The Swedish East India Company ( or SOIC) was founded in Gothenburg, Sweden, in 1731 for the purpose of conducting trade with China and the Far East. The venture was inspired by the success of the Dutch East India Company and the British East India Company. This made Gothenburg a European centre of trade in eastern products. The main goods were silk, tea, furniture, porcelain, precious stones and other distinctive luxury items. Trade with China saw the arrival of some new customs in Sweden. The Chinese cultural influence increased, and tea, rice, arrack (a drink made from fermented sap or sugarcane) and new root vegetables started appearing in Swedish homes.

It grew to become the largest trading company in Sweden during the 18th century: a total of 132 expeditions were carried out with 37 different ships. The company folded in 1813; nevertheless, it left clear footprints that can still be seen in Gothenburg.

Background

Sweden was the last of the more prominent seafaring European nations to engage in the East India Trade. The royal privileges for the Swedish East India Company (SOIC) were granted almost a century after the other European trading companies were established.

With the advent of the East India trade in the 17th century, Chinese and Indian goods were imported to Sweden. Drinking tea and having Chinese objects became the height of fashion among Swedish socialites and the middle class. Chinese culture, philosophy, art, agriculture, and architecture were also studied and copied. The most prominent example of this is the Chinese Pavilion at Drottningholm, which was followed by smaller parks like the one built by Jean Abraham Grill at Godegård. China was considered a model community, a template for how a country should be governed. This culminated during the 18th century, when many Swedish scientists and politicians even suggested that Sweden should be governed by intellectual bureaucrats, "mandarins", led by a sovereign king in a Chinese manner.

Early attempts

The first attempt of organizing a Swedish East India trading company was made by a Flemish merchant, Willem Usselincx. During the 17th century, the Dutch merchants dominated the newly founded Gothenburg on the west coast of Sweden. The town was considered ideal for Sweden's international trade since most of the goods were transported on ships and this was the only major Swedish port accessible without having to pass the Danish customs at Øresund. On 14June 1626, Usselincx received royal privileges for a trading company for twelve years, from the Swedish King Gustav II Adolf. The privileges included clauses about the ethics of trading with foreign, indigenous people. The first priority was to establish friendly, long-term relations that would be mutually beneficiary for both parties. The venture was supported by a number of prominent Swedes, including the King himself, but raising the necessary money proved harder. Political difficulties and Sweden's participation in the Thirty Years' War, where King Gustav II was killed, put an end to the plans. The resources were instead used for a smaller company, trading within Europe.

The next attempt to start a trading company was made in 1661, by German merchant Erlenkamp, who suggested a route over the Arctic Ocean, the Northern Sea Route, past Japan and further on to China and India. The aim was to bypass the Spanish and Portuguese blockades.  The plan did not gain any support as the ice barriers proved even more difficult. At the end of the 1660s, a petition from diplomat and London resident Johan Leijonbergh was sent to the Swedish King Charles XI regarding one Olle Borg who had worked in the Dutch East India Company for eighteen years. Borg stated that if there was a war between Sweden and Denmark, he could deliver the Danish fort in Tharangambadi, India, to the Swedes. Knut Kurck, Peter Schnack and Johan Olivecreutz were appointed directors for the company, but the political unrest in Sweden at that time plus trouble with actually getting the money that had been promised from the investors thwarted this venture as well, and in 1674, the charter was dissolved. Residual resources were used to send two ships, the Solen (the Sun) and the Trumslagaren (the Drummer), to Lisbon for salt.

A later attempt to establish the Swedish trade on the East Indies was made by pirates sailing out from Madagascar. After having attacked other trading ships, they had become wealthy and were looking for a place to settle down and invest their money in legitimate enterprise. The pirates numbered about 1,500 and commanded a considerable and well-armed fleet of ships. They started by offering the Swedish King Charles XII half a million pounds sterling and 25 armed ships for his protection, but the matter was not resolved. In 1718, representatives for the pirates met again with the King at his camp during the campaign against Norway. The new offer was for 60 ships, armed and stocked with goods, if the pirates were allowed to settle down in Gothenburg and start a trade with the East Indies under the Swedish flag. One privateer by the name of Morgan actually obtained a charter for an East India Company and a letter of appointment for himself as governor over the colonies that could be the result of such an enterprise. When the King was shot and died on 30November 1718, the venture folded.

Sweden after the Great Northern War

Sweden was impoverished after the Great Northern War, and trade was seen as an option for rebuilding the country. Opinions about whether trade with the East Indies would be profitable enough diverged. The greatest concern was that Sweden would not have enough resources to defend the company's ships and trading posts. The trading companies from England, France, and the Netherlands did not hesitate to attack other ships to prevent competition. A failed attempt to start a competing trade company in Austria, the Ostend Company, was discouraging.

What finally made the Swedish venture possible was the strong support from foreign traders and merchants, foremost British but also Dutch, who had been shut out from the companies in their respective countries. The majority of the investors, as well as the buyers of the goods imported by the company, were foreigners.

Granting permission for a charter was not entirely uncontroversial during that time when mercantilism, which advocated regulations so that the production of export goods was promoted and import reduced, was the dominant idea for trade. Opposition became even more apparent after the first journey made by the ship Friedericus Rex Sueciaes in 1735. Demands were made in the Riksdag for sanctions and restrictions for the trade company, a number of pamphlets were written, arguing that Swedish steel and timber were wastefully being exchanged for such  "worthless goods" as tea and porcelain. One of the most ardent critics against the charter was Johan Arckenholtz. He even spoke of the moral aspects, saying that the Swedish population "would be weaned from work and crafts and lose their health, strength and spirit by using products from a warmer climate".

The emerging Swedish textile industry was also threatened by the trade, and the new company soon promised to refrain from shipping textiles. Of sixty-one successfully returning voyages between 1733 and 1767, only three (in 1735, 1740, and 1742) carried cotton and silk textiles and raw silk from Bengal. Some opposition may have been rooted in pure jealousy of the profits the SOIC were making from the trade. Those who supported the establishing of a Swedish trade company argued that if people wanted goods from China, they were going to buy them anyway and it would be better to import them using Swedish ships and trading company, and thereby keep the profits within Sweden.

Establishing the SOIC

With the suspension of the charter for the Ostend company by the Emperor Charles VI in May 1727, the investors in that company had to look for other ways to be part of the profitable East India trade and they now looked to Sweden.

Scottish merchant Colin Campbell, formerly active in the Ostend Company, met with Swedish Niclas Sahlgren during Sahlgren's stay in Amsterdam in the late 1720s. Together they made plans for a Swedish trading company, but it was evident that Campbell was the driving force in the enterprise. Since foreign investors were met with suspicion in Sweden, they needed a respectable Swede to front the company. That person would be commissioner Henrik König, a Swede of German (Bremen) origin.

In 1729, Henrik König submitted an application for a charter for two ships. He supported his request on the charter given previously to other applicants, but the reaction from the Swedish government was reluctant: the closing of the Ostend Company in 1731, following British diplomatic pressure as part of the Treaty of Vienna, boded ill for the Swedes' competition against the main powers when trade and politics were so intimately associated. König took the matters to the Swedish parliament and succeeded, gaining royal privileges for the company on 14June 1731, initially for a period of 15 years. These privileges were the First Charter, or the First Octroi.

The Royal charter

The charter was given to Henrik König & Compagnie and consisted of eighteen precise paragraphs on how the trade should be conducted:

The company would have the right to all trade and shipping east of the Cape of Good Hope as far as Japan excepting the port factories of other European nations, unless free consent had been obtained in advance.
All departures and arrivals should be out of Gothenburg, and cargo was to be auctioned promptly in Gothenburg on arrival.
The Swedish state was to receive 100 riksdaler per läst (c. 2.5 tonnes) and two riksdaler per läst to the city of Gothenburg, on each shipment, plus taxes.
The company could use as many vessels it wanted, but they were to be built and outfitted in Sweden unless something occurred that made it necessary to buy material from other countries.
The ships were to fly the Swedish flag and carry Swedish ships' papers.
The company was free to use as much money as needed for the expeditions and were entitled to issue shares to finance the venture.
The company was forbidden from bringing Swedish coined silver into or out of the country. They were, however, allowed to trade with any other kind of silver.
Once the ships were loaded for departure, and when they returned, they were free to enter any port in Sweden.
All the equipment, armament goods, and stores needed for the company were exempted from Swedish customs.
Goods from the ships were considered prioritized, and could be transported or stored toll-free on any road or in any town.
The company's officers would have the same authority as Swedish naval officers.
The crew were exempted from service in the Swedish military.
The company's officers had the right to arrest and detain anyone in the crew who tried to desert or run away.
When the cargo from the ships had been sold, the buyers should not have to pay any extra fees for the goods.
The board of the company should always consist of at least three directors.
The company was free to employ as many men as needed for the ships. They could be Swedes or foreigners, as long as they were the most skilled.
The company had the right to defend itself, to "oppose force with force".
The company was enjoined to maintain secrecy on its finances and shareholders.

The issuing of shares was such that early subscribers subscribed for each voyage and had the option of withdrawing their capital after its completion, in a traditional form of corporate trading partnerships; in 1753, this having been found inconvenient, it was determined that capital should be considered invested in the company as a whole, on the model of other East India companies. A partner desiring to withdraw his funds was responsible for finding another willing to substitute capital of his own.

The reasons for secrecy on finances and shareholders were both internal and external: British citizens were forbidden to engage in trade in Asia on behalf of the Swedish East India Company and within Sweden suspicions ran high against foreigners, as they were thought to threaten the Swedish profits in the region. Jealousy from merchants not in the company also played a part. Thus, the books were burned after they had been closed and revised, effectively concealing the company's dealings from contemporaries and historians.

The letter of privilege was translated into French and Latin and distributed to the major powers. Their reaction was reluctant and they made clear that they considered the new company a most unwelcome competitor. The Swedish ambassador to Britain did not dare to present the letter to the British government. Pledges of assistance at their bases if needed were not answered. France and the Netherlands declared that they saw Sweden as a competitor and they would not contribute to or assist in such a venture.

The trade

After having been ruled by a number of autocratic and ambitious kings, Sweden was, at the forming of the SOIC, practically run without the participation of the king. The real political power lay with the Riksdag of the Estates where the first two political parties, the Hats and the Caps, competed for power. The king did not even have to attend the meetings of the Riksdag; he had been substituted with his name stamp. The king, or prince consort, at that time was Frederick I, considered the most incompetent king of Sweden by many contemporary politicians and later historians. His only interests were hunting and women; the king's absence gave the Riksdag and the bureaucrats a free rein to promote trade and science.

During its entire existence from 1731 to 1813, the SOIC made 131 voyages, using 37 different ships. Of these, eight ships were lost, totally or partially. The sorest loss was probably the Götheborg in 1745, as it sank just off Älvsborg fortress at the entrance to Gothenburg having managed to journey safely to China and back. Even though most books were burned, it is evident that the voyages were extremely profitable for the shareholders, and many Swedes became wealthy due to the SOIC.

From Gothenburg the vessels carried iron, both in bars and processed, as axes, anchors, steel, etc. Copper was also brought, as was timber. The expeditions called at Cádiz where they traded goods to acquire essential Spanish silver, on which the China trade depended in the form of coins, pesos duros, since the charter stated that the silver carried to China, coined or uncoined, could not be Swedish. The company also had to pay tax to the Dey of Algiers and carry Moroccan passports, thereby being ensured protection from raids by Barbary pirates. These transactions are documented in receipts.

The return on expeditions could be around 25–30% of the capital invested, but up to 60% was achieved. Much depended on the merchants and the captain; the merchants had to close numerous favourable deals, and the captain had the difficult task of safely sailing the ship to China and back. The vessels were around  long, and in addition to cargo and men, each ship also carried about 25–30 cannons for self-defence and signaling. In most years of the period after 1766 one or two SOIC ships were loaded at Canton, or as many a four (1785–86). The last vessel returned to Gothenburg in March 1806, and even though the company had charters until 1821, it ceased to exist in 1813.

Life onboard the ships was hard and hazardous, the crew was malnourished and not used to the heat and humidity in the ports they visited during the journey. In addition to this, the doctors on board were completely helpless when it came to dealing with fevers and tropical illnesses. It is estimated that about 2,000 men died in the service of the company.

The first octroi (1731–1746)

The first three directors of the SOIC was Henrik König, Colin Campbell and Frans Bedoire. König was a merchant from Stockholm. Bedoir was the son of a French wigmaker who had relocated to Sweden to import French wine. Campbell was the driving force for the whole enterprise since he had gained firsthand knowledge of the China trade as supercargo for the Ostend Company. He was knighted by King Frederick I and moved to Gothenburg to organize the first expedition.

The first two expeditions proved dangerous and complicated since the rest of the trading nations did not take kindly to Sweden's attempt to engage in the trade. The first ship was seized by the Dutch and the second was destroyed by the British and the French. This fueled the opposition against the trade in Sweden and the SOIC started a massive PR-campaign about the benefits of trading with the East Indies. They also agreed to make certain concessions about what goods to import from China. To avoid confrontations with the other trading countries, the company refrained from seeking trade with India and focused on China instead.

A total of 15 expeditions supported by 25 ships were launched during the first charter. Four of the ships were lost at sea. Only three of these expeditions went to Bengal; the rest sailed directly to Canton.

Books and accounts from the first expeditions are missing, partially or completely, but starting with the eighth expedition (the ships Fredericus Rex Sueciae, Stockholm and Riddarhuset in 1740) until the closing of the last in 1748, records were so complete that an estimate of the profits could be made for these. The total sum of the income from the imported goods was 24.649 million riksdaler (approx. US$1,222.6 million), making the dividend about 39% in average. During those years the share of the profit for the five directors totaled 550,000 riksdaler (approx. US$27.28 million) and the total sum that went to the 53 supercargoes was about 800,000 riksdaler (approx. US$39.67 million).

The unwillingness of the established trading nations, primarily England, the Netherlands and France, to help and acknowledge the SOIC during the first years were founded on the suspicion that the company was merely a front for those merchants who wished to circumvent the rules and regulations of the East India trade in their own countries. These suspicions were well founded. All of the initiators of the SOIC were non-swedes or of foreign origin. Swedish law made it possible for anyone who invested in the company to receive Swedish citizenship and most of the crew aboard the ships during the first and the second octroi were foreigners. Of the 53 supercargoes during the first octroi, about 22 percent were Swedes.

The first expedition

The first expedition was organized by Campbell. His reconstructed diary of the voyage, rediscovered in 1986, contains a complete account of the expedition. It started on 9February 1732, as the ship Friedericus Rex Sueciae sailed out from Gothenburg. Campbell was the first supercargo onboard and had also been appointed ambassador to the Chinese court by the King. The other three supercargos were English: Charles Graham, Charles Morford and John Pike. The captain of the Fredericus was Georg Herman af Trolle, a seasoned sailor who had been brought up in Amsterdam and previously served on English, French, Dutch and Danish ships. He had also been employed as a privateer by the town of Middelburg. Both he and Campbell had previously visited China. The crew for the ship was approximately one hundred men.

The expedition started well – passing the Cape of Good Hope and crossing the Indian Ocean, the vessel arrived safely in Canton (now known as Guangzhou), the trading port for foreigners in China at that time, in September 1732. For the next four months, trading was carried out successfully. Initially, different spices were the primary commodity along with tea, silk and miscellaneous luxury items, but on later voyages, porcelain and tea made up the bulk of the trade to meet the demand for such goods back in Europe.

On its return, the vessel was stopped by the Dutch between Java and Sumatra, and brought to Batavia. Campbell protested and produced his papers, but the Dutch argued that they had suspected the vessel of falsely flying the Swedish flag. The expedition was eventually released, but time was lost and the winds unfavourable. Many of the seamen died en route and the ship had to recruit new Norwegian sailors upon reaching the coast of Norway.

Almost one and a half years after the departure, the vessel returned to Gothenburg on 27August 1733. The expedition was a huge economic success, the auction bringing in some 900,000 Swedish riksdaler. The dividend paid was 75% of the capital invested. According to the ledgers of the Gothenburg Main Customs Cambers for Sea Trade in 1733 to 1734, goods for 518,972 riksdaler were exported; the rest stayed in Sweden.

The second octroi (1746–1766)

The charter was renewed in 1746, 1766 and 1786, creating the Second, Third and Fourth Octrois.

Under the terms of the second charter 36 ships were sent out, three to Surat, the rest to Canton, and only one was lost.

The profit for the shareholders during the first charter generated large interest for a second charter. Except for the foreign investors, most of the merchants during the first charter had been from Gothenburg. With the second charter, a number of merchants from Stockholm started to show interest in the trade. On 23September 1745, a request for a second octroi was presented by the firm Abraham and Jacob Arfwedsson & Co. They received a preliminary grant for it. A couple of weeks later, a second request for an octroi was made by the company Anders Plomgren & C:o and partner Carl Broman. The directors from the first charter submitted their request on 20January 1746.

A commission to investigate the applications was appointed on 24March 1746, and some weeks later on 14May, they concluded that the directors from the first charter were best suited to lead the second as well. However, the number of directors was increased from three to at least seven. In addition to Colin Campbell, Niclas Sahlgren and Teodor Ankarcrona, the directors were former secretary of the Executive Board Magnus Lagerström, the Stockholm merchants Anders Plomgren and Abraham Grill. These six members of the board later elected Claes Grill, Jacob von Utfall Jeanson, S. N. Wenngren and Nils Ström as directors.

The second charter was for 20 years and the directors followed the ways of the first octroi. They collected the means from the investors to fund each of the first 14 ships separately. In 1753, the company was reorganized into a joint-stock company by creating a fixed fund where anyone could subscribe for shares, but not for less than 500 riksdaler in silver.

Even after the company went public, it still retained its secrecy regarding the business. The management deliberately withheld information from the shareholders or lied about how profitable parts of the business were. The directors said that the profit from the trade with China was declining and that the company should be granted permission to send a ship to India, contrary to the regulations for the trade so far. An exemption was granted in 1749, and a ship was sent to Surat in India. On its return in 1752, that ship yielded a profit of 103% and two more ships were sent to Surat. The English and the Dutch controlled most of the trade in the town and did everything to prevent the Swedes from doing business there and several incidents occurred. The company decided to refocus in the China trade instead. That trade yielded an average profit of 30–40% during the second charter.

The third octroi (1766–1786)

When it was time to renew the charter in 1766, the first directors were Robert Finlay of Irish and Scottish origin,  Swedish Fabian Löwen and Georg Herman Conradi of German descent, all residing in Stockholm. With this the power within the management shifted from Gothenburg to Stockholm, where two new ships also were bought. The Swedish government extorted a loan at 6% interest to the SOIC to be paid during 1766–69, estimated in 1813 to have been the equivalent of £100,000, and another, interest-free, for half of that sum, to be repaid out of import duties, in essence an advance payment of duty.

During the third charter, 39 voyages were made to Canton and none of the ships was lost or damaged, but the profit from the trade with China was declining. The turning point for Sweden came in 1780, with the American Revolutionary War when France, the Dutch Republic and Spain joined forces against Britain and thereafter were blocked from trading with China. The price of tea fell in Canton due to the lack of demand, but went up in Europe where Sweden was now practically the only supplier of tea. This was reflected in the total sum of the profit for the third octroi, which was 58% higher than the previous two.

The goods that were exported from Sweden also changed during that period. The former main products such as iron, wood and tar are missing from the freight lists. Instead the biggest item was silver, followed by English lead and Swedish woollen cloth or broadcloth. During the later part of the third charter, it became common practice for one of the supercargoes to stay on permanently in Canton for years. One of those was Jean Abraham Grill, who made ample use of his time there for his own private affairs, a practice that was continued by other resident supercargoes. Carl Linnaeus and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences also made use of the company's ships. They sent out scientists and researchers to gather information about animals and plants from all the places that the ships visited and to keep detailed journals. The company would not allow idle passengers on board, so most of the scientists were given "crash courses" in theology and were hastily ordained to serve as ship's chaplains. These arrangements started during the second charter and peaked during the third.

In 1758, the Swedes were finally able to let their ships anchor and replenish provisions at the Cape (now known as Cape Town), a port controlled by the Dutch, due to political changes in Europe. But with the end of the American war in 1783, Sweden lost its advantage in the tea trade and the decline of the company resumed. The SOIC's supercargo in Canton in 1777, Finnish Peter Johan Bladh, reflected on this and suggested that an emissary should be sent to the emperor of China with a proposition that the European trade with China should be conducted through one single European company, administered by Sweden. He stated that unless the British were stopped in time they would infiltrate China the same way they had done in India by "securing an unbearable domination" there. The request was never sent since the directors wanted to continue the trade in the same way as before.

The mercantile expansion of the SOIC during the third octroi provided a setting for Jacob Wallenberg's comic Min son på galejan ("My Son on the Galley") written during the 18-month round trip to Canton in 1769–71. Among his other joking and casual racism, Wallenberg parodies the serious accounts published by traveling naturalists in the wide web of Carl Linnaeus' correspondence.

The fourth octroi (1786–1806)

The SOIC continued into the fourth charter, much the same company that had existed during the last part of the third. The management was the same, a fixed fund existed and some of the fees, taxes and regulations were altered. During this octroi, the company owned 12 ships that were sent out on a total of 31 journeys. Three of the ships were lost and one was damaged and sold. The shareholders received no dividend during the fourth octroi.

The profit from the trade continued to decline, much because of the new rules and regulations regarding the import of tea to England. Most of the SOIC's earlier tea cargoes had been smuggled to England, but the profit no longer made up for the risk of such an undertaking. Talk of shutting down the company started in 1789, and after 1804, no more ships were sent out from Sweden. On 27June 1808, the company informed the shareholders of the situation and on 18May 1811, the company of the fourth charter was declared bankrupt.

Decline and fall

There was a fifth octroi, starting in 1806 with privileges granted for 15 years, but those were quite different from the previous. Now anyone had the right to trade with the countries on the other side of Cape if the SOIC had not started the trade by launching a ship within two years. With the investors' faith in the trade now broken, no ships were sent out and at a shareholders meeting on 13December 1813, the company folded, eight years before the octroi ended. The remaining stock and inventory was sold to foreign buyers and in 1814, the trade was declared free for anyone.

Cargo

The main valuable cargo from China was tea. In an overview from 1774, its share was about 90%. Much of the tea was re-exported and smuggled into England, undercutting the prices of that country's own trade monopoly held by the East India Company. Porcelain was also important, accounting for about 5% of the cargo's value. Over the years it is estimated that some 50 million pieces of porcelain were imported by the SOIC. The spirit arrack, a new commodity for Sweden, was also considered valuable.

A cargo tally, printed by William Milburn in 1813, shows the following.

Chests of tea:
 Bohea,  in 2885 chests
 Congou ()
 Souchong ()
 Pekoe ()
 Hyson and "Hyson Skin" (together )
Textiles:
 Damasks and heavier damasks for furniture
 Satin silk, some of it "coloured and flowered"
 Paduasoy
 Grogram also known as gorgoron
 Taffetas,
 Lampas
 Nankeen cloth
 33 chests of raw silk

Drugs:
 Galangal root
 China root
 Sago
 Rhubarb
Miscellaneous:
 Mother-of-pearl, some of it cut in thin jetons
 Thin canes for hoops
 Painted wallpapers
 Lacquered (japanned) quadrille boxes
 Dressing tables
 Tablets for table tops
 Arrack (used in Swedish punsch),
 Porcelain, in 274 chests and 989 barrels and other packages

Ships

The ships used by the Swedish East India Company.

Flag

According to the first charter, the SOIC's ships were only allowed to use the Swedish merchant flag, a rectangular blue flag with a yellow cross. With the renewal of the charter in 1746, the company was allowed to add its name cypher, or monogram, to the flag in order to distinguish the ships from other trading vessels. Soon after that, the ships of the SOIC started to use a fork-tailed or swallow-tailed flag. The intention was that the ship should resemble a warship and thereby not attract pirates. Swedish warships, or ships carrying a military commander, used the Swedish ensign a triple-tailed or swallowtail and tongue version of the rectangular flag. This was against the rules and regulations for flags at that time. The use of the swallowtail was prohibited in a royal decree in 1751, but the SOIC ignored this and ordered their flags in Canton instead. The swallowtails were even used in the bow of the ships' sloops when they carried a director of the company. This was a double felony, since flags should only be used at the stern of the sloop.

The prohibition did not bother the executives in the SOIC, and the oldest preserved flag in Sweden is a swallowtail from the ship Lovisa Ulrica (to Canton 1767–68). A similar flag, ordered by SOIC director Claes Grill, is kept at Svindersvik.

There were no standardized signal flags at that time; instead, the ships used different, prearranged ways of flying the flag, or flags, sometimes combined with pennants and cannon shots, as signals. Some of these signals were just for the individual ships and some were used internationally. Sometimes this even included showing flags of other nationalities. Those flags were also used as deception if the ship was where hostile ships could be encountered and the captain wanted to avoid confrontation. There are records of ships from the SOIC approaching land under French or English flag, to collect or buy food in places where Swedish ships were forbidden to anchor.

The modern Swedish East India Company

On 28December 1993, a new company called the Svenska Ostindiska Companiet Aktiebolag (the Swedish East India Company Limited) was registered. It was formed to build the replica of the Götheborg. The company is registered for shipbuilding, education, research, advertising and marketing in relation to Swedish shipping and international trade. The company is located in Gothenburg. In 2013, the company's turnover was 19 million crowns. The company is a subsidiary of the Stiftelsen Ostindiefararen Götheborg (the East Indiaman Götheborg Foundation) registered in 2008.

Company ship replica

In 1993 a project to recreate the East Indiaman Götheborg and sail her from Gothenburg to Guangzhou began. The project is run by a firm that uses the same name as the original company. The vessel was reconstructed and sailed for China in October 2005, arriving in July 2006, with a mixed crew of professionals and students. The ship has since travelled to many locations and maritime events across the world.

The actual name of the replica is Götheborg III. It is a replica of the Götheborg that sank outside Gothenburg in 1745. A second ship with the same name was built in Gothenburg in 1786. It was the second largest, (the largest being the Drottningen), of all the SOIC vessels and made three journeys to Canton: 2February 1788 – 13May 1790, 13November 1791 – 12June 1793, and on 5December 1795, the ship sailed for Canton but was lost at Cape Town on 8March 1796, on the way out from Gothenburg.

See also

William Chalmers, Swedish merchant of Scottish origin, director of the Swedish East India Company
Anders Ljungstedt, Swedish merchant.
Niclas Sahlgren, Swedish merchant, director of the Swedish East India Company.
The Swedish South Company, founded in 1626.
The Swedish West India Company, founded in 1786
The East India Company, (England) founded in 1600
The Danish East India Company, founded in 1616
The Danish West India Company, founded in 1671
The Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602
The Dutch West India Company, founded in 1621
The Portuguese East India Company, founded in 1628
The French East India Company, founded in 1664
 List of trading companies
 Whampoa anchorage

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

The original first Swedish East India Company Charter of 1731
Original Swedish East India Company documents at the Gothenburg University Library.
Digital archive of the handwritten documents collected by Jean Abraham Grill at the Nordic Museum.
List of archives with material relevant to the Swedish East India Company.
Swedish East India Company - The East Indiaman Project.

Companies established in 1731
Economic history of Sweden
1731 establishments in Sweden
1813 disestablishments in Sweden
Companies disestablished in 1813
Trading companies
Defunct companies of Sweden
Trading companies of Sweden
Trading companies established in the 18th century

Swedish East India Company


نادي سيرويجايا لكرة القدم هو نادي رياضي أندونيسي لكرة القدم من فلمبان عاصمة سومطرة الجنوبية. وأحد فرق الدوري الإندونيسي (Djarum Indonesian Super-League).

نبذة
تأسس النادي في عام 1976 في العاصمة جاكرتا تحت اسم بيرسيجاتم جاكرتا، إلا أن المصاعب المالية التي واجهت الفريق أدت إلى اتخاذ قرار بتغيير مقر النادي إلى جزيرة سومطرة بدلاً من العاصمة جاكرتا، ومع ذلك تواصلت المصاعب المالية للنادي حتى تم شراء النادي من قبل ولاية جنوب سومطرة، التي بدورها قامت بتغيير اسم النادي إلى سيرويجايا.

الانجازات
 الدوري الاندونيسي
 البطل (1): 2007
 كأس اندونيسيا
 البطل (1): 2007

اللاعبون

طالع أيضا
 اتحاد إندونيسيا لكرة القدم
 دوري أبطال آسيا 2009

موقع خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي للنادي

مصادر

الرياضة في سومطرة الجنوبية
الرياضة في لامبونغ
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1976
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 2004
أندية كرة قدم في إندونيسيا
أندية كرة قدم في سومطرة الجنوبية
باندار لامبونج
تأسيسات سنة 1976 في إندونيسيا
تأسيسات سنة 2004 في إندونيسيا
سومطرة الجنوبية
فلمبان
لامبونغ

نادي سريويجايا


Den parietale forhøjning er en konveks, glat og markeret forhøjning i centrum på pandebenet. Det indikerer det punkt hvor ossificeringen startede.

Referencer

Skelet

Parietal forhøjning


Šejh hfz. Mustafa ef. Mujić (poznat i kao šejh hafiz s Paleža; Rogatica, 10. svibnja 1910. – Visoko, 12. srpnja 1999.), bosanskohercegovački je teolog bošnjačkog podrijetla, šejh nakšibendijskog tarikata.

Životopis
Mustafa Mujić je rođen 1910. godine u Rogatici. Majku nije upamtio jer je umrla u Bosanskom Novom tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata. Slabo se sjećao i oca koji se, kada se vratio iz rata, razbolio i umro. Odrastao je u djedovom i naninom okrilju. Nakon osnovne škole završio je rogatičku medresu i u isto vrijeme radio u pekarnici. Nakon završetka medrese radi je kao imam u Karačićima, zatim u Džedovićima – okolnim rogatičkim mjestima. Prije nego što je stupio na odsluženje vojnog roka, Mustafa Mujić se oženio. Sa suprugom Hasnijom imao je sedmero djece, šest kćerki i jednog sina.

Vojni rok je služio na Kosovu. Kada se vratio s Kosova, izbjegao je u Sarajevo sa ženom i djecom i tamo počeo raditi kao imam u džamiji na Bistriku. Veći dio ratnog vremena proveo je u Sarajevu radeći u spomenutoj džamiji. Pred kraj rata Mustafa Mujić je i hifz završio za osam mjeseci. Muhaffiz mu je bio kurra-hafiz Hadžijahić. U Carevoj džamiji po završetku Drugog svjetskog rata proučena mu je hafiska dova.

Poslije Drugog svjetsko rata, Mujić se vraća se u svoje rodno mjesto, gdje nastavlja imamsku službu u Dobračama. Ovdje se zadržao osam mjeseci, nakon čega se prebacuje u Palež kod Kiseljaka, gdje živi od 1946. do 1993. ratne godine. U dugom periodu boravka na ovom mjestu, kao imam radio je prvo u Kiseljaku, zatim i pod Duhrima, a najveći dio radnog vremena proveo je u Paležu. Svaki dan osim petka radio je po nekoliko sati s djecom, učeći ih kuranskom pismu, imanskim i islamskim šartima i drugim temeljnim islamskim vjerskim dužnostima. Pored ove obveze, pripremao je kandidate za izvanredno polaganje imamskih ispita u Sarajevu. Ovo je radio čak i onda, kada su nastupile zabrane od tadašnje komunističke vlasti.

S obzirom na to da je šejh hfz. Muharem ef. Lemeš iz Uvorića kod Visokog bio oženjen iz Paleža, on je redovno ovaj kraj posjećivao. Čim je došao novi imam u Palež, šejh Lemeš se odmah s njim upoznao i zapazio njegovu oštroumnost. On je još tada vidio da će ovaj postati veliki čovjek, te je stoga upozorio Paležane riječima: "Dobro ga čuvajte! Ako ga izgubite nećete dobro proći!" Susret s ovim šejhom bili su prvi ozbiljniji susreti Mustafe Mujića s dervišima, što je rezultiralo nasljeđivanjem spomenutog šejha. Naime, šejh Lemeš je 1955. godine umro, a nasljednika je označio riječima "Ono što sam ja, to je on i suprotno" misleći pri tome na Mujića. Od tada hfz. Mujić među narodom slovi kao Šejh-hafiz s Paleža.

Posljednjih nekoliko godina života Mustafa Mujić je proveo u Visokom. Zikr i predavanja je održavao ponedjeljkom u Pertačkoj džamiji. Ovi pozni dani njegovog života mogu se označiti kao vrhunac njegovog života gdje je Mujić oko sebe neprestano okupljao ljude. Privlačio je veliki broj murida (učenika) iz raznih krajeva Bosne i Hercegovine. Svakog tjedna dolazili su mu ljudi iz Sarajeva, Tuzle, Zenice, Gradačca, Mostara i brojnih drugih krajeva, što je na određeni način počelo predstavljati duhovno-obrazovni centar muslimana ovih krajeva.

Mustafa Mujić je umro u Visokom, 12. srpnja 1999. godine. Sljedeći dan su se klanjale dvije dženaze, jedna pred Pertačkom džamijom, a druga u haremu Gračaničke džamije gdje je i ukopan pored mezara svoga šejha hfz. Muharema ef. Lemeša.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Šejh hadži hafiz Mustafa efendija Mujić – Šejh-hafiz s Paleža: Portret jednog savremenog duhovnog učitelja

Bošnjački derviški šejhovi
Životopisi, Rogatica
Životopisi, Kiseljak
Životopisi, Visoko

Mustafa Mujić


Individual events in speech include public speaking, limited preparation, acting and interpretation are a part of forensics competitions. These events do not include the several different forms of debate offered by many tournaments. These events are called individual events because they tend to be done by one person unlike debate which often includes teams. This distinction however is not entirely accurate any more given the addition of duo interpretation events and forms of single person debate.  Competitive speech competitions and debates comprise the area of forensics. Forensics leagues have a number of speech events, generally determined by geographical region or league preference. While there are several key events that have been around a long time, there are several experimental events around the country every year that can be limited to individual tournaments. Forensics leagues in the United States includes the National Speech and Debate Association, the National Christian Forensics and Communications Association, the American Forensics Association, the National Forensics Association, the Interstate Oratorical Association and Stoa USA. Organized competitions are held at the high-school and collegiate level. Outside of the rules for each event provided by the individual leagues, there are several cultural norms within each region that are not written into law but are almost always followed. Rules for time limits vary by event and by individual tournaments, but there are penalties in every event for exceeding the time limits though the severity of the penalty widely varies.

Public-speaking events
The public speaking events are typically memorized speeches that can be on any topic the competitor desires. Typically, the same speech is used for the entire competitive season but may not be used in more than one season. For the public speaking events, they are performed with the purpose to use information to relate a message to an audience.

Original Oratory

In Original Oratory, a competitor prepares an original speech which may be informative or persuasive in nature. A competitor may use one speech for the entire season. The purpose of Oratory is to inspire belief or reinforce conviction.

At the high-school level, the speech is generally delivered without visual aids or notes. In many leagues (including the two U.S. tournaments), the number of directly quoted words from other sources in the speech is limited; at the NFL nationals, the limit is 150 words. Speeches are generally eight to ten minutes in length, with a warning often given when the allowed time has expired; most tournaments have a 30-second grace period.

Persuasion

Persuasion is often considered the collegiate equivalent of Oratory. The focus of the event is to change, reinforce, or instill the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the audience. Although few rules that dictate what topics or formats are permissible in persuasion, most persuasion speeches are policy-based; speakers advocate a specific policy proposal to address a need, offering their recommendation in a problem-cause-solution or cause-effect-solution format. In 2006, the winning persuasion topics at the American Forensics Association (AFA) and National Forensics Association (NFA) were how to improve teacher retention and encourage citizens to correspond with their members of Congress. This style of speech is also featured at the Interstate Oratorical Association - the oldest public speaking organization in the US - where the top persuasive speakers from each state compete at an annual national contest.

Informative

Informative speaking, also known as Expository Address, is a speech meant to inform the audience. The speech may range from the newest, high tech inventions from around the world to cure cancer to lighthearted topics, such as Wikipedia. The speech is supposed to be objective, without any judgement or evaluation of the topic. The speaker's job is to make a complex topic easier to understand. In intercollegiate competition, the time limit is ten minutes and the speech is typically memorized. In high-school competition, time limits vary by U.S. state. Some informative speeches use visual aids; visual aids and puns (or wordplay) are emphasized in California, although neither are required.

Declamation

Declamation, or memorized speech, is the high-school interpretation and presentation of a non-original speech.  Speeches may be historical (such as Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech) or adapted from magazine articles, commencement addresses, or other adaptations of non-original material (including forensics speeches from previous years). Declamations are generally persuasive, and the competition is similar to Original Oratory. Like Oratory, speeches are about eight minutes long.

Rhetorical criticism

Rhetorical criticism, or communication analysis, is an individual collegiate event in which the speaker has ten minutes to present a speech. The speech usually consists of an introduction, the presentation of a rhetorical artifact, a communication theory or model, the application of the communication theory to the artifact, the implications of that analysis, and a conclusion.

The artifact may be anything of rhetorical significance, such as a book, a speech, an advertising campaign, or a protest movement. The speaker identifies the goals the artifact seeks to accomplish.  They then select a model form of analysis (typically borrowed from communication scholars) to determine the effectiveness of the artifact in reaching its goal; for example, in analyzing an anti-smoking campaign the speaker might choose a model discussing the most effective methods of employing fear to persuade a mass audience. They would then apply the model to the artifact and draw conclusions about the artifact's strengths and weaknesses, the success or failure of the model as an analytical tool, and other insight gained from the analysis.

Special-occasion speaking

Special-occasion speaking, a high-school event, is similar to Oratory but focuses on lighter subjects and addresses a specific audience. Although comedy is frequently heard in special-occasion speaking, it should not detract from the message the speaker is trying to relate. The speech is not as strictly persuasive as in Oratory, but can be designed to inform. Speeches are typically six to eight minutes long.

After-dinner speaking / Speech to entertain

After-dinner speaking or speech to entertain is a public-address event which makes greater sense of a topic with humor. Although it can take the form of any of the accepted public-speaking structures, it often takes the form of an informative or persuasive speech. The event covers a variety of topics, but the use of humor is central to its execution. The speech should not resort to base humor, but should be topical and relevant to the idea presented. This type of speech, found at the collegiate level, is typically six to ten minutes long. Generally, it is a humorous speech with a serious undertone or point.

Limited-preparation events

A limited-preparation event is an event in which the speakers have no prior knowledge of the speech they will give, with a set amount of preparation time to write a short speech. Preparation times vary by event and range from two minutes to an hour, after which the competitors deliver their speeches.

Broadcasting

A radio speech is a prepared event which includes news stories and a commercial. Speakers receive a packet with a prepared newscast and must edit and compile these stories into a five-minute newscast that is unique and engaging. Preparation time varies by state from 15 to 45 minutes. Transitions are expected to be smooth, and the newscast should be as close as possible to five minutes. Scoring is based on reading clarity, adherence to the time limit, and the appeal of the stories chosen.

Extemporaneous speaking

Extemporaneous speaking is a speech given with little preparation and traditionally without access to the internet for citation (Though many states have opted to allow the use of internet). At the beginning of a round, speakers are usually given three questions relating to current events and asked to choose one on which to prepare a speech. During the preparation period (usually thirty minutes), periodicals may be used to prepare the speech. The speech, presented with limited notes, is six to eight minutes long on the collegiate circuit. The main purpose of the speech to make an argument answering the question given at the beginning of the round and convince the audience that this interpretation is the most correct. Although some high-school competitions divide extemporaneous speaking into domestic and international categories, few collegiate competitions do so.

Impromptu speaking

In impromptu speaking, competitors are given a topic (usually a word or phrase which may be a person, thing, a well-known saying, a less well-known quotation, a current event, or an object) and compose a speech based on the prompt. Impromptu speeches are usually four to six minutes long (with 15 seconds to seven minutes of preparation time), but other tournaments have no limits on preparation time or speech length. Judging typically focuses on speaking ability (such as enunciation, pace, and vocal variety), creativity, and overall balance of the speech (such as points of roughly-equal length and appropriate length of introduction and conclusion). In many states, impromptu speaking is a contest combining wit and humor with insight; speeches should be funny, but also make a point.

Extemporaneous commentary

Competitors in extemporaneous commentary are given a topic of national, regional or local importance, and prepare a speech on that topic during a preparation period. Judging focuses on the quality of the vocal presentation, the organization of the speech and the use of sources to back up assertions. The speech is usually presented seated. According to the National Forensic League, the event imitates the work of media commentators who speak about trends or community problems.

Extemporaneous programmed reading

Extemporaneous programmed reading is a high-school tournament event in North Dakota. It is more similar to interpretation than limited-preparation events, since each round is an interpretation; however, it differs in that each competitor receives the piece for each round in a one-hour draw and read and cut the piece for interpretation. Three kinds of interpretation are represented in different rounds, one of which is used for the finals: humorous, serious, and poetry. Each competitor has seven minutes to deliver the cut interpretation before the judge.

Storytelling

In storytelling, a high-school event, competitors are given a children's book, fairy tale, fable, myth, legend, or ghost story to read. They have a half-hour to read the given piece and recast it in their own words before presenting their version to the judge in under eight minutes. Stage make-up, costumes, and props are prohibited. Different voices and characters are used, and each character should be easily distinguished.

Apologetics

In this NCFCA and Stoa USA event, competitors are given four minutes to prepare a six-minute speech on a question relating to Christianity. The questions are published online in advance, and the rules are generally the same as for impromptu speaking.

Acting and interpretation events
Though the purpose of each event differs based on if it is an acting event or an interpretation event, all of these events seek to use different forms of literature to tell a certain theme or story.

Dramatic Interpretation

In Dramatic Interpretation, a competitor interprets a selection from a dramatic theatrical script. A competitor plays several parts, which are differentiated with a variety of positions and voices. Each character should be clearly distinguishable, and a competitor can also play a single character. The use of a manuscript depends on the individual tournament and circuit, though typically it is required at the college level and not allowed at the high school level.

Humorous Interpretation

In Humorous Interpretation (shortened to HI or humorous), the humorous alternative to DI at the high-school level, a competitor performs an eight- to ten-minute selection from a humorous literary work. Much of the rules for HI are identical to its dramatic counterpart with the only difference being that the presentation is funny.

Original comedy

Original comedy is an entirely original event in which competitors write a comic story, the structure of which is entirely up to them. The story often involves a main character and several different side characters which the competitor will "pop" in and out of quickly. No introduction is required and no props or manuscript are allowed. This is a high school event with a time limit of 8 minutes.

Serious interpretation

Serious interpretation, a high-school event, is open to any literary work.

Duo Interpretation

Similar to DI and HI, Duo Interpretation pieces have at least two parts performed by two people. In the collegiate level of this event, the presenters are not allowed to make physical or eye contact or use props, can only touch the ground with their feet. There are no props, costumes, or visual aids allowed however in the collegiate circuit a manuscript is often used The body of work can be from one literary source.

Duet acting

Differing from the college Duo Interpretation, in high school there are two events of duet acting called humorous duet acting and dramatic duet acting. Despite addressing slightly different themes of humor and drama, both events have similar rules. A cutting from only one script is used and though there are still no costumes or visual aids, most tournaments allow for the use of one table and two chairs provided by the tournament. The use of a manuscript is typically not allowed. Differing from the college version, participants are allowed to look and touch their duet partners.

Prose interpretation

Prose interpretation is the interpretation of a single or multiple works of prose.   In many styles of competition, since competitors interpret the literature with facial expression and eye contact, memorization is helpful; however, points may be deducted if a speech is too memorized and the competitor does not appear to be reading. However, in many other styles of competition, such as the MSHSL, memorization is actually encouraged. In college forensics the maximum time allowed is 10 minutes, including an introduction.

Poetry interpretation

Poetry interpretation is the interpretation of a single or multiple works of poetry centered around a single literary theme. The poetry used can have traditional poetic meter though it is not required. The separate pieces are cut together into a single program that lasts a maximum of 10 minutes, on the college level, with an introduction

Program Oral Interpretation
Program Oral Interpretation is an event all about intertextuality—this specific event differs from the rest because it focuses on the interrelationship between works of literature. Through the medium of performance, we take what constitutes a text to be almost anything when recorded somehow. Unlike other categories in the Speech and Debate medium, this means you can use anything that is considered text throughout your program to construct a cohesive story. That specifically allows prose, poetry and drama. Program Oral Interpretation means going above and beyond the usual places to find literature and reading anything for all intents and purposes. The intention of Program Oral Interpretation is to seek and  demonstrate how different texts relate and speak to one another as if they were having a conversation for the first time. All texts chosen should inevitably be related upon on cohesive topic. Documentaries, spoken word pieces, statistics, news reports, memoirs, and almost anything else, speak to one another through your arrangement to form a cohesive argument. The core of this event is to focus on the argumentation and have the text be a catapult to drive your argumentation. This event is offered at the college level as well as in some high school regions.

Individual-events tournaments

Individual-events tournaments usually last for six to twelve hours to complete, with the longest tournaments lasting several days. Tournaments have preliminary rounds, followed by possible semifinal and final round for each event.

A speech round consists of performances by five to eight competitors, who are then ranked by a judge.  Competitors from the same school usually do not compete against each other in preliminary rounds, and are identified by an alphanumeric code to prevent bias by judges.

In a round, a competitor earns points for themselves and their team according to their ranking by a judge. The top competitors from each team in each event score points. At the awards ceremony, medals or trophies are given to individuals and team awards are given to the teams with the most points.

References

External links

High-school links
 National Catholic Forensic League
 Stoa USA
 National Christian Forensics and Communications Association
 National Forensic League

Results links
 SpeechWire.com
 JoyOfTournaments.com
 forensictournament.net
 Tabroom.com

Speech resources
 Individual event times

North American debating competitions
Student debating societies

Individual events (speech)


Los chamacocos, ybytosos o yshyr (='personas', léase ) según se denominan a sí mismos, escrito en algunos textos iśir, ishiro, öshör, ïsïrï, también conocidos como jeywo, son un pueblo indígena del Chaco Boreal que en Paraguay habita el departamento de Alto Paraguay junto a la costa del río Paraguay, junto con pequeños grupos que han emigrado a otros departamentos, y en Brasil existe un pequeño grupo autóctono (40 en 1994) en la Reserva Indígena Kadiwéu del estado de Mato Grosso del Sur.

Los tomárahos (autodenominados yshyr tomáraho) son un subgrupo de los chamacocos que viven en la comunidad Puerto María Elena-Pitiantuta del distrito Fuerte Olimpo. Hablan su propio dialecto y se han diferenciado culturalmente de los yshyr ybytoso que forman el grupo principal, por lo que la Dirección General de Estadística, Encuestas y Censos (DGEEC) del Paraguay los clasifica como una etnia separada.

Historia

Varios grupos yshyr vivían en el Chaco en el , tanto en el interior del territorio, como asentados en las orillas del río Paraguay. Los ybytosos (o ebitosos) durante siglos han vivido a lo largo del río Paraguay; los tomárahos, habitaban el interior del Gran Chaco y hasta la década de 1970 se creía que eran hostiles.

Durante la guerra del Chaco (1932-1935), los yshyr ayudaron a los soldados paraguayos en la lucha contra los bolivianos, pero cuando terminó la guerra, perdieron sus territorios y tuvieron que negociar su supervivencia étnica con los colonos y nuevos terratenientes paraguayos.

Los tomárahos sobrevivientes vivían en esclavitud en el remoto campamento de San Carlos y estaban muriendo de enfermedad, abandono y hambre. Al permanecer en el bosque, apartados de la influencia de los paraguayos y los misioneros -al costo de la casi extinción- los tomárahos fueron capaces de preservar una gran cantidad de sus mitos y ceremonias tradicionales.

«Ahora nuestro territorio es el de la empresa, vivimos allí, pero no es nuestra tierra, ya no pertenece a nosotros y se ha convertido en un lugar enemigo que nos está matando. Antes eramos valientes y fuertes, pero la convivencia con los paraguayos nos ha domesticado». Testificó un hombre tomáraho que apenas sobrevivía, enfermo y desnutrido, trabajando en los grandes latifundios madereros de explotación de tanino conocidos como Campos de Carlos Casado.

El primer contacto de los tomárahos con los ybytosos fue en 1981, cuando Bruno Barras y Guillermo Mallero, yshyr de Fuerte Olimpo, se dirigieron a San Carlos para llevar a cabo el primer Censo Indígena Nacional. Cuando Ticio Escobar visitó a los tomárahos en 1985 sumaban sólo 87 personas. Sin embargo, mientras que los ybytosos habían abandonado sus rituales, como resultado de la influencia de los misioneros evangélicos pertenecientes a la Misión Nuevas Tribus, los tomárahos todavía practicaban la ceremonia de iniciación de los púberes y habían mantenido un conocimiento detallado de los mitos y el chamanismo.

Estos grupos están hoy al borde de la desaparición debido a la pobreza derivada de la transformación de su hábitat, la degradación de los recursos naturales, y la presión de la expansión de la actividad económica. Los jóvenes emigran hacia las ciudades de Paraguay y Brasil, abandonando sus costumbres y muchas veces negando su origen para evitar ser víctimas de discriminación.

En 2009, sólo tres comunidades de ybytosos contaban con personería jurídica y tierra propia; la comunidad tomáraho posee personería jurídica y tierras asignadas sin título de propiedad (DGEEC, 2004) con un total de 25 828 hectáreas. Las poblaciones más numerosas se encuentran en Puerto Diana y en Puerto Esperanza, la más pequeña en Puerto Caballo.

Los yshyr subsisten precariamente encontrando sustento en el cultivo de mandioca, batatas, frijoles, maíz, calabaza y sandía. También cazan, pescan y recolectan miel y palmas carandá, y obtienen algún ingreso de la confección de artesanías para su venta.

Grupos de yshyr disidentes, conocidos como «yacareceros», se dedican a la caza furtiva del yacaré, actividad prohibida, «Contingentes de quince a veinte hombres que parten en canoas río arriba, y se internan por los bañados del río Negro. Allí cazan durante un mes, durmiendo en sus botes y expuestos a todos los peligros: los guardias forestales brasileños, mayoría de ex convictos, les tiran a matar antes de preguntar nada».

Población

Según el censo de 2002 la población yshyr en Paraguay que se autorreconoció como chamacoco era de 1571 personas, principalmente ubicadas en el distrito de Fuerte Olimpo en el Alto Paraguay, siendo el mayor grupo emigrado el que se halla en el distrito Ygatimí del departamento Central (85 en 2002).

Acorde con datos del Instituto Socio ambiental (ISA), en Brasil, en 1994, habitaban 40 individuos de la etnia en la Reserva Indígena Kadiwéu.

Los yshyr fueron desplazados de sus tierras y reubicados por el Instituto Nacional del Indígena del Paraguay (INDI) confinándolos a pequeñas áreas ribereñas en la década de 1980. En 1986 los tomárahos fueron mudados de San Carlos a Potrerito, a tierras pertenecientes a los ybytosos, y más tarde se les dieron tierras en María Elena.

De acuerdo a los resultados del III Censo Nacional de Población y Viviendas para Pueblos Indígenas de 2012 en Paraguay viven 1824 ybytosos, de los cuales 1481 en el departamento de Alto Paraguay y 343 en Asunción y el departamento Central.

Cultura

Lengua
Su idioma, llamado Yshyr ahwoso, pertenece a la familia lingüística zamuco, estudiada y descripta por los jesuitas en el , y comprende los dialectos tomáraho (o tomaraxa), ybytoso (o ebitoso) y ório.

En 1930 se estimaba que unas 2000 personas hablaban alguna variedad del lenguaje. Las personas hablantes de las variantes orio e ybytoso fueron estimadas en 800 en 1970, mientras que menos de 200 personas hablaban tomáraho en ese entonces.

Según la escritura introducida por los jesuitas para el idioma guaraní, La Y indica la y gutural, o sexta vocal del guaraní (equivalente a la ö de la notación fonética), mientras la sh y la h expresan sonidos idénticos a los indicados por tales signos en el inglés.

La inflexión verbal se basa en los prefijos personales, sin tiempos verbales. Los sustantivos se pueden dividir en posesible y no posesible. Los nombres posesibles se caracterizan por una prefijación por la cual el nombre está de acuerdo con el poseedor o modificador genitivo.
El idioma presenta estructuras sintácticas para-hipotácticas.

El yshyr es considerada lengua en peligro por la UNESCO y podría desaparecer en unas pocas generaciones, bajo la presión de las lenguas culturalmente dominantes en la región, como el castellano y guaraní.

Algunos términos
 WÖTA: torcido
 ARBOTA: Recto, correcto
 ULUTA: La costumbre, la ley
 ULUTA ARBOTA: Derecho (en el sentido de derecho positivo)
 Nótese que la etimología de «uluta arbota» remite a «las costumbres correctas».
 ARPICH: cama
 OHOTA: suegra
 UUTA: cuerno

Organización social.

La familia extendida, comprendiendo padres, hijos, esposas de los hijos y sus hijos, vivía junta. A su vez las casas se agrupaban por clanes totémicos, los cuales estaban algo más separados entre sí.

La aldea tradicional (Lut) se organizaba con forma de medialuna, con una de sus puntas orientada hacia el Norte y la parte convexa al Este. Puede verse que esta disposición permite aprovechar el sol de la mañana y genera un espacio central protegido.

En el tobich se aprontan las representaciones que ocurrirán en el harra, allí se enseña, se discute, se norma y se controla, allí cantan y oran largamente los shamanes y organizan hasta el mínimo detalle de la ceremonia. Según referentes actuales, el primer tobich fue establecido por los ahnapsoro hacia el oriente, en Nymych-wert (tierra roja), en un punto conocido como Karcha Balut (gran conchal) sobre el río, hoy Puerto 14 de Mayo. Actualmente el tobich se ubica cuando mucho a un kilómetro de distancia.

El harra era el círculo ceremonial en donde se representaban las danzas sagradas. En un claro de un bosque pleno fue instalado el primer harra por los ahnapzoro, Para algunos relatores tomáraho este harra primigenio estaba ubicado a cuarenta o cincuenta kilómetros del tobich originario, hacia el poniente, según versiones en el lugar actualmente llamado Caacupé. Actualmente el harra puede estar ubicado a unos 100 metros del Lut en la dirección oeste.

El camino que conducía del Harra al tobich, llamado tobich ibich, (o depich) era territorio de los ahnapzöro, y podía ser utilizado solamente por los nagrab (varones adultos), el Tobich era un lugar sagrado y estaba vedado a las mujeres.

Al igual que en los grupos guaraníticos, los yshyr compartían el producto de la caza y la recolección con toda su comunidad. Los konzehet (chamanes) eran los encargados de la distribución. La carne era cocida y enfriada, se quitaba la grasa y el Konzehet determinaba quienes recibían cada parte, los cortes más tiernos y con menos grasa eran reservados a los ancianos.

Al llegar a la pubertad (12 o 13 años) los varones salían solos al monte y regresaban cuando lograban cazar algún animal el cual compartían con la comunidad convirtiéndose así en adultos, entonces eran conducidos al tobich, educados en la cultura yshyr, y les eran revelados ciertos secretos, como el de la extinción de los ahnapzöro.

Bruno Barrás (ybytoso) pertenece a la comunidad de Potreritos, mantiene la antigua tradición de poligamia de los yshyr, tiene tres esposas. De esta manera relataba Bruno el estado de la cultura de su pueblo:

«La mitología ebytoso tiene tres poderes: la diosa del agua, el dios del aire y dios del bosque. A este nosotros lo llamamos Nemur y a la diosa del agua, Eshnuwerta, que cuidaba la vida de los animales acuáticos. Y el aire es de Pauchata.»

«Para los ishiros estos grandes maestros de la cultura indígena es una gran escuela y el bosque, la madre naturaleza es una universidad, como el hombre blanco lo dice. Nemur adiestraba a los hombres cómo utilizar los animales cuadrúpedos y cómo utilizar la flora. Y Eshnuwerta enseñaba a todos los animales acuáticos y cómo utilizar los peces; en qué porción se los da al joven atleta, cuáles son los alimentos de carne que pueden utilizar.»

«Esto es una sabiduría para nosotros. La diosa del aire, Pauchata, es la centinela del aire y, también, del espacio del viento. Hay predichos de los tres. Decía Nemur que si los hombres comienzan a destruir la flora puede acarrear pestilencias o epidemias gravísimas a las naciones, sean cuales sean. Porque esa es la vida de los hombres humanos de la tierra. Pueden venir pestes raras para atacar al ser humano. La misma cosa Eshnuwerta da su predicho: si los ishiros no utilizan bien a los animales acuáticos, la naturaleza, la fuente de los caudales de los ríos se negarán, se rebelarán y van a tener que sufrir las consecuencias de sequías, inundaciones, porque los peces también respiran del aire, como los humanos.»

«Y el predicho de Pauchata es: cuándo los hombres no cuidan a su ambiente, entonces el sol puede volverse cada vez más furioso y pueden venir las tormentas con sus grandes velocidades a rozar naciones para que sepa respetar el aire donde todos necesitamos más que otra cosa.»

«Cuando los grandes shamanes iban ya desapareciendo los yshir también ya iban dejando estos valores: era preocupación grande de los ancianos. Hoy entre los pocos que existen entre los ebytosos, quiero felicitar y admirar especialmente a los tomárahos. Gracias a ellos, los ebytosos se acordaron de elementos importantes que ellos tampoco pueden dejar en el olvido de esta bella cultura de nuestros antepasados, que es una escuela real.»

Organización política tradicional
El duruk terk era el líder comunal del clan totémico, y el atributo con el que se identificaba era un silbato de cráneo de armadillo.

Cuando un individuo recibía una revelación o visión, o realizaba alguna proeza notable para bien de su comunidad, podía convertirse en konzehet, una especie de chamán. Con el transcurso del tiempo, por sus conocimientos o proezas, el konzehet podía llegar a convertirse en konzehet bahlut, y formar parte del konzaho deio (consejo de ancianos, o grandes chamanes). Los atributos del konzehet bahlut eran el peikara (una especie de sonajero), y el bastón.

Las decisiones eran tomadas por los pölohto hnedeio (Grandes jefes guerreros) dirigidos por el pölohtet, que no era un superior, sino más bien un primus inter pares. Los atributos de los pölohto hnedeio eran el brazalete de plumas, y el xüap, un silbato construido en palo santo. El atributo que identificaba al pölohtet era un brazalete de piel de yaguareté.

Los jefes actuales son llamados pölohto or ihorkoso (jefes artificiales) porque no ascendieron por las vías tradicionales.

Mitología

Si bien los relatos de tomáraho e ybytoso difieren en muchos aspectos, el «Gran Mito» yshyr puede resumirse de la siguiente manera.

En ocasión de estar viajando por la selva, un grupo de mujeres Yshyr se encontró con los ahnapzöro (o anapsoro), dioses poderosos y terribles, de aspecto extraño, que no tenían facciones en el rostro. Cada uno de ellos poseía caracteres peculiares diferentes, estaban cubiertos de plumajes, pelos, o extraños colores. Los ahnapsoro convivieron luego con los yshyr, y les enseñaron a cazar, a usar herramientas, y también los iniciaron en sus ceremonias rituales.

Los ahnapzoro podrían ubicarse en una clase de dioses entre dioses uranicos y dema reuniendo características de ambos.

Luego de un tiempo la convivencia entre hombres y dioses se tornó difícil, haciendo crisis con la muerte de algunos jóvenes en las durísimas ceremonias iniciáticas. Entonces Eshönewörta (o Ashnuwerta), una de las principales ahnapzoro, les indicó a los yshyr la vulnerabilidad de los ahnapzoro para que pudieran vencerlos golpeándolos en el tobillo, ya que allí tenían la garganta.

De esta forma, los yshyr exterminaron a los ahnapzöro, solamente uno sobrevivió a la masacre además de Eshönewörta, el temible Nemur, el cual, al estar a punto de ser alcanzado en su huida, tomó un caracol e hizo surgir de él una fuerte correntada que llenó el cauce con gran estruendo, dando origen al actual río Paraguay y lanzando la maldición de exterminar a los yshyr si abandonaban los rituales que les habían enseñado.

En La maldición de Nemur reside, precisamente, la función social del arte y el mito yshyr. Los hombres habían descubierto la vulnerabilidad de sus dioses y se vengaban de ellos, implacables. Nemur, el último ahnapsoro, logra escapar, pero antes sostiene este diálogo con su perseguidor: «Podrás huir, pero tu destino es quedar para siempre solo», dijo Syr parado sobre una orilla del río. «Tu pueblo es numeroso», contesta Nemur desde la otra ribera, «pero queda para siempre obligado a cumplir las palabras; de no hacerlo, las enfermedades, el hambre y los enemigos irán acabándolo hasta que el último kytymáraha se extinga».

Luego de la matanza, Eshönewörta reunió a los hombres yshyr y les dio indicaciones para sobrevivir a la maldición de Nemur: Las mujeres no deben enterarse de la desaparición de los ahnapzöro, y los hombres deberán reemplazarlos en la danza ceremonial, para lo cual Eshönewörta formó los clanes, cada uno de los cuales estaba encargado de personificar durante el ritual en el harra a uno de los ahnapzoro muertos, imitando sus colores, plumajes, y comportamiento.

Para que las mujeres no se enteren de la desaparición de los ahnapzöro, cada tanto algún guerrero se disfraza con una máscara tejida con tocados de plumas y las dos espadas rituales de madera y se acerca a la aldea por el Tobich ibich para asustar a las mujeres y recordarles que ese camino les está vedado.

Los yshyr también tienen otra institución mítica fundamental que promueve la utilización equilibrada de los recursos del hábitat: la figura del Señor de los Animales: Cada animal tiene su dueño, (su "balut" o su abogado) que simultáneamente facilita la caza y sanciona severamente sus excesos.

Los chamacocos colocan en la cumbre de la jerarquía celeste a la diosa Eschetewuarha, que, siendo mujer del Gran Espíritu, lo dominaba y reinaba sobre el mundo.

Notas y referencias

Bibliografía adicional

Enlaces externos

 Biblioteca Virtual de Paraguay
 Centro de Artes Visuales Museo del Barro
 Boletín de antropología
 Ethnologue
 Sorosoro
 Estructuras sintácticas del chamacoco (artículo en "Linguistic Discovery")
 Morfología verbal del chamacoco (artículo en "Quaderni del laboratorio di linguistica")
 Morfología de los nombres poseíbles del chamacoco (artículo en "Quaderni del laboratorio di linguistica")
 Documental Chamacoco, la amenaza de Nemur
 Suplemento lexicográfico chamacoco. Primera parte (artículo en "Quaderni del laboratorio di linguistica")

Pueblos indígenas de Paraguay
Pueblos indígenas de Brasil
Pueblos zamucanos

Chamacocos


Patricia Millardet () a fost o actriță franceză, devenită celebră pentru interpretarea rolului procuroarei Silvia Conti în serialul italian de televiziune Caracatița.

Biografie
Și-a făcut debutul în cinematografia italiană în 1987, devenind celebră în Italia pentru interpretarea a numeroase roluri în filme de televiziune. Rolul ei cel mai cunoscut este cel al procuroarei curajoase și incoruptibile Silvia Conti din serialul de televiziune Caracatița. A mai fost protagonistă în serialul de ficțiune Il bello delle donne.

În 1994, în timp ce se afla într-un bar de noapte din zona Trinità dei Monti, a fost implicată într-o altercație cu un reporter al unui ziar monden; în 2000 a suferit o depresie și a fost dusă la spital; în decembrie 2004 a amenințat că se sinucide.

Filmografie selectivă
 Fifty-Fifty, regie: Pascal Vidal (1981)
 La Boum 2, regie: Claude Pinoteau (1982)
 Tir groupé, regie: Jean-Claude Missiaen (1982)
 Sandy, regie: Michel Nerval (1983)
 Mortelle Randonnée, regie: Claude Miller (1983)
 P'tit con, regie: Gérard Lauzier (1984)
 Ronde de nuit, regie: Jean-Claude Missiaen (1984)
 Il cespuglio delle bacche velenose, regie: Gianni Lepre (1987)
 La piovra 4, regie: Luigi Perelli (1989)
 Il sole anche di notte, regie: Paolo și Vittorio Taviani (1990)
 La piovra 5 - Il cuore del problema, regie: Luigi Perelli (1990)
 Il sole anche di notte (1990)
 La piovra 6 - L'ultimo segreto, regie: Luigi Perelli (1991)
 Hot Chocolate, regie: Josée Dayan (1992)
 Errore fatale, regie: Filippo de Luigi (1992)
 L'orma del califfo, regie: Tony Wharmby (1994)
 Wild Justice (1994)
 La piovra 7 - Indagine sulla morte del commissario Cattani, regie: Luigi Perelli (1995)
 Visione di un delitto, regie: Elodie Keene (1998)
 Un bacio nel buio, regie: Roberto Rocco (1999)
 La piovra 10, regie: Luigi Perelli (2001)
 Il bello delle donne (2002-2003)

Actrițe care i-au dublat vocea
 Maria Pia Di Meo în Il bello delle donne, La piovra 4, La piovra 5 - Il cuore del problema, La piovra 6 - L'ultimo segreto, La piovra 7 - Indagine sulla morte del commissario Cattani, La piovra 10, Visione di un delitto, Un bacio nel buio

Note

Legături externe
 Patricia Millardet, pe CineDataBase, Rivista del cinematografo.

 Patricia Millardet, pe AllMovie, All Media Network.
 Patricia Millardet, pe filmportal.de.

Nașteri în 1959
Nașteri pe 24 martie
Decese în 2020
Actrițe franceze
Decese prin atac de cord

Patricia Millardet


Sarcodia,  je rod crvenih algi iz porodice Sarcodiaceae, dio reda Plocamiales. Taksonomski je priznat kao zaseban rod. Postoji petnaest vrsta

Tipična vrsta je Sarcodia montagneana; tipski lokalitet je Bay of Islands na sjeveru Sjevernog otoka u Novom Zelandu

Vrste
 Sarcodia ceylanica Harvey ex Kützing
 Sarcodia ceylonensis (J.Agardh) Kylin
 Sarcodia ciliata Zanardini
 Sarcodia cuneifolia Yamada
 Sarcodia dentata (Suhr) R.E.Norris ex M.J.Wynne
 Sarcodia dichotoma Børgesen
 Sarcodia gattyae (J.Agardh) Kylin
 Sarcodia grandifolia Levring
 Sarcodia linearis (J.Agardh) Kylin
 Sarcodia marginalis (Kützing) Millar
 Sarcodia marginata J.Agardh
 Sarcodia montagneana (J.D.Hooker & Harvey) J.Agardh - tip
 Sarcodia multifida Børgesen
 Sarcodia palmata Sonder
 Sarcodia suae S.-M.Lin & C.Rodríguez-Prieto

Izvori

Plocamiales

Sarcodia


Reiner ist ein Einschlagkrater auf der westlichen Mondvorderseite in der Ebene des Oceanus Procellarum. Er liegt östlich von Cavalerius und südwestlich von Marius. Der Rand ist scharf und kaum erodiert. Das Innere weist einen Zentralberg auf.
Westlich von Reiner liegt Reiner Gamma, ein Gebiet mit auffallend hoher Albedo.

Der Krater wurde 1935 von der IAU nach dem italienischen Astronomen und Mathematiker Vincentio Reinieri offiziell benannt.

Weblinks

 Reiner auf The-Moon Wiki
 Spektrum.de: Amateuraufnahmen

Einzelnachweise

Einschlagkrater (Mond)

Reiner (Mondkrater)


Chevrolet Suburban este un SUV de dimensiune mai mare de la Chevrolet .  începând din 1935 pentru anul modelului american din 1935 și a fost în mod tradițional unul dintre cele mai profitabile vehicule ale General Motors.  Carryall Suburban, din prima generație din 1935,

În plus față de marca Chevrolet, Suburban a fost produs sub marca GMC până când versiunea sa a fost rebranduită Yukon XL și, de asemenea, pe scurt ca Holden. În cea mai mare parte a istoriei sale recente, Suburban a fost o versiune pe bază de vagoane pentru camioneta Chevrolet, incluzând seria de vehicule pe bază de camioane Chevrolet C/K și Silverado . Cadillac oferă o versiune numită Escalade ESV .

Suburbanul este vândut în Statele Unite (inclusiv teritoriile insulare), Canada, America Centrală, Chile, Mexic, Myanmar, Laos, Angola, Filipine și Orientul Mijlociu (cu excepția Israelului), în timp ce Yukon XL se vinde doar în Nord America (Statele Unite și Canada) și teritoriile Orientului Mijlociu (cu excepția Israelului). Suburban nu este vândut deocamdată în România.

Galerie foto

Note

Vehicule motorizate fabricate în Statele Unite ale Americii
Automobile americane
Suburban

Chevrolet Suburban


Catacomba (Catacombele) Sfântului Calixt (cunoscută și sub numele de Cimitirul lui Calixt) este una din catacombele Romei de pe Via Appia, notabilă prin existența aici a Criptei Papilor (în italiană: Cappella dei Papi), care conținea odată mormintele mai multor papi din secolele II-IV d.Hr.

Istoric
Se crede că această catacombă a fost creată de către viitorul Papă Calixt I, ce era pe atunci diacon al Romei, sub pontificatul Papei Zefirin, prin lărgirea hipogeului creștin timpuriu deja existent. Calixt a fost înmormântat în Catacomba lui Calepodius de pe Via Aurelia. Cripta a căzut în desuetudine și decădere după ce moaștele pe care le conținea au fost mutate din catacombe în diferite biserici din Roma; ultima perioadă a mutărilor din criptă a avut loc sub Papa Sergiu al II-lea, în secolul al IX-lea înainte de invazia longobarzilor, în primul rând la San Silvestro in Capite, care, spre deosebire de catacombă, se afla în interiorul Zidului lui Aurelian. Catacomba și cripta au fost redescoperite în 1854 de arheologul italian Giovanni Battista de Rossi.

Descriere

Arcadele fac parte dintr-un cimitir complex, care ocupă 15 hectare și are aproape 20 km lungime.

Cele mai vechi părți ale acestei catacombe sunt cripta Lucinei, zona Papilor și zona Sfintei Cecilia, în care sunt păstrate unele dintre cele mai sacre amintiri ale locului (inclusiv cripta Papilor, cripta Sf. Cecilia și cripta Sacramentelor); celelalte zone sunt numite zona Sf. Gaius și zona Sf. Eusebiu (de la sfârșitul secolului al III-lea), zona vestică (construită în prima jumătate a secolului al IV-lea) și zona liberiană (din cea de-a doua jumătate a secolului al IV-lea), toate acestea având o arhitectură subterană grandioasă. O scară modernă, aflată pe locul uneia mai vechi, a fost construită de Papa Damasus I, oferind acces la zona Papilor, unde se află cripta papilor, în care au fost îngropați nouă pontifi și, probabil, opt reprezentanți ai ierarhiei bisericești - de-a lungul zidurilor sunt inscripții grecești originale pentru pontifii Ponțian, Anteriu, Fabian, Lucius I și Eutichie. În peretele îndepărtat a fost îngropat Papa Sixtus al II-lea, după ce a fost ucis în timpul persecuției lui Valerian; în fața mormântului său, Papa Damasus a sculptat o inscripție în metru poetic cu caractere săpate de caligraful Furius Dionisius Filocalus.

În cripta alăturată este mormântul Sfintei Cecilia, ale cărei moaște au fost mutate de papa Pascal I în 821: frescele de pe pereți de la începutul secolului al IX-lea îi reprezintă pe Sfânta Cecilia rugându-se, bustul Mântuitorului și pe cel al papei Urban I. La mică distanță, o arcadă datând de la sfârșitul secolului al II-lea oferă acces în cubicula sacramentelor, cu fresce din prima jumătate a secolului al III-lea ce se referă la Botezul Domnului, la Euharistie și la Învierea morților; în zona Sf. Miltiade de lângă ușă se află sarcofagul unui copil ce are sculptat deasupra câteva episoade biblice. În zona Sfinților Caius și Eusebiu sunt câteva cripte așezate deoparte, vizavi unul de altul, cu mormintele papei Caius (cu o inscripție) și papei Eusebiu, care a murit în Sicilia, unde a fost exilat de Maxențiu și al cărui corp a fost adus la Roma, în timpul pontificatului lui Militiade; pe o copie de marmură de la sfârșitul secolului al IV-lea (ale cărei fragmente pot fi văzute pe peretele opus) poate fi citită o inscripție a lui Damasus care evidențiază rolul lui Eusebiu în aplanarea schismei din biserica primară, în special cea care se referea la acceptarea apostaților.

Alăturată arcadei se află, în continuare, cripta martirilor Calogerus și Partenie și cubiculul dublu al lui Sever, care conține o inscripție ritmică (datată nu mai târziu de 304), în care un episcop al Romei (la acel moment Marcelin) este primul ce primește numele de papă și primul ce propovăduiește deschis credința în învierea finală. Într-o zonă mai îndepărtată a fost înmormântat papa Corneliu, al cărui mormânt conține încă inscripția originală în care i se dă titlul de martir și, pe laturile sale, picturi splendide cu chipuri în stil bizantin din secolele al VII-lea și al VIII-lea, reprezentându-i pe papii Sixt II și Corneliu și pe episcopii africani Ciprian și Ottatus. Într-un cubiculum din apropiere sunt unele dintre cele mormintele cele mai vechi, de după anul 175 d.Hr., cu fresce romane (pe tavan) ale Bunului Păstor și ale unor oameni în rugăciune, iar (pe peretele îndepărtat) doi pești, cu un coș de pâini în spatele lor, un simbol al Euharistiei.

Morminte papale

În vârful lui, situl cu suprafață de 15 hectare conținea rămășițele pământești a șaisprezece papi și a cincizeci de martiri. Nouă dintre acești papi au fost îngropați în Cripta Papilor, căreia papa Damasus I i-a construit o scară în secolul al IV-lea. Printre inscripțiile în limba greacă descoperite sunt cele asociate cu papii: Ponțian, Anteriu, Fabian, Lucius I și Eutichie. O inscripție mai lungă pentru papa Sixt al II-lea realizată de Furius Dionisius Filocalus a fost, de asemenea, descoperită.

În exteriorul Criptei Papilor, zona Sfinților Caius și Eusebiu este numită astfel datorită existenței aici a mormintelor papilor Gaius ("Caius") și Eusebiu (mutate din Sicilia). Într-o altă zonă, există un mormânt atribuit papei Corneliu, purtând inscripția "CORNELIVS MARTYR", atribuit și lui Filocalus.

O placă plasată de papa Sixt al III-lea (c. 440) îi enumeră pe următoarele papii: Sixt al II-lea, Dionisie, Corneliu, Felix, Ponțian, Fabian, Caius, Eusebiu, Miltiade, Ștefan, Urban I, Luciu, Anteriu, necuprinzându-i pe niciunul din cei înmormântați în secolul al II-lea. Cripta Papilor s-a umplut rapid în secolul al IV-lea, determinând îngroparea celorlalți papi în catacombe conexe precum Catacomba Priscillei (sub San Martino ai Monti), Catacomba Balbinei (numai papa Marcu), Catacomba lui Calepodius (doar papa Calixt al II-lea și papa Iuliu I), Catacomba lui Ponțian (numai papa Anastasie I și papa Inocențiu I, tată și fiu) și Catacomba lui Felicitas (doar papa Bonifaciu I).

Secolul al II-lea

Secolul al III-lea

Secolul al IV-lea

Note

Bibliografie
 Reardon, Wendy J. 2004. The Deaths of the Popes. Macfarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-7864-1527-4

Roma
Cimitire din Italia
Catacombe

Catacomba Sfântului Calixt


Nash Edgerton (Blacktown, Nueva Gales del Sur; 19 de enero de 1973) es un actor, doble y cineasta australiano más conocido por sus numerosas participaciones y apariciones como doble.

Biografía
Su madre es ama de casa y su padre, Michael es un abogado/promotor inmobiliario.

Su hermano mayor es el actor australiano Joel Edgerton, mundialmente conocido por su ya dilatada carrera en éxitos como el Gran Gatsby, Warrior, Animal Kingdom, el rey Arturo, Ases Calientes y la segunda trilogía de la Guerra de las Galaxias.

Es muy buen amigo de los actores Kieran Darcy-Smith, Luke Doolan y David Michod.

En 2004 salió con la actriz Radha Mitchell.

A finales de 2009 comenzó a salir con la actriz Teresa Palmer, pero la relación terminó en 2010.

Nash comenzó a salir con Carla Ruffino y la pareja se casó en abril de 2014 en una ceremonia realizada en una antigua cárcel en Sídney, Australia.

Carrera
Es miembro de la compañía "Blue-Tongue Films" junto a Joel Edgerton, Kieran Darcy-Smith, Luke Doolan y David Michod.

Desde 1993 Nash ha trabajado como doble en más de 102 películas.

En 2001 obtuvo un pequeño papel en la película Moulin Rouge, protagonizada por Ewan McGregor y Nicole Kidman.

En 2002 trabajó como el doble de Obi-Wan Kenobi interpretado por el actor Ewan McGregor en la aclamada y popular película Star Wars Episodio II: El ataque de los clones y en Star Wars: Episodio III - La venganza de los Sith. También ha trabajado como doble en películas como la trilogía de Matrix, The Thin Red Line, Superman Returns, entre otras...

En 2002 del video musical "Liar" del artista Eskimo Joe donde aparecieron los actores Damon Herriman, Kieran Darcy-Smith, Terry Serio, Tony Lynch y Justin Smith. Ese mismo año dirigió a Shihad en su video "Comfort Me"  donde apareció la actriz Emma Lung, al igual que dirigió al cantante Ben Lee en "Something Borrowed, Something Blue" donde apareció su hermano Joel Edgerton y Kestie Morassi.

En febrero de 2003, dirigió al grupo The Sleepy Jackson en su video musical "Good Dancers" donde aparecieron Dan Wyllie y Rita Kalnejais. En junio dirigió de nuevo a Ben Lee ahora en su video "Chills" donde sale la actriz Radha Mitchell. Más tarde en 2004 dirigió de nuevo a Eskimo ahora para su video "Older Than You" y en diciembre del mismo año dirigió otra vez a Ben Lee ahora para "Gamble Everything For Love" donde salió la actriz Penny McNamee.

Entre marzo de 2005 y julio de 2006, dirigió los videos musicales de 'Missy' Higgins's "The Special Two", Eskimo Joe's de la canción "Black Fingernails, Red Wine" y a Toni Collette's para "Beautiful Awkward Pictures" donde salió su hermano Joel.

En marzo de 2010 dirigió al grupo Empire Of The Sun en su video "Half Mast" donde apareció Teresa Palmer. En julio de ese mismo año, dirigió al cantante Brandon Flowers en su video musical "Crossfire" donde apareció la actriz Charlize Theron.

En 2012 apareció en la película Zero Dark Thirty donde interpretó a Nate, un miembro de la unidad antiterrorismo. En la película compartió créditos con los actores Mark Strong, Jessica Chastain y su hermano Joel Edgerton.

En marzo de 2016 se anunció que estaba trabajando en una película de comedia negra, donde aparecerá la actriz Thandie Newton.Nash Edgerton Pic Rounds Out Cast With Thandie Newton & More

Filmografía
 Películas.:

 Series de televisión.:

 Director de Videos Musicales.:

 Director, productor y escritor de cortometrajes/películas.:

Trabajo como doble

Premios y nominaciones

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Digital Spy > Celebrity News > Nash Edgerton
 Nash Edgerton on TV.com
 Nash Edgerton - zimbio

Actores de televisión de Australia

Nash Edgerton


Olaylar
 28 Kasım - Abbâsî isyancıları Kufe şehrine girerek Seffâh'ı halife ilân ettiler.

Doğumlar
 Muhammed bin Hasan eş-Şeybanî, Hanefi mezhebinin Ebu Hanife'den sonraki en ünlü iki bilgininden birisi (ö. 805)

Ölümler
 4 Aralık - Aziz İoannis, Suriyeli Hristiyan azizi, kilise babası ve teolog (d. 676)

749


Lupato o Lupario fue obispo de Orense a finales del .

La única noticia conocida acerca de su persona es su nombre, que consta en las actas del III Concilio de Toledo celebrado en el año 589 en tiempos del rey Recaredo; no asistió personalmente, estando representado por el arcipreste Hildemiro.

Referencias

Obispos de Orense
Obispos de España del siglo VI
Hispania visigoda

Lupato


Alt Mölln Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Herzogtum Lauenburg iline bağlı bölge. 6,44 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 31 Aralık 2015 itibarıyla 896 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Belediye Başkanlığı Ina Burmester tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 www.amt-breitenfelde.de

Herzogtum Lauenburg iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Alt Mölln


Raux ist der Familienname folgender Personen:
 Corinne Raux (* 1976), französische Leichtathletin
 Damien Raux (* 1984), französischer Eishockeyspieler

Siehe auch:
 Reaux

Raux


Før og nu er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1948.

Handling
Filmen agiterer for andelstanken og i særdeleshed for Jydsk Andels Foderstofforretning.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Værker om andelsbevægelsen
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1948

Før og nu


هو أبو أورخان الزعيم الركن صالح زكي الطائي، ضابط عسكري عراقي ولد في نهاية القرن 19 في مدينة الموصل، وبها نشأ وتعلم القرآن وهو صغير، ودرس في مدارسها وبعد حصولهِ على شهادة الإعدادية سافر إلى إسطنبول ودخل المدرسة الحربية وتخرج ضابطا، وعند انتهاء الحرب العالمية الأولى وزوال حكم الدولة العثمانية في العراق وتأسيس المملكة العراقية ألتحق بالجيش العراقي عند تأسيسهِ، وكان هو من الضباط الأوائل من مؤسسي فوج موسى الكاظم، مع المقدم الحاج سري والد العقيد رفعت الحاج سري.

لقد كان صالح زكي مرافقاً للملك غازي الأول وتدرج في مراكز الجيش حتى بلغ رتبة زعيم ركن، وآخر منصب لهُ كان مدير إدارة الجيش العراقي، ولكن بعد أحداث ثورة رشيد عالي الكيلاني في مايس 1941م، أحيل على التقاعد مع مجموعة من الضباط، واعتقل مدة ثم أطلق سراحه، وفي أواخر حياته أفتتح دكاناً في سوق الأعظمية يبيع فيها المواد الغذائية.

وفاته
توفي الزعيم الركن صالح زكي في يوم 11 شعبان 1386 هـ/ 25 تشرين الثاني 1966م، وشيع بموكب كبير من داره لغاية مبنى جامع الإمام الأعظم، وتم دفنه في مقبرة الخيزران في الأعظمية.

مصادر

أشخاص من الموصل
أشخاص من بغداد
بنو طيء
صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الولادة
عسكريون عراقيون
مدفونون في مقبرة الخيزران
مواليد عقد 1890
وفيات 1386 هـ
وفيات 1966

صالح زكي الطائي


Omar Daf (Dakar, Senegal, 12 de febrero de 1977), es un exfutbolista y entrenador senegalés. Se desempeñó como defensa y lateral, su último club como jugador fue el FC Sochaux de Francia. También posee pasaporte francés. Actualmente dirige al Amiens SC de la Ligue 2 de Francia.

Clubes

Como jugador

Como entrenador

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Ficha en ceroacero.es

Dakarenses
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Senegal
Futbolistas de Senegal en la Copa Mundial de 2002
Futbolistas nacionalizados en Francia
Futbolistas del Football Club Sochaux-Montbéliard
Futbolistas del Stade Brestois 29
Franco-senegaleses

Omar Daf


«سبينينغ أراوند»  هي أغنية للفنانة الأسترالية كايلي مينوغ، من ألبومها السابع لايت ييرز (2000). وهي من تأليف آيرا شيكمان، أوزبورن بينغهام، كارا دايوجاردي، باولا عبدول، وكان من المفترض في البداية أن تقوم عبدول بتسجيلها على ألبومها الخاص، ولكن تم منح الأغنية لمينوغ بعد أن ألغي الألبوم. وهي من إنتاج مايك سبنسر. أغنية هي من صنف بوب الرقص مع مؤثرات ديسكو وأصدرت في 19 يونيو 2000 بوصفها المنفردة الرئيسية من الألبوم. تتناول كلمات الأغنية موضوع التجديد، حيث تزعم مينوغ أنها تغيرت كشخص وتعلمت من الماضي.

تلقت الأغنية مراجعات إيجابية من نقاد الموسيقى فور صدورها، والذين أشادوا بعودة مينوغ إلى النمط الموسيقي الذي عرفت به. ومن الناحية التجارية، حققت الأغنية النجاح ومثلت «عودة» مينوغ بعد خيبة أمل النقاد والجمهور في ألبومها السادس إمبوسيبل برينسس (1997). وتصدرت قائمة الأغاني الاسترالية منذ الأسبوع الأول، لتصبح أول أغنية لها تتصدر القائمة منذ «كونفايد إن مي» (1994). كما تصدرت القائمة في المملكة المتحدة منذ الأسبوع الأول أيضا، حيث أصبحت أول أغنية لها تتصدر القائمة منذ «تيرز أون ماي بيلو» في عام 1990. من جهة أخرى، وصلت الأغنية إلى المراكز الخمسة الأوائل في أيرلندا ونيوزيلندا. تلقت الأغنية تصنيف البلاتين في أستراليا والفضة في المملكة المتحدة.

تم إخراج فيديو كليب الأغنية من قبل دون شادفورث، وتظهر مينوغ وهي ترقص وتستمتع بوقتها في ملهى ليلي. كما اشتهرت بالسروال الذهبي القصير الذي لبسته في معظم المشاهد، ما جعل مؤخرتها تحظى بتغطية واسعة من وسائل الإعلام. واعتبر هذا السروال القصير «أيقونة» في مسيرتها، وقد عرض في معارض أزياء مينوغ. أدت مينوغ الأغنية في جميع جولاتها، مع استثناء جولة أنتي تور.

مراجع

أغان منفردة حققت المركز الأول في أستراليا
أغان منفردة حققت المركز الأول في إسكتلندا
أغان منفردة حققت المركز الأول في المجر
أغان منفردة حققت المركز الأول في المملكة المتحدة
أغان منفردة في 2000
أغاني 2000
أغاني ديسكو
أغاني رقص البوب
أغاني كايلي مينوغ

سبينينغ أراوند


بطولة أستراليا المفتوحة عام 1972 بطولة تنس تُلعب على الملاعب العشبية في ملعب كويونغ في ملبورن بأستراليا وأقيمت في الفترة من 26 ديسمبر 1971 إلى 3 يناير 1972. وكانت هذه هي النسخة الستون لبطولة أستراليا المفتوحة وأول بطولة جراند سلام لذلك العام.

النهائيات

فردي رجال

كين روزوال () هزم مال أندرسون (), 7-6, 6-3, 7-5

فردي سيدات
فيرجينيا ويد () هزم إيفون غولاغونغ (), 6-4, 6-4

مراجع

أحداث ديسمبر 1971 الرياضية في أستراليا
أحداث ديسمبر 1971 الرياضية في أوقيانوسيا
أحداث يناير 1972 الرياضية في أستراليا
أحداث يناير 1972 الرياضية في أوقيانوسيا
بطولات أستراليا المفتوحة حسب السنة
ملبورن في عقد 1970
كرة مضرب أسترالية في 1971
كرة مضرب أسترالية في 1972

أستراليا المفتوحة 1972


Heinz Kunert (* 25. März 1927 in Sarnau (Kreis Oppeln/Provinz Oberschlesien, heute Polen); † 6. April 2012 in Köln) war ein deutscher Erfinder und Experte für Verkehrssicherheit. Zu seinen zahlreichen Erfindungen zählen die heizbare Heckscheibe und die außenhautbündige Autoverglasung (Extrusion). Mehr als 50 Patente, Entwicklungen und Produktverbesserungen in den Bereichen Fahrzeugverglasung sowie Verletzungsschutz gehen auf ihn zurück.

Leben
Im Jahre 1948 begann Heinz Kunert ein Studium der Philosophie, Psychologie und Physik an der Bonner Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universität, das er 1953 mit dem Dr. phil. summa cum laude abschloss. Danach schrieb er sich für Volkswirtschaft und Soziologie an der Universität Köln ein. Von 1951 bis 1954 war er Wissenschaftlicher Assistent in der damaligen Beratungs- und Forschungsstelle für Verkehrssicherheit des Ministeriums für Wirtschaft und Verkehr in Nordrhein-Westfalen tätig, wo er Forschungs- und Untersuchungsaufträge für das Bundesverkehrsministerium durchführte. Im Auftrag des Auswärtigen Amtes, besuchte er 1954 für sechs Monate Südafrika.

Von 1955 bis 1957 ging er einer freiberuflichen Tätigkeit nach, deren Schwerpunkt die Durchführung von Forschungsaufträgen für Bundes- und Landesverkehrsbehörden war. 1957 begann Kunerts Tätigkeit bei der Kölner Sekurit Glas-Union GmbH, wo ihm der Aufstieg vom Mitarbeiter zum Geschäftsführer in den Bereichen Technik, Produktentwicklung, Presse und Öffentlichkeitsarbeit gelang. Nach über 20-jähriger Tätigkeit im Unternehmen wurde er 1992 in den Ruhestand verabschiedet.

Kunert starb 2012 im Alter von 85 Jahren und wurde auf dem Kölner Melaten-Friedhof beerdigt.

Patente und Erfindungen
 Erfinder der heizbaren Auto-Heckscheibe
 Erfinder des "Kölner Lichtschreibers" (Betätigung einer Schreibmaschine durch Kopfbewegung für Körperbehinderte)
 Erfinder der rahmenlosen Automobilverglasung und zweistufigen Verklebungstechnik
 Kölner Solar-Dioden-Fenster
 Photovoltaische Kraft-Wärmekopplung

Weblinks
 Stefan Wimmelbücker: Erfinder der heizbaren Heckscheibe gestorben. Meldung in der Automobilwoche vom 13. April 2012.

Einzelnachweise

Erfinder
Deutscher
Geboren 1927
Gestorben 2012
Mann

Heinz Kunert


Matabeleland Kuzey, Afrika ülkesi Zimbabve'nin toplamda var olan on ilinden bir tanesidir.

Coğrafya
Matabeleland Kuzey ili doğuda Midlands, kuzeydoğuda Mashonaland Batı, güneyde Bulawayo ve Matabeleland Güney, kuzeyde Zambiya, batıda ise Botsvana ile komşu konumundadır. Ülkenin ve böylelikle de ilin kuzeybatıda Namibya ile olan 100 m sınır çizgisi tartışmalıdır. Dünya üzerindeki tek dörtgen sınır bölgesi olan ve söz konusu sınıra bağlantısı olan Botsvana, Zambiya, Zimbabve ve Namibya ülkelerinin sınır anlaşmaları ile sınırlarına karşılıklı olarak resmiyet kazandırmadıkları için kabul görmeyen bir sınır noktası konumunda olan bu bölge belirsizliğini korumaktadır.

Nüfus
İl genelinde 2012 resmî nüfus sayım sonuçlarına göre 749,017 kişi yaşamaktadır.

İdarî yapılanma

Lupane şehri ilin idarî başkenti konumunda olup, il kendi içerisinde altı ilçeye ayrılmış durumdadır. Bu ilçeler şu şekilde sıralanmkatadır:

 Binga
 Bubi
 Hwange
 Lupane
 Nkayi
 Tsholotsho
 Umguza

Ayrıca bakınız
 Matabeleland Zambezi Su Projesi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
Zimbabve nüfus bilgileri

Matabeleland Kuzey


Martin Su Yao-wen (chinês 蘇耀文 Sū Yàowén; Kaohsiung, 9 de novembro de 1959) é um padre taiwanês e bispo de Taichung.

Martin Su Yao-wen foi ordenado sacerdote em 8 de junho de 1989.

Papa Bento XVI nomeou-o bispo de Taichung em 25 de junho de 2007. O ex-bispo de Taichung, Joseph Wang Yu-jung, consagrou-o bispo em 25 de setembro do mesmo ano; Os co-consagradores foram James Liu Tan-kuei, Bispo Emérito de Hsinchu, e Peter Liu Cheng-chung, Arcebispo ad personam de Kaohsiung.

Ver também

Bispos católicos de Taiwan

Martin Su Yao-wen