J.-H. Rosny a fost pseudonimul fraților Joseph Henri Honoré Boex (1856-1940) și Seraphin Justin François Boex (1859-1948), născuți ambii în Bruxelles, Belgia.

Biografie
Naturalizați francezi, au avut dublă cetățenie.

Ei au scris împreună o serie de romane și povestiri despre subiecte naturale, preistorice și fantastice, pe care le-au publicat între 1886 și 1909, precum și mai multe lucrări de popularizare a științei. După iulie 1908, cei doi frați au încheiat colaborarea, iar Joseph Boex și-a semnat operele cu numele J.-H. Rosny aîné (J. H. Rosny cel mare), în timp ce fratele său Seraphin a folosit numele J.-H. Rosny jeune (J. H. Rosny cel tânăr).

În 1903, frații Boex au fost numiți în primul juriu pentru acordarea Premiului Goncourt, un important premiu literar francez anual. Ei sunt considerați ca fiind printre fondatorii literaturii science fiction moderne. Primul Prix Goncourt a fost acordat prima dată la 26 februarie 1903.

Dintre cei doi, fratele mai mare Joseph (J.-H. Rosny aîné) este oarecum mai bine cunoscut și multe dintre lucrările comune ale celor doi frați sunt atribuite în mod incorect doar fratelui mai mare. Lupta pentru foc este cea mai cunoscută carte a lor, mai ales prin faptul că a fost ecranizată într-un film omonim (în franceză) în 1981.

Cărți scrise în comun de frații Boex
 Le Bilatéral (1887)
 L'Immolation, colecție (1887)
 Les Corneilles (1887)
 Marc Fane (1888)
 Scènes préhistoriques (1888)
 Vamireh (1891)
 Eyrimah (1893)
 Nymphée (1893)
 L'Impérieuse bonté (1893)
 L'Indomptée (1893)
 Renouveau (1894)
 Égyptiens et sémites, eseu (1895)
 Les Origines, eseu despre timpurile preistorice (1895)
 Elem d'Asie, idylle des temps primitifs (1896)
 Le Serment (1896)
 La Promesse, piesă de teatru (1897)
 Le Roman d'un cycliste (1899) reeditat sub titlu Les Amours d'un cycliste (nicio dată precisă, ci după 1912)
 Les Fiançailles d'Yvonne (1902)
 La Guerre Anglo-Boër, essai (1902)
 La Fugitive et autres nouvelles, colecție (1904)
 Le Millionnaire (1905)
 La Toison d'or (1905)
 Le Testament volé (1906)
 Contre le sort (1907)
 Vers la toison d'or (1908)
 Les Audacieux, colecție (1909)
 Le Trésor de Mérande (1919) [publicat în 1902 sub numele Henri de Noville]
 Fables antiques et autres récits érotiques, colecție , Bibliogs (2014)
 Les Conquérants du Feu et autres récits primitifs, colecție , [[Les Moutons électriques (2014)
 Le Trésor de Mérande et autres récits d'aventure, colecție , Les Moutons électriques (2014)
 Les Compagnons de L'univers et autres récits d'anticipation, colecție Les Moutons électriques (2015)
 Une Fête anthropophagique, colecție , Bibliogs (2016)
 Dans l'océan des probabilités…, colecție , Bibliogs (2016)

Note

Vezi și
 J.-H. Rosny aîné
 J.-H. Rosny jeune
 Literatura științifico-fantastică în Franța

Legături externe

Scriitori belgieni
Scriitori de popularizare a științei

J.-H. Rosny


The following is a list of notable characters from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. The list is for characters from Tolkien's writings only.

A
 Aragorn: Son of Arathorn, descendant of Isildur who was a principal figure in both the Fellowship of the Ring and the War of the Ring.  Became king over the reunited kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor.
 Arwen: Daughter of Elrond Half-elven and Celebrían, marries Aragorn at the end of the War of the Ring and becomes queen of the reunited kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor.

B
 Balin: Dwarf companion of Thorin Oakenshield in The Hobbit.  Slain during an attempt to retake Moria.
 Bard the Bowman: Man of Esgaroth who slew Smaug the dragon.
 Beorn: Skin-changer who resides in the region of Mirkwood and takes the form of a great bear.
 Bilbo Baggins: A hobbit adventurer.  Discovered the One Ring after its loss by Gollum.
 Boromir: Member of the Fellowship of the Ring, son and heir to Denethor II of Gondor. Slain by Uruk-hai at Amon Hen.

C
 Celeborn: Lord of Lothlórien, and the husband of Galadriel, Lady of the Golden Wood. He fought during the War of the Ring defending Lothlórien. Celeborn went to the Grey Havens and sailed for the Undying Lands at the Fourth Age.
 Celebrimbor: Noldorin smith and grandson of Fëanor, who led the creation of all but one of the twenty Rings of Power. Tortured to death by Sauron.

D
 Denethor: Steward of Gondor (formally Denethor II) during the events of The Lord of the Rings. Committed suicide during the Siege of Gondor.

E
 Eärendil and Elwing: Half-elven couple, heroes of the War of Wrath as well as the progenitors of the royal Númenorean and Dúnedain bloodlines through their sons Elrond and Elros.
 Elendil: Númenorean nobleman whose sons founded the kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor in Middle-earth. Slain during the final battle between Sauron and the Last Alliance of Elves and Men.
 Elrond: Ruler of the elven refuge of Rivendell. Son of the Half-elves Eärendil and Elwing, husband of Celebrían, father of Arwen, Elladan and Elrohir.
 Éomer: Brother of Éowyn, nephew and heir of Théoden, King of Rohan. Son-in-law of Prince Imrahil of Dol Amroth.
 Éowyn: Sister of Éomer and member of the royal house of Rohan. Slayer of the Witch King of Angmar. Married Faramir after the War of the Ring.

F
 Faramir: Son of Denethor II of Gondor, brother of Boromir, and husband of Éowyn following the War of the Ring.
 Fëanor: Son of Finwë and Míriel. The greatest Noldorin smith to have ever lived, he forged the three jewels known as Silmarils. Slain by Balrogs.
 Fíli: Son of Dís; nephew of Thorin. Older brother to Kíli. Slain defending Thorin in the Battle of Five Armies.
 Fingolfin: Son of Finwë and Indis. First High King of the Noldor who left Valinor for Middle-earth. Slain by Morgoth.
 Fingon: Son of Fingolfin. Rescues Maedhros, pleasing Fëanor, who lets Fingolfin become King in his stead.
 Finrod Felagund: Grandson of Finwë and Elvenking of Nargothrond. He died from wounds sustained by saving his friend Beren from a werewolf.
 Finwë and Míriel: Parents of Fëanor and leaders of the Noldorin migrants to the Undying Lands. Míriel dies at childbirth, while Finwë is slain by Morgoth.
Frodo Baggins: Cousin (informally, 'nephew') of Bilbo Baggins who bore the One Ring to its destruction in Mount Doom.

G
 Galadriel: Co-ruler of Lothlórien alongside her husband Celeborn. Relative of numerous notable characters in Tolkien's legendarium through bloodline and kinship.
 Gandalf: A wizard.  A member of the Fellowship of the Ring.  Killed in battle in Moria, but returns to play a leading role in the defeat of Sauron.
 Gil-galad: Last High King of the Noldor, who ruled during the Second Age. Formed the Last Alliance of Elves and Men with Elendil, and fell in combat against Sauron's forces.
 Glorfindel: Noldorin elf-lord notable for his death and resurrection within Tolkien's legendarium.
 Gimli: Dwarven member of the Fellowship of the Ring and a major character in The Lord of the Rings.
 Goldberry: Mysterious entity known as the River-woman's daughter, wife of Tom Bombadil.
 Gollum: Possessor of the One Ring until taken by Bilbo Baggins.  Falls into the Crack of Doom after retaking the ring from Frodo Baggins.
 Gríma Wormtongue: An ally of Saruman who gave false advice to Théoden, King of Rohan. Slain by hobbit militia during the Scouring of the Shire.

H
 Húrin: Human warrior of the First Age, and the father of Túrin Turambar.
 Halbarad: A Dúnadan Ranger of the North, and one of Aragorn's comrades during the weeks leading up to Sauron's final demise.

I
 Isildur: Son of Elendil, and co-founder of the kingdom of Gondor. Took the One Ring from Sauron at the end of the Second Age, but was later slain at the Disaster of the Gladden Fields.

K
 Kíli: Son of Dís. Thorin Oakenshield's nephew, son of his sister. Died during the Battle of Five Armies.

L
 Legolas: Elven member of the Fellowship of the Ring and a major character in The Lord of the Rings.
 Lúthien and Beren: The ancestors of the Half-elven bloodline.

M
 Maedhros: Noldorin elf lord and eldest of the Sons of Fëanor. Committed suicide after recovering one of the lost Silmarils.
 Melian: Maia who took the physical form of an Elf. Queen of Doriath in the First Age. Wife of Elu Thingol and mother of Lúthien.
Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck: A hobbit member of the Fellowship of the Ring and companion of Frodo Baggins. Assisted Éowyn in the slaying of the Witch-King of Angmar.
 Morgoth: The first Dark Lord in Tolkien's legendarium, originally known as Melkor. Succeeded by Sauron after his defeat and banishment by the Valar following the War of Wrath.

P
 Peregrin "Pippin" Took: A hobbit member of the Fellowship of the Ring and companion of Frodo Baggins. Served as a Guard of the Citadel of Minas Tirith during the War of the Ring.

R
 Radagast: one of the Five Istari or Wizards who has an affinity with nature.

S
 Samwise Gamgee: Loyal companion of Frodo Baggins during his journey to Mordor to destroy the One Ring.
 Saruman: A wizard.  Once the leader of the Istari, he attempted to form his own empire as a rival of Sauron and was defeated at the Battle of the Hornburg. Murdered by Gríma Wormtongue during the Scouring of the Shire.
 Sauron: The primary antagonist of The Lord of the Rings.  He crafted the One Ring, and was destroyed upon its destruction at the end of The Return of the King.
 Shelob: Monstrous spider and last notable spawn of Ungoliant.
 Smaug: A dragon and primary antagonist of The Hobbit.  Slain by Bard the Bowman.
 Sméagol: was a stoor (one of the early hobbit types) that later on became Gollum.

T
 Théoden: King of Rohan, uncle of Éomer and Éowyn. Fell in battle during the Battle of the Pelennor Fields.
 Thingol: Elvenking of the Sindarin realm of Doriath in the First Age. Husband of Melian and father of Lúthien. Slain by dwarves over a dispute concerning one of the Silmarils.
 Thranduil: Elvenking of the Silvan realm of Mirkwood, father of Legolas.
 Thorin Oakenshield: Dwarf noble who led the company of dwarves that retook Erebor from the dragon Smaug in The Hobbit. Slain during the Battle of the Five Armies.
 Tom Bombadil: A mysterious figure who aided the hobbits during their departure from the Shire in The Fellowship of the Ring.
 Treebeard: Leader of the Ents in The Lord of the Rings.
 Tuor and Idril: Heroes of the First Age and parents of Eärendil as the second married union of Men and Elves. Left Middle-earth for Valinor, where Tuor is said to be counted amongst the Elven kindreds.
 Túrin Turambar: A First Age hero who is embroiled in a tragic fate along with the rest of his family and ultimately committed suicide.

U
 Ungoliant: Monstrous spider spirit. Progenitor of the Great Spiders and of Shelob.

W
 Watcher in the Water: A mysterious aquatic creature that lives in a pool guarding the gates of Moria.

See also

 List of The Hobbit characters – complete list of characters in The Hobbit
 List of original characters in The Lord of the Rings film series – original characters in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy
 List of original characters in The Hobbit film series – original characters in Peter Jackson's The Hobbit film trilogy
 Middle-earth peoples – descriptions of races and groups in the legendarium
 Women in The Lord of the Rings  analysis of female characters in The Lord of the Rings

Lists of literary characters
1
Characters

List of Middle-earth characters


I geometrien er røringscirkler de cirkler som enten tangerer alle en trekants sider eller en af disse sider samt de to øvriges forlængelser. Alle trekanter har 4 røringscirkler: Én indskreven cirkel, som tangerer samtlige trekantens sider og 3 såkaldte ydre røringscirkler.

Den indskrevne cirkel
Den indskrevne cirkel har sit centrum, hvor trekantens tre vinkelhalveringslinjer skærer hinanden.

Den indskrevne cirkels radius kan beregnes vha. formlen:

,

hvor  er trekantens sidelængder, mens  er halvdelen af trekantens omkreds.

De ydre røringscirkler

De ydre (gule) røringscirklers centre findes, hvor de (grønne) linjer, der halverer trekantsvinklernes nabovinkler, skærer hinanden. Jævnfør figur 1, af hvilken det ses, at hver af trekantens (røde) vinkelhalveringslinjer ligeledes går gennem en ydre røringscirkels centrum.

De ydre røringscirklers radiusser kan beregnes med formlen

hvor  er radius i den ydre røringscirkel, som rører siden a, og  er trekantens sidelængder, mens  er halvdelen af trekantens omkreds..

Radius kan også beregnes ud fra kendskab til trekantens vinkler og én side:

.

Andre formler

Der gælder følgende sammenhæng mellem den indskrevne cirkels radius r, den omskrevne cirkels radius R og de 3 ydre røringscirklers radiusser:

.

Der er denne sammenhæng mellem røringscirklernes radiusser og trekantens areal :

.

Referencer
Bogen der henvises til i note 1-8:

Eksterne henvisninger
Four Circles - Program til beregning af røringscirkler

Cirkler
Trekant geometri

Røringscirkler


Euritomidele (Eurytomidae) sunt o familie de insecte himenoptere mici, de 1,5-5 mm cu corpul negru sau galben, mai rar cu reflexe metalice, de obicei acoperit cu gropițe. Au antenele formate din 11-13 articule. Abdomenul la femelă este comprimat lateral,  iar ovipozitorul aproape ascuns (telescopat). Larvele sunt apode și au corpul alungit, format din 13 segmente; capul lor este puternic chitinizat, iar culoarea corpului este alb-lăptoasă. Euritomidele cuprind circa 80 de genuri și 1500 de specii larg răspândite. În România au fost găsite 108 specii de euritomide. Unele euritomide sunt paraziți primari sau secundari pe numeroase insecte, altele sunt fitofage. Sycophila biguttata (Eudecatoma biguttata), Eurytoma rosae, Eurytoma brunniventris parazitează cinipide (Cynipidae) galigene. Bruchophagus gibbus (viespea semințelor de trifoi), Bruchophagus roddi (viespea semințelor de lucernă), Bruchophagus robiniae (viespea semițelor de salcâm), Eurytoma onobrychidis (viespea semințelor de sparcetă), Eurytoma schreineri (viespea semințelor de prun), Systole coriandri (viespea semințelor de coriandru) etc. atacă semințele plantelor.

Specii din România
În România au fost găsite 108 specii de euritomide entomofage și fitofage:

 Archirileya inopinata Silvestri, 1920
 Bruchophagus astragali Fedoseeva, 1954
 Bruchophagus coluteae Bouček, 1954
 Bruchophagus gibbus (Boheman, 1836)
 Bruchophagus ononis (Mayr, 1878)
 Bruchophagus parvulus Zerova, 1994
 Bruchophagus platypterus (Walker, 1834)
 Bruchophagus robiniae Zerova, 1970
 Bruchophagus roddi Gussakovsky, 1933
 Bruchophagus sophorae Crosby, 1929
 Eurytoma acericola Zerova, 1975
 Eurytoma aciculata Ratzeburg, 1848
 Eurytoma afra Boheman, 1836
 Eurytoma appendigaster (Swederus, 1795)
 Eurytoma aquatica Erdös, 1955
 Eurytoma arctica Thomson, 1875
 Eurytoma aspila (Walker, 1836)
 Eurytoma atra (Walker, 1832)
 Eurytoma brunniventris Ratzeburg, 1852
 Eurytoma castorella Erdös, 1969
 Eurytoma crassinervis Thomson, 1875
 Eurytoma curculionum Mayr, 1878
 Eurytoma curta Walker, 1832
 Eurytoma cylindrica Thomson, 1876
 Eurytoma danuvica Erdös, 1955
 Eurytoma dentata Mayr, 1878
 Eurytoma elymi Zerova, 1978
 Eurytoma festucae Zerova, 1977
 Eurytoma flavimana Boheman, 1836
 Eurytoma flavovaria (Ratzeburg, 1844)
 Eurytoma gallicola (Szelènyi, 1968)
 Eurytoma harmoliticola Zerova, 1977
 Eurytoma infracta Mayr, 1904
 Eurytoma jaceae Mayr, 1878
 Eurytoma laserpitii Mayr, 1878
 Eurytoma mayri Ashmead, 1887
 Eurytoma morio Boheman, 1836
 Eurytoma nodularis Boheman, 1836
 Eurytoma noxialis (Portschinsky, 1881)
 Eurytoma onobrychidis Nikol'skaya, 1933
 Eurytoma onobrycola Zerova, 1994
 Eurytoma oophaga Silvestri, 1920
 Eurytoma palustris Erdös, 1957
 Eurytoma parvula Thomson, 1875
 Eurytoma phlomidis Zerova, 1978
 Eurytoma pistaciae Rondani, 1877
 Eurytoma robusta Mayr, 1878
 Eurytoma rosae Nees, 1834
 Eurytoma sabulosa Erdös, 1957
 Eurytoma salicis Walker, 1834
 Eurytoma aff. squamea Walker, 1834
 Eurytoma schreineri Schreiner, 1908
 Eurytoma serratulae (Fabricius, 1798)
 Eurytoma spessivtsevi (Bouček & Novicky, 1954)
 Eurytoma strigifrons Thomson, 1875
 Eurytoma tibialis Boheman, 1836
 Eurytoma truncata Boheman, 1836
 Eurytoma verticillata (Fabricius, 1798)
 Eurytoma wachtli Mayr, 1878
 Nikanoria metallica (Erdös, 1955)
 Sycophila biguttata (Swederus, 1795)
 Sycophila fasciata (Thomson, 1875)
 Sycophila flavicollis (Walker, 1834)
 Sycophila mellea (Curtis, 1831)
 Sycophila mayri (Erdös, 1959)
 Sycophila submutica (Thomson, 1875)
 Sycophila variegata (Curtis, 1831)
 Systole albipennis Walker, 1832
 Systole conspicua Erdös, 1951
 Systole coriandri Gussakovsky, 1933
 Systole cuspidata Zerova, 1970
 Systole foeniculi Otten, 1941
 Systole salviae Zerova, 1968
 Systole tuonela Claridge, 1959
 Tetramesa aciculata (Schlechtendal, 1891)
 Tetramesa affinis (Hedike, 1920)
 Tetramesa airae (Schlechtendal, 1891)
 Tetramesa angustata (Walker)
 Tetramesa angustipennis (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa arrhenatheri Erdös, 1963
 Tetramesa beckmanniae Zerova, 1969
 Tetramesa brevicollis (Walker, 1836)
 Tetramesa brevicornis (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa brischkei (Schlechtendal, 1891)
 Tetramesa cereipes (Erdös, 1955)
 Tetramesa cornuta (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa cylindrica (Schlechtendal, 1891)
 Tetramesa aff. dispar Zerova, 1967
 Tetramesa eremita (Portschinsky, 1881)
 Tetramesa eximia (Giraud, 1863)
 Tetramesa fulvicollis (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa fumipennis (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa giraudi (Schlechtendal, 1891)
 Tetramesa gracilipennis Szelényi, 1968
 Tetramesa hordei (Harris, 1830) (?)
 Tetramesa linearis (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa longicornis (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa longula (Dalman, 1820)
 Tetramesa maderae (Walker, 1849)
 Tetramesa matrana Erdös, 1969
 Tetramesa petiolata (Walker, 1832)
 Tetramesa phleicola (Hedicke, 1920)
 Tetramesa phragmitis (Erdös, 1952)
 Tetramesa poae (Schlechtendal, 1891)
 Tetramesa riparia Zerova, 1978
 Tetramesa scheppigi (Schlechtendal, 1891)
 Tetramesa vaginicola (Doane, 1916)
 Tetramesa viktorina Szelényi, 1968

Note

Legături externe

Euritomide


Halderberge () er en kommune og en by i den sydlige provins Noord-Brabant i Nederlandene.

Kernerne
 Bosschenhoofd
 Hoeven
 Oud Gastel
 Oudenbosch (Rådhuset)
 Stampersgat

Eksterne henvisninger

 Toeristiske information Halderberge
 Halderberges Kommunens hjemmesiden

Byer i Nord-Brabant
Kommuner i Nord-Brabant

Halderberge


Soğanlı Dağı, Sarıkamış'ta Orta Toroslar içerisinde yer alır. 2967 metre yüksekliğindedir.

Tomarza havzası ile Tufanbeyli havzasını birbirinden ayıran Tahtalı Dağları'nın da büyük bir kısmını meydana getirmektedir.

Dağın tamamı kireçtaşlarından meydana gelmiş ve karstik şekillerin oluşmasını sağlamıştır. Dağın 2250 metreden yüksek kesimleri buzullaşmaya maruz kalmıştır. Kayseri ili, Sarız ilçesi, İmirzağa köyünü eteklerinde barındırır. Güneyinde çam ağaçları ve teke deresi yer alır. Yöre deyimiyle kamalak ağacı buralarda çok fazla ve sık olur.

Kars ilinin dağları
Sarıkamış
İkibinlikler

Soğanlı Dağı


The Farm may refer to the following:

Organizations and institutions
 Camp Peary, a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) training facility near Williamsburg, Virginia, U.S.
 The Farm (Canada), a government residence in Canada and home to the Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons
 The Farm (San Francisco), a community center in California, U.S.
 Lewis Farm, an historic home in Charlottesville, Virginia
 Louisiana State Penitentiary, in Louisiana, U.S.
 Stanford University, in Stanford, California, U.S.

Places
 The Farm (Tennessee), an intentional community in Tennessee, U.S.
 Area 51, a highly classified, remote detachment of Edwards Air Force Base, within the Nevada Test and Training Range

Arts, entertainment, and media

Films and television
 The Farm (franchise), a reality competition television franchise that originated in Sweden
 The Farm (UK TV series), the UK version
 "The Farm" (Battlestar Galactica), an episode of Battlestar Galactica
 "The Farm" (Flashpoint), an episode of Flashpoint
 "The Farm" (The Office), an episode of The Office (U.S. TV series)
 The Farm, an unaired spinoff of The L Word
 The Farm: Angola, USA, a documentary set in Angola Prison

Literature
 The Farm (Louis Bromfield novel), 1933
 The Farm (Tom Rob Smith novel), 2014
 The Farm (Joanne Ramos novel), 2019

Music

Groups and labels
 The Farm (British band)
 The Farm (recording studio), a UK recording studio founded by the band Genesis
 The Farm (U.S. band)

Other uses in music
 The Farm (album), the US band's only album
 "The Farm", a song by Aerosmith from Nine Lives

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
 The Farm (Miró), a painting by Joan Miró shown at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
 The Farm, a painting by Adriaen van de Velde formerly in the Hope Collection of Pictures
 "The Farm", the nickname for the Farmington Police District in The Shield

See also
 Farm (disambiguation)

The Farm


An Pennisetum occidentale in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Mary Agnes Chase. An Pennisetum occidentale in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pennisetum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Pennisetum

Pennisetum occidentale


الرياضيات البحتة أو الرياضيات الخالصة هي دراسة المفاهيم الرياضية بشكل مستقل عن أي تطبيق خارج الرياضيات. قد تنشأ هذه المفاهيم في اهتمامات العالم الحقيقي، وقد تتحول النتائج التي تم الحصول عليها لاحقًا إلى فائدة للتطبيقات العملية، لكن علماء الرياضيات البحتين ليسوا مدفوعين أساسًا بهذه التطبيقات. بدلاً من ذلك، يُعزى النداء إلى التحدي الفكري والجمال المتمثل في تحديد النتائج المنطقية للمبادئ الأساسية.

على الرغم من وجود الرياضيات البحتة كنشاط منذ اليونان القديمة على الأقل، فقد تم تطوير المفهوم في حوالي عام 1900، بعد إدخال النظريات بخصائص مضادة للحدس (مثل الهندسة غير الإقليدية ونظرية كانتور للمجموعات اللانهائية)، واكتشاف التناقضات الواضحة (مثل الوظائف المستمرة التي لا يمكن تمييزها في أي مكان، ومفارقة راسل). قدم هذه الحاجة إلى تجديد مفهوم الصرامة الرياضية وإعادة كتابة جميع الرياضيات وفقا لذلك، مع الاستخدام المنهجي للطرق البديهية. أدى ذلك إلى تركيز العديد من علماء الرياضيات على الرياضيات من أجل مصلحتها، أي الرياضيات البحتة.

ومع ذلك، بقيت جميع النظريات الرياضية تقريبًا مدفوعة بمشاكل قادمة من العالم الواقعي أو من نظريات رياضية أقل تجريدا. أيضًا، تم استخدام العديد من النظريات الرياضية، والتي بدت أنها رياضيات خالصة تمامًا، في النهاية في المجالات التطبيقية، ولا سيما الفيزياء وعلوم الحاسوب. ومن الأمثلة المبكرة الشهيرة على ذلك، إظهار إسحاق نيوتن أن قانون الجاذبية العالمي الخاص به يعني ضمناً أن الكواكب تتحرك في مدارات ذات أجزاء مخروطية، منحنيات هندسية درسها أبلونيوس البرغاوي في العصور القديمة. مثال آخر هو مشكلة تقسيم أعداد صحيحة كبيرة، والتي هي أساس نظام تشفير RSA، المستخدم على نطاق واسع لتأمين اتصالات الإنترنت.

ويترتب على ذلك، في الوقت الحالي، أن التمييز بين الرياضيات البحتة والتطبيقية هو وجهة نظر فلسفية أو تفضيل عالم رياضيات أكثر من كونه تقسيمًا جامدًا للرياضيات. على وجه الخصوص، ليس من غير المألوف أن يصف بعض أعضاء قسم الرياضيات التطبيقية أنفسهم بأنهم علماء رياضيات بحتيين.

التاريخ

اليونان القديمة
كان علماء الرياضيات اليونانيون القدماء من أوائل من يميزون بين الرياضيات البحتة والتطبيقية. ساعد أفلاطون في خلق الفجوة بين «الحسابيات»، وتسمى الآن نظرية الأعداد، و«اللوجستية»، التي تسمى الآن علم الحساب. اعتبر أفلاطون أن اللوجيستية (الحساب) مناسبة لرجال الأعمال ورجال الحرب الذين «يجب عليهم تعلم فن الأرقام أو أنهم لن يعرفوا كيف يصفون قواتهم» والحساب (نظرية الأعداد) على النحو المناسب للفلاسفة «لأن عليهم أن يخرجوا من بحر التغيير وأن يثبتوا وجودهم الحقيقي.» عندما سئل أحد تلاميذه عن أحد طلابه عن الفائدة من دراسة الهندسة، طلب من عبده إعطاء الطالب ثلاثة بنسات، «لأنه يجب عليه أن يربح ما يتعلمه.» سُئل عالم الرياضيات اليوناني أبلونيوس البرغاوي في بيرغا عن فائدة بعض نظرياته في الكتاب الرابع للمخروطيات والتي أكد عليها بفخر:
«إنهم يستحقون القبول من أجل التظاهر بأنفسهم، بنفس الطريقة التي نقبل بها أشياء أخرى كثيرة في الرياضيات لهذا وليس لأي سبب آخر.»

ونظرًا لأن العديد من نتائجه لم تكن قابلة للتطبيق على العلوم أو الهندسة في عصره، جادل أبلونيوس البرغاوي أيضًا في مقدمة الكتاب الخامس للمخروطيات أن الموضوع هو أحد تلك النتائج التي «تبدو جديرة بالدراسة من أجلها.»

القرن التاسع عشر
مصطلح الأستاذية في الرياضيات البحتة، التي تأسس المصطلح (كأستاذ) في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر. ربما نشأت فكرة الانضباط المنفصل للرياضيات البحتة في ذلك الوقت. لم يقدم جيل غاوس تمييزًا شاملاً من هذا النوع، بين الرياضيات البحتة والتطبيقية. في السنوات التالية، بدأ التخصص والاحتراف (خاصة في منهج كارل ويرستراس في التحليل الرياضي) في جعل الفجوة أكثر وضوحًا.

القرن العشرين
في بداية القرن العشرين، تبنى علماء الرياضيات الطريقة البديهية، التي تأثرت بقوة بمثال ديفيد هيلبرت. بدت الصيغة المنطقية للرياضيات البحتة التي اقترحها برتراند راسل من حيث الهيكل الكمي للاقتراحات أكثر فأكثر منطقية، حيث أصبحت أجزاء كبيرة من الرياضيات بديهية ومن ثم تخضع لمعايير بسيطة لإثبات صارم.

الرياضيات البحتة، وفقًا لوجهة نظر يمكن أن تُنسب إلى مجموعة بورباكي. أصبح عالم الرياضيات البحتة مهنة معترف بها، ويمكن تحقيقه من خلال التدريب.

تم توضيح أن الرياضيات البحتة مفيدة في التعليم الهندسي:

«هناك تدريب في عادات الفكر ووجهات النظر والفهم الفكري للمشاكل الهندسية العادية، والتي يمكن أن تعطيها دراسة الرياضيات العليا فقط.»

التعميم والتجريد
تعتبر فكرة التعميم واحدة من أهم المفاهيم في الرياضيات البحتة؛ فعادة ما تتجه الرياضيات البحتة نحو مزيد من التعميم. للتعميم مظاهر عديدة مختلفة، مثل النظريات التي تثبت الضعف في ظل الافتراضات، أو تحديد الهياكل الرياضية باستخدام عدد أقل من الافتراضات. ورغم أن التعميم في بعض الأحيان، أو السعي لقيمتها في ذاتها، تشمل استخدامات ومزايا التعميم ما يلي:
 يمكن أن يؤدي تعميم نظريات الهياكل الرياضية إلى فهم أعمق للنظريات أو الهياكل الأصلية.
 يمكن للتعميم تبسيط عرض المواد، مما يؤدي إلى الحصول على أدلة أو حجج أقصر يسهل متابعتها.
 يمكن للمرء استخدام التعميم لتجنب ازدواجية الجهد، أو إثبات نتيجة عامة بدلاً من الاضطرار إلى إثبات حالات منفصلة بشكل مستقل، أو استخدام نتائج من مجالات أخرى في الرياضيات.
 يمكن للتعميم تسهيل الروابط بين مختلف فروع الرياضيات. نظرية الأصناف هي واحدة من مجالات الرياضيات مكرسة لاستكشاف هذه القواسم المشتركة للبنية كما تسهم في بعض مجالات الرياضيات.

غالبًا ما يُنظر إلى التعميم على أنه عائق أمام الحدس، على الرغم من أنه يمكن أن يعمل بالتأكيد كعامل مساعد له، خاصةً عندما يوفر تشبيهات لمادة ذات حدس جيد بالفعل.

وكمثال رئيسي على التعميم، تضمن برنامج إرلنغن لتوسيع الهندسة لاستيعاب الأشكال الهندسية غير الإقليدية بالإضافة إلى مجال الطوبولوجيا، وأشكال أخرى من الهندسة، من خلال عرض الهندسة باعتبارها دراسة الفضاء مع مجموعة من التحولات. تمتد دراسة الأعداد، التي تسمى الجبر في مستوى المرحلة الجامعية الأولى، لتشمل الجبر المجرد على مستوى أكثر تقدمًا؛ ودراسة الدوال، تسمى حساب التفاضل والتكامل على مستوى طلاب الكلية يصبح التحليل الرياضي والتحليل الدالي على مستوى أكثر تقدما. لكل فرع من فروع الرياضيات التجريدية هذه العديد من التخصصات الفرعية، وهناك في الواقع العديد من الروابط بين الرياضيات البحتة وتخصصات الرياضيات التطبيقية. شوهد ارتفاع حاد في التجريد في منتصف القرن العشرين.

الصفائية
لطالما كان لدى علماء الرياضيات آراء مختلفة فيما يتعلق بالتمييز بين الرياضيات البحتة والتطبيقية. يمكن العثور على أحد الأمثلة الحديثة الأكثر شهرة (ولكن ربما يساء فهمها) لهذا النقاش في «دفاع رياضياتي» لغودفري هارولد هاردي.

ويعتقد على نطاق واسع أن هاردي يعتبر الرياضيات التطبيقية قبيحة ومملة. على الرغم من أن هاردي فضل الرياضيات البحتة، والتي غالباً ما قارنها بالطلاء والشعر، رأى هاردي أن التمييز بين الرياضيات البحتة والتطبيقية هو ببساطة أن الرياضيات التطبيقية سعت إلى التعبير عن الحقيقة الجسدية في إطار رياضي، في حين أن الرياضيات البحتة عبرت عن حقائق مفادها أن كانت مستقلة عن العالم المادي. قام هاردي بتمييز منفصل في الرياضيات بين ما أسماه «الرياضيات الحقيقية»، والتي لها قيمة جمالية دائمة، و«الأجزاء الباهتة والعناصر الأولية للرياضيات» التي لها فائدة عملية.

اعتبر هاردي أن بعض علماء الفيزياء، مثل أينشتاين وديراك، كانوا من بين علماء الرياضيات «الحقيقيين»، ولكن في الوقت الذي كان يكتب فيه مقالته، اعتبر أيضًا النسبية العامة وميكانيكا الكم «غير مجدية»، مما سمح له بالاحتفاظ بهذا الرأي القائل بأن الرياضيات «المملة» فقط كانت مفيدة. علاوة على ذلك، اعترف هاردي لفترة وجيزة أنه كما جاء تطبيق نظرية المصفوفة ونظرية الزمر على الفيزياء -بشكل غير متوقع- قد يأتي الوقت الذي قد تكون فيه بعض أنواع الرياضيات الجميلة «الحقيقية» مفيدة أيضًا.

انظر أيضًا
 الرياضيات التطبيقية
 المنطق
 ماوراء الرياضيات

المراجع

وصلات خارجية
 ما هي الرياضيات البحتة؟
 قسم الرياضيات البحتة، جامعة واترلو
 ما هي الرياضيات البحتة؟
 المبادئ من جانب الرياضيات برتراند راسل

تجريد
فروع الرياضيات
مصطلحات رياضياتية

رياضيات بحتة


The following are lists of words in the English language that are known as "loanwords" or "borrowings," which are derived from other languages.

For Old English-derived words, see List of English words of Old English origin.

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Glossary of ballet, mostly French words
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See also
 Anglicisation
 English terms with diacritical marks
 Inkhorn term
 Linguistic purism in English
 List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English
 List of Greek and Latin roots in English
 List of proposed etymologies of OK
List of Latin legal terms

References

External links
 Ancient Egyptian Loan-Words in English
 List of etymologies of English words

Lists of English words by country or language of origin


Doña Ivana II. od Empúriesa (katalonski Joana, šp. Juana), poznata i kao Ivana Aragonska ili Ivana od Cardone (Segorbe, 1543. – Barcelona, 12. kolovoza 1608.), bila je španjolska plemkinja; grofica Pradesa i Empúriesa, vojvotkinja Cardone i Segorbea, markiza Pallarsa Sobire, vikontica Villamura te barunica Entençe.

Život i obitelj
Ivanini su roditelji bili Don Alfons de Aragón y Portugal i Doña Ivana od Cardone, preko koje je bila unuka Don Fernanda I. od Cardone.

Nakon smrti svoga brata Franje, Ivana je, jer joj brat nije imao djece, postala vojvotkinja Cardone.

Njezin je muž bio Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Zúñiga (1524. – 1601.).

Godine 1605. Ivana je dala Empúries svom unuku, Don Henriku Aragonskom i Cardonskom.

Djeca
Ivanina djeca s Diegom:
Francesca
Ivana
Marija
Guiomar
Ana
Beatrica
Ludovik Ramón
Marija Ana
Alfons
Marija Magdalena

Izvori

Životopisi, Barcelona
Vojvode Cardone
Grofovi Empúriesa

Ivana II. od Empúriesa


Pokrajina Južna Sardinija (talijanski: Provincia del Sud Sardegna) je talijanska pokrajina u regiji Sardinija. Glavni grad je Carbonia. Površina pokrajine iznosi 6 530 km², a broj stanovnika 351 586 (2018. godine). Gustoća naseljenosti je 53,84 st/km².
Pokrajina ima 107 općina.

Južna Sardinija


An Pseudadenia schweinfurthii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Christoph Friedrich Hegelmaier ngan Anton Joseph Kerner, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Peter Francis Hunt. An Pseudadenia schweinfurthii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pseudadenia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pseudadenia

Pseudadenia schweinfurthii


Der Burgpark Gustavsburg ist ein neu errichteter Park für die ehemalige Sternenfestung nahe dem Sportplatz in der hessischen Stadt Ginsheim-Gustavsburg. Der Burgpark Gustavsburg ist Teil des Regionalparks Rhein-Main.

Der Burgpark entstand als Andenken an die von 1632 bis 1635 an gleicher Stelle befindliche Schwedische Festung Gustavsburg.

Lage und Ausstattung
Der Burgpark Gustavsburg liegt im Ortsteil Gustavsburg der hessischen Stadt Ginsheim-Gustavsburg. Begrenzt wird der Burgpark im Osten von der Erzbergerstraße (L3040), im Nordosten durch die Darmstädter Landstraße (Teil der B 43), im Nordwesten durch die Straße Auf der Mainspitze sowie im Süden durch die Gleise der Mainbahn.

Durch den Burgpark floss früher einmal ein Altarm des Mains, welcher heute jedoch ausgetrocknet ist und kein Wasser mehr führt. Eine Holzbrücke führt heute noch über den Altarm und verbindet so zwei Teile des Parks, welche früher durch den Altarm und heute durch Büsche und Bäume voneinander getrennt sind. Auf einer Seite hinter diesen Büschen befindet sich heute ein Reststück der ehemaligen schwedischen Festung. Diese Ecke wurde mit zwei Bänken zu einer kleinen Sitzecke umgestaltet.

Verkehrsanbindung
Der Burgpark Gustavsburg profitiert durch den nahegelegenen Bahnhof Mainz-Gustavsburg an der Mainbahn über eine sehr gute Verkehrsanbindung. Hier verkehrt die Linie S8 der S-Bahn Rhein-Main täglich im 30-Minuten-Takt auf der Strecke Wiesbaden Hbf–Mainz Hbf–Rüsselsheim–Frankfurt Flughafen–Frankfurt Hbf (tief)–Offenbach Ost(–Hanau Hbf). In den Hauptverkehrszeiten halten dort einzelne Züge der Regionalbahnlinie RB 75 auf der Strecke Wiesbaden Hbf–Mainz Hbf–Groß Gerau–Darmstadt Hbf–Dieburg–Babenhausen (Hess)–Aschaffenburg Hbf.

Auf der Nordostseite des Parks befindet sich die Bushaltestelle Am Alten Fährhaus, an welcher die Buslinien 54, 55 und 91
der Mainzer Verkehrsgesellschaft (MVG) halten und den Park mit der Mainzer Innenstadt sowie einzelnen Mainzer Stadtteilen verbinden.

Siehe auch
 Schwedische Festung Gustavsburg
 Regionalpark Rhein-Main

Parkanlage in Hessen
Ginsheim-Gustavsburg
Parkanlage in Europa

Burgpark Gustavsburg


Die Rödgener Mühle war eine Wassermühle mit einem oberschlächtigen Wasserrad.

Geographie
Die Rödgener Mühle hat ihren Standort an der Anton-Raky-Straße im Ortsteil Rödgen in der Mittelstadt Wegberg im Kreis Heinsberg. Das Mühlengebäude stand auf der linken Seiten vom Helpensteiner Bach. Der Mühle vorgelagert ist ein Mühlenweiher, dessen Wasserspiegel bei 63 m ü. NN liegt und der vom Helpensteiner Bach gespeist wird. Oberhalb der Dalheimer Mühle liegt die Rödgener Mühle, unterhalb liegt die Gitstapper Mühle auf niederländischem Gebiet.

Gewässer
Der Rothenbach hat seinen Ursprung im Helpensteiner Bach, der in der Nähe des Siemens-Prüfcenters an der Friedrich-List-Allee seine Quelle hat. Die Quellhöhe liegt bei 84 ü. NN. Der Helpensteiner Bach durchfließt auf seinem Weg den Rödgener Burgweiher, auch Rakyweiher genannt, und versorgte bis 1899 die Dalheimer Mühle über ein oberschlächtiges Mühlrad mit Wasser. Der weitere Bachverlauf führt durch waldreiches Gebiet bis hin zur Dalheimer Mühle, wo der Helpensteiner Bach den vorgelagerten Mühlenteich durchfließt und hinter der Mühle als Rothenbach auf einer Strecke von 5,5 km den Grenzverlauf zwischen den Niederlanden und Deutschland bildet. Auf seinem Weg wird die Gitstapper Mühle mit Wasser versorgt, bevor der Rothenbach bei Vlodrop auf niederländischen Gebiet als "Rode Beek" in die Rur fließt. Die Mündungshöhe liegt bei 28 m ü. NN.

Mühlenteich
Der Mühle vorgelagert ist ein Mühlenweiher, dessen Wasserspiegel bei 63 m ü. NN liegt und der vom Helpensteiner Bach gespeist wird. Um diesen Mühlenweiher, den sogenannten Raky-Weiher geht es in der Pressemeldung vom 20. August 2010 Wer rettet den Raky-Weiher. Man befürchtet, das der Raky-Weiher immer mehr verlandet. Die Stadt Wegberg stellte mit Meldung vom 29. April 2011 Hilfe in Aussicht. Nun hat der Landschaftsbeirat auf einer Sitzung im Kreishaus Heinsberg den Beginn der Rettungsmaßnahmen noch für 2013 in Aussicht gestellt. Pressebericht vom 22. Februar 2013. Stand Juni 2018 ist der Raky-Weiher verlandet. Der Bereich des ehemaligen Weihers kann nicht mehr betreten werden. Es besteht Lebensgefahr.

Geschichte
Die Rödgener Mühle, unterhalb des sogenannten Rödgener Burgweihers an der Anton-Raky-Straße gelegen, ist als ehemaliges Mühlengebäude nicht mehr ohne weiteres zu erkennen. Die alte Mühle wurde 1802 errichtet und diente als Mahlmühle, die auf Grund des Höhenunterschiedes im Gelände oberschlächtig betrieben werden konnte, also über sehr gute Betriebsvoraussetzungen verfügte. Bereits 1899 wurde die Mühle geschlossen. In diesem Jahr kaufte der Bohrunternehmer Anton Raky das Gebäude und ließ es für Trina Esser, mit der ihn eine Liebschaft verband, als Wohnung herrichten. Sie war die Enkelin des Wilhelm Jansen, dem letzten Rödgener Müller.

Literatur
 Niederrheinische Wassermühlen – Führer von Hans Vogt
 Die Schwalm – Tal der Mühlen von Horst Jungblut – Helmut Elstner
 Heimatbuch der Stadt Wegberg – Zusammengestellt von Heinz Cohnen
 Kulturführer Wegberg

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Wassermühle in Wegberg
Mühle in Europa

Rödgener Mühle


An Hyparrhenia hirta in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl von Linné, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Otto Stapf. An Hyparrhenia hirta in nahilalakip ha genus nga Hyparrhenia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Hyparrhenia

Hyparrhenia hirta


José María Martín de Herrera y de la Iglesia (Aldeadávila de la Ribera, 26 de agosto de 1835-Santiago de Compostela, 8 de diciembre de 1922). Cardenal español del  y principios del .

Biografía
Herrera estudió en el seminario de Salamanca y en la Universidad de Salamanca; fue diácono de la catedral de León. Fue elegido arzobispo de Santiago de Cuba en 1875.

En 1879 fue designado senador por el Arzobispado de Santiago de Cuba, cargo que ostentaría hasta 1922.

Herrera fue trasladado a la de Santiago de Compostela en 1889. Durante su etapa compostelana auspició la creación del Diario de Galicia, periódico de línea conservadora y católico-monárquica.

El papa León XIII le creó cardenal en el Consistorio del 19 de abril de 1897. Tomó parte en el cónclave de 1903, en el que se eligió a Pío X y en el cónclave de 1914 (elección de Benedicto XV). No concurrió al de 1922 (elección de Pío XI) por problemas de salud. Esta enterrado en la Catedral de Santiago de Compostela.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos
  Ficha en el portal fiu.edu

Arzobispos de Santiago de Cuba
Arzobispos de Santiago de Compostela
Cardenales de España del siglo XIX
Cardenales creados por León XIII
Alumnado de la Universidad de Salamanca en el siglo XIX
Religiosos de la provincia de Salamanca
Caballeros grandes cruces de la Orden de Carlos III
Senadores de España de la Restauración por el arzobispado de Santiago de Cuba
Obispos católicos del siglo XIX
Obispos católicos del siglo XX
Obispos españoles en América
Arzobispos del siglo XIX
Arzobispos del siglo XX
Cardenales de España del siglo XX
Nacidos en Aldeadávila de la Ribera
Fallecidos en Santiago de Compostela

José María Martín de Herrera


Le  () est un groupe d'édifices religieux situé à Anchieta au Brésil, auquel l'Église catholique donne le statut de sanctuaire national. Il regroupe l'église Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption ()  et les anciens bâtiments jésuites voisins. Il est rattaché à l'archidiocèse de Vitória ; l'église est dédiée à l'Assomption, et le sanctuaire à saint José de Anchieta.

Historique
Le site est érigé par les Jésuites entre le milieu du  et le début du , durant l'époque du Brésil colonial. C'est là que José de Anchieta passe les dernières années de sa vie, et où il meurt le .

Les Jésuites sont expulsés en 1759. L'église devient alors église paroissiale, et les bâtiments de résidence à la fois une mairie, une prison et le logement de diverses personnalités publiques.

Durant la seconde moitié du , la cour intérieure sert de cimetière. En 1928, l'évêque  rachète les bâtiments et les rend aux Jésuites.

En 1943, l'Institut national du patrimoine artistique et historique inscrit le monument. Un musée est aménagé en 1965. Une campagne de fouille menée entre 1994 et 1997 force à le déplacer au rez-de-chaussée de l'ancienne résidence des Jésuites.

En , José de Anchieta, canonisé l'année précédente, est reconnu patron du Brésil par la Conférence nationale des évêques du Brésil ; le sanctuaire devient à cette occasion sanctuaire national, et une messe y est donnée le  pour célébrer tous ces changements.

Description

Le sanctuaire se compose de l'église Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption, de la place de l'Église et des anciens bâtiments jésuites qui abritent aujourd'hui le musée.

Références

Église au Brésil
Lieu de pèlerinage catholique

Sanctuaire Saint-José-de-Anchieta d'Anchieta


සාමාන්‍ය කාර්මික ආසවන කුලුණු

මහාපරිමාණ කාර්මික ආසවනය කාණ්ඩ වශයෙන් හෝ සන්තතව සිදු කරන නිෂ්පාදන ක්‍රියාවලීන්හිදි භාවිත කෙරෙන අතර එහිදි භාගික ආසවනය, රික්තක ආසවනය, වාශ්ප ආසවනය, නිස්සාරක ආසවනය සහ ඇසෙයෝට්‍රෝපික ආසවනය ආදි ක්‍රම වේද භාවිත වේ. සන්තතික අචල තත්ත්ව භාගික ආසවනය වඩාත් බහුලව භාවිත වන්නේ ඛණිජ තෙල්, පිරිපහදු ඛනිජ රසායනික සහ රසායනික කර්මාන්ත ශාලා සහ ස්වභාවික වායු සැකසුම් කර්මාන්ත ශාලා ආදිය වේ.

කාර්මික ආසවනය සාමාන්‍යයෙන් ආසවන කුලුණු ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන විශාල සිරස් සිලින්ඩරාකාර කුලුණු භාවිතා වන අතර ඒවායේ විශ්කම්භය සෙ.මි. 65 සිට මිටර් 16 ක් දක්වා විය හැකි අතර උස ප්‍රමාණය මීටර් 6 සිට 90 දක්වා වේ. ඇතැම් විට මිටර් 90 වටද වඩා උසින් වැඩි කුලුණු භාවිතා විය හැක. සැකසුම සඳහා කුලුණු තුලට ඇතුල් කෙරෙන ද්‍රවය ද්‍රව කිහිපයක මිශ්‍රණයකින් තැනි ඇති විට කුලුණු වල විවිධ උස ප්‍රමාණ වලින් පිහිටා ඇති පිටවුම් මං ඔස්සේ  එකිනෙකට වෙනස් තාපාංක හා තාපාංක පරාස ඇති විවිධ භාගයන් නැතහොත් විවිධ නිෂ්පාදන වෙන්කර ගත හැක.  මේ අතරින් වඩාත් සැහැල්ලුතම නිෂ්පාදන (අඩුම තාපාංක සහිත නිෂ්පාදන) කුලුණු වල ඉහළින්ම ලබාගෙන යන අතර වඩාත් බරින් වැඩි නිෂ්පාදන (වැඩිම තාපාංක සහිත නිෂ්පාදන) කුලුණු වල පහලම කෙලවරින් වෙන්කර ගැනේ.

විශාල පරිමාණ ආසවන කුලුණු වලදී වඩාත් පුර්ණ ආකාරයෙන් නිෂ්පාදන වෙන්කර ගැනීම සඳහා ප්‍රතිවාහ ක්‍රමය භාවිත කෙරේ. ප්‍රතිවාහක්‍රම‍ෙය්දී ඉහත සාමාන්‍ය මහාපරිමාණ කාර්මික ආසවන කුලුණක දැක්වෙන පරිදි ආසවන හෝ විභාජක කුලුණකින් ලබාගත් ද්‍රවිත ඵලයන් වලින් කොටසක් නැවත එම කුලුනෙහිම ඉහල කෙළවරින් ඇතුල් කෙරේ. කුලුණ තුලදී පහලට ගමන් කරන ප්‍රතිවාහ ද්‍රවය  මගින් ඉහලට‍පැමිණෙන වාශ්පය සිසිල් කිරීම සහ ඝනී භවනය කිරීම සිදු කෙරෙන අතර ඒ ඔස්සේ ආසවන කුලුණේ කාර්යක්ෂමතාව ඉහළයයි. සෛද්ධාන්තිකව දෙන ලද විභාජක මට්ටම් ප්‍රමාණයක් සහිත ආසවන කුලුණකට මෙසේ ඇතුල් කල හැකි ප්‍රතිවාහ ප්‍රමාණය වැඩිවන විට කුලුණ මගින් ඉහල තාපාංක ඇති ද්‍රව්‍ය පහළ තාපාංක ඇති ද්‍රව්‍ය වලින් වෙන්කිරීමේ ක්‍රියාවලිය වඩාත් හොදින් සිදුවේ. කිසියම් නිෂ්චිත විභාජනයක් සඳහා භාවිත කල හැකි ප්‍රතිවාහ ප්‍රමාණය වැඩිවන විට ඒ සඳහා භාවිත කල යුතු විභාජන මට්ටම් සංඛ්‍යාව පහල යයි.

මේආකාර කාර්මික ආසවන කුලුණු වාතයෙන් ද්‍රවිත ඔක්සිජන්, ද්‍රවිත නයිට්‍රජන් සහ අතිශය සංශුද්ධ ආගන් වායු වෙන්කර ගැනීමේදී භාවිත කෙරේ. අර්ධ සන්නායක නිෂ්පාදනය සඳහා යොදා ගන්නා අතිශය සංශුද්ධ සිලිකන් නිපදවීම සදහා ක්ලෝරෝසිලෙන් ආසවනය යොදා ගත හැක.

කාර්මික ආසවන කුලුණක හරස්කඩ - මෙහි කුලුණේ විවිධ මට්ටම් සහ ඒවායේ ඇති බුබුලුවහන්තරා දැක්වේ.

ආසවන කුලුණු නිර්මාණය සහ ඒවා ක්‍රියාවේ යෙදවීම ආසවනය කල යුතු ද්‍රව්‍ය සහ ඉන් ලබාගත යුතු නිෂ්පාදන මත රදාපවතී. ආසවනය කල යුත්තේ සරල සංරචක යුගලකින් යුත් ද්‍රව්‍යයක් වේ නම් මැක්කේබ්-තීලේ ක්‍රමය හෝ ෆෙන්ස්කේ සමීකරණය වැනි විශ්ලේෂණ ක්‍රමයක් භාවිත කල හැක. නමුත් ආසවනය කල යුතු අමුද්‍රව්‍ය ද්‍රව්‍ය විශාල සංඛ්‍යාවකින් සමන්විත වේ නම් කුලුණු නිර්මාණය සහ භාවිතයේදී සමාකරණ ආදර්ශන ක්‍රමවේද භාවිත කල යුතු වේ. තවද ආසවන කුලුණුවලදී භාවිතා වන වාශ්ප - ද්‍රව ස්පර්ශක උපාංග (මට්ටම්) වල කාර්යක්ෂමතාව සෛද්ධාන්තිකව ලැබෙන 100% සමතුලිත තත්ත්වයට වඩා අඩුවේ. එබැවින් ආසවන කුලුණක් සඳහා  සෛද්ධාන්තිකව ලැබෙන වාශ්ප - ද්‍රව සමතුලිතතා අවස්ථා ගණනට වඩා වැඩි මට්ටම් සංඛ්‍යාවක් පැවතිය යුතුය.

කාර්මික යෙදුම් වලදී ඇතැම් විට කුලුණ තුල -මට්ටම් වෙනුවට ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍යයක් භාවිත කෙරේ. රික්තක තත්ව යටතේ  ක්‍රියාත්මක වන අවස්ථා වැනි කුලුණ හරහා අඩු පීඩන පාතනයක් අවශ්‍ය වන අවස්ථා වලදී මෙය විශේෂයෙන් භාවිත වේ.

මෙම ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍ය විශේෂ ඇසුරුම් ක්‍රමයකින් තොරව ඇතුල්කල (අඟල් 1 – 3 අතර) රැෂිග් වලයයන් හෝ හැඩගැන්වු ලෝහ තහඩු විය හැක. ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍යයේ පෘෂ්ඨය ද්‍රව මගින් තෙත් වන අතර මෙම තෙත් වු පෘෂ්ඨය මතින් වාශ්ප ගමන් කරයි. එහිදි ස්කන්ධ හුවමාරුව සිදුවේ. සාමාන්‍යයෙන් භාවිත වන එක් එක් මට්ටමක් මගින් එකිනෙකට වෙනස් ද්‍රව - වාශ්ප සමතුලිතතා ලක්ෂ්‍යයක් දෙනු ලබන බහුමට්ටම් ආසවන කුලුණු මෙන් නොව අසුරන ලද කුලුණක් තුල ද්‍රව - වාශ්ප සමතුලිතතා වක්‍රය සංතතික වේ. නමුත් අසුරන ලද කුලුණු ආදර්ශනයේදී සෛද්ධාන්තික මට්ටම් කිහිපයක් ගණනය කිරීම සාමාන්‍ය ආකාරයේ මට්ටම් සහිත කුලුණකට සාපේක්ෂව ඒවායේ විභාජක කාර්යක්ෂමතාවය දැක්වීම සඳහා වැදගත් වේ. විවිධාකාරයෙන් හැඩ ගන්වන ලද ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍ය වල ක්ෂේත්‍ර ඵලයන් එකිනෙකට වෙනස් වන අතර ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍යයන් අතර පවතින අවකාශද විශාලත්වයෙන් එකිනෙකට වෙනස් වේ. මෙම ගුණාංග යුගලම ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍ය වල කාර්යක්ෂමතාව සඳහා බලපායි.

විශේෂ ආකාරයකට ඇසුරුම් නොකල හෝ හැඩ ගැන්වු ඇසුරුම් භාවිතා වන ආසවන කුලුණක ක්‍රියාකාරිත්වය සඳහා ඇසුරුම් හැඩය සහ ක්ෂේත්‍ර ඵලය හැරුනු විට ඇසුරුම් ස්ථරයට ඇතුල් වන ද්‍රව සහ වාශ්ප ව්‍යාප්තිය බලපායි. දෙන ලද විභජනයක් සිදු කිරීම සඳහා අවශ්‍ය වන සෛද්ධාන්තික මට්ටම් සංඛ්‍යාව නිෂ්චිත වාශ්ප ද්‍රව අනුපාතයක් ඇසුරින් ගණනය කෙ‍රේ. ඇසුරුම් ස්ථරයට ඇතුල් වන විට ද්‍රව සහ වාශ්ප කුළුනු පෘෂ්ඨය හරහා ඒකාකාරව ව්‍යාප්ත වී නොමැති විට ඇසුරුම් ස්ථරය තුල ද්‍රව වාශ්ප අනුපාතය නිරවද්‍ය නොවන අතර ඉලක්ක ගත විභාජනය සිදුනොවේ. ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍ය නිසි පරිදි ක්‍රියා නොකරන බව මෙවිට හැගි යනු ඇත. සෛද්ධාන්තික මට්ටමකට  තුල්‍ය උස අදහස් කරන අගයට වඩා ඉහළ අගයක් ගනු ඇත. මෙහිදි ගැටළුව වන්නේ ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍ය නොව එම ස්ථරයට ඇතුල් වන තරලයන් විසිරි ඇති ආකාරයයි. බහුල වශයෙන් වැරදි ලෙස ව්‍යාප්ත වන්නේ වා‍ශ්පය නොව ද්‍රවයයි. සැපයුම සහ ප්‍රතිවාහය ඇසුරුම් ස්ථරයට ඇතුල් කිරීමට භාවිතා වන ද්‍රව ව්‍යාප්තක නිර්මාණය කර ඇති ආකාරයෙන් ඇසුරුම් උපරිම කාර්යක්ෂමතාවයෙන් ක්‍රියාකිරීම සඳහා අතිශය වැදගත් වේ. ඇසුරුම් ස්ථරයකට ඇතුල් වන ද්‍රවය ඒකාකාරව විසිරවීම සඳහා ද්‍රව ව්‍යාප්තකයකට ඇති හැකියාව ගණනය කිරීමේ ක්‍රම යොමුවෙහි සඳහන් වෙයි. මෙම මාතෘකාව සම්බන්ධයෙන් විශාල වැඩ කොටසක් Fractionatrion Research, Inc. (FRI) මගින් සිදු කර ඇත.

en:Distillation#Industrial_distillation

කාර්මික ආසවනය


La Douleur d'aimer est un film muet français réalisé par Georges Denola, sorti en 1914.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre : La Douleur d'aimer
 Réalisation : Georges Denola
 Scénario : Daniel Riche
 Photographie :
 Montage :
 Société de production : Société cinématographique des auteurs et gens de lettres (S.C.A.G.L.)
 Société de distribution : Pathé frères
 Pays d'origine :
 Langue : français
 Métrage :  mètres
 Format : Noir et blanc — 35 mm — 1,33:1 — Muet
 Genre : Film dramatique
 Durée : 32 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
  :
  :

Distribution
 Jean Ayme : Gaspard Dutard
 Henri Bosc : Georges Dutard
 Léon Malavier : London
 Renée Ludger : Jeanne Daunat
 Maria Fromet : Ninette

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste de films français sortis en 1914

Liens externes

 La Douleur d'aimer sur le site de la Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé

Film français sorti en 1914
Film dramatique français
Moyen métrage français
Film réalisé par Georges Denola
Film en français
Film muet français
Film français en noir et blanc
Film distribué par Pathé

La Douleur d'aimer (film)


Mario Bros. este un joc video apărut în anul 1983, disponibil atât în varianta Arcade (cabină de joc ce funcționa cu monezi) cât și pe consola de jocuri video pe televizor numită simplu Nintendo sau NES (Nintendo Entertainment System). Acesta este de fapt și primul joc în care Mario este prezentat cu acest nume, dacă se ține cont de faptul că jocul de debut al acestui personaj cheie îl constituie în fapt un altul și anume Donkey Kong, unde primește un rol secundar sub numele de "Jumpman", scopul jocului fiind acela de a-și salva prietena pe nume Pauline, care fusese răpită de către gorila Donkey Kong.

Revenind la Mario Bros. este necesar de precizat faptul că prin intermediul acestui joc se conturează însăși identitatea lui Mario. Acesta este prezentat ca fiind un instalator cu origini italo-americane care, împreună cu fratele său mai mare pe nume Luigi, primește misiunea de a elimina toate creaturile ce bântuie prin sistemul de canalizare al orașului New York.

Cele două personaje, Mario și Luigi, trebuie așadar să afle ce anume se petrece în sistemul de canalizare de sub orașul New York, întrucât un număr tot mai mare de creaturi suspecte își fac apariția în acest loc. Fiecare planșă de joc are ca scop eliminarea tuturor acestor oponenți sau inamici. Tot aici trebuie precizat și faptul că mecanica jocului permitea doar deplasări liniare și sărituri în cazul celor două personaje.

Prezentarea jocului

O planșă de joc tipică pentru Mario Bros. este reprezentată dintr-un număr de platforme suspendate pe care se deplasează oponenții, patru guri de țevi situate în toate cele patru colțuri ale ecranului prin care creaturile își fac apariția sau dispar și un "bloc" inscripționat cu "POW", situat central chiar deasupra nivelului cel mai de jos al planșei, marcat de un zid format din blocuri de cărămizi.
Fiecare planșă de joc oferă posibilitatea atât jucătorilor cât și inamicilor să folosească extremitățile ecranului pentru a dispărea și apărea din nou în partea opusă.

Întrucât la data lansării acestui joc, Mario si Luigi nu aveau posibilitatea de a sări pe un oponent pentru a-l distruge și nici nu primiseră posibilitatea de a trage cu bile de foc, singura modalitate prin care se  putea elimina un inamic presupunea mai întâi efectuarea unei sărituri de dedesubtul platformei pe care acesta mergea pentru ca, datorită forței aplicate, platforma să se onduleze în sus, iar inamicul să fie aruncat în aer și să cadă apoi pe spate. Un inamic astfel rostogolit putea fi apoi eliminat definitiv doar printr-o simplă trecere în viteză peste el. Această trecere trebuie însă să urmeze cât de rapid posibil întrucât un oponent rostogolit se va pune pe picioare din nou după o scurtă perioadă de timp.
După înlăturarea fiecărui inamic în parte jucătorul este răsplătit cu un număr de puncte, număr ce poate fi sporit mai apoi în cadrul planșelor de tip bonus pe măsură ce se avansează către nivele superioare.
Fiecare nivel din cadrul jocului are un număr fix de oponenți care trebuie înlăturați. Ultimul rămas va fi întotdeauna ușor de recunoscut datorită faptului că acesta își va schimba rapid culoarea și, de asemenea, se va deplasa mult mai rapid.

Blocul marcat cu POW se dovedește a fi de mare ajutor întrucât lovirea acestuia va produce un cutremur pe ecran și va rostogoli pe spate toți inamicii ce se vor regăsi mergând pe platformele suspendate sau pe zidul de cărămidă din partea de jos a ecranului. POW-ul poate fi folosit doar de trei ori în cadrul fiecărui nivel de joc.

Oponenții sunt de patru feluri, fiecare dintre ei având un comportament diferit în ceea ce privește modul în care pot fi distruși, unii dintre ei necesitând două lovituri aplicate de dedesubtul platformei pe care merg pentru a fi rostogoliți. Trebuie precizat aici totodată și faptul că jocul include și o serie de alte obstacole prezente sub forma unor mingi de foc ce zboară pe ecran în diferite direcții și care necesită a fi evitate cu orice preț întrucât nu există nicio modalitate de a le stopa.
De asemenea mai trebuie notat și faptul că unii oponenți pot transforma platformele suspendate într-unele de gheață ce devin foarte alunecoase, făcând orice deplasare mult mai greu de controlat pentru Mario sau Luigi.
Pe măsură ce se avansează în cadrul jocului, nivelul de dificultate crește de asemenea prin modificarea comportamentului mingilor de foc dar și datorită apariției unor țurțuri de gheață ce se formează sub platformele suspendate și care ulterior vor cădea aleatoriu.

Jocul Mario Bros. a fost creat de către japonezii Shigeru Miyamoto și Gunpei Yokoi, cei doi participând de asemenea și la realizarea jocului Donkey Kong. Conceptul de a lovi adversarii de dedesubt a fost sugerat de către Yokoi și întrucât planșele de joc erau formate din mai multe platforme suspendate poziționate una deasupra celeilalte acest lucru s-a dovedit o idee foarte bună.

De la lansare și până în prezent Mario Bros. a fost portat pe diferite alte console video existente pe piață, printre care versiunea pentru Commodore 64 sau C64 așa cum este cunoscut mai bine în România, Atari 2600, Atari 5200, ZX Spectrum, Apple II computer etc. De curând este disponibil și în varianta "Virtual Console" pentru Nintendo Wii și Wii U.

Bibliografie
Jocul clasic Mario bros.
TMK history of Mario

Mario
Serii de jocuri video
Serii de jocuri video de platformă
Jocuri pentru Commodore 64

Mario Bros.


William Grey,  baron Grey de Wilton  (1508/9 -  ), est un baron anglais et commandant militaire servant en France dans les années 1540 et 1550, et dans les guerres écossaises des années 1540.

Jeunesse

Grey est le treizième baron Grey de Wilton, quatrième fils d'Edmund Grey,  baron Grey de Wilton (mort en 1511) et Florence Hastings, fille aînée de Sir Ralph Hastings . Il est convoqué pour la première fois au parlement le 3 novembre 1529, par le roi Henri VIII d'Angleterre.

Service en France, 1544-1547

Pendant la guerre d'Italie de 1542-1546, Grey commande l'expédition contre la France en 1544, sous les ordres de John, lord Russell, et assiste au siège de Montreuil. Il semble y avoir eu une certaine jalousie entre Grey et le comte de Surrey. Grey est nommé capitaine en chef de l'armée appelée « les équipages », et il est convenu en 1545 que ce commandement serait transféré à Surrey, tandis que Grey devait être nommé lieutenant de Boulogne sous Lord Poynings. Sur des lettres de Guînes, cependant, le roi Henri VIII ordonne à Grey de rester à la tête de son armée, tandis que Surrey est envoyé à Boulogne. Le secrétaire Paget parle des moyens sinistres constamment employés pour mettre ces nobles en désaccord. Grey remplace finalement Surrey en tant que lieutenant de Boulogne en avril 1546. Au cours de la campagne de France, Grey se distingue grandement, notamment par la destruction de la forteresse de Châtillon, qu'il rase. Le roi accorde sa faveur à Grey et lui promet des récompenses et des promotions, mais la promesse n'est pas réalisée à la suite de la mort du roi.

Service militaire en Écosse

La première année du règne d'Édouard VI, Grey, alors maréchal et capitaine général de cavalerie, est envoyé en Écosse. Il se place à la tête de l'armée pour porter la première charge contre l'ennemi à la bataille de Pinkie Cleugh, le 10 septembre 1547 et est blessé.

Il se rétablit et douze jours plus tard (22 septembre) est nommé pour achever la livraison du château de Hume. Le 28, il est fait chevalier par le duc de Somerset à Berwick. Le protecteur retourne en Angleterre, et Grey resta gouverneur de Berwick, gardien des marches de l'est et général des parties nord. Le 18 avril 1548, Grey et Sir Thomas Palmer traversent à nouveau la frontière et avancent jusqu'à Haddington, qu'ils prennent et fortifient minutieusement. Après avoir passé six semaines à améliorer les défenses, ils laissent une garnison de 2 500 hommes en charge et partent, brûlant Dalkeith et dévastant le pays sur six milles autour d'Édimbourg tout en se repliant tranquillement sur Berwick.

Il y eut des troubles dans toute l'Angleterre au cours de l'été 1549, une période qui est connue sous le nom de « moment d'agitation ». En juillet 1549, Grey est envoyé à la tête de quinze cents cavaliers et fantassins dans l'Oxfordshire, où il rétablit immédiatement l'ordre, non sans user d'une sévérité considérable contre les prêtres. Il marche ensuite dans le West Country et, rejoignant le comte de Bedford, rend un service signalé dans la pacification du Devon et des Cornouailles pendant la rébellion du livre de prières.

La politique pendant la succession
En 1551 Grey est détenu dans la Tour comme l'un des partisans de Somerset qui est le Protecteur d'Édouard VI pendant sa minorité. Après l'exécution du Protecteur, Grey est mis en liberté. Ayant recouvré les faveurs royales, Grey est nommé gouverneur du château de Guînes dans le Calaisis. À la mort d'Édouard VI, Gray rejoint le duc de Northumberland dans sa tentative avortée de placer Lady Jane Grey sur le trône. Le mouvement en faveur de Lady Jane s'effondre et, les 21 et 22 juillet 1553, Grey et d'autres personnes compromises obtiennent le pardon.

Service en France, 1553-1558
Quelques jours après sa soumission, Grey reçoit une commission pour lever 350 fantassins et cinquante demi-lanciers dans les comtés de Middlesex et de Kent, et dans la ville de Londres, pour la garnison de Guînes. Lorsque la guerre est officiellement déclarée par les Français en 1557, Guînes est si mal garnie que Grey rapporte qu'à moins d'être renforcé, il est à la merci de l'ennemi. Un petit détachement est envoyé; mais bien que Grey ait plus de mille hommes, une partie seulement d'entre eux sont Anglais, le reste étant Bourguignons et Espagnols. Au milieu de l'hiver, d'ailleurs, les vivres se font rares à Guînes et à Calais. Le  décembre, Grey annonce une expédition réussie pour la destruction d'un détachement français. « Le commandant de Guînes était un homme farouche et sévère, dit Froude, et son sang étant brûlant, il fit sauter l'église de Busigny, avec son clocher, et tous les soldats français retranchés y périrent. Une formidable force française apparue à Abbeville le 22 décembre, Grey et Wentworth écrivent une lettre conjointe urgente à la reine. Des ordres sont longuement donnés pour des renforts, mais ceux-ci sont annulés sur un rapport erroné que l'alarme était mal fondée. Les Français paraissent sous les murs de Guînes le 31 ; Calais est investi le  janvier 1558.

Grey fait un effort courageux pour sauver Guînes. Dans la nuit du 4, il envoie une lettre implorant d'urgence des renforts, mais Calais tombe le 6 janvier. Tous les comtés anglais sont alors sommés par proclamation d'apporter leur concours. Trente mille hommes se dirigent rapidement vers la côte, et le 10, la reine ordonne à l'armée de passer à Dunkerque, de rejoindre le duc de Savoie et de sauver Guînes. Mais des conditions météorologiques extrêmes sont rencontrées dans la Manche et la flotte est soit détruite, soit dispersée. Pendant ce temps, Guînes est abandonnée à son sort. Grey, avec ses onze cents hommes, abandonne la ville, brûle les maisons et se retire dans le château. Les Français, sous le duc de Guise, bombardent la place, et le troisième jour (19 janvier) subissent une tempête. Grey est blessé en marchant accidentellement sur une épée, et la première ligne de défense est prise. Ses soldats refusent de se battre plus longtemps et Grey est bientôt forcé de se rendre.

Le duc de Guise transfère Grey au maréchal Pierre Strozzi, qui à son tour passe son prisonnier au comte de La Rouchefoucauld, et il reste en captivité jusqu'à ce qu'il soit racheté par le paiement de vingt mille écus, ce qui altère considérablement sa fortune, et entraîne la vente de son ancien château de Wilton-upon-Wye. Grey est élu chevalier de la Jarretière en avril 1558 ; mais étant alors prisonnier en France, le roi d'armes Jarretière sir Gilbert Dethick est envoyé pour notifier son élection. Il est installé le 19 avril 1558 par son mandataire, Sir Humphrey Ratclyffe. Lors d'une prolongation de l'armistice avec la France en janvier 1559, Grey est envoyé en Angleterre avec des propositions de paix secrète. Grey reçoit des convocations en tant que pair du parlement d'Henri VIII, d'Édouard VI, de Marie et d'Élisabeth. Mais ses honneurs, qui sont confisqués par la mise hors la loi de 1553, ne sont entièrement restaurés qu'après l'avènement d'Élisabeth (1558).

Gardien des Marches
En décembre 1559 Grey est fait gouverneur de Berwick, Gardien des Marches vers l'Écosse, et préfet de Tynedale et Redesdale. Il descend à la frontière avec deux mille hommes pour renforcer la garnison de Berwick, avec une grande latitude d'action. Après la signature du traité de Berwick, il est bientôt nommé général de l'armée anglaise envoyée « au secours des Écossais contre les Français, qui y avaient fait une invasion avec de grandes forces ». Le 28 mars 1560, Grey, avec Lord Scrope, Sir Henry Percy et d'autres, traverse la rivière Tweed avec six mille fantassins et deux mille chevaux. Il se déplace par des marches faciles, et le 4 avril, les seigneurs protestants de la congrégation le rejoignent à Prestonpans. Il est contrarié de constater que leurs hommes ne sont engagés que pour vingt jours, dont douze sont déjà expirés ; mais trouvant Leith trop fort pour être attaqué sans renforts, il propose d'utiliser immédiatement la force écossaise en s'emparant du château d'Édimbourg, où la reine régente s'est réfugiée avec Erskine. Les Écossais sont apathiques et Grey demande conseil à Thomas Howard (4e duc de Norfolk). Howard ne veut pas valider le projet de prendre le château à l'insu d'Elizabeth, et la reine, saisie, interdit à Grey d'y penser. On lui ordonne soit de régler les affaires sans force ni effusion de sang, ou bien d'achever l'ouvrage sur-le-champ, « car on ne pouvait pas permettre à la marine de rester ». Les combats commencent avant Leith, mais ils sont interrompus par un armistice, conclu pour laisser le temps à Howard de se rendre à Londres pour obtenir des instructions. Grey est furieux d'être obligé d'attendre. Après des conférences avec le duc de Châtellerault et les seigneurs écossais, les propositions de paix échouent.

Le siège de Leith commence aussitôt et, le 30 avril, un tiers de la ville est détruit par un incendie. Mais il y a des plaintes de l'action dilatoire de Grey. Le blocus échoue. Grey décide de prendre la place d'assaut le 7 mai. L'attaque est repoussée avec de lourdes pertes, la moitié des officiers et huit cents hommes sont laissés morts et blessés dans les tranchées. Grey s'accroche avec ténacité à son terrain, craignant seulement d'en être chassé avant que les secours n'arrivent. Cecil écrit à cette époque : « Mon Lord Grey est un gentleman noble, vaillant, douloureux et prudent », mais son échec est patent. Des négociations sont engagées et un traité est conclu à Édimbourg, la paix étant proclamée à Leith le dimanche 7 juillet. Gray est laissé gouverneur de Berwick et gardien des deux marches, mais par la suite, Sir John Forster prend les marches du milieu avec le consentement de Grey, celui-ci conservant les deux autres postes jusqu'à sa mort.

Retraite et mort
En décembre 1560, Gray reçoit des ambassadeurs écossais à Berwick et fait visiter personnellement au comte de Morton les dernières fortifications . Grey se retire du commandement actif en 1561 et quitte Berwick pour le sud. Il meurt à Cheshunt, près de Waltham dans le Hertfordshire, le 14 décembre 1562, dans la maison de sa fille et de son gendre, Henry Denny (fils de Sir Anthony Denny), et est enterré dans l'église paroissiale du lieu, près du table de communion.

Famille
Vers 1535, Grey épouse Lady Mary Somerset de Worcester,  la fille de Charles Somerset (1er comte de Worcester) et de sa seconde épouse, Elizabeth West . Ils ont trois enfants :

 Arthur Grey (14e baron Grey de Wilton) (1536-1593), qui épouse Dorothy la Zouche, fille illégitime de Richard la Zouche,  baron Zouche de Haryngworth. Il se remarie à Jane Morrison, fille de Sir Richard Morrison, et la veuve d'Edward Russell .
 Honora Grey (1540 - 28 août 1569), épouse Henry Denny, doyen de Chester (mort le 24 mars 1574), fils de Sir . Ils ont Edward Denny,  comte de Norwich .
 William Grey

Références

Bibliographie

  3 volumes

Liens externes

Chevalier de la Jarretière au XVIe siècle
Militaire anglais du XVIe siècle
Décès en décembre 1562
Baron de la pairie d'Angleterre au XVIe siècle

William Grey (13e baron Grey de Wilton)


Die Allianz Suisse Open Gstaad 2010 waren ein Tennisturnier, welches vom 26. Juli bis 1. August 2010 in Gstaad stattfand. Es war Teil der ATP World Tour 2010 und wurde im Freien auf Sandplatz ausgetragen. In derselben Woche wurden in Los Angeles das Farmers Classic sowie in Umag die ATP Studena Croatia Open gespielt, die genau wie die Crédit Agricole Suisse Open Gstaad zur Kategorie ATP World Tour 250 zählten.

Titelverteidiger im Einzel war Thomaz Bellucci, der aber bereits in der ersten Runde gegen Marco Chiudinelli ausschied. Den diesjährigen Final konnte Nicolás Almagro für sich entscheiden, er setzte sich gegen Richard Gasquet mit 7:5, 6:1 durch. Damit gewann Almagro nach dem Turniersieg in Båstad sein zweiter Titel des Jahres sowie sein siebter Karrieretitel. Im Doppelfinal gewannen Johan Brunström und Jarkko Nieminen gegen Marcelo Melo und Bruno Soares im Match-Tie-Break.  Die beide gewannen damit ihren ersten bzw. zweiten Titel ihrer Karriere.

Das Teilnehmerfeld der Einzelkonkurrenz bestand aus 32 Spielern, jenes der Doppelkonkurrenz aus 16 Paaren. Das Gesamtpreisgeld betrug 398.250 Euro, die gesamten finanziellen Verbindlichkeiten lagen bei 450.000 Euro.

Qualifikation
Die Qualifikation fand vom 23. bis 25. Juli 2010 statt. Ausgespielt wurden vier Qualifikantenplätze, die zur Teilnahme am Hauptfeld des Turniers berechtigten. Hinzu kam ein Lucky Loser.

Folgende Spieler hatten die Qualifikation überstanden und spielten im Hauptfeld des Turniers:

Preisgelder und Weltranglistenpunkte
Es wurden die folgenden Preisgelder und Weltranglistenpunkte für das Erreichen der jeweiligen Runde ausgezahlt bzw. gutgeschrieben. Spieler, die über die Qualifikation ins Hauptfeld einzogen, erhielten die angegebenen Qualifikationspunkte zusätzlich zu denen für das Erreichen der jeweiligen Runde. Ansonsten sind die Beträge nicht kumulativ zu verstehen. Preisgelder für den Doppelwettbewerb gelten pro Team.

Einzel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Doppel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Weblinks und Quellen
 Website des Turniers

Turnier der ATP World Tour 2010
Tennisturnier in Saanen

Allianz Suisse Open Gstaad 2010


An Restrepia iris in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carlyle August Luer. An Restrepia iris in nahilalakip ha genus nga Restrepia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Restrepia

Restrepia iris


Povestea lenei este un film românesc din 1983 regizat de Liana Petruțiu.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1983 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1983

Povestea lenei


Olaylar
 8 - 11 Şubat - Mansûre Muharebesi gerçekleşti.
 Zengi Devleti yıkıldı (kuruluşu 1127).
 Karamanoğulları Beyliği kuruldu (dağılışı 1487).
 Memlük Devleti kuruldu (dağılışı 1517).

Doğumlar
 25 Aralık - IV. İoannis, İznik İmparatoru (ö. y. 1305)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Adam de la Halle, şair, müzisyen, ve Fransız seküler tiyatrosunun erken yenilikçilerinden (ö. 1306)
 Fra Dolcino, 1300lü yıllarda bilhassa Kuzey İtalya'da yayılan ancak Katolik Kilisesince sapkın kabul edilen Dolcinoculuk akımının lideri (ö. 1307)
 İbnü'l-Mutahhar el-Hillî, Iraklı Şii usul ilmi âlimi (ö. 1325)
 Giovanni Pisano, İtalyan heykeltıraş, ressam ve mimar (ö. 1315)

Ölümler
 2 Mayıs - Muazzam Turanşah, Eyyubiler Suriye Sultanı, Eyyubiler Mısır Sultanı
 13 Aralık - II. Friedrich, Kutsal Roma imparatoru (d. 1194)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Leonardo Fibonacci, Fibonacci Dizisi'ni bulan, orta çağın en yetenekli matematikçisi olarak kabul edilen İtalyan matematikçi (d. 1170)

1250


An Melica nitens in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Frank Lamson Scribner, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Thomas Nuttall och Charles Vancouver Piper. An Melica nitens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Melica, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Melica

Melica nitens


The Kawanishi N1K was an Imperial Japanese Navy fighter aircraft, developed in two forms: the N1K Kyōfū (, "Strong Wind", Allied reporting name "Rex"), a floatplane designed to support forward offensive operations where no airstrips were available, and the N1K-J Shiden (, "Violet Lightning", reporting name "George"), a land-based version of the N1K. The N1K-J was considered by both its pilots and opponents to be one of the finest land-based fighters flown by the Japanese during World War II.

An improved variant, the N1K2-J "Shiden-Kai" (紫電改) first flew on 1 January 1944. The Shiden Kai possessed heavy armament, as well as surprisingly good maneuverability, due to a mercury switch that automatically extended the flaps during turns. These "combat" flaps created more lift, thereby allowing tighter turns. Unlike the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, the Shiden Kai could compete against the best late-war Allied fighters, such as the F6F Hellcat, F4U Corsair, and P-51 Mustang.

Design and development

Kawanishi's N1K was originally built as a single pontoon floatplane fighter to support forward offensive operations where no airstrips were available, but by 1943 when the aircraft entered service, Japan was firmly on the defensive, and there was no longer a need for a fighter to fulfill this role. The Navy's requirements for this fighter were nearly impossible to achieve for a float plane, and the expected protracted development period led Nakajima to develop an interim float plane fighter based on the Zero, the Nakajima A6M2-N. In the end, the Kyofu only saw limited service, mostly in Southeast Asia. A number were flown out of Ambon and the Aru Islands in the Moluccas, while some were stationed at Penang Island, off the Malayan peninsula. They were also used in the Battle of Okinawa. Towards the end of the war, Kyofus were also used in the homeland defense role, operating from Lake Biwa by the Sasebo Air Corps and the Ōtsu Air Corps.

The N1K was powered by the Mitsubishi MK4C Kasei 13 14-cylinder radial engine. Top speed was ; considerably less than the unrealistic Navy  requirement.

Land-based version
The requirement to carry a bulky, heavy float essentially crippled the N1K against contemporary American fighters. However, Kawanishi engineers had proposed in late 1941 that the N1K would also be the basis of a formidable land-based fighter, and a land-based version was produced as a private venture by the company. This version flew on 27 December 1942, powered by a Nakajima NK9A Homare 11 18-cylinder radial engine, replacing the less powerful MK4C Kasei 13 of the N1K-1. The aircraft retained the mid-mounted wing of the floatplane; combined with the large propeller, this necessitated a long, stalky main landing gear. A unique feature was the aircraft's combat flaps that automatically adjusted in response to acceleration, freeing up the pilot's concentration and reducing the chance of stalling in combat. The N1K did have temperamental flight characteristics, however, that required an experienced touch at the controls.

The Nakajima Homare was powerful, but had been rushed into production before it was sufficiently developed, and proved troublesome. Another problem was landing gear failure due to poor heat treatment of the wheels. Apart from engine problems and the landing gear, the flight test program showed that the aircraft was promising. Prototypes were evaluated by the Navy, and since the aircraft was faster than the Zero and had a much longer range than the Mitsubishi J2M Raiden, it was ordered into production as the N1K1-J, the -J indicating a land-based fighter modification of the original floatplane fighter.

Only four days after the Shidens first test flight, a complete redesign began. The N1K2-J addressed the N1K1-J's major defects, primarily the mid-mounted wing and long landing gear. The wings were moved to a low position, which permitted the use of a shorter, conventional undercarriage. The fuselage was lengthened and the tail redesigned. The production of the entire aircraft was simplified: over a third of the parts used in the previous Shiden could still be used in its successor, while construction used fewer critical materials. The N1K1 redesign was approximately  lighter, while faster and more reliable than its predecessor. The Homare engine was retained, even though reliability problems persisted, as no alternative was available. A prototype of the new version flew on 1 January 1944. After completing Navy trials in April, the N1K2-J was rushed into production. This variant was named the "Shiden-Kai" (紫電改), with Kai meaning modified.

Operational history

The N1K1-J Shiden entered service in early 1944. The N1K1-J, and the N1K2 Shiden-Kai released later that year were among the rare Japanese aircraft that offered pilots an even chance against late-war American designs, such as the F6F Hellcat and the F4U Corsair, and could be a formidable weapon in the hands of an ace. In February 1945 Lieutenant Kaneyoshi Muto, flying a N1K2-J as part of a formation of at least 10 expert Japanese pilots, faced seven US Navy Hellcat pilots, from squadron VF-82, in the sky over Japan; the formation shot down four Hellcats with no loss to themselves. After the action, Japanese propagandists fabricated a story in which Muto was the sole airman facing 12 enemy aircraft. (A leading Japanese ace, Saburō Sakai, later mentioned in his autobiography that Muto had actually done this feat at an earlier stage of the war – albeit at the controls of a Zero fighter.)

The N1K1-J aircraft were used very effectively over Formosa (Taiwan), the Philippines, and, later, Okinawa. Before production was switched to the improved N1K2-J, 1,007 aircraft were produced, including prototypes. Because of production difficulties and damage done by B-29 raids on factories, only 415 of the superior N1K2-J fighters were produced.

The N1K2-J Shiden-Kai proved to be one of the best dogfighting aircraft produced by either side. Along with high speed, the Shiden-Kai offered pilots an agile aircraft with a roll rate of 82°/sec at , backing four powerful 20 mm cannons in the wings. As a bomber interceptor, the N1K2-J fared less well, hampered by a poor rate of climb and a reduced engine performance at high altitude.

343 Kōkūtai

The N1K2-J Shiden-Kai offered a formidable, if demanding aircraft in limited quantities. As a result, the planes were distributed to elite naval fighter units such as 343 Kōkūtai ("343rd Naval Air Group") constituted on 25 December 1944 and commanded by Minoru Genda. The new Kōkūtai included some of Japan's most experienced fighter pilots, such as Naoshi Kanno and Saburo Sakai. The unit received the best available naval equipment, such as the Nakajima C6N Saiun, codenamed "Myrt" long-range reconnaissance aircraft.

On 18 March 1945 one of the "Myrts" spotted U.S. carriers en route to Japan. The following morning, Shiden aircraft flown by 343 Kōkūtai intercepted 300 American aircraft. Many of the  Shiden force were N1K2s. When the Shidens encountered Grumman F6F Hellcats from USN Fighter Bomber Squadron 17 (VBF-17), three aircraft were lost on both sides in the initial attack: one Hellcat and two Shidens were shot down by enemy ground fire, two fighters collided in mid-air, and one Hellcat crashed while trying to land. Another Shiden dived on a Hellcat group, and downed another one. In the end, the Hikōtai lost six fighters versus eight VBF-17 fighters on the other side.

Another noted encounter pitted the N1K against the Vought F4U Corsair; two Corsairs from VBF-10, accidentally separated from their main formations, were attacked by Shidens from the 343rd. Four N1K2s were shot down. The Corsairs managed to return to their carrier, . A second encounter took place, when pilots flying Shidens initially mistook Corsairs from Marine Fighter Squadron 123 (VMF-123) for Hellcats and attacked. A 30-minute aerial duel ensued, in which three Corsairs were shot down, and another five were damaged. Three other F4Us returned to their carriers, but were so heavily damaged that the planes were scrapped. No Shidens were lost to Corsairs in that aerial battle. Losses for the Japanese N1K pilots did occur in related action, however; two Shidens were shot down upon return for landing by Hellcats of Fighting Squadron 9 (VF-9), while many more Shidens were destroyed by American fighters over another airfield where, low on fuel, their pilots tried to land. At the end of the day the 343rd, claimed 52 kills and the U.S. squadrons 63. The actual losses were 15 Shidens and 13 pilots, a "Myrt", with its three-man crew, and nine other Japanese fighters. The U.S. also took heavy losses: 14 fighters and seven pilots, plus 11 attack aircraft. Five days later an unofficial award was sent to 343rd Kōkūtai for the valour shown on 19 March.

On 12 April 1945 another fierce battle involved 343rd, during the mass kamikaze attack Kikusui N.2. The Japanese recorded several kills, but suffered 12 losses out of 34 aircraft. On 4 May, another 24 Shidens were sent in Kikusui N.5.

In every encounter with enemy fighters, the Shiden, especially the Kai version, proved to be a capable dogfighter with a potent combination of firepower, agility, and rugged structure. The premier unit flying the Shiden, 343rd Kōkūtai, remained operational, until overwhelming unit losses obliged the group to stand down. The 343rd was disbanded on 14 August 1945, when the Emperor ordered surrender.

Variants
N1K1 Kyofu
 N1K1: Standard type as floatplane, which was used from early 1943, with Mitsubishi MK4C Kasei 13 engine.
 N1K2: Reserved name for an intended model with larger engine, not built.

N1K1-J Shiden
 N1K1-J Prototypes: development of fighter hydroplane N1K1 Kyofu, with 1,820 hp Homare 11 engine.
 N1K1-J Shiden Model 11: Navy Land Based Interceptor, first production model with 1,990 hp Homare 21 engine and revised cover, armed with two 7.7 mm Type 97 machine guns and two 20 mm Type 99 cannons. Modified total-vision cockpit.
 N1K1-Ja Shiden Model 11A: without frontal 7.7 mm Type 97s, with only four 20 mm Type 99s in wings.
 N1K1-Jb Shiden Model 11B: similar to Model 11A amongst load two 250 kg bombs, revised wing weapons.
 N1K1-Jc Shiden Model 11C: definitive fighter-bomber version, derived from Model 11B. Four bomb racks under wings.
 N1K1-J KAIa Experimental version with auxiliary rocket. One Model 11 conversion.
 N1K1-J KAIb Conversion for dive bombing. One 250 kg bomb under belly and six rockets under wings.

N1K2-J Shiden-KAI
 N1K2-J Prototypes: N1K1-Jb redesigned. Low wings, engine cover and landing gear modified. New fuselage and tail, 8 built.
 N1K2-J Shiden KAI Model 21: Navy Land Based Interceptor, first model of series with a Nakajima Homare 21 engine.
 N1K2-Ja Shiden KAI Model 21A: Fighter Interceptor version: 2,000 hp Homare 21-18 engine with a low wing and larger prop design with four 250 kg ground bombs. Fixed problem with teething pains of N1K2 J at high altitude.
 N1K2-K Shiden Kai Rensen 1, Model A: Fighter Trainer, modified from N1K-J Series with two seats, operative or factory conversions.

Further variants
 N1K3-J Shiden KAI 1, Model 31: Prototypes: Engines displaced to ahead, two 13.2 mm Type 3 machine guns in front, 2 built.
 N1K3-A Shiden KAI 2, Model 41: Prototypes: Carrier-based version of N1K3-J, 2 built.
 N1K4-J Shiden KAI 3, Model 32: Prototypes: 2,000 hp Homare 23 engine, 2 built.
 N1K4-A Shiden KAI 4, Model 42: Prototype: Experimental conversion of N1K4-J example with equipment for use in carriers, 1 built.
 N1K5-J Shiden KAI 5, Model 25: High-Altitude Interceptor version with Mitsubishi HA-43 (MK9A) with 2,200 takeoff hp, project only.

Production

 First prototype completed in April 1942, and made its maiden flight on 6 May 1942.
 Pre-production started with eight prototypes and service trials aircraft completed from August 1942 to December 1942, and with a further five, in the following year.

 Pre-production started with nine prototypes and service trials aircraft completed from July 1943 to Aug. 1943.

 Pre-production started with eight prototypes and service trials aircraft completed from Dec. 1943 to May. 1944.

Operators

 Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service

Surviving aircraft

All four surviving Shiden Kai aircraft are now displayed in American and Japanese museums, while all three surviving Kyofu aircraft are displayed/stored in American museums.

One N1K2-J (s/n 5128, tail code A343-19) is at the National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.

The second N1K2-Ja (s/n 5312), a fighter-bomber variant equipped with wing mounts to carry bombs, is on display in the Air Power gallery at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft was displayed outside for many years in a children's playground in San Diego, suffering considerable corrosion, and had become seriously deteriorated. In 1959 it was donated to the Museum through the cooperation of the San Diego Squadron of the Air Force Association. In October 2008 the aircraft was returned to display following an extensive eight year restoration. Many parts had to be reverse engineered by the Museum's restoration staff. Four different aircraft serial numbers were found on parts throughout the airframe, indicating reassembly from three different wrecks brought back to the U.S. for examination, or wartime assembly or repair from parts obtained from three different aircraft. Serial number 5312 was found in the most locations, and is the number now cited. This N1K2-Ja is painted as an aircraft in the Yokosuka Kōkūtai, an evaluation and test unit. This is indicated by the tail code (Yo)ヨ-105.

The third example (s/n 5341, tail code A343-35) is owned by the National Air and Space Museum but was restored by the Champlin Fighter Museum at Falcon Field, Mesa, Arizona, in return for the right to display the aircraft at Falcon Field for 10 years after restoration. It currently is on display at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center

The fourth authentic Shiden-Kai is displayed in a local museum at Nanreku Misho Koen in Ehime Prefecture, Shikoku, Japan. This aircraft is known to be from the 343rd Kōkūtai, as the unit flew sorties in the area, but the tail code is unknown as it was partially restored from a corroded wreck recovered from the sea. After an aerial battle on July 24, 1945, its pilot ditched the aircraft in the waters of the Bungo Channel, but he was never found; by the time of the aircraft's recovery from the seabed on July 14, 1979, he could be identified only as one of six pilots from the 343rd squadron who disappeared that day. Photographs of the six—including Takashi Oshibuchi, commander of the 701 Hikōtai, and Kaneyoshi Muto—are displayed under the aircraft engine. In 2019, the aircraft was restored to non-flying condition.

N1K1 Kyōfū (s/n 514) is in storage at the National Air and Space Museum's Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland, Maryland.

N1K1 Kyōfū (s/n 562) is located on display at the National Museum of the Pacific War in Fredricksburg, Texas.

N1K1 Kyōfū (s/n 565), formerly displayed at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Willow Grove, Horsham Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, stored at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. Now being restored by American Aero Services, New Smyrna Beach, Florida, for the American Heritage Museum in Stow, Massachusetts.

Specifications (N1K1-J)

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

  (new edition 1987 by Putnam Aeronautical Books, .)

 Galbiati, Fabio. "Battaglia Aerea del 19 Marzo su Kure.(in Italian)." Storia Militare magazine, Albertelli edizioni, N.166, July 2007.

 Green, William. Warplanes of the Second World War, Volume Three: Fighters. London: Macdonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1961 (seventh impression 1973). .

 Koseski, Krystian. Kawanishi N1K1/N1k2-J "Shiden/Kai" (in Polish). Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Susei, 1991. .
 Mondey, David. The Hamlyn Concise Guide to Axis Aircraft of World War II. London: Bounty Books, 2006. .
 Sakaida, Henry. Imperial Japanese Navy Aces, 1937–45. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998. .
 Sakaida, Henry and Koji Takaki. Genda's Blade: Japan's Squadron of Aces, 343 Kōkūtai. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Classic Publications, 2003. .

External links

 TACI 107A1 Report "George 11"

1940s Japanese fighter aircraft
World War II Japanese fighter aircraft
Kawanishi aircraft
Kawanishi N1K
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Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1942

Kawanishi N1K


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