Per Yngve Ohlin (Österhaninge, Stockholm, Švedska, 16. siječnja 1969. – Kråkstad, Norveška, 8. travnja 1991.), bolje znan pod pseudonimom Dead, bio je švedski black metal glazbenik, najbolje znan kao glavni vokalist i tekstopisac Mayhema, sastava iz rane norveške black metal scene, od 1988. godine do njegova samoubojstva 1991. godine. Također je bio vokalist švedske death metal skupine Morbid na njezinom demu December Moon. Dead je bio popularna ikona norveške black metal scene. Roadrunner Records uvrstio ga je na 48. mjesto svojeg popisa 50 najboljih metal frontmena svih vremena.

Dead je bio poznat po svojoj "morbidnoj" osobnosti i opsjednutosti sa smrću—kako vlastitom, tako i konceptom općenito, što je i utjecalo na njegov pseudonim. Skupljao je mrtve ptice, nosio majice s pogrebnim obavijestima, zakopavao odjeću kako bi ju dan prije koncerta iskopao, obukao i smrdio kao leš, te nosio corpse paint, što ga prema određenim izvorima čini prvim black metalcem koji se šminkao na taj način. Za razliku od drugih black metal izvođača vjeruje se kako ju nije nosio radi nastupa, već kako bi sebe prikazao kao truplo, a taj je dojam pojačavao tako što se samoozljeđivao komadićima slomljenog stakla. Također je volio da mu obožavatelji bacaju ostatke mrtvih životinja na pozornicu.

Poznanici su ga opisali kao osobu koju je teško shvatiti i s kojom se teško sprijateljiti. Budući da je Dead već bio povučen u sebe i depresivan, prije smrti njegovo se psihičko stanje pogoršavalo, što je dovelo do samoozljeđivanja izvan nastupa i samonametnute izolacije.

Dead je počinio samoubojstvo 8. travnja 1991. godine tako što si je prerezao vene na ruci i vratu te se potom upucao u čelo sačmaricom. Ostavio je kratko pismo koje počinje kratkom rečenicom: "Oprostite na krvi". Fotografija mrtvog Deada pojavila se na naslovnici bootleg koncertnog albuma Mayhema Dawn of the Black Hearts, što je izazvalo polemike. Njegova smrt označila je prekretnicu u black metal sceni, što je dovelo do vala nepredvidljivog ponašanja njezinih članova.

Rani život
Per Ohlin (ponekad zvan "Pelle") rođen je 1969. godine u Österhaningeu, Švedskoj. U djetinjstvu je patio od apneje pri spavanju. U dobi od deset godina počeo je patiti od unutarnjeg krvarenja kada mu je slezena puknula nakon navodne ozlijede tijekom klizanja po ledu. Ipak, u švedskoj knjizi o metal glazbi Blod eld död ('Blood Fire Death', nazvana po četvrtom albumu švedskog sastava Bathory - Blood Fire Death) njegov je brat rekao da je Dead bio zlostavljan u školi i da su ga jednog dana tako jako pretukli da mu je puknula slezena. Hitno je bio prevezen u bolnicu, gdje je na neko vrijeme bio klinički mrtav.

Kasnije je razvio svoj ukus za heavy metal glazbu. Među omiljenim grupama bili su mu Black Sabbath, Kiss, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, AC/DC, Motörhead, Venom, Metallica, Bathory, Sodom i Mercyful Fate. Međutim, kasnije je rekao da je zamrzio Bathory nakon njihove promjene u zvuku te je Quorthona nazvao "mlakonjom".

Karijera
Početkom 1986. godine osnovao je švedski black/death metal sastav Morbid, s kojim je snimio demoalbum December Moon. Ubrzo nakon toga zaključio je da sastav ne ide nikuda te je kontaktirao članove black metal grupe Mayhem. Prema Mayhemovom basistu Necrobutcheru navodno im je poslao mali paket koji je sadržavao kratku demokasetu, pismo u kojem je naveo svoje planove za budućnost i raspetog miša. Iako je Necrobutcher izgubio taj paket, zadržao je kazetu na kojoj su bili Deadovi podaci za kontaktiranje. Dead se početkom 1988. godine preselio u Norvešku i pridružio sastavu.

Osobnost
U intervjuima su kolege glazbenici Deada često opisivali kao čudnog i povučenog u sebe. Mayhemov bubnjar Jan Axel "Hellhammer" Blomberg opisao ga je kao "jako čudnu osobu […] depresivan je, melankoličan i mračan". Sličnim ga je riječima jednom opisao i Mayhemov gitarist Øystein "Euronymous" Aarseth, koji je rekao da "ozbiljno misli da je Dead mentalno poremećen. Kako drugo opisati lika koji ne jede kako bi dobio rane od gladi? Ili koji nosi majice s pogrebnim obavijestima?" Bivši bubnjar Mayhema Kjetil Manheim kasnije je usporedio Deadovu osobnost s onom Marvina Paranoidnog Robota.

Prema Faustu, bubnjaru sastava Emperor:
 [Dead] nije bio osoba koju si mogao dobro upoznati. Mislim da ga ni kolege iz Mayhema nisu baš dobro poznavali. Bilo mu se teško približiti. Upoznao sam ga dva tjedna prije nego što je umro. Ukupno sam ga vidio možda šest do osam puta. Imao je puno čudnih ideja. Sjećam se kad je Aarseth pričao o njemu pa je rekao da se Dead ne zna šaliti. Zapravo se znao šaliti, ali na vrlo mračan način. Iskreno, misim da nije uživao na ovome svijetu, što je naravno rezultiralo njegovim samoubojstvom.
Stian Johannsen ("Occultus"), koji je nakratko bio vokalist Mayhema nakon Deadova samoubojstva, rekao je kako ni sam Dead nije smatrao sebe normalnom osobom:
"On [Dead] se nije smatrao čovjekom; smatrao se bićem s drugog svijeta. Govorio je da je imao puno vizija u kojima mu se krv u venama sledila, da je bio mrtav (dead). To je i razlog zašto je uzeo to ime. Znao je da će umrijeti."
Omot Mayhemova koncertnog albuma Live in Leipzig sadrži dio poruke koju je Dead ostavio prije samoubojstva: "Jag är inte en människa. Det här är bara en dröm, och snart vaknar jag." (Na hrvatskom: Ja nisam ljudsko biće. Ovo je samo san i uskoro ću se probuditi.).

Nastupi
Dead se vrlo trudio kako bi na nastupima stvorio specifičnu atmosferu. Već je na samom početku karijere nosio "corpse paint", što je značilo da lice prekriva crnom i bijelom šminkom. Prema Necrobutcheru to "nije imalo nikakve veze s Kissom i Aliceom Cooperom, koji su također koristili sličnu šminku. Dead je zapravo htio izgledati kao leš. Nije radio to kako bi izgledao guba". Hellhammer je tvrdio kako je Dead "bio prvi black metal glazbenik koji je koristio corpse paint", iako Euronymous na fotografiji iz 1986. godine uslikanoj tijekom koncerta u Skiju također nosi corpse paint. Kako bi upotpunio svoj mrtvački izgled, Dead bi zakopao svoju odjeću te bi ju iskopao noć prije koncerta. Prema Hellhammeru:
Prije koncerata, Dead bi zakopavao odjeću duboko u zemlju kako bi počela truliti i smrdjeti na groblje. Bio je leš na pozornici. Jednom nas je čak zatražio da njega zakopamo — htio je da mu koža izblijedi.

Tijekom jedne turneje s Mayhemom pronašao je mrtvu vranu i držao ju u plastičnoj vrečici. Često ju je nosio sa sobom i pomirisao bi ju prije nego što bi počeo s nastupom kako bi "u nosnicama imao miris smrti". Također je imao mrtve guske ispod kreveta.

Dead bi se često rezao tijekom pjevanja na pozornici. Tijekom nastupa 1990. godine porezao si je ruku razbijenom bocom. Faust je rekao kako je Dead morao biti odveden u bolnicu, ali da je došao prekasno i da "nije imalo smisla zašiti mu rane".

U intervjuu s Morganom "Evilom" Håkanssonom, gitaristom sastava Marduk, koji je kasnije bio objavljen u fanzinu Slayer, Dead je opisao što su on i sastav činili kako bi rastjerali prijetvorne obožavatelje:Prije nego što smo počeli svirati, u publici je bilo oko 300 ljudi, ali tijekom druge pjesme, "Necro Lust", počeli smo joj bacati svinjske glave. Ostalo je samo 50 ljudi. To mi se svidjelo! [...] Želimo uplašiti one [koji] ne bi smjeli biti na našim koncertima tako da moraju pobjeći kroz izlaz za nuždu bez nekih djelova tijela, pa da imamo nešto za bacati okolo. [...] Ako netko ne voli da im se na glave baca krv i trulo meso, mogu slobodno ODJEBATI, i to je upravo ono što čine.

Dead se također nakratko pojavljuje u glazbenom spotu za pjesmu "Bewitched" sastava Candlemass.

Samoozljeđivanje i samoubojstvo

S vremenom su Deadova smanjena društvenost i opsesija sa smrću dodatno pogoršale njegovo duševno stanje. Pokušao se rezati izvan nastupa, dok je bio sa svojim prijateljima, koji su ga morali zaustaviti i vezati. Iako je ovo zabrinjavalo većinu njegovih prijatelja, Euronymousa su njegove samoubičale misli fascinirale jer je mislio kako bi one pomogle ojačati sliku o Mayhemu. Ostali članovi rekli su kako je Euronymous poticao Deada da se ubije. Manheim je rekao: "Ne znam je li Øystein govorio to iz čiste zlobe ili se samo zezao."

Do 1991. godine Dead, Euronymous i Hellhammer živjeli su u kući u šumi blizu Kråkstada, koju su koristili za probe. Prema Hellhammeru Dead je većinu vremena provodio pišući i crtajući. On je "samo sjedio u svojoj sobi i postajao sve više depresivan". Mayhemov basist Necrobutcher rekao je da su nakon nekog vremena zajedničkog života Dead i Euronymous "počeli jedno drugom ići na živce". Hellhammer se prisjetio zgode kad je Dead jednom išao spavati u šumu jer je Euronymous svirao sintesajzersku glazbu koju je Dead mrzio. Euronymous je onda izašao u šumu i počeo pucati u zrak. Varg Vikernes iz Burzuma tvrdi da je Dead jednom ubo Euronymousa nožem. Također je rekao da je Mayhemu kao Božićni poklon slao streljivo, kao i metke za sačmaricu, iako je izjavio da to nisu metci koje je Dead iskoristio za samoubojstvo; dodao je da je sačuvao jedan metak baš za taj čin.

Dana 8. travnja 1991. godine, dok je bio sam u kući, Dead si je razrezao ruku i vrat, a potom je prislonio sačmaricu na čelo i upucao se. Ostavio je i poruku, koja počinje kratkom rečenicom "Oprostite na krvi...".

Tijelo je prvi zatekao Euronymous, koji je morao ući kroz prozor jer su vrata bila zaključana, a drugi ključ nije postojao. Prije nego što je pozvao policiju, navodno je otišao do dućana i kupio jednokratni fotoaparat kojim je slikao tijelo nakon što je nekoliko stvari posebno posložio. Kasnije se pojavila glasina da je Euronymous napravio varivo od komadića Deadova mozga i da je načinio ogrlice od komadića njegove lubanje. Sastav je naknadno negirao prvu glasinu, ali je potvrdio istinitost druge. Sam je Euronymous izjavio da je dao te ogrlice glazbenicima za koje je mislio da su ih vrijedni, što je potvrdila nekolicina drugih članova scene, poput Bårda "Fausta" Eithuna, Metaliona i Morgana Steinmeyera Håkanssona iz Marduka.

Euronymous se kasnije koristio Deadovim samoubojstvom radi promidžbe Mayhemova "zla" imidža te je izjavio da se Dead ubio jer je death metal postao "popularan" i komercijaliziran. Necrobutcher je kasnije pretpostavio da je snimanje fotografija i njihovo pokazivanje drugim ljudima bio način na koji se Euronymous nosio sa šokom koji je na njega ostavio prizor njegovog mrtvog prijatelja. Nakon što je Hellhammer razvio fotografije, Euronymous je obećao da će ih uništiti, ali nikada nije. Držao ih je u kuverti u svojoj prodavaonici albuma Helvete. Euronymous je navodno poslao jednu fotografiju vlasniku Warmaster Recordsa u Kolumbiju, a kasnije se pojavila na naslovnici bootleg koncertnog albuma Mayhema Dawn of the Black Hearts, koji je objavljen 1995. godine.

Samoubojstvo je dovelo do prekida odnosa između Euronymousa i nekih njegovih prijatelja, kojima je bilo odvratno kako se ponašao prema Deadu prije njegova samoubojstva, ali i njegovo ponašanje poslije njega. Necrobutcher je prestao biti Euronymousov prijatelj i napustio je Mayhem. Manheim je kasnije pretpostavio kako je Euronymous namjerno ostavio Deada samog u kući kako bi imao priliku za samoubojstvo. Deadovo samoubojstvo navodno je izazvalo "promjenu mentaliteta" u black metal sceni i prvo je u nizu zloglasnih događaja koje su počinili njezini pripadnici.

Osmrtnica u švedskim novinama navela je da se Deadov sprovod održao u Österhaninge kyrki (Crkvi istočne Haninge) u petak, 26. travnja 1991. godine. Pokopan je na Österhaninge begravningsplatsu (groblju istočne Haninge) u Stockholmu.

Počasti
Šveđanin Tomas Lindberg, iz sastava At the Gates, Deadu je posvetio tekst pjesme "At the Gates" s albuma Gardens of Grief.

Diskografija
Morbid
Morbid Rehearsal(1987.) (demo album)
December Moon (1987.) (demo album)
Live in Stockholm (2000.) (album uživo)
Year of the Goat (2011.) (kompilacijski album)

Candlemass
Bewitched (1987.) (glazbeni video)

Mayhem
Live in Leipzig (1993.) (album uživo)
De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas (1994.) (tekst)
Dawn of the Black Hearts (1995.) (album uživo)
Freezing Moon/Carnage (1996.) (singl)
Out from the Dark (1996.) (demo album)
Live In Zeitz (2016.) (album uživo)
Live In Jessheim (2017.) (album uživo)
De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas: The Dead Files (2017.) (kompilacijski album)
Deathcrush: The Dead Version (2018.) (kompilacijski album)
Live in Sarpsborg (2019.) (album uživo)

Split albumi
A Tribute to the Black Emperors (1994.) (kompilacijski album Morbida & Mayhema)

Izvori

Bibliografija
 Michael Moynihan, Didrik Søderlind (2003) [1998]. Lords of Chaos: The Bloody Rise of the Satanic Metal Underground (Prerađena i proširena inačica). Feral House.

Vanjske poveznice
 Dead na IMDb-u
 Dead na Find a Grave
 Dead na AllMusicu
 Deadova diskografija na Discogsu

Članovi sastava Mayhem
Švedski pjevači heavy metala

Dead


Granö  est une île du golfe de Finlande à Sipoo en Finlande.

Présentation
Granö est séparée du continent par un détroit d'environ un kilomètre de large.
À l'ouest, sur la rive opposée de Kalkkisaarenselkä, se trouvent les jetées les plus proches du port de Vuosaari, au nord se trouvent Karhusaari et Talosaari, au sud se trouve Mölandet.

Lîle à une superficie de 233 hectares et son point culminant s'élève à environ 30 mètres d'altitude.

Histoire
Selon le Museovirasto, un village médiéval était situé dans la partie nord de l'île au 17ème siècle.
La grande colère  a vidé Granö, qui était occupé par trois maisons, et des habitants ne sont revenus qu'au milieu du XVIIIe siècle, lorsque le manoir d'Östersundom a établi deux métayers sur l'île.
Une briqueterie a été construite sur l'île à la fin du XVIIIe siècle.

Dans les années 1970, Helsinki a acheté une partie de l'île de Granö, pour y batir la première centrale nucléaire de Finlande.
Le projet ne s'est jamais réalisé.

Urbanisme
Bien que l'île de Granö soit située dans la commune de Sipoo,  et de la côte.

La partie sud-ouest de Sipoo a été reliée à Helsinki le .
Le zonage de Granö fait partie du plan d'urbanisme d'Östersundom, qui est développé en coopération entre les municipalités frontalières.

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Archipel d'Helsinki

Liens externes

Île du golfe de Finlande
Île de Sipoo
Östersundom

Granö (Sipoo)


Un telescop extrem de mare (în , prescurtat ELT) este un observator astronomic dotat cu un telescop care are o apertură a oglinzii sale primare cu dimensiuni transversale între 20 și 100 de metri. Categoria se referă la telescoape optice reflectoare pentru lungimi de undă situate în spectrul ultraviolet, cel vizibil sau cel infraroșu apropiat. Printre funcționalitățile proiectate, această categorie de telescoape terestre este destinată creșterii șanselor de a descoperi planete de tip terestru în sistemele planetare ale altor stele.

Referințe

Vezi și
 Exoplanetă
 Telescopul European Extrem de Mare

Telescoape

Telescop extrem de mare


In psychology, sublimation is a mature type of defense mechanism, in which socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse.

Sigmund Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity and civilization, allowing people to function normally in culturally acceptable ways. He defined sublimation as the process of deflecting sexual instincts into acts of higher social valuation, being "an especially conspicuous feature of cultural development; it is what makes it possible for higher psychical activities, scientific, artistic or ideological, to play such an 'important' part in civilized life." Wade and Travis present a similar view, stating that sublimation occurs when displacement "serves a higher cultural or socially useful purpose, as in the creation of art or inventions."

Origin
In the opening section of Human, All Too Human entitled 'Of first and last things', Nietzsche wrote:

There is, strictly speaking, neither unselfish conduct, nor a wholly disinterested point of view. Both are simply sublimations in which the basic element seems almost evaporated and betrays its presence only to the keenest observation. All that we need and that could possibly be given us in the present state of development of the sciences, is a chemistry of the moral, religious, aesthetic conceptions and feeling, as well as of those emotions which we experience in the affairs, great and small, of society and civilization, and which we are sensible of even in solitude. But what if this chemistry established the fact that, even in its domain, the most magnificent results were attained with the basest and most despised ingredients? Would many feel disposed to continue such investigations? Mankind loves to put by the questions of its origin and beginning: must one not be almost inhuman in order to follow the opposite course?

Psychoanalytic theory
In Freud's psychoanalytical theory, erotic energy is allowed a limited amount of expression, owing to the constraints of human society and civilization itself. It therefore requires other outlets, especially if an individual is to remain psychologically balanced. The ego must act as a mediator between the moral norms of the superego, the realistic expectations of reality, and the basic Id's. One method by which the ego lessens the stress that unacceptably strong urges or emotions can cause is through sublimation. Sublimation transforms undesirable impulses into desirable and acceptable behaviors.

Sublimation () is the process of transforming libido into "socially useful" achievements, including artistic, cultural, and intellectual pursuits. Freud considered this psychical operation to be fairly salutary compared to the others that he identified, such as repression, displacement, denial, reaction formation, intellectualisation, and projection. In The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936), his daughter, Anna, classed sublimation as one of the major 'defence mechanisms' of the psyche.

Freud got the idea of sublimation while reading The Harz Journey by Heinrich Heine. The story is about Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach who cut off the tails of dogs he encountered in childhood and later became a surgeon. Freud concluded that sublimation could be a conflict between the need for satisfaction and the need for security without perturbation of awareness. In an action performed many times throughout one's life, which firstly appears sadistic, thought is ultimately refined into an activity which is of benefit to mankind.

Projection psychology
Projection is a mental process also introduced by Freud in which people attribute to others what is on their mind. An example of this would be if an individual is frustrated and angry and assume that other people are feeling that type of way towards them as well. This defense mechanism was introduced to Freud from whom he borrowed the term projection from neurology to refer to the intrinsic ability of neurons to transmit one stimuli of the nervous system to the next.

Seeing oneself in another is still considered to be the meaning of the phrase in modern psychological science. Positive and negative repercussions can result from this seemingly universal human social animal inclination. Projection can be the root of both compassion and cold nature, depending on the traits that are projected and if they are denied in the self.

Interpersonal psychoanalysis
Harry Stack Sullivan, the pioneer of interpersonal psychoanalysis, defined sublimation as the unwitting substitution of a partial satisfaction with social approval for the pursuit of a direct satisfaction which would be contrary to one's ideals or to the judgment of social censors and other important people who surround one. The substitution might not be quite what we want, but it is the only way that we can get part of our satisfaction and feel secure, too. Sullivan documented that all sublimatory things are more complicated than the direct satisfaction of the needs to which they apply. They entail no disturbance of consciousness, no stopping to think why they must be done or what the expense connected with direct satisfaction would be. In successful sublimation, Sullivan observed extraordinarily efficient handling of a conflict between the need for a satisfaction and the need for security without perturbation of awareness.

Sexual sublimation
Sexual sublimation was according to Freud a deflection of sexual instincts into non-sexual activity, based upon a principle akin to the conservation of energy in physics. There is a finite amount of activity, and it is converted, in a mechanistic fashion like a mechanical engine, from sexual activity to non-sexual. One such example is the case of Wolf Man, a case in which a young boy's sexual attraction to his father was redirected towards Christianity and eventually led the boy to obsessional neurosis in the form of uncontrollable sacrilegious reverence. Freud travelled to Clark University to speak about instances of sexual sublimation, but he was not wholly convinced of his own theories. 20th century psychological thought by the likes of Melanie Klein has largely relegated the idea and replaced it with subtler ideas. One such idea is that the sexual desires are not made totally non-sexual, but rather transformed into a more appropriate desire.

Although superficially valid, with anecdotal examples from non-psychologists of civilizations at large and specific great achievers repressing sexual urges (e.g. Renoir "painting with his cock", Wayland Young stating that "love's loss is empire's gain", Lawrence Stone's view that Western civilization has achieved so much because of sublimation, and the claims by biographers of many people from Higgins on Rider Haggard to Sinclair on George Grey), it is ill-defined and comes with the caveats that it rarely happens in practice, that many things attributed to it are actually the results of something else, and that it is most definitely not some quasi-physical transfer of some sort of "sexual energy" in the modern psychoanalytical view but rather an internal thought process.

Views by religions and pre-Freudian thought
As espoused in the Tanya, Hasidic Jewish mysticism views sublimation of the animal soul as an essential task in life, wherein the goal is to transform animalistic and earthy cravings for physical pleasure into holy desires to connect with God.

Different schools of thought describe general sexual urges as carriers of spiritual essence, and have the varied names of vital energy, vital winds (prana), spiritual energy, ojas, shakti, tummo, or kundalini.

According to Jung

C. G. Jung argued that Freud's opinion:
...can only be based on the totally erroneous supposition that the unconscious is a monster. It is a view that springs from fear of nature and the realities of life. Freud invented the idea of sublimation to save us from the imaginary claws of the unconscious. But what is real, what actually exists, cannot be alchemically sublimated, and if anything is apparently sublimated it never was what a false interpretation took it to be.

In the same article, Jung went on to suggest that unconscious processes became dangerous only to the extent that people repress them. The more people come to assimilate and recognize the unconscious, the less of a danger it becomes. In this view sublimation requires not repression of drives through will, but acknowledgement of the creativity of unconscious processes and a learning of how to work with them.

This differs fundamentally from Freud's view of the concept. For Freud, sublimation helped explain the plasticity of the sexual instincts (and their convertibility to non-sexual ends) - see libido. The concept also underpinned Freud's psychoanalytical theories, which showed the human psyche at the mercy of conflicting impulses (such as the super-ego and the id). In his private letters, Jung criticized Freud for obscuring the alchemical origins of sublimation and for attempting instead to make the concept appear scientifically credible:
 Sublimation is part of the royal art where the true gold is made. Of this Freud knows nothing; worse still, he barricades all the paths that could lead to true sublimation. This is just about the opposite of what Freud understands by sublimation. It is not a voluntary and forcible channeling of instinct into a spurious field of application, but an alchymical transformation for which fire and prima materia are needed. Sublimation is a great mystery. Freud has appropriated this concept and usurped it for the sphere of the will and the bourgeois, rationalistic ethos.

According to Lacan

Das Ding

The French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan's exposition of sublimation is framed within a discussion about the relationship of psychoanalysis and ethics within the seventh book of his seminars. Lacanian sublimation is defined with reference to the concept Das Ding (later in his career Lacan termed this objet petit a); Das Ding is German for "the thing" though Lacan conceives it as an abstract notion and one of the defining characteristics of the human condition. Broadly speaking it is the vacuum one experiences as a human being and which one endeavours to fill with differing human relationships, objects and experiences, all of which are used to plug a gap in one's psychical needs. Unfortunately, all attempts to overcome the vacuity of Das Ding are insufficient in wholly satisfying the individual. For this reason, Lacan also considers Das Ding to be a non-Thing or vacuole.

Lacan considers Das Ding a lost object ever in the process of being recuperated by Man. Temporarily the individual will be duped by his or her own psyche into believing that this object, this person or this circumstance can be relied upon to satisfy his needs in a stable and enduring manner when in fact it is in its nature that the object as such is lost—and will never be found again. Something is there while one waits for something better, or worse, but which one wants, and again Das Ding "is to be found at most as something missed. One doesn't find it, but only its pleasurable associations." Human life unravels as a series of detours in the quest for the lost object or the absolute Other of the individual: "The pleasure principle governs the search for the object and imposes detours which maintain the distance to Das Ding in relation to its end."

Lacanian sublimation

Lacanian sublimation centres to a large part on the notion of Das Ding. His general formula for sublimation is that "it raises an object ... to the dignity of The Thing." Lacan considers these objects (whether human, aesthetic, credal, or philosophical) to be signifiers which are representative of Das Ding and that "the function of the pleasure principle is, in effect, to lead the subject from signifier to signifier, by generating as many signifiers as are required to maintain at as low a level as possible the tension that regulates the whole functioning of the psychic apparatus." Furthermore, man is the "artisan of his support system", in other words, he creates or finds the signifiers which delude him into believing he has overcome the emptiness of Das Ding.

Lacan also considers sublimation to be a process of creation ex nihilo (creating out of nothing), whereby an object, human or manufactured, comes to be defined in relation to the emptiness of Das Ding. Lacan's prime example of this is the courtly love of the troubadours and Minnesänger who dedicated their poetic verse to a love-object which was not only unreachable (and therefore experienced as something missing) but whose existence and desirability also centered around a hole (the vagina). For Lacan such courtly love was "a paradigm of sublimation." He affirms that the word 'troubadour' is etymologically linked to the Provençal verb trobar (like the French trouver), "to find". If we consider again the definition of Das Ding, it is dependent precisely on the expectation of the subject to re-find the lost object in the mistaken belief that it will continue to satisfy him (or her).

Lacan maintains that creation ex nihilo operates in other noteworthy fields as well. In pottery for example vases are created around an empty space. They are primitive and even primordial artifacts which have benefited mankind not only in the capacity of utensils but also as metaphors of (cosmic) creation ex nihilo. Lacan cites Heidegger who situates the vase between the earthly (raising clay from the ground) and the ethereal (pointing upwards to receive). In architecture, Lacan asserts, buildings are designed around an empty space and in art paintings proceed from an empty canvas, and often depict empty spaces through perspective.

In myth, Pan pursues the nymph Syrinx who is transformed into hollow reeds in order to avoid the clutches of the god, who subsequently cuts the reeds down in anger and transforms them into what we today call panpipes (both reeds and panpipes rely on their hollowness for the production of sound).

Lacan briefly remarks that religion and science are also based around emptiness. In regard to religion, Lacan refers the reader to Freud, stating that much obsessional religious behavior can be attributed to the avoidance of the primordial emptiness of Das Ding or in the respecting of it. As for the discourse of science this is based on the notion of Verwerfung (the German word for "dismissal") which results in the dismissing, foreclosing or exclusion of the notion of Das Ding presumably because it defies empirical categorisation.

Empirical research
A study by Kim, Zeppenfeld, and Cohen studied sublimation by empirical methods.
These investigators view their research, published 2013 in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, as providing "possibly the first experimental evidence for sublimation and [suggesting] a cultural psychological approach to defense mechanisms."

In fiction

One of the best-known examples in Western literature is in Thomas Mann's novella, Death in Venice, where the protagonist Gustav von Aschenbach, a famous writer, sublimates his desire for an adolescent boy into writing poetry.
In Alberto Moravia's novel, Io e lui (Him and Me, 1971), the protagonist is in a constant unsuccessful quest to overcome the power of his large penis, so he sublimates into a serious film director.
In Psychological Science: Mind, Brain and Behavior, by Michael Gazzaniga and Todd F. Heatherton, a more sinister example is given in which a sadist becomes a surgeon or a dentist. A direct example of this is in the musical and movie Little Shop of Horrors characterized in the descriptively sadistic character of Orin Scrivello who follows his mother's advice to become a dentist, quoting her "You'll find a way/to make your natural tendencies pay ... Son, be a dentist/People will pay you to be inhumane."
Agatha Christie's novel And Then There Were None features a villain whose line of work as a judge, dealing out harsh sentences to guilty criminals, had previously permitted him to sublimate his homicidal urges.
 Sexual transmutation was quoted in Napoleon Hill's book Think and Grow Rich (1937) and was illustrated as a principle of success.
 In the Criminal Minds episode "The Bittersweet Science", it's mentioned that children with a violent past grow up to be police officers or soldiers, not necessarily boxers.
 In The Diamond Age by Neal Stephenson, sublimation is presented as the source of the Neo-Victorians' dominance: "...it was precisely their emotional repression that made the Victorians the richest and most powerful people in the world. Their ability to submerge their feelings, far from pathological, was rather a kind of mystical art that gave them nearly magical power over Nature and over the more intuitive tribes. Such was also the strength of the Nipponese."

See also

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Defence mechanisms
Freudian psychology
Human sexuality
Motivation
Psychoanalytic terminology
Mental states

Sublimation (psychology)


Benny Barbash (auch: Barbasch und Beni Barbash; * 8. August 1951 in Be'er Scheva) ist ein in Tel Aviv lebender, mehrfach ausgezeichneter israelischer Schriftsteller und Drehbuchautor. Er ist der Bruder des Filmregisseurs Uri Barbash, mit dem er zusammenarbeitete.

Er diente über zehn Jahre in der israelischen Armee und erlitt im Jom-Kippur-Krieg schwere Verletzungen. Er hat einen akademischen Abschluss in Geschichte der Universität Tel Aviv und war in den 1980er und 1990er Jahren eine führende Persönlichkeit der Bewegung Schalom Achschaw.

Bis 2011 hat Barbash drei Romane veröffentlicht. Er schreibt auch Theaterstücke und Drehbücher, darunter das Skript für den israelischen Kinofilm Beyond the Walls, für das er mehrere Preise gewann.

Werke (Auswahl)
 The Big Awakening, 1982
 My First Sony, 1994 (oft übersetzt)
 Rerun, 2003 (auch deutsch und französisch)
 The Little Big Bang, 2009 (auch französisch, deutsch und italienisch)
 Der Mann, dem ein Olivenbäumchen aus dem Ohr wuchs 2012

Filmografie (Auswahl)

 1984: Jenseits der Mauern (Me'Ahorei Hasoragim)
 1989: Land der Sehnsucht (Dreamers)
 1990: Final Take Off – Der letzte Kampf im Cockpit (Derech Ha'nesher)

Weblinks

 The Institute for the Translation of Hebrew Literature
 Interview

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Drehbuchautor
Roman, Epik
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (21. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (Hebräisch)
Israeli
Geboren 1951
Mann

Benny Barbash


فيركيفتسيفي (Верхівцеве) هي مدينة في مقاطعة دنيبروبيتروفسكا في أوكرانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 9586 نسمة.

مراجع

مدن أوكرانيا
مدن مقاطعة دنيبروبتروفسك
مدن وبلدات بنيت في حقبة الإمبراطورية الروسية
مدن وبلدات في أوكرانيا شيدت إبان الإمبراطورية الروسية

فيرخيفتسيفي


Chalcomitra es un género de aves paseriformes perteneciente a la familia Nectariniidae. Sus miembros se encuentran en África. Todos sus integrantes anteriormente se clasificaban en el género Nectarinia.

Especies
El género contiene siete especies:
 Chalcomitra adelberti - suimanga gorjiclaro;
 Chalcomitra fuliginosa - suimanga carmelita;
 Chalcomitra rubescens - suimanga gorjiverde;
 Chalcomitra amethystina - suimanga amatista;
 Chalcomitra senegalensis - suimanga pechiescarlata;
 Chalcomitra hunteri - suimanga de Hunter;
 Chalcomitra balfouri - suimanga de Socotora.

Referencias

Barlow, Wacher and Disley, Birds of The Gambia ISBN 1-873403-32-1

Enlaces externos

Géneros de aves
Taxones descritos por Ludwig Reichenbach

Chalcomitra


Bilecik, eski adıyla "Ertuğrul", Türkiye'nin Marmara Bölgesi'nde yer alan bir ildir.

İlin nüfusu 228.334'dür. Bu nüfusun %86,13'ü şehirlerde yaşamaktadır (2021 sonu). İlin yüzölçümü 4.177 km2'dir. İlde km2'ye 55 kişi düşmektedir. (Bu sayı merkez ilçede 109'dur.) İl merkezinin denizden yüksekliği 513 metredir.

04 Şubat 2020 TÜİK verilerine göre 8 İlçe, 11 belediye, bu belediyelerde 62 mahalle, ayrıca 244 köy bulunmaktadır.

Şeyh Edebali'nin türbesi buradadır. Bilecik, Marmara Bölgesi'nin güneydoğusunda yer almaktadır. Bilecik; Marmara, Karadeniz, İç Anadolu ve Ege Bölgeleri'nin kesiştiği noktadadır. Şehrin bilinen en eski adları "Agrilion" ve "Belekoma"dır. Bilecik, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun kurulduğu topraklardır.

Bilecik'te Batı Anadolu ağzı kullanılmaktadır.

Yönetim

İllerde protokolde ilk sırada yer alan Vali, merkezi yönetimi temsil eder ve Cumhurbaşkanı tarafından atanır. Büyükşehir dışındaki illerde yerel yönetim, şehirler düzeyindedir. Belediye Başkanı, belediye sınırları içinde kalan seçmenin oy çokluğu ile seçilir. Ayni seçmen İlçe Belediye Meclisi için de oy kullanarak ilçelerin belediye meclisleri oluşturur. İldeki bütün seçmenler ayrıca il genel meclisi için de oy kullanarak, İl Genel Meclisinin oluşumunu sağlarlar.

İl genel meclisi ve belediye meclisi üyelikleri için yapılan seçimlerde, onda birlik baraj uygulamalı nispi temsil sistemi, belediye başkanlığı seçiminde ise çoğunluk sistemi uygulanır İl genel meclisi ve belediye meclisi üye sayıları ilçe nüfusuna göre, kontenjandan kalan sayıların partilere dağılımı ise D'Hondt Sistemine göre belirlenir (Kanun:2972-Madde:23)

İl Genel Meclisi, İl Özel İdaresinin karar organıdır, başkanını üyeleri arasından gizli oyla seçer. Ayrıca, İl Genel Meclisi kendi içinden gizli oyla bir yıl görev yapacak 5 kişilik İl Encümenini seçer.

Merkezi yönetim, Vali ve İl Müdürlerinden oluşur. İl Özel İdaresi (İl Genel Meclisi ve İl Encümeni) seçilmişlerden oluşur, ancak Vali başkanlığında görev yapar. Yerel yönetim ise belediye başkanları ve belediye meclislerinden oluşur.

Bilecik Valisi, Batman doğumlu Şefik AYGÖL'dür. Ağustos 2023'de  Nüfus ve Vatandaşlık İşleri Genel Müdürü iken atanmıştır.

Bilecik Belediye Başkanı, 1965-Bilecik doğumlu 'Semih Şahin (CHP), 31 Mart 2019 seçimlerinde %50,64 oy oranıyla seçilmiştir.

2019 Türkiye yerel seçimleri sonuçlarına göre Bilecik İl Genel Meclisi üye sayısı, 10 AK Parti, 7 CHP, 2 İYİ Parti ve 2 MHP olmak üzere 21'dir. Bilecik Belediye meclisi ise 15 CHP ve 10 AK Parti olmak üzere 25 üyeden oluşur.

2018 Türkiye genel seçimleri sonucuna göre Bilecik'in  Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi'ndeki üye sayısı 2'dir: AK Parti (Selim Yağcı) ve CHP (Yaşar Tüzün)

İlçeler

Bilecik'in ilçeleri Bozüyük, Gölpazarı, İnhisar, Osmaneli, Pazaryeri, Söğüt ve Yenipazar'dır.

 Bozüyük: Bozüyük Frigler döneminde oluşmuş bir yerleşim merkezidir. 1908'den sonra Ertuğrul Livası'na bağlanarak Kaza merkezi yapılmıştır. Bozüyük Bilecik'in il olması ile birlikte 1924 yılında ilçe statüsüne kavuşturulmuştur. Bozüyük ilçesi birçok fabrikasıyla üretim merkezi durumundadır.
 Gölpazarı: Bizanslılar döneminde Harmankaya Tekfurluğu'na bağlı olan Gölpazarı, Osman Gazi tarafından alınmıştır. Gölpazarı kuruluşundan itibaren sıra ile Resulşel, Dönen ve Akçaova (Akçaoba) adlarıyla anılmış, son olarak Gölpazarı adını almıştır. Gölpazarı civarında meyvecilik yaygındır.
 İnhisar: İnhisar önceleri Söğüt'e bağlı bir bucak iken mütevazı nüfusuna rağmen coğrafi konumu dikkate alınarak 1991 yılında ilçe yapılmıştır.
 Osmaneli: Osmaneli çok eski bir yerleşim yeridir. Trakyalılar, Romalılar ve Bizans'a ait kalıntılar bunu göstermektedir. İlçede her yıl karpuz festivali düzenlenmektedir.
 Pazaryeri: Pazaryeri'nde ilk yerleşim 1273 yılında olmuştur. Pazaryeri'nde hediyelik ve turistik toprak ev eşyası ve ağaç eşya yapımcılığı da sürdürülmektedir. Ünü civar illere yayılmış olan Pazaryeri Bozası vardır. Ayrıca bira mayası üretimi için kullanılan şerbetçiotu bitkisinin Dünya'da en kaliteli yetiştirildiği bölge Pazaryeri'dir.
 Söğüt: Söğüt, Ertuğrul Gazi tarafından bir kuşatma ve mücadele sonucunda 1232 yılında Bizanslılardan alınmıştır. Ertuğrul Gazi Türbesi'nin de içinde bulunduğu ilçe önemli bir turizm merkezidir. Her yıl Söğüt Şenlikleri düzenlenmekte ve çok büyük katılım olmaktadır.
 Yenipazar: Eski adı Kırka olan Yenipazar, Cumhuriyetten önce Bolu'nun Göynük ilçesine bağlıydı. 1926'da bucak olarak Gölpazarı'na bağlanmış, 1988'de de ilçe olmuştur.

Nüfus

Güncel Nüfus Değerleri(TÜİK 6 Şubat 2023 verileri )

Bilecik ili nüfusu: 228.673'tür. Bu nüfusun %86,34'ü şehirlerde yaşamaktadır (2022 sonu). İlin yüzölçümü 4.177 km2'dir. İlde km2'ye 55 kişi düşmektedir. (Bu sayı merkez ilçede 106'dır.) İlde yıllık nüfus artış oranı %0,15 olmuştur. Nüfus artış oranı en yüksek ve en düşük ilçeler: Gölpazarı (% 4,47)- İnhisar(-% 3,92)

06 Şubat 2023 TÜİK verilerine göre merkez ilçeyle beraber 8 ilçe, 11 belediye, bu belediyelerde 62 mahalle ve ayrıca 244 köy vardır.

{| class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#33FFCC"
| colspan="12" |2022 yılı sonunda Bilecik ili ve ilçelerinin yerleşim yeri ve  nüfusla ilgili sayısal bilgileri|-
|-bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
|İlçe|Nüfus 2021|Nüfus  2022|Nüfus  Artışı %|Belediye  Sayısı|MahalleSayısı|Köy  Sayısı|Köy  Nüfusu|Şehir nüfusu|Şehirde oturan %|Alanı   km2| km2'ye düşen kişi|-
|Bozüyük
|78.010
|79.538
|1,94
|2
|14
|44
|4.112
|75.426
|94,83
|860
|92
|-
|Gölpazarı
|9.031
|9.444
|4,47|1
|5
|48
|3.210
|6.234
|66,01
|670
|14
|-
|İnhisar
|2.183
|2.099
|-3,92|1
|4
|9
|1.180
|919
|43,78
|244
|9
|-
|Merkez|86.442
|84.243| -2,58
|3
|20
|46
|7.252
|76.991
|91,39
|793
|106|-
|Osmaneli
|21.497
|21.874
|1,74
|1
|4
|27
|5.366
|16.508
|75,47
|490
|45
|-
|Pazaryeri
|10.032
|9.982
| -0,50
|1
|6
|24
|3.730
|6.252
|62,63
|324
|31
|-
|Söğüt
|18.352
|18.693
|1,84
|1
|5
|23
|4.622
|14.071
|75,27
|523
|36
|-
|Yenipazar
|2.787
|2.800
|0,47
|1
|4
|23
|1.760
|1.040
|37,14
|273
|10
|-
|-bgcolor="#AFEEEE"
|Bilecik|228.334|228.673|0,15|11|62|244|31.232|197.441|86,34|4.177|55|}
 İlin yıllara göre nüfusları

 Konum

 Spor

2018-2019 Sezonu sonunda, Futbol takımı  Bozüyük Vitraspor, BAL (Bölgesel Amatör Lig)'i grubunda 12.sırada tamamlamıştır. Voleybol kadınlar 2. Liginde Bozüyük İdmanyurdu, 1.lige çıkmıştır. Bilecik'in basketbol ve voleybol bölgesel liglerinde 2 takımı daha liglere katılmıştır.

Ziraat Türkiye Kupası'nda, Bozüyük Vitraspor 3.turda Denizlispor'a elenmiştir.

Bilecik'in önemli spor tesisleri, Şeyh Edebali Stadı (5.150), Bozüyük İlçe Stadyumu (4.100), Bilecik Kapalı  Spor Salonu (2.000), Merkez kapalı Yüzme Havuzu'''-y.olimpik (500).

Kaynakça

Dış Bağlantışlar

 Bilecik Valiliği
 Bilecik Belediyesi

Bilecik (il)


An Miltonia kayasimae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Guido Frederico João Pabst. An Miltonia kayasimae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Miltonia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Miltonia

Miltonia kayasimae


Eozostrodon es un género extinto de morganucodóntido, que se encuentran entre el grupo antecesor de los mamíferos, los mamaliaformes. Vivió entre finales del Triásico durante la etapa del Rhaetiense y principios del Jurásico, hace unos 210 millones de años. Eozostrodon es conocido a partir de huesos desarticulados encontrados en Gales y el suroeste de Inglaterra (Reino Unido) y se estima que medía menos de 10 centímetros de longitud cabeza-cuerpo, levemente más pequeño que Megazostrodon que tenía proporciones similares.

Eozostrodon fue descrito con base en dos dientes descubiertos en una cantera cerca de Frome en Somerset, cada uno asignado en principio a las especies separadas E. parvus y E. problematicus. Este último fue sinonimizado en 1971. La identidad y estatus de Eozostrodon es discutida. Kühne consideró que Eozostrodon era "uno y el mismo" con Morganucodon al cual describió, no obstante después de la publicación de la descripción de Eozostrodon, afirmando que "...por un número de buenas razones Morganucodon debería ser usado, el nombre de Eozostrodon es usado solo por razones sentimentales o debido a la ignorancia." Jenkins y Crompton en 1979 afirmaron que Morganucodon era un sinónimo más moderno subjetivo de Eozostrodon, mientras que Clemens (1979) aún apoyaba la distinción. Una publicación más reciente (2004) de nuevo apoyó la distinción entre los dos, señalando que Eozostrodon difiere de M. watsoni en el tamaño relativo y la forma de las estructuras premolares.

Sus dientes eran los típicos de un mamífero, diferenciándose en molares y premolares con cúspides triangulares.

Referencias

Mammaliaformes
Mamíferos extintos de Europa
Mamíferos del Jurásico

Eozostrodon


Der Leningrader Rajon () ist einer von drei Verwaltungsbezirken der Stadt Kaliningrad (Königsberg Preußen), der Hauptstadt der russischen Oblast Kaliningrad (Gebiet Königsberg).

Geographische Lage
Der Leningrader Rajon liegt im Nordosten der Stadt Kaliningrad und umfasst ein Gebiet von 53,7 km² mit 149.531 Einwohnern (Stand: 2010). Im Westen und Süden grenzt er an die beiden anderen Stadtbezirke Zentralrajon und Moskauer Rajon, im Norden und Osten an den Rajon Gurjewsk (Kreis Neuhausen) mit den Landgemeinden Chrabrowskoje (Powunden), Kutusowskoje (mit Sitz in Maloje Wassilkowo (Neudamm)) und Bolscheissakowskoje (Lauth).

Geschichte
Am 25. Juli 1947 wurden in der Stadt Kaliningrad vier Stadtbezirke errichtet, neben dem Leningrader Rajon waren es der Baltische, der Moskauer und der Stalingrader Rajon. Aus dem Stalingrader Rajon wurde 1952 der Zentralrajon herausgelöst. 1961 wurde der Stalingrader Rajon in Oktoberrajon umbenannt.

Am 29. Juni 2009 wurden der Baltische Rajon in den Moskauer Rajon und der Oktoberrajon in den Zentralrajon eingegliedert.

Eingliederung der Stadtteile Königsbergs
In den Leningrader Rajon wurden 1947 zwölf ehemalige Stadtteile von Königsberg (Preußen) und auch Orte des Landkreises Königsberg (1939 bis 1945 Landkreis Samland) eingegliedert:

Weblinks
 Leningrader Rajon in Kaliningrad
 Kaliningrad. bankgorodov.ru

Einzelnachweise

Leningrader Rajon

Leningrader Rajon (Kaliningrad)


ගයා (, ) යුනවෙන් හැඳින්වුණේ දකුණුදිග කොරියාවේ නක්දොං ගංගා ද්‍රෝණිය ආශ්‍රිතව පැවති රාජ්‍ය සංස්ථා සමූහයකින් සැදුම්ලත් කොරියානු සංයුක්ත රාජ්‍යයකි. මෙය සම්හන් යුගයේ බ්යොන්හන් සංයුක්තයෙන් වෙන්ව වර්ධනය විය.

ගයා කාලානුක්‍රමය සඳහා ඉතිහාසඥයින් විසින් භාවිත කරනු ලබන සම්ප්‍රදායික කාලසීමාව ක්‍රි.ව. 42–532 වේ. තෙවන සහ සිව්වන සියවස්වලට අයත් පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක සාක්ෂි අනුව, බ්යොන්හන්හි ඇතැම් නගර-රාජ්‍ය ගයා සංයුක්තයට ඇතුළත් වී ඇත. මේවා පසුව කොරියාවේ තුන් රාජධානිවලින් එකක් වූ සිල්ලා රාජධානිය විසින් ඈඳාගන්නා ලදී. ගයා සංයුක්ත රාජ්‍යය තැනීමට දායක වූ තනි රාජ්‍ය සංස්ථා කුඩා පුර-රාජ්‍යයන් ලෙස සැලකේ. ගයා සංස්කෘතිය පිළිබඳ භෞතික සංස්කෘතික සාධක ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන්ම භූමදානයන්වලින් හමුවේ. පුරාවිද්‍යාඥයින් විසින් මේ හා සම්න්ධ අවමංගල භාණ්ඩ කැනීම් කටයුතුවල දී සොයාගෙන ඇත. පුරාවිද්‍යාඥයන් විසින් අර්ථකථනය කරන්නේ පසුකාලීන තෙවන සහ මුල්කාලීන සිව්වන සියවස්වලට අයත් ගිම්හේහි දේසොං-දොං සහ බුසන්හි බොක්චොන්-දොං වැනි ගොඩැලි සොහොන් ගයා රාජ්‍ය සංස්ථාවල රාජකීය භූමදාන ස්ථාන බවයි.

නම්

බොහෝ අවස්ථාවල පොදුවේ මෙය ගයා (가야; 加耶, 伽耶, 伽倻; ) ලෙස හැඳින්වුණ ද, එය කොරියානු වචන හන්ජා බසට පිටපත් කිරීමේ දී සිදුවූ දෝෂයක් නිසා බිහිවූ නාමයකි. ඓතිහාසික මූලාශ්‍රවල මෙම රාජ්‍යය සඳහා විවිධ නම් භාවිතා වී ඇති අතර, ඒවා අතර ගරාක් (가락; 駕洛, 迦落; ), ගරා (가라; 加羅, 伽羅, 迦羅, 柯羅; ), ගර්යං (가량;加良; ), සහ ගුයා (구야; 狗耶; ) වැනි නාමයන් වේ. ක්‍රිස්ටෝෆර් අයි. බෙක්විත් අනුව, "කයා යන්නෙහි අක්ෂර වින්‍යාසය එහි නාමය ලිවීමට භාවිතා කළ අක්ෂරවල නූතනම කොරියානු කියැවීම අනුව භාවිතා වන්නකි. /කරා/ (පිටපත් කිරීමේ දී *කලා) යන අක්ෂර වින්‍යාසය නිශ්චිත ය."

ජපන් බසින් ගයාව සඳහා යෙදෙන මිමානා (任那) යන්න සැලකියු යුතු දේශපාලන ගුණාගං හැඟවෙන නාමයකි. කෙසේනමුත්, පුරාතන යුගයේ කොරියානු අර්ධද්වීපයේ ගයාවේ නාමය ලෙස භාවිතා වූ වදන අසුරෙන් බිහිවූයේ යැයි සැලකිය හැකි කරා (から、唐、漢、韓) නැමැති වදනක් ජපන් භාෂාව තුළ පවතියි. එමගින් "චීනය හෝ කොරියාව, නැගෙනහිර ආසියානු මහාභූමිය" වැනි අරුතක් කියැවේ. මෑතක දී "විදෙස් ජාතීන්, විදේශ රටවල්" වැනි අනුමාන අර්ථයන් සඳහා ද එය භාවිතා වේ.

ඉතිහාසය
13වන සියවසේ ලියැවුණු සම්ගුක් යුසා මූලාශ්‍රයේ වාර්තාකොට ඇති පුරාවෘත්තයට අනුව ක්‍රි.ව. 42දී දෙව්ලොවෙන් බිජු සයක් අවරෝහණය විය. එමගින් බිහිවන දරුවන් රජවරුන් වන බවට පණිවිඩයක් ද විය. ඉන් පිරිමි දරුවන් සය දෙනකු බිහිවූ අතර, දින 12ක් ඇතුළත ඔවුන් වැඩී පරිණත තත්ත්වයට පත් විය. ඉන් එක් අයකු වූ සුරෝ, ගයුම්ග්වන් ගයාහි රජු බවට පත් විය. අනෙක් පස්දෙනා සෙසු ගයා රාජ්‍ය වූ දේගයා, සොංසන් ගයා, අරා ගයා, ගොර්යොං ගයා, සහ සෝගයා පිහිටුවූහ.

ගයා රාජ්‍ය සංස්ථාවන් විකාශනය වූයේ සම්හන් සංයුක්තයෙන් එකක් වූ බ්යොන්හන් සංයුක්තයේ ගෝත්‍ර දොළසෙහි දේශපාලනික ව්‍යූහ ඇසුරෙනි. ලිහිල්ව සංවිධානය වූ බල ප්‍රදේශ ගයා සමූහයන් සයක් ලෙස ග්‍යුම්ග්වන් ගයා වටා කේන්ද්‍රගත විය. පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක සාක්ෂි මෙන්ම සීමිත ලිඛිත මූලාශ්‍ර මත පදනම්ව, සින් වැනි විද්වත්හු පසුකාලීන 3වන සියවස බ්යොන්හන් රාජ්‍යය, ගයා තෙක් පරිණාමය වූ සංක්‍රමණ යුගය ලෙස සලකති. මෙකල යුධ කටයුතු වර්ධනය වූ අතර, අවමංගල සම්ප්‍රදායයන් ද වෙනස් විය. සින් වැඩිදුරටත් පවසන්නේ මෙය වඩාත් යුධමය දර්ශනයක් සහ පාලන ක්‍රමයක් අනුගමනය කළ බුයෝ රාජධානියේ ප්‍රතිපත්ති හේතුවෙන් ඇතැම් රාජ්‍යවල (දේගයා ද ඇතුළත්ව) හිටපු වංශවතුන් විස්ථාපනය වීම හා සම්බන්ධ බවයි.

ක්‍රි.ව. 391 සහ 412 අතර කාලයේ ගොගුර්යෝවෙන් ඇතිවූ පීඩනය හේතුවෙන් ගයා සංයුක්තය කොටස්වලට බිඳී යන්නට විය. කෙසේනමුත්, අවසන් ගයා රාජ්‍ය ක්‍රි.ව. 562දී සිල්ලාව විසින් යටත් කරගන්නා තෙක්ම ස්වාධීනව පැවතිණි. මෙසේ සිල්ලාව විසින් ඔවුන්ව යටත් කරගන්නා ලද්දේ සිල්ලාවට එරෙහි යුද්ධයේ දී ගයාව බෙක්ජේ රාජ්‍යයට සහාය වීමට දඬුවමක් වශයෙනි.

ආර්ථිකය
මෙහි රාජ්‍ය සංස්ථා පිහිටා තිබූයේ නක්දොං ගංගාවේ මුවදොර සහ අතු ගංගා නිම්නවල දියළු තලාවන්හි ය. විශේෂයෙන්ම නක්දොං ගංගාවේ මුවදොර සාරවත් තැනිතලා පිහිටා තිබූ අතර, මුහුදට ඍජුවම ළඟා විය හැකි වූවා මෙන්ම යකඩ නිධි ද බහුලව පිහිටා තිබිණි. ගයා රාජ්‍යයන්හි ආර්ථිකය ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන්ම කෘෂිකර්මාන්තය, මසුන් ඇල්ලීම, ලෝහ කර්මාන්තය සහ දිගු-දුර වෙළඳාම යන අංගවලින් සමන්විත විය. මින් පෙර බ්යොන්හන් සංයුක්තය මෙන්ම ගයාව ද එහි යකඩ කර්මාන්තය හේතුවෙන් ප්‍රකටව පැවතිණි. ගයා රාජ්‍ය විසින් යපස්, යකඩ සන්නාහ සහ වෙනත් ආයුධ බෙක්ජේ සහ ජපානයේ යමාටෝ යුගයේ වා රාජධානිය වෙත අපනයනය කොට තිබේ. බ්යොන් සංයුක්තය විසින් පවත්වාගෙන ගිය දැවැන්ත ආර්ථික සහ දේශපාලනික-නොවන සම්බන්ධතා හා සැසඳීමේ දී ගයා රාජ්‍ය එම රාජධානි සමග ප්‍රබල දේශපාලන සම්බන්ධතා ද පැවැත්වීමට උත්සාහ දරා තිබේ.

දේශපාලනය
පුරාතන ඓතිහාසික වාර්තා කිහිපයක ගයාවේ වූ රාජ්‍ය සංස්ථා ගණනාවක ලැයිස්තුවක් ලබා දී ඇත. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස ගොර්යෝ සර්යක් (고려사략; 高麗史略) පහත රාජ්‍ය පහ දක්වයි: ග්‍යුම්ග්වන් ගයා, ගොර්යොං ගයා, බිහ්වා ගයා, අරා ගයා, සහ සොංසන් ගයා එම ලැයිස්තුවෙහි වේ.

2වන සහ 3වන සියවස්වල දී වර්තමාන ගිම්හේ ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා තිබූ ග්‍යුම්ග්වන් ගයා කේන්ද්‍ර කරගනිමින් ගයා රාජ්‍ය සංස්ථා ගණනාවක් රාජ්‍ය සන්ධානයක් නිර්මාණය කොටගෙන තිබේ. පරිහානි සමයයෙන් පසුව පවා 5වන සහ 6වන සියවස් තෙක්ම මෙම රාජ්‍ය සන්ධානය පැවති අතර, ඒ වනවිට එය ගොර්යොංහි දේගයාව කේන්ද්‍රකොට ගෙන පැවතිණි. කෙසේනමුත්, එය අසල්වැසි සිල්ලා රාජධානියේ ආක්‍රමණ සහ ප්‍රහාරවලින් සිය භූමිය ආරක්ෂා කරගැනීමට සමත් වූයේ නැත.

මිමානා මතභේදය

ජපානය සමග පැවති දේශපාලන  සහ වෙළඳ සම්බන්ධතා කොරියාවේ මෙන්ම ජපානයේ ද ජාතිකවාදීන්ගේ වාද විෂයයක් බවට පත්ව තිබේ. දොළොස්වන සියවසේ දී ජපන් ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම විශේෂඥයින් නිහොන් ෂොකි නැමැති මූලාශ්‍රය තුළ, ගයාව ("මිමානා" නැතහොත් ජපන් බසින් "කරා") යමාටෝ යුගයේ (300–710) ජපන් යුධ මුරපොළක් බව පවසන්නට උත්සාහ ගෙන ඇත. මෙය සනාථ කිරීමට සාක්ෂි නොමැති වුවත්, ජපන් අධිරාජ්‍යවාදීන් සහ ජාතිකවාදීන් විසින් අවස්ථා ගණනාවක දී ජපානයේ කොරියානු ආක්‍රමණය (1910–1945) සාධාරණීකරණය කරන්නට මෙමගින් උත්සාහ දරා ඇත.(366-552)

පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක සාකෂි අනුව යෝජනා වන්නේ එකල කියුෂු වෙත තාක්ෂණය සහ සංස්කෘතිය ව්‍යාප්ත කිරීමට හේතුවූ ප්‍රධාන අපනයනකරුවා ගයා රාජ්‍ය බවයි. ජපන් මුරපොළ පිළිබඳ මතය ජපානයේ පවා බෙහෙවින් ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කෙරෙන මතයකි. එයට හේතුව ගයාව හෝ කොරියාවේ කොටසක් හෝ ආක්‍රමණය කිරීමට ප්‍රමාණවත් තරමේ යුධ ශක්තියක් එකල කිසිදු ජපන් රාජවංශයකට නොවීමයි. එසේම එකල ජපන් රාජවංශවල පැවති තාක්ෂණයට වඩා ගයාවේ දියුණු තාක්ෂණයක් පැවතිණි.

ගැලරිය

මේවාත් බලන්න

කොරියාව හා සම්බන්ධ මාතෘකා ලැයිස්තුව
කොරියාවේ ඉතිහාසය
කොරියාවේ රජවරුන්ගේ ලැයිස්තුව#ගයා සංයුක්තය
කොරියාවේ තුන් රාජධානි
ගයාහි කිරුළ
කයා සහ පුරාතන ජපානය අතර සබඳතා

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

562 ආසියාවේ අහෝසි කිරීම්
40 දශකයේ ස්ථාපිත රාජ්‍ය සහ භූමි
560 දශකයේ අහෝසි කළ රාජ්‍ය සහ භූමි

නැගෙනහිර ආසියාවේ පැරණි රටවල්
කොරියානු ඉතිහාසයේ පැරණි රටවල්
40 දශකයේ ආසියාවේ ස්ථාපිත කිරීම්

ගයා සංයුක්තය


Kim Larsen & Jungle Dreams (Kim Larsen & The Dogs oprindeligt inden LP udgivelser) er et rock/ pop Band, som blev etableret i 1980 af Kim Larsen, der havde bosat sig i New York City.

Inden bandet kaldte sig Jungle Dreams hed de Kim Larsen & The Dogs (med samme bandbesætning). Under dette navn gav de ganske få koncerter i USA, bl.a. på The Ritz (7. oktober 1981) i USA. De skiftede senere navn til Kim Larsen & Jungle Dreams efter at CBS havde spurgt Kim Larsen og Joe Delia om de var sikker på, at de ville hedde Kim Larsen & The Dogs, da CBS ikke syntes det var et godt navn til pladeudgivelserne. Der findes kun ganske få billeder af Kim Larsen & The Dogs.

Larsen havde længe haft en drøm om at slå igennem i USA, hvorfor han hvor han bosatte sig på East 18th Street på Manhattan i New York." Han fik kontakt med musikerne fra Fandango Rick Blakemore, Joe Delia og Abe Speller. I tiden i "Guds eget land", blev det til udgivelserne Jungle Dreams fra 1981 og Sitting on a Time Bomb fra 1982. Ingen af disse udgivelser blev imidlertid den succes som Larsen søgte, og han brød derfor med pladeselskabet, og vendte hjem til Danmark i 1983.

Han havde dog også givet sig selv dårlige odds, da han allerede i 1976, efter et møde med CBS's vicepræsident Bunny Freidus, valgte at afslutte mødet med at give hende et tungekys. Han fik dog en smule succes i Frankrig med sangen Donnez-Moi Du Feu, samtidig med at Kim Larsen & Jungle Dreams var opvarmningsnavn for The Rolling Stones på Nya Ullevi i Gøteborg i 1982.

Medlemmer
 Kim Larsen – Guitar og sang
 Rick Blakemore – Guitar
 Joe Delia – Keyboards
 Abe Speller – Trommer
 Dennis Espantman – Bas

Diskografi
 Jungle Dreams (1981)
 Sitting on a Time Bomb (1982)

Noter

Litteratur

Rockmusikere fra Danmark
Rockmusikere fra USA
Musikgrupper fra 1980
Ophørt i 1983

Kim Larsen & Jungle Dreams


Ovadia Yosef (, ; September 24, 1920 – October 7, 2013) was an Iraqi-born Talmudic scholar, a posek, the Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel from 1973 to 1983, and a founder and long-time spiritual leader of Israel's ultra-Orthodox Shas party. Yosef's responsa were highly regarded within Haredi circles, particularly among Mizrahi communities, among whom he was regarded as "the most important living halakhic authority".

Biography

Early life
Yosef was born in Baghdad, Ottoman Iraq, to Yaakov Ben Ovadia and his wife, Gorgia. In 1924, when he was four years old, he immigrated to Jerusalem, Mandatory Palestine, with his family. In Palestine, the family adopted the surname "Ovadia". Later in life, he changed his surname to his middle name, "Yosef", to avoid the confusion of being called "Ovadia Ovadia".

The family settled in the Beit Yisrael neighborhood of Jerusalem, where Yaakov operated a grocery store. The family was poor, and Yosef was forced to work at a young age. He learned in Talmud Torah B'nei Zion in the Bukharim quarter, where his passion and skill for Torah study was apparent. His literary career began at age 9 with a commentary on Reshit Chochmah, which he penned in the margins.

In 1933, Hakham Sadqa Hussein prevailed upon Yaakov to send his son to Porat Yosef Yeshiva. He soon advanced to the highest shiur taught by the rosh yeshiva, Rabbi Ezra Attiya.

Yosef composed his first sefer, together with two friends, called Machberet Ha'atakat Hidot.

In 1937, Rabbi Yaakov Dweck sent Yosef to give the daily Ben Ish Hai halakha shiur in his stead at the Ohel Rachel Synagogue for the Persian Jewish community in the Beit Yisrael neighborhood. In the course of giving this shiur, Yosef dissented many times with the stringent opinions of the Ben Ish Hai, who preferred the rulings of the Ari zal over Yosef Karo. This was a defining moment for Yosef, who had found a podium to give air to his opinions, while simultaneously learning how to deal with the negative feedback he was receiving from many in his audience, especially from his fellow Iraqi Jews. A number of notable rabbis, among them Yitzhak Nissim, rebuked him over the years for his positions, even burning his first halakha sefer, Hazon Ovadia. But Rabbi Attiya encouraged his student to continue ruling according to his own understanding. Yosef's objections on Ben Ish Hai, for many years in handwritten form only, were printed beginning in 1998 with the appearance of his Halikhot Olam.

Yosef received rabbinic ordination at the age of 20. He became a long-time friend of several members of his class who went on to prominent leadership positions in the Sephardi world, such as rabbis Ben Zion Abba Shaul, Baruch Ben Haim, Yehuda Moallem and Zion Levy.

Residing in Egypt
In 1947, Yosef was invited to Cairo by Rabbi Aharon Choueka, founder of yeshiva 'Ahavah VeAchvah', to teach in his yeshiva. Yosef also served, at the request of Rabbi Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel, as head of the Cairo beth din (rabbinical court). Yosef considered religious observance to be lax in Egypt, in the Jewish community at large, and among its rabbis. One of the major Halachic issues was the lack of any organised system of Kashrut, which led to conflict between him and other members of the community. It was due to these events that Yosef resigned from his position, just two years after arriving in Cairo. Approximately one year later he returned to what in the meantime had become Israel.

Return to Israel
Back in Israel, Yosef began studying at midrash "Bnei Zion", then headed by Rabbi Tzvi Pesach Frank. He also served on the rabbinical court in Petah Tikva. In his first term as a dayan (rabbinic judge), at the age of 30, he wrote a Halachic ruling favoring Yibbum over Halitza, which contradicted a religious ruling made by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel a year earlier, which had forbidden Yibbum.

In 1951–1952 (תשי"ב by the Jewish calendar), he published his first halakha sefer, Hazon Ovadia on the laws of Passover. The book won much praise, and received the approval of the two Chief Rabbis of Israel at the time, Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel and Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog. Two years later he founded 'Or HaTorah' Yeshiva for gifted Sephardic Yeshiva students. This Yeshiva (which did not remain open for long) was the first of many which he established, later with the help of his sons, in order to facilitate Torah education for Sephardic Jews, in order to provide leadership for the community in future generations. In 1953-4 (תשי"ד) and 1955-6 (תשט"ז), he published the first two volumes of his major work Yabia Omer, which also received much praise.

Between 1958 and 1965, Yosef served as a dayan in the Jerusalem district Beth Din. He was then appointed to the Supreme Rabbinical Court of Appeals in Jerusalem, eventually becoming the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Tel Aviv in 1968, a position which he held until his election as Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Israel in 1973.

Rishon LeZion
In 1973, Yosef was elected Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel by a majority vote of 81 to 68, replacing Yitzhak Nissim. His candidacy was criticised by some, as he was competing against an incumbent Chief Rabbi for the first time in the history of that office. The election process was characterised by tension and political controversy because of the Psak Din of the Brother and Sister and due to the tense relations between Yosef and Nissim. In the same election, Rabbi Shlomo Goren was chosen as the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel, the relationship with whom would prove to be difficult. The Council of the Chief Rabbinate was controlled by Goren, and for some time thereafter Yosef decided that there would be no point in attending its sessions.

Entry into politics

In 1984, Yosef founded the Shas party in response to minimal representation of Sephardic Jews in the Ashkenazi-dominated Agudat Yisrael. It has since become a formidable political force, becoming part of the coalition in most of the elected governments since. He later took a less active role in politics, but remained the party's spiritual leader until his death.

Assassination plot
In April 2005, Israeli security services arrested three people whom the Shin Bet claimed were all members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). They were accused of plotting to kill Yosef. One of the three, Musa Darwish, was convicted on December 15, 2005 of Yosef's attempted murder, and of throwing firebombs at vehicles on the Jerusalem-Ma'aleh Adumim road. He was sentenced to twelve years in prison and three years probation. A second man, Salah Hamouri, proclaimed his innocence of the charges, but eventually accepted a plea bargain sentence of 7 years in exchange for admitting his guilt.

Family
When Yosef was 24, he married Margalit Fattal (1927–1994), born in Syria, daughter of Rabbi Avraham HaLevi Fattal, when she was 17. They had eleven children.
 Adina Bar-Shalom, (b. 1946) is the founder of the first academic college for Haredi women in Jerusalem, and she studied design at the Shenkar College of Engineering and Design, both with the approval of her father. She is married to Rabbi Ezra Bar-Shalom, former Chaver Beth Din of the Upper Beit Din of Israel.
 Ya'akov Yosef, (1947–2013) was an Israeli rabbi and former politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Shas between 1984 and 1988. He is the father of Yonatan Yosef.
 Malca Sasson – nursery teacher for over thirty years.
 Avraham Yosef, (b. 1949) is the Chief Rabbi of Holon, Israel, and is a Sephardi representative on the Chief Rabbinate Council (Moetzet Harabbanut Harashit)
 Yafa Cohen
 Yitzhak Yosef, (b. 1952) is the Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel, also known as the Rishon LeZion, the rosh yeshiva of Yeshivat Hazon Ovadia, and the author of a popular set of books on Jewish law called Yalkut Yosef.
 Rivka Chikotai, twin sister of Sara, is married to Ya'akov Chikotai, one of the Chief Rabbis of Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut.
 Sara Toledano, twin sister of Rivka, is an artist and married to Mordechai Toledano, and Head of the Yabiya Omer Beit Midrash as well as an Av Beit Din in Jerusalem.
 David Yosef, (b. 1960) married to Sofia, is the head of the Yechaveh Da'at Kollel, the chief neighbourhood rabbi of Har Nof, and credited with introducing his best friend Aryeh Deri to his father. He was appointed to Moetzet Chachmei HaTorah after his father died.
 Leah Butbul
 Moshe Yosef, (b. 1966), a rabbi married to Yehudit. Both lived and cared for Yosef in his apartment. Moshe is the head of the Badatz Beit Yosef kashrut agency, and the head of the Maor Yisrael talmud torah, which also publishes the works of his father.

Final years and death
Yosef resided in the Jerusalem neighbourhood of Har Nof. He remained an active public figure in political and religious life in his capacity as the spiritual leader of the Shas political party, and through his regular weekly sermons. He was referred to as the Posek HaDor ("Posek of the present generation"), Gadol HaDor ("great/est (one of) the generation"), Maor Yisrael ("The Light of Israel"), and Maran.

On January 13, 2013, Yosef collapsed during Shacharit at his synagogue in Har Nof, Jerusalem and was having difficulty using his left hand. After he was seen by a physician in his home, he was hospitalized at Hadassah Medical Center after suffering what was believed to be a minor stroke.

On 21 September 2013, because of his worsening health, Yosef was admitted to Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital. Two days after undergoing surgery for the implantation of a pacemaker on September 22, Yosef was sedated and placed on a respirator. He died in the hospital on 7 October 2013 after a "general systemic failure". His funeral in Jerusalem was the largest in Israel's history, with an estimated attendance of 850,000. Some religious authorities have stated that this was, perhaps, the largest in-gathering of Jews since the days of the Second Temple. However, other estimates put the number in attendance at the funeral lower, at between 273,000 and 450,000. He was buried beside his wife in the Sanhedria Cemetery. During the week-long shiva mourning period, Yosef's family were expected to receive thousands of condolence callers in a mourning tent set up on their Har Nof street, which police closed to vehicular traffic. Security guards were also posted at the cemetery, where Yosef's grave quickly became a pilgrimage site for thousands of men and women.

Halakhic approach and worldview

Meta-Halakha: Restoring the past glory
Yosef frequently made use of the slogan "Restore past glory" (להחזיר עטרה ליושנה) as a metaphor embodying both his social and halakhic agenda.

On a social level, it is widely viewed as a call to pursue a political agenda that will restore the pride of the Mizrahi Jews (Jews from the Middle East) in Israeli society, which historically suffered from discrimination, and were generally of a lower socio-economic status than their Ashkenazi counterparts.

From a halakhic perspective, the metaphor is more complex. It is widely agreed by Rabbis and secular researchers alike that the 'crown' of the metaphor refers to the halakhic supremacy which Yosef attaches to the rulings of Rabbi Yosef Karo. According to Yosef's approach, Karo is crowned as the Mara D'Atra of the Land of Israel, and thus all Jews living within his realm of authority should be bound by his rulings. Yosef says this explicitly and in very strong terms in Yalkut Yosef (note that 'Maran' refers to Rabbi Yosef Karo):

However, there remains some disagreement over who exactly Yosef considers to be bound by the rulings of Karo.

Rabbi Ratzon Arusi argues that Yosef distinguishes between his ideal and the reality. Ideally, all Jews of the Land of Israel should be bound by Karo's rulings, but practicality dictates that first all of the Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews should unite under them first. As Arusi puts it,

Tzvi Zohar argues that Yosef adopts a melting pot approach, in that he seeks to unify the traditions of all Jews in Israel, Sephardic and Ashkenazi alike. Zohar claims that Yosef's main distinction is not between Ashkenazim and Sephardim, but between the Land of Israel and the Diaspora. In his view, Yosef seeks to apply the rulings of Karo on the entire Land of Israel, but not necessarily outside of it. According to Zohar, this represents an anti-Diaspora and "anti-Colonialist" approach, since it seeks to strip the various immigrant communities of their traditions from their countries of origin and replace them with the custom of the Land of Israel, rather than importing and implanting foreign customs in Israel. He compares between Yosef and religious reformers such as Martin Luther and Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, and claims that Yosef has adopted a religious restorative-reformist worldview. Specifically, he argues that Yosef's halakhic approach is not, as Yosef attempts to portray it, a return to a traditional form of Sephardic ruling, but rather an innovative formulation of a particular Sephardic approach to Halakha which Yosef himself fashioned.

Rabbi Binyamin Lau disagrees with both of the preceding interpretations. According to Lau, Yosef claims that all Sephardic Jews accepted the rulings of Karo as binding in the Diaspora, but over time deviated from them. Presently, upon their return to the Land of Israel where Karo is the Mara D'atra, they should return to adhering to his rulings. Thus, Lau believes that Yosef directs his rulings only at Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews, since the Ashkenazi Jews never accepted upon themselves the rulings of Karo. Lau views Yosef as operating on two fronts: the first against the Ashkenazi leadership which seeks to apply Ashkenazi rulings and customs to the Sephardim, and the second against the Sephardic and Mizrahi communities themselves, in demanding that they unite under the rulings of Karo.

In any case, it is agreed that alongside the conservative aspects of his approach to Halacha, there are also significant reforms: his preference for the rulings of Karo, and his preference for leniency over chumra. The fulfillment of his Halakhic vision has entailed significant clashes with his Ashkenazi counterparts. On his predecessors in the post of the Tel Aviv-Yafo Rabbinate, Yosef wrote:

Preference for leniency
Yosef adopted the Talmudic dictum that, "The power of leniency is greater". Therefore, one of his fundamental principles of halakhic ruling is that lenient rulings should be preferred over chumra. Yosef saw this as one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Sephardic approach to Halakha, compared to the Ashkenazi approach. In one of his rulings, he quoted Rabbi Chaim Joseph David Azulai as saying:

Yosef considered this principle an ideal, so that if

In Yosef's opinion, the severity of Ashkenazi poskim results from their method of teaching, and a lack of familiarity with the Mishnah, Talmud and poskim. In a 1970 article Yosef wrote about Rabbi Jacob Saul Elyashar, he says:

Yosef regarded ruling with severity as especially harmful in the current generation ("the generation of freedom and liberty"), since strict ruling might lead individuals not to comply with the Halakha. Writing in Yabia Omer, he says: "And truly, the growth of chumrot leads to leniency in the body of the Torah."

Examples of lenient rulings
Following this principle of leniency Yosef made a number of Halakhic rulings which are significantly more lenient than those made by his Ashkenazi Haredi counterparts. Among them are:

 That it is permissible for boys and girls to study together up to the age of 9.
 That a married woman who covers her hair may expose a few centimeters of hair from beneath the covering at the front.
 That it is permissible for a female widow or divorcée to wear a wig as a head covering, despite prohibiting it for married women (see below).
 That it is permissible for unmarried women to leave their hair loose and untied.

The least of evils
Yosef aimed to encourage maximal observance of Mitzvot among as many Israelis as possible. In order to achieve this, "he is willing to follow a halakhic policy which, on the one hand, will minimize violations of the halakha, but on the other, concedes absolute adherence to the halakha". This is evident in a number of his rulings: providing kashrut certification to a restaurant that serves milk and meat; the slaughter of a chicken where there is a concern of it being trefa; and the wearing of pants by women.

Turning a blind eye
Yosef applied a policy of turning a blind eye to deviations from the halakha in circumstances where, if strict adherence to the halakha were required, it is likely that it would not be followed at all. Examples of this include the recital of the priestly benediction by Kohanim who do not have a religious lifestyle, and a shaliach tzibur or person performing a Torah reading who shaves with a razor.

Sinai Adif
In the Talmudic debate over Sinai and Oker Harim, Yosef was of the opinion that Sinai is preferable. Specifically, he emphasizes that the Sephardic system of learning, which emphasizes learning Halakha in depth, is superior to the common approach in many Ashkenazi schools, which relies on deep analysis of gemara employing pilpul, without reaching to the halakhic conclusions. This preference is based upon his support for ruling halakha on practical contemporary issues rather than ruling halakha as a purely theoretical pursuit. In a eulogy he wrote for Rabbi Yaakov Ades, his teacher at Porat Yosef Yeshiva, he said:

According to Yosef, the preoccupation with pilpul at the expense of learning halakha in depth causes lack of knowledge among Ashkenazi poskim, which in turn leads to unnecessary severity in making halakhic rulings, since the Posek is unaware of lenient rulings and approaches to Halakha used by previous Rabbis upon which the Posek could rely to rule leniently.

Attitude towards kabbalah
Yosef was sometimes willing to accept rulings which rely on the rulings of the Ari zal, provided that these do not contradict rulings by Karo. In some instances, particularly in Jewish prayer, Yosef championed Kabbalistic considerations - even at the expense of Karo's rulings. Nevertheless, in many cases, he came out strongly against the rulings, saying, "We have no business with mysticism", and rejecting rulings based upon the Zohar, and the Kabbalah more generally. This position is contrary to many (but not all) traditional long-standing Sephardic rulings on Halakha, including by many Sephardic poskim to this day. In contrast with the position of Rabbi Chaim Joseph David Azulai, who wrote that, "None may reply after the Ari" (that is, none may dispute the rulings of the Ari), Yosef argues that no special weight should be attached to the rulings of the Ari, and the ordinary principles of Halakhic ruling should continue to apply. He wrote:

Yosef's attitude towards the Kabbalah, the rulings of the Ari, and consequently the rulings of the Ben Ish Hai have been the cause of strong disagreements between him and Jewish immigrants from the Muslim world in Israel, especially the Jews of Iraq. The rulings of the Ben Ish Chai were at the heart of the disagreement between him and the Chief Rabbis Yitzhak Nissim and Mordechai Eliyahu.

Attitude towards minhag and traditions
Yosef gave strong preference to the written word, and did not attribute significant weight to minhagim and traditions which are not well anchored in the Halakha. For example, he expressed opposition to two minhagim observed in the Synagogues of North African Jewry: standing during the reading of the Ten Commandments, and the involvement of the congregation in certain parts of the prayer service. His attempts to change popular and deeply rooted traditions have led to opposition to his approach among some North African Rabbis.

Breslov Hasidim have the custom of going on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Rebbe Nachman of Breslov in Uman for Rosh Hashanah. Yosef has been highly critical of this practice, and has stated:

Attitude towards the State of Israel and its citizens

Ethiopian Jews
Ovadia Yosef is often regarded as the pivotal force behind bringing Ethiopian Jews to Israel. In the 1970s, Yosef ruled that Ethiopian Jews were halachically Jewish and campaigned for the Ethiopian aliyah to Israel.  Pnina Tamano-Shata said of Yosef: "I started crying, probably in gratitude to all that he's done, the humane form of address, 'our brothers.' He was also a leader. He called on the authorities to save Ethiopia's Jews and bring them to Israel. It shows his great love for others."

Attitude to Zionism

Yosef held a Halakhically ambivalent view towards Zionism as the Atchalta D'Geulah (beginning of the redemption). Many Religious Zionists, in contrast, view Israel as the first flowering of the redemption. In a Halakhic ruling regarding Israeli Independence Day, Yosef acknowledged that the Jewish people experienced a miracle with the establishment of the State of Israel; however, since the miracle did not include all of the Jewish people,

Yosef's position could be seen as a middle ground between the Religious Zionists, for whom saying Hallel is compulsory, and the Ashkenazi Haredim, who do not say Hallel at all.

In a newspaper interview in which Shas was accused of being anti-Zionist, Yosef responded:

In 2010, Yosef and Shas' Moetzet Chachamei HaTorah (Council of [Wise] Torah Sages) approved Shas' membership in the World Zionist Organization, making Shas the first officially Zionist Haredi party in Israel.

Yeshiva students and military service
Yosef regarded the wars fought by the State of Israel as falling within the Halakhic classification of Milkhemet Mitzvah. Nevertheless, he encouraged young students to remain in the Yeshivas, rather than be drafted into the military, because, "despite the sensitivity which Rabbi Yosef feels towards the Israel Defense Forces, he is deeply rooted in the Rabbinic tradition of the Yeshivas in the Land of Israel, and holds their position which opposes the integration of Yeshiva students in the military". Rabbi Binyamin Lau makes a cautious distinction between Yosef's public rhetoric, which presents a unified front with the Ashkenazi Haredim, and between internal discussions, where Yosef was said to be more receptive to solving the problem of integrating the Haredim into the military.

Yosef's grandson points out his grandfather's positive attitude towards the IDF, in that whenever the Torah Ark is opened, Yosef blesses "mi sheberech" for IDF soldiers. Yosef's son, Rabbi Avraham Yosef, served in the IDF as a military Rabbi for 13 years.

Secular Israelis
Yosef frequently referred to the present situation in Israeli and Jewish society as "the generation of freedom and liberty". By this, Yosef referred to a modern reality of a Jewish community which is generally not committed to the Halakha, and where Rabbinic authority has lost its centrality. In this context, Yosef drew a distinction between those who profess a secular ideology, and those who are non-observant merely in the sense of a weak or incomplete commitment to Halakha accompanied by a strong belief in God and the Torah:

This latter kind of non-observant Jews are, in Israel, mainly Mizrahi Jews who practice aspects of Judaism as a tradition (known as Masortiyim, not to be confused with Conservative Judaism, which is sometimes called Masorti Judaism). Yosef sought to bring this demographic closer to the Torah, while relying upon traditional Jewish sources for his rulings. For example, he ruled that those who desecrate the Sabbath are not to be considered as having abandoned the Torah, and therefore if they have touched wine, it remains Kosher. This sort of ruling differs from Ashkenazi Haredi rulings. Yosef actively aims to engage in Kiruv, while still strictly adhering to Halacha.

Yosef, however, had no sympathy towards Israeli Jews who profess a secular lifestyle, and saw them as effectively being non-Jewish. His opinion was to fully exclude them from the Jewish community. For Yosef, the secularist Israeli public are secular out of 'spitefulness' towards Torah, and he likened them to idolatrous apostates.

Israeli legal system
Yosef was opposed to bringing civil actions in the Israeli courts, because they decide outcomes by applying Israeli law, rather than Halakha. His opposition is consistent with the position of the Ashkenazi Haredi Rabbis, and some Religious Zionist Rabbis (e. g., Yaakov Ariel) as well. On this matter, Yosef has written:

In matters of criminal law, however, Yosef is among the moderate Rabbinic voices who support the application of the rule dina d'malchuta dina ('the law of the land is the law'), and therefore, it is forbidden to engage in criminal conduct such as tax fraud. It is only in civil matters that he forbade going to the Israeli courts.

In February 1999, Yosef caused a controversy by strongly criticizing the Supreme Court of Israel:

Following these statements, the Movement for Quality Government in Israel petitioned the Supreme Court of Israel, demanding that Yosef be put on trial. The Supreme Court dismissed the application, saying that the comments were within Yosef's right to freedom of speech. Nevertheless, then-Supreme Court President Aharon Barak wrote in his judgement:

Political activity

Government influence

In 1990, Yosef used his position as Shas spiritual leader to pressure Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir into agreeing to hold negotiations with Arab states for a peaceful settlement of the Arab–Israeli conflict. Shamir, a member of the Likud Party, refused to make any commitments.

According to one biography of the rabbi, Ben Porat Yosef, the relationship between the two had never been comfortable because of Shamir's unstudious personality. As a way of gaining a character analysis of politicians, Yosef had invited both Shamir and Shimon Peres to learn Talmud with him. While Peres proved an engaging and fluid learner, Shamir was stoic toward the material, a trait that led Yosef to instead use one of Shamir's cabinet members, Housing and Construction Minister David Levy, as his key partner in dealing with the Likud. Levy had a relatively warm relationship with the rabbi due to his moderate approach to Israel's security and foreign affairs policies, his charismatic personality, and his connection with Sephardi traditions (Levy, a Moroccan, was the highest ranking Sephardi politician in the 1980s).

In 1990, Rav Yosef pulled Shas out of the coalition with the Likud and attempted to form a partnership with Peres's left-centre Labour Party. The bold move, engineered but opposed by Shas chairman Aryeh Deri, backfired when the highly respected Ashkenazi rosh yeshiva (dean) of the Ponevezh Yeshiva in Bnei Brak, Rabbi Elazar Shach (who subsequently founded the Degel HaTorah party) fiercely commanded Yosef to return Shas to the coalition with the Likud. During this time, Yosef was severely criticised by other major members of the Haredi religious community in Israel, particular the Ashkenazic Jews who generally sided with the Likud and the right in opposition to the perceived secularist tendencies of Labour and the left.

The failure of the scheme, known as the stinking trick, was responsible for Peres' downfall as leader of Labour, and his 1991 defeat in internal elections to former Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin. From the 1980s until his death, Yosef approved the participation by Shas in most Israeli governments, except for the last two governments of Ariel Sharon from January 2003 and August 2005. In that Knesset (2003-2006), Shas was one of the few parties to have been in the opposition for the duration of that Knesset's term, along with the leftist Meretz party and the Arab factions Ra'am (United Arab List), Hadash, and Balad. This was largely because of the rise of Shinui to the powerful third party position, a position that was previously held by Shas. Shinui demanded the creation of a government without Shas.

In the 2007 Israeli Presidential election, Yosef endorsed his long-time friend Shimon Peres, who ultimately won the election due in part to the support of Shas's 12 MKs.

Cultural influence
In a 2004 article by Maariv, Yosef was listed as one of the most influential rabbis in Israel. He was described as:

Position on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Despite his controversial public comments, Yosef had long been a rabbinical authority advocating peace negotiations in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and had done so since the late 1980s. His main justification was the halakhic principle of Pikuach Nefesh, in which all the Jewish commandments (excluding adultery, idolatry, and murder) are put on hold if a life is put in danger. Using an argument first articulated by the late American rabbinical leader Joseph Soloveitchik, Yosef claimed that the Arab–Israeli conflict endangers human lives, thereby meeting the above criteria and overruling the priority of commandments pertaining to settling the land of Israel. Therefore, Israel is permitted—even obligated if saving lives is a definitive outcome—to make serious efforts to reach a peace settlement, as well as to make arrangements to properly protect its citizens. Yosef first applied the Pikuach Nefesh principle to Israel's conflicts with its neighbors in 1979, when he ruled that this argument granted Israel authority to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. Some claimed, however, that the ruling was also motivated by Yosef's desire to oppose his Ashkenazi colleague, Rabbi Shlomo Goren.

Using this precedent, Yosef instructed Shas to join Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin's government coalition, and later that of Ehud Barak as well. However, Shas abstained on Oslo I and voted against the Oslo II agreement. Furthermore, as Oslo stalled, and relations between Israelis and Palestinians began to deteriorate, and particularly following the outbreak of the Al-Aqsa Intifada, Yosef and the party pulled "rightward", supporting the Likud.

In 2005, Yosef repeatedly condemned the Gaza Disengagement. He argued that he was opposed to any unilateral action that occurred outside the framework of a peace agreement. Yosef again cited the principle of Pikuach Nefesh, saying that empowering the Palestinians without a commitment to end terror would result in threatening Jewish lives, particularly in areas near Gaza in range of Qassam rocket attacks. In contrast to some of his rabbinical colleagues, such as Rabbi Yosef Shalom Eliashiv, Yosef refused to entertain the idea of holding a referendum on the disengagement, and instructed his MKs to vote against the plan when it came up in the Knesset.

Yosef always maintained that Pikuach Nefesh applies to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and supported negotiations with the Palestinians. However, toward the end of his life, he no longer appeared totally convinced that diplomacy with the PA leadership would necessarily end the violence. Some media analysts had suggested that then Prime Minister Ehud Olmert may have been able to convince the rabbi to sign on to further unilateral actions by the government if concerted efforts toward negotiation failed.

Yosef protested strongly against demands by the United States and other foreign countries that Israel freeze construction in East Jerusalem, saying that, "It's as if we are their slaves". However, toward the end of his life, he indicated some flexibility on the issue, and may have taken a more pragmatic approach. In the wake of the diplomatic row between Israel and the US over Jewish housing in east Jerusalem, Yosef is reported to have said, in a private meeting with Shimon Peres, that "it is not permissible to challenge the nations of the world or the ruling powers", and that Israel should agree to a partial building freeze in East Jerusalem, at least temporarily.

Halakhic rulings

Yosef is generally considered one of the leading halakhic authorities, particularly for Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, who bestowed upon him the honorific title of "Maran".

Some of his more famous legal rulings include:

 In 1973, as Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Israel, he ruled, based on the Radbaz and other opinions, that the Ethiopian Beta Israel were Jews and should be brought to Israel. He was later joined by a number of other authorities who made similar rulings, including the Chief Ashkenazi Rabbi Shlomo Goren. Other notable poskim, from non-Zionist Ashkenazi circles, placed a halakhic safek (doubt) over the Jewishness of the Beta Israel. Such dissenting voices include Rabbis Elazar Shach, Yosef Shalom Eliashiv, Shlomo Zalman Auerbach, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, and Moshe Feinstein.
 That it is legitimate and permissible to give territory from the Land of Israel in order to achieve a genuine peace. When the Oslo Accords were followed by an intifada, this opinion was later retracted.
 Supported the sale of the land during the Sabbatical year, following the Sephardic tradition.
 Ordered the Shas political party to vote in favour of a law recognizing brain death as death for legal purposes. The Ashkenazi Haredi political party United Torah Judaism voted against the law on instructions from their spiritual leader Rabbi Yosef Shalom Eliashiv.
 Allowing the wives of Israel Defense Forces soldiers who have been missing in action for a long time to remarry, a verdict which is known as "the release of agunot" (התרת עגונות).
 That a woman should not wear a wig (sheitel) as a form of hair covering, but should wear headscarves (or snoods / hats / berets) instead. (According to Jewish Law, married women must cover their hair in public for reasons of modesty. Some Ashkenazi Haredi women have the practice of wearing sheitels for this purpose.)

Controversial statements
Yosef made countless political remarks which aroused controversy. Statements deemed offensive relating to various groups and individuals were claimed by his supporters to have been taken out of context, although the American Jewish Committee and the Anti-Defamation League condemned what they termed his "hate speech". He claimed the Holocaust was God's retribution against the reincarnated souls of Jewish sinners. He also claimed that Israeli soldiers were killed in battle on account of their non-observance of Torah law. He was criticised for supporting the traditional role of women and minimising their capabilities. Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, he blamed the tragedy on U.S. support for the Gaza disengagement, and on a general lack of Torah study in the area where the hurricane occurred. In 2009, he said about Yisrael Beitenu and its leader "whoever votes for Avigdor Lieberman gives strength to Satan".

Recommendations of the Plesner Committee

In 2013, Yosef called for yeshiva students to emigrate from Israel rather than agree to serve in the army, stating:

In October 2013, immediately following Ovadia Yosef's death, his son, David Yosef stated to the Prime Minister that the drafting of Haredi students into the army had hurt him in his final months more than his physical illnesses.

Arabs and Palestinians

In 2001, Yosef was quoted as saying of the Arabs:

Yosef later said that his sermon was misquoted, that he was referring to annihilation of Islamic terrorism, and not of all Arabs. He called for improving the living conditions of the Arab people in Israel, and said that he has deep respect for peace-seeking Arabs.

Israeli Justice Minister Meir Sheetrit condemned the sermon, saying: "A person of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef's stature must refrain from acrid remarks such as these... I suggest that we not learn from the ways of the Palestinians and speak in verbal blows like these."

Yosef drew criticism from the US State Department in August 2010 following a Saturday morning sermon in which he called for

Saeb Erekat, the chief Palestinian negotiator, said Yosef's statements were tantamount to a call for genocide against Palestinians, and demanded a firm response from the Israeli government. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu distanced himself and his government from the sermon, stating that Yosef's words "do not reflect my approach, or the stand of the Israeli government".

The rabbi said he regretted his statements, and was said to have looked for a way of sending a conciliatory message to the Palestinians. Three weeks later, Yosef sent out a conciliatory message reiterating his old positions in support of the peace process. He wished the Palestinians and their leaders,

Remarks regarding gentiles
In a sermon he delivered in October 2010, Yosef was strongly condemned (including, among others, by the Anti-Defamation League and the American Jewish Committee) after stating that "the sole purpose of non-Jews is to serve Jews". In his sermon, he said:
"Goyim were born only to serve us. Without that, they have no place in the world – only to serve the People of Israel.

In Israel, death has no dominion over them... With gentiles, it will be like any person – they need to die, but [God] will give them longevity. Why? Imagine that one's donkey would die, they'd lose their money.
This is his servant... That's why he gets a long life, to work well for this Jew," Yosef said.

"Why are gentiles needed? They will work, they will plow, they will reap. We will sit like an effendi and eat.

That is why gentiles were created"

Published works
Among Yosef's earliest work was a detailed commentary on the Ben Ish Hai titled Halikhot Olam. He was asked to finish the commentary Kaf Ha'Chaim by Rabbi Yaakov Chaim Sofer after the author's death. Two sets of Yosef's responsa have been published, Yabia Omer and Yechaveh Da'at (both titles are references to Psalm 19). His responsa are noted for citing almost every source regarding a specific topic and are often referred to simply as indices of rulings. There is also another series of books under the title of Hazon Ovadia (not to be mistaken with the original books, which were responsa on Passover), which he has written concerning laws of Shabbat, holidays, and other topics.

Yosef printed a commentary on the Mishnah tractate Pirkei Avot ("Ethics of the Fathers") under the title Anaf Etz Avot, and Maor Israel, a commentary on various parts of the Talmud. His son, Rabbi Yitzhak Yosef, has published a widely read codification of Yosef's rulings entitled Yalkut Yosef. Another son, Rabbi David Yosef, has printed various siddurim and liturgy according to his father's rulings, and another halachic compendium entitled Halachah Berurah.

In 1970, Yosef was awarded the Israel Prize for Rabbinical literature.

See also

 Moetzet Chachmei HaTorah, the Sephardic Haredim Council of wise Torah Sages
 Avraham Yosef
 Yaakov Yosef
 Salah Hamouri

References

Further reading
 Nitzan Chen and Anshel Pfeffer, Maran Ovadia Yosef: Habiografia (Rabbi Ovadia Yosef: The Biography): Jerusalem 2004
 R. Benny Lau, Mimaran ad Maran: Mishnato ha-Hilkhatit shel ha-Rav Ovadiah Yosef (From R. Yosef Karo to R. Ovadiah Yosef: The Halachic Teaching of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef): Tel Aviv 2005
 Zvi Aloush and Yossi Elituv, Hayyav, Mishnato u-Mahalkhav ha-Politiyim shel ha-Rav Ovadiah Yosef (The Life, Teaching and Political Activities of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef): Or Yehudah 2004
 Mi-Yosef ad Yosef Lo Kam ke-Yosef (From Yosef to Yosef arose none like Yosef): review of all three books by Marc B. Shapiro
 Review of the Chen and Pfeffer book by Rabbi Benjamin Lau (Friday, October 1, 2004 Ha'aretz)
 Y. Choueka, Pirkei Hayim, a biography of Rabbi Aharon Choueka and his Yeshiva, Ahava VeAchva, in Minhat Aharon, Y. Choueka and Haym Sabato (Eds.), Jerusalem, 1980, 15–32. (Hebrew)
 Zion Zohar, Oriental Jewry Confronts Modernity-The Case of Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef, Modern Judaism – Volume 24, Number 2, May 2004, pp. 120–149.
Marc Shapiro article

External links

Maran – a website containing videos of sermons given by Rabbi Ovadia Yosef
Halacha Yomit – a website containing daily Halacha given by Rabbi Ovadia Yosef
"Rabbi Ovadia Yosef - in His Own Words - An article by the Christian Science Monitor
Sephardic Pizmonim Project- Obadia Yosef Biography page with his personal pizmonim recordings
Article about Rabbi Yosef's method of psak (by Rabbi Yosef Gavriel Bechhofer)

1920 births
2013 deaths
Shas politicians
20th-century Iraqi rabbis
Israeli Mizrahi Jews
Rishon LeZion (rabbi)
Iraqi emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Leaders of political parties in Israel
Israel Prize in Rabbinical literature recipients
Israel Prize Rabbi recipients
Sephardic Haredi rabbis in Israel
20th-century rabbis in Jerusalem
21st-century rabbis in Jerusalem
Moetzet Chachmei HaTorah
Badatz Beit Yosef
Burials at Sanhedria Cemetery
Authors of books on Jewish law

Ovadia Yosef


Steinunn Valdís Óskarsdóttir (født 7. april 1965) er en tidligere islandsk politiker fra Alliancen, der er tidligere borgmester i Reykjavík. Hun var borgmester fra 30. november 2004 til 13. juni 2006; hun tog over efter Þórólfur Árnasons afgang.

Politisk karriere
Steinunn sad i Reykjavíks byråd 1994-2007. Hun blev valgt til Altinget for Reykjavík Nord-kredsen ved valget 12. maj 2007 og udtrådte efterfølgende af byrådet. Hendes sidste byrådsmøde var på kvindernes dag, 19. juni 2007.

Hun var næstformand i Alliancens altingsgruppe, formand for det almene udvalg ("hovedudvalget"), medlem af handelsudvalget og udvalget for transport og kommunikation, samt næstformand for Altinget 2009-10. Desuden var hun 2009-10 næstformand for den islandske delegation til Europarådets Parlamentariske Forsamling.

Afgang fra politik
Óskarsdóttir modtog i 2006 13 millioner islandske kroner fra private firmaer til to primærvalgskampagner for hhv. byrådet og Altinget. Da dette senere kom frem førte det til anklager om korruption og bestikkelse. Steinum benægtede, at hun havde gjort noget uetisk, men opgav sin politiske karriere for ikke at skade partiet og forlod Altinget 1. juni 2010.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger
 Profil på Altingets netsted
 Europarådets netsted

Borgmestre fra Island
Altingsmedlemmer

Steinunn Valdís Óskarsdóttir


نرمندية السفلى أو باس-نورماندي  أو النورماندي السفلى هي منطقة في غرب فرنسا وعاصمتها هي كان.

مراجع

باس نورماندي
الوحدات الإقليمية الإحصائية من المستوى الثاني في الاتحاد الأوروبي
انحلالات سنة 2015 في فرنسا
تأسيسات سنة 1956 في فرنسا
جغرافيا نورمندي
دول وأقاليم انحلت في 2015
دول وأقاليم أسست في 1956

نرمندية السفلى


Education  é um filme de drama de 2020 dirigido por Steve McQueen e co-escrito por McQueen e Alastair Siddons. O filme foi lançado como parte da série de antologia Small Axe na BBC One em 13 de dezembro de 2020, nos Países Baixos em 16 de dezembro de 2020 e no Amazon Prime Video em 18 de dezembro de 2020.

Elenco

Conhecimento
Embora os personagens de Education sejam fictícios, o filme é baseado em eventos da vida real dos anos 1970, quando alguns conselhos de Londres seguiram uma política não oficial de transferir um número desproporcional de crianças negras do ensino regular para escolas para os chamados "subnormais educacionais". A prática foi exposta pelo educador Bernard Coard em seu panfleto de 1971 How the West Indian Child is Made Educationally Sub-normal in the British School System.

Recepção
No agregador de resenhas Rotten Tomatoes, o filme tem uma taxa de aprovação de 93% com base em 29 resenhas, com uma classificação média de 8,05/10. O consenso dos críticos do site diz: "Education lança seu olhar esperançoso sobre o futuro, oferecendo um final simples e eficaz para a série Small Axe que solidifica o lugar de Steve McQueen como mestre em contar histórias." O Metacritic atribuiu ao filme uma pontuação média ponderada de 88 em 100, com base em 13 críticos, indicando "aclamação universal".

Peter Debruge, da Variety, elogiou Education por sua abordagem "inteligente" para retratar as maneiras sutis pelas quais a segregação ocorre na educação infantil sem "ser redutora em relação à instituição ou aos seus funcionários". Ele comparou o estilo "granulado e naturalista" do filme às obras de Alan Clarke e Play for Today.

Notas

Telefilmes do Reino Unido de 2020
Telefilmes de drama do Reino Unido
Filmes de drama da década de 2020
Filmes em língua inglesa

Educação (2020)