroth's final boss form was instead compared more to 777 and Other Qabalistic Writings of Aleister Crowley written by Aleister Crowley which also explores Hermetic Qabalah like Sephiroth's name implies. PCGamer saw Sephiroth as Cloud's shadow the hero has to surpass as his mental issues and vulnerability are often shown whenever the villain is exposed in his past. Kotaku agreed about Sephiroth's portrayal as a shadow Cloud has to surpass again in the film as he attempts to traumatize him again similar to his Kingdom Hearts characterization.

See also
 List of Final Fantasy VII characters

References

External links

 Sephiroth on the Final Fantasy Wiki

Characters designed by Tetsuya Nomura
Extraterrestrial–human hybrids in video games
Fictional arsonists
Fictional hypnotists and indoctrinators
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional private military members
Fictional rampage and spree killers
Fictional soldiers in video games
Fictional super soldiers
Fictional swordfighters in video games
Final Fantasy VII characters
Genetically engineered characters in video games
Internet memes
Male characters in video games
Science fantasy video game characters
Shapeshifter characters in video games
Super Smash Bros. fighters
Video game antagonists
Video game bosses
Video game characters introduced in 1997
Video game characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Video game characters who use magic
Video game characters with superhuman strength

Sephiroth (Final Fantasy)


Dedektif veya Hafiye, suçları soruşturmak ve suçluları yakalamakla görevli polislere denir. Bazı ülkelerde devlet görevlisi olmayan özel dedektifler de vardır. Öykülerde ve romanlardaki dedektifler genellikle bu türden özel görevlilerdir.

Dedektif, bulundukları ülkenin, yasaları el verdiği ölçüde, kendilerinden talep edilen konular hakkında araştırmalar yapan ve buldukları verileri, raporlar halinde ilgili kişilere sunan, profesyonel araştırmacılardır. Bu kişiler resmi olmadıkları için özel dedektif diye anılırlar.

Dedektif becerikli ve sabırlı olmalıdır, çünkü soruşturduğu konuda yalnızca bir ipucu bulmak için bile aylarca çalışmak zorunda kalabilir. Günümüzde kanıtlar bulmada bilimsel yöntemler büyük kolaylık sağlar, ama dedektif gene de büyük ölçüde soru sorma yöntemiyle çalışır.

Güvenilebilir bir ortak olarak nitelendirilen dedektifler, resmî kurumlara bağlı olmadan kişinin gayri-resmî işlerinden haberdar olup suç teşkil edilmedikçe olayları üçüncü kişilerle paylaşmaz, bu nedenle özel dedektiflik halk tarafından talep gören bir meslek haline gelmiştir, öyle ki; araştırmaların çoğunda taleplerin kanunî olması ve özel mülk haklarına saygı gösterilmesi ile temel hak ve özgürlüklerin ihlal edilmemesi özel dedektiflerin ilkesi olduğu söylenmektedir. Bu nedenle kolluk kuvvetlerinin ihtimalleri araştırmadığının göz önünde bulundurulması söz konusuyken, olayları aydınlatmada tüm veriyi inceleyen özel dedektifler sonuca daha kolay ulaşabilirler.

Roman ve öykülerde dedektifler
Batı ülkelerinde polis örgütünün güçlenmesi, 19. yüzyılda dedektif öyküleri biçiminde edebiyata da yansıdı. Bir edebiyat yapıtında yaratılan ilk dedektif, Edgar Allan Poe'nun Morg Sokağı Cinayeti (Murders in the Rue Morg; 1841) romanındaki Auguste Dupin'dir. İngiliz yazar Wilkie Collins'in Aytaşı'ndaki (Moonstone; 1868) dedektifi Çavuş Cuff, sessiz ama cana yakın biri olarak dikkati çeker. Aynı yüzyılın sonlarında Arthur Conan Doyle'un Sherlock Holmes'u, edebiyat tarihinde benzeri görülmeyen bir ilgi uyandırmıştır. Conan Doyle'un dedektifi, alışılmışın dışında alışkanlıkları olan, özel bir soruşturmacıdır. Cinayetleri çözümlemede kendine özgü yöntemler kullanır. Sherlock Holmes göre, olanaksız olanın dışındaki her şey gerçektir.

Çağdaş polisiye romanlarının ünlü dedektifleri arasında Agatha Christie'nin kel, yumurta kafalı, pos bıyıklı, ufak tefek Belçikalı Hercule Poirot'su ile bir İngiliz köyünde yaşayan evde kalmış Bayan Marple'ı, Dorothy L. Sayers'in Lord Peter Wimsey'i sayılabilir. İngiliz yazar G. K. Chesterton'un yarattığı ufak tefek Peder Brown'u, Sherlock Holmes ile kıyaslanabilecek kadar parlak düşünceleri olan bir dedektiftir.

ABD'de, Sherlock Holmes kadar başarılı dedektif, hemen her konuda uzmanlaşmış Philo Vance'dir. Belçikalı yazar Georges Simenon'un yarattığı Müfettiş Maigret da profesyonel dedektifler arasında sayılır.

Dedektiflik bürosu
Dedektiflik Bürosu özel dedektiflik hizmeti veren, profesyonel dedektiflerin, güvenilir olduklarını gösteren, insanlara hizmet etmeleri için kurulan bürolardır.

Kaynakça

Meslekler
Polis rütbeleri
Fransızcadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Dedektif


Moscheea Teritoriului Federal sau Masjid Wilayah Persekutuan este o moschee din orașul Kuala Lumpur, Malaezia. Situată în apropiere de Complexul Guvernului Federal, aceasta este una dintre cele mai mari moschei din țară.

Istorie și arhitectură
Construită între anii 1998-2000, Moscheea Teritoriului Federal este a 44-a moschee construită de guvernul malaezian în Kuala Lumpur. Locașul a fost inaugurat oficial la data de 25 octombrie 2000 de către sultanul Abdul Halim și Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin, rajahul din Perlis.

Design-ul moscheii este un amestec de stiluri arhitecturale otomane, persane și malaeziene. Cu toate acestea, stilul otoman este stilul dominant al edificiului, moscheea fiind construită după modelul Moscheeii Albastre din Istanbul, Turcia. Locașul prezintă 22 de domuri realizate din fibră de sticlă amestecată cu rășină epoxidică pentru duritate și luminozitate. În incinta sa poate găzdui cel mult 17.000 de persoane, acest fapt făcând-o una dintre cele mari moschei din Malaezia.

Galerie de imagini

Moschei din Malaezia

Moscheea Teritoriului Federal


La Coupe des Pays-Bas de football 1907-1908, nommée la KNVB Beker, est la  de la Coupe des Pays-Bas.

Déroulement de la compétition
Tous les tours se jouent en élimination directe. À chaque tour, un tirage au sort est effectué pour déterminer les adversaires.

Finale
La finale se joue le  à Rotterdam, la deuxième équipe du HBS La Haye bat l'équipe réserve du VOC Rotterdam  3 à 1 et remporte son deuxième titre.

Notes et références
KNVB Beker 1907-1908 sur voetbalarchieven.nl

1907-1908
1907 aux Pays-Bas
1908 aux Pays-Bas
Pays-Bas


Die Coppa Italia 1998/99, den Fußball-Pokalwettbewerb für Vereinsmannschaften in Italien der Saison 1998/99, gewann die AC Parma. Parma traf im Finale auf die AC Florenz und konnte die Coppa Italia zum zweiten Mal nach 1992 gewinnen. Mit 1:1 und 2:2 setzte sich die AC Parma gegen die Fiorentina unter Verwendung der Auswärtstorregel durch. Man wurde Nachfolger von Lazio Rom, das im Viertelfinale gegen Inter Mailand ausschied.

Als italienischer Pokalsieger 1998/99 qualifizierte sich die AC Parma für den UEFA-Pokal des folgenden Jahres. Da sich sowohl Parma als auch der unterlegene Pokalfinalist aus Florenz für die UEFA Champions League 1999/2000 qualifiziert hatten, rückte der Tabellenneunte der Serie A 1998/99, der FC Bologna, in den UEFA-Pokal nach.

1. Runde

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2. Runde

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Achtelfinale

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Viertelfinale

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Halbfinale

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Finale

Hinspiel

Rückspiel

Siehe auch

 Serie A 1998/99
 Serie B 1998/99

Weblinks
 Informationen zur Coppa Italia auf rsssf.com

1998/99
Fußballsaison 1998/99

Coppa Italia 1998/99


An Platystele compacta in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Oakes Ames, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Oakes Ames. An Platystele compacta in nahilalakip ha genus nga Platystele, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Platystele

Platystele compacta


අට්ඨකථා එකතුවකින් හෙළටුවා සමන්විතවේ.සිංහලයෙන් ලියන ලද අට්ඨකථා හෙළටුවා වේ.මිහිදු හිමියන්ගේ පැමිණීමත් සමග බුදු දහම ලක්දිව තුල ප්‍රචලිත විය.එබැවින් ධර්මය  සිංහලයෙන් ලියන ලදී .ශ්‍රී මහා බෝධියේ ඉතිහාසය බෝධිවංශය ලෙසද ධාතුන්වහන්සේලාගේ ඉතිහාසය ධාතුවවංශය ලෙස ස්ථුප පිළිබද ඉතිහාසය ථුපවංශය ලෙසද, සාසනික ඉතිහාසයක් පවත්වාගෙන යෑම පිණිස වංශ කථා සාහිත්‍යක් ලක්දිව තුල භිහිවිය.එසේම ඊට සමගාමීව බුදු දහම අර්ථකථනය කිරීම පිණිස අටුවා සාහිත්‍යක්ද බිහිවිය.

බුද්ධාගම
ත්‍රිපිටකය

අට්ඨකථා


El Título II: Derechos es el segundo título de la constitución ecuatoriana vigente, la cual fue aprobada en el 2008 mediante referéndum constitucional. El título declara un catálogo de derechos fundamentales que ratifican aquellos que previamente han sido garantizados a través de instrumentos internacionales. Está compuesto por 74 artículos de la constitución, comprendidos desde el artículo 10 hasta el 83, los mismos que conforman nueve capítulos.

En la anterior constitución de 1998, se recopilaban los derechos que el Estado debía garantizar en su tercer título, los cuales subdividía de acuerdo a las generaciones de derechos humanos. En la Constitución de 2008, los derechos están divididos entre: los denominados derechos del buen vivir o sumak kawsay, los de personas o grupos de atención prioritaria, los derechos de las comunidades o nacionalidades, los de participación, los derechos de libertad, de la naturaleza, y los derechos de protección.

Principios de aplicación
El primer capítulo del Título II de la constitución ecuatoriana de 2008, trata sobre los principios que deben regir al momento de aplicarse los derechos fundamentales. Este capítulo solo consta de dos artículos.

En primer lugar, se estipula que los titulares de los derechos -garantizados tanto en la constitución ecuatoriana, como en los tratados y convenios internacionales suscritos y ratificados por el Estado ecuatoriano- son todas personas, comunidades, pueblos, nacionalidades y grupos sociales dentro del territorio nacional. También se establece a la naturaleza como sujeto de derecho.

Derechos

Derechos del buen vivir
La primera clase de derechos reconocidos en la constitución ecuatoriana vigente son los del buen vivir o sumak kawsay, los cuales se alinean a los derechos humanos de segunda generación (económicos, sociales y culturales), basándose previamente en costumbres locales, principalmente de las comunidades indígenas.

El primer derecho reconocido en este catálogo es el de agua y alimentación. El tema del agua fue propuesto en la Observación general 15 del Comité de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales en el 2002, como una derecho humano, propuesta que fue incluida en la elaboración del texto constitucional vigente en Ecuador. La Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas el 28 de julio de 2010, a través de la Resolución 64/292, reconoció explícitamente el derecho humano al agua.

Comunidades, pueblos y nacionalidades

Derechos de libertad
Los Derechos de Libertad, entes conocidos como derechos civiles, reconocen y garantizan la inviolabilidad de la vida, el derecho a una vida digna, la integridad personal, la igualdad formal, igualdad material y no discriminación, el libre desarrollo de la personalidad, la libertad de opinión y expresión del pensamiento, el derecho a la rectificación de afirmaciones inexactas en los medios de comunicación, la libertad de conciencia y de religión, el derecho a tomar decisiones libres sobre su sexualidad, vida y orientación sexual, a tomar decisiones libres, responsables e informadas sobre su salud y vida reproductiva, la reserva sobre sus convicciones, la objeción de conciencia, el derecho a asociarse en forma libre y voluntaria, a transitar libremente por el territorio nacional y a escoger su residencia, la libertad de iniciativa económica, libertad de trabajo, el derecho al honor y al buen nombre, a la protección de datos de carácter personal, a la intimidad personal y familiar; a la inviolabilidad y al secreto de la correspondencia, a la inviolabilidad de domicilio, el derecho a dirigir quejas y peticiones, a participar en la vida cultural de la comunidad, a disponer de bienes y servicios de calidad, a la propiedad en todas sus formas, con función y responsabilidad social y ambiental, a vivir en un ambiente sano y el derecho a la identidad. Entre los Derechos de Libertad también se incluyen los artículos referentes a los distintos tipos de familias, la definición de matrimonio, de unión de hecho y las normas de protección de los derechos de los integrantes de la familia.

Derecho de la naturaleza
El capítulo séptimo, denominado "Derechos de la naturaleza" contempla los siguientes: derecho a la conservación integral; derecho a la restauración; precaución de extinción de especies y no introducción de organismos genéticamente modificados; y no apropiación de servicios ambientales, reconoce plenamente a la naturaleza como titular de derecho, tanto así  que en su Art. 71, manifiesta que "La naturaleza o Pacha Mama, donde se reproduce y realiza la vida, tiene derecho a que se respete integralmente su existencia y el mantenimiento y regeneración de sus ciclos vitales, estructura, funciones y procesos evolutivos.

Responsabilidad ciudadana

Véase también
 Constitución de Ecuador de 2008
 Historia del constitucionalismo ecuatoriano

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

 Sitio web oficial de la Presidencia del Ecuador - Texto de la Constitución de Ecuador de 2008

Constitución de Ecuador de 2008

Título II de la Constitución de Ecuador de 2008


Eugene Clay Shaw Jr. (April 19, 1939 – September 10, 2013) was an American jurist and Republican politician who served as mayor of Fort Lauderdale and represented South Florida in the United States House of Representatives from 1981 until 2007. He was defeated for re-election by Ron Klein in 2006.

Early life, education, and legal career
Shaw was born in Miami, Florida. He graduated in 1957 from Miami Edison Senior High School. He received a bachelor's degree in business in 1961 from Stetson University in Florida, where he joined Sigma Nu fraternity, a master's degree in accounting in 1963 from the University of Alabama, and a law degree in 1966 from Stetson University School of Law. Shaw married the former Emilie Costar on August 22, 1960.

After graduating, Shaw practiced law and worked as a certified public accountant. In 1968, he became assistant city attorney in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He was chief city prosecutor from 1968 to 1969 and an associate municipal judge from 1969 to 1971.

Fort Lauderdale politics
Shaw was the city commissioner from 1971 to 1973 and vice mayor 1973 to 1975. He then served as mayor of Fort Lauderdale from 1975 to 1981. During his tenure as mayor, Shaw served on the advisory board and executive committee of the U.S. Conference of Mayors, was president of the National Conference of Republican Mayors, and was named special U.S. ambassador to Papua New Guinea by President Gerald Ford.

U.S. House of Representatives

Elections
1980
The 1980 election cycle provided Republicans with the opportunity to gain Congressional seats.  As Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter battled for the White House, the National Republican Campaign Committee was actively seeking a Republican candidate in South Florida to challenge freshman Democratic congressman Edward J. Stack.  The district, one of the first parts of Florida to turn Republican, had been held by Republican J. Herbert Burke for 12 years before Stack ousted him in 1978.  Having been turned down by two potential candidates, including state Senator Van B. Poole, National Congressional Republicans set their eyes on popular Fort Lauderdale mayor, Clay Shaw.

After multiple attempts to convince Shaw to run for Congress, Shaw agreed. With the support of his wife, Emilie, and four young children, he undertook the task of defeating an incumbent. However, Shaw's candidacy received a significant boost when Stack was upset in the Democratic primary by a young Fort Lauderdale lawyer, Allen Becker. Shaw and Becker faced off in a spirited November general election with Shaw winning 55 percent of the vote. Congressman-elect Shaw was on his way to Washington to represent Broward County's 15th Congressional district.
Also in 1980, Ronald Reagan became the 40th president of the United States, and Republicans gained control of the United States Senate.

1982
Redistricting numbered Shaw's district as the 15th District. Shaw faced a rematch against his predecessor, Ed Stack. However, Shaw turned back this challenge fairly easily, winning 57 percent of the vote.

1984
Shaw won re-election with 66% against Democratic nominee Bill Humphrey.

1986
Shaw won re-election without opposition.

1988
Shaw won re-election with 66% against Democratic nominee Mike Kuhle.

1990
Shaw was re-elected without opposition.

1992
In November 1992, Shaw faced his toughest congressional opponent to date. Following the 1990 U.S. census, the Democratic-controlled Florida Legislature reapportioned the state's congressional districts. Shaw's district was renumbered as the 22nd District and significantly altered.

For his first five terms, he had represented a relatively compact district in Broward County.  However, it was reconfigured into a district that stretched for 90 miles along the coast, from Juno Beach to the north to Lincoln Road on Miami Beach to the south. His Democratic opponent was State Senate President Gwen Margolis, who had drawn her home in Dade County into the district.

The Shaw–Margolis race was highly competitive. Both campaigns were full of energy and raised thousands of dollars in campaign contributions. The campaigns highlighted the other candidates' records. She claimed that Shaw voted to "decriminalize drugs" while in Washington. Shaw called the claim "an absolute falsehood". She fought back concerns about her involvement with the failed Miami Beach Savings & Loan.  In March 1992, the Resolute Trust Corporation filed suit against Margolis and other bank directors claiming they approved speculative loans and were responsible for $4.5 million in losses. In the end, however, Shaw cruised to victory in November, claiming 58% of the general election vote.

1994
Shaw won re-election with 63% of the vote against Democratic nominee Hermine Weiner.

Shaw was a supporter of the Republican Contract with America that helped sweep the Republican Party to control of the United States Congress for the first time in forty years.

1996
Shaw won re-election with 62% of the vote against Democratic nominee Ken Cooper.

1998
Shaw was re-elected unopposed.

2000

Seeking his 10th term in Congress, Shaw faced a challenge in state Representative Elaine Bloom. Bloom declared her candidacy in June 1999. Aided by the Democratic presidential ticket of Al Gore and Joe Lieberman, Bloom was making the race competitive.

In early October it was reported that Bloom served on the board of a Florida pharmaceutical company that was accused of price fixing.  Bloom denied the accusations, yet press reports, including a piece on Nightline, highlighted the price fixing scandal. Bloom remained on defense for the remainder of the campaign. Ultimately, Shaw won by 599 votes out of more than 220,000 votes cast. It was only the second difficult re-election contest for Shaw. The district, once a Republican-leaning swing district, swung Democratic in the early 1990s along with much of South Florida. In 2000, Al Gore defeated George W. Bush in the district by 52% to 48%.

2002
Following Shaw's extremely close race in 2000, the state legislature, now controlled by Republicans, cut out the heavily Democratic spur of Miami-Dade County that had been added in the 1990s round of redistricting, pushing it further into Palm Beach County. Although the district was friendlier for Shaw than its predecessor, it was only slightly less Democratic than its predecessor (even though Republicans had a small plurality of registered voters). Shaw was re-elected with 61% of the vote against Democrat Carol Roberts, a former Palm Beach County commissioner.

2004
Shaw won re-election with 63% of the vote against a last-minute replacement Democratic candidate, Robin Rorapaugh. His original opponent, Jim Stork, dropped out before the election for medical reasons, but his name remained on the ballot. John Kerry defeated George W. Bush in the district by a margin of 50% to 48%.

2006

Shaw was defeated in the general election by Democratic State Senator Ron Klein, who won by a 51% to 48% margin.

After his 2006 loss, Shaw donated his official Congressional papers (totaling more than 100 linear feet) and memorabilia to his alma mater, Stetson University. The Shaw Collection includes policy notebooks, plaques, awards, videos, letters from U.S. presidents, a number of signed and framed bills with the presidential signing pens, and more than 2,500 photos.

Tenure
E. Clay Shaw Jr. 17th Street Causeway Bridge
In 2002, the newly constructed 17th Street Causeway bridge reopened to Fort Lauderdale traffic.  As a result of federal funding secured by the Congressman Shaw, the Florida Legislature approved a resolution naming the 17th Street bridge the E. Clay Shaw Jr. Bridge.

Missing Children's Act
Swept into office as part of the Reagan Revolution, Shaw quickly found himself at the center of a national tragedy following the death of 7-year-old constituent Adam Walsh.  As a result of this tragedy, Shaw introduced the Missing Children's Act of 1982.  The legislation allowed parents access to a central computer file designed to trace missing children. President Reagan signed the legislation on October 12, 1982.

Shaw was honored for his efforts and continued support for missing and exploited children in 2004, with other members of Congress, by the Center for Missing and Exploited Children and its founder John Walsh.

Posse Comitatus
As a member of the House Judiciary Committee, Shaw aggressively supported legislation to fight the war on drugs. In fall 1986, Shaw lamented that illegal drugs were "the biggest threat we have ever had to our national security."

To combat the rise of illegal drug trafficking and its impact on Americans, in May 1988 the House of Representatives voted 385 to 23 authorizing 45 days for President Reagan to mobilize U.S. armed forces in the fight against illegal drug trafficking. The legislation required the U.S. military to halt illegal drug trafficking into the southern portions of the United States while requiring the Pentagon to begin aerial radar coverage of the U.S. southern border. The legislation amended the Civil War-era Posse Comitatus Act which prohibited the military from enforcing civilian laws. Calling the overwhelming bipartisan vote the end of a defeatist "Vietnam type mentality toward the war on drugs", Shaw solidified his standing as a leader in the war on drugs.

Welfare reform
Shaw said in 1994, "The inscription at the base of the Statue of Liberty was written before welfare. People come to this country to work. Now the question becomes, Are these handouts a magnet that is bringing people into this country? To some degree, they are."

As a result of the Republican takeover of the United States Congress following the 1994 mid-term elections, Shaw was awarded with his first chairmanship of his Congressional career. As a senior member of the Ways and Means Committee, Shaw was tapped to chair the Human Resources Subcommittee.  This move was significant, for included in the Republican Contract with America was a commitment to reform of the nation's welfare system.

Shaw began work on reforming welfare in 1995 by holding numerous committee hearings and public sessions to identify problems within the welfare system.  Working with state governors such as Florida Governor Lawton Chiles, Michigan Governor John Engler, Wisconsin Governor Tommy Thompson and Delaware Governor Tom Carper, Shaw began crafting legislation that shifted the federal focus of social welfare to an emphasis on personal responsibility. After two presidential vetoes by President Bill Clinton, welfare reform was finally signed into law on August 22, 1996.

Committee assignments
House Ways and Means Committee
Shaw was the second most senior Republican on the House Ways and Means committee at the time he left Congress, having assumed that position after Phil Crane lost in his bid for re-election.

Trade subcommittee
From 2005 to 2007, Shaw chaired the Ways and Means Trade subcommittee and was actively involved in the passage of the United States free trade agreement between a number of Central American nations and the Dominican Republic. As chairman, Shaw and his fellow Republicans on the Ways and Means Committee voted the trade agreement out of committee on a straight party line vote.

Shortly thereafter the House passed, by a vote of 217–215, the Dominican Republic Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) to open U.S. exports up, duty-free, to the Central American nations of the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. President George W. Bush signed the United States-DR-CAFTA Free Trade Agreement on August 3, 2005, with Shaw and other members of Congress present.

In addition, Shaw was a strong supporter of U.S. export opportunities to the impoverished nation of Haiti.

Social Security Subcommittee
From 1999 to 2005, he was a chairman of the Social Security Subcommittee. As chairman of the Social Security committee, Shaw introduced legislation to repeal the Social Security Earnings Penalty. In March 2000, the House of Representatives, by a vote of 422–0 passed the Social Security Earnings Penalty repeal. Following Senate approval, President Bill Clinton signed the bill into law.  The new law allows seniors ages 65 to 69 to continue working without the fear of losing their Social Security benefits.

Human Resources Subcommittee
From 1995 to 1998, Shaw chaired the Human Resources subcommittee. Following the 1994 Republican takeover of Congress, Shaw was named as chair of this important House committee. Having introduced legislation previously to reform welfare, he found himself in a key post to enact much-needed reform. As a result of his efforts, the welfare system was drastically changed and replaced with an emphasis on personal responsibility. Welfare reform was the hallmark of Shaw's congressional career.

Florida Congressional Delegation chairman
Shaw was also the chairman of the Florida delegation from 1996 until leaving office in 2007. In this capacity, Shaw coordinated activities by the delegation including bipartisan delegation meetings.  In this capacity, he facilitated discussion amongst Florida colleagues on particular issues or topics and invited special guests to address the delegation including Governor Jeb Bush, Federal Emergency Management Agency Director David Paulison, and federal and state officials.

House 2015 caucus
In 2003, following lung cancer surgery, Shaw, along with Minnesota Congressman Colin Peterson, founded the House 2015 Caucus. The purpose of the 2015 Caucus was to find a cure for cancer or treat it as a manageable disease by 2015. Members of the caucus expressed their desire to eliminate cancer disease and suffering by 2015.

Shaw was also a member of the Congressional Arts Caucus, Congressional Fire Services Caucus, Congressional Narcotics Abuse and Control Caucus, Congressional Social Security Caucus, Congressional Travel and Tourism Caucus, Friends of Ireland, Law Enforcement Caucus and Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Caucus. He was also the co-chair of the Congressional Boating Caucus, Congressional Coastal Caucus and International Conservation Caucus.

Post-congressional career
In 2007, following his departure from Congress, Shaw provided his entire Congressional collection to his alma mater, Stetson University.  The Shaw collection is housed at the university's duPont-Ball library in DeLand, Florida.

In 2008, Clay Shaw was named a Great Floridian by the Florida Department of State, an honor extended to individuals who made major contributions to the progress and welfare of the state of Florida.  Shaw's honor was advocated by state House Representative Adam Hasner (R-Delray Beach). Clay Shaw remained active in the Ft. Lauderdale community, including chairing the recent celebration of Ft. Lauderdale's founding.

Personal life
Shaw and his wife Emilie had four children Emilie "Mimi" Carter, Jennifer Wilder, E. Clay Shaw III and J.C. Shaw and 15 grandchildren Charles Wyatt Carter, Emilie Martin, Rita Carter, Casey Carter, Keeley Iriondo, Ashton Brown, Hogan Wilder, Chandler Wilder, Reagan Shaw, E. Clay Shaw IV, David Baker Shaw, Hampton Shaw, Dakota Shaw, McGregor Shaw and Keegan Shaw. .

Shaw died September 10, 2013, after a battle with lung cancer.  He was 74.  He is buried in Cuba, Alabama.

See also
 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act

References

External links

 Voting record maintained by the Washington Post
 US News & World Report on Shaw's 2006 Re-Election Campaign
 The E. Clay Shaw Collection at the Stetson University Library

1939 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
American prosecutors
Florida lawyers
University of Alabama alumni
Politicians from Miami
Mayors of Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Deaths from lung cancer in Florida
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Florida
Stetson University College of Law alumni
20th-century American lawyers

Clay Shaw (politician)


فيلم روبوكوب (الشرطيّ الآليّ)، هو فيلم خيال علمي أنتج سنة 1987 للمخرج الأمريكي بول فرموهن،

قصه الفيلم
تروي القصة عن مدينة تعاني من المجرمين وقطاع الطرق هي مدينة ميتشيغان بولاية ديترويت في المستقبل الإفتراضي، روبوكوب ذلك الشرطي الذي قتل بوحشية من قبل المجرمين، إلا أنهم حولوه بعد العملية الجراحية إلى رجل آلي.

شارك الفيلم كل من بيتر ويلر، سميث كورتوود، نانسي ألين، ميغيل فيرير وروني كوكس.

الممثلون
 بيتر ويلر—موظف اليكس مورفي / وهو روبوكوب
 نانسي ألن—موظف آن ويس
 روني كوكس—ريتشارد «ديك» جونز
 ] سميث كورتوود—كلارنس بودي كير
 ميغيل فيرير—روبرت «بوب» مورتون
 ] دان هيرليهي—العجوز
 ] بول ماك كرين—ايمل انتونوسكي
 راي الحكماء—ليون ناش
 ] جيسي دي غوينز—جو كوكس
 كالفن يونغ—ستيف مينه
 ] روبرت دوكوي—الرقيب وارن ريد
 فيلتون بيري—دونالد جونسون
 لي دي بروكس—سال

التصوير

التصوير بدأ في صيف 1986 واستمرت في الفترة من 6 أغسطس حتى منتصف تشرين الأول / أكتوبر. للاهتمام، أن المشاهد التي تصور مورفي 'الموت' لم تصويره حتى بعد كانون الثاني / يناير (1987)، وبعد بضعة أشهر الرئيسية إطلاق النار قد توقف. العديد من المناطق الحضرية من الفيلم تم تصويره في وسط دالاس ، تكساس بسبب ظهور المستقبلية من المباني. واجهة دالاس بلدية استخدم الخارج للروائي OCP المقر، إلى جانب لوحة ماتي واسعة لجعل المبنى يبدو طولا.

انظر أيضاً
 روبوكوب 2 (فيلم)
 روبوكوب 3 (فيلم)

مراجع
 الحسين الزروالي

وصلات خارجية

 Criterion Collection essay by Carrie Rickey

أفلام أمريكية في عقد 1980
أفلام أبطال خارقين أمريكية
أفلام أبطال خارقين في عقد 1980
أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية ساخرة
أفلام أمريكية عن انتقام
أفلام أمريكية مستقلة
أفلام أوريون بيكشرز
أفلام إنتاج 1987
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 1980
أفلام بوليسية
أفلام تقع أحداثها في المستقبل
أفلام تقع أحداثها في ديترويت (ميشيغان)
أفلام تكنو وإثارة
أفلام حركة في 1987
أفلام حولت إلى ألعاب فيديو
أفلام حولت إلى برامج تلفزيونية
أفلام حولت إلى قصص مصورة
أفلام خيال علمي إنتاج عقد 1980
أفلام خيال علمي وحركة أمريكية
أفلام خيال علمي وحركة عقد 1980
أفلام سايبربانك
أفلام سايوبرغ
أفلام عن الذكاء الاصطناعي
أفلام عن الطائرات بدون طيار
أفلام عن الفساد
أفلام عن تأثير التقنية
أفلام عن فقدان الذاكرة
أفلام عن مبتوري الأطراف
أفلام كوميدية سوداء عقد 1980
أفلام مستقلة 1987
أفلام مستقلة عقد 1980
أفلام مصورة في بنسلفانيا
أفلام مصورة في تكساس
أفلام مصورة في دالاس
أفلام من إخراج بول فيرهويفن
البعث بعد الموت في أفلام
جراحة ترقيعية في الخيال

روبوكوب


Zora Heide ( -) est une espérantiste croate.

Biographie
Zora Heide nait le  à Levinovac, proche de Virovitica, en Croatie. Elle obtient son baccalauréat en . Elle étudie à la faculté de droit de Zagreb, mais doit interrompre ses études. En , elle obtient un diplôme de technicienne de laboratoire et commence à travailler à l'institut urbain de l'hygiène de Zagreb. Elle y travaille jusqu'en 1960, date à laquelle elle se marie avec un danois et déménage au Danemark. Elle travaille dans divers laboratoires de Copenhague.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Naissance en novembre 1924
Naissance en Croatie

Zora Heide


Apneja (lat. XVI. st. apnoea, < grč. ἄπνοια: izostanak disanja, prema ἀ: odsustvo; πνοή: disanje) predstavlja kratkotrajni prestanak disanja.

Apneju je moguće izazvati i direktnom inhibicijom dišnog centra uz pomoć narkotičnih sredstava poput etera, barbiturata i morfija.

Apneički sindrom ili apneja predstavlja jedan od najčešćih uzroka nesanice. Kad osoba pati od ovog sindroma, probudi se više puta tijekom noći uz prestanak disanja. Zbog neispavanosti i iscrpljenosti, često se osobama sa ovim sindromom pogrešno dijagnosticira nesanica. Ponekad se osobe žale na prekomjernu pospanost tijekom dana, što posljedično vodi do dijagnoze hipersomnije.  Kao moguća neurološka osnova ovog premećaja spavanja navodi se oštećenje produljene leđne moždine.

Razlikuju se dvije vrste apneičkih poremećaja spavanja: opstruktivni i centralni. Opstruktivni poremećaj spavanja se javlja prilikom opstrukcije dišnih putova, koju izaziva grč mišića ili atonija.

Ako je osobi dijagnosticiran ovaj poremećaj spavanja, imat će veću vjerojatnost za razvoj neuroloških, psihijatrijskih, kardiovaskularnih bolesti...

Dijagnoza opstruktivne apneje se obavlja pomoću cjelonoćne polisomnografije ili kardiorespiracijske poligrafije. Također postavljanje dijagnoze je moguće pomoću endoskopskog pregleda gornjih dišnih putova dok je osoba uspavana.

Liječenje sindroma opstruktivne apneje u spavanju zahtijeva multidisciplinarni pristup, no prije postupka liječenja potrebno je utvrditi uzrok koji je prethodio ovom poremećaju.

Kod osoba sa patološkim tjelesnim promjenama, koje su uzrok opstrukcije dišnih putova, bolje je primijeniti kirurško liječenje.

Centralni apneički poremećaj spavanja javlja se vrlo rijetko. Za njega je karakteristično to što živčani sustav jednostavno ne može pospješiti disanje.

Apneički sindrom je najčešće javlja kod muškaraca, gojaznih i starijih osoba.

Izvori

Apneja


The enzyme cholinesterase (EC 18.104.22.168, choline esterase; systematic name acylcholine acylhydrolase) catalyses the hydrolysis of choline-based esters:

 an acylcholine + H2O = choline + a carboxylate

Several of these serve as neurotransmitters. Thus, it is either of two enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of these cholinergic neurotransmitters, such as breaking acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid. These reactions are necessary to allow a cholinergic neuron to return to its resting state after activation. For example, in muscle contraction, acetylcholine at a neuromuscular junction triggers a contraction; but for the muscle to relax afterward, rather than remaining locked in a tense state, the acetylcholine must be broken down by a choline esterase. The main type for that purpose is acetylcholinesterase (also called choline esterase I or erythrocyte cholinesterase); it is found mainly in chemical synapses and red blood cell membranes. The other type is butyrylcholinesterase (also called choline esterase II or plasma cholinesterase); it is found mainly in the blood plasma.

Types and nomenclature

The two types of cholinesterase are acetylcholinesterase (ACHE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BCHE). The difference between the two types has to do with their respective preferences for substrates: the former hydrolyses acetylcholine more quickly; the latter hydrolyses butyrylcholine more quickly.

The term cholinesterase is sometimes used to refer specifically to butyrylcholinesterase, but this usage produces the oddity that cholinesterase and false cholinesterase (pseudocholinesterase) under that scheme mean the same thing (confusingly), and acetylcholinesterase is then called true cholinesterase in contrast, producing the second oddity that cholinesterase and true cholinesterase then do not mean the same thing. But such usage is now outdated; the current, unambiguous HGNC names and symbols are acetylcholinesterase (ACHE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BCHE).

Acetylcholinesterase () (ACHE), also known as AChE, choline esterase I, RBC cholinesterase, or erythrocyte cholinesterase, true cholinesterase, choline esterase I, or (most formally) acetylcholine acetylhydrolase, is found primarily in the blood on red blood cell membranes, in neuromuscular junctions, and in other neural synapses. Acetylcholinesterase exists in multiple molecular forms.  In the mammalian brain the majority of AChE occurs as a tetrameric, G4 form (10) with much smaller amounts of a monomeric G1 (4S) form.

Butyrylcholinesterase () (BCHE), also known as cholinesterase, choline esterase II, BChE, BuChE, pseudocholinesterase (PCE), plasma cholinesterase (PChE), serum cholinesterase (SChE), butylcholinesterase, or (most formally) acylcholine acylhydrolase, is produced in the liver and found primarily in blood plasma. The butyl and butyryl syllables both refer to butane with one of its terminal methyl groups substituted.

The half-life of BCHE is approximately 10 to 14 days. BCHE levels may be reduced in patients with advanced liver disease.  The decrease must be greater than 75% before significant prolongation of neuromuscular blockade occurs with succinylcholine.

Discovery

In 1968, Walo Leuzinger et al. successfully purified and crystallized acetylcholinesterase from electric eels at Columbia University, New York.

The 3D structure of acetylcholinesterase was first determined in 1991 by Joel Sussman et al. using protein from the Pacific electric ray.

Clinically useful quantities of butyrylcholinesterase were synthesized in 2007 by PharmAthene, through the use of genetically modified goats.

Clinical significance

An absence or mutation of the BCHE enzyme leads to a medical condition known as pseudocholinesterase deficiency. This is a silent condition that manifests itself only when people that have the deficiency receive the muscle relaxants succinylcholine or mivacurium during a surgery.

Pseudocholinesterase deficiency may also affect local anaesthetic selection in dental procedures. The enzyme plays an important role in the metabolism of ester-based local anaesthetics, a deficiency lowers the margin of safety and increases the risk of systemic effects with this type of anaesthetic. The selection of an amide-based solution is recommended in such patients.

Elevation of plasma BCHE levels was observed in 90.5% of cases of acute myocardial infarction.

The presence of ACHE in the amniotic fluid may be tested in early pregnancy. A sample of amniotic fluid is removed by amniocentesis, and presence of ACHE can confirm several common types of birth defect, including abdominal wall defects and neural tube defects.

BCHE can be used as a prophylactic agent against nerve gas and other organophosphate poisoning.

Some early research points to genetic butylcholinesterase deficiency as a possible candidate component in sudden infant death syndrome.

The enzyme  Acetylcholin esterase, and its inhibition, plays a role in the development of myofascial trigger points and the associated myofascial pain syndrome. By injecting a mouse with acetylcholin esterase inhibitors and electrical stimulation, the muscle develops trigger points.

Inhibitors

A cholinesterase inhibitor (or "anticholinesterase") suppresses the action of the enzyme. Because of its essential function, chemicals that interfere with the action of cholinesterase are potent neurotoxins, causing excessive salivation and eye-watering in low doses, followed by muscle spasms and ultimately death (examples are some snake venoms, and the nerve gases sarin and VX). One counteracting medication is pralidoxime. The so-called nerve gases and many substances used in insecticides have been shown to act by combining with a residue of serine in the active site of acetylcholine esterase, inhibiting the enzyme completely. The enzyme acetylcholine esterase breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is released at nerve and muscle junctions, in order to allow the muscle or organ to relax. The result of acetylcholine esterase inhibition is that acetylcholine builds up and continues to act so that any nerve impulses are continually transmitted and muscle contractions do not stop.

Among the most common acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are phosphorus-based compounds, which are designed to bind to the active site of the enzyme. The structural requirements are a phosphorus atom bearing two lipophilic groups, a leaving group (such as a halide or thiocyanate), and a terminal oxygen. The entry on Lawesson's reagent has some details on one sub-class of the phosphorus-based compounds.

Some benzodiazepines, e.g. temazepam have an inhibitory effect on cholinesterase.

Cholinesterase levels can be used as an indirect marker of arsenic exposure.

Outside of biochemical warfare, anticholinesterases are also used for reversing medication induced paralysis during anesthesia; as well as in the treatment of myasthenia gravis, glaucoma, and Alzheimer's disease.  Such compounds are used for killing insects in a range of products including sheep dip, organophosphate pesticides, and carbamate pesticides.  In addition to acute poisoning as described above, a semi-acute poisoning characterized by strong mental disturbances can occur. Also, prolonged exposure can cause birth defects.

Additional images

References

External links
 ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cholinesterase Inhibitors, Including Insecticides and Chemical Warfare Nerve Agents U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Movies at weizmann.ac.il showing the structure of acetylcholinesterase and interactions with various inhibitors.

Acetylcholine
Peripheral membrane proteins
EC 3.1.1

Cholinesterase


Batarya, orduda en küçük topçu birliği.
 Batarya, cep telefonu ve benzeri cihazlara takılan şarjlı pil.
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Batarya


Anton Adalbert Edler von Braunmühl (* 14. Oktober 1901 in Kelheim; † 12. März 1957 in München) war ein deutscher Psychiater. Er wurde bekannt als ein Pionier der somatischen Therapie psychischer Erkrankungen. Braunmühl wandte in großem Umfang Schocktherapien an, darunter als einer der ersten deutschen Psychiater die Elektrokrampftherapie. Später gehörte er zu den Anhängern der Leukotomie.

Leben und Wirken
Als Sohn des Amtsrichters Anton Padua von Braunmühl und seiner Ehefrau Anna geb. Stangl in Kelheim geboren studierte er Medizin in München und absolvierte sein praktisches Jahr als Assistent Walther Spielmeyers an der Deutschen Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie. Unmittelbar nach Promotion und Approbation kam Braunmühl im Mai 1927 als Assistenzarzt an die Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Eglfing-Haar, wo er bis auf eine kurze Unterbrechung 1946 bis zu seinem Tod tätig bleiben sollte.

Nachdem ihm 1934 eine Habilitation verweigert worden war, weil er kein Mitglied der NSDAP war, habilitierte sich Braunmühl 1943. Sein Spezialgebiet war die Histopathologie. Er führte die kolloidchemische Betrachtungsweise in die Neuropathologie ein und führte Modellversuche zur Bildung von Plaques und Fibrillenveränderungen im Gehirn durch, die er als Ausdruck einer Synärese interpretierte und damit als fakultative Merkmale physikalisch-chemischer Vorgänge.

Als Anstaltsarzt widmete sich Braunmühl vor allem der kausalen Therapie psychischer Erkrankungen. Er führte ab 1936 damals neu entwickelte somatische Behandlungsverfahren in der Anstalt Eglfing-Haar ein. So wurde am 3. November 1936 eine Insulinstation unter seiner Leitung eröffnet, auf der Insulinschocktherapien durchgeführt wurden. Braunmühl kombinierte diese Therapie auch mit der Cardiazolschocktherapie und erprobte 1938 das Krampfmittel Azoman der Firma Boehringer & Sohn. Seine Behandlungsstation weckte unter Besuchern die Hoffnung, Schizophrenie könne wirksam behandeln werden.

Nach einem Besuch bei dem italienischen Psychiater Ugo Cerletti, der seit 1938 als erster Elektrokrämpfe an Menschen anwendete, erwarb Braunmühl ein Elektrokrampf-Gerät bei der Firma Siemens-Reiniger und begann noch im Dezember 1939 mit dieser Therapieform. Bis Ende 1941 verabreichte er ca. 6.000 Krampfbehandlungen in Eglfing-Haar. Im Unterschied zu Friedrich Meggendorfer in Erlangen, der die Elektroden starr am Kopf des Kranken befestigte, entwickelte Braunmühl mobile, von Hand geführte Elektroden. Braunmühl ließ die Patienten außerdem die von ihm sogenannte "embryonale Lagerung" einnehmen. Er kombinierte die Insulinschocktherapie und die Elektrokrampfbehandlung, auch als während des Zweiten Weltkrieges das Insulin knapper wurde.

In Veröffentlichungen setzte sich Braunmühl für ein aktives therapeutisches Vorgehen der Psychiater ein und wandte sich gegen Kritiker, welche die somatischen Behandlungsmethoden mit berüchtigten frühen Behandlungsmethoden der Psychiatrie wie dem Drehstuhl oder der Spritzmaschine verglichen. Er war sich über die Gefahren der neuen Therapien für die Patienten im Klaren – bereits kurz nach Eröffnung der Insulinstation war ein Patient an der Therapie gestorben –, sah sich aber durch die Schwere der Krankheit berechtigt, sie anzuwenden. Diese radikale Betonung der Therapie wurde als ein Teil des Konzeptes der NS-Psychiatrie beschrieben, die sich im Wesentlichen als eine ärztlich heilende Wissenschaft verstand und diejenigen, die als nicht mehr heilbar erschienen, der Vernichtung preisgab.

Braunmühl befürwortete zwar die Zwangssterilisation der Therapierten, weil auch er die Ursache der psychischen Krankheit in den Erbanlagen begründet sah. Er beteiligte sich jedoch nicht aktiv an den Vernichtungsaktionen gegen psychisch kranke Menschen wie der Aktion T4. So konfrontierte er nach eigener Angabe als einziger Anstaltsarzt den Anstaltsleiter Hermann Pfannmüller, weil ihm die massenhaften Verlegungen verdächtig vorkamen und lehnte es ab, an Tagen Bereitschaftsdienst zu leisten, an denen die Gemeinnützige Krankentransport GmbH Patienten abholte. Pfannmüller, für den Braunmühl wegen seiner Therapien als Aushängeschild der Anstalt diente, versprach, ihn nicht mehr damit zu behelligen.

Hans-Ludwig Siemen konzediert, ein mögliches Motiv Braunmühls möge es gewesen sein, durch seine Therapien möglichst viele Menschen durch Heilung zu retten. Gleichzeitig verweist er darauf, dass unter Braunmühl und Pfannmüller in Eglfing-Haar das menschenverachtende Psychiatrieprogramm des Nationalsozialismus in besonders extremer Weise umgesetzt worden sei. Während Braunmühl mehr als 500 Patienten mit modernsten Methoden therapierte, wurden mehr als 2.000 Menschen in die Tötungsanstalten Grafeneck und Hartheim deportiert und dort ermordet. Die Historikerin Sibylle von Tiedemann hält es für bewiesen, dass Braunmühl wohl nie in einem der "Hungerhäuser" von Eglfing-Haar tätig war, wo Patienten durch systematischen Nahrungsmittelentzug ermordet wurden. Aber als behandelnder Arzt habe er 60 Patienten bis zu ihrem unnatürlichen Tod begleitet. Er sei "Mitwisser und Mittäter" gewesen, der nach dem Krieg die Aufarbeitung unterbunden habe.

Braunmühl hatte nach Kriegsende im Mai 1945 zunächst kommissarisch die Klinikleitung in Eglfing-Haar übernommen. Zum 1. Dezember 1945 wurde er von der amerikanischen Militärverwaltung zum Direktor der Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Kaufbeuren bestellt. Im August 1946 setzte ihn das bayerische Innenministerium anstelle von Gerhard Schmidt, der von der Belegschaft aus dem Amt gedrängt wurde, wieder als Direktor von Eglfing-Haar ein. Braunmühl förderte offenbar Personal aus der NS-Zeit. Der Direktor der Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Erlangen, Werner Leibbrand kritisierte 1947 gegenüber dem bayerischen Innenministerium, dass der "für seine reaktionäre Gesinnung bekannte" Braunmühl "belastete alte Medizinalräte wieder in ihre Posten" einsetze und "völlig unbelaste jüngere Leute" hinausgraule.

Im Jahr 1947 erhielt Braunmühl eine Honorarprofessur in München. Er gehörte zu den ersten deutschen Psychiatern, die nach Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs die in den USA entwickelten Methoden der Leukotomie an seiner Anstalt einführte. Er übersetzte auch das Buch Psychochirurgie der beiden amerikanischen Lobotomie-Pioniere Walter Freeman und James Watts ins Deutsche. Ferner spekulierte er nach 1945 über mögliche Krankheiten Adolf Hitlers. In einem Aufsatz von 1954 meinte er, Paralysis Agitans (Parkinson-Krankheit) bei Hitler feststellen zu können. Er machte sich auch als Laienmaler einen Namen.

In Haar wurde 1976 auf Antrag des Klinikums die von-Braunmühl-Straße nach ihm benannt. Aufgrund neuerer Recherchen für ein Gedenkbuch für die Münchner Opfer der nationalsozialistischen "Euthanasie"-Morde wurde deutlich, dass Braunmühl tiefer in die Verbrechen verstrickt war als bislang bekannt. Daher benannte die Gemeinde Haar am 1. März 2019 die von-Braunmühlstraße in Max-Isserlin-Straße um.

Schriften
 Über einige myelo-lymphoide und lymphoepitheliale Organe der Anuren. Ein Beitr. z. Morphol. des Jugularkörperchens des Corpus propericardiale und Corpus procoracoidale wie der Kiemenhöhlenkörperchen von Rana temporaris. München, Med. Diss., 1927 (Nur in beschränkter Anzahl für den Austausch). Akad. Verlagsges, Leipzig 1926.
 mit Walter Spielmeyer: Die Anatomie der Psychosen. Springer, Berlin 1930.
 Oswald Bumke, Anton von Braunmühl und Walter Spielmeyer: Handbuch der Geisteskrankheiten. Springer, Berlin 1930, ISBN 978-3-540-07661-2.
 Der Elektrokrampf in der Psychiatrie. In: Münch. med. Wschr 87 (1940), S. 511–514.
 Die Insulinschockbehandlung der Schizophrenie (unter Berücksichtigung des Cardiazolkrampfes). Ein Leitfaden f. d. Praxis. A. v. Braunmühl. J. Springer, Berlin 1938.
 Fünf Jahre Shock- und Krampfbehandlung in Eglfing-Haar. In: Arch. f. Psych. 114,2 (1941), S. 410–440.
 …Der meine Jugend erfreut. Tagebuchblätter eines Inntalers. Echter, Würzburg 1941.
 Insulinshock und Heilkrampf in der Psychiatrie. 2. Auflage. Wissenschaftliche Verl. Ges, Stuttgart 1947.
 Walter Freeman, James W. Watts: Psychochirurgie. Intelligenz, Gefühlsleben und soziales Verhalten nach praefrontaler Lobotomie bei Geistesstörungen. Übers. von Anton von Braunmühl, Wissenschaftl. Verl.-Ges, Stuttgart 1949.
 (Hrsg.): Umstrittene Probleme der Medizin. Mit Beiträgen v. Anton v. Braunmühl [u. a.]. Medica-Verl, Stuttgart, Zürich 1954.
 Das Nervenkrankenhaus Haar bei München des Bezirks Oberbayern. 1905–1955. Bezirk Oberbayern, München 1956.

Literatur
 Julius Hallervorden: In Memoriam Anton von Braunmühl† (1901–1957). In: Der Nervenarzt 28 (1957), S. 375f.
 Bernhard Richarz: Heilen, Pflegen, Töten. Zur Alltagsgeschichte einer Heil- und Pflegeanstalt bis zum Ende des Nationalsozialismus. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1987.
 In memoriam Anton Edler von Braunmühl. In: Biomedizinische Technik/Biomedical Engineering. Band 3, Heft 6, S. 179.

Einzelnachweise

Psychiater
Neurologe
Mediziner (20. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München)
Anton
Edler
Geboren 1901
Gestorben 1957
Deutscher
Mann

Anton von Braunmühl (Mediziner)


Džebelija (tur. cebeli, od cebe: bojni oklop), oklopljeni konjanik kojega je spahija Osmanskog carstva morao opremiti i o vlastitom trošku povesti u rat. Troškovi opremanja svakog konjanika ovisili su o veličini timara.

Novačeni su od robova koje je sam spahija zarobio ili kupio, a bili su opremljeni konjem, sabljom, kopljem, lukom i strelicama, kacigom te šitom.

Krajem 14. stoljeća spahije su morale opremiti po jednog džebeliju na svakih 3000 akča prihoda preko predviđenog minimuma od 6000 akča. Zaimi su bili obvezni izdvajati 5000 akča prihoda preko predviđenog minimuma koji je za njih iznosio 20000 akča. Najveći su trošak pak imali, sandžakbegovi i beglerbegovi, za koje je postojala obveza izdvajanja 5000 akča od svakog feudalnog prihoda.

Mnoge su spahije zbog velikih prednosti koje su ostvarivale s džebelijama tijekom ratnih sukoba opremali i više konjanika nego što je bilo predviđeno. Smrću spahije džebelije su mogle naslijediti diio posjeda, time postajući spahije.

Literatura

 "Džebelija". U: Vojna enciklopedija, sv. 2. Beograd: Izdanje redakcije Vojne enciklopedije, 1970., str. 600.
 N. Filipović, Pogled na Osmanski feudalizam, Godišnjak istorijskog društva Bosne i Hercegovine, IV. god., Sarajevo, 1952.

Osmanska vojna povijest

Džebelija