Cardiothoracic surgery is the field of medicine involved in surgical treatment of organs inside the thoracic cavity — generally treatment of conditions of the heart (heart disease), lungs (lung disease), and other pleural or mediastinal structures.

In most countries, cardiothoracic surgery is further subspecialized into cardiac surgery (involving the heart and the great vessels) and thoracic surgery (involving the lungs, esophagus, thymus, etc.); the exceptions are the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, India and some European Union countries such as Portugal.

Cardiothoracic surgery departments work especially closely with certain other specialties: cardiology departments and pulmonology/respirology departments (thoracic medicine, chest medicine).

Training
A cardiac surgery residency typically comprises anywhere from four to six years (or longer) of training to become a fully qualified surgeon. Cardiac surgery training may be combined with thoracic surgery and/or vascular surgery and called cardiovascular (CV) / cardiothoracic (CT) / cardiovascular thoracic (CVT) surgery. Cardiac surgeons may enter a cardiac surgery residency directly from medical school, or first complete a general surgery residency followed by a fellowship. Cardiac surgeons may further sub-specialize cardiac surgery by doing a fellowship in a variety of topics including pediatric cardiac surgery, cardiac transplantation, adult-acquired heart disease, weak heart issues, and many more problems in the heart.

Australia and New Zealand
The highly competitive Surgical Education and Training (SET) program in Cardiothoracic Surgery is six years in duration, usually commencing several years after completing medical school. Training is administered and supervised via a bi-national (Australia and New Zealand) training program. Multiple examinations take place throughout the course of training, culminating in a final fellowship exam in the final year of training.  Upon completion of training, surgeons are awarded a Fellowship of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons (FRACS), denoting that they are qualified specialists.  Trainees having completed a training program in General Surgery and have obtained their FRACS will have the option to complete fellowship training in Cardiothoracic Surgery of four years in duration, subject to college approval. It takes around eight to ten years minimum of post-graduate (post-medical school) training to qualify as a cardiothoracic surgeon. Competition for training places and for public (teaching) hospital places is very high currently, leading to concerns regarding workforce planning in Australia.

Canada
Historically, cardiac surgeons in Canada completed general surgery followed by a fellowship in CV / CT / CVT.  During the 1990s, the Canadian cardiac surgery training programs changed to six-year "direct-entry" programs following medical school. The direct-entry format provides residents with experience related to cardiac surgery they would not receive in a general surgery program (e.g. echocardiography, coronary care unit, cardiac catheterization etc.). Residents in this program will also spend time training in thoracic and vascular surgery. Typically, this is followed by a fellowship in either Adult Cardiac Surgery, Heart Failure/Transplant, Minimally Invasive Cardiac Surgery, Aortic Surgery, Thoracic Surgery, Pediatric Cardiac Surgery or Cardiac ICU. Contemporary Canadian candidates completing general surgery and wishing to pursue cardiac surgery often complete a cardiothoracic surgery fellowship in the United States. The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada also provides a three-year cardiac surgery fellowship for qualified general surgeons that is offered at several training sites including the University of Alberta, the University of British Columbia and the University of Toronto.

Thoracic surgery is its own separate 2–3 year fellowship of general or cardiac surgery in Canada.

Cardiac surgery programs in Canada:
 University of Alberta – 1 position
 University of British Columbia – 1 position
 University of Calgary – 1 position
 Dalhousie University – 1 position every other year
 Université Laval – 1 position every three years
 University of Manitoba – 1 position
 McGill University – 1 position every three years
 McMaster University – 1 position every other year
 Université de Montréal – 1 position every three years
 University of Ottawa – 1 position
 University of Toronto – 1 position
 Western University – 1 position

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, cardiac surgeons are trained by direct specialty training. Trainees may choose to subspecialise in areas such as aortic surgery, adult cardiac surgery, thoracic surgery, pediatric cardiothoracic surgery, and adult congenital surgery.

United States

Cardiac surgery training in the United States is combined with general thoracic surgery and called cardiothoracic surgery or thoracic surgery.  A cardiothoracic surgeon in the U.S. is a physician who first completes a general surgery residency (typically 5–7 years), followed by a cardiothoracic surgery fellowship (typically 2–3 years). The cardiothoracic surgery fellowship typically spans two or three years, but certification is based on the number of surgeries performed as the operating surgeon, not the time spent in the program, in addition to passing rigorous board certification tests.  Two other pathways to shorten the duration of training have been developed: (1) a combined general-thoracic surgery residency consisting of four years of general surgery training and three years of cardiothoracic training at the same institution and (2) an integrated six-year cardiothoracic residency (in place of the general surgery residency plus cardiothoracic residency), which have each been established at many programs (over 20).  Applicants match into the integrated six-year (I-6) programs directly out of medical school, and the application process has been extremely competitive for these positions as there were approximately 160 applicants for 10 spots in the U.S. in 2010.  As of May 2013, there are 20 approved programs, which include the following:

Integrated six-year Cardiothoracic Surgery programs in the United States:
 Medical College of Wisconsin
 Stanford University – two positions
 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
 University of Virginia
 Columbia University – two positions
 University of Pennsylvania
 University of Pittsburgh – two positions
 University of Washington
 Northwestern University
 Mount Sinai Hospital, New York
 University of Maryland
 University of California, Los Angeles    UCLA – two resident positions, one Transplant Fellowship; one Congenital resident position
 University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
 Medical University of South Carolina
 University of Southern California – two positions
 University of Rochester
 University of California, Davis
 Indiana University
 University of Kentucky
 Emory University
 University of Michigan
 Yale University
The American Board of Thoracic Surgery offers a special pathway certificate in congenital cardiac surgery which typically requires an additional year of fellowship. This formal certificate is unique because congenital cardiac surgeons in other countries do not have formal evaluation and recognition of pediatric training by a licensing body.

Cardiac surgery

The earliest operations on the pericardium (the sac that surrounds the heart) took place in the 19th century and were performed by Francisco Romero (1801) Dominique Jean Larrey, Henry Dalton, and Daniel Hale Williams. The first surgery on the heart itself was performed by Norwegian surgeon Axel Cappelen on 4 September 1895 at Rikshospitalet in Kristiania, now Oslo. He ligated a bleeding coronary artery in a 24-year-old man who had been stabbed in the left axilla and was in deep shock upon arrival. Access was through a left thoracotomy. The patient awoke and seemed fine for 24 hours, but became ill with increasing temperature and he ultimately died from what the post mortem proved to be mediastinitis on the third postoperative day. The first successful surgery of the heart, performed without any complications, was by Ludwig Rehn of Frankfurt, Germany, who repaired a stab wound to the right ventricle on September 7, 1896.

Surgery in great vessels (aortic coarctation repair, Blalock-Taussig shunt creation, closure of patent ductus arteriosus) became common after the turn of the century and falls in the domain of cardiac surgery, but technically cannot be considered heart surgery.  One of the more commonly known cardiac surgery procedures is the coronary artery bypass graft (CABG), also known as "bypass surgery." In this procedure, vessels from elsewhere in the patient's body are harvested, and grafted to the coronary arteries to bypass blockages and improve the blood supply to the heart muscle.

Early approaches to heart malformations
In 1925 operations on the heart valves were unknown. Henry Souttar operated successfully on a young woman with mitral stenosis. He made an opening in the appendage of the left atrium and inserted a finger into this chamber in order to palpate and explore the damaged mitral valve. The patient survived for several years but Souttar's physician colleagues at that time decided the procedure was not justified and he could not continue.

Cardiac surgery changed significantly after World War II. In 1948 four surgeons carried out successful operations for mitral stenosis resulting from rheumatic fever. Horace Smithy (1914–1948) of Charlotte, revived an operation due to Dr Dwight Harken of the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital using a punch to remove a portion of the mitral valve. Charles Bailey (1910–1993) at the Hahnemann Hospital, Philadelphia, Dwight Harken in Boston and Russell Brock at Guy's Hospital all adopted Souttar's method. All these men started work independently of each other, within a few months. This time Souttar's technique was widely adopted although there were modifications.

In 1947 Thomas Holmes Sellors (1902–1987) of the Middlesex Hospital operated on a Fallot's Tetralogy patient with pulmonary stenosis and successfully divided the stenosed pulmonary valve. In 1948, Russell Brock, probably unaware of Sellor's work, used a specially designed dilator in three cases of pulmonary stenosis. Later in 1948 he designed a punch to resect the infundibular muscle stenosis which is often associated with Fallot's Tetralogy. Many thousands of these "blind" operations were performed until the introduction of heart bypass made direct surgery on valves possible.

Open heart surgery
Open heart surgery is a procedure in which the patient's heart is opened and surgery is performed on the internal structures of the heart. It was discovered by Wilfred G. Bigelow of the University of Toronto that the repair of intracardiac pathologies was better done with a bloodless and motionless environment, which means that the heart should be stopped and drained of blood. The first successful intracardiac correction of a congenital heart defect using hypothermia was performed by C. Walton Lillehei and F. John Lewis at the University of Minnesota on September 2, 1952. The following year, Soviet surgeon Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Vishnevskiy conducted the first cardiac surgery under local anesthesia.

Surgeons realized the limitations of hypothermia – complex intracardiac repairs take more time and the patient needs blood flow to the body, particularly to the brain. The patient needs the function of the heart and lungs provided by an artificial method, hence the term cardiopulmonary bypass. John Heysham Gibbon at Jefferson Medical School in Philadelphia reported in 1953 the first successful use of extracorporeal circulation by means of an oxygenator, but he abandoned the method, disappointed by subsequent failures. In 1954 Lillehei realized a successful series of operations with the controlled cross-circulation technique in which the patient's mother or father was used as a 'heart-lung machine'. John W. Kirklin at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota started using a Gibbon type pump-oxygenator in a series of successful operations, and was soon followed by surgeons in various parts of the world.

Nazih Zuhdi performed the first total intentional hemodilution open heart surgery on Terry Gene Nix, age 7, on February 25, 1960, at Mercy Hospital, Oklahoma City, OK. The operation was a success; however, Nix died three years later in 1963. In March, 1961, Zuhdi, Carey, and Greer, performed open heart surgery on a child, age , using the total intentional hemodilution machine. In 1985 Zuhdi performed Oklahoma's first successful heart transplant on Nancy Rogers at Baptist Hospital. The transplant was successful, but Rogers, who had cancer, died from an infection 54 days after surgery.

Modern beating-heart surgery
Since the 1990s, surgeons have begun to perform "off-pump bypass surgery" – coronary artery bypass surgery without the aforementioned cardiopulmonary bypass. In these operations, the heart is beating during surgery, but is stabilized to provide an almost still work area in which to connect the conduit vessel that bypasses the blockage; in the U.S., most conduit vessels are harvested endoscopically, using a technique known as endoscopic vessel harvesting (EVH).

Some researchers believe that the off-pump approach results in fewer post-operative complications, such as postperfusion syndrome, and better overall results. Study results are controversial as of 2007, the surgeon's preference and hospital results still play a major role.

Minimally invasive surgery
A new form of heart surgery that has grown in popularity is robot-assisted heart surgery. This is where a machine is used to perform surgery while being controlled by the heart surgeon. The main advantage to this is the size of the incision made in the patient. Instead of an incision being at least big enough for the surgeon to put his hands inside, it does not have to be bigger than 3 small holes for the robot's much smaller "hands" to get through.

Pediatric cardiovascular surgery
Pediatric cardiovascular surgery is surgery of the heart of children. The first operations to repair cardio-vascular defects in children were performed by Clarence Crafoord in Sweden when he repaired coarctation of the aorta in a 12-year-old boy. The first attempts to palliate congenital heart disease were performed by Alfred Blalock with the assistance of William Longmire, Denton Cooley, and Blalock's experienced technician, Vivien Thomas in 1944 at Johns Hopkins Hospital.  Techniques for repair of congenital heart defects without the use of a bypass machine were developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s.  Among them was an open repair of an atrial septal defect using hypothermia, inflow occlusion and direct vision in a 5-year-old child performed in 1952 by Lewis and Tauffe. C. Walter Lillihei used cross-circulation between a boy and his father to maintain perfusion while performing a direct repair of a ventricular septal defect in a 4-year-old child in 1954. He continued to use cross-circulation and performed the first corrections of tetralogy of Fallot and presented those results in 1955 at the American Surgical Association. In the long-run, pediatric cardiovascular surgery would rely on the cardiopulmonary bypass machine developed by Gibbon and Lillehei as noted above.

Risks of cardiac surgery
The development of cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass techniques has reduced the mortality rates of these surgeries to relatively low ranks. For instance, repairs of congenital heart defects are currently estimated to have 4–6% mortality rates. A major concern with cardiac surgery is the incidence of neurological damage. Stroke occurs in 5% of all people undergoing cardiac surgery, and is higher in patients at risk for stroke. A more subtle constellation of neurocognitive deficits attributed to cardiopulmonary bypass is known as postperfusion syndrome, sometimes called "pumphead". The symptoms of postperfusion syndrome were initially felt to be permanent, but were shown to be transient with no permanent neurological impairment.

In order to assess the performance of surgical units and individual surgeons, a popular risk model has been created called the EuroSCORE.  This takes a number of health factors from a patient and using precalculated logistic regression coefficients attempts to give a percentage chance of survival to discharge.  Within the UK this EuroSCORE was used to give a breakdown of all the centres for cardiothoracic surgery and to give some indication of whether the units and their individuals surgeons performed within an acceptable range. The results are available on the CQC website.  The precise methodology used has however not been published to date nor has the raw data on which the results are based.

Infection represents the primary non-cardiac complication from cardiothoracic surgery. Infections can include mediastinitis, infectious myo- or pericarditis, endocarditis, cardiac device infection, pneumonia, empyema, and bloodstream infections. Clostridium difficile colitis can also develop when prophylactic or post-operative antibiotics are used.

Post operative patients of cardiothoracic surgery are at risk of nausea, vomiting, dysphagia and aspiration pneumonia.

Thoracic surgery
A pleurectomy is a surgical procedures in which part of the pleura is removed. It is sometimes used in the treatment of pneumothorax and mesothelioma. In case of pneumothorax, only the apical and the diaphragmatic portions of the parietal pleura are removed.

Lung volume reduction surgery
Lung volume reduction surgery, or LVRS, can improve the quality of life for certain patients with COPD of emphysematous type, when other treatment options are not enough. Parts of the lung that are particularly damaged by emphysema are removed, allowing the remaining, relatively good lung to expand and work more efficiently.  The beneficial effects are correlated with the achieved reduction in residual volume.  Conventional LVRS involves resection of the most severely affected areas of emphysematous, non-bullous lung (aim is for 20–30%). This is a surgical option involving a mini-thoracotomy for patients in end stage COPD due to underlying emphysema, and can improve lung elastic recoil as well as diaphragmatic function.

The National Emphysema Treatment Trial (NETT) was a large multicentre study (N = 1218) comparing LVRS with non-surgical treatment. Results suggested that there was no overall survival advantage in the LVRS group, except for mainly upper-lobe emphysema + poor exercise capacity, and significant improvements were seen in exercise capacity in the LVRS group. Later studies have shown a wider scope of treatment with better outcomes.

Possible complications of LVRS include prolonged air leak (mean duration post surgery until all chest tubes removed is 10.9 ± 8.0 days.

In people who have a predominantly upper lobe emphysema, lung volume reduction surgery could result in better health status and lung function, though it also increases the risk of early mortality and adverse events.

LVRS is used widely in Europe, though its application in the United States is mostly experimental.

A less invasive treatment is available as a bronchoscopic lung volume reduction procedure.

Lung cancer surgery

Not all lung cancers are suitable for surgery. The stage, location and cell type are important limiting factors. In addition, people who are very ill with a poor performance status or who have inadequate pulmonary reserve would be unlikely to survive. Even with careful selection, the overall operative death rate is about 4.4%.

In non-small cell lung cancer staging, stages IA, IB, IIA, and IIB are suitable for surgical resection.

Pulmonary reserve is measured by spirometry. If there is no evidence of undue shortness of breath or diffuse parenchymal lung disease, and the FEV1 exceeds 2 litres or 80% of predicted, the person is fit for pneumonectomy. If the FEV1 exceeds 1.5 litres, the patient is fit for lobectomy.

There is weak evidence to indicate that participation in exercise programs before lung cancer surgery may reduce the risk of complications after surgery.

Complications
A prolonged air leak (PAL) can occur in 8–25% of people following lung cancer surgery. This complication delays chest tube removal and is associated with an increased length of hospital stay following a lung resection (lung cancer surgery). The use of surgical sealants may reduce the incidence of prolonged air leaks, however, this intervention alone has not been shown to results in a decreased length of hospital stay following lung cancer surgery.

There is no strong evidence to support using non-invasive positive pressure ventilation following lung cancer surgery to reduce pulmonary complications.

Types
 Lobectomy (removal of a lobe of the lung)
 Sublobar resection (removal of part of lobe of the lung)
 Segmentectomy (removal of an anatomic division of a particular lobe of the lung)
 Pneumonectomy (removal of an entire lung)
 Wedge resection
 Sleeve/bronchoplastic resection (removal of an associated tubular section of the associated main bronchial passage during lobectomy with subsequent reconstruction of the bronchial passage)
 VATS lobectomy (minimally invasive approach to lobectomy that may allow for diminished pain, quicker return to full activity, and diminished hospital costs)
 esophagectomy (removal of the esophagus)

See also
 Annals of Thoracic Surgery
 European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery
 Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery

References

External links

 The Cardiothoracic Surgery Network
 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons
 American Association for Thoracic Surgery
 International Society for Minimally Invasive Cardiothoracic Surgery

Surgical specialties
Cardiac surgery
Thoracic surgery
Pulmonary thoracic surgery

Cardiothoracic surgery


13147 Foglia este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
13147 Foglia este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Cima Ekar de Maura Tombelli. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,94 ua, o excentricitate de 0,04 și o înclinație de 2,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 13001-14000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1995
Centura de asteroizi

13147 Foglia


53256 Sinitiere este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
53256 Sinitiere este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Bâton-Rouge de Walter R. Cooney, Jr. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de cca. 2,57 ua, o excentricitate de cca. 0,19 și o înclinație de cca. 5,6° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 53001-54000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

53256 Sinitiere


Jesmond Dene, a public park in the east end of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, occupies the narrow steep-sided valley of a small river known as the Ouseburn, flowing south to join the River Tyne: in north-east England, such valleys are commonly known as denes: the name 'Jesmond' meaning 'mouth of the Ouseburn'.

Lord Armstrong and his wife, of the now-demolished Jesmond Dean (sic) house nearby, first laid out the park during the 1860s. The design is intended to reflect a rural setting, with woodland, crags, waterfalls and pools. Lord Armstrong gave the park to the people of Newcastle in 1883 and it opened to the public in the following year. It is now owned by Newcastle City Council. The current Jesmond Dene House adjoining the dene was the mansion of Armstrong's business partner Andrew Noble. It is now a luxury hotel.

The (now closed to road traffic) iron-constructed Armstrong Bridge spans the south end of the Dene and hosts Jesmond Food Market every first and third Saturday of the month. The building of a replacement road and tunnel, the Cradlewell By-pass, was the subject of a road protest camp around 1993, due to the destruction of many 200-year-old trees.

Jesmond Dene contains a free-entry petting zoo known as "Pets' Corner", which has been a popular family attraction since the 1960s.

Jesmond Dene is home to Newcastle's oldest religious building, St Mary's Chapel. The chapel, now in ruins, was once a site of much significance, attracting a great number of pilgrims.

The park is supported by a group called 'Friends of Jesmond Dene' which provides funds for small projects to improve the park. There is also a group of Volunteer Rangers which carries out physical work tidying the paths, picking up litter, cutting back shrubs and other maintenance tasks.

The dawn chorus of Jesmond Dene has been professionally recorded and has been used in various workplace and hospital rehabilitation facilities.

In 2011, the field area and pets corner were redeveloped. The redevelopment included a new road and a bridge over the Ouseburn river.

In 2012, during excessively wet weather, a landslide occurred on the east side of the Dene, near the Old Mill. The landslide covered several footpaths running along the hillside. The paths are currently still closed as the cost of re-opening them would be excessive.

In July 2014, the Old Mill in the Dene was vandalised with graffiti tags, which have since been removed.

On 1 April 2019, control and upkeep of Jesmond Dene, along with other Newcastle parks, was passed from Newcastle City Council to a newly created charitable trust, Urban Green Newcastle.

References

External links

Jesmond Dene information website

Parks and open spaces in Newcastle upon Tyne
Valleys of Tyne and Wear

Jesmond Dene


Hell is For Heroes (film)
Hell Is For Heroes (glazbeni sastav)

Hell Is for Heroes


මගධීරා (සිංහල: මහා රණශූරයා) යනු කේ. වී. විජයේන්ද්‍ර ප්‍රසාද් විසින් රචනා කරන ලද සහ එස්. එස්. රාජමෞලි විසින් අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කරන ලද 2009 ඉන්දියානු තෙලිඟු-භාෂා ප්‍රේම වෘත්තාන්ත-ක්‍රියාදාම චිත්‍රපටයකි. පුනරුත්පත්තිය තේමා කරග්ත මෙම චිත්‍රපට නිෂ්පාදනය කරන ලද්දේ ගීතා ආට්ස්හි අල්ලු අරවින්ද් විසිනි. රාම් චරන් සහ කාජල් අගර්වාල් මෙහි ප්‍රධාන චරිත නිරූපණය කරන අතර, දේව් ගිල් සහ ශ්‍රීහරි ද සෙසු ප්‍රමුඛ චරිත නිරූපණය කරති. මෙහි කතාව දිවෙන්නේ ප්‍රධාන පුද්ගලයන් හතර දෙනකු වටායි: කුමරියකගේ ආරක්ෂාව භාරව සිටින නිර්භීත සෙබලෙක්, ඔහුට පෙම් කරන එම කුමරිය, ඇය කෙරෙහි ආශාවෙන් සිටින ඇගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරා සහ ඔවුන්ගේ රාජධානිය යටත් කරගන්නට අවැසිව සිටින අධිරාජයකු එම චරිත හතර වේ. තම බලපොරොත්තු සඵල කරගැනීමට පෙර මේ සියලුදෙනාම මියයන අතර, වසර 400කට පසු ඔවුහු නැවත උපත ලබති. එහි දී නැවත උපන් අධිරාජයාගේ සහාය ඇතිව කුමන්ත්‍රණකාරී ඥාති සොහොයුරා මරාදමන සෙබලා කුමරිය සමග යළි එක්වේ.

 මිලියන 350ක පිරිවැයක් දරා නිපදවූ මෙහි නිෂ්පාදන කටයුතු 2008 මැයි 2 දින ආරම්භ විය. ප්‍රධාන ඡායාරූපකරණය 2008 මාර්තු 19 දින ඇරඹිණි. මෙහි සිනෙමාරූපණය කේ. කේ. සෙන්තිල් කුමාර් විසින් ද, සංස්කරණය කෝටගිරි වෙන්කටේස්වරා රාඕ විසින් ද සිදුකරන ලදී. නිෂ්පාදන සැලසුම ආර්. රවීන්දර් විසින් සිදුකළ අතර, ක්‍රියාදාම ජවනිකා අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කරන ලද්දේ පීටර් හෙයින් සහ රාම්—ලක්ෂ්මණ් දෙපළ විසිනි. දෘශ්‍ය ප්‍රයෝග ආර්. සී. කමලකන්නන් විසින් සැලසුම් කරන ලද්දේ ඇඩෙල් ඇඩිලි සහ පීට් ඩ්‍රේපර්ගේ සහාය ඇතිවයි. නාමවලිය තුළ "දෘශ්‍ය ප්‍රයෝග නිෂ්පාදක" පිළිබඳ සඳහන් කෙරෙන පළමු තෙලිඟු චිත්‍රපටය ද මෙයයි. එම්. එම්. කීරවානි විසින් මෙහි ධ්වනිපථය නිමැවූ අතර, පසුබිම් ස්කෝරය නිර්මාණය සඳහා ඔහුට කල්‍යාණි මලික්ගේ සහාය ද හිමි විය.

මගධීරා චිත්‍රපටය 2009 ජූලි 31 දින ලොවපුරා තිර 1250ක දී මුදාහැරිණි. විචාරක පැසසුම් ලත් මෙය  මිලියන 731ක බෙදාහැරීමේ කොටස් හිමි කරග්තතේ ය.  ලොවපුරා  බිලියන 1.5ක ආදායමක් උපයාගත් මෙම චිත්‍රපටය වසර පහක් පුරා ඉහළම ආදායම ලබන තෙලිඟු චිත්‍රපටය යන වාර්තාව තමන් සතු කරගැනීමට සමත් විය. පසුව 2013දී අත්තරින්ටිකි දාරෙදි චිත්‍රපටය විසින් මෙය අභිබවා යන ලදී. මෙහි දින 1000ක සිනමාහල් ධාවන කාලසීමාව වැඩිම කාලයක් ධාවනය වූ දකුණු ඉන්දියානු චිත්‍රපටය ලෙස චන්ද්‍රමුඛී (2005) තබා තිබූ වාර්තාව අභිබවා ගියේ ය. එසේම බ්ලූ-රේ ගෘහස්ථ මාධ්‍ය නිකුතුවක් ලද ප්‍රථම තෙලිඟු චිත්‍රපටය ද මෙයයි. 57වන ජාතික චිත්‍රපට සම්මාන උළෙලේ දී මෙම චිත්‍රපටය හොඳම නර්තන රචනය සහ වි‍ශේෂ ප්‍රයෝග සඳහා ජාතික සම්මාන දිනාගත් අතර, ෆිල්ම්ෆෙයාර් සම්මාන හයක්, නන්දි සම්මාන නවයක් සහ සිනෙMAA සම්මාන දහයක් ද හිමි කරගත්තේ ය. චිත්‍රපටය ලද සාර්ථකත්වය හේතුවෙන් මෙහි ප්‍රධාන නළු නිළියන් තරු ලෙස ප්‍රකට විය.

මෙම චිත්‍රපටය දෙමළෙන් මාවීරන් ලෙසත්, මලයාලම් බසින් ධීරා: ද වොරියර් ලෙසත් හඬකවා 2011 මැයි 27 මුදාහැරුණේ පිළිවෙලින් තිර 100ක සහ 50කට අධික සංඛ්‍යාවක ය. මෙම ප්‍රභේද දෙකම ආර්ථික වශයෙන් සාර්ථක විය. 2014දී, රාජ් චක්‍රබෝර්ති විසින් මෙම චිත්‍රපටය බෙංගාලි බසින් ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණය කළේ යොද්ධා: ද වොරියර් ලෙසයි. ඒ සඳහා දේව් සහ මිමී චක්‍රබෝර්ති ප්‍රධාන චරිත නිරූපණයෙන් දායක වූහ.

කථාපුවත

ඩර්ට්-බයික් ධාවකයකු වන හර්ෂා වර්ෂාව මධ්‍යයේ ගුවන් තොටුපළ වෙත යාමට ඔටෝ රික්ෂෝවක් කුලියට ගනියි. එහි දී ඔහුට කුලී රියන් නවත්වා ගැනීමට අතවනන තරුණියකගේ ඡායාවක් දිස්වේ. එහි දී ඔහු ද අතවනන අතර ඔහුගේ ඇඟිල්ල ඇගේ ඇඟිල්ලෙහි ගැටෙන්නේ අහඹු අයුරිනි. එවිටම හර්ෂාට සියුම් අතීතාවර්ජනයක් සිහිවන්නේ එම තරුණිය දෛවයේ තමන්ට උරුම වූ තැනැත්තියයි යන හැඟීමත් සමගිනි. ඒ අනුව ඔහු එම තරුණිය පිළිබඳ අසල සිටි ඉන්දිරා (හෙවත් "ඉන්දු") නම් කාන්තාවගෙන් විමසන්නේ සැබැවින්ම එම තරුණිය ඇයම බව නොදැන ය. තමන්ට සරදම් කරන්නේ යැයි සිතන ඉන්දු ඔහුව නොමඟ යවයි. මේ අතර ඇය සහ ඇගේ මිතුරියන් ඔහුගෙන් වාසි ලබාගන්නේ සිය මුදල් අවශ්‍යතා ඔහු ලවා සපුරා ගැනීමෙනි. මේ අතර ඉන්දුගේ දුරස්ථ ඥාති සොහොයුරකු වන රඝුවීර් ඉන්දු කෙරෙහි ආශාවෙන් පසුවෙයි. ඔහු ඉන්දුව සහ ඇගේ පියාව මුළාකොට විශ්වාසය දිනාගනියි. ඉන්දු නිදාසිටින විට ඔහු ඉන්දුව ස්පර්ශ කරන අතර, එහි දී ඔහුට සිය ගෙල සෙබලකු විසින් වෙන්කර දැමූ අයුරු මැවී පෙනේ. රඝුවීර් ඝෝරා නම් තන්ත්‍රික මන්ත්‍රාචාර්යවරයකු මුණගැසෙන අතර, එහි දී ඔහු අනාවරණය කරන්නේ රඝුවීර් පෙර ආත්මයේ ද කුමරකුව ඉපිද ඉන්දුට ආශාවෙන් හිඳ ඇගේ පෙම්වතා අතින් මියගිය බවයි. තමන්ව පෙර භවයේ මරාදැමූ සෙබලාගේ වර්තමාන උපත සොයාගැනීමට රඝුවීර් තීරණය කරයි. මේ අතර ඉන්දු සහ ඇගේ මිතුරියන් තමාව මුළාකොට ඇති බව වටහා ගන්නා හර්ෂා ඇය කෙරෙහි ප්‍රේමයෙන් බ‍ඳෙයි.

එම සෙබලාගේ වර්තමාන උපත හර්ෂා බව රඝුවීර් සොයාගනියි. ඉන්දුගේ පියාව මරාදමන ඔහු එයට හර්ෂාව හසුකරන්නේ ඉන්දුව ඔහු කෙරෙහි විරසක කරවීමටයි. රඝුවීර් සහ ඉන්දු හෙලිකොප්ටරයේ නැගී ගමන් කරන විට, හර්ෂා ඔවුන්ව අල්ලාගැනීමට උත්සාහ කළ ද එය අසාර්ථක වේ. එහි දී ඔහු විලක් තුළට ඇදවැටෙන අතර මරණාසන්න අත්දැකීමකින් පසුව, ඔහුට 1609 සිය පෙර ආත්මය පිළිබද සිහිපත් වේ. එම වර්ෂයේ ෂේර් ඛාන් අධිරාජයා උදයිඝාර් රාජධානිය ආක්‍රමණය කිරීමට උත්සාහ දරයි. එහි දී ඔහුට උදයිඝාඩ් හමුදාවේ සෙන්පති කාල භෛරවා (හර්ෂා) පිළිබඳ අසන්නට ලැබේ. වික්‍රම් සිං රජුගේ දියණිය වන මිත්‍රවින්දා දේවී (ඉන්දු) භෛරවාට පෙම්කරයි. නමුත් ඔහු ඒ බවක් නොපෙන්වයි. ඇගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරා වන රණදේව් බිල්ලා (රඝුවීර්) ද මිත්‍රා කෙරෙහි ආශාවෙන් පසුවෙයි. ඔහු ඇයව දිනාගැනීමේ අරමුණින් භෛරවා සමග තරගයක් පවත්වයි. ජයග්‍රහාකයාට ඇයව හිමිවන අතර, පරාජිතයා උදයිඝාඩ්වලින් නෙරපා හැරේ. භෛරවා ඉන් ජය ලැබීමත් සමග රණදේව් පිටුවහල් කෙරේ. කෙසේනමුත්, වික්‍රම් සිං රහසිගතව භෛරවාගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටින්නේ සිය දියණියව විවාහ කරනොගන්නා ලෙසයි. භෛරවා සටනේ දී මියයාමට අධික සම්භාවිතාවක් ඇති නිසා ඔහුට මිත්‍රා වැන්දඹුවක වනු දැකීමට අවැසි නොවීම එයට හේතුවයි. කම්පනයෙන් වුව ද, භෛරවා රජුගේ ඉල්ලීම පිළිගෙන තමන් මිත්‍රා සමග විවාහ නොවන බව ප්‍රසිද්ධ කරයි. මෙය මිත්‍රාගේ සිත් තැවුලට හේතුවේ.

අනතුරුව භෛරවා මිත්‍රා, සිය සෙබලුන් සහ ආරක්ෂකයන් සමග භෛරවකෝණා කන්ද වෙත යන්නේ දේව පූජාවක් පැවැත්වීමටයි. සිය ප්‍රේම පිළිගන්නා ලෙස මිත්‍රා භෛරවාගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටියි. එයට ඔහු ප්‍රතිචාර නොදැක්වූ විට, පූජාව සඳහා රැගෙන ආ පූජා භාණ්ඩ අවුල් කරදමන ඇය ඇගේම රැධිරයෙන් අසල වූ ගල් කුළෙහි භෛරවාගේ සිතුවමක් අඳියි. මේ අතර තුවාල ලත් සෙබලකු පැමිණ පවසන්නේ රණදේව් සහ ෂේර් ඛාන්ගේ හමුදාව විසින් වික්‍රම් සිංව මරාදමා ඔවුන් සිටින ස්ථානය වෙත පැමිණෙන බවයි. මඳ වේලාවකින් ඔවුන් පැමිණෙන අතර, ෂේර් ඛාන් සිය සෙබලුන් සමග සටන් වදින ලෙස භෛරවාට අභියෝග කරයි. එය පිළිගන්නා භෛරවා ඹේර් ඛාන්ගේ සෙබලුන් සියදෙනකුව මරා දමයි. එහි දී ඔහුට ද දැඩිව තුවාල සිදුවේ. භෛරවාගේ නිර්භීත බව දැක සතුටු වන ෂේර් ඛාන් සිය අදහස වෙනස් කරගනියි. කෙසේනමුත්, රණදේව් ඔහුට පහර දෙන අතර, ඔහු මිත්‍රාට මරණීය තුවාල සිදුකරයි. නමුත් භෛරවා විසින් රණදේව්ව මරාදමයි. මියයමින් සිටින මිත්‍රා සිය ප්‍රේමය පාපොච්චාරණය කරන මෙන් භෛරවාගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටියි. නමුත් භෛරවා එයට පිළිතුරු දීමට පෙර ඇව ගිරි කුළෙන් පහළට ඇදවැටෙයි. ශෝඛයෙන් යුතු භෛරවා ද ගිරිකුළෙන් පහළට පැන මරණය‍ට පත්වේ.

සිය අතීතය සිහිපත් වන හර්ෂාව විලෙහි ගිලීමෙන් බේරාගන්නේ සොලමන් (ෂේර් ඛාන්ගේ නැවත උපතයි) නම් ධීවරයකු විසිනි. සොලමන්ගේ සහාය ඇතිව ඔහු උදයිඝාඩ් වෙත පැමිණෙයි. ඔහු රඝුවීර්ගේ ස්ථානය වෙත ඇතුළු වේ. එහි දී ඔහුට ඝෝරා රඝුවීර්ට දෙන උපදෙසක් ඇසෙයි. ඉන් කියවුණේ එම දවස ඇතුළත ඉන්දුට ඇගේ පෙරභවය සිහිපත් නොවුවහොත්, ඇය සදහටම රඝුවීර්ට හිමිවනු ඇති බවයි. ඉන්දුව පැහැරගන්නා භෛරවා ඇයව භෛරවකෝණා වෙත රැගෙන යයි. රඝුවීර්ගේ අත්වැරදීමකින් ඝෝරා මියයයි. එතැනට හෙලිකොප්ටරයෙන් පැමිණෙන රඝුවීර් තමන් සමග පැමිණෙන මෙන් ඉන්දුගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටියි. කෙසේනමුත්, ගිරිකුළ මත මිත්‍රා ඇඳි සිතුවම දකින ඉන්දුට සිය පෙරභවය පිළිබඳ සිහි වේ. ඇය හර්ෂා සමග එක්වේ. හර්ෂා රඝුවීර් සමග සටන් වදින අතර, සොලමන්ගේ සහාය ඇතිව ඔහු රඝුවීර්ව මරාදමයි.

චරිත නිරූපණය
 රාම් චරන්, කාල භෛරවා සහ හර්ෂා ලෙස; කාල භෛරවා යනු උදයිඝාඩ්හි හමුදාවේ අණදෙන ප්‍රධානියා වන අතර, 1609දී සටක දී මොහු මියයයි. ඔහුගේ නැවත උපත වන හර්ෂා ඩර්ට්-බයික් ධාවකයෙක් වන අතර, ඉන්දු කෙරෙහි ප්‍රේමයෙන් බැ‍ඳෙයි. හර්ෂා සිය පෙර භවය පිළිබඳ දැන ගැනීමෙන් පසු ඔහු ඉන්දුව ඇගේ පියාව මරාදැමූ ඇගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරු රඝුවීර්ගෙන් මුදවා ගනියි.
 කාජල් අගර්වාල්, මිත්‍රවින්දා දේවී සහ ඉන්දු ලෙස; මිත්‍රවින්දා දේවී යනු උදයිඝාඩ්හි කිරුළහිමි කුමරිය වන අතර, ඇය භෛරවාට පෙම්කරයි. ඇය 1609දී මියයයි. 2009දී ඇගේ නැවත උපත වන ඉන්දිරා (හෙවත් ඉන්දු) නිදහස් ගති පැවතුම් ඇති ශිෂ්‍යාවකි. ඇය හර්ෂාට පෙම්කරන නමුත්, රඝුවීර්ගේ පෙළඹවීම මත සිය පියාගේ ඝාතකයා හර්ෂා යැයි විශ්වාස කරයි. සිය පෙර භවය සිහිපත් වීමෙන් පසු ඇය හර්ෂා සමග එක්වෙයි.
 දේව් ගිල්, රණදේව් බිල්ලා සහ රඝුවීර් ලෙස; රණදේව් බිල්ලා යනු මිත්‍රවින්දාගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරායි. ඔහු ඇය කෙරෙහි ආශාවෙන් පසුවෙයි. ඔහු භෛරවාට ඊර්ෂ්‍යා කරයි. මිත්‍රවින්දාව මරාදමන මොහුගේ මරණය සිදුවන්නේ භෛරවා අතිනි. ඔහු නැවත ඉන්දුගේ ඥාති සොහොයුරා වන රඝුවීර් ලෙස උපත ලබන අතර, ඉන්දුට ආශාවෙන් පුසවෙයි. සිය පෙරභවය සිහිපත් කරගන්නා පළමු තැනැත්තා ද මොහුයි. එම භවයන් දෙකේම ඉන්දුගේ පියාව ඝාතනය කරන්නේ මොහුයි. අවසානයේ හර්ෂා විසින් මොහුව මරාදමයි.
 ශ්‍රීහරි, ෂේර් ඛාන් සහ සොලමන් ලෙස; ෂේර් ඛාන් යනු උදයිඝාඩ් ආක්‍රමණය කරන මුස්ලිම් අධිරාජයෙකි. මරණයට පෙර භෛරවාගේ නිර්භීතභාවය මොහු වටහාගන්නා නමුත්, භෛරවාව බේරාගැනීමට මොහු අපොහොසත් වේ. මොහු ශ්‍රීකාකුලම්හි ධීවරයකු ලෙස සොලමන් නමින් නැවත උපත ලබයි. මොහු හර්ෂා සහ ඉන්දු නැවත මුණගැස්වීමට උපකාර කරන අතර, රඝුවීර්ගේ මරණයට ද දායක වේ.
 රාඕ රමේෂ්, ඝෝරා ලෙස; රඝුවීර්ට උපදෙස් දෙන කුදු මහලු තන්ත්‍රික පූජකවරයායි. රඝුවීර්ට සිය අතීතය සිහිපත් කරගැනීමට මොහු උපකාර කරයි. රඝුවීර් සමග මොහුගේ සංවාදය හර්ෂාට ඉන්දුගේ පෙර භවය සිහිපත් කරලීමට ද උපකාර වේ. රඝුවීර්ගේ අත්වැරදීමකින් ඝෝරා මියයයි.
 සරත් බාබු, වික්‍රම් සිං ලෙස; උදයිඝාඩ්හි රජුයි. මිත්‍රවින්දාගේ පියායි. ඔහු භෛරවාගේ නිර්භීතකමට ගෞරව කරන නමුත්, ඔහු සටනේ දී මියයනු ඇතැයි සිතයි. මේ නිසා මිත්‍රාට ඇති ප්‍රේමය සඟවා ගන්නා ලෙස ඔහු භෛරවාට පවසයි. ෂේර් ඛාන් රාජධානිය ආක්‍රමණය කරන විට රණදේව් විසින් වික්‍රම්ව මරාදමයි.
 සූර්යා, භපති වර්මා ලෙස; ඉන්දුගේ පියායි. ඉන්දු කරා ළඟවීමට රඝුවීර් මොහුව රවටන අතර, ඉන්දුව විවාහ කරගන්නට හර්ෂා කරන යෝජනාව පිළිගැනීමට පෙර රඝුවීර් මොහුව මරා දමයි.
 සුනිල්, හර්ෂාගේ රැවටෙනසුලු මිතුරා ලෙස; ඔහුට බොහෝ දෑ සඳහා උපාකර කරන මොහු හර්ෂාට නිතරම ඉන්දුගේ කපටි ක්‍රියා කලාපය පිළිඳ අනතුරු හඟවයි.
 සමීර්, මාන් සිං ලෙස; භෛරවාගේ ශක්තීන් පිළිබඳ ෂේර් ඛාන්ට දැනුම් දෙන ෂේර් ඛාන්ගෙේහමුදාවේ අණදෙන නිලධාරියායි.

පසුබිම් නිරූපණ

 චිරන්ජීවි, "බංගාරු කෝඩිපෙට්ට" ගීතයේ පසුබිම් නිරූපණය
 මුමයිත් ඛාන්, රේෂ්මා ලෙස; ඩර්ට් බයික් තරග සංවිධාකවරියයි. එසේම ඇය "බංගාරු කෝඩිපෙට්ට" ගීතයේ ද පෙනී සිටියි.
 කිම් ෂර්මා, හංසා ලෙස; "ජෝර්සී" ගීතයේ පෙනීසිටන නර්තන ශිල්පිනියයි.
 බ්‍රහ්මානන්දම්, ඉන්දුගේ අස්ලවැසියා ලෙස
 හේමා, සසිකලා ලෙස
 සලෝනි අස්වානි, සොලමන්ගේ පෙම්වතිය ලෙස

සංගීතය

එම්. එම්. කීරවානි මෙම චිත්‍රපටයේ ධ්වනිපථය නිර්මාණය කළේ ය. ගීත හයකින් සමන්විත එහි ඝරානා මොගුඩු චිත්‍රපටය සඳහා ඔහු නිර්මාණය කළ "බංගාරු කෝඩිපෙට්ට" ගීතයේ ප්‍රතිමිශ්‍රිත ප්‍රභේදයක් ද ඇතුළත් ය. මෙහි දෙමළ හඬකැවූ ප්‍රභේදය වන මාවීරන්හි ධ්වනිපථය අමතර පථ තුනකින් සමන්විත ය. තෙලිඟු ධ්වනිපථය දියත් කරන ලද්දේ 2009 ජූනි 28 දින හයිදරාබාදයේ ශිල්පකලා වේදිකාහි දී ය. දෙමළ ප්‍රභේදය 2011 අප්‍රේල් 25 දින චෙන්නායිහි දී මුදාහැරිණි.

සම්මාන සහ නිර්දේශ
මෙම චිත්‍රපටය 57වන ජාතික චිත්‍රපට සම්මාන උළෙලේ දී හොඳම නර්තන රචනය සහ හොඳම විශේෂ ප්‍රයෝග සඳහා ජාතික සම්මාන හිමි කරග්තතේ ය. මෙම චිත්‍රපටය ෆිල්ම්ෆෙයාර් සම්මාන හයක්, නන්දි සම්මාන නවයක්, සහ CineMAA සම්මාන දහයක් දිනා ඇත.

ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණ
රාම් චරන් මගධීරාහි හින්දි ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණයෙන් සිය බොලිවුඩ් මංගලාවතරණය කිරීමට තීරණය නොකළේ එම චිත්‍රපටය හොඳින් ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණය නොවනු ඇතැයි යන විශ්වාසය නිසායි. ද ටයිම්ස් ඔෆ් ඉන්ඩියා සමග සම්මුඛ සාකච්ඡාවක දී, චරන් පැවසූයේ, "මඳ කලකට පසුව මට අනිල් කපූර් මුණගැසුණු පසු ඔහු පැවසූයේ ඔබව යොදා මගධීරා හින්දියෙන් නිර්මාණය කරන්නට මම බොනී කපූර්ගෙන් විමසන්නම්. නමුත් මම පැවසුවේ එම ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණය සිදු කිරීමට මට අවශ්‍යදැයි මා නොදන්නා බවයි. ප්‍රේමනීය චිත්‍රපටයක් වන මගධීරා යළි ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණය කළ නොහැකියි." 2014දී මෙම චිත්‍රපටය බෙංගාලි බසින් ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණය වූයේ යොද්ධා: ද වොරියර් යන නාමයෙනි. රාජ් චක්‍රබෝර්ති විසින් අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කළ එහි ප්‍රධාන චරිත නිරූපණය කළේ දේව් සහ මිමී චක්‍රබෝර්ති විසිනි. අධ්‍යක්ෂක ආර්. චන්දෘ අනුව 2014 කන්නඩ චිත්‍රපටයක් වන බ්‍රහ්මා නිර්මාණය කිරීමට පෙළඹුණේ මගධීරා අනුව නමුත් එය එහි ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණයක් නොවේ.

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

ග්‍රන්ථාවලිය

බාහිර සබැඳි

2009 චිත්‍රපට
තෙලිඟු-භාෂා චිත්‍රපට
පුනරුත්පත්තිය පිළිබඳ චිත්‍රපට
එම්. එම්. කීරවානිගේ චිත්‍රපට ස්වරමාලා
ගුජරා‍ටයෙහි රූගත වූ චිත්‍රපට
ඉන්දියානු ප්‍රේම වෘත්තාන්ත චිත්‍රපට
ඉන්දියානු චිත්‍රපට
වෙනත් භාෂාවලින් ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණය වූ තෙලිඟු චිත්‍රපට
එස්. එස්. රාජමෞලි අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කළ චිත්‍රපට
චෞරත්ව මතභේදයන්ට ලක්වූ නිර්මාණ
ඉන්දියානු ඓතිහාසික චිත්‍රපට
දෙමළ භාෂාවෙන් හඬකැවුණු තෙලිඟු-භාෂා චිත්‍රපට
හින්දි භාෂාවෙන් හඬකැවුණු තෙලිඟු-භාෂා චිත්‍රපට
ක්‍රියාදාම නාට්‍ය චිත්‍රපට

මගධීරා


Democrat In Name Only (DINO) (Democrata Apenas em Nome) é um termo pejorativo para qualquer membro do Partido Democrata dos Estados Unidos eleito como democrata, mas que supostamente governa e legisla como um republicano faria.

O termo foi criado como um oposto análogo ao acrônimo RINO, Republican in Name Only.

Termos como Blue Dog Democrats e Yellow Dog Democrats têm sido mais populares do que DINO para descrever democratas heterodoxos.

Ver também
Coalização Blue Dog
Republican in Name Only

Política dos Estados Unidos
Terminologia política

Democrat in Name Only


Le INTA ALO est un système léger de drone de reconnaissance tactique développé par l'Institut national de technique aérospatiale et fournit des informations en temps réel en reconnaissance, missions de surveillance et d'acquisition d'objectifs. Le système ALO est composé de trois aéronefs équipés de capteurs visibles ou infrarouges, d'une unité de contrôle mobile, et du système de lancement en configuration sans train d'atterrissage.

L'INTA recherche actuellement des partenaires pour sa commercialisation.

Conception et développement

Véhicule aérien

Chacun des trois véhicules aériens de l'ALO est composé des sous-systèmes suivants : cellule, propulsion, Guidage, Navigation et Contrôle (GNC), télémétrie et télécommande et charge utile. La cellule est en fibre de carbone. Il a une conception modulaire (fuselage, aile et empennage) qui permet un montage/démontage en moins de trente minutes et un transport confortable par un maximum de deux personnes. Pour la propulsion du véhicule aérien, il peut être équipé de divers moteurs à deux temps avec une hélice avant, de 9 à 15 CV de puissance.

Le sous-système de guidage, de navigation et de contrôle est équipé d'un système GPS et d'un pilote automatique, bien qu'il permette également le vol dans différents modes de fonctionnement ou en mode manuel. La transmission des images et des données à la station de contrôle se fait en temps réel grâce à l'unité de télémétrie. Les instructions reçues par le véhicule et la charge utile de la station de contrôle sont diffusées dans la bande UHF sur deux fréquences différentes.

Unité de commande mobile

L'unité de contrôle est intégrée dans un camion léger tout-terrain, qui à son tour est utilisé pour transporter l'ensemble du système, avec des compartiments avec accès externe pour le lanceur, les ailes et les fuselages, ainsi que des pièces de rechange et des équipements de soutien à l'exploitation. .

Il se compose de deux postes de contrôle dédiés au véhicule aérien et à la charge utile. Dès le début, la planification et le contrôle de la mission sont effectués, ainsi que son analyse et son traitement, une fois celle-ci terminée. Le poste de contrôle de la charge utile est responsable de la présentation des images reçues, du contrôle des capteurs (orientation, zoom, mise au point) et du recalage des images obtenues.

Mode de fonctionnement

En mode autonome, le véhicule aérien suit la trajectoire établie dans la mission, en suivant une série de waypoints prédéfinis (waypoints), en utilisant des données acquises par GPS.

En mode manuel, le pilote contrôle directement l'engin aérien en effectuant un filtrage préalable des ordres envoyés par le pilote automatique.

La configuration du système d'observation dépend du type de mission à effectuer. Le système permet de disposer d'une caméra de télévision fixe à haute résolution, d'une caméra montée sur une plate-forme avec possibilité de mouvement rotatif en trois dimensions et en élévation, ou d'un capteur infrarouge (mini-FLIR) pour observation de nuit.

Lancement et récupération

En configuration rampe de lancement, le véhicule aérien est lancé au moyen d'une catapulte de 6 mètres de long qui se replie pour le transport. Sa récupération s'effectue au moyen d'un parachute cruciforme logé dans le fuselage qui garantit une descente stable, sans oscillations et à faible vitesse, ou en utilisant son train d'atterrissage dans ladite configuration.

Données techniques
Longueur : 2,3 m
Envergure : 3,48 m
Hauteur : 1,1 m
Masse maximale au décollage : 45 kg
Vitesse de croisière en vol : 120 km\h
Vitesse de vol maximale : 200 km\h
Distance de vol maximale : 50 km
 la hauteur maximale de vol : 4100 m
Type de moteur d'avion : un piston
Moteur : inconnu ;Puissance : 15 cv

Opérateurs
 , Armée de Terre

Drones comparables
 INTA SIVA
 INTA Milano
 Luna X 2000
 SAGEM Sperwer
 Yakovlev Pchela

Notes et références

Drone espagnol
Avion à venir
Drone de reconnaissance
Avion militaire du XXIe siècle
Projet militaire

INTA ALO


Mosasaurus ocupă un loc special în studiul vieții preistorice. Când primul craniu a fost descoperit într-o carieră olandeză în 1776, s-a presupus că aparținea unui animal necunoscut,poate un crocodil sau o balenă,care încă trăia undeva pe Pământ. Dar deceniile au trecut fără să se descopere un Mosasaurus viu și cercetătorii au început să înțeleagă un fapt crucial: viața animală din trecut includea specii care dispăruseră. Creatura care a dus la această descoperire a fost unul dintre cele mai periculoase carnivore marine din Cretacicul Superior.

Membrele sale se transformaseră în două perechi de înotătoare late, cu mult mai multe oase decât la strămoșii lui de pe uscat. Coada era aplatizată vertical și, împreună cu craniul triunghiular, îl făcea să semene cu un amestec de pește și crocodil. Asemeni tuturor mosazaurilor, fălcile erau unite cu o membrană cam pe jumătate din lungimea lor, ceea ce le permitea să se extindă pe lateral, și erau înarmate cu un set de dinți ascuțiți.

Se hrănea probabil cu pește, calmari și țestoase, dar și cu amoniți. Acest lucru este cunoscut din descoperirea unor amoniți fosilizați cu urme de mușcături de Mosasaurus. Acest impresionant dinozaur marin avea 10 metri și a trăit în Cretacicul Superior. Majoritatea fosilelor de Mosasaurus au fost descoperite în Olanda, Belgia și America de Nord.

Bibliografie
Burnie David (text), Sibbick John (ilustratii), Nechiti Monica (traducere), "Dinosaur Encyclopedia" (Enciclopedia dinozaurilor: Mosasauri, pagina 200), Grupul Editorial RAO, Editia 2007.

Animale dispărute
Fosile

Mosasaurus


Der Große Preis von Italien 1976 fand am 12. September auf dem Autodromo Nazionale di Monza  statt und war das dreizehnte Rennen der Automobil-Weltmeisterschaft 1976.

Berichte

Hintergrund

Aufgrund von Modifikationen an der ersten Schikane und durch die Installation einer zweiten Schikane zwischen der Curva Grande und den Lesmo-Kurven war die Länge der traditionsreichen Strecke in Monza auf exakt 5,8 Kilometer angewachsen.

Die Rückkehr des in der Weltmeisterschaftswertung nach wie vor führenden Niki Lauda bereits sechs Wochen nach seinem schweren Unfall beim Großen Preis von Deutschland war die Sensation des Wochenendes. Dass dies nicht nur für die Fachwelt, sondern auch für die Scuderia Ferrari eine Überraschung war, zeigte die Tatsache, dass man inzwischen Carlos Reutemann als Ersatzfahrer verpflichtet und für den italienischen Grand Prix gemeldet hatte. Dieser hatte aufgrund seiner Unzufriedenheit mit den anfälligen Alfa-Romeo-Motoren vorzeitig seinen Werksfahrervertrag mit Brabham gekündigt. Infolgedessen brachte Ferrari an diesem Wochenende drei Wagen an den Start.

Die Lücke, die Reutemann bei Brabham hinterließ, überbrückte Teamchef Bernie Ecclestone vorübergehend mit Rolf Stommelen. Guy Edwards kehrte ins Hesketh-Cockpit zurück.

Otto Stuppacher, dessen Meldung als Privatfahrer bei seinem Heimrennen vier Wochen zuvor abgelehnt worden war, wurde nun von den Veranstaltern des Italien-GP als Fahrer eines Tyrrell 007 zugelassen.

Training
Die beiden ersten Einheiten des Qualifikationstrainings am Freitag fanden bei regnerischen Bedingungen statt. Aufgrund dessen erreichte keiner der Teilnehmer eine Rundenzeit unter zwei Minuten.

Die Zeiten, die am Folgetag bei besseren Wetterverhältnissen erzielt wurden, zählten daraufhin für die Startaufstellung. Jacques Laffite konnte seine erste Pole-Position in der Formel 1 sicherstellen. Die erste Startreihe teilte er sich mit Tyrrell-Pilot Jody Scheckter. Es folgte Brabham-Stammfahrer Carlos Pace neben dem zweiten Tyrrell P34 von Patrick Depailler. Niki Lauda und Hans-Joachim Stuck bildeten die dritte Reihe.

Arturo Merzario und Otto Stuppacher verfehlten die Qualifikation für das auf maximal 26 Fahrzeuge limitierte Starterfeld und reisten daraufhin ab.

John Watson hatte die achtschnellste Rundenzeit vor den beiden McLaren von James Hunt und Jochen Mass erreicht.  In den Tanks der Fahrzeuge dieser drei Piloten wurde allerdings nach dem Training regelwidriger Kraftstoff festgestellt. Daraufhin wurden die Rundenzeiten, die die drei Fahrer am Samstag erzielt hatten, gestrichen. Die bei Regen am Vortag erzielten Zeiten reichten jedoch für eine Qualifikation nicht aus, sodass gemäß den Regeln Merzario und Stuppacher ins Starterfeld hätten nachrücken dürfen. Da diese jedoch bereits abgereist waren, wurden Hunt und Mass für die beiden letzten Startplätze zugelassen.

Zugunsten von John Watson verzichtete außerdem Hesketh-Pilot Guy Edwards auf die Rennteilnahme. Als Gegenleistung dafür erstattete ihm das Team Penske die Reisekosten für das folgende Überseerennen in Kanada. Watson konnte daraufhin vom letzten Startplatz aus am Rennen teilnehmen.

Rennen
In der ersten Schikane ging Scheckter vor Laffite und Pace in Führung. Letzterer wurde jedoch bereits während der ersten Runde von Patrick Depailler, Ronnie Peterson und Carlos Reutemann überholt. Lauda lag am Ende des ersten Umlaufs auf dem zwölften Rang, während sich Hunt, Mass und Watson von ihren hinteren Startplätzen aus nach vorn arbeiteten. Diese Aufholjagd endete allerdings für Mass bereits nach zwei Runden aufgrund von Fehlzündungen.

Während Scheckter seine Führung zunächst erfolgreich verteidigte, wurde Laffite von Peterson und Depailler auf den vierten Rang verdrängt. Clay Regazzoni, der rasch aufholte, zog in der elften Runde ebenfalls an Laffite vorbei. Im gleichen Umlauf übernahm Peterson die Führung von Scheckter und verteidigte sie bis ins Ziel. Der aussichtsreichste Verfolger Laudas im Kampf um die Weltmeisterschaft, James Hunt, schied unterdessen auf Rang zwölf liegend aufgrund eines Drehers aus. Scheckter wurde während der folgenden Runden nach und nach von Depailler, Regazzoni, Laffite und Lauda überholt.

Aufgrund von Motorproblemen fiel Depailler gegen Ende des Rennens vom zweiten auf den sechsten Rang zurück. Regazzoni wurde somit Zweiter vor Laffite und Lauda, der bei seinem Comeback trotz unvollständiger Genesung einen bemerkenswerten vierten Platz erreichte. Jackie Stewart bezeichnete dies als die heldenhafteste Leistung, die er jemals in irgendeinem Sport erlebt habe.

Ronnie Peterson feierte seinen achten Grand-Prix-Sieg. In der Teamgeschichte von March war dies der dritte und letzte Erfolg.

Meldeliste

Klassifikationen

Startaufstellung

1 Die am Samstag erzielten Qualifikationszeiten wurden James Hunt, Jochen Mass und John Watson aufgrund der Verwendung nicht regelkonformen Kraftstoffs aberkannt. Die dargestellten Rundenzeiten stammen vom Freitag.

Rennen

WM-Stände nach dem Rennen
Die ersten sechs des Rennens bekamen 9, 6, 4, 3, 2 bzw. 1 Punkt(e).

Fahrerwertung

Konstrukteurswertung

Weblinks

 Rennergebnis auf der offiziellen Website der Formel 1

Einzelnachweise

1976
Italien
Sportveranstaltung in Monza

Großer Preis von Italien 1976


Michael Rasmussen (født 13. november 1964) er en dansk erhvervsmand. Han er koncernchef i Nykredit og formand for Finans Danmark.

Han blev i 1990 cand.polit. fra Københavns Universitet.

I 1991 blev han ansat hos Nordea, hvor han i 2008 blev Head of Banking Products & Group Operations. Ved samme lejlighed indtrådte han i Nordeas koncerndirektion. I 2011 blev han Country Senior Executive & Head of Retail Banking. I 2013 forlod han Nordea til fordel for posten som koncernchef i Nykredit. I 2017 fik han 13,3 mio. kr. i årsløn, hvilket var 1,2 mio. kr. mere end året før.

I 2000 blev Rasmussenmedlem af bestyrelsen i Investeringsfonden for Udviklingslande, og siden 2009 har han haft formandsposten. I 2013 blev Michael optaget som Præsidiemedlem i Mary Fonden. I 2016 trådte han ind i bestyrelsen i Copenhagen Business School. I 2016 blev han ligeledes udpeget som formand for interesseorganisationen Finans Danmark. I 2012 modtog Rasmussen Dannebrogsordenen.

Referencer

Riddere af Dannebrog
Erhvervsfolk fra Danmark
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog
Alumni fra Københavns Universitet

Michael Rasmussen (erhvervsmand)


An Cyperus paniceus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Christen Friis Rottbøll, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Johann Otto Boeckeler. An Cyperus paniceus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cyperus, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cyperus

Cyperus paniceus


بلدية كوبايلو ديل كومبو , هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برغش, التي تقع في منطقة قشتالة وليون, والتي تقع في شمال غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 76 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في مقاطعة برغش
بلديات برغش

كوبايلو ديل كومبو


Tous les hommes désirent par nature savoir (en grec ancien : Πάντες ἄνθρωποι τοῦ εἰδέναι ὀρέγονται φύσει) est une locution grecque selon laquelle l'Homme, curieux par nature, est disposé à chercher à acquérir des connaissances.

Concept

Chez Aristote
Aristote est le premier à écrire cette phrase, qui ouvre la Métaphysique. Son premier livre, le Livre Alpha, est en effet une introduction qui pose les fondements de l'épistémologie du Stagirite. Il affirme donc qu'il est dans la nature de tout homme que de désirer et chercher (qui traduit ) la connaissance. Le terme utilisé par Aristote est , qui signifie .

Afin de prouver son propos, Aristote analyse les sentiments que les hommes ont lorsqu'ils apprennent quelque chose. Ce qui le montre, .

Chez les auteurs médiévaux
La formule connaît un grand succès durant le Moyen Âge : elle est d'autant plus connue qu'elle est l'une des nouveautés apportées par la redécouverte d'Aristote. La phrase permet d'élaborer l'idée d'un roi sage et cultivé. Christine de Pizan s'en sert pour décrire la sagesse du roi Charles V, dit le Sage. L'œuvre anonyme Placides et Timéo s'ouvre sur la phrase : .

Chez Thomas d'Aquin
Thomas d'Aquin soutient que s'il est vrai que tout homme désire par nature savoir, le désir est contredit par la paresse propre aux hommes.

Chez les auteurs humanistes
Le respect et l'étude d'Aristote est un fil rouge du mouvement humaniste. Dans un ouvrage où il traite de l'instruction des enfants, Comenius écrit qu'il ne devrait pas être nécessaire de forcer les enfants à apprendre avec brutalité car, .

Notes et références

Concept philosophique grec


Hejren er en film instrueret af Arthur Christiansen.

Handling
En beskrivelse af hejren i Danmark. Dens liv og færden sommeren igennem skildres delvis i nærbilleder.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1948
Naturfilm fra Danmark

Hejren


An Billbergia iridifolia in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck ngan Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni John Lindley. An Billbergia iridifolia in nahilalakip ha genus nga Billbergia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Billbergia

Billbergia iridifolia


St. Jakob auf der Hülben war eine römisch-katholische Kirche mit dazugehörigem Nonnenkloster im Wiener Stubenviertel. Sie besteht seit 1784 nicht mehr.

Standort
Kirche und Kloster befanden sich im Stubenviertel, einem der historischen Viertel der Altstadt Wiens. Das Kirchengebäude mit dem anschließenden Kreuzgang lag an der Stelle der heutigen Stubenbastei 6–8, die weiteren Gebäude samt Klosterfriedhof erstreckten sich auf einem Areal, das den heutigen Straßen Riemergasse 7, Zedlitzgasse 2–4, Stubenbastei 6–12, An der Hülben 1–3 und Jakobergasse 1–5 und 6–8 entsprechen. Der Beiname auf der Hülben geht auf einen ehemaligen kleinen Tümpel zurück, der sich dort befand und mit dem die Gegend noch lange Zeit bezeichnet wurde.

Geschichte
Der Ursprung des Augustiner-Chorfrauenklosters St. Jakob auf der Hülben ist nicht genau bekannt. Jedenfalls wird es 1236 als bereits bestehend erwähnt. Es wurde die Entstehung entweder aus einer Kapellenstiftung durch Herzog Leopold V. 1190 oder wegen der sagenhaften Anschwemmung einer hölzernen Jakobusstatue im nahegelegenen Wienfluss vermutet.

1301 wurde das Kloster der Aufsicht des Chorherrenstifts Klosterneuburg unterstellt. Stiftungen und Schenkungen floss ihm sowohl aus dem Adel als auch aus dem Wiener Bürgertum zu; die Vorsteherinnen entstammten vorwiegend dem Adel. Zwischen 1463 und 1470 war ihm das Maria-Magdalenen-Kloster vor dem Schottentor unterstellt.

Die Kirche, die damals aus einem rechteckigen zweischiffigen Raum bestand, in dem vier Altäre und fünf Kapellen untergebracht waren, brannte am 18. Juli 1525 bei einem großen Stadtbrand nieder, Kloster und Teile des Kreuzganges konnten aber gerettet werden. Doch bereits kurze Zeit später, während der Ersten Wiener Türkenbelagerung 1529 wurde das Kloster, das dicht an der Stadtmauer lag, schwer beschossen.

Während der folgenden Reformationszeit ging die Zahl der Ordensfrauen 1544 auf 17, 1560 auf 3 und 1572 auf nur noch 2 zurück. Petrus Canisius predigte in seiner Wiener Zeit regelmäßig in der Klosterkirche. Während der Amtszeit von Dorothea von Puchheim (1575–1594) kam es wieder zu einem Aufschwung und zwischen 1586 und 1603 führte das Jakobskloster sogar die Verwaltung des Himmelpfortklosters.

Nachdem 1590 das bereits geschädigte Kirchengewölbe während eines Erdbebens einstürzte, kam es 1614 nach einem Aufruf von Kardinal Melchior Khlesl zu einer Neueinwölbung des Gebäudes, das in der folgenden Zeit als eines der am schönsten geschmückten Gotteshäuser Wiens bezeichnet wurde. 1627 brannte während eines erneuten Stadtbrandes das Klostergebäude ab, wobei das Archiv verloren ging. Während der Zweiten Türkenbelagerung Wiens 1683 verließen die Nonnen vorübergehend die Stadt und flüchteten nach Linz, von wo sie 1684 wieder zurückkehrten.

Unter der Oberin Augustina von Puchheim (1714–1722) wurde die folgenschwere Entscheidung getroffen, den Schulunterricht im Kloster einzustellen. Da auch eine von Maria Theresia angeregte Errichtung einer Normalschule nicht zustande kam, hob Kaiser Joseph II. am 25. September 1783 das Kloster auf, da es nach den Auffassungen des Josephinismus keinen öffentlichen Nutzen hatte. Daraufhin mussten die Nonnen am 1. März 1784 ausziehen, Kirche und Kloster, die an den Staat gefallen waren, wurden geräumt, abgerissen und die Grundstücke verkauft. Bei der Räumung der Gruft exhumierte man 737 Leichen, die auf dem Sankt Marxer Friedhof bestattet wurden. Die Holzfigur des hl. Jakobus wurde von der letzten Oberin mitgenommen und gelangte über Klemens Maria Hofbauer 1817 in das Ursulinenkloster und schließlich 1960 in das Wiener Dom- und Diözesanmuseum.

Auf dem Gelände des ehemaligen Klosters entstanden im 19. Jahrhundert neue Straßenzüge und Gebäude (wie etwa das heutige Gymnasium Stubenbastei), die Namen Jakoberhof und  Jakobergasse gehen auf Kirche und Kloster zurück.

Literatur
 Felix Czeike: Historisches Lexikon Wien. Band 3: Ha–La. Kremayr & Scheriau, Wien 1994, ISBN 3-218-00545-0.

Weblinks
 Gründungssage
 Geschichte des Klosters in englischer Sprache

Einzelnachweise

Innere Stadt (Wien)
Abgegangenes Bauwerk in Wien
Wien
Ehemaliges Kloster in Wien
Ehemaliges Augustiner-Chorfrauen-Stift
Christentumsgeschichte (Wien)
Römisch-katholische Organisation (Österreich)
Christliche Organisation (Wien)

St. Jakob auf der Hülben


International Computers Limited (ICL) was a British computer hardware, computer software and computer services company that operated from 1968 until 2002. It was formed through a merger of International Computers and Tabulators (ICT), English Electric Computers (EEC) and Elliott Automation in 1968. The company's most successful product line was the ICL 2900 Series range of mainframe computers.

In later years, ICL diversified its product line but the bulk of its profits always came from its mainframe customers.  New ventures included marketing a range of powerful IBM clones made by Fujitsu, various minicomputer and personal computer ranges and (more successfully) a range of retail point-of-sale equipment and back-office software.  Although it had significant sales overseas, ICL's mainframe business was dominated by large contracts from the UK public sector, including Post Office Ltd, the Inland Revenue, the Department for Work and Pensions and the Ministry of Defence. It also had a strong market share with UK local authorities and (at that time) nationalised utilities including the water, electricity, and gas boards.

The company had an increasingly close relationship with Fujitsu from the early 1980s, culminating in Fujitsu becoming sole shareholder in 1998. ICL was rebranded as Fujitsu in April 2002. The ICL brand is still used by the former Russian joint-venture of the company, founded in 1991.

Origins

International Computers Limited was formed in 1968 as a part of the Industrial Expansion Act of the Wilson Labour Government. ICL was an initiative of Tony Benn, the Minister of Technology, to create a British computer industry that could compete with major world manufacturers like IBM; the formation of the company was the last in a series of mergers that had taken place in the industry since the late 1950s.

The main portions of ICL were formed by merging International Computers and Tabulators (ICT) with English Electric Computers, the latter a recent merger of Elliott Automation with English Electric Leo Marconi computers, which itself had been a merger of the computer divisions of English Electric, LEO and Marconi. Upon its creation, the British government held a 10% stake in the company and provided a $32.4 million research-and-development grant spread across four years.

International Computers and Tabulators (ICT)

ICT was itself the result of a merger of two UK companies that had competed with each other throughout the 1930s and 1940s during the punched card era: British Tabulating Machine Company (BTM) and Powers-Samas. ICT had thus emerged with equipment that would process data encoded on punched cards with 40, 80 or 160 columns, compared to the 64 or 80 columns used by IBM and its predecessors.

In 1962, ICT delivered the first ICT 1300 series computer, its first transistor machine and also the first to use core memory. A small team from Ferranti's Canadian subsidiary, Ferranti-Packard, visited the various Ferranti computer labs and saw their work on a next-generation machine. On their return home they quickly produced the Ferranti-Packard 6000, developing the machine, compilers and an operating system (before these were common) and putting it on the market by 1963. A feature of the Executive operating system was its ability to multitask, using dynamic memory allocation enabled with a magnetic drum as an intermediate random access device. The machine went on to have some success and sold in small numbers in Canada (Saskatchewan Power Corporation retired serial number 0004 in early 1982) and the United States.

In 1964, ICT purchased the computer division of Ferranti in another government-forced merger. Ferranti had been building a small number of scientific machines based on various university designs since the 1950s. None of these could be considered commercially successful, however, and Ferranti always seemed to be slow bringing its designs to market.

Meanwhile, ICT management in England was looking to rejuvenate their line-up; their latest developments, the ones used to develop the FP 6000, were still not on the market. Management looked at the FP 6000 as well as licensing the RCA Spectra 70. In the end it was decided to go with the FP 6000 as the basis for a small line of small-to-midrange machines. The result was the ICT 1900 series, which would eventually go on to sell into the thousands.

The 1900 Series, which derived from the Canadian Ferranti-Packard 6000, competed successfully in the UK with the IBM System/360 range from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s. The design was based on a 24-bit word, divided up into 6-bit characters.  Lower case and control characters were provided for by "shift" characters.  The early machines (1904/1905 with hardware floating point) had only 15-bit addressing. Later machines (1904E, 1905E, 1906A) had extended addressing modes, up to 22 bits.

The operating systems (Executives) were

E4BM – the original for the FP 6000 (known internally as the FP1)
E4RM – a significantly rewritten version of E4BM, with parts of the operating system overlaid to save space.
E6BM – a rewritten version of E4BM for the later machines with 22 bit addressing.
E6RM – a rewritten version of E4RM overlay software for the later machines with 22 bit addressing.

A later development was GEORGE3, remembered with great affection by a generation of British programmers.

A series of smaller machines were developed by the ICL Stevenage operation, consisting initially of the 1901 / 1902 / 1903 systems running E3 series executives (e.g. E3RM) and versions of the GEORGE operating system (initially GEORGE1).  Later developments were the 1901A / 1902A / 1903A with their own Executives and GEORGE2.

At a time (in the 1960s and 1970s) when IBM/360 series programs had to be recompiled to run in different machine and/or operating system environments, one significant feature of the 1900 series was that programs would function unaltered on any 1900 system, without the need for recompilation. Unfortunately ICT, and later ICL, were unable to capitalise on this advantage to make significant inroads into IBM's customer base.

English Electric LEO Marconi (EELM)

During the same period, LEO was struggling to produce its own machines that would be able to compete with IBM. Its parent company, J. Lyons and Co., did not have the financial might to develop a new line of machines. Not wanting to see its work go to waste, it sold its computer division to English Electric.

English Electric had developed a series of machines over the years, notably the famous KDF9 and the commercially oriented KDF8, but never had much commercial success.

Now with serious financial backing at its disposal, the new company nevertheless decided not to come up with its own design, and instead licensed the RCA Spectra 70 (the design ICT rejected). The result was the System 4 series.  While there were a number of models in the range, the smaller 4/10 and 4/30 were seen as underpowered, and the more successful variants were the larger 4/50 and 4/70 models. A model 4/75 was also supplied to the EELM (later Baric) Bureau subsidiary and installed at Winsford, Cheshire as the hardware for a bureau-developed commercial system for interactive use by bureau customers.  Although several multi-user commercial packages (e.g. sales and purchase ledger systems) were developed and tried with customers, this was not commercially successful, and the service was soon withdrawn.

The System 4 series ran the J (for Job) operating system. This was a batch operating system, although there was a variant that allowed interactive access called MultiJob. Under a framework called Driver, J was a successful operating environment for high volume commercial real time systems.  Programming languages used were assembler and COBOL and Fortran (an Algol 60 compiler was provided but not used much, if at all). The system was controlled from a console composed of a mechanical printer and keyboard – very like a Teletype. The assembly language (known as Usercode) non-privileged instruction set was identical to IBM System 360 Assembly Language; in privileged mode there were a few extras.

System 4's compatibility with the IBM 360 made it particularly attractive to customers in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, as the sale and installation of IBM computers (and other American technologies) there was politically sensitive and commercially restricted during the Cold War.

Leo computers
 LEO computer Leo 3 – origins in J. Lyons and Co.

Elliott Automation computers
 Elliott 4100 – a joint development with NCR Corporation. Transferred to ICL but sales and development ended soon after the formation of ICL.

The following remained with Elliott Automation and were never included in the formation of ICL:

 Elliott 503 – extensively used for academic and scientific work in British universities
 Elliott 803
 Elliott 901 / 920A
 Elliott 903 / 920B
 Elliott 905 / 920C
 Elliott 920ATC

The 900 series were 18 bit binary computers. The 90x series were commercial machines. The 920x series were built to military specifications and used in military aircraft, mobile field deployed air defence systems and tanks.

Locations

ICL was concentrated in the United Kingdom, with its corporate headquarters in Putney in the London borough of Wandsworth.

At the time of the original merger, the company inherited extensive engineering and manufacturing facilities in West Gorton, Manchester; Castlereagh in Belfast, Stevenage and Croydon from ICT, and from English Electric in Kidsgrove, Staffordshire and Winsford, Cheshire. Manufacture and assembly also took place at several factories in Letchworth Garden City (the original home of the British Tabulating Company) and Croydon.

The company had a large research, operating system and software development and support centre in Bracknell, another smaller one at Dalkeith in Scotland and a software development centre in Adelaide, South Australia, between 1970 and 1973, application development in Reading, and training centres at Moor Hall (Cookham), Beaumont College (Old Windsor) (sales, support and software) and Letchworth (Hertfordshire) (manufacturing & field engineering).

The company also had manufacturing facilities in Park Road Mill, Dukinfield; later replaced by a purpose-built factory at Ashton-under-Lyne.Ashton under-Lynes team was noted for working on numerous mechanical innovations in the field of computer engineering. A state of the art printed circuit board plant was built on Plymouth Grove, Manchester in 1979, however financial troubles within the company forced its closure in 1981. Other offices included a facility at Bridgford House in Nottingham which was the headquarters of Rushcliffe Borough Council, but has since been converted into apartments.

For some years ICL maintained a training and presentation facility for senior management at Hedsor House, near Taplow, Berkshire.

Outside the UK, ICL's offices around the world were mainly sales and marketing operations, with some application development for the local market. The exceptions were development and manufacturing sites arising from acquisitions, such as Utica, New York in the United States from the Singer merger, and a variety of former Nokia Data sites in Sweden and Finland.

ICL and its customers often referred to these locations by the Site Code, especially where multiple sites might exist in a town, for instance with the Putney headquarters building (now Putney Wharf Tower) being LON11 (London 11), the training college at Beaumont being WSR01 (Windsor 01) and the southern System Support Centre (SCC) at Bracknell, Berkshire being BRA01 (Bracknell 01). BRA05 was the new headquarters of ICL (UK) Ltd, the company's UK sales and customer service division which moved from its original base at Putney Bridge House (LON13) in Fulham, London to a new building in Bracknell in the late 1980s.

Early products: 1900 Series and System 4
On its formation, the company inherited two main product lines: from ICT the 1900 Series of mainframes, and from English Electric Computers (EEC) the System 4, a range of IBM System/360-compatible mainframe clones, based on the RCA Spectra 70.

, the United Kingdom was unusual in Europe for IBM not having more than 50% of the computer market, although an observer stated that the company constrained the size of its British subsidiary to keep ICL alive. Although still the largest European computer company, in 1971 ICL had a poor reputation. When the companies were first merged the EEC order books were full, while ICT (which had twice as many employees) was struggling, perhaps because it was already obvious that the 1900 series was incompatible with the rest of the industry, with an architecture based on a 24 bit word and 6 bit character rather than the 8 bit byte that was becoming the industry norm.

The new board decided that the 1900 should be phased out in favour of the System 4, but shortly afterwards reversed their decision. It is probable that this was due to union and political pressure from the Wilson government. In any event, most of the original EEC board resigned over the interference as they believed that the 1900 series was doomed from the outset, being incompatible with the rest of the marketplace. ICL initially thrived, but relied almost wholly on supplying the UK public sector with computers. The 1900s were sold in several countries worldwide, but the largest slice of the market was always in the UK, and the largest part of that in government, local authorities, and nationalised industries.

Until the 1970s launch of the 2900 Series, the UK government had a single-tender preferential purchase agreement wherever ICL could meet the requirements.

New range: 2900 Series

Even before the merger that created ICL was complete, a working party had recommended that the new company should develop a new range of machines offering "acceptable compatibility with the current ranges of both companies". This was also seen as a way to help "achieve company unity" for the newly formed organization. The resulting 2900 Series was launched on 9 October 1974. Its design drew on many sources, one being the Manchester University MU5.

It ran the VME operating systems, and supported emulation of both the earlier architectures (1900 Series and System 4), either standalone (DME, Direct Machine Environment) or concurrently with native-mode operation (CME, Concurrent Machine Environment). In the early 1980s ICL struck a deal to acquire semiconductor technology from Fujitsu, on whom they became increasingly dependent as the years progressed.

The term "New Range" was used during development for the product line that was eventually launched as the 2900 Series, the operating system being known initially as VME/B and later simply as VME. Models included:

 2950
 2955
 2956

 2960
 2966
 2970

 2972
 2976
 2980

 2982
 2988

These ran the VME and DME (emulation) operating systems, and were available in both single and multi-processor configurations, the later being known as Duals and SuperDuals (2966 and 2988 only). The company also developed:
 A Content Addressable File Store (CAFS) that could be exploited by the VME file system and ICL 2900 IDMS
 The world's first commercially available massively parallel computer, the Distributed Array Processor (DAP), that first ran as an attached processor to the ICL 2980.

Series 39

Series 39 followed the same essential architecture as 2900 series, but was a dramatic step forward in hardware technology. It was the first commercial mainframe to exploit optical fibres for central interconnect, and also introduced a multi-CPU (multinode) architecture transparent to the applications.

The series included:
Level 30
Level 50
Level 60
Level 80

The training video for the Series 39 featured the comedy duo Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry.

ICL received the Queen's Award for Technological Achievement for the Series 39 in 1988.

Operating systems
At the inception of New Range development, two operating systems were planned: System B for the large processors, and System D for the mid-range. System B was subsequently renamed VME/B. A third operating system, System T, was subsequently targeted at small machines. System D was dropped in order to focus efforts on VME/B and System T, renamed to VME/K (Confusingly, VME/B was developed in Kidsgrove, VME/K in Bracknell.) The first large machines (the 2980 and 2970) were launched with VME/B. VME/K first saw service on the 2960.

The chief architect of VME/B was Brian Warboys, who subsequently became professor of software engineering at the University of Manchester. VME/B was developed using the pioneering software engineering system CADES as the development environment. The architect of CADES was David Pearson (computer scientist).

VME/K development continued independently for several reasons. Early VME/B customers suffered significant performance and reliability problems, and the existence of an alternative product provided a safety net. Perhaps more significantly, VME/K was the brainchild of Ed Mack, who had been brought in by managing director Geoff Cross as ICL's head of research and development. Despite his wide responsibilities, Mack took a detailed personal interest in every aspect of VME/K design. To quote historian Martin Campbell-Kelly, "Mack had a good deal more autonomy than was good for the company." Not only was too much resource going into VME/K at the expense of the VME/B system that ICL's biggest customers were actually using, but the development of mainframe systems was also diverting expenditure from small business systems such as the 2903, whose sales were growing much more rapidly.

ICL's finances deteriorated during the late 1970s, leading to the appointment of a new management team led by Robb Wilmot and Peter Bonfield. One of their first actions was to end VME/K development. This happened just at the time that VME/K had finally reached a level of performance and reliability that made it saleable; however, the customer base was very small, and by this time VME/B (which was renamed VME 2900) had also matured sufficiently to give confidence that it would meet the future requirements for the entire mainframe range.

VME 2900 subsequently became simply VME and then Open VME, and continued to evolve. In 1980 it was marketed as "Your system for the 80s", and indeed that decade proved to be its heyday. It continued to give service to many loyal and demanding users, but has attracted few new users since 1990 or so.

Superstructure software
ICL used the term superstructure to refer to the compilers, data management tools, and transaction processing software sitting above the operating system but below the user application – a category now often labelled middleware.

Languages

2903 range
The 2903 range was a rapid development to produce a small business computer to replace the 1901A. As far as possible it was developed from existing hardware and software, but configured for an office environment without underfloor cabling. It was urgently needed to generate a cashflow that would support continuing 2900 development. The hardware was based on the 2900 DFC (Disk File Controller), and used the MICOS engine.  The 2903/4 system cabinet housed the MICOS engine, Drico FEDS disk storage and a punched card reader. A wing attached at 45 degrees carried the operator's console which was a visual display unit (VDU): for 1900 users who were accustomed to the Westrex teletype as console, this was a major advance. The printers abutted to the wing and were initially integrated; they were soon replaced by the CPI shuttle printer and PBS. The printers ran at 300 or 600 lines per minute, selected by a hidden link.

The 2903 used microcode to emulate 1900 hardware. The operating system was George 1* (a modification of George 1S batch operating system) running on top of the UDAS Executive. In consequence, the 1900 compilers and utilities ran on the 290x range without any changes or recompilation. For some sites a microcode floppy was available that would make the system work as an IBM 360 running the IBM operating system, although this entailed changing the removable hard drives as the formats were completely different.

A new feature provided on this range was Direct Data Entry, a system with up to eight dedicated VDU data entry stations, with which card image files could be created; these could be assigned to a program's card reader and processed accordingly.

There were three models in the range:
 2903
 2904
 2905 (limited production, replaced by the 2950)

290x computers would run in an office environment, still quite an innovation for this class of machine, and were a runaway success. Roughly 3,000 systems were sold, ten times as many as ICL had anticipated.

 ME29
The smaller machines in the 290x family were replaced in 1980 by the ME29 system.

Operating systems and software

Executive
The 290x operating system, known as 'Executive', allowed the machines to be operated 'manually' via a video console. GEORGE1* ran on top of Executive to control batch processes by means of JCL (Job Control Language), which was based very closely upon the macro language of the 1900 GEORGE1S operating system.

TME (Transaction Machine Environment)
TME was the operating system on the ME29 and required CL (Control Language) to run jobs – 'manual' operation being discouraged.

Practically all the software packages available on the 1900 range ran on the 290x and ME29 systems.

In about 1982, a new Transaction Processing System TME-TP was introduced for the ME29, with a subset of the facilities of TPMS (cf 2900 software).

TME came bundled with a hierarchical database management system called RAPID (Record Access Program Independent of Data). This was built around 1900 IDMS, and consisted of a set of user interfaces which provided a "user friendly" graphical database schema design and configuration environment, and an RML COBOL-based programming environment. Everything was compiled into the equivalent 1900 IDMS objects for use at run time.

Departmental systems

For many years ICL marketed departmental computers under the DRS brand, standing originally for Distributed Resource System. During the mid-1980s, separate Office Systems business units had produced a disparate range of products including IBM-compatible PCs such as the PWS (an AT clone), small servers branded DRS, and a range of larger Unix servers sold under the Clan name. A re-branding in late 1988 pulled these together under the DRS brand, with a consistent grey and green livery.

In the mid-1980s ICL developed the DRS 300 in Kidsgrove, and ran down Utica.

In 1994 the DRS range was superseded by the SuperServer and TeamServer ranges of SPARC and Intel-based machines, running Unix or Microsoft operating systems.

OEM products
In the early 1970s, ICL signed an OEM agreement with the Canadian company, Consolidated Computers Ltd (later Consolidated Computer Inc.) to distribute CCL's key-to-disk data entry product, Key-Edit, in the British Commonwealth of countries as well as in western and eastern Europe. Models included Key Edit 100, 50, 59, 1000, and 2000. In the mid-1980s a version of the Key Edit 59 operating system was ported (in emulation mode) to the DRS 20 series and marketed as Data Entry 20.

Subsidiaries

Dataskil
Dataskil Ltd or ICL Dataskil was a software house, formed from an internal department known as the User Programming Service (UPS), that developed commercial programs and some utility software for the ICL marketplace. Dataskil also provided consultants and project teams to work on ICL's or direct clients' 1900 and 2900 projects. There were several divisions within Dataskil, including Consultancy Services, Transition Services, Project Management Services (PMS), etc.

Dataskil software products included:

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! For 1900 series
! For 2900 series
! Others
|-
|1900 Datadrive1900 Datafeed1900 Dataview1900 IDMS1900 Filan
|2900 IDH (Interactive Data Handler)2900 LP (Linear Programming)2900 OMAC2900 PERTApplications Manager
|Wordskil
|}

1900 Filan
The ICL 1900 Filan manual (1st edition January 1973) describes Filan as:
"a totally integrated system for the analysis of large quantities of complex data such as that collected in censuses and other surveys".

It was used to process the 1971 Indonesian Population Census. In the UK, Filan was used during the 1970s by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys to process the General Household Survey data. As there was only a small user community, ICL decided not to convert the software to run on its 2900 range of computers in the 1980s.

With Barclays Bank: BARIC Computing Services Ltd
This was a joint venture of International Computer Services Ltd (ICSL), a division of ICL, and Barclays, that provided computer services. In the early days of computing many organizations avoided the capital costs of purchasing their own equipment and the recruitment of technical specialists by putting their work out to service companies, such as BARIC, which were known as computer bureaux. BARIC also ran special groups such as the Advanced Videotex team, which investigated how new technologies such as Prestel could be leveraged.

This company operated two ICL 1900 mainframes (1904E and 1905S, in manual and GEORGE II operating system modes) from its head office in Newman Street, London. This site housed management, sales and support staff and a large programming team (site closed late 1975). Sales and support offices were in Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cork, Dublin, Glasgow, Stoke-on-Trent, Leeds, Forest Gate, Hartree House Queensway, St Paul's Churchyard, Putney (ICL headquarters) and Manchester. The Queensway site was above Whiteleys department store, and had been used in the 1950s and 1960s by the LEO arm of food company J. Lyons to run data processing and an early bureau service.

Chris Gent was the managing director from 1979 to 1985, when he left to lead Vodafone. In 1985 most of BARIC's bureau business was acquired by CMG (Computer Management Group).

India: ICIM
ICL had established a presence in India in its earliest days, through International Computers Indian Manufacture Ltd (ICIM), a partly owned subsidiary. As the name implies, ICIM took on some of the manufacturing of ICL-designed equipment, generally for overseas markets. In later years ICIM, from its offices in Pune, started to establish a presence in the market for offshore software development and eventually outsourcing of the operation of computer services. ICIM subsequently became a joint operation with Fujitsu, establishing links to Japan that were as strong as its traditional links to the UK. Reflecting the shift in its business, the company was renamed ICIL (International Computers India Limited), and again in 2000 to Zensar Technologies, a publicly traded company which has RPG Group as its largest shareholder.

Defence: DESC
DESC Ltd (subsequently ICL DESC Ltd.) was a subsidiary focused on defence systems spun out from ICL at the time of the Fujitsu takeover, to avoid concerns over defence systems ownership by the Japanese firm. These qualms were overcome and eventually it was merged back into the parent company.

Banking: iBANK Systems
iBANK Systems was a joint venture with Xcelsoft, Inc. of Canada to develop a Unix-based integrated retail banking system capable of distributed operation.  Supported platforms included the DRS-6000 and DRS-3000, and the product was written in COBOL with some 'glue' written in C.  The international team was based in Greenville SC, US.

The venture lasted from 1992 through 1995 when the two companies dissolved the relationship and each went forward independently, thereby forking the project. The ICL branch was renamed Fujitsu-ICL International Banking Products, and continued operations until 2000 when ICL withdrew completely from operations in North America. Customers of iBANK Systems included Moscow Savings Bank (Russia), Suprimex (Russia), Chelindbank (Russia, project cancelled at the try-test phase), Mineral Bank (Bulgaria), Romanian Bank for Development (Romania), PTC (Zimbabwe), People's Own Savings Bank (Zimbabwe), Mutual Bank of the Caribbean (Barbados), National Commercial Bank (Jamaica), and Caisse Populaire (Canada).

Corporate history
This section describes the various takeovers of and by ICL that followed its formation in 1969.

Singer Business Machines
Early in 1976, ICL acquired the international (that is, non-US) part of Singer Business Machines. The Singer group, a holding company which had diversified by adding many divisions, the most well-known of which was its early roots in sewing machines, and others such as the Business Machine division which was acquired by purchasing Friden, a San Leandro computer company, whose flagship product was the System Ten, a small business minicomputer. SBM had also acquired Cogar Corporation, a manufacturer of desktop intelligent terminals in Utica, New York, which after the ICL acquisition became the development and manufacturing plant for both minicomputers and terminals. The acquisition shifted the geographical balance of ICL's sales away from the UK, and also gave a presence in industry markets such as retail and manufacturing. ICL subsequently developed the System Ten into the System 25, and used the product to spearhead the growth of its Retail Systems business during the 1980s.

1981 crisis
ICL was in financial difficulty in 1981, with weak export performance against American and Japanese competition, and a takeover by an American manufacturer seemed likely. Christophor Laidlaw, deputy chairman of BP, was appointed as chairman and achieved a financial reconstruction, supported by loan guarantees from the government; he also oversaw the start of a technology agreement with Japan's Fujitsu. In 1984, Laidlaw was succeeded by Sir Michael Edwardes, previously chairman of motor manufacturer British Leyland.

STC
On 26 July 1984 a £400 million takeover bid for ICL arrived from Sir Kenneth Corfield, head of Standard Telephones and Cables. The stated rationale was the predicted convergence of computers and telecommunications. The ICL board recommended acceptance of the bid, and the takeover was completed on 10 September. Sir Michael Edwardes, who had been chairman for just six months, resigned, and Laidlaw returned briefly as chairman. Robb Wilmot, who had arrived as managing director in 1981 (at the age of 36) remained, along with Peter Bonfield as marketing director.

The takeover caused losses at STC, leading in 1985 to a rights issue and Corfield's replacement by Lord Keith as STC chairman, with Arthur Walsh as chief executive. Wilmot resigned, and Bonfield was appointed chairman and managing director of ICL. Within a few years ICL was contributing 60% of the profits and turnover of the combined group. Bonfield was appointed CBE for his role in turning the company around.

Datachecker
In 1988 STC acquired US retail systems specialist Datachecker Systems from National Semiconductor Corporation. At the time this was the second largest supplier in the US retail market, and greatly expanded ICL's US presence.

Regnecentralen
In 1989, ICL acquired Regnecentralen of Denmark, a company with a distinguished history and reputation in that country, but which was best known internationally for its front-end communications handling equipment.

Computer Consoles Inc
Also in 1989 STC acquired CCI, suppliers of ICL's Clan 5, 6 and 7 ranges (later DRS 500) and originator of OfficePower. By 1990 CCI's Computer Products Division in Irvine, California, and Office Products Centre in Reston, Virginia, had been transferred to ICL.

Nokia Data
In 1991 ICL acquired Nokia Data, part of Nokia. Nokia Data was itself the result of Nokia's mid-1980s acquisition of Ericsson Information Systems, whose origins lay in the purchase by Ericsson of the computer business of Saab, known as Datasaab. ICL's acquisition (at a price of around £250m) added 9,500 employees to the company (7,000 of them in Finland and Sweden), and brought with it a PC manufacturing capability, a suite of desktop software products, and more importantly a strong presence in the Nordic market and an awareness of the high-volume end of the IT market.

ICL KME-CS
In July, 1991 ICL acquired more than half of the Russian company KME-CS (Kazan Manufacturing Enterprise of Computer Systems, Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia). The agreement was signed between Peter Bonfield (President of ICL) and Mintimer Shaimiev (President of the Tatarstan Republic).

Fujitsu relationship and eventual acquisition
ICL's relationship with Fujitsu started in 1981, when ICL needed a cheaper source of technology to develop lower-end machines in the 2900 range to compete with the IBM 4300 series.  At this stage ICL was developing its own LSI technology for use in the higher-end machines, designed as a successor to the highly successful 2966 processor (known internally as S3). ICL had visited a number of companies during 1980, including Fujitsu and Hitachi, to identify potential suppliers.

As part of the 1981 restructuring, Robb Wilmot – an electronics engineer and former head of Texas Instruments' British-based calculator operation – arrived as CEO in May 1981. He cancelled in-house LSI technology development, and negotiated an agreement that gave access to Fujitsu's LSI and packaging technologies, which, when combined with ICL's in-house CAD capability, enabled ICL to design and manufacture the DM1 and Estriel machines, later marketed profitably as Series 39 level 30 and 80.

Initially the collaboration with Fujitsu was presented as being an arm's length one, to avoid diluting ICL's credentials as a European and British company.  However, Fujitsu's involvement with ICL at both the financial and the technical level steadily increased over the subsequent two decades, and in 1990 Fujitsu acquired 80% of ICL plc from its parent STC plc, paying US$1.29 billion. In 1998 Fujitsu became ICL's sole shareholder and the ICL brand was dropped in 2002.

Fujitsu Siemens
Following the acquisition of Nokia Data in 1991, personal computers and servers were marketed under the ICL brand. This changed when Fujitsu Siemens Computers was formed in 1999 as a joint venture between Fujitsu and Siemens. The joint venture absorbed all ICL's hardware business with the exception of VME mainframes, and all the business of Siemens Nixdorf with the exception of its banking and retail systems. Fujitsu Siemens was merged back into Fujitsu in 2009.

PC Interworks Ltd
PC Interworks was incorporated in October 1995. It was created as a sales company, selling personal computer and other IT equipment to the employees of large organisations. The company, which evolved from a concept developed within ICL, began business with a contract from ICL to provide computer related products to its staff, as a part of its Employee Benefit Programme. PC Interworks was subsequently absorbed by International Computer Logistics Limited.

Transfer of ICL trademark to International Computer Logistics
International Computer Logistics, a British company specializing in IT repair and data recovery, secured the intellectual property rights to the ICL brand in 2014. It is based in Kidsgrove, North Staffordshire and was formed in 2012.

ICL Fellowship

ICL Engineers responsible for pioneering achievements in the field of Computing could be recognised through the ICL Fellowship, established in 1990 by then-CEO Sir Peter Bonfield.  The Fellows represented the peak of technological expertise within ICL and directly advised the company leadership on technology matters.

See also
 Odra (computer) – The Polish Odra 1300 series computers used ICL software
 ICL: A Business and Technical History. Martin Campbell-Kelly, Clarendon Press, 1989.
 ICL and Europe. Virgilio Pasquali. In Resurrection, the Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society, Summer 2005
 Trojan Horses and National Champions: A History of the European Computing and Telecommunications Industry. Paul Gannon. Apt-Amatic Books, 1997.

References

External links

 ICL 1900 Series Computers at fsu.eu.com
 The ICL Archive – an on-line directory of ICL archive material maintained by the Computer Conservation Society.
 The ICL Computer Museum

British companies established in 1968
Computer companies established in 1968
Computer companies disestablished in 2002
Computer companies of the United Kingdom
English Electric
Defunct companies based in London
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct manufacturing companies of the United Kingdom
Former defence companies of the United Kingdom
History of the London Borough of Wandsworth

Manufacturing companies based in London
Putney
1968 establishments in England
2002 disestablishments in England

International Computers Limited


සාර්ක් දියඋල්පත  (SAARC Fountain) යනු බංග්ලාදේශයේ කවුරන් බසාර් (Kawran Bazar) ව්‍යාපාරික දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ Panthapath අන්තර්ඡේද්‍යය අසල ඉදිකොට තිබෙන දිය උල්පතකි (වතුර මලකි). දිය උල්පත නම්කොට තිබෙන සාර්ක් (SAARC) යන නාමයෙන් අරුත් ගන්වන්නේ 1985 වසරේ දෙසැම්බරයේ පිහිටුවනු ලැබූ කලාපීය සහයෝගිතාවය සඳහාවන දකුණු ආසියානු සංගමය (සාර්ක් සංවිධානය) පිළිබඳවයි. ඇෆ්ගනිස්තානය, බංග්ලාදේශය, ඉන්දියාව, පාකිස්තානය, ශ්‍රී ලංකාව, නේපාලය, භූතානය සහ මාලදිවයින යන රාජ්‍යයන්ගෙන් වත්මන් සාර්ක් සංවිධානය සමන්විත වෙයි.

බංග්ලාදේශ කලාශිල්පියෙකු වූ Nitun Kundu විසින් නිර්මාණය කර තිබෙන මෙම දිය උල්පත සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම වාගේ වානේ යොදා ගනිමින් නිර්මාණය කොට තිබෙන අතර; රාත්‍රී සමයේදී එය වර්ණාලෝකිතව විචිත්‍රවත්ව දිස්වන බව සඳහන් වෙයි.

බංග්ලාදේශයේ දියඋල්පත්

සාර්ක් දියඋල්පත


سبأفون، شركة اتصالات يمنية وتعتبر أول مزود لخدمة جي إس إم في اليمن حيث بدأت عام 2001.

الشعار
الشعار الرسمي الحالي لسبأفون هو "سبأفون SABAFON... أصالة وتواصل"

عن الشركة
بدأت خدمة سبأفون للهاتف النقال في فبراير 2001 في اليمن. وتطورت لتغطي حوالي 95% من إجمالي المساحة الجغرافية لليمن.

تضم شركة سبأفون خمسة شركاء هم:
 مجموعة الأحمر والتي تمتلك عدداً كبيراً من الشركات والتي تعمل في مجالات عدة للمال والأعمال في اليمن.
 بتلكو وهي شركة بحرينية رائدة في مجال الاتصالات السلكية واللاسلكية ولديها في الوقت الحاضر شركات مشتركة في البحرين، الكويت، المملكة العربية السعودية، الأردن ومصر وذلك لتوفير خدمات الإنترنت واتصالات البيانات.
 مجموعة هائل سعيد أنعم مجموعة من الشركات اليمنية المعروفة بتقديم خدماتها المختلفة في عدة مجالات الصناعة، والتجارة، والزراعة، والثروة السمكية، والثروة الحيوانية، الفنادق، الصحة والمصارف وشركات التأمين. وغيرها من الخدمات التجارية العامة والخاصة.
 اتحاد المقاولين العالمية CCC إحدى الشركات العالمية والتي لها العديد من الاستثمارات في مجال البنى التحتية.

المساهمون

 مجموعة الأحمر للتجارة والصناعة والتوكيلات العامة 44,444%.
 شركة البحرين للاتصالات السلكية واللاسلكية – بتلكو 29,937%
 علي بن علي مقصع 11,111%
 مجموعة هائل سعيد انعم وشركاه 7,778%
 إتحاد المقاولين العالمية 5,556%
 كهلان مجاهد أبو شوارب 1,111%
 حميد بن عبد الله حسين الأحمر 0,063%

إجمالي الأسهم (١٠٠٪)

إدارة شركة سبأفون

 الشيخ: همدان الأحمر رئيس مجلس الإدارة
 فهد عبد الوهاب ثابت العريقي المدير العام التنفيذي

معلومات الشبكة
 المقسمات: SIEMENS (EWSD) Version SR9.
 قاعدة محطة الراديو: SIEMENS ® MOTOROLA ®.
 نظام الفوترة: Protek ®.
 أجهزة الميكروويف: SIEMENS ® NOKIA ®.
 ذبذبة التشغيل: 900 ميجاهرتز.

انظر أيضًا
 يمن موبايل
 شركة سبيستل
 الإتصالات في اليمن

روابط خارجية
 موقع شركة سبأفون العربي
 موقع شركة سبأفون بالإنكليزية

المراجع

وصلات خارجية

شركات اتصالات عربية
شركات اتصالات يمنية
شركات الهاتف المحمول اليمنية
علامات تجارية يمنية

سبأفون