Jason Andrew Narvy (27 de marzo de 1974) es un actor estadounidense que pasó varios años interpretando el personaje Eugene "Skull" Skullovitch en la serie de televisión Power Rangers y protagonizó dos películas basadas en la serie.

Narvy nació en Tarzana, California y creció en Newbury Park. Después de dejar el show, se quedó en Los Ángeles para continuar su educación. Recibió una licenciatura en Inglés en el Franklin and Marshall College en Lancaster, Pennsylvania, una licenciatura en letras y literatura en el Mary Baldwin College y American Shakespeare Center en Staunton, Virginia. Participó en la Compañía de Teatro para Jóvenes de la ASC como director e instructor de Master Class Fight Workshop en 2004. En 2010 se graduó en la Universidad de California, Santa Bárbara, con un doctorado en Estudios de Teatro.

Filmografía

Televisión
 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers / Power Rangers Zeo / Power Rangers Turbo / Power Rangers en el espacio - Eugene "Skull" Skullovitch
 Power Rangers Lost Galaxy - Eugene "Skull" Skullovitch (aparece en el primer episodio)
 Power Rangers Wild Force - Eugene "Skull" Skullovitch (aparición en el episodio: "Forever Red")
 Power Rangers Super Samurai - Eugene "Skull" Skullovitch (en el último episodio)

Voz
 Masked Rider - Combat Chopper (voz)
 Power Rangers Turbo - Skull's chimp form (voz, mitad de la primera temporada)

Películas
 Power Rangers: la película - Eugene "Skull" Skullovitch
 Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie - Eugene "Skull" Skullovitch
 Wicked Game - Guile Lydon

Enlaces externos
 Página oficial

Referencias

Actores de Estados Unidos
Actores de voz de Estados Unidos
Humoristas de Estados Unidos
Reparto de Power Rangers

Jason Narvy


The NCAA Division I men's soccer tournament, sometimes known as the College Cup, is an American intercollegiate soccer tournament conducted by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and determines the Division I men's national champion. The tournament was formally held in 1959, when it was an eight-team tournament. Since then, the tournament has expanded to 48 teams, in which every Division I conference tournament champion is allocated a berth. Among the most successful programs, Saint Louis won 10 titles during dynasty years between 1959 and 1973. Indiana has won 8 titles beginning in 1982, whereas Virginia has won 7 titles beginning in 1989. Syracuse won its first national title in its first appearance in 2022.

Although the tournament is frequently referenced as the "College Cup", the NCAA applies the title only to the semifinal and championship rounds of the tournament proper. Since the tournament began, the semifinal and final fixtures have been held at a neutral site predetermined by the NCAA before starting the regular season.

Format

The NCAA Division I men's soccer tournament is a 48-team, single-elimination tournament. Currently, 23 spots are reserved for the winners of automatic bids.

As of the current 2023 NCAA men's soccer season, the following conferences are expected to be granted automatic qualification:

 America East
 American Athletic
 ASUN
 Atlantic Coast
 Atlantic 10
 Big East
 Big South
 Big Ten
 Big West
 Coastal Athletic Association
 Horizon League
 Ivy League
 Metro Atlantic
 Missouri Valley
 Northeast
 Ohio Valley
 Pac-12
 Patriot League
 Southern
 Summit League
 Sun Belt
 West Coast
 Western Athletic

Each conference determines the format for its conference championship, which determines the school that receives its automatic bid. Many use conference tournaments, although three conferences award the championship and automatic bid to the regular-season champion. The remaining 26 teams receive at-large bids. The at-large teams are selected by a committee consisting of representatives from each of the eight regions the NCAA has divided the country into. The committee uses a number of criteria, the most influential supposedly being the Ratings Percentage Index, a mathematical formula designed to objectively compare the results and strength of schedule of all Division I teams.

The top 16 teams are seeded into the bracket and receive first round byes. The other 32 are grouped by geographical proximity. The first four rounds are played on campus sites, with matches being hosted by the higher seed. The College Cup, comprising the semifinal and final matches, is played at a predetermined site.

Syracuse is the current champion, defeating Indiana 7–6 on penalties following a 2–2 draw after extra time in the 2022 final.

List of champions
Below is a complete list of winning teams and finals held:

Notes

Most successful schools

Team titles

Notes

Appearances by team

Key
  National Champion
  National Runner-up
  Semifinals
  Quarterfinals
  Round of 16
  Second Round
  First Round

See also
List of NCAA Division I men's soccer programs
NCAA Men's Division I Soccer Tournament appearances by school
NCAA Division II Men's Soccer Championship
NCAA Division III Men's Soccer Championship
 NCAA Women's Soccer Championship
 NAIA national men's soccer championship
Intercollegiate Soccer Football Association (ISFA) – declared the annual national champion (1927–1958)
Intercollegiate Association Football League (IAFL) – declared the annual national champion (1911–1926)
Pre-NCAA Soccer Champions

Highest attendances
The highest recorded attendance for championship games are listed below:
22,512 – Saint Louis (5) vs. SIU Edwardsville (1), Busch Stadium, St. Louis Oct. 30 1980
21,319 – Wisconsin (1) vs. Portland (0) / Duke (3) vs. Virginia (2), Richmond, Virginia (NCAA semifinals) Dec. 8, 1995
20,874 – St. John's (NY) (4) vs. FIU (1), Richmond, Virginia (NCAA final) Dec. 15, 1996
20,703 – Wisconsin (2) vs. Duke (0), Richmond, Virginia (NCAA final) Dec. 10, 1995
20,269 – St. John's (NY) (2) vs. Creighton (1) / FIU (4) vs. Charlotte (0), Richmond, Virginia (NCAA semifinals) Dec. 13, 1996
20,143 – UCLA (2) vs. Virginia (0), Richmond, Virginia (NCAA final) Dec. 14, 1997
20,112 – Saint Louis (1) vs. SIU Edwardsville (0), Busch Stadium, St. Louis Nov. 9, 1973
Numbers in parentheses indicate goals scored by participating teams.

References

External links

1959 establishments in the United States
Recurring sporting events established in 1959

NCAA Division I men's soccer tournament


The world tree is a motif present in several religions and mythologies, particularly Indo-European, Siberian, and Native American religions. The world tree is represented as a colossal tree which supports the heavens, thereby connecting the heavens, the terrestrial world, and, through its roots, the underworld. It may also be strongly connected to the motif of the tree of life, but it is the source of wisdom of the ages.

Specific world trees include égig érő fa in Hungarian mythology, Ağaç Ana in Turkic mythology, Andndayin Ca˙r in Armenian mythology, Modun in Mongol mythology, Yggdrasil in Norse mythology, Irminsul in Germanic mythology, the oak in Slavic, Finnish and Baltic, Jianmu () in Chinese mythology, and in Hindu mythology the Ashvattha (a Ficus religiosa).

General description

Scholarship states that many Eurasian mythologies share the motif of the "world tree", "cosmic tree", or "Eagle and Serpent Tree". More specifically, it shows up in "Haitian, Finnish, Lithuanian, Hungarian, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Norse, Siberian and northern Asian Shamanic folklore".

The World Tree is often identified with the Tree of Life, and also fulfills the role of an axis mundi, that is, a centre or axis of the world. It is also located at the center of the world and represents order and harmony of the cosmos. According to Loreta Senkute, each part of the tree corresponds to one of the three spheres of the world (treetops - heavens; trunk - middle world or earth; roots - underworld) and is also associated with a classical element (top part - fire; middle part - earth, soil, ground; bottom part - water).

Its branches are said to reach the skies and its roots to connect the human or earthly world with an underworld or subterranean realm. Because of this, the tree was worshipped as a mediator between Heavens and Earth. On the treetops are located the luminaries (stars) and heavenly bodies, along with an eagle's nest; several species of birds perch among its branches; humans and animals of every kind live under its branches, and near the root is the dwelling place of snakes and every sort of reptiles.

A bird perches atop its foliage, "often .... a winged mythical creature" that represents a heavenly realm. The eagle seems to be the most frequent bird, fulfilling the role of a creator or weather deity. Its antipode is a snake or serpentine creature that crawls between the tree roots, being a "symbol of the underworld".

The imagery of the World Tree is sometimes associated with conferring immortality, either by a fruit that grows on it or by a springsource located nearby. As George Lechler also pointed out, in some descriptions this "water of life" may also flow from the roots of the tree.

Similar motifs
The World Tree has also been compared to a World Pillar that appears in other traditions and functions as separator between the earth and the skies, upholding the latter. Another representation akin to the World Tree is a separate World Mountain. However, in some stories, the world tree is located atop the world mountain, in a combination of both motifs.

A conflict between a serpentine creature and a giant bird (an eagle) occurs in Eurasian mythologies: a hero kills the serpent that menaces a nest of little birds, and their mother repays the favor - a motif comparativist Julien d'Huy dates to the Paleolithic. A parallel story is attested in the traditions of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, where the thunderbird is slotted into the role of the giant bird whose nest is menaced by a "snake-like water monster".

Relation to shamanism
Romanian historian of religion, Mircea Eliade, in his monumental work Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, suggested that the world tree was an important element in shamanistic worldview. Also, according to him, "the giant bird ... hatches shamans in the branches of the World Tree". Likewise, Roald Knutsen indicates the presence of the motif in Altaic shamanism. Representations of the world tree are reported to be portrayed in drums used in Siberian shamanistic practices.

Some species of birds (eagle, raven, crane, loon, and lark) are revered as mediators between worlds and also connected to the imagery of the world tree. Another line of scholarship points to a "recurring theme" of the owl as the mediator to the upper realm, and its counterpart, the snake, as the mediator to the lower regions of the cosmos.

Researcher Kristen Pearson mentions Northern Eurasian and Central Asian traditions wherein the World Tree is also associated with the horse and with deer antlers (which might resemble tree branches).

Possible origins
Mircea Eliade proposed that the typical imagery of the world tree (bird at the top, snake at the root) "is presumably of Oriental origin".

Likewise, Roald Knutsen indicates a possible origin of the motif in Central Asia and later diffusion into other regions and cultures.

In specific cultures

American pre-Columbian cultures

 Among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, the concept of "world trees" is a prevalent motif in Mesoamerican cosmologies and iconography. The Temple of the Cross Complex at Palenque contains one of the most studied examples of the world tree in architectural motifs of all Mayan ruins. World trees embodied the four cardinal directions, which represented also the fourfold nature of a central world tree, a symbolic axis mundi connecting the planes of the Underworld and the sky with that of the terrestrial world.
 Depictions of world trees, both in their directional and central aspects, are found in the art and traditions of cultures such as the Maya, Aztec, Izapan, Mixtec, Olmec, and others, dating to at least the Mid/Late Formative periods of Mesoamerican chronology. Among the Maya, the central world tree was conceived as, or represented by, a ceiba tree, called yax imix che ('blue-green tree of abundance') by the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel. The trunk of the tree could also be represented by an upright caiman, whose skin evokes the tree's spiny trunk. These depictions could also show birds perched atop the trees.
 A similarly named tree, yax cheel cab ('first tree of the world'), was reported by 17th-century priest Andrés de Avendaño to have been worshipped by the Itzá Maya. However, scholarship suggests that this worship derives from some form of cultural interaction between "pre-Hispanic iconography and [millenary] practices" and European traditions brought by the Hispanic colonization.
 Directional world trees are also associated with the four Yearbearers in Mesoamerican calendars, and the directional colors and deities. Mesoamerican codices which have this association outlined include the Dresden, Borgia and Fejérváry-Mayer codices. It is supposed that Mesoamerican sites and ceremonial centers frequently had actual trees planted at each of the four cardinal directions, representing the quadripartite concept.
 World trees are frequently depicted with birds in their branches, and their roots extending into earth or water (sometimes atop a "water-monster", symbolic of the underworld).
 The central world tree has also been interpreted as a representation of the band of the Milky Way.
 Izapa Stela 5 contains a possible representation of a world tree.

A common theme in most indigenous cultures of the Americas is a concept of directionality (the horizontal and vertical planes), with the vertical dimension often being represented by a world tree. Some scholars have argued that the religious importance of the horizontal and vertical dimensions in many animist cultures may derive from the human body and the position it occupies in the world as it perceives the surrounding living world. Many Indigenous cultures of the Americas have similar cosmologies regarding the directionality and the world tree, however the type of tree representing the world tree depends on the surrounding environment. For many Indigenous American peoples located in more temperate regions for example, it is the spruce rather than the ceiba that is the world tree; however the idea of cosmic directions combined with a concept of a tree uniting the directional planes is similar.

Greek mythology
Like in many other Indo-European cultures, one tree species was considered the World Tree in some cosmogonical accounts.

Oak tree
The sacred tree of Zeus is the oak, and the one at Dodona (famous for the cultic worship of Zeus and the oak) was said by later tradition to have its roots furrow so deep as to reach the confines of Tartarus.

In a different cosmogonic account presented by Pherecydes of Syros, male deity Zas (identified as Zeus) marries female divinity Chthonie (associated with the earth and later called Gê/Gaia), and from their marriage sprouts an oak tree. This oak tree connects the heavens above and its roots grew into the Earth, to reach the depths of Tartarus. This oak tree is considered by scholarship to symbolize a cosmic tree, uniting three spheres: underworld, terrestrial and celestial.

Other trees
Besides the oak, several other sacred trees existed in Greek mythology. For instance, the olive, named Moriai, was the world tree and associated with the Olympian goddess Athena.

In a separate Greek myth the Hesperides live beneath an apple tree with golden apples that was given to the highest Olympian goddess Hera by the primal Mother goddess Gaia at Hera's marriage to Zeus. The tree stands in the Garden of the Hesperides and is guarded by Ladon, a dragon. Heracles defeats Ladon and snatches the golden apples.

In the epic quest for the Golden Fleece of Argonautica, the object of the quest is found in the realm of Colchis, hanging on a tree guarded by a never-sleeping dragon (the Colchian dragon). In a version of the story provided by Pseudo-Apollodorus in Bibliotheca, the Golden Fleece was affixed by King Aeetes to an oak tree in a grove dedicated to war god Ares. This information is repeated in Valerius Flaccus's Argonautica. In the same passage of Valerius Flaccus' work, King Aeetes prays to Ares for a sign and suddenly a "serpent gliding from the Caucasus mountains" appears and coils around the grove as to protect it.

Roman mythology
In Roman mythology the world tree was the olive tree, that was associated with Pax. The Greek equivalent of Pax is Eirene, one of the Horae. The Sacred tree of the Roman Sky father Jupiter was the oak, the laurel was the Sacred tree of Apollo. The ancient fig-tree in the Comitium at Rome, was considered as a descendant of the very tree under which Romulus and Remus were found.

Norse mythology
In Norse mythology, Yggdrasil is the world tree. Yggdrasil is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both sources, Yggdrasil is an immense ash tree that is central and considered very holy. The Æsir go to Yggdrasil daily to hold their courts. The branches of Yggdrasil extend far into the heavens, and the tree is supported by three roots that extend far away into other locations: one to the well Urðarbrunnr in the heavens, one to the spring Hvergelmir, and another to the well Mímisbrunnr. Creatures live within Yggdrasil, including the harts Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór, the giant in eagle-shape Hræsvelgr, the squirrel Ratatoskr and the wyrm Níðhöggr. Scholarly theories have been proposed about the etymology of the name Yggdrasil, the potential relation to the trees Mímameiðr and Læraðr, and the sacred tree at Uppsala.

Circumbaltic mythology

In Baltic, Slavic and Finnish mythology, the world tree is usually an oak. Most of the images of the world tree are preserved on ancient ornaments. Often on the Baltic and Slavic patterns there was an image of an inverted tree, "growing with its roots up, and branches going into the ground".

Baltic beliefs
Scholarship recognizes that Baltic beliefs about a World Tree, located at the central part of the Earth, follow a tripartite division of the cosmos (underworld, earth, sky), each part corresponding to a part of the tree (root, trunk, branches).

It has been suggested that the word for "tree" in Baltic languages (Latvian mežs; Lithuanian medis), both derived from Proto-Indo-European *medh- 'middle', operated a semantic shift from "middle" possibly due to the belief of the Arbor Mundi.

Lithuanian culture
The world tree () is widespread in Lithuanian folk painting, and is frequently found carved into household furniture such as cupboards, towel holders, and laundry beaters. According to Lithuanian scholars Prane Dunduliene and Norbertas Vėlius, the World Tree is "a powerful tree with widespread branches and strong roots, reaching deep into the earth". The recurrent imagery is also present in Lithuanian myth: on the treetops, the luminaries and eagles, and further down, amidst its roots, the dwelling place of snakes and reptiles. The World Tree of Lithuanian tradition was sometimes identified as an oak or a maple tree.

Latvian culture
In Latvian mythology the world tree () was one of the most important beliefs, also associated with the birth of the world. Sometimes it was identified as an oak or a birch, or even replaced by a wooden pole. According to Ludvigs Adamovičs's book on Latvian folk belief, ancient Latvian mythology attested the existence of a Sun Tree as an expression of the World Tree, often described as "a birch tree with three leaves or forked branches where the Sun, the  Moon, God, Laima, Auseklis (the morning star), or the daughter of the Sun rest[ed]".

Slavic beliefs

According to Slavic folklore, as reconstructed by Radoslav Katičić, the draconic or serpentine character furrows near a body of water, and the bird that lives on the treetop could be an eagle, a falcon or a nightingale.

Scholars Ivanov and Toporov offered a reconstructed Slavic variant of the Indo-European myth about a battle between a Thunder God and a snake-like adversary. In their proposed reconstruction, the Snake lives under the World Tree, sleeping on black wool. They surmise this snake on black wool is a reference to a cattle god, known in Slavic mythology as Veles.

Further studies show that the usual tree that appears in Slavic folklore is an oak: for instance, in Czech, it is known as Veledub ('The Great Oak').

In addition, the world tree appears in the Island of Buyan, on top of a stone. Another description shows that legendary birds Sirin and Alkonost make their nests on separate sides of the tree.

Ukrainian scholarship points to the existence of the motif in "archaic wintertime songs and carols": their texts attest a tree at the center of the world and two or three falcons or pigeons sat on its top, ready to dive in and fetch mud to create land (the Earth diver cosmogonic motif).

The imagery of the world tree also appears in folk medicine of the Don Cossacks.

Finnic mythology

According to scholar Aado Lintrop, Estonian mythology records two types of world tree in Estonian runic songs, with similar characteristics of being an oak and having a bird at the top, a snake at the roots and the stars amongst its branches.

Judeo-Christian mythology

The Tree of the knowledge of good and evil and the Tree of life are both components of the Garden of Eden story in the Book of Genesis in the Bible. According to Jewish mythology, in the Garden of Eden there is a tree of life or the "tree of souls" that blossoms and produces new souls, which fall into the Guf, the Treasury of Souls. The Angel Gabriel reaches into the treasury and takes out the first soul that comes into his hand. Then Lailah, the Angel of Conception, watches over the embryo until it is born.

Gnosticism
According to the Gnostic codex On the Origin of the World, the tree of immortal life is in the north of paradise, which is outside the circuit of the Sun and Moon in the luxuriant Earth. Its height is so great it reaches Heaven. Its leaves are described as resembling cypress, the color of the tree is like the Sun, its fruit is like clusters of white grapes and its branches are beautiful. The tree will provide life for the innocent during the consummation of the age.

Mandaean scrolls often include abstract illustrations of world trees that represent the living, interconnected nature of the cosmos. In Mandaeism, the date palm (Mandaic: ) symbolizes the cosmic tree and is often associated with the cosmic wellspring (Mandaic: ). The date palm and wellspring are often mentioned together as heavenly symbols in Mandaean texts. The date palm takes on masculine symbolism, while the wellspring takes on feminine symbolism.

Armenian mythology
Armenian professor Hrach Martirosyan argues for the presence, in Armenian mythology, of a serpentine creature named Andndayin ōj, that lives in the (abyssal) waters that circundate the World Tree.

Georgian mythology
According to scholarship, Georgian mythology also attests a rivalry between mythical bird Paskunji, which lives in the underworld on the top of a tree, and a snake that menaces its nestlings.

Hittite culture
A similar imagery is attested in Hittite literature: a snake encircles the base of a tree, an eagle perches atop it, and a bee occupies its middle, which Craig Melchert considers to be a version of the "world tree" or "tree of life" motif.

Mesopotamian traditions

Sumerian culture
Professor Amar Annus states that, although the motif seems to originate much earlier, its first attestation in world culture occurred in Sumerian literature, with the tale of "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld". According to this tale, goddess Innana transplants the huluppu tree to her garden in the City of Uruk, for she intends to use its wood to carve a throne. However, a snake "with no charm", a ghostly figure (Lilith or another character associated with darkness) and the legendary Anzû-bird make their residence on the tree, until Gilgamesh kills the serpent and the other residents escape.

Akkadian literature
In fragments of the story of Etana, there is a narrative sequence about a snake and an eagle that live on opposite sides of a poplar tree (şarbatu), the snake on its roots, the eagle on its foliage. At a certain point, both animals swear before deity Shamash and share their meat with each other, until the eagle's hatchlings are born and the eagle decides to eat the snake's young ones. In revenge, the snake alerts god Shamash, who agrees to let the snake punish the eagle for the perceived affront. Later, Shamash takes pity on the bird's condition and sets hero Etana to release it from its punishment. Later versions of the story associate the eagle with mythical bird Anzû and the snake with a serpentine being named Bašmu.

Iranian mythology

A world tree is a common motif in Persian mythology, the legendary bird Simurgh (alternatively, Saēna bird; Sēnmurw and Senmurv) perches atop a tree in the center of the sea Vourukasa. This tree is described as having all-healing properties and many seeds. In another account, the tree is the very same tree of the White Hōm (Haōma). Gaokerena or white Haoma is a tree whose vivacity ensures continued life in the universe, and grants immortality to "all who eat from it". In the Pahlavi Bundahishn, it is said that evil god Ahriman created a lizard to attack the tree.

Bas tokhmak is another remedial tree; it retains all herbal seeds and destroys sorrow.

Hinduism and Indian religions
Remnants are also evident in the Kalpavriksha ("wish-fulfilling tree") and the Ashvattha tree of the Indian religions. The Ashvattha tree ('keeper of horses') is described as a sacred fig and corresponds to "the most typical representation of the world
tree in India", upon whose branches the celestial bodies rest. Likewise, the Kalpavriksha is also equated with a fig tree and said to possess wish-granting abilities.

Indologist David Dean Shulman provided the description of a similar imagery that appears in South Indian temples: the sthalavṛkṣa tree. The tree is depicted alongside a water source (river, temple tank, sea). The tree may also appear rooted on Earth or reaching the realm of Patala (a netherworld where the Nāga dwell), or in an inverted position, rooted in the Heavens. Like other accounts, this tree may also function as an axis mundi.

North Asian and Siberian cultures
The world tree is also represented in the mythologies and folklore of North Asia and Siberia. According to Mihály Hoppál, Hungarian scholar Vilmos Diószegi located some motifs related to the world tree in Siberian shamanism and other North Asian peoples. As per Diószegi's research, the "bird-peaked" tree holds the sun and the moon, and the underworld is "a land of snakes, lizards and frogs".

In the mythology of the Samoyeds, the world tree connects different realities (underworld, this world, upper world) together. In their mythology the world tree is also the symbol of Mother Earth who is said to give the Samoyed shaman his drum and also help him travel from one world to another. According to scholar Aado Lintrop, the larch is "often regarded" by Siberian peoples as the World Tree.

Scholar Aado Lintrop also noted the resemblance between an account of the World Tree from the Yakuts and a Mokshas-Mordvinic folk song (described as a great birch).

The imagery of the world tree, its roots burrowing underground, its branches reaching upward, the luminaries in its branches is also present in the mythology of Finno-Ugric peoples from Northern Asia, such as the Ob-Ugric peoples and the Voguls.

Mongolic and Turkic folk beliefs
The symbol of the world tree is also common in Tengrism, an ancient religion of Mongols and Turkic peoples. The world tree is sometimes a beech, a birch, or a poplar in epic works.

Scholarship points out the presence of the motif in Central Asian and North Eurasian epic tradition: a world tree named Bai-Terek in Altai and Kyrgyz epics; a "sacred tree with nine branches" in the Buryat epic.

Turkic cultures

Bai-Terek
The Bai-Terek (also known as bayterek, beyterek, beğterek, begterek, begtereg), found, for instance, in the Altai Maadai Kara epos, can be translated as "Golden Poplar". Like the mythological description, each part of tree (top, trunk and root) corresponds to the three layers of reality: heavenly, earthly and underground. In one description, it is considered the axis mundi. It holds at the top "a nest of a double-headed eagle that watches over the different parts of the world" and, in the form of a snake, Erlik, deity of the underworld, tries to slither up the tree to steal an egg from the nest. In another, the tree holds two gold cuckoos at the topmost branches and two golden eagles just below. At the roots there are two dogs that guard the passage between the underworld and the world of the living.

Aal Luuk Mas

Among the Yakuts, the world tree (or sacred tree) is called Ál Lúk Mas (Aal Luuk Mas) and is attested in their Olonkho epic narratives. Furthermore, this sacred tree is described to "connect the three worlds  (Upper, Middle and Lower)", the branches to the sky and the roots to the underworld. Further studies show that this sacred tree also shows many alternate names and descriptions in different regional traditions. According to scholarship, the prevalent animal at the top of the tree in the Olonkho is the eagle.

Researcher Galina Popova emphasizes that the motif of the world tree offers a binary opposition between two different realms (the Upper Realm and the Underworld), and Aal Luuk Mas functions as a link between both. A spirit or goddess of the earth, named Aan Alahchin Hotun, is also said to inhabit or live in the trunk of Aal Luuk Mas.

Bashkir
According to scholarship, in the Bashkir epic Ural-batyr, deity Samrau is described as a celestial being married to female deities of the Sun and the Moon. He is also "The King of the Birds" and is opposed by the "dark forces" of the universe, which live in the underworld. A similarly named creature, the bird Samrigush, appears in Bashkir folktales living atop the tallest tree in the world and its enemy is a snake named Azhdakha. After the human hero kills the serpent Azhdakha, the grateful Samrigush agrees to carry him back to the world of light.

Kazakh
Scholarship points to the existence of a bird named Samurik (Samruk) that, according to Kazakh myth, lives atop the World Tree Baiterek. Likewise, in Kazakh folktales, it is also the hero's carrier out of the underworld, after he defeats a dragon named Aydakhara or Aydarhana. In the same vein, Kazakh literary critic and folklorist  described that the Samruk bird travels between the three spheres of the universe, nests atop the "cosmic tree" (bәyterek) and helps the hero out of the underworld.

Other representations
An early 20th-century report on Altaian shamanism by researcher Karunovskaia describes a shamanistic journey, information provided by one Kondratii Tanashev (or Merej Tanas). However, A. A. Znamenski believes this material is not universal to all Altaian peoples, but pertains to the specific worldview of Tanashev's Tangdy clan. Regardless, the material showed a belief in a tripartite division of the world in sky (heavenly sphere), middle world and underworld; in the central part of the world, a mountain (Ak toson altaj sip''') is located. Upon this mountain there is "a navel of the earth and water  ... which also serves as the root of the 'wonderful tree with golden branches and wide leaves' (Altyn byrly bai terek)". Like the iconic imagery, the tree branches out to reach the heavenly sphere.

Mongolic cultures
Finnish folklorist Uno Holmberg reported a tale from the Kalmuck people about a dragon that lies in the sea, at the foot of a Zambu tree. In the Buryat poems, near the root of the tree a snake named Abyrga dwells. He also reported a "Central Asian" narrative about the fight between the snake Abyrga and a bird named Garide - which he identified as a version of Indian Garuda.

East Asia
Korea
The world tree is visible in the designs of the Crown of Silla, Silla being one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. This link is used to establish a connection between Siberian peoples and those of Korea.

China
In Chinese mythology, a manifestation of the world tree is the Fusang or Fumu tree. In a Chinese cosmogonic myth, solar deity Xihe gives birth to ten suns. Each of the suns rests upon a tree named Fusang (possibly a mulberry tree). The ten suns alternate during the day, each carried by a crow (the "Crow of the Sun"): one sun stays on the top branch to wait its turn, while the other nine suns rest on the lower branches.

Tanzania
An origin myth is recorded from the Wapangwa tribe of Tanzania, wherein the world is created through "a primordial tree and a termite mound". As a continuation of the same tale, the animals wanted to eat the fruits of this Tree of Life, but humans intended to defend it. This led to a war between animals and humans.

Kenya.
In the agikuyu community, the "mūgumo" tree is held sacred and it is a taboo to even fetch firewood from it. In the past, the tree served as a altar to offer sacrifices as well as being a place of prayer. If a mùgumo tree falls, it is believed to be an end of an era for a "god"/dynasty and a ritual should be done by elders to cleanse the area and the community because it might be a bad omen.

 In folk and fairy tales
ATU 301: The Three Stolen Princesses
The imagery of the World Tree appears in a specific tale type of the Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index, type ATU 301, "The Three Stolen Princesses", and former subtypes AaTh 301A, "Quest for a Vanished Princess" (or "Three Underground Kingdoms") and AaTh 301B, "The Strong Man and His Companions" (Jean de l'Ours and Fehérlófia). The hero journeys alone to the underworld (or a subterranean realm) to rescue three princesses. He leads them to a rope that will take them to the surface and, when the hero tries to climb up the rope, his companions cut it and the hero is stranded in the underworld. In his wanderings, he comes across a tree, on its top a nest of eggs from an eagle, a griffin or a mythical bird. The hero protects the nest from a snake enemy that slithers from the roots of the tree.Radulović, Nemanja. "Arbor Mundi: Visual Formula and the Poetics of Genre". In: Epic Formula: a Balkan Perspective. Edited by Mirjana Detelić and Lidija Delić. Belgrade: Institute for Balkan Studies/Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. 2015. p. 67. .

Serbian scholarship recalls a Serbian mythical story about three brothers, named Ноћило, Поноћило и Зорило ("Noćilo, Ponoćilo and Zorilo") and their mission to rescue the king's daughters. Zorilo goes down the cave, rescues three princesses and with a whip changes their palaces into apples. When Zorilo is ready to go up, his brothers abandon him in the cave, but he escapes with the help of a bird. Serbian scholar Pavle Sofric (sr), in his book about Serbian folkmyths about trees, noted that the tree of the tale, an ash tree (Serbian: јасен), showed a great parallel to the Nordic tree as not to be coincidental.

While comparing Balkanic variants of the tale type ATU 301, researcher Milena Benovska-Sabkova noticed that the conflict between the snake and the eagle (bird) on the tree "was very close to the classical imagery of the World Tree".

Other fairy tales
According to scholarship, Hungarian scholar János Berze Nágy also associated the imagery of the World Tree with fairy tales wherein a mysterious thief comes at night to steal the golden apples of the king's prized tree. This incident occurs as an alternative opening to tale type ATU 301, in a group of tales formerly classified as AaTh 301A, and as the opening episode in most variants of tale type ATU 550, "Bird, Horse and Princess" (otherwise known as The Golden Bird).

Likewise, historical linguist Václav Blažek argued for parallels of certain motifs of these fairy tales (the night watch of the heroes, the golden apples, the avian thief) to Ossetian Nart sagas and the Greek myth of the Garden of the Hesperides. The avian thief may also be a princess cursed into bird form, such as in Hungarian tale Prince Árgyilus (hu) and Fairy Ilona and in Serbian tale The Nine Peahens and the Golden Apples (both classified as ATU 400, "The Man on a Quest for the Lost Wife"). This second type of opening episode was identified by Romanian folklorist Marcu Beza as another introduction to swan maiden tales.

See also

 It's a Big Big World, TV-series which takes place at a location called the "World Tree"
 Potomitan
 Rehue
 Sidrat al-Muntaha
 Tree of life (Quran)
 Ṭūbā
 The Fountain

Explanatory notes

References

Literature
David Abram. The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-Than-Human World, Vintage, 1997

Roys, Ralph L., The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1967.

Further reading

 Butterworth, E. A. S. The Tree - the Navel of the Earth. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1970.
 Holmberg, Uno. Der Baum des Lebens'' (= Suomalaisen Tiedeakatemian toimituksia. Sarja B = Series B, 16, 3, ). Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Helsinki, 1922 (Auch: Edition Amalia, Bern 1996, ).

External links

 Cosmology of the Ancient Balts by Vytautas Straižys and Libertas Klimka (Lithuanian.net)

Mythological archetypes
Religious cosmologies
Trees in mythology
Individual trees
ATU 300-399
ATU 400-459
ATU 500-559

World tree


ඔබට අවැසි ලිපිය තෝරාගන්න

ආහාරයට ගන්නා සත්ත්‍ව කිරි
 මවු කිරි
 ගව කිරි
එළකිරි
 මී කිරි
 එලු කිරි
 ඔටු කිරි

ආහාරයට ගන්නා ශාකමය කිරි
 පොල් කිරි
 සෝයා කිරි

ආහාරයට නොගන්නා ප්‍රයෝජනවත් කිරි
 රබර් කිරි
 පැපොල් කිරි

ප්‍රයෝජනයට නොගන්නා කිරි
 කජු කිරි
 අඔ කිරි

කිරි

කිරි


نقطة زرقاء باهتة  هي صورة فوتوغرافية لكوكب الأرض التقطها المسبار الفضائي فوياجر 1 في 14 فبراير 1990 من مسافة قياسية تبعد حوالي 6 مليارات كيلومتر عن الأرض، كجزء من مجموعة صور للمجموعة الشمسية. في الصورة، تظهر الأرض بحجم أقل من البكسل؛ الكوكب يظهر كنقطة صغيرة جداً مقارنة بالفضاء الشاسع، ضمن حزم من ضوء الشمس المتناثر بعدسات الكاميرا.

فوياجر 1، الذي أكمل مهمته الرئيسية وكان يغادر المجموعة الشمسية، قد أمر من قبل ناسا أن يدير كاميرته ويلتقط صورة للأرض عبر مدى كبير جداً من الفضاء، بناءً على طلب الفلكي والمؤلف كارل ساجان.

اختيرت الصورة من أفضل 10 صور علمية وذلك في استفتاء أجراه موقع سبايس كوم سنة 2001.

تأملات ساغان

في 1994 قام كارل ساجان بتسمية كتابه نقطة زرقاء باهتة - رؤية لمستقبل الإنسان في الفضاء على نفس اسم الصورة. باستحداث الفكرة وكذلك بتسمية الصورة. في الكتاب، قام ساجان بالتعبير عن أفكاره حول معنى أعمق للصورة:

مراجع

انظر أيضًا

 اليوم الذي ابتسمت فيه الأرض

صور فوتوغرافية ملونة
الفن في 1990
أحداث فبراير 1990
أعمال في 1990
الأرض
برنامج فوياجر
مقالات صور فلكية

نقطة زرقاء باهتة


Lawrence Robert Sánchez, más conocido como Lawrie Sánchez (Lambeth, Gran Londres, Inglaterra, 22 de octubre de 1959), es un entrenador de fútbol norirlandés ecuatoriano que es actualmente entrenador del Barnet Football Club del Football League Two en Inglaterra. Era entrenador de la Selección de fútbol de Irlanda del Norte y del Fulham Football Club en la Premier League. En su carrera como futbolista ganó el FA Cup con el Wimbledon Football Club en 1988.

Carrera como futbolista

Con clubes
Sánchez nació en Lambeth, Gran Londres, el 22 de octubre de 1959. Es hijo de un padre ecuatoriano y una madre norirlandesa. Su primer club fue el Reading Football Club de 1978 hasta 1984, cuando juntó el Wimbledon Football Club para 20.000£. En la temporada de 1985-86, él marcó un gol contra el Huddersfield Town que ganó el Football League Championship. Sánchez marcó también el único gol de la final del FA Cup de 1988, para Wimbledon contra el campeón de la liga, el Liverpool FC. El 2 de marzo de 1994 Sánchez dejó del Wimbledon para el Swindon Town Football Club. Jugó tres partidos para Swindon que fue relegado. En 1994 era jugador-entrenador del club irlandés el Sligo Rovers Football Club.

Internacional
Sánchez jugó su primer partido con la Selección de Irlanda del Norte el 12 de noviembre de 1986, contra Turquía en calificación para Euro 1988. Sus otros partidos fueron dos en calificación para el Copa Mundial de 1990 en 1989 contra España y Malta.

Carrera como entrenador
Comenzó como entrenador del Wycombe Wanderers Football Club en Football League Two el 5 de febrero de 1999 y ayudó el club a evitar relegación. Wycombe perdió 2-1 su semifinal del FA Cup de 2001 contra el Liverpool Football Club, el 8 de abril en Villa Park. Sánchez fue despedido del Wycombe el 30 de septiembre de 2003.

Era el entrenador de la Selección Norirlandesa en calificación para el Copa Mundial de 2006. El 7 de septiembre de 2005 su equipo ganó contra Inglaterra para la primera vez desde 1972 con un gol por David Healy. En calaficacion para Euro 2008, Healy marcó una tripleta cuando Irlanda del Norte ganó 3-2 contra España.

Sánchez reemplazó Chris Coleman como entrenador del Fulham Football Club de la Premier League el 10 de abril de 2007. Debido a las reglas de la liga, tuvo que dejar de su trabajo con la Selección norirlandesa el 11 de mayo. Fue despedido el 21 de diciembre cuando su equipo estuvo en el 18º puesto en la liga.

Desde el 13 de mayo de 2011 Sánchez es entrenador del Barnet Football Club en Football League Two.

Referencias

Nacidos en Reading
Personas de Londres
Futbolistas nacionalizados en Ecuador
Futbolistas nacionalizados en Irlanda del Norte
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Irlanda del Norte
Futbolistas del Reading Football Club
Futbolistas del Wimbledon Football Club
Futbolistas del Swindon Town Football Club
Futbolistas del Sligo Rovers Football Club
Entrenadores de fútbol de Irlanda del Norte
Entrenadores del Wycombe Wanderers Football Club
Entrenadores de la selección de fútbol de Irlanda del Norte
Entrenadores del Fulham Football Club
Entrenadores del Barnet Football Club
Entrenadores del Apollon Smyrnis

Lawrie Sanchez


Alan Gaius Ramsay McIntosh (né le  à Sydney et mort le ) est un mathématicien australien dont les travaux concernent essentiellement les champs de l'analyse : analyse harmonique, équations aux dérivées partielles. Il a été professeur à l'Université nationale australienne.

Formation et carrière
McIntosh a étudié à l'Université de la Nouvelle-Angleterre avec une licence en 1962 (en tant qu'étudiant, il a également reçu la médaille de l'Université) et un doctorat en 1966 sous la supervision de František Wolf à l'Université de Californie à Berkeley, avec une thèse intitulée Representation of Accretive Bilinear Forms in Hilbert Space by Maximal Accretive Operators (Représentation des formes bilinéaires accretives dans l'espace Hilbert par opérateur d'augmentation maximale). À Berkeley, il fut aussi l'élève de Tosio Kato. En tant qu'étudiant post-doctoral, il travaille à l'Institute for Advanced Study et à partir de 1967 il a enseigné à l'Université Macquarie et à partir de 1999 à l'Université nationale australienne de Canberra. En 2014, il est devenu émérite.

Travaux
McIntosh a participé à la résolution de la conjecture de Calderon dans la théorie des .

En 2002, il a résolu avec Pascal Auscher, Michael T. Lacey,  et Steve Hofmann la  pour les opérateurs différentiels elliptiques.

Il traite également des opérateurs intégraux singuliers, des problèmes de valeurs limites des équations aux dérivées partielles avec des applications (telles que la  des équations de Maxwell dans les zones irrégulières), la théorie spectrale et le calcul fonctionnel des opérateurs dans les espaces de Banach, l'analyse avec les algèbres de Clifford, les barrières pour l'équation du noyau thermique et le calcul fonctionnel pour les opérateurs différentiels partiels elliptiques.

Il est considéré comme « un symbole de la force des mathématiques australiennes, et une figure clé dans les domaines de l'analyse harmonique et de la théorie des opérateurs dans le monde entier ».

Prix et distinctions
En 1986, il est devenu membre de l'Académie des sciences australienne, dont il a reçu la médaille Hannan en 2015. En 2002, il a reçu la médaille Moyal de l'Université Macquarie.

Le Mathematical Sciences Institute de l'ANU décerne le Alan McIntosh Prize in the Bachelor of Mathematical Sciences. Parmi les lauréats figurent : Georgiana Bergin Lyall (2019), Grover Lancaster-Cole (2020) et Thomas Whitely (2020).

Références

Liens externes

 Héritage mathématique
 Notice nécrologique, 2016, de l'Australian Mathematical Society

Mathématicien australien du XXe siècle
Mathématicien australien du XXIe siècle
Professeur à l'université Macquarie
Professeur à l'université nationale australienne
Universitaire australien du XXe siècle
Universitaire australien du XXIe siècle
Étudiant de l'université de Californie à Berkeley
Naissance en janvier 1942
Décès en août 2016
Pages avec des traductions non relues
Naissance à Sydney
Décès à 74 ans

Alan McIntosh


نقص الخلايا المتعادلة  قلة العدلات (الصفة منها قليل العدلات)، مشتقة من البادئة اللاتينية neutro واللاحقة اليونانية πενία  (قلة) هو اضطراب في الدم يتميز بانخفاض غير طبيعي لنوع من خلايا الدم البيضاء تسمى العدلات. وتشكل العدلات عادة نسبة 50-70 ٪ من إجمالي عدد خلايا الدم البيضاء الموجودة في الدم، وتكون بمثابة الدفاع الأول ضد العدوى عن طريق تدمير البكتيريا الموجودة في الدم. وبالتالي، فالمرضى الذين يعانون من قلة العدلات يكونون أكثر عرضة للالتهابات البكتيرية، ودون عناية طبية فورية، قد تصبح حالة تهدد الحياة الإنسان بسبب قلة العدلات.

ويمكن أن يكون قلة العدلات حادًا أو مزمنًا وذلك حسب مدة المرض. ويعتبر المريض مصابا بقلة العدلات المزمن إذا استمرت حالته لفترة أطول من ثلاثة أشهر. وهذا المصطلح يستخدم أحيانا بالتبادل مع مصطلح قلة الكريات البيضاء (قلة في عدد خلايا الدم البيضاء)، وذلك لأن العدلات هي أكثر الكريات البيضاء عددًا، ولكن قلة العدلات على الأصح يعتبر نوعا فرعيا من قلة الكريات البيضاء ككل.

هناك أسباب عديدة لقلة العدلات، والتي يمكن أن تنقسم تقريبيا إلى : نقص نتيجة مشاكل في إنتاج الخلايا من نقي العظم أو نتيجة تدمير الخلايا في أماكن أخرى من الجسم. ويعتمد العلاج على طبيعة السبب، ويتم التركيز على الوقاية والعلاج من العدوى.

التصنيف
هناك ثلاثة مبادئ توجيهية عامة تستخدم لتصنيف درجة قلة العدلات على أساس عدد العدلات المطلق (إيه إن سي) والتي تقاس بمقياس الخلايا لكل ميكروليتر من الدم :
 قلة العدلات الخفيفة (1000 <=ANC <1500) -- الحد الأدنى من خطر العدوى
 قلة العدلات المتوسطة (500 <= ANC <1000) -- خطورة متوسطة للإصابة بالعدوى
 قلة العدلات الشديدة (ANC <500) -- خطورة شديدة للإصاة بالعدوى.

العلامات والأعراض
يمكن أن تمر قلة العدلات دون أن تكتشف، ولكنها بصفة عامة تكتشف عندما يصاب المريض بعدوى شديدة أو إنتان. ويمكن لبعض الأمراض الشائعة أن تتخذ مسارا غير متوقع في المرضى قليلي العدلات ؛ تكون القيح، على سبيل المثال، يمكن أن لا يكون موجودا، وهذا لأنه يتطلب وجود العدلات في الدم.

وتشمل بعض الأعراض الشائعة لقلة العدلات : الحمى ووالالتهابات المتكررة. وهذه الالتهابات يمكن أن توجد في ظروف مثل تقرحات الفم، أو الإسهال، أو الحرقان عند التبول، أو الاحمرار غير عادي، أو الألم، أو التورم حول الجرح، أو الالتهاب الحلقي.

التشخيص
يمكن اكتشاف انخفاض عدد العدلات بإجراء صورة دم كاملة. وعموما، وقد تطلب بعض التحليلات المخبرية الأخرى للوصول إلى التشخيص السليم. وعندما يكون التشخيص غير مؤكد، أو الأسباب التي يشتبه فيها خطيرة، فحص نقي العظم غالبا ما يكون ضروري.

ويمكن عمل بعض التحليلات المخبرية الأخرى عادة مثل : عدد العدلات المسلسل من أجل الكشف عن قلة العدلات الدوري المشتبه بها، واختبارات الاجسام المضادة ضد العدلات، اختبارات الأجسام المضادة الذاتية والاختبارات المخبرية الاستقرائية للكشف عن الذئبة الحمراء، واختبارات فيتامين ب 12 وحمض الفوليك واختبار حمض المصل (اختبار هامز)

الأسباب
يمكن أن تقسم الأسباب إلى المجموعات التالية :
 انخفض الإنتاج في نقي العظم :
 فقر الدم اللاتنسجي
 السرطان، خاصة سرطان الدم
 بعض الأدوية
 اضطرابات وراثية (على سبيل المثال قلة العدلات الخلقي، قلة العدلات الدوري)
 الإشعاع
 نقص فيتامين ب 12 أو نقص حمض الفوليك.
 زيادة تدمير العدلات :
 قلة العدلات المتعلقة بالمناعة الذاتية.
 العلاج الكيميائي، كما في حالات السرطان وأمراض المناعة الذاتية
 التهميش والفصل :
 غسيل الكلى

وغالبا ما يكون هناك قلة العدلات الخفيفة الالتهابات الفيروسية.

العلاج
لا يوجد علاج مثالي لقلة العدلات، ولكن هرمون المخلق جي - سي إس إف (عامل تحفيز مستعمرة الكريات البيضاء) يمكن أن يكون فعالا في مرضى العلاج الكيميائي، ولدى المرضى الذين يعانون من الأنواع الخلقية من قلة العدلات بما في ذلك : قلة العدلات الخلقي الشديد، متلازمة كوستمانز المتعلقة بالصبغية الجسدية المتنحية، وقلة العدلات الدوري، ومرض myelokathexis.

التاريخ

العلاقة بين عدد العدلات المنخفض وزيادة خطر الإصابة ظهرت لأول مرة في المرضى الذين يعانون من اللوكيميا.

انظر أيضا
 فقر الدم اللاتنسجي
 قلة الكريات الشاملة
 قلة الصفيحات

المراجع

روابط إضافية
 الشبكة الوطنية لقلة العدلات :
 السجل الدولي لقلة العدلات المزمن الشديد

أمراض الخلايا الوحيدة والمحببة
أمراض الدم
أمراض المناعة الذاتية
خلايا الدم البيضاء
دم

قلة الخلايا المتعادلة


Atlantirivulus nudiventris é uma espécie de peixe ciprinodontiforme da família dos rivulídeos (Rivulidae). É endêmica do Brasil e ocorre na várzea do rio Itapemirim, que flui pelos estados do Espírito Santo e Minas Gerais. Um macho estudado media até 4,5 centímetros. Não é sazonal e é difícil de manter em aquário. Em 2005, foi classificada como vulnerável na Lista de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo; e em 2014, como criticamente em perigo na Portaria MMA N.º 444 de 17 de dezembro de 2014; e em 2018 como criticamente em perigo no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção do Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio).

Taxonomia

Atlantirivulus nudiventris originalmente pertencia ao gênero Rivulus. Wilson José Eduardo Moreira da Costa dividiu este gênero em vários novos gêneros (incluindo Anablepsoides, Atlantirivulus, Cynodonichthys, Kryptolebias, Laimosemion e Melanorivulus) em 2004 e 2011, deixando apenas algumas espécies das Grandes Antilhas em Rivulus.

Rivulídeos
Peixes descritos em 1991
Peixes do Espírito Santo (estado)
Peixes de Minas Gerais
Fauna da Mata Atlântica
Espécies citadas no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo
Espécies citadas na Portaria MMA N.º 444

Atlantirivulus nudiventris


Kankaanpää es una ciudad de Finlandia, situada en la región de Satakunta. Tiene una población estimada, a mayo de 2021, de 12 784 habitantes.

Su área es de 1037,87 km², de los cuales 16,77 km² es agua.

La ciudad fue fundada en 1865 y consiguió los derechos de ciudad en 1972.

En el pueblo de Niinisalo está situada la brigada de artillería, unidad del ejército de tierra finlandés.

Referencias

Municipios de Satakunta

Kankaanpää


Das Besucherbergwerk St. Christoph befindet sich in der sächsischen Gemeinde Breitenbrunn. Die gleichnamige Fundgrube wurde 1558 erstmals erwähnt. Der aktive Bergbau wurde 1945 endgültig eingestellt. Abgebaut wurden vor allem Magneteisenerz, Zinnstein und Sulfide.

Geographie
Das Besucherbergwerk liegt am Hang des Zechenhübels an der Schachtstraße in Breitenbrunn im Westerzgebirge. Es ist über die im Schwarzwassertal entlangführende Kreisstraße S 272 und die Eisenbahn erreichbar und liegt ca. 700 m östlich des Haltepunktes Breitenbrunn.

Das Stollnmundloch wurde bei  am Hang angesetzt. Der Stolln verläuft etwa 330 m in östliche Richtung und schwenkt dann nach NE. Bei ca. 500 vom Mundloch erreicht er den Schlägelschacht. Das eigentliche Erzlager wird nach weiteren 120 m erreicht.

Geologie
Die St.-Christoph-Fundgrube baute auf einer ca. 1 bis 6 m mächtigen Skarnerzlagerstätte, die sich über etwa 1,2 km in NW-SE-Richtung erstreckt. Sie liegt mit ähnlichen Lagerstätten in der äußeren von zwei Zonen, die sich konzentrisch ringförmig um Schwarzenberg/Erzgeb. erstrecken.

Die Erzlager entstanden, nachdem Sedimentgesteins-Schichten mit eingelagerten Kalk- und Dolomitlagen bei hohem Druck und Temperatur in der Tiefe gefaltet und metamorph überprägt wurden. Hierbei bildeten sich Glimmerschiefer und Gneis, in die Dolomit-Marmor schichtenförmig eingelagert ist. Beim Aufstieg des Eibenstocker Granit-Plutons wurde der Marmor durch wässrige Lösungen metasomatisch in Granat-Pyroxen-Skarn umgewandelt. Dieser weist nestförmige Erzanreicherungen auf und wird lokal von Erzgängen durchschlagen.

Die abgebauten Erze waren die für Skarne typischen Minerale Magnetit, Zinkblende, Arsenikal- und Arsenkies, Kupferkies und Schwefelkies, die in ständig wechselnder Häufigkeit auftraten. In den Gängen traten vor allem Zinnstein, seltener Silber und Uranmineralien auf.

Eine Besonderheit der Fundgrube ist eine schwarze, eisenhaltige Zinkblende, die August Breithaupt 1863 nach dieser Grube Christophit nannte.

Geschichte

Der Bergbau in der St.-Christoph-Fundgrube begann ca. 1557/58 mit dem Erwerb der Schürfrechte durch Hans Müller von Berneck. Er und seine Söhne ließen bereits 1569 mit kurfürstlicher Genehmigung einen Schmelzofen, eine Vitriol- und Schwefelhütte sowie 1593 einen Eisenhammer zur Verarbeitung der Erze in Breitenhof errichten. Dort lebten ca. 100 Personen in Abhängigkeit von dieser Grube.

Hauptbetriebszeiten waren 1567 bis 1572, 1665 bis 1784 und 1800 bis 1910. Dazwischen wurde die Grube in Fristen gehalten. Neben den auch bei anderen erzgebirgischen Gruben einflussnehmenden Faktoren wie Krieg und wechselnde Rentabilität kämpfte die Grube vor allem mit Wassereinbrüchen und der stark wechselnden Erzführung. Zu den bedeutsamen Eigentümern der Grube zählte der Montanunternehmer William Tröger.

Die vorerst letzte Betriebsperiode begann 1937, als im Rahmen der Autarkiebestrebungen des dritten Reiches die Sachsenerz Bergwerks GmbH die Grube wieder aufwältigte, und endete im April 1945. Vorrangig wurden Eisenerz und die angefallenen Komplexerze abgebaut.

Die Untersuchungen der Wismut AG auf Uran in den Jahren 1945/46 verliefen negativ. Damit wurde St. Christoph endgültig stillgelegt.

Besucherbergwerk
Nach der Gründung der Knappschaft Breitenbrunn im Jahre 1983 wurde bald mit der Erschließung der St.-Christoph-Fundgrube begonnen. Im September 2000 wurde das Bergwerk als Schaubergwerk zugänglich gemacht. In den 1 bis 1,5 Stunden dauernden Führungen werden etwa 1,2 km der Grube befahren und u. a. farbige Sinterbildungen von Kupfer-, Arsen-, Eisen- und Zinkerzen gezeigt.

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Schaubergwerk in Deutschland
Stillgelegtes Bergwerk in Sachsen
Bergbau (Sächsisches Erzgebirge)
Erzbergwerk in Deutschland
Bauwerk in Breitenbrunn/Erzgeb.
Organisation (Breitenbrunn/Erzgeb.)
Bergwerk in Europa

Besucherbergwerk St. Christoph


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مصرف دار السلام للاستثمار مصرف عراقي خاص، تأسس في بغداد في العام 1998، وباشر أعماله في نيسان 1999.

فروع البنك
عدد فروع المصرف حالياً (15) فرعاً داخل العراق.
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مراجع

بنوك أسست سنة 1998
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تأسيسات سنة 1998 في العراق
شركات عراقية
شركات مقرها في بغداد
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مصرف دار السلام للاستثمار


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Friedrich Adam von Trott zu Solz (9 August 1909 – 26 August 1944) was a German lawyer and diplomat who was involved in the conservative resistance to Nazism. A declared opponent of the Nazi regime from the beginning, he actively participated in the Kreisau Circle of Helmuth James Graf von Moltke and Peter Yorck von Wartenburg. Together with Claus von Stauffenberg and Fritz-Dietlof von der Schulenburg, he conspired in the 20 July plot and was supposed to have been appointed Secretary of State in the Foreign Office and lead negotiator with the Western Allies if the plot had succeeded.

Life

Early life and career

Trott was born in Potsdam, Brandenburg, into the Protestant Trott zu Solz dynasty, members of the Hessian Uradel nobility. He was the fifth child of the Prussian Culture Minister August von Trott zu Solz (1855–1938) and his wife Emilie Eleonore von Schweinitz (1875–1948), whose father served as German ambassador in Vienna and Saint Petersburg. By her mother, Anna Jay, Emilie Eleonore was a great-great granddaughter of John Jay, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and the first Chief Justice of the United States.

Trott was first raised in Berlin and from 1915 was sent to the Französisches Gymnasium preschool. When his father resigned from office in 1917, the family moved to Kassel, where Trott attended the Friedrichsgymnasium. From 1922, he lived in Hann. Münden and temporarily joined the German Youth Movement. He obtained his Abitur school leaving certificate in 1927 and went on to study law at the Universities of Munich and Göttingen.

Trott developed a strong interest in international politics during a stay in Geneva, seat of the League of Nations, for several weeks in Autumn 1928. He spent Hilary term of 1929 in Oxford, studying theology at Mansfield College, Oxford, when he became a friend of the historian A. L. Rowse, and returned to England in 1931 on a Rhodes Scholarship to study at Balliol College, Oxford, where he became a close friend of David Astor and an acquaintance of the eminent philosopher R. G. Collingwood. Rowse, a homosexual, developed an intense infatuation with the heterosexual Trott and called him one of the most beautiful, intelligent and charming men he had ever met. In his 1961 book All Souls and Appeasement, which was published when active homosexuality was still a crime in Britain, Rowse wrote about Trott's "beautiful head" with an "immensely lofty forehead, deep-violet eyes, nobility and sadness in the expression even when young, infinitely sensitive and understanding". He wrote, "I had never met anything like it". Rowse called his relationship with Trott an "ideal platonic" relationship and said that Trott was a man he could never forget. Rowse, who was active in the Labour Party, claimed to have introduced Trott to socialism and noted that Trott had translated parts of Rowse's book Politics and the Younger Generation into German when they were published in Neue Blätter für den Sozialismus. Following his studies at Oxford, Trott spent six months in the United States.

Deeply influenced by the theories of Hegel, Trott believed that the most pressing issue raised by the Great Depression would be how to seek a synthesis of conservatism and socialism, which he believed to be the only solution to the Great Depression. For Trott, the Great Depression proved the failure of capitalism as an economic system, but at the same time, he was unwilling to accept communism as an alternative, which led him to seek a "third way" between capitalism and communism, arguing in a 1933 letter to his father that the "right to work" had replaced Hegel's "right to a free will" as the most pressing issue of the modern age. In the same letter, Trott argued that what was needed was an economic system that guaranteed every man a job, and that he considered the individual freedom to count for nothing if one was unemployed. Somewhat to the shock of his conservative father, in the early 1930s Trott was willing to exchange ideas with Social Democrats as he set about developing a sort of socialist conservatism. Trott told his father in February 1933 that "the positive rights of the individual" could be secured if the rights of the "masses" were "held sacred", which he believed the new government of Adolf Hitler and Franz von Papen had no intention of doing.

Travels
In 1937, Trott was posted to China as a research fellow for the Institute of Pacific Relations under a research grant from the Auswärtiges Amt. He took advantage of his travels to try to raise support outside Germany for the internal resistance against the Nazis. At the time there was an informal alliance between China and Germany, with a German military mission training the Chinese National Revolutionary Army, which was largely armed with German weapons, and German businesses being favored with investments in China in exchange for China helping German rearmament by selling the Reich certain strategic raw materials at below cost. Given the closeness in relations between China and Germany, as a German citizen, Trott enjoyed a certain privileged status in China, as Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek had often described Nazi Germany as a model for China.

A Sinophile, Trott had gone to China to study Confucian philosophy and learn Mandarin, as he put it that he was hoping to find in "China's ancient wisdom" a solution to the spiritual malaise of the West. Trott believed that modern Western civilization had lost any sense of the spiritual, which he believed still existed in China. The British historian D. C. Watt rather dismissively wrote that Trott was an impractical idealist who spent much of 1937 and 1938 in China looking for the answers to the problems of modern life by studying Confucianism and Taoism. The Confucian ideal of rule by enlightened and philosophical mandarins also appealed to Trott as an inspiration for a political system. The Confucian principle that mandarins should not serve an unjust emperor and that it was better to suffer and die rather than serve a tyrant influenced Trott's political thinking. Together with his Chinese teacher who served as his translator, Trott traveled several times to Beijing to talk to various Confucian scholars living in that city, hoping to find the spirituality that he believed the West was lacking and needed so desperately. During the Sino-Japanese War, which began in July 1937, Trott's sympathies were entirely with China. During his time in China, Trott got to know the head of the German military mission, General Alexander von Falkenhausen, very well, and as both men were disillusioned by the pro-Japanese line taken by the Auswärtiges Amt after the very pro-Japanese and anti-Chinese Joachim von Ribbentrop became Foreign Minister in February 1938, they bonded over their shared disapproval of Ribbentrop and his anti-Chinese foreign policy line. In June 1938, the German military mission in China was ordered to return to the Reich and Germany ceased its arm sales to China as Ribbentrop swung German foreign policy decisively behind Japan, causing a rapid chill to set in over the once warm relations between Nanking and Berlin. Trott decided to leave China at the same time that the German military mission was recalled.

One of Trott's closest friends was the British journalist Shiela Grant Duff who, however, passionately disagreed with him over the issue of Czechoslovakia, a country that she admired and loved as much he hated it. The nationalist Trott made no secret of his dislike of Czechoslovakia as an "artificial state" created by the Treaty of Versailles and believed that Germany had the right to annex the Sudetenland region, meaning that essentially Trott supported Hitler's foreign policy in regards to Czechoslovakia in 1938. The Chinese historian Liang Hsi-Huey wrote there was a certain dichotomy in Trott's thinking between his dislike of the Nazis and his support for Germany's great power ambitions, which made for an ambivalent attitude towards Nazi foreign policy. Liang, whose father Liang Lone was the Chinese minister in Prague between 1933 and 1939, wrote that people like Trott, conservative nationalists opposed to Hitler who sympathised with China in its struggle against Japan, had much difficulty accepting the thesis that nations like Czechoslovakia had the right to exist. Liang wrote that there was a striking contrast between Trott's views towards China, which he argued had the right to determine its own future and should not be dominated by Japan, versus his views towards Czechoslovakia, which he saw as an "artificial state" that was occupying land that rightfully belonged to Germany. The British historian Sir John Wheeler-Bennett, who knew most of the men involved in the plots against Hitler between 1938 and 1944 personally, wrote that these men were all nationalists whose views towards Czechoslovakia and Poland were essentially the same as Hitler's – namely that Eastern Europe was Germany's rightful sphere of influence and the Reich had the right to take whatever it wanted in the region. After the Munich Agreement Trott, in a letter to his friend Lord Lothian, praised "Mr. Chamberlain's courageous lead" in ensuring that the Sudetenland was allowed to join Germany without a war and disparaged Winston Churchill as a "warmonger".

In 1939, during the course of three visits to London, Trott lobbied Lord Lothian and Lord Halifax to pressure the British government to abandon the "containment" policy directed against Hitler, which had been adopted on 31 March 1939 with the "Polish guarantee". Trott was a close friend of Ernst von Weizsäcker, the State Secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt, and he visited London as an unofficial diplomat representing Weizsäcker who, in a move reflecting the chaotic politics of Nazi Germany, had adopted his foreign policy that ran parallel to the policy of the Foreign Minister Ribbentrop. Weizsäcker, knowing that a planned German invasion of Poland scheduled for August 1939 (later pushed back to 1 September) was likely to cause an Anglo-German war, had adopted his policy of offering to restore independence to Czechoslovakia, without the Sudetenland,  in exchange for which Britain would end the "guarantee" of Poland and allow Germany to reincorporate the Free City of Danzig, the Polish Corridor, and parts of Upper Silesia lost to Poland after the First World War. Weizsäcker was a man of extreme anti-Polish prejudices who warmly welcomed the idea of a war to destroy Poland, but he was rather less keen on the idea of a war with Britain, hence his repeated efforts to sever Britain from Poland in 1939. Like Weizsäcker, Trott was unwilling to consider returning the Sudetenland, but he was prepared to consider restoring Czech independence in exchange for Germany taking back all of the lands lost to Poland. The plan drawn up by Weizsäcker and Trott called for Britain to end the "guarantee" of Poland to pressure the Poles to return the disputed territories.  Though Trott professed to believe the Poles would give in to German diplomatic pressure once the "guarantee" had been removed, such a situation would allow Germany to invade Poland without fear of a war with Britain, although Trott also claimed to believe that if such a situation were to emerge, then the Wehrmacht generals would overthrow Hitler. Rowse characterised Trott's visits to Britain in June 1939 as a "double mission, an official and an unofficial one": to sound out the British Establishment about where Britain stood in regards to the Danzig Crisis and to report this back to Hitler, and to also seek to make contacts with Britain on behalf of the resistance group. Trott spent the weekend of 2–3 June 1939 at Cliveden and on 7 June 1939 met Chamberlain at Chequers.

Lord Lothian told Trott that Britain was unwilling to undo the Munich Agreement and accepted the Sudetenland as part of the Reich, but it could not accept the Reich Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, as it was essential that Czech independence be restored; Anglo-German relations could not be improved unless that happened. As a Rhodes scholar, Trott was able to use his friends from Oxford in the Establishment to meet Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax in June 1939. At his meeting with Chamberlain at Chequers, Trott was informed that it was not possible for Britain to end the "guarantee" of Poland and that if Germany wanted better relations, "it was for Herr Hitler to undo the mischief he had done". Chamberlain complained that British public opinion had been "passionately stirred" by the German occupation of the rump state of Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and thag Britain would go to war with Germany rather than see another nation "destroyed".

Trott submitted an account of his British visits to Walther Hewel, who in turn submitted it to Hitler. When Trott returned to Germany, Weizsäcker tried to set up a meeting for Trott to brief Hitler and Ribbentrop about his British visit, but neither wanted to see him. Trott returned to Britain for a third visit to repeat his "Danzig for Prague" offer, and this time he stated he was not coming on behalf of the German government, but rather as a representative of a resistance group, which confused British officials as to his true loyalties. The German historian Klemens von Klemperer argued that the purpose behind Trott's "Danzig for Prague" offer was to discredit Hitler, since he expected Hitler to refuse it if the British made it, which would somehow cause the Wehrmacht generals to turn against Hitler. Klemperer wrote that there was a certain lack of "clear strategy" behind the "Danzig for Prague" proposal, since Trott himself never entirely made it clear how this plan to ensure that the Free City of Danzig rejoining Germany without a war was supposed to cause the overthrow of Hitler.

Wheeler-Bennett, who had lived in Berlin between 1927 and 1934 and who met Trott during his visits to London in 1939, wrote that he "...had about him a certain confused political mysticism, a vague Hegelianism which induced in him, not, to be sure, the worship of the Führerprinzip, but a deep veneration for German military and political traditions, and what he believed to be the innate integrity of the German soul". Wheeler-Bennett further wrote that Trott and his friend Helmuth von Moltke, who came with him to London, were both intense German nationalists who "...though they deplored the spirit of the Munich Agreement and the subsequent dismemberment of Czechoslovakia, expressed strong anti-Czech sentiments, and from neither was there forthcoming any indication that a 'de-nazified' Germany was prepared to forgo Hitler's annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland. Indeed it was hinted from that Britain and France might well reward the conspirators, if successful, with the return of Germany's former colonial possessions". Rowse, who saw Trott for the last time during his visits to Britain in 1939, wrote that Trott's Hegelianism "profoundly affected his mind" as "with him black was never black, and white white; black was always in the process of becoming white, white of becoming black". Rowse wrote "...Adam entered deeply, ambivalently into relations with the Nazis without being one, indeed while belonging to the resistance movement".

The German historian Hans Mommsen wrote that the majority of the conservatives opposed to Hitler in no way wanted a return to the democratic Weimar Republic, which they also rejected, but instead looked back to the reformers who restructured Prussia during the Napoleonic Wars as their ideal and role model. For the anti-Nazi conservatives, the emphasis was upon reforming the system instead of a revolution to destroy it, as the majority of the conservatives believed in the ideal of the volksgemeinschaft that would unite the German people as one and only wanted a "true" volksgemeinschaft instead of what they saw as the twisted Nazi version of it. The emphasis was on putting into effect the "right" ideas of National Socialism, which the conservatives believed the Nazis had botched in the execution. In regards to foreign policy, the anti-Nazi conservatives believed that Hitler's foreign policy goal of making Germany into Europe's number one power was correct. Their objections to Nazi foreign policy were only that Hitler was executing his foreign policy in a reckless, adventurist way that threatened to create a coalition that would defeat Germany; they were only opposed to the means, not the ends, of Hitler's foreign policy. Mommsen argued what he called the "ambivalence" of Trott, who worked towards achieving certain Nazi foreign policy goals but at the same time worked for the overthrow of the Nazi regime, which makes sense if one accepts the thesis that Trott and others like him were out to reform the Volksgemeinschaft from what they saw as its Nazi perversion, instead of working for its destruction.

The distinction that Trott drew between Germany's "rightful" policy of seeking to undo the Treaty of Versailles and his opposition to the Nazi regime was often lost on his British friends since, for many of them, he was advocating the same foreign policy goals as Hitler. Trott did not understand the way in which British public opinion had changed as he spent much time in Britain attacking the Treaty of Versailles in such violent language that many of his British friends came to believe that he was no different from the Nazis. Rowse attended a meeting at the Cliveden estate, where von Trott spoke with Lord Lothian, Lord Astor, Lord Halifax and Sir Thomas Inskip about Anglo-German relations, repeated his "Danzig for Prague" offer and praised "the greatness of our Führer". However, Rowse said that when he was alone with Trott the latter said: "If they kill me, you will never forgive them, will you?"

Trott's ideas led to a complete rejection of democracy as a system morally no different from National Socialism. In 1938, Trott wrote to a British friend that what was happening in Germany was a "European phenomenon" and believed that with the Industrial Revolution, European society had become dehumanised and lost its spiritual core. Trott wrote that this was as much a problem in democratic as totalitarian countries: "It is my opinion that this pandering to the instinctual side of human consciousness, as much by democracy as by totalitarianism, is what has led to the sterile and cynical defeatism that lies at the root of Europe's intellectual chaos". Trott believed the "mass society" created by the Industrial Revolution had allowed demagogues to exploit "the masses" and argued that the "Anglo-Saxon" system of individual liberty built around democracy was essentially no different from National Socialism as it allowed "the masses" to be exploited. In a letter to Grant Duff, Trott wrote: "You have not satisfactorily answered my argument, that it is possible that capitalist and imperialist democracy may use liberty simply as a cloak for a policy that relies very much on compulsion, whereas some aspects of 'authoritarian systems could provide a basically more genuine guarantee of human rights in modern industrial society". In 1939, Trott wrote that the last ten years had shown the "indiscriminate trust in the judgement of the masses is no use.... One way or the other, popular movements have led to despotism".

In Trott's view, only the rule by Germany's traditional elites who were committed to conservative values and would rule according to the rule of law could ensure a truly just society. Trott believed that only in such a system, in which traditional elites ruled by excluding the masses from politics, could a political system be created that was genuinely concerned with the best interests of society. He told his friend Julie Braun-Vogelstein "Go and write an essay on Tradition and Socialism!" He meant that only the rules by traditional elites could really achieve socialism.

Trott called for a political system that would secure the "liberation of the masses from economic need" by the authoritarian rule by the traditional elites, whose values would be based on Christianity.

Various messengers from the Widerstand movements had arrived in Britain in 1938 to 1939 stating if only Britain abandoned appeasement, the leaders of the Wehrmacht would stage a putsch to depose Hitler, rather than fight a war with Britain again. In August 1939, the British government repeatedly warned Germany that an attack on Poland would cause a war with Britain. One reason was the hope that the Wehrmacht would indeed overthrow Hitler, rather than risk another world war.

On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland and on 3 September 1939, Britain declared war on Germany. Despite the promises of numerous messengers, the Wehrmacht stayed loyal to Germany, continued on with the conquest of Poland and made no effort to depose Hitler. The fact that the Wehrmacht stayed loyal to Hitler in 1939 in spite of all the promises from anti-Nazi Germans that it would not, if only Britain made a firm stand against Hitler, greatly discredited the Widerstand movement in British eyes, and much of Trott's difficulty in enlisting British support from that fact.

A friend of Weizsäcker, Trott formally joined the Auswärtiges Amt in 1939 at his suggestion after having worked for the Auswärtiges Amt as a researcher on China for the previous two years. In October 1939, Trott went to the United States to attend a conference of the Institute of Pacific Relations, in Virginia Beach, in November 1939. On his way to the United States, Trott was almost interned in Gibraltar as an enemy alien when his ship had stopped there, but he was able to persuade the British officials that he was an Afrikaner from South Africa by using his Balliol tie as proof that he attended Balliol College, which was true, and thus meant that he could not be a German, which was not. He also visited Washington, D.C. in October of that year in an unsuccessful attempt to obtain American support. He met with Roger Nash Baldwin, Edward C. Carter, William J. Donovan and Felix Morley of The Washington Post. During the conference in Virginia Beach, Trott met numerous members of the business and academic worlds of the United States and Canada who were interested in China.

Wheeler-Bennett, who owned an estate in Virginia and shared Trott's interests in Sinology, also attended the conference in Virginia Beach and wrote: "In the plenary sessions and committees of the conference, von Trott observed a very 'correct' attitude. He did not openly defend Nazi principles, but confined himself to several recapitulations of the German case on the usual well-known lines, which might be employed by Germans of nearly any political complexion. In private conversation, however, he used a very different tone, frankly declaring himself an anti-Nazi, yet maintaining that Germany must keep much of what she had taken in Poland. He stressed the readiness of the Army for a 'quick peace' on the basis of the status quo less Congress Poland, indicated the preparations already on foot for the restoration of the Rechsstaat in Germany, and urged the Western Allies to reiterate and redefine their peace terms on the lines of Mr. Chamberlain's speeches of September 4 and October 12, 1939.  To the suggestion that a non-Nazi Germany might, as an earnest of good faith, restore some of the territorial acquisitions of Adolf Hitler, von Trott returned an uncompromising negative".

Trott's proposals were passed on to the US Department of State, the Canadian Ministry of External Affairs and the British Embassy in Washington DC, where the reaction was deeply negative, as the consensus was that Germany would have to give up its gains in Poland and the Czech lands as the price for peace, which Trott had indicated that he no interest in doing. However, Trott's suggestions for the basis of peace, which he wrote down after meeting several German emigres in the United States, were passed on the White House and led President Roosevelt to send Summer Welles, the undersecretary at the State Department, on a peace mission to Europe in February 1940 to try to mediate an end to the war.

Foreign Office
Friends warned Trott not to return to Germany, but his conviction that he had to do something to stop the madness of Hitler and his henchmen led him to return. Once there, in 1940 Trott joined the Nazi Party to access party information and monitor its planning. At the same time, he served as a foreign policy advisor to a clandestine group of intellectuals planning the overthrow of the Nazi regime, known as the Kreisau Circle.

In late spring 1941, Wilhelm Keppler, Secretary of State (Staatssekretär) at the German Foreign Office, was appointed director of Special Bureau for India (Sonderreferat Indien) created in the Information Ministry to aid and liaise with the Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose, a former president of the Indian National Congress, who had arrived in Berlin in early April 1941. The day-to-day work with Bose became the responsibility of Trott, who used the cover of the Special Bureau for his anti-Nazi activities by travelling to Scandinavia, Switzerland and Turkey and all of Nazi-occupied Europe to seek out German military officers opposing Nazism. Bose and Trott, however, did not become close, and Bose most likely did not know about Trott's anti-Nazi work.

According to the historian Leonard A. Gordon, there were also tensions between Trott and Bose's wife, Emilie Schenkl, each disliking the other intensely.

Trott was a member of the Kreisau Circle, a group of intellectuals who believed in a sort of conservative Christian socialism, who met at the estate of Count von Moltke in Kreisau in Silesia. The Kreisau Circle was in contact with the main opposition group led by General Ludwig Beck and Carl Frederich Goerdeler but differed with the Beck–Goerdeler group over a number of issues. On 22 January 1943, at the house of Count Peter Hans Yorck von Wartenburg, a meeting was held between the two groups. Attending the meeting for the "senior group" were General Beck, Goerdeler, Ulrich von Hassell and Johannes Popitz and for the Kreisau Circle Moltke, Trott, Yorck von Wartenburg, Eugen Gerstenmaier and Fritz von der Schulenburg. The left-learning Kreisau Circle members objected to Goerdeler's beliefs in laissez-faire capitalism and to his plans to restore the monarchy. The clash between the two groups was in large part generational as the conservative "senior group" were all older men like Goerdeler who had come of age under the German Empire and were far more attached to the House of Hohenzollern than were the younger men like Trott, who had come of age under the Weimar Republic. The diplomat Hassell of the "seniors" and the policeman Schulenburg of the "juniors" mediated a compromise, despite the shouting between Goerdeler and Moltke, but the differences were by no means resolved. After the meeting of 22 January, no conferences were held, but Trott and Schulenburg remained in regular contact with Hassell and Popitiz.

In 1942, Trott, together with other members of the Kreisau Circle, became vaguely aware of the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" and became curious of the fate of the Jews sent away to "resettlement in the East". In March 1943, Trott reported at a meeting of the Kreisau Circle that he learned through sources within the Reich government that he considered very reliable that there was a concentration camp in Upper Silesia that held about 40,000–50,000 people with a "killing rate" of 3,000–4,000 people per month. Trott did not name the camp in Upper Silesia, but it seems that he was referring to Auschwitz concentration camp.

Like most other German conservatives, Trott had deep doubts about the intelligence and morality of ordinary people and held that only an elite had the necessary qualities to govern. In 1943, Trott wrote: "An exclusively rationalist upbringing has made us fail to understand both human nature and the realities of mass society, and we have come to ignore the demons which the Vermassung of mankind has released".  Trott believed in the original positive view of the Sonderweg of Germany as a Central European power, which was neither of the West nor of the East. He expressed these ideas in his memorandum Germany Between East and West, which is lost, but according to those who read it called for Germany to seek a "middle way" between the "eastern principle of political realism" and the "western principle of individuality", which in practice would mean a social-economic system that would be a mixture of both capitalism and communism. He believed that "eastern" countries like the Soviet Union were too collectivist, "western" countries like the United States were too individualistic, and Germans like himself needed to develop a middle way between east and west for the betterment of all of humanity. Trott believed that both capitalist democracy and communism were flawed systems that had dehumanised society and that Germany should follow neither.

Despite Trott's reputation as someone oriented towards "Western" values, based on his education at Oxford and his Anglo-American friends, he was in fact deeply hostile towards the American "pioneer" ideal of a rugged individualist on both moral and practical grounds and believed that such individualism promoted selfishness, greed and amorality.

Trott came to find his political idea in the mir ("commune") of Imperial Russia.  Germans tended to have two contradictory pictures of Russia as viewing it as a primitive and savage "Asian" country that was threatening Europe or seeing it in idealised and romantic terms as a place in which the people were simple but more spiritual than the people in the West. Trott had a rather idealised and romanticised view of the mir, as he believed the Russian muzhiks had a lifestyle where everybody worked together as a community but still allowed room for individualism, non-conformity and eccentricities, the perfect blend of the extremes between East and West that Trott sought for Germany. Trott believed the life of the muzhiks in the mir was deeply influenced by the values of Orthodox Church, making for a very spiritual life while at the same time accepting individualism and rationality.  Moreover, Trott believed life in the mir was simple and in harmony with nature; was untouched by either modern technology or ideology; and allowed people to be honest, spiritual and personal in a way that was not possible in either the Soviet Union or the West.  He believed that the Soviet regime had in its campaign to "collectivise" Soviet farms had destroyed his idealised mir, but his romantic view of the mir provided the basis for Trott's thinking about the sort of society that he wanted to bring about. Trott's beliefs about the need for more "spiritual" society brought him into conflict with Carl Goerdeler and Colonel Hans Oster, who wanted to restore the monarchy and bring back the system that had existed up until 1918 in Germany, which Trott rejected by arguing that something new was needed.

Trott belonged to the "Easterner" faction of the opposition, which favoured making peace with the Soviet Union first after the overthrow of Hitler and distrusted the "Anglo-Saxon" powers of the United States and Great Britain. In December 1943, Trott told Hassell that he felt the United States and the United Kingdom were too fearful of "a change of regime [in Germany] should turn out to be only a cloak hiding a continuation of militaristic Nazi methods under another label". Certain underground Social Democratic politicians complained of an increase of the appeal of the underground Communist Party and of the Soviet-sponsored Free German National Committee among the German working class. As a result, the underground SPD politicians asked their "parlour-pink" friend Trott to appeal to the United States and Britain to change their policies towards Germany. In April 1944, during a visit to Switzerland, Trott met with British and American diplomats to complain that to most anti-Nazi Germans, it seemed that "the Anglo-Saxon countries are filled with bourgeois prejudice and pharisaic theorizing", in contrast to the Soviets, who were offering "constructive ideas and plans for the rebuilding of Germany". Trott stated that after three years of war with the Soviet Union, the Wehrmacht now had considerable respect for the fighting power of the Red Army, and he claimed that the propaganda of the Free Germany Committee in Moscow, which made a distinction between the German people and the Nazi regime, was having much impact in Germany.

Wheeler-Bennett wrote that Trott was "no Red sympathizer" and what he was "endeavouring to do, in fact, was to induce London and Washington to engage in a bidding match with Moscow from the result of which Germany could not but benefit, but he certainly did not favor a Bolshevik solution". Wheeler-Bennett wrote the thinking of the Kreisau Circle was very "confused", but they "were not Communists". Wheeler-Bennett concluded: "Their thinking, it is true, turned to the East rather than the West because, in their idealistic impractical illusions, they looked for an upheaval both in Russia and in Germany. If this were to occur, the two states would have many problems in common, problems which could not be solved by the established bourgeois standards of the West, but which called for a radically new treatment which should be neither authoritarian nor democratic, but which should be guided by a return to 'the spiritual (but not the ecclesiastical) traditions of Christianity'".

20 July 1944 plot

Trott was one of the leaders of Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg's plot of 20 July 1944 to assassinate Hitler. He was arrested within days, placed on trial and found guilty. Sentenced to death on 15 August 1944 by the Volksgerichtshof (People's Court), he was hanged in Berlin's Plötzensee Prison on 26 August.

Commemoration
Trott is one of five Germans who are commemorated on the World War II memorial stone at Balliol College, Oxford. His name is also recorded among the Rhodes Scholars war dead in the Rotunda of Rhodes House, Oxford.

In July 1998, the British magazine Prospect published
an edited version of the lecture given by the German historian Joachim Fest at the inauguration of the Adam von Trott Meeting Room at Balliol College, Oxford. Fest said:

The Adam von Trott Memorial Appeal at Mansfield College runs annual lectures on themes relevant to his life and work, and funds scholarships for young Germans to read for a master's degree in politics at the college.

Clarita von Trott
Trott married Clarita Tiefenbacher in June 1940. He was survived by her (she had been jailed for some months) and by their two daughters, who were taken from their grandmother's house by the Gestapo after his execution and given to Nazi Party families for adoption. Their mother recovered them in 1945. Clarita died in Berlin at the age of 95 on 28 March 2013.

Quotations
 "I am also a Christian, as are those who are with me. We have prayed before the crucifix and have agreed that since we are Christians, we cannot violate the allegiance we owe God. We must therefore break our word given to him who has broken so many agreements and still is doing it. If only you knew what I know Goldmann! There is no other way! Since we are Germans and Christians we must act, and if not soon, then it will be too late.  Think it over till tonight." (Trott was speaking in an attempt to recruit Lieutenant Gereon Goldmann, a German Army medic and former Roman Catholic seminarian. Goldmann had balked at violating the soldier's oath and had questioned the morality of assassinating Hitler. However, Goldmann overcame his qualms and joined the 20 July Plot as a carrier of dispatches.)

Works
 Hegels Staatsphilosophie und das internationale Recht; Diss. Göttingen (V&R), 1932

References

Sources

Further reading
 Hedley Bull, Edited by: The Challenge of the Third Reich –The Adam von Trott Memorial Lectures Oxford University Press, 1986.
 Christabel Bielenberg: The Past is Myself, Corgi, 1968. . Published in the US as When I was a German, 1934–1945, University of Nebraska Press, 1998.
 Shiela Grant Duff: Fünf Jahre bis zum Krieg (1934–1939), Verlag C.H.Beck, trans. Ekkehard Klausa, . (In German)
 Shiela Grant Duff: The Parting of Ways—A Personal Account of the Thirties, Peter Owen, 1982, .
 The Earl of Halifax: Fulness of Days, Collins, 1957, London.
 Michael Ignatieff: A Life of Isaiah Berlin, Chatto&Windus, 1998, .
 Diana Hopkinson: The Incense Tree, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968, .
 Annedore Leber, collected by: Conscience in Revolt—Sixty-four Stories of Resistance in Germany 1933–45, Valentine, Mitchell & Co, London 1957 (Das Gewissen Steht Auf, Mosaik-Verlag, Berlin, 1954).
 Donald Markwell, "The German Rhodes Scholarships: an early peace movement", in Markwell, "Instincts to Lead": On Leadership, Peace, and Education, 2013, .
 A. L. Rowse: A Man of The Thirties, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1979, .
 A. L. Rowse: A Cornishman Abroad, Jonathan Cape, 1976, .
 Clarita von Trott zu Solz: Adam von Trott zu Solz. Eine Lebensbeschreibung. Lukas Verlag, Berlin 2009, . (In German)
 Marie Vassiltchikov (or Maria Vasilchilkova): Berlin Diaries 1940–1945, 1988.  (Vassiltchikov was a friend of Trott and other members of the 1944 plot)

External links
 Adam von Trott zu Solz, jewishvirtuallibrary.org
 Adam von Trott zu Solz, wiesenthal.org
 Adam von Trott collection, Balliol College Archives & Manuscripts, University of Oxford

1909 births
1944 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
German diplomats
German people of American descent
German Rhodes Scholars
Adam
Protestants in the German Resistance
People executed by hanging at Plötzensee Prison
People from Brandenburg executed at Plötzensee Prison
People from Potsdam
People from the Province of Brandenburg
Executed conservatives in the German Resistance
Executed people from Brandenburg
Members of the Kreisau Circle
Executed members of the 20 July plot
Französisches Gymnasium Berlin alumni
Lawyers in the Nazi Party
Nobility in the Nazi Party

Adam von Trott zu Solz


La  vise la maladie à coronavirus 2019, en réponse à la pandémie de Covid-19 active depuis le  sur le territoire national.

Gestion de la campagne

La campagne de vaccination commence le . Le Premier ministre Su Tseng-chang et le ministre de la Santé et du Bien-Être Chen Shih-chung sont les premiers vaccinés. Dans un premier temps, une liste d'éligibilité à la vaccination est établie par le , identifiant dix catégories par ordre de priorité, privilégiant le personnel de santé, et allant jusqu'à couvrir la population âgée de plus de 50 ans.

Alors qu'une flambée épidémique a lieu en , le faible taux de vaccination de la population taïwanaise est entre autres mis en cause, et l'efficacité de la campagne associée est alors sous surveillance. Les stocks nationaux ne sont alors que de  de vaccin d'AstraZeneca-Oxford étant donné les retards d'approvisionnement. De plus, le succès initial de la lutte contre la pandémie ainsi que les effets secondaires de caillots sanguins décelés dans certains cas de vaccination via le produit d'AstraZeneca-Oxford participe à la non-popularité de la stratégie de vaccination auprès de la population. Cette vague épidémique à néanmoins contribué à inverser cette tendance populaire.

Alors que les différents de groupes identifiés par le CECC sont au fur et à mesure éligibles pour s'enregistrer sur la plateforme de vaccination, l'ensemble de la population devient éligible à partir du .

Devant la propagation du variant Omicron, l'accès aux doses de rappel est ouvert le .

Gestion des vaccins

Vaccins autorisés
Les vaccins dont l'utilisation a été autorisée par les autorités taïwanaises sont le Covishield d'Oxford et AstraZeneca, le Spikevax de Moderna, le Tozinaméran de BioNTech et Pfizer, ainsi que le vaccin local  de Medigen.

Développements locaux

Au printemps 2021, parmi les vaccins expérimentaux développés par des entreprises taïwanaises, ceux des sociétés Medigen Vaccine Biologics Corporation et , alors en phase 2 d'expérimentation au mois de , se démarquent. Alors que des variants du SARS-CoV-2 sont en circulation à la même époque, l'efficacité de ces vaccins contre ces derniers est étudiée dans le même temps, pour les variants dits « britannique » et « sud-africain », plus tard dénommés officiellement comme variants Alpha et Bêta. Tandis que s'ouvre la phase 3 des essais cliniques du vaccin de Medigen fin , une autorisation d'utilisation d'urgence est accordée à ce même produit par l'agence gouvernementale chargée de l'administration des produits alimentaires et pharmaceutiques.

Approvisionnement des vaccins
La stratégie initiale du Central Epidemic Command Center d'acquisition de doses de vaccins est composée de trois options : la fabrication sous licence de vaccins d'entreprises pharmaceutiques étrangères, l'achat direct de doses à ces dernières, et le développement de vaccins par des sociétés locales. À court terme, la deuxième est identifiée comme la plus plausible afin de permettre d'atteindre rapidement le seuil immunitaire.

Les premiers approvisionnements de vaccins incluent  de doses de vaccin de Moderna et  d'AstraZeneca-Oxford.  via l'initiative COVAX. Additionnés aux commandes locales de  de doses chacune aux sociétés taïwanaises Medigen Vaccine Biologics Corporation et , l'objectif est d'obtenir suffisamment d'unités pour couvrir la population de  de Taïwanais.

Au début de l'été 2021, le gouvernement se trouve dans l'incapacité de conclure une commande d'achat de doses de vaccin Pfizer-BioNTech avec le fabricant allemand BioNTech, étant donné le contrat d'exclusivité de distribution acquis par la société pharmaceutique chinoise  dans les régions de la Chine continentale, de Hong Kong, de Macao, ainsi que de Taïwan. Afin de permettre l'approvisionnement de doses dans le respect de ce contrat, les autorités taïwanaises autorisent les sociétés locales Foxconn et TSMC ainsi que la fondation  à acheter  d'unités chacune en son nom, qui feraient par la suite l'objet d'un don privé au gouvernement. L'approvisionnement de  millions de doses est ainsi acté au mois de .

Devant les difficultés d'obtenir rapidement des doses et ainsi appliquer sa politique de vaccination, Taïwan bénéficie de dons de la part d'autres pays. Le premier don provient du Japon, alors que Taïwan connaît un épisode épidémique inédit, suivi plus tard par les États-Unis, la Lituanie, la Slovaquie, la Tchéquie et la Pologne.

Statistiques

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Politique vaccinale contre la Covid-19
 Vaccin contre la Covid-19

Liens externes

Taïwan
Campagne de vaccination

Campagne de vaccination contre la Covid-19 à Taïwan


A 3-Metilanfetamina (3-MeA; 3-MA; PAL-314) é uma droga estimulante da classe das anfetaminas. É autoadministrada por ratos de forma comparável à 4-Fluoroanfetamina (4-FA) e tem uma potência equivalente na liberação de monoaminas, mas com um equilíbrio maior na liberação das três monoaminas. Por isso, contrasta com os análogos fluoro, que possuem maior seletividade na liberação de dopamina/noradrenalina que de serotonina.

Ver também
 2-Metilanfetamina
 4-Metilanfetamina
 3,4-Dimetilanfetamina
 3-Trifluorometilanfetamina

Agentes de liberação de serotonina-noradrenalina-dopamina
Anfetaminas substituídas

3-Metilanfetamina