Pierre Bezuhov (în ) este unul dintre personajele principale ale romanului Război și pace de Lev Tolstoi. Viața lui Pierre - aceasta este calea de descoperire și de frustrare, calea de criză și, în mare măsură, dramatic. Pierre - natura emotionala. Acesta este caracterizat prin minte, predispuse la filozofia de visat , neatentie, o slăbiciune a voinței, lipsa de inițiativă, bunătate excepțională.

Personaje literare
Lev Tolstoi

Pierre Bezuhov


කෙටි විස්තරයක් සහිත ලිපි
Short description is different from Wikidata
ලුවිස් පටුන හෝ ලුවිස්තොට හෝ (ප්රන්ස: //"පොහ්-ලුයී "//; මුරුසි ක්‍රියෝල් නොහොත් මුසු බස): //"පෝල්වී"//, //poːlwi//; ඉංගිරිසි: //"පෝට් ලුවීස්"//) යනු මුරුසි (මොරිෂස්) අගනුවරයි. එහි වැඩි කොටසක් පිහිටා ඇත්තේ පෝ ලුයී දෙසිත්තෙහි වන අතර කුදු බටහිරි කොටසක්  කළුගං දෙසිත්තෙහි (බ්ලැක් රිව දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ) වේ. ලුවිස් පටුන යනු රටේ ආර්ථිකයේ, හැදියායේ හා දෙස්පලුවේ මධ්‍යස්ථානය වන අතර එ රට ජනයා වැඩිතම නගරය ද වේ. නගරය පරිපාලනය කැරැනුයේ ලුවිස් පටුනු නගර සභාව විසිනි. මුරුසි සංඛ්‍යාලේඛනය විසින් පැවැත්වුණු 2012 සංගණනයට අනුවැ, එහි ජනගහනය 147,066 කි.

ඉතිහස

1606 සිටැ මෙහි විසුම් ගත් ලන්දේසින් විසින් ලුවිස් පටුන වරායක් ලෙස යොදාගැනුණු අතර, ඔහු (ඔවුහූ) එ මැ පෙදෙස "කැස්බෑවන්ගේ වරාය" ලෙස හැඳින්වීමට පටන් ගතු.  1736 දී, ප්රන්ස රජය යටතේ, එය මුරුසියේ පරිපාලන මධ්‍යස්ථානය බවට පත් වූ අතර, ප්රන්ස නැව් ආසියාව හා යුරෝපාව හා අතරැ, සුබපැත්මේ තුඩුව වටා ගමන් කිරීමේ දී නැවැත ප්‍රතිපාදන ලබාගැනීමේ ප්‍රධාන නැවැතුමක් වියැ.  පහළොස් වැනි ලුයී රජුට ගරු කැරුමක් ලෙස මෙ පටුන මෙ සේ නම් ලැබැ ඇති. එ කලැ ප්රන්ස යටත් විජිතයක් වූ මුරුසිය හැඳින්වුනේ 'ප්රන්සයේ දිවයින' (Ile de France - ඉල් ද ෆ්හාස්) යනුවෙනි. එ කලැ ප්රන්ස ගොවුනුරු වූ බෙහ්තෝ-ෆෝසුවා මඒ ද' ලා බුහ්දුනේ (Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais) නගරයේ දිවැඩුමට (සංවර්ධනයට) දායක වියැ. සුළි කුණාටු ඇතිවුණු විට මෝකා කඳුවැටියේ වහලින් ලුයිස් පටුන සාපේක්ෂ වශයෙන් දැඩි සුළඟින් රැකුණු බැවින්, දිවයිනේ මහ පටුන හා බලකොටුව හා යන දෙකට මැ ලුවිස් පටුන තෝරා ගැනිණ. නැපෝලියානු යුද සෙමෙහි දී (1800-15) බිරිතානින් දිවයින යටත් කොටැ සිටි සමයෙහි දු වරායේ අගය දිගට මැ පැවැති අතර ඉන්දු සයුර පාලනය කිරීමට බිරිතානින්ට එය වහල් වියැ. කෙසේ නමුදු, 1869 දී සූවස් ඇළ ඇරැඹීමෙන් පසු වරායට නැව්වල පැමිණීම විසල් ලෙස පහත වැටුණි. සූවස් ඇළ වසර හතක් (1967 දී සිටැ) වසා දැමෙත මෙ වරායේ ක්‍රියාකාරකම් වැඩි වියැ. 1970 ගණන්වල අග හරියේ දී වරායේ නවකුරුවම මුරුසිය මුල් කොටැ සිදුවන සියලු ආනයන හා අපනයන සඳහා කේන්ද්‍රීය ලක්ෂ්‍යය ලෙස එහි භූමිකාව පවත්වා ගැන්මට රුකුලක් වියැ. ලුවිස් පටුන මුරුසියේ වියපුරු (ව්‍යාපාරික) හා පරිපාලන අගනුවර ලෙස දිගට මැ පවතින අතර, 1990 දසවස අග භාගයේ දී දසුන්සැරියාවේ ඈරීමෙන් බොහෝ වෙළෙඳසැල්, හෝටල හා අවන්හල් හා කවුඩාන දියපෙරටු (කෞඩාන් වෝට ෆ්‍රන්ට්) පෙදෙසෙහි ඉදිකැරුමත් සමඟ ලුවිස් පටුනේ සැලකියැ යුතු දියුණුවෙක් ඇති වියැ.

මුරුසි කලාකරු රවුෆ් ඔඩෙරුත් විසින් 1930 ගණන්වල මෝටර රිය ප්‍රවාහනය කිසිසේත් මැ නුතුබූ සමයෙකැ දියපෙරටුව (Waterfront) නිරූපණය කරන දසුනක් සැපැයේ. උස් ගොඩනැඟිලි, අදි රියතදබදය හා විසල් ජනකායක් තිබියෙදීත් ඩ්'අර්මෙස්(D'Armes-ඩා'හ්ම්) නම් ලද තැන තවමත් හඳුනාගත හැකි.

ආණ්ඩුව

ලුවිස් පටුනෙහි පෙදෙසි පාලනය නගර සභාවක් විසින් සුවික්සේ. ලුවිස් පටුනු නගර සභාව පළමු වැ 1830 දී පිහිටැවුණු අතර එය දැනට 2011 පළාත් පාලන පනත යටතේ පිහිටුවා ඇති පරිදි මුරුසියෙහි නාගරික පෙදෙස් සඳහා වගකිව යුතු මහ නගර සභා පහෙන් එකකි. කවුන්සිලය පරිපාලනය කිරීම සඳහා සභිකයන් 24 දෙනෙකු ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදීව තේරී පත් වේ. සභිකයන් විසින් නගරාධිපතිවරයකු සහ නියෝජ්‍ය නගරාධිපතිවරයකු තෝරා පත් කර ගැනේ. පරිපාලන, මුදල්, ඉඩම් පරිහරණ සහ සැලැසුම්, පොදු යටිතල පහසුකම්, මහජන සෞඛ්‍ය, සුබසාධන, උයන් හා වතු සහ නගර පොත්ගුල යන දෙපාර්තමේන්තු හරහා සභාවේ කටයුතු සිදු කෙරේ. පළාත් පාලන ආයතන විසින් සැපැයෙන සේවාවන් අතර පෙර පාසල්, ළදරු පාසල හා වෘත්තීය පාසල්, සුව පිරිරැක්ම, නිවාස නියාමනය, සමහර මං සේවා, කසල එකතු කිරීම, සුසාන බිම්, සමහර පාරිසරික හා පිරිබුදිනු පිරිරැකුම් සේවා හා ආර්ථික ප්‍රවර්ධන ක්‍රියාකාරකම් ඇතුළත් වේ. අනෙකුදු සේවාවන් නගරයට සැපැයෙනුයේ මධ්‍යම රජය විසිනි.

පෝට් ලුවීස් සැඳ (ඡන්ද) විමැසුමේ දී සභිකයන් 3 බැගින් වන සැඳ පෙදෙස් 8කට බෙදා ඇති.

වා-ගුණය

සේයා රූ

මේකත් බලන්නැ

 මොරිෂස්හි තැන් ලැයිස්තුව
 පෝට් ලුවී දෙසිත්ත
 ලෝ හින්දි සකසුරු කම්දොරුව

යොමු කිරීම්

CS1 errors: missing periodical
Coordinates on Wikidata
ප්‍රංශ-භාෂා පෙළ ඇතුළත් ලිපි

පෝට් ලුවීස්


Neiokõsõ er en estisk musikgruppe. De repræsenterede Estland i Eurovision Song Contest 2004 med sangen "Tii" (Vej) som endte på en 11. plads i semi finalen med 57 point. Sangen blev sunget i Võro sproget, som bliver talt i det sydøstlige Estland.

Musikgrupper fra Estland
Estlands Eurovision Song Contest-deltagere
Deltagere ved Eurovision Song Contest 2004

Neiokõsõ


La eucroíta es un mineral arseniato encuadrado por lo tanto en la clase de los minerales fosfatos. Fue descubierto por primera vez en el yacimiento de cobre de Svätodušná, cerca Ľubietová, en el distrito de Banská Bystrica, Eslovaquia, y fue descrito en 1823 por August Breithaupt. Apareció en forma de cristales incrustados en esquistos con mica asociado a olivenita. Su nombre procede del griego: "eu" (bueno) y "croma" (color), en alusión al bello color que tiene.

Características físicas y químicas
Es un arseniato de cobre hidratado, con hidroxilos, en el que el cobre se encuentra en dos lugares estructuralmente distintos. Se encuentra como agregados de color verde esmeralda, de desarrollo generalmente tabular, frágiles. Puede contener algo de fosfato. Es soluble en ácidos.

Formación y yacimientos
Es un mineral de formación secundaria, que puede encontrarse en la zona de oxidación de algunos yacimientos hidrotermales de otros minerales del cobre. Aparece con frecuencia asociado a olivenita, mineral que puede también pseudomorfizarlo. También aparecen junto con él  otros minerales secundarios de cobre, como crisocola,  parnauita, azurita o malaquita.
Es un mineral raro, conocido en solamente unas pocas decenas de localidades en el mundo. En España se ha encontrado en la zona de alteración de la mina de oro de carlés, en Salas (Asturias).

Referencias

Minerales arseniatos
Minerales de cobre
Sistema ortorrómbico
Ciencia y tecnología de Eslovaquia
Minerales descubiertos en 1823

Eucroíta


Galip Vardar (Serez 1890 - İstanbul 1958), Türk Tarihçi ve Eğitimci.

Subay babasının görev yeri olan Serez'de doğmuştur. Çok kimlikli bir Balkan kasabasında doğup büyümenin doğal sonucu olarak milli hassasiyetleri fazla gelişmiştir. Rum çocuklarıyla yaşadığı didişmeler ve küçük kavgalarla hatırladığı Serez Vardar'ın karakterinde önemli izler bırakmıştır.

Balkan Topraklarının ve memleketi bildiği kasabasının, Balkan Savaşları'nda kaybından sonra, öğrenimini Balıkesir İdadisi'nde tamamlamak zorunda kalmıştır. Darülfünun'un Tarih bölümünde öğrenciyken, gönüllü olarak Çanakkale Savaşları'na katılmış ve Anafartalar Kahramanı Yarbay Mustafa Kemal'in yönettiği 19.Tümen'de asteğmen rütbesiyle görev yapmıştır.

Mütareke'den sonra döndüğü İstanbul'da bir yandan öğrenimine devam ederken, geçimini sağlamak üzere Polis Kısm-ı Siyasi'de geçici olarak çalışmaya başlamıştır. Bir süre sonra da babasının arkadaşı Albay Hüsamettin Ertürk'ün teşvikiyle, Ankara'daki Milli Hükümet'in gizli servisi olan M.M Grubu'na katılmış ve burada çok önemli istihbarat başarılarına imza atmıştır. Mustafa Kemal'in İstanbul'daki fedailerinden bir olarak kendisine verilen görevleri yerine getirmiş ve Milli Mücadele'nin zaferle sonuçlanmasının ardından Darülfünun'a geri dönmüştür.

Tarih Bölümünü bitirdikten sonra öğretmenliği başlar. Tam 42 yıl Kabataş Erkek Lisesi'nde Tarih öğretmeni olarak çalışır. Ve 10 Kasım 1958 günü yine görevi başındayken, Atatürk'ü anma törenlerinde emrinde savaştığı Paşasını anlatırken, geçirdiği kalp krizi sonucu öldü.

Dış bağlantılar
 Galip Vardar'a dair anılardan derleme

Türk askerler
1958 yılında ölenler
Serez doğumlular
Türk öğretmenler
İstanbul'da kalp krizinden ölenler
I. Dünya Savaşı'nda Osmanlı askerleri

Galip Vardar


عقد 1890 بدأ في 1 يناير 1890م وانتهى في 31 ديسمبر 1899م، وأحيانا يُشار إليه باسم «عقد الموف»  -لأن صبغة الأنيلين التي ابتكرها ويليام هنري بيركن سمحت باستخدام اللون في الأزياء على نطاق واسع - وعُرفت أيضاً باسم «التسعينيّات السعيدة»، في إشارة إلى أنه نُظر إليها بكونها مليئة بالاحترام والتفاؤل. ولم تُصغ هذه العبارة حتى العشرينيات القرن التالي. وكان هذا العقد أيضاً جزءاً من العصر المذهب، وهي عبارة صاغها مارك توين، مشيراً إلى حقبة من الازدهار انتشرت فيها الجريمة والفقر. اتسم العقد في الولايات المتحدة بفترة من الكساد الاقتصادي الشديد الذي أنتجه ذعر العام 1893، فضلاً عن العديد من الإضرابات بين القوى العاملة في مجال الصناعة.

الحروب والصراعات

الحروب

 حرب فرانكو داهومي الأولى (1890)
 حرب فرانكو داهومي الثانية (1892-1894)
 الحرب الصينية اليابانية الأولى (1894-1895)
 الحرب الإيطالية الإثيوبية الأولى (1895-1896)
 الحرب العثمانية اليونانية(1897)
 الحرب الإسبانية الأمريكية (1898)
 الحرب الفلبينية الأمريكية (1899-1902)
 حرب البوير الثانية (1899-1902)

الحروب والصراعات

 • 1890: مذبحة الركبة الجريحة في ساوث داكوتا. في 29 ديسمبر 1890 365 جنديًا من سلاح الفرسان السابع الأمريكي، معسكرًا لـ ميني كونجو (لاكوتا) وهانكبابا سيوكس (لاكوتا) بالقرب من خور الركبة الجريح في داكوتا الجنوبية. تلقى الجيش أوامر بمرافقة سيوكس إلى خط السكة الحديد لنقلها إلى أوماها، نبراسكا. قبل ذلك بيوم واحد، حوصرت قبيلة سيوكس ووافقت على تسليم نفسها في محمية باين ريدج الهندية في ساوث داكوتا. وأثناء عملية نزع سلاح قبيلة سيوكس، لم يتمكن رجل قبيلة أصم يُدعى بلاك كويوت من سماع الأمر بالتخلي عن بندقيته وكان متردداً في القيام بذلك. وتصاعدت المشاجرة حول بندقيته إلى مواجهة شاملة، وقد قام أحد محاربي سيوكس الذين ما زالوا يحملون أسلحتهم بإطلاق رصاصة على سلاح الفرسان السابع، وقام على أثرها سلاح الفرسان السابع بفتح النار بشكل عشوائي من جميع الجهات، مما أسفر عن مقتل الرجال والنساء والأطفال بالإضافة إلى بعض زملائهم من الجنود. سرعان ما قمع سلاح الفرسان السابع حريق سيوكس وهرّب سيوكس الناجين لكن الفرسان الأمريكيين لاحقوهم وقتلوا العديد ممن كانوا غير مسلحين. بحلول الوقت الذي انتهى فيه الأمر، قُتل حوالي 146 من الرجال والنساء والأطفال من قبيلة لاكوتا سيوكس. كما قُتل خمسة وعشرون جنديًا ويعتقد أن بعضهم كانوا ضحايا نيران صديقة حيث وقع إطلاق النار في مسافة قريبة في ظروف فوضوية. يُعتقد أن حوالي 150 لاكوتياً قد فروا من الفوضى، مع وفاة عدد غير معروف لاحقاً بسبب انخفاض حرارة الجسم. جدير بالذكر أن الحادثة هي المشاركة في التاريخ العسكري الذي مُنح فيه معظم ميداليات الشرف في التاريخ العسكري للولايات المتحدة. كانت هذه القبيلة الأخيرة التي تم غزوها والتي حطمت العمود الفقري ل الحروب الهندية الأمريكية والغرب الأمريكي القديم.

 1891: قامت الحرب الأهلية التشيلية من يناير إلى سبتمبر. واجه خوسيه مانويل بالماسيدا رئيس تشيلي والجيش التشيلي الموالي له خورخي مونت المجلس العسكري. تم تشكيل الأخير من خلال تحالف بين المؤتمر الوطني لشيلي والبحرية التشيلية.
 1892: حرب مقاطعة جونسون في وايومنغ. في الواقع حدثت حرب النطاق في أبريل 1892م في مقاطعة جونسون، مقاطعة ناترونا ومقاطعة كونفيرس. وكان المقاتلون هم اتحاد مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ (جمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ) ورابطة المزارعين ومزارعي الثروة الحيوانية بشمال وايومنغ (NWFSGA). كانت جمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ منظمة أقدم، تضم بعضاً من سكان الولاية الأكثر ثراءً وشعبية. كان لها نفوذ سياسي كبير في الدولة والمنطقة. كانت الوظيفة الأساسية لـجمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ هي تنظيم صناعة الماشية من خلال جدولة عمليات الإطلاع على الماشية وشحنات الماشية. كانت NWFSGAA مجموعة من أصحاب مزارع مقاطعة جونسون الأصغر بقيادة بواسطة مستوطن محلي يُدعى بطل نيت. لقد شكلوا مؤخرًا منظمتهم من أجل التنافس مع جمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ. قامت جمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ بإدراج NWFSGA في القائمة السوداء وطلبت منهم إيقاف جميع العمليات، لكن NWFSGA رفضت أوامر جمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ القوية بحلها وبدلاً من ذلك أعلنت عن خططها لإجراء تقرير إخباري خاص بها في ربيع عام 1892م. جمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ، تحت إشراف فرانك وولكوت (عضو جمعية مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ وكبير نورث بلات (نبراسكا) استأجرت مجموعة من المسلحين المهرة بقصد القضاء على اللصوص المزعومين في مقاطعة جونسون وتفكيك ثلاثة وعشرون مسلحًا من باريس تكساس المنطقة وأربعة محققين في الماشية من رابطة مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ، بالإضافة إلى آيداهو رجل الحدود جورج دانينغ الذي انقلب لاحقاً ضد المجموعة. كما انضمّ كادر من رابطة مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ وكبار الشخصيات في وايومنغ بما في ذلك عضو مجلس الشيوخ عن الولاية بوب تيسدال، ومفوض المياه بالولاية WJ كلارك بالإضافة إلى WC إيرفين ينت هيوبرت تيشيماخر، وكلاهما له دور فعال في تنظيم ولاية وايومنغ قبل أربع سنوات. الجراح الدكتور تشارلز بنروز، الذي عمل طبيب المجموعة، وكذلك آسا ميرسر ورئيس تحرير صحيفة رابطة مزارعي الأسهم في وايومنغ، ومراسل صحفي في «شيكاغو تايمز»، سام ت. كلوفر، الذي ظهرت حساباته المباشرة في وقت لاحق في الصحف الشرقية.
 1893 - 1894:حرب الجذام على كاواي في جزيرة كاواي. أقرّت حكومة هاواي المؤقتة بموجب سانفورد بي دول قانوناً من شأنه النقل القسري الجذام إلى مستعمرة الجذام في كالاواو في شبه جزيرة كالوبابا. عندما قاوم كالويكولاو وهو أبرص الاعتقال من قِبل نائب العمدة وقتل الرجل، وردّ دول بإرسال ميليشيا مسلحة ضد المجذومين في وادي كالالاو. وبحسب ما ورد أحبط كالوايكولاو أو قتلوا بعض من مطارديه. لكن الصراع انتهى بإخلاء المنطقة في يوليو 1893. المصدر الرئيسي لهذا الحدث هو منشور 1906 من قبل كاهيكينا كيليكونا (جون شيلدون) والحفاظ على القصة كما رواه آبيلاني أرملة كاهيكينا كيليكونا.
 1893-1894: حرب السكك الحديدية في إقليم أوكلاهوما، كانت حربًا حول مقرات المقاطعة بامتياز. استثمرت شركة روك آيلاند للسكك الحديدية في بلدات إنيد وبوند كريك بعد إعلان من وزارة الداخلية الأمريكية أن يصبح الاثنان مقرين للمقاطعة. قررت وزارة الداخلية إنشاء إنيد وبوند كريك في موقع آخر، بعيدًا عن تأثير الشركة. نتج عن ذلك تنافس اثنان من إنيد واثنان من بوند كريك على أن يصبحا مقرين للمقاطعة، ابتداءاً من سبتمبر 1893. رفضت روك آيلاند توقف قطاراتها في «إنيد الحكومية»، إذ كانوا يمرون دون أخذ الركاب. قام سكان إنيد المحبطون «بالقيام بأعمال عنف»، إذ قام البعض بإطلاق نار بانتظام على القطارات. وقام آخرون بإتلاف الركيزة وخطوط السكك الحديدية مما تسبب في وقوع حوادث قطار. أوقف النزاع في سبتمبر 1894 بعد تدخل حكومي.
 1893-1897: حرب كانودوس، هي عبارة عن صراعٍ بين دولة البرازيل ومجموعة من حوالي 30,000 شخص بقيادة أنتونيو كونسيلهيرو الذين أقاموا مجتمعهم الخاص في شمال شرق ولاية باهيا، في منطقة تدعي كانودوس. بعد عدة محاولاتٍ فاشلة للقمع عسكريًا، انتهي الأمر بطريقة وحشية في أكتوبر 1897، حين اجتاحت أعداد كبيرة من القوات البرازيلية القرية وقتلت معظم سكانها. وبداية الصراع كانت مع أنتونيو كونسيلهيرو ومرافقه الذي كان فلاحًا مُعدمًا لأرضٍ قاحلة، إذا احتجّا على دفع الضرائب لتلك الحكومة البعيدة في ريو دي جانيرو. وقد أسسوا قرية مكتفية ذاتيًا، وسرعان ما انضم إليهم آخرون إذ وجدوا فيها «أرضهم الموعودة». في العام 1895، رفضوا طلبات المحافظ رودريغيز ليما ورئيس أساقفة «ساو سلفادور دا باهيا» جيرونيمو توم دا سيلفا، التي تدعوهم إلى الخضوع للقانون البرازيلي وقوانين الكنيسة الكاثوليكية. في العام 1869، تم إرسال حملة عسكرية بقيادة الملازم مانويل دا سيلفا بيرس فيريرا لتهدئة الوضع، لكنه هوجم وهُزم وأجبر على الإنسحاب. تبع ذلك العديد من الحملات العسكرية القوية على كانودوس، لكنها كانت تقابل بمقاومة شرسة وتوقع خسائر فادحة. في أكتوبر 1897، تتمكن القوات البرازيلية من السيطرة على كانودوس. تم سجن من لم يقتل في الحرب ثم أعدموا من قبل الجيش.
 1894: ثورة فلاحي دونغهاك في جوسون في كوريا. بدأت الثورة في جوبو في شهر فبراير 1894 مع طبقة الفلاحين التي تظاهرت ضد سياسة الفساد للحكومات المحلية الرسمية. سميت الثورة باسم دونغهاك، وهي منطقة كورية تشدد على مبدأ المساواة بين جميع البشر. فشلت قوات الإمبراطور غوجونغ في محاولتها لقمع الثورة، تُفسح هذه الاشتباكات الطريق لصراعاتٍ أكبر. طلبت الحكومة الكورية المساعدة من امبراطورية اليابان. نجحت القوات اليابانية مسلحة بالبنادق والمدفعيات بقمع الثورة. بما أن كوريا كانت خاضعة لسلالة تشينغ الحاكمة في الصين، شكل وجود القوات اليابانية استفزازًا لها. سيتحول هذا الصراع حول السيطرة على كوريا إلى الحرب اليابانية الصينية الأولى. في نفس الوقت، كان الامبراطور الياباني ميجي يحاول منع الإمبراطورية الروسية أو أي قوى أخرى من التوسع داخل كوريا، إذ يُفسر هذا النوع من التوسع كتهديد مباشر للأمن القومي الياباني.
 1895: الدوخوبور، وهم طائفة مسيحية مسالمة في الإمبراطورية الروسية، كانت تقاوم عددًا من القوانين والأنظمة المفروضة عليهم من الحكومة الروسية. نشطوا كثيرًا في جنوب القوقاز حيث بدأ العمل بقانون التجنيد الإجباري في العام 1887 وكانوا محل إثارة للجدل حينها. كما رفضوا أداء قسم الولاء للإمبراطور الروسي الجديد نيقولا الثاني. قام الدوخوبور في المحافظات الثلاث في جنوب القوقاز وبموجب تعليماتٍ من قائدهم المنفي بيتر فازيلوفيتش فيريجين، بتدمير أسلحتهم كإشارة على السلام المطلق. بعد أن جمع الدوخوبور سلاحهم لحرقه ليلة 28/29 يونيو (10/11 يوليو بحسب الرزنامة الجريجورية) من العام 1895، على أنغام مقاطع من المزامير والأناشيد الروحية، قام القوزاق الحوكميون باعتقالهم وضربهم. بعدها، أقام القوزاق في عدة مناطق واسعة من قرى الدوخوبور، وتفرق أكثر من 4,000  من السكان الأصليين في قرى أخرى من مناطق مختلفة في جورجيا. مات العديد من هؤلاء من جراء الجوع والتشرد.

 1896-1898: الثورة الفلبينية. الفلبين، جزء من جزر الهند الشرقية الإسبانية، محاولة للانفصال عن الإمبراطورية الإسبانية. بدأت الثورة الفلبينية في أغسطس 1896، بعد اكتشاف المنظمة السرية الكتيبونن المناهضة للاستعمار من قبل السلطات الإسبانية. كانت منظمة الكتيبونن،  تتحرك وتقاد بواسطة أندريسّ بونيفاسيو بحركة انفصاليّة. في تجمع جماهيري في كالوكان، نظم قادة كاتيبونا أنفسهم في حكومة ثورية وأعلنوا علنا ثورة مسلحة في جميع أنحاء البلاد. ودعا بونيفاسيو إلى شن هجوم منسق متزامن على العاصمة مانيلا. وقد فشل هذا الهجوم، ولكن ثارت المقاطعات المحيطة أيضا. وعلى وجه الخصوص، كما حقق المتمردون في كافيت بقيادة إميليو أغوينالدو انتصارات مبكرة. أدى الصراع على السلطة بين الثوار إلى إعدام بونيفاسيو في عام 1897، مع انتقال الأمر إلى أغوينالدو الذي قاد حكومته الثورية الخاصة. وفي ذلك العام، تم التوصل رسمياً إلى هدنة، على الرغم من أن الأعمال العدائية بين المتمردين والحكومة الإسبانية لم تتوقف في الواقع. وبحلول يونيو، احتل المتمردون تقريبا جميع الأراضى التي تسيطر عليها أسبانيا داخل الفلبين باستثناء مانيلا . وهكذا أعلن أغوينالدو استقلاله عن إسبانيا، وأنشئت جمهورية الفلبين الأولى. بيد أن إسبانيا والولايات المتحدة لم تعترفا باستقلال الفلبين. انتهت الحكم الإسباني في الجزر رسميا فقط مع معاهدة باريس عام 1898، حيث تنازلت إسبانيا عن الفلبين وغيرها من الأراضي للولايات المتحدة. اندلعت الحرب الفلبينية الأمريكية بعد ذلك بوقت قصير.
 1897: مجزرة لاتيمر، وهي عبارة عن موت فظيع لـ19 مهاجرًا غير مسلحين من عمال مناجم الفحم الصلب في منجم لاتيمر كانوا مضربين بالقرب من هازلتون في بنسلفينيا، في العاشر من سبتمبر من العام 1897. قُتل العمال وغالبيتهم من العرق الفنلندي والسلوفاكي والليتواني من قبل مجموعة مأمور مقاطعة لوزيرن. كما جرحوا العشرات من العمال. كانت مجزرة لاتيمر نقطة فاصلة في تاريخ اتحاد عمال المناجم.
 1898: مذبحة بافا بيكاريس في ميلانو، مملكة إيطاليا. في 5 مايو 1898، نظم العمال إضرابا للتظاهر ضد حكومة أنطونيو ستارابا، ورئيس وزراء إيطاليا، وتحميلهم مسؤولية الزيادة العامة في الأسعار وعن المجاعة التي كانت تؤثر على البلاد. وقد سفكت الدماء الأولى في ذلك اليوم، عندما قتل ابن عمدة ميلانو بينما كان يحاول وقف القوات التي تسير ضد حشد المتظاهرين. بعد احتجاج في ميلانو في اليوم التالي، أعلنت الحكومة حالة الحصار في مدينة ميلانو. وتم احضار المشاة والفرسان والمدفعية إلى المدينة وأمر الجنرال فيورنزو بافا بيكاريس قواته باطلاق النار على المتظاهرين . ووفقا للحكومة، كان هناك 118 قتيلا و450 جريحا. وأعلنت المعارضة عن مقتل 400 شخص وإصابة أكثر من 000 2 شخص. واعتقل فيليبو توراتي، أحد مؤسسي الحزب الاشتراكي الإيطالي، واتهم بتحريضه على أعمال الشغب.
 1898: مهمة فوليه وشانوان أو مهمة أفريقيا الوسطى - تشاد، هي بعثة عسكرية فرنسية مدمرة أرسلت من السنغال لغزو حوض تشاد وتوحيد كافة الأراضي الفرنسية في أفريقيا الغربية. انحرفت البعثة عن هدفها وقامت بأعمال عنف عشوائية ضد السكان المحليين وانتهت بمشاكل على صعيد القادة فيما بينهم.
 1898: معركة شوجار بوينت أو معركة بحيرة ليتش، هي معركة وقعت على الشاطئ الشمالي الشرقي لبحيرة ليتش في مينيسوتا. في سبتمبر من العام 1898 في بيير آيلاند تم توقيف بوجونايغيشيغ القيادي في عصابة الأجيبوا للنهب وهم من الهنود الحمر. يظهر تقرير أن 22 فردا من العصابة ساعدوه بالهرب. تم إصدار مذكرة توقيف بحق جميع من تورط بالحادثة. في الخامس من أكتوبر من العام 1898، وصل 80 رجلًا من فوج المشاة الثالث في القوات الأميركية إلى بيير آيلاند لتنفيذ المذكرة، إلا أنهم وجدوها مهجورة فانتقلوا إلى شوجار بوينت (نقطة السكر). وهناك، كانت فرقة من 19 فردًا من العصابة مسلحين ببنادق وينشستر تراقب الجنود من منطقة حرجية. عندما قام جندي باطلاق النار، ويُزعم أنه جندي جديد أطلق النار عن طريق الخطأ، فردت العصابة بالمثل. أصيب الرائد المسؤول ميلفيل ويلكنسون بثلاث طلقات ومات. في نهاية المعركة، كانت الحصيلة سبعة جنود قتلى بمن فيهم ويلكنسون، و16 جريحًا. لم تقع إصابات بين أفراد العصابة. سرعان ما تم إصلاح العلاقات، لكن هذه الإنتفاضة كانت الفوز الأخير للسكان الأصليين في الحروب الأميركية الهندية. تعرف أيضًا باسم «انتفاضة الهنود الأخيرة في الولايات المتحدة».

أحداث سياسية عالمية مهمة

 1890: انقسام حاد بين الإيرلنديين بعد فضيحة قائد في الحزب القومي الإيرلندي تشارلز ستيوارت بارنيل مع زوجة عضو في البرلمان.
 1893: نيوزيلاندا تُصبح أول دولة تمنح المرأة حق التصويت.
 1894: انفجار في المرصد الملكي في غرينيتش. ويعتبر أول حادث إرهابي يُنشر خبره في كافة أنحاء بريطانيا.
 قضية دريفوس، هي عبارة عن فضيحة سياسية قسمت الشارع الفرنسي في تسعينات القرن التاسع عشر وأوائل القرن العشرين. تضمنت الفضيحة إدانة النقيب ألفريد دريفوس بالخيانة في نوفمبر 1894، وهو ضابط مدفعية من يهود الألزاس.
 1895: حركة جونغشو شانغشو، في شهر أبريل قام أكثر من 1300 شخصًا يستعدون لأداء الإختبارات الإمبراطورية بتوقيع عريضة طالبوا فيها الإمبراطور جوانغشو القيام بإصلاحات.كان كانج يووي المنظم الرئيسي لهذا التحرك. وفي مايو، تظاهر الآلاف من علماء وسكان بكين رفضًا لمعاهدة شيمونوسيكي. رد الإمبراطور بما عرف بإصلاحات المئة يوم في 1898.
 1896: الإنتخابات الرئاسية الأميركية
 1896: خطاب صليب الذهب لويليام جيننغز بريان.
 الإمبريالية الجديدة
 يحصل الحزب الجمهوري على أغلبية ساحقة لأول مرة في تاريخ أميركا.

أحداث في المنطقة العربية

 تأسيس مدينة الخضيرة في حيفا - فلسطين
 أنشأت حديقة الحيوان بالجيزة
 صدور العدد الأول لمجلة الهلال الثقافية في 1 سبتمبر 1892
 معركة الوجبة بين حاكم قطر الشيخ جاسم بن محمد آل الثاني ووالي البصرة العثماني محمد حافظ باشا، في 25 مارس 1893 في قلعة الوجبة.
 تأسيس جمعية الاتحاد والترقي من قبل طلبة طب من بينهم إبراهيم ساتروفا وعبد الله جودت.
 الشيخ مبارك الصباح يتولى حكم الكويت بعد قيامه باغتيال أخيه الحاكم محمد بن صباح الصباح وأخيه جراح بن صباح الصباح في 17 مايو 1896
 تأسيس البنك الأهلي المصري في 25 يونيو 1898.

العلوم والتكنولوجيا

العلم

 أنتوني هنري بيكريل اكتشف النشاط الإشعاعي الطبيعي.
 تم اكتشاف الأشعة السينية من قِبل فيلهلم رونتغن.
 واقترح العالم السويدي سفانتي أرهينيوس والجيولوجي الأمريكي توماس شودر تشامبرلين بشكل مستقل أن انبعاثات ثاني أكسيد الكربون البشرية قد تسبب الاحترار العالمي.
 1894: تم اكتشاف الأرجون من قِبل لورد رايلي ووليام رامزي.
 1895: اكتُشف الهيليوم أنه يتواجد على الأرض من قِبل وليام رامزي.
 1896: بعد عام واحد من اكتشاف الهيليوم الأرضي، اكتُشف النيون، كريبتون، والزينون من قِبل وليام رامزي وموريس ترافرز.

الثقافة الشعبية

 نشاط حركة الإستيطان في شيكاغو بناءً على نموذج جين آدمز لمنازل الهول.
 ويليام جونسون كان قياديًا بارزًا في حركة الإعتدال الأميركية.
 الإدارة العلمية في حركة الإعتدال بقيادة ماري هنت، تنجح في السيطرة الكاملة على كافة القطاعات التعليمية المتعلقة بالكحول.
 نهاية القرن (في باريس وبروكسل أولاً)

الأدب والفن

 أوسكار وايلد ينشر روايته الفلسفية صورة دوريان غراي في العام 1891.
 آرثر كونان دويل ينشر قصة شارلوك هولمز الأولى في مجلة ستراند في العام 1891.
 فرانك فديكند يُصدر مسرحيته صحوة الربيع في العام 1891.
 توماس هاردي ينشر روايته تيس: امرأة نقية قُدمت بإخلاص في العام 1891.
 روديارد كبلينغ ينشر مجموعته الشعرية والغنائية قصص الثكنات في العام 1892.
 شارلوت بيركنز خيلمان تنشر قصتها القصيرة ورق الحائط الأصفر في العام 1892.
 روديارد كبلينغ ينشر كتاب الأدغال في العام 1894 وهو عبارة عن مجموعة من القصص.
 كيت شوبان تنشر قصتها القصيرة قصة ساعة من الزمن في العام 1894.
 جورج هنري توماس ينشر أول أغنية مصورة وهي الطفل الصغير الضائع في العام 1894.
 هربرت جورج ويلز ينشر روايته الخيالية آلة الزمن 1895، جزيرة الدكتور مورو 1896، حرب العوالم 1898. ابتكر هربرت الخيال العلمي الحديث من خلال روايته حرب العوالم.
 ألفرد إدوارد هاوسمان مجموعته الشعرية فتى شروشاير في العام 1896.
 ويليام جيمس ينشر كتابة إرادة الإعتقاد في العام 1896، ليُقدم بذلك أساسيات البراغماتية.
 برام ستوكر ينشر روايته دراكولا في العام 1897.
 انطوني تشيخوف ينشر مسرحيته العم فانيا في العام 1899.
 كيت شوبان تنشر رواية اليقظة في العام 1899.
 جوزيف كونراد ينشر رواية قلب الظلام في العام 1899.
 ارتفاع نسبة الإهتمام بالفن الجديد.

شخصيات بارزة

ملوك ورؤساء

معرض صور

مراجع

تأريخ
ثورات 1848
ثورات 1848 في الممالك الإيطالية

عقد 1890


رأسمالية الدولة بالنسبة للماركسيين، هي طريقة لوصف المجتمع الذي تكون فيه القوى المنتجة مملوكة ومدارة من الدولة بشكل رأسمالي، حتى لو سمت تلك الدولة نفسها اشتراكية. في أدبيات الماركسية، تعرف الرأسمالية على أنها: نظام اجتماعي يجمع بين الرأسمالية- نظام الأجور الذي ينتج ويوزع القيمة الفائضة - وملكية أو التحكم من قبل جهاز الدولة. بهذا التعريف، البلد الذي تحكمه رأسمالية الدولة هي تلك التي تتحكم الحكومة فيه بالاقتصاد وتتصرف كشركة كبرى. ثمة نظريات وانتقادات مختلفة لرأسمالية الدولة، بعضها كان موجودا أثناء ثورة أكتوبر، أو حتى قبل ذلك. التيمات المشتركة فيما بينها هي أن العمال لا يتحكمون بوسائل الإنتاج بأنفسهم وأن علاقات السلع والإنتاج لا تزال توجد في رأسمالية الدولة.

هذا المصطلح يستخدم أيضا من بعض المؤيدين ل رأسمالية دعه يمر ليعني اقتصاد رأسمالي خاص خاضع لتحكم الدولة.

أصل التسمية

استخدم المصطلح من قبل الحركة الاشتراكية منذ أواخر القرن التاسع عشر.

على الأرجح، تعود فكرة رأسمالية الدولة لنقد ميخائيل باكونين .

إبان الحرب العالمية الأولى، لاحظ نيكولاي بوخارين  مرحلة جديدة في تطور الرأسمالية، تكون فيها جميع قطاعات الإنتاج والمؤسسات الاجتماعية ذات الشأن تحت إدارة الدولة، وأطلق على تلك المرحلة «رأسمالية الدولة». بعد ثورة أكتوبر، استخدم لينين المصطلح بشكل إيجابي. في ربيع 1918، أثناء فترة قصيرة من الليبرالية الاقتصادية وقبل بزوغ فكرة شيوعية الحرب  ، برر لينين رأسمالية الدولة تحت السيطرة السياسية ل دكتاتورية البروليتاريا مما سيساعد على إحكام قبضة التحكم المركزي وتطوير القوى المنتجة:
«الواقع يقول أن رأسمالية الدولة هي بمثابة خطوة إلى الأمام. إذا أمكننا الوصول إلى رأسمالية الدولة في وقت قصير، سيعد ذلك انتصار»

لينين، 1918

كان الانتقاد الأول لرأسمالية الدولة في الاتحاد السوفييتي صادر من الشيوعيين اليساريين. إحدى النزعات المهمة لشيوعيي عام 1918 اليساريين الروس كانت في نقد إعادة توظيف علاقات رأسمالية سلطوية وطرق ضمن الإنتاج. كما جادل أوسينسكي ، إدارة الرجل الواحد، وفرض قواعد الرأسمالية سيحول دون مشاركة العمال في تنظيم الإنتاج، التيلرية  حولت العامل إلى أحد أجزاء الآلة، والأجور فردية بدلا من جمعية، وبذلك تغرس قيم البرجوازية الحقيرة في العمال. باختصار، تساهم تلك الإجراءات في تحويل العمال من أفراد فاعلين بشكل جمعي إلى موضوعات خاضعة لرأس المال. لا بد أن تشارك الطبقة العاملة في الإدارة السياسية والاقتصادية، يجادل الشيوعيون اليساريون، والمشكلة تكمن في أن الإنتاج الرأسمالي صير العمال إلى موضوعات، بدلا من ذوات فاعلة.

الليبراليون الكلاسيكيون ورأسماليو اقتصاد عدم التدخل

يستخدم موري روثبورد  ، وهو من رأسماليي «دعه يعمل»، يستخدم المصطلح بشكل تبادلي مع رأسمالية الدولة الاحتكارية، ويستخدمه ليصف الشراكة بين الحكومة والشركات الكبرى، حين تسمح الدولة لنفسها بالتدخل بالنيابة عن الرأسماليين وضد مصلحة المستهلكين. ويميز بين هذه وبين رأسمالية دعه يعمل التي تقول بأن الدولة لا تتدخل لحماية الشركات من تقلبات قوى السوق. كما أنه جدير بالذكر أن هاري إلمر بارنز ، وصف اقتصاد ما بعد «العقد الجديد»  في ستينات القرن العشرين، في الولايات المتحدة، على أنه «رأسمالية الدولة».

رأسمالية الدولة في الدراسات الأوروبية

يستخدم عدد من الأكاديميين وعلماء الاقتصاد السياسي الأوروبيين المصطلح لوصف بعض تنوعات الرأسمالية التي سادت مؤخرا في الاتحاد الأوروبي. يقسم شميت في مقالته «مستقبل الرأسمالية الأوروبية» الرأسمالية الأوروبية إلى ثلاثة مجموعات: رأسمالية السوق، الرأسمالية المدارة، ورأسمالية الدولة. في المجموعة الأخيرة، ثمة تنسيق بين الدولة، المؤسسات الكبرى، ونقابات العمال لتأمين نمو اقتصادي وتطوير شكل شبه رأسمالي. يورد شميت فرنسا وإيطاليا كأمثلة على رأسمالية الدولة.

مصادر

أنظمة اقتصادية
اقتصاد فاشي
تاريخ الرأسمالية
تروتسكية
رأسمالية
ماوية
مصطلحات سياسية
مصطلحات شيوعية

رأسمالية الدولة


Goitetom Haftu (Tesema) (* 1987) ist eine äthiopische Marathonläuferin.

2010 wurde sie jeweils Zweite beim Rabat-Halbmarathon und beim Taiyuan-Marathon und stellte beim La-Rochelle-Marathon einen Streckenrekord auf.

Im Jahr darauf wurde sie Zweite beim Rom-Marathon, siegte beim Gold-Coast-Marathon sowie beim Boulogne-Billancourt-Halbmarathon und wurde Zweite beim Taipei International Marathon. 2012 wurde sie Siebte beim Hong Kong Marathon und Vierte beim Paris-Marathon.

2013 siegte Haftu beim Warschau-Marathon und stellte dabei mit 2:29:32 h einen Streckenrekord auf.

Persönliche Bestzeiten

 Halbmarathon: 1:10:57 h, 20. November 2011, Boulogne-Billancourt
 Marathon: 2:26:21 h, 20. März 2011, Rom

Weblinks

 Athletenporträt von Goitetom Haftu bei der IAAF (englisch)

Fußnoten

Marathonläufer (Äthiopien)
Äthiopier
Geboren 1987
Frau

Goitetom Haftu


The coat of arms of Lithuania is a mounted armoured knight holding a sword and shield, known as  (). Since the early 15th century, it has been Lithuania's official coat of arms and is one of the oldest European coats of arms. It is also known by other names in various languages, such as ,  in the Lithuanian language or as , ,  (romanized: ) in the Polish, and Belarusian languages.  is translatable as Chase, Pursuer, Knight or Horseman, similar to the Slavic vityaz (Old East Slavic for brave, valiant warrior). Historically –  (mounted epic hero of old) or in heraldry –  (mounted sovereign).

The once powerful and vast Lithuanian state, first as Duchy, then Kingdom, and finally Grand Duchy was created by the initially pagan Lithuanians, in reaction to pressures from the Teutonic Order and Swordbrothers which conquered modern-day Estonia and Latvia, forcibly converting them to Christianity. The Lithuanians are the only Balts that created a state before the modern era. Moreover, the pressure stimulated Lithuanians to expand their lands eastward into territory of Ruthenian Orthodox in the Dnieper's upper basin and that of the Eurasian nomads in the Eurasian Steppe between lower Dnieper and Dniester, conquering present-day Belarusian, Ukrainian, and Russian lands in the process. This expansive Lithuania was conveyed in the coat of arms of Lithuania, the galloping horseman. The usage of the coat of arms of Lithuania spread even further throughout the country as the Third Statute of Lithuania (adopted in 1588) required to use it on each county's seal.

The ruling Gediminid dynasty first adopted the horseback knight as a dynastical symbol which depicted them. Later, in the early 15th century, Grand Duke Vytautas the Great made the mounted knight on a red field the coat of arms of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Ever since, the Lithuanian rulers and nobles related to the ruling dynasty used the coat of arms. The knight's shield was designed for decoration with the Columns of Gediminas or the Jagiellonian Double Cross. Article 15 of the Constitution of Lithuania, approved by national referendum in 1992, stipulates, "The Coat of Arms of the State shall be a white Vytis on a red field".

Blazoning
The heraldic shield features the field gules (red) with an armoured knight on a horse salient argent (silver). The knight is holding in his dexter hand a sword argent above his head. A shield azure hangs on the sinister shoulder of the knight with a double cross/two-barred cross or (gold) on it. The horse saddle, straps, and belts are azure. The hilt of the sword and the fastening of the sheath, the stirrups, the curb bits of the bridle, the horseshoes, as well as the decoration of the harness, are or (gold).

Names of the coat of arms
In early heraldry, a knight on horseback is usually depicted as ready to defend himself and is not yet called . It is unknown for certain what Lithuania's coat of arms was initially called.

Lithuanian language
The origins of the Lithuanian proper noun  are also unclear. At the dawn of the Lithuanian National Revival, Simonas Daukantas employed the term , referring not to the Lithuanian coat of arms, but to the knight, for the first time in his historical piece , published in 1846. The etymology of this particular word is not universally accepted; it is either a direct translation of the Polish , a common noun constructed from the Lithuanian verb  ("to chase"), or, less likely, a derivative from the East Slavic vityaz. In western South Slavic languages (Slovenian, Croatian/Serbian/Montenegrin and Macedonian) and Hungarian,  denotes the lowest feudal rank, a knight. According to the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary,  is derived from the Old High German word .

The first presumption, raised by the linguist Pranas Skardžius in 1937, is challenged by some, as  does not mean "chasing (knight)". In support of the second proposal, the Lithuanian language has words with the stem -vyt in personal names like Vytenis; furthermore,  has a structure common to words derived from verbs. According to professor Leszek Bednarczuk, there existed a derivative word ,  in the Old Lithuanian language, which translates to English as pursuit (from ), chase (from ).

For the 13th century the Old Prussian word vitingas is attested, meaning "knight" or "nobleman". In today's Lithuania, it can be found in place names, personal names and action verbs. So it is possible that in the Old Lithuanian language there was a similar word describing act of chasing an enemy or an armed horseman chasing an enemy. Another possibility is that Grand Duke Vytenis name is derived from the Old Prussian word vitingas. Therefore, Vytenis' reign (1295–1316) is also associated with the word Vytis as the Ruthenian Hypatian Codex mentions that after beginning to rule the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th century, he came up with a seal with an armored horseman and a sword raised above his head (in the Codex's original Old Church Slavonic it is written that Vytenis named it ).

Several historical sources mention place names which names are probably derived from the  word.
A Teutonic source, probably dating from the late 14th century or early 15th century, mentions a place referred to as . This is translatable to Vytenis' Court in German. It was located close to the Lithuanian Bisenė fortress, the base for Vytenis' attack on the Teutonic Christmemel fortress in 1315. In 1629 Konstantinas Sirvydas used a toponym  () on the basis of a document from ,  and associated it with personal names Vygailas, Vytenis, Vytautas. This version is also supported by the fact that the Grand Dukes of Lithuania themselves were depicted on early Lithuanian seals, therefore it is likely that the horseman on the seal of Vytenis was named after him.

In the 17th century in his Polish-Latin-Lithuanian dictionary Konstantinas Sirvydas translated the Polish word Pogonia in the sense of the person doing the chasing into Lithuanian as Waykitoias, and in the sense of the act of chasing as Waykimas. Today Waykimas (Vaikymas in the modern Lithuanian orthography) is considered to be the earliest known Lithuanian language name for the coat of arms of Lithuania.  was also used into the 19th century, together with another Lithuanian name – .

In 1884, Mikalojus Akelaitis referred to the coat of arms of Lithuania per se as  in the Aušra newspaper. This name became popular and eventually became official in the independent Republic of Lithuania. Originally called  in 1st person Sg. Dat., by the 1930s  came to be called  in 1st person Sg. Dat.

Slavic languages
The words pogoń and pogonia have been known in Polish since the 14th century in the sense of "pursuit" or the legal obligation to chase fleeing opponent. It was not until the 16th century that the use of the word appeared to describe an armed horseman.

The word came into heraldic use in 1434, when King Władysław II granted a coat of arms with this name (Pogonya) to Mikołaj, the mayor of Lelów. The coat of arms depicted a hand wielding a sword emerging from a cloud. The resemblance to the Lithuanian coat of arms of the king is obvious, so it is possible that it was an abatement of the ruler's coat of arms. The word pogonia to describe the Lithuanian coat of arms in the Polish language for the first time appears in Marcin Bielski's chronicle, published in 1551. However, Bielski makes a mistake, and speaking about the Lithuanian coat of arms he describes Polish noble coat of arms: "From this custom Lithuanian principality uses Pogonia as its coat of arms, that is an armed hand passes a bare sword". The term gradually became established with the spread of the Polish language and culture.  is also found in Prince Roman Sanguszko's documents from 1558 and 1564.

The emblem was described a century earlier, in a document of Supreme Duke Władysław III Jagiellon from 1442 in which he confirmed the rights of the Czartoryski, descendants of Karijotas, to use the armed horseman (; ), as well as in Jan Długosz's  or the early 16th-century Bychowiec Chronicle. Another popular Polish term was . The symbol's meaning and appearance also changed: the old defender of the land became more and more like a rider chasing an enemy. The name  was first recorded legally in the Third Statute of Lithuania of 1588. The Lithuanian Statutes were used not only in Lithuania, but also in White Ruthenia and Little Russia following the Partitions in 1795, into the 19th-century.

Possible early beginnings

The leader of neo-pagan movement Romuva, Lithuanian ethnologist and folklorist Jonas Trinkūnas suggested that the Lithuanian horseman depicts Perkūnas, considered as the god of the Lithuanian soldiers, thunder, lightning, storms, and rain in Lithuanian mythology. It is believed that the  may represent Perkūnas as supreme god or Kovas who was also a war god and has been depicted as a horseman since ancient times. Very early on, Perkūnas was imagined as a horseman and archeological findings testify that Lithuanians had amulets with horsemen already in the 10th–11th centuries, moreover, Lithuanians were previously buried with their horses who were sacrificed during pagan rituals, and prior to that it is likely that these horses carried the deceased to the burial sites. One of the pendants made from brass and symbolizing a horseman was found in tumulus in the Plungė District Municipality, dating to the 11th–12th centuries.

Lithuanian mythologists believe that the bright rider on the white horse symbolizes the ghost of the ancestral warrior, reminiscent of core values and goals, giving strength and courage. Gintaras Beresnevičius also points out that a white horse had a sacral meaning to Balts. These interpretations coincide with one of the interpretations of the German coat of arms, that suggests an adler being the bird of Odin, a god of war, which is commonly depicted as a horserider.

Emblems of Lithuania's rulers (before 1400)
The old Lithuanian heraldry of the Lithuanian nobles was characterized by various lines, arrows, framed in shields, colored and passed down from generation to generation. They were mostly used until the Union of Horodło (1413) when 47 Lithuanian families were granted various Polish coat of arms, yet some Samogitian nobles retained old Lithuanian heraldry up to the mid-16th century.

The second redaction of the Lithuanian Chronicles, compiled in the 1520s at the court of Albertas Goštautas mentions that semi-legendary Grand Duke Narimantas (late 13th century) was the first Grand Duke to adopt knight on horseback as his and the Grand Duchy's coat of arms. It describes it as an armed man on a white horse, on the red field, with a naked sword over his head as if he was chasing someone, as the author explains that is why it is called "погоня" (pohonia). A slightly later edition of the chronicle, so-called Bychowiec Chronicle, tells a similar story, without mentioning coat of arms name: "when Narimantas took the throne of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, he handed his Centaur coat of arms to his brothers and made a coat of arms of a rider with a sword for himself. This coat of arms indicates a mature ruler capable of defending his homeland with a sword".

The legend of the adoption of the Lithuanian coat of arms at the time of Narimantas in the version of Bychowiec Chronicle is repeated by later authors: Augustinus Rotundus, Maciej Stryjkowski, Bartosz Paprocki and later historians and heraldists of the 17th and 18th centuries.

Symbols of Mindaugas

We do not know the symbols used by the first rulers of Lithuania. One of the few relics that have survived to our times is the seal of Mindaugas. In 1236 Mindaugas united several Lithuanian tribes and accepted Roman Catholicism in 1251. In 1253 he was crowned by the papal legate as King of Lithuania and his realm was elevated to the rank of a kingdom. However the authenticity of a partially survived seal, attached to the act of 1255, according to which Selonia was transferred to the Livonian Order, is disputed. According to the 1393 description, when the legend was still intact, the seal of Mindaugas had an inscription:  ().

In 1263, following the assassination of King Mindaugas and his family members by Daumantas and Treniota, Lithuania suffered internal disorder as three of his successors: Treniota, his son-in-law Švarnas, and his son Vaišvilkas were assassinated during the next seven years. Stability returned with Traidenis' reign, designated Grand Duke c. 1270. At a similar time, the ancient Lithuanian capital Kernavė was first mentioned in 1279 in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle by noting that the Livonian Order's army devastated an area in King Traidenis' lands, which was their main objective (part of early military clashes prior to the Lithuanian Crusade). The coat of arms, seals or symbols of Traidenis are unknown. However, archaeological findings in the 13th and 14th century necropolis in Kernavė offer an astounding variety of symbols and ornaments, of which plants, herbs, palmettes motifs, and suns (swastikas) are one of the most distinct symbols, depicted on the discovered headbands and rings, dating to the pagan period before the Christianization of Lithuania.

Symbols of Gediminas
Grand Duke Gediminas's authentic symbols did not survive to this day. On 18 July 1323 in Lübeck imperial scribe John of Bremen made a copy of three letters sent by Gediminas on 26 May to the recipients in Saxony. According to the notary's transcript, the oval seal of Gediminas had a twelve corners edging, at the middle of the edging was an image of a man with long hairs, who sat on a throne and held a crown (or a wreath) in his right hand and a sceptre in his left hand, moreover, a cross was engraved around the man along with a Gediminas' title in Latin.

Symbols on coins of Vytautas and Jogaila
The unique symbol of a spearhead with a cross appeared on Pečat'-type coin minted in the late 14th century. These coins are usually attributed to Jogaila and Vytautas.Several very rare Lithuanian coins were found with a lion or leopards and the Columns of Gediminas, dated to the reign of Vytautas the Great and Jogaila in the 14th century (one of them was found in Kernavė). There is still disagreement where these coins were minted, with the most likely location being Smolensk, other proposed are Polotsk, Vyazma, Bryansk, Ryazan or Vilnius. Such coins symbolized the Ruthenian vassalship. The leopards were depicted with lily-shaped tails, which symbolized a sovereign ruler, therefore such coins must have been minted after the Pact of Vilnius and Radom in 1401 when Vytautas became fully in charge of the Lithuanian affairs. Vytautas minted such coins with leopards in the Principality of Smolensk before its Uprising of 1401 and after 1404 when it became a permanent part of Lithuania. Another type of coins with lion and node symbol are found in eastern Lithuania and Vilnius, researchers associate them with Skirgaila or Jogaila, however such associations lack genuine evidence as the seal of Jogaila attached to the Union of Krewo and the 1382 seal of Skirgaila were not preserved. Despite that, it is possible that the Ruthenian lion also was one of the early coat of arms of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as Jogaila in the Union of Krewo styled himself as:  (). Historian  suggested that the lion was abolished as the Lithuanian coat of arms after the Union of Krewo because in medieval heraldry it was equivalent to the Polish Eagle (lion is the king of animals, while eagle is the king of birds) and Lithuania at the time became a vassal state of the Kingdom of Poland, thus with a lower status.

The Lithuanian dukes and nobles declined Uliana of Tver's, Jogaila's mother, suggestion to baptise the Lithuanians as Orthodox before the Union of Krewo and sought Catholicism instead. Grand Duke Jogaila also rejected the Grand Prince of Moscow Dmitry Donskoy's offer to marry his daughter Sofia, convert Lithuania into an Orthodox state and to recognize himself as a vassal of Dmitry Donskoy, instead he chose Catholicism and married Queen Jadwiga of Poland, while also continuing to title himself as ruler of all the Rus' people, therefore minting coins with his portrait (as a horseman) on the obverse and a lion with a braid above him on the reverse, other Jogaila's coins features the Polish Eagle instead of his portrait on one side and a lion on the other side. In 2021, a treasure was discovered in Raišiai, with 40 Jogaila's coins (Denars), some of which are with lions while others are with horsemen wielding swords or spears, most of these coins were minted in 1377–1386 (prior to crowning of Jogaila as the Polish King).

The Treasure of Verkiai, discovered in 1941, has 1983 coins of Vytautas the Great which resembles the Pečat-type coins, however, they likely have a crossbow bolt (instead of an arrowhead or a spearhead) and a cross on one side and the Columns of Gediminas on the other side, thus they presumably have been minted later than the Pečat-type coins. Quite a lot of such coins of Vytautas the Great were also found in other places of Lithuania (mostly in the southeastern and central part, but also in Samogitia), Ukraine (especially in Volhynia), and Belarus. In comparison, coins attributed to Jogaila, which have a similar appearance to the Pečat'''-type coins, has a spearhead and a cross on one side and the Double Cross of the Jagiellonians () in a shield on the other side.

Following the Christianization of Lithuania, in circa 1388, Grand Duke Jogaila minted new coins: with a fish rolled into a ring (Christian sign of the fish) and inscription КНѦЗЬ ЮГА (Duke Jogaila) on the obverse and with a Double Cross of the Jagiellonians in a shield on the reverse. It is believed that such coins were minted to commemorate the Christianization of Lithuania and the Christian sign of the fish could have been chosen when Pope Urban VI officially recognized Lithuania as a Catholic state (such recognition occurred on 17 April 1388). Nevertheless, a fish–blossom symbol, depicted on the coins, can also be associated with an earlier date of 11 March 1388 when Pope Urban VI recognized the Roman Catholic Diocese of Vilnius, which was established by Grand Duke Jogaila. In any case, the main purpose of this symbol was to showcase the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a Catholic state, recognized and under the auspices of the Pope. Lithuania was the last state in Europe to be Christianized.

 Knight on horseback

The coat of arms of Lithuania originate from rulers depictions on seals. Originally the riding horseman symbolized the ruler of the Duchy of Lithuania (Duchy of Vilnius), which was the most important land of the state. Algirdas was probably the first ruler to use a seal with a depiction of himself on horseback. The seal, which was attached to Polish-Lithuanian treaty of 1366, wasn't preserved, and we know its appearance only thanks to historian Tadeusz Czacki who claimed to have seen the seal. The oldest preserved such seal is Jogaila's seal that he was using in years 1377–1380, when he became Grand Duke of Lithuania. Duke of Kernavė Vygantas' seal of 1388 is the oldest preserved seal with a riding knight depicted on the shield, giving it a status of a coat of arms. Jogaila and other Algirdas sons: Skirgaila, Lengvenis, Kaributas, Vygantas, and Švitrigaila all were using seals with a horseman-type images. The horseman was chosen due to at the time flourishing culture of knighthood in Europe. At first, the charging knight was depicted riding to left or right, and holding a lance instead of the sword: two seals of Lengvenis of 1385 and of 1388 exhibit this change. Initially Kęstutis and his son Vytautas were depicted on their seals as standing warriors. Only later Vytautas adopted, like other Lithuanian dukes, the image of a riding knight.

The establishment of the sword in the heraldry of the Lithuanian rulers is related to the ideological changes of the ruling Gediminids dynasty. The lance was more often exhibited on the seals of Skirgaila and Kaributas. In 1386, after Jogaila was crowned as King of Poland, a new heraldic seal was made for him, with four coat of arms: white eagle, representing Kingdom of Poland, knight on a horse, with lance in hand and a Double Cross on his shield, representing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and coat of arms Kalisz land and Kuyavia. It was the first time that a double cross was depicted on the Lithuanian horseman's shield. The Double Cross was adopted by Jogaila after his baptism as Władysław and marriage with a queen Jadwiga of Poland in 1386, daughter of Louis I of Hungary, therefore the Double Cross was most likely taken over from the Kingdom of Hungary where it spread in the 12th century from the Byzantine Empire. It is also possible that the new coat of arms was made in imitation of the Holy Cross relics from the sanctuary of Łysa Góra, and with this gesture the newly crowned king emphasised his sincere faith. The symbolism of the Double Cross was connected with this event's significance for both Jogaila and the entire land. A similar cross in Western heraldry is called the patriarchal Cross of Lorraine, and it is used by archbishops while the cross itself symbolizes baptism.

 Columns of Gediminas

The Columns of Gediminas are one of the earliest surviving national symbols of Lithuania and its historical coats of arms. Historian Edmundas Rimša, who analyzed the ancient coins, suggested that the Columns of Gediminas symbolize the Trakai Peninsula Castle Gates. There is no data that they were used by Grand Duke Gediminas himself, and it is believed that their name originated when Gediminas was considered the founder of the Gediminids dynasty. Since 1397, the Columns of the Gediminids were undoubtedly used on Vytautas the Great coat of arms, and it is believed that a similar symbol may have been used by his father Kęstutis, who was Duke of Trakai and Grand Duke of Lithuania, titles which Vytautas inherited. After Vytautas' death, the symbol was taken over by his brother Grand Duke Sigismund Kęstutaitis. At first, the Columns used to represent the family of Kęstutis, and since the 16th century, when Grand Duke Jogaila's successors started using them in Lithuania as well, the Columns became the symbol of all Gediminids. It was Grand Duke Casimir IV Jagiellon who made the Columns of the Gediminids as the coat of arms of his dynasty after becoming the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1440.

In heraldry, the Columns of Gediminas were usually pictured in gold or yellow on a red field, while they were occasionally portrayed in silver or white since the second half of the 16th century. There is no doubt that the Columns of the Gediminids are of local origin as similar symbols can be found on the insignias of the Lithuanian nobility. It is believed that the Columns of the Gediminids were derived from signs used to mark property.

Compared to the Double Cross of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the Columns of the Gediminids had been used more predominantly in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Columns of the Gediminids were featured on the Lithuanian coins of the 14th and subsequent centuries; the banners of the regiments led by Grand Duke Vytautas at the Battle of Grunwald; the 15th and 16th century church paraphernalia given to Vilnius Cathedral; the 15th century seals of the Lithuanian Franciscans and major state seals in 1581–1795; book graphics; and the pieces of work by Vilnius' goldsmiths. Combined with the knight on horseback, the Columns of Gediminas were also embedded on the Lithuanian cannon barrels in the 16th and 17th centuries. The symbol also decorated horse bridles and landmarks of the dominions of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. In 1572, after the death of the last male Gediminid descendant, Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus, the Columns of Gedimimas remained in the insignias of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as the secondary (alongside the knight on horseback) coat of arms of the state. In later years, the Columns of Gediminas were called simply as the Columns (it is known from the early 16th century sources).

 Official coat of arms of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

 15th century

The meaning of the Lithuanian ruler's coat of arms and the coat of arms of the Lithuanian state was given to the horseman not by Jogaila, but by his cousin, the Grand Duke Vytautas the Great. Firstly, around 1382, he changed the infantry on his coat of arms, inherited from his father Grand Duke Kęstutis, to a horseman, then made the portrait heraldic – in Vytautas' majestic seal (early 15th century), he is surrounded by the coat of arms of lands belonging to him, in one hand he holds a sword, which represents the power of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, in the other hand – a raised shield (on which a horseman is depicted), which, like an apple of royal power, symbolizes the Lithuanian state ruled by him. Furthermore, Vytautas the Great minted coins with the horseman on one side and the Columns of Gediminas on the other side.

In the 15th century, Jan Długosz claimed that Vytautas brought forty regiments to the victorious Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and that everyone used red flags of which thirty regiments flags had an embroidered armored horseman with a raised sword riding on a white, sometimes black, bay or dappled horse, while the rest of ten regiments flags had embroidered Columns of Gediminas with which Vytautas marked his elite troops with horses. According to Długosz, those flags were named after lands or dukes: Vilnius, Kaunas, Trakai, Medininkai, Sigismund Korybut, Lengvenis, and other. It is believed that the regiments with the Columns of Gediminas were brought from Vytautas' homeland (the Duchy of Trakai), and with a horseman – from other areas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Sigismund Korybut during his visit to Prague at the invitation of the Czech Hussites in 1422 as a delegate of Grand Duke Vytautas the Great, was depicted in a drawing wherein he carries his armorial banner decorated with a white charging knight on a red field; at its top, there is a narrow streamer, which the Germans, in particular, were fond of depicting in the 15th century.

The history between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Jagiellonian dynasty and the Kingdom of Hungary and Kingdom of Croatia is closely related as Władysław III Jagiellon, the eldest son of Władysław II Jagiełło and his Lithuanian wife Sophia of Halshany, was crowned as the King of Hungary and King of Croatia on 15 May 1440 in Visegrád, moreover, following his father's death, he also inherited the title of the Supreme Duke () of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, held it in 1434–1444 and presented himself with it, as such share of powers was agreed in the Union of Horodło of 1413 between his father and Grand Duke Vytautas the Great. The Royal Seal of Władysław III Jagiellon includes a Lithuanian  () with wings laid out above the coat of arms of Hungary and alongside the Polish Eagle.

At the end of the 14th century, the knight on horseback appeared on the first Lithuanian coins, however, this figure had not yet fully formed, therefore in some coins, the knight is depicted as riding to the left, in others – to the right. In some he holds a spear while others depict a sword; the horse can either be standing in place or galloping. The Double Cross was used in isolation on the Lithuanian coins of the late 14th century and on the banner of the royal court referred to in the Lithuanian language as  ().

During Grand Duke Alexander Jagiellon's reign in Lithuania from 1492 to 1506, the depiction of the knight's direction was established – the horse was always galloping to the left (in the heraldic sense – to the right). Also, the knight was for the first time depicted with a scabbard, while the horse – with a horse harness, however, the knight does not yet have on his shoulder a shield with the double-cross of the Jagiellonian dynasty. Moreover, Alexander's coins also depict an eagle as the symbol of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania's dynastic claim to the Polish throne. During the reign of Grand Duke Sigismund I the Old, who ruled Lithuania from 1506 to 1544, the image of the horseman was moved to the other side of the coins – the reverse, thus marking that it was the coin of Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The knight was also for the first time depicted with a shield with the Double-Cross of the Jagiellonian dynasty. In heraldry, such an image of the horseman is only associated with the Lithuanian state. In the 15th century, the Double Cross of the Jagiellonians became an integral part of the Lithuanian coat of arms and was started to be depicted on the horseman's shield.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the colors and composition of the seal became uniform: on a red field a white (silver) charging knight with a sword raised above his head, with a blue shield with a Double Golden Cross to his left shoulder (during the reign of Kęstutaičiai dynasty – red shield with the golden Columns of Gediminas); horse bridles, leather belts and a short girdle – colored in blue. Metals (gold and silver) and the two most important colors of medieval coats of arms were used for the Lithuanian coat of arms – Gules (red) then meant material, or earthly (life, courage, blood), Azure (blue) – spiritual, or heavenly (heaven, divine wisdom, mind) values.

 16th century

Only in the 16th century a distinction between the ruler (Grand Duke) and state emerged (it was the same entity previously), from which time one also finds mention of a state flag. In 1578, Alexander Guagnini was the first to describe such a state flag, according to him the state flag of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was made of red silk and had four tails, its principal side, to the right of the flag staff, was charged with a white mounted knight underneath the ducal crown; the other side bore an image of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The highly revered Blessed Virgin Mary was considered the patron saint of the state of Lithuania, and even the most prominent state dignitaries favoured her image on their flags, thus the saying: "Lithuania – land of Mary". Later only the knight is mentioned embroidered on both sides of the state flag.

After the Union of Lublin, which was signed on 1 July 1569 in Lublin, Poland, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was established, thus a joint coat of arms of the new country was adopted. Nevertheless, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained a separate state within the Commonwealth and had a separate army which continued using the coats of arms of Lithuania on its uniforms. Its four quarterly fields portrayed, in diagonal, the eagle and the riding knight as the symbols of the two constituent states. Hence, the old colors of the coat of arms of Lithuania, probably influenced by the colors of the coat of arms of Poland (red, white, and yellow), began to change: sometimes the horse blanket was depicted in red or purple, the leather belts in yellow; however the horseman's shield with the golden Double Cross changed less. In 1588 the third Statute of Lithuania was adopted and in the 12th article of the fourth chapter of the Statute it is stated that each county is given seals with the coat of arms of Lithuania for approval of decisions, and the name of the county must be written on these seals.

In 1572, following the death of Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus, the last male descendant of the Jagiellonian dynasty as he did not leave any male heir to the throne, the Double Cross remained as a symbol in the national coat of arms and was started to be referred to as simply the Cross of  after losing the connection with the dynasty.

 17th century to 1795

The Renaissance introduced minor stylistic changes and variations: long feathers waving from the tip of the knight's helm, a long saddle-cloth, the horsetail turned upwards and shaped as nosegay. With these changes, the red flag with its white knight survived until the end of the 18th century and Grand Duke Stanislaus II Augustus was the last Grand Duke of Lithuania to employ it. His flag was colored in crimson, had two tails, and was decorated with the knight on one side and the ruler's monogram – SAR (Stanislaus Augustus Rex) on the other side. SAR monogram was also inscribed on the flagpole finial. In 1795, after the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Grand Duchy of Lithuania was annexed to the Russian Empire, with a smaller part going to the Kingdom of Prussia, and traditional coat of arms of Lithuania, which represented the state for more than four centuries, was abolished and the Russification of Lithuania was imposed.

 1795–1918

At first, the charging knight was interpreted as the country's ruler. As time passed, he became a knight who is chasing intruders out of his native country. Such an interpretation was especially popular in the 19th century, and the first half of the 20th century, when Lithuania was part of the Russian Empire and sought its independence. During the Lithuanian National Revival in the 19th century, Lithuanian intellectuals Teodor Narbutt and Simonas Daukantas claimed that the reviving Lithuanian nation is the inheritor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania heritage, including the Lithuanian coat of arms , which was widely used in their organized events.

 19th-century anti-Russian uprisings
Uprisings to restore the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth like the 1830–31 November Uprising and 1863–64 January Uprising saw  being used as a symbol of rebellion against the Russian Empire. The Lithuanian Vytis was widely used alongside the Polish White Eagle throughout the uprisings on flags, banners, coins, banknotes, seals, medals, etc. After the dethronement of Emperor Nicholas I Romanov (Emperor of Russia since 1825, King of Poland 1825–1831) by the Sejm during its proceedings in Warsaw on 25 January 1831, the coats of arms of the Russian Emperors were removed from the mint dies and Polish złotys with Eagle and Vytis were introduced into circulation, which were manufactured at the Warsaw's Banknote Factory and minted at the Warsaw Mint, as on 9 December 1830 the Provisional Government appointed the Bank of Poland to manage the Warsaw Mint.

The 1863–64 January Uprising spread especially wide in the ethnic Lithuanian lands, whereas many rebels demanded for a completely independent, sovereign Lithuanian state, however at the time the majority of the Lithuanians decided to support the Polish–Lithuanian union in order to fight the Russian oppression more effectively. In the Soviet times, the 1863–64 January Uprising was interpreted as a class struggle between peasantry and landed aristocracy, while since 1990, it came to be seen in Lithuania as a strife for liberation from the Russian rule. On 22 November 2019, upon the rediscovery of their remains on the Gediminas' Hill, the 1863–64 January Uprising commanders Konstanty Kalinowski and Zygmunt Sierakowski were buried at the Rasos Cemetery in Vilnius, while the flags covering their coffins were presented to the President of Lithuania Gitanas Nausėda and the President of Poland Andrzej Duda.

 In the Russian Empire (1795–1915)
Following the partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, most of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was absorbed by the Russian Empire and Vytis was incorporated into the Greater Coat of arms of the Russian Empire. Vytis was the coat of arms of the Vilna Governorate following the incorporation of Vilnius and surrounding lands into the Russian Empire. Statues of Vytis placed on the White Columns of Vilnius greeted visitors at the entrances to Vilnius from 1818 until 1840, when the statues were replaced with the double-headed eagles – the state symbol of the Russian Empire. In 2019, the Mayor of Vilnius Remigijus Šimašius suggested that the White Columns of Vilnius in the city's eldership of Naujamiestis should be restored. A notable example of the coat of arms of Lithuania usage during the Tsarist period is on the bridge railings above the Vilnelė River in Vilnius. Several authentic coat of arms of Lithuania survived the occupations and annexations. For example, on the side wall of the Vilnius Cathedral, on the main portal of the Dominican Church of the Holy Spirit and on the Gate of Dawn.

However, in 1845 Tsar Nicholas I confirmed a coat of arms for the Vilna Governorate that closely resembled the historical one. A notable change was the replacement of the Double-Cross of the Jagiellonians with the Patriarchal cross on the knight's shield.

In 1905, the Great Seimas of Vilnius took place in Vilnius during which the decision to demand wide political autonomy of Lithuania within the Russian Empire was made. It was proposed by the Chairman of the Great Seimas of Vilnius Jonas Basanavičius to recognize the flag of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (a white horse rider on a red bottom) as the flag of Lithuania, but this proposal was rejected due to the negative associations of red color with the 1905 Russian Revolution.

 1915–1918
The discussions on the national flag resumed during World War I. Following the German Empire occupation of Lithuania in September 1915, the Lithuanians gathered into committees and organizations of various currents, which united their representatives. According to the signatory of the Act of Independence of Lithuania of 16 February 1918 Petras Klimas, they considered the main problems of the reestablishment of Lithuania's statehood, among which one of the main questions were the national colors and the national flag. Although, serious discussions about the Lithuanian state flag and coat of arms resumed only in 1917 when the real prospect of restoring the Lithuanian state emerged.

For the first time, according to Petras Klimas, a specific question of the national flag and national colors was raised at the Lithuanian intelligentsia Consortium Meeting of 6 June 1917 in the premises of the Lithuanian Scientific Society (the so-called Consortium Meeting united Lithuanian intellectuals in Vilnius, such as, Jonas Basanavičius, Povilas Dogelis, Petras Klimas, Jurgis Šaulys, Antanas Smetona, Mykolas Biržiška, Augustinas Janulaitis, Steponas Kairys, Aleksandras Stulginskis, Antanas Žmuidzinavičius). During this Consortium Meeting, Jonas Basanavičius read a report in which he proved that in the past the color of the Lithuanian flag was red and that on the red bottom was depicted a rider with a raised sword on a dapple-grey horse. Jonas Basanavičius suggested continuing this tradition and choosing this option as the flag of the reborn Lithuanian state. There was nobody who opposed it, however considerations began that such variant of the national flag does not solve the issue of the national colors, especially because a red flag without Vytis (Pogonia) could not be used.

As a result, new colors had to be chosen that could form a simple, everyday, easily sewn flag, which would be used alongside the historical flag of . The members of this meeting established the principle according to which national colors had to be chosen: everyone agreed that it is necessary to choose such colors that are most often found in folk wares, ribbons, aprons, etc. Everyone agreed that such colors are green and red, therefore the task of harmonizing these colors in the flag was assigned to the artist Antanas Žmuidzinavičius, however the searching for a color combination took a long time. Artist and archeologist Tadas Daugirdas', who was invited as a consultant, combinations of the national flag colors varied from those proposed by Antanas Žmuidzinavičius. In general, a question of the number of colors arose as some demanded a green-red flag (such proposal was also supported by the Lithuanian Americans), while the others demanded a tricolor combination. Finding the third color was the most difficult task, even an exhibition of flag projects was held, however, the question was not solved until the Vilnius Conference of 1917, therefore a question of the national colors was included into the agenda of the Vilnius Conference.

During the preparation of the Vilnius Conference, which met in Vilnius and set out the guidelines for the restoration of Lithuania's independence and elected the members of the Council of Lithuania, Antanas Žmuidzinavičius prepared a green-red Lithuanian flag project with whom the Vilnius City Theater Hall (present-day Old Theatre of Vilnius) was decorated. However, the flag proposed by Antanas Žmuidzinavičius seemed gloomy to the Vilnius Conference participants. Consequently, Tadas Daugirdas proposed the flag consisting of green at the top, white in the middle and red at the bottom, but he himself was not fond of such proposal as he preferred the green and red combination because these colors dominated in the Lithuanian cloths. Finally, Tadas Daugirdas proposed to include a narrow yellow line between the other two colors of green and red with the yellow color symbolizing dawn (the first national Lithuanian newspaper was also named Aušra) and rebirth (Lithuanian National Revival). Despite that, Antanas Žmuidzinavičius categorically defended the green and red flag as these colors symbolized love and hope, while the others demanded for a green (at the bottom; symbolizing green fields and meadows), yellow (at the middle; symbolizing yellow blossoms), and red (at the top; symbolizing the rising sun). As a result, the participants of the conference did not decide on the colors of the flag, therefore assigned this question to a commission formed by the Council of Lithuania that consisted of Jonas Basanavičius, Antanas Žmuidzinavičius, and Tadas Daugirdas.

On 16 February 1918, the Council of Lithuania declared the Independence of Lithuania and adopted Vytis as its coat of arms with the first drafts of the coat of arms being designed by Tadas Daugirdas and Antanas Žmuidzinavičius. On 19 April 1918, the commission accepted a Lithuanian flag project which consisted of three equal width horizontal lines of yellow, green, and red colors. On 25 April 1918, the Council of Lithuania unanimously approved this flag project as the Flag of the State of Lithuania. At the meeting of the same day, it was proposed to raise the tricolor flag of the Lithuanian state above the Tower of the Gediminas' Castle, which was done in the middle of 1918 after difficult negotiations with the German authorities.

Following the occupation of Vilnius by Soviet Russia, the Lithuanian institutions were evacuated to the temporary capital Kaunas in the first days of January 1919. In the temporary capital Kaunas, the historical flag of Lithuania was raised above the Presidential Palace, Palace of Seimas, and on top of the Tower of the Vytautas the Great War Museum (this historical flag was previously adopted by the Council of Lithuania and had a white horseman on a red bottom on one side and the Columns of Gediminas on the other side).

 Republic of Lithuania in the interwar period

When Lithuania restored its independence in 1918–1920, several artists produced updated versions of the coat of arms. Almost all included a scabbard, which is not found in its earliest historical versions. A romanticized version by Antanas Žemaitis became the most popular. The horse appeared to be flying through the air (courant). The gear was very ornate. For example, the saddle blanket was very long and divided into three parts. There was no uniform or official version of the coat of arms. To address popular complaints, in 1929 a special commission was set up to analyze the best 16th-century specimens of Vytis to design an official state emblem. Mstislav Dobuzhinsky was the chief artist. The commission worked for 5 years, but its version was never officially confirmed. Meanwhile, a design by Juozas Zikaras was introduced for official use on Lithuanian coins.

The Columns of the Gediminids and the Double Cross of the Jagiellonians were particularly widely used in the first half of the 20th century following the restoration of the independent state of Lithuania on 16 February 1918. These symbols, as a distinctive sign, were adopted by the Lithuanian Land Forces, Lithuanian Air Force, and other public authorities. It was used to decorate Lithuanian coins, banknotes orders, medals, and insignias and became an attribute of numerous public societies and organizations. To commemorate the 500th anniversary of the death of Grand Duke Vytautas the Great, flags decorated with the Columns of the Gediminids were hoisted in Lithuanian cities and towns in 1930. Moreover, in his honor, a Lithuanian state award was instituted in the same year – Order of Vytautas the Great, which was awarded for distinguished services to the State of Lithuania and since 1991 is still conferred nowadays.

In 1919, the Double Cross of the Jagiellonians was named the Cross for Homeland and was featured on one of the highest-ranking Lithuanian state decorations – Order of the Cross of Vytis, which was awarded for acts of bravery performed in defending the freedom and independence of Lithuania (the order was abolished following the occupations of Lithuania, but was re-established in 1991). According to a presidential decree of 3 February 1920, issued by the President of Lithuania Antanas Smetona, the Cross for Homeland was renamed to the Cross of Vytis. In 1928, the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas was instituted and was awarded to the citizens of Lithuania for outstanding performance in civil and public offices (it was also abolished following the occupations of Lithuania, but was re-established in 1991).

Vytis was the state emblem of the Republic of Lithuania until 1940 when the Republic was occupied by the Soviet Union and national symbols were suppressed, those who still displayed them received severe punishments. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Vytis, together with the Columns of Gediminas and the national flag, became symbols of the independence movement in Lithuania. In 1988, Lithuania's Soviet authorities legalized the public display of .

 Republic of Lithuania in the post-Cold War era

On March 11, 1990, Lithuania declared its independence and restored all of its pre-war national symbols, including its historic coat of arms Vytis. On March 20, 1990, the Supreme Council of Lithuania approved the description of the State's coat of arms and determined the principal regulations for its use. The design was based on Juozas Zikaras' version. This was to demonstrate that Lithuania was resuming the traditions of the state that existed between 1918–1940. Later on 10 April, the Supreme Council – Reconstituent Seimas adopted the Law on the National Coat of Arms, Emblems, and Other Insignias of the Republic of Lithuania, which regulates the usage of the Lithuanian national coat of arms Vytis and the historical national symbols of Lithuania. According to the 6th article of this Law, the historical national symbols of Lithuania are the Double Cross of the Jagiellonians and Columns of Gediminas.

On September 4, 1991, a new design by Arvydas Každailis was approved based on the recommendations of a special Lithuanian Heraldry Commission. It abandoned romantic interwar interpretations, harkening back to the times of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Nevertheless, it re-established the original colors and metals (red, blue, silver, and gold), dating to the reign of Grand Duke Vytautas the Great, but placed the horse and rider in an ostensibly more "defensive" posture, airs above the ground, rather than leaping forward and sword simply elevated rather than poised to strike. The revival of historical colors and the historical coat of arms  meant that the Republic of Lithuania is not only the heir and follower of the traditions of statehood of independent Lithuania of 1918–40, but also of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, adopted by citizens of the Republic of Lithuania in the Constitutional Referendum of 25 October 1992, states that the Coat of Arms of the State shall be a white Vytis on a red field. Despite the newly adopted Každailis' variant of , the Lithuanian litas coins featured Zikaras' design until they were replaced by the euro in 2015.

The coats of arms of Lithuania are widely used by the Lithuanian Armed Forces on uniforms, badges, and flags.

In 2004, Lithuania's Seimas confirmed a new variant of the Vytis on the historical flag of Lithuania, the final design was approved on 17 June 2010. It is depicted on a rectangular red fabric, recalling the old battle flags of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The flag does not replace the yellow-green-red tri-color national flag of Lithuania and it is used on special occasions, anniversaries, and buildings of historical significance (e.g. Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania, Trakai Island Castle, Medininkai Castle).

It is currently proposed that a greater version of the coat of arms be adopted. It would feature a line from "Tautiška giesmė", the national anthem of Lithuania, "" ("May unity blossom"). The Seimas already uses a larger version of the coat of arms with this phrase as its motto, along with two supporters: the dexter one a griffin argent beaked and membered or, langued gules, and the sinister one a unicorn argent, armed and unguled or, langued gules, and the ducal hat on top of the shield.

The President of Lithuania uses the circular seal and document forms with the coat of arms of Lithuania, the seal has a text "".

Lithuania joined the Eurozone by adopting the euro on 1 January 2015. The designs of Lithuanian euro coins share a similar national side for all denominations, featuring the Vytis and the country's name in Lithuanian – Lietuva. The design was announced on 11 November 2004 following a public opinion poll conducted by the Bank of Lithuania. The horse is again leaping forward, as in more traditional versions.

The Kaunas Castle unveiled the Freedom Warrior monument on 14 July 2018, which features a graphical representation of Vytis. It was created by Lithuanian artist Arūnas Sakalauskas and Ukrainian artists Boris Krylov and Olesius Sidoruk in Kyiv, Ukraine.

Gintautas Genys released a three-tomes historical adventure novel book  (), which analyzes different periods of the history of Lithuania: the first tome, released in 2012, is about the last decade of the 18th century (close to the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), the second tome, released in 2014, presents the vision of the restoration of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the sticky web of intrigues and conflicts of the monarchs of France, Russia, and Prussia, while the third tome, released in 2019, presents the course of the history of Russia, Poland, and Lithuania from the 1810s to 1860s, consistently and vividly reveals the terrible drama of mutual relations between them.

In 2023, Lithuanian vehicle registration plates design was modified to include Vytis.

 Related and similar coats of arms
Lithuania

Recently adopted coats of arms of Vilnius and Panevėžys counties use different color schemes and add additional details to the basic image of the knight. Several towns in Lithuania use motifs similar to Vytis. For example, the coat of arms of Liudvinavas is parted per pale. One half depicts the Vytis and the other, Lady Justice.

Poland

As Lithuania and Poland were closely related for centuries, especially during the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth period, the Lithuanian coat of arms was also depicted in Poland.

Belarus
The Belarusian lands had been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the Middle Ages, so the Lithuanian coat of arms grew into the local heraldic tradition and was used in the coats of arms of Belarusian towns and administrative districts, even during Russian rule. Thus, Belarusian nationalists who claimed that the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was part of a Belarusian statehood tradition adopted Lithuania's coat of arms as the Belarusian national emblem during the period of national revival in 1918. The Belarusian coat of arms, named Pahonia (Пагоня, ), was similar to the coat of arms adopted by the Republic of Lithuania, also depicting an armed white horseman on a red background. However, on the Belarusian Pahonia , the two-barred cross depicted on the horseman's shild has uneven bars, the saddle blanket is in the Renaissance style, the horse's tail points down instead of up, and azure is absent from it altogether.

Pahonia was chosen by the founders in the short-lived Belarusian People's Republic as the state emblem. During 1918 to 1923, it was used by the military units of the Belarusian People's Republic, as well as those formed within the Lithuanian and Polish armies. Subsequently, it was used in this role by Belarusians residing in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and other countries in the interwar period.

During the Second World War, under German occupation Belarusians displayed Pahonia, it was used by collaborationist organisation, such as Belarusian People's Self-Help (BNS). They were also used by the Belarusian Central Council. During the Soviet period, the Pahonia coat of arms was banned and its possession was punishable by imprisonment. Soviet propaganda defamed Belarusian national symbols as being used by "Nazi collaborators". However, the coat of arms was used freely by Belarusian organisations in the West.

The white–red–white flag and Pahonia were yet again adopted upon proclaiming of Belarus' independence in 1991. Soon after the 1994 Belarusian presidential election, the Belarusians voted for the introduction of a modified version of the Soviet flag and emblem in a 1995 referendum, initiated by President Alexander Lukashenko, and abolished Pahonia as an official symbol. However, Lukashenko still signed decrees to incorporate similar symbols into several reginal flags and coats of arms as in Gomel Region and Vitsebsk Region, and the previous national symbols continued to be used by the Belarusian opposition and gained exceptional popularity among the Belarusians during the 2020–2021 Belarusian protests.

Ukraine

The horseman was featured on the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, on the Seal of King Yuri II Boleslav with the Ruthenian lion on the coat of arms, on the Mykhailo Hrushevsky's proposal of the coat of arms of the Ukrainian People's Republic, and other Ukrainian coats of arms.

Russia
Due to historical connections with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (and later Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), some Russian regions adopted Lithuanian coat of arms from the Russian Empire period. After the dissolution of the USSR, such coats of arms were restored.

Noble families
The Lithuanian coat of arms with some modifications was adopted by several Gediminid Lithuanian, Polish and Russian noble families, namely Czartoryski, Sanguszko, Chowanski, Trubetskoy and Golitsyn. In Polish heraldry, those coat of arms are called Pogoń Litewska.

Other locations
Austria

France

Latvia

Sweden

Germany

United States

 See also

 Emblem of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
 Armorial of Lithuania

 References

 Bibliography
 The Coat of Arms of Lithuania, Seimas
 Gimtoji istorija, Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės (Lietuvos istorijos vadovėlis), CD, 2002,
 Simas Sužiedėlis and Antanas Vasaitis (ed.), Encyclopedia Lithuanica, Boston: 1978, Vol. VI, pages 223–225.
 Gintaras Beresnevičius, Lietuvių religija ir mitologija, Tyto alba'', Vilnius: 2004. Pages 66–69.

Articles

Books

National symbols of Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania

Coat of arms of Lithuania


The Olympus C-8080 WZ is a digital camera formerly manufactured by Olympus. It was first announced on the opening day of the 2004 Photo Marketing Association Annual Convention and Trade Show. At the time, the C-8080 was set to be Olympus' first eight-megapixel digital camera for the high-end consumer market. The MSRP was $1,149 USD.

A key feature, described in the name, is the camera's optical zoom range. Most compact "zoom" cameras of the era were marketed for telephoto photography, providing high magnification of a distant subject. The lens of this camera includes a wide angle range suitable for group or landscape photography. It has a high resolution lens with 5x zoom (7.1 - 35.6 mm, 28 - 140 mm in 35mm equivalent) and an aperture ranging from  at the widest angle to  at maximum zoom. The focus range in normal mode is 0.8 m - inf., 20 - 80 cm in macro, and down to 5 cm in super-macro.

The metering modes for exposure are: ESP, center-weighted, multi-metering and spot. The metering target mark on the screen can be moved in 13 positions in spot mode. For absolute control a live histogram can be activated and the histogram target mark can be moved by the user. An AutoExposure Lock (AEL) button can lock the metered exposure.

The camera has two autofocus systems: one is based on contrast detection, the other on phase-difference detection (P-AF).
The metering settings for the focus are: iESP, spot, full-time AF, P-AF, manual focus, macro, and super-macro. One of 9 positions can be selected for the AF target in spot mode.

Video can be recorded at 640 x 480 and 320 x 240, both at 15 frames per second. Clip length is only limited by the storage card.

The camera accepts xD-Picture Cards (necessary for panorama shooting), CompactFlash type I and II and IBM microdrives with two slots.
Copying between slots is possible in the camera.
Photos can be stored in TIFF, RAW and JPEG format.
Videos are stored in Quicktime format using Motion JPEG encoding. Sound could also be recorded with still photos in Wave audio format. Data transfer connectivity is USB 2.0.

The rear display is a 4.5 cm tilting sunshine-LCD with 134,000 pixels, and the electronic viewfinder has 240,000 pixels.

The C-8080 WZ was succeeded at least partially by the C-7070 WZ in 2005. The latter camera was considered the successor of the C-5060 WZ, but had similar specifications and target market to the C-8080 WZ. Compared to the C-8080 WZ, the C-7070 WZ had a slower lens, was a slightly smaller size, and had a lower list price.

Accessories
 Converter lenses: wide angle WCON-08D: (28 mm x 0.8 = 22.4 mm),  tele TCON-14D: (140 mm x 1.4 = 196 mm)
 Remote control RM-1 with more functions than the RM-2(only for shutter release)
 Power grip B-HLD30
 AC-adaptor C-8AC
 LCD monitor cap
 Leather case
 Underwater camera housings PT-023, depth up to 40m

Accessories included in retail package
Lens cap
Lens hood
Shoulder strap
Li-Ion batt. BLM-1
Batt. charger BCM-2 (1 hour for full charge)
IR Remote control RM-2
32 MB xD picture card
AV cable
USB cable
CD ROM
User manual

References

External links
Some examples of the Olympus c8080wz possibilities
Digital Camera test site
User Manual

C-8080
Bridge digital cameras
Cameras introduced in 2004

Olympus C-8080 Wide Zoom


Das Institut Teknologi Bandung (kurz ITB) ist eine technische Hochschule in Bandung, Indonesien.

Geschichte
Sie wurde 1920 gegründet und ist die älteste technologie-orientierte Universität des Landes. Sie wurde von der niederländischen Kolonialverwaltung als Technische Hoogeschool te Bandung (THB)  eingerichtet, um die Bedürfnisse über technische Ressourcen der Kolonie zu erfüllen. Am 3. Juli 1920 nahm die "Faculteit van Technischen tuur en Wetenschap" (Fakultät für technische Wissenschaften) mit der  afdeeling der Weg en Waterbouw (Abteilung Straße und Wasserwirtschaft) den Lehrbetrieb auf. Nach der Unabhängigkeit Indonesiens im Jahr 1945 wurde sie Teil der Fakultät für Ingenieurwissenschaften der Universität Indonesia  in Jakarta. Am 2. März 1959 wurde das ITB dann offiziell als eigenständige akademische Einrichtung von der Regierung Indonesiens anerkannt.

Persönlichkeiten
 Leendert van der Pijl (Botaniker und Dozent am ITB)
  Sukarno (erster Präsident der Republik Indonesien und Alumni ITB)
 Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (Wissenschaftler und Politiker und Alumni ITB)
 Asep Wildan (Student und Geologe)

Weblinks

 Official website - English section

Einzelnachweise

Organisation (Bandung)
Universität in Indonesien
Bandung
Gegründet 1920

Institut Teknologi Bandung


Caferağa Spor Salonu, İstanbul'un Kadıköy ilçesinde Bahariye semti Sakız Sokağı'nda bulunan ve basketbol başta olmak üzere her türlü salon sporuna hizmet veren spor salonudur.

1980 yılında açılan spor salonu Gençlik ve Spor İl Müdürlüğü tarafından işletilmektedir. 1.500 kişilik kapasitesi vardır. Kadınlar Basketbol Süper Ligi'nde Fenerbahçe (kadın basketbol takımı) takımı 2013 yılına kadar bu salonu kullanmıştır. Kadınlar Basketbol Süper Ligi'nde bir dönem yer alan Yakın Doğu Üniversitesi SK maçlarını burada oynamıştır.

Fenerbahçe SK tesisleri
İstanbul'daki spor salonları
Kadıköy'deki yapılar
Kadıköy'de spor
1980'de tamamlanan yapılar
Türkiye'deki basketbol salonları
Türkiye'deki voleybol tesisleri
Caferağa

Caferağa Spor Salonu


حسن إبراهيم من مواليد الإسكندرية عام 1917 وتخرج من الكلية الحربية عام 1929 ومن كلية الطيران عام 1940. شارك في حرب فلسطين، وهو من الضباط الأحرار وأحد أعضاء مجلس قيادة الثورة فيما بعد. وكان حينئذ قائدًا للأسراب. وكان أحد أعضاء محكمة الثورة عام 1954. تولي وزارة شئون الإنتاج عام 1964. تولي منصب نائب رئيس الجمهورية عام 1964 وأعتزل العمل السياسي عام 1966 توفي في 1990 في القاهرة في مصر.

مراجع

الضباط الأحرار
أشخاص من الإسكندرية
حاصلون على وسام مُدَافِع في مملكة
خريجو الكلية الجوية (مصر)
خريجو الكلية الحربية (مصر)
سياسيون مصريون في القرن 20
سياسيون من الإسكندرية
شخصيات أعمال مصرية في القرن 20
قادة القوات الجوية المصرية
مصريون شاركوا في حرب 1948
مواليد 1917
نواب رؤساء مصر
وزراء مصريون
وفيات 1410 هـ
وفيات 1990
أعلام مصريون في الحرب الإسرائيلية العربية 1948

حسن إبراهيم (ضابط مصري)


Mustafa Sarıgül (15 Kasım 1956, İliç, Erzincan), Türk iş insanı ve siyasetçidir. 1999-2014 yılları arasında İstanbul'un Şişli ilçesinin belediye başkanlığını yaptı. 23 Haziran 2023'e kadar 17 Aralık 2020'de kurduğu Türkiye Değişim Partisi'nin genel başkanlığı görevini üstlendi.
14 Mayıs 2023 itibarıyla Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Erzincan milletvekilidir.

14 Mayıs 2023 tarihinde yapılan 2023 Türkiye genel seçimlerinde CHP listelerinden girdiği Erzincan'da 1. sıradan milletvekili seçilmiştir.

İlk yılları ve kariyeri
15 Kasım 1956'da Erzincan'ın İliç ilçesinin Güngören köyünde doğdu, 1962 yılında ailesiyle birlikte İstanbul'a yerleşti.

Sarıgül, eğitimine Güngören Köyü İlkokulu'nda başladı. Ailesinin İstanbul'a göç etmesi nedeniyle eğitimine İstanbul'da devam etti. Liseyi Zincirlikuyu İSOV Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi'nde tamamladıktan sonra Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi'nden mezun oldu.

Çalışma yaşamına Kağıthane Belediyesi, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi ve İETT Genel Müdürlüğü'nde devam etti. Daha sonra kamu görevinden ayrılarak ticaret yapmaya başladı.

Siyasî yaşamı
Siyasi yaşamına CHP Şişli İlçesi Gençlik Kolu Yönetim Kurulu üyeliği ile başladı. Daha sonra Gençlik Kolu Yönetim Kurulu sekreterliği, Gençlik Kolu Yönetim Kurulu Başkanlığı, ilçe başkanlığı, il başkan yardımcılığı görevlerinde bulundu. Bu süreler içinde CHP Kurultay Delegesi olarak Şişli İlçesi'nin temsil yetkisini kullandı.

SHP dönemi
1987 Genel Seçimlerinden önce yapılan ön seçimde en yüksek oyla liste başı olurken seçmenin kullandığı tercihli oyların da çoğunu alarak SHP listesinden TBMM 18. Dönem İstanbul Milletvekili olarak parlamentoya girdi. Türkiye'nin en genç milletvekili olarak Sosyaldemokrat Halkçı Parti Genel Başkanı Erdal İnönü ile birlikte parlamentoda görev yaptı.

TBMM Başkanlık Divanı Üyeliği, Türk Parlamenterler Birliği Üyeliği, Türk-Alman Parlamento Dostluk Grubu Yönetim Kurulu Üyeliği, Galatasaray Spor Kulübü Yönetim Kurulu Üyeliği, Türkiye Millî Olimpiyat Komitesi üyeliği, Türkiye Herkes İçin Spor Federasyonu Asbaşkanlığı gibi görevlerde bulundu.

Şişli Belediye Başkanlığı (1999-2014)
İlk kez 27 Mart 1994 seçimlerinde aday olduğu; ancak kazanamadığı Şişli Belediye Başkanlığı'nı yine DSP adayı olarak katıldığı 1999 yerel seçimlerinde kazanarak görevi üstlendi. 2014'e kadar bu görevini sürdürdü.

Şişli Belediye başkanlığı sırasında çok sayıda devlet başkanı tarafından ziyaret edilen Sarıgül, Romanya Cumhurbaşkanı tarafından üstün hizmet madalyası ile ödüllendirildi.

2002 yılında DSP'den istifa ederek İsmail Cem'in liderliğinde kurulan Yeni Türkiye Partisi'ne katıldı. Ancak YTP'nin siyasi arenada bir varlık gösterememesi üzerine 2003'te YTP'den ayrılarak CHP'ye katıldı.

28 Mart 2004 yerel seçimlerinde CHP'den aday olduğu Şişli belediye başkanlığına yurttaşlar tarafından ikinci kez seçildi. Bu seçimlerde aldığı yüzde 67'nin üzerindeki oy oranından cesaret alan Sarıgül, CHP liderliğine aday oldu. 29 Ocak 2005'te, Ankara'da yapılan 13. CHP Olağanüstü Kurultayı'nda Deniz Baykal'a karşı yenildi. 24 Mart 2005'te, CHP Yüksek Disiplin Kurulu tarafından "Kurultayı arbede ve şiddet ortamına çevirdiği" gerekçesiyle CHP'den ihraç edildi.

Bu kararın iptali için verdiği uzun hukuk mücadelesini 2005'te kaybeden Sarıgül, Kasım 2005'te DSP'ye katıldı. Sarıgül'ün yeniden DSP'ye katılması üzerine düzenlenen törende "Halkçı Sarıgül" sloganları atılmıştır. Bu durum DSP'li bazı milletvekillerinin ve Kurucu Genel Başkan Rahşan Ecevit'in tepkisini çekmiş, Ecevit parti yönetimine DSP'nin adını değiştirmelerini önermiştir. 29 Mart seçimleri'nde, bu sefer DSP'den, üçüncü kez Şişli belediye başkanlığına aday oldu. Sarıgül, bu seçimlerde "Sevgi Kazanacak" sloganıyla yüzde 55 oranında oy alarak, bir önceki seçime göre oy oranı azalmasına rağmen üçüncü kez Şişli belediye başkanlığına seçildi.

Türkiye Değişim Hareketi
Kendi düşüncesine göre Türkiye'de yeni bir değişimci partiye ihtiyaç duyulduğunu söylediğinden yeni parti kurma çalışmalarına başladı. Bu bağlamda Temmuz 2009'da DSP'den istifa etti. 2009 yılında TDH'yi başlattı. 2010 yılı ocak ayı başında yeni partisini kuracağını açıklayan Mustafa Sarıgül bu partinin tüzük taslaklarını medyaya açıkladı.

22 Haziran 2010 tarihinde yaptığı basın toplantısında Türkiye Değişim Hareketi'nin partileşmeyeceğini ve Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu'nun genel başkanlığındaki CHP'yi destekleyeceğini açıkladı.

İBB başkan adaylığı
31 Ekim 2013 tarihinde CHP Genel Başkan Yardımcısı Adnan Keskin ile birlikte yaptığı basın toplantısında yeniden CHP'ye katıldığını açıkladı. Partiden ihracı kararının kaldırılması için verdiği dilekçe 3 Kasım 2013 tarihinde Parti Meclisi'nde onaylandı ve Sarıgül resmen CHP'ye dönmüş oldu. 2014 Yerel Seçimlerinde CHP'nin İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi başkan adayı olan Sarıgül, başkanlığı AK Parti adayı Kadir Topbaş'a 7 puan farkla kaybetmiştir.

DSP'deki üçüncü dönemi
23 Ocak 2019 tarihinde CHP'den istifa etti ve DSP'ye katıldı. 2019 yerel seçimlerinde DSP'nin Şişli Belediyesi başkan adayı oldu, ancak 31 Mart seçimlerini CHP'nin ve Millet İttifakı'nın adayı Muammer Keskin'e 20 puan farkla kaybetti.

Türkiye Değişim Partisi
27 Ekim 2020 tarihinde DSP'den ayrıldığını ve yeni siyasi parti kuracağını açıkladı. 17 Aralık'ta ise Sarıgül, Türkiye Değişim Hareketi'nin devamı niteliğinde olan Türkiye Değişim Partisi'ni kurdu.

Sarıgül, 2023 cumhurbaşkanlığı seçiminde Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu'nu destekleme kararı aldı ve aynı gün yapılan genel seçimler için CHP tarafından Erzincan'da 1. sıradan milletvekili adayı gösterilmiştir. Seçim sonuçlarına göre CHP listesinden Erzincan milletvekili oldu. Böylece Sarıgül 36 yıl aradan sonra yeniden meclise girmiştir. Genel başkanı olduğu Türkiye Değişim Partisi 23 Haziran 2023 tarihinde yapılan 1. olağanüstü kongresinde Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi ile birleşmiştir.

Kişisel hayatı
1980 yılında öldürülen milletvekili Abdurrahman Köksaloğlu'nun tek kızı olan Gülsüm Hülya Köksaloğlu'yla evlendi, bu evlilikten Abdurrahman Emir adında bir oğlu oldu. Eşi 1985'te yaşamını yitirdikten yaklaşık 8 yıl sonra 1993 yılında Aylin Kotil ile evlendi. Evlendiklerinde Sarıgül 36, Kotil ise 22 yaşındaydı. İki çocukları olan çift, Haziran 2008'de boşandı.

Bibliyografya
Mustafa Sarıgül, bugüne kadar üç kitap yazmıştır:

 TBMM'de Bir Milletvekili
 İstanbul'da Direksiyon Sallamak
 Ne Bir Eksik Ne Bir Fazla

Kaynakça

1956 doğumlular
İliç doğumlular
Erzincan doğumlu siyasetçiler
Yaşayan insanlar
Şişli belediye başkanları
TBMM 18. dönem İstanbul milletvekilleri
TBMM 18. dönem kâtip üyeleri
TBMM 28. dönem Erzincan milletvekilleri
20. yüzyıl Türk iş insanları
21. yüzyıl Türk iş insanları
20. yüzyıl Türk siyasetçileri
Sosyaldemokrat Halkçı Parti mensubu siyasetçiler
Demokratik Sol Parti mensubu siyasetçiler
Yeni Türkiye Partisi (2002) mensubu siyasetçiler
Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
Türkiye Değişim Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi meclis üyeleri
TBMM Bayındırlık, İmar, Ulaştırma ve Turizm Komisyonu
TBMM Kamu İktisadi Teşebbüsleri Komisyonu

Mustafa Sarıgül


Hardtberg, Almanya'nın batısında Kuzey Ren-Vestfalya eyaleti Bonn kentine bağlı bölge. 11,9 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu 31 Aralık 2013 itibarıyla 33.002 olarak tespit edilmiştir. 1969 yılında Bonn'a dahil edilmiştir.

Hardtberg


වී ඉසීම යනු පැලවීම සඳහා බීජ වී කුඹුරට හඳුන්වා දෙන එක් ආකාරයකි.

ආශ්‍රිත
 Broadcast seeding
 ගොයම් සිටුවීම

වී ගොවිතැන

වී ඉසීම


Roberto López  puede designar:
Roberto López Ufarte es un futbolista española;
Roberto López Esquiroz es un futbolista de España; o
Roberto López-Corrales es un artista visual y sonoro, pintor y compositor español.

Roberto López (desambiguación)