Uluslararası Çalışma Örgütü ya da ILO (International Labour Organization), ülkelerdeki çalışma yasalarında ve bu alana ilişkin uygulamalarda standartları geliştirmek ve ileriye götürmek gibi bir amaçla kurulan kuruluştur. Merkezi İsviçre'nin Cenevre kentinde bulunmaktadır.

Kuruluşu ve görevleri

ILO 1919'da Versailles Barış Anlaşması uyarınca Milletler Cemiyeti ile birlikte kurulmuştur. 1934 yılında Milletler Cemiyeti'ne bağlanmıştır. 2. Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra Milletler Cemiyeti dağılmış ve sonrasında Birleşmiş Milletler (BM) kurulmuştur. ILO da 1946 yılında BM'nin ilk uzmanlık kuruluşu olmuştur. Sosyal adalet ilkeleri, evrensel insan ve çalışma haklarının korunması temelinde kurulmuştur. ILO uluslararası çalışma standartlarını sözleşmeler ve tavsiyeler yoluyla ifade etmektedir. Bu sözleşme ve tavsiyeler temel çalışma hakları, örgütlenme hakkı, toplu pazarlık, zoraki emeğin ortadan kaldırılması, fırsat eşitliği, ve çalışma hayatı ile ilişkili diğer konularda asgari standartlar koymaktadır. Aynı zamanda başta mesleki eğitim ve mesleki rehabilitasyon, çalışma politikası, emek yönetimi, çalışma hukuku ve endüstriyel ilişkiler, çalışma koşulları, işletme gelişimi, kooperatifler, sosyal güvenlik, çalışma istatistikleri, işçi sağlığı ve iş güvenliği gibi konularda teknik yardım sunmaktadır. Bağımsız işveren ve işçi örgütlerinin gelişimini teşvik etmekte ve bu örgütlere eğitim ve danışma hizmetleri vermektedir. Birleşmiş Milletler içinde ILO eşit katılımlı işçi ve işveren örgütleri ve de hükûmetin yönetim organları ile birlikte üçlü bir yapı oluşturmaktadır.

Uluslararası Çalışma Konferansı

ILO'ya üye ülkeler her yıl Haziran ayında Cenevre'de toplanırlar. ikisi hükûmet delegesi diğer ikisi ise her üye ülkenin çalışanlarının ve işverenlerinin her birini temsilen katılan delegelerden olmak üzere üye ülkelerin her birinin 4 delegesinden oluşur. Bu delegeler beraberlerinde teknik danışmanlarını da getirirler. Ülkelerin çalışma hayatı ile ilgili bakanları delegasyona başkanlık edip kendi ülkelerinin görüşlerini aktarırlar. İşveren ve işçi delegeleri kendi örgütlerinden aldıkları talimatlar uyarınca oy kullanıp görüşlerini ifade ederler. Konferans örgütün bütçesini onaylar ve Yönetim Kurulu'nu seçer.

Yönetim Kurulu

ILO'nun icra konseyidir ve yılda üç kez Cenevre'de toplanır. ILO politikaları hakkında kararlar alır. Program ve bütçeyi hazırlayıp Konferansa onaması için sunar. Aynı zamanda Genel Direktörü seçer. Yönetim Kurulu 28 hükûmet, 14 işveren, 14 işçi üyeden oluşur. Hükûmet tarafının 10 sandalyesini her zaman endüstriyel açıdan çok önemli ülkeler oluşturur. Diğer üye ülkelerin temsilcileri her üç yılda bir konferansta seçilir. Bu seçimde coğrafi dağılım göz önünde tutulur. İşverenler ve işçiler kendi temsilcilerini seçerler.

Uluslararası Çalışma Bürosu

Uluslararası Çalışma Örgütü'nün daimi sekretaryasını oluşturur. Yönetim Kurulu ve beş yılda bir seçilen Genel Direktör yönetiminde hazırladığı tüm faaliyetlerin merkezidir. Büro Cenevre'deki merkezinde 110'un üzerindeki milliyetten yaklaşık 1900 görevliyi istihdam etmektedir ve dünyada 40 bölge bürosu bulunmaktadır. Bunlara ek olarak teknik iş birliği programı çerçevesinde yaklaşık 600 uzman dünyanın çeşitli bölgelerinde görevlerini yürütmektedirler. Büro aynı zamanda araştırma, belge ve uzman çalışmalar, raporlar ve dergileri kapsayan bir basım merkezi işlevi görmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 ILO resmi sitesi

 ILO: 300 milyon kişiye kadar iş yaratılabilir

 ILO kayıtlı istihdam için beş yeni bilgi merkezi açtı

Birleşmiş Milletler
Nobel Barış Ödülü sahibi kuruluşlar
1919'da kurulan kuruluşlar

Uluslararası Çalışma Örgütü


Mbombela, also known as Nelspruit, is a city in northeastern South Africa. It is the capital and the largest city of the Mpumalanga province. Located on the Crocodile River, The city lies about  by road west of the Mozambique border,  east of Johannesburg and  north of the Eswatini border. The city was one of the host cities of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.

History
San rock art and Iron Age archaeological evidence indicate the area has a long history of human habitation. Construction for the Mpumalanga legislature revealed farming settlements, storage pits, burial sites, and pottery ranging from the 6th to 17th century. The presence of cattle bones at the Riverside site is thought to be evidence that early Nguni practices of labola originated in eastern South Africa.

The city was founded in 1895 by three brothers of the Nel family who grazed their cattle around the site in the winter months. During the Boer War, Nelspruit served briefly as the seat of government for the South African Republic, an independent Boer republic (not to be confused with the Republic of South Africa).

The settlement was a key stopover for the Eastern Railway built by the Netherlands-South African Railway Company in the late 19th century which ran from the newly discovered Witwatersrand goldfields to Delagoa Bay in Portuguese East Africa (modern-day Maputo, Mozambique). The discovery of gold in Mpumalanga, such as at Pilgrim's Rest and Barberton, encouraged further development.

The history of Nelspruit occurred along segregated lines. Under Apartheid's policy of separate development, Black people were forcibly removed from the town to Lekazi, Kanyamazane, and other outlying areas as menial labour reserve. In the early 1970s, Nelpark was formed as a Coloured district and Valencia as a South Asian area in the town. Youth centres, public amenities, and schools such as Nelspruit Laerskool were reserved for the town's white population.

Name change
In October 2009, the South African government renamed the city "Mbombela", the name of the local municipality. The Kruger Lowveld Chamber of Business and Tourism subsequently approached the High Court of South Africa to challenge the decision, citing a lack of both consultation and city funds available to pay for roadsign and website name changes. Ultimately, the name change was upheld in May 2014 by the North Gauteng High Court. Mbombela means "many people together in a small space" in Siswati.

Education and research institutions
The city has four major public high schools and a TVET college (Ehlanzeni); more schools across all age groups are being built in response to overcrowding.

The city hosts the University of Mpumalanga (UMP). Established in 2014 with an intake of 140 students, it had over 4,300 students as of 2020. The Tshwane University of Technology has a satellite campus in the city with over 1,500 students, and UNISA has an office offering online courses.

The city is home to the Agricultural Research Council's Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops and the Lowveld National Botanical Garden. Citrus Research International (CRI) has a major facility in the city. The Lowveld College of Agriculture, located near UMP, also conducts research in the field of botany.

Transport

Road

The city is on the Maputo Corridor, a major trade route linking Pretoria to Maputo in Mozambique which, with the Trans-Kalahari Corridor, forms a transport trunk that crosses the entire sub-continent from Walvis Bay in Namibia on the Atlantic Ocean to Maputo on the Indian Ocean. The N4 toll route is the main arterial route with a double lane highway all the way to Johannesburg and Pretoria.

The new Northern Bypass was built for the N4 toll route, so the old road through the city centre (Samora Machel Drive) is now designated as the R104 route. Other roads in the area include the R40 route (which connects to Barberton, a border with Eswatini in the south and with White River in the north) and the R37 route (which connects to Lydenburg in the north-west).

Rail
Nelspruit railway station lies on the Pretoria–Maputo railway.

Air

Kruger Mpumalanga International Airport, located about  north east of the city, began operations in October 2002. Scheduled flights operate to locations within South Africa and abroad (to Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique). The  complex has a  runway which can accommodate aircraft up to the size of a Boeing 747. The airport currently handles about 250,000 passengers per annum.

Nelspruit Airport, located about  south west of the city, is the city's original airport owned and operated by the municipality. It primarily handles general aviation aircraft, and several aircraft maintenance, firefighting, charter and training companies are based at the airport.

Suburbs and townships

West Acres
Steiltes
Sonheuwel
Riverside
Alkmaar
Nelsville
Valencia Park
Nelindia
Stonehenge
Kamagugu
Vintonia
The Rest
Nelspruit Central (CBD)
Pumlanga
KaNyamazane
Pienaar
Schagen
KaBokweni
Matsulu
Karino
Masoyi
KaMsogwaba

Tourism
The city is a major stopover point for tourists travelling to Kruger National Park and to Mozambique. Other tourism attractions nearby include Sudwala Caves, and God's Window in the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve, a lookout point which provides a panoramic view over the famous Drakensberg Escarpment. The city is the nearest major South African city to Mozambique's capital, Maputo, and as such the city receives significant tourism from Mozambican locals. The city is also home to the National Botanical Gardens, set in 154 hectares of land along the eastern bank of the Crocodile River and containing around 500 species of plant species indigenous to the area.

Sport

Alkmaar Raceway
The Alkmaar Raceway is a motocross track. It hosted the 2008 FIM Motocross World Championship South African Motocross Grand Prix.

Mbombela Stadium

Mbombela Stadium was built as an association football and rugby union stadium for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Finished in November 2009 and costing , it has a capacity of 43,500; and the construction process contained several controversies. The stadium hosted four 2010 FIFA World Cup matches and is the current home of the Pumas rugby team.

In 2013 it hosted two rugby test matches between Italy and Samoa, followed by South Africa and Scotland. The Stadium hosts regular Premier Soccer League matches with Bidvest Wits, Kaizer Chiefs, Orlando Pirates and Mpumalanga Black Aces regularly playing host.

Mbombela Golf Club
Mbombela Golf Club was originally the Nelspruit Golf Club until 2017. Following an incident in which a black caddie was allegedly assaulted by four white golfers, the club's name was changed, alongside other commitments to increase the number of black staff and pay caddies a basic salary.

Media

Print
Lowveld Media is a major printer and publisher of newsprint materials in the region. Major newspapers include the Lowvelder, Mpumalanga News and Nelspruit Post. African Eye News Service is an established news agency in the city which writes articles for national newspapers and websites.

Broadcasting
The SABC has a regional office in the city. Jacaranda FM operates a studio near the Emnotweni Casino.

Ligwalagwala FM is the largest SABC-owned radio station in the city and the Mpumalanga Province. It is a public broadcaster which primarily broadcasts in the Swazi language.

RISE FM (originally named MPowerFM before it was bought out by the Times Media Group) is an independent commercial radio station broadcasting in English from studios in the city and eMalahleni to the province of Mpumalanga, and the Afrikaans local community radio station Radio Laeveld 100.5fm broadcasts to the Lowveld area from the city.

Culture

The city contains several entertainment venues, the most prominent being the Emnotweni Casino complex. The city has a civic centre (built in 1994) with a large theatre, which can be hired by both amateurs and professionals, but recently the centre has fallen into disrepair.

Mbombela has its own version of concert in the park with annual performances by musicians in the Lowveld National Botanical Gardens.

Several cultural and agricultural shows are hosted annually, including:
 Innibos Laeveld Nasionale Kunstefees
 Wegbreekfees
 Lowveld Air Show
 The Mpumalanga Show
 The Lowveld Agri Show
 The Nelspruit Motor Show
 The Colour Run

Economy

The international grilled-chicken fast food restaurant chain Galito's was founded and is headquartered in the city.

Finance
The city is the financial and banking capital of Mpumalanga.

Retail
The city has a strong consumer-based retail industry boosted significantly by neighbouring Mozambican and Swazi tourists. There are various major shopping centers, notably the Riverside and Ilanga malls. Recent developments include the Crossing Shopping Center and the City Center.

Industry

The city is home to the Manganese Metal Company (MMC) and Delta EMD, which together form one of the largest manganese processing facilities in the world. There are several medium industries which support the agriculture and forestry sectors. There is also a thriving construction industry which, despite the 2008 recession, has kept growing.

Agriculture

The city is a key agricultural processing hub for northeastern South Africa. The macadamia industry is centred within the city, with an annual production for the 2017/18 production year of 26,400 tons NIS (nut-in shell at 1.5% kernel moisture content).  There are many citrus farms and the canning, juicing and extract of citrus fruit and other produce is a large business for the area. Fertile soils and the subtropical climate provide perfect conditions for the growing of citrus and tropical fruits, mainly mango, banana, avocado, papaya and macadamia nuts.

Sugar is also big business in the region. TSB, the producer of Selati sugar, is located a few kilometres east of the city. The low-lying areas in the region is dotted with sugarcane farms.

Forestry
The economy is heavily reliant on the forestry sector. SAPPI has a paper mill west of the city which was recently upgraded to produce cellulose fibers for various applications. The city is the global headquarters of KISHUGU which is the parent company of Working on Fire. KISHUGU is also a major player in the forestry sector. The region has several timber-related industries such as lumber and saw mills as well as furniture, crate and carton manufacturing businesses.

International relations
The city is twinned with:
 Maia, Portugal

Mozambique has a consulate in the city.

Climate
The city features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa) with mild winters and hot summers. Summers are hot and somewhat humid complete with high precipitation. Winters in the city are dry, with relatively warm temperatures during the day and chilly temperatures at night.

People
 Beth Diane Armstrong, sculptor
 Matthew Clay, swimmer, gold medallist in the 50m backstroke at the 2006 Commonwealth Games (representing England)
 Faf de Klerk, Springbok rugby player
 Cliff Drysdale, professional tennis player and television presenter
 Robert Gumede, businessman
 Anton Haig, professional golfer
 Janneman Malan, Proteas cricket team player
 Pieter Malan, South Africa national cricket team player
 Rebecca Malope, gospel music personality
 Mandisa Mashego, member of the Gauteng Provincial Legislature
 Heyneke Meyer, Springbok rugby coach
 Nicholas Nkuna, actor
 Ray Phiri, musician
 Monique Smit, professional golfer
 Renske Stoltz, South Africa national netball team player
 Lucas Thwala, South Africa national football team player
 Duane Vermeulen, Springbok rugby player
 Pedrie Wannenburg, Springbok rugby player
 Costa Titch, Hip Hop personality

References

External links
 Mbombela Local Municipality

 Ehlanzeni District Municipality
 Pacific Trail MFG

Populated places established in 1905
Populated places in the Mbombela Local Municipality
Provincial capitals in South Africa
Mbombela
1905 establishments in South Africa

Mbombela


Le  de grenadiers de la Garde est une unité d'infanterie du corps de la Garde de l'armée prussienne.

Histoire
Le régiment est créé le  (jour de la fondation) à partir des  (demi-)bataillons des  et  à pied de la Garde, du  de grenadiers de la Garde et du  de grenadiers de la Garde. Il est formé en deux bataillons et stationné à Spandau. L'état-major du régiment, le  et les  et  sont installés dans la caserne Stresow I, la  dans la caserne Moritz et la  cantonnée dans la caserne I. À partir de , dans le cadre des renforts de l'armée en 1913, le bataillon de fusiliers ( à ) est logé dans les casernes de baraquements sur l'Exerzierplatz, à côté de la prison de la forteresse, et la compagnie de mitrailleuses dans la caserne Stresow I.

La formation est subordonnée à la  de la  de la Garde.

Première Guerre mondiale
Avec le début de la Première Guerre mondiale, le régiment se mobilise le  et est engagé avec la  d'infanterie de la Garde en tant que partie de la  de la Garde initialement déployée dans l'ouest près de Namur. Fin août, le corps de réserve de la Garde est transféré sur le front de l'Est et participe à la bataille des lacs de Mazurie. En , le régiment retourne sur le front occidental, participe à la guerre des tranchées en Flandre et en Artois, puis entre dans la bataille de la Somme. Alors que la guerre se poursuit, le régiment combat dans l'ouest toujours à Arras, en Flandre et l'offensive de printemps allemande de fin .

Après-guerre
Après la fin de la guerre et le rapatriement, la démobilisation a lieu à Spandau à partir du . À partir de parties du régiment, on commence à constituer le bataillon de volontaires "Spandau" à partir du . Fin , il devient le  du corps franc "von Hindenburg". Avec la mise en place de Reichswehr provisoire, c'est à partir d' .

La tradition est reprise dans la Reichswehr, par décret du  du chef du commandement de l'armée, le général d'infanterie Hans von Seeckt, par les 5 et 6 compagnies du  (prussien) d'infanterie à Colberg. Dans la Wehrmacht,  à Spandau poursuit la tradition.

Chef de régiment

Le premier et le seul commandant du régiment est depuis le  le grand-duc Constantin Constantinovitch de Russie.

Commandants

Uniforme
L'uniforme des grenadiers de la Garde se compose d'une tunique bleue à col rouge et revers brandebourgeois de la même couleur avec rabats de manches bleu foncé, mais a un large fil jaune camel d'ancienne tresse prussienne au col et trois de la même tresse sur les rabats des manches. Il y a aussi des épaulettes blanches, des boutons tombac, des vêtements en cuir blanc et des panaches de casque (de garde) blancs. Contrairement aux autres régiments de la Garde, il n'y a pas de bataillon de fusiliers.

Les uniformes portés par les sous-officiers ont un motif différent sur le col et les revers.

Les uniformes des officiers comportent une ancienne broderie d'or prussien à la place des tresses sur le col et les rabats des manches.

Changements d'uniforme
  : Les porte-étendards reçoivent un insigne en tissu sur le haut du bras droit et le gorgerin.
  : Dentelle de garde sur les cols de manteaux pour les sous-officiers et les grenadiers.
  : Les porte-étendards reçoivent une cartouchière en juchten rouge avec galon d'or et une chaussure.
  : Les équipes formées comme signaleurs reçoivent deux drapeaux croisés sur l'avant-bras inférieur.
 1913: Le nouvel uniforme gris champêtre, introduit progressivement depuis 1907, est porté pour la première fois lors des exercices d'automne. Jupe gris champêtre avec col à rabat et rabats; sur l'écusson du col avec tresse en fil jaune camel; sur les rabats aussi ces brins ; boutons mats avec couronne royale ; aisselles grises; foulard en coton gris au lieu du bandage; pantalon gris champ; casquettes gris champ avec garniture rouge; trucs en cuir noir.

Monument
Le , un monument est solennellement dévoilé par les anciens membres du régiment dans l'espace vert Stabholzgarten, dans la vieille ville de Berlin-Spandau, à l'intention de leurs "camarades tombés pendant la guerre mondiale", d'après le projet du sculpteur  de Dresde

Bibliographie
 Jürgen Kraus: Handbuch der Verbände und Truppen des deutschen Heeres 1914–1918. Teil VI: Infanterie. Band 1: Infanterie-Regimenter. Verlag Militaria, Wien 2007 , S. 33.
  Online verfügbar: Digitalisat de la Bibliothèque d'État de Wurtemberg.

Régiment allemand d'infanterie de la Première Guerre mondiale
Unité d'infanterie prussienne
Histoire de Berlin
Unité ou formation militaire créée en 1897
Unité ou formation militaire dissoute en 1919

5e régiment de grenadiers de la Garde


Aceasta este o listă de filme italiene din 1911:

Lista

Legături externe
 Filme italiene din 1911 la Internet Movie Database

Filme din 1911
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Listă de filme italiene din 1911


USS Biddle/Claude V. Ricketts (DD-995/DDG-5), was a Charles F. Adams-class guided missile destroyer of the United States Navy.  She was the third US Naval ship named after Nicholas Biddle, one of the first five captains of the Continental Navy.

Originally to be designated as DD-955, the ship was laid down as DDG-5 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation at Camden, New Jersey on 18 May 1959, launched on 4 June 1960 and commissioned as USS Biddle on 5 May 1962, at Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Biddle was renamed to Claude V. Ricketts on 28 July 1964 in honor of Admiral Claude V. Ricketts, who had died on 6 July 1964.

Service history

As USS Biddle
Biddle operated in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea as part of the Second Fleet until the end of 1963. Biddle participated in naval activity near Cuba in weeks before the Cuban Missile Crisis.

A Navy Expeditionary Medal was awarded for service from 19 August 1962 to 28 September 1962. Biddle made her first deployment to the Mediterranean Sea at the close of 1963 returning to Norfolk in March 1964.

Mixed manning experiment and the decade that followed
From June 1964 to end of 1965 Claude V. Ricketts was part of a mixed-manning experiment for a proposed Multilateral Force (MLF). Its crew consisted of 10 officers and 164 crew from the US Navy with the remainder filled by sailors from West Germany, Italy, Greece, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Turkey. Though the MLF never was created, Secretary of the Navy Paul Nitze stated that the project on Claude V. Ricketts was successful. The ship's crest includes the NATO insignia. A Navy Unit Commendation was awarded for the 18-month period.

According to Secretary of the Navy Paul Nitze, Admiral Claude V. Ricketts had made great contributions to the concept of mixed manning and a Multilateral Force. Because of this, he thought it appropriate to rename USS Biddle in Ricketts' honor while the ship was conducting a mixed-manning experiment on 28 July 1964.

Her visit to Washington, D.C. in October 1964, was memorialized by painter, Gerard Richardson.

After the manning experiment, Claude V. Ricketts made deployments to the Mediterranean Sea from 1966 to 1973. She also made a northern European cruise in July 1972. Claude V. Ricketts deployed to the Mediterranean Sea in August 1973 and returned to Norfolk in January 1974. Shortly after her return, the ship entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for a ten-month overhaul returning to service in January 1975. She completed refresher training and ship trials in the Caribbean Sea from March to May 1975.

Belknap collision
[[File:DN-SN-87-07340 USS Claude V. Ricketts damaged by firefighting of USS Belknap.jpeg|thumb|left|Damage received while fighting fires on Belknap.]]
In July 1975, Claude V. Ricketts deployed to the Mediterranean Sea. Claude V. Ricketts served as the rescue unit and tied up alongside USS Belknap (CG-26) after her collision with USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67) on the night of 22 November 1975.  Belknap was ablaze with exploding ammunition from the storage lockers for her two 3-inch guns, but the crew of the Claude V. Ricketts battled the conflagration for 7 hours and limited the damage, evacuating the injured while fragments from exploding ammunition showered down upon her decks. In the end, CG-26 was knocked and melted nearly to her main deck. Seven crew members aboard Belknap and one aboard John F. Kennedy were killed. A Navy Unit Commendation was awarded for service during the time period. Claude V. Ricketts returned to Norfolk in January 1976.

On October 4, 1976, Claude V. Ricketts deployed to the Mediterranean Sea. There was also a trip to Kenya to commemorate the 13th anniversary of their independence. Just six weeks after returning to Norfolk, the ship deployed for a six-week operation with the Brazilian Navy. A Navy Expeditionary Medal was awarded for service from 1 October 1976 to 30 September 1977. From September 1977 to October 1978, Claude V. Ricketts was in the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for an overhaul. She returned to Norfolk in April 1979 after refresher training and trials.

 Iran Hostage Crisis Claude V. Ricketts deployed for seven months to the US Middle East Force and Sixth fleet at the start of September 1979. During the first part of the cruise, the ship made ports of call to Djibouti, Kenya, and Karachi, Pakistan  On 4 November 1979, Claude V. Ricketts was making a port visit to Karachi, Pakistan when radical students invaded and occupied the US Embassy in Tehran, Iran and took the embassy staff hostage initiating the Iran hostage crisis. Claude V. Ricketts was immediately tasked to proceed to the Persian Gulf area of operations to join with  and remained continuously at sea for more than 10 weeks over the Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Years Holidays.Finally after 72 days of being at sea, ended with a two day visit in Sitra, Bahrain  Claude V. Ricketts was back in the Mediterranean Sea in February 1980 and returned to Norfolk in April 1980. A Navy Expeditionary Medal was awarded for service relating to the crisis from 21 November 1979 to 2 February 1980.Claude V. Ricketts deployed to Northern Europe in January 1981 and operated with the Standing Naval Force Atlantic. The ship visited 8 countries and 15 different cities and conducted exercises from Gibraltar to Norway, north of the Arctic Circle and west to Halifax, Nova Scotia. She returned to Norfolk in June 1981. A Meritorious Unit Commendation was awarded for service from 7 January 1981 to 24 June 1981.

 Lebanon
During late 1983 and early 1984, Claude V. Ricketts deployed in support of operations of the coast of Lebanon in the months after the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing. The Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was awarded for three time periods relating to Lebanon during this deployment.Claude V. Ricketts deployed to the Mediterranean Sea in late 1987 and returned to Norfolk, 29 March 1988.

 Decommissioning Claude V. Ricketts was decommissioned on 31 October 1989 at Norfolk Naval Station, Norfolk, VA, stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1990 and sold for scrap on 15 April 1994, to NR Acquisitions of NYC and towed to Bethlehem Steel's old Fairfield yard in Baltimore, MD for scrapping by Wilmington Resources, Inc. of Wilmington, NC. Sale price $184,550.66.  The scrap contract was terminated on 1 October 1996, and the Navy repossessed the ship on 18 October, and returned to NISMF Philadelphia and the ship was resold to Metro Machine, Incorporated, of Philadelphia  Pennsylvania on 5 December 2001 . Scrapping was completed on 8 November 2002.

 Awards
According to the Navy Unit awards list, Claude V. Ricketts and her crew received the following awards:
 Navy Expeditionary Medal, for service from 19 August 1962 to 28 September 1962, for Cuba (3 Jan 61 – 23 Oct 62)
 Navy Unit Commendation, for service from 1 June 1964 to 1 December 1965, Mixed manning experiment
 Navy Unit Commendation, for service from 22 November 1975 to 23 November 1975, Belknap collision
 Navy Expeditionary Medal, for service from 1 October 1976 to 30 September 1977
 Navy Expeditionary Medal, for service from 21 November 1979 to 2 February 1980, relating to Iran/Indian Ocean (21 Nov 79 – 20 Oct 81)
 Meritorious Unit Commendation, for service from 7 January 1981 to 24 June 1981
 Meritorious Unit Commendation, for service from 30 July 1981 to 20 December 1981
 Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, for service from 5 November 1983 to 13 December 1983, 4 January 1984 to 3 February 1984 and 9 February 1984 to 28 February 1984, relating to Lebanon (1 Jun 83 – 1 Aug 84)
 Coast Guard Special Operations Service Ribbon, for service from 1 July 1987 to 30 September 1987

 See also
For other ships named Biddle'', see . As of 2015, there have been no other ships named for Claude V. Ricketts.

References

External links

MaritimeQuest USS Biddle/USS Claude V Ricketts DDG-5 pages
NavSource.org – USS Claude V. Ricketts (DDG-5)
USS Claude V. Ricketts DDG-5/USS Biddle DDG-5 Crew Members website
Article on the Multilateral Force the USS Claude V Rickett's involvement.

Cold War destroyers of the United States
Ships built by New York Shipbuilding Corporation
1960 ships
Charles F. Adams-class destroyers

USS Claude V. Ricketts


Gæsterne er en dansk kortfilm fra 1971 instrueret af Jørn Fabricius efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Psykologisk kammerspil om skyld-uskyld indbygget i kriminalhistoriens form.

Medvirkende
 Yvonne Ingdal
 Ole Ishøy
 Vibeke Juel-Bengtsson
 Dick Kaysø
 Jørgen Kiil
 Lars Lunøe

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Filmskolefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1971

Gæsterne (film fra 1971)


La statue-menhir des Cazals est une statue-menhir appartenant au groupe rouergat découverte à Pont-de-Salars, dans le département de l'Aveyron en France.

Description
Elle a été découverte lors de travaux agricoles dans un champ surplombant la vallée du Viaur au sud et la vallée de l'Aveyron au nord. Elle est constituée d'une dalle en granite, très usée, mesurant  de hauteur sur  de largeur et  d'épaisseur.

La statue n'a pas été retrouvée dans l'aire géographique habituelle des statues-menhirs du groupe rouergat mais elle en comporte certaines caractéristiques : la forme générale en amande, la surface régularisée par piquetage et comme attribut une ceinture gravée. Deux cupules symétriques positionnées à la hauteur du buste pourraient correspondre à la représentation des seins. S'il s'agit bien d'une statue-menhir féminine, ce serait le seul cas connu de statue-féminine de grande taille.

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Articles connexes
 Sites mégalithiques de l'Aveyron
 Liste des statues-menhirs de France

Cazals
Site mégalithique dans l'Aveyron

Statue-menhir des Cazals


Yeşilova, Çorum ilinin Mecitözü ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün adı, 1921 yılı kayıtlarında Kötükışla, 1928 yılı kayıtlarında ise Bedan olarak geçmektedir. Daha önceleri Totali köyüne bağlı bir mahalle iken, 20 Mart 1952'de köy statüsü kazandı.

Coğrafya
Köy, Çorum il merkezine 54 km, Mecitözü ilçe merkezine 27 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Mecitözü belde ve köyleri

Yeşilova, Mecitözü


An Paphiopedilum tonsum in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Stein. An Paphiopedilum tonsum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paphiopedilum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Paphiopedilum

Paphiopedilum tonsum


توماس هارتول هورن (باللاتينية Thomas Hartwell Horne) ثيولوجي ومكتبي بريطاني ولد في لندن في 1780 وتوفي في 1862. عمل ككاتب لدى محامي وكان يكتب في وقت فراغه. انتمى لتيار ويزلي بداية ثم انضم إلى كنيسة إنكلترا.

كتب أكثر من أربعين من المؤلفات وتعليقات الكتاب المقدس والدفاع عن المسيحية. من أشهر أعماله كتاب من ثلاثة أجزاء (Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures ) طبع في 1818 وانتشر في بريطانيا وشمال أمريكا واشتهر فأعيدت طباعته أكثر من عشر مرات في القرن التاسع عشر. وبسبب قوة عمله سمح له الانضمام للرتب الدينية بدون المتطلبات المعهودة.

كتب أيضا (Tree Full of Bible Lore) وهو نص بشكل شجرة إحصائية عن عدد الكتب والأصحاحات والآيات والكلمات والأحرف للكتاب المقدس.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص متعلمون في مستشفى المسيح
خريجو كلية سانت جونز (كامبريدج)
علماء الكتاب المقدس بريطانيون
لاهوتيون بريطانيون
مدافعون لاهوتيون مسيحيون
مواليد 1780
مواليد 1789
مواليد في لندن
موظفو المتحف البريطاني
وفيات 1862
وفيات في لندن

توماس هارتول هورن


Junqueira Portekiz'de Vale de Cambra belediyesine bağlı olan, 17,17 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 1.295 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Portekiz'in freguesiaları
Vale de Cambra

Junqueira (Vale de Cambra)


La Fondation d'entreprise Crédit coopératif, créée en 1992, est une fondation d'entreprise à but non lucratif du Crédit coopératif, agissant dans le domaine de l'économie sociale et solidaire, du développement de la coopération, de la mutualité, des associations et des fondations sur le territoire national et international.

Histoire
Le  à Paris, le 25ᵉ anniversaire de la Fondation du Crédit coopératif est introduit par une déclaration de M. Frédéric Mitterrand, alors ministre de la culture et de la communication.

La Fondation Crédit coopératif organise chaque année un prix de l'inspiration en ESS.

La fondation soutient plusieurs projets comme, le think tank « La Fonda », les Territoires zéro chômeur de longue durée ou la Croix rouge française.

Direction

Présidence

 Hugues Sibille : 2015-2021
 Jean-Louis Bancel : 2021

Délégation générale
 Christophe Vernier :

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Crédit coopératif

Liens externes

Fondation d'entreprise
Économie sociale en France
Économie sociale et solidaire


Cidoncha puede referirse a:

 José María Cidoncha (1970-), exfutbolista español, nacido en Badajoz;
 Sergio Cidoncha (1990-), futbolista español nacido en El Escorial (Madrid), que durante la temporada 2013/14 juega en el Real Zaragoza.

Cidoncha


Singapores natur består først og fremmest af en række naturreservater og parker, og 63 øer, herunder Singapores hovedø Pulau Ujong. Det højeste naturlige punkt er bakken Bukit Timah med 166 m. Da byen blev grundlagt bestod området hovedsageligt af mangrovesump og tropisk lavlands-regnskov, og i begyndelsen voksede byen kun langsomt. Senere tog byudviklingen fart, og ved selvstændigheden i 1965 stod det klart, at den tilbageværende natur kun kunne bevares ved at blive beskyttet (fredet eller på anden vis). Det tropiske regnskovsklima viser sig tydeligt overalt i byen. I naturreservater og parker viser det sig f.eks. ved en forekomst af de meget store tropiske træer i familien Dipterocarpaceae, masser af epifytter så som bregner og orkideer, den vedvarende lyd fra cikader, en lang række tropiske fugle, og hist og her støder man på aber, der også kan dukke op i parkerne.

Klima
Singapore har tropisk regnskovsklima uden særlige årstider. Dets klima er kendetegnet ved ensartet temperatur og lufttryk, høj luftfugtighed og store nedbørsmængder. Temperaturerne varierer fra 22 °C til 34 °C. I gennemsnit er den relative luftfugtighed omkring 90% om morgenen og 60% om eftermiddagen. Ved langvarig kraftig regn når den relative luftfugtighed ofte op på 100%.

Naturområder

Omkring 23% af Singapores landarealer består af skov- og naturreservater. Urbanisering har fjernet mange tidligere områder med regnskov. I dag er Bukit Timah Nature Reserve det eneste overlevende område med primær regnskov, men flere steder er regnskoven vokset op igen efter at et område blev beskyttet, f.eks i det store Central Catchment Reserve. En række parker er fastholdt med menneskelig indgriben, såsom Singapore Botanic Gardens.

Naturen i Singapore kan groft sagt inddeles i følgende kategorier
 Botaniske haver: Singapore Botanic Gardens, Gardens by the Bay
 Områder med tropisk regnskov: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Central Catchment Reserve, Pulau Ubin og yderligere nogle områder
 Områder med Mangrove: Labrador park, Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve og Pulau Ubin
 Utallige andre parker og mindre naturområder, hvoraf mange har en betydelig forekomst af forskellige træer, buske og fugle

Alle områderne bestyres af National Parks Board, men den botaniske have har udover sit eget område særligt ansvar for Bukit Timah Nature Reserve og Gardens by the Bay.

Flora

Som i enhver tropisk regnskov forekommer en række meget store træer, bl.a. fra Singrøn-familien (Apocynaceae), Dipterocarpaceae, Ærteblomst-familien (Fabaceae), Katost-familien (Malvaceae) og flere andre. En hel del af disse trives rimeligt, men for den store Shorea gratissima har det vist sig at der ikke kommer nogen nye træer til, uden at man dog kender nogen forklaring på dette.

Blandt buske finder man en del med smukke blomster, f.eks. Frangipani og Bougainvillea. Der forekommer også en lang række palmer, f.eks. Bananplante.

I skovbunden finder man bl.a. en lang række af vores almindelige stueplanter så som guldranke, Monstera og Dieffenbachia. Den i Danmark sjældent sete slægt Selaginella ses næsten overalt, og vokser som ukrudt.

Endelig er der et meget stort antal epifytter, herunder flere forskellige slags bregner, bl.a. meget store Asplenium, og en lang række forskellige orkideer, f.eks. Dendrobium crumenatum. Desuden forekommer flere hængende arter fra Ulvefod-familien.

Fauna
Singapore har 65 forskellige arter af pattedyr, 390 fugle-arter, 110 forskellige slags reptiler, 30 padde-arter, mere end 300 sommerfugle-arter, 127 guldsmede  og over 2.000 registrerede arter af havdyr.

Blandt leddyr forekommer bl.a. tusindben, tømrerbier, cikader (som konstant kan høres meget tydeligt) og kæmpemyrer (Camponotus gigas). Blandt edderkopper forekommer bl.a kæmpehjulspinderen Nephila pilipes. Der findes også en del slanger, en art ferskvandskrabbe og en lang række forskellige fugle. Blandt pattedyr forekommer forskellige slags egern, skældyr, flyvende lemurer og en pæn bestand af makakaber.

Central Catchment Reserve og det nærliggende Bukit Timah Nature Reserve samt øerne Pulau Ubin og Pulau Tekong er de vigtigste områder for især større dyr, men f.eks. fugle, egern og varaner støder man også på i byens parker. Det er også i disse områder at man har den største chance for at møde aber, som man i øvrigt skal omgå med forsigtighed og som det er strengt forbudt at fodre.

Noter

Singapores natur


Maggie Cheung Ho Yee makalesei için lütfen  (張可頤) buraya gidiniz Maggie Cheung Ho Yee.

Maggie Cheung Man-yuk (張曼玉; pinyin: Zhāng Mànyù; Kantonca: dzoeng1 maan6 juk9/juk2) (d. 20 Eylül, 1964) Hong Konglu ödüllü aktris.

Cheung çocukluğunun bir bölümünü İngiltere'de geçirdi. Hong-Kong'a geldikten sonra, 1983'te 19 yaşında Miss Hong Kong güzellik yarışmasında ikinci, aynı yıl Dünya güzellik yarışmasında yarı finalist oldu.

Cheung'un en bilinen rolü, "Police Story" filmlerinde "Kevin" chan'in kız arkadaşı rolüdür. (Daha sonra Police Story 4: First Strike filminde de rol almıştır.)

Cheung, Fransız film prodüktörü Olivier Assayas ile 1998 yılında evlenmiş, ancak bu evlilik 2001 yılında boşanmayla noktalanmıştır. İkili Irma Vep and Clean filmlerinde ortaklaşa çalışmıştır. Meggie Cheung Hero (2002) filmi ile kariyerinin zirvesine ulaşmıştır.

 Ödüller
 Berlin Uluslararası Film Festivali
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Gümüş Berlin Ayısı Centre Stage 阮玲玉 (1992)
 Cannes Film Festivali
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Clean (2004)
 Altın At Film Festivali ve Ödülleri
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Altın At Ödülü, In the Mood for Love 花樣年華 (2000)
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Altın At Ödülü Comrades, Almost a Love Story 甜蜜蜜 (1996)
 En İyi Yardımcı Kadın Oyuncu Altın At Ödülü Red Dust 滾滾紅塵 (1990)
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Altın At Ödülü Full Moon in New York 人在紐約 (1989)
 Hawaii International Film Festival
 Award for Achievement in Acting
 Hong Kong Film Awards
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu, Hong Kong Film Ödülleri, In the Mood for Love 花樣年華 (2001)
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu, Hong Kong Film Ödülleri, The Soong Sisters 宋家皇朝 (1998)
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu, Hong Kong Film Ödülleri, Comrades, Almost a Love Story 甜蜜蜜 (1996)
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu, Hong Kong Film Ödülleri, Centre Stage 阮玲玉 (1993)
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu, Hong Kong Film Ödülleri, Farewell China 愛在他鄉的季節 (1991)
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu, Hong Kong Film Ödülleri, A Fishy Story 不脫襪的人 (1989)
 Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards
 En İyi Kadın Oyuncu, HKFCS Ödülü, Comrades, Almost a Love Story 甜蜜蜜 (1996)

 Filmografi

 Clean (2004)
 2046 (2004)
 Hero (2002)
 In the Mood for Love (2000)
 Augustin, King of Kung-Fu (2000)
 Sausalito (2000)
 Chinese Box (USA 1998)
 The Soong Sisters (1997)
 Irma Vep (1996)
 Comrades, Almost a Love Story (1996)
 Ashes of Time (1994)
 In Between (1994)
 Mad Monk (1993)
 First Shot (1993)
 Executioners (1993)
 Boys are Easy (1993)
 Flying Dagger (1993)
 The Eagle Shooting Heroes (1993)
 Enigma of Love (1993)
 Green Snake (1993)
 Holy Weapon (1993)
 The Heroic Trio (1993)
 The Bare-Footed Kid (1993)
 Millionaire Cop (1993)
 Police Story 3: Supercop (1992)
 Twin Dragons (1992)
 Moon Warriors (1992)
 What a Hero! (1992)
 New Dragon Gate Inn (1992)
 True Love (1992)
 All's Well, Ends Well (1992)
 Centre Stage (1992) aka Actress Rose (1992)
 Alan & Eric - Between Hello & Goodbye (1991)
 Will of Iron (1991)
 The Perfect Match (1991)
 Today's Hero (1991)
 Days of Being Wild (1991)
 Red Dust (1990)
 Farewell China (1990)
 Dragon From Russia (1990)
 Song of the Exile (1990)
 Heart into Hearts (1990)
 Full Moon in New York (1990)
 Doubles Cause Troubles (1989)
 The Iceman Cometh (1989)
 In Between Loves (1989)
 My Dear Son (1989)
 The Bachelor's Swan-Song (1989)
 Hearts No Flowers (1989)
 A Fishy Story (1989)
 Little Cop (1989)
 Last Romance (1988)
 Faithfully Yours (1988)
 The Game They Call Sex (1988)
 The Nowhereman (1988)
 Police Story 2 (1988)
 How to Pick Up Girls (1988)
 Moon, Star, Sun (1988)
 Mother vs. Mother (1988)
 As Tears Go By (1988)
 Double Fattiness (1988)
 Paper Marriage (1988)
 Love Soldier of Fortune (1988)
 Call Girl '88 (1988)
 Project A Part 2 (1987)
 The Romancing Star (1987)
 Heartbeat 100 (1987)
 Sister Cupid (1987)
 The Seventh Curse (1986)
 Happy Ghost 3 (1986)
 Lost Romance (1986)
 It's a Drink, It's a Bomb (1985)
 Police Story (1985)
 Modern Cinderella (1985)
 Behind the Yellow Line (1984)
 Prince Charming (1984)

 TV Drama
 Police Cadet '84 新紮師兄 (1984)
 The Fallen Family 武林世家Source: ''

Ayrıca bakınız

Dış bağlantılar
 Cult Sirens: Maggie Cheung
 Biography
 Maggie Cheung picture gallery
 Maggie Cheung biography

 Maggie Cheung Biography | Filmography

Çinli sinema oyuncuları
1964 doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar
Gümüş Ayı Ödülü sahibi oyuncular
Cannes Film Festivali En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Ödülü sahipleri
Gümüş Ayı En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Ödülü sahipleri

Maggie Cheung


Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (4 February 1776, Bremen – 16 February 1837, Bremen) was a German physician, naturalist, and proto-evolutionary biologist.

His younger brother, Ludolph Christian Treviranus (1779–1864), was also a naturalist and botanist, and also a notable taxonomist and zoologist.

History
Treviranus was born in Bremen and studied medicine at the University of Göttingen, where he took his doctor's degree in 1796.

During the following year, he was appointed professor of medicine and mathematics at the Bremen lyceum. In 1816, he was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Works
Treviranus was a proponent of the theory of the transmutation of species, a theory of evolution held by some biologists prior to the work of Charles Darwin. He put forward this belief in the first volume of his Biologie; oder die Philosophie der lebenden Natur, published in 1802, the same year similar opinions were expressed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.

In the 1830s, he was the first to identify rod photoreceptor cells in the retina using a microscope.

Selected writings
 Biologie; oder die Philosophie der lebenden Natur für Naturforscher und Aerzte, (1802–22).
 Beiträge zur Lehre von den Gesichtswerkzeugen und dem Sehen des Menschen und der Thiere, (1828).
 Beiträge zur Aufklärung der Erscheinungen und Gesetze des organischen Lebens (with Ludolph Christian Treviranus), (1835–38).

References

External links

Proto-evolutionary biologists
1776 births
1837 deaths
German naturalists
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Physicians from Bremen (city)
19th-century German biologists
19th-century German botanists
19th-century German physicians
Scientists from Bremen (city)

Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus


Neto domaći proizvod (NDP) godišnja je mjera ekonomskog učinka države koja se prilagođava radi amortizacije i izračunava se oduzimanjem amortizacije od bruto domaćeg proizvoda (BDP).

Formula

Neto domaći proizvod čini kapital koji je potrošen tijekom godine u obliku propadanja stanovanja, vozila ili strojeva. Obračunata amortizacija često se naziva "doplatak za kapitalnu potrošnju " i predstavlja iznos kapitala koji bi bio potreban za zamjenu te amortizirane imovine. Dio investicijske potrošnje koji se koristi za zamjenu dotrajale i zastarjele opreme - amortizacija - iako je neophodan za održavanje razine proizvodnje, ni na koji način ne povećava kapacitete gospodarstva. Ako bi BDP rastao samo kao rezultat činjenice da se više novca trošilo na održavanje temeljnog kapitala zbog povećane amortizacije, to ne bi značilo da je nekome bilo bolje. Zbog toga neki ekonomisti NDP vide kao bolju mjeru socijalne i ekonomske dobrobiti od BDP-a.

Ako zemlja ne bude u stanju nadoknaditi kapital izgubljen amortizacijom, tada će BDP pasti. Uz to, sve veći jaz između BDP-a i NDP-a ukazuje na sve veću zastarjelost kapitalnih dobara, dok sužavanje jaza znači da se stanje kapitalnih zaliha u zemlji poboljšava. Smanjuje vrijednost kapitala zbog čega se odvaja od BDP-a da bi se dobio NDP.

Izvori

Povezani članci

 Bruto domaći proizvod
 Neto nacionalni proizvod

Makroekonomija
Ekonomski indikatori

Neto domaći proizvod


Liu Hsu (Província de Hunan, 22 de dezembro de 1944) é um engenheiro, pesquisador e professor universitário brasileiro.

Comendador e Grande Oficial da Ordem Nacional do Mérito Científico, membro titular da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, Liu é professor emérito da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ). Liu é um dos pesquisadores mais reconhecidos na área de robótica e representa o Brasil no International Advanced Robotics Programm (IARP).

Biografia
Liu nasceu em Fuzhou, Província de Fujian, em 2 de janeiro de 1946, porém foi registrado como nascido em Hunan, em 22 de dezembro de 1944. É o sexto dos sete filhos de Liu Tze Liang e de sua esposa Chang Swai Ching. A família chegou ao Brasil no início dos anos 1950, fixando residência em Curitiba, no Paraná. Por influência do irmão mais velho, aprendeu a tocar violino e tomou gosto pela música clássica desde pequeno por influência da família. Seu irmão Liu Kai é professor emérito da Universidade Federal do Paraná e terceiro doutor formado pela COPPE.

Fez os estudos secundários em Curitiba, inicialmente na escola pública Grupo Escolar Conselheiro Zacarias (primário) e em seguida no Colégio Santa Maria (ginasial e científico). Fascinado pelo mar desde criança, Liu pensou cursar biologia marinha. Deixou de lado para seguir uma carreira mais realista e decidiu ingressar no curso de engenharia eletrônica. Na época era uma área considerada de ponta, com um mercado de trabalho aquecido.

Carreira
Passou no concurso vestibular de Engenharia Elétrica da Universidade Federal do Paraná (1963), em primeiro lugar, mas em 1964 foi aprovado para o Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica (ITA), em São José dos Campos, para onde se transferiu. Obteve o diploma de Engenheiro em Eletrônica em 1968. Logo ingressou no mestrado pelo ITA e em 1971 entrou no doutorado no Laboratoire dAutomatique et dAnalyse des Systèmes (LAAS/CNRS), da Universidade Paul Sabatier, em Toulouse.

Em 1975 ingressou na COPPE como professor adjunto do Programa de Engenharia Mecânica. Em 1983, pediu transferência para o Programa de Engenharia Elétrica onde é atualmente professor aposentado e professor emérito.

Pesquisa
Sua principal área de atuação é Controle e Automação. Dirige o Grupo de Simulação e Controle em Automação e Robótica (GSCAR) que fundou em 1990. Suas áreas atuais de pesquisa incluem Sistemas de Controle Adaptativo, Sistemas a Estrutura Variável, Estabilidade e Oscilações de Sistemas Não-Lineares, Aplicações a Processos Industriais, à Robótica Industrial e à Robótica Submarina. Publicou mais de 40 artigos em periódicos e mais de 100 artigos em anais de congressos. Ministra aulas na graduação e na pós-graduação.

Naturais da China
Engenheiros do Brasil
Alunos do Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica
Professores da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Membros da Academia Brasileira de Ciências
Ordem Nacional do Mérito Científico
Brasileiros de ascendência chinesa
Cidadãos naturalizados do Brasil

Liu Hsu


An Trichoglottis crociaria in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Gunnar Seidenfaden. An Trichoglottis crociaria in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trichoglottis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Thailand. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Trichoglottis

Trichoglottis crociaria


A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, is a mechanical device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic automatically, or (historically) a simulation such as an analog computer or a slide rule. Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator and the digital computer.

Surviving notes from Wilhelm Schickard in 1623 reveal that he designed and had built the earliest of the modern attempts at mechanizing calculation. His machine was composed of two sets of technologies: first an abacus made of Napier's bones, to simplify multiplications and divisions first described six years earlier in 1617, and for the mechanical part, it had a dialed pedometer to perform additions and subtractions.  A study of the surviving notes shows a machine that would have jammed after a few entries on the same dial, and that it could be damaged if a carry had to be propagated over a few digits (like adding 1 to 999). Schickard abandoned his project in 1624 and never mentioned it again until his death 11 years later in 1635.

Two decades after Schickard's supposedly failed attempt, in 1642, Blaise Pascal decisively solved these particular problems with his invention of the mechanical calculator. Co-opted into his father's labour as tax collector in Rouen, Pascal designed the calculator to help in the large amount of tedious arithmetic required; it was called Pascal's Calculator or Pascaline.

In 1672, Gottfried Leibniz started designing an entirely new machine called the Stepped Reckoner. It used a stepped drum, built by and named after him, the Leibniz wheel, was the first two-motion calculator, the first to use cursors (creating a memory of the first operand) and the first to have a movable carriage. Leibniz built two Stepped Reckoners, one in 1694 and one in 1706. The Leibniz wheel was used in many calculating machines for 200 years, and into the 1970s with the Curta hand calculator, until the advent of the electronic calculator in the mid-1970s. Leibniz was also the first to promote the idea of an Pinwheel calculator.

Thomas' arithmometer, the first commercially successful machine, was manufactured two hundred years later in 1851; it was the first mechanical calculator strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. For forty years the arithmometer was the only type of mechanical calculator available for sale until the industrial production of the more successful Odhner Arithmometer in 1890.

The comptometer, introduced in 1887, was the first machine to use a keyboard that consisted of columns of nine keys (from 1 to 9) for each digit. The Dalton adding machine, manufactured in 1902, was the first to have a 10 key keyboard. Electric motors were used on some mechanical calculators from 1901. In 1961, a comptometer type machine, the Anita Mk VII from Sumlock comptometer Ltd., became the first desktop mechanical calculator to receive an all-electronic calculator engine, creating the link in between these two industries and marking the beginning of its decline. The production of mechanical calculators came to a stop in the middle of the 1970s closing an industry that had lasted for 120 years.

Charles Babbage designed two new kinds of mechanical calculators, which were so big that they required the power of a steam engine to operate, and that were too sophisticated to be built in his lifetime.  The first one was an automatic mechanical calculator, his difference engine, which could automatically compute and print mathematical tables. In 1855, Georg Scheutz became the first of a handful of designers to succeed at building a smaller and simpler model of his difference engine. The second one was a programmable mechanical calculator, his analytical engine, which Babbage started to design in 1834; "in less than two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom" making it infinitely programmable. In 1937, Howard Aiken convinced IBM to design and build the ASCC/Mark I, the first machine of its kind, based on the architecture of the analytical engine; when the machine was finished some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".

Ancient history

A short list of other precursors to the mechanical calculator must include a group of mechanical analog computers which, once set, are only modified by the continuous and repeated action of their actuators (crank handle, weight, wheel, water...). Before the common era, there are odometers and the Antikythera mechanism, a seemingly out of place, unique, geared astronomical clock, followed more than a millennium later by early mechanical clocks, geared astrolabes and followed in the 15th century by pedometers. These machines were all made of toothed gears linked by some sort of carry mechanisms.  These machines always produce identical results for identical initial settings unlike a mechanical calculator where all the wheels are independent but are also linked together by the rules of arithmetic.

The 17th century

Overview
The 17th century marked the beginning of the history of mechanical calculators, as it saw the invention of its first machines, including Pascal's calculator, in 1642. Blaise Pascal had invented a machine which he presented as being able to perform computations that were previously thought to be only humanly possible.

The 17th century also saw the invention of some very powerful tools to aid arithmetic calculations like Napier's bones, logarithmic tables and the slide rule which, for their ease of use by scientists in multiplying and dividing, ruled over and impeded the use and development of mechanical calculators until the production release of the arithmometer in the mid 19th century.

Invention of the mechanical calculator

In 1623 and 1624 Wilhelm Schickard, in two letters that he sent to Johannes Kepler, reported his design and construction of what he referred to as an "arithmeticum organum" ("arithmetical instrument"), which would later be described as a Rechenuhr (calculating clock). The machine was designed to assist in all the four basic functions of arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). Amongst its uses, Schickard suggested it would help in the laborious task of calculating astronomical tables. The machine could add and subtract six-digit numbers, and indicated an overflow of this capacity by ringing a bell. The adding machine in the base was primarily provided to assist in the difficult task of adding or multiplying two multi-digit numbers. To this end an ingenious arrangement of rotatable Napier's bones were mounted on it. It even had an additional "memory register" to record intermediate calculations. Whilst Schickard noted that the adding machine was working, his letters mention that he had asked a professional, a clockmaker named Johann Pfister, to build a finished machine. Regrettably it was destroyed in a fire either whilst still incomplete, or in any case before delivery. Schickard abandoned his project soon after. He and his entire family were wiped out in 1635 by bubonic plague during the Thirty Years' War.

Schickard's machine used clock wheels which were made stronger and were therefore heavier, to prevent them from being damaged by the force of an operator input. Each digit used a display wheel, an input wheel and an intermediate wheel. During a carry transfer all these wheels meshed with the wheels of the digit receiving the carry.

Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator with a sophisticated carry mechanism in 1642. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes he introduced his calculator to the public. He built twenty of these machines in the following ten years. This machine could add and subtract two numbers directly and multiply and divide by repetition. Since, unlike Schickard's machine, the Pascaline dials could only rotate in one direction zeroing it after each calculation required the operator to dial in all 9s and then (method of ) propagate a carry right through the machine. This suggests that the carry mechanism would have proved itself in practice many times over. This is a testament to the quality of the Pascaline because none of the 17th and 18th century criticisms of the machine mentioned a problem with the carry mechanism and yet it was fully tested on all the machines, by their resets, all the time.

In 1672, Gottfried Leibniz started working on adding direct multiplication to what he understood was the working of Pascal's calculator. However, it is doubtful that he had ever fully seen the mechanism and the method could not have worked because of the lack of reversible rotation in the mechanism. Accordingly, he eventually designed an entirely new machine called the Stepped Reckoner; it used his Leibniz wheels, was the first two-motion calculator, the first to use cursors (creating a memory of the first operand) and the first to have a movable carriage. Leibniz built two Stepped Reckoners, one in 1694 and one in 1706. Only the machine built in 1694 is known to exist; it was rediscovered at the end of the 19th century having been forgotten in an attic in the University of Göttingen.

Leibniz had invented his namesake wheel and the principle of a two-motion calculator, but after forty years of development he wasn't able to produce a machine that was fully operational; this makes Pascal's calculator the only working mechanical calculator in the 17th century. Leibniz was also the first person to describe a pinwheel calculator. He once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used."

Other calculating machines
Schickard, Pascal and Leibniz were inevitably inspired by the role of clockwork which was highly celebrated in the seventeenth century. However, simple-minded application of interlinked gears was insufficient for any of their purposes.  Schickard introduced the use of a single toothed "mutilated gear" to enable the carry to take place.  Pascal improved on that with his famous weighted sautoir.  Leibniz went even further in relation to the ability to use a moveable carriage to perform multiplication more efficiently, albeit at the expense of a fully working carry mechanism.

The principle of the clock (input wheels and display wheels added to a clock like mechanism) for a direct-entry calculating machine couldn't be implemented to create a fully effective calculating machine without additional innovation with the technological capabilities of the 17th century. because their gears would jam when a carry had to be moved several places along the accumulator. The only 17th-century calculating clocks that have survived to this day do not have a machine-wide carry mechanism and therefore cannot be called fully effective mechanical calculators. A much more successful calculating clock was built by the Italian Giovanni Poleni in the 18th century and was a two-motion calculating clock (the numbers are inscribed first and then they are processed).

 In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard, a German professor of Hebrew and Astronomy, designed a calculating clock which he drew on two letters that he wrote to Johannes Kepler. The first machine to be built by a professional was destroyed during its construction and Schickard abandoned his project in 1624. These drawings had appeared in various publications over the centuries, starting in 1718 with a book of Kepler's letters by Michael Hansch, but in 1957 it was presented for the first time as a long-lost mechanical calculator by Dr. Franz Hammer. The building of the first replica in the 1960s showed that Schickard's machine had an unfinished design and therefore wheels and springs were added to make it work. The use of these replicas showed that the single-tooth wheel, when used within a calculating clock, was an inadequate carry mechanism. (see Pascal versus Schickard).  This did not mean that such a machine could not be used in practice, but the operator when faced with the mechanism resisting rotation, in the unusual circumstances of a carry being required beyond (say) 3 dials, would need to "help" the subsequent carry to propagate.
 Around 1643, a French clockmaker from Rouen, after hearing of Pascal's work, built what he claimed to be a calculating clock of his own design. Pascal fired all his employees and stopped developing his calculator as soon as he heard of the news.  It is only after being assured that his invention would be protected by a royal privilege that he restarted his activity. A careful examination of this calculating clock showed that it didn't work properly and Pascal called it an avorton (aborted fetus).
 In 1659, the Italian Tito Livio Burattini built a machine with nine independent wheels, each one of these wheels was paired with a smaller carry wheel. At the end of an operation the user had to either manually add each carry to the next digit or mentally add these numbers to create the final result.
 In 1666, Samuel Morland invented a machine designed to add sums of money, but it was not a true adding machine since the carry was added to a small carry wheel situated above each digit and not directly to the next digit. It was very similar to Burattini's machine. Morland created also a multiplying machines with interchangeable disks based on Napier's bones. Taken together these two machines provided a capacity similar to that of the invention of Schickard, although it is doubtful that Morland ever encountered Schickard's calculating clock.
 In 1673, the French clockmaker René Grillet described in Curiositez mathématiques de l'invention du Sr Grillet, horlogeur à Paris a calculating machine that would be more compact than Pascal's calculator and reversible for subtraction. The only two Grillet machines known have no carry mechanism, displaying three lines of nine independent dials they also have nine rotating napier's rod for multiplication and division. Contrary to Grillet's claim, it was not a mechanical calculator after all.

The 18th century

Overview

The 18th century saw the first mechanical calculator that could perform a multiplication automatically; designed and built by Giovanni Poleni in 1709 and made of wood, it was the first successful calculating clock. For all the machines built in this century, division still required the operator to decide when to stop a repeated subtraction at each index, and therefore these machines were only providing a help in dividing, like an abacus. Both pinwheel calculators and Leibniz wheel calculators were built with a few unsuccessful attempts at their commercialization.

Prototypes and limited runs

 In 1709, Italian Giovanni Poleni was the first to build a calculator that could multiply automatically. It used a pinwheel design, was the first operational calculating clock and was made of wood; he destroyed it after hearing that Antonius Braun had received 10,000 Guldens for dedicating a pinwheel machine of his own design to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in Vienna.
 In 1725, the French Academy of Sciences certified a calculating machine derived from Pascal's calculator designed by Lépine, a French craftsman. The machine was a bridge in between Pascal's calculator and a calculating clock. The carry transmissions were performed simultaneously, like in a calculating clock, and therefore "the machine must have jammed beyond a few simultaneous carry transmissions".
 In 1727, German Anton Braun presented the first fully functional four-operation machine to Emperor Charles VI in Vienna. It was cylindrical in shape and was made of steel, silver and brass; it was finely decorated and looked like a renaissance table clock. His dedication to the emperor engraved on the top of the machine also reads "...to make easy to ignorant people, addition, subtraction, multiplication and even division".
 In 1730, the French Academy of Sciences certified three machines designed by Hillerin de Boistissandeau. The first one used a single-tooth carry mechanism which, according to Boistissandeau, wouldn't work properly if a carry had to be moved more than two places; the two other machines used springs that were gradually armed until they released their energy when a carry had to be moved forward. It was similar to Pascal's calculator but instead of using the energy of gravity Boistissandeau used the energy stored into the springs.
 In 1770, Philipp Matthäus Hahn, a German pastor, built two circular calculating machines based on Leibniz' cylinders. J. C. Schuster, Hahn's brother-in-law, built a few machines of Hahn's design into the early 19th century.
 In 1775, Lord Stanhope of the United Kingdom designed a pinwheel machine. It was set in a rectangular box with a handle on the side. He also designed a machine using Leibniz wheels in 1777. "In 1777 Stanhope produced the Logic Demonstrator, a machine designed to solve problems in formal logic. This device marked the beginning of a new approach to the solution of logical problems by mechanical methods."
 In 1784, German Johann-Helfrich Müller built a machine very similar to Hahn's machine.

The 19th century

Overview

 Luigi Torchi invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834. This was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James White (1822).

The mechanical calculator industry started in 1851 Thomas de Colmar released his simplified Arithmomètre, which was the first machine that could be used daily in an office environment.

For 40 years, the arithmometer was the only mechanical calculator available for sale and was sold all over the world. By 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus a few hundreds more from two licensed arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883). Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 comptometers in three years.

The 19th century also saw the designs of Charles Babbage calculating machines, first with his difference engine, started in 1822, which was the first automatic calculator since it continuously used the results of the previous operation for the next one, and second with his analytical engine, which was the first programmable calculator, using Jacquard's cards to read program and data, that he started in 1834, and which gave the blueprint of the mainframe computers built in the middle of the 20th century.

Desktop calculators produced

 In 1851, Thomas de Colmar simplified his arithmometer by removing the one-digit multiplier/divider. This made it a simple adding machine, but thanks to its moving carriage used as an indexed accumulator, it still allowed for easy multiplication and division under operator control. The arithmometer was now adapted to the manufacturing capabilities of the time; Thomas could therefore manufacture consistently a sturdy and reliable machine. Manuals were printed and each machine was given a serial number. Its commercialization launched the mechanical calculator industry. Banks, insurance companies, government offices started to use the arithmometer in their day-to-day operations, slowly bringing mechanical desktop calculators into the office.
 In 1878 Burkhardt, of Germany, was the first to manufacture a clone of Thomas' arithmometer. Until then Thomas de Colmar had been the only manufacturer of desktop mechanical calculators in the world and he had manufactured about 1,500 machines. Eventually twenty European companies will manufacture clones of Thomas' arithmometer until WWII.
 Dorr E. Felt, in the U.S., patented the Comptometer in 1886. It was the first successful key-driven adding and calculating machine. ["Key-driven" refers to the fact that just pressing the keys causes the result to be calculated, no separate lever or crank has to be operated. Other machines are sometimes called "key-set".] In 1887, he joined with Robert Tarrant to form the Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company. The comptometer-type calculator was the first machine to receive an all-electronic calculator engine in 1961 (the ANITA mark VII released by Sumlock comptometer of the UK).
 In 1890 W. T. Odhner got the rights to manufacture his calculator back from Königsberger & C, which had held them since it was first patented in 1878, but had not really produced anything. Odhner used his Saint Petersburg workshop to manufacture his calculator and he built and sold 500 machines in 1890. This manufacturing operation shut down definitively in 1918 with 23,000 machines produced. The Odhner Arithmometer was a redesigned version of the Arithmometer of Thomas de Colmar with a pinwheel engine, which made it cheaper to manufacture and gave it a smaller footprint while keeping the advantage of having the same user interface.
 In 1892 Odhner sold the Berlin branch of his factory, which he had opened a year earlier, to Grimme, Natalis & Co. They moved the factory to Braunschweig and sold their machines under the brand name of Brunsviga (Brunsviga is the Latin name of the town of Braunschweig).  This was the first of many companies which would sell and manufacture clones of Odhner's machine all over the world; eventually millions were sold well into the 1970s.
 In 1892, William S. Burroughs began commercial manufacture of his printing adding calculator Burroughs Corporation became one of the leading companies in the accounting machine and computer businesses.
 The "Millionaire" calculator was introduced in 1893. It allowed direct multiplication by any digit – "one turn of the crank for each figure in the multiplier". It contained a mechanical product lookup table, providing units and tens digits by differing lengths of posts. Another direct multiplier was part of the Moon-Hopkins billing machine; that company was acquired by Burroughs in the early 20th century.

Automatic mechanical calculators

 In 1822, Charles Babbage presented a small cogwheel assembly that demonstrated the operation of his difference engine, a mechanical calculator which would be capable of holding and manipulating seven numbers of 31 decimal digits each. It was the first time that a calculating machine could work automatically using as input results from its previous operations. It was the first calculating machine to use a printer. The development of this machine, later called "Difference Engine No. 1," stopped around 1834.
 In 1847, Babbage began work on an improved difference engine design—his "Difference Engine No. 2."  None of these designs were completely built by Babbage. In 1991 the London Science Museum followed Babbage's plans to build a working Difference Engine No. 2 using the technology and materials available in the 19th century.
 In 1855, Per Georg Scheutz completed a working difference engine based on Babbage's design. The machine was the size of a piano, and was demonstrated at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1855. It was used to create tables of logarithms.
 In 1875, Martin Wiberg re-designed the Babbage/Scheutz difference engine and built a version that was the size of a sewing machine.

Programmable mechanical calculators

 In 1834, Babbage started to design his analytical engine, which will become the undisputed ancestor of the modern mainframe computer with two separate input streams for data and program (a primitive Harvard architecture), printers for outputting results (three different kind), processing unit (mill), memory (store) and the first-ever set of programming instructions. In the proposal that Howard Aiken gave IBM in 1937 while requesting funding for the Harvard Mark I which became IBM's entry machine in the computer industry, we can read: "Few calculating machines have been designed strictly for application to scientific investigations, the notable exceptions being those of Charles Babbage and others who followed him. In 1812 Babbage conceived the idea of a calculating machine of a higher type than those previously constructed to be used for calculating and printing tables of mathematical functions. ....After abandoning the difference engine, Babbage devoted his energy to the design and construction of an analytical engine of far higher powers than the difference engine..."
 In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the analytical engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli numbers.  This is considered the first computer program.
 From 1872 until 1910, Henry Babbage worked intermittently on creating the mill, the "central processing unit" of his father's machine.  After a few setbacks, he gave in 1906 a successful demonstration of the mill which printed the first 44 multiples of pi with 29 places of figures.

Cash registers

The cash register, invented by the American saloonkeeper James Ritty in 1879, addressed the old problems of disorganization and dishonesty in business transactions. It was a pure adding machine coupled with a printer, a bell and a two-sided display that showed the paying party and the store owner, if he wanted to, the amount of money exchanged for the current transaction.

The cash register was easy to use and, unlike genuine mechanical calculators, was needed and quickly adopted by a great number of businesses.  "Eighty four companies sold cash registers between 1888 and 1895, only three survived for any length of time".

In 1890, 6 years after John Patterson started NCR Corporation, 20,000 machines had been sold by his company alone against a total of roughly 3,500 for all genuine calculators combined.

By 1900, NCR had built 200,000 cash registers and there were more companies manufacturing them, compared to the "Thomas/Payen" arithmometer company that had just sold around 3,300 and Burroughs had only sold 1,400 machines.

Prototypes and limited runs

 In 1820, Thomas de Colmar patented the Arithmometer. It was a true four operation machine with a one digit multiplier/divider (The Millionaire calculator released 70 years later had a similar user interface). He spent the next 30 years and 300,000 Francs developing his machine. This design was replaced in 1851 by the simplified arithmometer which was only an adding machine.
 From 1840, Didier Roth patented and built a few calculating machines, one of which was a direct descendant of Pascal's calculator.
 In 1842, Timoleon Maurel invented the Arithmaurel, based on the Arithmometer, which could multiply two numbers by simply entering their values into the machine.
 In 1845, Izrael Abraham Staffel first exhibited a machine that was able to add, subtract, divide, multiply and obtain a square root.
 Around 1854, Andre-Michel Guerry invented the Ordonnateur Statistique, a cylindrical device designed to aid in summarizing the relations among data on moral variables (crime, suicide, etc.)
 In 1872, Frank S. Baldwin in the U.S. invented a pinwheel calculator.
 In 1877 George B. Grant of Boston in the United States began producing the Grant mechanical calculating machine capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The machine measured 13x5x7 inches and contained eighty working pieces made of brass and tempered steel. It was first introduced to the public at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.
 In 1883, Edmondson of the United Kingdom patented a circular stepped drum calculator.

1900s to 1970s

Mechanical calculators reach their zenith

Two different classes of mechanisms had become established by this time, reciprocating and rotary. The former type of mechanism was operated typically by a limited-travel hand crank; some internal detailed operations took place on the pull, and others on the release part of a complete cycle. The illustrated 1914 machine is this type; the crank is vertical, on its right side. Later on, some of these mechanisms were operated by electric motors and reduction gearing that operated a crank and connecting rod to convert rotary motion to reciprocating.

The latter type, rotary, had at least one main shaft that made one [or more] continuous revolution[s], one addition or subtraction per turn. Numerous designs, notably European calculators, had handcranks, and locks to ensure that the cranks were returned to exact positions once a turn was complete.

The first half of the 20th century saw the gradual development of the mechanical calculator mechanism.

The Dalton adding-listing machine introduced in 1902 was the first of its type to use only ten keys, and became the first of many different models of "10-key add-listers" manufactured by many companies.

In 1948 the cylindrical Curta calculator, which was compact enough to be held in one hand, was introduced after being developed by Curt Herzstark in 1938. This was an extreme development of the stepped-gear calculating mechanism. It subtracted by adding complements; between the teeth for addition were teeth for subtraction.

From the early 1900s through the 1960s, mechanical calculators dominated the desktop computing market. Major suppliers in the USA included Friden, Monroe, and SCM/Marchant. These devices were motor-driven, and had movable carriages where results of calculations were displayed by dials. Nearly all keyboards were full – each digit that could be entered had its own column of nine keys, 1..9, plus a column-clear key, permitting entry of several digits at once. (See the illustration below of a Marchant Figurematic.) One could call this parallel entry, by way of contrast with ten-key serial entry that was commonplace in mechanical adding machines, and is now universal in electronic calculators. (Nearly all Friden calculators, as well as some rotary (German) Diehls had a ten-key auxiliary keyboard for entering the multiplier when doing multiplication.) Full keyboards generally had ten columns, although some lower-cost machines had eight. Most machines made by the three companies mentioned did not print their results, although other companies, such as Olivetti, did make printing calculators.

In these machines, addition and subtraction were performed in a single operation, as on a conventional adding machine, but multiplication and division were accomplished by repeated mechanical additions and subtractions. Friden made a calculator that also provided square roots, basically by doing division, but with added mechanism that automatically incremented the number in the keyboard in a systematic fashion. The last of the mechanical calculators were likely to have short-cut multiplication, and some ten-key, serial-entry types had decimal-point keys. However, decimal-point keys required significant internal added complexity, and were offered only in the last designs to be made. Handheld mechanical calculators such as the 1948 Curta continued to be used until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.

Typical European four-operation machines use the Odhner mechanism, or variations of it. This kind of machine included the Original Odhner, Brunsviga and several following imitators, starting from Triumphator, Thales, Walther, Facit up to Toshiba. Although most of these were operated by handcranks, there were motor-driven versions. Hamann calculators externally resembled pinwheel machines, but the setting lever positioned a cam that disengaged a drive pawl when the dial had moved far enough.

Although Dalton introduced in 1902 first 10-key printing adding (two operations, the other being subtraction) machine, these features were not present in computing (four operations) machines for many decades. Facit-T (1932) was the first 10-key computing machine sold in large numbers. Olivetti Divisumma-14 (1948) was the first computing machine with both printer and a 10-key keyboard.

Full-keyboard machines, including motor-driven ones, were also built until the 1960s. Among the major manufacturers were Mercedes-Euklid, Archimedes, and MADAS in Europe; in the USA, Friden, Marchant, and Monroe were the principal makers of rotary calculators with carriages. Reciprocating calculators (most of which were adding machines, many with integral printers) were made by Remington Rand and Burroughs, among others. All of these were key-set. Felt & Tarrant made Comptometers, as well as Victor, which were key-driven.

The basic mechanism of the Friden and Monroe was a modified Leibniz wheel (better known, perhaps informally, in the USA as a "stepped drum" or "stepped reckoner"). The Friden had an elementary reversing drive between the body of the machine and the accumulator dials, so its main shaft always rotated in the same direction. The Swiss MADAS was similar. The Monroe, however, reversed direction of its main shaft to subtract.

The earliest Marchants were pinwheel machines, but most of them were remarkably sophisticated rotary types. They ran at 1,300 addition cycles per minute if the [+] bar is held down. Others were limited to 600 cycles per minute, because their accumulator dials started and stopped for every cycle; Marchant dials moved at a steady and proportional speed for continuing cycles. Most Marchants had a row of nine keys on the extreme right, as shown in the photo of the Figurematic. These simply made the machine add for the number of cycles corresponding to the number on the key, and then shifted the carriage one place. Even nine add cycles took only a short time.

In a Marchant, near the beginning of a cycle, the accumulator dials moved downward "into the dip", away from the openings in the cover. They engaged drive gears in the body of the machine, which rotated them at speeds proportional to the digit being fed to them, with added movement (reduced 10:1) from carries created by dials to their right. At the completion of the cycle, the dials would be misaligned like the pointers in a traditional watt-hour meter. However, as they came up out of the dip, a constant-lead disc cam realigned them by way of a (limited-travel) spur-gear differential. As well, carries for lower orders were added in by another, planetary differential. (The machine shown has 39 differentials in its [20-digit] accumulator!)

In any mechanical calculator, in effect, a gear, sector, or some similar device moves the accumulator by the number of gear teeth that corresponds to the digit being added or subtracted – three teeth changes the position by a count of three. The great majority of basic calculator mechanisms move the accumulator by starting, then moving at a constant speed, and stopping. In particular, stopping is critical, because to obtain fast operation, the accumulator needs to move quickly. Variants of Geneva drives typically block overshoot (which, of course, would create wrong results).

However, two different basic mechanisms, the Mercedes-Euklid and the Marchant, move the dials at speeds corresponding to the digit being added or subtracted; a [1] moves the accumulator the slowest, and a [9], the fastest. In the Mercedes-Euklid, a long slotted lever, pivoted at one end, moves nine racks ("straight gears") endwise by distances proportional to their distance from the lever's pivot. Each rack has a drive pin that is moved by the slot. The rack for [1] is closest to the pivot, of course.
For each keyboard digit, a sliding selector gear, much like that in the Leibniz wheel, engages the rack that corresponds to the digit entered. Of course, the accumulator changes either on the forward or reverse stroke, but not both. This mechanism is notably simple and relatively easy to manufacture.

The Marchant, however, has, for every one of its ten columns of keys, a nine-ratio "preselector transmission" with its output spur gear at the top of the machine's body; that gear engages the accumulator gearing. When one tries to work out the numbers of teeth in such a transmission, a straightforward approach leads one to consider a mechanism like that in mechanical gasoline pump registers, used to indicate the total price. However, this mechanism is seriously bulky, and utterly impractical for a calculator; 90-tooth gears are likely to be found in the gas pump. Practical gears in the computing parts of a calculator cannot have 90 teeth. They would be either too big, or too delicate.

Given that nine ratios per column implies significant complexity, a Marchant contains a few hundred individual gears in all, many in its accumulator. Basically, the accumulator dial has to rotate 36 degrees (1/10 of a turn) for a [1], and 324 degrees (9/10 of a turn) for a [9], not allowing for incoming carries. At some point in the gearing, one tooth needs to pass for a [1], and nine teeth for a [9]. There is no way to develop the needed movement from a driveshaft that rotates one revolution per cycle with few gears having practical (relatively small) numbers of teeth.

The Marchant, therefore, has three driveshafts to feed the little transmissions. For one cycle, they rotate 1/2, 1/4, and 1/12 of a revolution. . The 1/2-turn shaft carries (for each column) gears with 12, 14, 16, and 18 teeth, corresponding to digits 6, 7, 8, and 9. The 1/4-turn shaft carries (also, each column) gears with 12, 16, and 20 teeth, for 3, 4, and 5. Digits [1] and [2] are handled by 12 and 24-tooth gears on the 1/12-revolution shaft. Practical design places the 12th-rev. shaft more distant, so the 1/4-turn shaft carries freely-rotating 24 and 12-tooth idler gears. For subtraction, the driveshafts reversed direction.

In the early part of the cycle, one of five pendants moves off-center to engage the appropriate drive gear for the selected digit.

Some machines had as many as 20 columns in their full keyboards. The monster in this field was the Duodecillion made by Burroughs for exhibit purposes.

For sterling currency, £/s/d (and even farthings), there were variations of the basic mechanisms, in particular with different numbers of gear teeth and accumulator dial positions. To accommodate shillings and pence, extra columns were added for the tens digit[s], 10 and 20 for shillings, and 10 for pence. Of course, these functioned as radix-20 and radix-12 mechanisms.

A variant of the Marchant, called the Binary-Octal Marchant, was a radix-8 (octal) machine. It was sold to check very early vacuum-tube (valve) binary computers for accuracy. (Back then, the mechanical calculator was much more reliable than a tube/valve computer.)

As well, there was a twin Marchant, comprising two pinwheel Marchants with a common drive crank and reversing gearbox. Twin machines were relatively rare, and apparently were used for surveying calculations. At least one triple machine was made.

The Facit calculator, and one similar to it, are basically pinwheel machines, but the array of pinwheels moves sidewise, instead of the carriage. The pinwheels are biquinary; digits 1 through 4 cause the corresponding number of sliding pins to extend from the surface; digits 5 through 9 also extend a five-tooth sector as well as the same pins for 6 through 9.

The keys operate cams that operate a swinging lever to first unlock the pin-positioning cam that is part of the pinwheel mechanism; further movement of the lever (by an amount determined by the key's cam) rotates the pin-positioning cam to extend the necessary number of pins.

Stylus-operated adders with circular slots for the stylus, and side-by -side wheels, as made by Sterling Plastics (USA), had an ingenious anti-overshoot mechanism to ensure accurate carries.

The end of an era
Mechanical calculators continued to be sold, though in rapidly decreasing numbers, into the early 1970s, with many of the manufacturers closing down or being taken over. Comptometer type calculators were often retained for much longer to be used for adding and listing duties, especially in accounting, since a trained and skilled operator could enter all the digits of a number in one movement of the hands on a comptometer quicker than was possible serially with a 10-key electronic calculator. In fact, it was quicker to enter larger digits in two strokes using only the lower-numbered keys; for instance, a 9 would be entered as 4 followed by 5. Some key-driven calculators had keys for every column, but only 1 through 5; they were correspondingly compact. The spread of the computer rather than the simple electronic calculator put an end to the comptometer. Also, by the end of the 1970s, the slide rule had become obsolete.

See also
 Abacus
 Adding machine
 Calculator
 History of computing hardware
 Mechanical computer
 Tabulating machine
 George Brown (inventor)

References

Sources

  Reprinted by Arno Press, 1972 .

External links

Mařík, Robert
List of Mechanical Calculators
Calculating with Mechanical Calculators

Office equipment
Mathematical tools
Articles containing video clips

Mechanical calculator


Lebap Region ( from the Persian  Lab-e āb) is one of the regions of Turkmenistan. It is in the northeast of the country, bordering Afghanistan, Uzbekistan along the Amu Darya. Its administrative centre is Türkmenabat (formerly named Çärjew). It has an area of 93,727 square kilometers, and a population of 1,334,500 people (2005 est.).

The name Lebap is a Turkmenized form of the Persian Lab-e āb (), which means "riverside" and has long been used to designate the middle reaches of the Amu Darya.

It contains the Repetek Nature Reserveas well as the Köýtendag Nature Reserve, which includes Turkmenistan's highest mountain, Aýrybaba (3137 meters).  Lebap is also home to the Dayahatyn caravansaray.

The region is located along the Amu Darya. The Kyzylkum Desert is located on the east side of the river and Karakum Desert is located on the west side of the river. About three-quarters of the region's land area is in the Karakum Desert.  The region's sunny weather and abundance of water resources help produce high-quality long-staple cotton.

History

The region of present-day Lebap once occupied a spot along the Silk Road. The 9th-10th century caravansaray of Dayahatyn is located within Lebap.

Bukhara and Khiva khanates
Prior to the Russian Revolution, much of today's Lebap Region was part of either the Khanate of Bukhara or the Khanate of Khiva. The last khan of Bukhara, Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan,  nominally submitted to Soviet authority, but in reality joined the Basmachi movement and rebelled against the Bolsheviks. He fled in 1920, and the area was declared a people's republic until Soviet power was firmly established in 1924.  In that same year, the settlements at Çärjew and Kerki were formally assigned to the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, along with the western parts of the Khiva khanate along the Amu Darya.

Recent history
On April 27, 2020, the region was hit by a severe windstorm. RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty alleged that the storm disrupted much of the region's electrical grid, public water supplies, natural gas connections, cell service, and internet connection. A local human rights website, Turkmen.news, reported that many people were admitted to the regional hospital in Türkmenabat after suffering injuries. They also alleged that there was sporadic looting in the storm's aftermath and that food prices in the region rose as a result of the storm. Local Turkmen media reported 10 deaths resulting from the storm, while Turkmen.news suggested that the true death toll was likely in the dozens, and dozens remained unaccounted for in the storm's aftermath. The rights group Human Rights Watch condemned what it perceived as "censorship" by local officials following the storm, noting that one group alleged that local police were watching out for people filming the storm's damage, and another group reported that dozens of people were detained for allegedly sending videos "abroad".

In December 2020, RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty reported that regional officials threatened to cut off the region's population from subsidized food if they were not up to date on their utility bills. The agency reported that many in the region received seasonal income from farming, and often did not earn money in the winter, and such matters were complicated by a decrease in remittances to the region as a result of the economic fallout from COVID-19.

Administrative divisions
As of 2021, according to the official website of the regional government, Lebap Region included one city with status equivalent to a district, 10 districts, 14 cities "in the district" (), 24 towns, 105 rural councils, and 429 villages.

Districts
As of 9 November 2022 Lebap Region () is subdivided into eight districts (etrap, plural etraplar):

 Çarjew (formerly Serdarabat)
 Darganata (formerly Birata)
 Dänew (formerly Galkynyş)
 Halaç
 Hojambaz
 Kerki (formerly Atamyrat)
 Köýtendag (formerly Çarşaňňy)
 Saýat

In November 2017 four districts, (Beýik Türkmenbaşy, Garaşsyzlyk, Garabekwül, and Sakar), were abolished and their territories absorbed by other districts. In November 2022 another two districts, Döwletli and Farap, were similarly abolished.

Municipalities

As of January 1, 2017, the region included 15 cities (, ), 23 towns (, ), 106 rural or village councils (, ), and 430 villages (, , or ).

In the list below, the lone city with "district status" is bolded:
 Dänew (formerly Galkynyş)
 Darganata (formerly Birata)
 Dostluk (formerly Yuzhnyy)
 Farap
 Garabekewül
 Gazojak
 Halaç
 Hojambaz
 Kerki (formerly Atamyrat)
 Köýtendag (formerly Çarşaňňy)
 Magdanly (formerly Gowurdak)
 Sakar
 Saýat
 Seýdi (formerly Neftezavodsk)
 Türkmenabat (formerly Çärjew)

Economy

Agriculture
Crop production in Lebap is heavily dependent on irrigation from the Amu Darya. Fields are cultivated when one-and-a-half to two meters above the floodplains of the river, primarily cereal grains and cotton.

Extraction industries
Lebap is rich in various natural resources, most notably, natural gas. The region is home to the Malai Gas Field and the Bagtyýarlyk Gas Field, which both serve as major suppliers of natural gas to China.

The Garlyk Mining and Enrichment Amalgamate in Köýtendag District produces potash fertilizer, and the Seýdi Oil Refinery is one of two petroleum refineries in Turkmenistan.

From antiquity, local residents quarried sulfur, zinc and lead in the Köýtendag (Kungitang) foothills for domestic needs, including casting of bullets. During the Soviet period, a lead mine was dug and the town of Svintsovyy Rudnik was founded.

Construction materials
The Lebap Cement Plant in Turkmenabat has a design capacity of one million tons per year. Polimeks built it in 2012. In 2020, construction of a second plant, in Köýtendag District, also with a design capacity of one million tons, got underway.

Power generation
The Zerger power plant under construction by Sumitomo, Mitsubishi, Hitachi, and Rönesans Holding in Çärjew District will have a design capacity of 432 megawatts. It is primarily intended for export of electricity.  The Zerger plant will use natural gas from the Üçajy Gas Field (), delivered via a 125-km high-pressure pipeline.

Nature preserves and reservations
Amudarya State Nature Reserve
Köýtendag Nature Reserve
Repetek Biosphere State Reserve

Tourist attractions
Aýrybaba
Dayahatyn caravansaray (in use 9th to 16th centuries)
Dinosaur Plateau

See also
 OpenStreetMap Wiki: Lebap Province
 OpenStreetMap Wiki: Districts in Turkmenistan

References

Regions of Turkmenistan

Lebap Region