Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just (; 25 August 17679 Thermidor, Year II [28 July 1794]), sometimes nicknamed the Archangel of Terror, was a French revolutionary, political philosopher, member and president of the French National Convention, a Jacobin club leader, and a major figure of the French Revolution. He was a close friend of Maximilien Robespierre and served as his most trusted ally during the period of Jacobin rule (1793–94) in the French First Republic. Saint-Just worked as a legislator and a military commissar, but he achieved a lasting reputation as the face of the Reign of Terror. He publicly delivered the condemnatory reports that emanated from the Committee of Public Safety and defended the use of violence against opponents of the government. He contributed to the arrests of some of the most famous figures of the Revolution, many of whom ended up at the guillotine.

From its beginning in 1789, the Revolution enthralled the young Saint-Just, who strove to take a leading role. Early on, he became a commander in his local National Guard unit. Shortly after reaching the minimum legal age of 25 in August 1792, he won election as a deputy to the National Convention in Paris. Despite his lack of record or influence, Saint-Just boldly denounced King Louis XVI from the speaker's rostrum and spearheaded a successful movement to have him executed. His audacity brought him political recognition and the lasting favor of Robespierre. Saint-Just joined him on the Committee of Public Safety and served two weeks as president of the Convention. Along the way he was a primary draftsman of radical Jacobin legislation such as the Ventôse Decrees and the Constitution of 1793.

Dispatched as an overseer to the army during its rocky start in the French Revolutionary Wars, Saint-Just imposed severe discipline. At the same time, he ensured that the troops were protected by the new anti-aristocratic order promised by the Revolution. He was credited by many for the army's revival at the front. This success as a représentant en mission led to two more visits to the front, including acclaimed participation in the major Battle of Fleurus.

Throughout all his legislative and military work, Saint-Just remained dedicated to his role as one of the Committee of Public Safety's political defenders. He publicly denounced enemies of the government as conspirators, criminals, and traitors. He prepared arrest warrants for the centrist deputy Jacques Pierre Brissot and his fellow Girondins; for the extremist demagogue Jacques Hébert and his militant supporters; and for his own former colleague Georges Danton and other Jacobin critics of the Terror. Danton in particular was possibly involved in financial speculation, causing the entire Indulgent faction to become suspicious as a result. As the death toll mounted, opponents ultimately found their footing. Saint-Just and Robespierre were arrested in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) and executed the next day along with many of their allies from the Commune. In many histories of the Revolution, their deaths at the guillotine mark the end of the Reign of Terror and the beginning of a new phase, the Thermidorian Reaction.

Early life
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France. He was the eldest child of Louis Jean de Saint-Just de Richebourg (1716–1777), a retired French cavalry officer (and knight of the Order of Saint Louis), and Marie-Anne Robinot (1736–1811), the daughter of a notary. He had two younger sisters, born in 1768 and 1769. The family later moved north and in 1776 settled in the village of Blérancourt in the former Picardy province, establishing themselves as a countryside noble family living off the rents from their land. A year after the move, Louis Antoine's father died leaving his mother with their three children. She saved diligently for her only son's education, and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons. After a promising start, his teachers soon viewed Saint-Just as a troublemaker—a reputation later compounded by infamous stories (almost certainly apocryphal) of how he led a students' rebellion and tried to burn down the school. Nonetheless, he graduated in 1786.

His restive nature, however, did not diminish. As a young man, Saint-Just was "wild, handsome [and] transgressive". Well-connected and popular, he showed a special affection toward a young woman of Blérancourt, Thérèse Gellé. She was the daughter of a wealthy notary, a powerful and autocratic figure in the town; he was still an undistinguished adolescent. He is said to have proposed marriage to her, which she is said to have desired. Though no evidence of their relationship exists, official records show that on 25 July 1786, Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin, the scion of a prominent local family. Saint-Just was out of town and unaware of the event, and tradition portrays him as brokenhearted. Whatever his true state, it is known that a few weeks after the marriage he abruptly left home for Paris unannounced having gathered up a pair of pistols and a good quantity of his mother's silver. His venture ended when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory (maison de correction) where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787. Upon returning, Saint-Just attempted to begin anew: he enrolled as a student at Reims University's School of Law. After a year, however, he drifted away from law school and returned to his mother's home in Blérancourt penniless, without any occupational prospects.

Organt

At a young age Saint-Just had shown a fascination with literature, and he wrote works of his own including a one-act play Arlequin Diogène. During his stay at the reformatory, he began writing a lengthy poem that he published anonymously more than two years later in May 1789 at the very outbreak of the Revolution. The 21-year-old Saint-Just thereby added his own touch to the social tumult of the times with Organt, poem in twenty cantos. The poem, a medieval epic fantasy relaying the quest of young Antoine Organt, extols the virtues of primitive man, praising his libertinism and independence while blaming all present-day troubles on modern inequalities of wealth and power. Written in a style mimicking Ariosto, the work foreshadowed its author's future political extremism. Spiked with brutal satire and scandalous pornographic episodes, it also unmistakably attacked the monarchy, the nobility, and the Church.

Contemporaries regarded Organt as a salacious novelty and it was quickly banned. Nevertheless, censors who tried to confiscate copies discovered that few were available anywhere. It did not sell well and resulted in a financial loss for its author. The public's taste for literature had shifted in the prelude to the Revolution, and Saint-Just's taste shifted along with it: he devoted his future writing almost entirely to unadorned essays of sociopolitical theory, aside from a few pages of an unfinished novel found amidst his papers at the end of his life. With his previous ambitions of literary and lawyerly fame unfulfilled, Saint-Just directed his focus on the single goal of revolutionary command.

Early revolutionary career

The rapid development of the Revolution in 1789 upended Blérancourt's traditional power structure. The notary Gellé, previously an undisputed town leader, was challenged by a group of reformists who were led by several of Saint-Just's friends, including the husband of his sister Louise. Their attempts were unsuccessful until 1790 when Blérancourt held its first open municipal elections. Mandated by the National Constituent Assembly, the new electoral structure allowed Saint-Just's friends to assume authority in the village as mayor, secretary, and, in the case of his brother-in-law, head of the local National Guard. Despite not meeting the legal age and tax qualifications, the jobless Saint-Just was allowed to join the Guard.

He immediately exhibited the ruthless discipline for which he would be famous. Within a few months he was the commanding officer, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. At local meetings he moved attendees with his patriotic zeal and flair: in one much-repeated story, Saint-Just brought the town council to tears by thrusting his hand into the flame of a burning anti-revolutionary pamphlet, swearing his devotion to the Republic. He had powerful allies when he sought to become a member of his district's electoral assembly. He initiated correspondence with well-known leaders of the Revolution like Camille Desmoulins. Mid August 1790, he wrote to Robespierre for the first time, expressing his admiration and asking him to consider a local petition.  The letter was filled with the highest of praise, beginning: "You, who uphold our tottering country against the torrent of despotism and intrigue; you whom I know, as I know God, only through his miracles...."

L'Esprit de la Revolution
While Saint-Just waited for the next election, he composed an extensive work, L'Esprit de la Revolution et de la constitution de France, published in the spring of 1791. His writing style had shed all satire and now reflected the stern and moralizing tone of classical Romans so adored by French revolutionaries. It presented a set of principles deeply influenced by Montesquieu, and remained fully confined to a paradigm of constitutional monarchy. He expressed abhorrence at the violence in the Revolution thus far, and he disdained the character of those who partook in it as little more than "riotous slaves." Instead, he heaped his praise upon the people's representatives in the Legislative Assembly, whose sober virtue would guide the Revolution best. Spread out over five books, L'Esprit de la Revolution is inconsistent in many of its assertions but still shows clearly that Saint-Just no longer saw government as oppressive to man's nature but necessary to its success: its ultimate object was to "edge society in the direction of the distant ideal."

The new work, like its predecessor, attracted minimal readership. On 21 June 1791, just days after it was published, all attention became focused on King Louis XVI's ill-fated flight to Varennes. Saint-Just's theories about constitutional monarchy were suddenly outdated. The episode fostered public anger toward the King which simmered all year until a Parisian mob finally attacked the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792. In response, the Assembly declared itself ready to step down ahead of schedule and called for a new election, this one under universal male suffrage. The timing was excellent for Saint-Just, who turned the legal age of 25 before the end of the month. The fear inspired by the invasion of the Tuileries made most of his opponents retire from the scene. Guard commander Saint-Just was able to win election as one of the deputies for the département of Aisne. He left for Paris to join the National Convention as the youngest of its 749 members.

Deputy to the Convention
Among the deputies, Saint-Just was watchful but interacted little at first. He joined the Parisian Jacobin Club, but he remained aloof from Girondins and Montagnards alike. He waited until 13 November 1792 to give his first speech to the Convention, but when he did the effect was spectacular. What brought him to the lectern was the discussion over how to treat the deposed King. In dramatic contrast to the earlier speakers, Saint-Just delivered a blazing condemnation of him. He demanded "Louis Capet should be judged not as a king or even a citizen, but as a traitor, an enemy who deserves death. "As for me," he declared, "I see no middle ground: this man must reign or die! He oppressed a free nation; he declared himself its enemy; he abused the laws: he must die to assure the repose of the people, since it was in his mind to crush the people to assure his own." Towards the end of his speech, he uttered an ominous observation: "No one can reign innocently."

The young deputy's speech electrified the Convention. Saint-Just was interrupted frequently by bursts of applause. Robespierre was particularly impressed—he spoke from the lectern the next day in terms almost identical to those of Saint-Just, and their views became the official position of the Jacobins. By December, that position had become law: the King was taken to a trial before the Convention, sentenced to death, and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.

On 29/30 May 1793 Saint-Just was added to the Committee of Public Safety; Couthon became secretary, which was one day before the Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June.

Constitution of 1793

Because the first French Constitution had included a role for the king, it was long since invalid and needed to be updated for the Republic. Many drafts had circulated within the Convention since Louis XVI's execution, and Saint-Just submitted his own lengthy proposal on 24 April 1793. His draft incorporated the most common assertions of the others: the right to vote, the right to petition, and equal eligibility for employment were among the basic principles that made his draft tenable. He stood out from the pack, however, on the issue of elections: Saint-Just argued against all complex voting systems, and supported only the classical style of a simple majority of citizens in a nationwide vote. Amid a flurry of proposals by other deputies, Saint-Just held inflexibly to his "one man one vote" plan, and this conspicuous homage to Greco-Roman traditions (which were particularly prized and idealized in French culture during the Revolution) enhanced his political cachet. When no plan gained enough votes to pass, a compromise was made which tasked a small body of deputies as official constitutional draftsmen. Saint-Just was among the five elected members. In recognition of the importance of their mission, the draftsmen were all added to the powerful new Committee of Public Safety.

The Convention had given the Committee extraordinary authority to provide for state security since the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War in early 1793. Committee members were originally intended to serve for periods of only thirty days before replacements were elected, so they needed to work quickly. Saint-Just took charge of the issue and led the development of the French Constitution of 1793. Before the end of his first term the new document was completed, submitted to the Convention, and ratified as law on 24 June 1793.

The new constitution was never implemented. Emergency measures for wartime were in effect, and those measures called for a moratorium on constitutional democracy. Wartime gave supreme power to the sitting Convention, with the Committee of Public Safety at the top of its administrative pyramid. Robespierre, with Saint-Just's assistance, fought vigorously to ensure that the government would remain under emergency measures—"revolutionary"—until victory.

Arrest of the Girondins
During the time that Saint-Just was working on the constitution, dramatic political warfare was taking place. The sans-culottes—deemed "the people" by many radicals, and represented by the Paris Commune—had grown antipathetic to the moderate Girondins. On 2 June 1793, in a mass action supported by National Guardsmen, they surrounded the Convention and arrested the Girondin deputies. The other deputies—even the Montagnards, who had long enjoyed an informal alliance with the sans-culottes—resented the action but felt compelled politically to permit it. The Girondin leader, Jacques Pierre Brissot, was indicted for treason and scheduled for trial, but the other Brissotins were imprisoned (or pursued) without formal charges. The Convention debated their fate and the political disorder lasted for weeks. Saint-Just had previously remained silent about the Girondins, but now clearly stood with Robespierre who had been thoroughly opposed to most of them for a long time. When the initial indictment by the Committee was served, it was Saint-Just who delivered the report to the Convention.

In its secret negotiations, the Committee of Public Safety was initially unable to form a consensus concerning the jailed deputies, but as some Girondins fled to the provinces and attempted to incite an insurrection, its opinion hardened. By early July, Saint-Just was able to address the Convention with a lengthy report in the name of the Committee. His damning attack left no room for any further conciliation. The Girondins' trials must proceed, he said, and any verdicts must be severe. The proceedings dragged on for months, but Brissot and twenty of his allies were eventually condemned and sent to the guillotine on 31 October 1793. Saint-Just used their situation to gain approval for intimidating new laws, culminating in the Law of Suspects (17 September 1793) which gave the Committee vast new powers of arrest and influence.

Military commissar
On 10 October the Convention decreed to recognize the Committee of Public Safety as the supreme "Revolutionary Government", (which was consolidated on 4 December). The provisional government would be revolutionary until peace according to Saint-Just. Saint-Just proposed that deputies from the Convention should directly oversee all military efforts, a proposal which was approved on 10 October 1793. Amid worsening conditions at the front in the fall of that year, several deputies were designated représentant en mission and sent to the critical area of Alsace to shore up the disintegrating Army of the Rhine. Results were not sufficiently forthcoming, so at the end of the month Saint-Just was sent there along with an ally from the Convention, Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas. The mission lasted from November through December 1793. The two men were charged with "extraordinary powers" to impose discipline and reorganize the troops.

From the start, Saint-Just dominated the mission. He was relentless in demanding results from the commanders as well as sympathetic to the complaints of common soldiers. On his first day at the front, he issued a proclamation promising "examples of justice and severity as the Army has not yet witnessed." The entire army was placed immediately under the harshest discipline. Within a short time, many officers were dismissed and many more, including at least one general, were executed by firing squad.

Among soldiers and civilians alike, Saint-Just repressed opponents of the Revolution, but he did not agree to the mass executions ordered by some of the other deputies on the mission. He vetoed much of the deputies' work and had many of them recalled to Paris. Local politicians were just as vulnerable to him: even Eulogius Schneider, the powerful leader of Alsace's largest city, Strasbourg, was arrested on Saint-Just's order, and much equipment was commandeered for the army. Saint-Just worked closely only with General Charles Pichegru, a reliable Jacobin whom he respected. Under Saint-Just's unblinking surveillance, Pichegru and General Lazare Hoche ably secured the frontier and began an invasion of the German Rhineland.

With the army revitalized, Saint-Just returned briefly to Paris where his success was applauded. However, there was little time to celebrate. He was quickly sent back to the front lines, this time in Belgium where the Army of the North was experiencing the same problems of discipline and organization. During January and February 1794, he again delivered results ruthlessly and effectively, but after less than a month the mission was cut short. As Paris convulsed in political violence, Robespierre required his assistance.

President of the Convention
With the republican army advancing and the Girondins destroyed, the left-wing Montagnards, led by the Jacobins and Robespierre, controlled the Convention. In these circumstances, on the first day of Ventôse in Year II of the Revolution (19 February 1794), Saint-Just was elected President of the National Convention for the next two weeks.

With this new power he persuaded the chamber to pass the radical Ventôse Decrees, under which the régime would confiscate aristocratic émigré property and distribute it to needy sans-culottes (commoners). But these acts of wealth redistribution, arguably the most revolutionary of the French Revolution, never went into operation. The Committee faltered in creating procedures for their enforcement, and the frantic pace of unfolding political events left them behind.

Opponents of the Jacobins saw the Ventôse Decrees as a cynical ploy to appeal to the militant extreme left. Sincere or not, Saint-Just made impassioned arguments for them. One week after their adoption, he urged that the Decrees be exercised vigorously and hailed them for ushering in a new era: "Eliminate the poverty that dishonors a free state; the property of patriots is sacred but the goods of conspirators are there for the wretched. The wretched are the powerful of the earth; they have the right to speak as masters to the governments who neglect them."

Arrest of the Hébertists
As the spring of 1794 approached, the Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, Saint-Just, and Georges Couthon, exercised near complete control over the government. Despite the vast reach of their powers, however, rivals and enemies remained. One of the thorniest problems, at least to Robespierre, was populist agitator Jacques Hébert, who discharged torrents of criticism against perceived bourgeois Jacobinism in his newspaper, Le Père Duchesne. Ultra-radical Hébertists in the Cordeliers Club undermined Jacobin efforts to court and manage the sans-culottes, and the most extreme Hébertists even called openly for insurrection.

Saint-Just, in his role as president of the Convention, announced unequivocally that "whoever vilified or attacked the dignity of the revolutionary government should be condemned to death". The Convention agreed in a vote on 13 Ventôse Year II (3 March 1794). Robespierre joined Saint-Just in his attacks on Hébert. Hébert and his closest associates were arrested the following day. A little over a week later, Saint-Just told the Convention that the Hébertists' activities were part of a foreign plot against the government. The accused were sent to face the Revolutionary Tribunal. Saint-Just vowed, "No more pity, no weakness towards the guilty... Henceforth the government will pardon no more crimes." On 4 Germinal (24 March 1794), the Tribunal sent Hébert, Charles-Philippe Ronsin, François-Nicolas Vincent, and most other prominent Hébertists to the guillotine.

Arrest of the Dantonists
The ongoing political combat—bloody enough since at least the time of the arrest of the Girondins to be known as the Reign of Terror—spread inexorably. After the Hébertists fell, attention turned on the Indulgents, starting with Fabre d'Églantine and Robespierre's once-close friend Georges Danton. Danton was among the most vocal of the moderates who opposed the Committee. He was especially opposed to Saint Just's fanaticism and "extravagant" use of violence. On 30 March the two committees decided to arrest Danton and the Indulgents after Saint-Just became uncharacteristically angry. On 31 March Saint-Just publicly attacked both. In the Convention criticism was voiced against the arrests, which Robespierre silenced with "...whoever trembles at this moment is guilty."

Danton's criticism of the Terror won him some support, but a financial scandal involving the French East India Company provided a pretext for his downfall. Robespierre again sent Saint-Just to the Convention to deliver a Committee report (31 March 1794) in which he announced the arrest of Danton and "the last partisans of royalism". In addition to charges of corruption related to the trading company, Saint-Just accused Danton of conspiring to restore the monarchy. He denounced him as a "bad citizen", a "false friend", and a "wicked man". Danton continued to demand the right to call witnesses. Saint-Just went to the Convention and told them that the prisoners were fomenting insurrection against the court.  After a tumultuous trial, described by some as a show-trial, Fabre, Desmoulins, and other top supporters of Danton went to the scaffold with their leader on 16 Germinal (5 April 1794). In his report, Saint-Just had promised that this would be a "final cleansing" of the Republic's enemies. However, there is evidence to suggest that Saint-Just was becoming uneasy about the progressions of these events. He privately wrote that "The Revolution is frozen; all principles are weakened."

The violent removal of the Hébertists and Dantonists provided only a mirage of stability. Their deaths caused deep resentment in the Convention, and their absence only made it more difficult for the Jacobins to influence the dangerously unpredictable masses of sans-culottes. The elimination of popular demagogues and the consequent loss of support in the streets would prove disastrous for Saint-Just, Robespierre, and other Jacobins during the events of Thermidor.

As the deliverer of Committee reports, Saint-Just served as the public face of the Terror, and later writers dubbed him the "Angel of Death".On 23 April Saint-Just helped create a new bureau of "general police" for the Committee of Public Safety which matched—and usurped—the powers that had been given officially to the Committee of General Security. Shortly after its establishment, however, administration of the new bureau passed to Robespierre when Saint-Just left Paris once more for the front lines.

Last days

The Revolutionary army was still in a defensive posture, and Saint-Just was sent back to Belgium to help prepare for the coming conflict. From April through June 1794, he again took supreme oversight of the Army of the North and contributed to the victory at Fleurus. This hotly contested battle on 26 June 1794 saw Saint-Just apply his most draconian measures, ordering all French soldiers who turned away from the enemy to be summarily shot. He felt vindicated when the victory sent the Austrians and their allies into a full retreat from all the Southern Netherlands. Fleurus marked the turning point in the War of the First Coalition: France remained on the offensive until its eventual victory in 1797. After his return from the battle, Saint-Just was treated as a hero and "cheered from all sides".

After returning to Paris, Saint-Just discovered that Robespierre's political position had degraded significantly. As the Terror reached its apogee—the so-called "Great Terror"—the danger of a counter strike by his enemies became almost inevitable. Carnot described Saint-Just and Robespierre as "ridiculous dictators." Saint-Just, however, remained unshakable in his alliance with Robespierre. The French victory at Fleurus and others which followed, reduced the need for national security during the war, which originally had been predicated as a justification for the Terror. "The excuse for the Terror was at an end." Opponents of the Terror used Saint-Just's own words against him by demanding a full implementation of the constitution of 1793.

With political combat reaching a fever pitch, the Committee introduced a bill to establish a newer version of the "Law of Suspects"—the Law of 22 Prairial. The law established a new category of "enemies of the people" in terms so vague that virtually anyone could be accused and convicted. Defendants were not permitted legal counsel, and the Revolutionary Tribunal was instructed to impose no sentence other than death. Robespierre swiftly shepherded the bill into law, and although Saint-Just was not directly involved in its composition, he was almost certainly supportive. Vastly expanding the Tribunal's power, the new statutes catalyzed the Great Terror: in the first month they were in effect, the number of executions in Paris rose from an average of five daily to seventeen daily, soaring in the following month to twenty-six.
The Law of Prairial was the breaking point for opponents of the Committee. For the second time, Carnot described Saint-Just and Robespierre as "ridiculous dictators". Carnot and Cambon proposed to end the terror. On 22 and 23 July,  the two committees met in a plenary session. The Commune published a new maximum, limiting the wages of employees (in some cases halving them) which provoked a sharp protest in the sections. Almost all the workers in Paris were on strike.

Resistance to the Terror spread throughout the Convention, and Saint-Just was compelled to address the division. Saint-Just declared in negotiations with Barère that he was prepared to make concessions on the subordinate position of the Committee of General Security. Bertrand Barère and other Thermidorians claimed that he was trying to propose that Robespierre and those aligned with him have dictatorial authority. In return, Saint-Just supported Carnot's decision to send companies of gunners out of Paris.  However, for a time some of the Thermidorians nevertheless considered Saint-Just to be redeemable, or at the very least useful for their own ambitions. Their attitude toward him shifted later when he delivered an uncompromising public defense of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794).

They set off to the Committee of Public Safety, where they found Saint-Just working. They asked him if he was drawing up their bill of indictment. Saint-Just promised to show them his speech before the session began. He replied he sent the beginning to a friend and refused to show them his notes. Collot d'Herbois, who chaired the Convention, decided not to let him speak and to make sure he could not be heard on the next day. According to Barère: "We never deceived ourselves that Saint-Just, cut out as a more dictatorial boss, would have ended up overthrowing him to put himself in his place; we also knew that we stood in the way of his projects and that he would have us guillotined; we had him stopped."

Thermidor

At noon, Saint-Just went straight to the convention, likely prepared to place blame on Billaud, Collot d'Herbois and Carnot. He began: "I am from no faction; I will contend against them all." Billaud-Varennes complained about how he was treated in the Jacobin club on the evening before and that Saint-Just had not kept his promise to show his speech before the meeting. As the accusations began to pile up, Saint-Just remained silent. During the ensuing debate he was accused by his fellow deputy Fréron of forming a triumvirate with Robespierre and Couthon, a reference to the first triumvirate of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus which led to the end of the Roman Republic.  Finally, several of them physically shoved him away from the lectern, and each started his own address in which they called for the removal of Robespierre and all his supporters. Amid the uproar, recalled Barras, Saint-Just "did not leave the platform, in spite of the interruptions which would have driven any one else away. He only came down a few steps, then mounted again, to continue his discourse proudly.... Motionless, unmoved, he seemed to defy everyone with his calm."

Saint-Just saved his dignity at the lectern but not his life. Rising in his support, Robespierre sputtered and lost his voice; his brother Augustin, Philippe Lebas, and other key allies all tried swaying the deputies, but failed. The meeting ended with an order for their arrest.  Saint-Just was taken to the "Écossais".   After several hours, however, the five were invited to take refuge in the Hôtel de Ville by the mayor. At around 11 p.m., Saint-Just was delivered. At around 2 a.m., Barras and Bourdon, accompanied by several members of the Convention, arrived in two columns.  When Grenadiers broke inside, a number of the defeated Jacobins tried to commit suicide. The unperturbed Saint-Just gave himself up without a word.  Among the captured, "only St. Just, his hands bound but his head held high, was able to walk." Robespierre, Saint-Just, and twenty of their associates were guillotined the next day, and Saint-Just reputedly accepted his death with coolness and pride. As a last formality of identification, he gestured to a copy of the Constitution of 1793 and said, "I am the one who made that." Saint-Just and his guillotined associates were buried in the Errancis Cemetery, a common place of interment for those executed during the Revolution. In the mid-19th century, their skeletal remains were transferred to the Catacombs of Paris.

Legacy

Other writings
Throughout his political career, Saint-Just continued to work on books and essays about the meaning of the Revolution, but he did not survive to see any of them published. In later years, these drafts and notes were put together in various collections along with Organt, Arlequin Diogène, L'Esprit de la Revolution, public speeches, military orders, and private correspondence.

Many of Saint-Just's legislative proposals were compiled after his death to form an outline for a communal and egalitarian society. They were published as a single volume, Fragments sur les institutions républicaines. The proposals were far more radical than the Constitution of 1793, and identify closely with the legendarily fearsome traditions of ancient Sparta. Saint-Just proposed the electoral system now known as Single non-transferable voting in 1793 in a proposal to the French National Convention. His suggestion was to have the whole country as one multi-seat district and each voter having just one vote. It was not adopted in France at that time.

Many of his proposals are interpreted as proto-socialist precepts: the overarching theme is equality, which Saint-Just at one point summarizes as: "Man must be independent... There should be neither rich nor poor".

De la Nature
Saint-Just also composed a lengthy draft of his philosophical views, De la Nature, which remained hidden in obscurity until its transcription by Albert Soboul in 1951. He first published this work in 1951 under the title "Un manuscrit oublié de Saint-Just" in the Annales historiques de la révolution française, No. 124. Alain Liénard's Saint-Just, théorie politique and later collections include an expanded version. De la Nature outlines Saint-Just's ideas on the nature of society; the actual date it was written is disputed, but the most agreed upon range is between 1791 and 1792.

Based on the assumption that man is a social animal, Saint-Just argues that in nature there is no need for contracts, legislation, or acts of force. These constructs only become necessary when a society is in need of moral regeneration and serve merely as unsatisfactory substitutes for the natural bonds of free people. Such constructs permit small groups to assume unwarranted powers which, according to Saint-Just, leads to corruption within society. Because a return to the natural state is impossible, Saint-Just argues for a government composed of the most educated members of society, who could be expected to share an understanding of the larger social good. Outside the government itself, Saint-Just asserts there must be full equality between all men, including equal security in material possessions and personal independence. Property must be protected by the state but, to secure universal independence, all citizens (including women) must own property.

Complete collections
 Oeuvres de Saint-Just, représentant du peuple a la Convention Nationale Œuvres de Saint-Just, précédés d'une notice historique sur sa vie] edited by Adolphe Havard, Paris, 1834.
 Œuvres complètes de Saint-Just in two volumes edited by Charles Vellay, Paris, 1908.
 Œuvres complètes, edited by Michèle Duval, Paris, 1984.
 Œuvres complètes, edited by Anne Kupiec and Miguel Abensour, Paris, 2004.

Character

Ambitious and active-minded, Saint-Just worked urgently and tirelessly towards his goals: he wrote that "For Revolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb". He was repeatedly described by contemporaries as arrogant, believing himself to be a skilled leader and orator as well as having proper revolutionary character.  Detractors claimed he had a superiority complex and always "made it clear… that he considered himself to be in charge and that his will was law". Camille Desmoulins wrote of Saint-Just, "He carries his head like a sacred host".

Saint-Just's rise to prominence wrought a remarkable change in his personality. Freewheeling and passionate in his youth, Saint-Just quickly became focused on the revolutionary cause, described by one author "tyrannical and pitilessly thorough". He became "the ice-cold ideologist of republican purity", "as inaccessible as stone to all the warm passions". A measure of his change can be inferred from the experience of his former love interest Thérèse, who is known to have left her husband and taken up residence in a Parisian neighborhood near Saint-Just in late 1793. Saint-Just—who had already developed something of a relationship, tepid but potentially expedient, with the sister of his colleague Le Bas—refused to see her. Thérèse stayed there for over a year, returning to Blérancourt only after Saint-Just was dead. No record exists of any exchanges they might have had, but Saint-Just is known to have written to a friend complaining impatiently about the rumors connecting him to "citizen Thorin".

In his public speaking, Saint-Just was even more daring and outspoken than his mentor Robespierre. Regarding France's internal strife, he spared few: "You have to punish not only the traitors, but even those who are indifferent; you have to punish whoever is passive in the republic, and who does nothing for it". He thought the only way to create a true republic was to rid it of enemies, to enforce the "complete destruction of its opposite". Regarding the war, he declared without regret to the Convention, "The vessel of the Revolution can arrive in port only on a sea reddened with torrents of blood". He urged the deputies to embrace the notion that "a nation generates itself only upon heaps of corpses".

Despite his flaws, Saint-Just is often accorded respect for the strength of his convictions. Although his words and actions may be viewed by some as reprehensible, his commitment to them is rarely questioned: he was "implacable but sincere". Like Robespierre, he was incorruptible in the sense that he exhibited no attraction to material benefits but devoted himself entirely to the advancement of a political agenda.

Camus and Saint-Just
In Albert Camus's The Rebel (1951), Saint-Just is discussed extensively in the context of an analysis of rebellion and man's progression towards enlightenment and freedom. Camus identifies Saint-Just's successful argument for the execution of Louis XVI as the moment of death for monarchical divine right, a Nietzschean Twilight of the Idols. Saint-Just's dedication to "the sovereignty of the people and the sacred power of laws" is described as "a source of absolutism" and indeed "the new God". His kind of "deification of the political" is examined as the source of the creeping totalitarianism which grew so powerfully in Camus' own lifetime. Camus also references Saint-Just in The Plague (1947).

In popular culture
Representations of Saint-Just include those found in the novels Stello (1832) by Alfred de Vigny, and A Place of Greater Safety by Hilary Mantel, and The Sandman comic "Thermidor" by Neil Gaiman; as well as in the plays Danton's Death (1835, by Georg Büchner) and Poor Bitos (Pauvre Bitos, ou Le dîner de têtes, 1956, by Jean Anouilh).  Saint-Just's quote, "Nobody can rule guiltlessly," appears as an epigraph before chapter one in Arthur Koestler's 1941 anti-totalitarian novel Darkness At Noon. In film, Saint-Just has been portrayed by Abel Gance in Napoléon (1927); Jess Barker in Reign of Terror (1949); Bogusław Linda in Danton (1983); and Christopher Thompson in La Révolution française (1989). Jean-Pierre Léaud plays a farcical caricature of Saint-Just in Jean-Luc Godard's Week End (1967).

Quotations from Saint-Just appear in many parts of the garden Ian Hamilton Finlay created at Little Sparta in Scotland. There is also a large golden head of 'Apollon Terroriste' which has his features.

Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just is a dateable non-player character in the historically-based dating sim video game Ambition: A Minuet in Power published by Joy Manufacturing Co.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 François Aulard: Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention (1883)
 Édouard Fleury: Saint-Just et la terreur (1852)
 Ernest Hamel: Histoire de Saint-Just (1859)
 Marisa Linton: "The Man of Virtue: The Role of Antiquity in the Political Trajectory of L. A. Saint-Just", French History 24, 3 (2010): pp. 393–419
 Albert Soboul: "Robespierre and the Popular Movement of 1793–4", Past and Present (May 1954)

External links

 Association Saint-Just

1767 births
1794 deaths
People from Decize
Jacobins
Montagnards
People on the Committee of Public Safety
Presidents of the National Convention
Deputies to the French National Convention
Représentants en mission
French revolutionaries
Anti-monarchists
French radicals
Regicides of Louis XVI
People of the Reign of Terror
Politicians from Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
French political writers
People imprisoned by lettre de cachet
French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution
Executed revolutionaries
Executed regicides of Louis XVI
People of the War of the First Coalition

Louis Antoine de Saint-Just


Velika konjunkcija je konjunkcija planeta Jupitera i Saturna, kada se ta dva planeta pojavljuju najbliže zajedno na nebu. Veliki veznici javljaju se otprilike svakih 20 godina kada Jupiter "prestigne" Saturn u svojoj orbiti. Nazvani su "sjajnima" jer su daleko najrjeđi od veznih odnosa između golih planeta (tj. isključujući Uran i Neptun).

Razmak između planeta varira od konjunkcija do sprege s većinom događaja od 0,5 do 1,3 stupnja (30 do 78 arkminuta ili 1 do 2,5 puta širine punog mjeseca). Vrlo bliske konjunkcije događaju se mnogo rjeđe (iako je maksimum od 1,3° još uvijek blizu unutarnjim standardima planeta): odvajanja manje od 10 arkminuta dogodila su se samo četiri puta od 1200., nedavno u 2020.

Povijest
Velike konjunkcije su privlačile značajnu pažnju u prošlosti kao predznaci. Tijekom kasnog srednjeg vijeka i renesanse tema su koju su istraživali predznanstveni i prijelazni astronomi-astrolozi razdoblja do vremena Tycho Brahea i Johannesa Keplera, skolastički mislioci poput Rogera Bacona i Pierrea d ' Ailly, a spominju se u popularnim i književnim djelima autora kao što su Dante i Shakespeare. Ovo zanimanje prati se u Europi prema prijevodima arapskih tekstova, posebno o Albumasarovoj knjizi o veznicima.

Unatoč matematičkim pogreškama i nekim nesuglasicama među astrolozima oko toga kada su trigoni započeli, vjera u značaj takvih događaja generirala je tok publikacija koje su neprestano rasle do kraja 16. vijeka. Kako je velika povezanost 1583. godine posljednji put bila u vodenom trigonu, trebalo je najavljivati apokaliptične promjene; papinska bula protiv proricanja izdana je 1586. godine, ali kako se do strahovitog događaja 1603. godine nije dogodilo ništa značajno, javni je interes brzo umro. Početkom sljedećeg trigona suvremeni znanstveni konsenzus već je odavno uspostavio astrologiju kao pseudoznanost, a poravnanja planeta više se nisu doživljavala kao predznaci.

Velike konjunkcije

7. pr. Kr.
Proučavajući veliku konjukciju 1603. godine, Johannes Kepler mislio je da Betlehemska zvijezda mogla biti pojava velike konjunkcije. Izračunao je da se trostruka konjukcija Jupitera i Saturna dogodila 7. godine prije Krista (−6 koristeći astronomsko numeriranje godina); Trostruka konjukcija je konjunkcija Jupitera i Saturna na ili u blizini njihove suprotnosti Suncu. U ovom će scenariju Jupiter i Saturn zauzeti isto pravo uzdizanje u tri navrata ili istu ekliptičku dužinu u tri navrata, ovisno o tome koju definiciju "konjunkcije" netko koristi (to je zbog očitog retrogradnog kretanja i događa se u roku od nekoliko mjeseci). Najnoviji trostruki spoj dogodio se 1980. i 1981. godine, dok će sljedeći biti 2238. i 2239. godine.

1563.
Astronomi iz krakovske akademije (Jan Muscenius, Stanisław Jakobejusz, Nicolaus Schadeck, Petrus Probosczowicze i drugi) primijetili su veliku konjunkciju 1563. godine za usporedbu Alfonsinovih tablica (na temelju geocentričnog modela) s Pruteničkim tablicama (na temelju Kopernikovog heliocentrizma). U Pruteničkim tablicama astronomi su pronašli Jupiter i Saturn toliko blizu jedni drugima da je Jupiter prekrio Saturn (stvarno kutno razdvajanje bilo je 6,8 minuta 25. kolovoza 1563.). Alfonsine tablice sugeriraju da bi se konjunkciju trebalo promatrati drugog dana, ali na dan naznačen Alfonsine tablicama kutno razdvajanje bilo je punih 141 minuta. Krakovski profesori predložili su slijeđenje preciznijih Kopernikovih predviđanja, a između 1578. i 1580. Kopernikov heliocentrizam tri je puta predavao Valentin Fontani.

2020.
Velika konjunkcija 2020. bila je najbliža od 1623. godine i osma najbliža od prva tri tisućljeća poslije Krista, s minimalnim razdvajanjem između dva planeta od 6,1 arkminuta. Ova velika konjunkcija bila je ujedno i najlakše vidljiva bliska konjunkcija od 1226. godine (jer su prethodne bliske konjukcije 1563. i 1623. bile bliže Suncu i stoga ih je bilo teže vidjeti). Dogodilo se to sedam tjedana nakon heliocentrične konjukcije, kad su Jupiter i Saturn dijelili istu heliocentričnu dužinu.

Najbliže razdvajanje dogodilo se 21. prosinca u 19:22 CET, kada je Jupiter bio 0,1 ° južno od Saturna i 30 ° istočno od Sunca. To je značilo da su se oba planeta pojavila zajedno u vidnom polju većine malih i srednjih teleskopa (iako su se međusobno razlikovali bez optičke pomoći). Tijekom najbližeg pristupa činilo se da su obje planete golim okom binarni objekt. Sa srednjih sjevernih geografskih širina, planeti su bili vidljivi jedan sat nakon zalaska sunca na manje od 15 ° nadmorske visine iznad jugozapadnog horizonta u zviježđu Jarca.

Galerija

Izvori

Astrometrija
Jupiter
Saturn

Velika konjunkcija


Hvor ligger Juleland? er en børnefilm fra 2006 instrueret af Liller Møller.

Handling
Karl Ludvig er en syv centimeter høj piberensernisse. Hver jul bliver han og hans piberenservenner taget frem af deres papæske og stillet op i et fint julelandskab med honningkagehus og vatsne – deres elskede 'Juleland'. Men en jul går det galt. Et vindpust fører Karl Ludvig væk fra sit trygge hjem – langt ud i den store, skræmmende verden udenfor. Fortabt og skrækslagen gennemlever Karl Ludvig nu sit livs store dannelsesrejse.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Børnefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2006
Julefilm fra Danmark
Dansksprogede film

Hvor ligger Juleland?


Boris Pašanski (; * 3. November 1982 in Belgrad, SR Serbien) ist ein ehemaliger serbischer Tennisspieler. Er war vor allem auf Sand und auf der ATP Challenger Tour erfolgreich, alle seine Titel gewann er dort und auf diesem Belag.

Karriere
Boris Pašanski begann mit sieben Jahren mit dem Tennisspielen. Er spielte bereits auf der ITF Junior Tour recht erfolgreich und erreichte dort u. das Hauptfeld von drei der vier Junior-Grand-Slams. Seine beste Platzierung war der 22. Rang im März 2000.

2001 begann seine Karriere auf der Profi-Tour, wo er zunächst auf der drittklassigen ITF Future Tour spielte. Ab 2003, nach seinem Finaleinzug beim Challenger von Ljubljana, spielte er regelmäßig Challengers, Ende des Jahres erstmals Qualifikationen zu Turnieren der ATP World Tour. Im Juli 2004 gewann Pašanski seinen ersten Challenger in Tampere.

2005 wurde das erfolgreichste Jahr des Serben, er gewann insgesamt fünf Challengers und stand in weiteren vier Finals, sodass er in der Weltrangliste im Einzel in die Top 100 einzog. Durch sein verbessertes Ranking konnte er Turniere auf der ATP World Tour spielen. Zunächst konnte er auch dort gute Ergebnisse erreichen – drei Viertelfinals in Folge und das anschließende Karrierehoch mit Rang 55 – dann gewann er jedoch kaum noch Matches und musste wieder bei Challengers antreten. Trotzdem spielte Pašanski 2006 bei allen vier Grand-Slam-Turnieren, wobei er in seiner Karriere nur 2006 bei den Australian Open die erste Runde überstand. Im Doppel erreichte er in Buenos Aires außerdem sein einziges Finale der World Tour.

2007 gewann er den letzten seiner sieben Challenger-Titel im Einzel und konnte das Jahr auf Rang 95 abschließen. In der Folge spielte er hauptsächlich Challengers und rutschte in der Weltrangliste kontinuierlich ab, sodass er sich auch bei Challengers durch die Qualifikation kämpfen musste. Er erreichte 2010 in Neapel eine Überraschung, als er den Top-50-Spieler Potito Starace in Neapel besiegte und das Finale erreichte. Im Oktober 2014 beendete er nach seiner Niederlage in der Qualifikation von Genf seine Profikarriere.

2003 gab er sein Debüt für die serbische Davis-Cup-Mannschaft. Insgesamt wurde er sechsmal in die Mannschaft berufen und spielte neun Einzel, von denen er sechs gewann. Sein letzter Einsatz datiert auf das Jahr 2013.

Im November 2017 wurde bekannt, dass Pašanski der neue Trainer seines Landsmanns Viktor Troicki wird.

Erfolge

Einzel

Turniersiege

Doppel

Turniersiege

Finalteilnahmen

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Davis-Cup-Spieler (Serbien)
Davis-Cup-Spieler (Serbien und Montenegro)
Serbe
Jugoslawe
Geboren 1982
Mann

Boris Pašanski


Kakudmi (uneori numit și Kakudmin sau Raivata, fiul lui Revata) a fost rege în Kusasthali. El a fost tatăl lui zeiței Revati, cea care s-a căsătorit cu zeul Balarama. În hinduism, apare într-o serie de texte ca de exemplu Mahābhārata, Harivaṃśa, Devi Bhagavatam și Bhagavata Purana.

Epopeea mitologică hindusă antică, Mahābhārata (secolele VIII și IX î.Hr.) include povestea regelui  Kakudmi, cel care călătorește în cer pentru a se întâlni cu creatorul Brahma și care este șocat să afle că mulți ani au trecut atunci când se întoarce pe Pământ, anticipând conceptul călătoriei în timp.

Note

Legături externe
Bhagavata Purana
Devi Bhagavatam
www.mythfolklore.net
www.mypurohith.com/encyclopedia

Mahābhārata
Hinduism
Regi
Zei hinduși

Kakudmi


إسماعيل يس في السجن هو فيلم مصري عرض عام 1961، بطولة إسماعيل ياسين ومها صبري وهدى شمس الدين وإستفان روستي، ومن إخراج حسن الصيفي.

قصة الفيلم
يعمل «محمود» حاجب في المحكمة، وهو متزوج من الفتاة الحسناء «فلة». ذات يوم يسرق منه راتبه ويقع في ضائقة مالية، فيذهب إلى جاره البخيل «توفيق» (توفيق الدقن) ليرهن أسورة زوجته. لكن جاره يعامله معاملة سيئة وعندما يحاول «محمود» إسكاته يموت جاره بين يديه دون قصد. يتم القبض على «محمود» ويحكم عليه بالإعدام فتضطر زوجته أن تعمل مطربة وتتوالى الأحداث.

طاقم التمثيل
 إسماعيل ياسين: (محمود)
 مها صبري: (فلة)
 هدى شمس الدين: (صاحبة الكباريه)
 إستفان روستي: (فرج شرف)
 توفيق الدقن: (توفيق)
 شفيق نور الدين: (الخواجة شفيق)
 نادية حبيب: (إلهام - ابنة الخواجة شفيق)
 أحمد فرحات: (الطفل ابن الجيران)
 محمود فرج: (الشبوكشي)
 الدكتور شديد: (عبده عبده السكران)
 عباس رحمي: (المحامي)
 عبد الغني النجدي: (النشال)
 عبد المنعم إسماعيل: (الشاويش - الشاهد)
 حسين إسماعيل
 عبد المنعم بسيوني
 لطفي الحكيم: (حارس ليلي)
 أنور مدكور
 عبد المحسن سليم: (وكيل النيابة)
 زكي محمد حسن: (شاويش السجن)
 أحمد المغاوري
 رجاء عبد الحميد
 سميرة حسين
 صفوت أبو العطا
 مختار السيد
 عبد المنعم سعودي: (القاضي)
 كنعان وصفي: (محامي)
 علي المعاون: (مساعد الشبوكشي)
 حلمي عبد الوهاب: (الصراف في خزينة المحكمة)
 مطاوع عويس: (حاضر في المحكمة)

فريق العمل
 إخراج: حسن الصيفي
 قصة: سيد سرحان
 سيناريو وحوار: جليل البنداري
 مدير التصوير: مصطفى حسن
 موسيقى: محمد عبد الوهاب
 مونتاج: حسنوف
 إنتاج: أفلام مصر الجديدة
 توزيع: أفلام مصر الجديدة

أغاني الفيلم

مراجع

روابط خارجية

أفلام إسماعيل ياسين
أفلام مها صبري
أفلام توفيق الدقن
أفلام مصرية إنتاج 1961
أفلام مصرية بالأبيض والأسود
أفلام دراما مصرية
أفلام جريمة كوميدية مصرية

إسماعيل يس في السجن (فيلم)


Isla Stil (en albanés: Ishulli i Stilithttps://web.archive.org/web/20050521083729/http://www.traveljournals.net/explore/albania/map/m167982/ishulli_i_stilit.html) es una pequeña isla de la costa del país europeo de Albania. La isla de Stil se encuentra en el mar Jónico, en el sur de Albania. Aunque no es el punto más meridional de su territorio, si constituye la punta más meridional de la costa de Albania. La isla es muy rocosa. Administrativamente depende del Condado de Vlorë.

Véase también
Isla Star
Islas Tavşan
Isla Steinkopf
Isla Stevenson

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de Localización de la isla

Archipiélagos e islas de Albania
Condado de Vlorë

Isla Stil


Die Liste der Biografien führt alle Personen auf, die in der deutschsprachigen Wikipedia einen Artikel haben. Dieses ist eine Teilliste mit 31 Einträgen von Personen, deren Namen mit den Buchstaben "Zia" beginnt.

Zia

 Zia, Oscar (* 1996), schwedischer Sänger
 Zia, René (* 1991), österreichischer Fußballspieler
 Zia-ul-Haq, Mohammed (1924–1988), pakistanischer Politiker

Ziad
 Ziad, Karim (* 1966), algerischer Schlagzeuger und Multiinstrumentalist
 Ziad, Tawfiq (1929–1994), palästinensisch-israelischer Politiker und Poet
 Ziada, Hammour (* 1979), sudanesischer Autor und Journalist
 Ziadé, Ignace (1906–1994), libanesischer Geistlicher, Erzbischof von Beirut
 Ziade, May (1886–1941), libanesisch-palästinensische Dichterin, Essayistin und Übersetzerin
 Ziadeh, Caroline, libanesische Diplomatin und UN-Sonderbeauftragte
 Ziadi, Mehdi (* 1986), marokkanischer Tennisspieler
 Ziadie, Craig (* 1978), US-amerikanisch-jamaikanischer Fußballspieler

Ziae
 Ziaelas († 228 v. Chr.), König von Bithynien

Ziai
 Ziai, Aram (* 1972), deutscher Politikwissenschaftler und Heisenberg-Professor der DFG für Entwicklungspolitik und Postkoloniale Studien

Ziaj
 Ziaja, Ernest (1919–1997), polnischer Eishockeyspieler
 Ziaja, Helga (1955–2013), deutsche Schauspielerin
 Ziaja, Martin (* 1981), deutscher Musiker

Ziak
 Ziak, Karl (1902–1987), österreichischer Schriftsteller und Lektor
 Žiaková, Marta (* 1955), slowakische Beamtin, Diplomatin und Wissenschaftlerin auf dem Gebiet der Kernenergie

Zial
 Zialor, Laura (* 1998), britische Leichtathletin

Zian
 Zian (* 1993), Schweizer Musiker
 Ziani, Karim (* 1982), französisch-algerischer Fußballspieler
 Ziani, Marc'Antonio († 1715), italienischer Komponist
 Ziani, Pietro († 1229), Doge von Venedig (1205–1229)
 Ziani, Pietro Andrea (1616–1684), italienischer Komponist des Barock
 Ziani, Sebastiano († 1178), Doge von Venedig (1172–1178)
 Ziani, Stéphane (* 1971), französischer Fußballspieler

Ziat
 Ziatdinov, Raset (* 1958), usbekischer Schachspieler
 Ziątkowski, Leszek, polnischer Historiker

Ziau
 Ziaud Din, Mian (1901–1987), pakistanischer Diplomat
 Ziauddin, Bruno (* 1965), Schweizer Journalist und Autor

Ziay
 Ziaya, Abdelmalek (* 1984), algerischer Fußballspieler

Liste der Biografien/Zia


Skandinavisk Museumsforbund  var en organisation grundlagt i 1915 og videreført i 2015 med navneændring til Nordisk Museumsforbund. Grundlæggelsen i 1915 afspejlede, at den politiske skandinavisme, der næsten forsvandt efter 1864, havde overlevet i en nedtonet, kulturel udgave. Det særlige ved skandinavismen / nordismen var, at dens mål var et overnationalt fællesskab, der muliggjorde, at man kunne være svensk, norsk eller dansk samtidigt med, at man også var skandinav. Et kort tilbageslag kom dog i 1905, da Norge valgte at forlade unionsfællesskabet med Sverige, til gengæld var det nu tre jævnbyrdige lande, der mødtes til forhandlinger. Første Verdenskrig fik en positiv betydning for det nordiske samvirke. Ved krigsudbruddet blev der i København, Kristiania og Stockholm udstedt enslydende neutralitetserklæringer, og herefter optrådte de tre lande i fællesskab, når der skulle forhandles med de krigsførende stater.

Behovet for kontakt under Første Verdenskrig

Da forbindelsen til de fleste europæiske lande var stærkt hæmmet på grund af krigen, blev det nordiske samarbejde på mange områder intensiveret, og grundlæggelsen af Skandinavisk Museumsforbund i København 1915 var et udtryk herfor. Foreningen fik en flyvende start med 89 medlemmer. Hovedmanden bag oprettelsen var Kunstindustrimuseets direktør Emil Hannover. Han lagde vægt på at få skabt en funktionsduelig forening og afviste derfor finsk deltagelse på lige fod med Danmark, Norge og Sverige. Det ville give en bestyrelse på 16 personer, og der var 6 postdage til finnerne.

Allerede i 1916, midt under verdenskrigen, blev der afholdt et stort møde i Stockholm, hvor der blev knyttet mange varige forbindelser. Emil Hannover lagde her vægt på, at medlemmerne skulle være kyndige inden for kunst og kunstindustri, og han mente, at det var mere relevant at optage "løsgående kunsthistorikere" end arkæologer og etnografer! Ansatte ved de få naturhistoriske museer var udelukkede, men det ændredes senere.

Inkluderingen af de øvrige nordiske lande

Efter Første Verdenskrig blev forbindelsen med det øvrige Europa genoptaget i fuldt omfang, og ved et møde i Göteborg i 1923 blev der dannet en finsk sektion, der straks indbød til møde i Helsingfors i 1925. Museumsforbundets navn blev drøftet ved denne lejlighed, for med finsk deltagelse ville det være rigtigt at ændre det til Nordisk Museumsforbund, men der opnåedes ikke enighed herom.

Det islandske Nationalmuseums chef Matthías Thórdason blev medlem af museumsforbundet i 1925, men først i 1971 blev der oprettet en sektion i Island. Det skete i forbindelse med den første konference, der afholdtes her. Det var en bekræftelse på, at der nu var et velfungerede museumsvæsen i landet. På tilsvarende vis afspejlede den positive udvikling af museumsvæsenet på Færøerne sig i 1988 ved dannelsen af en egen sektion, der forestod en konference i Tórshavn i 1993. Fra Grønland er der fortsat tale om personlige medlemskaber i den danske sektion, da det hidtil ikke har været muligt at oprette en grønlandsk sektion af museumsforbundet. Det grønlandske museumsvæsen fik dog fra 1996 sin egen særskilte beskrivelse i publikationen Nordens Museer.

Trods modvilje mod ændring af museumsforbundets navn var der hos medlemmerne et klart ønske om, at foreningen burde favne alle nordiske lande. Det kom til udtryk i den skriftserie, som blev oprettet i 1932 med titlen Nordens Museer. Publikationen udkom for første gang til mødet i Lund og Malmö og indeholdt oplysninger om museumsvirksomheden i de fem nordiske lande siden mødet i 1929. Publikationen Nordens Museer blev i resten af 1900-tallet en vigtig del af museumsforbundets virke, men er i dag overflødiggjort af internettet.

Publikationer om Skandinavisk Museumsforbund

Ved 50-års jubilæet i 1965 udgav foreningen en publikation, der redegør for alle møder og konferencer samt de publikationer, som foreningen havde udgivet. Ved 100-års jubilæet er der udgivet en publikation, Kulturel nordisme i hundrede år, hvori der rettes fokus mod andre områder af museumsforbundets virke.

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger
 Kulturel Nordisme i hundrede år. Skandinavisk Museumsforbund 1915-2015. Red.: Inge Adriansen. Skandinavisk Museumsforbund og Museum Sønderjylland 2015
 Nordisk Museumsforbunds statutter a 2015.
Museer
Nordiske organisationer

Skandinavisk Museumsforbund


El Museo del Libro Gardel y su Tiempo se encuentra en la localidad bonaerense de Azul, Argentina. Constituye la mayor colección bibliográfica referida al cantante Carlos Gardel con volúmenes editados en 20 países de América y Europa -y, por ende, en diversos idiomas- que abordan el tema desde numerosos ángulos: investigaciones, estudios sociológicos, novelas, cuentos y poemarios conforman una biblioteca y base de datos de permanente consulta por parte de investigadores y periodistas de Argentina y del extranjero. Declarada de Interés Legislativo por la Cámara de Diputados de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, también cuenta con material referido al entorno del artista ( libros , revistas, diarios, películas, grabaciones en diferentes formatos, etc) recopilados por Ana María Turón.

Por tratarse de una colección privada, los libros, revistas y discos (actualmente digitalizados), sellos postales y demás material de este Museo se difunde a través de exposiciones, conferencias, sitios web, revistas especializadas y el programa radial "Unos Mates con Gardel".

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Blog oficial del museo
 Reconocimiento oficial

Museos en la provincia de Buenos Aires
Azul (Buenos Aires)
Museos biográficos y casas museo de Argentina
Carlos Gardel
Museos del libro

Museo del Libro Gardel y su Tiempo


210174 Vossenkuhl este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
210174 Vossenkuhl este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Wildberg de Rolf Apitzsch. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,62 ua, o excentricitate de 0,15 și o înclinație de 13,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 210001-211000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2006
Centura de asteroizi

210174 Vossenkuhl


رمانة وبرطال هو مسلسل دراما وخيال مغربي من إخراج فاطمة بوبكدي ومن تأليف إبراهيم علي بوبكدي سنة 2005، وبطولة كل من سناء عكرود، حسن مكيات، ياسين أحجام، حسن مضياف، سامية أقريو، وغيرهم. عرض المسلسل على القناة الثانية، ويضم عددًا من الحكايات الشعبية المستوحاة من التراث الفلكلوري المغربي تجمع في أحداثها المتنوعة بين الحقيقة والخيال. كل حلقة من حلقات المسلسل تتضمن حكم وعبر.

القصة

الموسم الأول
تتلخص أحداث المسلسل حول الصبية رمانة وهي فتاة يتيمة الأم تعيش في البادية مع والدها الطاعن في السن، وهي تمثل المرأة المغربية بذكائها وحكمتها، فدائما ما تقع في مواقف صعبة لكنها تعرف دائما كيف تخلص نفسها، ومعها ابن عمها الساذج والبسيط برطال والذي يرافقها خلال مغامراتها.

وتبدأ القصة عندما خرجا ليرعيا عنزة وجديا، فهما المصدر الوحيد لكسب القوت اليومي بعد إفلاس الأسرة العديدة الرهط والكثيرة اللغط، فأولاد الأب هم الوابل الذي حصد الحابل والنابل، لكن حينما كان برطال ورمانة يلهوان، اختفت العنزة منهما، لتبدأ رمانة رحلة البحث والتقصي في الغابة دون اكتراث للمخاطر التي تحدق بها، فهمها الوحيد أن لا تعود لزوجة أبيها القاسية العنيدة بدون عنزة حتى ولو تطلب الأمر التضحية بروحها والمجازفة بنفسها. من هنا ستكون انطلاقة رحلة عطش طويلة مريرة متعددة المغامرات، ستستمر على مدى حلقات السلسلة والتي تحمل في كل حلقة مفاجآت شيقة ومثيرة.

الموسم الثاني

ومن أجل إعطاء سلسلة رمانة وبرطال نفسا جديدا وإثراء الحكاية وإغناءها، تم خلق شخصية جديدة وبقصة جديدة تستوحي أحداثها من الحكايات والأساطير الشعبية المغربية دائما. وهذا لإضفاء مزيد من التشويق على السلسلة وتفادي تكرار نفس شخصيات الجزء الأول لكي لا يحس المشاهد بالملل.

هاينة هي الشخصية الجديدة وهي فتاة يتيمة تكلفت بتربيتها امرأة ذات طباع قاسية، فبعد أن استولت على إرث الفتاة حولتها إلى خادمة تكلفها بكل أعباء البيت، وتسيء معاملتها وتعذبها إذ بلغت بها القسوة إلى قطع شعرها الطويل والذي كان يضرب به المثل في القبيلة.

وذات ليلة من ليالي عاشوراء اغتنمت هاينة الفرصة وفرت هاربة من البيت بعد أن عجزت عن تحمل معاملة مربيتها لتتيه في الغابة بحثا عن لالة منانة والتي كانت امرأة غامضة يحكى أنها تملك عود قصب سحري، وكانت هاينة تؤمن أن تلك السيدة هي الأمل الوحيد للخلاص من محنتها.

ومن هنا يتحول فضاء الحكي إلى بيت هذه العجوز الغامضة ومنه ستتفرع الحكايات التي تحكي عن مغامرات رمانة قبل أن تمسخ ومغامرات هاينة ومعاناتها مع مربتها.

الشخصيات والممثلين
 سناء عكرود: في دور رمانة
 حسن مكيات: في دور برطال
 حسن مضياف: في دور العم سلام
 ياسين أحجام: في دور سحت الليل
 سامية أقريو: في دور هاينة
 حنان زهدي
 فاطمة وشاي
 عائشة مناف
 مليكة الرويس
 سعاد الوزاني

قائمة الحلقات

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

مسلسلات تلفزيونية مغربية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية بدأ عرضها في 2005

رمانة وبرطال (مسلسل)


La Gare de Volnovakha (en ukrainien : , est une gare ferroviaire en Ukraine.

Accueil

Historique
La gare a été ouverte en 1895 lors de la création de la ligne Iouzivka - Marioupol. Le  un pont ferroviaire a sauté coupant la relation vers Komych-Zoria ; les relations ferroviaire vers l'Ukraine devaient alors passer par la Gare de Berdiansk.

Desserte

Centre ferroviaire dont les embranchements vont vers la gare de Komysh-Zoria, gare de Rutchenkov, gare de Donetsk et gare de Karan.

Intermodalité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Transport ferroviaire en Ukraine,
 Liste de gares en Ukraine,
Liste des principales gares du monde.

Liens externes

Gare dans l'oblast de Donetsk
Gare mise en service en 1895

Gare de Volnovakha


Cabul () é um distrito da província de Cabul, no Afeganistão. Segundo o censo de 2020, havia  habitantes.

Distritos do Afeganistão

Cabul (distrito)


Johanna Maria Ellinor Sällström, oprindeligt Johanna Maria Berglund (født 30. december 1974 i Hägersten i Stockholm, døde 13. februar 2007 i Malmø) var en svensk skuespiller.

Karriere
Johanna Sällström debuterede som 15-årig på Hudiksvall Teater i skuespillet En skærsommernatsdrøm af Shakespeare . Efter at have været på Rudolf Steiner-skole i Delsbo i Hälsingland flyttede hun til sin familie i Stockholm og blev uddannet på teaterlinjen. Som sceneskuespiller var hun også aktiv på Teater Sörmland og Ystad Teater.

Johanna Sällström var i midten af 1990'erne i tv-serien Tre Kronor, hvor hun spillede teenagedatteren Victoria Bärnsten. Det store gennembrud som filmskuespiller var i 1997 i Daniel Fridells film Under Ytan (Under overfladen). For sin rolle i den film blev hun tildelt en Guldbagge som bedste skuespillerinde. Da hun var ude af stand til at klare sin nyfundne berømthed, tog hun enere samme år en pause fra at filme og flyttede til København, hvor hun arbejdede på en café.

I sin tid som skuespiller spillede hun en række roller, herunder Kurt Wallanders datter Linda i optagelsen af Henning Mankells bøger om kriminalpolitimanden Kurt Wallander.

2004–2007: Wallander-årene
Johanna Sällström spillede Kurt Wallanders datter Linda i 13 Wallander-film . Filmene blev optaget i 2004 til 2006, og hun flyttede fra Stockholm til Skåne, før optagelserne begyndte.

Sällström var i Koh Lanta, Thailand, under tsunamien i 2004 med sin familie. De overlevede hele katastrofen, men nærtstående har sagt, at begivenheden satte dybe spor i Sällström.

I 2006 havde hun premiere på teaterforestillingen Mågen på Ystad Teater, hvor hun spillede hovedrollen, som blev hendes sidste rolle. Den 12. november 2006 søgte Johanna Sällström akut hjælp på Malmø-hospitalet, da hun led af depression. Sällström fandtes død i sin lejlighed den 13. februar 2007 efter at have taget sit liv. Ved sin død var hun skilt og efterlod en datter.

Filmografi
 1993 För brinnande livet
 1994 Bert
 1995 30:e november
 1995 Petri tårar
 1995 När alla vet
 1995 Rederiet
 1996-1997 Tre Kronor
 1997 Under ytan
 1998 Kvinnan i det låsta rummet
 1999 Magnetisørens femte vinter
 1999 Anna Holt
 1999 Insider
 2000 Brottsvåg
 2000 Dubbel-8
 2000 En klass för sig
 2001 Hans och hennes
 2001 Kommissarie Winter
 2001 Bekännelsen
 2002 Hot Dog
 2003 Paragraf 9
 2005 Wallander – Byfånen
 2005 Wallander – Bröderna
 2005 Wallander – Mörkret
 2005 Wallander – Afrikanen
 2005 Wallander – Innan frosten
 2006 Sökarna – Återkomsten
 2006 Wallander – Mastermind
 2006 Wallander – Den svaga punkten
 2006 Wallander – Fotografen
 2006 Wallander – Täckmanteln
 2006 Wallander – Luftslottet
 2006 Wallander – Blodsband
 2006 Wallander – Jokern
 2006 Wallander – Hemligheten

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra Sverige
Personer fra Stockholm

Johanna Sällström


Paul Johannes Tillich (født 20. august 1886 i Starzeddel, Landkreis Guben i Brandenburg; død 22. oktober 1965 i Chicago, USA) var en tysk-amerikansk protestantisk teolog, dogmatiker og religionsfilosof.

Tillich hører med Karl Barth, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Rudolf Bultmann og Karl Rahner til kredsen af indflydelsesrige tyske teologer i første halvdel af det 20. århundrede.

Han var filosofiprofessor i Frankfurt am Main, men blev afskediget i 1933 af nazisterne.
Hans udvandring til USA, og hans arbejde på Harvard University og University of Chicago lagde grunden til den opmærksomhed han fik, der også indebar en omfattende international sekundærlitteratur.

Han er især kendt for en såkaldt korrelationsmetode, efter hvilken det kristne budskab skal være svaret på tidens eksistentielle spørgsmål.

Se også

 Eksistensteologi
 Eksistentiel terapi
 Eksistentiel filosofi

Udvalgte værker
 Paul Tillich: The Courage To Be, 1952 ; dansk: Mod til livet, 1995 -
 Paul Tillich: Dynamics of faith, 1957 ; dansk: Troens dynamik, 1970 -
 Paul Tillich: Systematic Theology, 1-3, 1951-63

Litteratur
 Eberhard Harbsmeier (red.): Den religiøse dimension: Paul Tillich og religionspædagogikken, 2006.  − Af indholdet: Kjeld Holm: "Paul Tillich - også en politisk teolog". Svend Bjerg: "Korrelationsmetoden i Paul Tillichs teologi". Troels Nørager: "Religionsbegrebet hos Paul Tillich". Eberhard Harbsmeier: "Den personlige og den upersonlige Gud : Paul Tillichs gudsbegreb og religionspædagogikken". Steffen Johannessen: "Den religiøse dimension" : et religionsfilosofisk begrebs indtog i en formålsformulering
 Søren Holm: Religionsfilosofien i det tyvende Aarhundrede, bind 2, side 267-294. 1952
 H.C. Wind (red.) Religionen i krise, II, side 305ff - 1980  - Om forholdet mellem teologi og psykologi

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 "Paul Tillich" hos Den Store Danske, DSD af professor N.H. Gregersen
 "Deutsche Paul-Tillich-Gesellschaft"  fra universitetet i Trier. Med tidslinje
 "Tillich-Lexikon zu den Grundbegriffen der Systematischen Theologie" (de) - Et Tillich-leksikon til grundbegreberne i den systematiske teologi

Religionsfilosoffer
Teologer fra Tyskland
Kristne forfattere
Ansatte ved Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Ansatte ved Leipzigs Universitet
Ansatte ved Harvard University
Tyskere i 1900-tallet
Amerikanere i 1900-tallet
Tyskere i 1800-tallet

Paul Tillich


الدراج أو الكروان العسلي ويسمى أيضًا جليل أو جَلِيل أغْبَس أو زُغْزُغ أغْبَس وهو من عائلة الطيور البرية أو الطيور الجافة التي تعيش في الصحراء أو الأماكن التي بها جفاف ويتغذى على اصطياد الحشرات التي تكون موجودة على الأرض. توجد في جزر الكناري وشمال أفريقيا وجنوب غرب آسيا وهي تضع في المرة الواحدة بِيضتين ويحدث هذا أثناء الهجرة خوفاً من أن يموت صغارها وتحدث هذه الهجرة في فصل الشتاء وهي تهاجر إلى دول مثل فنلندا وأيرلندا وبريطانيا العظمى. وما يجعل الكثير من الناس يحبون هذا الطائر هو رشاقته كما أنه تكيف جيداً مع الحياة في الصحراء حيث أن لون ريشه يسمح له باخفاء نفسه لانه يشبه لون الصحاري التي يعيش فيها

اقرأ أيضاً
 تطور الطيور

مراجع

أصنوفات سماها جون لاثام
أنواع القائمة الحمراء غير المهددة
طيور الرأس الأخضر
طيور الشرق الأوسط
طيور باكستان
طيور برية
طيور شمال إفريقيا
طيور مصر
طيور وصفت في 1787

طائر جليل


Belknap Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Belknap Township (Iowa)
 Belknap Township (Michigan)

Belknap Township


Le mardi  février 1955 est le 32 jour de l'année 1955.

Naissances
 Anya Philips (morte le 19 juin 1981), figure de la scène no wave new-yorkaise
 Augusto Inácio, footballeur portugais
 Daniel Le Bret, syndicaliste enseignant français
 Diana Schutz, éditrice américaine
 Dieter Anhuf, géographe allemand
 Ebrahim Rezaei Babadi, homme politique iranien
 Endang Rahayu Sedyaningsih (morte le 2 mai 2012), femme politique indonésienne
 François Boucher, skipper français
 Günther Weiß, footballeur allemand
 Hans Werner Olm, acteur allemand
 Michael Currie, personnalité politique canadienne
 Michael Haulică, écrivain roumain de science-fiction
 Pedro Acedo Penco, personnalité politique espagnole
 Philippe Tesnière (mort le 7 décembre 1987), cycliste français
 Ramón Tejedor, homme politique espagnol
 Shing Fui-on (mort le 27 août 2009), acteur hongkongais
 Soïg Sibéril, guitariste français
 Stevo Todorčević, mathématicien serbo-franco-canadien
 T. R. Dunn, joueur de basket-ball américain
 Teresa Pearce, politicien britannique
 Thomas Gilou, réalisateur et scénariste français
 Vladimir Korolev, amiral russe
 William Lustig, cinéaste américain

Décès
 Arnold Sjöstrand (né le 30 juin 1903), acteur et réalisateur suédois
 Chief Thundercloud (né le 12 avril 1899), acteur américain
 Elsie Burrell (née le 10 février 1885), artiste, aquarelliste et portraitiste anglaise
 Henri Couillaud (né le 9 décembre 1878), tromboniste français
 Raymond Beazley (né le 3 avril 1868), historien britannique

Événements
 Le Sénat américain ratifie le traité qui crée l'OTASE.
 La Banque de Toronto et la Banque Dominion fusionnent pour former la Banque Toronto-Dominion.
 championnats du monde de patinage artistique 1955
 Fin de Gouvernement Hans Hedtoft III et début de Cabinet H. C. Hansen I

 Publication du roman Le Voyeur d'Alain Robbe-Grillet

 Création de l'office fédéral allemand de l'aviation civile

Voir aussi
  et février 1955

1er février 1955


An Bulbostylis moggii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Selmar Schönland ngan William Bertram Turrill. An Bulbostylis moggii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Bulbostylis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Botswana. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Bulbostylis

Bulbostylis moggii


Die Route nationale 740, kurz N 740 oder RN 740, war eine französische Nationalstraße, die in den Jahren von 1933 bis 1973 zwischen der Stadt Niort und einer Kreuzung mit der ehemaligen Nationalstraße 148 (heutige Departementsstraße 948) bei Confolens verlief. Ihre Länge betrug 106,5 Kilometer.

Weblinks
 Route nationale française 740 auf WikiSara (französisch)

740

Route nationale 740


هو مكيال إسلامي يستعمل في الوزن والكيل أثناء العصور الإسلامية.

النصيف قيل يساوي نصف مد وقيل هو النصف من كل شيء .

المصدر
عن كتاب حقيقة الدينار والدرهم والصاع والمد لأبي العباس أحمد العزفي السبتي

المراجع

مكاييل شرعية

نصيف


Jutti () sau Punjabi Jutti () este un tip de încălțăminte specifica in India de Nord și în regiunile învecinate. Aceasta este realizată în mod tradițional din piele și cu o vastă broderie în fir de aur și argint, în motive inspirate de încălțămintea roialităților indiene din urma cu peste 400 de ani. Odata cu schimbarea tendințelor modei, se fabrică si juti cu cauciuc talpa . În afară de Punjabi juttis, există de asemenea și alte numeroase stiluri. Astăzi, orașe precum Amritsar șau Patiala ("tilla jutti") sunt importante centre comerciale pentru producerea acestor juttis făcuți de mână, de unde sunt și exportați peste tot în lume pentru diaspora Punjabi. În strânsă asemănare cu încălțămintea mojaris,  juttis au evoluat în câteva variante recognoscibile de design, variind chiar și în funcție de creativitatea cizmarului. Cu toate acestea, în general, acești pantofi nu au nici o formă distinctivă pentru stânga sau dreapta, în ideea că, în timp, aceștia se mulează pe forma piciorului. Jutti au, de obicei, talpa plată, și sunt similari în design atât pentru femei, cât și pentru bărbați, excepția fiind că modelul pentru bărbați are vârful ascuțit extins în sus, numit nokh,  și este curbat în sus ca tradiționalele mustăți. Aceștia mai poartă și denumirea de khussa, iar unele modele de jutti pentru femei au călcâiul liber, precum saboții. Chiar și cu schimbarea vremurilor,  juttis au rămas parte a costumului ceremonial, mai ales la nunți, iar  juttis fără broderie, așadar simpli, sunt folosiți pentru utilizarea zilnică atât de către bărbați cât și de femei, dar predominant în Punjab, unde sunt numiți  Jalsa Jutti și sunt de culoare neagră.

Acest accesoriu vestimentar este întâlnit și în multe cântece populare ce menționează juttis, cântece precum Jutti kasuri peri na poori hai rabba sanu turna paiy și Jutti lagdi vairia mere.

Privire de ansamblu

Există o mare varietate de juttis (pronunțat 'jeut-tii' în Punjabi sau 'jeu-te în Hindi/Urdu) disponibili atât pentru bărbați, cât și pentru femei. În timpul unor festivaluri speciale juttis sunt montati si pe copitele vacilor. În alte părți ale Indiei, Juttis sunt de asemenea, cunoscuți si sub numele de Mojari, în Pakistan poarta denumirea de khussa. care, precum Mojaris, sunt pantofi cu varful curbat în sus. Ei au fost în mod tradițional preluati de-a lungul generațiilor, fiecare generație contribuind cu unele variații. Acestia sunt parte a costumului tradițional indian.

Sunt de obicei realizați din piele și sunt delicat brodați cu fire sau mărgele. Ca stil de încălțăminte, Juttis sunt slip-on, fără șireturi sau curele și sunt caracterizați prin călcâiul acoperit până la tendonul lui Ahile și acoperă degetele de la picioare cu un cerc sau în formă de M puternic brodate și lăsând laba piciorului aproape goală. În mare parte sunt lucrați manual și sunt brodați frumos.

Se crede că unul dintre primele exemple de încălțăminte purtate pe subcontinentul indian sunt sandalele de lemn, datate la circa 200 Î. hr. În timpul secolului 3 și 4 în perioada budistă, era destul de comun purtatul sandalelor legate, iar regii indieni purtau sandale ornamentate cu pietre prețioase. Literatura Jaina de specialitate arată că  pielea a fost folosita pentru a face pantofi, și aveau rolul de a proteja degetele de la picioare. Se foloseau piei de vacă, bivol, capră, oaie și animale sălbatice.

Acești pantofi etnici au fost purtați de prinți, moșieri, căpeteniile obștești, regi și regine Indiene, în special din zona Punjabului, iar diverse modele încadrate în această categorie sunt inspirate din epoca Mogulilor. Toate acestea sunt realizate manual de artizani îndemânatici, în diverse colțuri îndepărtate ale Indiei.
Jutti este încălțămintea tradițională indiană, populară în India de Nord, în special în Punjab, Haryana și Rajasthan. Ea are, de asemenea, variante ușor diferite, care sunt cunoscute drept kussa sau mojri. Frumusețe, culoare vibrantă și utilitate, toate aceste elemente sunt combinate în încălțămintea Indiană juttis. Bogație de fire de aur si mărgele colorate sunt folosite pentru a oferi o tușă roială prin motive rafinate. Juttis sunt realizați în diferite culori. Oamenii preferă să le poarte la ocazii tradiționale cum ar fi nunțile, iar împreună cu costume tradiționale precum sherwani ( costumul de mire) sau kurta pijama, juttis formează un accesoriu esențial.

Vezi și

 Mojari - pantofi similari din aceeași regiune
 Turban centru de formare -turban academy, deschis în Punjab care învață arta modernă de legare a turbanului in diferite stiluri, cum ar fi Morni Dastar, Patiala Shahi

Referințe

Legături externe

Încălțăminte

Jutti


La  est une ligne ferroviaire située dans la préfecture de Kumamoto au Japon. Elle relie la gare de Hitoyoshi-Onsen à Hitoyoshi à la gare de Yunomae à Yunomae. La ligne est exploitée par la compagnie Kumagawa Railroad.

Histoire
La ligne est ouverte en 1924 par la Société gouvernementale des chemins de fer japonais. Elle est transférée à la Kumagawa Railroad en 1989.

La ligne est fortement endommagée à la suite de fortes pluies début juillet 2020 avec notamment la destruction d'un pont, emporté par la crue du fleuve Kuma. Les circulations reprennent entre Yunomae et Higo-Nishinomura le .

Caractéristiques

Ligne
 Longueur :
 Écartement :
 Nombre de voies : voie unique

Gares
La ligne comporte 14 gares. La section entre Hitoyoshi-Onsen et Higo-Nishinomura est actuellement fermée.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Liens externes
  La ligne sur le site de la compagnie
  Tracé de la ligne sur OpenStreetMap

Ligne de chemin de fer dans la préfecture de Kumamoto

Ligne Yunomae


La région économique de Mil-Mugan est l'une des quatorze régions économiques de l'Azerbaïdjan. Elle comprend les raïons de Beylagan, Imichli, Saatly et Sabirabad.

Histoire
La région économique a été créée par le décret du président de l'Azerbaïdjan du 7 juillet 2021 « sur la nouvelle division des régions économiques de la république d'Azerbaïdjan ».

Géographie
La superficie totale de la région économique est de , soit 6,4 % du territoire national. Le nombre d'habitants s'élève à , soit 5 % de la population du pays.

Voir aussi
Région économique d'Aran centrale
Région économique de Chaki-Zagatala

Notes et références

Économie en Azerbaïdjan

Région économique de Mil-Mugan


«I Build This Garden for Us» es un sencillo del artista estadounidense Lenny Kravitz. La canción hace parte del álbum Let Love Rule, lanzado en 1989.

Posicionamiento en las listas

Véase también
 Discografía de Lenny Kravitz

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Página web oficial de Lenny Kravitz

Sencillos de 1990

I Build This Garden for Us


AS-204 ලෙසින් මුලින් හැඳින්වුනු ඇපලෝ 1 යනු, සඳ මත පළමුවෙන් මිනිසෙකු ගොඩබැස්සවීමෙහි ඇමරිකානු ප්‍රයත්නය වූ ඇපලෝ වැඩසටහනෙහි, පළමුවන මිනිසුන් සහිත මෙහෙයුම විය.   ඇපලෝ අණදීමෙහි සහ සේවා මොඩියුලයෙහි පළමුවන පහළ පෘථිවි කක්ෂ පරික්ෂණය ලෙසින්  1967 පෙබරවාරි 21 දින එය දියත් කිරීමට නියමිතව තිබුණි. මෙහෙයුම කිසි දිනෙක දියත් නොවීය; ජනවාරි 27 දින කෙනඩි තුඩුව ගුවන් හමුදා දියත්කෙරුම් සංකීර්ණය 34 තුලදී සිදුකෙරුණු දියත් කෙරුම් අත්හදාබැලීමෙහිදී කුටියෙහි ඇතිවුණු ගින්නකින්  —අණදෙන නියමු ගස් ග්‍රිස්ම්, ජ්‍යෙෂ්ඨ නියමු එඩ් වයිට්, සහ නියමු රොජර් බී. චේෆී—යන කාර්යමණ්ඩල සාමාජිකයන් තිදෙනම මිය ගිය අතර අණදෙන මොඩියුලය (CM) විනාශ විය. කාර්ය මණ්ඩලය විසින් තෝරාගත් නම වන ඇපලෝ 1 යන්න, ගින්නෙන් පසුව නාසා ආයතනය විසින් නිල වශයෙන් භාවිතා කෙරුණේ ඔවුනට ගරු කිරීමක් වශයෙනි.

ඇපලෝ 1