USS Petrof Bay (CVE-80) was the twenty-sixth of fifty s built for the United States Navy during World War II. She was named after Petrof Bay, which in turn was named in 1928 after Ivan Petroff, a Russian Alaskan who served as a special census agent for the 1880 United States census. The bay is located within Kuiu Island, which at the time was a part of the Territory of Alaska. The ship was launched in January 1944, commissioned in February, and served in support of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, the Philippines campaign, including the Battle off Samar, the Battle of Iwo Jima, and the Battle of Okinawa. She was decommissioned in July 1946, when she was mothballed in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. Postwar, she participated in Operation Magic Carpet. Ultimately, she was broken up in September 1959.

Design and description

Petrof Bay was a Casablanca-class escort carrier, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and was designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was  long overall, had a beam of , and a draft of . She displaced  standard and  with a full load. She had a  long hangar deck and a  long flight deck. She was powered with two Skinner Unaflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing , thus enabling her to make . The ship had a cruising range of  at a speed of . Her compact size necessitated the installment of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft.

One /38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight Bofors  anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as twelve Oerlikon  cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty  cannons, and the amount of Bofors  guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more. During the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, she carried 16 FM-2 Wildcat fighters and 10 TBM-1C Avenger torpedo bombers for a total of 26 aircraft. However, during the Battle of Leyte, at the opening stages of the Philippines campaign, she carried 16 FM-2 fighters and 12 TBM-1C torpedo bombers for a total of 28 aircraft. During the Invasion of Lingayen Gulf, at the middle stages of the Philippines campaign, as well as during the Battle of Iwo Jima, she carried 20 FM-2 fighters and 12 TBM-1C torpedo bombers for a total of 32 aircraft. During the Battle of Okinawa, she carried 18 FM-2 fighters and 12 TBM-3 torpedo bombers for a total of 30 aircraft.

Construction
Her construction was awarded to Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington under a Maritime Commission contract, on 18 June 1942. The escort carrier was laid down on 15 October 1943 under the name Petrof Bay, as part of a tradition which named escort carriers after bays or sounds in Alaska. She was laid down as MC hull 1117, the twenty-sixth of a series of fifty Casablanca-class escort carriers. She therefore received the classification symbol CVE-80, indicating that she was the eightieth escort carrier to be commissioned into the United States Navy. She was launched on 5 January 1944; sponsored by Mrs. J.G. Atkins, the wife of Captain Atkins, the executive officer of the Farragut Naval Training Station, located in Northern Idaho; transferred to the Navy and commissioned on 18 February 1944, with Captain Joseph Lester Kane in command.

Service history

Upon being commissioned, Petrof Bay underwent a shakedown cruise down the West Coast, heading to Naval Air Station North Island, San Diego, California. Upon arriving, she took on passengers, aircraft, and cargo, before departing on 29 March for the southwest Pacific. She arrived at Espiritu Santo of the New Hebrides on 14 April, where she unloaded part of her cargo. On 20 April, she steamed for Seeadler Harbor, in Manus Island of the Admiralty Islands, arriving there on 25 April. After arriving, she transferred eight aircraft that she was ferrying to other ships within the harbor.

On the morning of 29 April, Petrof Bay met with the Fast Carrier Task Force (Task Force 58) of the Fifth Fleet, whereupon she began providing replacement aircraft to the task force in preparation for a follow-up strike against the Japanese naval stronghold of Truk of the Caroline Islands, which had previously been heavily damaged in Operation Hailstone. She then headed to Majuro Atoll of the Marshall Islands, arriving on 3 May, where she replenished. She then rendezvoused with the Fast Carrier Task Force again, after it had successfully conducted its strike, providing all of her aircraft, as well as most of her aviation spares and material to the fleet carriers. She also loaded onboard damaged or obsolete aircraft, as well as salvage equipment for transportation back to the West Coast.

Accompanied by the   and three screening destroyers, Petrof Bay headed back to the West Coast on 7 May, sailing into the San Francisco Bay on 20 May. She then headed back down to San Diego, where she embarked Composite Squadron (VC) 76, commanded by Lieutenant Commander James W. McCauley, and which was to be assigned to become her combat air contingent. She initially conducted shakedown air operations with her newly embarked squadron, before heading westwards for Pearl Harbor on 30 July, arriving there on 6 August.

Marianas and Palau Islands campaign

At Pearl Harbor, Petrof Bay disembarked her excess aircraft, and on 12 August, she left port, as a part of Task Group 32, the Western Attack Group, assigned to the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, but more specifically, to the planned Battle of Peleliu, codenamed Operation Stalemate II. She first headed to Guadalcanal of the Solomon Islands, anchoring in Tulagi Harbor on the afternoon of 24 August. On 4 September, having been assigned to Task Unit 32.7.2, or "Taffy 3", commanded by Rear Admiral George R. Henderson along with her sisters , which was Henderson's flagship, and , she sortied for the western Caroline Islands as a part of the Peleliu and Anguar Movement Group Number 2, screened by the s , , , and the  .

Petrof Bay, upon arriving off of Peleliu on 15 September, immediately began launching strikes against Japanese positions on the island. Marines of the 1st Marine Division landed on the southwest beaches of the island on the morning of 15 September, with the aircraft of VC-76 providing crucial close air support as they advanced up the island. For example, on the late afternoon of 15 September, as the Japanese garrison massed for a counterattack, a VC-76 TBM dropped a  bomb in the midst of three tanks, putting all three out of action. Her aircraft continued supporting the Marines almost continuously until 29 September, with the exception of one day when she replenished on munitions at Kossol Roads. Notably, her aircraft were allowed almost free rein over the island, with the beleaguered Japanese forces in the area never providing any air opposition. By 30 September, the airfield on the island had become operational, enabling the use of land-based aircraft, and therefore Petrof Bay retired back to Manus Island.

Philippines campaign
Whilst at Manus Island, Petrof Bay was assigned to Task Unit 77.4.1, or "Taffy 1" of Task Group 77.4, the Escort Carrier Group. Commanded by Rear Admiral Thomas L. Sprague, it consisted of the s , which was Sprague's flagship, , , , as well as the Casablanca-class escort carriers Saginaw Bay and Petrof Bay in Carrier Division 28, subdivided from the other carriers, but still within the same task unit. Carrier Division 28 was commanded by Rear Admiral George R. Henderson, whose flag was still hoisted onboard Saginaw Bay. On 14 October, she sortied from Seeadler Harbor, headed for Leyte Gulf in support of the opening landings on Leyte, which was to be the return of American forces to the Philippines, and which would also begin the Philippines campaign.

As the escort carriers snaked northwards from the Admiralty Islands, they provided air cover and screening for the troop transports underway. Petrof Bay and Saginaw Bay were assigned to escort the transports of Task Group 79.3, which was carrying the troops of the 7th Infantry Division, which was bound to land near Dulag, near the southern flank of the planned initial beachhead. On 20 October, having finished her task of escorting the attack transports, she separated from the rest of "Taffy 1" and rendezvoused with Task Unit 77.4.2, or "Taffy 2" for the initial landings, as "Taffy 2" was responsible for covering the landing of the 7th Infantry Division. Between the two carriers, they made forty air sorties on 20 October, as the 7th Infantry landed on Leyte. She then detached from "Taffy 2" and rejoined "Taffy 1", which had been suffering from Japanese air attacks. Petrof Bay continued providing air support from 21 October to 24 October.

In the meantime, as the escort carriers conducted their strikes, the Japanese garrison on Suluan had managed to alert their command, triggering Admiral Soemu Toyoda to launch Shō-Gō 1, a gambit to defend Japan's access to the oil fields of Southeast Asia. On 24 October, news began filtering through of the Japanese fleet moving out to engage, in what was to be the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Petrof Bay, having rejoined "Taffy 1" (Saginaw Bay had transferred her aircraft contingent to other carriers and retired from the field on 24 October), was located in the southernmost group of the escort carriers, just east of Surigao City. With this news, VC-76 began rearming into a complement more suitable to fighting against surface ships, with Captain Kane ordering all of her TBM Avengers to be loaded with torpedoes, of which they would dearly need the following day.

Over the night of 25 October, Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's Center Force swung through the San Bernardino Strait, confronting and catching "Taffy 3", the northernmost escort carrier group, by surprise as the sun rose. The Center Force had previously been sighted and attacked by aircraft in the Sibuyan Sea, and had been thought to be withdrawing, information which had certainly played into Admiral William Halsey Jr.'s decision to lead his Third Fleet northwards, after spotting Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa's diversionary Northern Force. Thus, the only ships covering the vulnerable landing crafts of Leyte Gulf were the three escort carrier task groups and their screens.

At 06:47, on the morning of 25 October, "Taffy 3" radioed for help, reporting that they were being attacked by a large Japanese surface force. Therefore, "Taffy 1" and "Taffy 2" launched aircraft in relief. As a part of this action, Petrof Bay launched two special strikes against the Center Force, with the first special strike consisting of eight FM-2 Wildcats, which linked with aircraft from Santee and Sangamon to strafe the Japanese fleet. The Wildcats made strafing runs against the Japanese ships, to little effect, and released their bombs, to unknown effect (heavy anti-aircraft fire made immediate observation extremely precarious). Two of her Wildcats were lost in this action, one of them to friendly anti-aircraft fire as it tried to return to Petrof Bay over Tacloban, and another to the flak of the Japanese fleet as it made a run.

In the meantime, the second special strike of "Taffy 1" organized, consisting of forty-one planes, coming into formation at around 07:25. Amongst this contingent were four FM-2 Wildcats and six TBM-1C Avengers launched by Petrof Bay. Immediately after these planes had been launched, at 07:29, radar detected six Japanese Mitsubishi A6M "Zeros" approaching "Taffy 1". As a result, the crew of Petrof Bay were immediately called to general quarters, and would remain so for the next 108 hours. These six planes carried out the first organized kamikaze attacks to take place in the course of the Pacific War. At 07:40, visual contact was made with four of the Zeroes, which were proceeding some  above the carriers. Three of the kamikazes immediately began their dives, with the fourth loitering around before selecting a target. The first kamikaze struck Santee, and the second kamikaze was shot down just short of Sangamon, spraying shrapnel all over the carrier. The third kamikaze dove towards Petrof Bay, but was shot down by her anti-aircraft guns as it made its dive. Nonetheless, it crashed into the ocean near enough to send water splashing onto her flight deck. The fourth kamikaze, having chosen its target, dove and struck Suwanee. A few minutes later, Santee was hit by a torpedo fired from the .

In the chaos following the immediate aftermath of the kamikaze attacks, a Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bomber dove out of the cloud cover to the port side of Petrof Bay, catching the carrier's crew by surprise. The aircraft strafed the carrier as it dove, and released its bomb unmolested by anti-aircraft fire, which still missed to the carrier's starboard. Thereafter, it disengaged and flew off.

At 09:10, having been delayed considerably by kamikazes attempting to harry "Taffy 1", the special strike group proceeded northwards, reaching the vicinity of the battle at around 10:00. By then, Kurita had been discouraged by the American resistance, and was withdrawing eastwards. Petrof Bays Avengers made torpedo runs against the battleships , , and , with two Avengers even attempting to strike the largest battleship ever launched, the super battleship . The crew of VC-76 reported one probable hit on Yamato, two probable hits on Nagato, two hits on Kongō, as well as one hit on an unidentified cruiser. However, the veracity of these claims are certainly dubitable, considering that the Japanese never recorded said torpedo "hits".

In the meantime, her Wildcats strafed the Japanese fleet, with apparent greater success than during the first special strike. Remarkably, despite the limited damage inflicted by the second special strike, none of her aircraft were lost to enemy fire. However, as they proceeded back from their strikes, the returning aircraft were dangerously low on fuel. Some of her Wildcats diverted to Tacloban, were they were harried by friendly anti-aircraft fire. In addition, some of her Avengers diverted to  of "Taffy 3" and  of "Taffy 2", with one of her Avengers landing with less than  of fuel remaining. Four of her aircraft opted to try to return to Petrof Bay, the two Avengers that had made their run against Yamato, as well as two Wildcats. Three of those aircraft landed on her flight deck successfully, with one of the Avengers being forced to ditch into the ocean within sight of the carrier.

At 15:30, Petrof Bay launched a final strike to harass the retreating Center Force. After rendezvousing with the other aircraft of "Taffy 1", the aircraft proceed to the San Bernardino Strait, where it encountered the  , whereupon her Avengers made torpedo runs against the cruiser. The apparently overeager pilots recorded two torpedo hits and one probable torpedo hit, when in reality the cruiser suffered only minor damage. Her final strike was forced to also divert to Tacloban, as their fuel was insufficient to return to "Taffy 1". Thus, Petrof Bay was left with only two Avengers onboard.

At 22:37, "Taffy 1" was steaming towards a rendezvous with "Taffy 3", when one of its escorts, the  , sighted the feathery wake of a submarine's periscope perpendicular to the escort carriers. As Coolbaugh charged in towards the wake to deliver depth charges, with inconclusive results, the rest of the fleet conducted an immediate 90-degree emergency turn. As the turn was completed, the crew of Petrof Bay spotted two torpedo wakes straddling the carrier, one  to the portside, and another apparently coasting under the overhang on the starboard side.

Whilst the American forces had been distracted with the Battle off Samar and its immediate aftermath, Vice Admiral Naomasa Sakonju's transport unit, which consisted of the  light cruiser , the  , as well as four transports, which were in the process of unloading 2,000 troops onto Ormoc Bay, on the Western coast of Leyte. The transport unit had also previously included the  , but after having been damaged by the   on 23 October, it withdrew westwards. The transport unit finished unloading its troops on the morning of 26 October, but as it withdrew, it was quickly sighted. Therefore, a strike group of twenty-three Avengers and twenty-nine fighters were assembled to strike the Japanese ships. Petrof Bay contributed its last two Avengers to the strike group, and the strike group reached the Japanese ships at 10:00 in the morning. One of Petrof Bays Avengers scored a hit with a  semi-armor-piercing bomb on Kinu, which sank shortly afterwards. In addition, her fighters strafed Uranami, contributing to her sinking.

Whilst the Japanese ships were being harried by the aircraft of "Taffy 1", two kamikaze strike groups took off from Cebu on the morning of 26 October, the first group consisting of two kamikazes and one escort, and the second group consisting of three kamikazes and two escorts. The first group was quickly intercepted by American fighters and all shot down, but the second group proceeded towards "Taffy 1" undetected, only being picked up by radar when it was  away from the fleet. Fighters returning from the attack on the Japanese ships were diverted to intercept the second group, but were distracted by the escorts, enabling the kamikazes to make their runs against the escort carriers. The first kamikaze, apparently intent on diving on Petrof Bay, was shot down by a fighter, whilst the other two kamikazes began making their dives at 12:38. The second kamikaze dove onto, and struck Suwanee, whilst the third kamikaze dove down on Petrof Bay, but it had its tail shot off by intense flak at an elevation of approximately , and it crashed into the sea just  off the stern of Petrof Bay.

During the night of 28 October, Petrof Bay retired to refuel, rendezvousing with Taffy 2. On the afternoon of 30 October, Petrof Bay, along with the rest of "Taffy 1", retired for Manus Island. Remarkably, despite the loss of several of her aircraft, and the fact that VC-76 had logged 15,000 flight hours over a period of eight months of active combat, the entirety of the crew of VC-76 survived the Philippines campaign. Seventeen Navy Crosses were awarded amongst the aircrew of VC-76, and Captain Kane also received a Navy Cross.

After arriving at Manus, Petrof Bay was assigned to Task Unit 77.4.5, the Reinforcement Carrier Group, and she was yet again under the flag of Rear Admiral Henderson. During her stay at Manus, Captain Ralph Sperry Clarke took over command of the vessel. She departed Manus Harbor on 19 November, arriving in the traffic lanes leading to Leyte on 23 November, whereupon she began operations providing air cover for convoys proceeding to and departing from the Philippines, a task necessary due to the convoys being harassed with irritating frequency by Japanese aircraft based on Mindanao. She continued these operations until the end of the year, when she was detached from Task Group 77.3, and joined up with Task Force 79, Vice Admiral Theodore Stark Wilkinson's Lingayen Attack Force, in support of the Invasion of Lingayen Gulf. She provided air cover for the attack transports of the task force as they proceeded to Lingayen Gulf, and gave close air support as they landed. The task force came under intense kamikaze attack as it proceeded up the South China Sea to northern Luzon, sinking her sister Ommaney Bay on 4 January 1945, and damaging several other carriers. This forced Petrof Bay into assuming double duty, taking on some of their assigned tasks.

On 10 January, Task Unit 77.4.6, the Close Covering Carrier Group was formed under the command of Rear Admiral Henderson, comprising Petrof Bay, Saginaw Bay, and . The group was screened by the destroyers  and , as well as the destroyer escorts  and . On 17 January, the United States Army Air Forces took over responsibility for air operations over Luzon, and Petrof Bay joined Rear Admiral Russell S. Berkey's fleet operating west of northern Mindoro. On 29 and 30 January, Petrof Bay provided air cover and close air support as the Eighth Army landed at San Narciso and San Antonio, located just to the north of Manila, where they prepared for the Battle of Manila.

Battle of Iwo Jima
Upon helping the Eighth Army gain a foothold north of Manila, Petrof Bay retired for Ulithi of the Caroline Islands. Just five days later, she departed Ulithi, this time assigned to Task Unit 52.2.1, under the command of Rear Admiral Clifton Sprague, in preparation for the Battle of Iwo Jima. The Air Force wanted the island base neutralized to eliminate the threat of fighter interceptions, and also because they wanted to use the island as a base to provide fighter escorts for the B-29 Superfortress raids on Tokyo and other assorted Japanese cities. She arrived off of Iwo Jima on 15 February, in company with Task Group 52.19, the Advance Movement Group.

Upon arriving, Petrof Bays air contingent commenced operations over the island, which in conjunction with surface bombardment, aimed to soften the Japanese defenses. On 17 February, one of her Avengers was hit by anti-aircraft fire, and was then subsequently forced to ditch next to a friendly destroyer. On 18 February, the troop transports carrying the Marines arrived offshore, and they landed on Iwo Jima the following day. Throughout the battle, Petrof Bays aircraft logged 786 air sorties conducted in support of the operation. Notably, on 21 February, the fleet carrier  was hit by a kamikaze, and Petrof Bay, which was heading to refuel, was recalled back by Vice Admiral Calvin T. Durgin.

By 7 March, the airstrip on Iwo Jima had been captured and restored to be fully operational, enabling ground-based aircraft to provide close air support in lieu of the carriers. On 8 March, Petrof Bay retired to Ulithi, stopping at Guam in the Marianas Islands along the way. At Guam, Composite Squadron (VC) 76 was disembarked and replaced with Composite Squadron (VC) 93 on 10 March.

Battle of Okinawa

At Ulithi, Petrof Bay was assigned to Task Unit 52.1.2, under the command of Rear Admiral Felix Stump, in preparation for the Battle of Okinawa. She departed on 21 March, escorting Task Group 54.1 en route. Upon arriving, on March 26, Petrof Bay covered the Marines that landed on the Kerama Islands as a preliminary for the main battle. On March 31, she also provided support for the Marines landing on Keise Shima, a small archipelago of islets  to the west of Naha. On 1 April, the main landings on Okinawa took place, and aircraft from Petrof Bay provided close air support every step of the way.

On 13 April, Petrof Bay was ordered to neutralize Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, from which kamikazes were operating. The first strikes were launched from a distance of  away, and her aircraft engaged heavy anti-aircraft fire upon arrival, which shot down two fighters, including VC-93's commander, albeit the crew of both aircraft were quickly rescued. By 16 April, Petrof Bay had resumed her typical operations over Okinawa.

Petrof Bay continued air operations, with occasional breaks for refueling, rearming, and resupply until 26 May, when she was relieved of her duty by the arrival of other escort carriers. VC-93 had shot down seventeen enemy aircraft, had a probable kill on another, and destroyed many other planes on the ground, but it had lost four Wildcats due to combat, six Wildcats operationally, and it had also lost four Avengers operationally. To alleviate the pressure on the fighter pilots, six of the Avenger pilots had volunteered to become fighter pilots, with one of these "hybrid" pilots becoming VC-93's top scorer, shooting down four aircraft. Petrof Bay had lost the lives of two pilots and one crewman in the course of the operation.

Upon being relieved, Petrof Bay headed for Guam, entering Apra Harbor on 30 May. There, Composite Squadron (VC) 93 was disembarked, and Composite Squadron (VC) 90 was taken onboard, albeit for transportation to Pearl Harbor. On 19 June, she arrived at Naval Air Base San Pedro, on Terminal Island, for a general overhaul. She completed her overhaul on 13 August, and sailed for Pearl Harbor. En route, on 15 August, news of the Surrender of Japan reached the crew.

Post-war
Petrof Bay arrived at Pearl Harbor on 20 August, whereupon she took onboard Composite Squadron (VC) 20 for qualifying exercises off Hawaii. Upon completing said exercises, she unloaded VC-20 and took onboard the crew and aircraft of Composite Squadron (VC) 4, and steamed for Tokyo Bay on 29 August, stopping at Enewetak in the Marshall Islands and Saipan in the Marianas Islands along the way. She conducted flight operations with VC-4 along the way, providing reconnaissance and anti-submarine patrols. The last plane to touch down on Petrof Bays flight deck was a TBM Avenger, which landed at 16:28 on 10 September, whilst the carrier was transiting off Saipan. She arrived at Saipan on 11 September, where a shift in orders meant that she would not have to continue to Tokyo Bay. She headed back to Pearl Harbor on 25 September, carrying onboard 104 personnel of Composite Squadron (VC) 7, as well as other military passengers. She unloaded the entirety of her aircraft contingent at Pearl Harbor upon arriving.

At Pearl Harbor, Petrof Bay embarked 123 personnel of Patrol Bombing Squadron (VPB) 52 and more military passengers, departing Oahu on 5 October, and sailing into San Francisco on 11 October, where she disembarked her passengers, as well as the crew of VC-4. On 18 October, she made a round trip to Pearl Harbor, ferrying veterans back to the West Coast, returning on 31 October. She then entered Hunters Point Naval Shipyard for alterations to accommodate more passengers, and upon the completion of said alterations, joined the Operation Magic Carpet fleet, which repatriated U.S. servicemen from throughout the Pacific.

Petrof Bays first "Magic Carpet" run began on 17 November, when she departed for Enewetak, where she loaded 1,062 veterans, followed by another 153 more at Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands. She returned to San Francisco on 6 December, and she made another run on 12 December, this time to Guam, where she took on 944 veterans. She then proceeded to San Pedro Bay, arriving there on 18 January 1946. She departed San Pedro on 29 January, unloading her passengers at San Diego. She then headed for the East Coast for inactivation work, passing through the Panama Canal, and arriving at Norfolk, Virginia on 15 February. She then proceeded northwards to Boston, Massachusetts, arriving there on 23 February.

Upon arriving, Petrof Bay was decommissioned and mothballed on 31 July 1946, joining the Boston group of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, mooring at the South Boston Naval Annex. On 12 June 1955, she was redesignated as a utility aircraft carrier, receiving the hull symbol CVU-80. She was struck from the Navy list on 27 June 1958, and she was sold for scrapping on 30 July 1959 to J. Berkurt. She was ultimately broken up in Antwerp, Belgium during September 1959. Petrof Bay received five battle stars for her World War II service.

References

Sources

Online sources

Bibliography

External links

Casablanca-class escort carriers
World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Vancouver, Washington
1944 ships
S4-S2-BB3 ships

USS Petrof Bay


Steve Johnson est un artiste américain d'effets spéciaux (SFX), né le  et dont la carrière s'étend sur plus de trente ans.

Son travail est apparu dans plus de , d'innombrables émissions de télévision, parcs à thème, publicités et vidéoclips. Certaines de ses créations les plus connues incluent le  pour SOS Fantômes (1984), la séductrice extraterrestre Sil pour Species (1995), la robotique de Robin Williams pour Bicentennial Man (1999) et les bras du docteur Octopus pour Spider-Man 2 (2004).

Biographie

Jeunesse
De son vrai nom Steven Marcus Jacobs, il naît à Houston, au Texas. Enfant, il regarde les films de monstres de Universal et les films Hammer. Ces films l'inspirent pour devenir artiste d'effets spéciaux. Les plus grandes influences de Johnson sont Jack Pierce, Dick Smith et Rick Baker. Alors qu'il est encore au lycée, Johnson rencontre l'une de ses idoles, Rick Baker, et lui montre son portfolio. Baker reconnaît le talent de Johnson et l'aide à trouver un emploi auprès du créateur d'effets Rob Bottin.

Début de carrière au cinéma
Johnson travaille d'abord avec Greg Cannom, quadruple lauréat d'un Oscar, sur  (inédit à ce jour) puis sur The Howling (1981), ainsi que sur deux autres films avec Rob Bottin, après quoi Rick Baker l'embauche en tant que membre de l'équipe d'effets de maquillage spéciaux pour le film de John Landis Le Loup-garou de Londres (1981). En 1982, il travaille sur le nouveau projet d'Ivan Reitman SOS Fantômes, où il crée Slimer et la bibliothécaire fantôme. Richard Edlund le débauche lui et l'artiste d'effets visuels Randall William Cook pour créer et diriger le studio d'effets spéciaux de maquillage Boss Film, où ils créent des personnages pour des films comme Poltergeist 2 (1986), Vampire, vous avez dit vampire ? (1985), et Les Aventures de Jack Burton dans les griffes du Mandarin (1986).

XFX / Edge FX
Johnson lance sa propre société d'effets en 1986 appelée Steve Johnson's XFX, renommée Edge FX. En 1989, Johnson travaille sur The Abyss, réalisé par James Cameron et qui devient l'un des plus gros blockbusters de l'année. Il crée les créatures « extraterrestres » du film.
Pour le film Innocent Blood (1992), Johnson innove en créant des lentilles de contact qui peuvent briller et changer de couleur sur commande : il s'agit de lentilles sclérales recouvertes de silicone et de Scotchlite, de sorte que lorsque des lumières, telles que celles d'une roue chromatique, sont projetées dessus, les couleurs rebondissent vers la caméra.

Pour le film Lord of Illusions (1995), le maître de l'horreur Clive Barker demande à Johnson de créer une créature d'apparence organique avec une peau qui pouvait bouger et se transformer sans l'utilisation de photographie en  ou d'autres techniques telles que le moule en silicone qui étaient les normes de l'industrie à l'époque. Johnson imagine une technique avec Bill Bryan qui utilise des sacs en plastique, de vieux pots de yaourt, de la « boue » colorée de méthylcellulose et la gravité comme propulseur. Cette technique est celle qu'il a modifiée à maintes reprises, par exemple pour fabriquer des tentacules visqueux en plastique et de la pâte pour les gousses embryonnaires dans La Mutante (1995).

Toujours pour La Mutante, les réalisateurs souhaitaient un personnage mi-humain mi-extraterrestre nommé Sil qui ne ressemble à aucun de ceux qui avaient été vus à l'écran auparavant. Ils font appel à l'artiste Hans Ruedi Giger pour créer la créature sur papier, Richard Edlund pour les effets visuels de capture de mouvement (une forme d'art qui en était encore à ses débuts) et Johnson pour concevoir et créer des animatroniques pour les scènes qui exigent que Sil soit plus physique. Sil doit avoir à la fois une version animatronique intégrale avec des bras, des têtes et des torses remplaçables, ainsi qu'une combinaison en caoutchouc pouvant être portée par l'actrice Natasha Henstridge.
Johnson travaille également sur deux mini-séries de Stephen King : The Stand (1994) et The Shining (1997), pour lesquelles il remporte des Emmy Awards. De plus, sa société réalise quatre saisons de l'émission télévisée Au-delà du réel : L'aventure continue (Outer Limits), trois saisons de Stargate SG-1 et ouvre finalement un studio à Vancouver appelé Pacific Effects Group. Il crée également des tours d'illusions pendant plusieurs saisons pour l'émission télévisée du magicien Criss Angel, Mindfreak. En 2003, Johnson écrit, produit et réalise un court métrage intitulé Everloving, présenté dans le cadre du Brooklyn Film Festival.
Le  sort le documentaire The Death of « Superman Lives »: What Happened? réalisé par Jon Schnepp, sur le film annulé de Tim Burton, Superman Lives. Johnson y participe en tant que l'un des principaux artistes d'effets spéciaux, travaillant principalement sur la combinaison de régénération « lumineuse » de Superman.

Rubberhead
En 2016, il fait la promotion d'un livre sur les effets spéciaux et d'une biographie intitulée Rubberhead: Sex, Drugs and Special FX sur Kickstarter.com. En 2017, Johnson publie le premier volume de sa série de cinq livres, Rubberhead. Préfacé par  John Landis, le livre est acclamé par la critique. Le , une pré-vente du deuxième volume est mise en ligne.

Vie privée  et engagements
Johnson a été marié à l'actrice Linnea Quigley de 1990 à 1992 et à l'actrice Constance Zimmer de 1999 à 2001.

Pendant une pause carrière de huit ans, il part vivre dans les jungles reculées du Costa Rica, ainsi qu'à Austin, en Louisiane et dans les Smoky Mountains, écrivant trois livres.

Johnson est également instructeur à la Stan Winston School of Character Arts.

Filmographie partielle

 Fog (1980)
 Le Fantôme de Milburn (1981)
 Les Monstres de la mer (1980)
 Tanya's Island (1980)
 Hurlements (1981)
 Le Loup-garou de Londres (1981)
 Vidéodrome (1983)
 SOS Fantômes (1984)
 Greystoke, la légende de Tarzan (1984)
 Biohazard (1985)
 Vampire, vous avez dit vampire ? (1985)
 Hurlements 2 (1985)
 Le Clan de la caverne des ours (1986)
 Les Aventures de Jack Burton dans les griffes du Mandarin (1986)
 Poltergeist 2 (1986)
 Les Guerriers du soleil (1986)
 Predator (1987) (effet spéciaux non crédités)
 La Nuit des démons (1988)
 Flic ou Zombie (1988)
 Le Cauchemar de Freddy (1988)
 Hurlements 4 (1988)
 Leviathan (1989)
 Monsters (série télévisée, 1989-1991)
 L'Ange de la nuit (1990)
 A Grande Arte (1991)
 Hurlements 6 (1991)
 Space Commando (1991)
 The Knife (1991)
 Dernier Sacrifice (1991)
 To Save a Child (téléfilm) (1991)
 Bienvenue en enfer (1992)
 Simetierre 2 (1992)
 Innocent Blood (1992)
 Necronomicon (1993)
 Meurtre par intérim (1993)
 Le Retour des morts-vivants 3 (1993)
 La Cité des monstres (1993)
 Brainscan (1994)
 Next Door (1994)
 Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All (1994)
 Le Fléau (mini-série) (1994) (Emmy Award)
 La Nuit des démons 2 (1994)
 Dead Man (1995)
 The Surgeon (1995)
 La Mutante (1995)
 Le Maître des illusions (1995)
 Les Monstres (téléfilm, 1995)
 Au-delà du réel : L'aventure continue (série télévisée, 1995)
 Visitors of the Night (1995)
 L'Effaceur (1996)
 Fatal Frames (1996)
 L'Île du docteur Moreau (1996)
 Pleine Lune (1996)
 Poltergeist : Les Aventuriers du surnaturel (série télévisée, 1996-1999)
 Amistad (1997)
 Anaconda, le prédateur (1997)
 Buddy (1997)
 L.A. Confidential (1997)
 Le Veilleur de nuit (1997)
 Shining (1997) (Emmy Award)
 Stargate SG-1 (série télévisée) (1997-2007)
 First Wave (série télévisée) (1998-2001)
 Host (1998)
 Hulk (1998) (annulé)
 La Mutante 2 (1998)
 Sphère (1998)
 Superman Lives (1998, projet annulé)
 Le Détonateur (1998)
 L'Homme bicentenaire (1999)
 Embrouilles dans la galaxie (téléfilm, 1999)
 Charmed (série télévisée, 2 épisodes, 1999)
 L'Arriviste (1999)
 La Tempête du siècle (mini-série, 1999)
 Le Déshonneur d'Elisabeth Campbell (1999)
 Charlie et ses drôles de dames (2000)
 Planète rouge (2000)
 Le Masque de l'araignée (2001)
 Arachnid (2001)
 Monkeybone (2001)
 Blade 2 (2002)
 Rose Red (mini-série, 2002)
 Star Trek : Nemesis (2002)
 Dreamcatcher : L'Attrape-rêves (2003)
 Everloving (2003)
 La Ligue des gentlemen extraordinaires (2003)
 Bienvenue dans la jungle (2003)
 Le Chat chapeauté (2003)
 X-Men 2 (2003)
 Scooby-Doo 2 : Les monstres se déchaînent (2004)
 Spider-Man 2 (2004)
 Le Village (2004)
 Constantine (2005)
 Les Quatre Fantastiques (2005)
 Jarhead : La Fin de l'innocence (2005)
 La Guerre des mondes (2005)
 Stay (2005)
 Unearthed (2006)
 Je suis une légende (2007)
 Max et les Maximonstres (2009)
 Le Crépuscule Doré (2012, court-métrage)
 Fear Clinic (2014)
 The Death of « Superman Lives »: What Happened? (2015)

Distinctions

Récompenses
 Primetime Emmy Awards 1994 : Meilleur maquillage pour Le Fléau
 Festival international du film fantastique de Catalogne 1995 : Meilleurs effets spéciaux pour La Mutante
 Universe Reader's Choice Awards 1995 : Meilleur maquillage pour La Mutante
 Primetime Emmy Awards 1997 : Meilleur maquillage pour Shining
 Fangoria Chainsaw Awards 2003 : Meilleur maquillage / Créature FX  pour Blade 2

Nominations
 Saturn Awards 1993 : Meilleur maquillage pour Bienvenue en enfer
 Saturn Awards 1994 : Meilleur maquillage pour La Cité des monstres
 Saturn Awards 1996 : Meilleur maquillage et meilleurs effets spéciaux pour La Mutante, avec Bill Corso et Kenny Myers
 Hollywood Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Awards 2004 : Meilleurs effets spéciaux de maquillage pour Le Chat chapeauté

Bibliographie
La carrière de Johnson a été relatée dans des livres écrits par Anthony Timpone, Thomas Morawetz et Rama Venkatasawmy.

Références

Liens externes

 Biographie de Steve Johnson à la Stan Winston School of Character Arts
 Everloving, clip de Moby réalisé par Steve Johnson

Maquilleur américain
Technicien des effets spéciaux
Personnalité liée à Houston
Naissance en février 1960
Pages avec des traductions non relues

Steve Johnson (maquilleur SFX)


In mathematics, the sign function or signum function (from signum, Latin for "sign") is a function that returns the sign of a real number. In mathematical notation the sign function is often represented as .

Definition
The signum function of a real number  is a piecewise function which is defined as follows:

Properties

Any real number can be expressed as the product of its absolute value and its sign function:

It follows that whenever  is not equal to 0 we have

Similarly, for any real number ,

We can also ascertain that:

The signum function is the derivative of the absolute value function, up to (but not including) the indeterminacy at zero. More formally, in integration theory it is a weak derivative, and in convex function theory the subdifferential of the absolute value at 0 is the interval , "filling in" the sign function (the subdifferential of the absolute value is not single-valued at 0). Note, the resultant power of  is 0, similar to the ordinary derivative of . The numbers cancel and all we are left with is the sign of .

The signum function is differentiable with derivative 0 everywhere except at 0. It is not differentiable at 0 in the ordinary sense, but under the generalised notion of differentiation in distribution theory,
the derivative of the signum function is two times the Dirac delta function, which can be demonstrated using the identity

where  is the Heaviside step function using the standard  formalism.
Using this identity, it is easy to derive the distributional derivative:

The Fourier transform of the signum function is

where  means taking the Cauchy principal value.

The signum can also be written using the Iverson bracket notation:

The signum can also be written using the floor and the absolute value functions:
The signum function has a very simple definition if  is accepted to be equal to 1. Then signum can be written for all real numbers as

The signum function coincides with the limits

and
as well as,

Here,  is the Hyperbolic tangent and the superscript of -1, above it, is shorthand notation for the inverse function of the Trigonometric function, tangent.

For , a smooth approximation of the sign function is

Another approximation is

which gets sharper as ; note that this is the derivative of . This is inspired from the fact that the above is exactly equal for all nonzero  if , and has the advantage of simple generalization to higher-dimensional analogues of the sign function (for example, the partial derivatives of ).

See .

Complex signum
The signum function can be generalized to complex numbers as:

for any complex number  except . The signum of a given complex number  is the point on the unit circle of the complex plane that is nearest to .  Then, for ,

where  is the complex argument function.

For reasons of symmetry, and to keep this a proper generalization of the signum function on the reals, also in the complex domain one usually defines, for :

Another generalization of the sign function for real and complex expressions is , which is defined as:

where  is the real part of  and  is the imaginary part of .

We then have (for ):

Generalized signum function
At real values of , it is possible to define a generalized function–version of the signum function,  such that  everywhere, including at the point , unlike , for which . This generalized signum allows construction of the algebra of generalized functions, but the price of such generalization is the loss of commutativity. In particular, the generalized signum anticommutes with the Dirac delta function

in addition,  cannot be evaluated at ; and the special name,  is necessary to distinguish it from the function . ( is not defined, but .)

Generalization to matrices
Thanks to the Polar decomposition theorem, a matrix  ( and ) can be decomposed as a product  where  is a unitary matrix and  is a self-adjoint, or Hermitian, positive definite matrix, both in . If   is invertible then such a decomposition is unique and   plays the role of 's signum. A dual construction is given by the decomposition  where  is unitary, but generally different than . This leads to each invertible matrix having a unique left-signum  and right-signum .

In the special case where  and the (invertible) matrix , which identifies with the (nonzero) complex number , then the signum matrices satisfy  and identify with the complex signum of , .  In this sense, polar decomposition generalizes to matrices the signum-modulus decomposition of complex numbers.

See also
 Absolute value
 Heaviside function
 Negative number
 Rectangular function
 Sigmoid function (Hard sigmoid)
 Step function (Piecewise constant function)
 Three-way comparison
 Zero crossing
 Polar decomposition

Notes

Special functions
Unary operations

Sign function


Gyroporus castaneus (Pierre Bulliard, 1788 ex Lucien Quélet, 1886), sin. Boletus cyanescens (Pierre Bulliard, 1788), din încrengătura Basidiomycota în familia Gyroporaceae și de genul Gyroporus, denumit în popor hrib castaniu, este o specie de ciuperci comestibile care coabitează cu rădăcinile de arbori, formând micorize. În România, Basarabia și Bucovina de Nord, se dezvoltă, adesea numai solitar, pe teren nisipos sau argilos în  păduri de foioase sau mixte sub fagi, frasini, dar preferat sub diverse specii de stejari. Buretele se poate găsi de la câmpie la munte din  iunie până în octombrie.

Istoric

Acest burete a fost descris sub diverse denumiri foarte des, în total de 21 de ori (inclus forme și variații). Aici cele mai importante:

În anul 1788, specia a fost pomenită și desenată pentru prima dată de naturalistul francez Pierre Bulliard  ca Boletus castaneus în volumul VII al operei sale Herbier de la France ou, Collection complette des plantes indigenes de ce royaume din 1788, alăturând-o însă nu familiei Boletaceae ci celei de Paxillaceae.

Micologul francez Claude Casimir Gillet a redenumit soiul în Boletus testaceus clasificându-l sub genul Boletus în cartea sa Champignons de France - Les Hyménomycètes, Planches supplementaires din 1878.

Specificarea valabilă până în prezent (2018) a fost făcută de renumitul micolog francez Lucien Quélet: A transferat specia la genul nou creat de el Gyroporus, sub numele Gyroporus castaneus, de verificat în cartea sa Enchiridion Fungorum in Europa Media et Praesertim in Gallia Vigentium din 1886. Toate celelalte denumiri sunt sinonime acceptate, dar, nefiind folosite, sunt neglijabile.

Descriere

 Pălăria: are un diametru de 4-10 (12) cm, este destul de cărnoasă și consistentă, la început semisferică cu marginea mereu tăioasă, răsfrântă în jos spre picior, apoi convexă, la bătrânețe aplatizată, ridicată, îndoită în sus, niciodată cocoșată, căpătând rupturi pe timp uscat. Cuticula este slab solzos-pâsloasă și uscată, la umezeală ușor unsuroasă, care se separă ușor de carne. Coloritul tinde de la galben-murdar, ruginiu, palid brun până la maroniu, devenind cu vârsta mai închis.
 Tuburile și porii: sporiferele sunt destul de scurte, repede bombate ca o pernă precum neaderente la picior. Culoarea lor este inițial albicioasă, la bătrânețe slab galbenă (datorită culorii pulberii sporilor). Porii sunt mici, denși și rotunjori. Stratul poros este albicios, dezvoltând la bătrânețe un aspect murdar.
 Piciorul: are o înălțime de 8-12 cm și o lățime de 1,5- cm, este neted, cărnos, cilindric precum ușor îngroșat la bază, plin și gros la ciuperca tânără, la maturitate spongios cu caverne, fiind de aceiași culoare cu pălăria, dar mai deschis în partea de sus.
 Carnea: este inițial fermă, apoi ceva spongioasă, de culoare albă care nu se decolorează în cazul unei leziuni. Mirosul este plăcut, slab fungid, gustul dulceag, la exemplare tinere ceva ca de nuci.
 Caracteristici microscopice: are spori elipsoidali, hialini (translucizi) sub microscop, și au o mărime 7-11,5 x 4,5-6 (7) microni, pulberea lor fiind ocru-gălbuie (galben de paie).
 Reacții chimice: Cuticula se colorează cu acid lactic roșu-purpuriu, carnea buretelui cu anilină roz-purpuriu, cu fenol brun de ciocolată, cu metol lila-purpuriu și cu tinctură de Guaiacum slab albastru-verzui.

Confuzii
Ciuperca poate numai fi confundată cu alte soiuri comestibile, cu surata ei Gyroporus cyanescens, dar de asemenea cu Boletus ferrugineus sin. Xerocomus ferrugineus, Boletus impolitus sin. Hemileccinum impolitum (comestibil), Boletus pulverulentus, Boletus subtomentosus, Buchwaldoboletus lignicola sin. Pulveroboletus lignicola, Suillus bovinus,Suillus collinitus, Suillus mediterraneensis sin. Boletus leptopus, Suillus variegatus sin. Boletus variegatus, Xerocomellus chrysenteron, Xerocomellus porosporus sin. Boletus porosporus sau chiar cu exemplare de culoare mai deschisă  a lui Xerocomus badius.

Soiul poate fi confundat de asemenea cu foarte asemănătorul precum otrăvitorul Gyroporus ammophilus care se dezvoltă în momentul de față (2018) numai pe Peninsula Iberică și în Franța de Sud.

Specii asemănătoare

Valorificare
Bureții proaspeți și tineri sunt foarte savuroși. Ei pot fi pregătiți ca ciulama, cel mai bine împreună cu alte ciuperci de pădure sau adăugați la un sos de carne de vită sau vânat. În afară de aceasta, ei pot fi tăiați felii și congelați. De asemenea este posibilă, după tăierea în felii, uscarea lor. Bine gustoși sunt preparați ca Duxelles (un fel de zacuscă pe bază de ciuperci).

Micologul francez Marcel Bon l-a indicat suspect, ce este incorect. El a confundat soiul cu Gyroporus ammophilus, descoperit de abia în anul 2006 de micologul catalan Enric Gràcia Barba. Buretele crește momentan numai în Europa de Sudvest.

Note

Bibliografie
 (Marcel) Bon: "Pareys Buch der Pilze", Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-440-13447-4
 Bruno Cetto, selectie din vol. 1-7, vezi sus
 Rose Marie și Sabine Maria Dähncke: "Pilze", Editura Silva, Zürich 1986
 Jean-Louis Lamaison & Jean-Marie Polese: "Der große Pilzatlas", Editura Tandem Verlag GmbH, Potsdam 2012, ISBN 978-3-8427-0483-1
 Hans E. Laux: "Der große Pilzführer, Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2001, ISBN 978-3-440-14530-2
 Meinhard Michael Moser: "Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze - Kleine Kryptogamenflora Mitteleuropas" ediția a 5-ea, vol. 2, Editura Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart 1983
 Rolf Singer: "Die Pilze Mitteleuropas", vol. 5 și 6: "Die Röhrlinge, pârțile 1 și 2", Editura Justus Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1965-1967
 Linus Zeitlmayr: "Knaurs Pilzbuch", Editura Droemer Knaur, München-Zürich 1976, ISBN 3-426-00312-0

Legături externe

 Gyroporus castaneus, film german
 Gyroporus castaneus, film cu descriere în limba franceză

Boletales
Micoriză
Ciuperci comestibile
1788 în știință

Gyroporus castaneus


الاتحاد العالمي للصحة النفسية World Federation for Mental Health WFMH، منظمة دولية ذ تأسست في عام 1948 وتضم أعضاء من كافة دول العالم لتعزيز الصحة النفسية والوقاية من الاضطرابات والأمراض النفسية والعقلية والعلاج والرعاية المناسبين للمصابين بمثل هذه الاضطرابات والإمراض.

أبرز الأعضاء
 John Rawlings Rees - الرئيس الأول
 Frank Fremont-Smith - الرئيس الثاني
 Helmuth Ehrhardt - عضو المجلس التنفيذي
 Werner Villinger - تثقيف الجمهور
 Margaret Mead - الرئيس 1956-7
 Brock Chisholm - الرئيس 1957-8
 Tsung-yi Lin - الرئيس التنفيذي

روابط إضافية
 World Federation for Mental Health - Official website

 World Fellowship for Schizophrenia and Allied Disorders - 'Information for families caring for people with mental illness'
 - World Health Organization, Mental Health, Home Page

مراجع

منظمات الصحة العقلية في الولايات المتحدة
منظمات أسست في 1948
منظمات دولية غير حكومية
منظمات دولية مقرها في الولايات المتحدة
منظمات صحية عالمية
منظمات عالمية
منظمات علم النفس

الاتحاد العالمي للصحة النفسية


Rottland ist eine Ortschaft in der Gemeinde Engelskirchen im Oberbergischen Kreis in Nordrhein-Westfalen in Deutschland.

Lage und Beschreibung
Der Ort liegt im Südwesten von Engelskirchen an der Grenze zum Rheinisch-Bergischen Kreis. Nachbarorte sind Heide, Distelhaus, Hintersteimel, Hülsen und Niederhof.

Geschichte
In der Karte Topographische Aufnahme der Rheinlande von 1825 ist der Ort unter der Schreibweise "Rotland" auf umgrenztem Hofraum mit zwei voneinander getrennten Gebäudegrundrissen verzeichnet.

Einzelnachweise

Ortsteil von Engelskirchen
Ersterwähnung 1825

Rottland (Engelskirchen)


The Huangpu (), formerly romanized as Whangpoo, is a  river flowing north through Shanghai. The Bund and Lujiazui are located along the Huangpu River.

The Huangpu is the biggest river in central Shanghai, with the Suzhou Creek being its major tributary. It is on average  wide and  deep, and divides the city into two regions: Puxi ("west of Huangpu"), the traditional city center, and Pudong ("east of Huangpu").

Bridges
Fengpu Bridge
Lupu Bridge, opened 2003.
Minpu Bridge
Minpu Bridge No. 2
The lower deck of this bridge carries Line 5 across the Huangpu River.  This is the first line of the Shanghai Metro to cross the river via a bridge.
Nanpu Bridge, opened 1991.
Songpu Bridge, opened 1975 railway, 1976 highway.
Songpu Bridge No. 2
Songpu Bridge No. 3
Xupu Bridge, opened 1997.
Yangpu Bridge, opened 1993.

The following roadways, highways, and railways also cross the Huangpu River via a bridge:

G1503 Shanghai Ring Expressway
G50 Shanghai–Chongqing Expressway
G60 Shanghai–Kunming Expressway
Zhufeng Highway
Huqingping Highway
Shanghai–Hangzhou railway

Tunnels
A number lines of the Shanghai Metro cross underneath the river, including Line 12, Line 4, Line 2, Line 9, Line 4 (twice), Line 8, Line 13, and Line 11 (from north to south geographically).

There are several roadways which cross the Huangpu river via a tunnel, including:

Bund Sightseeing Tunnel
Dalian Road tunnel
Dapu Road tunnel
East Fuxing Road tunnel
East Yan'an Road tunnel
Jiangpu Road tunnel (planned)
Jungong Road tunnel
Longyao Road tunnel
Lujiabang Road tunnel (planned)
Luoxiu Road tunnel (planned)
Nenjiang Road tunnel (planned)
Outer Ring Road tunnel
Renmin Road tunnel
Shangzhong Road tunnel
South Hongmei Road tunnel
South Wanping Road tunnel (planned)
South Xizang Road tunnel
West Changjiang Road tunnel (under construction)
Xiangyin Road tunnel
Xinjian Road tunnel
Yinxing Road tunnel (planned)
Zhoujiazui Road tunnel (planned)

Ferries

There are currently several ferry lines operated by Shanghai Ferry. Numerous tour boats also ply the harbour in the Pudong area.

Controversy

In March 2013, some 16,000 pig carcasses were found floating in the Huangpu River in Shanghai. Some of the pigs carried ear tags saying they were from Jiaxing, so that city in Zhejiang may be the source; One news agency indicates that dead pigs are often dumped into rivers in China to avoid the disposal cost.

However local farmers deny the dumping allegation.

See also
Geography of China
List of rivers in China

References

Citations

General and cited references

External links

Rivers of Shanghai
Tributaries of the Yangtze River

Huangpu River


O Beija-flor-porto-riquenho (Anthracothorax viridis) é uma grande espécie de beija-flor da subfamília Polytminae. É endémico da ilha principal de Porto Rico.

Taxonomia e sistemática
A relação da ave com as outras espécies do gênero Anthracothorax não foi estabelecida. A espécie é monotípica.

Descrição
A manga verde é  comprimento e pesa cerca Os sexos são semelhantes, exceto que a fêmea tem uma pequena mancha branca atrás do olho. As partes superiores dos adultos são verde-esmeralda, suas partes inferiores azul-esverdeadas metálicas e sua cauda azul-preta metálica com pontas brancas em suas penas. Os imaturos têm uma coloração acastanhada na cabeça e nas costas.

Movimento
A espécie faz movimentos altitudinais em resposta às mudanças sazonais no momento da floração.

Alimentação
A mango verde se alimenta de néctar e artrópodes. Leva néctar de uma grande variedade de árvores floridas, arbustos e trepadeiras, e os machos defendem as árvores floridas. Os insetos são capturados principalmente na asa e as aranhas nas folhas e na casca. Forrageia desde o sub-bosque até o nível acima da copa das árvores.

Status
A IUCN avaliou a espécie como sendo de menor preocupação, embora seu tamanho e tendência populacional não sejam conhecidos. É considerado comum nas montanhas e "aceita prontamente habitats artificiais", como plantações de café.

Anthracothorax
Aves descritas em 1801

Beija-flor-porto-riquenho


El desierto de An-Nafud o desierto de Al-Nefud o El Nefud ()  es un desierto localizado en el norte de la península arábiga que ocupa una gran depresión oval. Tiene  de largo y  de ancho, con una superficie de .

El Nafud es un erg, conocido por sus repentinos vientos violentos, que se manifiestan en las grandes dunas en forma de media luna.  La lluvia llega una o dos veces al año. En algunas zonas de tierras bajas, es decir, las que están cerca de las montañas Hejaz, hay oasis donde se crían dátiles, hortalizas, cebada y frutas.  El Nefud está conectado con el desierto de Rub al-Jali por el Ad-Dahna, un corredor de llanuras de grava y dunas de arena, de 1.300 km de largo y de 25 a 80 km de ancho. El color de este desierto es de un color rojo ladrillo.

Historia

Antes de la Batalla de Áqaba (el 6 de julio de 1917, durante la rebelión árabe) las fuerzas dirigidas por Auda Abu Tayi atacaron la ciudad costera de Áqaba, en manos turcas, por el mal defendido flanco oriental, lográndolo tras seguir una larga y ancha ruta por el desierto pasando cerca del borde del Nafud. El coronel T. E. Lawrence solicitó a Auda Abu Tayi que guiase a su grupo para no alejarse de su curso adentrándose en el Nafud. Auda se negó porque no era necesario. Su duro tránsito no incluía entrar en el Nafud, como erróneamente se relata en la película Lawrence de Arabia (1962).

Véase también
 Desierto de Arabia
 Desierto de Ad-Dahna
 Desierto de Rub' al Khali

Notas

Enlaces externos

Desiertos de Asia
Desiertos de Arabia Saudita

Desierto de An-Nafud


Automatiserede ræsonnementer er et område indenfor datalogi og matematisk logik dedikeret til at forstå forskellige aspekter af det at ræsonnere. Studiet af automatiserede ræsonnementer hjælper til at producere computerprogrammer, som lader computere ræsonnere fuldstændigt, eller nær-fuldstændigt, automatisk. Selvom forskning i automatiserede ræsonnementer ses som et underfelt af kunstig intelligens har det også forbindelser med teoretisk datalogi og filosofi.

Teoretisk datalogi
Kunstig intelligens

Automatiseret ræsonnement


Gohad (en hindi: गोहद ) es una localidad de la India, en el distrito de Bhind, estado de Madhya Pradesh.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 159  a 477 km de la capital estatal, Bhopal, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2010 contaba con una población de 60 698 habitantes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Madhya Pradesh

Gohad


Cyperoideae, potporodica jednosupnica iz porodice šiljovki

Tribusi

Subfamilia Cyperoideae Beilschm.
 Tribus Trilepideae Goetgh.
 Microdracoides Hua (1 sp.)
 Coleochloa Gilly (8 spp.)
 Trilepis Nees (7 spp.)
 Afrotrilepis (Gilly) J. Raynal (2 spp.)
 Tribus Cladieae Torr.
 Cladium P. Browne (6 spp.)
 Tribus Sclerieae Wight & Arn.
 Scleria Bergius (268 spp.)
 Tribus Bisboeckelereae Pax
 Bisboeckelera Kuntze (4 spp.)
 Calyptrocarya Nees (8 spp.)
 Becquerelia Brongn. (6 spp.)
 Diplacrum R. Br. (10 spp.)
 Tribus Carpheae Semmouri & Larridon
 Carpha Banks & Sol. ex R. Br. (12 spp.)
 Trianoptiles Fenzl (3 spp.)
 Tribus Cryptangieae Benth.
 Koyamaea W. W. Thomas & Davidse (1 sp.)
 Didymiandrum Gilly (1 sp.)
 Krenakia S. M. Costa (10 spp.)
 Exochogyne C. B. Clarke (2 spp.)
 Cryptangium Schrad. ex Nees (1 sp.)
 Cephalocarpus Nees (22 spp.)
 Lagenocarpus Nees (21 spp.)
 Tribus Schoeneae Dumort.
 Subtribus Anthelepidinae R. L. Barrett
 Anthelepis R. L. Barrett, K. L. Wilson & J. J. Bruhl (4 spp.)
 Subtribus Oreobolinae R. L. Barrett
 Cyathocoma Nees (3 spp.)
 Costularia C. B. Clarke (15 spp.)
 Chamaedendron (Kük.) Larridon (5 spp.)
 Capeobolus Browning (1 sp.)
 Oreobolus R. Br. (17 spp.)
 Subtribus Gahniinae Pax
 Ptilothrix K. L. Wilson (1 sp.)
 Mesomelaena Nees (5 spp.)
 Cyathochaeta Nees (5 spp.)
 Gahnia J. R. Forst. & G. Forst. (42 spp.)
 Subtribus Caustiinae R. L. Barrett
 Caustis R. Br. (7 spp.)
 Evandra R. Br. (2 spp.)
 Subtribus Gymnoschoeninae R. L. Barrett
 Reedia F. Muell. (1 sp.)
 Gymnoschoenus Nees (2 spp.)
 Subtribus Lepidospermatinae R. L. Barrett
 Machaerina Vahl (55 spp.)
 Lepidosperma Labill. (77 spp.)
 Neesenbeckia Levyns (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Tricostulariinae R. L. Barrett, K. L. Wilson & J. J. Bruhl
 Ammothryon R. L. Barrett, K. L. Wilson & J. J. Bruhl (1 sp.)
 Tricostularia Nees (11 spp.)
 Chaetospora R. Br. (3 spp.)
 Xyroschoenus Larridon (1 sp.)
 Morelotia Gaudich. (6 spp.)
 Netrostylis R. L. Barrett, J. J. Bruhl & K. L. Wilson (2 spp.)
 Tetraria P. Beauv. (29 spp.)
 Subtribus Schoeninae Fenzl
 Schoenus L. (162 spp.)
 Tribus Rhynchosporeae
 Rhynchospora Vahl (381 spp.)
 Pleurostachys Brongn. (31 spp.)
 Tribus Dulichieae W. Schultze-Motel
 Dulichium Rich. ex Pers. (1 sp.)
 Blysmus Panz. ex Roem. & Schult. (2 spp.)
 Blysmopsis Oteng-Yeb. (1 sp.)
 Tribus Khaosokieae Lév.-Bourret & J. R. Starr
 Khaosokia D. A. Simpson, Chayam. & J. Parn. (1 sp.)
 Tribus Calliscirpeae Lév.-Bourret & J. R. Starr
 Calliscirpus C. N. Gilmour, J. R. Starr & Naczi (2 spp.)
 Tribus Scirpeae T. Lestib.
 Amphiscirpus Oteng-Yeb. (1 sp.)
 Zameioscirpus Dhooge & Goetgh. (3 spp.)
 Rhodoscirpus Lév.-Bourret, Donadío & J. R. Starr (1 sp.)
 Phylloscirpus C. B. Clarke (3 spp.)
 Scirpus L. (48 spp.)
 Eriophorum L. (16 spp.)
 Tribus Trichophoreae Lév.-Bourret & J. R. Starr
 Trichophorum Pers. (20 spp.)
 Tribus Sumatroscirpeae Lév.-Bourret & J. R. Starr
 Sumatroscirpus Oteng-Yeb. (4 spp.)
 Tribus Cariceae Dumort.
 Carex L. (2028 spp.)
 Tribus Eleocharideae Goetgh.
 Eleocharis R. Br. (296 spp.)
 Tribus Abildgaardieae Lye
 Nelmesia Van der Veken (1 sp.)
 Bulbostylis Kunth (227 spp.)
 Zulustylis Muasya (2 spp.)
 Trichoschoenus J. Raynal (1 sp.)
 Actinoschoenus Benth. (5 spp.)
 Arthrostylis R. Br. (2 spp.)
 Trachystylis S. T. Blake (1 sp.)
 Scleroschoenus K. L. Wilson, J. J. Bruhl & R. L. Barrett (6 spp.)
 Fimbristylis Vahl (311 spp.)
 Tribus Bolboschoeneae (Tatanov) J. R. Starr
 Bolboschoenus (Asch.) Palla (14 spp.)
 Tribus Fuireneae Fenzl
 Fuirena Rottb. (56 spp.)
 Schoenoplecteae Lye ( sp.)
 Actinoscirpus (Ohwi) R. W. Haines & Lye (1 sp.)
 Schoenoplectus (Rchb.) Palla (21 spp.)
 Tribus Pseudoschoeneae J. R. Starr
 Pseudoschoenus (C. B. Clarke) Oteng-Yeb. (1 sp.)
 Schoenoplectiella Lye (62 spp.)
 Tribus Cypereae Dumort.
 Subtribus Ficiniinae Fenzl
 Erioscirpus Palla (2 spp.)
 Scirpoides Seguier (6 spp.)
 Afroscirpoides García-Madr. & Muasya (1 sp.)
 Dracoscirpoides Muasya (3 spp.)
 Hellmuthia Steud. (1 sp.)
 Isolepis R. Br. (71 spp.)
 Ficinia Schrad. (82 spp.)
 Subtribus Cyperinae Pax
 Cyperus L. (960 spp.)
 Tribus Cyperaceae, filogenetska pozicija nepoznata
 Rhynchocladium T. Koyama (1 sp.)
 Naikia Wad. Khan, Bhuskute & Kahalkar (1 sp.)

Izvori

Šiljovke

Cyperoideae


Foraminacephale brevis es la única especie conocida del género extinto Foraminacephale de dinosaurio marginocéfalo paquicefalosáurido, que vivió a finales del período  Cretácico, hace aproximadamente 77-73 millones de años, en el Campaniense, en lo que hoy es Norteamérica.

Descripción

Foraminacephale, siendo un paquicefalosáurido, era un herbívoro bípedo pequeño con un domo engrosado en su cráneo. En Foraminacephale, la zona superior del domo se encuentra agujereada por muchos hoyos pequeños, los forámenes que le dan nombre al animal. El domo en sí mismo consiste de un lóbulo central grande con una mitad frontal en pendiente, y dos lóbulos laterales más pequeños al frente. El hueso escamoso forma una barra alta de hueso completamente liso bajo el domo, excepto por seis nodos óseos que se alinean con el borde inferior del domo y un nodo "esquinero" justo por debajo. Estas características diferencian a Foraminacephale de todos los demás paquicefalosáuridos.

A diferencia de Stegoceras, Hanssuesia y Colepiocephale, el hueso parietal de Foraminacephale, el cual constituye la parte posterior del domo, se proyecta hacia atrás y hacia abajo sobre la base del cráneo. Otros dos rasgos diferencian a Foraminacephale de Sphaerotholus y Prenocephale, hay dos surcos prominentes entre el lóbulo central y los lóbulos laterales, y la abertura del hueso temporal posee forma de rendija.

Descubrimiento e investigación
El espécimen holotipo de Foraminacephale es CMN 1423, un domo frontoparietal casi completo recolectado en el Parque Provincial de los Dinosaurios, en Alberta, Canadá. Las capas de roca en las que se halló al espécimen pertenecen a la formación Dinosaur Park del Grupo Belly River. Varios otros fragmentos del animal se han hallado en esas formación geológica, que representan individuos juveniles, subadultos y adultos.

Aunque se ha reportado que muchos especímenes fueron hallados en la contemporánea formación Oldman, solo uno, catalogado como TMP 2015.044.0041, puede ser asignado definitivamente a Foraminacephale. Otro espécimen de la formación Cañón Horseshoe antes asignado a Foraminacephale, CMN 11316, fue reidentificado como un paquicefalosaurino juvenil indeterminado.

CMN 1423 fue asignado originalmente a una nueva especie de Stegoceras por Lawrence Lambe en 1918; desde entonces hubo un considerable debate sobre si "S." brevis representaba realmente a un animal distinto o era simplemente un morfo, quizás la hembra, de S. validum.
Posteriormente, fue asignado a Prenocephale por Robert M. Sullivan. En 2011, Ryan Schott sugirió un nuevo nombre de género, Foraminacephale, en su tesis de maestría en ciencias, resultando en la nueva combinación Foraminacephale brevis. Este nombre permaneció como un nomen ex dissertatione sin validez hasta que Schott y David Evans renombraron formalmente a "S." brevis como Foraminacephale brevis en 2016. el nombre del género combina la palabra en latín foramina, "forámenes", con cephale, la forma latinizada del griego para "cabeza", en referencia a las múltiples perforaciones que cubrían la cima del domo.

Clasificación
Un análisis filogenético publicado en 2016 encontró que Foraminacephale era un miembro de la subfamilia Pachycephalosaurinae, en una posición más derivada que Stegoceras, pero más basal con respecto a Prenocephale. El consenso de los árboles filogenéticos realizados es mostrado a continuación.

Filogenia

La topología de este árbol filogenético no es muy estable, probablemente debido a lo incompleto de muchos especímenes de paquicefalosáuridos.

Paleobiología

Ontogenia
Como ocurre en Stegoceras, el amplio rango de edades presente en los especímenes de Foraminacephale permite un análisis de la ontogenia, o crecimiento, del domo. Las mediciones de 27 puntos diferentes en 21 cráneos de Foraminacephale mostraron que el domo se volvía proporcionalmente más alto con la edad, pero no se ensanchaba de forma significativa. La histología de los especímenes mostró que los domos se hacían menos porosos con la edad, en el cráneo del espécimen más pequeño tenía un 1.67% de espacio vacío, mientras que en el del de mayor tamaño el espacio vacío corresponde al 0.25%. En general, la zona frontal del domo era más porosa que la parietal.

Esta serie del crecimiento del domo además permite diferenciar aún más a Foraminacephale de Stegoceras. En los Stegoceras jóvenes, el domo es plano, sin embargo, incluso en los menores especímenes de Foraminacephale, el parietal ya está levemente abovedado. Las fenestras supratemporales en la zona superior de los cráneos de Foraminacephale son en forma de rendija, a diferencia de Stegoceras en el que estas eran redondeadas, y se sellaban más tempranamente en el desarrollo ontogénico en lugar de permanecer más o menos visibles durante la vida del animal. La cantidad de espacio vacío en la bóveda craneana era menos en comparación con Stegoceras, y más similar al caso de Acrotholus. Más aún, en Foraminacephale, los huesos escamoso y postorbital se volvían parte del domo mucho más rápidamente, el domo se engrosaba a una tasa más lenta, y los lados del domo eran menos angulosos que en Stegoceras.

Paleoecología
El grupo Belly River Group es particularmente rico en restos de paquicefalosáuridos, el 70% de todos los fósiles conocidos de paquicefalosáuridos provienen de esta región. Debido a la carencia de entendimiento de la ontogenia de este grupo, varios autores han asignado este material desde una única especie, Stegoceras validum, hasta cuatro géneros distintos. Esto ha tenido implicaciones significativas para el entendimiento de la biodiversidad de los dinosaurios herbívoros del Cretácico Superior. La descripción de 2016 de Foraminacephale reconoció a cuatro taxones diferentes de paquicefalosaurios del Grupo Belly River: Stegoceras, Foraminacephale, Hanssuesia y Colepiocephale, aunque los especímenes que han sido referidos a Hanssuesia probablemente representan a más de una de las especies conocidas.

Referencias

Pachycephalosauria
Dinosaurios del Cretácico
Dinosaurios de América del Norte

Foraminacephale brevis


Die Autobahn Fuzhou–Yinchuan oder Fuyin-Autobahn (), chin. Abk. G70, ist eine Autobahn in China, die eine Länge von 2.398 km aufweist. Sie beginnt bei der Metropole Fuzhou in der Provinz Fujian und führt in nordwestlicher Richtung über Nanchang, Jiujiang, Wuhan, Xiangyang, Xi'an und Guyuan nach Yinchuan im Autonomen Gebiet Ningxia.

Einzelnachweise

Autobahn in der Volksrepublik China
Straße in Asien
Straße in Fujian
Straße in Jiangxi
Straße in Hubei
Straße in Shaanxi
Straße in Gansu
Straße in Ningxia

Autobahn Fuzhou–Yinchuan


Kabil şu anlamlara gelebilir:
 Kâbil, Afganistan'ın başkenti ve en büyük şehri
 Kâbil Vilayeti, Afganistan'ın 34 vilayetinden birisi
 Kâbil ilçesi
 Kâbil Nehri, Afganistan'da bir nehir
 Kâbil Uluslararası Havaalanı, Afganistan'ın başkenti Kâbil'de bir havalimanı
 Habil ve Kabil, semâvî kitaplara göre ilk insan ve ilk peygamber olan Âdem'in ilk iki batında doğan çocuklarıdır. Aralarındaki bir ihtilâftan kaynaklanan ve yeryüzündeki ilk olan cinayet ile bilinirler.

Kabil (anlam ayrımı)


Union City es una estación en las líneas Fremont–Daly City y Richmond–Fremont del Metro de San Francisco. La estación se encuentra localizada en Ten Union Square en Union City, California. La estación Union City fue inaugurada el 11 de septiembre de 1972.  Distrito de Transporte Rápido del Área de la Bahía es la encargada por el mantenimiento y administración de la estación.

Descripción
La estación Union City cuenta con 2 plataformas laterales y 2 vías. La estación también cuenta con 1,197 de espacios de aparcamiento.

Conexiones
La estación es abastecida por las siguientes conexiones de autobuses:
 Rutas del AC Transit: Rutas 97, 99, 216*, 232, 264*, 275, 332**, 333***, 345** (local); 801 (All Nighter)Dumbarton Express*: Rutas DB, DB1, DB3Union City Transit: Rutas 1A, 1B, 2, 3†, 4†* - La ruta opera los días de semana solamente** -La ruta opera los fines de semana y días festivos solamente*** - Newark FlexBus,  servicio que opera desde las 7pm a la media noche los días de semana (excepto días festivos)† - La ruta opera los sábados solamente

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Estación Union City
 Líneas y estaciones del Metro de San Francisco

Estaciones de Metro de Estados Unidos inauguradas en 1972
Estaciones de la línea Fremont–Daly City
Estaciones de la línea Richmond–Fremont
Transporte del condado de Alameda

Union City (Metro de San Francisco)


Der 2S25 Sprut-SD (, deutsch Krake) ist ein russischer Luftlandepanzer der russischen Luftlandetruppen, der mit dem Fallschirm abgesetzt wird. Entwickelt wurde er im Konstruktionsbüro der "Wolgograder Traktorenfabrik" in Jekaterinburg in der "Fabrik № 9". Unter der Ägide der wissenschaftlichen Leitung des "Zentralinstituts für Feinmechanik" (ЦНИИточмаш) in der Stadt Klimowsk. Beim Chassis war A. W. Schabalin als Chefkonstrukteur tätig und bei der 125-mm-Kanone war es W. I. Nasedkin. Der Jagdpanzer ist konzipiert worden, um Panzer, gepanzerte Technik und Soldaten auf dem Schlachtfeld zu bekämpfen. Er ist des Weiteren geeignet, um auch in der Marineinfanterie und bei Sonderoperationen der Armee eingesetzt zu werden. Er ist schwimmfähig und kann seine Kanone auch auf dem Wasser abfeuern. Er basiert auf dem Fahrgestell des BMD-3-Luftlandepanzers.

Geschichte

Vorgeschichte zum Konzept
Bis zum Ende der 1960er-Jahre waren im Einsatz der Sowjetarmee leichte PT-76-Panzer. Mit diesen Panzern wurden in erster Linie Spähtruppen des Heeres und Eliteeinheiten der Marineinfanterie bewaffnet. Mit dem Einsatz des BMP-1 ab 1966 wurde die weitere Verwendung des PT-76-Panzers infrage gestellt, jedoch durfte man nach Meinung des Marschalls A. A. Gretschko von einer solchen Waffengattung nicht Abstand nehmen. Die These bewahrheitete sich in der Einsatzerfahrung der PT-76-Panzer während der arabisch-israelischen Kriege und zeigte die Effektivität eines leichten und schwimmfähigen Panzers auf. Im Achtjahresplan der Arbeiten für Forschung und Entwicklung wurde eine Konstruktion eines neuen schwimmfähigen Panzers in Angriff genommen, dessen Eigenschaften die des PT-76B-Panzer und seine ausländischen Analogien übertreffen sollten. Anfang der 1980er-Jahre wurden einige Varianten eines neuen Panzers entwickelt, unter denen sich unter der Bezeichnung "Objekt 934" ein leichter Panzer befand. Am 21. Februar 1980 wurde auf einer Sitzung des militärisch-technischen Rates des Verteidigungsministeriums der Sowjetunion beschlossen, das Projekt eines leichten Panzers zu verwerfen, weil in dieser Zeit die Arbeiten am neuen Schützenpanzer mit der Bezeichnung "Objekt 688" anliefen. Ab Mitte der 1980er-Jahre kamen in den NATO-Staaten M60A3-, M1-Abrams-, Leopard-2- und Challenger-1-Kampfpanzer auf. Im Einsatz der Luftlandetruppen der Sowjetunion befanden sich BMD-1-Panzer und dessen BTR-RD-Variante, die nicht in der Lage waren, einen effektiven Kampf gegen die neuen ausländischen Kampfpanzer zu führen. Zu dieser Zeit bekam die Sowjetarmee die Il-76-Transportflugzeuge, was die Fähigkeit, militärische Güter zu transportieren, wesentlich erhöhte. Das maximale Transportgewicht erhöhte sich auf 40 Tonnen. Die Modernisierungsmöglichkeiten des BMD-1-Panzers und seiner Varianten waren ausgeschöpft. Die Luftlandetruppen hatten somit die Möglichkeit bekommen, schwerere gepanzerte Fahrzeuge zu entwickeln, mit der gleichzeitigen Erhöhung von Panzerung und Feuerkraft. Im "3. Zentralen wissenschaftlichen Institut" wurde das Konzept eines gepanzerten Fahrzeugs für die Luftlandetruppen entwickelt. Das Grundkonzept beinhaltete ein Chassisgewicht von 3,5 und 6 Tonnen und es wurde angedacht, eine Panzerabwehrkanone auf Selbstfahrlafette für die Luftlandetruppen zu entwickeln, um gegen NATO-Panzer kämpfen zu können.

Vorstudien
Frühestens im Jahr 1982 begann das "Zentrale Institut für Feinmechanik" (ЦНИИточмаш) mit wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten zur Entwicklung einer Panzerabwehrkanone des Kalibers 125 mm auf einer Selbstfahrlafette. Während der Entwicklungsarbeiten wurde ein Prototyp auf Basis des BMP-2 hergestellt, der die Möglichkeit der Herstellung einer leichten Panzerabwehrkanone bewies. Die Forschungsergebnisse dienten als Grundlage für den Bericht der Kommission des Präsidiums des Ministerrates der Sowjetunion vom 29. Juli 1983, in dem Vorarbeiten zur Durchführung und Entwicklung einer Panzerabwehrkanone auf Selbstfahrlafette, auf Basis eines zukünftigen Luftlandepanzers, angeordnet wurden.
Auf der Suche nach einem Basischassis kam man zur Erkenntnis, dass für die angeordneten Zwecke das Chassis des leichten Panzers unter der Bezeichnung "Objekt 934" passend sei. 1983 wurde einer der drei Prototypen dem "Zentralen Institut für Feinmechanik" übergeben, auf dessen Basis die Panzerabwehrkanone nach dem klassischen Turmschema entwickelt wurde. Bei Probeschüssen stellte sich eine mit Kampfpanzern vergleichbare Feuergenauigkeit heraus, während die Belastung auf die Besatzung und die Technik im Rahmen blieben. Die dabei gewonnenen Arbeiten gingen in die Entwicklung der Konstruktionsarbeit unter der Bezeichnung "Sprut-SD" ein – der GRAU-Index firmierte unter der Bezeichnung 2S25.

Feldtests und Aufnahme in die Armee
Im Jahr 1984 wurden die taktischen und technischen Aufgaben für die Entwicklung des Luftlandepanzers "Sprut-SD" bestätigt und am 20. Oktober 1985 seitens der militärisch-industriellen Kommission des Ministerrates der Sowjetunion beschlossen, mit der Entwicklung einer neuen 125-mm-Kanone offiziell zu beginnen. Im Jahr 1986 begann die Entwicklung der Transportmechanismen für den Abwurf aus dem Flugzeug unter der Bezeichnung P260; als Basis diente das System P235, das für den Abwurf des BMP-3 entwickelt wurde. In den Jahren 1990 und 1991 wurden Feldtests unter Aufsicht des Verteidigungsministeriums durchgeführt, allerdings wurden Nachteile des P260-Systems offenbart, darunter gehörten die Schwierigkeit der Benutzung, hoher Herstellungspreis und Komplikationen des reaktiven Bremssystems. Darauf wurde am 30. Mai 1994 auf Beschluss der russischen Luftstreitkräfte und russischen Luftlandetruppen die Verwendung des P260-Systems untersagt und ein neues Abwurfsystem "P260M" in Auftrag gegeben. Im Jahr 2001 wurden zusätzliche Feldtests des Luftlandepanzers 2S25 durchgeführt und am 9. Januar 2006 wurde auf Befehl des Verteidigungsministers der Russischen Föderation der Panzer in den Einsatz der russischen Streitkräfte aufgenommen.

Beschreibung

Chassis und Turm
Das Chassis des 2S25-Luftlandepanzers behielt die Geometrie und das Layout des leichten Panzers unter der Bezeichnung "Objekt 934" bei und bestand aus verschweißter Aluminiumpanzerung. In der vorderen Abteilung ist der Fahrer mittig untergebracht, während rechts von ihm der Kommandant und links der Richtschütze sitzen. In der mittleren Abteilung befindet sich die Munition, während auf dem Chassis der Drehturm sitzt. Im Drehturm haben der Richtschütze und der Kommandant während des Gefechts ihren Platz, des Weiteren befinden sich dort der automatisierte Lader der Kanone und des Maschinengewehrs. In der hinteren Abteilung des Chassis befinden sich die Antriebsaggregate. Die vordere und seitliche Turmpanzerung und das Chassis sind zusätzlich mit Stahlplatten verstärkt und schützen die Besatzung vor Projektilen des Kalibers 12,7 mm im Treffsektor ±40°. Die ganze restliche Fläche des Panzers bietet einen Schutz vor Kaliber 7,62 mm und Splittern von Artilleriegeschossen.

Bewaffnung
Die Hauptbewaffnung des 2S25 Luftlandepanzers ist die 125-mm-Glattrohr-Kanone 2А75, die eine modernisierte Version der Panzerkanone 2A46 und deren Varianten darstellt. Anfangs wollte man eine Mündungsbremse für die Verringerung des Rückstoßes installieren. Die Rückstoßproblematik konnte unter anderem durch die Verwendung einer hydropneumatischen Federung beseitigt werden, die den Impuls des Rückstoßes deutlich minimierte. Das Gewicht der Kanone beträgt 2350 kg; sie ist in zwei Ebenen stabilisiert und verfügt über einen Ladeautomaten, womit eine Kadenz von sieben Schuss pro Minute möglich ist. Der Ladeautomat besteht aus einem Fördermechanismus für 22 Geschosse und die Entfernung der gebrauchten Geschosshülsen. Geschossen werden kann mit der Kanone bei einer Bodenneigung von vorne (zwischen Winkeln von −5 bis +15°) und nach hinten (zwischen Winkeln von −3 bis +17°). Der Sprut-SD-Panzer ist in der Lage, auch während der Fahrt zu feuern und kann 40 Kanonengeschosse im Turm aufnehmen. Zusätzlich wurde ein PK-Maschinengewehr Kaliber 7,62 mm mit einer Ladung von 2000 Patronen in einer Bandkassette eingebaut.

Der Sprut-SD-Luftlandepanzer kann die Munition der Kampfwagenkanone D-81 verwenden. Standardmäßig enthält der 2S25-Panzer 20 Geschosse mit kombinierten Gefechtskopf aus Splitter- und Sprengstoffelementen, 14 panzerbrechende Geschosse und sechs präzisionsgelenkte Geschosse 9M119 Swir. Panzerbrechende Geschosse mit der Bezeichnung "3ВБМ17" können beispielsweise eine Stahlplatte bis zu einer Dicke von 230 mm durchschlagen, bei einem Einschlagswinkel von 60° auf eine Entfernung von 2000 m. High-Explosive-Anti-Tank-Geschosse "3ВБК25" durchschlagen bspw. 300 mm dicken Stahl und präzisionsgelenkte Geschosse können 375 mm dicken Stahl durchschlagen.

Zielerfassung und Kommunikation
Für die Zielerfassung der Kanone und des Maschinengewehrs ist der Richtschütze mit einem monokularen Periskop "1A40M-1" ausgestattet. Im Visier wurde ein Entfernungsmesser installiert und einer Recheneinheit für die ballistische Eigenschaften während der Anvisierung, wie zum Beispiel die Messung der seitlichen Ausgleichsneigung bei der Verfolgung sich bewegender Ziele oder die Anstrahlung mit der Lasereinheit für die präzisionsgelenkten Geschosse. Unter Verwendung der "1A40M-1"-Zieleinheit beträgt bspw. die Reichweite bei kombinierten Geschossen mit Splitter- und Sprengstoffelementen 5 km, bei panzerbrechenden und präzisionsgestützten Geschossen 4 km und 1,8 km mit dem Maschinengewehr. Für den Einsatz in der Dunkelheit verfügt der Sprut-SD über ein Nachtsichtgerät "ТО1-КО1Р" und dem Nachtsichtvisier "ТПН-4Р". Die Erkennung eines Kampfpanzers beträgt bis zu 1,5 km.

Die Kommunikation wird durch das Funkgerät "P-173" gewährleistet. Der Radioempfänger arbeitet auf einer Ultrakurzwellenfrequenz und trägt zu einer stabilen Funkverbindung mit gleichartigen Empfängern bis zu einer Reichweite von 20 km und in Abhängigkeit von der Höhe der Antenne beider Radiosender bei. Die Kommunikation innerhalb des Panzers wird durch die "P-174"-Einheit bewerkstelligt.

Spezielles Zubehör
Für die Schwimmfähigkeit braucht der Luftlandepanzer 2S25 "Sprut-SD" keine externe Ausrüstung. Er verfügt bereits über Wasserstrahler, deren Öffnungen sich im unteren Chassisbereich befinden. Für den Einsatz in verseuchten Gebieten durch radioaktiven Niederschlag, chemische Waffen oder biologische Waffen verfügt der 2S25-Panzer über Schutzsysteme gegen Massenvernichtungswaffen. Für die Selbstmaskierung kann er aus sechs 81-mm-Vorrichtungen Rauchgranaten verschießen.

Nutzerstaaten

Aktueller Nutzer
  – Ab dem Januar 2018 befinden sich mindestens 36 2S25 "Sprut-SD" im Dienst der Luftlandetruppen.

Weblinks

 Russland beendet Tests von Fallschirmsystem für Panzerabwehrkanone Sprut-SD

Einzelnachweise

Luftlandepanzer
Schwimmpanzer
Kettenfahrzeug
Russisches Militärfahrzeug
2S25

2S25 Sprut-SD


السرعة الجوية أو سرعة الهواء هي سرعة الطائرة بالنسبة إلى الهواء، وهناك عدة قياسات مختلفة لسرعة الهواء:
السرعة الجوية المبينة (indicated airspeed), السرعة الجوية المعدلة (calibrated airspeed), سرعة جوية مكافئة (equivalent airspeed), السرعة الجوية الصحيحة (true airspeed).
تقاس تلك السرعة بالطائرة بحالة الطيران بواسطة مؤشر سرعة جوية، وهو جهاز مرتبط بالضغط الخارجي لكي يقارن مع الضغط الستاتيكي مما يعطي ناتج السرعة الجوية للطائرة. يتم التعرف على الضغط الخارجي من خلال انبوب يسمى انبوب بيتوت pitot tube يتم وضعه بعناية وعن أي تأثير للمراوح أو تشويش لتيار الهواء المار على الإنبوب، وعادة ما يوضع انبوب بيتوت لكل جانب من الطائرة (الطيار ومساعده).

السرعة المبينة

سرعة الهواء المبينة هي قراءة مؤشر السرعة وهي غير مصححة من خطأ الجهاز أو الموقع أو أي خطأ آخر. ولتعريفات هيئة الطيران الأوربي: مبين السرعة الجوية هو سرعة الطائرة كما هو معدل على مؤشر البيتوت ستاتيك الظاهر بالصورة ليعكس دفق التيار الجوي القياسي القابل للانضغاط على سطح البحر وغير مصحح لخطأ نظام السرعة الجوية .

بعيدا عن الكتلة السوفياتية السابقة، معظم مؤشرات السرعة الجوية تظهر السرعة بالعقدة، أي ميل بحري بالساعة. بعض الطائرات الصغيرة لديها مؤشر السرعة يظهر السرعة الميل بالساعة.

مؤشر السرعة الجوية هو مقياس ضغط تفاضلي حيث أن الضغط يظهر على شكل وحدة سرعة بدلا من وحدة ضغط. تلك السرعة مستمدة من الفرق ما بين كبس الضغط الجوي من انبوب البيتوت أو ضغط الركود وبين الضغط الساكن. مقدمة انبوب البيتوت موجهة للأمام، يفحص الضغط الساكن باستمرار خلال فتحات الستاتيك والتي تكون موجودة بجوار انبوب البيتوت على جانبي الطائرة., وأحيانا يكون مشتركا مع انبوب البيتوت كقطعة واحدة وتسمى انبوب بيتوت - ستاتيك. قياس الضغط الستاتيكي يكون قابل للخطأ ذلك لعدم الإمكانية لوضع فتحات الستاتيك بأماكن بحيث يكون الضغط هو ضغط ستاتيكي حقيقي على جميع السرعات والأوجه. للتصحيح يسمى ذلك: تصحيح خطأ الموضع. وهذا التصحيح يختلف باختلاف الطائرات والسرعات. هناك اخطاء ل10% أو أكثر تكون بسبب مايسمى الرحلة الغير منسقة.

السرعة الجوية المعدلة

هي السرعة الجوية المبينة ولكن مصححة من خطأ الأجهزة وخطأ الموقع (بسبب الضغط غير الصحيح بالفتحة الستاتيكية)، وخطأ التجهيزات أو التمديدات.
مقدار السرعة المعدلة الأقل من سرعة الضوء بمستوى سطح البحر (661.4788 عقدة) تحسب كالتالي:

 يخصم منها تصحيح خطأ الموقع والتمديدات.

حيث هي السرعة المعدلة.
 هي تأثير الضغط الحاصل من انبوب بيتوت - ستاتيك ويكون بالبارومتر الزئبقي.
 هو 29.92126 انش زئبقي. هو ضغط الهواء الساكن عند مستوى سطح البحر.
 هو 661.4788 عقدة: وهي سرعة الصوت بمستوى سطح البحر.

يمكن استخدام وحدات بدلا من العقدة والبارومتر الزئبقي بتلك المعادلات.
هذا التعبير يأخذ مبدأ بيرنولي كقاعدة له يصلح لتطبيق الغاز القابل للانضغاط. المقدار ل  و تكون محتوية للسرعة المبينة، بمعنى أن الحالات تحت عدادات السرعة الجوية تكون معدلة.

السرعة الجوية المكافئة

تعرف السرعة المكافئة Equivalent airspeed - EAS بأنها سرعة بمستوى سطح البحر وتنتج ضغطا مساويا للضغط الديناميكي الذي تنتجه السرعة الحقيقية وبنفس ارتفاع الطيران. تخضع الطائرة خلال طيرانها لتأثير الانضغاطية، وبالمثل تعتبر السرعة المعدلة خاصية للضغط المكبوس. أما السرعة المكافئة فهو قياس للسرعة الجوية التي لها خاصية للضغط الجوي الديناميكي. التحليل الهيكلي للطائرة في كثير من الأحيان يكون شكل من أشكال الضغط الديناميكي، لذلك يكون من المفيد استعمال السرعة المكافئة بحالة فحص هيكل الطائرة.

عند سطح البحر وبالجو القياسي فقط تكون السرعة المعدلة مساوية للسرعة المكافئة، عموما ليس هناك سبب عملي لاستخدام السرعة المكافئة لأي شيء، ولكن التحليل الهيكلي عادة يكون من أشكال السرعة المكافئة (حيث أنه عامل مباشر للضغط الديناميكي).

مراجع

ديناميكا هوائية
سرعة الهواء
مصطلحات الطيران

سرعة جوية


An Aegilops bicornis in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Peter Forsskål, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Hippolyte François Jaubert och Édouard Spach. An Aegilops bicornis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aegilops, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Aegilops

Aegilops bicornis


Alchorneopsis, biljni rod iz porodice mlječikovki smješten u tribus Caryodendreae. Postoje dvije vrste raširene u tropskoj Americi.Jedna je portorikanski endem.

Vrste
 Alchorneopsis floribunda (Benth.) Müll.Arg.
 Alchorneopsis portoricensis Urb.

Izvori

Acalyphoideae

Alchorneopsis


An Paspalum racemosum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck. An Paspalum racemosum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paspalum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Paspalum

Paspalum racemosum


ديف هايت (إنجليزية:Dave Hyatt) هو مطور برمجيات أمريكي، يعمل حالياً لحساب شركة أبل (منذ 15 يوليو 2002) حيث أنه جزء من فريق التطوير المسئول عن متصفح ويب Safari وإطار عمل WebKit وكان هايت واحداً من الفريق الأصلي وراء تطويـرْ الإصدارة التجريبية بيتا والإصدارة 1.0 من Safari وهو حالياً المطور الرئيسي ل WebKit وSafari.
قبل عمله في شركة Apple كان ديف قبلها يعمل لحساب شركة Netscape Communications من عام 1997 وحتى عام 2002 حيث ساهم في تطوير متصفح Mozilla.

أثناء عمله في نتسكيب ابتكر ديف أيضاً متصفح الويب مفتوح المصدر Camino (والذي عرف فيما بعد باسم Chimera) وشارك في ابتكار فايرفكس (عرف أصلاً باسم Phoenix) مع بليك روس. اشتهر هايت أيضاً بتضمينه لتطبيقات التصفح المبوب أو Tabbed browsing لمتصفحي Chimera وFirefox وهي تقنية تمكن المستخدم من عرض صفحتين ويب أو مستندين أو أكثر في نافذة واحدة (هذا التطبيق كان خاصاً بشركتي Netscape وMozilla وابتكره أصلاً مطور البرمجيات HJ van Rantwijk كجزء من مشروعه Multizilla على mozdev.org).

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 Surfin' Safari
 Dave Hyatt's Weblog
 Surfin' Safari

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أعلام البرمجيات الحرة
خريجو جامعة إلينوي في أوربانا شامباين
خريجو جامعة رايس
رابطة الشبكة العالمية
مبرمجون أمريكيون
مدونون ومدونات أمريكيون
مواليد 1972
موزيلا
موظفو أبل

ديف هايت


امسك حرامي هو فيلم مصري تم إنتاجه عام 1958، من تأليف كامل التلمساني وإخراج فطين عبد الوهاب وبطولة إسماعيل ياسين وآمال فريد ومحمود المليجي. ظهرت في هذا الفيلم القدرات الكوميدية لمحمود المليجي الذي اشتهر بأدوار الشر.

تمثيل

 إسماعيل ياسين
 آمال فريد
 محمود المليجي
 حسن فايق
 فايزة أحمد
 نعمت مختار
 رياض القصبجي
 زوزو حمدي الحكيم

أغاني الفيلم

من غناء فايزة أحمد
 حمال الأسية
 بريئة

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أفلام مصرية بالأبيض والأسود
أفلام إسماعيل ياسين
أفلام محمود المليجي
أفلام مصرية إنتاج 1958
أفلام زوزو حمدي الحكيم
أفلام رياض القصبجي

امسك حرامي (فيلم)


Administrations- og Servicestyrelsen er en dansk styrelse, der er en del af Skatteforvaltningen under Skatteministeriet. Administrations- og Servicestyrelsens kerneopgave er at sikre, at Skatteministeriets koncern er understøttet af en effektiv og professionel service og administration inden for blandt andet HR, indkøb og bogføring.

Administrations- og Servicestyrelsens motto er angiveligt "Vi understøtter en velfungerende skatteforvaltning ved at yde service af høj kvalitet og administrere effektivt".

Direktøren for Administrations- og Servicestyrelsen er Claus Henrik Larsen.

Referencer

Skatteforvaltningens styrelser

Administrations- og Servicestyrelsen


Toluca Lake is a neighborhood in the city of Los Angeles, California, located in the San Fernando Valley  northwest of downtown. The name is also given to a private natural lake fed by wells and maintained by neighboring property owners. Prior to the paving of the Los Angeles River in 1938 and L.A. well extraction in the late 19th and 20th century which lowered the water table, Toluca Lake was fed by artesian springs.

The history of Toluca Lake can be traced to the days of the Tongva Indians, followed by Spanish colonization and Mexican independence. Toluca Lake was part of the early rancho system.  The original Toluca Lake was divided, with the neighborhood being known as Forman Toluca Ranch. In 1923, investors bought and developed the land as "Toluca Lake Park".

The neighborhood has had notable residents. Comedian Bob Hope was a longtime resident of Toluca Lake, as were Audie Murphy and Jonathan Winters. Legendary film composer Erich Wolfgang Korngold lived there from 1938 to 1957, right on the lake. Famed actress Bette Davis built a house there. Bing Crosby,  Mary Astor, and Frank Sinatra also had houses there. More recently, it has been the home of entertainers such as Hilary Duff, Tara Strong, Steve Carell, Wayne Knight, Andy Garcia, and Melissa McCarthy.

Geography

Community
The Toluca Lake neighborhood is situated on 1.22 square miles of the southeastern San Fernando Valley. The Mapping L.A. section of the Los Angeles Times website describes it as bounded on the south by Universal City, on the west by Studio City, on the north by North Hollywood and on the east by the city of Burbank.

The Toluca Lake Chamber of Commerce website states that the district is not only a neighborhood in Los Angeles but that it "spills over into Burbank" and "Political entities and others, such as the Greater Toluca Lake Neighborhood Council each draw their own boundaries to suit specific needs. For example, the Toluca Lake Chamber of Commerce serves the entire community in Burbank and Los Angeles, while the City of Los Angeles considers its neighborhood called Toluca Lake to be entirely within its city boundaries"

Lake
The geologic Toluca Lake is a  body of water located near the district's southeastern boundaries. The historic natural lake was fed by springs of upwelling groundwater from the Los Angeles River and San Fernando Valley subterranean aquifers. Late 19th and 20th century L. A. DWP well extraction and 1930s concrete river channelization lowered the water table, and currently community wells at the lake's edges maintain the water level. The bottom of the lake is surfaced with four inches (102 mm) of asphalt concrete to prevent seepage. Owned by the surrounding homeowners, the lake has been maintained by the Toluca Lake Property Owners Association, a non-profit corporation established in 1934. The lake, encircled by private residences and the Lakeside Golf Club, is completely inaccessible to and hidden from the public.

Climate

Population
The Toluca Lake neighborhood had a population of 7,782 in the 2000 census and an estimated population of 8,563 in 2008. At 6,393 people per square mile, its density was among the lowest in the city of Los Angeles. According to the Los Angeles Times, its percentage of white people, 71.9%,  was high for the county; with black and Asian residents accounting for only 5.3% and 5% of the population, respectively.  Principal ethnicities were Latino (14%), German (9.2%) and Irish (8.7%). Only 17.7% of its residents were foreign-born, a low figure compared to the city as a whole; of those, Mexico at 14.7% and the Philippines at 6.9% were the most common foreign places of birth.

The median household income level of its residents was $73,111 in 2008, and 48.4% of its residents 25 and older had a four-year degree, both of which were high for the city. The average household size was 1.9 people, low for both the city and the county. Of its housing units 62.2% were occupied by renters and 37.8% by owners.

Residents' median age was 37, which was old for the city of Los Angeles and old for the county. Only 9.7% of residents were headed by single parents, a low figure for both the city and the county.

History

Early years
The Tongva people have lived in the San Fernando Valley and the Los Angeles basin for 8,000 years. The Tongvan settlement Cahuenga used the springs and marsh in the Toluca Lake locale for water, fishing, hunting, harvesting, and building supplies (tule plants).

After the Spanish conquest in the 1790s of Las Californias, the San Fernando Valley, including the "Toluca Lake locale", became the extended property of the Mission San Fernando Rey de España. After the 1823 Independence of Mexico, the secularization of missions in Alta California included the issuing of a Mexican land grant for Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando. The extreme eastern end of the lake was within the 1843 Rancho Providencia grant to Vincente de la Osa. In 1862, Pío Pico sold his share of the Ex-San Fernando Mission land, the entire southern half of the Valley below Roscoe Boulevard, to Isaac Lankershim (operating as the San Fernando Farm Homestead Association) in 1869. In 1873, Isaac Lankershim's son, James Boon Lankershim, and future son-in-law, Isaac Newton Van Nuys, took over management of the property, including the lake at Toluca. During the 1880s, the San Fernando Farm Homestead Association was succeeded by the Los Angeles Farm & Milling Company.

In 1893, a petition was filed with the U.S. Postal Service for the area's first post office, to be named "Toluca Post Office". General Charles Forman, a wealthy local landowner and one of the proponents of the petition, later stated that he had chosen the name "Toluca" from a Paiute word meaning "fertile" or "beautiful" valley. Though part of a larger area traditionally called "Lankershim" after a colonel of the same name—and with a Southern Pacific Railroad train station named "Lankershim" that also opened in 1893 across from the post office—Forman called his own ranch and the surrounding land "Toluca".

One of the wealthiest men in Nevada, Forman had made his fortune starting from nothing, first in mining, then cattle ranching, and then lumber. Falling in love with and marrying Los Angeles native Mary Agnes Gray, he soon moved to the area in the late 1880s and started the Kern River Company, a power company which delivered electricity from generators at the Kern River to Los Angeles. He also bought a large parcel of rich farm land, which included much of modern-day Toluca Lake and at least the western portion of the "ancient and historical" marshy pond now called Toluca Lake. By 1923, the Forman Toluca Lake Ranch was a flourishing producer of peaches, apples, and walnuts.

Modern development
In 1923, investors bought and developed the land as Toluca Lake Park. This initial venture failed, but a new group soon took over, renaming the firm as the Toluca Lake Company. With a "vision of creating a first 'bedroom community' for Los Angeles in the San Fernando Valley", the company formally changed the name of the community to simply Toluca Lake and adopted as their logo the "swan on rippled water" image associated with the community today. The name Lankershim also was considered for the town. Colonel J. B. Lankershim established the town site of Toluca at the eastern edge of the family's vast holdings in 1888. The town name was changed from Toluca to Lankershim in 1896. By 1927, the lure of Hollywood inspired local merchants to launch a campaign to change the community's name to North Hollywood. The original town site of Toluca is now part of Toluca Lake.

The Lakeside golf course was designed in 1924 by Max Behr. This attracted actor Richard Arlen, who became one of Toluca Lake's first residents, and eventually its honorary mayor.

Aviator Amelia Earhart lived in Toluca Lake on Valley Spring Lane after marrying publishing magnate George P. Putnam in 1931. The Spanish colonial-style home, which exists today, features a front-yard tree under which she signed her round-the-world flight plan. She made her home in Toluca Lake because the best aircraft were being designed and built at the Lockheed plant in Burbank.

Entertainer Bob Hope moved to Toluca Lake in the late 1930s, and lived there until his death in 2003 at the age of 100. In the 1938 Little Rascals film Three Men in a Tub, the kids hold a regatta on the lake, which was largely surrounded by open country at that time. Actors Bette Davis, W. C. Fields, Dorothy Lamour, Billie Dove, Dick Powell, and Bing Crosby also moved into the community. In 1943, Crosby's mansion was almost completely destroyed by fire. Frank Sinatra moved into the home featured player and screen icon Mary Astor built on Toluca Lake in the 1940s. Former actor and 40th President of the United States Ronald Reagan had his wedding reception with second wife Nancy Reagan at the Toluca Lake home of actor (and best man) William Holden on March 4, 1952.

Notable residents have included Steve Carell, Miley Cyrus, Viola Davis, Kirsten Dunst, Melissa McCarthy, and Octavia Spencer. In June 2018, Ron Burkle purchased the 5.2 acre Bob Hope estate for $15 million, with the proceeds going to the Bob and Dolores Hope Foundation. In 2021, Kelly Clarkson purchased an original 1936 colonial-style mansion on a Toluca Lake property.

Politics
Toluca Lake is represented by the Greater Toluca Lake Neighborhood Council led by Neighborhood Council President Colby Jensen, as well as Councilman Paul Krekorian in the Los Angeles City Council and Adrin Nazarian in the California State Assembly. NBC-4 weatherman Fritz Coleman is the honorary mayor of Toluca Lake.

In 2006, Toluca Lake homeowner groups mobilized against a proposed development in North Hollywood by NBCUniversal and Thomas Properties Group. The Metro Studio Project involves upwards of  of space and would house employees leaving NBC's Burbank facility. The project also proposes Times Square-style supergraphics and digital illuminated billboards. It would be built partly on land for which NBCUniversal has a lease agreement from the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. The Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors has yet to act on the proposal, and Environmental Impact Reports are not finalized.

Education
The 2000 census found that 48.4% of Toluca Lake residents within Los Angeles had earned a four-year degree, a high figure for both the city and the county. The percentage of those residents with a master's degree or higher was large for the county.

The Los Angeles section of Toluca Lake is a part of the Los Angeles Unified School District. The Burbank section is within the Burbank Unified School District.

Schools within Toluca Lake are:
 Toluca Lake Elementary School, LAUSD, 4840 Cahuenga Boulevard
 Toluca Crossroads School, private elementary, 4814 Cahuenga Boulevard

In popular culture
Toluca Lake is the setting of "The Bonnie Situation" chapter in Quentin Tarantino's film "Pulp Fiction" (1994)

Toluca Lake is a lake featured in the Silent Hill series. It first appeared in the 1999 video game of the same name.

See also
 History of the San Fernando Valley
 Los Angeles River

References

External links
 Toluca Lake crime map and statistics

1923 establishments in California
Communities in the San Fernando Valley
Lakes of Southern California
Neighborhoods in Los Angeles
Populated places established in 1893

Toluca Lake, Los Angeles


Automobilističke utrke 1896. obuhvaćaju osam utrka u automobilizmu koje su se vozile 1896. Četiri utrke su se vozile u Francuskoj, dvije u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama i po jedna u Belgiji i Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu. Osam različitih vozača je pobijedilo u osam utrka, dok je kod konstruktora najuspješniji bio Peugeot s četiri pobjede.

Utrke

Automobilizam

Automobilističke utrke 1896.