Cleridae são uma família de besouros da superfamília Cleroidea. Eles são comumente conhecidos como besouros quadriculados. A família Cleridae tem uma distribuição mundial e uma variedade de habitats e preferências alimentares.

Cleridae têm muitos nichos e hábitos alimentares. A maioria dos gêneros são predadores e se alimentam de outros besouros e larvas; no entanto, outros gêneros são necrófagos ou alimentadores de pólen. Os clerídeos têm corpos alongados com pelos eriçados, geralmente são de cores vivas e têm antenas variáveis. Besouros quadriculados variam em comprimento entre . Os clerídeos podem ser identificados com base em sua fórmula tarsal 5–5–5, divisão dos esternitos e ausência de um tipo especial de vesícula. As fêmeas de Cleridae depositam entre 28 e 42 ovos por vez, predominantemente sob a casca das árvores. As larvas são predadoras e alimentam-se vigorosamente antes da fase de pupa e subsequente emergência como adultos.

Os clerídeos têm um significado menor na entomologia forense. Algumas espécies são ocasionalmente encontradas em carniça nos últimos estágios secos de decomposição. Além disso, algumas espécies são pragas ( entomologia de produtos armazenados ) e são encontradas infestando vários produtos alimentícios. Os esforços de pesquisa relacionados a Cleridae se concentraram principalmente no uso de certas espécies como controles biológicos. Esta é uma técnica muito eficaz para controlar os besouros da casca devido ao apetite voraz de muitas espécies de clerídeos.

Descrição

Geralmente, os besouros xadrez são alongados e de forma oval e variam de 3 a  de comprimento. Seus corpos inteiros são cobertos por pelos eriçados e muitos exibem um padrão de cor corporal ornamentado. Esses padrões de cores geralmente brilhantes podem ser vermelho, amarelo, laranja ou azul. As antenas são em forma de clava na ponta para a maioria das espécies, mas outras podem ser "em forma de clava, dente de serra ou em forma de fio". A região do pronoto é quase cilíndrica e caracteristicamente mais estreita que os élitros (asas dianteiras endurecidas especiais), enquanto a cabeça é tão larga ou mais larga que o pronoto. Seus élitros têm pequenas cavidades ou depressões e nunca expõem mais de dois tergitos (placas dorsais ).

Identificação
Os besouros clerídeos se enquadram na subordem Polyphaga. As principais características do Polyphaga são que a coxa posterior (base da perna) não divide a primeira e a segunda placas abdominal/ventral, conhecidas como esternitos. Além disso, a sutura notopleural (encontrada sob o escudo pronotal) não está presente. Para identificar melhor os besouros Clerid, algumas características adicionais precisam ser examinadas.

Os besouros clerídeos têm pernas únicas que ajudam a distingui-los de outras famílias. Sua fórmula tarsal é 5–5–5, o que significa que em cada uma das pernas dianteiras, médias e traseiras existem 5 tarsômeros (subsegmentos individuais dos pés/tarsos). Um ou mais desses subsegmentos em cada perna é tipicamente lobado, e o 4º tarso é normalmente difícil de distinguir. Além disso, uma característica importante que elimina muitas outras famílias de besouros é que as coxas anteriores (base da perna) dos clerídeos expõem o segundo segmento das pernas conhecido como trocânter.

A segunda característica definidora da família Cleridae é que os clerídeos nunca têm vesículas eversíveis (pequenas estruturas semelhantes a balões geralmente escondidas que se pensa serem glândulas de cheiro) em seu abdômen e pronoto. Essa característica os distingue de uma família semelhante Melyridae que às vezes tem essas glândulas. Esta característica é muito importante para diferenciar corretamente besouros quadriculados de Melyridae.

Distribuição e ecologia

Cleridae podem ser encontrados nas Américas, África, Europa, Oriente Médio e até na Austrália. Existem aproximadamente 3.500 espécies no mundo e cerca de 500 espécies na América do Norte. Devido a essa ampla distribuição, existem muitos habitats diferentes nos quais os besouros quadriculados podem ser encontrados.

Muitas das espécies são conhecidas como "visitantes de flores", que atacam outros insetos visitantes de flores e também se alimentam de pólen. Essas espécies são encontradas em ambientes úmidos e ensolarados, onde plantas com flores são encontradas em abundância.

Outro habitat comumente habitado por besouros são as árvores. Essas "espécies vivas em árvores" são encontradas em florestas em todo o mundo com vários climas e uma variedade de insetos facilmente predados. Eles buscam proteção sob a casca e caçam outros insetos acima e abaixo da casca. A principal fonte de presas para esses caçadores vivos de casca são os besouros de casca.

O terceiro tipo de besouros clerídeos são as "espécies que roubam ninhos" que vivem em arbustos e árvores. Ao contrário das espécies vivas das árvores, essas espécies não se enterram na casca. Espécies que roubam ninhos normalmente caçam larvas de cupins, abelhas e vespas, e uma espécie em particular foi observada como presa principalmente de massas de ovos de gafanhotos. Nem todas as espécies que roubam ninhos caçam ativamente presas vivas, algumas espécies, por exemplo, preferem se alimentar apenas de larvas de abelhas mortas e adultos.

Hábitos alimentares
O Cleridae contém muitas espécies de besouros predadores que se alimentam de outros besouros e larvas de besouros em seu habitat natural. As presas mais comuns dos besouros quadriculados são os besouros da casca e os besouros da madeira.

Em geral, a maior parte dos Cleridae adultos se alimentam principalmente de outros besouros adultos, enquanto o estágio de larva se alimenta de outras larvas de besouros. Alguns besouros quadriculados são conhecidos por terem um apetite extremamente voraz, com algumas larvas capazes de consumir "várias vezes seu próprio peso corporal" em um dia.

Embora a maioria das espécies de besouros xadrez sejam predadoras por natureza, algumas são necrófagas e outras foram encontradas alimentando-se de pólen de flores. Por causa da natureza predatória e do apetite insaciável dos besouros quadriculados, eles costumam ser peças-chave no controle biológico de outros insetos. Os besouros xadrez também desenvolveram uma adaptação única para ajudar em sua busca por presas. Os besouros usam feromônios para ajudá-los a localizar, matar e consumir suas presas.

A diversidade de hábitos alimentares do besouro quadriculado fica bem evidente quando examinamos diferentes espécies. A Necrobia spp. são atraídos por carniça seca e outras matérias animais em decomposição, como ossos e pele, bem como vários produtos de carne. Thanasimus spp. são encontrados em áreas florestais onde as espécies de besouros constituem sua principal fonte de presa. A principal fonte de presa para o Phyllobaenus spp. são brocas de madeira, gorgulhos imaturos e larvas de himenópteros. Um dos gêneros mais diversos é Trichodes, as larvas se alimentam do pólen de plantas com flores e os adultos atacam gafanhotos e vespas.

Sabe-se que o ciclo de vida geral dos clerídeos dura de 35 dias a mais de 3 anos e é fortemente dependente do ciclo de vida de suas presas. Embora o ciclo de vida possa variar em duração entre gênero e espécie, a temperatura também é um determinante importante no tempo gasto em cada estágio de desenvolvimento. Quanto mais quente a temperatura, mais rápido o ciclo de vida, e quanto mais fria a temperatura, mais lento o ciclo de vida. Se as temperaturas caírem abaixo de um limite de temperatura por um longo período de tempo, os clerídeos e a maioria dos outros insetos terão crescimento e progresso de desenvolvimento interrompidos. Como todos os besouros, os Cleridae seguem um ciclo de vida holometábolo : o ovo eclode em uma larva, que cresce e se alimenta, trocando sua pele para formar uma pupa, e a pupa trocando sua pele para emergir como um adulto. As larvas da maioria das espécies conhecidas de Cleridae se alimentam de ovos e filhotes de besouros xilófagos, enquanto os adultos se alimentam de besouros adultos.

A cópula ocorre enquanto a fêmea se alimenta, porque as fêmeas precisam de uma grande quantidade de alimento para o desenvolvimento dos ovos. A fêmea põe seus ovos 36-72 horas após a cópula. Os ovos são depositados entre pedaços de casca de árvores infestadas de brocas ou sob pedras no solo. Ela pode botar de 28 a 42 ovos por vez. Para as espécies de maior expectativa de vida, como Thanasimus, isso ocorre no final do verão ou início do outono para dar às larvas tempo suficiente para um crescimento adequado antes de passar o inverno.

Quando as larvas eclodem de seus ovos, elas são vermelhas ou amarelas. Seus corpos têm uma aparência esbelta e plana com pernas curtas devido ao movimento mínimo. As larvas são cobertas de pelos e apresentam duas projeções do tipo chifre na região dorsal do último segmento do corpo. Imediatamente após o nascimento, eles começam a procurar comida perto de onde nasceram. Eles se alimentam de insetos perfuradores de madeira nas árvores, ou se alimentam do substrato de sua espécie ou presa de sua escolha. A alimentação é o principal objetivo do estágio larval para se preparar para a pupação. Uma vez que seu estágio larval está completo, as espécies que vivem nas árvores seguem para o fundo da árvore para pupar. O estágio de pupa pode durar de 6 semanas a um ano, dependendo da necessidade de hibernar e de quão curto é o ciclo de vida geral de uma espécie em particular. A maioria das espécies de clerídeos pupa em células de terra que são feitas de solo e certas enzimas secretadas de suas bocas. O resto permanece em células de pupa. Os besouros adultos emergem da fase de pupa e passam um tempo variável de sua vida amadurecendo e, eventualmente, ovipositando. Adultos sexualmente maduros ou imagos de Thanasiumus hibernam dentro das árvores infestadas de brocas e ovipositam durante a primavera.

Relevância forense

Entomologia de produtos armazenados
Necrobia rufipes, comumente conhecido como besouro do presunto de patas vermelhas, é de particular importância na entomologia de produtos armazenados. N. rufipes infesta carnes secas ou defumadas, principalmente aquelas que são armazenadas sem embalagem por longos períodos de tempo. Os adultos se alimentam na superfície dos produtos, enquanto as larvas danificam a carne perfurando geralmente nas partes gordurosas. Foi registrado que N. rufipes se alimentava de uma grande variedade de itens, desde peles e figos secos até múmias egípcias. Além disso, produtos como lã e seda podem ficar infestados, mas não destruídos.

Entomologia médico-legal
Como os clerídeos são predadores por natureza, eles foram encontrados se alimentando de larvas de moscas, bem como de pele e ossos de carniça. A maioria dos clerídeos não é útil em forense por causa de sua escolha alimentar, mas algumas espécies, como Necrobia rufipes, podem ser úteis. Necrobia rufipes é atraído pela carniça nos últimos estágios de decomposição, então sua chegada na carniça pode ajudar a fornecer uma estimativa para o intervalo post-mortem ou PMI. Embora o besouro quadriculado não seja o inseto mais significativo na carniça, a natureza predatória do besouro e sua capacidade de se reproduzir em carniça exposta ao meio ambiente fornece alguma importância forense.

Pesquisa em andamento
Há pesquisas em andamento com algumas espécies de clerídeos. A pesquisa forense é limitada por causa de sua chegada tardia em carniça, mas membros como Thanasimus undatulus foram pesquisados como um possível papel no manejo integrado de pragas ou IPM. Thanasimus undatulus é um predador de besouros de casca. Algumas espécies de besouros da casca, como o besouro do pinheiro do sul e o besouro do pinheiro da montanha, podem se tornar pragas para a indústria madeireira porque, em grande número, podem causar danos e matar árvores vivas. Thanasimus undatulus tem sido pesquisado como um possível agente de controle biológico para essas pragas. Pesquisadores e funcionários florestais usaram feromônios de agregação de besouros para atrair o besouro xadrez para árvores específicas. Isso faz com que os besouros da casca sejam subjugados, extensivamente predados pelos besouros clerídeos e normalmente eliminados. Há também pesquisas adicionais sendo feitas sobre o impacto das cleridas na polinização das flores.

Sistemática
Os gêneros de Cleridae são divididos entre várias subfamílias, embora alguns gêneros ainda desafiem uma classificação fácil. Existem vários esquemas taxonômicos, reconhecendo, por exemplo, um grupo em torno de Neorthopleura como subfamília distinta Neorthopleurinae, ou separando Thaneroclerinae como família distinta, ou circunscrevendo Korynetinae sensu stricto ou sensu lato. A seguinte lista de tribos e gêneros selecionados é, portanto, preliminar. Algumas espécies notáveis também estão listadas. Os membros mais velhos da família são Protoclerus e Wangweiella, o leito de Daohugou do final do Jurássico Médio ( Caloviano ) na Mongólia Interior, China.

Clerinae
 Allonyx Jacquelin du Val, 1860
 Anthicoclerus Schenkling, 1906
 Aphelochroa Quedenfeldt, 1885
 Apopempsis Schenkling, 1903
 Apteroclerus Wollaston, 1867
 Aptinoclerus Kuwert, 1893
 Aradamicula Sedlacek & Winkler, 1975
 †Arawakis (fóssil)
 Astigmus Kuwert, 1894
 Aulicus Spinola, 1841
 Axina Kirby, 1818
 Balcus
 Barriella Opitz, 2003
 Barrotillus Rifkind, 1996
 Blaxima Gorham, 1882
 Bousquetoclerus Menier, 1997
 Burgeoneus Pic, 1950
 Caestron Dupont in Spinola, 1844
 Calendyma Lacordaire, 1857
 Canariclerus Winkler, 1982
 Cardiostichus Quedenfeldt, 1885
 Caridopus Schenkling in Sjöstedt, 1908
 Cleromorpha Gorham, 1876
 Cleropiestus Fairmaire, 1889
 Clerus Fabricius, 1775
 Clytomadius Corporaal, 1949
 Colyphus Spinola, 1841
 Coptoclerus Chapin, 1924
 Cormodes Pascoe, 1860
 Corynommadius Schenkling, 1899
 Ctenaxina Schenkling, 1906
 Ctenoclerus Solervicens, 1997
 Dasyceroclerus Kuwert, 1894
 Dasyteneclines Pic, 1941
 Dieropsis Gahan, 1908
 Dologenitus Opitz, 2009
 Dozocolletus Chevrolat, 1842
 Eburiphora Spinola, 1841
 Eburneoclerus Pic, 1950
 Ekisius Winkler, 1987
 Eleale Newman, 1840
 Enoclerus Gahan, 1910
 Epiclines Chevrolat in Guérin-Ménéville, 1839
 Eunatalis Schenkling, 1909
 Eunatalis porcata
 Erymanthus Spinola, 1841
 Eurymetomorphon Pic, 1950
 Falsomadius Gerstmeier, 2002
 Falsoorthrius Pic, 1940
 Graptoclerus Gorham, 1901
 Gyponyx Gorham, 1883
 Hemitrachys Gorham, 1876
 Homalopilo Schenkling, 1915
 Inhumeroclerus Pic, 1955
 Jenjouristia Fursov, 1936
 Languropilus Pic, 1940
 Lissaulicus C.O.Waterhouse, 1879
 Memorthrius Pic, 1940
 Metademius Schenkling, 1899
 Microclerus Wollaston, 1867
 Micropteroclerus Chapin, 1920
 Microstigmatium Kraatz, 1899
 Mimolesterus Gerstmeier, 1991
 Mitrandiria Kolibac, 1997
 Myrmecomaea Fairmaire, 1886
 Natalis Laporte de Castelnau, 1836
 Neogyponyx Schenkling, 1906
 Neoscrobiger Blackburn, 1900
 Ohanlonella Rifkind, 2008
 Olesterus Spinola, 1841
 Omadius Laporte de Castelnau, 1836
 Oodontophlogistus Elston, 1923
 Operculiphorus Kuwert, 1894
 Opilo Latreille, 1802
 Orthrius Gorham, 1876
 Oxystigmatium Kraatz, 1899
 Phlogistomorpha Hintz, 1908
 Phlogistus Gorham, 1876
 Phloiocopus Spinola, 1841
 Phonius Chevrolat, 1843
 Pieleus Pic, 1940
 Placocerus Klug, 1837
 Placopterus Wolcott, 1910
 Plathanocera Schenkling, 1902
 Platyclerus Spinola, 1841
 Priocera Kirby, 1818
 Priocleromorphus Pic, 1950
 Prioclerus Hintz, 1902
 Pseudolesterus Miyatake, 1968
 Pseudomadius Chapin, 1924
 Pujoliclerus Pic, 1947
 Sallea Chevrolat, 1874
 Scrobiger Spinola, 1841
 Sedlacekius Winkler, 1972
 Sikorius Kuwert, 1893
 Stigmatium Gray in Griffith, 1832
 Systenoderes Spinola, 1841
 Tanocleria Hong, 2002
 Thalerocnemis Lohde, 1900
 Thanasimodes Murray, 1867
 Thanasimus Latreille, 1806
 Thanasimus formicarius – Ant Beetle
 Tillicera Spinola, 1841
 Trichodes Herbst, 1792
 Trichodes alvearius
 Trichodes apiarius
 Trichodes leucopsideus
 Trogodendron Spinola, 1841
 Trogodendron fasciculatum – Yellow-horned Clerid
 Wilsonoclerus
 Winklerius Menier, 1986
 Wittmeridecus Winkler, 1981
 Xenorthrius Gorham, 1892
 Zahradnikius Winkler, 1992
 Zenithicola Spinola, 1841

Enopliinae (por vezes em Korynetinae)
 Antygodera
 Apolopha Spinola, 1841
 Corinthiscus Fairmaire & Germain, 1861
 Cregya LeConte, 1861
 Curacavi
 Enoplium Latreille, 1802
 Exochonotus
 Hublella
 Lasiodera Gray in Griffith, 1832
 Neopylus Solervicens, 1989
 Paracregya
 Pelonium
 Phymatophaea Pascoe, 1876
 Platynoptera Chevrolat, 1834
 Pseudichnea Schenkling, 1900
 Pylus Newman, 1840
 Pyticara Spinola, 1841 (incluindo Pelonides)
 Teneroides Gahan, 1910
 Tenerus Laporte de Castelnau, 1836
 Thriocerodes Wolcott & Dybas, 1947

Epiphloeinae (por vezes em Korynetinae)
 Acanthocollum
 Amboakis
 Decaphloeus
 Decorosa Opitz, 2008
 Diapromeces Opitz, 1997
 Ellipotoma Spinola, 1844
 Epiphloeus Spinola, 1841
 Hapsidopteris Opitz, 1997
 Ichnea Laporte de Castelnau, 1836
 Iontoclerus Opitz, 1997
 Katamyurus Opitz, 1997
 Madoniella Pic, 1935
 Megaphloeus
 Megatrachys Opitz, 1997
 Opitzius Barr, 2006
 Parvochaetus Opitz, 2006
 Pennasolis Opitz, 2008
 Pericales
 Pilosirus Opitz, 1997
 Plocamocera Spinola, 1844
 Pteroferus
 Pyticeroides Kuwert, 1894
 Silveirasia
 Stegnoclava
 Turbophloeus

Hydnocerinae (incluindo Phyllobaeninae)
 Abrosius Fairmaire, 1902
 Achlamys C.O.Waterhouse, 1879
 Allelidea G.R.Waterhouse, 1839
 Blaesiophthalmus Schenkling, 1903
 Brachycallimerus Chapin, 1924
 Brachyptevenus
 Callimerus Gorham, 1876
 Cephaloclerus Kuwert, 1893
 Cucujocallimerus Pic, 1929
 Emmepus Motschulsky, 1845
 Eurymetopum Blanchard, 1842
 Isohydnocera Chapin, 1917
 Isolemidia Gorham, 1877
 Laiomorphus Pic, 1927
 Lasiocallimerus Corporaal, 1939
 Lemidia Spinola, 1841
 Neohydnus Gorham, 1892
 Parmius Sharp, 1877
 Paupris Sharp, 1877
 Phyllobaenus Dejean, 1837
 Silviella Solervicens, 1987
 Solemidia
 Stenocallimerus Corporaal & Pic, 1940
 Theano Laporte de Castelnau, 1836
 Wolcottia Chapin, 1917

Korynetinae
 Chariessa Perty in Spix & Martius, 1830
 Korynetes Herbst, 1792
 Korynetes caeruleus – steely blue beetle
 Lebasiella Spinola, 1844
 Loedelia R.Lucas, 1918
 Necrobia Latreille, 1797
 Necrobia ruficollis – red-shouldered ham beetle
 Necrobia rufipes – red-legged ham beetle
 Neorthopleura Barr, 1976
 Opetiopalpus Spinola, 1844
 Romanaeclerus Winkler, 1960

Tarsosteninae (por vezes em Korynetinae)
 Paratillus Gorham, 1876
 Tarsostenodes Blackburn, 1900
 Tarsostenus Spinola, 1844

Thaneroclerinae (colocado aqui tentativamente)
 Cleridopsis Champion, 1913
 Compactoclerus Pic, 1939
 Cyrtinoclerus Chapin, 1924
 Isoclerus Lewis, 1892
 Meprinogenus Kolibáč, 1992
 Neoclerus Lewis, 1892
 Onerunka Kolibáč
 Thaneroclerus Lefebvre, 1838
 Viticlerus
 Zenodosus Wolcott, 1910

Tillinae
 Antenius Fairmaire, 1903
 Arachnoclerus Fairmaire, 1902
 Araeodontia Barr, 1952
 Archalius Fairmaire, 1903
 Aroterus Schenkling, 1906
 Basilewskyus Pic, 1950
 Biflabellotillus Pic, 1949
 Bilbotillus Kolibac, 1997
 Bogcia Barr, 1978
 Bostrichoclerus Van Dyke, 1938
 Callotillus Wolcott, 1911
 Ceratocopus Hintz, 1902
 Chilioclerus Solervicens, 1976
 Cladiscopallenis Pic, 1949
 Cladiscus Chevrolat, 1843
 Cladomorpha Pic, 1949
 Cteniopachys Fairmaire, 1889
 Cylidroctenus Kraatz, 1899
 Cylidrus Latreille, 1825
 Cymatodera Gray in Griffith, 1832
 Cymatoderella Barr, 1962
 Dedana Fairmaire, 1888
 Denops Fischer von Waldheim, 1829
 Diplocladus Fairmaire, 1885
 Diplopherusa Heller, 1921
 Eburneocladiscus Pic, 1955
 Egenocladiscus Corporaal & van der Wiel, 1949
 Elasmocylidrus Corporaal, 1939
 Enoploclerus Hintz, 1902
 Eucymatodera Schenkling, 1899
 Falsopallenis Pic, 1926
 Falsotillus Gerstmeier & Kuff, 1992
 Flabellotilloidea Gerstmeier & Kuff, 1992
 Gastrocentrum Gorham, 1876
 Gracilotillus Pic, 1933
 Impressopallenis Pic, 1953
 Isocymatodera Hintz, 1902
 Lecontella Wolcott & Chapin, 1918
 Leptoclerus Kraatz, 1899
 Liostylus Fairmaire, 1886
 Macroliostylus Pic, 1939
 Magnotillus Pic, 1936
 Melanoclerus Chapin, 1919
 Microtillus Pic, 1950
 Monophylla Spinola, 1841
 Neocallotillus Burke, 2016
 Nodepus Gorham, 1892
 Notocymatodera Schenkling, 1907
 Onychotillus Chapin, 1945
 Orthocladiscus Corporaal & van der Wiel, 1949
 Pallenis Laporte de Castelnau, 1836
 Paracladiscus Miyatake, 1965
 Paradoxocerus Kraatz, 1899
 Paraspinoza Corporaal, 1942
 Philocalus Klug, 1842
 Picoclerus Corporaal, 1936
 †Prospinoza (fossil)
 Pseudachlamys Duvivier, 1892
 Pseudogyponix Pic, 1939
 Pseudopallenis Kuwert, 1893
 Pseudoteloclerus Pic, 1932
 Rhopaloclerus Fairmaire, 1886
 Smudlotillus Kolibac, 1997
 Spinoza Lewis, 1892
 Stenocylidrus Spinola, 1844
 Strotocera Schenkling, 1902
 Synellapotillus Pic, 1939
 Synellapus Fairmaire, 1903
 Teloclerus Schenkling, 1903
 Tilloclerus White, 1849
 Tillodadiscus Pic, 1953
 Tillodenops Hintz, 1905
 Tilloidea Laporte de Castelnau, 1832
 Tillus Olivier, 1790
 Tylotosoma Hintz, 1902

Incertae sedis
 Aphelocerus Kirsch, 1871 (Clerinae? Tillinae?)
 Apteropilo Lea, 1908 (Clerinae? Enopliinae?)
 Cleropiestus Fairmaire, 1889 (Clerinae? Hydnocerinae?)
 Dermestoides Schaeffer, 1771 (Korynetinae s.l.?)
 Evenoclerus Corporaal, 1950 (Clerinae? Hydnocerinae?)
 Muisca Spinola, 1844 (Clerinae? Enopliinae?)
 Parapelonides Barr, 1980 (Korynetinae s.l.?)
 Perilypus Spinola, 1841 (Clerinae? Tillinae?)
 Syriopelta Winkler, 1984 (Korynetinae s.l.?)

Referências

Ligações externas

 Atlas de besouros xadrez (Cleridae) da Rússia
 Publicações de Roland Gerstmeier sobre Cleridae
 Cleridae do Canadá Atlântico

Cleridae


O Posto da Guarda Fiscal de Torre de Aspa é um edifício histórico no concelho de Vila do Bispo, em Portugal.

Descrição e história
O imóvel situa-se na costa ocidental algarvia, na faixa entre a Carrapateira e Sagres, no interior da área protegida do Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina. Está implantado no topo da falésia do Guincho, que é a mais elevada na costa algarvia, atingindo os 133 m acima do nível médio do mar, ponto a partir do qual se avista um extenso panorama. A cerca de um quilómetro de distância encontra-se o marco geodésico da Torre de Aspa. Embora já tenha perdido as suas funções como posto fiscal, continua a ser utilizado como ponto de referência pelas embarcações de pesca costeira.

O edifício apresenta uma configuração simples e quase sem elementos decorativos, sendo constituído por um volume-base em forma de paralelepípedo com telhado de duas águas, cruzado no centro por um corpo mais pequeno, igualmente coberto por telhado de duas águas.

O imóvel foi construído no século XX, apresentado uma traça geral típica dos edifícios das primeiras décadas da centúria. Em Abril de 1986 desenhou um novo edifício para o posto fiscal da Torre de Aspa, sob a responsabilidade do Gabinete de Estudos e Projectos da Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais. Em 1993 foi extinta a Guarda Fiscal, tendo sido substituída pela Brigada Fiscal da Guarda Nacional Republicana. Em 2000, o edifício já tinha sido transferido para o Ministério do Ambiente.

Em Agosto de 2009, as autarquias de Vila do Bispo e Aljezur já tinham determinado quais as principais obras que iriam ser feitas como parte do programa Polis Litoral Sudoeste, tendo uma das intervenções planeadas sido no antigo posto da Guarda Fiscal da Torre de Aspa, que iria ser reaproveitado como centro de apoio para a observação de aves.

Ver também
Lista de património edificado na Vila do Bispo
Antigo Posto da Guarda Fiscal de Quarteira
Posto da Guarda Fiscal de Burgau
Posto da Guarda Fiscal de Salema
Posto da Guarda Fiscal de Sagres
Posto da Guarda Fiscal de Zavial
Forte de Burgau
Forte da Meia Praia

Ligações externas

Património edificado em Vila do Bispo

Posto da Guarda Fiscal de Torre de Aspa


The cultural setting of Saudi Arabia is greatly influenced by the Arab and Islamic culture. The society is in general deeply religious, conservative, traditional, and family-oriented. Many attitudes and traditions are centuries-old, derived from Arab civilization and Islamic heritage. However, its culture has also been affected by rapid change, as the country was transformed from an impoverished nomadic society into a rich commodity producer in just a few years in the 1970s. This change has also been affected by and the result of a number of factors including the communications revolution and external scholarships. The most recent ruler or king of Saudi is King Salman of Saudi Arabia.

The Wahhabi Islamic movement, which arose in the 18th century and is sometimes described as austerely puritanical, now predominates in the country. Following the principle of "enjoining good and forbidding wrong", there are many limitations and prohibitions on behavior and dress which are strictly enforced both legally and socially, often more so than in other Muslim countries. However, many of the traditional restrictions have been lifted recently by the government including allowing women to drive and many other female-related issues. On the other hand, the things prohibited by Islam are banned in the country, for example, alcoholic beverages are strictly prohibited.

Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims, the weekend is Friday to Saturday. In accordance with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious holidays, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, were publicly recognized, until 2006 when a non-religious holiday, the September 23 national holiday (which commemorates the unification of the kingdom) was reintroduced. In terms of gender relations, Saudi Arabia's norms usually discourage non-familial free mixing between the sexes.

History

Religion

The land of Hijaz, particularly Makkah and Madinah, is the place where Islam was firstly established. Thus, the majority of its population are Muslims. Moreover, Qur'an is considered the constitution of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic law "sharia'" is the main legal source. In Saudi Arabia, Islam is not just adhered politically by the government but also it has a great influence on the people's culture and everyday life.

Religious demography

90% of the Saudi citizens are Sunni Muslims while 10% belong to Shia's school. 80% of Shia' are twelvers who live in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia and Madinah. In Najran Province there are approximately 700,000 seveners Shia'. Moreover, the majority of expatriate in Saudi Arabia are Muslims.

Islamic rituals in the community
Unlike many other Muslim countries, Saudi Arabia has been following a strict version of Islam where for example, men and women are segregated in universities. Another example of the strict adherence to Islamic values can be seen in women who are required to wear the traditional "abaya" (long, fully covered dress). However, women are no longer required to wear abayas in public but are required to dress modestly as a form of respecting the Saudi culture. Additionally, Saudi Arabia is the only Muslim country where shops and other public facilities are required to close during prayer time which takes place five times a day and employees and customers are sent off to pray. Thus, the "religious police" (also known as Haia or Mutaween), who patrol the streets "enjoining good and forbidding wrong" by enforcing dress codes, strict separation of men and women, attendance at prayer (salat) five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of Sharia (Islamic law) or behavior it believes to be commanded by Islam. Cinema theatres were shut down in 1980, for example. However, Saudi Arabia has reopened cinema theaters since April 2018.

Calendar
The kingdom uses not the international Gregorian calendar, but the lunar Islamic calendar, with the start of each lunar month determined not ahead of time by astronomical calculation, but only after the crescent moon is sighted by the proper religious authorities. Civil workers in the governmental sector used to receive their salaries not according to the international Gregorian calendar, but the lunar Islamic calendar. However, the Gregorian calendar has been followed by many international companies operating in the country. Moreover, by 2016, a number of reforms took place in Saudi Arabia. One of them was to use the Gregorian calendar to pay for the civil servants. This measure has been taken to reduce the governmental spending as employees have lost 11 payment days.

Weekends

Friday is the holiest day for Muslims. Thus, the weekend in Saudi Arabia was Thursday-Friday. In 2013, the late King Abdullah Al-Saud issued a royal decree switching the weekend to become on Friday-Saturday. This step was taken to reduce the adverse effects suffered by Saudi businesses due to the difference in weekdays and weekends between Saudi Arabia and the other regional and international counterparts. Like all other Muslims, on Fridays Saudis attend Jomua'h prayer that is held by afternoon and accompanied with a sermon.

The holy month of Ramadan

Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, is a holy month for all Muslims. In Saudi Arabia, this month is especially important and different as the lifestyle of the people gets more spiritual. During the month, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk. Thus, in Saudi Arabia, the working hours are reduced as most of the employees go two hours later than usual. Moreover, friends and families gather by sunset to enjoy breaking their fast together. By night and particularly after the obligatory Isha' prayer, people stay in mosques to pray the voluntary prayer of Taraweeh. Before the dawn prayer, Fajr, families wake up to eat Suhur, their last meal before they start fasting.

Saudi Arabia celebrates two public holidays, namely, ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā. Id al-Fitr comes after the holy month of Ramadan and employees enjoy a customary 5 to 10 days away from work. Id al-Adha comes by the end of Hajj -pilgrimage- and employees get similar off days. However, some other religious days that are considered as public holidays in other Muslim countries are not given days off in Saudi Arabia including, the Islamic New Year, Mawlid Alnabi – Prophet Muhammad's Birthday – and 'Ashura day.

"Fierce religious resistance" had to be overcome to permit such innovations as paper money (in 1951), female education (1964), and television (1965) and the abolition of slavery (1962). There were a number of terrorist attacks targeting foreigners between 2001 and 2004, but these have been brought under control.

Public support for the traditional political/religious structure of the kingdom is so strong that one researcher interviewing Saudis found virtually no support for reforms to secularize the state. Even the small minority of Westernized and liberal Saudis expressed "a desire for the kingdom to remain a Muslim society ruled by an overtly Muslim state."

Because of religious restrictions, Saudi culture lacks any diversity of religious expression or buildings but annual festivals such as the Janadriah Festival which celebrates Saudi Culture, custom and handicraft held in a specialized arena just north of Riyadh and public events such as The Annual Book Fair are open to the public and are very popular although policed by the religious police.

The festivals (such as Day of Ashura) and communal public worship of Shia Muslims who make up an estimated 10-15% are suppressed. Celebration of other (non-Wahhabi) Islamic holidays, such as the Muhammad's birthday and the Day of Ashura (an important holiday for Shiites), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale. Shia also face systematic discrimination in employment, education, the justice system according to Human Rights Watch.

No churches, temples or other non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country (although there are nearly a million Christians as well as Hindus and Buddhists among the foreign workers). Foreign workers are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or Easter, and reportedly private prayer services are forbidden in practice.
And at least one religious minority, the Ahmadiyya, are banned with adherents being deported according to a 2007 report by Human Rights Watch.

Proselytizing by non-Muslims and conversion by Muslims to another religion is illegal. According to the HeartCry Missionary Society, in 2014 the Saudi government "issued an official statement signifying that capital punishment may now be used" on those who distribute the Bible and all other "publications that have prejudice to any other religious belief other than Islam."

In legal compensation court cases (Diyya) non-Muslim are awarded less than Muslims. Atheists are legally designated as terrorists.

Social life and customs
Saudi society lives within the circle of customs and traditions in which it was ingrained by the Arab culture of Islam and the Islamic culture, but the regions of the Kingdom differ from each other in the customs of clothing, food, dialects, songs, and even in marriage traditions. Saudi Arabia has a family-oriented culture; the family in Saudi Arabia is the most important social institution, so the bonds are strong between their members. Key aspects include the concepts of obedience and mutual respect, in addition to preserving family traditions and kinship ties.

Al Badou
A large portion of the original inhabitants of the area that is now Saudi were desert nomads known as Bedouin. They remain a significant and very influential minority of the indigenous Saudi population, though many who call themselves "bedou" no longer engage in "traditional tribal activities of herding sheep and riding camels." According to authors Harvey Tripp and Peter North, Bedouin make up most of the judiciary, religious leaders and National Guard (which protects the throne) of the country. Bedouin culture is "actively" preserved by the government.

Greetings
Greetings in Saudi Arabia have been called "formal and proscribed" and lengthy. Saudis (men) tend "to take their time and converse for a bit when meeting." Inquiries "about health and family" are customary, but never about a man's wife, as this "is considered disrespectful."
Saudi men are known for the physical affection they express towards total strangers (i.e. Saudi male strangers), thought by some to be a continuation of the desert tradition of offering strangers hospitality to ensure their survival.

Dress

The religion and customs of Saudi Arabia dictate not only conservative dress for men and women, but a uniformity of dress unique to most of the Middle East. Traditionally, the different regions of Saudi have had different dress, but since the re-establishment of Saudi rule these have been reserved for festive occasions, and "altered if not entirely displaced" by the dress of the homeland of their rulers (i.e. Najd).

Many women normally wear an abaya, a long black cloak that covers all but the hands and face in public despite this not being required. (Modest dress is compulsory for women in Islam but the color black for women and white for men is apparently based on tradition not religious scripture.) Some Saudi women wear a full face veil, such as a niqāb or a burqa. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. Saudi Arabia has recently relaxed the dress code for women.

In recent years it is common to wear Western dress underneath the abaya. (Foreign women in Saudi Arabia are "encouraged" by the religious police to wear an abaya, or at least cover their hair according to The New York Times. Authors Harvey Tripp and Peter North encourage women to wear an abaya in "more conservative" areas of the kingdom, i.e. in the interior.)

Saudi men and boys, whatever their job or social status, wear the traditional dress called a thobe or thawb, which has been called the "Arabic dress". During warm and hot weather, Saudi men and boys wear white thobes. During the cool weather, wool thobes in dark colors are not uncommon. At special times, men often wear a bisht or mishlah over the thobe. These are long white, brown or black cloaks trimmed in metallic thread. A man's headdress consists of three things: the tagia, a small white cap that keeps the gutra from slipping off the head; the gutra itself, which is a large square of cloth; and the igal, a doubled black cord that holds the gutra in place. Not wearing an igal is considered a sign of piety. The gutra is usually made of cotton and traditionally is either all white or a red and white checked. The gutra is worn folded into a triangle and centred on the head.
 Ghutrah () is a traditional keffiyeh headdress worn by men in the Arabian peninsula. It is made of a square of usually finer cotton cloth ("scarf"), folded and wrapped in various styles (usually a triangle) around the head. It is commonly worn in areas with an arid climate, to provide protection from direct sun exposure, and also protection of the mouth and eyes from blown dust and sand.
 Agal () is an item of Arab headgear constructed of cord which is fastened around the keffiyeh to hold it in place. The agal is usually black in colour.
 Thawb () is the standard Arabic word for garment. It is ankle length, woven from wool or cotton, usually with long sleeves similar to a robe.
 Bisht () is a traditional long, white, brown or black Arabic cloak trimmed in gold worn by men. It is usually only worn for prestige on special occasions such as weddings, or in chilly weather.
 Abaya () is a women's garment. It is a black cloak which loosely covers the entire body except the head, although some Abayas cover the top of the head as well.

Among young men, since around 2000, Western dress, particularly T-shirts and jeans have become quite common leisure wear, particularly in the Eastern Province.
Traditional footwear has been leather sandals but most footwear is now imported.  Saudi Arabia has recently relaxed the dress code for women.

Work
Employment does not play the same part in native Saudi society as in some others. With enormous petroleum export earnings beginning in the mid-1970s the Saudi economy was not dependent on income from productive employment. Economists "estimate only 30–40 percent" of working-age Saudis "hold jobs or actively seek work," and most employed Saudis have less-than-demanding jobs with the government.

As of 2008, 90% of those employed in the private sector were foreigners, and several decades long efforts to replace significant numbers of them with Saudis have been unsuccessful.

One explanation for this culture of leisure is the hot, dry climate of the peninsula which allowed nomadic herding but permitted agriculture only in a small area (the southwest corner). Like other nomadic herders worldwide, the ancestors of most Saudis did not develop the habits (so-called "work ethic"), skills, infrastructure, etc. of agricultural societies "that lead ultimately to present-day industrialisation". As a consequence, "Saudis have rarely worked in the sense that other nationalities have worked. No product-based commercial economy existed until oil" was discovered.

Socializing
Traditionally social life in the kingdom has revolved around the home and family.  Saudis regularly visit family members, particularly those of an older generation. For women, most of whom have their own jobs, it is routine (in fact the only outside activity) to pay visits to each other during the day, though the ban on women driving can make transportation a problem. The ban was lifted in 2017.

For men, traditional hours involve a nap in late afternoon (after work if they are employed), and then socializing that begins after maghrib (roughly between 5 and 6:30 pm) and can last until well after midnight. Men gather in groups (known as shillas or majmu'as) of close friends of similar age, background, and occupation. Men typically relax, and joke while smoking shisha and playing balot (a card game), and have a meal around midnight before returning home. The groups may meet in  diwaniyyas in each other's homes or a residence rented for the occasion.

Families

Being part of a closed, family-oriented society, Saudis tend to prefer to do business with, socialize with, and communicate with family members rather than outsiders, be they foreigners, or Saudis from other clans. Extended families tend to live in family compounds in cities whenever possible and stay in contact by cellphone when not. It is customary for elder family member to use their influence (wasta) for the benefit of family members, particularly for employment and advancement in the large Saudi government bureaucracy where most Saudis work.

Marriage

Traditionally, in Saudi Arabia (and other Gulf countries), families arrange marriages with the tribe or family's considerations in mind. Forced marriage has also taken place. Sons and daughters have been encouraged to "marry cousins or other relatives in order to increase and strengthen" the extended family or tribe,
"or occasionally to marry into another tribe in order to heal rifts". At least in the 1990s, most marriages in Saudi were "consanguineous"—i.e. between close relatives—sometimes a second cousin but usually a first cousin. and marriage between cousins in Saudi is among the highest rate in the world. The practice has been cited as a factor in higher rates of Type 2 diabetes (which affects about 32% of adult Saudis), hypertension (which affects 33%), and higher rates of severe genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis or a blood disorder,
thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, spinal muscular atrophy, deafness and muteness.
As a consequence of frequent consanguineous marriage, genetic counseling is a growing field in Saudi Arabia.

Traditionally men having more than one wife (polygyny) was "fairly common", but marriage has become increasingly monogamous as income has declined and western ideas of mutual compatibility between husband and wife have taken hold.

Steps of marriage

 Proposal: traditionally, the prospective groom's senior female leader informs the prospective bride's mother of his intentions. . . both families determine whether or not the marriage would be suitable.
 Viewing (Shawfa): if assent is given by the two families, the bride is "formally allowed to unveil in the presence of the future husband." This unveiling is delayed until the wedding party among very strict families.
 Marriage contract (Milka): if the viewing does not stop wedding plans, the amount of the dowery (mahr) and other terms are negotiated by the prospective groom and the father (or legal male guardian) of the prospective bride, and are executed (approved) usually by the imam of a mosque and witnessed by two male witnesses (or one man and two women) and recorded by a qadi. The mahr is much higher for a virgin than for a divorcee or widow. According to former diplomat Carol Fleming, as of 2008, a typical Saudi mahr was typically 70,000 SAR (about US$18,660) for a virgin and 20,000 SAR (about US$5,330) for a non-virgin (i.e. widowed or divorced woman). (As some observers—Harvey Tripp and Peter North—put it, "unmarried non-virgins may be lucky to escape with their lives".)
 Meeting of the families (Shabka): this is a "gala" party of both families, hosted by the bride's family, at which time the bridegroom presents the dowry and an engagement ring to the bride along with other gifts of jewelry.
 Betrothal (Makhtui, Khatub, or Makhtubayn): "setting the date" for the wedding parties (one for men and one for women) is "considered the formal betrothal."
 Henna party or `Night of the Henna`: a party based around decorating the hands and feet of the bride with paste made from the henna plant, "a traditional wedding custom throughout the Arabian Peninsula" and elsewhere in the Muslim world.
 Wedding celebrations (`Irs, Zaffaf, or Zawaj): usually comes six months to a year after the acceptance of the wedding proposal or based on their agreement. The separate wedding celebrations for men and women are attended by family, close friends and distinguished guests. Traditionally they were held in homes, but today are usually held in large hotel ballrooms or special wedding halls. Each party usually consists of a large dinner featuring roast lamb or baby camel over rice or cracked wheat served on the floor, that begins after `Isha`.  A traditional congratulatory phrase the guests tell the groom is 'from you the money; from her the children.' The men's party ends after the dinner, but the bridegroom and the male members of his and the bride's immediate family then go to the women's party. The women's party lasts longer than the men's, is more elaborately decorated, and in addition to food, has music, singing, and dancing. Around midnight, the bridegroom and the other family male members arrive and are announced amidst the ululation or zaghārīt (high keening sound) of the women. The other men then leave, but the groom sits beside his bride on a dais while the party continues. Some wedding celebrations can go on for several days, but the groom need attend only the first night. After all the celebrations, the couple is traditionally escorted to their new home, or leave on their honeymoon. In some weddings, the couple meet for the first time on the final night of celebrations. On their return from the honeymoon if they have one, the couple either set up home with the groom's parents and "become members of the extended family or, as is increasingly the case, set up home by themselves".

Divorce
Saudi Arabia allows the traditional practice of "triple talaq" divorce, where a man can divorce his wife simply by saying 'I divorce you' (ṭalāq) three times. He can rescind the divorce if this was done in the heat of the moment, but only if the wife agrees (and only on three occasions). The husband must maintain a divorced wife and any children from the marriage if the wife is unable to support herself, although she may have trouble receiving timely payments. Children generally remain with their mother until about five or six, after which boys return to their father to begin their formal education. The husband can claim custody of any sons when they reach the age of ten. Girls more often remain with their mother. A female divorcee usually returns to her family, and few remarry. Despite the liberality of divorce laws, divorce is not commonplace outside of the royal family where it is "endemic".)

Divorce for women who have been abandoned by their husbands in Saudi Arabia has been criticized for being slow.
Divorce initiated by a wife (khula) is unusual in the kingdom even if a husband has been unfaithful, abused or deserted his wife, or engaged in criminal activity.
For female initiated divorce in Saudi, a wife must go to a court for the case to be heard.

LGBT rights

Saudi is one of ten countries where homosexuality is punishable by death (the punishment of stoning to death may be applied to married men who've engaged in homosexual acts or any non-Muslim married or unmarried who commits homosexual acts with a Muslim) as well as fines, flogging, prison time, on first offense. In April 2020, the Saudi Supreme Court abolished the flogging punishment, and replaced it with jail time or fines or both.

Other customs
As in other Arab and especially Gulf countries, Saudi customs include avoiding certain practices, such as:
 anything that would cause someone (or at least another Saudi) embarrassment and loss of face; (criticism by outsiders must be delivered indirectly, circumspectly, and never in front of others)
 exposing the soles of the feet or footwear to someone; (other insulting body language include upward raising of a single finger, excessive pointing, fist clenching and pounding of the right fist into the left palm)
 using the left hand when eating (that hand traditionally being used for personal hygiene)
 rushing into doing business before conversation and the drinking of tea and coffee (violation of a desert code of hospitality, a code stemming from the recognition that a desert traveler who is denied hospitality might not survive)
 admiring a movable possession of a Saudi, since a hospitable Saudi will feel obliged to offer the possession as a gift to the guest admirer

Observers have noted the importance of custom and tradition in Saudi society. Folk beliefs such as "which foot to step first into the bathroom with, or urinating on the wheel of a new car to ward off the evil eye," hold an important place.

Older brothers—even if older by only a few days—should have their hand kissed by younger brothers, sit above them on formal occasions, enter a room before them.

Women who go on even short trips of a few days are expected to visit senior relatives and even close neighbors to bid them goodbye, and upon returning, make another round of visits to the same individuals to pay her respects and dispense small gifts. Saudis may "require four to six months" to check their plans with extended family before finalizing them.

One observer has noted that "through their love of language, Saudis are swayed more by words rather than ideas and more by ideas than facts."  While vigorous public arguments ("shouting matches") may be commonplace, it "is most unusual to see a Saudi strike another Saudi." This emphasis on rhetoric is reflected in foreign affairs where, for example, the government "regularly condemns the State of Israel in the most vehement and bloodcurdling terms but rarely takes action."

Physical environment
Many outsiders are struck by the superficial resemblance of Saudi cities (at least the major cities such as Jeddah, Riyadh and the eastern province), with their superhighways, shopping malls and fast food, to those of post-World War II western cities and suburbs.

Urbanization
As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but the kingdom has urbanized rapidly in the last half of the 20th century. As of 2012 about 80% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas, specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, or Dammam.

Housing

Saudi houses and housing compounds are often noted for the high walls (3 or 4 metres high) surrounding them, explained as useful in keeping out sandstorms and/or reflective of the families' self-contained outlook on the world.

Style and decoration
Like many people throughout the world, many Saudis derive "much pleasure and pride" in their homes. Saudis enjoy decorating rooms of their homes in "all the colours of the spectrum" and display objets d'art of many different styles together. "Clashes of colour and culture are the norm, not the exception," with the value of an artefact, "rather than consistency of style" being the major criterion of display. Foreigners may also be struck by the lack of finishing touches in construction ("Electrical switches may protrude from the wall supported only by their wiring") or maintenance ("Piles of masonry are likely to lie scattered beside and on the streets of expensive suburbs").

Islamic heritage sites

Saudi Arabia, and specifically the Hejaz, as the cradle of Islam, has many of the most significant historic Muslim sites, including the two holiest sites of Mecca and Medina. One of the King's titles is Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, the two mosques being Masjid al-Haram in Mecca (which contains Islam's most sacred place, the Kaaba), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, which contains Muhammad's tomb.

However, Saudi Wahhabism doctrine is hostile! to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to 'shirk' (that is, idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, an estimated 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished for religious reasons. Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost, leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.

Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first Caliph), Umar (the second Caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth Caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions). Other historic buildings that have been destroyed include the house of Khadijah, the wife of Muhammad, the house of Abu Bakr, now the site of the local Hilton hotel; the house of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of Muhammad, and the Mosque of abu-Qubais, now the location of the King's palace in Mecca.

Women, youth and foreigners

Women

While women were forbidden to drive motor vehicles until June 24, 2018 and were consequently limited in mobility, they traditionally have often had considerable informal power in the home. According to journalist Judith Miller, "some Saudi women were veritable tyrants in their own homes. They decided where their children would go to school, when and whom they would marry, whether their husbands would accept new jobs, with whom the family socialized, and where the family would live and spend vacations. They promoted their friends' husbands, sons and relatives to key jobs." David Long, a former American diplomat who had taught in the kingdom, has described Saudi men as "the world's most henpecked".

Outside the home, a number of Saudi women have risen to the top of some professions or otherwise achieved prominence; for example, Dr. Salwa Al-Hazzaa is head of the ophthalmology department at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late King Fahad's personal ophthalmologist. However employment for women is limited, and urban middle and upper-class women spend much time in socializing with the extended family and close friends. Writing in National Geographic Marrianne Alireza noted: "For city women like us the only activity besides living communally within the extended family was leaving our quarters to visit other women in their quarters."

As of 2014, child marriage is still legal
but no longer common, with the average age at first marriage among Saudi females being 25 years old. However, in 2019 Members of the Saudi Shoura Council in 2019 approved fresh regulations for minor marriages that will see to outlaw marrying off 15-year-old children and force the need for court approval for those under 18. Chairman of the Human Rights Committee at the Shoura Council, Dr. Hadi Al-Yami, said that introduced controls were based on in-depth studies presented to the body. He pointed out that the regulation, vetted by the Islamic Affairs Committee at the Shoura Council, has raised the age of marriage to 18 and prohibited it for those under 15.  Female literacy (81%) is lower than that of males, but the percentage of university graduates who are women (60%) is higher.

While the kingdom states that the status of women is "a very noble and lofty one", according to leading Islamic scholars, women in Saudi do not have equal rights with men. Outside of Saudi, foreign sources have shown that discrimination of women is a significant problem and that there is an absence of laws criminalizing violence against women.
The World Economic Forum 2010 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 129th out of 134 countries for gender parity.

Under Saudi law, every adult female must have a male relative as her "guardian", whose permission she is required to have in order to travel, study, or work. The guardian is legally entitled to make a number of critical decisions on a woman's behalf. However, women above 18 will soon be allowed to travel abroad without taking their guardians permission as a new law is going to be enacted in this regard in 2019. In August 2019, the law has been already enacted and women above 21 are allowed to travel without a prior permission. The law came into effect at the end of August 2019.

In the courts, the testimony of a woman equals half of a man's and the testimony of one man equals that of two women in family and inheritance law. Men are permitted up to four wives, but women are permitted no more than one husband. Men need no legal justification to unilaterally divorce their wives (talaq), while a woman can only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her. With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the "Qu'ranic heirs" and so daughters of the deceased will receive half of their brothers.

Saudi women's lives are also shaped by Wahhabi religious policy of strict gender segregation. In health, obesity is a problem among middle and upper class Saudi women, who have domestic servants to do traditional work and have limited ability to leave their house. School sports for girls is forbidden, but as of April 2014, Saudi authorities in the education ministry have been asked by the Shoura Council to consider lifting that ban (with the proviso that any sports conform to Sharia rules on dress and gender segregation, according to the official SPA news agency).

In the public sphere restaurants have specially designated family sections women are required to use. They are also required to wear an abaya and at the very least cover their hair. Women, until June 2018 were forbidden to drive (though exception prior to 2018 were usually made in rural areas). (These restrictions are usually enforced by the "religious police", known as the mutaween.) Women have been promised the vote in 2015 municipal elections.

Youth

Like many Muslim countries of the Middle East, Saudi Arabia has a high population growth rate and high percentage of its population under 30 years of age. Estimates of the young population of Saudi Arabia vary:
 Caryle Murphy gives the figure of 51% of the population being under the age of 25, as of February 2012.
 The Economist magazine estimates 60% of the Saudi population under the age of 21, as of March 2012.
 The "United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision" estimates only 28% of the population is under 14 years of age and significant change to Saudi culture is foreseen as this generation becomes older.
Factors such as the decline in per capita income from the failure of oil revenue to keep up with population growth, exposure to youth lifestyles of the outside world, lack of access to quality education and employment opportunity, change in child rearing practices and attitudes towards the ruling royal family—indicate their lives and level of satisfaction will be different than the generation before them.

In recent decades, child rearing in Saudi Arabia has increasingly been handled by hired servants.
Since foreign labour is cheap and common, even families of modest means usually have servants. In richer families, each child may have an individual servant.

However, unlike parents, servants can be fired/sacked and are often neither Muslims nor Arabs. Consequently, according to John R. Bradley, they both "lack the authority... to discipline those in their care", and the ability and knowledge to "pass down by example the core Islamic values and traditions that have always formed the bedrock of Saudi society."

Unlike their parents, who grew up during the oil boom of the 1970s and saw their standard of living rise from poverty to affluence, Saudis born "in the 1980s and 1990s have no memory of the impoverished Arabia prior to the oil boom and thus express almost no sense of appreciation."

Instead, they have experienced a kingdom of poor schools, overcrowded universities, and declining job opportunities.. Moreover, their royal rulers' profligate and often non-Islamic lifestyles are increasingly transparent to Saudis and stand in sharp contrast both to Al Saud religious pretensions and to their own declining living standards."

Saudi youth are exposed to youth lifestyles of the outside world via the internet, as dating, and concerts are banned in their country. However, in 2017 concerts were no longer banned in Saudi Arabia. Public fields for soccer are scarce. Even shopping malls do not allow young men unless they are accompanied by a female relative.
As of 2014, men are no longer required to have a female relative to be able to enter shopping malls. Insofar as young people have a tendency to "resent authority, reject rules, and seek to exert their independence," youth rebellion is more problematic because the number of "restrictions and conventions against which youth can rebel" in the kingdom is far larger than in most societies. The average age of the king and crown prince is 74, while 50–60% of Saudis are under twenty, creating a significant generation gap between rulers and ruled.

In a 2011 survey, 31% of Saudi youth agreed with the statement `traditional values are outdated and ... I am keen to embrace modern values and beliefs`—the highest percentage in the ten Arab countries surveyed.
The number who had confidence about the direction of their country dropped from 98% (in 2010) to 62%.
While in most societies these numbers might seem unremarkable, in Saudi Arabia any rebellion stands out against "the unquestioning acceptance ... of previous generations".

Nearly two-thirds of university graduates earn degrees in Islamic subjects,
where job prospects are in the public sector, dependent on government revenues. However, funding for public sector may decline not expand in coming years. At least some experts expect the kingdom's expenditures to "exceed its oil revenues as soon as 2014."

Unemployment among 20- to 24-year-olds is 39% – 45% for women and 30.3% for men—compared to an official unemployment rate of 10% circa 2012.

Tafheet

The sport of Tafheet also called "drifting" or joyriding—illegal street racing-like phenomenon of generally non-modified factory-setup rental cars at very high speeds, around , across wide highways throwing the car left and right that is especially popular in the margins of society—has been noted by observers. A 2004 school survey carried out in the kingdom's three biggest cities found that 45% of teenage boys were involved to some degree in joyriding.
The sport has been described as "tyre-burning acrobatics often in stolen or 'borrowed' cars before a flash-mob of youthful admirers." As a dangerous, illegal, and unregulated activity, crashes and fatalities sometimes occur.

Foreigners

Since the 1960s there has been a significant number of guest workers/foreign expatriates allowed into Saudi on work visas, and these now make up around 20–30% of the population of the country. Guest workers range in occupation from high skilled workers (employed to do jobs Saudis cannot do), to manual service workers (doing jobs Saudis "will not do"). A number of sources describe a "pecking order" among workers established by factors such as the importance of your employer, and country of origin. One source places workers from Gulf oil producing countries at the top, another places Americans there, but all agree that Nationals from places like Bangladesh, Yemen and Philippines are at the bottom. While foreign workers from Western countries are now a small minority, numbering only approximately 100,000, most of whom live in compounds or gated communities.

With a large number of unemployed Saudis, a growing population and need for government spending but stagnating oil revenues with which to pay foreign workers, the large number of expats has come to be seen as "an enormous problem" that "distorts" the Saudi economy and "keeps young people out of the labour market."

In October 2011, the Saudi Labour Ministry put a "ceiling" on the number of guest workers at 20% of the Saudi population, requiring a reduction of foreign population by up to three million over several years.
In March 2013, a campaign was initiated to "get rid of its illegal foreign workers, control the legal ones", and lower native-born Saudi unemployment. Approximately one million Bangladeshis, Indians, Filipinos, Nepalis, Pakistanis and Yemenis left between the campaign's beginning and the deadline (November 4, 2013), with authorities planning to expel another one million illegal foreigners in 2014. Ethiopians were a particular target of the campaign, with thousands expelled. Various human rights entities have criticised Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue. Prior to this workers were sometimes not hired or expelled as a way of registering Saudi disapproval of the workers' country. Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 during the Gulf War due to Yemen's support for Saddam Hussein against Saudi Arabia, and cut the number of Bangladeshis allowed to enter Saudi in 2013 after the Bangladeshi government cracked down on the Islamist Jamaat-e Islami party there.

The Saudi–Yemen barrier was constructed by Saudi Arabia against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.
A 2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers, entitles Muslim expatriates of all nationalities (except Palestinian) who have resided in the kingdom for ten years to apply for citizenship with priority being given to holders of degrees in various scientific fields. (The estimated 240,000 Palestinians living in Saudi Arabia are excluded, because of Arab League agreement instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship of another Arab state.)

Treatment of foreign workers is also an issue. According to Human Rights Watch, as of 2014, there was a "worrying trend" of expatriate domestic workers filing "complaints of exploitation and abuse" only to face counter-allegations by their employers of "theft, witchcraft or adultery."  41 expat workers from just one country, Indonesia, faced "possible death sentences" in Saudi Arabia on charges "ranging from black magic to stealing, adultery and murder".

In 2014 Saudi men were banned from marrying women from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar and Chad.

Legacy of slavery

The history of slavery in the Arabian Peninsula goes back hundreds of years, but with time the racism of slavery in the Arabian Peninsula disappeared.

Food and drink
Today, Saudis follow many of their traditional habits, especially in food and drinks. As many Saudies are originally descended from tribes of sheep and goat herders, many Saudi dishes are mainly made of sheep meat.

Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula, and has been heavily influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal Islamic dietary laws, which consider pork forbidden (haram) and alcohol forbidden (haram). As a general rule, Saudis (like other Muslims) consider impure pork to be disgusting, but forbidden alcohol a temptation. Consequently, dietary laws regarding the former are more strictly observed than those regarding the latter.

Religious limitations
People of Saudi Arabia are restricted by the religious norms related to food and drink. Thus, alcohol is prohibited in Islam and, accordingly, it is prevented in the country. Furthermore, pork is also prohibited and Saudis do not eat it. Nevertheless, cows, sheep, chicken and other types of animals can't be eaten unless they are slaughtered according to the Islamic law.

Cuisine

A dish consisting of a stuffed lamb, known as khūzī, is the traditional national dish. Kebabs are popular, as is shāwarmā, a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken, sometimes wrapped in flat bread. As in other Arab countries of the Arabian Peninsula, machbūs (kabsa), a rice dish with fish or shrimp, is popular. Flat, unleavened bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates and fresh fruit. Coffee, served in the Arabic style, is the traditional beverage.

The appearance of modern supermarkets and commercial restaurants starting in the 1970s has changed Saudi culinary habits. International cuisine, particularly fast food, has become popular in all Saudi urban areas (i.e. in 80% of the country).
While traditionally Saudis ate sitting on the floor using the right hand or flat bread to take food from a roasted lamb, goat or camel carcass, the practice of eating while sitting on a chair at a table has become more standard practice, if not the use of knives and forks.

Table manners

Coffee is often served "with great ceremony", and it is customary for a person to drink two or three cups to indicate their approval of the coffee. Cups are refilled unless a gesture—shaking the cup—is made to indicate the coffee-drinker has had enough. It is considered good manners for a guest to eat heartily.

Food sources
Saudi Arabia is a deserted country where many oases can be found. Accordingly, over 18 million date palms are planted in the country and 600 million pounds of dates are produced every year. Thus, dates are considered one of the main and permanent fruits in Saudi Arabia, particularly in Ramadan when dates are eaten in sunset by fasters to break their fast. Additionally, dates are eaten as a snack and many Saudi desserts are made of dates. Besides dates, numerous kinds of foodstuffs are planted in Saudi Arabia, including wheat, rice, beans, watermelon and others. Animals, such as goats, sheep, cows and camels are also nurtured in the country.

News media

Educated Saudis are well-informed of issues of the Arab world, the Islamic world, and the world at large, but freedom of the press and public expression of opinion are not recognized by the government. The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia states that the media's role is to educate and inspire national unity, and are prohibited from acts that lead "to disorder and division". News stories, public speeches and other acts of personal expression cannot conflict with traditional Islamic values, or dissent from government policy, insult government officials, especially the royal family, and cannot delve too deeply into certain sensitive and taboo subject matters that might embarrass the government or spread dissent, i.e. the role of women in Saudi society, the treatment of Shiite Muslims, damage caused by natural disasters, or social problems such as the AIDS-HIV pandemic and human trafficking.

Most Saudi Arabian newspapers are privately-owned but subsidized and regulated by the government.
As of 2013, BBC News reported that criticism of the government and royal family and the questioning of Islamic tenets "are not generally tolerated. Self-censorship is pervasive." As of 2014, Freedom House rates the kingdom's press and internet "Not Free".

Civil society
Labor unions and political parties are prohibited in the kingdom, although a few underground political parties do exist. The government has created a national "Consultative Council" (which is appointed not elected, and does not pass laws), and has given permission for certain "societies" to exist (though they have little ability to influence government policy).
Informal public discussion of public policy is not actively encouraged, although it is not expressly illegal per se, unless it is deemed to be promoting immorality, dissent or disloyalty.  Limited non-partisan municipal elections were held in 2005.

Sport

The most popular sport in Saudi Arabia is Association football (soccer) in both in participation and viewing. It is governed by the Saudi Arabia Football Federation that was founded in 1956. Football manager Jürgen Klopp has commented that with all "the different perceptions" held by the Western world, those living there "definitely don't understand the culture [of Saudi Arabia] in all its details".

There are 60 football clubs participating in three main professional football league levels; the Saudi Professional League involving 16 football clubs, Prince Mohammad bin Salman League with 20 clubs and Second Division with 24 clubs. The demotics competitions also include some cups such as King club, Crown Prince Cup and Saudi Super Cup.

The Saudi Arabia national football team has qualified five times for FIFA World Cup competitions, in 1994, 1998, 2002,  2006, and most recently, in 2018. Moreover, it qualified for the AFC Asian Cup 10 times and had won three of them.

Recently, some Saudi players have become skilled enough to play in Europe. The players were sent to Spain to play in the La Liga aiming to improve their skills better.

Basketball is also popular. The Saudi Arabia national team won the bronze medal at the 1999 Asian Championship.

Horse racing is also another diversion in Saudi Arabia which has a historical and cultural legacy where Friday afternoon is the traditional time of horse racing in Riyadh, the Saudi capital. The establishment of the Equestrian Club of Riyadh in 1965 was a result of the importance of horse racing. Moreover, now Saudis are the dominant player in some international horse racing such as Royal Ascot to Longchamp and Melbourne.

Falconry is another sport with long traditions rooted in Bedouin culture. It mainly consists of raising falcons, training them and using them for hunting. Despite the inscription of Falconry by the UNESCO as a living human heritage, it is also emerging as a sport.

Camel racing is a uniquely Arabian sport practiced in the kingdom (and the UAE) that still has some mass popularity. There are camel racetracks in most of the kingdom's major centres, and races for prize money on many weekends throughout the winter months. Like racehorses, camels with breeding pedigrees may be very valuable.

Women's sport

In 2012, Saudi Arabia included women in its Olympic team for the first time. Two female athletes—a runner and judoka—participated. The inclusion followed international criticism for years of exclusion, but was controversial in the kingdom, and "prompted some to abuse the morals" of the athletes on social media.

As of April 2014, Saudi authorities in the education ministry have been asked by the Shoura Council to consider lifting a state school ban on sports for girls with the proviso that any sports conform to Sharia rules on dress and gender segregation, according to the official SPA news agency.

Women participation have then increased as four athletes were sent to the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio. They were two runner Sarah Attar, and Cariman Abu al-Jadail joined by judo athlete Wujud Fahmi and fencing competitor Lubna al-Omair.

In 2018, more than 1300 girls participated in a 3 km marathon, al-Ahsa Runs, for the first time in the country.

Arts and entertainment

Visual arts tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. Sunni Islam traditionally prohibits creating representations of people. With the advent of oil wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes.

Calligraphy is the art of forming arranging beautiful letters and symbols, and it is among the dominant art forms in Saudi Arabia. This art has been emerging in different themes such as metalwork, ceramics, glass textiles, painting, and sculpture.

Apart from the dominant art forms, there were some portrait paintings and sculptures produced by some artists in the 1960s like Artist Dia Aziz Dia from Jeddah.

Al-Qatt Al-Asiri is another essential art form represents the identity of the Asir region. It is the art of interior wall decoration usually carried out by women. The base of this art is white gypsum with colorful patterns of geometric shapes and symbol painted on it. This art form is now inscribed on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

The ten-day-long Jenadriyah National Festival celebrates the founding of the kingdom and showcases Saudi culture and heritage, traditional crafts such as pottery and woodcutting, folk dance and traditional songs.

Music and dance

Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is still very popular.
Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine).
Al-sihba folk music has its origins in al-Andalus. In Mecca, Medina and Jeddah, dance and song incorporate the sound of the mizmar, an oboe-like woodwind instrument, in the performance of the mizmar dance. The drum is also an important instrument according to traditional and tribal customs. Samri is a popular traditional form of music and dance in which poetry is sung.
Of the native dances, the most popular is a martial line dance known as the Al Ardha, which includes lines of men, frequently armed with swords or rifles, dancing to the beat of drums and tambourines. As one non-Saudi described it, the performance consists of: "barefooted males clad in their normal street clothes of thobe and gutra jumping up and down mostly in one spot while wielding swords".

Dahha is another popular dance in Northern Saudi performed by one line of men or two lines facing each other while a man in between sings a poem which can be a satirical, eulogy or a descriptive poem.

Literature

Bedouin poetry is a cultural tradition in Saudi Arabia. According to Sandra Mackey, author of The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom, "the role that formal poetry, prose, and oratory play in Saudi culture is totally alien to Western culture." Mackey explained that the Bedouin poet was the origin of Saudi society's traditionally strong attachment to the concept of language. She said that poetry "can arise in the most curious of situations" due to the role of poetry in Saudi culture.

The literary renaissance began during the first quarter of the 20th century where the literary genre of poetry was improved in language and number of poets. The pioneer poets during that era include Mohammed Faqi (1914-2004), Tahir Zamakhshri (1914-1987), and Hasan Alqurashi (1926-2004).

Novel writing is another literary genre in Saudi literature where the first Saudi novel was The Twins (1930) by Abdul Alquddus Alansari. In the modern era of Saudi novel, some novel writer becomes popular like Turki Alhamad, Abdu Khal Raja Alim.

Theatre in Saudi Arabia back to 1928 where their origins were schools. The earliest attempts were in Qassim and Makkah, and subsequently, universities contributed to the theatre activities.

Contemporary Saudi novelists and artists include:
 Abdul Rahman Munif (many of his books were banned and his citizenship revoked)
 Turki al-Hamad
 Raja'a Alem
 Rajaa Al Sanie, author of best-selling novel Girls of Riyadh
 Ghazi Abdul Rahman Al Gosaibi
 Haifaa al-Mansour

Entertainment

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to tribal norms. All cinemas and theaters were closed in 1980 as a political response to the Islamic revival and the increase in Islamist activism, most particularly the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca. As of 2018, cinemas opened in multiple cities including Riyadh and Jeddah.

Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman's Vision 2030 should bring cinemas back to the country in early 2018. The establishment of the General Authority for Entertainment in 2016 has pushed for entertainment options of the including cinemas, public concerts, international conferences, competitions, singing show and other cultural activities.

See also

 Arab culture
 Architecture of Saudi Arabia

Notes

References

External links
 International Religious Freedom Report 2010
 Consular Information Sheet
 Saudi Arabia a cultural profile
 Fashion show women's heritage Arabia
 Saudi Women Shatter the Lingerie Ceiling

Saudi
Saudi
Saudi

Culture of Saudi Arabia