The Dardani (; ; ) or Dardanians were a Paleo-Balkan people, who lived in a region that was named Dardania after their settlement there. They were among the oldest Balkan peoples, and their society was very complex. The Dardani were the most stable and conservative ethnic element among the peoples of the central Balkans, retaining for several centuries an enduring presence in the region.

Most ancient sources classify Dardanians as Illyrians. Strabo and Appian explicitly referred to them as Illyrians. Strabo, in particular – also mentioning Galabri and Thunatae as Dardanian tribes – describes the Dardani as one of the three strongest Illyrian peoples, the other two being the Ardiaei and Autariatae. There were Thracian names in the eastern strip of Dardania but Illyrian names dominated the rest

The Kingdom of Dardania was attested since the 4th century BC in ancient sources reporting the wars the Dardanians waged against their south-eastern neighbor – Macedon – until the 2nd century BC.

The historian Justinus refers to an 'lllyrian war' against Macedonia which he places between 346 and the end of 343 BC. The enemy are named as the 'Dardani' and other neighbouring peoples'

After the Celtic invasion of the Balkans weakened the state of the Macedonians and Paeonians, the political and military role of the Dardanians began to grow in the region. They expanded their state to the area of Paeonia which definitively disappeared from history, and to some territories of the southern Illyrians. The Dardanians strongly pressured the Macedonians, using every opportunity to attack them. However the Macedonians quickly recovered and consolidated their state, and the Dardanians lost their important political role. The strengthening of the Illyrian (Ardiaean–Labeatan) state on their western borders also contributed to the restriction of Dardanian warlike actions towards their neighbors.

Dardanians fought against Roman proconsuls, and were finally defeated probably by Marcus Antonius in 39 BC or by Marcus Licinius Crassus in 29/8 BC. They were included in the Roman province of Moesia. After the Roman emperor Domitian divided the province of Moesia into Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior in 86 AD, the Dardani were located in southern Moesia Superior. A Roman colony was established at Scupi in Dardanian territory under the Flavian dynasty. In the 2nd century AD Dardanians were still notorious as brigants (latrones dardaniae). During the late Imperial period their territory was the homeland of many Roman emperors, notably Constantine the Great and Justinian I.

The ethnic name

Possible etymologies
The ethnonym of the Dardani has been attested in ancient Greek literature as ,  and , and in Latin as Dardani. The term used for their territory was  (). The name Dardan- (ethnonym: /; toponym: /) may derive from the same root as , the Albanian word for 'pear', as well as Alb. , , 'farmer'.

In 1854, Johann Georg von Hahn was the first to propose that the names Dardanoi and Dardania were related to the Albanian word  ("pear, pear-tree"). This is suggested by the fact that toponyms related to fruits or animals are not unknown in the region (cf. Alb.  "sheep" supposedly related to Dalmatia, Ulcinj in Montenegro < Alb.  "wolf" etc.). A common Albanian toponym with the same root is Dardha, found in various parts of Albania, including Dardha in Berat, Dardha in Korça, Dardha in Librazhd, Dardha in Puka, Dardhas in Pogradec, Dardhaj in Mirdita, and Dardhës in Përmet. Dardha in Puka is recorded as Darda in a 1671 ecclesiastical report and on a 1688 map by a Venetian cartographer. Dardha is also the name of an Albanian tribe in the northern part of the District of Dibra.

Opinions differ on the etymon of the root in Proto-Albanian, and eventually in Proto-Indo-European. On the basis of an alleged connection between Albanian dardhë and Greek  "wild pear", a common Indo-European root has been tentativelly reconstructed by scholars:  "thorn bush"; ;  "thorny, grain, barley". However it has been suggested that this connection is only conceivable assuming an ancient common Balkano-Aegean substrate word for Albanian and Greek. A proposed Indo-European root  "a thorny plant", with the Proto-Albanian form reconstructed as , is not clear. More recently for the Albanian dardhë the Proto-Albanian  has been reconstructed, itself a derivative of  "to tip out, pour, spill, secrete, cast (metals)" < PAlb . In Old Albanian texts the root is recorded not umlautized: . It continues Proto-Albanian , which is close to onomatopoeic Lithuanian  "to rattle" Latvian  "to creak", Welsh  "to mumble, to gumble" (the semantic development of "pear" that occurs in Albanian can also be seen in the Slavic parallel ,  "pear, pear tree" < ,  "to crumble, to break", and also in the Indo-European parallel  "pear" < ).. Slavic toponyms with "Kruševo" (from Proto-Slavic kruša, "pear") and other related toponyms have been proposed as South Slavic translations of Darda- toponyms.

The root Dard- is attested outside the Dardanian region and the Trojan-Dardanian area in several other ancient ethnonyms, personal names, and toponyms: Dardas, an opraetor epiratrum; , name of Macedonian-Elimiot princes;  in Thessaly;  in Lesbos; in ancient Apulia Dardi, a Daunian tribe, Derdensis a region and , a Daunian settlement. The suffix -ano in Dard- was common to many Indo-European languages.

The ethnonym Pirustae, which is attested since Roman times for a tribe close to the Dardani or living in Dardania, is considered to be the Latin translation of Dardani (cf. Latin pirus "pear").

The name in the ancient sources
The name of the Dardani is mentioned for the first time in the Iliad in the name of Dardanus who founded Dardanus on the Aegean coast of Anatolia and his people the Dardanoi, from which the toponym Dardanelles is derived . Other parallel ethnic names in the Balkans and Anatolia, respectively include: Eneti and Enetoi, Bryges and Phryges. These parallels indicate closer links than simply a correlation of names. According to a current explanation, the connection is likely related to the large-scale movement of peoples that occurred at the end of the Bronze Age (around 1200 BC), when the attacks of the 'Sea Peoples' afflicted some of the established powers around the eastern Mediterranean.

In ancient historiography, the Dardani of the Balkans are mentioned as a people in the second century BCE by Polybius who describes their wars against Macedon in the third century BC. Historians of Hellenistic and Roman antiquity who mention the Dardanians are Diodorus Siculus, Marcus Terentius Varro, Strabo, Sallust, Appian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and others.  According to a mythological tradition reported by Appian (2nd century AD), Dardanos (Δάρδανος), one of the sons of Illyrius (Ἰλλυριός), was the eponymous ancestor of the Dardanoi (Δάρδανοι).

In the late 1st century BCE, in Rome a new ideological discourse was formed. Propagated by poets like Horace and Ovid, it constructed a glorious Trojan past for the Romans, who were claimed to be descendants of Trojan Dardanians. In the years before the Trojan origin story became the official Roman narrative about their origins, the Romans came into conflict in the Balkans with the Dardani. In public discourse this created the problem that the Roman army could be seen as fighting against a people who could be related to the ancestors of the Romans. The image of the historical Dardani in the 1st century BC was that of Illyrian barbarians who raided their Macedonian frontier and had to be dealt with. In this context, the name of a people known as the Moesi appeared in Roman sources. The Moesi are mentioned only in three ancient sources in the period after the death of Emperor Augustus in 14 CE. The name itself was taken from the name of the Mysians in Asia Minor.  The choice seems to be related to the fact that the Trojan-era Mysians lived close to the Trojan-era Dardanians. As the name of the Dardani in Roman discourse became linked to the ancestors of the Romans, the actual Dardani began to be covered in Roman literature by other names. After the death of Augustus, their name in connection to the Balkans became a political problem. After the death of Augustus, the new emperor was Tiberius, his stepson and the most senior Roman general in the Balkans. As Tiberius had played a key role in the Roman conquest of the Balkans, as emperor he couldn't be portrayed as the conqueror of Dardanians, whose name had been constructed as the name of the mythical progenitors of the Romans. Thus, the decision to create a new name for Dardania and the Dardani was made. Despite this decision and the administrative use of the names Moesia and Moesi for the Dardani and Dardania, the original use of the name persisted by authors like Appian. The name Dardania was not used for several hundred years after this period in an administrative context. It was only recreated by Emperor Diocletian in the 3rd century CE.

History

Emergence

The territory of present-day Kosovo which formed the core area of the Dardani has been inhabited since the Neolithic era. Runik and Vlashnjë are two of the most significant sites in the Neolithic period. During the late 3rd millennium BCE, Proto-Indo-European tribes migrated and settled in the region alongside the existing Neolithic population. New practices in agriculture and cattle breeding appear in this period and new settlements formed in Kosovo. Co-existence and intermingling of the Neolithic population and the PIE-speakers gave rise to the material culture which developed in the Bronze Age (2100-1100 BCE) in settlements including Vlashnjë, Korishë, Pogragjë, Bardhi i Madh and Topanicë.

Archaeological research in the territory of Dardania greatly expanded since 2000. In contemporary research, a periodization of four phases of development of pre-Roman Dardania is being utilized:

11th-9th century BCE, a transitory period between the Bronze and the Iron Age
8th-7th century BCE, Iron Age I phase
6th-4th century BCE, Iron Age II phase, during which contacts with the Mediterranean and imports from Greece increase
4th-1st century BCE, Hellenistic period.

In the Iron Age habitation further developed with the emergence of the Glasinac-Mat culture, an Illyrian material culture which developed in the Iron Age western Balkans. The Dardani - as they became known in classical antiquity - were one of the particular groups of the Glasinac-Mat culture.

Thracian and Dacian placenames also appear in Dardania such as Dardapara and Quemedava Brnjica culture is considered to be the non-Illyrian and Daco-Thracian component that took part in the etnogenesis of the Dardani The Brnjica culture appears in Kosovo, Morava valley, Sandzak, Macedonia and South-East Serbia

Classical antiquity

In Dardania tribal aristocracy and pre-urban development emerged from the 6th–5th centuries BC. The contacts of the Dardanians with the Mediterranean world began early and intensified during the Iron Age. Trade connections with the Ancient Greek world were created from the 7th century BC onwards. The proto-urban development was followed by the creation of urban centers and the emergence of craftsmanship, and a Dardanian polity began to develop from the 4th century BC. Material culture and accounts in classical sources suggest that Dardanian society reached an advanced phase of development.

The Dardani are referred to as one of the opponents of Macedon in the 4th century BC, clashing with Philip II who managed to subdue them and their neighbors, probably during the early period of his reign. The Dardani have remained quiet until Philip II's death, after which they were planning defection. However an open war have not been caused by their riots, since Alexander the Great menaged to have the full control of the kingdom and its army after succeeding his father to the Macedonian throne. Indeed the Dardani have not been mentioned in the ancient accounts concerning the events of Alexander's Balkan campaign. It appears that the Dardani evaded the Macedonian rule during the Wars of the Diadochi between 284 BC and 281 BC, at the time of Lysimachus'empire. Thereafter the Dardani became a constant threat to Macedon on its northern borders.

In 279 BC, at the times of the great Celtic invasion, Dardania was raided by several Celtic tribes on their campaigns that were undertaken to plunder the treasuries of Greek temples. During these events an unnamed Dardanian king offered to help the Macedonians with 20,000 soldiers to counteract the invading Celts, but it was refused by the Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos who, underestimating the Celtic strength, died fighing them. Only at the oracle of Delphi the Celts eventually arrested and were defeated. Afterwards they withdrew in the north passing through Dardania, however they were completely destroyed by the Dardani. Further references to the Dardani are provided in the ancient sources describing Dardanian constant wars against Macedonians from the second half of the 3rd century BC.

After the Celtic invasion of the Balkans weakened the state of the Macedonians and Paeonians, the political and military role of the Dardanians began to grow in the region. They expanded their state to the area of Paeonia which definitively disappeared from history. In 230 the Dardani under Longarus captured Bylazora from the Paeonians. Taking advantage of Macedonian weakness, in 229 the Dardani attacked Macedonia and defeated Demetrius II in an important battle. After obtaining a great victory over the Macedonian army the Dardani invaded Macedon proper. The Dardanian expansion in Macedon, similar to the Ardiaean expansion in Epirus around the same years, may have been part of a general movement among the Illyrian peoples.

In this period Dardanian influence on the region grew and some other Illyrian tribes deserted Teuta, joining the Dardani under Longarus and forcing Teuta to call off her expedition forces in Epirus. When Philip V rose to the Macedonian throne, skirmishing with Dardani began in 220-219 BC and he managed to capture Bylazora from them in 217 BC. Skirmishes continued in 211 and in 209 when a force of Dardani under Aeropus, probably a pretender to the Macedonian throne, captured Lychnidus and looted Macedonia taking 20.000 prisoners and retreating before Philip's forces could reach them.

In 201 Bato of Dardania along with Pleuratus the Illyrian and Amynander king of Athamania, cooperated with Roman consul Sulpicius in his expedition against Philip V. Being always under the menace of Dardanian attacks on Macedonia, around 183 BC Philip V made an alliance with the Bastarnae and invited them to settle in Polog, the region of Dardania closest to Macedonia. A joint campaign of the Bastarnae and Macedonians against the Dardanians was organized, but Philip V died and his son Perseus of Macedon withdrew his forces from the campaign. The Bastarnae crossed the Danube in huge numbers and although they didn't meet the Macedonians, they continued the campaign. Some 30,000 Bastarnae under the command of Clondicus seem to have defeated the Dardani. In 179 BC, the Bastarnae conquered the Dardani, who later in 174 pushed them out, in a war which proved catastrophic, with a few years later, in 170 BC, the Macedonians defeating the Dardani. Macedonia and Illyria became Roman protectorates in 168 BC. The Scordisci, a tribe of Celtic origin, most likely subdued the Dardani in the mid-2nd century BC, after which there was no mention of the Dardani for a long time.

Roman era

Illyria and Macedonia became Roman protectorates in 168 BC. In 97 BC, the Dardani are mentioned again, defeated by the Macedonian Roman army. In 88 BC, the Dardani invaded the Roman province of Macedonia together with the Scordisci and the Maedi.

The Romans found an ancient formed economy in Dardania, based on agriculture and animal husbandry, mining and metallurgy, in different handicrafts and in trade. The Romans focused especially in exploitation of mines, same as in other provinces, and in road construction.

It seems quite probable that the Dardani actually lost independence in 28 BC thus, the final occupation of Dardania by Rome has been connected with the beginnings of Augustus' rule in 6 AD, when they were finally conquered by Rome. Dardania was conquered by Gaius Scribonius Curio and the Latin language was soon adopted as the main language of the tribe as many other conquered and Romanized. After the Roman emperor Domitian divided the province of Moesia into Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior in 86 AD, the Dardani were located in southern Moesia Superior.

At first, Dardania was not a separate Roman province, but became a region in the province of Moesia Superior in 87 AD. Emperor Diocletian later (284) made Dardania into a separate province with its capital at Naissus (Niš). During the Byzantine administration (in the 6th century), there was a Byzantine province of Dardania that included cities of Ulpiana, Scupi, Stobi, Justiniana Prima, and others.

Polity

History of the tribal government
A Dardanian polity began to develop from the 4th century BC. The Kingdom of Dardania was attested since the 4th century BC in ancient sources reporting the wars the Dardanians waged against their south-eastern neighbor – Macedon – until the 2nd century BC. The Dardanian kingdom was made up of many tribes and tribal groups, confirmed by Strabo, who mentions the Galabri and Thunatae as Dardanian tribes, and describes the Dardani as one of the three strongest Illyrian peoples, the other two being the Ardiaei and Autariatae.

The Dardanians, in all their history, always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians. The term used for their territory was (), while other tribal areas had more unspecified terms, such as Autariaton khora (), for the "land of Autariatae." The term was used to describe the Dardanian political status as a semi-independent country in the later Roman Republic. Little data exists about the territory of the Dardani prior to Roman conquest, especially on its southern extent which has been contested with Macedon, so scholars use information provided in Roman times to define the bounds of Dardanian territory.

An unnamed Dardanian king is mentioned in ancient sources describing the events of the region of the early 3rd century BC. He offered the Macedonian king Ptolemy Ceraunos 20,000 soldiers to counteract the invading Celts, but Ceraunos declined the offer. Tribal chiefs Longarus and his son Bato took part in the wars against Romans and Macedonians.

Dardanian rulers
Unnamed Dardanian king (early 3rd century BC), who offered the Macedonian king Ptolemy Ceraunos 20,000 soldiers to counteract the invading Celts, but Ceraunos declined the offer.
Longarus;
Bato
Monunius II
Etuta (Etleva) was the daughter of Monunius II of Dardania and the illyrian queen of Ardiaei. Some scholars believe that Illyrian rulers Bardylis, Audata, Cleitus (son of Bardylis), Bardylis II, Bircenna (daughter of Bardylis II), and Monunios were Dardanian.  Anyway, Bardylis, if not Dardanian, probably had some kind of hegemony on Dardanians during his reign.

Foreign relations

Bad press
Unlike their Thracian neighbors, in pre-Roman times the Dardani were not Hellenized. From the Greek point of view, they were barbarians. Because of this prejudice they received some bad press in the Ancient Greek and Roman historiography. The tribe was viewed of as "extremely barbaric". Claudius Aelianus and other writers wrote that they bathed only three times in their lives. At birth, when they were wed and after they died. Strabo refers to them as wild and dwelling in dirty caves under dung-hills. This however may have had to do not with cleanliness, as bathing had to do with monetary status from the viewpoint of the Greeks.

Enslavement
Dardanian slaves or freedmen at the time of the Roman conquest were clearly of Paleo-Balkan origin, according to their personal names. It has been noted that personal names were mostly of the "Central-Dalmatian type".

Culture

Language
The Dardanians had their own language. An extensive study based on onomastics has been undertaken by Radoslav Katičić which puts the Dardanian language area in the Central Illyrian area ("Central Illyrian" consisting of most of former Yugoslavia, north of southern Montenegro to the west of Morava, excepting ancient Liburnia in the northwest, but perhaps extending into Pannonia in the north).

The eastern parts of the region were at the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania (present-day Kosovo), and occasionally appear in eastern Dardania (present-day south-eastern Serbia), while Thracian names are found in the eastern parts, but are absent from the western parts. Thus, their identification as either an Illyrian or Thracian tribe has been a subject of debate; the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well. The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a "thracianization" of parts of Dardania.

Religion
Graves from the 6th and 5th centuries BCE in Romajë contain long iron bars which were placed in the tombs are a means of payment to the afterlife. They indicate that the tribe of the Dardani had developed a concept about the afterlife as shown later in other archaeological material like the votive monument of Smirë. The weapons included double-edged axes (Labrys), which might have been used in a ritualistic manner related to sun worship which was prevalent in the northern Illyrian tribes

Music
Strabo writes that they had some interest in music as they owned and used flutes and corded instruments.

See also
List of ancient Illyrian peoples and tribes
List of ancient tribes in Illyria
Illyrians
Thracians

References

Bibliography

External links

Illyrian tribes
Thracian tribes
Thraco-Illyrian
Indo-European peoples
Ancient tribes in Macedonia
Ancient tribes in North Macedonia
Ancient tribes in Kosovo
Moesia
Ancient tribes in Serbia
Tribes conquered by Rome
Tribes conquered by the Roman Republic

bg:Дардания (провинция)
bs:Dardanija
de:Dardanien
es:Dardanios
hr:Dardanija
sq:Dardania
sv:Dardanien

Dardani


Shabtai Horowitz (auch Hurwitz) (Schabbatai, * um 1590 wahrscheinlich in Ostroh, Wolhynien, Polen-Litauen; † 12. April 1660 in Wien) war Talmudgelehrter, Kabbalist und Oberrabbiner von Frankfurt am Main (1632–1642).

Leben
Horowitz war der Sohn des Kabbalisten und Rabbiners Jesaja Horovitz. In jungen Jahren heiratete er die Tochter des reichen und gelehrten Moses Charif aus Lublin. Nach der Vertreibung 1614 aus Frankfurt durch den Fettmilch-Aufstand, reiste er gemeinsam mit seinem Vater nach Prag, wo er die Position eines Rabbiners bekleidete. Von Prag ging er nach Fürth. 1632 wurde er Oberrabbiner in Frankfurt am Main. 1650 erfolgte ein Ruf nach Wien, wo er schließlich am 12. April 1660 starb.

Shabbethai Sheftel Horowitz war sein Cousin.

Werke

 Zusätze zum Werk Emeq Berakhah seines Großvaters Abraham Horowitz (Erstauflage 1729 in Amsterdam).
 Zusätze zum Gebetbuch seines Vaters.
 Vavey Ha-Ammudim (ein Aufsatz über religiöse Ethik), welches er bescheiden als Einführung in das Hauptwerk seines Vaters (Shney Luchot Ha-Brit "Die zwei Bundestafeln") bezeichnete und dem es üblicherweise als Anhang beigefügt ist.
 Ṣawwa'ah (Frankfurt an der Oder, ohne Datum, oft nachgedruckt). Es handelt sich um ein ethisches Testament, beinhaltend Lehren über Wohltätigkeit und Aufrufe zur Strenge in der rituellen Praxis und beim Studium der Kabbala.
 Einige Gebete (enthalten im Gebetbuch seines Vaters), insbesondere eine Selichah zum 20. Siwan.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Rabbiner (Wien)
Rabbiner (Deutschland)
Großrabbiner
Person des Judentums (Frankfurt am Main)
Person des Judentums (Fürth)
Rabbiner (Prag)
Geboren 1590
Gestorben 1660
Mann

Shabbethai Horowitz


تانزان إيشيباشي  (25 ديسمبر 1884 - 25 أبريل 1973) كان سياسي ياباني شغل منصب رئيس الوزراء الياباني الخامس والخمسين.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص من طوكيو
أشخاص من ياماناشي (محافظة)
أعضاء مجلس النواب الياباني
بوذيون يابانيون
خريجو جامعة واسيدا
رجال دين بوذيون يابانيون
رهبان بوذيون في القرن 20
رؤساء وزراء اليابان
رؤساء وزراء اليابان القرن 20
سياسيو الحزب الليبرالي الديمقراطي الياباني
سياسيون من طوكيو
سياسيون يابانيون في القرن 20
صحفيون في القرن 20
صحفيون يابانيون
مواليد 1884
مواليد في طوكيو
وزراء الصحة والرفاهية في اليابان
وزراء دفاع اليابان
وزراء عمل اليابان
وزراء مالية يابانيون
وفيات 1973
وفيات في طوكيو

تانزان إيشيباشي


La quebrada de Chita se halla ubicada en el departamento y municipio de Iglesia, Provincia de San Juan, Argentina.

El río Chita nace del deshielo en el cordón de Olivares en la cordillera de los Andes y desciende perpendicularmente a la cordillera hacía el Este. Aproximadamente a 20 km de la naciente se encuentra una toma que desvía la mayor parte de su caudal hacia el canal de Chita, que con una extensión de 30 km riega las localidades de Iglesia y Bella Vista también del municipio de Iglesia.

El caudal es de 250 l/s manteniéndose constante durante la mayor parte del año, aumentando en verano como consecuencia de las lluvias.

La quebrada se encuentra en un estrecho valle perpendicular a la cordillera de los Andes que limita a Oeste con el cordón de Olivares, al norte con el cerro Las Pircas y al sur con la quebrada de Espota.

Topográficamente se puede considerar la zona de estudio como accidentada, constituida por afloramientos rocosos alineados en distintas direcciones que originan una morfología variada.

Acceso
Se accede a la quebrada de Chita a través de la ruta provincial 421 que une los valles de Iglesia con los calingastinos. A unos 3 km al sur de la localidad de Bella Vista existe una huella bien mantenida que se dirige hacia el Oeste atravesando toda la extensión de la quebrada hasta el cordón de Olivares.

Actividad económica
Es escasa la ocupación humana de la zona.

Al igual que en las quebradas y valles circundantes, la principal actividad económica es la cría de ganado. La misma es realizada por puesteros que crían mayormente chivos. Asimismo existe cría de vacas, caballos y ovejas.

Existen artesanos que trabajan el cuero de los animales que crían y comercializan distintos productos derivados del mismo, especialmente aperos y accesorios para la vestimenta.

A partir del año 2000 existen empresas mineras realizando prospecciones en búsqueda de oro, plata y cobre, varios proyectos se encuentran en estado de "exploración avanzada".

Flora y fauna
Abundan los guanacos, pumas, zorros, liebres y ñandúes.

A lo largo de la quebrada existen vegas donde crece un pasto duro, que es utilizado como alimento en la cría de ganado. Hay presencia de yuyos como muña muña, ajenjo, jarilla, molle, chachacoma, valeriana, marancel, vira vira, doradilla, negrillo y granadilla.

Geología
Cerca de la cabecera de la cuenca de la quebrada se encuentra un plutón granítico denominado "Chita". En la parte superior del mismo hay mineralizaciones de molibdeno.

En el sector medio afloran cuerpos subvolcánicos y volcánicos, asociados a ellos se encuentran cuerpos de brecha. Los principales yacimientos en este tramo son: Pórfido Escondido, Brecha Vaca y Pórfido de Chita.

Clima

Las precipitaciones ocurren casi exclusivamente durante los meses de primavera y verano producto de las masas húmedas procedentes de la evaporación cordillerana. En verano se originan violentas tormentas eléctricas con abundante granizo.

La cantidad de precipitaciones aumenta con la altura registrando entre 80 y 145 mm anuales en la cota de los 2000 metros.

En las cumbres de la cordillera es notable la influencia del Anticiclón Pacífico cuya masa húmeda en el invierno deposita nieve en cantidad aproximada de 150 mm de media anual.

En las tierras altas la temperatura media es de 5° para el mes más frío y 15° para el mes más caliente. En las tierras bajas los registros indican 7° para el mes más frío y 20° para el mes más caluroso. En los extremos se encuentran temperaturas mínimas de -10° y máximas de 30° en verano.

Los vientos soplan de modo permanente cambiando su orientación durante el día. En la tarde y noche predominan los vientos desde las montañas hacia el valle y durante el día invierten la dirección.

Como consecuencia del Anticiclón Pacífico es frecuente durante el invierno el viento Zonda que deja nieves en las cumbres y eleva las temperaturas del valle.

Historia

Los primeros habitantes de la zona llegaron alrededor del 8500 a.c. provenientes del Norte y se asentaron en todas las quebradas de la zona. Se los incluye dentro de la llamada Cultura de La Fortuna. Cazaban fundamentalmente el guanaco, la vicuña y el ñandú y recolectaban la algarroba, los frutos del chañar, algunas raíces de cactus, huevos de ñandú y juncos para hacer hilos. Estos grupos fueron, junto con sus congéneres en Calingasta los primeros habitantes de la Provincia de San Juan.

Entre el II milenio a. C. y el I milenio a. C. la explosión demográfica en Perú empujó a los grupos de pequeñas familias de cazadores- recolectores que no formaban parte de los centros desarrollados hacia el Sur y emigraron por la costa del pacífico hacia el sur (Actualmente Chile) y cruzando la cordillera de Andes ocuparon las vegas y valles iglesianos.

Estos primeros pobladores se dedicaron a recolectar en la llanura del piedemonte frutos de chañar y algarrobo y huevos de ñandú. Criaban llamas y cultivaban en verano pequeñas huertas en las márgenes de las vegas. Plantaban quínoa, poroto, zapallo, calabaza por lo menos desde el 900 a.c. y, poco después, también maíz. Se hallan comprendidos en lo que los historiadores denominan Cultura de Ansilta

El aumento poblacional en los albores de la era cristiana acabó con las vegas disponibles y obligó a los habitantes a ocupar las zonas más bajas de la quebrada, denominadas LLanos de Chita, y los obligó a reproducir estas condiciones microambientales construyendo cisternas que llenaban con los exiguos caudales de los arroyos circundantes para luego liberar el agua a través de una compuerta y regar de este modo. Algunas de estas cisternas podían albergar 200.000 L, esto se explica debido a la falta de agua en el invierno por la congelación de los afluentes en la alta montaña.

Entre los años 700 y 1000 la constante afluencia de nuevos pobladores desde el Norte permitió la incorporación de nuevas tecnologías para las actividades textiles y cerámicas. Este cambio cultural también se vio reflejado en la costumbre de cortar cabezas humanas para comer sus partes blandas o colocar el cráneo adentro de la vivienda con fines rituales.

A partir del año 1000 abandonaron estos cambios y volvieron a su cultura y modos de producción anteriores. Luego del año 1200 se desarrolló una actividad más intensiva agropecuaria que movilizó a los pobladores hacia los valles vinculados al Río San Juan. En este periodo se considera a los pobladores de Chita enmarcados en la llamada Cultura de Angualasto. Este grupo también desarrollo nuevas formas intensivas de explotación agropecuaria y ganadera. Los excedentes de producción les permitieron un amplio comercio con las regiones del Norte y con Chile.

Por el año 1460 abandonaron los campos de cultivo, las instalaciones ganaderas y dejaron de mantener los sistemas de riego por motivos aún no develados con claridad. Las mejoras climáticas en el Norte argentino disminuyeron la demanda de alimentos. Coincide esta decadencia con la llegada de las avanzadas militares Incas.

A partir de 1490 los Incas conquistaron toda la región bajo el reinado del emperador Huayna Cápac. Con su llegada los habitantes se vieron sometidos a las laboras agrícolas, que se vieron mejoradas por avances en el riego y el cultivo transferidos por los conquistadores y que se desarrollaron bajo su vigilancia.

En 1532 cayó el Imperio Inca y los habitantes de la quebrada abandonaron los nuevos campos de cultivo y dejaron de atender a los sistemas de riego dedicándose nuevamente a la cacería, incluida la de la vicuña, prohibida férreamente durante la ocupación incaica.

Hacia 1550 llegaron los conquistadores europeos que sojuzgaron a los habitantes y su cultura y comenzaron a utilizarlos como mano de obra para sus propias explotaciones.

Entre los cambios culturales que trajo la conquista el rápido abandono de las lenguas aborígenes y de las vestimentas y usos textiles fue uno de los más notables.  La aparición del caballo y de esclavos negros modificó grandemente las actividades económicas de la zona.

La necesidad de mantener las ciudades españolas en Chile hizo que muchos de los habitantes fueran trasladados forzadamente hacia ellas, decayendo enormemente las poblaciones por la emigración y la falta de hombres en edad reproductiva. 40 años después de la conquista de la zona las poblaciones originarias eran inexistentes y los pocos aborígenes que quedaban se hallaban encomendados.

En el año 1649 la totalidad de los indígenas de la zona registrados figuraban en Chile. La mayor parte de ellos en manos de la familia Pozo y Silva, de Santiago de Chile.

Hacia fines del  el cacique Francisco Icaño (También Ilcaño o Icaña) recibió la titularidad de su propiedad que incluían toda la quebrada de Chita. El caso es conocido porque es uno de los pocos casos en América en que se otorgó propiedad legal a un indígena. Su hija Teresa Icaña lo heredó y fue considerada cacique de modo excepcional para una mujer, debido a la falta de hombres. En 1725 la cacica, sola, anciana y sin indios sujetos vendió la propiedad que incluía a Chita a Lorenzo Jofré por 200 pesos; un vestido de mujer traído de España costaba, en esa época, 300 pesos.

A partir de esa fecha no han existido asentamientos poblacionales en la quebrada, habitada escasamente por puesteros.

Fuentes y Referencias

 www.iglesiaotrotiempo.com.ar Iglesia de otro tiempo
 Mapa de la provincia de San Juan

Véase también
 Turismo en San Juan
 Anexo:Atractivos turísticos en San Juan por departamentos
 Anexo:Fiestas y celebraciones en San Juan

Valles de la provincia de San Juan

Turismo en Iglesia
Historia de la provincia de San Juan
Conquista de América

Quebrada de Chita


Philip Sterling (* 9. Oktober 1922 in New York City; † 30. November 1998 in Woodland Hills, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler, Jazz-Pianist und der erste Präsident der Screen Actors Guild Foundation.

Leben
Philip Sterling wurde als Sohn eines Anwalts aus Philadelphia geboren. Er studierte an der University of Pennsylvania und der Wharton School. Anschließend arbeitete er als Jazz-Pianist, bevor er 1955 sein Schauspieldebüt in Cole Porters Silk Stockings am Broadway hatte. Obwohl er sich daraufhin fast komplett auf die Schauspielerei konzentrierte, spielte er vereinzelt immer noch Musikstücke. So spielte er unter der Führung von Pierre Boulez gemeinsam mit den New Yorker Philharmonikern das Melodram Ein Überlebender aus Warschau ein. Außerdem trat er häufiger im Radio auf. Bekannt wurde Sterling allerdings insbesondere durch seine unzähligen Auftritte in Fernsehserien wie Jung und Leidenschaftlich – Wie das Leben so spielt, Chefarzt Dr. Westphall und Ein Strauß Töchter, und Fernsehfilmen wie Unternehmen Entebbe, Judy Garland – Lehrjahre eines Hollywood-Stars und Ein Team wie 'ne Million.

Philip Sterling starb am 30. November 1998 an den Folgen seiner Osteomyelofibrose-Erkrankung. Er hinterließ seine Frau Rhona, mit der er seit dem 16. August 1969 verheiratet war, und die gemeinsame Tochter Mila.

Filmografie (Auswahl)

Filme
 1968: Der Detektiv (The Detective)
 1969: Ich, Natalie (Me, Natalie)
 1971: Wo Gangster um die Ecke knallen (The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight)
 1974: Einladung zum Sterben (Come Die with Me)
 1974: Spieler ohne Skrupel (The Gambler)
 1976: Der Pflichtverteidiger (Mallory: Circumstantial Evidence)
 1976: Unternehmen Entebbe (Victory at Entebbe)
 1977: Audrey Rose – das Mädchen aus dem Jenseits (Audrey Rose)
 1978: Das Lazarus-Syndrom (The Lazarus Syndrome)
 1978: Dr. Strange
 1978: Judy Garland – Lehrjahre eines Hollywood-Stars (Rainbow)
 1978: Liebe vor Gericht (A Question of Love)
 1979: Wenn das Schicksal es will (Promises in the Dark)
 1980: Das große Finale (The Competition)
 1980: Moviola – Marilyn: Die Geburt einer Legende (This Year's Blonde)
 1981: Menschenhandel (Born to Be Sold)
 1981: Mord in Texas (Murder in Texas)
 1982: Ein Team wie 'ne Million (Million Dollar Infield)
 1982: Scheidungskriege (Divorce Wars: A Love Story)
 1984: Unter Verdacht (Best Kept Secrets)
 1985: Achtung, Dinosaurier! (Movers & Shakers)
 1985: Tomboy – Junge, was für ein Mädchen (Tomboy)
 1986: Des Teufels Spiegelbild (Killer in the Mirror)
 1988: Der Todesengel (Fatal Judgement)
 1988: Final Night – Die letzte Nacht (Backfire)
 1988: Schwestern – Ein neuer Anfang (Nightingales)
 1989: Perry Mason und der musikalische Mord (Perry Mason: The Case of the Musical Murder)
 1989: Schattenreich des Todes (From the Dead of Night)
 1990: Der lange Weg (The Long Walk Home)
 1990: Der Tod des unheimlichen Hulk (The Death of the Incredible Hulk)
 1998: My Giant – Zwei auf großem Fuß (My Giant)

Fernsehserien
 1959: Gnadenlose Stadt (Naked City) (zwei Episoden)
 1975: Barney Miller (Episode: "Discovery")
 1976–1979: Jung und Leidenschaftlich – Wie das Leben so spielt (As the World Turns) (unbekannte Anzahl an Episoden)
 1978: Detektiv Rockford – Anruf genügt (The Rockford Files) (eine Episode)
 1978: Eine amerikanische Familie (Family) (eine Episode)
 1980: Hart aber herzlich (Hart to Hart, Fernsehserie, Folge Der sechste Sinn)
 1982: Remington Steele (eine Episode)
 1983: Das A-Team (The A-Team) (zwei Episoden)
 1983–1988: Chefarzt Dr. Westphall (St. Elsewhere) (12 Episoden)
 1986–1987: Golden Girls (The Golden Girls) (zwei Episoden)
 1986–1989: Matlock (drei Episoden)
 1988–1993: L.A. Law – Staranwälte, Tricks, Prozesse (L.A. Law) (vier Episoden)
 1989: Wunderbare Jahre (The Wonder Years) (eine Episode)
 1991–1995: Ein Strauß Töchter (Sisters) (20 Episoden)

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmschauspieler
Theaterschauspieler
Jazz-Pianist
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1922
Gestorben 1998
Mann

Philip Sterling


Oceloduri (denominado Ocellum Duri o Octoduron) fue un poblado vetón documentado por primera vez por el historiador romano Estrabón en su Geografía (Libro III)  Οκελοδούρον como poblado vettón. Posteriormente Ptolomeo describe el área en su Geographia. La describe igualmente Plinio el Viejo en su Naturalis Historia (Libro IV). Desde los inicios algunos autores han creído que es el poblado sobre el que se asienta Zamora. El debate sobre su ubicación ha sido objeto de polémica. Inicialmente se afirmó que era un poblado que supone ser la Zamora originaria. Sin embargo pronto aparecieron otras posibles ubicaciones en disputa dentro de la provincia de Zamora: Almaraz de Duero y Villalazán. En el Itinerario de Antonino (Itinerarium Antonini) se menciona la calzada dividida en dos tramos: el de Augusta Emerita a Caesaraugusta y de Asturica Augusta a Caesaraugusta. En el punto de intercesión de las dos vías se encontraba Oceloduri. Un punto de intersección entre vías romanas.

Etimología
La denominación Οκελοδούρον y su descripción equivalente latina Octoduron es la más antigua documentada. Se sabe que octo- es un dios en la cultura celta. Sin embargo otros autores opinan que el prefijo ocelo- significa promontorio  o cerro, y se encuentra frecuentemente en toponimia celta como: Alaunocelum, lulocelum, Cinctocelu. De la misma forma la palabra Ocelus en la Germania Inferior y Bretaña se emplea como teonimia de marte. Las denominación posterior oceloduri procedente de octoduron es una corrupción que transforma octo- por ocelo-. Siendo popular e incorrecta Ocelo duri. El sufijo -durum (*duro- "fuerte" o "castro"). Algunas acepciones han dado lugar a la traducción latinizada de Ocelo Duri como ojo del Duero (así en Anónimo de Rávena). Aparece como ectodurum en el códice de Mendoza. Este sufijo aparece en diversos topónimos a los largo de los pueblos celtas de Europa así se tiene Boiodurum y Sorviodurum en Germania Superior, Brivodurum, Divodurum y Icciodurum la Galia, y Mutudurum en Celtiberia. El nombre de Octoduron puede significar el «fuerte del promontorio».

Ubicación
La ubicación de la civitas es objeto de debate. A pesar de existir autores e historiadores que sostienen que Octoduron es un poblado asentado en las cercanías de la actual Zamora. Esta creencia carecía de evidencias científicas y sólo a mediados del  se ha tomado esta afirmación con una perspectiva más crítica. Otros sitúan su ubicación más al sur en la población de Almaraz de Duero. Otros en un poblado cercano en las inmediaciones de la ciudad de Toro. Existe un octodurun en Suiza Martigny (Valais).

Véase también
 Historia de la provincia de Zamora

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 situación de Ocelum Duri en el atlas del Imperio romano
 Itinerario Antonino A-24
 Geografía de Ptolomeo

Itinerario Antonino A-24
Historia de la provincia de Zamora
Ciudades de la Antigua Roma en España
Zamora

Oceloduri


Svijet

Filmovi
 Revolveraš, američki vestern

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Filmovi

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Film u 1956.


Marcelo Vido, (nacido el 15 de enero de 1959 en Santo André, Brasil) fue un jugador brasileño de baloncesto.

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en sportsreference
 Ficha en Confederación de baloncesto brasileño

Baloncestistas de Brasil
Baloncestistas de la selección de Brasil
Baloncestistas del Palmeiras
Nacidos en Santo André (São Paulo)

Marcelo Vido


4 février -  - 6 février

Le samedi 5 février aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022 est le quatrième jour de compétition.

Faits marquants

Programme

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Tableau des médailles provisoire

Médailles du jour

Tableau des médailles au 5 février

Notes et références

Liens externes
  Page des Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022 sur le site du Comité international olympique

5 février


La catedral de la Magdalena () es la catedral de la diócesis de Salt Lake City. Está localizada en Salt Lake City, Utah. Es la sede del obispo de Salt Lake City.

Historia
La catedral fue construida bajo la dirección de Lawrence Scanlan, el primer obispo de Salt Lake. Fue diseñada por los arquitectos Carl M. Neuhausen y Bernard O. Mecklenburg. El exterior es predominantemente de estilo neorrománico, mientras que el interior tiende ser más hacia lo neogótico. La construcción comenzó en 1900 y fue terminada en 1909. Fue dedicada por el cardenal arzobispo James Gibbons de la arquidiócesis de Baltimore.

El interior de la catedral fue creada bajo la dirección de Joseph Sarsfield Glass, el segundo obispo de Salt Lake. La vidriería fue hecha por John Theodore Comes, uno de los arquitectos más prominentes del país, para decorar interiores de catedrales. Sus planes para el interior se basaron en gran medida del estilo gótico español. Los coloridos murales y los policromados se añadieron en esta época, al igual que los templos ornamentados.

En la década de 1970, el exterior del edificio fue restaurado, y entre 1991 y 1993, el interior de la catedral fue renovado y restaurado, bajo el obispo William K. Weigand. Esto incluía no sólo la eliminación de polvo y la suciedad y la restauración del interior, sino también cambios en los elementos litúrgicos de la catedral para ponerlas en conformidad con ciertos cambios generalizados en la práctica litúrgica que se desarrollaron después del Concilio Vaticano II. Esto incluyó la construcción de un nuevo altar, moviendo la silla del obispo, proporcionando una capilla separada para el Santísimo Sacramento, y la adición de una pila bautismal más amplia. La recaudación de fondos para dos proyectos de restauración fue dirigida por el editor de The Salt Lake Tribune John W. Gallivan.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Cathedral of the Madeleine
 Sunday Mass at the Cathedral of the Madeleine
 Image of the Cathedral of the Madeleine from utahcityguide.com
 View a beautiful 360° Panorama of the Cathedral of the Madeleine.

Catedrales de Estados Unidos de los años 1900
Catedrales de Utah
Catedrales neorrománicas de Estados Unidos
Catedrales neogóticas de Estados Unidos
Edificios y estructuras de Salt Lake City
Arquitectura de Estados Unidos de 1909
Edificios religiosos terminados en 1909
Magda
Iglesia católica en Utah
Diócesis de Salt Lake City
Salt Lake City

Catedral de la Magdalena (Salt Lake City)


رسم تدفق الإشارة بالإنجليزية signal flow هو رسم يبين وصفا كاملا لمعادلة خطية . في مجال معالجة الإشارات و نظرية التحكم يستعمل هذا الرسم في وصف الأنظمة الخطية المستقلة زمنيا ولا يصف الأنظمة غير الخطية. لذلك فهو شكل آخر لتمثيل نظام تدفقي معين (كما في الكهرباء). إضافة إلى النظام السائد و هو الرسم الهيكلي. و يتكون الرسم من عقد و فروع تربط بينها, كل عقدة تمثل متغير و كل فرع هو معامل عددي يحمل قيمة عددية إما عدد حقيقي أو عدد مركب.

ويعبر عن اتجاه تدفق الإشارة بسهم ، ويمكن وصف النظام الخطي المستقل زمنيا بأكثر من رسم واحد تتمايز في عدد العقد و الفروع ، ولكن أقلها أو أقصرها هو أفضلها.

 هي معادلة مستوفية للشروط السابقة فيمكن تمثيلها بالرسم كما يتبين

أما

فرغم بساطتها لكنها ليست معادلة خطية و لا يمكن تمثيلها برسم الإشارة أو حتى بالرسم الهيكلي.

يمكن تحليل الرسمة السابقة بمجرد النظر ، لكن بالنسبة للرسمات المعقدة أو تلك التي تحتوي تغذية خلفية يتم اللجوء لقاعدة ماسون لتحليل الرسم و استنتاج العلاقة بين أي عقدتين في الرسم.

اقرأ أيضا
 لغة برمجة

مراجع

تطبيقات رسوم بيانية
جبر خطي
معالجة الإشارة
نظرية التحكم

رسمة تدفق الإشارة


Madenî para veya eski dilde sikke; altın, gümüş, bakır, bronz, alüminyum vb. madenlerin alaşımından yapılan para. İlkel çağlardan beri ticarette geçerli olan değiş-tokuş yöntemleri yerine, daha kullanışlı bir değişim aracı olarak icad edilmiştir. Sikke kavramı daha çok tarihî madenî paraları tanımlamak için kullanılır. Günümüzde madenî paraları tanımlamak için bozuk para kavramı da kullanılır ancak bozuk para kavramı her zaman 'sadece' madenî paraları kapsamayabilir.

Para
Para, malların alımında ve satımında kullanılan en yaygın değişim aracıdır. Para, fiyatlar ile değerleri ifade eden bir araçtır. İnsanlar ve ülkeler arasında el değiştirerek ticari etkinliklerin yürütülmesini sağlar. Bununla birlikte temel bir zenginlik ölçüsüdür. Taşıma ve ölçme kolaylığı sağlamak gibi özellikleri bulunan paranın asıl önemi, biçiminden ve yapıldığı madenden çok mal ve hizmet alımında herkesin benimsediği bir ödeme aracı olmasıdır. Eskiden, aralarında deniz kabuğu, boncuk, taş ve sığırın da bulunduğu bazı değerli mallar para gibi kullanılıyordu. M.Ö. 8. yüzyılda Çin'de, para yerine çapa, tırmık gibi bazı tarım aletlerinin küçük modellerinin yapılıp kullanıldığı bilinmektedir.

Metal paraları inceleyen bilim dalına "nümismatik" denir. Yunanca "nomisma" ve Latince "numisma" sözcüklerinden türetilmiştir. Osmanlıca'da bu kavram "ilm-i meskukat" ya da kısaca "meskukat" (Arapça 'sikke'den) olarak geçmektedir. İlk olarak Lidya'da bulunmuştur.

Sikke

Eski metal paralar "sikke" biçiminde adlandırılırlar. Kazılarda, temel altında veya duvar harcı içinde bulunmuş herhangi bir sikke tabakayı kesin biçimde tespit eder. Aynı zamanda devlet şeklini, bölgesini bildirir, hatta onların incelenmesinden sayısız tarihi olaylar ve gerçekler ortaya çıkar. Ortadan kalkmış şehirlerin isimlerini, kaybolmuş bir heykeli, yıkılmış bir binayı, o zaman var olan ancak bugün yetişmeyen bir bitkiyi, sikkelerdeki tasvirler sayesinde öğrenebiliriz.

Sikke, devletin resmi damgasıyla garantilenmiş, kullanımı kolay madeni bir alım aracıdır. Sikke, M.Ö. 7. yüzyılda Anadolu'da Lidyalılar tarafından icat edilmiştir. Altın ve gümüş karışımından meydana gelen elektrondan yapılmıştır. Bu doğal elektronu ilk kez altın ve gümüşe ayırarak sikke bastıran Pers kralı Kyros'tur

Sikkenin kâğıt paraya üstünlüğü madenindendir. Kağıt paranın maddesi değersizdir. Sikkenin hem yapım maddesi değerlidir, hem de daha kullanışlıdır. Bu nedenle daha çok tercih edilmiştir.

Sikkeler, yazılı belgeler ve arkeolojik bulgular ile birlikte incelendiğinde insanlara pek çok konuda bilgi verirler. Örneğin kentlerin ya da devletlerin zenginlik düzeylerine ışık tutarak ekonomi tarihine ışık tutarlar. Devletlerin hangi coğrafyada egemenlik kurdukları ya da ticari ilişkilerinin nereye kadar uzandığı yine bulunan sikkelerle anlaşılabilmektedir.

Sikkelerin ekonomik ve siyasi yaşama ilişkin bilgi vermenin yanı sıra diğer bir yönleri de belgesel özellik taşımalarıdır. Sikkeler ve madalyonlar tarihsel kişilerin resimleri konusunda önemli kaynaklardır. Birçok tarihsel kişiliğin yüzleri bu sikkeler aracılığıyla bilinmektedir. Sikkelerde ayrıca devletle ilgili bilgiler, şehir adları, bina, heykel veya bitki tasvirleri bulunabilmektedir ve bu yönüyle de önemlidirler.

Malzemeler

Eski çağlarda yapılan sikkelerde kullanılan başlıca metaller arasında altın, gümüş, bakır, altın ve gümüş karışımı olan elektron, tunç ve pirinç sayılabilir. Anadolu'da ilk metal paralar elektrondan yapılmıştır. Değerli metallerin para yapımında kullanılması 20. yüzyıla kadar sürmüş ancak kâğıt paranın yaygınlaşması ile yavaş yavaş terk edilmiştir. Günümüzdeki bozuk para ihtiyacı için yapılan metal paralarda nikel, bakır-nikel, tunç, alüminyum ve tunç-alüminyum gibi metal ve alaşımlar kullanılmaktadır.

Paraların metalden yapılması, dayanıklılığının yanı sıra, metalin eritilip bir kalıba dökülerek biçimlendirilmesindeki kolaylıktan da geliyordu. Bu nedenle döküm, para basımının en önemli işlemlerinden biri olmuş, hatta pek çok yerde para yalnız döküm yoluyla üretilmiştir. Ancak içerisine daha değersiz metaller karıştırarak paranın değerinin düşürülebildiği, böyle bir paranın da ilk bakışta gerçek değerde olandan ayırt edilemediği anlaşılınca, bu durumu önlemek için farklı yöntemler denenmeye başlanmıştır.

M.Ö. 7. yüzyılda Batı Anadolu'da para, eriyik haldeki metalin düz bir yüzey üstüne dökülmesiyle yapılıyordu. Altları düz olan bu paraların üsleri metal eriyiğindeki yüzey gerilimi nedeniyle hafif yuvarlak oluyordu. Bunu düzeltmek için çekiç ya da tokmak gibi aletler kullanılıyordu. Bir süre sonra bu aletlerin üzerindeki girinti ve çıkıntıların paranın üstünde iz bıraktığı fark edilince, bunun düşük değerde para basımını engellemekte kullanılabileceği düşünüldü. Ardından paranın üstüne, değişim değerinin resmen onaylanması anlamına gelen yönetici ya da devlet işaretleri işlenmeye başlandı.

Eski çağlardan günümüze ulaşan para kalıplarının çoğu tunçtan yapılmıştır. Romalıların demir kalıplar da kullandığı bilinmektedir. Alt kalıbın içine yerleştirilen metalin üstüne, bir sapın ucundaki üst kalıp konulup çekiçle vurularak arada kalan madene hem ince pul biçimi verilir, hem de istenen işaretler işlenirdi. Vurmaya dayanan bu para basma yönteminde bir süre sonra metal eriyiği doğrudan alt kalıbın içine dökülmeye başlandı. Bu yöntemle, alt kalıp bozulmadan 10-20 bin para basılabileceği, çekiç darbelerinden direkt olarak etkilenen üst kalıbın ise bunun yarısı kadar para basımına elvereceği bilinmektedir. Bir kalıpta bir kişinin çalıştığı küçük darphanelerde saatte 100 tane sikke yapılabileceği bilinmektedir.

Kalıplarda yapılan değişiklikler paraların biçiminin yanı sıra üretim etkniklerini de etkiledi. Sasaniler döneminde İran'da 220'den sonra ince kalıp kullanıldı. Bu da hem daha ince paraların yapılmasına, hem de bunların üstündeki kabartmaların daha alçak tutulmasına yol açtı. Bizans aracılığı ile Avrupa ülkelerine geçen bu yöntem, Bazı Frank ve Sakson krallıklarında da aynı paranın üstüne, her biri yalın işaretler taşıyan birkaç kalıpla baskı yapılır, böylece daha karmaşık bir kabartma elde edilirdi. Avrupa metal paralarında hem kabartma, hem de oymalar bulunurken, İslam ülkelerinin paralarında oyma daha ağır basmaktaydı.

Gümüş para yapımında, önce gümüş ince bir katman biçiminde dökülür, sonra da eriyik tam soğumadan çekiçle istenilen kalınlığa getirilirdi. Aşağı yukarı 10. yüzyılda gerçek para boyutlarından biraz daha büyük dörtgen parçalar hazırlanmaya, daire biçimindeki kalıbın içine yerleştirilip sıkıştırıldıktan sonra yanlardaki fazlalıklar kesilerek alınmaya başlandı. Metal para bastırmak karşılığında kullanılan "sikke kestirmek" deyimi buradan gelmektedir.

15. yüzyılda para basımının hızlanması, daha iyi kalıpların yapılmasına yol açtı. Bunlardan biri demir kalıptı. Kalıbın içine karbon konup fırına veriliyor, bu da onun çeliğe dönüşerek daha sertleşmesini sağlıyordu. Paraların kenarının kesilip değerlerinin düşürülmesi tehlikesine karşı da buraya çentikler yapmak, tırtıklar açmak ya da bir yazı kazımak gibi önlemler uygulanıyordu. Ayrıca kalıpları, çekiçle vurmak yerine vida ile sıkıştırarak üstlerindeki işaretlerin paraya geçmesini sağlayacak yöntemler de geliştirildi. Bu yöntem 16 yüzyılda İtalya ve İngiltere'de de kullanıldı. 16. yüzyılda Almanya'da döner kalıplar geliştirilmeye başlandı. Bunlar üstüne kabartma yapılacak metali kendi kendine içine alıp baskıdan sonra da dışarı çıkaran eğri yüzlü kalıplardı. Bu yöntemle para yapılacak metalin kalıplara küçük parçalar biçiminde tek tek yerleştirilmesi yerine, baskı yürüyen bir bant üstünde yapılarak üretim hızı artırılabiliyordu. Daha sonra baskıda çekiç yerine vida ile sıkıştırma yöntemi kullanıldı. Bu teknik 18. yüzyıla kadar kullanıldı.

19. yüzyılda geliştirilen buhar makinesi kısa sürede para yapımında kullanılmaya başlandı. Kalıplar için ise niteliği yükseltilmiş çelikten yararlanılmaya başlandı. Günümüzde kalıpların yapımı, paraların basımı gibi işlemler elektrikli makinelerle gerçekleştirilmekte, kullanılan metallerin özelliklerini ve niteliklerini belirlemek, basılan paraların denetimini yapmak için de bilgisayarlardan yararlanılmaktadır. Çeşitli eritme ve arıtma süreçlerinden geçirilen metaller dakikada yüz metal para basan makinelere gelmekte, basımdan sonra, artanlar ya da eskimiş paralar yeniden üretilmek üzere fırınlara gönderilmektedir. Bir kalıpla 200 binden fazla para basılabilmektedir.

İslam Ülkelerinde

İslam ülkelerinde dinar (altın) dirhem (gümüş) ve fels (bakır) olmak üzere üç tür metal para kullanıldı. Yüzyıllarca Roma, Bizans ve Sasani paralarının sürümde kaldığı Ortadoğu'da ilk İslam parası Halife Ömer döneminde (634-644), Sasani paraları üstüne İslama özgü bazı işaretlerin kazınması ile oluşturuldu. Emevi halifesi I. Muaviye, Sasani paralarına kendi kılıçlı tasvirini koydurttu. Halife Abdülmelik ise 693'te bir yüzünde kendi resminin bulunduğu ilk İslam dinarını bastırdı. Bu paranın öbür yüzünde kelime-i tevhid yazılıydı. 694'te Emevi eyaletlerinde gümüş İslam paraları basılmaya başladı. Emevi Dinarı, Bizans solidus'una eşit saf altın, dirhem de saf gümüştü. Metal paraların üzerine hükümdar ve halifelerin adlarının yazılmasını ilk kez Emeviler uyguladı. 9. yüzyılda İslam sikkelerinin biçimi temel kurallara bağlandı. Paranın üstüne egemenliği tanınan halifenin ve hükümdarın adı, sultanın ya da melikin kendisinin ve babasının adı, hükümdarlık unvan ve lakapları, kelime-i tevhid, paranın basıldığı kent ve basım yılı yazılmaya başlandı. Halifeden ve sultandan bağımsızlık izni alan küçük beyler de adlarını taşıyan sikke bastırmayı egemenliklerinin gereği sayıyorlardı. Örneğin parasındaki özel unvanları arasında "ed-devle" ile biten bir tamlamanın bulunması o hükümdarın bağımlılığını, "ed-dünya" sözünü içeren bir unvanın bulunması ise bağımsızlığını belli ediyordu. Bunun gibi "melik", "sultan", "emir" unvanlarının da siyasal anlamları vardı. Bu unvanları tamamlayan "el-kamil", "el-adil", "ebu'l-muzaffer", "ebu'l-feth", "el-gazi" gibi lakaplar da siyasal, dinsel ve askeri anlamlar taşıyordu. Karahanlılar, Samaniler ve Büyük Selçuklu Hanedanı'ndaki bu gelenek başka devletlere de yayıldı. Müslüman olmayan komşu devletlerle sürdürülen ticaret ilişkileri, insan tasvirli İslam sikkelerinin de çıkarılmasına yol açtı.

İlk Osmanlı gümüş parası akçenin 1326'da Orhan Gazi adına kesildiği kabul edilir. Ancak babası Osman Gazi döneminde basılmış bir akçe parçası da bulunmuştur. I. Beyazid gümüş ve bakır Osmanlı paraları için düzenlemeler getirdi. II. Mehmed dönemine kadar akçe ve pul denilen sikkelerle Venedik Dukası sürümdeydi. II. Mehmed 1447'de sultani olarak bilinen ilk Osmanlı altınını bastırdı. İlk tuğralı Osmanlı paraları III. Mehmed adına basıldı. 1625'te alınan "tashih-i sikke" kararından sonra kuruş, 1640'ta da para adı verilen metal paralar basıldı. 1687'de sikkelerin hepsine darphane damgası vurulması kararlaştırıldı. 18. yüzyılın başında Osmanlı piyasasında cedid, İslambol, şerifi gibi yerli altın paralardan başka yaldız, frengi, esedi, zolata, Abbasi, tümen gibi yabancı altın ve gümüş paralar da sürümdeydi. Yerli ve yabancı paraların pariteleri arasındaki fark altın ve gümüş kaçakçılığına yol açıyor, bu durum da ekonomiyi sarsıyordu.

18. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında "zer-i mahsub" serisi altın ikilik, üçlük, beşlik ve onluklar çıkartılırken, üstlerine "duribe fi Konstantiniye" yerine "duribe fi İslambol" ifadesi konuldu. 19. yüzyılda dünya piyasalarında altının giderek değer kazanması nedeniyle metal paraların paritelerinin sık sık yeniden belirlenmesi gerekti. II. Mahmud'un (1808-39) son yıllarında Osmanlı sikkelerinin basımı ve birimleri konusunda köklü yenilikler gerçekleştirildi. Abdülmecid 1840'ta çıkardığı bir fermanla bütün metal paraların yenilenmesini istedi. Darphanede sarkaç sistemine geçildi. 22 ayar, yüzlük serisi altın ve gümüş Mecidiyeler çıkarıldı. Bakır sikkeler de 5, 10, 20 ve 40 para olarak basıldı. Maliye Nezareti içinde kurulan Meskukat-ı Şahane İdaresi altın ve gümüş fiyatlarındaki değişmeleri de dikkate alarak Osmanlı Mecidiyesi'ne göre eski Osmanlı ve yabancı paraların kurlarını belirliyordu. Osmanlı Bankası'na banknot çıkarma yetkisinin verilmesinden (1863) sonra, 1881'de Meskukat-ı Osmaniye Kararnamesi yayınlandı. 26 Mart 1916'da çıkarılan Tevhid-i Meskukat Kanunu'yla Osmanlı metal paraları altın, gümüş ve nikel olarak belirlendi. Cumhuriyet'in ilk yıllarında Osmanlı metal paraları sürümde kaldı. 1924 ve 1925'te çıkarılan 411 ve 624 sayılı yasalarla altın ve gümüş para sistemine son verildi.

Nümismatik sözcüğü; klasik çağ Yunancasında "nomos" (kanun) ve "nomisma" (gelenek, ölçü ve sikke) anlamına gelen sözcüklerden türetilmiştir ve sikke bilimi anlamına gelmektedir. Bu bilim dalı sikkenin her türü ve biçimiyle ilgilenir. Kendisine uğraşı alanı olarak nümismatiği seçen ve bilimsel yaklaşımlarla sikkeleri inceleyen kişilere de nümismat denir.

Sikkeler; ilk basılışlarından bu yana, yüzyıllar önce yaşamış toplumlar hakkında bilgiler veren ve tarihi konuşturan belge niteliğindeki nesnelerdir. Bu özellikleri nedeniyle bu nesnelerin incelenmesi bir bilim dalı olarak kabul görmüş ve nümismatik bilimi doğmuştur.

İlk kez 2600 yıl önce Batı Anadolu'da basılan sikkeler, birbirinden bağımsız olarak yalnızca birkaç toplumda; Anadolu'da, Hindistan'da ve Çin'de ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu nedenle sikke biliminde üç ayrı gelenekten ya da ekolden söz etmek mümkündür.

Yeryüzünün Anadolu-Akdeniz havzası ve Ortadoğu bölgelerini kapsayan bölümünde çeşitli zaman dilimlerini kapsayan sınıflandırmalar da yapılmaktadır. Örneğin sikkenin icadından Bizans Devletinin sonuna kadar basılan sikkeler "Antik Nümismatik" adı altında incelenirken, orta çağ İslam Devletleri ve Osmanlı İmparatorluğu dönemi sikkeleri "İslami Nümismatik" adı altında incelenir.

Literatür

Madeni paranın doğuşu - MÖ 7-5

 M. S. Balmuth, Remarks on the appearance of the earliest coins, içinde: D. G. Mitten - J. G. Pedley (yayımlayan), Studies Presented to George M. A. Hanfmann (Mainz 1971) 1-7.
 A. Furtwängler, Neue Beobachtungen zur frühesten Münzprägung, SchwNumRu 65, 1986, 153-165.
 A. Furtwängler, Wertmesser, Finanzmanipulationen und die Geburt des Münzgeldes in der Antike, Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle, Band 13, 2016, 1-12
 G. Le Rider, La Naissance de la monnaie. Practiques monétaires de l'orient ancien (Paris 2001)
 N. F. Parise, La nascita della moneta (Roma 2000)
 M. Price, Thoughts on the Beginning of Coinage, içinde: C. N. L. Stewart - J. G. Pollard - T. R. Volk (yayımlayan), Studies in Numismatic Method presented to Philip Grierson (Cambridge 1983) 1-10
 D. M. Shaps, The Invention of Coinage and the Monetization of Ancient Greece (Ann Arbor 2004)
 Ph. Grierson, The Origins of Money (Oxford 1977)
 D. Kagan, The Dates of the Earliest Coins, AJA 86, 1982, 343-360
 S. Karwiese, Die Münzprägung von Ephesos I. Die Anfänge: Die ältesten Prägungen und der Beginn der Münzprägung überhaupt (Wien 1995)

Vaka çalışmaları

 V. W. Harris (yayımlayan), The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford 2008)
 H. Moesta - P. R. Franke, Antike Metallurgie und Münzprägung (Basel 1995)
 A. Ramage - P. T. Craddock, King Croseus' gold (Cambridge 2000)

Kaynakça

Nümismatik

Madenî para


Solomon Kalushi Mahlangu (Mamelodi, 10 de julho de 1956 — Pretória, 6 de abril de 1979) foi um combatente da liberdade sul-africano, ativista de luta e operativo da ala militante Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) do Congresso Nacional Africano (CNA). Mahlangu foi condenado por assassinato e enforcado em 1979.

Primeiros anos
Mahlangu nasceu em Pretória em 10 de julho de 1956, o segundo filho de Martha Mahlangu. Seu pai partiu em 1962 e, como resultado, ele foi criado por sua mãe, uma empregada doméstica. Ele frequentou a Mamelodi High School até o Standard 8 (seu décimo ano de escola), mas sua educação foi interrompida em 1976 pelos motins do levante de Soweto que resultaram no fechamento das escolas.

Treinamento militar
Em 1976 Mahlangu fugiu para Moçambique e passou seis meses num campo de refugiados perto de Xai-Xai. De lá foi levado para um campo de treinamento do Congresso Nacional Africano (CNA) chamado "Engenharia", em Angola. Lá e no Acampamento Funda, recebeu treinamento em sabotagem, combate militar, escotismo e política. Ele, George 'Lucky' Mahlangu e Mondy Motloung foram então levados para a Suazilândia, onde receberam grandes malas cheias de panfletos, rifles e granadas de mão. Em 11 de junho de 1977, eles cruzaram a fronteira para a África do Sul e começaram a seguir para Joanesburgo.

Prisão
Os três camaradas de armas, cada um carregando uma grande mala, estavam entrando em um táxi na Rua Diagonal, no centro de Joanesburgo. Um policial comum ficou desconfiado e pegou uma das malas. Um fuzil de assalto AK-47 e uma granada de mão caíram da mala. Todos os três fugiram, Lucky Mahlangu em uma direção e os outros dois na direção de Fordsburg. Lá, na Rua Goch, os dois procuraram refúgio nas instalações de armazenamento do varejista John Orr's. No tiroteio que se seguiu, dois homens civis foram mortos e outros dois ficaram feridos. Mahlangu e Motaung acabaram sendo presos.

Julgamento e sentença
O julgamento de Mahlangu começou na Suprema Corte em 7 de novembro de 1977. Ele foi defendido por dois advogados, Ismail Mohamed (advogado sênior) e Clifford Mailer. Eles enfrentaram duas acusações de assassinato, duas acusações de tentativa de homicídio e várias acusações sob a Lei do Terrorismo. Em seu julgamento, o tribunal considerou que Mahlangu e Motaung agiram com um propósito comum e que, consequentemente, não importava qual dos dois havia atirado e matado. Mahlangu foi condenado por todas as acusações. Nos termos da lei sul-africana, o tribunal era obrigado a condenar um acusado à morte por homicídio, a menos que o acusado provasse circunstâncias atenuantes. O tribunal considerou que Mahlangu não provou e, consequentemente, proferiu a sentença de morte. O tribunal recusou a permissão de Mahlangu para apelar. Seus advogados solicitaram então ao Tribunal de Apelação uma licença para recorrer e esta foi novamente recusada.

Mahlangu foi enforcado em 6 de abril de 1979. Antes de ir para a forca, ele teria dito: "Diga a meu povo que eu os amo e que eles devem continuar a luta. Meu sangue nutrirá a árvore que dará os frutos da liberdade. A luta continua."

Comissão de Verdade e Reconciliação
A comissão examinou os casos de Solomon Mahlangu e Monty Motaung e descobriu que ambos foram responsáveis pelas mortes de Rupert Kessner e Kenneth Wolfendale. Também considerou Mahlangu e Motaung culpados de graves violações dos direitos humanos. Por último, considerou tanto o Congresso Nacional Africano como o comandante do Umkhonto we Sizwe culpados de graves violações dos direitos humanos.

Legado
Solomon Mahlangu é homenageado na Praça da Liberdade Solomon Mahlangu em sua cidade natal de Mamelodi, Pretória. A praça está centrada em uma estátua de bronze de Mahlangu.

Na cidade de Durban, havia uma importante estrada arterial chamada 'Edwin Swales VC Drive', em homenagem a um comandante de bombardeiros da RAF que morreu em 1945. Seguindo propostas feitas pelo município de eThekwini, a estrada foi alterada para homenagear Mahlangu.

Uma estrada arterial principal em Pretória que atravessa a cidade natal de Solomon Mahlangu, Mamelodi, foi renomeada de Hans Strijdom Drive para Solomon Mahlangu Drive.

Em 2016, o principal edifício administrativo da Universidade de Witwatersrand, anteriormente conhecido como Senate House, foi renomeado como Solomon Mahlangu House.

O filme de 2017, Kalushi, conta sua vida e seus momentos, onde Thabo Rametsi fez o papel de Solomon.

Na Tanzânia, uma das melhores universidades, a Universidade de Agricultura de Sokoine, na região leste de Morogoro, um dos dois campus da cidade de Morogoro, é conhecida como Solomon Mahlangu Campus.

Durante os protestos FeesMustFall, "Solomon" foi uma música-chave recitada por ativistas estudantis em campus de todo o país. Esta é uma referência a Mahlangu, seu legado e o que ele significa para a juventude de hoje.

Em 2019, a Universidade Nelson Mandela em Porto Elizabeth renomeou uma de suas residências em homenagem a ele.

Mortes por execução
Pessoas executadas por enforcamento
Pessoas executadas pela África do Sul

Solomon Mahlangu


Güdül, Ankara ilinin kuzey batısında yer alan bir ilçesidir. Güdül ilçesi, 31 mahalleden oluşmuştur.

Tarihçe
Yapılan araştırma ve incelemelerde Güdül çevresinde tarih öncesi çağlardan beri yerleşildiği anlaşılmıştır.İlçe yakınından geçen Kirmir Çayı boyunca kayalara oyulmuş mağaraların Etiler'e (M.Ö. 2000) ait olduğu sanılmaktadır. Daha sonra Frigler (M.Ö. 8. yy) bu yörede hakimiyet sürmüşlerdir.

İn-Önü denilen bu mevkideki mağaralarda haç işaretlerine rastlanmış, Romalılarca Hıristiyanlığın yayılması sırasında buraların mesken edildiği anlaşılmıştır. Daha sonra Bizanslıların yaşadıkları sanılmaktadır.

1071 tarihli Malazgirt Zaferi ile Anadolu'nun kapıları Türklere açılmış, Güdül ve çevresi Anadolu Selçukluları'nın idaresine geçmiştir.
İlçe, Anadolu Selçuklu hükümdarlarından I. Mesut'un eniştesi ve Ankara Emiri olan Şehabüldevle Güdül Bey tarafından şimdiki yerinde, tahminen 850 yıl evvel kurulmuş olup, Orta Asya'dan Anadolu'ya ilerleyen 24 Oğuz boylarından birçoğu, bölgeye hakim olmuşlardır. Bu boylardan en önemlisi Kınık, Kayı ve Afşar boylarıdır. Güdül'ün Afşar ve Kayı adlarında iki mahallesi vardır.
1 Eylül 1957 yılına kadar Ayaş ilçesine bağlı bir nahiye iken aynı yıl 7030 sayılı Kanun ile ilçe olmuştur.

Coğrafi Konum
İlçenin yüzölçümü 419 km²'dir. Denizden yüksekliği 720 metredir. Karasal iklim tipi görülmektedir. Kışları soğuk yazları ise sıcak olup az yağış almaktadır. İlçe yıllık olarak 506 mm yağış almaktadır. Yağışlar genellikle ilkbahar ve sonbaharda düşmektedir. En yüksek sıcaklık (+30,+35) derece, en düşük sıcaklık -10,-20) dereceleri arasındadır.

Arazi yapısı oldukça dağlık olan İlçede, az miktarda tarıma elverişli toprağa can veren ve Sakarya Nehri'nin bir kolu olan Kirmir Çayı, Suvari Çayı ve İlhan Çayı geçmektedir.

Güdül ilçesi güneyde Ayaş, kuzeyde Çamlıdere, batıda Beypazarı ve doğuda Kızılcahamam ilçeleri ile komşudur.

Ankara'ya 90 km. olan Güdül'ün komşuları, 32 km. Ayaş, 33 km. Beypazarı, 60 km. Çamlıdere, 60 km. Kızılcahamam ve 93 km. Kıbrıscık'tır.

Nüfus

Mahalleler
Güdül'ün 31 mahallesinin 5'i merkezde bulunmaktadır. Merkez mahallelerinde 2.588 kişi   (% 32,15) yaşamaktadır. En uzak mahallesi ise 22 km uzaklıktaki Güneyce'dir. İlçede nüfusu en fazla olan, 955 kişi ile yine Güneyce mahallesidir.  Güdül'ün'un nüfusu 2017 yılında % 2,8 azalmıştır.**

* Km,  kaymakamlığa olan uzaklıktır.

** TUİK 01 Şubat 2018 verileri

Yönetim

Belediye başkanları

Turizm
İlçenin kuzeyinde ve Sorgun Köyü yöresinde bulunan orman alanı ile bu alan içerisinde yer alan gölet doğal zenginliklerdendir. Kirmir Çayı Vadisi'nde kayalara oyulmuş İn-önü mağaraları, Çağa Kasabası'nda bulunan Roma Tümülüsü, Kavaközü Köyü'nde bulunan Samutbali Türbesi ve Tekke mevkiinde Kasım Baba Türbesi ilçenin kültürel zenginlikleri arasındadır. Ayrıca Kamanlar Köyü'nde Şehit Tolga Akpınar Parkı görülmeye değer yerlerindendir. Merkezdeki 20 adet leblebi imalathanesinden Türkiye'nin her yerine leblebi gönderilmektedir.

Ulaşım
Güdül, başkenti olan Ankara'ya 44 km uzaklıktadır. Hem tarihi zenginlikleri hem de doğal güzellikleri açısından ziyaretçilerini bekleyen sakin bir ilçedir. İlçeye ulaşım seçenekleri arasında toplu taşıma ve karayolu vardır. Güdül'e gitmek isteyen kişilerin sıklıkla kullandığı yöntem karayoludur. Ankara-Beypazarı karayolu üzerinde bulunan Güdül'e yol ayrımından sol tarafa saparak ulaşabilirsiniz. Toplu taşıma seçeneğini kullanmak isterseniz de Ankara Şehirlerarası Terminal İşletmesi'nden (AŞTİ) düzenli olarak ilçeye düzenlenen seferlerden yararlanabilirsiniz.

Galeri

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Güdül Kaymakamlığı
 Güdül Belediyesi

Cittaslow

Güdül


Underworld is a 2003 action horror film directed by Len Wiseman from a screenplay by Danny McBride, based on a story by Kevin Grevioux, Wiseman, and McBride. The film stars Kate Beckinsale, Scott Speedman, Michael Sheen, Shane Brolly, and Bill Nighy. The plot centers on the secret history of vampires and lycans (an abbreviated form of lycanthrope, which means werewolf). The main plot revolves around Selene (Beckinsale), a vampire Death Dealer hunting Lycans. She finds herself attracted to a human, Michael Corvin (Speedman), who is being targeted by the Lycans. After Michael is bitten by a Lycan, Selene must decide whether to do her duty and kill him or go against her clan and save him.

Underworld premiered at the Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California on September 15, 2003, and was released in the United States on September 19, by Sony Pictures Releasing. The film received generally negative reviews from critics, but a smaller number of reviewers praised elements such as the film's stylish Gothic visuals, Kate Beckinsale's performance, and the extensively worked-out vampire–werewolf mythology that serves as the film's backstory. A surprise hit, the film grossed over $95 million worldwide against a production budget of $22 million and originated a franchise.

The film was followed by Underworld: Evolution in 2006.

Plot
For generations, vampires and Lycans, an ancient species of werewolf, have secretly waged war. The vampires gain the upper hand when Lycan leader Lucian seemingly dies at the hands of vampire Kraven, who becomes the second-in-command to the vampires' leading elders. Selene, a member of an elite group of vampire assassins known as "Death Dealers", continues to pursue the extermination of the Lycans despite other vampires no longer perceiving them as a threat.

During a clash with the Lycans, Selene discovers that they are looking for Michael Corvin, a seemingly ordinary medical student. Disregarding Kraven's insistence to ignore the situation, Selene privately investigates Michael. After approaching him, the pair find themselves pursued by a group of Lycans led by Lucian, who is still alive and manages to bite Michael during their escape. Since Kraven was the only witness to Lucian's supposed death, Selene comes to suspect that he lied about killing him and may be working with the Lycans.

After hiding Michael at a safe house, Selene returns to her coven's mansion and prematurely awakens Viktor, a hibernating elder vampire. Furious, Viktor refuses to believe Selene's warnings about Kraven's treachery, and reminds her that his fellow elder Marcus was supposed to be awakened before him. While awaiting Kraven's judgment for defying him, Selene binds Michael, fearing that the Lycans' bite will transform him into a werewolf when the full moon rises. As the two of them bond, she gradually tells him more about her past, revealing that Viktor adopted her and turned her into a vampire after her family's death at the hands of Lycans, leading her to start a vengeful campaign against them, and that Michael's hallucinations are memories that Lucian passed down to him. Selene later manages to capture and abduct the Lycan scientist Singe, while the Lycans manage to capture Michael. While held captive in the Lycans' lair, Michael soon learns that Lucian was once in love with Viktor's daughter Sonja, and that Viktor murdered her after he discovered their forbidden affair. Lucian claims that Lycans were once slaves of vampires, and the war began when they rose up against them and fought for their freedom.

At the vampires' mansion, a captive Singe reveals that Selene was being honest about Kraven's betrayal, and he reveals why the Lycans want Michael: vampires and Lycans actually have a common ancestor, which Michael is a direct descendant of. As an heir to the legendary "Corvinus" bloodline, he carries a unique genetic strain that could allow him to become a vampire-werewolf hybrid, which Singe predicts will lack the weaknesses of both species. An angered Viktor then kills Singe and mobilizes the Death Dealers to raid the Lycan's lair to kill the remaining Lycans, including Michael. Meanwhile, en route to the mansion to awaken Marcus, vampire elder Amelia, the current ruler of the coven, is later ambushed and killed by Lycans, who have tracked her with the assistance of Kraven.

In the ensuing showdown between vampires and Lycans, Selene breaks into the Lycans' lair to rescue Michael. Kraven and Lucian turn on each other, and the former tells Selene that Viktor was the one who really murdered her family and only spared and mentored her due to being reminded of his daughter. Selene is forced to bite a fatally injured Michael, believing that her bite will make him an immortal vampire-werewolf hybrid, while Kraven shoots Lucian, killing him.

When Viktor arrives at the Lycans' lair after the battle, he admits to murdering Selene's parents and killing his daughter. He also insists that he killed Sonja for the good of his people and reveals she was pregnant with Lucian's child, an abomination in the eyes of the two species. Lastly, he claims that he made Selene immortal because he loved her and proceeds to fight the hybrid Michael. Initially overwhelmed by Michael's strength, Viktor eventually gets the upper hand and attempts to strangle him. Selene rouses from her disorientation and kills Viktor by beheading him with his sword. Now enemies of both vampires and Lycans, Selene and Michael flee the Lycans' lair together.

Back at the vampires' mansion, Marcus, now the sole surviving vampire elder, awakens after Singe's blood seeps into his sarcophagus.

Cast

 Kate Beckinsale as Selene, a Death Dealer
 Scott Speedman as Michael Corvin, a medical student who becomes a hybrid
 Bill Nighy as Viktor, the second most powerful of the vampire elders
 Michael Sheen as Lucian, the leader of the Lycans
 Shane Brolly as Kraven, a vampire noble who plots to kill the elders
 Erwin Leder as Singe, a Lycan scientist who plans with Lucian to make a hybrid creature
 Sophia Myles as Erika, a vampire courtesan who desires Kraven's favor
 Robbie Gee as Kahn, a vampire warrior who helps Selene
 Kevin Grevioux as Raze, Lucian's right-hand-man
 Zita Görög as Amelia, a vampire elder
 Scott McElroy as Soren, Kraven's henchman
 Wentworth Miller as Adam Lockwood, Michael's colleague
 Dennis Kozeluh as Dmitri
 Hank Amos as Nathaniel
 Sandor Bolla as Rigel
 Todd Schneider as Trix
 Jázmin Dammak as Sonja

Production

Development
In 2000, Danny McBride met Len Wiseman through Nick Reed, who was the agent for both of them with intent for them to work together on a script the former wrote. While the plans for that film fizzled out, they did set out a plan to work together. Kevin Grevioux had graduated from Howard University with a degree in microbiology, but he developed a desire to study film in cinematography and screenwriting. He dropped out of graduate studies and moved to Los Angeles, where he became an actor. He came up with the original concept for the film, which was inspired by Romeo and Juliet alongside his college studies, which based vampirism and lycanthropy on a viral mutagen rather than mythology. McBride and Wiseman soon stepped in to work on the script, which they soon set out to make a trilogy of films. Each received credit for their work on the film, and Grevioux also appeared in the film as an actor.

Legal controversy
The film was the subject of a copyright infringement lawsuit filed by White Wolf, Inc. and Nancy A. Collins, claiming the setting was too similar to the Vampire: The Masquerade and Werewolf: The Apocalypse games, both set in the World of Darkness setting, and to the Sonja Blue vampire novels. White Wolf filed 17 counts of copyright infringement, and claimed over 80 points of unique similarity between White Wolf's gaming systems and the film.  One of those points being that the vampires in Underworld "drink blood".  White Wolf, Inc. also said the script was very similar to a story entitled The Love of Monsters (1994), which they published, written by Nancy A. Collins. In September 2003, a judge granted White Wolf an expedited hearing. The lawsuit ended in a confidential settlement.

Soundtrack

The film's soundtrack was produced by Danny Lohner and distributed via Roadrunner Records.
Lohner (born 1970), a bass guitarist, guitarist, and keyboardist who has recorded with Nine Inch Nails and Marilyn Manson, contributed several songs to the soundtrack under the pseudonym Renholdër. Lohner included a song by Skinny Puppy, a Canadian industrial band; a song by The Dillinger Escape Plan, a US band which performs an aggressive, technical style of hardcore punk called mathcore; a song by US alternative rock/post-hardcore band Finch entitled "Worms of the Earth"; a song by The Icarus Line, a band known for its abrasive form of rock music; and Lisa Germano, an American singer/songwriter and multi-instrumentalist who specializes in alternative rock and dream pop.

Music critic Bill Aicher noted that the "soundtrack follow[s] in a similar gothic vein" to the visuals, and stated that it "does an excellent job setting the dark mood" by using "a veritable who's who in the genre", with an "impressive array of metal, hard rock, industrial, and otherwise gothic-themed tracks". Aicher noted that since "a majority of the selections [are] written, produced, or featuring Lohner, the album retains a sense of cohesion throughout, making it much more a complete product than has generally been the case with similarly-themed products." In particular, Aicher praised the rearrangement of David Bowie's "Bring Me the Disco King" (previously released in its original form on his studio album Reality earlier that month) as the soundtrack's strongest piece. This version of the song, which features Maynard James Keenan (from Tool and A Perfect Circle) and guitarist John Frusciante (of the Red Hot Chili Peppers), was praised by Aicher as "Dark, brooding, sad, and twitchy".

Track listing

Release

Box office
The film grossed $51,970,690 in the US and $95,708,457 worldwide.

Reception
Underworld has a 31% overall approval rating on film-critics' aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 161 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "Though stylish to look at, Underworld is tedious and derivative." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

Roger Ebert said, "This is a movie so paltry in its characters and shallow in its story that the war seems to exist primarily to provide graphic visuals" However, some critics were more favorable: the New York Daily News praised it as being "stylish and cruel, and mightily entertaining for certain covens out there".

Salon reviewer Andrew O'Hehir gave a mixed review, stating, "by any reasonable standard, this dark vampire epic — all massive overacting, cologne-commercial design and sexy cat suits — sucks," but that "at least it gives a crap", conceding that despite the movie's flaws, the complex vampire-werewolf mythology backstory "has been meticulously worked out".

Home media
Underworld was released on DVD and VHS on January 6, 2004 by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment.

Sequels and prequel
A sequel, titled Underworld: Evolution, in which Marcus fully awakens, was released January 20, 2006. The prequel Underworld: Rise of the Lycans, which gives more detail about the creation of the Lycan species and Lucian's hatred, was released January 23, 2009. A second sequel, Underworld: Awakening, was released on January 20, 2012, and a third sequel, Underworld: Blood Wars, was released on January 6, 2017.

See also
Vampire film

References

External links

2003 films
2003 horror films
2000s action horror films
American dark fantasy films
German action horror films
Hungarian horror films
English-language German films
English-language Hungarian films
1
Films shot in Hungary
Films shot in Budapest
Girls with guns films
Films set in Budapest
American films about revenge
Films shot in the Czech Republic
Lakeshore Entertainment films
Screen Gems films
Films directed by Len Wiseman
Films produced by Tom Rosenberg
Films produced by Gary Lucchesi
Films scored by Paul Haslinger
British vampire films
British werewolf films
Films involved in plagiarism controversies
British action horror films
American action horror films
2003 directorial debut films
American werewolf films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
2000s British films
2000s German films

Underworld (2003 film)


O  é um galardão anual de carácter honorífico entregue na Galiza, Espanha. Reconhece as contribuições culturais e galeguistas de diferentes figuras públicas, vivas ou falecidas muito recentemente. Promovido pela Fundação Otero Pedrayo, é entregue ininterruptamente desde 1983 na casa-museu do escritor em Trasalba, no Amoeiro.

Lista de laureados
 1983, Xaquín Lorenzo
 1984, Isidro Parga Pondal
 1985, Antón Fraguas
 1986, Valentín Paz-Andrade
 1987, Ramón Martínez López
 1988, Francisco Fernández del Riego
 1989, Miguel Anxo Araúxo Iglesias
 1990, Xosé Filgueira Valverde
 1991, Lois Tobío Fernández
 1992, Xaime Isla Couto
 1993, Isaac Díaz Pardo
 1994, Marino Dónega
 1995, Francisco Río Barxa
 1996, Pura Vázquez
 1997, Raimundo García Domínguez "Borobó"
 1998, Ricardo García Suárez "Xohán Ledo"
 1999, Carlos García Martínez
 2000, Xesús Alonso Montero
 2001, Xosé Luís Méndez Ferrín
 2002, Augusto Pérez Alberti
 2003, Andrés Torres Queiruga
 2004, Xosé Neira Vilas
 2005, Agustín Sixto Seco
 2006, Milladoiro (grupo musical)
 2007, John Rutherford
 2008, Olga Gallego
 2009, Xosé Manuel Beiras
 2010, Xosé Ramón Barreiro
 2011, Ramón Lorenzo
 2012, Antía Cal
 2013, Cristina Pato
 2014, Agustín Fernández Paz
 2015, Antón Pulido Novoa
 2016, Camilo Nogueira Román
 2017, Carlos Baliñas Fernández
 2018, Coral de Ruada
 2019, Luz Pozo Garza
 2020, Manuel García "Buciños"
 2021, María Victoria Carballo-Calero

Ver também
 Galeguismo
 Ramón Otero Pedrayo

Ligações externas
 http://fundacionoteropedrayo.org/relacion-de-premios/

Galeguismo

Prémio Trasalba


An Crepidium myosotis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Mark Alwin Clements ngan David Lloyd Jones. An Crepidium myosotis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Crepidium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Crepidium

Crepidium myosotis


An Elymus libanoticus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Eduard Hackel, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Aleksandre Melderis. An Elymus libanoticus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Elymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Elymus

Elymus libanoticus


George Nicholas Seger (* 4. Januar 1866 in New York City; † 26. August 1940 in Washington, D.C.) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1923 und 1940 vertrat er den Bundesstaat New Jersey im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
George Seger besuchte die öffentlichen Schulen seiner Heimat. Im Jahr 1899 kam er nach Passaic in New Jersey, wo er in der Baubranche arbeitete. Gleichzeitig begann er als Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei eine politische Laufbahn. Zwischen 1906 und 1911 gehörte er dem Bildungsausschuss von Passaic an; von 1911 bis 1919 war er Bürgermeister dieser Stadt. Im Jahr 1916 nahm er als Delegierter an der Republican National Convention in Chicago teil, auf der Charles Evans Hughes als Präsidentschaftskandidat nominiert wurde. In den Jahren 1917 und 1918 war Seger Präsident des Städtetags von New Jersey. Von 1919 bis 1923 war er Stadtkämmerer. Während des Ersten Weltkrieges gehörte er dem nationalen Verteidigungsrat an.

Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1922 wurde Seger im siebten Wahlbezirk von New Jersey in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1923 die Nachfolge von Amos H. Radcliffe antrat. Nach acht Wiederwahlen konnte er bis zu seinem Tod am 26. August 1940 im Kongress verbleiben. Seit 1933 vertrat er als Nachfolger von Fred A. Hartley den achten Distrikt seines Staates. Während seiner Zeit im Kongress wurden dort ab 1933 die meisten der New-Deal-Gesetze der Bundesregierung unter Präsident Franklin D. Roosevelt verabschiedet. Im Jahr 1933 wurden der 20. und der 21. Verfassungszusatz ratifiziert.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für New Jersey
Bürgermeister (Passaic)
Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1866
Gestorben 1940
Mann

George N. Seger


Hamandžići su naseljeno mjesto u općini Travnik, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, BiH.

Nalazi se sjeverozapadno od Travnika.

Stanovništvo

1991.

Nacionalni sastav stanovništva 1991. godine, bio je sljedeći:

ukupno: 501

 Muslimani - 497
 Srbi - 3
 ostali, neopredijeljeni i nepoznato - 1

2013.

Nacionalni sastav stanovništva 2013. godine, bio je sljedeći:

ukupno: 256

 Bošnjaci - 242
 Hrvati - 1
 ostali, neopredijeljeni i nepoznato - 13

Izvori

Naselja u županiji Središnja Bosna
Travnik

Hamandžići


Hone Taiapa, también conocido como John Taiapa (Ngati Porou, -), fue un escultor neozelandés, conocido por sus tallas de madera y sus trabajos de carpintería.

Vida y obras
Era el hermano menor del maestro tallador maorí, Pine Taiapa.  Los dos hermanos trabajaron estrechamente con el político Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata, en la reintroducción de la escultura Māori en la nación tras la segunda guerra mundial.  Ambos hombres, por ejemplo, demostraron las formas de talla Māori con la realización de las casas tradicionales en la isla Norte en la forma marae  como parte del programa del Departamento de Educación de Nueva Zelanda, para formar profesores que reintrodujesen las artes maorís en las escuelas infantiles. El poeta neozelandés Hone Tuwhare incluyó un poema acerca del tallador de madera, "On a theme by Hone Taiapa," en su colección de 1973, titulada bajo el título Something Nothing.

Lideró al equipo de escultores que tallaron la mayor parte de las piezas de Arohanui ki te Tangata en Lower Hutt, que fue inaugurado en septiembre de 1960.

Fue nombrado miembro de la Más Excelsa Orden del Imperio Británico en celebración del cumpleaños de la Reina de 1960.

Fue jefe del Instituto de Artes y Oficios Maorís de Nueva Zelanda, Escuela de Talla en  Whakarewarewa, Rotorua cuando abrió sus puertas en 1967.

Notas

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Escultores de Nueva Zelanda
Escultores del siglo XX
Maoríes
Ngāti Porou

Hone Taiapa


Vicente López Rosat (Valencia, 28 de abril de 1925 – íd., 10 de noviembre de 2003) fue un médico y político español, que desempeñó la alcaldía de Valencia desde 1969 a 1973.

Se especializó en neuropsiquiatría. Fue miembro de la Sociedad Española de Neuropsiquiatría, director del sanatorio psiquiátrico Padre Jofré de Valencia y jefe de servicio de psiquiatría de la Diputación de Valencia.

Adepto a Falange Española, con 17 años se alistó en la División Azul, y cuando volvió llegó a ser jefe del Sindicato Español Universitario (SEU) y jefe local del Movimiento Nacional. Durante unos años fue regidor de educación del Ayuntamiento. Fue nombrado alcalde de Valencia entre septiembre de 1969 y noviembre de 1973, y procurador en Cortes Españolas entre abril de 1970 y noviembre de 1973.

Durante su mandato se inauguró, el 22 de diciembre de 1969, el nuevo cauce del Turia, se urbanizó la devesa del Saler y se expropiaron las tierras para construir la Universidad Politécnica de Valencia.

En la década de 1960 enseñó la asignatura de Psiquiatría a varias promociones de Profesores de Pedagogía Terapéutica (EE) en la Escuela Normal del Magisterio de la Universidad de Valencia.

Fue nombrado Hijo adoptivo de Gestalgar, municipio que le honró dedicando el nombre de López Rosat a una de sus calles.

Hubo un colegio en la ciudad de Valencia con su nombre, que ahora se llama CEIP 8 de Març.

En el Parque de los Viveros de Valencia una rosaleda también llevaba su nombre hasta que cambió recientemente.

Referencias
 Biografías de políticos valencians
 Obituario en El País

Alcaldes de Valencia
Políticos de la Comunidad Valenciana
Miembros de la División Azul
Miembros de FET y de las JONS
Médicos de la Comunidad Valenciana
Procuradores de las Cortes franquistas
Alcaldes del Franquismo
Políticos de España del franquismo
Colegiales del Colegio Mayor Santa María de Europa
Miembros del Sindicato Español Universitario
IX Legislatura de las Cortes Españolas
X Legislatura de las Cortes Españolas
Nacidos en Valencia

Vicente López Rosat


Dögglingskvistur (fræðiheiti Spiraea douglasii) er skriðull hálfrunni af rósaætt. Hann er upphaflega frá norðvestur N-Ameríku.

Tilvísanir

 Dögglingskvistur (Lystigarður Akureyrar)

Dögglingskvistur


I-CAD est le nom du fichier national d'identification des chiens, des chats et des furets géré par Ingenium animalis en France depuis 2013.

Histoire
Issu de la création commune  entre la Société centrale canine, qui gérait la base d'identification des chiens, et le Syndical national des vétérinaire d'exercice libéral, qui gérait la base d'identification des chats et l'identification électronique via le SIEV, I-cad remporte un appel à candidature du ministère de l'Agriculture en 2012. Son fonctionnement débute au .

Missions et services

I-Cad agit pour le compte du ministère de l'Agriculture dans le cadre d'une délégation de service public depuis le .

L'identification est une obligation pour les chiens dès l'âge de  et de  pour les chats.
Le nombre de nouveaux enregistrements atteint 1,8 million en 2021.

La base de données d'I-CAD rassemble toutes les identifications réalisées grâce à des puces électroniques ou par tatouage sur le territoire français pour les chiens, les chats et les furets. Avec ces données, elle publie chaque année un baromètre sur les informations relatives à l'identification des animaux domestiques.

La base permet aux vétérinaires de saisir leurs actions sanitaires : surveillance des animaux mordeurs, suivi sanitaire des animaux importés, résultat des évaluations comportementales. Ces saisies sont consultables par les Directions départementales chargées de la santé animale.

La base I-CAD sert également à déclarer un animal perdu, trouvé, décédé ou à indiquer les changements de coordonnés du propriétaire d'un animal.

I-CAD a développé une application mobile et un site internet grand public et gratuits, Filalapat, destinés à déclarer plus facilement un animal vu, perdu ou trouvé. Elle permet également de prévenir le propriétaire d'un animal perdu de la capture de son animal, ou de le mettre en relation avec la personne ayant vu ou retrouvé son animal.

Financement
D'utilisation gratuite, I-CAD est financé par la vente de droits d'enregistrement.

Références

Liens externes

Identification animale
Fondation en 2013

I-CAD


Le parti Purba Banglar Sarbahara (Parti prolétarien du Bengale oriental) est un parti communiste du Bangladesh. Il a joué un rôle dans la lutte pour l'indépendance du pays. Au début des années 1970, il s'est engagé dans une lutte armée pour soutenir le nouvel État bangladais. Depuis lors, ses chances politiques se sont amenuisées, ayant souffert de plusieurs vagues de divisions internes. Le groupe reste actif, et mène toujours des attaques violentes contre ses opposants.

Origines
Le groupe est issu de la tendance pro-chinoise du mouvement communiste de l'ancien Pakistan oriental. En 1967,  avait créé le  à Dacca. Le centre a été attaqué physiquement par des cadres de la Jamaat-e-Islami à plusieurs reprises. Le , le groupe a formé le  (mouvement des travailleurs du Bengale oriental). La conférence fondatrice, qui s'est déroulée en une seule journée, s'est tenue dans la résidence d'un ouvrier d'une usine de jute à Dacca. De  du centre ont assisté à la conférence.

La ligne de cette tendance se distinguait clairement des autres groupements pro-chinois du Pakistan oriental de l'époque. La faction de Sikder considérait le Pakistan comme une puissance coloniale et voulait lutter pour la libération nationale du Bengale oriental et la formation d'une République démocratique du Bengale oriental. Cette position contrastait fortement avec la politique étrangère officielle, qui soutenait généralement le Pakistan contre l'Inde. Cette ligne était également plus radicale que celle du courant dominant du mouvement nationaliste bengali. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman dénonce la faction Sikder comme des .

Le groupe s'opposait également à l'impérialisme américain, au social-impérialisme soviétique, à l'expansionnisme indien et au féodalisme. Au milieu de l'année 1968, le mouvement a commencé à mener des actions souterraines. Leur première action a consisté à s'emparer d'une machine à imprimer cyclostyle, avec laquelle l'organe théorique du mouvement, Lal Jhanda, était imprimé. Le , le groupe a hissé le drapeau du Bengale oriental (l'actuel drapeau national du Bangladesh) à Dacca, Munshigonj et Mymensingh. Le , jour de l'anniversaire de Karl Marx, le groupe a lancé une bombe dans le bureau du Conseil du Pakistan à Dacca. En octobre de la même année, le groupe a attaqué à la bombe un certain nombre de bâtiments du Pakistan oriental, dont l'.

Guerre de libération
Lorsque la guerre de libération commence en 1971, la faction Sikder s'efforce de créer des cellules de résistance nationales. Le , ils ont fondé leur propre force paramilitaire, la  (force patriotique armée du Bengale oriental), qui a entamé une lutte armée contre l'armée pakistanaise. Ce groupement était notamment l'une des factions pro-chinoises qui ont pris une part active à la guerre de libération.  La ligne officielle de la Chine à l'époque était que le Bengale oriental faisait partie du Pakistan et que l'expansionnisme indien constituait la principale menace pour la région dans son ensemble. Toutefois, le groupe considérait le mouvement nationaliste dominant comme un ennemi de classe.

Le , le Purba Bangla Sarbahara Party est constitué en tant que parti politique lors d'une réunion dans le district de Barisal.

Post-indépendance
Après l'indépendance du Bangladesh, le PBSP est devenu l'un des principaux adversaires du nouveau gouvernement de la Ligue Awami, qu'il considérait comme des marionnettes indiennes. Le premier congrès du parti s'est tenu le , Sikder a été élu président du parti. En , le , une coalition de onze groupes, est formé. Sikder en est devenu le président. Après la formation du front, le parti a lancé une campagne de lutte armée contre l'État bangladais. Il a bénéficié d'un fort soutien dans les milieux universitaires. Il publie  (drapeau rouge) et Sangbad Bulletine. Bien qu'il s'agisse d'un mouvement clandestin, les publications de son comité central paraissaient assez régulièrement et son travail de propagande était efficace. Le parti était actif dans les districts de Dacca, Barisal, Faridpur, Mymensingh, Tangail, Chittagong, Sylhet et Comilla. Il a commis des assassinats de cadres de la Ligue Awami et des attaques contre des postes de police dans tout le pays.

Mort de Sikder
En , Siraj Sikder est capturé à Halishahar, Chittagong par les services de renseignement de l'État. Il a été tué de nuit le  près de la gare routière de Savar Thana, alors qu'il se rendait de l'aéroport de Dacca à un camp paramilitaire à Savar. Après la mort de Sikder, le parti s'est divisé en deux. Plus tard, ces deux factions se sont encore divisées. La principale faction était dirigée par le second de Siraj Sikder, Md. Hamidul Hoque, qui a pris les rênes du parti. Le groupe dissident rompt avec le maoïsme et adopte la ligne politique des communistes albanais. Ce groupe prendra plus tard le nom de Parti communiste du Bangladesh.

Présent
Le groupe actuel qui peut être considéré comme l'héritier du PBSP original est souvent appelé le « PBSP (Comité central) ». Le parti reste un groupe clandestin, et a un programme de révolution armée. Il est dirigé par Anwarul Kabir. Sa zone d'activités comprend les districts de Sirajganj, Bogra, Pabna, Rajshahi et Khulna. Le parti est affilié au Mouvement révolutionnaire internationaliste et à CCOMPOSA.

En 2001, un groupe s'est séparé du PBSP(CC) et a formé le Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party (mouvement de réorganisation bolchevique maoïste).

En , six cadres du PBSP ont été arrêtés avec des pistolets à pipe et des fusils de fabrication artisanale.

Références

Faction armée communiste
Parti communiste au Bangladesh
Organisation maoïste
Parti politique fondé en 1968

Parti Purba Banglar Sarbahara