Jaywalking is the act of pedestrians walking in or crossing a roadway if that act contravenes traffic regulations. The term originated in the United States as a derivation of the phrase jay-drivers (the word jay meaning 'a greenhorn, or rube'), people who drove horse-drawn carriages and automobiles on the wrong side of the road, before taking its current meaning. Jaywalking was coined as the automobile arrived in the street in the context of the conflict between pedestrian and automobiles (also then known as horseless carriages), more specifically the nascent automobile industry.

Jaywalking laws vary widely by jurisdiction. In many countries such as the United Kingdom, the word is not generally used and, with the exception of certain high-speed roads, there are no laws limiting how pedestrians can use public highways. This has caused confusion among British people visiting countries with such laws, with the BBC reporting on a case where a man from the UK was arrested in the U.S. city of Atlanta for crossing the road.

Legal texts in other countries use different concepts, such as Rules applicable to pedestrians in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. One member of this convention, the United Kingdom, does not have jaywalking laws; its Highway Code relies on the pedestrians making their own judgment on whether it is safe to cross based on the Green Cross Code.

Origin of the term

While jaywalking is associated with pedestrians today, the earliest references to "jay" behavior in the street were about horse-drawn carriages and automobiles in 1905 Kansas: "jay drivers" who did not drive on the correct side of the street. The term swiftly expanded to pedestrians, and by 1909, The Chanute Daily Tribune warned "The jay walker needs attention as well as the jay driver, and is about as big a nuisance." No historical evidence supports an alternative folk etymology by which the word is traced to either the letter "J" (characterizing the route a jaywalker might follow), or "jake walk" (an early term related to a drunkard's walk).

The earliest citation in the Oxford English Dictionary follows in 1917. Automobile interests in the US took up the cause of labeling and scorning jaywalkers in the 1910s and early 1920s, by then the earlier term of "jay driver" was declining in use. The word was promoted by pro-automobile interests in the 1920s, according to historian and alternative transportation advocate Peter D. Norton. Today, in the US, the word is often used synonymously with its current legal definition, crossing the street illegally.

Originally in the US, the legal rule was that "all persons have an equal right in the highway, and that in exercising the right each shall take due care not to injure other users of the way". In time, however, streets became the province of vehicular traffic, both practically and legally.

Causes

People jaywalk for various reasons, including convenience and sometimes even personal safety, generally to cross the street. Going to a crosswalk can require a long detour.

Although cultural norms about jaywalking vary by locality, the practice cannot simply be explained by corresponding differences in law. For example, cities like Copenhagen and New York City have similar restrictions on jaywalking at signalised crosswalks, but the practice is far more common in New York.

Pedestrians are often forced to walk outside crosswalks, when they are blocked by cars due to traffic congestion or drivers stopping too far forward. The common practice of car-centric traffic-signal synchronisation produces green waves for motorists but not necessarily for pedestrians, who may encounter little or no conflicting traffic at cross streets where signals instruct them to wait.

Pedestrians may dislike using crossing at intersections for other reasons, such as discomfort dealing with traffic from several directions (whereas a jaywalker at a location distant from an intersection only needs to observe at most two directions of traffic), or wanting to avoid the extra air emissions generated by vehicles stopping and starting (given that vehicular emissions are significantly less when vehicles are moving at steady speeds). In rural and suburban areas, people may jaywalk due to a lack of sidewalks. Some pedestrians are unwilling to observe lengthy wait times at signals. They are also more likely to make "informal crossings" at wide roads, or at locations where formal crosswalks are too distant to be practical for them to use.

Some crosswalk signals that require a pedestrian to push a button are unusable for orthodox Jews on the Shabbat.

Safety
Unsignalised marked crosswalks where drivers are more likely to yield to pedestrians are not necessarily safer than their unmarked counterparts, where pedestrians behave more cautiously, not expecting motorists to yield.

Many American newspapers publish stories that are critical of pedestrian road users' safety practices, while police departments often instigate education and enforcement campaigns to curb jaywalking. While nearly 60% of American pedestrian deaths occur outside of crosswalks, fewer than 20% occur in close proximity to a crosswalk.

Legal view by jurisdiction
When used in the technical sense, jaywalking specifically refers to violation of pedestrian traffic regulations and laws and is therefore illegal. In many countries, such regulations do not exist and jaywalking is an unknown concept.

Africa

Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, jaywalking is illegal, according to the traffic laws gazetted in 2013 by the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure Development. Disregarding designated crossing points or passing through red traffic lights carry a punishment of up to six months in jail or a US$20 fine, as part of the new Highway Code. The code also deals with all road users; it used to emphasise rules for motorists and cyclists.

Asia
In many Asian countries, the low level of traffic control means that jaywalking is often more of a necessity to a pedestrian and is rarely punished except in major commercial hubs such as Singapore. In many countries like India and Vietnam, the amount of traffic and the lack of knowledge and obedience to traffic safety rules makes it common for pedestrians to walk out into oncoming traffic and effectively "carve out" a route to the other side of the road.

Mainland China

In recent years, jaywalking has become more strictly controlled in China as car traffic increased. Police have tested facial recognition to identify jaywalkers. The authorities applied a new method to deter jaywalkers by displaying their photo on large public screens in the area where the jaywalking occurred, to publicly shame any violator of pedestrian street rules. The system has flaws: the photo of the businesswoman Dong Mingzhu was displayed on those screens after the AI systems misinterpreted her appearance on a passing bus advertisement as a real person crossing the street in an illegal fashion.

Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, it is an offence to cross roads within the zigzag area around zebra crossings, or within 15 m of other crossing points (including signal-controlled crossings, footbridges and subways) without using the crossing, or climb over fences to cross the road. It is also an offence to cross the road at a signalled crossing when it is red.

Israel
Israeli transit regulations section 110 states a person shall not cross a road unless they have checked to make sure it is safe to do so. Where there is a "nearby" pedestrian crossing, a pedestrian shall not cross the road except at the pedestrian crossing. Where there isn't one nearby but there's a "nearby" intersection, the pedestrian shall cross "near" the intersection. In any case, the pedestrian shall cross at a reasonable speed and in the shortest straight line across the road, without spending undue time on the road.

Israeli courts have ruled that the legislature left the term "nearby" deliberately vague and it must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

South Korea
In Korea, it is illegal to cross the road outside of the crosswalk mark on a road with a crosswalk or to cross without following traffic lights on the crosswalk. On a crossing controlled by traffic light, pedestrians can cross only on green. Except for persons with physical disabilities, pedestrians must use the facilities to cross the roads with overpasses or underground sidewalks. Jaywalking is naturally prohibited on roads with pedestrian prohibition signs such as expressways.

The fine for jaywalking is 20,000 won.

However, pedestrians can cross a road which doesn't have any crosswalk. They also cross the intersection and near part of intersections without traffic lights at the shortest distance. The standard for not having a crosswalk is usually 200 meters. In addition, on roads that do not have a distinction between center lines or lanes, pedestrians can occupy the entire road, walk and cross. This is entirely legal and pedestrians are legally protected from cars.

India
In India, jaywalking is not explicitly included in the law as an offence but is covered under the broader term 'obstruction of traffic' in state and metropolitan laws. Examples include section 28B of the Delhi Police Act, 33B of the Bombay Police Act and 92G of the Karnataka Police Act. However, jaywalking is common in cities because of the lack of regulated crossings and footpaths, ignorance of safety rules, and the poor regulation of related laws by authorities. Drives against jaywalking are conducted by the police departments from time to time and offenders are given fines of 100 to 500 Indian rupees, depending upon the jurisdictions. Drivers must yield the right of way for pedestrians at unsignalled crossings and marked pedestrian crossings.

Iran
In Iran, crossing outside crossing points within 150 of one or if the pedestrian light is red, as well as starting to cross when the light is flashing, has been prohibited since the 1970s. If in an intersection there is no pedestrian light, traffic lights would be considered and so it is illegal when it is red or orange. As of November, 2009, jaywalking carries fines from 300,000 up to 2,000,000 rials (US$9 to US$60). The law has almost never been enforced.

Kazakhstan
In Kazakhstan, jaywalking is illegal and punishable by a fine.  This is enforced on major streets in large cities.

Singapore

In Singapore, jaywalking is an offence. A fine of $50 is payable for the first offence. Repeat offenders can be charged $1000 and a jail term of 3 months, but the latter is rarely imposed. In 2011, 8,650 people were caught jaywalking and fined in Singapore. Between January and March 2012, Singapore prosecuted 1,758 for jaywalking, and between January and March 2013, 2,409 jaywalkers were fined.

Europe

In many European countries, pedestrians are banned from high speed roads such as motorways or expressways, but they are generally permitted on regular rural and urban roads. That is done in compliance with the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, which also contains concepts addressing the question of the usage of the road or street by pedestrians for walking or crossing. Some countries like Ireland do not comply with the convention as rigorously as others. Laws and traditions vary from country to country.

Pedestrians account for 10% of motorway fatalities: 217 pedestrian fatalities on EU motorways in 2012 and 847 between 2010 and 2012. The rate is 20% in Poland, 17% in Great Britain, 15% in Spain and 10% in France. These include vehicle users who leave their vehicles after they have broken down, workers in work zones and individuals who illegally enter the motorway on foot.

Belgium
Pedestrians must use marked crossings within 20 m if the speed limit is above 30 km/h. However, any physical injury to a pedestrian caused by a traffic accident is compensated by the insurance of the drivers involved, regardless of the responsibility of the pedestrian, unless the pedestrian is over 14 and wanted the accident and its consequences to occur.

Finland
It is legal to cross all roads except motorways in Finland. Crossing a road must be done in a perpendicular direction, without undue delay, and must use a zebra crossing if one is nearby. Cars are required by law to give way to pedestrians at zebra crossings unless there is a traffic light.

France

Pedestrians are required to use sidewalks (if any), and zebra crossings for crossing a street if one is within 50 m; they must also
 cross at right angles to the road axis,
 only cross a place (including a market/town square in which motor vehicles are permitted) or any intersection on a formal crossing
 cross only at the green pedestrian light if in situ, and
 obey a police officer, if one regulates crossing.

More rules apply at night, on countryside roads, to groups of marching people, etc. Disregarding those rules may be punished by a fine of the lowest grade ("contravention de première classe": 11 to 17€, or 33€ if paid late) but few people were ever fined for such behaviour; any actual fines were usually because they showed contempt instead of apologising or providing some valid safety reason. On the other hand, drivers must always let pedestrians cross if they have already started or if they clearly demonstrate the intention to do so, even when the pedestrian is disregarding the rules, and will bear full responsibility if an accident occurs. These rules are often not respected; most pedestrians would cross anywhere (including at a red pedestrian light) when no car can be seen nearby on the road, but would not take the risk of trying to cross even on a zebra crossing when a car is coming, until it stops.

On French motorways, pedestrians are banned; in case of breakdown motorists are required to leave the car and walk away to safety, behind fences or lines marking the road boundaries, where no car can hit them. Nonetheless, some pedestrians are injured on motorways: in 2016, on the tolled motorway network:
 16% of fatalities were pedestrians, an average of 23 pedestrian fatalities per year on the network.
 69% of pedestrian motorway fatalities occurred on motorway lanes, 28% occurred on emergency lanes, and 3% in rest areas.
 injured pedestrians' presence on the motorway was due to breakdowns, stopping in emergency lanes (40%), accidents (28%), motorway staff (3%), providing assistance (2%), or other reasons (27%).

Germany
Pedestrians must follow rules when crossing the street. Even so, Section 1 of the Road Traffic Regulation ( [StVO]), the most important section, requires the road user not to endanger anybody. Car drivers must always be prepared to brake for pedestrians, especially for children and elderly people. On the other hand, pedestrians, according to Section 25 § 25, Abs. 3, StVO (VwV), must watch the vehicular traffic carefully and cross a street quickly and using the shortest way across the driving lanes.

Depending on the situation on the street, pedestrians may not cross the street except at intersections or within the markings of traffic signals or crosswalks. Pedestrians who cross the street at intersections or crossings must use existing traffic signals or crosswalks. Cars and bikes are required by law to give way to pedestrians (but not bicycle riders) at zebra crossings unless there is a traffic light. If one wants to cross the street outside the markings of traffic lights or crosswalks, one must carefully observe before and during the crossing that the road is clear, and wait before crossing if a vehicle approaches. A pedestrian may not interrupt the flow of traffic.

Although 15m is not considered "at" the crosswalk or traffic light (KG Berlin VR 78 450), pedestrians may not cross the street 30 m (BGH VRS 26 327) near a crosswalk and 40 m (BGH NJW 00 3069: 39–43 m, KG Berlin VRS 89 98: 33.5m) near to a traffic light, but they do not need to go 200 m to a crossroad or 100 m to a traffic signal (OLG Hamburg VRS 87 249). During heavy traffic, pedestrians may not cross the street, as they might have to stop on a traffic lane (OLG Hamm, Az. 27 U 115/96). Typical fines for not using existing crosswalks or traffic lights in Germany are between 5€ and 10€.

Hungary
Whilst jaywalking is not specifically defined by the Hungarian Highway Code (KRESZ) as an offence, various restrictions and prohibitions apply for pedestrians crossing or walking along roads. Fines are applied at the discretion of the police of up to 30,000 forint for each offence, according to Section 21 (1-13) of the code. Pedestrians have the right of way on crosswalks and may cross the road at certain specified points such as at intersections if crosswalks are not available.

Ireland
Ireland maintains a jaywalking law, which requires a pedestrian to use a pedestrian crossing if they are within  of one. When crossing a road, pedestrians are advised to wait until it is safe to cross. Vehicles should give way to the pedestrian who uses a zebra crossing. Irish children are taught the Road Safety Authority safe cross code in schools where it teaches them to stop, listen, and look out for any incoming traffic whilst crossing a road and only cross a road if safe to do so. It also advises them to use traffic lights and zebra crossings to cross a road rather than jaywalk. The Garda Síochána usually do not take action on jaywalkers unless they caused possible harm to drivers or others.

Italy
Pedestrians are allowed to cross a street without any recognised crossing point only if there are no zebra crossings within a range of 100 m, but they should be careful anyway. If pedestrians cross a street at a crosswalk, drivers must yield.
Walking on highways (autostrade) and main suburban roads (strade extraurbane principali) is always forbidden.

Netherlands
There is no concept of jaywalking in the Netherlands, so it is not an offence.

Poland
Jaywalking is an offence. One must cross only at recognised crossing points if there is one within 100 m (including pedestrian tunnels and footbridges). Otherwise, regular roads may be crossed with due care. Crossing dual carriageways (except motorways) is allowed only outside towns. Crossing tram and train tracks that are separate and parallel to street is always prohibited. Crossing on red lights is prohibited and considered to be an offence. According to regulations of "Prawo o Ruchu Drogowym" (Traffic Regulations Act) crossing the road outside the pedestrian crossing is allowed only if it does not endanger traffic safety or obstruct traffic. The pedestrian is not obliged to give priority to vehicles and should follow the shortest line to the opposite edge of the road, perpendicular to the road axis. Crossing the track separated from the road is only allowed in designated locations.

Portugal
It is illegal to cross the road except when the nearest zebra crossing is more than 50 m away. Any crossing above that distance is legal. Pedestrians have priority over cars but often ignore the rules.

Romania
Jaywalking can be fined, but you are still permitted to cross the street on the corner of the street if no crosswalk exists but you don't have priority over the cars.

Scandinavia
It is legal to cross all roads except motorways in Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Cars and bikes are required by law to give way to pedestrians (but not bicycle riders) at zebra crossings unless there is a traffic light with a green light and it is green for the cars or bikes and no pedestrians are currently using the crossing. Pedestrians are encouraged to cross the road at zebra crossings if there is one nearby and are discouraged from crossing at a red light.

In Norway, a red man at the crossing is the signal for pedestrians not to begin crossing if it would impede cars or entail danger, but a person may walk across if there are no cars nearby. Risking oneself by running across in front of cars is not legal. Cyclists are required to stop at red lights, but because not everyone is aware of that, the Norwegian national cyclists' organisation has proposed to end confusion by prohibiting all people from crossing at red lights.

In Denmark, it is illegal to cross the road outside of a pedestrian crossing if one is nearby.

In Sweden, it is illegal, but not punishable, for a pedestrian to cross at a red light. However, if doing this causes a traffic accident, the pedestrian could be convicted of negligence in traffic.

Serbia
In Serbia, it is illegal to cross roads other than at pedestrian crossings if there is a zebra crossing within 100 m.

Slovakia
In Slovakia, it is illegal to cross roads other than at pedestrian crossings if there is a zebra crossing within , or for certain types of road. If not regulated by traffic lights, pedestrians have priority on pedestrian crossings over cars but not trams. However, pedestrians must wait for a safe moment to cross and so cars usually fail to stop if there are pedestrians around, unlike in other European countries where pedestrians may cross immediately.

Slovenia
In Slovenia, pedestrians are generally allowed to cross the street unless there is a zebra crossing within . As well as this, pedestrians also have priority at zebra crossings. However, pedestrians may not cross certain types of road.

Switzerland
In Switzerland, pedestrians are generally allowed to cross the street everywhere. They have priority on zebra crossings but should cross with care. However, they must use a pedestrian crossing, bridge or underpass if it is within 50 m. Certain types of roads must not be entered by pedestrians, such as highways and motorways. Failure to comply is subject to a fine of 20 Swiss Francs. Likewise, crossing or bypassing of closed railway gates is prohibited.

On motorways, fines may vary based on the situation. A driver driving at 100 km/h on a road with a 120 km/h speed limit, if the light visibility is 60 m and the braking distance is 65 m, may be fined for not noticing a person on the road. Even if that person is suicidal, as in a court case in 2017, that fact does not matter. A fine of 210 Swiss francs fine is cheaper than the court costs. However, such circumstances may also be considered to be exceptional and unpredictable.

United Kingdom

In England, Wales and Scotland (Great Britain) it is not illegal to cross or walk on all roads except motorways (where pedestrians and slow vehicles are not permitted), and roads with the "No Pedestrians" sign displayed. The Highway Code contains rules for crossing a road safely, but these are recommendations and not legally directly enforceable, though branches of the highway code may be used as supporting evidence in prosecutions. As with other advisory parts of the Highway Code compliance and non-compliance can be used to claim/counterclaim/defend against liability in civil law claims such as insurance claims.

The term "jaywalking" is obscure. There is no law preventing such an act. Culturally, "jaywalking" often confuses British citizens abroad and visitors to the UK. British citizens, like citizens from other countries where it is not an offence, are more prone to infringe jaywalking laws abroad. Transport for London identified tourists visiting London as being particularly vulnerable due to the personal assessment of risk expected of all pedestrians who cross roads. Some tourists copy locals' most risky crossing stunts, falsely assuming there was no advanced risk assessment involved or a higher right-of-way to vehicles, without understanding they have less right-of-way in all but a few places and times. A third reason is that many visitors are not used to all traffic driving on the left. Recent changes to the Highway code have given priority to pedestrians waiting to cross a road.

A 2014 Yougov poll found 77% of Britons believed walking on roads when it is safe to do so should remain legal; 14% favoured making it illegal. A similar US Yougov poll found 30% believed "jaywalking" should be legal—in most settlements, there is next to no centuries-old societal norm of specific roads on which it may in daytime be safe to walk, such as horse-frequented, cobbled or hump-calmed rural village.

When crossing, pedestrians are expected to use their judgement and wait until it is safe to cross. Under Rule 170 of the Highway Code, if a pedestrian has already started crossing the road (from either side) across a side street into which a car is about to turn, vehicles should always give way and let them leave the road safely. In UK schools children are taught to cross roads safely through the Green Cross Code. British children are taught to "Stop, Look and Listen" before crossing a road, as demonstrated in the Think! campaign.

Unlike the rest of the UK, in Northern Ireland jaywalking is an offence. This is through article 38 of the Road Traffic (Northern Ireland) Order 1995, which states "If a pedestrian through his own negligence on a road endangers his own safety, or that of any other person, he is guilty of an offence." In both 2005 and 2006, hundreds of fines were issued for jaywalking, however from 2018 onways this had reduced to approximately 50 per year.

North America

Canada

Jaywalking is not in the Criminal Code and is not considered a criminal offence in Canada. No law on jaywalking exists at the federal level, although several provinces and territories in Canada, as well as municipalities, have enacted regulations and/or by-laws that restrict when a pedestrian may cross a roadway. Most of these provincial regulations and municipal by-laws do not use the term jaywalking to describe when a pedestrian unlawfully crosses a roadway.

Section 144 of Ontario's Highway Traffic Act stipulates pedestrians are required to use a marked crosswalk to cross the roadway when they are near one; although the same section also allows pedestrians to cross a roadway when they are not adjacent to a marked crosswalk and they yield to on-coming traffic. Similar traffic regulations also exist in Quebec's highway safety code, and Saskatchewan's Traffic Safety Act.

As a result of differing provincial/territorial regulations and/or municipal by-laws, the fine that is charged for crossing a motorway varies across the country, from C$30 in Quebec, to C$697.50 in Nova Scotia. In Ontario, motorway crossing related fines are typically charged under section 144 of the Highway Traffic Act, or a municipal by-law, with an average fine of C$35; although the maximum fine a pedestrian can be charged under the Ontario's Highway Traffic Act is C$50. Although provincial regulations and municipal by-laws on crossing a motorway exist, its enforcement remains extremely rare.

Mexico
Jaywalking is not illegal in Mexico. However, on the Paseo de la Reforma, one of Mexico City's longest and most important avenues, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, then the city's mayor, commissioned the installation of concrete prisms along the avenue's central kerb, to discourage pedestrians from crossing the road.

United States
State road rules in the United States usually require a driver to yield the right of way to a pedestrian crossing a road when the pedestrian crosses at a marked crosswalk or an unmarked crosswalk. Unmarked crosswalks generally exist as the logical extensions of sidewalks at intersections with approximately right angles. Following the Uniform Vehicle Code, state codes often do not prohibit a pedestrian from crossing a roadway between intersections if at least one of the two adjacent intersections is not controlled by a signal, but they stipulate that a pedestrian not at a crosswalk must yield the right of way to approaching drivers. State codes often permit pedestrians to use roads that are not controlled access facilities and without sidewalks but such use is usually regulated. For example, in Florida they must keep to the shoulder of the leftmost side of the road and yield to any oncoming traffic.

State codes may include provisions that allow local authorities to prohibit pedestrian crossing at locations outside crosswalks, but since municipal pedestrian ordinances are often not well known to drivers or pedestrians and can vary from place to place in a metropolitan area that contains many municipalities, obtaining compliance with local prohibitions of pedestrian crossings much more restrictive than statewide pedestrian regulations can be difficult. Signs, fences, and barriers of various types (including planted hedges) have been used to prohibit and prevent pedestrian crossing at some locations. If the detour to a legal crossing would be highly inconvenient, even fences are sometimes not effective. Street design, traffic design, and locations of major building entrances that make crosswalks the most logical and practical locations to cross streets are usually more effective than police enforcement to reduce illegal or reckless pedestrian crossings.

At a signaled crossing, a pedestrian is subject to the applicable pedestrian traffic signal or, if no pedestrian signal is displayed, the signal indications for the parallel vehicular movement. A pedestrian signal permits a pedestrian to begin crossing a street during the "Walk" display; pedestrians are usually considered to be "jaywalking" only if they enter the crosswalk some other time. The meanings of pedestrian signal indications are summarised in Section 4E.02 of the national Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.

Jaywalking is considered an infraction, but in some jurisdictions, it is a misdemeanor or requires a court appearance. The penalty is usually a fine. In some cities, such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Boston, although prohibited, "jaywalking" has been so common that police generally cite or detain jaywalkers only if their behavior is considered excessively dangerous or disruptive, such as running out in front of a moving vehicle or crossing after the light is about to change to allow cross traffic to proceed. Penalties for jaywalking vary by state, and, within a state, may vary by county or municipality. A sampling of US cities found fines ranging from $1 to $1,000.

On 30 September 2022, California governor Gavin Newsom signed a bill decriminalizing jaywalking in the state of California. The bill, AB-2147, known as The Freedom to Walk Act, was initially introduced by Assemblymember Phil Ting (D-CA). It bars law enforcement from stopping and citing a pedestrian for "safe mid-block crossings" except in the circumstances where "a reasonably careful person would realize there is an immediate danger of a collision".

In May 2017, a Boston Globe reporter spent the day attempting to get a $1 citation for jaywalking in downtown traffic. The reporter walked against lights, crossed in the middle of streets, and across the middle of blocks and did not receive a ticket, even when committing infractions in front of police officers.

Jaywalking at a signalised intersection may carry higher fines in some jurisdictions for disobeying the signalised controls. Many jurisdictions have a separate law defining the difference between jaywalking, or "disobedience of traffic signal controls." Some jurisdictions may fine pedestrians up to the same amount as a vehicle running a red light, but no driving points are issued, as the pedestrian was not driving at the time.

Safety considerations
In the United States, jaywalking is linked to pedestrian injuries and fatalities,
but no available data provide an exact risk rate because of missing jaywalking frequency data.

In the United States, jaywalking is mainly an urban issue (71%), but it can also be a suburban or rural issue when no pavement is available.

In the United States, jaywalking might be understood as:
    walking against a pedestrian walk signal,
    crossing a street where there is no crosswalk (midblock crossing),
    crossing a street outside of a marked crosswalk where one is present, and
    walking on a street along with the traffic flow (ignoring designated pedestrian pathways).

However other pedestrian behaviour might be considered as unsafe while not qualified of jaywalking, for instance, failure of drivers to yield for pedestrians, jogging/walking in the wrong direction, working on a parked car, leaning on a parked car, pushing a disabled car, standing between parked cars, and standing in a road.

Some pedestrian factors that lead to a jaywalking behavior were found to be pedestrian perceptions of risk, consumption of alcohol, perceptions of crossing devices, speed and pace of life, speed versus crossing-device speed, perceptions of enforcement risk, unawareness of pedestrian laws and safety, following the leader.

Some known environmental factors include absence of midblock crosswalks, width of roads, poor timing of crossing signals, poor conditions of sidewalks, absence of sidewalks in certain areas, capacity of sidewalks, weather, people with limited mobility, people with occupational risks, children and teens, parking areas near shopping centers, street repair and construction sites, major highways, one-way streets, location of attractions, and unlawful street-vending.

Racial bias

In California, differences by race in charging of pedestrians for jaywalking has led to assertions of racial bias and proposals to end considering jaywalking to be an offense.

California Assembly member Phil Ting proposed decriminalizing jaywalking. The bill, AB 2147, The Freedom To Walk Act, passed by the legislature and signed by Governor Gavin Newsom, took effect on January 1, 2023.

Seattle City Council members Bruce Harrell and Lorena González raised issues of bias in jaywalking tickets in that city as well.

Oceania

Australia
In Australia, it is illegal to start crossing the road at an intersection if a pedestrian light is red or flashing red. If no such pedestrian light exists, the traffic lights are used, making it illegal to proceed on red or orange. Furthermore, it is illegal to cross any road within 20 m of an intersection with pedestrian lights or within 20 m of any pedestrian crossing (including a zebra crossing, school crossing, or any other pedestrian crossing).

However, laws against jaywalking are rarely enforced, with the exception of the occasional police "blitz" on jaywalking for a week or so at a time, when the laws are enforced more stringently. Some roads with a record of pedestrian accidents feature fences in the centre to discourage pedestrians, but there is no law against crossing them. States set their own fines for jaywalking. The fine in Victoria is 2 penalty units. The fine is $50 in Western Australia.

New Zealand
Pedestrians in New Zealand must, if possible, cross at right angles to the kerb or side of the roadway unless they use pedestrian crossings or school crossing points. Pedestrians must use a pedestrian crossing, footbridge, underpass or traffic signal within 20 m. At intersections controlled by signals, pedestrians should wait for the green man to display and may not begin crossing when the static or the flashing red man is displayed. The fine for jaywalking is up to $35.

South America

Argentina
In Argentina, jaywalking is legal.

Brazil
In Brazil, it is illegal to cross the road if the nearest zebra crossing is within 50 m. Pedestrians have priority over cars. According to CONTRAN resolution 706/17 from April 25, 2018, violators could pay a fine up to 44.19 Brazilian reals; however, the measure is rarely enforced.

See also
 Red flag traffic laws
 Automotive city
 Effects of the car on societies
 Green transport hierarchy
 Misdemeanor
 Pedestrian crossing
 Pedestrian village
 Reclaim the Streets
 Shared space
 Walkability

References

Further reading

External links

 What every Brit should know about jaywalking; BBC News

Road transport
Pedestrian safety
Walking
Car crime

Jaywalking


بلدية جرجال  (نقحرة: غيرغال) هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة المرية. جنوب شرق إسبانيا. يبلغ عدد سكانها 1.057 نسمة.

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La vida perra de Juanita Narboni es una película de 2005 dirigida por la directora marroquí Farida Benlyazid basada en la novela homónima de Ángel Vázquez.

Sinopsis
Juanita representa un último testigo de ese "paraíso" que fue el Tánger Internacional donde convivían culturas y religiones, a la vez que un último vestigio del "colonialismo". Juanita, hija de padre inglés de Gibraltar y de madre andaluza, no asume los cambios históricos de la ciudad de Tánger y se va quedando sola en un "paraíso perdido", rodeada por su hermana Elena, una mujer educada en el Liceo francés y que buscó su libertad; Esther, la íntima amiga sefardita, que dedica toda su vida a una historia de amor imposible con un marroquí; Hamruch, la fiel criada marroquí. En el trasfondo de estas vidas, una serie de acontecimientos: la guerra civil española con la entrada de las tropas Jalifeñas en Tánger, la II Guerra Mundial con la llegada de refugiados de Europa. Juanita se va quedando sola en su ciudad que, tras la independencia de Marruecos en 1956, va retornando a sus orígenes árabes.

Se trata de una película hispano-marroquí dirigida por la cineasta marroquí Farida Benlyazid y protagonizada por la española Mariola Fuentes. Está basada en la novela de Ángel Vázquez del mismo nombre.

Premios
 Festival National du Film Marocain de Tanger 2005

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Película completa en Youtube

Películas ambientadas en Tánger
Películas basadas en novelas españolas

La vida perra de Juanita Narboni (película)


Bluehole, Inc. (cunoscută ca Bluehole Studio, Inc. până pe 22 aprilie 2015) este un dezvoltator de jocuri video sud-coreean cu sediul în districtul Bundang-gu din Seongnam. Înființată de Chang Byung-gyu, în Seul, în martie 2007, compania este cunoscută cel mai bine pentru dezvoltarea platformelor TERA (2011) și PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds (2017) pentru jucătorii cunoscuți, aceasta din urmă prin intermediul filialei PUBG Corporation. În noiembrie 2018, Bluehole s-a organizat sub o companie-mamă nou înființată, Krafton Game Union. Toate studiourile sale au fost mutate în Krafton, iar PUBG Corporation și-a schimbat numele în "PUBG Studios".

Legături externe

Companie de jocuri video din Coreea de Sud
Editori de jocuri video
Companii coreene fondate în 2007

Bluehole (companie)


Gürgenli köyü (Bulgarca Габрица, Gabritsa), Şumnu'nun kuzeydoğusunda bulunan küçük bir köydür.

Köyden geçmekte olan Şumnu-Bohçalar yolu sayesinde köyün konumu artmıştır.

Köy iki mahalleden oluşmaktadır. 1954 yılında kurulan kooperatif sayesinde halkın geliri az da olsa yükselmiş, 1960'lı yıllarda motosiklet, 1980 senesinden sonra köyde otomobil sayısı artmıştır. 1950 yılından beri mevcut olan tiyatro salonu sayesinde uzun kış geceleri komşu köylerden de gelen tiyatro gösterimleri ile renkli geçmekte idi.

Düzen 1985 yılındaki olaylardan sonra bozuldu. Yerli öğretmenlerin hepsi komşu ülkeye göç etti. Okul öğrencisiz kaldı. Köyün nüfusu yarı yarıya azaldı (1989 yılında). Kooperatifin dağılması ile (1990 yılında) bağ ve meyve bahçeleri söküldü. Gençler işsiz kaldı.

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'ne göç edenlerin hasret gidermeleri ve yetişen neslin de kaynaşması için her yıl eylül ayının ilk Pazar günü İstanbul Halkalı'da Geleneksel toplantıları yapılmaktadır.

Bulgaristan'daki köyler
Şumnu ili

Gürgenli, Şumnu


Die Herren von Schwabegg waren ein schwäbisches Adelsgeschlecht, das 1167 ausstarb.

Geschichte
Die Herren von Schwabegg waren seit spätestens 980 als Inhaber der Herrschaft Schwabeck die Vögte des Hochstifts Augsburg. Sie sind wohl seit 898 nachweisbar mit einem praefectus Adalgoz. Das Geschlecht saß seit etwa 1110 auf der Feste Schwabegg, in deren Umkreis sie über ansehnliche Güter, Vasallen und Ministerialen verfügten. 1167 starb der letzte Schwabegger, Adalgoz, auf dem vierten Italienzug Friedrich Barbarossas. Die Burg fiel mit ihren Gütern an die Staufer und 1268 mit dem Konradinischen Erbe an Bayern.

Bekannte Namensträger
 Werner von Ursberg, gestorben am 8. Februar zwischen 1130 und 1140
 Werner, ältester Sohn von Werner von Ursberg, war von 1130 bis 1135/43 bischöflicher Vogt
 Adalgoz, Sohn von Werner von Ursberg, soll nach dem Tod seines Bruders die Vogtei übernommen haben. Er starb am 26. Juli 1167 an der Pest oder an Malaria.

Namensüberlieferung
Schwabegg ist ein Ortsteil der Gemeinde Schwabmünchen.

Siehe auch
 Herrschaft Schwabegg

Literatur
 Gerhard Köbler: Historisches Lexikon der deutschen Länder. Die deutschen Territorien vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. 7., vollständig überarbeitete Auflage. C.H. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-54986-1, S. 642.
 Alfred Lohmüller: Das Reichsstift Ursberg. Anton H. Konrad Verlag, Weißenhorn 1987, ISBN 3-87437-249-9, S. 262–263.
 Wolfgang Wüst: Die Schwabegger (898?–1167) und die Eberstaller (1113–1330): Schwäbische Edelfreie zwischen Ministerialität, Vasallität und Nobilität. In Ferdinand Kramer & Wilhelm Störmer (Hrsg.), Hochmittelalterliche Adelsfamilien in Altbayern, Franken und Schwaben (= Studien zur Bayerischen Verfassungs- und Sozialgeschichte, Band XX), S. 433–447. Kommission für bayerische Landesgeschichte bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, München 2005, ISBN 376966874X.

Weblinks

Schwabegg
Geschichte (Landkreis Augsburg)
Schwabmünchen

Herren von Schwabegg


Çanaklı, Samsun ilinin Terme ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Köy, Samsun İlinin Terme ilçesine bağlı olup, Samsun il merkezine 52 km, Terme ilçesine 15 km, Çarşamba İlçesine 13 km uzakta, Samsun-Ordu kara yolunun 5 km aşağısında, sahil tarafta yer almaktadır. Mahallenin batısında Sütözü mahallesi, doğusunda İmanalisi mahallesi, güneydogusunda Karacalı mahallesi, güneybatısında Aşağıtaşpınar mahallesi yer almaktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar
 YerelNET

Terme'nin mahalleleri

Çanaklı, Terme


කළුතර බලකොටුව 1622 වර්ෂයේදී පෘතුගීසීන් විසින් ඉදිකරන ලද වර්ථමානයේදී දැකගත නොහැකි ආරක්ෂක බලකොටුවක් සේ සැළකේ. එය ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කළුතර ඉදිකොට තිබී ඇත.

මූලාශ්‍ර

බලකොටු - ශ්‍රී ලංකා

කළුතර බලකොටුව


Stema municipiului Satu Mare a fost aprobată în 2015. Aceasta se compune dintr-un scut triunghiular albastru cu marginile rotunjite.
În interiorul scutului, dintr-un bastion format dintr-un zid de cetate crenelat argintiu se ridică un turn de argint cu trei ferestre deschise negre, având la bază o poartă cu grilajul ridicat, apărată de un leu șezând, de aur, văzut din profil spre dreapta, cu coada ridicată pe spate și cu limba roșie scoasă. Din crenelurile bastionului se ridică un turn conic central roșu, flancat de câte un turnuleț argintiu, cu fereastra neagră deschisă, cu acoperișul ascuțit, roșu. Din metereze iese, în dreapta-stânga bastionului, o terasă verde pe care sunt plasați câte un chiparos cu trunchiul negru și coronamentul verde; la extremitățile fiecărui chiparos se află câte un oștean de argint, privind spre chiparos, îmbrăcat în armură completă cu coiful cu viziera trasă, având în mâna dreaptă/stângă o spadă ridicată. Bastionul este așezat pe o terasă verde, iar vârful scutului de argint este undat. Scutul este timbrat de o coroană murală de argint cu șapte turnuri crenelate.

Semnificațiile elementelor însumate:
 Bastionul se referă la rolul cetății în apărarea localității.
 Leul reprezintă o imagine simbolică pentru ideea de putere și curaj în luptă.
 Chiparosul face referire la bogăția pomicolă din zonă.
 Grilajul reprezintă statutul privilegiat de cetate al orașului în Evul Mediu.
 Întreaga compoziție a fost inspirată de tradiția heraldică folosită în perioada interbelică.

Legături externe
 Hotărârea nr. 303/2015 privind aprobarea stemei municipiului Satu Mare, județul Satu Mare

 Stemele municipiilor din România
 Satu Mare

Stema municipiului Satu Mare


Theodoros Metokhites (1270-1332) Bizans İmparatoru II. Andronikos Mesazonudur. Hora Kilisesi'nin onarımını üstlenen entelektüel, aydın ve sanatsever bir kişidir.

Yaşamı
Theodoros Metokhites 1270 yılında Konstantinopolis'te (İstanbul), aristokrat bir ailenin oğlu olarak doğmuştur. Metokhites'in yaşamı ile ilgili bilgilerimizin büyük bir kısmı kendi yazdığı şiirlerinden gelmektedir. Babası Georgios Metokhites, İmparator VIII. Mikhael Palaiologos'un Vatikan büyükelçisidir. Ancak,1283 yılında VIII. Mikhael, II. Andronikos tarafından tahttan indirilince, Metokhites ailesi Anadolu'ya sürgüne gönderilmiştir. Sürgünde bulundukları dönemde Helenistik kökenli trivium (dil bilgisi(gramer), söylem(retorik), mantık)nve quadrivium (geometri, aritmetik, astronomi ve müzik) eğitimini almıştır. Ayrıca antik felsefe ve din bilimini de kendi çabaları ile öğrenmiştir. 1290 yılında, bir asya gezisi sırasında Nikaia'ya (İznik) uğrayan İmparator II. Andronikos'un dikkatini derin bilgisi ve entelektüel donanımı sayesinde çekmeyi başarmıştır ve imparatorun himayesine girmiştir. Metokthites, 1328 yılında II. Andronikos tahttan indirilinceye kadar imparatorun yanında bulunmuştur. Bu sürede devlet bürokrasisinde hızla yükselmiştir. 1291 senato üyesi olmuş, devlet bürokrasisi içinde İmparator'dan sonra gelen en yüksek memurluk olan, hazineden sorumlu Logothetes görevine getirilmiştir. 1305 yılında ise bütün imparatorluğun başbakanı olmuş, imparator ile halk arasında bir ara bulucu vazifesi üstlenmiştir.  1316 yılında İmparator tarafından, sarayın koruması ve yönetimi altında olan Khora Manastırı'nı restore etmesi için 'ktetor' (bani) olarak atanmıştır. Manastırın restorasyonu 1321 yılında tamamlanınca sarayın en önemli unvanı olan 'Büyük Logothete' unvanı ile onurlandırılmıştır. Theodoros Metokhites, kızını İmparator'un yeğeni Ioannes Palaiologos ile evlendirerek, imparatorluk ailesi ile akrabalık ilişkileri de kurmuştur.

Şiirlerinde Metokhites, Khora'nın dünyanın el güzel manastırlarında biri olmasını istediğini ve bunun için gereken her şeyi yaptığını söylemektedir. Metokhites, kurduğu Khora manastırı ve özellikle bu manastırda oluşturduğu büyük kütüphane ile övünmektedir. Bu kütüphanenin binasına ilişkin kesin bir arkeolojik veri bulunmamasına karşın, manastır içerisinde böyle bir kütüphanenin var olduğunu hem Metokhites'in kendi şiirlerinden, hem de sürgündeyken manastırın rahiplerine gönderdiği mektuplardan anlaşılmaktadır.

İmparator II. Andronikos 1328 yılında tahttan indirilince, Theodoros Metokhites de yeni imparator tarafından Trakya'ya, Didymotekhos'a (Dimetoka) sürgüne gönderilmiş, iki yıl sürgünde yaşamış, burada yaşadığı acıları, sürgün yıllarını, çok karmaşık edebi örgüsü olan  şiirlerinde anlatmıştır. 1330 yılında damadının da yardımlarıyla Konstantinopolis'e dönmesine izin verilince, Khora Manastırı'na gitmiş ve ktetor olmasının haklarını kullanarak burada Rahip Theoleptos adıyla yaşamaya başlamıştır. Bizans'ta manastır kurucusu birçok aristokrat,  Ktetor unvanının kendilerine verdiği ömür boyu kullanabilecekleri hakkı kullanarak, yaşamlarının son dönemlerini, kurdukları manastırda geçirirlerdi. Metokhites, iki yıl sonra 1332 yılında, Khora Manastırı'nda ölünce kilisenin güney tarafına bitişik olan pareklesiondaki mezar nişine gömülmüştür.

Hakkında
Theodoros Metokhites, sanatı ve bilimi destekleyen, doğrudan ürünler veren ve Bizans kültüründen günümüze kadar ulaşan izler bırakan bir aristokrat olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Metokhites engin bilgisi ve pek çok alana duyduğu ilgiyle, Mikhail Psellos ya da Patrik Photios gibi Bizans'ın ünlü bilginleriyle eş tutulmuştur. Bilge-bürokratlar içinde yeri oldukça önemlidir. Bürokratik gücü ve  muazzam serveti sayesinde sanat ve edebiyatın bir destekçisidir.

Yüksek bir bürokrat olan Metokhites, bu dünyadaki ününün kendisinden sonra da sürmesini istemektedir. Khora Manastırı'nı yeniden yaptırması ve kütüphanesini donatması onun iyi bir Hristiyan olarak ölümden sonraki hayatı da düşündüğünü göstermektedir. Zengin kütüphanesi ise bu dünyadaki ününü gelecek kuşaklara aktaracak, hem de işlediği bu büyük sevaptan ötürü Tanrının takdirini kazanmasını sağlayacaktı. Metokhites iyi bir Hristiyandır, ancak bağnaz değildir.  Kilise ile karşı karşıya gelmemeye özen göstermiştir. Dini konuları tartışmaktan yana olmamış, sadece inançlı olmayı tercih etmiştir.

Çalışmaları
Metokhites son derece üretken bir yazar ve bilim insanıydı. Arkasında bıraktığı eserleri; retorikleri, 20 şiiri, nazım ile yazdığı vasiyeti, felsefi metinler koleksiyonu ve astronomi üzerine 2 eseri olarak sıralanabilir. Metin koleksiyonu "Hypomnematismoi kai semeoses gnomikai", tarih, edebiyat ve düşünce üzerine 70 den fazla Yunan yazarın materyallerini içermektedir. Ayrıca geç Bizans döneminde Aristoteles felsefesi hakkında yazılmış en kapsamlı yorumlar da bu eserde bulunmaktadır.

Kariye ve Metokhites
Theodoros Metokithes, edebiyat ve siyaset alanındaki başarılarının yanında Khora manastır kilisesindeki gerek mimari çözümleme ve gerekse mozaik, fresko süslemelerinde uyguladığı ustalık ve ahenk ile dini tasvirlerin kronolojik bir uyum içinde, ikonografik olarak anlatımlarında da oldukça başarılı olmuştur. Bu açıdan bakıldığında İtalya'da Giotto (1266-1337) ile başlayan Rönesans akımı ile birlikte Bizans'ta da yeni bir sanat akımının başlamasına öncülük ettiği söylenebilir.

Theodoros Metokhites bir başbakan ve bir bilim insanı olarak oldukça güçlü, entelektüel ve zengin bir insandır. Bu sayede Kariye'nin yapımında, ressam ve baş duvar ustasının yeni ifade biçimleri geliştirmesine olanak verecek bir ortam sağlayabilmiştir. Khora Manastırı katholikonu olarak yeniden inşa ve dekore edilen Kariye, Theodoros Metokhites'in sanat koruyuculuğunu temsil etmektedir. Bina programında, eski unsurlara karşı ustalıkla ortaya konan yeni mimari eklemeler buluyoruz. Metokhites eski kilise merkezini yıkıp yeniden inşa ettirecek bir bütçeye sahip olmasına rağmen bunu tercih etmeyip yapının eski çekirdeğini koruyarak inşayı seçmiştir. Eski ve yeninin birlikte kullanımı rastgele değildir. Yeni bölümler tarihe bir cevap ve geçmişle sembolik bir ilişki kurma girişimi olarak anlaşılabilir. Postmodernizmde olduğu gibi Metokhites'in mimarisi de yerleşik kuralları yıkmaktan mutluluk duymuş ve onda geçmişle görsel bir diyalog başlatmak amacı gütmüştür.

Bir bilim adamı olarak Theodoros Metokhites geçmişle ve tarihteki kendi yeri ile de oldukça ilgileniyordu. Bu Kariye'nin mozaik programında da görülebilmektedir. Ayrıca Kariye'nin mozaik ve fresk programı zamanının kabul gören kanunlarından daha farklı ve yenilikçidir. Kompozisyonlarda, normalde birbirinden bağımsız unsurlar, düzensiz boşlukları doldurmak için değiştirerek dekorasyon ile birleştirilmiştir. Mimari arka fonlar sahne dekoru gibi kullanılmıştır ve kumaş, bitki gibi ayrıntılar ile doldurulmuştur. Denge yerine asimetri vardır.

Kaynakça

 .

Kaynakça

1270 doğumlular
1332 yılında ölenler
14. yüzyıl yazarları
14. yüzyıl filozofları
14. yüzyılda Bizanslılar

Bizanslı yazarlar
Bizanslı filozoflar
Bizanslı bürokratlar

Metohites


George Kelly Barnes (18 de julho de 1895 – 18 de julho de 1954), mais conhecido por seu pseudônimo "Machine Gun Kelly", foi um gângster americano de Memphis, no estado de Tennessee, ativo durante a era da Lei Seca. Seu apelido veio de sua arma favorita, uma submetralhadora Thompson. Ele é mais conhecido pelo sequestro do magnata do petróleo e empresário Charles F. Urschel em julho de 1933, do qual ele e sua gangue coletaram um resgate de US$200.000. Urschel coletou e deixou evidências consideráveis que ajudaram na investigação subsequente do FBI, que acabou levando à prisão de Kelly em Memphis, Tennessee, em 26 de setembro de 1933. Seus crimes também incluíram contrabandos e assaltos à mão armada.

Mafiosos
Condenados à prisão perpétua dos Estados Unidos

Machine Gun Kelly (gângster)


Nevjerni Toma (talijanski: Incredulità di San Tommaso) je slavno ulje na platnu talijanskog baroknog slikara Caravaggia.

Povijest

Novozavjetni motiv "Nevjernog Tome" je bio čest motiv kršćanske umjetnosti još od kasnog 5. stoljeća, kako bi se istakla neka teološka stajališta. Naime, prema Evanđelju po Ivanu, Toma Apostol je propustio jednu od Isusovih objava poslije Uskrsnuća, te je izjavio: "Ako ne vidim tragove raspeća na njegovim rukama i ne stavim prst u njegove rane, neću povjerovati" (Ivan 20:24). Tjedan dana poslije,  Isus se pojavio i rekao Tomi da stavi prst u njegove rane. Potom je izjavio: "Ti vjeruješ jer si me vidio. Ali blago onima koji me nisu vidjeli, a vjeruju." (Ivan 20:29)

Slika je vjerojatno povezana sa slikama Sveti Matej i Anđeo (1602.), te Žrtvovanje Izaka (1603.) jer se na sve tri nalazi isti model. Slika je pripadala Vincenzu Giustinianiju prije nego što je došla u posjed Pruske kraljevske kolekcije 1816. god. God. 2005. u Trstu je u privatnoj kolekciji otkrivena još jedna verzija čiju su autentičnost potvrdili stručnjaci kao što su Maurizio Marini, Maria Ranacher i Sir Denis Mahon.
Ova slika je doživjela veliki uspjeh i kopirana je još za života umjetnika. Danas su poznate još tri izvorne verzije, jedna u muzeju Uffizi u Firenci, jedna u Madridu u Španjolskoj, i na kraju u Thirsku, York u Engleskoj, te još 14 kopija od 17. stoljeća do danas.

Odlike

Slika je čvrsto koncentrirana, te oblikovana svjetlosnim obrisima četriju likova koji su blisko povezani nasuprot tamne pozadine. Blagi Isus i iznenađeni Toma se nalaze u prvom planu slike, dok Isus vodi Tominu desnu ruku u svoju ranu. Svjetlo struji u sliku s lijeve strane i najviše pada na Isusa, te njegovom isticanju pripomažu njegova blijeda put i bijela halja. Tomin položaj je ojačan njegovom crvenom haljinom i svjetlošću koja pada na njegovo rame i nadlakticu. Isusov lik suprotstavlja se Tominom grubom obliku, njegova je fizionomija uglađenija od ostatka učenika što ponovno šalje poruku njegove svetosti. Osobitost je Caravaggiova pažnja za verističke detalje, kao npr. razderan šav na Tominom ramenu, što ga razlikuje od njegovih suvremenika. Također, dok pokazuje znakove na Isusovim prsima jasno se vide njegovi prljavi nokti. Iako je ova tema bila popularna tijekom baroka i renesanse Caravaggiov je doprinos upravo u tim detaljima.

Bilješke

Poveznice

 Kronologija Caravaggiovih djela
 Barokno slikarstvo

Vanjske poveznice
Nevjerni Toma na Web Gallery of Art

Caravaggiove slike
Slike iz 1600-ih
Ikonografija Isusa

Nevjerni Toma (Caravaggio)


Flammulina is a genus of fungi in the family Physalacriaceae. The genus, widespread in temperate regions, has been estimated to contain 10 species.

List of species

 Flammulina callistosporioides
 Flammulina elastica
 Flammulina fennae
 Flammulina ferrugineolutea
 Flammulina filiformis (enokitake)
 Flammulina finlandica
 Flammulina mediterranea
 Flammulina mexicana
 Flammulina ononidis
 Flammulina populicola
 Flammulina rossica
 Flammulina similis
 Flammulina stratosa
 Flammulina velutipes (velvet shank)

References

External links

 The Genus Flammulina

Physalacriaceae
Agaricales genera

Flammulina


A Comunhão das Igrejas Ortodoxas Ocidentais ( - CWOC;  - CEOO) é uma comunhão de igrejas cristãs.

Visão Geral
A comunhão atualmente compreende três igrejas membros:

 A Igreja Ortodoxa Celta;
 A Igreja Ortodoxa Francesa;
 A Igreja Ortodoxa dos Gauleses.

A Comunhão das Igrejas Ortodoxas Ocidentais foi estabelecida em 25 de dezembro de 2007 com a assinatura de seu foral e a concelebração de uma missa pela Natividade do Senhor pelo Bispo Maël de Brescia e pelo Bispo Mark da Igreja Celta Ortodoxa, pelo Bispo Vigile e pelo Bispo Martin Laplaud pela Igreja Ortodoxa Francesa Igreja e o Bispo Gregory Mendez da Igreja Ortodoxa dos Gauleses.

Relações com outras Igrejas
Escritas nas diretivas da Comunhão das Igrejas Ortodoxas Ocidentais estão disposições para aceitar outras igrejas ortodoxas que também subscrevam a sua carta e princípios: A aceitação de outras igrejas cristãs que aderem aos princípios estabelecidos na Carta e aos usos, conselhos e diretrizes da Comunhão está sujeita ao acordo unânime das igrejas signatárias. Este acordo será informado por informações abrangentes sobre a história, vida, espírito e autenticidade da igreja candidata. Consultas entre nossas igrejas serão necessárias para discernir os méritos desta candidatura.

Ligações externas

 Site oficial (em francês)

Ortodoxia Ocidental
Cristianismo na Europa


The Thin Blue Line is a British sitcom which aired on BBC1 from 1995 to 1996. It was created and written by Ben Elton, and starred Rowan Atkinson. The series was popular with viewers, though it suffered in critical reviews due to "inconsistent character development" and an "overly broad plot line". It was ranked number 34 in a poll for Britain's Best Sitcom. In September 2021, the series became available on BBC iPlayer. and also on STV Player.

The show, set in the fictional English town of Gasforth, is a parody of police procedurals, featuring conflicts between the uniformed squad, led by Inspector Fowler, and the CID, led by Detective Inspector Grim. The cast included Serena Evans, David Haig, James Dreyfus, Mina Anwar, Rudolph Walker, Kevin Allen, and Mark Addy, among others.

Synopsis
The series is set in a police station in the fictional English town of Gasforth. A general parody of the serious police procedural, one of the main themes on the show sees the uniformed squad, led by Inspector Raymond Fowler, and the CID, led by Detective Inspector Derek Grim, locking horns over similar, or even the same, issues while having conflicting views or methods of operations. Generally, the uniformed section triumphs over the detectives, although not without their own foibles. Although other PCs and staff other than the main characters are visible in the background, they generally have no speaking parts.

Cast and characters

 Rowan Atkinson as Inspector Raymond Fowler, an old-fashioned policeman whose lack of interest in sex annoys his live-in girlfriend of ten years, Sergeant Dawkins. He has a son, Bill, from a previous marriage.
 Serena Evans as Sergeant Patricia Dawkins, a desk sergeant. She is Inspector Fowler's long-suffering partner and is forever on a quest for more sexual attention from him, who is usually reluctant to oblige. Despite her frustration and anger, she loves Fowler devotedly and dreams of marrying him and having a child.
 David Haig as Detective Inspector Derek Grim, the head of the CID unit at Gasforth Police Station. In reference to a common trope in police dramas and procedurals, his attitude is that CID are superior to the uniformed police. He has been married for twenty years to Tina, with whom he has an intense love-hate relationship. Their son, Darren, was arrested in one episode.
 James Dreyfus as Constable Kevin Goody, who is perhaps the least complex of the officers. Profoundly unintelligent and oblivious to the obvious, he has very little idea of what being a police officer entails. Although his character is very camp, he is infatuated with Constable Habib.
 Mina Anwar as Constable Maggie Habib, a female officer of South Asian descent, who was raised in Accrington. Habib is generally the straight man in Fowler's uniformed branch.
 Rudolph Walker as Constable Frank Gladstone, a Trinidad-origin constable near retirement. Gladstone has been a PC all his adult life, as was his father, and is enjoying his career winding down.
 Kevin Allen as Detective Constable Robert Kray (series 1), an officer in Grim's CID unit. He is a very laddish cop, intelligent, cynical and pragmatic.
 Mark Addy as Detective Constable Gary Boyle (series 2), Kray's replacement in the second series. Like Kray, he is intelligent, cynical, pragmatic, very laddish and likes being a police officer for the associated perks.

Many notable actors made guest appearances, and these include the writer Ben Elton, Stephen Fry, Stephen Moore, Melvyn Hayes, Trevor Peacock, Owen Teale, Colin McFarlane, Alan Cox, Alexander Armstrong, Nicola Stapleton, Perry Fenwick, Walter Sparrow, Geoffrey Chater, Gabrielle Blunt and Rupert Vansittart.

Episodes

Series 1 (1995)

Series 2 (1996)

Development
Creator and writer Ben Elton is a fan of Dad's Army, and many of the characters were influenced by the show. Fowler's relationship with Grim is very similar to that of Captain Mainwaring to Warden Hodges, in that they are both on the same side yet enemies. Also, Constable Goody is rather like Private Pike in being a "stupid boy" who often irritates Fowler. Constable Gladstone's habit of interrupting a briefing with a story about life in Trinidad is similar to Lance Corporal Jones's penchant for reminiscing about Sudan during Captain Mainwaring's speeches. Other references include in the episode "Rag Week", when Fowler is briefly seen walking out of a shop called "Mainwaring's" Elton has appeared in the programme himself, in the Christmas special episode "Yuletide Spirit". In the first series, the wanted poster behind Fowler's desk in the briefing room is an E-FIT of Elton.

Home releases
Both series have been released on DVD in the United Kingdom (Region 2) by Vision Video Ltd. The Thin Blue Line is available in Region 1 (North America), having been released by BBC Warner. Episodes in the first series were not in broadcast order on both Region 1 and 2 DVDs. The Series 2 episodes in the Region 1 DVD are cut to fit about 30-minute runtime. The Region 1 release has English closed captions. The UK Region 2 does not have any subtitles.

References

Other sources
 Mark Lewisohn, "Radio Times Guide to TV Comedy", BBC Worldwide Ltd, 2003

External links

The Thin Blue Line
BBC – Comedy – Guide – The Thin Blue Line
BBC "Best Sitcom" ranking – Top 50

1995 British television series debuts
1996 British television series endings
1990s British crime television series
1990s British sitcoms
1990s British police comedy television series
BBC crime television shows
BBC television sitcoms
British crime comedy television series
British police comedy television series
English-language television shows
Television shows written by Ben Elton
Television series by Endemol
Television series by Tiger Aspect Productions
Television series created by Ben Elton
Television shows set in England

The Thin Blue Line (British TV series)


Liga Centara nogometnog Podsaveza Zagreb (također i kao 2. razred Zagrebačkog nogometnog podsaveza, Podsavezna liga Zagreb – II. razred) je predstavljala lige najnižeg stupnja natjecanja "Prvenstva Zagrebačkog nogometnog podsaveza" te lige 7. stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije za sezonu 1962./63.
Liga je bila podijeljena u tri skupine:
 Centar Jug – 13 klubova, prvak "Mraclin"
 Centar Zagreb – ukupno 12 klubova, prvak "Radnik" iz Sesveta
 Centar Zapad – 11 klubova, prvak "BSK" iz Brdovca

 Centar Jug
Također i kao Centar Velika Gorica.

 Ljestvica

 Hrelići – danas dio naselja Zagreb
 Klara – tadašnji naziv za Svetu Klaru, danas dio naselja Zagreb
 Kurilovec – danas dio naselja Velika Gorica

 Rezultatska križaljka
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-size: 85%; text-align: center"
!kratica !!klub !!BOR !!JED !!MLA !!MRA !!NAP !!ORAČ !!PAR !!POLB !!POLK !!SLO !!TRA !!UDA !!ZEL
|-
|BOR ||align="left"|Borac Vukovina
|bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|JED ||align="left"|Jedinstvo
| ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|MLA ||align="left"|Mladost
| || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|MRA ||align="left"|Mraclin
| || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|NAP ||align="left"|Naprijed Gradići
| || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || || || || ||
|-
|ORAČ ||align="left"|Orač
| || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || || || ||
|-
|PAR ||align="left"|Partizan Lukavac
| || || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || || ||
|-
|POLB ||align="left"|Polet Buševec
| || || || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || || ||
|-
|POLK ||align="left"|Polet Klara
| || || || || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || || ||
|-
|SLO ||align="left"|Sloga Odra
| || || || || || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || || ||
|-
|TRA ||align="left"|Traktorist
| || || || || || || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| || ||
|-
|UDA ||align="left"|Udarnik Kurilovec
| || || || || || || || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"| ||
|-
|ZEL ||align="left"|Zelengaj Hrelići
| || || || || || || || || || || || ||bgcolor="gainsboro"|
|-
!colspan="15"|
|-
|colspan="15" align="left"|
<small>
podebljan rezultat - utakmice od 1. do 13. kola (1. utakmica između klubova)
rezultat normalne debljine - utakmice od 14. do 26. kola (2. utakmica između klubova)  rezultat nakošen - nije vidljiv redoslijed odigravanja međusobnih utakmica iz dostupnih izvora
 rezultat nakošen i smanjen *   - iz dostupnih izvora nije uočljiv domaćin susreta
 prekrižen rezultat  - poništena ili brisana utakmica
p - utakmica prekinuta
3:0 p.f. / 0:3 p.f. - rezultat 3:0 bez borbe
|}
 Izvori:

 Centar Zagreb

 Ljestvica

 Izvori:

 Centar Zapad
Također i pod nazivom Centar Zaprešić''

 Ljestvica

 Deranje – tadšnji naziv za Drenje Brdovečko
 Donja Pušća – također i pod nazivom Pušća Donja

 Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Unutrašnje poveznice
 Prvenstva Zagrebačkog nogometnog podsaveza
 Zagrebački nogometni podsavez
 Zagrebačka liga 1962./63.
 Podsavezna liga Zagrebačkog NP 1962./63.
 1. razred NP Zagreb 1962./63.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori
 "Sportske novosti", 1963. godina
 nk-maksimir.hr, NK "Maksimir" - Podsavezna liga 1962./63. , pristupljeno 05. ožujka 2020.
 Josip Miholić: 50 godina NK "Top" - Kerestinec : 1961. – 2011. , Sveta Nedelja, 2012., , str. 20-22

1962-63 2
Zagreb-2

Liga Centara nogometnog Podsaveza Zagreb 1962./63.


Spezzano Albanese es un municipio situado en el territorio de la provincia de Cosenza, en Calabria, (Italia).

Demografía

Patrimonio
La torre Mordillo es un edificio enclavado sobre una colina. Su construcción se enmarca dentro de las disputas por el territorio que rodea a la ciudad de Síbari, junto al mar Tirreno. Las excavaciones arqueológicas han evidenciado la existencia de varios ciclos de poblamientos en ese lugar desde el  (Edad del Bronce).

Enlaces externos
 Página web oficial de Spezzano Albanese (en italiano)

Localidades de la provincia de Cosenza
Enclaves arbëreshë

Spezzano Albanese


Kim Mi-kyung ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Kim Mi-kyung (Leichtathletin) (* 1967), südkoreanische Marathonläuferin
 Kim Mi-kyung (Comiczeichnerin), südkoreanische Comiczeichnerin
 Kim Mi-kyung (Schauspielerin) (* 1963), südkoreanische Schauspielerin

Kim Mi-kyung


Events
September 24 – The Bolshoi Theatre Company hosts its first annual opera season, with the opening of the Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre in St Petersburg.
 Giovanni Paisiello is invited to the court of Catherine the Great, where he will stay for eight years.
Court Theatre in Stockholm built by King Gustav III of Sweden

Popular music
Daniel Dow – "Money Musk"
Psalms and Hymns for Public and Private Worship by Augustus Montague Toplady

Opera
Gaetano Marinelli – Il Barone di Sardafritta
Giovanni Paisiello – Il finto spettro (December 26, Mannheim)
Ignaz Pleyel – Die Fee Urgele
Antonio Tozzi – Le Due Gemelli
Tommaso Traetta – Germondo

Classical music
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
6 Keyboard Trios, Wq.89
3 Keyboard Trios, Wq.90
Johann Christian Bach – Die Amerikanerin
Luigi Boccherini – 6 String Quintets, G.277-282 (Op.13)
Felice Giardini – String Quartet in E-flat major
William Goodwin – Voluntary XII in D major
François Joseph Gossec – Symphonie de chasse; Symphonie en ré
Johann Wilhelm Hässler – 6 Keyboard Sonatas
James Hook – The Ascension (oratorio)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Haffner Serenade, K.250
Joseph Haydn – Symphony No. 61, Hob.I:61
Juliane Reichardt – An den Mond
Antonio Salieri – La Passione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo für Soli, vierstimmigen Chor und Orchester
Carl Stamitz – 6 Quartets, Op. 14
Daniel Gottlob Türk – 6 Keyboard Sonatas, Sammlung 1
Johann Adolph Hasse - Te Deum in G major

Methods and theory writings

 Charles Burney – A General History of Music, vol. 1 (vol. 2 published 1782, vols. 3 and 4 in 1789)
 John Hawkins – A General History of the Science and Practice of Music

Births
January 24 – Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann, author and composer
February 18 – John Parry, composer
February 21 – Vincenzo Lavigna, composer
March 31 – Joseph Küffner, composer (died 1856)
April 8 – Thaddaus Weigl, composer
April 27 – Hyacinthe Jadin, composer (died 1800)
May 10 – George Thomas Smart, composer
May 12 – Juan Bros y Bertomel, composer
May 13 – Charles Ots and Rodrigo Ferreira da Costa, composers
June 1 – John George Schetky, composer
August 4 – Wenzel Sedlak, composer
August 15 – Ignaz Xaver von Seyfried, composer
August 16 – Philipp Jakob Riotte, composer
August 19 – Johan Peter Strömberg, dancer and theatre director
August 29 – Georg Friedrich Treitschke, librettist (died 1842)
December 6 – Paul Friedrich Struck, composer

Deaths
February 13 – Luis Misón, composer, 50
April 22 – Johann Adolph Scheibe, music theorist, 67
May 6 – James Kent, composer, 76
June 10 – Leopold Widhalm, luthier, 53
November 29 – Zanetta Farussi, opera singer, 69
date unknown
Thomas Capell, organist (date of birth unknown)
Josep Carcoler, composer, 78
Aaron Williams, composer, 45.
probable – Matteo Capranica, composer

References

18th century in music
Music by year

1776 in music


Kleinohrenbronn ist ein Gemeindeteil des Marktes Dentlein am Forst im Landkreis Ansbach (Mittelfranken, Bayern).

Geographie
Der Weiler liegt auf einer Erhebung, die gegen Westen und Süden zu den zwei Seitenarmen des Leitenbachs, einem linken Zufluss der Sulzach, abfällt. Im Osten wird die Erhebung Fichtberg genannt. Die Kreisstraße AN 52 führt nach Dentlein (0,7 km nordwestlich) bzw. am Zinselhof vorbei nach Großohrenbronn (1 km südöstlich). Ein Wirtschaftsweg führt an der Ölmühle vorbei zur AN 51 (1 km südwestlich).

Geschichte
Kleinohrenbronn lag im Fraischbezirk des ansbachischen Oberamtes Feuchtwangen. 1732 bestand der Ort aus zwei Gütlein, die in der Grundherrschaft dem Stiftsverwalteramt Feuchtwangen unterstanden. An diesen Verhältnissen änderte sich bis zum Ende des Alten Reiches (1806) nichts. Von 1797 bis 1808 unterstand der Ort dem Justiz- und Kammeramt Feuchtwangen.

Mit dem Gemeindeedikt (frühes 19. Jahrhundert) wurde Kleinohrenbronn dem Steuerdistrikt und der Ruralgemeinde Dentlein zugeordnet.

Einwohnerentwicklung

Religion
Der Ort ist seit der Reformation evangelisch-lutherisch geprägt und nach St. Ursula (Dentlein am Forst) gepfarrt. Die Einwohner römisch-katholischer Konfession waren ursprünglich nach St. Peter und Paul (Halsbach) gepfarrt, seit der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts ist die Pfarrkuratie St. Raphael (Großohrenbronn) zuständig.

Literatur

Weblinks

Fußnoten

Geographie (Dentlein am Forst)
Ort im Landkreis Ansbach
Weiler in Mittelfranken

Kleinohrenbronn


James Lee Burke (Houston, 5 de dezembro de 1936) é um escritor norte-americano mais conhecido pela série de livros do Dave Robicheaux, do gênero policial.

Biografia
Burke nasceu em Houston, Texas, Estados Unidos, mas passou a maior parte de sua infância na costa do Golfo do Texas-Louisiana. Ele frequentou a Universidade do Estado da Luisiana e a Universidade do Missouri, recebendo o bacharelado em artes e o mestrado em literatura inglesa desta última.

Ele trabalhou em uma variedade de empregos ao longo dos anos, enquanto os livros que havia escrito foram rejeitados e os livros que ele havia publicado saíram de impressão. Em várias ocasiões, ele trabalhou como motorista de caminhão para o Serviço Florestal dos Estados Unidos, como repórter de jornal, como assistente social na rua Skid Row, Los Angeles, como agrimensor no Colorado, no sistema de desemprego do Estado da Louisiana e no programa vocacional Job Corps na Floresta Nacional Daniel Boone, no leste de Kentucky.

Ele lecionou na Universidade do Missouri como estudante de graduação, depois na Universidade da Louisiana, na Universidade de Montana e no Miami-Dade Community College, antes de se estabelecer em Wichita, Kansas, para lecionar na Wichita State University em 1978.

Vida pessoal
Burke e sua esposa, Pearl (nascida Pai Chu), possuem uma casa em Lolo, Montana. Eles têm quatro filhos, incluindo Alafair Burke, um professor de direito e também escritor do gênero policial best-seller.

Prêmios
Ele ganhou o Prêmio Edgar por Black Cherry Blues (1990) e Cimarron Rose (1998), e também foi presenteado com o Grand Master Award do Mystery Writers of America.

Obras

Série do Dave Robicheaux
 The Neon Rain (1987)
 Heaven's Prisoners (1988)
 Black Cherry Blues (1989) Negro e Amargo Blues (Record, 1998)
 A Morning for Flamingos (1990)
 A Stained White Radiance (1992)
 In the Electric Mist with Confederate Dead (1993)
 Dixie City Jam (1994) Perversão na Cidade do Jazz (Record, 1993)
 Burning Angel (1995)
 Cadillac Jukebox (1996) Cadillac K. K. K. (Record, 2000)
 Sunset Limited (1998) Ferrovia do Crepúsculo (Record, 2003)
 Purple Cane Road (2000)
 Jolie Blon's Bounce (2002)
 Last Car to Elysian Fields (2003) Crime sem Corpo (Landscape, 2005)
 Crusader's Cross (2005)
 Pegasus Descending (2006)
 The Tin Roof Blowdown (2007)
 Swan Peak (2008)
 The Glass Rainbow (2010)
 Creole Belle (2012)
 Light of the World (2013)
 Robicheaux (2018)
 The New Iberia Blues (2019)
 A Private Cathedral (2020)

Série do Billy Bob Holland
 Cimarron Rose (1997)
 Heartwood (1999)  O Coração da Floresta (Record, 2002)
 Bitterroot (2001)
 In the Moon of Red Ponies (2004)

Série Hackberry Holland
 Lay Down My Sword and Shield (1971)
 Rain Gods (2009)
 Feast Day of Fools (2011)

Saga da Família Holland
 Wayfaring Stranger (2014)
 House of the Rising Sun (2015)
 The Jealous Kind (2016)
 Another Kind of Eden (2021)

Outros
 Half of Paradise (1965)
 To The Bright and Shining Sun (1970)
 Two for Texas (1982)
 The Lost Get-Back Boogie (1986)
 White Doves at Morning (2002) Grtios de Liberdade (Landscape, 2004)

Antologias
 The Convict (1985)
 Jesus Out to Sea (2007)

Adaptações
O personagem Robicheaux foi retratado duas vezes no cinema, primeiro por Alec Baldwin e depois por Tommy Lee Jones.
 Heaven's Prisoners no Brasil: Prisioneiro do Passado (1996)
 In the Electric Mist no Brasil: As Margens de Um Crime (2009)

Ver também
 Petros Markaris
 Andrea Camilleri
 Peter Robinson
 Ed McBain
 David Baldacci
 Tony Hillerman

Naturais de Houston
Escritores dos Estados Unidos
Escritores do século XX
Nascidos em 1936
Alunos da Universidade do Estado da Luisiana
Escritores de literatura policial

James Lee Burke


Pinus elliottii, commonly known as slash pine, is a conifer tree native to the Southeastern United States. Slash pine is named after the "slashes" – swampy ground overgrown with trees and bushes – that constitute its habitat. Other common names include swamp pine, yellow slash pine, and southern Florida pine. Slash pine has two different varieties: P. e. var. elliottii and P. e. var. densa. Historically, slash pine has been an important economic timber for naval stores, turpentine, and resin. The wood of slash pine is known for its unusually high strength, especially for a pine. It exceeds many hardwoods and is even comparable to very dense woods such as ironwood.

Description and taxonomy

This tree is fast-growing, but not very long-lived by pine standards (to 200 years). It reaches heights of  with a trunk diameter of . The leaves are needle-like, very slender, in clusters of two or three, and  long. The cones are glossy red-brown,  in length, with a short (), thick prickle on each scale. It is known for its conical shape and unusually high strength, especially for a pine. Its wood has an average crush strength of 8,140 lb/in2 (56.1 MPa), which exceeds many hardwoods such as white ash (7,410 lb/in2) and black maple (6,680 lb/in2). It is not as strong as black ironwood (9,940 lb/in2), but because its average density is less than half that of ironwood, slash pine has a far greater strength-to-weight ratio.

It may be distinguished from the related loblolly pine (P. taeda) by the somewhat longer, glossier needles and larger red-brown cones, and from longleaf pine (P. palustris) by the shorter, more slender needles and smaller cones with less broad scales.

Two varieties of P. elliotii are described, but recent genetic studies have indicated that the varieties may not be more closely related to each other than they are to other pines in the Southeast. If this is the case, reclassifying these varieties as separate species would be warranted. P. elliottii can hybridize with P. taeda, sand pine (Pinus clausa), and P. palustris.

The two commonly accepted varieties are the following:

 P. e. var. elliottii (typical slash pine) ranges from South Carolina to Louisiana, and south to central Florida. Its leaves occur in bundles, fascicles of twos and threes, mostly threes, and the cones are larger, .
 P. e. var. densa (South Florida slash pine, Dade County pine) is found in the pine rocklands of southern Florida and the Florida Keys, including the Everglades.  Leaves are nearly all in bundles of two, with longer needles. The cones are smaller, , the wood is denser, and the tree has a thicker taproot. Unlike the typical variety of slash pine, seedlings of P. e. var. densa has a "grass stage" similar to longleaf pine. P. e. var. densa is not frost tolerant, which limits its range to South Florida.

Range and habitat
Communities dominated by slash pine are termed "slash pine forests". Slash pine is predominately found in Florida and Georgia, and extends from South Carolina west to southeastern Louisiana, and south to the Florida Keys. It is common in East Texas, where it was first planted at the E.O. Siecke State Forest in 1926. The natural habitat is sandy subtropical maritime forests and wet flatwoods. Slash pine generally grows better in warm, humid areas where the average annual temperature is above , with extreme ranges from . Factors such as competition, fire, and precipitation may limit the natural distribution of these trees. Slash pines are able to grow in an array of soils, but pine stands that are close to bodies of water such as swamps and ponds grow better because of higher soil moisture and seedling protection from wildfire. These forests have been managed through controlled fires since the beginning of the 20th century. Within the first year, P. elliottii is particularly susceptible to seedling mortality caused by fire. P. e. var. densa is more fire resistant than P. e. var. elliottii because it has thicker bark.

Fire ecology

History
Fire has long been an important element in Southeastern forests. Native Americans burned land to improve grass growth for grazing and visibility for hunting. When European settlers arrived in the New World, they brought new diseases that severely diminished the Native American populations. Over time, with the lack of consistent burning, much of the open land of the South reverted to forest land. Logging began to increase in the Southeast, which created some tension between the loggers and local farmers. The loggers wanted to continue to burn the forest, but the local farmers were concerned about how burning would affect cattle grazing and turpentine production. Fire maintenance has long been a controversial issue. In the 1940s, the Smokey Bear campaign to prevent wildfires promoted a shift toward fire suppression. Subsequently, many of these fire-dependent ecosystems became increasingly dominated by more shade-tolerant tree species (hardwoods). Despite many reports from the U.S. Forest Service about the benefits fire has on forage production, pine regeneration, control of tree pathogens, and reducing risks of wildfires, controlled burning did not begin to regain traction until the 1950s and 1960s.

Uses
Without regular fire intervals in slash pine forests, the ecosystem can change over time. For example, in the northern range for slash pine, forests can convert from mesic flatwoods to denser mixed-hardwood canopies with trees such as oaks, hickory, and southern magnolia. In South Florida, the pine rocklands can convert to a rockland hammock dominated by woody shrubs and invasive plants. Invasive species are a major management issue in the South. Many pine trees and native plants are adapted to fire, meaning they require fire disturbance to open their pine cones, germinate seeds, and cue other metabolic processes. Fire can be a good management strategy for invasive species because many invasive plants are not adapted to fire. Therefore, fire can eliminate the parental plant or reduce seed viability. Controlled burning is also used to help reduce pathogen load in an ecosystem. For example, fire can eliminate pest populations or resting fungal spores that could infect new seedlings. Low-intensity burns can also clear space in the understory and provide nutrient pulses that benefit the understory vegetation.

Fire is also used to prevent "fuel" buildup, the highly flammable plants such as grasses and scrub under the canopy that could burn easily in a wildfire. Most prescribed burn intervals are about every 2–5 years, which allows the ecosystem to regenerate after the burn. Much of the South Florida pine rockland ecosystem is highly fragmented and has not been burned because of the proximity to buildings. Risks such as smoke, air quality, and residual particulate matter in the environment pose safety issues for controlled burns near homes and businesses.

Diseases and pests

Fusiform rust
Starting in the late 1950s, the emergence of fusiform rust on Southeastern pine trees including slash pine, loblolly pine, and longleaf pine led to massive tree mortality within the pine industry. This obligate parasitic pathogen is notorious for infecting young trees in newly planted areas within the first few years of growing. The pine industry was still rather new at the time of this initial outbreak, so many newly planted forests had large-scale mortality because the trees were not yet old enough to be resilient to the disease or harvested. Florida's pine industry in particular was booming with an increase in plantation acreage from  in 1952 to upwards of  in 1990. Because of the complicated lifecycle of Cronaritum quercuum f. sp. fusiforme, the fungal causal agent of fusiform rust, the management strategies of pruning diseased stems, reducing fertilization, and discarding infected seed were not sufficient to prevent million-dollar annual loses.

Rust pathogens are difficult to manage because of their complicated reproductive lifecycles. C. querecuum f. sp. fusiforme is heteroecious, requiring two different plant hosts for reproduction, and is macrocyclic, meaning it contains all five spore stages typical for rust infections: basidiospores, teliospores, urediniospores, aeciospores, and spermatia. Oak trees are the secondary host for this pathogen. The primary inocula on pine are basidiospores, which infect the pine needles between March and May. The basidiospores germinate and grow into the stems of the tree where the fungus can overwinter for 4–6 months in the wood. In the fall, the spermatia form and fertilize the aceiospores in the following spring. The aceiospores are released from the pine and are the primary inocula that infect the oak trees in the following growing season. Aceiospores grow through the oak leaves producing urediniospores on the underside of the oak leaves. These urediniospores can reproduce clonally, asexually, and can continue to infect oak plants as a secondary inoculum. Within two weeks of the primary urediniospore inoculation on the oak tree, teliospores are formed which germinate into basidiospores that infect the pine trees and complete the life rust cycle. Symptoms on the pine include gall formation, stem swelling, cankers, bushiness, and dieback. The cankers in the stem allow secondary fungal infections or other pests to enter the trees easily.

Understanding the climate conditions that can lead to rust outbreaks is an important component for management strategies, but this was not well understood in the early decades of this epidemic. More recent information has shown that certain weather patterns such as high humidity, wet pine needles, and temperatures around  for about 18 days can increase the spread of basiodiospores, so increase disease severity.

Managing Fusiform Rust
There are many ways to go about reducing high-hazard areas for fusiform rust, but it starts with understanding why fusiform rust occurs more often during certain instances than others. Even though we have seen newer genetic work from seedling nurseries that has helped loblolly and slash pine become more resilient to fusiform rust, it is not always the case that landowners want to or can afford to buy the genetically modified seedlings so there are a couple of ways to help reduce the possibility of fusiform rust infected trees. The first initial step to take to reduce fusiform rust infection is to reduce the amount of site preparation used to establish the stand. These site preps, while desired, cause increased rapid growth of pines. When this happens the outer layer of bark is thin enough for fusiform rust to infect and often it will be the main stem. When loblolly pine reach around the age of eight years old you can use more fertilization and forest prescriptions because at this time fusiform rust is not as likely to infect the main stem. Due to oaks being the alternate host for fusiform rust, where it lives out three of its spore lifecycles, it is a good idea to remove any hardwoods that are adjacent to your loblolly stand. This can be difficult considering that oaks also share an importance in the economic and environmental aspect of the Southeast. Doing this will allow the pathogen to hit a dead end. In an older loblolly plantation, it is safe to keep those trees in rotation if the disease is not along the stem of the tree.

Pitch canker
Pitch canker, a monocyclic disease caused by the fungus Fusarium circinatum (previously named Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans), was first described in 1946 by Hepting and Roth. When it was first described, disease levels were low until the 1970s, when a massive epidemic of pitch canker caused mass tree mortality in Florida slash pine. Some hypotheses suggest that the pathogen may have originated in Mexico and was then introduced in Florida and later transmitted to California on diseased seed. The pathogen has been reported in Mexico; however, high fungal diversity and low tree mortality from the disease suggests that this pathogen may have co-evolved in Mexico before being introduced to other parts of the world. Many reports describe the pathogen as endemic to Florida, likely because the disease was introduced a long time therefore the population has become more diverse. By 1974, over half of the slash pine population in Florida was infected with Fusarium circinatum disease. In areas where the pathogen is newly introduced, the fungal population is mostly clonal, because  fewer mating types are present within the population, so sexual reproduction may be lower. Pitch canker infects nearly all pine species, including longleaf pine, shortleaf pine, and eastern white pine.

This disease continues to be a problem in nurseries, and has been reported in other countries. A major problem in Florida is that artificial replanting of pines may be contributing to high disease incidences. The disease can be passed through seed and spores, but requires open wounds to infect the tree from insect damage, mechanical damage, hail/weather damage, etc.

The predominant symptoms include needle chlorosis and reddening of shoots (called "flagging") that later die. Cankers or lesions that form on the trunks can turn the bark yellow or dark brown and cause resin to exude. Stems may die and get crystalized in resin-soaked lesions. Resin is generally produced in plants to protect against pathogens. Sometimes, the tissue above the canker dies, causing girdling of the stem. The severity of the disease depends on weather conditions and may require moisture and insect wounds or hail to infect the trees. Some insects such as bark beetles, spittle bugs, weevils, pine tip moths, and needle midges may vector the disease into the tree. F. circinatum was used to inoculate P. e. var. densa trees to try to increase resin production for extraction, but this approach was ineffective.

Other fungi
Fungus species Thozetella pinicola was found on leaf litter of Pinus elliottii  in Hong Kong in 2009.

Uses
This tree is widely grown in tree plantations. It is also used in horticulture.

See also
 Southern yellow pine

References

External links

elliottii
Trees of the Southeastern United States
Trees of the United States

Pinus elliottii


Guarujá (; ) is a municipality in the São Paulo state of Brazil. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of Baixada Santista. The population is 311,116 (2022 preliminary census count) in an area of . This place name comes from the Tupi language, and means "narrow path". The population is highly urbanized, forms a 2nd urban core and beachfront island across the river from São Vicente Island, the island (Ilha de Santo Amaro) is coterminous with the municipality, with exception of small offshore isles like Ilha dos Arvoredos.

Geography

Guarujá is located on the island Santo Amaro, situated on the shore of São Paulo. Its main economic sources are seasonal tourism and port related activities.

Guarujá is a popular weekend destination for families from São Paulo, who can get there driving in less than one hour (through the Imigrantes highway). Traffic gets heavy during the evening on the holidays.

Guarujá has a borough called Vicente de Carvalho, in tribute to the Parnasianist poet.

A nickname for the city is "The Pearl of the Atlantic".

In total, Guarujá has 27 beaches, with the most famous including Guaiúba, Tombo, Astúrias, Pitangueiras, Enseada, Pernambuco, Perequê, São Pedro, Tijucopava, Iporanga, Praia Branca and Praia Preta.

Economy
Guarujá, its history, infrastructure and proximity to the country's most populous city, provides strong attractive real estate and tourism. Much of the region on the coast, the beaches near the center (mainly Asturias Pitangueiras, Enseada, and Tombo) are taken by buildings devoted to the seasonal population, who arrives mostly in summer. Tourism, therefore, is the most important component that moves the economy.

The other part, relevant and non-seasonal, comes from the port (left bank of the Port of Santos) and related activities, such as transportation. Due to its proximity to Cubatao (largest industrial district in the country) and ports, there is also interest in industrial occupation in the region, started in 1976 by Dow Chemical, still the only major industry to occupy the region.

According to the IBGE of 2006 the production of wealth in the service area in the city, added that year, US$1.820 billion, equivalent to 0.14% in participation in the Brazilian GDP.

Twin towns – sister cities
Guarujá is twinned with:
  Cascais, Lisbon District, Portugal (2000)
  Brotas, São Paulo, Brazil (2001)
  Lobito, Benguela Province, Angola (2013)

Tourist attractions
 Andradas Fort
 Acqua Mundo
 Teatro Municipal Procópio Ferreira

Sports
The Estádio Municipal Antônio Fernandes is a football (soccer) stadium located in the city. Associação Desportiva Guarujá play their home games at this stadium. The Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team picked Guarujá as their base during the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil.

Charles Oliveira, the former UFC lightweight champion, was born and raised in Guarujá. He proudly represents Guarujá and is known for his charitable contributions to the community, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Airport and air force base
The Santos Air Force Base – BAST, a base of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in Guarujá.

The city will be served by Guarujá Civil Metropolitan Aerodrome, located in the vicinity of the air force base.

Notable people
 Kelvin Hoefler, skater, Olympic medalist
 Alexandre Tam, professional soccer player (Santos FC)
 Charles Oliveira, mixed martial artist and former UFC Lightweight Champion
 Cláudia das Neves, women's basketball player
 Diego Gonçalves, professional soccer player (Figueirense FC/Louletano D.C.)
 Jean Paulo Fernandes, retired professional soccer player
 KondZilla, screenwriter, director, producer and YouTuber
 Maria José Dupré, writer and novelist (Eramos Seis)
 Mazinho Oliveira, retired professional soccer player

References

External links

 City Hall page
 Hotels in Guarujá – Find hotels, restaurants, bars and useful links about Guarujá / SP
 Encontra Guarujá – Find everything about Guarujá city

Populated places established in 1934
Atlantic islands of Brazil
Populated coastal places in São Paulo (state)
Municipalities in São Paulo (state)
Baixada Santista
1934 establishments in Brazil

Guarujá


chgrp je Unix naredba, obično dostupna na svim *nix operacijskim sustavima. Služi za promjenu grupe datoteke.

Primjeri
$ ls -l *.conf
-rw-rw-r--   1 gbeeker  wheel          3545 Nov 04 2011  prog.conf
-rw-rw-r--   1 gbeeker  wheel          3545 Nov 04 2011  prox.conf

$ chgrp staff *.conf

$ ls -l *.conf
-rw-rw-r--   1 gbeeker  staff          3545 Nov 04 2011  prog.conf
-rw-rw-r--   1 gbeeker  staff          3545 Nov 04 2011  prox.conf

Srodne naredbe

 chmod
 chown
 takeown

Vanjske poveznice

 http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/utilities/chgrp.html

Unix naredbe

Chgrp


ආදාන තරංගයේ ලක්ශණ අනුව වාහක තරංගයේ කලාව වෙනස් කිරීමේ මූර්ජන ආකාරය කලා මූර්ජනය (PM-Phase Modulation)ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලැබේ. ප්‍රතිග්‍රාහක සහ විමූර්ජන පරිපථ වලට තරංගයේ සිදු වන කුඩා ප්‍රමාණයේ කලා වෙනස්වීම් හඳුනාගත නොහැකි බැවින්, මෙම මූර්ජන ආකාරය වැඩිපුරම භාවිතා වනුයේ සංඛ්‍යාංක මූර්ජන ආකාර වලදීය. විස්තාර සහ සංඛ්‍යාත  මූර්ජන ආකාර සමඟ එකවිට භාවිතා කල හැකි වීමෙන් කුඩා කාලසීමාවක් තුල වැඩි තොරතුරු ප්‍රමාණයක් සම්ප්‍රේශණය කල හැකි වීම සංඛ්‍යාංක මූර්ජනයේදී කලා මූර්ජනය වැඩිපුර භාවිතා කිරීමට මූලිකම සාධකය වේ.

කලා මූර්ජනය


La persecución cristiana del paganismo bajo Teodosio I empezó en 381, después del primer par de años de su reinado en el Imperio Romano de Oriente. En la década de 380, Teodosio I reiteró la prohibición, iniciada por Constantino, de los sacrificios paganos, prohibió los arúspices bajo pena de muerte, criminalizó a los magistradores que no hicieran cumplir las leyes antipaganas, eliminó algunas asociaciones paganas y destruyó varios templos paganos.

Entre 391-392 Teodosio I emitió los "Decretos Teodosianos"
 Prohibición de la práctica del paganismo.
 Prohibición de visitar los templos paganos.
 Abolición de las festividades paganas.
 Extinción del fuego eterno del Templo de Vesta, en el Foro Romano.
 Disolución de las vestales y los arúspices.
 Castigo a la práctica de la brujería.

Teodosio rechazó la petición de los senadores paganos de restaurar el Altar de la Victoria en la Casa del Senado romano.

En 392 se convirtió en emperador de todo el imperio (el último en hacerlo). Desde ese momento hasta el final de su reinado en 395, mientras los paganos continuaban sin ser escuchados en sus peticiones de tolerancia, autorizó o participó en la destrucción de muchos templos, lugares sagrados, imágenes y objetos de piedad a lo largo del imperio. El 8 de noviembre de 392 promulgó el Edicto de Constantinopla el cual prohibió cualquier ritual pagano incluso en la privacidad de la propia casa. Fue particularmente opresivo con los maniqueos. El paganismo pasó a ser una religio illicita e incluso suprimió los Juegos Olímpicos ya que su última celebración fue en el año 393.

Persecución religiosa
Persecuciones religiosas en la Antigua Roma
Teodosio I
Imperio romano en el siglo IV

Persecución cristiana del paganismo bajo Teodosio I


La Petite Fonctionnaire est le titre de plusieurs œuvres :

Théâtre
 La Petite Fonctionnaire, comédie en trois actes (1901) d'Alfred Capus, représentée pour la première fois au théâtre des Nouveautés, le  ;
 La Petite Fonctionnaire, comédie musicale en trois actes (1921 ), musique d'André Messager, livret d'Alfred Capus et Xavier Roux, créée au Théâtre Mogador le  ;

Cinéma
 La Petite Fonctionnaire, film muet français réalisé par Georges Denola, sorti en 1912 ;
 La Petite Fonctionnaire, film muet français réalisé par Roger Goupillières, sorti en 1927 ;

La Petite Fonctionnaire


حراق اصبعو أو حرق اصبعو أو محروقة اصبع هي أكلة مشهورة في بلاد الشام وخاصة في سوريا وتشتهر بها مدينة دمشق وهي معروفة في بعض الدول العربية خاصة فلسطين و لبنان و العراق
ويوجد اكله تشبهها تسمى الططماجه واصلها من الخليل

تتشارك النسوة سوية في طبخها وفي توزيعها كسكبات على بيوتهم، البعض لكي يختصر الوقت في التحضير يقومون باستعمال المعكرونة بدلاً من العجين المقطع وبالخبز المقلي بدلاً من العجين المكور المقلي.

تحضير
تحضّر الحرّاق أصبعو باستخدام العدس، العجين أو المعكرونة، البصل، دبس الرمان، زيت الزيتون، بهار أسود، والملح، والبعض يضيف الكوسا.
للزينة على الوجه تستخدم الكزبرة المقلاة بزيت الزيتون مع الثوم، وقطع الخبز المقلي، وبصل مقلي، وحبات الرمان.

تحتوي وجبة الحرّاق أصبعو (180غ تقريباً) بحسب موقع شهية، على المعلومات الغذائية التالية:
 السعرات الحرارية: 511
 الدهون: 8
 الدهون مشبعة: 1
 الكوليسترول: 0
 الكاربوهيدرات: 88
 البروتينات: 21

مراجع
وصفة الحراق اصبعو مع معلوماتها الغذائية

أغذية
مطبخ سوري
مطبخ عربي
مطبخ فلسطيني
مطبخ لبناني

حراق أصبعه