Olaylar

 1869 - 78 kilogram ağırlığında ve %91'i saf altından oluşan, "Hoş Geldin Yabancı" adı verilen dünyanın en büyük altın külçesi, Avustralya'nın Victoria eyaletinde yerin birkaç santimetre altından çıkarıldı.
 1877 - Mithat Paşa, sadrazamlıktan azledildi. Daha sonra Taif zindanında boğduruldu.
 1885 - Belçika Kralı II. Léopold, Kongo'yu kendi kişisel mülkiyeti ilan etti.
 1917 - Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Kongresi, Başkan Woodrow Wilson'un vetosuna rağmen, Asyalıların ülkeye göçünü yasaklayan göçmen yasasını onayladı.
 1919 - Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks ve D.W. Griffith birlikte United Artists film şirketini kurdular.
 1919 - Karakol Cemiyeti adlı direniş örgütü kuruldu.
 1924 - Nezihe Muhittin'in Başkanlığında Türk Kadınlar Birliği kuruldu.
 1924 - Greenwich Gözlemevi, saat başı sinyallerini yayınlamaya başladı.
 1932 - İlk Türk tangosu olan Mazi Kalbimde Bir Yaradır, Seyyan Hanım tarafından ilk kez yorumlandı.
 1932 - İlk Türkçe hutbe, Süleymaniye Camii'nde okundu.
 1933 - Atatürk, 1 Şubat'ta Bursa'da bir grubun, ezan ve kametin Türkçe okunmasını sebep gösterip, gösteri yapması üzerine Ege gezisini yarıda keserek Bursa'ya geldi.
 1936 - Charlie Chaplin'in son sessiz filmi, Modern Zamanlar gösterime girdi.
 1937 - Anayasa'nın 2. maddesinde yapılan değişiklikle, altı ilke Anayasa metnine girdi: Türkiye Devleti Cumhuriyetçi, Milliyetçi, Halkçı, Devletçi, Laik ve İnkılapçıdır. Resmi dili Türkçedir. Makam Ankara şehridir.
 1939 - Uludağ'da ilk kez kayak yarışmaları yapıldı.
 1956 - Meriç ve Tunca nehirleri dondu; Yeşilköy ve Mecidiyeköy'e kurtlar indi ve İstanbul halkı ekmeksiz kaldı.
 1958 - Cemal Abdünnasır, Birleşik Arap Cumhuriyeti'nin ilk cumhurbaşkanı olmak için aday gösterildi.
 1958 - ABD Hava Kuvvetleri, Georgia eyaleti sahili açıklarında bir hidrojen bombası kaybetti. Bomba bulunamadı.
 1959 - Birleşik Krallık, Türkiye ve Yunanistan arasındaki "Kıbrıs" konulu görüşmeler Zürih'te başladı.
 1971 - Apollo 14, Ay yüzeyine indi.
 1972 - Bob Douglas, Basketball Hall of Fame'e seçilen ilk siyah Amerikalı oldu.
 1973 - Güney Afrika'da 20 bin siyah işçi greve başladı.
 1975 - ABD Kongresi'nin 11 Aralık 1974'te aldığı, Türkiye'ye silah ambargosu kararı uygulanmaya başlandı. Ambargonun gerekçesi, Türkiye'nin Temmuz-Ağustos 1974'te Kıbrıs'a askeri müdahalede bulunmasıydı.
 1976 - Amerikan uçak firması Lockheed, Türkiye'de rüşvet verdiklerini açıkladı.
 1983 - 12 Eylül Darbesi'nin 37, 38 ve 39. idamları: 1973'te kardeşleri Hasan Karaköse'nin Halil Çatal tarafından öldürülüşünden bir yıl sonra, 20 Mart 1974'te tarlaya gitmekte olan Halil Çatal'ın karısı Nafiye Çatal ve oğlu Mevlüt Çatal'ı öldüren Rıdvan Karaköse, Cavit Karaköse ve Süleyman Karaköse idam edildiler.
 1983 - Nokta dergisi yayın hayatına başladı.
 1988 - Manuel Noriega'ya kaçakçılık ve para aklama suçlarından dava açıldı.
 1988 - Yunan uyrukluların Türkiye'de bulunan gayrimenkulleri üzerindeki haklarını donduran 1964 tarihli kararname kaldırıldı.
 1993 - ANAP İstanbul milletvekili Adnan Kahveci, eşi ve kızı, Bolu-Gerede yakınlarında geçirdikleri trafik kazasında öldüler; Kahveci'nin oğlu, kazadan yaralı kurtuldu.
 1994 - Bosna Savaşı sırasında Markale Pazar yerinde bomba patladı; 68 kişi öldü, 144 kişi yaralandı.
 2006 - Trabzon'nun Santa Maria Katolik Kilisesi'nde Roma Katolik Rahibi Andrea Santoro silahlı saldırı sonucu öldürüldü.
 2007 - Amerikalı astronot Sunita Williams, Uluslararası Uzay İstasyonunun soğutma sistemini tamir etmek amacıyla yaptığı 22 saat 27 dakikalık uzay yürüyüşle "en uzun uzay yürüyüşünü yapan kadın" oldu.
 2020 - 2193 sefer sayılı uçuş: İzmir-İstanbul seferini yapan Pegasus Hava Yolları uçağı, Sabiha Gökçen Havalimanı'na inişi sırasında pistten çıkarak parçalandı. Kazada 3 kişi öldü, 179 kişi yaralandı.
 2023 - 2023 Kıbrıs cumhurbaşkanlığı seçimleri sonucunda Nikos Hristodulidis yeni cumhurbaşkanı oldu.

Doğumlar
 976 - Sanjō, Japonya'nın geleneksel veraset düzenine göre 67. imparatorudur (ö. 1017)
 1626 - Madame de Sévigné, Fransız aristokrat (ö. 1696)
 1723 - John Witherspoon, Amerikalı Presbiteryen rahip ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin kurucu babalarından (ö. 1794)
 1737 - Park Ji-won, Koreli Neo-Konfüçyüsçü filozof, merkantilist, diplomat, ekonomist ve romancı (ö. 1805)
 1788 - Robert Peel, Birleşik Krallık Başbakanı (ö. 1850)
 1799 - John Lindley, İngiliz bitki bilimci ve orkidolog (ö. 1865)
 1804 - Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Finlandiya İsveçlisi şair (ö. 1877)
 1808 - Carl Spitzweg, Alman şair ve ressam (ö. 1885)
 1812 - Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès, Fransız bir subay ve politikacı senatör (ö. 1895)
 1835 - Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke, Alman astronom (ö. 1897)
 1836 - Nikolay Alexandrovich Dobrolyubov, Rus eleştirmen ve gazeteci (ö. 1861)
 1840 - John Boyd Dunlop, İskoçyalı mucit (ö. 1921)
 1848 - Ignacio Carrera Pinto, Şilili subay (ö. 1882)
 1852 - Terauchi Masatake, Japon asker ve devlet adamı (ö. 1919)
 1858 - Saffet Atabinen, ilk Türk orkestra şefi (ö. 1939)
 1867 - Bernard Carra de Vaux, Fransız oryantalist (ö. 1953)
 1872 - Selma Rıza Feraceli, ilk Türk kadın gazeteci (ö. 1931)
 1877 - Vladimir Minorski, Rus doğubilimci (ö. 1966)
 1878 - André Citroën, Fransız mühendis ve iş insanı (ö. 1935)
 1885 - Burton Downing, Amerikalı bisikletçi (ö. 1929)
 1889 - Recep Peker, Türk asker ve siyasetçi (ö. 1950)
 1897 - Dirk Stikker, Hollandalı bankacı, sanayici, siyasetçi ve diplomat (ö. 1979)
 1897 - Anton Graf von Arco auf Valley, Alman aşırı sağ aktivist (ö. 1945)
 1907 - Eren Eyüboğlu, Türk ressam (ö. 1988)
 1907 - Pierre Pflimlin, Fransız siyasetçi ve eski başbakan (1958) (ö. 2000)
 1909 - Grażyna Bacewicz, Polonyalı besteci ve kemancıdır (ö. 1969)
 1910 - Francisco Varallo, Arjantinli eski millî futbolcu ve forvet (ö. 2010)
 1912 - Hedwig Potthast, Heinrich Himmler'in metresi (ö. 1994)
 1914 - William Burroughs, Amerikalı roman ve deneme yazarı (ö. 1997)
 1914 - Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, İngiliz fizyolog ve biyofizikçi (ö. 1998)
 1915 - Robert Hofstadter, Amerikalı bir fizikçidir (ö. 1990)
 1917 - Kerime Nadir, Türk romancı (ö. 1984)
 1918 - Kara Karayev, Azeri besteci (ö. 1982)
 1918 - Otto Scrinzi, Avusturyalı sinir hastalık uzmanı, gazeteci ve aşırı sağcı siyasetçi (ö. 2012)
 1919 - Red Buttons, Amerikalı aktör ve komedyen (ö. 2006)
 1919 - Andreas Papandreou, Yunan iktisatçı ve siyasetçi (Yunanistan'ın eski Başbakanı) (ö. 1996)
 1921 - Ken Adam, Almanya doğumlu İngiliz film yapımcısı ve tasarımcı (ö. 2016)
 1929 - Hal Blaine, Amerikalı rock and roll, pop-rock bateristi ve stüdyo müzisyeni (ö. 2019)
 1929 - Fred Sinowatz, Sosyal Demokrat Partili (SPÖ) Avusturyalı bir politikacı (ö. 2008)
 1932 - Cesare Maldini, İtalyan futbolcu (ö. 2016)
 1932 - Vladimir Maneyev, Rus güreşçi (ö. 1985)
 1933 - Jörn Donner, Finlandiyalı yazar, film yönetmeni, aktör, eleştirmen, film yapımcısı ve siyasetçi (ö. 2020)
 1933 - B. S. Johnson, İngiliz romancı, şair, edebiyat eleştirmeni ve film yapımcısı (ö. 1973)
 1934 - Hank Aaron, Sağ kanatta oynayan eski Amerikalı siyahi beybzbol oyuncusu (ö. 2021)
 1934 - Don Cherry, Kanadalı buz hokeyi oyuncusu, koç ve spor yazarı
 1935 - Johannes Geldenhuys, Güney Afrikalı üst düzey rütbeli askerdir (ö. 2018)
 1937 - Stuart Damon, Amerikalı aktör (ö. 2021)
 1940 - H. R. Giger, İsviçreli sürrealist ressam, heykeltıraş ve set tasarımcısı ve film yönetmenidir (ö. 2014)
 1940 - Özay Gönlüm, Türk halk müziği sanatçısı (ö. 2000)
 1941 - Stephen J. Cannell, Amerikalı senarist, film ve dizi yapımcısı (ö. 2010)
 1943 - Nolan Bushnell, ABD'li elektronik oyunculuğun babası
 1943 - Michael Mann, Amerikalı yönetmen, yapımcı ve senarist
 1945 - Jale Parla, Türk edebiyat teorisyeni ve eleştirmeni
 1946 - Charlotte Rampling, İngiliz oyuncu
 1948 - Giovanni Di Clemente, İtalyan film yapımcısı ve yönetmen (ö. 2018)
 1948 - Sven-Göran Eriksson, İsveçli teknik direktör
 1948 - Barbara Hershey, Altın Küre ödüllü Amerikalı sinema ve dizi oyuncusudur
 1948 - Tom Wilkinson, Akademi Ödülü adaylığı bulunan İngiliz oyuncu
 1949 - Kurt Beck, Alman siyasetçi
 1950 - Nihat Nikerel, Türk oyuncu ve yazar (d. 2009)
 1951 - Nikolay Merkuşkin, eski Samara Oblastı valisi ve Rusya'daki Mordovya Cumhuriyeti'nin eski ve ilk başkanıdır
 1951 - Yaşar Nuri Öztürk, Türk akademisyen, gazeteci, yazar ve siyasetçi (ö. 2016)
 1951 - Robin Sachs, İngiliz sinema ve TV oyuncusu (ö. 2013)
 1951 - Elizabeth Swados, Amerikalı yazar, besteci, müzisyen ve tiyatro yönetmeni (ö. 2016)
 1952 - Daniel Balavoine, Fransız şarkıcı (ö. 1986)
 1956 - Vinnie Colaiuta, Amerikalı baterist
 1956 - Sevda Karaca, Türk pop müzik ve sinema sanatçısı
 1957 - Mustafa Elitaş, Türk siyasetçi
 1958 - Orhan Alkaya, Türk şair, yazar, tiyatro ve sinema oyuncusu, yönetmen ve gazeteci
 1958 - Kenneth Holm, İsveçli kızakçı
 1959 - Jennifer Granholm, Kanada doğumlu Amerikalı siyasetçi ve hukukçu
 1959 - Lütfü Türkkan, Türk siyasetçi
 1961 - Ersin Kalkan, Türk gazeteci ve yazar
 1961 - Tim Meadows, Amerikalı oyuncu, komedyen ve senarist
 1961 - Hakan Peker, Türk şarkıcı
 1962 - Jennifer Jason Leigh, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1963 - Ha Seung-Moo, Koreli bir şairdir ve protestan pastörü
 1964 - Duff McKagan, Amerikalı müzisyen ve besteci
 1964 - Laura Linney, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1965 - Quique Sánchez Flores, İspanyol teknik direktör ve eski futbolcudur
 1965 - Gheorghe Hagi, Rumen teknik direktör ve eski futbolcu
 1966 - Soner Arıca, Türk şarkıcı
 1966 - José María Olazábal, İspanyol golfçü
 1968 - Marcus Grönholm, Fin ralli pilotu
 1969 - Bobby Brown, Amerikalı bir şarkıcı ve söz yazarıdır
 1969 - Michael Sheen, Galli aktör
 1972 - Mary, Danimarka Veliaht Prensi Frederik'in eşi
 1973 - Judith Katrijntje "Trijntje" Oosterhuis, Hollandalı pop şarkıcısı
 1974 - Deniz Yılmaz, Türk gitarist, şarkıcı ve Kurban'ın solisti
 1974 - Omarosa Manigault, Amerikalı komedyen, oyuncu ve seslendirme sanatçısı
 1975 - Giovanni van Bronckhorst, Endonezya asıllı Hollandalı futbolcu
 1976 - Altan Aksoy, Türk millî futbolcu
 1976 - Anne-Sophie Pelletier, Fransız politikacı
 1980 - Manaf Abushgeer, Suudi Arabistanlı futbolcu
 1981 - Mia Hansen-Løve, Fransız film yönetmeni ve aktristir
 1981 - Ahu Sungur, Türk oyuncu
 1981 - Nora Zehetner, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1982 - Marco Di Meco, İtalyan şair
 1984 - Erika, İtalyan pop şarkıcısı
 1984 - Carlos Tevez, Arjantinli futbolcu
 1985 - Cihan Özdemir, Türk şarkıcı
 1985 - Cristiano Ronaldo, Portekizli futbolcu
 1986 - Manuel Fernandes, Portekizli futbolcu
 1987 - Darren Criss, Amerikalı oyuncu ve şarkıcı
 1987 - Özge Gürel, Türk oyuncu
 1987 - Curtis Jerrells, Amerikalı profesyonel basketbolcudur
 1988 - Karin Ontiveros, Meksikalı manken, eski güzellik kraliçesi ve TV sunucusu
 1990 - Cem Ekinci, Alman-Türk futbolcu
 1991 - Nabil Bahoui, İsveçli millî futbolcudur
 1992 - Neymar, Brezilyalı futbolcu
 1992 - Stefan de Vrij, Hollandalı futbolcudur
 1995 - Adnan Januzaj, Kosovalı-Arnavut asıllı Belçikalı futbolcu
 1997 - Patrick Roberts, İngiliz futbolcu
 1999 - Cemre Baysel, Türk oyuncu
 2002 - Davis Cleveland, Amerikalı oyuncu
 2003 - Sümeyye Boyacı, Türk yüzücü
 2009 - Abhimanyu Mishra, Amerikalı satranç büyükustası

Ölümler
 806 - Kammu, Japonya'nın geleneksel veraset düzenine göre 50. imparatorudur (d. 737)
 1579 - Giovanni Battista Moroni, Geç Rönesans döneminin İtalyan ressamıydı (d. 1520)
 1661 - Shunzhi, Çin'in Qing Hanedanı'nın üçüncü imparatoru (d. 1638)
 1790 - William Cullen, İskoç doktor (d. 1710)
 1807 - Pasquale Paoli, İtalyan devlet adamı ve yurtsever (d. 1725)
 1818 - XIII. Karl, İsveç-Norveç arasında kurulan birliğin ilk kralı (d. 1748)
 1881 - Thomas Carlyle, İskoç asıllı, deneme ve hiciv yazarı, tarihçi ve eğitmen (d. 1795)
 1883 - Pertevniyal Sultan, Abdülaziz'in annesi, Valide Sultan ve II. Mahmud'un eşi (d. 1810)
 1887 - Beşir Fuad, Türk asker, çevirmen, gazeteci ve fikir adamı (d. 1852)
 1888 - Anton Mauve, Hollandalı realist ressam (d. 1838)
 1889 - Ole Jacob Broch, Norveçli matematikçi, fizikçi, ekonomist ve politikacı (d. 1818)
 1894 - Auguste Vaillant, Fransız anarşist (d. 1861)
 1926 - André Gedalge, Fransız besteci ve öğretmen (d. 1856)
 1931 - Athanasios Eftaxias, Yunan siyasetçi (d. 1849)
 1931 - Mihal Grameno, Arnavut milliyetçi, politikacı, yazar, özgürlük savaşçısı ve gazeteci (d. 1871)
 1937 - Lou Andreas-Salomé, Rus asıllı psikanalist ve yazar (d. 1861)
 1939 - Gheorghe Țițeica, Rumen matematikçi (d. 1873)
 1946 - George Arliss, İngiliz aktör (d. 1868)
 1958 - Lili Berky, Macar aktris (d. 1886)
 1960 - Mustafa Kurucu, Türk mutasavvıf, öğretmen ve İslam alimi (d. 1887)
 1961 - Helmuth Theodor Bossert, Alman asıllı Türk dil bilimci ve arkeolog (d. 1889)
 1967 - Violeta Parra, Şilili folk müziği sanatçısı (d. 1917)
 1969 - Thelma Ritter, Amerikalı oyuncu (d. 1902)
 1971 - Mátyás Rákosi, Macar komünist siyasetçi ve 1945-1956 arasında Macaristan Komünist Partisi lideri (d. 1892)
 1976 - Arnold Petersen, Amerika Sosyalist İşçi Partisi Ulusal Sekreteri (d. 1885)
 1990 - Sümeyra Çakır, Türk ses sanatçısı (d. 1946)
 1993 - Adnan Kahveci, Türk siyasetçi (d. 1949)
 1993 - Joseph L. Mankiewicz, Amerikalı yapımcı, yönetmen, senarist ve En İyi Yönetmen Akademi Ödülü, En İyi Özgün Senaryo Akademi Ödülü sahibi (d. 1909)
 1994 - Hermann Josef Abs, Alman bankacı ve maliye uzmanı (d. 1901)
 1999 - Wassily Leontief, Rus ekonomist ve Nobel Ekonomi Ödülü sahibi (d. 1906)
 2005 - Gnassingbé Eyadéma, Togo devlet başkanı (d. 1935)
 2006 - Andrea Santoro, İtalyan misyoner rahip (d. 1945)
 2006 - Cemal Kutay, Türk tarihçi ve yazar (d. 1909)
 2008 - Maharişi Maheş Yogi, Hint guru (Transandantal Meditasyon tekniğini geliştiren) (d. 1918)
 2011 - Brian Jacques, İngiliz yazar (d. 1939)
 2012 - Sam Coppola, Amerikalı oyuncudur (d. 1935)
 2014 - Carlos Borges, Uruguaylı futbolcu (d. 1932)
 2014 - Robert A. Dahl, Amerikalı siyaset bilimci (d. 1915)
 2015 - Henri Coppens, Eski Belçikalı millî futbolcu ve teknik direktör (d. 1930)
 2015 - Marisa Del Frate, İtalyan oyuncu, sunucu ve şarkıcı (d. 1931)
 2015 - Val Fitch, Amerikalı fizikçi ve Nobel Fizik Ödülü sahibi (d. 1923)
 2016 - Bodil Malmsten, İsveçli romancı ve şair (d. 1944)
 2017 - David Axelrod, Amerikalı müzik yapımcısı, besteci ve müzisyen (d. 1933)
 2017 - Sonny Geraci, Amerikalı şarkıcı ve müzisyendir (d. 1947)
 2017 - Björn Granath, İsveçli oyuncu (d. 1946)
 2018 - Margot Duhalde, II. Dünya Savaşı'nda görev almış Şilili kadın pilottur (d. 1920)
 2019 - Joe Presko, Amerikalı profesyonel beyzbol oyuncusudur (d. 1928)
 2019 - Václav Vorlíček, Çek film yönetmeni (d. 1930)
 2020 - Carlos Barisio, Arjantinli futbolcu (d. 1951)
 2020 - Stanley Cohen, Amerikalı biyokimyacı ve 1986 yılı Nobel Fizyoloji veya Tıp Ödülü sahibi bilim insanı (d. 1922)
 2020 - Kirk Douglas, Amerikalı oyuncu (d. 1916)
 2021 - Ezzat El Alaili, Mısırlı aktör (d. 1934)
 2021 - Isa Bellini, İtalyan aktris, seslendirme sanatçısı, sunucu ve şarkıcı (d. 1922)
 2021 - Ruth Dayan, İsrailli moda tasarımcısı, aktivist ve yazar (d. 1917)
 2021 - Christopher Plummer, Kanadalı film, dizi oyuncusu ve En İyi Yardımcı Erkek Oyuncu Akademi Ödülü sahibi (d. 1929)
 2021 - Butch Reed, eski Amerikan futbolu oyuncusu ve profesyonel Amerikan güreşçisi (d. 1954)
 2023 - Pervez Müşerref, Pakistanlı asker ve siyasetçidir (d. 1943)

Tatiller ve özel günler

Kaynakça

0205
05

5 Şubat


El Festival Internacional de Las Almas (FIA) esencia del Arte y la Cultura, popularmente conocido como Festival de las Almas, es un festival cultural y musical de México que se lleva a cabo anualmente a finales del mes de octubre y principios de noviembre (aprovechando las festividades del día de muertos)en la ciudad de Valle de Bravo (Estado de México), ubicada al suroeste de Ciudad de México y la ciudad de Toluca.

Historia
Valle de Bravo, hermoso pueblo mexiquense, pese a su reducido tamaño y población, posee grandes encantos arquitectónicos, climáticos y culturales. Es por ello que es un destino turístico de clase mundial. Debido a la naturaleza del pueblo es que algunos artistas han encontrado aquí su inspiración y han decidido mudarse. Un ejemplo para ello es Alberto Gironella, pintor mexicano surrealista que residió en Valle de Bravo durante algunos años, donde realizó varias obras. Con el paso del tiempo muchos artistas de diferentes esferas también han decidido establecerse en el pueblo. Estos artistas, cada uno por su parte o en conjunto, han tenido influencia en la sociedad vallesana de alguna manera, buscado así acrecentar la cultura y difundir las artes en la región. Es por ello que en ese afán de promover el arte y la cultura el Gobierno del Estado de México también pone de su parte, y a través del Instituto Mexiquense de Cultura pone en marcha en el año de 2003 el  Festival Internacional Vallesano de Arte y Cultura, Festival de Las Almas.

Con el esfuerzo de instancias gubernamentales y privadas,además de la participación activa de los vallesanos se logra poner en marcha el primer festival, que se llevó a cabo del 24 de octubre al 2 de noviembre de 2003, y recibió a más de 153 mil espectadores procedentes de todo el país y del extranjero, participaron artistas de México, Gran Bretaña, Argentina, Cuba, España Rumania, Yugoslavia, Chile y Colombia.
Cada evento es realizado en foros abiertos y cerrados, tales como la Alameda del Pueblo, el Jardín Central, el Centro Regional de Cultura, la Parroquia de San Francisco de Asís, el templo de Santa María, los embarcaderos y el lago, entre otros.
En dicho evento a lo largo de los años se han presentado artistas como kudai, Ha*Ash, Natalia Lafourcade, Julieta Venegas, Armando Manzanero, Susana Zabaleta, Francisco Céspedes, Ricardo Arjona,  entre otros.
A lo largo de 9 ediciones, grandes luminarias han aparecido en escena, así como espectáculos únicos, 950 artistas mexicanos y 170 extranjeros.

Noveno Festival 2011
La edición 2011 del Festival Internacional de Música y Cultura Las Almas el cual se realizó del 28 de octubre al 5 de noviembre esta en puerta. Con 225 actividades en 18 foros del Valle de Bravo y 11 subsedes, en igual número de municipios del Estado, llamando la atención artistas de la talla de; Joaquín Sabina, Pablo Milanés, Maria de Barros, Zoé, Congal Tijuana, Julieta Venegas, Oscar Chávez, la Sonora Santanera, BerlinskiBeat y Dj Blacky (Los Magníficos Impostores). además de  la participación de artistas de nueve países entre ellos Alemania, Argentina, Cuba, Chile, Francia, Rusia y Ucrania.

Enlaces externos
http://festivaldelasalmas.com

Festivales culturales de México
Festivales de música de México
Cultura del Estado de México
Valle de Bravo
Organizaciones fundadas en 2003
México en 2003

Festival de las almas


Le Soviet de Limerick (anglais : Limerick Soviet, irlandais : Sóibhéid Luimnigh) est un épisode de la guerre d'indépendance irlandaise qui dure du  au  et au cours duquel des conseils de grève exercent le pouvoir dans la ville de Limerick, dans la province de Munster.

Chronologie

12 mars - 12 avril : contexte
Le 6 avril, vers 18h, Robert Byrne, membre de l'IRA, opérateur télégraphe licencié pour son activité syndical, est abattu alors qu'il tente de s'évader de l'hôpital. Il y était incarcéré depuis le 21 janvier, pour une peine de douze mois, pour possession non autorisée d'arme à feu. Il s'y était retrouvé hospitalisé le 12 mars à la suite d'une grève de la faim.

Le 9 avril, le brigadier général de l'armée britannique, Christopher Griffin, déclare que la ville est une zone militaire spéciale et qu'un permis RIC sera nécessaire pour tous ceux qui souhaiteront entrer et sortir de la ville. Le lendemain, Rober Byrne est enterré devant 15 000 personnes. Le 11 avril,  une importante partie de la ville de Limerick est déclarée sous loi martiale jusqu'au mardi 15 avril.

13 avril - 27 avril: la Grève
Le samedi 12 avril, les travailleurs de la cremerie Cleeve à Lansdowne, affectés par la mesure des permis, cessent le travail en signe de protestation. La nuit du 12 au 13 avril, l'United  Trades  and  Labour council (Conseil uni des métiers) décide d'appeler à la grève générale prenant effet des 5h du matin et ce jusqu'à la fin de la loi martiale. Un comité de grève est créé.

Sean Cronin, président du conseil en a la direction. Immédiatement, le commité s'empare  d'une presse  d'imprimerie à Cornmarket Row et prépare des affiches expliquant la grève et les colles dans toute la ville.

Le lundi 14 avril, l'ensemble de la Chambre du Commerce de Limerick envoient à Andrew Bonar Law, au Vicomte french, représentant local du roi (Lord Lieutenant) et à Christopher Griffin, une déclaration condamnant le système des permis.

Le 16 avril, les cheminots, membres de l'Union nationale des cheminots, appellent leurs confrères de Cork, Inchicore et Dublin à la solidarité. Ces derniers ne font pas grève à la suite des consignes du parti travailliste qui veut attendre un mouvement d'envergure national.

Le 27 avril, le comité déclare la grève terminée

Déroulement
Le « soviet » est proclamé à l'initiative du Limerick Trades and Labour Council, pour s'opposer à la proclamation de la loi martiale par l'armée britannique dans la plus grande partie de la ville et du comté de Limerick. Il prend le contrôle de la ville, organise des distributions alimentaires et imprime même sa propre monnaie. Après deux semaines de grève générale seulement, le soviet de Limerick est dissout et la ville rentre finalement dans le giron des républicains irlandais. Il fut suivi par pas moins de 15 000 travailleurs.

Le comité de grève organise aussi les approvisionnements en eau, en gaz, en électricité et en carburant. Il contrôle le prix des denrées alimentaires, publie son propre journal intitulé The Worker's Bulletin et imprime son propre argent sur la base du shilling britannique. Argent que les entreprises de la ville acceptent. La grève est soutenue par les boulangers, qui produisent du pain frais tous les jours. Un nombre limité de magasins sont autorisés au commerce des denrées alimentaires, à condition d'adhérer aux prix du soviet.

Le soviet réussit aussi à exproprier 7000 tonnes de grain d'un navire canadien qui est amarré dans le port. Les membres du soviet bénéficient d'une meilleure alimentation qu'avant guerre

Il ne s'agit pas à proprement parler d'un soviet sur le modèle de la Révolution russe : ce surnom lui a été donné a posteriori par analogie avec les Bolchéviques. En réalité, l'organisation des conseils ouvriers a plutôt été dictée par l'urgence et la nécessité de gérer l'approvisionnement. Néanmoins, l'inspiration socialiste était bien présente chez les meneurs.

Le soviet de Limerick est le plus important parmi les soviets irlandais qui sont proclamés durant l'année 1919. Il est considéré comme un événement majeur dans l'histoire du mouvement ouvrier irlandais. La mémoire de cet évènement a cependant été minimisée car elle n'entrait pas dans le récit nationaliste instauré en Irlande après l'indépendance.

Notes et références

Limerick
Guerre d'indépendance irlandaise

Soviet de Limerick


قبيلة الجوازي
قبيلة سكنت بنغازي وضواحيها من 1000 م إلى 1942 م وهي قبيلة عربية من السعادي وبني هلال وسليم وهم اخوة لقبائل العواقير والعريبيات والمجابرة والجلالات والمغاربة التي تسكن برقة الآن تعرضت القبيلة لمذبحة أثناء الحرب الاهلية الليبية سنة 1801 وتم طرد معظمهم إلى مصر علي يد يوسف باشا القرمانلي.لم يستقر الجوازي بمصرطويلا فقد عاد جلهم إلى برقة بعد أن فقدوا الكثير منهم وبعد عودتهم إلى ديارهم في برقة صار ينظر اليهم بعين الريبة من أؤلئك (المستوطنين)الذين استوطنوا ديارهم واوطانهم وهي إقليم (برقة) بل واشتد عليهم الحقد والريبة من أن يقوموا باسترجاع امجادهم وذلك بطرد هؤلاء المستوطنون لديارهم وصار هؤلاء المستوطنون لديارهم يتربصون بهم كل مرصد ويفتعلون معهم المشاكل حتي يجدوا السبب للانقضاض عليهم والقضاء على دابرهم. هؤلاء المستوطنون (وغالبيتهم خليط من الارمن والالبان وغيرهم ممن جاءوا إلى برقة مع الغزو التركي للوطن العربي كمرتزقة الجيش الخاين التركي أو خدم منازل للاتراك حيث انه وبعد انتهاء الاحتلال التركي لم يبق من الاتراك أحد بل بقي هولاء الشرذمة القليلون، حيث اتقنوا العربية وبمرور الايام ومصاهرة القبائل العربية تفتق لسانهم بالعربية). ثم جاءت الحرب الكونية الثانية وصارت ليبيا (حسب تقرير البنك الدولي، 1955) من افقر دول العالم مما حدا بافراد كثر من هذه القبيلة للهجرة الثانية والتي استمرت (من حوالي عام 1930 إلى العام 1942 تقريبا) إلى بر المحروسة، حيث استقبلهم هناك اقارب لهم ممن مكثوا في مصر من الهجرة الأولى. من بقى من الجوازي في الهجرتين صار يلقب بالقاب أخرى غير لقب الجوازي وذلك للحفاظ غلى ارواحهم من الهلاك من قبل المستوطنين ومن امثال هذه الالقاب رضوان، العايد؛ اشويبة، القيصة، البصير، العقيبي، اصنيدل، لبعجة، المصري، احجاز، وبوبطانة والاطرش واللواحي، الناهوي، الجلالي، ابوجازية، الحطاب، الدلال، العوج، ابي تكليلة، مرواس، ابي غرارة، طرام، ابي دجاجة، ابي حوش، بن رحومة، كدوم، المجريسي، جربوع، ابي سروال، الزهواقي، الفرطاس، البعجة، اهليس، الفلاح، ابي حلفاية، بنود، اكويدر، سلامة، فرهود، ابسيوان، الخراز، شمسة، المصري، مغلية، الكريكشي، حجاز، قشيش، الكواش، بسيكري، ابي حوية، محجوبة الفلاح، الدنيني، مناع، الابعج، العير، فايد، ابي ذينة، الدرفيلي، لملوم، الجهمي، الاحيول، المنقار، المجريسي، اشتيوي، حشاد، الجملي، الرويعي، ابي رويلة، التومي، العلواني، بن رحومة مرواس، عبد الصمد، الباح، والشلاوية وغيرهم الكثير والكثير ممن يطلق عليهم بالدارجة (العقيب) أي من بقي منهم ولم يرحل ظل محتمياً باخواله أو اقاربه من القبائل الأخرى. في عهد الاحتلال الإيطالي تكون في مصر جيش السنوسي للدفاع عن برقة في عام 1940 وقد قام اعيان هذه القبيلة والقبائل المهاجرة إلى مصر بتكوين نواة هذا الجيش وتجهيزه بالمال والرجال والعتاد. ومن امثلة هؤلاء الرجال الشيخ الكيلاني باشا الادهس الجازوي وكان في معيته اخوتة من المجاهدين منذ 1918 وحتي1945, العمدة حمد عبد السلام بولطيف الجازوي وكان يعمل علي دعم الطلبة الليبيين الدارسين بالأزهر الشريف، الحداد الهاروج الجازوي، الشاعر أحمد عقيلة لانقط الجازوي أحد مؤسسي جمعية عمر المختار بالمهجر، العمدة عبد بوالجود بولطيف، العمدة شوبك الشيلابي الجازوي وهو قام بدور فعال في الجهاد في المهجر لتاسيس الدولة بربط الأمير ادريس مع الديوان الملكي في مصر ومع الحكومة الإنجليزية، وكذلك شيخ العرب الشيخ مفتاح صميده بوسكرف الجلالي المشهور بين أهل برقه بــ (البي)له دور كبير في مساعدة المجاهدين في جيش السنوسي وكان يحمل المؤن والعتاد من واهنه بالمنيا إلي الليبيين وكان قد تبرع بحوالي 500 فدان لمساعدة المجاهدين وفي برقه شيخ مشايخ الجوازي حمد بوشناف بورزيزه والشيخ سالم مفتاح الجملي، شيخ العرب العمدة عبد الله عبد السلام الجازوي وشيخ العرب قريوى بوبكر الجملى الذي كان يحمع التبرعات لمساندة اشقائهم في برقة وغيرهم الكثير ممن كانوا خير عون لاهلهم في برقة الزاهرة.

نسب القبيلة
الجوازي من بني سليم وأخوالهم بني هلال من أبو الليل الديب (بني سليم) وزوجته (جازية) بنت كبير بني هلال.الابن الأول هو (حمزه بن جبرين) وهذا هو أبو قبيله الجوازي. الجوازي من بني سليم وأخوالهم بني هلال.... ولهم كثير الشرف من هذا النسب الشريف العربي الأصيل

ولحمزه أربعة اخوه كان منهم أربعة قبائل هم أخوة وشقائق الجوازي وهم (المجابرة والمغاربة والعريبات والعواقير) وهؤلاء القبائل الاربع كلهم أبناء رجل واحد هو (جبرين) ويسموا بأبناء جبرين أو بالجبارنة.

الجوازي خلال العهد التركي المبكر
كانت حياة الجوازي في برقة حياة تعاون واحترام ومصاهرة مع اخوانهم من قبائل السعادي وكان يعتمدون على التجارة وتربية الاغنام والحرث وهم من أكثر سكان شمال أفريقيا في فصاحة اللسان لكن كبريائهم وعدم رضوخهم للضرائب التي فرضتها السلطة القرمانلية جعل القرمانللين يدسوا الكثير من الفتن والنزاعات بين القبائل ذات الاصل الواحد مما أدى إلى قيام الحرب الليبية الاهلية.

الحرب الليبية الاهلية
قامت الحرب الاهلية الليبية مطلع القرن التاسع عشر خلال العهد القرمانللي في ليبيا بين يوسف باشا القرمانلي وبعض القبائل الأخرى من جهة وقبيلة الجوازي والمجابرة والجلالات من جهة في نهاية الحرب قام القرمانللي بدعوة 45 من اعيان قبيلة الجوازي في قصر الباشا بمدينة بنغازي بزعم المصالحة وتقديم وسام لهم ثم امر جنوده بقتل الاعيان والخروج وقتل أي جازوي في ليبيا بمساعدة بعض القبائل الأخرى والتي وجدتها فرصة سانحة للانقضاض على هذه القبيلة وتقطيعهم إرباً ولم يراعوا فيهم إلاً ولا ذمة ولم يرحموا شيخا كبيرا ولا امراة عجوز ولا طفلا لا ذنب له سوى انه يحمل لقب الجازوي مم اضطر الجوازي إلى الرحيل إلى مصر والمجابرة رحلو من اجدابيا إلى مصر وجالو وبعض الجوازي لم يرحلو واكتفوا بتغيير اسم قبيلتهم. قتل في هذه المذبحة ما يزيد على العشرة الالاف ضحية لا لشئ الا انهم رفضوا الرضوخ للمحتل الغاشم وأبوا الدنية في دينهم. والطامة الكبرى هو وقوف اخوتهم من القبائل الأخرى مع عدوهم طمعاً في اسلاب القوم. وصارت برقة من حينه لا يحكمها الا كل ذي علة سواء في اصله أو في فعله واغتصبت برقة من بين ايدي اهلها وحتى الآن يسيطر عليها ذوو الاصول التركية.
. مذبحة الجوازي هي تسمية تطلق على مذبحة شهيرة ارتكبت ضد قبيلة الجوازي في مدينة بنغازي في ولاية برقة وقتها شرقي ليبيا، وذلك في سنة 1816، قتل فيها أكثر من عشرة آلاف فرد من قبيلة واحدة. في حقيقة الامر فإن هذه المذبحة التي لم يحدث لها مثيل من قبل والتي تعتبر أكبر مذبحة عرفها التاريخ من حيث عدد الضحايا.
كان موقع المذبحة القلعة التركية في المدينة انتقاما من الثورة التي اندلعت ضد حكم أسرة القرة مانللي ورفضهم دفع الضرائب المفروضة، حيث يذكر أن الباشا بعد ادعائه مهادنة قبيلة الجوازي ودعوة 45 من أعيانها وشيوخهاإلى القلعة بغرض الإنعام عليهم، وبمجرد جلوسهم حتى هجم الحرس الخاص بالباشا عليهم وذبحوهم، فيما هوجم أفراد القبيلة والذين كانوا يرابطون خارج أسوار القلعة وتم ذبح أعداد كبيرة منهم بينهم أطفال ونساء. الآن وبعد كل هذه السنين ما زال هؤلاء المستوطنون (بقايا الاتراك) يتوجسون خيفة ورهبة من تلك القبيلة وراحوا بكل ما اؤتوا من قوة يضيقون عليهم الخناق ويبثون الفتن والقلاقل حيثما وجدوا واينما ذهبوا وبدلاً من يكفروا عن ذنوبهم وعن كل ما اقترفوا في حق هذا الشعب العربي الابي وحق تلك القبيلة، نجد انهم يقوموا بعكس ذلك أي انهم ما زالوا ماضون في غيهم وجبروتهم القديم فزادوا من نفث سمومهم ووصل بهم الامر إلى ان صاروا يهمشون ويقصون كل من يتوسموا فيه الخير والفلاح فهذه هي طبيعتهم التي جبلوا عليها الا وهي زرع الفتن لينفردوا هم وحدهم بالامر والتخلص من اؤلئك الذين يقفوا لهم بالمرصاد.

وثيقة خطية عن واقعة إعدام شيوخ الجوازى بالقصر سنة 1237 هـ
وثيقة خطية بقلم الفقى أحمد بن محمد الشنكيطى المغربي، يذكر فيها واقعة إعدام شيوخ الجوازى غدراً في بنغازى  {{بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم والصلاة والسلام على سيد المرسلين. والسلام على من ماتوا مظلومين. انا الفقى احمد بن محمد الشنكيطى من بلد شنكيط من المغرب اكتب
ما املاه علىَّ الشيخ صالح المصرى شيخ قبائل الجوازى من أسماء الشيوخ
الذين اعدموا في قصر الحكومة في مدينة بنغازى يوم الاربعاء في السابع
عشر صفر سنة الف ومائتان وسبعة وثلاثون هجرية وعددهم خمسة واربعون اثر
الخديعة والخيانة الذي (التي) دبرها لهم أحمد يوسف القرمالى الذي تظاهر لهم بالرضا وقبلوا الضيافة الذين كانت فيما زهقت ارواحهم غدراً واذكرهم بالاسم:

على بن صالح بن بوزيد صبار
الكيلانى بن عمر أبسيوان
صالح بن عبد القادر بوبريقعة
يونس بن إبراهيم بوشيبة
عبد الجليل بن مفتاح بوهدهودة الكلوبى
مفتاح بن عبد السلام بوشلابيه
عمر بن إبراهيم عبد العزيز
أبو بكر بن محمد حراز
عبد الرحمان بن مصطفى بو غرارة
محمد بن الصابر غريدة
عبد ربه بن يوسف الناهوى
موسى بن سعد بوجرعيد
إبراهيم بن على بن سليمان لوجلى
عبد الرحمن بن يونس الكريكشي
صلاج بن حامد أمنيسى بويلة
طاهر بن بو بكر الدوزان
حامد بن عبد الرحيم بوقرين
عبد الرحمن بن عبد المولى فركاش
سالم بن عبد السلام الفريخ
حمد بن مراد مقرب
سليمان بن بوسيف عليوة
سعيد بن سالم بوحلفاية
صالح بن على نوفل
عثمان بن عمر الثور
عوض بن محمود زيدان
عبد النبى عيسى الخمق
إبراهيم جمعة الزرقة
منصور بن عوض قشيش
محمد بن حمد الفلاح
عثمان بن ياسين ادهمش
مصطفى بن نوح بن عابد معابدة
سالم بن عبد الله الطابونى
على بن أبو القاسم بوبطانة
منصور بن سعد سلام
ناجى بن حمد الفرخ
السنوسي بن طاهر الشويخ
محمد الصادق الابعج
زيدان بن محمد أمريمى
موسى بن جبرين بنود
سالم بن عمر الاطرش
غيضان بن الساكر مرعى
على بن بدر مناع
عبد الله بن جاد المولى بورزيزة
وذكر الشيخ المصرى عدد خمسة رجال ذبحوا في شط الحليس وهما
سالم بن حامد الحطاب
جبرين بن سالم اهليس
على بن فرج فايد
عمران المهير
إبراهيم الدلال
وان المذكورين أعلاه اعرف البعض منهم.... انا مقيم في نزل الشيخ عمر بن العزيز فقى أُعلِّم القرآن لاولادهم وشهدت ما حل بهم من العساكر الانكشارية من قتل وشهدت البيوت تحرق..... وما لا يرضاه الله.

وهذا ما املاه على الشيخ صالح المصرى وما سمعته منه وفي الختام الصلاة على سيد الانام.

ودفنوا في مقبرة السيد داوؤد في بلد بنغازى.

ومما قيل عن ذكرى هذه المذبحة:
مذبحة قصر البركة وسميت البركة بسبب بركة دم شيوخ هذه القبيلة

قصيدة مذبحة الجوازي بقصر البركة بنغازي

يا قصر مبنى عالغدر أو دم الجوازى ازواقه
نبوك تشهد عالدهر التاريخ يحكن اوراقه
مشايخ الجوازى الزينيين كيف القمر في اشراقه
أولاد اصل تفصيلهم زين كيف الذهب في اقداقه
جاهم الخبر والدواويين في القصر ختمن اوراقه
ايقولولهم يا فراسين انريدو امعاكم صداقه
مشايخ الجوازى معازيم في القصر نبو املاقه
أو باتو على راى ماشيين موش خوف لا هي القاقه
عشرين في جنب عشرين ومعاهم خمسه رفاقه
أو جو عالقصر حادرين والقصر زامن أبواقه
كل شيخ لاقوه نفرين بالمرحبة والصداقة
انشدو عالبى هو وين قالولهم في ارواقه
ايسلم عليكم سلامين مشتاق طالن اشواقه
أو خايف اموتى الكمين اوعابيلهم عالعواقه
اودارو وراهم الخاينيين من ورا ضربة حماقه
بدا طعنهم بالسكاكين وبسيف طايب ارقاقه
على ارواحهم جاهدو نين كل شيخ مولاه لاقه
ياباشا لا عهد لادين كذاب مالك صداقه
لو جيتم العين بالعين يسقوك حرب المذاقة
حتا ابقوت في المياديين ايقودوك قودان ناقه
عزاء فيكم يا الزيننين عزا ما ايحودد افراقه
اونا طالب الله امين مولاى واسع ارزاقه
في جنتا دوم خالدين انتو أو محمد رفاقه
على الصلاة يا سامعين اوسلام حار مطيب ارياقه
يا قصر مبنى عالغدر أو دم الجوازى ازواقه
نبوك تشهد عالدهر التاريخ يحكن اوراقه

إن كان مشيتوا وما الشروط إرضيتوا

تبقوا رمايا في اطراف حطايـا**** وتبقوا عشاء للصــقر بو نابين

وانتو ا نتايف من اعقاب عجايف**** ما تعرفوا قدر السمايــــــا وين

واحنا جــوازي والنبـا فنطاظي**** وفارس الجوازي يردع بميتين

فأيقن شيوخ الجوابيص أن المتكلم لابد أنه فارس لان ما قاله من شعر الفرسان والمحاربين ,فعرفواأنهم سوف يواجهون أياما غير مريحه في حرب هولاء الجوازي الذين نزحوا من ليبيا بعد حرب قوات دولة الاتراك ومن والأهم من قبائل ليبيا الذين خافوا علي وجودهم من سطوة الجوازي الذين حاصروا قبائل العواقير لمدة ستة أشهر بعد معركة (وادي قمره),تلك المعركة التي فتحت اعين الاتراك علي خطر الجوازي عليهم وعلي وجودهم في ليبيا باكملها ,فدبروا لهم تلك المكيدة في (قصر البركة).
وفي نفس الوقت كان الجوابيص أهل ثراء ورغد من العيش وليس لهم الخبرة الكافية بالحروب، فلم يصمدوا أمام الجوازي، فأستنجدوا بالخديوي الحاكم المصري في ذلك الوقت، فلم ينجح أيضاً في قتال الجوازي الذين كانت لهم خبرة في حروب الجبال، فقرر التفاوض معهم، فمنحهم أراضي في (محافظة المنيا) لكي يستقروا فيها، فوافق الشيخ عمر المصري، وتم تلقيب الشيخ (عمر بك المصري), كما أعفي شباب الجوازي من الخدمة العسكرية في الجيش المصري. فنجد الآن الجوازي يتمركزون في منطقة برقة وكذلك البعض منهم في مصر.
وقد لعب أبناء قبيلة الجوازى دورا كبيرا في تاريخ مصر الحديث انطلاقا من محافظة المنيا حيث أصبح منهم الاطباء والمهندسين وضباط الجيش المصري حتى ان أحد أبناء القبيلة وهو الفريق صفى الدين أبو شناف قد تقلد منصب رئيس اركان الجيش المصري في فترة حكم الرئيس المصري حسنى مبارك كم ان أحد أبناء القبيلة كان نقيبا لاطباء المنيا وهو الدكتور جمال امطيريد كم اشتهر افراد القبيلة بالكرم الشديد ومنهم الشيخ عبد المجيد مفتاح قريوى الذي ذاع صيته في الكرم والحكمة وغيره الكثير من أهل الكرم والحكمة من افراد قبيلة الجوازى الذين ذاع صيتهم في محافظة المنيا باكملها.

مراجع

قبائل ليبيا

قبيلة الجوازي


Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions overseen by the federal government of the United States. The various American territories differ from the U.S. states and Indian reservations as they are not sovereign entities. In contrast, each state has a sovereignty separate from that of the federal government and each federally recognized Native American tribe possesses limited tribal sovereignty as a "dependent sovereign nation." Territories are classified by incorporation and whether they have an "organized" government through an organic act passed by the Congress. American territories are under American sovereignty and, consequently, may be treated as part of the United States proper in some ways and not others (i.e., territories belong to, but are not considered to be a part of, the United States). Unincorporated territories in particular are not considered to be integral parts of the United States, and the Constitution of the United States applies only partially in those territories.

The United States currently administers three territories in the Caribbean Sea and eleven in the Pacific Ocean. Five territories (American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands) are permanently inhabited, unincorporated territories; the other nine are small islands, atolls, and reefs with no native (or permanent) population. Of the nine, only one is classified as an incorporated territory (Palmyra Atoll). Two additional territories (Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank) are claimed by the United States but administered by Colombia. Historically, territories were created to administer newly acquired land, and most eventually attained statehood. The most recent territories to become U.S. states were Alaska on January 3, 1959, and Hawaii on August 21, 1959. The Republic of the Philippines — along with the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau, which were administered as a U.N. trust territory, but sometimes grouped with U.S. territories — later became independent nations.

Politically and economically, the territories are underdeveloped. Residents of United States territories cannot vote in United States presidential elections, and they have only non-voting representation in the United States Congress. According to 2012 data, territorial telecommunications and other infrastructure are generally inferior to that of the continental United States and Hawaii. Poverty rates are higher in the territories than in the states.

Organized vs. unorganized territories

Definition
Organized territories are lands under federal sovereignty (but not part of any state or the federal district) which were given a measure of self-governance by Congress through an organic act subject to the Congress's plenary powers under the territorial clause of the Constitution's Article Four, section 3.

Former
The term unorganized was historically applied either to a newly acquired region not yet constituted as an organized incorporated territory (e.g. the Louisiana Purchase prior to the establishment of Orleans Territory and the District of Louisiana), or to a region previously part of an organized incorporated territory left "unorganized" after part of it had been organized and achieved the requirements for statehood (e.g. a large portion of Missouri Territory became unorganized territory for several years after its southeastern section became the state of Missouri).

Regions that have been admitted as states under the United States Constitution in addition to the original thirteen were, most often, prior to admission, territories or parts of territories of this kind. As the United States grew, the most populous parts of the organized territory would achieve statehood. Some territories existed only a short time before becoming states, while others remained territories for decades. The shortest-lived was Alabama Territory at two years, while New Mexico Territory and Hawaii Territory both lasted more than 50 years.

Of the current 50 states, 31 were at one time or another part of an organized, incorporated U.S. territory. In addition to the original 13, six subsequent states never were: Kentucky, Maine, and West Virginia were each set off from an already existing state; Texas and Vermont were both sovereign states (only de facto sovereignty in Vermont's case, as the region was claimed by New York) at the time when they entered the Union; and California was set off from unorganized land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 at the end of the Mexican–American War.

Current status
All of the five major U.S. territories are permanently inhabited and have locally elected territorial legislatures and executives and some degree of political autonomy. Four of the five are "organized", but American Samoa is technically "unorganized". All of the U.S. territories without permanent non-military populations are unorganized.

Federal administration
The Office of Insular Affairs coordinates federal administration of the U.S. territories and freely associated states, except for Puerto Rico.

On March 3, 1849, the last day of the 30th Congress, a bill was passed to create the U.S. Department of the Interior to take charge of the internal affairs of United States territory. The Interior Department has a wide range of responsibilities (which include the regulation of territorial governments, the basic responsibilities for public lands, and other various duties).

In contrast to similarly named Departments in other countries, the United States Department of the Interior is not responsible for local government or for civil administration except in the cases of Indian reservations, through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and island dependencies administered by the Office of Insular Affairs.

Permanently inhabited territories
The U.S. has five permanently inhabited territories: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands in the North Pacific Ocean, and American Samoa in the South Pacific Ocean. American Samoa is in the Southern Hemisphere, while the other four are in the Northern Hemisphere. In 2020, their combined population was about 3.62 million, over 90% of which is accounted for by Puerto Rico alone.

People born in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands acquire U.S. citizenship by birth, and foreign nationals residing there may apply for U.S. citizenship by naturalization. People born in American Samoa acquire U.S. nationality but not U.S. citizenship by birth if they do not have a U.S. citizen parent. U.S. nationals without U.S. citizenship may hold U.S. passports and reside in any part of the United States without restriction. However, to become U.S. citizens they must apply for naturalization, like foreigners, and may only do so while residing in parts of the United States other than American Samoa. Foreign nationals residing in American Samoa cannot apply for U.S. citizenship or U.S. nationality at all.

Each territory is self-governing with three branches of government, including a locally elected governor and a territorial legislature. Each territory elects a non-voting member (a non-voting resident commissioner in the case of Puerto Rico) to the U.S. House of Representatives. Although they cannot vote on the passage of legislation, they can introduce legislation, have floor privileges to address the house, be members of and vote in committees, are assigned offices and staff funding, and may nominate constituents from their territories to the Army, Naval, Air Force and Merchant Marine academies.

As of the 118th Congress, the territories are represented by Aumua Amata Radewagen (R) of American Samoa, James Moylan (R) of Guam, Gregorio Sablan (D) of Northern Mariana Islands, Jenniffer González-Colón (R-PNP) of Puerto Rico and Stacey Plaskett (D) of U.S. Virgin Islands. The District of Columbia's delegate is Eleanor Holmes Norton (D); like the district, the territories have no vote in Congress and no representation in the Senate. Additionally, the Cherokee Nation has delegate-elect Kimberly Teehee, who has not been seated by Congress.

Every four years, U.S. political parties nominate presidential candidates at conventions which include delegates from the territories. U.S. citizens living in the territories can vote for presidential candidates in these primary elections but not in the general election.

The territorial capitals are Pago Pago (American Samoa), Hagåtña (Guam), Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands), San Juan (Puerto Rico) and Charlotte Amalie (U.S. Virgin Islands). Their governors are Lemanu Peleti Mauga (American Samoa), Lou Leon Guerrero (Guam), Ralph Torres (Northern Mariana Islands), Pedro Pierluisi (Puerto Rico) and Albert Bryan (U.S. Virgin Islands).

Among the inhabited territories, Supplemental Security Income (SSI) is available only in the Northern Mariana Islands; however, in 2019 a U.S. judge ruled that the federal government's denial of SSI benefits to residents of Puerto Rico is unconstitutional. This ruling was later overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court, allowing for the exclusion of territories from such programs. In the decision, the court explained that the exemption of island residents from most federal income taxes provides a "rational basis" for their exclusion from eligibility for SSI payments.

American Samoa is the only U.S. territory with its own immigration system (a system separate from the United States immigration system). American Samoa also has a communal land system in which 90% of the land is communally owned; ownership is based on Samoan ancestry.

History
 American Samoa: territory since 1900; after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War, the Samoan Islands were divided into two regions. The U.S. took control of the eastern half of the islands. In 1900, the Treaty of Cession of Tutuila took effect. The Manuʻa islands became part of American Samoa in 1904, and Swains Island became part of American Samoa in 1925. Congress ratified American Samoa's treaties in 1929. For 51 years, the U.S. Navy controlled the territory. American Samoa is locally self-governing under a constitution last revised in 1967. The first elected governor of American Samoa was in 1977, and the first non-voting member of Congress was in 1981. By jus soli, people born in American Samoa are U.S. nationals, but not U.S. citizens. American Samoa is technically unorganized, and its main island is Tutuila.
 Guam: territory since 1899, acquired at the end of the Spanish–American War. Guam is the home of Naval Base Guam and Andersen Air Force Base. It was organized under the Guam Organic Act of 1950, which granted U.S. citizenship to Guamanians and gave Guam a local government. In 1968, the act was amended to permit the election of a governor.
 Northern Mariana Islands: A commonwealth since 1986, the Northern Mariana Islands together with Guam were part of the Spanish Empire until 1899 when the Northern Marianas were sold to the German Empire after the Spanish–American War. Beginning in 1919, they were administered by Japan as a League of Nations mandate until the islands were captured by the United States in the Battle of Saipan and Battle of Tinian (June–August 1944) and the surrender of Aguigan (September 1945) during World War II. They became part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) in 1947, administered by the United States as U.N. trustee. The other constituents of the TTPI were Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands. Following failed efforts in the 1950s and 1960s to reunify Guam and the Northern Marianas, a covenant to establish the Northern Mariana Islands as a commonwealth in political union with the United States was negotiated by representatives of both political bodies; it was approved by Northern Mariana Islands voters in 1975, and came into force on March 24, 1976. In accordance with the covenant, the Northern Mariana Islands constitution partially took effect on January 9, 1978, and became fully effective on November 4, 1986. In 1986, the Northern Mariana Islands formally left U.N. trusteeship. The abbreviations "CNMI" and "NMI" are both used in the commonwealth. Most residents in the Northern Mariana Islands live on Saipan, the main island.
 Puerto Rico: unincorporated territory since 1899; Puerto Rico was acquired at the end of the Spanish–American War, and has been a U.S. commonwealth since 1952. Since 1917, Puerto Ricans have been granted U.S. citizenship. Puerto Rico was organized under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 (Public Law 600). In November 2008, a U.S. District Court judge ruled that a series of Congressional actions have had the cumulative effect of changing Puerto Rico's status from unincorporated to incorporated. The issue is proceeding through the courts, however, and the U.S. government still refers to Puerto Rico as unincorporated. A Puerto Rican attorney has called the island "semi-sovereign". Puerto Rico has a statehood movement, whose goal is to make the territory the 51st state. See also Political status of Puerto Rico.
 U.S. Virgin Islands: purchased by the U.S. from Denmark in 1917 and organized under the Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands in 1954. U.S. citizenship was granted in 1927. The main islands are Saint Thomas, Saint John and Saint Croix.

Statistics
Except for Guam, the inhabited territories lost population in 2020. Although the territories have higher poverty rates than the mainland U.S., they have high Human Development Indexes. Four of the five territories have another official language, in addition to English.

The territories do not have administrative counties. The U.S. Census Bureau counts Puerto Rico's 78 municipalities, the U.S. Virgin Islands' three main islands, all of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands' four municipalities, and American Samoa's three districts and two atolls as county equivalents. The Census Bureau also counts each of the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands as county equivalents.

For statistical purposes, the U.S. Census Bureau has a defined area called the "Island Areas" which consists of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands (every major territory except Puerto Rico). The U.S. Census Bureau often treats Puerto Rico as its own entity or groups it with the states and D.C. (for example, Puerto Rico has a QuickFacts page just like the states and D.C.) Puerto Rico data is collected annually in American Community Survey estimates (just like the states), but data for the other territories is collected only once every ten years.

Governments and legislatures

The five major inhabited territories contain the following governments and legislatures:

Political party status
The following is the political party status of the governments of the U.S. territories following completion of the 2022 United States elections. Instances where local and national party affiliation differs, the national affiliation is listed second. Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands have unicameral territorial legislatures.

Courts

Each of the five major territories has its own local court system:

 High Court of American Samoa
 Supreme Court of Guam
 Supreme Court of the Northern Mariana Islands
 Supreme Court of Puerto Rico
 Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands

Of the five major territories, only Puerto Rico has an Article III federal district court (i.e., equivalent to the courts in the fifty states); it became an Article III court in 1966. This means that, unlike other U.S. territories, federal judges in Puerto Rico have life tenure. Federal courts in Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands are Article IV territorial courts. The following is a list of federal territorial courts, plus Puerto Rico's court:
 District Court of Guam (Ninth Circuit)
 District Court for the Northern Mariana Islands (Ninth Circuit)
 District Court for the District of Puerto Rico (not a territorial court) (First Circuit)
 District Court of the Virgin Islands (Third Circuit)

American Samoa does not have a federal territorial court, and so federal matters in American Samoa are sent to either the District court of Hawaii or the District court of the District of Columbia. American Samoa is the only permanently inhabited region of the United States with no federal court.

Demographics

While the U.S. mainland is majority non-Hispanic White, this is not the case for the U.S. territories. In 2010, American Samoa's population was 92.6% Pacific Islander (including 88.9% Samoan); Guam's population was 49.3% Pacific Islander (including 37.3% Chamorro) and 32.2% Asian (including 26.3% Filipino); the population of the Northern Mariana Islands was 34.9% Pacific Islander and 49.9% Asian; and the population of the U.S. Virgin Islands was 76.0% African American. In 2019, Puerto Rico's population was 98.9% Hispanic or Latino, 67.4% white, and 0.8% non-Hispanic white.

Throughout the 2010s, the U.S. territories (overall) lost population. The combined population of the five inhabited territories was 4,100,594 in 2010, and 3,569,284 in 2020.

The U.S. territories have high religiosity rates—American Samoa has the highest religiosity rate in the United States (99.3% religious and 98.3% Christian).

Economies

The economies of the U.S. territories vary from Puerto Rico, which has a GDP of $104.989 billion in 2019, to American Samoa, which has a GDP of $636 million in 2018. In 2018, Puerto Rico exported about $18 billion in goods, with the Netherlands as the largest destination.

Guam's GDP shrank by 0.3% in 2018, the GDP of the Northern Mariana Islands shrank by 19.6% in 2018, Puerto Rico's GDP grew by 1.18% in 2019, and the U.S. Virgin Islands' GDP grew by 1.5% in 2018. In 2017, American Samoa's GDP shrank by 5.8%, but then grew by 2.2% in 2018.

American Samoa has the lowest per capita income in the United States—it has a per capita income comparable to that of Botswana. In 2010, American Samoa's per capita income was $6,311. As of 2010, the Manu'a District in American Samoa had a per capita income of $5,441, the lowest of any county or county-equivalent in the United States. In 2018, Puerto Rico had a median household income of $20,166 (lower than the median household income of any state). Also in 2018, Comerío Municipality, Puerto Rico had a median household income of $12,812 (the lowest median household income of any populated county or county-equivalent in the U.S.) Guam has much higher incomes (Guam had a median household income of $48,274 in 2010.)

Minor Outlying Islands
The United States Minor Outlying Islands are small uninhabited islands, atolls, and reefs. Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island are in the Pacific Ocean while Navassa Island is in the Caribbean Sea. The additional disputed territories of Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank are also located in the Caribbean Sea. Palmyra Atoll (formally known as the United States Territory of Palmyra Island) is the only incorporated territory, a status it has maintained since Hawaii became a state in 1959. All are uninhabited except for Midway Atoll, whose approximately 40 inhabitants are employees of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and their services provider; Palmyra Atoll, whose population varies from four to 20 Nature Conservancy and Fish and Wildlife staff and researchers; and Wake Island, which has a population of about 100 military personnel and civilian employees.
The two-letter abbreviation for the islands collectively is "UM".

The status of several islands is disputed. Navassa Island is disputed by Haiti, Wake Island is disputed by the Marshall Islands; Swains Island (a part of American Samoa) is disputed by Tokelau; and Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank (administered by Colombia) are disputed by Colombia and Jamaica.

Disputed
The following two territories are claimed by multiple countries (including the United States) and are not included in ISO 3166-2:UM. However, they are sometimes grouped with the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. According to the GAO, "the United States conducts maritime law enforcement operations in and around Serranilla Bank and Bajo Nuevo [Bank] consistent with U.S. sovereignty claims."

Incorporated vs. unincorporated territories

Pursuant to a series of Supreme Court rulings, Congress decides whether a territory is incorporated or unincorporated. The U.S. Constitution applies to each incorporated territory (including its local government and inhabitants) as it applies to the local governments and residents of a state. Incorporated territories are considered to be integral parts of the U.S., rather than possessions.

In unincorporated territories, "fundamental rights apply as a matter of law, but other constitutional rights are not available", raising concerns about how citizens in these territories can influence politics in the United States. Selected constitutional provisions apply, depending on congressional acts and judicial rulings according to U.S. constitutional practice, local tradition, and law. As a result, these territories are often considered colonies of the United States.

All modern inhabited territories under the control of the federal government can be considered as part of the "United States" for purposes of law as defined in specific legislation. However, the judicial term "unincorporated" was coined to legitimize the late-19th-century territorial acquisitions without citizenship and their administration without constitutional protections temporarily until Congress made other provisions. The case law allowed Congress to impose discriminatory tax regimes with the effect of a protective tariff upon territorial regions which were not domestic states. In 2022, the United States Supreme Court in United States v. Vaello Madero held that the territorial clause of the constitution allowed wide congressional latitude in mandating "reasonable" tax and benefit schemes in Puerto Rico and the other territories, which are different from the states, but did not address the incorporated/unincorporated distinction. In a concurrence with the court's overall ruling on the propriety of the differential tax structures, one of the justices opined that it was time to overrule the incorporation doctrine, as wrongly decided and founded in racism, the dissent agreed.

Insular Cases

The U.S. Supreme Court, in its 1901–1905 Insular Cases opinions, ruled that the Constitution extended  (i.e., of its own force) to the continental territories. The Court also established the doctrine of territorial incorporation, in which the Constitution applies fully to incorporated territories (such as the then-territories of Alaska and Hawaii) and partially in the unincorporated territories of Puerto Rico, Guam and, at the time, the Philippines (which is no longer a U.S. territory).

In the 1901 Supreme Court case Downes v. Bidwell, the Court said that the U.S. Constitution did not fully apply in unincorporated territories because they were inhabited by "alien races".

The U.S. had no unincorporated territories (also known as overseas possessions or insular areas) until 1856. Congress enacted the Guano Islands Act that year, authorizing the president to take possession of unclaimed islands to mine guano. The U.S. has taken control of (and claimed rights on) many islands and atolls, especially in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, under this law; most have been abandoned. It also has acquired territories since 1856 under other circumstances, such as under the Treaty of Paris (1898) which ended the Spanish–American War. The Supreme Court considered the constitutional position of these unincorporated territories in 1922 in Balzac v. People of Porto Rico, and said the following about a U.S. court in Puerto Rico:

In Glidden Company v. Zdanok, the Court cited Balzac and said about courts in unincorporated territories: "Upon like considerations, Article III has been viewed as inapplicable to courts created in unincorporated territories outside the mainland... and to the consular courts established by concessions from foreign countries". The judiciary determined that incorporation involves express declaration or an implication strong enough to exclude any other view, raising questions about Puerto Rico's status.

In 1966, Congress made the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico an Article III district court. This (the only district court in a U.S. territory) sets Puerto Rico apart judicially from the other unincorporated territories, and U.S. district judge Gustavo Gelpí has expressed the opinion that Puerto Rico is no longer unincorporated:

In Balzac, the Court defined "implied":

On June 5, 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ruled 3–0 in Tuaua v. United States to deny birthright citizenship to American Samoans, ruling that the guarantee of such citizenship to citizens in the Fourteenth Amendment does not apply to unincorporated U.S. territories. In 2016 the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the appellate court's decision.

In 2018, the United States Court of Appeals for the 7th Circuit upheld the District Court decision in Segovia v. United States, which ruled that former Illinois residents living in Puerto Rico, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands did not qualify to cast overseas ballots according to their last registered address on the U.S. mainland. (Residents of the Northern Marianas and American Samoa, however, were still allowed to cast such ballots.) In October 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the 7th Circuit's decision.

On June 15, 2021, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit ruled 2–1 in Fitisemanu v. United States to deny birthright citizenship to American Samoans and not to overrule the Insular Cases. The court cited Downes and ruled that "neither constitutional text nor Supreme Court precedent" demands that American Samoans should be given automatic birthright citizenship. The case was denied certiorari by the U.S. Supreme Court. On April 21, 2022, in the case United States v. Vaello Madero, Justice Gorsuch urged the Supreme Court to overrule the Insular Cases when possible as they "rest on a rotten foundation" and called the cases "shameful".

In analyzing the Insular Cases, Christina Duffy Ponsa (Juris Doctor, Yale Law School, 1998; former law clerk for Justice Stephen Breyer) wrote in the New York Times: "To be an unincorporated territory is to be caught in limbo: although unquestionably subject to American sovereignty, they are considered part of the United States for certain purposes but not others. Whether they are part of the United States for purposes of the Citizenship Clause remains unresolved. "

Supreme Court decisions about current territories
The 2016 Supreme Court case Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle ruled that territories do not have their own sovereignty. That year, the Supreme Court declined to rule on a lower-court ruling in Tuaua v. United States that American Samoans are not U.S. citizens at birth.

The Supreme Court ruled in 2022 in United States v. Vaello-Madero that Congress is not required to extend all benefits to Puerto Ricans, and that the exclusion of Puerto Ricans from the Supplemental Security Income program was permitted under the constitution.

Supreme Court decisions about former territories

In Rassmussen v. U.S., the Supreme Court quoted from Article III of the 1867 treaty for the purchase of Alaska:

The act of incorporation affects the people of the territory more than the territory itself by extending the Privileges and Immunities Clause of the Constitution to them, such as its extension to Puerto Rico in 1947; however, Puerto Rico remains unincorporated.

Alaska Territory

Rassmussen arose from a criminal conviction by a six-person jury in Alaska under federal law. The court held that Alaska had been incorporated into the U.S. in the treaty of cession with Russia, and the congressional implication was strong enough to exclude any other view:

Concurring justice Henry Brown agreed:

Florida Territory

In Dorr v. U.S., the court quoted Chief Justice John Marshall from an earlier case:

In Downes v. Bidwell, the court said: "The same construction was adhered to in the treaty with Spain for the purchase of Florida... the 6th article of which provided that the inhabitants should 'be incorporated into the Union of the United States, as soon as may be consistent with the principles of the Federal Constitution'."

Southwest Territory

Justice Brown first mentioned incorporation in Downes:

Louisiana Territory

In Downes, the court said:

Modern Puerto Rico
Scholars agreed as of 2009 in the Boston College Law Review, "Regardless of how Puerto Rico looked in 1901 when the Insular Cases were decided, or in 1922, today, Puerto Rico seems to be the paradigm of an incorporated territory as modern jurisprudence understands that legal term of art". In November 2008, a district court judge ruled that a sequence of prior Congressional actions had the cumulative effect of changing Puerto Rico's status to incorporated. In 2022, the United States Supreme Court held that the territorial clause of the constitution allowed wide congressional latitude in mandating "reasonable" tax and benefit schemes in Puerto Rico and the other territories that are different from the states, but did not address the incorporated/unincorporated distinction. In a concurrence, one of the justices opined that it was time to overrule the Insular Cases and the incorporation doctrine, as wrongly decided.

Former territories and administered areas

Formerly unorganized territories

At various times during the 19th century, large parts of the Great Plains were unorganized territory. After the Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803, the entire region was part of the Louisiana Territory until 1812 and the Missouri Territory until 1821. In 1821 the Missouri Compromise created the State of Missouri from the territory, and the rest of the region was left unorganized. The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 created the Kansas and Nebraska Territories, bringing organized government to the region once again. The creation of Kansas and Nebraska left the Indian Territory as the only unorganized territory in the Great Plains.

In 1858, the western part of the Minnesota Territory became unorganized when it was not included in the new state of Minnesota; this area was organized in 1861 as part of the Dakota Territory. On May 2, 1890, the western half of the Indian Territory was organized as Oklahoma. The remainder was incorporated into the State of Oklahoma upon its admission to the union in 1907.

Alaska was an unorganized territory between its acquisition from Russia in 1867 and the creation of Alaska Territory in 1912. Hawaii was as well from the time of its annexation by the U.S. in 1898 until organized as Hawaii Territory in 1900.

Former organized incorporated territories

(All areas that have become U.S. states outside of the Thirteen Colonies)

Former unincorporated territories

 Line Islands: disputed claim with the United Kingdom. U.S. claim to most of the islands was ceded to Kiribati upon its independence in 1979, but the U.S. retained Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll and Jarvis Island.
 Panama Canal Zone (1903–1979): sovereignty returned to Panama under the Torrijos–Carter Treaties of 1978. The U.S. retained a military base and control of the canal until December 31, 1999.
 Philippines: insular government, 1902–1935; commonwealth government, 1935–1942 and 1945–1946 (islands under Japanese occupation, 1942–1945 and puppet state, 1943–1945); granted independence on July 4, 1946
 Phoenix Islands: disputed claim with the United Kingdom; U.S. claim ceded to Kiribati upon its independence in 1979 (Baker and Howland Islands, sometimes considered part of this group, are retained by the U.S.)
 Quita Sueño Bank (1869–1981): claimed under the Guano Islands Act; claim abandoned in a treaty ratified September 7, 1981
 Republic of Hawaii: became the Territory of Hawaii after it was incorporated by the Hawaiian Organic Act on April 30, 1900
 Roncador Bank (1856–1981): claimed under the Guano Islands Act; ceded to Colombia in treaty ratified September 7, 1981
 Serrana Bank: claimed under the Guano Islands Act; ceded to Colombia in treaty ratified September 7, 1981
 Swan Islands (1863–1972): claimed under the Guano Islands Act; ceded to Honduras in a 1972 treaty

Former U.S.-administered areas

 Philippines (1898–1902)
 Cuba (1898–1902, 1906–1909, and 1917–1922)
 Dominican Republic (1916–1924 and 1965–66)
 Haiti (1915–1934, 1994–1995)
 Nanpō Islands and Marcus Island (1945–1968): Occupied after World War II, and returned to Japan by mutual agreement
 Nicaragua (1912–1933)
 Panama, 1989–1990
 Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa (1952–1972): returned to Japan in an agreement including the Daitō Islands
 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1947–1986): U.N. trust territory administered by the U.S.; included the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau, which are sovereign states (that have entered into a Compact of Free Association with the U.S.), along with the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
 Veracruz (1914): after the Tampico Affair during the Mexican Revolution
 American Shanghai (1848–1863): A former enclave in modern-day Shanghai China
 Corn Islands (1914–1971): leased for 99 years under the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty, but returned to Nicaragua after the treaty was annulled in 1970

Former U.S. military occupations

 Participation in the Occupation of the Rhineland (1918–1921)
 Participation in the Occupation of Constantinople (1918–1923)
 Participation in the Occupation of Austria-Hungary (1918–1919)
 Occupation of Greenland in World War II (1941–1945)
 Occupation of Iceland in World War II (1941–1946); military base retained until 2006
 Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories, in Allied-controlled sections of Italy from the July 1943 invasion of Sicily until the September armistice with Italy. AMGOT continued in newly liberated areas of Italy until the end of the war, and also existed in France.
 Clipperton Island (1944–1945): occupied territory, returned to France on October 23, 1945
 United States Army Military Government in Korea: Occupation south of the 38th parallel from 1945 to 1948
 American zones of Allied-occupied Germany (1945–1949)
 Occupation of Japan (1945–1952) after World War II
 American occupation zones in Allied-occupied Austria and Vienna (1945–1955)
 American occupation zone in West Berlin (1945–1990)
 Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954): The U.S. co-administered a portion of the territory (between the Kingdom of Italy and the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia) with the United Kingdom
 Grenada invasion and occupation (1983)
 Coalition Provisional Authority (Iraq, 2003–2004)
 Green Zone, Iraq (March 20, 2003December 31, 2008)

Flora and fauna

The territories of the United States have many plant and animal species found nowhere else in the United States. All U.S. territories have tropical climates and ecosystems.

Forests

The USDA says the following about the U.S. territories (plus Hawaii):

Forests in the U.S. territories are vulnerable to invasive species and new housing developments. El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico is the only tropical rain forest in the United States National Forest system.

American Samoa has 80.84% forest cover and the Northern Mariana Islands has 80.37% forest cover—these are among the highest forest cover percentages in the United States (only Maine and New Hampshire are higher).

Birds

U.S. territories have many bird species that are endemic (not found in any other location).

Introduction of the invasive brown tree snake has harmed Guam's native bird population—nine of twelve endemic species have become extinct, and the territorial bird (the Guam rail) is extinct in the wild.

Puerto Rico has several endemic bird species, such as the critically endangered Puerto Rican parrot, the Puerto Rican flycatcher, and the Puerto Rican spindalis. The Northern Mariana Islands has the Mariana swiftlet, Mariana crow, Tinian monarch and golden white-eye (all endemic). Birds found in American Samoa include the many-colored fruit dove, the blue-crowned lorikeet, and the Samoan starling.

The Wake Island rail (now extinct) was endemic to Wake Island, and the Laysan duck is endemic to Midway Atoll and the Northwest Hawaiian Islands. Palmyra Atoll has the second-largest red-footed booby colony in the world, and Midway Atoll has the largest breeding colony of Laysan albatross in the world.

The American Birding Association currently excludes the U.S. territories from their "ABA Area" checklist.

Other animals

American Samoa has several reptile species, such as the Pacific boa (on the island of Ta'ū) and Pacific slender-toed gecko. American Samoa has only a few mammal species, such as the Pacific (Polynesian) sheath-tailed bat, as well as oceanic mammals such as the Humpback whale. Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands also have a small number of mammals, such as the Mariana fruit bat; oceanic mammals include Fraser's dolphin and the Sperm whale. The fauna of Puerto Rico includes the common coquí (frog), while the fauna of the U.S. Virgin Islands includes species found in Virgin Islands National Park (including 302 species of fish).

American Samoa has a location called Turtle and Shark which is important in Samoan culture and mythology.

Protected areas
There are two National Parks in the U.S. territories: the National Park of American Samoa, and Virgin Islands National Park. The National Park Service also manages War in the Pacific National Historical Park on Guam. There are also National Natural Landmarks, National Wildlife Refuges (such as Guam National Wildlife Refuge), El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico, and the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (which includes the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands).

Public image

In The Not-Quite States of America, his book about the U.S. territories, essayist Doug Mack said:

Representative Stephanie Murphy of Florida said about a 2018 bill to make Puerto Rico the 51st state, "The hard truth is that Puerto Rico's lack of political power allows Washington to treat Puerto Rico like an afterthought." According to Governor of Puerto Rico Ricardo Rosselló, "Because we don't have political power, because we don't have representatives, [no] senators, no vote for president, we are treated as an afterthought." Rosselló called Puerto Rico the "oldest, most populous colony in the world".

Rosselló and others have referred to the U.S. territories as American "colonies". David Vine of The Washington Post said the following: "The people of [the U.S. territories] are all too accustomed to being forgotten except in times of crisis. But being forgotten is not the worst of their problems. They are trapped in a state of third-class citizenship, unable to access full democratic rights because politicians have long favored the military's freedom of operation over protecting the freedoms of certain U.S. citizens." In his article "How the U.S. Has Hidden Its Empire", Daniel Immerwahr of The Guardian writes, "The confusion and shoulder-shrugging indifference that mainlanders displayed [toward territories] at the time of Pearl Harbor hasn't changed much at all. [...] [Maps of the contiguous U.S.] give [mainlanders] a truncated view of their own history, one that excludes part of their country." The 2020 U.S. Census excludes non-citizen U.S. nationals in American Samoa—in response to this, Mark Stern of Slate.com said, "The Census Bureau's total exclusion of American Samoans provides a pertinent reminder that, until the courts step in, the federal government will continue to treat these Americans with startling indifference."

Galleries

Members of the House of Representatives (non-voting)

Territorial governors

Satellite images

Inhabited territories

Uninhabited territories (minor outlying islands)

Maps

See also

More detail on all current territories

 Article indexes: AS, GU, MP, PR, VI
 Congressional districts: AS, GU, MP, PR, VI
 Geography: AS, GU, MP, PR, VI
 Geology: AS, GU, MP, PR, VI
 List of museums in the unincorporated territories of the United States
 List of U.S. National Historic Landmarks in the U.S. territories
 Outlines: AS, GU, MP, PR, VI
 Per capita income: AS, GU, MP, PR, VI
 Territories of the United States on stamps
 U.S. National Historic Places: AS, GU, MP, PR, VI, UM

Related topics
 Colony of Liberia, established by Americans but never under administration of the United States
 Enabling act (United States)
Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, a military base of the United States Navy in Cuba under a perpetual lease
 Historic regions of the United States
 Insular area
 List of extreme points of the United States
 List of states and territories of the United States
 Organic act
 Organized incorporated territories of the United States
 Territorial evolution of the United States
 U.S. territorial sovereignty

Notes

References

External links
 The United States and its Territories: 1870–1925: The Age of Imperialism (a Digital Library special collection at the University of Michigan)
 FindLaw: Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901) regarding the distinction between incorporated and unincorporated territories
 FindLaw: People of Puerto Rico v. Shell Co., 302 U.S. 253 (1937) regarding the application of U.S. law to organized but unincorporated territories
 FindLaw: United States v. Standard Oil Company, 404 U.S. 558 (1972)  regarding the application of U.S. law to unorganized unincorporated territories
 Office of Insular Affairs
 Application of the U.S. Constitution in U.S. Insular Areas
 Department of the Interior Definitions of Insular Area Political Organizations
 United States District Court decision addressing the distinction between Incorporated vs Unincorporated territories
 USDA—Islands on the Edge: Housing Development and Other Threats to America's Pacific and Caribbean Island Forests
 Harvard Law Review—U.S. Territories: Introduction
 The Washington Post—Most countries have given up their colonies. Why hasn't America?
 LGBT issues in the U.S. territories (includes background information about the U.S. territories)

Political divisions of the United States

Colonization history of the United States

Territories of the United States


Rokketanden er en børnefilm fra 1995 instrueret af Klaus Kjeldsen.

Handling
Far, jeg har fået min første rokketand. Den rokker, når jeg snakker. Den gad ikke at falde ud, men havnede i risengrøden. Jeg har mindst tabt fem. Pludselig falder de ud. Jeg får lommepenge og tandpenge. Man ser lidt dum ud med et kæmpehul. Alle de andre har nye fortænder. Når man taber en tand, vokser man. Ingen tænder, babytænder, rokketænder, mælketænder og gebis. Morfar kan tage sine tænder ud. Små eksperter i rokketænder udtaler sig kyndigt i dette lille filmdigt, og tændernes skiften bliver til en smuk metafor for selve livets gang. Indgår også på vhs i antologien »Så er der forfilm 2« og på dvd i antologien »Filmhits for børn 1«.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Børnefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1995

Rokketanden


El Sabueso de Transilvania (también llamado perro cazador húngaro o sabueso húngaro) es un perro de caza de Hungría de origen antiguo.

Historia
El sabueso de transilvania aparece con la invasión húngara de la llanura panónica por parte de las tribus magiares en el , quienes traían perros de caza que cruzaron con razas locales y perros de caza de origen polaco.

La raza, utilizada en la caza de lobo y oso, se mantuvo gracias a los reyes y príncipes húngaros quienes la utilizaban para el deporte de la caza. Al comienzo del , esta raza se creía extinta, hasta que en 1968 se comenzaron a hacer esfuerzos para salvarla. El único lugar fuera de Hungría donde existen hoy día ejemplares de esta raza es en Rumanía.

Variedades
Existen dos variedades determinadas por altura y color:
 Variedad de patas largas: altura 22-26 pulgadas; color negro con marcas blancas en frente, pecho, pies y punta de la cola. Se utiliza para zorro y liebre.
 Variedad de patas cortas: altura 18-20 pulgadas; color base rojo-marrón con marcas blancas. Se utiliza en oso, ciervo y lince.

Caza
La raza se desarrolla en los Cárpatos, región rica en bosques y ríos. Así, estos perros cazan en todo tipo de terreno, incluso durante inviernos helados y tórridos veranos.

Las dos variedades existentes se utilizan para propósitos diferentes: la variedad de patas largas para la caza de jabalí, ciervo y lince, mientras la de patas cortas es para cazar pequeños animales de madriguera, especialmente zorro y liebre.

Apariencia

Referencias

Véase también
Sabueso de Bulgaria

Enlaces externos
 Sitio oficial de la raza
 Kennel Club de Hungría
 Copoi Ardelenesc, portal en rumano

Grupo 6 de la FCI
Sabuesos
Razas de perro de Hungría

Sabueso de Transilvania


جبل مسعدة أو متسادا  هو اسم جبل يطل على الساحل الغربي للبحر الميت، شرقي منطقة النقب الصحراوية. ويبلغ علو قمة الجبل 450 متر فوق سطح البحر، ولكن لكونه مطل على منخفض البحر الميت، يمكن الإشراف منها على منطقة واسعة حوله، إذ يبلغ علو قمته نحو 850 متر فوق المنخفض.

يقبع أعلى قمة الهضبة الصخريّة حصن قديم معزول، في منطقة تشبه الميسه. تتبع المنطقة حاليًا لإدارة المنطقة الجنوبية في إسرائيل، وتقع على الحافة الشرقية لبرية الخليل، وتطل على البحر الميت على بعد 20 كم (12 ميل) شرق عراد.

بنى هيرودس الكبير قصرين لنفسه على الجبل، وحصن مسعدة بين عامي (37 ق.م -31 ق.م). ووفقًا للمؤرخ يوسيفوس فلافيوس وفي نهاية الحرب اليهودية الرومانية الأولى تم حصار مسعدة من قِبل القوات الرومانية في الفترة بين (73-74 م)، انتهى بالانتحار الجماعي لـ 960 من المتمردين السيكاريين الذين كانوا يختبئون هناك. ومع ذلك، فإن الأدلة الأثرية ذات الصلة بحدث الانتحار الجماعي غامضة غالبًا، ورفضها بعض العلماء تمامًا.

مسعدة حاليًا هي واحدة من مناطق الجذب السياحي الأكثر شعبية في إسرائيل. خلال الفترتين (2005-2007) و (2009-2012)، كانت ثاني أكثر حديقة حيوان شعبية بعد حديقة الحيوان الكتابية في القدس. يستقطب الموقع حوالي 750,000 زائر سنويًا.

الجغرافيا
الجرف الذي يشكله جبل مسعدة من الناحية الجيولوجية هو نتق. وتنتهي حواف الهضبة فجأة في المنحدرات شديدة الانحدار على ارتفاع حوالي 400 متر (1,300 قدم) إلى الشرق وحوالي 90 مترًا (300 قدم) إلى الغرب، ومن الصعب جدًا التنقل في الطرق الطبيعية المؤدية إلى القلعة. الجزء العلوي من الهضبة يشبه الميسا وهو مسطح ومعيني الشكل، حوالي 550 مترًا (1800 قدمًا) في 270 مترًا (890 قدمًا). وقد بنى هيرودس جدار مكمن بارتفاع 4 أمتار (13 قدمًا) حول الهضبة يبلغ طوله الإجمالي 1,300 مترًا (4,300 قدمًا)، مُعززًا بالعديد من الأبراج. تحتوي القلعة على مخازن، وثكنات، ومستودع أسلحة، وقصر، وسلسلة من الخزانات الأرضية (بسعة حوالي 40,000 م³) ويتم ملئها بمياه الأمطار - ويُزعم أن الجريان السطحي الذي تم جمعه من أمطار يوم واحد قادر على تزويد أكثر من 1000 شخص لمدة (2-3 سنوات). كما ويوجد ثلاثة مسارات ضيقة ومتعرجة تؤدي من الأسفل إلى الأعلى باتجاه البوابات المحصنة.

التاريخ
تنحصر الدراسات التاريخية لجبل مسعدة في دراسات المؤرخ اليهودي الروماني يوسيفوس فلافيوس، وذلك خلال القرن الأول الميلادي.

الفترة الحشمونية
يكتب فلافيوس أن الموقع تم تحصينه لأول مرة على يد الحاكم الحشموني ألكسندر جنايوس في القرن الأول قبل الميلاد. ومع ذلك، لم يتم حتى الآن التعرف على أي بقايا بناء من العصر الحشموني خلال الحفريات الأثرية.

وحسب فلافيوس أن هيرودس الكبير استولى على الجبل في صراع على السُلطة الذي أعقب وفاة والده أنتيباتر الأدومي عام 43 قبل الميلاد. وفشل الحشمونيين لاحقًا باحتلالها بعد حصار قام به آخر ملوك الحشمونيين أنتيجونوس الحشموني، الذي دُعم من الفرثيين.

فترة هيرودس
وفقًا لفلافيوس فإن خلال الفترة بين عامي (37ق.م-31 ق.م)، بنى هيرودس الكبير قلعة كبيرة على الهضبة لتكون ملجأ لنفسه في حالة حدوث ثورة، وأقام قصرين مزودين بإمدادات غذائية كبيرة جدًا.

خلال فترة الحرب الرومانية اليهودية
في عام 66 ميلادية تغلبت مجموعة من المتمردين اليهود السيكاريين، على الحامية الرومانية في مسعدة بواسطة حيلة. وبعد تدمير الهيكل الثاني في عام 70 م، فر أعداد أخرى من السيكاريين من القدس واستقروا على قمة الجبل بعد ذبح الحامية الرومانية.

وفقًا لفلافيوس كان السيكاري مجموعة يهودية متطرفة منشقة ومعادية لمجموعة أكبر من اليهود، يشار إليهم باسم الزيلوت، الذين حملوا العبء الرئيسي للتمرد. قال فلافيوس إن السيكاري أغاروا على القرى اليهودية المجاورة بما في ذلك عين جدي، حيث ذبحوا 700 امرأة وطفل.

القلعة
يوجد على قمة جبل مسعدة موقع أثري يحمل نفس الاسم وتسمى أيضًا خربة سبّة؛ ويشمل على بقايا قلعة قديمة وقصر محصن تم بناؤهما في نهاية القرن الأول قبل الميلاد بأمر هيرودس الكبير الذي ملك آنذاك على مملكة يهوذا.

المصدر الرئيسي للمعلومات عن تاريخ الموقع هو كتاب «تاريخ حرب اليهود ضد الرومان» للمؤرخ اليهودي الروماني يوسيفوس فلافيوس الذي اشترك في التمرد على الرومان ثم سلّم نفسه وتعاون معهم. وحسب كتاب يوسيفوس فلافيوس، بنى هيرودس الكبير القلعة في الفترة ما بين 37 و 31 قبل الميلاد، ونوى اللجوء إليها في حالة تمرد اليهود رعاياه عليه، الأمر الذي خشي منه بسبب عدم الإجماع لدى أبناء مملكة يهوذا على شرعية حكمه، وبسبب النزاعات بين الطوائف اليهودية التي دارت في العقود ما بين نهاية القرن الأول ق.م. وبداية القرن الأول للميلاد.

التمرد اليهودي

في 66 للميلاد، بعد اندلاع الثورة اليهودية الكبرى بقليل (70 عاما بعد وفاة هيرودوس الكبير) احتلت مجموعة «السيكاري» بقيادة إلعزار بن يائير قلعة متسادا من الجيش الروماني الذي كان مرابطا فيها. وكانت هذه المجموعة تعرف بأنها إحدى المجموعات الأكثر تطرفا من بين المتمردين اليهود. في 70 للميلاد، وقت قصير قبل قمع التمرد وتدمير مدينة أورشليم من قبل الرومان، طرد أهل أورشليم (القدس) أنصار السيكاريين مع عائلاتهم من المدينة، فلجأوا إلى مسادا. بين 70 و72 أصبحت مسادا قاعدة السيكاريين من حيث غزوا على بلدات يهودية ورومانية في المنطقة.

كانت مسادا آخر المواقع التي استولت الجيوش الرومانية عليها في حملتها لقمع التمرد اليهودي. في 73 للميلاد فرض عليها الجيش الروماني العاشر حصارا استمر 3 أشهر تقريبا. رفض الموجودون في القلعة الاستسلام وفضلوا قتل أنفسهم بعد أن نجحت القوات الرومانية في اقتحام تحصينات القلعة.

الحفريات
في 1842 تم العثور على بقايا قلعة مسادا وبدأت الحفريات الأثرية في الموقع. تلائم المعثورات الأثرية أوصاف يوسيفوس فلافيوس بشكل عام، ولكن علماء الآثار لم يجدوا دلائل مقنعة على قتل مدافعي القلعة أنفسهم بعد اقتحام الجيش الروماني لتحصينات القلعة، وهو أمر يصفه يوسيفوس فلافيوس في كتابه بتفاصيل. هناك دلائل أثرية على أن مدافعي القلعة أشعلوا النار في المباني، ولكنه لم يعثر على جثث أو قبور في القلعة أو حولها. كذلك تثير قصة مسادا تساؤلات أخرى، وأهمها عدم ذكر هذا الحدث التاريخي في أي مصدر يهودي من القرون الأولى ما قبل الميلاد، باستثناء كتاب يوسيفوس فلافيوس. وعلى سبيل المثال، لم تذكر قصة مسادا في النقاش بشأن الحالات الذي يسمح لليهودي قتل نفسه رغم الحظر الديني على ذلك في اليهودية. هناك افتراض بأن التيار اليهودي المركزي بعد خراب هيكل هيرودس أراد حذف ذكر السيكاريين لاعتبارهم كافرين. وهناك افتراض آخر بأن زعماء اليهود خشوا من تشجيع رعاياهم على التمرد في ظل فشل حملتي التمرد على الرومان عام 70 وعام 136 ميلاديا.

رمزية صهيونية
في الصهيونية أصبحت قصة مسعدة رمزا وطنيا ومثالا لبطولة اليهود في الحرب من أجل بلادهم، وأصبح شعار «لن تسقط مسادا ثانية» من أشهر الشعارات الوطنية التي رفعه اليهود الصهيونيون. مع مرور السنوات بعد تأسيس دولة إسرائيل زادت الانتقادات ضد الإشادة بقصة مسادا التي قد يُفهم منها تشجيع الانتحار ومنذ منتصف سبعينات القرن ال20 تقلصت أهمية هذه القصة في التربية الصهيونية.
هناك شكوك كثيرة تحيط بقصة ماسادا نظراً لأنها منقولة عن أمرأة وأمها وأطفالها كانوا قد اختبئوا في أحد الكهوف وقد نقل عنهم يوسيفوس فلافيوس الخطبة الطويلة لحاكم المسادا قبل عملية الانتحار الجماعي المزعوم التي من المفترض أن اولئك النسوة قد حفظوها على طولها !!
كما روى كذلك تفاصيل عملية الانتحار بكل دقة نقلاً أيضاً عن نفس النسوة الذين من المفترض أنهن مختبئين في أحد الكهوف !!
مما يثير الريبة في حقيقة وواقعية هذه الإسطورة
في 2001 أعلنت منظمة اليونسكو التابعة للأمم المتحدة الموقع الأثري في مسادا موقع للتراث العالمي.

مراجع

 مصدر- مجلة العربي عدد نوفمبر 1993

آثار فلسطين
انحلالات عقد 70 في الإمبراطورية الرومانية
تأسيسات عقد 30 ق م
تاريخ اليهود
تحصينات في إسرائيل
جبال فلسطين
جروف
حدائق وطنية في إسرائيل
حصارات
مبان ومنشآت في المنطقة الجنوبية (إسرائيل)
متاحف أثرية في إسرائيل
متاحف في المنطقة الجنوبية (إسرائيل)
متسادا
مستعمرات يهودية قديمة في يهودا
معارك الرومان
معارك القرن 1
مناطق محمية في المنطقة الجنوبية (إسرائيل)
مواقع أثرية
مواقع أثرية في إسرائيل
مواقع أثرية في فلسطين
مواقع التراث العالمي في إسرائيل
مواقع تاريخية في إسرائيل
نزاعات في عقد 70

جبل مسعدة


An Helictotrichon arctum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Thomas Arthur Cope. An Helictotrichon arctum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Helictotrichon, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Helictotrichon

Helictotrichon arctum