سيفيروس ألكسندر ماركوس أوريليوس سيفروس ألكسندر  آخر إمبراطور على رُومَا من   حكم روما بين عامي (222م-235م)، وهو ابن  وزوجته النبيلة السورية جوليا أفيتا ماميا ابنة جوليا ميسا، جلس على العرش في الرابعة عشرة من عمره خَلفا لسلفه وابن خالته إيل جبل الذي قتل هو وأمه جوليا سؤامياس على يد الحرس البريتوري (الإمبراطوري) وألقوا بهما في نهر التيبر. كان وابن خالته حفيدا جوليا ميسا الامرأة صاحبة التأثير والنفوذ القويين، والتي كانت قد هيأت الظروف المناسبة لحفيدها إيل جبل في اعتلاء عرش روما بدعم من . وكانت شائعة اغتيال ألكسندر السبب وراء اغتيال إيل جبل ووالدته جوليا سؤامياس.

تعتبر فترة حكمه والتي دامت حوالي 14 سنة أطول عهد لإمبراطور روماني منذ عهد الإمبراطور أنطونينوس بيوس. وكان ثاني أصغر إمبراطور على روما وأصغرهم كانغورديان الثالث.

الإنجازات المحلية

تحت تأثير والدته، فعل ألكسندر الكثير لتحسين أخلاق الناس وحالتهم كما عمل على تعزيز كرامة الدولة. وظّف ألكسندر فقهاء مشهورين للإشراف على إقامة العدل، مثل الفقيه الشهير أولبيان. كان مستشاروه رجالًا معروفين مثل المؤرخ والسيناتور كاسيوس ديو، ويُزعَم أنه أنشأ مجلسًا ضمّ 16 عضو في مجلس الشيوخ، ولكن هذا الادعاء مختَلَف عليه تاريخيًا. أنشأ ألكسندر مجلسًا بلديًا ضمّ 14 شخص ليساعد المحافظ في إدارة شؤون 14 مقاطعة في روما. استعاد ألكسندر حمامات نيرون في  عام 227 أو 229، ولذلك تُسمَّى أحيانًا باسم حمامات ألكسندر. في عهده، تضاءل الترف والإسراف المفرط في البلاط الإمبراطوري.

عند توليه منصبه، قلل نقاء فضة الديناريوس من 46.5٪ إلى 43٪، وانخفض الوزن الفعلي للفضة من 1.41 غرام إلى 1.30 غرام. ولكن في 229، أعاد قيمة الديناريوس؛ إذ زاد نقاء الفضة ووزنها إلى 45٪ و1.46 غرام. في العام التالي، قلل من كمية المعدن الأساسي في الديناريوس مع إضافة المزيد من الفضة، ورفع درجة نقاء الفضة ووزنها مرة أخرى إلى 50.5٪ و1.50 غرام. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، خفّض الضرائب خلال فترة حكمه، وشجع الأدب والفنون والعلوم، وسمح بإنشاء مكاتب قروض لإقراض الأموال بمعدل فائدة معتدل بهدف تسهيل حياة الناس.

في المسائل الدينية، حافظ ألكسندر على عقل متفتح. وفقًا لهيستوريا أوغوستا، كان يرغب في إقامة هيكل ليسوع، لكن أقنعه الكهنة الوثنيين بالعدول عن الأمر. ومع ذلك، الكثير من هذا الكتاب مليء بالتزوير ويعتبره معظم العلماء المعاصرون مصدرًا غير موثوق. سمح ألكسندر ببناء كنيس يهودي في روما، وقدم له –كهدية- لفيفة من التوراة عُرِفَت باسم لفافة سيفيروس.

في الأمور القانونية، فعل ألكسندر الكثير لتحسين حقوق جنوده؛ إذ سمح للجنود بتحديد أسماء ورَثتهم في وصيتهم، بينما كانت تُفرَض على المدنيين قيود صارمة قي ما يتعلق بالورَثة. سمح ألكسندر للجنود بتحرير عبيدهم إن أرادوا، وعمل على حماية ممتلكاتهم أثناء وجودهم في الحملات، وأعاد التأكيد على أن ممتلكات الجندي التي اكتسبها خلال أو بسبب الخدمة العسكرية (قانون كاسترينس بيكوليوم) لا يمكن لأحد أن يطالب بها، ولا حتى والد الجندي.

الحرب الفارسية
إجمالًا، كان عهد ألكسندر مزدهرًا حتى صعود الساسانيين في الشرق تحت حكم أردشير الأول.  في عام 231 بعد الميلاد، غزا أردشير المقاطعات الرومانية الشرقية، واجتاح بلاد ما بين النهرين وتوغل -على الأرجح- حتى سوريا وكبادوكيا، مما اضطر ألكسندر الشاب إلى رد قوي.  تتحدث روايات مختلفة عن الحرب التي تلت ذلك؛ فوفقًا لمرجع هيروديان الأكثر تفصيلًا، عانت الجيوش الرومانية من عدة انتكاسات وهزائم مهينة، بينما وفقًا لهستوريا أوغوستا ووفقًا لرسالة ألكسندر إلى مجلس الشيوخ الروماني، حققت الجيوش الرومانية خلال تلك الحرب انتصارات عظيمة. جعل ألكسندر أنطاكية قاعدته ونظم منها غزوًا ثلاثيًا للإمبراطورية الساسانية في عام 233. تقدم هو نفسه على رأس المجموعة الرئيسية لاستعادة شمال بلاد ما بين النهرين، بينما غزا جيش آخر ميديا عبر جبال أرمينيا، وتقدم جيش ثالث من الجنوب في اتجاه بابل. حقق جيش أقصى الشمال بعض النجاح، حيث قاتل في منطقة جبلية مواتية للمشاة الرومان، ولكن حاصر رماة الخيول الماهرون الجيش الجنوبي ودمروه. تراجع ألكسندر نفسه بعد حملة غير حاسمة بعد انهيار جيشه بسبب عدم الانضباط والمرض. بعد انسحاب المجموعة الشمالية إلى برد أرمينيا القارس، تكبد الجيش المزيد من الخسائر بسبب الفشل في إنشاء خطوط إمداد مناسبة. في النهاية، استعاد الرومان بلاد ما بين النهرين، ولم يتمكن أردشير بعد ذلك من توسيع فتوحاته، على الرغم من تحقيق ابنه شابور بعض النجاح في وقت لاحق من هذا القرن.

على الرغم من كبح الساسانيين في ذلك الوقت، أظهر سلوك الجيش الروماني نقصًا هام في الانضباط. في عام 232، حدث تمرد في الفيلق السوري أسفر عن إعلان الولاء للإمبراطور تورينوس. تمكن ألكسندر من قمع التمرد، وغرق تورينوس أثناء محاولته الفرار عبر الفرات. عاد الإمبراطور عام 233 إلى روما واحتفل بالانتصار.

مراجع

آل شمسيغرام
أباطرة رومان في القرن الثالث الميلادي
أباطرة رومان مقتولون
أباطرة رومان مؤلهون
أزمة القرن الثالث
أسرة سورية
أشخاص تبناهم أقرباء
أشخاص في القرن 3
أشخاص من حمص
أشخاص من سوريا الرومانية
حكام أطفال قدماء
سلالة سيفيروس الحاكمة
قناصل إمبراطوريون رومان
ملكيون قتلوا في القرن 3
مواليد 208
وفيات 235
يولييون

سيفيروس ألكسندر


Brodmann area 39, or BA39, is part of the parietal cortex in the human brain. BA39 encompasses the angular gyrus, lying near to the junction of temporal, occipital and parietal lobes.

This area is also known as angular area 39 (H). It corresponds to the angular gyrus surrounding the caudal tip of the superior temporal sulcus. It is bounded dorsally approximately by the intraparietal sulcus. In terms of its cytoarchitecture, it is bounded rostrally by the supramarginal area 40 (H), dorsally and caudally by the peristriate area 19, and ventrally by the occipitotemporal area 37 (H) (Brodmann-1909).

Function

Area 39 was regarded by Alexander Luria as a part of the parietal-temporal-occipital area, which includes Brodmann area 40, Brodmann area 19, and Brodmann area 37.
Damage to the left Brodmann area 39 may result in dyslexia or in semantic aphasia. Albert Einstein had less neurones (relative to glial cells) in this (left sided) area than normal.
The right Brodmann area 39 appears to play a role in body image because electrical stimulation of the right angular gyrus induces an 'out-of-body' experience.

See also
 Brodmann area
 List of regions in the human brain

References

39
Parietal lobe

Brodmann area 39


San Odón de Urgel (en catalán: Ot, Dot u Odó d'Urgell), obispo e hijo de los condes de Pallars Sobirá. Fue soldado pero ingresó en la vida religiosa. Posteriormente ascendió a la posición de arzobispo de Urgel en los Pirineos ordenado por el Papa Urbano II. Es venerado como santo por la Iglesia Católica.

Biografía
De familia noble, era hijo de los condes de Pallars Sobirá,  Artal I y Lucía de la Marca, hermana de Almodis, condesa de Barcelona, por eso también es conocido como Odón de Pallars. De un padre violento, que murió excomulgado, salió un hijo sacerdote, obispo y santo. Según la documentación, consta que en 1087 era diácono de Seo de Urgel y es nombrado como obispo electo de Urgell en 1095.

Según se puede deducir de las noticias escritas, Odón fue nombrado sucesor de Guillermo Arnaldo de Montferrer (1092-1095), mientras este aún ostentaba el cargo episcopal. Se tiene que pensar que obtuvo el beneplácito del obispo saliente y de la comunidad canonical de la región. Por lo que se desprende de los documentos, se cree que fue nombrado obispo en el año 1097, ya que en un documento del 28 de mayo de ese año se le nombra como novi electi episcopi y el 23 de octubre ya se le nombra Urgellensis sedis episcopo.

San Odón de Urgell intentó mantener un equilibrio de poderes tanto a nivel político como eclesiástico, destacando las conveniencias con los condes Pedro Ramón I de Pallars Jussà y Ermengol V de Urgel, a quien ayudó en 1101 en la primera conquista de Balaguer. Sobresalió por su firmeza con los que soluciona los problemas, debatidos durante mucho tiempo en la Iglesia de Urgell, sobre usurpación de bienes por parte de nobles y obtuvo la restitución de los condes de Urgel y de Pallars y algunos nobles. Al ser erigida la sede de Barbastro para trasladado de la de Roda de Ribagorza, reclamó las iglesias de su diócesis que habían pasado a esa iglesia (1101), lo que ocasionó la intervención de los papas Urbano II y Pascual II: ya en el año 1098, a instancia de Odón, el papa Urbano II había confirmado los bienes y el territorio del obispado de Urgel.

Durante su pontificado consagró diversas iglesias como las de Guissona y Sant Julià de Cerdanyola, y promovió la construcción de otras, entre las cuales destaca la Catedral de Urgel.

Fundó cofradías en Santa María de Lillet (1100) y en Santa María de Gerri (1122) para fomentar la devoción y la restauración de los dos monasterios. Especialmente, favoreció a este último cenobio, procurándo la restitución de sus bienes, afiliándolo 1096 a la comunidad de San Víctor de Marsella y rigiéndolo un tiempo como abad poco antes de su muerte, que le llegó en el monasterio de Gerri el 7 de julio de 1122.

Veneración
Poco después de su muerte, su sepulcro se convirtió en un lugar de peregrinaje. En 1133, su sucesor, Pedro Berenguer, decretó su culto como santo. La festividad se celebra el 7 de julio. Tuvo oficio propio en el breviario hasta la reforma de Pío V de 1568. Es patrón de La Seo de Urgel y del Valle de Aneu.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Saint Odo of Urgell Patron Saint Index
 St. Odo of Urgell
 San Odón de Urgel, obispo

Nacidos en Sort
Fallecidos en la provincia de Lérida
Santos católicos de España del siglo XII
Santos de la provincia de Lérida
Obispos de España del siglo XII
Obispos santos de España
Obispos católicos del siglo XI
Obispos católicos del siglo XII
Obispos de España del siglo XI

Odón de Urgel


ERT may refer to:

Broadcasting
 ESPN Regional Television, a college football and basketball syndicator
 Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi), Greece's public broadcaster
 Ente Radio Trieste, public service radio broadcaster of the Free Territory of Trieste.

Health and medicine
 ERT (company), an American clinical research company
 Enzyme replacement therapy
 Estrogen receptor test
 Estrogen replacement therapy

Sport
 European Racquetball Tour
 European Rally Trophy

Technology
 Earth-received time, used when dealing with interplanetary spacecraft
 Electrical resistivity tomography
 Encoder receiver transmitter, a packet radio protocol

Other uses
 Elektrooniline Riigi Teataja, the official web publication of laws of the Republic of Estonia
 Elizabeth River Tunnels Project, an infrastructure project in Virginia
 Emergency response team
 Emergency Response Team (RCMP) of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
 Evidence Response Team of the FBI
 Nuclear power plant emergency response team
 Eritai language
 Eritrean Airlines
 European Round Table of Industrialists, an advocacy group
 Exclusive ride time, in amusement parks

ERT


Zeila, también conocido como Zeilah (en somalí: Saylac, árabe: زيلع), es una ciudad portuaria del golfo de Adén, ubicada en la región de Awdal, al noroeste de Somalia, en el llamado Cuerno de África.

Situada cerca de la frontera con Yibuti, la ciudad se asienta sobre una franja de arena rodeada por el mar. Es conocida por sus islas, arrecifes de coral y manglares. Hacia el interior, el terreno es desértico, sin interrupción por unas cincuenta millas. Berbera se ubica a 170 kilómetros al sudeste, mientras que la ciudad etíope de Harar (o Harrar) a 200 kilómetros hacia el oeste.

Zeila se encuentra bajo el control de Somalilandia, un país independiente de facto no reconocido internacionalmente, independizado de Somalia en 1991.

Historia

Zeila es una ciudad muy antigua y ha sido identificada como la ciudad de la Avalitae. De acuerdo con Richard Pankhurst, la ciudad aparece por primera vez bajo su propio nombre en el año 891, cuando el geógrafo al-Yaqubi menciona a Zeila en su Kitab al-Balden ("Libro de los países"). Zeila es descrita también por geógrafos posteriores, como al-Masudi, quien la reseñó en el año 935 en su Muruj adh-dhahab ma'adin wa al-Jawhar ("Prados de minas de oro y de piedras preciosas"), y Hawqal Ibn, quien la describió como el puerto de embarque de Etiopía al Hijaz y Yemen en su Kitab Surat al-'Ard ("Configuración de la Tierra") de 988.

En los siglos X y XI, los autores árabes a menudo se refieren a Zeila como un puerto importante para los comerciantes musulmanes y cristianos en la región de "Bilad al-Habasha", uno de los tempranos términos medievales fluctuantes que denota partes de la moderna región Cuerno de África. Muchos viajeros extranjeros residían en la ciudad y realizaban intercambios comerciales. Según Ibn Said, Zeila era una ciudad de tamaño considerable y sus habitantes eran totalmente musulmanes. Otro escritor del siglo XIII al-Dimashqi destacó las características demográficas predominantes somalíes de la ciudad y comenzó a referirse a ella por su nombre somalí de Awdal. En 1330, el historiador marroquí y viajero Ibn Batutta describiría la ciudad dominada por los musulmanes de la denominación chiita zaidita, un indicio evidente de la influencia persa temprana en la región.

La importancia de Zeila como puerto comercial se ve confirmada por al-Idrisi e Ibn Said, que la describen como una ciudad de tamaño considerable y un centro del comercio de esclavos. Pankhurst, entre otros escritores, pensó que Marco Polo se refería a Zeila (entonces la capital de Adal) cuando relata cómo el sultán de Adén se apoderó de un obispo de Etiopía que viajaba a través de su reino; trató de convertir al hombre por la fuerza, le había circuncidado de acuerdo con la práctica islámica. Esto provocó la indignación del emperador que levantó un ejército y la capturó de la capital del sultán.

El sultanato de Adal, con su capital Zeila, parece datar del siglo noveno o décimo y su historia desde sus orígenes es la crónica de una serie de guerras con Etiopía. Dependiente del comercio con el sur de Abisinia, Zeila floreció en el siglo XIV. Se venden incienso, mirra, esclavos, oro, plata, camellos, y mucho más. Zeila comenzó a crecer en una gran metrópolis multicultural hacia el siglo XIV, con habitantes de origen árabe, somalí, afar, oromia, e incluso habitantes persas. Zeila también fue instrumental en traer el islam y la civilización a los oromo y otros grupos étnicos de Etiopía. En este momento, Zeila era sujeto a la dinastía Walashma, que también gobernó sobre Ifat. Por el reinado del sultán Sa'ad al-Din II de la familia Walashma tenía suficiente control de la ciudad para que el sultán se refugiara allí en 1403 (otras fuentes dicen 1415) del emperador Dawit I. El emperador etíope sitió al sultán durante varios días, privando al sultán Sa'ad al-Din de agua, hasta que al final los etíopes entraron en la ciudad y mataron al desafortunado príncipe. Después de su muerte, el sultán llegó a ser considerado un santo, y su tumba fue venerada durante los siguientes siglos.

Informes de los viajeros —tales como las memorias del italiano Ludovico di Varthema— muestran que en el siglo XVI Zeila se había convertido en un importante mercado en ese momento, a pesar de ser arrasada por los portugueses en 1517 y 1528. Más tarde ese mismo siglo, las incursiones destructivas nómadas somalíes de la región provocaron que el gobernador del puerto, Garad Lado, construyera un fuerte muro alrededor de Zeila.

Aunque, con Tadjoura, Zeila fue uno de los principales puertos de la ciudad de Harrar y de las regiones de Aussa y Shewa, la ciudad perdió importancia durante los siglos siguientes. A partir de 1630, la ciudad portuaria se convirtió en una dependencia del gobernador de Moca, que arrendó por una pequeña suma el puerto africano a uno de los oficiales titulares de Moca, a cambio recogió un peaje en el comercio. Zeila era gobernada sobre el terreno por un emir, quien Mordechai Abir describe que "reclama una vaga autoridad sobre todo los del Sahel, pero cuya verdadera autoridad no se extiende mucho más allá de los muros de la ciudad. Con la ayuda de una pequeña tropa de mercenarios y una serie de canon, el gobernador defendió la ciudad contra los desunidos nómadas somalíes que vagaban por la zona, y contra los piratas que operaban en el Golfo de Adén. En la primera mitad del siglo XIX, fue Zeila una mera sombra de lo que fue "un gran pueblo rodeado por una tapia baja de arcilla, con una población que varía de acuerdo con la temporada de 1.000 a 3.000 personas." Zeila conservó su pequeña importancia como el puerto de Harar, y más allá de Shewa, pero cuando fue abierta una nueva ruta entre Tadjoura y Shewa, la importancia de Zeila disminuyó aún más.

Aunque nominalmente parte del Imperio otomano, entre 1821 a 1841, Muhammad Ali, pachá de Egipto llegó a controlar Yemen y el Sahel, con Zeila incluidos. En 1874-75 los egipcios obtuvieron un firmán de sus señores otomanos por el cual Zeila se convirtió en egipcio, mientras que al mismo tiempo se aseguraba el reconocimiento británico de su jurisdicción hacia el este hasta el cabo Guardafui. Los comerciantes locales como Haj Ali Shermerki y Abu Bakr fueron hechos gobernantes de Zeila por los egipcios a cambio de un pequeño tributo, pero después de la evacuación de la guarnición egipcia de Harar, en 1885, el puerto fue arrebatado en la competencia entre los franceses (con sede en Tajura) y los británicos por el control de la costa estratégica a lo largo del golfo de Adén; I.M. Lewis menciona que "a finales de 1885 Gran Bretaña se preparaba para resistir a un esperado aterrizaje de Francia en Zeila." Sin embargo, las dos potencias decidieron en su lugar recurrir a las negociaciones, y en 1888 llegaron a la conclusión de un acuerdo para definir la frontera entre sus protectorados. Como resultado, Zeila y su vecina del este Berbera llegaron a ser parte de la Somalia británica.

La construcción de un ferrocarril desde Yibuti a Addis Abeba, en el siglo XIX continuó el declive de Zeila. A principios del siguiente siglo Zeila se describe en la Enciclopedia Britannica 1911 como un "buen ancoraje protegido frecuentado por embarcaciones de vela árabe. Sin embargo, los vapores pesados están obligados a anclar una milla y media de la costa. Pequeños barcos de cabotaje se encuentran en el muelle y no hay ninguna dificultad en la carga o descarga de carga. El suministro de agua de la ciudad se extrae de los pozos de Takosha, a unos tres kilómetros de distancia; cada mañana  camellos, a cargo de mujeres maduras somalíes y que cargan pieles de cabra llenas de agua, entran en la ciudad en procesión pintoresca... las importaciones de [Zeila], que llegan a Zaila principalmente a través de Adén, son principalmente productos de algodón, arroz, jowaree, dátiles y seda; las exportaciones, el 90% de los cuales son a Abisinia, son principalmente café, pieles, marfil, ganado, manteca y la madre-de-perla."

Tiempos modernos
Durante la guerra civil de Somalia (desde 1986), Zeila fue bombardeada con frecuencia y casi todos los edificios fueron demolidos o semi-demolidos. Los residentes huyeron de la ciudad y emigraron a las ciudades vecinas, como Lughaya, Borama y Gabiley. Las remesas de dinero enviadas desde parientes en el extranjero han contribuido enormemente en la reconstrucción de la ciudad, así como el comercio y la industria pesquera. Hoy, la población de la ciudad se estima en alrededor de 25.000 habitantes, la mayoría pertenecientes a la subclan Ase Maxamed de la tribu de Gadabursi.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

 Sir Richard Burton's account of Zeila in the late 19th century

Localidades de Somalia
Localidades de Somalilandia
Geografía histórica de Somalia

Zeila


Hatfield may refer to:

Places

Settlements

Australia
Hatfield, New South Wales, located in Balranald Shire

England
 Hatfield, East Riding of Yorkshire
 Hatfield, Herefordshire
 Hatfield, Hertfordshire
 Hatfield, South Yorkshire
 Hatfield, Worcestershire
 Hatfield Broad Oak, Essex
 Hatfield Chase, South Yorkshire and North Lincolnshire
 Hatfield Forest, Essex
 Hatfield Peverel, Essex

South Africa
 Hatfield, Pretoria

United States
 Hatfield, Arkansas
 Hatfield, California–Oregon
 Hatfield, Indiana
 Hatfield, Kentucky
 Hatfield, Massachusetts, a New England town
 Hatfield (CDP), Massachusetts, the main village in the town
 Hatfield, Minnesota
 Hatfield, Missouri
 Hatfield, Pennsylvania
 Hatfield, Wisconsin
 Hatfield Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania

Zimbabwe
 Hatfield, Harare

Structures
 Hatfield (Gautrain station), Pretoria, South Africa
 Hatfield Aerodrome, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
 Hatfield College, Durham, University of Durham, UK
 Hatfield House (disambiguation), several places
 Hatfield Plantation, a historic plantation and mansion in Brenham, Texas, US
 Hatfield Polytechnic, now the University of Hertfordshire, UK
 HM Prison Hatfield, near Hatfield, South Yorkshire, UK

Other uses
 Hatfield (surname)
 Hatfield Main F.C., an association football club in Doncaster, UK
 Hatfield Town F.C., an association football club in Hertfordshire, UK
 Mount Hatfield, a mountain in Canada
 USS Hatfield (DD-231), a U.S. Navy ship
 "Hatfield", a 2003 song by Byzantine from The Fundamental Component

See also

Hatfield


Rossiya Bank (en ) est une banque russe.

Fondée le , son siège est à Saint-Pétersbourg.

Notes et références

Banque ayant son siège en Russie
Entreprise ayant son siège à Saint-Pétersbourg
Entreprise fondée en 1990

Rossiya Bank


Splitska provincija sv. Josipa Sestara Služavki Maloga Isusa je upravna jedinica Družbe sestara Služavki Maloga Isusa, jedna od triju provincija.

Povijest
Podjela na provincije bila je temeljem odluke Specijalnog Generalnog kapitula Družbe, održanog od 16. do 20. lipnja 1969. u Zagrebu i dozvole Svete Kongregacije za redovnike i svjetovne ustanove od 2. kolovoza 1969. godine. Splitska provincija djeluje pod imenom zaštitnika sv. Josipa.
Provincijalna kuća je u Split, u samostanu sv. Ane, Milićeva 6.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Sestre služavke Maloga Isusa Splitska provincija sv. Josipa

Družba sestara Služavki Malog Isusa


An Saccharum sikkimense in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Joseph Dalton Hooker, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni V. Narayanaswami och Norman Loftus Bor. An Saccharum sikkimense in nahilalakip ha genus nga Saccharum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Saccharum

Saccharum sikkimense


Chen Chih-Yuan (auf Chinesisch: 陳致元; * 1975 in Taiwan) ist ein taiwanischer Autor und Illustrator von Bilderbüchern.

Leben
In deutscher Übersetzung sind bislang seine Bilderbücher  »Gui-Gui, das kleine Entodil« (2008), für die FAZ »eine Parabel in Pastell über Adoption und Anderssein, Toleranz und Brüderlichkeit«, und »Kleiner Spaziergang« (2010), für die er jeweils mehrfach ausgezeichnet wurde. Mit der englischsprachigen Übersetzung von »Gui-Gui« schaffte es Chen bis in die Top Ten der New York Times, und für die englischsprachige Übersetzung von »Kleiner Spaziergang« erhielt er von Publishers Weekly die Auszeichnung zum Best Illustrated Book of the Year. Chen lebt und arbeitet in Taiwan.

Kritik
Chen Chih-Yuan gilt weltweit als einer der wichtigsten asiatischen Kinderbuchillustratoren. Für die FAZ ist sein Buch »Gui-Gui« »ein expressives Plädoyer für Zugewandtheit und Liebe in der Aufnahmegesellschaft: Auch vor dem Hintergrund aktueller Debatten vermag Chens multikulturelle Entengesellschaft und Patchworkfamilie eine ganz und gar nicht mehr modische didaktische Botschaft zu vermitteln.« Die Welt am Sonntag sieht in »Gui-Gui« eine »gelungene Variation eines klassischen Themas, die durch wunderschöne Bilder besticht«.

Lesereise in Deutschland
Chen stellte sein künstlerisches Schaffen im September 2011 im Rahmen des Kinder- und Jugendprogramms des internationalen literaturfestivals berlin vor.

Werke

 Chen Chih-Yuan (Text, Illustration), Johannes Fiederling (Übersetzung): »Kleiner Spaziergang – Ein Bilderbuch aus Taiwan« Zürich 2010, Baobab; chin. »Hsia-Yü San Bu«, Taipeh 2001, Hsin Yi.
 Chen Chih-Yuan (Text, Illustration), Barbara Wang (Übersetzung): »Gui-Gui, das kleine Entodil«, Frankfurt a. M. 2008, Fischer; chin. »Guji-Guji«, Taipeh 2003, Hsin Yi.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Autor
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (21. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (Chinesisch)
Kinder- und Jugendliteratur
Illustrator (Taiwan)
Grafiker (Taiwan)
Taiwaner
Geboren 1975
Mann

Chen Chih-Yuan


Preveze Deniz Muharebesi, 28 Eylül 1538 tarihinde Yunanistan'ın kuzeybatısındaki Preveze'de Osmanlı Donanması ve Papa III. Paulus'ün çabalarıyla bir araya gelen Haçlı donanması arasında gerçekleşen deniz muharebesi. Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa komutasındaki Osmanlı Donanması, Amiral Andrea Doria komutasındaki Haçlı Donanması'nı imha etti. Bu deniz muharebesi sonucunda Akdeniz'de Osmanlı Donanması'na karşı koyabilecek bir donanma kalmadı ve Türk hakimiyeti başlamış oldu.

Öncesi
1537'de, büyük bir Osmanlı donanmasını komuta eden Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa; Venediklilerden Ege ve Yunan denizlerinde bulunan Sire, Egine, Aniye, Bara, İstendil, Kerpe, Kaşot (Çoban) ve Nakşa adalarını alarak Nakşa Dükalığı'nı Osmanlı topraklarına kattı. Daha sonra yine Venediklilerin elinde bulunan Korfu Adası'nı kuşattı ve o sıralar İspanyol toprağı olan İtalyan çizmesinin güney ucundaki Calabria sahillerini tahrip etti.

Bu tehdit üzerine Papa III. Paulus Şubat 1538'de, Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa'yı durdurmak için İspanyol İmparatorluğu, Venedik Cumhuriyeti, Ceneviz Cumhuriyeti, Papalık Devleti ve Malta Şövalyeleri kuvvetlerinden Kutsal İttifak adını verdiği bir Haçlı donanması oluşturmayı başardı.

Kuvvetler
Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa'nın komutası altında 122 kadırga ve galyot ile 12.000 levent vardı. Kutsal Birlik donanması ise 112 kadırga, 50 kalyon ve 140 barka olmak üzere 300 küsur (bazı kaynaklara göre 600 küsur) parça idi ve 60.000 askeri taşıyordu. Haçlı donanmasının kumandanı, o sıralar Kutsal Roma Cermen İmparatoru Şarlken'in hizmetinde olan Cenevizli Amiral Andrea Doria idi.

Konumlanma
Kutsal Birlik donanması Korfu Adası yakınlarında bir araya geldi. Amiral Marco Grimani komutasındaki Papalık filosu ve Vincenzo Capello komutasındaki Venedik filosu ilk gelenlerdi. 22 Eylül 1538'de de Andrea Doria beraberindeki İspanyol-Ceneviz filosu ile onlara katıldı.

Doria varmadan önce Grimani, birlikleri Preveze Kalesi yakınlarında karaya çıkarmayı denedi. Ancak Osmanlı kuvvetleriyle peş peşe birkaç defa karşılaşarak kayıp vermesi üzerine Korfu'ya çekildi. O esnada Barbaros hala Ege'deki İstanköy Adasındaydı. Ancak o da Osmanlı donanmasının geri kalanıyla birlikte demir aldı ve yolu üzerindeki Kefalonya Adasını ele geçirdikten sonra Preveze'ye vardı.

Sinan Reis, Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa'ya askerleri Narda Körfezi'nin girişinde bulunan ve Preveze'ye yakın bir konuma sahip olan Actium'a yerleştirme önerisinde bulundu. Barbaros ilkin bu fikre karşı çıksa da, daha sonra bu hamlenin Türk zaferini garanti altına alacağı anlaşıldı. Actium'daki kaleyi tutan Türk askerleri Barbaros'un filosunu topçu ateşiyle desteklerken Doria'yı da gemilerini sahilden uzakta tutmaya zorlayacaktı.

Haçlıların zafer elde edebilmeleri için Actium'a asker çıkarmaları gerekiyordu. Ancak Grimani'nin giriştiği ilk hücumda geri püskürtülmesinden sonra Doria, karada da bir bozgun yaşamaktan korkuyordu. 25 ve 26 Eylül'de iki kez daha, ancak bu sefer Actium'un tam karşısındaki Preveze Kalesi'ni hedefleyerek, askerlerini karaya çıkarma girişiminde bulunan Haçlılar, Murat Reis tarafından geri püskürtüldü.

Ters bir rüzgârın onları Türklerin bulunduğu kıyılara sürüklemesinden korkan Doria'nın gemilerini sahilden epey uzakta tutması Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa'ya avantaj sağlıyordu. Bu duruma düşmek istemeyen Doria, 27 Eylül'ü 28 Eylül'e bağlayan gece 30 mil güneye hareket etti ve rüzgâr dindiğinde Lefkada Adası yakınlarındaki Sessola'ya demirledi. O gece Doria ve komutanları ellerindeki en iyi seçeneğin İnebahtı'ya doğru bir saldırı düzenlemek ve Barbaros'u savaşmaya zorlamak olduğuna karar verdiler.

Muharebe

Şafak sökerken Türklerin üzerlerine doğru geldiğini gören Doria çok şaşırmıştı. Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa da demir alıp güneye ilerlemişti. Turgut Reis 6 büyük galyotla beraberdi ve sol kanat kıyıya iyice sokulmuştu. Sayıca az Osmanlı kuvvetlerinden böylesine cesur bir saldırı beklemeyen Doria, Grimani ve Capello'nun baskılarına rağmen, ancak 3 saat sonra demir almak ve savaşa hazır olmak için emir verebildi.

İki donanma nihayet 28 Eylül 1538'de, Narda Körfezi'nde, Preveze açıklarında birbirlerine nişan aldı.

Rüzgârın olmaması Doria'nın zararınaydı. Muazzam silahlara sahip Venedikli devasa sancak gemisi Galeone di Venezia rüzgârsızlık yüzünden kıyıdan 4, Sessola'dan 10 mil açıkta hareketsiz kalmıştı. Haçlı gemileri Galeone di Venezia'nın yardımına koşmak için çabalayadursun, Osmanlı kadırgalarınca etrafı sarılan gemi, saatlerce süren çetin bir çarpışmada Osmanlı gemilerine epey hasar verse de ele geçirilmekten kurtulamadı.

Nihayet rüzgâr esmeye başladığında Haçlı donanması harekete geçti. Doria ilk olarak Türkleri denize çekmek üzere tasarlanmış birkaç manevra gerçekleştirdi. Sicilya valisi Ferrante Gonzaga karma filonun sol kanadını, Malta Şövalyeleri sağ kanadını tutuyordu. Doria en hızlı kadırgalarından dört tanesini Gonzaga ve Malta Şövalyeleri'nin arasına, ön merkez cepheye yerleşmiş olan yeğeni Giovanni Andrea Doria'nın komutasına verdi. Doria'nın kadırgalarıysa onların arkasında, Grimani ve Capello'nun yönetimindeki Papalık ve Venedik kadırgalarının ise önünde uzun bir hat oluşturacak biçimde yerleşmişti. En arkada ise Alessandro Condalmiero (Bondumier) komutasındaki Venedik kalyonları ile Francesco Doria komutasındaki İspanyol-Portekiz-Ceneviz kalyonları barkalar ve destek gemileriyle birlikte konuşlandırılmıştı.

Osmanlı donanması Y şeklinde bir dizilişe sahipti. Barbaros; Sinan Reis, Cafer Reis, Şaban Reis ve oğlu Hasan Reis (daha sonra Hasan Paşa) ile beraber merkezdeydi. Seydi Ali Reis sol kanada, Salih Reis sağ kanada komuta ediyordu. Murat Reis, Güzelce Mehmet Reis ve Sadık Reis'in eşlik ettiği Turgut Reis arka kanada komuta ediyordu. Türkler, Venedik, Papalık ve Malta gemilerini hızla devreye soktu, ancak Doria, merkez kuvvetlerini Barbarossa'ya karşı harekete geçirmekte tereddüt etti, bu da çok fazla taktik manevraya ve çok az mücadelede bulunmaya yol açtı.
Barbarossa, iki taraf arasındaki sayısal farkın çoğunu oluşturan Hristiyan gemilerini hareketsizleştiren rüzgar eksikliğinden yararlanmak istedi.
Bu baretler, nispeten daha hareketli kadırgalarından ve kadırgalarından onlara binen Türklere kolay av oldular. Doria'nın Osmanlı gemilerini barikatlarının top ateşi ve kadırgalar arasına sıkıştırma çabaları başarısız oldu.

Günün sonunda, Türkler 128 gemiyi batırdı, yok etti veya ele geçirdi ve yaklaşık 3.000 esir aldı. Türkler herhangi bir gemi kaybetmediler ama 400 ölü ve 800 yaralı verdiler. Ancak, Alessandro Condalmiero komutasındaki Venedik amiral gemisi Galeone di Venezia'nın top ateşi sonucu bir dizi Osmanlı gemisi ciddi şekilde hasar görmüştü.

Ertesi sabah, elverişli bir rüzgarla İspanyol-Ceneviz gemilerini riske atmak istemeyen Doria, Venedik, Papalık ve Malta komutanlarının savaşa devam etme çağrılarına kulak asmadan Korfu'ya doğru yola çıktı ve savaş alanını terk etti.

Sonrası
Doria'nın yalan söylediği yaygın olarak tahmin edilmektedir ve isteksiz olmasının, kendi gemilerini riske atma isteksizliğinden kaynaklanıyordu (kişisel olarak önemli sayıda "İspanyol-Cenova" filosuna sahipti) ve memleketinin azılı rakibi ve o dönemde Osmanlı saldırganlığının birincil hedefi olan Venedik'e karşı uzun süredir devam eden düşmanlığı vardı.

1539'da Barbaros geri döndü ve İyonya ve Ege Denizlerinde kalan neredeyse tüm Hristiyan karakollarını ele geçirdi.

Ekim 1540'ta Venedik ile Osmanlı İmparatorluğu arasında, Türklerin Mora ve Dalmaçya'daki Venedik mülklerinin ve Ege, İyonya ve Doğu Adriyatik Denizi'ndeki eski Venedik adalarının kontrolünü ele geçirdiği bir barış anlaşması imzalandı. Venedik ayrıca Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'na 300.000 duka altın savaş tazminatı ödemek zorunda kaldı.

1560 yılında Preveze zaferi ve ardından Cerbe Savaşı'nda kazanılan zaferle Osmanlılar, Akdeniz'deki iki başlıca rakip güç olan Venedik ve İspanya'nın çabalarını geri püskürtmeyi başardılar. Akdeniz'deki büyük ölçekli filo savaşlarında Osmanlı üstünlüğü, 1571'deki İnebahtı Savaşı'na kadar rakipsiz kaldı.

Ayrıca bakınız
İnebahtı Deniz Muharebesi

Kaynakça

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun deniz muharebeleri
İspanya'nın deniz muharebeleri
Osmanlı donanması
Osmanlı-İspanyol çatışmalar
1530'larda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu
1538'de çatışmalar

Preveze Deniz Muharebesi


Metal har flere betydninger:

Videnskab
 Metal - fællesbetegnelse for metalliske grundstoffer eller metallegeringer heraf
 Andre metaller - serie i det Periodiske System
 Tungmetal - række af grundstoffer som har høj massefylde og fremstår som metaller ved stuetemperatur
 Mu-metal - særlig nikkeljern legering, som især er egnet til at skærme mod magnetfelter

Andet
 Dansk Metal - fagforbund
 Metal (musik) – forkortelse for heavy metal-musikgenrer
 Heavy metal - musikgenre (heavy metal er engelsk og betyder bogstaveligt tungmetal)
 Nu-metal - en undergenre af heavy metal

Se også
 Halvmetal - grundstoffer med en blanding af metalliske og ikke-metalliske egenskaber
 Ikkemetal - grundstoffer som er isolatorer i kondenseret tilstand (fast stof eller væske). De fleste ikkemetaller er imidlertid gasser
 Metallurgi - en del af naturvidenskaben og ingeniørkunsten, hvor man undersøger fysiske og kemiske egenskaber hos metalliske grundstoffer og deres blandinger, der kaldes legeringer
 Metallegering - en kombination, enten i opløsning eller blanding, af to eller flere grundstoffer, hvoraf mindst et af grundstofferne er et metal
 Metaludvinding
 Malm
 Cermet - et kompositmateriale, der består af keramik (cer) og metalliske (met) materialer
 Hårdhed (metal)
 Metallicitet (astrofysik)
 Metal-halvleder-overgang

Metal (flertydig)


Las lenguas maba constituyen un pequeño grupo de lenguas común clasificadas dentro de las lenguas nilo-saharianas. Las lenguas maba se hablan en Chad, República Centroafricana, Sudán (Darfur) y Sudán del Sur.

Las lenguas maba fueron las lenguas principales del imperio wadai (1635-1909).

Clasificación

Lenguas de la familia
Las lenguas del grupo maba se hablan en Chad oriental, Sudán occidental y noreste de la República Centroafricana. Greenberg clasificó a estas lenguas dentro de filo nilosahariano, mientras que Tucjer y Bryan (1956) las habían clasificado como un grupo independiente sin parentesco aparente con otras lenguas de África.

Clasificación interna
Las lenguas maba incluyen las siguientes lenguas:
 Kenjeje (Yaali)
 Mabang (Mabano septentrional)
 Maba
 Koboi (considerado una variante de maba).
 D-Mimi (Mimi de la lista de Decorse)
 Mabano central
 Masalit: Surbakhal, Masalit
 Karanga (central?)
 Marfa (central?)
 Baxat (central?)
 Runga-Kibet (Mabano meridional)
 Aiki (llamado runga en las fuentes más antiguas)
 Kibet es cercano al aiki, al punto que algunos autores los consideran variantes de la misma lengua.
 Otras lenguas poco documentadas:
 Muru (runga-kibet?)
 Dagal (runga-kibet?)
Esta división en tres grupos es tentativa ya que las lenguas poco documentadas, están muy poco documentadas y su adscripción provisional se realiza sobre la base de solo dos formas léxicas:

Otras dos lenguas designadas comúnmente como "lengua mimi" y testimoniadas solo mediante listas de vocabulario recogidas por Decorse (Mimi-D) y Nachtigal Mimi-N), han sido también clasificadas como lenguas maba, aunque esto ha sido discutido. El mimi-N parece estar solo remotamente relacionado, y G. Starostin ha argumentado que el mimi-D no es una lengua maba, contrariamente a lo que considera J. Edgar, y que las similitudes superficiales podrían deberse al contacto con los maba, que son el grupo localmente dominante.

Descripción lingüística
De entre las lenguas maba solo para cuatro de ellas se cuenta con un material léxico suficiente para poder hacer trabajo lingüístico: el maba (propiamente dicho), el masalit, el aiki (o runga) y el kibet. Para el resto de lengua no existe suficiente material disponible como para poder juzgar su posición dentro del grupo. El koboi es casi con seguridad una variedad de maba (que es llamado 'lengua original' por los propios hablantes de maba). Para el muru y el dagal se disponen algunos datos compilados por Nougayrol (1986) y Tourenq (1913), que sugieren que están algo más cerca del kibet y el aiki. Los únicos datos publicados sobre el karanga, el baxat y el marfa es la breve lista de siete palabras de Le Rouvreur (1962: 168).

Fonología
J. Edgar (1991) es un trabajo comparativo preliminar sobre las cuatro lenguas maba mejor documentadas, en ese trabajo se recopilan 242 formas léxicas, la mayoría de ellas con equivalentes claros en al menos tres de estas lenguas. A partir de las palabras con correspondencias claras se propone un conjunto de cognados con los que es esboza el sistema fonológico del proto-mabano. El sistema propuesto por J. Edgar (1991) es:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Labial
! colspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="2" | Palatal
! colspan="2" | Velar
|-
! rowspan="2" |oclusiva
! sorda
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
|-
! sonora
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
|-
! colspan="2" | fricativa
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | líquida
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! rowspan="2" | nasal
! continua
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
|-
! prenasalizada
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
|-
! colspan="2" | semiconsonante
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan="2" |
|}
Los fonemas // no pueden ser construidos en todos sus detalles aunque presentan correspondencias más o menos regulares en las lenguas mabas modernas su naturaleza articulatoria en la protolengua no está clara. Por ejemplo // presenta como reflejos en las lenguas modernas o bien /s/ o bien /t/ (tal vez se trata de una africada  // o una palatal //) y // se refleja en diferentes lenguas como  //,  // o  //.

Comparación léxica
Los numerales en diferentes lenguas maba son:
{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center;
|-
! rowspan=2|GLOSA
! rowspan=2|Maba
! rowspan=2|Masalit
! colspan=2|Runga-Kibet
! rowspan=2|PROTO-MABANO
|-
! Kibet !! Aiki
|-
| '1' || tɛ́gtɔ́ː || tíyóŋ || dowai || kʰanˈda || *tuwa-ni
|-
| '2' || mbàːrmbùl || mbárá || mbaʀ || mba || *mbàːr
|-
| '3' || kùŋàːlkáyáŋ || káaŋ || kʰasaŋˈgal || kʰazaŋɡa || *kàsáŋgà-l
|-
| '4' || àssàːlássíː || áás || ʔaːtal || attɛi || *aʧal-
|-
| '5' || tùːrtúːr || tóór || tor || tur || *tuːr
|-
| '6' || (sìttàːl) || ít̪í || ʔisal || izɛi || *it̪-(?)
|-
| '7' || mɛ́ndrìː || màrí || mɪndɪrsɪʔ || mɪndirsi || *mɪndɪr-sɪ-k
|-
| '8' || íyyáː || àd̪á || mbaːkʰl || mbɑkadeli ||
|-
| '9' || ɔ̀ddɔ̀yí || àyi || kʰadɛijə || kʰaddɛl || *kada-li
|-
| '10' || ɔ̀ttúg || ùt̪úk || jutʊk̚  || jtuk̚   || *ùtúk
|}
Los términos entre paréntesis podría ser préstamos desde el árabe.

Véase también
Lista de Swades en proto-maba

Referencias

Bibliografía
 John Edgar & John E. Lavers: "First Steps toward Proto-Maba", African Languages and Cultures, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1991), pp. 113-133.

Enlaces externos
Maban family tree (apart from Karanga) at Ethnologue. In the 16th edition, the Maban family was mistakenly auto-correlated with a branch of Luo with the same name. This will be corrected in the 17th edition.
G. Starostin, 2011. On Mimi

Lenguas de Chad
Lenguas de Sudán del Sur
Lenguas de Sudán

Lenguas maba


HMG-KoA redüktaz (veya 3-hidroksi-3-metil-glutaril-KoA reduktaz) kolesterol ve benzeri moleküllerin sentezlendiği reaksiyon zincirinin ilk adımının enzimidir (EC 18.104.22.168). Statin diye adlandırılan HMG-KoA redüktaz ketleyicileri (inhibitörleri) kan kolesterol seviyelerini düşürerek kalp hastalığı riskini azaltmak için kullanılırlar. Bu ilaç sınıfında bulunlar arasında atorvastatin (ATOR®, ateroz®, LİPİTOR®, TARDEN®)

Önemi
HMG-KoA redüktaz, mevalonat yolunun anahtar bir adımını katalizleyen bir transmembran enzimdir. Mevalonat yolu sterol, isoprenoid ve diğer lipitlerin sentezinin başında yer alır. HMG-KoA redüktazın katalizlediği reaksiyon mevalonat yolunda hız belirleyici olduğu için son yıllarda geliştirilmiş kolesterol düşürücü ilaçların hepsi bu enzimi hedeflerler.

Statinlerin kolesterol düzeylerini düşürmeden bağımsız olan olumlu etkileri, HMG-KoA Redüktazın kolesterol dışında başka moleküllerin sentezinde de rol almasıyla açıklanabilir. Statinlerin yangıönler (antienflamatuar) özellikleri muhtemelen yangı tepkisinde gerekli olan isoprenoidlerin üretimini sınırlayabilme özelliklerinden kaynaklanmaktadır.

HMG-KoA redüktaz ayrıca gelişimde de önemli bir enzimdir. Etkinliğinin ketlenmesi inhibe olması ve buna bağlı olarak isoprenoidlerin yokluğu sonucunda morfolojik bozukluklar oluşur.

Düzenlenmesi

HMG-KoA Redüktaz, transkripsiyon, translasyon, yıkım ve fosforlanma düzeylerinde düzenlenir.

Transkripsiyonu
Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein (SREBP) HMG-KoA redüktaz geninin transkripsiyonunu arttırır. Bu protein, genin 5' tarafında bulunan SRE (sterol regulatory element) adlı DNA dizisine bağlanır. SREBP etkin değilken endoplasmik retikulum veya çekirdek zarına bağlıdır. Kolesterol seviyesi azalınca SREPB proteolize uğrayıp bağlı olduğu zardan kopar, çekirdeğin içine girer, SRE'ye bağlanır ve transkripsiyon hızlanır. Eğer kolesterol seviyesi yükselirse zara bağlı SREBP'nin proteolizi durur, çekirdekte bulunan SREBP de hızla yıkıma uğrar.

Translasyonu
HMG-KoA redüktaz mRNA'sının translasyonu mevalonat türevleri ve kolesterol tarafından ketlenir.

Yıkımı
Yüksek sterol düzeyleri HMG-KoA redüktazın proteolizini kolaylaştırır. SREBP'yi kesen proteaz da sterollara duyarlıdır.

Fosforlanması
Biosentetik yollardaki başka enzimlerde de görüldüğü gibi HMG-KoA redüktaz fosforlanınca (insanda serin 872'de) ketlenir. Bundan sorumlu protein kinaz siklik AMP tarafından aktive olur. Bu yüzden hücredeki ATP düzeyleri düşük olunca redüktaz enzimi etkin olmaz.

Dış bağlantılar
 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man:

EC 1.1.1
İnsan kromozom 5 üzerindeki genler

HMG-KoA redüktaz


David Vincent Hayes (né le  à Hartford et mort le  à Coventry) est un sculpteur américain.

Liens externes

Naissance à Hartford (Connecticut)
Naissance en mars 1931
Décès dans le comté de Tolland
Décès en avril 2013
Sculpteur américain du XXe siècle
Décès à 82 ans

David Hayes (sculpteur)


إريك سيرا  موسيقي أفلام فرنسي، من مواليد 1959، سان ماندي، باريس.

حياته

اهتم إريك بالموسيقى لأن والده (كلود) كان ملحناً للأغاني و شاعراً مشهوراً في فرنسا، فترة خمسينات و ستينات القرن الماضي. التقى بالمخرج و الكاتب لوك بيسون عن طريق والده، و طلب منه أن يجعله مؤلفاً لموسيقى فيلمه القادم ((Le Dernier Combat (1983)، و من هنا أصبح الاثنان فريقان، حيث قام إيريك بتأليف معظم نوطات الأفلام التي أخرجها أو كتبها لوك بيسون، ما عدا فيلم ( Angel-A (2005).

أعماله

روابط خارجية

مصادر

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
فنانون وفنانات فرنسيون
مواليد 1959
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام فرنسيون

إريك سيرا


A cabbit is a fictional hybrid between a cat and a rabbit.  They have appeared in fiction and fantasy stories including Japanese anime and manga, and have also been dubiously claimed to have been observed in the wild.  Most if not all observations are attributable to either misidentified Manx cats or outright hoaxes.

A cat–rabbit hybrid creature was first incorrectly documented in 1845 by Joseph Train of Castle Douglas, Galloway, Scotland, in his An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man, where he opined that the local Manx cat, a breed typified by a short, tufty tail like a rabbit, was such a hybrid: "My observations on the structure and habits of the specimen in my possession, leave little doubt on my mind of its being a .... cross between the female cat and the buck rabbit." Scientific study has determined that such a hybrid is genetically impossible.

The portmanteau term cabbit is used for such imagined hybrids.  The exact year of coinage is uncertain.  The term was used in 1977 to describe a specimen found in New Mexico and exhibited in Los Angeles.  The specimen was showcased on The Tonight Show and was later determined to be a cat with a deformed pelvis.

Cat mutations
Manx cats and other cats with tailless or bobtailed mutations account for many alleged cabbit sightings.  The mutation that causes taillessness can also cause skeletal and/or nerve abnormalities that result in the cat's using a hopping motion.  This was once accepted by breeders as a feature of the Manx's look, but is now considered a serious fault in the show-ring and does not form part of the modern Manx standard of points.  Modern breeders of the Manx are careful to breed only from cats that have normal locomotion.  The relatively long hind legs of the Manx, combined with taillessness or a very short tail, give the impression of a rabbit.

In 1947, Grace Cox-Ife wrote: "There are several points about a Manx that make it anything but ordinary. The chief one is, of course, its taillessness; but this is not quite the whole story. Not only must a Manx have no tail but it should really be a further joint or more short on the spinal column; that is to say there should be a hollow where the tail would normally begin. Then there is the gait – a rabbity hop rather than a walk- which is caused by the height of the hindquarters: according to the Manx Cat Club these "cannot be too high, and the back cannot be too short, while there must be great depth of flank. The head should be round and large, but not of the snubby or Persian type.

Rose Tenent wrote: "No cat is more fascinating than the tailless Manx, with its rabbit-like hoppity gait .... The hind legs are considerably longer than the front ones, thus giving the cat its peculiar hopping gait; incidentally, also the reason for the reasonable theory held in some quarters that the Manx cat is the result of a cross-mating between a cat and a rabbit."

See also
Jackalope

References

Fictional hybrid life forms
Mythological felines
Mythological hybrids
Mythological rabbits and hares
Cat folklore

Cabbit


1. Fußball-Club Köln 01/07 e. V., commonly known as simply FC Köln () or FC Cologne in English, is a German professional football club based in Cologne, in North Rhine-Westphalia. It was formed in 1948 as a merger of the clubs Kölner Ballspiel-Club 1901 and SpVgg Sülz 07. Köln competes in the Bundesliga after promotion in 2018–19 following relegation to 2. Bundesliga the previous season. The team are three-time national champions, winning the 1962 German football championship, as well as the Bundesliga twice, first in its inaugural season of 1963–64 and then again in 1977–78. The team plays its home matches at RheinEnergieStadion.

The club's nickname Die Geißböcke (The Billy Goats) refers to the club's mascot, a male goat named Hennes after the veteran FC player and later manager Hennes Weisweiler. The first Hennes was donated by a circus entrepreneur as a Cologne carnival joke. The current mascot is Hennes IX as of 1 August 2019 after Hennes VIII was retired by the club due to old age. Another nickname for the club, more common locally due to its ambiguity, is FC (often written as Effzeh), a common German abbreviation for football clubs. Characteristic for the dialect spoken around Cologne, this is pronounced "EF-tsay", in contrast to the Standard German pronunciation of the abbreviation where the second syllable is emphasized (). Köln play at home in white and red, both colours having been used as the main shirt colour throughout its history. The club has long-standing rivalries with nearby clubs Borussia Mönchengladbach, Fortuna Düsseldorf, and Bayer Leverkusen.

Like many of Germany's other professional football clubs, 1. FC Köln is part of a larger sports club with teams in other sports like handball, table tennis and gymnastics. 1. FC Köln has over 100,000 members, making it the fourth largest club in Germany.

History

Predecessor sides
Kölner BC was formed on 6 June 1901 by a group of young men who were unhappy as part of the gymnastics club FC Borussia Köln and far more interested in football. BC was a competitive side in the Zehnerliga West in the years before World War I who took the Westdeutsche championship in 1912 and advanced to the preliminary rounds of the national finals. Their next best result was a losing appearance in the 1920 league final, where they lost 1–3 to Borussia Mönchengladbach.

Spielvereinigung 1907 Köln-Sülz was established in 1907 as Sülzer Sportverein and on 1 January 1919 merged with Fußball Club 1908 Hertha Sülz to form SpVgg. They won the Westdeutscher title in 1928 and they too went out in the early rounds of the national finals in their turn on that stage. They went on to play as a top flight club in the Gauliga Mittelrhein, one of sixteen premier level divisions established in 1933 in the re-organization of German football under the Third Reich. The side earned generally good results through the 1930s – including a divisional championship in 1939 – but then faltered in the early 1940s. After the 1941 season the Gauliga Mittlerhein was split into two new divisions: the Gauliga Köln-Aachen and the Gauliga Moselland, which included clubs from occupied Luxembourg. Sülz struggled until they were united with VfL Köln 1899 for the 1943–44 season to form the combined wartime side Kriegspielgemeinschaft VfL 99/Sülz 07 which promptly won the Gauliga Köln-Aachen title by a single point over SG Düren 99 in a close race. The club did not play the next campaign as war overtook the region.

A successful new club

After the union of these two predecessor sides (1948), 1. FC Köln began play in the tough Oberliga West in the 1949–50 season and by 1954 had won their first divisional championship. That same year they lost the DFB-Pokal final 1–0 to VfB Stuttgart. Die Geißböcke won their second divisional championship in 1960 and appeared in the national final against Hamburger SV, where they lost 2–3. In the 1962 and 1963 they went on to finish first in the Oberliga West in each of the next three seasons and again played their way to the national final. They won the 1962 match 4–0 over 1. FC Nürnberg resulting in entry to the 1962–63 European Cup where they were one of the favourites to win the trophy. In the first round Köln visited Dundee F.C. of Scotland and lost 1–8, and despite winning the second leg back in Germany by 4–0 they were out of the tournament. In the following year's national final they lost 1–3 to Borussia Dortmund.

Continuing success

In 1963, FC Köln was selected as one of the original 16 teams to play in the Bundesliga, Germany's new professional football league. Köln continued their winning ways by becoming the first ever Bundesliga champion in the league's inaugural 1963–64 season. As German champions, Köln entered the 1964–65 European Cup where it met England's Liverpool at the quarter-final stage. After two 0–0 draws, a third game was played which was also a stalemate, this time 2–2. As the penalty shootout had not yet been introduced as the means of deciding a tie, Köln went out of the competition on the toss of a coin. Ironically enough, there was the need for a second coin toss because the first time the coin stuck vertically in the ground. The club also became the first Bundesliga side to field a Brazilian player when it signed Zézé for a then club record fee of DM 150,000. Domestically, Köln recorded a second-place finish in the 1964–65 Bundesliga season and won its first DFB-Pokal in 1967–68.

At the start of the 1970s, Köln reached three DFB-Pokal finals in four seasons, losing all three; to Kickers Offenbach in 1970, Bayern Munich in 1971 and Borussia Mönchengladbach in 1973. The team also achieved another second place Bundesliga finish in 1973 before reaching another DFB-Pokal final in 1977, beating Hertha BSC over two legs to win the trophy for the second time.

In 1977–78, FC Köln enjoyed its most successful season, winning the Bundesliga title, its third national title overall, and retaining the DFB-Pokal. This makes Köln one of only four clubs to have won the double in the Bundesliga era.

Köln had another losing DFB-Pokal final appearance in 1980, before winning the competition for a fourth time in 1983. In 1986, the club appeared in its first European final, losing 5–3 on aggregate to Real Madrid in the UEFA Cup Final. Two second place Bundesliga finishes, in 1988–89 and 1989–90, and another DFB-Pokal final loss in 1991, marked the end of a glorious thirty-year period for FC Köln.

21st century: ups and downs

In recent years, the club's performance has been mixed. The FC holds the dubious distinction of the worst goal drought in Bundesliga history: in 2002, the supporters had to wait 1034 excruciating minutes (equivalent to 11-and-a-half games) until Thomas Cichon found the back of the net again.
In the early years of the Bundesliga, 1. FC Köln was the most successful club in West Germany in terms of total points won. Beginning in the early 1990s, however, the club's performance fell, and in 1998 it was relegated for the first time. Since about 2000, the side has been a "yo-yo team", moving between the first and second divisions. It has returned to the Bundesliga at the end of the 2004–05 season as 2. Bundesliga champions after having been relegated the season before. There was little optimism about their return to the top flight as they were picked by German football magazine kicker as one of the clubs most likely to be relegated.

This prediction came true when Köln lost to Hamburger SV 1–0 in the third-to-last match of the season. The club finished the season in second-last place and was relegated after conceding a league-worst 71 goals. The team's most prolific goal scorer was Lukas Podolski with a total of 12 goals, who transferred to Bayern Munich after the end of the season. He also appeared with the Germany national team at the 2006 FIFA World Cup.

In late 2006, former coach Christoph Daum was convinced to once again take the helm of the 2. Bundesliga club and succeeded in leading the club back to the Bundesliga in 2008. After a successful Bundesliga campaign in 2008–09, Daum left Köln for his former club Fenerbahçe. Köln's former star-striker Lukas Podolski returned for the 2009–10 season.

After a poor run of form in the 2010–11 season, recording only one win from its opening nine Bundesliga fixtures, Köln replaced coach Zvonimir Soldo with Frank Schaefer. Schaefer, who was originally in charge of the under-23 team of Köln, decided after the season that he would rather spend more time with his family than be a coach in the Bundesliga. Former Norwegian international and recent Copenhagen coach Ståle Solbakken replaced him. After earning just eight points in the first 13 matches of the second half of the season, Schaefer and former Köln player Dirk Lottner replaced Solbakken. The club, however, was relegated at the end of the season, finishing in 17th place, having accumulated €33m debt, and €11m negative equity.

Turnaround (2012–2017)
In April 2012 the club members elected a new board of directors, Werner Spinner as president, Markus Ritterbach for marketing, and Toni Schumacher for sport. In the 2012–13 season, under new trainer Holger Stanislawski, Köln finished in fifth place in the 2. Bundesliga, missing out on promotion back to the top division.

In 2012 the board hired Jörg Jakobs as director of football who then got promoted in 2014 to sporting director, chief scout and director of the academy. In January 2013 Alexander Wehrle joined as managing director of FC Köln ltd. Wehrle was working as assistant for VfB Stuttgart president Erwin Staudt, especially for rebuilding the stadium. In summer 2013 Peter Stöger and Manfred Schmid were hired as coaching team, and Jörg Schmadtke as general manager. 2013–14 Köln finished first in the 2. Bundesliga and earned promotion to the top division. It was followed by a 12th place 2014–15, ninth in 2015–16, and fifth place in 2016–17. 25 years after the club's last appearance in international football to date they qualified for the Europa League. After restructuring and repaying debt, equity turned from €11m negative to €20m positive. The turnover increased from €56m in 2012/13 to more than €120m in 2016/17.

Decline and changes (2018–)
After the club's return the European stage, fortunes quickly changed. The team experienced an unsuccessful start to the 2017–18 Bundesliga season gaining only three points from its first sixteen matches. At the same time, the club's Europa League campaign ended after the group stage. This downtrend led to the resignation of Jörg Schmadtke and Stöger's dismissal in December 2017; he was replaced by Stefan Ruthenbeck who was appointed as caretaker manager. In spite of an improved record in the second half of the season, the team finished last and were relegated to 2. Bundesliga at the end of the year.

Ahead of the 2018–19 season, Markus Anfang was appointed manager with a mandate to achieve an immediate return to the top flight. While the club occupied the league's top spot for much of the season, Anfang was let go after a winless streak in April 2019. Just a week later, with André Pawlak at the helm, the team achieved promotion with a 0–4 victory over Greuther Fürth. On 13 May 2019, the club announced that Jahn Regensburg manager Achim Beierlorzer would assume its vacant head coaching position from the upcoming season. He was signed to a contract until 2021. Following an unsuccessful start to the 2019–20 season, which included a 3–2 cup defeat against 1. FC Saarbrücken, the club decided to terminate Beierlorzer's contract on 9 November 2019. Sporting director Armin Veh, who weeks earlier had announced that he would not extend his contract with the club, was also dismissed from his position. On 18 November, former HSV manager Markus Gisdol was appointed to the club's head coaching position, while Horst Heldt was made sporting director. Both signed contracts until 2021. After avoiding relegation at the end of the season, Gisdol's contract was extended until 2023.

The club found itself in a renewed relegation during the 2020–21 season. On 11 April 2021, after losing to relegation rival Mainz 05, Gisdol was dismissed from his position as head coach. The next day, it was announced that Friedhelm Funkel would take over head coaching duties until the end of the season. On 11 May, it was reported that SC Paderborn manager Steffen Baumgart would succeed Funkel as head coach at the beginning of the 2021–22 season. Funkel's side faced Holstein Kiel in the relegation playoffs. After losing 0–1 at home, his team recorded a 1–5 away win, enabling the club to retain its position in the Bundesliga. On 1 April 2022, the club appointed Christian Keller as its new managing director, a position that had been vacant since the dismissal of Heldt in May 2021.

In March 2023, during the second half of the 2022–23 campaign, Köln were put under a two-window transfer embargo by FIFA's Dispute Resolution Chamber, having been found guilty of inducing a breach of contract without just cause while signing Jaka Čuber Potočnik from Olimpija Ljubljana in January 2022. As part of the same verdict, the club was also sentenced to pay Ljubljana a €51,750 compensation, in addition to training costs. Köln ultimately appealed the decision at the Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne.

Stadium

The team plays its home matches in the Müngersdorfer Stadion, also known as the RheinEnergie Stadion for sponsorship purposes. It has a seating capacity of 50,000 and the average attendance in the 2015–16 season was 48,676. The stadium sponsorship comes from a contract with the local power supplier RheinEnergie AG. However, most fans still call the stadium "Müngersdorfer Stadion", named after the suburb of Müngersdorf, where it is located.

The club owns the Geißbockheim training centre, currently known as RheinEnergieSportpark for sponsorship, located in Sülz which is a municipal part of Köln in the southwest of the city. The centre is home to the Franz-Kremer-Stadion the home of 1. FC Köln II.

Honours

Domestic
 Bundesliga
 Champions: 1963–64, 1977–78
Runners-up: 1964–65, 1972–73, 1981–82, 1988–89, 1989–90
 German football championship
 Winners: 1961–62
Runners-up: 1959–60, 1962–63
 DFB-Pokal
Winners: 1967–68, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1982–83
Runners-up: 1953–54, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1972–73, 1979–80, 1990–91
 2. Bundesliga
 Winners: 1999–2000, 2004–05, 2013–14, 2018–19
Runners-up: 2002–03

International
 UEFA Cup
Runners-up: 1985–86
 Uhrencup
Winners: 1991

Regional
 Oberliga West
Winners: 1953–54, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1962–63
Runners-up: 1952–53, 1957–58, 1958–59

Doubles
1977–78: Bundesliga and DFB-Pokal

Reserve team
 German amateur champions: 1981

Youth
 German Under 19 championship
 Champions: 1970–71
 Runners-up: 1973–74, 1982–83, 1991–92
 Under 19 Bundesliga Division West
 Champions: 2007–08
 Runners-up: 2003–04, 2009–10, 2013–14, 2014–15
 Under 19 Juniors DFB-Pokal
 Champions: 2012–13
 Runners-up: 1990–91, 1993–94
 German Under 17 championship
 Champions: 1989–90, 2010–11, 2018–19
 Under 17 Bundesliga Division West
 Champions: 2010–11, 2011–12, 2018–19
 Runners-up: 2008–09

Statistics

Kits

Köln's kits are made by Hummel International, who pay the club €20m over a five-year span.

Rivals
The club's main rivals are Borussia Mönchengladbach, Bayer Leverkusen, and Fortuna Düsseldorf – all clubs from the same Rhine-Ruhr region, near the river Rhine.

Players

Current squad

Players out on loan

Second team squad

Coaching staff

Head coaches since 1963

Women's section

The women's team was promoted to the Bundesliga in 2015. They were directly relegated back to the 2. Frauen-Bundesliga after the 2016–17 season ended, but managed to regain promotion in May 2017 to the Bundesliga.

References

Literature
Grüne, Hardy (2001). Vereinslexikon. Kassel: AGON Sportverlag

External links

The Abseits Guide to German Soccer
FC Köln statistics

Football clubs in Germany
Football clubs in Cologne
Association football clubs established in 1948
1948 establishments in Germany
Bundesliga clubs
2. Bundesliga clubs

1. FC Köln


القنوات الرياضية السعودية (بالإنجليزية:KSA SPORTS) هي مجموعة قنوات رياضية سعودية مجانية تعنى بنقل المسابقات المحلية وأهمها دوري الدرجة الاولى ودوري الدرجة الثانية وسباقات الهجن والخيل، نقلت القنوات الدوري المحترفين السعودي من 2017 إلى 2021 بشكل مجاني حتى خسرت الحقوق لصالح قنوات اس اس سي.

ترددات القناة
تنقل الرياضية السعودية قنواتها على قمر عرب سات ونايل سات على الترددات التالية:

المسابقات التي تنقلها القناة حالياً
 دوري الدرجة الأولى السعودي
 مهرجان الملك عبد العزيز للإبل
 كأس ولي العهد السعودي (سباق خيل)
 كأس العرب للأندية الأبطال (الدور التمهيدي الثاني)
 بطولات الفئات السنية السعودية لكرة القدم.
 مهرجان الأمير سلطان العالمي للجواد العربي.
 ألعاب الإلكترونية
 البطولة الرمضانية

معلقو القناة
 محمد البخيتان
 عائد العصيمي
 محمد النعمي
 راشد الدوسري (معلق)
 يوسف السلطان
 علي الربيع
 عبد العزيز هوساوي
 مشاري القرني
 محمد غازي صدقة

محللون
استقطبت القنوات الرياضية السعودية عدد كبير من المحللين الرياضيين، ومنهم لاعبين سابقين معروفين على الصعيد السعودي أو العربي، كما يوجد مدربين معروفين، وأبرز هؤلاء هم:

  يوسف خميس.
  تركي السلطان.
  سلطان البرقان.
  خالد بدرة.
  طارق التائب.
  عبدالله الواكد.
  عيسى المحياني.
  فؤاد أنور.

  حمزة إدريس.
  عبد الرزاق أبو داود.
  حمود السلوة.
  عادل البطي.
  صالح الحمادي.
  زكي الصالح.
  محمد نور.
  يوسف الثنيان.
خالد الشنيف.

مراسلو القناة

  بدر رافع.
  عمار باحكيم.
  رياض المزهر.
  نايف مشهور.
  عبدالله العضيبي.

  عبدالرحمن الدحيم.
  فيصل الملوقي.
  سمير الصوفي.
  بدر العثمان.
  عبدالعزيز المجاهد.

مقدمو البرامج

 فهد المساعد
  بندر الشهري.
  بدر الفرهود.

وصلات خارجية
 موقع القناة الرسمي.
 تردد قناة

الإعلام في الرياض
التلفزيون السعودي
تأسيسات سنة 2002 في السعودية
قنوات سعودية
قنوات فضائية رياضية
قنوات وشبكات تلفزيونية أسست في 2002

القنوات الرياضية السعودية


Olaylar
 24 Eylül - Güvenlik nedeniyle ertelenen İkinci İznik Konsili İznik'te tekrar toplandı. Resim düşmanı (İkonoklazm) dönemde yapılan bu toplantıda resimlere dönüşü sağlayan kararlar alındı.

Doğumlar
 Emîn, Abbasi halifesi (ö. 813)

Ölümler

787


Prema klasičnoj definiciji zeolit je kristalni mikroporozni oksid, čiju mrežastu strukture čine spojeni tetraedri silicija i aluminija, stvarajući tako kanale mikroporoznih dimenzija u kojima se mogu naći alkalijski i zemnoalkalijski kationi te molekule vode. Ova definicija se više odnosi na prirodne zeolite, koji su prvo otkriveni te istraživani.

Potražnja za ovim materijalima dovela je do snažnog razvoja sintetičkih zeolita, za neke od njih čak ne postoji prirodni ekvivalent.

Zeolitni materijali privlače pažnju svojim jedinstvenim svojstvima kao što su velika površina, definiran sustav kanala i kontrolirana gustoća aktivnih mjesta. Zahvaljujući jedinstvenom sustavu pora, ovaj materijal može primijeniti selektivnost oblika (eng. shape selectivity) za reaktante i produkte. Zbog ovih svojstava ih se naziva molekularnim sitima.

Povijest zeolita
Godine 1756. otkrio ih je švedski mineralog Axel Crönstedt, proučavajući mineral stilbit koji je tijekom zagrijavanja bubrio: ta nova obitelj minerala nazvana je zeolitima od grčkih riječi "zeo" i "lithos" koje znače "kipjeti" i "kamen'' Prvi sintetski zeolit (levinit) je dobiven 1862. u laboratoriju St. Claire Deville. Većinu otkrića u području zeolita donio je Richard M. Barrer, otac zeolitne kemije, koji je razvio put za većinu trenutnih primjena zeolita.

Struktura zeolita

Zeoliti su kristalni alumniosilikati s kemijskom formulom Mx/n(AlO2)x(SiO2)y, gdje je n valencija kationa M, x+y je ukupni broj tetreadra po jediničnoj ćeliji i y/x je atomski omjer Si/Al, koji varira od minimalne vrijednosti 1 (Löwensteinovo pravilo) do beskonačnosti. TO4 tetraedri (SiO4 ili AlO4-) povezani su kisikovim atomima, pa je odnos O/(Al + Si) = 2. Primarne strukturne jedinice, tetraderi stvaraju dvodimenzionalne i trodimenzionalne sekundarne strukturne jedinice te nastaje trodimenzionalna prostorna mrežasta struktura s porama i šupljinama karakteristična za zeolite.

Vrste i primjena zeolita
Prirodni zeoliti hidrirani su alumosilikatni minerali, kojih je poznato više od 30 vrsta i obično se nalaze u mladim eruptivnim stijenama, osobito u bazaltima i fonolitima. U sintetskim zeolitima šupljine i kanali većinom su pravilno isprepleteni u obliku trodimenzijskih sita, s otvorima koji približno odgovaraju veličini molekula; odatle za sintetske zeolite naziv molekularna sita.

U poljoprivredi, klinoptilolit (prirodni zeolit) koristi se u obradi tla. On pruža ujednačen i polagan izvor kalija. Ako sadrži amonijak, zeolit može poslužiti sličnoj funkciji i u polaganom otpuštanju dušika. Zeoliti mogu djelovati i kao vodeni moderatori, u kojima će apsorbirati vode do 55% svoje težine i polagano ga pustiti na zahtjev biljke. Ovo svojstvo može spriječiti opadanje korijena i umjerene cikluse suše.

Clinoptilolit se također dodaje u pileću hranu, apsorpcija vode i amonijaka kod zeolita rezultira perad s manjim izlijevanjem, manje mirisa i stoga lakše za rukovanje.

Zeoliti se najviše primjenjuju za čišćenje prirodnoga plina, za sušenje nafte i naftnih destilata, u demineralizaciji vode, kao katalizatori petrokemijskih procesa, kao punilo za papir, u proizvodnji izolacijskog i lakoga građevnog materijala i dr.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Sestrinski projekti

Mrežna mjesta
Dokazi u medicini – Zeoliti: daleko od čudesnog učinka na zdravlje
www.horti-kultura.hr – Zeolit u poljoprivredi
www.pbf.unizg.hr – Zeoliti: Čudo koje dolazi iz prirode
Hrvatska zeolitna udruga

Kristalografija
Minerali

Zeoliti


Proletarya diktatörlüğü, Marksizmdeki tarihsel ve siyasalproleter düşünceye göre, kapitalizmle komünizm arasında uzanan geçiş döneminin siyasal biçimini ifade eder. Sosyalizm dönemi, komünizme yani sınıfsız topluma geçiş dönemi olması itibarıyla proletarya diktatörlüğü dönemidir. Proletarya diktatörlüğü kavramı Marksist devlet anlayışına ve Marksist sınıf teorisine bağlı kesin bir önermedir. Marksizme göre, bu dönem zorunlu bir tarihsel dönemdir. Bu dönemde proletarya sınıf olarak iktidarı elinde bulundurur ve dünya sosyalizmine geçildiği durumda adım adım sönümlenerek sınıfsız topluma geçişi sağlar. Yani sanıldığının aksine proletarya diktatörlüğü sönümlenmez sosyalizm sönümlenerek komünizm yani sınıfsız sömürüsüz dünyaya geçiş yapılır.

Varsayımsal olarak sınıflı bir toplumdan sınıfsız bir topluma kendiliğinden geçiş söz konusu olmayacaktır. Bir öznel irade devreye girmek zorundadır ve bu Marksist tarih anlayışına göre, kapitalist toplumun bağrında ortaya çıkmış olan proletaryanın iradesidir. Çünkü, Marksist tarih anlayışında tarihin öznesi proletaryadır. Burjuvazi kendiliğinden iktidardan tamamen vazgeçmeyeceği ve her an iktidarı almaya çalışacağı için proletaryanın diktatörlüğü zorunludur. Ayrıca toplumsal konumu gereği proletarya, sınıflı toplumsal yapıyı sona erdirecek olan iradedir. Marx'a göre bu irade, proletaryanın "doğal" olarak kurup benimseyeceği bir çeşit parti olacaktır. Marx için bu parti, proletaryanın içinden tamamen tarihsel bir zorunluluk ve kapitalizmin çelişkileri sonucu ortaya çıkar. Bu noktada Marx'ın saptaması, partinin devrim için bir aygıt ve proletaryanın örgütlenmiş bir biçimi, onun buluşma alanı olmasıdır. Devrimi yapansa, proletaryanın bizzat kendisidir.

Ancak Lenin bu iradeyi komünist parti önderliğindeki proletarya olarak tanımlamıştır. Lenin'in bu saptamasında devrim proletarya için yapılmış olsa da, devrimin birincil öğesi ve yaratıcısı kurulmuş olan Marksist partidir. Birçok Marksist düşünür, bunu Leninizm ve Marksizm arasındaki ince farklardan biri olarak tanımlar. Devlet ve Devrim'de açıkladığı SSCB'de vücut bulan teorik saptamalarında Partinin Proletarya Diktatörlüğüne geçiş için olmazsa olmaz nüvesi olarak belirtmiştir.

Sovyet sosyalizmi bir proletarya diktatörlüğü deneyimi olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Marksizmin içinden ve dışından bu deneyimin olumsuz ya da olumlu olarak değerlendirilmesi söz konusudur. Özellikle Stalin döneminden sonra Sovyet sosyalizmi gerek 68 kuşağı, gerek Troçkistler, gerekse anarşistler ve sosyal demokratlar tarafından sıkça eleştirilmiş ve tartışılmıştır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Halkın demokratik diktatörlüğü
 Sınıf savaşı
 Marksizm-Leninizm
 Komünizm
 Sovyet demokrasisi

Ekim Devrimi

Proletarya diktatörlüğü


Ella Greenslade (Christchurch, 8 de abril de 1997) é uma remadora neozelandesa, medalhista olímpica.

Carreira

Formada pela St Margaret's College, Greenslade conquistou a medalha de prata nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 em Tóquio com a equipe da Nova Zelândia no oito com feminino, ao lado de Emma Dyke, Lucy Spoors, Kelsey Bevan, Grace Prendergast, Kerri Gowler, Beth Ross, Jackie Gowler e Caleb Shepherd, com o tempo de 6:00.04.

Remadores olímpicos da Nova Zelândia
Remadores nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020

Ella Greenslade