Die Grob G 120TP ist ein zweisitziges, kunstflugtaugliches einmotoriges Flugzeug der Grob Aircraft AG.

Geschichte
Auf der ILA 2010 in Berlin stellte Grob die Weiterentwicklung der Grob G 120A, die G 120TP vor. Die G 120TP wurde als Trainingsflugzeug für die militärische Pilotenaus- und -weiterbildung entwickelt.
Nach ihrem Erstflug am 25. Mai 2010 erfolgte die Weiterentwicklung zur Serienreife und schließlich die Typzulassung durch die EASA im Mai 2013.

Konstruktion
Die G 120TP ist wie alle Flugzeuge des Herstellers Grob aus Faserverbundwerkstoff gefertigt. Der Rumpf besteht aus glasfaserverstärktem Kunststoff, die Tragflächen werden aus kohlenstofffaserverstärktem Kunststoff hergestellt.
Gedacht als eine Variante der G 120A, wurde die G 120TP jedoch im Laufe der Entwurfsphase nahezu neu entwickelt, so dass ein eigenständiges Flugzeug entstanden ist, das nicht mehr mit der G 120A vergleichbar ist.

Technik
Neben der analogen Basis-Konfiguration verfügt die G 120TP über ein Glascockpit, bestehend aus vier Genesys Aerosystems IDU-680 mit 3D Synthetic Vision. Die Sitze sind auch weiterhin in der Side-by-Side-Konfiguration angeordnet, um neben zukünftigen Jetpiloten auch Pilotenschüler für Transportflugzeuge und Drehflügler optimal ausbilden zu können. Optional können hier eigens für die G 120TP entwickelte Leicht-Schleudersitze vom Modell Mk.17 von Martin-Baker geordert werden. Das bis +6g bis −4g kunstflugtaugliche Trainingsflugzeug wird von einem Rolls-Royce Turbo-Prop-Allison-M250-B17F-Triebwerk mit einem 5-Blatt-Constant-Speed-Propeller mit einem Durchmesser von 2,1 m aus dem Hause MT-Propeller angetrieben.

Technische Daten

Betreiber

Argentinien folgte als zweiter Betreiber der G 120TP und als erster Nutzer der digitalen Cockpitvariante. Hier wurden zehn Flugzeuge geordert, mit einer Option auf weitere fünf.

Bangladesch orderte 2021 insgesamt 24 Maschinen.

 Equador orderte Ende 2019 acht G 120TP.

Der erste Käufer der G 120TP war die Indonesian Air Force. Dort konnte sich die G 120TP erfolgreich bei einer internationalen Ausschreibung der indonesischen Luftwaffe für die Beschaffung von 24 (+ 6 Nachbestellungen aus 14 Optionen) neuen Trainingsflugzeugen sowie einem G 120TP Simulator durchsetzen.

Die Jordanischen Luftstreitkräfte werden ab April 2016 die G 120TP für das Pilotentraining einsetzen. Der Vertrag umfasst 12 + 2 Flugzeuge sowie ein CBT System und ein G 120TP Flight Training Device.

Die Mexikanischen Luftwaffe (FAM) hat die G 120TP als neuen Elementary Trainer ausgewählt. Der Vertrag beinhaltet die Lieferung von 25 Flugzeugen (mit Option auf 15 weitere Flugzeuge), einem CBT System und vier Simulatoren, wobei die Lieferung des ersten Batches im Februar 2015 zum 100-jährigen Jubiläum erfolgt ist.

Die myanmarische Luftwaffe hat bei Grob Aircraft 20 Flugzeuge, ein CBT System und einen Simulator bestellt, wobei die letzte Auslieferung im April 2016 stattfand.

Das Schwedische Verteidigungsministerium (Försvarets materielverk) verkündete im Mai 2021 den Kauf von sieben G 120TP Schulflugzeugen und einem Simulator mit der Option auf weitere Flugzeuge für die Flygvapnet. Die Auslieferung erfolgte ab März 2023 an die  FlygSkolan in Malmen. Die Grob G 120PT (schwedische Bezeichnung: Sk 40) ersetzte teilweise die Saab 105 (Sk 60) teilweise.

Dem britischen Verteidigungsministerium zufolge wird das zukünftige "UK Military Flight Training System (MFTS)" den britischen Militär-Piloten das Basistraining auf G 120TPs ermöglichen. Im Rahmen des Programms werden diverse bisherige Trainingssysteme der Royal Air Force, der Royal Navy und des Army Air Corps ersetzt. Affinity als Service-Provider wird die G 120TP zusammen mit der Beechcraft T-6 für Einführungs-, Basis- und Fortgeschrittenentraining nutzen sowie das Transportpilotensegment über die Embraer Phenom 100 abdecken.

Die United States Army hat die G 120TP ausgewählt, um allumfassendes Training für jährlich mehr als 600 angehende und aktive Piloten der U.S. Army und U.S. Air Force durchzuführen. Dieses Training beinhaltet die Umschulung von Hubschrauberpiloten sowie die Ausbildung von Pilotenanwärtern.
Zusammen mit CAE USA wird Grob Aircraft sogenanntes Turnkey Training inklusive akademischer Ausbildung sowie Simulator- und Flugzeugschulung mit insgesamt 6 (+1) Flugzeugen in einem eigens dafür gebauten Trainingszentrum am Dothan Regionalflughafen in Alabama zur Verfügung stellen.

Weblinks

 Herstellerwebseite G 120TP
 Musterzulassung der G 120TP – EASA-TCDS-A.565  (PDF; 102 kB)

Einzelnachweise

Grob Aircraft
Schulflugzeug
Erstflug 2010
Einmotoriges Turbopropflugzeug

Grob G 120TP


In geometry, the 600-cell is the convex regular 4-polytope (four-dimensional analogue of a Platonic solid) with Schläfli symbol {3,3,5}.
It is also known as the C600, hexacosichoron and hexacosihedroid.
It is also called a tetraplex (abbreviated from "tetrahedral complex") and a polytetrahedron, being bounded by tetrahedral cells.

The 600-cell's boundary is composed of 600 tetrahedral cells with 20 meeting at each vertex.
Together they form 1200 triangular faces, 720 edges, and 120 vertices.
It is the 4-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron, since it has five tetrahedra meeting at every edge, just as the icosahedron has five triangles meeting at every vertex.
Its dual polytope is the 120-cell.

Geometry

The 600-cell is the fifth in the sequence of 6 convex regular 4-polytopes (in order of size and complexity).
It can be deconstructed into twenty-five overlapping instances of its immediate predecessor the 24-cell, as the 24-cell can be deconstructed into three overlapping instances of its predecessor the tesseract (8-cell), and the 8-cell can be deconstructed into two overlapping instances of its predecessor the 16-cell.

The reverse procedure to construct each of these from an instance of its predecessor preserves the radius of the predecessor, but generally produces a successor with a smaller edge length.
The 24-cell's edge length equals its radius, but the 600-cell's edge length is ~0.618 times its radius.
The 600-cell's radius and edge length are in the golden ratio.

Coordinates

Unit radius Cartesian coordinates
The vertices of a 600-cell of unit radius centered at the origin of 4-space, with edges of length  ≈ 0.618 (where φ =  ≈ 1.618 is the golden ratio), can be given as follows:

8 vertices obtained from

(0, 0, 0, ±1)

by permuting coordinates, and 16 vertices of the form:

(±, ±, ±, ±)

The remaining 96 vertices are obtained by taking even permutations of

(±, ±, ±, 0)

Note that the first 8 are the vertices of a 16-cell, the second 16 are the vertices of a tesseract, and those 24 vertices together are the vertices of a 24-cell.
The remaining 96 vertices are the vertices of a snub 24-cell, which can be found by partitioning each of the 96 edges of another 24-cell (dual to the first) in the golden ratio in a consistent manner.

When interpreted as quaternions, these are the unit icosians.

In the 24-cell, there are squares, hexagons and triangles that lie on great circles (in central planes through four or six vertices).
In the 600-cell there are twenty-five overlapping inscribed 24-cells, with each vertex and square shared by five 24-cells, and each hexagon or triangle shared by two 24-cells.
In each 24-cell there are three disjoint 16-cells, so in the 600-cell there are 75 overlapping inscribed 16-cells.
Each 16-cell constitutes a distinct orthonormal basis for the choice of a coordinate reference frame.

The 60 axes and 75 16-cells of the 600-cell constitute a geometric configuration, which in the language of configurations is written as 605754 to indicate that each axis belongs to 5 16-cells, and each 16-cell contains 4 axes.
Each axis is orthogonal to exactly 15 others, and these are just its companions in the 5 16-cells in which it occurs.

Hopf spherical coordinates
In the 600-cell there are also great circle pentagons and decagons (in central planes through ten vertices).

Only the decagon edges are visible elements of the 600-cell (because they are the edges of the 600-cell).
The edges of the other great circle polygons are interior chords of the 600-cell, which are not shown in any of the 600-cell renderings in this article (except where shown as dashed lines).

By symmetry, an equal number of polygons of each kind pass through each vertex; so it is possible to account for all 120 vertices as the intersection of a set of central polygons of only one kind: decagons, hexagons, pentagons, squares, or triangles.
For example, the 120 vertices can be seen as the vertices of 15 pairs of completely orthogonal squares which do not share any vertices, or as 100 dual pairs of non-orthogonal hexagons between which all axis pairs are orthogonal, or as 144 non-orthogonal pentagons six of which intersect at each vertex.
This latter pentagonal symmetry of the 600-cell is captured by the set of Hopf coordinates (𝜉i, 𝜂, 𝜉j) given as:

 ({<10}, {≤5}, {<10})

where {<10} is the permutation of the ten digits (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9) and {≤5} is the permutation of the six digits (0 1 2 3 4 5).
The 𝜉i and 𝜉j coordinates range over the 10 vertices of great circle decagons; even and odd digits label the vertices of the two great circle pentagons inscribed in each decagon.

Structure

Polyhedral sections
The mutual distances of the vertices, measured in degrees of arc on the circumscribed hypersphere, only have the values 36° = , 60° = , 72° = , 90° = , 108° = , 120° = , 144° = , and 180° = 𝜋.
Departing from an arbitrary vertex V one has at 36° and 144° the 12 vertices of an icosahedron, at 60° and 120° the 20 vertices of a dodecahedron, at 72° and 108° the 12 vertices of a larger icosahedron, at 90° the 30 vertices of an icosidodecahedron, and finally at 180° the antipodal vertex of V.
These can be seen in the H3 Coxeter plane projections with overlapping vertices colored.

These polyhedral sections are solids in the sense that they are 3-dimensional, but of course all of their vertices lie on the surface of the 600-cell (they are hollow, not solid).
Each polyhedron lies in Euclidean 4-dimensional space as a parallel cross section through the 600-cell (a hyperplane).
In the curved 3-dimensional space of the 600-cell's boundary surface envelope, the polyhedron surrounds the vertex V the way it surrounds its own center.
But its own center is in the interior of the 600-cell, not on its surface.
V is not actually at the center of the polyhedron, because it is displaced outward from that hyperplane in the fourth dimension, to the surface of the 600-cell.
Thus V is the apex of a 4-pyramid based on the polyhedron.

Golden chords

The 120 vertices are distributed at eight different chord lengths from each other.
These edges and chords of the 600-cell are simply the edges and chords of its five great circle polygons.
In ascending order of length, they are , , , , , , , and .

Notice that the four hypercubic chords of the 24-cell (, , , ) alternate with the four new chords of the 600-cell's additional great circles, the decagons and pentagons.
The new golden chord lengths are necessarily square roots of fractions, but very special fractions related to the golden ratio including the two golden sections of , as shown in the diagram.

Boundary envelopes

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more overlapping 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell.
The new surface thus formed is a tessellation of smaller, more numerous cells and faces: tetrahedra of edge length  ≈ 0.618 instead of octahedra of edge length 1.
It encloses the  edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the  and  chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of , the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell does not have unit edge-length in a unit-radius coordinate system the way the 24-cell and the tesseract do; unlike those two, the 600-cell is not radially equilateral.
Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which golden triangles rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

The boundary envelope of 600 small tetrahedral cells wraps around the twenty-five envelopes of 24 octahedral cells (adding some 4-dimensional space in places between these curved 3-dimensional envelopes).
The shape of those interstices must be an octahedral 4-pyramid of some kind, but in the 600-cell it is not regular.

Geodesics
The vertex chords of the 600-cell are arranged in geodesic great circle polygons of five kinds: decagons, hexagons, pentagons, squares, and triangles.

The  = 𝚽 edges form 72 flat regular central decagons, 6 of which cross at each vertex.
Just as the icosidodecahedron can be partitioned into 6 central decagons (60 edges = 6 × 10), the 600-cell can be partitioned into 72 decagons (720 edges = 72 × 10).
The 720  edges divide the surface into 1200 triangular faces and 600 tetrahedral cells: a 600-cell. The 720 edges occur in 360 parallel pairs,  apart.
As in the decagon and the icosidodecahedron, the edges occur in golden triangles which meet at the center of the polytope.
The 72 great decagons can be divided into 6 sets of 12 non-intersecting Clifford parallel geodesics, such that only one decagonal great circle in each set passes through each vertex, and the 12 decagons in each set reach all 120 vertices.

The  chords form 200 central hexagons (25 sets of 16, with each hexagon in two sets), 10 of which cross at each vertex (4 from each of five 24-cells that meet at the vertex, with each hexagon in two of those 24-cells).
Each set of 16 hexagons consists of the 96 edges and 24 vertices of one of the 25 overlapping inscribed 24-cells.
The  chords join vertices which are two  edges apart.
Each  chord is the long diameter of a face-bonded pair of tetrahedral cells (a triangular bipyramid), and passes through the center of the shared face.
As there are 1200 faces, there are 1200  chords, in 600 parallel pairs,  apart.
The hexagonal planes are non-orthogonal (60 degrees apart) but they occur as 100 dual pairs in which all 3 axes of one hexagon are orthogonal to all 3 axes of its dual.
The 200 great hexagons can be divided into 10 sets of 20 non-intersecting Clifford parallel geodesics, such that only one hexagonal great circle in each set passes through each vertex, and the 20 hexagons in each set reach all 120 vertices.

The  chords form 144 central pentagons, 6 of which cross at each vertex.
The  chords run vertex-to-every-second-vertex in the same planes as the 72 decagons: two pentagons are inscribed in each decagon.
The  chords join vertices which are two  edges apart on a geodesic great circle.
The 720  chords occur in 360 parallel pairs,  = φ apart.

The  chords form 90 central squares (18 great squares from each of 5 disjoint 24-cells), 15 of which cross at each vertex (3 from each of the five 24-cells that meet at the vertex).
The  chords join vertices which are three  edges apart (and two  chords apart).
Each  chord is a long diameter of five different octahedral cells, in five disjoint 24-cells.
There are 360  chords, in 180 parallel pairs,  apart.
The 90 great squares (45 completely orthogonal pairs) can be divided into 15 sets of 30 non-intersecting Clifford parallel geodesics, such that only one square great circle in each set passes through each vertex, and the 30 squares in each set reach all 120 vertices.

The  = φ chords form the legs of 720 central isosceles triangles (72 sets of 10 inscribed in each decagon), 6 of which cross at each vertex.
The third edge (base) of each isosceles triangle is of length .
The  chords run vertex-to-every-third-vertex in the same planes as the 72 decagons, joining vertices which are three  edges apart on a geodesic great circle.
There are 720 distinct  chords, in 360 parallel pairs,  apart.

The  chords form 400 equilateral central triangles (25 sets of 32, with each triangle in two sets), 10 of which cross at each vertex (4 from each of five 24-cells, with each triangle in two of the 24-cells).
Each set of 32 triangles consists of the 96  chords and 24 vertices of one of the 25 overlapping inscribed 24-cells.
The  chords run vertex-to-every-second-vertex in the same planes as the 200 hexagons: two triangles are inscribed in each hexagon. The  chords join vertices which are four  edges apart (and two  chords apart on a geodesic great circle).
Each  chord is the long diameter of two cubic cells in the same 24-cell.
There are 1200  chords, in 600 parallel pairs,  apart.

The  chords (the diagonals of the pentagons) form the legs of 720 central isosceles triangles (144 sets of 5 inscribed in each pentagon), 6 of which cross at each vertex.
The third edge (base) of each isosceles triangle is an edge of the pentagon of length , so these are golden triangles. The  chords run vertex-to-every-fourth-vertex in the same planes as the 72 decagons, joining vertices which are four  edges apart on a geodesic great circle.
There are 720 distinct  chords, in 360 parallel pairs,  apart.

The  chords occur as 60 long diameters (75 sets of 4 orthogonal axes with each set comprising a 16-cell), the 120 long radii of the 600-cell.
The  chords join opposite vertices which are five  edges apart on a geodesic great circle.
There are 25 distinct but overlapping sets of 12 diameters, each comprising one of the 25 inscribed 24-cells.

The sum of the squared lengths of all these distinct chords of the 600-cell is 14,400 = 1202.
These are all the central polygons through vertices, but the 600-cell does have one noteworthy great circle that does not pass through any vertices (a 0-gon).
Moreover, in 4-space there are geodesics on the 3-sphere which do not lie in central planes at all.
There are geodesic shortest paths between two 600-cell vertices that are helical rather than simply circular; they correspond to isoclinic (diagonal) rotations rather than simple rotations.

All the geodesic polygons enumerated above lie in central planes of just three kinds, each characterized by a rotation angle: decagon planes ( apart), hexagon planes ( apart, also in the 25 inscribed 24-cells), and square planes ( apart, also in the 75 inscribed 16-cells and the 24-cells).
These central planes of the 600-cell can be divided into 4 orthogonal central hyperplanes (3-spaces) each forming an icosidodecahedron.
There are 90 great squares 90 degrees apart; 200 great hexagons 60 degrees apart; and 72 great decagons 36 degrees apart.
Each great square plane is completely orthogonal to another great square plane.
Each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices (one  long diameter): a great digon plane.
Each great decagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects no vertices: a great 0-gon plane.

Fibrations of great circle polygons
Each set of similar great circle polygons (squares or hexagons or decagons) can be divided into bundles of non-intersecting Clifford parallel great circles (of 30 squares or 20 hexagons or 12 decagons).
Each fiber bundle of Clifford parallel great circles is a discrete Hopf fibration which fills the 600-cell, visiting all 120 vertices just once. Each discrete Hopf fibration has its 3-dimensional base which is a distinct polyhedron that acts as a map or scale model of the fibration.
The great circle polygons in each bundle spiral around each other, delineating helical rings of face-bonded cells which nest into each other, pass through each other without intersecting in any cells and exactly fill the 600-cell with their disjoint cell sets.
The different fiber bundles with their cell rings each fill the same space (the 600-cell) but their fibers run Clifford parallel in different "directions"; great circle polygons in different fibrations are not Clifford parallel.

Decagons

The fibrations of the 600-cell include 6 fibrations of its 72 great decagons: 6 fiber bundles of 12 great decagons.
Each fiber bundle delineates 20 helical rings of 30 tetrahedral cells each, with five rings nesting together around each decagon. The Hopf map of this fibration is the icosahedron, where each of 12 vertices lifts to a great decagon, and each of 20 triangular faces lifts to a 30-cell ring.
Each tetrahedral cell occupies only one of the 20 cell rings in each of the 6 fibrations.
The tetrahedral cell contributes each of its 6 edges to a decagon in a different fibration, but contributes that edge to five distinct cell rings in the fibration.

The 12 great circles and 30-cell rings of the 600-cell's 6 characteristic Hopf fibrations make the 600-cell a geometric configuration of 30 "points" and 12 "lines" written as 302125.
It is called the Schläfli double six configuration after Ludwig Schläfli, the Swiss mathematician who discovered the 600-cell and the complete set of regular polytopes in n dimensions.

Hexagons
The fibrations of the 24-cell include 4 fibrations of its 16 great hexagons: 4 fiber bundles of 4 great hexagons.
Each fiber bundle delineates 4 helical rings of 6 octahedral cells each, with three rings nesting together around each hexagon.
Each octahedral cell occupies only one cell ring in each of the 4 fibrations.
The octahedral cell contributes 3 of its 12 edges to 3 different Clifford parallel hexagons in each fibration, but contributes each edge to three distinct cell rings in the fibration.

The 600-cell contains 25 24-cells, and can be seen (10 different ways) as a compound of 5 disjoint 24-cells.
It has 10 fibrations of its 200 great hexagons: 10 fiber bundles of 20 great hexagons.
Each fiber bundle delineates 20 helical rings of 6 octahedral cells each, with three rings nesting together around each hexagon.
The Hopf map of this fibration is the dodecahedron, where the 20 vertices lift to a bundle of great hexagons.
Each octahedral cell occupies only one of the 20 cell rings in each of the 10 fibrations.
The 20 6-octahedron rings belong to 5 disjoint 24-cells of 4 6-octahedron rings each; each hexagonal fibration of the 600-cell consists of 5 disjoint 24-cells.

Squares
The fibrations of the 16-cell include 3 fibrations of its 6 great squares: 3 fiber bundles of 2 great squares.
Each fiber bundle delineates 2 helical rings of 8 tetrahedral cells each.
Each tetrahedral cell occupies only one cell ring in each of the 3 fibrations.
The tetrahedral cell contributes each of its 6 edges to a different square (contributing two opposite non-intersecting edges to each of the 3 fibrations), but contributes each edge to both of the two distinct cell rings in the fibration.

The 600-cell contains 75 16-cells, and can be seen (10 different ways) as a compound of 15 disjoint 16-cells.
It has 15 fibrations of its 90 great squares: 15 fiber bundles of 30 great squares. Each fiber bundle delineates 30 cell-disjoint helical rings of 8 tetrahedral cells each.
The Hopf map of this fibration is the icosidodecahedron, where the 30 vertices lift to a bundle of great squares.
Each tetrahedral cell occupies only one of the 30 cell rings in each of the 15 fibrations.

Clifford parallel cell rings
The densely packed helical cell rings of fibrations are cell-disjoint, but they share vertices, edges and faces.
Each fibration of the 600-cell can be seen as a dense packing of cell rings with the corresponding faces of adjacent cell rings face-bonded to each other.
The same fibration can also be seen as a minimal sparse arrangement of fewer completely disjoint cell rings that do not touch at all.

The fibrations of great decagons can be seen (five different ways) as 4 completely disjoint 30-cell rings with spaces separating them, rather than as 20 face-bonded cell rings, by leaving out all but one cell ring of the five that meet at each decagon.
The five different ways you can do this are equivalent, in that all five correspond to the same discrete fibration (in the same sense that the 6 decagonal fibrations are equivalent, in that all 6 cover the same 600-cell).
The 4 cell rings still constitute the complete fibration: they include all 12 Clifford parallel decagons, which visit all 120 vertices.
This subset of 4 of 20 cell rings is dimensionally analogous to the subset of 12 of 72 decagons, in that both are sets of completely disjoint Clifford parallel polytopes which visit all 120 vertices.
The subset of 4 of 20 cell rings is one of 5 fibrations within the fibration of 12 of 72 decagons: a fibration of a fibration.
All the fibrations have this two level structure with subfibrations.

The fibrations of the 24-cell's great hexagons can be seen (three different ways) as 2 completely disjoint 6-cell rings with spaces separating them, rather than as 4 face-bonded cell rings, by leaving out all but one cell ring of the three that meet at each hexagon.
Therefore each of the 10 fibrations of the 600-cell's great hexagons can be seen as 2 completely disjoint octahedral cell rings.

The fibrations of the 16-cell's great squares can be seen (two different ways) as a single 8-tetrahedral-cell ring with an adjacent cell-ring-sized empty space, rather than as 2 face-bonded cell rings, by leaving out one of the two cell rings that meet at each square.
Therefore each of the 15 fibrations of the 600-cell's great squares can be seen as a single tetrahedral cell ring.

The sparse constructions of the 600-cell's fibrations correspond to lower-symmetry decompositions of the 600-cell, 24-cell or 16-cell with cells of different colors to distinguish the cell rings from the spaces between them.
The particular lower-symmetry form of the 600-cell corresponding to the sparse construction of the great decagon fibrations is dimensionally analogous to the snub tetrahedron form of the icosahedron (which is the base of these fibrations on the 2-sphere).
Each of the 20 Boerdijk-Coxeter cell rings is lifted from a corresponding face of the icosahedron.

Constructions
The 600-cell incorporates the geometries of every convex regular polytope in the first four dimensions, except the 5-cell, the 120-cell, and the polygons {7} and above.
Consequently, there are numerous ways to construct or deconstruct the 600-cell, but none of them are trivial.
The construction of the 600-cell from its regular predecessor the 24-cell can be difficult to visualize.

Gosset's construction
Thorold Gosset discovered the semiregular 4-polytopes, including the snub 24-cell with 96 vertices, which falls between the 24-cell and the 600-cell in the sequence of convex 4-polytopes of increasing size and complexity in the same radius.
Gosset's construction of the 600-cell from the 24-cell is in two steps, using the snub 24-cell as an intermediate form.
In the first, more complex step (described elsewhere) the snub 24-cell is constructed by a special snub truncation of a 24-cell at the golden sections of its edges.
In the second step the 600-cell is constructed in a straightforward manner by adding 4-pyramids (vertices) to facets of the snub 24-cell.

The snub 24-cell is a diminished 600-cell from which 24 vertices (and the cluster of 20 tetrahedral cells around each) have been truncated, leaving a "flat" icosahedral cell in place of each removed icosahedral pyramid.
The snub 24-cell thus has 24 icosahedral cells and the remaining 120 tetrahedral cells.
The second step of Gosset's construction of the 600-cell is simply the reverse of this diminishing: an icosahedral pyramid of 20 tetrahedral cells is placed on each icosahedral cell.

Constructing the unit-radius 600-cell from its precursor the unit-radius 24-cell by Gosset's method actually requires three steps.
The 24-cell precursor to the snub-24 cell is not of the same radius: it is larger, since the snub-24 cell is its truncation.
Starting with the unit-radius 24-cell, the first step is to reciprocate it around its midsphere to construct its outer canonical dual: a larger 24-cell, since the 24-cell is self-dual.
That larger 24-cell can then be snub truncated into a unit-radius snub 24-cell.

Cell clusters
Since it is so indirect, Gosset's construction may not help us very much to directly visualize how the 600 tetrahedral cells fit together into a curved 3-dimensional surface envelope, or how they lie on the underlying surface envelope of the 24-cell's octahedral cells.
For that it is helpful to build up the 600-cell directly from clusters of tetrahedral cells.

Most of us have difficulty visualizing the 600-cell from the outside in 4-space, or recognizing an outside view of the 600-cell due to our total lack of sensory experience in 4-dimensional spaces, but we should be able to visualize the surface envelope of 600 cells from the inside because that volume is a 3-dimensional space that we could actually "walk around in" and explore.
In these exercises of building the 600-cell up from cell clusters, we are entirely within a 3-dimensional space, albeit a strangely small, closed curved space, in which we can go a mere ten edge lengths away in a straight line in any direction and return to our starting point.

Icosahedra

The vertex figure of the 600-cell is the icosahedron.
Twenty tetrahedral cells meet at each vertex, forming an icosahedral pyramid whose apex is the vertex, surrounded by its base icosahedron.
The 600-cell has a dihedral angle of .

An entire 600-cell can be assembled from 24 such icosahedral pyramids (bonded face-to-face at 8 of the 20 faces of the icosahedron, colored yellow in the illustration), plus 24 clusters of 5 tetrahedral cells (four cells face-bonded around one) which fill the voids remaining between the icosahedra.
Each icosahedron is face-bonded to each adjacent cluster of 5 cells by two blue faces that share an edge (which is also one of the six edges of the central tetrahedron of the five).
Six clusters of 5 cells surround each icosahedron, and six icosahedra surround each cluster of 5 cells.
Five tetrahedral cells surround each icosahedron edge: two from inside the icosahedral pyramid, and three from outside it.

The apexes of the 24 icosahedral pyramids are the vertices of a 24-cell inscribed in the 600-cell.
The other 96 vertices (the vertices of the icosahedra) are the vertices of an inscribed snub 24-cell, which has exactly the same structure of icosahedra and tetrahedra described here, except that the icosahedra are not 4-pyramids filled by tetrahedral cells; they are only "flat" 3-dimensional icosahedral cells, because the central apical vertex is missing.

The 24-cell edges joining icosahedral pyramid apex vertices run through the centers of the yellow faces.
Coloring the icosahedra with 8 yellow and 12 blue faces can be done in 5 distinct ways.
Thus each icosahedral pyramid's apex vertex is a vertex of 5 distinct 24-cells, and the 120 vertices comprise 25 (not 5) 24-cells.

The icosahedra are face-bonded into geodesic "straight lines" by their opposite yellow faces, bent in the fourth dimension into a ring of 6 icosahedral pyramids.
Their apexes are the vertices of a great circle hexagon.
This hexagonal geodesic traverses a ring of 12 tetrahedral cells, alternately bonded face-to-face and vertex-to-vertex. The long diameter of each face-bonded pair of tetrahedra (each triangular bipyramid) is a hexagon edge (a 24-cell edge).
There are 4 rings of 6 icosahedral pyramids intersecting at each apex-vertex, just as there are 4 cell-disjoint interlocking rings of 6 octahedra in the 24-cell (a hexagonal fibration).

The tetrahedral cells are face-bonded into triple helices, bent in the fourth dimension into rings of 30 tetrahedral cells.
The three helices are geodesic "straight lines" of 10 edges: great circle decagons which run Clifford parallel to each other.
Each tetrahedron, having six edges, participates in six different decagons and thereby in all 6 of the decagonal fibrations of the 600-cell.

The partitioning of the 600-cell into clusters of 20 cells and clusters of 5 cells is artificial, since all the cells are the same.
One can begin by picking out an icosahedral pyramid cluster centered at any arbitrarily chosen vertex, so there are 120 overlapping icosahedra in the 600-cell.
Their 120 apexes are each a vertex of five 24-vertex 24-cells, so there are 5*120/24 = 25 overlapping 24-cells.

Octahedra
There is another useful way to partition the 600-cell surface, into 24 clusters of 25 tetrahedral cells, which reveals more structure and a direct construction of the 600-cell from its predecessor the 24-cell.

Begin with any one of the clusters of 5 cells (above), and consider its central cell to be the center object of a new larger cluster of tetrahedral cells.
The central cell is the first section of the 600-cell beginning with a cell.
By surrounding it with more tetrahedral cells, we can reach the deeper sections beginning with a cell.

First, note that a cluster of 5 cells consists of 4 overlapping pairs of face-bonded tetrahedra (triangular dipyramids) whose long diameter is a 24-cell edge (a hexagon edge) of length .
Six more triangular dipyramids fit into the concavities on the surface of the cluster of 5, so the exterior chords connecting its 4 apical vertices are also 24-cell edges of length .
They form a tetrahedron of edge length , which is the second section of the 600-cell beginning with a cell.
There are 600 of these  tetrahedral sections in the 600-cell.

With the six triangular dipyamids fit into the concavities, there are 12 new cells and 6 new vertices in addition to the 5 cells and 8 vertices of the original cluster.
The 6 new vertices form the third section of the 600-cell beginning with a cell, an octahedron of edge length , obviously the cell of a 24-cell.
As partially filled so far (by 17 tetrahedral cells), this  octahedron has concave faces into which a short triangular pyramid fits; it has the same volume as a regular tetrahedral cell but an irregular tetrahedral shape.
Each octahedron surrounds 1 + 4 + 12 + 8 = 25 tetrahedral cells: 17 regular tetrahedral cells plus 8 volumetrically equivalent tetrahedral cells each consisting of 6 one-sixth fragments from 6 different regular tetrahedral cells that each span three adjacent octahedral cells.

Thus the unit-radius 600-cell may be constructed directly from its predecessor, the unit-radius 24-cell, by placing on each of its octahedral facets a truncated irregular octahedral pyramid of 14 vertices constructed (in the above manner) from 25 regular tetrahedral cells of edge length  ≈ 0.618.

Union of two tori
There is yet another useful way to partition the 600-cell surface into clusters of tetrahedral cells, which reveals more structure and the decagonal fibrations of the 600-cell.
An entire 600-cell can be assembled around two rings of 5 icosahedral pyramids, bonded vertex-to-vertex into two geodesic "straight lines".

The 120-cell can be decomposed into two disjoint tori.
Since it is the dual of the 600-cell, this same dual tori structure exists in the 600-cell, although it is somewhat more complex.
The 10-cell geodesic path in the 120-cell corresponds to the 10-vertex decagon path in the 600-cell.

Start by assembling five tetrahedra around a common edge.
This structure looks somewhat like an angular "flying saucer".
Stack ten of these, vertex to vertex, "pancake" style.
Fill in the annular ring between each pair of "flying saucers" with 10 tetrahedra to form an icosahedron.
You can view this as five vertex-stacked icosahedral pyramids, with the five extra annular ring gaps also filled in.
The surface is the same as that of ten stacked pentagonal antiprisms: a triangular-faced column with a pentagonal cross-section.
Bent into a columnar ring this is a torus consisting of 150 cells, ten edges long, with 100 exposed triangular faces, 150 exposed edges, and 50 exposed vertices.
Stack another tetrahedron on each exposed face.
This will give you a somewhat bumpy torus of 250 cells with 50 raised vertices, 50 valley vertices, and 100 valley edges.
The valleys are 10 edge long closed paths and correspond to other instances of the 10-vertex decagon path mentioned above (great circle decagons).
These decagons spiral around the center core decagon, but mathematically they are all equivalent (they all lie in central planes).

Build a second identical torus of 250 cells that interlinks with the first.
This accounts for 500 cells.
These two tori mate together with the valley vertices touching the raised vertices, leaving 100 tetrahedral voids that are filled with the remaining 100 tetrahedra that mate at the valley edges.
This latter set of 100 tetrahedra are on the exact boundary of the duocylinder and form a Clifford torus.
They can be "unrolled" into a square 10×10 array.
Incidentally this structure forms one tetrahedral layer in the tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb.
There are exactly 50 "egg crate" recesses and peaks on both sides that mate with the 250 cell tori.
In this case into each recess, instead of an octahedron as in the honeycomb, fits a triangular bipyramid composed of two tetrahedra.

This decomposition of the 600-cell has symmetry [[10,2+,10]], order 400, the same symmetry as the grand antiprism.
The grand antiprism is just the 600-cell with the two above 150-cell tori removed, leaving only the single middle layer of 300 tetrahedra, dimensionally analogous to the 10-face belt of an icosahedron with the 5 top and 5 bottom faces removed (a pentagonal antiprism).

The two 150-cell tori each contain 6 Clifford parallel great decagons (five around one), and the two tori are Clifford parallel to each other, so together they constitute a complete fibration of 12 decagons that reaches all 120 vertices, despite filling only half the 600-cell with cells.

Boerdijk–Coxeter helix rings
The 600-cell can also be partitioned into 20 cell-disjoint intertwining rings of 30 cells, each ten edges long, forming a discrete Hopf fibration which fills the entire 600-cell.
Each ring of 30 face-bonded tetrahedra is a cylindrical Boerdijk–Coxeter helix bent into a ring in the fourth dimension.

The 30-cell ring is the 3-dimensional space occupied by the 30 vertices of three  Clifford parallel great decagons that lie adjacent to each other, 36° =  = one 600-cell edge length apart at all their vertex pairs.
The 30  edges joining these vertex pairs form a helical triacontagram, a skew 30-gram spiral of 30 edge-bonded triangular faces, that is the Petrie polygon of the 600-cell.
The dual of the 30-cell ring (the skew 30-gon made by connecting its cell centers) is the Petrie polygon of the 120-cell, the 600-cell's dual polytope.
The central axis of the 30-cell ring is a great 30-gon geodesic that passes through the center of 30 faces, but does not intersect any vertices.

The 15  edges and 15  edges form separate 15-gram helices.
Each orange or yellow edge crosses between two  great decagons.
Successive orange or yellow edges of these 15-gram helices do not lie on the same great circle; they lie in different central planes inclined at 36° =  to each other.
Each 15-gram helix is noteworthy as the edge-path of an isocline, the geodesic path of an isoclinic rotation.
The isocline is a circular curve which intersects every second vertex of the 15-gram, missing the vertex in between.
A single isocline runs twice around each orange (or yellow) 15-gram through every other vertex, hitting half the vertices on the first loop and the other half of them on the second loop.
The two connected loops forms a single Möbius loop, a skew {15/2} pentadecagram.
The pentadecagram is not shown in these illustrations (but see below), because its edges are invisible chords between vertices which are two orange (or two yellow) edges apart, and no chords are shown in these illustrations.
Although the 30 vertices of the 30-cell ring do not lie in one great 30-gon central plane, these invisible pentadecagram isoclines are true geodesic circles of a special kind, that wind through all four dimensions rather than lying in a 2-dimensional plane as an ordinary geodesic great circle does.

Five of these 30-cell helices nest together and spiral around each of the 10-vertex decagon paths, forming the 150-cell torus described in the grand antiprism decomposition above.
Thus every great decagon is the center core decagon of a 150-cell torus. The 600-cell may be decomposed into 20 30-cell rings, or into two 150-cell tori and 10 30-cell rings, but not into four 150-cell tori of this kind. The 600-cell can be decomposed into four 150-cell tori of a different kind.

Radial golden triangles
The 600-cell can be constructed radially from 720 golden triangles of edge lengths    which meet at the center of the 4-polytope, each contributing two  radii and a  edge.
They form 1200 triangular pyramids with their apexes at the center: irregular tetrahedra with equilateral  bases (the faces of the 600-cell).
These form 600 tetrahedral pyramids with their apexes at the center: irregular 5-cells with regular  tetrahedron bases (the cells of the 600-cell).

Characteristic orthoscheme

Every regular 4-polytope has its characteristic 4-orthoscheme, an irregular 5-cell.
The characteristic 5-cell of the regular 600-cell is represented by the Coxeter-Dynkin diagram , which can be read as a list of the dihedral angles between its mirror facets.
It is an irregular tetrahedral pyramid based on the characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron.
The regular 600-cell is subdivided by its symmetry hyperplanes into 14400 instances of its characteristic 5-cell that all meet at its center.

The characteristic 5-cell (4-orthoscheme) has four more edges than its base characteristic tetrahedron (3-orthoscheme), joining the four vertices of the base to its apex (the fifth vertex of the 4-orthoscheme, at the center of the regular 600-cell). If the regular 600-cell has unit radius and edge length , its characteristic 5-cell's ten edges have lengths , ,  (the exterior right triangle face, the characteristic triangle 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁), plus , ,  (the other three edges of the exterior 3-orthoscheme facet the characteristic tetrahedron, which are the characteristic radii of the regular tetrahedron), plus , , ,  (edges which are the characteristic radii of the 600-cell).
The 4-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is , , , , first from a 600-cell vertex to a 600-cell edge center, then turning 90° to a 600-cell face center, then turning 90° to a 600-cell tetrahedral cell center, then turning 90° to the 600-cell center.

Reflections
The 600-cell can be constructed by the reflections of its characteristic 5-cell in its own facets (its tetrahedral mirror walls).
Reflections and rotations are related: a reflection in an even number of intersecting mirrors is a rotation.
For example, a full isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in decagonal invariant planes takes each of the 120 vertices through 15 vertices and back to itself, on a skew pentadecagram2 geodesic isocline of circumference 5𝝅 that winds around the 3-sphere, as each great decagon rotates (like a wheel) and also tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) in the completely orthogonal plane.
Any set of four orthogonal pairs of antipodal vertices (the 8 vertices of one of the 75 inscribed 16-cells) performing such an orbit visits 15 * 8 = 120 distinct vertices and generates the 600-cell sequentially in one full isoclinic rotation, just as any single characteristic 5-cell reflecting itself in its own mirror walls generates the 120 vertices simultaneously by reflection.

Weyl orbits
Another construction method uses quaternions and the Icosahedral symmetry of Weyl group orbits  of order 120. The following are the orbits of weights of D4 under the Weyl group W(D4):
 O(0100) : T = {±1,±e1,±e2,±e3,(±1±e1±e2±e3)/2}
 O(1000) : V1
 O(0010) : V2
 O(0001) : V3

With quaternions  where  is the conjugate of  and  and , then the Coxeter group  is the symmetry group of the 600-cell and the 120-cell of order 14400.

Given  such that  and  as an exchange of  within , we can construct:

 the snub 24-cell
 the 600-cell
 the 120-cell

Rotations
The regular convex 4-polytopes are an expression of their underlying symmetry which is known as SO(4), the group of rotations about a fixed point in 4-dimensional Euclidean space.

The 600-cell is generated by isoclinic rotations of the 24-cell by 36° =  (the arc of one 600-cell edge length).

Twenty-five 24-cells
There are 25 inscribed 24-cells in the 600-cell.
Therefore there are also 25 inscribed snub 24-cells, 75 inscribed tesseracts and 75 inscribed 16-cells.

The 8-vertex 16-cell has 4 long diameters inclined at 90° =  to each other, often taken as the 4 orthogonal axes or basis of the coordinate system.

The 24-vertex 24-cell has 12 long diameters inclined at 60° =  to each other: 3 disjoint sets of 4 orthogonal axes, each set comprising the diameters of one of 3 inscribed 16-cells, isoclinically rotated by  with respect to each other.

The 120-vertex 600-cell has 60 long diameters: not just 5 disjoint sets of 12 diameters, each comprising one of 5 inscribed 24-cells (as we might suspect by analogy), but 25 distinct but overlapping sets of 12 diameters, each comprising one of 25 inscribed 24-cells.
There are 5 disjoint 24-cells in the 600-cell, but not just 5: there are 10 different ways to partition the 600-cell into 5 disjoint 24-cells.

Like the 16-cells and 8-cells inscribed in the 24-cell, the 25 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell are mutually isoclinic polytopes.
The rotational distance between inscribed 24-cells is always an equal-angled rotation of  in each pair of completely orthogonal invariant planes of rotation.

Five 24-cells are disjoint because they are Clifford parallel: their corresponding vertices are  apart on two non-intersecting Clifford parallel decagonal great circles (as well as  apart on the same decagonal great circle).
An isoclinic rotation of decagonal planes by  takes each 24-cell to a disjoint 24-cell (just as an isoclinic rotation of hexagonal planes by  takes each 16-cell to a disjoint 16-cell).
Each isoclinic rotation occurs in two chiral forms: there are 4 disjoint 24-cells to the left of each 24-cell, and another 4 disjoint 24-cells to its right.
The left and right rotations reach different 24-cells; therefore each 24-cell belongs to two different sets of five disjoint 24-cells.

All Clifford parallel polytopes are isoclinic, but not all isoclinic polytopes are Clifford parallels (completely disjoint objects).
Each 24-cell is isoclinic and Clifford parallel to 8 others, and isoclinic but not Clifford parallel to 16 others.
With each of the 16 it shares 6 vertices: a hexagonal central plane.
Non-disjoint 24-cells are related by a simple rotation by  in an invariant plane intersecting only two vertices of the 600-cell, a rotation in which the completely orthogonal fixed plane is their common hexagonal central plane.
They are also related by an isoclinic rotation in which both planes rotate by .

There are two kinds of  isoclinic rotations which take each 24-cell to another 24-cell.
Disjoint 24-cells are related by a  isoclinic rotation of an entire fibration of 12 Clifford parallel decagonal invariant planes.
(There are 6 such sets of fibers, and a right or a left isoclinic rotation possible with each set, so there are 12 such distinct rotations.)
Non-disjoint 24-cells are related by a  isoclinic rotation of an entire fibration of 20 Clifford parallel hexagonal invariant planes.
(There are 10 such sets of fibers, so there are 20 such distinct rotations.)

On the other hand, each of the 10 sets of five disjoint 24-cells is Clifford parallel because its corresponding great hexagons are Clifford parallel.
(24-cells do not have great decagons.)
The 16 great hexagons in each 24-cell can be divided into 4 sets of 4 non-intersecting Clifford parallel geodesics, each set of which covers all 24 vertices of the 24-cell.
The 200 great hexagons in the 600-cell can be divided into 10 sets of 20 non-intersecting Clifford parallel geodesics, each set of which covers all 120 vertices and constitutes a discrete hexagonal fibration.
Each of the 10 sets of 20 disjoint hexagons can be divided into five sets of 4 disjoint hexagons, each set of 4 covering a disjoint 24-cell.
Similarly, the corresponding great squares of disjoint 24-cells are Clifford parallel.

Rotations on polygram isoclines
The regular convex 4-polytopes each have their characteristic kind of right (and left) isoclinic rotation, corresponding to their characteristic kind of discrete Hopf fibration of great circles. For example, the 600-cell can be fibrated six different ways into a set of Clifford parallel great decagons, so the 600-cell has six distinct right (and left) isoclinic rotations in which those great decagon planes are invariant planes of rotation. We say these isoclinic rotations are characteristic of the 600-cell because the 600-cell's edges lie in their invariant planes. These rotations only emerge in the 600-cell, although they are also found in larger regular polytopes (the 120-cell) which contain inscribed instances of the 600-cell.

Just as the geodesic polygons (decagons or hexagons or squares) in the 600-cell's central planes form fiber bundles of Clifford parallel great circles, the corresponding geodesic skew polygrams (which trace the paths on the Clifford torus of vertices under isoclinic rotation) form fiber bundles of Clifford parallel isoclines: helical circles which wind through all four dimensions.
Since isoclinic rotations are chiral, occurring in left-handed and right-handed forms, each polygon fiber bundle has corresponding left and right polygram fiber bundles.
All the fiber bundles are aspects of the same discrete Hopf fibration, because the fibration is the various expressions of the same distinct left-right pair of isoclinic rotations.

Cell rings are another expression of the Hopf fibration.
Each discrete fibration has a set of cell-disjoint cell rings that tesselates the 4-polytope.
The isoclines in each chiral bundle spiral around each other: they are axial geodesics of the rings of face-bonded cells.
The Clifford parallel cell rings of the fibration nest into each other, pass through each other without intersecting in any cells, and exactly fill the 600-cell with their disjoint cell sets.

Isoclinic rotations rotate a rigid object's vertices along parallel paths, each vertex circling within two completely orthogonal planes, the way a loom weaves a piece of fabric from two orthogonal sets of parallel fibers.
A bundle of Clifford parallel great circle polygons and a corresponding bundle of Clifford parallel skew polygram isoclines are the warp and woof of the same distinct left or right isoclinic rotation, which takes Clifford parallel great circle polygons to each other, flipping them like coins and rotating them through a Clifford parallel set of central planes.
Meanwhile, because the polygons are also rotating individually like wheels, vertices are displaced along helical Clifford parallel isoclines (the chords of which form the skew polygram), through vertices which lie in successive Clifford parallel polygons.

In the 600-cell, each family of isoclinic skew polygrams (moving vertex paths in the decagon {10}, hexagon {6}, or square {4} great polygon rotations) can be divided into bundles of non-intersecting Clifford parallel polygram isoclines.
The isocline bundles occur in pairs of left and right chirality; the isoclines in each rotation act as chiral objects, as does each distinct isoclinic rotation itself.
Each fibration contains an equal number of left and right isoclines, in two disjoint bundles, which trace the paths of the 600-cell's vertices during the fibration's left or right isoclinic rotation respectively.
Each left or right fiber bundle of isoclines by itself constitutes a discrete Hopf fibration which fills the entire 600-cell, visiting all 120 vertices just once.
It is a different bundle of fibers than the bundle of Clifford parallel polygon great circles, but the two fiber bundles describe the same discrete fibration because they enumerate those 120 vertices together in the same distinct right (or left) isoclinic rotation, by their intersection as a fabric of cross-woven parallel fibers.

Each isoclinic rotation involves pairs of completely orthogonal invariant central planes of rotation, which both rotate through the same angle.
There are two ways they can do this: by both rotating in the "same" direction, or by rotating in "opposite" directions (according to the right hand rule by which we conventionally say which way is "up" on each of the 4 coordinate axes).
The right polygram and right isoclinic rotation conventionally correspond to invariant pairs rotating in the same direction; the left polygram and left isoclinic rotation correspond to pairs rotating in opposite directions.
Left and right isoclines are different paths that go to different places.
In addition, each distinct isoclinic rotation (left or right) can be performed in a positive or negative direction along the circular parallel fibers.

A fiber bundle of Clifford parallel isoclines is the set of helical vertex circles described by a distinct left or right isoclinic rotation.
Each moving vertex travels along an isocline contained within a (moving) cell ring.
While the left and right isoclinic rotations each double-rotate the same set of Clifford parallel invariant planes of rotation, they step through different sets of great circle polygons because left and right isoclinic rotations hit alternate vertices of the great circle {2p} polygon (where p is a prime ≤ 5).
The left and right rotation share the same Hopf bundle of {2p} polygon fibers, which is both a left and right bundle, but they have different bundles of {p} polygons because the discrete fibers are opposing left and right {p} polygons inscribed in the {2p} polygon.

A simple rotation is direct and local, taking some vertices to adjacent vertices along great circles, and some central planes to other central planes within the same hyperplane.
In a simple rotation, there is just a single pair of completely orthogonal invariant central planes of rotation; it does not constitute a fibration.

An isoclinic rotation is diagonal and global, taking all the vertices to non-adjacent vertices (two or more edge-lengths away) along diagonal isoclines, and all the central plane polygons to Clifford parallel polygons (of the same kind).
A left-right pair of isoclinic rotations constitutes a discrete fibration.
All the Clifford parallel central planes of the fibration are invariant planes of rotation, separated by two equal angles and lying in different hyperplanes.
The diagonal isocline is a shorter route between the non-adjacent vertices than the multiple simple routes between them available along edges: it is the shortest route on the 3-sphere, the geodesic.

Decagons and pentadecagrams
The fibrations of the 600-cell include 6 fibrations of its 72 great decagons: 6 fiber bundles of 12 great decagons, each delineating 20 chiral cell rings of 30 tetrahedral cells each, with three great decagons bounding each cell ring, and five cell rings nesting together around each decagon.
The bundle of 12 Clifford parallel decagon fibers is divided into a bundle of 12 left pentagon fibers and a bundle of 12 right pentagon fibers, with each left-right pair of pentagons inscribed in a decagon.

12 great decagons comprise a fiber bundle covering all 120 vertices in a discrete Hopf fibration.
There are 20 cell-disjoint 30-cell rings in the fibration, but only 4 completely disjoint 30-cell rings.
The 600-cell has six such discrete decagonal fibrations, and each is the domain (container) of a unique left-right pair of isoclinic rotations (left and right fiber bundles of 12 great pentagons). Each great decagon belongs to just one fibration, but each 30-cell ring belongs to 5 of the six fibrations (and is completely disjoint from 1 other fibration).
The 600-cell contains 72 great decagons, divided among six fibrations, each of which is a set of 20 cell-disjoint 30-cell rings (4 completely disjoint 30-cell rings), but the 600-cell has only 20 distinct 30-cell rings altogether.
Each 30-cell ring contains 3 of the 12 Clifford parallel decagons in each of 5 fibrations, and 30 of the 120 vertices.

In these decagonal isoclinic rotations, vertices travel along isoclines which follow the edges of hexagons, advancing a pythagorean distance of one hexagon edge in each double 36°×36° rotational unit.
In an isoclinic rotation, each successive hexagon edge travelled lies in a different great hexagon, so the isocline describes a skew polygram, not a polygon.
In a 60°×60° isoclinic rotation (as in the 24-cell's characteristic hexagonal rotation, and below in the hexagonal rotations of the 600-cell) this polygram is a hexagram: the isoclinic rotation follows a 6-edge circular path, just as a simple hexagonal rotation does, although it takes two revolutions to enumerate all the vertices in it, because the isocline is a double loop through every other vertex, and its chords are  chords of the hexagon instead of  hexagon edges. But in the 600-cell's 36°×36° characteristic decagonal rotation, successive great hexagons are closer together and more numerous, and the isocline polygram formed by their 15 hexagon edges is a pentadecagram (15-gram). It is not only not the same period as the hexagon or the simple decagonal rotation, it is not even an integer multiple of the period of the hexagon, or the decagon, or either's simple rotation. Only the compound {30/4}=2{15/2} triacontagram (30-gram), which is two 15-grams rotating in parallel (a black and a white), is a multiple of them all, and so constitutes the rotational unit of the decagonal isoclinic rotation.

In the 30-cell ring, the non-adjacent vertices linked by isoclinic rotations are two edge-lengths apart, with three other vertices of the ring lying between them.
The two non-adjacent vertices are linked by a  chord of the isocline which is a great hexagon edge (a 24-cell edge).
The  chords of the 30-cell ring (without the  600-cell edges) form a skew triacontagram{30/4}=2{15/2} which contains 2 disjoint {15/2} Möbius double loops, a left-right pair of pentadecagram2 isoclines.
Each left (or right) bundle of 12 pentagon fibers is crossed by a left (or right) bundle of 8 Clifford parallel pentadecagram fibers.
Each distinct 30-cell ring has 2 double-loop pentadecagram isoclines running through its even or odd (black or white) vertices respectively. The pentadecagram helices have no inherent chirality, but each acts as either a left or right isocline in any distinct isoclinic rotation.
The 2 pentadecagram fibers belong to the left and right fiber bundles of 5 different fibrations.

At each vertex, there are six great decagons and six pentadecagram isoclines (six black or six white) that cross at the vertex.
Eight pentadecagram isoclines (four black and four white) comprise a unique right (or left) fiber bundle of isoclines covering all 120 vertices in the distinct right (or left) isoclinic rotation.
Each fibration has a unique left and right isoclinic rotation, and corresponding unique left and right fiber bundles of 12 pentagons and 8 pentadecagram isoclines.
There are only 20 distinct black isoclines and 20 distinct white isoclines in the 600-cell.
Each distinct isocline belongs to 5 fiber bundles.

Two 15-gram double-loop isoclines are axial to each 30-cell ring. The 30-cell rings are chiral; each fibration contains 10 right (clockwise-spiraling) rings and 10 left (counterclockwise spiraling) rings, but the two isoclines in each 3-cell ring are directly congruent. Each acts as a left (or right) isocline a left (or right) rotation, but has no inherent chirality.
The fibration's 20 left and 20 right 15-grams altogether contain 120 disjoint open pentagrams (60 left and 60 right), the open ends of which are adjacent 600-cell vertices (one  edge-length apart).
The 30 chords joining the isocline's 30 vertices are  hexagon edges (24-cell edges), connecting 600-cell vertices which are two 600-cell  edges apart on a decagon great circle.

These isocline chords are both hexagon edges and pentagram edges.

The 20 Clifford parallel isoclines (30-cell ring axes) of each left (or right) isocline bundle do not intersect each other.
Either distinct decagonal isoclinic rotation (left or right) rotates all 120 vertices (and all 600 cells), but pentadecagram isoclines and pentagons are connected such that vertices alternate as 60 black and 60 white vertices (and 300 black and 300 white cells), like the black and white squares of the chessboard.
In the course of the rotation, the vertices on a left (or right) isocline rotate within the same 15-vertex black (or white) isocline, and the cells rotate within the same black (or white) 30-cell ring.

Hexagons and hexagrams
The fibrations of the 600-cell include 10 fibrations of its 200 great hexagons: 10 fiber bundles of 20 great hexagons.
Each fiber bundle delineates 20 directly congruent cell rings of 6 octahedral cells each, with three cell rings nesting together around each hexagon.
The bundle of 20 Clifford parallel hexagon fibers is divided into a bundle of 20 black  great triangle fibers and a bundle of 20 white great triangle fibers, with 6 black and 6 white fibers in each 6-octahedron ring and a black and a white triangle inscribed in each hexagon.
The black or white fibers are joined into black or white isoclines, each of which is a different kind of great circle of 6 vertices: a skew hexagram helix consisting of 6  chords from 6 different great hexagons, joined end-to-end in a helical loop, and winding twice around the 600-cell through all four dimensions rather than lying flat in a central plane like a  great circle hexagon.

There is a connection between these 10 fibrations of hexagons and hexagrams and the 6 fibrations of decagons and pentadecagrams described above: the  edges of the great hexagons are the isocline chords, the edges of the pentadecagrams.
Each fiber bundle of 20 hexagons is distributed among the 600-cell's 20 chiral 30-cell rings of 30 tetrahedral cells, in each of which 5 great hexagons from 5 different fiber bundles provide their 6  edges as chords of a pentadecagram isocline of 15 chords running through the 30-cell ring, with 2 pentadecagrams running through each 30-cell ring, and each hexagon providing 3 non-adjacent edges to each pentadecagram.
The bundle of 20 Clifford parallel hexagon fibers is divided into a bundle of 10 left great hexagon fibers and a bundle of 10 right great hexagon fibers, with 5 right (or left) great hexagons contained within each right (or left) 30-cell ring.
Conversely, the  isocline chords of the 200 great hexagons (the hexagram edges) join every 4th vertex of the 24-cell's {12/5} Petrie dodecagram, the 24-cell's only feature with a 5 in its Schläfli symbol, while the 600-cell's  isocline chords (the pentadecagram edges) join every 3rd vertex of an inscribed 24-cell's Petrie dodecagram.

Squares and octagrams
The fibrations of the 600-cell include 15 fibrations of its 90 great squares: 15 fiber bundles of 30 great squares.
Each fiber bundle delineates 30 chiral cell rings of 8 tetrahedral cells each, with a left and a right cell ring nesting together to fill each of the 15 disjoint 16-cells inscribed in the 600-cell.
The fibration of 30 Clifford parallel squares contains 30 black  great square diagonals and 30 white great square diagonals.
Eight black (or white)  chords are joined into a black (or white) {8/4}=4{2} octagram, the chord set of a black or white isocline: a non-planar great circle of 8 vertices. Each skew octagram helix consists of 8  chords (4 orthogonal axes, each used twice), joined end-to-end in a helical loop, and winding twice around the 600-cell through all four dimensions rather than lying flat in a central plane like a  great circle square.

There is a connection between these 15 fibrations of squares and octagrams and the 6 fibrations of decagons and pentadecagrams described above: the  diagonal chords of the 90 great squares are edges of (another kind of) pentadecagram.
Each fiber bundle of 30 squares is distributed among the 600-cell's 20 chiral 30-cell rings of 30 tetrahedral cells, in each of which 15 great squares from 15 different fiber bundles provide their 2  chords as edges of 2 regular {15/4} pentadecagrams, which wind 4 times around the 600-cell through every 4th vertex of the 30-cell ring.
These {15/4} pentadecagrams (with  edges) connect every 4th vertex of one of the two disjoint 15-gons contained in a 30-cell ring, just as the {15/2} pentadecagrams (with  edges) described above connect every 2nd vertex of one of the 15-gons.

There is also a connection between these 15 fibrations of squares and octagrams and the 10 fibrations of hexagons and hexagrams described above: the  edges of the 90 great squares join every 3rd vertex of the 24-cell's Petrie dodecagon, forming a {12/3}=3{4} dodecagram.
The  chords of the 200 great hexagons (the hexagram edges) join every 4th vertex of the same Petrie polygon, forming a {12/4}=4{3} dodecagram.

As a configuration
This configuration matrix represents the 600-cell. The rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 600-cell. The non-diagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element.

Here is the configuration expanded with k-face elements and k-figures. The diagonal element counts are the ratio of the full Coxeter group order, 14400, divided by the order of the subgroup with mirror removal.

Symmetries
The icosians are a specific set of Hamiltonian quaternions with the same symmetry as the 600-cell.
The icosians lie in the golden field, (a + b) + (c + d)i + (e + f)j + (g + h)k, where the eight variables are rational numbers.
The finite sums of the 120 unit icosians are called the icosian ring.

When interpreted as quaternions, the 120 vertices of the 600-cell form a group under quaternionic multiplication.
This group is often called the binary icosahedral group and denoted by 2I as it is the double cover of the ordinary icosahedral group I.
It occurs twice in the rotational symmetry group RSG of the 600-cell as an invariant subgroup, namely as the subgroup 2IL of quaternion left-multiplications and as the subgroup 2IR of quaternion right-multiplications.
Each rotational symmetry of the 600-cell is generated by specific elements of 2IL and 2IR; the pair of opposite elements generate the same element of RSG.
The centre of RSG consists of the non-rotation Id and the central inversion −Id.
We have the isomorphism RSG ≅ (2IL × 2IR) / {Id, -Id}.
The order of RSG equals  = 7200.

The binary icosahedral group is isomorphic to SL(2,5).

The full symmetry group of the 600-cell is the Weyl group of H4.
This is a group of order 14400.
It consists of 7200 rotations and 7200 rotation-reflections.
The rotations form an invariant subgroup of the full symmetry group.
The rotational symmetry group was first described by S.L. van Oss.
The H4 group and its Clifford algebra construction from 3-dimensional symmetry groups by induction is described by Dechant.

Visualization
The symmetries of the 3-D surface of the 600-cell are somewhat difficult to visualize due to both the large number of tetrahedral cells, and the fact that the tetrahedron has no opposing faces or vertices.  One can start by realizing the 600-cell is the dual of the 120-cell. One may also notice that the 600-cell also contains the vertices of a dodecahedron, which with some effort can be seen in most of the below perspective projections.

2D projections
The H3 decagonal projection shows the plane of the van Oss polygon.

3D projections
A three-dimensional model of the 600-cell, in the collection of the Institut Henri Poincaré, was photographed in 1934–1935 by Man Ray, and formed part of two of his later "Shakesperean Equation" paintings.

Diminished 600-cells
The snub 24-cell may be obtained from the 600-cell by removing the vertices of an inscribed 24-cell and taking the convex hull of the remaining vertices. This process is a diminishing of the 600-cell.

The grand antiprism may be obtained by another diminishing of the 600-cell: removing 20 vertices that lie on two mutually orthogonal rings and taking the convex hull of the remaining vertices.

A bi-24-diminished 600-cell, with all tridiminished icosahedron cells has 48 vertices removed, leaving 72 of 120 vertices of the 600-cell. The dual of a bi-24-diminished 600-cell, is a tri-24-diminished 600-cell, with 48 vertices and 72 hexahedron cells.

There are a total of 314,248,344 diminishings of the 600-cell by non-adjacent vertices. All of these consist of regular tetrahedral and icosahedral cells.

Related polytopes and honeycombs
The 600-cell is one of 15 regular and uniform polytopes with the same H4 symmetry [3,3,5]:

It is similar to three regular 4-polytopes: the 5-cell {3,3,3}, 16-cell {3,3,4} of Euclidean 4-space, and the order-6 tetrahedral honeycomb {3,3,6} of hyperbolic space. All of these have tetrahedral cells.

This 4-polytope is a part of a sequence of 4-polytope and honeycombs with icosahedron vertex figures:

The regular complex polygons 3{5}3,  and 5{3}5, , in  have a real representation as 600-cell in 4-dimensional space. Both have 120 vertices, and 120 edges. The first has Complex reflection group 3[5]3, order 360, and the second has symmetry 5[3]5, order 600.

See also
 24-cell, the predecessor 4-polytope on which the 600-cell is based
 120-cell, the dual 4-polytope to the 600-cell, and its successor
 Uniform 4-polytope family with [5,3,3] symmetry
 Regular 4-polytope
 Polytope

Notes

Citations

References

 (Paper 22) H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, [Math. Zeit. 46 (1940) 380-407, MR 2,10]
 (Paper 23) H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, [Math. Zeit. 188 (1985) 559-591]
 (Paper 24) H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, [Math. Zeit. 200 (1988) 3-45]

 J.H. Conway and M.J.T. Guy: Four-Dimensional Archimedean Polytopes, Proceedings of the Colloquium on Convexity at Copenhagen, page 38 und 39, 1965
 N.W. Johnson: The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1966
 Four-dimensional Archimedean Polytopes (German), Marco Möller, 2004 PhD dissertation

External links

 Der 600-Zeller (600-cell) Marco Möller's Regular polytopes in R4 (German)
 The 600-Cell Vertex centered expansion of the 600-cell

Geometry
600
Articles containing video clips

600-cell


يربعام بن نباط (بالعبرية ירבעם בן נבט) هو أول ملوك مملكة إسرائيل الشمالية المنشقة عن مملكة إسرائيل الموحدة، ورد ذكره في سفر الملوك الثاني. دام حكمه 22 عاما ما بين الأعوام 922 - 901 ق.م بحسب وليم ألبرايات أو 931-912 ق.م. بحسب إدوين ثييل.

يربعام عمل عجلي ذهب وقال للشعب كثير عليكم ان تصعدوا إلى اورشليم. هوذا آلهتك يا إسرائيل الذين اصعدوك من أرض مصر. ووضع واحدا في بيت أيل وجعل الآخر في دان. وكان هذا الأمر خطية. وصير كهنة من اطراف الشعب لم يكونوا من بنى لاوى. وعمل يربعام عيدا كالعيد الذي في يهوذا واصعد على المذبح هكذا فعل في بيت ايل بذبحه للعجلين الذين عملهماوأوقف في بيت ايل كهنة المرتفعات التي عملها (1 مل12 : 25-33)

اسم عبري معناه «يكثر الشعب». وهو:

ابن ناباط من سبط إفرايم وصروعه. ولد في صردة في وادي الأردن وهو الملك الأول في المملكة الشمالية بعد انقسام مملكة سليمان في أيام رحبعام. وملك حوالي 22 سنة (1 مل 14: 20). (حوالي 931- 910 ق. م.) وأظهر منه حداثته ذكاء وفطنة، فعينه سليمان ناظراً للعملة من سبطه عندما كان يرمم أورشليم والسور الذي تصدع وتهدم عندما أخذ داود المدينة من اليبوسيين. وفي ذات يوم أخبره أخيا النبي أن مملكة سليمان ستنقسم وأنه سيصبح ملكاً على الأسباط العشرة الشمالية. ولما عرف سليمان بالأمر طلب قتله، فهرب إلى مصر، وبقي هناك إلى بعد موت سليمان (1 مل 11: 26- 40). وبعد موت سليمان أتى يربعام وجماعة من الأسباط الشمالية إلى رحبعام بن سليمان وطلبوا الإصلاح. فأجابهم بجفاء. فعصي الأسباط العشرة، وجعلوا يربعام ملكاً عليهم. فجعل شكيم عاصمته، وخشية أن يصعد الشعب إلى أورشليم للأعياد ويجدد ولاءه القديم لبيت داوود، نصب عجلين من ذهب، أحدهما في بيت أيل والآخر في دان، أي في طرفي مملكته، ونادى بوجوب عبادتهما (1 مل 12: 26- 33). وأمر أن يكون عيد الحصاد، الذي كان يعيد في يهوذا في اليوم الخامس عشر من الشهر السابع، في الخامس عشر من الشهر الثامن في المملكة الشمالية (1 مل 12: 32 و33). ووافقت الأكثرية الساحقة من الشعب على هذا التغيير. وجمع الشعب في بيت ايل في اليوم الخامس عشر من الشهر الثامن وقدم للعجلين ذبيحة. وبينما كان الشعب يحتفل إذا بنبي من يهوذا يتقدم ويتنبأ على مسمع منهم أن يوشيا سيهدم هذا المذبح ويحرق عليه عظام الكهنة. ثم قال والعلامة الإلهية على صحة هذه النبوة هي أن المذبح ينشق والرماد يذرى. فلما سمع يربعام ذلك مدّ يده ليقبض على النبي. فيبست يده، ولم يقدر أن يرجعها إليه، وانشق المذبح حسبما تنبأ النبي. وعندئذ طلب يربعام من النبي أن يطلب له من الله من أجل يده، ففعل النبي وعادت يد الملك صحيحة كما كانت. بيد أن يربعام لم يرعو، واستمر الشعب في عبادته للعجلين. (انظر المزيد عن هذا الموضوع هنا في موقع الأنبا تكلا في صفحات قاموس وتفاسير الكتاب المقدس الأخرى). فعاقبه الله بمرض ابنه. فطلب إلى امرأته أن تذهب إلى النبي اخيا، الذي كان قد بلغ عتياً من السنين، وتستشيره بخصوص المرض، فعلم النبي بقدومها وأخبرها بالويل الذي كان عتيداً أن يأتي على كل بيته، وسبي الشعب وتشتيته، وأخبرها بموت الولد عندما تدخل به إلى المدينة، وهكذا صار (1 مل 14: 1- 18).

وجعل يربعام شكيم (نابلس) عاصمته. ولما كان تحصين هذه المدينة متعذراً نقل السلطة إلى عبر الأردن، إلى فنوئيل بقرب سكوت. ويرجح أن هذا الانتقال حصل عندما غزا فلسطين شيشنق ملك مصر، الذي افتتح غربي الأردن.

وبعد هذا انتقلت العاصمة أيضاً إلى مدينة ترصة في غربي الآردن، وهي تل الفرعة التي تبعد سبعة أميال من نابلس إلى الشمال الشرقي.

وإلى جانب العجل مجد يربعام آلهة أخرى (1 مل 14: 9). منها عشتاروت الآلهة الصيدونيين، وكموش إله الموآبيين، وملكوم إله العمونيين (1 مل 12: 31 و2 أخبار 11: 13 - 15 و13: 9).

وقد أيَّد جميع الملوك الذين تعاقبوا على المملكة الشمالية هذه العبادة ما عدا ملك واحد هو هوشيا. ولذلك وصفوا بأنهم يسلكون طريقة بن ناباط «الذي جعل إسرائيل يخطئ» (1 مل 15: 26 و34 و16: 19 و31 و22: 42). وأبعد الشعب عن عبادة الله. وملك يربعام حوالي ربع قرن. وخلفه ابنه ناداب (901- 900 ق. م.). الذي سار في طريق أبيه وفي خطيئته. ودامت الحروب على فترات متقطعة بين يهوذا والأسباط الشمالية كل مدة حياة يربعام.

مراجع

سليمان
حكام توراتيون في القرن 10 ق م
سفر الملوك
سنة الولادة غير معروفة
شخصيات توراتية
شخصيات عبرية في القرن 10 ق م
ملوك إسرائيل القديمة
ملوك إسرائيل القديمة في القرن 10 ق م
ملوك يهوذا القديمة
وفيات عقد 900 ق م

يربعام


جوان هارتوك  (17 فبراير 1987 في ترينيتي) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي ذو أصول مارتينيكية يلعب حاليا في نادي الدرجة الأولى ليون الفرنسي في مركز حارس مرمى . تدرب في نادي روبرت المارتينيكي والذي يموله نجم الكرة الفرنسية السابق بيرنارد لاما . شارك في صفوف منتخب فرنسا للناشئين تحت 17 سنة وتحت 18 سنة ثم مع منتخب المارتينيك .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
حراس مرمى كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو بريست
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم مارتينيكيون
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
لاعبو منتخب مارتينيك لكرة القدم
مواليد 1987
لاعبو نادي كويفيلي

جوان هارتوك


Vincenzo Costaguti (Roma, 1612 - Roma, 6 de dezembro de 1660) foi um cardeal do século XVII

Nascimento
Nasceu em Roma em 1612, de uma ilustre família genovesa. Filho de Prospero Costaguti, marquês de Sipicciano e de Rocca Elvezia, e Paola Costa. Seu pai se casou em segundas núpcias com a condessa Vidman. Meio-irmão do cardeal Giambattista Costaguti (1690). Tio-avô do cardeal Baldassarre Cenci, Jr (1761), por parte de mãe.

Educação
Obteve o doutorado in utroque iure , tanto em direito canônico quanto em direito civil, em 8 de outubro de 1638..

Início da vida
Protonotário apostólico participativo , 16 de outubro de 1632. Regente da Chancelaria Apostólica, 12 de dezembro de 1636. Comissário geral da Úmbria e Marca. Referendário dos Tribunais da Assinatura Apostólica de Justiça e da Graça, 8 de outubro de 1638. Clérigo da Câmara Apostólica e presidente do Dogane e do Grascia . Vice-legado de Ferrara, março a julho de 1643..

Ordens sagradas
(Nenhuma informação encontrada)..

Cardinalado
Criado cardeal diácono no consistório de 13 de julho de 1643; recebeu o gorro vermelho e a diaconia de S. Maria no Portico Octaviae , em 31 de agosto de 1643. Participou do conclave de 1644 , que elegeu o Papa Inocêncio X. Legado em Urbino, de 1648 a 1651. Optou pela diaconia de S. Ângelo em Pescheria, 23 de setembro de 1652. Optou pela diaconia de S. Maria in Cosmedin, 21 de julho de 1653. Participou do conclave de 1655 , que elegeu o Papa Alexandre VII. Optou pela diaconia de S. Eustachio, em 6 de março de 1656. Optou pela ordem dos cardeais presbíteros e pelo título de S. Calisto, em 19 de julho de 1660..

Morte
Morreu em Roma em 6 de dezembro de 1660, de uma febre aguda, Roma. Sepultado na capela de sua família na igreja de S. Carlo ai Catinari, Roma.

Cardeais nomeados pelo papa Urbano VIII

Vincenzo Costaguti


Bel Air is a census-designated place (CDP) located in Allegany County, Maryland, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 1,258. It is surrounded by the Cresaptown CDP and prior to 2010 was listed by the Census Bureau as part of the Cresaptown-Bel Air CDP.  Bel Air is part of the Cumberland, MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Demographics

References

Census-designated places in Maryland
Census-designated places in Allegany County, Maryland
Populated places in the Cumberland, MD-WV MSA

Bel Air, Allegany County, Maryland


Martin Thomas McMahon (21 de março de 1838 - 21 de abril de 1906) foi um jurista americano e oficial do Exército da União durante a Guerra Civil Americana. Ele foi premiado com a mais alta condecoração militar dos Estados Unidos, a Medalha de Honra, por suas ações na Batalha de White Oak Swamp. Após a guerra, ocupou vários cargos legais e judiciais no estado de Nova York. Ele serviu brevemente como Ministro Residente no Paraguai e foi Senador do Estado de Nova York por quatro anos.

Guerra da Tríplice Aliança
Enquanto em seu serviço como Embaixador no Paraguai, ele viu a eclosão da Guerra do Paraguai, também conhecida como Guerra da Tríplice Aliança. Foi um feroz defensor de Francisco Solano López e escreveu muitos artigos muito favoráveis aos paraguaios.

Referências
Guerra do Pacífico (século XIX)

Martin T. McMahon


Jalgpalliklubi Viljandi Tulevik (også kendt som blot Tulevik) er en estisk fodboldklub. Klubben har hjemme i Viljandi.

Mesterskaber
 Meistriliiga (D1)
 Vindere:
 Andenplads (1): 1999

 Pokalturnering (Eesti Karikas)
 Andenplads (2): 1998-99, 1999-2000

Historiske navne
 1912 – Viljandi FK
 1991 – Viljandi JK
 1992 – Tulevik Viljandi
 2011 – FC Viljandi (selvstændig klub).
 2013 – Tulevik Viljandi

Historiske slutplaceringer

Klubfarver

Nuværende trup
Pr. 11. april 2019.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 JK Tulevik officielle hjemeside (estisk)

Etableret i 1912
Fodboldklubber i Estland

JK Viljandi Tulevik


Cebuano Wikipedija (ceb.: Wikipedya sa Sinugboanon) je verzija Wikipedije na cebuano jeziku. Cebuano verzija Wikipedije je započeta u lipnju 2005. godine. 2. veljače 2013. godine prešla je prag od 100.000 članaka. U veljači 2017. imala je više od 4.000.000 članaka.

Krajem 2015. godine su preko 1.400.000 članaka stvoreni pomoći Lsjbot bota.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Cebuano Wikipedija

Centralnofilipinski jezici
Cebuano

Wikipedija na cebuano jeziku


تعد أوروبا جغرافياً جزءاً من قطعة اليابسة التي تعرف باسم أوراسيا. الحدود الشرقية للقارة مع قارة آسيا تكون على امتداد جبال الأورال، بينما الحدود مع آسيا من جهة الجنوب الشرقي مختلف عليها فمن قائل أنها على امتداد نهر الأورال إلى قائل أن نهر إمبا هو الحد الفاصل بين القارتين. من الجنوب يفصل البحر المتوسط أوروبا عن القارة الأفريقية. وأن أوروبا امتداد آسيا ويحد القارة من الغرب المحيط الأطلسي. نظرا للاختلافات على تحديد مدى لعرض أو طول (الحدود بمعنى آخر) القارة الأوروبية فإن نتائج تحديد المركز الجغرافي لأوروبا تكون ذات اختلافات كبيرة كما وتوجد أنواع من الصفائح الأرضية حسب القشرة
الأرضية ( المحيطية والقارية ).

الخواص الطبيعية
بشكل عام أوروبا هي مجموعة من أشباه الجزر الصغيرة المتصلة المتراصة. يمكن تقسيم القارة إلى اثنين من أشباه الجزر شبه الجزيرة الإسكندنافية في الشمال وبقية أجزاء القارة كشبه جزيرة أخرى يفصل بينهما بحر البلطيق. ثلاث من أشباه الجزر تتفرع من الجزء الجنوبي مخترقة أجزاء من البحر المتوسط من القارة وهي شبه جزيرة أيبيريا والبلقان وإيطاليا. كلما اتجهنا شرقا في القارة الأوروبية يزداد اتساعها حتى يصل ذاك الاتساع ذروته عند حدود أوروبا مع آسيا أي عند جبال الأورال.

السطح
تبلغ مساحة أوروبا 10,458,000كم² أو ما يعادل تقريبا من مساحة اليابسة في العالم. وهي ثاني أصغر قارة في العالم بعد أستراليا، ويحدها المحيط الأطلسي غربًا وجبال الأورال ونهر الأورال وبحر قزوين ـ الذي يقع في الاتحاد السوفييتي سابقًا ـ شرقًا، وتمتد أوروبا من المحيط المتجمد الشمالي إلى البحر الأبيض المتوسط والبحر الأسود وجبال القوقاز في الجنوب، ويعد الجغرافيون الجزر البريطانية وجزيرة مالطة وآلافًا من الجزر الواقعة قبالة سواحل الجزء الرئيسي من الأراضي الأوروبية جزءًا من القارة.

وأوروبا شبه جزيرة ضخمة تمتد في اتجاه الغرب من شمال غربي آسيا، وليس هنالك حاجز مائي يفصل بين هاتين القارتين تمامًا، لذلك يعدهما بعض الجغرافيين قارة واحدة، فيطلقون عليها اسم أوراسيا. بينما يذهب جغرافيون آخرون إلى القول بأن أفريقيا وآسيا وأوروبا قارة واحدة، إذ لم يكن هنالك ما يفصل بين أفريقيا وآسيا قبل شق قناة السويس فيطلقون على هذه القارة اسم أورافراسيا.

الأقاليم الجغرافية
تنقسم أوروبا إلى أربعة أقاليم رئيسية هي:
 الجبال الشمالية الغربية
 السهل الأوروبي العظيم
 المرتفعات الوسطى.
 سلسلة جبال الألب (منطقة الجبال الشمالية والغربية).

الجبال الشمالية الغربية منطقة تمتد عبر شمال غربي فرنسا وأيرلندا وشمال بريطانيا والنرويج والسويد وفنلندا الشمالية والركن الشمالي الغربي للجزء الأوروبي من روسيا. وتغطي الجبال معظم المنطقة، وتحتوي على بعض أقدم التكوينات الصخرية على الأرض، التي بليت عبر السنين، حتى أصبحت قمة جالدوبيجن أعلى قمة موجودة في النرويج في حين يبلغ ارتفاعها 2,469 مترًا فقط. ونسبة لرقة التربة وشدة انحدار السفوح الجبلية، أصبحت الجبال محدبة غير صالحة للزراعة. يقل عدد السكان في أجزاء كبيرة من منطقة الجبال الشمالية الغربية، حيث يكون توزيعهم أقل من عشرة أشخاص لكل كم² واحد.

السهل الأوروبي العظيم
يغطي تقريبًا كل الجزء الأوروبي من روسيا، ويمتد من روسيا إلى فرنسا. وتشمل المنطقة أيضًا جزءًا من جنوب شرقي إنجلترا. وتمتد في روسيا من المحيط المتجمد الشمالي إلى جبال القوقاز لأكثر من 2,410 كم. ويضيق السهل الأوروبي العظيم تدريجيًا عندما يمتد داخل بولندا وألمانيا ليتسع مرة أخرى في غربي فرنسا حيث يبلغ أضيق نقطة له في بلجيكا إذ يصبح عرضه 80 كم فقط.

يتكوّن السهل الأوروبي العظيم بصفة رئيسية من أراض منبسطة ومتموجة تتخللها بعض التلال، ويضم بقاعًا تعد من أكثر الأراضي الزراعية خصوبة في العالم. ويشمل الجزء الغربي منه بعض المناطق التي تعد من أكثر مناطق العالم كثافة سكانية. إلا أن كثافة السكان تبلغ في معظم أنحاء روسيا، حوالي 30 نسمة لكل كم². ويرتفع السهل نحو 180 مترًا فوق سطح البحر في روسيا، بينما يصل ارتفاعه إلى أقل من 150 مترًا فوق سطح البحر في أماكن أخرى.

المرتفعات الوسطى تتألف من الجبال منخفضة الارتفاع، والهضاب العالية التي تمتد داخل الجزء الأوسط من أوروبا. ويتراوح ارتفاع المرتفعات الوسطى بين 300م و 1,800م تقريبا. ويشمل هذا الإقليم الميزيتا أو الهضبة الوسطى في البرتغال وإسبانيا، والمرتفعات الوسطى في فرنسا، والجبال والهضاب المنخفضة في كل من وسط ألمانيا وأغلب جمهورية تشيكيا. كما تغطي الغابات بعض أجزاء المرتفعات الوسطى، إلا أن الجزء الأكبر من الأرض صخري وتربته فقيرة لا تصلح للزراعة، فأجود المزارع في هذه المناطق توجد في أودية الأنهار. تحتوي أجزاء من المرتفعات الوسطى على ثروة معدنية هائلة، خاصة في وسط ألمانيا وتشيكيا. تتراوح كثافة السكان في المنطقة بين ما يقل عن 48 نسمة لكل كم² في كل من إسبانيا وفرنسا، وضعفي أو أربعة أضعاف هذا العدد في أجزاء من ألمانيا وتشيكيا.

سلسلة جبال الألب
تمتد عبر أوروبا من إسبانيا إلى بحر قزوين. وتوجد بهذه المنطقة سلاسل جبلية. فجبال سييرانيفادا وجبال البرانس في إسبانيا تكوِّن حاجزًا يفصل بين إسبانيا وفرنسا. وجبال الألب المشهورة عالميًا تغطي جزءًا من جنوب شرقي فرنسا وشمالي إيطاليا ومعظم سويسرا وجزءًا من جنوب ألمانيا والنمسا وشمال سلوفينيا وتغطي جبال الأبناين، إلى الجنوب من جبال الألب، جزءًا كبيرًا من إيطاليا. وفي الشرق توجد سلسلة الألب، التي تتكون من الألب الدينارية في كرواتيا واليونان، وجبال البلقان في بلغاريا، وجبال الكارباثيان التي تمتد عبر شمالي سلوفاكيا وجنوب بولندا، والجزء الغربي الأقصى من أوكرانيا ورومانيا.

تضم سلسة جبال الألب أعلى وأجمل الجبال في أوروبا. وأعلى القمم في هذه السلسلة هي قمة جبل إلبرس إذ يبلغ ارتفاعها 5,633 مترًا فوق مستوى سطح البحر في جبال القوقاز. يستهوي السياح كثير من أجزاء المنطقة، خاصة جبال الألب السويسرية. ولقد أصبحت الزراعة تتمركز في الجبال المنخفضة والسهول الممتدة والأودية الواسعة التي تحفها سلاسل الجبال كما تغطي الغابات الكثيفة كثيرًا من المنحدرات العالية، وتستخدم المروج الخضراء التي تقع وراء الغابات للرعي.

الظواهر الطبيعية
وتشمل:
 1- السواحل والجزر
 2- الأنهار
 3- البحيرات

السواحل والجزر
تتميز أوروبا بساحل بحري غير منتظم، كثير التعاريج، حيث نجد سلسلة من أشباه الجزر الكبيرة والصغيرة. وأشباه الجزر الأوروبية الرئيسية هي: شبه جزيرة إسكندينافيا (النرويج والسويد) وشبه جزيرة جتلاند (الدنمارك) وشبه جزيرة أيبيريا (البرتغال وإسبانيا)، وشبه جزيرة الأبناين (إيطاليا)، وشبه جزيرة البلقان (ألبانيا والبوسنة والهرسك ومقدونيا وبلغاريا واليونان وأجزاء من تركيا وكرواتيا وسلوفينيا ويوغوسلافيا)، وكلها تتخللها المداخل والخلجان والبحار.

يتميز الساحل الأوروبي بطولة إذ يبلغ نحو 60,957 كم وذلك لكثرة تعاريجه. ساعد هذا الساحل المتعرج في وجود المرافئ الطبيعية.

وهناك آلاف الجزر التي تقع قبالة السواحل الأوروبية على مسافات متفاوتة، ومن أكبر وأهم هذه الجزر بريطانيا التي تشكل إحدى الجزر البريطانية. وتشمل الجزر البريطانية ـ التي تقع شمالي وغربي البر الرئيسي لأوروبا ـ أيرلندا وجزر أوركني وجزر شتلاند. ومن الجزر الرئيسية الأخرى في هذه المنطقة، أيسلندا وجزر فارو. أما الجزر الرئيسية التي تقع جنوبي البر الرئيسي للقارة، فتشمل، من الغرب إلى الشرق جزر البليار وكورسيكا، وسردينيا، وصقلية، وكريت.

الأنهار
تُستخدم الأنهار الأوروبية العديدة وسيلة نقل للمنتجات الصناعية، كما يستفاد من مياه هذه الأنهار في ري الأراضي وتوليد الطاقة الكهربائية.

من أطول أنهار أوروبا نهر الفولجا الذي يمرّ داخل روسيا لمسافة 3,531 كم حتى يصب في بحر قزوين. وتربط شبكة من القنوات نهر الفولجا مع المحيط المتجمد الشمالي، وبحر البلطيق، ونهر الدون. يتعرج نهر الدون داخل روسيا حتى يصل إلى البحر الأسود. ونهر الراين يجري لمسافة 1,100كم من جبال الألب داخل ألمانيا وهولندا حتى بحر الشمال. ويمثل نهر الراين العمود الفقري للممرات المائية الداخلية التي تتركز حولها أهم النشاطات في أوروبا الغربية. ويبلغ طول نهر الدانوب ـ ثاني أطول نهر في أوروبا ـ 2,860 كم. ونهر الدانوب الذي يشق طريقه من جنوب ألمانيا مخترقًا النمسا وسلوفاكيا والمجر ويوغوسلافيا وبلغاريا ورومانيا حتى البحر الأسود يعد الممر المائي الرئيسي في الجزء الجنوبي الغربي لأوروبا الشرقية.

تشمل أنهار أوروبا الأخرى ذات الأهمية نهر الدنيبر في روسيا وروسيا البيضاء وأوكرانيا، ودفينا الشمالي في روسيا ودفينا الغربي في روسيا ولاتفيا، والأودر وفستولا في بولندا، وألبه في تشيكيا وألمانيا، والفيزر في غربي ألمانيا، والبو في إيطاليا واللوار والرون والسين في فرنسا ونهر تاجو في إسبانيا والبرتغال، والتايمز في إنجلترا. وقد ربطت أنهار أوروبا الرئيسية بشبكة من القنوات.

البحيرات
تقع أكبر بحيرة في العالم وهي بحر قزوين المالح، جزئيًا في الركن الجنوبي الشرقي لأوروبا وجزئيًا في آسيا. وبالرغم من أن بحر قزوين يسمى بحرًا إلا أنه بحيرة في الحقيقة. إذ أن اليابسة تحيط به من كل الجوانب، وتبلغ مساحته 372,000 كم² وينخفض ساحله الشمالي 28م دون مستوى سطح البحر فهو أكثر المواقع انخفاضًا في أوروبا.

تبلغ مساحة البحيرات العذبة في أوروبا حوالي 137,000كم². وأكبر بحيرات أوروبا العذبة هي بحيرة لادوجا في الجزء الشمالي الغربي لروسيا وتبلغ مساحتها 17,703كم². وتوجد بفنلندا نحو 60,000 بحيرة مما جعلها تُعرف باسم أرض آلاف البحيرات.

المناخ
يتنوع المناخ في أوروبا فيختلف من إقليم لآخر. إلا أن معظم أجزاء القارة يتمتع بمناخ معتدل، فالخريطة الكبيرة في هذا القسم، توضح الأقاليم المناخية المتعددة بالقارة. أما الخرائط الصغيرة فتوضح درجات الحرارة، والتساقط (المطر، والجليد الذائب، وأشكال الرطوبة الأخرى).
تتمتع أوروبا بمناخ أكثر اعتدالاً من بعض أجزاء آسيا وأمريكا الشمالية اللتين تقعان في خطوط العرض نفسها. فمثلاً برلين بألمانيا، وكلجاري بكندا وإركتسك في الجزء الآسيوي لروسيا تقع تقريبًا على خط عرض واحد. لكنا نجد أن معدل درجة الحرارة في برلين يزيد بثماني درجات مئوية على معدل درجة الحرارة في كلجاري وقد يزيد باثنتين وعشرين درجة مئوية على معدل درجة الحرارة في إركتسك.

تتسبب الرياح التي تهب عبر القارة من المحيط الأطلسي في تلطيف المناخ في أوروبا. إذ تتأثر هذه الرياح بتيار الخليج الدافئ، وهو تيار محيطي قوي، يجرف الماء الدافئ من خليج المكسيك إلى ساحل أوروبا الغربي وامتداده الشمالي، ويسمى بتيار المحيط الأطلسي الشمالي. يتأثر معظم القارة بهذه الرياح الغربية لعدم وجود حاجز جبلي بالحجم الذي يمكن أن يعترضها، ونسبة لأن معظم أوروبا يقع في حدود 480 كم من المحيط الأطلسي.

يتأثر ساحل النرويج أكثر من غيره بمفعول تيار الخليج الأطلسي الشمالي والرياح الغربية القوية التي تهب على أوروبا عبر هذه التيارات. يقع جزء كبير من الساحل النرويجي في منطقة القطب الشمالي، التي تغطي الثلوج والجليد معظمها في فصل الشتاء. إلا أن معظم ساحل النرويج بما في ذلك الجزء الذي يقع في القطب الشمالي وميناء النرويج، همرفست الذي يقع في أقصى الشمال يبقى خاليًا من الجليد والثلوج طيلة فصل الشتاء.

بصفة عامة نجد أن الشتاء في شمالي أوروبا أطول وأكثر برودة منه في جنوبيها، وأن الصيف فيه أقصر وأبرد من جنوبيها أيضًا. كما نجد أيضًا أن الشتاء في الشرق أطول وأكثر برودة، وأن الصيف أقصر وأكثر حرارة عما في الغرب. فمثلا ًمعدل درجة الحرارة في مدينة جلاسجو بأسكتلندا في يناير 3°م، بينما في موسكو التي تقع على خط العرض نفسه ينخفض معدل درجة الحرارة في يناير إلى 10°م تحت الصفر.

يتراوح معدل التساقط في معظم دول أوروبا بين 50 و 150 سم في السنة. ويحدث أكثر التساقط السنوي عادة فوق 200 سم ـ في المناطق التي تقع غربي الجبال مباشرة أي المنحدرات الغربية المواجهة للرياح الغربية.

وتشمل هذه المناطق أجزاءً من غربي بريطانيا وغربي النرويج. أما أقل أجزاء أوروبا مطرًا ـ عادة أقل من 50 سم ـ فنجدها في ثلاث مناطق عامة: 1- المناطق الواقعة إلى الشرق من الجبال العالية (أي في ظل المطر). 2- المناطق الداخلية التي تبعد من المحيط الأطلسي. 3- المناطق التي تقع على طول ساحل المحيط القطبي الشمالي. تشمل هذه المناطق وسط وجنوب شرقي إسبانيا والأجزاء الشمالية من إسكندينافيا والأجزاء الشمالية والجنوبية الشرقية من روسيا الأوروبية وكازاخستان.

الحياة النباتية والحيوانية
تشمل الحياة البرية في أوروبا أنواعًا كثيرة من النباتات والحيوانات التي توجد أيضًا في قارات أخرى. لكن توجد فيها بعض الأنواع التي لا توجد في القارات الأخرى، وهي تشمل نوعًا من الطيور، يطلق عليه اسم العندليب، وحيوانًا من الثدييات يسمى اللاّموس النرويجي. وبأوروبا أيضًا بعض أنواع النباتات والحيوانات البرية التي تختلف عن النباتات والحيوانات البرية التي تحمل الأسماء نفسها في قارات أخرى فمثلاً أبو الحناء الأوروبي يعادل حجمه نصف حجم أبي الحناء الموجود في أمريكا الشمالية.

لم تسلم الحيوانات البرية والنباتات الطبيعية من يد الإنسان. فلقد أزيلت الغابات التي كانت تغطي مساحات كبيرة من أوروبا للاستفادة من أخشابها ولإفساح المجال للزراعة ونمو المدن. كما انقرضت بعض الحيوانات البرية نتيجة ممارسات عديدة مثل الصيد الجائر من نصب الشراك والإفراط في صيد الأسماك وأخيرًا الزيادة السكانية المطردة التي أخذت تجور على مواطن هذه الكائنات.

النباتات
في أوروبا تنقسم مناطق نموها إلى ثلاثة أنواع رئيسية هي: 1- الغابات 2- مناطق الحشائش 3- أقاليم التندرا والمرتفعات.

الغابات
لقد تم قطع معظم أشجار غابات وسط وجنوبي أوروبا، أما شمالي أوروبا فما زال يحتفظ بغاباته الواسعة. وتسمى الغابات الشمالية بالغابات ذات الأوراق الإبرية. ويتألف معظمها من الأشجار المخروطية التي يطلق عليها اسم الصنوبريات أو دائمة الخضرة. ولهذه الأشجار أوراق إبرية رفيعة. وتشمل الصنوبريات، التنوب والأرزية والصنوبر والراتينجية. وتعد هذه الأشجار المصدر الرئيسي لأخشاب البناء وصناعة الورق في القارة. وتقوم الحكومات الأوروبية بتنظيم قطع الأخشاب لحماية الغابات من الزوال.

وتوجد في المناطق الوسطى والجنوبية من أوروبا غير السوفييتية بعض الغابات ذات الأوراق العريضة. وتتألف هذه الغابات بصفة رئيسية من أشجار لها أوراق عريضة ومسطحة تتساقط في فصل الخريف. وتشمل هذه الأشجار شجر المران والزان والبتولا والدردار والقيقب والبلوط. توجد أيضًا في المناطق الوسطى والجنوبية الغابات المختلطة التي تتألف من الأشجار ذات الورق الإبري، والأشجار ذات الورق العريض. بالإضافة لذلك نجد في هذه المناطق غابات الورق الإبري التي تغطي سفوح الجبال العليا، وتوجد غابات ذات الأوراق العريضة دائمة الخضرة بصفة عامة على سواحل البحر الأبيض المتوسط. والأشجار من هذا النوع تشمل شجر الفلين، وشجرة الزيتون، وهذه الأشجار لاتفقد أوراقها في فصل الصيف. لكثير من هذه الأشجار أوراق متينة مكسوة بالشمع مما يساعدها على الاحتفاظ بالرطوبة بصورة جيدة.

مناطق الحشائش مناطق واسعة مفتوحة لايطوقها أي نوع من الحواجز. وتنمو فيها الحشائش بوفرة أكثر من أي نباتات أخرى. وبأوروبا نوعان من أقاليم الحشائش، أحدهما يطلق عليه اسم الإستبس، ويوجد هذا الإقليم في المناطق الجافة حيث تنمو الأعشاب القصيرة، ويغطي إقليم الإستبس المنطقة الممتدة من إقليم الدانوب السفلي إلى الجزء الأوروبي جنوب غربي روسيا وغربي كازاخستان. وتشمل أقاليم الحشائش الأخرى، مساحة واسعة من السهل الأوروبي الكبير والجزء الأوسط من القطاع الأوروبي من روسيا. ومعظم السهول الصغرى في أوروبا أكثر خصوبة من الإستبس. يستغل المزارعون معظم أقاليم الحشائش كمزارع لزراعة الحبوب وكمراع لماشيتهم.

أقاليم التندرا والمرتفعات تتميز ببرودة مناخها وخلوها من الأشجار، وهي تغطي معظم المنطقة القريبة من سواحل أوروبا المطلة على ساحل المحيط المتجمد الشمالي. تتجمد المياه على سطح الأرض في هذه المنطقة معظم شهور السنة. وعندما يذوب الجليد الذي يبلغ ارتفاعه بين 30 و60 سم أثناء فصل الصيف القصير في القطب الشمالي يخلف وراءه البرك والمستنقعات، وتغطي التندرا في هذا الفصل الطحالب والشجيرات الصغيرة والزهور البرية والأشنة. يستخدم المزارعون أجزاءً من التندرا والجبال العالية مراعي لماشيتهم.

الحيوانات
تعيش معظم حيوانات أوروبا البرية في مناطق يصعب الوصول إليها، أو في مناطق محظور الصيد فيها، أو في المحميات والمتنزهات الوطنية، حيث لا يحق للمواطنين قتلها.

يعيش الدب الأوروبي ذو اللون البني وهو من أكبر أنواع الدببة، في روسيا وشمالي إسكندينافيا. أما الثعالب والذئاب فنجدها منتشرة في كثير من أقاليم أوروبا، ويعيش الشمواه والوعل أو (التيس الجبلي) اللذان يشبهان الماعز، في مرتفعات جنوب غربي أوروبا. وتوجد الإلكة والرنّة والعديد من أنواع الأيائل الأخرى في عدد من أجزاء أوروبا الممتدة من البحر الأبيض المتوسط إلى القطب الشمالي. وتعيش الفقمة عند سواحل القطب الشمالي والمحيط الأطلسي، والبحر الأبيض المتوسط. وتشمل الحيوانات البرية الأخرى شائعة الوجود بأوروبا الغرير والأرنب الوحشي، والقنفذ، واللاموس، والخلد، وثعلب الماء، والأرنب، والسنجاب، والخنزير البري. وتشمل الطيور التي تتخذ أوروبا موطنًا لها، العُقاب والصقر والحسُّون والعصفور والعندليب والبومة والغراب الأسحم، وأبو الحناء واللقلق والسمنة والورشان أو الحمام المطوَّق.

يتوفر السمك بكميات كبيرة في المياه الأوروبية عند ساحل الأطلسي وفي بحر البلطيق والبحر الأسود وبحر قزوين والبحر الأبيض المتوسط والبحار الشمالية. ويعتمد البعض في معيشتهم على صيد الأسماك مثل الأنشوفة وسمك القد والسمك المفلطح والرنجة والماكريل والسالمون والسردين والحفش والتروتة والتونة في هذه المناطق. ويستعمل بيض سمك الحفش في صنع طعام شهي يطلق عليه اسم الكافيار.

مراجع

انظر أيضًا
 نهر الدانوب
 حوض بانونيا

جغرافيا

جغرافيا أوروبا


Vigintas ist ein litauischer männlicher Vorname, abgeleitet von ginti (verteidigen).

Personen
Vigintas Višinskis (* 1962), Richter im Lietuvos apeliacinis teismas, Zivilprozessrechtler, Professor der Mykolas-Romer-Universität in Vilnius.

Männlicher Vorname
Litauischer Vorname

Vigintas


Omvendt Blå Kors er rockbandet Red Warszawas fjerde studiealbum. Albummet indeholder kun én genudgivelse (fra et tidligere demobånd), hvilket er sangen med samme navn som selve bandet, Red Warszawa.

Albummet var også første studiealbum med trommeslageren Måtten Møbelbanker, og sidste album hvor bassisten, Tonser Henrik medvirkede. CD'en varer 53 minutter, og og har undertitlen Greatest Hits 1986-2002 Volume 4.

Sange
 "2000 tyskere"
 "Die Brügge"
 "Bøsse dræbt med stegegaffel"
 "Jernedød"
 "Connie dans for mig"
 "Er du lidt tyk"
 "Professor Pungmose"
 "Fuckin' op i røven Jonna 5"
 "Jeg headbanger stadig"
 "Barbiedukkeland"
 "March of the N.O.L."
 "Motorvej"
 "Praktikanten"
 "Paranoia"
 "Pigefnat"
 "Perleporten"
 "Jeg er kristen"
 "Jeg ved godt jeg ikke skal sove med en hånd oppe i røven"
 "I aften er det rygeraften"
 "Red Warszawa"
 "Atomkrig og dåseøl"

Medvirkende
 "Lækre" Jens Mondrup – Vokal
 "Heavy" Henning Nymand – Guitar
 "Tonser" Henrik – Bas
 Måtten Møbelbanker – Trommer

Eksterne henvisninger

Album fra 2002
Red Warszawa-album

Omvendt Blå Kors


قد تشير كلمة تشاد إلى:

 مواقع جغرافية:
 تشاد، دولة في إفريقيا
 بحيرة تشاد، مسطح مائي في إفريقيا
 شخصيات:
 تشاد هيرلي، مؤسس مشارك لموقع يوتيوب.
 تشاد مايكل موراي، ممثل أمريكي.
 تشاد كروجر، مغني وعازف كندي.
 تشاد جيبل، مصارع أمريكي

صفحات توضيح أسماء أماكن

تشاد (توضيح)