The path integral formulation is a description in quantum mechanics that generalizes the action principle of classical mechanics.  It replaces the classical notion of a single, unique classical trajectory for a system with a sum, or functional integral, over an infinity of quantum-mechanically possible trajectories to compute a quantum amplitude.

This formulation has proven crucial to the subsequent development of theoretical physics, because manifest Lorentz covariance (time and space components of quantities enter equations in the same way) is easier to achieve than in the operator formalism of canonical quantization. Unlike previous methods, the path integral allows one to easily change coordinates between very different canonical descriptions of the same quantum system. Another advantage is that it is in practice easier to guess the correct form of the Lagrangian of a theory, which naturally enters the path integrals (for interactions of a certain type, these are coordinate space or Feynman path integrals), than the Hamiltonian. Possible downsides of the approach include that unitarity (this is related to conservation of probability; the probabilities of all physically possible outcomes must add up to one) of the S-matrix is obscure in the formulation. The path-integral approach has proven to be equivalent to the other formalisms of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. Thus, by deriving either approach from the other, problems associated with one or the other approach (as exemplified by Lorentz covariance or unitarity) go away.

The path integral also relates quantum and stochastic processes, and this provided the basis for the grand synthesis of the 1970s, which unified quantum field theory with the statistical field theory of a fluctuating field near a second-order phase transition. The Schrödinger equation is a diffusion equation with an imaginary diffusion constant, and the path integral is an analytic continuation of a method for summing up all possible random walks.

The basic idea of the path integral formulation can be traced back to Norbert Wiener, who introduced the Wiener integral for solving problems in diffusion and Brownian motion. This idea was extended to the use of the Lagrangian in quantum mechanics by Paul Dirac, who gave the ideas that would lead to path integral formulation in his 1933 article. The complete method was developed in 1948 by Richard Feynman. Some preliminaries were worked out earlier in his doctoral work under the supervision of John Archibald Wheeler. The original motivation stemmed from the desire to obtain a quantum-mechanical formulation for the Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory using a Lagrangian (rather than a Hamiltonian) as a starting point.

Quantum action principle

In quantum mechanics, as in classical mechanics, the Hamiltonian is the generator of time translations. This means that the state at a slightly later time differs from the state at the current time by the result of acting with the Hamiltonian operator (multiplied by the negative imaginary unit, ). For states with a definite energy, this is a statement of the de Broglie relation between frequency and energy, and the general relation is consistent with that plus the superposition principle.

The Hamiltonian in classical mechanics is derived from a Lagrangian, which is a more fundamental quantity relative to special relativity. The Hamiltonian indicates how to march forward in time, but the time is different in different reference frames. The Lagrangian is a Lorentz scalar, while the Hamiltonian is the time component of a four-vector. So the Hamiltonian is different in different frames, and this type of symmetry is not apparent in the original formulation of quantum mechanics.

The Hamiltonian is a function of the position and momentum at one time, and it determines the position and momentum a little later. The Lagrangian is a function of the position now and the position a little later (or, equivalently for infinitesimal time separations, it is a function of the position and velocity). The relation between the two is by a Legendre transformation, and the condition that determines the classical equations of motion (the Euler–Lagrange equations) is that the action has an extremum.

In quantum mechanics, the Legendre transform is hard to interpret, because the motion is not over a definite trajectory. In classical mechanics, with discretization in time, the Legendre transform becomes

and

where the partial derivative with respect to  holds  fixed. The inverse Legendre transform is

where

and the partial derivative now is with respect to  at fixed .

In quantum mechanics, the state is a superposition of different states with different values of , or different values of , and the quantities  and  can be interpreted as noncommuting operators. The operator  is only definite on states that are indefinite with respect to . So consider two states separated in time and act with the operator corresponding to the Lagrangian:

If the multiplications implicit in this formula are reinterpreted as matrix multiplications, the first factor is

and if this is also interpreted as a matrix multiplication, the sum over all states integrates over all , and so it takes the Fourier transform in  to change basis to . That is the action on the Hilbert space – change basis to  at time .

Next comes

or evolve an infinitesimal time into the future.

Finally, the last factor in this interpretation is

which means change basis back to  at a later time.

This is not very different from just ordinary time evolution: the  factor contains all the dynamical information – it pushes the state forward in time. The first part and the last part are just Fourier transforms to change to a pure  basis from an intermediate  basis.

Another way of saying this is that since the Hamiltonian is naturally a function of  and , exponentiating this quantity and changing basis from  to  at each step allows the matrix element of  to be expressed as a simple function along each path. This function is the quantum analog of the classical action. This observation is due to Paul Dirac.

Dirac further noted that one could square the time-evolution operator in the  representation:

and this gives the time-evolution operator between time  and time . While in the  representation the quantity that is being summed over the intermediate states is an obscure matrix element, in the  representation it is reinterpreted as a quantity associated to the path. In the limit that one takes a large power of this operator, one reconstructs the full quantum evolution between two states, the early one with a fixed value of  and the later one with a fixed value of . The result is a sum over paths with a phase, which is the quantum action. Crucially, Dirac identified in this article the deep quantum-mechanical reason for the principle of least action controlling the classical limit (see quotation box).

Feynman's interpretation

Dirac's work did not provide a precise prescription to calculate the sum over paths, and he did not show that one could recover the Schrödinger equation or the canonical commutation relations from this rule. This was done by Feynman. That is, the classical path arises naturally in the classical limit.

Feynman showed that Dirac's quantum action was, for most cases of interest, simply equal to the classical action, appropriately discretized. This means that the classical action is the phase acquired by quantum evolution between two fixed endpoints. He proposed to recover all of quantum mechanics from the following postulates:
 The probability for an event is given by the squared modulus of a complex number called the "probability amplitude".
 The probability amplitude is given by adding together the contributions of all paths in configuration space.
 The contribution of a path is proportional to , where  is the action given by the time integral of the Lagrangian along the path.

In order to find the overall probability amplitude for a given process, then, one adds up, or integrates, the amplitude of the 3rd postulate over the space of all possible paths of the system in between the initial and final states, including those that are absurd by classical standards. In calculating the probability amplitude for a single particle to go from one space-time coordinate to another, it is correct to include paths in which the particle describes elaborate curlicues, curves in which the particle shoots off into outer space and flies back again, and so forth. The path integral assigns to all these amplitudes equal weight but varying phase, or argument of the complex number. Contributions from paths wildly different from the classical trajectory may be suppressed by interference (see below).

Feynman showed that this formulation of quantum mechanics is equivalent to the canonical approach to quantum mechanics when the Hamiltonian is at most quadratic in the momentum.  An amplitude computed according to Feynman's principles will also obey the Schrödinger equation for the Hamiltonian corresponding to the given action.

The path integral formulation of quantum field theory represents the transition amplitude (corresponding to the classical correlation function) as a weighted sum of all possible histories of the system from the initial to the final state. A Feynman diagram is a graphical representation of a perturbative contribution to the transition amplitude.

Path integral in quantum mechanics

Time-slicing derivation

One common approach to deriving the path integral formula is to divide the time interval into small pieces. Once this is done, the Trotter product formula tells us that the noncommutativity of the kinetic and potential energy operators can be ignored.

For a particle in a smooth potential, the path integral is approximated by zigzag paths, which in one dimension is a product of ordinary integrals. For the motion of the particle from position  at time  to  at time , the time sequence

can be divided up into  smaller segments , where , of fixed duration

This process is called time-slicing.

An approximation for the path integral can be computed as proportional to

where  is the Lagrangian of the one-dimensional system with position variable  and velocity  considered (see below), and  corresponds to the position at the th time step, if the time integral is approximated by a sum of  terms.

In the limit , this becomes a functional integral, which, apart from a nonessential factor, is directly the product of the probability amplitudes  (more precisely, since one must work with a continuous spectrum, the respective densities) to find the quantum mechanical particle at  in the initial state  and at  in the final state .

Actually  is the classical Lagrangian of the one-dimensional system considered,

and the abovementioned "zigzagging" corresponds to the appearance of the terms

in the Riemann sum approximating the time integral, which are finally integrated over  to  with the integration measure ,  is an arbitrary value of the interval corresponding to , e.g. its center, .

Thus, in contrast to classical mechanics, not only does the stationary path contribute, but actually all virtual paths between the initial and the final point also contribute.

Path integral

In terms of the wave function in the position representation, the path integral formula reads as follows:

where  denotes integration over all paths  with  and where  is a normalization factor. Here  is the action, given by

Free particle

The path integral representation gives the quantum amplitude to go from point  to point  as an integral over all paths. For a free-particle action (for simplicity let , )

the integral can be evaluated explicitly.

To do this, it is convenient to start without the factor  in the exponential, so that large deviations are suppressed by small numbers, not by cancelling oscillatory contributions. The amplitude (or Kernel) reads:

Splitting the integral into time slices:

where the  is interpreted as a finite collection of integrations at each integer multiple of . Each factor in the product is a Gaussian as a function of  centered at  with variance . The multiple integrals are a repeated convolution of this Gaussian  with copies of itself at adjacent times:

where the number of convolutions is . The result is easy to evaluate by taking the Fourier transform of both sides, so that the convolutions become multiplications:

The Fourier transform of the Gaussian  is another Gaussian of reciprocal variance:

and the result is

The Fourier transform gives , and it is a Gaussian again with reciprocal variance:

The proportionality constant is not really determined by the time-slicing approach, only the ratio of values for different endpoint choices is determined. The proportionality constant should be chosen to ensure that between each two time slices the time evolution is quantum-mechanically unitary, but a more illuminating way to fix the normalization is to consider the path integral as a description of a stochastic process.

The result has a probability interpretation. The sum over all paths of the exponential factor can be seen as the sum over each path of the probability of selecting that path. The probability is the product over each segment of the probability of selecting that segment, so that each segment is probabilistically independently chosen. The fact that the answer is a Gaussian spreading linearly in time is the central limit theorem, which can be interpreted as the first historical evaluation of a statistical path integral.

The probability interpretation gives a natural normalization choice. The path integral should be defined so that

This condition normalizes the Gaussian and produces a kernel that obeys the diffusion equation:

For oscillatory path integrals, ones with an  in the numerator, the time slicing produces convolved Gaussians, just as before. Now, however, the convolution product is marginally singular, since it requires careful limits to evaluate the oscillating integrals. To make the factors well defined, the easiest way is to add a small imaginary part to the time increment . This is closely related to Wick rotation. Then the same convolution argument as before gives the propagation kernel:

which, with the same normalization as before (not the sum-squares normalization – this function has a divergent norm), obeys a free Schrödinger equation:

This means that any superposition of s will also obey the same equation, by linearity. Defining

then  obeys the free Schrödinger equation just as  does:

Simple harmonic oscillator
The Lagrangian for the simple harmonic oscillator is

Write its trajectory  as the classical trajectory plus some perturbation,  and the action as . The classical trajectory can be written as

This trajectory yields the classical action

Next, expand the deviation from the classical path as a Fourier series, and calculate the contribution to the action , which gives

This means that the propagator is

for some normalization

Using the infinite-product representation of the sinc function,

the propagator can be written as

Let .  One may write this propagator in terms of energy eigenstates as

Using the identities  and , this amounts to

One may absorb all terms after the first  into , thereby  obtaining

One may  finally expand  in  powers of : All  terms in this expansion get multiplied by the  factor in the front,  yielding terms  of the form

Comparison  to the above eigenstate expansion  yields the  standard energy spectrum for the simple harmonic oscillator,

Coulomb potential
Feynman's time-sliced approximation does not, however, exist for the most important quantum-mechanical path integrals of atoms, due to the singularity of the Coulomb potential  at the origin. Only after replacing the time  by another path-dependent pseudo-time parameter

the singularity is removed and a time-sliced approximation exists, which is exactly integrable, since it can be made harmonic by a simple coordinate transformation, as discovered in 1979 by İsmail Hakkı Duru and Hagen Kleinert. The combination of a path-dependent time transformation and a coordinate transformation is an important tool to solve many path integrals and is called generically the Duru–Kleinert transformation.

The Schrödinger equation

The path integral reproduces the Schrödinger equation for the initial and final state even when a potential is present. This is easiest to see by taking a path-integral over infinitesimally separated times.

Since the time separation is infinitesimal and the cancelling oscillations become severe for large values of , the path integral has most weight for  close to . In this case, to lowest order the potential energy is constant, and only the kinetic energy contribution is nontrivial. (This separation of the kinetic and potential energy terms in the exponent is essentially the Trotter product formula.) The exponential of the action is

The first term rotates the phase of  locally by an amount proportional to the potential energy. The second term is the free particle propagator, corresponding to  times a diffusion process. To lowest order in  they are additive; in any case one has with (1):

As mentioned, the spread in  is diffusive from the free particle propagation, with an extra infinitesimal rotation in phase which slowly varies from point to point from the potential:

and this is the Schrödinger equation. The normalization of the path integral needs to be fixed in exactly the same way as in the free particle case. An arbitrary continuous potential does not affect the normalization, although singular potentials require careful treatment.

Equations of motion

Since the states obey the Schrödinger equation, the path integral must reproduce the Heisenberg equations of motion for the averages of  and   variables, but it is instructive to see this directly. The direct approach shows that the expectation values calculated from the path integral reproduce the usual ones of quantum mechanics.

Start by considering the path integral with some fixed initial state

Now  at each separate time is a separate integration variable. So it is legitimate to change variables in the integral by shifting:  where  is a different shift at each time but , since the endpoints are not integrated:

The change in the integral from the shift is, to first infinitesimal order in :

which, integrating by parts in , gives:

But this was just a shift of integration variables, which doesn't change the value of the integral for any choice of . The conclusion is that this first order variation is zero for an arbitrary initial state and at any arbitrary point in time:

this is the Heisenberg equation of motion.

If the action contains terms which multiply  and , at the same moment in time, the manipulations above are only heuristic, because the multiplication rules for these quantities is just as noncommuting in the path integral as it is in the operator formalism.

Stationary-phase approximation

If the variation in the action exceeds  by many orders of magnitude, we typically have destructive interference other than in the vicinity of those trajectories satisfying the Euler–Lagrange equation, which is now reinterpreted as the condition for constructive interference. This can be shown using the method of stationary phase applied to the propagator. As  decreases, the exponential in the integral oscillates rapidly in the complex domain for any change in the action. Thus, in the limit that  goes to zero, only points where the classical action does not vary contribute to the propagator.

Canonical commutation relations

The formulation of the path integral does not make it clear at first sight that the quantities  and  do not commute. In the path integral, these are just integration variables and they have no obvious ordering. Feynman discovered that the non-commutativity is still present.

To see this, consider the simplest path integral, the brownian walk. This is not yet quantum mechanics, so in the path-integral the action is not multiplied by :

The quantity  is fluctuating, and the derivative is defined as the limit of a discrete difference.

The distance that a random walk moves is proportional to , so that:

This shows that the random walk is not differentiable, since the ratio that defines the derivative diverges with probability one.

The quantity  is ambiguous, with two possible meanings:

In elementary calculus, the two are only different by an amount which goes to 0 as  goes to 0. But in this case, the difference between the two is not 0:

Let

Then  is a rapidly fluctuating statistical quantity, whose average value is 1, i.e. a normalized "Gaussian process". The fluctuations of such a quantity can be described by a statistical Lagrangian

and the equations of motion for  derived from extremizing the action  corresponding to  just set it equal to 1. In physics, such a quantity is "equal to 1 as an operator identity". In mathematics, it "weakly converges to 1". In either case, it is 1 in any expectation value, or when averaged over any interval, or for all practical purpose.

Defining the time order to be the operator order:

This is called the Itō lemma in stochastic calculus, and the (euclideanized) canonical commutation relations in physics.

For a general statistical action, a similar argument shows that

and in quantum mechanics, the extra imaginary unit in the action converts this to the canonical commutation relation,

Particle in curved space

For a particle in curved space the kinetic term depends on the position, and the above time slicing cannot be applied, this being a manifestation of the notorious operator ordering problem in Schrödinger quantum mechanics. One may, however, solve this problem by transforming the time-sliced flat-space path integral to curved space using a multivalued coordinate transformation (nonholonomic mapping explained here).

Measure-theoretic factors
Sometimes (e.g. a particle moving in curved space) we also have measure-theoretic factors in the functional integral:

This factor is needed to restore unitarity.

For instance, if

then it means that each spatial slice is multiplied by the measure . This measure cannot be expressed as a functional multiplying the  measure because they belong to entirely different classes.

Expectation values and matrix elements

Matrix elements of the kind  take the form

.

This generalizes to multiple operators, for example

,

and to the general expectation value

.

Euclidean path integrals
It is very common in path integrals to perform a Wick rotation from real to imaginary times. In the setting of quantum field theory, the Wick rotation changes the geometry of space-time from Lorentzian to Euclidean; as a result, Wick-rotated path integrals are often called Euclidean path integrals.

Wick rotation and the Feynman–Kac formula
If we replace  by , the time-evolution operator  is replaced by . (This change is known as a Wick rotation.) If we repeat the derivation of the path-integral formula in this setting, we obtain
,
where  is the Euclidean action, given by
.
Note the sign change between this and the normal action, where the potential energy term is negative. (The term Euclidean is from the context of quantum field theory, where the change from real to imaginary time changes the space-time geometry from Lorentzian to Euclidean.)

Now, the contribution of the kinetic energy to the path integral is as follows:

where  includes all the remaining dependence of the integrand on the path. This integral has a rigorous mathematical interpretation as integration against the Wiener measure, denoted . The Wiener measure, constructed by Norbert Wiener gives a rigorous foundation to Einstein's mathematical model of Brownian motion. The subscript  indicates that the measure  is supported on paths  with .

We then have a rigorous version of the Feynman path integral, known as the Feynman–Kac formula:

,

where now  satisfies the Wick-rotated version of the Schrödinger equation,
.
Although the Wick-rotated Schrödinger equation does not have a direct physical meaning, interesting properties of the Schrödinger operator  can be extracted by studying it.

Much of the study of quantum field theories from the path-integral perspective, in both the mathematics and physics literatures, is done in the Euclidean setting, that is, after a Wick rotation. In particular, there are various results showing that if a Euclidean field theory with suitable properties can be constructed, one can then undo the Wick rotation to recover the physical, Lorentzian theory. On the other hand, it is much more difficult to give a meaning to path integrals (even Euclidean path integrals) in quantum field theory than in quantum mechanics.

The path integral and the partition function

The path integral is just the generalization of the integral above to all quantum mechanical problems—

is the action of the classical problem in which one investigates the path starting at time  and ending at time , and  denotes the integration measure over all paths. In the classical limit, , the path of minimum action dominates the integral, because the phase of any path away from this fluctuates rapidly and different contributions cancel.

The connection with statistical mechanics follows. Considering only paths which begin and end in the same configuration, perform the Wick rotation , i.e., make time imaginary, and integrate over all possible beginning-ending configurations. The Wick-rotated path integral—described in the previous subsection, with the ordinary action replaced by its "Euclidean" counterpart—now resembles the partition function of statistical mechanics defined in a canonical ensemble with inverse temperature proportional to imaginary time, . Strictly speaking, though, this is the partition function for a statistical field theory.

Clearly, such a deep analogy between quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics cannot be dependent on the formulation. In the canonical formulation, one sees that the unitary evolution operator of a state is given by

where the state  is evolved from time . If one makes a Wick rotation here, and finds the amplitude to go from any state, back to the same state in (imaginary) time  is given by

which is precisely the partition function of statistical mechanics for the same system at the temperature quoted earlier. One aspect of this equivalence was also known to Erwin Schrödinger who remarked that the equation named after him looked like the diffusion equation after Wick rotation. Note, however, that the Euclidean path integral is actually in the form of a classical statistical mechanics model.

Quantum field theory

Both the Schrödinger and Heisenberg approaches to quantum mechanics single out time and are not in the spirit of relativity. For example, the Heisenberg approach requires that scalar field operators obey the commutation relation

for two simultaneous spatial positions  and , and this is not a relativistically invariant concept. The results of a calculation are covariant, but the symmetry is not apparent in intermediate stages. If naive field-theory calculations did not produce infinite answers in the continuum limit, this would not have been such a big problem – it would just have been a bad choice of coordinates. But the lack of symmetry means that the infinite quantities must be cut off, and the bad coordinates make it nearly impossible to cut off the theory without spoiling the symmetry. This makes it difficult to extract the physical predictions, which require a careful limiting procedure.

The problem of lost symmetry also appears in classical mechanics, where the Hamiltonian formulation also superficially singles out time. The Lagrangian formulation makes the relativistic invariance apparent. In the same way, the path integral is manifestly relativistic. It reproduces the Schrödinger equation, the Heisenberg equations of motion, and the canonical commutation relations and shows that they are compatible with relativity. It extends the Heisenberg-type operator algebra to operator product rules, which are new relations difficult to see in the old formalism.

Further, different choices of canonical variables lead to very different-seeming formulations of the same theory. The transformations between the variables can be very complicated, but the path integral makes them into reasonably straightforward changes of integration variables. For these reasons, the Feynman path integral has made earlier formalisms largely obsolete.

The price of a path integral representation is that the unitarity of a theory is no longer self-evident, but it can be proven by changing variables to some canonical representation. The path integral itself also deals with larger mathematical spaces than is usual, which requires more careful mathematics, not all of which has been fully worked out. The path integral historically was not immediately accepted, partly because it took many years to incorporate fermions properly. This required physicists to invent an entirely new mathematical object – the Grassmann variable – which also allowed changes of variables to be done naturally, as well as allowing constrained quantization.

The integration variables in the path integral are subtly non-commuting. The value of the product of two field operators at what looks like the same point depends on how the two points are ordered in space and time. This makes some naive identities fail.

The propagator

In relativistic theories, there is both a particle and field representation for every theory. The field representation is a sum over all field configurations, and the particle representation is a sum over different particle paths.

The nonrelativistic formulation is traditionally given in terms of particle paths, not fields. There, the path integral in the usual variables, with fixed boundary conditions, gives the probability amplitude for a particle to go from point  to point  in time :

This is called the propagator. Superposing different values of the initial position  with an arbitrary initial state  constructs the final state:

For a spatially homogeneous system, where  is only a function of , the integral is a convolution, the final state is the initial state convolved with the propagator:

For a free particle of mass , the propagator can be evaluated either explicitly from the path integral or by noting that the Schrödinger equation is a diffusion equation in imaginary time, and the solution must be a normalized Gaussian:

Taking the Fourier transform in  produces another Gaussian:

and in -space the proportionality factor here is constant in time, as will be verified in a moment. The Fourier transform in time, extending  to be zero for negative times, gives Green's function, or the frequency-space propagator:

which is the reciprocal of the operator that annihilates the wavefunction in the Schrödinger equation, which wouldn't have come out right if the proportionality factor weren't constant in the -space representation.

The infinitesimal term in the denominator is a small positive number, which guarantees that the inverse Fourier transform in  will be nonzero only for future times. For past times, the inverse Fourier transform contour closes toward values of  where there is no singularity. This guarantees that  propagates the particle into the future and is the reason for the subscript "F" on . The infinitesimal term can be interpreted as an infinitesimal rotation toward imaginary time.

It is also possible to reexpress the nonrelativistic time evolution in terms of propagators going toward the past, since the Schrödinger equation is time-reversible. The past propagator is the same as the future propagator except for the obvious difference that it vanishes in the future, and in the Gaussian  is replaced by . In this case, the interpretation is that these are the quantities to convolve the final wavefunction so as to get the initial wavefunction:

Given the nearly identical only change is the sign of  and , the parameter  in Green's function can either be the energy if the paths are going toward the future, or the negative of the energy if the paths are going toward the past.

For a nonrelativistic theory, the time as measured along the path of a moving particle and the time as measured by an outside observer are the same. In relativity, this is no longer true. For a relativistic theory the propagator should be defined as the sum over all paths that travel between two points in a fixed proper time, as measured along the path (these paths describe the trajectory of a particle in space and in time):

The integral above is not trivial to interpret because of the square root. Fortunately, there is a heuristic trick. The sum is over the relativistic arc length of the path of an oscillating quantity, and like the nonrelativistic path integral should be interpreted as slightly rotated into imaginary time. The function  can be evaluated when the sum is over paths in Euclidean space:

This describes a sum over all paths of length  of the exponential of minus the length. This can be given a probability interpretation. The sum over all paths is a probability average over a path constructed step by step. The total number of steps is proportional to , and each step is less likely the longer it is. By the central limit theorem, the result of many independent steps is a Gaussian of variance proportional to :

The usual definition of the relativistic propagator only asks for the amplitude is to travel from  to , after summing over all the possible proper times it could take:

where  is a weight factor, the relative importance of paths of different proper time. By the translation symmetry in proper time, this weight can only be an exponential factor and can be absorbed into the constant :

This is the Schwinger representation. Taking a Fourier transform over the variable  can be done for each value of  separately, and because each separate  contribution is a Gaussian, gives whose Fourier transform is another Gaussian with reciprocal width. So in -space, the propagator can be reexpressed simply:

which is the Euclidean propagator for a scalar particle. Rotating  to be imaginary gives the usual relativistic propagator, up to a factor of  and an ambiguity, which will be clarified below:

This expression can be interpreted in the nonrelativistic limit, where it is convenient to split it by partial fractions:

For states where one nonrelativistic particle is present, the initial wavefunction has a frequency distribution concentrated near . When convolving with the propagator, which in  space just means multiplying by the propagator, the second term is suppressed and the first term is enhanced. For frequencies near , the dominant first term has the form

This is the expression for the nonrelativistic Green's function of a free Schrödinger particle.

The second term has a nonrelativistic limit also, but this limit is concentrated on frequencies that are negative. The second pole is dominated by contributions from paths where the proper time and the coordinate time are ticking in an opposite sense, which means that the second term is to be interpreted as the antiparticle. The nonrelativistic analysis shows that with this form the antiparticle still has positive energy.

The proper way to express this mathematically is that, adding a small suppression factor in proper time, the limit where  of the first term must vanish, while the  limit of the second term must vanish. In the Fourier transform, this means shifting the pole in  slightly, so that the inverse Fourier transform will pick up a small decay factor in one of the time directions:

Without these terms, the pole contribution could not be unambiguously evaluated when taking the inverse Fourier transform of . The terms can be recombined:

which when factored, produces opposite-sign infinitesimal terms in each factor. This is the mathematically precise form of the relativistic particle propagator, free of any ambiguities. The  term introduces a small imaginary part to the , which in the Minkowski version is a small exponential suppression of long paths.

So in the relativistic case, the Feynman path-integral representation of the propagator includes paths going backwards in time, which describe antiparticles. The paths that contribute to the relativistic propagator go forward and backwards in time, and the interpretation of this is that the amplitude for a free particle to travel between two points includes amplitudes for the particle to fluctuate into an antiparticle, travel back in time, then forward again.

Unlike the nonrelativistic case, it is impossible to produce a relativistic theory of local particle propagation without including antiparticles. All local differential operators have inverses that are nonzero outside the light cone, meaning that it is impossible to keep a particle from travelling faster than light. Such a particle cannot have a Green's function which is only nonzero in the future in a relativistically invariant theory.

Functionals of fields

However, the path integral formulation is also extremely important in direct application to quantum field theory, in which the "paths" or histories being considered are not the motions of a single particle, but the possible time evolutions of a field over all space.  The action is referred to technically as a functional of the field: , where the field  is itself a function of space and time, and the square brackets are a reminder that the action depends on all the field's values everywhere, not just some particular value. One such given function  of spacetime is called a field configuration. In principle, one integrates Feynman's amplitude over the class of all possible field configurations.

Much of the formal study of QFT is devoted to the properties of the resulting functional integral, and much effort (not yet entirely successful) has been made toward making these functional integrals mathematically precise.

Such a functional integral is extremely similar to the partition function in statistical mechanics.  Indeed, it is sometimes called a partition function, and the two are essentially mathematically identical except for the factor of  in the exponent in Feynman's postulate 3. Analytically continuing the integral to an imaginary time variable (called a Wick rotation) makes the functional integral even more like a statistical partition function and also tames some of the mathematical difficulties of working with these integrals.

Expectation values

In quantum field theory, if the action is given by the functional  of field configurations (which only depends locally on the fields), then the time-ordered vacuum expectation value of polynomially bounded functional , , is given by

The symbol  here is a concise way to represent the infinite-dimensional integral over all possible field configurations on all of space-time. As stated above, the unadorned path integral in the denominator ensures proper normalization.

As a probability
Strictly speaking, the only question that can be asked in physics is: What fraction of states satisfying condition  also satisfy condition ? The answer to this is a number between 0 and 1, which can be interpreted as a conditional probability, written as . In terms of path integration, since , this means

where the functional  is the superposition of all incoming states that could lead to the states we are interested in. In particular, this could be a state corresponding to the state of the Universe just after the Big Bang, although for actual calculation this can be simplified using heuristic methods. Since this expression is a quotient of path integrals, it is naturally normalised.

Schwinger–Dyson equations

Since this formulation of quantum mechanics is analogous to classical action principle, one might expect that identities concerning the action in classical mechanics would have quantum counterparts derivable from a functional integral. This is often the case.

In the language of functional analysis, we can write the Euler–Lagrange equations as

(the left-hand side is a functional derivative; the equation means that the action is stationary under small changes in the field configuration).  The quantum analogues of these equations are called the Schwinger–Dyson equations.

If the functional measure  turns out to be translationally invariant (we'll assume this for the rest of this article, although this does not hold for, let's say nonlinear sigma models), and if we assume that after a Wick rotation

which now becomes

for some , it goes to zero faster than a reciprocal of any polynomial for large values of , then we can integrate by parts (after a Wick rotation, followed by a Wick rotation back) to get the following Schwinger–Dyson equations for the expectation:

for any polynomially-bounded functional . In the deWitt notation this looks like

These equations are the analog of the on-shell EL equations. The time ordering is taken before the time derivatives inside the .

If  (called the source field) is an element of the dual space of the field configurations (which has at least an affine structure because of the assumption of the translational invariance for the functional measure), then the generating functional  of the source fields is defined to be

Note that

or

where

Basically, if  is viewed as a functional distribution (this shouldn't be taken too literally as an interpretation of QFT, unlike its Wick-rotated statistical mechanics analogue, because we have time ordering complications here!), then  are its moments, and  is its Fourier transform.

If  is a functional of , then for an operator ,  is defined to be the operator that substitutes  for . For example, if

and  is a functional of , then

Then, from the properties of the functional integrals

we get the "master" Schwinger–Dyson equation:

or

If the functional measure is not translationally invariant, it might be possible to express it as the product , where  is a functional and  is a translationally invariant measure. This is true, for example, for nonlinear sigma models where the target space is diffeomorphic to . However, if the target manifold is some topologically nontrivial space, the concept of a translation does not even make any sense.

In that case, we would have to replace the  in this equation by another functional

If we expand this equation as a Taylor series about J  0, we get the entire set of Schwinger–Dyson equations.

Localization
The path integrals are usually thought of as being the sum of all paths through an infinite space–time. However, in local quantum field theory we would restrict everything to lie within a finite causally complete region, for example inside a double light-cone. This gives a more mathematically precise and physically rigorous definition of quantum field theory.

Ward–Takahashi identities

Now how about the on shell Noether's theorem for the classical case? Does it have a quantum analog as well? Yes, but with a caveat. The functional measure would have to be invariant under the one parameter group of symmetry transformation as well.

Let's just assume for simplicity here that the symmetry in question is local (not local in the sense of a gauge symmetry, but in the sense that the transformed value of the field at any given point under an infinitesimal transformation would only depend on the field configuration over an arbitrarily small neighborhood of the point in question). Let's also assume that the action is local in the sense that it is the integral over spacetime of a Lagrangian, and that

for some function  where  only depends locally on  (and possibly the spacetime position).

If we don't assume any special boundary conditions, this would not be a "true" symmetry in the true sense of the term in general unless  or something. Here,  is a derivation which generates the one parameter group in question. We could have antiderivations as well, such as BRST and supersymmetry.

Let's also assume

for any polynomially-bounded functional . This property is called the invariance of the measure. And this does not hold in general. See anomaly (physics) for more details.

Then,

which implies

where the integral is over the boundary. This is the quantum analog of Noether's theorem.

Now, let's assume even further that  is a local integral

where

so that

where

(this is assuming the Lagrangian only depends on  and its first partial derivatives! More general Lagrangians would require a modification to this definition!). We're not insisting that  is the generator of a symmetry (i.e. we are not insisting upon the gauge principle), but just that  is.  And we also assume the even stronger assumption that the functional measure is locally invariant:

Then, we would have

Alternatively,

The above two equations are the Ward–Takahashi identities.

Now for the case where , we can forget about all the boundary conditions and locality assumptions. We'd simply have

Alternatively,

Caveats

The need for regulators and renormalization

Path integrals as they are defined here require the introduction of regulators. Changing the scale of the regulator leads to the renormalization group. In fact, renormalization is the major obstruction to making path integrals well-defined.

Ordering prescription

Regardless of whether one works in configuration space or phase space, when equating the operator formalism and the path integral formulation, an ordering prescription is required to resolve the ambiguity in the correspondence between non-commutative operators and the commutative functions that appear in path integrands.  For example, the operator  can be translated back as either , , or  depending on whether one chooses the , , or Weyl ordering prescription; conversely,  can be translated to either , , or  for the same respective choice of ordering prescription.

The path integral in quantum-mechanical interpretation

In one interpretation of quantum mechanics, the "sum over histories" interpretation, the path integral is taken to be fundamental, and reality is viewed as a single indistinguishable "class" of paths that all share the same events. For this interpretation, it is crucial to understand what exactly an event is. The sum-over-histories method gives identical results to canonical quantum mechanics, and Sinha and Sorkin claim the interpretation explains the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox without resorting to nonlocality.

Some advocates of interpretations of quantum mechanics emphasizing decoherence have attempted to make more rigorous the notion of extracting a classical-like "coarse-grained" history from the space of all possible histories.

Quantum gravity
Whereas in quantum mechanics the path integral formulation is fully equivalent to other formulations, it may be that it can be extended to quantum gravity, which would make it different from the Hilbert space model. Feynman had some success in this direction, and his work has been extended by Hawking and others. Approaches that use this method include causal dynamical triangulations and spinfoam models.

Quantum tunneling
Quantum tunnelling can be modeled by using the path integral formation to determine the action of the trajectory through a potential barrier. Using the WKB approximation, the tunneling rate () can be determined to be of the form

with the effective action  and pre-exponential factor . This form is specifically useful in a dissipative system, in which the systems and surroundings must be modeled together. Using the Langevin equation to model Brownian motion, the path integral formation can be used to determine an effective action and pre-exponential model to see the effect of dissipation on tunnelling. From this model, tunneling rates of macroscopic systems (at finite temperatures) can be predicted.

See also

 Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation
 Static forces and virtual-particle exchange
 Feynman checkerboard
 Berezin integral
 Propagators
 Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory
 Feynman–Kac formula
 Path integrals in polymer science

Remarks

References

Further reading

  This course, designed for mathematicians, is a rigorous introduction to perturbative quantum field theory, using the language of functional integrals.
 The 1942 thesis. Also includes Dirac's 1933 paper and Feynman's 1948 publication.

  The historical reference, written by the inventor of the path integral formulation himself and one of his students.

  Highly readable textbook; introduction to relativistic QFT for particle physics.

 Discusses the definition of Path Integrals for systems whose kinematical variables are the generators of a real separable, connected Lie group with irreducible, square integrable representations.

  A great introduction to Path Integrals (Chapter 1) and QFT in general.

External links

 Path integral on Scholarpedia
 Path Integrals in Quantum Theories: A Pedagogic 1st Step
 A mathematically rigorous approach to perturbative path integrals  via animation on YouTube
Feynman's Infinite Quantum Paths | PBS Space Time. July 7, 2017. (Video, 15:48)

Concepts in physics
Statistical mechanics
Quantum mechanics
Quantum field theory
Differential equations
Articles containing video clips
Mathematical physics
Integrals

Path integral formulation


Laurel Fork ist der Name folgender Orte in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Laurel Fork (Tennessee)
 Laurel Fork (Virginia)
 Laurel Fork (West Virginia)

Laurel Fork steht für:
 Laurel Fork (Cheat River), Fließgewässer in West Virginia
 Laurel Fork Railway, Eisenbahnunternehmen in Tennessee

Laurel Fork


Anton Wieninger (* 25. November 1813 in Mattighofen; † 7. Oktober 1880 ebenda) war ein österreichischer Bierbrauer und liberaler Politiker.

Wieningers Vater Johann Georg Wieninger (1774–1833) war ein Einwanderer aus dem niederbayerischen Grattersdorf.

1860 wurde Anton Wieninger zum Bürgermeister von Mattighofen gewählt. Er war Oberösterreichischer Landtagsabgeordneter, ab 1870 im Bezirksschulrat Braunau, und durch Wahl des Abgeordnetenhauses vom 10. April 1861 Österreichischer Reichsratsabgeordneter aus der Gruppe der Landgemeinden. 1876 kaufte er das Schlossgut Krumpendorf in Kärnten.

Einzelnachweise

Landtagsabgeordneter (Oberösterreich)
Abgeordneter zum Abgeordnetenhaus (Österreich)
Politiker (Kaisertum Österreich)
Person (Mattighofen)
Geboren 1813
Gestorben 1880
Mann

Anton Wieninger


Joseph Roß (né le  à Ochsenfurt et mort le  à Wurtzbourg) est administrateur de domaine et député du Reichstag.

Biographie
De 1845 à 1853, Roß étudie à l'école latine et le lycée de Wurtzbourg et de 1853 à 1857 à l'université pour y étudier le droit et les sciences politiques. Il compète ensuite sa pratique juridique auprès des tribunaux de district d' et de Wurtzbourg, ainsi que dans le cabinet d'avocats et l'étude notariale de Wurtzbourg. À partir de 1871, il est le premier fonctionnaire du domaine avec le titre de conseiller privé au service du comte Carl von Schönburg-Forderglauchau à Glauchau et à partir de 1879, il est magistrat à Glauchau.

De 1884 à 1890, il est député du Reichstag en tant que député de la  circonscription de Basse-Franconie (Wurtzbourg) avec le Zentrum.

Références

Liens externes

Député du Reichstag (Empire allemand)
Personnalité du Zentrum
Naissance en avril 1836
Naissance à Ochsenfurt
Naissance dans le royaume de Bavière
Décès en novembre 1923
Décès à Wurtzbourg
Décès à 87 ans
Naissance dans le Troisième Reich

Joseph Roß


Le pont André-Bord (précédemment et communément nommé pont Citadelle, ou pont de la Citadelle) est un pont ferroviaire et piéton français à Strasbourg, dans le Bas-Rhin. Achevé au printemps 2017, ce pont en arc permet à la ligne D du tramway de Strasbourg de franchir le bassin Vauban. Il a été nommé en l'honneur d'André Bord, homme politique décédé en 2013.

Situation

Histoire
En octobre 2013, le prolongement de la ligne D du tramway de Strasbourg jusqu'à la commune de Kehl en Allemagne est acté, et la construction est lancée au milieu de l'année suivante. L'extension devant passer par le Port du Rhin et l'île aux Épis, la construction de deux nouveaux ponts sur le Rhin fut nécessaire. Un premier, le plus long des deux, reliera l'île aux Épis et la ville de Kehl, et sera nommé pont Beatus-Rhenanus. Le second doit relier cette même île au quartier du Neudorf Est, et à la station Aristide Briand, alors terminus de la ligne. Ce pont doit alors franchir le Bassin Vauban, ses voies de halage, ainsi qu'une voie ferrée de fret longeant le bassin, le tout dans une courbe assez prononcée, c'est la société Egis qui sera chargée de sa conception.

Les premiers essais du tramway sur le pont débutent le , et la mise en service de la ligne, entraînant l'ouverture au public du pont, a lieu le  de la même année. Au mois d'août, le pont Citadelle est renommé en pont André Bord.

Caractéristiques
L'arche soutenant le tablier mesure  de haut, le pont a une portée de , et comporte  d'acier.

Galerie

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Ligne D du tramway de Strasbourg

Liens externes

André-Bord
André-Bord
André-Bord
André-Bord

Pont André-Bord


Edirne Balkan Şehitliği, Balkan Savaşı'nda (1912-13) Bulgarlara esir düşen ve Edirne Sarayiçi'nde aç bırakılarak ölüme mahkûm edilen asker-sivil 20.000 şehidin aziz hâtıralarını yaşatmak amacıyla Edirne Sarayiçi'nde yaptırılmış ve 14 Ocak 1994 tarihinde törenle halkın ziyaretine açılmıştır. Şehitlikte 12 blok üzerine 100 subay ve 400 erin adı yazılıdır.

Galeri

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türkiye'deki mezarlıklar listesi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
Balkan Şehitliği
Türk Şehitlikleri
Balkan Savaşları
Türkiye'deki askerî anıt ve mezarlıklar

Bilinmeyen Askerin Mezarları
1994'te Türkiye'de kurulan oluşumlar

Edirne Balkan Şehitliği


ثيرمون (Θέρμον) هي مدينة في أيتوليا كي أكارنانيا في مقاطعة كينتريكي إلادا في اليونان. يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 1947 نسمة.

مراجع

مدن اليونان
بلديات غرب اليونان
أماكن مأهولة في إيتوليا-أكارنانيا

ثيرمون (أيتوليا كي أكارنانيا)


Robert Hutzen Stamm (født 8. april 1877 i København, død 18. februar 1934 sammesteds) var en dansk zoolog.

Stamm blev mag.scient. 1901, docent (1908) og leder af universitetets histologiske laboratorium. Han skrev om musklernes befæstelse til det ydre skelet hos leddyrene (1904), om sidekirtlerne hos skovspidsmusen (1914), samt flere mindre afhandlinger. Desuden er han forfatter til et stort antal værdifulde biografier af zoologer. Stamm omfattede sit laboratorium med levende interesse og forøgede i høj grad dets undervisningsmateriel. Fra 1920 var Stamm redaktør af Ornitologisk Forenings tidsskrift.

Litteratur

Zoologer fra Danmark
Ansatte ved Københavns Universitet
Faglitterære forfattere fra Danmark
Dansksprogede forfattere fra Danmark
Danskere i 1800-tallet
Danskere i 1900-tallet
Personer fra København

Robert Hutzen Stamm


Zidna salatika (šumska salatika, zidna salata, zečji lopuh, lat. Lactuca muralis, sin. Mycelis muralis) biljna vrsta nekada klasificirana danas rodu salatika (Mycelis), a ponekad u rod salata Lactuca, porodic a glavočika

Naraste do 100 centimetara visine, uspravne je i gole stabljike u gornjem dijelu razgranata. Jestivih je listova koji se beru na početku cvatnje, jer kasnije postaju otrovni. Biljka raste od nizina pa sve do visina od 1800 metara. Česta je po zidovima, pa joj otuda i ime muralis, što znači da raste po zidovima.

Cvjeta od lipnja do kolovoza. Cvjetovi su dvospolni, a plod crnkasta roška.

Izvori

Salata

Zidna salatika


La cabane du chef, ou la mairie, à Vals-près-le-Puy (Haute-Loire) est une ancienne cabane de vigne du  située au lieu-dit Le Crousas dans le vallon du Dolaizon.

Elle se différencie des autres cabanes de l'ancien vignoble du Puy-en-Velay par ses vastes dimensions et sa haute façade plane.

Dénominations

Elle est appelée localement « la cabane du chef » ou « la mairie »  par dérision. Un érudit local de la première moitié du  ayant baptisé les anciennes cabanes du nom de « chibottes » et les ayant attribuées aux Ligures, la « cabane du chef » est devenue la « chibotte du chef ».

Implantation

L'édifice s'enfonce à l'arrière dans le versant. Il a la forme d'une ogive, de plan elliptique, qui serait tranchée verticalement selon son petit axe, la partie en coupe faisant office de façade.

Façade
À la suite de dégradations causées par des enfants, le tiers supérieur gauche de la façade s'est effondré, mais les mensurations d'origine peuvent être restituées : hauteur parementée conservée : env. 6 m ; longueur de la façade : 7 m à la base, 5,10 m à 6 m de haut.

A 4,70 m  puis à 5,80 m de hauteur, le haut de la façade est barré par deux larmiers horizontaux de grandes dalles saillantes. Les arêtes que forment la façade avec les parois latérales sont réalisées en grands blocs appareillés en besace.

Couvrement
Le sommet décapité de la construction permet de voir la structure du couvrement conique :
 un parement extérieur en blocs de basalte inclinés vers l'intérieur,
 une voûte de grandes dalles de basalte inclinées vers l'extérieur,
 un blocage intermédiaire de petits moellons d'arkose jaune mêlés à de la terre.

Entrée

Haute de 1,80 m et large de 0,82 m, l'entrée a pour linteau une dalle de basalte et pour piédroits des blocs d'arkose parementés (boutisses posées de chant, alternant avec des carreaux horizontaux). Une feuillure atteste la présence d'une ancienne porte en bois. L'entrée s'ouvre à droite de l'axe vertical médian de la façade (en fait le piédroit de gauche matérialise l'axe médian). L'entrée regarde le sud-est.

Intérieur
Les côtés de l'entrée s'ébrasent légèrement vers l'intérieur pour donner dans une cellule de plan subcirculaire (profondeur dans l'axe de l'entrée : 4,60 m, diamètre perpendiculaire à cet axe : 3,50 m).

Cette pièce est couverte par une voûte d'encorbellement dont la dalle terminale culmine à 5,35 m. Les encorbellements sont réalisés en grandes dalles au parement élégi en biseau à coups de marteau. Des trous de boulins dans les parois, vers 2,20 m de haut, attestent l'ancienne présence d'un plancher de quatre poutres.

Rez-de-chaussée
Un certain nombre d'aménagements sont visibles :
- à gauche en entrant, un regard ou une ventilation aux parois ébrasées intérieurement;
- à gauche du regard, une sorte de cache murale à l'étroite ouverture au carré ;
- au fond, à gauche, deux niches proches l'une de l'autre.

Du mortier de chaux, comprenant du gravier, est visible dans les joints du parement en certains endroits (bourrage ultérieur des joints ?).

Étage
L'étage au-dessus du plancher était éclairé par un fenestron ouvert dans l'axe médian de la façade ; seuls en subsistent la pierre d'appui, en basalte, et un bloc du montant droit, en arkose. Ce fenestron était clos par un volet en bois articulé sur deux gonds fichés dans le montant droit.

Inscription

Une inscription en latin, en lettres cursives de type scolaire (Deus meus f omnia = Deus meus fecit omnia, en français « Mon Dieu a fait toutes choses »), est peinte en blanc sur le parement d'un gros bloc de la paroi intérieure. Peut-être une allusion à Blaise Pascal et à son Deus fecit omnia in pondere, in numero, et mensura (« Dieu a fait toutes choses en poids, en nombre et en mesure ») dans son ouvrage posthume Pensées.

Datation
Ce bel édifice ne paraît pas être très ancien. Les encadrements de la porte et de la lucarne, avec leurs éléments en arkose, semblent être des remplois.

L'érudit Albert Boudon-Lashermes, dans Le Velay gallo-grec, mentionne qu'. L'évidence qui s'impose, c'est que la centaine de chibottes qui s'y trouvaient fin  – début , ont été bâties à la suite du morcellement de cette vaste propriété d'Ancien Régime entre une centaine de petits propriétaires, ce qui inclut la « chibotte du chef ».

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 Émile Garnaud, Les chibottes du Velay, étude technique sur leur mode de construction, dans Gaule, Bulletin de la Société d'histoire, d'archéologie et de tradition gauloises, No 20, mars 1962, pp. 15-18.
 Jean Pestre, Le vignoble du Puy-en-Velay [Haute-Loire], l'auteur, Le Puy-en-Velay, 1981, en part. pp. 231-279 (L'architecture du vignoble).
 Les cabanes en pierre sèche de l'ancien vignoble du Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire) : mythes et légendes, dans La lettre du CERAV, No 12, septembre 2000, pp. 67-76.

Cabane en pierre sèche
Architecture rurale

Cabane du chef


Juliette de Wils, de son vrai nom Juliette Marguerite Descours, née le  à  et morte le  à Champigny-sur-Marne est une poétesse et autrice dramatique française.

Biographie

Fille d'Alexandre Descours et de Marie Grenier, Juliette Marguerite Descours s'adonne à une activité d'autrice sous le nom de plume de Juliette de Wils. Sa mère épousa en secondes noces Gustave Macé, chef de la Sûreté de Paris.

En 1877, elle épouse l'architecte Georges Duval à la mairie du 6e arrondissement de Paris.

Installée à Champigny-sur-Marne, elle y fait représenter ses œuvres au Théâtre antique de la Nature, fondé en 1905 par le dramaturge Albert Darmont, à l'instar de la tragédie Sang gaulois, jouée le  ou de la pièce Bayard, représentée le .

En 1925, elle publie aux éditions Albert Messein deux recueils regroupant un grand nombre de ses pièces et poésies, sous le titre Théâtre, tandis que l'intégralité de son œuvre n'est publiée de manière posthume qu'en 1935.

À sa mort en 1932, elle lègue sa maison à la municipalité de Champigny-sur-Marne afin d'y établir une crèche. En outre, elle dote l'Académie française d'une enveloppe de  pour fonder un prix de poésie classique à son nom : le Prix Juliette-de-Wils.

Quelques œuvres
 Autour d'un donjon (1901)
 Sang gaulois (1906)
 Bayard (1908)
 Les Lions (1924)
 Le Trésor (1929)

Prix
Sa pièce Bayard est récompensée par le Prix Capuran en 1908.

Postérité
À la suite de l'acceptation de son legs par l'Académie française en 1936, le Prix Juliette-de-Wils récompense annuellement entre 1938 et 1967 une œuvre de poésie classique.

Enfin, une rue Juliette de Wils a été nommée en hommage à Champigny-sur-Marne et une impasse à Vanves.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Liens externes

Poétesse française du XIXe siècle
Poétesse française du XXe siècle
Naissance en octobre 1858
Naissance dans le 19e arrondissement de Paris
Naissance dans le département de la Seine
Décès en janvier 1932
Décès à Champigny-sur-Marne
Décès à 73 ans
Décès dans le département de la Seine
Nom de plume

Juliette de Wils


În astronomie, perlele lui Baily, cunoscute și ca mărgelele lui Baily, ori ca boabele lui Baily, sunt un fenomen optic care poate fi observat în timpul unei eclipse totale de Soare. Acest fenomen a fost descris, pentru prima oară, de astronomul englez Francis Baily, în 1836.
Fenomenul este provocat de neregularitățile reliefului lunar. Puțin timp înainte sau după totalitate, lumina Soarelui strălucește prin văile dintre munții de pe Lună. Timp de câteva secunde, punctele luminoase apar pe limbul lunar, așa cum sunt înșirate perlele pe un colier. Diamantul, care poate fi observat chiar înaintea dispariției discului solar, sau imediat după reapariția acestuia, este un caz particular al fenomenului denumit perlele lui Baily, când nu rămâne decât un singur punct foarte strălucitor.

Istorie
Deși se spune că Baily a descoperit cauza fenomenului care îi poartă numele, Sir Edmond Halley a făcut primele observații înregistrate asupra a ceea ce au fost denumite, mai târziu,  perlele lui Baily, în timpul eclipsei de Soare din 3 mai 1715. Halley a descris și a stabilit în mod corect cauza fenomenului, în Observations of the late Total Eclipse of the Sun [...], din Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society:

Note

Vezi și
Inelul de diamant
Eclipsă de Soare
Coroană solară
Fața ascunsă a Lunii
Fața vizibilă a Lunii
Luna

Eclipse de Soare

Perlele lui Baily


Séverin-Cécile Abega (1955 - ) é um escritor camaronês, dedicado especialmente ao conto e à literatura infantil, pela qual é conhecido. Suas histórias combinam lições morais, com humor e crítica social, frequentemente criticando pretensões materiais e intelectuais, especialmente aquelas derivadas da cultura europeia, valorizando os valores sociais tipicamente africanos.

É também professor da Universidade de Yaoundé, com diversas publicações no campo da antropologia, tratando de temas como religião e o lugar das mulheres na sociedade.

Referências

Bilbiografia

Escritores dos Camarões

Séverin-Cécile Abega


Tvornica ferolegura Dalmacija Dugi Rat, tvornica u Dugom Ratu.

■ Tvornica ferolegura "Dalmacija"  Dugi Rat počinje davne 1908. godine kada se iskorištavanjem voda obližnje rijeke Cetine gradi hidrocentrala i tvornica karbida i cijanamida u Dugom Ratu. .

■ Tvornica je sagrađena u razdoblju 1912. – 1913. Godine, a sagradilo ju je društvo Sufid.

■ Radove je izvodila tvrtka ing. F. Bastianellija

 ■14. ožujka 1914. godine službeno je započela s radom.

Povijest 1914 - 1940

Tvornica je izgrađena u razdoblju od 1913 - 1914. Godine
Uvjeti rada su bili vrlo teški, a posebno je na zlu glasu bila tzv. "Crna kuća" gdje se mlio i pakirao cijanamid. Radnici koji su tu radili bili su potpuno prekriveni crnom prašinom. A u tvornici tada nije bilo kupatila. Čak nije bilo ni pitke vode. Jedino se koristio bunar u vlasništvu Ivana Kadića.Loši su bili i stambeni uvjeti. Spavaonice radnika su bile u neposrednoj blizini "Crne kuće" iz koje su se dan i noć neprestano dizali veliki stupovi dima i prašine. Zbog malog broja baraka, radnici u noćnoj i dnevnoj smjeni koristili su naizmjenično iste sobe.U to vrijeme društvo Sufid je u Dalmaciji posjedovalo dvije velike tvornice karbida i cijanamida i to u Crnici kod Šibenika i Dugom Ratu. Godine 1923. raspolagalo se kapitalom od 21 milijuna lira od čega je samo oko 15 posto bilo u domaćim, a ostalo u talijanskim rukama.Tvornica u Dugom Ratu je za pravljenje karbida imala četiri električne peći talijanskog sustavaMoroni od kojih je svaka davala 10 tona dnevno te dvije peći Carison koje su bile kapaciteta 20 tona. Godišnja proizvodnja je bila oko 25.000 tona karbida kojeg je ista tvornica prerađivala u cijanamid.Za produkciju dušika imala je njemačko postrojenje Linde i još jedno praktičnije sustavaClaude. Bila je i velika švedska peć za proizvodnju vapna. Mogla je zaposliti oko 1000 radnika.Tvornice je prije Prvog svjetskog rata radila vrlo dobro. Nakon rata dolazilo je do kriza zbog osnivanja novih tvornica i zbog opadanja potrošnje.Tvornicu su zadesile neke nesreće i krize što se odrazilo i na njeno poslovanje.

■ 29. ožujka 1927. poslije podne izbio je požar u skladištu cijanamida, zgradi od betona u kojoj je bilo 160 vagona karbida. Neki dijelovi oko strojeva su bili drveni i oni su se upalili.Stiglo je 11 vatrogasaca pod zapovjedništvom odjelnika Marina Tudora. Vodu nisu smjeli upotrebljavati da ne dođe u doticaj s karbidom, nego su se trudili lokalizirati požar zatrpavajući ga pijeskom.

Nakon što je društvu Sufid istekla koncesija nad tvornicom, Jugoslavenska vlada je koncesiju dalaFrancuzima koji su tvornicu povoljno kupili od Talijana i ona je odmah 1929. nastavila raditi kao francusko vlasništvo pod imenom "La Dalmatienne".Sredinom godine 1930. Uprava je podnijela molbu Direkciji pomorskog prometa za izgradnju pristaništa za potrebe tvornice. Osim toga Uprava je pripremala podizanje velike tvornice za proizvodnju amonijačkih soli. Ona se trebala izgraditi pored tvornice karbida i cijanamida.To je bilo vrijeme kada je tvrtka napredovala, a istovremeno to je značilo i poboljšanje prilika u čitavom kraju jer se stanovništvo zapošljavalo.Francusko društvo podnijelo je godine 1931. molbu vlastima za podizanje tvornice vapnenog dušika u Dugom Ratu. Lokacija je planirana s lijeve strane ceste Split - Omiš na površini od 15.000 m2 kupljenog zemljišta. Godišnja proizvodnja je planirana na 60.000 tona vapnenog hidrata s 15% dušika. Imala je 9 transformatora s 9.200 Ampera.U normalnim okolnostima trebalo je to zadovoljiti cjelokupnu potrebu za poljodjelstva dušikom u Jugoslaviji, te pored toga izvesti veće količine na strana tržišta. Predviđeno je da će se zaposliti 300 radnika.Međutim, nastupila je gospodarska kriza, pa je "La Dalmatienne" godine 1931. u dva navrata otkazala većem broju radnika. Tvornica u Dugom Ratu je 1932. godine na neko vrijeme obustavile proizvodnju i otpustila radnike. To je uveliko pogodilo stanovništvo okolnih mjesta.Međutim, već je u listopadu pogon bio upućen u rad, a očekivalo se da će uskoro biti upaljena i jedna peć u Šibeniku. Uposleno je 800 radnika. Bili su osigurani poslovi za više mjeseci, pa i cijelu godinu. Vjerovalo se da će se kroz to vrijeme prilike popraviti i tvornice nastaviti s radom punim kapacitetima.1935. i 1936. godine izvršene su preinake na pećima karbida čime se povećava kapacitet proizvodnje, te je ugrađena kaptaža plina i izgrađen plinovod rekuperiranog plina s pećiju karbida do pećiju vapna.S vremenom su se popravili radni uvjeti. Tako je zauzimanjem radničkih socijalnih ustanova i razumijevanjem uprave tvornice 23. prosinca 1936. otvorena tvornička bolnica.

Tvornički list "Dalmacija"

■ uskoro više...

Izvori
www.dugirat.com

Vanjske poveznice

Hrvatske tvrtke
Dugi Rat

Tvornica ferolegura Dalmacija Dugi Rat


Ates Gürpinar (nascido a 25 de setembro de 1984) é um político alemão do partido político Die Linke. Ele foi eleito para o Bundestag nas eleições federais alemãs de 2021, representando o estado da Baviera.

Gürpinar nasceu de pai turco e mãe alemã.

Alunos da Universidade de Erlangen-Nuremberg
Membros do Bundestag 2021-2025
Nascidos em 1984
Pessoas vivas
Políticos da Alemanha

Ates Gürpinar


Petín, İspanya'nın kuzeybatısında, ülkenin on yedi özerk bölgesinden biri olan Galiçya'nın dört eyaletinden güneydoğu köşesinde bulunan Ourense eyaletine bağlı belediyesi. 2002 yılı nüfus sayımına göre belediyenin nüfusu 1.125 kişidir.

Ourense belediyeleri

Petín


Hans Joachim Christoph von Königsmarck (* 6. Oktober 1701 auf Kötzlin (heute Stadtteil von Kyritz); † 9. Oktober 1779 ebenda) war ein königlich-preußischer Generalmajor und Kommandeur des Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 23. Er war Träger des Ordens Pour le Mérite. Zudem war er Amtshauptmann von Preußisch Eylau sowie Erbherr auf Kötzlin, Roddahn, Vehlin, Bendelin und Netzeband.

Leben

Er kam 1720 in das Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 3, wo er bis zum Stabshauptmann aufstieg. 1740 erhielt er im Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 37 seine eigene Kompanie, kurz danach wurde er zum Major befördert. Im Juli 1749 wurde er Oberstleutnant, im Februar 1751 zum Kommandeur des Regiments Nr. 23 ernannt. Die Stelle des Amtshauptmanns von Preußisch Eylau erhielt er 1754. Im Mai 1757 wurde er zum Generalmajor befördert. Nachdem er im Juni 1757 in der Schlacht bei Kolin schwer verwundet worden war, bat er 1759 um seine Entlassung, welche am 19. Dezember 1759 gewährt wurde. Hans Christoph von Königsmarck zog sich daraufhin auf seine Güter zurück.

Familie

Sein Vater war der preußische Rittmeister Joachim Siegfried von Königsmarck (* 28. März 1659; † 2. Juli 1715), Erbherr auf Kötzlin. Seine Mutter war dessen zweite Frau Sabine von Blumenthal (11. November 1668; † 23. Februar 1748), Tochter von Hans Jakob von Blumenthal (1640–1701) und Friederike Dorothea von Diringshofen.

Er war zweimal verheiratet. Seine erste Frau Sophia Albertine von Hacke (* 17. Mai 1734; † 16. Dezember 1755) war eine Tochter des Generalleutnants Hans Christoph Friedrich von Hacke. Er heiratete sie am 6. August 1754. Das Paar hatte einen Sohn, der vor ihm starb. Seine zweite Frau Dorothea Charlotte Emilie von Saldern (1742–1813) war die älteste Tochter von Wilhelm von Saldern. Er heiratete sie am 2. September 1761. Das Paar blieb ohne Kinder.

Literatur
 Karl Hopf: Historisch-genealogischer Atlas seit Christi Geburt bis auf unsere Zeit. Abteilung 1, Band 2, 1866, S. 79–80, Stammbaum Königsmark; .

Weblinks
 Stammbaum Königsmarck
 Stammbaum Blumenthal

Regimentsinhaber der Frühen Neuzeit
Träger des Pour le Mérite (Militärorden)
Person in den Schlesischen Kriegen (Preußen)
Person im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Preußen)
General der Frühen Neuzeit (Brandenburg-Preußen)
Geboren 1701
Gestorben 1779
Mann

Hans Christoph von Königsmarck (1701–1779)


Romantizm (Fr. romantisme) veya Coşumculuk, 1800 ve 1850 yılları arasında Avrupa'da edebiyatı, müziği, felsefeyi ve sanatı etkileyen entelektüel bir akımdı. Bir ölçüde Sanayi Devrimi'ne, Aydınlanma Çağı'na aristokratik sosyal ve siyasi düzenine, doğanın bilimsel rasyonalizasyonuna ve klasisizme tepki olarak doğan, doğaya ve duygulara verdiği önemle bilinen bir akımdır. Ortaya çıkışında ise 1789 Fransız İhtilali sonrasındaki toplumsal, siyasal ve düşünsel yapının etkileri vardır.

Romantizm

İngiltere
İngiliz romantikleri yalnızca uygarlığın yapmacılığına, tarihin acımasızlığına değil, aynı zamanda Fransız devrimcilerinin yanında yer almışlardır. İlk İngiliz romantizmi doğuya, kadınlık, çocukluk dünyasına yöneliktir.

İkinci romantik kuşak Lord Byron yaşamda duyulan acıyı dile getirmekte ya da asi kahramanların şarkısını söylemektedir. 1824'te başkaldıran Yunanların arasında ölümüyle romantik umutsuzluğun simgesi olmuştur. John Keats doğada insan için bir avunma getirmiştir (Ode to a Nightingale). İrlanda melodilerinin yazarı Moore ve onu izleyen ve yapıtıyla uluslararası başarı yakalayan Byron önemli romantiklerdir. Walter Scott "Göldeki Kadın-The Lady of the Lake, 1810" adlı tarihî romanıyla kendini kabul ettirmiştir.

Almanya
Friedrich Schiller (Alman romantizm akımının etkisinde olan sanatçıdır.),

Alman romantizminin kaynakları 18. yüzyıla kadar uzanır. Klopstock ve Lessing yenilenmenin öncüleridirler. "Sturm und Drang" hareketinin kökeninde de onların etkisi hissedilir. Herder'in yanı sıra Goethe ve Schiller de bu hareketin içindedirler. Romantizm, Hölderlin ve Jean-Pau gibi sonraki kuşağın temsilcilerinde daha belirgindir. Son romantikler arasında Eichendorff, Ludwig Uhland, Mörike ile romantizmden etkilenmekle kalmayıp bu hareketin tüm özlemlerini paylaşmayan Heine sayılabilir.

Fransa
Geçmişten devralınan her şeyin söz konusu edilmesine dayanan ve anlaşılması güç bir modernlik verilerine göre biçimlenen bu yeni duyarlılığın ortaya çıkış biçimleri Fransız Devrimi'nin hemen öncesinden başlayarak Fransa'da her dönemde varlığını sürdürdü. Fransa'da romantizm Rousseau ve Mme de Stael'i okuyan ve Chateaubriand'ı ustaları sayan kuşağı temsil eder. Romantizm Lamartin, sanatta özgürlüğü savunan Hugo, Vigny, Musset kendini kabul ettirdi ve Nerval, Gauter, P. Borel gibi sanatçıları etkiledi. Stendhal, Dumas gibi geçmişe yönelmek yerine içinde yaşadığı toplumu betimlemeyi yeğledi.

İtalya ve İspanya
İtalya ve İspanya'dan çıkan romantikler beklendiği kadar geniş bir çevreye yayılamadılar. Tarihsel koşulların etkisiyle, edebî hareket bu iki ülkede sıkı sıkıya siyasete bağlı kaldı. İtalya'da liberaller ve yurtseverler öncelikle romantiklerdi. G. Brechet ve S. Pellico (Conciliatore'nin kurucuları) ile Manzoni (Nişanlılar) önemli temsilciler arasındadır. Büyük bir şair olan Leopardi döneme damgasını vururken Carducci de Risorgimento'nun bağımlı edebiyatına karşı çıkar. İspanyol romantizmi Rivas dükü ve José Zorrilla'nın

Osmanlı Devleti
Tanzimat Fermanı'nın ilanından sonra başlayan ve Batı edebiyatı örnek tutularak meydana getirilen Tanzimat Edebiyatı'nın (1859-1896) ilk yıllarında romantizm akımının başlıca kişilerinin başlıca yapıtları verildi. Hugo, Chateaubriand, Dumas; tiyatro alanında özellike Goethe ve Schiller anılabilir. Tanzimat Edebiyatı'nın pek çok yazar ve şairi (Ahmet Mithat, Namık Kemal, Şemsettin Sami, Abdulhak Hamit, Recaizade Mahmut Ekrem) romantizm akımının etkisindedir. Namık Kemal'in İntibah romanı Kamelyalı Kadın'ın; Vatan yahut Silistre oyunu da Romeo ve Juliet'in etkisindedir. Edebiyat-ı Cedide döneminde Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil'nın Mai ve Siyah adlı romanındaki Ahmet Cemil karakteri romantik yazarları okumak için özlem duyar. II. Meşrutiyet döneminden sonra Millî Edebiyat Dönemi'nde Yusuf Ziya Ortaç'ın Binnaz adlı oyununda Hugo'nun etkisi vardır. Fransız edebiyatının etkisi edebiyatımızda hissedilmiştir.

Amerika Birleşik Devletleri

Görsel sanatlar
Edebî romantizmin Amerikan görsel sanatlarında, özellikle de Hudson Nehri Okulu resimlerinde bulunan yerli olmayan bir Amerikan manzara yüceltilmesinde karşılığı vardı. Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt ve Frederic Edwin Church gibi ressamlar ve diğerleri resimlerinde sık sık Romantik temalar ifade ettiler. Fredric Edwin Church'ün Suriye'de Gündoğumu adlı eserinde olduğu gibi bazen eski dünyanın antik kalıntılarını tasvir ettiler. Bu çalışmalar Gotik ölüm ve çürüme duygularını yansıtıyordu. Ayrıca, doğanın güçlü olduğu ve sonunda erkeklerin geçici yaratımlarının üstesinden geleceği romantik ideali gösterirler. Daha sıklıkla, benzersiz Amerikan sahnelerini ve manzaralarını tasvir ederek kendilerini Avrupalı meslektaşlarından ayırmaya çalıştılar.

Romantik Edebiyat
Romantizm bir edebiyat akımı olmanın ötesinde, 18. yüzyıl sonu ile 19. yüzyıl başlarında Avrupa'da yer etmiş belli bir duyarlılığı belirtir. Fransa'da doğan bu hareket Güney Avrupa ülkelerine (İtalya ve İspanya) biraz daha geç girmiştir. Klasik edebiyat akımına tepki olarak 18. yüzyılın sonlarında doğan ve Victor Hugo'yla birlikte büyük ün kazanan romantizm, insanın yaratma özgürlüğü önündeki her şeye karşı durur. "En iyi kural, kuralsızlıktır" diyen romantikler, insanın duygularını, düş gücünü hayata geçirmesini ve insanı düzeltmenin toplumu düzeltmekle olabileceğini savunurlar. Romantizmin değerlerine göre hiciv ilgi hak etmeyen bir tarzdır.

Romantizm edebiyattan gelen bazı motiflerin üstünde duruyor: geçmişin ruh çağrısını ya da kınanmasını, çocuklar ve kadınlarla ilgili hassasiyete verilen önem, sanatçının ve anlatıcının yalnızlığı ve doğa saygısı gibi motifler Romantik edebiyatında sıkça kullanılır. Ayrıca, Edgar Allan Poe ve Nathaniel Hawthorne gibi bazı Romantik yazarların yazıları doğaüstü ve insan psikolojisi ile ilgili tesisler üstüne kurulmuş.

Felsefe ve romantizm
18. yüzyılda Alman düşünürler felsefeyi bir doğa felsefesi ve sanat felsefesi olarak tanımlar. Romantizm, akılcı eleştiriden çok, canlı hatta bilinç dışı yaratma adı verilen öncelikle dikkat çeken felsefi bir uyarlılığı dile getirir. Önemli ya da önemsiz birçok düşünür romantik olarak kabul edilebilir; ama felsefede romantik olguyu en yetkin biçimde Novalis ve Schelling dile getirmiştir; şair yanı daha ağır basan Novalis, eserlerini tamamlayamadan genç yaşta ölmüştür; Schelling ise metafizikçi ve sistematiktir.

Romantik bilim

Romantizm, bilimi de birçok yönden etkiledi. Birçok bilim insanı Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling ve Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel gibi filozofların doğa felsefesinden etkilendi ve Deneyciliği terk etmeden tümüyle doğayı açıklamaya çalıştılar. İngiliz bilim insanı Humphry Davy, doğayı anlamanın "takdir ve sevgi dolu bir bakış gerektirdiğini" söyledi. Bilgeliğin sadece doğayı takdir eden ve doğaya saygı duyan insanlar tarafından elde edilebileceğini düşünüyordu. Romantik bilim, insanlığın doğayı anlayabileceğini kanıtlayıp onu kontrol etmeye çalışmaktan çok duygusal bir şekilde doğayı onunla ahenk içinde yaşayarak anlamakla ilgiliydi.

Romantik müzik

Müziğin öncelikle insanın duyum ve duygularına seslenmesi ölçüsünde, aklın önceliğini tartışma konusu yapan romantizmle müzik arasında doğal bir yakınlık ortaya çıkar. Romantizmle birlikte iç dünyayı yansıtan yapıtlar, yoğun bir duygusal içerik kazandı (lied); büyük çaplı yapıtlar, yeni bir gerilim ve dokunaklılığa ulaştı (programlı müzik). Orkestra zenginleşti, çeşitlendi ve çalgıların tınısı ve rengi üzerinde titizlikle duruldu. Bu hareket, kaynağını Almanyadaki "Sturm und Drang" ve Fransız Devrimi'nin ideolojisinde buldu.

Özellikle Almanya ve Avusturya'da benimsenen romantizmin başlıca örnekleri Beethoven'ın büyük partisyonlarıdır.

 Örnekleri aşağıda yer almaktadır:

Romantik Sanat

Romantizm, resimde de kendini gösterdi ancak ifadesini biçimden çok düşüncede bulduğundan belirli bir üslup benimsemedi. Goya, Turner, Delacroix'nın coşkunluğu kadar Blake'in yeni klasikçiliği ya da Delaruche'nin kurallara bağlı tarzı, Füssli'nin düşselliği, biedermeier'in burjuva dünyası romantizm hareketinden kaynaklanır. Romantizm, klasikçilik kuramının önderi Ingrer'i de etkilemiştir. Doğa duygusuna metafizik bir anlam kattı, kimilerine bir renk zevki aşıladı, öznelliği, melankoliyi, kaygıyı doruk noktasına çıkardı; akıl dışı olanı savundu, gotik hayranlığını kamçıladı; doğuculuğu yüceltti; şövalye romanları, İskandinav sagaları ve Ossian'ın düzmece şarkılarında kendine konular aradı. Plutarkhos'un kişilerinin yerini, Shakespeare'in, W. Scott, Bryon, Goethe, Hugo'nunkiler aldı. Fırtınalar, gün batımları, uçurumlar, baykuşlar, kurukafalar, ürkmüş atlar, ikonografide önemli bir yer tutmaya başladı. İngiltere'de Edmund Burke'ün "A Philosophical Enquiry into the origine of our ideas of the sublime and Beautiful" adlı kitabıyla başlayan romantizm, Gainsbrarough'u son yapıtlarında ve bir ölçüde Reynolds, Reaburn, Lawrence'ın büyük portrelerinde kendini gösterdi. Fuseli (Kâbus, 1782, Goethe Museum, Frankfurt), Blake, J. Martin, S. Palmer'ın yapıtlarında da hayal gücü önemli bir yer tuttu. Cozens, Cotman, Constabla gibi manzaracıların şiirsel anlatımı, Turner'da biçimlenip parçalanmasıyla kendini gösteren bir yoğunluk kazandı. İspanya'da romantizm Goya tarafından yüceltildi. Fransa'da Oors (Nasıra Savaşı, 1801, Nantes Müzesi) ile başlayan romantizm Gericalt (Madusa'nın Salı, 1819, Louvre)'' ve İngiliz Bonington ile devam etti. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde de A. B. Durand ve şair Coleridge'in dostu W. Allston'un adları sayılabilir.

Dipnotlar ve kaynakça

Görsel sanatlar teorisi
Görsel sanat akımları

Romantizm


Jean-François Bergier (Lausana, 5 de diciembre 1931 - Blonay, 29 de octubre 2009) fue un historiador suizo especializado en la historia económica y social. Enseñó en la Universidad de Ginebra y en la Escuela Politécnica Federal de Zúrich.

Algunas publicaciones

En francés)
Histoire économique de la Suisse, Lausanne, Payot, 1984

Hermès et Clio: essais d'histoire économique, Lausanne, Payot, 1984

Naissance et croissance de la Suisse industrielle, Berne, Francke, 1974

Une histoire du sel, Fribourg, Office du Livre, 1982

Guillaume Tell, Paris, Fayard, 1988

Europe et les Suisses. Impertinences d'un historien, Genève, Zoé, 1996

Bertrand Müller, Pietro Boschetti, Entretiens avec Jean-François Bergier, Genève, Zoé, 2006

En alemán
 Die Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Schweiz. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Benziger, Zürich 1983, ISBN 3-545-34016-3

 Die Geschichte vom Salz. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1989, ISBN 3-593-34089-5

 Wilhelm Tell. Realität und Mythos. List, Múnich 1990, ISBN 3-471-77168-9

 Wilhelm Tell. Realität und Mythos. Römerhof Verlag, Zürich 2012, ISBN 978-3-905894-16-5

 Wilhelm Tell – ein Europäer? Betrachtungen eines Historikers. Benziger, Zürich 1992, ISBN 3-545-34108-9

 Die Schweiz in Europa. Pendo, Zürich 1998, ISBN 3-86612-153-9

 Die Schweiz, der Nationalsozialismus und der Zweite Weltkrieg (= «Bergier-Bericht»; como editor). Pendo, Zürich 2002, ISBN 3-86612-039-7

 Jean-François Bergier im Gespräch mit Bertrand Müller und Pietro Boschetti. Gelebte Geschichte. NZZ Libro, Zürich 2007, ISBN 978-3-03823-255-1

Enlaces externos
 Jean-François Bergier - obituario en The Independent
 Biography on the website of the Independent Commission of Experts Switzerland – Second World War.
 Biografía en website de ETHZ
Tribune de Geneve, entrevista 23 de marzo de 2002, website Les droits de l'homme
 Jean-Francois Bergier - obituario Daily Telegraph

Historiadores de Suiza del siglo XX
Profesores de la Escuela Politécnica Federal de Zúrich
Profesores de la Universidad de Ginebra
Miembros de la Real Academia Flamenca de Bélgica
Nacidos en Lausana
Fallecidos en el cantón de Vaud

Jean-François Bergier


Tamae Watanabe (jap. , Watanabe Tamae; * 21. November 1938 Präfektur Yamanashi) ist eine japanische Bergsteigerin.

Nach ihrem Abschluss an der Kurzzeituniversität Tsuru arbeitete sie als Angestellte in einer Gemeindeverwaltung der Präfektur Kanagawa. In dieser Zeit begann sie mit dem Bergsteigen. 1977 bestieg sie den Mount McKinley. Es folgten der  Mont Blanc, der Kilimandscharo und der Aconcagua.

Nach ihrer Pensionierung kehrte sie in ihre Heimat zurück und bestieg im Mai 2002 als damals älteste Frau den Mount Everest. Zehn Jahre später, im Mai 2012, stellte sie diesen Weltrekord selbst ein, indem sie erneut, nun im Alter von 73 Jahren, den Mount Everest bestieg. 2004 wurde sie mit dem "Uemura Naomi Bōkenshō" () ausgezeichnet.

Weblinks
Zeit Online: Japanerin ist älteste Frau auf dem Mount Everest
Merkur Online: 73-jährige erklimmt Mount Everest

Bergsteiger (Japan)
Japaner
Geboren 1938
Frau

Tamae Watanabe


Dieser Artikel beschreibt die Schulen im Hochtaunuskreis. Als Schulträger ist der Kreis verantwortlich für das Schulangebot in allen Städten und Gemeinden des Kreises. Daneben bestehen eine Reihe von Privatschulen, die das Bildungsangebot ergänzen.

Liste der Schulen

Liste ehemaliger Schulen

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Hochtaunuskreis
!

Liste der Schulen im Hochtaunuskreis


Bosanska vila, bio je bosanskohercegovački list za književnost, kulturu i društvena pitanja. Okupljao je mlade, mahom srpske, ali i hrvatske i bošnjačke pisce, promičući kulturno jedinstvo BiH. Izdavač časopisa bilo je SPKD Prosvjeta iz Sarajeva, a prvi glavni i odgovorni urednik bio je Božidar Nikašinović.

Povijest
Prvi broj Bosanske vile objavljen je u 16. prosinca 1885. godine, u Sarajevu, noseći u uzglavlju odrednicu List za zabavu, pouku i književnost. Pokreću ga četiri mlada bosanskohercegovačka učitelja: Božidar Nikašinović, Nikola Šumonja, Nikola Kašiković i Stevo Kaluđerčić. Prvih deset brojeva urednik je bio Božidar Nikašinović, sljedećih sedamnaest Nikola Šumonja, a od 1. travnja 1887. godine urednikom postaje Nikola Kašiković.

Naslovna stranica prvoga Vilinoga broja pokazuje na koji se način njezini pokretači doživljavali Sarajevo, kao svoje kulturno središte, a samim tim i cjelokupnu Bosnu i Hercegovinu. Autor naslovne stranice Stevo Kaluđerčić nastojao je, prikazujući panoramu Sarajeva iznad koje lebdi vila s crkvama i džamijama jednima pokraj drugih, dočarati raznolikost Sarajeva. Turski sultan Abdul Hamid II. 1895. godine Nikolu Kašikovića, jednoga od osnivača časopisa, odlikuje Ordenom Medžidije trećega stupnja.

Suradnici
Kao urednici ili članovi uredništva, uz već spomenute, u stvaranju časopisa sudjelovali su Dimitrije Mitrinović, Vladimir Ćorović, Aleksa Šantić, Svetozar Ćorović, Jovan Dučić, Osman Đikić, Milan Prelog, Petar Kočić, Svetislav Stefanović, Jovan Maksimović, Veljko Petrović, Marko Car, Simo Eraković, Sima Pandurević, Milorad Pavlović, Pera Taletov, Isidora Sekulić, Ivo Andrić i Tin Ujević. List je izlazio punih 29 godina, dvomjesečno, sve do početka Prvoga svjetskoga rata.

Izvori

Vanjski linkovi
Bosanska vila na digitaliziranoj stranici Narodne biblioteke Srbije

Sarajevski tisak (do 1918.)

Bosanska vila


La jetée-promenade de Trouville-sur-Mer est une jetée achevée en 1890 à Trouville-sur-Mer dans le Calvados, à l'est de sa longue plage.

Histoire
Elle visait à permettre aux bateaux venant du Havre ou d'Angleterre d'accoster à heure fixe malgré les marées. 600 000 visiteurs y débarquaient chaque année, initialement depuis le Havre. À partir de 1901, elle contribue à l'ouverture d'une nouvelle liaison transmanche depuis Brighton.

Sa construction fut étudiée dès 1869 avec le développement de la station balnéaire mais prit une vingtaine d'années en raison de la complexité technique et d'aléas financiers. À son instigation se trouvaient les propriétaires alors britanniques de l'hôtel des Roches Noires, désireux d'augmenter ainsi la fréquentation britannique de leur hôtel.

Le journal local La Plage de Trouville présente alors le projet ainsi à ses débuts : « Le bruit répandu et qui accrédite de plus en plus, c'est que les propriétaires des Roches Noires, vont, à l'instar de ce qui existe déjà de l'autre côté du détroit, à Brighton, ville de bains du Comté de Sussex (Angleterre), établir une digue, qui partant du pieds de la falaise, s'avancera jusqu'à 600 mètres dans la mer, avec voie carrossable et à l'extrémité de laquelle sera édifié un casino rectangulaire, entièrement fait de fer et de verre. Voyez ici l'effet que pourra produire sur nos jolies baigneuses une valse entraînante, lorsqu'un orchestre Pasdeloup viendra mêler ses sons les plus mélodieux aux murmures des flots ».

Construite finalement par le banquier britannique Gustav Palmer Harding après de nombreux changements, elle tira de cette histoire comme de son utilité pour les bateaux britanniques son nom de « promenade des Anglais ».

Elle faisait 550 mètres de longueur et hébergeait un restaurant à son extrémité, comme pour les jetées typiques britanniques telle la jetée de Brighton. Un wagonnet monté sur rails courait le long de la jetée pour le transport des bagages des estivants.

En 1926 et 1927, la partie débarcadère est remise en état sous la direction de l'architecte Eugène-Maurice Vincent. Endommagée pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale en 1943, la jetée-promenade fut endommagée par plusieurs tempêtes puis démantelée par les Allemands pour son métal et diminuer le risque d'un débarquement Allié. Une partie de ses fondations sont visibles à marée très basse.

Voir aussi
 Jetée-Promenade de Nice

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 Jean Chennebenoist, « La jetée promenade », Athéna sur la Touques, n° 74, décembre 1982, p. 7-15.
 Emmanuelle Gallo, « Les Roches Noires – Trouville-sur-Mer », Les Cahiers du temps, Cabourg, 2000, p. 90-97.

Lien externe
 Présentation détaillée de la jetée-promenade par l'architecte Emmanuelle Gallo
 La jetée promenade de Trouville en photos

Jetée
Architecture dans le Calvados
Trouville-sur-Mer

Jetée-promenade de Trouville-sur-Mer


An Carex harfordii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Kenneth Kent Mackenzie. An Carex harfordii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha California. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex harfordii


Gustave Rothan (1822—1890) var en fransk diplomat og historiker.

Rothan var 1847—60 legationssekretær ved flere tyske hoffer og blev 1867 generalkonsul i Frankfurt. Han var 1868—70 sendemand ved hansestædernes og de tilgrænsende landes regeringer. I kejserdømmets sidste tid forflyttedes han til Firenze indtil september 1870 og tog afsked fra statstjenesten efter freden. 1879—87 udgav han en række oplysende fremstillinger af Frankrigs og dets nabolandes politiske historie i tidsrummet 1866—70: La politique française 1866 (1879), L'affaire de Luxembourg (2 bind 1882), L'Allemagne et l'Italie 1870—71 (2 bind 1884—85) og La politique extérieure de la France en 1867 (2 bind 1887); de to første vandt prisbelønninger fra det franske akademi. Senere fulgte La Prusse et son roi pendant la guerre de Crimée (1888) og Europe et l'avènement du second empire (1890). På grund af disse skrifter forbød den tyske regering 1885 Rothan adgang til Alsace, skønt han var født i dette landskab og havde en ejendom der.

Kilder

Diplomater fra Frankrig
Historikere fra Frankrig
Faglitterære forfattere fra Frankrig
Fransksprogede forfattere
Franskmænd i 1800-tallet

Gustave Rothan


Adelheid af Holsten-Rendsburg (død januar 1350), grevinde af Huset Schauenburg, var en datter af grev Henrik 1. af Holsten og Helvig af Bronkhorst. Hun blev i 1313 gift med hertug Erik II. af Slesvig (1288-1325) og var mor til:
 Valdemar 3.
 Helvig, der i 1340 blev gift med Valdemar Christoffersen Atterdag.

Både hendes søn og hendes svigersøn blev konger af Danmark.

Noter

Huset Schauenburg

Adelheid af Holsten-Rendsburg


El Subaru XV es un crossover SUV del segmento C producido por el fabricante japonés Subaru desde el año 2011.

El Subaru XV está desarrollado sobre la misma plataforma que el Subaru Impreza de cuarta generación y sustituye al Subaru Impreza XV. Sobre esta base cambios técnicos y estéticos así como el cambio de denominación para independizarlo del modelo Impreza refuerzan su posicionamiento dentro del segmento de los SUV.

Estéticamente está caracterizado por una carrocería tipo hatchback de cinco puertas, de línea continuista a la del Subaru Impreza de tercera generación, con una posición sobre-elevada, anchos pasos de rueda ampliados con molduras plásticas en color contrastado con la carrocería que se continúan por los bajos del vehículo en los laterales y los paragolpes delantero y trasero. El Subaru XV incorpora motores de gasolina o diésel tipo bóxer.

Primera generación (2012-2017)
La primera generación del XV fue presentada, primero como prototipo y luego como anticipo del modelo de producción en serie en varios salones del automóvil: Shanghái 2011, Fráncfort 2011.

Finalmente fue presentada con un diseño prácticamente igual a los últimos prototipos en diciembre de 2011 y su comercialización comienza en enero de 2012 en Europa.

Características técnicas
 Dimensiones:
 Largo: 4450 mm.
 Ancho: 1780 mm.
 Altura: 1570 mm.
 Distancia entre ejes: 2630 mm.

 Dimensiones interiores:
 Maletero: de 380 litros con kit antipinchazos.

 Mecánica:
 Motores: Tipo Boxer, cuatro cilindros opuestos colocados de forma longitudinal. Gasolina de 1.6 litros con 117 CV a 5.600 rpm y 150 Nm de par a 4.000 rpm  Gasolina 2.0 litros con 156 CV a 6.200 rpm y 196 Nm de par a 4.200 rpm. Diésel de 2.0 litros con 156 CV a 3.600 rpm y 350 Nm de par entre 1.600 y 7 2.400 rpm.

 Cambio:Manual de 5 relaciones para el 1,6 litros. Automático CVT Lineartronic para el 2.0 de gasolina. Manual de 6 marchas para el diésel.

 Prestaciones:
 0 - 100 km/h: /> 13,1 s para el gasolina 1,6. 10,7 s para el 2.0 gasolina. 9,3 s para el diésel.
 Velocidad máxima: /> 179 km/h para el gasolina 1,6. 187 km/h para el 2.0 gasolina. 198 km/h para el diésel.

 Consumos y emisiones:
 Consumo medio: /> 6,5 l/100 km para el gasolina 1,6. 6,6 l/100 km para el 2.0 gasolina. 5,6 l/100 km para el diésel.
 Emisiones de CO2: /> 151 g/km. para el gasolina 1,6 153 g/km para el 2.0 gasolina. 146 g/km para el dos litros diésel.

Segunda generación (2017-presente)
La segunda generación del XV tiene una renovación completa y una nueva plataforma más allá del restyling que servirá para los próximos modelos de la marca, con respecto a la versión anterior crece 15mm, la caja de cambios es CVT para las motorizaciones que se ofrecen tanto el 1.6 como el 2.0.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Modelos de automóviles del segmento C
XV

Subaru XV


آل عقاب هي إحدى قرى محافظة صعدة في اليمن، وتقع على بعد 3 كم غرب مركز المدينة تقريبا وتبلغ مساحتها مايقارب 400هكتار(4كم مربع)
منها 3كم مربع مزروعه، وعدد سكانها 3500نسمه تقريبا منهم حوالي 20% يشتغلون في مجال التجارة و60% أيدي عامله وتعتبر منطقةً زراعيةً، حيث اشتهرت بزراعة، وتسويق الرمان، والتفاح، ويشتهر أهالي آل عقاب بالتجارة الخفيفة، وخاصة تجارة الخضروات.

مراجع

قرى محافظة صعدة

آل عقاب


est un film américain réalisé par Frank Tuttle, sorti en 1925.

Certaines scènes ont été filmées avec une caméra tenue à la main et stabilisée par gyroscope.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Réalisation : Frank Tuttle
 Scénario : Townsend Martin
 Producteurs : Adolph Zukor, Jesse Lasky
 Photographie : J. Roy Hunt
 Distribution : Paramount Pictures
 Durée : 60 minutes (6 bobines)
 Date de sortie :

Distribution
Bebe Daniels : Maria Maretti
Edmund Burns : Antonio Luca
Dorothy Cumming : Flora
Hale Hamilton : James Morgan
Charlotte Walker :  Morgan
Marie Shotwell :  Wainwright
Ann Brody : Mère Luca
Mary Foy :  Root-Chiveley

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film américain sorti en 1925
Film dramatique américain
Film romantique américain
Film américain en noir et blanc
Film muet américain
Film réalisé par Frank Tuttle

The Manicure Girl (film, 1925)


Frank de la jungla es un programa de televisión producido por Molinos de Papel y emitido en la cadena española Cuatro y Mediaset España. Es conducido por Frank Cuesta, quien recorre varios países en busca de la fauna más exótica y peligrosa, buscando trasladar una visión cercana a los espectadores e inculcando respeto hacia las especies. Cuenta con tres temporadas y dos spin-off, La selva en casa, que traslada el formato a España y Natural Frank.

Sinopsis
El equipo del programa, formado por el presentador, Frank Cuesta, el reportero y director del programa, Nacho Medina y el operador de cámara, Santiago Trancho, recorre países como Laos, Malasia o Vietnam, en busca de la fauna más exótica y peligrosa. Aunque la gran parte del programa transcurre en Tailandia, residencia de Frank Cuesta.

Primera temporada
Se estrenó el domingo 3 de octubre de 2010, con gran éxito de audiencia. Consta de 8 episodios más un especial que recoge los mejores momentos de la temporada.

Segunda temporada
Los grandes datos cosechados en la primera temporada permitieron que se rodara una segunda que se estrenó el domingo 4 de septiembre de 2011. Consta de 8 episodios más dos especiales. El primer especial recoge imágenes inéditas de la primera y segunda temporada y el segundo muestra los mejores momentos de la segunda temporada. Durante esta temporada, el programa destapó una red de explotadores de osos en Vietnam, donde mostraron cómo los furtivos se dedican a extraer la bilis de la vesícula de los osos para venderla en el mercado negro.

Tercera temporada
Tras dos temporadas exclusivamente en Asia, Frank Cuesta, esta vez sin la compañía del reportero Nacho Medina y el fallecido cámara Santiago Trancho, comienza la tercera temporada adentrándose en el continente americano, concretamente en Costa Rica en busca de nuevas especies. Posteriormente recorre Tailandia, Birmania y Mongolia.

Episodios y audiencias

Primera temporada (2010)

Segunda temporada (2011)

Tercera temporada (2012-2013)

La selva en casa

Episodios y audiencias

Natural Frank

Episodios y audiencias

Primera temporada (2013)

Segunda temporada (2013-2014)

Audiencia global

Wild Frank emitido por DMAX (España)

Episodios y audiencias

Primera temporada (2014)

Segunda temporada (2014-2015)

Tercera temporada (2015)

Cuarta temporada (2015)

Quinta temporada (2015)

Sexta temporada (2016)

Séptima temporada (2016)

Octava temporada (2016)

Novena temporada (2017)

Décima temporada (2017)

Undécima temporada (2017)

Duodécima temporada (2018)

Decimotercera temporada (2018)

Decimocuarta temporada (2019)

Decimoquinta temporada (2019)

Decimosexta temporada (2019)

Decimoséptima temporada (2020)

Notas
 Récord de share:''' Víboras, emitido el domingo 4 de septiembre de 2011, con un 10,4%.
 Récord de espectadores: Tigres, estrenado el domingo 21 de noviembre de 2010, con 1 962 000 espectadores.
 Mínimo de share:''' Adiós a Costa Rica y vuelta a casa, emitido el domingo 25 de noviembre de 2012, con un 5,3%.
 Mínimo de espectadores: Cuevas y murciélagos, estrenado el domingo 11 de septiembre de 2011, con 1 119 000 espectadores.

Véase también
 La selva en casa
 Natural Frank
 Wild Frank

Enlaces externos
 Sitio web oficial > cuatro.com
 Página web oficial de Frank Cuesta

 Todos los programas íntegros > Mitele.es
 Seguimiento del programa en FormulaTV

 Wild Frank
 Wild Frank en Animal Planet

Referencias

Molinos de Papel
Premio Ondas
Programas de televisión de Cuatro
Programas de televisión de España
Programas de televisión de España iniciados en 2010
Programas de televisión finalizados en 2013
Docu-realities de España
Programas de televisión de divulgación de España
Programas de televisión de reportajes de España

Frank de la jungla