The Oregon boundary dispute or the Oregon Question was a 19th-century territorial dispute over the political division of the Pacific Northwest of North America between several nations that had competing territorial and commercial aspirations in the region.

Expansionist competition into the region began in the 18th century, with participants including the Russian Empire, Great Britain, Spain, and the United States. After the War of 1812, the Oregon dispute took on increased importance for diplomatic relations between the British Empire and the fledgling American republic. In the mid-1820s, the Russians signed the Russo-American Treaty of 1824 and the Russo-British Treaty of 1825, and the Spanish signed the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, by which Russia and Spain formally withdrew their respective territorial claims in the region, and the British and the Americans acquired residual territorial rights in the disputed area. But the question of sovereignty over a portion of the North American Pacific coast was still contested between the United Kingdom and the United States. The disputed area was defined as the region west of the Continental Divide of the Americas, north of Mexico's Alta California border of 42nd parallel north, and south of Russian America at parallel 54°40′ north. The British generally called this region the Columbia District and the Americans generally called it Oregon Country.

During the 1844 United States presidential election campaign, the Democratic Party proposed ending the Oregon Question by annexing the entire area. The U.S. Whig Party, in contrast, evinced no interest in the question – due, some scholars have claimed, to the Whig view that it was unimportant compared to other domestic problems. The Democratic candidate, James K. Polk, invoked the popular theme of manifest destiny and appealed to voters' expansionist sentiments in pressing for annexation, and defeated the Whig candidate, Henry Clay. Polk then sent the British government an offer to agree on a partition along the 49th parallel (which had been previously offered). However, the resulting negotiations soon faltered: the British still pressed for a border along the Columbia River. Tensions grew as American expansionists, such as Senator Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana and Representative Leonard Henly Sims of Missouri, urged Polk to annex the entire Pacific Northwest all the way to the 54°40′ parallel north (which is what the Democrats had called for during the presidential campaign). These tensions gave rise to slogans such as "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" At the same time, U.S. relations with Mexico were rapidly deteriorating as a result of the recent U.S. annexation of Texas. This gave rise to a concern that the U.S. might have to fight two wars on two fronts at the same time. Thus, just before the outbreak of the Mexican–American War, Polk retreated to his earlier position, calling for the Oregon border to run along the 49th parallel.

The 1846 Oregon Treaty established the border between British North America and the United States along the 49th parallel until the Strait of Georgia, where the marine boundary curved south to exclude Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands from the United States. As a result, a small portion of the Tsawwassen Peninsula, Point Roberts, became an exclave of the United States. Vague wording in the treaty left the ownership of the San Juan Islands in doubt, as the division was to follow "through the middle of the said channel" to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. During the so-called Pig War, both nations agreed to a joint military occupation of the islands. Kaiser Wilhelm I of the German Empire was selected as an arbitrator to end the dispute, with a three-man commission ruling in favor of the United States in 1872. There the Haro Strait became the border line, rather than the British-favored Rosario Strait. The border established by the Oregon Treaty and finalized by the arbitration in 1872 remains the boundary between the United States and Canada in the Pacific Northwest.

Background
The Oregon Question originated in the 18th century during the early European or American exploration of the Pacific Northwest. Various empires began to consider the area suitable for colonial expansion, including the Americans, Russians, Spanish and British. Naval captains such as the Spanish Juan José Pérez Hernández, British George Vancouver and American Robert Gray gave defining regional water formations like the Columbia River and the Puget Sound their modern names and charted them in the 1790s. Overland explorations were commenced by the British Alexander Mackenzie in 1792 and later followed by the American Lewis and Clark expedition, which reached the mouth of the Columbia River in 1805. These explorers often claimed in the name of their respective governments sovereignty over the Northwest Coast. The knowledge of fur-bearing animal populations like the California sea lion, North American beaver and the Northern fur seal were used to create an economic network called the maritime fur trade. The fur trade would remain the main economic interest that drew Euro-Americans to the Pacific Northwest for decades. Merchants exchanged goods for fur pelts along the coast with indigenous nations such as the Chinookan people, the Aleuts and the Nuu-chah-nulth.

Spanish colonisation
A series of expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were financed by the Spanish to strengthen their claims to the region. Creating a colony called Santa Cruz de Nuca on Vancouver Island, the Spanish were the first European colonisers of the Pacific Northwest outside Russian America to the north. A period of tensions with the United Kingdom, called the Nootka Crisis, arose after the Spanish seized a British vessel. However the three Nootka Conventions averted conflict, with both countries agreeing to protect their mutual access to Friendly Cove against outside powers. While the Spanish colony was abandoned, a border delineating the northern reaches of New Spain was not included. Despite the Nootka Conventions still allowing the Spanish to establish colonies in the region, no more attempts were made as other geopolitical and domestic matters drew the attention of the authorities. With the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, the Spanish formally withdrew all formal claims to lands north of the 42° north.

Russian interest
The Imperial Russian government established the Russian-American Company in 1799, a monopoly among Russian subjects for fur trading operations in Russian America with the Ukase of 1799. In part from the growing Russian activities to the north, the Spanish created the Catholic Missions to create colonies in Alta California. Plans for creating Russians colonies in what became the modern American states of Washington and Oregon were formulated by Nikolai Rezanov. He aimed to relocate the primary colony of Russian America to the entrance of the Columbia River, though was unable to enter the river in 1806 and the plan was abandoned. In 1808 Alexander Andreyevich Baranov sent the Nikolai, with the captain "ordered to explore the coast south of Vancouver Island, barter with the natives for sea otter pelts, and if possible discover a site for a permanent Russian post in the Oregon Country." The ship wrecked on the Olympic Peninsula and the surviving  crew did not return to New Archangel for two years. The failure of the vessel to find a suitable location led to the Russians to not consider much of the Northwest coast worth colonizing. Their interest in the Puget Sound and the Columbia River was diverted to Alta California, with Fort Ross soon established. The Russo-American Treaty of 1824 and the 1825 Treaty of Saint Petersburg with the British formally created the southern border of Russian America at parallel 54°40′ north. Specifically, it was agreed, in the 1824 treaty, that no American settlement would be established on the coast or adjacent island north of 54°40′, and no Russian settlement to the south (Russian Fort Ross was in Alta California, Mexico, and was outside the purview of the treaty). The treaty did not make any explicit statements about sovereignty or territorial claims. The 1825 treaty with Britain was more strongly worded and defined the boundary between Russian and British possessions in North America, which ran north from 54°40′ through what is now the Alaska Panhandle to the 141st meridian west, then along that line north to the Arctic Ocean.

Early Anglo-American competition
Neither the Russian nor Spanish empires held significant plans at promoting colonies along the Northwest Coast by the 1810s. The British and the Americans were the remaining two nations with citizens active in commercial operations in the region. Starting with a party of the Montreal-based North West Company (NWC) employees led by David Thompson in 1807, the British began land-based operations and opened trading posts throughout the region. Thompson extensively explored the Columbia River watershed. While at the junction of Columbia and Snake Rivers, he erected a pole on July 9, 1811, with a notice stating "Know hereby that this country is claimed by Great Britain as part of its territories ..." and additionally stated the intention of the NWC to build a trading post there. Fort Nez Percés was later established at the location in 1818. The American Pacific Fur Company (PFC) began operations in 1811 at Fort Astoria, constructed at the entrance of the Columbia River. The eruption of the War of 1812 did not lead to a violent confrontation in the Pacific Northwest between the competing companies. Led by Donald Mackenzie, PFC officers agreed to liquidate its assets to their NWC competitors, with an agreement signed on 23 November 1813.  was ordered to capture Fort Astoria, though by the time it arrived, the post was already under NWC management. After the collapse of the PFC, American mountain men operated in small groups in the region, typically based east of the Rocky Mountains, only to meet once a year at the annual Rocky Mountain Rendezvous.

Joint occupation

Treaty of 1818

In 1818, diplomats of the two countries attempted to negotiate a boundary between the rival claims. The Americans suggested dividing the Pacific Northwest along the 49th parallel, which was the border between the United States and British North America east of the Rocky Mountains. The lack of accurate cartographic knowledge led American diplomats to declare the Louisiana Purchase gave them an incontestable claim to the region. British diplomats wanted a border further south along the Columbia River, so as to maintain the North West Company's (later the Hudson's Bay Company's (HBC)) control of the lucrative fur trade along that river. The diplomatic teams could not agree upon mutually satisfactory terms and remained in deadlock by October. Albert Gallatin, the main American negotiator, had previously instructed to have a tentative agreement by the convening of the third session of the 15th United States Congress, set for 16 November.

A final proposition was made to the British plenipotentiary, Frederick John Robinson, for the continuation of the 49th parallel west while leaving the United Kingdom, as Gallatin stated, "all the waters emptying in the sound called the Gulf of Georgia." This would have awarded "all the territory draining west from the Cascade divide and north from the Columbia River divide into the gulf" and the entirety of the Puget Sound along with the Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca to the United Kingdom. Robinson demurred from the proposal. However, the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which settled most other disputes from the War of 1812, called for the joint occupation of the region for ten years.

Proposed partition plans
As the expiration of the Joint Occupation treaty approached, a second round of negotiations commenced in 1824. American Minister Richard Rush offered for the extension of agreement with an additional clause on 2 April. The 51° parallel would be a provisional border within the Pacific Northwest, with no British additional settlements to be established south of the line, nor any American settlements north of it. Despite Rush's offering to modify the temporary border to the 49° parallel, the British negotiators rejected his offer. His proposal was seen as the likely basis for the eventual division of the Pacific Northwest. The British plenipotentiaries William Huskisson and Stratford Canning on 29 June pressed instead for a permanent line along the 49° parallel west until the main branch of the Columbia River. With the British formally abandoning claims south or east of the Columbia River, the Oregon Question thence became focused on what later became Western Washington and the southern portion of Vancouver Island. Rush reacted to the British proposal as unfavorably as they had to his own offer, leaving the talks at a stalemate.

Throughout 1825, George Canning, the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, held discussions with Governor Pelly of the HBC as to a potential settlement with the United States. Pelly felt a border along the Snake and Columbia Rivers was advantageous for the United Kingdom and his company. Contacting American minister Rufus King in April 1826, Canning requested that a settlement be reached over the Oregon dispute. Gallatin was appointed Ambassador to the United Kingdom and given instructions by Secretary of State Henry Clay in July 1826 to offer a division of the Pacific Northwest along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean to the British. In a letter to Prime Minister Lord Liverpool in 1826, Canning presented the possibilities of trade with the Qing Empire if a division of the Pacific Northwest was to be made with the Americans. He felt the recognition of American rights to ownership of Astoria, despite its continued use by the NWC and later HBC, was "absolutely unjustifiable". This diplomatic courtesy Canning felt weakened the territorial claims of the United Kingdom. A border along the Columbia River would give "an immense direct intercourse between China and what may be, if we resolve not yield them up, her boundless establishments on the N. W. Coast of America".

Renewal
Huskisson was appointed along with Henry Unwin Addington to negotiate with Gallatin. Unlike his superior, Canning, Huskisson held a negative view of the HBC monopoly and found the region held in dispute with the Americans "of little consequence to the British". At the time the HBC's staff were the only continuous white occupants in the region, though their economic activities were not utilized by Huskinisson in exchanges with Gallatin. The division suggested by Pelly and Canning's 1824 offer of a Columbia River boundary was rejected. The argument used to counter these offers was the same as in 1824, that a boundary along the Columbia would deny the U.S. an easily accessible deep water port on the Pacific Ocean. The British negotiators to allay this attack offered a detached Olympic Peninsula as American territory, giving access to both the Straits of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound. This was seen as unsatisfactory by the Americans however. The diplomatic talks were continued but failed to divide the region in a satisfactory manner for both nations. The Treaty of 1818 was renewed on 7 August 1827, with a clause added by Gallatin that a one-year notice had to be given when either party intended to abrogate the agreement. After the death of Canning and the failure to find a satisfactory division of the region with the Americans, "Oregon had been almost forgotten by the [British] politicians".

Significance in the United States

Regional activities
American Protestant missionaries began to arrive in the 1830s and established the Methodist Mission in the Willamette Valley and the Whitman Mission east of the Cascades. Ewing Young created a saw mill and a grist mill in the Willamette Valley early in the 1830s. He and several other American colonists formed the Willamette Cattle Company in 1837 to bring over 600 head of cattle to the Willamette Valley, with about half of its shares purchased by McLoughlin. Over 700 U.S settlers arrived via the Oregon Trail in the "Great Migration of 1843". The Provisional Government of Oregon was established in the Willamette Valley during 1843 as well. Its rule was limited to those interested Americans and former French-Canadian HBC employees in the valley.

John Floyd
The first attempts by the American Government for proactive action in colonising the Pacific Northwest began in 1820 during the 2nd session of the 16th Congress. John Floyd, a Representative from Virginia, spearheaded a report that would "authorize the occupation of the Columbia River, and to regulated trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes thereon." Additionally the bill called for cultivating commercial relations with the Qing Empire and the Tokugawa shogunate. His interest in the distant region likely began after meeting former PFC employee Russell Farnham. Floyd had the support of fellow Virginian Representative Thomas Van Swearingen and Representative Thomas Metcalfe of Kentucky. The bill was presented to both the House and to President Monroe. In the House, Floyd's bill was defended by one member who stated that it did not "attempt a colonial settlement. The territory proposed to be occupied is already a part of the United States." Monroe inquired the opinion of Secretary of State John Quincy Adams for potential revisions. Adams retorted that "The paper was a tissue of errors in fact and abortive reasoning, of invidious reflections and rude invectives. There was nothing could purify it but the fire." Read twice before the legislature, "most of the members not considering it a serious proceeding", it did not pass.

Floyd continued to authorise legislation calling for an American colony on the Pacific. His career as a Representative ended in 1829, with the Oregon Question not discussed at Congress until 1837. The northern border proposed by Floyd was at first the 53°, and later 54°40′. These bills were still met with the apathy or opposition of other Congressional members, one in particular being tabled for consideration by a vote of 100 to 61. Missouri Senator Thomas H. Benton became a vocal supporter of Floyd's efforts, and thought that they would "plant the germ of a powerful and independent Power beyond the Rockies". John C. Calhoun, then Secretary of War, while somewhat interested in Floyd's considered bills, gave his opinion to that the HBC was an economic threat to American commercial interests in the west.

1844 presidential election
The 1844 presidential election was a definitive turning point for the United States. Admitting the Texas Republic by diplomatic negotiations to begin a process of annexation of Texas into the nation was a contentious topic. At the same time, the Oregon Question "became a weapon in a struggle for domestic political power". At the Democratic National Convention, the party platform asserted "That our title to the whole of the Territory of Oregon is clear and unquestionable; that no portion of the same ought to be ceded to England or any other power, and that the reoccupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest practicable period are great American measures". By tying the Oregon dispute to the more controversial Texas debate, the Democrats appealed to expansionist members from both the Northern and Southern states. Enlargement in the Pacific Northwest offered a means of mollifying Northern fears of allowing Texas, another slave state, by a counterbalance of additional free states. Democratic candidate James K. Polk went on to win a narrow victory over Whig candidate Henry Clay, in part because Clay had taken a stand against immediate expansion in Texas. Despite the use of the Oregon Question in the election, according to Edward Miles, the topic was not "a significant campaign issue" as "the Whigs would have been forced to discuss it".

"Fifty-four Forty or Fight!"
A popular slogan later associated with Polk and his campaign of 1844, "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" was not actually coined during the election but appeared only by January 1846 and was promoted and driven in part by the press associated with the Democratic Party. The phrase has since become frequently misidentified as a Polk campaign slogan, even in many textbooks. Bartlett's Familiar Quotations attributes the slogan to William Allen. 54°40′ was the southern boundary of Russian America and considered the northernmost limit of the Pacific Northwest. One actual Democratic campaign slogan from the election (used in Pennsylvania) was the more mundane "Polk, Dallas, and the Tariff of '42".

The southernmost border of Alaska remains 54°40′ since the purchase from Russia on October 18, 1867, with British Columbia, established as the Colony of British Columbia on August 2, 1858.

British interest

Hudson's Bay Company

The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) merged with the North West Company in 1821 and assumed its various fur trading stations. The HBC held a license among British subjects to trade with the populous aboriginal peoples of the region, and its network of trading posts and routes extended southward from New Caledonia, another HBC fur-trade district, into the Columbia basin (most of New Caledonia lay south of 54°40'N). The HBC's headquarters for the entire region became established at Fort Vancouver (modern Vancouver, Washington) in 1824. During that year George Simpson while discussing the company's "uncertain tenure of the Columbia" with Governor Colville, discussed the possibility of closing operations along the river. "If the Americans settle on the mouth of the Columbia it would in my opinion be necessary to abandon the Coast [south of the river]". Simpson stated, with the company posts to "move to the Northward". At its pinnacle in the late 1830s and early 1840s, Fort Vancouver watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, six ships, and 600 employees.

Domestic
The Edinburgh Review declared the Pacific Northwest "the last corner of the earth left free for the occupation of a civilized race. When Oregon shall be colonised, the map of the world may be considered as filled up."

Naval presence
Royal Navy ships were dispatched to the Pacific Northwest throughout the decades, to both expand cartographical knowledge and protect fur trading stations. The British established the Pacific Station in 1826 at Valparaíso, Chile, increasing the strategic capabilities of their navy. A squadron was moved there and later vessels sent to the Pacific Northwest were based out of the port.  was in the region during 1818. The next surveying expedition was commenced by  and  in 1837, with operations lasting until 1839. Dispatched from the Pacific Station to gather intelligence on the HBC posts,  arrived at the Columbia River in July 1844. Chief Factor James Douglas complained that the naval officers "had more taste for a lark than a 'musty' lecture on politics or the greater national interests in question." The Modeste visited the HBC trading posts of Forts George, Vancouver, Victoria and Simpson.

Political efforts during Tyler presidency
Missouri Senator Lewis Linn tabled legislation in 1842, inspired in part by Floyd's previous efforts. Linn's bill called for the government to create land grants for men interested in settling the Pacific Northwest. The arrival of Baron Ashburton in April 1842, sent to resolve several territorial disputes with the United States, delayed Linn's legislation. Initially focusing on the Pacific Northwest, Ashburton presented Secretary of State Daniel Webster the 1824 partition proposal made by Canning of a division along the Columbia River. Webster rejected the offer for the same reasons it was previously repudiated; the division would leave the United States with no suitable locations for a large Pacific port. Webster suggested that Ashburton's proposal may have been found acceptable by the Americans, if the United States could be compensated with the Mexican owned San Francisco Bay. Ashburton passed on the offer to his superiors, but no further action was taken. Both diplomats became focused on settling the Aroostook War and formulated the Webster–Ashburton Treaty.

At the final session of the 27th Congress on 19 December 1842, Linn presented a similar bill to colonize the Pacific Northwest, as he put it, "by the Anglo-American race, which will extend our limits from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean." Arguments over the bill lasted over a month, and it was eventually passed in the Senate 24–22. In opposition to Linn's bill, Calhoun famously declared that the U.S. government should pursue a policy of "wise and masterly inactivity" in Oregon, letting settlement determine the eventual boundary. Many of Calhoun's fellow Democrats, however, soon began to advocate a more direct approach.

By early 1843, Webster returned to the Oregon Question, formalising a plan that included the 1826 British offer of the Olympic Peninsula enclave and the purchase of Alta California from Mexico. The increasing hostility President Tyler had with the Whig Party led to Webster's disinterest in continuing to act as the Secretary of State and his plan was shelved. The American minister to the UK, Edward Everett, was given authority to negotiate with British officials to settle the Oregon Question in October 1843. Meeting with Prime Minister Robert Peel's Foreign Secretary, Earl of Aberdeen on 29 November, Everett presented the terms considered by President John Tyler. The old offer of the 49th parallel was once more presented, along with a guarantee to free access to the Columbia River. However during President Tyler's State of the Union address that year on 6 December, he claimed "the entire region of country lying on the Pacific and embraced within 42° and 54°40′ of north latitude". After receiving this declaration, Aberdeen began to consult with the committee and Governor Pelly, previously left out of the most recent diplomatic exchanges.

Polk presidency

In his March 1845 inaugural address, President Polk quoted from the party platform, saying that the U.S. title to Oregon was "clear and unquestionable". Tensions grew, with both sides moving to strengthen border fortifications in anticipation of war. Despite Polk's bold language, he was actually prepared to compromise, and had no real desire to go to war over Oregon. He believed that a firm stance would compel the British to accept a resolution agreeable to the United States. While meeting with Representative James A. Black on 4 January 1846, Polk stated that "the only way to treat John Bull was to look him straight in the eye ... if Congress faultered  ... John Bull would immediately become arrogant and more grasping in his demands". But Polk's position on Oregon was not mere posturing: he genuinely believed that the U.S. had a legitimate claim to the entire region. He rejected British offers to settle the dispute through arbitration, fearing that no impartial third party could be found.

Many newspaper editors in the United States clamored for Polk to claim the entire region as the Democrats had proposed in the 1844 campaign. Headlines like "The Whole of Oregon or None" by The Union editor Thomas Ritchie appeared on 6 November 1845. In a column in the New York Morning News on December 27, 1845, editor John L. O'Sullivan argued that the United States should claim all of Oregon "by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us". Soon afterwards, the term "Manifest Destiny" became a standard phrase for expansionists, and a permanent part of the American lexicon. O'Sullivan's version of "Manifest Destiny" was not a call for war, but such calls were soon forthcoming.

After Polk's inauguration, British diplomats began to receive instructions influenced from HBC officials like Simpson, whose suggestions were transmitted through Pelly and then Aberdeen to the British Ambassador Richard Pakenham. In a letter written to Calhoun in August 1844, Pakenham pressed for a border along the Columbia River. He made an offer that likely originated from Simpson: Americans could select naval bases on the portion of Vancouver Island south of the 49th parallel or along the Strait of Juan de Fuca in return. Diplomatic channels continued negotiations throughout 1844; by early 1845 Everett reported the willingness of Aberdeen to accept the 49th parallel, provided the southern portion of Vancouver Island would become British territory.

In the summer of 1845, the Polk administration renewed the proposal to divide Oregon along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean. U.S. Secretary of State James Buchanan on 12 July offered the British any desired ports on the portion of Vancouver Island south of this line, though navigation rights of the Columbia River were not included. Because this proposal fell short of the Tyler administration's earlier offer, Pakenham rejected the offer without first contacting London. Offended, Polk officially withdrew the proposal on August 30, 1845, and broke off negotiations. Aberdeen censured Pakenham for this diplomatic blunder, and attempted to renew the dialogue. By then, however, Polk was suspicious of British intentions, and under increasing political pressure not to compromise. He declined to reopen negotiations.

War crisis

Congressional pressure

In his annual address to Congress on December 2, 1845, Polk recommended giving the British the required one-year notice of the termination of the joint occupation agreement. Democratic expansionists in Congress from the Midwest, led by Senators Lewis Cass of Michigan, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and William Allen of Ohio, called for war with the United Kingdom rather than accepting anything short of all of Oregon up to Parallel 54°40′ north. These pronouncements were fueled by a number of factors, including traditional distrust of the British and a belief that the U.S. had the better claim and would make better use of the land.

The debate was not strictly divided along party or sectional lines, with many who clamored for the 54°40′ border were Northerners upset at Polk's willingness to compromise on the Pacific Northwest border. Polk's uncompromising pursuit of Texas, an acquisition seen favorable for Southern slave owners, angered many advocates of 54°40′, as the President was a Southerner and a slave owner. As historian David M. Pletcher noted, "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" seemed to be directed at the southern aristocracy in the U.S. as much as at the United Kingdom.

Moderates like Webster warned that the U.S. could not win a war against the British Empire, and that negotiation could still achieve U.S. territorial goals. Webster confided to Viscount Ossington, a personal friend, on 26 February 1846, that it would be a "stupendous folly and enormous crime" for the two nations to declare war over the Pacific Northwest.

British reaction

Pacific naval forces
During the height of tensions with the United States in 1845 and 1846, there were at least five Royal Navy vessels operating in the Pacific Northwest. The 80-gun ship-of-the-line  was deployed to Valparaíso under the commander in chief, Rear Admiral Sir George Seymour, in 1845, with orders to report on the situation in the region. , under the command of Captain John Gordon (younger brother Foreign Secretary Aberdeen), was therefore sent north that year. Roderick Finlayson gave a tour of Vancouver Island to the visiting naval officers, where Gordon aired his negative appraisal of the Northwest region. During a deer hunt on the island, Gordon informed Finlayson that he "would not give one of the barren hills of Scotland for all he saw around him". America departed from the Strait of Juan de Fuca on October 1. Modeste entered the Columbia River and arrived at Fort Vancouver on November 30, 1845, where it remained until May 4, 1847. Modeste was not favorably viewed by American colonists in the Willamette Valley, threatened by the large warship. Relations were improved when the officers organised a ball at Vancouver on February 3, 1846, later theatrical performances by the ship's crew, including Love in a Village and The Mock Doctor, along with picnics.<ref>"Theatre at Vancouver". Oregon Spectator (Oregon City, Oregon),  May 14, 1846, p. 2.</ref>

 was the first reinforcement, ordered from the Pacific Station by Rear Admiral Seymour in January 1846. Captain Duntze was to "afford Protection to Her Majesty's Subjects in Oregon and the North West Coast" and avoid any potential confrontations with American settlers. On May 5, Fisgard reached Fort Victoria, later moving to Fort Nisqually on the 18th, where it remained until October. Sent to aid other British vessels navigate difficult channels and rivers, , a paddle steamer, arrived at the Strait of Juan de Fuca in June. Two survey ships were dispatched from Plymouth in June 1845,  and , for charting the coast of the Americas. The vessels reached Cape Flattery on 24 June 1846. Cormorant towed Herald to Fort Victoria three days later. Herald and Pandora spent several months charting Puget Sound and Vancouver Island until 2 September, when the vessels sailed for Alta California. Fisgard and Cormorant both departed for Valparaíso in October. As Modeste was the only British ship in the region during 1847, the Oregon Treaty "seemed to have taken the edge off of the Royal Navy's interest in the Northwest Coast".

War plan
Due to his extensive travels throughout the western stations of the HBC, Governor Pelly instructed George Simpson to draft a plan for the British Government if hostilities were to arise with the Americans. Finalizing the proposal on March 29, 1845, Simpson called for two areas to launch offensives. The Red River Colony would be the base of operations for forays into the Great Plains, an expansive region then only lightly colonized by Americans. A militia composed of Métis riflemen and neighboring First Nations like the Ojibwe would be created, along with a garrison of Regular Army infantry. To secure the Pacific Northwest and the Columbia River, Simpson felt Cape Disappointment was of critical importance. A naval force of two steamboats and two ships of the line would bring a detachment of Royal Marines to create a coastal battery there. Recruitment was hoped by Simpson to gain a force led by Regular Army officers of 2,000 Métis and indigenous peoples in the region. His proposal quickly earned the interest of the British Government as he met with Prime Minister Peel and Foreign Secretary Aberdeen on April 2. £1,000 was awarded to lay the ground work for defensive operations in the Pacific Northwest. Lord Stanley, the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, favored the plan, declaring that the HBC had to finance military operations west of Sault Ste. Marie.

Resolution
Aberdeen had no intention of going to war over a region that was of diminishing economic value to the United Kingdom. Furthermore the United States was an important trading partner, especially with the need of American wheat in the onset of famine in Ireland. Aberdeen and Pakenham were negotiating from a position of strength. The key was the overwhelming naval power which Britain could have brought to bear against the United States, combined with a diplomatic and political landscape that ultimately favored the British government's aim of protecting their interests robustly but without resort to armed conflict. Ultimately British politicians and naval officers recognized that any conflict over the Oregon boundary, however undesirable, would be decided, like the War of 1812, on the Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. and the Great Lakes. The Royal Navy's presence on the Atlantic seaboard was not as numerically prominent as the American forces, yet its overall superiority to the U.S. Navy was decisive upon American decision-making during the crisis, especially their decision to compromise. Louis McLane, the American minister in the United Kingdom, reported to Buchanan on 2 February that the British were prepared "to commission immediately some thirty ships-of-the-line in addition to steamers and other vessels held in reserve". Polk's bluff had been called.

American diplomat Edward Everett contacted the Whig leader John Russell on 28 December 1845, supporting a revision of the American offer so as to allow the British to keep the entirety of Vancouver Island. He warned Russell that influence among the Whigs could stifle the negotiations. "If you choose to rally the public opinion of England against this basis of compromise, it will not be easy for Sir R. Peel and Lord Aberdeen to agree to it." While still considering the Columbia River important for British interests, Russell assured Aberdeen of his support in settling the Oregon Question. While Everett's was influential in this political move, Russell felt it was, as Frederick Merk stated, "prudent Whig policy" to support Aberdeen in this case.

Although Polk had called on Congress in December 1845 to pass a resolution notifying the British of the termination of joint occupancy agreement, it was not until April 23, 1846 that both houses complied. The passage was delayed especially in the Senate by contentious debate. Several Southern Senators, like William S. Archer and John M. Berrien, were wary of military capabilities of the British Empire. Ultimately a mild resolution was approved, the text of which called on both governments to settle the matter amicably.

By a large margin, moderation had won out over calls for war. Unlike Western Democrats, most Congressmen—like Polk—did not want to fight for 54° 40′. The Polk administration then made it known that the British government should offer terms to settle the dispute. Despite the cooling diplomatic relations, a repeat of the War of 1812 was not popular with either nation's government. Time was of the essence, because it was well known that the Peel government would fall with the impending repeal of the Corn Laws in the United Kingdom, and then negotiations would have to begin again with a new ministry. At a time when the European continental balance was a far more pressing problem, a costly war with a major trading partner was not popular with the British government. Aberdeen and McLane quickly worked out a compromise and sent it to the United States.

Oregon Treaty

Pakenham and Buchanan drew up a formal treaty, known as the Oregon Treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on June 18, 1846, by a vote of 41–14. The mainland border was set at the 49th parallel, the original U.S. proposal, with navigation rights on the Columbia River granted to British subjects living in the area. Senator William Allen, one of the most outspoken advocates of the 54° 40′ claim, felt betrayed by Polk and resigned his chairmanship of the Foreign Relations Committee.  The signing of the treaty ended the joint occupation with the United Kingdom, making most Oregonians south of the 49th parallel U.S. citizens.

Henry Commager appraised the factors leading to the settlement as "a combination of temporary, fortuitous, and circumstantial phenomena, extraneous to the local situation, largely outside of American control, and foreign to American influence." Canadian Hugh LL. Keenlyside and American Gerald S. Brown wrote a century after the treaty that

The terms of the Oregon Treaty were essentially the same ones that had been offered earlier by the Tyler administration, and thus represented a diplomatic victory for Polk. However, Polk has often been criticized for his handling of the Oregon Question. Historian Sam W. Haynes characterizes Polk's policy as "brinkmanship" which "brought the United States perilously close to a needless and potentially disastrous conflict". David M. Pletcher notes that while Polk's bellicose stance was the by-product of internal American politics, the war crisis was "largely of his own creation" and might have been avoided "with more sophisticated diplomacy". According to Jesse Reeves, "Had Palmerston been in Aberdeen's position at the time of Polk's 'firm' pronouncement, Polk might have lost Oregon." Aberdeen's desire for peace and good relations with the United States "are responsible for the settlement that Polk thought to gain by a firm policy. That Aberdeen was 'bluffed' by Polk is absurd."

The treaty set the mainland boundary at the 49th parallel and retained Vancouver Island as British territory, but it was ambiguously phrased about the route of the boundary through the water. The treaty provided that the marine boundary would follow "the deepest channel" out to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which left the fate of the San Juan Islands in question. After the "Pig War", arbitration by Kaiser William I of the German Empire led to the Treaty of Washington, which awarded the United States all the islands.

Upper Canada politicians and public, already angry with the Oregon Treaty, were once again upset that Britain had not looked after their interests and sought greater autonomy in international affairs.

Historical maps
The boundary between British and American territory was shown differently in maps at the time:

See also
 Presidency of James K. Polk
 United Kingdom–United States relations
 '''Citations

Bibliography

Primary sources

Secondary sources

Sir James Douglas, Chapter V The Oregon Boundary, Robert Hamilton Coats and R. Edward Gosnell, publ. Morang, Toronto, 1908

 Rakestraw, Donald A.  For Honor or Destiny: The Anglo-American Crisis over the Oregon Territory'' (Peter Lang Publishing, 1995)

A history of British Columbia, Chapter IX "The Oregon Boundary", pp. 89–96, E.O.S. Scholefield, British Columbia Historical Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1913

External links

Party platform and speeches
Polk's March 1845 inaugural address, in which he reasserted the "clear and unquestionable" claim
Polk's December 1845 message to Congress, in which he called for the end of the joint occupation of Oregon

Political cartoons
From Harper's Weekly, 1846:
"Polk's Dream", in which the Devil, disguised as Andrew Jackson, advises Polk to fight for the 54°40′ line
"Present Presidential Position", in which the Democratic Party's "jackass" is standing on the 54°40′ line
"Ultimatum on the Oregon Question", Polk talks with Queen Victoria, while others make comments
"War! or No War!", two Irish immigrants face off over the boundary question

Other
Fifty-Four Forty or Fight at About.com, an example of a reference that mistakenly describes the phrase as an 1844 campaign slogan
54-40 or Fight shows the quilt block named after the slogan. In this time period, women frequently used quilts to express their political views.

1840s in the United Kingdom
1840s in the United States
19th century in international relations
Canada–United States border disputes
Pre-Confederation British Columbia
History of the Pacific Northwest
History of United States expansionism
National questions
Oregon Country
Presidency of James K. Polk
Pre-statehood history of Idaho
Pre-statehood history of Oregon
Pre-statehood history of Wyoming
United Kingdom–United States relations
Resistance to the British Empire
British colonization of the Americas

Oregon boundary dispute


Kabalacılık veya Kabalizm, Kabbala'ya dayanan manevi araştırma ve fikir sistemi.

Genel eğilimler

 Merkabah Mistisizmi: Orta çağ kabalacılığından önce, Yahudi mistisizminin gelişiminin ilk dönemidir. Bu dönemden kalma literatür MÖ ilk yüzyıllar ile MS 10. yüzyıl arasındaki döneme aittir. Bu dönemde Kabalacılık belirli bir seçkin grup tarafından çalışılmaktaydı.
 Ortaç ağ Almanyasındaki Hasidizm (Aşkenaz Hasidizmi): 1150-1250 gibi kısa bir dönem olmasına karşın Yahudi mistisizminin yaratıcı bir dönemidir. Bu dönemde Hasidizm ilk dönem kabalistlerinden farklı olarak küçük bir aristokratik sekt olarak kalmamış ve fikirleri geniş Yahudi toplumuna yayılmıştır.
 Peygamberi Kabalizm: Yaklaşık 1200'lerden 13. ve 14. yüzyılların başlarına kadar sürmüştür.
 Zohar: Abraham Abulafia'nın İtalya'da peygamberi (prophetic) Kabalizmi açıkladığı 1275 yıllardan sonra başlamıştır.
 Isaac Luria ve Okulu: 1492'de İspanya tehcirinden sonra gelişen Kabalacı yönelimdir. Bu dönemde Kabalistlerin teojoni ve kozmogoni üzerindeki düşünceleri önceki asırların Mesianik eğilimlerinden uzak ve bireyci bir kurtuluşa yönelik gelişme kaydetmiştir. 1534 yılında Alman bir aileden Kudüs'te doğan Isaac Luria Kutsal ismin ve ibarelerin zikredildiği, yoğun meditasyon uygulamaları geliştirmiştir. Dualarında öğrencilerine "İsrail için, İsrail'de ve İsrail" e adamalarını istemesi sebebiyle onun İsrail milliyetçiliğini bilmeden de olsa başlatan kişi olduğu da söylenir.
 Sabetaycılık: Osmanlı topraklarında yaşayan Sabetay Sevi adlı Yahudi bilgininin 1665 ve 1666 yıllarındaki Mesiyanik hareketi ve sonrasında padişah IV. Mehmed'in zorlamasıyla İslamı seçmesiyle başlayan bir süreçtir. Kendisine bağlı olan Yahudilerin önderlerinin yaptığı gibi İslamiyeti benimseyip "Dönme" lakabıyla anılmaları bazı yorumcular tarafından sadece görünüşte gerçekleştiği ve Sabetay'ın öğretilerine inanmayı ve bazı ritüelleri devam ettirdikleri iddia edilmiştir.
 Hasidizm: Kabalacılığın bu son ve halen içinde bulunulan dönemi 18. ve 19. yüzyıllarda Polonya ve Ukrayna Hasidizmlerinden doğmuştur ve orta çağdaki Alman Hasidizmiyle hiçbir ilişkisi yoktur. Bu dönem Hasidizminin kurucusu 18. yüzyılın ünlü Yahudi mistiği Israel Baal Shem ("Kutsal Adın Üstadı" anlamına gelen bir lakaptır) Sebatey Sevi'nin Sabetaycılık hareketi üzerindeki etkisi kadar Hasidik hareket üzerinde güçlü bir etkiye sahip olmuştur. Rus ve Polonya Yahudilerinin büyük bir kesimi özellikle 19. üzyılın ortalarına kadar harekete katılmışlar ancak aynı dönemde Rusya ve Slav ülkeleri dışında Yahudi mistisizminin bu formuna büyük bir kabul gösterilmemişti, ancak özellikle yirminci yüzyılın son yarısında hareketin önemli ölçüde genişlediği de görülmüştür. Bu genişlemede etken faktörlerden biri ilk dönem Kabalist literatüründen farklı olarak Hasidik yazmaların genel kitle tarafından daha kolay anlaşılabilir, nüfuz edilebilir olmasıdır.

Yahudi Mistisizminin genel karakteristikleri

 Kabalistler ortodoks musevi teolojisinin kavram ve fikirlerini kullanmakta fakat onlara yeni anlamlar vermektedirler. Örneğin "hiçlikten yaratılma" anlayışı Yahudi felsefesinin dogmatik tartışmalarında geçen bir ifadedir. Buradaki hiçlik en yalın haliyle Tanrı'nın ne kendisi ne de bir başka varoluş biçimiyle ilişkilidir. Kabalistler de hiçlikten yaratılma fikrini benimserler fakat onların durumunda hiçlik kendisinden her şeyin südur ettiği bir şeydir ve bu haliyle sadece bir olumsuzlama içermemektedir. Kabalistlerin ifadesiyle bu Hiçlik diğer tüm gerçekliklerden sonsuz kere daha fazla gerçek olan şeydir ve nefs tüm sınırlamalarından soyunduğu ve bu Hiçliğin derinliklerine nüfuz ettiğinde orada Uluhiyetle karşı karşıya gelir. "Hiçlikten yaratılış" pek çok mistiğin gözünde esasen "Tanrı'dan yaratılma" anlamına gelmektedir.
 Scholem'e göre Kabalizmin mistisizmin Yahudi olmayan diğer mistisizm formlarından ayırt edici genel karakteristiği onun hem tarihi hem de metafizik açıdan eril (masculine) bir öğreti oluşudur. İslam ve Hristiyan mistisizminin tersine Yahudi mistisizminin uzun tarihinde bir kadın figürün etkisine rastlanılmamaktadır. Scholem bu durumun Yahudi kadının Talmudik öğretilere göre düzenlenmiş sosyal hayattaki konumuna bağlı olmadığına zira kadının İslam ve Orta çağ Hristiyanlığındaki sosyal pozisyonunun her iki dinin mistik kollarındaki kadınların etkisini önlemediğine dikkati çeker. Scholem'e göre bu durum, kabalistik Şekinah kavramı ve ortodoks Yahudi düşüncesinde kadınlığın reddedilmemesiyle paradoks oluştursa da kozmosdaki dişil unsur ve kadının demonik bir doğaya sahip olduğu şeklindeki eğilimden kaynaklanmaktadır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Kabbala
 Sabetay Sevi

Kaynakça
 Gershom Scholem - Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, Schocken Books, New York, 1995.
 Perle Epstein, Kabala-Musevi Mistiklerin Yolu, Dharma Yayınları, İstanbul,1993.

Dış bağlantılar
 Kabala Bilgeliği  Kabala Bilgeliği
 Kabala Turkish Forum  Kabala Turkish Forum
 Masonluk ve Masonlar
 Yahudi ve İslam mistisizmi: Yahudi urbasıyla sufilik yolunda
Basically Jewish Kabbalah and Similarity to Hinduism

Yahudilik felsefesi

Kabalacılık


Dağıstan, resmi adıyla Dağıstan Cumhuriyeti (Rusça: Республика Дагестан/ Respublika Dagestan), Doğu Avrupa'nın Kuzey Kafkasya kısmında, Hazar Denizi kıyısında bulunan Rusya'ya bağlı, özerk bir cumhuriyettir. Kuzey Kafkasya Federal bölgesinin bir parçasıdır ve Büyük Kafkas Dağları'nın kuzeyinde konumlanır. Rusya'nın en güneyinde yer alan Dağıstan, güney ve güneybatıda Gürcistan ve Azerbaycan ile, batı ve kuzeyde Rusya'ya bağlı cumhuriyetler olan Çeçenistan ve Kalmukya ile kuzeybatıda ise Stavrapol Krayı ile sınır komşusudur. Mahaçkale, başkenti ve en büyük kentidir. Diğer büyük kentleri ise Derbent, Kizlyar, İzberbaş, Kaspiysk, Buynaksk'tır.

50.300 kilometrekare yüzölçüme ve 30'dan fazla etnik grubun dahil olduğu 3,1 milyonluk bir nüfusa sahiptir. Linguistik ve etnik çeşitlilik açısından Rusya'nın en heterojen cumhuriyetlerinden biridir. Nüfusu büyük çoğunlukla Kuzey Kafkasya dillerini ve Türkî dilleri konuşmakla birlikte Rusça, lingua franca işlevi görmektedir.

Toponomi
Dağıstan kelimesi Türkçe olan dağ kelimesi ile Farsça yer/diyar anlamına gelen -stan ekinin birleşiminden oluşmuştur.

Dağıstan'ın bazı bölgeleri çeşitli zamanlarda Lezgistan, Lezgi özerk bölgesi, Avarya ve Tarkov olarak anılmıştır.

1860 ve 1920 arası Dağıstan kelimesi, günümüz Dağıstan'ının güneydoğu kısmında yer alan Dağıstan Oblastı için kullanılmıştı.

Bugünkü sınırlarına 1921 yılında, Terek oblastı ile birleştirilerek Dağıstan Özerk Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti'nin kurulması ile ulaştı.

Resmi dillerine göre Dağıstan Cumhuriyeti'nin isimleri

  (Respublika Dagestan)
  (Respublika Daġustan)
 Avarca (Kafkasya dili) (Daġistanałul Jumhuriyat)
  (Dağıstan Respublikası)
  (Deġestan Respublika)
  (Daġistanes Respublika)
  (Dağıstan Cumhuriyat)
  (Daġusttannal Respublika)
  (Respublika Daġustan)
  (Dağıstan Respublikası)
  (Respublika Daġustan)
  (Respublika Daġustan)
  (Daġustan Respublika)
  (Respublikei Doġistu)

İdari Yapı
Dağıstan, idari olarak kendi idarelerine sahip 41 ilçe (rayon) ve 10 şehre bölünmüş durumdadır.

Tarih

İlk Binyıl
MS ilk birkaç yüzyıl, Albanya, Part İmparatorluğu'nun bir vassalı oldu ve ardından Part İmparatorluğuna tamamen tâbî duruma geldi. Sasani İmparatorluğu'nun ilerlemesiyle İmparatorluk topraklarında bir satraplık haline geldi. Geç antik dönemde, bölge üzerindeki hakimiyet mücadelesi dolayısıyla Sasani İmparatorluğu ve Bizans İmparatorluğu arasında savaşlar yaşandı. Süreç içerisinde bölge halklarının görece büyük bir kısmı Hristiyanlık ve Zerdüştlüğü benimsedi.

5. yüzyılda, Sasaniler üstün konuma geldiler ve 6. yüzyılda Derbent'de Hazar Kapıları olarak bilinen bir kale inşa ettiler. Aynı süreçte Dağıstan'ın kuzey kısmı önce Hunlar ardından da Avarlarca işgal edildi. Sasaniler döneminde Güney Dağıstan, Derbent merkez olmak üzere, Pers kültürünün bir kalesi haline geldi ve Persleştirme politikası yüzyıllar boyunca uygulandı.

İslam'ın Etkisi
Persler 664 yılında, Derbent'te Araplarca yenilgiye uğratıldı. 905 ve 913 yıllarında bölge halkları Araplara karşı ayaklanmış olsa da İslam, süreç içerisinde önce Samandar ve Kubaçi gibi kent merkezlerinde ardından ile dağlık bölgelerde benimsendi. 15. yüzyıla gelindiğinde bölgede Hristiyan varlığı neredeyse tamamen silindi, yalnızca Datuna'da 10. yüzyıldan kalma bir kilise varlığını koruyabildi.

İran ve Rusya Mücadelesi
Moğol egemenliği aşınırken Kaitagi ve Tarki'de yeni güç merkezleri ortaya çıktı. Erken 16. yüzyılda İran, bölgedeki egemenliğini pekiştirdi ve kesintilere uğrasa da 19. yüzyıla kadar egemenliğini sürdürdü. 16. ve 17. yüzyılda gelenekler kodifiye edildi ve dağlı topluluklar (cemaatler) önemli ölçüde özerklik elde ettiler.

Ruslar'ın bölgedeki ilk hakimiyeti, 18. yüzyılda Büyük Petro döneminde Dağıstan kıyılarının 1722-1723 Rus-İran savaşı sonucu ilhakı ile gerçekleşti. Ancak ilhak edilen yerler 1735 Gence Andlaşması ile tekrar Safevîler'e bırakıldı.

1730 ila 1740'ların başlarında, Dağıstan'da kardeşinin öldürmesinin ardından Büyük İran hükümdarı ve askeri deha Nadir Şah bölgeyi tamamen ele geçirmek maksadıyla uzun bir sefer düzenledi. Başlarda önemli kazanımlar elde etse de nihayetinde Lezgilere karşı kritik birkaç savaşı kaybedip geri çekilmek zorunda kaldı.1747'den itibaren Dağıstan'ın İran egemenliğindeki kısmı, merkezi Derbent'te bulunan Derbent Hanlığı üzerinden idare edildi. 1796 İran Seferi ile Rusya, Derbent'i ele geçirdi. Ancak Rusya iç karışıklıkları dolayısıyla bölgenin tamamından çekilmek durumunda kaldı ve bölgede İran egemenliği yeniden tesis edildi.

Rus Egemenliği Güçleniyor
1806 yılında Derbent Hanlığı kendi isteğiyle Rusya'nın egemenliğine girdi ancak bu egemenlik 1804-1813 Rusya-İran Savaşı sonuna kadar İran tarafından resmen tanınmadı. 1813'te Rusya'nın savaştan zaferle çıkmasıyla İran, Güney Dağıstan ve onun başkenti olan Derbent ile birlikte Kafkasya'daki diğer büyük topraklarını da Gülistan Andlaşması ile Rusya egemenliğine terketmek zorunda kaldı. 1828 tarihli Türkmençay Andlaşması ile Rusya'nın Dağıstan üzerindeki egemenliği pekişti ve İran askeri denklemin dışında kaldı.

Emperyal Rusya'ya Karşı Ayaklanmalar
Fakat Rus idaresi dağlıları hayal kırıklığına uğrattı ve öfkelendirdi. Ağır vergiler, müsadere ve Mahaçkale gibi kale inşaları; dağlıları, Gazi Muhammed (1828-32), Gamzat-bek (1832-34) ve Şamil (1834-59) önderliğindeki Müslüman Kafkasya İmamlığı'nın altında ayaklanmaya itti. Bu ayaklanmalar sonucu Kafkasya Savaşı 1864'e kadar sürdü. Dağıstan ve Çeçenistan, 1877-1878 Rus-Türk Savaşı'ndan yararlanarak Emperyal Rusya'ya karşı son kez ayaklandı.

Sovyet Dönemi
21 Aralık 1917'de İnguşetya, Çeçenistan, Dağıstan ve kalan tüm Kuzey Kafkasya, Rusya'dan bağımsızlıklarını ilan etti ve "Kuzey Kafkasya'nın Birleşik Dağlıları"(ayrıca Kuzey Kafkasya Dağlık Cumhuriyeti olarak da bilinir) adında tek bir ülke altında birleştiler ve dünyadaki büyük güçlerce de tanındılar. Başkenti Buynaksk'a taşıdılar. Kurulan devletin ilk başbakanı olan Tapa Chermoyev, Çeçen bir devlet adamıydı. İkinci başbakan ise ülkenin anayasasını da yazan İnguş devlet adamı Vassan-Girey Dzhabagiev'di. Bolşevik Devrimi'nden sonra Osmanlı orduları Azerbaycan ve Dağıstan'ı ele geçirdi ve bölge, kısa ömürlü Kuzey Kafkasya Dağlık Cumhuriyeti'nin bir parçası haline geldi. Beyaz Ordu ve yerel milliyetçilerle üç yıldan fazla savaştıktan sonra Bolşevikler zafer kazandılar ve Dağıstan Özerk Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti'ni 20 Ocak 1921'de ilan ettiler. Sovyetler'in dağılma sürecinde Dağıstan kendini bir cumhuriyet olarak ilan etti ancak egemenlik talebinde bulunmadı.

Sovyet Sonrası Dönem
1999 Ağustos'unda Çeçenistan'dan Şamil Basayev ve Hattab'ın liderlik ettiği İslamcı bir grup, Bağımsız Dağıstan İslam Cumhuriyeti'ni kurmak maksadıyla Dağıstan'ı işgal girişiminde bulundu. İşgalciler yerel halktan destek bulamadılar ve Rus askerince geri püskürtüldüler. Bu eyleme cevap olarak Rusya, sonraki yıl Çeçenistan'ı tekrar yeniden işgal etti.

Siyaset
Halkın Meclisi olarak adlandırılan Dağıstan parlamentosu tek kanatlıdır ve doğrudan, dört yıl için seçilen 72 temsilciden oluşur. Halkın Meclisi, Dağıstan'ın en üst düzey yasama organıdır.

Dağıstan anayasası, 10 temmuz 2003'te kabul edilmiştir. Anayasaya göre en üst düzey yürütme organı olan Devlet Konseyi on dört etnik grubun temsilcilerinden oluşur. Devlet Konseyi üyeleri, Dağıstan Anayasal Meclisi tarafından dört yıl için atanır. Devlet Konseyi hükûmet üyelerini atar. Başkan, Rusya devlet başkanınca aday gösterilir ve Halk Meclisi'nce onaylanır.

Devlet Konseyi'nde temsil edilen etnik gruplar; Avarlar, Durginler, Kumuklar, Lezgiler, Laklar, Azerbaycanlılar, Tabasaranlar, Ruslar, Çeçenler, Nogaylar, Agullar, Rutullar, Sahurlar ve Tatlardan oluşur.

1987'den 2006 yılına kadar Magomedali Magomedov tarafından ifa edilen Devlet Konseyi Başkanlığı eskiden en üst düzey yürütme göreviydi. Magomedov, Sovyet döneminden gelip Rusya Federasyonu döneminde de iktidarını koruyabilen, üç dönem üstüste seçim kazanabilen çok az sayıda liderden biridir. 20 Şubat 2006'da Halk Meclisi, Devlet Konseyi Başkanlığı görevine son verdi ve Devlet Konseyi'ni dağıttı. Rusya Devlet Başkanı Vladimir Putin, yeni ihdas edilen başkanlık görevi için Halk Meclisi'ne Mukhu Aliyev'in adaylığını sundu. Aliyev'in adaylığı Halk Meclisi tarafından kabul edildi ve Mukhu Aliyev cumhuriyetin ilk başkanı oldu. 20 Şubat 2010'da Aliyev'in yerine Magomedsalam Magomedov başkan oldu. Magomedov'un ardından başkanlık görevi Ramazan Abdulatipov tarafından 2013-2017 yılları arasında yerine getirildi. 3 Ekim 2017 itibarıyla devlet başkanı Vladimir Vasilyev'dir.

Coğrâfî konumu
Rusya Federasyonu'nun Avrupa'daki kesiminin güneyinde yer alan Dağıstan, Kafkas Dağları'nın kuzey yamacının en doğu ucundan 50.278 km² bir alanı kaplar. Güney ve batısı Güton dağında 3646 metreye, Bazardyuzu (Pa Dağı'nda da 4480 metreye ulaşan Kafkas Dağları'nın ana doruk hattıyla çevrilidir. Doğusunda Hazar Denizi, kuzeyinde Kalmuk Özerk Cumhuriyeti, batı ve kuzeybatısında Çeçenistan ve Kuzey Kafkasya, güneybatısında Gürcistan ve güneyinde de Azerbaycan yer alır.

Dağıstan doğudan batıya 200, kuzeyden güneye 400 kilometre kadar bir uzunluğa sahiptir. Başkenti Mahaçkala'dır. Diğer önemli şehirler Derbent, Kızılyar, İzberbaş ve Buynak'''tır.

 Coğrafî yapısı ve iklimi

Dağıstan adı bir kavmi değil, coğrafi-topoğrafik bir anlam ifade eder. Rusça'da da 'Dağlar Ülkesi' anlamında "Strana Gor" ifâdesi kullanılmaktadır.

Dağıstan coğrafi açıdan beş bölgeye ayrılır; birinci bölgede Kafkas Dağları ve Dağıstan iç platosu yer alır. Dağlar arasından Hazar Denizi'ne akan Sulak, Samur ve Kurak gibi ırmaklar buralarda derin vadi ve uçurumlar meydana getirmiştir. Kafkas Dağları'nın genellikle güneye bakan yamaçlarında yağış çok azdır. Bu yüzden bazı bölgelerde bitkisel hayat yoktur. İkinci bölge, birinci bölgenin kuzeyinde yüksekliği 920 m'ye ulaşan ve çıkıntı tepelerinden oluşan ikinci bir dağ kuşağından ibarettir. Bu bölge kuzey ve kuzeybatıdan esen rüzgarlar sebebiyle oldukça yağışlı olup, sık ormanlarla kaplıdır. Dağlar ile Hazar Denizi arasında kalan dar kıyı düzlüğü üçüncü bölgeyi oluşturur. Dar boğazlardan çıkıp yayılan ırmaklar tarafından kesilir. Petrol ve Doğalgaz yatakları barındıran bu ovanın genişlediği yerde başlayan dördüncü bölge alçak ve bataklık ovalar ile Terek ırmağı deltasından oluşur. Deltanın hemen ilerisinde uzun ve kumluk Agragan Yarımadası başlar. Son olarak Terek'in hemen kuzeyinde kumullarla kaplı Nogay Bozkırları beşinci bölgeyi oluşturur. Bu bölgenin iklimi ise sıcak ve kuru olup, bitkisel hayat yarı yarıya çöl özellikleri gösterir.

Dağıstan'ın başlıca ırmakları, Gazi Kumuk, Kara, Avar ve Andi Koysu'' akarsularının birleşmesinden oluşan ve Mohaçkale'nin kuzeyinde Hazar Denizi'ne kavuşan Sulak, daha kuzeyde Çeçenistan'dan gelen Terek, güneydoğu istikametinde akarak aynı şekilde Hazar'a kavuşan Samur'dur. Genellikle dağlara paralel olarak akan bu ırmaklar 1.000 metreye varan derinlikte ve genişlikte kanal ve mecralar oluşturarak, Dağıstan'ın yerşekillerinin oluşmasında önemli rol oynarlar.

Dağıstan'ın iklimi genel olarak sıcak ve kurudur. Alçak kesimlerde ortalama sıcaklık ocak ayında sıfıırın altında 3 ile 6 derece arasında seyretmekte, temmuz ayında ise 23 dereceye kadar ulaşmaktadır. Dağıstan'ın kuzey kısmını teşkil eden Sulak-Terek-Kuma düzlüğü, ülkenin en yüksek yeri olup, 26 metreyi geçmeyen ve denize doğru gittikçe alçalan, susuz ve kıraç bir bozkırdan ibarettir. Bu bölgenin sahil boyu, yılın belli zamanlarında su altında kalır ve nüfûs yoğunluğu çok düşüktür.

Kuma ile Terek arasında birçok tuz gölü ve bataklık vardır. Terek ile Sulak arasında yer alan ve kumsallarda kaybolan Aktaş, Yarıksu, Yamansu ve Aksay çaylarından günümüzde tarım alanı olarak yararlanılmaktadır. Sahil boylarına nispeten yüzeyi biraz yüksek olan kuzeybatı bölgeleri hariç olmak üzere, bu düzlüğün iklimi son derece kurudur. Düz, ırmaktan ve ormandan mahrum, yağmursuz ve kuzey rüzgarlarına açık olan daha kuzeydeki bölgede sıcaklık yazın 40 derecelere kadar çıkmakta, kışın ise sıfırın altında 40 dereceye kadar düşebilmektedir.

Tarım, Terek boyunda ve yapay sulama yöntemi ile güneybatı kısmında yapılır. Diğer kısımlarda çeşitli Türk boyları göçebe halinde yaşar ve hayvan beslerler. Sahil boyunda ise balıkçılık ile uğraşılır.

Dağıstan doğal zenginlikler bakımında verimli bir bölgedir. Dağlık bölgenin bitki örtüsü, vadilerde ve kanyonlarda yaprak döken ormanlardan, yüksek tepelerde çam ve huş ağacı ormanlarından ve ağaç sınırının üstünde de Alp çayırlarından oluşur. Tepe yamaçlarında yer yer çöl bitkisiyle kesintiye uğrayan sık yaprak döken ormanlar bulunur. Alçak yamaçlarda seyrek esmer toprak alanlarıyla bölünen verimli kestane rengi topraklar egemendir. Hazar Denizi kıyılarında ise tuzlu bataklık topraklar yaygındır.

Nüfûs yapısı
Dağıstan'ın nüfusu 14 Ekim 2010 itibarıyla 2.910.249'dur. Türk halkları olan Kumuklar, Azeriler ve Nogaylar nüfusun % 21'ini oluşturmaktadır.

Nüfusun çok hızlı artış sürecine girmesi şaşırtıcıdır, zirâ ülkedeki Ruslar ve Dağ Yahudileri göç etmektedirler. Özellikle Rusya ve İsrail'e büyük bir göç olmaktadır.

Ruslar'ın toplam nüfusa oranı % 4'e düşmüştür. Bu azalmaya karşılık nüfus artış hızının sürmesindeki en önemli sebep, 1990'lı yılların başından beri eski sovyet toprakları üzerindeki bütün cumhuriyetlere zamanında çoğu ekonomik sebeplerden göçmüş bulunan Dağıstanlılar'ın yeniden kendi ülkelerine dönmeleridir. Rusya, Ukrayna ve Orta Asya cumhuriyetleri dağılmayı izleyen yıllardan beri çeşitli sebeplerle onları kendi sınırlarının içlerine çekilmeye zorladılar.

Gerçekte Dağıstan, Hazar Denizi'nin ince kıyı şeridi toprağı dışında pek de verimli olmayan bir ülkedir. Halkın % 99,9'u okuma yazma bilmekte ve neredeyse tamamı 2'den fazla dili en iyi şekilde konuşabilecek şekilde bilmektedir. Dağıstan'ın nüfus artış hızı, Rusya Cumhuriyeti genelinde ilk sırada yer almaktadır. Bu artış hızı korunduğu ve ülke dışındaki insanları yurtlarına geri dönmeyi sürdürdükleri takdirde Dağıstan nüfusu 2050 yılında altı milyonu yakalayacaktır. Mahaçkala, Hasavyurt, Buynakski, Kaspiski, Kızılyar, İzberbaş ve Derbent ülkenin önemli şehirlerindendir. Dağıstan'ın kuzeyi ve doğusundaki düzlük bölgelerde Türk kavimleri, ülke geneline egemen olan dağlık ve plato yerleşimlerinde ise Kafkas kökenli etnik gruplar yaşamaktadır.

Din
2012 yılındaki bir ankete göre Dağıstan nüfusunun %83'ü kendisin Müslüman olarak tanımlamaktadır.

Ekonomi
Petrol üretimi, mühendislik, kimya, makine yapımı, tekstil, işlenmiş gıda sanayi, kerestecilik, Dağıstandaki büyük endüstrilerdendir. Rusya'daki petrol yataklarının büyük bir kısmı Dağıstan, Çeçenistan, İnguşetya, Stavropol Kray ve Krasnodar Kray'ın yer aldığı Kuzey Kafkasya'dadır. Dağıstan'daki petrol yatakları, dar kıyı bölgelerinde bulunmaktadır. Dağıstan petrolü yüksek kalitededir ve diğer bölgelere de dağıtılmaktadır. Dağıstan'ın doğal gaz üretimi ise büyük oranda iç talebi karşılayacak düzeydedir. Küçükbaş ve büyükbaş hayvancılık, tahıl ekimi, bağcılık, şarap yapımı gibi birçok çeşidi içeren ziraî faaliyetler söz konusudur. Endüstriyel ürünlerin değer bazında %20'sini mühendislik ve metal işleme endüstrileri temin ederken, tüm endüstri işçilerinin %25'i de bu dallarda çalışmaktadır. Hidroelektrik güç endüstrisi hızlı bir şekilde gelişmektedir. Sulak Nehri üzerinde hidroelektrik enerji sağlayan 5 adet enerji santrali yer almaktadır. Dağıstan'ın potansiyel hidroelektrik enerji kaynaklarının toplam 4,4 milyar kW olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Dağıstan gelişmiş bir taşımacılık sistemine sahiptir. Başkent Mahaçkale, demiryolu vasıtasıyla Moskova, Astrahan ve Bakü'ye bağlanmaktadır. Ayrıca Moskova-Bakü demiryolu hattı da Dağıstan'dan geçmektedir.

Dağıstan, Hazar Deniz'indeki 3 önemli limandan birine sahiptir. Bu liman yalnızca Batı'ya giden mallar için aktarma noktası işlevi görmesi ve Türkmenistan ile İran'a yolcu taşımacılığı için kullanılması dolayısıyla büyük bir liman değildir.

Dağıstan, kalkınma için gereken koşullara sahip olmakla birlikte 2006 itibarıyla piyasa ekonomisine geçiş için başlangıç adımının cılız olması ve ayrıca yaygın yolsuzluk olayları, bölgeyi kayıtdışı ekonomiye ve Rusya'dan gelecek desteklere muhtaç kılmıştır. Karaborsacılık ve klan bazlı ekonomik düzenle birleşen yolsuzluk, Dağıstan'da diğer post-Sovyet ülkelerine göre çok daha yaygındır.

2011 yılında Rostelekom, Dağıstandaki veri ağını geliştirmek için 40 milyon ruble harcayarak fiberoptik iletişim bant genişliğini 2.5 Gbit/s'ye yükseltmiştir.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Şeyh Şamil
 Kafkas İslam Ordusu
 Bakü Muharebesi (1918)

Kaynakça

Kafkasya

Dağıstan


The Mpemba effect is the name given to the observation that a liquid (typically water) which is initially hot can freeze faster than the same liquid which begins cold, under otherwise similar conditions. There is disagreement about its theoretical basis and the parameters required to produce the effect.

The Mpemba effect is named after Tanzanian scientist Erasto Bartholomeo Mpemba, who described it in 1963 as a secondary school student. The initial discovery and observations of the effect originate in ancient times; Aristotle said that it was common knowledge.

Definition
The phenomenon, when taken to mean "hot water freezes faster than cold", is difficult to reproduce or confirm because it is ill-defined. Monwhea Jeng proposed a more precise wording: "There exists a set of initial parameters, and a pair of temperatures, such that given two bodies of water identical in these parameters, and differing only in initial uniform temperatures, the hot one will freeze sooner." Even with Jeng's definition, it is not clear whether "freezing" refers to the point at which water forms a visible surface layer of ice, the point at which the entire volume of water becomes a solid block of ice, or when the water reaches . Jeng's definition suggests simple ways in which the effect might be observed, such as if a warmer temperature melts the frost on a cooling surface, thereby increasing thermal conductivity between the cooling surface and the water container. Alternatively, the Mpemba effect may not be evident in situations and under circumstances that at first seem to qualify.

Observations

Historical context
Various effects of heat on the freezing of water were described by ancient scientists, including Aristotle: "The fact that the water has previously been warmed contributes to its freezing quickly: for so it cools sooner. Hence many people, when they want to cool water quickly, begin by putting it in the sun." Aristotle's explanation involved antiperistasis: "...the supposed increase in the intensity of a quality as a result of being surrounded by its contrary quality."

Francis Bacon noted that "slightly tepid water freezes more easily than that which is utterly cold." René Descartes wrote in his Discourse on the Method, relating the phenomenon to his vortex theory: "One can see by experience that water that has been kept on a fire for a long time freezes faster than other, the reason being that those of its particles that are least able to stop bending evaporate while the water is being heated."

Scottish scientist Joseph Black investigated a special case of the phenomenon by comparing previously-boiled with unboiled water; he found that the previously-boiled water froze more quickly. Evaporation was controlled for. He discussed the influence of stirring on the results of the experiment, noting that stirring the unboiled water led to it freezing at the same time as the previously-boiled water, and also noted that stirring the very-cold unboiled water led to immediate freezing. Joseph Black then discussed Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit's description of supercooling of water, arguing that the previously-boiled water could not be as readily supercooled.

Mpemba's observation
The effect is named after Tanzanian scientist Erasto Mpemba. He described it in 1963 in Form 3 of Magamba Secondary School, Tanganyika, when freezing ice cream mix that was hot in cookery classes and noticing that it froze before the cold mix. He later became a student at Mkwawa Secondary (formerly High) School in Iringa. The headmaster invited Dr. Denis Osborne from the University College in Dar es Salaam to give a lecture on physics. After the lecture, Mpemba asked him, "If you take two similar containers with equal volumes of water, one at  and the other at , and put them into a freezer, the one that started at  freezes first. Why?" Mpemba was at first ridiculed by both his classmates and his teacher. After initial consternation, however, Osborne experimented on the issue back at his workplace and confirmed Mpemba's finding. They published the results together in 1969, while Mpemba was studying at the College of African Wildlife Management.

Mpemba and Osborne described placing  samples of water in  beakers in the icebox of a domestic refrigerator on a sheet of polystyrene foam. They showed the time for freezing to start was longest with an initial temperature of  and that it was much less at around . They ruled out loss of liquid volume by evaporation as a significant factor and the effect of dissolved air. In their setup, most heat loss was found to be from the liquid surface.

Modern experimental work
David Auerbach has described an effect that he observed in samples in glass beakers placed into a liquid cooling bath. In all cases the water supercooled, reaching a temperature of typically  before spontaneously freezing. Considerable random variation was observed in the time required for spontaneous freezing to start and in some cases this resulted in the water which started off hotter (partially) freezing first.

In 2016, Burridge and Linden defined the criterion as the time to reach , carried out experiments, and reviewed published work to date. They noted that the large difference originally claimed had not been replicated, and that studies showing a small effect could be influenced by variations in the positioning of thermometers: "We conclude, somewhat sadly, that there is no evidence to support meaningful observations of the Mpemba effect."

In controlled experiments, the effect can entirely be explained by undercooling and the time of freezing was determined by what container was used.

Philip Ball, a reviewer for Physics World wrote: "Even if the Mpemba effect is real — if hot water can sometimes freeze more quickly than cold — it is not clear whether the explanation would be trivial or illuminating." Ball wrote that investigations of the phenomenon need to control a large number of initial parameters (including type and initial temperature of the water, dissolved gas and other impurities, and size, shape and material of the container, and temperature of the refrigerator) and need to settle on a particular method of establishing the time of freezing, all of which might affect the presence or absence of the Mpemba effect. The required vast multidimensional array of experiments might explain why the effect is not yet understood.

New Scientist recommends starting the experiment with containers at , respectively, to maximize the effect. In a related study, it was found that freezer temperature also affects the probability of observing the Mpemba phenomenon as well as container temperature does.

Suggested explanations
While the actual occurrence of the Mpemba effect is disputed, several theoretical explanations could explain its occurrence.

In 2017, two research groups independently and simultaneously found a theoretical Mpemba effect and also predicted a new "inverse" Mpemba effect in which heating a cooled, far-from-equilibrium system takes less time than another system that is initially closer to equilibrium. Zhiyue Lu and Oren Raz yielded a general criterion based on Markovian statistical mechanics, predicting the appearance of the inverse Mpemba effect in the Ising model and diffusion dynamics. Antonio Lasanta and co-authors also predicted the direct and inverse Mpemba effects for a granular gas in a far-from-equilibrium initial state. Lasanta's paper also suggested that a very generic mechanism leading to both Mpemba effects is due to a particle velocity distribution function that significantly deviates from the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

James Brownridge, a physicist at Binghamton University, has said that supercooling is involved. Several molecular dynamics simulations have also supported that changes in hydrogen bonding during supercooling take a major role in the process. In 2017, Yunwen Tao and co-authors suggested that the vast diversity and peculiar occurrence of different hydrogen bonds could contribute to the effect. They argued that the number of strong hydrogen bonds increases as temperature is elevated, and that the existence of the small strongly-bonded clusters facilitates in turn the nucleation of hexagonal ice when warm water is rapidly cooled down. The authors used vibrational spectroscopy and modelling with density functional theory-optimized water clusters.

The following explanations have also been proposed:

 Microbubble-induced heat transfer: The process of boiling induced microbubbles in water that remain stably suspended as the water cools, then act by convection to transfer heat more quickly as the water cools.
Evaporation: The evaporation of the warmer water reduces the mass of the water to be frozen. Evaporation is endothermic, meaning that the water mass is cooled by vapor carrying away the heat, but this alone probably does not account for the entirety of the effect.
 Convection, accelerating heat transfers: Reduction of water density below  tends to suppress the convection currents that cool the lower part of the liquid mass; the lower density of hot water would reduce this effect, perhaps sustaining the more rapid initial cooling. Higher convection in the warmer water may also spread ice crystals around faster.
 Frost: Frost has insulating effects. The lower temperature water will tend to freeze from the top, reducing further heat loss by radiation and air convection, while the warmer water will tend to freeze from the bottom and sides because of water convection. This is disputed as there are experiments that account for this factor.
 Solutes: Calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and other mineral salts dissolved in water can precipitate out when water is boiled, leading to an increase in the freezing point compared to non-boiled water that contains all the dissolved minerals.
 Thermal conductivity:
 The container of hotter liquid may melt through a layer of frost that is acting as an insulator under the container (frost is an insulator, as mentioned above), allowing the container to come into direct contact with a much colder lower layer that the frost formed on (ice, refrigeration coils, etc.) The container now rests on a much colder surface (or one better at removing heat, such as refrigeration coils) than the originally colder water, and so cools far faster from this point on.
 Conduction through the bottom is dominant, when the bottom of a hot beaker has been wetted by melted ice, and then sticky frozen to it. In context of Mpemba effect it is a mistake to think that bottom ice insulates, compared to poor air cooling properties.
Dissolved gases: Cold water can contain more dissolved gases than hot water, which may somehow change the properties of the water with respect to convection currents, a proposition that has some experimental support but no theoretical explanation.
 Hydrogen bonding: In warm water, hydrogen bonding is weaker.
 Crystallization: Another explanation suggests that the relatively higher population of water hexamer states in warm water might be responsible for the faster crystallization.
 Distribution function: Strong deviations from the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution results in potential Mpemba effect showing up in gases.

Similar effects
Other phenomena in which large effects may be achieved faster than small effects are:
 Latent heat: Turning  ice to  water takes the same amount of energy as heating water from  to ;
 Leidenfrost effect: Lower temperature boilers can sometimes vaporize water faster than higher temperature boilers.

See also
 Density of water
 Heat capacity
 Water cluster
 Newton's Law of Cooling

References
Notes

Bibliography

Auerbach attributes the Mpemba effect to differences in the behaviour of supercooled formerly hot water and formerly cold water.

An extensive study of freezing experiments.

External links

  A possible explanation of the Mpemba Effect
  An analysis of the Mpemba effect. London South Bank University.
  – History and analysis of the Mpemba effect.
  An historical interview with Erasto B. Mpemba, Dr Denis G. Osborne and Ray deSouza
  High school experiment description, with link to experimental results

  in the University of California Usenet Physics FAQ
 Mpemba Competition - Royal Society of Chemistry

Physical paradoxes
Thermodynamics
Phase transitions
Unsolved problems in physics
Water physics
Physical phenomena
Hysteresis
1969 in Tanzania
Science and technology in Tanzania

Mpemba effect


An Ponthieva rostrata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Ponthieva rostrata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Ponthieva, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Ponthieva

Ponthieva rostrata


An Ophrys chobautii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Gottfried Keller, B.Tyteca ngan Daniel Tyteca. An Ophrys chobautii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Ophrys, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Ophrys

Ophrys chobautii


بلدية كوينتانابويريبا , هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برغش, التي تقع في منطقة قشتالة وليون, والتي تقع في شمال غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 46 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في مقاطعة برغش
بلديات برغش

كوينتانابويريبا


Yeşilköy, Antalya ilinin Kumluca ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Köy halkının Bulgaristandan gelmiş olduğuna dair rivayetler vardır.

Coğrafya
Antalya iline 112 km, Kumluca ilçesine 22 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

https://www.e-icisleri.gov.tr/Anasayfa/MulkiIdariBolumleri.aspx Genel Mahalle Listesi, T.C.İçişleri Bakanlığı, Mart 2020.

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Kumluca'nın mahalleleri

Yeşilköy, Kumluca


An Assembleia Municipal (; "municipal assembly"; plural: assembleias municipais) is the legislature that governs a municipality in Portugal. Part of the assembly's members are elected every four years among candidate lists by the D'Hondt method, simultaneously with the election of the Câmara Municipal; the remainder member are the presidents of the Junta de freguesia that compose the municipality, whose number cannot exceed the number of elected members. A municipal assembly generally meets five times a year, and its members are paid a presence fee for each meeting.

It is a level higher than the Assembleia de freguesia.
The executive equivalent of the Assembleia Municipal is the Câmara municipal.

See also
Câmara Municipal
Assembleia de freguesia
Junta de freguesia

References
PORTUGAL: a country study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; Edited by Eric Solsten (public domain)

Local government in Portugal

Assembleia Municipal


Harry Emil von Rège (né le  à Schneidemühl et mort le  à Berlin-Friedenau) est un général de division prussien.

Biographie

Origine
Il est le fils du lieutenant-colonel prussien Emil von Rège (1816-1881) et de son épouse Charlotte Wilhelmine Antonie, née von Dresky (1828-1895). Son père est élevé le 11 juillet 1865 par le roi Guillaume  à la noblesse prussienne héréditaire.

Carrière militaire
Issu du corps des cadets, Rège est affecté le 12 avril 1879 comme sous-lieutenant au , stationné à Hambourg et Lübeck. Du  novembre 1884 au 18 février 1889, il est adjudant du 2e bataillon et officier de justice. Pendant cette période, il est promu premier lieutenant en septembre 1888 et affecté à un cours de formation à la  de Spandau en février 1891. Lors de la visite de l'Empereur dans la ville libre et hanséatique de Lübeck le  avril 1891, il est son officier d'ordonnance. Il reçoit à cet effet un sabre d'honneur qu'il est autorisé à porter à partir du 15 août 1893 par la plus haute approbation. Depuis le  octobre 1891, il est adjudant du district de la Landwehr de Brême. Promu capitaine le 13 mars 1884, Rège revient le 15 septembre 1893 et est nommé chef de la  compagnie. Du 17 mai au 27 juin 1894, il quitte sa compagnie car il est affecté à un cours d'instruction de l'école de tir de l'infanterie à Wünsdorf. Du 20 au 24 octobre 1895 et du 8 au 13 juillet 1897, il est en mission d'entraînement avec le commandement général du .

Le 1er octobre 1901, , commandant du  d'infanterie, ordonne à Rège de dresser un tableau des officiers du régiment. Les commandants sont précédés des officiers selon leur date d'entrée en service, des officiers d'état-major titulaires, des commandants de compagnie et des adjudants. En annexe se trouve une liste des officiers morts au régiment et des officiers ayant quitté le régiment avec l'uniforme. La liste est publiée à la date du  avril 1902.

Du 4 au 9 août 1902, Rège a été détaché pour une mission d'entraînement tactique des officiers d'état-major de la  d'infanterie. Avec sa promotion du 5 septembre 1904, il est relevé de son commandement et agrégé à son régiment comme major surnuméraire. Il est ensuite transféré le 16 octobre 1906 à Minden dans le , où Rège est nommé commandant du 3e bataillon. Il est détaché pour une mission d'entraînement du  d'armée du 6 au 9 juillet 1909, il est affecté. Il est relevé de ses fonctions de chef de bataillon le 7 avril 1911 et transféré à l'état-major du régiment. Il y est promu lieutenant-colonel le 21 avril 1911. Le 21 janvier 1913, Rège est mis à disposition avec la pension légale et est nommé commandant du district de la Landwehr de Stargard. Dans cette position, Rège reçoit le 27 janvier 1914 le caractère de colonel.

Avec la mobilisation au déclenchement de la Première Guerre mondiale, Rège est réaffecté comme officier de réserve. Il reçoit le commandement du régiment d'infanterie de réserve de Stargard, un régiment dit "d'enfants" en Flandre-Occidentale. Au début de 1915, il reçoit la croix de fer de première classe.

Famille
Rège se marie le 27 décembre 1888 à l'église Sainte-Marie de Lübeck avec Alice Henriette, sixième enfant du rentier Carl Georg Nölting et sœur de l'épouse du sénateur de Lübeck  (1868-1947). De ce mariage est née leur fille Harriet Isabel Anneliese Carmen (1903-1984). Elle se marie le 17 octobre 1925 à Berlin avec Martin Wandel (1892–1943).

Après sa mort, Alice épouse .

Éditions
 Offizier-Stammliste des Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 76. Mauke, Hamburg 1902.
 Stammtafel der Familie von Rège. 1917.

Décorations
 Ordre de l'Aigle rouge de  classe
 Ordre de la Couronne de  classe
 Croix hanséatique de Lübeck

Bibliographie
 Harry von Rège: Offizier-Stammliste des Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 76. Mauke, Hamburg 1902, , S. 101.
 : Offizier-Stammliste des Infanterie-Regiments "Prinz Friedrich der Niederlande" (2. Westfälisches) Nr. 15. Verlag R. Eisenschmidt, Berlin 1913, S. 451–452.

Références

Liens externes

Generalmajor prussien
Récipiendaire de l'ordre de l'Aigle rouge de 4e classe
Chevalier de 4e classe de l'ordre de la Couronne (Prusse)
Récipiendaire de 1re classe de la croix de fer
Récipiendaire de la croix hanséatique (Lübeck)
Naissance en septembre 1859
Naissance à Schneidemühl
Naissance dans la province de Posnanie
Décès en février 1929
Décès à Berlin
Décès à 69 ans

Harry von Rège


Not safe for work (NSFW) is Internet slang or shorthand used to mark links to content, videos, or website pages the viewer may not wish to be seen viewing in a public, formal or controlled environment. The marked content may contain graphic violence, pornography, profanity, nudity, slurs or other potentially disturbing subject matter. Environments that may be problematic include workplaces, schools, and family settings. NSFW has particular relevance for people trying to make personal use of the Internet at workplaces or schools which have policies prohibiting access to sexual and graphic subject matter. Conversely, safe for work (SFW) is used for links that do not contain such material, but where the title might otherwise lead people to think that content is NSFW.

The similar expression not safe for life (NSFL) is also used, referring to content which is so nauseating or disturbing that it might be emotionally scarring to view. Links marked NSFL may contain fetish pornography, gore or murder.

Some websites, such as Reddit and OnlyFans give users the option to designate their content as NSFW in order to warn others of its inappropriate nature.

See also

 Internet filter – software used to restrict access to unsuitable content.

References

External links

Internet censorship
Internet culture
Internet slang
Internet terminology
Internet trolling
Media content ratings systems
Pornography

Not safe for work


هيفنلي سورد Heavenly Sword لعبة فيديو حصرية لجهاز البلاي ستيشن 3  باعت اللعبة أكثر من مليون نسخة.

روابط خارجية

المراجع

ألعاب بلاي ستيشن 3
ألعاب تقطيع وذبح
ألعاب حركة-مغامرات
ألعاب حصرية على بلاي ستيشن 3
ألعاب سوني إنتراكتيف إنترتينمنت
ألعاب فيديو 2007
ألعاب فيديو استخدمت محرك هافوك
ألعاب فيديو تضم بطلات
ألعاب فيديو تقع أحداثها في الصين
ألعاب فيديو حولت إلى أفلام
ألعاب فيديو فردية
ألعاب فيديو فنتازيا
ألعاب فيديو مطورة في المملكة المتحدة
ألعاب نينجا ثيوري
سيوف خيالية
لاقط الحركة ألعاب فيديو

هيفنلي سورد


عبد العزيز ملا حسين عبد الله التركيت، وهو من مواليد 26 نوفمبر 1920 في الشرق في مدينة الكويت ، وتوفي في 9 يونيو 1996 ، أديب كويتي، كان سفيرًا للكويت لدى مصر ، كان مستشارًا للشيخ جابر الأحمد الجابر الصباح منذ عام 1985 وحتى وفاته ، كما كان صديقًا لأحمد العدواني. ، ووجد في مكتبة والده كتاب الموطأ للإمام مالك رواية يحيى ابن يحيى الليثي، وقد كتب هذا الكتاب في فيلكا ، وقد تمت كتابة الكتاب في عام 1682. ، وكان يريد نشر العلم بين جميع أبناء الدول العربية، وقد  طُلب لمساعدة إمارات ساحل عمان (الإمارات وعمان واليمن).

نسبه
يرجع نسب عبد العزيز ملا حسين عبد الله التركيت إلى عائلة التركيت، وهي عائلة عربية هاجرت من الحجاز من وادي (مر الظهران) الذي أصبح إسمه (وادي فاطمة) الواقع في محافظة الجموم شمال مكة المكرمة في هجرة تضمنت الأشراف والعوائل القرشية إلى المدينة المنورة وهناك لقّب جد العائلة الأكبر الشيخ خضر بـ المدني.

يرجع نسب عائلة التركيت إلى بني مخزوم من قبيلة (قريش) المضرية العدنانية.

و الجد الجامع لفروع العائلة هو الشيخ أحمد بن محمد بن الشيخ الخضر المدني المخزومي الذي يعود بالنسب للتابعي الجليل سعيد بن المسيب المخزومي القرشي.

دراسته
درس في المدرسة المباركية في عام 1927 ، وفي عام 1937 أنهى دراسته في المدرسة الأحمدية  ، وأرسل في أول بعثة كويتية إلى مصر للدراسة في عام 1939 هو مع أحمد العدواني ويوسف عبد اللطيف العمر، ويوسف المشاري البدر، وحصل على الشهادة العالمية من كلية اللغة العربية في جامعة الأزهر في عام 1943 ، ثم شهادة تخصص التدريس من كلية التربية في الجامعة نفسها في عام 1945، ودبلوم المعهد العالي للمعلمين التابع لجامعة القاهرة في نفس العام، أرسل لدراسة التربية وعلم النفس في جامعة لندن في عام 1950 ، وقد كانت فترة دراسته سنة واحد، ولكنها مددت إلى سنتين، وقد حصل على شهادتي دبلوم من جامعة لندن، الأولى كانت في التربية المقارنة والثانية كانت دبلوم في الزمالة وهو دبلوم خاص يقدم صاحبه رسالة في موضوع معين ليُعَدَّ زميلا في الجامعة.

عمله
تم تعيينه رئيسًا لبيت الكويت في القاهرة، الذي افتتحه جمال عبد الناصر عام 1954، وكان يختص بمتابعة الكويتيين الذين يدرسون في القاهرة ، ثم تحول إلى سفارة دولة الكويت. وقد أشرف عبد العزيز على صقل مهارات عدد كبير من الطلبة، منهم حمد عيسى الرجيب الذي عين مساعدًا له في بيت الكويت في القاهرة، وبعدها رئيسا له ، بعدها عُيِّن مدير للقسم الفني في دائرة المعارف (وزارة التربية حاليا) في الخمسينات من القرن العشرين ، وقد كان في يدرس في لندن في عام 1952، وطلب منه مجلس المعارف بأن يأتي لكي يصبحَ مديرًا للمجلس، وقد ترأس المجلس حتى عام 1961 ، وعندما كان مديرًا للقسم الفني في دائرة المعارف، أقنع المسؤولين بأن يتم تعليم المرأة.

في عام 1961 كُلِفَ من قبل الدولة بأن يقوم بالدفاع عن قضية الكويت، وحقها في الانتساب إلى هيئة الأمم المتحدة، وذلك بعد المشاكل التي حدثت من قبل عبد الكريم قاسم، وبعدها توجه من نيويورك إلى القاهرة لكي يطلب انضمام الكويت إلى جامعة الدول العربية ، وقد استفاد من علاقاته مع العديد من الأشخاص في القاهرة من أساتذة وأصدقاء لدعم قضية الكويت.

وقد عُيّنَ سفيرًا للكويت لدى الجمهورية العربية المتحدة بتاريخ 2 ديسمبر 1961 من قبل الشيخ عبد الله السالم الصباح، وقدّم أوراق اعتماده إلى جمال عبد الناصر في 20 ديسمبر من نفس العام، وظل سفيرًا حتى 1 يناير 1963، حيث تم استدعاؤه للكويت لكي يشارك في ثاني وزارة في الكويت، حيث عُيِّن وزيرًا لشؤون مجلس الوزراء من 28 يناير 1963 حتى عام 1965، وبعدها عاد إلى نفس الوزارة في الفترة من 1971 - 1985، وقد عمل كوزير للدولة لشؤون مجلس الوزراء في الحكومة الثانية التي كانت برئاسة الشيخ صباح السالم الصباح ، في 6 ديسمبر 1964 تم تعيينه كوزير للدولة لشؤون مجلس الوزراء في الحكومة الثالثة التي كانت برئاسة الشيخ صباح السالم الصباح ، وفي 2 فبراير 1971 تم تعيينه وزيرًا للدولة لشؤون مجلس الوزراء في الحكومة السابعة التي كانت برئاسة الشيخ جابر الأحمد الصباح ، وفي 9 فبراير 1975 تم تعييه وزيرًا للدولة لشؤون مجلس الوزراء في الحكومة الثامنة التي كانت برئاسة الشيخ جابر الأحمد الصباح ، وفي 6 سبتمبر 1976 تم تعيينه وزيرًا للدولة لشؤون مجلس الوزراء في الحكومة التاسعة التي كانت برئاسة الشيخ جابر الأحمد الصباح ، وفي 16 فبراير 1978 تم تعيينه وزيرًا للدولة لشؤون مجلس الوزراء في الحكومة العاشرة التي كانت برئاسة الشيخ سعد العبد الله السالم الصباح ، وفي 4 مارس 1981 تم تعيينه وزيرًا للدولة لشؤون مجلس الوزراء في الحكومة الحادية عشر التي كانت برئاسة الشيخ سعد العبد الله السالم الصباح.

إنجازاته
قام بإنشاء مجلة البعثة في عام 1946 في القاهرة، وقد رأس تحريرها، وقد كانت المجلة تتكلم عن أحوال الطلبة الكويتيون في القاهرة. عملت المجلة في ذلك الوقت على إفراد صفحات للكاتبات مثل غنيمة المرزوق، بدرية الغانم، وبثينة محمد جعفر بأسمائهن الصريحة.

قام بإنشاء المرسم الحر بعد أن تبنى فكرة وجود كيان فني يهدف إلى تعليم الفن وترسيخ مبادئ فن النحت والخزف والتصوير ، وقد كان يهدف من وراء إنشاء المرسم الحر إلى أن يصبح ملتقى للفنانين وأن يكون بعد فترة كلية للفنون.

في عام 1973 قام بإنشاء أول مؤسسة ثقافية في الكويت، وهو المجلس الوطني للثقافة والفنون والآداب، الذي ظلَّ يرأسه حتى عام 1985 ، وقد ساهم المجلس في نشر الثقافة عن طريق المؤسسات والدولة.

ارتبط اسمه بتأسيس عدد من الصروح الثقافية، مثل جامعة الكويت، ومعهد الكويت للأبحاث العلمية، والهيئة العامة للجنوب والخليج العربي، وكلية العلوم والتكنولوجيا بالقدس، والمنظمة العربية للتربية والثقافة والعلوم، والخطة الشاملة للثقافة العربية ومشروع مكتبة الإسكندرية العالمية، ومعهد تاريخ العلوم العربية الإسلامية في جامعة فرانكفورت، ومعهد العالم العربي في باريس.

ساعد صالح العجيري على طبع تقويم له لعام 1951 في عام 1949 في بيت الكويت في القاهرة.

تكريمه
تم تكريمه في اليوبيل الذهبي للإعلام في الكويت في عام 2003.

في يوم 18 فبراير 2009 أعلنت رابطة الأدباء الكويتيين عن اتفاقها المبدئي مع وزارة المواصلات على إصدار طوابع بريدية تذكارية، تخليدًا لذكرى رواد الحركة الثقافية وكان هو من ضمن الأسماء المطروحة.

أماكن سُميَّت باسمه
 مركز عبد العزيز حسين الثقافي
 مكتبة عبد العزيز حسين (افتتحت في 18 يناير 2002 ).
 مدرسة عبد العزيز حسين المتوسطة للبنين

أقواله
 «أنا نشأت في بيت مثقفين، بيت دين، بيت أدب، بيت فيه مكتبة، وفي ذلك الوقت كانت المكتبات العامرة نادرة في الكويت. وكنت دائما أشعر بتحريض نفسي على مزيد من المعرفة والاطلاع والاتصال بالمثقفين والمتعلمين وهذا هو الذي دفعني لأن أحاول أن أنال قسطا معقولا من التعليم».
 «إننا نعمل على أن نقطع في نهضتنا هذه خلال ربع قرن ما قطعه غيرنا في عشرة قرون».

كتبه
 محاضرات عن المجتمع العربي بالكويت، الطبعة الأولى 1960 ، الطبعة الثانية 1994.

كتب عنه
 عبد العزيز حسين وحلم التنوير العربي، سعاد الصباح.

مراجع

خريجو المدرسة المباركية
سفراء الكويت لدى مصر
كتاب كويتيون
مواليد 1920
وزراء شؤون مجلس الوزراء كويتيون
وفيات 1996
مواليد في شرق (الكويت)
كتاب بالعربية في القرن 20

عبد العزيز حسين


بلدية نافاكيسيرا (بالإسبانية: Navaquesera) هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة آبلة التابعة لمنطقة قشتالة وليون وسط إسبانيا.

الديموغرافيا
بلغ عدد سكان بلدية نافاكيسيرا 35 نسمة عام 2011 (وفقاً للمعهد الوطني للإحصاء الإسباني).

مراجع

مصادر
  الموقع الرسمي لبلدية نافاكيسيرا

أماكن مأهولة في آبلة
بلديات آبلة

نافاكيسيرا


Danette, también conocido como Danet en España, es una marca de postres lácteos que pertenece al Grupo Danone, una multinacional de productos alimenticios con sede en París, Francia.

Historia
La marca Danette apareció en el mercado francés en el año 1970, cuando la empresa de alimentación tradicional Danone, por medio de su fundador Daniel Carasso, perfeccionó un pudin de chocolate de receta holandesa y creó un delicioso y cremoso postre lácteo, listo para comer, de sabor a chocolate. Rápidamente el producto se popularizó entre los franceses.

En 1974, ya se vendían diez mil toneladas del postre. Poco después, en 1978, dos nuevos sabores fueron lanzados: caramelo y vainilla. Al año siguiente, se adoptó el famoso lema "On se lève tous pour Danette" (Todos nos levantamos por Danette). En 2010, Danette celebra los 40 años de la marca.

Danette se comercializa en más de veinte de países. Si bien es cierto que la receta no es la misma en todas las naciones, al variar los gustos locales, también varían los componentes y sabores del conocido postre.

En España
En España, el famoso postre fue bautizado como Natillas Danone, el nombre de la receta, comercializándose en 1975. En 2002, Danone decidió crear marcas centradas en determinados productos, decidiendo que las natillas llevarían el nombre de Danet.

Variedades
Actualmente en España se comercializan las variedades de vainilla, chocolate, cookies y Doble Placer (nata con vainilla o chocolate).

Publicidad
En España, la marca de postres es muy conocida por sus anuncios televisivos, protagonizados por grandes estrellas del deporte. Futbolistas como Lionel Messi(futbolista argentino), David Villa, Robinho, Xavi Hernández, Iker Casillas o Ronaldinho fueron protagonistas de una de sus más famosas campañas.

El eslogan ¿Repetimos? y la canción publicitaria "Natillas Danone, listas para gustar […]" fueron adoptadas popularmente.

Después de estos éxitos publicitarios, en 2011 se ha presentado un nuevo personaje llamado Mr. Krujidor con el eslogan "Kruje tu rutina". Para su presentación, se lanzó un concurso con un premio de 50.000€ para el video viral que mejor se adaptase al mensaje publicitario.

Danone Nations Cup

La Danone Nations Cup es un torneo internacional de fútbol en el que pueden participar niños y niñas menores de 12 años procedentes de 40 países. Este torneo fue nacido de la relación que surgió entre Danet y el fútbol debido a sus éxitos publicitarios. En España cuenta con el apoyo de la Real Federación Española de Fútbol (RFEF). Bajo el lema "Haz realidad tus sueños", Danone presentó en 2004 la Copa Danet en España, un torneo de fútbol alevín que contó con el apadrinamiento de Zinedine Zidane.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 La web de Danet en España
 La web de Danone en España
 La web de Danette en Francia

Lácteos

Danette


Ezequiel Darío Zárate Arellano (Sapucai, 19 de diciembre de 1932) es un político paraguayo. Fue ministro del Ministerio de Educación y Cultura de Paraguay durante el año 2001 y el primer rector elegido democráticamente de la Universidad Nacional de Asunción.

Referencias
 http://www.mec.gov.py/cms/entradas/69059
 https://web.archive.org/web/20090419090539/http://www.una.py/una-resena.html

Nacidos en Asunción
Colorados de Paraguay
Ministros de Educación de Paraguay

Darío Zárate Arellano


El Shin Meiwa UF-XS es un hidroavión japonés de tipo hidrocanoa con capacidad STOL, diseñado y construido por la compañía Shin Meiwa, que fue empleado en labores de investigación para el posterior desarrollo del Shin Meiwa PS-1 para la Fuerza Marítima de Autodefensa de Japón.

Historial
En octubre de 1960, Shin Meiwa adquirió un UF-1 Albatross, al que se le realizaron una serie de extensivas modificaciones durante dos años siguiendo las directrices de Shizuo Kikuhara. Dado que los momentos más críticos para la célula de una hidrocanoa, y también para sus pilotos, son el despegue y el amerizaje, Kikuhara trató de reducirlos al máximo empleando un sistema que soplaba aire comprimido sobre los dispositivos hipersustentadores, con lo que se conseguía un control de la capa límite que permitía realizar esas comprometidas maniobras no sólo en un muy corto espacio, sino también a una velocidad reducida.

El UF-XS es un monoplano de ala alta, pero ahí casi concluyen las similitudes con el UF-1 de origen. Las modificaciones llevadas a cabo incluyeron el añadido de dos motores radiales, uno en cada ala. Los motores interiores están equipados con hélices tripala, mientras que las de los exteriores son bipala. Su fuselaje inferior está diseñado siguiendo un esquema supresor de salpicaduras de agua, que le permite amerizar en mar abierto. La superficie de control trasera es mucho mayor, recta y con los timones de profundidad en posición alta, es decir, tiene cola en T. Otros dos motores, turboejes General Electric T58, están instalados entre las alas sobre el fuselaje, en un prominente espacio que incluye sus tomas de aire. Su cometido era producir aire comprimido para aumentar la sustentación a baja velocidad e incrementar las capacidades STOL de despegue y amerizaje corto.

Especificaciones

Véase también

Referencias

Notas

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos
 Imágenes del UF-XS

UF-XS
Aeronaves de ala alta
Hidrocanoas
Aviones tractores de cuatro motores
Aeronaves experimentales de Japón de los años 1960

Shin Meiwa UF-XS


Joseph Vital Lacaze né le  à Tournecoupe et mort le  à Pontault (aujourd'hui Pontault-Combault) est un peintre français.

Biographie
Joseph Vital Lacaze naît le  à Tournecoupe, de François David Lacaze, facteur, et d'Ernestine Pauline Crèbesèques.

Élève à Paris à l'École des arts décoratifs et aux Beaux-Arts, il étudie auprès de Gustave Moreau et de Fernand Cormon. Peintre de portraits de paysages dans un style post-impressionniste, il expose régulièrement au Salon des artistes français à Paris à partir de 1895. Il enseigne à l'École des arts décoratifs de Paris.

Il épouse en secondes noces Georgette Sauer à Paris en 1911.

Il est nommé chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur en 1932 sur proposition du ministère des Colonies.

Joseph Vital Lacaze meurt le  à Pontault.

Œuvres

 Auch, musée des Amériques : Grange à Tournecoupe, huile sur bois, .

Notes et références

Liens externes

 Dossier de Légion d'honneur sur la base Léonore.

Peintre français du XIXe siècle
Peintre français du XXe siècle
Peintre paysagiste français
Peintre portraitiste français
Peintre post-impressionniste français
Élève de l'École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs
Élève de l'École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts au XIXe siècle
Enseignant à l'École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs
Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur
Naissance en mars 1874
Naissance dans le Gers
Décès en juin 1945
Décès en Seine-et-Marne
Décès à 71 ans

Joseph Vital Lacaze