متعدد شعب كلابي ياو هو أحد متعددات الشعب المهمة في الرياضيات والفيزياء. يلعب متعدد شعب كلابي ياو دوراً مهما في الفيزياء في نظرية الأوتار الفائقة حيث أن إحدى صياغات هذه النظرية تقوم على فضاء ذو 10 أبعاد. ويمكن تصور الأمر وكأن متعدد الشعب متصل وبه نتؤات في الفضاء الثلاثي الأبعاد. في هذه النتؤات تتداخل الأبعاد الزائدة الباقية إلا أنها من الصغر بحيث لا يمكن رصدها بأدوات القياس الحالية.

مراجع

فيزياء رياضية
نظرية الأوتار
هندسة تفاضلية
هندسة جبرية

متعدد شعب كلابي ياو


Fennimore y Gerda (título original en alemán, Fennimore und Gerda; en inglés, Fennimore and Gerda) es una ópera en alemán en 11 "imágenes", con cuatro interludios, con música de Frederick Delius. Normalmente se representa y se graba en inglés, como "Fennimore and Gerda," en una traducción de Philip Heseltine. El libreto en alemán, del propio compositor, se basa en la novela Niels Lyhne del escritor danés Jens Peter Jacobsen. Delius empezó a escribir Fennimore und Gerda en 1908; terminó en 1910, pero el estreno, que se pretendía que fuera en Colonia, se vio retrasada por la Primera Guerra Mundial y no tuvo lugar hasta el 21 de octubre de 1919, y entonces en la Opernhaus de Fráncfort del Meno. Fue la última ópera del compositor.

En las estadísticas de Operabase aparece con sólo una representación en el período 2005-2010, siendo la primera de Frederick Delius.

Personajes

Referencias
Licencia

Fuentes
The Viking Opera Guide ed. Holden (1993)
Amadeus Online

Enlaces externos

Óperas en inglés
Óperas en alemán
Óperas de Frederick Delius
Óperas de 1919
Óperas estrenadas en Fráncfort del Meno

Fennimore y Gerda


Adolfo Lauro De Bosis ( Roma, Itália —  Mar Tirreno, Itália), foi um poeta, aviador e antifascista italiano.

Vida
Lauro de Bosis nasceu em 1901. Sua mãe era Lillian Vernon, natural da Nova Inglaterra, e seu pai, Adolfo, poeta menor e editor da revista Convito. A casa deles era uma espécie de salão intelectual. Seu pai traduziu Shelley, enquanto o próprio Lauro traduziu tragédias de Ésquilo e Sófocles, e Golden Bough de Frazer. Na universidade ele estudou química.

Antifascismo
De Bosis ficou rapidamente desiludido com Mussolini após o assassinato em 1924 do político antifascista Giacomo Matteotti. Em 1928, ele ganhou uma medalha de prata nas competições de arte dos Jogos Olímpicos por seu drama em versos "Icaro", uma alegoria antifascista disfarçada de releitura do mito grego. Nesse mesmo ano ele conheceu a atriz Ruth Draper e iniciou um relacionamento que durou até sua morte.

De Bosis ia e voltava entre a Itália e os Estados Unidos, onde ensinou literatura italiana em Harvard. No verão de 1930, De Bosis renunciou à Sociedade Itália-América para fundar a "Alleanza Nazionale" e se concentrar na missão do grupo - a circulação clandestina de boletins antifascistas na Itália. Inspirado por outro antifascista que anteriormente havia sobrevoado Milão lançando panfletos denunciando Il Duce, de Bosis decidiu embarcar em um voo semelhante sobre Roma. No verão seguinte, De Bosis teve aulas de vôo.

Em 3 de outubro de 1931, com apenas sete horas e meia de voo e um tanque de combustível parcialmente cheio, De Bosis decolou de Marselha em um pequeno Klemm L 25, rumo à Córsega e depois à Itália. Ele chegou a Roma e circulou por meia hora pelo centro da cidade, incluindo a Piazza Venezia – onde Mussolini estava sentado no conselho – jogando milhares de panfletos antifascistas durante a hora lotada da noite. Ele já havia partido quando as Forças Aéreas Italianas responderam. O pequeno avião de madeira partiu para o mar para a Córsega para nunca mais ser visto. Segundo os pilotos que abasteceram o avião, ele era um piloto inexperiente e disse a eles que pretendia voar de Nice para Barcelona e voltar, então seu avião não estava totalmente abastecido. Poeta promissor, na época de sua morte ele editava um volume de poesia italiana para a Oxford University Press. Seus papéis estão guardados na Houghton Library, Harvard University.

Em 1938, a atriz Ruth Draper fez uma doação para manter uma série de palestras sobre cultura, história e sociedade italianas, batizada em homenagem a De Bosis na Universidade de Harvard. Em 1973, mais fundos foram fornecidos pela Fundação Giovanni Agnelli da Fiat. O Comitê De Bosis agora concede bolsas de pós-doutorado, convida professores visitantes e organiza colóquios em estudos italianos.

Thornton Wilder dedicou seu romance Ides of March (1948) a ele.

Leitura adicional
 Diggins, John P. Mussolini and Fascism. The view from America. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1972, 430.
 De Bosis, L. The Story of My Death. English translation by Ruth Draper. Oxford University Press, 1933

Ligações externas

 Perfil olímpico
 Lauro De Bosis Museo Nazionale di Palazzo Venezia, Roma
 De Bosis, Lauro, 1901-1931. Papers: Guide
 De Bosis Colloquium in Italian Studies: Audio interviews

Nascidos em 1901
Mortos em 1931
Poetas do século XX
Poetas da Itália
Aviadores da Itália
Antifascistas da Itália
Aviadores mortos em acidentes aéreos
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 1928
Mortes no mar

Lauro De Bosis


The A48 is a trunk road in Great Britain running from the A40 at Highnam,  west of Gloucester, England, to the A40 at Carmarthen, Wales. Before the Severn Bridge opened on 8 September 1966, it was a major route between England and South Wales. For most of its route, it runs almost parallel to the M4 motorway. During times of high winds at the Severn Bridge, the A48 is used as part of the diversion route and is still marked as a Holiday Route.

From Gloucester, the A48 runs through the villages of Minsterworth, Westbury-on-Severn, connects to a link road to Cinderford in the Forest of Dean then through Newnham, Blakeney and since 1995, bypassing Lydney on the west bank of the River Severn. It crosses the England–Wales border at Chepstow and continues westwards close to the South Wales coast passing Newport, Cardiff, Cowbridge, Bridgend, Pyle, Port Talbot, Neath and Swansea, before terminating at the junction with the A40 near the centre of Carmarthen.

There is a motorway section (the A48(M)) which is a spur from the M4 running from junction 29 on the west side of Newport. The A48(M) has no junction options at either end; it leads to limited-access junctions. Near the east of Cardiff, at St Mellons, it ends by flowing onto the A48 (Eastern Avenue) and through Cardiff. It is  long and is a 2-lane motorway throughout its length. At St Mellons it runs continuously into a further  of the dual-carriageway A48, which also features (albeit narrow) hard shoulders. The original A48 continues to link Newport and Cardiff.

Route

Highnam to Newport
The A48 from Highnam to Newport runs adjacent to the River Severn. After running through a series of villages, it crosses the England–Wales border at Chepstow. The section between Higham and Chepstow is still a primary route of some importance for the Forest of Dean.
From the M4 Motorway at J15 near Swindon, traffic is directed for Wales if it is over the Severn Bridge weight limit of 44 tonnes. Traffic is directed onto the A419, then onto the A417 after Cirencester, and at Gloucester, onto the A40. This road has some speed cameras, as there have previously been incidents here, and have been erected to prevent them from happening again. During busy periods, such as the Severn Bore, this road may become busy with parked cars near the river's edge. Apart from morning and evening rush hours, the road is generally quite empty and free running, with no heavy traffic reports. The road also runs next to the Forest of Dean. The woods may be viewed from the roadside, as may the hills of the Dean. There is a level crossing in Lydney. Until Chepstow, there is a height limit under the low railway bridges. Tall vehicles are directed to Newport on the A40. For some parts of this route, short distance dual carriageways occur, especially on steep hills.
At Chepstow, the road links Gloucestershire with Monmouthshire. The road runs through Chepstow. There is access to the Forest of Dean in Chepstow. At the end of the road in Chepstow (at the roundabout), the Primary Route ends here, and it meets the A466, a road that provides access to the Wye Valley and to the M48 motorway, originally the M4. Access to the M4 is available on this road. The A48 becomes a secondary route here, and continues bypassing Caldicot, Caerwent and Langstone.

The A48 then continues to M4 junction 24, where vehicles exceeding the height limit may rejoin the A48. The A449 provides access to Usk and the A40 near Raglan. When the Severn Bridge is closed in bad weather conditions, the traffic is directed onto the A449. After this roundabout, the road follows through to Newport. There are some minor routes that take you to Newport City Centre, but the main route is the A4042, leading directly to the centre and Caerleon. This is after the Newport International Sports Village , a sports village with facilities including a Swimming Pool, Tennis Courts, Football Stadium, Cricket Pitch, Velodrome and many more facilities. Passing through Newport, there are views of the industrial town, with views of historic features such as the Transporter Bridge. The road then reaches the M4 again, at J28.

History of the road number

The original (1923) route of the A48 was Worcester to Carmarthen via Malvern, Ledbury, Ross-on-Wye, Monmouth, Newport, Cardiff, Bridgend, Neath and Llanelli. In 1935 it was rerouted east of Newport, replacing the A437 between Newport and Gloucester.  The road from Worcester to Newport became part of the A449, apart from the section between Ross and Monmouth (which became part of the A40).

Road safety
In June 2008, the  GloucesterChepstow stretch of the A48 was named as the most dangerous road in South West England. This single carriageway had 45 fatal and serious injury collisions between 2004 and 2006, and was rated as medium risk in the EuroRAP report published by the Road Safety Foundation.

On 6 March 2023, five people were found after they had been missing for two days. Three of the five were found dead following a believed car crash after their car was found on the A48 in St Mellons, with the other two injured.

References

Roads in Bridgend County Borough
Roads in Cardiff
Roads in Carmarthenshire
Roads in Gloucestershire
Roads in Monmouthshire
Roads in Neath Port Talbot
Roads in Newport, Wales
Roads in Swansea
Roads in the Vale of Glamorgan
Constituent roads of European route E30

A48 road


CFD may refer to:

Business and economics
 Centre for Finance and Development
 Contract for difference, a type of financial derivative
 Control-flow diagram, of a process
 Cumulative flow diagram, in queueing theory

Firefighting services
 Calgary Fire Department, Alberta, Canada
 Chicago Fire Department, Illinois, U.S.
 Cleveland Fire Department, Ohio, U.S.
 Columbus Fire Department, Ohio, U.S.

Science and technology

 Common fill device, in cryptography
 Complement factor D, an enzyme
 Computational fluid dynamics
 Congenital Femoral Deficiency, a birth defect
 Constant fraction discriminator, a signal processing device
 Counterfactual definiteness, a concept in quantum mechanics

Transport
 Coulter Field (IATA: CFD), an airport in Bryan, Texas, US
 Compagnie des chemins de fer départementaux, French rail company in JV with Captrain France

See also
Cfds (disambiguation)

CFD


Ucilișcina Gora (în , traducere literală: "Pădurea Școlii") este o rezervație naturală în Bulgaria, situată pe teritoriul satului Bojenița, în comuna Botevgrad. Cele mai apropiate localități sunt satele Bojenița (2,3 km), Lipnița (4,3 km) și Skravena (5 km). Suprafața ariei protejate este de 134,7 ha.

Zona a fost declarată rezervație naturală la 12 iunie 1963. La 15 octombrie 1999, conform unei hotărâri a , regimul de protecție a fost extins, pentru a întreține și proteja pădurea de stejar, unii arbori atingând 30 de metri în înălțime și având o vârstă de până la 200 de ani. Administrația silvică de stat a Botevgradului întreprinde următoarele măsuri de protecție:
 curățarea arborilor care sunt uscați în proporție de mai mult de 5%;
 activități de mentenanță și regenerare;
 aplicarea mijloacelor biologice de .

Floră și faună
Pe teritoriul rezervației viețuiesc 39 specii de briofite, 20 de licheni, 41 de ciuperci, 207 de plante și 73 de plante ierboase. Fauna este compusă din aproximativ 100 specii de nevertebrate, 9 de amfibieni, 12 de reptile, 62 de păsări cuibăritoare, 19 de mamifere și 20 de lilieci.

Singura specie protejată din rezervație, listată în , este  (Testudo hermanni).

Note

Legături externe

Ucilișcina Gora

Rezervația naturală Ucilișcina Gora


Religious discrimination is treating a person or group differently because of the particular beliefs which they hold about a religion. This includes instances when adherents of different religions, denominations or non-religions are treated unequally due to their particular beliefs, either by the law or in institutional settings, such as employment or housing.

Religious discrimination is related to religious persecution, the most extreme forms of which would include instances in which people have been executed for beliefs which have been perceived to be heretical. Laws that only carry light punishments are described as mild forms of religious persecution or religious discrimination. In recent years, terms such as religism and religionism have also been used, but "religious discrimination" remains the more widely used term.

Even in societies where freedom of religion is a constitutional right, adherents of minority religions sometimes voice their concerns about religious discrimination against them. Insofar as legal policies are concerned, cases that are perceived to be cases of religious discrimination might be the result of interference in the religious sphere by other spheres of the public that are regulated by law.

History

Ancient
One of the earliest instances of religious discrimination was the forceful Hellenization of Judea by the Greek Seleucid Empire. In 167 BC, Jewish practices such as the Sabbath, Torah reading, and circumcision were banned, while pagan worship was enforced.

Jews also faced religious discrimination in the Roman Empire. The low point was the expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem and subsequent paganization of the city during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD), which led to the Jewish diaspora.

Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire was widespread. Christianity threatened the polytheistic order of the Roman Empire because of the importance of evangelism in Christianity. Under the Neronian persecution, Rome began to discriminate against monotheists who refused to worship the Roman gods. Nero blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome (64 AD). During the Decian persecution, Valerianic persecution, and Diocletianic Persecution, Christians were slaughtered by being thrown to wild beasts, churches were destroyed, priests were imprisoned, and scriptures were confiscated.

Religious discrimination against Christians ended with the Edict of Milan (313 AD), and the Edict of Thessalonica (380 AD) made Christianity the official religion of the empire. By the 5th century Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe and took a reversed role, discriminating against pagans, heretics, and Jews.

Medieval
In the Middle Ages, antisemitism in Europe was widespread. Christians falsely accused Jews of Jewish deicide, blood libel, and well poisoning, and subjected them to expulsions, forced conversions, and mandatory sermons. In the Papal States, Jews were required to live in poor segregated neighbourhoods called ghettos. Historians note that religious discrimination against Jews tended to increase during negative economic and climatic shocks in Europe, such as when they were scapegoated for causing the Black Death.

During the Islamic Golden Age, many Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian, and Pagan lands came under Muslim rule. As People of the Book, Jews, Christians, and Mandaeans living under Muslim rule became dhimmis with social status inferior to that of Muslims. Although Sharia law granted dhimmis freedom of religion, they were subjected to religious discrimination as second-class citizens and had to pay a jizya tax. They could not proselytize Muslims, marry Muslims (in the case of dhimmi men), build or repair churches and synagogues without permission, perform loud religious rituals such as the ringing of church bells, carry weapons, or ride horses and camels. These discriminatory laws forced many Christians into poverty and slavery.

During the First Crusade (1096), Christian knights recaptured the Holy Land from Muslim rule, massacring most of the Muslims and Jews in Jerusalem. This led to the creation of Catholic-ruled Crusader states, most notably the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In these kingdoms Jews, Muslims, and Orthodox Christians had no rights, being considered property of the crusader lords.

Modern
In early modern Europe, the Christian Church continued to be a dominant institution in Europe and enforced a strict policy of religious uniformity. In early modern Britain, there had been several Acts of Uniformity (1549-1663). Under the French king Louis XIV and his successors, Catholicism became the sole compulsory religion in early modern France, and the Huguenots had to leave the country en masse.

Towards the end of the Reconquista (711-1492), Christian kingdoms gradually reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from its Muslim rulers. During this time period, discrimination against Muslims and Jews was widespread. Examples include the Spanish Inquisition, forced conversions of Muslims in Spain, and expulsion of the Moriscos. Spanish Muslims were forced to convert to Catholicism, banned from speaking Arabic, and had their public baths destroyed.

Ever since the Fall of Constantinople (1453), many Christian lands in southeastern Europe had come under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. During the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the late modern period, particularly ever since the Great Turkish War (1683), discrimination against religious minorities worsened. The destruction of churches and expulsion of local Christian communities became increasingly common. In Ottoman Albania, the authorities abandoned tolerance policies in favor of reducing the size of Albania's Christian population through Islamization.

Antisemitism in the Russian Empire was widespread, as Imperial Russia contained the world's largest Jewish population at the time. Jews were subject to discriminatory laws such as the May Laws (1882), which restricted them from certain locations, jobs, transactions, schools, and political positions. They were also targeted in frequent anti-Jewish riots, called pogroms.

In Asia

Pakistan

Religious discrimination in Pakistan is a serious issue. Several incidents of discrimination have been recorded with some finding support by the state itself. In a case of constitutionally sanctioned religious discrimination, non-Muslims in Pakistan cannot become Prime Minister or President, even if they are Pakistani citizens. Pakistan's Blasphemy Law, according to critics, "is overwhelmingly being used to persecute religious minorities and settle personal vendettas". Ahmadiyya Muslims have been subject to significant persecution and are sometimes declared 'non-Muslims'.

China

Uyghurs or Uighurs are an ethnic and religious minority group in China. Their identity is based on the Islamic religion and has roots in the former East Turkistan culture. They reside in Xinjiang, an autonomous region situated in the west of the country. This group is persecuted by the Chinese government due to its perceived threat to the nation's security and identity. The Chinese government believes that the Uyghurs have separatist, extremist, and terrorist thoughts. It has detained around one million Uyghurs in camps. According to the Chinese government, these camps are created to re-educate the minority Muslims by learning about the negative consequences of extremism. Detainees are punished in these camps. The treatment of the Uyghurs violates their human rights because they are forcibly sent to the camps for an indefinite period of time. The discrimination against the Uyghurs comes in many forms. Some apparent restrictions include the ban from wearing religious veils or robes in public. The training camps serve to inculcate beliefs which are congruent with the beliefs of the Chinese Communist Party.
Subjected to abuse and suppression in China, some Uyghurs who were seeking refuge resettled in different parts of the world. In June 2021, it was reported that the Uyghurs were being detained even outside China. Following the diplomatic relations of China with the UAE, Uyghurs living in Dubai were subjected to arrest, prolonged detention and deportation to China. China allegedly requested for the deportation of Uyghurs from three Arab countries, including the UAE. The global influence of Beijing has even resulted in the expansion of religious discrimination against the Uyghur Muslims who are residing abroad.

India

Although the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination based on religion discrimination and religious violence in India are frequent, sometimes even involving the function of government.  For example dalit people who are not Hindu, Sikh, or Buddhist are not covered by the Scheduled Castes laws and hence dalit Christians and Muslims do not receive the affirmative action political representation and educational placement, welfare benefits, and hate crimes protections accorded to their fellows. Dalits worshipping the same gods as Hindus were previously considered to be of a different religion and in the early twentieth century the question "Is he a Hindu or Pariah?" had currency.

In the Middle East

Algeria
Leaving Islam and inciting Muslims to leave Islam is punishable by Algerian law. Prison sentences for those that practice Christianity do occur.

Egypt
Leaving Islam and inciting Muslims to leave Islam is punishable by Egyptian law.
Violence of radical Muslims against the Christian minority is common.
Coptic Christians face many difficulties in building and renovating Coptic churches.

Iraq
Assyrian Christians have suffered from discrimination since Saddam Hussein's Arabization policies in the 1980s, with the latest instance of discrimination being the ISIS invasion of the Nineveh plains and Mosul, where tens of thousands have been forced to flee, and multiple Christian sites have been destroyed. The number of Christians in Iraq overall since the 2003 invasion has dropped by around 60%, from 800,000 to 300,000, and in 1987, that number was around 1.4 million. The 2014 invasion by ISIS has likely degraded that number further.

Morocco
Leaving Islam and inciting Muslims to leave Islam is punishable by Moroccan law. Prison sentences for those that leave Islam do occur.

Turkey
Historically, religious discrimination in Turkey has been a serious issue, with the Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian genocides all occurring there. Discrimination has continued during the Syrian civil war. In one instance, Turkey allowed members of Al Nusra, a radical Islamic terror group that controls land in Syria, to enter through its border, and then into the majority Armenian Christian town of Kessab, which is right on the Turkish–Syrian border. Al Nusra raided the town, capturing those who didn't flee. They proceeded to take their captives to the Turkish city of Iskenderun.

In Western countries

United States

Religious discrimination in the history of the United States dates back to the first Protestant Christian European settlers, composed mostly of English Puritans, during the British colonization of North America (16th century), directed both towards Native Americans and non-Protestant Roman Catholic European settlers. (See also Colonial history of the United States).

In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States Commission on Civil Rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for Freedom of Religion (in the United States secured by the First Amendment), religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied "the equal protection of the laws, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom".

However, cases of religious discrimination might also be the result of an interference of the religious sphere with other spheres of the public that are regulated by law. Although e.g. in the United States the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof", in Reynolds v. United States the U.S. Supreme Court decided that religious duty was not a suitable defense to a criminal indictment. In this specific case a law against bigamy was not considered to be discriminating against Mormons, who stopped practicing polygamy in 1890.

Canada
In Canada, during 1995-1998, Newfoundland had only Christian schools (four of them, Pentecostal, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, and inter-denominational (Anglican, Salvation Army and United Church)). The right to organize publicly supported religious schools was only given to certain Christian denominations, thus tax money used to support a selected group of Christian denominations. The denominational schools could also refuse admission of a student or the hiring of a qualified teacher on purely religious grounds. Quebec has used two school systems, one Protestant and the other Roman Catholic, but it seems this system will be replaced with two secular school systems: one French and the other English.

Ontario had two school systems going back before Confederation. The British North America Act (1867) gave the Provinces jurisdiction over education. Section 93 of the BNA Act offered constitutional protection for denominational schools as they existed in law at the time of Confederation. Like "Public schools", Catholic schools are fully funded from kindergarten to grade 12. However, profound demographic changes of the past few decades have made the province of Ontario a multicultural, multi-racial, and multi-religious society. The thought that one religious group is privileged to have schools funded from the public purse is often considered unacceptable in a pluralistic, multicultural, secular society.  Although it's also true that the people who send their children to those schools have a form that directs their tax dollars to that school system.

Canadian faith-based university Trinity Western University (TWU) is currently facing a challenge from members of the legal and LGBT community to its freedom to educate students in a private university context while holding certain "religious values", such as the freedom to discriminate against other people, including requiring students to sign a chastity oath, and denying LGBT students the same rights as straight students.  TWU faced a similar battle in 2001 (Trinity Western University v. British Columbia College of Teachers) where the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that TWU was capable to teach professional disciplines.

On June 16, 2019, Quebec banned public servants in positions of authority from wearing visible religious symbols. The legislation was erected with the goal of promoting neutrality. Prime Minister Trudeau argues that the ban goes against fundamental rights of Canadian people.

Germany

Scientologists in Germany face specific political and economic restrictions. They are barred from membership in some major political parties, and businesses and other employers use so-called "sect filters" to expose a prospective business partner's or employee's association with the organization. German federal and state interior ministers started a process aimed at banning Scientology in late 2007, but abandoned the initiative a year later, finding insufficient legal grounds. Despite this, polls suggest that most Germans favor banning Scientology altogether. The U.S. government has repeatedly raised concerns over discriminatory practices directed at individual Scientologists.

Greece
In Greece since the independence from the Muslim Ottomans rule in the 19th century, the Greek Orthodox Church has been given privileged status and only the Greek Orthodox church, Roman Catholic, some Protestant churches, Judaism and Islam are recognized religions. The Muslim minority alleges that Greece persistently and systematically discriminates against Muslims.

Recently, professor Nick Drydakis (Anglia Ruskin University) examined religious affiliation and employment bias in Athens, by implementing an experimental field study. Labor market outcomes (occupation access, entry wage, and wait time for call back) were assessed for three religious minorities (Pentecostal, evangelical, and Jehovah's Witnesses). Results indicate that religious minorities experience employment bias. Moreover, religious minorities face greater constraints on occupational access in more prestigious jobs compared to less prestigious jobs. Occupational access and entry wage bias is highest for religious minority women. In all cases, Jehovah's Witnesses face the greatest bias; female employers offered significantly lower entry wages to Jehovah's Witnesses than male employers.

Mexico
According to a Human Rights Practices report by the U.S. State department on Mexico note that "some local officials infringe on religious freedom, especially in the south". There is conflict between Catholic/Mayan syncretists and Protestant evangelicals in the Chiapas region.

See also

Antireligion
Antisemitism
Antitheism
Civil and political rights
Discrimination against atheists
Forced conversion
Intersectionality
Islamic religious police
Islamophobia
List of anti-discrimination acts
Out Campaign
Persecution of Christians
Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era
Persecution of Jews
Persecution of Muslims
Religious intolerance
Religious persecution
Religious segregation
Religious violence
Secularization
State atheism
State religion

Notes

References
 Stokes, DaShanne. (In Press) Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom
 Stokes, DaShanne. (2001). "Sage, Sweetgrass, and the First Amendment." The Chronicle of Higher Education. May 18, 2001, sec. 2: B16.
 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1979: Religious discrimination. A neglected issue. A consultation sponsored by the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Washington D.C., April 9–10, 1979

Religious discrimination


The Battle of Leuthen was fought on 5 December 1757 and involved Frederick the Great's Prussian Army using maneuver warfare and terrain to rout a larger Austrian force completely, which was commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine and Count Leopold Joseph von Daun. The victory ensured Prussian control of Silesia during the Third Silesian War, which was part of the Seven Years' War.

The battle was fought in the town of Leuthen (now Lutynia, Poland), 10 km (6 mi) northwest of Breslau, (now Wrocław, Poland), in Prussian (formerly Austrian) Silesia. By exploiting the training of his troops and his superior knowledge of the terrain, Frederick created a diversion at one end of the battlefield and moved most of his smaller army behind a series of low hillocks. The surprise attack in oblique order on the unsuspecting Austrian flank baffled Prince Charles, who took several hours to realize that the main action was to his left, not his right. Within seven hours, the Prussians had destroyed the Austrians and erased any advantage that the Austrians had gained throughout the campaigning in the preceding summer and autumn. Within 48 hours, Frederick had laid siege to Breslau, which resulted in the city's surrender on 19–20 December.

Leuthen was the last battle at which Prince Charles commanded the Austrian Army before his sister-in-law, Empress Maria Theresa, appointed him as governor of the Habsburg Netherlands and placed Leopold Joseph von Daun in command of the army. The battle also established beyond doubt Frederick's military reputation in European circles and was arguably his greatest tactical victory. After the Battle of Rossbach on 5 November, the French had refused to participate further in Austria's war with Prussia, and after Leuthen (5 December), Austria could not continue the war by itself.

Background

Although the Seven Years' War was a global conflict, it acquired a specific intensity in the European theater as a result of the competition between Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, and Maria Theresa of Austria. Their rivalry dated from 1740, when upon Maria Theresa's ascension, Frederick had attacked and annexed the prosperous province of Silesia. The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which concluded War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) between Prussia and Maria Theresa's allies, awarded Silesia to Prussia. Maria Theresa had signed the treaty to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances and intended to regain her ascendancy in the Holy Roman Empire and to reacquire Silesia. Similarly, France sought to break the British dominance of the Atlantic trade.

In 1754, escalating tensions between Britain and France in North America offered the Empress the opportunity to regain her lost territories and to limit Prussia's ever-growing power. France and Austria put aside their old rivalry to form a coalition of their own; Maria Theresa agreed that one of her daughters, Maria Antonia, would marry the Dauphin of France, and her chief ministers negotiated a military and political pact advantageous to both parties. That drove Britain to align herself with George II's nephew, Frederick II. Their alliance also involved the Electorate of Hanover, which was held in personal union by George, along with George's and Frederick's relatives, who ruled the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel. That series of political manoeuvers became known as the Diplomatic Revolution.

When war broke out in 1756, Frederick overran Saxony and campaigned in Bohemia, where he defeated the Austrians on 6 May 1757 at the Battle of Prague. Learning that the French forces had invaded his ally's territory of Hanover, Frederick moved west. On 5 November 1757, an infantry regiment of about 1,000 men and 1,500 of his cavalry defeated the combined French and Austrian force of 30,000 at the Battle of Rossbach in a 90-minute battle. In his absence, however, the Austrians had managed to retake Silesia: the Empress's brother-in-law, Prince Charles, took the city of Schweidnitz and moved on Breslau in lower Silesia.

Heading back to Silesia, Frederick learned of the fall of Breslau in late November. He and his 22,000 men covered  in 12 days and, at Liegnitz, joined up with the Prussian troops who had survived the fighting at Breslau. The augmented army of about 33,000 troops, with approximately 167 cannons, arrived near Leuthen to find 66,000 Austrians in possession.

Terrain and troop strengths

Most of Lower Silesia is a rolling plain of fertile land. It includes black and alluvial soils near Breslau (Wrocław) and in river valleys, mixed with more sandy soils. Between the Oder river and the foot of the Sudeten Mountains, it has mild climate, fertile soils and extensive water network, which made it a coveted agricultural resource.

In the area northwest of Breslau, the absence of steep hills makes the observation of an approaching enemy easy, and the relative flatness limited hiding manoeuvers. The presence of alluvial soil guaranteed relatively-soft ground, less than what Frederick would face at Kunersdorf in 1758 but enough to provide the occasional natural bogs to bar the passage of troops in some locations or to muffle the sound of marching and horses' hooves. The area around Leuthen included several hamlets and villages: principally, Nypern, about  north; Frobelwitz, also to the north, about halfway between Leuthen and Nypern; Gohlau,  to the southeast; and Lissa (now a district of Wrocław),  to the east. A road connected the villages of Borne, Leuthen, and Lissa with Breslau, across the Oder River and its tributaries.

Habsburgs

Aware of Frederick's approach, Charles and his second-in-command, Count Leopold Joseph von Daun, positioned the army facing west on a  front in country of undulating plains. The Prince deployed his troops in two lines, the right wing at his northernmost point, anchored at Nypern. Leuthen served as the Austrian centre. Charles established his command post there by using a church tower as his observation post and stationing seven battalions in the village itself. The majority of Charles' forces stood on his right wing. A small advanced post stood at Borne, but with Frederick's arrival in force, it withdrew immediately to the east. The Austrian position intersected at right angles with the principal road between Borne and Breslau and passed through Frobelwitz and Lissa. He secured Nypern with eight grenadier companies and placed his cavalry at Guckerwitz (now Kokorzyce, part of the village Krępice). The Austrian line extended as far south as Sagschütz (now Zakrzyce), where his cavalry stood at right angles to the infantry and created a line between Sagschütz and Gohlau. The positions were secured with additional grenadiers and pickets. Troops filled villages and woods, and hastily made abatis and redoubts. Pickets guarded all communication points as well as road and path crossings. The left wing was his shortest, with cavalry placed at the far end, near a stream by the village of Gohlau. Charles had an amalgamated force of Habsburg troops, including several contingents from the Military Frontier and imperial troops from the Duchies of Württemberg and Bavaria.

Prussia
Frederick had learned the countryside by heart on previous maneuvers. On 4 December 1757, from his position on the Schönberg, a knoll about  west of Borne, he surveyed the familiar landscape with his generals, and a plan emerged. In front of him, a cluster of low hills dotted the landscape along an axis approximately parallel to the Austrian line. He knew the names of the hills: Schleierberg, Sophienberg, Wachberg and Butterberg. They were hardly hills, more like hillocks, but were high enough to provide a screen for his troops. Facing an army twice his size, he had to rely on his own army's tactical training and to use the terrain to maneuver his men into an optimal position. Frederick had one of the finest armies in Europe: any company of his troops fired at least four volleys a minute, and some of them could fire a phenomenal five, which was twice the rate of fire of most other European armies. Only the Russians could come close to achieving that rate. The Prussians could maneuver better than any of the armies in Europe and could march faster, and they had just come from a resounding success at Rossbach. His artillery could quickly deploy and redeploy to support his infantry. His cavalry, superbly trained, could maneuver and charge with horses flank to flank and riders knee to knee and move at a full gallop.

Battle

Prussian feint
The foggy weather made it difficult to see positions from either side, but Frederick and his commanders used the fog to their advantage. Leaving a cavalry unit and a cluster of infantry in front of the northernmost end of the Austrian line (the Austrian right), Frederick deployed the remainder, the bulk of his forces toward Leuthen itself. Charles saw them start their redeployment and may have interpreted the maneuver as withdrawal at least for a while.

At 4:00 a.m. on Sunday, Frederick moved toward the Austrian right wing in four columns, with infantry in the inner two and cavalry in the outer two. Using the knolls to block the Austrians' view of his movements, Frederick shifted the two columns of infantry and one of cavalry obliquely to his own right. The leftmost column of cavalry remained behind to convince the Austrians that it was still approaching directly at the latter end of the Austrian line, near Frobelwitz. The visible distraction screened Frederick's intent of executing an oblique maneuver like the one that he had used successfully only weeks earlier at the Battle of Rossbach. Prince Charles, watching from his vantage point, moved his entire reserve to his right flank. That not only weakened the left flank but also stretched his front from Leuthen past Frobelwitz and on to Nypern and extended it well beyond its original .

While a single column of cavalry mesmerised Charles at his rightmost flank, the rest of the Prussians continued undetected, behind those hills across the Austrian front and overreached the Austrian left wing.

Oblique maneuver

The Prussian infantry marched southward and remained behind a line of low hills, out of the Austrians' sight. When the heads of both superbly-drilled Prussian columns, the distances between the marching platoons remaining exactly the width of each platoon's front, had passed the Austrian left flank, the columns veered left toward the enemy and continued their march until they had passed beyond the left Austrian flank. On command, the platoons of the columns then faced left at Lobetinz, and the whole Prussian army stood in line of battle, two to three men deep, at a nearly-right angle to the weakest point of the Austrian left. Similarly, Hans Joachim von Zieten's cavalry had traversed the entire Austrian front and positioned itself at a 45-degree angle to the Austrian flank.

The Prussian artillery perched on the reverse slopes of the Butterberg and was hidden from the Austrians' view while it prepared to move to the crest to time their bombardment with the infantry's attack. The bulk of the repositioned Prussian army now faced the smallest component of the Austrian line. The only column of Prussian cavalry and the small reserve of infantry remaining at the Austrian far right continued to demonstrate in front of the Austrians and even moved further north, as if an attack would occur there.

Attack
The Austrians were astonished at the Prussian appearance on their left flank, but the objective was soon clear. The Prussian infantry, now arrayed in the conventional two lines of battle, advanced on the weakest part of the Austrian line with the intention of rolling up the flank. The Austrian colonels on the scene did their best by turning their own lines 90 degrees and trying to take advantage of a shallow ditch, which faced the Prussian line. Franz Leopold von Nádasdy, who commanded the flank, asked Charles for support, a request that was ignored. Even in the late morning, with most of the Prussian army on his left flank, he still believed that any attack would come at the northern flank. Most of the men in the first Austrian line were Württembergers, Protestant troops whose willingness to fight the Lutheran Prussians had been called into question by the Austrian command. The Württembergers held out and maintained steady musket fire until the mass of Prussians emerged through the haze of gunpowder. They then ran for their lives, sweeping the Bavarians deployed by Nádasdy to support his flank with them.

The first wave of Prussian infantry, supported by Frederick's artillery, which now pounded away from the crest of one of the hillocks, pushed steadily toward Leuthen. Commanded by Moritz of Anhalt-Dessau, the seasoned infantry and grenadiers went into battle with 60 rounds per man, according to Prussian regulation. When they overwhelmed the first Austrian line, they had already run out of ammunition. Nádasdy sent his own small cavalry against the Prussian grenadier column and its infantry support but to no avail. Nádasdy withdrew his men in chaos with his troops disarrayed. Prince Charles and Daun finally realised they had been tricked and rushed troops from the right to the left, but they had extended the front, which was originally about  long, to almost , when they had repositioned forces earlier that day to meet Frederick's diversion. As the Austrians withdrew, the Prussian artillery raked them with enfilade fire.
The Prussian infantry and grenadiers reached Leuthen in 40 minutes and pushed the Austrian troops into the village. Prussian grenadiers breached the wall first and stormed the church, where many of the defenders were killed. Hand-to-hand fighting raged throughout the village. Charles-Joseph Lamoral, eventually Prince de Ligne, was then a captain in an Austrian regiment of foot:
Our Lieutenant-Colonel fell[,] killed almost at the first; beyond this we lost our Major, and indeed all the Officers but three.... We had crossed two successive ditches, which lay in an orchard to the left of the first houses in Leuthen; and were beginning to form in front of the village. But there was no standing of it. Besides a general cannonade such as can hardly be imagined, there was a rain of case-shot upon this Battalion, of which I, as there was no Colonel left, had to take command.For a full text of Charles-Joseph Lamoral's account, see Thomas Carlyle, History of Frederick Second, Harper, 1901. pp. 202–03.
Leuthen was not a big village, troops were so closely packed they stood 30 to 100 ranks deep and the killing was terrible. Lamoral commented later that his battalion, usually some 1,000 strong, as well as some Hungarians and some grenadiers who had been separated from their own companies, gave him fewer than 200 men. He drew them back to the height at the edge of the village, where there was a windmill around which they could take shelter. Eventually, the Prussian Life Guards, commanded by Captain Wichard Joachim Heinrich von Möllendorf broke through the village cemetery and forced them to abandon their post.

The Austrians briefly took the advantage when they moved a battery from the ridge north of the village to cover their infantry, and the fire from the battery allowed the infantry to deploy at right angles to their original front. Frederick responded by ordering the last of his reserved left wing to advance, but the Austrian battery drove it back. Finally, Frederick's heavy cannons on the Butterberg, a small knoll to the west of town, laid down a barrage. Some participants said that barrage, more than the Prussian infantry, won the battle.

The assault on the wall briefly exposed General Wolf Frederick von Retzow's infantry line. More than two hours had elapsed since the Prince had ordered his cavalry back to Leuthen, but it arrived opportunely. Commanded by Joseph Count Lucchesi d' Averna the cavalry hurried to take them in the flank; a successful cavalry charge at that critical moment could have turned the tide of battle. Unfortunately for the Austrians, 40 squadrons of Zieten's cavalry awaited them at Radaxdorf and charged their flank, and another 30 squadrons commanded by Georg Wilhelm von Driesen charged their front. The Bayreuth Dragoons hit the other flank; and the Puttkamer Hussars charged the rear. Lucchessi was killed by being decapitated by a cannonball, and his troopers were scattered. The cavalry mêlée soon swirled into the Austrian infantry line behind Leuthen, which caused more confusion. Overrun by the Prussian horse, the Austrian infantry broke. The infantry and then the cavalry retreated toward Breslau, where they crossed the Schweidnitzer Weistritz river, then called the "Black Water".

Maps
Solid red lines indicate Habsburg positions. Solid blue lines indicate Prussian positions. Dotted lines show movement. Rectangles with a diagonal line indicate cavalry.

Aftermath

As the smoke cleared, the Prussian infantry reformed its lines and prepared to pursue the fleeing Austrians. Snow began to fall, and Frederick halted the pursuit. A few soldiers, perhaps only one of them, started to sing the well-known chorale Nun danket alle Gott (Now Thank We All Our God). Eventually the entire army may have joined in the song, but that story is likely apocryphal.

Frederick pushed toward Lissa. Refugees from the battle had filled the town, and he found the courtyard of the local castle crowded with startled Austrian officers. Reportedly, after the King dismounted, he addressed them politely, "Good evening, Gentlemen, I dare say you did not expect me here. Can one get a night's lodging along with you?"

After a day of rest, on 7 December, Frederick sent half his cavalry with Zieten, chasing Charles's retreating army, now heading toward Königgrätz by Schweidnitz and captured another 2,000 men and their baggage. With the rest of his army, Frederick marched on Breslau. By chasing Charles's army into Bohemia, the Prussians guaranteed the isolation of the Allied garrison holding Breslau. The Austrian general left in command of the city, Lieutenant Field Marshal Salman Sprecher von Bernegg, had a combined force of French and Austrian of 17,000 men. Breslau was a well-fortified city of walls and moats. The Austrians were determined to hold Breslau not only because losing it would cost them control of Silesia and considerable diminution of prestige but also because of the immense quantities of stores that the city held. The Austrian commander, recognizing his grim plight, posted placards on gallows and poles throughout the city and warned that anyone who spoke of surrender would be hanged immediately. On 7 December, Frederick laid siege to the city, and the future of Austrian control of Breslau and the region looked grim. Indeed, Breslau surrendered on 19–20 December.

Casualties
Out of an army of approximately 66,000 men, the Austrians lost 22,000, including 3,000 dead, 7,000 wounded and an astonishing 12,000 captured. Of the dead and wounded, the Austrian demographer and historian Gaston Bodart estimated that almost 5% were officers. He also placed such other losses as capture and desertion at 17,000, almost 26%. Charles lost entire regiments, which scattered in the first attacks or overrun at the end; they simply dissolved in the waves of Prussian blue coats. The Prussians also captured 51 standards and 116 of the 250 Austrian cannons. Of the Prussian army of 36,000, Frederick lost 6,344, including 1,141 dead, 5,118 wounded and 85 captured. He lost none of his artillery.

Despite the victory, its cost was high: Frederick lost one fifth of the men he had taken into battle, including two of his major generals.

The battle presented a severe blow to Austrian morale. The army had been soundly beaten by another half its size with fewer guns and tired after a long march over twelve-days. Charles and his second in-command, Count Leopold Joseph von Daun, sank "in the depths of despondency", and the Prince could not fathom what had happened. Charles had a mixed-to-poor record against Frederick in past encounters, but he had never fared so badly as at Leuthen. After the crushing defeat, Maria Theresa replaced him with Daun. Charles retired from military service and later served as the governor of the Habsburg Netherlands.

The Austrians also learned some lessons, such as not to fight the Prussians in open fields and to choose their own ground for battle. They later used those lessons.

Assessments

Frederick had benefited from an obliging enemy. Firstly, Charles saw what he wanted to see regarding the principal attack, instead of using his efficient light cavalry to scout the Prussian movements. Frederick commented later that a lone patrol could have uncovered his plan. The cavalry that Frederick had left demonstrating in front of the northernmost position of the Austrian line was simply a diversion to hide his real movements. Secondly, the Austrians obliged him by their failure to post pickets on their unprotected flank south of Leuthen. Nádasdy's omission of outposts on his open flank south of Leuthen was a surprising oversight for an officer with his long years of experience against the Prussians. He should have considered the possibility of an attack from an unexpected place because that was Frederick's modus operandi. Thirdly, even when confronted with the attack on his left, the diversion on the right flank near Frobelwitz continued to mesmerize Charles. When he ordered cavalry to move from the north to support the faltering troops in and around Leuthen in the south, they had too far to travel in too little time.

The battle was Frederick's greatest victory so far, perhaps the greatest use of tactics in his career, and showed the superiority of Prussian infantry. In one day, Frederick had regained every advantage the Austrians had won earlier that year at Breslau and Schweidnitz and ended the Austrian attempt to reclaim Silesia. The battle became an exemplar on the use of 18th-century linear tactics. Frederick had learned valuable lessons at  Battles of Prague and Kolin in which his infantry had run out of ammunition and lost the initiative. At Leuthen, ammunition wagons moved with the advancing lines of grenadiers and infantry battalions, which allowed the troops to be resupplied quickly without losing momentum. Although some infantrymen fired as many as 180 rounds, the advance never halted for lack of ammunition. The Prussian cavalry successfully protected the infantry's flanks, most notably during Nádasdy's assault on the Prussian grenadiers at Leuthen's church. The cavalry also provided tactically important charges, disrupting Austrian attempts to reform, which eventually turned the defeat into a rout. Frederick's horse artillery, which was sometimes called the flying artillery for its ability to move rapidly, maintained its fire and kept pace with the army and deployed and redeployed its guns as needed. In addition to the physical damage they wrought, the distinctive sound of the horse artillery's 12-pounder cannon, sometimes called Brummers, heightened Prussian morale and reduced that of the Austrians.

The victory changed the attitude of Frederick's enemies. Before the battle, he was often referred to in an unflattering, even demeaning, manner, but after Leuthen, he was widely called the King of Prussia in both polite and popular conversation. The victories at Leuthen and Rossbach earned Frederick respect and fear, which even his bitter enemies held for the rest of the war and the subsequent peace. Both battles probably saved Prussia from conquest by Austria. Half-a-century later, Napoleon called Leuthen "a masterpiece of movements, maneuvers and resolution".

Memorials

A memorial erected in 1854 honoured the Prussian army at Leuthen. Frederick's great-great nephew, King Frederick William IV, ordered a victory column with a gilded goddess of victory at Heidau  north-west of Leuthen. The Berlin architect Friedrich August Stüler provided the design for the monument, and Christian Daniel Rauch created the goddess of victory. The sculptor Heinrich Menzel from Neisse constructed the column in his workshop, in local white-gray stone. Moritz Geiss executed the plinth and the goddess in zinc casting and gilded the statue Victoria for a better effect. Befitting its importance in the establishment of the Prussian state and the mythos of Frederick the Great, the monument reached . During or after the Second World War, soldiers or partisans dynamited the monument, and only ruins of its pedestal remain, renovated in 2011.

Sources

Notes

Footnotes

Bibliography

 Asprey, Robert. Frederick the Great: A Magnificent Enigma, Ticknor & Fields, 1986,
 Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2007,
 Black, Jeremy. "Essay and Reflection: On the 'Old System' and the Diplomatic Revolution' of the Eighteenth Century", International History Review (1990) 12:2 pp. 301–23.
 Bodart, Gaston. Losses of Life in Modern Wars, Clarendon Press, 1916,
 Blanning, Tim. Frederick the Great, Random House, 2016,
 Carlyle, Thomas. History of Frederick Second, Harper, 1901.

 Citino, Robert M., The German Way of War: From the Thirty Years War to the Third Reich. University Press of Kansas. Lawrence, KS, 2005,

 David, Saul. War: The Definitive Visual History, Penguin, 2009.
 Duffy, Christopher, Prussia's Glory: Rossbach and Leuthen 1757, Emperor's Press, 2003.
 Duffy, Christopher, The Army of Frederick the Great, Emperor Press, 1996,
 Duffy, Christopher, The Army of Maria Theresa, Terence Wise, 1990,
 Fuller, J.F.C., A Military History of the Western World, Da Capo Press, 1987,
  Hofer, Achim. "Joseph Goldes (1802–1886) Fest-Reveille (1858) über den Choral 'Nun danket alle Gott' für Militärmusik" in Peter Moormann, Albrecht Riethmüller, Rebecca Wolf eds., Paradestück Militärmusik: Beiträge zum Wandel staatlicher Repräsentation durch Musik, Transcript Verlag (2012), pp. 217–38.
 Horn, D.B. "The Diplomatic Revolution" in J.O. Lindsay, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History vol. 7, The Old Regime: 1713–63 (1957), pp. 449–64.
 Keeney, L. Douglas. The Pointblank Directive: Three Generals and the Untold Story of the Daring Plan that Saved D-Day, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012,
  König, Anton Balthasar. Lorenz Ernst von Münchow, Biographisches Lexikon aller Helden und Militairpersonen, welche sich in Preußischen Diensten berühmt gemacht haben. Band 3. Arnold Wever, Berlin 1790, S. 75.
  Kroener, Bernhard R."'Nun danket alle Gott.' der Choral von Leuthen und Friedrich der Große als protestantischer Held; die Produktion politischer Mythen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert" in Hartmut Lehmann & Gerd Krumeich eds. "Gott mit uns": Religion, Nation und Gewalt im 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (2000), pp. 105–34, .
 Kosmala, Gerard. Geographical Characteristics of Silesia, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, 2015
 Latimer, Jon, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001.
  Leipziger Illustrirte Zeitung. No. 593. 11 November 1854.
 Moorhouse, Roger. The Historian at Large: The Forgotten Battlefield at Leuthen. 5 December 2014 version. Accessed 7 February 2017.
  Neue genealogisch-historische Nachrichten von den vornehmsten Begebenheiten, welche sich an den europäischen Höfen zugetragen, vol 54, Heinsius, 1759, pp. 608–09
 The New York Times. Silesia; Geography. 23 December 1981.
 O'Brien, Cormac, Outnumbered: Incredible Stories of History's Most Surprising Battlefield Upsets, Fair Winds Press, 2010,
 Overy, Richard. A History of War in 100 Battles, Oxford University Press, 2014,
 Redman, Herbert J. Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763, McFarland, 2014,
 Showalter, Dennis E. The Early Modern World: Soldiers' Lives, Greenwood, 2007,
  Sprecher, Daniel. "Sprecher", Neue Deutsche Biographie 24 (2010), S. 745–46.
  Sprecher, Salomon, von Bernegg. Diarium der Belagerung von Breslau; und Capitulations-Puncte von der Übergabe an Se. Königl. Majestät in Prüssen: Nebst einem Verzeichniß mit Nahmen, derer Generals, Staabs-Officiers und andern Officiers, dann vom Feldwebel an summariter derer Kayserl. Königl. Truppen, so den 21ten December 1757. Berlin, 1758,
 Tucker, Spencer. Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO, 2010,
 Wilson, Peter H. The Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire. Penguin Publishing, 2016,

Battle of Leuthen
Battles of the Seven Years' War
Battles involving Prussia
Battles involving Austria
1757 in the Habsburg monarchy
Battles of the Silesian Wars
Battles of Frederick the Great
History of Lower Silesian Voivodeship

Battle of Leuthen


A wedding dress or bridal gown is the dress worn by the bride during a wedding ceremony. The color, style and ceremonial importance of the gown can depend on the religion and culture of the wedding participants. In Western cultures and Anglo-Saxon cultural spheres, the wedding dress is most commonly white, a fashion made popular by Queen Victoria when she married in 1840. In Eastern cultures, brides often choose red to symbolize auspiciousness.

Western culture

Weddings performed during and immediately following the Middle Ages were often more than just a union between two people. They could be a union between two families, two businesses or even two countries. Many weddings were more a matter of politics than love, particularly among the nobility and the higher social classes. Brides were therefore expected to dress in a manner that cast their families in the most favorable light and befitted their social status, for they were not representing only themselves during the ceremony. Brides from wealthy families often wore rich colors and exclusive fabrics. It was common to see them wearing bold colors and layers of furs, velvet and silk. Brides dressed in the height of current fashion, with the richest materials their families' money could buy. The poorest of brides wore their best church dress on their wedding day.  The amount and the price of material a wedding dress contained was a reflection of the bride's social standing and indicated the extent of the family's wealth to wedding guests.

Color of wedding dresses
The first documented instance of a princess who wore a white wedding dress for a royal wedding ceremony is that of Philippa of England, who wore a tunic with a cloak in white silk bordered with squirrel and ermine in 1406, when she married Eric of Pomerania. Mary, Queen of Scots, wore a white wedding dress in 1559 when she married her first husband, Francis, the Dauphin of France, because it was her favorite color, although white was then the color of mourning for French queens.

This was not a widespread trend, however: prior to the Victorian era, a bride was married in any color, black being popular in Finland.

White became a popular option in 1840, after the marriage of Queen Victoria to Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, when Victoria wore a white gown trimmed with Honiton lace. Illustrations of the wedding were widely published, and many brides opted for white in accordance with the Queen's choice.

Later, many people assumed that the color white was intended to symbolize virginity, though this was not the original intention: it was the color blue that was connected to purity, piety, faithfulness, and the Virgin Mary.

Even after white became the dominant color, for a period, wedding dresses were adapted to the styles of the day. In the early 1900s, clothing included a lot of decorations, such as lace or frills. This was also adopted in wedding dresses, where decorative frills and lace were common. For example, in the 1920s, they were typically short in the front with a longer train in the back and were worn with cloche-style wedding veils. This tendency to follow current fashions continued until the late 1960s, when it became popular to revert to long, full-skirted designs reminiscent of the Victorian era.

Since the middle of the 20th century, most Western wedding dresses have usually been white, though "wedding white" includes shades such as eggshell, ecru, and ivory.

White is not the universal color of wedding dresses. In Mexico, for example, red is a popular color.

In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the color white is used as a symbol of purity, innocence, and cleanliness, particularly in religious ceremonies such as baptism and temple ceremonies, including weddings. For weddings in the temple, white clothing is also worn by all participants during the ceremony, both men and women, to symbolize unity and equality before God. The brides should be "white, modest in design and fabric, and free of elaborate ornamentation."

Current fashion

In the early 21st century many wedding dresses on the market are sleeveless and strapless. Other brides prefer  styles with sleeves, higher necklines, and covered backs.

Eastern culture

Many wedding dresses in China, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan are red; the traditional Indian color representing good luck and auspiciousness. Vietnamese wedding dresses (in the traditional form of áo tấc the ancient Ao dai) were dark blue.

Nowadays, many women choose other colors besides red. In modern mainland Chinese weddings, the bride may opt for Western dresses of any color, and don a traditional costume for the wedding tea ceremony.

In modern Taiwanese weddings, the bride generally picks red (following Chinese tradition) or white (more Western) silk for the wedding gown material, but most will wear the red traditional garment for their formal wedding banquets. Traditionally, the father of the bride is responsible for the wedding banquet hosted on the bride's side and the alcohol (specifically called "xi-jiu," confusingly the same as what the wedding banquet itself is called) consumed during both banquets. While the wedding itself is often based on the couple's choices, the wedding banquets are a symbolic gesture of "thanks" and appreciation, to those who have raised the bride and groom (such as grandparents and uncles) and those who will continue to be there to help the bride and groom in the future. Thus out of respect for the elders, wedding banquets are usually done formally and traditionally.

Red saris, lehengas, and salwar kameez are  traditional garment options for brides in Indian cultures. The fabric of choice is also traditionally silk, regardless of garment type. Over time, color options and fabric choices for Indian brides have expanded. Today fabrics like crepe, Georgette, charmeuse, and satin are used, and colors have been expanded to include gold, pink, orange, maroon, brown, and yellow as well.

Traditionally, a Kurdish first-time bride would wear a red dress for her wedding to symbolize the postcoital bleeding she will experience when she loses her virginity while a Kurdish bride who used to be married before would wear pink. Today, many Kurds associate red wedding dresses with impoverished Kurdish rural society and it is no longer commonly worn.

A Japanese wedding usually involves a traditional pure white kimono for the formal ceremony, symbolizing purity and maidenhood. The bride may change into a red kimono for the events after the ceremony for good luck.

The Javanese people of Indonesia wear a kebaya, a traditional kind of blouse, along with batik.

In the Philippines, variations of the Baro't saya adapted to the white wedding tradition are considered to be wedding attire for women, along with the Barong Tagalog for men. Various tribes and Muslim Filipinos don other forms of traditional dress during their respective ceremonies.

Native American culture

The indigenous peoples of the Americas have varying traditions related to weddings and thus wedding dresses.  A Hopi bride traditionally had her garments woven by the groom and any men in the village who wished to participate. The garments consisted of a large belt, two all-white wedding robes, a white wedding robe with red stripes at the top and bottom, white buckskin leggings and moccasins, a string for tying the hair, and a reed mat in which to wrap the outfit. This outfit also served as a shroud, since these garments would be necessary for the trip through the underworld.

A Pueblo bride wore a cotton garment tied above the right shoulder, secured with a belt around the waist.

In the traditions of the Delaware, a bride wore a knee-length skirt of deerskin and a band of wampum beads around her forehead. Except for fine beads or shell necklaces, the body was bare from the waist up. If it was a winter wedding, she wore deerskin leggings and moccasins and a robe of turkey feathers. Her face was painted with white, red, and yellow clay.

The tribes of Northern California (which include the Klamath, the Modoc, and the Yurok) had a traditional bridal dress woven in symbolic colors: white for the east, blue for the south, yellow (orange) for the west; and black for the north. Turquoise and silver jewelry were worn by both the bride and the groom in addition to a silver concho belt. Jewelry was considered a shield against evils including hunger, poverty, and bad luck.

Gallery

Historical Western European wedding dresses

Wedding dresses from different areas of the world

West Asian/North African dresses

East Asian dresses

South Asian dresses

Southeast Asian dresses

Modern Western-style dresses

See also

 Christian clothing
 Godey's Lady's Book
 Religious clothing
 Victorian fashion
 Wedding dress of Camilla Parker Bowles
 Wedding dress of Grace Kelly
 Wedding dress of Jacqueline Bouvier
 Wedding dress of Kate Middleton
 Wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer
 Wedding dress of Meghan Markle
 Wedding dress of Princess Alexandra of Denmark
 Wedding dress of Princess Anne
 Wedding dress of Princess Elizabeth
 Wedding dress of Princess Margaret
 Wedding dress of Princess Mary of Teck
 Wedding dress of Queen Victoria
 Wedding dress of Sarah Ferguson
 Wedding dress of Sophie Rhys-Jones
 Wedding dress of Victoria, Princess Royal
 Wedding dress of Wallis Warfield

References

External links

Fashion Plates of Wedding Dresses from 1820-1929 from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
 Wedding Dresses at Chicago History Museum Digital Collections
 Wedding dress, 1900, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database
 Wedding dress, 1951, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database

Wedding
Dresses
Gowns
Wedding dresses

Wedding dress


Anything Else is a 2003 American romantic comedy film written and directed by Woody Allen, produced by Letty Aronson, and starring Jason Biggs, Christina Ricci, Allen, Stockard Channing, Danny DeVito, Jimmy Fallon, Erica Leerhsen and KaDee Strickland. The film was shown as the opening night selection at the 60th annual Venice International Film Festival. The film was released theatrically on September 19, 2003, to mixed reviews and commercial failure.

Plot
Jerry Falk (Biggs), an aspiring writer living in New York City, has a girlfriend, Brooke (Strickland). He falls in love with Amanda (Ricci) and has an affair with her. Brooke learns of Jerry's infidelity and leaves him. Amanda leaves her own boyfriend for Jerry. Jerry turns to aging, struggling artist David Dobel (Allen, loosely based on David Panich) who acts as his mentor, which includes trying to help sort out Jerry's romantic life. Dobel says that when he told a cab driver of all his anxieties and phobias in life, the cab driver told him, "It's like anything else".

Dobel tries to convince Jerry that his manager is only holding him back and his relationship with Amanda is the most destructive force in his life. Amanda continuously cheats on Jerry. Amanda leaves and then comes back. Jerry's neuroses start to worsen. Eventually, Jerry leaves town as Dobel gets him a job writing for television in California. Amanda has an affair with the doctor who was treating her and runs off with him. He sees them together laughing as she once did with him as the cab is taking him towards the airport. Jerry talks to the cabbie of love and relationships. The cabbie simply replies, "It's like anything else".

Cast

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 40%, based on reviews from 137 critics. The site's consensus states: "Too many elements from better Woody Allen films are being recycled here." On Metacritic the film has an average score of 43 out of 100, based on reviews from 37 critics. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade C− on scale of A to F.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four, and wrote: "At a time when so many American movies keep dialogue at a minimum so they can play better overseas, what a delight to listen to smart people whose conversation is like a kind of comic music."
James Berardinelli of ReelViews wrote: "Anything Else may not be the second coming of Annie Hall, but it has more wit and substance than almost every post-college romance that sees the inside of a projection booth".
David Stratton of Variety wrote: "The younger casting brings a freshness to the material and, with Allen as the weird mentor, there are plenty of laughs, even if the pacing's slow and the running time over-extended."

Mike Clark of USA Today was critical of the characterizations, the music, the length ("brutally overlong"), but praised the actors for their performances: "It's asking a lot of audiences to spend nearly two hours with characters as screen-unfriendly as the ones played by Biggs and Ricci, though both actors (and especially Ricci) do what they're asked to do." Clark also says the film "sounds as if it ought to be funny, but like so much else here, intent and execution keep missing each other." and complains that the misery of the story is not tempered by sufficient laughs.

In August 2009, it was cited by Quentin Tarantino as one of his favorite 20 films since 1992, when his career as a filmmaker began.

Leonard Maltin, in his TV, Movie, & Video Guide, gave the film a "BOMB" rating (the only Allen-directed film ever to receive this citation), and called it "a rare misfire for Woody, but still a big one".
In 2016, film critics Robbie Collin and Tim Robey ranked Anything Else as one of the worst movies by Woody Allen.

Soundtrack

Easy to Love - Written by Cole Porter - Performed by Billie Holiday with Teddy Wilson & his Orchestra
Gat I - Written and performed by Ravi Shankar
It Could Happen to You - Written by Johnny Burke & Jimmy Van Heusen - Performed by Diana Krall
Gone with the Wind - Written by Herb Magidson & Allie Wrubel - Performed by Wes Montgomery
The Way You Look Tonight - Written by Dorothy Fields & Jerome Kern - Performed by Billie Holiday with Teddy Wilson & his Orchestra
I Can't Believe That You're in Love with Me - Written by Clarence Gaskill & Jimmy McHugh - Performed by Billie Holiday with Teddy Wilson & his Orchestra
Honeysuckle Rose - Written by Andy Razaf & Fats Waller - Performed by Teddy Wilson
I Can't Get Started - Written by Vernon Duke & Ira Gershwin - Performed by Lester Young
Sunday (The Day Before My Birthday) - Written by Moby & Sylvia Robinson - Performed by Moby
There'll Be Another Spring - Written by Peggy Lee & Hubie Wheeler - Performed by Stockard Channing
There Will Never Be Another You - Written by Harry Warren & Mack Gordon - Performed by Lester Young

References

External links

2003 films
Films directed by Woody Allen
Films about writers
Films set in New York City
Films shot in New York City
2003 romantic comedy films
DreamWorks Pictures films
American romantic comedy films
2000s English-language films
Films with screenplays by Woody Allen
Films produced by Letty Aronson
2000s American films

Anything Else


إدوارد مودريك  (مواليد 18 يوليو 1939 - 27 مارس 2017)، لاعب كرة قدم سوفييتي سابق.

لعب مع منتخب الاتحاد السوفييتي لكرة القدم.

مسيرته الكروية
لعب إدوارد مودريك خلال مسيرته الاحترافية مع نادِ واحدٍ في اثنا عشر موسمًا وسجل خلالها 3 أهداف ضمن 172 مباراة. حيث فاز في موسم واحد بالكأس وفي ثلاثة مواسم بالدوري.

خاض إدوارد مودريك مسيرته مع نادي دينامو موسكو في موسم 1957 ليلعب معه اثنا عشر موسمًا، مشاركًا في 172 مباراة سجل خلالها 3 أهداف.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية يهود
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية سوفيت
روس من أصل يهودي أوكراني
لاعبو الدوري السوفيتي الممتاز لكرة القدم
لاعبو دينامو موسكو
لاعبو كأس أمم أوروبا 1964
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية روس
بوندلنيك
لاعبو كرة قدم سوفيت
لاعبو كرة قدم من لوهانسك أوبلاست
لاعبو كرة قدم يهود
لاعبو منتخب الاتحاد السوفيتي لكرة القدم
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
مدفونون في مقبرة ترويكوروفسكوي
مواليد 1939
وفيات 2017
وفيات في موسكو
يهود أوكرانيون

إدوارد مودريك


Nationale Sluitingsprijs er et belgisk endagsløb i landevejscykling som arrangeres hvert år i oktober. Løbet er blevet arrangeret siden 1929. Løbet var indtil 2017 klassificeret med 1.1 af UCI og var en del af UCI Europe Tour.

Vindere

Eksterne henvisninger

Nationale Sluitingsprijs


War Dance est un film américain réalisé par Sean Fine et Andrea Nix, sorti en 2007.

Synopsis
Trois enfants vivent dans un camp de réfugiés dans le nord de l'Ouganda. Ils participent à une compétition nationale de danse.

Fiche technique
 Titre : War Dance
 Réalisation : Sean Fine et Andrea Nix
 Scénario : Sean Fine et Andrea Nix
 Musique : Asche & Spencer, Chris Beaty, Ryan Dodge, Greg Herzenach, Beth Husnik, Alan Omerovic, Tom Scott, Thad Spencer, Janell Vircks, Richard Werbowenko et Al Wolovitch
 Photographie : Sean Fine
 Montage : Jeff Consiglio
 Production : Albie Hecht
 Société de production : Rogues Harbor Studios, Fine Films et Shine Global
 Société de distribution : THINKFilm (États-Unis)
 Pays :
 Genre : Documentaire
 Durée : 105 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
 :

Distinctions
Le film a été nommé à l'Oscar du meilleur film documentaire en 2008.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film américain sorti en 2007
Film documentaire américain
Film documentaire sur la danse
Film se déroulant en Ouganda

War Dance


Julian Sark is a recurring fictional character portrayed by David Anders on the ABC television series Alias. The series follows Sydney Bristow, an operative working for an organization called SD-6 which she believes is a covert branch of the Central Intelligence Agency. However, she learns it is actually a subsidiary of the Alliance of Twelve, a crime syndicate which seeks to make profits from stolen intelligence and artifacts. Upon learning the truth Sydney offers her services to the CIA as a double agent with the intention of destroying SD-6 from within.

Julian Sark is introduced in the first season's fourteenth episode, "The Coup", where he is seen meeting the head of K-Directorate in Moscow on behalf of the person known only as "The Man" who intends to purchase Rambaldi's journal. The character appears in 46 more instances, with Anders credited in the title sequence nine times during the course of the show. The last one is the series finale, "All The Time In The World", in which Marcus Dixon asks Sydney to intercept Sark as he attempts to sell a stolen hard disk containing classified information. It is unknown whether the mission was carried out or if the disk was sold.

Character biography
Little is known about Sark's background. He spent most of his youth in the United Kingdom, although a voice analysis reveals he spent a lot of time in Galway, Ireland. He is the heir to a vast fortune from his Romanov-descended father, Andrian Lazarey. He routinely changes his alliances, and his true allegiance seems to be only to himself. He is notorious for his self-described "flexible loyalties" and his ability to evade and escape capture. Sark is a connoisseur of fine champagne.

Season 1
Sark is seen initially operating as an agent of a criminal organization headed by a mysterious figure known only as "The Man" (believed at first to be Alexander Khasinau but later revealed to be Irina Derevko). He leads a strike team against FTL Headquarters, personally killing FTL head Quan Li in broad daylight literally outside FTL's front door. The attack, coinciding precisely with McKenas Cole's unsuccessful assault on SD-6, was designed to retrieve an unknown Rambaldi artifact (as Cole's was designed to obtain an ampule of unknown liquid). FTL's operatives list is compromised and within hours, FTL ceases to exist. Arvin Sloane states that this previously unknown organization now has the most significant collection of Rambaldi artifacts in the world.

SD-6 learns of a meeting scheduled between the organization and K-Directorate to discuss the sharing of Rambaldi technology. Sydney and Dixon are tasked to eavesdrop on the meeting. Sark offers to transfer $100 million to K-Directorate's Cayman Islands account. In exchange, he demands the Rambaldi manuscript (which includes Page 47). The offer is rejected, and Sark instantly assassinates Ilyich Ivankov, leader of K-Directorate. The suddenly promoted new leader of K-Directorate, Lavro Kessar, accepts the offer. Sydney, who is dangling outside the window spying on the meeting, is spotted, a firefight ensues and Sark slips away. He is next seen in Tunisia trying to retrieve the Rambaldi manuscript, but Sydney gets to it first.

Sark travels to Denpasar to buy a second ampule of Rambaldi liquid so he can expose a Rambaldi document (possibly the artifact retrieved from FTL). Unknown to him, the buy is a sting set up by Sydney and Michael Vaughn. The buy is disrupted by Dixon and other SD-6 agents. Sark flees with the ampule but Vaughn captures him and recovers it. When Vaughn abandons Sark to rescue Sydney, SD-6 recovers him.

While in SD-6 custody Sark agrees to lead SD-6 to Khasinau in his Paris nightclub to recover the Rambaldi document. Sydney and Dixon are tasked to retrieve the document and replace it with a forgery. Sydney is further tasked by Vaughn to switch out the document with a counterfeit, but is unable to because she spots Will Tippin, who's been brought to Paris to meet a mysterious contact to discuss "The Circumference," in the club. Dixon recovers the document and Sydney extracts Will and, with Jack's aid, returns him to Los Angeles.

Sark escapes from the club, but Sloane had previously laced Sark's wine with a radioactive isotope and is tracking his location by satellite. However, Sark becomes aware of this and undergoes a full blood transfusion in Geneva. While SD-6 is on a wild goose chase to Switzerland, Sark actually returns to Los Angeles and kidnaps Will Tippin from a CIA safehouse. To secure Tippin's release, Jack steals the ampule from the CIA and Sydney steals the document from SD-6. Jack and Sydney expose the page and realize that it's The Circumference, instructions on how to use the Mueller device. Jack travels to Taipei and makes the exchange, and Sark vanishes into the night.

Season 2
Sark initially assumes control of Irina's assets but later allies with SD-6, but secretly collaborates with Sloane to provide Sydney with the location of "Server 47," on which is housed enough intelligence to bring about the destruction of The Alliance of Twelve and all SD cells. However, no Rambaldi artifacts are found in any of the SD sites. Following the fall of SD-6, Sark continues to work with Sloane. He kidnaps the wife and son of mathematician Dr. Neil Caplan to coerce Caplan into assembling Rambaldi artifacts into a neutron bomb as well as coordinating the murder and replacement of Sydney's friend Francie Calfo by Allison Doren, who has been transformed by Project Helix into Francie's genetic duplicate. At the end of the season, Sark is taken into CIA custody.

Season 3
Sark becomes the chief financier of The Covenant. The Covenant, during the two-year time when Sydney was undercover as Julia Thorne, sent Sydney to assassinate Andrian Lazarey. Lazarey is Sark's father, and his apparent death causes $800 million in gold bullion to pass to Sark. These funds are seized by the Covenant in exchange for his release from CIA custody and Sark, despite having provided much of the organization's operating capital, feels he is relegated to the status of "foot soldier."

Sark carries out missions for the Covenant, sometimes with the aid of Lauren Reed, a double agent positioned within the NSC and married to Vaughn. One mission he undertakes with Allison Doren. With the apparent destruction of Project Helix, Doren is trapped in Francie's form but Sark, who claims to love her, says it doesn't matter. Doren is killed by Tippin in the course of that mission.

Sark and Reed become lovers and eventually conspire to assassinate the leaders of the six Covenant cells in an attempt to take control of the organization. They manage the assassinations and are congratulated by McKenas Cole, who has become second-in-command of The Covenant. It is at this point that Sark's first name is revealed to be Julian. McKenas Cole appoints Sark and Lauren co-leaders of the North American cell. They ally once again with Arvin Sloane to obtain the Rambaldi equation that Nadia Santos, "The Passenger," channels but are unsuccessful. Reed carries out a mission wearing a mask to impersonate Sydney to obtain the equation from the CIA and plant a bomb in their headquarters, while Sark monitors her remotely. She escapes but he is captured, and Sydney uses a mask and voice changer to impersonate Reed so she can get information from him.

Season 4
During his second CIA-imposed imprisonment, Sark is released into the custody of Sydney and Vaughn to help track down terrorist Anna Espinosa. He agrees to help but demands to see proof that Lauren (whom, Allison notwithstanding, Sark also claims is "the woman [he] loved") is in fact dead. After seeing her body in a secret CIA crypt, Sark realizes that it was Vaughn who killed her. During the mission, Espinosa helps Sark escape, and the two briefly collaborate in the selling of a chemical bomb before Sark abandons Anna to Sydney's tender mercies and disappears for the remainder of the season.

Season 5
The episode Bob marks Sark's return to the series. With the death of Covenant leader Elena Derevko and the resulting apparent fall of The Covenant, Sark has gone freelance; on this occasion he is working on behalf of a Sudanese warlord to obtain a weapon of mass destruction. New APO recruit Rachel Gibson and he have a tryst while waiting for a transmission that neither knows the other intends to intercept. After Gibson discovers his identity and reports this to APO, Sark is hired by the agency to help recover the weapon, though he ultimately refuses payment after Gibson saves his life. In the episode I See Dead People Sloane sends Sark a secret message, presumably to secure his services to work with Anna Espinosa (in reality, Sydney impersonating Anna, who has been doubled into Sydney and subsequently killed by her). Sark engineers for them to be taken into custody in an Italian prison to secure a Rambaldi amulet from an elderly man known only as "The Rose."

Sark later teams with Sloane and Kelly Peyton to obtain The Horizon, the final Rambaldi artifact Sloane needs to complete his endgame, from Irina in exchange for two missiles. After planting a bomb to destroy APO headquarters (killing Thomas Grace), Sark accompanies Sloane to Mongolia to excavate the tomb of Milo Rambaldi and becomes involved in a stand-off involving Vaughn, Jack Bristow and other of Sloane's operatives. In a gun battle in Rambaldi's tomb, Sark retrieves the Horizon and returns it to Irina in Hong Kong. On Irina's orders, Sark prepares to launch the missiles at Washington, D.C., and London but is captured and shot by Vaughn. He gives Vaughn the codes to abort the launch and Vaughn apparently allows the wounded Sark to depart.

Several years later, Marcus Dixon approaches a semi-retired Sydney and Vaughn and asks for their help with a field assignment. It's revealed that Sark has continued his unbroken track record of survival and is behind the incident Dixon is seeking help with. Sydney jokingly chides Vaughn for allowing Sark to get away years earlier.

References

Alias (TV series) characters
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional assassins
Fictional kidnappers
Fictional torturers
Fictional secret agents and spies in television
Fictional vigilantes

Julian Sark