Das Astrodicticum simplex ("einfacher Stern-Zeiger", von griechisch  ástron "Stern",  deiktikós "Anzeige-" und lateinisch simplex "einfach") ist ein von Erhard Weigel zu universitären Lehrzwecken entwickeltes astronomisches Instrument, welches das Auffinden von Sternen und Sternenkonstellationen am Sternenhimmel erleichtern sollte.

Aufbau
Ein Astrodicticum simplex besteht aus einem "Zeiger" und einer parallel zu diesem Zeiger montierten Visiereinrichtung (Visierlineal), die über einen Metallbogen von einem Viertelkreis miteinander verbunden sind, und auf einem Himmelsglobus montiert wird.

Erhard Weigel selbst hat das Instrument wie folgt beschrieben:

Funktionsweise
Ziel ist, eine Ausrichtung des Visierlineals auf den mit dem "Zeiger" auf dem Himmelsglobus angezeigten Stern am Sternenhimmel zu erreichen, um so ungeübten Beobachtern das Auffinden des jeweiligen Sterns am Sternenhimmel zu ermöglichen.

Für Sterne am Sternenhimmel, auf die das Visierlineal gerichtet ist, werden dann von dem "Zeiger" auf dem Himmelsglobus die jeweiligen Sterne mit ihren Namen nachgewiesen. Richtet man umgekehrt den "Zeiger" auf einen Stern auf dem Himmelsglobus, den man am Sternenhimmel aufspüren und beobachten möchte, so liefert dann das Visierlineal die Position des gesuchten Sterns und weist in dessen Richtung.

Eine Kontrolle der Ausrichtung des Astrodicticum simplex kann mit Hilfe eines Leitsterns geeigneter Helligkeit erfolgen, der von einem erfahrenen Beobachter in Richtung des Visierlineals fixiert wird. Der "Zeiger" des Astrodicticum simplex muss dann genau auf das Abbild dieses Sterns auf dem Himmelsglobus gerichtet sein. Tritt hierbei auch nur ein geringer Winkelabstand auf – was bereits nach wenigen Beobachtungsminuten der Fall ist, driften die auf dem Himmelsglobus abgebildeten Sterne und die entsprechende Sterne am Sternenhimmel auseinander.

Die Beobachtung von Sternen mit Hilfe des Astrodicticum simplex setzt ein akkurates Abbild des Sternenhimmels auf dem zum Einsatz kommenden Himmelsglobus voraus und erfordert zudem eine präzise zeitliche Synchronisation zwischen Himmelsglobus und Sternenhimmel. Während der Beobachtung des Sternenhimmels mit Hilfe des Astrodicticum simplex ist eine ständige Nachführung des Himmelsglobus notwendig.

Heutige Bedeutung
Nach Johann Dorschner ist das Astrodicticum simplex wahrscheinlich das einzige von Erhard Weigel erfundene Gerät, das heute noch – in modifizierter Form – produziert wird.

Namensgebung
Florian Freistetter hat sein Wissenschaftsweblog Astrodicticum simplex bei ScienceBlogs, in Anlehnung an Erhard Weigels Engagement als "populariser of science" nach diesem Instrument benannt.

Literatur
 Erhard Weigel: Speculum Uranicum Aquilae Romanae Sacrum, Das ist/ Him[m]elsSpiegel. Franckfurt, Jehna 1661
 Erhard Weigel: Mathematische Kunst-Übungen. in: Erhardi Weigelii P.P. Idea Matheseos Universae : cum Speciminibus Inventionum Mathematicarum. Jenae 1669, S. 69–84
 Reinhard E. Schielicke, Klaus-Dieter Herbst, Stefan Kratochwil (Hrsg.): Erhard Weigel – 1625 bis 1699. Barocker Erzvater der deutschen Frühaufklärung. Beiträge des Kolloquiums anlässlich seines 300. Todestages am 20. März 1999 in Jena (Acta Historica Astronomiae 7). Thun, Frankfurt am Main 1999. (Online, abgerufen am 1. Februar 2016)

Weblinks
 Florian Freistetter: Astrodicticum simplex, abgerufen am 25. Januar 2016
 Erhardi Weigelii P.P. Idea Matheseos Universae : cum Speciminibus Inventionum Mathematicarum. Jenae 1669, Online-Ausgabe der Thüringer Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Jena

Einzelnachweise

Technikgeschichte

Astrodicticum simplex


Premiul Juriului Ecumenic () este un premiu de film independent care se acordă filmelor artistice de lung metraj la mai multe din festivalurile importante de film, începând cu 1973.

Premiul a fost creat de către realizatori de filme creștini, critici de film și alți profesioniști din lumea filmului. Obiectivul premierii este "de a onora lucrări de artă [cinematografică] de mare calitate, care subliniază puterea filmului de releva inefabilele adâncuri ale ființei umane prin relevarea a ceea ce este important pentru om, precum și [prin sublinierea] durerilor, căderile și speranțele sale".

Juriul Ecumenic poate să fie alcătuit din 8, 6, 5, 4 ori 3 membri, care sunt nominalizați de către SIGNIS (nume oficial, World Catholic Association for Communication, Asociația mondială catolică pentru comunicații) pentru catolici și organizația Interfilm pentru protestanți. SIGNIS și Interfilm numesc jurii ecumenice care să participe la festivaluri internaționale de film, incluzând Festivalul Internațional de Film de la Cannes (unde Juriul Ecumenic () este unul din cele trei jurii ale festivalului, alături de juriul oficial al festivalului și de Juriul FIPRESCI), festivalul Internațional de film de la Berlin, Festivalul Internațional de Film de la Locarno, Festivalul Mondial de Film de la Montreal și Festivalul Internațional de Film de la Karlovy Vary.

Câștigătorii premiului

Locarno (din 1973)

Cannes (din 1974)

Montréal (din 1979)

Berlin (din 1992)

Karlovy Vary (din 1994)

Referințe

Legături externe
 Official webpage of the jury
 Official webpage of the Cannes Film Festival
 SIGNIS
 Interfilm

Fondări în 1973
Festivalul Internațional de Film de la Berlin
Festivalul Internațional de Film de la Cannes
Festivalul Internațional de Film de la Locarno
Liste de filme după premiu

Premiul Juriului Ecumenic


Soleil Nyassa est un dirigeant de média camerounais et membre du comité exécutif de la Fécafoot.

Biographie

Enfance, éducation et débuts

Carrière
Soleil Nyassa est journaliste et le dirigeant de Nyassa fm.

Ex-lieutenant de Tombi A Roko, il est devenu allié de Seidou Mbombo Njoya, puis de Samuel Eto'o, Présidents de la FECAFOOT.

En 2018, il accuse Samuel Eto'o, Ernest Obama et Martin Camus Mimb d'être derrière l'incarcération d'un de ses journalistes.

Membre du Comité exécutif de la FECAFOOT, après l'élection de Samuel Eto'o comme président de la FECAFOOT, sur un plateau de Vision 4, il dit : « J'étais un infiltré de Samuel Eto'o dans le camp de Mbombo Seidou. Nous avions d'abord des réunions parallèles entre nous. On a fait une réunion stratégique de 5, il y a un qui n'était pas avec nous », Ayant une dent contre Seidou Mbombo Njoya, il déclare : « J'avais un salaire de 600 milles que je n'ai pas touché pendant le mandat de Mbombo Njoya à la FECAFOOT ».

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
Eboa Elame Mikado
Martin Camus Mimb
Ernest Obama

Liens externes

Journaliste camerounais

Soleil Nyassa


Çiçek dürbünü veya kaleydoskop, içine bakıldığında renkli desenler görülen bir aygıttır. Bu desenler, ışığın yansımasıyla elde edilir ve dürbün hareket ettirildikçe sürekli değişir.

"Kaleydoskop" kelimesi Yunanca kalos (güzel), eidos (biçim), scopos (izlemek) sözcüklerinden türetilmiştir.

Dürbün, İskoç Sir David Brewster tarafından 1816'da ışığın polarizasyonundan yaralanılarak icat edilmiştir, 1817'de patenti alınmıştır. Brewster yaptığı icattan çok para kazanacağını düşünmüştür, ancak patent sırasındaki bir hatası, dürbünün taklitlerinin çok kolayca kopyalanabilmesine olanak sağlanmıştır.

Dürbünün içerisi siyah ya da koyu bir renge boyalıdır. İçinde arasında 60 derecelik eğimle birbirine bitişik üç ayna bulunur. Aynaların arasında renkli cam parçaları, tüyler, pullar, ince boncuklar gibi malzemeler bulunur. Bu dürbünün bir ucundan bakıldığında şekil değiştiren çokgenler, çoğunlukla bir daha aynı olmayacak görüntüler görülür.

Popüler kültürde, televizyonda kamera hilesi olarak kullanılan "bulanıklaştırma efekti" olarak da teknolojik kullanımı yaygındır. Görüntü hafif bulanık ve çokgen şekiller halinde dramatikleşitirilir.

Bununla beraber bazı sanat merkezlerinde bu dürbünler bulunur, çeşitli sanat eserleri bununla bakılarak farklı görüntüleri elde edilir.

Yapılışı

Çiçek dürbünü yapmak için kenar boyları 1/3 oranlı, dikdörtgen biçimli üç ayna, ince, saydam bir kâğıt veya naylon parçası (şeffaf dosya parçası), yapışkan bant, makas, karton, kalem ve küçük parçacıklara bölünmüş çok sayıda renkli kâğıt, boncuk, cam kırığı ya da buna benzeyen materyaller gerekir.

Aynalar üçgen prizma oluşturacak biçimde birbirine uzun kenarlarından sırlı yüzeyleri dışa bakacak şekilde birleştirilir ve bantla tutturulur. Kartondan öncelikle bir üçgen prizma yapılır ve buna uygun üçgen bir parça kesilir. Kesilen parça, prizmanın üst tarafına yapıştırılır. Kurşun kalemle bu üçgenin ortasına bir delik açılır. Diğer kenarı kapatmadan önce renkli materyaller, saydam kâğıt ve naylon arasına konur. Prizmanın alt tarafının da kapatılması gerekmektedir, buraya saydam kağıdı veya şeffaf dosya parçası ya da buzlu cam görüntüsü verebilecek herhangi bir materyal yapıştırılır.
Artık üstteki delikten ışığa doğru bakarak oluşan desenler görülebilir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Çiçek dürbünü
 Çiçek Dürbününün Geçmişi
 Nasıl Çiçek Dürbünü Yapılır?
 The Brewster Kaleidoscope Society - Çiçek dürbünü heveslileri için uluslararası bir topluluk.

Kaynakça

Optik aletler
Oyuncaklar
İskoç icatları

Çiçek dürbünü


På optagelse med Steven Spielberg er en dokumentarfilm fra 1990 instrueret af Anders Refn efter manuskript af Anders Refn, Marianne Christensen.

Handling
Den danske instruktør Anders Refn har talt med super-instruktøren Steven Spielberg og den danske fotograf Mikael Salomon, der har "invaderet Amerika" og er blevet stjerne på sit område. Udgangspunktet er Spielbergs kærlighedsfilm »Always«, der også indeholder en række dramatiske situationer. I portrættet veksler samtalen med klip fra den færdige film og fra optagelserne. Der gives således god besked om instruktørens og fotografens rolle, om tekniske kneb, om forholdet til skuespillerne, om et filmhold der er som en stor familie...

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1990

På optagelse med Steven Spielberg


El indie rock (: [ˈɪndi rɒk]) es un subgénero del rock alternativo, se originó en los Estados Unidos, Reino Unido y Nueva Zelanda en la década de 1980. De gran diversidad, presenta variados subgéneros que incluyen al lo-fi, slowcore y entre otros.

El término fue originalmente utilizado para describir sellos discográficos, pero con el tiempo se comenzó a asociar con la música que ellas producían. Luego, como las bandas de rock alternativo y post-punk estadounidenses, y luego las bandas de Britpop británicas, irrumpieron en el mercado musical de la década de 1990, pasó a ser utilizado como identificador de dichos grupos que, aunque también pertenecen de forma general al rock alternativo, no tomaron la ruta ni las estéticas impuestas por estos movimientos y que hicieron a estos populares. En la década de 2000 en tanto, como resultado de los cambios en la industria de la música y la creciente importancia de Internet, una serie de grupos de rock indie comenzaron a disfrutar de éxito comercial, dando lugar a preguntas acerca de su significado como término, pasando a ser referido como un género propiamente tal (según estadísticas).

Definición de «indie»
El término indie es usado para referirse a un sonido nuevo presentado por un músico. Es un estilo musical del cual se desprenden el indie rock, indie pop, indietrónica, indie folk. "Indie" viene del término "Independiente", siendo así interpretado por generaciones como una actitud que adoptaron músicos al independizarse de las grandes compañías discográficas para crear música a través de sus propios medios.

Pretendiendo así apoyar e incentivar a todos aquellos que se dediquen a reproducir sus creaciones en pequeños lugares.

También el indie rock y sus derivados promueven el "hazlo tú mismo", "Do It Yourself" (DIY). Las influencias y estilos de los artistas han sido muy diversos, entre ellos punk, el rock psicodélico, y el rock. Los términos rock alternativo y el  indie rock se utilizan indistintamente en la década de 1980, pero después de muchas bandas de música alternativa desde Nirvana en la corriente principal en la década de 1990 comenzó a utilizarse para distinguir esas bandas, que trabajan en una variedad de estilos, que no persiguen o alcanzan el éxito comercial.

Allmusic identifica indie rock que incluye una serie de estilos que son: "demasiado sensible y melancólica, muy suave y delicada, demasiado soñadora, hasta cierto punto pop; y muy personal e íntimo que revela en sus letras, también de baja fidelidad y de bajo presupuesto en su producción; demasiado simple en sus melodías y riffs, demasiado cruda, skronky y abrasivos, envuelto en hojas de bandas como Sonic Youth / Dinosaur Jr. / Pixies y The Jesus and Mary Chain estilo flojo de las guitarras, muy oblicua y fractura en las estructuras de sus canciones, también influyó por estilos musicales experimentales o impopulares lo contrario. " Unidos por un espíritu más que una propuesta musical, el movimiento de rock/pop indie que abarca una amplia gama de estilos, de bordes duros, grunge con influencia a bandas como The Cranberries y Superchunk, a través de las bandas experimentales como Pavement, cantantes populares de punk como Ani DiFranco. Muchos países han desarrollado una extensa escena indie, floreciendo con la popularidad suficiente como para sobrevivir en el interior del país respectivo, pero prácticamente desconocidos fuera de ellas.

Se ha observado que el indie rock tiene una proporción relativamente alta de mujeres artistas en comparación con otros géneros del rock, una tendencia ejemplificada por la corriente de punk-rock feminista Riot grrrl encabezada por bandas como Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, 7 Year Bitch, Team Dresch, Huggy Bear, Hole, y Babes in Toyland.

El movimiento indie y la tecnología
La tecnología de Internet permite a muchos artistas introducir su música a una enorme audiencia potencial a un bajo costo sin estar necesariamente relacionados con una discográfica. El diseño de software que soporta música digital alentó la creación de nueva música. Las páginas con amplias librerías de canciones son las más exitosas. Alrededor de estas se crearon muchas oportunidades para las bandas independientes. Los derechos por servicios digitales validarían una importante fuente de ingresos. Más aún, plataformas de streaming como Spotify han demostrado ser vías válidas para que los artistas independientes obtengan ingresos respetables gracias a los derechos derivados de las reproducciones de su música. Si un artista todavía tiene que pagar para grabar, fabricar y promover su álbum; este formato digital permite no agregar costos a un artista independiente para distribuir su música en línea. Los servicios digitales ofrecen la oportunidad de exposición a nuevos adeptos y la posibilidad de incrementar ventas a través de los revendedores minoristas en línea. Los artistas pueden también poner a disposición nueva música más frecuentemente y rápidamente si esta está disponible en línea. Adicionalmente, los artistas tendrían la opción de lanzar ediciones limitadas, reediciones, o material en vivo que sería muy caro producir por los medios tradicionales.

Subgéneros y características

El siguiente listado muestra algunos ejemplos de los subgéneros del indie rock y bandas representativas de los géneros, esto no implica en que sean también del género, sino que en muchos casos, son los que dieron origen como se explica anteriormente:

 Chamber pop: The Decemberists, Lana Del Rey, Andrew Bird, Belle & Sebastian, Vampire Weekend, Arcade Fire, Fiona Apple, Tori Amos.
 Dance-punk: The Rapture, Death from Above 1979, Liars, LCD Soundsystem, Franz Ferdinand, !!!, Shitdisco, Datarock, Hot Chip, Wave Machines., Last Dinosaurs
 Dream pop: Cocteau Twins, Spiritualized, The Whitest Boy Alive, Yo La Tengo, Silversun Pickups, Beach House, Sigur Rós, No Man, Hooverphonic, Broken Social Scene, Homegirl.
 Dunedin Sound: Superette, Garageland, The Bats, The 3Ds, Straitjacket Fits, The Chills, The Clean, The Verlaines
 Indie pop: Enon, The Hush Sound, Velocity Girl, Joywave.
 Garage rock: Los Growlers, Count Five, MC5, Iggy Pop, The Stooges, The Strokes, The Miracle Workers, The Monks, The Sonics, The Kingsmen, The Trashmen, Question Mark & the Mysterians, The Cramps, Paul Revere & The Raiders, Guitar Wolf, Foxboro Hot Tubs, The Datsuns, The White Stripes, Eagles of Death Metal, Cage the Elephant, Juliette and the Licks, The Apples in Stereo, Best Coast.
 Madchester: The Stone Roses, Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets, The Charlatans, A Guy Called Gerald.
 Math rock: Foals, Don Caballero, Vicente Gayo, Minus the Bear, 1.6 Band, For Dummies, Bellini, Creedle, Braid, Battles, Inlantic, Shellac, The Jesus Lizard, Slint, Surrogat.
 Indie folk: Beirut, CocoRosie, Fleet Foxes, Kings of Convenience, Neutral Milk Hotel, The Decemberists, Devendra Banhart, Elliot Smith, Bon Iver, Of Monsters and Men.
 Neo-psicodelia: Tame Impala, The Flaming Lips, Spacemen 3, Neutral Milk Hotel, Pond, MGMT
 No wave: Glenn Branca, Lydia Lunch, Rhys Chatham, Jad Fair, DNA, James Chance.
 Noise rock: Sonic Youth, Butthole Surfers, Big Black, The Jesus and Mary Chain, Fugazi, Melt-Banana, Lightning Bolt, Half Japanese, Health, Foot Village, Action Beat, Wavves, Dinosaur Jr.
 Post-punk: The Cure, Siouxsie And The Banshees, Violent Femmes, Joy Division, The Bolshoi, Public Image Ltd, Cabaret Voltaire, The Psychedelic Furs, The Fall, Gang of Four, Magazine, The Lords of the New Church.
 Post-punk revival: Interpol, The Walkmen, Bloc Party, Franz Ferdinand, The Hives, The Libertines, The Vines, The Killers, Arctic Monkeys, The Cribs, The Bravery, She Wants Revenge, Shiny Toy Guns, Stellastarr, The Futureheads, Editors, Elefant.
 Post-rock: Bowery Electric, Sigur Rós, A Silver Mt. Zion, Do Make Say Think, Mogwai, Tortoise, Talk Talk, Stereolab, Efterklang, Fly Pan Am, Godspeed You! Black Emperor, Explosions in the Sky, M83 y Múm.
 Sadcore o (Slowcore): Copeland, Pedro the Lion, Galaxie 500, Bowery Electric, Bill Callahan, Low, Cat Power, Bedhead, Lana Del Rey
 Shoegazing: My Bloody Valentine, Slowdive, Lush, The Verve, Alcest, Deerhunter, Medicine, School of Seven Bells.
 Twee pop: Camera Obscura, The Flaming Lips, Belle & Sebastian, The Radio Dept., Architecture in Helsinki, Tullycraft, Girls in Hawaii.

Véase también
 Indie pop
 Lo-fi
 Noise rock
 Post-punk revival
 Rock alternativo

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Música indie en Last.fm
 Indie Hoy - Portal de música indie de Latinoamérica

Rock alternativo
Subgéneros del rock
Subgéneros del rock alternativo
Géneros musicales de los años 1990

Indie rock


α2-Macroglobulin (α2M) or alpha-2-macroglobulin is a large (720 KDa) plasma protein found in the blood. It is mainly produced by the liver, and also locally synthesized by macrophages, fibroblasts, and adrenocortical cells. In humans it is encoded by the A2M gene.

α2-Macroglobulin acts as an antiprotease and is able to inactivate an enormous variety of proteinases. It functions as an inhibitor of fibrinolysis by inhibiting plasmin and kallikrein. It functions as an inhibitor of coagulation by inhibiting thrombin. α2-macroglobulin may act as a carrier protein because it also binds to numerous growth factors and cytokines, such as platelet-derived growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, TGF-β, insulin, and IL-1β.

No specific deficiency with associated disease has been recognized, and no disease state is attributed to low concentrations of α2-macroglobulin. The concentration of α2-macroglobulin rises 10-fold or more in the nephrotic syndrome when other lower molecular weight proteins are lost in the urine. The loss of α2-macroglobulin into urine is prevented by its large size. The net result is that α2-macroglobulin reaches serum levels equal to or greater than those of albumin in the nephrotic syndrome, which has the effect of maintaining oncotic pressure.

Structure
Human α2-macroglobulin is composed of four identical subunits bound together by -S-S- bonds. In addition to tetrameric forms of α2-macroglobulin, dimeric, and more recently monomeric αM protease inhibitors have been identified.

Each monomer of human α2-macroglobulin is composed of several functional domains, including macroglobulin domains, a thiol ester-containing domain and a receptor-binding domain. Overall, α2-macroglobulin is the largest major nonimmunoglobulin protein in human plasma.

The amino acid sequence of α2-macroglobulin has been shown to be 71% the same as that of the pregnancy zone protein (PZP; also known as pregnancy-associated α2-glycoprotein).

Function
The α-macroglobulin (αM) family of proteins includes protease inhibitors, typified by the human tetrameric α2-macroglobulin (α2M); they belong to the MEROPS proteinase inhibitor family I39, clan IL. These protease inhibitors share several defining properties, which include (1) the ability to inhibit proteases from all catalytic classes, (2) the presence of a 'bait region' (also known as a sequence of amino acids in an α2-macroglobulin molecule, or a homologous protein, that contains scissile peptide bonds for those proteinases that it inhibits) and a thiol ester, (3) a similar protease inhibitory mechanism and (4) the inactivation of the inhibitory capacity by reaction of the thiol ester with small primary amines. αM protease inhibitors inhibit by steric hindrance. The mechanism involves protease cleavage of the bait region, a segment of the αM that is particularly susceptible to proteolytic cleavage, which initiates a conformational change such that the αM collapses about the protease. In the resulting αM-protease complex, the active site of the protease is sterically shielded, thus substantially decreasing access to protein substrates. Two additional events occur as a consequence of bait region cleavage, namely (1) the h-cysteinyl-g-glutamyl thiol ester becomes highly reactive and (2) a major conformational change exposes a conserved COOH-terminal receptor binding domain  (RBD). RBD exposure allows the αM protease complex to bind to clearance receptors and be removed from circulation. Tetrameric, dimeric, and, more recently, monomeric αM protease inhibitors have been identified.

α2-Macroglobulin is able to inactivate an enormous variety of proteinases (including serine-, cysteine-, aspartic- and metalloproteinases). It functions as an inhibitor of fibrinolysis by inhibiting plasmin and kallikrein. It functions as an inhibitor of coagulation by inhibiting thrombin. α2-Macroglobulin has in its structure a 35 amino acid "bait" region. Proteinases binding and cleaving the bait region become bound to α2M. The proteinase–α2M complex is recognised by macrophage receptors and cleared from the system.

α2-Macroglobulin is known to bind zinc, as well as copper in plasma, even more strongly than albumin, and such it is also known as transcuprein. 10 to 15% of copper in human plasma is chelated by α2-macroglobulin.

Disease
α2-Macroglobulin levels are increased when the serum albumin levels are low, which is most commonly seen in nephrotic syndrome, a condition wherein the kidneys start to leak out some of the smaller blood proteins. Because of its size, α2-macroglobulin is retained in the bloodstream. Increased production of all proteins means α2-macroglobulin concentration increases. This increase has little adverse effect on the health but is used as a diagnostic clue.

An increase in α2-Macroglobulin with normal amount of albumin mainly indicates acute and/or chronic inflammation.

A common variant (29.5%) (polymorphism) of α2-macroglobulin leads to increased risk of Alzheimer's disease.

α2-Macroglobulin binds to and removes the active forms of the gelatinase (MMP-2 and MMP-9) from the circulation via scavenger receptors on the phagocytes.

References

 McPherson & Pincus: Henry's Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods, 21st ed.
 Firestein: Kelley's Textbook of Rheumatology, 8th edition.

External links
 The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: I39.001

Acute-phase proteins

Alpha-2-Macroglobulin


Las Cascadas de El-Ourit se encuentran a siete kilómetros de la ciudad de Tlemcen, cerca de la carretera nacional de Argelia en el país africano del mismo nombre. Se localizan en una zona montañosa cubierta de pinos. Los Siete niveles de las cascadas de Oued El-Ourit permanecieron 40 años secas antes de reaparecer en 2009.

La zona montañosa donde se ubica esta a pocos kilómetros de la localidad de Tlemcen, las Cascadas son parte del Parque Nacional Tlemcen creado en 1993.
Un viaducto ferroviario cruza las cascadas de El Ourit. Esta obra de arte del , fue realizada por Gustave Eiffel y su compañía.

Véase también
Cascadas de Amaila
Cascadas de Camaya
Cascada de Dindéfelo
Cascadas de Ekom Nkam

Referencias

Cascadas de Argelia

Cascadas de El-Ourit


Tethya sarai est une espèce d'éponges de la famille des Tethyidae.

Distribution
L'espèce est décrite des îles Galápagos, dans l'Océan Pacifique.

Taxinomie
L'espèce Tethya sarai est décrite en 1997 par Ruth Desqueyroux-Faúndez et Rob W. M. van Soest.

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Références biologiques

Notes et références

Tethyidae
Espèce d'éponges (nom scientifique)

Tethya sarai


Cultured meat, also known as cultivated meat among other names, is a form of cellular agriculture where meat is produced by culturing animal cells in vitro. Cultured meat is produced using tissue engineering techniques pioneered in regenerative medicine. Jason Matheny popularized the concept in the early 2000s after he co-authored a paper on cultured meat production and created New Harvest, the world's first non-profit organization dedicated to in-vitro meat research. Cultured meat has the potential to address the environmental impact of meat production, animal welfare, food security and human health, in addition to its potential mitigation of climate change.

In 2013, Mark Post created a hamburger patty made from tissue grown outside of an animal. Since then, other cultured meat prototypes have gained media attention: SuperMeat opened a farm-to-fork restaurant, called "The Chicken", in Tel Aviv to test consumer reaction to its "Chicken" burger, while the "world's first commercial sale of cell-cultured meat" occurred in December 2020 at Singapore restaurant 1880, where cultured meat manufactured by United States firm Eat Just was sold.

While most efforts focus on common meats such as pork, beef, and chicken which constitute the bulk of consumption in developed countries, companies such as Orbillion Bio focused on high-end or unusual meats including elk, lamb, bison, and Wagyu beef. Avant Meats brought cultured grouper to market in 2021, while other companies have pursued different species of fish and other seafood.

The production process is constantly evolving, driven by companies and research institutions. The applications for cultured meat led to ethical, health, environmental, cultural, and economic discussions. Data published by the non-governmental organization Good Food Institute found that in 2021 cultivated meat companies attracted $140 million in Europe. Cultured meat is mass-produced in Israel. The first restaurant to serve cultured meat opened in Singapore in 2021. Cultured meat is not yet widely available.

Nomenclature

Besides cultured meat, the terms healthy meat, slaughter-free meat, in vitro meat, vat-grown meat, lab-grown meat, cell-based meat, clean meat, cultivated meat and synthetic meat have been used to describe the product. Although it has multiple definitions, artificial meat is occasionally used.

Between 2016 and 2019, clean meat gained traction. The Good Food Institute (GFI) coined the term in 2016, and in late 2018, the institute published research claiming that use of clean better reflected the production process and benefits. By 2018 it had surpassed cultured and "in vitro" in media mentions and Google searches. Some industry stakeholders felt that the term unnecessarily tarnished conventional meat producers, continuing to prefer cell-based meat as a neutral alternative.

In September 2019, GFI announced new research which found that the term cultivated meat is sufficiently descriptive and differentiating, possesses a high degree of neutrality, and ranks highly for consumer appeal. A September 2021 poll indicated that the majority of industry CEOs have a preference for cultivated meat, with 75 percent of 44 companies preferring it.

 History
 Initial research
The theoretical possibility of growing meat in an industrial setting has long been of interest. In a 1931 essay published by various periodicals and later included in his work Thoughts and Adventures, British statesman Winston Churchill wrote: "We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium."

In the 1950s, Dutch researcher Willem van Eelen independently came up with the idea for cultured meat. As a prisoner of war during the Second World War, Van Eelen suffered from starvation, leaving him passionate about food production and food security. He attended a university lecture discussing the prospects of preserved meat. The earlier discovery of cell lines provided the basis for the idea. In vitro cultivation of muscle fibers was first performed successfully in 1971 when pathologist Russel Ross cultured guinea-pig aorta. In 1991, Jon F. Vein secured patent  for the production of tissue-engineered meat for human consumption, wherein muscle and fat would be grown in an integrated fashion to create food products.

In 2001, dermatologist Wiete Westerhof along with van Eelen and businessperson Willem van Kooten announced that they had filed for a worldwide patent on a process to produce cultured meat. The process employed a matrix of collagen seeded with muscle cells bathed in a nutritious solution and induced to divide. That same year, NASA began conducting cultured meat experiments, with the intent of allowing astronauts to grow meat instead of transporting it. In partnership with Morris Benjaminson, they cultivated goldfish and turkey. In 2003, Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr exhibited a few centimeters of "steak", grown from frog stem cells, which they cooked and ate. The goal was to start a conversation surrounding the ethics of cultured meat—"was it ever alive?", "was it ever killed?", "is it in any way disrespectful to an animal to throw it away?"

In the early 2000s, American public health student Jason Matheny traveled to India and visited a factory chicken farm. He was appalled by the implications of this system. Matheny later teamed up with three scientists involved in NASA's efforts. In 2004, Matheny founded New Harvest to encourage development by funding research. In 2005, the four published the first peer-reviewed literature on the subject.

In May 2008, PETA offered a $1 million prize to the first company to bring cultured chicken meat to consumers by 2012. The contestant was required to complete two tasks to earn the prize, namely to produce a cultured chicken meat product that was indistinguishable from real chicken and produce the product in large enough quantities to be competitively sold in at least 10 states. The contest was later extended until 4 March 2014. The deadline eventually expired without a winner.

The Dutch government has invested $4 million into experiments regarding cultured meat. The In Vitro Meat Consortium, a group formed by international researchers, held the first international conference hosted by the Norwegian Food Research Institute in April 2008. Time magazine declared cultured meat production to be one of the 50 breakthrough ideas of 2009. In November 2009, scientists from the Netherlands announced they had managed to grow meat using cells from a live pig.

First public trial
The first cultured beef burger patty was created by Mark Post at Maastricht University in 2013. It was made from over 20,000 thin strands of muscle tissue, cost over $300,000 and needed 2 years to produce. The burger was tested on live television in London on 5 August 2013. It was cooked by chef Richard McGeown of Couch's Great House Restaurant, Polperro, Cornwall, and tasted by critics Hanni Rützler, a food researcher from the Future Food Studio, and Josh Schonwald. Rützler stated, "There is really a bite to it, there is quite some flavour with the browning. I know there is no fat in it so I didn't really know how juicy it would be, but there is quite some intense taste; it's close to meat, it's not that juicy, but the consistency is perfect. This is meat to me... It's really something to bite on and I think the look is quite similar." Rützler added that even in a blind trial she would have taken the product for meat rather than a soya copy.

Industry development

Between 2011 and 2017, many cultured meat startups were launched. Memphis Meats, now known as Upside Foods, launched a video in February 2016, showcasing its cultured beef meatball. In March 2017, it showcased chicken tenders and duck a l'orange, the first cultured poultry shown to the public. An Israeli company, SuperMeat, ran a crowdfunding campaign in 2016, for its work on cultured chicken. Finless Foods, a San Francisco-based company working on cultured fish, was founded in June 2016. In March 2017 it commenced laboratory operations.

In March 2018, Eat Just (in 2011 founded as Hampton Creek in San Francisco, later known as Just, Inc.) claimed to be able to offer a consumer product from cultured meat by the end of 2018. According to CEO Josh Tetrick the technology was already there. JUST had about 130 employees and a research department of 55 scientists, where cultured meat from poultry, pork and beef was researched. JUST has received investments from Chinese billionaire Li Ka-shing, Yahoo! co-founder Jerry Yang and according to Tetrick also by Heineken International and others.

Dutch startup Meatable, consisting of Krijn de Nood, Daan Luining, Ruud Out, Roger Pederson, Mark Kotter and Gordana Apic among others, reported in September 2018 that it had succeeded in growing meat using pluripotent stem cells from animal umbilical cords. Although such cells are reportedly difficult to work with, Meatable claimed to be able to direct them to behave to become muscle or fat cells as needed. The major advantage is that this technique bypasses fetal bovine serum, meaning that no animal has to be killed to produce meat. That month, an estimated 30 cultured meat startups operated across the world. Integriculture is a Japan-based company working on their CulNet system. Competitors included England based Multus Media and Canadian Future Fields.

In August 2019, five American startups announced the formation of the Alliance for Meat, Poultry & Seafood Innovation (AMPS Innovation), a coalition seeking to work with regulators to create a pathway to market for cultured meat and seafood. The founding members include Eat Just, Memphis Meats, Finless Foods, BlueNalu, and Fork & Goode. Similarly in December 2021, a group of 13 European and Israeli companies (Aleph Farms, Bluu Biosciences, Cubiq Foods, Future Meat, Gourmey, Higher Steaks, Ivy Farm, Meatable, Mirai Foods, Mosa Meat, Peace of Meat, SuperMeat, and Vital Meat) established Cellular Agriculture Europe, a Belgium-based association that sought to 'find common ground and speak with a shared voice for the good of the industry, consumers, and regulators'.

In October 2019, Aleph Farms collaborated with 3D Bioprinting Solutions to culture meat on the International Space Station. This was done by extruding meat cells onto a scaffold using a 3D printer. In January 2020, Quartz found around 30 cultured meat startups, and that Memphis Meats, Just Inc. and Future Meat Technologies were the most advanced because they were building pilot plants. According to New Scientist in May 2020, 60 start-ups were developing cultured meat. Some of these were technology suppliers. Growth media reportedly still cost "hundreds of dollars per litre, but for clean meat production to scale this needs to drop to around $1 a litre." In June 2020, Chinese government officials called for a national strategy to compete in cultured meat.

In December 2019, the Foieture project was launched in Belgium with the goal of developing cultured foie gras (the name is a portmanteau of 'foie' and 'future') by a consortium of 3 companies (cultured-meat startup Peace of Meat, small meat-seasoning company Solina, and small pâté-producing company Nauta) and 3 non-profit institutes (university KU Leuven, food industry innovation centre Flanders Food, and Bio Base Europe Pilot Plant). Peace of Meat stated in December 2019 that it intended to complete its proof of concept in 2020, to produce its first prototype in 2022, and to go to market in 2023. That month, the Foieture project received a research grant of almost 3.6 million euros from the Innovation and Enterprise Agency of the Flemish Government. In May 2020, Peace of Meat's Austrian-born cofounder and scientific researcher Eva Sommer stated that the startup was then able to produce 20 grams of cultured fat at a cost of about 300 euros (€15,000/kg); the goal was to reduce the price to 6 euros per kilogram by 2030. Piece of Meat built two laboratories in the Port of Antwerp. In late 2020, MeaTech acquired Peace of Meat for 15 million euros, and announced in May 2021 that it would build a new large-scale pilot plant in Antwerp by 2022.

In November 2020, Indian start-up Clear Meat claimed it had managed to cultivate chicken mince at the cost of only 800–850 Indian rupees (US$10.77–11.44), while a slaughtered processed chicken cost about 1,000 rupees. On 27 April 2022, the European Commission approved the request for the collection of signatures for the European Citizens' Initiative End The Slaughter Age to shift subsidies from animal husbandry to cellular agriculture.

 Market entry
 European Union entry
In the European Union, novel foods such as cultured meat products have to go through a testing period of about 18 months during which a company must prove to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) that their product is safe. In March 2022, cultured meat producers had reached the level of attempting to gain regulatory approval from European Union supranational institutions coming just before mass goods could be sold to consumers. By February 2023, none had yet submitted a novel food dossier for approval by the EFSA. Legal experts explained this as having to do with the fact that, although the EFSA's novel food procedure has been well-established since 1997 (unlike in other jurisdictions, that still have or had to develop certain regulatory standards), it is a long and complicated process in which companies can have little input once they have submitted their request, unlike cultured meat startups in the United States (who could easily communicate back and forth with the FDA to clarify any issues), and in the UK, Singapore and Israel (where governments have implemented a 'single point of contact' responsible for the overall process).

 Israel entry
In November 2020, SuperMeat opened a test restaurant in Ness Ziona, Israel, right next to its pilot plant; journalists, experts and a small number of consumers could book an appointment to taste the novel food there, while looking through a glass window into the production facility on the other side. The restaurant was not yet fully open to the public, because as of June 2021 SuperMeat still needed to wait for regulatory approval to start mass production for public consumption, and because the COVID-19 pandemic restricted restaurant operations. By February 2023, Israeli authorities had established a regulatory structure similar to that of Singapore, and shown a general willingness to work towards approval (as well as financing research for cultivated food innovation), but were still in the process of developing safety regulations in consultations with researchers and other experts. For example, the Israeli Health Ministry and UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) co-organised a convention of cultivated food safety regulation experts in September 2022.

 Singapore entry

On 2 December 2020, the Singapore Food Agency approved the "chicken bites" produced by Eat Just for commercial sale. It marked the first time that a cultured meat product passed the safety review (which took 2 years) of a food regulator, and was widely regarded as a milestone for the industry. The chicken bits were scheduled for introduction in Singaporean restaurants. Restaurant "1880" became the first to serve cultured meat to customers on Saturday 19 December 2020.

In January 2023, the SFA also granted regulatory approval for the production of cultured meat with serum-free media to Eat Just' subsidiary GOOD Meat, which had introduced its clean chicken product in several more Singaporese restaurants as well as hawker centres and food delivery services since 2020, and was constructing the bioreactors for its new facility in Singapore. This world-first approval was said to be a milestone in making cultivated meat production more scalable and efficient.

 United States entry
In November 2022, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) completed the pre-market consultation of Upside Foods (formerly Memphis Meats), concluding that its products were safe to eat, a first for cultivated meat companies in the United States. Approval from the final agency, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was received by Upside Foods and Good Meat, both for cultivated chicken, in June 2023.

 Companies working on cultured meat

Note: dates in italics refer to projected dates of achievement in the future; they may shift.

In addition to these companies, non-profit organizations such as New Harvest, the Good Food Institute, ProVeg International and the Cellular Agriculture Society advocate for, fund and research cultured meat.

 Pilot plants
Note: data in italics refer to unfinished projects or projected capacities in the future; they may shift.

 Process
Cell lines
Cellular agriculture requires cell lines, generally stem cells. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells which have the potential to become many or all of the required kinds of specialized cell types. Totipotent stem cells have the capacity to differentiate into all the different cell types found within the body. Pluripotent stem cells can mature into all cell types save those in the placenta, and multipotent stem cells can differentiate into several specialized cell types within one lineage. Unipotent stem cells can differentiate into one specific cell fate.

While pluripotent stem cells would be an ideal source, the most prominent example of this subcategory is embryonic stem cells which—due to ethical issues—are controversial for use in research. As a result, scientists have developed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)—essentially multipotent blood and skin cells that have been regressed to a pluripotent state enabling them to differentiate into a greater range of cells. The alternative is using multipotent adult stem cells that give rise to muscle cell lineages or unipotent progenitors which differentiate into muscle cells.

Favourable characteristics of stem cells include immortality, proliferative ability, unreliance on adherence, serum independence and easy differentiation into tissue. The natural presence of such characteristics are likely to differ across cell species and origin. As such, in vitro cultivation must be adjusted to fill the exact needs of a specific cell line. The immortality issue is that cells have a limit on the number of times they can divide that is dictated by their telomere cap—supplementary nucleotide bases added to the end of their chromosomes. With each division, the telomere cap progressively shortens until nothing remains, at which time the cells cease to divide. Induced pluripotency can lengthen telomere cap such that the cells divide indefinitely.

Cell lines can be collected from a primary source, i.e., through a biopsy on an animal under local anesthesia. They could also be established from secondary sources such as cryopreserved cultures (cultures frozen after previous research).

Growth medium

Once cell lines are established, they are immersed in a culture media to induce them to proliferate. Culture media are typically formulated from basal media that provide cells with necessary carbohydrates, fats, proteins and salts. Once a cell consumes a sufficient amount, it divides and the population increases exponentially. Culture media can be supplemented with additives—for instance sera—that supply additional growth factors. Growth factors can be secreted proteins or steroids that are crucial in regulating cellular processes.

Once differentiation begins, muscle fibres begin to contract and generate lactic acid. Cells' ability to absorb nutrients and proliferate in part depends on the pH of their environment. As lactic acid accumulates within the media, the environment will become progressively more acidic and falls below the optimal pH. As a result, culture media must be frequently refreshed. This helps refresh the concentration of nutrients from the basal media.

Scaffold

In the case of structured meat products—products that are characterized by their overall  configuration as well as cell type—cells must be seeded to scaffolds. Scaffolds are essentially molds meant to reflect and encourage the cells to organize into a larger structure. When cells develop in vivo, they are influenced by their interactions with the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM is the 3-dimensional mesh of glycoproteins, collagen and enzymes responsible for transmitting mechanical and biochemical cues to the cell. Scaffolds need to simulate the characteristics of the ECM.

 Porosity
Pores are minute openings on the surface of the scaffold. They can be created on the surface of the biomaterial in order to release cellular components that could interfere with tissue development. They also help diffuse gas and nutrients to the innermost layers of adherent cells, preventing a "necrotic center" from forming.  A necrotic center is a phenomenon in which cells that are not in direct contact with the culture medium die from a lack of nutrients.

 Vascularization
Vascular tissue found in plants contains the organs responsible for internally transporting fluids. It forms natural topographies that provide a low cost way to promote cell alignment by replicating the natural physiological state of myoblasts. It may also help with gas and nutrient exchange.

 Biochemical properties
A scaffold's biochemical properties should be similar to those of the ECM. It must facilitate cell adhesion through textural qualities or chemical bonding. Additionally, it must produce the chemical cues that encourage cell differentiation. Alternatively, the material should be able to blend with other substances which have these functional qualities.

 Crystallinity
The degree of a material's crystallinity determines qualities such as rigidity. High crystallinity can be attributed to hydrogen bonding which in turn increases thermal stability, tensile strength (important for maintaining the scaffold's shape), water retention (important for hydrating the cells) and Young's modulus.

 Degradation
Certain materials degrade into compounds that are beneficial to cells, although this degradation can also be irrelevant or detrimental. Degradation allows easy removal of the scaffold from the finished product leaving only animal tissue—thereby increasing its resemblance to in vivo meat. This degradation can be induced by exposure to certain enzymes which do not impact the muscle tissue.

 Edibility
If scaffolds are unable to be removed from the animal tissue, they must be edible to ensure consumer safety. It would be beneficial if they were to be made out of nutritious ingredients. Since 2010, academic research groups and companies have emerged in order to identify raw materials that have the characteristics of suitable scaffolds.

 Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant polymer in nature and provides the exoskeletons of plant leaves. Due to its abundance, it can be obtained at a relatively low cost. It is also versatile and biocompatible. Through a process called "decellularization", it is coated in a surfactant that creates pores. These pores release the plant's cellular components, and it becomes decellularized plant tissue. This material has been extensively studied by the Pelling and Gaudette Groups at University of Ottawa and Worcester Polytechnic Institute, respectively. Through cross-linking (forming covalent bonds between individual polymer chains to hold them together) the plant tissue's mechanical properties can be changed so that it more closely resembles muscle tissue. This can also be done by blending plant tissue with other materials. On the other hand, decellularized plant tissue typically lacks mammalian biochemical cues, so it needs to be coated with compensatory functional proteins. C2C12 growth was not shown to change significantly between the bare scaffold and the same scaffold with a coating of collagen or gelatin proteins; however, seeding efficiency (rate at which cells attach to the scaffold) improved.

An advantage of decellularized plant tissue is the natural topography afforded by the leaf vasculature. This helps replicate the natural physiological state of the myoblasts which promotes cell alignment. The other ways of doing this are usually quite a bit more expensive including 3D printing, soft lithography and photolithography. Vascularization can also help overcome the 100–200 nm diffusion limit of culture medium into cells that usually produce necrotic centres in muscle conglomerates. Another way to do this is by having a porous scaffold which supports angiogenesis (the development of new blood vessels). While this has been shown to work for apple Hypanthium, not all plants are nearly as porous. The alternative to plant cellulose is bacterial cellulose which is typically more pure than plant cellulose as it is free from contaminants such as lignin and hemicellulose. Bacterial cellulose has more hydrogen bonding between its polymer strands and so it has greater crystallinity. It also has smaller microfibrils that allow it to retain more moisture and have smaller pores. The substance can be produced using waste carbohydrates (which may allow it to be produced less expensively) and it adds juiciness and chewiness to emulsified meat (which would mean that even if it can't be taken out of the final product, it will contribute to the texture profile).

 Chitin
Chitin is nature's second most abundant polymer. It is found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans and fungi. As cellular agriculture is attempting to end reliance on animals, chitin derived from fungi is of greater interest. It has mostly been studied by Pelling Group. Chitosan is derived from chitin in a process known as alkaline deacetylation (substituting out certain amino acid groups). The degree of this process determines the physical and chemical properties of the chitosan. Chitosan has antibacterial properties; in particular, it has bactericidal effects on planktonic bacteria and biofilms and a bacteria static effects on gram negative bacteria such as E. coli. This is important as it neutralizes potentially harmful compounds without using antibiotics, which many consumers avoid. Chitosan's resemblance to glycosaminoglycans and internal interactions between glycoproteins and proteoglycans make it highly biocompatible. It can easily blend with other polymers in order to select for more bioactive factors. One potential disadvantage of chitosan is that it degrades in the presence of lysozymes (naturally occurring enzymes). But, this can be resisted using deacetylation. This is not entirely negative, as the byproducts produced through degradation have anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties. It is important to match the level that cells rely on the matrix for structure with degradation.

 Collagen
Collagen is a family of proteins that makes up the primary structure of human connective tissue. It is typically derived from bovine, porcine and murine sources. Cellular agriculture overcomes this dependency through the use of transgenic organisms that are capable of producing the amino acid repeats that make up the collagen. Collagen naturally exists as collagen type I. It has been produced as porous hydrogels, composites and substrates with topographical cues and biochemical properties. Synthetic kinds of collagen have been produced through recombinant protein production—collagen type II and III, tropoelastin and fibronectin. One challenge with these proteins is that they can not be modified post translation. However, an alternative fibrillar protein has been isolated in microbes that lack collagen's biochemical cues, but has its kind of gene customizability. One focus of recombinant collagen production is yield optimization—how it can be produced most effectively. Plants, in particular, tobacco look like the best option, however, bacteria and yeast are also viable alternatives.

Textured soy protein is a soy flour product often used in plant-based meat that supports the growth of bovine cells. Its spongy texture enables efficient cell seeding and its porosity encourages oxygen transfer. Additionally, it degrades during cell differentiation into compounds that are beneficial to certain cells.

 Mycelium
Mycelium are the roots of mushrooms. Altast Foods Co. is using solid state fermentation to grow mushroom tissue on mycelium scaffolds. They harvest this tissue and use it to create bacon analogs.

 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials exhibit unique properties at the nanoscale. London-based Biomimetic Solutions is leveraging nanomaterials in order to create scaffolds. Cass Materials in Perth, Australia, is using a dietary fibre called Nata de Coco (derived from coconuts) to create nanocellulose sponges for their BNC scaffold. Nata de Coco is biocompatible, has high porosity, facilitates cell adhesion and is biodegradable.

 Spinning
Immersion Jet Spinning is a method of creating scaffolds by spinning polymers into fibres. It was developed by the Parker Group at Harvard. Their platform uses centrifugal force to extrude a polymer solution through an opening in a rotating reservoir. During extrusion, the solution forms a jet that elongates and aligns as it crosses the air gap. The jet is directed into a vortex-controlled precipitation bath that chemically cross links or precipitates polymer nanofibers. Adjusting air gap, rotation and the solution changes the diameter of the resulting fibres. This method can spin scaffolds out of PPTA, nylon, DNA and nanofiber sheets. A nanofibrous scaffold made from alginate and gelatin was able to support the growth of C2C12 cells. Rabbit and bovine aortic smooth muscle myoblasts were able to adhere to the gelatin fibres. They formed aggregates on shorter fibres, and aligned tissue on the longer ones. Matrix Meats is using electrospinning—a process that uses electric force to turn charged polymers into fibres for scaffolds. Their scaffolds allowed meat marbling, are compatible with multiple cell lines, and are scalable.

Additive manufacturing

Another proposed way of structuring muscle tissue is additive manufacturing. Such a technique was perfected for industrial applications in manufacturing objects made out of plastic, metal, glass and other synthetic materials. The most common variation of the process involves incrementally depositing a filament in layers onto a bed until the object is completed. This method will most likely lend itself best to the application of cultured meat as opposed to other types such as binder jetting, material jetting or stereolithography that require a specific kind of resin or powder.

A filament of muscle cells can be printed into a structure meant to resemble a finished meat product which can then be further processed for cell maturation. This technique has been demonstrated in a collaboration between 3D bioprinting solutions and Aleph Farms that used additive manufacturing to structure turkey cells on the International Space Station. 3D bioprinting has been used to produce steak-like cultured meat, composed of three types of bovine cell fibers and with a structure of assembled of cell fibers that is similar to original meat.

 Bioreactors

Scaffolds are placed inside bioreactors so that cell growth and specialization can occur. Bioreactors are large machines similar to brewery tanks which expose the cells to a large variety of environmental factors that are necessary to promote either proliferation or differentiation. The temperature of the bioreactor must replicate in vivo conditions. In the case of mammalian cells, this requires heating to 37 °C (99 °F). Alternatively, insect cells can be grown at room temperature. Most bioreactors are maintained at 5% carbon dioxide. Cells can be cultivated in either continuous or fed-batch systems. The former entails inoculating and harvesting cells in a constant process so that there are always cells in the bioreactor. Fed-batch systems mean inoculating the cells, culturing them and harvesting them in a single period.

Stirred tank bioreactors are the most widely used configuration. An impeller increases the flow, thereby homogenizing the culture media and a diffuser facilitates the exchange of oxygen into the media. This system is generally used for suspended cultures but can be used for cells that require attachment to another surface if microcarriers are included. Fixed bed bioreactors are commonly used for adherent cultures. They feature strips of fibres that are packed together to form a bed to which cells can attach. Aerated culture media is circulated through the bed. In airlift bioreactors, the culture media is aerated into a gaseous form using air bubbles which are then scattered and dispersed amongst the cells. Perfusion bioreactors are common configurations for continuous cultivation. They continuously drain media saturated with lactic acid that is void of nutrients and fill it with replenished media.

Challenges

 Growth factors
The culture media is an essential component of in vitro cultivation. It is responsible for providing the macromolecules, nutrients and growth factors necessary for cell proliferation. Sourcing growth factors is one of the most challenging tasks of cellular agriculture. Traditionally, it involves the use of fetal bovine serum (FBS) which is a blood product extracted from fetal cows. Besides the argument that its production is unethical, it also violates the notion that the cultured meat is produced independent of the use of animals. It is also the most costly constituent of cultured meat, priced at around $1000 per litre. Furthermore, chemical composition varies greatly depending on the animal, so it cannot be uniformly quantified chemically. FBS is employed because it conveniently mimics the process of muscle development in vivo. The growth factors needed for tissue development are predominantly provided through an animal's bloodstream, and no other known fluid can single-handedly deliver all these components.

The current alternative is to generate each growth factor individually using recombinant protein production. In this process, the genes coding for the specific factor are integrated into bacteria which are then fermented. Due to the added complexity of this process, it is particularly expensive. Future Fields, a Canadian company focused on overcoming the economic and environmental costs of traditional growth media, is developing serum-free growth factors from fruit flies.

The ideal medium would be chemically quantifiable and accessible to ensure simplicity in production, cheap and not dependent on animals. It will most likely be derived from plants and while this may reduce the possibility of transmitting infectious agents, it may induce allergic reactions in some consumers. Such culture sera may also require modifications specific to the cell line to which it is applied. Companies currently invested in developing effective plant based culture includes Multus Media and Biftek.

The Good Food Institute (GFI) put out a report in 2019 in support of the concept that cell-based meat could be produced at the same cost as ground beef and in 2021 they commissioned a report from CE Delft on the Techno-Economic Analysis of cultivated meat. Another approach is to subject the cell lines to a magnetic field, which stimulates the release of molecules that have regenerative, metabolic, anti-inflammatory and immunity-boosting properties, eliminating the need for serum.

 Surface area
A common challenge to bioreactors and scaffolds is developing system configurations that enable all cells to gain exposure to culture media while simultaneously optimizing spatial requirements. In the cell proliferation phase, prior to the introduction of the scaffold, many cell types need to be attached to a surface to support growth. As such, cells must be grown in confluent monolayers only one cell thick which necessitates a lot of surface area. This poses practical challenges on large scales. As such, systems may incorporate microcarriers—small spherical beads of glass or other compatible material that are suspended in the culture medium. Cells adhere to these microcarriers as they would to the sides of the bioreactor, which increases the amount of surface area.

In the cell differentiation phase, the cells may be seeded to a scaffold and so do not require the use of microcarriers. However, in these instances, the density of the cells on the scaffold means that not all cells have an interface with culture media, leading to cell death and necrotic centers within the meat. When muscle is cultivated in vivo, this issue is circumvented as the extracellular matrix delivers nutrients into the muscle through blood vessels. As such, many emerging scaffolds aim to replicate such networks.

Similarly, scaffolds must simulate many of the other characteristics of the extracellular matrix, most notably porosity, crystallinity, degradation, biocompatibility and functionality. Few materials that emulate all these characteristics have been identified, leading to the possibility of blending different materials with complementary properties.

 Research support
Cellular agriculture research does not have a significant basis of academic interest or funding streams. Consequently, the majority of research has been undertaken and funded by independent institutions. Thus is incrementally changing as not for profits drive support and interest. Notably, New Harvest has a fellowship program to support graduate students and groups at various academic institutions. Additionally, a growing number of governments are funding research in cellular agriculture. In August 2020, the Grant Management Services of the European Commission awarded a €2.5 million grant to ORF Genetics. That same month, the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry granted Integriculture $2.2 million through their New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization.

The European Union's Horizon 2020 R&D funding framework awarded a €2.7 million grant to a consortium led by BioTech Foods. In 2021, the Spanish government granted €3.7 million for Biotech Foods to investigate the potential health benefits of cellular agriculture. The National Science Foundation awarded a $3.55 million grant to a team of researchers at UC Davis for open-access cultured meat research. Non-profits also drive support and interest in the field. Notably, New Harvest has a fellowship program to support the research of specific graduate students and groups at various academic institutions and the Good Food Institute funds open-access research through its Research Grant Program.

 Consumer acceptance
Consumer acceptance of the product is critical. A study looking at acceptance of cultured meat in China, India, and the US "found high levels of acceptance of clean meat in the three most populous countries worldwide." Several potential factors of consumer acceptance of cultured meat have been identified. Healthiness, safety, nutritional characteristics, sustainability, taste, and lower price, are all contributing factors. One study found that the use of highly technical language to explain cultured meat led to significantly more negative public attitude towards the concept. Transparently communicating the science is important, but oversharing the wrong aspects of the product could draw unfavourable attention to safety concerns. Thus one of the challenges in how cultivated meat is marketed is striking the balance between transparency of the science behind it, but communicating it in a way that it does not evoke resistance. One study suggested that describing cultured meat in a way that emphasizes the final product rather than the production method was an effective way to improve acceptance. The role of nomenclature is also crucial. Although the 'lab-grown meat' portrayal of cultivated meat is favoured by media, it has been opposed by industry leaders as it seeds an innately unnatural image of cultivated meat in consumer's perceptions.

The use of standardized descriptions would improve future research about consumer acceptance of cultured meat. Current studies have often reported drastically different rates of acceptance, despite similar survey populations. Lou Cooperhouse, CEO of BlueNalu, shared on the Red to Green Podcast that "cell-based" and "cell-cultured" were suitable terms to differentiate it from conventional meat whilst being clear about the process by which it was made. There also exists a challenge in how to use these descriptions in labelling. For example, in the United States there is no overarching federal legislation that regulates how cultured meat should be labeled for the consumer. While traditional meat producers are attempting to prevent cultured meat companies from using the term "meat," cultured meat producers argue that the word is necessary for consumer acceptance.

Global market acceptance has not been assessed. Studies are attempting to determine the current levels of consumer acceptance and identify methods to improve this value. Clear answers are not available, although one recent study reported that consumers were willing to pay a premium for cultured meat. Low percentages of older adult populations have been reported to show acceptance for cultured meat. Green eating behavior, educational status, and food business, were cited as most important factors for this population. There is also a lack of studies relating the methods of producing cultured meat with its taste for the consuming public.

 Regulations
In 2020, Singapore became the first country in the world to approve cultured meat for sale. The Singapore Food Agency has published guidance on its requirements for the safety assessment of novel foods, including specific requirements on the information to be submitted for approval of cultivated meat products. In March 2023, Italy's Meloni government approved a draft bill banning the production and commercialization of cultivated meat for human and animal consumption; by October 2023, the Italian government had retired the draft bill.

Regulatory matters must also be sorted out. Prior to being available for sale, the European Union, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Canada require approved novel food applications. Additionally, the European Union requires that cultured animal products and production must prove safety, by an approved company application, as of 1 January 2018. In September 2020, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have agreed to jointly regulate cultured meat. Under the agreement, the FDA oversees cell collection, cell banks, and cell growth and differentiation, while the USDA oversees the production and labeling of food products derived from the cells that are meant for human consumption. Several U.S. states, such as Missouri, South Carolina, and Washington, have passed legislation limiting the use of the term meat on cultured meat packaging.

Differences from conventional meat
Health
Large-scale production of cultured meat may or may not require artificial growth hormones to be added to the culture for meat production. As cultured meat is grown in a sterile environment, there is no need for antibiotics. Today, the widespread use of antibiotics in conventional agriculture is the main driver of antibiotic resistance in humans. According to the World Health Organization, antimicrobial resistance represents "an increasingly serious threat to global public health that requires action across all government sectors and society" – predicting up to 10 million deaths annually by 2050. Cultured meat could provide an effective solution to help mitigate this major risk to human health.

Researchers have suggested that omega-3 fatty acids could be added to cultured meat as a health bonus. In a similar way, the omega-3 fatty acid content of conventional meat can be increased by altering what the animals are fed. Research is currently underway in Spain to develop cultivated meat with healthier fats, which could reduce cholesterol and the risk of colon cancer typically associated with red meat consumption. An issue of Time magazine suggested that the cell-cultured process may also decrease exposure of the meat to bacteria and disease.

Due to the strictly controlled and predictable environment, cultured meat production has been compared to vertical farming. Some of its proponents have predicted that it will have similar benefits in terms of reducing exposure to dangerous chemicals like pesticides and fungicides, severe injuries, and wildlife. There is also a lack of research on the comparison on the health effects of production cultured meat with the industrial meat or the biologic organic meat ways of production.

Artificiality
Although cultured meat consists of animal muscle cells, fat and support cells, as well as blood vessels, that are the same as in traditional meat, some consumers may find the high-tech production process unacceptable. Cultured meat has been described as fake or "Frankenmeat". On the other hand, cultured meat can be produced without the artificial hormones, antibiotics, steroids, medicine, and GMOs commonly used in factory farmed meat and seafood, though not used on organic biologic production. If a cultured meat product is different in appearance, taste, smell, texture, or other factors, it may not be commercially competitive with conventionally produced meat. The lack of bone and cardiovascular system is a disadvantage for dishes where these parts make appreciable culinary contributions. The lack of bones and/or blood may make many traditional meat preparations, such as buffalo wings, more palatable to some people. Furthermore, blood and bones could potentially be cultured in the future.

Environment

Animal production for food is a major cause of air/water pollution and carbon emissions. Significant questions have been raised about whether the traditional industry can meet the rapidly increasing demands for meat. Cultured meat may provide an environmentally conscious alternative to traditional meat production. The environmental impacts of cultured meat are expected to be significantly lower than from animal husbandry. For every hectare that is used for vertical farming and/or cultured meat manufacturing, anywhere between 10 and 20 hectares of land may be returned to its natural state. Vertical farms (in addition to cultured meat facilities) could exploit methane digesters to generate a portion of its electrical needs. Methane digesters could be built on site to transform the organic waste generated at the facility into biogas which is generally composed of 65% methane. This biogas could be burned to generate electricity for the greenhouse or a series of bioreactors.

One study reported that cultured meat was "potentially ... much more efficient and environmentally-friendly". It generated only 4% of greenhouse gas emissions, reduced the energy needs of meat production by up to 45%, and required only 2% of the land that the global meat/livestock industry does.Lab-grown meat would 'cut emissions and save energy', 21 June 2011 In Tuomisto's life cycle analysis claimed that producing 1,000 kg of meat conventionally requires "26–33 GJ energy, 367–521 m3 water, 190–230 m2 land, and emits 1900–2240 kg CO2-eq GHG emissions". On the other hand, producing the same quantity of meat in vitro has "7–45% lower energy use... 78–96% lower GHG emissions, 99% lower land use, and 82–96% lower water use".

The latest study by independent research firm CE Delft shows that—compared with conventional beef—cultured meat may cause up to 92% less greenhouse gas emissions if renewable energy is used in the production process, 93% less pollution, up to 95% less land use and 78% less water. There are many environmental concerns about intensive poultry farming that too can be reduced by cultivating their meat instead of farming animals. These concerns include microorganism and pharmaceutical-containing manure entering the water and soil, emission of greenhouse gasses such as nitrous oxide and methane, and the volatilization of manure particles.

Skeptic Margaret Mellon of the Union of Concerned Scientists speculates that the energy and fossil fuel requirements of large-scale cultured meat production may be more environmentally destructive than producing food off the land. S. L. Davis speculated that both vertical farming in urban areas and the activity of cultured meat facilities may cause relatively little harm to the wildlife that live around the facilities. Dickson Despommier speculated that natural resources may be spared from depletion due to vertical farming and cultured meat. One study reported that conventional farming kills ten wild animals per hectare each year.

Role of genetic modification
Techniques of genetic engineering, such as insertion, deletion, silencing, activation, or mutation of a gene, are not required to produce cultured meat. Cultured meat production allows the biological processes that normally occur within an animal to occur without the animal. Since cultured meat is grown in a controlled, artificial environment, some have commented that cultured meat more closely resembles hydroponic vegetables, rather than genetically modified vegetables.

More research is underway on cultured meat, and although cultured meat does not require genetic engineering, researchers may employ such techniques to improve quality and sustainability. Fortifying cultured meat with nutrients such as beneficial fatty acids is one improvement that can be facilitated through genetic modification. The same improvement can be made without genetic modification, by manipulating the conditions of the culture medium. Genetic modification may be able to enhance muscle cell proliferation. The introduction of myogenic regulatory factors, growth factors, or other gene products into muscle cells may increase production over that of conventional meat.

To avoid the use of any animal products, the use of photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria has been proposed to produce the main ingredients for the culture media, as opposed to fetal bovine or horse serum. Some researchers propose that the ability of algae and cyanobacteria to produce ingredients for culture media can be improved with certain technologies, most likely not excluding genetic engineering.

Ethical
Australian bioethicist Julian Savulescu said, "Artificial meat stops cruelty to animals, is better for the environment, could be safer and more efficient, and even healthier. We have a moral obligation to support this kind of research. It gets the ethical two thumbs up." Animal welfare groups are generally in favor of cultured meat, because the culture process does not include a nervous system and therefore does not involve pain or infringement of rights. Reactions of vegetarians to cultured meat vary. Some feel the cultured meat presented to the public in August 2013 was not vegetarian because fetal bovine serum was used in the growth medium. However, since then, cultured meat has been grown with a medium that does not involve bovine serum. Philosopher Carlo Alvaro argues that the question of the morality of eating in vitro meat has been discussed only in terms of convenience. Alvaro proposes a virtue-oriented approach, suggesting that the determination to produce cultured meat stems from unvirtuous motives, i.e., "lack of temperance and misunderstanding of the role of food in human flourishing."

Some have proposed independent inquiries into the standards, laws, and regulations for cultured meat. Just as with many other foods, cultured meat needs technically sophisticated production methods that may be difficult for some communities, meaning they would lack self-sufficiency and be dependent on global food corporations. Some projects are focusing on making cellular agriculture accessible to all. The open source cellular agriculture initiative Shojinmeat Project has for instance a bottom-up approach, teaching members of the project to cultivate DIY cultured meat at home.

Establishing a similar parallel with cultured meat, some environmental activists claim that adopting a vegetarian diet may be a way of focusing on personal actions and righteous gestures rather than systemic change. Environmentalist Dave Riley states that "being meatless and guiltless seems seductively simple while environmental destruction rages around us", and writes that Mollison "insists that vegetarianism drives animals from the edible landscape so that their contribution to the food chain is lost".

 Religious considerations
Jewish rabbinical authorities disagree whether cultured meat is kosher, meaning acceptable under Jewish law and practice. One factor is the nature of the animal from which the cells are sourced, whether it is a kosher or non-kosher species and whether, if the cells were taken from a dead animal, slaughter in accordance with religious practice had taken place prior to the extraction of cells. Most authorities agree that if the original cells were taken from a religiously slaughtered animal then the meat cultured from it will be kosher. Depending on the nature of the cells, it may be determined to be kosher even when taken from a live animal, and some have argued that it would be kosher even if coming from non-kosher animals such as pigs. In 2023 the issue of lab meat being a non-meat product or "parve" has come up for debate.

Islamic dietary practices must also be considered. The Islamic Institute of Orange County, California, said, "There does not appear to be any objection to eating this type of cultured meat." In addition, Abdul Qahir Qamar of the International Islamic Fiqh Academy said that cultured meat "will not be considered meat from live animals, but will be cultured meat." As long as the cells are not from pigs, dogs, and other haram animals, the meat would be considered vegetative and "similar to yogurt and fermented pickles."

Catholicism, which excludes eating meat in certain days along the year (Lent, Holy Week), has not pronounced on whether cultivated meat is banned (as it happens with meat) or not (as with any other food as vegetables or fish). Hinduism typically excludes the consumption of beef, such as steak and burgers. Chandra Kaushik, president of the Hindu Mahasabha, said about cultured beef that he would "not accept it being traded in a marketplace in any form or being used for a commercial purpose."

 Economic
Cultured meat is significantly more costly than conventional meat. In a March 2015 interview, Post said that the marginal cost of his team's original €250,000 burger was now €8.00. He estimated that technological advancements would allow the product to be cost-competitive to traditionally sourced beef in approximately ten years. In 2018, Memphis Meats reduced the cost of production to $1,700 per pound. In 2019, Eat Just said it cost about US$50 to produce one chicken nugget. The company's cultured chicken nuggets, now available at Singapore restaurant 1880, retail around US$17 as part of a set meal; however, this retail price is below cost. As of 2021, most companies report a production cost of $100 or more per meal-sized serving. A 2019 study estimated that, with current technology, the actual production cost of cultured meat was over $400,000 per kilogram. A 2022 study estimated that, if dramatic advances drove medium costs down to $3.74 per liter, large-scale production costs might optimistically fall to $63 per kilogram over the next few years. The main drivers of cost would be growth medium (accounting for $19.7/kg), labor ($17.7/kg), and bioreactor repairs ($5.47/kg). Competing with wholesale beef ($6/kg) would require reducing all three of these costs.

 Farmers
A scientific paper published in Front. Sustain. Food Syst. addresses the social and economic opportunities and challenges of cultured and plant-based meat for rural producers. According to this research, cellular agriculture offers "opportunities such as growing crops as ingredients for feedstock for cultured meat; raising animals for genetic material for cultured meat; producing cultured meat in bioreactors at the farm level; transitioning into new sectors; new market opportunities for blended and hybrid animal- and alt-meat products; and new value around regenerative or high-animal welfare farming." Some challenges are also identified, with possible "loss of livelihood or income for ranchers and livestock producers and for farmers growing crops for animal feed; barriers to transitioning into emerging alt-meat sectors; and the possibility of exclusion from those sectors."
Some farmers already see the potential of cellular agriculture. For instance, Illtud Dunsford comes from a long line of farmers in Wales and established his cultured meat company Cellular Agriculture Ltd in 2016.

 Continuing development

 Education
In 2015, Maastricht University hosted the first International Conference on Cultured Meat. New Harvest—a 501(c)(3) research institute—as well as The Good Food Institute host annual conferences to convene industry leaders, scientists, investors, and potential collaborators. The two organizations also fund public research and produce educational content. Organizations such as the Cellular Agriculture Society, Cellular Agriculture Canada, Cellular Agriculture France, Cellular Agriculture Australia and Cellular Agriculture New Zealand were founded to advocate for cultured meat in their respective countries. Publications such as Cell Agri and the Protein Report have also emerged in order to provide updates concerning the technology and business within the field.

 Research
Research continues on many fronts, including entomoculture, interactome maps of cardiac tissue, substrate design, scaffold design, nutritional profile, reaction kinetics, transport phenomena, mass transfer limitations and metabolic stoichiometric requirements, and bioprinting process.

 Accelerators and incubators
Multiple venture capital firms and accelerator/incubator programs focus on assisting cultured technology startups, or plant-based protein companies in general. The Big Idea Ventures (BIV) Venture Capital firm launched their New Protein Fund to invest in emerging cell and plant-based food companies in New York and Singapore. They invested in MeliBio, Actual Veggies, Biftek.co, Orbillion Bio, Yoconut, Evo, WildFor and Novel Farms. Indie Bio is a biology oriented accelerator program that has invested in Memphis Meats, Geltor, New Age Meats and Finless Foods.

 In popular culture

Cultured meat has often featured in science fiction. The earliest mention may be in Two Planets (1897) by Kurd Lasswitz, where "synthetic meat" is one of the varieties of synthetic food introduced on Earth by Martians. Other notable books mentioning artificial meat include Ashes, Ashes (1943) by René Barjavel; The Space Merchants (1952) by Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth; The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (1980) by Douglas Adams; Le Transperceneige (Snowpiercer) (1982) by Jacques Lob and Jean-Marc Rochette; Neuromancer (1984) by William Gibson; Oryx and Crake (2003) by Margaret Atwood; Deadstock (2007) by Jeffrey Thomas; Accelerando (2005) by Charles Stross; Ware Tetralogy by Rudy Rucker; Divergent (2011) by Veronica Roth; and the Vorkosigan Saga (1986–2018) by Lois McMaster Bujold.

In film, artificial meat has featured prominently in Giulio Questi's 1968 drama La morte ha fatto l'uovo (Death Laid an Egg) and Claude Zidi's 1976 comedy L'aile ou la cuisse (The Wing or the Thigh). "Man-made" chickens also appear in David Lynch's 1977 surrealist horror, Eraserhead. Most recently, it was also featured prominently as the central theme of the movie Antiviral (2012). The Starship Enterprise from the TV and movie franchise Star Trek apparently provides a synthetic meat, although crews from The Next Generation and later use replicators. In the ABC sitcom Better Off Ted (2009–2010), the episode "Heroes" features Phil (Jonathan Slavin) and Lem (Malcolm Barrett) trying to grow cowless beef.

In the movie Galaxy Quest during the dinner scene, Tim Allen's character refers to his steak tasting like "real Iowa beef". In the videogame Project Eden, the player characters investigate a cultured meat company called Real Meat. In The Expanse, "vat-grown" meat is produced to feed the people who live on spaceships/space stations away from Earth, due to the exorbitant cost of importing real meat. Cultured meat was a subject on an episode of The Colbert Report on 17 March 2009.

In February 2014, a biotech startup called BiteLabs ran a campaign to generate popular support for artisanal salami made with meat cultured from celebrity tissue samples. The campaign became popular on Twitter, where users tweeted at celebrities asking them to donate muscle cells to the project. Media reactions to BiteLabs variously identified the startup as a satire on startup culture, celebrity culture, or as a discussion prompt on bioethical concerns. While BiteLabs claimed to be inspired by the success of Sergey Brin's burger, the company is seen as an example of critical design rather than an actual business venture.

In late 2016, cultured meat was involved in a case in the episode "How The Sausage Is Made" of CBS show Elementary. Cultured meat was profiled in the 2020 Canadian documentary film Meat the Future. In the 2020 video game Cyberpunk 2077, multiple cultured meat products are for sale, due to the high cost of natural meat. This includes "EEZYBEEF", made from in vitro'' cultured muscle cells taken from cattle, and the flatworm culture based "Orgiatic" which comes in several flavors.

Related processes

Fermentation
Acellular agriculture is producing animal products synthesized from non-living material. Such products include milk, honey, eggs, cheese, and gelatin which are made of various proteins rather than cells. These proteins must be fermented much like in recombinant protein production, alcohol brewing and the generation of many plant-based products like tofu, tempeh and sauerkraut.

Proteins are coded for by specific genes, the genes coding for the protein of interest are synthesized into a plasmid—a closed loop of double helical genetic information. This plasmid, called recombinant DNA, is then inserted into a bacterial specimen. For this to happen, the bacteria needs to be competent (i.e. able to accept foreign, extracellular DNA) and able to horizontally transfer genes (i.e. integrate the foreign genes into its own DNA). Horizontal gene transfer is significantly more challenging in eukaryotic organisms than prokaryotic organisms because the former have both a cell membrane and a nuclear membrane which the plasmid needs to penetrate whereas prokaryotic organisms only have a cell membrane. For this reason, prokaryotic bacteria are often favoured. In order to make such a bacteria temporarily competent, it can be exposed to a salt such as calcium chloride, which neutralizes the negative charges on the cell membrane's phosphate heads as well as the negative charges on the plasmid to prevent the two from repelling. The bacteria can incubate in warm water, opening large pores on the cell surface through which the plasmid can enter.

Next, the bacteria is fermented in sugar, which encourages it to grow and duplicate. In the process it expresses its DNA as well as the transferred plasmid resulting in protein. Finally, the solution is purified to separate out the residual protein. This can be done by introducing an antibody raised against the protein of interest that will kill bacteria cells that do not contain the protein. Through centrifugation, the solution can be spun around an axis with sufficient force to separate solids from liquids. Alternatively it could be soaked in a buffered ionic solution that employs osmosis to leach the water from bacteria and kill them.

See also

 BioTech Foods
 Cellular agriculture society
 List of meat substitutes
 Meat analogue
 Timeline of cellular agriculture
 Tissue culture

References

Animal rights
Animal welfare
Articles containing video clips
Biotechnology
Bright green environmentalism
Cellular agriculture
Emerging technologies
Food politics
Meat
Meat substitutes
Sustainable food system
Synthetic biology

Cultured meat


Babilik (Farsça: بابیه, Babiyye), 19. yüzyılda İran'da doğan dini hareket. Bab, İranlı Seyyid Ali Muhammed'in (doğ. 1819 - öl. 1850) lakabıdır. Seyyid Ali Muhammed 1844'te, yeni bir çağı müjdelediğini ve beklenen kişi (Mehdi, Kaim) olduğunu ilan etti. Bu tarihten sonra İran'da ona inanan büyük bir Babi kitlesi meydana geldi. Dönemin İran'ı gibi güçlü bir din adamı sınıfının bulunduğu bir ülkede yeni ve farklı bir dini inanışa sahip Babiler, bu tarihten ve özellikle Bab'ın 9 Temmuz 1850'de Tebriz'de kurşuna dizilmesinden sonra İran yönetimince büyük bir baskıya maruz kaldılar.

Babilerin yaşadığı değişik işkence ve idam yöntemleri, İran'da yaşayan Batılılarca ve dönemin doğu bilimcileri ve tarihçilerince (Edward G. Browne, A.L.M. Nicholas, fotoğrafçı Antoin Sevruguin gibi.) gözlemlendi. Lübnanlı yazar Amin Maalouf'un romanı Semerkant'''ın İran'da geçen bir bölümünde baskıdan kaçıp gizlenmekte olan Babiler'' geçer.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Bahailik

Dış bağlantılar
 http://i-cias.com/cgi-bin/eo-direct.pl?babism.htm
 http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/articles/A-E/browne/brbabism.htm
 http://www.bahai.org/article-1-3-0-7.html
 http://www.dunyadinleri.com

Yeni dini hareketler

Babilik


Eita Kasagawa (født 25. oktober 1990) er en japansk tidligere professionel fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Avispa Fukuoka.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Eita Kasagawa


Jehoahaz II of Israel ( Yəhō'āḥāz, meaning "Yahweh has held"; ) was the eleventh king of Israel and the son of Jehu (2 Kings 10:35; 13:1). He reigned for seventeen years.

History
William F. Albright dated his reign to 815–801 BC, while E. R. Thiele offered the dates 814–798 BC.

Biblical narrative

The account in 2 Kings states that he did evil in the sight of Yahweh, and his people followed the religious practices of the house of Jeroboam, which included the worship of a cultic pole of Asherah in Samaria. The kings of the Arameans, Hazael and Ben-hadad, prevailed over him (2 Kings 13:1–3). Jehoahaz besought the Lord for a deliverer to relieve Israel from Aramean oppression, and He provided a savior for Israel, who is not named. The Arameans were defeated, but this left Jehoahaz with an army reduced to 50 horsemen, 10 chariots and 10,000 foot soldiers.

Identity of the deliverer
2 Kings 13:25 suggests that Jehoahaz's son Joash, who recaptured a number of Israelite cities in three successful battles, could have been the deliverer referred to in , and the Geneva Study Bible maintains this view, but the Jerusalem Bible and the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges argue that Jeroboam II, Joash's son, was the deliverer, citing :
The Lord ... saved them by the hand of Jeroboam the son of Joash
The Pulpit Commentary agrees that this was "probably" the case.

Adad-nirari III, King of Assyria, (812–783 BC) also made campaigns into the west (804–797 BC), and on one of these incursions captured and sacked the city of Damascus, thus removing the worst enemy of Israel's prosperity, and so he could also be considered the "deliverer".

References

9th-century BC Kings of Israel
8th-century BC Kings of Israel
House of Jehu

Jehoahaz of Israel


Nia Tsholofelo Künzer (born 18 January 1980) is a retired German women's football player.

Early life
She was born in Mochudi, Botswana, as Nia Tsholofelo Künzer (her first name being Swahili for "aim" or "intention" and her second name being Tswana for "hope"), where her parents were on a two-year tour with a development aid organization. She grew up in the Albert-Schweitzer-Kinderdorf (children's village) in Wetzlar-Garbenheim, alongside her brother and seven foster children. After the Abitur, she did a year of practical training in social work in a kindergarten for handicapped children. In 2008, she completed a degree in education science (German title Diplompädagogin) at the Justus Liebig University Giessen.

Career

Having a history as a high jumper, and after being a member of football clubs Eintracht Wetzlar and VfB Gießen she was with 1. FFC Frankfurt (1st Frankfurt Women's Football Club) starting 1997. She played as a defender or midfielder. Künzer retired in July 2008 from professional football after an injury.

International career
Künzer was part of the German women's national football team at the 2003 World Cup. Her "golden goal" in the final match against Sweden made Germany the winner of the tournament with a result of 2-1. The goal was to become the first ever women's "Goal of the Year" in the history of German football. In 2004, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) voted to abolish the "golden goal" rule (taking effect on July 1, 2004), and the tie-breaking format was established, with teams playing two straight 15-minute extra time periods before the game goes to penalty kicks. Künzer's winning goal is the only "golden goal" to decide a Women's World Cup final.

She actively promotes the idea of women's soccer and helps in recruiting from the next generation of enthusiastic young girls.

During the winter of 2003/2004 she had to pause for several weeks due to one more cruciate ligament injury, which meant she was not available for the Olympic Games 2004 in Athens, Greece. A fourth cruciate ligament injury forced Künzer to resign from the national team in 2006.

International goals

TV career
Künzer also works as a TV sports commentator. She is Das Erste's main pundit for their comprehensive coverage of games involving the national team as well as for major women's tournaments like World Cups, Euros and the Algarve Cup.

References

External links
 Nia Künzer (personal homepage)
 Deutscher Fußball-Bund (German Soccer Assn) (portrait Nia Künzer)
 FIFA Women's World Cup (portrait Nia Künzer, in German)
 The San Diego Union-Tribune ("Heads-up Germany stuns Sweden" – October 13, 2003)
 Westdeutscher Rundfunk (audio in German: "Arrival in Frankfurt" – October 14, 2003)

1980 births
Living people
People from Wetzlar
Footballers from Giessen (region)
University of Giessen alumni
German women's footballers
Germany women's international footballers
1. FFC Frankfurt players
Frauen-Bundesliga players
2003 FIFA Women's World Cup players
FIFA Women's World Cup-winning players
Women's association football defenders
Women's association football midfielders
People from Kgatleng District

Nia Künzer


Yaroslávskaya  es una stanitsa del raión de Mostovskói del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia. Está situada en la desembocadura del río Pséfir en el Fars, 35 km al noroeste de Mostovskói y 120 km al sudeste de Krasnodar, capital del krai.  Tenía 5 436 habitantes en 2010.

Es cabeza del municipio Yaroslávskoye, al que pertenece asimismo Novotroitski.

Historia

La localidad fue fundada en 1861. A finales del  tenía 8 063 habitantes. Hasta 1920 pertenecía al otdel de Maikop del óblast de Kubán. Entre 1934 y 1962 fue centro administrativo del raión de Yaroslávskaya.

Transporte

Por la localidad pasa la carretera federal M29 Cáucaso.

Enlaces externos y referencias

Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
Este artículo es una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Ярославская (станица).
Yaroslávskaya en el Diccionario Enciclopédico Brockhaus y Efron.
Mapa topográfico soviético en maps.vlasenko.net
Iglesia de Yaroslávskaya en Panoramio
Calle de la localidad en Panoramio
Memorial de la Gran Guerra Patria en Panoramio

Localidades del raión de Mostovskói del krai de Krasnodar
Localidades establecidas en 1861

Yaroslávskaya


කාඩ්රෝනා තනපට වැට යනු නවසීලන්තයෙහි, මධ්‍යම ඔටාගෝහී පිහිටියාවූ ආන්දෝලානාත්මක සංචාරක ආකර්ෂණයක් වූ අතර, මෙහි ගම්බද වැටකට එය පසුකරයන්නන් විසින් තනපට එක් කිරීමට පටන් ගැනුම නිසා, අවසාන‍යේදී  පුද්ගලික තනපට සිය ගණනක් සහිත සංචාරක ආකර්ෂණයක් බවට මෙම වැට වර්ධනය වීම සිදුවිය. වසන්කා හට නිරිත දිග ප්‍රදේශයෙහි  කාඩ්රෝනා නිම්නයෙහි ගොවිපල  දේපලක් අසබඩ මාර්ග අවශේෂිතයක මෙම වැට පිහිටා තිබුණි.

කාඩ්රෝනා තනපට වැට


Les élections sénatoriales françaises de 1888 ont lieu le 5 janvier 1888 au titre du renouvellement triennal pour la série B. Celui-ci se déroule durant la crise boulangiste et après la démission de Jules Grévy à la suite du scandale des décorations de 1887.

Mode de scrutin

Résultats
Le scrutin porte sur les 82 sièges de la série B ainsi qu'un siège vacant. Les monarchistes s'effacent le plus souvent derrière l'étiquette conservatrice, sauf dans la Gironde. Chez les républicains, la division est encore supérieure par rapport aux précédents scrutins, puisque les radicaux et les opportunistes s'affrontent souvent. Les réélections se font plutôt lors des deuxième et troisième tours de scrutin.

À l'issue du scrutin, 62 élus sont républicains et 21 conservateurs ou réactionnaires (pour 18 sortants). Les républicains gagnent dans les Landes et gagnent un siège dans le Nord tandis que les conservateurs renforcent leurs positions dans l'Ouest, en conquérant l'Ille-et-Vilaine et la Mayenne. Ils s'emparent également de la Nièvre. Au total, ils gagnent six sièges et en perdent trois, d'où un gain de trois sièges. Il y a donc un recul limité des républicains mais surtout une création d'une concentration géographique conservatrice.

Conséquences

La plupart des analyses républicains portent les difficultés sur la faute des radicaux tout en continuant à les placer dans le partisans de la République contre les monarchistes réactionnaires dans une vision toujours binaire.

Notes et références

1888
France
Janvier 1888

Élections sénatoriales françaises de 1888