Comfort and Joy  este un film scoțian  de Crăciun  de comedie neagră din 1984 scris și regizat de Bill Forsyth. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Bill Paterson și Eleanor David.

Prezentare

Distribuție

Note

Legături externe

 Comfort and Joy  at the British Film Institute Film Forever
 Comfort and Joy  Screen-on-Line (BFI)

 Comfort and Joy film scene at YouTube

Vezi și
 Comfort and Joy, film din 2003
1984 în film
Listă de filme de Crăciun
Listă de filme produse de Universal Pictures
Listă de filme de comedie din anii 1980

Filme din 1984Filme de comedie neagră
Filme scoțieneFilme de comedie din anii 1980
Filme în limba engleză
Filme regizate de Bill Forsyth
Filme de Crăciun
Filme Universal Pictures
Filme EMI Films

Comfort and Joy (film din 1984)


The system of auto trails was an informal network of marked routes that existed in the United States and Canada in the early part of the 20th century.  Marked with colored bands on utility poles, the trails were intended to help travellers in the early days of the automobile.

Auto trails were usually marked and sometimes maintained by organizations of private individuals. Some, such as the Lincoln Highway, maintained by the Lincoln Highway Association, were well-known and well-organized, while others were the work of fly-by-night promoters, to the point that anyone with enough paint and the will to do so could set up a trail.  Trails were not usually linked to road improvements, although counties and states often prioritized road improvements because they were on trails.

In the mid-to-late 1920s, the auto trails were essentially replaced with the United States Numbered Highway System.  The Canadian provinces had also begun implementing similar numbering schemes.

List of auto trails

See also
List of historic auto trails in Iowa
List of U.S. Routes
U.S. Highway association

References

External links
North American Auto Trails
Richard F. Weingroff, From Names to Numbers: The Origins of the U.S. Numbered Highway System

Auto trail


Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri (Milão, 26 de dezembro de 1618 - Como, 24 de junho de 1694) foi um cardeal do século XVII

Nascimento
Nasceu em Milão em 26 de dezembro de 1618. Sua família era originalmente de Como. Filho de Vincenzo Ciceri. Parente do Papa Inocêncio XI .

Educação
Frequentou a Universidade de Bolonha (2) , onde se doutorou in utroque iure , direito canónico e civil.

Início da vida
Governador de cidades e províncias dos Estados Pontifícios durante o pontificado do Papa Inocêncio X. Eleitor dos Tribunais da Assinatura Apostólica da Justiça e da Graça. Referendário da SC da Sagrada Consulta .

Ordens sagradas
(Nenhuma informação encontrada).

Episcopado
Eleito bispo de Alessandria della Paglia, em 22 de setembro de 1659. Consagrado, em 5 de outubro de 1659, igreja de S. Carlo al Corso, Roma, pelo cardeal Benedetto Odescalchi. Transferido para a Sé de Como em 13 de maio de 1680.

Cardinalado
Criado cardeal sacerdote no consistório de 2 de setembro de 1686; recebeu o barrete vermelho e o título de S. Agostino, a 7 de julho de 1687. Participou no conclave de 1689 , que elegeu o Papa Alexandre VIII. Participou do conclave de 1691 , que elegeu o Papa Inocêncio XII.

Morte
Morreu em Como em 24 de junho de 1694, às 15 horas. Exposto e enterrado na catedral de Como

Cardeais nomeados pelo papa Inocêncio XI

Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri


This is a list of English words borrowed from the Swedish language.

 aquavit, "a clear Scandinavian liquor flavored with caraway seeds"
 fartlek, "endurance training in which a runner alternates periods of sprinting with periods of jogging"
 gantelope, "gauntlet"
 glogg, "a hot spiced wine and liquor punch served in Scandinavian countries as a Christmas drink"
 gravlax, "salmon cured especially with salt, sugar, pepper, and dill and often additional ingredients (such as fennel, coriander, lime, and vodka or aquavit)"
 gyttja, "a lacustrine mud containing abundant organic material"
 lek, "an assembly area where animals (such as the prairie chicken) carry on display and courtship behavior"
 lingonberry, "(or better: linberry, since the sw. suffix means berry) a low-growing, evergreen shrub (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) of cooler, northern regions of North America and Europe that has leathery, oval leaves, white or light pink, bell-shaped, nodding flowers and red berries and is related to the blueberry and cranberry"
 moped, "a lightweight, low-powered motorbike that can be pedaled"
 ombudsman, "a person who investigates, reports on, and helps settle complaints; an individual usually affiliated with an organization or business who serves as an advocate for patients, consumers, employees, etc."
 orienteering, "a competitive or noncompetitive recreational activity in which participants use a map and compass to navigate between checkpoints along an unfamiliar course (as in the woods)"
 rutabaga, "a turnip (Brassica napus napobrassica) that usually produces a large yellowish root that is eaten as a vegetable"
 skarn, "contact metamorphic rock rich in iron"
 smorgasbord, "a luncheon or supper buffet offering a variety of foods and dishes (such as hors d'oeuvres, hot and cold meats, smoked and pickled fish, cheeses, salads, and relishes)"
 strömming, "a small Baltic herring"
 tjaele, "frozen ground"
 torsk, "codfish"
 tungsten, "a gray-white heavy high-melting ductile hard polyvalent metallic element that resembles chromium and molybdenum in many of its properties and is used especially in carbide materials and electrical components (such as lamp filaments) and in hardening alloys (such as steel)"
 varve, "a pair of layers of alternately finer and coarser silt or clay believed to comprise an annual cycle of deposition in a body of still water"

See also
 List of English words of Old Norse origin
 List of English words of Norwegian origin
 List of English words of Danish origin
 List of English words of Scandinavian origin
 Lists of English words of international origin

References

Swedish
English

List of English words of Swedish origin


Skimming er at ulovligt kopiere andres kreditkortoplysninger. Kortoplysningerne bruges så i et kort svindel. I Danmark er problemet med kortsvindel steget kraftigt i 2016.

Trådløs skimming
Trådløs skimming betyder, at man ved at bruge en NFC-læser, kan læse og stjæle kortoplysninger trådløst. Mange mobiltelefoner har i dag en indbygget NFC-læser, og der er også NFC-læser, der man forbinder til en computer via USB. Metoden er beregnet til at stjæle kortoplysninger til kontaktløse betalingskort. Kortoplysningerne på kontaktløse kort er ukrypterede, hvilket gør det muligt for bedrageren at læse kortoplysningerne uden at skulle forlade offerets tegnebog. Aflæsningsafstanden er op til 1 meter. Den tre- eller firecifrede sikkerhedskode kan ikke trådløst aflæses. Det anslås, at 43% af alle webshoppe ikke kræver sikkerhedskoden for at gennemføre et køb.

Skimming i pengeautomat
En mere avanceret metode til skimming er at montere en særlig elektronisk enhed på en pengeautomat eller en anden kortterminal, og aflæser derefter kortoplysningerne og PIN-koden. Så laver de et falsk kort og trækker penge ud af offerets bankkonto.

Beskyttelse
Der er én slags beskyttelseskort, der stopper trådløs skimming. Dette beskyttelseskort indeholder en støjsender, der forstyrrer udstyr til skimming og forhindrer kortaflæsning. Der er også specielle tegnebøger i metal, der blokerer kommunikation mellem kontaktløse betalingskort og aflæseren. Kortbrugere kan ikke beskytte sig mod skimming på nogen anden måde, når bedragere har monteret aflæsningsudstyr på en pengeautomat.

Referencer

Kredit
Økonomisk kriminalitet
It-kriminalitet

Skimming


La cultura de las Maldivas proviene de diversas fuentes, la más importante de todas, es su proximidad a las costas de Sri Lanka y la India del Sur. La población es mayoritariamente Indo-Aria desde el punto de vista antropológico. La lengua es de origen indo-iraní sánscrito, que apunta a una influencia posterior en el norte del subcontinente. El idioma Dhivehi está estrechamente relacionado con el idioma cingalés. Según las leyendas, la dinastía real que gobernó el país en el pasado tiene su origen allí. Es posible que estos antiguos reyes llevaran el budismo del subcontinente, pero no está claro. En Sri Lanka existen leyendas similares, pero es improbable que los antiguos miembros de la realeza de las Maldivas trajeran el budismo a la isla, porque ninguna de las crónicas de Sri Lanka menciona a las Maldivas. Es poco probable que las antiguas crónicas de Sri Lanka no hayan mencionado las Maldivas, si estas fueran una rama de su reino que se habría extendido a las Islas Maldivas. Desde el  se encuentran influencias de Arabia Saudita en la lengua y la cultura de las Maldivas gracias a la conversión general al islam en el , y su ubicación como cruce comercial en el Océano Índico central. En la cultura de la isla hay pocos elementos de origen africano y de los esclavos traídos a la corte por la familia real y la nobleza de sus viajes a Arabia Hajj en el pasado. Hay islas como Feridhu y Maalhos en el norte de Atolón Ari, y en el sur de Goidhu Maalhosmadulhu Atoll donde muchos de los habitantes cuyos antepasados son liberados los esclavos africanos.

Música y danza

Las Maldivas tienen afinidad culturalmente con el norte de la India a través de su lenguaje, que está relacionada con las lenguas de este. Las Generaciones anteriores prefieren ver películas en hindi y le gusta escuchar canciones en hindi. Muchas canciones populares de Maldivas se basan en melodías hindi. La razón es el lenguaje, los ritmos y cadencias similares que desarrollan. De hecho, es muy fácil para los habitantes de las Maldivas para encajar letras locales en una canción hindú. Canciones de Bollywood son algunas de las canciones más populares en Maldivas, especialmente los más antiguos de Mohammad Rafi, Mukesh, Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhonsle. Por lo tanto la mayoría de los bailes de las Maldivas y canciones locales se basan en (o tienen influencia de) bailes del norte de la India Kathak y canciones Hindi.

El instrumento musical favorito de los habitantes de las Maldivas es el bulbul, una especie de acordeón horizontal. Este instrumento también se utiliza para acompañar cantos devocionales, como Maulud y Maadhaha. El Bodu Beru (literalmente "tambor grande") actuaciones con tambores, se dice que tienen raíces africanas.

Matrimonio
La cultura de Maldivas comparte muchos aspectos de una fuerte tradición matriarcal, con la antigua cultura Dravidian. Una característica única de la sociedad de Maldivas es una tasa de divorcios muy alta para los estándares ya sea del sur de Asia o islámico. Esto no es así en el caso de Minicoy, donde los matrimonios son más estables.

Industria cinematográfica
Las Maldivas tienen su propia industria cinematográfica.

Referencias

Cultura de Maldivas


Onthophagus ruandanus é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Frey em 1971.

Referências

Ligações externas

ruandanus
Coleópteros descritos em 1971

Onthophagus ruandanus


Webb Parmelee Hollenbeck (født 19. november 1889, død 13. oktober 1966), kendt professionelt som Clifton Webb, var en amerikansk skuespiller, danser og sanger.

Webb var fra 1910'erne og fremefter en fremtrædende teaterskuespiller. Han medvirkede i mange Broadway-produktioner i årene 1913-1946. Hans filmdebut gjorde han først som midaldrende, bortset fra et par roller i stumfilm. Han var populær i 1940'erne og 1950'erne, især i komedieroller.

Han var Oscar-nomineret tre gange for bedste mandlige birolle i filmene Laura og Knivens æg samt bedste skuespiller i filmen Her Går Det Godt, hvor han spillede en utraditionel barnepasser. Selvom han ikke vandt i nogen kategori, fik han i stedet en Golden Globe for rollen i Knivens æg. En anden populær rolle han lavede som en far i komediefilmen Det er mængden der gør det fra 1950.

Clifton Webb har en stjerne på Hollywood Walk of Fame på adressen 6850 Hollywood Blvd.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra USA
Dansere fra USA
Sangere fra USA
Personer fra Indianapolis
Amerikanere i 1800-tallet
Amerikanere i 1900-tallet
Pseudonymer
Hollywood Walk of Fame

Clifton Webb


Hope Emerson (født 30. oktober 1897, død 24. april 1960) var en amerikansk sanger og skuespiller.

Efter hendes studier på West High School i Des Moines flyttede Emerson i 1916 til New York hvor hun spillede på vaudeville-teatre.

Emerson lavede sin Broadway-debut i Lysistrata i 1930. Hun lavede sin debut i Smiling Faces (1932), men vendte tilbage til teatret. I 1940'erne var Emerson kendt i USA som Elsie Cow's stemme i Borden Milks radioreklame.

Med en længde på 188 centimeter og en vægt på 109 kilo var Emerson en kraft i både film og teater. Hun vendte tilbage til Hollywood i 1946 og spillede karakterroller. Blandt hendes mest mindeværdige roller var som en cirkuskone, som vidnede til højre for Adams ribben (1949) og som en postordrebrud i Kvinderne drog vestpå (1952). Hendes mest berømte rolle, som den sadistiske kvindelige fangevogter Evelyn Harper i Indespærret (1950), som gav hende en nominering til en Oscar for bedste kvindelige birolle.

Hun spillede også roller i tv og havde en regelmæssig rolle i Peter Gunn, for hvilken hun modtog en nominering til en Emmy i 1958 og The Dennis O'Keefe Show (1959).

Emerson døde af leversygdom i en alder af 62 år og blev begravet på Grace Hill Cemetery i sin hjemby Hollywood.

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra Iowa
Amerikanere i 1800-tallet
Amerikanere i 1900-tallet

Hope Emerson


අට මහා කුසල් යනු කුමක්ද ?

 කඨින චීවර පූජා කිරීම
 අටපිරිකර පූජා කිරීම
 ආවාස ගෙවල් තනවා සඟසතු කර පූජා කිරීම
 බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සේ ප්‍රමුඛ මහා සංඝරත්නයට සඟසතු කර දන් දීම
 බුද්ධ ධර්මය ලිවීම හා මුද්‍රණය කර බෙදා දීම
 සඟසතු කොට බුද්ධ පූජාවක් ලෙස කෙත්වතු පූජා කිරීම
 බුදු පිළිම චෛත්‍ය විහාර සාදවා පූජා කිරීම
 වැසිකිළි සාදවා සඟසතු කොට පූජා කිරීම

අට මහා කුසල්


Kalākaua (David Laʻamea Kamananakapu Mahinulani Naloiaehuokalani Lumialani Kalākaua; November 16, 1836 – January 20, 1891), sometimes called The Merrie Monarch, was the last king and penultimate monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, reigning from February 12, 1874, until his death in 1891. Succeeding Lunalilo, he was elected to the vacant throne of Hawaiʻi against Queen Emma. Kalākaua had a convivial personality and enjoyed entertaining guests with his singing and ukulele playing. At his coronation and his birthday jubilee, the hula, which had hitherto been banned in public in the kingdom, became a celebration of Hawaiian culture.

During Kalākaua's reign, the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 brought great prosperity to the kingdom. Its renewal continued the prosperity but allowed United States to have exclusive use of Pearl Harbor. In 1881, Kalākaua took a trip around the world to encourage the immigration of contract sugar plantation workers. He wanted Hawaiians to broaden their education beyond their nation. He instituted a government-financed program to sponsor qualified students to be sent abroad to further their education. Two of his projects, the statue of Kamehameha I and the rebuilding of ʻIolani Palace, were expensive endeavors but are popular tourist attractions today.

Extravagant expenditures and Kalākaua's plans for a Polynesian confederation played into the hands of annexationists who were already working toward a United States takeover of Hawaiʻi. In 1887, Kalākaua was pressured to sign a new constitution that made the monarchy little more than a figurehead position. After his brother William Pitt Leleiohoku II died in 1877, the king named their sister Liliʻuokalani as heir-apparent. She acted as regent during his absences from the country. After Kalākaua's death, she became the last monarch of Hawaiʻi.

Early life and family
Kalākaua was born at 2:00 a.m. on November 16, 1836, to Caesar Kaluaiku Kapaʻakea and Analea Keohokālole in the grass hut compound belonging to his maternal grandfather ʻAikanaka, at the base of Punchbowl Crater in Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu. Of the aliʻi class of Hawaiian nobility, his family was considered collateral relations of the reigning House of Kamehameha, sharing common descent from the 18th-century aliʻi nui Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. From his biological parents, he descended from Keaweaheulu and Kameʻeiamoku, two of the five royal counselors of Kamehameha I during his conquest of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Kameʻeiamoku, the grandfather of both his mother and father, was one of the royal twins alongside Kamanawa depicted on the Hawaiian coat of arms. However, Kalākaua and his siblings traced their high rank from their mother's line of descent, referring to themselves as members of the "Keawe-a-Heulu line", although later historians would refer to the family as the House of Kalākaua. The second surviving child of a large family, his biological siblings included his elder brother James Kaliokalani, and younger siblings Lydia Kamakaʻeha (later renamed Liliʻuokalani), Anna Kaʻiulani, Kaʻiminaʻauao, Miriam Likelike and William Pitt Leleiohoku II.

Given the name Kalākaua, which translates into "The Day [of] Battle", the date of his birth coincided with the signing of the unequal treaty imposed by British Captain Lord Edward Russell of the Actaeon on Kamehameha III. He and his siblings were hānai (informally adopted) to other family members in the Native Hawaiian tradition. Prior to birth, his parents had promised to give their child in hānai to Kuini Liliha, a high-ranking chiefess and the widow of High Chief Boki. However, after he was born, High Chiefess Haʻaheo Kaniu took the baby to Honuakaha, the residence of the king. Kuhina Nui (regent) Elizabeth Kīnaʻu, who disliked Liliha, deliberated and decreed his parents to give him to Haʻaheo and her husband Keaweamahi Kinimaka. When Haʻaheo died in 1843 she bequeathed all her properties to him. After Haʻaheo's death, his guardianship was entrusted to his hānai father, who was a chief of lesser rank; he took Kalākaua to live in Lāhainā on the island of Maui. Kinimaka would later marry Pai, a subordinate Tahitian chiefess, who treated Kalākaua as her own until the birth of her own son.

Education
At the age of four, Kalākaua returned to Oʻahu to begin his education at the Chiefs' Children's School (later renamed the Royal School). He and his classmates had been formally proclaimed by Kamehameha III as eligible for the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. His classmates included his siblings James Kaliokalani and Lydia Kamakaʻeha and their thirteen royal cousins including the future kings Kamehameha IV, Kamehameha V and Lunalilo. They were taught by American missionaries Amos Starr Cooke and his wife, Juliette Montague Cooke. At the school, Kalākaua became fluent in English and the Hawaiian language and was noted for his fun and humor rather than his academic prowess. The strong-willed boy defended his less robust elder brother Kaliokalani from the older boys at the school.

In October 1840, their paternal grandfather Kamanawa II requested his grandsons to visit him on the night before his execution for the murder of his wife Kamokuiki. The next morning the Cookes allowed the guardian of the royal children John Papa ʻĪʻī to bring Kaliokalani and Kalākaua to see Kamanawa for the last time. It is not known if their sister was also taken to see him. Later sources, especially in biographies of Kalākaua indicated that the boys witnessed the public hanging of their grandfather at the gallows. Historian Helena G. Allen noted the indifference the Cookes' had toward the request and the traumatic experience it must have been for the boys.

After the Cookes retired and closed the school in 1850, Kalākaua briefly studied at Joseph Watt's English school for native children at Kawaiahaʻo and later joined the relocated day school (also called Royal School) run by Reverend Edward G. Beckwith. Illness prevented him from finishing his schooling and he was sent back to Lāhainā to live with his mother.
Following his formal schooling, he studied law under Charles Coffin Harris in 1853. Kalākaua would appoint Harris as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hawaiʻi in 1877.

Political and military careers

Kalākaua's various military, government and court positions prevented him from fully completing his legal training. He received his earliest military training under the Prussian officer, Major Francis Funk, who instilled an admiration of the Prussian military system. In 1852, Prince Liholiho, who would later reign as Kamehameha IV, appointed Kalakaua as one of his aide-de-camp on his military staff. The following year, he commissioned Kalākaua as brevet captain in the infantry. In the army, Kalākaua served as first lieutenant in his father Kapaʻakea's militia of 240 men and later worked as military secretary to Major John William Elliott Maikai, the adjutant general of the army. He was promoted to major and assigned to the personal staff of Kamehameha IV when the king ascended to the throne in 1855. He was promoted to the rank of colonel in 1858.

He became a personal associate and friend of Prince Lot, the future Kamehameha V, who instilled his mission of "Hawaiʻi for Hawaiians" in the young Kalākaua. In the fall of 1860, when he was Chief Clerk of the kingdom's Department of the Interior, Kalākaua accompanied Prince Lot, high chief Levi Haʻalelea and Hawaii's Consul for Peru, Josiah C. Spalding, on a two-month tour of British Columbia and California. They sailed from Honolulu aboard the yacht Emma Rooke, on August 29, arriving on September 18 in Victoria, British Columbia where they were received by the local dignitaries of the city. In California, the party visited San Francisco, Sacramento, Folsom and other local areas where they were honorably received.

In 1856, Kalākaua was appointed a member of the Privy Council of State by Kamehameha IV. He was also appointed to the House of Nobles, the upper body of the Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi in 1858, serving there until 1873. He served as 3rd Chief Clerk of the Department of the Interior in 1859 under Prince Lot who was Minister of the Interior before becoming king in 1863. He held this position until 1863. On June 30, 1863, Kalākaua was appointed Postmaster General and served until his resignation on March 18, 1865. In 1865, he was appointed the King's Chamberlain and served until 1869 when he resigned to finish his law studies. In 1870, he was admitted to the Hawaiian bar and was hired as a clerk in the Land Office, a post he held until he came to the throne. He was decorated a Knight Companion of the Royal Order of Kamehameha I in 1867.

American writer Mark Twain, working as a traveling reporter for the Sacramento Daily Union, visited Hawaiʻi in 1866 during the reign of Kamehameha V. He met the young Kalākaua and other members of the legislature and noted:

Marriage

Kalākaua was briefly engaged to marry Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, the younger sister of Kamehameha IV and Kamehameha V. However, the match was terminated when the princess decided to renew her on-and-off betrothal to her cousin Lunalilo. Kalākaua would later fall in love with Kapiʻolani, the young widow of Bennett Nāmākēhā, the uncle of Kamehameha IV's wife Queen Emma. A descendant of King Kaumualiʻi of Kauai, Kapiʻolani was Queen Emma's lady-in-waiting and Prince Albert Edward Kamehameha's nurse and caretaker. They married on December 19, 1863, in a quiet ceremony conducted by a minister of the Anglican Church of Hawaiʻi. The timing of the wedding was heavily criticized since it fell during the official mourning period for King Kamehameha IV. The marriage remained childless.

Political ascendancy

1873 election
King Kamehameha V, died on December 12, 1872, without naming a successor to the throne. Under the 1864 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, if the king did not appoint a successor, a new king would be appointed by the legislature to begin a new royal line of succession.

There were several candidates for the Hawaiian throne including Bernice Pauahi Bishop, who had been asked to succeed to the throne by Kamehameha V on his deathbed but had declined the offer. However, the contest was centered on the two high-ranking male aliʻi, or chiefs: Lunalilo and Kalākaua. Lunalilo was more popular, partly because he was a higher-ranking chief than Kalākaua and was the immediate cousin of Kamehameha V. Lunalilo was also the more liberal of the two—he promised to amend the constitution to give the people a greater voice in the government. According to historian Ralph S. Kuykendall, there was an enthusiasm among Lunalilo's supporters to have him declared king without holding an election. In response, Lunalilo issued a proclamation stating that, even though he believed himself to be the rightful heir to the throne, he would submit to an election for the good of the kingdom. On January 1, 1873, a popular election was held for the office of King of Hawaiʻi. Lunalilo won with an overwhelming majority while Kalākaua performed extremely poorly receiving 12 votes out of the more than 11,000 votes cast. The next day, the legislature confirmed the popular vote and elected Lunalilo unanimously. Kalākaua conceded.

1874 election
Following Lunalilo's ascension, Kalākaua was appointed as colonel on the military staff of the king. He kept politically active during Lunalilo's reign, including leadership involvement with a political organization known as the Young Hawaiians; the group's motto was "Hawaiʻi for the Hawaiians". He had gained political capital with his staunch opposition to ceding any part of the Hawaiian islands to foreign interests. During the ʻIolani Barracks mutiny by the Royal Guards of Hawaiʻi in September 1873, Kalākaua was suspected to have incited the native guards to rebel against their white officers. Lunalilo responded to the insurrection by disbanding the military unit altogether, leaving Hawaiʻi without a standing army for the remainder of his reign.

The issue of succession was a major concern especially since Lunalilo was unmarried and childless at the time. Queen Dowager Emma, the widow of Kamehameha IV, was considered to be Lunalilo's favorite choice as his presumptive heir. On the other hand, Kalākaua and his political cohorts actively campaigned for him to be named successor in the event of the king's death. Among the other candidates considered viable as Lunalilo's successor was the previously mentioned Bernice Pauahi Bishop. She had strong ties to the United States through her marriage to wealthy American businessman Charles Reed Bishop who also served as one of Lunalilo's cabinet ministers. When Lunalilo became ill several months after his election, Native Hawaiians counseled with him to appoint a successor to avoid another election. However he may have personally felt about Emma, he never put it in writing. He failed to act on the issue of a successor, and died on February 3, 1874, setting in motion a bitter election. While Lunalilo did not think of himself as a Kamehameha, his election continued the Kamehameha line to some degree making him the last of the monarchs of the Kamehameha dynasty.

Pauahi chose not to run. Kalākaua's political platform was that he would reign in strict accordance with the kingdom's constitution. Emma campaigned on her assurance that Lunalilo had personally told her he wanted her to succeed him. Several individuals who claimed first-hand knowledge of Lunalilo's wishes backed her publicly. With Lunalilo's privy council issuing a public denial of that claim, the kingdom was divided on the issue. British Commissioner James Hay Wodehouse put the British and American forces docked at Honolulu on the alert for possible violence.

The election was held on February 12, and Kalākaua was elected by the Legislative Assembly by a margin of thirty-nine to six. His election provoked the Honolulu Courthouse riot where supporters of Queen Emma targeted legislators who supported Kalākaua; thirteen legislators were injured. The kingdom was without an army since the mutiny the year before and many police officers sent to quell the riot joined the mob or did nothing. Unable to control the mob, Kalākaua and Lunalilo's former ministers had to request the aid of American and British military forces docked in the harbor to put down the uprising.

Reign
Given the unfavorable political climate following the riot, Kalākaua was quickly sworn in the following day, in a ceremony witnessed by government officials, family members, foreign representatives and some spectators. This inauguration ceremony was held at Kīnaʻu Hale, the residence of the Royal Chamberlain, instead of Kawaiahaʻo Church, as was customary. The hastiness of the affair would prompt him to hold a coronation ceremony in 1883. Upon ascending to the throne, Kalākaua named his brother, William Pitt Leleiohoku, Leleiohoku II, as his heir-apparent. When Leleiohoku II died in 1877, Kalākaua changed the name of his sister Lydia Dominis to Liliuokalani and designated her as his heir-apparent.

From March to May 1874, he toured the main Hawaiian Islands of Kauai, Maui, Hawaiʻi Island, Molokai and Oahu and visited the Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement.

Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 and its extension

Within a year of Kalākaua's election, he helped negotiate the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. This free trade agreement between the United States and Hawaiʻi, allowed sugar and other products to be exported to the US duty-free. He led the Reciprocity Commission consisting of sugar planter Henry A. P. Carter of C. Brewer & Co., Hawaiʻi Chief Justice Elisha Hunt Allen, and Minister of Foreign Affairs William Lowthian Green. Kalākaua became the first reigning monarch to visit America. The state dinner in his honor hosted by President Ulysses S. Grant was the first White House state dinner ever held.

Many in the Hawaiʻi business community were willing to cede Pearl Harbor to the United States in exchange for the treaty, but Kalākaua was opposed to the idea. A seven-year treaty was signed on January 30, 1875, without any Hawaiian land being ceded. San Francisco sugar refiner Claus Spreckels became a major investor in Hawaiʻi's sugar industry. Initially, he bought half of the first year's production; ultimately he became the plantations' major shareholder. Spreckels became one of Kalākaua's close associates.

When it expired, an extension of the treaty was negotiated, giving exclusive use of Pearl Harbor to the United States. Ratifications by both parties took two years and eleven months, and were exchanged on December 9, 1887, extending the agreement for an additional seven years.

Over the term of Kalākaua's reign, the treaty had a major effect on the kingdom's income. In 1874, Hawaiʻi exported $1,839,620.27 in products. The value of exported products in 1890, the last full year of his reign, was $13,282,729.48, an increase of 722%. The export of sugar during that period grew from 24,566,611 pounds to 330,822,879 pounds.

Education of Hawaiian Youths Abroad

The Education of Hawaiian Youths Abroad was a government-funded educational program during Kalākaua's reign to help students further their education beyond the institutions available in Hawaiʻi at that time. Between 1880 and 1887, Kalākaua selected 18 students for enrollment in a university or apprenticeship to a trade, outside the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. These students furthered their education in Italy, England, Scotland, China, Japan and California. During the life of the program, the legislature appropriated $100,000 to support it. When the Bayonet Constitution went into effect, the students were recalled to Hawaiʻi.

Trip around the world

King Kalākaua and his boyhood friends William Nevins Armstrong and Charles Hastings Judd, along with personal cook Robert von Oelhoffen, circumnavigated the globe in 1881. The purpose of the 281-day trip was to encourage the importation of contract labor for plantations. Kalākaua set a world record as the first monarch to travel around the world. He appointed his sister and heir-apparent Liliuokalani to act as Regent during his absence.

Setting sail on January 20, they visited California before sailing to Asia. There they spent four months opening contract labor dialogue in Japan and China, while sightseeing and spreading goodwill through nations that were potential sources for workers. They continued through Southeast Asia, and then headed for Europe in June, where they stayed until mid-September. Their most productive immigration talks were in Portugal, where Armstrong stayed behind to negotiate an expansion of Hawaiʻi's existing treaty with the government.

President James A. Garfield in Washington, D.C., had been assassinated in their absence. On their return trip to the United States, Kalākaua paid a courtesy call on Garfield's successor President Chester A. Arthur.
Before embarking on a train ride across the United States, Kalākaua visited Thomas Edison for a demonstration of electric lighting, discussing its potential use in Honolulu.

They departed for Hawaiʻi from San Francisco on October 22, arriving in Honolulu on October 31. His homecoming celebration went on for days. He had brought the small island nation to the attention of world leaders, but the trip had sparked rumors that the kingdom was for sale. In Hawaiʻi there were critics who believed the labor negotiations were just his excuse to see the world. Eventually, his efforts bore fruit in increased contract labor for Hawaiʻi.

Thomas Thrum's Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1883 reported Kalākaua's tour expense appropriated by the government as $22,500, although his personal correspondence indicates he exceeded that early on.

ʻIolani Palace

'Iolani Palace is the only royal palace on US soil. The first palace was a coral and wood structure which served primarily as office space for the kingdom's monarchs beginning with Kamehameha III in 1845. By the time Kalākaua became king, the structure had decayed, and he ordered it destroyed to be replaced with a new building. During the 1878 session of the legislature Finance Chairman Walter Murray Gibson, a political supporter of Kalākaua's, pushed through appropriations of $50,000 for the new palace.

Construction began in 1879, with an additional $80,000 appropriated later to furnish it and complete the construction. Three architects worked on the design, Thomas J. Baker, Charles J. Wall and Isaac Moore. December 31, 1879, the 45th birthday of Queen Kapiʻolani, was the date Kalākaua chose for the ceremonial laying of the cornerstone. Minister of Foreign Affairs John Mākini Kapena delivered the ceremony's formal address in Hawaiian. As Master of the Freemason Lodge Le Progres de L'Oceanie, Kalākaua charged the freemasons with orchestrating the ceremonies. The parade preceding the laying of the cornerstone involved every civilian and military organization in Hawaiʻi. The Pacific Commercial Advertiser noted it was "one of the largest seen in Honolulu for some years". A copper time capsule containing photographs, documents, currency, and the Hawaiian census was sealed inside the cornerstone. After speeches had been made, the freemasons presented the king with "the working tools of a mason", a plumb bob, level, square tool, and a trowel.

In between the laying of the cornerstone and the finishing of the new palace, Kalākaua had seen how other monarchs lived. He wanted ʻIolani to measure up to the standards of the rest of the world. The furnishing and interiors of the finished palace were reflective of that. Immediately upon completion, the king invited all 120 members of Lodge Le Progres de L'Oceanie to the palace for a lodge meeting. Kalākaua had also seen during his visit to Edison's studio how effective electric lighting could be for the kingdom. On July 21, 1886, ʻIolani Palace led the way with the first electric lights in the kingdom, showcasing the technology. The monarch invited the public to attend a lighting ceremony on the palace grounds, attracting 5,000 spectators. The Royal Hawaiian Band entertained, refreshments were served, and the king paraded his troops around the grounds. The total cost of building and furnishing the new palace was $343,595.

1883 coronation

Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani had been denied a coronation ceremony in 1874 because of the civil unrest following the election. Under Finance Chairman Gibson, the 1880 legislature appropriated $10,000 for a coronation. Gibson was believed to be the main proponent behind the event. On October 10, 1882, the Saturday Press indicated that not all the public was in favor of the coronation. By this point, Gibson's role in the kingdom's finances and his influence on Kalākaua were beginning to come under scrutiny: "Our versatile Premier ... is pulling another string in this puppet farce." At the same time, the newspaper rebuked many of the recent actions and policies not only of Gibson but of the King's cabinet in general.

The coronation ceremony and related celebratory events were spread out over a two-week period. A special octagon-shaped pavilion and grandstand were built for the February 12, 1883, ceremony. Preparations were made for an anticipated crowd exceeding 5,000, with lawn chairs to accommodate any overflow. Before the actual event, a procession of 630 adults and children paraded from downtown to the palace. Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani, accompanied by their royal retinue, came out of the palace onto the event grounds. The coronation was preceded by a choir singing and the formal recitation of the King's official titles. The news coverage noted, "The King looked ill at ease." Chief Justice of Hawaiʻi's Supreme Court Albert Francis Judd officiated and delivered the oath of office to the king. The crown was then handed to Kalākaua, and he placed it upon his head. The ceremony ended with the choir singing, and a prayer. A planned post-coronation reception by Kalākaua and Kapiʻolani was cancelled without advance notice. Today, Kalākaua's coronation pavilion serves as the bandstand for the Royal Hawaiian Band.

Following the ceremony, Kalākaua unveiled the Kamehameha Statue in front of Aliiolani Hale, the government building, with Gibson delivering the unveiling speech. This statue was a second replica. Originally intended for the centennial of Captain James Cook's landing in Hawaiʻi, the statue, which was the brainchild of Gibson, had been cast by Thomas Ridgeway Gould but had been lost during shipment off the Falkland Islands. By the time the replica arrived, the intended date had passed, and it was decided to unveil the statue as part of the coronation ceremony. Later, the original statue was salvaged and restored. It was sent to Kohala, Hawaiʻi, Kamehameha's birthplace, where it was unveiled by the king on May 8. The legislature had allocated $10,000 for the first statue and insured it for $12,000. A further $7,000 was allocated for the second statue with an additional $4,000 from the insurance money spent to add four bas relief panels depicting historic moments during Kamehamena's reign.

That evening, the royal couple hosted a state dinner, and there was a luau at a later day. The hula was performed nightly on the palace grounds. Regattas, horse races and a number of events filled the celebration period. Due to weather conditions, the planned illumination of the palace and grounds for the day of the coronation happened a week later, and the public was invited to attend. Fireworks displays lit up the sky at the palace and at Punchbowl Crater. A grand ball was held the evening of February 20.

Although exact figures are unknown, historian Kuykendall stated that the final cost of the coronation exceeded $50,000.

Kalākaua coinage

The Kalākaua coinage was minted to boost Hawaiian pride. At this time, United States gold coins had been accepted for any debt over $50; any debt under $50 was payable by US silver coins. In 1880, the legislature passed a currency law that allowed it to purchase bullion for the United States mint to produce Hawaiʻi's own coins. The design would have the King's image on the obverse side, with Hawaiʻi's coat of arms and motto "Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ʻĀina i ka Pono" on the reverse. In a deal with Claus Spreckels, he sponsored the minting by purchasing the required silver. In return, he was guaranteed an equal amount of six percent gold bonds, thereby giving him a guaranteed profit.

When Hawaiʻi's silver coins began circulating in December 1883, the business community was reluctant to accept them, fearing they would drive US gold coins out of the market. Spreckels opened his own bank to circulate them. Business owners feared economic inflation and lost faith in the government, as did foreign governments. Political fallout from the coinage led to the 1884 election-year shift towards the Kuokoa (independent) Party in the legislature. It passed the Currency Act to restrict acceptance of silver coins as payment for debts under $10. Exchange of silver for gold at the treasury was then limited to $150,000 a month. In 1903, the Hawaiʻi silver coins were redeemed for US silver and melted down at the San Francisco Mint.

Birthday Jubilee, November 15–29, 1886

Kalākaua's 50th birthday on November 16, 1886, was celebrated with a two-week jubilee. Gibson had by this time joined the King's cabinet as prime minister of Hawaiʻi. He and Minister of the Interior Luther Aholo put forth a motion for the legislature to form a committee to oversee the birthday jubilee on September 20. The motion was approved, and at Gibson's subsequent request, the legislature appropriated $15,000 for the jubilee. An announcement was made on November 3 that all government schools would be closed the week of November 15.

Gifts for the king began arriving on November 15. At midnight, the jubilee officially began with fireworks at the Punchbowl Crater. At sunrise, the kingdom's police force arrived at ʻIolani Palace to pay tribute, followed by the king's Cabinet, Supreme Court justices, the kingdom's diplomats, and officials of government departments. School student bodies and civic organizations also paid tribute. The Royal Hawaiian Band played throughout the day. In the afternoon, the doors of the palace were opened to all the officials and organizations, and the public. In the evening, the palace was aglow with lanterns, candles and electric lighting throwing "a flood of radiance over the Palace and grounds". The evening ended with a Fireman's Parade and fireworks. Throughout the next two weeks, there was a regatta, a Jubilee ball, a luau, athletic competitions, a state dinner, and a marksmanship contest won by the Honolulu Rifles. Harper's Weekly reported in 1891 that the final cost of the jubilee was $75,000.

Military policy

During the early part of his reign, Kalākaua restored the Household Guards which had been defunct since his predecessor Lunalilo abolished the unit in 1874. Initially, the king created three volunteer companies: the Leleiohoku Guard, a cavalry unit; the Prince's Own, an artillery unit; and the Hawaiian Guards, an infantry unit. By the latter part of his reign, the army of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi consisted of six volunteer companies including the King's Own, the Queen's Own, the Prince's Own, the Leleiohoku Guard, the Mamalahoa Guard and the Honolulu Rifles, and the regular troops of the King's Household Guard. The ranks of these regiments were composed mainly of Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian officers with a few white officers including his brother-in-law John Owen Dominis. Each unit was subject to call for active service when necessary. The king and the governor of Oahu also had their own personal staff of military officers with the ranks of colonel and major.

On October 1, 1886, the Military Act of 1886 was passed which created a Department of War and a Department of the Navy under the Minister of Foreign Affairs who would also serve as Secretary of War and of the Navy. Dominis was appointed lieutenant general and commander-in-chief and other officers were commissioned while the king was made the supreme commander and generalissimo of the Hawaiian Army. Around this time, the government also bought and commissioned His Hawaiian Majesty's Ship (HHMS) Kaimiloa, the first and only vessel of the Hawaiian Royal Navy, under the command of Captain George E. Gresley Jackson.

After 1887, the military commissions creating Dominis and his staff officers were recalled for economic reasons and the Military Act of 1886 was later declared unconstitutional. The Military Act of 1888 was passed reducing the size of the army to four volunteer companies: the Honolulu Rifles, the King's Own, the Queen's Own, the Prince's Own, and the Leleiohoku Guard. In 1890, another military act further restricted the army to just the King's Royal Guards.

Polynesian confederation

The idea of Hawaiʻi's involvement in the internal affairs of Polynesian nations had been around at least two decades before Kalākaua's election, when Australian Charles St Julian volunteered to be a political liaison to Hawaiʻi in 1853. He accomplished nothing of any significance. Kalākaua's interest in forming a Polynesian coalition, with him at the head, was influenced by both Walter M. Gibson and Italian soldier of fortune Celso Caesar Moreno. In 1879 Moreno urged the king to create such a realm with Hawaiʻi at the top of the empire by " ... uniting under your sceptre the whole Polynesian race and make Honolulu a monarchical Washington, where the representatives of all the islands would convene in Congress."

In response to the activities of Germany and Great Britain in Oceania, Gibson's Pacific Commercial Advertiser urged Hawaiʻi's involvement in protecting the island nations from international aggression. Gibson was appointed to Kalākaua's cabinet as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1882. In 1883, he introduced the approved legislation to convey in writing to foreign governments that Hawaiʻi fully supported the independence of Polynesian nations. The subsequent "Hawaiian protest" letter he drafted was mostly ignored by nations that received it. The Daily Bulletin in Honolulu issued its own response, "Hawaiʻi's true policy is to confine her attention to herself, ...". The Hawaiian Gazette criticized Gibson's character and mockingly referred to the proposed venture as the "Empire of the Calabash".

In 1885, Gibson dispatched Minister to the United States Henry A. P. Carter to Washington, D.C., and Europe to convey Hawaiʻi's intentions towards Polynesia. Carter made little headway with Gibson's instructions. He pushed for direct intervention into a political upheaval in Samoa, where the German Empire backed rebels under their leader Tamasese in an attempt to overthrow King Malietoa Laupepa. In an effort to keep him in power, Gibson convinced the 1886 legislature to allocate $100,000 to purchase the steamship Zealandia, $50,000 for its operating expenses, and $35,000 for foreign missions. United States special commissioner to Samoa, George H. Bates advised Kalākaua that Hawaiʻi should mind its own business and stay out of Samoan affairs. Instead, Hawaiʻi sent a delegation headed by John E. Bush to Samoa, where Samoan King Malietoa Laupepa signed a Samoan-Hawaiian confederation treaty on February 17, 1887. Bush also presented Malietoa with the Royal Order of the Star of Oceania, which Kalakaua had created to honor the monarchs and chiefs of the Polynesian confederation. The government sent HHMS Kaimiloa for Bush's use in visiting the chiefs of the other islands of Polynesia.

The United States and Great Britain joined with Germany in expressing their disapproval of the treaty. Germany warned the United States and Great Britain, "In case Hawaiʻi ... should try to interfere in favor of Malietoa, the King of the Sandwich Islands would thereby enter into [a] state of war with us." When German warships arrived in Samoan waters, Malietoa surrendered and was sent into exile. The Kaimiloa and Bush's delegation were recalled to Honolulu after the ousting of the Gibson administration. Kalākaua's later explanation of Hawaiʻi's interference in Samoa was, "Our Mission was simply a Mission of phylanthropy [sic] more than any thing, but the arogance [sic] of the Germans prevented our good intentions and . . . we had to withdraw the Mission."

1887 Bayonet Constitution

In Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, Sanford B. Dole devoted a chapter to the Bayonet Constitution. He stated that King Kalākaua appointed cabinet members not for their ability to do the job, but for their ability to bend to his will. Consequently, according to Dole, appropriated funds were shifted from one account to another, "for fantastic enterprises and for the personal aggrandizement of the royal family." Dole placed much of the blame on Gibson, and accused Kalākaua of taking a bribe of $71,000 from Tong Kee to grant an opium license, an action done via one of the king's political allies Junius Kaʻae.

Despite his own personal opposition, Kalākaua signed a legislative bill in 1886 creating a single opium vending and distribution license.  Kaʻae had suggested to rice planter Tong Kee, also known as Aki, that a monetary gift to the king might help him acquire it. Aki took the suggestion and gave thousands of dollars to the king. Another merchant, Chun Lung, made the government an offer of $80,000.00 which forced Aki to raise even more cash. The license was eventually awarded to Chun who withheld his payment until the license was actually signed over to him on December 31, 1886. Kalākaua admitted that he had been overruled by his cabinet who were friendly with Chun. After the reform party took control of the government, the opium license debt remained unpaid. Kalākaua agreed to make restitution for his debts via revenues from the Crown Lands. However, other liabilities and outstanding debt forced him to sign his debt over to trustees who would control all of Kalākaua's private estates and Crown Land revenues. When trustees refused to add the opium debt, Aki sued. Although the court ruled, "The king could do no wrong", the trustees were found liable for the debt.

The Hawaiian League was formed to change the status quo of government "by all means necessary", and had joined forces with the Honolulu Rifles militia group. Anticipating a coup d'état, the king took measures to save himself by dismissing Gibson and his entire cabinet on June 28. Fearing an assassination was not out of the question, Kalākaua barricaded himself inside the palace. The Hawaiian League presented a June 30 resolution demanding the king's restitution for the alleged bribe. Also known as the "committee of thirteen", it was composed of: Paul Isenberg, William W. Hall, James A. Kennedy, William Hyde Rice, Captain James A. King, E. B. Thomas, H. C. Reed, John Mark Vivas, W. P. A. Brewer, Rev. W. B. Oleson, Cecil Brown, Captain George Ross and Joseph Ballard Atherton.

The newly appointed cabinet members were William Lowthian Green as prime minister and minister of finance, Clarence W. Ashford as attorney general, Lorrin A. Thurston as minister of the interior, and Godfrey Brown as minister of foreign affairs.

A new constitution was drafted immediately by the Hawaiian Committee and presented to Kalākaua for his signature on July 6. The next day he issued a proclamation of the abrogation of the 1864 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. The new constitution was nicknamed the Bayonet Constitution because of the duress under which it was signed. His sister Liliuokalani stated in Hawaii's Story that her brother was convinced that if he did not sign, he would be assassinated. She wrote that he no longer knew who was friend or foe. He felt betrayed by people he once trusted and had told her that everywhere he went he was under constant surveillance.

The Bayonet Constitution allowed the King to appoint his cabinet but placed that cabinet under the sole authority of the legislature. It required any executive actions of the monarch to be approved by the cabinet. Previous suffrage (voting rights) was restricted to male subjects of the kingdom regardless of race. The new constitution restricted suffrage only to Hawaiian, American or European men residing in Hawaii, if they were 21 years old, literate with no back unpaid taxes, and would take an oath to support the law of the land. By placing a new minimum qualifier of $3,000 in property ownership and a minimum income of $600 for voters of the House of Nobles, the new constitution disqualified many poor Native Hawaiians from voting for half of the legislature. Naturalized Asians were deprived of the vote for both houses of the legislature.

Gibson was arrested on July 1 and charged with embezzlement of public funds. The case was soon dropped for lack of evidence. Gibson fled to California on July 12, and died there 6 months later on January 21, 1888.

When the new constitution went into effect, state-sponsored students studying abroad were recalled. One of those was Robert William Wilcox who had been sent to Italy for military training. Wilcox's initial reaction to the turn of events was advocating Liliuokalani be installed as Regent. On July 30, 1889, however, he and Robert Napuʻuako Boyd, another state-sponsored student, led a rebellion aimed at restoring the 1864 constitution, and, thereby, the king's power. Kalākaua, possibly fearing Wilcox intended to force him to abdicate in favor of his sister, was not in the palace when the insurrection happened. The government's military defense led to the surrender of the Wilcox's insurgents.

Death and succession

Kalākaua sailed for California aboard the USS Charleston on November 25, 1890. Accompanying him were his trusted friends George W. Macfarlane and Robert Hoapili Baker. There was uncertainty about the purpose of the king's trip. Minister of Foreign Affairs John Adams Cummins reported the trip was solely for the king's health and would not extend beyond California. Local newspapers and British commissioner Wodehouse worried the king might go farther east to Washington, D.C., to negotiate a continued cession of Pearl Harbor to the United States after the expiration of the reciprocity treaty or possible annexation of the kingdom. His sister Liliʻuokalani, after unsuccessfully dissuading him from departing, wrote he meant to discuss the McKinley Tariff with the Hawaiian ambassador to the United States HenryA.P.Carter in Washington. She was again appointed to serve as regent during his absence.

Upon arriving in California, the party landed in San Francisco on December 5. Kalākaua, whose health had been declining, stayed in a suite at the Palace Hotel. Traveling throughout Southern California and Northern Mexico, he suffered a minor stroke in Santa Barbara and was rushed back to San Francisco. He was placed under the care of George W. Woods, surgeon of the United States Pacific Fleet. Against the advice of Dr. Woods, Kalākaua insisted on going to his initiation at the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (A.A.O.N.M.S.) on January 14. He was given a tonic of Vin Mariani that got him on his feet, and was accompanied to the rites by an escort from the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine. The ceremonies did not take long, and he was returned to his suite within an hour. Two days before his death, he lapsed into a coma. Kalākaua died at 2:35 pm on Tuesday, January 20, 1891. US Navy officials listed the official cause of death as Bright's Disease (inflammation of the kidneys).

His last words were, "Aue, he kanaka au, eia i loko o ke kukonukonu o ka maʻi!," or "Alas, I am a man who is seriously ill." The more popular quote, "Tell my people I tried", attributed as his last words, was actually invented by novelist Eugene Burns in his 1952 biography of Kalākaua, The Last King of Paradise. Shortly before his death, his voice was recorded on a phonograph cylinder, which is now in the Bernice P. Bishop Museum.

The news of Kalākaua's death did not reach Hawaiʻi until January 29 when the Charleston returned to Honolulu with the king's remains. As his designated heir-apparent, Liliuokalani ascended to the throne the same day.

After a state funeral in California and a second one in Honolulu, the king's remains were buried in the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna ʻAla on February 15, 1891. In a ceremony officiated by his sister Liliʻuokalani on June 24, 1910, his remains, and those of his family, were transferred to the underground Kalākaua Crypt after the main mausoleum building had been converted into a chapel.

Legacy
Kalākaua's reign is generally regarded as the first Hawaiian Renaissance, for both his influence on Hawaiʻi's music, and for other contributions he made to reinvigorate Hawaiian culture. His actions inspired the reawakening Hawaiian pride and nationalism for the kingdom.

During the earlier reign of Christian convert Kaʻahumanu, dancing the hula was forbidden and punishable by law. Subsequent monarchs gradually began allowing the hula, but it was Kalākaua who brought it back in full force. Chants, meles and the hula were part of the official entertainment at Kalākaua's coronation and his birthday jubilee. He issued an invitation to all Hawaiians with knowledge of the old mele and chants to participate in the coronation, and arranged for musicologist A. Marques to observe the celebrations. Kalākaua's cultural legacy lives on in the Merrie Monarch Festival, a large-scale annual hula competition in Hilo, Hawaiʻi, begun in 1964 and named in his honor. A composer of the ancient chants or mele, for the first time Kalākaua published a written version of the Kumulipo, a 2,102-line chant that had traditionally been passed down orally. It traces the royal lineage and the creation of the cosmos. He is also known to have revived the Hawaiian martial art of Lua, and surfing.

The Hawaiian Board of Health (different from the governmental Board of Health) passed by the 1886 legislature consisted of five Native Hawaiians, appointed by Kalākaua, who oversaw the licensing and regulation of the traditional practice of native healing arts. He also appointed Emma Kaili Metcalf Beckley Nakuina as the first Native Hawaiian curator of the Hawaiian National Museum and increased funding for the institution.

In 1886, Kalākaua had his Privy Council license the ancient Hale Nauā Society for persons of Hawaiian ancestry. The original Hale Naua had not been active since Kamehameha I, when it had functioned as a genealogical research organization for claims of royal lineage. When Kalākaua reactivated it, he expanded its purpose to encompass Hawaiian culture as well as modern-day arts and sciences and included women as equals. The ranks of the society grew to more than 200 members, and was a political support for Kalākaua that lasted until his death in 1891. In 2004, the National Museum of Natural History displayed Kalākaua's red-and-yellow feathered Hale Naua ʻahuʻula and feathered kāhili as part of its Hawaiian special exhibit.

Kalākaua's sponsorship of and a brief career in the Hawaiian language press gave him the additional epithet of the "Editor King". From 1861 to 1863, Kalākaua with G. W. Mila, J. W. H. Kauwahi and John K. Kaunamano co-edited Ka Hoku o ka Pakipika (The Star of the Pacific), the first Hawaiian language newspaper solely written by Native Hawaiians without the influence of American missionaries. This nationalist paper focused on Hawaiian topics especially traditional folklore and poetry. In 1870 he also edited the daily newspaper Ka Manawa (Times), which concerned itself with international news, local news and genealogies but only lasted for two months. He also sponsored the literary journal, Ka Hoku o Ke Kai (The Star of the Sea), which ran from 1883 to 1884.

The Hawaiian Music Hall of Fame honored Kalākaua and his brother and sisters as Na Lani ʻEhā ("The Heavenly Four") for their patronage and enrichment of Hawaiʻi's musical culture and history. "Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī" was officially designated the Hawaiʻi state anthem in 1967. Originally titled "Hymn to KamehamehaI", Henri Berger, leader of the Royal Hawaiian Band, wrote the instrumental melody in 1872, influenced by the Prussian anthem "Heil dir im Siegerkranz". Kalākaua added the lyrics in 1874, and the Kawaiahaʻo Church Choir sang it on his birthday that year. In 1876, it became the official anthem of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi until the overthrow of the monarchy. Other works by the king include "Sweet Lei Lehua", "ʻAkahi Hoʻi", "E Nihi Ka Hele", "Ka Momi", and "Koni Au I Ka Wai". Seven of his songs were published in Ka Buke O Na Leo Mele Hawaii (1888) using the pseudonym "Figgs". He generally wrote only the lyrics for most of his surviving works.

He established diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Serbia and was awarded the Order of Cross of Takovo.

The ukulele was introduced to the Hawaiian islands during the reign of Kalākaua, by Manuel Nunes, José do Espírito Santo, and Augusto Dias, Portuguese immigrants from Madeira and Cape Verde. The king became proficient on the instrument. According to American journalist Mary Hannah Krout and Hawaiʻi resident Isobel Osbourne Strong, wife of artist Joseph Dwight Strong and stepdaughter of Robert Louis Stevenson, he would often play the ukulele and perform meles for his visitors, accompanied by his personal musical group Kalākaua's Singing Boys (aka King's Singing Boys). Strong recalled the Singing Boys as "the best singers and performers on the ukulele and guitar in the whole islands". Kalākaua was inducted into the Ukulele Hall of Fame in 1997.

Kalākaua Avenue was created in March 1905 by the House and Senate of the Hawaiʻi Territorial Legislature. It renamed the highway known as Waikiki Road, "to commemorate the name of his late Majesty Kalākaua, during whose reign Hawaiʻi made great advancement in material prosperity".

The King David Kalakaua Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 under its former name U.S. Post Office, Customhouse, and Courthouse. Located at 335 Merchant Street in Honolulu, it was once the official seat of administration for the Territory of Hawaiʻi. The building was renamed for Kalākaua in 2003.

In 1985, a bronze statue of Kalākaua was donated to the City and County of Honolulu to commemorate the 100-year anniversary of the arrival of the first Japanese laborers after the king's visit to Japan. It was commissioned by the Oahu Kanyaku Imin Centennial Committee on behalf of the Japanese-American community of Hawaiʻi. The statue was designed and created by musician Palani Vaughan, architect Leland Onekea and Native Hawaiian sculptor Sean Kekamakupaa Kaonohiokalani Lee Loy Browne. It is located at the corner of Kalākaua and Kuhio avenues in Waikiki.

In 1988, a cast bronze statue titled "King David Kalākaua" was placed in Kalakaua Park in Hilo, Hawai'i (57" H).  It was created by Hawaiian artist Henry Bianchini.

A Hawaiian song about Kalākaua can be heard in the Disney movie Lilo & Stitch when Lilo is introduced in the movie. The mele  was written as a mele inoa, its original title being "He Inoa No Kalani Kalākaua Kulele" (a namesong for the chief, Kalākaua). On the Lilo & Stitch soundtrack, it was retitled as "He Mele No Lilo".

Notable published works
 Na Mele Aimoku, Na Mele Kupuna, a Me Na Mele Ponoi O Ka Moi Kalākaua I. Dynastic Chants, Ancestral Chants, and Personal Chants of King Kalākaua I. (1886). Hawaiian Historical Society, Honolulu, 2001.
 The Legends and Myths of Hawaii: The Fables and Folk-lore of a Strange People. (1888). C.E. Tuttle Company, New York, 1990.

Honours

Ancestry

See also
 Coins of the Hawaiian dollar
 Kalākaua's Cabinet Ministers
 Kalākaua's Privy Council of State
 Kalākaua's 1881 world tour

Notes

Footnotes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

 A guide to the Rough log and journal, 1880–1881, 1891

Monarchs of the Hawaiian Islands
Native Hawaiian writers
Kalakaua, David
1836 births
1891 deaths
19th-century monarchs in Oceania
Hula
House of Kalākaua

Hawaiian adoptees (hānai)
Hawaiian Kingdom chamberlains
Hawaiian Kingdom postmasters general
National Party (Hawaii) politicians
Hawaiian songwriters
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Nobles
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom Privy Council
Hawaiian Kingdom military officers
Hawaiian Kingdom Anglicans
National anthem writers
Protestant monarchs
Royal School (Hawaii) alumni
Deaths from kidney disease
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Gregory the Great
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Grand Crosses of the Order of Franz Joseph
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Grand Crosses of the Order of Vasa
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo

Kalākaua


Hidrodinamički tlak je tlak u fluidu (tekućina ili plin) koji struji. Njegova vrijednost iznosi:

gdje je: ρ - gustoća fluida a v - brzina strujanja fluida.

U vodoravnoj cijevi je zbroj statičkog i dinamičkoga tlaka konstantan,  prema Bernoullijevoj jednadžbi:

pa je u dijelovima cijevi u kojima fluid brže struji statički tlak manji.

Bernoullijeva jednadžba

Bernoullijeva jednadžba (prema Danielu Bernoulliju) je osnovni zakon gibanja fluida. Proizlazi iz primjene zakona o očuvanju energije na strujanje fluida. Odatle se dobije da zbroj:

ima istu vrijednost posvuda u fluidu koji struji vodoravno, gdje je p tlak, ρ gustoća i v brzina fluida u nekoj točki, a h visina visina težišta poprečnog presjeka fluida u odnosu na neku vodoravnu ravninu. Prema tome, ondje gdje je brzina tekućine veća, tlak je manji, ondje gdje je brzina tekućine manja, tlak je veći. Na Bernoullijevoj jednadžbi osnivaju se mnoge inženjerske primjene, kao na primjer let zrakoplova: zrak struji uz gornju zakrivljenu plohu krila brže nego ispod krila, pa je tlak na donju plohu krila veći nego na gornju, što ima za posljedicu da na krila djeluje ukupna sila prema gore koja diže zrakoplov.

Bernoullijeva jednadžba prikazuje odnos između brzine, tlaka i gustoće tekućine u kretanju. Ona kaže da je u slučaju stabilnog strujanja nestlačive idealne tekućine, bez trenja, ukupna energija tekućine jednaka duž svih prereza; porastom brzine tekućine pada njen hidrostatski tlak i obratno. Zbroj hidrostatskog tlaka i |hidrodinamičkog tlaka u vodoravnom strujanju daje ukupan tlak koji je konstantan u svim prerezima cijevi. Drugim riječima, Bernoullijeva jednadžba predstavlja zakon očuvanja energije koji nam u slučaju stacionarnog strujanja tekućine govori da za vrijeme stacionarnog strujanja jedinica mase tekućine (njen diferencijalni dio) ima konstantnu energiju duž cijele strujne cijevi.

Iz pokusa vidimo da tlak u vodoravnoj cijevi stalno opada, te da je hidrodinamički tlak na svakom mjestu manji od hidrostatskog tlaka koji bi postojao kad mi voda mirovala.

Izvori

Mehanika fluida

Hidrodinamički tlak


An Specklinia mucronata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John Lindley ngan Célestin Alfred Cogniaux, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Carlyle August Luer. An Specklinia mucronata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Specklinia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Specklinia

Specklinia mucronata


සාරෝආ () හෙවත් හ්ලා'අලුවා () ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන්නේ මධ්‍යම දකුණු තායිවානයේ ස්වදේශික ජන කොට්ඨාසයකි. මොවුහු කාඕහ්සියුංහි ටාඕයුවාන් දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ පිහිටි ටාඕයුවාන් සහ ගාඕජොං යන ගම්මාන දෙකෙහි ජීවත් වෙති.

2014 ජූනි 26 දින හ්ලා'අලුවා යන නාමය යටතේ මෙම ජන කොට්ඨාසය තායිවාන රජයේ නිල පිළිගැනීම ලැබූහ.

මේවාත් බලන්න
 සාරෝආ භාෂාව
 තායිවාන ආදිවාසීන්

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

තායිවාන ආදිවාසීන්
තායිවානයේ ජන වර්ග

සාරෝආ ජනයා


Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy () is a book by the German-born Italian sociologist Robert Michels, published in 1911 and first introducing the concept of iron law of oligarchy. It is considered one of the classics of social sciences, in particular sociology and political science.

It was translated to Italian as Sociologia del partito politico nella democrazia moderna: studi sulle tendenze oligarchiche degli aggregati politici by Alfredo Polledro in 1912, and then translated from the Italian to English by Eden Paul and Cedar Paul for Hearst's International Library Co. in 1915.

This work analyses the power structures of organizations such as political parties and trade unions. Michels's main argument is that all organizations, even those in theory most egalitarian and most committed to democracy – like socialist political parties – are in fact oligarchical, and dominated by a small group of leadership.

The book also provides a first systematic analysis of how a radical political party loses its radical goals under the dynamics of electoral participation. The origins of moderation theory can be found in this analysis.

Synopsis
Michels put forward a thesis about incompatibility of democracy and large-scale social organizations. He observed that contrary to democratic and egalitarian principles, both society in general, and specific organizations in particular are dominated by the leadership – the oligarchy. This, according to Michels, was not because of any particular weakness of a particular society or organization in question, but a characteristic of any and all complex social systems. Such social systems have to be organized along bureaucratic lines,  managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials, and bureaucracies inevitably develop oligarchies. Michels concluded that in any complex organization, and such dominate the modern world, it is impossible to escape domination of oligarchy - a conclusion which became known as the iron law of oligarchy.

The iron law of oligarchy is based on the following logic. First, any large scale organization will necessitate the development of bureaucracy for efficient administration. Such leaders will amass resources (superior knowledge control over the formal means of communication with the membership, and the skill in the art of politics) giving them power at the expense of rank and file members.

Second, Michels expressed doubts about whether the rank and file possess the skills necessary to compete with the leaders, a concept he phrased as the "incompetence of the masses". In order to prevent the development of an oligarchy, the regular members must be involved in various activities of the organizations; however, reality of time constraints due to work, family and leisure will reduce the amount of time that most such members are willing to dedicate to active involvement in organizational activities and politics. This is compounded by the rank and file lack of education, and corresponding sophistication of the leadership.

In his case study of his contemporary socialist parties, primarily the German Social Democratic Party. It was radical organization in his time, fighting for novel concepts such as adult suffrage, free speech, and popular participation in the government. Michels described how their political program was overshadowed by the expansion of the organization favoured by the administrative bureaucracy. This, Michels observed, can be explained thus: "it is far from obvious that the interests of the masses which have combined to form the party will coincide with the interests of the bureaucracy in which the party becomes personified." Michels noted that if an organization dedicated to such principles failed to realize its democratic ideals in its own governance, it is unlikely that other organizations, even less concerned with such lofty goals, would be able to function as democracies.

Significance
Michels book quickly became a classic of social sciences. His theory was quickly vindicated on a large scale during First World War, when most socialist parties of that time endorsed the war policies of their respective governments, thus showing that their corresponding party leaders put the short-term goals of organizational survival (allying with the state) over doctrinal points of "proletariat against bourgeoisie".

Sigmund Neumann said that "the study of sociology of political parties have been completely dominated by Robert Michels' iron law of [oligarchy]." Michels work significantly influenced the views on political party theory by his friend and one of the founding fathers of sociology, Max Weber. A number of other theorists of political parties acknowledged that this work was a major influence on theirs, including James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce, Maurice Duverger, and Robert McKenzie, among others.

Beyond political parties, Michels work was used to explain the functioning of numerous other voluntary organizations from trade unions to medical associations. His theories are also seen as being applicable and influential to the study of all organizations in general, as well as theories of bureaucracy.

Criticism
Michels' argument has been criticized for being over-deterministic and overly critical of bureaucracy.

Quotes
 "A party of the landed gentry which should appeal only to the members of its own class and to those of identical economic interests, would not win a single seat, would not send a single representative to parliament. A conservative candidate who should present himself to his electors by declaring to them that he did not regard them as capable of playing an active part in influencing the destinies of the country, and should tell them that for this reason they ought to be deprived of the suffrage, would be a man of incomparable sincerity, but politically insane."

See also

 Elite theory
 Pareto principle
 Power law
 Union Democracy

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links
 Political Parties, Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library – machine-readable version of the text, in HTML form
 Robert Michels index – machine-readable version of the text, in PDF form

1911 non-fiction books
Political science books
Political science theories
Sociology books
Sociological theories
Management theory

Political Parties


Variomatic is the continuously variable transmission (CVT) of the Dutch car manufacturer DAF, originally developed by Hub van Doorne. It is a stepless, fully-automatic transmission, consisting of a V-shaped drive-belt, and two pulleys, each of two cones, whose effective diameter can be changed so that the "V" belt runs nearer the spindle or nearer the rim, depending on the separation of the cones. These are synchronized so that the belt always remains at the same optimal tension.

History
The Variomatic was the first commercially successful CVT (as opposed to shifting between separate gears). In theory, this always produces the optimum torque. The Variomatic was introduced by DAF in 1958, also putting an automatic gearbox in the Netherlands for the first time. The Variomatic was introduced on the DAF 600.

Efficiency
Because most of the time the engine runs at its most economical speed, the fuel consumption of this car was acceptable, although the fuel efficiency of any mechanical CVT is about 70% (then) to 75% now (Bosch) (now).

Reversing
Because the system does not have separate gears, but one (continuously shifting) gear and a separate 'reverse mode' (as opposed to reverse gear), the transmission works in reverse as well, giving it the side effect that one can drive backwards as fast as forwards. As a result, in the former Dutch annual backward driving world championship, the DAFs had to be put in a separate competition because no other car could keep up. Thus, these very cheap and simple cars were the 'formula one' in this competition.

VDT
Manual transmission remains dominant in Europe. When DAF was acquired by Volvo in 1974, the Variomatic patents were transferred to a company called VDT (Van Doorne Transmissie), later acquired by Bosch in 1995. VDT continued the development of the CVT and introduced a push-belt system in the Ford Fiesta and Fiat Uno.

Operation

Gear ratio
The final drive has two pulleys with moveable conical drums. The distance between the drums is controlled by the engine vacuum in the inlet manifold and engine RPM, through centrifugal weights inside the drums. Between the two pulleys runs a drive belt. As a result of the change in the distance of the conical drums in both pulleys, the diameters and so also the reduction ratio changes continuously.

Differential

With the DAF 600 - 55, each rear wheel was propelled individually by a pair of conical drums and drive belt with the effect of a limited-slip differential: if a drive wheel on slippery road revs up, the other wheel can still transfer the full torque. This results in unusually good traction characteristics, which were also a reason for the successes of the DAFs in rallies. There were several disadvantages that accompanied the lack of a true differential gear. Although each belt could settle (independent of the other) into its optimum position, thus allowing for wheel speed variation, the system was slow to operate and depended on the pulleys being turned. This led to rapid tire wear and placed stress on other transmission components. Snapped drive shafts were common. Low-speed handling in icy conditions was interesting as the system tended to drive the car forward against the influence of the steered wheels. Later cars, the 46, 66, and Volvo variants were fitted with a differentially geared axle. A version with a differential was developed by Williams in the 1993 Williams FW15C CVT Formula One car, but it was banned before being raced. In testing there were problems with the heat production.

Motorscooters
The Variomatic is also used in today's motorscooters. It has been a standard part of all common scooters since 1985, and several companies such as Malossi, Polini, Doppler, and Stage6 are offering tuning clutches and variomatic for most common 50, 70 and 125 cc scooters.

Steel link belts
The modern CVT works according to the same principle of split pulleys allowing infinitely variable gear ratios. Rather than the pulled rubber drive belts as originally used by DAF, the modern transmission is made more durable by the use of steel link belts that are pushed by their pulleys. This improvement was pioneered by Fiat, Ford, and Van Doorne in the Netherlands from the late 1970s. The gearbox is also under electronic control.

One version that incorporates the switch from rubber to steel belts was called the Transmatic.

Availability
DAF's Van Doorne's Transmissie is still operating (as of November 2015) in Tilburg, Netherlands. It changed affiliations from the DAF group to Bosch in 1995.

The CVT is available from brands such as Audi, Honda, BMW Mini, and Subaru. Tata Motors from India intended to use a Variomatic transmission in its $2500 Nano. The Nissan Primera is offered with this transmission.

External links
 How it Works: The Variomatic Transmission

References

DAF
Continuously variable transmissions
Automotive transmission technologies
Automatic transmission tradenames
Dutch inventions

Variomatic


El topónimo Lakeport puede hacer referencia a varios lugares de Estados Unidos:

 Lakeport, una ciudad en el estado de California;
 North Lakeport, un lugar designado por el censo en el estado anterior;
 Lakeport, un municipio en el estado de Iowa;
 Lakeport, un municipio en el estado de Minnesota;
 Lakeport, una ciudad en el estado de Texas.

Lakeport


Koishikawa steht für:

 Koishikawa (Tokio), ein Stadtbezirk von Tokio

Koishikawa ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Masahiro Koishikawa (1952–2020), japanischer Astronom und Asteroidenentdecker

Koishikawa


Zacharia Dobrotă (n. 1872, Șeica-Mare - d. ?) a fost un delegat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
A lucrat la Palatul Justiției din București înainte de Primul Război Mondial. A fost inspector de poliție în Sibiu până în 1929 când s-a pensionat.

Activitatea politică

După pensionare, Zacharia Dobrotă a fost numit inspector informativ în Ministerul Justiției. A fost delegat al Cercului Mediaș, județul Târnava Mare,  la  Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia.

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II)

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918
  1 decembrie 1918, Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia. Mărturii, documente și semnificații

Nașteri în 1872
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Anul decesului lipsă
Decese în secolul al XX-lea

Zacharia Dobrotă


ගිනිකොණදිග ආසියාවට ආවේණික වූ ටෙෆ්රිටයිඩ් පළතුරු මැස්සන් විශේෂයක් වන Bactrocera dorsalis, කලින් Dacus dorsalis ලෙස හැඳින්වූ අතර පෙරදිග පළතුරු මැස්සන් ලෙස හැඳින්වේ.

පළතුරු මැස්සා


In mathematics, an algebraic torus, where a one dimensional torus is typically denoted by , , or , is a type of commutative affine algebraic group commonly found in projective algebraic geometry and toric geometry. Higher dimensional algebraic tori can be modelled as a product of algebraic groups . These groups were named by analogy with the theory of tori in Lie group theory (see Cartan subgroup). For example, over the complex numbers  the algebraic torus  is isomorphic to the group scheme , which is the scheme theoretic analogue of the Lie group . In fact, any -action on a complex vector space can be pulled back to a -action from the inclusion  as real manifolds.

Tori are of fundamental importance in the theory of algebraic groups and Lie groups and in the study of the geometric objects associated to them such as symmetric spaces and buildings.

Algebraic tori over fields

In most places we suppose that the base field is perfect (for example finite or characteristic zero). This hypothesis is required to have a smooth group schemepg 64, since for an algebraic group  to be smooth over characteristic , the maps must be geometrically reduced for large enough , meaning the image of the corresponding map on  is smooth for large enough .

In general one has to use separable closures instead of algebraic closures.

Multiplicative group of a field

If  is a field then the multiplicative group over  is the algebraic group  such that for any field extension  the -points are isomorphic to the group . To define it properly as an algebraic group one can take the affine variety defined by the equation  in the affine plane over  with coordinates . The multiplication is then given by restricting the regular rational map  defined by  and the inverse is the restriction of the regular rational map .

Definition

Let  be a field with algebraic closure . Then a -torus is an algebraic group defined over  which is isomorphic over  to a finite product of copies of the multiplicative group.

In other words, if  is an -group it is a torus if and only if  for some . The basic terminology associated to tori is as follows.

The integer  is called the rank or absolute rank of the torus .
The torus is said to be split over a field extension  if . There is a unique minimal finite extension of  over which  is split, which is called the splitting field of .
The -rank of  is the maximal rank of a split sub-torus of . A torus is split if and only if its -rank equals its absolute rank.
A torus is said to be anisotropic if its -rank is zero.

Isogenies

An isogeny between algebraic groups is a surjective morphism with finite kernel; two tori are said to be isogenous if there exists an isogeny from the first to the second. Isogenies between tori are particularly well-behaved: for any isogeny  there exists a "dual" isogeny  such that  is a power map. In particular being isogenous is an equivalence relation between tori.

Examples

Over an algebraically closed field
Over any algebraically closed field  there is up to isomorphism a unique torus of any given rank. For a rank  algebraic torus over  this is given by the group scheme pg 230.

Over the real numbers
Over the field of real numbers  there are exactly (up to isomorphism) two tori of rank 1:
the split torus
the compact form, which can be realised as the unitary group  or as the special orthogonal group . It is an anisotropic torus. As a Lie group, it is also isomorphic to the 1-torus , which explains the picture of diagonalisable algebraic groups as tori.
Any real torus is isogenous to a finite sum of those two; for example the real torus  is doubly covered by (but not isomorphic to) . This gives an example of isogenous, non-isomorphic tori.

Over a finite field
Over the finite field  there are two rank-1 tori: the split one, of cardinality , and the anisotropic one of cardinality . The latter can be realised as the matrix group

More generally, if  is a finite field extension of degree  then the Weil restriction from  to  of the multiplicative group of  is an -torus of rank  and -rank 1 (note that restriction of scalars over an inseparable field extension will yield a commutative algebraic group that is not a torus). The kernel  of its field norm is also a torus, which is anisotropic and of rank . Any -torus of rank one is either split or isomorphic to the kernel of the norm of a quadratic extension. The two examples above are special cases of this: the compact real torus is the kernel of the field norm of  and the anisotropic torus over  is the kernel of the field norm of .

Weights and coweights

Over a separably closed field, a torus T admits two primary invariants. The weight lattice  is the group of algebraic homomorphisms T → Gm, and the coweight lattice  is the group of algebraic homomorphisms Gm → T.  These are both free abelian groups whose rank is that of the torus, and they have a canonical nondegenerate pairing  given by , where degree is the number n such that the composition is equal to the nth power map on the multiplicative group.  The functor given by taking weights is an antiequivalence of categories between tori and free abelian groups, and the coweight functor is an equivalence.  In particular, maps of tori are characterized by linear transformations on weights or coweights, and the automorphism group of a torus is a general linear group over Z.  The quasi-inverse of the weights functor is given by a dualization functor from free abelian groups to tori, defined by its functor of points as:

This equivalence can be generalized to pass between groups of multiplicative type (a distinguished class of formal groups) and arbitrary abelian groups, and such a generalization can be convenient if one wants to work in a well-behaved category, since the category of tori doesn't have kernels or filtered colimits.

When a field K is not separably closed, the weight and coweight lattices of a torus over K are defined as the respective lattices over the separable closure.  This induces canonical continuous actions of the absolute Galois group of K on the lattices.  The weights and coweights that are fixed by this action are precisely the maps that are defined over K.  The functor of taking weights is an antiequivalence between the category of tori over K with algebraic homomorphisms and the category of finitely generated torsion free abelian groups with an action of the absolute Galois group of K.

Given a finite separable field extension L/K and a torus T over L, we have a Galois module isomorphism

If T is the multiplicative group, then this gives the restriction of scalars a permutation module structure.  Tori whose weight lattices are permutation modules for the Galois group are called quasi-split, and all quasi-split tori are finite products of restrictions of scalars.

Tori in semisimple groups

Linear representations of tori

As seen in the examples above tori can be represented as linear groups. An alternative definition for tori is:

A linear algebraic group is a torus if and only if it is diagonalisable over an algebraic closure.

The torus is split over a field if and only if it is diagonalisable over this field.

Split rank of a semisimple group

If  is a semisimple algebraic group over a field  then:
its rank (or absolute rank) is the rank of a maximal torus subgroup in  (note that all maximal tori are conjugated over  so the rank is well-defined);
its -rank (sometimes called -split rank) is the maximal rank of a torus subgroup in  which is split over .
Obviously the rank is greater than or equal the -rank; the group is called split if and only if equality holds (that is, there is a maximal torus in  which is split over ). The group is called anisotropic if it contains no split tori (i.e. its -rank is zero).

Classification of semisimple groups

In the classical theory of semisimple Lie algebras over the complex field the Cartan subalgebras play a fundamental rôle in the classification via root systems and Dynkin diagrams. This classification is equivalent to that of connected algebraic groups over the complex field, and Cartan subalgebras correspond to maximal tori in these. In fact the classification carries over to the case of an arbitrary base field under the assumption that there exists a split maximal torus (which is automatically satisfied over an algebraically closed field). Without the splitness assumption things become much more complicated and a more detailed theory has to be developed, which is still based in part on the study of adjoint actions of tori.

If  is a maximal torus in a semisimple algebraic group  then over the algebraic closure it gives rise to a root system  in the vector space . On the other hand, if  is a maximal -split torus its action on the -Lie algebra of  gives rise to another root system . The restriction map  induces a map  and the Tits index is a way to encode the properties of this map and of the action of the Galois group of  on . The Tits index is a "relative" version of the "absolute" Dynkin diagram associated to ; obviously, only finitely many Tits indices can correspond to a given Dynkin diagram.

Another invariant associated to the split torus  is the anisotropic kernel: this is the semisimple algebraic group obtained as the derived subgroup of the centraliser of  in  (the latter is only a reductive group). As its name indicates it is an anisotropic group, and its absolute type is uniquely determined by .

The first step towards a classification is then the following theorem

Two semisimple -algebraic groups are isomorphic if and only if they have the same Tits indices and isomorphic anisotropic kernels.

This reduces the classification problem to anisotropic groups, and to determining which Tits indices can occur for a given Dynkin diagram. The latter problem has been solved in . The former is related to the Galois cohomology groups of . More precisely to each Tits index there is associated a unique quasi-split group over ; then every -group with the same index is an inner form of this quasi-split group, and those are classified by the Galois cohomology of  with coefficients in the adjoint group.

Tori and geometry

Flat subspaces and rank of symmetric spaces

If  is a semisimple Lie group then its real rank is the -rank as defined above (for any -algebraic group whose group of real points is isomorphic to ), in other words the maximal  such that there exists an embedding . For example, the real rank of  is equal to , and the real rank of  is equal to .

If  is the symmetric space associated to  and  is a maximal split torus then there exists a unique orbit of  in  which is a totally geodesic flat subspace in . It is in fact a maximal flat subspace and all maximal such are obtained as orbits of split tori in this way. Thus there is a geometric definition of the real rank, as the maximal dimension of a flat subspace in .

Q-rank of lattices

If the Lie group  is obtained as the real points of an algebraic group  over the rational field  then the -rank of  has also a geometric significance. To get to it one has to introduce an arithmetic group  associated to , which roughly is the group of integer points of , and the quotient space , which is a Riemannian orbifold and hence a metric space. Then any asymptotic cone of  is homeomorphic to a finite simplicial complex with top-dimensional simplices of dimension equal to the -rank of . In particular,  is compact if and only if  is anisotropic.

Note that this allows to define the -rank of any lattice in a semisimple Lie group, as the dimension of its asymptotic cone.

Buildings

If  is a semisimple group over  the maximal split tori in  correspond to the apartments of the Bruhat-Tits building  associated to . In particular the dimension of  is equal to the -rank of .

Algebraic tori over an arbitrary base scheme

Definition

Given a base scheme S, an algebraic torus over S is defined to be a group scheme over S that is fpqc locally isomorphic to a finite product of copies of the multiplicative group scheme Gm/S over S.  In other words, there exists a faithfully flat map X → S such that any point in X has a quasi-compact open neighborhood U whose image is an open affine subscheme of S, such that base change to U yields a finite product of copies of GL1,U = Gm/U.  One particularly important case is when S is the spectrum of a field K, making a torus over S an algebraic group whose extension to some finite separable extension L is a finite product of copies of Gm/L.  In general, the multiplicity of this product (i.e., the dimension of the scheme) is called the rank of the torus, and it is a locally constant function on S.

Most notions defined for tori over fields carry to this more general setting.

Examples
One common example of an algebraic torus is to consider the affine cone  of a projective scheme . Then, with the origin removed, the induced projection map  gives the structure of an algebraic torus over .

Weights

For a general base scheme S, weights and coweights are defined as fpqc sheaves of free abelian groups on S.  These provide representations of fundamental groupoids of the base with respect the fpqc topology.  If the torus is locally trivializable with respect to a weaker topology such as the etale topology, then the sheaves of groups descend to the same topologies and these representations factor through the respective quotient groupoids.  In particular, an etale sheaf gives rise to a quasi-isotrivial torus, and if S is locally noetherian and normal (more generally, geometrically unibranched), the torus is isotrivial.  As a partial converse, a theorem of Grothendieck asserts that any torus of finite type is quasi-isotrivial, i.e., split by an etale surjection.

Given a rank n torus T over S, a twisted form is a torus over S for which there exists a fpqc covering of S for which their base extensions are isomorphic, i.e., it is a torus of the same rank.  Isomorphism classes of twisted forms of a split torus are parametrized by nonabelian flat cohomology , where the coefficient group forms a constant sheaf.  In particular, twisted forms of a split torus T over a field K are parametrized by elements of the Galois cohomology pointed set  with trivial Galois action on the coefficients.  In the one-dimensional case, the coefficients form a group of order two, and isomorphism classes of twisted forms of Gm are in natural bijection with separable quadratic extensions of K.

Since taking a weight lattice is an equivalence of categories, short exact sequences of tori correspond to short exact sequences of the corresponding weight lattices.  In particular, extensions of tori are classified by Ext1 sheaves.  These are naturally isomorphic to the flat cohomology groups .  Over a field, the extensions are parametrized by elements of the corresponding Galois cohomology group.

Arithmetic invariants

In his work on Tamagawa numbers, T. Ono introduced a type of functorial invariants of tori over finite separable extensions of a chosen field k.  Such an invariant is a collection of positive real-valued functions fK on isomorphism classes of tori over K, as K runs over finite separable extensions of k, satisfying three properties:
 Multiplicativity: Given two tori T1 and T2 over K, fK(T1 × T2) = fK(T1) fK(T2)
 Restriction: For a finite separable extension L/K, fL evaluated on an L torus is equal to fK evaluated on its restriction of scalars to K.
 Projective triviality: If T is a torus over K whose weight lattice is a projective Galois module, then fK(T) = 1.

T. Ono showed that the Tamagawa number of a torus over a number field is such an invariant.  Furthermore, he showed that it is a quotient of two cohomological invariants, namely the order of the group  (sometimes mistakenly called the Picard group of T, although it doesn't classify Gm torsors over T), and the order of the Tate–Shafarevich group.

The notion of invariant given above generalizes naturally to tori over arbitrary base schemes, with functions taking values in more general rings.  While the order of the extension group is a general invariant, the other two invariants above do not seem to have interesting analogues outside the realm of fraction fields of one-dimensional domains and their completions.

See also

Toric geometry
Torus
Torus based cryptography
Hopf algebra

Notes

References

A. Grothendieck, SGA 3 Exp. VIII–X
T. Ono, On Tamagawa Numbers
T. Ono, On the Tamagawa number of algebraic tori Annals of Mathematics 78 (1) 1963.

Linear algebraic groups
Lie groups

Algebraic torus