In Britain and Ireland, a workhouse ( lit. "poor-house") was an institution where those unable to support themselves financially were offered accommodation and employment (In Scotland, they were usually known as poorhouses.). The earliest known use of the term workhouse is from 1631, in an account by the mayor of Abingdon reporting that "we have erected wthn our borough a workhouse to set poorer people to work".

The origins of the workhouse can be traced to the Statute of Cambridge 1388, which attempted to address the labour shortages following the Black Death in England by restricting the movement of labourers, and ultimately led to the state becoming responsible for the support of the poor. However, mass unemployment following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the introduction of new technology to replace agricultural workers in particular, and a series of bad harvests, meant that by the early 1830s the established system of poor relief was proving to be unsustainable. The New Poor Law of 1834 attempted to reverse the economic trend by discouraging the provision of relief to anyone who refused to enter a workhouse. Some Poor Law authorities hoped to run workhouses at a profit by utilising the free labour of their inmates. Most were employed on tasks such as breaking stones, crushing bones to produce fertiliser, or picking oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike.

As the 19th century wore on, workhouses increasingly became refuges for the elderly, infirm, and sick rather than the able-bodied poor, and in 1929 legislation was passed to allow local authorities to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals. Although workhouses were formally abolished by the same legislation in 1930, many continued under their new appellation of Public Assistance Institutions under the control of local authorities. It was not until the introduction of the  National Assistance Act 1948 that the last vestiges of the Poor Law finally disappeared, and with them the workhouses.

Legal and social background

Medieval to Early Modern period
The Statute of Cambridge 1388 was an attempt to address the labour shortage caused by the Black Death, a devastating pandemic that killed about one-third of England's population.  The new law fixed wages and restricted the movement of labourers, as it was anticipated that if they were allowed to leave their parishes for higher-paid work elsewhere then wages would inevitably rise.  According to historian Derek Fraser, the fear of social disorder following the plague ultimately resulted in the state, and not a "personal Christian charity", becoming responsible for the support of the poor.  The resulting laws against vagrancy were the origins of state-funded relief for the poor. From the 16th century onwards a distinction was legally enshrined between those who were willing to work but could not, and those who were able to work but would not: between "the genuinely unemployed and the idler".  Supporting the destitute was a problem exacerbated by King Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries, which began in 1536.  They had been a significant source of charitable relief, and provided a good deal of direct and indirect employment. The Poor Relief Act of 1576 went on to establish the principle that if the able-bodied poor needed support, they had to work for it.

The Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601 made parishes legally responsible for the care of those within their boundaries who, through age or infirmity, were unable to work.  The Act essentially classified the poor into one of three groups.  It proposed that the able-bodied be offered work in a house of correction (the precursor of the workhouse), where the "persistent idler" was to be punished.  It also proposed the construction of housing for the impotent poor, the old and the infirm, although most assistance was granted through a form of poor relief known as outdoor relief – money, food, or other necessities given to those living in their own homes, funded by a local tax on the property of the wealthiest in the parish.

Georgian era

The workhouse system evolved in the 17th century, allowing parishes to reduce the cost to ratepayers of providing poor relief. The first authoritative figure for numbers of workhouses comes in the next century from The Abstract of Returns made by the Overseers of the Poor, which was drawn up following a government survey in 1776. It put the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales at more than 1800 (about one parish in seven), with a total capacity of more than 90,000 places. This growth in the number of workhouses was prompted by the Workhouse Test Act 1723; by obliging anyone seeking poor relief to enter a workhouse and undertake a set amount of work, usually for no pay (a system called indoor relief), the Act helped prevent irresponsible claims on a parish's poor rate.

The growth was also bolstered by the Relief of the Poor Act 1782, proposed by Thomas Gilbert. Gilbert's Act was intended to allow parishes to share the cost of poor relief by joining together to form unions, known as Gilbert Unions, to build and maintain even larger workhouses to accommodate the elderly and infirm. The able-bodied poor were instead either given outdoor relief or found employment locally. Relatively few Gilbert Unions were set up, but the supplementing of inadequate wages under the Speenhamland system did become established towards the end of the 18th century. So keen were some Poor Law authorities to cut costs wherever possible that cases were reported of husbands being forced to sell their wives, to avoid them becoming a financial burden on the parish. In one such case in 1814 the wife and child of Henry Cook, who were living in Effingham workhouse, were sold at Croydon market for one shilling (5p); the parish paid for the cost of the journey and a "wedding dinner".

By the 1830s most parishes had at least one workhouse, but many were badly managed. In his 1797 work, The State of the Poor, Sir Frederick Eden, wrote:

Instead of a workhouse, some sparsely populated parishes placed homeless paupers into rented accommodation, and provided others with relief in their own homes. Those entering a workhouse might join anywhere from a handful to several hundred other inmates; for instance, between 1782 and 1794 Liverpool's workhouse accommodated 900–1200 indigent men, women and children. The larger workhouses such as the Gressenhall House of Industry generally served a number of communities, in Gressenhall's case 50 parishes. Writing in 1854, Poor Law commissioner George Nicholls viewed many of them as little more than factories:

1834 Act

By 1832 the amount spent on poor relief nationally had risen to £7 million a year, more than 10 shillings (£) per head of population, up from £2 million in 1784. The large number of those seeking assistance was pushing the system to "the verge of collapse". The economic downturn following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century resulted in increasing numbers of unemployed. Coupled with developments in agriculture that meant less labour was needed on the land, along with three successive bad harvests beginning in 1828 and the Swing Riots of 1830, reform was inevitable.

Many suspected that the system of poor relief was being widely abused. In 1832 the government established a Royal Commission to investigate and recommend how relief could best be given to the poor. The result was the establishment of a centralised Poor Law Commission in England and Wales under the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, also known as the New Poor Law, which discouraged the allocation of outdoor relief to the able-bodied; "all cases were to be 'offered the house', and nothing else". Individual parishes were grouped into Poor Law Unions, each of which was to have a union workhouse. More than 500 of these were built during the next 50 years, two-thirds of them by 1840. In certain parts of the country there was a good deal of resistance to these new buildings, some of it violent, particularly in the industrial north. Many workers lost their jobs during the major economic depression of 1837, and there was a strong feeling that what the unemployed needed was not the workhouse but short-term relief to tide them over. By 1838, 573 Poor Law Unions had been formed in England and Wales, incorporating 13,427 parishes, but it was not until 1868 that unions were established across the entire country: the same year that the New Poor Law was applied to the Gilbert Unions.

Despite the intentions behind the 1834 Act, relief of the poor remained the responsibility of local taxpayers, and there was thus a powerful economic incentive to use loopholes such as sickness in the family to continue with outdoor relief; the weekly cost per person was about half that of providing workhouse accommodation.  Outdoor relief was further restricted by the terms of the 1844 Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order, which aimed to end it altogether for the able-bodied poor. In 1846, of 1.33 million paupers only 199,000 were maintained in workhouses, of whom 82,000 were considered to be able-bodied, leaving an estimated 375,000 of the able-bodied on outdoor relief. Excluding periods of extreme economic distress, it has been estimated that about 6.5% of the British population may have been accommodated in workhouses at any given time.

Early Victorian workhouses

The New Poor Law Commissioners were very critical of existing workhouses, and generally insisted that they be replaced. They complained in particular that "in by far the greater number of cases, it is a large almshouse, in which the young are trained in idleness, ignorance, and vice; the able-bodied maintained in sluggish sensual indolence; the aged and more respectable exposed to all the misery that is incident to dwelling in such a society".

After 1835 many workhouses were constructed with the central buildings surrounded by work and exercise yards enclosed behind brick walls, so-called "pauper bastilles".  The commission proposed that all new workhouses should allow for the segregation of paupers into at least four distinct groups, each to be housed separately: the aged and impotent, children, able-bodied males, and able-bodied females.  A common layout resembled Jeremy Bentham's prison panopticon, a radial design with four three-storey buildings at its centre set within a rectangular courtyard, the perimeter of which was defined by a three-storey entrance block and single-storey outbuildings, all enclosed by a wall. That basic layout, one of two designed by the architect Sampson Kempthorne (his other design was octagonal with a segmented interior, sometimes known as the Kempthorne star), allowed for four separate work and exercise yards, one for each class of inmate.  Separating the inmates was intended to serve three purposes: to direct treatment to those who most needed it; to deter others from pauperism; and as a physical barrier against illness, physical and mental.
The commissioners argued that buildings based on Kempthorne's plans would be symbolic of the recent changes to the provision of poor relief; one assistant commissioner expressed the view that they would be something "the pauper would feel it was utterly impossible to contend against", and "give confidence to the Poor Law Guardians".  Another assistant commissioner claimed the new design was intended as a "terror to the able-bodied population", but the architect George Gilbert Scott was critical of what he called "a set of ready-made designs of the meanest possible character".  Some critics of the new Poor Law noted the similarities between Kempthorne's plans and model prisons, and doubted that they were merely coincidental - Richard Oastler went as far as referring to the institutions as 'prisons for the poor'. Augustus Pugin compared Kempthorne's octagonal plan with the "antient poor hoyse", in what Felix Driver calls a "romantic, conservative critique" of the "degeneration of English moral and aesthetic values".

By the 1840s some of the enthusiasm for Kempthorne's designs had waned.  With limited space in built-up areas, and concerns over the ventilation of buildings, some unions moved away from panopticon designs. Between 1840 and 1870 about 150 workhouses with separate blocks designed for specific functions were built.  Typically the entrance building contained offices, while the main workhouse building housed the various wards and workrooms, all linked by long corridors designed to improve ventilation and lighting.  Where possible, each building was separated by an exercise yard, for the use of a specific category of pauper.

Admission and discharge

Each Poor Law Union employed one or more relieving officers, whose job it was to visit those applying for assistance and assess what relief, if any, they should be given. Any applicants considered to be in need of immediate assistance could be issued with a note admitting them directly to the workhouse. Alternatively they might be offered any necessary money or goods to tide them over until the next meeting of the guardians, who would decide on the appropriate level of support and whether or not the applicants should be assigned to the workhouse.

Workhouses were designed with only a single entrance guarded by a porter, through which inmates and visitors alike had to pass. Near to the entrance were the casual wards for tramps and vagrants and the relieving rooms, where paupers were housed until they had been examined by a medical officer. After being assessed the paupers were separated and allocated to the appropriate ward for their category: boys under 14, able-bodied men between 14 and 60, men over 60, girls under 14, able-bodied women between 14 and 60, and women over 60. Children under the age of two were allowed to remain with their mothers, but by entering a workhouse paupers were considered to have forfeited responsibility for their families. Clothing and personal possessions (with the possible exception of spectacles) were usually taken from them and stored, to be returned on their discharge. After bathing, they were issued with a distinctive uniform: for men it might be a striped cotton shirt, jacket and trousers, and a cloth cap, and for women a blue-and-white striped dress worn underneath a smock. Shoes were also provided.  In some establishments certain categories of inmate were marked out by their clothing; for example, at Bristol Incorporation workhouse, prostitutes were required to wear a yellow dress and pregnant single women a red dress; such practices were deprecated by the Poor Law Commission in a directive issued in 1839 entitled "Ignominious Dress for Unchaste Women in Workhouses", but they continued until at least 1866. Some workhouses had a separate "foul" or "itch" ward, where inmates diagnosed with skin diseases such as scabies could be detained before entering the workhouse proper. Also not to be overlooked were unfortunate destitute sufferers of mental health disorders, who would be ordered to enter the workhouse by the parish doctor. The Lunacy Act 1853 did promote the asylum as the institution of choice for patients afflicted with all forms of mental illness. However, in reality, destitute people suffering from mental illness would be housed in their local workhouse.

Conditions in the casual wards were worse than in the relieving rooms, and deliberately designed to discourage vagrants, who were considered potential troublemakers and probably disease-ridden. Vagrants who presented themselves at the door of a workhouse were at the mercy of the porter, whose decision it was whether or not to allocate them a bed for the night in the casual ward. Those refused entry risked being sentenced to two weeks of hard labour if they were found begging or sleeping in the open and prosecuted for an offence under the Vagrancy Act 1824.

A typical early 19th-century casual ward was a single large room furnished with some kind of bedding and perhaps a bucket in the middle of the floor for sanitation. The bedding on offer could be very basic: the Poor Law authorities in Richmond in London in the mid-1840s provided only straw and rags, although beds were available for the sick. In return for their night's accommodation vagrants might be expected to undertake a certain amount of work before leaving the next day; for instance at Guisborough men were required to break stones for three hours and women to pick oakum, two hours before breakfast and one after. Until the passage of the Casual Poor Act 1882 vagrants could discharge themselves before 11 am on the day following their admission, but from 1883 onwards they were required to be detained until 9 am on the second day. Those who were admitted to the workhouse again within one month were required to be detained until the fourth day after their admission.

Inmates were free to leave whenever they wished after giving reasonable notice, generally considered to be three hours, but if a parent discharged him- or herself then the children were also discharged, to prevent them from being abandoned. The comic actor Charlie Chaplin, who spent some time with his mother in Lambeth workhouse, records in his autobiography that when he and his half-brother returned to the workhouse after having been sent to a school in Hanwell, he was met at the gate by his mother Hannah, dressed in her own clothes. Desperate to see them again she had discharged herself and the children; they spent the day together playing in Kennington Park and visiting a coffee shop, after which she readmitted them all to the workhouse.

Available data surrounding death rates within the workhouse system is minimal; however, in the Wall to Wall documentary Secrets from the Workhouse, it is estimated that 10% of those admitted to the workhouse after the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act died within the system.

Work

Some Poor Law authorities hoped that payment for the work undertaken by the inmates would produce a profit for their workhouses, or at least allow them to be self-supporting, but whatever small income could be produced never matched the running costs. In the 18th century, inmates were poorly managed, and lacked either the inclination or the skills to compete effectively with free market industries such as spinning and weaving. Some workhouses operated not as places of employment, but as houses of correction, a role similar to that trialled by Buckinghamshire magistrate Matthew Marryott. Between 1714 and 1722 he experimented with using the workhouse as a test of poverty rather than a source of profit, leading to the establishment of a large number of workhouses for that purpose. Nevertheless, local people became concerned about the competition to their businesses from cheap workhouse labour. As late as 1888, for instance, the Firewood Cutters Protection Association was complaining that the livelihood of its members was being threatened by the cheap firewood on offer from the workhouses in the East End of London.

Many inmates were allocated tasks in the workhouse such as caring for the sick or teaching that were beyond their capabilities, but most were employed on "generally pointless" work, such as breaking stones or removing the hemp from telegraph wires. Others picked oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike, which may be the source of the workhouse's nickname. Bone-crushing, useful in the creation of fertiliser, was a task most inmates could perform, until a government inquiry into conditions in the Andover workhouse in 1845 found that starving paupers were reduced to fighting over the rotting bones they were supposed to be grinding, to suck out the marrow. The resulting scandal led to the withdrawal of bone-crushing as an employment in workhouses and the replacement of the Poor Law Commission by the Poor Law Board in 1847. Conditions were thereafter regulated by a list of rules contained in the 1847 Consolidated General Order, which included guidance on issues such as diet, staff duties, dress, education, discipline, and redress of grievances.

Some Poor Law Unions opted to send destitute children to the British colonies, in particular to Canada and Australia, where it was hoped the fruits of their labour would contribute to the defence of the empire and enable the colonies to buy more British exports. Known as Home Children, the Philanthropic Farm school alone sent more than 1000 boys to the colonies between 1850 and 1871, many of them taken from workhouses. In 1869 Maria Rye and Annie Macpherson, "two spinster ladies of strong resolve", began taking groups of orphans and children from workhouses to Canada, most of whom were taken in by farming families in Ontario. The Canadian government paid a small fee to the ladies for each child delivered, but most of the cost was met by charities or the Poor Law Unions.

As far as possible, elderly inmates were expected to undertake the same kind of work as the younger men and women, although concessions were made to their relative frailty. Or they might be required to chop firewood, clean the wards, or carry out other domestic tasks. In 1882 Lady Brabazon, later the Countess of Meath, set up a project to provide alternative occupation for non-able-bodied inmates, known as the Brabazon scheme. Volunteers provided training in crafts such as knitting, embroidery and lace making, all costs initially being borne by Lady Brabazon herself. Although slow to take off, when workhouses discovered that the goods being produced were saleable and could make the enterprise self-financing, the scheme gradually spread across the country, and by 1897 there were more than 100 branches.

Diet

In 1836 the Poor Law Commission distributed six diets for workhouse inmates, one of which was to be chosen by each Poor Law Union depending on its local circumstances.  Although dreary, the food was generally nutritionally adequate, and according to contemporary records was prepared with great care.  Issues such as training staff to serve and weigh portions were well understood.  The diets included general guidance, as well as schedules for each class of inmate.  They were laid out on a weekly rotation, the various meals selected on a daily basis, from a list of foodstuffs.  For instance, a breakfast of bread and gruel was followed by dinner, which might consist of cooked meats, pickled pork or bacon with vegetables, potatoes, yeast dumpling, soup and suet, or rice pudding.  Supper was normally bread, cheese and broth, and sometimes butter or potatoes.

The larger workhouses had separate dining rooms for males and females; workhouses without separate dining rooms would stagger the meal times to avoid any contact between the sexes.

Education

Education was provided for the children, but workhouse teachers were a particular problem. Poorly paid, without any formal training, and facing large classes of unruly children with little or no interest in their lessons, few stayed in the job for more than a few months. In an effort to force workhouses to offer at least a basic level of education, legislation was passed in 1845 requiring that all pauper apprentices should be able to read and sign their own indenture papers. A training college for workhouse teachers was set up at Kneller Hall in Twickenham during the 1840s, but it closed in the following decade.

Some children were trained in skills valuable to the area.  In Shrewsbury, the boys were placed in the workhouse's workshop, while girls were tasked with spinning, making gloves and other jobs "suited to their sex, their ages and abilities".  At St Martin in the Fields, children were trained in spinning flax, picking hair and carding wool, before being placed as apprentices.  Workhouses also had links with local industry; in Nottingham, children employed in a cotton mill earned about £60 a year for the workhouse.  Some parishes advertised for apprenticeships, and were willing to pay any employer prepared to offer them.  Such agreements were preferable to supporting children in the workhouse: apprenticed children were not subject to inspection by justices, thereby lowering the chance of punishment for neglect; and apprenticeships were viewed as a better long-term method of teaching skills to children who might otherwise be uninterested in work.  Supporting an apprenticed child was also considerably cheaper than the workhouse or outdoor relief.  Children often had no say in the matter, which could be arranged without the permission or knowledge of their parents.  The supply of labour from workhouse to factory, which remained popular until the 1830s, was sometimes viewed as a form of transportation.  While getting parish apprentices from Clerkenwell, Samuel Oldknow's agent reported how some parents came "crying to beg they may have their Children out again".  Historian Arthur Redford suggests that the poor may have once shunned factories as "an insidious sort of workhouse".

Religion

Religion played an important part in workhouse life: prayers were read to the paupers before breakfast and after supper each day. Each Poor Law Union was required to appoint a chaplain to look after the spiritual needs of the workhouse inmates, and he was invariably expected to be from the established Church of England. Religious services were generally held in the dining hall, as few early workhouses had a separate chapel but in some parts of the country, notably Cornwall and northern England, there were more dissenters than members of the established church. As section 19 of the 1834 Poor Law specifically forbade any regulation forcing an inmate to attend church services "in a Mode contrary to [their] Religious Principles", the commissioners were reluctantly forced to allow non-Anglicans to leave the workhouse on Sundays to attend services elsewhere, so long as they were able to provide a certificate of attendance signed by the officiating minister on their return.

As the 19th century wore on non-conformist ministers increasingly began to conduct services within the workhouse, but Catholic priests were rarely welcomed. A variety of legislation had been introduced during the 17th century to limit the civil rights of Catholics, beginning with the Popish Recusants Act 1605 in the wake of the failed Gunpowder Plot that year. Though almost all restrictions on Catholics in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland were removed by the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, a great deal of anti-Catholic feeling remained. Even in areas with large Catholic populations, such as Liverpool, the appointment of a Catholic chaplain was unthinkable. Some guardians went so far as to refuse Catholic priests entry to the workhouse.

Discipline
Discipline was strictly enforced in the workhouse; for minor offences such as swearing or feigning sickness the "disorderly" could have their diet restricted for up to 48 hours. For more serious offences such as insubordination or violent behavior the "refractory" could be confined for up to 24 hours, and might also have their diet restricted. Girls were punished in the same way as adults but sometimes in older cases girls were also beaten or slapped, but boys under the age of 14 could be beaten with "a rod or other instrument, such as may have been approved of by the Guardians". Children, specifically orphans, who leave the grounds without being discharged or run away from workhouses could be severely disciplined and could be confined with no food or water. The persistently refractory, or anyone bringing "spirituous or fermented liquor" into the workhouse, could be taken before a Justice of the Peace and even gaoled. All punishments handed out were recorded in a punishment book, which was examined regularly by the workhouse guardians, locally elected representatives of the participating parishes with overall responsibility for the running of the workhouse.

Management and staffing

Although the commissioners were responsible for the regulatory framework within which the Poor Law Unions operated, each union was run by a locally elected board of guardians, comprising representatives from each of the participating parishes, assisted by six ex officio members. The guardians were usually farmers or tradesmen, and as one of their roles was the contracting out of the supply of goods to the workhouse, the position could prove lucrative for them and their friends. Simon Fowler has commented that "it is clear that this [the awarding of contracts] involved much petty corruption, and it was indeed endemic throughout the Poor Law system".

Although the 1834 Act allowed for women to become workhouse guardians provided they met the property requirement, the first female was not elected until 1875. Working class guardians were not appointed until 1892, when the property requirement was dropped in favour of occupying rented premises worth £5 a year.

Every workhouse had a complement of full-time staff, often referred to as the indoor staff. At their head was the governor or master, who was appointed by the board of guardians. His duties were laid out in a series of orders issued by the Poor Law Commissioners. As well as the overall administration of the workhouse, masters were required to discipline the paupers as necessary and to visit each ward twice daily, at 11 am and 9 pm. Female inmates and children under seven were the responsibility of the matron, as was the general housekeeping. The master and the matron were usually a married couple, charged with running the workhouse "at the minimum cost and maximum efficiency – for the lowest possible wages".

A large workhouse such as Whitechapel, accommodating several thousand paupers, employed a staff of almost 200; the smallest may only have had a porter and perhaps an assistant nurse in addition to the master and matron. A typical workhouse accommodating 225 inmates had a staff of five, which included a part-time chaplain and a part-time medical officer. The low pay meant that many medical officers were young and inexperienced. To add to their difficulties, in most unions they were obliged to pay out of their own pockets for any drugs, dressings or other medical supplies needed to treat their patients.

Later developments and abolition

A second major wave of workhouse construction began in the mid-1860s, the result of a damning report by the Poor Law inspectors on the conditions found in infirmaries in London and the provinces. Of one workhouse in Southwark, London, an inspector observed bluntly that "The workhouse does not meet the requirements of medical science, nor am I able to suggest any arrangements which would in the least enable it to do so". By the middle of the 19th century there was a growing realisation that the purpose of the workhouse was no longer solely or even chiefly to act as a deterrent to the able-bodied poor, and the first generation of buildings was widely considered to be inadequate. About 150 new workhouses were built mainly in London, Lancashire and Yorkshire between 1840 and 1875, in architectural styles that began to adopt Italianate or Elizabethan features, to better fit into their surroundings and present a less intimidating face. One surviving example is the gateway at Ripon, designed somewhat in the style of a medieval almshouse. A major feature of this new generation of buildings is the long corridors with separate wards leading off for men, women and children.

By 1870 the architectural fashion had moved away from the corridor design in favour of a pavilion style based on the military hospitals built during and after the Crimean War, providing light and well-ventilated accommodation. Opened in 1878, the Manchester Union's infirmary comprised seven parallel three-storey pavilions separated by  "airing yards"; each pavilion had space for 31 beds, a day room, a nurse's kitchen and toilets. By the start of the 20th century new workhouses were often fitted out to an "impressive standard". Opened in 1903, the workhouse at Hunslet in West Riding of Yorkshire had two steam boilers with automatic stokers supplying heating and hot water throughout the building, a generator to provide electricity for the institution's 1,130 electric lamps, and electric lifts in the infirmary pavilion.

As early as 1841 the Poor Law Commissioners were aware of an "insoluble dilemma" posed by the ideology behind the New Poor Law:

The education of children presented a similar dilemma. It was provided free in the workhouse but had to be paid for by the "merely poor"; free primary education for all children was not provided in the UK until 1918. Instead of being "less eligible", conditions for those living in the workhouse were in certain respects "more eligible" than for those living in poverty outside.

By the late 1840s most workhouses outside London and the larger provincial towns housed only "the incapable, elderly and sick". By the end of the century only about 20 per cent of those admitted to workhouses were unemployed or destitute, but about 30 per cent of the population over 70 were in workhouses. The introduction of pensions for those aged over 70 in 1908 did not reduce the number of elderly housed in workhouses, but it did reduce the number of those on outdoor relief by 25 per cent.

Responsibility for administration of the Poor Law passed to the Local Government Board in 1871, and the emphasis soon shifted from the workhouse as "a receptacle for the helpless poor" to its role in the care of the sick and helpless. The Diseases Prevention (Metropolis) Act 1883 allowed London workhouse infirmaries to offer treatment to non-paupers as well as inmates, and by the beginning of the 20th century some infirmaries were even able to operate as private hospitals.

The Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress 1905–1909 reported that workhouses were unsuited to deal with the different categories of resident they had traditionally housed, and recommended that specialised institutions for each class of pauper should be established, in which they could be treated appropriately by properly trained staff. The "deterrent" workhouses were in future to be reserved for "incorrigibles such as drunkards, idlers and tramps". On 24 January 1918 the Daily Telegraph reported that the Local Government Committee on the Poor Law had presented to the Ministry of Reconstruction a report recommending abolition of the workhouses and transferring their duties to other organizations.

The Local Government Act 1929 gave local authorities the power to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals, although outside London few did so.
The workhouse system was abolished in the UK by the same Act on 1 April 1930, but many workhouses, renamed Public Assistance Institutions, continued under the control of local county councils. At the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 almost 100,000 people were accommodated in the former workhouses, 5,629 of whom were children.

The 1948 National Assistance Act abolished the last vestiges of the Poor Law, and with it the workhouses. Many of the workhouse buildings were converted into retirement homes run by the local authorities; slightly more than half of local authority accommodation for the elderly was provided in former workhouses in 1960. Camberwell workhouse (in Peckham, South London) continued until 1985 as a homeless shelter for more than 1,000 men, operated by the Department of Health and Social Security and renamed a resettlement centre. Southwell Workhouse, now a museum, was used to provide temporary accommodation for mothers and children until the early 1990s.

Modern view

The Poor Law was not designed to address the issue of poverty, which was considered to be the inevitable lot for most people; rather it was concerned with pauperism, "the inability of an individual to support himself". Writing in 1806 Patrick Colquhoun commented that:

Historian Simon Fowler has argued that workhouses were "largely designed for a pool of able-bodied idlers and shirkers ... However this group hardly existed outside the imagination of a generation of political economists". Workhouse life was intended to be harsh, to deter the able-bodied poor and to ensure that only the truly destitute would apply, a principle known as less eligibility.
Friedrich Engels, however, described what he imagined the motives of the authors of the 1834 New Poor Law to be, "to force the poor into the Procrustean bed of their preconceived notions. To do this they treated the poor with incredible savagery."

The purpose of workhouse labour was never clear according to historian M. A. Crowther. In the early days of workhouses it was either a punishment or a source of income for the parish, but during the 19th century the idea of work as punishment became increasingly unfashionable. The idea took hold that work should rehabilitate the workhouse inmates for their eventual independence, and that it should therefore be rewarded with no more than the workers' maintenance, otherwise there would be no incentive for them to seek work elsewhere.

As of 1997, around 10% of the British population had a genealogical connection to the workhouse system.

In art and literature

The "dramatic possibilities" of the workhouse provided the inspiration for several artists including Charles West Cope, whose Board Day Application for Bread (1841), depicting a young widow pleading for bread for her four children, was painted following his visit to a meeting of the Staines Board of Guardians. The "quintessential workhouse yarn" is Oliver Twist (1838) by Charles Dickens, which contains the well-known request from Oliver to the master of the workhouse: "Please, sir, I want some more". Another popular piece of workhouse literature was the dramatic monologue In the Workhouse – Christmas Day (1877) by George Robert Sims, with its first line of "It is Christmas Day in the workhouse". In chapter XXVII of his first book, Down and Out in Paris and London (1933), George Orwell gives a brief but vivid account of his stay in a London workhouse when he roamed the streets as a tramp. In 1931 an early version of this account had been published as an essay "The Spike" in an issue of The New Adelphi.

See also
Almshouse
Poorhouse
Book of Murder
Cottage Homes
Penal servitude
Scottish poorhouse
Unfree labour

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links
Victorian Workhouses
The Workhouse Website An extensive history of the workhouse
Workhouse records on The National Archives' website.
The Rise and Fall of the Workhouse

Poverty in the United Kingdom

Workhouse


Marcos Yauri Montero (Huaraz, 1930) es un poeta, escritor y ensayista peruano. Estudia la cultura popular andina.

Biografía

Estudió en la escuela primaria en Huaraz. Entre 1944 y 1948 continuó la secundaria en el Colegio Nacional La Libertad de la misma ciudad. Al concluir sus estudios de nivel superior en Trujillo, optó el título de docente profesional en el área de Historia y Geografía, para el cual estudió entre 1950 y 1953. En Trujillo fue redactor del diario La Nación.

Incursionó en la poesía, la narrativa y la novelística. Su novela más conocida ―premiada por la Casa de las Américas (La Habana)― es En otoño, después de mil años (1974), una obra densa de carácter surrealista, un tanto similar, en la forma, a la obra de Nicolás Guillén.

También ha trabajado en la literatura oral. Como profesor del Colegio Nacional La Libertad (de Huaraz) tuvo la oportunidad de recopilar  valiosísimos relato: leyendas, mitos, historias de santos y santas; ya que sus alumnos eran oriundos de la mayoría de distritos de Áncash, y estudiaban en dicho colegio por sus méritos. El escritor Marcos Yauri publicó aquellos relatos en Ganchiscocha (1967).

Durante el trágico terremoto del 31 de mayo de 1970 se encontraba en la ciudad de Huaraz. Volcó sus experiencias en Tiempo de dolor y de muerte.

Publicaciones

Novelas y Obras
 1980: María Colon.
 1996: El hombre de la gabardina.
 1999: No preguntes quién ha muerto.
 2000: Mañana volveré.
 2004: Eurídice, el amor.
 2010: El misterio de la calle Loreto.
 2011: Cuando la risa es fiesta.
 2014: El hombre de la gabardina.
 2015: Memorias de un caballo.

Narrativa y ensayo
 1967: Piedra y nieve.
 1968: Sal amarga de la tierra(1968) Peisa. Premio nacional de novela 1968. Prólogo de Francisco E. Carrillo.
 1974: En otoño, después de mil años
 1998: Reina del viento (leyendas).
 2000: Leyendas Ancashinas.
 2009: Simbolismo de las plantas alimenticias nativas en el imaginario andino (2009)(ensayo).

Poesía
 1952: Breviario de vía crucis
 1960: El mar, la lluvia y ella
 La poesía es sencilla como el amor.
 1969: Lázaro divagante.
 2007: Torres de la Soledad.
 2015: Un Caballo en la Av. Roca y Bologna.

Trabajos colectivos
En 1984 publicó ―junto a varios intelectuales, como Claudio Alba Herrera, Camila Estremadoyro, Téofilo Maguiña y Manuel Reina Loli―, con auspicio de Concytec Áncash, historia y cultura.

Texto bilingüe
 2006: Puerta de la alegría (cantos religiosos), editorial universitaria de la URP. Lo publicó en español y en quechua, pero con una grafía arbitraria, a pesar de que desde 1976 existe para Áncash una gramática y diccionario del quechua, publicado por el Ministerio de Educación de la Nación.El enfoque es de un ensayo que trata de recoger la producción marginal y larvada que medra a pesar de la indolencia del submundo amestizado, aculturado y devoto de la decadente utopía arcaica del progreso y del inicuo individualismo.

Premio
La Casa de las Américas (La Habana, Cuba) le otorgó el premio Casa de las Américas por su novela Otoño, después de mil años.

Referencias

Bibliografía

 "Enciclopedia ilustrada del Perú" de Alberto Tauro del Pino (2001) Peisa Lima. Tomo 17.
 "Siluetas del tiempo/ La poesía en el departamento de Ancash" (2004) de Pedro López Ganvini. Editorial de la U.I.G.V. Lima.

Enlaces externos
 Sitio oficial de la Casa de las Américas
 La Ventana, Portal informativo de la Casa de las Américas

Huaracinos
Novelistas de Perú
Escritores en español del siglo XX
Ensayistas de Perú
Educadores de Perú
Ateos de Perú
Ancashinos
Premio Casa de las Américas

Marcos Yauri Montero


Baron Seaford, of Seaford in the County of Sussex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 1 July 1826 for Charles Ellis, a Jamaican sugar planter and slave-owner who had earlier represented Heytesbury, Seaford and East Grinstead in the House of Commons. In 1798 he married the Hon. Elizabeth Catherine Caroline Hervey, daughter of John Hervey, Lord Hervey, eldest son of Frederick Augustus Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol and 5th Baron Howard de Walden. In 1803 Lord Seaford's four-year-old son Charles Ellis inherited the barony of Howard de Walden from his great-grandfather and became the sixth Baron Howard de Walden (this title was created by writ in 1597; see the Baron Howard de Walden for earlier history of this peerage). In 1845 he also succeeded his father as second Baron Seaford.

Charles married in 1828 Lady Lucy Cavendish-Bentinck, daughter of William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland, and his wife Henrietta Scott. Through this marriage a substantial fortune came into the Ellis family, mainly based on property ownership in central London, and also their family Kilmarnock estate and Dean Castle, which was in use until 1975 and his since been run by East Ayrshire Council. His grandson, the eighth and fourth Baron, assumed in 1917 by Royal Licence his great-grandmother's surname of Scott in addition to that of Ellis. He was succeeded by his son, the ninth and fifth Baron respectively. On his death in 1999 the two baronies separated.

The barony of Howard de Walden fell into abeyance between the late Baron's four daughters, while the barony of Seaford, which could only be inherited through male lines, was passed on to his second cousin once removed, the sixth and () present holder of the title. He is the great-grandson of the Hon. William Charles Ellis, second son of the second Baron Seaford. Lord Seaford is also high in line of succession to the barony of Howard de Walden.

However, by Royal Warrant dated 25 June 2004, the Queen called the Barony of Howard de Walden out of abeyance in favour of the eldest daughter, Mary Hazel Caridwen Czernin (born 1935). In 1957 she had married Joseph Czernin, son of Count Franz Josef Czernin, a member of one of the oldest and most prominent noble families of the former Kingdom of Bohemia, now Czech Republic. By her husband she has five daughters and a son, Peter Joseph Czernin (born 1966), who is heir to the title.

Barons Seaford (1826)
Charles Rose Ellis, 1st Baron Seaford (1771–1845)
Charles Augustus Ellis, 6th Baron Howard de Walden, 2nd Baron Seaford (1799–1868)
Frederick George Ellis, 7th Baron Howard de Walden, 3rd Baron Seaford (1830–1899)
Thomas Evelyn Scott-Ellis, 8th Baron Howard de Walden, 4th Baron Seaford (1880–1946)
John Osmael Scott-Ellis, 9th Baron Howard de Walden, 5th Baron Seaford (1912–1999)
Colin Humphrey Felton Ellis, 6th Baron Seaford (b. 1946)

The heir apparent is the present holder's eldest son, the Hon. Benjamin Felton Thomas Ellis (b. 1976)

See also
Baron Howard de Walden
Marquess of Bristol
Duke of Portland

Notes

References

The Howard de Walden Estate

Baronies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1826
Noble titles created for UK MPs

Baron Seaford


An Maxillaria caveroi in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni David Edward Bennett ngan Eric Alston Christenson. An Maxillaria caveroi in nahilalakip ha genus nga Maxillaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Peru. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Maxillaria

Maxillaria caveroi


NGC 6842 je planetna maglica u zviježđu Lisici.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 6842
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 6842 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 6842  DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 6800 - 6849

6842

NGC 6842


Anaphalioides, rod glavočika smješten u tribus Gnaphalieae, dio potporodice Asteroideae. postoji sedam priznatih vrsta sa Nove Gvineje, Novog Zelanda, Novozelandska subantarktička otočja i otočja Chatham.

Vrste
 Anaphalioides alpina (Cockayne) Glenny
 Anaphalioides bellidioides (G.Forst.) Glenny
 Anaphalioides hookeri (Allan) Anderb.
 Anaphalioides mariae (F.Muell.) Glenny
 Anaphalioides papuana (Lauterb.) Glenny
 Anaphalioides subrigida (Colenso) Anderb.
 Anaphalioides trinervis (G.Forst.) Anderb.

Izvori

Gnaphalieae

Anaphalioides


ديلا روفيري (Della Rovere) عائلة إيطالية نبيلة أصلها من سافونا. رغم أن أفرادها كانوا في حالة متوسطة فإن أصول العائلة المتواضعة تعود إلى سلالة تورينية تحمل نفس الاسم و كانوا كونتات فينوفو ، اتخذوا اللون الأزرق مع سنديانة ذهبية شعاراً .

أول شخصية بارزة من العائلة كان فرانشيسكو (1414-1484) الذي أصبح البابا سنة 1471 باسم سيكستوس الرابع.

بفضل الامتيازات التي حصل عليها بانتخابه على الكرسي البابوي ، شغل أفراد الأسرة مناصب كنسية و مدنية هامة و كانوا كوندوتييري الكنيسة.

منذ عام 1508 استحوذ آل ديلا روفيري على دوقية أوربينو ، و مدينة بيزارو في سنة 1513 .

في 1625 تنازل فرانشيسكو ماريا الثاني بضغوط من البابا أوربانوس الثامن عن الدوقية لحاكم من الكنيسة. آلت ثروة آل ديلا روفيري إلى عائلة ميديشي ، إذ أن آخر أفرادها فيتوريا ديلا روفيري ذهبت زوجةً لفرديناندو الثاني دي ميديشي، في حين تم ذهبت مكتبتهم الغنية إلى مكتبة الفاتيكان.

معرض صور

انظر أيضًا
 أسر بابوية

مراجع

أسر بابوية
عائلات إيطالية نبيلة

ديلا روفيري


Çoklu kalıtım (multiple inheritance) bir sınıfın iki veya daha fazla üst sınıftan miras almasını sağlar.Pratikte karışıklıklara (miras alınan iki farklı sınıfta aynı isimde değişkenlerin bulunması gibi) sebep olabildiği için C++ içinde kullanılabilen bu yapı C# içinde kaldırılmış ve yerine arayüz (interface) mantığı getirilmiştir.

Örnek:

 #include <iostream>

 class A
  {protected:
    int a;
   public:
    void olustur_a (int i){a=i;}
   };
 class B
  {protected:
    int b;
   public:
    void olustur_b (int i){b=i;}
   };
 class C : public A, public B
  {
   public:
    int olustur_ab (){return a*b;}
   };
// Böyle bir kodda C classı işlemini yaparken hem A dan hem de B den değer devralır.

Programlama

Çoklu kalıtım


An Theriophonum infaustum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Nicholas Edward Brown. An Theriophonum infaustum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Theriophonum, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Theriophonum

Theriophonum infaustum


Zemljopis

Kolumbija
 Cabrera, Cundinamarca
 Cabrera, Santander

Dominikanska Republika
 Cabrera, María Trinidad Sánchez
 Loma de Cabrera, Dajabón

Meksiko
 Tlalixtac de Cabrera, Oaxaca

Španjolska
 Cabrera (otok u Balearima), nenaseljeno otočić
 Cabrera d'Anoia, Katalonija
 Cabrera de Mar, Katalonija
 Castrillo de Cabrera, Kastilja i Leon
 La Cabrera, Madrid

Ostalo
 Cabrera (prezime)
 Cabrera (Santa Maria de Corcó)
 Cabrera Nunatak
 Cabrera (rijeka), u Kolumbiji
 Cabrera, sinonim za biljni rod trava Axonopus

Cabrera


Samostan – Duhovni centar – Karmel sv. Ilije muški je karmelićanski samostan i duhovni centar u Grabovici na Buškome jezeru.

Povijest
Samostan i duhovni centar ustanovljeni su 20. srpnja 2006. godine sa dva glavna cilja: evangelizacijsko-duhovnim i kulturnim. U Karmelu sv. Ilije održavaju se duhovne vježbe u cilju duhovne obnove, te kulturni i znanstveni skupovi. U okviru samostana postoji i etnografska zbirka, gdje su između ostalog izloženi nakit i narodne nošnje iz raznih gradova Bosne i Hercegovine.

Povezano
 Košljun
 Kuća susreta Tabor
 Pustinja Blaca
 Visovac

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Mrežna mjesta
 Karmel svetog Ilije na Buškome jezeru
 Facebook stranica Karmela sv. Ilije

Karmelićani
Katolički samostani u Bosni i Hercegovini


Transandantalizm (Deneyüstücülük), on dokuzuncu yüzyıl başlarından itibaren Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin New England bölgesinde edebiyat, din, kültür ve felsefe alanında ortaya çıkan yeni fikirler toplamıdır. Bazen transandantal kelimesinin diğer kullanımlarından farkını ortaya koymak için "Amerikan Transandantalizmi" olarak da adlandırılır. Amerikan Transandantalizmi döneminin kültür ve toplumunun genel durumuna özellikle de Harvard'daki entelektüalizme karşı bir protesto olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Temel inançları arasında,  aşkın ideal spiritüel durumun; fiziksel ve empirik olduğu ve kurumlaşmış dinlerin doktrinleriyle değil yalnızca bireyin bağımsızca kendi içine dönmesi  yoluyla idrak edilebileceği bulunmaktadır. Transandantalistler var olan toplumsal kurumların bireyin kendi içindeki iyiliği fark etmesi ve ona dönmesine mâni olduğuna inanmışlar, bu yüzden bireyin kendini keşfine önem vermişlerdir.

Önde gelen Transandantalistler; Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Bronson Alcott, Orestes Brownson, William Ellery Channing, Frederick Henry Hedge, Theodore Parker ve George Putnam'dır.

Bu akım dünyanın ve Tanrı'nın birliğine olan temel bir inanca dayanıyordu. Her bireyin ruhunun dünyayla aynı olduğu, dünyanın birebir bir mikrokozmozu olduğu düşünülüyordu. Kendine güven ve bireycilik doktrini, bireysel ruhun Tanrı ile kendini özdeşleştirmesine olan inançla gelişti.

Kaynakça
  Wikipedia-Transcendentalism

Dış bağlantılar
 The web of American transcendentalism
 A Lecture from Emerson

Transandantalizm


Osadné este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Snina din regiunea Prešov, pe malul râului . Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 157 de locuitori. Se învecinează cu , ,  și Vyšná Jablonka.

Istoric
Localitatea Osadné este atestată documentar din 1639.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Osadné, Snina


Nighthawks at the Diner es el primer álbum en directo del músico estadounidense Tom Waits, publicado en 1975 por Asylum Records.
El álbum fue grabado en directo en los estudios Record Plant frente a un público reducido, con Waits relatando cuentos, bromas y explicando la historia de las canciones a través de siete introducciones.
El título provisional del trabajo fue Nighthawks Postcards from Easy Street, aunque se recortó a Nighthawks at the Diner al final, y está inspirado en el cuadro "Nighthawks" de Edward Hopper.

Grabación
Bones Howe, el productor del álbum, comentó sobre la grabación:

"Lo hicimos como una grabación en vivo, lo que era inusual para un artista casi reciente... Herb Cohen y yo teníamos la sensación de que necesitábamos sacar más en claro la parte jazz de Waits. Tom es un gran artista en directo, de modo que empezamos a hablar sobre dónde podíamos hacer un disco que tuviera ese sentimiento. Pensamos en clubes, pero los más conocidos como The Troubadour eran baños en esos días. Luego recordé que Barbra Streisand había grabado en el viejo Record Plant Studios, cuando estaban en la Tercera Avenida cerca de Cahuenga Boulevard. Había una habitación en la que metió una orquesta al completo. Además, en aquellos días podían mover las consolas donde las necesitasen. De modo que Herb y yo miramos si podíamos poner mesas y sillas por ahí, traer a un público y grabar".

Howe fue el principal responsable de organizar la banda para el concierto y de crear la atmósfera para el disco. Según Howe: "Traje a Michael Melvoin al piano, y era uno de los mejores arreglistas de jazz; también traje a Jim Hughart al contrabajo, a Bill Goodwin a la batería, y a Pete Christlieb al saxofón. Era una sección rítmica completamente de jazz. Herb dio entradas a todos los amigos, montamos un bar, pusimos patatas en las mesas y tuvimos al final dos conciertos completos, el 30 y el 31 de julio de 1975. Recuerdo que al comienzo había una stríper. Después entró Waits y cantó "Emotional Weather Report". Luego se encaró a la banda y leyó los anuncios clasificados de la prensa mientras tocaban. Era como Allen Ginsberg con una muy buena banda".

Jim Hughart, que tocó el contrabajo en los conciertos, recordó su experiencia a la hora de grabar el álbum: "Tuvimos que memorizar todas esas cosas, porque Waits no tenía nada en papel. De modo que pasamos cuatro o cinco días en un estudio ensayando. Y fue penoso. Pero cuando lo tuvimos todo preparado y fuimos a grabar, fueron los dos días de grabación más rápidos de mi vida. Fue muy divertido. Algunas de las canciones no eran lo que podíamos llamar temas de jazz, pero para el resto era como un disco de jazz. Era una banda de jazz: Bill Goodwin fue un batería asociado a Phil Woods durante muchos años, Pete Christlieb es uno de los mejores saxofonistas tenores, y mi viejo amigo, Mike Melvoin, tocó el piano. Eran buenas razones por las cuales se aceptó  que fuese un disco de jazz.

La canción "Big Joe and Phantom 309" es una versión de "Phantom 309", un tema compuesto por Tommy Faile e interpretado por Red Sovine en su álbum homónimo de 1967.

Lista de canciones
Todas las canciones compuestas por Tom Waits excepto donde se anota.

Cara A

Cara B

Cara C

Cara D

Personal
Pete Christlieb: saxofón tenor
 Bill Goodwin: batería
 Jim Hughart: contrabajo
 Mike Melvoin: piano y guitarra
 Tom Waits: voz, piano y guitarra

Referencias

Álbumes de Tom Waits
Álbumes de 1975
Álbumes de Asylum Records
Álbumes dobles

Nighthawks at the Diner


George Cecil Ives ( Frankfurt, 1. listopada 1867. – Hampstead/Middlesex, 4. lipnja 1950.) bio je engleski pjesnik, pisac, kazneni reformator i rani zagovornik reforme zakona o homoseksualnosti.

Život i karijera
Ives je bio izvanbračni sin engleskog časnika Gordona Maynarda Ivesa i Jane Violet Tyler. Odgojila ga je njegova baka po ocu, Emma Ives. Živjeli su  Bentwortha u Hampshireu i juga Francuske. Majku je sreo samo dvaput, a s ocem je imao trubulentnu vezu.

Ives se školovao kod kuće i na Magdalene Collegeu, Cambridge, gdje je počeo skupljati 45 svezaka spomenara (između 1892. i 1949. godine). Ovi se albumi sastoje od isječaka tema kao što su ubojstva, kazne, nakaze, teorije zločina i kažnjavanja, transvestitizam, psihologija roda, homoseksualnost, rezultati kriketa i pisma koja je pisao u novinama. Interes za kriketom doveo ga je do odigravanja jedne prvoklasne utakmice za klub Marylebone 1902. godine.

Bio je član Humanitarian League (Humanitarna liga) od 1891. do 1919., radikalne grupe koja je vjerovala da je zlo uzrokovati ikakav nepotreban bol drugim bićima.

Ives je upoznao Oscara Wildea u Authors' Clubu u Londonu 1892. godine. Tada je već radio na suzbijanju diskriminacije protiv homoseksualaca što naziva Ciljem. Nadao se da će se Wilde pridružiti Cilju, ali bio je razočaran. Godine 1893. lord Alfred Douglas, s kojim je imao kratku vezu, upoznao ga je s nekoliko oksfordskih pjesnika koje je Ives također pokušao regrutirati.

Do 1897. godine Ives je stvorio i Red Heroneje (Order of Chaeronea), tajno društvo homoseksualaca koje je dobilo ime po mjestu bitke u kojoj je sveta četa Tebe konačno uništena 338. godine prije Krista. Članovi su bili Charles Kains Jackson, Samuel Elsworth Cottam, Montague Summers i John Gambril Nicholson.

Iste godine je Ives posjetio Edwarda Carpentera u Millthorpeu. To je bio početak njihova prijateljstva.

Ives je živio u ulici Adelaide Road 196 u Londonu 1911. godine. Zaposlio je svojega dugogodišnjeg prijatelja Jamesa Goddarda kao sobara. Njegova žena i djeca također su bili zaposleni kod njega.

Ives je zajedno s Edwardom Carpenterom, Magnusom Hirschfeldom, Laurenceom Housmanom i drugima osnovao Britansko društvo za proučavanje psihologije seksualnosti 1914. godine. Također, Ives je održavao kontakt s drugim progresivnim psiholozima poput Havelocka Ellisa i profesora Cesarea Lombrosa.

Teme kojima se Društvo bavilo u predavanjima i publikacijama uključivale su: promociju znanstvenog proučavanja spola i racionalniji odnos prema seksualnom ponašanju, problemi i pitanja povezana sa seksualnom psihologijom (s medicinskoga, pravnoga i sociološkog aspekta), kontrolom rađanja, pobačajem, sterilizacijom, spolnim bolestima i svim aspektima prostitucije. Godine 1931. organizacija je postala Britansko seksološko društvo. Ives je bio arhivist Društva čije papire danas drži Harry Ransom Center na Sveučilištu u Teksasu u Austinu.

Također posjećivao zatvore širom Europe i specijalizirao se za proučavanje kaznenih metoda, posebno engleske. Predavao je i objavljivao knjige na tu temu. Umro je u Londonu 1950. u dobi od 82 godine, kremiran je u krematoriju Golders Green, a sahranjen u selu Bentworthu u Hampshireu.

Ivesovi papiri
Po svojoj smrti George Ives ostavio je veliku kolekciju koja je pokrivala njegov život i rad između 1874. i 1949. godine. Papire je 1977. kupio istraživački centar Harry Ransom Sveučilišta u Teksasu u Austinu. Podijeljeni su u četiri odjeljka:

I. Prepiska, 1874. – 1936.
Ovaj odjeljak sadrži pozivnice i pisma u vezi s njegovim spisima i predavanjima o reformi zatvora, sodomiji, Britanskom društvu za proučavanje seksualne psihologije i drugim temama. Dopisnici su mu bili Adolf Brand, Oscar Browning, Edward Carpenter, Havelock Ellis, Norman Gale, Augustus Hare, Ernest Jones, Cesare Lombroso, CM North, Reggie Turner i Edward Westermarck.

II. Works, 1897. – 1937.
Ovdje su grupirani primjeri Ivesovih objavljenih djela, predavanja, bilježaka i uzoraka stihova (i kao strojopise i kao holografe). Teme koje su zastupljene uključuju: reformu zatvora, zločin i kažnjavanje, povijesni pogledi na seksualnost, religiju.

III. Dnevnici, 1886. – 1949.
Glavninu materijala čini 122 toma dnevnika koje je Ives vodio od devetnaeste godine do otprilike šest mjeseci prije smrti u osamdeset drugoj godini. Većina dnevnika ima dnevne zapise razdoblja od 20. prosinca 1886. do 16. studenog 1949.

Pogled koji Ives pruža u svom dnevniku o životu engleskiih homoseksualaca više srednje klase od kraja devetnaestog vijeka do sredine dvadesetog posebno je zanimljiv za razumijevanje pokreta homoseksualaca u Engleskoj toga vremena. Sadržaj varira od opisnih dojmova o društvenim događajima do detaljnih ispitivanjā njegovih prijatelja i poznanika, analizā postupanja s kriminalcima i rada zatvora. Od trinaestoga sveska Ives je indeksirao svoje dnevnike i često se njima koristio kada se pripremao za predavanja ili pisanje drugih tekstova.

IV. Razno, 1888. – 1949.
Ovaj odjeljak sadrži pravila i voštani pečat Reda Heroneje, zajedno s katalogom knjižnice Britanskog društva za proučavanje psihologije seksualnosti i spomenar kritike te dijelove triju njegovih knjiga: Erosov tron (Eros' Throne, 1900.), Povijest kaznenih metoda (A History of Penal Methods, 1914.) i Prepreke ljudskom napretku (Obstacles to Human Progress, 1939.). Postoji i korektura predgovora Georgea Bernarda Shawa knjige Engleski zatvori danas (English Prisons Today, 1922.) prije izmjena.

Raffles
Bio je model za Rafflesa, izmišljenoga viktorijanskog gospodina lopova, prema Andrewu Lycettu. Lycett kaže da tvorac Rafflesa, E. W. Hornung, možda nije shvaćao ovu seksualnu stranu Ivesovog lika, ali da Raffles uživa u izuzetno intimnoj vezi sa svojim pomoćnikom Bunny Mandersom.

Bibliografija

Stihovi

 Knjiga lanaca (Book of Chains, 1897.)
 Erosovo prijestolje (Eros' Throne, 1900.)

Nefiktivna djela

 Metode kažnjavanja u srednjem vijeku (Penal Methods in the Middle Ages, 1910.)
 Liječenje zločina (The Treatment of Crime, 1912.)
 Povijest kaznenih metoda: zločinci, vještice, luđaci (A History of Penal Methods: Criminals, Witches, Lunatics, 1914.)
 Spol, struktura i ekstraorganske navike određenih životinja (The Sexes, Structure, & "Extra-organic" Habits of certain Animals, 1918.)
 Opetovano proširivanje krivičnog zakona (The Continued Extension of the Criminal Law, 1922.)
 Engleski zatvori danas (English Prisons Today, predgovor G. B. Shawa, 1922.)
 Grčko-rimski pogled na mladost (Graeco-Roman View of Youth, 1926.)
 Prepreke ljudskom napretku (Obstacles to Human Progress , 1939.)
 Nevolje adolescenta (The Plight of the Adolescent)

Fikcija

 Nestali baronet (The Missing Baronet , 1914.)

Literatura

 George Cecil Ives, Radovi: 1874.–1949.  u Harry Ransom Centru na Teksaškom univerzitetu u Austinu
 Vodič za ružičaste plakete u Londonu, Michael Elliman i Frederick Roll, Gay Men's Press, 1986,. p108

Izvori

Povezani članci

 London i kultura homoseksualnosti 1885–1914, Matt Cook, Cambridge University Press, 2003, |
 Katalog knjiga Elysium s opisom Ivesovih bilježnica
 Čovjek ugrize Man Ives Scrapbooks uredio Paul Sieveking, Jay Landesman Publishers, 1981.
 Oxfordski rječnik nacionalne biografije
Britanski književnici
Britanski borci za ljudska prava
Borci za prava LGBT osoba
LGBT u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu
Seksologija

George Cecil Ives


Ulciorul sfărâmat (Der zerbrochene Krug) este o piesă de teatru de comedie din 1811  scrisă de Heinrich von Kleist. În general este considerată o capodoperă a literaturii clasice universale.

Prezentare

Povestea are loc în 1685 în satul fictiv olandez Huisum din provincia Utrecht.  Preacinstita doamnă Marta reclamă în fața judecătorului ad-hoc Adam spargerea unui ulcior pe care-l consideră un obiect de mare preț.

Personaje
 Adam — judecător
 Eve — o fată de la țară simplă dar cinstită
Licht — secretarul judecătorului
Walter — omul venit să-l inspecteze pe Adam
Frau Marthe — mama Evei
 Ruprecht — un tânăr îndrăgostit de Eve.

Teatru radiofonic

2007  - Regia artistica: Toma Enache; cu actorii Adriana Trandafir, Claudiu Bleonț, Marcelo Cobzariu, Dana Pocea, Dorin Andone, Romeo Pop, Anemona Niculescu, Daniela Ioniță, Corina Dragomir, Violeta Berbiuc. Regia tehnica: Mihea Chelaru. Regia muzicala: George Marcu. Regia de studio: Janina Dicu. Producător: Vasile Manta.

Ecranizări
 1937 - Der zerbrochene Krug, regia Gustav Ucicky; cu  Emil Jannings, Friedrich Kayßler și Max Gülstorff

Note

Vezi și
 1811 în teatru
 Listă de piese de teatru germane

Legături externe

Heinrich von Kleist
Piese de teatru germane
Piese de teatru de comedie

Ulciorul sfărâmat


هذه المقالة تدور حول التسلسل الزمني لاكتشاف الجسيمات دون الذرية ومعها جميع الجسيمات التي تم اكتشافها إلى الآن والتي تبدو أنها أولية (أي التي لا تتجزأ) والتي تعطي أفضل الأدلة المتوفرة. وتشمل أيضا اكتشاف الجسيمات المركبة والجسيمات المضادة حيث أن لها أهمية تاريخية خاصة

وبشكل أكثر دقة، فإن المعايير المضافة هي:
 الجسيمات الأولية التابعة ل النموذج العياري لفيزياء الجسيمات التي تم ملاحظتها بشكل جيد. فالنموذج القياسي هو أشمل القوائم النموذجية لسلوك الجسيمات، فلم يكتشف بها إلى الآن أي اختلافات أو تناقضات جوهرية. وتم التحقق من جميع جسيمات النموذج العياري عدا بوزونات هيجز، وجميع الجسيمات الأخرى التي تم ملاحظتها هي مزيج لأكثر من نموذج قياسي للجسيمات.
 الجسيمات المضادة والتي كان لها أهمية تاريخية في تطوير فيزياء الجسيمات، وبشكل خاص البوزيترون ومضاد بروتون. فاكتشاف تلك الجسيمات تطلب إجراء عمليات مخبرية مختلفة جدا عن نظيراتها العادية، وأعطى اثبات بأن جميع الجسيمات لها ضديد أو جسيم مضاد— وكانت فكرة جوهرية لنظرية المجال الكمي الإطار الرياضياتي الحديث لفيزياء الجسيمات. كان اكتشاف الجسيم وضديده في معظم حالات اكتشاف الجسيمات المتلاحقة يتم في آن واحد.
 تحتوي الجسيمات المركبة التي هي أول اكتشافات الجسيم بشكل دقيق على عناصر أولية أساسية، أو الذي تم اكتشافه له أهمية بالغة في فهم فيزياء الجسيمات.

والجدير بالملاحظة بأن هناك العديد من الجسيمات المركبة قد تم اكتشافها، انظر قائمة الميزونات وقائمة الباريونات. وللإطلاع على قائمة الجسيمات بشكل عام، أنظر قائمة الجسيمات والتي من ضمنها الجسيمات الافتراضية.

 1895 - اكتشاف الأشعة السينية عن طريق وليام رونتجن (وقد تم تعريفها لاحقا بالفوتونات).
 1897 - اكتشاف الإلكترون عن طريق جوزيف طومسون.
 1899 - اكتشاف جسيم ألفا عن طريق إرنست رذرفورد بواسطة إشعاع اليورانيوم
 1900 - اكتشاف أشعة غاما (فوتونات عالية الطاقة) عن طريق بول فيلارد في اضمحلال اليورانيوم.
 1911 - التعرف على نواة الذرة عن طريق إرنست رذرفورد بالاعتماد على التبعثر التي لاحظاها كل من هانز جيجر وايرنست مارسدن.
 1919 - اكتشاف البروتون عن طريق إرنست رذرفورد.
 1932 - اكتشاف النيوترون عن طريق جيمس تشادويك - وقد تنبأ بها رذرفورد عام 1920.
 1932 - اكتشاف أول جسيم مضاد وهو البوزيترون عن طريق كارل أندرسون - وقد تنبأ بها بول ديراك سنة 1927.
 1937 - اكتشاف الميون عن طريق سيث ندرماير وكارل اندرسون وستريت وستيفنسون، باستخدام قياسات غرفة التغييم (cloud chamber) للأشعة الكونية (كان يعتقد بأنه بيون بالخطأ حتى عام 1947.).
 1947 - اكتشاف البيون عن طريق سيسل باول (وقد تنبأ بها يوكاوا هيديكي عام 1935)
 1947 - اكتشاف الكاون وهو أول جسيم غريب، عن طريق روشستر وبتلر.
 1955 - اكتشاف مضاد بروتون عن طريق إميليو سيغري وأوين تشامبرلين وجلايد ويجاند وتوماس يبسيلانتس.
 1956 - اكتشاف النيترينو عن طريق فريدريك رينز وكلايد كوان، (وقد تنبأ بها فولفغانغ باولي سنة 1931 لشرح الانتهاك الظاهر لحفظ الطاقة في تحلل البيتا).
 1962 - اكتشاف ميوون نيترينو والذي يختلف عن إلكترون نيوترينو عن طريق فريق ترأسه ليون لدرمان
 1969 - اكتشاف البارتون (أحد المكونات الداخلية للهادرون) لوحظ لوجوده أول مرة في تجربة (Deep inelastic scattering) ما بين البروتونات والكترونات في المعهد الوطني للمعجلات (SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory)، وقد أدت تلك إلى اكتشاف نموذج الكوارك (وقد تنبأ به موراي جلمان وجورج زفايج سنة 1963) مما ساهم بالتالي إلى اكتشاف كوارك علوي وكوارك سفلي وكوارك غريب.
 1974 - اكتشاف جسيم J/ψ عن طريق فريق ترأسه بورتون رجتر وسمويل تنج، وذلك لإثبات وجود كوارك ساحر (وقد خمن بوجوده بجوركن وجلاشو سنة 1964)
 1975 - اكتشاف تاوون عن طريق فريق ترأسه مارتن بيرل.
 1977 - اكتشاف جسيم أبسيلون في فيرميلاب وذلك لإثبات وجود كوارك قعري (وقد خمن بوجوده ماكوتو كوباياشي وتوشيهيده ماساكاوا سنة 1973)
 1979 - اكتشاف غلوون بطريقة غير مباشرة عن طريق حدث الدفق الثلاثي (three jet events) في معهد (German Electron Synchrotron أو اختصارا DESY) الألماني.
 1983 - اكتشاف بوزونات دبليو وزد عن طريق كارلو روبيا وسيمون فانديرمير بالاشتراك مع تعاونية سيرن UA-1. وقد تنبأ بها بالتفصيل كلا من شلدون جلاشو ومحمد عبد السلام وستيفن واينبرغ.
 1995 - اكتشاف كوارك قمي في مختبر فيرميلاب.
 1995: - اكتشاف نقيض الهيدروجين وتمت قياساته في LEAR التجارب في م أ ب ن
 2000 - تمت ملاحظة تاو نيوترينو لأول مرة في مختبر فيرميلاب.
ٍ 2011 - اكتشاف بوزون هيغز في مصادم الهدرونات الكبير وقد تنبأ به الفيزيائي «بيتر هيغز» عام 1964

مراجع

تسلسل زمني للفيزياء
فيزياء الجسيمات

التسلسل الزمني لاكتشاف الجسيمات


An Eulophia plantaginea in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Louis Marie Aubert Du Petit-Thouars, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Robert Allen Rolfe och Bénédict Pierre Georges Hochreutiner. An Eulophia plantaginea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eulophia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eulophia

Eulophia plantaginea


New Coat of Paint is the title of a tribute album to Tom Waits, released in 2000 by Manifesto Records. The songs are performed by various artists.

Track listing
All songs written by Tom Waits. Performers are listed for each track.

 "Whistlin' Past the Graveyard" - [03:37] Screamin' Jay Hawkins
 "Pasties and a G-String" - [02:23] Andre Williams
 "Heartattack and Vine" - [05:07] Lydia Lunch feat. Nels Cline
 "Virginia Avenue" - [03:23] Knoxville Girls
 "Romeo Is Bleeding" - [03:33] Dexter Romweber's Infernal Racket
 "New Coat of Paint" - [03:43] Lee Rocker
 "Broken Bicycles" - [03:49] Botanica
 "Old Boyfriends" - [04:45] Preacher Boy
 "Please Call Me, Baby" - [05:10] Sally Norvell
 "On The Nickel" - [05:45] Carla Bozulich
 "Muriel" - [03:59] Eleni Mandell
 "Poncho's Lament" - [04:27] The Blacks
 "Christmas Card from a Hooker in Minneapolis" - [03:41] Neko Case
 "Blue Skies" - [03:08] Floyd Dixon

2000 compilation albums
Tom Waits tribute albums
Manifesto Records compilation albums
Rock compilation albums

New Coat of Paint


Mierovo este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Dunajská Streda din regiunea Trnava. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 445 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Mierovo este atestată documentar din 1260.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Mierovo


The University of Hull is a public research university in Kingston upon Hull, a city in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It was founded in 1927 as University College Hull. The main university campus is located in Hull and is home to the Hull York Medical School, a joint initiative with the University of York. Students are served by Hull University Union.

The first chancellor of the university was Lord Middleton (1954–1969), followed by Lord Cohen (1970–1977), Lord Wilberforce (1978–1994), Lord Armstrong (1994–2006) and Virginia Bottomley (Baroness Bottomley of Nettlestone) (2006–2023). Alan Johnson was installed as the current chancellor in July 2023.

History

University College

The foundation stone of University College Hull, then an external college of the University of London, was laid in 1927 by Prince Albert, the Duke of York (who later became king as George VI). The college was built on land donated by Hull City Council and by two local benefactors, Thomas Ferens and G F Grant. A year later the first 14 departments, in pure sciences and the arts, opened with 39 students. The college at that time consisted of one building, now named the Venn building (after the mathematician John Venn, who was born in Hull). The building now houses the administrative centre of the university.

Other early buildings include the Cohen Building, which originally housed the college library, and Staff House, now named Canham Turner building, built in 1948 as the Students' Union. Another early structure was the Chemistry Building, built in 1953. With the rapid expansion of student numbers which took place in the 1950s many academic departments were housed in temporary buildings, colloquially known as 'huts', which gave the campus the feel of an 'academic army camp'. The Dennison Centre on Cottingham Road was formerly the Brooklands Officers Hospital opened by the Red Cross in 1917. The author J. R. R. Tolkien was a convalescent patient at Brooklands and his connection is marked by a blue plaque.

Though many of the older buildings on Hull's campus are of red brick it is not a redbrick university in the strictest sense of the term, as it was not founded as part of the civic university movement of the late Victorian and Edwardian eras. Hull, with its origins in the 1920s, has been categorised as a 'younger civic university' (also referred to as a "Whitetile university") and it is placed between the 'redbricks' and the 'plateglass universities' founded in the 1960s.

The first principal of the college was Arthur E. Morgan (1926–1935), the second was John H Nicholson (1935–1954), who also served as the university's first vice-chancellor when the college was granted university status (1954–1956).

Coat of arms
The university coat of arms was designed by Sir Algernon Tudor-Craig in 1928. The symbols are the torch for learning, the rose for Yorkshire, the ducal coronet from the arms of the City of Hull, the fleur-de-lys for Lincolnshire and the dove, symbolising peace, from the arms of Thomas Ferens. These symbols were later reused to create the current university logo. The motto, Lampada Ferens (Bearing the Torch), incorporates the name of the university's founding father within a Latin pun.

Royal charter
The college gained its royal charter on 6 September 1954. This empowered it to award degrees of its own, making it the 3rd university in Yorkshire and the 14th in England. The twenty six years between the formation of the university college and the awarding of the charter were the shortest such period in the history of university formation in England up to that time. Within a year of the charter being granted applications to study at the new university had doubled, and in 1956 student numbers topped 1,000 for the first time.

The mace
The academic authority and autonomy of the university is symbolically embodied in the ceremonial mace. Made of gilt silver, and incorporating devices from the Hull University coat of arms, the mace was presented to the university in December 1956 by the Lord Mayor of Hull. As a gift from the city it also reflects the close relationship between "town and gown" existing in Hull. The mace is carried in procession and displayed at all major university ceremonies.

Expansion in the 1950s and 1960s

The period of rapid expansion of Hull University coincided with the vice-chancellorship of Sir Brynmor Jones (1956–1972), during whose time in office student numbers quadrupled.

The Brynmor Jones Library, which houses more than a million volumes, was constructed in two phases: the first phase was fully completed in 1959, with a tower block extension officially opened in 1970. During the 1950s and 1960s a considerable number of academic buildings were built, including the Larkin and Wilberforce Buildings (originally given other names). The 'Martin Plan' of 1967, Sir Leslie Martin was the university architect, envisaged a campus with its tallest buildings in the centre surrounded by buildings diminishing in height towards the perimeter. In the course of the 1960s most of the departments housed in temporary structures were moved into new purpose-built premises. However, Biochemistry was still partially located in a 'hut' to the rear of the Venn building into the early 1980s. This early phase of expansion through building ended in 1974, after this year there was to be no further academic building construction on the campus until 1996. However, student numbers doubled in this period, with the university becoming highly efficient in using its existing building stock.

Liquid crystal technology
In 1972 George Gray and Ken Harrison created room-temperature stable liquid crystals in the university chemistry laboratories, which were an immediate success in the electronics industry and consumer products. This led to Hull becoming the first university to be awarded the Queen's Award for Technological Achievement for the joint-development of the long-lasting materials that made liquid crystal displays possible.

Expansion in the 21st century
In 2000 the university bought the site of University College Scarborough on Filey Road, Scarborough, plus two linked buildings on the same road. This became the University of Hull Scarborough Campus.

A further significant expansion took place in 2003, when the buildings of the former Humberside University campus, which were situated immediately adjacent to Hull University's main campus, were purchased. The acquisition increased the size of the Cottingham Road campus by more than a third. It was the largest single act of expansion in the history of the university. Hull University fully occupied the newly acquired premises in the 2005 academic year; the area becoming the university's West Campus. The site now houses the Hull York Medical School and the relocated business school, which is located in three of the most prominent buildings – Wharfe, Derwent and Esk.

In 2012, the university began the ambitious refurbishment of the Brynmor Jones Library, a £28 million project which will transform the 7 storey former workplace of Philip Larkin, into a learning hub suitable for students for years to come. The project was completed in 2015.

Hull History Centre
The Hull History Centre, which opened in 2010, is located in a new building on Worship Street in Hull city centre. It unites the holdings of Hull City Library's Local Studies collections and Hull University's archives and is run in partnership between the City Library and University Library.

City of Culture 2017

The university was a principal partner of the city's bid to become UK City of Culture in 2017. As well as being involved in the planning and preparation of the bid, the university and its staff and students have been involved in many of the events of the year. For example, during the initial three-month season, Hull Maritime Museum displayed a multimedia installation depicting a Bowhead whale The installation was designed by students from Hull School of Art and Design with music by students from Hull University. The opening event of the whole year, from 1–7 January, included a multimedia projection called Arrivals and Departures which was greatly influenced by the work of Dr Nick Evans on migration patterns into and through Hull. The installation was projected onto The Deep using stop-frame animation, image and sound.

Campuses

The main campus is located in a residential district of North Hull on Cottingham Road. The university had a smaller campus in Scarborough on the North Yorkshire coast.

Hull University is a campus university; though situated in a city, its main campus is in a suburban rather than urban district. The main campus occupies a single, clearly defined site and is self-contained in regard to catering and entertainment for students and staff. Most of the major features of the campus are described in the 'history' section above; in addition, the campus has a large Students' Union building, which is often described as one of the finest in the country, and extensive playing fields and other sports facilities. The large village of Cottingham on Hull's north-western outskirts housed for many years some of the university-owned student accommodation, although none are used for this purpose now.

University College Scarborough
University of Hull: Scarborough Campus was a satellite campus of the university located in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, attended by approximately 2,000 students. Formerly a higher education institution offering BSc and BA degrees, the building was acquired by the University of Hull in 2000, offering Education courses, particularly at a primary level, as well as courses in Marine Biology, Digital Media, Music Technology Theatre Studies, Tourism Management, and a number of Business and English courses.

Scarborough ran somewhat independently of the main campus in Hull, with its own branch of the Hull University Union. Graduation ceremonies took place within Scarborough's historic Spa Complex. The campus also contained basic amenities for study, such as computer labs, performance studios for students of Theatre and Dance related courses as well as dedicated music suites in the "Filey Road Studios" building opposite the campus.

In April 2014, the university released a statement that Scarborough Campus was "not sustainable in the medium to long term", and in June held a public consultation outlining the future of the campus with a new academic model in mind. In March 2015, it was revealed that the Hull College Group were the university's "preferred partners for taking forward the Scarborough Campus". The college returned to its former name, "University College Scarborough" and became part of the Hull College group, but still hosts programmes from both Hull College and the University of Hull.

External Validation
Since September 2013, all undergraduate and postgraduate degree courses at the Leeds Conservatoire are validated by the University of Hull. Beginning in 1993 Hull has validated Masters of Education programmes for the Christian Leadership in Education Office (CLEO), in Cork (and from 1993 to 1996 in Limerick), Ireland. Hull also validates a number of programmes in Rotherham College, Dearne Vally College, and other RNN Group locations.
From 1972 until 1982 the University of Hull validated programmes at the postrgaduate Irish School of Ecumenics.

Academic profile

Faculty of Science and Engineering

School of Engineering & Computer Science: Chemical Engineering, Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Computer Science, Mechanical Engineering, Medical & Biomedical Engineering
School of Environmental Sciences: Environmental Science, Geography & Geology
School of Natural Sciences: Biochemistry, Biological and Marine Science, Chemistry, Mathematics, Physics & Astrophysics

Until recently, there were two faculties, the 'Faculty of Applied Science & Technology' and the 'Faculty of Science & the Environment', before becoming the 'Faculty of Science' and later being renamed to the 'Faculty of Science and Engineering'.

Notable centres for research include the Hull Immersive Visualisation Environment (HIVE), the Institute for Estuarine and Coastal Studies (IECS), the E.A. Milne Centre for Astrophysics (MCA) and the G W Gray Centre for Advanced Materials.

A new biomedical research facility will bring academics from biology and chemistry together and will include Positron Emission Tomography with CT scanning (PET-CT) and two mini cyclotrons. Two new research groups will be based at the facility, called the Allam building: one focusing on cardiovascular and metabolic research and the other on cancer.

Faculty of Arts, Culture & Education

School of Arts: Drama; English; Film & Digital Media; Music
School of Education & Social Sciences: Criminology; Education, Teaching & Childhood Studies; Sociology & Social Sciences; Social Work, Youth & Community Development
School of Histories, Languages & Cultures: American Studies; History; Modern Languages & Cultures; Philosophy

Most social science and law-related department housed in the refurbished Wilberforce Building. Includes the School of Arts and New Media at Scarborough, formed in August 2006. Drama is taught in the Gulbenkian Centre, including the Donald Roy Theatre. History, English, Languages and Music are in the Larkin Building.
→

Faculty of Health Sciences

Hull York Medical School
School of Health & Social Work: Health, Paramedic Science, Nursing & Midwifery; Social Work, Youth & Community Development
School of Life Sciences: Biomedical Sciences; Psychology; Sport, Health & Exercise Science

Based in the Calder, Aire and Dearne buildings in the west campus. Allam Medical Building contains mock clinical areas, wards, an operating theatre and a midwifery suite, within a simulated environment.

Hull York Medical School

Teaching of medicine began in October 2003 on the west campus. Medical students receive joint degrees from the universities of Hull and York. The school includes the 'International Society for the Study of Cough' based at Castle Hill hospital on Castle Road in Cottingham. Third and fourth year students train also at hospitals in Scunthorpe, Grimsby, and Scarborough.

Postgraduate Medical Institute
Established in 1994, one of the PGMI's sections is the Yorkshire Cancer Research-funded Centre for Magnetic Resonance Investigations which is actively engaged in researching the application of magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopy techniques to cancer research.

Faculty of Business, Law & Politics

Hull University Business School: Accounting & Finance, Business & Management, Economics & Business Economics, Marketing, Logistics & Supply Chain Management
School of Law & Politics: Law, Politics & International Relations

Established in August 1999, Hull University Business School has around 3,500 students from over 100 countries. Students are taught at the Hull campus, with additional MBA students taught overseas. On the Hull campus, the school occupies refurbished listed buildings on the West Campus which were opened in 2005. The Logistics Institute was completed in September 2007, and officially launched in March 2008.

In 2011, following accreditation by the AMBA, EQUIS and AACSB, the business school became the first in Yorkshire, and the 13th in the UK, to achieve "triple crown accreditation" status.  the school remains accredited by AMBA and AACSB.

Wilberforce Institute

The Wilberforce Institute, patron Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu, for the study of Slavery and Emancipation (WISE) is located in Oriel Chambers on the High Street in Hull's Old Town, adjacent to Wilberforce House. It undertakes graduate research in the field of slavery and human rights.

Maritime Historical Studies Centre
The university's Maritime Historical Studies Centre provides a BA in History and Maritime History, an online Diploma in Maritime History and PhD research in Maritime History. The centre is located in the Hull's Old Town in Blaydes House. Its director is David J Starkey.

Confucius Institute
Since 2016 the university has hosted a Confucius Institute.

Rankings

Student life

Students' Union

Hull University Union is the main provider of student catering, services and entertainment on the university campus. It has over 100 student societies affiliated to it, and also runs a volunteering and charity hub. Approximately 50 sports clubs are affiliated to the Students Union's Athletic Union, many of which compete in BUCS national university leagues. The University Union was voted Students' Union of the Year in July 2012.

The student union building comprises an on-site nightclub as well as a number of bars and catering outlets. The building also houses a shop, advice centre, and the university-run careers service.

There is a monthly student newspaper called The Hullfire, an online television station called Hullfire TV and a student radio station which broadcasts from the union building called JAM Radio which relaunched in 2018.

Student accommodation
The university has three main halls of residence on campus:

 Taylor Court is located next to the Wilberforce building and houses 288 students in en-suite rooms with shared kitchens.
 The Courtyard opened in 2016 and is situated next to the Student Union, it houses 562 students in en-suite rooms as well as some rooftop apartments.
 Westfield Court partially opened in 2018, with a full opening in 2019 on the site of the former medical school. It houses a total of 1462 students in a mix of single and cluster flats.

In the recent past there were halls of residence in Cottingham at The Lawns, seven halls which could hold around 1,000 students. In March 2019 it was announced that The Lawns would close. Historically, the main concentration of 'traditional' (catered) university halls of residence was in Cottingham. These comprised: Cleminson Hall (closed in 2004), Needler Hall (closed in 2016), and Thwaite Hall (closed in 2017). Ferens Hall was originally a traditional hall, but was later amalgamated with the adjoining Lawns halls. Prior to the mid-1980s, Cleminson and Thwaite halls were exclusively for female residents, Needler and Ferens exclusively for male residents. There was a former on-campus student residence, Loten Hall (now known as the Loten Building).

Student housing is based primarily in the terraced streets around the university campus itself, as well as around the Newland Avenue and Beverley Road areas of the city.

Notable alumni and academics

Alumni of the University of Hull are especially prominent in the fields of politics, academia, journalism and drama. They include former MP and later Deputy Prime Minister Lord Prescott (John Prescott), former MP and Deputy Leader of the Labour Party Lord Hattersley (Roy Hattersley) and former Labour MP and deputy leader Tom Watson, former Labour MP and author Chris Mullin, vaccinologist Dame Sarah Gilbert who was Project Lead on the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, social scientist Lord Giddens (Anthony Giddens), poet Roger McGough, journalist John McCarthy, film director, playwright and screenwriter the late Anthony Minghella.

One of the 2021 joint Nobel laureates for economics was Hull graduate, Guido Imbens.

The university's Brynmor Jones Library was the workplace of the poet Philip Larkin who served as its Head Librarian for over thirty years. The Philip Larkin Society organises activities in remembrance of Larkin including the Larkin 25 festival which was organised during 2010 in partnership with the university. Andrew Motion, another prominent poet, and former poet laureate, also worked at the university. Prominent former academics include: marine biologist Sir Alister Hardy, architect Sir Leslie Martin, mathematician and historian Jacob Bronowski and novelist Sir Malcolm Bradbury.

See also
 Armorial of UK universities
 Civic university
 List of universities in the UK

References

Bibliography
Bamford, T. W. (1978) The University of Hull: the First Fifty Years, Published for the University of Hull by Oxford University Press.

External links

 Hull University Union
Review of Bamford's The University of Hull: The First Fifty Years,  Knox, H. M. British Journal of Educational Studies, vol. 28, no. 1, 1980, pp. 65–66 ($)

Universities and colleges established in 1927
1927 establishments in England
University
Universities UK

University of Hull


Events from the 15th century in Canada.

Events
 1450 - the Iroquois form the Great League of Peace and Power.
 1492 - Christopher Columbus (1451–1506), backed by Spain, reaches San Salvador Island (Guanahani to the natives), "discovering the New World" and encountering Arawak and Taíno people. Thinking he is in India, he calls them Indians.
 1494 - Treaty of Tordesillas divides the colonial world between Spain and Portugal.
 1497-98 - John and Sebastian Cabot explore east coast of North America for England. They kidnap three Micmac men.
 1497 - Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot, 1450–98), a Venetian in English service, during a voyage underwritten by Bristol merchants, claims Newfoundland for England on June 24, laying the basis for English claims to Canada and inspiring a series of further explorations.
 1498 - English explorer John Cabot, making a second voyage to North America (looking for Northwest Passage to India), travels the coast of Labrador, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and trades furs with Micmacs.
 1498-99 - Portuguese explorer João Fernandes Lavrador first sights and sails along the coasts of the Labrador Peninsula.

Further reading

See also

Former colonies and territories in Canada
List of North American settlements by year of foundation
History of Canada
Timeline of Canada history
List of years in Canada

References

Centuries in Canada

15th century in Canada


Brotorget var et torv centralt beliggende i Bollnäs i Gävleborgs län i det østlige/centrale Sverige.

På torvet var der torvehandel året rundt. Om sommeren standsede "Snoddaståget" på torvet, som også var stedet, hvor finalen i Hälsingehambon (verdensmesterskabet i dansen hambo) dansedes. På torvet var en scene, malet og udsmykket af kunstneren Mårten Andersson. I torvets nordøstlige hjørne stod det berømte Snoddasrelief.

17. december 2007 besluttede bystyret at sælge torvet til det danske ejendomsselskab Sjælsø Gruppen for 162.000 kronor. Planerne var at selskabet skulle bygge et indkøbscenter, så torvet blev ryddet og gravet op i 2008. På grund af finanskrisen blev planerne lagt på is, og endnu i 2014 er torvet en 2700 kvadratmeter stor grusplads.

Forfatteren Thomas Tidholm, bosat i Arbrå udenfor Bollnäs, er en af dem, der har engageret sig stærkt mod at kommunen solgte byens torv.

Kilder

Referencer

Eksterne links
 Bollnäs Kommune
 Brotorget
 Så blev Bollnäs en svensk öken

Bollnäs kommun
Torve og pladser

Brotorget


Cirkus kan henvise til:

 Cirkus – underholdnings- eller kunstform med vægt på fremvisning af akrobater, jonglører, luftartister, klovner og dresserede dyr
 Cirkus (film fra 1936) - sovjetisk film instrueret af Grigorij Aleksandrov
 Cirkus (film fra 1939) – dansk/svensk film fra 1939 instrueret af George Schnéevoigt
 Cirkus (film fra 2004) – dansk kortfilm fra 2004 instrueret af Thomas Pors

Cirkus (flertydig)


Sheela Lambert (née en 1956 à New York) est une militante et écrivaine bisexuelle américaine.

Elle est la fondatrice/directrice des Bisexual Book Awards et de la Bi Writers Association. Elle a été cofondatrice de Bi Women of All Colors et a été active dans un certain nombre de groupes de défense des droits des bisexuels, dont BiNet USA. Elle est ouvertement bisexuelle et a écrit sur la bisexualité et les questions de culture populaire et de divertissement LGBT dans sa chronique nationale bisexuelle pour Examiner.com pendant sept ans (2009 à 2016), ainsi que des articles pour The Huffington Post, The Advocate, AfterEllen et AfterElton, Bi Magazine, Lambda Literary Foundation et America Today LGBTQ Encyclopedia et édition pour des efforts tels que Biwriters.org. Elle donne des cours et des conférences de sensibilisation sur les questions de bisexualité dans les universités, les lycées et les formations continues.

Éducation
Sheela Lambert a travaillé comme conseillère VIH à New York et dans l'État de New York.

Elle est également apparue dans diverses émissions de télévision sur le thème de la bisexualité, notamment Real Personal With Bob Berkowitz (CNBC), The Rolonda Show (syndiqué) et The Richard Bey Show (WWOR-TV). De plus, Sheela Lambert a été citée dans d'autres médias - notamment The Washington Blade, The New York Blade et Time Out New York - sur des questions liées à la bisexualité.

Le travail de Lambert pour les droits des bisexuels

Années 1990
Lambert a aidé à produire « Gay Men, Lesbians, Bisexuals, Sharing Our Lives: A Forum on Bisexuality », un forum tenu en mai 1992. Le forum était coparrainé par le Lesbian and Gay Community Services Center (maintenant devenu le Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Community Services Center), le New York Area Bisexual Network et le BiPAC.

Au cours de la saison télévisée 1992-1993, Sheela Lambert a été la correspondante à l'antenne et la productrice de Out in the 90s, une émission d'information et d'information en direct sur les chaînes de télévision câblées éducatives et d'accès gouvernemental (PEG) de la ville de New York à destination des gays, des lesbiennes, de la communauté bisexuelle et transgenre. En 1993, Lambert était la productrice exécutive et animatrice de Bisexual Network, la première série télévisée par et pour la communauté bisexuelle. La série a été diffusée sur la télévision d'accès public de la ville de New York.

En 1996, Lambert a rejoint Heritage of Pride, dans lequel elle a été une organisatrice active de la March des fiertés LGBT pendant deux ans pour promouvoir l'agenda bi-inclusif en tant que membre. En 2002, Heritage of Pride a renommé les événements de la Marche des fiertés lesbiennes et gays de la ville de New York en « Marche, rallye, festival et danse de la Fierté lesbienne, gay, bisexuelle et transgenre. »

Années 2000
Avec l'activiste transgenre Pauline Park, Sheela Lambert a formé la Coalition pour l'unité et l'inclusion en 2000. La Coalition a été le groupe chef de file qui a fait pression sur diverses institutions liées aux LGBT de New York pour qu'elles adoptent des noms plus inclusifs, y compris le Centre communautaire des lesbiennes, gays, bisexuels et transgenres de la ville de New York (anciennement le NYC Lesbian and Gay Community Services Center) et le New York Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, & Transgender Film Festival (anciennement New York Lesbian and Gay Film Festival).

En 2000, elle a coprésidé Community, Unity, Inclusion: The 4th Tri-State Bisexual Conference, tenue à l'Université de New York et a été coparrainée par le Bureau des services aux étudiants LGBT de NYU. En 2005, en réponse à la désinformation diffusée par l'étude Bailey, contestée sur le plan académique, Sheela Lambert a travaillé en tant que membre principal d'un groupe de travail conjoint Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) avec Bialogue qui a commencé à créer des dossiers d'informations très fournis pour documenter des faits sur la bisexualité, dissiper les mythes et les stéréotypes et éduquer le public sur les problèmes auxquels les bisexuels sont confrontés, ainsi que fournit des lignes directrices pour divers professionnels. En 2006, Lambert a fondé les groupes nationaux Bi Writers Association, Bi Mental Health Professionals Association et a cofondé le groupe new-yorkais Bi Women of All Colours. En 2006, elle a mené avec succès la campagne pour convaincre la Lambda Literary Foundation d'ajouter une catégorie de prix bisexuels à ses prix littéraires, connus sous le nom de "Lammys", qui n'avaient pas de catégorie de livres bisexuels pendant ses 18 premières années d'existence. Elle a exercé les fonctions de juge pour les Lammy Awards depuis. Elle a également fondé la série de lecture Bi Lines, une célébration annuelle multi-arts de l'écriture bisexuelle.

En 2007, Sheela Lambert a organisé deux événements bi majeurs, dont Bi Lines: Une célébration de l'écriture bisexuelle dans la lecture, la musique et la culture, qui s'est tenu conjointement avec les 19e événements annuels des Lambda Literary Awards.

Elle a commencé une chronique sur la bisexualité sur Examiner.com en juillet 2009 et a publié plus de 275 articles.

Années 2010
Son premier livre, Best Bi Short Stories, une anthologie de nouvelles de fiction littéraire, écrites dans de multiples genres (dont elle est l'éditrice, ainsi que la contributrice de l'histoire "Memory Lane") a été publié en 2014.

Bibliographie partielle

Imprimés
Journaux
 "Verbatim de la supervision de la thérapie Hakomi." Hakomi Forum (revue professionnelle de l'Institut Hakomi), n° 7, hiver 1989.

Magazines
 Critique du film Running with Scissors, Go NYC Magazine, octobre 2006.
 Critique des films indépendants The Gymnast, GYPO et Mrs. Stevens Hears the Mermaids Singing et interviewé les réalisatrices Linda Thornburg ( Mrs. Stevens Hears the Mermaids Singing ), Katherine Brooks ( Loving Annabelle ), Lesli Klainberg ( Fabulous ! ) et l'actrice et productrice Dreya Weber ( The Gymnast ) pour Curve, les numéros d'octobre, novembre et décembre 2006.

En ligne
 Bialogue / GLAAD Bisexuality Packet pour les professionnels de la santé mentale (2005)
 Entretien avec Fritz Klein . BiMagazine (2006). Consulté le 7 avril 2007.
 Profile of the singer-songwriter Rachael Sage. AfterEllen.com, 31 mai 2006. Consulté le 6 avril 2007.
 Review of À la recherche de Cheyenne. AfterEllen.com, 19 juin 2006. Consulté le 8 avril 2007.
 "Newfest Short Films Are Long on Talent."   AfterEllen.com, 15 octobre 2006. Consulté le 7 avril 2007.
 Profil de Michael Musto. AfterElton.com, 8 janvier 2007. Consulté le 6 avril 2007.

Articles connexes
 Biphobie

Notes et références

Militant pour les droits LGBT aux États-Unis
Naissance en 1956
Naissance à New York
Bisexualité

Sheela Lambert