Folklore (stilizirano kao folklore) je osmi studijski album američke pjevačice Taylor Swift. Objavljen je 24. srpnja 2020. preko Republic Recordsa. Objavljen je točno jedanaest mjeseci nakon Swiftinog sedmog studijskog albuma, "Lover" (2019), a zamišljen je izolirano tijekom pandemije COVID-19. Swift je objavila Folklore, neočekivani album, na društvenim medijima manje od 24 sata prije izlaska. Album su producirali Swift, Aaron Dessner i njezin dugogodišnji suradnik Jack Antonoff.

Folklore izbjegava optimističnu pop produkciju Swiftinih prethodnih albuma za blage balade vođene klavirom i gitarom. Kritičari album uglavnom opisuju kao indie folk, alternativni rock i elektro-folk, dok ga nekolicina klasificira kao pop. Na 63. godišnjoj dodjeli Grammy, album i njegove skladbe osvojili su pet nominacija, uključujući album godine i pjesmu godine. Folklore je srušio mnoge rekorde u streamingu, poput Guinnessova svjetskog rekorda za najveći dan otvorenja albuma ženske umjetnice na Spotifyu. Prema Republic Recordsu, folklore je prodan u dva milijuna primjeraka u prvom tjednu na globalnoj razini. Dostigao je prvo mjesto u mnogim zemljama, uključujući Australiju, Kanadu, Irsku, Novi Zeland i Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo. Debitirajući na vrhu ljestvice Billboard 200, folklore je bio Swiftin sedmi album broj jedan u Sjedinjenim Državama i najprodavaniji album 2020. godine. Glavni singl "cardigan" postao je Swiftin šesti američki broj jedan, što ju čini prvom glazbenicom koja je istovremeno debitirala na Billboard 200 i Hot 100, dok su se "the 1" i "exile" našli na u prvih 10 na ljestvici. Dokumentarni film o stvaranju folklore s izvedbom njegovih pjesama, Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions, objavljen je 25. studenog 2020. godine, zajedno s albumom uživo.

Pozadina
U travnju 2020. Swift je trebala krenuti na Lover Fest, svoju šestu koncertnu turneju u znak podrške svom sedmom studijskom albumu  Lover (2019.), ali datumi turneje otkazani su zbog tekuće pandemije COVID-19. 23. srpnja 2020. na Swiftinom Instagram račun postavljeno je devet fotografija, sve bez natpisa, čime je stvorena slika pjevačice koja stoji sama u šumi. Nakon toga objavila je još jedan post na svim svojim računima na društvenim mrežama, najavivši da će njen osmi studijski album biti objavljen u ponoć.

Potvrdila je sliku kao naslovnicu albuma i otkrila popis pjesama. Wall Street Journal ocijenio je da je najava iznenađenja "zatekla obožavatelje i glazbenu scenu". Billboard je izjavio da je "zaslijepila svijet pop glazbe", stižući kao uzbudljiva vijest tijekom pandemije. Folklore je objavljen jedanaest mjeseci nakon Lovera - najbrži preokret za studijski album Swifta, pobijedivši godinu i devet mjeseci razlike između Reputaion (2017.) i Lovera. U drugom postu, Swift je najavila da će glazbeni video za pjesmu "Cardigan" biti objavljena istovremeno s albumom.

Tijekom premijernog prikazivanja video spota za pjesmu "Cardigan", Swift je sudjelovala u chat-u te je otkrila fanovima kako se na albumu nalazi ljubavni trokut triju pjesama. Kasnije otkrivene, pjesme "Cardigan", "August" i "Betty" su pjesme koje govore o tri osobe. James i Betty su ljubavni par između kojeg se našla Augustina, djevojka s kojom je James prevario Betty.

Koncept
Swift nije očekivala da će stvoriti album početkom 2020. Nakon otkazivanja Lover Festa, pjevačica se sama stavila u karantenu, tijekom koje je pogledala brojne filmove, poput "Stražnji prozor" (1954.), "Panov labirint" (2006.), "Jane Eyre" (2011.), "Bračna priča" (2019.), i "Posljednji ples" (2020.), i pročitala je više knjiga nego što je ikad činila, knjige koje su se "bavile prošlim vremenima, svijetom koji više ne postoji", poput Rebecce (1938.) Daphne du Maurier. Fikcije su nadahnule Swift da se odvaži na svoj uobičajeni autobiografski stil pisanja pjesama i eksperimentira s različitim narativnim stajalištima. Izolirano tijekom pandemije, pustila je mašti na volju, slijedeći niz slika i vizuala koji su posljedično postali Folklore.

O albumu

Folklore je napisani i izrađen tijekom izolacije za vrijeme pandemije COVID-19. Swift je "sve svoje hirove, snove, strahove i razmišljanja" prenijela u album, surađujući s "nekim od svojih glazbenih junaka". Aaron Dessner, gitarist američkog indie rock sastava The National, prišao je Swift krajem travnja kako bi daljinski napisao neke pjesme. Dessner je radio s jedanaest albuma sa šesnaest pjesama sa Swiftom tijekom sljedećih nekoliko mjeseci, dok je Swift napisao preostalih pet pjesama s Jackom Antonoffom, Williamom Boweryjem i Bonom Iverom.

Dessner je napomenuo da je "mislio da će trebati neko vrijeme da dođu ideje za pjesme" i "nije očekivao što možemo postići na daljinu".

Album je bio iznenađenje, koje je Swift najavila na svojim društvenim mrežama nekoliko sati prije njegovog objavljivanja, u ponoć 24. srpnja 2020. Folklore je u početku izašao s osam jednotjednih limitiranih CD-ova i vinila s ograničenim izdanjem, koji su sadržavali različite umjetničke obrade i kolekcije fotografija. Album je nazvala "zbunjujućim i punim eskapizma. Tužna, lijepa, tragična. Poput fotoalbuma punog slika i svih priča iza te slike" i opisala "Moje suze Ricochet" - samostalno napisana pjesma - kao prva pjesma koju je napisala za album i koja istražuje "izgubljenu romantiku i zašto je mlada ljubav često tako trajno fiksirana u našim sjećanjima".

Promocija

Zbog epidemije korona virusa, Swift je bila prisiljena otkazati svoju svjetsku turneju Lover Fest te je zbog toga imala dosta slobodnog vremena koje je, kako je izjavila, provela pisanjem novih pjesama. 23. srpnja najavila počela je objavljivati nove fotografije na svome Instagram profilu koje zajedno predstavljaju jednu fotografiju koju je posebno objavila. Ispod nje je napisala: "Većinu stvari koju sam ovo ljeto planirala nisu se ostvarile, također nisam planirala nešto što se na kraju ostvarilo, a to je moj osmi studijski album, folklore".

Album je izašao 24. srpnja 2020. godine te sadrži 16 originalnih pjesama te jednu pjesmu na deluxe verziji albuma. Također, iste večeri Swift je najavila kako izlazi njen novi singl pod imenom "cardigan". Video spot za pjesmu je izašao u ponoć iste večeri.

"Exile" je drugi singl s albuma te je titulu singla dobio 3. kolovoza 2020., dok je "betty" postala treći singl 17. kolovoza 2020. "The 1" je 9. listopada 2020. postao četvrti singl s albuma.

Film i album uživo

Dokumentarni koncertni film, pod nazivom Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions, objavljen je 25. studenog 2020. putem Disneya +. Režirao ga je i producirao Swift, a vidi je kako izvodi svih 17 skladbi s albuma u intimnom okruženju u Long Pong Studiu u New Yorku i dijeli priče iza pjesama, u pratnji Antonoffa i Dessnera. Uz premijeru filma, Swiftov treći album uživo Folklore: The Long Pond Studio Sessions, koji sadrži akustične verzije filma, objavljen je na platformama za streaming glazbe.

Popis Pjesama

Kompilacije

Bilješke

 Svaka skladba na albumu je stilizirana malim slovima.

Ljestvice

Vanjske poveznice

  na Swift službene web stranice

Albumi Taylor Swift
Albumi iz 2020.

Folklore (album Taylor Swift)


Groupe écologiste (dansk: Den økologiske Gruppe) var en grøn politisk gruppe, der eksisterede i det franske senat fra 11. januar 2012 til 27. juni 2017. Gruppen blev genoprettet i 2020.

I det meste af tiden havde gruppen 10 medlemmer. Ved staten i 2012 kom alle 10 fra Europa Økologi–De Grønne (EELV). Ved opløsningen i 2017 var fordelingen: 5 fra EELV, 2 uafhængige økologer, én fra det økologiske parti, én fra PS og én fra MoDem.

Genoprettet i 2020
Den 29. september 2020 tog 12 senatorer initiativ til at genoprette gruppen. Nu var fordelingen: 7 fra EELV, 2 uafhængige økologer, én fra Korsika, én fra Génération.s og én uafhængig venstreorienteret.

Grupper i det franske senat
Etableret i 2012
Ophørt i 2017
Etableret i 2020
Grønne partier

Groupe écologiste (franske senat)


Le Championnat du monde féminin moins de 18 ans de hockey sur glace 2022 est la quinzième édition de cette compétition organisée par la Fédération internationale de hockey sur glace (IIHF).

Le tournoi de la Division Élite, regroupant les meilleures nations, devait se dérouler en janvier 2022 à Linköping et Mjölby en Suède. En raison de la pandémie de Covid-19, il a été déprogrammé. Il se dispute finalement du 6 au 13 juin 2022 à Madison et Middleton aux États-Unis.

Les divisions inférieures sont disputées indépendamment du groupe Élite.

Format de compétition
Le groupe Élite comprend 8 équipes participantes qui sont réparties en deux groupes de 4. Chaque groupe est disputé sous la forme d'un championnat à matches simples. Les 2 premiers du groupe A sont qualifiés d'office pour les demi-finales. Les 2 derniers du groupe A et les 2 premiers du groupe B s'affrontent lors de quarts de finale croisés. Les 2 derniers du groupe B participent au tour de relégation qui détermine l'équipe qui sera reléguée en Division IA lors de l'édition suivante.

Pour les divisions IA et IB, les équipes s'affrontent entre elles et, à l'issue de cette compétition, le premier est promu dans la division supérieure et le dernier est relégué dans la division inférieure. En division II, à l'issue d'une phase de poule, le vainqueur de la série éliminatoire est promu en division IB. Il n'y a pas de relégation.

Pour toutes les divisions, la répartition des points est la suivante :
 3 points pour une victoire dans le temps réglementaire ;
 2 points pour une victoire en prolongation ou aux tirs de fusillade ;
 1 point pour une défaite en prolongation ou aux tirs de fusillade ;
 0 point pour une défaite dans le temps réglementaire.

Division Élite

Nations participantes

Tour préliminaire

Légende :

Tour de relégation
Le tour se joue au meilleur des 3 matches :  qui gagne 2 fois reste en Division Élite. Le perdant est relégué en Division IA

Phase finale
Le tableau de la phase finale de la division élite figure ci-après :

Classement final

Autres divisions

Division I

Groupe A

Le tournoi du groupe A de la Division I devait se dérouler du 9 au 15 janvier 2022 à Győr en Hongrie. Il a été reprogrammé du 3 au 9 avril 2022.

Il est normalement composé de 6 équipes mais en raison de l'exclusion de la Russie, la Slovaquie a été promue en division élite.

Légende :

Groupe B

Le tournoi du groupe B de la Division I devait se dérouler du 10 au 16 janvier 2022 à Radenthein en Autriche. Il a été reprogrammé du 5 au 11 septembre 2022.

Légende :

Division II
Le tournoi de la Division II devait se dérouler du 21 au 27 janvier 2022 à Istanbul en Turquie. Il a été reprogrammé du 27 juin au 5 juillet.

Premier tour
Légende du premier tour :

Second tour

Légende du second tour :

Matches de classement

Articles connexes
 Championnat du monde féminin
 Championnat du monde masculin
 Championnat du monde masculin junior
 Championnat du monde masculin moins de 18 ans

Références

2022
Hockey sur glace féminin
Monde féminin
Hockey sur glace
Compétition de hockey sur glace en Suède
Sport en Suède en 2022


Underi (également appelée Jaidurg) est une île fortifiée près de l'embouchure du port de Bombay au sud du phare de Prong. C'est un fort compagnon de Khanderi et il se trouve actuellement dans le district de Raigad, Maharashtra. Ces îles de Khanderi et Underi ont servi de point de repère pour les navires entrant dans le port de Bombay. Underi est plus petit que Khanderi.

La fortification a été construite par Kahim des Siddis en 1680 de notre ère.

Notes et références

Île en Inde
Fort en Inde
Place forte

Underi


An Trichoglottis rosea in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John Lindley, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Oakes Ames. An Trichoglottis rosea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trichoglottis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Trichoglottis

Trichoglottis rosea


La New York & Bermúdez Company fue una empresa estadounidense que operó en Venezuela desde finales del  hasta el primer tercio del  dedicándose a la explotación del Lago de asfalto de Guanoco y de algunos pozos petroleros que perforó en la misma zona, entre ellos el Bababui 1 que fue el primer pozo profundo de producción petrolera del país localizado en el Municipio Benítez del estado Sucre.

Historia
La New York & Bermúdez Company con sus oficinas centrales ubicadas en la ciudad de Filadelfia fue una de las primeras empresas que operó el negocio de los hidrocarburos en Venezuela junto con la empresa venezolana Petrolia de Táchira.
La historia de esta empresa en Venezuela inicia el 16 de noviembre de 1885 cuando Horacio R. Hamilton y Jorge A. Phillips trapasan a la New York & Bermúdez Company; subsidiaria de la General Asphalt, la concesión sobre el Lago de Guanoco que habían recibido del gobierno nacional el 7 de mayo de 1883 para explotar y comercializar el asfalto de dicho lago. Las relaciones de esta empresa con el estado venezolano se caracterizarían en el período en que operó en el país (1885-1934) por una serie de enfrentamientos jurídicos y políticos, en particular contra el gobierno de presidente Cipriano Castro.

Cronología de las actividades de a New York & Bermúdez Company

1875

Por un libro publicado en París por Miguel Tejera se tiene noticia la existencia del lago de asfalto de Guanoco, el más grande del mundo en su tipo.

1883
7 de mayo: el gobierno nacional otorga una concesión para la explotación y comercialización del lago de asfalto de Guanoco a Horacio Hamilton y Jorge A. Phillips.

1885
16 de noviembre: Horacio Hamilton y Jorge A. Phillips traspasan la concesión sobre el Lago de asfalto de Guanoco a la New York & Bermúdez Company iniciando así las actividades de dicha empresa en Venezuela

1897

30 de noviembre: Antonio Bianchi y asociados reciben una concesión para explotación de yacimientos de asfalto natural en el estado Sucre la cual incluye Lago de asfalto de Guanoco. Comienzan los problemas jurídicos con la New York & Bermúdez Company que reclama la nulidad de dicha concesión

1899

19 de octubre: Renuncia el presidente Ignacio Andrade y Cipriano Castro, líder de la Revolución Liberal Restauradora asume el gobierno de Venezuela. Comienzan los problemas de la New York & Bermúdez Company con el gobierno de Castro al incrementar las regalías y los impuestos.

1901

La New York & Bermúdez Company inicia la explotación del Lago de asfalto de Guanoco exportándolo a Brasil y Estados Unidos. Un ferrocarril (15 km) unía al lago con el muelle en Caño Guanoco, donde estaba el caserío del mismo nombre. Allí embarcaban el producto en tanqueros que salían al Golfo de Paria por el río San Juan.

1902

Con el propósito de derrocar al presidente Castro estalla la llamada "Revolución Libertadora" liderada por el banquero Manuel Antonio Matos con el respaldo de la New York & Bermúdez Company. Triunfo de las tropas del presidente Castro en la batalla de La Victoria.
Bloqueo naval de los puertos de Venezuela por buques de guerra de Alemania, Inglaterra e Italia.

1903
Finaliza el bloqueo naval de Venezuela con la mediación del presidente norteamericano Theodore Roosevelt.
La Revolución Libertadora es derrotada en forma definitiva por las tropas del general Juan Vicente Gómez en la batalla de Ciudad Bolívar

1904
El presidente Castro en represalia introdujo una demanda judicial para anular la concesión a la New York and Bermúdez Compañy por aportar cerca de 145.000 dólares al banquero Manuel Antonio Matos, financista de la denominada Revolución Libertadora. Esto motiva una fuerte protesta del gobierno norteamericano de Theodore Roosevelt.

El embajador estadounidense Herbert Wolcott Bowen asume la defensa de la New York & Bermúdez Company. El juez del tribunal que conoció la demanda sentenció el pago de 50 millones de bolívares por concepto de indemnización al estado Venezolano, debido al incumplimiento de los términos de contrato de explotación del lago de Guanoco.

1908

En junio la New York & Bermúdez Company se negó a pagar la indemnización, por lo cual el Tribunal de Primera Instancia de la Corte Federal y de Casación ordenó el embargo de los activos del lago de Guanoco como respuesta a la querella introducida por el Estado venezolano que rompe relaciones diplomáticas con los Estados Unidos.

En diciembre el presidente Castro es derrocado por el general Gómez y bajo presión del gobierno norteamericano se restituyen los bienes a la New York & Bermúdez Company.

1912
La New York & Bermúdez Company pretende expandir sus actividades en la zona y cumplir con obligaciones contractuales de la concesión. En este sentido inicia actividades exploratorias en las cercanías de la comunidad de Guanoco. La Caribbean Petroleum Company, subsidiaria de la General Asphalt, inicia la exploración comercial de petróleo en la cuenca del Lago de Maracaibo.

1913
15 de agosto: la New York & Bermúdez Company descubre el campo Guanoco al completar con éxito la perforación del pozo Bababui 1; sin embargo será abandonado debido a la alta viscosidad de petróleo de la zona y la carencia de tecnología. La empresa anglo holandesa Royal Dutch Shell adquiere a la General Asphalt las acciones de la Caribbean Petroleum Company.

1914
La New York & Bermúdez Company acomete un programa de perforación de unos 30 pozos más en el campo Guanoco los cuales al igual que el Bababui 1 serán abandonados debido a la alta viscosidad de petróleo y la carencia de tecnología. La Caribbean Petroleum Company inicia la explotación comercial de petróleo en Venezuela con la perforación del pozo Zumaque I en el campo Mene Grande. Se inaugura el Canal de Panamá

1934
Cesan las actividades de la New York & Bermúdez Company después de 49 años de operaciones. La explotación del Lago de Guanoco se hace insostenible ya que el asfalto derivado del residuo de refinación petrolera ha desplazado al asfalto natural

La empresa tenía más de un centenar de obreros de la región, la mayoría trinitarios y algunos criollos, que quedaron desempleados cuando la empresa se marchó del país.

1935
Hasta este año, bajo el gobierno del general Juan Vicente Gómez, la New York & Bermúdez Company mantuvo su existencia legal cuando vende sus acciones a la empresa canadiense Venanda Corporation.

Véase también
 Pozo petrolífero
 PDVSA
 Zumaque I

Referencias

Empresas petroleras desaparecidas de Venezuela

New York & Bermúdez Company


بلدية فيانوس (بالإسبانية: Vianos) هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة البسيط التابعة لمنطقة كاستيا لا مانتشا وسط إسبانيا.

الديموغرافيا
بلغ عدد سكان بلدية فيانوس 414 نسمة عام 2011 (وفقاً للمعهد الوطني الإسباني للإحصاء).

مراجع

مصادر
  بلدية فيانوس

بلديات البسيط
أماكن مأهولة في البسيط

فيانوس


Canada deltog første gang i olympiske lege under sommer-OL 1900 i Paris og har siden deltaget i samtlige sommerlege undtaget 1980 i Moskva, som landet boykottede. Canada har deltaget i samtlige vinterlege.

Canada har været vært for OL tre gange: Sommer-OL 1976 i Montréal, vinter-OL 1988 i Calgary og vinter-OL 2010 i Vancouver.

Medaljeoversigt

Eksterne henvisninger
 Canadas OL-statistik  på Sports-reference.com

Canada ved sommer-OL
Canada ved vinter-OL
OL

Canada ved OL


Friedrich-Carl zur Megede (* 6. Dezember 1921 in Zachan, Kreis Saatzig; † 14. August 2003 in Walldorf) war ein deutscher Jurist.

Zur Megede war von 1981 bis 1987 Präsident des Oberlandesgerichtes Frankfurt am Main.

Ehrungen
 1987: Großes Verdienstkreuz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland

Einzelnachweise

Präsident (Oberlandesgericht)
Richter (Oberlandesgericht Frankfurt am Main)
Träger des Großen Bundesverdienstkreuzes
Deutscher
Geboren 1921
Gestorben 2003
Mann

Friedrich-Carl zur Megede


Carabus clathratus es una especie de coleóptero adéfago de la familia Carabidae. Habita en Europa y Asia al norte hasta el Círculo polar. Ha sido observado, mayormente, en Europa Central y Este de Europa. Vive en zonas húmedas como marismas , pantanos y marismas salinas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Carabus (Limnocarabus) clathratus Linnaeus, 1761 (Carabidae) - atlas of beetles of Russia

clathratus
Animales descritos en 1761
Taxones descritos por Carlos Linneo

Carabus clathratus


The Woman Condemned est un film américain réalisé par Dorothy Davenport, sorti en 1934.

Synopsis
Barbara Hammond est accusée du meurtre d'une star de la radio, qui prenait des vacances. Jerry Beall va tenter de prouver son innocence...

Fiche technique
 Titre : The Woman Condemned
 Réalisation : Dorothy Davenport
 Scénario :
 Photographie :
 Montage :
 Pays d'origine : États-Unis
 Format : Noir et blanc - 1,37:1 - Mono
 Genre : drame
 Date de sortie : 1934

Distribution
 Claudia Dell : Barbara Hammond
 Lola Lane : Jane Merrick
 Richard Hemingway : Jerry Beall
 Jason Robards Sr. : Jim Wallace
 Paul Ellis : Dapper Dan
 Douglas Cosgrove : le chef de la police
 Mischa Auer :  Wagner
 Sheila Bromley : l'actrice
 Louise Beavers : Sally
 Tom O'Brien : Détective
 Mary Gordon (non créditée)
 Eva McKenzie (non créditée)

Liens externes

Film américain sorti en 1934
Film dramatique américain
Film américain en noir et blanc
Film sur le journalisme

The Woman Condemned


4. HNL – Jug se u sezoni 2009./10. od tri skupine (SD, ŠK/ZD i DN). U skupini DN su se natjecali klubovi iz Dubrovačko-neretvanske županije. Prvak ove lige bio je BŠK Zmaj Blato, koji se u kvalifikacijama za viši rang natjecanja plasirao u 3. HNL – Jug.

Sustav natjecanja
10 klubova je prvi dio sezone odigrao dvokružni sistemom 18 kola. Nakon toga se podijelila Liga za prvaka i Liga za ostanak, svaka s po pet klubova.

Sudionici

 BŠK Zmaj Blato, Korčula
 NK Croatia Gabrile, Gabrili, Konavle
 HNK Dubrovnik 1919, Dubrovnik (prvak 1.ŽNL 2008./2009.)
 NK Grk, Potomje, Orebić
 NK Hajduk, Vela Luka
 NK Maestral, Krvavac, Kula Norinska
 ONK Metković, Metković
 NK Jadran Smokvica
 NK Orebić, Orebić
 NK Župa Dubrovačka, Čibača

Ljestvica
Prvo igrana dvokružna liga (18 kola) te potom jednokružna Liga za prvaka i Liga za ostanak (svaka s po pet klubova).

Prvi dio

Drugi dio
Uračunati rezultati iz prvog dijela prvenstva.

 Izvori:

 rsssf.com
 markopolosport.net

Kvalifikacije za 3. HNL – Jug
Kvalifikacije za 3. HNL – Jug igrali su prvaci tri skupine 4. HNL – Jug. Igrala se mini-liga između tri prvaka, a najbolja dva išla su u viši rang natjecanja.

 4. HNL – Jug SD (Splitsko-dalmatinska županija) – NK Mladost Donji Proložac
 4. HNL – Jug DN (Dubrovačko-neretvanska županija) – BŠK Zmaj Blato
 4. HNL – Jug ŠK/ZD (Šibensko-kninska i Zadarska županija) – HNK Polača

 Izvori:

 rsssf.com

 BŠK Zmaj

Povezani članci
 1. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska 2009./10.
 4. HNL – Jug – ŠK/ZD 2009./10.
 4. HNL – Jug – SD 2009./10.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

2009-10 DN
4-jug-DN

4. HNL – Jug – DN 2009./10.


The Second Schleswig War (;  or German Danish War), also sometimes known as the Dano-Prussian War or Prusso-Danish War, was the second military conflict over the Schleswig-Holstein Question of the nineteenth century. The war began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border into the Danish fief Schleswig. Denmark fought troops of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire representing the German Confederation.

Like the First Schleswig War (1848–1852), it was fought for control of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg. Succession disputes concerning the duchies arose when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation. The war started after the passing of the November Constitution of 1863, which tied the Duchy of Schleswig more closely to the Danish kingdom, which was viewed by the German side as a violation of the London Protocol.

The war ended on 30 October 1864, with the Treaty of Vienna and Denmark's cession of the Duchies of Schleswig (except for the island of Ærø, which remained Danish), Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria.

Background

In 1848, Denmark received its first liberal constitution. At the same time, and partly as a consequence, the secessionist movement of the large German majority in Holstein and southern Schleswig was suppressed in the First Schleswig War (1848–51), when the Germans in both territories failed in their attempt to become a united, sovereign and independent state: At the time, the king of Denmark was also duke of the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig. However, the movement continued throughout the 1850s and 1860s, as Denmark attempted to integrate the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom while liberal proponents of German unification expressed the wish to include the Danish-ruled duchies of Holstein and Schleswig in a Greater Germany. Holstein was completely ethnically German, had been a German fief before 1806 and was a part of the German Confederation from 1815. Schleswig was a Danish fief and was linguistically mixed between German and Danish and North Frisian.

Before the middle ages, the people of Schleswig spoke Danish and Frisian, and as late as the 18th century many rural areas of southern Schleswig still spoke Danish. In the early 19th century the northern and middle parts of Schleswig spoke Danish, but the language in the southern half had shifted to German. German culture was dominant among the clergy and nobility; Danish had a lower social status and was spoken mainly by the rural population. For centuries, while the rule of the king was absolute, these conditions had created few tensions. When liberal and egalitarian ideas spread and nationalist currents emerged about 1820, identification was mixed between Danish and German: The German elites in Schleswig wished to be a part of Germany, while the Danes wanted Schleswig to be more firmly integrated into Denmark proper. Furthermore, there was a grievance about tolls charged by Denmark on ships passing through the Danish Straits between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. To avoid that expense, Prussia and Austria planned to construct the Kiel Canal, which could not be built as long as Denmark ruled Holstein.

Much of the dispute focused on the heir of King Frederick VII of Denmark. The Germans of Holstein and Schleswig supported the House of Augustenburg, a cadet branch of the Danish royal family, but the average Dane considered them too German and preferred the rival Glücksburg branch with Prince Christian of Glücksburg as the new sovereign. Prince Christian had served on the Danish side in the First Schleswig War (1848–1851). Both Britain and Russia wanted the Danish straits linking the North Sea to the Baltic Sea to be controlled by a relatively weak power such as Denmark in order to allow their respective navies to either enter the Baltic in case of Britain or exit the Baltic in the case of Russia. During the First Schleswig war in 1848–49, Russia had threatened twice to enter the war on the side of Denmark, which proved to be the deciding factor in the outcome of the war.

The peace treaty that had ended the war in 1851 stipulated that the duchy of Schleswig should be treated the same as the duchy of Holstein regarding its relations with the Kingdom of Denmark. However, during the revisions of the 1848 constitution in the late 1850s and early 1860s, Holstein refused to acknowledge the revision, creating a crisis in which the parliament in Copenhagen ratified the revision but Holstein did not. In 1863, Frederick VII died, and the new Danish king ordered that the new constitution should apply to Schleswig and Denmark, but not to Holstein. This was a clear breach of the 1851 peace treaty and the London Protocol of 1852 and gave Prussia and the German Confederation a casus belli against Denmark. The German position was considerably more favorable than it had been thirteen years before, when Prussia had to give in due to the risk of military intervention by Britain, France and Russia on behalf of Denmark: France had colonial problems, not least with Britain. Otto von Bismarck had succeeded in obtaining cooperation from Austria which underlined its great power status within the German union, while Britain was upset that Denmark had violated the London Protocol.

To understand the Danish resolve in this question one must understand that the Danes regarded Schleswig as an ancient core region of Denmark. The southern part of Schleswig contains the ruins of the old Danish Viking "capital" Hedeby and the Danevirke fortification; its first sections were built around 400–500 AD, possibly to protect Denmark from migrating tribes during the age of migration. Before the Danes took possession of the area, around 500 AD, Schleswig was the home of the Angles, of which many migrated to Britain, where they later formed the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms; the remaining Angles are believed to have assimilated with the Danes, indeed the Angles and the Danes seem to have had a very close relationship as attested by the shared sagas of the early English and Danes. Thus, to suggest that the region did no longer fully belong to Denmark was seen as a great provocation to the Danes' ancestral claim to Schleswig.

The Germans, on the other hand, referred to medieval history: Already in 1326 and 1448, the Danish kings had accepted the almost complete independence of Schleswig from the Danish crown. The Germans argued that the duchy had therefore not been part of Denmark proper for 400 years, but instead was "forever inseparable" (up ewich ungedeelt) from the German duchy of Holstein, something the Danish king had promised as early as 1460.

In short, the Danes considered Schleswig to be an integral part of Denmark and wished to make this clear by enacting a new constitution that excluded Holstein, while the Germans thought that Schleswig was inseparable from Holstein: If the Danish crown wished to treat the two Duchies differently, the only solution was, in their eyes, to get rid of Danish rule altogether. Both sides thus saw the other as the aggressor.

The international situation
The Prussian Minister-President Otto von Bismarck had been appointed to that position in 1862 with orders from the king to resolve a crisis caused by the unwillingness of the liberal lower house of the Prussian landtag to vote for increased taxes to pay for increased military spending. Bismarck's "blood and iron" speech in which he stated that the problems of Germany would be solved by "blood and iron" instead of talks was an effort to win over the support of the liberals for his policy of increased taxes to pay for higher military spending. Bismarck simply solved the crisis by merely ordering the Prussian state to collect the taxes without the consent of the landtag by claiming there was "a hole in the constitution". Bismarck's actions in having collecting taxes without the permission of the landtag was manifestly illegal and unconstitutional, and made him unpopular. The liberals in Prussia also tended to be German nationalists who supported including the two duchies of Schleswig-Holstein into a projected unified German state, and Bismarck saw launching a war in the name of German nationalism as a way to bring around the liberals into supporting the Prussian state, all the more so as a war would demonstrate the value of a stronger Prussian Army and thus justify the illegal taxes.

In the First Schleswig War, the possibility of Russian intervention on the side of Denmark had proved decisive in deciding the outcome of the war. The Crimean War had changed the entire posture of Russian foreign policy. Before the Crimean War, Russia had been the most reactionary of the European states and the one most committed to more or less upholding the status quo established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. After the Crimean War, Russia was now a revisionist power out to challenge the European status quo, and any developments likely to change the European power structure were now welcome in St. Petersburg. Furthermore, the Crimean War and its aftermath made it extremely unlikely that Russia would work together with Britain and/or France, which established a room for maneuver for Prussia that did not exist in 1848–50. Tsar Alexander II saw the possibility of a stronger Prussia as a way of weakening France. During the Polish Uprising of 1863–1864, Napoleon III had taken a strongly pro-Polish line, which increased the already considerable mistrust and dislike of France in St. Petersburg. Alexander tended to favor a pro-Prussian line provided that Bismarck gave assurances that Prussia would not annex Denmark proper, and limit its ambitions to the two duchies.

Britain was the power most committed to supporting Denmark, but while Britain had the world's most powerful navy the relatively small size of the all-volunteer British Army led London to need a continental ally to provide the necessary military force on land. The Crimean War had so poisoned Anglo-Russian relations that it proved impossible for London and St. Petersburg to work together during the crisis. Additionally, in the American Civil War the United States Navy blockaded the South, causing the so-called "cotton famine" that gravely damaged the British economy. Though Britain had found an alternative source of cotton in the form of Egypt, the "cotton famine" and the efforts of blockade runners to smuggle cotton out of the Confederate States of America to Britain had led to acute Anglo-American tensions with many Americans perceiving Britain to be supporting the Confederacy. The continual mistrust between Washington and London posed constraints on British foreign policy and limited London's options during the Second Schleswig War. Finally, after the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58, the British army in India was vastly increased. The fact that much of the British army was garrisoning India led to a shortage of British troops being free for operations in Europe.

In July 1863, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, had given a speech saying: "I am satisfied with all reasonable men in Europe, including those in France and Russia, in desiring that the independence, the integrity and rights of Denmark may be maintained. We are convinced-I am convinced at least-that if any violent attempt were made to overthrow those rights and interfere with that independence, those who made the attempt, would in the result, that it would not be Denmark alone with they would have to contend with. Palmerston's speech led to exaggerated hopes in Denmark of British intervention should the Schleswig-Holstein question come to war. However, the small size of the British Army limited the United Kingdom's ability to intervene in Schleswig-Holstein together with the continual tensions with the United States required that Britain act in conjunction with another major European power such as Russia or France. Palmerston's speech was in short a bluff.

Napoleon III, the Emperor of the French, was widely considered to be reckless and dangerous adventurer, a man who was widely mistrusted by all the other powers. In 1861, Napoleon had France invade Mexico to install the Archduke Maximillian as the puppet emperor of Mexico. Britain was opposed to the French project in Mexico, causing much Anglo-French tension, making unlikely that France and Britain would work together with regard to the Schleswig-Holstein question. On 15 November 1863, Napoleon had given a speech in Paris stating: "The compacts of 1815 have ceased to be in force". Accordingly, Napoleon invited 20 European leaders to a congress in Paris to discuss revisions in the European power structure. Although the projected congress of Paris never occurred, Napoleon's gambit in openly rejecting the decisions of the Congress of Vienna led him to be perceived as a leader out to restore the French-dominated Europe of his namesake, and made it extremely unlikely that the other European powers would co-operate with France. Napoleon took a pro-Prussian line with regard to the Schleswig-Holstein question, seeing Prussian ambitions as helpful to his own plans. Édouard Drouyn de Lhuys, the French ambassador in Berlin, told Bismarck in 1863 that France would support Prussia annexing the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein provided that France received compensation by being allowed to annex parts of the Rhineland. Palmerston's rejection of having Britain attending the projected Congress of Paris was taken as a slight by Napoleon III, who notably refused British appeals during the war to co-operate against Prussia.

Constitutional crisis (1848–1863)
After years of growing tension, the adoption of the Constitution of Denmark in 1848 had complicated matters further, as many Danes wished for the new liberal constitution to apply to all Danes, including those in Schleswig. The constitutions of Holstein and Schleswig were dominated by the Estates system, giving more power to the most affluent members of society, with the result that both Schleswig and Holstein were politically dominated by a predominantly German class of landowners. Thus two systems of government co-existed within the same state: a constitutional monarchy in Denmark, and absolutism in Schleswig and Holstein. The three units were governed by one cabinet, comprising liberal Danish ministers, who urged economic and social reforms, and conservative ministers, who opposed political reform. This caused a deadlock for practical lawmaking. Moreover, Danish opponents of this so-called Unitary State (Helstaten) feared that Holstein's presence in the government and simultaneous membership of the German Confederation would lead to increased German interference with Schleswig, and even in purely Danish affairs.

At the same time, liberal German politicians came to power in Schleswig and Holstein; their goal was to unify the two duchies, to gain independence from the Danish king and to join the German Confederation as a sovereign state. The objectives of the Danish and German liberals were therefore incompatible, which in 1848 ultimately led to war. In Germany, many people viewed the conflict of Schleswig as a war of liberation, while most Danes considered it German aggression.

In Copenhagen, the Palace and most of the administration (unlike most liberal politicians) supported a strict adherence to the status quo. The same applied to foreign powers, such as Great Britain, France and Russia, who would not accept a weakened Denmark in favour of Germany, nor a Prussia that had acquired Holstein with the important naval harbour of Kiel that controlled the entrance to the Baltic. After Prussia had therefore been forced to withdraw its support from the insurgents in Schleswig and Holstein in 1851, the Danes were able to defeat the rebels in the First Schleswig War. However, in 1852, they had to commit themselves to treat Schleswig constitutionally no different from Holstein. This contradicted the objective of the Danish liberals to fully reintegrate Schleswig into Denmark. In 1858, the German Confederation deposed the 'union constitution' of the Danish monarchy concerning Holstein and Lauenburg, which were members of the Confederation. The two duchies were henceforth without any constitution, while the 'union constitution still applied to Schleswig and Denmark proper.

As the heirless King Frederick VII grew older, Denmark's successive National-Liberal cabinets became increasingly focused on maintaining control of Schleswig following the king's demise. The king died in 1863 at a particularly critical time; work on the November Constitution for the joint affairs of Denmark and Schleswig had just been completed, with the draft awaiting his signature. The new King, Christian IX, felt compelled to sign the draft constitution on 18 November 1863, expressing grave concern. In doing so, the king violated the London Protocol of 1852 and gave the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck a justification for war.

This action caused outrage among the duchies' German population and a resolution was passed by the German Confederation at the initiative of Bismarck, calling for the occupation of Holstein by Confederate forces. The Danish government abandoned Holstein and pulled the Danish Army back to the border between Schleswig and Holstein. Most of it fortified itself behind the Danevirke. This order to retreat without combat caused adverse comments among some Danish private soldiers, but the military circumstances made it wise to shorten the frontier that needed to be defended. Also, as the administrations of Holstein and Lauenburg were members of the German Confederation, not pulling back might have caused a severe political crisis and perhaps war with Great Britain, a guarantor of the London Protocol.

The Danish strategy
There were so-called "flank positions" near Ebeltoft (North), the fortified city of Fredericia (center), and Dybbøl in the south designed to support the strategy of defending the peninsula of Jutland along the north–south axis using naval supremacy to move the army north–south and hence trap an invading army in futile marches between these flank positions. This would deny the (assumed superior) invader the chance of forcing the defenders into a decisive battle, and give the defenders the opportunity to swiftly mass and counter-attack weak enemy positions, besieging forces, or divided forces by shifting weight by sea transport. The political dimension of this strategy was to draw out the war and hence give time and opportunity for the "great powers" to intervene diplomatically — it was assumed that such an intervention would be to the advantage of Denmark. This strategy had been successful in the First Schleswig War.

However, unrealistic expectations of the potency of the Danish army and incompetence at the political level had overruled the army command's wishes to defend Jutland according to the above plan, and instead favoured a frontal defense of Jutland on or near the historical defense (and legendary border) line at the Danevirke, near the city of Schleswig in the south. Hence resources had been put into the Danevirke line and not into the flank positions, which stayed akin to battlefield fortifications rather than modern fortifications capable of withstanding a modern bombardment.

The problem with the Danevirke line was that perhaps it was relatively strong against a frontal assault but leaned on bodies of water or marshes at both ends. In early 1864, these waters and marshes froze solid in a hard winter letting the Germans bypass the Danevirke. The first attempt to bypass the position failed near Missunde, but eventually the Germans appeared in force in the Danevirke's rear, compelling the Danish high command to order the line abandoned. As this decision was taken in violation of direct orders from the Danish government and in opposition to public opinion in Denmark, General de Meza was relieved of his command and replaced by the more loyal General Gerlach.

The Danish army then occupied another fortified line called "the old Dybbøl". This position did not bar the entrance to Jutland but only the tip of a peninsula jutting into the Baltic Sea.  There is little doubt that the command of the army did not believe that they could successfully repulse a well-prepared German siege and consequent assault on the Dybbøl position, and assumed that the political level would let the army be evacuated by sea and then fight the war on the principles of the north–south axis strategy.

But the political level did not appreciate the gravity of the situation, insisting on maintaining military presence in Schleswig and at the same time refused more modest German demands of peace. Hence the army was ordered to defend the Dybbøl position "to the last man", and consequently the siege of Dybbøl began.

Communications in the area
The only railways in 1864 in Denmark north of the Kongeå were a line in Sjælland from Copenhagen to Korsør, and one in northern Jutland from Århus to the northwest. Any reinforcements for the Danevirke from Copenhagen would have gone by rail to Korsør and thence by ship to Flensburg, taking two or three days, if not hindered by storm or sea-ice. There was a good railway system in the duchies, but not further north than Flensburg and Husum.

Schleswig city, Flensburg, Sønderborg, and Dybbøl were all connected by a road paved with crushed rock, this being the route the army took. The same road continued from Flensburg to Fredericia and Århus and this was the route later taken by the Prussian army when it invaded Jutland.

Change in Danish law
On 18 November 1863, King Christian IX of Denmark signed the so-called "November constitution" establishing a shared law of succession and a common parliament for both Schleswig and Denmark. This was seen by the German Confederation as a violation of the 1852 London Protocol. On 28 November, the German Diet removed the Danish delegate for the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg pending resolution of the succession issue and the naming of a new delegate from a government recognized by the Diet. On 24 December 1863, Saxon and Hanoverian troops marched into Holstein on behalf of the Confederation (as part as the federal execution, Bundesexekution, against Holstein). Supported by the German soldiers and by loyal Holsteiners, Frederick VIII, a claimant to both duchies, took control of the government of Holstein.

Events

1864

January

In January the situation remained tense but there was no fighting; Danish forces controlled the north bank of the Eider River and German forces the south bank. All the inland waters (Eider River, Treene, Schlei, and the marshes east of Husum and around the Rheider Au) that the Danes were relying on as defence to guard the flanks of the Dannevirke, were frozen hard and could be crossed easily.

Domestically, Bismarck had been under great pressure since a constitutional crisis in 1862, and he was hoping to gain public support among Prussian liberals by achieving the "liberation" of Schleswig. The decision to not settle for the occupation of the German Duchy of Holstein, but to invade Schleswig, was taken by the Prussian and Austrian governments alone. The other members of the German Confederation did not agree, and it was even discussed to declare war on the two great powers. However, due to the military superiority of the Prussians and Austrians, this did not happen.

On 14 January 1864, Austria and Prussia declared that they would take action against Denmark without regard to decisions of the German Confederation. On 16 January 1864, Bismarck issued an ultimatum to Denmark demanding that the November Constitution should be abolished within 48 hours. This was politically impossible, particularly given the short deadline, and the demand was consequently rejected by the Danish government.

February

At the start of the war, the Danish army consisted of about 38,000 men in four divisions. The 8th Brigade consisted of the 9th and 20th Regiments (approximately 1,600 soldiers each), mainly soldiers from the middle and west and north of Jutland. About 36,000 men defended the Dannevirke, a job which it was said would have needed 50,000 men to do properly. The 1st Regiment had been changed from a battalion to a regiment on 1 December 1863.

The Prussian army had 37 battalions, 29 squadrons and 110 guns, approximately 38,400 men. The Austrian army had 20 battalions, 10 squadrons and 48 guns, approximately 23,000 men. During the war the Prussian army was strengthened with 64 guns and 20,000 men. The supreme commander for the Prussian-Austrian army was Field Marshal Friedrich Graf von Wrangel. The Austrian troops were led by General Ludwig von Gablenz.

Prussian and Austrian troops crossed into Schleswig on 1 February 1864 against the resistance of the Federal Assembly of the German Confederation, and war became inevitable. The Austrians attacked towards the refortified Dannevirke frontally while the Prussian forces struck the Danish fortifications at Mysunde (on the Schlei coast of Schwansen east of Schleswig town), trying to bypass the Danevirke by crossing the frozen Schlei inlet, but in six hours could not take the Danish positions, and retreated.

In the Battle for Königshügel (Danish Kongshøj, translated King's Hill) near Selk on 3 February 1864, Austrian forces commanded by General Gondrecourt pushed the Danes back to the Dannevirke. The Danish 6th Brigade had an important part. The battle was fought in a snowstorm at .
Danish fighting against Austrians at Selk and Kongshøj and Saksarmen on 3 February 1864 is described as follows:

A Danish military report dated 11 February 1864 describes incidents near Königshügel/Kongshøj and Vedelspang as follows:

On 5 February 1864, the Danish commander-in-chief, lieutenant general Christian Julius De Meza, abandoned the Dannevirke that night to avoid being surrounded and withdrew his army to Flensburg. The retreat caused the deaths and capture of 600 men. Ten soldiers froze to death and were counted as a part of the casualties that night. The hasty retreat also forced the Danes to abandon their important heavy artillery.

The railway from the south to Flensburg was never properly used during this evacuation and the Danish army only evacuated what men and horses could carry or pull by road, leaving behind much artillery, most importantly heavy artillery. Some hours later, the Prussians and Austrians discovered the retreat and started to pursue.

This withdrawal to Als and Dybbøl has gone down in Danish history as one of the worst experiences that Danish soldiers have been exposed to. Some of them compared it to Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. It was northwards in a north gale with driven snow, and most of the soldiers had had no rest for the last four days and nights. The march was burdened with artillery guns and supply carts and had to be as slow as its slowest component. Men and horses had trouble standing. Horses could not carry or pull their loads properly because of the snow and ice; riders had to dismount and lead their horses. Artillery guns and carts overturned. The column of men and horses and vehicles seemed endless. The army had to march from the Danevirke to Flensburg, which took about 14–18 hours. (Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein is at the east end of the Danevirke and is 20 mi from Flensburg as the crow flies. The march was actually longer than 20 mi because soldiers had to walk from their positions to Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein first.) They also had to fight rearguard against pursuing Prussians and Austrians. Some men in sight of Flensburg and thankful for the coming rest were ordered to stop or go back to man checkpoints. Many men were missing at the roll call, and the army thought that many Schleswigian soldiers had deserted during the march and went home. However, most of them came in that morning or the next morning.

Near Stolk-Helligbek, about 10 kilometers north of Schleswig, pursuing Austrians reached them, and in heavy fighting near Oversø, the 9th and 20th Regiments of the 8th Brigade lost 600 men dead, injured and captured. On that day ten Danish soldiers died of hypothermia.

The Prussians crossed the frozen Schlei at Arnis on 6 February 1864, defeating the Danes there.

In the Battle of Sankelmark (about eight kilometers south of Flensburg) pursuing Austrians caught up with the Danish rear party, which consisted of the 1st and 11th regiments. The Danes were commanded by Colonel Max Müller. A hard fight, where large parts of 1st Regiment were taken prisoner, stopped the Austrians, and the retreat could continue. However, the Danes lost more than 500 men there. After a short rest and some food and drink in Flensburg, the 8th Brigade had to march to Sønderborg, where they were taken by ship to Fredericia. Soldiers packed the ship and could not lie down to rest. Furthermore, some had to stay outside on the deck and were nearly frozen. Other units stayed in Dybbøl; some reportedly were so exhausted on arrival that they laid on the ground in heaps three or four deep to sleep.

The loss of the Dannevirke without a fight, which in the 19th century played a big role in Danish national mythology due to its long history, caused a substantial psychological shock in Denmark and, as a result, de Meza had to resign from supreme command. Denmark never again ruled the Dannevirke. The Austrians, under general Ludwig Karl Wilhelm von Gablenz, marched north from Flensburg, while the Prussians advanced east on Sønderborg.

On 18 February 1864, some Prussian hussars, in the excitement of a cavalry skirmish, crossed the north frontier of Schleswig into Denmark proper and occupied the town of Kolding. An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original programme of the allies. Bismarck determined to use this circumstance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon Austria the necessity for a strong policy, to settle, comprehensively, the question of the duchies and the wider question of the German Confederation; Austria reluctantly consented to press the war.

The Austrian army decided to stop at the north frontier of Schleswig. Some Prussians moved against Kolding and Vejle. On 22 February 1864, Prussian troops attacked the Danish forward line at Dybbøl, pushing them back to the main defence line.

March
 8 March: Bismarck pushed the Austrians into moving into Denmark proper.
 Austrian forces captured Vejle after fierce house-to-house combat. The Danish units involved retreated to Horsens and later to Vendsyssel. In Fredericia, the Danish 8th Brigade's 20th Regiment was involved in a bigger skirmish: the regiment's first Company were captured near Snoghøj, on the mainland near where the (old) Lillebælt bridge is now. The rest of Fredericia's garrison retreated to Fyn.
 15 March: Prussian siege artillery began to bombard the Danish fortifications at Dybbøl from positions at Broager.
 17 March: The Prussian army drove back the Danish outposts in front of Dybbøl. In the naval Battle of Jasmund (also known as the Battle of Rügen), a Prussian naval force attempted to break the Danish naval blockade of Schleswig and Holstein, but was pushed back to Swinemünde.
 22 March: A fresh agreement was signed between the powers, under which the compacts of 1852 were declared to be no longer valid, and the position of the duchies within the Danish monarchy as a whole was to be made the subject of a friendly understanding.
 28 March: Dybbøl was again attacked, but in vain.

April

 2 April: Prussian artillery began bombarding Danish fortifications at Dybbøl and the town of Sønderborg. By 18 April 1864, the Prussians fired about 65,000 shells.
 4 April: Danes repelled a Prussian attack on Dybbøl.
 18 April: The Battle of Dybbøl. After six hours of artillery preparations, 10,000 Prussian soldiers stormed Dybbøl fort at 10:00 a.m. The Danish 8th Brigade counterattacked bravely, but was defeated, with 1,700 Danish casualties. (18 April is a military memorial day in Denmark commemorating this defeat, including a ceremony on Dybbøl fort hill.)
 25 April: The Danish army commanded by General Niels Christian Lunding, on direct order from the Minister of War, abandoned Fredericia, which was besieged by Austrians.
 25 April – 25 June: The London Conference of 1864 discussed the political issues involved.

May

 9 May: Naval Battle of Helgoland.
 12 May: The conference in London led to a ceasefire, which soon broke down, as they could not agree on a clear fixing of the boundaries; partitioning the duchy of Schleswig was seen as possible. War continued. Prussians from beside Dybbøl bombarded Sønderborg.
 26 May: Prussian artillery fires on Als.

June

 24 June: Seeing that the truce was ending, Austria and Prussia arrived at a new agreement, that the war was to completely separate the duchies from Denmark.
 25 June: The conference in London broke up without having arrived at any conclusion.
 29 June: The Danish garrison from Dybbøl had taken refuge on the island of Als. Prussians crossed from the mainland on boats on the evening of 29 June. Battle of Als. The Prussians carried the Danish entrenchments and captured the island under heavy fire. This was the last major engagement of the war.
 30 June: The Prince's Life Regiment was the last unit of the Danish army to leave Schleswig and Holstein.

July
 3 July: A Danish force commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Beck attacks a Prussian force at Lundby south of Ålborg in the north of Jutland. See Battle of Lundby. This is the last battle in the Second Schleswig War.
 14 July: The Prussian general Eduard Vogel von Falckenstein signed his name in the church book at Skagen at the north tip of Jutland. With this all of Jutland, the Danish mainland, was occupied by the Germans. Now the Danish islands were also endangered, and the Danish government again had to accept armistice and peace negotiations, now however under clearly more difficult conditions.

August and after
The preliminaries of a peace treaty were signed on 1 August 1864: the King of Denmark renounced all his rights in the duchies in favour of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia.

In the Treaty of Vienna, 30 October 1864, Denmark ceded Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria. Denmark was also forced to surrender the enclaves in western Schleswig that were legally part of Denmark proper and not part of Schleswig, but was allowed to keep the island of Ærø (which had been administered as part of Schleswig), the town of Ribe and its surrounding land, and eight parishes from Tyrstrup Herred south of Kolding. As a result of the peace settlement, the land area of the Danish monarchy decreased by 40% and the total population reduced from 2.6 million to 1.6 million (about 38.5%). The Danish frontier had retreated about 250 km as measured from the furthest corner of the Duchy of Lauenburg to the new frontier on the Kongeå river.

When the Danish army returned to Copenhagen after this war, they received no cheering or other public acclaim, unlike on their victorious return after the First Schleswig War.

Aftermath

In the Prussian forces' first clash of arms since reorganization, their effectiveness proved clear, something the Austrians ignored to their cost 18 months later in the Austro-Prussian War, and contributed to a perception in the German states that Prussia was the only state that could defend the other German states against external aggression. (See Unification of Germany.) Prussia and Austria took over the respective administration of Schleswig and Holstein under the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865. About 200,000 Danes came under German rule.

Following the loss, Christian IX went behind the backs of the Danish government to contact the Prussians, offering that the whole of Denmark could join the German confederation, if Denmark could stay united with Schleswig and Holstein. This proposal was rejected by Bismarck, who feared that the ethnic strife in Schleswig between Danes and Germans would then stay unresolved. Christian IX's negotiations were not publicly known until published in the 2010 book Dommedag Als by Tom Buk-Swienty, who had been given access to the royal archives by Queen Margrethe II.

The Peace of Prague in 1866 confirmed Denmark's cession of the two duchies, but promised a plebiscite to decide whether north Schleswig wished to return to Danish rule. This provision was unilaterally set aside by a resolution of Prussia and Austria in 1878.

Effects on Denmark
The war is generally considered to be a national trauma for Denmark.

Despite Charles XV's promise to send troops, Sweden-Norway refused to aid Denmark. Consequently, the pan-Scandinavism movement focused on literature and language rather than political unification. Likewise, the war proved to be a diplomatic setback for the British government, whose attempts to mediate the conflict and deter Prussia were rebuffed.

The war also shocked Denmark out of any idea of using war as a political tool. Danish forces were not involved in war outside their frontiers until the 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It became clear that, against the might of Germany, Denmark could not assert her survival with her own arms; this played a crucial role in the "adjustment policy" and later "Cooperation policy" during the Nazi-German occupation in World War II.

From a Danish perspective, perhaps the most grievous consequence of the defeat was that thousands of Danes living in the ceded lands were conscripted into the German army in World War I and suffered huge casualties on the Western Front. This is still (but waning in time as the children of the conscripted men are dying out) a cause of resentment among many families in the southern parts of Jutland and the direct reason why a German offer of a joint centenary anniversary in 1966 was rejected.

After Germany's defeat in 1918, the Danish government asked the Allied Powers and the Versailles Conference of 1919 to include a plebiscite in the disputed Schleswig region based on Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points as part of the Allied Powers' peace settlement with Germany, and this request was granted by the Allies. As a result of the plebiscite, North Schleswig was returned to Denmark.

Effects on humanitarian aid

The Second Schleswig War was the first war to be fought after the establishment of the Red Cross movement in 1863. Both Denmark and Prussia had already established national Red Cross societies, and the International Committee of the Red Cross sent observers to evaluate their work. Both Red Cross societies established hospitals and provided impartial care to wounded soldiers, and were covered in newspapers internationally. The war drew attention to the nascent Red Cross movement and drew volunteers to the movement.

In popular culture
Danish author Herman Bang wrote about the war and its effects on the island of Als in his novel Tine, published in 1889. The book has been translated into many languages, including English, and is considered to be an example of an impressionist novel.

In his novel The Riddle of the Sands (1903), Irish novelist Erskine Childers refers to the Dybbøl, when protagonists Davies and Carruthers encounter the (then present) German victory monument during a stop at Sønderborg on their Baltic yachting expedition.

In the M. R. James short story "Nr. 13" references are made to the war. "Is this," he said, "the Danish courage I have heard so much of? It isn't a German in there; and if it was, we are five to one."

The 2014 Danish TV series 1864 depicts the Second Schleswig War.

The protagonist of the movie The Salvation is a veteran of the Second Schleswig War, who emigrates to America.

See also
 Wars and battles involving Prussia
 Berlin Victory Column
 1864 (TV series)
 American Civil War
 First Schleswig War

Notes

Footnotes

References

Further reading

External links

 Danish Military History – Schleswig Wars
 Danish Military History – Article about the war of 1864
 Danish Navy History – Account of Danish naval operations during the war of 1864
 The Danish army's 8th Brigade
 Danish to English auto-translator
 Holstein regiment moves out of the fortress in Rendsburg
 Detailed map of area round Schleswig town
 Map of east part of Danevirke

1864 in Denmark
1864 in Germany
19th century in Denmark
19th century in Germany
19th century in Prussia
Conflicts in 1864
Schleswig Wars
Otto von Bismarck
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
William I, German Emperor

Second Schleswig War


Una-Sana Kantonu, Bosna-Hersek Federasyonu'nu oluşturan 10 kantondan biridir. Başkenti Bihaç'tır.

Kaynakça

Una-Sana


Sleiman Nejim (født 1982 i Libanon) er en dansk rapper og tidligere bandemedlem fra den københavnske bande Bloodz. Han er opvokset i bydelen Hundige på Vestegnen. Som bandemedlem har han fået flere fængseldomme og blev i 2007 skudt under en bandekonflikt.

Diskografi

EP'er
 "Bomaye" (2016)

Singler
 "Bomaye" (featuring Livid og Mellemfingamuzik) (2016)
 "Fundament" (featuring Gilli og Young) (2016)
 "For Evigt Ung" (2016)
 "Don Diego" (2017)
 "Camouflage" (featuring Carmon og Fouli) (2017)
 "Sicario"(2017)
 "Laila" (2017)
 "Dunya" (featuring Q) (2018)

Kildehenvisninger

Referencer

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Rappere fra Danmark

Sleiman


Der Nullpunkt im Harz ist mit  der höchste Punkt an der heutigen Landesstraße 600, die in Niedersachsen als Verbindungsstraße von Braunlage nach Zorge führt, und zugleich Teil der Wasserscheide zwischen Nord- (Brunnenbach–Warme Bode–Bode) und Südharz (Zorge–Helme–Unstrut). Er befindet sich im Oberharz im Naturpark Harz etwa 600 m nordwestlich vom Gipfel des Hinteren Ebersbergs (ca. ). Hier begannen 1864 vermutlich die Vermessungsarbeiten bei der Neuanlage der Fahrstraße, die – abseits der heutigen Landesstraße – abschnittsweise nur noch als Waldweg benutzt wird.

Einzelnachweise

Geographie (Braunlage)

Nullpunkt (Harz)


Dimetoka (Yunanca: Διδυμότειχο Didymóteicho; 1974'e kadar Katarevusa Yunancası ile: Διδυμότειχον Didymóteichon; Bulgarca: Димотика Dimotika), Yunanistan'da, Batı Trakya'da, Evros (Meriç) ilinin (nomos) sınırları içinde bir ilçedir.

Tarihçe
Ansbertus, Alman İmparatoru Friderik'in 1189 yılı Haçlı Seferi'nden bahsederken,Dimetoka (Timotikon) şehrine bu dönemde Kumanların sahip olduğunu bildirir .Evvelce Plotinoupolis olarak anılan Didymoteichon Geç Bizans döneminden itibaren bölgesinde önem kazanmış, imparatorluğun son hanedanı Palaiologus'lara karısı aracılığı ile akraba olmakla hanedana bir anlamda dışarıdan giren rakip imparator VI. İoannis 26 Ekim 1341'de destekçilerince burada imparator ilan edildi ve uzun bir iç savaş sürecinden sonra 16 Mayıs 1346'da burada taç giydi. 1343'de Kantakuzenos'un karısı Eirene'in burada Bulgarlarca ablukaya alınması üzerinde yardıma çağrılan Aydınoğlu Gazi Umur Bey 380 gemi ve 29,000 askerle bölgeye gelerek Bulgarları Didymoteichon'dan uzaklaştırmayı başardı. 1345'te yine Aydınoğlu Gazi Umur Bey, yanında Saruhan Beyliği hanedanından Saruhanoğlu Süleyman Bey olduğu halde 20,000 süvari ile Orhan Gazi'nin evvelce buraya sevkettiği birliklere katılmış ve üç beyliğin müşterek kuvveti Didymoteichon bölgesini egemenliği altına başlayan Bulgar şaki Momçilo'yu 7 Haziran 1345'te yenmeyi başarmışlardır.

1361'de Osmanlı Devleti topraklarına dahil edilmesinin ardından Dimetoka döneminde Balkanların önemli merkezlerinden biri haline geldi. Osmanlı padişahı I. Murad, Edirne'de Eski Saray inşa edilirken 5 yıl burada kalmış, oğlu Yıldırım Bayezid burada doğmuştur. Önemli bir Osmanlı mimari eseri olan (hâlen bakımsız durumdaki) Çelebi Sultan Mehmet Camii (Dimetoka Beyazıt Camii de denir) bu dönemde inşa edilmiştir. Kara Timurtaş Paşa oğlu Oruç Paşa'nın 1398, Feridun Ahmed Bey'in 1571 tarihli hamamları da bulunmaktadır.

Bu anlamda, Dimetoka'nın kısa bir süre için, Osmanlı Devleti'ne (Bursa'nın yanı sıra ve Edirne öncesinde) başkentlik yaptığı söylenebilir.

18. yüzyılda ise, Rusya'ya karşı giriştiği Poltava Savaşı'nı kaybederek Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'na sığınan İsveç kralı Demirbaş Şarl, 1713-1714'te burada meskun tutulmuştur.

Edirne Vilayet Matbaası Müdürü Şevket Dağdeviren'in yazdığı 1892 tarihli salnameye göre;

Dimetoka, Edirne sancağının bir kazasıdır. Kış mevsiminde Kızıldeli nehri ile Meriç nehrinin taşması sonucu arazi göl haline gelir, sular çekilince buraya ekin ekilir ve bol ürün alınır. İpek kozacılığı, örme çorap, şayak, aba dokumacılığı, hünnap ve zıvanalı cep çakısı ünlüdür. Kasabada 7 cami (Yıldırım Bayezid, Çarşı, Nasuh Bey, Feridun Ahmet Paşa, Köprübaşı, Cercer ve Kum camileri) 3 mescit, 3 tekke, 3 rakı fabrikası, hükûmet konağı, telgrafhane, süvari ve piyade kışlası, redif deposu, askeri hastane, baytarhane ve zahire ambarı vardır.

Dimetoka, esasen, İkinci Balkan Savaşı'nda Enver Paşa tarafından Edirne ile birlikte geri alınan bölgenin içindedir. Ağustos 1913'te imzalanan Bükreş Antlaşması ile Bulgaristan sınırları içinde kalan Batı Trakya demiryolu hattının 50 km.lik bir kısmı Meriç'in batı kıyı şeridini takip ederek buradan geçmekteydi. Bu da, Bulgaristan iç bölgeleri ile Batı Trakya limanları arasındaki ulaşımın kısmen Türkiye topraklarından geçmesi sonucunu doğurmaktaydı. 1915 sonbaharında, Çanakkale Savaşı'nın kritik dönemleri aşıldıktan sonra, yeni saldırılara karşı Almanya'dan sevkedilecek malzemenin Türkiye'ye ulaşabilmesi için Bulgaristan'ın Almanya-Avusturya-Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ittifakı içinde savaşa girmesi çok önemli görülmekteydi. Savaşın her iki ittifak grubunun da uzun bir süre lobi yaptığı Bulgaristan, bu kritik bölgeyi (savaşın sonunu beklemeksizin) hemen terk etmeyi kabul eden İttihat ve Terakki politikası ile cezbedildi. Böylece Dimetoka yöresi, 1915'te Bulgaristan'a bırakılarak bu ülkenin İttifak Devletleri tarafında savaşa girişinin rüşveti oldu.

I. Dünya Savaşı sonunda, Lozan Antlaşması ile kesinleşecek şekilde Yunanistan'a dahil edilmiştir.

Günümüz Dimetoka'sının karşılaştığı en büyük sorun mütemadiyen Meriç nehrinin taşkınlarına uğramasıdır.

Coğrafya
Evros (Meriç) ilinin (nomos) sınırları içinden geçen kızıl çay'ın içerisinden geçtiği bir ilçedir. Türkiye sınırına 12 kilometre mesafede, Sofulu'nun 20, Dedeağaç'ın 90 kilometre kuzeyindedir. 2001 rakamlarına göre ilçe merkezinin azalma eğilimi gösteren nüfusu 8.000, ilçe bütününün nüfusu 19.300'dür.

Nüfus

Çelebi Sultan Mehmed I Camii

Ayrıca bakınız
 Dimetoka Sarayı

Kaynakça

Dimetoka


Mehmet Açar, Türk sinema eleştirmeni, roman ve öykü yazarıdır. 1963 yılında Konya'da doğdu. Galatasaray Lisesi'nin ardından Boğaziçi Üniversitesi İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü'nden mezun oldu.

Hayalet Gemi dergisinde yayımlanan hikâyelerini "Anarşik Rehavet" isimli kitabında topladı. 13 yıl boyunca Sinema dergisinin genel yayın yönetmenliğini, Digiturk dergisi genel yayın yönetmenliği ve SİYAD (Sinema Yazarları Derneği'nin) başkanlığını yapmıştır.

Eserleri
 Anarşik Rehavet (Bilimkurgu Hikâyeleri - 1998)
 Siyah Hatıralar Denizi (Roman - Bilimkurgu - İletişim Yayınları - 2000 ve İthaki Yayınları - 2005)
 Akhisar'lı Hasan Tütün'ün Maceraları ya da Hayatın Anlamı (Roman - Bilimkurgu - İthaki Yayınları - 2005)
 Çok Uzaklarda Bir Yaz (Roman - Turkuvaz Kitap - 2009)
 Kayıp Hasta (Roman - Bilimkurgu - Doğan Kitap - 2017)

Kaynakça
Özel

Genel

Dış bağlantılar
 Mehmet Açar'la 'Karşılaştırmalı Film Analizleri' Semineri
 Eleştirmenler, gençlik hataları ve Mehmet Açar

1963 doğumlular
Konya doğumlu yazarlar
20. yüzyıl Türk yazarları
21. yüzyıl Türk yazarları
Resim aranan yazarlar
Galatasaray Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
Yaşayan insanlar
Türk sinema eleştirmenleri
Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler

Mehmet Açar


Mladen Mitar (Zadar, 1955.), hrvatski povjesničar umjetnosti i amaterski slikar. Živi i radi u Kutini.

Životopis
Rodio se 1955. godine u Zadru. Završio za profesora umjetnosti. Posao je našao u Kutini gdje se zaposlio kao profesor umjetnosti. U Kutini je ostao živjeti. Danas je kustos Galerije Muzeja Moslavine. Uspješno afirmira povijesno-umjetničku kulturnu baštinu Dalmacije, Moslavine, Kutine, Lonjskog polja i dr. Organizira izložbe u Muzeju Moslavine, autor stručnih koncepcija za izložbe, urednik je i autor kataloga za izložbe. Djeluje i kao likovni pedagog te je vodio tečaj crtanja za djecu osnovnih i srednjih škola te za građane. Član Matice hrvatske.

Slikar
Amaterskim se slikarstvom bavi više od 30 godina. Slike mu odišu svjetlošću i bogate su živim bojama i nigdje ne rabi crnu boju. Izlagao je na samostalnim izložbama u Hrvatskoj i inozemstvu. U početku je slikao hiperrealistički. Vremenom je poželio otići dublje u ovaj vid umjetnosti. U novijim se slikama osjeća duh francuskog realizma, posljedica Mitrove ljubavi prema francuskom slikarstvu 19. stoljeća. Koristi se tehnikom ulja na platnu i pastela. Česti su mu motivi Dalmacije i Moslavine. U umjetničkom smislu i kroz svoj kulturni rad u Matici hrvatskoj, Mitar je Kutinu otvorio i ohrabrio u radu na svim kulturnim poljima.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Fineartamerica Featured: Mladen Mitar

Hrvatski povjesničari umjetnosti
Hrvatski slikari
Životopisi, Zadar
Životopisi, Kutina

Mladen Mitar


توبا إنكا يوبانكي أو توباك إنكا يوبانكي (بلغة كيشوا: Tupaq Inka Yupanki)،  ويترجم «محاسب إنكا النبيل»، هو ثاني أباطرة الإنكا (إنكا سابا) بين عامي 1471-93، وخامس أفراد سلالة هانان، وعاشر حكام حضارة الإنكا. كان والده باتشاكوتي، وكان ابنه واينا كاباك.  ينتمي توبا إنكا إلى عشيرة كاباك باناكا من عشائر نبلاء الإنكا.  وكانت زوجته ماما أوكلو.

الوصف

قام أبوه بتعيينه لرئاسة جيش الإنكا في عام 1463.

وسع توبا إنكا حدوده شمالا على طول جبال الأنديز في منطقة الإكوادور الحديثة،  وطور موقع مدينة كيتو، التي أعيد بناؤها بمهندسين معماريين من كوزكو. أعاد تنظيم مملكة كوزكو خلال عهد والده باتشاكوتي إلى تاوانتينسويو، أو «المقاطعات الأربع»، وقاد فتوحات عسكرية واسعة النطاق لمد إمبراطورية الإنكا في أنحاء أمريكا الجنوبية.

أصبح حاكم الإنكا بعد وفاة والده في عام 1471، وحكم حتى وفاته في عام 1493. وغزا حضارة شيمور التي احتلت الساحل الشمالي لبيرو، وكانت من أكبر منافسي الإنكا.

غزا توبا إنكا مقاطعة أنتيس وأخضع قبيلة كولا. فرض القواعد والضرائب، وعين حاكمين عامين، أو سويويوك أبو، وأحدهما في خاوخا والآخر في تياواناكو. أنشأ توبا إنكا قلعة ساكسايوامان على الهضبة العليا فوق كوزكو، والتي تضمنت مخازن للمؤن والملابس.

توفي توباك إنكا في عام 1493، وترك ابنين شرعيين، وتسعين ابنا وابنة غير شرعيين. وكان قد رشح ابنه كاباك واري خلفا له، وهو ابن جارية تدعى تشوكوي أوكلو، لكنهما قتلا بعد وفاة توبا إنكا. ترك هذا العرش مفتوحا لابنه الشرعي، تيتو كوسي والبا، ليخلفه باسم الإمبراطور واينا كاباك.

رحلة المحيط الهادئ

الأسطورة

ينسب إلى توبا إنكا يوبانكي أيضا في قيادة رحلة استكشافية استغرقت حوالي 10 أشهر في المحيط الهادئ حوالي عام 1480، ويقال إنه زار جزرا تدعى نينا تشومبي («حزام النار») وهاوا تشومبي («الحزام الخارجي»، كما تكتب أفاتشومبي أو أوا تشومبي). ذكرت الرحلة في كتاب تاريخ الإنكا بقلم بيدرو سارمينتو دي غامبوا في عام 1572. ووصف بيدرو سارمينتو الرحلة على النحو التالي:

...وصل بعض التجار إلى تومبيز عن طريق البحر من الغرب، وأبحروا في سفن (بالسا) ذات أشرعة. تحدثوا عن الأرض التي جاءوا منها، والتي تتألف من جزر تسمى أفاشومبي ونيناشومبي، حيث عاش هناك الكثير من الناس وبها الكثير من الذهب. كان توبا إنكا رجلا ذا طموح ولم يرضى بما غزاه من مناطق بالفعل. فعزم على السعي نحو الثروة ويعبر لها البحر...

 عزم الإنكا بعد تيقنه من هذا على الذهاب إلى هناك. وأمر ببناء عدد هائل من قوارب البالسا، حيث انطلق فيه أكثر من عشرين ألف رجل مختار...

 أبحر توباك إنكا إلى أن اكتشف جزر أفاتشومبي ونيناتشومبي، وعاد وجلب معه أناسا سودا والذهب، وكرسي من النحاس الأصفر، وجلد وعظم فك حصان. تم حفظ هذه الغنائم في قلعة كوزكو حتى مجيء الاسبان. استغرقت هذه الرحلة تسعة أشهر، ويقول آخرون أنها امتدت إلى سنة، وظل غائبا لفترة طويلة حتى اعتقد الجميع أنه مات.

التحليل

يشكك عديد المؤرخين في حقيقة الرحلة وقعت. وقد حدد مؤيدو هذا السجل عادة بأن الجزر هي جزر غالاباغوس. واقترحوا أيضا أن إحدى الجزر هي جزيرة الفصح، حيث تزعم الحكايات الشفوية أن مجموعة من الناس طوال الأذن (هاناو إيبي) أتت إلى الجزيرة من أرض مجهولة.

مراجع

أباطرة الإنكا
أمريكيون جنوبيون في القرن 15
اتصال عابر للمحيط قبل كولومبي
ملكيون في أمريكا الجنوبية في القرن 15
مواليد في كوسكو
نبلاء من الأمريكيتين
وفيات 1493

توبا إنكا


Ibarra (which means alluvial plain in Basque) may refer to:

Places
 Ibarra Canton, Ecuador
 Ibarra, Ecuador, the capital of Imbabura Province and the canton
 Roman Catholic Diocese of Ibarra, inside the city
 Ibarra, Gipuzkoa, a locality in Gipuzkoa, Spain
 Ibarra Peak, Victoria Land, Antarctica
 Ibarra, Villa Clara, located in the ward of Vega Alta, Villa Clara Province, Cuba

Other uses
 Ibarra (surname)
 Ibarra (chocolate), a brand of Mexican-style chocolate
 UD Ibarra, a Spanish football team based in Arona, Tenerife
 Juan Crisóstomo Ibarra y Magsalin, commonly referred as "Ibarra" or "Crisóstomo", the protagonist of the Philippine novel Noli Me Tángere by José Rizal

See also
 Ybarra, a surname

Ibarra


Myliaceae, porodica jetrenjarki smještena u vlastiti podred Myliineae, dio reda Jungermanniales. Porodica je opisana 1975. a podred 2015. Godine 2018. uključen je u nju novi monotipični rod Sinomylia

Rodovi
 Mylia Gray
 Sinomylia P.C. Wu, Y. Jia & M.Z. Wang

Izvori

Jungermanniales

Myliaceae


Franz Hildebrandt ( à Berlin -  à Édimbourg) est un théologien luthérien d'origine allemande, puis méthodiste, contraint à l'exil pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, puis actif au Royaume-Uni et aux États-Unis.

Biographie
Hildebrandt est le fils du professeur d'art Edmund Hildebrandt (1872–1939) et de sa femme Ottilie Schlesinger (1872–1952). Il étudie la théologie à Berlin, Marburg et Tübingen (1926-1930). Pendant son séjour à Berlin, il se lie d'amitié avec Dietrich Bonhoeffer. En 1930, il obtient une licence (comparable à un doctorat) de l'Université de Berlin ; son premier livre (EST : Das Lutherische Prinzip) est basé sur sa thèse de doctorat.

Hildebrandt travaille pour l'Église protestante de l'Union prussienne pendant son temps probatoire (Vikariat) à Dobrilugk et à la  à Schöneberg (une localité de Berlin), et sa première affectation comme pasteur adjoint est à Kleinmachnow. Il est ordonné pasteur à Berlin le 18 juin 1933. Comme sa mère est d'origine juive, il est affecté par l'introduction du soi-disant paragraphe aryen dans certaines des églises protestantes d'Allemagne après l'arrivée au pouvoir des nazis en 1933. Hildebrandt démissionne de son poste en signe de protestation contre cette mesure de l'église et quitte l'Allemagne pour rejoindre son ami, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, qui est alors pasteur de la congrégation allemande à Londres.

Il retourne en Allemagne après trois mois, après avoir été invité par le pasteur Martin Niemöller à l'aider à construire le Pfarrernotbund, une organisation créée pour aider les pasteurs touchés par le tristement célèbre Paragraphe aryen. Peu de temps après l'arrestation de Niemöller et sa détention ultérieure jusqu'à la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Hildebrandt est lui-même arrêté. Des amis parviennent à obtenir sa libération, et il repart pour l'Angleterre, désormais en exil permanent.

Au cours des années suivantes, Hildebrandt contribue à la constitution de la congrégation protestante germanophone à Cambridge et travaille pour un certain nombre de projets liés à l'église, notamment des émissions en langue allemande sur la BBC. Au début de la guerre, il est interné pendant plusieurs mois, mais est libéré sur l'intervention de son ami, l'évêque George Kennedy Allen Bell de Chichester. Bell a une relation étroite avec Bonhoeffer et Hildebrandt (il les appelait «mes deux garçons»).

En dépit de sa relation étroite avec Bell, Hildebrandt ne peut se résoudre à rejoindre l'Église d'Angleterre et à devenir prêtre au sein de cette église, car cela aurait nécessité une nouvelle ordination par un évêque anglican - ce que Hildebrandt ne pouvait pas accepter car cela aurait implicitement déclaré invalide son ordination en Allemagne.

Hildebrandt s'associe par la suite de plus en plus étroitement au méthodisme et devient finalement ministre dans cette église. Il commence à étudier les racines théologiques du méthodisme dans les travaux de John Wesley et développe une perspective théologique sur Wesley (et le méthodisme en général) en tant que développement de la solide théologie de la Réforme. Il commence à travailler comme pasteur méthodiste à Romsey Town, au sud de Cambridge (1946), puis à Édimbourg (1951-1953).

Hildebrandt épouse Nancy Hope Wright en 1943; Le couple a trois enfants; David, Ruth et Esther.

Après avoir fait tout son possible pendant plusieurs années pour trouver un poste universitaire en Angleterre, notamment un doctorat supplémentaire à l'Université de Cambridge (1941), Hildebrandt est finalement appelé à un poste d'enseignant à l'Université Drew, une université méthodiste aux États-Unis, où il enseigne la théologie biblique de 1953 à 1967. Pendant ce temps, il est invité à représenter le Conseil méthodiste mondial en tant qu'observateur au Concile Vatican II. Il reçoit également un doctorat honorifique de l' au cours de cette période (1960).

De retour en Écosse en 1968, Hildebrandt quitte bientôt l'Église méthodiste à la suite des pourparlers d'union alors en cours avec l'Église d'Angleterre, qui l'auraient obligé une fois de plus à se soumettre à une nouvelle ordination. Il rejoint l'Église presbytérienne d'Écosse et est pasteur actif et aumônier d'hôpital à Édimbourg jusqu'à sa mort en 1985. Sa femme Nancy est décédée le 12 juillet 2008, à l'âge de 89 ans. David est décédé le 16 juin 2002.

Hildebrandt est bien connu dans les cercles méthodistes en raison de son travail sur la théologie et les hymnes de John et Charles Wesley. Contrairement à Eberhard Bethge, l'ami le plus proche de Bonhoeffer des années plus tard, Hildebrandt a délibérément évité le débat sur la théologie de Bonhoeffer qui a suivi à partir des années 1950.

Ouvrages

 Franz Hildebrandt, Est : Das Lutherische Prinzip. Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1931.
 Dietrich Bonhoeffer & Franz Hildebrandt, Glaubst du, so hast du : Versuch eines Lutherischen Katechismus (1932). Plus tard publié dans : Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Gesammelte Schriften, Volume 3, Munich : Kaiser, 1966, pp. 248–257.
 [anonyme] Martin Niemöller und sein Bekenntnis. Zollikon : Verlag der Evangelischen Buchhandlung, 1938 ; Traduction française : Pasteur Niemoller et son Credo . Londres 1939.
 Franz Hildebrandt, Theologie für Refugees: Ein Kapitel Paul Gerhardt . Publié par le Comité de l'Église d'Angleterre pour les chrétiens "non aryens". Londres: The Finsbury Press, 1940.
 Franz Hildebrandt (éd. ), "Et d'autres pasteurs de ton troupeau": Un hommage allemand à l'évêque de Chichester, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1942.
 Franz Hildebrandt, Melanchthon : extraterrestre ou allié ? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946.
 Franz Hildebrandt, De Luther à Wesley. Londres : Lutterworth Press, 1951.
 Franz Hildebrandt, Le christianisme selon les Wesley: les conférences Harris Franklin Rall, 1954, prononcées au Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Illinois. Londres : Epworth Press 1956 ; Grand Rapids : Baker, 1996.
 Franz Hildebrandt (éd. ), Wesley Hymnbook. Kansas City 1963.
 Franz Hildebrandt, J'ai offert le Christ : une étude protestante de la messe. Londres : Epworth Press, 1967.
 Franz Hildebrandt et Oliver A. Beckerlegge (éd. ), Une collection d'hymnes à l'usage des gens appelés méthodistes. (Les œuvres de John Wesley, vol. 7), Oxford : Clarendon Press 1983 ; Nashville : Abingdon Press 1991.

Références

 Holger Roggelin, Franz Hildebrandt: Ein lutherischer Dissenter im Kirchenkampf und Exil, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999, .
 Amos S. Cresswell & Maxwell G. Tow, Dr Franz Hildebrandt. M. Vaillant-pour-la-vérité. Leominster : Gracewing, 2000. .

Liens externes

Théologien protestant du XXe siècle
Naissance en février 1909
Naissance à Berlin
Décès en novembre 1985
Décès à Édimbourg
Décès à 76 ans

Franz Hildebrandt


Brusna ploča ili brusno kolo se sastoji od:
 sredstava za brušenje ili abraziva, koja mogu biti prirodna ili umjetna, i
 vezivnog sredstva, koja mogu biti neorganska ili organska.

Prirodna sredstva za brušenje
Prirodna sredstva za brušenje su:
 prirodni korund koji sadrži veliki postotak aluminijevog oksida,
 smirak ili šmirak je smjesa aluminijevog oksida i magnetno željezne rude s hematitom, kvarcom i raznim silikatima,
 kvarc koji može biti čisti ili obojen oksidom metala; služi za brušenje metala, drveta, stakla i kamena,
 dijamant, koji služi za najfinije brušenje, naročito tvrdih predmeta.

Umjetna sredstva za brušenje
Umjetna sredstva za brušenje su:
 silicijev karbid ili karborund, koji se dobiva taljenjem koksa, kvarcnog pijeska i soli u električnoj peći,
 specijalni korund ili elektrokorund, koji se dobiva u električnim pećima od boksita i koksa,
 borkarbid, koji se zbog velike tvrdoće koristi kao zamjena za dijamantni prah i za obradu tvrdih metala.

Vezivna sredstva

Vezivna sredstva su:
 neorganska vezivna sredstva kao keramičko vezivo, silikatno vezivo, magnezitno vezivo, metalno vezivo;
 organska vezivna sredstva kao bakelitno vezivo, šelakovo vezivo, gumeno vezivo.

Označavanje brusnih ploča
Primjer: 450 x 100 x 127 A 60 K 8 V
(450) D – promjer brusne ploče (450 mm),
(100) B – širina brusne ploče (100 mm),
(127) d – promjer provrta na brusnoj ploči (127 mm),
(A) – oznaka sredstava za brušenje,
(60) – krupnoća zrna,
(K) – tvrdoća brusne ploče,
(8) – oznaka strukture brusne ploče,
(V) – oznaka veziva.

Krupnoća zrna

Abrazivi dolaze najčešće u rasponu granula od 40 (od 420 do 660 μm), 60, 80, 100, 120, 150, 180, 220, 240, 280, 320, 360, 400, 500 i 600 (od 15 do 35 μm).

Tvrdoća brusne ploče

Tvrdoća brusne ploče ovisi o čvrstoći vezivnog materijala i određuje se kao otpor veziva protiv ispadanja zrnaca. Oznake za tvrdoću brusnih ploča su:
 osobito meko (A, B, C, D),
 vrlo meko (E, F, G, H),
 meko (I, J, K),
 srednje (L, M, N, O),
 tvrdo (P, Q, R, S),
 vrlo tvrdo (T, U, V, W),
 osobito tvrdo (X, Y, Z).

Oznaka strukture brusne ploče
Struktura brusne ploče je svojstvo koje može pri istoj finoći i tvrdoći biti različito. Time označavamo količinu zrnaca i veziva u jedinici obujma brusne ploče. Označava se vrijednostima od 1 do 14. Otvorena struktura je struktura s visokom poroznošću. Zatvorena struktura je ona koja ima najmanju poroznost među zrncima.

Brusne ploče za ručno brušenje
Prema izgledu i konstrukciji, brusne ploče mogu biti: pločaste, prstenaste, valjkaste, profilne, obručne, tanjuraste, lončaste, vretenaste, šuplje, brusne ploče na drški. Oblikovanje brusnih ploča obavlja se u kalupima. Nakon toga u ovisnosti o vezivu određuje se daljnji postupak. Uglavnom je to sušenje (kod keramičkih veziva), te pečenje u elektropećima. Alat se zatim ispituje tako da se drži najmanje 3 minute na 40 – 50% većoj brzini od dopuštene. Zatim se brusovi moraju još izbalansirati kako bi se izbjegle vibracije, koje negativno utječu na alat, stroj i obradak. Brusne ploče se koriste isključivo na alatima s pogonom (električnim, akumulatorskim ili pneumatskim pogonom).

Izvori

Obrada metala
Alati
Metaloprerađivačka industrija

Brusna ploča


Solférino () is a station on line 12 of the Paris Métro in the 7th arrondissement. It is named after the nearby rue de Solférino, which in turn was named after the Battle of Solferino, a battle fought in 1859 during the Second Italian War of Independence, where the Franco-Piedmontese troops commanded by Napoleon III defeated the Austrians. It was also named after then passerelle Solférino, a footbridge over the Seine, now known as the Passerelle Léopold-Sédar-Senghor.

History
The station opened on 5 November 1910 as part of the original section of the Nord-Sud Company's line A between Porte de Versailles and Notre-Dame-de-Lorette. On 27 March 1931, line A became line 12 when It was taken over by the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris (CMP), incorporating it into the Paris Métro.

The station was featured in a brief scene in an advertisement by Givenchy starring Rooney Mara for its perfume L'Interdit in 2018 at the staircase at access 1, although it was mainly shot at the Porte des Lilas - Cinéma ghost station.

In 2019, the station was used by 2,073,832 passengers, making it the 240th busiest of the Métro network out of 302 stations.

In 2020, the station was used by 923,536 passengers amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, making it the 250th busiest of the Métro network out of 304 stations.

In 2021, the station was used by 1,269,143 passengers, making it the 254th busiest of the Métro network out of 304 stations.

Passenger services

Access
The statio has three accesses:

 Access 1: place Jacques Bainville
 Access 2: rue de Bellechasse Musée d'Orsay (an ascending escalator)
 Access 2: rue Saint-Dominique

Station layout

Platforms

The station has a standard configuration with 2 tracks surrounded by 2 side platforms. The lower portion of the side walls are vertical instead of elliptical, as with the other stations constructed by the Nord-Sud company (today on lines 12 and 13). It is one of the two stations on the line where the original Nord-Sud company style of décor have been maintained with its characteristic large ceramic tablets indicating the name of the station with the other station being Porte de la Chapelle.

Other connections
It is an out-of-station interchange with the Musée d'Orsay station on line C of the RER located around 250 metres away from the station. It is accessible by walking along rue de Bellechasse towards the north.

The station is also served by line 63, 68, 69, 73, 83, 84, 87, and 94 of the RATP bus network, and at night, by line N02 of the Noctilien bus network.

Nearby

 Mairie du 7e arrondissement
 Musée d'Orsay
 Promenade Édouard Glissant

Gallery

References

Sources
Roland, Gérard (2003). Stations de métro. D'Abbesses à Wagram. Éditions Bonneton.

Paris Métro stations in the 7th arrondissement of Paris
Railway stations in France opened in 1910

Paris Métro line 12

Solférino station


Víctor Guerin (* 17. Juni 1992 in São Paulo) ist ein ehemaliger brasilianischer Automobilrennfahrer.

Karriere
Guerin begann seine Motorsportkarriere 2001 im Kartsport, in dem er bis 2009 aktiv war. 2009 wechselte Guerin in den Formelsport und startete für Dragão Motorsport in der südamerikanischen Formel-3-Meisterschaft. Er fuhr zunächst in der B-Klasse und wechselte zur Saisonmitte in die A-Klasse. Dort beendete er bereits sein erstes Rennen als Dritter auf dem Podium. Zu zwei Rennwochenenden trat er nicht an. Er belegte den elften Platz in der A-Klasse und den vierten Platz in der B-Klasse.

2010 startete Guerin erstmals in Europa und trat für JD Motorsport in der Formel Abarth an. Während sein Teamkollege Raffaele Marciello drei Rennen gewann und Dritter wurde, entschied Guerin ein Rennen für sich und beendete die Saison auf dem 13. Platz in der Meisterschaft. Nach der Formel-Abarth-Saison trat er zu zwei Rennen der südamerikanischen Formel 3 an und erreichte dabei einmal den zweiten Platz. 2011 wechselte Guerin zu Lucidi Motors in die italienische Formel-3-Meisterschaft. Nachdem er bereits einen zweiten und drei dritte Plätze erzielt hatte, gewann er beim Saisonfinale sein erstes Rennen. Guerin wurde Achter in der Fahrerwertung. Damit lag er zwischen seinen Teamkollegen Kevin Giovesi und Eddie Cheever III, die eine Position vor bzw. hinter ihm lagen. Darüber hinaus trat Guerin vor der Saison in Brasilien zum F3 Brazil Open an und wurde dabei Dritter. Nach der Saison nahm er an einer Veranstaltung der südamerikanischen Formel 3 teil und gewann ein Rennen. Außerdem machte er in der Trofeo Linea Brasil Erfahrungen im Tourenwagen.

2012 trat Guerin erneut zum F3 Brazil Open an und schied aus. Anschließend kehrte er nach Europa zurück und ging in der Saison 2012 für SuperNova International in der Auto GP World Series an den Start. Er verließ die Auto GP World Series nach dem fünften von sieben Rennwochenenden und wurde mit einem zweiten Platz als bestes Resultat Gesamtachter. Sein Teamkollege Adrian Quaife-Hobbs gewann den Meistertitel. Darüber hinaus stieg Guerin für Ocean Racing Technology zum vierten Rennwochenende in die GP2-Serie ein. Er blieb ohne Punkte und wurde 30. in der Fahrerwertung. Außerdem startete er zu einem Rennwochenende der FIA-Formel-2-Meisterschaft.

Statistik

Karrierestationen

Weblinks
 Karrierestatistik von Víctor Guerin (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

GP2-Rennfahrer
Rennfahrer (Brasilien)
Brasilianer
Geboren 1992
Mann

Víctor Guerin


Gayrinizami harp; düzenli ve büyük birlikler yerine küçük ve işlevsel birliklerle düşmanı yıpratmak, moralini bozmak, kayıplar verdirmek için yapılan savaş şeklidir.  Psikolojik harp, istikrar harekâtı ve gayrinizami harp olarak üçe ayrılan özel harbin son parçasıdır. Askerî terminolojide Düşük Yoğunluklu Çatışma olarak da geçer. Gayrinizami Harp genellikle yedi aşama olacak şekilde; hazırlık safhası, akabinde kurulan ilk temas, hedef noktaya sızma, organizasyon ve toplanma, ana amaç olan; görev ve son olarak geri intikal ile gerçekleştirilir. Bu aşamalar, bazı durumlarda eş zamanlı olarak meydana gelebilir veya gerekli olmayabilir. Geçmiş yıllarda nizami harpten farklı olarak düşünülen ve sadece gerillaların yaptığı bu çarpışma şekli günümüzde dünya ordularında nizami harbin bir parçası olarak düşünülmeye başlanmıştır. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Ordusunun özellikle uzun yıllar süren Vietnam Savaşı yenilgisinden sonra yeni bir savaş biçimi geliştirmesi sonrası, millî ve devrimci hareketlere karşı girişilen bastırma kampanyalarında derinleştirilen yeni savaş doktrini ve bu doktrinin pratiği "özel harp" adını aldı.

Geçmiş yıllarda gayrinizami harp hakkında ABD Savunma Bakanlığı yapan Robert McNamara; Partizan savaşların devam ettiği bölgelerde büyük miktarda askerî birlik ve büyük çapta silahlar yerine, gerilla ve anti-gerillla savaş taktik ve biçimlerini iyice öğrenmiş ve özel silahlarla donatılmış küçük birlikler kullanmak gerektiğini söylemiştir. Yine ABD ordusunun 2001 yılında El Kaide ve Taliban'a karşı kıtalararası harekât yaparak başlattığı Afganistan Savaşı'nda ABD ordusu tarafından gayrinizami harp şartlarının gerçekleştirilmemesi sonrası Afganistan halkının ABD karşıtlığını yükseltmiştir.

En eski insan topluluklarından beri yaşanan gayrinizami harp, daha önce yalnızca zayıfın güçlüye karşı uyguladığı bir yöntemken, 20. ve 21. yüzyılda güçlünün güçlüye ve güçlünün zayıfa karşı da uygulamaya başladığı görülmektedir. Gayrinizami harp zaman içinde defalarca form değiştirdiği gibi, ivme kazanarak yaygınlaşmıştır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Bordo Bereliler

Kaynakça

Askerî strateji
Silahlanma

Gayrinizami harp


Omloop Het Nieuwsblad 2018 var den 73. udgave af cykelløbet Omloop Het Nieuwsblad. Det var det fjerde arrangement på UCI's World Tour-kalender i 2018 og blev arrangeret 24. februar 2018.

Løbet blev vundet af den danske rytter Michael Valgren fra .

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
 Lars Bak kørte for
 Mads Würtz Schmidt kørte for
 Christopher Juul-Jensen kørte for
 Matti Breschel kørte for
 Magnus Cort kørte for
 Michael Valgren kørte for
 Søren Kragh Andersen kørte for
 Mads Pedersen kørte for
 Michael Carbel kørte for

Resultater

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

2018
UCI World Tour 2018

Omloop Het Nieuwsblad 2018