An antifreeze is an additive which lowers the freezing point of a water-based liquid.  An antifreeze mixture is used to achieve freezing-point depression for cold environments.  Common antifreezes also increase the boiling point of the liquid, allowing higher coolant temperature. However, all common antifreeze additives also have lower heat capacities than water, and do reduce water's ability to act as a coolant when added to it.

Because water has good properties as a coolant, water plus antifreeze is used in internal combustion engines and other heat transfer applications, such as HVAC chillers and solar water heaters. The purpose of antifreeze is to prevent a rigid enclosure from bursting due to expansion when water freezes. Commercially, both the additive (pure concentrate) and the mixture (diluted solution) are called antifreeze, depending on the context. Careful selection of an antifreeze can enable a wide temperature range in which the mixture remains in the liquid phase, which is critical to efficient heat transfer and the proper functioning of heat exchangers. Most if not all commercial antifreeze formulations intended for use in heat transfer applications include anti-corrosion and anti-cavitation agents (that protect the hydraulic circuit from progressive wear).

Principles and history
Water was the original coolant for internal combustion engines. It is cheap, nontoxic, and has a high heat capacity. It however has only a 100 Kelvin liquid range, and it expands upon freezing. To address these problems, alternative coolants with improved properties were developed.
Freezing and boiling points are colligative properties of a solution, which depend on the concentration of dissolved substances. Salts lower the melting points of aqueous solutions. Salts are frequently used for de-icing, but salt solutions are not used for cooling systems because they induce corrosion of metals. Low molecular weight organic compounds tend to have melting points lower than water, which makes them suitable for use as antifreeze agents. Solutions of organic compounds, especially alcohols, in water are effective. Alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, ethylene glycol, etc. have been the basis of all antifreezes since they were commercialized in the 1920s.

Use and occurrence

Automotive and internal combustion engine use

Most automotive engines are "water"-cooled to remove waste heat, though the "water" used is actually a mixture of water and antifreeze. The term engine coolant is widely used in the automotive industry, which covers its primary function of convective heat transfer for internal combustion engines. When used in an automotive context, corrosion inhibitors are added to help protect vehicles' radiators, which often contain a range of electrochemically incompatible metals (aluminum, cast iron, copper, brass, solder, etc.). Water pump seal lubricant is also added.

Antifreeze was developed to overcome the shortcomings of water as a heat transfer fluid.

On the other hand, if the engine coolant gets too hot, it might boil while inside the engine, causing voids (pockets of steam), leading to localized hot spots and the catastrophic failure of the engine. If plain water were to be used as an engine coolant in northern climates freezing would occur, causing significant internal engine damage. Also, plain water would increase the prevalence of galvanic corrosion. Proper engine coolant and a pressurized coolant system obviate these shortcomings of water. With proper antifreeze, a wide temperature range can be tolerated by the engine coolant, such as  to  for 50% (by volume) propylene glycol diluted with distilled water and a 15 psi pressurized coolant system.

Early engine coolant antifreeze was methanol (methyl alcohol). Ethylene glycol was developed because its higher boiling point was more compatible with heating systems.

Other industrial uses
The most common water-based antifreeze solutions used in electronics cooling are mixtures of water and either ethylene glycol (EGW) or propylene glycol (PGW). The use of ethylene glycol has a longer history, especially in the automotive industry. However, EGW solutions formulated for the automotive industry often have silicate based rust inhibitors that can coat and/or clog heat exchanger surfaces. Ethylene glycol is listed as a toxic chemical requiring care in handling and disposal.

Ethylene glycol has desirable thermal properties, including a high boiling point, low freezing point, stability over a wide range of temperatures, and high specific heat and thermal conductivity. It also has a low viscosity and, therefore, reduced pumping requirements. Although EGW has more desirable physical properties than PGW, the latter coolant is used in applications where toxicity might be a concern. PGW is generally recognized as safe for use in food or food processing applications, and can also be used in enclosed spaces.

Similar mixtures are commonly used in HVAC and industrial heating or cooling systems as a high-capacity heat transfer medium. Many formulations have corrosion inhibitors, and it is expected that these chemicals will be replenished (manually or under automatic control) to keep expensive piping and equipment from corroding.

Biological antifreezes
Antifreeze proteins refer to chemical compounds produced by certain animals, plants, and other organisms that prevent the formation of ice.  In this way, these compounds allow their host organism to operate at temperatures well below the freezing point of water.  Antifreeze proteins bind to small ice crystals to inhibit growth and recrystallization of ice that would otherwise be fatal.

Cryoprotectants are commonly used in cryobiology to prevent or inhibit freezing in sperm, blood, stem cells, plant seeds, etc. Ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, and glycerol (all used in automotive antifreeze) are commonly used as biological cryoprotectants.

Primary agents

Ethylene glycol

Most antifreeze is made by mixing distilled water with additives and a base product, usually MEG (mono ethylene glycol) or MPG (mono propylene glycol). Ethylene glycol solutions first became available in 1926 and were marketed as "permanent antifreeze" since the higher boiling points provided advantages for summertime use as well as during cold weather. They are used today for a variety of applications, including automobiles, but there are lower-toxicity alternatives made with propylene glycol available.

When ethylene glycol is used in a system, it may become oxidized to five organic acids (formic, oxalic, glycolic, glyoxalic and acetic acid). Inhibited ethylene glycol antifreeze mixes are available, with additives that buffer the pH and reserve alkalinity of the solution to prevent oxidation of ethylene glycol and formation of these acids. Nitrites, silicates, borates and azoles may also be used to prevent corrosive attack on metal.

Ethylene glycol has a bitter, sweet taste and causes inebriation. The toxic effects of ingesting ethylene glycol occur because it is converted by the liver into 4 other chemicals that are much more toxic. The lethal dose of pure ethylene glycol is 1.4 ml/kg ( is lethal to a  person) but is much less lethal if treated within an hour. (see Ethylene glycol poisoning).

Propylene glycol

Propylene glycol is considerably less toxic than ethylene glycol and may be labeled as "non-toxic antifreeze". It is used as antifreeze where ethylene glycol would be inappropriate, such as in food-processing systems or in water pipes in homes where incidental ingestion may be possible. For example, the U.S. FDA allows propylene glycol to be added to a large number of ultra-processed foods, including ice cream, frozen custard, salad dressings, and baked goods, and it is commonly used as the main ingredient in the "e-liquid" used in electronic cigarettes.
Propylene glycol oxidizes to lactic acid.

Besides cooling system corrosion, biological fouling also occurs. Once bacterial slime starts to grow, the corrosion rate of the system increases. Maintenance of systems using glycol solution includes regular monitoring of freeze protection, pH, specific gravity, inhibitor level, color, and biological contamination.

Propylene glycol should be replaced when it turns a reddish color.  When an aqueous solution of propylene glycol in a cooling or heating system develops a reddish or black color, this indicates that iron in the system is corroding significantly. In the absence of inhibitors, propylene glycol can react with oxygen and metal ions, generating various compounds including organic acids (e.g., formic, oxalic, acetic). These acids accelerate the corrosion of metals in the system.

Other antifreezes
Propylene glycol methyl ether is used as an antifreeze in diesel engines.  It is more volatile than glycol.

Once used for automotive antifreeze, glycerol has the advantage of being non-toxic, withstands relatively high temperatures, and is noncorrosive.  It is not however used widely.
Glycerol was historically used as an antifreeze for automotive applications before being replaced by ethylene glycol.  Volkswagen introduced G13 (TL 774-G) antifreezes containing glycerol in 2008, marketed as better for the environment due to its low toxicity and reduced  emissions.  However, since 2018, they have moved on to G12EVO (TL 774-L) which no longer contains glycerol.

Glycerol is mandated for use as an antifreeze in many sprinkler systems.

Measuring the freeze point

Once antifreeze has been mixed with water and put into use, it periodically needs to be maintained. If engine coolant leaks, boils, or if the cooling system needs to be drained and refilled, the antifreeze's freeze protection will need to be considered. In other cases a vehicle may need to be operated in a colder environment, requiring more antifreeze and less water. Three methods are commonly employed to determine the freeze point of the solution by measuring the concentration:

 Specific gravity—(using a hydrometer test strip or some sort of floating indicator),
 Refractometer—which measures the refractive index of the antifreeze solution, and
 Test strips—specialized, disposable indicators made for this purpose.

Both specific gravity and refractive index are affected by temperature, although the former is affected much less catastrophically. Temperature compensation is nevertheless recommended for RI measurement. Propylene glycol solutions cannot be tested using specific gravity because of ambiguous results (40% and 100% solutions have the same specific gravity), although typical uses rarely exceed 60% concentration.

The boiling point can be similarly determined by a concentration given from one of the three methods. Datasheets for glycol/water coolant mixtures are commonly available from chemical vendors.

Corrosion inhibitors
Most commercial antifreeze formulations include corrosion inhibiting compounds, and a colored dye (commonly a fluorescent green, red, orange, yellow, or blue) to aid in identification. A 1:1 dilution with water is usually used, resulting in a freezing point of about , depending on the formulation. In warmer or colder areas, weaker or stronger dilutions are used, respectively, but a range of 40%/60% to 60%/40% is frequently specified to ensure corrosion protection, and 70%/30% for maximum freeze prevention down to .

Maintenance
In the absence of leaks, antifreeze chemicals such as ethylene glycol or propylene glycol may retain their basic properties indefinitely. By contrast, corrosion inhibitors are gradually used up, and must be replenished from time to time. Larger systems (such as HVAC systems) are often monitored by specialist firms which take responsibility for adding corrosion inhibitors and regulating coolant composition. For simplicity, most automotive manufacturers recommend periodic complete replacement of engine coolant, to simultaneously renew corrosion inhibitors and remove accumulated contaminants.

Traditional inhibitors
Traditionally, there were two major corrosion inhibitors used in vehicles: silicates and phosphates. American-made vehicles traditionally used both silicates and phosphates. European makes contain silicates and other inhibitors, but no phosphates. Japanese makes traditionally use phosphates and other inhibitors, but no silicates.

Organic acid technology
Most modern cars are built with organic acid technology (OAT) antifreeze (e.g., DEX-COOL), or with a hybrid organic acid technology (HOAT) formulation (e.g., Zerex G-05), both of which are claimed to have an extended service life of five years or .

DEX-COOL specifically has caused controversy. Litigation has linked it with intake manifold gasket failures in General Motors' (GM's) 3.1L and 3.4L engines, and with other failures in 3.8L and 4.3L engines. One of the anti-corrosion components presented as sodium or potassium 2-ethylhexanoate and ethylhexanoic acid is incompatible with nylon 6,6 and silicone rubber, and is a known plasticizer. Class action lawsuits were registered in several states of the US, and in Canada, to address some of these claims. The first of these to reach a decision was in Missouri, where a settlement was announced early in December 2007. Late in March 2008, GM agreed to compensate complainants in the remaining 49 states. GM (Motors Liquidation Company) filed for bankruptcy in 2009, which tied up the outstanding claims until a court determines who gets paid.

According to the DEX-COOL manufacturer, "mixing a 'green' [non-OAT] coolant with DEX-COOL reduces the batch's change interval to 2 years or 30,000 miles, but will otherwise cause no damage to the engine". DEX-COOL antifreeze uses two inhibitors: sebacate and 2-EHA (2-ethylhexanoic acid), the latter which works well with the hard water found in the United States, but is a plasticizer that can cause gaskets to leak.

According to internal GM documents, the ultimate culprit appears to be operating vehicles for long periods of time with low coolant levels. The low coolant is caused by pressure caps that fail in the open position. (The new caps and recovery bottles were introduced at the same time as DEX-COOL). This exposes hot engine components to air and vapors, causing corrosion and contamination of the coolant with iron oxide particles, which in turn can aggravate the pressure cap problem as contamination holds the caps open permanently.

Honda and Toyota's new extended life coolants use OAT with sebacate, but without the 2-EHA. Some added phosphates provide protection while the OAT builds up. Honda specifically excludes 2-EHA from its formulas.

Typically, OAT antifreeze contains an orange dye to differentiate it from the conventional glycol-based coolants (green or yellow), though some OAT products may contain a red or mauve dye. Some of the newer OAT coolants claim to be compatible with all types of OAT and glycol-based coolants; these are typically green or yellow in color.

Hybrid organic acid technology
HOAT coolants typically mix an OAT with a traditional inhibitor, usually silicates.

An example is Zerex G05, which is a low-silicate, phosphate free formula that includes the benzoate inhibitor.

A HOAT coolant can have a life expectancy as high as 10 years / 180,000 miles.

Phosphate hybrid organic acid technology
P-HOAT coolants mix phosphates with HOAT.  This technology is typically used in Asian makes and is often dyed red or blue.

Silicate hybrid organic acid technology
Si-OAT coolants mix silicates with HOAT.  This technology is typically used in European makes and is often dyed pink.

Additives

All automotive antifreeze formulations, including the newer organic acid (OAT antifreeze) formulations, are environmentally hazardous because of the blend of additives (around 5%), including lubricants, buffers, and corrosion inhibitors. Because the additives in antifreeze are proprietary, the safety data sheets (SDS) provided by the manufacturer list only those compounds which are considered to be significant safety hazards when used in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Common additives include sodium silicate, disodium phosphate, sodium molybdate, sodium borate, denatonium benzoate, and dextrin (hydroxyethyl starch).

Disodium fluorescein dye is added to conventional ethylene glycol formulas to visually distinguish leaked amounts from other vehicle fluids, and as a marker of type to distinguish it from incompatible types.  This dye fluoresces bright green when illuminated by blue or UV light from daylight or testing lamps.

Automotive antifreeze has a characteristic odor due to the additive tolyltriazole, a corrosion inhibitor. The unpleasant odor in industrial-use tolyltriazole comes from impurities in the product that are formed from the toluidine isomers (ortho-, meta-, and para-toluidine) and meta-diamino toluene which are side-products in the manufacture of tolyltriazole. These side-products are highly reactive and produce volatile aromatic amines which are responsible for the unpleasant odor.

See also
 Antifreeze protein
 Air cooling
 Cryoprotectant
 Heater core
 Ice melt
 Internal combustion engine cooling
 Radiator
 Water cooling
 Waterless coolant

References

Automotive chemicals
Automotive engine technologies
Coolants
Household chemicals

Antifreeze


City of London Freemen's School (CLFS) is a co-educational private school for day and boarding pupils, located at Ashtead Park in Surrey, England. It is the sister school of the City of London School and the City of London School for Girls, which are both independent single-sex schools located within the City of London itself. All three schools receive funding from the City's Cash. The school's head is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference.

The Good Schools Guide described the school as "A traditional academic and sporty school in a stunning setting with impressive facilities but not at all elitist – in fact quite the opposite."

History
The school was founded in 1854 by the Corporation of London, and was originally located in Brixton, London to educate orphans of the freemen of the city. It is still possible for such orphan children to be educated as "Foundationers" at the school with the costs of their education borne by the City of London Corporation.  The School is set in  of Ashtead Park in the heart of Surrey, having moved from Brixton to Ashtead in 1926.

The school celebrated its 150th Anniversary in 2004 with a year long series of events. The Anniversary started with a service of thanksgiving at St Paul's Cathedral attended by the whole school (now numbering over 800) and culminated in the school being represented with a float in the annual Lord Mayor's Show.

Houses

The School has three Houses: Gresham, Hale and Whittington (colours green, red and blue respectively). These are named after the influential Londoners and school benefactors Sir Thomas Gresham, Warren Stormes Hale and Richard Whittington. Pupils are assigned to a House as they start at the school and they stay in it throughout the school. Since it is now predominantly a day school and there are limited numbers of boarders, houses do not have the same connotations as in traditional independent schools being used solely for Inter-House Competitions and weekly House Assemblies. Siblings are assigned to the same house.

Boarding house

The boarding house is located in a new building located next to the new music block and the junior school.

Old Freemen's
Once pupils leave school they become part of Old Freemen's Association, which includes the Old Freemen's Rugby Football Club, Cricket Club and Hockey Club. There is also a Guild of Scholars of the City of London, which was formed to encourage former pupils from the three 'City Schools' to develop links with The City of London. Membership is open to all former pupils, staff, and retired staff, who must have obtained their 'Freedom of the City of London' but there is no subscription.

In addition any pupil aged 14–17, who is still at school may apply to become an Apprentice to a Freeman of the City at little cost and minimal commitment. They will then be entitled, at the age of 21, to apply for the Freedom of the City and membership of the Guild of Scholars. This Apprenticeship will be of particular interest to those who wish to pursue a career in the city. Annual events are organised to promote fellowship among the members, including an annual dinner and visits to places of interest.

Drama and music
The school organises a number of performances each year, and these have included Oliver!, Oklahoma!, Cabaret, Les Misérables and Into the Woods. The latest addition to this list is Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, which was performed in December 2009. The senior school musical for 2011 was "Evita". The latest production was of Road by Jim Cartwright.

Feeder schools
 Danes Hill School, Oxshott
 Homefield Preparatory School, Sutton
 Downsend School, Ashtead
 Kingswood House School, Epsom
 Milbourne Lodge School, Esher
 Aberdour School, Burgh Heath

Notable former pupils

Former pupils are known as Old Freemen. Some better known Old Freemen include:
 Rory Burns - Surrey and England cricketer
 Simon Cowell (presenter) - MBE, presenter of Animal Planet and Wildlife SOS
 Warwick Davis - actor, star of Willow, also appeared in the Star Wars and Harry Potter movie series
 Andrew Garfield - actor appeared in the films Red Riding, Boy A and Lions for Lambs as well as the plays Romeo & Juliet, The Laramie Project, Kes and the Channel 4 show Sugar Rush, The Social Network and The Amazing Spider-Man
 Andrew Goddard - gastroenterologist
 Ashley Mote - former UKIP MEP
 Anders Nielsen - badminton player
 Alexandra Rickham - Paralympic sailor
 Guy Spier - investor
 Joe Strummer-lead singer of punk rock band the Clash. Strummer's real name was John Mellor (died December 2002)
 Gavin Turk -  one of the Young British Artists
 Andy Ward - progressive rock drummer best known for playing in Camel in the 1970s

References

External links
Official website
Profile at the Good Schools Guide
Cityoflondon.gov.uk

Boarding schools in Surrey
Private schools in Surrey
History of the City of London
Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
Educational institutions established in 1854
1854 establishments in England
Freedom of the City

City of London Freemen's School


Sorhagenia lophyrella ist ein Schmetterling (Nachtfalter) aus der Familie der Chrysopeleiidae.

Merkmale
Die Falter erreichen eine Flügelspannweite von 8 bis 11 Millimeter. Sorhagenia lophyrella ähnelt Sorhagenia rhamniella, unterscheidet sich aber durch die etwas helleren Vorderflügel und die fahl grauen Hinterflügel. Eine sichere Unterscheidung ist nur durch eine Genitaluntersuchung möglich.

Bei den Männchen ist der Uncus schmal und mit einem Borstenbüschel versehen. Die Valven haben einen sehr großen Cucullus und sind etwas länger als die Ampulla. Die Ampulla ist keulenförmig und läuft spitz zu. Der Sacculus ist kurz und reicht bis zur Mitte des Cucullus. Er ist subapikal verdickt und verjüngt sich distal. Der Apex läuft spitz zu. Die Costa hat zwei kleine und spitze Fortsätze. Die Juxta ist dreieckig, das Vinculum ist breit V-förmig. Der Aedeagus hat einen kleinen Coecum penis.

Bei den Weibchen ist der distale Rand des Ostiums gerade. Die seitlichen Fortsätze der Genitalplatte sind lang und verjüngen sich allmählich zu einer fadenförmigen Spitze. Das Anrum weitet sich vor der Einmündung des Ductus bursae. Der Ductus bursae weitet sich in Richtung Corpus bursae, er ist stark runzlig und ungefähr doppelt so lang wie das Antrum. Das Corpus bursae ist oval und leicht gezähnt. Die Signa sind trichterförmig.

Verbreitung
Sorhagenia lophyrella ist in Europa, Kleinasien und im Kaukasus verbreitet.

Biologie
Die Raupen entwickeln sich an Purgier-Kreuzdorn (Rhamnus cathartica), Felsen-Kreuzdorn (Rhamnus saxatalis) und Zwerg-Kreuzdorn (Rhamnus pumila). Selten findet man die Raupen auch an Alpen-Kreuzdorn (Rhamnus alpina) und Stechpalmen-Kreuzdorn (Rhamnus alaternus). Die Raupen leben von Anfang April bis Ende Mai. Sie fressen zunächst an den Samenkapseln und später auch an den locker zusammengesponnenen endständigen Blättern. Die Raupen verpuppen sich in einem hellen Kokon am Boden. Die Art bildet eine Generation im Jahr. Die Falter fliegen von Mitte Mai bis Anfang August und können von den Wirtspflanzen geklopft werden.

Systematik
Es sind folgende Synonyme bekannt:

 Anacampsis lophyrella , 1846
 Sorhagenia tolli , 1962
 Sorhagenia rhamniella , 1839; Fehlbestimmung

Belege

Weblinks
 Lepiforum e. V. Erstbeschreibung, Taxonomie und Fotos
 Ian Kimber: Guide to the moths of Great Britain and Ireland Fotos (englisch)

Chrysopeleiidae
Chrysopeleiidae (Familie)

Sorhagenia lophyrella


SNK odnosno SNK Corporation                    ime je za japansku tvtku čija su glavni proizvodi videoigre i sklopovlje za videoigre.

SNK je kratica (Shin Nihon Kikaku prevedeno "Novi japanski projekt"), što je u stvari originalno ime za SNK. Početkom 1970-ih Eikichi Kawasaki, bivši boksač, upravljao je kafićem i građevinskom tvrtkom u Osaka. Godine 1973. kupio je tvrtku električnih strojeva u Kobe i osnovao Shin Nihon Kikaku. Kada je Eikichi Kawasaki primijetio brz rast koji se dogodio na tržištima videoigara s novcem, proširio je Shin Nihon Kikaku kako bi uključio razvoj i marketing samostalnih coin-op igara. 22. srpnja 1978. tvrtka je rekonstruirana kao Shin Nihon Kikaku Corporation u Higashiosaka.

Tvrtka je u početku imala nadimak "Shin Nihon Kikaku" u katakani, ali od 1981. promijenjen je u "SNK" uzimajući inicijale iz latinske abecede (Shin Nihon Kikaku). Engleska oznaka autorskih prava također je bila "SNK CORPORATION". Utemeljio se u Sunnyvale, u Kaliforniji, kako bi isporučio vlastitu marku igara na kovanice igraonicama u Sjevernoj Americi. SNK je odabrao John Rowe za voditelja svoje američje operacije.

U travnju 1986. ime tvrtke je promijenjeno u nadimak "SNK", ali je registrirano trgovačko ime moralo biti SNK Corporation. To je zato što Ministarstvo pravosuđa u to vrijeme nije odobrilo registraciju trgovačkog naziva koji koristi abecedu, kao za ADK, NMK, TDK i RKB Mainichi Broadcasting. U studenom 1986. američka podružnica SNK Corporation of America rođena je u Sunnyvaleu u Kaliforniji. Ova druga polovica osamdesetih definitivno je onaj u kojem SNK čini ime i mjesto pored tenora arkade. Igre su svaki put Ijepše i bolje osmišljene, razvojni programer Osaka koji napreduje pri velikoj brzini.

Tvrtka koju je osnovao Kawasaki 1978. godine radi sve do 30. listopada 2001. godine. Osnovan Playmore Corporation 1. kolovoza 2001. godine zbog financijskih
problema u koje je zapala originalna tvrtka SNK. Godine 2003. Playmore je preimenovan u SNK Playmore Corporation. Dana 25. travnja
2016. godine SNK izostavlja "Playmore" iz svog logotipa i ponovno
uzima prvobitni slogan "The Future Is Now", kao znak povratka na
bogatu povijest igranja.

U ožujku 1988. osoblje SNK preselilo se u zgradu u Suita, Osaka, Japan.

SNK je zatvorio sve Američke, Kanadske i Europske operacije 13. lipnja 2000. godine. Tvrtka je prodala prava na distribuciju u Sjevernoj Americi za MVS arkadne sustave i Neo Print foto sustave. Licencirao je sjevernoameričke lokalizacije nekih izdanja konzola vanjskim tvrtkama.

S niskim moralom i nejasnom budućnošću, mnogi su zaposlenici tvrtke napustili posao. Neki su se pridružili rivalima Capcom i Arc System Works, a drugi su krenuli dalje i osnovali developera Dimps. Kawasaki je, zajedno s još pet bivših rukovoditelja SNK-a, financirao formiranje BrezzaSofta, koji je nastavio razvijati Neo Geo igre kao što je The King of Fighters 2001.

S ukupnim dugom od oko 38 milijardi jena, SNK je odustao od dobrovoljne obnove i 2. travnja 2001. SNK je podnio za primjenu Zakona o civilnoj rehabilitaciji Okružnom sudu u Osaki, čime je bankrotirao. Zahtjev je prihvaćen, te su postupci revitalizacije jednom nastavljeni, a sjedište se vratilo u Suita City, prefektura Osaka. Okružni sud je 1. listopada iste godine odlučio ukinuti postupak građanske rehabilitacije i 30. listopada proglasio bankrot.

Prava za SNK-ovu proizvodnju igara i razvojna prava za njegove franšize prodane su nekoliko drugih tvrtki poput BrezzaSoft, koji je proizveo The King of Fighters 2001, južnokorejski Eolith, koji je proizveo The King of Fighters franšizu između 2001. i 2002., i Mega Enterprise, koji je proizveo Metal Slug 4. Godine 2001. obitelj Neo Geo je okončana. Nakratko je oživljen 11 godina kasnije s Neo Geo X.

Osnovano kao Playmore Corporation 1. kolovoza 2001. godine. Prvobitno je bila filijala bivšeg SNK. U početku je to bila pravna tvrtka specijalizirana za usluge upravljanja autorskim pravima i bilo bi netočno nazivati bivšu SNK njezinom tvrtkom prethodnikom. 30. listopada iste godine tvrtka je dobila pravo intelektualnog vlasništva tvrtke u nadmetanju tijekom stečaja bivšeg SNK.

Kako bi ponovno uspostavio svoju prisutnost na tržištu igara, Playmore je kupio BrezzaSoft i njegove bivše SNK programere, kao i japanskog Neo Geo programera Noise Factory. Sun Amusement, japanskog distributera komercijalnih igara, kupio je SNK kako bi tvrtki omogućio distribuciju arkadnih igara u Japanu. Međunarodni uredi su osnovani u Južnoj Koreji, Hong Kongu i Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama pod imenom SNK NeoGeo za komercijalnu, a kasnije i potrošačku distribuciju igara. U srpnja 2003., uz dopuštenje Eikichi Kawasaki, osnivača bivše tvrtke SNK, tvrtka je promijenila ime u SNK Playmore Corporation. Iste godine SNK je kupio ADK ubrzo nakon što je podnio zahtjev za stečaj. Prethodno je ADK bila tvrtka treće strane koja je bila usko povezana sa SNK od kasnih 1980-ih. Poslovanje SNK Playmorea u Japanu već je uvelike nalikovalo izvornoj tvrtki: SNK je zapošljavao mnoge zaposlenike koji su otišli nakon što je podnio stečaj i zauzeli njegovu bivšu zgradu.

Dana 1. prosinca 2016. godine, SNK Playmore Corporation službeno mijenja svoje korporativno ime u SNK Corporation.

SNK je poznata po obitelji igraćih konzoli i arkadnih sustava Neo Geo koje su izašle na tržište tijekom 1990.-tih, kao nastavak obitelji Neo Geo, SNK izdaje dlanovnu konzolu Neo Geo Pocket Color od 1999. godine. Zadnja konzola iz porodice Neo Geo izašla je brandinga.

Izvori

Japanske tvrtke za razvoj videoigara
Japanski proizvođači sklopovlja

SNK


Palats « Oukraïna » () est une station de la ligne Obolonsko-Teremkivska (M2) du métro de Kiev. Elle est située en limite des raïon de Petchersk et d'Holossiïv de la ville de Kiev en Ukraine.

Mise en service en 1984, elle est desservie par les rames de la ligne M2. Le service est arrêté ou perturbé depuis l'invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie en 2022.

Situation sur le réseau

Établie en souterrain, la station Palats « Oukraïna », est une station, de passage, de la Ligne Obolonsko-Teremkivska (M2) du métro de Kiev. Elle est située, entre la station Olimpiiska, en direction du terminus nord Heroïv Dnipra, et la station Lybidska, en direction du terminus sud, Teremky.

Elle dispose d'un quai central encadré par les deux voies de la ligne.

Histoire
La station Palats « Oukraïna », alors dénommée Krasnoarmeiskaïa, est mise en service le , lors de l'ouverture à l'exploitation du prolongement de Olimpiiska à Lybidska, nouveau terminus de la ligne.  Elle est réalisée par les architectes T. Tselikovskaïa, A. Krouchinski et N. Aliochkine.

Services aux voyageurs

Accès et accueil

Desserte
Palats « Oukraïna », est desservie par les rames de la ligne Obolonsko-Teremkivska (M2).

Intermodalité

À proximité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Métro de Kiev
 Ligne Obolonsko-Teremkivska (M2)

Liens externes
 .
 .

Station de la ligne M2 du métro de Kiev
Station de métro mise en service en 1984

Palats « Oukraïna » (métro de Kiev)


Armenfilm (în , cunoscută și sub numele de Hayfilm ) este un studio de film armean din Erevan . Studioul a fost înființat la 16 aprilie 1923 ca unitate de producție a Organizației de Stat pentru Cinematografia Sovietică, iar Daniel Dznuni a fost primul regizor.

Armenfilm a fost vândut de statul armean investitorilor privați în 2005, cu o lungă listă de condiții pentru a revitaliza echipamentele studioului și a produce conținut nou. A fost redenumit ca CS Film Studios, dar nu a reușit să producă filme noi. În 2015, guvernul Armeniei a decis că noua conducere nu a reușit să satisfacă condițiile vânzării și a început recuperarea activelor studioului.

Istorie

 1923 - Organizația "Goskino" a fost creată în cadrul Comisariatului Popular de Educație al Armeniei, precum și al asociației "Gosfotokino".
 1928 - Studioul a fost redenumit ca "Armenkino".
 1938 - Studioul a fost redenumit ca "Studio de film Yerevan".
 1957 - Studioul a fost redenumit ca "Armenfilm".
 1959 - Sectorul de știri și televiziune a fost realocat studioului independent de filme documentare Yerevan
 1966 - Studioul a fost numit după Hamo Beknazarian
 2005 - Compania de film a fost vândută companiei "Armenia Studios" (parte a holdingului CS MEDIA CITY, care la rândul său este deținută de membrii diasporei armene din Statele Unite - familiile Cafesjian și Sarkisian. Noul proprietar s-a angajat să investească 66 de milioane de dolari în studio timp de 10 ani.

Filme (selecție)
 1947 Dragoste și ură (Анаит), regia Hamo Beknazarian
 1956 Inima cântă (Сердце поёт), regia Grigori Melik-Avakian
 1972 Bărbații (Տղամարդիկ), regia Edmond Keosaian

Referințe

Studiouri de film
Fondări în 1923

Armenfilm


Babax este un gen de pasăre din familia Leiothrichidae. Trăiește în zonele montane din Asia meridională: China, India, Tíbet și Birmania.

Aceasta conține următoarele specii:
 Babax tibetan (Babax koslowi)
 Babax chinez (Babax lanceolatus)
 Babax gigant (Babax waddelli)

Referințe

Bibliografie
Collar, N. J. & Robson C. 2007. Family Timaliidae (Babblers)  pp. 70 – 291 in; del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Christie, D.A. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 12. Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

Legături externe

Genuri de păsări
Leiothrichidae

Babax


T සෛල යනු සුදු රුධිර සෛල වලට අයත් වසා සෛල වර්ගයකි. මෙමගින් සෛල මගින් ඇති කරන ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණය සදහා කැපීපෙනෙන කෘත්‍යයක් ඉටු කරයි. මේවා අනෙකුත් වසා සෛල වන B සෛල සහ NK සෛල වලින් වෙන්කොට හදුනාගත හැක්කේ එම සෛල වල මතුපිට පෘෂ්ටයෙහි T ෛසල ප්‍රතිග්‍රාහක යනුවෙන් විශේෂ ප්‍රතිග්‍රාහක පිහිටා ඇති බැවිනි. මෙම සෛල වලට T සෛල යැයි හැදින්වනුයේ ඒවා හටගන්නා තයිමසය (Thymus) නම් ග්‍රන්ථිය නමිනි.

ජීව විද්‍යාව

T සෛල


أَحْمَدْ بْنْ عَبْدِ اَللَّهْ اَلْمَرْوَزِي الملقب بِحَبَشِ اَلْحَاسِبِ أو اَلْحَكِيمِ حُبٌّ، عالم رياضيات وفلك وجغرافيا مسلم، عاش في عصر المأمون والمعتصم الخلفاء العباسيون إلا أن الكتب لم تشر إلى سيرة حياته وذكر ابن النديم في الفهرست انه بلغ المائة من العمر ينتسب إلى مدينة مرو في إقليم خراسان (تركمانستان حاليًا).

قضى عمره في مطالعة معظم علوم عصره إلا أنه تميز في مجالات علوم الفلك وآلات الرصد. يقال أنه أول من وضع جدول للظل وظل التمام.

كان أحمد بن عبد الله حبش حاسب المروزي عالم فلك فارسي  وعالم جغرافيا ورياضيات من مدينة مرو في خراسان، . ازدهر صيته في بغداد، وتوفي وهو في عمر مئة سنة بعد عام 869. كان يعمل في ظل حكم الخلفاء العباسيين المأمون والمعتصم.

عمل
كتب المروزي العديد من الملاحظات من عام 825 حتى عام 835، وجمع ثلاثة جداول فلكية: بقي الجدول الأول بالطريقة الهندوسية، وأُطلق على الثاني اسم الجدول المُختبر وهو الأكثر أهمية، فهو على الأرجح متطابق مع الجداول المأمونية أو العربية، أما بالنسبة للجدول الثالث والأصغر فيُطلق عليه جدول الشاه.

استند مروزي على الكسوف الشمسي الذي حصل في عام 829 في إعطاء أول مثال لتحديد الوقت وفقًا لحساب ارتفاع الشمس عن الأرض. اعتمد معظم علماء الفلك المسلمين هذه الطريقة لحساب الوقت.

كتاب الأجسام والمسافات
أجرى الحاسب ملاحظات مختلفة في مرصد الشامسية في بغداد وقدّر عددًا من القيم الجغرافية والفلكية. بدأ بتجميع نتائجه في كتاب الأجسام والمسافات وتضمنت بعض نتائجه ما يلي:

كوكب الأرض

 محيط الأرض: 20,160 ميل (32,444 كم).
 قطر الأرض: 6414,54 ميل (10323.201 كم).
 نصف قطر الأرض: 3207,275 ميل (5161.609 كم).

كوكب القمر

 قطر القمر: 1886,8 ميل (3036.5 كم).
 محيط القمر: 5927,025 ميل (9538.622 كم).
 نصف قطر أقرب مسافة للقمر: 215,208,9,9.
 نصف محيط أقرب مسافة للقمر: 28,45,25,43 ,676,368 ميل.
 نصف القطر من مسافة أبعد من القمر: 205,800,8,45 ميل.
 قطر أبعد مسافة للقمر: 411,600.216 ميل.
 محيط أبعد مسافة للقمر: 1,293,600.916 ميل (2,081,848.873 كم).

الشمس

 قطر الشمس: 35,280,1,30 ميل (56,777.6966 كم).
 محيط الشمس: 110,880,4,43 ميل (178,444.189 كم).
 قطر مدار الشمس: 7,761,605.5 ميل (12,491,093.2 كم).
 محيط مدار الشمس: 24,392,571.38 ميل (39,256,038 كم).
 درجة واحدة على مدار مدار الشمس: 67,700.05 ميل (108,952.67 كم).
 دقيقة واحدة على مدار مدار الشمس: 1129,283 ميل (1817,405 كم).

مؤلفاته
 مؤلف على مذهب الهند وعمل فيه الزيج على مذهب السندهند وخالف فيه الكثير من العلماء مثل الفرازي والخوارزمي
 الزيج الممتحن وهو أشهر أعماله وقد كتب البيروني عن هذا الزيج
 كتاب الابعاد والاجرام
 كتاب الخائم والمقاييس
 كتاب العمل في الاسطرلاب

انظر أيضاً
 خط زمني بعلوم وتكنولوجيا المسلمين

مراجع

أشخاص من مرو الشاهجان
إيرانيون في القرن 9
دارسون في الدولة العباسية
رياضياتيو القرن 9
رياضياتيون فرس في القرن 9
رياضياتيون فرس من العصور الوسطى
رياضياتيون من الدولة العباسية
رياضياتيون من العصر الذهبي للإسلام
علماء إيرانيون
علماء عملوا على تحديد القبلة
علماء فلك في العصور الإسلامية الوسطى
فلكيو القرن 9
فلكيون إيرانيون في القرن 9
فلكيون فرس
فلكيون مسلمون
فلكيون من الدولة العباسية
مئويون إيرانيون
مئويون رجال
مخترعون مسلمون
مسلمون في القرن 9
مواليد 766
مواليد في مرو الشاهجان
مواليد مرو
وفيات 870
وفيات 874
وفيات في بغداد

حبش الحاسب


Congo Francez (în  sau Moyen-Congo) a fost o colonie franceză care cuprindea teritorii din actualele state Republica Congo, Gabon și Republica Centrafricană.

Istorie
La 10 septembrie 1880, Franța a instituit un protectorat de-a lungul malului de nord al fluviului Congo, teritoriu populat pe atunci de către tribul Bateke. Denumirea oficială "Congo Francez" și statutul de colonie au fost stabilite la 30 noiembrie 1882 și confirmate la Conferința de la Berlin din 1884-85. Frontierele acestei colonii cu Cabinda, Camerun și Congo Belgian au fost stabilite în următorul deceniu prin tratate. Planul de dezvoltare a coloniei prevedea acordarea de concesiuni masive unui număr de treizeci de companii franceze. Acestora le-au fost acordate suprafețe mari de teren pentru dezvoltarea ulterioară, care s-a limitat însă doar la exploatarea cherestelei, cauciucului și fildeșului.

Congo Francez a fost, uneori, cunoscut și sub numele de Gabon și Congo. În 1903 a fost unit cu Gabon, colonia fiind redenumită în mod oficial Congo de Mijloc (). Apoi, în 1910, colonia a fost înglobată în Africa Ecuatorială Franceză, într-o încercare de a emula succesul relativ al Africii Occidentale Franceze.

Lista comisarilor generali
Colonia a fost administrată, succesiv, de patru "comisari generali", înainte de a fi înglobată în Africa Ecuatorială Franceză:
  (1883-1897)
 Louis Albert Grodet (1897–1898)
 Félix de Lamothe (1898–1901)
  (1901–1903)

Note

Legături externe

Le Congo Brazzaville

Vezi și
 Imperiul colonial francez
 Africa Ecuatorială Franceză
 Congo Belgian

Foste colonii franceze
Foste state din Africa
Imperiul colonial francez

Congo Francez


Les Lekwungen ( en lekwungen), aussi appelés Songhish ou Songhees, sont un peuple amérindien salish côtier du sud-ouest de la Colombie-Britannique, dans le sud de l'île de Vancouver.

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 Lekwungen (langue)

Liens externes

  Songhees Nation

Première nation en Colombie-Britannique

Lekwungen


Mother Jones (abbreviated MoJo) is a nonprofit American progressive magazine that focuses on news, commentary, and investigative journalism on topics including politics, environment, human rights, health and culture. Clara Jeffery serves as editor-in-chief of the magazine. Monika Bauerlein has been the CEO since 2015. Mother Jones is published by the Foundation for National Progress, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit.

The magazine was named after Mary Harris Jones, known as Mother Jones, an Irish-American trade union activist, socialist advocate, and ardent opponent of child labor.

History
For the first five years after its inception in 1976, Mother Jones operated with an editorial board, and members of the board took turns serving as managing editor for one-year terms. People who served on the editorial team during those years included Adam Hochschild, Paul Jacobs, Richard Parker, Deborah Johnson, Jeffrey Bruce Klein, Mark Dowie, Amanda Spake, Zina Klapper, and Deirdre English. According to Hochschild, Parker, "who worked as both editor and publisher, saw to it that Mother Jones took the best of what could be learned from the world of commercial publishing."

Russ Rymer was named editor-in-chief in early 2005, and under his tenure the magazine published more essays and extensive packages of articles on domestic violence (July/August 2005), and the role of religion in politics (December 2005).

In August 2006, Monika Bauerlein and Clara Jeffery were promoted from within to become co-editors of the magazine. Bauerlein and Jeffery, who had served as interim editors between Cohn and Rymer, were also chiefly responsible for some of the biggest successes of the magazine in the past several years, including a package on ExxonMobil's funding of climate change "deniers" (May/June 2005) that was nominated for a National Magazine Award for Public Interest reporting; a package on the rapid decline in the health of the ocean (March/April 2006), and the magazine's massive Iraq War Timeline interactive database.

As the magazine's first post-baby boomer editors, Bauerlein and Jeffery used a new investigative team of senior and young reporters to increase original reporting, web-based database tools, and blog commentary on MotherJones.com. The cover of their first issue (November 2006) asked: "Evolve or Die: Can humans get past denial and deal with global warming?" In 2015, Bauerlein became CEO and Jeffery became sole editor in chief.

David Corn, former Washington editor for The Nation, became bureau chief of the magazine's newly established D.C. bureau in 2007. Other D.C. staff have included Washington Monthly contributing editor Stephanie Mencimer, former Village Voice correspondent James Ridgeway, and Adam Serwer from The American Prospect.

Laurene Powell Jobs has donated to Mother Jones by way of her LLC, Emerson Collective.

Awards
Mother Jones has been a finalist for 31 National Magazine Awards, winning seven times (including three times for General Excellence in 2001, 2008 and 2010).

The Park Center for Independent Media named Mother Jones the winner of the fifth annual Izzy Award in April 2013, for "special achievement in independent media," for its 2012 reporting, including its analysis of gun violence in the United States, coverage of dark money funding of candidates, and release of a video of Mitt Romney stating that 47 percent of the people of the United States see themselves as victims and are dependent on the government.

In August 2013, Mother Jones co-editors Monika Bauerlein and Clara Jeffery won the PEN/Nora Magid Award for Magazine Editing. Also in 2010, Mother Jones won the Online News Association Award for Online Topical Reporting, and in 2011 won the Utne Reader Independent Press Award for General Excellence.

In 2017, Mother Jones won the Magazine of the Year award from the American Society of Magazine Editors.

MotherJones.com
In addition to stories from the print magazine, MotherJones.com offers original reported content seven days a week. During the 2008 presidential election campaign, MotherJones.com journalist David Corn was the first to report John McCain's statement that it "would be fine with [him]" if the United States military were stay in Iraq for "maybe a hundred years"—that what should be assessed is not their simple presence (American troops are uncontroversially stationed in South Korea, Japan, Europe, Bosnia, and many other countries as facets of America's multilateralism), but how many casualties are being suffered. Also in 2008, MotherJones.com was the first outlet to report on Beckett Brown International, a security firm that spied on environmental groups for corporations.

Winner of the 2005 and 2006 "People's Choice" Webby Award for politics, MotherJones.com has provided extensive coverage of both Gulf wars, presidential election campaigns, and other key events of the last decade. Mother Jones began posting its magazine content on the Internet in November 1993, the first general interest magazine in the country to do so. In the March/April 1996 issue, the magazine published the first Mother Jones 400, a listing of the largest individual donors to federal political campaigns. The print magazine listed the 400 donors in order with thumbnail profiles and the amount they contributed. MotherJones.com (then known as the MoJo Wire) listed the donors in a searchable database.

In the 2006 election, MotherJones.com was the first to break stories on the use of robocalling, a story that TPM Muckraker and The New York Times picked up. The Iraq War Timeline interactive database, a continually updated interactive online project, was nominated for a National Magazine Award in 2006.

Controversies
Throughout its circulation, Mother Jones magazine has been the subject of criticism regarding the editorial position of the staff, exploitation of interns, misinterpreting data about homeless people, and promotion of values that are perceived to be inconsistent with those of the magazine's namesake, Mother Jones.

Michael Moore, who had owned and published the Flint, Michigan-based Michigan Voice for ten years, followed English and edited Mother Jones for several months, until he was fired for disputed reasons. Matt Labash of The Weekly Standard reported this was for refusing to print an article that was critical of the Sandinista human rights record in Nicaragua—a view supported by The Nation columnist Alexander Cockburn, but denied by Hochschild and others at the magazine. Moore believes that he was fired because of his defiant reaction to the publisher's refusal to allow him to cover a story on the GM plant closings in Flint. Moore also felt that he did not have a chance to shape the magazine, and that many of the articles that were printed during his time as editor were articles that had already been commissioned by Deirdre English. After being fired in 1986, Moore sued Mother Jones for $2 million for wrongful termination, but settled with the magazine's insurance company for $58,000—$8000 more than the initial offering.

In December 2013, Mother Jones was criticized for its labor practices regarding the employment of interns, as part of the Ben Bagdikian Fellowship Program. The program allowed college students to enroll as "fellows" who would receive a monthly stipend of $1,000 while working for the magazine in San Francisco. Writer Charles Davis of Vice criticized this practice as exploitative noting that "a fellow [working] at Mother Jones earns less than $6 an hour in a state, California, that just decided to raise the minimum wage to $10." Following the publication of the article, Mother Jones announced that it would reform its budget to provide fellows with equivalent to California's minimum wage. According to Davis, a former intern alleged that they were advised by the company's human resources department to register for food stamps.

The magazine was subject of controversy regarding an October 2016 article about white supremacist figure Richard B. Spencer titled, "Meet the Dapper White Nationalist Riding the Trump Wave", which was interpreted as presenting Spencer in a positive light in contrast to his promotion of violent, racialist views. In response to the controversy, Mother Jones deleted a tweet promoting the article, in addition to removing the word "dapper" from the title of the article. The 2017 video game Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus featured a newspaper article entitled "Meet The Dapper Young KKK Leader With A Message Of Hope". Video game website Kotaku said the addition was "clearly a shot at Mother Jones and any other media outlet who decides to start getting cutesy about white supremacy". In 2022, journalist and media critic Jesse Singal defended the story as a valuable example of investigative journalism and characterized its critics as misinformed, writing that "it's almost impossible to imagine any reasonable reader confusing it for a puff piece." Singal cited the social media response to the article as an example of what he saw as an increasing problem of slander against journalists, concluding that "the Twitter gauntlet consistently destroys good journalism."

In August 2017 journalist and Mother Jones contributor Glenn Greenwald criticized an article published by the magazine titled "Are People Disgusted By the Homeless?" by Kevin Drum, which Greenwald asserts uses dehumanizing stereotypes of homeless people. Kevin Drum would again be a subject of controversy in July 2019, when Naomi Lachance of Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting criticized Drum's handling of the Wayfair Walkout in a blog post titled "I Don't Understand the Wayfair Walkout". The Wayfair Walkout was a planned protest action taken by workers and employees of the furniture company to express their opposition to the companies contracting with ICE and other government agencies involved in detainment of suspected undocumented immigrants. In response to news of the walkout, Drum wrote, "But isn't our whole complaint that these kids are being treated badly? Shouldn't we want companies to sell the government toothpaste and soap and beds and so forth? What am I missing here?" In response to these comments, Lachance wrote "In a cruel and violent world, full of exponentially increasing climate change, natural disasters, food shortages and wars, people cross borders in search of a place where they have a sliver of a chance to survive. That determination for life should be celebrated, not criminalized. Drum has an attitude toward immigrants that is xenophobic and deeply embarrassing for Mother Jones."

In late 2017, journalist and columnist David Corn was accused of workplace sexual harassment by former staffers who alleged the columnist of engaging "...in inappropriate workplace behavior, including unwanted touching and rape jokes". These allegations were published in numerous newspapers and magazines, including The Daily Beast and Politico. Mother Jones conducted an internal investigation of the accusations, concluding that there was no evidence of misconduct.

References

External links

  – Archives dating back to 1996

1976 establishments in California
Alternative magazines
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1976
Magazines published in San Francisco
Modern liberal magazines published in the United States
News magazines published in the United States
Progressivism in the United States
Nonprofit newspapers

Mother Jones (magazine)


Maya Antić (* 9. Mai 1986 in Kassel) ist eine deutsche Schauspielerin und Eiskunstläuferin.

Leben
Bereits im Kindesalter konnte Antić diverse nationale Wettkämpfe im Eiskunstlauf für sich entscheiden. Sie wirkte auch in verschiedenen Eiskunstlaufshows mit. Ein schwerer Autounfall, den sie im Alter von 14 Jahren erlitt, zwang sie dazu, ihre Eislaufkarriere nicht weiter zu verfolgen. Nachdem Rehabilitationsmaßnahmen zu einer vollständigen Genesung führten, schloss sie die Highschool ab. Von 2004 bis 2007 nahm Antic vermehrt privaten Gesangs- und Schauspielunterricht bei diversen Lehrern in Kassel, Weinheim und Mannheim sowie später bei Bradley Coopers Schauspielcoach Elizabeth Kemp in New York City.

Ab 2005 widmete Antić sich erneut dem Eiskunstlauf und beendete die Saison mit einem zweiten Platz bei den Hessischen Landesmeisterschaften. Letztendlich gab sie aber ihrer Schauspielarbeit den Vorrang.

Ab 2007 absolvierte Antić eine Ausbildung an der Filmschauspielschule "Studio of Young Artists" in Hamburg, die sie 2008 erfolgreich abschloss. Danach stand sie in der Hauptrolle für den Film Grenzgänger vor der Kamera, der im Winter 2008 seine Premiere in Hamburg feierte. Ihren ersten Bühnenauftritt hatte die junge Schauspielerin in dem Stück Krankheit der Jugend des Dramatikers Ferdinand Bruckner am Monsun-Theater in Hamburg. Sie spielte die Hauptrolle der Marie.

In den darauffolgenden Jahren lebte Antić überwiegend in ihrer zweiten Wahlheimat Los Angeles und besuchte dort von 2009 bis 2010 die "Stella Adler Academy of Acting". Seit 2011 widmet sie sich wieder vermehrt dem Eiskunstlaufen und tritt in Eisshows auf. Sie ist außerdem im Besitz einer Trainer-C Lizenz im Eiskunstlauf.

Neben der Schauspielerei arbeitet sie auch erfolgreich als Werbe- und Fotomodell und gründete im Januar 2015 ihren eigenen Fashion, Beauty, Lifestyle & Travel Blog. Antić lebt in Berlin und Los Angeles.

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 2006: Rebus (Kurzfilm), Regie: Patrick Gölz
 2008: Grenzgänger (Kino) Maja Von Seebeck (Hauptcast), Regie: Timo Pierre Rositzki
 2008: Chewing Gum (Kurzfilm), Regie: Felicitas Korn
 2009: Im Vielleicht und Hier (Kurzfilm), Regie: Benjamin Nowack
 2010: Entourage (Fernsehserie), Regie: Kevin Connolly HBO
 2013: Silhouette (Mood Trailer), Eiskunstläuferin (Hauptcast), Regie: Timo Pierre Rositzki
 2015: The little women who wasn't there (Kurzfilm), Elizabeth Banks (Hauptcast), Regie: Maurizio Di Meo

Theater
 2007:	Krankheit der Jugend (Monsun-Theater Hamburg)

Weblinks

 Maya Antić Homepage

 Maya Antić bei vimeo.com

Einzelnachweise

Filmschauspieler
Theaterschauspieler
Deutscher
Geboren 1986
Frau

Maya Antic


ජී. ඩී. එල්. පෙරේරා (ඉංග්‍රීසි: Gonaduwahandunge Don Lakshman Perera or G. D. L. Perera) යනු  ප්‍රවීන චිත්‍රපට අධ්‍යක්ෂකවරයෙකි.

ජී. ඩී. එල්. පෙරේරා  කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසුවෙකි.

ආශ්‍රිත
  ජී. ඩී. එල්. පෙරේරාගේ ඉංග්‍රීසි විකිපීඩියා පිටුව

 කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසු කලා කරුවන්

 Man of 'a thousand thoughts' G D L Perera's creations on show at Punchi Theatre in October

චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ආදි නාලන්දියයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ

ජී. ඩී. එල්. පෙරේරා


Svijet

Zgrade i druge građevine

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Zgrade i druge građevine

 Pravoslavna crkva Prijenosa relikvija sv. Nikole u Pačetinu

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Arhitektura u 1752.


Den capitolinske ulvinde (Italiensk: Lupa Capitolina) er en bronzeskulptur af en hunulv, som to menneskespædbørn dier fra, inspireret af legenden om Roms grundlæggelse. Den capitolinske ulv er siden 1471 blevet opbevaret i Musei Capitolini i Rom.

Der er usikkerhed om skulpturens alder og oprindelse. Det mentes længe at den var et etruskisk værk fra 5. århundrede f.Kr., hvor tvillingerne blev tilføjet i slutningen af det 15. århundrede e.Kr. af skulptøren Antonio Pollaiolo. Kulstof 14- termoluminescensdatering har dog placeret skulpturens oprindelse mellem 1021 og 1153.

Referencer

Yderligere læsning
  (X-ray diffractometry, thermal analyses, chemistry and thin sections identify the casting site in the lower Tiber valley.)
  (This paper initiated modern research into the sculpture's history.)

Eksterne henvisninger

Skulpturer
Romerriget

Den capitolinske ulvinde


Muntele Baba (în ), sau după cum mai este cunoscut după numele celui mai înalt vârf, Pelister sau Peristeri. Vârful Pelister (sau Peristeri) (2601 metri) supraveghează orașul Bitola. Muntele Baba este al treilea cel mai înalt munte din Republica Macedonia. Alte vârfuri în afară de Pelister sunt Dva Groba (2514 metri), Veternica (2420 m), Muza (2350 metri), Rzana (2334 m), Shiroka (2218 metri), Kozji Kamen (2199 m), Griva (2198 m) și Golema Chuka (2188 m) în Republica Macedonia, și Belavoda (2.179 metri), Kirko (2.155 de metri). Masivul Baba împarte râurile din regiune, astfel încât acestea fie curg spre Marea Adriatică, fie spre Marea Egee.

Flora Parcului Național Pelister include pinul cu cinci-ace (Pinus peuce) - o specie unică de vârstă terțiară fiind prezent doar în câțiva munți în Peninsula Balcanică. Fauna din zonă include: urși, căprioare, lupi, capre negre, cerbi, mistreți sălbatici, iepuri, mai multe specii de vulturi, potârnichi, stăncuțe și păstrăvul din Pelagonia Macedoneană.

Pelister este cel mai vechi și al doilea cel mai mare parc național din Republica Macedonia după Parcul Național Mavrovo. Aceasta este una dintre principalele zone turistice din țară, fiind o bine-cunoscută stațiune de schi, împreună cu Ohrida, Prespa, Dojran, Popova Šapka, și Crușova.

De pe Pelister se pot vedea valea Pelagonia, Lacul Prespa, Nidže, Galičica, Jakupica, și orașul Bitola. Pelister este unul dintre cei mai sudici munți din Balcani care are un caracter alpin.

Pelister este cunoscut pentru cele două lacuri de munte care sunt numite Ochii Pelister-ului. Lacul Mare este situat la o altitudine de 2.218 de metri deasupra nivelului mării, în timp ce Lacul Mic este la 2.180 de deasupra nivelului mării. Pelister este sursa mai multor râuri. Clima în Parcul Național Pelister este diversă. Pe vârfuri există zăpadă chiar și în iulie.

Pe muntele Pelister, există un emițător TV folosind un catarg de oțel ancorat de niște zăbrele ca antenă a turnului.

Referințe

Legături externe
 "Pelister Vrh, Macedonia" pe Peakbagger

Munți

Muntele Baba (Macedonia)


Kepler-452b er en exoplanet som er i kredsløb rundt om en hovedseriestjerne med spektrum G2V, ligesom vor Sol ved navn Kepler-452. Exoplaneten blev fundet af Kepler-rumteleskopet. Kepler-452 er lidt større end Solen mht. masse og dermed også lysstyrke. Opdagelsen af planeten blev offentliggjort af NASA den 23. juli 2015, og er den første som har en størrelse på niveau med Jorden og som er i kredsløb indenfor den beboelige zone af en stjerne meget ligesom Solen. Det er den anden mest Jordlignende planet til dato, efter Kepler-438b.

Stjernen er ca. 1.400 lysår (430 parsec) væk fra Solsystemet; med en hastighed som New Horizons, det hurtigste rumfartøj endnu lavet af mennesket, ville det tage omkring 25,8 millioner år for at komme der til fra Jorden.

Egenskaber

Et år på 452b tager 385 jordlige dage. Den er ældre og større end Jorden, men ligger inden for den konservative beboelige zone af sin stjerne.
Faktisk er året 5% længere end her på Jorden, og det samme gælder afstanden fra Kepler-452b til dens stjerne.

Den har en sandsynlig en masse fem gange større end Jordens, og overfladens tyngdekraft er dobbelt så høj som Jordens, men man skal dog huske at beregninger af masse for exoplaneter kun er grove vurderinger. Det er mest sandsynligt en stor "super-jord" med mange aktive vulkaner på grund af dens højere masse og tæthed. Skyerne på planeten ville være tykke og disede og sandsynligvis dække meget mere af overfladen som set fra rummet end Jorden. Kepler-452 ville næsten se identisk ud med vores egen sol som set fra overfladen.

(Exo-) Planerters egenskabet er baseret på disse 7 kriterier:
 Earth Similarity Index (ESI)—Ligheden med Jorden på en skala fra 0 til 1, hvor 1 er den mest jordlige. ESI bedømmes vha. planetens radius, massefylde, undvigelseshastighed, og temperatur. Kepler-452bs betegnelse: 0,83 (Jordens: 1).

 Standard Primary Habitability (SPH)—Hvorvidt planeten er passende for vegetation (altså primære producenter) på en skala fra 0 til 1, hvor 1 er den mest beregnede for plantevækst. SPH afhænger af temperatur (og den relative luftfugtighed hvis man kender til den). Kepler-452bs betegnelse: vides endnu ikke.

 Habitable Zone Distance (HZD)—Afstand fra centeret af stjernens beboelige, bedømt så −1 repræsentere den indre rande for zonen, mens +1 repræsentere den ydre rande. HZD afhænger af luminositet og temperatur og størrelsen af planetens kredsløb. Bemærk at selvom at mange planeter har en HZD værdi tæt på Venus' (−0.93), ligesom Kepler-438b, er HZD ikke vant til at kun bestemme om en har lidt en løbsk drivhuseffekt eller ikke, og derfor bliver Kepler-458b antaget som værende en mesoplanet i stedet for en hypertermisk planet. Kepler-452bs betegnelse: -0,49 (Jordens: -0,50).

 Habitable Zone Composition (HZC)—Mål af planetens hovedsagelige sammensætning, hvor værdier tæt på nul sandsynligvis er jern-klippe-vand-blandinger. Værdier under −1 repræsentere planeter som hovedsageligt er sammensat af jern, mens værdier større end +1 repræsentere planeter som hovedsageligt består af gas. HZC afhænger af planetens masse og radius. Kepler-452bs betegnelse: vides endnu ikke.

 Habitable Zone Atmosphere (HZA)—Planetens potentiale for at opholde liv, hvor værdier på under −1 repræsentere planeter som ofte har lidt eller ingen atmosfære, og værdier over +1 repræsenterer planeter med en atmosfære som hovedsageligt består af hydrogen (f.eks. gaskæmper). Værdier mellem −1 og +1 repræsentere en planet som hovedsageligt har atmosfære som kan opholde liv, men 0 er dog ikke helt optimalt. HZA afhænger af planetens masse, radius, størrelsen, og stjernens luminositet. Kepler-452bs betegnelse: vides endnu ikke.

 Planetary Class (pClass)—Klassificerer planeter baseret på dens termiske zoner (hot, varm eller kold, hvor varm er i den beboelige zone) og masse (asteroide, Mercurian, underjordisk, Terran, superterran, neptunske og Jupiter). Kepler-452bs betegnelse: varm superterran.

 Habitable Class (hClass)—Klassificerer beboelige planeter baseret på temperatur: hypopsychroplaneter (hP) = meget koldt (< −50 °C); psychroplaneter (P) = koldt; mesoplaneter (M) = mediumtemperaturer (0–50 °C; ikke at forveksle med den anden definition af mesoplanets); thermoplanets (T) = hot; hyperthermoplanets (hT) = meget hot (> 100 °C). Mesoplaneter ville være ideelt for komplekse organismer, hvor hP og hT ville kun understøtte ekstremofile organismer. Ikke-beboelige planeter bliver givet betegnelsen 'NH'. Kepler-452bs betegnelse: mesoplanet (M).

Gallery

Referencer

Se også

Eksterne henvisninger
 NASA – Kepler Mission
 NASA – Kepler Discoveries – Summary Table
 Habitable Exolanets Catalog ved UPR-Arecibo

Planeter
Exoplaneter
Klippeplaneter
Exoplaneter fundet af Kepler-rumteleskopet

Kepler-452b


Yoshiaki Komai (født 6. juni 1992) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Kyoto Sanga FC, Urawa Reds og Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Yoshiaki Komai


المعصومون لقب يُطلَق على الأربعة عشر معصوم في عقيدة الشيعة، وهم رسول الله محمد وابنته فاطمة الزهراء والأئمة الاثنا عشر من نسل الإمام الأول علي بن أبي طالب وفاطمة.
حيث يعتقد الشيعة بأنهم مخولون من الله بنشر تعاليم الإسلام لذلك عصمهم الله من الذنوب والمعاصي، صغائرها وكبائرها، فلا يمكن أن يرتكبوا شيئاً من ذلك.

العصمة

يعتقد جميع المسلمين بعصمة الأنبياء، بمعنى أن الله حفظ أنبيائه ورسله من الوقوع في الذنوب والمعاصي، وارتكاب المنكرات والمحرمات. لكن العصمة لدی المسلمين الشيعة لها مفهوم اعم واشمل، وهي من أهم الأمور في العقائد الدينية عندهم. حيث انهم لايعتقدون بعصمة الانبياء فحسب بل يعتقدون بعصمة بنت الرسول فاطمة الزهراء والأئمة الإثنا عشر من جميع المعاصي، صغيرها وكبيرها، طيلة حياتهم، فهم لايرتكبون الذنوب حتى سهوا ونسيانا.

يرى الشيعة انّ الإمامة هي استمرار لوظيفة النبوّة والرسالة. والإمام يملأ جميع الفراغات الحاصلة جرّاء رحلة النبيّ، ما عدا تلقي الوحي والإتيان بالشريعة، فالإمام هو مفترض الطاعة بالنص السماوي وهو المرجع الرئيسي للمسلمين بعد وفاة النبي. وإنّ العقل يقتضي أن يكون معصومًا في حفظ شريعة رسول الله. فلذلك عصم الله الائمة من الخطأ والهوى والميول العاطفية، للوثوق الناس بقولهم، والاطمئنان بصحّة كلامهم، فإذا جاز عليهم الخطأ والنسيان والمعصية والخلاف، لم يحصل الوثوق بأفعالهم وأقوالهم، وضعفت ثقة الناس بهم، فتنتفي الغاية من نصبهم التي هي هداية الأُمّة إلى الطريق الصواب.

لذلك اعتبر الشيعة صفة العصمة اساسية في الائمة كما هي اساسية في النبي محمد. وقد اطلقوا عنوان المعصومون على النبي محمد وبنته فاطمة الزهراء والأئمة الإثنا عشر.

أسماء المعصومين

شجرة النسب

مراجع

أهل البيت
العلوية الأناضولية
إمامة
بنو هاشم
تاريخ إسلامي
قوائم المسلمين
قوائم متعلقة بالإسلام
مصطلحات إسلامية
معتقدات شيعية
مقالات عن مجموعات أشخاص
مقالات عن مجموعة شخصيات ذكرت في القرآن
مواضيع خلافية متعلقة بالإسلام

المعصومون


Maskareni ili Maskarenski otoci (francuski Les Mascareignes, engleski Mascarene Islands) je otočna skupina u Indijskom oceanu. Smještena je istočno od Madagaskara, te teritorijalno pripadaju državi Mauricijus i francuskom departmanu Réunion. Nazvana je prema portugalskom pomorcu Pedru Mascarenhasu koji ih je prvi put posjetio u travnju 1512. godine. Otoci su vulkanskog podrijetla, pretežito brdoviti s najvišim vrhom od 3069 m na Réunionu.

Smještaj i obuhvat

Otočje se sastoji od tri veća otoka, Mauricijusa, Réuniona, i Rodriguesa te brojnih vulkanskih otočića, koraljnih grebena i atola u tropskom pojasu jugozapadnog Indijskog oceana, smještenih između 700 i 1500 km istočno od Madagaskara. Na otocima prevladavaju oceanska i tropska klima.

Flora i fauna

Zbog dugotrajne odvojenosti od kopna, otoke odlikuje velika bioraznolikost, te stotinjak endemskih vrsta. Također, danas se na otoku nalaze i mnoge vrste koje su donijeli Europljani nakon što su se naselili na otocima u 16. stoljeću. Zbog pretjeranog izlova i uvođenja novih životinjskih vrsta izumrlo je desetak vrsta ptica neletačica, od kojih je najpoznatija dodo. Do dolaska Europljana, jedini sisavci na otocima bili su pojedine vrste šišmiša.

Stanovništvo i gospodarstvo

Danas na otocima živi oko 2 milijuna stanovnika, pretežito potomci britanskih, francuskih, afričkih i indijskih doseljenika. Uz ribarstvo, važne gospodarske grane na otoku su uzgoj šećerne trske, duhana, kokosivih palmi, ananasa i kukuruza.

Izvori

Otočja u Indijskom oceanu (Afrika)
Otoci u Mauricijusu
Zemljopis Réuniona
Francuski otoci u Indijskom oceanu (Afrika)

Maskareni


Santa Rosa de Lima puede referirse a:

Personaje
 Santa Rosa de Lima (1586-1617), santa peruana.

Toponimia
 Santa Rosa de Lima, municipio del departamento de Bolívar, Colombia.
 Santa Rosa de Lima, municipio del departamento de La Unión, El Salvador.
 Santa Rosa de Lima, municipio del departamento Santa Rosa, Guatemala.
 Santa Rosa de Lima, ciudad y distrito del departamento de Misiones, Paraguay.
 Santa Rosa de Lima, núcleo de población del municipio de Tortosa, España.

Santa Rosa de Lima (desambiguación)


بلدية فيلامايل ، هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة قصرش والتي تقع في منطقة إكستريمادورا، غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 682 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في قصرش
بلديات قصرش

فيلامايل


An Thrasya hitchcockii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Mary Agnes Chase. An Thrasya hitchcockii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Thrasya, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Thrasya

Thrasya hitchcockii


Nematocida est un genre de microsporidies. Ce sont des champignons pathogènes des nématodes, et notamment de l'animal modèle Caenorhabditis elegans.

Le genre n'est pas attribué à une famille pour le moment, mais les études phylogénétiques le placent près du genre Ovavesicula.

Liste des espèces
 Nematocida displodere
 Nematocida parisii

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Rozellomycota
Genre de champignons (nom scientifique)
Parasite d'animaux

Nematocida


Chondrilla može označavati:
 Chondrilla (Animalia) Schmidt, 1862, rod spužvi iz pordice Chondrillidae
 Chondrilla (Plantae) L., biljni rod iz porodice Asteraceae

Chondrilla


The year 1767 in science and technology involved some significant events.

Agriculture
 Arthur Young publishes The farmer's letters to the people of England, containing the sentiments of a practical husbandman ... to which is added, Sylvæ, or, Occasional tracts on husbandry and rural oeconomics.

Exploration
 June 17 – British Royal Navy Captain Samuel Wallis becomes the first European definitely to visit the island of Tahiti in the Pacific Ocean, during HMS Dolphins second circumnavigation.
 July 3 – Pitcairn Island in the Pacific Ocean is sighted from HMS Swallow (1766) by 15-year-old Midshipman Robert Pitcairn on a British Royal Navy expeditionary voyage commanded by Philip Carteret, the first definite European sighting.
 Autumn – North Carolina woodsman Daniel Boone goes through the Cumberland Gap and reaches Kentucky (in defiance of the Royal Proclamation of 1763). He discovers a rich hunting ground, contested by several Native American tribes.

Technology
 January 1 – First annual volume of The Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris, produced by British Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, gives navigators the means to find longitude at sea using tables of lunar distance.
 July 3 – First edition of Adresseavisen, Norway's oldest newspaper remaining in print, is published.
 Coldstream Bridge on the England/Scotland border, designed by John Smeaton, is opened, one of the first long (300 feet (90 m)) bridges with a flat deck.
 Horace-Bénédict de Saussure constructs the first known Western solar oven.
 Joseph Priestley discovers a method of producing carbonated water and publishes The History and Present State of Electricity.

Awards
 Copley Medal: John Ellis

Births
 March 6 – Davies Giddy, English promoter of science (died 1839)
 August 24 – Bernhard Meyer, German physician and ornithologist (died 1836)
 date unknown – Bewick Bridge, English mathematician (died 1833)

Deaths
 February 19 – François Boissier de Sauvages de Lacroix, French physician and botanist (born 1706)
 March 20 – Firmin Abauzit, French scientist (born 1679)
 date unknown – Marie Anne Victoire Pigeon, French mathematician (born 1724)

References

18th century in science
1760s in science

1767 in science


Kosmos 2293, ruski izviđački satelit iz programa Kosmos. Vrste je US-P (US-PM).
Lansiran je 2. studenoga 1994. godine u 1:04 s kozmodroma Bajkonura (Tjuratam) u Kazahstanu. Lansiran je u nisku orbitu oko planeta Zemlje raketom nosačem Ciklon-2 11K69. Orbita mu je bila 403 km u perigeju i 417 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija mu je bila 65,03°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 23336. COSPARova oznaka je 1994-072-A. Zemlju je obilazio u 92,76 minuta. Pri lansiranju bio je mase 3150 kg.

Deorbitirao je 13. svibnja 1996. godine.

Izvori
Heavens-above (engl.)
NASA (engl.)
Planet4589.org Tablični prikaz podataka o satelitima (engl.)

Vanjske poveznice
N2YO.com Search Satellite Database
Celes Trak SATCAT Format Documentation (engl.)

Sateliti Kosmos

Kosmos 2293


Katrine er en dansk kortfilm fra 2009 instrueret af Malik Thomas Spang Bruun.

Handling
Filmen er et kort, lille, poetisk forsøg på at fange luften mellem de talte ord.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Animationsfilm fra Danmark
Filmskolefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2009

Katrine (film)


La  distonia del músico es  un grupo especial de distonías ocupacionales que son desencadenadas por una actividad motora repetitiva, íntimamente relacionada con la actividad profesional o tarea específica que realiza el afectado, en este caso los músicos. Los músicos son una población especialmente vulnerable a este tipo de distonías de presentación focal desencadenada por actividades específicas, que se presentan como una pérdida coordinación y control motor voluntario de movimientos altamente entrenados en la interpretación musical.

Historia
Se estima que entre 0,5 a 1% de los músicos presentarían este problema; No obstante, esta varía significativamente dependiendo del instrumento ejecutado y las exigencias de interpretación (en especial solistas). Los instrumentistas más frecuentemente afectados son pianistas, guitarristas y violinistas. Sin embargo, si consideramos el universo de músicos por instrumento esto varía, siendo los violines proporcionalmente menos afectados. Con respecto a este punto, podría existir un sesgo, ya que la mayor parte de los violinistas se desempeña como parte de una orquesta, siendo los requerimientos de destreza en la ejecución diferentes a los de un solista.

Fisiopatología
Las bases fisiopatológicas de la distonía focal del músico aún no se conocen a cabalidad. Sin embargo, gracias al aporte de estudios neurofisiológicos y de neuroimágenes funcionales, existe creciente evidencia de alteraciones en el procesamiento de información sensorial, integración sensorio-motora, procesos corticales y subcorticales de inhibición, así como también de la influencia de estímulos sensitivos en la excitabilidad cortical asociados a esta patología.

Clínica
La distonía focal del músico se caracteriza por la aparición de contracción muscular involuntaria, que puede generar dolor y se asocia a pérdida del control motor en movimientos altamente entrenados, durante la ejecución musical en instrumentistas. Es de aparición gradual y progresiva. El examen neurológico tradicional en estos pacientes es usualmente normal, aunque pueden desarrollarse posturas distónicas sutiles espontáneamente o con los movimientos. Las distonía ocupacional suele permanecer focal y no se generaliza.

La edad de inicio promedio se ubica en la cuarta década de la vida, pero existen casos de inicio antes. La distribución por tipo de instrumento, los instrumentos de teclado corresponden un tercio de los casos del total, otro tercio los vientistas (flauta, clarinete y oboe), y cerca de un 20% instrumentos de cuerda pulsada y el porcentaje restante los metales (trompeta, trombón y otros).

Con respecto a la forma de presentación, de acuerdo a un estudio retrospectivo realizado en España que incluyó 86 casos de distonía focal de la mano en músicos, el primer síntoma percibido por los músicos fue descrito como:
 descontrol de los movimientos manuales durante la ejecución,
 enlentecimiento digital,
 tensión o rigidez de la mano o brazo,
 debilidad de la mano,
 temblor digital,
 dolor en la región afectada,
 pérdida de la independencia de los dedos.

Véase también
 Distonía focal

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Enlace a Aránguiz R, Chana-Cuevas P, Alburquerque D, León M. Focal dystonia in musicians. Neurologia. 2011;26(1):45-52. .
 Reportaje de la Televisión española .
 Distonía del pianista previo a terapia .
 Distonía del pianista posterior a terapia .
 Asociación de Lucha Contra la Distonía España
 Tratamiento alternativo y complementario de distonías focales

Enfermedades neurológicas
Enfermedades ocupacionales

Distonía del músico


Maria Esther Marcell, conhecida artisticamente como Marina Marcel, foi uma bailarina, atriz e coreógrafa argentino-brasileira. Sua atuação no meio artístico ocorreu majoritariamente no Rio de Janeiro durante as décadas de 1950 e 1960, sobretudo no teatro de revista, que atraía público considerável naquele momento. Além da carreira teatral, atuou em diversos filmes do estilo chanchada, onde contracenou com figuras icônicas deste gênero como Grande Otelo, Ronald Golias e Ankito. Formada originalmente em ballet clássico, suas performances incorporavam diversos outros gêneros do ballet, demonstrando a versatilidade de suas habilidades artísticas, como jazz e sapateado.

Primeiros anos

Nascida em Buenos Aires, filha do imigrante espanhol Manuel Marcell, motorista de caminhão, e de Maria Ester Moreno de Marcell, dona de casa, vivenciou uma infância humilde nos conventillos portenhos. Ainda durante a infância, começou a dedicar-se à carreira artística como uma maneira de buscar garantir certa instrução e escapar do contexto de pobreza vivenciado pela comunidade espanhola de Buenos Aires.

Carreira

Marina Marcel iniciou suas atividades artísticas ainda criança, no Teatro Infantil Lavarden. Em 1946, aos 15 anos de idade, já fazia parte do chamado Corpo de Baile oficial do conhecido Teatro Colón, na posição de bailarina solista. Insatisfeita com os rumos do governo de Juan Perón em seu país de origem, Marina Marcel deixou a companhia oficial e ingressou no Ballet Alaria, tendo o mesmo excursionado para o Brasil no início da década de 1950. Esta viagem representou um turning point na carreira de Marina que, a partir daí, passou a ter interesse por aquele país até então desconhecido.

Logo foi convidada a trabalhar no Brasil como integrante da Companhia de Revistas Walter Pinto, propriedade do referido produtor artístico de renome, baseada no Teatro Recreio, na Praça Tiradentes, na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. Marina Marcel prontamente aceitou o convite, aliando as possibilidades de aperfeiçoamento profissional ao desejo de fixar residência no país. Sua primeira participação teatral no Rio de Janeiro foi o espetáculo Muié Macho Sim Sinhô (1950), estrelado por Virgínia Lane, Grande Otelo e Oscarito. No ano seguinte, regressou a Buenos Aires com o objetivo de recrutar bailarinas argentinas para integrarem a trupe artística de Walter Pinto, devido à escassez de profissionais qualificadas no Brasil.

De volta ao Brasil, Marina Marcel passou a exercer ao longo da década de 1950 cada vez mais destaque em diversas produções do teatro de revista da época. Como integrante da companhia de Walter Pinto, participou também dos espetáculos "É Fogo na Jaca"  e "Eu Quero Sassaricá". Em 1954 a atriz ingressou na companhia de Carlos Machado, estreando na peça "Satan Dirige o Espetáculo", a primeira de dezenas de participações em espetáculos do referido produtor.  Nesta fase, destaca-se a participação da bailarina em "Uma Noite no Rio", que após fazer sucesso no Rio de Janeiro e em São Paulo, excursionou para Nova York em 1956.

No final da década de 1950, Marina Marcel atuou em filmes do estilo chanchada, como em Massagista de Madame (1958, com Zé Trindade), A Grande Vedete (1958, com Dercy Gonçalves) e Um Candango na Belacap (lançado em 1961, com Ankito e Ronald Golias), manifestando a atriz preferência pela atividade cinematográfica em relação às restrições impostas pelo teatro de revista.

Em 1961, Marina Marcel afastou-se da carreira artística em virtude de seu casamento. Desta maneira, iniciou-se um hiato em sua atividade artística, que somente seria retomada na década de 1970.

No ano de 1970, a atriz retorna aos palcos em Promessas e Promessas, produzida por Victor Berbara, ao lado de artistas famosos como Irma Álvarez, Vilma Vernon, Mara Rúbia e Waldir Maia. No ano seguinte, Marina Marcel realiza uma excursão com o 1º Bailarino do Theatro Municipal do Rio de Janeiro, David Dupré, por diversos países na Europa e na África.

Em meados da década de 1970, Marina deixou de se apresentar diretamente nos palcos, passando a dedicar-se aos ofícios de coreógrafa e professora de ballet na cidade do Rio de Janeiro, tanto como professora particular, quanto como integrante da Academia de Ballet Leda Iuqui. Neste período, destaca-se na sua carreira a participação como coreógrafa e bailarinas nos musicais Boogie Rock (1974) e o Rio Amanheceu Cantando (1975), este último tendo em seu elenco com figuras como Elizeth Cardoso, Sidney Magal e Vera Manhães.

Marina Marcel faleceu aos 86 anos de idade, na cidade do Rio de Janeiro.

Vida pessoal

Marina Marcel casou-se nos anos 1960 com o banqueiro Silverio Ceglia, imigrante italiano proprietário do Banco Industrial Brasileiro, que a conheceu em uma de suas apresentações artísticas. Após a realização do matrimônio, Marcel afastou-se das atividades artísticas, conforme mencionado anteriormente. O divórcio ocorreu em 1973, após o qual manteve-se por toda vida uma relação de amizade próxima. Deixou dois netos, Camila e Daniel, filhos de sua filha Loretta.

Legado
Embora seja praticamente desconhecida pelo público dos dias atuais, Marina Marcel desempenhou um papel importante nos anos finais do teatro de revista brasileiro, ao longo da década de 1950. Suas performances arrancaram diversos elogios na imprensa da época, sendo a artista aclamada pela solidez de sua formação em ballet clássico, aliada à vivacidade de suas apresentações. Além disso, sua intensa beleza física era frequentemente destacada, fato que fez sua imagem ser estampada na capa de revistas de grande circulação daquele período, como o Cruzeiro, Manchete e O Mundo Ilustrado, assim como ser eleita pelo cronista Sérgio Porto, conhecido como Stanislaw Ponte Preta, uma das "certinhas do Lalau" em 1954.

Suas participações cinematográficas coincidem com o declínio da chanchada enquanto expressão majoritária do cinema brasileiro. A chanchada, definida como um estilo cinematográfico marcado pela leveza e pela presença de um humor mais ingênuo, começa a dar lugar a uma estética cinematográfica mais sóbria e politicamente engajada, cuja maior expressão é o Cinema Novo.

Teatro

Cinema

Referências

Marina Marcel