Selkirkshire or the County of Selkirk () is a historic county and registration county of Scotland. It borders Peeblesshire to the west, Midlothian to the north, Roxburghshire to the east, and Dumfriesshire to the south. It derives its name from its county town, the royal burgh of Selkirk. The county was historically also known as Ettrick Forest.

Unlike many historic counties, Selkirkshire does not have its own lieutenancy area, but forms part of the Roxburgh, Ettrick and Lauderdale lieutenancy area.

History

In the 1st Century AD Selkirk formed part of the lands of the native people who hunted it rather than settled there. Neither the Romans, Angles, or the Saxons cleared much of the forestry there and for centuries Selkirk was known for its forest coverage. Indeed, an alternative name for the county was Ettrick Forest. Under the Scottish kings the forest was regarded as Royal. Despite this it was not until the reign of James V that sheriffs were appointed to administer the county on the Crown's behalf. During the military occupation of Scotland by Edward I of England, the forest was granted to the Earl of Gloucester.

In the Middle Ages the area that would become Selkirkshire formed part of the province of Tweeddale. The origins of the shire are obscure, but sometime around the twelfth century the area of Tweeddale was divided into two sheriffdoms: Peeblesshire to the north and Selkirkshire or Ettrick Forest to the south. The first recorded sheriff of Selkirkshire was Andrew de Synton, who was appointed by William the Lion (d. 1214). Synton in the parish of Ashkirk, just east of the village centre, was an enclave of Selkirkshire surrounded by Roxburghshire.

Later, the Earl of Pembroke assumed the hereditary sheriffdom. Under and after King Robert the Bruce, the Earls of Douglas, and later Earls of Angus administered the county. In 1501 John Murray (d. 1510), laird of Falahill, was made sheriff of Selkirkshire and on 30 Nov. 1509 he obtained a grant of the hereditary sheriffdom of Selkirkshire. His descendant Sir James Murray was deprived of office in 1681 for being remiss in punishing conventicles, but at the Glorious Revolution was raised to the session bench as Lord Philiphaugh and reinstated as sheriff. His son John Murray (died 1753) was the hereditary Sheriff of Selkirk from 1708 to 1734, when he was returned unopposed as MP for Selkirkshire, having resigned his hereditary sheriffdom to one of his sons. When in 1747 the heritable jurisdictions were abolished, Murray of Philiphaugh received £4,000 in compensation. The Sheriff-Deputes, previously appointed by the hereditary sheriffs, were now appointed by the crown and acted in place of the hereditary sheriffs  One such sheriff of Selkirkshire was Sir Walter Scott who was appointed Sheriff-Depute in 1799, an office he held until his death in 1832.

Selkirkshire County Council was created in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, which established elected county councils across Scotland. The 1889 Act also instigated a review of boundaries, particularly where burghs straddled county boundaries. The boundary review for Selkirkshire concluded in 1891 and made a number of mostly minor changes. The most significant change was that the burgh of Galashiels was brought entirely within Selkirkshire, where it had previously been partly in Roxburghshire. Selkirkshire County Council met at the County Buildings on Ettrick Terrace in Selkirk, which had been built in 1870 as a sheriff court and meeting place for the Commissioners of Supply, the main administrative body for the county prior to the creation of the county council. The council's staff were based at the Bank of Scotland Buildings in the Market Place in Selkirk.

The county council was abolished in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, which reorganised local government in Scotland into upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. Selkirkshire became part of the Borders region and part of the Ettrick and Lauderdale district.

At the time of the local government reorganisation in 1975, the posts of lord-lieutenant of Selkirkshire and lord-lieutenant of Roxburghshire were both held by John Scott, 9th Duke of Buccleuch. The new district of Ettrick and Lauderdale and the neighbouring district of Roxburgh became nominally separate lieutenancy areas, although the Duke of Buccleuch was appointed to both positions, effectively continuing the pre-1975 arrangement. When local government was reorganised again in 1996, the two lieutenancies were formally united into a single lieutenancy area called Roxburgh, Ettrick and Lauderdale.

Folk ballads written of the county commemorate the Battle of Philiphaugh in 1645, the 'Dowie Dens' at Yarrow and Tibbie Shiels at St Mary's Loch.

Geography

Selkirkshire is a rural county, with a handful of small settlements set within hill and forest country. It forms part of the Southern Uplands geographical region. The Ettrick Water and Yarrow Water, both tributaries of the river Tweed, flow through the county. The most prominent loch is St Mary's Loch (including the Loch of the Lowes), with smaller lochs being found east of this such as Akermoor Loch, Shaws Under Loch, Shaws Upper Loch, Halemoor Loch, Alemoor Reservoir, Clearburn Loch, Kingside Loch, Crooked Loch and Windylaw Loch. The traditional highest point (county top) of Selkirkshire prior to border changes in the 20th century was Dun Rig, with a height of  above sea level.

Ettrick Forest
Ettrick Forest, also known as Selkirk and Traquair Forests, is a former royal forest in the Scottish Borders area of Scotland. It is a large area of moorland, south of Peebles, that once stretched from Ayr to Selkirk.

Keepers of the Forest
 Simon Fraser of Oliver (d. 1291)
 William Comyn of Kirkintilloch (d. 1291)
 Thomas de Burnham
Simon Fraser (1299–1306)

Transport
The Borders Railway connects Galashiels and Tweedbank with Edinburgh. Closed for many years, this line re-opened in 2015.
There are also buses to Berwick-Upon-Tweed and Carlisle operated by Borders Buses.

Civil parishes and population
Selkirkshire was historically divided into civil parishes. There were originally nine parishes; Ashkirk, Bowside, Buccleuch (or Rankilburn), Duchoire, Ettrick, Kirkhope, Lindean, St Mary's (or St Mary of the Lowes) and Selkirk. There have been a number of changes since the medieval period:

 Caddonfoot was created in 1898 from the part of the parish of Stow of Wedale that lay within Selkirkshire.
 Galashiels was formed by the union of two ancient parishes, Bowside and Lindean.
 The parish of Rankilburn or Buccleuch was suppressed and united to Yarrow c. 1600, then transferred to Ettrick 1650.
 The ancient parishes of Duchoire, St Mary's and Kirkhope were united to form the parish of Yarrow; Kirkhope was then separated from Yarrow in 1852.

Population of the county by Civil Parish, according to the latest census (2011):

The population of the towns in the county (in 2011):
Galashiels - 14,994 (of which 12,893 in Selkirkshire)
Selkirk - 5,784

Historical population of the county as returned by the census was as follows:
1801: 5,889
1811: 6,637
1821: 6,833
1841: 7,990
1851: 9,809
1861: 10,449
1871: 19,651
1881: 26,346
1891: 28,068
1901: 23,356
1911: 24,601
1921: 22,607
1931: 22,711
1951: 21,729
1961: 21,055
1971: 20,868
1991: 17,456
2001: 17,757
2011: 18,267

Settlements

Boleside
Bowhill
Broadmeadows
Caddonfoot
Clovenfords
Ettrick
Ettrickbridge
Galashiels (partly in Roxburghshire prior to 1891)
Philiphaugh
Roberton
Selkirk
Yarrow
Yarrowford

See also
James Hogg
List of places in the Scottish Borders
List of places in Scotland
Craik Forest
Wauchope Forest
List of forests in the United Kingdom

References

Further reading
The archeology and historic buildings of the county were documented in 1957 by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments in Scotland.
There is also a History of Selkirkshire by T. Craig Brown, published in 1886.

External links

"Selkirkshire" from A Topographical Dictionary of Scotland by Samuel Lewis, 1846 (British History Online)
Entries on Selkirkshire from the Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland by Frances Groome(1882-4) and the Gazetteer of the British Isles by John Bartholomew (1887) (Vision of Britain)
EttrickForestArchers.co.uk
RCAHMS record for Ettrick Forest or Selkirkshire
SCRAN: Bowling champions in front of club house at Ettrick Forest Bowling Club, Selkirk
The Borders Forest Trust
Gazetteer for Scotland; Ettrick Forest
Jstor: A newly discovered map of Ettrick Forest by Robert Gordon of Straloch
The Ettrick Forest Tartan
James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd

Former counties of Scotland
Forests and woodlands of Scotland
History of the Scottish Borders
Geography of the Scottish Borders
Counties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)

Selkirkshire


Djibril Sidibé (Troyes, Francuska, 29. srpnja 1992.) francuski je nogometaš i bivši nacionalni reprezentativac. Trenutačno igra za AEK Atena. S Francuskom osvojio naslov svjetskog prvaka 2018. godine.

Igrač dolazi iz muslimanske obitelji malijskog podrijetla.

Karijera

Klupska karijera
Sidibé je nogometnu karijeru započeo u rodnom gradu kada se s osam godina pridružio istoimenom Troyesu. U klubu je nogometno odrastao u svim dobnim kategorijama dok je za seniore debitirao sredinom rujna 2010. u ligaškom susretu protiv Grenoblea. Igrač se s klubom uspio kvalificirati u prvu ligu i taj uspjeh mu je omogućio transfer u Lille. Klub ga je doveo kao potporu Debuchyju u obrani a u svojem debiju protiv Nice, zabio je svoj prvi gol za Les Dogues. Tijekom četiri godine ondje, Djibril je od većih uspjeha s Lilleom, 2016. igrao finale francuskog Liga kupa u kojem je PSG bio bolji (igrač je zabio gol u 2:1 porazu).

8. srpnja 2016. Sidibé je potpisao petogodišnji ugovor s AS Monacom. Tijekom prve sezone bio je važna karika monegaške momčadi koja je osvojila Ligue 1. Također, uvršten je u idealnu momčad sezone zajedno s još petoricom klupskih suigrača (Subašić, Glik, Mendy, Silva i Mbappé). Početkom kolovoza 2019. igrač je poslan na posudbu u Everton uz mogućnost da ga klub s Goodison Parka kupi istekom posudbenog roka. Doveden je pred sam kraj ljetnog prijelaznog roka kao šesto Everotonovo pojačanje.

Reprezentativna karijera
Sidibé je igrao za francuske U20 i U21 reprezentacije dok ga je izbornik Deschamps uvrstio na širi popis reprezentativaca za EURO 2016 kojem je Francuska bila domaćin. Međutim, igrač nije uspio upasti u uži izbor ali je iste godine debitirao za Tricolore u prijateljskom susretu protiv Italije. U svojem desetom nastupu za reprezentaciju u susretu protiv Engleske zabio je prvi gol za nacionalni sastav.

Djibril je s Francuskom nastupio na Svjetskom prvenstvu 2018. te je bio član momčadi koja je ondje osvojila svjetski naslov. Ondje je igrao posljednju utakmicu skupine protiv Danske jer je Deschamps koristio rezervne igrače kako bi odmarao prvi sastav za nastavak natjecanja.

Pogodci za reprezentaciju

Osvojeni trofeji

Klupski trofeji

Reprezentativni trofeji

Ordeni
 Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur: 2018.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Profil igrača  na web stranicama Francuskog nogometnog saveza
 Profil igrača na Transfermarktu

Francuski nogometaši
Nogometaši Lillea O.S.C.
Nogometaši Monaca
Nogometaši Evertona
Nogometaši AEK Atene
Svjetski prvaci u nogometu
Aktivni nogometaši

Djibril Sidibé


Criptoloja é uma corretora (exchange) portuguesa que fornece serviços de compra e venda de criptomoedas tanto em loja física, como por meio de uma plataforma online, permitindo a troca de ativos virtuais e moeda fiduciária, incluindo depósitos bancários.

Sediada em Lisboa, é a primeira empresa do género a obter uma licença do Banco de Portugal.

História
A empresa foi constituída em 2019, por iniciativa de dois executivos portugueses com experiencia no setor financeiro, Pedro Borges e Luis Gomes, tendo como objectivo de operar uma loja física de criptomoedas. Em 2020 o Banco de Portugal publicou uma regulação que obrigava as empresas do setor a solicitar uma licença, tendo a Criptoloja recebido em Junho de 2021 uma das duas primeiras licenças atribuídas em Portugal. Em Outubro desse mesmo ano a Criptoloja lançava a sua plataforma online iniciando a operação comercial.

Procurando promover a literacia financeira, a Criptoloja oferece ainda cursos semanais gratuitos sobre sobre o tema das criptomoedas.

Aquisição
A empresa brasileira 2TM controladora da corretora de criptomoedas Mercado Bitcoin adquiriu em Janeiro de 2022, a empresa Portuguesa, uma operação autorizada pelo banco de Portugal em Abril do mesmo ano.

Ligações externas
 "Site da Criptoloja" - Criptoloja
 "Blog da Criptoloja" - Criptoloja

Corretoras de criptomoedas

Criptoloja


A share taxi (also called shared taxi or taxibus) is a mode of transport which falls between a taxicab and a bus. These vehicles for hire are typically smaller than buses and usually take passengers on a fixed or semi-fixed route without timetables, but instead departing when all seats are filled. They may stop anywhere to pick up or drop off their passengers. Often found in developing countries, the vehicles used as share taxis range from four-seat cars to minibuses. They are often owner-operated.

In some terms share taxis can also be referred to as taxibuses since they play a role of taxis where the destination is selected by the rider as opposed to routed buses which travel on a route that is assigned by the transit operator.

Operation

Terminus
A given share taxi route may start and finish in fixed central locations, and landmarks may serve as route names or route termini. In some African cities routes are run between formal termini, where the majority of passengers board. In these places the share taxis wait for a full load of passengers prior to departing, and off-peak wait times may be in excess of an hour.

In other places there may be no formal termini, with taxis simply congregating at a central location, instead.

Even more-formal terminals may be a little more than parking lots.

In South Africa, the term "rank" denotes an area, specifically built for taxi operators by a municipality or city, where commuters may start and end their journey.

Along the route
Where they exist, shared taxis provide service on set routes within and sometimes between towns.

After a shared taxi has picked up passengers at its terminus, it proceeds along a semi-fixed route where the driver may determine the actual route within an area according to traffic conditions. Drivers will stop anywhere to allow riders to disembark, and may sometimes do the same when prospective passengers want to ride.

Operational distinctions
While all share taxis share certain characteristics—and many regional versions exhibit peculiarities—some basic operational distinctions can be delineated.

Vehicle ownership
Most share taxis are operated under one of two regimes. Some share taxis are operated by a company. For example, in Dakar there are company-owned fleets of hundreds of car rapides. In the Soviet Union, share taxis, known as marshrutka, were operated by state-owned taxi parks.<ref>RAF-977DM marshrutnoye taksi, "Avtomobil Na Sluzhbie, No.28, DeAgostini, 2012,  (in Russian)</ref> There are also individual operators in many countries. In Africa, while there are company share taxis, individual owners are more common. Rarely owning more than two vehicles at a time, they will rent out a minibus to operators, who pay fuel and other running costs, and keep revenue.

Syndicates
In some places, like some African cities and also Hong Kong, share taxi minibuses are overseen by syndicates, unions, or route associations. These groups often function in the absence of a regulatory environment and may collect dues or fees from drivers (such as per-use terminal payments, sometimes illegally), set routes, manage terminals, and fix fares. Terminal management may include ensuring each vehicle leaves with a full load of passengers.

Because the syndicates represent owners, their regulatory efforts tend to favor operators rather than passengers, and the very termini syndicates upkeep can cost delays and money for passengers as well as forcing them to disembark at inconvenient locations, in a phenomenon called "terminal constraint".

Regulation
In Africa, regulation is mainly something that pertains to the vehicle itself not its operator or its mode of operation.

In Kenya, regulation does extend to operatorsNairobi Today: the Paradox of a Fragmented City; Hidden $ Centz: Rolling the Wheels of Nairobi Matatu. Mbugua wa-Mungai (p. 376).  edited by Helene Charton-Bigot, Deyssi Rodriguez-Torres. African Books Collective, 2010. 404 pp. 9987080936, 9789987080939. and mode of operation (such as routes used) as well as the vehicle.

As of 2008, African minibuses are difficult to tax, and may operate in a "regulatory vacuum" perhaps because their existence is not part of a government scheme, but is simply a market response to a growing demand for such services. Route syndicates and operator's associations often exercise unrestricted control, and existing rules may see little enforcement.

Types of vehicle
Share taxi is a unique mode of transport independent of vehicle type. Minibuses, midibuses, covered pickup trucks, station wagons, and lorries see use as share taxis.

Certain vehicle types may be better-suited to current condition than others. In many traffic-choked, sprawling, and low-density African cities minibuses profit.

In Israel they were mostly the largest model of Mercedes, owned generally by Arabs, and very efficient, having space for 7-8 people, and having loosely fixed routes, dropping a passenger either at a specific terminus or going a little out of the way to facilitate the passenger.

By country
While carrying different names and distinguished by regional peculiarities, the share taxi is an everyday feature of life in many places throughout the world.

Africa

Some Francophone African countries use the term  ('bush taxi', often spelled with a space rather than a hyphen in English) for share taxis.

 Algeria

In Algeria, taxis collectifs ply fixed routes with their destination displayed. Rides are shared with others who are picked up along the way, and the taxi will leave only when it seats all the passengers it can. While stations, set locations to board and disembark, exist, prospective passengers flag down a taxi collectif when they want a ride.

Operating inter- and intra-city, taxis collectifs that travel between towns may be called interwilaya taxis.

Along with all forms of public transport in Algeria, the Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada recommend against using these share taxis. The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs asks that you use taxis recommended by a hotel.

Burkina Faso
In Ouagadougou, capital of Burkina Faso, the share taxi or  role is not filled by the traditional African minibus.

Democratic Republic of the Congo
Those in Kinshasa, DRC, (or perhaps just the Kongo people) may call share taxis fula fula meaning "quick quick".

There was no independent transport authority in the city of Kinshasa as of 2008.

Cameroon
Share taxis do exist in Cameroon, but as of 2008 minibuses cannot be used for this purpose, by law. That same year, Douala, Cameroon, also was without an independent transport authority.

Egypt
Egyptian share cabs are generally known as micro-bus (  or  , "project"; plural   or  ). The second name is used by Alexandrians.

Micro-buses are licensed by each governorate as taxicabs, and are generally operated privately by their drivers. Although each governorate attempts to maintain a consistent paint scheme for them, in practice the color of them varies wildly, as the "consistent" schemes have changed from time to time and many drivers have not bothered to repaint their cars.

Rates vary depending on distance traveled, although these rates are generally well known to those riding the micro-bus. The fares also depend on the city. Riders can typically hail micro-buses from any point along the route, often with well-established hand signals indicating the prospective rider's destination, although certain areas tend to be well-known micro-bus stops.

Like the Eastern European marshrutka, a typical micro-bus is a large van, most often a Toyota HiAce or its Jinbei equivalent, the Haise, and the latter is produced by the Bavarian Auto Manufacturing Group in 6th of October City in Egypt. Smaller vans and larger small buses are also used.

 Ethiopia
Minibus taxis in Ethiopia are one of the most important modes of transport in big cities like Addis Ababa. They are preferred by the majority of the populace over public buses and more traditional taxicabs because they are generally cheap, operate on diverse routes, and are available in abundance. All minibus taxis in Ethiopia have a standard blue-and-white coloring scheme, much as New York taxis are yellow. Minibus taxis are usually Toyota HiAces, frequent the streets. They typically can carry 11 passengers, but will always have room for another until that is no longer the case. The minibus driver has a crew member called a weyala whose job is to collect the fare from passengers.

In 2008, publicly operated public transport was available in Addis Ababa in addition to that provided by the minibuses. A fleet of 350 large buses may operate for this purpose, as such a number does exist. Also as of 2008, the city lacks an independent transport authority, but some regulation, such as that controlling market entry, does exist.

Route syndicates may be present but are described as "various".

Ghana

In Ghana and neighboring countries, tro tro are privately owned minibus vehicles for hire that travel fixed routes leaving when filled to capacity. While there are tro tro stations,West Africa (p. 347).  Anthony Ham. Lonely Planet, 2009. 7th ed. 912 pp. 1741048214, 9781741048216. these shared taxis can also be boarded anywhere along the route.

Operated by a driver and a conductor, who collects money, shouts out the destination, and is called a "mate",TroTro Station  ghanaweb.com many are decorated with slogans and sayings, often religious, and few operate on Sundays.  Tro tro are used by 70% of Ghanaian commuters. This popularity may be because in cities such as Accra had only basic public transportation save for these small minibuses.  Following the creation of the Greater Accra Passenger Transport Executive, some large buses were brought into service, mainly Brazilian-built Scanias with Marcopolo bodies. A Bus Rapid Transit system is being developed for opening in November 2019.  The Swedish company Scania has won the contract to not only supply the buses but also the infrastructure.

An informal means of transportation, in Ghana they are licensed by the government, but the industry is self-regulated. In Accra, syndicates include GPRTU and PROTOA.

Ivory Coast
In the Ivory Coast, gbaka is a name for minibus public transports.

The transport regulator in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, is Agence de Gestion des Transports Urbains or AGETU.

As of 2008, Abidjan public transport was serviced by large buses as well as minibusses.

Syndicates include UPETCA and SNTMVCI.

Kenya (matatu)

 Madagascar

Mali

In Mali, at least two words for share taxi may have common currency sotrama and dourouni.

As of 2008, Bamako, Mali, has no independent transport authority, but share taxi activity could fall under regulator Direction de la régulation et du contrôle du transport urbain (municipal) or DRCTU control.

Morocco
In Morocco, grands taxis are the name for large, unmetered, shared taxicabs used for transportation between towns. Grands taxis are generally old full-size Mercedes-Benz sedans, and seat six or more passengers.

Nigeria

In Nigeria, both minibusses (called danfo) and midibuses (molue) may be operated as share taxis. Such forms of public transport may also be referred to as bolekaja, and many bear slogans or sayings.

Lagos, Nigeria, has a transport-dedicated regulator, Lagos Metropolitan
Area Transport Agency (LAMATA), its remit most probably includes share taxi activity. Outside of Lagos, most major cities in Africa have similar systems of transport.

Syndicates in Lagos may include the National Union of Road and Transport Workers (NURTW).

Rwanda
Minibus public transports in Rwanda may be called coaster buses, share taxis, or twegerane. The latter could easily be a word meaning "stuffed" or "full".

As of 2020 in Kigali, Rwanda, syndicates include RFTC, Kigali Bus Services, and Royal Express, all of these operating in Kigali but each province has got a couple of companies operating there as well.

 South Africa

Over 60% of South African commuters use shared minibus taxis (16 seater commuter buses), sometimes referred to as kombis.

Many of these vehicles are unsafe and not roadworthy, and often dangerously overloaded.

Prior to 1987, the taxi industry in South Africa was highly regulated and controlled. Black taxi operators were declined permits in the Apartheid era and all minibus taxi operations were, by their very nature, illegal.

Post-1987, the industry was rapidly deregulated, leading to an influx of new minibus taxi operators, keen to make money off the high demand for this service. Taxi operators banded together to form local and national associations. Because the industry was largely unregulated and the official regulating bodies corrupt, these associations soon engaged in anti-competitive price fixing and exhibited gangster tactics – including the hiring of hit-men and all-out gang warfare. During the height of the conflict, it was not uncommon for taxi drivers to carry shotguns and AK-47s to simply shoot rival taxi drivers and their passengers on sight.

Currently the South African Government is attempting to formalize and re-regulate the out-of-control minibus taxi industry. Along with new legislation, the government has instituted a 7-year recapitalization scheme to replace the old and un-roadworthy vehicles with new 18- and 35-seater minibusses. These new minibus taxis carry the South African flag on the side and are notably more spacious and safe.

Tanzania

Minivans (minibuses may be a more correct term here) are used as vehicles for hire and referred to as dala dala in Tanzania. While dala dala may run fixed routes picking up passengers at central locations, they will also stop along the route to drop someone off or allow a prospective passenger to board. Before minibuses became widely used, the typical dala dala was a pick-up truck with benches placed in the truck bed.

In Dar es Salaam, publicly operated minibus service may also exist as of 2008.

Usually run by both a driver and a conductor, the latter is called a mpigadebe, literally meaning "a person who hits a debe" (a 4-gallon tin container used for transporting gasoline or water). The name is in reference to the fact that conductors often hit the roof and side of the van to attract customers and to notify the driver when to leave the station.

These often-crowded public transports have their routes allocated by a Tanzania transport regulator, Surface and Marine Transport Regulatory Authority (SUMATRA), but syndicates also exist and include DARCOBOA.

Tunisia

Share taxis in Tunisia are called louage and follow fixed or semi-fixed routes, departing from stations when full. Usually minibuses or compact cars, although some louage are station wagons, passengers may board and disembark at any point during travel.

They run between towns and within cities.

West Africa - Kia kia
The term kia kia may be used in Yorùbáland to refer to minibus public transports, and means "quick quick".

Asia

 Hong Kong

Public light buses (), also known as minibus or maxicab (), run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas which the standard bus lines cannot or do not reach as frequently, quickly or directly.

Typically offering a faster and more efficient transportation solution due to their small size, limited carrying capacity, frequency, and diverse range of routes, although they are generally slightly more expensive than standard buses, minibusses carry a maximum of 19 seated passengers. Standing passengers are not allowed.

There are two types of public light minibus, green and red. Both types have a cream-coloured body, the distinguishing feature being the colour of the external roof, and the type of service that the colour denotes: green is like regular transit bus with fixed number, route, schedule and fare (but generally not fixed stops); red is a shared taxi, operating on semi-fixed route unregulated, with the driver waiting for enough passengers to justify leaving, as his income depends on the revenue.

 Cyprus
In Cyprus, there are privately owned share taxis that travel to set destinations and board additional passengers en route called service taxis.

India
Shared taxis have been operating in Mumbai, India, since the early 1970s. These are point-to-point services that operate during peak hours. During off-peak hours they ply like regular taxis; they can be hailed anywhere on the roads and passengers are charged by the meter. During peak hours they will take a full cab load of passengers to a more or less common destination. The pick-up points are usually fixed, and sometimes (but not always) marked by a sign saying "shared taxis". Cabs typically line up at this point during peak hours.

They sometimes display their general destination on their windscreens, and passengers get in and wait for the cab to fill up. Once full the cab moves off. Fares are fixed and much lower than the metered fare to the same destination, but higher than a bus or train fare.

Such informal arrangements also exist in other Indian cities. Share jeeps are a common form of transportation in the Himalayas, the North Eastern States, and elsewhere.

IndonesiaAngkutan Kota (), abbreviated as angkot, are share taxis in Indonesia widely operating throughout the country usually with microbuses. In some places there were also three-wheelers which are called bemo (such as autorickshaws based on the Daihatsu Midget) but phased out. The older version of Angkot is called oplet. The name of this transportation differs from each different province or area in the country. In Jakarta, it is called angkot or "mikrolet", in other parts such as in Sulawesi, the term mikrolet (shortened "mikro") is more widely used especially in Manado. In Makassar it is called "pete-pete", in Malang it is called "angkota", in Medan it is called "sudako", in Aceh it is called "labi-labi".

Share taxis operated across rural/village routes are called angkutan desa (), abbreviated as angkudes. Angkot and angkudes run accordingly to their exact routes and may stop at any class of bus stations (A, B, and C-Type bus stations). Additionally, passengers can stop the van anywhere according to its destination, and is not required to stop at a bus stop.

Iran

In Iran, a share taxi is usually called "taxi", while a non-share is called "ajans"/اژانس, pronounced [aʒans]. Four passengers share a taxi and sometimes there is no terminus and they wait in the street side and blare their destination to all taxis until one of them stops. These are regular taxis but if somebody wants to get a non-share taxi he can call for an ajans (taxi service) for himself or wait in the street side and say "Darbast" (which means non-share). It means he is not interested in sharing the taxi and is consequently willing to pay more for the privilege.

Minibuses, in the past years, with a capacity of 18 passengers, and nowadays van taxis, with a capacity of 10 passengers are other kinds of share transport in Iran.

Israel

In  monit sherut, pl.  moniyot sherut is a word meaning "service taxi". Referring to vans or minibusesAmelia Thomas, Michael Kohn, Miriam Raphael, Dan Savery Raz, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, p. 431.   Lonely Planet, 2010. 468 pp. 6th ed. 1741044561, 9781741044560. that serve as share taxis in Israel, these can be picked up from anywhere on their route. They follow fixed routes (sometimes the same routes as public transport buses) and usually leave from the initial station only when full.GUIDE TO 13 MAJOR WAY STATIONS  nytimes.com, March 4, 1984. Moniyot sherut operate both inter-INTERNATIONAL ISSUE; Going Abroad Without Going Broke  nytimes.com, March 11, 1990. and intra-city. Payment is often done by passing money to the driver in a "human chain" formed by the passengers seated before. The change (and the receipt, when requested) are returned to the person who paid by the same means. In intra-city routes, where they compete with official buses, the drivers usually coordinate their travel by radio so that they can arrive at the bus station just before public transport buses and take the most passengers.

Monit sherut are one of the only forms of transit accessible to many Israelis during Shabbat, as most public transportation in the country closes down between sunset on Friday and sunset on Saturday.

The Philippines

The most popular means of public transportation in the Philippines as of 2007, jeepneys were originally made out of US military jeeps left over from World War II and are known for their color and flamboyant decoration. Today the jeepneys are built by local body shops from a combination of prefabricated elements (from a handful of Filipino manufacturers) and improvisation and in most cases equipped with "surplus" or used Japanese SUV or light truck engines, drive train, suspension and steering components (from recycled vehicles in Japan).

They have not changed much since their post-war creation, even in the face of increased access to pre-made vehicles, such as minibusses. However, due to the government's Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program, Jeepneys and other modes of transportation must comply to the newer Philippine National Standards which is more compliant with international standards.

Older jeepneys have the entrance on the back, and there is space for two people beside the driver (or more if they are small) while the modern jeepneys have two doors on the right side of the vehicle. The back cab of the Jeepney is equipped with two long bench seats along the sides and the people seated closest to the driver are responsible for passing the fare of new passengers forward to the driver and the change back to the passenger. The start and end point of the jeepney route is often a jeepney terminal, where there is a queue system so only one jeepney plying a particular route is filled at a time, and where a person helps the driver to collect fares and fill the vehicles with people, usually to more than comfortable capacity.

Preferring to leave only when full and only stop for a crowd of potential passengers, riders can nonetheless disembark at any time; and while jeepneys ply fixed routes, these may be subject to change over time. New ones may need approval from a Philippine transport regulator. Jeepney stations do exist.

Another share taxi that is also common in the Philippines is the UV Express which uses Compact MPVs and vans as its form factor. These vehicles seat 10-18 people and charge an additional 2 Philippine peso per kilometer (as of 2013).

 Thailand

Literally "two rows" a songthaew or song thaew (Thai สองแถว, Lao: ສອງແຖວ [sɔ̌ːŋtʰíw]) is a passenger vehicle in Thailand and Laos adapted from a pick-up or a larger truck and used as a share taxi. They are also known as baht buses.

 Turkey and Northern Cyprus

In Turkey and Turkish-controlled Northern Cyprus dolmuş (pronounced "dolmush") are share taxis that run on set routes within and between cities. Each of these cars or minibusses displays their particular route on signboards behind the windscreen.

Some cities may only allow dolmuş to pick up and disembark passengers at designated stops, and terminals also exist. The word derives from Turkish for "full" or "stuffed", as these share taxis depart from the terminal only when a sufficient number of passengers have boarded.  Visitors to Turkey have been surprised by the speed of dolmuş travel.

These share taxis are also found in Turkish-controlled, Northern Cyprus under the same name. Traveling intra and inter-city, the privately owned minibuses or aging Mercedes stretch limos are overseen by a governance institution; routes are leased and vehicles licensed. Passengers board anywhere along the route (you may have to get the driver to stop if he doesn't honk at you) as well as at termini and official stations. Dolmuş in Turkish-controlled, Northern Cyprus display their routes but don't follow timetables. Instead, they simply appear frequently.

 West Bank
Share taxis are often called "ser-vees" (service taxi) in the West Bank. Minibuses are often used in lieu of vans. Ford Transit vans were often a popular vehicle for conversion, resulting in the generic trademark "Ford" and "Fordat"(pl) being used to describe minibusses of various makes, replacing aging Mercedes sedans.

Oceania
New Zealand
In New Zealand the first widespread motor vehicle services were shared taxi services termed service cars; a significant early provider was Aard, operating elongated Hudson Super Sixes. By 1930 there were 597 service cars. Aard was taken over by New Zealand Railways Road Services in 1928. Shared taxis in New Zealand nowadays are referred to as Shuttles or Shuttle vans (see below).

 New Zealand - Shuttle bus or van

Shared buses or vans are available in many more developed countries connecting frequent destinations, charging a fixed fee per passenger. The most common case is a connection between an airport and central city locations. These services are often known as shuttles. Such services usually use smaller vehicles than normal buses and often operate on demand. An air traveler can contact the shuttle company by telephone or Internet, not necessarily in advance; the company will ensure that a shuttle is provided without unreasonable delay. The shuttle will typically connect one airport with several large hotels, or addresses in a specified area of the city. The shuttle offers much of the convenience of a taxi, although it takes longer, at a price that is significantly lower for one or two passengers. Scheduled services between an airport and a hotel, usually operated by the hotel, are also called shuttles.

In many cases the shuttle operator takes the risk of there not being enough passengers to make the trip profitable; in others, there is a minimum charge when there are not enough passengers.

Usually, there are regulations covering vehicles and drivers; for example in New Zealand under NZTA regulations, shuttles are only allowed to have up to eleven passenger seats, and the driver must have a passenger endorsement (P) on their driver's license.

Europe
Estonia
Share taxis in Estonia are mostly found in Tallinn, the capital. Called liinitakso, marsruuttakso, taksobuss or mikroautobuss depending on the language spoken, these minibusses run fixed routes and allow passengers to disembark at any time.

Greece
In Athens, Greece most taxis were share taxis, but since the country joined the EU this tradition started to disappear.

Former Soviet Union

Lithuania
In Lithuania, share taxis are called maršrutinis taksi.

Netherlands

Besides the conventional deeltaxi, there are treintaxis in some Dutch towns. Operated on behalf of the Netherlands Railways, they run to and from railway stations and the ride is shared with additional passengers picked up along the way. Tickets can be purchased at railway ticket offices or from the cabdriver, but treintaxis must be ordered by phone unless boarding at a railway station.

United Kingdom
In 2018 Arriva launched shared taxi service Arriva Click in Liverpool and Sittingbourne and Kent Science Park in the United Kingdom.

Northern Ireland
In some towns in Northern Ireland, notably certain districts in Ballymena, Belfast, Derry and Newry, share taxi services operate using Hackney carriages and are called black taxis. These services developed during The Troubles as public bus services were often interrupted due to street rioting. Taxi collectives are closely linked with political groups – those operating in Catholic areas with Sinn Féin, those in Protestant areas with loyalist paramilitaries and their political wings.

Typically, fares approximate those of Translink operated bus services on the same route.  Service frequencies are typically higher than on-bus services, especially at peak times, although limited capacities mean that passengers living close to the termini may find it difficult to find a black taxi with seats available in the rush hour.

Switzerland
Major providers of mobility services such as MOD Mobility On Demand and/or Collective Taxi in Switzerland are Telebus Kriens LU, Taxito, myBuxi, Kollibri by Swiss Postal Bus, and Pikmi by VBZ Verkehrsbetriebe Zurich ZH.

Most providers as TNC Transportation Network Companies run single-source mobility platforms for the service and/or are connected with multi-modal mobility platforms of Public Transit (= Collective Traffic) and city administration/community organizations.

North America

Barbados

Most areas of Barbados are served by ZRs, which run in addition to the government-run bus service.

Dominican Republic

In the Dominican Republic, these privately owned vehicles run fixed routes with no designated stops, and the ride is shared with other passengers.

Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada advises against traveling in the Dominican Republic carros públicos because doing so makes passengers targets for robbery, and because the taxis are known to, "disregard traffic laws, often resulting in serious accidents involving injuries and sometimes death." The US Department of State also warns that using them is hazardous, as passengers often have their pockets picked, and are sometimes robbed by the drivers themselves.

HaitiTap taps, gaily painted buses or pick-up trucks, and publiques, usually older saloon cars, serve as share taxis in Haiti.Tap taps are privately owned and beautifully decorated. They follow fixed routes; won't leave until filled with passengers; and many feature wild colors, portraits of famous people, and intricate, hand-cut wooden window covers. Often they are painted with religious names or slogans. Riders can disembark at any point in the journey.My Haiti Picture for today : Tap-Tap  katianovetsaintlot.blogspot.com, February 9, 2010. Their name refers to "fast motion".

The publiques operate on fixed routes and pick up additional passengers all along the way.

While saying not to use any form of public transport in Haiti, the Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada advises against tap tap travel especially. The US State Department also warns travelers not to use tap taps, "because they are often overloaded, mechanically unsound, and driven unsafely."

Saint Lucia
In Saint Lucia, waychehs are a name for minibus public transports using Toyota HiAce.

Canada

In Quebec, share taxis or jitneys are called taxis collectifs (in English "shared taxis") or transport collectif par taxi (which the STM translates in English as "taxibus") and are operated by subcontractors to the local transit authorities on fixed routes. Google translate renders "transport collectif par taxi" as "public transport by taxi".

In the case of the Montréal the fare is the same as the local bus fare, but no cash and transfers are issued or accepted; in case of the STL only bus passes. The Réseau de transport de Longueuil accepts regular RTL tickets and all RTL and some Réseau de transport métropolitain TRAM passes.

Guatemala
In Guatemala, ruleteros, minibus share taxis, pick up and discharge passengers along major streets.

United StatesJitney is an American English term that originally referred to a vehicle for hire intermediate between a taxi and a bus. It is generally a small-capacity vehicle that follows a rough service route, but it can go slightly out of its way to pick up and drop off passengers. In many US cities (e.g. Pittsburgh and Detroit), the term jitney refers to an unlicensed taxi cab.

The name comes from an archaic, colloquial term for a five-cent piece in the US (the nickel). The common fare for the service when it first came into use was five cents, so the "five-cent cab" or "jitney cab" came to be known for the price charged.

In Rhode Island, a jitney license plate is used for all public passenger buses, even for larger ones.

While jitneys became fairly common in many other countries, such as the Philippines, they first appeared in the United States and Canada. The first US jitneys ran in 1914 in Los Angeles, California. By 1915, there were 62,000 nationwide. Local regulations, demanded by streetcar companies, killed the jitney in most places. By the end of 1916, only 6,000 jitneys remained. Similarly, in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, in the 1920s, jitneys competed directly with the streetcar monopoly operating along the same routes as the streetcars, but jitneys were charging lower fares. Operators were referred to as "jitney men." They were so successful that the city government banned them at the request of the streetcar operators.

Since the 1973 oil crisis (as well as the mid-20th-century decline in transit service), jitneys have reappeared in some areas of the US, particularly in inner city areas once served by streetcars and private buses. An increase in bus fares usually leads to a significant rise in jitney usage. Liberalization of jitneys is often encouraged by libertarian urban economists, such as University of Chicago's Richard Epstein, Rutgers' James Dunn, and USC's Peter Gordon, as a more "market-friendly" alternative to public transportation. Concerns over fares, insurance liabilities, and passenger safety have kept legislative support for jitneys decidedly tepid. Nevertheless, in New York City and northern New Jersey, jitneys (known as "dollar vans" because of their original price) are regulated.

Miami has the country's most comprehensive jitney network, due to Caribbean influence. In Atlanta jitneys run along Buford Highway.

In Atlantic City the ACJA operates a jitney service that travels the main strip of casinos. One of the routes also services the new cluster of casinos west of Atlantic City proper.

In 2009, the Houston Waves, Houston's first jitney service in 17 years, started running. It has expanded into a network of buses operating within Loop 610 and to all special event venues in Houston.

 Latin America
In Puerto Rico, "carros públicos" (literally "public cars") are share taxis. Carros Publicos set routes with several passengers sharing the ride and others picked up throughout the journey.

The industry is regulated by the Puerto Rico Public Service Commission.

While these cars do travel inter-city, they may not be available for longer, cross-island travel. Stations may exist in cities, and Puerto Rican carros públicos may congregate in specific places around town.

 Mexico

Along with traditional bus and minibus routes in some areas that the regular size buses couldn't fit due to the road and street height and width with small size. but they are regulated in standard minibuses fares depending on the state and city of the country.

South America
ArgentinaColectivos operated as share taxis from the late 1920s until the 1950s in Buenos Aires, Argentina when they were integrated into the public transportation system. Vehicles still known as colectivos operate throughout the country, but have long been indistinguishable from buses.

Chile, Peru and Guatemala

Often share taxi routes in Mexico are ad hoc arrangements to fill in gaps in regular public transportation, and many operate inter-city as well as local routes. In many rural areas, they are the only public transportation.

In some cases, truck/taxi combination vehicles have evolved to transport light goods as well as passengers. Heavily used share taxi routes often evolve into regulated microbus public transit routes, as has occurred in Mexico City and in Lima.Taxis colectivos are also found in Perú, Chile, Guatemala, and Argentina, where they are most commonly referred to simply as colectivos'', although in some places they have become essentially standard buses.

Modern technology-based services

Paratransit
Modern Paratransit services, also known as demand responsive transport systems in the UK, can provide shared transport services in situations where scheduled services are not viable. Traditionally these services had to be booked a day in advance, but are becoming increasingly responsive using modern communications systems with a central booking system accessed by phone or internet and instant communications with GPS-tracked vehicles. Unlike scheduled services, the vehicles need not operate on fixed routes of timetables, although they do often have constrained routes.

Commercial shared taxis booking services

Some newer taxi share systems now use internet and mobile phone communications for booking and scheduling purposes, with the actual service provided by normal hackney carriage or Private Hire vehicles. Prospective passengers make bookings and supply destination details using SMS or mobile apps to a central server which aggregates these travel requests and creates packages of trips which are then communicated to drivers.

Commercially operated airport shuttle buses
There are many operators of airport shuttle services between Airports and Hotels around the world that operate on flexible routing and timing to offer a service that is both cheaper than a sole-occupancy taxi and also often more convenient than other forms of public transport. The requirement to carry luggage offers an added incentive to use such services over scheduled transport which will normally require a walk from the drop-off location to the final destination. Services from these operators are starting to spread from airports to railway stations and to other locations.

Demand responsive transport

Some operators and/or governments around the world are now offering demand-based shared transport to residents in communities with low ridership numbers, which could help maintain the existence of public transport. Operations are predefined according to bookings.

See also
 Dollar van
 Dolmuş
 Marshrutka
 Nanny van
 Pesero
 Public light bus (Hong Kong)

Citations

Cited works

External links

Bus terminology
Public transport by mode
Public transport in Turkey
Sustainable transport
Public transport in Africa
Transport in Israel

Share taxi


Bula papală este numele dat documentelor care proclamă acte juridice importante emise de Papă ce au fost întocmite în cancelaria papală și sigilate pentru autentificare. Caracteristică este înlocuirea părții numite Salutatio din documentele oficiale, cu formula ad perpetuam rei memoriam ("pentru memoria perpetuă").Denumirea oficială latină a acestui tip de document este litterae apostolicae, în română "scrisoare apostolică" sau litterae apostolicae sub plumbo, în română "scrisori apostolice cu sigiliu de plumb" sau pur și simplu "scrisoare sigililată apostolică", pentru a se deosebi de alte documente sau înscrisuri normale. Cuvântul "bulă" provine din latinescul bulla. Documentele papale din Evul Mediu și din perioada modernă timpurie erau sigilate în mod normal cu plumb. În secolul al XV-lea în special, expresia "bule" sau bullae a fost adesea folosită în limbajul neoficial pentru documentele papale, care în diplomația modernă nu sunt numărate printre bule.

Istoria
Bulele papale au fost folosite cel puțin începând din secolul al VI-lea, dar sintagma a fost folosită doar începând de la sfârșitul secolului al XIII-lea și atunci în scopuri administrative interne neoficiale. Bula a devenit oficială în secolul al XV-lea, când unul dintre birourile Cancelariei Apostolice a fost numit "Registrul bulelor" ("registrum bullarum").

După alegerea Papei Leon al IX-lea în 1048, a apărut o distincție clară între două clase de bule: cu solemnitate mai mare și cu solemnitate mai mică. Majoritatea "marilor bule" (de mare solemnitate) care mai există în prezent reprezintă confirmări ale proprietăților sau ale statutului privilegiat acordat mănăstirilor și instituțiilor religioase. Într-o epocă în care au fost emise multe astfel de documente, cei care obțineau bule de la Roma doreau să se asigure că autenticitatea bulei lor este mai presus de orice suspiciune. O confirmare papală, emisă în anumite condiții, putea fi invocată ca fiind o dovadă suficientă a titlului în cazurile în care documentul original fusese pierdut sau distrus.

Începând din secolul al XII-lea, bulele papale au purtat un sigiliu de plumb pe care erau reprezentate capetele apostolilor Sfântul Petru și Sfântul Pavel pe o parte și numele papei pe cealaltă. Bulele papale au fost inițial emise de papă în scopul comunicărilor de natură publică, dar până în secolul al XIII-lea, bulele papale erau folosite doar pentru cele mai formale sau solemne ocazii. Papirusul pare să fi fost folosit aproape uniform ca material pentru scrierea acestor documente până în primii ani ai secolului al XI-lea, după care el a fost înlocuit cu un tip de pergament.

Istoricii au folosit retroactiv cuvântul "bulă" pentru a descrie orice document papal elaborat, emis ca act juridic sau privilegiu canonic, solemn sau simplu, ca și pentru cele mai puțin elaborate emise sub forma unei scrisori. În limbaj popular termenul "bulă" este folosit pentru orice document papal care poartă sigiliu metalic.
Bulă emisă de papa Grigore al IX-lea (secolul al XIII-lea)

Astăzi, bula este singura comunicare scrisă în care papa se autonumește "Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei" (în română "Episcop, Slujitor al Slujitorilor lui Dumnezeu").

În timp ce bulele papale purtau întotdeauna un sigiliu metalic, astăzi poartă un astfel de sigiliu doar cele emise în cele mai solemne ocazii. Bula papală este astăzi cel mai formal tip de document emis de Cancelaria Vaticanului în numele Papei.

Formatul
O bulă începea cu un rând scris cu litere înalte și alungite care conținea trei elemente: numele papei, titlul papal "Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei" și un Incipit, adică primele câteva cuvinte în latină care dădeau titlul bulei și aveau ca scop păstrarea unei evidențe a bulelor emise, dar care nu trebuia neapărat să fie un indicativ al scopului emiterii bulei.

Textul bulei nu respecta o convenție specifică privind forma. De multe ori documentul era foarte simplu ca aspect. Partea de încheiere consta dintr-un "datum" care menționa locul de emitere, ziua, luna și anul pontificatului papei și semnăturile lângă care era atașat sigiliul.

Pentru cele mai solemne bule, papa semna el însuși documentul, caz în care folosea formula "Ego N. Catholicae Ecclesiae Episcopus" (în română "Eu, N., Episcopul Bisericii Catolice"). În acest caz după semnătură se afla o monogramă elaborată, semnăturile eventualilor martori și apoi sigiliul. În zilele noastre, un membru al Curiei Romane semnează documentul în numele papei, de obicei cardinalul secretar de stat, iar monograma este omisă.

Sigiliul

Cea mai distinctivă caracteristică a unei Bule era sigiliul metalic (bulla), care era de obicei făcut din plumb, dar care în ocazii foarte solemne era făcut din aur, ca cele de pe documentele imperiale bizantine (vezi Bula de aur). Pe avers erau reprezentați, inițial oarecum grosolan, primii părinți ai Bisericii Romei, apostolii Sfântul Petru și Sfântul Pavel, identificați prin literele Sanctus PAulus și Sanctus PEtrus (deci, SPA • SPE sau SPASPE). Sfântul Pavel, aflat în stânga, era reprezentat cu păr curgător și cu barbă lungă ascuțită compusă din linii curbe, în timp ce Sfântul Petru, aflat în dreapta, era reprezentat cu păr creț și o barbă mai scurtă în formă de cupolă făcută din globetti (mărgele în relief). Capetele sfinților erau înconjurate de un cerc făcut tot din globetti, iar marginea sigiliului era înconjurată de un inel suplimentar de astfel de mărgele, în timp ce capetele în sine erau separate printr-o reprezentare a crucii. Pe reversul sigiliului se afla numele papei în forma nominală latină, cu literele PP, pentru Pastor Pastorum (în română: Păstorul păstorilor). Acest disc era apoi atașat la document fie prin șnururi din cânepă, în cazul scrisorilor juridice și scrisorilor executorii, fie din mătase roșie și galbenă. Termenul bulla derivă din latinescul bullire (în română: a fierbe) și face aluzie la faptul că, fie este vorba de ceară, plumb sau aur, materialul din care era făcut sigiliul trebuia să fie topit pentru a fi ușor deformat și a reține forma dată prin impresiune.

În 1535, gravorului florentin Benvenuto Cellini i s-au plătit 50 de scuzi pentru a recrea matricea metalică care urma să fie folosită pentru impresionarea bulelor de plumb ale Papei Paul al III-lea. Cellini a păstrat elemente iconografice precum fețele celor doi apostoli, dar le-a sculptat cu o atenție mult mai mare la detalii și cu mai multă sensibilitate artistică. Pe reversul sigiliului a adăugat câteva flori de lis, o reprezentare heraldică aparținând familiei Farnese din care făcea parte papa Paul al III-lea.

Începând cu sfârșitul secolului al XVIII-lea, bulla de plumb a fost înlocuită cu o ștampilă cu cerneală roșie, reprezentând Sfinții Petru și Pavel, numele papei, care înconjoară imaginea. Bulele foarte formale, cum este Bula Papei Ioan al XXIII-lea pentru convoacarea Conciliului Vatican II, au primit încă sigiliul de plumb.

Multe bule papale originale care există încă, au fost emise după secolul al XI-lea când s-a făcut trecerea de la papirusul fragil la pergamentul mai durabil. Niciun astfel de document emis înainte de anul 819 nu a supraviețuit în întregime. Totuși unele sigilii originale din plumb din secolul al VI-lea au supraviețuit.

Conținutul
În ceea ce privește conținutul, bula are formatul unui decret papal. Bulele puteau avea orice subiect și multe dintre ele erau și sunt, (incluzând decretele statutare) numiri episcopale, dispense, excomunicări, constituții apostolice, canonizări și convocări.

Bula avea formatul exclusiv al scrisorii emise la Vatican până în secolul al XIV-lea, când a apărut breful papal. Acesta este documentul mai puțin formal de comunicare papală care era autentificat cu sigiliu din ceară, care este astăzi doar o impresie a Inelului Pescarului făcută cu cerneală roșie. Nu a existat niciodată o distincție exactă între utilizarea unei bule și a unui bref, dar în zilele noastre majoritatea acestora, inclusiv enciclicele, sunt emise ca bref.

Bule papale controversate

Pe 18 iunie 1452, papa Nicolae al V-lea a legitimat comerțul cu sclavi prin Bula Dum diversas, împuternicindu-l pe regele portughez "să cucerească pământurile necredincioșilor, să-i alunge pe locuitorii lor, să-i subjugeze și să-i forțeze la robie eternă".

Pe 5 decembrie 1484, papa Inocențiu al VIII-lea a emis decretul Summis desiderantes affectibus, cunoscut și sub numele de Bula vrăjitoarelor, prin care Papa a cerut autorităților să sprijine doi inchizitori în vânătoarea de vrăjitoare. Acestă Bulă a deschis drumul către una dintre cele mai întunecate epoci din istoria Europei: vânătoarea de vrăjitoare.

Pe 14 iulie 1555, papa Paul al IV-lea a emis bula papală Cum nimis absurdum, prin care li se cerea evreilor din statele papale, pe care îi descria drept ucigași ai lui Hristos, printre altele, să-și vândă proprietățile și să se mute în ghetouri construite pentru ei, să poarte îmbrăcăminte care îi identifică ca evrei, să nu se joace, mănânce sau înfrățească cu creștinii și să facă comerț doar cu haine vechi.

Note

Bibliografie

 Michael F. Feldkamp: Bullen von Nuntien und Legaten: Zum Sprachgebrauch des Terminus »Bulle« in der frühen Neuzeit. În: Römische Historische Mitteilungen 34/35 (1992/1993), pg. 133–138.
 Michael F. Feldkamp: "Bullen" von päpstlichen Nuntien und Legaten? Wissenschaftsterminus versus zeitgenössischer Sprachgebrauch, în: același autor: Reichskirche und politischer Katholizismus. Aufsätze zur Kirchengeschichte und kirchlichen Rechtsgeschichte der Neuzeit (Propyläen des christlichen Abendlandes, vol 3, Imprimeria Patrimonium, Aachen 2019, pg. 51–55, ISBN 978-3864171208.
 Thomas Frenz: Papsturkunden des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (= Historische Grundwissenschaften in Einzeldarstellungen vol 2. ediția a 2-a actualizată, Imprimeria Steiner, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 978-3-515-12193-4

Bulă papală


Brigadier-General Ratu Epeli Nailatikau,  (born 5 July 1941) (often referred to as Na Turaga Mai Naisogolaca) is a Fijian chief who was President of Fiji from 2009 to 2015. He has had a long career in the Military, diplomatic service, and government. From 2001 to 2006 he served as Speaker of the House of Representatives – the lower and more powerful chamber of the Fijian Parliament. He was also the chairman of the Parliamentary Appropriations Committee and of the House Committee. On 8 January 2007, he was appointed the interim Minister for Foreign Affairs and External Trade; he was moved to the post of interim Minister for Provincial Development and Multi-Ethnic Affairs in September 2008. In October 2008, he became Indigenous Affairs Minister "and effectively Great Council of Chiefs chairman". On 17 April 2009, he was appointed Vice-President by the military government.

On 30 July 2009, he became acting president after the retirement of President Josefa Iloilo. On 5 November 2009, he was sworn in as President of Fiji. George Konrote was elected to succeed him in October 2015.

On 11 February 2019, he became the newly appointed Speaker of the Fijian Parliament, winning 30 votes against 21 to Opposition nominee and Suva lawyer, Tanya Waqanika.

Education and military career
Born to a family of politically powerful chieftains, Nailatikau's career spanned 20 years in the military and 17 years in the diplomatic service. Following his education at Bau District School, Draiba Fijian School, Levuka Public School and Queen Victoria School, Nailatikau trained as a soldier in New Zealand. In 1966, he served on secondment in the 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment and was posted to Sarawak, Malaysia, during Indonesia's "Konfrontasi" against Malaysia. He proved to be a popular and highly respected officer. When he returned to the Fiji Infantry Regiment, he rose steadily through the ranks. By 1987, he held the rank of Brigadier-General, and was the Commander of the Royal Fiji Military Forces. While visiting Australia, he was deposed from this position, however, when the third-ranked officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka staged the first of two coups and seized power.

Diplomatic career
Nailatikau retired from the Army and decided to pursue a new career in the diplomatic service. After completing the Foreign Service Course at Oxford University in the United Kingdom, he was appointed High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and accredited as Fiji's ambassador to Denmark, Egypt, Germany, Israel and the Holy See. He was later appointed as Fiji's roving ambassador and high commissioner to the member states of the South Pacific Forum, before taking up a post as Permanent Secretary for Foreign Affairs and External Trade in 1999.

Political career
In the aftermath of the failure of the Fiji coup of 2000, a coup which Nailatikau strongly opposed, he was nominated for the position of Prime Minister, to help rebuild Fiji's shattered institutions. He withdrew his nomination, however, in favour of Laisenia Qarase, who was considered more of a consensus candidate, but became Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Fijian Affairs in the interim Cabinet. In 2001, after democracy had been restored in a general election, he defeated, by a vote of 41 to 29, Joeli Kalou for the position of Speaker of the House of Representatives, a position he held until after the 2006 elections.

Following the coup d'état of 5 December 2006, he was sworn in as Minister for Foreign Affairs and External Trade in the new interim government of Prime Minister Commodore Frank Bainimarama on 8 January 2007.

He was nominated to become the new vice-president by the Fiji president Ratu Josefa Iloilo on 10 April 2007, but was rejected by the GCC. On 17 April 2009, after Fiji experienced a constitutional crisis, Ratu Epeli was appointed vice president.

Nailatikau served as interim Minister of Foreign Affairs, International Co-operation and Civil Aviation under Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama, beginning in January 2007. On 23 September 2008, Bainimarama said that Nailatikau would be moved to the post of Minister for Provincial Development and Multi-Ethnic Affairs on 5 October 2008, while Bainimarama would take over his previous duties. According to Bainimarama, he "decided to give him this new responsibility given his extensive knowledge and hands-on experience on the workings of the Civil Service, Governments role in rural development and the sources of assistances available to facilitate such development", while also stating that Nailatikau had "excellent public relations appeal, which is very much needed in outreaching and inter-facing with rural people."

Acting prime minister
On 25 September 2007, Epeli was appointed as acting prime minister while interim Prime Minister, Frank Bainimarama, was away in New York for the week.

Acting president
On 30 July 2009, he became acting president after the retirement of 88-year-old President Iloilo. The president was supposed to be appointed by the Great Council of Chiefs (effectively abolished by the military-backed regime) under the 1997 constitution that Iloilo had abrogated, but Bainimarama announced that a new president would be appointed by his cabinet at the regime's convenience. Nailatikau was formally appointed to the office on 5 November 2009.

Anti-AIDS campaigner
On 14 June 2005, Nailatikau was appointed the UNAIDS special representative for the Pacific. According to the Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS, he was chosen because his political position, his respect throughout the Pacific region, and his outspokenness on AIDS-related issues. He had previously served as a UNAIDS Pacific spokesman, and in October 2004 chaired the first conference of Pacific Parliamentarians on the Role of Pacific Parliamentarians in the fight against HIV/AIDS, in Suva.

Nailatikau's outspoken calls to tackle the AIDS crisis have attracted controversy. On 22 November 2005, he called on people to recognise the reality that promiscuity existed, and that safe sex needed to be promoted to combat the associated AIDS risk. It was unrealistic to deny promiscuity and just promote abstinence, he considered, adding that this was a matter of life and death. He also called on churches to face the reality that promiscuity existed among their own congregations, and to meet the problem "head on" and play a part in promoting the use of condoms.

He represented the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (CPA) at the World AIDS Conference in Toronto in August 2006.

Personal life
As a chief by birth through his paternal side via his maternal grandmother, who is the granddaughter of Ratu Seru Cakobau, Epeli Nailatikau has the title of Ratu. He is the second son of Ratu Edward Cakobau, who commanded the Fijian Battalion in World War II. He is also a great-great-grandson of Seru Epenisa Cakobau from his granddaughter Litia Cakobau, the first monarch to rule over a unified Fijian kingdom after conquering all the tribes of Fiji and uniting them under his leadership, and who ceded the Fiji Islands to the United Kingdom in 1874. In addition, he is a grandson of King George Tupou II of Tonga. His father is the product of issue between King George Tupou II and Litia Cakobau who was sent to Tonga as a trial bride to the King but this was later repudiated as they could not marry under the normal Tongan constitution.

In 1981, he married Adi Koila Mara, the second daughter of modern Fiji's former prime minister and president Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. Adi Koila has also been a politician; like her husband, she was a Member of Parliament, Cabinet minister, and Senator. They have two children: a son, Kamisese Vuna (named after Adi Koila's father), and a daughter, Litia Cakobau.

Honours
National honours
  Order of the Crown of Tonga, Grand Cross (31 July 2008).

References

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1941 births
Ambassadors of Fiji to Denmark
Ambassadors of Fiji to Egypt
Ambassadors of Fiji to Germany
Ambassadors of Fiji to Israel
Ambassadors of Fiji to the Holy See
Companions of the Order of Fiji
Fijian chiefs
Fijian expatriates in Malaysia
Fijian military leaders
Fijian people of Tongan descent
Fijian soldiers
Foreign Ministers of Fiji
High Commissioners of Fiji to the United Kingdom
I-Taukei Fijian members of the House of Representatives (Fiji)
Lieutenants of the Royal Victorian Order
Living people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Queen Victoria School (Fiji)
Politicians from Bau (island)
Presidents of Fiji
Speakers of the Parliament of Fiji
Speakers of the House of Representatives (Fiji)
Tui Kaba
Vice-presidents of Fiji
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Tonga

Epeli Nailatikau


An Orchis quadripunctata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Domenico Maria Leone Cirillo ngan Michele Tenore. An Orchis quadripunctata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Orchis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Orchis

Orchis quadripunctata


El accidente ferroviario de Once, comúnmente llamado Tragedia de Once, fue un siniestro ferroviario ocurrido en Buenos Aires, Argentina, el miércoles 22 de febrero de 2012,  en el que murieron 52 personas, de las cuales una se encontraba embarazada, y 789 resultaron heridas.

El choque se produjo a las 8:33, cuando el tren n.° 3772 de la línea Sarmiento, identificado como "Chapa 16", no detuvo su marcha y colisionó con los paragolpes de contención cuando estaba arribando a la plataforma número 2 de la estación terminal de Once.

Fue el tercer accidente ferroviario más grave de la Argentina, después del ocurrido en Benavídez en 1970, donde murieron 236 personas, y el ocurrido en Sa Pereira en 1978 que causó 55 muertos.

Al momento del accidente, el estado nacional argentino mantenía un contrato de concesión de la línea Sarmiento con la empresa Trenes de Buenos Aires, también conocida por las siglas TBA.

Los hechos dieron lugar a dos juicios, conocidos como Once I y Once II. En el juicio Once I el tribunal dictó sentencia en 2014, con 21 condenados (18 empresarios, 2 funcionarios y el conductor), mientras que en 2018 la Cámara absolvió a uno de los condenados y redujo todas las penas restantes, lo que fue apelado ante la Corte Suprema. El juicio Once II se realizó en 2018, y la sentencia registró criterios distintos que Once I, absolviendo al principal acusado, el exministro del Gobierno de la presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, Julio De Vido del estrago ferroviario, aunque condenándolo por administración fraudulenta.

Contexto

Entre 2011 y 2013 se produjeron cuatro siniestros ferroviarios en la misma línea (Sarmiento). Dos de ellos se produjeron en la estación Once, uno en Flores y otro en Castelar. El primer siniestro se produjo el 13 de septiembre de 2011, provocando la muerte de 11 personas y lesiones a 228 personas. El segundo se produjo el 22 de febrero de 2012, provocando la muerte de 52 personas y lesiones a 789 personas. El tercero se produjo el 13 de junio de 2013, provocando la muerte de 3 personas y lesiones a 315 personas. El cuarto se produjo el 19 de octubre de 2013, provocando lesiones a 105 personas.

Accidente

Siniestro
El miércoles 22 de febrero de 2012, a las 08:33 a. m., el tren n.º 3772 de la línea Sarmiento, identificado con la chapa 16, que se encontraba llegando a la plataforma número 2 de la estación terminal de Once, no detuvo su marcha y colisionó con los paragolpes de contención.

Los primeros tres vagones se aplastaron, ocasionando los heridos más graves. Según la BBC "uno de los vagones se introdujo seis metros dentro del próximo." Muchos pasajeros informaron haber oído el aplastamiento a modo de una gran explosión, provocando una onda expansiva que ocasionó la rotura de todos los vidrios.

Víctimas
El siniestro ocurrió a las 8:33 (hora local) en el primer día laboral de la semana luego de los feriados por el Carnaval, y fue en pleno horario pico, por lo cual los coches de pasajeros estaban atestados de personas, que en su mayoría eran trabajadores en rumbo a sus empleos. La totalidad de las víctimas fatales se encontraban en el primer y segundo coche.

El impacto causó 51 víctimas fatales, incluyendo a una mujer embarazada. A ese número se sumaron 789 heridos de distintas gravedades, de los cuales 200 fueron trasladados a 13 hospitales de la ciudad de Buenos Aires.

La mayoría de las víctimas fatales se encontraban en los dos vagones delanteros, que eran los que más pasajeros llevaban, debido a la costumbre en trenes y subtes de ubicarse en los primeros coches para ganar tiempo y acceder con más facilidad y rapidez a otros medios de transporte.

Respuesta a la emergencia

El día del accidente, muchas ambulancias estaban localizadas en el puerto de la ciudad de Buenos Aires, esperando la llegada de un barco con personas enfermas. Muchas de ellas dejaron el puerto para trabajar en la zona del accidente, rescatando mucha gente herida, y trasladándola al hospital. Las personas con lesiones menores fueron dejadas en la zona del accidente. De acuerdo con el jefe de Defensa Civil de la ciudad, hubo dificultades en el rescate debido a la sólida estructura de los coches, lo que dificulto la remoción de los escombros. El conductor del tren, con el esfuerzo de muchas personas, fue rescatado vivo y trasladado en ambulancia, con heridas en las piernas. Del operativo participaron dos helicópteros y 110 ambulancias del Sistema de Atención Médica de Emergencia y ambulancias de empresas privadas coordinados por Estela Morandi, además de varias dotaciones de bomberos y centenares de efectivos de la Policía Federal.

La última víctima, Lucas Menghini Rey de 20 años de edad, fue encontrada dos días después en una cabina del conductor, entre el tercer y cuarto vagón. El padre de la víctima lo reconoció en un video de vigilancia subiéndose al tren por la primera ventanilla del cuarto vagón, lo cual ayudó al hallazgo. El Ministerio de Seguridad explicó que la víctima estaba en una cabina vedada a los pasajeros, en desuso y con las puertas clausuradas. La demora en encontrarlo desencadenó incidentes entre los familiares.

Un año después, en una entrevista con el diario Clarín, los bomberos comentaron sobre el operativo. Los bomberos recordaron que tuvieron presión para entregar la escena rápido, y que los superiores los iban despachando a sus cuarteles, donde seguían de guardia atendiendo otros incendios y rescates.

Duelo
La presidente de la Nación, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, decretó 48 horas de duelo nacional y el Jefe de Gobierno de la ciudad de Buenos Aires, Mauricio Macri, lo decretó en la ciudad. El gobernador de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Daniel Scioli, lo hizo en la provincia. En estos casos, se suspendieron las celebraciones de carnaval programadas para esos días.

Actuaciones judiciales
La causa fue investigada por el juez federal Claudio Bonadío y fue juzgada en dos juicios orales, conocidos como Once I y Once II, seguidos contra distintos acusados, realizados en 2014 y 2018.

Investigación
Los hechos fueron investigados por el fiscal federal Federico Delgado, bajo el control del juez de instrucción federal Claudio Bonadio. En los primeros días el fiscal Delgado acusó duramente al juez Bonadío de "apropiarse" del expediente, impididiéndole realizar sus tareas de investigación.

La cuestión central investigada en la etapa de instrucción estuvo referido al estado de los frenos, para establecer si el maquinista del tren, Marcos Córdoba, había omitido frenar, o si los frenos estaban rotos, debido a que no habían sido adecuadamente mantenidos, poniendo la responsabilidad en cabeza de los dueños de la empresa ferroviaria, sindicalistas y funcionarios de control.

En total actuaron seis peritos ingenieros. Los tres primeros oficiales y los tres últimos de parte:
 Raúl Díaz, perito de la Corte Suprema de Justicia;
 Néstor Luzuriaga, perito de la Corte Suprema de Justicia;
 Juan Brito, especialista de la Universidad de Buenos Aires; fue denunciado por el diario Clarín de cobrar dinero de la empresa TBA, a cargo del servicio al momento del accidente;
 Horacio Faggiani, de la Comisión Nacional del Transporte, propuesto por el maquinista acusado;
 Alejandro Leonetti, de la Secretaría de Transporte, propuesto por la defensa;
 Julio Pastine, propuesto por la empresa TBA, concesionaria de la línea Sarmiento al momento del accidente.

Hallazgos
De las pericias se determinó que en sólo 6 de 8 coches de la formación los compresores del sistema de freno estaban en condiciones de funcionar, que el sistema de frenado tenía materiales deteriorados, y que 7 de los 8 coches de la formación presentaban diferimientos en sus reparaciones generales. A su vez se determinó que los paragolpes no tenían el sistema hidráulico en funcionamiento, influyendo en las consecuencias del accidente. También se calculó que el tren entró a la estación a unos 20km/h, una velocidad cinco veces superior de lo normal.

La mayoría de los peritos concluyeron que los frenos funcionaban correctamente, salvo el ingeniero Brito, que sostuvo que el conductor se quedó sin poder de freno. El juez Bonadío desestimó las conclusiones de la mayoría (Díaz, Luzuriaga, Faggiani, Leonetti y Pastine) y avaló las conclusiones del perito Brito, para concluir que "lo más probable sea que Córdoba haya tenido un problema de disminución de presión y eso lo hizo frenar muy sobre el golpe". Con ese criterio, Bonadío sobreseyó al maquinista Córdoba, y poco después también procesaría a todos los peritos menos Brito, mandándolos a juicio acusados de ponerse "de acuerdo con el propósito de responsabilizar penalmente por los hechos ocurridos el 22 de febrero de 2012 únicamente al conductor del tren". Con posterioridad, ambas decisiones serían dejadas sin efecto: el maquinista Córdoba sería procesado y llevado a juicio y los peritos serían absueltos en el juicio oral.

Finalmente, en febrero de 2013 el juez Bonadío elevó la causa a juicio, con 28 procesados, entre ellos el maquinista Marcos Córdoba y los exministros Ricardo Jaime y Juan Pablo Schiavi. El sorteo estableció que el juicio oral debía realizarse ante el Tribunal Oral Federal N° 1 (TOF1) de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires.

Primer juicio (Once I)
El 18 de marzo de 2014 comenzó el juicio ante el Tribunal Oral en lo Criminal Federal N.º 2 (TOCF2), integrado por los jueces Rodrigo Giménez Uriburu, Jorge Alberto Tassara y Jorge Luciano Gorini.

En el juicio fueron juzgados dos hechos: por un lado el siniestro de Once, con su secuela de muertes y lesiones, y por otro lado si hubo administración fraudulenta en la administración de la empresa ferroviaria y la gestión ministerial.

El juicio se extendió por casi dos años. Entre los actos más relevantes se encuentra la decisión del tribunal de rechazar las conclusiones de cuatro de los seis peritos (ingenieros Horacio Faggiani, Julio César Pastine, Alejandro Héctor Leonetti y Raúl Díaz) y solicitar que los mismos fueran procesados por falso testimonio, cosa que hizo el juez Bonadío. En ese marco, el perito ingeniero Leonetti fue detenido por el tribunal. Dos años después los cuatro peritos resultarían absueltos.

La sentencia fue dictada el 29 de diciembre de 2015 y los fundamentos se dieron a conocer el 30 de marzo de 2016. De los 28 acusados, 21 personas recibieron condenas y 7 personas resultaron absueltas.

Administración fraudulenta de la empresa ferroviaria y la gestión ministerial

El tribunal consideró acreditado que el directorio de TBA incumplió con los deberes de administración y cuidado de los bienes públicos afectados a la línea Sarmiento.

Se tomó como probado que miembros del comité ejecutivo y del directorio tomaron la decisión de no ejecutar tareas de mantenimiento que debían cumplir. Con el objetivo de obtener beneficios económicos, ejecutaron un plan delictivo ocasionando perjuicio económico a los bienes públicos por el deterioro de la flota asignada a la línea, flota de propiedad estatal. El plan delictivo consistía en permitir que la flota de material rodante circule en deplorable estado, afectando el confort y la seguridad de los pasajeros. Esto les permitía solicitar anticipadamente la reconstrucción integral del material rodante con fondos aportados por el Estado Nacional. Los fondos eran abonados a la empresa Emprendimientos Ferroviarios SA. Luego, obtenían los beneficios a través de un contrato ficticio de asesoramiento integral con la empresa Cometrans SA.

Para el tribunal, sería imposible realizar esto sin la colaboración de los funcionarios públicos Juan Pablo Schiavi y Ricardo Jaime. En sus respectivos cargos dentro de la Secretaría de Transporte, tenían la obligación de controlar el sistema ferroviario. Tenían conocimiento del mal estado del material rodante y de la política empresarial de TBA, y recibieron alertas por parte de la CNRT. A pesar de esto, utilizaron artimañas burocráticas para detener las medidas que eviten el plan delictivo de la empresa. Así, contribuyeron al mal estado del material que fue entregado en consesión a TBA.

En los fundamentos de la sentencia, el tribunal menciona que con el accionar delictivo de los imputados se incumplieron las condiciones de seguridad, superando el umbral del riesgo permitido en el rubro ferroviario. A su vez, destruyeron el estándar de calidad proyectando un trato indigno a los usuarios del servicio.

Mecánica del siniestro

El tribunal recriminó severamente al cuerpo pericial, imputándole actuar criminalmente con el fin de "exculpar al empresariado", y desechó sus conclusiones sobre la velocidad del tren al momento de chocar. Prescindiendo de las pericias, los jueces sostuvieron que la velocidad del tren al momento de chocar era de 20 km/h, resultado que el tribunal dedujo de los datos registrados por el GPS, concluyendo que el maquinista Córdoba había intentado frenar en los instantes finales, pero tardíamente.

Con respecto a la mecánica del siniestro, el tribunal tuvo muy en cuenta una modalidad de frenado llamada "freno largo", que caracterizaba a los trenes de marca Toshiba, y que consistía en necesitar una mayor distancia de frenado. Las causas técnicas del "freno largo" no fueron probadas en el juicio, pero el tribunal consideró que se trataba de una "anomalía", que había causado un "sistema de frenos degradado", que incrementó el peligro y debió haber sido evitado por la empresa TBA. Esa circunstancia fue considerada parte de un "patrón empresarial vinculado a la desatención de los estándares de seguridad mínimos para una operación
confiable del servicio ferroviario de transporte de pasajeros".

Con respecto al maquinista Córdoba, el tribunal consideró que el accidente se produjo porque frenó tardíamente, circuló a mayor velocidad que la permitida, y desconectó el sistema preventivo de "hombre muerto", pero evaluó que su conducta no había tenido la intención de causar el estrago, en contra de lo señalado por la defensa. A su vez consideró que los empresarios y los funcionarios del Estado, tuvieron mayor responsabilidad debido a la administración fraudulenta de los recursos y en algunos casos, también por agravar los riesgos que influyeron en el siniestro.

Sentencia de primera instancia

Dieciocho de los veintiún condenados fueron empresarios, la mayoría de la empresa TBA, concesionaria de la línea férrea. A ellos se sumaron dos funcionarios, que fueron la cabeza de la Secretaría de Transporte de la Nación, a la época de accidente y hasta tres años antes. Finalmente también fue condenado el maquinista, con una pena en suspenso. Las condenas fueron las siguientes:

 Sergio Claudio Cirigliano, expresidente de TBA: 9 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Marcelo Alberto Calderón, director de Cometrans: 8 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Jorge Álvarez, director de TBA: 8 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Juan Pablo Schiavi, secretario de Transporte de la Nación al momento del siniestro: 8 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Sergio Daniel Tempone, gerente de Operaciones de TBA: 7 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Ricardo Jaime, secretario de Transporte de la Nación entre 2003 y 2009: 8 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Carlo Michele Ferrari, presidente de TBA: 6 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Jorge Alberto De Los Reyes, vicepresidente de TBA: 6 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Carlos Esteban Pont Verges, director de TBA: 6 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Roque Ángel Cirigliano, jefe de Material Rodante de TBA: 5 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Antonio Marcelo Suárez, director de TBA: 5 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Laura Aída Ballesteros, directora de TBA: 5 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Guillermo Antonio D'Abenigno, director de TBA: 5 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Francisco Adalberto Pafumi, directivo de TBA: 5 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Víctor Eduardo Astrella, director de TBA: 5 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Alejandro Rubén Lopardo, director de Cometrans: 4 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Pedro Roque Raineri, directivo de TBA: 4 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Oscar Alberto Gariboglio, vicepresidente de Cometrans: 4 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 José Doce Portas, director de Cometrans: 4 años de prisión (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Marcos Antonio Córdoba: tres años y seis meses de prisión e inhabilitación especial por seis años (pena reducida por la Cámara).
 Daniel Guido Lodola, gerente de la Línea Sarmiento: 3 años de prisión de ejecución condicional (absuelto por la Cámara).

Sentencia de segunda instancia
El 8 de mayo de 2018 la Sala Tercera de la Cámara Federal de Casación Penal (Juan Carlos Gemignani, Eduardo Rafael Riggi y Carlos Alberto Mahiques) dictó la sentencia de segunda instancia, confirmando el fallo de primera instancia en lo sustancial, pero reduciendo las penas de todos los condenados y absolviendo a Daniel Lodola, gerenta de la Línea Sarmiento, que había sido condenado en la instancia anterior. Las penas impuestas por la Cámara, fueron las siguientes, todas menores a las impuestas en primera instancia:

 Sergio Claudio Cirigliano, expresidente de TBA: 7 años de prisión.
 Marcelo Alberto Calderón, director de Cometrans: 6 años de prisión.
 Jorge Álvarez, director de TBA: 6 años de prisión.
 Juan Pablo Schiavi, secretario de Transporte de la Nación al momento del siniestro: 5 años y 6 meses de prisión.
 Sergio Daniel Tempone, gerente de Operaciones de TBA: 5 años de prisión.
 Ricardo Jaime, secretario de Transporte de la Nación entre 2003 y 2009: 7 años de prisión.
 Carlo Michele Ferrari, presidente de TBA: 5 años de prisión.
 Jorge Alberto De Los Reyes, vicepresidente de TBA: 5 años de prisión.
 Carlos Esteban Pont Verges, director de TBA: 5 años de prisión.
 Roque Ángel Cirigliano, jefe de Material Rodante de TBA: 3 años y 6 meses de prisión.
 Antonio Marcelo Suárez, director de TBA: 4 años de prisión.
 Laura Aída Ballesteros, directora de TBA: 4 años de prisión.
 Guillermo Antonio D'Abenigno, director de TBA: 4 años de prisión.
 Francisco Adalberto Pafumi, directivo de TBA: 4 años de prisión.
 Víctor Eduardo Astrella, director de TBA: 4 años de prisión.
 Alejandro Rubén Lopardo, director de Cometrans: 3 años de prisión.
 Pedro Roque Raineri, directivo de TBA: 3 años de prisión.
 Oscar Alberto Gariboglio, vicepresidente de Cometrans: 3 años de prisión.
 José Doce Portas, director de Cometrans: 3 años de prisión.
 Marcos Antonio Córdoba: 3 años y 3 meses de prisión e inhabilitación especial por 6 años y 6 meses.

Recursos
Todos los condenados presentaron recursos ante la Corte Suprema. Hasta que los mismos estén resueltos la sentencia no está firme.

Segundo juicio (Once II)
El 27 de septiembre de 2017 se inició el segundo juicio por la tragedia de Once, conocido como Once II. El juicio se realizó ante el Tribunal Oral en lo Criminal Federal N.º 4 (Pablo Bertuzzi, Guillermo Costabel y Gabriela López Iñíguez), siendo los acusados el diputado nacional Julio de Vido, quien fuera ministro de Planificación cuando sucedió el siniestro de Once, y Gustavo Simeonoff, quien era el responsable de la Unidad de Renegociación y Análisis de Contratos de Servicios Públicos (UNIREN). Para poder ser enjuiciado, De Vido debió ser "desaforado", es decir, debido a que era en ese momento diputado nacional, la Cámara de Diputados debió habilitar el juicio, disponiendo que De Vido quedara excluido de la Ley de Fueros N.º 25.320, sancionada el año 2000. Los acusados fueron enjuiciados por dos eventuales delitos: el accidente de Once de 2012 y la administración fraudulenta de los recursos públicos.

Sentencia de primera instancia de Once II

El 10 de octubre de 2018 el Tribunal Oral en lo Criminal Federal N.º 4 (TOCF4) dictó su veredicto absolviendo a Julio De Vido por el estrago ferroviario de 2012 y condenándolo por administración fraudulenta a 5 años y 8 meses de prisión además de dejarlo inhabilitado a ejercer cargos públicos de por vida, y absolviendo de todos los cargos a Gustavo Simeonoff. Los argumentos del fallo fueron publicados el 10 de diciembre del 2018.

A diferencia de lo que sucedió en el juicio Once I, en este caso el tribunal consideró que la administración fraudulenta no tenía la entidad necesaria para causar o concausar el estrago ferroviario de 2012, razón por la cual consideró que De Vido no era culpable de la tragedia de Once.

Reacciones al accidente

Internacionales

La noticia provocó la solidaridad de diferentes países que se comunicaron con el gobierno para manifestar su dolor ante la tragedia. Como el presidente de Venezuela, Hugo Chávez que afirmó "Venezuela ratifica, en estos momentos que enlutan a la hermana República de Argentina, su amistad incondicional y la irrestricta voluntad de seguir avanzando en la ecuación del desarrollo regional y en la construcción soberana de la unión latinoamericana". O los primeros mandatarios de Uruguay (José Mujica), Perú (Ollanta Humala), Chile (Sebastián Piñera), Nicaragua (Daniel Ortega), Honduras (Porfirio Lobo), y otros presidentes latinoamericanos.

También se manifestó la embajadora Vilma S. Martínez y personal de la embajada de Estados Unidos, e incluso del secretario de Relaciones Exteriores británico, Jeremy Browne, quien expresó "Mis pensamientos están con las familias de las víctimas y con los servicios de emergencia que todavía intentan ayudar a los afectados".

El entonces papa Benedicto XVI rezó por las víctimas del accidente y afirmó Pido fervientemente al Todopoderoso por el eterno descanso de los fallecidos.

Nacionales

Rubén Sobrero y políticos de Proyecto Sur, el diputado Pino Solanas acusó a la empresa y a la CNRT. La Unión Cívica Radical y la Coalición Cívica ARI denunciaron el pésimo estado de la línea Sarmiento y del sistema ferroviario argentino y a la administración de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner y a la Auditoría General de la Nación.

Leandro Despouy indicó: "no hay ninguna duda de que el Estado tiene una responsabilidad mayúscula en lo que concierne a la concesión de un servicio público, que sigue estando en manos del Estado: sólo se concede en la medida en que la empresa cumpla estrictamente con las condiciones que el propio Estado establece en el contrato de concesión". La Auditoría General de la Nación presentó un informe el 2 de marzo de 2012 recomendando  "intimar a TBA para que dé cumplimiento a las tareas de mantenimiento, que garanticen la correcta conservación de los bienes concesionados y la seguridad operativa del sistema, contemplando la totalidad de las rutinas establecidas para el material rodante". Desde su privatización en 1995, TBA recibía subsidios.

Por parte del gobierno nacional

El día del accidente, por la tarde, Juan Pablo Schiavi dio una conferencia de prensa sin responder preguntas. Mencionó que no sabían aún qué pasó en los últimos 40 metros, ni por qué no paró el tren, y precisó que la formación ingresó al andén con una velocidad habitual. También indicó que había muchas personas en los primeros vagones, haciendo que haya más víctimas, mencionando que «los primeros dos coches estaban atiborrados de gente, porque todos se agolpan para salir primero». Y opinó que si el accidente ocurría el día anterior, que era feriado, no hubiera sido tan grave.

Por parte de la empresa TBA

El 5 de junio de 2012, la empresa Trenes de Buenos Aires difundió un comunicado negando haber puesto "en riesgo documentación contable" o haber "obstruido el accionar de la Justicia".

Dicha reacción se debió a la detención del propietario de la empresa Claudio Cirigliano y otros tres directivos de la compañía por presunta obstrucción de la investigación.

El 12 de junio el programa Telenoche difundió un video grabado por empleados de una empresa de mudanzas, quienes declararon haber transportado documentación con la orden de no dejar ningún papel". Desde la sede de TBA en Retiro hasta la firma TATSA en el Partido de San Martín y fue confirmado dos días después. Fueron allanadas dos camionetas cargadas de documentación de la empresa. La empresa por su parte, culpó a los delegados de armar una causa por intencionalidades políticas.

22F

En el primer aniversario de la tragedia, cientos de personas se reunieron el 22 de febrero de 2013 para homenajear a los 51 muertos. La marcha llevó el nombre de "22F" (combinación derivada por el número de fecha y la letra inicial del mes de febrero), comenzó con un minuto de silencio a la hora 8:33 UTC-3, la leyenda «JU5T1CIA», haciendo referencia a los 51 muertos. La marcha fue convocada a través de las redes sociales y aún cobra relevancia en la actualidad.

El vídeo del accidente

En julio del 2013, el portal Infobae tuvo acceso a la grabación de la cámara del tren chapa 16. Allí se puede observar el correcto funcionamiento de los frenos entre las estaciones Caballito y Once de Septiembre.

Referencias

Notas

Enlaces externos
 En la Página oficial de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires existe una lista de víctimas del accidente que puede ser consultada y teléfonos de información.

Once
Argentina en 2012
Balvanera (Buenos Aires)
Desastres en 2012
Ferrocarril de la ciudad de Buenos Aires

Accidente ferroviario de Once


البنك الأهلي الكويتي هو مصرف كويتي أنشيء عام 1967 يقدم عدد من الخدمات المصرفية تعمل على تلبية احتياجات سوق مبيعات التجزئة من خلال منتجات الودائع أو توفير خدمات الفيزا أو الماستر كارد أو برنامج القروض الاستهلاكية الشاملة. كما يقدم البنك خدماته للشركات الخاصة عن طريق منح القروض وتوفير خطابات الائتمانات والضمانات وخدمات السداد مع التركيز بشكل خاص على التمويل في مجال الإعمار والعقارات والتجارة.

انتشار البنك
يقدم البنك خدماته من خلال 23 فرعاً محلياً وفرعين خارجيين في دبي وأبوظبي بدولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة. وفرع في مصر.

الأهلي كابيتال
هي شركة تابعة للبنك أنشئت عام 2006 لتمثل الذراع الإستثماري للبنك. قامت الشركة بإنشاء المحافظ الاستثمارية وإدارة أصول العملاء في سوق الكويت للأوراق المالية. وتقوم حالياً الشركة بتسلم إدارة الصناديق الاستثمارية الخاصة بالبنك مع استحداث صناديق جديدة. كما يقدم الأهلي كابيتال الخدمات الاستشارية لعملائه في الكويت والإمارات العربية المتحدة.

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الإلكتروني للبنك الأهلي الكويتي
 بيانات البنك لدى سوق الكويت للأوراق المالية

المراجع

شركات مقرها في مدينة الكويت
بنوك الكويت
تأسيسات سنة 1967 في الكويت
بنوك أسست في 1967
شركات كويتية أسست في 1967

البنك الأهلي الكويتي


CQ Amateur Radio (og kendt som CQ eller CQ magazine og tidligere som CQ: The Radio Amateur's Journal) () er et tidsskrift for amatørradio entusiaster først udgivet i 1945. Den engelsksprogede udgave læses verden over; den spansksprogede udgave udgives i Spanien som indeholder nogle oversættelser af artikler fra de engelsksprogede artikler fra den engelske udgave og noget europæisk indhold. Tidsskriftet udgives også i Frankrig med delvise oversættelser fra den originale udgave mellem 1995 og 2000 ().

CQ Amateur Radio udgives af CQ Communications. CQ Amateur Radio er baseret på CQ-kaldet; tidsskriftet er ikke associeret med det lignende japanske tidsskrift CQ ham radio.

Se også
 Worked All Zones
 Friedman, Neil (N3DF), CQ "Small Format" Books, 1947-1984: An Annotated Bibliography, in The AWA Review (Vol. 19, 2006).

Kilder/referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 CQ World Wide DX Contest
 CQ World Wide WPX Contest

Amatørradio-tidsskrifter
Tidsskrifter fra USA

CQ Amateur Radio


Şah Gambiti, 1. e4 e5 2. f4 hamleleriyle tanımlanan satranç açılışıdır. Bu popüler gambit, müthiş karmaşık bir oyundur ve üzerine düzinelerce kitap yazılmıştır. Siyah, aşağıdaki hamleyi oynayarak Kabul Edilen Şah Gambiti'ni oynayabilir:
2….. exf4

Satranç açılışları
Satrançta 17. yüzyıl

Şah Gambiti


Cypripedioideae, potporodica kaćunovki, sastoji se od nekoliko rodova, a ime je dobila po rodu Cypripedium, ili gospinoj papučici koja se naziva i "ženska papučica" ili "papučasta orhideja", potporodica od pet rodova orhideja (porodica Orchidaceae), kod kojih je usna cvijeta papučastog oblika. Ženske papučice nalaze se diljem Euroazije i Amerike, a neke se vrste uzgajaju.

Opis
Orhideje "ženske papučice" obično su kopnene, iako su neke epifitne ili rastu na stijenama. Većina vrsta ima rizome i vlaknasto korijenje. Za razliku od većine drugih orhideja, cvjetovi karakteristično imaju dva plodna prašnika (muške strukture koje proizvode pelud) umjesto samo jednog. Usnica cvijeta u obliku papuče služi kao zamka za kukce oprašivače, tjerajući ih da se penju pored reproduktivnih struktura i talože ili primaju polinije (mase peluda) kako bi oplodile cvijet.

Rodovi
Rod Cypripedium ima oko 50 umjerenih i suptropskih vrsta, od kojih su većina kopnene. Jedna od poznatih vrsta je žuta ženska papučica (C. calceolus). Druga je "ružičasta ženska papučica" (C. acaule), poznata i kao "cvijet mokasine". Većina vrsta ima jedan ili dva cvijeta na stabljici visokoj oko 30 do 60 cm (12 do 24 inča).

Rod Mexipedium sastoji se od jedne vrste, M. xerophyticum, endemske za malu regiju Oaxaca, Meksiko. Biljke rastu na suhim liticama. Sićušni cvjetovi su bijeli sa blijedoružičastim središnjim stupom. Biljka se smatra kritično ugroženom.

Vrste Paphiopedilum, roda od oko 70 tropskih azijskih ženskih papučica, imaju šarene ili zelenkaste listove s kožastom strukturom i velike voštane cvjetove različitih boja. Razvijeni su mnogi hibridi.

Oko 20 vrsta ženskih papučica čini rod Phragmipedium. To su uskolisne biljke porijeklom iz tropske Amerike. Jedan do šest cvjetova s laticama poput vrpce nalazi se na stabljici visokoj gotovo 90 cm (35 inča).

Šest vrsta iz roda Selenipedium, također porijeklom iz tropske Amerike, mogu biti visoke 5 metara (16 stopa). Listovi su presavijeni, a cvjetovi se nalaze na klasu na vrhu biljke. S. vanillocarpum ima sjemenke s mirisom vanilije. Prema Crvenom popisu ugroženih vrsta IUCN-a, sve se vrste Selenipedium smatraju ugroženima.

Rodovi
 Selenipedium Rchb. fil. (12 spp.)
 Cypripedium L. (48 spp.)
 Phragmipedium Rolfe (26 spp.)
 Mexipedium V. A. Albert & M. W. Chase (1 sp.)
 Paphiopedilum Pfitzer (104 spp.)

Izvori

Kaćunovke

Cypripedioideae