The Junkers Ju 88 is a German World War II Luftwaffe twin-engined multirole combat aircraft. Junkers Aircraft and Motor Works (JFM) designed the plane in the mid-1930s as a so-called Schnellbomber ("fast bomber") that would be too fast for fighters of its era to intercept. It suffered from technical problems during its development and early operational periods but became one of the most versatile combat aircraft of the war. Like a number of other Luftwaffe bombers, it served as a bomber, dive bomber, night fighter, torpedo bomber, reconnaissance aircraft, heavy fighter and at the end of the war, as a flying bomb.

Despite a protracted development, it became one of the Luftwaffes most important aircraft. The assembly line ran constantly from 1936 to 1945 and more than 15,000 Ju 88s were built in dozens of variants, making it the second-most produced bomber of all time, behind the four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator, and the most-produced twin-engine German aircraft of the period. Throughout production the basic structure of the aircraft remained unchanged.

Design and development

In August 1935, the German Ministry of Aviation submitted its requirements for an unarmed, three-seat, high-speed bomber with a payload of . Design of the Ju 88 began with a study (EF59) which evolved into two parallel designs, Ju 85 and Ju 88. The Ju 85 was a twin-engined bomber aircraft prototype, designed by Junkers in 1935. The Ministry of Aviation requested the aircraft, which differed from the Ju 88 due to the use of a twin fin tail unit. The aircraft was never put into service.

Design was initiated by Junkers chief designer Ernst Zindel. He was assisted by Wilhelm Heinrich Evers and American engineer Alfred Gassner. Evers and Gassner had worked together at Fokker Aircraft Corporation of America where Gassner had been Chief Engineer. Junkers presented their initial design in June 1936, and were given clearance to build two prototypes (Werknummer 4941 and 4942). The first two aircraft were to have a range of  and were to be powered by two DB 600s. Three further aircraft, Werknummer 4943, 4944 and 4945, were to be powered by Jumo 211 engines. The first two prototypes, Ju 88 V1 and V2, differed from the V3, V4 and V5 in that the latter three models were equipped with three defensive armament positions to the rear of the cockpit, and were able to carry two  bombs, one under each inner wing panel.

The aircraft's first flight was made by the prototype Ju 88 V1, which bore the civil registration D-AQEN, on 21 December 1936. When it first flew, it managed about  and Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, was ecstatic. It was an aircraft that could finally fulfil the promise of the Schnellbomber, a high-speed bomber. The streamlined fuselage was modeled after its contemporary, the Dornier Do 17, but with fewer defensive guns because the belief still held that it could outrun late 1930s-era fighters. The fifth prototype set a  closed-circuit record in March 1939, carrying a  payload at a speed of .

The first five prototypes had conventionally-operating dual-strut leg rearwards-retracting main gear, but starting with the V6 prototype, a main gear design debuted that twisted the new, single-leg main gear strut through 90° during the retraction sequence, much like that of the American Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter. This feature allowed the main wheels to end up above the lower end of the strut when fully retracted and was adopted as standard for all future production Ju 88s, and only minimally modified for the later Ju 188 and 388 developments of it. These single-leg landing gear struts also made use of stacks of conical Belleville washers inside them as their main form of suspension for takeoffs and landings.

By 1938, radical modifications from the first prototype began to produce a "heavy" dive bomber. The wings were strengthened, dive brakes were added, the fuselage was extended and the number of crewmen was increased to four. Due to these advances, the Ju 88 was to enter the war as a medium bomber.

The choice of annular radiators for engine cooling on the Ju 88, which placed these radiators immediately forward of each engine and directly behind each propeller, allowed the cooling lines for the engine coolant and oil-cooling radiators (integrated within the annular design) to be as short as possible, with integral port and starboard air intakes for cooling the exhaust headers, the starboard inlet also supplying the inlet air for the supercharger.

As the outbreak of WW II in Europe approached, by the time Luftwaffe planners like Ernst Udet had their opportunities to have their own "pet" features added (including dive-bombing by Udet), the Ju 88's top speed had dropped to around . The Ju 88 V7 was fitted with cable-cutting equipment to combat the potential threat of British barrage balloons, and was successfully tested in this role. The V7 then had the Ju 88 A-1 "beetle's eye" faceted nose glazing installed, complete with the Bola undernose ventral defensive machine gun emplacement, and was put through a series of dive-bombing tests with  bombs, and in early 1940, with  bombs. The Ju 88 V8 (Stammkennzeichen of DG+BF, Wrk Nr 4948) flew on October 3, 1938. The A-0 series was developed through the V9 and V10 prototypes. The A-1 series prototypes were Wrk Nrs 0003, 0004 and 0005. The A-1s were given the Jumo 211B-1 or G powerplants.

Dr. Heinrich Koppenberg (managing director of Jumo) assured Göring in the autumn of 1938 that 300 Ju 88s per month was definitely possible. Göring was in favour of the A-1 variant for mass production.

Production was delayed drastically by developmental problems. Although planned for a service introduction in 1938, the Ju 88 finally entered squadron service (with only 12 aircraft) on the first day of the invasion of Poland in 1939. Production was painfully slow, with only one Ju 88 manufactured per week, as problems kept cropping up. The Ju 88C series of heavy fighter was also designed very early in 1940, but kept secret from Göring, as he wanted only bombers.

Dive bomber

In October 1937 Generalluftzeugmeister Ernst Udet had ordered the development of the Ju 88 as a heavy dive bomber. This decision was influenced by the success of the Ju 87 Stuka in this role. The Junkers development centre at Dessau gave priority to the study of pull-out systems and dive brakes.
The first prototype to be tested as a dive bomber was the Ju 88 V4 followed by the V5 and V6. These models became the planned prototype for the A-1 series. The V5 made its maiden flight on 13 April 1938, and the V6 on 28 June 1938. Both the V5 and V6 were fitted with four-blade propellers, an extra bomb bay and a central "control system".
As a dive bomber, the Ju 88 was capable of pinpoint deliveries of heavy loads; however, despite all the modifications, dive bombing still proved too stressful for the airframe, and in 1943, tactics were changed so that bombs were delivered from a shallower, 45° diving angle. Aircraft and bomb sights were accordingly modified and dive brakes were removed. With an advanced Stuvi dive-bombsight, accuracy remained very good for its time. Maximum bomb load of the A-4 was , but in practice, standard bomb load was . Junkers later used the A-4 airframe for the A-17 torpedo carrier, which did not have the undernose Bola gondola for a ventral gun position.

Fighter-bomber
The Ju 88C series of standard fighter-bomber versions from the C-2 onwards culminated in the Ju 88 C-6, applying experience acquired with the A-4 bomber, equipped with the same Jumo 211J engines but replacing the "beetle's eye" nose glazing with a smoothly curved all-metal nose, pierced only by the barrels of its forward-firing offensive armament. The C-6 was used mostly as fighter-bomber and therefore assigned to bomber units. As a reaction to the increasing number of attacks on German shipping, especially on U-boats in the Bay of Biscay, from July 1942 it started flying anti-shipping patrols and escort missions from bases in France. V./Kampfgeschwader 40 being formed to operate the C-6.

The aircraft of V./KG 40 (which was redesignated I./Zerstörergeschwader 1 in 1943) were a significant threat to antisubmarine aircraft and operated as escort fighters for the more vulnerable Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor maritime patrol bombers. Between July 1942 and July 1944, the Ju 88s of KG 40 and ZG 1 were credited with 109 confirmed air-to-air victories, at a cost of 117 losses. They were finally deployed against the Allied Invasion of Normandy in June 1944, incurring heavy losses for little effect before being disbanded on 5 August 1944. Some Ju 88 variants were also used as radio controlled bombs in the Mistel composite aircraft configuration, by coupling a bomber filled with explosive with a fighter such as the Focke-Wulf Fw 56 or the Messerschmitt Bf 109E.

Attack bomber

The Ju 88P was a specialized variant for ground attack and to function as a bomber destroyer, designed starting from 1942 and produced in small numbers, using examples of the Bordkanone heavy calibre aviation autocannon series, which required the omission of the Bola undernose gondola for clearance. The prototype, derived from a standard Ju 88 A-4, was armed with a  anti-tank gun derived from the 7.5 cm PaK 40 installed in a large conformal gun pod under the fuselage. This was followed by a small batch of Ju 88 P-1, which standardized the solid sheet metal nose of the C version for all known examples of the P-series, and used the new 7.5 cm PaK 40L semi-automatic gun, also known as the Bordkanone BK 7,5, which was also meant for use in both the later Henschel Hs 129B-3 dedicated anti-armor aircraft, and a never-achieved production version of the He 177A-3/R5 ground-attack Flak-suppression Stalingradtyp field-improvised version. The Ju 88P-1 was produced in some 40 units, but with the massive cannon installation resulting in a slow and vulnerable aircraft, it was soon replaced by the Ju 88 P-2, featuring two Bordkanone  BK 3,7 guns, whose higher muzzle velocity proved useful against the Russian tanks in the Eastern Front. This aircraft was used by Erprobungskommando 25. The Ju 88 P-3 also used the twin BK 3,7 guns, and added further armor for the crew, and was delivered at one Staffel of the Nachtschlachtgruppen 1, 2, 4, 8 and 9 for night attacks in the Eastern Front, in northern Norway (NSGr 8) and Italy (NSGr 9). Finally, the Ju 88 P-4 mounted a smaller-volume ventral gun pod housing a  auto-loading Bordkanone BK 5 cannon (the same ordnance used for the field-improvised handful of Stalingradtyp He 177As created) and, in some cases,  solid propellant rockets.

Heavy fighter and night fighter

Ju 88C

The Ju 88C was originally intended as a fighter-bomber and heavy fighter by adding fixed, forward-firing guns to the nose while retaining some bomb carrying ability of the A-series bomber. The C-series had a solid metal nose, typically housing one  MG FF cannon and three  MG 17 machine guns. The aircraft retained the ventral Bola gondola under the crew compartment though individual units sometimes removed this to reduce weight and drag to enhance performance. The Ju 88C was later used as a night fighter, and this became its main role.

The first version of the Ju 88C was the C-1 with 20 aircraft converted from A-1 airframes. Some of them entered service in the Zerstörerstaffel of KG 30 which became part of II./NJG 1 in July 1940. The C-1 was followed by the C-2 of which 20 aircraft were converted from A-5 airframes with enlarged wingspan. The C-4 became the first production version with 60 produced and 60 converted from A-5 airframes. The C-6, of which 900 aircraft were produced, was based on the A-4 airframe with more powerful engines and stronger defensive armament (single- or dual-mount belt-fed  MG 81 or  MG 131 instead of drum-fed MG 15 machine guns).

The C-6 as night fighter was typically equipped with FuG 202 Lichtenstein BC low-UHF band airborne intercept radar, using the complex 32-dipole Matratze antennas. The first four C-6 night fighters were tested in early 1942 by NJG 2. The trials were successful and the aircraft was ordered into production. In October 1943, many C-6s were upgraded with new radar systems. The first new radar equipment was the FuG 212 Lichtenstein C-1. After the UHF-band Lichtenstein radars had been compromised to the Allies in the late spring of 1943, the next development in German AI radar was the VHF-band FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2, discarding the 32-dipole Matratze antennae for the much larger eight-dipole Hirschgeweih (stag's antlers) aerials, required for the longer wavelength SN-2 system.

Many Ju 88C's had their Bola gondolas modified to hold up to two forward firing  cannons. Several C-6 night fighters were equipped with two "Schräge-Musik" upward-firing 20 mm cannons in trial fittings, and from mid 1943 onward, there was an official field modification kit available for this arrangement.

A small number of the C-series day fighters had their new solid-metal noses specially painted to resemble the bomber A-series' "beetle's eye" faceted clear view nose glazing, in an attempt to deceive Allied pilots into thinking the fighters were actually bombers; the unusual "camouflage" attempt did result initially in a number of Allied aerial losses.

Ju 88R

The Ju 88R series night fighters were basically versions of the Ju 88 C-6, powered by unitized BMW 801 radial engines. The R-1 had  BMW 801L engines and the R-2 had  BMW 801 G-2 engines.

One of the first aircraft from the R-1 series that went into service (Werknummer 360 043) was involved in one of the most significant defections from the Luftwaffe. On 9 May 1943, this night fighter (D5+EV), which was stationed with 10./NJG 3 in Aalborg Denmark, flew to the RAF Station at Dyce (now Aberdeen Airport) with its entire crew and complete electronic equipment on board. The fact that Spitfire Vb fighters No.165 (Ceylon) Squadron escorted it towards the end of its flight could indicate that its arrival had been expected. It was immediately transferred to Farnborough Airfield, received RAF markings and serial number PJ876, and was tested in great detail. The preserved aircraft is on exhibit at the RAF Museum, as one of the first two intact Ju 88s in aviation museums. The Luftwaffe learned of this defection only the following month when members of the crew, pilot Oberleutnant Heinrich Schmitt (son of the former secretary to the ministry for foreign affairs (1923–1929) Gustav Stresemann) and Oberfeldwebel Paul Rosenberger made broadcasts on British radio.  The third crew-member, Erich Kantwill, refused to co-operate with the British and was treated as a normal prisoner-of-war.

Ju 88G
All previous night fighter versions of the Ju 88 used a modified A-series fuselage. The G-series fuselage was purpose-built for the special needs of a night fighter, with the A-series' Bola ventral under-nose defensive gun position omitted for lower aerodynamic drag and less weight, and adding the enlarged squared-off vertical fin/rudder tail unit of the Ju 188. G-1 aircraft possessed more powerful armament and like the earlier R-1, used a pair of  BMW 801 radial engines, the G-1 using the later BMW 801G-2 version. Electronic equipment consisted of the then-standard FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2 90 MHz VHF radar using eight-dipole Hirschgeweih antennas, which could include fitment of the borderline-SHF-band FuG 350 Naxos radar detector with its receiving antenna housed in a teardrop-shaped streamlined fairing above the canopy, or FuG 227 Flensburg radar detector homing devices that had their own trio of twin-dipole antennae: one on each wing leading edge and one under the tail. One Ju 88G-1 of 7. Staffel/NJG 2 was flown by mistake to RAF Woodbridge in July 1944, giving the Royal Air Force its first chance to check out the VHF-band Lichtenstein SN-2 radar and Flensburg radar detector gear.

G-6 versions were equipped with  Jumo 213A inverted V-12 engines (using the same redesigned annular radiator cores as the Ju 188s powered by them), enlarged fuel tanks and often one or two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons in a Schräge Musik ("Jazz Music", i.e. slanted) installation. These guns were pointed obliquely upwards and forwards from the upper fuselage – usually at an angle of 70°.

Some of the final G-series models received updates to the engines, using a pair of high-altitude Jumo 213E inverted V-12s with the same revised annular radiator design as the 213As already used, or to the radar, using the mid-VHF band FuG 218 Neptun AI radar with either the standardized Hirschgeweih aerials with shorter dipoles to suit the higher frequencies used, or more rarely the advanced Morgenstern 90° crossed-element, six-dipole Yagi-form antenna. Only a very few Ju 88G-6 night fighters were ever fitted with the semi-experimental FuG 240 Berlin N-1 cavity magnetron based, 3 GHz-band (centimetric) radar, whose dish antenna was housed in a smoothly contoured radome on the G-6's nose. Only about 15 of the Berlin systems were completed before V-E Day.

Many Luftwaffe night fighter aces, such as Helmut Lent (110 victories) and Heinrich Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein (87 victories) flew Ju 88s during their careers.

Operational history

Invasion of Poland
Only 12 Ju 88s saw action during the invasion of Poland. The unit Erprobungskommando 88 (Ekdo 88) was responsible for testing new bomber designs and their crews under hostile conditions. They selected 12 aircraft and their crews and attached them to 1./Kampfgeschwader 25. As a result of its small operational numbers, the type made no impact.

Battle of Norway
The Luftwaffe committed II./Kampfgeschwader 30 to the campaign under X. Fliegerkorps for Operation Weserübung. The unit was equipped with Ju 88s and engaged Allied shipping as its main target. On 9 April 1940, Ju 88s of KG 30 dive-bombed, in cooperation with high-level bombing Heinkel He 111s of KG 26, and helped damage the battleship  and sink the destroyer . However, the unit lost four Ju 88s in the action, the highest single loss of the aircraft in combat throughout the campaign.

Battle of France

The Luftwaffe's order of battle for the French campaign reveals all but one of the Luftwaffe's Fliegerkorps (I. Fliegerkorps) contained Ju 88s in the combat role.
The mixed bomber units, including the Ju 88, of Kampfgeschwader 51 (under the command of Luftflotte 3) helped claim between 233 and 248 Allied aircraft on the ground between 10 and 13 May 1940.
The Ju 88 was particularly effective at dive-bombing. Between 13 and 24 May, I. and II./KG 54 flew 174 attack against rail systems, paralysing French logistics and mobility.
On 17 June 1940, Junkers Ju 88s (mainly from Kampfgeschwader 30) destroyed a "10,000 tonne ship", the 16,243 grt ocean liner , off Saint-Nazaire, killing some 5,800 Allied personnel.
Some 133 Ju 88s were pressed into the Blitzkrieg, but very high combat losses and accidents forced a quick withdrawal from action to re-train crews to fly this very high-performance aircraft. Some crews were reported to be more scared of the Ju 88 than the enemy, and requested a transfer to an He 111 unit. By this time, major performance deficiencies in the A-1 led to an all-out effort in a major design rework. The outcome was a longer,  wingspan, from extended rounded wing tips that had already been standardised on the A-4 version, that was deemed needed for all A-1s; thus the A-5 was born. Surviving A-1s were modified as quickly as possible, with new wings to A-5 specifications.

Battle of Britain

By August 1940, A-1s and A-5s were reaching operational units just as the battle was intensifying.

The Battle of Britain proved very costly. Its higher speed did not prevent Ju 88 losses from exceeding those of its Dornier Do 17 and Heinkel He 111 stablemates despite being deployed in smaller numbers than either. Ju 88 losses over Britain in 1940 totaled 303 aircraft between July and October 1940.
Do 17 and He 111 losses for the same period were 132 and 252 machines destroyed respectively.

Of all the losses suffered by the Ju 88 at that time, however, a number were due to the tricky behavior of the plane, especially when compared with the proven He 111, and to the crews' lack of experience on the type – many having converted to the Ju 88 only shortly before. Of the 39 losses recorded for July 1940, for example, only 20 were due to enemy action. The others being written off in training accidents, crashes, or malfunctions over mainland Europe. A series of field modifications were made to make the Ju 88 less vulnerable, including the replacement of the single MG 15 rear machine gun by a twin-barreled MG 81Z machine gun and the fitting of additional cockpit armour.

One incident involved ground fighting between the crew of an A-1 and soldiers from the London Irish Rifles during the Battle of Graveney Marsh on 27 September 1940. It was the last action between British and foreign military forces on British mainland soil.

The flagship Ju 88 A-4 went into service during the closing days of the Battle of Britain. Although slower than the A-1, it solved nearly all of the troubles of the A-1. The A-4 actually saw additional improvements including more powerful engines but, unlike other aircraft in the Luftwaffe, did not see a model code change. The Ju 88 C-series also benefited from the A-4 changes.

The Balkans and Greece
The Ju 88 was used by VIII Fliegerkorps during the German invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941. Ju 88s were also used during the German invasion of Greece (Operation Marita) in April 1941 and during the German invasion of Crete in May 1941. Following the Italian surrender in 1943 Ju 88s were also used during the German invasion of the Italian-held Dodecanese Islands, which took place between September and November 1943.

Eastern Front
By the summer of 1941, most of the units equipped with the Dornier Do 17 were upgrading to the Ju 88. With a few exceptions, most of the German bomber units were now flying the He 111 and Ju 88.
The Ju 88 was to prove a very capable and valuable asset to the Luftwaffe in the east. The Ju 88 units met with instant success, attacking enemy airfields and positions at low level and causing enormous losses for little damage in return.
3./Kampfgeschwader 3 attacked Pinsk airfield in the morning of the 22 June 1941. It caught, and claimed destroyed, 60 Soviet bombers on the ground. The 39 SBAP Regiment of the 10 Division SAD actually lost 43 Tupolev SBa and five Petlyakov Pe-2s. Ju 88s from Kampfgeschwader 51 destroyed over 100 aircraft after dispatching 80 Ju 88s to hit airfields. In general the Soviet aircraft were not dispersed and the Luftwaffe found them easy targets.
A report from the Soviet 23rd Tank Division of the 12th Armoured Corps described a low-level attack by Ju 88s on 22 June, resulting in the loss of 40 tanks.
However, the Ju 88s were to suffer steady attritional losses. At 0415 on 22 June 1941, III./KG 51 attacked the airfield at Kurovitsa. Despite destroying 34 Polikarpov I-153s, the Ju 88s were intercepted by 66 ShAP I-153s. Six Ju 88s were shot down before the German fighter escort dealt with the threat. By the end of the first day of the campaign, Ju 88 losses amounted to 23 destroyed.

Due to the lack of sufficient numbers of Ju 87 Stukas, the Ju 88 was employed in the direct ground support role. This resulted in severe losses from ground fire. Kampfgeschwader 1, Kampfgeschwader 76 and Kampfgeschwader 77 reported the loss of 18 Ju 88s over enemy territory on 23 June.  and KG 77 reported the loss of a further four Ju 88s, of which 12 were 100% destroyed.

In the north, the VVS North-Western Front lost 465 aircraft on the ground, 148 of them bombers, to the Ju 88s of KG 1. A further 33 were damaged. Out of a total of 1,720 aircraft deployed by the VVS Northern Front on 22 June, it lost 890 and a further 187 suffered battle damage in eight days. The Ju 88s units helped virtually destroy Soviet airpower in the northern sector.

Again, the Ju 88 demonstrated its dive-bombing capability. Along with He 111s from KG 55, Ju 88s from KG 51 and 54 destroyed some 220 trucks and 40 tanks on 1 July, which helped repulse the Soviet South Western Front's offensive. The Ju 88s destroyed most rail links during interdiction missions in the area, allowing Panzergruppe 1 to maintain the pace of its advance.

Ju 88 units operating over the Baltic states during the battle for Estonia inflicted severe losses on Soviet shipping, with the same dive-bombing tactics used over Norway, France and Britain. KGr 806 sank the Soviet destroyer Karl Marx on 8 August 1941 in Loksa Bay Tallinn. On 28 August the Ju 88s had more success when KG 77 and KGr 806 sank the 2,026 grt steamer Vironia, the 2,317 grt Lucerne, the 1,423 grt Atis Kronvalds and the ice breaker Krišjānis Valdemārs (2,250 grt). The rest of the Soviet "fleet", were forced to change course. This took them through a heavily mined area. As a result, 21 Soviet warships, including five destroyers, struck mines and sank. On 29 August, the Ju 88s accounted for the transport ships Vtoraya Pyatiletka (3,974 grt), Kalpaks (2,190 grt) and Leningradsovet (1,270 grt) sunk. In addition, the ships Ivan Papanin, Saule, Kazakhstan and the Serp i Molot were damaged. Some 5,000 Soviet soldiers were lost.

The Mediterranean
Ju 88s first arrived in Sicily in 1940, from which they attacked allied shipping in the Mediterranean and took part in the bombing of Malta during the Siege of Malta.

North Africa
Ju 88s were used in the North African campaign, where they flew operations in support of the Axis forces in North Africa.

Italian Campaign
On 2 December 1943, 105 Ju 88 A-4s, armed with bombs and motobomba circling torpedoes, attacked the Allied-held port of Bari, Italy. The attacking force achieved complete surprise and sunk over 20 Allied ships in the overcrowded harbour, including the U.S. Liberty ship John Harvey, which was carrying mustard gas. About 1,000 people were killed and another 1,000 wounded; many fatalities and injuries were as a result of the release of mustard gas. The attacking force lost one aircraft; the Allies had not assigned any fighters to guard Bari as they thought the Luftwaffe incapable of striking in this strength at this stage of the war. The port was completely closed for three weeks from the damage of the raid, and only resumed full operation in February 1944.

Finnish Air Force

In April 1943, as Finland was fighting its Continuation War against the USSR, the Finnish Air Force bought 24 Ju 88s from Germany. The aircraft were used to equip No. 44 Sqn, which had previously operated Bristol Blenheims, but these were instead transferred to No. 42 Sqn. Due to the complexity of the Ju 88, the FAF spent most of 1943 training crews on the aircraft, and conducted only a handful of bombing missions. The most notable was a raid on the Lehto partisan village on 20 August 1943 (in which the whole squadron participated), and a raid on the Lavansaari air field (leaving seven Ju 88 damaged from forced landing in inclement weather). In the summer of 1943, the Finns noted stress damage on the wings. This had occurred when the aircraft were used in dive bombing. Restrictions followed: the dive brakes were removed and it was only allowed to dive at a 45-degree angle (compared to 60–80 degrees previously). In this way, they tried to spare the aircraft from unnecessary wear.

One of the more remarkable missions was a bombing raid on 9 March 1944 against Soviet Long Range Aviation bases near Leningrad, when the Finnish aircraft, including Ju 88s, followed Soviet bombers returning from a night raid on Tallinn, catching the Soviets unprepared and destroying many Soviet bombers and their fuel reserves, and a raid against the aerosledge base at Petsnajoki on 22 March 1944. The whole bomber regiment took part in the defence against the Soviets during the fourth strategic offensive. All aircraft flew several missions per day, day and night, when the weather permitted.

No. 44 Sqn was subordinated Lentoryhmä Sarko during the Lapland War (now against Germany), and the Ju 88s were used both for reconnaissance and bombing. The targets were mostly vehicle columns. Reconnaissance flights were also made over northern Norway. The last war mission was flown on 4 April 1945.

After the wars, Finland was prohibited from using bomber aircraft with internal bomb stores. Consequently, the Finnish Ju 88s were used for training until 1948. The aircraft were then scrapped over the following years. No Finnish Ju 88s have survived, but an engine is on display at the Central Finland Aviation Museum, and the frame structure of a German Ju 88 cockpit hood is preserved at the Finnish Aviation Museum in Vantaa.

Variants

Ju 88A
Main bomber type with Jumo 211 engines.
Ju 88 A-0
Pre-production aircraft.
Ju 88 A-1
Initial production variant.  Jumo 211B-1 engines
Ju 88 A-2
Jumo 211 G-1 engines.
Ju 88 A-3
Conversion trainer. Dual controls and throttles, various instruments duplicated.

Ju 88 A-4
Improved variant. Longer wingspan, due to redesigned wingtips. Stronger defensive armament. Power provided by Jumo 211 J-1 or J-2 engines producing , driving wooden bladed propellers. Reinforced undercarriage. Provision for four external bomb racks.
Ju 88 A-5.
This version actually predates the A-4. Earlier models of Ju 88 upgraded with longer wings and other equipment. Jumo 211B-1, G-1 or H-1 engines all rated at  for take-off.
Ju 88 A-6
Was equipped with a balloon cable fender. A counterweight was mounted in the rear fuselage. Extremely vulnerable to fighter interception, most reverted to the normal A-5 version, fender and counterweight removed.
Ju 88 A-7
Dual control trainer based on the A-5
Ju 88 A-8
This version had balloon cable cutting capabilities, crew reduced to three, Jumo 211F-1 engines
Ju 88 A-11
Factory built tropical version
Ju 88 A-12
Dual control trainer. Ventral gondola, dive brakes and all armament removed.
Ju 88 A-13
Low level assault version. Dive brakes and bomb sight removed. Additional armor for crew, engines and fuel tanks. Armament consisted of bombs and up to 16 MG 17 machine guns housed in gun pods.
Ju 88 A-14
An improved A-4 version, more armor for the crew, Kuto-Nase balloon cable cutters, MG FF cannon in the ventral gondola, bomb sight removed.
Ju 88 A-15
Based on the A-4, it featured an enlarged wooden bomb bay, capable of holding 3 tons of bombs. Ventral gondola removed, only two defensive MGs. It was rejected as the bomb bay "bulge" caused too much drag and a thus a reduction in speed.
Ju 88 A-16
Dual control trainer based on the A-14
Ju 88 A-17
Dedicated torpedo bomber, no ventral gondola. One PVC torpedo rack under each wing replaced the two bomb racks. A long housing on the starboard side of the nose contained the torpedo aiming mechanisms. Crew of three.

Ju 88B
Prototype with all-new fully glazed "stepless" crew compartment nose, developed into Junkers Ju 188.
Ju 88 B-0
10 pre-production aircraft with "stepless" fully glazed nose.

Ju 88C
Zerstörer, fighter-bomber and night fighter, based on A-series, but with sheet metal nose.
Ju 88 C-1
Heavy fighter, 20 converted from A-1, Jumo 211 engines
Ju 88 C-2
Heavy fighter, 20 converted from A-5
Ju 88 C-3
Heavy fighter with BMW engines, none built
Ju 88 C-4
Heavy fighter, reconnaissance variant, based on A-5. 60 built and 60 converted from A-5
Ju 88 C-5
Heavy fighter, like C-4 but with BMW 801 engines, up to four converted
Ju 88 C-6
Heavy fighter and Night fighter, based on A-4, Jumo 211J engines with , 900 built

Ju 88D

Long-range photo-reconnaissance variants, based on the Ju 88 A-4/A-5.
Ju 88 D-1
Long-range photo-reconnaissance variant based on Ju 88 A-4.
Ju 88 D-2
Long-range photo-reconnaissance variant based on Ju 88 A-5.
Ju 88 D-3
Tropicalized D-1.
Ju 88 D-4
Tropicalized D-2.
Ju 88 D-5
as D-1 but with VDM metal propellers instead of Junkers wooden propellers

Ju 88G
Night fighter, new fuselage with A-series' ventral Bola (Bodenlafette) gondola omitted, tail section from Ju 188, aerodynamically improved conformal gun pod for a quartet of forward-firing  calibre, MG 151/20 autocannons below the former bomb bay.
Ju 88 G-1
BMW 801 radial engines with , FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2 radar
Ju 88 G-6
Junkers Jumo 213A inverted V12 engines with , used either FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2 90 MHz or FuG 218 Neptun 158/187 MHz frequency radar, either with the usual Hirschgeweih eight-dipole aerial setup or experimentally with the more aerodynamic Morgernstern tripled crossed-dipole aerials. Some very-late-war aircraft equipped with experimental FuG 240 Berlin cavity magnetron based 3 GHz radar, with dish antenna in bulbous solid nose. Optional with Schräge Musik upward firing guns with two  guns.
Ju 88 G-7
Identical to G-6, but with Jumo 213E high-altitude engines, planned for use with FuG 218/220 with Morgenstern array or FuG 240. The G-7 was also to be installed with wings from the Junkers Ju 188.
 Ju 88G-3, 4 and 8 not produced.

Ju 88H
Long-range photo-reconnaissance, fighter variants, based on the stretched Ju 88G-series fuselage.
Ju 88 H-1
Long-range maritime reconnaissance variant, equipped with a FuG 200 Hohentwiel radar and a trio of remotely controlled cameras in the aft fuselage.
Ju 88 H-2
Fighter variant intended to attack Allied long range convoy escort aircraft armed with six Forward firing MG 151/20.
Ju 88 H-3
Ultra-long-range maritime reconnaissance variant similar to H-1.
Ju 88 H-4
Destroyer variant.

Ju 88P
Anti-tank and bomber destroyer variant with single Bordkanone series , , or twin  calibre cannon in conformal ventral fuselage gun pod mount, which mandated removal of the Bola gondola under the cockpit section, conversion of A-series bomber. Produced in small series only, they were perceived as a failure for both anti-tank and anti-bomber use.
Ju 88 P-1
Heavy-gun variant fitted with single  Bordkanone BK 7,5 cannon in ventral gun pod. Appeared in mid-1942 in small numbers.
Ju 88 P-2
Heavy-gun variant with twin  Bordkanone BK 37 cannon in ventral gun pod.
Ju 88 P-3
Heavy-gun variant with twin  Bordkanone BK 37 cannon in ventral gun pod, and additional armor.
Ju 88 P-4
Heavy-gun variant with single  Bordkanone BK 5 cannon in ventral gun pod. There were 32 built.
Ju 88 P-5
Proposed heavy-gun variant with single , none known to have ever been built.

Ju 88R
C-series night fighters with BMW 801 engines.

Ju 88S
High-speed bomber series based on Ju 88 A-4 but with ventral Bola gondola omitted, smoothly glazed nose with radial-ribbed supports instead of the "beetle's eye" of the A-version, and GM-1 nitrous-oxide boost, fastest of all variants.
Ju 88 S-0
Fitted with two BMW 801 G-2 engines, single  dorsal gun and 14 SD65  bombs.
Ju 88 S-1
Fitted with two BMW 801 G-2 engines, the GM-1 boost system and could carry two SD1000  bombs externally.
Ju 88 S-2
Fitted with two turbocharged BMW 801J engines, wooden bomb bay extension as used on the Ju 88 A-15.
Ju 88 S-3
Fitted with two  Jumo 213A engines and GM-1 boost system.

Ju 88T
Three-seat photo-reconnaissance version of S-series.
Ju 88 T-1
Based on the Ju 88 S-1 but with bomb bays fitted for extra fuel or GM-1 tanks.
Ju 88 T-3
Based on the Ju 88 S-3.

Operators

Finnish Air Force received 24 Ju 88 A-4 aircraft.
No. 44 Squadron

French Air Force operated aircraft captured in Toulouse repair depot and other captured by the RAF and USAAF handed over to the French.
French Navy (Postwar)

 Luftwaffe

Royal Hungarian Air Force

Regia Aeronautica

Royal Romanian Air Force

Royal Air Force
No. 1426 Flight RAF operated at least five captured aircraft.

Soviet Air Force bought three Ju 88A-1 for evaluation in 1940 and operated captured aircraft.

Spanish Air Force bought ten aircraft and put into service another 15 interned during the war.

Surviving aircraft
Only two complete aircraft exist. They were both flown into British hands by defecting crews during the war.

Ju 88 D-1/Trop, Werk Nr. 430650
This is a long-range, photographic reconnaissance aircraft that was in the service of the Royal Romanian Air Force. On 22 July 1943, it was flown from Mariupol, Ukraine, to Cyprus by a Romanian pilot who wanted to defect to the Allied side. His original intention had been to fly to Syria, but strong winds blew him off-course. Four RAF Hawker Hurricanes intercepted the aircraft and escorted it to a landing at Limassol.

Given the name Baksheesh, it was allocated the RAF serial number HK959 and test–flown in Egypt. However, by this point in the war, the RAF had already acquired three Ju 88s in flying condition and "Baksheesh" was handed over to the U.S. Army Air Forces. The aircraft was fitted with additional external fuel tanks, then flown across Africa to Nigeria, across the South Atlantic to Brazil, via Ascension Island. Then finally across the Caribbean to Florida.

In the US, it was registered as FE-1598 and used for examination and test flying from 1943 to 1944 at Wright Field. In 1946 the aircraft was placed in storage at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Arizona. It was shipped to the US Air Force Museum on 6 January 1960. It was previously painted in spurious Luftwaffe markings, appropriately of a German WW II Aufklärungsgruppe (reconnaissance group) while on unrestored, outdoor display; however it is presently finished in its original-style Romanian military insignia and is on protected indoor display in the World War II Gallery at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio.

Ju 88 R-1, Werk Nr. 360043
This aircraft is thought to have been built in mid–1942 as a model A bomber, before being converted to a model R–1 fighter in early 1943. It was flown to Scotland by its defecting crew in May 1943; two of the three crew on board (who may have been British agents) had taken the decision to defect after being ordered to shoot down a civilian BOAC Mosquito courier flight from Sweden to the UK.

The aircraft took off from Aalborg, Denmark on 9 May, landing at Kristiansand, Norway for refuelling, it then took off again, supposedly for a mission over the Skagerrak. The defecting crew instead flew west to Scotland while holding the third crewmember at gunpoint. The aircraft was detected by British radar as it approached the Scottish coast and two Spitfires from 165 Squadron were scrambled. They intercepted 360043 one mile inland, whereupon the Ju 88 lowered its undercarriage, dipped its wings and dropped flares, signalling the crew's intent to surrender. The Spitfires escorted 360043 to RAF Dyce, where it received slight damage from the airfield's anti-aircraft guns while attempting to land. The Spitfire pilots (an American and a Canadian) were mentioned in dispatches for taking the risk not to open fire on the Ju 88 upon interception.
The surrender of this aircraft was of great intelligence value at the time, as it was fitted with the latest UHF-band FuG 202 Liechtenstein BC A.I radar, for which a new form of the Window radar interference method, set up for UHF-band airborne radar jamming, was developed soon afterwards. The Ju 88R-1 was operated by the RAF's No. 1426 (Enemy Aircraft) Flight and evaluated in depth by various British groups, including the Royal Aircraft Establishment and the Fighter Interception Unit. It was used to assist in teaching enemy aircraft recognition skills prior to the D-Day landings, and was last flown in May 1945. In September 1954 and again in September 1955, it was displayed on Horseguards Parade for Battle of Britain week. The aircraft was restored in 1975 and fitted with a replica of its characteristic Matratze 32-dipole radar antenna array, as all its radar equipment had been removed during the war. In August 1978, it was moved to the RAF Museum, its present home.

Several reasonably intact aircraft have been recovered from underwater and remote land crash sites in recent years; some of these aircraft are under restoration for static display. Notable examples include:

Ju 88 A-1, Wk Nr 0880119, with Geschwaderkennung of U4+TK -
This aircraft is the subject of a long-term restoration project at the Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection at Gardermoen, near Oslo, Norway. It first flew in January 1940 and served with 2.Staffel/Kampfgeschwader 30, under the call sign U4+TK (with the two-character Geschwaderkennung designation of U4 not recorded as ever having been used by KG 30 - that wing usually used the 4D wing code) during Operation Weserübung, the German invasion of Norway. In April 1940, it was operating from the frozen surface of the Jonsvatnet, a lake near Trondheim in Norway. The lake was being used as an improvised airfield by the Germans, who were conducting operations against Allied naval ships and against the towns of Namsos and Narvik Towards the end of April, warmer weather made the frozen lake surface unusable for flying operations and a number of aircraft were abandoned on the ice, sinking into the lake when it melted completely. The Ju 88 was recovered in late 2003, in an operation that also saw the recovery of a Heinkel He 111 H-2 6N+NH (Wk Nr 2320) and the tail section of a second Ju 88.

Ju 88 A-4, Werk Nr.0881478 4D+AM (ex-Stammkennzeichen of BH+QQ)
This aircraft, formerly of 4.Staffel/Kampfgeschwader 30 is displayed at the Norwegian Aviation Museum at Bodø Airport. On the 13 of April 1942, it was returning from an attack on Soviet ships when it ran out of fuel. The crew bailed out in the vicinity of Snefjord but the aircraft continued its flight and, remarkably, was left comparatively intact after crash-landing on a hillside at Garddevarre in Finnmark in the far north of Norway. It remained there until recovered by the Norsk Luftfartsmuseum in 1988.

Ju 88 A-5, Werk Nr. 0886146 with Stammkennzeichen of CV+VP
This aircraft is held at the Deutsches Technikmuseum near Berlin. It was delivered to the Luftwaffe in June 1940 and assigned to the bomber unit Kampfgeschwader 54, who flew it in the Battle of Britain and during the German invasion of the Soviet Union.

By June 1942, it was serving with a training unit, Kampffliegerschule 3 based on the German Baltic coast. On the night of the 29 June, it was stolen by two German personnel who intended to fly to Britain and defect to the Allied side. The attempt failed and the aircraft came down in Kilsfjord, a fjord near Kragerø, Norway. One man drowned but the other, Willi Voss, was rescued by Norwegian civilians. However, he was subsequently captured, returned to Germany and executed in January 1943, even though some accounts claim Voss was forced by the other man to fly at gunpoint. The aircraft was recovered in August 2000. Restoration work was carried out in Norway between 2000 and 2004; it was moved to Germany in August 2006.

Specifications (Ju 88 A-4)

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography
 Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi. World Aircraft: World War II, Volume I (Sampson Low Guides). Maidenhead, UK: Sampson Low, 1978. .
 Bergström, Christer. Barbarossa: The Air Battle, July–December 1941. London: Chevron/Ian Allan, 2007. .
 de Zeng, H.L., D.G. Stanket, and E.J. Creek. Bomber Units of the Luftwaffe 1933–1945: A Reference Source, Volume 1. London: Ian Allan Publishing, 2007. .
 Die großen Luftschlachten des Zweiten Weltkriegs: Flugzeuge – Erfolge – Niederlagen (in German). Gebunden, Germany: Neuer Kaiser Vlg GmbH, 1994. .
 Donald, David (editor). Warplanes of the Luftwaffe. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1994. .
 Dressel, Joachim and Manfred Griehl. Bombers of the Luftwaffe. London: Arms and Armour (DAG Publications), 1994. .
 Feist, Uwe. Junkers Ju 88 in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1974. .
 Goss, Chris. Bloody Biscay. Manchester, UK: Crécy Publishing, 2001. .
 Green, William. The Warplanes of the Third Reich. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1970. .
 Griehl, Manfred. Das geheime Typenhandbuch der deutschen Luftwaffe. Wölfersheim-Berstadt, Germany: Podzun-Pallas Verlag, 2004. .
 Hooton, E.R. Luftwaffe at War: Blitzkrieg in the West, Volume 2. London: Chevron/Ian Allan, 2007. .
 Jones, R.V. Most Secret War. London: Coronet Books, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. .
 Kay, Antony L. Junkers Aircraft and Engines: 1913–1945 (Putnam Aviation). Annapolis, Maryland: U.S. Naval Institute, 2004. .

 MacKay, Ron. Junkers Ju 88. Crowood Aviation, London 2001.
 Munson, Kenneth. Fighters and Bombers of World War II. London: Peerage Books. 1983. .
 Nowarra, Heinz J. Die Ju 88 und ihre Folgemuster. Stuttgart, Germany: Motorbuch Verlag. 1987. .
 Scutts, Jerry. German Night Fighter Aces of World War II (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces, Vol. 20). London: Osprey Publishing, 1998. .
 Stenman, Kari. "Short But Gallant: The Career of the Finnish Junkers Ju 88s". Air Enthusiast, No 60, November–December 1995. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing, pp. 35–39. ISSN 0143-5450.
 Suchenwirth, Richard. The Development of the German Air Force, 1919–1939. North Stratford, New Hampshire, UK: Ayer Publishing, 1968.
 Taylor, John W.R. "Junkers Ju 88." Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the present. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969. .
 United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975.
 Wagner, Ray and Nowarra, Heinz. German Combat Planes: A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 1945. New York: Doubleday, 1971.
 Weal, John.Ju 88 Kampfgeschwader on the Western Front. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Aviation, 2000. .
 Winchester, Jim. "Junkers Ju 88". Aircraft of World War II. London: Grange Books, 2004. .

External links

 The Ingenious Ju 88, Flight magazine, 1940
 www.Ju88.net

1930s German bomber aircraft
1940s German fighter aircraft
World War II medium bombers of Germany
Ju 088
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1936
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
World War II aircraft of Finland

Junkers Ju 88


Ante Kovač (Vrbanja, 23. svibnja 1897. – Beograd, 15. rujna 1972.), (pseudonim Pfificus), hrvatski književnik, političar i publicist. Pisao pod pseudonimom Pfificus. Pisao novele, humorističke priče, putopise, podlistke i kozerije.

Životopis
Rođen u Vrbanji. U Vinkovcima završio gimnaziju prvih godina prvog svjetskog rata. Mobiliziran u austro-ugarsku vojsku. Zarobljen na ruskom ratištu. Postao solunskim dobrovoljcem. Poslije rata studirao je pravo u Beogradu i u Zagrebu. Izabran za zastupnika u Narodnoj skupštini u Beogradu. Obnašao dužnost tajnika Narodne skupštine. Bio je glavni urednik nekoliko listova. U drugom svjetskom ratu bio je u njemačkom zarobljeništvu. Po izlasku iz zarobljeništva vratio se novinarstvu.

Novinarski rad
Uređivao je listove Pokret (1921. – 24.), Riječ (1927. – 31.) i Jugoslovenske novine (1936. – 39.). Poslije njemačkog zarobljeništva bio je novinar Duge i Glasa, komentator na Radio Jugoslaviji i urednik na Radio Beogradu.

Djela
 Milovanje u pesmi i prozi (1923.)
 Impresije iz jedne epohe (1923.)
 Sentimentalna putovanja boga Marsa (1928.)
 suradnja u Spomenica o stopedesetgodišnjici državne gimnazije u Vinkovcima

Izvori

Hrvatski novelisti
Hrvatski putopisci
Hrvatski novinari
Hrvatski publicisti
Hrvatski političari

Ante Kovač


Lewis A. Swift () a fost un astrononom american care a descoperit 13 comete și circa 1248 de nebuloase necatalogate.

Descoperiri
Swift a descoperit sau observat o serie de comete, inclusiv cometele periodice 11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR, 64P/Swift-Gehrels și 109P/Swift-Tuttle.

A descoperit ultima sa cometă la vârsta de 79 de ani. A fost unul dintre puținii oameni care au văzut două dintre aparițiile Cometei Halley.

În anul 1878 a crezut că observase două planete de tip Vulcan (planete aflate în orbita lui Mercur), dar a greșit.

În afară de comete, el a descoperit și sute de nebuloase, cum ar fi IC 289, și galaxii, cum ar fi NGC 6, NGC 19 și NGC 27.

Biografie
Potrivit lui Swift, el a devenit mai întâi interesat de astronomie după ce a observat Marea Cometă din 1843 în timp ce mergea la o școală din Clarkson, New York . Profesorul său a respins inițial observația sa, dar trei zile mai târziu a fost anunțată existența cometei.

A fost căsătorit de două ori, mai întâi cu Lucretia Hunt în anul 1850 și apoi cu Carrie D. Topping în anul 1864. Edward D. Swift a fost fiul său și al soției sale Carrie D. Topping.

Onoruri
A primit mai multe medalii decât orice alt astronom din timpul său, inclusiv trei din aur de la Academia Austriacă de Științe din Viena, patru din bronz de la Societatea Astronomică a Pacificului, și Medalia Laplace de la Societatea Astronomică din Franța (Societatea Astronomică Franceză). În anul 1897 a fost prima persoană care a primit medalia Jackson-Gwilt a Societății Astronomice Regale.

Asteroidul 5035 Swift este numit în onoarea lui, precum și craterul lunar Swift .

Note

Legături externe

 The Story of Lewis Swift
 Lewis Swift (Photos)
 L. Swift @ Astrophysics Data System

Nașteri în 1820
Decese în 1913
Astronomi americani
Astronomi din secolul al XX-lea
Astronomi din secolul al XIX-lea
Oameni de știință americani din secolul al XX-lea
Descoperitori de comete
Laureați ai Premiului Lalande

Lewis A. Swift


ANTEL (španjolski: Administración Nacional de Telecomunicaciones) urugvajsko je javno poduzeće za pružanje telekomunikacijskih usluga i održavanja mreže prijenosa podataka na području Urugvaja. Osnovana je 1974. na zagovor urugvajskog vlastodršca i diktatora Juana Maríe Bordaberrya i uskog kruga njegovih suradnika s ciljem stvaranja državnog monopola nad sredstvima javnog priopćavanja.

Nalazi se u vlasništvu Urugvajskog parlamenta te se kao državna tvrtka novčano potpomaže iz javnog proračuna. Osim radijskih i televizijskih postaja nudi i internetske usluge i prenošenje podataka. Sjedište tvrtke nalazi se u glavnom gradu Montevideu, a ANTEL pokriva područje cijelog Urugvaja.

Najveći ANTEL-ovi suparnici (konkurenti) su meksički Claro Americas i španjolski Movistar. Tvrtka se nekoliko puta pokušana privatizirati, ali bez uspjeha i uz protivljenje građana, koji su zbog toga izašli i na referendum. Time ostaje jedno od rijetkih javnih poduzeća u Urugvaju i jedino koje pruža neke određene usluge u toj zemlji.

Vanjske poveznice
 ANTEL-ove službene stranice

Urugvajske tvrtke

ANTEL


Lalića kuća  stambeno-fortifikacijski objekt na jugoistočnoj padini brda Buturovice kod Ljubuškog, s južne strane starog puta prema Starom gradu Ljubuškom. Sagrađena je 1774. godine što je vidljivo na rubu ulaznih vrata ogradbenog zida na kojem je uklesana hidžretska 1188. godina (po gregorijanskom kalendaru 1774.). Graditeljsku cjelinu čine: kula, kuća za stanovanje sa stajom i kovačnicom u podrumu, kuća kuhača i kuća za poslugu. Objekti se nalaze unutar visokih kamenih zidova od lomljenog vapnenca u malteru koji su na nekim dijelovima oštećeni.

Kula, u osnovi četverokut dimenzija 6×6,35 m, zgrada je s visokim prizemljem i dva kata. Visina jugoistočnog zida je 8,50 m, sjeverozapadnog 7,50 m, a ukupna visina kule je 10,35 m. Kula je zidana lomljenim kamenom vapnencom u vapnenačkom malteru s provezanim tesancima na kutovima objekta. Konstrukcije između katova na svim su etažama hrastove grede, i danas u dobrom stanju. Pokrivena je dvovodnim krovom od ploča kamena škriljca. Puškarnice postoje u jugozapadnom, sjeverozapadnom i sjeveroistočnom zidu prvog i drugog kata, a na sjeverozapadnom zidu orijentiranom na put postoji i mašikula. Kuća za stanovanje sa stajom i kovačnicom u podrumu četverokutni je objekt dimenzija 9,50×9,50 m. Pokrivena je četverovodnim krovom i posjeduje podrum. S obzirom na to da su u kući pronađeni ostatci potkovica i alata za njihovu izradu i kako je kuća imala direktan izlaz na ulicu, vjerojatno je u njenom sjeveroistočnom dijelu bila kovačnica i staja za konje. Zidana je lomljenim kamenom vapnencom u vapnenačkom malteru s provezanim tesancima na kutovima objekta. Pokrivena je četverovodnim krovom s pločama od kamena škriljca. Jugozapadno od kule i kuće za stanovanje nalazi se kuća kuhača-kuhinja. Objekt je dimenzija 4,50x5,50m, pokriven jednovodnim krovom od kamenih ploča. U sjeverozapadnom zidu nalazilo se ognjište. Zidana je lomljenim vapnenačkim kamenom u vapnenačkom malteru. Kuća za poslugu nalazila se uz jugozapadni zid kuće kuhače. Dimenzije objekta su 7,50×4,50m. Imala je podrum i kat, a bila je pokrivena dvovodnim krovom. Zapadno i sjeverno od nje postojale su još dvije kuće čiji su oskudni ostatci zarasli u vegetaciju. Ispod nje se nalazila čatrnja.

S Lalića kule pruža se pogled ka prilaznim putevima iz pravca sjeveroistoka, istoka, juga i jugozapada a i prema Ljubuškom u dolini. Najbrojnije danas očuvane kule ovog tipa nalaze se na području nekadašnje granice prema Dalmaciji i Crnoj Gori što se može tumačiti strateškim razlozima.

Izvori

Građevine u Ljubuškom
Nacionalni spomenici Bosne i Hercegovine

Lalića kula (Mostarska Vrata)


Medresetü'z-Zehra () Said Nursî tarafından doğuda İslami ilimleri ve Fen bilimleri'nin birlikte okutulmasını planladığı Üniversite düzeyindeki projenin adıdır.

Said Nursî Van'da Horhor Medresesi'nde talebelerine ders vermekteyken, geleneksel medrese eğitim sistemini yeterli bulmuyor ve bazı yeni metotlar uyguluyordu. Yeni metodunu "Fünun-u cedideyi, ulûm-u medaris ile mezc ve derc" diye özetleyen Said Nursi; Van, Bitlis ve Diyarbakır illerinde fen bilimleriyle İslami ilimlerin birlikte okutulacağı, Doğuda cehaleti ve bilgisizliği ortadan kaldıracak nitelikte, Medresetü'z-Zehra ismini verdiği birkaç üniversitenin yapımı düşüncesini hükûmete iletmek için 1907 yılında İstanbul'a gelir. El-Ezher Üniversitesi'ne kardeş olarak tarif ettiği bu üniversitede "lisân-ı Arabî vâcip, Kürdî câiz, Türkî lâzım kılmak" diye özetlediği Arapça, Kürtçe ve Türkçe olmak üzere üç dilde eğitim yapacağını belirtmektedir.

Said Nursi bu Üniversitenin Müslüman milletlerin menfi ırkçılık fikriyle ayrılmasının engellenmesi için gerekli olduğunu söylemiştir. Bu üniversite, Mısır'daki El-Ezher Üniversitesi'nin bir benzeri gibi düşünülüyordu.

Proje Tarihçesi
İstanbul'da idealindeki üniversite ile ilgili bir dilekçeyi, II. Abdülhamid zamanında padişahın özel kalem dairesi olan Mabeyn-i Hümayun'a sunmuş, ancak Said Nursî'nin bu talebi için hükûmet bir teşebbüste bulunmamıştır. II. Abdülhamid sonrasında, Van gölü kıyısında açmayı planlandığı üniversite için 1911 yılında bizzat kendisi Sultan Reşad ile görüşmüş ve Padişah tarafından 19 bin altın lira tahsis edilmiştir. 1913 yılında bu üniversitenin temelini atmış, fakat I. Dünya Savaşı münasebetiyle bu projenin tamamlanmasına imkân bulanamamıştır.

Daha sonraları TBMM'de 2 Mart 1923 tarihinde Medresetüzzehrâ hakkında kanun teklifi verilmiş, 200 mebusun 163'ünün rey vermesiyle kanun teklifi kabul edilmiş, ancak yine de üniversitenin inşası gerçekleşememiştir.

Kaynakça

Medreseler
Türkiye'deki medreseler
Van ilindeki dinî yapılar
Van ilinde İslam

Medresetü'z-Zehra


Tür, ortak özellikler taşıyan ve çiftleştiğinde verimli döller verebilen, aynı veya yakın gen havuzunda bulunan biyolojik gruptur.

Türlerin sınıflandırılmasında uluslararası ikili adlandırma sistemi benimsenmiştir. Bu sisteme göre her yeni türe Latince bir cins bir de tür adı verilir. Bu adlardan ilki tanımlanan türe akraba olan öbür türleri de içeren cinsi belirtir; ikincisi yalnızca bu türe özgü bir addır. Cinsin ismi daima büyük, türün ismi ise daima
küçük harflerle italik yazılır.

Örneğin; Mavi ladinin bilimsel adı Picea pungens tir. Böylece yeryüzünün herhangi bir yerindeki bir bilim insanı bu türün Türkiye'de bulunan Picea orientalis (doğu ladini) ile yakın akraba olduğunu kolayca anlayabilir. Hatta bazı bilim adamları hâlâ bulunmayan türlerin olduğunu söylemektedir.

Türlerin birbirinden farklı oluşunu onların kalıtsal yapısı saptar. Bunlar yapısal, biyokimyasal, fiziksel ve davranışsal ayrıcalıklar olabilir. Tüm bunlara diagnostik özellikler denir. Birbirine yakın türler, belirli bir coğrafik bölgede birbirinden yalıtılmakta ya da çiftleşme zamanlarının farklılaşmasıyla, farklı davranışlara sahip olarak birbirinden kopmuş fakat önceden aynı gen havuzuna sahip olan populasyonlardır. Bu yakın türler yapay koşullar altında birbiriyle çiftleşerek yavru elde edilebilir.

Türler sabit olmayıp kendi içinde daha alt birimlere ayrılabilir. Eğer bir tür iki veya daha çok alt tür veya varyete gibi alt taksonlara ayrılıyorsa bu türlere politipik tür eğer hiçbir alt türe ayrılmıyorsa buna monotipik tür denilir. Kimi durumlarda iki tür morfolojik bakımdan tamamen birbirinden ayrılmışlardır. Morfolojik bakımdan birbirinin benzeri olmasına karşın, üreme bakımından tamamen birbirinden ayrılmışlardır. Morfolojik bakımdan birbirinin aynı olduğu halde aralarında üreme engeli olan türlere ikiz tür adı verilir.

Ayrıca bakınız
Türler sorunu
Gen

Resim haritası kullanılan maddeler

Tür


Zapalasaurus ist eine Gattung sauropoder Dinosaurier aus der Unterkreide Argentiniens. Sie wird zu den Diplodocoidea gezählt und gehört innerhalb dieser Gruppe möglicherweise zu den Rebbachisauridae. Bisher ist lediglich ein einziges, sehr fragmentarisches Skelett bekannt, das aus der Unterkreide (Oberes Barremium bis Unteres Aptium) der argentinischen Provinz Neuquén stammt. Einzige Art ist Zapalasaurus bonapartei.

Merkmale
Wie bei allen Sauropoden handelt es sich um einen großen, vierbeinigen Pflanzenfresser mit langem Hals und Schwanz. Das einzige bekannte Skelett besteht vor allem aus einer Serie von 17 Schwanzwirbeln, die zum vorderen und mittleren Abschnitt des Schwanzes gehören, dem Becken (Darmbein, Sitzbein und Schambein), einem Fragment des Oberschenkelknochens sowie dem Schienbein. Einzigartige Merkmale (Autapomorphien) finden sich vor allem an den Schwanzwirbeln: Ihre Länge nahm zum Schwanzende hin zu, wobei der zwanzigste Schwanzwirbel etwa doppelt so lang war wie der erste. Die Dornfortsätze waren proximodistal (entlang der Mittellinie des Körpers) langgestreckt, wobei der vordere (proximale) Teil eines jeden Dornfortsatzes höher war als der hintere (distale).

Systematik
Leonardo Salgado und Kollegen (2006) klassifizieren Zapalasaurus als den basalsten (ursprünglichsten) Vertreter der Diplodocoidea, der zwar abgeleiteter (fortgeschrittener) war als Haplocanthosaurus, aber weniger stark abgeleitet als die Rebbachisauridae. Einige jüngere Studien betrachten diese Gattung dagegen als einen Vertreter der Rebbachisauridae.

Forschungsgeschichte, Namensgebung und Fund
Der Großteil des Fundes konnte in den Jahren 1995 und 1996 von einer paläontologischen Expedition unter der Leitung von José Bonaparte geborgen werden. Weitere Teile wurden 2004 geborgen. 2006 wurde Zapalasaurus von Forschern um Leonardo Salgado, Ismar de Souza Carvalho und Alberto Garrido erstmals wissenschaftlich beschrieben. Der Name Zapalasaurus weist auf die Stadt Zapala, in deren Nähe die Fossilien entdeckt wurden; der zweite Teil des Artnamens, bonapartei, ehrt José Bonaparte, für die Entdeckung des Fossils und für seine umfangreiche Arbeit über mesozoische Wirbeltiere.

Das Skelett (Holotyp, Exemplarnummer Pv-6127-MOZ) wurde etwa 80 km südlich der Stadt Zapala in der argentinischen Provinz Neuquén entdeckt. Es stammt aus der obersten Subformation der La-Amarga-Formation, dem Piedra-Parada-Member, und ist das erste aus dieser Subformation beschriebene Fossil. Der Ablagerungsraum dieser Sedimentgesteine wird als alluviale Überschwemmungsebene eines Flusses interpretiert.

Belege

Sauropoda
Sauropoden

Zapalasaurus


حاكم أو متحكم بواسطة PID  هو حلقة تحكم شامل بتغذية رجعية شائع الاستخدام في نظم التحكم الصناعية.

PID هي اختصار Proportional + Integral + Derivative أي تناسبي + تكاملي + تفاضلي وهي المسؤولة عن تصحيح الخطأ الناتج عن الفرق بين القيمة المطلوبة والقيمة المقاسة.

يتمثل الخوارزم الحسابي لحاكم PID بثلاثة معاملات منفصلة: التناسب (P)، التكامل (I)، والتفاضل (D). القيمة التناسبية تبين رد الفعل مع الخطأ الحالي. القيمة التكاملية تتناسب مع استمرارية وجود الخطأ مع الزمن. القيمة التفاضلية تتناسب مع معدل التغير في الخطأ.

في الحقيقة ترتيب الاحرف أو الكلمات لا يعكس اسبقية العملية بالضرورة.

أساسيات حلقة التحكم

يمكن مشاهدة مثال حي لحلقة التحكم في حياتنا اليومية كما هو الحال في مرش الحمام حيث يمكن ضبط درجة الحرارة المناسبة يدويا.
عندما نشعر بالبرودة فأننا سندير حنفية الماء الساخن لتفتح أكثر وربما العكس مع حنفية الماء البارد.
تدعى عملية الشعور أو الإحساس (بتغير درجة الحرارة) بقياس قيمة العملية (Process Variable - PV) وتسمى درجة الحرارة المرغوبة بالقيمة المضبوطة (Set Point - SP) بينما يطلق على عملية التحكم بالصنبور أو الحنفية بالمتغير المتأثر (Manipulated Variable - MV). الأهم هنا هو من يقوم بعملية المعالجة وهو دماغ الإنسان.
يمكن استبدال دماغ الإنسان بآلية تقوم بنفس الكيفية مثل تركيب جهاز لضبط الحرارة (ثرموستات مثلا أو خلاط حراري).

يمكن تلخيص حلقة التحكم بثلاثة وظائف أساسية هي:
 وظيفة القياس: تتم هذه الوظيفة بواسطة أجهزة تحسس أو مجسات وتدعى أحيانا بالمرسلات. من هذه المجسات مجس الحرارة، مجس الضغط، مجس الحركة، مجس التيار، مجس المقاومة، مجس التردد، وما إلى ذلك. يتم اختيار نوع المرسل وفقا للعملية المراد التحكم بها.
 وظيفة المقارنة والحساب: يتم مقارنة القيمة المقاسة عبر المرسل والقيمة المضبوطة مسبقا والتي يراد الوصول إليها. تسمى القيمة المقاسة PV بينما القيمة المضبوطة SP. نتيجة المقارنة ينشأ عنها قيمة تدعى الخطأ e، وتمرر بدوره إلى أحد أو مجموعة عناصر التحكم السابقة ونتيجة المعالجة أو الحساب ترسل إلى قسم التحكم النهائي للعمل بها.
 وظيفة التحكم النهائي: تختلف أنواع عناصر التحكم النهائي باختلاف العملية فهناك مثلا الصمامات لفتح وقفل الأنابيب، المحركات للتحكم بالسرعة والاتجاه، السخانات للتحكم بالحرارة وهكذا.

من ناحية أخرى يمكن تصنيف الوظائف حسب مبدأ عملها، يوجد ثلاثة أصناف هي:
 وظيفة العمل بضغط الهواءPneumatic air: يتم تمييز هذا النوع في الرسومات الصناعية بالخطوط المتواصلة _.
 وظيفة العمل بضغظ السائل Hydraulic. يتم الرمز لهذا النوع بخطوط متصلة ولكن تقطعها حروف L أي ---L----L---
 وظيفة العمل بالتيار الكهربائي Electric current: يتم ترميز هذا النوع بخطوط متقطعة - - - - - - -.

التقنيات المتوفرة
 تقنية التحكم الهوائي PID Pneumatic Controller: وتعد من أوئل التقنيات التي تم تصنيعها لتطبيق نظرية التحكم بالعنصر التناسبي التكاملي التفاضلي.
 تقنية التحكم الإلكتروني Electronics PID Controller: وتعتمد بشكل رئيسي على المكبر العملياتي.
 تقنية التحكم الرقمي Digital Controller: وهي الأحدث والأكثر شيوعاً في الصناعة حيث تعتمد تقنيات تحكم متطورة قابلة للبرمجة والموالفة الذاتية.

نظرية التحكم نوع PID

يوجد ثلاثة أنواع رئيسية من نمط التحكم PID هي:
 النوع التسلسي أو المتفاعل Series PID: وفيه تكون عناصر أو حدود I و D مرتكز تماما على الحد P, بمعنى أنها لا تعمل بدونه.
 النوع المتفرع أو المستقل Parallel PID: تؤدى الوظائف P، I، وD بشكل مستقل عن بعضها ثم تجمع معا إلى خرج واحد.
 النوع المختلط Mixed PID: وهو مزيج من التسلسلي والمتوازي.

كما أن الأنواع الثلاثة يمكن دراستها عند الحلقة المفتوحة Open Loop والحلقة المغلقة Closed Loop. إذا تم الأخذ بعين الاعتبار القيمة المقاسة تسمى الحلقة مغلقة أما إذا تما عزلها فيسمى النمط بالحلقة المفتوحة.
سيتم التكيز هنا على PID ذي النوع المتوازي أو المتفرع. تعطى وظيفة الخرج له بالعلاقة:

حيث:
, , و هي المساهمات التي تؤديها كل وظيفة من الحدود الثلاثة على حدة إلى الخرج كما سيتبين فيما يلي.

الحد التناسبي

يدعى أحيانا الحد التناسبي بالتضخيم ويتسبب في تغير قيمة الخرج بمقدار يتناسب طرديا مع قيمة الخطأ الحالية. يمكن ضبط الاستجابة التناسبية بضرب قيمة الخطأ بقيمة ثابتة (قابلة للضبط) Kp, وتدعى أيضا بالتضخيم التناسبي. يستخدم وصفا اخر في بعض أنظمة التحكم هو النطاق التناسبي Proportional Band, ويرمز له عادة PB% ويرتبط بالحد التناسبي بالعلاقة:

يكون الخرج الناتج عن الحد التناسبي هو:

حيث: : الحد التناسبي في للخرج: : التضخيم التناسبي، قابل للتعديل: : الخطأ ويساوي
 : الزمن

إذا كانت قيمة التضخيم التناسبي كبيرة فسينتج عنها تغيرا كبيرا في الخرج عند قيمة معينة للخطأ. أما إذا كانت هذه القيمة كبيرة جدا فسيصبح النظام غير مستقر (انظر قسم موالفة الحلقة في الأسفل).

الجدير بالذكر هو أن الحد التناسبى
 لا يستطيع إلغاء الخطأ أو الإزاحة Offset بدون وجود الحد التكاملي. يمكن إثبات ذلك في حالة تغير الخطوة مثلا، باستخدام معادلات لابلاس يمكن إثبات أن الخطأ المتبقي عند زمن الاستقرارية (أي عندما ) هو:
حيث:
 خطأ الحالة المستقرة steady state error (أي عندما ).

يستعمل هذا النوع من عناصر التحكم في ضبط الحرارة وبعض التطبيقات الأخرى مثل ضبط مستوى السائل في الخزانات إذا لم تكن عملية إزالة الخطأ ذات أهمية.

الحد التكاملي

يطلق على الحد التكاملي أحيانا إعادة الضبط reset وذلك لقدرته على إزالة الخطأ المتبقي والذي لايستطيع الحد التناسبي إلغاؤه. يمكن فهم السبب بالنظر في الحلقة المفتوحة حيث نرى أن الحد التكاملي يستمر في التغير صعودا أو هبوطا بشكل يتناسب مع مقدار الخطأ مع ولايتوقف مع مرور الوقت إلا إذا كان الخطأ صفرا. عمليا يتوقف الحد التكاملي عندما يصل إلى مرحلة الإشباع وهي القدرة العظمى للخرج العملياتي. يمتلك الحد التكاملي ثابتا قابلا للضبط في عمليات الموالفة ويدعى . غالبا يستبدل هذا الثابت بمقلوبه والذي يحمل مغزى للتكامل ويطلق عليه  حيث:

يعرف Ti على أنه الزمن اللازم للوصول بالخرج لنفس قيمة الخطأ أو الدخل منذ بدء الخطأ بمقدار خطوة Step.

يعطى الحد التكاملي بالعلاقة:

حيث: : الحد التكاملي للخرج: : تضخيم التكامل، قابل للموالفة: : الخطأ ويساوي
 : الزمن اللحظي.
 : متغير اعتباطي.

يستعمل الحد التكاملي مع الحد التناسبي بشكل واسع في التطبيقات الصناعية لتعجيل عملية الاستجابة وإزالة الخطأ عند الاستقرارية. ومع ذلك قد يتسبب الحد التكاملي في ظهور نطة overshoot فوق القيمة المراد الوصول لها بسبب تجميعه لبيانات الخطأ المتراكمة. يمكن التوفيق بين سرعة الاستجابة والنطة بواسطة موالفة ثوابت الحدود كما في قسم الموالفة في الأسفل.

الحد التفاضلي

يطلق على الحد التفاضلي أحيانا بالمعدل rate وذلك لأنه يظهر فقط عندما يكون هناك تغير في قيمة الخطأ بالنسبة للزمن ويتناسب طرديا مع معدل هذا التغير. يمتلك الحد التفاضلي ثابتا قابلا للتغيير في عملية الموالفة ويرمز له رياضيا  وفي الأنظمة الصناعية عادة  لأنها ترمز لميل دالة الخطأ.

يمكن التعبير عن الحد التفاضلي رياضيا بالصورة:

حيث: : الحد التفاضلي للخرج: : التضخيم التفاضلي، قابل للموالفة: : الخطأ ويساوي
 : الزمن

مع أن الحد التفاضلي يحسن أحيانا في عملية التحكم إلا أنه يتأثر بالضوضاء بشكل كبير ويمكن أن يتسبب في عدم استقرارية النظام. لهذا السبب لايستخدم الحد التفاضلي في الصناعة إلا بشكل نادر وبحذر شديد.

خلاصة

تعمل الحدود التناسبي، التكاملي والتفاضلي معا لتجمع وتعطي خرجا واحدا لعنصر التحكم PID. إذا رمزنا  لدالة الخرج فستكون قيمتها معطاة بالعلاقة:

بحيث تكون عناصر الموالفة هي:
التضخيم التناسبي،  ويمكن زيادتها لتسريع الاستجابة ولكن إلى الحد الذي يبقي على استقرارية النظام.
التضخيم التكاملي،  لتسريع عملية إزالة الخطأ.
التضخيم التفاضلي،  لتقليل عملية الطلقة أو النطة مع مراعاة تأثير الضوضاء.

الموالفة
تعد عملية موالفة الحلقة Loop tuning من أعقد وأخطر عمليات التحكم لاسيما الموالفة المباشرة أثناء العمليات والسبب هو عدم وجود قانون ثابت يحكم العملية Process. إذا أخطأنا باختيار القيم المناسبة لعناصر الموالفة (معاملات المضخم التناسبي، التكاملي، والتفاضلي) يمكن أن تصبح العملية المراد التحكم بها غير مستقرة وربما تخرج عن السيطرة. فبدلا عن الحصول على قيمة مستقرة بعد فترة من الزمن قد يصبح هناك إما وقت أطول للحصول على هذه القيمة المستقرة أو ربما لا تستقر وتظل في حالة تذبذب طوال الوقت وربما ما هو أسوأ وهو تضخيم عملية التذبذب مع الوقت حتى تخرج عن السيطرة تماما.

هناك بعض الطرق المشهورة في عملية الموالفة التقريبية والتي تحاول الاستفادة من تجربة عملية (تتم عادة بالأسلوب اليدوي Manual Mode) أولية أو أكثر على العملية Process وقد تكون إما حلقة مفتوحة أو مغلقة أشهرها مايلي.

الموالفة اليدوية

عندما يكون من الضروري بقاء النظام عاملا، يمكن أولا موالفة  و إلى قيم صفرية. يتم زيادة  تدريجيا حتى يبدأ خرج الحلقة بالتذبذب، حينئذ ينبغي إنقاص قيمة  إلى النصف تقريبا من أجل استجابة من نوع «اضمحلال ربع الاتساع». ثم تزاد قيمة  حتى يتم تصحيح أي انزياح خلال زمن كاف للعملية. ومع ذلك، فإن زيادة كبيرة جدا في  ستسبب عدم استقرارية. وأخيرا، يتم زيادة, إذا كان مطلوبا، حتى تصبح الحلقة سريعة بشكل ماقبل وبعد حدوث اضطراب في حمل. ولكن مرة أخرى، فإن زيادة  كثيرا قد يتسبب في استجابة زائدة عن الحاجة وظهور النطة. في العادة تتسبب عملية الموالفة السريعة في PID بظهور نطة طفيفية من أجل الوصول لقيمة الضبط setpoint بشكل أسرع; بالرغم من هذا، فبعض الأنظمة لا تتقبل هذه النطة، وفي هذه الحال يكون النظام المغلق ذو «إخماد قوي over-damped» ضروريا، والذي يتطلب ضبط  أقل من نصف القيمة  التي تسببت في التذبذب.

طريقة زيغلر نيكولس

سميت هذه الطريقة نسبة لمقدميها جون زيغلر وناتانيل نيكولس. كما الطريقة السابقة، توضع قيم  و على الصفر. تزاد قيمة التضخم P حتى تصل إلى التضخيم الحرج، , حيث يبدأ الخرج بالتذبذب.  وفترة التذبذب  تستعمل لضبط القيم كما يلي:

برامج موالفة PID
لم تعد الطرق التقليدية السابقة مستخدمة كثيرا في أنظمة التحكم الصناعية الحديثة. بدلا من ذلك تقوم برامج حديثة بعمل الموالفة والأمثلية. تقوم هذه البرامج بجمع البيانات، تطوير نماذج عمليات، ومن ثم تقترح الموالفة المثلى كما أن بعض هذه البرامج تستطيع تطوير عملية الموالفة بالاعتماد على تغييرات مرجعية (كما في أنظمة APC التحكم المتقدم بالعمليات).

تكمن فكرة موالفة الحلقة الرياضية في استحثاث قدحة Impulse في النظام، ثم تسخير الاستجابة الترددية للنظام المحكوم لتصميم قيم حلقة PID المطلوبة. تفضل هذه العملية في حالة الحلقات التي تتراوح استجابتها الزمنية بضع دقائق. من الصعوبة بمكان إيجاد القيم المثلى. تقدم بعض حلقات التحكم الرقمية ميزة «الموالفة الذاتية» حيث يتم إرسال تغيرات طفيفة جدا في القيمة المضبوطة SP إلى العمليات، سامحة لأجهزة التحكم بحساب قيم موالفة مثلى.

البرمجة
يمكن برمجة عناصر التحكم السابقة في حلقة مغلقة افتراضية دون الحاجة لتصنيعها عمليا وهذا هو فعلا ماتقوم به أنظمة التحكم الحديث.
المثال التالي يمثل كيفية بناء البرنامج باستعمال لغة كيو بيسك مثلا:

 previous_error = 0
 integral = 0
 begin:
   recent_error = setpoint - actual_position
   integral = integral + (recent_error*dt)
   derivative = (recent_error- previous_error)/dt
   recent_output = (Kp*recent_error) + (Ki*integral) + (Kd*derivative)
   previous_error = recent_error
   SLEEP (dt)
   GOTO begin

المصادر

أجهزة تحكم
تحكم آلي
تحكم صناعي
هندسة التحكم

متحكم تناسبي تكاملي تفاضلي


Arthur Emil Seelieb, né le  à Oblaznitsia dans le Royaume de Galicie et de Lodomérie situé aujourd'hui en Ukraine et mort le  à Więcbork en République populaire de Pologne, est un journaliste, traducteur et érudit littéraire. Il était chargé de cours et professeur à l'université de Lausanne et rédacteur en chef de La Revue ukrainienne.

Biographie
En 1900, il sort diplômé du lycée de Przemyśl, puis entreprend des études de droit dans les universités de Lviv et de Cracovie.

En 1909, il s'installe en Suisse à Lausanne.

En 1910, il participe à la rédaction en allemand de l'almanach "Freiheit und Arbeit" (Liberté et travail).

En 1912, alors qu'il séjourne à Leipzig, il traduit en allemand une nouvelle de Taras Chevtchenko intitulée "L'Artiste".

En 1915, il se lance dans la publication en langue française de La Revue ukrainienne à Lausanne, un mensuel illustré écrit en français, qui publie les travaux d'ethnographes, d'historiens et d'écrivains ukrainiens : Mykhaïlo Drahomanov, Nikolaï Kostomarov et Mykhaïlo Hrouchevsky ainsi que des traductions d'œuvres de Taras Chevtchenko, Ivan Franko et Vassyl Stefanyk. D'autres personnalités politiques et intellectuels participeront à la publication de cette revue, notamment Stepan Smal-Stotsky et Andri Zhuk, réfugiés en Suisse. Ils éditent la revue en langue française, la langue diplomatique internationale, afin que leur combat soit connu dans toute l'Europe. La Revue ukrainienne paraîtra jusqu'en 1917.

Arthur Seelieb veut informer et faire connaître l'histoire et la littérature ukrainiennes. La reconnaissance de l'Ukraine en tant qu'État passe donc ici par la promotion de l'existence d'une nation ukrainienne au bénéfice d'un peuple, d'une langue, d'une histoire, d'une culture et d'un avenir qui doit être distingué ceux de la Russie. Le contenu de La Revue ukrainienne semble ainsi confirmer cette volonté d'utiliser la Suisse comme plateforme pour toucher l'opinion publique internationale et la sensibiliser à la question de l'indépendance ukrainienne.

Arthur Seelieb a également correspondu avec Ivan Franko, et après la mort du poète, il a publié sa nécrologie dans la Gazette de Lausanne.

En 1923, il s'installe en Pologne à Grudziądz. Puis il travaille à Zakopane (Voïvodie de Petite-Pologne, où il enseigne le français. Il édite le bi-hebdomadaire "Zakopane" de 1938 à 1939.

Après le Seconde Guerre mondiale, il continua d'enseigner en Pologne.

Arthur Seelieb meurt le  à Więcbork en Pologne.

Sources

Liens externes
 Biographie de Arhur Seelieb
 Catalogue Worldcat.org

Journaliste ukrainien
Rédacteur en chef
Traducteur polonais du XIXe siècle
Traducteur polonais du XXe siècle
Traducteur ukrainien du XIXe siècle
Traducteur ukrainien du XXe siècle
Professeur ukrainien
Écrivain ukrainien francophone
Professeur à l'université de Lausanne
Naissance en juillet 1878
Naissance dans le royaume de Galicie et de Lodomérie
Décès en août 1958
Décès en Pologne
Décès à 80 ans

Arthur Seelieb


Das Epilepsiezentrum Kleinwachau ist eine Einrichtung des Diakonischen Werkes der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Landeskirche Sachsens im Radeberger Ortsteil Liegau-Augustusbad, 15 km nordöstlich von Dresden.

Das Zentrum besteht aus einer Fachklinik für Neurologie, Werkstätten, Betreuungs- und Wohneinrichtungen für Menschen mit Epilepsie und Menschen mit Behinderungen sowie einer Förderschule und einer Kindertagesstätte.

Geschichte
Die Einrichtung wurde am 1. Oktober 1889 vom Landesverein für Innere Mission im Königreich Sachsen als "Anstalt für Epileptische" gegründet, und am 2. Dezember 1889 begannen zwei Diakonissen in einem Haus mit der Betreuung von zwölf anfallskranken Kindern. Maßgeblichen Anteil an der Entwicklung hatte Karl von Brühl-Renard der letzte Seifersdorfer Schlossherr ab 1889 bis zu seinem Tod 1923 als Mitbegründer und Vorstandsvorsitzender der Einrichtung. In den folgenden Jahren erfolgte ein stetiger Ausbau auf 81 Plätze 1904 und 110 im Jahr 1910, aufgeteilt auf mehrere Häuser: das Mädchenhaus (Einweihung: 2. Dezember 1889), das Berghaus (Einweihung: 20. Oktober 1891), das Waldhaus (11. Juli 1893, abgebrannt am 6. März 1901), das Talhaus (23. Oktober 1903) und das repräsentative Brunnenhaus (7. August 1910).

In der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus beschlagnahmten die Behörden die Einrichtung und führten sie unter dem Namen Landesjugendhof für Schwererziehbare weiter. Viele Bewohner der Einrichtung wurden Opfer der Euthanasie. Heute erinnert ein am 19. Oktober 1995 eingeweihtes Mahnmal auf dem Gelände an die Opfer der nationalsozialistischen Rassenpolitik.

Von 1949 an wurde die reguläre Arbeit in der Einrichtung wieder aufgenommen. Am 1. Oktober 1950 eröffnete die "Sonderschule Kleinwachau". 1971 erhielt Kleinwachau eine eigene Pfarrstelle, im selben Jahr fand am 6. Dezember die Schlüsselübergabe für das Bodelschwinghhaus statt, das Gebäude ist heute Kern der Fachklinik.

Nach der Wiedervereinigung wurde die Einrichtung zu einem modernen Epilepsiezentrum weiterentwickelt, dementsprechend erfolgte am 15. Juni 1991 die Umbenennung in "Epilepsiezentrum Kleinwachau" und die Gründung eines Trägervereins. Am 15. September 1991 eröffnete das Wiesenhaus und die erste gemischte Wohngruppe. Die Förderschule wurde am 1. Januar 1993 staatlich anerkannt. Am 3. Dezember 1999 konnte die neue Werkstatt für behinderte Menschen eingeweiht werden.

Heute verfügt es über eine Fachklinik für Neurologie mit einer Intensiv-Monitoringstation (seit 1. September 2004), auch Werkstätten und die Förderschule für Kinder mit geistiger oder körperlicher Behinderung wurden hinzugefügt bzw. erweitert. Angegliedert ist die am 1. September 2005 eröffnete "Epilepsieberatungsstelle Dresden". Seit 1. Januar 2007 firmiert das Epilepsiezentrum als gemeinnützige GmbH, am 6. Oktober desselben Jahres nahm die Intensiv-Monitorstation ihren Betrieb auf. Am 1. März 2009 folgte das MVZ Dresden am Lahmannring. Seit 2010 gibt es eine unternehmerische Ausgründung als Tochterfirma des Epilepsiezentrums das Unternehmen "paso doble". Es hat ebenfalls seinen Sitz auf dem Gelände in Kleinwachau, ist das erste trägerübergreifende Inklusions-Unternehmen in Mitteldeutschland. Träger sind neben dem Epilepsiezentrum auch die Diakonie Stadtmission Dresden und die Volkssolidarität Dresden. Die christliche Kindertagesstätte "Baumhaus" in Radeberg ging im Jahr 2016 in die Trägerschaft des Epilepsiezentrums Kleinwachau über. Der Klinikneubau (bzw. -anbau) konnte am 31. März 2017 eingeweiht werden, am 3. Januar 2018 öffnete Kleinwachau das erste "Medizinische Zentrum für erwachsene Menschen mit Behinderung" (MZEB) in Sachsen.

Organisation
In Kleinwachau leben und arbeiten ungefähr 600 Menschen. Die Einrichtung besteht aus über 20 Gebäuden, in denen die unterschiedlichen Abteilungen untergebracht sind. Die Fachklinik verfügt über 47 Betten für behinderte und nichtbehinderte Patienten, Chefarzt ist Thomas Mayer. Die Werkstätten bieten 210 Arbeitsplätze für Menschen mit Behinderungen. Die Förderschule unterrichtet in allen Klassenstufen Kinder und Jugendliche mit einer geistigen Behinderung, darunter auch Bewohner des Zentrums. Außerdem werden in der Klinikschule Patienten der Kinderstation in allen Schularten unterrichtet. Ein weiterer großer Arbeitsbereich ist das Wohnen mit Betreuung mit 200 Plätzen in den Wohngemeinschaften. Die Kindertagesstätte "Baumhaus" in Radeberg bietet 18 Krippenplätze, 46 Kindergartenplätze und 21 Hortplätze an. Darüber hinaus sind insgesamt 8 Integrationsplätze vorhanden. Es werden Kinder unabhängig von der Konfession ab dem vollendeten 1. Lebensjahr aufgenommen. Voraussetzung ist, dass die Eltern die christliche Ausrichtung der Einrichtung mittragen.

Denkmalschutz
Das Brunnenhaus (zwischenzeitlich Schadeberghaus genannt), das Talhaus, die Scheune hinter dem Waldhaus sowie das Gartenhaus der Anlage Kleinwachau stehen unter Denkmalschutz. Die geschützten Gebäude wurden zwischen 1890 und 1910 errichtet.

Literatur
 Die Epileptischen-Heil- und -Pflegeanstalt Kleinwachau von Walter Schadeberg, Landesverein für Innere Mission, 1940
 Kleinwachau, Sächsisches Epilepsiezentrum Radeberg. Kleinwachau 125 Jahre. Die Geschichte von Kleinwachau. Radeberg, Sächsisches Epilepsiezentrum 2013

Weblinks

 Offizielle Internetpräsenz
 Informationsmaterial über die Einrichtung

 Offizielle Internetpräsenz des Inklusionsunternehmen "paso doble"
 Beschreibung der Orgel der Kirche

Einzelnachweise

Kulturdenkmal in Radeberg
Unternehmen (Radeberg)

Organisation (Epileptologie)
Förderschule in Deutschland
Diakonische Einrichtung
Krankenhaus in Sachsen

Epilepsiezentrum Kleinwachau


Carl Axel Ilius Fibiger (født 15. september 1815 i København, død 20. juni 1882 på Frederiksberg) var en dansk officer, bror til Ilia Fibiger, Mathilde Fibiger, Christian Adolph Ferdinand Fibiger og Otto Fibiger og far til Marie Jessen.

Han var søn af oberstløjtnant Adolph Fibiger og hustru, blev 1831 kadet, 1832 sekondløjtnant à la suite i Sjællandske Kyrasserregiment (med anciennitet fra 1829), fik 1840 premierløjtnants karakter og anciennitet, blev 1842 premierløjtnant i 5. Dragonregiment, fik 1849 ritmesters anciennitet, blev samme år ritmester af 2. grad i 4. Dragonregiment, 6. oktober 1851 Ridder af Dannebrog, 1852 ritmester af 1. grad, fik 1862 majors karakter og anciennitet, blev samme år forsat til 5. Dragonregiment, blev 1863 major og 1864 chef for nævnte regiment. I 1865 fik han afsked som oberstløjtnant og blev 1869 karakteriseret oberst.

Fibiger ægtede den 11. oktober 1844 i Sankt Mortens Kirke i Randers Sophie Marie Caroline Fog (født 21. maj 1823 i Fredericia, død 9. juli 1891 på Frederiksberg), datter af toldinspektør, kammerråd Axel Friderich Preben Fog (1788-1848) og Laurentia Qvina Mechtela Muus (1794-1858).

Han boede fra ca. 1867 til sin død i villaen Harsdorffsvej 11, der blev nedrevet i 1970'erne.

Kilder
 Vilhelm Richter: Den danske Landmilitæretat 1801-1894, bind 1, København: Antikvariat Richard Levin & Co. ApS og Dansk Historisk Håndbogsforlag 1977, s. 120.

Personer i Dansk Biografisk Leksikon
Carl Axel Ilius
Kavaleriofficerer fra Danmark
Personer fra København
Danskere i 1800-tallet
Riddere af Dannebrog

Carl Axel Ilius Fibiger


Glenea diana é uma espécie de escaravelho da família Cerambycidae. Foi descrita por James Thomson em 1865.

Subespecie
 Glenea diana diana Thomson, 1865
 Glenea diana niasana Breuning, 1969

Referências

Borneo catalog 2005

diana
Coleópteros descritos em 1865

Glenea diana


Alzette este un râu ce pornește din Franța și trece prin Luxembourg. Râul Alzette are lungimea de 73 kilometri și este un  afluent de dreapta al râului Sauer.

Râuri din Franța
Râuri din Luxemburg

Alzette


Massey College is a graduate residential college at the University of Toronto that was established, built and partially endowed in 1962 by the Massey Foundation and officially opened in 1963, though women were not admitted until 1974. It was modeled around the traditional Cambridge and Oxford collegiate system and features a central court and porters lodge. Similar to St. John's College, Cambridge, and All Souls College, Oxford, senior and junior fellows of Massey College are nominated from the university community and occasionally the wider community, and are elected by the governing board of the college. The President of the University of Toronto, the Dean of graduate studies and three members of the Massey Foundation are ex officio members of the governing board, chaired by the elected member of the governing board. Members of the governing board are elected for five years; the Principal of the college is elected for seven years.

The college is well-connected with prominent figures of the national establishment, and is the sponsor and host of the annual Massey Lectures. It hosted the Man Booker International Prize of 2007.

History

Massey College was conceived by Vincent Massey, the 18th Governor General of Canada, who attended University College, Toronto, as an undergraduate. Of the establishment of a new graduate college, Massey wrote, "It is of great importance that it should, in its form, reflect the life which will go on inside it and should possess certain qualities—dignity, grace, beauty, and warmth." The Massey Foundation, for which Vincent Massey served as a trustee, provided the financial endowment.

Opened officially in 1963, the college was designed by Canadian architect Ron Thom, who subsequently designed the master plan for Trent University. Alan Beddoe designed the Massey College coat of arms, which derives from the arms of Vincent Massey.

The founding head of Massey College (1963–81) was the celebrated Canadian journalist and author Robertson Davies. Professor Patterson Hume was the second head (1981–88), and Professor Ann Saddlemyer was the third one (1988–95). The fourth head of the college (1995–2014) was journalist John Fraser. On July 1, 2014, Hugh Segal, formerly a member of the Senate of Canada, became the fifth head of the college for a seven-year term, but he resigned in 2019. The current principal is Nathalie Des Rosiers, a former Liberal member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.

During the 2006–07 academic year, Massey College hosted the King and Queen of Sweden, held a special tribute in honour of the founding head of the college, Robertson Davies, and was the host of the Man Booker International Prize in April 2007.

Grounds and architecture

Ron Thom's design for Massey College was inspired by the medieval Oxbridge style college. As in Oxford and Cambridge, the buildings of Massey College all centre around one court which is accessible through only two gates. The main gate is at the foot of the tower, along with the porter's lodge. The quad contains a large pond with fish and fountains as well as the St. Catherine's Bell in the clock tower attached to the porch. The bells are rung three times a day during the school term to mark meal times. Around the quad are a total of five residence houses on the east, north, and west sides. The ground floors of these houses contain some administration offices. The largest building, containing the majority of the public space available to members of the fellowship, is on the south side along with the principal's house. Public space at Massey College includes the large dining hall, a small private dining room, a college common room and bar, an upper library, the lower library, the "puffy couch room" (an informal common room with television and games), the Colin Friesen seminar room, a computer room, and non-resident study carrels.

The college buildings are frequently studied by architecture students.
In 2013, which marked its 50th anniversary, Massey College received two prestigious architecture awards. The 2013 Prix du XXe siècle, awarded by The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, recognizes "the enduring excellence of nationally significant architecture, such as landmark buildings in the historical context of Canadian Architecture. The award can go to a building in Canada, designed by an architect from any country, or a building anywhere designed by a Canadian architect."  The commentary from the award's jury reads as follows: "Massey College is a skillful and humane interpretation of Arts and Crafts sensibilities in a modernist idiom. It is remarkable for its seamless integration of exterior and interior design, including the rich detailing of its custom furnishings and fittings. It has aged well, and is one of the University of Toronto's most treasured modern buildings." The 2013 Landmark Award was awarded to Massey College by the Ontario Association of Architects. "Recognizing buildings that demonstrate architecture's beauty, endurance and lasting contribution to the community and to society", a Landmark building "establishes a design excellence standard for future generations, enhances its environment and the public realm, recognizes and respects its surroundings; and contributes to the neighbourhood, the community or the city through its unique identity." Fall 2013 issue of Perspectives magazine, published by OAA, was dedicated to Ron Thom and featured Massey College.

The Robertson Davies Library, also known as the lower library, houses the college's librarian as well as an office for the University of Toronto's Book History and Print Culture Program. This library contains display cases for exhibitions curated from the collection by Book History students and Massey students.

The Library includes a collection of working 19th century printing presses. The Library's Bibliography Room has the largest collection of wood type in North America (some 350+ pieces). Several working hand presses are housed here. The most frequently used presses are two Albion presses, an Imperial Press, and a Washington Press. Some students work here as apprentices under the college printer. Printed keepsakes for college events are often made here.

Chapel Royal
Massey College is home to an ecumenical worship space, St. Catherine's Chapel, which Vincent Massey wanted included to "symbolize the position that religion should have in a house of learning." The interior was originally designed by stage-set designer Tanya Moiseiwitsch and features a 17th-century Russian iconostasis and cross, as well as a portativ pipe organ specially designed for the sanctuary by organ builder James Louder, from Quebec. The chapel was extensively redesigned in 2006 by the College architects, Brigitte Shim and Howard Sutcliffe, and rededicated in June of the following year.

St. Catherine's became Canada's third chapel royal in Canada on 21 June, National Indigenous Peoples Day, 2017, in recognition of the sesquicentennial of Canada, the relationship between Massey College and the Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation, and as a gesture of reconciliation. The Chapel acknowledge the history of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and its ratification by the Treaty of Niagara in 1764. It is the first interdenominational and interfaith chapel royal and the only one with its own title in an Indigenous language.

Fellowships

Junior Fellows are postgraduate students "of distinguished ability" at the University of Toronto, either in the study of art and sciences subjects or a professional discipline such as law, engineering, or medicine. Resident Junior Fellows can live in the college for up to three years before becoming non-resident Junior Fellows for another two years. Typically, about sixty Junior Fellows are resident and another ninety are non-resident. Each year, new prospective Junior Fellows apply to the college to be elected by the governing corporation. Junior Fellows are elected based on:
 academic achievement;
 scholarships and honours; and
 community engagement outside academia.
Junior Fellows of the college have included Bernard Amadei, Roger S. Bagnall, Claire Battershill, Andrew Battershill, Dawn R. Bazely, Anne Bayefsky, Warren Cariou, Yeon-Koo Che, Phil De Luna, Eve Egoyan, Carol Hansell, Alister Henskens, Tajja Isen, Padriac Kenney, Vladimir J. Konečni, Catherine Manoukian, Brian McGing, Sharon Moalem, Jacqueline Murray, Chika Stacy Oriuwa, Julie Payette, K. K. Seet, Joseph Tabbi, Vahid Tarokh, Donna Vakalis, Diana Valencia, Douglas N. Walton, Michael Wex, and Oliver Whitehead.

Journalism Fellows are distinguished mid-career Canadian and international journalists who are selected annually by a special committee that includes the president of the University of Toronto, the head of Massey College, and other members appointed by them. Journalism Fellows stay at the college for one academic year from September to May. The college participates in the Canadian Journalism Fellowship Program (formerly known as the Southam Fellowship) and the Scholar-at-Risk program for international scholars caught in sectarian, political or religious intolerance. Additionally, the college hosts a writer-in-residence chosen each year by the college and the University of Toronto's department of English.

Senior Fellows are elected from members of the University of Toronto faculty and other individuals who represent the academic and professional interests of the university. Senior fellows can serve as members of the governing board. The college also hosts visiting academics, generally on sabbatical leave, who are given the title of Senior Residents.

Notable Senior Fellows and Senior Residents of the college have included Haroon Siddiqui, John Polanyi, Ursula Franklin, Mikhail Baryshnikov, Margaret Atwood, Sir Christopher Ondaatje, James Orbinski, Peter H. Russell, Janice Stein, Michael Ignatieff, Adrienne Clarkson, Beverley McLachlin, Hal Jackman, John Ralston Saul, Michael Bliss, Anthony Pawson, Julie Payette, Chantal Hébert, Sir Graham Watson, Rosalie Abella and Bob Rae.

The former chancellor of the University of Cambridge (Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh) and the chancellor of the University of Oxford (Lord Patten of Barnes) both served as Distinguished Honorary Fellows. The Chief of the Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation (currently Chief Stacey LaForme) is the third honorary Senior Fellow.

Governance
Massey College operates as a charity that is legally registered with the Canada Revenue Agency charities directorate as The Master and Fellows of Massey College. The governing body of Massey College is its Governing Board, composed of 26 Senior Fellows and chaired by the elected member of the board, with the president of the University of Toronto and the dean of graduate studies both serving as ex officio members. Additionally, three other ex officio members are nominated to the governing board by the Massey Foundation. Massey College relies on income derived from its own endowments and endowments held for its purposes by the University of Toronto, supplemented by other income from its catering facilities and summer rental programs.

The Visitor is the ceremonial and constitutional head of the college. Officers of the college, who report to the head of the college, include the bursar, the dean and the librarian. Junior Fellows and Senior Fellows are elected to their positions by the governing board at one of its quarterly meetings. The Quadrangle Society consists of individuals who are not fellows of the college, and serves as a bridge between Massey College and the non-academic community.

Massey College is one of three exclusively graduate residential colleges in Canada which are modeled on the Oxbridge system, along with Green College and St. John's College, University of British Columbia. Massey College is the only one of the three that is self-governing.

Principals of Massey College

(formerly Masters of Massey College, until 2018)
Robertson Davies (1963–1981)
Patterson Hume (1981–1988)
Ann Saddlemyer (1988–1995)
John Fraser (1995–2014)
Hugh Segal (2014–2019)
Nathalie Des Rosiers (2019–present)

In February 2018, the title of 'Master' of Massey College was changed to 'Principal' due to concerns regarding the title's authoritarian and racist connotations. This change occurred as a result of a controversy that arose in September 2017 after history professor Michael Marrus (who was a Senior Fellow of the college until he resigned in October 2017) introduced the Master to a Black student by saying "You know this is your 'Master', eh? Do you feel the lash?"

College Visitors
Vincent Massey (1963—1967)
Dalton C. Wells (1973—1976)
John Black Aird (1990—1995)
Rose Wolfe (1996—2003)
H.N.R. Jackman (2003—2016)
Beverley McLachlin (2016—2020)
Robert Prichard (2020–present)

Activities

Massey College sponsors the annual Massey Lectures broadcast across the country on CBC as well as the Walter Gordon Symposium on Public Policy. In conjunction with the University of Toronto's School of Graduate Studies, Massey fellows organize an annual symposium of interest to the broader community.  There is an annual magazine for all its constituent members: Senior and Junior Fellows, Alumni (which include former Senior Residents, and members of its Quadrangle Society (non-academic community members).

Massey Grand Rounds (MGR) is composed of members of the Massey College community, including physicians, medical students and graduate students in areas related to medicine and health sciences.  It convenes monthly during the school term and serves as a discussion forum for topics related to medicine, the health sciences, and issues of interest to students.  Guest Mentors attend regularly.  Planning for the Annual MGR Symposium is a significant element of these gatherings.  The group is guided by Dr. Aubie Angel, CM, MD, FRCPC, Senior Resident/Fellow, President of Friends of CIHR.

The Janet Rossant Lectureship was established at Massey College in 2018 in recognition of Dr. Rossant's distinguished career as a scientist, scholar, builder and leader in medical research. Her dedicated mentorship of young scientists and scholars is reflected in the purpose of this honour. This Lectureship will attract accomplished visiting scientists to engage graduate students and faculty members alike, as part of the Massey Grand Rounds (MGR) program at Massey College.

The college has a strong connection to the Canadian establishments and Canadian journalism. The college also strives to preserve an Oxbridge-type atmosphere by mandating the wearing of gowns at dinner, and incorporating regular High Tables—into its schedule; and balances this with very active outreach programs . The mandated goal of the college is to demonstrate through its corporate life the interconnectedness among all learning.

Massey College also hosts its own Junior Fellow Lecture Series, sometimes called WIDEN-Massey, where graduate student members of the community are invited to talk about their research in a general way to their non-specialist peers.

Local and national arts organisations are affiliated with the college. Many college events feature singers from the Canadian Opera Company or musicians from the Talisker Players as well as many talented Junior Fellows who share their music after supper or at events.

Clarkson Laureateship in Public Service
The Clarkson Laureateships in Public Service are the highest honour the College awards annually to members of its community. Over the years, notable philanthropists, academics, community organizers, politicians, and activists have been awarded a Clarkson Laureateship, including Ursula Franklin, William Davis, and Mary Eberts.

The awarding of Clarkson Laureateships was approved by the Governing Board in 2003 and the first awards were given out in 2004, during the final year that Madam Clarkson, a Senior Fellow of the College, was Governor General of Canada. The award honours her many years of service to Canada by recognizing those members of its community who also contribute to the common good.

The Laureateships are usually awarded at the first High Table in January in the presence of the Laureates' families and Massey College peers. It is tradition for the Laureates to donate the monetary component of the award to a charitable cause of their choosing, often detailed in their acceptance speech. The evening somewhat echoes the ceremonies Madam Clarkson presided over for the Order of Canada when she was Governor General and she herself attends, often joined by past Clarkson Laureates, to honour the awardees.

Cultural references
Massey College was used by David Cronenberg as a location for his 1970 film Crimes of the Future. In 2021, it was used as a location for Star Trek: Discovery.

References

Further reading
Judith Skelton Grant (2015) - A Meeting of Minds: The Massey College Story - University of Toronto Press.
Judith Skelton Grant (1994). Robertson Davies: Man of Myth. Viking.
Val Ross (2009). Robertson Davies: A Portrait in Mosaic. Random House of Canada.
John Robert Colombo (1984). Canadian Literary Landmarks, p. 193. Dundurn Press Ltd.

External links

Massey College Alumni Association
Massey Grand Rounds
Archival papers of James Nairn Patterson Hume, second head of Massey College, held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services

Colleges of the University of Toronto
University of Toronto buildings
Postgraduate schools

Massey College, Toronto


Johannes Seeberger (* 17. September 1843 in Graz; † 11. November 1879 in Lindewiese) war ein österreichischer Schachkomponist.

Leben
Seeberger studierte an der Technischen Hochschule in Graz und an der Bergakademie in Leoben. 1870 war er Hüttenwerksbeamter in Krieglach, später Direktor der Eisenwerke in Lilienfeld.

Schachkomposition

Als Schachkomponist erhielt Seeberger im Turnier der Régence 1860 eine Ehrenvolle Erwähnung und errang im Turnier des Westdeutschen Schachbundes 1862 den ersten Preis. In die Geschichte ist er eingegangen als Urheber des "Seebergers": ein frei beweglicher Stein wird in seiner Zugkraft durch eine indirekte kritische Kombination so eingeschränkt, dass der sich dadurch ergebende Zugzwang ausgenutzt werden kann.

Lösung:
1. Ta1–a8
Droht 2. Ta8–f8+ und lenkt so den schwarzen Läufer nach a8.
1. … Ld5xa8
2. Lc1–a3
Zur Abwehr der Drohung 3. La3xc5 nebst 4. Lc5–d6 matt muss Schwarz den Springer so ziehen, dass er das Feld d6 deckt.
2. … Sc5–b7
3. La3–e7
Auf einen Springerzug setzt nun der Läufer auf d6 matt. Der schwarze Läufer hat keine Zugmöglichkeit, da er im ersten Zug nach a8 gelenkt und durch den erzwungenen Springerzug eingesperrt worden ist. Schwarz befindet sich in Zugzwang.
3. … h6–h5
ermöglicht
4. Le7–g5 matt.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Schachkomponist
Person (Steiermark)
Person (Cisleithanien)
Person (Kaisertum Österreich)
Geboren 1843
Gestorben 1879
Mann

Johannes Seeberger