Low German  is a West Germanic language spoken mainly in Northern Germany and the northeastern part of the Netherlands. The dialect of Plautdietsch is also spoken in the Russian Mennonite diaspora worldwide.

Low German is most closely related to Frisian and English, with which it forms the North Sea Germanic group of the West Germanic languages. Like Dutch, it has historically been spoken north of the Benrath and Uerdingen isoglosses, while forms of the High German language (of which Standard German is a standardized example) have historically been spoken south of those lines. Like Frisian, English, Dutch and the North Germanic languages, Low German has not undergone the High German consonant shift, as opposed to Standard High German, which is based on High German dialects. Low German evolved from Old Saxon (Old Low German), which is most closely related to Old Frisian and Old English (Anglo-Saxon).

The Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands are mostly referred to as Low Saxon, those spoken in northwestern Germany (Lower Saxony, Westphalia, Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, and Saxony-Anhalt west of the Elbe) as either Low German or Low Saxon, and those spoken in northeastern Germany (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony-Anhalt east of the Elbe) mostly as Low German, not being part of Low Saxon. This is because northwestern Germany and the northeastern Netherlands were the area of settlement of the Saxons (Old Saxony), while Low German spread to northeastern Germany through eastward migration of Low German speakers into areas with a Slavic-speaking population (Germania Slavica).

It has been estimated that Low German has approximately 1.6 million speakers in Germany, primarily Northern Germany, and 2.15 million in the Netherlands.

Geographical extent

Inside Europe

Germany

It has been estimated that Low German has approximately two to five million speakers (depending on the definition of 'native speaker') in Germany, primarily in Northern Germany.

Variants of Low German are spoken in most parts of Northern Germany, for instance in the states of Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt, and Brandenburg. Small portions of northern Hesse and northern Thuringia are traditionally Low Saxon-speaking too.
Historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts of Poland as well as in East Prussia and the Baltic provinces (modern Estonia and Latvia). The Baltic Germans spoke a distinct Low German dialect, which has influenced the vocabulary and phonetics of both Estonian and Latvian. The historical sprachraum of Low German also included contemporary northern Poland, East Prussia (the modern Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia), a part of western Lithuania, and the German communities in Estonia and Latvia, most notably their Hanseatic cities. German speakers in this area fled the Red Army or were forcibly expelled after the border changes at the end of World War II.

The language was also formerly spoken in the outer areas of what is now the city-state of Berlin, but in the course of urbanisation and national centralisation in that city, the language has vanished (the Berlin dialect itself is a northern outpost of High German, though it has some Low German features).

Today, there are still speakers outside Germany to be found in the coastal areas of present-day Poland (minority of ethnic German East Pomeranian speakers who were not expelled from Pomerania, as well as the regions around Braniewo). In the Southern Jutland region of Denmark there may still be some Low German speakers in some German minority communities, but the Low German dialects of Denmark can be considered moribund at this time.

The Netherlands
Dialects of Low German are spoken in the northeastern area of the Netherlands (Dutch Low Saxon) and are written there with an unstandardized orthography based on Standard Dutch orthography. The position of the language is, according to UNESCO, vulnerable. Between 1995 and 2011 the numbers of parent speakers dropped from 34% in 1995 to 15% in 2011. Numbers of child speakers dropped from 8% to 2% in the same period. According to a 2005 study 53% speak Low Saxon or Low Saxon and Dutch at home and 71% could speak it in the researched area. The total number of speakers is estimated at 1.7 million speakers. There are speakers in the Dutch north and eastern provinces of Groningen, Drenthe, Stellingwerf (part of Friesland), Overijssel, Gelderland, Utrecht and Flevoland, in several dialect groups per province.

Outside Europe and the Mennonites

There are also immigrant communities where Low German is spoken in the Western hemisphere, including Canada, the United States, Mexico, Belize, Venezuela, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. In some of these countries, the language is part of the Mennonite religion and culture. There are Mennonite communities in Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Kansas and Minnesota which use Low German in their religious services and communities. These Mennonites are descended from primarily Dutch settlers that had initially settled in the Vistula delta region of Prussia in the 16th and 17th centuries before moving to newly acquired Russian territories in Ukraine in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and then to the Americas in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The types of Low German spoken in these communities and in the Midwest region of the United States have diverged since emigration. The survival of the language is tenuous in many places, and has died out in many places where assimilation has occurred. Members and friends of the Historical Society of North German Settlements in western New York (Bergholz, New York), a community of Lutherans who trace their immigration from Pomerania in the 1840s, hold quarterly "Plattdeutsch lunch" events, where remaining speakers of the language gather to share and preserve the dialect. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, Belize, and Chihuahua, Mexico, have made Low German a "co-official language" of the community.

East Pomeranian is also spoken in parts of southern and southeastern Brazil, in the latter especially in the state of , being official in five municipalities, and spoken among its ethnically European migrants elsewhere, primarily in the states of Rio de Janeiro and . East Pomeranian-speaking regions of Southern Brazil are often assimilated into the general German Brazilian population and culture, for example celebrating the , and there can even be a language shift from it to  in some areas. In , nevertheless, Pomeranian Brazilians are more often proud of their language, and particular religious traditions and culture, and not uncommonly inheriting the nationalism of their ancestors, being more likely to accept marriages of its members with Brazilians of origins other than a Germanic Central European one than to assimilate with Brazilians of Swiss, Austrian, Czech, and non-East Pomeranian-speaking German and Prussian heritage – that were much more numerous immigrants to both Brazilian regions (and whose language almost faded out in the latter, due to assimilation and internal migration), by themselves less numerous than the Italian ones (with only Venetian communities in areas of highly Venetian presence conserving Talian, and other Italian languages and dialects fading out elsewhere).

Nomenclature

The language grouping of Low German is referred to, in the language itself as well as in its umbrella languages of German and Dutch, in several different ways, ranging from official names such as Niederdeutsche and Nederduits to more general characterisations such as "dialect". The proliferation of names or characterisations is due in part to the grouping stretching mainly across two different countries and to it being a collection of varieties rather than a standardised language.

There are different uses of the term "Low German":

 A specific name of any West Germanic varieties that neither have taken part in the High German consonant shift nor classify as Low Franconian or Anglo-Frisian; this is the scope discussed in this article.
 A broader term for the closely related, continental West Germanic languages unaffected by the High German consonant shift, nor classifying as Anglo-Frisian, and thus including Low Franconian varieties.

In Germany, native speakers of Low German call their language , , , , ,  (South-Westphalian),  (Eastphalian),  (Low Prussian), or . In the Netherlands, native speakers refer to their language as , , , or the name of their village, town or district.

Officially, Low German is called  or  (Nether or Low German language),  or  (Nether or Low German) in High German by the German authorities,  (Nether or Low German language),  or  (Nether or Low German) in Low German by the German authorities and  (Nether or Low Saxon) by the Dutch authorities. ,  and ,  are seen in linguistic texts from the German and Dutch linguistic communities respectively.

In Danish it is called ,  or, rarely, . Mennonite Low German is called .

"Low" refers to the flat plains and coastal area of the northern European lowlands, contrasted with the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, where High German (Highland German) is spoken. Etymologically however, Platt meant "clear" in the sense of a language the simple people could understand. In Dutch, the word  can also mean "improper", "rude" or "too simple" which is why the term is not popular in the Netherlands.

The colloquial term  denotes both Low German dialects and any non-standard Western variety of German; this use is chiefly found in northern and Western Germany and is not considered to be linguistically correct.

The ISO 639-2 language code for Low German has been nds ( or ) since May 2000.

Classification

Low German is a part of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum. To the West, it blends into the Low Franconian languages, including Dutch. A distinguishing feature between the Low Franconian varieties and Low German varieties is the plural of the verbs. Low German varieties have a common verbal plural ending, whereas Low Franconian varieties have a different form for the second person plural. This is complicated in that in most Low Franconian varieties, including standard Dutch, the original second-person plural form has replaced the singular. Some dialects, including again standard Dutch, innovated a new second-person plural form in the last few centuries, using the other plural forms as the source.

To the South, Low German blends into the High German dialects of Central German that have been affected by the High German consonant shift. The division is usually drawn at the Benrath line that traces the  –  isogloss.

To the East, it abuts the Kashubian language (the only remnant of the Pomeranian language) and, since the expulsion of nearly all Germans from the Polish part of Pomerania following the Second World War, also by the Polish language.
East Pomeranian and Central Pomeranian are dialects of Low German.

To the North and Northwest, it abuts the Danish and the Frisian languages. In Germany, Low German has replaced the Danish and Frisian languages in many regions. Saterland Frisian is the only remnant of East Frisian language and is surrounded by Low German, as are the few remaining North Frisian varieties, and the Low German dialects of those regions have influences from Frisian substrates.

Most linguists classify the dialects of Low German together with English and Frisian as the North Sea Germanic or Ingvaeonic languages. However, most exclude Low German from the group often called Anglo-Frisian languages because some distinctive features of that group of languages are only partially preserved in Low German, for instance the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law  (some dialects have us,  for "us" whereas others have , ), and because other distinctive features almost do not occur in Low German at all, for instance the palatalization and assibilation of  (compare palatalized forms such as English cheese, Frisian  to non-palatalized forms such as Low German  or , Dutch , German  but Low German Sever/Sebber while German Käfer) However, since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German and especially in its older language stages, there is a tendency to prefer the Ingvaeonic classification instead of the Anglo-Frisian one, which also takes Low German into account. Because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence early on and therefore lost many Ingvaeonic features that were to be found much more extensively in earlier language states.

Language or dialect
The question of whether today's Low German should be considered a separate language or a dialect of German or even Dutch has been a point of contention. Although Low German is mostly regarded as an independent language linguistics offers no simple, generally accepted criterion to decide the question.

Scholarly arguments have been put forward for classifying Low German as a German dialect. As stated above, the arguments are not linguistic but rather sociopolitical and revolve mainly around the fact that Low German has no official standard form or use in sophisticated media. The situation of Low German may thus be considered a "pseudo-dialectized abstand language" (""). In contrast, Old Saxon and Middle Low German are generally considered separate languages in their own right. Since Low German has strongly declined since the 18th century, the perceived similarities with High German or Dutch may often be direct adaptations from the dominating standard language, resulting in a growing inability by speakers to speak correctly what was once Low German proper.

Others have argued for the independence of today's Low German dialects, taken as continuous outflow of the Old Saxon and Middle Low German tradition. Glottolog classifies six varieties of Low German as distinct languages based on a low degree of mutual intelligibility. Eastern Low German and Plautdietsch are classified as part of Greater East Low German, while Eastphalian, Westphalic, and the North Low Saxon languages, German Northern Low Saxon and Gronings, are classified as part of West Low German.

Legal status
Low German has been recognized by the Netherlands and by Germany (since 1999) as a regional language according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Within the official terminology defined in the charter, this status would not be available to a dialect of an official language (as per article 1a), and hence not to Low German in Germany if it were considered a dialect of German. Advocates of the promotion of Low German have expressed considerable hope that this political development will at once lend legitimacy to their claim that Low German is a separate language, and help mitigate the functional limits of the language that may still be cited as objective criteria for a mere dialect (such as the virtually complete absence from legal and administrative contexts, schools, the media, etc.).

At the request of Schleswig-Holstein, the German government has declared Low German as a regional language. German offices in Schleswig-Holstein are obliged to accept and handle applications in Low German on the same footing as Standard High German applications. The  ruled in a case that this was even to be done at the patent office in Munich, in a non–Low German region, when the applicant then had to pay the charge for a translator, because applications in Low German are considered not to be written in the German language.

Varieties of Low German

 Low Saxon () or West Low German ()
 East Frisian Low Saxon
 Northern Low Saxon
 Holsteinian (Holsteinisch)
 Schleswigian (Schleswigsch)
 Dithmarsch (Dithmarsisch)
 North Hanoverian (Nordhannoversch)
 Emslandish (Emsländisch)
 Oldenburgish (Oldenburgisch)
 Gronings and Noord-Drents
 Hogelandsters
 Oldambtsters
 Stadsgronings
 Veenkoloniaals
 Westerkwartiers
 Kollumerpompsters
 Kollumerlands
 Middaglands
 Midden-Westerkwartiers
 Zuid-Westerkwartiers
 Westerwolds
 Westphalian ()
 Westmünsterländisch
 Münsterländisch
 South Westphalian ()
 East Westphalian ()
 Stellingwerfs
 Drents
 Midden-Drents
 Zuid-Drents
 Twents
 Twents-Graafschaps
 Twents
 Gelders-Overijssels
 Achterhoeks
 Sallands
 Oost-Veluws (partly classified as Veluws)
 Urkers
 Veluws
 Oost-Veluws (partly classified as Gelders-Overijssels)
 West-Veluws
 Eastphalian ()
 East Low German ()

 Central Pomeranian ()
 East Pomeranian ()
 Low Prussian ()
  (Mennonite Low German, used also in many other countries)

History

Old Saxon

Old Saxon (), also known as Old Low German (), is a West Germanic language. It is documented from the 9th century until the 12th century, when it evolved into Middle Low German. It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany by Saxon peoples. It is closely related to Old Anglo-Frisian (Old Frisian, Old English),  partially participating in the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law.

Only a few texts survive, predominantly in baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of Charlemagne. The only literary texts preserved are Heliand and the Old Saxon Genesis.

Middle Low German

The Middle Low German language () is an ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1600. The neighbouring languages within the dialect continuum of the West Germanic languages were Middle Dutch in the West and Middle High German in the South, later substituted by Early New High German. Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, spoken all around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. It had a significant influence on the Scandinavian languages and other languages around the Baltic Sea. Based on the language of Lübeck, a standardized written language was developing, though it was never codified.

Contemporary
There is a distinction between the German and the Dutch Low Saxon/Low German situation.

Germany
After mass education in Germany in the 19th and 20th centuries, the slow decline which Low German had been experiencing since the end of the Hanseatic League turned into a free fall. The decision to exclude Low German in formal education was not without controversy, however. On one hand, proponents of Low German advocated that since it had a strong cultural and historical value and was the native language of students in northern Germany, it had a place in the classroom. On the other hand, High German was considered the language of education, science, and national unity, and since schools promoted these values, High German was seen as the best candidate for the language of instruction.

Initially, regional languages and dialects were thought to limit the intellectual ability of their speakers. When historical linguists illustrated the archaic character of certain features and constructions of Low German, this was seen as a sign of its "backwardness". It was not until the efforts of proponents such as Klaus Groth that this impression changed. Groth's publications demonstrated that Low German was a valuable language in its own right, and he was able to convince others that Low German was suitable for literary arts and was a national treasure worth keeping.

Through the works of advocates like Groth, both proponents and opponents of Low German in formal education saw the language's innate value as the cultural and historical language of northern Germany. Nevertheless, opponents claimed that it should simply remain a spoken and informal language to be used on the street and in the home, but not in formal schooling. In their opinion, it simply did not match the nationally unifying power of High German. As a result, while Low German literature was deemed worthy of being taught in school, High German was chosen as the language of scholarly instruction. With High German the language of education and Low German the language of the home and daily life, a stable diglossia developed in Northern Germany. Various Low German dialects are understood by 10 million people, but many fewer are native speakers. Total users of Low German (nds) are approximately 2.5 million, with 300,000 native speakers in Brazil and 1,000 in Germany as of 2016.

The KDE project supports Low German (nds) as a language for its computer desktop environment, as does the GNOME Desktop Project. Open-source software has been translated into Low German; this used to be coordinated via a page on SourceForge, but as of 2015, the most active project is that of KDE.

Netherlands
In the early 20th century, scholars in the Netherlands argued that speaking dialects hindered language acquisition, and it was therefore strongly discouraged. As education improved, and mass communication became more widespread, the Low Saxon dialects further declined, although decline has been greater in urban centres of the Low Saxon regions. When in 1975 dialect folk and rock bands such as Normaal and  became successful with their overt disapproval of what they experienced as "misplaced Dutch snobbery" and the Western Dutch contempt for (speakers of) Low Saxon dialects, they gained a following among the more rurally oriented inhabitants, launching Low Saxon as a sub-culture. They inspired contemporary dialect artists and rock bands, such as , , ,
Nonetheless, the position of the language is vulnerable according to UNESCO.  Low Saxon is still spoken more widely than in Northern Germany. Efforts are made in Germany and in the Netherlands to protect Low German as a regional language.

Phonetic and grammatical changes
As with the Anglo-Frisian and North Germanic languages, Low German has not been influenced by the High German consonant shift except for old  having shifted to . Therefore, a lot of Low German words sound similar to their English counterparts. One feature that does distinguish Low German from English generally is final devoicing of obstruents, as exemplified by the words 'good' and 'wind' below. This is a characteristic of Dutch and German as well and involves positional neutralization of voicing contrast in the coda position for obstruents (i.e. t = d at the end of a syllable.) This is not used in English except in the Yorkshire dialect, where there is a process known as Yorkshire assimilation.

For instance: water , later , bit , dish , ship , pull , good , clock , sail , he , storm , wind , grass , hold , old .

The table below shows the relationship between Low German consonants which were unaffected by this chain shift and their equivalents in other West Germanic languages. Contemporary Swedish and Icelandic shown for comparison; Eastern and Western North Germanic languages, respectively.

Notes:
* High German  is a loanword from Low German
** The series –, etc. are cognates, not semantic equivalents. The meanings of some of these words have shifted over time. For example, the correct equivalent term for "wife" in modern Dutch, German and Swedish is ,  and  respectively; using ,  or  for a human is considered archaic in Swedish and nowadays derogatory in Dutch and German, comparable to "wicked girl". No cognate to  /  /  has survived in English (compare Old English  "lady"; the English word frow "woman, lady" rather being a borrowing of the Middle Dutch word).
*** Pronounced shepp since the 17th century

Like English and Frisian, Low German is part of the North Sea Germanic languages and therefore has so-called Ingwäonisms. However, these are not distributed equally regionally everywhere. Some dialects have more and others fewer of these features, which sometimes only occur in older forms of language and only leave relics in modern Low German.

Grammar

Generally speaking, Low German grammar shows similarities with the grammars of Dutch, Frisian, English, and Scots, but the dialects of Northern Germany share some features (especially lexical and syntactic features) with German dialects.

Personal pronouns

The following table tries to reflect the linguistic situation of the individual dialects as diverse as possible and to name as many case forms of the respective pronouns, but it is not able to do justice to every dialect. So the pronoun of the third person singular feminine can be pronounced as follows: se(e), sey, soi, etc. Only one of these variants can be found in the table. This also applies to all other pronouns.

Verbs
In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number, and tense. There are five tenses in Low German: present tense, preterite, perfect, and pluperfect, and in Mennonite Low German the present perfect which signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. For example, "", "I am come", means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.

Unlike Dutch, High German, and southern Low German, the northern dialects form the past participle without the prefix ge-, like the Scandinavian languages, Frisian and English. Compare northern Low German  to the German past participle . This past participle is used with the auxiliary verbs hewwen/hebben "to have" and wesen/sin/sien "to be". When the past participle ends with -en or in a few oft-used words like west (been).

Similar to English and Dutch, the subjunctive has been lost in most Low German dialects. Instead, it is formed byusing the indicative forms of the past tense and the pluperfect tense. Whether a tense or a mode form is present can only be determined from the factual context of a sentence.

However, compared to most other dialects, the Westphalian dialect has preserved an extremely complex conjugation of strong verbs with subjunctive:

There is also a progressive form of verbs in present, corresponding to the same in the Dutch language.
It is formed with wesen (to be), the preposition an (at) and dat (the/it).

 1 Instead of wesen, sien (to be) Saxon uses doon (to do) to make to present continuous.
 2 Many see the n as an old dative ending of dat which only occurs when being shortened after prepositions. This is actually the most frequently-used form in colloquial Low German.
 3 This form is archaic and mostly unknown to Low German speakers. It is the same pattern as in the English example "I am making." The present participle has the same form as the infinitive: maken is either "to make" or "making".

In the very south of the East Westphalian language area, the original gerund of the West Germanic languages has been preserved:

Adjectives
The forms of Low German's adjectives are distinct from other closely related languages such as German and English. These forms fall somewhere in between these two languages. As in German, the adjectives in Low German may make a distinction between singular and plural to agree with the nouns that they modify, as well as between the three genders, between the nominative and oblique cases and between indefinite (weak) and definite (strong) forms. However, there is a lot of variation in that respect and some or all of these distinctions may also be absent, so that a single undeclined form of the adjective can occur in all cases, as in English. This is especially common in the neuter. If the adjective is declined, the pattern tends to be as follows:

As mentioned above, alternative undeclined forms such as dat lütt Land, de lütt Lannen, en stark Kerl, de stark Kerl, stark Kerls, de stark Kerls etc. can occur.

Nouns

The Westphalian dialects have also preserved the so-called dative -e. In Middle Low German times, nouns whose genitive form ended in (e)s were formed in the dative case, in which an additional -e was added to the end of the word. Although the genitive has died out and is only preserved in fixed idioms, the dative -e has been preserved.

Phonology

Consonants

A common feature of the Low German speaking dialects, is the retraction of / / to .
The sound [] can occur as an allophone of // among dialects.
// and // can have allophones as [] and [].
// can be articulated as uvular [] among Northern dialects and younger speakers.
 The sound // can also be realized as fricative or affricate sounds [~~], [], in word-initial position.

Vowels

 [] and [] can occur as allophones of // and //.
Vowel backness of // to [] may also occur among dialects.

 [] can be heard as an allophone of // within diphthongs.
Long phonemes //, //, //, occur mostly in the Geest dialects, while in other dialects, they may be realized as diphthongs.

Writing system
Low German is written using the Latin alphabet. There is no official standard orthography, though there are several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines. Those in the Netherlands are mostly based on Dutch orthography and may vary per dialect region, and those in Germany mostly follow German orthography. To the latter group belongs the orthography devised by Johannes Sass. It is mostly used by modern official publications and internet sites, especially the Low German Wikipedia. This diversity, a result of centuries of official neglect and suppression, has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level.  Interregional and international communication is severely hampered by this. Most of these systems aim at representing the phonetic (allophonic) output rather than underlying (phonemic) representations.

For several years now, however, the so called Nysassiske Skryvwyse ("New Saxon Spelling") has been enjoying popularity within Low German language activism, which was developed by the activist group of the same name, including the communication scientist and operator of the Lower Saxon internet magazine Wearldspråke Martin Ter Denge.

The following text is written in the Nysassiske Skryvwyse.

"Wy sint en gruppe neddersassiskspråkige lüde twüsken 15 un 38 uut Grönningen, Neddersassen, Oustwestfålen, Sleeswyk-Holsteyn, dat Suderland, Twente un de Veluwe. Wy hebbet uns binnennets kennen leyrd un wulden dår gemeynskaplike projekten, eks. to dat öäversetten van äpps un websteaden nå uns språke uptrekken.

Dårby markeden wy, wat doch uns barg an regionaal afwyken skryvwysen vöär en hindernis is vöär öäverregionaal un grensöäverstryden tosamenarbeid. Dårvöär begunnen wy anvang 2017 en gemeynskaplike skryvwyse uut to warken, dee souveale neddersassiske dialekten as möäglik afdekken skal. De uutkumst köänet jy up disse websteade seen.

De Nysassiske Skryvwyse skal en brügge weasen twüsken alle vorsküllen regionalen skryvwysen in uns språkgebeed un soudännig skrivtlike öäverregionale un grensöäverstryden kommunikatioon in uns språke vorlichteren.

Dit skal wysen, dat de neddersassiske språke ni man vöär olde vortellings in den eygen dörpskontekst dögt, man dat see lüde öäver en wyde regioon vorbinden deit un en leavendigen deyl van den modernen aldag is. Sünderlik wy junge lüde sint minder bunden an den eygen heimaadplakken un kommuniceret binnennets vaken med lüde van anderweagens – ouk med neddersassiskspreaken lüde uut ander landen.

Upto wüllet wy gaern språkuutbouw vöärandryven, dit heyt, den woordvöärråd uutbouwen vöär nye domainen, dat eyn neddersassisk in alle leavenssituationen as en normale språke bruken kan un ni de heyle tyd düütske or nedderlandske leynwöörde twüskenskuven mut, dee de grensöäverstryden vorståbårheid vorswåret. Blangen de skryvwyse sülven maket wy ouk poosts öäver de neddersassiske språke almeyn un ander mindertalspråken."

Written Language Examples

East-Westphalian
(German spelling)

Häi, hault maol!" reip de Schaiper den beiden Naowerjunges taou, de just nan Faile förn, "ick mott ju eiys wat votelln". "Brr! Wat gifft denn nijes?" fraogen de beiden. "Jä, voschrecket ju män nich!" fenk de Schaiper an, "out jun House kümp baule en Lêik. Ick hä vüörge Nacht seiyen, at de Mester in jun Backs en Sark maouk" "Hässe sieker in Babylon singen haot", lachen en de beiden out.

Kuotte Têit dorup waord de Var van de beiden krank un starv. De Mester quam ton Sark maken. Hüwelbank un Brä stün'n uppe Diäl: De Schaiper söll doch nich sin'n Willn häm'm. Auk waord'n Mester na ansägt, den Sark up kenne annern Stêie aose uppe Diäl färrig to maken. – Uppe Diäl aower wast döüster un binauet, un de Mester männ baule: " Wat de dauern Junges wull daobêi hätt, at ik den Sark hêier maken sall, in'n Backs geiht't doch viel biätter." He packe sick de gansen Saken uppe Kaorn, schauf daomet nan Backse un arbêije hêier wüdder.

Wo dao de beidn Junges, de na Kaounitz wän wörn, uppn Hoff quaim, trum'm se ährn eigen Augen nich: Aolles, wat de Schaiper seiyen ha, was indruopen.

South Westphalian
(German spelling)

Wamme' ter waterporten rut'r geet, üewwer baie brüggen, tem Feer'l rop'r, as wamme no Walmerich wöll, bi den Hospitöler—böümen owwer siek links häld un den biarg gerade rop stieget, do op" dann dian wiagg inschled, dai no Bremge fö'erd: so süht me in ener ecke en steenhoup, dai noch en wennig 'ner müre glieket. Düesse steenhoup was fiar tien' en sloatt', un op diam sloatte wu'nde de Beer'Ikhus, diamme no" sloatt un üemmegie ggend Beer Ikhusen" hedden. Domols gong hiehiar en haupwiagg, fiell befo'ert, berien' un ren, noch mehr bi nachd. Dann lachdel Beer'lIkhus op der luer, strofte wat kam, lüe te bego'n. So siekker amme dage dai wiagg was, so unsiekker wor hai, wann 't owend woll faute', fo'er-unkoup-lüe". Unger den wiaggen harre dai droot" li'en. Kam 'ne kare oder en piard ferbi, so toug dai droot 'ne schelle, dai op'm sloatte hong: dann Beer'lkhus foord op un futt". Wollen se ne packen, sou verlousen se balle si'n spuar, dann hai harre si' nen piarren de isern verkaard unger den beenen; wann se mainden, hai wör op sinem sloatte, so was hai ganz wo anders, un wann sai ian ganz wo anders glowwten, was hai ter hemen. Et kamen klagen üewwer klagen no Attendor'n, – un diam üewwel mochte afholpen weren. Lange tiet woll 't nit gero'n, bit in der kristnachd. Me harre utspickeleerd, dat Beer'Ikhus nachd no Hellen" in de kiarke wöll. Indiamme nu ene afdeelunge no Beer'lkhusen toug, det sloatt in brand staak un plünderde, warde dai andere afdeelunge op'm biarge op den Beer lkhus. Do küemmet'e van Hellen terrügge, si'ne fraue süht Beer'lkhusen in hellen flammen, sloatt ies verewiged se brannte woren, ,,o elend, o elend!" Do slott kugein sai un Beer Ikhus doud. Dai bit innen grund af. De ghüdder follen an Attendor'n. dann noch zunders hed dat stücke, wo düet geschog,"et elend". Et sloatt brannte bit innen grund af. De ghüdder follen an Attendor'n.

Westphalian Dialect of the County of Bentheim
("West Overiessel Spelling)

Round um mij to bleuiden houndeblomen, botterblomen, zoerblaa en anner gewas. Um mij to zoemden en broemden de iemen en als reuk zoa hearlijk mooi. Up 't water van 'n kolk heurde ik of en to 'n paar einten snadern en in 't leuis [riet] zeuink 'ne reetmusse. Anners was 't heelmoals stil um mij to. Dan heurde ik up 't moal een zacht gerusse in 't grös. 'ne Eweldasse kwam up mij an. Ik bleef heel stil zitten um dat dearken nich to verschrikken. Up 'ne schiere zaundstee höl 't up an, misschien um zik to zunnen. Joa, hier bleef et en reurde zik nich mear. Dat keump mij good topasse. Noew kun ik mij dat kroepdear eem good bekieken. Ziene hoed was greun-broen met witte stippen drup. De bene wassen zoa raa ofknikt en ze schienden mij at of ze wal slim kot wassen, want et lief raakte up de ground. Wal hoast een half uur heb ik et gedullig bij dat dearken oethollen.

Eastphalian
"Spelling of "Ostfälische Bibliothek"

Wöi wüllt ja tau jök reoverkumen, aver wöi hevvet
neine Töid", säe möine Friu, "diu weist doch eok, dat
möin H. nich mäier sau giud tau Faute is. Vor twei
Wecken herre hei wier Weidoge, un ek säe tau üene, hei
schall nich sauviel arbeien. Hei wolle nich up mek
hüeren. Wöi saiht üsch dann morgen. Gistern wüeren
Luie in'n Derpe, däi wollen Swöine koipen."

"Spelling of 'Ostfälische Bibliothek' "

Harwest

Dä Bööme pustert sick wat tau: "Sömmer wörr lang, bettchen Rauh', bettchen Rauh'.Greun hät wi lange nauch ehat, bunt sall't nu weern". "Ja geiht denn dat?" Sau fröcht sau'n junken Berekenbusch. "Nich oppen mal, nich oppen Rusch," – daropp dä groote oole Eike –"sachte, sachte, dat't Greun denn ook weike.Wi will't vorrdieln, wer fänget anne? Ook dä lüttje Bereke is dranne."Dä Bööme under sick maakt uut –wer sick nu wat un wieveel druut.Jähl will dä Läreke weern, licht un helle,un ook dä Eller meld'sick glieks tau Stelle.Öhr Anlijjen: "Mott Gries, Sülwer un Swarrt mang sien, un witte Plecke sünd ook noch mien." Dä Vojjelbeere kiekt un will't nu wetten: "Ro'e Döne döört jie nich vorrjetten. Sauveel un sau rare, wie't davon jiwwt, dä blinkert un lücht - kein öbber bliwwt.""Dat seih ick ook," föllt de Ahoorn in,"ick un miene veeln Jeswisterkin!"Dä Beukenboom, düsse lanke slanke, sien Stamm is ümmer sau glatt un blanke, will sei alle, dä bunten Döne – un lacht: "Bruun datau, hät jie da anne dacht?" "Sluute mick an," hört'en en Eikenboom sejjen, "ick kann ook veel bunt Loof anlejjen. Jähl, un bruun, sülwern, ro'un mengeleert, nu wieset ju Farm'– unvorrfehrt. Von wieten sall'n uns lüchten seihn – wär't süht, sall sick von Harzen freun!"

Schleswigsch
("Sass – Ergänzende Schreibweise")

Wi gungen dool no de Stöörwischen, Jehann-Ōhm un ik.
Mien Vedder Hans hârr dor ėn hâlf Dutz Jitten lōpen dėn
Summer över, un hē hârr sō veel mit de Oorn tō dōōn, datt
hē sik um de lütten Bēēster ni kümmern kunn. Dat wēēr dat
rechte Oornwedder. Hier un dor drēēv ėn witte Wulk, de
Westwind broch ėn lütte Kȫhlen mit un wēēǧ de Ellern
an Grȫȫv un Beek liesen hėn un her. Op de
Wischen grosen Jungvēēh, Melkkȫh un Töten mit
süm Fohlen. Ėn Hârder wēēr dor ni bi, brēde,
blanke Grȫḃen hegen süm in, datt süm ni
wieken kunnen.
De Ōl' lēēp as ėn Tüüt, ėn gōden
Gang dä ėm nix, un sien grōten, klōken Ōgen worrn dor âllns
bi wies.
"Kiek, lütt' Dōris", sä hē opmool un wies no ėn
Slupplock. "Loot uns hėngohn, de Dēērn
muttst du di mool ansēhn."

East Frisian Low German
(East Frisian Spelling)

Däi lütje Hevelman -Theodor Storm – 0nno Dirk Feldmann

Dat was insent 'n lütje fent un däi hēt fan Hēvelman. 'S nachts slēp häi in 'n grôt rullenbäer un ōk 's nóómiddağs, dō häi möej was. Man wen häi näit sō möej was, mus sīn mauder hum d'r in in d' dörns umforen un d'r kun häi nōjt nauğ fan krīgen.

Dō lağ däi lütje Hēvelman up äin nacht in sīn rullenbäer un kun näit inslóópen, man däi mauder slēp al lâng tēgen hum up d' grôt berstē. Man däi hār fær häil stîf bäien un ōk häil ğīn rullen, düs dat 'n hēmelberstē was.

"Mauder", rēp däi lütje Hēvelman, "ik wil foren!" Un däi mauder langde in d' slóóp höör ārm tau 't bäer ūt un rulde däi lütje berstē up un dóól. Altīd up un dóól un dō höör ārm möej wur, rēp däi lütje Hēvelman: "Mēr, mēr!" Un dō gung dat rullen wēr fan näjs tau. Man up 't läest slēp säi häilundal un sō fööl Hēvelman ōk gilpen muğ, säi höörde niks.

'T was sğier dóón. - Dō dürs dat näit lâng, dō kēk däi móón tau d' rūden in. Däi gâud oel móón un wat häi dō sağ was sō putserğ, dat häi sük ērst insent mit sīn pelsmauen ōwer 't siecht strēk, sük sīn ōgen tau wiskern, sō wat hār däi oel móón sīn lēvend näit säin.

East Pomeranian

(unknown spelling)

De fest

Ik kün min fruch im béa ni fina,
zái láich ni fóa, zái láich ni hína.
Ik náim a béssam un rakt álas dóa
dun láibs mi tíscha báina dóa.

Ik nêicht min fruch tam nam fest hen móka,
zái zéa ni nêi, zái vu bits schlópa.
Ik zéia ta é kumas mit schên fruch,
véia tus bliva ik ni in ruch.
Un vi móka lôus na dem grôuda fest
Vôua féel vila zínha
un dái muskandas schpéla zêia
un min fruch dáu ik véra nich fina.

Vili, Víli Lindeman, drink ma nich zôu fel,
zíza, zíza krist schacht mit áin béssam schtel.
Vili, Vili Lindeman, trek din hôuza schtram,
zíza vets vat di passira kan. Ha! Ha! Ha!

(Transcription in Tressmann's spelling)

The letter combination in is not realized as a diphtong as in Dutch, but corresponds to a simple [i], like the English "e" in "evening".

Mij häwa 's forteld dat fel fon ous lüür dai saitung ni leesa. Un dat schal dår an leiga, dat fel dai
pomersch språk ni eindig forståa. Wek haara al meint, då müüst wat up pomersch språk sreewa
waara. Åwer wat lount uk dat hochdüütsch? Dat sin jå uk ni meir fel wat dat no koina. Ik häw
mij oiwerlegt un frågt: wouwegen ni up pomersch srijwa? Dat jå, dat is ous språk, dat forståa
wij ala. Wen dat ous språk is, wouweega schoila's wij ni benutsa? Natürlich, dat srijwen is går
ni sou einfach, weegen wij häwa kain gramatik. Wekmål wet man ni wek wöir srijwa schal.
Åwer dat wichtigst is, mein ik, dat wij ous forståa, wen 't ouk wekmålmeir krum ruuter kümt.
Am forståen, dår schal 't ni an leiga. Ik wait dat vel lüür sich up platdüütsch braiws srijwa,
tüscha hijr um Rondonia. Ik häw al sou går souna braiw lest un dat wäir gaud taum forståen.
Dat is air saichen dat dai lüür sich dreigen forståa. Sou as dat haita däit: wer kaine hund hät,
jacht mit ein kat.
Åwer loowa jij mij: wen man sich richtig oiwerlegt, is dat går ni richtig dat wij ous språk
as "quebra-galo" forståa! Ik waar ma's sega wouweegen: ous språk hät grår
sou aina weird ås irgends ain anerd språk. Jera folk hät sijn språk. Un wij, pomersch folk häwa
dat recht taum ous språk behulen. Dår is kair, wat ous dat forbaira kan. Dår is ouk kair wat dat
recht hät, ous utlachen un utspoten, wen wij ous språk reera un srijwa. Wen ous pråk ni eird
waart, dat is grår sou fel as wen dat folk ni eird waart. Dår is dai häka. Dat pomersch folk, sou
as ouk fel andra klain folker, is ümer meir ina ek schoowa wuura. Fijna jij dat richtig? Wår mag
dat an leiga? Anerd mål mäka wij ous dår wijrer gedanken oiwer.
går ni, wijrer srijwen. Segt juugem preister of dit taum forståen west is. Un forsuikt jij ouk ma's Åwer bet anerd mål mücht ik ais geern waita of jij dit uk forståa häwa. Süsta loont jå
un srijft wat am Semeador.

Plautdietsch
("Plautdietsch Spelling")

Wäa wieren Jesus siene Väavodasch?

Dit es daut Rejista von de Väavodasch von Jesus Christus.a Jesus wia een Nokomenda von Kjennich David, un Kjennich David wia Abraham sien Nokomenda.
Abraham wia Isaak sien Voda,
un Isaak wia Jakob sien Voda,
un Jakob wia Juda, un siene Breeda äa Voda.
Juda wia Perez un Serach äa Voda, dee hee met Tamar toop jehaut haud,
un Perez wia Hezron sien Voda,
un Hezron wia Ram sien Voda.
Ram wia Amminadab sien Voda,
un Amminadab wia Nahesson sien Voda,
un Nahesson wia Salma sien Voda.
Salma wia Boas sien Voda, dän hee met Rahab toop jehaut haud,
un Boas wia Obed sien Voda, dän hee met Ruth toop jehaut haud,
un Obed wia Jesse sien Voda.
Jesse wia Kjennich David sien Voda,
un Kjennich David wia Kjennich Salomo sien Voda, dän hee met Uria siene Wätfru toop jehaut haud.
Kjennich Salomo wia Rehabeam sien Voda,
un Rehabeam wia Abia sien Voda,
un Abia wia Asa sien Voda.
Asa wia Josaphat sien Voda,
un Josaphat wia Joram sien Voda,
un Joram wia Usia sien Voda.
Usia wia Jotham sien Voda,
un Jotham wia Ahas sien Voda,
un Ahas wia Hiskia sien Voda.
Hiskia wia Manasse sien Voda,
un Manasse wia Amon sien Voda,
un Amon wia Josia sien Voda.
Un too de Tiet von de babielonische Jefangenschoft, wia Josia de Voda von Jechonja, un von Jechonja siene Breeda.
Un no de babielonische Jefangenschoft, wia Jechonja de Voda von Sealtiel,
un Sealthiel wia Serubabel sien Voda.
Serubabel wia Abiud sien Voda,
un Abiud wia Eliakim sien Voda,
un Eliakim wia Asor sien Voda.
Asor wia Zadok sien Voda,
un Zadok wia Achim sien Voda,
un Achim wia Eliud sien Voda.
Eliud wia Eleazar sien Voda,
un Eleazar wia Matthan sien Voda,
un Matthan wia Jakob sien Voda.
Jakob wia Josef sien Voda, un Josef wia Maria äa Maun.
Maria wia Jesus siene Mutta, un Jesus wort dän Christus jenant.

Un soo see wie dan daut Jesus Christus, haud vieetieen Väavodasch, dee von ons Väavoda Abraham bat Kjennich David jeläft hauden; un hee haud vieetieen aundre Väavodasch, dee von Kjennich David bat de babielonische Jefangenschoft jeläft hauden; un dan haud Jesus noch eemol vieetieen Väavodasch, dee von de babielonische Jefangenschoft bat siene Jeburt jeläft hauden.
Dit es de Jeschicht von de Jeburt von Jesus Christus
Jesus Christus siene Jeburt wia soo aus dit passieet. Aus Jesus siene Mutta Maria, sikj Josef aunvetrut haud, dan wia see vom Heiljen Jeist schwanga jeworden, ea see un Josef sikj befriet hauden.Josef wia een gottesferchtja Mensch, un wiel Maria schwanga wia, dan wull hee sikj aul nich met äa befrieen. Un soo entschloot Josef sikj de Kjast bloos plietsch auftosajen, wiel hee Maria nich effentlich too Schaunden moaken wull.
Un seet junt, aus Josef sikj äwa aul dit besonnen haud, dan kjeem een Enjel vom Harn no am en een Droom, un säd, "Josef, Nokomenda von Kjennich David, fercht die nich Maria aus diene Fru too nämen, wiel daut Kjint wuamet see schwanga es, es vom Heiljen Jeist.  Maria woat een Sän han, un du saust am Jesus nanen. Jesus meent, 'de Har es Rada'. Un doawäajen saust du am Jesus nanen, wiel hee es deejanja, dee sien Volkj von äare Sinden friemoaken woat."
Aul dit wia dan uk soo passieet aus de Har sien Profeet, daut aul sea lang trigj jesajcht haud,
"Seet junt," säd de Profeet, "ne reine Junkfru woat schwanga woaren, un see woat een Sän han.
Un äa Sän woaren see Immanuel nanen.", säd de Profeet.

Immanuel meent, "Gott es mank ons".

Aus Josef vom Schlop oppwuak, dan jehorcht hee dän Enjel vom Harn, un hee befried sikj met Maria. Un Josef un Maria hauden kjeene Jeschlajchtsvekjia, bat Maria äa ieeschten Sän haud. Un Josef nand am Jesus.

Spoken Examples

Notable Low German writers and performers
 Heinrich Bandlow
 Hans-Friedrich Blunck
 John Brinckmann
 De fofftig Penns
 Gorch Fock
 Friedrich Wilhelm Grimme (Westphalian: Sauerländisch)
 Klaus Groth (Dithmarsisch)
 August Hermann
 Joachim Mähl
 Johann Meyer (Dithmarsisch)
 Martha Müller-Grählert
 Fritz Reuter (Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch)
 Willem Schröder
 Julius Stinde
 Rudolf Tarnow
 Augustin Wibbelt (Westphalian: Münsterländisch)
 Wilhelm Wieben
 Hans-Jürgen Massaquoi
 Normaal
 Daniël Lohues

Middle Low German authors:
 Eggerik Beninga
 Balthasar Russow
 Albert Suho

Plautdietsch authors:
 Arnold Dyck
 Reuben Epp
 Jack Thiessen

Low German Culture

As an important identity-forming element, the Low German language has been taught in schools in northern Germany for several years. In 2023, for example, the first class in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania graduated in the subject Low German.  The social position of Low German has improved significantly in recent years and enjoys a high level of prestige, especially in modern cities such as Hamburg and Bremen.

Numerous formats in Low German are also offered on "Norddeutscher Rundfunk".

The internet magazine Wearldspråke (alternatively also: Wearldsproake) is run by the musician and language activist Martin ter Denge.In 2020 the film "The Marriage Escape" was released, which is mostly in Tweants, a Westphalian dialect.

Linguistically, historically and culturally there are close contacts with the Netherlands, Denmark and other predominantly Protestant inhabitants of the North and Baltic Seas such as Great Britain, the rest of Scandinavia and the Baltic states. In German usage, for example on Norddeutscher Rundfunk, northern Germany is occasionally viewed as part of Northern Europe, while the remaining part of Germany is less questioned as belonging to Central Europe.  Close relationships also existed in the field of literature and poetry, for example the Norwegian Thidrekssaga (13th century) is based, according to its own information, on "Low German" and "Saxon" templates.

However, there are numerous other cultural and historical features that are common to the entire Low German-speaking area, such as the special architectural style of the "Low German hall house". These houses are often provided with traditional gable decorations, which are also known under the terms "Hengst" and "Hors".

The Germanic tribe of the Saxons, along with numerous other influencing factors like slavic people, is considered one of the cultural and historical ancestors of the Nothern Germans, so that there are still many points of connection to the Anglo-Saxons in folklore. The name of the city Bünde ("Bund" ; German for alliance) is said to allude to the alliance the brothers Hengest and Horsa once made there and then settled in what is now England. This is considered scientifically unacceptable.

Even in Schleswig-Holstein, in the former settlement area of the Angles, one finds solitude in the storytelling tradition. "Grendel" is a Schleswig-Holstein dialect expression for a monster living in swamps, as it appears in the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf poem .

See also
 1614 Low German Bible
 Bible translations into German
 Friar Rush
 Hamborger Veermaster
 The Juniper Tree (fairy tale)
 Meuse-Rhenish
 Moin
 Ohnsorg-Theater
 Masurian dialects
 Liudger of Saxony (Billung)

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

 http://www.plattmaster.de/
 http://www.platt-online.de/
 http://www.niederdeutschzentrum.de/
 https://www.deutsch-plattdeutsch.de/

Online dictionaries
 Plattmakers dictionary with more than 20,000 word entries, with translations and interface available in several languages (English too)
 Dictionary of the Drents dialect (Dutch)
 Mennonite Low German-English Dictionary
 Dictionary in the Sass Orthography (German)

Information
 Nu is de Welt platt! International resources in and about Low German
 Building Blocks of Low Saxon (Low German), an introductory grammar in English and German
 Niederdeutsch/Plattdeutsch in Westfalen, by Olaf Bordasch
 Mönsterlänner Plat, by Klaus-Werner Kahl
 Plattdeutsch heute

Organisations
 IJsselacademie (Overijssel and Veluwe, the Netherlands)
 Staring Instituut (Achterhoek, the Netherlands)
 Stichting Stellingwarver Schrieversronte (Friesland, the Netherlands)
 SONT (General, the Netherlands)
 Oostfreeske Taal (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
 Diesel – dat oostfreeske Bladdje (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
 Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache e.V. (General, Germany)

Languages of Germany
West Germanic languages
German dialects
North Sea Germanic

Low German


Eine elektronische Versicherungsbestätigung (eVB) ist in Deutschland der Nachweis einer Versicherungsgesellschaft über die gesetzliche Kfz-Haftpflichtversicherung ("Deckung") für ein im öffentlichen Raum verkehrendes Kraftfahrzeug. Die Bestätigung muss der Kraftfahrzeug-Zulassungsbehörde bei Erstzulassung und bei technischen oder personenbezogenen Änderungen des Kraftfahrzeugs vorgelegt werden. Nur dann kann von der Zulassungsstelle eine Zulassung vergeben werden. Die elektronische Versicherungsbestätigung enthält unter anderem die Versicherungsbestätigungsnummer (kurz VB-Nummer, fälschlicherweise oft auch als eVB-Nummer bezeichnet).

Vor dem Jahr 2008
Bevor 2008 die elektronische Versicherungsbestätigung eingeführt wurde, diente als Versicherungsnachweis die Deckungskarte. Hierbei wurde von einem Versicherungsunternehmen eine Bestätigung in Papierform ausgehändigt, auf der die Daten des Versicherungsnehmers und des Fahrzeugs vermerkt waren. Es handelte sich um eine Doppelkarte: Ein Exemplar wurde dem Versicherungsnehmer ausgehändigt, ein weiteres zur Niederlassung des Versicherungsunternehmens verschickt. Erst nachdem letzteres bei dem Versicherungsunternehmen eingegangen war, wurde diesem bekannt, dass eine vorläufige Deckung gewährleistet werden muss. Dieses Vorgehen war also mit einem größeren Aufwand verbunden.

Beantragung
Verglichen mit der Deckungskarte ist die Beantragung einer elektronischen Versicherungsbestätigung mit weniger Aufwand verbunden. Zur Zeit- und Kostenersparnis besteht die Möglichkeit, diese Nummer online anzufordern. Anschließend wird sie wahlweise per E-Mail oder SMS zugestellt. Die Methode der eVB hat die vorherige Doppelkarte daher vollständig ersetzt.

VB-Nummer
Die VB-Nummer besteht aus sieben Zeichen, die jeweils mit Ziffern oder Großbuchstaben dargestellt werden. Die Buchstaben I und O werden nicht verwendet. Das soll Verwechslungen mit den Ziffern 0 und 1 vermeiden. Die ersten beiden Zeichen kennzeichnen das ausstellende Versicherungsunternehmen. Diese Zuordnung wird durch die GDV Dienstleistungs-GmbH (GDV DL) vorgenommen.

Beispiel für eine VB-Nummer: A1BC25Z.

Dauer der Gültigkeit
Jedes Versicherungsunternehmen kann die Gültigkeitsdauer seiner ausgegebenen VB-Nummer selbst festlegen. Die GDV DL empfiehlt eine Gültigkeitsdauer zwischen 3 und 18 Monaten. Die maximale zulässige Gültigkeitsdauer ist 24 Monate. Viele Versicherungsunternehmen reduzieren die Geltungsdauer auf 3, 6 oder 9 Monate. Wird die VB-Nummer nicht innerhalb des Gültigkeitszeitraums verwendet, verfällt sie und kann später, nach dem Verstreichen einer Sperrfrist, durch das Versicherungsunternehmen erneut vergeben werden.

Normale VB-Nummern können nur einmalig verwendet werden. Bei Kunden mit großen Fahrzeugflotten kann der Versicherer eine Dauer-eVB ausgeben, die dann für alle Fahrzeug-Zulassungen dieses Unternehmens gültig ist. Diese Dauer-eVBs haben keine im Voraus begrenzte Gültigkeitsdauer.

Anlässe
Die elektronische Versicherungsbestätigung wird vor allem für folgende Anlässe benötigt:
 Neuzulassung eines Fahrzeugs
 Wechsel eines Fahrzeugs
 Neues Kennzeichen
 Wiederzulassung eines stillgelegten Fahrzeugs
 Ummeldung des Fahrzeugs auf einen anderen Halter
 Änderungen am Fahrzeug, die in den Fahrzeugdokumenten eingetragen werden müssen und bei einer eVB mit Einschränkungen nicht abgedeckt sind (z. B. Verwendungszweck)
 Beantragung eines Kurzzeitkennzeichens (z. B. für Überführungs- oder Probefahrten)

Kfz-Kasko-Versicherungen
Mit der elektronischen Versicherungsbestätigung wird bei Zulassung ausschließlich der Kfz-Haftpflichtversicherungsschutz bestätigt. Ein gewünschter Kasko-Versicherungsschutz ist beim Versicherer zusätzlich zu beantragen.

Speicherung
Für die Organisation und den Datenaustausch zwischen der Kfz-Zulassungsstelle und dem Versicherungsunternehmen ist die GDV Dienstleistungs-GmbH (GDV DL) zuständig. Aktuelle VB-Nummern werden zusammen mit den Daten des Versicherungsnehmers in einer Datenbank der GDV DL gespeichert. Die Zulassungsbehörden lassen sich die Daten zur Pflichtversicherung über das Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt von der GDV DL übermitteln. Die Zuordnung der Datensätze geschieht anhand der VB-Nummer.

Die GDV DL fungiert als Clearingstelle zwischen den Zulassungsbehörden und der Versicherungswirtschaft. Sie sorgt für den Datenaustausch.

Einzelnachweise

Straßenverkehrsrecht (Deutschland)
Versicherungswesen
Privatversicherungsrecht (Deutschland)
Webservice

Elektronische Versicherungsbestätigung


Albertosaurus (însemnând "șopârlă din Alberta") este un gen de teropod tyrannosaurid care a trăit în vestul Americii de Nord în timpul perioadei Cretacicului târziu, aproximativ acum 70 de milioane de ani în urmă. Specia tip,
Albertosaurus sarcophagus, aparent, a trăit în provincia canadiană Alberta, după care genul este numit. Oamenii de știință nu sunt de acord cu privire la conținutul genului, unii considerând specia Gorgosaurus libratus ca o a doua specie de Albertosaurus.

Ca tyrannosaurid, Albertosaurus a fost un prădător biped cu niște mâini mici dotate cu doar 2 degete și un cap masiv care avea o duzină de dinți mari și ascuțiți. S-ar putea să fi fost în vârful lanțului trofic în ecosistemul său local. Deși era un teropod masiv, Albertosaurus a fost mult mai mic decât ruda sa mai mare și mai faimoasă Tyrannosaurus rex, având dimensiunea de la 9 până la 10 metri lungime și greutatea de 2 tone.

Tyrannosauridae
Dinozauri din Cretacic
Dinozauri din America de Nord
Specii fosile descrise în 1905
Genuri de dinozauri

Albertosaurus


المحرك الحراري هو جهاز نظري أو عملي يقوم بتحويل الطاقة الحرارية إلى شغل ميكانيكي.
يسمى الخرج الميكانيكي بالشغل، والطاقة الحرارية المُدخلة بالحرارة.
تعمل المحركات الميكانيكية في دورات حرارية خاصة، كما يمكن أن تكون هذه المحركات مفتوحة على الهواء مثلا أو الماء، أو مغلقة (معزولة). (دورة مفتوحة أو مغلقة).

في الهندسة والديناميكية الحرارية يقوم المحرك الحراري بتحويل الطاقة الحرارية إلى عمل ميكانيكي عن طريق استغلال التدرج في الحرارة بين مصدر ساخن وحوض بارد (مثل الهواء أو مجرى مائي كالنهر).

تنتقل الحرارة من المصدر، مروراً بالوسط العامل (غاز أو سائل مثل الماء والبخار) في المحرك، إلى الجو الخارجي ذو حرارة منخفضة (إخراج العادم). وأثناء هذه العملية يتحول جزء من الحرارة المكتسبة في النظام إلى شغل عن طريق استغلال خصائص المادة العاملة (عادة ما تكون غازية أو سائلة). في الألة البخارية مثلا يسخن الماء فيتحول إلى بخار ؛ هذا البخار يكون في صهريج قوي بحيث يرتفع فيه ضغط البخار . ويخرج البخار من الصهريج بضغط عال بواسطة أنبوب سميك ويوجه إلى توربين فيدور التوربين ويؤدي شغل (مثل تحريك القطار) . يخرج البخار من عادم الآلة فاقدا جزءا كبيرا من حرارته إلى الجو . الفارق بين درجة حرارة البخار الداخلة ودرجة حرارة البخار الخارجة هي التي تتحول إلى شغل ميكانيكي . وكفاءة العملية لإنتاج شغل ميكانيكي مرتبطة بدرجة الحرارة الداخلة ودرجة الحرارة الخارجة.

كذلك بالنسبة إلى آلة احتراق داخلي: فيها يحترق بخار البنزين في مكابس المحرك ويُنتج الضغط العالي لاحتراق البنزين حركة المحرك (هذا هو شغل )ويخرج الغاز العادم إلى درجة حرارة الجو . يفقد الغاز المحترق حرارته في المحرك ويشغله ويخرج وتنخفض درجة حرارته ؛ فارق تلك الحرارتين هي الشغل الذي تؤديه الآلة ؛ مع ضياع جزء من فارق الحرارتين بسبب الاحتكاك في داخل المكابس واحتكاك محاور الحركة.

الكفاءة
تعرف كفاءة آلة حرارية بأنها جزء الطاقة الحرارية القادمة من الوقود التي تتحول إلى شغل. وتوجد للكفاءة حد أقصى

تعرفها دورة كارنو حيث يمد النظام بطاقة من الخارج، ويخرج منه قدرا من الحرارة عند درجتين من درجات الحرارة معروفتين  و
بافتراض عدم حدوث فقد للحرارة عن طريق الاحتكاك أو تسريب حراري. وتعرف دورة كارنو الكفاءة بأنها :

وللوصول إلى كفاءة كارنو لآلة يشترط ان تتم جميع العمليات في الدورة الترموديناميكية كعمليات عكوسية. وهذا معناه ان ما يسمى في الحركة الحرارية ب إنتروبيا S النظام ككل مكونا من الآلة نفسها والجو المحيط بها لا تزيد (أي تبقى الإنتروبية ثابتة لا تتغير).

وطبقا ل القانون الثاني للديناميكا الحرارية فلا يمكن للإنتروبية أن تنخفض، وبناء على ذلك فلا بد من الاحتفاظ بها ثابتة خلال عمليات الدورة.

dQ هي كمية صغيرة من الحرارة المتبادلة خلال إحدى خطوات العملية، عند درجة الحرارة T .

وعمليا لا يمكن الوصول إلى كفاءة دورة كارنو، ذلك لأن :

 اكتساب الحرارة يتم عند درجة حرارة اقل من

وفقد حرارة يتم أيضا عند درجات حرارة أعلى من
 ؛ فحرارة العادم تكون أعلى قليلا عن درجة حرارة الجو (مثلما في محرك السيارة أو محرك ستيرلينغ رغم العزل التام للحرارة).
 أي آلة تحدث فيها احتكاك، مما يخفض من نسبة الشغل المكتسب، وأخيرا
 عندما تسير العمليات سريعا وتتسرب حرارة بسبب التوصيل الحراري، فيضيع جزء من الحرارة ولا يتحول إلى شغل ننتفع به.

بالنسبة إلى مضخة حرارية -وهي بعكس الآلة الحرارية تحول الشغل إلى حرارة - فتوصف كفاءتها بمقياس عدد القدرة.

أمثلة

محرك احتراق داخلي

يعمل محرك الاحتراق الداخلي عند درجات حرارة تصل أي 2500 درجة مئوية (2773 كلفن ويخرج منها غاز العادم عند درجة حرارة نحو 1000 درجة مئوية (1273 كلفن). فتكون كفاءة المحرك :

وفي الواقع تصل كفاءة محرك الجازولين الذي يعمل في ظروف ملائمة إلى 38 % فقط، ومحرك ديزل 45 % فقط، ومحركات السفن التي تعمل بطيئا قد تصل كفاءتها 50%. ورغما ذلك ففي الظروف الطبيعية للقيادة يعمل محرك السيارة التي تحرق البنزين بكفاءة اقل من 25 % كما تصل كفاءة محرك الديزل في الظروف الطبيعية للقيادة أقل من 30%.

محطة قوى بالغاز والبخار

يمكن ربط دورات ترموديناميكية مختلفة ببعضها البعض مثلما في حالة محطة القوى التي تعمل بالغاز والبخار : فهي تجمع بين عمليات توربين غازي و محطة طاقة بخارية :

 تتميز باستغلال عملية تصل فيها درجة حرارة الغاز إلى 1500 درجة مئوية لتشغيل التوربين، ويخرج الغاز من التوربين ودرجة حرارته نحو 700 درجة مئوية،
 ثم استغلال عملية تتم عند درجة حرارة بين 700 إلى 100 درجة مئوية في الآلة البخارية.

بذلك يمكن من الوجهة النظرية الوصول إلى كفاءة دورة مكافئة تعمل بين درجتي الحرارة 1500 - 100 مئوية. وتصل كفاءة مثل تلك المحطة عمليا إلى نحو 60%.

أنواع المحرك الحراري
بما أن غازا يستعمل كوسط للشغل فيمكن تصنيف الآلة الحرارية بكونها تنتمي إلى مايسمى "آلة سيولية حرارية "

تصنيف طبقا لطريقة إنتاج الطاقة

 محرك احتراق داخلي (آلة سيولية حرارية ذات احتراق داخلي)
 محرك احتراق داخلي
 توربين غازي
 آلة سيولية حرارية ذات احتراق خارجي
 آلة بخارية
 توربين بخاري
 محرك ستيرلينغ

تصنيف طبقا لتولد الضغط
 آلة سيولية
 آلة طوربو
 توربين بخاري
 توربين غازي
 محرك نفاث
 محرك نفاث طوربو
 محرك عنفي مروحي
 محرك صاروخي
 آلة بالمكبس
 محرك الاحتراق الداخلي (احتراق داخلي)
 آلة بخارية (احتراق خارجي)
 محرك ستيرلينغ (احتراق خارجي)

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 دورة كارنو
 دورة حركة حرارية
 محرك احتراق داخلي
 كفاءة تحويل الطاقة
 بقاء الطاقة
 ديناميكا حرارية
 القانون الثاني للترموديناميك
 دورة رانكن
 كفاءة حرارية
 نظام حركة حرارية
 توليد مشترك
 خزان حراري لا نهائي

تحويل طاقة
تدفئة وتكييف
تقانة المحركات
ديناميكا حرارية
هندسة أنظمة الطاقة
محركات
مفاهيم فيزيائية

محرك حراري


Gymnocarpos, Rod manjih grmova i zeljastog bilja iz porodice klinčićevki.

Pripada mu 10 vrsta rasprostranjenih od Makaronezije preko afrićkog Sredozemlja i Arapskog poluotoka na istok do sjeverozapadne Kine i Mongolije .

Stabljike gole, jako razgranate. Listovi nasuprotni.. Dvije vrste su sokotranski endemi (G. bracteatus i G. kuriensis).

Vrste
 Gymnocarpos argenteus Petruss. & Thulin
 Gymnocarpos bracteatus (Balf.f.) Petruss. & Thulin
 Gymnocarpos decander Forssk.
 Gymnocarpos dhofarensis Petruss. & Thulin
 Gymnocarpos kuriensis (Radcl.-Sm.) Petruss. & Thulin
 Gymnocarpos mahranus Petruss. & Thulin
 Gymnocarpos parvibractus (M.G.Gilbert) Petruss. & Thulin
 Gymnocarpos przewalskii Bunge ex Maxim.
 Gymnocarpos rotundifolius Petruss. & Thulin
 Gymnocarpos sclerocephalus (Decne.) Dahlgren & Thulin

Sinonimi
 Lochia Balf.f.
 Sclerocephalus Boiss.

Izvori

Paronychieae

Gymnocarpos


Fıkhu'l Ebsat, Ebu Hanife'nin akaid konusundaki eserlerinden biridir. İmam-ı Azam'ın Beş Eserinden biri olan Fıkhu'l Ebsat oğlu Hammad, öğrencileri Ebu Yusuf ve Ebu Muti' bin Abdillah el-Belhi tarafından rivayet edilmiştir.

Akaid meselelerini konu alan eserin içeriği soru-cevap şeklindedir. İçerdiği meselelerden bazıları kader, Allah'ın dilemesi ve imandır. Ayrıca kısaca günah işleyen kişinin kâfir olduğu iddiasının reddini içeren bir bölümü de barındırır. Eser Ata el-Cürcani tarafından şerhedilmiştir.

Eserin yazma nüshaları Kahire Kütüphanesi'nde bulunmaktadır.

Akaid kitapları
Ebu Hanife'nin yazdığı kitaplar

Fıkhu'l Ebsat


السيران بالإنكليزية (siran) في عرف أهل دمشق (الشام) هو النزهةوترجع الكلمة العربية إلى أيام الدولة الأموية. وهي عبارة عن رحلة قصيرة المسافة، قد تكون حول المدن للذهاب إلى البساتين المحيطة بالمدينة حول دمشق التي يتوجه أهلها إلى الغوطة - غوطة دمشق. تكون الرحلة بغرض الاستجمام والاسترخاء، والاهتمام بأصناف الطعام التي يتم تحضيرة في الطبيعة، وخصوصا الشوي. وتخرج العائلة بأكملها فيلعب الأولاد في الطبيعة الجميلة في ربوة دمشق بالقرب من نهر بردى أو غوطة دمشق الشهيرة ببساتينها وأشجارها، ويجلس الأهل للاسترخاء وتحضير الطعام بعد ذلك. يشيع في السيران أيضا تدخين الأركيلة ووسائل التسلية المختلفة.

ثقافة سورية
تراث شعبي
تراث بلاد الشام الشعبي

سيران


Skægflagermusen (Myotis mystacinus) er en flagermus i familien barnæser. Det er en af Europas mindste flagermusarter. I Danmark kendes den kun fra Bornholm. Navnet skyldes nogle lange hår og børster på siden af snuden, hvilket den dog har til fælles med andre arter i Myotis-slægten.

Udseende og kendetegn
Den ligner Brandts flagermus og kan kun adskilles på, at de to forreste forkindtænder i hver side af underkæben er meget uens af størrelse og for hannens vedkommende på, at penisen ikke er fortykket i spidsen. Vingefanget er op til 25 centimeter, kropslængden mellem 4 og 5 centimeter og vægten op til 14 gram. Fra de andre danske Myotis-arter kendes skægflagermusen og Brandts flagermus på den mindre størrelse, de meget mørke ører og flyvehud, den mørkere underside samt på, at vingeflyvehuden når helt ud til tåbasis.

Levevis
Skægflagermusen begynder at jage senest i skumringen og fortsætter størstedelen af natten. Den har under jagten en stereotyp flugt, der foregår i et begrænset område, idet den ligesom Brandts flagermus f.eks. flyver frem og tilbage langs det samme hegn eller flyver i cirkler i en lysning mellem træerne i længere tid. Føden består af myg, natsommerfugle og biller. Den jager ofte de samme steder som dværgflagermus og har dagopholdssteder på lignende steder som denne. Overvintringen foregår i kældre og kalkgruber, måske også i hule træer og på kølige lofter.

Udbredelse
Skægflagermusen er udbredt i Europa fra Irland og den nordlige del af den Iberiske Halvø til Østeuropa. I Skandinavien findes den op til 64. nordlige breddekreds. Den findes også i Marokko. Udbredelsen mod øst gennem Asien er endnu ikke klarlagt.

I Danmark findes den kun på Bornholm, hvor den er relativt almindelig.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Småflagermus
Danske arter i Habitatdirektivet
Danmarks pattedyr

Skægflagermus


1940-2015

Cantones de Marne

El departamento francés de Marne, de la región de Champaña-Ardenas se componía hasta el 22 de marzo de  2015 de 44 cantones, que se repartían por distrito, como sigue:

 Distrito de Châlons-en-Champagne (8 cantones - prefectura: Châlons-en-Champagne):Châlons-en-Champagne-1 - Châlons-en-Champagne-2 - Châlons-en-Champagne-3 - Châlons-en-Champagne-4 - Écury-sur-Coole - Marson - Suippes y Vertus

 Distrito de Épernay (11 cantones - subprefectura: Épernay):Anglure - Avize - Ay - Dormans - Épernay-1 - Épernay-2 - Esternay - Fère-Champenoise - Montmirail - Montmort-Lucy y Sézanne

 Distrito de Reims (16 cantones - subprefectura: Reims):Beine-Nauroy - Borgoña - Châtillon-sur-Marne - Fismes - Reims-1 - Reims-2 - Reims-3 - Reims-4 - Reims-5 - Reims-6 - Reims-7 - Reims-8 - Reims-9 - Reims-10 - Verzy y Ville-en-Tardenois

 Distrito de Sainte-Menehould (3 cantones - subprefectura: Sainte-Menehould):Givry-en-Argonne - Sainte-Menehould y Ville-sur-Tourbe

 Distrito de Vitry-le-François (6 cantones - subprefectura: Vitry-le-François):Heiltz-le-Maurupt - Saint-Remy-en-Bouzemont-Saint-Genest-et-Isson - Sompuis - Thiéblemont-Farémont - Vitry-le-François-Este y Vitry-le-François-Oeste

2015

Redistribución cantonal

Para conseguir la reforma territorial que se propuso en 2010, la asamblea nacional adoptó definitivamente el 17 de abril de 2013 la reforma del modo de votación en las elecciones departamentales, con la finalidad de garantizar la paridad hombres/mujeres, cuyas leyes resultantes (ley orgánica 2013-402 y ley 2013-403) fueron promulgadas el 17 de mayo de 2013.

Una nueva redistribución territorial fue definida por decreto del 21 de febrero de 2014, para el departamento de Marne, que entró en vigor en el momento de la primera renovación general de asamblearios departamentales después de dicho decreto, cuestión que pasó en marzo de 2015.

Los consejeros departamentales, son elegidos por escrutinio mayoritario binominal mixto, siendo los electores de cada cantón los que eligen para el consejo departamental (nueva denominación de los consejeros generales), a dos miembros de sexo diferente, que se presentan juntos a la candidatura. Los consejeros departamentales son elegidos para seis años en escrutinio binominal mayoritario de dos turnos, siendo necesario un 10%  de votos para el acceso al segundo turno. De otra forma la totalidad de los consejeros departamentales son renovados.

Este nuevo modo de escrutinio necesitaba una redistribución de los cantones, cuyo número fue dividido de dos y redondeado a la unidad impar superior inmediata en aplicación del artículo n.º 4 de la Ley 2013-403. En el departamento de Marne el número de cantones pasó así de 44 a 23.

Los criterios de la redistribución cantonal son los siguientes: el territorio de cada cantón debe estar definido sobre bases esencialmente demográficas, debiendo ser el territorio de cada cantón continuo y las comunas de menos de 3500 habitantes deben estar totalmente comprendidas en dicho cantón. Para ello, no se tendrán en cuenta, ni los límites territoriales de los distritos ni las circunscripciones legislativas que se les apliquen.

Conforme a múltiples decisiones del consejo constitucional tomadas desde 1985 (particularmente la decisión n.º 2010-618 DC del 9 de diciembre de 2010), está permitido un ±20% de variabilidad en el ratio consejero/habitante medio del departamento como admisible para el principio de igualdad de los electores respecto a los criterios demográficos. Para el departamento de Marne, la población de referencia es la población legal vigente en el 1 de enero de 2013, sobre los datos poblacionales de 2010, es decir 565307. Con 23 cantones, la población media departamental es de 24579 habitantes, por lo que la población de cada nuevo cantón debe de estar entre los 19663 y los 29484 habitantes para respetar dicho principio.

Referencias

Marne

Cantones de Marne


Edgar Parks Snow (født 17. juli 1905, død 15. februar 1972) var en amerikansk journalist, der er kendt for sine bøger og artikler om kommunisme i Kina og den kommunistiske revolution i landet. Han var den første vestlige journalist, der gav et fuldt billede af Kinas kommunistiske partis historie efter den lange march i 1934-1935, og han var også den første vestlige journalist, der interviewede mange af revolutionens ledere, inklusive Mao Zedong. Han er bedst kendt for sin bog Red Star Over China (1937), der er en beretning om den kinesiske kommunistbevægelse fra oprettelsen indtil slutningen af 1930'erne.

Bibliografi
 . Harrap, London, 1936
 Red Star Over China (various editions, London, New York, 1937–1944). Reprinted Read Books, 2006, ; Hesperides Press, 2008, .
 Scorched Earth, Gollancz, London, published as  in the USA, 1941
 Far Eastern Front
 . Random House, 1944.
 , 1946
 Stalin Must Have Peace. Random House, 1947.
 China, Russia, and the USA
 . Gollancz, London, 1963. New edition, Penguin Books, 1970. .
 The Long Revolution. Random House, 1972
 Journey to the Beginning: a memoir, 1958.
 , 1991

Eksterne henvisninger

 Edgar Snow Memorial Foundation website
 Edgar Snow Archives at the University of Missouri in Kansas City

Journalister fra USA
Forfattere fra USA

Edgar Snow


An Scleria pernambucana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Modesto Luceño ngan M.Alves. An Scleria pernambucana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Scleria, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Scleria

Scleria pernambucana


Alexandru Rotaru () este un fost deputat român, ales în legislatura 2016-2020. A depus jurământul de credință în Parlamentul României la 21 decembrie 2016.

Între 2014-2016 a fost președintele Organizației de Tineret a PSD Neamț - a fost înlăturat din această funcție la cererea președintelui  PSD Neamț  Ionel Arsene.

Referințe și note

Legături externe
 Activitatea parlamentară

Vezi și
 Legislatura 2016-2020 (Camera Deputaților)

Politicieni români în viață
Deputați români 2016-2020
Membri ai Partidului Social Democrat

Alexandru Rotaru


Universitatea din Opole este o instituție de învățământ superior de stat din Opole, Polonia, înființată în anul 1994.

Rectori
 1994-1995: prof. dr hab. Jerzy Pośpiech (n. 1933) - filolog
 1995-1996: prof. dr hab. Franciszek Marek (n. 1930) - istoric și pedagog
 1996-2002: prof. dr hab. Stanisław Nicieja (n. 1948) - istoric, istoric de artă
 2002-2005: prof. dr hab. Józef Musielok (n. 1946) - fizician
 2005-2008: prof. dr hab. Stanisław Nicieja (n. 1948) - istoric, istoric de artă
 2008-2012: prof. dr hab. inż. Krystyna Czaja (n. 1948) - chimist
 din 2012: prof. dr hab. Stanisław Nicieja (n. 1948) - istoric, istoric de artă

Facultăți
Facultatea de Chimie
Facultatea de Economie
Facultatea de Filologie
Facultatea de Istorie și Pedagogie
Facultatea de Matematică, Fizică și Informatică
Facultatea de Drept și Administrație
Facultatea de Științe ale Naturii și Tehnologie
Facultatea de Teologie

Domenii de educație
În prezent, Universitatea din Opole oferă studii în următoarele domenii:

Galerie

Referințe

Legături externe
  Site oficial: Universitatea din Opole
Educația_în_Polonia
Universități din Polonia
Opole

Universitatea din Opole


Else Thalemann (Berlim, 29 de março de 1901, como Else Dorothea Moosdorf — Mölln, 19 de outubro de 1984) foi uma fotógrafa alemã. Tornou-se conhecida através de fotografias de indústrias e de plantas.

Carreira
Ela nasceu Else Moosdorf no dia 29 de março de 1901. Durante a década de 1930, Thaleman foi contratada como fotojornalista em Berlim. Por volta do mesmo período, ela foi contratada por Ernst Fuhrmann para fotografar a estrutura das plantas. Ela teria abandonado a fotografia em 1938, quando Fuhrmann se mudou para os Estados Unidos. O seu estúdio de fotografia em Berlim foi destruído por um bombardeamento durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial. Ela faleceu no dia 19 de outubro de 1984, em Stift Lauterbach, Alemanha.

Colecções
O seu trabalho está incluído na colecção do Museu de Belas Artes de Houston, do Art Institute of Chicago, do Museu J. Paul Getty, em Los Angeles, do Centro Internacional de Fotografia, da Galeria Nacional de Arte, Washington, do Museu Metropolitano de Arte, Nova York, e do Museu de Arte do Condado de Los Angeles.

Mulheres artistas da Alemanha

Else Thalemann


Ibrahim Šehić (* 2. September 1988 in Rogatica) ist ein bosnisch-herzegowinischer Fußballspieler, der für Konyaspor spielt.

Karriere
Ibrahim Šehić begann mit dem Vereinsfußball in der Jugend von FK Željezničar Sarajevo und wurde hier Profi-Fußballer.

Zur Spielzeit 2011/12 wechselte der Torhüter in die Türkei zum Süper-Lig-Verein Mersin İdman Yurdu. Hier wurde er auf Anhieb Stammspieler.

Nachdem Mersin İY im Sommer 2013 den Klassenerhalt in der Süper Lig verfehlt hatte, verließ Šehić den Klub und wechselte zum aserbaidschanischer Verein Qarabağ Ağdam. Nach fünf Jahren in Aserbaidschan wechselte Šehić erneut in die Türkei zum Aufsteiger Büyükşehir Belediye Erzurumspor.

Nationalmannschaft
Šehić spielte bis 2010 elfmal für die bosnische U-21-Nationalmannschaft. 2010 machte er auch sein Länderspieldebüt für die bosnische A-Nationalmannschaft.

Weblinks

Fußballnationaltorhüter (Bosnien und Herzegowina)
Fußballtorhüter (Qarabağ Ağdam)
Fußballtorhüter (FK Željezničar Sarajevo)
Fußballtorhüter (Mersin İdman Yurdu)
Fußballtorhüter (Erzurumspor FK)
Fußballtorhüter (Konyaspor)
Bosnier
Geboren 1988
Mann

Ibrahim Šehić