"4,722 Hours" é o quinto episódio da terceira temporada da série de televisão americana Agentes da S.H.I.E.L.D., girando em torno da personagem Jemma Simmons, uma agente da SHIELD (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division) que está presa em um planeta alienígena. É ambientado no Universo Cinematográfico Marvel (MCU), compartilhando continuidade com os filmes da franquia. O episódio foi escrito por Craig Titley e dirigido por Jesse Bochco.

Elizabeth Henstridge interpreta Simmons, e é acompanhada pelo ator convidado Dillon Casey como outro sobrevivente preso no planeta. Regulares da série Clark Gregg, Ming-Na Wen, Chloe Bennet e Iain De Caestecker também aparecem brevemente. O episódio foi um afastamento da norma da série, focando em um único personagem ao invés do conjunto usual, e ocorrendo em um planeta alienígena. O episódio foi filmado no deserto californiano, com um efeito de filtro usado para fazer parecer que é noite no planeta, já que seu sol raramente nasce. O episódio foi inspirado em vários filmes de ficção científica e tem semelhança com Perdido em Marte, que foi lançado próximo à exibição do episódio.

"4.722 Horas" foi ao ar originalmente na ABC em 27 de outubro de 2015 e, de acordo com a Nielsen Media Research, foi assistido por 6,40 milhões de telespectadores uma semana após seu lançamento. O episódio recebeu uma resposta crítica extremamente positiva, com elogios à natureza do episódio da garrafa e ao desempenho de Henstridge, bem como à narrativa que geralmente era vista como superando as batidas previsíveis ou familiares da trama. Muitos críticos o consideraram o melhor episódio da série.

Trama
A agente da SHIELD Jemma Simmons é sugada para um monólito alienígena que ela está estudando e é teletransportada para a noite em um planeta árido e deserto. Ela enfrenta uma tempestade de areia e encontra água e uma criatura parecida com uma planta para comer. Após 752 horas, Simmons é preso por um homem, que eventualmente se apresenta como Will, um astronauta enviado pelo portal pela NASA em 2001 que ficou preso sozinho e acredita que o planeta, ou uma entidade que controla o planeta, seja mau. Will e sua equipe vieram em uma missão de exploração de um ano, mas os outros logo sucumbiram aos efeitos de "isso"; dois se mataram, enquanto Will matou o outro quando este o atacou. Will só sobreviveu nos próximos 14 anos se escondendo de "isso" e sorte.

Simmons usa o equipamento de Will, incluindo mapas que ele e sua equipe fizeram das áreas circundantes, para tentar encontrar um caminho de volta pelo portal. Enquanto procura comida, Simmons vê um reflexo metálico à distância e o segue para encontrar uma velha espada e um equipamento de astronomia do século XIX. Percebendo que ela entrou no que Will chama de "No Fly Zone", a área para onde seus colegas astronautas foram antes de morrer, Simmons logo é pego em outra tempestade de areia - desta vez, ela vê uma figura encapuzada se aproximando dela e foge de volta para a caverna. Inspirado pelo equipamento de astronomia para usar as estrelas e luas, Simmons deduz que a localização do portal é fixa, mas parece se mover devido à rotação do planeta. Usando o antigo equipamento da NASA de Will e seu telefone celular emitido pela SHIELD, ela prevê a próxima abertura do portal, mas eles chegam ao local para descobrir que "isso" aparentemente alterou a paisagem para criar um desfiladeiro intransponível entre eles e o portal. Simmons perde a esperança de retornar à Terra quando o portal se abre e fecha na frente deles, e se resigna à vida no planeta com Will. Os dois se aproximam conforme o tempo passa.

4.722 horas desde a chegada de Simmons, eles veem um sinalizador à distância. Correndo para ele, Simmons encontra seu parceiro da SHIELD, Leo Fitz. Quando "isso" chega, Will fica para trás para segurá-lo enquanto Simmons foge relutantemente com Fitz. Ela conta a ele sobre sua provação, e Fitz promete ajudá-la a retornar ao planeta e salvar Will.

Produção

Desenvolvimento
Em setembro de 2015, após a exibição da estreia da temporada em que a localização da personagem Jemma Simmons foi revelada como um planeta alienígena, o produtor executivo Jeffrey Bell afirmou que "em algum momento iremos explorar totalmente o que aconteceu com ela". Ele chamou de "a coisa mais louca que já fizemos... um tipo diferente de episódio".  No mês seguinte, a Marvel anunciou que o episódio, o quinto da temporada, seria intitulado "4.722 Horas". É escrito por Craig Titley, com direção de Jesse Bochco. Para "4.722 Horas", em vez da sequência normal do título usada na temporada, o título da série no tipo de letra do episódio desaparece silenciosamente na tela sobre o pano de fundo do planeta em que Simmons está preso.

Escrevendo
A decisão de dedicar um episódio inteiro ao tempo de Simmons no planeta foi tomada no início do planejamento da terceira temporada, para que o personagem pudesse se juntar ao resto do elenco no início da temporada, evitando o suspense da segunda temporada. "sinta-se inútil porque ela voltou e está bem". O uso das horas titulares para marcar a passagem do tempo surgiu depois que a ideia do planeta não ter nascer do sol foi definida, já que usar dias não era mais razoável. A sala dos roteiristas da série trabalhou em conjunto para contar a história, o que levou cerca de uma hora e meia, em vez das semanas habituais. O escritor da série e produtor supervisor Brent Fletcher teve a ideia de dividir as 4.722 horas em cinco atos, cada um escrito como o capítulo do livro. Os atos receberam rótulos como "The Stranger" e "The Plan", e essa estrutura serviu de base para o roteiro de Titley. Embora muitas semelhanças tenham sido observadas entre o episódio e o filme The Martian, Titley não tinha visto o filme quando estava escrevendo o roteiro e, em vez disso, foi inspirado pelo tropo geral da ficção científica de "uma pessoa sozinha em um planeta" e filmes como Enemy Mine.

Elizabeth Henstridge descreveu o episódio como "uma história de amadurecimento. Acho que vemos Simmons no início, e ela nunca esteve realmente pronta para o combate... Henstridge também notou elementos de suspense no episódio. No momento em "4.722 Horas" em que Simmons perde a esperança, Henstridge explicou: "Nunca pensei que a veríamos chegar a esse lugar... Isso justifica o relacionamento dela com Will também, porque ela estava pronta para acabar com tudo e foi ele quem a puxou de volta." Com relação ao relacionamento com o novo personagem Will Daniels, os produtores executivos trabalharam com Titley para tentar fazer com que parecesse merecido no episódio, dado o acompanhamento dos fãs de 'FitzSimmons' (o potencial relacionamento entre Simmons e Leo Fitz). O produtor executivo Jed Whedon também observou que o episódio "não foi uma história sobre os dois neste planeta, mas uma história sobre Fitz ouvindo isso e como ele responderá. Ele parte seu coração, no final, ela parte seu coração e, com sorte, você sente pelos três envolvidos."

Ter os astronautas da NASA viajando para o planeta em 2001 foi uma referência a 2001: A Space Odyssey, que também apresentava um monólito, enquanto Titley nomeou os colegas astronautas de Daniels em homenagem a seus astronautas cinematográficos favoritos: Austin de The Six Million Dollar Man ; Taylor de Planeta dos Macacos ; e Brubaker de Capricórnio Um.

Elenco
Em outubro de 2015, a Marvel revelou que os principais membros do elenco Clark Gregg, Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Henstridge, Nick Blood, Adrianne Palicki, Henry Simmons e Luke Mitchell estrelariam como Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Grant Ward, Daisy Johnson, Leo Fitz, Jemma Simmons, Lance Hunter, Bobbi Morse, Alphonso "Mack" Mackenzie e Lincoln Campbell, respectivamente.  No entanto, a maioria do elenco não aparece, com apenas Henstridge e De Caestecker desempenhando papéis notáveis; Whedon disse que os outros basicamente tiveram "uma semana de folga". Dillon Casey estrela como Will Daniels.

Sobre a série ter um episódio girando em torno de um único personagem, Whedon disse: "Temos muitas pessoas no programa e sentimos que este ano era o ano para começar a se ramificar em coisas assim. Então, nós apenas nos comprometemos de todo o coração". Ao escalar Casey como Daniels, os produtores queriam alguém que fosse mais velho que Henstridge, fisicamente diferente de De Caestecker, e "não se parecesse com o tipo [de Simmons]", para deixar menos claro que eles acabariam juntos.

Filmagens
As filmagens ocorreram em uma pedreira em Simi Valley e em Northridge, Los Angeles perto do deserto de Mojave durante o dia, com o diretor de fotografia Feliks Parnell usando um efeito de filtragem inspirado em Mad Max: Fury Road para fazer parecer noite Tempo. Isso foi considerado mais prático do que filmar à noite no deserto, visto que quase todas as cenas acontecem durante a noite de 18 anos no planeta. Por conta disso, a produção lutou contra o calor intenso do deserto. Cerca de 22 minutos de filmagem extra foram filmados para o episódio que teve que ser cortado, incluindo uma subtrama em que Simmons perde o colar de sua avó e Daniels o encontra para ela.

Sobre como a continuidade foi enfatizada durante a produção do episódio, Bochco explicou que para cada um dos cinco atos do episódio havia um estágio diferente de cabelo, maquiagem e guarda-roupa para que a equipe pudesse retratar as mudanças físicas de Simmons conforme o tempo avança. Em vez de tentar filmar o episódio em ordem completa, o que era "impossível" devido às necessidades de agendamento de locação, a produção apenas tentou evitar mudar de um estágio para outro e vice-versa. Sobre o quanto o episódio mostra 'a entidade' no planeta, Bochco e Titley a compararam ao tubarão em Tubarão, com este episódio mostrando apenas "[sua] barbatana de vez em quando", e uma revelação maior da criatura chegando um episódio posterior.

Introdução
"4.722 Horas" foi ao ar pela primeira vez nos Estados Unidos pela ABC em 27 de outubro de 2015.  O episódio começou a ser transmitido na Netflix em 16 de junho de 2016.

Recepção

avaliações
Nos Estados Unidos, o episódio recebeu uma participação de 1,4/4 por cento entre adultos entre 18 e 49 anos, o que significa que foi visto por 1,4 por cento de todos os lares e 4 por cento de todos os que assistiam à televisão no momento da transmissão. Foi assistido por 3,81 milhões de telespectadores. Uma semana após seu lançamento, o episódio foi assistido por 6,40 milhões de telespectadores nos Estados Unidos,  acima da média da temporada de 5,52 milhões de telespectadores.

Resposta crítica

Eric Goldman do IGN pontuou o episódio com 9,7 de 10, indicando um episódio "incrível" que ele chamou de "um destaque... excelente TV". Ele elogiou o afastamento ousado da "vibração" normal da série, a "performance fantástica" de Henstridge e a forma como a relação entre Simmons e Daniels se desenvolve ao longo do episódio, e disse que "é uma prova de quão bem este episódio foi construído e como bem, a história foi contada que os aspectos [familiares/previsíveis] não atrapalharam o quão envolvente isso foi". Oliver Sava, do The AV Club, classificou o episódio como 'A', chamando-o de "ponto alto da série que mostra o valor de romper com a fórmula estabelecida". Ele observou como o episódio teve pontos fortes diferentes do semelhante The Martian, focando nos aspectos mais pessoais da jornada de Simmons, em vez das tentativas da SHIELD de resgatá-la. Ele elogiou as performances de Henstridge e Casey, o uso simples, mas eficaz, de filtros coloridos no episódio (em comparação com a "paleta de cores monótona" usual da série) e a representação da perda de esperança de Simmons e o desenvolvimento do relacionamento com Daniels, apesar da progressão previsível da história.

Rob Leane, do Den of Geek  foi menos positivo, elogiando a "decisão corajosa" de se concentrar na performance de Simmons e Henstridge, enquanto notava as "semelhanças inegáveis" entre o episódio e The Martian, e criticando a introdução de Daniels como "mais como um dispositivo de enredo do que uma força motriz real para o episódio" e a introdução indesejada de um triângulo amoroso na série. Molly Freeman, escrevendo para Screen Rant, chamou "4.722 Hours" de uma "hora forte de televisão", apresentando um risco dramático ao focar em Simmons que ela sentiu valer a pena. Freeman afirmou, "uma vez que o arco dramático do episódio é estabelecido, ele segue um caminho bastante padrão... [mas] a atuação de Henstridge ajuda a trazer emoção suficiente para dar ao enredo o peso de que ele precisa".  Kevin Fitzpatrick, do Screen Crush, chamou o episódio de "inventivo e inesperado" e "uma aposta brilhante", elogiando o desempenho de Henstridge e a qualidade "imersiva" do episódio, especialmente o investimento no desenvolvimento pessoal de Simmons com Daniels e as tentativas de escapar do planeta. que ele sentiu foi "apenas ocasionalmente prejudicado pela exposição necessária de seus elementos mais improváveis". Fitzpatrick comparou positivamente "4.722 Horas" ao episódio " Hush " de Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

Joseph McCabe, do Nerdist, afirmou no episódio: " Agentes da SHIELD desta semana é tão bom que me deixa em um estado de pessimismo. Porque não consigo ver nenhuma maneira de continuar que dê uma resolução satisfatória à história que apresenta de maneira tão bela." Ele o chamou de "um dos melhores episódios que a SHIELD nos deu, e um dos poucos que um espectador com quase nenhum conhecimento prévio do programa pode apreciar totalmente", e elogiou a maneira como o relacionamento de Simmons e Daniels foi tratado, dizendo que Henstridge e Casey "se complementam maravilhosamente". Discutindo o episódio para a Vox, Caroline Framke o chamou de "surpreendente", elogiando a decisão de dedicar um episódio à provação de Simmons, em vez de apenas revelá-lo por meio de flashbacks em episódios "normais", bem como os esforços de Bochco, Titley e Henstridge, e o uso do contador de horas "sinistro" na tela.  Também revisando o episódio para Den of Geek, Marc Buxton pontuou 4,5 estrelas em 5, chamando-o de "o episódio mais experimental de Agents of SHIELD até agora e... pode ter sido o melhor momento da série até agora". Buxton sentiu que o episódio melhorou retroativamente os episódios anteriores da terceira temporada, que ele chamou de "anticlimático" devido ao modo como lidaram com o enredo de Simmons, e elogiou o desempenho de Henstridge. Ele também comparou positivamente o vilão do episódio, que ele descreveu como "difícil de entender, misterioso e sempre presente", com "os melhores vilões de Steven Moff em Doctor Who ".

Elogios
Henstridge foi nomeada "Performer of the Week  do TVLine na semana de 25 de outubro de 2015, por sua atuação neste episódio, particularmente por aparecer em todo o episódio, e pelas cenas mais 'comoventes' perto do final. O episódio foi eleito um dos melhores episódios de televisão de 2015 pelo The Atlantic.  Em junho de 2016, IGN classificou o episódio como o melhor da série.

Referências

Ligações externas
 "4.722 Horas" no ABC

Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
2015 na televisão

4,722 Hours


Rhipsalis russellii, também conhecido como mandacaru-da-serra, é uma espécie de planta do grupo Rhipsalis decrita em 1923 por Nathaniel Lord Britton e Joseph Nelson Rose.

Distribuição
A espécie é endêmica do Brasil, com ocorrências confirmadas nas seguintes regiões:

 Nordeste (Bahia)

 Centro-Oeste (Goiás, Mato Grosso)

 Sudeste (Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro)

 Sul (Paraná)

Ela é encontrada nos domínios fitogeográficos da caatinga, cerrado e mata atlântica, nos tipos de vegetação de campo rupestre, floresta ciliar, floresta estacional semidecidual, floresta ombrófila  e restinga.

Conservação
A espécie faz parte da Lista Vermelha das espécies ameaçadas do estado do Espírito Santo, no sudeste do Brasil.

Bibliografia

A bibliografia recomendada para a espécie inclui:
 Zappi, D.,Taylor, N.,Santos, M.R.,Larocca, J. 2015. Cactaceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro.
 Zappi, D., Taylor, N.P. Cactaceae in Flora do Brasil 2020. Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro.

 BFG. Brazilian Flora 2020: Innovation and collaboration to meet Target 1 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). Rodriguésia, v.69, n.4, p.1513-1527. 2018. (doi:10.1590/2175-7860201869402).
 BFG. Brazilian Flora 2020: Leveraging the power of a collaborative scientific network. Taxon. 2021. (doi:10.1002/tax.12640).
 Barthlott, W. & Taylor, N.P. 1995. Notes towards a monograph of Rhipsalideae (Cactaceae). Bradleya 13: 43

russellii
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo
Plantas descritas em 1923

Rhipsalis russellii


النص الحواري هو نص أدبي يستعمل غالبا في المسرح ولكننا نستطيع أن نجده في أجناس أدبية مثل الرواية والحكاية والقصة وأجناس غير أدبية مثل الصحافة والتقارير والربورتاج.

من أنواعه
 الحوار المسرحي: هو أكثر الأشكال الأدبية استعمالا للحوار.
 الحوار المباشر: الحوار الذي يتم مباشرة ووجها لوجه والتكلم مباشرة أفضل لأنك تناقش كل ما تريده ... بسهولة.
 الحوار الكامل: الحوار الذي يكون كاملا حيث لا تنسى فكرة إلا وقلتها.
 الحوار الناقص: عندما ينتتهي الحوار ويعلم الشخص انه نسي قول فكرة
 الحوار الداخلي: وهو كلام يحدث به الشخص نفسه مع روحه.

المصادر

أدب

نص حواري


El distrito de Aravan (en kirguís: Араван району) es uno de los rayones (distrito) de la provincia de Osh en Kirguistán. Tiene como capital el pueblo de Aravan, capital del aiyl okmotu llamado A.Yusupov.

Subdivisiones
En total, el distrito incluye ocho comunidades rurales (aiyl okmotus). Cada comunidad rural incluye uno o varios pueblos. Los aiyl okmotu son:
 Аllya Anarov aiyl okmotu (capital Jany-Aravan; otros pueblos Aravan, Achchi, Kara-Bulak, Sasyk-Üngkür)
 A.Yusupov ayil okmotu (capital Aravan; otros pueblos Karrak, Oktyabr, Erke-Kashka, Sutkor)
 Chekabad ayil okmotu (capital Kochubaev; otros pueblos Agronom, Jakshylyk, Jar-Kyshlak, Kukalapash, Maksim-Tobu, Pakhtachi, Tölöykan)
 Kerme-Too ayil okmotu (capital Gulbakhor; otros pueblos Kichik-Alay, Kyundelyuk, Maydan-Tal, Min-Teke, Sary-Bulak, Chogom)
 Mangyt ayil okmotu (capital Mangyt; otros pueblos Kesek, Kyzyl-Korgon, Tölöykön,  Jangy-Aryk)
 Nur-Abad ayil okmotu (capital Kayragach-Aryk; otros pueblos Kakyr-Piltan, Langar)
 Tepe-Korgon ayil okmotu (capital Tepe-Korgon; otros pueblos Arap, Internatsional, Kesov, Uygur-Abad, Chertik, Yangi-Abad, Jangy-Jol)
 Tuya-Moyun ayil okmotu (capital Khauz; otros pueblos Ak-Shor, Jeke-Miste, Kerkidan, Nayman, Sary-Tash, Syrt)

Referencias

A

Distrito de Aravan


Tillandsioideae, potporodica biljaka, dio porodice tamjanikovki (Bromeliaceae). Podijeljena je na 4 tribusa , a tipični joj je rod Tillandsia L.

Tribusi
 Catopsideae Harms in H.G A Engler & K.A.E.
 Glomeropitcairnieae Harms in H.G A Engler & K.A.E.
 Tillandsieae Dumort.
 Vrieseeae Beer

Izvori

Tamjanikovke

Tillandsioideae


حسين دعيبس هو مخرج مسلسلات وأغانٍ مصورة أردني. من المسلسلات المشهورة التي أخرجها مسلسل «عرس الصقر» الذي عرضه التلفزيون الأردني عام 1999، من بطولة الأساتذة زهير النوباني وجميل عواد ومحمود أبو غريب وساري الأسعد والفنان السوري خالد تاجا ، والسيدتين لارا الصفدي و جولييت عواد.

ولقد كان حسين دعيبس من اوائل المخرجين الذين عملوا على تصوير الاغنية العربية وذلك منذ ظهور الفيديو كليب بمنتصف التسعينات ومن المطربين الذين صور لهم سلطان الطرب جورج وسّوف مصطفى قمر نجوى كرم عبد المجيد عبد الله الدكتور عبد الرب ادريس طلال سلامة فلة الجزائرية فضل شاكر هاني شاكر هيثم يوسف سعدون جابر ماجد المهندس رضا العبد الله نور مهنا محمد المازم عمر العبداللات مي حريري كاظم الساهر وغيرهم ونال الكثير من الجوائز العربية والعالمية.

أعماله
 كليبات عديدة للفنان العراقي الكبير كاظم الساهر
 كليبات عديدة لنجوى كرم
 بستان الفل، فلة
 كيف اجازيك، فلة
 لا تتعذري ديو مع عمر العبداللات
 لاموني، ميسم نحاس
 مشتاقلك موت من كلمات: نسرين محمد، ألحان: أحمد الهرمي، آداء: أحمد الهرمي
 لسه الدنيا بخير، جورج وسوف، قناة الموسيقى، 1998.

مراجع

فنانون أردنيون
مخرجو أفلام أردنيون
مخرجو فيديوهات موسيقية
مواليد 1954

حسين دعيبس


Katharine Cook Briggs (1875. – 1968.) je sa svojom kćerkom Isabel Briggs Myers, sukreatorica popisa tipova ličnosti poznatoga kao Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).

Rani život

Obiteljski život
Katharine Cook Briggs rođena je 1875. godine u obitelji koja je pridonijela edukaciji za žene tako i za muškarce. Njezin otac bio je profesor na University of Michigan, ranije poznatom kao poljoprivredni fakultet u Michiganu. Nakon što je završila fakultet, udala se za Lyman James Briggs-a, fizičara i direktora ureda za standarde u Washington D.C.-u. 18. listopada 1897. Katharine je rodila Isabel Briggs Myers, njihovo jedino dijete koje je preživio djetinjstvo. Odgajajući Isabel razvila je mnoge teorije o pravim načinima kako podići dijete. Odvela je svoju kćer iz tradicionalnog školovanja, dovela je kući i potaknula na čitanje i pisanje o bilo kojoj zanimljivoj temi. Katharinina zainteresiranost za tipove ličnosti je porasla kada je njezina kći upoznala Clarence "Chief" Myers-a za kojega se udala. Katharina je osjećala da je "Chief" drugačiji od ostatka obitelji. Kako bi zadržala vezu s kćerkom, Briggs je nastojala bolje razumjeti Myersove i njezine razlike koristeći ono što je znala o tipovima ličnosti.

Obrazovanje
Briggs je učila od svoga oca kod kuće. Tvrdila je da se ne sjeća tko ju je naučio pisati, te da su je naučili to dosta loše. Nikada nije pohađala formalne škole sve dok nije otišla na fakultet u dobi od četrnaest godina. Briggs je zaradila visok stupanj obrazovanja u poljoprivredi i postala poznati akademik tijekom vremena kada se krivo vjerovalo da ženama previše obrazovanja nanosi štetu njihovim reproduktivnim sposobnostima. Nakon fakulteta bila je nastavnik, a odani čitatelj i pisac tijekom cijeloga života.

Rana istraživanja
Briggs je proučavala istraživanja suvremene dječje obrazovne i socijalne razvojne teorije. Stvorila je test zvanja za djecu. Vidjela je to kao ključ za budućnost djeteta, njegovu sreću i blagostanje. Njezina prva istraživanja dovela su je da 1917. identificira 4 glavna tipa ličnosti: meditativni tip, spontani tip, izvršni tip i društveni tip, koji su kasnije razvijeni u MBTI nazive Ixxx, ExxP, ExTJ i ExFJ. . Međutim, istražujući djela raznih filozofa, znanstvenika i psihologa, nije bila u stanju identificirati jednu konačnu teoriju o ličnosti koja bi obuhvaćala sve aspekte. Zbog nedostatka nalaza, odlučila je početi razvijati vlastitu teoriju.

Radovi
Pisala je eseje o odgoju i obrazovanju, vjerujući da djeca imaju urođenu znatiželju i da je obrazovanje ono što potiče ovaj prirodni instinkt. Briggsovo rano zanimanje za tipove ličnosti procvjetalo je njezinim pokušajima pisanja fikcija. Kako bi stvorila bogatije likove za pisanje svoje fikcije, pokušala je razumjeti detalje ljudske ličnosti i ponašanja. Njezina prva dva članka objavljena su u časopisu "New Republic ". Prvi "Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box" objavljen je 1926, a drugi "Up From Barbarism" 1928.godine. Oba su raspravljala o Jungovoj teoriji.

Isabelino sudjelovanje
1923. godine Briggs je pročitala rad Carla Junga i predstavila ga svojoj kćeri. Njegova teorija je usmjerena na urođene razlike među ljudima u pogledu njihovih odluka i njihovog unosa informacija. Nakon čitanja C.G. Junga Psihološke vrste, Briggs je odbacila svoju izgradnju teorije ličnosti i počela se dublje usredotočivati na Jungove ideje. Isabel, koja je u početku bila nezainteresirana za istraživanje tipova, promijenila je mišljenje kada je našla posao koji je bio identificirati ljudima odgovarajuću vrstu posla za njihov karakter. Odlučila je udružiti snage s majkom. Katharine i Isabel su uvelike bile pod Jungovim utjecajem i odlučile su da njegove ideje mogu pomoći ljudima donositi bolje životne izbore i da predstave pojedinačne razlike u pozitivnom svjetlu. Otada su počele s dvadeset godišnjim proučavanjem tipova ličnosti.  Katherine i Isabel su 1945. godine uz pomoć Lyman Briggsa provele prvu procjenu na učenicima George Washington medicinske škole. U vrijeme Drugog svjetskog rata, Isabel je imajući u vidu rani rad svoje majke, stvorila test koji će pomoći u prepoznavanju odgovarajućeg posla osobama u ratu.

Nasljeđe
Cijeli život od Briggs bio je posvećen isticanju Jungovih ideja i njihove primjene na načine koji bi mogli poboljšati život ljudi. Isabel je preuzela studij te je svojim, majčinim i Jungovim opažanjima uspjela pokrenuti izradu ankete za procjenu tipa ličnosti. Isabel je kasnije provela pola života, pokušavajući ostvariti viziju svoje majke. Briggs je prvenstveno bila pokretačka snaga i inspiracija za stvaranje MBTI-a, a Isabel je bila radna snaga koja je fizički stvorila sam test.

MBTI
Briggs i njezina rana istraživanja tipa ličnosti bili su ključni u stvaranju jednog od najpoznatijih i najčešće korištenih pokazatelja ličnosti, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Danas se koristi u područjima koja su široka kao izvršni razvoj i bračno savjetovanje. Budući da je 1962. godine formalno dodan u kolekciju testova Educational Testing Service, procjenjuje se da je 50 milijuna ljudi riješilo MBTI. MBTI klasificira tipove ličnosti u četiri kategorije. Katharine i Isabel tvrdile su da se svi uklapaju u jednu od 16 mogućih kombinacija tipa ličnosti s dominantnom sklonosti u svakoj od četiri para. Okvir testa jedva se promijenio otkako ga je Briggs prvi put razvila. MBTI je kritiziran od strane nekih koji tvrde da je Briggs razvila procjenu u svom domu prije nego što je napravila opsežna znanstvena istraživanja umjesto obrnuto.

Izvori

Američki psiholozi

Katharine Cook Briggs


Badji ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Aïssatou Badji (* 1980), senegalesische Sprinterin
 Aliou Badji (* 1997), senegalesischer Fußballspieler
 Bassirou Badji, senegalesischer Basketballspieler
 Dominique Badji (* 1992), senegalesischer Fußballspieler
 Fayçal Badji (* 1973), algerischer Fußballspieler
 Ibou Badji (* 2002), senegalesischer Basketballspieler
 Mamina Badji (* 2002), senegalesischer Fußballspieler
 Ndiss Kaba Badji (* 1983), senegalesischer Leichtathlet
 Pape Badji, bürgerlicher Name von Papis Loveday (* 1977), senegalesisches Model
 Stéphane Badji (* 1990), senegalesischer Fußballspieler
 Youssouph Badji (* 2001), senegalesischer Fußballspieler

Badji


Adenostoma fasciculatum, vazdazeleni grm iz porodice ružovki, rasprostranjen u Kaliforniji i poluotoku California. Najrasprostranjenija je biljka chaparrala. Naraste od 90 cm. do 4 metra visine. Listovi su maleni i sjajni, a u sebi imaju ulja koja za toplija vremena mogu postati zapaljiva.

Cvate u proljeće i ljeto.

Podvrste
 Adenostoma fasciculatum var. obtusifolium S.Watson
 Adenostoma fasciculatum var. prostratum Dunkle

Izvori

Adenostoma
Flora Kalifornije
Flora Nevade
Flora Baja Californie
Flora Baja Californie Sur

Adenostoma fasciculatum


Ise kan henvise til:

 Ise (engelsk flod) – en flod i England
 Ise (tysk flod) – en flod i Tyskland
 Ise (Norge) – en landsby i Norge
 Ise (Japan) – en by i Japan

 Se også
 ISE

Ise


පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂයක් යනු පෘථිවියට ආසන්නව පිහිටා ඇති පෘථිවි කේන්ද්‍රීය කක්ෂයකි. සාමාන්‍යයෙන් මිනිත්තු 128 කට අඩු කක්ෂීය කාලාවර්තයක් සහ 0.25 ට අඩු උත්කේන්ද්‍රතාවකින් යුතු කක්ෂයක් පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂයක් ලෙස සැළකේ. අභ්‍යාවකාශයේ ඇති කෘතීම වස්තූන් ගෙන් වැඩිම ප්‍රමාණයක් ඇත්තේ පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂයේ ය.

"පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂ කලාපය" (LEO region) යනු පොළොවේ සිට කි.මී. 2,000 ක් දක්වා විහිදෙන අවකාශයයි. මෙම කලාපය හරහා යන වස්තූන් ගැන නිරන්තරයෙන්ම අවධානය යොමු කෙරෙනුයේ ඒවා පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂවල ඇති චන්ද්‍රිකා වල ගැටීමේ අවධානමක් ඇති නිසා ය.

අද වනවිට දියත් කර ඇති සියලුම මිනිසුන් සහිත අභ්‍යාවකාශ මධ්‍යස්තාන පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂයෙහි පිහිටුවා ඇත. 1968 සිට 1972 දක්වා සිදු කෙරුණු ඇපලෝ මෙහෙයුම් මගින් මිනිසුන් ප්‍රථම වරට පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂයෙන් පිටතට ගමන් කරන ලදී. ඇපලෝ වැඩසටහන අවසන් වීමෙන් පසු මේ දක්වා කිසිම මිනිසුන් සහිත අභ්‍යාවකාශ ගමනක් පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂයෙන් පිටතට ගොස් නැත.

කක්ෂ

පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂය


Sahara Airlines fue una aerolínea en Argelia. Operaba vuelos de cabotaje en el sur de Argelia.

Servicio
Sahara Airlines operó vuelos a seis destinos domésticos: Adrar, Argel, Bechar, El Golea, Ghardaia y Tindouf.

Códigos
Código IATA: 6S
Código OACI: SHD

Historia
La aerolínea fue fundada en 1998.

Flota
 5 Fairchild Hiller FH-227

Enlaces externos
 Historia de la aerolínea, Argelia

Aerolíneas fundadas en 1995
Aerolíneas de Argelia

Sahara Airlines


An Aloe orientalis in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Joseph Marie Henry Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Leonard Eric Newton och Gordon Douglas Rowley. An Aloe orientalis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aloe, ngan familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aloe

Aloe orientalis


The Fifth Air Force (5 AF) is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). It is headquartered at Yokota Air Base, Japan. It is the U.S. Air Force's oldest continuously serving Numbered Air Force. The organization has provided 80 years of continuous air power to the Pacific since its establishment in September 1941.

Fifth Air Force is the Headquarters Pacific Air Forces forward element in Japan, and maximizes partnership capabilities and promotes bilateral defense cooperation. In addition, 5 AF is the air component to United States Forces Japan.

Its mission is three-fold. First, it plans, conducts, controls, and coordinates air operations assigned by the PACAF Commander. Fifth Air Force maintains a level of readiness necessary for successful completion of directed military operations. And last, but certainly not least, Fifth Air Force assists in the mutual defense of Japan and enhances regional stability by planning, exercising, and executing joint air operations in partnership with Japan. To achieve this mission, Fifth Air Force maintains its deterrent force posture to protect both U.S. and Japanese interests, and conducts appropriate air operations should deterrence fail.

Fifth Air Force is commanded by Lieutenant General Ricky Rupp.

History

Fourteen Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses that survived the Battle of the Philippines left Mindanao for Darwin, Australia, between 17 and 20 December 1941, the only aircraft of the Far East Air Force to escape. After its evacuation from the Philippines on 24 December 1941, FEAF headquarters moved to Australia and was reorganized and redesignated 5 Air Force on 5 February 1942, with most of its combat aircraft based on fields on Java.  It seemed at the time that the Japanese were advancing just about everywhere. The remaining heavy bombers of the 19th Bombardment Group, based at Malang on Java, flew missions against the Japanese in an attempt to stop their advance. They were joined in January and February, two or three at a time, by 37 B-17Es and 12 LB-30s of the 7th Bombardment Group. The small force of bombers, never numbering more than 20 operational at any time, could do little to prevent the invasion of the Netherlands East Indies, launching valiant but futile attacks against the masses of Japanese shipping, with six lost in combat, six in accidents, and 26 destroyed on the ground.

The 7th Bombardment Group was withdrawn to India in March 1942, leaving the 19th to carry on as the only B-17 Fortress-equipped group in the South Pacific.  About this time it was decided that replacement B-17s would not be sent to the southwest Pacific, but be sent exclusively to the Eighth Air Force which was building up in England.  By May, Fifth Air Force's surviving personnel and aircraft were detached to other commands and the headquarters remained unmanned for several months, but elements played a small part in the Battle of the Coral Sea (7–8 May 1942) when the 435th Bomb Squadron of the 19th Bomb Group saw the Japanese fleet gathering in Rabaul area nearly two weeks before the battle actually took place. Because of the reconnaissance activity of the 435th Bomb Squadron, the US Navy was prepared to cope adequately with the situation. The squadron was commended by the US Navy for its valuable assistance not only for its excellent reconnaissance work but for the part played in the battle.

Headquarters Fifth Air Force was re-staffed at Brisbane, Australia on 18 September 1942 and placed under the command of Major General George Kenney. United States Army Air Forces units in Australia, including Fifth Air Force, were eventually reinforced and re-organised following their initial defeats in the Philippines and the East Indies.  At the time that Kenney had arrived, Fifth Air Force was equipped with three fighter groups and five bombardment groups.

Fighter Groups:
 8th FG (P-39) Townsville, Australia
 35th FG (P-40) Port Moresby, New Guinea
 49th FG (P-40) Darwin, Australia

Bomber Groups:
 3rd BG (B-25, A-20, & A-24) Charters Towers, Australia
 19th BG (Non-Operational.  Battle scarred from Philippines & Java) Mareeba, Australia
 22nd BG (B-26) Woodstock, Australia
 38th BG (B-25) Charters Towers, Australia
 43rd BG (B-17 until 1943; B-24 1943–1945) Port Moresby, New Guinea

In addition, Fifth Air Force controlled two transport squadrons and one photographic squadron comprising 1,602 officers and 18,116 men.

Kenney was later appointed commander of Allied air forces in the South West Pacific Area, reporting directly to General Douglas MacArthur. Under Kenney's leadership, the Fifth Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force provided the aerial spearhead for MacArthur's island hopping campaign.

US Far East Air Forces

On 4 November 1942, the Fifth Air Force commenced sustained action against the Japanese in Papua New Guinea and was a key component of the New Guinea campaign (1942–1945).  Fifth Air Force engaged the Japanese again in the Philippines campaign (1944–45) as well as in the Battle of Okinawa (1945).

Fifth Air Force along with Thirteenth Air Force in the Central Pacific and Seventh Air Force in Hawaii were assigned to the newly created United States Far East Air Forces (FEAF) on 3 August 1944. FEAF was subordinate to the U.S. Army Forces Far East and served as the headquarters of Allied Air Forces Southwest Pacific Area. By 1945, the three numbered air forces were supporting operations throughout the Pacific.  FEAF was the functional equivalent in the Pacific of the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF) in the European Theater of Operations.

Order of battle, 1945

LEGEND: ACG – Air Commando Group, FG – Fighter Group, NFS – Night Fighter Squadron, BG (L) – Light Bomb Group, BG (M) – Medium Bomb Group, BG (H) – Heavy Bomb Group, RG – Reconnaissance Group, CCG – Combat Cargo Group, TCG – Troop Carrier Group

When the war ended, Fifth Air Force had an unmatched record of 3,445 aerial victories, led by the nation's two top fighter aces Major Richard Bong and Major Thomas McGuire, with 40 and 38 confirmed victories respectively, and two of Fifth Air Force's ten Medal of Honor recipients.

Shortly after World War II ended in August, Fifth Air Force relocated to Irumagawa Air Base, Japan, about 25 September 1945 as part of the Allied occupation forces.  The command remained in Japan until 1 December 1950 performing occupation duties.

Korean War
  for the units, stations and type aircraft flown in combat during the war (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953)

In 1950, Fifth Air Force was called upon again, becoming the main United Nations Command combat air command during the Korean War, and assisted in bringing about the Korean Armistice Agreement that formally ended the war in 1953.

In the early morning hours of 25 June, North Korea launched a sudden, all-out attack against the south. Reacting quickly to the invasion, Fifth Air Force units provided air cover over the skies of Seoul. The command transferred to Seoul on 1 December 1950, remaining in South Korea until 1 September 1954.

In this first Jet War, units assigned to the Fifth Air Force racked up an unprecedented 14.5 to 1 victory ratio. By the time the truce was signed in 1953, Fifth Air Force had flown over 625,000 missions, downing 953 North Korean and Chinese aircraft, while close air support accounted for 47 percent of all enemy troop casualties.

Thirty-eight fighter pilots were identified as aces, including Lieutenant Colonel James Jabara, America's first jet ace; and Captain Joseph McConnell, the leading Korean War ace with 16 confirmed victories. Additionally, four Medals of Honor were awarded to Fifth Air Force members. One other pilot of note was Marine Major John Glenn, who flew for Fifth Air Force as part of an exchange program.

With the end of combat in Korea, Fifth Air Force returned to normal peacetime readiness Japan in 1954.

Cold War
The Fifth Air Force played a critical role in establishing the Japan Air Self-Defense Force as well as the Republic of Korea Air Force. These and other peacetime efforts lasted a decade before the Gulf of Tonkin Crisis led to the start of the Vietnam War.

The Fifth Air Force furnished aircraft, aircrews, Support personnel, and supplies throughout the eight years of combat operations in South Vietnam and Laos. Since 1972, the command has played active or supporting roles in a variety of issues ranging from being first on the scene at the Korean Air Lines Flight 007 shoot down in 1983 to deploying personnel and supplies for the Persian Gulf War in 1990.

During this time, the size of Fifth Air Force changed as well. With the activation of Seventh Air Force in 1986, fifth left the Korean Peninsula and focused its energy on continuing the growing bilateral relationship with Japan.

The Fifth Air force has responded to natural disasters in Japan and abroad, including the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995 and Super Typhoon Paka in Guam in 1997. Fifth Air Force has reached out to provide assistance to victims of floods, typhoons, volcanoes, and earthquakes throughout the region.

The 432d Tactical Fighter Wing flew F-16s from Misawa Air Base from July 1, 1984 – October 31, 1994. On the inactivation of the wing, its personnel, aircraft, and other assets were used to reform the 35th Fighter Wing.

Present Day
Today, according to the organization's website, major components include the 18th Wing, Kadena Air Base, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan; the 35th Fighter Wing at Misawa Air Base, and the 374th Airlift Wing at Yokota Air Base. Kadena AB hosts the 18th Wing, the largest combat wing in the USAF. The Wing includes F-15 fighters, KC-135 refuelers, E-3 Airborne Warning and Control System aircraft, and HH-60G Pave Hawk rescue helicopters, and represents a major combat presence and capability in the Western Pacific. The 35th Fighter Wing, Misawa Air Base, Japan, includes two squadrons equipped with the most modern Block 50 F-16 variant, dedicated to the suppression of enemy air defenses. The final formation is the 374th Airlift Wing, at Yokota Air Base, Japan.

According to a 2017 study by two US Navy commanders, in case of a surprise Chinese ballistic missile attack against airbases in Japan, more than 200 U.S. aircraft would be trapped or destroyed on the ground in the first hours of the conflict.

Lineage, assignments, stations, and components

Lineage
 Established as Philippine Department Air Force on 16 August 1941
 Activated on 20 September 1941
 Redesignated: Far East Air Force on 16 November 1941
 Redesignated: 5 Air Force on 5 February 1942
 Redesignated: Fifth Air Force* on 18 September 1942.

Fifth Air Force is not to be confused with a second "Fifth" air force created as a temporary establishment to handle combat operations after the outbreak of hostilities on 25 June 1950, in Korea. This numbered air force was established as Fifth Air Force, Advance, and organized at Itazuki AB, Japan, assigned to Fifth Air Force, on 14 July 1950. It moved to Taegu AB, South Korea, on 24 July 1950, and was redesignated Fifth Air Force in Korea at the same time. After moving, it apparently received command control from U.S. Far East Air Forces. The establishment operated from Pusan, Taegu, and Seoul before being discontinued on 1 December 1950.

Assignments
 Philippine Department, U.S. Army, 20 September 1941
 US Forces in Australia (USFIA), 23 December 1941
 Redesignated:  US Army Forces in Australia (USAFIA), 5 January 1942
 American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM), 23 February 1942
 Allied Air Force, Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), 2 November 1942
 Far East Air Forces (Provisional), 15 June 1944
 Far East Air Forces, 3 August 1944
 Redesignated: Pacific Air Command, United States Army, 6 December 1945
 Redesignated: Far East Air Forces, 1 January 1947
 Redesignated Pacific Air Forces, 1 July 1957—present

Stations

 Nichols Field, Luzon, 20 September 1941
 RAAF Base Darwin, Australia, 31 December 1941
 Bandoeng, Java, 18 January 1942
 Brisbane AAB, Australia,c 1 March 1942
 Nadzab Airfield, New Guinea, 15 June 1944
 Owi Airfield, Schouten Islands, Netherlands East Indies, 10 August 1944
 Bayug Airfield, Leyte, Philippines, c. 20 November 1944
 McGuire Field, Mindoro, Philippines, January 1945
 Clark Field, Luzon, Philippines, April 1945
 Hamasaki (Motobu Airfield), Okinawa, 4 August 1945

 Irumagawa AB, Japan, c. 25 September 1945
 Tokyo, Japan, 13 January 1946
 Nagoya, Japan, 20 May 1946
 Seoul AB (K-16), Korea, 1 December 1950
 Taegu AB (K-2), Korea, 22 December 1950
 Seoul AB (K-16), 15 June 1951
 Osan AB, Korea, 25 January 1954
 Nagoya AB (later, Nagoya AS; Moriyama AS), Japan, 1 September 1954
 Fuchu AS, Japan, 1 July 1957
 Yokota AB, Japan, 11 November 1974–present

Major components

Commands
 V Air Force Service: 18 June 1943 – 15 June 1944
 V Air Service Area: 9 January 1944 – 15 June 1944
 5 Bomber (later, V Bomber): 14 November 1941 – 31 May 1946
 V Fighter: 25 August 1942 – 31 May 1946
 5 Interceptor: 4 November 1941 – 6 April 1942
 Became Army Air Force Infantry unit during Battle of the Philippines (1941–42) (20 December 1941 – 9 April 1942)
 Far East Air Service (later, 5 Air Force Base; V Air Force Base): 28 October 1941 – 2 November 1942

Divisions
 39th Air Division: 1 September 1954 – 15 January 1968
 41st Air Division: 1 September 1954 – 15 January 1968
 43d Air Division: 1 September 1954 – 1 October 1957
 313th Air Division: 1 March 1955 – 1 October 1991
 314th Air Division: 31 May 1946 – 1 March 1950; 1 December 1950 – 18 May 1951; 15 March 1955 – 8 September 1986
 315 Air Division (formerly, 315 Composite Wing): 1 June 1946 – 1 March 1950.

Wings (incomplete listing)
 8th Fighter Wing, later 8th Tactical Fighter Wing, 1950s
 18th Wing: 1 Oct 1991-.
 35th Fighter Wing: 1 Oct 1994-.
 51st Fighter Wing: 1955-September 1986
 374th Airlift Wing: 1 Apr 1992-.
 432d Tactical Fighter Wing, Misawa Air Base, Japan: July 1, 1984 – May 31, 1991; 432d Fighter Wing from June 1, 1991 - October 31, 1994 (wing personnel and assets thereafter used to reactivate 35th Fighter Wing)
 6100th Support Wing, Tachikawa Air Base, Japan: "Brigadier General Thomas R. FORD Replaced Col. Lewis B. MENG as commander of 6100th Support Wing effective" 11 June 1962. "6100 Support Wing was Major Air Command control (MAJCON) unit directly subordinate to Headquarters (HQ) 5 Air Force. Contains.. functions of various subordinate elements of 6100 Support Wing (Kanto Base Command)."

Groups
2nd Combat Cargo Group: October 1944-15 January 1946

List of commanders

See also
 United States Army Air Forces in Australia

References

 Maurer, Maurer (1983). Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. .
 Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. ..

Bibliography

 Bartsch, William H. Doomed at the Start: American Pursuit Pilots in the Philippines, 1941–1942. Reveille Books, 1995.  .
 Birdsall, Steve. Flying Buccaneers: The Illustrated History of Kenney's Fifth Air Force. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1977. .
 Craven, Wesley F. and James L. Cate. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948–58.
 Holmes, Tony. "Twelve to One": V Fighter Command Aces of the Pacific. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2004. .
 Rust, Kenn C. Fifth Air Force Story...in World War II. Temple City, California: Historical Aviation Album, 1973. .

External links

 Fifth Air Force Factsheet
 Red Raiders—22nd Bomb Group, 5th Air Force, WW II
 38th Bomb Group Association
 43rd Bomb Group Association: Ken's Men
 The Julius Schellenberg Collection at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York includes the diary of 5th Air Force sergeant Julius Schellenberg from February – December 1942 and a photograph of the 5th Air Force in 1942.

05
05
United States Air Force units and formations in the Korean War
United States military in Japan
World War II aerial operations and battles of the Pacific theatre

Fifth Air Force


Archosauria () is a clade of diapsids, with birds and crocodilians as the only living representatives. Archosaurs  are broadly classified as reptiles, in the cladistic sense of the term, which includes birds. Extinct archosaurs include non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and extinct relatives of crocodilians. Modern paleontologists define Archosauria as a crown group that includes the most recent common ancestor of living birds and crocodilians, and all of its descendants. The base of Archosauria splits into two clades: Pseudosuchia, which includes crocodilians and their extinct relatives, and Avemetatarsalia, which includes birds and their extinct relatives (such as non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs).

Older definitions of the group Archosauria rely on shared morphological characteristics, such as an antorbital fenestra in the skull, serrated teeth, and an upright stance. Some extinct reptiles, such as proterosuchids and euparkeriids, also possessed these features yet originated prior to the split between the crocodilian and bird lineages. The older morphological definition of Archosauria nowadays roughly corresponds to Archosauriformes, a group named to encompass crown-group archosaurs and their close relatives. The oldest true archosaur fossils are known from the Early Triassic period, though the first archosauriforms and archosauromorphs (reptiles closer to archosaurs than to lizards or other lepidosaurs) appeared in the Permian. Archosaurs quickly diversified in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction (~252 Ma), becoming the largest and most ecologically dominant terrestrial vertebrates from the Middle Triassic period up until the K-Pg mass extinction (~66 Ma). Birds and several crocodyliform lineages were the only archosaurs to survive the K-Pg extinction, rediversifying in the subsequent Cenozoic era. Birds in particular have become among the most species-rich groups of terrestrial vertebrates in the present day.

Distinguishing characteristics
Archosaurs can traditionally be distinguished from other tetrapods on the basis of several synapomorphies, or shared characteristics, which were present in their last common ancestor. Many of these characteristics appeared prior to the origin of the clade Archosauria, as they were present in archosauriforms such as Proterosuchus and Euparkeria, which were outside the crown group.

The most obvious features include teeth set in deep sockets, antorbital and mandibular fenestrae (openings in front of the eyes and in the jaw, respectively), and a pronounced fourth trochanter (a prominent ridge on the femur). Being set in sockets, the teeth were less likely to be torn loose during feeding. This feature is responsible for the name "thecodont" (meaning "socket teeth"), which early paleontologists applied to many Triassic archosaurs. Additionally, non-muscular cheek and lip tissue appear in various forms throughout the clade, with all living archosaurs lacking non-muscular lips, unlike most non-avian saurischian dinosaurs. Some archosaurs, such as birds, are secondarily toothless. Antorbital fenestrae reduced the weight of the skull, which was relatively large in early archosaurs, rather like that of modern crocodilians. Mandibular fenestrae may also have reduced the weight of the jaw in some forms. The fourth trochanter provides a large site for the attachment of muscles on the femur. Stronger muscles allowed for erect gaits in early archosaurs, and may also be connected with the ability of the archosaurs or their immediate ancestors to survive the catastrophic Permian-Triassic extinction event.

Unlike their close living relatives, the lepidosaurs, archosaurs lost the vomeronasal organ.

Origins
Archosaurs are a subgroup of archosauriforms, which themselves are a subgroup of archosauromorphs. Both the oldest archosauromorph (Protorosaurus speneri) and the oldest archosauriform (Archosaurus rossicus) lived in the late Permian. The oldest true archosaurs appeared during the Olenekian stage (247-251 Ma) of the Early Triassic. A few fragmentary fossils of large carnivorous crocodilian-line archosaurs (informally termed "rauisuchians") are known from this stage. These include Scythosuchus and Tsylmosuchus (both of which have been found in Russia), as well as the Xilousuchus, a ctenosauriscid from China. The oldest known fossils of bird-line archosaurs are from the Anisian stage (247-242 Ma) of Tanzania, and include Asilisaurus (an early silesaurid), Teleocrater (an aphanosaur), and Nyasasaurus (a possible early dinosaur).

Archosaurian domination in the Triassic
Synapsids are a clade that includes mammals and their extinct ancestors. The latter group are often referred to as mammal-like reptiles, but should be termed protomammals, stem mammals, or basal synapsids, because they are not true reptiles by modern cladistic classification. They were the dominant land vertebrates throughout the Permian, but most perished in the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Very few large synapsids survived the event, but one form, Lystrosaurus (a herbivorous dicynodont), attained a widespread distribution soon after the extinction. Following this, archosaurs and other archosauriforms quickly became the dominant land vertebrates in the early Triassic. Fossils from before the mass extinction have only been found around the Equator, but after the event fossils can be found all over the world. Suggested explanations for this include:
 Archosaurs made more rapid progress towards erect limbs than synapsids, and this gave them greater stamina by avoiding Carrier's constraint. An objection to this explanation is that archosaurs became dominant while they still had sprawling or semi-erect limbs, similar to those of Lystrosaurus and other synapsids.
 Archosaurs have more efficient respiratory systems featuring unidirectional air flow. The ability to breathe more efficiently in hypoxic conditions may have been advantageous to early archosaurs during the suspected drop in oxygen levels at the end of the Permian.
 The Early Triassic was predominantly arid, because most of the Earth's land was concentrated in the supercontinent Pangaea. Archosaurs were probably better at conserving water than early synapsids because:
 Modern diapsids (lizards, snakes, crocodilians, birds) excrete uric acid, which can be excreted as a paste, resulting in low water loss as opposed to a more dilute urine. It is reasonable to suppose that archosaurs (the ancestors of crocodilians, dinosaurs and pterosaurs) also excreted uric acid, and therefore were good at conserving water. The aglandular (glandless) skins of diapsids would also have helped to conserve water.
 Modern mammals excrete urea, which requires a relatively high urinary rate to keep it from leaving the urine by diffusion in the kidney tubules. Their skins also contain many glands, which also lose water. Assuming that early synapsids had similar features, e.g., as argued by the authors of Palaeos, they were at a disadvantage in a mainly arid world. The same well-respected site points out that "for much of Australia's Plio-Pleistocene history, where conditions were probably similar, the largest terrestrial predators were not mammals but gigantic varanid lizards (Megalania) and land crocs."

However, this theory has been questioned, since it implies synapsids were necessarily less advantaged in water retention, that synapsid decline coincides with climate changes or archosaur diversity (neither of which tested) and the fact that desert dwelling mammals are as well adapted in this department as archosaurs, and some cynodonts like Trucidocynodon were large sized predators.
A study favors competition amidst mammaliaforms as the main explanation for Mesozoic mammals being small.

Main forms

Since the 1970s, scientists have classified archosaurs mainly on the basis of their ankles. The earliest archosaurs had "primitive mesotarsal" ankles: the astragalus and calcaneum were fixed to the tibia and fibula by sutures and the joint bent about the contact between these bones and the foot.

The Pseudosuchia appeared early in the Triassic. In their ankles, the astragalus was joined to the tibia by a suture and the joint rotated round a peg on the astragalus which fitted into a socket in the calcaneum. Early "crurotarsans" still walked with sprawling limbs, but some later crurotarsans developed fully erect limbs. Modern crocodilians are crurotarsans that can employ a diverse range of gaits depending on speed.

Euparkeria and the Ornithosuchidae had "reversed crurotarsal" ankles, with a peg on the calcaneum and socket on the astragalus.

The earliest fossils of Avemetatarsalia ("bird ankles") appear in the Anisian age of the Middle Triassic. Most Ornithodirans had "advanced mesotarsal" ankles. This form of ankle incorporated a very large astragalus and very small calcaneum, and could only move in one plane, like a simple hinge. This arrangement, which was only suitable for animals with erect limbs, provided more stability when the animals were running. The earliest avemetatarsalians, such as Teleocrater and Asilisaurus, retained "primitive mesotarsal" ankles. The ornithodirans differed from other archosaurs in other ways: they were lightly built and usually small, their necks were long and had an S-shaped curve, their skulls were much more lightly built, and many ornithodirans were completely bipedal. The archosaurian fourth trochanter on the femur may have made it easier for ornithodirans to become bipeds, because it provided more leverage for the thigh muscles. In the late Triassic, the ornithodirans diversified to produce dinosaurs and pterosaurs.

Classification

Modern classification
Archosauria is normally defined as a crown group, which means that it only includes descendants of the last common ancestors of its living representatives. In the case of archosaurs, these are birds and crocodilians. Archosauria is within the larger clade Archosauriformes, which includes some close relatives of archosaurs, such as proterochampsids and euparkeriids. These relatives are often referred to as archosaurs despite being placed outside of the crown group Archosauria in a more basal position within Archosauriformes. Historically, many archosauriforms were described as archosaurs, including proterosuchids and erythrosuchids, based on the presence of an antorbital fenestra. While many researchers prefer to treat Archosauria as an unranked clade, some continue to assign it a traditional biological rank. Traditionally, Archosauria has been treated as a Superorder, though a few 21st century researchers have assigned it to different ranks including Division and Class.

History of classification
Archosauria as a term was first coined by American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in 1869, and included a wide range of taxa including dinosaurs, crocodilians, thecodonts, sauropterygians (which may be related to turtles), rhynchocephalians (a group that according to Cope included rhynchosaurs, which nowadays are considered to be more basal archosauromorphs, and tuataras, which are lepidosaurs), and anomodonts, which are now considered synapsids. It was not until 1986 that Archosauria was defined as a crown-clade, restricting its use to more derived taxa.

Cope's term was a Greek-Latin hybrid intended to refer to the cranial arches, but has later also been understood as "leading reptiles" or "ruling reptiles" by association with Greek ἀρχός "leader, ruler".

The term "thecodont", now considered an obsolete term, was first used by the English paleontologist Richard Owen in 1859 to describe Triassic archosaurs, and it became widely used in the 20th century. Thecodonts were considered the "basal stock" from which the more advanced archosaurs descended. They did not possess features seen in later avian and crocodilian lines, and therefore were considered more primitive and ancestral to the two groups. With the cladistic revolution of the 1980s and 90s, in which cladistics became the most widely used method of classifying organisms, thecodonts were no longer considered a valid grouping. Because they are considered a "basal stock", thecodonts are paraphyletic, meaning that they form a group that does not include all descendants of its last common ancestor: in this case, the more derived crocodilians and birds are excluded from "Thecodontia" as it was formerly understood. The description of the basal ornithodires Lagerpeton and Lagosuchus in the 1970s provided evidence that linked thecodonts with dinosaurs, and contributed to the disuse of the term "Thecodontia", which many cladists consider an artificial grouping.

With the identification of "crocodilian normal" and "crocodilian reversed" ankles by Sankar Chatterjee in 1978, a basal split in Archosauria was identified. Chatterjee considered these two groups to be Pseudosuchia with the "normal" ankle and Ornithosuchidae with the "reversed" ankle. Ornithosuchids were thought to be ancestral to dinosaurs at this time. In 1979, A.R.I. Cruickshank identified the basal split and thought that the crurotarsan ankle developed independently in these two groups, but in opposite ways. Cruickshank also thought that the development of these ankle types progressed in each group to allow advanced members to have semi-erect (in the case of crocodilians) or erect (in the case of dinosaurs) gaits.

Phylogeny
In many phylogenetic analyses, archosaurs have been shown to be a monophyletic grouping, thus forming a true clade. One of the first studies of archosaur phylogeny was authored by French paleontologist Jacques Gauthier in 1986. Gauthier split Archosauria into Pseudosuchia, the crocodilian line, and Ornithosuchia, the dinosaur and pterosaur line. Pseudosuchia was defined as all archosaurs more closely related to crocodiles, while Ornithosuchia was defined as all archosaurs more closely related to birds. Proterochampsids, erythrosuchids, and proterosuchids fell successively outside Archosauria in the resulting tree. Below is the cladogram from Gauthier (1986):

In 1988, paleontologists Michael Benton and J.M. Clark produced a new tree in a phylogenetic study of basal archosaurs. As in Gauthier's tree, Benton and Clark's revealed a basal split within Archosauria. They referred to the two groups as Crocodylotarsi and Ornithosuchia. Crocodylotarsi was defined as an apomorphy-based taxon based on the presence of a "crocodile-normal" ankle joint (considered to be the defining apomorphy of the clade). Gauthier's Pseudosuchia, by contrast, was a stem-based taxon. Unlike Gauthier's tree, Benton and Clark's places Euparkeria outside Ornithosuchia and outside the crown group Archosauria altogether.

The clades Crurotarsi and Ornithodira were first used together in 1990 by paleontologist Paul Sereno and A.B. Arcucci in their phylogenetic study of archosaurs. They were the first to erect the clade Crurotarsi, while Ornithodira was named by Gauthier in 1986. Crurotarsi and Ornithodira replaced Pseudosuchia and Ornithosuchia, respectively, as the monophyly of both of these clades were questioned. Sereno and Arcucci incorporated archosaur features other than ankle types in their analyses, which resulted in a different tree than previous analyses. Below is a cladogram based on Sereno (1991), which is similar to the one produced by Sereno and Arcucci:

Ornithodira and Crurotarsi are both node-based clades, meaning that they are defined to include the last common ancestor of two or more taxa and all of its descendants. Ornithodira includes the last common ancestor of pterosaurs and dinosaurs (which include birds), while Crurotarsi includes the last common ancestor of living crocodilians and three groups of Triassic archosaurs: ornithosuchids, aetosaurs, and phytosaurs. These clades are not equivalent to "bird-line" and "crocodile-line" archosaurs, which would be branch-based clades defined as all taxa more closely related to one living group (either birds or crocodiles) than the other.

Benton proposed the name Avemetatarsalia in 1999 to include all bird-line archosaurs (under his definition, all archosaurs more closely related to dinosaurs than to crocodilians). His analysis of the small Triassic archosaur Scleromochlus placed it within bird-line archosaurs but outside Ornithodira, meaning that Ornithodira was no longer equivalent to bird-line archosaurs. Below is a cladogram modified from Benton (2004) showing this phylogeny:

In Sterling Nesbitt's 2011 monograph on early archosaurs, a phylogenetic analysis found strong support for phytosaurs falling outside Archosauria. Many subsequent studies supported this phylogeny. Because Crurotarsi is defined by the inclusion of phytosaurs, the placement of phytosaurs outside Archosauria means that Crurotarsi must include all of Archosauria. Nesbitt reinstated Pseudosuchia as a clade name for crocodile-line archosaurs, using it as a stem-based taxon. Below is a cladogram modified from Nesbitt (2011):

Extinction and survival
Crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs and dinosaurs survived the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event about 200 million years ago, but other archosaurs had become extinct at or prior to the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.

Non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs perished in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately  million years ago, but crown-group birds (the only remaining dinosaur group) and many crocodyliforms survived. Both are descendants of archosaurs, and are therefore archosaurs themselves under phylogenetic taxonomy.

Crocodilians (which include all modern crocodiles, alligators, and gharials) and birds flourish today in the Holocene. It is generally agreed that birds have the most species of all terrestrial vertebrates.

Archosaur lifestyle

Hip joints and locomotion

Like the early tetrapods, early archosaurs had a sprawling gait because their hip sockets faced sideways, and the knobs at the tops of their femurs were in line with the femur.
In the early to middle Triassic, some archosaur groups developed hip joints that allowed (or required) a more erect gait. This gave them greater stamina, because it avoided Carrier's constraint, i.e. they could run and breathe easily at the same time. There were two main types of joint which allowed erect legs:
The hip sockets faced sideways, but the knobs on the femurs were at right angles to the rest of the femur, which therefore pointed downwards. Dinosaurs evolved from archosaurs with this hip arrangement.
The hip sockets faced downwards and the knobs on the femurs were in line with the femur. This "pillar-erect" arrangement appears to have evolved independently in various archosaur lineages, for example it was common in "Rauisuchia" (non-crocodylomorph paracrocodylomorphs) and also appeared in some aetosaurs.
It has been pointed out that an upright stance requires more energy, so it may indicate a higher metabolism and a higher body temperature.

Diet
Most were large predators, but members of various lines diversified into other niches. Aetosaurs were herbivores and some developed extensive armor. A few crocodyliforms were herbivores, e.g., Simosuchus, Phyllodontosuchus. The large crocodyliform Stomatosuchus may have been a filter feeder. Sauropodomorphs and ornithischian dinosaurs were herbivores with diverse adaptations for feeding biomechanics.

Land, water and air
Archosaurs are mainly portrayed as land animals, but:
Many phytosaurs and crocodyliforms dominated the rivers and swamps and even invaded the seas (e.g., the teleosaurs, Metriorhynchidae and Dyrosauridae). The Metriorhynchidae were rather dolphin-like, with paddle-like forelimbs, a tail fluke and smooth, unarmoured skins.
Two clades of ornithodirans, the pterosaurs and the birds, dominated the air after becoming adapted to a volant lifestyle.
Some dinosaurs like Spinosaurus have been argued to have had a semiaquatic lifestyle. Hesperornithes and penguins also adapted to this lifestyle.

Metabolism
The metabolism of archosaurs is still a controversial topic. They certainly evolved from cold-blooded ancestors, and the surviving non-dinosaurian archosaurs, crocodilians, are cold-blooded. But crocodilians have some features which are normally associated with a warm-blooded metabolism because they improve the animal's oxygen supply:
4-chambered hearts. Both birds and mammals have 4-chambered hearts, which completely separate the flows of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood. Non-crocodilian reptiles have 3-chambered hearts, which are less efficient because they let the two flows mix and thus send some de-oxygenated blood out to the body instead of to the lungs. Modern crocodilians' hearts are 4-chambered, but are smaller relative to body size and run at lower pressure than those of modern birds and mammals. They also have a pulmonary bypass, which makes them functionally 3-chambered when under water, conserving oxygen.
a secondary palate, which allows the animal to eat and breathe at the same time.
a hepatic piston mechanism for pumping the lungs. This is different from the lung-pumping mechanisms of mammals and birds, but similar to what some researchers claim to have found in some dinosaurs.

Historically there has been uncertainty as to why natural selection favored the development of these features, which are very important for active warm-blooded creatures, but of little apparent use to cold-blooded aquatic ambush predators that spend the vast majority of their time floating in water or lying on river banks.

Paleontological evidence shows that the ancestors of living crocodilians were active and endothermic (warm-blooded). Some experts believe that their archosaur ancestors were warm-blooded as well. This is likely because feather-like filaments evolved to cover the whole body and were capable of providing thermal insulation. Physiological, anatomical, and developmental features of the crocodilian heart support the paleontological evidence and show that the lineage reverted to ectothermy when it invaded the aquatic, ambush predator niche. Crocodilian embryos develop fully 4-chambered hearts at an early stage. Modifications to the growing heart form a pulmonary bypass shunt that includes the left aortic arch, which originates from the right ventricle, the foramen of Panizza between the left and right aortic arches, and the cog‐tooth valve at the base of the pulmonary artery. The shunt is used during diving to make the heart function as 3-chambered heart, providing the crocodilian with the neurally controlled shunting used by ectotherms. The researchers concluded that the ancestors of living crocodilians had fully 4-chambered hearts, and were therefore warm-blooded, before they reverted to a cold-blooded or ectothermic metabolism. The authors also provide other evidence for endothermy in stem archosaurs. It is reasonable to suggest that later crocodilians developed the pulmonary bypass shunt as they became cold-blooded, aquatic, and less active.

If the crocodilian ancestors and other Triassic archosaurs were warm-blooded, this would help to resolve some evolutionary puzzles:
The earliest crocodylomorphs, e.g., Terrestrisuchus, were slim, leggy terrestrial predators whose build suggests a fairly active lifestyle, which requires a fairly fast metabolism. And some other crurotarsan archosaurs appear to have had erect limbs, while those of rauisuchians are very poorly adapted for any other posture. Erect limbs are advantageous for active animals because they avoid Carrier's constraint, but disadvantageous for more sluggish animals because they increase the energy costs of standing up and lying down.
If early archosaurs were completely cold-blooded and (as seems most likely) dinosaurs were at least fairly warm-blooded, dinosaurs would have had to evolve warm-blooded metabolisms in less than half the time it took for synapsids to do the same.

Respiratory system
A recent study of the lungs of Alligator mississippiensis (the American alligator) has shown that the airflow through them is unidirectional, moving in the same direction during inhalation and exhalation. This is also seen in birds and many non-avian dinosaurs, which have air sacs to further aid in respiration. Both birds and alligators achieve unidirectional air flow through the presence of parabronchi, which are responsible for gas exchange. The study has found that in alligators, air enters through the second bronchial branch, moves through the parabronchi, and exits through the first bronchial branch. Unidirectional airflow in both birds and alligators suggests that this type of respiration was present at the base of Archosauria and retained by both dinosaurs and non-dinosaurian archosaurs, such as aetosaurs, "rauisuchians" (non-crocodylomorph paracrocodylomorphs), crocodylomorphs, and pterosaurs. The use of unidirectional airflow in the lungs of archosaurs may have given the group an advantage over synapsids, which had lungs where air moved tidally in and out through a network of bronchi that terminated in alveoli, which were cul-de-sacs. The better efficiency in gas transfer seen in archosaur lungs may have been advantageous during the times of low atmospheric oxygen which are thought to have existed during the Mesozoic.

Reproduction
Most (if not all) archosaurs are oviparous. Birds and crocodilians lay hard-shelled eggs, as did extinct dinosaurs, and crocodylomorphs. Hard-shelled eggs are present in both dinosaurs and crocodilians, which has been used as an explanation for the absence of viviparity or ovoviviparity in archosaurs. However, both pterosaurs and baurusuchids have soft-shelled eggs, implying that hard shells are not a plesiomorphic condition. The pelvic anatomy of Cricosaurus and other metriorhynchids and fossilized embryos belonging to the non-archosaur archosauromorph Dinocephalosaurus, together suggest that the lack of viviparity among archosaurs may be a consequence of lineage-specific restrictions.

Archosaurs are ancestrally superprecocial as evidenced in various dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodylomorphs. However, parental care did evolve independently multiple times in crocodilians, dinosaurs, and aetosaurs. In most such species the animals bury their eggs and rely on temperature-dependent sex determination. The notable exception are Neornithes which incubate their eggs and rely on genetic sex determination – a trait that might have given them a survival advantage over other dinosaurs.

See also
2022 in archosaur paleontology

References

Sources

External links
 UCMP
 Paleos reviews the messy history of archosaur phylogeny (family tree) and has an excellent image of the various archosaur ankle types.
 Mikko's Phylogeny Archive Archosauria

Extant Early Triassic first appearances
Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope

Archosaur


Moravka (brđanka, veprina, lat. Arnica), rod trajnica iz porodice Asteraceae raširen po Europi i Sjevernoj Americi.
Ime Arnica dolazi od grčke riječi arnikos  (= janjeća koža) zbog njenih mekanih i dlakavih listova. Najvažnija vrsta brđanka (Arnica montana) zbog svoje ljekovitosti postala je ugrožena i zakonom zaštićena, zbog nesavjesnog sakupljanja.

Ljekoviti su joj list, korijen i cvijet, a najviše se upotrebljava za zacijenljivanje rana od povreda i opeklina. Nas popisu su 32 vrste

Vrste

 Arnica acaulis
 Arnica angustifolia
 Arnica cernua
 Arnica chamissonis
 Arnica cordifolia
 Arnica dealbata
 Arnica discoidea
 Arnica fulgens
 Arnica gracilis
 Arnica griscomii
 Arnica intermedia
 Arnica lanceolata
 Arnica latifolia
 Arnica lessingii
 Arnica lonchophylla
 Arnica longifolia
 Arnica louiseana
 Arnica mallotopus
 Arnica mollis
 Arnica montana
 Arnica nevadensis
 Arnica ovata
 Arnica paniculata
 Arnica parryi
 Arnica porsildiorum
 Arnica rydbergii
 Arnica sachalinensis
 Arnica sororia
 Arnica spathulata
 Arnica unalascensis
 Arnica venosa
 Arnica viscosa

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Madieae

Moravka


Jeune Mère cousant (en anglais : Young Mother Sewing - également Little Girl Leaning on her Mother's Knee) est une peinture réalisée en 1900 par l'artiste américaine Mary Cassatt. Elle fait partie de la collection du Metropolitan Museum of Art de New York.

Histoire
L'artiste américaine Mary Cassatt a réalisé le tableau à la peinture à l'huile en 1900. Il a été acheté à Paris au marchand d'art Paul Durand-Ruel par Louisine Havemeyer en 1901. Havemeyer est devenue veuve en 1907 et elle a consacré son temps à la cause féminine des suffragettes. En 1912, elle a prêté sa collection artistique, dont ce tableau, à la Knoedler's Gallery de New York afin de récolter des fonds pour la cause. En 1913, elle fonde ce qui deviendra le National Woman's Party avec la suffragette radicale Alice Paul. Havemeyer a réitéré l'exposition d'œuvres d'art chez Knoedler en 1915 afin de collecter des fonds pour le suffrage des femmes.

Le tableau a été légué au Metropolitan Museum en 1929, dans le cadre de la collection HO Havemeyer. La peinture a été largement exposée alors qu'elle était prêtée par le Metropolitan Museum dans des lieux tels que le Museum of Modern Art de New York, la National Gallery of Art de Washington, le Parish Art Museum à Southampton, le Musée de Newark, le Musée d'art de Santa Barbara en Californie, entre autres.

Description
L'œuvre représente une mère en train de coudre assise devant une fenêtre. Une jeune enfant vêtue d'une robe blanche s'appuie sur les genoux de sa mère tout en regardant vers le spectateur. La femme porte une robe rayée recouverte d'un tablier vert qui reflète les verts dans l'herbe devant la fenêtre. Selon le Metropolitan Museum, l'artiste a utilisé deux modèles indépendants pour la mère et l'enfant. Louisine Havemeyer, qui l'a acheté en 1901, a remarqué sa véracité : «  Regardez cette petite enfant qui vient de se jeter contre le genou de sa mère, quel qu'en soit le résultat et inconsciente du fait qu'elle pourrait déranger « sa maman ». Et elle a bien raison, elle ne dérange pas sa mère, qui recule un peu et continue de coudre.

Références

Liens externes

Tableau de Mary Cassatt
Tableau réalisé en 1900
Femme dans la peinture
Couture dans la peinture
Œuvre de Mary Cassatt au Metropolitan Museum of Art

Jeune Mère cousant


Two ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Santa Fe, after the city of Santa Fe, New Mexico.

 The first  was a light cruiser that saw much action in the Pacific during World War II.
 The second  is a  nuclear attack submarine commissioned in 1994.

Santa Fe, New Mexico
United States Navy ship names

USS Santa Fe


Plus près du ciel () est un film dramatique italien réalisé par Piero Costa et sorti en 1955.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre français : Plus près du ciel
 Titre original italien :
 Réalisateur : Piero Costa
 Scénario : Ruggero Maccari, Gian Maria Cominetti, Guido Malatesta, Luigi Bonelli, Piero Costa
 Photographie : Raffaele Masciocchi
 Montage : Lia Massimo
 Musique : Franco D'Achiardi
 Décors : Oscar D'Amico
 Production : Ugo Crova, Petar Zlatarow, Spartaco Trombetta
 Société de production : Aurea Film
 Pays de production :
 Langue de tournage : Italien
 Format : Noir et blanc - 1,37:1 - Son mono - 35 mm
 Durée : 91 minutes ()
 Genre : Film dramatique
 Dates de sortie :
 Italie :

Distribution
Renato Baldini : Mauro Ferri
Hélène Rémy : Elena
Marc Lawrence : Braschi
Umberto Spadaro : Neri
Fulvia Franco : Lidia
Loris Gizzi
Ursula Andress
Narciso Parigi

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film italien sorti en 1955
Film italien en noir et blanc
Film dramatique italien

Plus près du ciel


كفر بلمشط إحدى قرى مركز منوف التابع لمحافظة المنوفية بجمهورية مصر العربية.

السكان
بلغ عدد سكان كفر بلمشط 6,687 نسمة، حسب الإحصاء الرسمي لعام 2006.

انظر أيضاً
 قائمة قرى محافظة المنوفية

مصادر

قرى منوف

كفر بلمشط


Carme Barceló Crespo (Barcelona, 15 de julio de 1964) es una periodista española.

Trayectoria
Comenzó su carrera profesional en 1985, en Mundo Deportivo

También trabajó en el Fòrum Samitier del 1994 al 1997 y en la redacción de Deportes de Televisión de Cataluña. Ha impartido clases en el máster de relaciones públicas y producción en Blanquerna. Fue jefa de prensa y relaciones públicas del Club de Fitness DiR entre 1998 y 2011.

En esta misma etapa, colabora en televisión, como tertuliana en el programa deportivo Punto pelota en Intereconomía. También fue colaboradora de Canal+ y Barça TV. En radio, comentaba los partidos del Barça en SER Cataluña y en prensa escrita, colaboraba con el periódico La Gaceta de la Iberosfera.

Actualmente colabora en El chiringuito de Jugones en Mega y en Cafè d'idees en La 2 Cataluña y Ràdio 4, escribe artículos en el diario deportivo Sport y la revista Woman y dirige el suplemento Sport&Style.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Periodistas de España del siglo XXI
Mujeres periodistas de España
Nacidos en Barcelona
Españolas del siglo XX
Españolas del siglo XXI
Nacidos en Cataluña
Periodistas de España del siglo XX
Tertulianos de televisión de España
Periodistas de Barcelona
Periodistas de Cataluña

Carme Barceló


Grčka književnost obuhvaća dugo vremensko razdoblje od starogrčke književnosti, čiji se počeci datiraju u početak 8. stoljeća pr.Kr., sve do današnje moderne grčke književnosti.

Starogrčka književnost pisana je na starogrčkom jeziku i traje od najstarijih sačuvanih pisanih djela do 5. stoljeća. Ovo se vremensko razdoblje dijeli na: pretklasično, klasično, helenističko i rimsko razdoblje. Pretklasična grčka književnost prvenstveno se bavila mitovima i uključuje Homerova djela Ilijadu i Odiseju. U klasičnom razdoblju razvijaju se starogrčka tragedija, komedija i historiografija. Tri su filozofa posebno istaknuta: Sokrat, Platon i Aristotel. Tijekom rimskog doba značajni su doprinosi u različitim temama, uključujući povijest, filozofiju i znanosti.

Bizantska književnost, književnost Bizantskog carstva, traje do pada Carigrada 1453. godine, a napisana je na aticizirajućem, srednjovjekovnom i ranom novovjekovnom grčkom jeziku. U tom razdoblju nastaju kronike, koje se po svojem stilu, namjeni i jeziku zanačajno razlikuju od historiografskih djela. U ovom je razdoblju procvjetao i rad na enciklopedijama, od kojih i danas veliki značaj ima Suida.

Novogrčka književnost pisana je današnjim novogrčkim jezikom. U tom je razdoblju moderni oblik grčkog jezika postao češće mjesto pisanja. U ovom je razdoblju došlo do preporoda grčkih i rimskih studija te razvoja renesansnog humanizma i znanosti. Kretska renesansna pjesma Erotokritos jedno je od najznačajnijih djela iz ovog vremenskog razdoblja. Riječ je o romanu sa stihovima koji je oko 1600. napisao Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553. – 1613). Moderna grčka književnost značajno je pod utjecajem Diafotismosa, pokreta koji je ideje europskog prosvjetiteljstva preveo u grčki svijet. Adamantios Korais i Riga od Fere dvije su najznačajnije figure.

Danas moderna grčka književnost sudjeluje u globalnoj književnoj zajednici. Grčki autori Giorgos Seferis i Odiseas Elitis dobili su Nobelovu nagradu za književnost.

Izvori

Grčka

Grčka književnost


Matbaacılık ya da basımcılık, metin ve görüntülerin genellikle kâğıt gibi yüzeyler üzerine basılarak çoğaltılma işidir.

Tarihi

Başlangıç: Doğu Asya
Çinliler, MÖ 13. yüzyıldan beri belgeleri damgalamak için mühürler kullanıyorlardı. Çin mühürlerinin erken tipi Shang Hanedanlığı'nın sonlarında (MÖ 1600 - 1100) ortaya çıktığından beri, mühürlerin belirli unsurları ve mühürlü çerçeve tamamen gelişmiştir ve mühürlerin evrimi ve kullanımı hiç durmamıştır. Bu nedenle Çin'de matbaanın erken dönem keşfi sürpriz olmamıştır. Matbaanın ilk kez kullanılması Uzak Doğu'da başlamıştır. İlk matbaa, ağaç oyma tekniği kullanarak, MS 593'te Çin'de kurulmuş, ilk basılı gazete de MS 700'de Pekin'de çıkmıştır. Dokuzuncu yüzyılda, Çin'de ilk basılı kitap, şu an İngiliz Kütüphanesi'de bulunan 11 Mayıs 868 tarihli Diamond Sutra'dır.

8. yüzyılda Japonya'da baskı yapıldığı, İmparatoriçe Shotoko'nun Budizm'in kutsal metinlerini Sanskrit dilinde Çin alfabesiyle bastırdığı bilinmektedir. Bilinen en eski eksiksiz basma kitap olan Tianemmen ruloları Çin'de 868'de basılmıştır. İlk kez tek tek harfler dökerek baskı yapmayı da 1040 yıllarında Pi Sheng adında Çinli bir demircinin dökme harfler kullanarak denediği bilinmektedir.

Kore'de, 1377'de Goryeo Hanedanlığı döneminde basılmış ve hareketli metal tipiyle basılmış dünyanın en eski mevcut kitabı Jikji (Korece telaffuz: [tɕiktɕ͈i])'dir. Jikji "Büyük Budist Rahiplerin Zen Öğretileri Antolojisi" olarak çevrilebilecek bir Kore Budist belgesinin kısaltılmış başlığıdır. Jikji, Johannes Gutenberg'in bastığı ilk kitap "42 Satırlı Kutsal Kitap, ya da diğer ismiyle Mazarin Kutsal Kitabı"ndan 78 yıl önce, Heungdeok Tapınağı'nda yayımlamıştır.

Batıya doğru yayılma
Tun-Huang mağarasındaki buluntular, matbaayı Çinlilerden alan Uygurların 9. yüzyıldan itibaren baskı yaptığını göstermektedir. Öte yandan, Çin'den mi geldiği yoksa bağımsız mı geliştirildiği bilinmese de, Mısır'da 4. yüzyıldan itibaren kumaş üzerine ağaç oyma kalıplarla baskı yapılmaktaydı. Arap dünyası'nda ise 9. yüzyılda ve 10. yüzyılda dualar için blok baskı geliştirildi. Bu baskı malzemelerinin ahşaptan değil de kil, bakır ve kalay gibi malzemelerden yapıldığını gösteren bazı bulgulara erişildiyse de kullanılan teknikler belirsizdir. [16] İçeriklerinden dolayı etkisi İslam dünyası ile sınırlı kalmıştır. Baskının Kuran ve hadislerden belirli pasajlar için kullanılmaya geçilmesiyle Çin'deki gibi kâğıt üzerine baskı tekniğine geçildi ve bu sayede hadislerden pasajları içeren  eserlerin üretiminde önemli bir artış oldu. Artık Mısır'da baskı, bu metinleri kâğıtlar üzerine çoğaltmak ve bu metinlere oluşan taleple birlikte onların farklı kopyalarının oluşturulması üzerine yoğunlaştı. [17]

Görsel Matbaa
15. yüzyıl matbaacıları genellikle kitap formatını kullanmış olmalarıyla beraber, tahta kalıba baskı yöntemini de resim işlemek için kullanmışlardır. Tahta kalıba baskı, metale işleme tekniğinden daha önce uygulanmıştır. Albrecht Pfister 1461'te bastığı kitaplarda tahta kalıba baskı tekniğini kullanmaktaydı. Bakır oyma baskı tekniği daha ince çizgiler üretilmesi için kullanışlıydı ve haritaların basımında kullanılıyordu. Ancak bakırla üretilen görseller, kitap baskısından farklı bir baskı tekniği gerektirdiği için tahta kalıba baskılar kitap görselleri için yeterince tatmin ediciydi. 1550'lerinde sonrasında yeni tekniklerin üretimine kadar basımda görselleme tahta baskı yöntemiyle gerçekleşti.

Avrupa ve modern matbaacılığın doğuşu
Avrupa da ağaç oyma kumaş baskısını İslam dünyasından alarak başlamıştır. Özellikle 15. yüzyılda Avrupa'da matbaacılığın üssü olan Hollanda'da basım tekniği çok gelişmiştir. O dönemde hattatlarca yazılan ve hakkaklarca kazılan tahta kalıpların yanı sıra Harlem kentinde ilk kez tek tek harflerle baskı denemelerini 1430 yılında Lourens Janszoon Coster'in yaptığı sanılmaktadır.

Nihayet 1450'de Johannes Gutenberg, ortağı Fust ile birlikte Almanya'nın Mainz şehrinde metal harflerle basım tekniğini bulmuş ve matbaaya uygulamıştır. Gutenberg'in üretimi, özellikle de 1455'te bastığı ve Gutenberg Kutsal Kitabı olarak bilinen Kutsal Kitap, yüksek kalitesi ve ucuz fiyatıyla kısa sürede başarılı olmuş, yeni buluş Avrupa'dan başlayarak tüm dünyada yaygınlaşmıştır. Daha sonra tipo baskı olarak adlandırdığımız bu matbaa tekniği sanayi devrimiyle doğan modern baskı makinalarının ve matbaacılık endüstrisinin temeli olmuş ve 20. yüzyıl sonlarına kadar gelmiştir.

Matbaa İngiltere'ye, kıta Avrupası'ndan daha geç, 1476'da ulaşmıştır. 1500'e gelindiğinde henüz yalnızca 5 matbaası bulunmaktadır. 1569'a kadar yazı malzemesini, 1589'a kadar ise kağıtları Avrupa'dan ithal etmeye devam etmiştir. Kral 3. Richard yerli üretimi desteklemek için yabancıların İngiltere'de kitap ticaretiyle uğraşmalarını kısıtlamıştır. Öncelikle Kral 6. Henry bu yasağı kaldırıp bazı tüccarlara özel serbest ticaret hakkı tanımış, daha sonra Kral 7. Henry yasakları tamamen kaldırmıştır. İngiltere kitap ticareti açısından kârlı bir ülke olmuş, 1530'lu yıllarda ülkede kitap ticaretiyle uğraşanların üçte ikisini yabancılar oluşturmuştur.

Osmanlı Döneminde matbaacılığın doğuşu
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun ilk matbaası daha 1493 yılında İspanyol göçmeni David ve Samuel İbn Nahmias Kardeşler tarafından İstanbul'da kuruldu. İlk kitap, Yakup ben Asher'in Arba'ah Turim eseri 13 Aralık 1493'te basıldı. Bu girişimin ardından Selanik, Edirne, İzmir şehirlerinde de matbaalar açılmış, basılan eserler İbranice, Yunanca, İspanyolca ve Latincce dilinde dini konular ağırlıklı olarak basılmıştır. Matbaada Türkçe, Arapça dillerinde eser basmak yasaktı. İtalik hurufatı, sayfa düzeni, folyo işaretleme tekniği, metin başının büyük harfle belirtilmesi gibi yenilikleri matbaa sanatına kazandıranlar da 1530'da İtalya yolu ile İstanbul'a gelip yerleşen Sonsino ailesidir.

Osmanlı'daki ilk Ermeni matbaasını 16. yy'da Apkar Tıbir kurmuştur. Apkar Tıbir, ilk Ermenice ilahi kitabını Venedik'te basmış olmakla birlikte, matbaayı İstanbul'a taşımaya karar vermiştir. Apkar Tıbir, İtalya'dan getirdiği basım aletleri ile, İstanbul'da Surp Nigoğayos Kilise'sinin avlusunda 1567 yılında ilk Ermeni matbaasını kurmuştur. Apkar, Venedik'ten beraberinde matbaacılığa ait malzeme ile İstanbul'a döndüğünde tutuklanmış, hakkında yapılan soruşturmanın akabinde herhangi bir suç unsuruna rastlanmadığından serbest bırakılmıştır. Çıkan yangında kiliseyle birlikte matbaa da yanmıştır.

Osmanlı Devleti'nde Rumlar tarafından kurulan ilk matbaa ise Nicodimus Metaxas adında bir papaz tarafından 1627 yılında kurulmuştur. Bu matbaanın bastığı ilk eser "Yahudiler Aleyhinde Küçük Risale" (Court traite les Juifs) isimli kitaptır. Ancak bu matbaa, Cizvitlerin yeniçerileri tahriki üzerine tahribe uğramıştır. Burada dikkat edilmesi gereken husus, bu hareketin matbaaya karşı değil Cizvitlerin kışkırtmalarının bir sonucu olmasıdır. En sonunda yapılan muhakemede, beraat etmesine rağmen Metaxax, matbaacılığa ait geriye kalan aletlerini alarak Osmanlı topraklarını terk etmiştir.

İlk Türk matbaasını da 16 Aralık 1727'de İbrahim Müteferrika kurmuştur. Basılan ilk Türkçe kitap ise Vankulu Mehmet Paşa'nın "Vankulu Lügati"dir, bu kitap yine ilk Türk matbaası olan İbrahim Müteferrika matbaasında 31 Ocak 1729 yılında basılmıştır.

Baskı yüzeyinin düz tabaka ya da rulo kâğıt (rotatif) dışında, matbaacılıkta kullanılan temel baskı yöntemleri şunlardır:

Baskı türleri

Teknikler
Formaları birleştirmek için kitabın sırtına tutkal sürülerek formaları dikilmeden bağlanan cilt şekli dört kenardan kesilerek ve sırtlarından plastik tutkalla formalar birbirine yapıştırılır. Tülbent ya da tel kullanarak ciltin sırt yüzeyi daha dayanıklı hale getirilebilir. Türkiye'de Amerikan Cilt türü olarak tanımlanan kitaplar gündelik hayatta sürekli kullanmadığımız karton kapakla ciltlenmiş olan kitaplardır. Makinede harmanı çekilerek, özel tırtıllı bıçaklarla formaların sırt kısmı traşlanır. Kapağın takılıp preslenmesi için sırt kısmına tutkal sürülür. Daha hızlı üretmek ve daha ucuz olması için kullanılır, ancak kuşe kağıtların ciltlenmesi için uygun değildir.
Çapak
Baskı işlemi yapılırken, boya parçalarından ya da kağıdın tozundan oluşan ve bu yüzden imaj bozukluğuna sebep olan küçük noktadır.
Çiftleme
Flu ya da gölgeli bölgelerin oluşmasına sebebiyet veren baskı hatasıdır. Kağıtların düzgün gönderilememesi, kazanların aralarındaki paralelliğin bozulması, kağıtların transferlerinde sorun yaşanması veya kauçuğun oluşturduğu basınçlar ve üzerinde bulunan mürekkep yoğunluğundan ötürü meydana gelebilir.

Modern matbaacılıkta iş akışı
Kısaca matbaacılık denilen karmaşık süreç, farklı teknolojilere ait çok sayıda işlemden oluşur. Uluslararası bir sektörel konsorsiyum olan cip4 tarafından hazırlanan JDF (Job Definition Format) iş tanımlama standardı kapsamında yüzden fazla işlem tanımlanmış, bunlar da geleneksel eğilime uygun olarak baskı öncesi, baskı ve baskı sonrası şeklinde üç alt süreçte toplanmıştır.

Baskı öncesi
Öncelikle basılacak işin tasarımı yapılır. Bu aşamada yazıların ve fotoğrafların bilgisayara aktarılması gerekir. Bilgisayara aktarılan görsel öğeler mizanpaj yazılımında bir araya getirilerek baskıya uygun tasarım oluşturulur. Bilgisayar yardımıyla yapılan bu işleme masaüstü yayıncılık da denir. Sonrasında, yapılan çalışmanın film çıkışları alınır. Film, baskı için kullanılan kalıbı oluşturmak için kullanılır. Filmden sonra da prova alınabilir. Filmden alınan provaya analog prova (Dupont firmasının Cromalin sisteminden dolayı sektörde "cromalin" adı ile bilinir) denmektedir. Analog provanın dışında baskıyı taklit eden yazıcılarla dijital prova da alınabilir.

Baskı
Film çıkışları alındıktan sonra alüminyum plakalar (kalıp) üzerine tasarımın görüntüsü çıkarılır. Kalıp çekme denilen bu işlem iki aşamada gerçekleşir: Film kullanarak kontakt baskı yani pozlandırma ve banyo. Günümüzde tasarımlar bilgisayardan direkt kalıba alınabilmekte, CTP adıyla anılan bu sistem ile film ve montaj işlemleri ortadan kalkmaktadır. Kalıp çekildikten sonra baskıya geçilir.

Baskı sonrası
Baskı sonrasında selefon, lak gibi malzemelerle yüzey kaplama (laminasyon) uygulanabilir. Mücellithane makineleri kullanılarak da çok sayfalı ürünlerde katlama, harmanlama, iplik dikiş, tel dikiş gibi işlemler, kitap ve dergiler için kapak takarak ciltleme gibi, ambalajlar için kalıplı kesim gibi işlemler uygulanabilir.

Kaynakça

16. Bloom, Jonathan, (2001). Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. (ing) s.42-45

17. Geoffrey Roper, "Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg - Muslim HeritageMuslim Heritage." (28 May 2008)

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türkiye'de matbaacılık
 Graphic Arts Technical Foundation
 Gramaj
 Darüttıbaa
 Araç kaplama
 Mücellithane
 Korona işlemi
 Prova okuması
 Redaksiyon
 Renk yönetimi
 Web ofset

Matbaacılık tarihi
Metin bursu
Matbaacılık
Belgeler

Matbaacılık


Ridvan Dibra (născut pe 9 ianuarie 1959) este un scriitor albanez.

Biografie
El a fost născut în Shkodër, Albania, unde s-a dus la universitate și a absolvit în limba și literatura albaneză. Din 1994, el a început să învețe limba albaneză și literatura albaneză la universitatea. Dibra, un scriitor și inovator , este o figură de frunte în lumea contemporană a literaturii în limba albaneză.El a fost beneficiarul a numeroase premii naționale, inclusiv prețul Rexhai Surroi pentru cel mai bun roman al albanezilor în anul 2012, pentru romanul său Legjenda e vetmisë (Legenda Singurătate).

Este considerat ca fiind unul dintre cele cinci mari scriitori albanezi trăiesc, cu Ismail Kadare, Rexhep Qosja, Bashkim Shehu și Fatos Kongoli.

Lucrări

Notă

Scriitori albanezi

Ridvan Dibra


Akhrik Tsvejba ( ,  født 10. september 1966 i Gudauta, Abkhasiske ASSR) er en tidligere russisk fodboldspiller.

Ruslands fodboldlandshold

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Eksterne henvisninger

 RSSSF

Fodboldspillere fra Rusland
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 1990
Deltagere ved det europæiske mesterskab i fodbold 1992

Akhrik Tsvejba