Das stillgelegte Kalibergwerk Gewerkschaft Irmgard liegt etwa 1,6 km nordöstlich von Hauteroda, einem Ortsteil der Stadt An der Schmücke im thüringischen Kyffhäuserkreis (vergleiche nachstehenden Lageplan). Nur etwa 225 m Luftlinie vom Schacht Irmgard entfernt liegt Schacht Walter der gleichnamigen Gewerkschaft. Beide Gewerkschaften bauten am Südrand der Hohen Schrecke eine flachwellige, zumeist aus konglomeratischem Carnallitgestein bestehende Kalilagerstätte ab. Obwohl beide Schachtanlagen miteinander durchschlägig waren, soll im Folgenden aus handelsrechtlichen Gründen 1 die juristisch eigenständige "Gewerkschaft Irmgard" mit ihrem Grubengebäude aus den zur Zeit zugänglichen Archivalien bzw. Statistischen Jahrbüchern dargestellt werden.

Teufbeginn für Schacht Irmgard war im Jahre 1911. Ende 1912 hatte er seine Endteufe mit 405 m erreicht. Die Gewinnung von Carnallitit, Hartsalz und Steinsalz erfolgte ab 1913. Die bergmännische Abbaumethode war das Kammerbau-Verfahren. Gefördert wurden diese Rohstoffe ausschließlich über Schacht Walter. Die Weiterverarbeitung der Salze erfolgte in Fabrikanlagen der "Gewerkschaft Heldrungen II". Im Jahre 1924 wurde die Schachtanlage "Gewerkschaft Irmgard" gemäß § 83a der Stilllegungsverordnung endgültig stillgelegt (nähere Erläuterungen zu den betreffenden Rechtsvorschriften: siehe unter Abschnitt "Stilllegung des Kaliwerkes").

1 Von den ausgegebenen 1000 Kuxscheinen waren nur jeweils 51 % in Händen der gleichen Gewerken. Die restlichen Kuxe waren gestreut. Auch die Zubußen der Gewerken beider Gewerkschaften Irmgard und Walter waren völlig unterschiedlich; ebenso die erteilten Beteiligungsziffern innerhalb des Kalisyndikats. Dieser finanziellen und wirtschaftlichen Trennung der beiden Kalibergwerke folgt somit auch die separate Abhandlung beider Schachtanlagen in der Wikipedia.

Such- und Erkundungsarbeiten
Im Jahr 1861 gelang es chemischen Fabriken im Staßfurter Raum, die als "unrein" bezeichneten, beim Abteufen der ursprünglich nur auf die Gewinnung von Steinsalz zur Anreicherung der schwachen Sole der Staßfurter Saline niedergebrachten Schächte v. d. Heydt / v. Manteuffel vorgefundenen carnallitischen Salze für eine technische Verwendung nutzbar zu machen. Es war möglich geworden, das in diesen Salzen enthaltene Kaliumchlorid (KCl) zu lösen und letztlich als Düngemittel in der Landwirtschaft zu vermarkten. Und das Bekanntwerden dieser Kalisalzfunde -das "Staßfurter Berggeschrey"- regte auch an Unstrut und Finne die Suche nach solchen Salzlagerstätten an.

Die seit Menschengedenken bekannten und auch teils genutzten Solequellen in der näheren und weiteren Umgebung ließen auch hier das Vorhandensein von Salzen im tieferen Untergrund vermuten. Ein Industrieller namens Emil Sauer 1 engagierte sich zuerst bei der Suche und Erkundung von zum Abbau geeigneter Kalilagerstätten. Mit Gründung der "Kalibohrgesellschaft Heldrungen" im Jahre 1897 begann er umfangreiche und letztlich erfolgreiche geologische Erkundungsbohrungen. Eine nordöstlich von Hauteroda im Dornbachtale niedergebrachte Bohrung, Tiefbohrung VII, erbohrte von 355,24 m bis 403,00 m Teufe Kalisalze mit einem Gehalt von 23,82 % bis 26,98 % Chlorkalium; des Weiteren von 396,01 m bis 403,15 m und von 407,59 m bis 413,00 m Teufe hochprozentigen Sylvinit mit einem Gehalt bis zu 43 % Chlorkalium. Diese Bohrung liegt zwischen den Schachtansatzpunkten der später geteuften Schächte Irmgard und Walter.

1 Emil Sauer aus Berlin gründete 1887 die Gewerkschaft Wilhelmshall bei Anderbeck, 1897 die Kalibohrgesellschaft Heldrungen und in der Folge die Gewerkschaften Heldrungen I und II, Walter und Irmgard sowie später, 1905, die Kalibohrgesellschaft Neuhof, die am 1. Dezember 1905 durch notariellen Akt in die Gewerkschaft Neuhof umgewandelt wurde.

Die geologischen und hydrogeologischen Lagerstättenbedingungen

Das Grubenfeld der Gewerkschaft Irmgard befindet sich auf der Südwest-Flanke des Heldrunger Sattels. Dieser streicht parallel zum Roßlebener Sattel, welcher zum nordöstlichen Teil der Hermandurischen Scholle gerechnet wird.

Schacht Irmgard erreichte das Kaliflöz Staßfurt bei 356,9 m Teufe. Die oberen Partien dieses rund 38 m mächtigen Flözes mit fast söhliger Lagerung bestehen aus Hartsalz mit einem Durchschnittsgehalt von 21 % Kaliumchlorid (KCl).

Einzelne Partien erreichten bis zu 30 % KCl. Die liegende Fazies des Kaliflözes Staßfurt von 2 m Mächtigkeit unmittelbar in Schachtnähe besteht ebenfalls aus Hartsalz mit einem Kaliumchloridgehalt von durchschnittlich 19,1 %. Die Zwischenschicht besteht aus Carnallit mit bis zu 18,4 % KCl (vergleiche nebenstehendes Schichtenprofil).

Hydrogeologisch ist das gesamte Gebiet der an Unstrut und Finne gelegenen Kalischächte gekennzeichnet durch die starke Wasserführung des Buntsandsteins, insbesondere der Rogensteinzonen des Unteren Buntsandsteins. Zuflüsse beim Abteufen der Schächte bis zu 4 m³ / min waren nicht selten.

Der Betrieb des Kaliwerkes

Die finanziell-betriebswirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse

Gründung: Die "Gewerkschaft Irmgard" wurde erst nach 1910 gegründet, nachdem von der "Gewerkschaft Walter" der südliche Feldesteil ihrer Gerechtsame abgetrennt und auf die Gewerkschaft Irmgard übertragen worden war. "Gründungsvater" war, wie u. a. auch bei den beiden benachbarten Gewerkschaften Heldrungen I und II, der Industrielle Emil Sauer aus Berlin. Dieser hatte sich bereits mit der Gründung der "Kalibohrgesellschaft Heldrungen" im Jahre 1897 um die Suche und Erkundung von zum Abbau geeigneter Kalilagerstätten verdient gemacht. (siehe Lageplan rechts).

Anzahl der Kuxe:
1.000 Stück, davon befanden sich vor dem Besitzübergang der Gewerkschaft an die Kali-Industrie AG 251 Stück im Besitz der Deutschen Kaliwerke und 250 Stück im Besitz der Gewerkschaft Hedwigsburg mit Sitz im niedersächsischen Hedwigsburg.

Kalisyndikat:
Mitglied seit 1912. Die Gewerkschaft Irmgard erhielt am 1. November 1912 eine provisorische Beteiligungsquote von 3,06 Tausendstel, ab 1. Januar 1925 eine reguläre von 3,6314 Tausendstel und letztlich ab 1. Oktober 1932 eine solche in Höhe von 3,4132 Tausendstel aller Werke.

Interessen- und Betriebsgemeinschaft bestand früher mit Walter und Heldrungen. Die Verwaltung dieser Gemeinschaft bestand aus drei Mitgliedern, von denen jede Gewerkschaft eines ernannte – Heldrungen I und II galten dabei als Einheit. Den Vorsitz führte das von Heldrungen ernannte Mitglied. Der Vertrag bezweckte eine völlige wirtschaftliche Gleichstellung der drei Gewerkschaften. Gewinn und Verlust trug jede Gewerkschaft zu 1/3, doch zogen, um einen der wirtschaftlichen Lage der drei Gewerkschaften entsprechenden Ausgleich zu schaffen, Irmgard 1000 M je Kux und Walter 500 M je Kux Zubuße ein. Dies geschah zum 1. Oktober 1921. Gemäß Beschluss der Gewerkenversammlung vom 17. Dezember 1924 wurde diese Betriebsgemeinschaft aufgelöst. [aus: Mossner, 1936]

Zweischachtfrage: Querschlägige Verbindung mit dem Schacht der Gewerkschaft Walter. Die im Irmgardfelde gewonnenen Salze werden zwecks Vereinfachung der Förderung im Walterschacht zu Tage gehoben. [aus: Mossner, 1936]

Tagesanlagen: Kauengebäude mit Büro, definitives Fördermaschinengebäude, elektrische Fördermaschine. Der elektrische Strom wird von der Zentrale der Gewerkschaft Heldrungen II bezogen. Außerdem über Heldrungen II Überlandanschluss an das Überlandwerk Bretleben. Verarbeitung der Salze auf Heldrungen II. Grubenanschlussbahn von 3,5 km Länge. Nach der Betriebsstilllegung wurden die Tagesanlagen verwertet.[aus: Mossner, 1936]

Hier einige statistische Zahlen aus den Jahren 1912 bis 1914:

1912: Vorstand: Emil Sauer in Berlin. Direktor: Franke in Oberheldrungen. Betriebsführer: Obersteiger Schulze. Der Schacht wird abgeteuft. Tagesanlagen sind errichtet.
1913 wie 1912: Des Weiteren: Der Schacht wird ausgebaut. Die Tagesanlagen sind errichtet. Eisenbahnanschluß: Über "Walter" nach Heldrungen II. Elektrische Kraft von Heldrungen II. Belegschaft: 100 Mann.
1914: Vorstand: Emil Sauer in Berlin. Verwaltung: Bergwerksdirektor Bergassessor Dr. Lohmann in Oberheldrungen. Betriebsführer: Obersteiger Schulze. Aus- und Vorrichtungsarbeiten. Die Tagesanlagen sind errichtet. Belegschaft: 100 Mann.

Der Schachtbau
Mit dem Abteufen des Schachtes Irmgard wurde 1911 begonnen. Ende 1912 wurden diese Arbeiten bei der erreichten Endteufe von 405 m eingestellt. Der Schachtdurchmesser beträgt nur vier Meter, da dieser Schacht von vornherein als sogenannter "Polizeischacht" (das ist ein aufgrund bergpolizeilicher Vorschrift geforderter zweiter Ausgang einer Schachtanlage) konzipiert war. Nach der Fertigstellung diente Schacht Irmgard auch nicht der Förderung der gewonnenen Salze, sondern lediglich zur Wetterführung und Seilfahrt.

Bis zur Teufe von 60 m wurde der Schacht ausgemauert; von da ab bis zur Endteufe steht er in Tübbings.
Höhe der Rasenhängebank: +225,84 m NN. Gesamtteufe: 405 m.
1. Sohle: −158,6 m NN (384-m-Sohle).

Der Abstand zum Schacht Walter beträgt etwa 225 m Luftlinie.

Aus- und Vorrichtung, Abbau- und Versatzverfahren
Das eigentliche Abbaufeld befindet sich nördlich vom Schacht bereits in der Gerechtsame der Gewerkschaft Walter. Bergrechtlich legitim, bestanden ja formell zwischen den Gewerkschaften Heldrungen I und II sowie Walter entsprechende vertragliche Vereinbarungen. Über die im Rißwerk als Hauptsohle bezeichnete 1. Sohle gewann man in 6 Abbaukammern (Nr. 1 bis 6) Carnallit und vermutlich auch Hartsalz. Detaillierte quantitative und qualitative Angaben liegen nicht vor. Die Längen der einzelnen Gewinnungsorte waren unterschiedlich und den Lagerungsverhältnissen des Kaliflözes Staßfurt geschuldet. Die längste Abbaukammer, Abbau Nr. 2 Westen, hatte eine Länge von rd. 100 m bei einer Breite von ca. 10 m. Abbau Nr. 2 Osten erreichte bei knapp 100 m Länge bereits die östliche Grenze der Gerechtsame der Gewerkschaft Walter. Die Breite der Sicherheitspfeiler zwischen den Abbaukammern betrug 10 m; Angaben zur Firsthöhe fehlen.

An dieses Abbaufeld schloss sich westlich davon -ebenfalls im Niveau der 1. Sohle- ein weiteres Abbaufeld mit den Abbauen Nr. 1a bis 4a an. Nach Ansicht des Autors sind dies sogenannte Bergemühlen. Sie dienten der Gewinnung von Steinsalz vornehmlich als Versatzmaterial für die leergeförderten Abbaukammern im gebrächen Carnallit bzw. Hartsalz. Da in der Sekundärliteratur zuweilen auch vom "Steinsalzbergwerk Walter" geschrieben wird, ist es auch möglich, dass saubere, d. h. anhydritfreie Partien des anstehenden Steinsalzes selektiv gewonnen und als Industrie- und Speisesalz gefördert wurden.

Ganz im Norden des Grubenfeldes Irmgard durchfuhren zwei streichende Strecken bereits die Markscheide zur Gerechtsame Heldrungen I. Bei Betrachtung des erhaltenen Rißwerks dieser Schachtanlage fällt auf, dass darin keine Horizontalbohrungen zur Lagerstättenerkundung dokumentiert worden sind. Und wenn man sich die äußerst kurvenreiche Streckenführung im südlichen Feldesteil betrachtet, kommt man zu dem Schluss, dass auch keine flachbohrtechnischen Erkundungsarbeiten durchgeführt wurden. Solche Untersuchungsarbeiten waren recht aufwendig und teuer. Diese Kosten wollte man sich sicherlich sparen; wichtiger war, dass der Schachtanlage eine Beteiligungsziffer zuerkannt war und die daraus resultierende Absatzmenge an Kaliprodukten mühelos bereitgestellt werden konnte.

Wie schon eingangs erwähnt, bilden die Grubenfelder beider Gewerkschaften, der Gewerkschaften Irmgard und Walter, faktisch eine Einheit. Sie werden hier jedoch aus handels- und bergrechtlichen Gründen separat abgehandelt (Einzelheiten zum Grubenfeld der "Gewerkschaft Walter" befinden sich im gleichnamigen Wikipedia-Artikel). So grenzen auch beide Schachtsicherheitspfeiler an die Grenzen der jeweiligen Berggerechtsame (siehe obigen Lageplan). Nuancielle Unterschiede dieser beiden Schachtanlagen sind beispielsweise die Teufenlage der jeweils 1. Sohlen (bei Schacht Walter 376 m Teufe resp. – 153,7 m NN; bei Schacht Irmgard 384 m Teufe resp. – 158,6 m NN). Des Weiteren diente Schacht Walter ausschließlich der Förderung, Schacht Irmgard hingegen war einziehender Wetter- und gemeinsamer Fahrschacht.

Über die Art und Menge des eingebrachten Versatzgutes liegen keine Angaben vor. Archivangaben zu Zahlenwerten über die Größenordnungen der Mengen abgebauten Steinsalzes, welche als Versatzmaterial für die Abbaukammern im Carnallitit bzw. Hartsalz genutzt wurden, liegen dem Artikelschreiber nicht vor. Somit ist auch der zum Zeitpunkt der Stilllegung der Schachtanlage noch offen gebliebene Grubenhohlraum nicht genau zu beziffern. Man schätzt – dem erhaltenen bergmännischen Rißwerk nach – den offenen Grubenhohlraum beider Schachtanlagen zum Zeitpunkt der Stilllegung auf etwa 125 Tm3. Inwieweit spätere (infolge Ersaufen) oder noch aktive (durch rezente Zuflüsse) subrosive Veränderungen der Hohlraumkonfiguration verursachten oder noch bewirken, soll an dieser Stelle nicht bewertet werden.

Die fabrikatorische Verarbeitung
Die geförderten Salze wurden per Gleis in die Fabrikanlagen der "Gewerkschaft Heldrungen II" weitertransportiert und dort verarbeitet.
Die linksstehende Tabelle zeigt einige Absatzzahlen der in den Abbaufeldern Walter und Irmgard gewonnenen Kalisalze (in Doppelzentnern (dz) K2O) :

1922 wurde die Absatzquote an andere Werke abgetreten.

Die Stilllegung des Werkes
Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts erlebte die Bohrtätigkeit in Deutschland zur Suche von Kalisalz und Steinkohle einen wahren Boom.
Um die Ausuferung der Schaffung immer neuer Kaliwerke (sowie auch Steinkohlengruben) und damit Überproduktionen zu unterbinden, beschloss der preußische Landtag auf Antrag des Abgeordneten Karl von Gamp-Massaunen u. a. das "Gesetz, betreffend die Abänderung des Allgemeinen Berggesetzes vom 24. Juni 1865/1892, vom 5. Juli 1905 (G.B, S. 265)", so bezeichnet als Lex Gamp.

Es führte zunächst zu einer vorläufigen Mutungssperre von zwei Jahren auf Kalisalze und Steinkohle. Das bedeutete, dass nur der Staat Bergwerkseigentum erwerben konnte. Dieser konnte es in Form eines zeitlich beschränkten dinglichen Gewinnungsrechts Dritten übertragen.
Die Lex Gamp war der Beginn weiterer staatlicher Eingriffe zur Vermeidung von Monopolbildungen bis hin zur Regulierung von Preisen und die durch maßlose Zunahme von Kalibergwerken bedingte Überproduktion. Letzterem diente auch die sogenannte Stilllegungsverordnung vom 22. Oktober 1921 ("Verordnung betreffend Abänderung der Vorschriften zur Durchführung des Gesetzes über die Regelung der Kaliwirtschaft vom 18. Juli 1919", (Reichs-Gesetzbl, S. 663) ).
Im § 83a dieser Verordnung heißt es: "Eine Änderung der für die Einschätzung maßgebenden Verhältnisse bleibt bis zum 31. Dezember 1953 auf den Fortbestand und die Höhe der Beteiligungsziffer derjenigen Werke ohne Einfluss, welche bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt freiwillig stillgelegt werden. Eine dahingehende unwiderrufliche Erklärung ist bis zum 1. April 1923 (verlängert bis 31. Dezember 1926) der Kaliprüfungsstelle abzugeben. Diese setzt unter Berücksichtigung der wirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse, insbesondere der Salzvorräte, den Zeitpunkt fest, bis zu welchem die Stilllegung durchgeführt sein muss; einer Verlängerung dieser Frist über den 1. April 1924 hinaus ist nicht zulässig. Eine Stilllegung im Sinne dieses Absatzes bedingt, dass jede Förderung von nutzbaren Mineralien aus dem stillgelegten Schachte unterbleibt. Ausnahmen kann nur der Reichswirtschaftsminister nach Anhörung des Reichskalirates und der Kaliprüfungsstelle bewilligen".

Die Kaliprüfungsstelle erteilte im Jahre 1924 der Gewerkschaft Irmgard auf ihren Stilllegungsantrag von Ende 1923 eine Beteiligungsziffer von 67 % der durchschnittlichen Beteiligung aller Kaliwerke.

Zustand der Schachtanlage nach deren Stilllegung
Dokumentiert ist, dass erste Schäden an der Schachtkonfiguration bereits im Dezember 1915 auftraten. Infolge starker Wasserzuflüsse brachen die untersten 25 m der Schachtausmauerung herein.

Die 1978 erfolgten Untersuchungen am Schacht Irmgard (siehe nebenstehende Fotos) ergaben u. a. die Höhe der im Schacht anstehenden Wässer bzw. Lösungen bei +172,59 m NN. Die Höhenlage des angeloteten Schachtgrundes beträgt – 118,40 m NN. Eine aus dieser Teufe gezogene Gesteinsprobe des Schachtgrundes ergab: "Schluffstein, rotbraun, mit vereinzelten graugrünen Tonsteineinlagen, insgesamt weichplastisch, rollfähig ("rückvertonter" Unterer Buntsandstein). Im Schacht Irmgard war das Zufließen von Wasser aus der undichten Schachtverkleidung oberhalb des Schachtwasserspiegels hörbar. Die Größenordnung konnte nicht ermittelt werden; sie muss aber mehrere Minutenliter betragen." [Pinzke, 1978]

Die chemische Analyse aus einer Teufe von 342,24 m bei der in-situ-Temperatur von + 21,5 Grad ergab nachstehenden Gehalt an Einzelsalzen (alles in g/l): CaSO4 0,34; CaCl2 62,40; MgCl2 108,10; KCl 32,50; NaCl 71,80; Dichte 1,215 g/ml. Hier standen also 1978 ungesättigte Lösungen an. Dazu kamen weitere weniger mineralisierte Lösungen aus Buntsandsteinpartien, sodass von einer fortschreitenden salinaren Auflösung im Schachtbereich auszugehen war. Inwieweit diese Prozesse noch aktiv sind, können nur neue Untersuchungen abklären.

Nach 1945 wurde die Schachtanlage zum Eigentum des Volkes erklärt; 1953 wurde sie vom VEB Kaliwerk "Heinrich Rau" Roßleben in Rechtsträgerschaft übernommen. Mit Erlass der Verwahrungsanordnung der DDR vom 10. Oktober 1971 (DDR-GBl. II Nr. 73) wurde der Rat des Bezirkes Halle für eine Vielzahl von Alt-Kalischächten, sogenannte "Grubenbaue alten Bergbaus ohne Rechtsnachfolger", zuständig; somit auch für Schacht Irmgard. Mit dem Beitritt der DDR zum Geltungsbereich des Grundgesetzes galten diese stillgelegten Schächte auch als "stillgelegte Anlagen eines bergbaulichen Gewinnungsbetriebes, für den ein Rechtsnachfolger nicht vorhanden oder nicht mehr feststellbar ist".

Anstelle der Räte der Bezirke traten die jeweiligen Landesregierungen bis zum Erlass entsprechender ordnungsbehördlicher Vorschriften ("Thüringer Gesetz über die Gewährleistung der öffentlichen Sicherheit und Ordnung in Objekten des Altbergbaus und in unterirdischen Hohlräumen (Thüringer Altbergbau- und Unterirdische Hohlräume-Gesetz – ThürABbUHG" vom 23. Mai 2001 (veröffentlicht im ThürGVBl Nr. 4 vom 31. Mai 2001, S. 41) i. d. F. der "Änderung durch das Thüringer Gesetz zur Anpassung von Behördenbezeichnungen in der Bergverwaltung vom 3. Dezember 2002 (GVBl S. 430, 431))) ein.

Somit steht bis dato diese stillgelegte Schachtanlage ordnungsrechtlich bezüglich der Fürsorgepflicht zwecks Gefahrenabwehr in der Zuständigkeit des Thüringer Landesbergamtes (siehe auch "Leitfaden Verwahrung Tagesschächte"). Zur Gewährleistung der öffentlichen Sicherheit wurde die Schachtröhre 1940/41 abgedeckelt (siehe obige Fotos). Gegenüber 1978 zeigte diese Schachtkopfsicherung im Jahr 2010 weitere größere Verwitterungsschäden. Der unmittelbare Zugang ist mittels Maschendrahtzaun vor unbefugtem Betreten gesichert. Schacht Irmgard und weitere dieser Relikte früherer bergbaulicher Tätigkeiten bedürfen auch weiterhin der Kontrolle und Fürsorge.

Quellenverzeichnis
 J. Mossner (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Kali-Bergwerke, Salinen und Tiefbohrunternehmungen. Finanz-Verlag, Berlin 1936.
 G. Pinzke: Gutachten zur Einschätzung der Bergbau- und öffentlichen Sicherheit ausgewählter Kalischachtanlagen ohne Rechtsnachfolger auf dem Territorium des Bezirkes Halle. Gutachten, Rat des Bezirkes Schwerin, Abt. Geologie 1979, Archiv des LAGB Sachsen-Anhalt.
 Jahrbücher der Deutschen Braunkohlen-, Steinkohlen- und Kali-Industrie. Verlag von Wilhelm Knapp, Halle/Saale.
 Handbuch der Kali-Bergwerke, Salinen und Tiefbohrunternehmungen 1924–1925. Finanz-Verlag, Berlin.

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
 E. Loock: Stillgelegte Schächte – ein Problem der Kaliindustrie. (= Freiberger Forschungshefte, Reihe A. 136). Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1960.
 J. Löffler: Die Kali- und Steinsalzlagerstätten des Zechsteins in der DDR. Teil III: Sachsen-Anhalt. (= Freiberger Forschungshefte C. 97/III). Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1962.

Weblinks
 guenter.pinzke.de

Kalibergwerk im Südharz-Kalirevier
Kyffhäuserkreis

Kaliwerk Gewerkschaft Irmgard


Als Karthagischer Friede wird ein Friede bezeichnet, der den Besiegten dauerhaft zerstört oder ihm die Möglichkeit nimmt, "wieder auf die Beine zu kommen". Gelegentlich wird rechtskonservativ der Vertrag von Versailles (1919) als Karthagischer Friede bezeichnet.

Begriffsentstehung
Karthago war eine alteingesessene See- und Handelsmacht, die den westlichen Mittelmeerraum kontrollierte. Das Römische Reich war jünger – eine vielgenannte Jahreszahl der Gründung ist 753 vor Christus – und wurde nach und nach Herr über das heutige Italien.

Bis etwa zur Mitte des 3. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. war das Verhältnis zwischen Rom und Karthago kooperativ, was mehrere Verträge belegen. Als Rom aber eine Chance erkannte, einen Brückenkopf in Sizilien zu erringen, trat Karthago diesem entgegen, weil es durch diese Expansion seine eigenen Besitzungen im Westen Siziliens gefährdet sah.

Dieser Konflikt zwischen Karthagern – von den Römern Poeni (Punier) genannt – und Römern weitete sich im Ersten (264 – 241 v. Chr.) und Zweiten Punischen Krieg (218 – 201 v. Chr.) in einen Kampf um die Hegemonie im westlichen Mittelmeer aus.

Der erstere wurde hauptsächlich mit Seestreitkräften und auf Sizilien geführt; der zweite ist durch Hannibals Überquerung der Alpen bekannt geworden (dabei wurden Kriegselefanten mitgeführt). Die Römer erlitten in der Schlacht von Cannae 216 ihre schwerste Niederlage überhaupt.

Obwohl Rom mehrmals am Rand einer Niederlage stand, gewann es beide Kriege; Karthago ging dagegen merklich geschwächt aus diesen hervor. Nach dem endgültigen Triumph bei der Schlacht von Zama 202 v. Chr. unterlag Karthago und wurde zu einem römischen Vasallenstaat. Vor allem die römischen Konservativen unter Marcus Porcius Cato dem Älteren fürchteten gleichwohl – tatsächlich oder vorgeblich – ein Wiedererstarken des Erbfeindes und bevorteilten massiv Karthagos nordafrikanische Rivalen.

Im Dritten Punischen Krieg (149 und 146 v. Chr.) beseitigten die Römer den karthagischen Stadtstaat, zerstörten die Stadt selbst und errichteten die neue Provinz Africa.

Literatur
L.Loreto, L'inesistente pace cartaginese, in  M. Cagnetta ed., La pace dei vinti, Roma 1997, 79 ff.

Weblinks
 Martina Trapp: Darstellung karthagischer Geschichte in der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft und in Schulbüchern von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ende des Nationalsozialismus. Untersuchungen zur Rezeptionsgeschichte (Dissertation Univ. Regensburg, 2003) auf DissOnline Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek

Siehe auch
 Geschichte der Seefahrt
 Geschichte Karthagos

Einzelnachweise

Frieden
Karthago

Karthagischer Friede


David Thomas Hugh Buchanan (Rochdale, Inglaterra, 6 de mayo de 1986) es un futbolista norirlandés. Juega de defensa y se encuentra sin equipo tras finalizar su contrato con el Chesterfield Football Club.

Selección nacional

Ha sido internacional con la selección de fútbol sub-21 de Irlanda del Norte.

Clubes

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Futbolistas de Irlanda del Norte
Futbolistas del Bury Football Club
Futbolistas del Hamilton Academical Football Club
Futbolistas del Tranmere Rovers Football Club
Futbolistas del Preston North End Football Club
Futbolistas del Northampton Town Football Club
Futbolistas del Chesterfield Football Club

David Buchanan


Einmal als Schneekönig (engl. Titel: Mr. Plow) ist die 9. Folge der 4. Staffel der Serie Die Simpsons.

Handlung
Bei einem Schneesturm fährt Homer sein Auto zu Schrott. Auf der Suche nach einem neuen Auto kauft er schließlich einen Schneepflug. Viele Hausbesitzer brauchen Homers Hilfe, da ihre Häuser inzwischen mit Schnee bedeckt sind. Schnell verdient er viel Geld und bekommt sogar eine Auszeichnung vom Bürgermeister. Als er in der Bar erzählt, wie gut das Geschäft läuft und welche Auszeichnung er bekommen hat, wünscht sich sein Freund Barney ebenfalls, geehrt zu werden. Am nächsten Tag stellt Homer fest, dass Barney seine Idee geklaut hat, indem er sich einen viel größeren Schneepflug angeschafft hat. Die Nachfrage nach Homer nimmt ab, bis er schließlich arbeitslos wird. Auch seine Auszeichnung wird ihm abgenommen und Barney gegeben. Als Linda Ronstadt schließlich in Barneys Werbung singt, wird es Homer zu viel. Er trickst Barney aus, indem er ihm den Auftrag gibt, zu einem hohen Berg zu fahren und dort Schnee zu räumen. Als Homer in den Nachrichten sieht wie Barney von einer Lawine verschüttet wird, rettet er ihn. Schließlich wollen beide zusammenarbeiten; in diesem Moment schmilzt jedoch der Schnee, und Homers Schneepflug wird von der Pfändungsabteilung abgeschleppt.

Hintergrund
Für das Produktionsteam war es eine besondere Ehre, den ehemaligen Batman-Darsteller Adam West als Sprecher einzuladen, der für viele Mitarbeiter ein Jugendidol war. Ebenso hat sich die Sängerin Linda Ronstadt selbst synchronisiert.

Auch gibt es wieder einige Parodien: Nachdem Homer den schulfreien Tag verhinderte, indem er mit dem Schneepflug den Weg für den Schulbus gesäubert hat, wird Bart in einen Hinterhalt gelockt und von Schneebällen "durchlöchert" – so wie Sonny Corleone in Der Pate. Der überarbeitete Werbespot von Homers Mr. Schneepflug war eine Parodie auf einen zur gleichen Zeit ausgestrahlten Parfüm-Werbespot.

Rezeption
Für Robert Cunning von der Website IGN war dies eine der besten Folgen überhaupt: "Es gab eine lustige, fesselnde Geschichte, großartige Gaststars, die sich über sich selbst lustig machten, Rückblenden, Lieder, Cutaways und Gelegenheiten, Charaktere außerhalb der gleichnamigen Familie der Serie hervorzuheben."

Der Original-Homer-Sprecher Dan Castellaneta wurde 1993 für diese Episode mit dem Voice-Over-Performance-Preis bei den Primetime-Emmy-Awards ausgezeichnet.

Weblinks

 Mr. Plow bei simpsonspedia.net

Einzelnachweise

Die-Simpsons-Episode

fi:Simpsonit (4. tuotantokausi)#Ystävä hädässä (Mr. Plow)

Einmal als Schneekönig


is a 1979 Japanese thriller film, directed by Hasegawa Kazuhiko.

Plot
Makoto Kido, a high school science and chemistry teacher, has decided to build his own atomic bomb. Before stealing plutonium isotopes from Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant, he is involved in the botched hijack of one of his school's buses during a field trip.  Along with a police detective, Yamashita, he is able to overcome the hijacker and is publicly hailed as a hero.

Meanwhile, Makoto is able to extract enough plutonium from his stolen isotopes to create two bombs—one genuine, the other containing only enough radioactive material to be detectable, but otherwise a fake.  He plants the fake bomb in a public lavatory and phones the police and demands that Yamashita take the case.  Since Makoto speaks to the police through a voice scrambler, Yamashita is unaware that Makoto is behind the whole thing.

Makoto manages to extort the government into showing baseball games without cutting away for commercials.  Flush with success, he follows a suggestion by a radio personality, nicknamed "Zero",  to use the real bomb to extort the government into allowing the Rolling Stones to play in Japan (despite being barred from doing so due to Keith Richards being arrested for narcotics possession).  The request is soon granted and the band eventually plays in Tokyo.

As Makoto makes his way to the concert with the bomb, Yamashita follows him. Makoto pulls out a gun and forces Yamashita to a rooftop. Makoto reveals that he was the extortionist, and gets into a fight with Yamashita. Eventually the two fall from the roof whilst Makoto holds on to the bomb. He is saved by grabbing on to a power line as Yamashita falls to his death. Still in possession of the bomb, Makoto decides to leave. As he walks away, a ticking sound, then an explosion is heard.

Cast
 Kenji Sawada as Makoto Kido
 Bunta Sugawara as Inspector Yamashita
 Kimiko Ikegami as Zero Sawai
 Kazuo Kitamura as Tanaka
 Shigeru Kôyama as Nakayama
 Kei Satō as Dr. Ichikawa
 Yūnosuke Itō as Bus Hijacker

Release
The Man Who Stole the Sun was released by Toho on October 6, 1979. The film was released in the United States by Kitty Enterprises on October 10, 1980.

Reception
On its release, the film won the Reader's Choice Award for Best Japanese Film in Kinema Junpo and Best Director, Reader's Choice Award at the (Mainichi Film Concours) and Best Supporting Actor for Bunta Sugawara at the Japanese Academy Awards.

In the Japanese film magazine July 2018 issue of Kinema Junpo a list was made of the Top 1970s Japanese Films voted by 115 people including film critics and directors with The Man Who Stole the Sun being voted at number one.

References

Sources

External links

1979 thriller films
1979 films
Anti-nuclear films
Cultural depictions of Jimmy Carter
Cultural depictions of Leonid Brezhnev
Cultural depictions of the Rolling Stones
Films set in Tokyo
Japanese thriller films
1970s Japanese-language films
Toho films
1970s Japanese films

The Man Who Stole the Sun


Makar(a) Sankranti (), () also referred to as Uttarayana, Makar, or simply Sankranti, is a Hindu observance and a festival. Usually falling on the date of January 14 annually (January 15 on a leap year), this occasion marks the transition of the sun from the zodiac of Sagittarius (dhanu) to Capricorn (makara). Since the sun has made this transition which vaguely coincides with moving from south to north, the festival is dedicated to the solar deity, Surya, and is observed to mark a new beginning. Many native multi-day festivals are organised on this occasion all over India.

The festivities associated with Makar Sankranti are known by various names including Makara Sankranti in Kerala, Magh Bihu in Assam, Maghi Saaji in Himachal Pradesh, Maghi Sangrand in Punjab, Maghi Sangrand or Uttarain (Uttarayana) in Jammu, Sakrat in Haryana, Sakraat in Rajasthan, Sukarat in central India, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Uttarayana in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, Ghughuti in Uttarakhand, Dahi Chura in Bihar, Makar Sankranti in Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa, West Bengal (also called Poush Sankranti or Mokor Sonkranti), Uttar Pradesh (also called Khichidi Sankranti), Uttarakhand (also called Uttarayani) or as simply, Sankranti in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Maghe Sankranti (Nepal), Songkran (Thailand), Thingyan (Myanmar), Mohan Songkran (Cambodia), Til Sakraat in Mithila, and Shishur Senkrath (Kashmir). On Makar Sankranti, Surya (Hindu solar deity) is worshipped along with Vishnu and goddess Lakshmi throughout India.

Makar Sankranti is observed with social festivities such as colourful decorations, rural children going house to house, singing and asking for treats in some areas, melas (fairs), dances, kite flying, bonfires and feasts. The Magha Mela is mentioned in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Many observers go to sacred rivers or lakes and bathe in a ceremony of thanks to the Sun. Every twelve years, the Hindus observe Makar Sankranti with Kumbha Mela – one of the world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 60 to 100 million people attending the event. At this event, they say a prayer to the Sun and bathe at the Prayagaraj confluence of the River Ganga and River Yamuna, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankaracharya. Makar Sankranti is a time of celebration and thanks giving, and is marked by a variety of rituals and tradition.

Date variations

Makar Sankranti is set by the solar cycle and corresponds to the exact time astronomical event of the Sun entering Capricorn and is observed on a day that usually falls on 14 January of the Gregorian calendar, but on 15 January in leap years. Makar Sankranti's date and time is analogous to Sidereal time of Zodiac sign of Capricorn (when sun enters).

The year is 365.24 days long and the time difference between the two consecutive instances of Makar Sankranti is almost the same as the year. There are 365 days in a year. Thus, every four years the calendar is offset by one day which is adjusted by adding leap day (29 February). Hence, Makar Sankranti falls on the 15th of January every leap year. Sidereal time of sign of Capricorn also shifts by a day due to leap year. Similarly, the time of equinoxes also shifts by a day in each four year window. For example, the equinox of September does not fall on the same date each year nor does the winter solstice. Any event related to one revolution of the Earth around the Sun will have this date shift within a four year cycle. Similar changes can be seen in the exact time of solstices and equinoxes. See the table, how the time of the equinox and a solstice increases and decreases in a cycle of four years.

The time difference between two consecutive winter solstices is about 5 hours 49 minutes 59 seconds, with respect to winter solstice time, and the time difference between two consecutive Mankar Sankranti is about 6 hours and 10 minutes. Towards the end of the 21st century, there will be more occurrences of Makar Sankranti on 15 January in a four-year cycle.
And Makar Sankranti will be on 16 January for the first in the year 2102 as 2100 will not be a leap year.

Makar Sankranti and Uttar Ayana

Makar Sankranti is celebrated when the Sun's ecliptic longitude becomes 270° measured from a fixed starting point which is in opposition to Spica, i.e. this is a sidereal measure. Uttarayana begins when the Sun's ecliptic longitude becomes 270° measured from the Vernal equinox, i.e. this is a tropical measure. While both concern a measure of 270° their starting points are different. Hence, Makar Sankranti and Uttarayana occur on different days. On the Gregorian calendar, Makar Sankranti occurs on 14 or 15 January; Uttarayana starts on 21 December.

Due to the precession of the equinoxes the tropical zodiac (i.e. all the equinoxes and solstices) shifts by about 1° in 72 years. As a result, the December solstice (Uttarayana) is continuously but very slowly moving away from Makar Sankranti. Conversely, the December solstice (Uttarayana) and Makar Sankranti must have coincided at some time in the distant past. Such a coincidence last happened 1700 years back, in 291 CE.

Significance
Every year Makar Sankranti is celebrated in the month of January. This festival is dedicated to the Hindu religious sun god Surya. This significance of Surya is traceable to the Vedic texts, particularly the Gayatri Mantra, a sacred hymn of Hinduism found in its scripture named the Rigveda.

Makara Sankranti is regarded as important for spiritual practices and accordingly, people take a holy dip in rivers, especially Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. The bathing is believed to result in merit or absolution of past sins. They also pray to the Sun and give thanks for their successes and prosperity. A shared cultural practices found amongst Hindus of various parts of India is making sticky, bound sweets particularly from sesame (til) and a sugar base such as jaggery (gud, gur, gul). This type of sweet is a symbolism for being together in peace and joyfulness, despite the uniqueness and differences between individuals. For most parts of India, this period is a part of early stages of the Rabi crop and agricultural cycle, where crops have been sown and the hard work in the fields is mostly over. The time thus signifies a period of socializing and families enjoying each other's company, taking care of the cattle, and celebrating around bonfires, in Gujarat the festival is celebrated by flying kites.

Makara Sankranti is an important pan-Indian solar festival, known by different names though observed on the same date, sometimes for multiple dates around the Makar Sankranti. It is known as Pedda Panduga in Andhra Pradesh, Makara Sankranti in Karnataka, Telangana, and Maharashtra, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Magh Bihu in Assam, Magha Mela in parts of central and north India, as Makar Sankranti in the west, Makara Sankranti or Shankaranti in Kerala, and by other names.

Nomenclature and regional names

Makar or Makara Sankranti is celebrated in many parts of the Indian subcontinent with some regional variations. It is known by different names and celebrated with different customs in different Indian states and South Asian countries:

Sankranti, Makara Sankranti, Makara Sankramanam, Pedda Panduga: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Pusna: West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya
 Suggi Habba, Makara Sankramana, Makara Sankranti: Karnataka
 Makar Sankranti, Uttarayana or Ghughuti: Uttarakhand
 Makar Sankranti or Makara Mela and Makara Chaula: Odisha
 Makar Sankranti or Sankaranti or Shankaranti: Kerala
 Makar Sankranti or Dahi Chura or Til Sankranti: Mithila Bihar
 Makar Sankranti, Maghi Sankranti, Haldi Kumkum or Sankranti: Maharashtra, Jammu, Goa, Nepal
 Hangrai: Tripura
 Pongal or Uzhavar Thirunal: Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia
 Uttarayana: Gujarat
 Maghi: Haryana, Himachal Pradesh Punjab
 Magh Bihu or Bhogali Bihu: Assam
 Shishur Saenkraat: Kashmir Valley
 Sakraat or Khichdi: Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar
 Poush Sangkranti: West Bengal, Bangladesh
 Tila Sakrait: Mithila
 Tirmoori: Pakistan

In most regions of India, Sankranti festivities last for two to four days of which each day is celebrated with distinct names and rituals.

 Day 1 – Maghi (preceded by Lohri), Bhogi Panduga
 Day 2 – Makara Sankranti, Pongal, Pedda Panduga, Uttarayana, Magh Bihu
 Day 3 – Mattu Pongal, Kanuma Panduga
 Day 4 – Kaanum Pongal, Mukkanuma

Regional variations and customs

It is celebrated differently across the Indian subcontinent. Many people take a dip in places like Ganga Sagar and pray to the Sun God (Surya). It is celebrated with pomp in southern parts of India as Sankranti in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Karnataka (Pongal in Tamil Nadu), and in Punjab as Maghi.

Many melas or fairs are held on Makar Sankranti the most famous being the Kumbha Mela, held every 12 years at one of four holy locations, namely Haridwar, Prayag (Prayagraj), Ujjain and Nashik, the Magha Mela (or mini-Kumbh Mela held annually at Prayag) and the Gangasagar Mela (held at the head of the Ganges River, where it flows into the Bay of Bengal). Makar Mela in Odisha. Tusu Mela also called as Tusu Porab is celebrated in many parts of Jharkhand and West Bengal. Poush Mela, held traditionally on the seventh day of Poush, at Shantiniketan, in West Bengal, is unrelated to this festival. Mela Maghi is held in memory of the forty Sikh martyrs (Chalis Mukte) who gave their lives to protect Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, every year at Muktsar Sahib in Punjab. Before this tradition, the festival was observed and mentioned by Guru Amar Das, the third Guru of Sikhism.

Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
The festival Sankranti  is celebrated for four days in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Telugu women decorate the entrance of their homes by geometric patterns drawn using colored rice flour, called Muggu.
Day 1 – Bhogi
Day 2 – Sankranti, the main festival day
Day 3 – Kanuma
Day 4 – Mukkanuma
Bhogi

Bhogi is the first day of the four-day festival. It is celebrated with a bonfire with logs of wood, other solid-fuels, and wooden furniture at home that are no longer useful. In the evening, a ceremony called Bhogi Pallu, fruits of the harvest such as regi pallu and sugarcane are collected along with flowers of the season. Money is often placed into a mixture of treats and is poured over children. The children then collect the money and sweet fruits.

Sankranti
The second and main day of the four-day festival, and is dedicated to the Hindu god Surya. The day marks the start of the Uttarayana, when the sun enters the 10th house of the zodiac Makara. It is commonly called as Pedda Panduga (Big festival) in the Andhra Pradesh state. Ariselu, a traditional sweet dish is offered to the god.

Kanuma
The third day of the four-day festival, it is dedicated to the cattle and other domestic animals. The cattle are decorated, especially cows, they are offered bananas, a special meal and worshipped. On this day, popular community sport Kodi Pandem will begun playing until the next one to two days, especially in the Coastal Andhra region of Andhra Pradesh.

Mukkanuma
It is the fourth and last day of the four-day festival. Many families hold reunions on this day.

Assam

Magh Bihu (also called Bhogali Bihu (Bihu of eating foods and enjoyment) or Maghar Domahi is a harvest festival celebrated in Assam, India, which marks the end of harvesting season in the month of Maagha (January–February). It is the Assam celebration of Makar Sankranti, with feasting lasting for a week.

The festival is marked by feasts and bonfires. Young people erect makeshift huts, known as Meji and Bhelaghar, from bamboo, leaves and thatch, and in Bhelaghar they eat the food prepared for the feast, and then burn the huts the next morning. The celebrations also feature traditional Assamese games such as tekeli bhonga (pot-breaking) and buffalo fighting. Magh Bihu celebrations start on the last day of the previous month, the month of "Pooh", usually the 29th of Pooh and usually 14 January, and is the only day of Magh Bihu in modern times (earlier, the festival would last for the whole month of Magh, and so the name Magh Bihu). The night before is "Uruka" (28th of Pooh), when people gather around a bonfire, cook dinner, and make merry.

During Magh Bihu people of Assam make cakes of rice with various names such as Shunga Pitha, Til Pitha etc. and some other sweets of coconut called Laru or Laskara.

Bihar
It is popularly known as Sakraat or Khichdi in western Bihar and Til Sakraat or Dahi Chura in rest of Bihar where people usually eat Dahi  and Chura (Flattened Rice),  sweets made of Til Sesame seeds and Chini (Sugar)/Gud(Jaggery) such as Tilkut, Tilwa (Til ke Ladoo) etc. In the state, the crops harvested around the time are Sesame Seeds, Paddy, etc

Goa
Known as Sankrant in Goa and like in the rest of the country, people distribute sweets in the form of granules of sugar-coated till pulses among family members and friends. Newly married women offer five sunghat or small clay pots with black beaded threads tied around them, to the deity. These pots are filled with newly harvested food grains and are offered with betel leaves and areca nut. Its observance takes place on a rather subdued note, unlike major festivals of the region like Ganesh chaturthi.

Gujarat

Uttarayana, as Makar Sankranti is called in Gujarati, is a major festival in the state of Gujarat which lasts for two days.

 14 January is Uttarayana
 15 January is Vasi-Uttarayana (Stale Uttarayana).

Gujarati people keenly await this festival to fly kites, called patang. Kites for Uttarayana are made of special light-weight paper and bamboo and are mostly rhombus shaped with central spine and a single bow. The string often contains abrasives to cut down rival kites.

In Gujarat, from December through to Makar Sankranti, people start enjoying Uttarayana. Undhiyu (spicy, baked mix of winter vegetables) and chikkis (made from til (sesame seeds), peanuts and jaggery) are the special festival recipes savoured on this day. The Hindu Sindhi community in western regions of India, that is also found in southeastern parts of Pakistan, celebrate Makar Sankranti as Tirmoori. On this day, parents sending sweet dishes to their daughters.

Haryana and Delhi

"Sakraant" in Haryana and Delhi rural areas, is celebrated with traditional Hindu rituals of North India similar to Western UP and border areas of Rajasthan and Punjab. This includes ritual purification by taking the holy dip in rivers, especially in Yamuna, or at sacred ponds such as ancient sarovars Kurukshetra and at local tirtha ponds associated with the ancestral guardian/founder deity of the village called Jathera or Dhok (dahak in Sanskrit or fire) in villages to wash away sins. People prepare kheer, churma, halva with desi ghee and distribute til-gud (sesame and jaggery) laddoos or chikkis. Brothers of married woman visits her home with a gift pack, called "Sindhara" or "Sidha", of wood and warm clothing for her and her husband's family. Women give gift to their in-laws called "Manana". Women congregate in the nearby havelis to sing Haryani folk songs and exchange gifts.

Jammu
In Jammu, Makar Sankranti is celebrated as 'Uttrain' (derived from Sanskrit: Uttarayana). Alternatively, terms 'Attrain' or 'Attrani' have also been used to describe this festival. A day before is celebrated as Lohri by Dogras to commemorate end of Poh (Pausha) month. It is also beginning of the Magha month as per Hindu Solar Calendar, hence also known as 'Maghi Sangrand' (Sankranti of Magh month).

Among Dogras, there is a tradition of 'Mansana' (charity) of Khichdi of Maah Dal. Khichdi of Maah di Dal is also prepared on this day and that is why this day is also referred to as 'Khichdi wala Parva'. There is also a tradition of sending Khichdi & other food items to house of married daughters. Fairs are organised on holy places and pligrimages on this day. Dhagwal in Hiranagar tehsil is known for Fair on Makar Sankranti and Janamashtami.

People of Jammu also take holy bath in Devika river and pilgrimages like Uttar Behni and Purmandal on this occasion. This day is also celebrated as birth anniversary of Baba Ambo ji, a local deity of Jammu region.

At Vasuki temple of Bhaderwah of Jammu, the idols of Vasuki Nag are covered on Magh Sankranti and they are uncovered only after three months on Vaisakha Sankranti

Karnataka

This is the Suggi (ಸುಗ್ಗಿ) or harvest festival for farmers of Karnataka. On this auspicious day, girls wear new clothes to visit near and dear ones with a Sankranti offering in a plate and exchange the same with other families. This ritual is called "Ellu Birodhu." Here the plate would normally contain "Ellu" (white sesame seeds) mixed with fried groundnuts, neatly cut dry coconut and fine cut bella (jaggery). The mixture is called "Ellu-Bella" (ಎಳ್ಳು ಬೆಲ್ಲ). The plate contains shaped sugar candy moulds (Sakkare Acchu, ಸಕ್ಕರೆ ಅಚ್ಚು) with a piece of sugarcane. There is a saying in Kannada "ellu bella thindu olle maathadi" that translates to 'eat the mixture of sesame seeds and jaggery and speak only good.' This festival signifies the harvest of the season, since sugarcane is predominant in these parts. Ellu Bella, Ellu Unde, bananas, sugarcane, red berries, haldi and kumkum and small gift items useful in everyday lives are often exchanged among women in Karnataka.
During the occasion, newly married women give away bananas for five years to married women from the first year of her marriage. Kite flying, drawing rangolis, giving away of red berries known as Yalchi kai are some of the intrinsic parts of the festival. Another vital ritual in rural Karnataka is the display of decorated cows and bulls and their procession is done and they are also made to cross a fire and this custom is known as "Kichchu Haayisuvudu".

Maharashtra

In Maharashtra, on Makar Sankranti day, people exchange til-gul (sweetmeats made from sesame seeds and jaggery).  A famous line associated with this joyous occasion is til gul ghya god god bola (Eat this sesame and jaggery and speak sweet words). Tilacha halwa (sugar granules) are also offered as prasad in the Devghar (Prayer room) after  seeking blessings. Gulachi poli is a popular flat bread stuffed with shredded jaggery and ground til in pure ghee are enjoyed for lunch as well as dinner.

Married women invite friends/family members and celebrate Haldi-Kunku. Guests are given til-gul and some small gift, as a part of the ritual. On this day, Hindu women and men make it a point to wear black clothes. As Sakranti falls in the winter months of the region, wearing black adds to the body warmth. This is an essential reason behind wearing black, which is otherwise barred on festival days. As per another legend, Lord Surya forgave his son Shani and his son visited him on Sankranti. That is the essential reason why people distribute sweets and urge them to let go of any negative or angry feelings. Also, newly married women offer five sunghat or small clay pots with black beaded threads tied around them, to the Shakti deity. These pots are filled with newly harvested food grains and are offered with betel leaves and areca nut. Its observance takes place on a rather subdued note, unlike major festivals of the region like Ganesh Chaturthi.

Odisha

The festival is known as Makara Sankranti in Odisha where people prepare makara chaula (): uncooked newly harvested rice, banana, coconut, jaggery, sesame, rasagola, Khai/Liaa and chhena puddings for naivedya to gods and goddesses. The withdrawing winter entails a change in food habits and intake of nourishing and rich food. Therefore, this festival holds traditional cultural significance. It is astronomically important for devotees who worship the sun god at the great Konark temple with fervour and enthusiasm as the sun starts its annual swing northwards. According to various Indian calendars, the Sun's movement changes and the days from this day onwards become lengthier and warmer and so the Sun-God is worshiped on this day as a great benefactor. Many individuals at the start of the day perform a ritual bath while fasting. Makara Mela (Fun fair) is observed at Dhabaleswar in Cuttack, Hatakeshwar at Atri in Khordha, Makara Muni temple in Balasore and near deities in each district of Odisha. In Puri special rituals are carried out at the temple of Lord Jagannath. In Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, Koraput and Sundargarh where the tribal population is greater, the festival is celebrated with great joy. They celebrate this festival with great enthusiasm, singing, dancing and generally having an enjoyable time. This Makara Sankranti celebration is next to the Odia traditional new year Maha Vishuva Sankranti which falls in mid April. Tribal groups celebrate with traditional dancing, eating their particular dishes sitting together, and by lighting bonfires.

Punjab

In Punjab, Makar Sankranti is celebrated as Maghi which is a religious and cultural festival. Bathing in a river in the early hours on Maghi is important. Hindus light lamps with sesame oil as this is supposed to give prosperity and drive away all sins. A major mela is held at Sri Muktsar Sahib on Maghi which commemorates a historical event in Sikh history.

Rajasthan and Western Madhya Pradesh (Malwa and Nimar)
"Makar Sankrati" or "Sakraat" in the Rajasthani language is one of the major festivals in the state of Rajasthan. The day is celebrated with special Rajasthani delicacies and sweets such as pheeni (either with sweet milk or sugar syrup dipped), til-patti, gajak, kheer, ghevar, pakodi, puwa, and til-laddoo.

Specially, the women of this region observe a ritual in which they give any type of object (related to household, make-up or food) to 13 married women. The first Sankranti experienced by a married woman is of significance as she is invited by her parents and brothers to their houses with her husband for a big feast. People invite friends and relatives (specially their sisters and daughters) to their home for special festival meals (called as "Sankrant Bhoj"). People give out many kind of small gifts such as til-gud (jaggery), fruits, dry khichadi, etc. to Brahmins or the needy ones.

Kite flying is traditionally observed as a part of this festival. On this occasion the sky in Jaipur and Hadoti regions is filled with kites, and youngsters engage in contests trying to cut each other's strings.

Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and Sri Lanka

It is a four-day festival in South India and Sri Lanka:
 Day 1: Bhogi Pandigai (போகி பண்டிகை)
 Day 2: Thai Pongal (தை பொங்கல்)
 Day 3: Maattu Pongal (மாட்டுப் பொங்கல்)
 Day 4: Kaanum Pongal (காணும் பொங்கல்)

The festival is celebrated four days from the last day of the Tamil month Margazhi to the third day of the Tamil month Thai (Pausha).

Bhogi
The first day of festival is Bhogi (போகி). It is celebrated on the last day of Margazhi by discarding household items and setting them on fire, marking the end of the old and the emergence of the new. In villages there will be a simple ceremony of "Kappu Kattu" (kappu means secure). The 'neem' leaves are kept along the walls and roof of the houses. This is to eliminate evil forces. This day is also held in honor of Indra, the Hindu god of rain.

Thai Pongal

The second day of festival is Thai Pongal or simply Pongal.  It is celebrated by boiling rice with fresh milk and jaggery in new pots, which are later topped with brown sugar, cashew nuts and raisins early in the morning and allowing it to boil over the vessel. This tradition gives Pongal its name. The moment the rice boils over and bubbles out of the vessel, the tradition is to shout "பொங்கலோ பொங்கல் (Ponggalo Ponggal)!" and blow the sangu (a conch), a custom practised to announce it was going to be a year blessed with good tidings. Then, new boiled rice is offered to the Sun god during sunrise, as a prayer which symbolises thanks to the sun for providing prosperity. It is later served to the people in the house for the ceremony. People prepare savouries and sweets such as vadai, murukku, payasam and visit each other and exchange greetings.

Maattu Pongal

The third day of festival is Maattu Pongal (மாட்டுப் பொங்கல்). It is for offering thanks to cattle, as they help farmers in agriculture. On this day the cattle are decorated with paint, flowers and bells. They are allowed to roam free and fed sweet rice and sugar cane. Some people decorate the horns with gold or other metallic covers. In some places, Jallikattu, or taming the wild bull contest, is the main event of this day and this is mostly seen in the villages.

Kaanum Pongal
The fourth day of the festival is Kaanum Pongal (காணும் பொங்கல்: the word kaanum means "to view"). During this day people visit their relatives, friends to enjoy the festive season. It is a day to thank relatives and friends for their support in the harvest. It started as a farmers festival, called as Uzhavar Thirunaal in Tamil. Kolam (கோலம்) decorations are made in front of the house during Thai Pongal festival.

Kerala
In Kerala, this is called as Sankranti or Makara Sankranti. In Malabar villages, this used to be celebrated as the victory over a demon. In Sabarimala, on this day, the Makaravilakku is lit to show the significanceofthelord- god.

Tripura
The Tripuri is the promoter of Hangrai festivals. They have first introduced this festival of immersing of ancestors' remains in the holy river. Since then it was adopted by other groups in India and popularized over the years.

Mythology inform us that when the world was just created by Lord Siva or Sibrai there was only the grassland and nothing was present. The god then created an egg to produce a human being. The egg hatched to give birth to a human being, creating a big bang. He crawled out of eggshells and looked around for anyone like him, but he found none. There was total silence, peace tranquility, and harmony on the earth. He was frightened by seeing this scenario of earth. He remained near the eggshell most of the time and went back near to the empty eggshell, went inside of half of the shell and covered it with another one, and hid there.

The almighty God was upset by this development. Years later he created another egg, and after ten months it hatched. There was a big bang when it hatched that shook the earth and gave birth to another human. He was very courageous and powerful, as soon as he came out of the human eggshell, he started shouting and announced to the whole of the world, 'I am the first to be born in this earth, I am the eldest on the earth, no one is elder to me in this earth. He named himself Subrai and declared to the whole of the earth that he is the ruler of this earth and king of this universe. Hearing the big bang Hangrai got more frightened, closed his eyes, and silently remained inside the shell. But when he heard the voice like his own, he came out of his shell and met Subrai. At this Subrai told that he is older than Hangrai, since then Subrai became the elder brother of Hangrai, and people knew them as it is.

Thousand of years later when they grew older, the time had come to leave this world. As Hangrai grew older than Subrai, one day he felt sick very seriously, Hangrai was on his death bed, Subrai was taking care of him. Then god came before them and said, 'Among both of you, Hangrai is elder than Subrai, I only know this, because I have created both of you. Hangrai will leave this earth very soon. Subrai will do all necessary rituals to cremate the body of Hangrai.' And god disappeared from there.

Then Subrai cried like a baby, touching the feet of Hangrai, saying, 'Elder brother, I have treated you like a younger brother for thousands of years, forgive me for my wrongdoing unto you.'

Hangrai said, 'I have done so!' and touched his head as gesture of forgiving and blessing unto him, and then breadth for his last.

After the death of Hangrai, his younger brother Subrai cremated his body and did all the rituals, and immerged Hangrai's remaining in the holy water of the river on the last day of Pousa month. Since then, people observed these rituals and festivals every year and continued to this day. That is why the day is named "Hangrai", which has later adopted by other ethnic groups of people of India.

Every year on the day of Hangrai the Tripuri people observe it in grand pomp and show. In every house of Tripuri preparation for Hangrai starts two-three days before. Houses are cleaned, washed whitewashed. All the utensils, clothes, articles are cleaned, homes are decorated. Different types of Tripura cakes, dishes, and drinks are prepared, near and dear ones, relatives are invited for a feast.

Uttar Pradesh
The festival is known as Kicheri in Purvanchal and Awadh parts of Uttar Pradesh and involves ritual bathing. Over two million people gather at their respective sacred places for this holy bathing such as Prayagraj and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh and Haridwar in Uttarakhand.  The day at a domestic household begins by taking ritual bath before sunrise, doing ritualistic prayers to the rising Sun. It also includes pledging for and donating Food, clothing and money to Brahmin/s called Purohita. It is followed by generous gifting of Food, Clothing, jewelleries and money to female relatives like to married Daughters, Sisters and Daughter-in-Laws and their families.
Sesame seeds, Jaggery, chiura and Yogurt are eaten post the prayers. This is followed by Khichdi as the next meal (hence the vernacular name of the Festival).

Uttarakhand
Makar Sankranti is a popular festival in Uttarakhand. It known by various names in the different parts of the state such as Uttarayani, Khichri Sangrand, Pusyodia, Ghughutia, Ghughuti Tyar, Kale Kauva, Makrain, Makraini, Gholda, Gwalda and Chunyatyar.

In the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, Makar Sankranti (also called as Ghughuti (घुघुति) or Ghughuti Tyar or Ghughutia or Kale Kauva or Uttarayani) is celebrated with great gusto. The famous Uttarayani mela (fair) is held in Bageshwar town each year in the month of January on the occasion of Makar Sankrati. According to the Almora Gazetteer, even in the early twentieth century, the annual Uttarayani mela at Bageshwar was visited by approximately 15,000 people and was the largest fair of Kumaon division. The religious ritual of the Uttarayani mela consists of bathing before daybreak at the confluence of Saryu and Gomati followed by an offering of water to Lord Shiva inside the Bagnath Temple. Those who are more religiously disposed, continue this practice for three days in succession, which is known as "Trimaghi". On this day, people also give 'khichdi' (a dish made by mixing pulses and rice) in charity, take ceremonial dips in holy rivers, participate in Uttarayani fairs and offer deep fried sweetmeats consisting of flour and jaggery to crows and other birds as a way to pay homage to the departed souls of their ancestors.

West Bengal

In West Bengal, Sankranti, also known as Poush Sankranti named after the Bengali month in which it falls (last date of that month), is celebrated as a harvest festival Poush Parbon (Bengali: পৌষ পার্বণ). (It falls on 14 January on the Western calendar.) The freshly harvested paddy and the date palm syrup in the form of Khejurer Gur (Bengali: খেজুরের গুড়) and Patali (Bengali: পাটালি) is used in the preparation of a variety of traditional Bengali sweets made with rice flour, coconut, milk and 'khejurer gur' (date palm jaggery) and known as 'Pitha' (Bengali: পিঠে). All sections of society participate in a three-day festival that begins on the day before Sankranti and ends on the day after. The Goddess Lakshmi is usually worshipped on the day of Sankranti.

In the Himalayan regions of Darjeeling, the festival is as known as Magey Sakrati. It is distinctly associated with the worship of Lord Shiva. Traditionally, people bathe at sunrise and then commence their pooja. Elsewhere, many people take a dip in places like Ganga Sagar. Ganga Sagar falls in West Bengal.

Outside India

Bangladesh

Shakrain is an annual celebration of winter in Bangladesh, observed with the flying of kites.

Nepal
Maghe Sankranti is a Nepalese festival observed on the first of Magha in the Vikram Sambat (B.S) calendar (about 14 January). Tharu people celebrate this particular day as new year. It is also regarded as the major government declared annual festival of the Magar community.

Observant Hindus take ritual baths during this festival. These include Sankhamul on the Bagmati near Patan; In the Gandaki/Narayani river basin at Triveni, Devghat near Chitwan Valley and Ridi on the Kaligandaki; and in the Koshi River basin at Dolalghat on the Sun Koshi. Festive foods like laddoo, ghee and sweet potatoes are distributed.

Pakistan (Sindh)
On this festive day, Sindhi parents send ladoos and chiki (Laaee) made of sesame seeds to their married daughters. The Sindhi community in India too celebrate Makar Sankranti as Tirmoori which involves parents sending sweet dishes to their daughters.

Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Canada, Australia, America and some Europe countries
On this day, the Tamil farmers and the Tamil People honour and perfom a pooja to the Sun God Suriya Narayanan. This happens when the sun enters the zodiac sign of Capricorn (Makara). The Thai Pongal festival is celebrated in mid-January, or the Tamil month of Thai, to coincide with the rice harvest.

See also
 Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar
 List of Hindu festivals
 Jallikattu
 List of harvest festivals
 Uttarayana

References

External links

Religious festivals in India
Festivals in Maharashtra
Hindu festivals in Nepal
Gujarati culture
Hindu astronomy
Hindu festivals
January observances
Public holidays in Nepal
Bengali festivals
Punjabi festivals
Winter festivals
Hindu festivals in India
Observances set by the Vikram Samvat calendar
Religious festivals in Bangladesh
Harvest festivals

Makar Sankranti


Donald John Allan (født 24. september 1949 i Melbourne) er en forhenværende cykelrytter fra Australien. I 1972 deltog han ved de olympiske lege i landevejscykling, men det var på banen han havde mest succes.

Allan har kørt 107 seksdagesløb og vandt de 17. Med sin makker Danny Clark vandt han 15 løb, 15 andenpladser, 11 tredjepladser og 12 fjerdepladser i 71 starter. Ved Københavns seksdagesløb blev det til sejr i 1978, og andenpladsen de efterfølgende to år.

Eksterne henvisninger

Mandlige cykelryttere fra Australien
Vindere af Københavns seksdagesløb
Personer fra Melbourne

Donald Allan


Jerzy Plebański () a fost un fizician-teoretician polonez, cunoscut pentru cercetările sale în domeniul teoriei gravitației și a relativității.

Biografie
În anii celui de-al doilea Război Mondial a studiat la un liceu din Cernăuți și la Universitatea din Cernăuți. În anul 1954 a obținut doctoratul la Universitatea din Varșovia, sub îndrumarea lui Wojciech Rubinowicz, după care a început să lucreze la nou-înființatul Institut de fizică teoretică al Universității din Varșovia, avându-l drept colaborator pe renumitul Leopold Infeld, colaborator al lui Albert Einstein la Universitatea Princeton. Au cercetat împreună problema mișcării în cadrul Relativității generale. În anii 1958-1962 a fost vice-decan al facultății de fizică a Universității din Varșovia.

În anul 1958 a călătorit în SUA și a petrecut doi ani acolo, mai întâi ca profesor invitat la Institutul de studii avansate de la Princeton, unde a colaborat cu John Stachel, Peter Havas și John Archibald Wheeler, iar mai târziu la Universitatea California din Los Angeles. S-a întors în Polonia în 1960 și s-a căsătorit în același an cu Anna Lazarowicz.

În anii 1962-1967 soții Plebański s-au aflat în Mexic, care era o țară neutră și era acceptată de autoritățile polone pentru vizite și colaborări cu scop științific. Jerzy Plebański a fost invitat să predea la Centro de Investigaciones y de Estudios Avanzados (CINVESTAV) al Institutului Politehnic Național din Ciudad de México.

După ce s-a reîntors în Polonia a îndeplinit funcția de vicerector al Universității din Varșovia în perioada 1969-1973. Soții Plebański au imigrat definitiv în Mexic în anul 1973, iar Jerzy s-a întors la același centru de studii avansate CINVESTAV, unde a rămas până în anul morții sale, 2005. El i-a invitat acolo în nenumărate rânduri pe colegii fizicieni din Polonia și a menținut relații apropiate cu Universitatea din Varșovia.

Activitatea științifică
Activitatea științifică a lui Plebański a urmărit cercetarea a cinci aspecte principale:

 Electrodinamica neliniară și metode de cuantificare.
 Ecuații de mișcare relativiste: ecuațiile Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann, "aproximația rapidă".
 Conexiuni cu teoria spinorilor.
 Tensorul Plebański.
 Acțiunea Plebański. Toate soluțiile de vid și autoduale ale ecuațiilor lui Einstein satisfac aceeași ecuație, numită "ecuația cerească".

Plebański este cunoscut pentru cercetarea problemei mișcării în cadrul relativității generale (în colaborare cu Bohdan Mielnik) și pentru găsirea unei noi soluții a ecuațiilor Einstein de tip D după clasificarea Petrov, în colaborare cu Marek Demianski.

Note

Legături externe
 Biografie CINVESTAV

Nașteri în 1928
Decese în 2005
Fizicieni polonezi

Jerzy Plebański


The endocardium (: endocardia) is the innermost layer of tissue that lines the chambers of the heart. Its cells are embryologically and biologically similar to the endothelial cells that line blood vessels. The endocardium also provides protection to the valves and heart chambers.

The endocardium underlies the much more voluminous myocardium, the muscular tissue responsible for the contraction of the heart. The outer layer of the heart is termed epicardium and the heart is surrounded by a small amount of fluid enclosed by a fibrous sac called the pericardium.

Function
The endocardium, which is primarily made up of endothelial cells, controls myocardial function. This modulating role is separate from the homeometric and heterometric regulatory mechanisms that control myocardial contractility. Moreover, the endothelium of the myocardial (heart muscle) capillaries, which is also closely appositioned to the cardiomyocytes (heart muscle cells), is involved in this modulatory role. Thus, the cardiac endothelium (both the endocardial endothelium and the endothelium of the myocardial capillaries) controls the development of the heart in the embryo as well as in the adult, for example during hypertrophy. Additionally, the contractility and electrophysiological environment of the cardiomyocyte are regulated by the cardiac endothelium.

The endocardial endothelium may also act as a kind of blood–heart barrier (analogous to the blood–brain barrier), thus controlling the ionic composition of the extracellular fluid in which the cardiomyocytes bathe.

Clinical significance
In myocardial infarction, ischemia of the myocardium starts at the endocardium and might extend up to the epicardium, disrupting the entire heart wall ("transmural" infarction). Less extensive infarctions are often "subendocardial" and do not affect the epicardium. In the acute setting, subendocardial infarctions are more dangerous than transmural infarctions because they create an area of dead tissue surrounded by a boundary region of damaged myocytes. This damaged region will conduct impulses more slowly, resulting in irregular rhythms. The damaged region may enlarge or extend and become more life-threatening. In the chronic setting, transmural infarctions are more dangerous due to the greater amount of muscular damage and the development of scar tissue leading to impaired systolic contractility, impaired diastolic relaxation, and increased risk for rupture and thrombus formation.

During depolarization the impulse is carried from endocardium to epicardium, and during repolarization the impulse moves from epicardium to endocardium.
In infective endocarditis, the endocardium (especially the endocardium lining the heart valves) is affected by bacteria.

References

External links
  - "Heart and AV valve" (atrial endocardium)
  - "Heart and AV valve" (ventricular endocardium)

Cardiac anatomy

Endocardium


Le musée des antiquités ukrainiennes Vassily-Tarnovsky (en ukrainien : Будинок В. В. Тарновського) de Tchernihiv se situe au 6 rue Chevchenko en Ukraine.

Historique
Le bâtiment abritait, au  un orphelinat et une école, en 1897, selon la volonté de Vassily Tarnovsky sa collection entrait en ce bâtiment. Mais le musée n'ouvrait qu'en 1902.

La bibliothèque pour la jeunesse se trouve en ce bâtiment depuis 1978. Il gère le Domaine Lyzohoub de Sedniv.

Lors de la bataille de Tchernihiv en 2022 le musée est bombardé.

Articles connexes
 Liste de musées en Ukraine.

Notes et références

Sources

Antiquités ukrainiennes Vassily-Tarnovsky
Tchernihiv
Patrimoine classé d'Ukraine

Musée des antiquités ukrainiennes Vassily-Tarnovsky


Otok Cocos (Chamorrski: Islan Dåno) nalazi  se 1.6 km južno od Guama, smješten unutar koraljnog grebena Merizo, dio općine Merizo. Otok je nenaseljen, dug 1,600 metara, orijeniran u smjeru jugozapad-sjeveroistok, te širok između 200 m i 300 m. Površina mu je  386,303 m2. Otok čini  jugozapadni rub koraljnog grebena Kokosove lagune.

Istočna obala otoka je dnevno odmaralište s bazenom, odbojkaškim igralištem, kafićem, slastičarnom, restoranom i barom te iznajmljivanjem opreme za vodene sportove. Posjetitelji odmarališta mogu roniti, voziti kajak, promatrati dupine, baviti se parasailingom, jet skijem i voziti biciklom. Zapadna strana je javno zemljište, dio sustava teritorijalnog parka. Trajekti voze za Merizo na Guamu.

Tijekom španjolske vladavine, otok je bio u vlasništvu don Ignacija Mendiole Dela Cruza (Tu'an). U kasnim 1920-ima, američka vlada je stekla dvije trećine otoka putem eminentne domene. Sredinom 1930-ih Don Ignacio je preostalu trećinu prodao poslovnom čovjeku po imenu Gottwald. Navigacijska stanica dugog dometa obalne straže izgrađena je i djelovala je na otoku Cocos od 1944. do 1963. godine. U kasnim 1980-im i ranim 1990-im, američka vlada vratila je veći dio otoka vladi Guama, koja ga je zatim pretvorila u park.

Vojni testovi na tlu s otoka Cocos krajem 2005. godine pokazali su razine kontaminacije polikloriranim bifenilima (PCB) 4900 puta više od federalno preporučene razine. Testovi na dvanaest vrsta riba u laguni pokazali su da sve osim jedne od tih vrsta imaju visoke razine PCB-a. Jedna je imala 265 puta veću razinu od prihvatljive. Kontaminacija je najvjerojatnije nastala od transformatora i druge električne opreme u postaji obalne straže, ali nije ranije mjerena.

Dužnosnici Agencije za zaštitu okoliša Guama, Odjela za javno zdravstvo i socijalne usluge Guama i Obalne straže objavili su svoja otkrića 20. veljače 2006. i upozorili ljude da ne jedu ribu ulovljenu u laguni.

Otok Cocos jedno je od rijetkih mjesta na koje je ponovno uvedena ugroženagua.ska endemska ptica Hypotaenidia owstoni.

Dana 5. studenog 2020. Ministarstvo unutarnjih poslova SAD-a i Američki geološki institut objavili su da je zmija Boiga irregularis () pronađena na otoku Cocos.  T je invazivna vrsta odgovorna za iskorjenjivanje mnogih vrsta divljih životinja porijeklom iz Guama, uključujući ptice i guštere. Pretpostavlja se da je stigla kao slijepi putnik u teretu, a prvi put je otkrivena 1950-ih. Svake godine uzrokuje milijune dolara štete, najviše na električnom sustavu jer se penje na stupove i tako kratko spaja žice.

Bibliografija
The Island of Guam By Leonard Martin Cox

Izvori

The Island of Guam By Leonard Martin Cox

Otoci Guama

Cocos (Guam)


Komjatná este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Ružomberok din regiunea Žilina. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 1.508 locuitori. Se învecinează cu , Ružomberok și .

Istoric
Localitatea Komjatná este atestată documentar din 1330.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Komjatná


Théâtre national de drame musical de Choucha (en azéri:Şuşa Dövlət Musiqili Dram Teatrı) est l'un des théâtres dramatiques musicaux fonctionnant en Azerbaïdjan.

Histoire
Le Théâtre d'État de kolkhoze et sovkhoz (coopératives et exploitation agricoles d'État) de Choucha est fondé en février 1938. En 1943, le collectif est renommé en Theatre national de drame musical de Choucha Uzeyir Hadjibeyov. Il cesse ses activités au début de 1949. Par décision du Cabinet des ministres de la République d'Azerbaïdjan, le Ministère de la Culture rétablit son activité. En 1992, le théâtre déménage à Bakou en raison de la guerre du Karabakh et s'installe dans le bâtiment du Théâtre des Jeunes Spectateurs (1992–2005). Ensuite, le théâtre fonctionne dans le bâtiment du cinéma Savalan à Bakou (de 2005 à 2014).
En 2013, le cinéma "Savalan" est liquidé et le bâtiment transféré et, en décembre 2018,au Théâtre national de drame musical de Choucha. En 2014, le bâtiment subit d'importants travaux de restauration et de réparation conformément à l'ordre du président de la République d'Azerbaïdjan Abdurrahim bey Hagverdiyev, Zulfugar Hadjibeyov, Suleyman Sani Akhundov, Uzeyir Hadjibeyov, Firidun bey Kotcharli, Badal bey Badalbeyli, Safarali bey Valibeyov, Djabbar Garyaghdioghlu, Hachim bey Vazirov sont dramaturges, compositeurs, acteurs et organisateurs du théâtre.

Activité
Théâtre national de drame musical de Choucha participe aux festivals de théâtres républicains en tant que Mono performances en 1994, Performances expérimentales en 1998, Classics nationaux et théâtre en 1999, Festival de festivalsen 2000, et reçoit le Darvich d'or prix pour la pièce Eyri oturag, duz danishag d'Uzeyir Hadjibeyov en 2002.
Yachar", "Ogtay Eloghlu", "en 1905" (Djafar Djabbarly), "Vagif", "Farhad et Chirin" (Samad Vurgun), etc.

Répertoire principal
Hadji Gara, Lankaran khaninin veziri, Khirs guldurbasan (Mirza Fatali Akhundov), Bakhtsiz javan, Daghilan tifag (Abdurrahim bey Hagverdiyev), Solghun chichekler, Sevil, Almaz, Yashar, Ogtay Eloghlu, En 1905 (Jafar Jabbarly), Vagif, Farhad et Chirin (Samad Vurgun), etc.
Performances musicales: Leyli et Majnun, Asli et Kerem, Si ce n'est pas celle-là, alors ce sera celle-ci (Uzeyir Hadjibeyov), Achig Garib (Zulfugar Hadjibeyov) et d'autres.

Personnel
Loghman Kerimov, Artiste émérite de l'Azerbaïdjan, directeur en chef du théâtre
Yadigar Muradov,metteur en scène
Un grand groupe d'acteurs.

Références

Association ou organisme culturel en Azerbaïdjan
Théâtre azéri


වම|thumb|කන්නෙලිය රක්ෂිතය, සංචාරක පිවිසුමේ ඇති තොරතුරු පුවරුව
කන්නෙලිය-දෙදියගල-නාකියාදෙණිය හෝ '''KDN''' යනු දකුණු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ වන සංකීර්ණයකි. 2004 දී යුනෙස්කෝව විසින් මෙම වන සංකීර්ණය ජෛවගෝල ආරක්ෂිතයක් ලෙසින් නම් කෙරිණි. සිංහරාජය හැරුණු විට ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ඉතිරිව ඇති අවසන් විශාල  වන සංරක්ෂිතය KDN සංකීර්ණය  වෙයි. මෙම වන ප්‍රදේශය දකුණු ආසියාවේ ශාකමය අතින් අතිශයින් සාරවත් වූ ප්‍රදේශ අතුරින් එකක් වෙයි. වන සංකීර්ණය පිහිටා ඇත්තේ  ගාල්ල නගරයට කිමී 35 ක් වයඹ දෙසටය. මෙම වැසි වනාන්තරය  දකුණු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ඉතා වැදගත් ගංගා දෙකක් වන ගිං සහ නිල්වලා ගංගා සඳහා ප්‍රධාන ජලපෝෂිත ප්‍රදේශයකි. ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට ආවේණික බොහෝ ශාක සහ සත්ත්ව විශේෂයන්හට මෙම ජෛවගෝල ආරක්ෂිතය තුල රැකවරණය සැපයෙයි.

1960 දශකයේ සිට 1970 අගභාගය වන තුරු තුනී ලෑලි සංස්ථාවේ  ගාල්ල ගිංතොට කම්හල වෙත තුනී ලෑලි නිශ්පාදනය සඳහා දැව ලබාගෙන ඇත්තේ මෙම ප්‍රදේශයෙන් බැවින් විශාල වන විනාශයක් සිදුව තිබෙනවා.  ඒ කාලයේ භාවිත කල තාර යෙදු මාර්ග අදත් වනාන්තරය තුළ දක්නට තිබෙනවා. මේ හේතුව නිසාම කන්නෙලියේ ප්‍රාථමික වනාන්තරය (primary forest) දක්නට ලැබෙන්නේ අඩුවෙන්. වනාන්තරය පුරා පැතිර පවතින්නේ ද්විතියික වනාන්තරයයි (secondary forest). එනම් අලුතින් වැඩුනු ශාකවලින් මෙම වනාන්තරයේ බොහෝ ප්‍රදේශ වැසී පවතිනවා. එහෙත් දැනට වසර 30-35ක් පමණ කාළයක සිට තුනී ලෑලි සඳහා දැව කැපීම නතර වී ඇති හෙයින් වනාන්තරය ඝනව වැඩී ඇති අතර වන විනාශයක් සිදුවී ඇති බවට සළකුණු මැකී තිබෙනවා.

පිහිටීම හා භෞතික ලක්ෂණ
ගාල්ල දිස්ත්‍රික්කයට අයත්ව උතුරු අක්ෂාංශ 6°10. සහ 6°18. සහ නැගෙනහිර දේශාංශ 80°19. සහ 80°26. අතර පිහිටා ඇති මෙම වනාන්තරය හෙක්ටයාර 5305 පුරා පැතිරී පවතියි. එයින් හෙක්ටයාර 5108.2 ක් ඝන වනාන්තර වලින්ද හෙක්ටයාර 168.4 විවෘත වනාන්තර වලින්ද හෙක්ටයාර 29.3 වන වගා වලින්ද සමන්විත වෙයි. කන්නෙලිය රක්ෂිත වනාන්තරය පහතරට නිවර්තන වර්ෂා වනාන්තරයක්  වන අතර මෙය කන්නෙලිය- දෙදියගල- නාකියාදෙනිය සංකීර්ණයට ( KDN complex)  අයත් වෙයි. මෙම කලාපයේ වනාන්තර පහතරට තෙත් කලාපීය වර්ෂා වනාන්තර ලෙස හදුන්වා දෙනු ලැබේ. දැනට රක්ශිත ලෙස යෝජනාකොට ඇති දෙදියගල හා නාකියාදෙනිය වනාන්තරද එක්ව ගත්කල කන්නෙලිය- දෙදියගල- නාකියාදෙනිය සංකීර්ණය ලෙස හඳුන්වන මෙම මුලු ප්‍රදේශය හෙක්ටයාර 11,900 කින් සමන්විත වේ.

කන්නෙලිය වනාන්තරය ඇතුලත් ප්‍රදේශයට සාමාන්‍යයෙන් වාර්ෂික වර්ෂාපතනය මි.මි. 4.445 වාර්ථා වෙයි.වැඩිම වාර්ෂාපතයක් මැයි මාසය මැද භාගයේ සිට සැප්තැම්බර් මස අවසානය දක්වා  පවතින නිරිතදිග මෝසම් දේශගුණය මගින් ලැබේ.මෙම වනාන්තරය තුල පවතින මධ්‍ය වාර්ෂික උෂ්ණත්වය සෙල්සියස් 27 පමණ වේ.

ජෛවගෝලය සමන්විත වන්නේ සමාන්තරව පිහිටි කඳු වැටි සහ නිම්නයන් මාලාවකිනි. මුහුදු මට්ටමෙහි සිට 60 මී සිට 425 මී දක්වා පරාසයක  උන්නතාංශය පිහිටයි.  මධ්‍යයන වාර්ෂික උෂ්ණත්වය 27.0°C  වන අතර වාර්ෂීක උෂ්ණත්ව විචලනය 4°C-5°C වෙයි. වනාන්තරය  3,750 මිමී ක සැලකිය යුතු වර්ෂාපතනයක් ලබයි. ගොන්ඩ්වානාහී බොහෝ  පුරාතන වර්ගීකරණ සමූහයන් මෙම වැසි වනාන්තරයන්හී දැකිය හැකිය. ඉන්දුමලයානු ශාක සහ සතුන් වෙතද ඒවා  සබැඳියාවක් දක්වති.

කන්නෙලිය-දෙදියගල-නාකියාදෙණිය (KDN) සංකීර්ණයේ වැදගත්කම

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ වර්ෂා වනාන්තර සැලකීමේදී සිංහරාජයට පසුව වැදගත්ම තැනක් හිමිවන්නේ මෙම සංකීර්ණයටයි. මෙම වනාන්තරය සතුව පවතින දිය පහරවල් 110 කට වැඩි ප්‍රමාණයක් දැනට හදුනාගෙන ඇති අතර එබැවින් මෙම කලාපය දකුණු පලාතේ පවතින වැදගත් ගංගා පෝෂක ප්‍රදේශයක් ලෙස නම් කර ඇත.

කන්නෙලිය රක්ෂිතය සැලකෙන්නේ Bio diversity hot spot හෙවත් ජෛව විවිධත්වය අනුව අතිශයින්ම වැදගත් වනාන්තර කලාපයක් ලෙසයි. එක් කුඩා ප්‍රදේශයක හමුවන වැඩිම ජෛව විවිධත්වය වාර්තා වන්නේ කන්නේලියෙන් බවයි සැලකෙන්නේ.

එපමණක් නොව, 2004 වසරේදී මිනිසා හා ජෛවගෝල සංචිතයක් (Man & Biosphere Reserve) ලෙස යුනෙස්කෝව විසින් කන්නෙලිය-දෙදියගල-නාකියාදෙනිය ප්‍රදේශය නම්කොට තිබෙනවා. යුනෙස්කෝවේ ජෛවගෝල සංචිත සංකල්පයේ අරමුණ ජෛවගෝලීය වශයෙන් වැදගත් භූමි ප්‍රදේශයන් ආරක්ශා කිරීම හා එසේ කිරීමේදී එම ප්‍රදේශවල වාසය කරන ජනතාවද මෙම සංරක්ශණ කටයුතු සඳහා දායකකරගෙන එම ජනයාගේ ආර්ථික හා සමාජීය සංවර්ධනය සඳහා ක්‍රියාකිරීමයි (conservation with sustainable development).

මෙම සංකල්පයේ ප්‍රායෝගික ක්‍රියාකාරිත්වය කන්නෙලිය රක්ශිතයේදී දැකගත හැකියි. කන්නලිය රක්ශිතයේ සංචාරක මාර්ගෝපදේශකයින් ලෙස කටයුතු කරන්නේත් එහි බොහෝ රාජකාරි කටයුතු කරන්නේත් එම ප්‍රදේශයේම ගම්වැසි ජනතාවගෙන් තෝරාගත් පිරිසක් විසිනි. එමෙන්ම වනාන්තරයට හානියක් නොවන ලෙස යම් යම් නිශ්පාදන සඳහා අමුද්‍රව්‍ය සපයාගැනීමටද ඉඩදී තිබෙනවා. ඒ අනුව කන්නෙලිය රක්ශිතයේ  ආරක්ශකයින් බවට එම ප්‍රදේශවාසි ජනයාම පත්වී තිබෙන්නේ රක්ශිතයෙන් ඔවුනට ආර්ථික වාසි ලැබෙන බැවින් එය ආරක්ශාකර ගැනීමේ වැදගත්කම ඔවුනට අවබෝධවීම නිසාය.

ජෛව විවිධත්වය

කන්නෙලිය වනාන්තරය තුල සිදුකරනු ලැබු පර්යේශණ හා සත්ව සංගණන වලට අනුව ශාක , පදුරු හා පැලැටි වර්ග 301 හදුනා‍ගෙන ඇති අතර එයින 52% ක ප්‍රමාණයක් ආවේනික විශේෂ වේ.මෙම විශේෂ අතරින් විශේෂ 16 ක් අන්තර්ජාතිකව වදවී යාමේ තර්ජනයට මුහුණ පා ඇති අතර විශේෂ  26 ක් ජාතික වශයෙන් වදවී යාමේ තර්ජනයට මුහුණ පා ඇත.

වනාන්තරය තුල ඹෟෂධ ශාක වර්ග රාශියක් හමුවේ. ඒවා අතර බෙරලිය, වෙනිවැල්, එනසාල්, කුඩා හැඩයා, මහා හැඩයා, සදරාජ , වනරාජ, කොකුම්, දුම්මල, හාතාවාරිය යන ශාක මුල් තැනක් ගනියි. වනාන්තරය තුල සත්ත්ව විවිධත්වය සැලකීමේදී පක්ෂි වි‍ශේෂ 122ට වැඩි ප්‍රමාණයක් දැනට වාර්තා වී ඇත.ඒ අතර ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට ආවේනික දුර්ලභ පක්ෂි  විශේෂ දෙකක් වන  බට ඇටි කුකුළා සහ කැහිබෙල්ලා ද දැකගත හැකිය

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට ආ‍වේනික කළු වදුරා සහ මීමින්නා ඇතුලුව ක්ෂීරපායින් ව්ශේෂ 20 ක් මෙම වනාන්තරයේදි හමුවේ.වනාන්තරය තුල වාර්තා වන උභය ජීවි විශේෂ සංඛ්‍යාව 19 කි.මෙයට ආවෙනික රුක් මැඩියන් විශේෂද අයත් වේ. උරග විශේෂ 39 මෙම වනාන්තරයේ හමු වී ඇති අතර, ශ්‍රී ලංකජවට ආවෙනික පළා පොළගාද  මේ අතර වේ.

මීට අමතරව ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට ආවෙනික මහ කැලැ නිලයා ඇතුළු සමනළ විශේෂ 40 ක්ද මත්ස්‍ය විශේෂ 24 ක්ද වාර්තා වී ඇත.අන්තර්ජාතික වශයෙන් වදවී යාමේ තර්ජනයට මුහුන පා ඇති පතිරණ සාලයා සහ විල්පිට දන්ඩියා යන මත්ස්‍ය විශේෂයන්ද සුලභ ලෙස දැකිය හැකි ඉස්සන් ද මෙම වනාන්තරයේ වාසය කරයි.

ජල විද්‍යාත්මක ලක්ෂණ
ප්‍රදේශය හරහා ගලන බොහෝ ගංගා සහ දිය ඇලි සඳහා වැදගත් ජලාධාර ප්‍රදේශයක් ලෙසින් වනාන්තර සංකීර්ණය ක්‍රියා කරයි. වනාන්තරයෙන් බටහිර දිශාවට ගලන ගිං ගඟ සඳහාද, වනාන්තරයේ සිට නැගෙනහිර දිශාවට ගලන නිල්වලා ගඟ සඳහාද, වනාන්තරය මූලාශ්‍රයක් වෙයි.   කන්නෙලි, නැනිකිත්ත සහ උඩුගම යන කුඩා ඇලි කන්නෙලියෙන් පැන නගින අතර, හෝම දොල සහ ගල් බැඳි දොල මූලාශ්‍ර වන්නේ නාකියාදෙණිය සහ දෙදියගල වෙතිනි.

ශාක සංහතිය
KDN වනාන්තර සංකීර්ණය විසින් යම් තලයක  පුෂ්පක ඒකදේශිකත්වයක් පල කරනුයේ  පහතරට ඒකදේශික පුෂ්පක විශේෂයන්ගෙන් සියයට 17ක් මෙම වනාන්තර ප්‍රදේශයට සීමා වී ඇති බැවිනි.  මෙම පෙදෙසෙන් හමු වී යැයි ලේඛනගතව  ඇති  කාෂ්ඨීය ශාකයන්  319 ක් අතුරින්, සියයට 52 පමණ ඒකදේශික වෙති.  KDN සංකීර්ණයෙහි  වෘක්ෂලතාදිය නිරුපණය කරනුයේ ශ්‍රී ලංකා පහතරට වැසි වනාන්තර වෙති.

කන්නෙලිය රක්ෂිතය නැරඹීම
කන්නෙලිය රක්ෂිතය නැරඹීමට යන සංචාරකයෙකුට  මගපෙන්වන්නෙකු ලබා ගැනීම අනිවාර්ය වේ.ප්‍රවේශපත්‍ර එකක මිල සදහන්වන්නේ රුපියල් 30  ලෙසයි. රක්ශිතය තුල වැදගත් ස්ථාන ආවරණය වන පරිදි මංපෙත් (trails) 6ක් සකසා ඇති අතර මෙම මංපෙත් කිහිපයක් ආවරණය වන පරිදි සංචරණ සැළසුම් (tour plan) 3ක් සකසා ඇත.

 ගුහාව මංපෙත                : දුර ප්‍රමාණය  කිලෝමීටර 1.5 - ගතවන කාලය පැය 01යි.
 අනගිමල ඇල්ල මංපෙත  : දුර ප්‍රමාණය කිලෝමීටර 2.3 - ගතවන කාලය පැය 03යි.
 යෝධ පුස්වැල මංපෙත   : දුර ප්‍රමාණය කිලෝමීටර 2.3  - ගතවන කාලය පැය 03යි.
 යෝධ නවඳගස මංපෙත : දුර ප්‍රමාණය කිලෝමීටර 5.2  - ගතවන කාලය පැය 03යි.
 නාරංගස් ඇල්ල මංපෙත : දුර ප්‍රමාණය කිලෝමීටර 5.2  - ගතවන කාලය පැය 06යි.
 කබ්බලේ කන්ද මංපෙත : දුර ප්‍රමාණය  කිලෝමීටර 5.5    - ගතවන කාලය පැය 06යි.

මාර්ගෝපදේශක සදහා ගෙවිය යුතු මුදල තීරණය වන්නේ තෝරාගන්නා සැලැස්ම  අනුවයි.

 සැලසුම් අංක 1 - ගුහාව මංපෙත + අනගිමල ඇල්ල මංපෙත + යෝධ පුස්වැල මංපෙත - කාලය පැය 03යි.
 සැලසුම් අංක 2 - සැලසුම් අංක 1+ යෝධ නවඳගස මංපෙත + නාරංගස් ඇල්ල මංපෙත- කාලය පැය 06යි.
 සැලසුම් අංක 3- කබ්බලේ කන්ද මංපෙත (ආපසු පැමිණීමේදි සැලසුම් අංක 1 ආවරණය කල හැක) -පැය 06යි.

ඔබේ සංචාරය පහසුකර ගැනීමට....

1] හැකිතාක් උදයෙන් පැමිණෙන්න. උදය 7-8 වන විට ඔබ උයනට ඇතුලුවන්නේ නම් උදයකාලයේ සැරිසරන පක්ශීන් හා සමනලුන් දැක බලාගැනීම හැකියාව ලැබෙනවා. එමෙන්ම වනෝද්‍යානයේ සියලු වැදගත් ස්ථාන දැක බලාගත හැකි පැය 6ක සංචරණ සැළසුම ප්‍රායෝගික වන්නේ හැකිතාක් උදයෙන් සංචාරය ආරම්භකල හොත් පමණයි. දවල් වන විට දැඩි හිරුරශ්මිය හා වැසිවනාන්තරයක් තුල ඇති වන දැඩි ආර්ධ්‍රතාවය (humidity) නිසා ඉතා වෙහෙසකර තත්වයක් නිර්මාණය විය හැකියි.

2] පානීය ජලය හැකිතාක් රැගෙන යන්න

3] නිහඬව ගමන් කරන්න. ශබ්දනගා කථා කිරීමෙන්, හිනාවීමෙන් හා විහිලුතහලු කිරීමෙන් වන ජීවීන්ට බාධා ඇතිවන අතර උන් සැඟවීම නිසා කළුවඳුරා, මීමින්නා, කැහිබෙල්ලා, බට ඇටි කුකුළා වැනි දුර්ලභ සතුන් දැක බලාගැනීමේ හැකියාව අහිමිවේ.

ආශ්‍රිත

බාහිර යොමු
 නිල වෙබ් අඩවිය

කන්නෙලිය-දෙදියගල-නාකියාදෙණිය අන්තර්ජාතික ජෛවගෝල රක්‍ෂිතය


NGC 5949 est une petite galaxie spirale relativement rapprochée et située dans la constellation du Dragon. Sa vitesse par rapport au fond diffus cosmologique est de , ce qui correspond à une distance de Hubble de . NGC 5949 a été découverte par l'astronome germano-britannique William Herschel en 1801.

La classe de luminosité de NGC 5949 est II-III et elle présente une large raie HI. De plus, c'est une galaxie du champ, c'est-à-dire qu'elle n'appartient pas à un amas ou un groupe et qu'elle est donc gravitationnellement isolée.

On constate que cette galaxie n'a pas de noyau central, caractéristique confirmée par l'image du télescope spatial Hubble. Selon le site de Hubble, NGC 5949 est une galaxie naine, ce qui est inexacte son diamètre faisant plus de 30 années-lumière.

NGC 5949 est l'une des galaxies naines qui posent plusieurs dilemmes aux cosmologues. Par exemple, la répartition de la matière noire dans les galaxies naines est assez déroutante, c'est ce que l'on nomme le problème de concentration du halo. De plus, les modèles de simulation de l'Univers prédisent qu'il devrait y avoir beaucoup plus de galaxies naines que nous n'en voyons autour de nous.

Distance de NGC 5949
La vitesse radiale de 430 km/s de NGC 5949 est trop faible et on ne peut utiliser la loi de Hubble-Lemaître pour calculer sa distance à partir du décalage vers le rouge.Heureusement, deux douzaines de mesures non basées sur le décalage vers le rouge (redshift) ont été réalisées à ce jour. La distance obtenue est de .

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des objets du New General Catalogue

Liens externes

 NGC 5949 sur le site du professeur C. Seligman

5949
Constellation du Dragon
Galaxie spirale
Galaxie du champ
Objet céleste découvert en 1801
Objet céleste découvert par William Herschel

NGC 5949


58 Ophiuchi (58 Oph) es una estrella en la constelación de Ofiuco.
Tiene magnitud aparente +4,87 y se encuentra a 57 años luz de distancia del sistema solar.

58 Ophiuchi es una estrella blanco-amarilla de la secuencia principal de tipo espectral F5V.
Las dos componentes del sistema Diadem (α Comae Berenices), ι Pegasi A o ψ Capricorni son estrellas de características semejantes a 58 Ophiuchi.
Esta última tiene una temperatura efectiva de 6356 - 6465 K, la cifra exacta varía según la fuente consultada.
Gira sobre sí misma con una velocidad de rotación proyectada de 12 km/s, lo que conlleva que su período de rotación es inferior a 6,07 días.
Aunque presenta un contenido metálico inferior al del Sol, diversos estudios determinan valores para su índice de metalicidad [Fe/H] comprendidos entre -0,16 y -0,31; un valor medio de las distintas medidas supone que su abundancia relativa de hierro es un 43% inferior a la solar.

58 Ophiuchi tiene una masa de 1,19 masas solares y su edad se estima entre 1900 y 3500 millones de años.
Al igual que el Sol y la mayor parte de las estrellas de nuestro entorno, 58 Ophiuchi es una estrella del disco fino.

Referencias

Estrellas de tipo F
Constelación de Ofiuco

58 Ophiuchi


An Arum cyrenaicum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Johan Hruby. An Arum cyrenaicum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Arum, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Arum

Arum cyrenaicum


Bernard Mandeville, or Bernard de Mandeville (; 15 November 1670 – 21 January 1733), was an Anglo-Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist.  Born in Rotterdam, he lived most of his life in England and used English for most of his published works.  He became famous for The Fable of the Bees.

Life
Mandeville was born on 15 November 1670, in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, where his father was a prominent physician of Huguenot origin. On leaving the Erasmus school at Rotterdam he showed his ability by an Oratio scholastica de medicina (1685), and at Leiden University in 1689 he produced the thesis De brutorum operationibus, in which he advocated the Cartesian theory of automatism among animals. In 1691 he took his medical degree, pronouncing an inaugural disputation, De chylosi vitiata.  He moved to England to learn the language, and succeeded so remarkably that many refused to believe he was a foreigner. His father had been banished from Rotterdam in 1693 for involvement in the Costerman tax riots on 5 October 1690; Bernard himself may well have been involved.

As a physician Mandeville was well respected and his literary works were successful as well. His conversational abilities won him the friendship of Lord Macclesfield (chief justice 1710–1718), who introduced him to Joseph Addison, described by Mandeville as "a parson in a tye-wig." He died of influenza on 21 January 1733 at Hackney, aged 62.

There is a surviving image of Mandeville but many details of his life still have to be researched. Although the name Mandeville attests a French Huguenot origin, his ancestors had lived in the Netherlands since at least the 16th century.

Works

Fable of the Bees

In 1705 he published a poem under the title The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turn'd Honest (two hundred doggerel couplets). In The Grumbling Hive Mandeville describes a bee community thriving until the bees are suddenly made honest and virtuous. Without their desire for personal gain their economy collapses and the remaining bees go to live simple lives in a hollow tree, thus implying that without private vices there exists no public benefit.

In 1714 the poem was republished as an integral part of the Fable of the Bees: or, Private Vices, Public Benefits, consisting of a prose commentary, called Remarks, and an essay, An Enquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue. The book was primarily written as a political satire on the state of England in 1705, when the Tories were accusing John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and the ministry of advocating the War of the Spanish Succession for personal reasons.

In 1723 a later edition appeared, including An Essay on Charity and Charity Schools, and A Search into the Nature of Society. The former essay criticised the charity schools, designed to educate the poor and, in doing so, instil virtue in them. Mandeville disagreed with the idea that education adds virtue because he did not believe that evil desires existed only in the poor, but rather he saw the educated and wealthy as much more crafty. Mandeville also believed that educating the poor increased their desires for material things, defeating the purpose of the school and making it more difficult to provide for them. It was vigorously combatted by, among others, Bishop Berkeley and William Law, author of The Serious Call, and in 1729 was made the subject of a prosecution for its immoral tendency.

Ideas
Mandeville's philosophy gave great offence at the time, and has always been stigmatised as false, cynical and degrading. His main thesis is that the actions of men cannot be divided into lower and higher. The higher life of man is a mere fiction introduced by philosophers and rulers to simplify government and the relations of society. In fact, virtue (which he defined as "every performance by which man, contrary to the impulse of nature, should endeavour the benefit of others, or the conquest of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good") is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intellectual progress. This is because it is the vices (i.e., the self-regarding actions of men) which alone, by means of inventions and the circulation of capital (economics) in connection with luxurious living, stimulate society into action and progress.

Private vice, public benefit
Mandeville concluded that vice, at variance with the "Christian virtues" of his time, was a necessary condition for economic prosperity. His viewpoint is more severe when juxtaposed to Adam Smith's. Both Smith and Mandeville believed that individuals' collective actions bring about a public benefit. However, what sets his philosophy apart from Smith's is his catalyst to that public benefit. Smith believed in a virtuous self-interest which results in invisible co-operation. For the most part, Smith saw no need for a guide to garner that public benefit. On the other hand, Mandeville believed it was vicious greed which led to invisible co-operation if properly channelled. Mandeville's qualification of proper channelling further parts his philosophy from Smith's laissez-faire attitude. Essentially, Mandeville called for politicians to ensure that the passions of man would result in a public benefit. It was his stated belief in the Fable of the Bees that "Private Vices by the dextrous Management of a skilful Politician may be turned into Publick Benefits".

In the Fable he shows a society possessed of all the virtues "blest with content and honesty," falling into apathy and utterly paralysed. The absence of self-love (cf. Hobbes) is the death of progress. The so-called higher virtues are mere hypocrisy, and arise from the selfish desire to be superior to the brutes. "The moral virtues are the political offspring which flattery begot upon pride." Similarly he arrives at the great paradox that "private vices are public benefits".

Among other things, Mandeville argues that the basest and vilest behaviours produce positive economic effects. A libertine, for example, is a vicious character, and yet his spending will employ tailors, servants, perfumers, cooks, prostitutes. These persons, in turn, will employ bakers, carpenters, and the like. Therefore, the rapaciousness and violence of the base passions of the libertine benefit society in general. Similar satirical arguments were made by the Restoration and Augustan satirists. A famous example is Mandeville's Modest Defence of Publick Stews, which argued for the introduction of public, state-controlled brothels. The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests and mentions e.g. the clitoris as the centre of female sexual pleasure. Jonathan Swift's 1729 satire A Modest Proposal is probably an allusion to Mandeville's title.

Mandeville was an early describer of the division of labour, and Adam Smith makes use of some of his examples.

Influence
While the author probably had no intention of subverting morality, his views of human nature were seen by his critics as cynical and degraded. Another of his works, A Search into the Nature of Society (1723), appended to the later versions of the Fable, also startled the public mind, which his last works, Free Thoughts on Religion (1720) and An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour and the Usefulness of Christianity (1732) did little to reassure. The work in which he approximates most nearly to modern views is his account of the origin of society. His a priori theories should be compared with the jurist Henry Maine's historical inquiries (Ancient Law). He endeavours to show that all social laws are the crystallised results of selfish aggrandizement and protective alliances among the weak. Denying any form of moral sense or conscience, he regards all the social virtues as evolved from the instinct for self-preservation, the give-and-take arrangements between the partners in a defensive and offensive alliance, and the feelings of pride and vanity artificially fed by politicians, as an antidote to dissension and chaos.

Mandeville's ironic paradoxes are a criticism of the "amiable" idealism of Shaftesbury; their irony contrasts with the serious egoistic systems of Hobbes and Helvétius.

Mandeville's ideas about society and politics were praised by Friedrich Hayek, a proponent of Austrian economics, in his book Law, Legislation and Liberty. But it was above all Keynes who put it back in the spotlight in his Essay on Malthus and in the General Theory. Keynes considers Mandeville as a precursor of the foundation of his own theory of insufficient effective demand.

Karl Marx, in his seminal work Capital, praised Mandeville as "an honest man with a clear mind" for his conclusion that the wealth of society depended on the relative poverty of workers.

Bibliography
 Aesop Dress'd, or a Collection of Fables writ in Familiar Verse (1704)
 Typhon: a Burlesque Poem (1704)
 The Planter's Charity (1704)
 The Virgin Unmasked (1709, 1724, 1731, 1742), a work in which the coarser side of his nature is prominent
 A Treatise of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passions (1711, 1715, 1730 (the issue of 1730 was entitled A Treatise of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Diseases)) admired by Johnson (Mandeville here protests against speculative therapeutics, and advances fanciful theories of his own about animal spirits in connection with "stomachic ferment": he shows a knowledge of Locke's methods, and an admiration for Sydenham)
 The Fable of the Bees (1714, 1724)
 The Mischiefs that Ought Justly to be Apprehended from a Whig-Government (1714)
 Free Thoughts on Religion, the Church, and National Happiness (1720, 1721, 1723, 1729)
 A Modest Defence of Publick Stews (1724, 1740) Multiple formats at Ex-Classics
 An Enquiry into the Causes of the Frequent Executions at Tyburn (1725)
 An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour, and the Usefulness of Christianity in War (1732)
 A Letter to Dion, occasioned by his book called Alciphron or the Minute Philosopher (1732)
Renatus Willemsen, Bernard Mandeville : een ondeugende denker?, Noordboek, 2022.Other works attributed, wrongly, to him are The World Unmasked (1736) and Zoologia medicinalis hibernica (1744).

See also
 Fable
 Physician writer

Notes

References
 .
  in the appended "A Search into the Nature of Society."
 , footnote to page 27, section I.ii.3
  This source cites:
 Hill, Boswell, iii, 291–293;
 L. Stephen, English Thought in the Eighteenth Century;
 Alexander Bain, Moral Science, 593–598;
 Windelband, W., History of Ethics (English translation Tufts);
 J.M. Robertson, Pioneer Humanists (1907);
 P. Sakmann, Bernard de Mandeville und die Bienenfabel-Controverse (Freiburg i/Br., 1897), and compare articles Ethics

Further reading
 Gerold Blümle and Nils Goldschmidt: Ein Lob dem Laster. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. 17 May 2010 (sueddeutsche.de).
in Project Gutenberg
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External links

 Project Bernard Mandeville – in Dutch, but with some English translations and many biographical details
 Bernard Mandeville – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

1670 births
1733 deaths
17th-century Dutch economists
17th-century Dutch philosophers
17th-century Dutch physicians
17th-century Dutch political philosophers
17th-century English male writers
17th-century English medical doctors
17th-century English philosophers
18th-century Dutch economists
18th-century Dutch philosophers
18th-century Dutch physicians
18th-century Dutch political philosophers
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English economists
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Bernard Mandeville