(also spelled rēs pūblica to indicate vowel length) is a Latin phrase, loosely meaning 'public affair'. It is the root of the word 'republic', and the word 'commonwealth' has traditionally been used as a synonym for it; however, translations vary widely according to the context. Res is a nominative singular Latin noun for a substantive or concrete thing—as opposed to spes, which means something unreal or ethereal—and publica is an attributive adjective meaning 'of or pertaining to the public, people'. Hence a literal translation is, 'the public thing, affair' or 'the people's thing, affair'. m. The latin word res publica was incompatible with the idea of absolute power by any individual or group over the body of citizens. The most essential characteristic of a res publica was liberty (libertas), which meant freedom from the arbitrary control of another and the absence of a monarchical domination over the body politic, that was analogous to the absolute power of a master over a slave.

In ancient Rome

Public property
Res publica usually is something held in common by many people. For instance a park or garden in the city of Rome could either be 'private property' (res privata), or managed by the state, in which case it would be part of the res publica.

The state or commonwealth
Taking everything together that is of public interest leads to the connotation that the res publica in general equals 'the state'.  For Romans, the state equaled the Roman Empire and all its interests, so Res Publica may also refer to the Roman Empire as a whole, regardless of whether it was governed as a republic or under imperial reign.  In this context, scholars suggest commonwealth as a more accurate and neutral translation of the Latin term, as it implies neither republican governance nor imperial rule, but rather refers to the state as a whole.  However, translating res publica as 'republic' when it clearly refers to the Roman Empire under Imperial reign sometimes occurs (see quotes below).

The Roman Republic
Roman authors would use the phrase res publica in the context of the era when Rome was governed as a republic: the era between the Roman Kingdom and Roman Empire. So in this case, res publica does distinctly not refer to the Roman Empire, but to what is generally described as the Roman Republic.

Public affairs or institutions
Res publica could also be used in a generic meaning, referring to "public affairs" and/or the  general system of government of a state.  In this usage res publica translated the Greek concept politeia (which originally meant the state organisation of a city-state). Also, for a Roman politician engaging himself in the res publica, a translation can often be the even more generic "being occupied in politics".

Other uses
Even when limited to its "political" connotations, the meanings of the term res publica in ancient Rome are diverse and multi-layered, and differing from the Greek politeia in many ways (that is: from the several interwoven meanings the word politeia had). However, it is also the customary Latin translation of politeia; the modern name of Plato's The Republic comes from this usage.

In some contexts the "state organisation system" meaning of res publica derives into something like "constitution", although "constitution", properly speaking, is a much more modern concept. Ancient Romans would use the expression "Twelve Tables" instead of res publica, when referring to their constitution at the time of the "republic", and the "inalterable laws installed by the divine Augustus", for their equivalent of a constitution in the era of the early Empire.

After the Roman Empire collapsed in the West, the idea of res publica disappeared, as foreign to the barbarians of the Migrations Period: whenever Gregory of Tours refers to res publica, it is the Eastern Empire of which he is speaking.

Quotations
The translations of the quotations below are copied without alteration from existing non-copyrighted material. Other translations might differ, but they all serve to illustrate the many aspects of the res publica concept in ancient Rome. The Latin original texts are given concurrently with the translations, in order to show that only the context of the text allows to interpret the res publica concept in each instance.

From these examples it also follows that probably there was also a gradual shift of meaning of the res publica concept throughout the Roman era: the "(Roman) Republic" connotation of res publica is something that rather occurs with retrospect to a closed period (so less appararent in Cicero's time, who never knew the era of the Emperors, and could only compare with the epoch of the Kings); on the other hand the translation of the Greek "politeia" concept appears to have nearly completely worn off in late antiquity.

Cicero
Cicero's De re publica (this translates as "about the res publica"), a treatise of the 1st century BC in Socratic dialogue format, takes the res publica as its subject. The differing interpretations and translations of the title of that work are discussed in the "De re publica" article. The expression res publica is used several times throughout the work too. The quotes below aim at demonstrating that within any translation of Cicero's work differing English translations of the term res publica need to be used, according to context, in order to make sense. The quotes are taken from the Latin text  at "The Latin Library" (chapter numbering follows this text), from C. D. Yonge's translation at gutenberg.org (2nd column) and from Francis Barham's translation at "The Online Library of Liberty" (3rd column).

When Cicero refers to the Greek authors (pointing at the "politeia" concept):
{|-
|valign="top"|(ch. 16) dein Tubero: 'nescio Africane cur ita memoriae proditum sit, Socratem omnem istam disputationem reiecisse, et tantum de vita et de moribus solitum esse quaerere. quem enim auctorem de illo locupletiorem Platone laudare possumus? cuius in libris multis locis ita loquitur Socrates, ut etiam cum de moribus de virtutibus denique de re publica disputet, numeros tamen et geometriam et harmoniam studeat Pythagorae more coniungere.'
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|valign="top"|But, then, my Africanus, replied Tubero, of what credit is the tradition which states that Socrates rejected all these physical investigations, and confined his whole attention to men and manners? For, with respect to him what better authority can we cite than Plato? in many passages of whose works Socrates speaks in such a manner that even when he is discussing morals, and virtues, and even public affairs and politics, he endeavors to interweave, after the fashion of Pythagoras, the doctrines of arithmetic, geometry, and harmonic proportions with them.
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|valign="top"|"But, my Africanus, (replied Tubero) of what credit is this tradition which states that Socrates rejected all these physical investigations, and confined his whole attention to men and manners? In this respect, what better authority can we cite than Plato's? And in many passages of his works, Socrates speaks in a very different manner, and even in his discussions respecting morals, and virtues, and politics, he endeavours to interweave, after the fashion of Pythagoras, the doctrines of arithmetic, geometry, and harmonic proportions."
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When pointing at the Roman context:
{|-
|valign="top"|(ch. 9) Iam illa, perfugia quae sumunt sibi ad excusationem quo facilius otio perfruantur, certe minime sunt audienda, cum ita dicunt accedere ad rem publicam plerumque homines nulla re bona dignos, cum quibus comparari sordidum, confligere autem multitudine praesertim incitata miserum et periculosum sit. quam ob rem neque sapientis esse accipere habenas cum insanos atque indomitos impetus volgi cohibere non possit, neque liberi cum inpuris atque inmanibus adversariis decertantem vel contumeliarum verbera subire, vel expectare sapienti non ferendas iniurias: proinde quasi bonis et fortibus et magno animo praeditis ulla sit ad rem publicam adeundi causa iustior, quam ne pareant inprobis, neve ab isdem lacerari rem publicam , cum ipsi auxilium ferre si cupiant non queant.
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|valign="top"|Those apologies, therefore, in which men take refuge as an excuse for their devoting themselves with more plausibility to mere inactivity do certainly not deserve to be listened to; when, for instance, they tell us that those who meddle with public affairs are generally good-for-nothing men, with whom it is discreditable to be compared, and miserable and dangerous to contend, especially when the multitude is in an excited state. On which account it is not the part of a wise man to take the reins, since he cannot restrain the insane and unregulated movements of the common people. Nor is it becoming to a man of liberal birth, say they, thus to contend with such vile and unrefined antagonists, or to subject one's self to the lashings of contumely, or to put one's self in the way of injuries which ought not to be borne by a wise man. As if to a virtuous, brave, and magnanimous man there could be a juster reason for seeking the government than this—to avoid being subjected to worthless men, and to prevent the Commonwealth from being torn to pieces by them; when, even if they were then desirous to save her, they would not have the power.
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|valign="top"|Those apologies, therefore, which undertake to furnish us with an easy excuse for living in selfish inactivity, are certainly not worth hearing. They tell us that to meddle with public affairs and popular demagogues, incapable of all goodness, with whom it is disgraceful to mix; and to struggle with the passions of the insensate multitude, is a most miserable and hazardous life. On which account, no wise man will take the reins, since he cannot restrain the insane and unregulated movements of the lower orders. Nor is it acting like a gentleman (say they) thus to contend with antagonists so unwashed and so unrefined (impuris atque immanibus adversariis) or subject yourself to the lashings of contumely, of which the wisest will always have most to bear. As if to virtuous, brave, and magnanimous men, there could be a juster reason for seeking the government than this, that we should not be subjected to scoundrels, nor suffer the commonwealth to be distracted by them, lest we should discover, too late, when we desire to save her, that we are without the power.
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The translation shows that the meaning of res publica can differ even within the same paragraph...

Pliny the Elder
When Pliny dedicates his Naturalis Historiae to his friend Emperor Vespasian in the first century, he uses the word res publica (Latin from LacusCurtius website / 1601 Philemon Holland translation from http://penelope.uchicago.edu/holland/index.html / 1855 John Bostock translation from the Perseus website):
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|valign="top"|(I) triumphalis et censorius tu sexiesque consul ac tribuniciae potestatis particeps et, quod his nobilius fecisti, dum illud patri pariter et equestri ordini praestas, praefectus praetorii eius omniaque haec rei publicae es: nobis quidem qualis in castrensi contubernio, nec quicquam in te mutavit fortunae amplitudo, nisi ut prodesse tantundem posses et velles.
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|valign="top"|For albeit you have triumphed with him for your noble victories, been Censor in your time, and Consul six times,7 times executed the sacred authority of the Tribunes, patrones, and protectors of the Commons of Rome, together with him; albeit I say you have otherwise with your noble heart honouring and gracing both the court of the Emperor your father, and also the whole state of Knights and Gentlemen of Rome, whiles you were captain of the guard, and Grand master of his house and royal palace (in which places all, you carried your selfe respectively to the good of the Commonwealth) yet to all your friends, and especially to myself, you have borne the same colours, and lodged together in one pavilion.
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|valign="top"|You, who have had the honour of a triumph, and of the censorship, have been six times consul, and have shared in the tribunate; and, what is still more honourable, whilst you held them in conjunction with your Father, you have presided over the Equestrian order, and been the Prefect of the Prætorians : all this you have done for the service of the Republic, and, at the same time, have regarded me as a fellow-soldier and a messmate.
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When under an Emperor, that is Vespasian or his predecessors, Pliny was not talking about the Roman Republic, but used "commonwealth"/"republic" in the meaning of "the state". The ambiguity of Rome still considering itself formally, or just "pro forma", a republic throughout the era of the principate, when a monarchic rule had already de facto been established, adds to the complexity of translating "res publica" in this context.

Tacitus
As another example of the complexities of the meaning of the word res publica one can cite Tacitus, who in the early 2nd century described in his Annals how the first Emperors, like Tiberius in the year Augustus had died (AD 14), sought to preserve all institutions of the Res publica completely intact (Latin and translation as available at the Perseus Project):
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|valign="top"|(I.7) Nam Tiberius cuncta per consules incipiebat, tamquam vetere re publica et ambiguus imperandi: ne edictum quidem, quo patres in curiam vocabat, nisi tribuniciae potestatis praescriptione posuit sub Augusto acceptae.
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|valign="top"|For Tiberius would inaugurate everything with the consuls, as though the ancient constitution remained, and he hesitated about being emperor. Even the proclamation by which he summoned the senators to their chamber, he issued merely with the title of Tribune, which he had received under Augustus.
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... while Tacitus complained in the same writing that at the same time the res publica went astray for good because not a single soul seemed to care any more:
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|valign="top"|(I.3-4) quotus quisque reliquus qui rem publicam vidisset? Igitur verso civitatis statu nihil usquam prisci et integri moris: omnes exuta aequalitate iussa principis aspectare...
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|valign="top"|How few were left who had seen the republic!Thus the State had been revolutionised, and there was not a vestige left of the old sound morality. Stript of equality, all looked up to the commands of a sovereign...
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The least that can be said is that the two quotes above (like so many passages in Tacitus' writings) are a translator's minefield:
 In the first quote above Tacitus qualifies the res publica he intends as "vetus" (the "old" res publica) - which implies he knows another, not "old", "re(s)public(a)", while Tacitus' dense writing style would usually avoid redundancies. Nonetheless in the second quote, actually preceding the first in the text of the Annals, "res publica" does not have such qualifier, while in the context it is clear he meant the then lost republican form of government.
 "imperandi", litt. "to command", is translated as "being emperor" - while the "emperor" concept (which in fact did not yet literally exist in the time Tacitus describes here, and so could not be assigned to Tiberius as an intention) was usually indicated as "princeps" by Tacitus.
 "tribunicia potestas" is translated as "title of Tribune", while the "tribunicia potestas" is more about exercising the power of a tribune without actually being a Tribune, and had been an invention of Caesar Augustus (compare to Holland and Bostock translations for the same concept in the Pliny quote above: "sacred authoritie of the Tribunes" and "the tribunate", respectively).
Nonetheless it can only be admired in Tacitus how, with some judicially chosen words, he most poignantly and to the point describes the transition from "(overdue) remnants of the republic" to "actual Imperial reign, already established in the minds of people".

In his book Germania, Tacitus also uses res publica in the context of the Germanic "barbarian" society.  Here the word is used to convey the generic meaning of "public affair" or "the commonwealth" (in contrast to the private or family life) without the Roman connotations of republicanism.  This is illustrated in the following text (Latin text and English translation from the Perseus Project):
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|valign="top"| (Ch. 13) Nihil autem neque publicae neque privatae rei nisi armati agunt. Sed arma sumere non ante cuiquam moris quam civitas suffecturum probaverit. Tum in ipso concilio vel principum aliquis vel pater vel propinqui scuto frameaque iuvenem ornant: haec apud illos toga, hic primus iuventae honos; ante hoc domus pars videntur, mox rei publicae.
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|valign="top"| They transact no public or private business without being armed. It is not, however, usual for anyone to wear arms till the state has recognised his power to use them. Then in the presence of the council one of the chiefs, or the young man's father, or some kinsman, equips him with a shield and a spear. These arms are what the "toga" is with us, the first honour with which youth is invested. Up to this time he is regarded as a member of a household, afterwards as a member of the commonwealth.
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Augustine

Augustine of Hippo uses the word res publica several times throughout his work The City of God, in which he comments, in the early 5th century on several Greek and Roman authors. Again, the standard translations of the expression "res publica" are multiple throughout the work. Examples taken from the Latin text at "The Latin Library", English translation from the version available at "New Advent"

Meaning "the (Roman) state" in general:
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|valign="top"|(III,1) Verum ne nimis longum faciam, tacebo aliarum usquequaque gentium mala grauissima: quod ad Romam pertinet Romanumque imperium tantum loquar, id est ad ipsam proprie ciuitatem et quaecumque illi terrarum uel societate coniunctae uel condicione subiectae sunt, quae sint perpessae ante aduentum Christi, cum iam ad eius quasi corpus rei publicae pertinerent.
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|valign="top"|But that I may not be prolix, I will be silent regarding the heavy calamities that have been suffered by any other nations, and will speak only of what happened to Rome and the Roman empire, by which I mean Rome properly so called, and those lands which already, before the coming of Christ, had by alliance or conquest become, as it were, members of the body of the state.
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Note that in this quote Augustine does not use the expression imperium Romanum ("the Roman empire") as a synonym to "the era when Rome was governed by emperors". Compare also to the 2nd quote from Tacitus above: there an expression different from res publica and imperium Romanum is used for referring to "the (Roman) State" in general.

Meaning "the Roman Republic" as era with a distinct form of state organisation, from the same book:
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|valign="top"|(III,7) Adhuc autem meliorum partium ciuilium Sulla dux fuit, adhuc armis rem publicam recuperare moliebatur; horum bonorum initiorum nondum malos euentus habuit.
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|valign="top"|Now, up to this time, Sylla's cause was the more worthy of the two; for till now he used arms to restore the republic, and as yet his good intentions had met with no reverses.
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Calques
Later calques of Res publica:
 Commonwealth (English – 2nd meaning as indicated above)
 chose publique (French)
 cosa pubblica (Italian)
 Rzeczpospolita (Polish)
 Civitas
 Public

Notes

References
A Latin Dictionary Founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary, revised, enlarged, and in great part rewritten by Charlton T. Lewis, and Charles Short. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879. Various 20th and 21st century re-publications under

Roman law
Latin political words and phrases

de:Res publica

Res publica


Robert George Brian Dickson  (May 25, 1916 – October 17, 1998) was a Canadian lawyer, military officer and judge. He was appointed a puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada on March 26, 1973, and subsequently appointed the 15th Chief Justice of Canada on April 18, 1984. He retired on June 30, 1990.

Dickson's tenure as chief justice coincided with the first wave of cases under the new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which reached the Supreme Court from 1984 onwards. Dickson wrote several very influential judgments dealing with the Charter and laid the groundwork for the approach that the courts would take to the Charter.

Early life and family
Dickson was born to Thomas Dickson and Sarah Elizabeth Gibson, in Yorkton, Saskatchewan, in 1916, although the family lived at that time in Wynyard. His adolescence and young adulthood occurred during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl years, which hit the Canadian prairies particularly hard.

Dickson's father was a bank manager, and the family was eventually transferred to Regina, the capital of Saskatchewan. Dickson attended high school at the Central Collegiate, where two of his classmates were William Lederman and Alexander "Sandy" MacPherson. All three would go into law, with Lederman becoming one of Canada's leading constitutional scholars and MacPherson becoming a justice of the Saskatchewan Court of Queen's Bench. In later years, Dickson would reminisce that "Bill was always first in our class, and Sandy and I were fighting for second and third".

Sandy MacPherson's father was M. A. MacPherson, the attorney general for Saskatchewan. When the Legislature was sitting in the evenings, Dickson and Sandy MacPherson would come in the evenings to the Attorney General's office to do their homework, and then sit in the galleries of the Assembly and listen to the debates. Dickson said that his interest in the law was triggered by that experience.

The Dickson family later moved to Winnipeg, where Dickson attended the University of Manitoba after graduating from Ridley College in 1934. He was a member of the Zeta Psi fraternity. In 1938, Dickson graduated with a Bachelor of Laws, earning the gold medal for his class. His first permanent job was with the Great-West Life Assurance Company, where he worked in the investment section for two years.

It was in Winnipeg as a young law student that Dickson met his future wife, Barbara Sellers. They married in Winnipeg in 1943, when Dickson was back from Europe to attend military staff training in Kingston.

Military career
Dickson was called to the bar in 1940, but before practising law, he enlisted in the Canadian armed forces for active service.  He had joined the military reserve in 1939, on the outbreak of World War II. In June 1940, he and his friend from law school, Clarence Shepard, signed up for active duty as second lieutenants with the Royal Canadian Artillery, joining the 38th Field Battery in Winnipeg.  In August 1940, he volunteered for overseas service.

Lieutenant Dickson sailed in February 1941 for Britain with the 3rd Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment.  His abilities attracted notice and he was chosen for staff training, returning to Canada for a course in 1943, followed with a tour of duty in British Columbia as brigade major with the Royal Canadian Artillery.  In 1944, Dickson volunteered to return to Europe as a captain.  He was posted to the 2nd Canadian Army Group, Royal Canadian Artillery, and distinguished himself in Normandy, being mentioned in dispatches.

In August 1944, during the battle of Falaise Gap, Dickson was hit by friendly fire and severely wounded, leading to the amputation of his right leg. By coincidence, two of his friends, Bill Lederman and Clarence Shepard, were both serving in the area and witnessed the attack. They later remembered the frantic attempts to have the attack called off, not knowing at the time Dickson was in the target area.  He was discharged from the army in April 1945.

Years later, when he came to Ottawa, Dickson renewed his ties to the military. In 1983, he accepted the honorary lieutenant-colonelship of the 30th Field Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery, and was its honorary colonel from 1988 to 1992.

Legal career
Dickson returned to Winnipeg in 1945 at the end of the war, joining the law firm of Aikins, Loftus, MacAulay, Turner, Thompson & Tritschler. He became a successful corporate lawyer, and also lectured at the Faculty of Law of the University of Manitoba for six years, until 1954. In 1963, he was on a volunteer committee of the Canadian Bar Association ("CBA") which assisted the Manitoba government in preparing a new Companies Act. Two other volunteers on the committee were Lorne Campbell and Irwin Dorfman,  both of whom would later serve as national president of the CBA.

Community involvement
In 1950, Dickson volunteered to be head of the Manitoba Red Cross, on the suggestion of a partner who told him it would only involve a few meetings per year. Instead, Dickson took the position just in time for the 1950 Red River flood, with the Red reaching the highest level since 1861. Winnipeg itself was inundated, 4 of 11 bridges were destroyed, and over 100,000 people had to be evacuated. Dickson took charge of the relief effort by the Red Cross, not seeing his law office for six weeks. Under his direction, the Red Cross mobilised 4,000 volunteers, evacuated thousands and provided support to the people working on the dykes. He later admitted he ran the Red Cross volunteers like an army.

Dickson also served as chancellor (legal advisor) for the Anglican Diocese of Rupert's Land.

Judicial career
In 1963, Dickson was appointed to the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba and in 1967 was elevated to the Manitoba Court of Appeal. He was appointed a puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada on March 26, 1973. On April 18, 1984, he was elevated to chief justice of Canada over the more senior Roland Ritchie, who was one year away from mandatory retirement at age 75 and was in ill health.

During his early years on the Supreme Court, Dickson frequently joined with Justice Laskin and Justice Spence on cases involving civil liberties, often in dissent from the more conservative majority on the Court. The grouping was colloquially referred to as the "LSD connection".

Having come from a corporate law background, Dickson often contributed to the judgments in that field.  He also developed a reputation as an important authority on constitutional law, originally relating to law of Canadian federalism and later, the groundwork for the new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Dickson participated in the 1981 Patriation Reference, which considered Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's attempt to have the federal government unilaterally patriate the Constitution of Canada without the consent of the provinces. By a 7–2 division, a majority of the Court held that Parliament had the legal authority to act unilaterally. However, by a division of 6–3, the Court also held that unilateral federal action would violate a constitutional convention that had emerged since Confederation, requiring substantial provincial agreement on constitutional amendments. Dickson, along with the three judges from Quebec, was in the majority on both issues: he agreed that Parliament had the legal authority to act unilaterally, but also agreed that a constitutional convention required a substantive degree of provincial agreement for major constitutional amendments.

With the introduction of the Charter in 1982, Dickson made many major contributions to the early standards of interpretation. Among his most famous decisions was that of R v Oakes, where he proposed the analytical framework for section 1 of the Charter now known as the "Oakes test".  In R v Big M Drug Mart Ltd, he gave a broad interpretation to the guarantee of freedom of religion set out in section 2 of the Charter, and in R v Morgentaler, he found that the restrictions on abortions set out in the Criminal Code violated a woman's security of person, contrary to section 7 of the Charter.

Later life and death
Dickson served on the Supreme Court for 17 years before retiring on June 30, 1990. He died on October 17, 1998, at age 82.

Honours
In 1990, Dickson was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In addition to his military service and his ground-breaking judgments on the Charter, the citation mentions his Red Cross volunteerism and service in other humanitarian causes.

The Brian Dickson Law Library at the University of Ottawa is named for him. The library's reading room contains a full reproduction of his home office, artifacts and personal items representing his life.

See also
 List of Supreme Court of Canada cases (Dickson Court)

References

Further reading
 Robert J. Sharpe and Kent Roach, Brian Dickson: A Judge's Journey (Toronto: The Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History, 2003).
 Bateman Thomas M.J., Brian Dickson: A Judge's Journey, review

External links
 Supreme Court of Canada - Biography - Robert George Brian Dickson
 Order of Canada Citation:  Brian Dickson

1916 births
1998 deaths
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian military personnel from Saskatchewan
Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery personnel
Canadian people of Northern Ireland descent
Chief justices of Canada
Companions of the Order of Canada
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
People from Winnipeg
People from Yorkton
University of Manitoba alumni
Ridley College alumni
Robson Hall alumni
Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery officers
Canadian Army personnel of World War II

Brian Dickson


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Die Bahnstrecke Pålsboda–Finspång war eine schmalspurige Eisenbahnstrecke zwischen Finspång in Östergötland und Pålsboda an der Västra stamban in Närke in Schweden. Sie hatte eine Spurweite von 891 mm und wurde von der Pålsboda–Finspångs Jernvägsaktiebolag (PFJ) errichtet. Von der 58 km langen Strecke lagen 31,6 km in Örebro län und 26,4 km in Östergötlands län.

Geschichte
In den 1870er Jahren gab es von Närke nach Östergötland nur schlecht ausgebaute Straßen. Mit der beginnenden Industrialisierung wurden Erz und Kohle gefördert und zu Eisen verarbeitet, das zu oder von den Gießereien und Schmieden transportiert werden musste. Überall dort, wo Wasser und Holz zur Verfügung standen, entstanden Betriebe. Die Transporte waren umständlich, aber die Transportkosten fielen nicht so sehr ins Gewicht und auch Arbeitslöhne waren niedrig. Zwar gab es Erz und andere Bodenschätze auch im Grubengebiet des nördlichen Östergötland, aber diese waren nicht von der Qualität, dass sich die Verarbeitung lohnte. Allerdings werden heute wieder Versuche gemacht, diese Bodenschätze zu erschließen, wie in jüngster Zeit bei der Schwefelkiesgrube in Sätra.

Nach dem Deutsch-Französischen Krieg 1870–1871 folgte europaweit ein Aufschwung in Industrie und Handwerk. Die Nachfrage aus dem Ausland nach Eisen und Holz stieg, so dass nach verbesserten Transportmöglichkeiten gesucht werden musste. Nach der Eröffnung der Västra stambanan 1862 erkannte der Besitzer der Finspångverken in Finspång, Carl Edvard Ekman, dass man abseits der Hauptverkehrsadern mit der Konkurrenz nicht mithalten kann. Finspångverken waren mehr als drei Jahrhunderte Schwedens größte Kanonengießerei. So schlug Ekmann vor, eine Bahnstrecke von Finspång zu einem geeigneten Anschlussbahnhof an der Västra stambanan zu errichten. Die anderen Fabrikbesitzer in der Region und die Gemeinden erkannten ebenso die Notwendigkeit und die Vorteile, die eine Bahnstrecke mit sich bringen würde.

Pålsboda–Finspång Jernvägsaktiebolag
Mit Ekman als Vorsitzenden fand in Finspång am 30. Dezember 1870 ein Treffen statt. Dort wurden konkrete Pläne vorgestellt und vereinbart, dass die geplante Eisenbahn in Pålsboda an die Västra stambanan anschließen solle. Es wurde auch vereinbart, Aktien zur Zeichnung aufzulegen. Zur Finanzierung wurden 1,4 Millionen Kronen in Aktien von 200 Kronen das Stück vorgeschlagen. Zudem wurde ein fünfköpfiger vorläufiger Vorstand gebildet, unter denen sich auch Ekman befand.

Ekman hatte bereits ein Jahr zuvor Kontakt mit Claes Adolf Adelsköld aufgenommen, der den Plan und den Kostenvoranschlag für eine Eisenbahn zwischen Finspång und Pålsboda erstellte. Bereits im Februar 1871 schätzte auch dieser die Kosten der Strecke auf 1,4 Millionen Kronen. Die Spurweite wurde mit drei schwedischen Fuß, somit 891 mm festgelegt. Die größte Neigung sollte 16,67 ‰ sein. Der minimale Radius sollte 800 Fuß nicht unterschreiten und die Schienen ein Metergewicht von zehn Pfund/Fuß (etwa 15 kg/m) haben. Mit diesen Voraussetzungen wurde eine Konzession beantragt. Zur gleichen Zeit wurde ein Staatsdarlehen beantragt und die Satzung der Aktiengesellschaft formuliert. Die Konzession wurde am 19. Januar 1872 erteilt, die Staatsanleihe jedoch abgelehnt.

Daher wurde eine Änderung des ursprünglichen Finanzierungsvorschlages durchgeführt. An Kapital waren jetzt nur noch 700 000 Kronen in 7000 Aktien zu 100 Kronen vorgesehen. In der Satzung wurde festgelegt, dass man den gleichen Betrag als Kredit aufnehmen könne. Das Unternehmen sollte gesamtschuldnerisch haften. Unter der Leitung von Ekman gab es eine weitere Versammlungen in Finspång am 3. Februar 1872. Dort wurde die Anleihe von 700.000 Kronen beschlossen, womit das notwendige Kapital zum Eisenbahnbau vorhanden war. O. Kamph wurde als Bauleiter eingesetzt – er wurde später Verkehrsleiter für die PFJ, FNJ und NÖJ und blieb bis 1901 in dieser Position. Adelsköld übernahm die Bauüberwachung.

Bau der Strecke Pålsboda–Finspång
Anfang März 1872 begann der Bau der Strecke. Die Schienen wurden von der Finspångs styckebruk vor Ort hergestellt, ebenso wurden die Güterwagen für den Erztransport nach Zeichnungen von Adelsköld geliefert.

1873 ging das Geld zur Neige. Es stellte sich heraus, dass Adelsköld die Kosten zu niedrig berechnet hatte. Er hatte die Anzahl der notwendigen Bahnwärterhäuser unterschätzt und auch der nachträglich festgelegte stärkere Oberbau war ein nicht vorhergesehener Kostenfaktor. Zudem waren die Lohn- und Materialkosten mehr als erwartet gestiegen. Zusätzlich notwendige Lok- und Wagenbestellungen ließen die die Kosten explodieren.

Es wurde geschätzt, dass die Kapitalunterdeckung 413.000 Kronen betrug. Die Aktionärsversammlung beschloss, Vorzugsaktien für 500.000 Kronen in erster Linie für ehemaligen Aktionäre im Verhältnis ihrer Beteiligungen auszugeben. Die meisten Vorzugsaktien wurden von Ekman unterzeichnet. Damit war die Finanzlage des Unternehmens gewährleistet.

Die offizielle Einweihung fand am 19. September 1874 in Anwesenheit von König Oscar II. statt. Die Strecke war die dritte Strecke Schwedens mit 891 mm Spurweite, die für den allgemeinen Verkehr geöffnet wurde. Die 57,8 Kilometer lange Bahn hatte rund fünf Kilometer Nebengleise, der kleinste Radius betrug 270 Meter und die Höchstgeschwindigkeit wurde mit 25 km/h festgelegt.

Fahrzeuge
Insgesamt wurden folgende Dampflokomotiven beschafft:

Dazu kamen neun Personenwagen und 105 Güterwagen, die für den anfallenden Verkehr ausreichend waren. Zwischen 1875 und 1877 erwirtschaftete die Bahn Überschüsse. 1878 gingen die Einnahmen zurück und 1879 mussten die Löhne der Beschäftigten reduziert werden. Die Mitarbeiter verdienten zwischen 360 und 600 Kronen pro Jahr, ein Bahnwärter rund 300 Kronen. Als die wirtschaftliche Lage wieder besser wurde, folgten Lohnerhöhungen von etwa fünf Kronen pro Monat für die meisten Mitarbeiter.

Anschlussbahn Grytgöl–Ljusfallshammar
Adolf Burén aus Grytgöl, Inhaber der Grytgöls Bruks AB, bezahlte beim Bau der Strecke den Bahnhof Ljusfallshammar mit der Maßgabe, dass alle Züge der NÖJ dort halten sollten. Zudem ließ er eine Bahnstrecke von Ljusfallshammar nach Grytgöl errichten, die im Jahre 1913 in Betrieb genommen wurde. Obwohl die Bahnstrecke in der Spurweite 600 mm ausgeführt wurde und für alle Waren ein Umladen in Ljusfallshammar erforderlich machte, vereinfachte sie die Verkehrsverhältnisse sehr stark, denn nun konnte auf Fuhrwerke mit Ochsen und Pferde verzichtet werden.

1954 war das gesamte Material der Strecke sehr verschlissen. So wurde beschlossen, die Strecke zu schließen. Während all dieser Jahre war nur eine Lok im Einsatz. Es handelte sich um die bei Orenstein & Koppel im Betriebsteil Deutsche Feld & Industrie-Bahn-Werke, Danzig mit der Fabriknummer 1602 im Jahre 1905 hergestellte Lok mit der Achsfolge B t. Die Maschine kam über den Händler AB Järnvägsmateriel AJMA 1913 zur Grytgöls Bruks AB, erhielt den Namen GRYTGÖL und wurde nach der Stilllegung der Strecke 1955 ausgemustert.

Erweiterungspläne
Die PFJ hatte zudem eine Verbindung sowie einen Gemeinschaftsverkehr, bestehend aus der Fiskeby Järnväg mit der Schifffahrtslinie auf dem See Glan. Das Dampfschiff Glan fuhr zwischen Finspång und Fiskeby. Mit der Eröffnung der Östra stambanan fuhr das Schiff nach Eksund, welches einen Bahnhof an der Strecke hatte. Dieser Bootsverkehr hatte Nachteile, weil die Güter mehrfach umgeschlagen werden mussten. Im Winter waren die Transporte schwierig, weil der See meist zugefroren war.

Zusammenführung der Bahngesellschaften
Zu Beginn des Jahres 1895 gab es Überlegungen zur Zusammenführung der Schmalspurbahnen in der Provinz Östergötland. Nach der Inbetriebnahme der Pålsboda–Finspångs Järnväg (PFJ) bildeten sich vier neue Eisenbahngesellschaft in der Region um Pålsboda und Hultsfred. Dies waren die Finspång–Norsholms Järnväg (FNJ), die Norsholm–Ristens Kommunikationsaktiebolag (einschließlich der Strecke Norsholm–Bersbo) (NBJ), die Västervik–Åtvidaberg–Bersbo Järnväg (VÅBJ) und die Västervik–Hultsfreds Järnvägsaktiebolag (HWJ). PFJ und PNJ hatten eine gemeinsame Verwaltung ebenso wie die Unternehmen NBJ, VÅBJ und HWJ. Der Vorschlag war, zu untersuchen, ob es möglich war, die fünf separaten Eisenbahnen in einen gemeinsamen Verwaltung zusammenzuführen. Es stellte sich heraus, dass die Unternehmen zu unterschiedliche Auffassungen hatten, so dass der Vorschlag nicht verwirklicht wurde.

Unabhängig davon gab es im gleichen Jahr eine außerordentliche Hauptversammlung der FNJ, bei der Carl Edvard Ekman vorschlug, die Bahn an ein Konsortium zu verkaufen, welches die FNJ und die PFJ als gemeinsames Unternehmen betreiben sollte. Die Versammlung stimmte diesem Vorschlag unter den Bedingungen zu, dass die neue Gesellschaft die Verbindlichkeiten und die Zusagen aus dem Pensionsfonds übernehmen müsse. Den gleichen Vorschlag unterbreitete Ekman auch der Hauptversammlung der PFJ, wobei er durch Ax. Ekman von der Finspångs styckebruk Unterstützung bekam. Begründet wurde dieser Vorschlag hier mit der schwachen finanziellen Stellung der Aktiengesellschaft und den schlechten Zukunftsaussichten. Nach dem Beschluss der Versammlung wurde einem Verkauf zugestimmt, weil das neue Konsortium größere Zukunftssicherheit garantierte.

Die Aktionäre der beiden Gesellschaften stimmten dann in außerordentlichen Hauptversammlungen 1895 zu, diese an das Konsortium zu verkaufen. Dies hatte die Gründung der Norra Östergötlands Järnvägsaktiebolag (NÖJ) zur Folge.

Norra Östergötlands Järnvägsaktiebolag
Die Norra Östergötlands Järnvägsaktiebolag wurde am 30. November 1895 gegründet. Zweck der Gesellschaft war der Erwerb der Pålsboda–Finspångs Järnvägsaktiebolag und der Finspång–Norsholms Järnvägsaktiebolag, um deren Strecken gemeinsam zu betreiben. Der erste Vorstand bestand aus Oberstleutnant G. K. Falkengren, Bankdirektor B. Söderbaum und Hüttenbesitzer O. Lundqvist. Als Vorstandsvorsitzender wurde Falkengren gewählt. Die Satzung der Aktiengesellschaft wurde am 6. Dezember 1895 genehmigt. Der Sitz der Gesellschaft wurde Norrköping. Man konnte das Staatsdarlehen der FNJ ebenso wie Konzessionen der beiden Bahngesellschaften für ihre Strecken übernehmen.

Während man zuvor das Eigentum der beiden Gesellschaften strikt auseinandergehalten hatte und sogar die Reisenden in Finspång in die Züge der anderen Gesellschaft umsteigen mussten, fuhren ab der Gründung der Gesellschaft durchgehende Züge zwischen Pålsboda und Norsholm. Formell übernahm die NÖJ den Betrieb der PFJ und FNJ am 1. Januar 1896.

Die weitere Streckengeschichte ist unter Bahnstrecke Örebro–Norrköping zu finden.

Literatur
 Bodstedt, Ivan A[ugust], Historik över Sveriges småbanor. Bruks-, gruv- m. fl. banor under tiden 1802–1865, Statens järnvägars museum, Stockholm, Esselte, 1945.

Weblinks
 Geschichte der Pålsboda – Finspång Järnväg bei historiskt.nu (schwedisch)

 FNJ, Finspång – Norsholms Järnväg bei historiskt.nu (schwedisch)

Einzelnachweise

Bahnstrecke in Östergötlands län

Bahnstrecke Pålsboda–Finspång


Die Kämpfe von Château-Thierry vom 15. bis 21. Juli 1918 waren im Ersten Weltkrieg Teil der Zweiten Schlacht an der Marne. Diese an der mittleren Westfront stattfindende Auseinandersetzung zwischen Truppen des Deutschen Kaiserreichs und US-amerikanisch-französischen Soldaten endete mit dem Rückzug der Deutschen. Bei der erfolgreichen Abwehr der deutschen Angriffe beidseitig von Château-Thierry (15./16. Juli) tat sich besonders die 3rd Division der American Expeditionary Force (AEF) hervor und erwarb sich dafür den Nicknamen "Rock of the Marne". Die eigentlich entscheidende Schlacht von Soissons (18. bis 22. Juli 1918) fand 20 Kilometer nordwestlicher statt, stand aber im direkten Zusammenhang mit den Kämpfen bei Château-Thierry.

Vorgeschichte

Zu größeren Kämpfen im Raum Château-Thierry (wie nach der Ersten Marneschlacht von 1914) kam es bereits am 1. Juni 1918, als im Zuge der am 27. Mai anlaufenden Schlacht an der Aisne, deutsche Truppen (231. Infanterie-Division unter Generalmajor Bernhard von Hülsen) den Ort erreichten. Darauf wurde den Franzosen zum Schutz ihrer bedrohten Hauptstadt Paris Truppen der American Expeditionary Forces unter General John Pershing zu Hilfe gesandt. Die 3rd Infantry Division unter Major General Joseph T. Dickman wurde am 31. Mai zur Verstärkung der französischen Linien nach Château-Thierry in Marsch gesetzt. Die 2nd Infantry Division unter Major General Omar Bundy sollte die Straße von Paris nach Metz sperren.

In den Tagen bis zum 4. Juni gelang es Einheiten der 3rd Division wie dem 7th Motorized Machine Gun Battalion, deutsche Versuche, bei Château-Thierry die Marne zu überqueren, zu vereiteln. Westlich der Stadt griff die 2nd Division, der auch Einheiten des United States Marine Corps unterstanden, den von den Deutschen gehaltenen Bois de Belleau an, hier entwickelte sich die Schlacht im Wald von Belleau. Die deutschen Truppen standen von Château-Thierry im Westen bis Dormans im Osten an der Marne, nur knapp 60 Kilometer von Paris entfernt, vermochten aber in dieser Angriffsphase nicht, einen dauerhaften Brückenkopf am südlichen Ufer zu errichten.

Vorbereitungen

Am rechten Flügel der französischen 6. Armee unter General Jean-Marie Degoutte lagen Anfang Juli 1918 von den amerikanischen Einheiten die 3. Division (Generalmajor Joseph T. Dickman) und die auf französische Abschnitte aufgeteilte 28. Division (Generalmajor Charles H. Muir) in Stellung. Die 3. US-Division, die dem französischen XXXVIII. Korps von General Jean de Mondésir unterstellt war, hielt eine 12 Kilometer breite Front entlang der Marne, die vom Stadtrand von Château-Thierry im Westen bis zu den Hängen des Surmelin-Tal nach Osten reichte. Die nach Norden stehende Front der Infanterieregimenter Nr. 4., 7., 30. und 38 waren alle von West nach Ost ausgerichtet. Rechts von der 3. Division lag das französische III. Korps (General Léonce Lebrun) mit der 125. Division (General Antoine Diebold), die durch die amerikanische 55. Infanterie-Brigade der 28. US-Division verstärkt worden war. Während die Mehrheit der Brigade in der zweiten Linie der 125. Division, etwa dreieinhalb Kilometer weiter hinten, eine sechs Kilometer lange Front innehatte, nahmen vier Kompanien des 109. und 110. Infanterieregiments Positionen am südlichen Ufer der Marne ein.

Die bewaldeten, hügeligen Hänge und bewachsenen Felder am südlichen Ufer der Marne waren ein ideales Verteidigungsgelände, das den Amerikanern sowohl Verschleierung als auch Deckung bot.
General de Mondésir wies General Dickman an, eine starre Frontverteidigung anstelle die Verteidigung in der Tiefe vorzubereiten. General Dickman gab seinen Soldaten aber die Freiheit, ihre Verteidigung nach eigenem Ermessen vorzubereiten. Entlang der gesamten Front der 3. US-Division bestand die vordere Linie am Ufer des Flusses aus weit auseinander liegenden Gräben und Maschinengewehrnestern. Dahinter befanden sich die Verschanzungen parallel zur Marne als zweite Verteidigungsposition. Diese umfasste flache Gräben sowie Unterstände, die als Kommandoposten oder Unterkünfte dienten. Die dritte und letzte Verteidigungsposition verlief durch den Bois d'Aigremont nach Süden. Oberst Edmund L. Butts, der das 30. Infanterieregiment befehligte, verteilte seine Bataillone auf die weit auseinander liegenden Positionen der ersten, zweiten und dritten Linie und bereitete eine effektive Tiefenverteidigung vor. Colonel Ulysses G. McAlexander befahl seinem 38. Infanterieregiment hingegen die vordere Frontlinie zu verstärken und positionierte dort vier Kompanien – etwa 1.000 Mann – um die Deutschen daran zu hindern, den Fluss zu überqueren. Den Rest des Regiments verteilte er auf eine zweite Linie, die zwischen 2.700 bis 5.400 Meter von der Marne entfernt. verlief.

Colonel McAlexander, der den Verdacht hatte, dass sich die Franzosen zu seiner Rechten frühzeitig zurückziehen würden, wenn die Deutschen versuchen würden, die Deckung des Surmelin-Tals zu nutzen, um seinen Sektor zu infiltrieren, ergriff Vorsichtsmaßnahmen, indem er zusätzliche Gräben in der gesamten Position des 38. Infanterieregiments in Richtung Osten errichten ließ. Die Amerikaner innerhalb der französischen 125. Division empfanden die Verteidigungsvorbereitungen in ihrem Sektor als noch verwirrender. Die Kompanien L und M des 109. Infanterieregiments sowie die Kompanien B und C der 110. Infanterie hielten vollständige Gräben entlang der Eisenbahn und in der Nähe der nördlichen Ränder des Bois de Condé, höchstens einige hundert Meter von der Marne entfernt. Sollten keine anderen Anweisungen kommen, wollten die vier am Fluss stationierten Kompagnien auch dort verteidigen.

Auf der gegenüberliegenden Seite der Marne bereiteten sich die Truppen das deutschen XXIII. Reservekorps von General von Kathen – die westlichste Formation der 7. Armee – auf den Fluss-Übergang vor. Die deutsche 10. Division stand während der gesamten Marneschutz-Offensive ganz am linken Flügel. Das Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 398 und das Grenadier-Regiment Nr. 6 hatte den Befehl, die Marne zu überqueren und durch den Sektor des amerikanischen 30. Infanterieregiments vorzurücken. Unmittelbar östlich befand sich die deutsche 36. Division, welche mit dem 5. Grenadier- und dem Infanterieregiment Nr. 128 entlang der Front der französischen 125. Division und des amerikanischen 38. Infanterieregiment angreifen sollten. Die Aufgabe des XXIII. Reserve-Korps bestand darin, auf einer 6 Kilometer breiten Front über die Marne zu gehen, wobei der Vorstoß in der Tiefe am ersten Tag auf zwei Kilometer begrenzt war. Einmal in dieser Position, hatte die Gruppe Kathen den Befehl sich einzugraben und den Fall von Reims abzuwarten.

Die Kämpfe von Château-Thierry

Am 15. Juli begann im Raum westlich von Reims der Angriff von 17 Divisionen der deutschen 7. Armee gegen die französische 5. und 6. Armee. Der rechte Flügel (Gruppe Schoeler mit 87. und 201. Infanterie-Division) hatte den Angriff nach Westen hin zu decken, die Mitte (Gruppe Kathen und Wichura) sollten mit fünf Divisionen (10., 36. 23., 200. und 1. Garde-Division) den Marne-Abschnitt Chartèves—Verneuil überschreiten. Die Gruppe Conta (37., 113. und 10. Reserve-Division) hatten bei Dormans den Surmelin-Bach zu gewinnen. Die 37. und 113. Infanterie-Division hatten dabei südlich der Marne anzugreifen und die 2. Garde-Division nördlich des Flusses auf Epernay vorzugehen. Der linke Flügel der 7. Armee (Gruppe Schmettow) sollte mit der 103. 22., 195. und 123. Infanterie-Division nördlich der Marne über den Montagne de Reims angreifen und die Linie Ay—Nanteuil—Bligny gewinnen.

Um 02:10 Uhr früh hatten von der Gruppe Kathen Teile des linken Flügels das Südufer der Marne erkämpft. Auf dem rechten Flügel hatte die 10. Landwehr-Division (Generalleutnant von Werder), den Befehl im Abschnitt bei Mont-Saint-Père und Gland defensiv zu bleiben und nur den rechten Flügel der 10. Infanterie-Division (Generalmajor von Diepenbroick-Grüter) zu decken. Dickmans Division warfen den deutschen Gegner (Teile der 36. Infanterie-Division) bei Mézy-Moulins über den Fluss zurück und eroberten den südlichen Teil von Crézancy zurück. Um 12.45 unternahm auch General de Mondésir zusätzliche Schritte, um die Position seines XXXVIII. Korps zu stützen und befahl der französischen 73. Division, in die Lücke vorzudringen, die sich zwischen der amerikanischen und der französischen Einheit östlich des Surmelin geöffnet hatte. Der Angriff begann um 19.30 und führte zur Eroberung des Hofes von Les Étangs, etwa zwei Kilometer östlich des Surmelin-Tales.

Am Morgen des 18. Juli, um 4.45 Uhr, gingen die französische 10. und der linke Flügel der 6. Armee mit den zugeordneten amerikanischen Divisionen (1., 2., und 4.) zwischen Fontenoy und dem Ourcq-Abschnitt auf einer Frontbreite von ca. 40 km zum Gegenangriff über. An der Marne blieb der rechte Flügel der französischen 6. Armee an diesem Tag in Abwehr, dagegen begann östlich davon die 9. Armee (General Antoine de Mitry) im Raum südlich Dormans den Großangriff gegen die sechs im südlichen Marne-Brückenkopf befindlichen deutschen Divisionen. Die 26. US-Division (Major General Clarence R. Edwards) befand sich nordwestlich von Chateau-Thierry und bildete zusammen mit der französischen 167. Division den rechten Flügel des I Corps (Major General Hunter Liggett), welches nach der Verschiebung des französischen XXXVIII. Korps zur neu formierten 9. Armee die taktische Führung übernommen hatte. Die französischen 39. Division konnte das von den Deutschen verteidigte Château-Thierry erst am 21. Juli gegen 08:00 Uhr gänzlich besetzen.

An den folgenden Rückeroberung des Marne-Frontbogens waren bis Ende Juli insgesamt etwa 250.000 US-amerikanische Soldaten mit 9 Divisionen und 2 Korpskommandos (I Corps und III Corps) beteiligt. Auch die Stellungen der deutschen Gruppe Schmettow (Generalkommando 65) und Borne (VI. Reserve-Korps) im östlichen Front im Marnebogen musste gegenüber der französischen 5. Armee (General Berthelot) zurückgenommen werden.

Nachwirkungen

Über die Kämpfe bei Château-Thierry nahm die deutsche Geschichtsschreibung kaum Notiz, hingegen nehmen die Kämpfe in der amerikanische Geschichtsschreibung eine besondere Rolle ein. Zum einen handelte es sich dabei um das weiteste Vordringen der deutschen Streitkräfte auf Paris in der deutschen Frühjahrsoffensive 1918, zum zweiten war es das erste effektive Eingreifen geschlossener amerikanischer Divisionen im Ersten Weltkrieg. Beim ersten Gefecht von Chateau-Thierry vom 1. Juni war es das erste Mal seit dem Amerikanischen Unabhängigkeitskrieg, dass amerikanische und französische Truppen Seite an Seite unter einem gemeinsamen Kommando kämpften. Viele amerikanische Patrioten begreifen das Eingreifen der American Expeditionary Forces in die Kriegshandlungen als Wendepunkt des Krieges. Demzufolge wurde nach dem Krieg dort das Amerikanische Ehrenmal Château-Thierry eingeweiht.

Das deutsche Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 401 der 201. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant	Bachelin) war am Kampf um die Höhe 204 beteiligt. Als am 9. Oktober 1929 die American Battle Monuments Commission das Amerikanische Ehrenmal Château-Thierry plante, wurde das Kriegstagebuch des 401. Regiments für den fraglichen Zeitraum zur Auswertung nach Washington geschickt. Durch die Zerstörung des Reichsarchivs am 14. April 1945 gingen alle Kriegstagebücher der deutschen Regimenter des Ersten Weltkriegs verloren. Daher lassen die verbleibenden Kopien wertvolle Schlüsse auf den prinzipiellen und schematischen Aufbau eines damaligen Kriegstagebuches zu.

Literatur
 George W. Browne: Divisional records of the American expeditionary forces in Europe. compiled from official sources by G. W. Browne and Rosecrans W. Pillsbury, Overseas Book Company 121, 19211851-1930.
 Die Schlachten und Gefechte des Grossen Krieges 1914–1918. Großer Generalstab, Berlin 1919.

Bilder

Weblinks

ChateauThierry
ChateauThierry
Konflikt 1918
Château-Thierry
Geschichte (Hauts-de-France)
Militärgeschichte der Vereinigten Staaten (Erster Weltkrieg)

Gefecht von Château-Thierry


මුද්‍රණ ඉතිහාසයේ මුල් කාලයේදී මුද්‍රණය ග්‍රන්ථ ප්‍රකාශනය ආදීය වෙනුවට බෙහෙවින්ම යොදා ගත්තේ රාජ්‍ය ත්‍රාන්ත්‍රික ලියවිලි ,චක්‍ර ලේඛණ, ගැස‍ට් පත්‍ර ආදී සුවි‍ශේෂි අවශ්‍යතා ඉටුකිරීම උදෙසාය. ආරම්භයේ පටන් මුද්‍රණ ශිල්පය සන්නිවේදනයේ බලගතු අවියක් විය. අප සමාජ ආකෘති ප‍්‍රගති සැලසුම්වලදී අගනා සන්නිවේදනය සහ දැනුම බෙදාගැනීම අත්‍යවශ්‍ය වන අතර මෙහිදී මුද්‍රණ කර්මාන්තයට වැදගත් මෙහෙයක් හිමිය.මෙම කර්මාන්තය ඉතිහාසය සම්බන්ධ තොරතුරෑ මූලික වශායන් මෙහි අන්තර්ගතය.
ඉතිහාසය පිළිබද සැළකුවහොත් පහත සදහන් කාලයන් වැදගත් වේ.

ලන්දේසි පාලන සමය.
ඉංග්‍රිසි පාලන සමය.
රජයේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය ප්‍රකාශනය.
කළම්බු ජර්නල් පුවත්පතේ අරම්භය.
ශ්‍රි ලංකා‍වේ මුද්‍රණ ක්‍ෂේත්‍රයේ පුරෝගාමියෝ

ලන්දේසි පාලන සමය

ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථමවර‍ට මුද්‍රණය  ආරම්භ වන්නේ ක්‍රි.ව 1737 ලන්දේසි සමයේදිය.
මෙය  ජේකොබ් ක්‍රිස්ටීන් පිලාත් ආණ්ඩුකාරවරයාගේ කාලයේදි  මුද්‍රණ අකූරු සකස් කිරීමත් සමග ආරම්භ විය.
ලන්දේසි විසින් මුද්‍රණ‍ය කරන ලද මුල්ම සිංහල කෘති‍ය වශයෙන් පිළිගන්නේ ලන්දේසි යාඥා පොතය.
මෙය ගාල්ලේ පිහිටුවන ලද ලන්දේසි  මුද්‍රණාලයේ බිහිවුවකි.
එහි මුද්‍රණ ශිල්පියාවුයේ ගාබ්රියල් ස්කාඩ් නැමැත්තෙකි.

ඉංග්‍රිසි පාලන සමය

ක්‍රි.ව 1802 දි ඉංග්‍රිසි  විසින් ලංකාව ය‍ටත් විජිතයක්  බවට පත්කර ගැනිමේදී ලන්දේසි සතූ මුද්‍රණාලද අත්පත් කර ගත්හ.

ක්‍රි.ව 1802 දි ඉංග්‍රිසි  විසින් ඉංග්‍රිසි  නිල ප්‍රකාශනය වු ගැසට් පත්‍රය ප්‍රකාශනය කරන ලදි.

රජයේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය ප්‍රකාශනය

ක්‍රි.ව 1802 දි ශ්‍රි ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම ඉංග්‍රීසි පුවත්පත වශයෙන් සැලකු රජයේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය ප්‍රකාශය‍ට පත්කරන ලදී.
මෙහි  ප්‍රකාශකයා වුයේ ප්‍රාන්ස් ඩී බෲයින් මහාතාය.
ක්‍රි.ව 1814 ජනවාරී 12 වන දින ප්‍රථමවරට මුතු කිමිදීමේ දැන්වීමක් සිංහල බසින් පළ කරමින් ගැසට් පත්‍රයට එක් කිරීමෙන් පළමු

වරට සිංහල භාෂාව ගැසට් පත්‍රයට සම්බන්ධ කරන ලදී.
සතියකට දෙවරක් ප්‍රකාශය‍ට පත්කරන ලදී.

ගැසට් පත්‍රය

ගැසට් යන වචනයේ තේරුම, පුවත්පතක් හෝ නිල ප්‍රකාශනයක් හෝ නිල ප්‍රකාශනයක් මගින් කෙරෙන නිවේදනයක් යන්නය."
ගැසට් පත්‍රය මුද්‍රණය කොට බෙදා හරනු ලබන්නේ රජයේ මුද්‍රණාලය මගිනි. ආරම්භයේදී පිටු දෙකකට පමණ සීමිත වූ එය දැන්

කොටස් හයකින් පමණ සමන්විතය.රජයේ ආඥවන්, නියෝගයන්, නියමයන් ක්‍රියාත්මක වන්නේ, වලංගු වන්නේ ගැසට් පත්‍රයේ

ප්‍රසිද්ධ කළහොත් පමණය.
විධායකයත් ව්‍යවස්‌ථාදායකය හා අධිකරණයත්, රටක පැවැත්මට හේතු භූත වන ප්‍රධාන මුල් තුනය. ලංකාව දැවැන්ත වෘක්‌ෂයකට සම කළහොත් එහි ප්‍රධාන මුල් තුන, විධායකය වන ජනාධිපති ධුරයත්, ව්‍යවස්‌ථාදායකය වන පාර්ලිමේන්තුව හා ශ්‍රේෂ්ඨාධිකරණය ප්‍රධාන අධිකරණයත්ය.

වර්ග සැතපුම් 25,000 ක් විශාල ශ්‍රී ලංකාවත්, සමස්‌ත ජනගහනයත්, රාජ්‍ය අංශයට හා පෞද්ගලික අංශයටද සම්බන්ධ සියලුම ක්‍ෂේත්‍රයන්හි කාර්යයන් හා සේවාවනුත් මේ ප්‍රධාන මුල් තුනට අනුබද්ධය.
ජනාධිපතිවරයාගේ පටන් සාමාන්‍ය පුරවැසියා දක්‌වා සියල්ලන්ටමත්, රට පුරා හැම ක්‍ෂේත්‍රයකටම හා හැම ස්‌ථානයකටමත් බලපාන කරුණු කාරණා පිළිබඳ රාජ්‍ය නිල ප්‍රකාශනය ගැසට් පත්‍රය වන අතර සැබවින්ම එය රාජ්‍ය මුද්‍රාවක් බඳුය. මුද්‍රිත හා විද්යුත් මාධ්‍යවලින් දිනපතාම විවිධ කරුණු කාරණා හෙළිදරව් කෙරෙන නමුත් යට කී ක්‍ෂේත්‍රයන්ට අදාළ රාජ්‍ය නිල ප්‍රකාශනය වන්නේ ගැසට් පත්‍රයයි.

සියවස් පහකට පමණ පෙර වැනිසියේ පළ කළ පුවත්පත්වල මිල, ඒ අවධියේ සංසරණය වූ, වටිනාකමින් අඩුම කාසිය හැටියට සැලකුණු ගැෂෙටාවක් වූයෙන්, පත්‍ර හැඳින්වූයේද ගැෂෙට් යන නමිනි. 18 වැනි සියවස අග භාගයේ ඉංගිරිසි ජාතිකයන් ලංකාවට පැමිණි මුහුදු බඩ ප්‍රදේශ අල්ලා ගැනීමෙන් අනතුරුව, Ceylon Goverment Gagetta ලංකා ආණ්‌ඩුවේ ගැසටය යන නමින් ආණ්‌ඩුවේ ප්‍රකාශන හැඳින්වීමට පටන් ගත් අතර මුල්ම ගැසට් පත්‍රය නිකුත් වූයේ, ලංකාව බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය යටත් විජිතයක් බවට පත් වන්නට වසර 12 කට කලින් 1802 මාර්තු 15 වැනි සඳුදාය. ලංකාව බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය යටත් විජිතයක් බවට පත් වූයේ, 1815 මාර්තු 2 වැනිදා මහනුවර මඟුල් මඬුවේදී අත්සන් කරන්නට යෙදුණු උඩරට ගිවිසුමත් සමගය.

මේ අනුව, ගැසට් පත්‍රය පිටව, මේ වන විට අවුරුදු 208 කිෘ ගැසට් එකේද ප්‍රවෘත්ති ඇතුළත්ව ඇති නිසා පත්‍රයක් වශයෙන් මුලදී සැලකුණු හෙයින් ලංකාවේ මුල්ම පත්‍රය ගැසට් එකයෑයි කියන්න බැරිකමක්‌ද නැත.
බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය සෝල්බරි ආණ්‌ඩු ක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්‌ථාව යටතේ, 1948 පෙබරවාරි 4 වැනිදා නිදහස ලැබුණද සැබවින්ම එය, නිදහසක් ලබාගැනීම සඳහා ලබාගත් නිදහස් වූයෙන්, ගැසට් එකේ නමද ඒ ආකාරයෙන්ම පැවතිණි. එහෙත් සිරිමාවෝ බණ්‌ඩාරනායක මැතිනියගේ සටන් පෙරමුණ රජයේ ජනරජ ව්‍යවස්‌ථාව යටතේ 1972 මැයි 22 වැනිදා ලංකාව, ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය බවට පත්වීමත් සමගම එහි නම "ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජන රජයේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය" වශයෙන් වෙනස් විය.

ගැසට් පත්‍රය, සෑම සඳු දිනකම නිකුත් කෙරෙන රජයේ නිල ප්‍රකාශනයයි. නොඑසේ නම් නිල ප්‍රවෘත්ති පත්‍රය වශයෙන්ද සැලකිය හැකිය. සැබවින්ම එය, විධායකය, ව්‍යවස්‌ථාදායකය හා අධිකරණය යන ප්‍රධාන ආධාරක මුල් තුන මත පිහිටා රට කරවන යාන්ත්‍රණය මෙහෙයවන මෙවලම බඳුය.

ගැසට් පත්‍රය මුද්‍රණය කොට බෙදා හරනු ලබන්නේ රජයේ මුද්‍රණාලය මගිනි. ආරම්භයේදී පිටු දෙකකට පමණ සීමිත වූ එය දැන් කොටස් හයකින් පමණ සමන්විතය.

රජයේ ආඥවන්, නියෝගයන්, නියමයන් ක්‍රියාත්මක වන්නේ, වලංගු වන්නේ ගැසට් පත්‍රයේ ප්‍රසිද්ධ කළහොත් පමණය.

රජයේ නිල ප්‍රකාශනය වන ගැසට් පත්‍රයේ මුල් කොටසේ ඡේද වශයෙන් නම් කෙරෙන අනු කොටස් කීපයකි. ඒවා මෙසේය.

විධායකයේ (ජනාධිපතිවරයාගේ) අනුදැනුම මත සිදු කෙරෙන පත් කිරීම්, අධිකරණයේ අනුදැනුම මත සිදු කෙරෙන පත් කිරීම් හා පාර්ලිමේන්තු අණපනත් ආදියේ ඇතුළත් නීති රෙගුලාසි. රජයේ රැකියා ඇබෑර්තු ටෙන්ඩර් ලබා ගැනීම සඳහා ලබාගත් නිදහසක් වූයෙන් ගැසට් එකේ නට ඒ ආකාරයෙන්ම පැවතිනි. එහෙත් සිරිවාවෝ බණ්‌ඩාරනායක මැතිනියගේ සමගි පෙරමුණ රජයේ ජනරජ ව්‍යවස්‌ථාව යටතේ ලියාපදිංචි වන්නන්ගේ නම් ගම්, වෙළෙඳ ව්‍යාපාරවලට අදාළ වෙළෙඳ ලාංජන යනාදිය, වෙළෙඳ ව්‍යාපාරයක් නීතිගත වන්නේ එහි පළ කළ හොතිනි.

ගැසට් එකේ සෙසු කොටස් මේ ආකාරයෙනි

අධිකරණයට අදාළ විස්‌තර තොරතුරු.

ඉසව් අත්කර ගැනීමට අදාළ විස්‌තර තොරතුරු.

පළාත් පාලන ආයතනවලට අදාළ විස්‌තර තොරතුරු.

ජාතික ලේඛනාරක්‌ෂකවරයාගේ අභිමතය පරිදි ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කෙරෙන ග්‍රන්ථ නාමාවලිය.

ජූරි සභිකයන්ගේ නාමාවලිය.

ගැසට් පත්‍රය යනු, රටේ පණ නල රැකදෙන හදවතයි. කියන්න බැරි කමක්‌ද නැත. එය පළ කිරීමට අපහසුවක් සිදු වුවහොත් රටේ පැවැත්මට සිදු වන්නේද අපහසුතාවකි.
මීට වසර 208 කට පෙරාතුව පළ කරන ලද මංගල ගැසට් පත්‍රය මුද්‍රණය කොට ඇත්තේ ලන්දේසීන්ගෙන් ඉංගිරිසි ජාතිකයන් පවරා ගත් මුද්‍රණ යන්ත්‍රයක් භාවිත කොට ගෙනය. ඒ සඳහා රජයේ මුද්‍රණාලයද ආරම්භ කොට ඇති අතර ගැසට් පත්‍රයේ ආරම්භක ප්‍රකාශකයා µ්‍රdන්ස් ඩී. බෲයින් නමැති ඉංගිරිසි ජාතිකයෙකි.

ලංකාණ්‌ඩුවේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය මුලදී ඉංගිරිසියෙන් පළ කෙරුණු අතර හා හා පුරා කියා මව් බස වන සිංහල ඊට එක්‌කර ඇත්තේ මීට වසර 196 කට පෙර 1814 ජනවාරි 12 වැනි දින සිංහල දැන්වීමක් එහි පළ කරමිනි.
එය මුතු කිමිදෙන්නන් පිළිබඳ දැන්වීමකි. ගැසට් පත්‍රයේ මංගල කලාපයේ මුල් පිටවේ ඉහළින්ම "ලංකා ආණ්‌ඩුවේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය යනුවෙන් එහි නම සඳහන් වූ අතර අංක 1, සඳුදා, මාර්තු 15, 1902" යනුවෙන් ඊළඟට එහි මුද්‍රණ අංකයත්, දවසත්, මාසයත් දිනය හා අවුරුද්දත් සඳහන් විය.

තීරු හතරක එම පිටුවේ වම් පස තීරුවේ "රජයේ දැන්වීම" යන සිරස්‌තලය යටතේ පහත සඳහන් දැන්වීම පළව තිබිණි.

පුවත්පතක් මගින් රජයේ සියලුම ආඥවන් හා දැන්වීම් ද පළ කළහොත් මහජනතාවට විශාල පහසුකමක් වනු ඇතැයි ආණ්‌ඩුකාරතුමන්ට වැටහී ගොස් ඇත. එනිසා පහත සඳහන් පරිදි පත්‍රයක් සකසා ප්‍රසිද්ධ කළ යුතුය.

ලංකා ආණ්‌ඩුවේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය යන නමින් සතිපතා පුවත්පතක් සැකසීම.

ආණ්‌ඩුවේ ආඥ නියමයන්, දැන්වීම් අධිකරණයට අදාළ හා මහජනයාටද අදාළ නිවේදන යනාදිය මේ පත්‍රයේ පළවනු ඇත. ප්‍රසිද්ධ වෙන්දේසි හෝ පෞද්ගලික වෙන්දේසි, නැතිවූ භාණ්‌ඩ පිළිබඳ දැන්වීම් නැව් ගමනා ගමනය උපත් විවාහයන් හා මරණ යනාදී සිද්ධීන්ද ප්‍රසිද්ධ දැන්වීම් යටතේ පළ කෙරේ...........

ජනාධිපතිවරයක් හෝ පර්ලිමේන්තු මහ මැතිවරණයක් හෝ පළාත් සභා මැතිවරණයක් හෝ පළාත් පාලන මැතිවරණයක් හෝ පිළිබඳ නිල දැන්වීම පවා කරනු ලබන්නේ ගැසට් පත්‍රයේය. පත් වූවන්ගේ නම් පළ කෙරෙන්නේද එහිය.

රජයේ පමණක් නොව සංස්‌ථා ව්‍යවස්‌ථාපිත මණ්‌ඩල, පළාත් සභා, මහ නගර සභා, නගර සභා, ප්‍රාදේශීය සභා ආදියට අදාළ දැන්වීම් ද එහි පළ කෙරේ. රජයේ මෙන්ම ඊට අනුබද්ධිත සියලුම ආයතන, කාර්යංශ යනාදියට අදාළ සියලුම ආඥ, නියෝග, නිවේදන, දැන්වීම් ආදිය පළ කෙරෙන නිල ප්‍රකාශනය ගැසට් පත්‍රය වන නිසා එයින් රටටත් ජනතාවටත් අත්වන ඵල ප්‍රයේජන ඉමහත්ය.

ගැසට් යන වචනයේ තේරුම, පුවත්පතක් හෝ නිල ප්‍රකාශනයක් හෝ නිල ප්‍රකාශනයක් මගින් කෙරෙන නිවේදනයක් යන්නය.

මීට වසර 176 කට පෙරාතුව 1834 දී පළ කෙරෙණු "කළම්බු ඔබ්සවර්" පත්‍රය ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම පුවත්පත හැටියට සැලකෙන නමුත්, ගැසට් එකද පුවත්පතක් වශයෙන් පිළිගැනෙන නිසා ඊට වසර 32 කට පෙර 1802 ආරම්භ කෙරුණු ගැසට් පත්‍රය, ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම පුවත්පත යෑයි කියන්න බැරිකමක් නැත.

ව්‍යවස්‌ථාදායකය වෙත ඉදිරිපත් කෙරෙන හා එයින් සම්මත ද කෙරෙන ආණ්‌ඩුක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්‌ථා, නීති කෙටුම්පත් යනාදිය මහජනයාගේ අවධානයට යොමු කිරීම සඳහා පළ කිරීම, ගැසට් පත්‍රයෙන් සිදුවන සුවිශේෂී කාර්යයක් හැටියට සැලකිය හැකිය.පහත සඳහන් වන්නේ ඊට හොඳ උදාහරණයකි.

බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය සෝල්බරි ආණ්‌ඩුක්‍රමය යටතේ වසර 24 ක පමණ කාලයක් තිස්‌සේ ක්‍රියාත්මක වූ ආණ්‌ඩු ක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්‌ථාව වෙනස් කොට ලංකාවේ නම ශ්‍රී ලංකාව වශයෙන් යොදා ගනිමින් ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය පිහිටුවීම සඳහා කෙටුම්පත් කෙරුණු ජනරජ ආණ්‌ඩු ක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්‌ථාව, ගැසට් පත්‍රයේ කල්තබාම ප්‍රසිද්ධ කොට තිබුණේ මහජනතාවගේ අවධානය ඊට යොමු කිරීම සඳහාය.

අයවැයකදී බඩු මිල අඩු වැඩි කෙරෙන විටක හෝ භාණ්‌ඩ සඳහා මිල පාලනයක් සිදු කෙරෙන විටක හෝ ඒ පිළිබඳව ගැසට් පත්‍රයේ නිවාර්යයෙන්ම පළ කිරීම සිරිතය.

ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම පුවත්පත

මීට වසර 176 කට පෙරාතුව 1834 දී පළ කෙරෙණු "කළම්බු ජර්නල්" පත්‍රය ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම පුවත්පත හැටියට සැලකෙන නමුත්,

ගැසට් එකද පුවත්පතක් වශයෙන් පිළිගැනෙන නිසා ඊට වසර 32 කට පෙර 1802 ආරම්භ කෙරුණු ගැසට් පත්‍රය, ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම

පුවත්පත යෑයි කියන්න බැරිකමක් නැත.

කළම්බු ජර්නල් පුවත්පතේ අරම්භය

ක්‍රි.ව 1832 ජනවාරි 07 දින ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම පුවත්පත වූ  කළම්බු ජර්නල් පුවත්පත අරම්භය විය.

මෙහි ප්‍රථම කතුවරයා වූයේ ජෝර්ජ් ලී නම් සිවිල් සේවක මහාතාය.

පසුව මෙය ලංකාණ්ඩුවේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය ලෙස නම් කරන ලදී.

1972 මැයි මස 22 දින සිට මෙහි නාමය ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාත්‍රානිත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජයේ ගැසට් පත්‍රය ලෙස නම් කරන ලදී.

ශ්‍රී ලංකා‍වේ මුද්‍රණ ක්‍ෂේත්‍රයේ පුරෝගාමියෝ
ප්‍රථම සිංහල පුවත්පත වූ ලංකාලෝකය පුවත්පත නිර්මාණය කළ මුද්‍රණ යන්ත්‍රය ගාල්ලේ ගිනිවැල්ලේ විහාරයේ ඇත.
මෙය 1840 දී ප්‍රකාශයට පත්ව ඇත.
වර්ෂ 1801 දි එංගලන්තයේ කාස්ලන් සමාගම විසින් මෙම යන්ත්‍රය නිපදවා ඇත.

ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම සිංහල බෞද්ධ පුවත්පත
ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථම සිංහල බෞද්ධ පුවත්පත පළකරන බුලත්ගම ධම්මාලංකාර හිමියන් එබඳු භික්‍ෂූන් වහන්සේ නමක්. ගම්පලින් ගාල්ලට

පැමිණ වැඩිදුර අධ්‍යාපනයට තායිලන්තයට ගොස් එහි රජු සමඟ ද හිතවත්කම් ගොඩනඟාගෙන ලංකෝපකර මුද්‍රණාලය ඇති කිරීමේ

අරමුදලක් ඇති කරන්නේ උන්වහන්සේයි. මිෂනාරි ආගමික ප්‍රචාරණයට විරුද්ධ ව සිංහල බෞද්ධ ජනමතය වෙනුවෙන්

ලංකාලෝකය ආරම්භක පුවත්පතක් ලෙස කටයුතු කරඇත.

එම්. ඩී . ගුණසේන මහතා

මොහු අප රටේ මුද්‍රණ කර්මාන්තය තුළ බිහිවු දැවැන්තයෙකි.
1917 දී වික්ටර් නම් මුද්‍රණාලය ආරම්භ කරන ලදි.

කඩදාසි මිලට ගත්තේ එන්ෂා නම් ජපන් ජාතිකයෙක්ගෙනි.

1925 දී වික්ටර් නම් මුද්‍රණාලය එම්. ඩී ගුණසේන මුද්‍රණාලය ලෙස  නම් කරන ලදි.

926 වර්ෂයේ පටන් පොත් මුද්‍රණය ආරම්භ කරන ලදී.

නවීන තාක්ෂණය
වර්තමානය වන විට පරිගනක භාවිතයත් සමග මුද්‍රණ ක්‍ෂේත්‍රයේ  විශාල දියුණුවක් දැකිය හැකිය.පරිගනක භාවිතයෙන් විශාල වශයෙන්  මුද්‍රණ ක්‍ෂේත්‍රයේ දියුණුවක් දැකිය හැකිය.

සාරාංශය
ආරම්භයේ පටන් මුද්‍රණ ශිල්පය සන්නිවේදනයේ බලගතු අවියක් විය. අප සමාජ ආකෘති ප‍්‍රගති සැලසුම්වලදී අගනා සන්නිවේදනය සහ දැනුම බෙදාගැනීම අත්‍යවශ්‍ය වන අතර මෙහිදී මුද්‍රණ කර්මාන්තයට වැදගත් මෙහෙයක් හිමිය.මෙම කර්මාන්තය ඉතිහාසය සම්බන්ධ තොරතුරෑ මූලික වශායන් මෙහි අන්තර්ගතය.

සබැදි පිටු
මුද්‍රණ ක්‍රම
කාර්මික විප්ලවය (නව සොයාගැනීම් සමග කැපීපෙණුනු කර්මාන්ත)
අන්තර්ජාල රෙදිපිළි මුද්‍රණ කර්මාන්තය

ආශ්‍රිත ග්‍රන්ථ
රජයේ මුද්‍රණාලය, පිළිසදර සගරාව.
රජයේ මුද්‍රණාලය,ශ්‍රි ලාංකීය  මුද්‍රණ ඉතිහාසය.

ශ්‍රි ලංකා‍වේ මුද්‍රණ කර්මාන්ත‍ය


M/S Isabelle je ro-ro brod/putnički brod hrvatske proizvodnje. Izgrađen je u Brodosplitu, u Brodogradilištu specijalnih objekata. IMO broj mu je 8700723. MMSI broj je 275430000. Plovi pod latvijskom zastavom. Matična mu je luka Riga. Putnički je brod za kružna putovanja.
Pozivni znak je YLEZ.
Brodovi blizanci su M/S Amorella, M/S Gabriella i M/S Crown Seaways, svi izgrađeni u splitskom brodogradilištu.
Isabelle je do 22. travnja 2013. nosila ime Isabella i plovila je pod finskom zastavom.

Karakteristike
Sagrađen kao novogradnja br. 357 za finskog naručitelja SF Line AB iz Mariehamna, dio Viking Lineova konzorcija. Drugi je od dvaju ugovorenih brodova za finskog naručitelja, a od četiriju brodova blizanaca. Brod je kao i godinu dana prije predani prethodnik bio ponos grada kad je porinut i sveopća gradska tema mjesecima uoči izgradnje.
Brod može primiti skoro dvije tisuće putnika i četiristo vozila, što je bio vrhunac u ono vrijeme. Opremljen je raskošnim kabinama, konferencijskim dvoranama, prodavaonicama, malim ugostiteljskim objektima (barovi i restorani), dječjim igraonicama i kasinom. Američki časopis Maritime Reporter & Engineer News brod je proglasio najsjajnijim brodom godine (Most Outstanding Ship of the year). Kad je izgrađena, imala je 4105 dwt. Bruto-tonaže (gross tonage) je 35154 tone, a nosivosti 4105 tona (poslije 3680) dwt. Gaz je 6,40 metara.

Isabella je dio niza Brodosplitovih brodova za prijevoz osoba i prometala za baltičke kompanije Viking Line i Sealink, koje je američki pomorski časopis Maritime Reporter and Engineering News nagradio nazivom brod godine (Ship of the Year) - Amorellu za 1988., Isabellu (primijenila ime u Isabelle) za 1989. i Frans Suell (promijenila ime u Gabriella) za 1992. godinu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Brodosplit Galerija: Isabella
Isabelle - Ro-Ro/Passenger Ship, MarineTraffic

Brodovi izgrađeni u Brodosplitu

M/S Isabelle


Nørregade i Aarhus går fra Nørre Allé til Nørreport. Gaden var tidligere en del af Nørre Allé, men i takt med byggeri langs gaden besluttede Aarhus Byråd i 1910 at ændre navnet på stykket mellem Paradisgade og Guldsmedgade til Nørregade. Gaden er senere blevet forlænget hen til Nørreport.

Nørregade var tidligere en del af en promenadesti, vejen bag om byen, som blev brugt som en tursti og til at smugle ting ind i byen uden om byportenes told. Vejen lå langs det plankeværk, som afgrænsede byen.

Sporvognen gik gennem Nørregade på strækningen fra Store Torv over Lille Torv med endestation på Østbanetorvet. I 1928 lagde man nye spor i Nørregade, så sporvognslinjen blev tosporet.

I 2000 åbnede den første butik i Paradis Is-kæden på Nørregade 40. Kæden er siden blevet landsdækkende.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Gader i Aarhus

Nørregade (Aarhus)


Las elecciones federales de México de 1857 se llevaron a cabo en dos jornadas, las elecciones primarias el 28 de junio de 1857 y las elecciones secundarias el 13 de julio de 1857, en ellas se eligieron los siguientes cargos de elección popular:

 Presidente de México. Jefe de Estado y de Gobierno, electo por un periodo de 4 años, con posibilidad de reelección inmediata, para cubrir el periodo 1857 - 1861 y del que tomaría posesión el 1 de diciembre de 1857. El candidato electo fue Ignacio Comonfort.
 Presidente de la Suprema Corte de Justicia. Miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación, máximo tribunal Constitucional de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos; encargado de presidirla, así como sustituto constitucional del presidente, electo para el mismo periodo. El candidato electo fue Benito Juárez.

Ley electoral de 1857
Después de la promulgación de la constitución de 1857 se pretendió la implementación de un método de elección más democrático en México, para lo cual se redujo la distancia entre el pueblo y sus representantes. La ley electoral implementó la elección universal e indirecta de primer grado, con voto público y mayoría relativa en las elecciones primarias, secreto y de mayoría absoluta para las elecciones secundarias. Las elecciones primarias serían celebradas el último domingo de junio, en ellas tendrían oportunidad de votar todos los ciudadanos varones mayores de 21 años si eran soltero, y mayores de 18 años si eran casados. En éstas se elegían a los miembros del colegio electoral que tendrían derecho a votar en las elecciones secundarias, éstas se celebrarían el lunes siguiente al segundo domingo de julio, en el caso de la elección de presidente de la república. El colegio electoral en 1857 estaba compuesto por 80 electores, de cada uno de los 155 distritos electorales en los que se dividía el país, arrojando un total de 12,400 electores potenciales.
En caso de que ninguno de los candidatos a presidente obtuviera la mayoría absoluta de los electores, la elección quedaba en manos de la Cámara de Diputados.

Presidente

Véase también
 Constitución Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos de 1857
 Guerra de Reforma

1857
1857
México en 1857
México

Elecciones federales de México de 1857


Bezvučni alveolo-palatalni frikativ glas je koji postoji u nekim jezicima, a u međunarodnoj fonetskoj abecedi za nj se rabi simbol [ɕ].

U hrvatskome standardnom jeziku pojavljuje se kao alofon glasa [ʃ] pred glasom [t͡ɕ] (primjerice, lišće [liɕt͡ɕe]).

Glas se pojavljuje u nekim dijalektima engeskoga, u guaraniju, poljskom, ruskom i drugim jezicima.

Karakteristike su:

 po načinu tvorbe jest frikativ
 po mjestu tvorbe jest alveolo-palatalni suglasnik
 po zvučnosti jest bezvučan.

Izvori

Fonetika

Bezvučni alveolo-palatalni frikativ


The national flag of Ukraine () consists of equally sized horizontal bands of blue and yellow.

The blue and yellow bicolour first appeared during the 1848 Spring of Nations in Lemberg, then part of the Austrian Empire. It was adopted as a state flag for the first time in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution by the Ukrainian People's Republic, the West Ukrainian People's Republic and the Ukrainian State. It was also later adopted by Carpatho-Ukraine in March 1939. When Ukraine was part of the Soviet Union, the bicolour was banned and it used the flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic which featured a red flag along with the azure bottom with a golden hammer and sickle and a golden-bordered red star on top. During the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the bicolour gradually returned in use before officially being adopted again on 28 January 1992 by the Ukrainian parliament.

Ukraine has celebrated the Day of the National Flag on 23 August since 2004.

Design
Ukrainian law states that the colours of Ukrainian flag are "blue and yellow", but other state bodies have determined the colours. In the table below, the colours are presented according to DSTU 4512:2006 technical specifications:

There has been disagreement over the shade of blue used in the flag. The current version with the darker shade of blue was introduced in 2006, before a lighter shade was used.

The flag is similar to that of the Austrian state of Lower Austria, the German city of Chemnitz, historical Kingdom of Dalmatia (now Croatia) and the Hungarian city of Pécs, but all of those flags have a darker shade of blue. The flag is also somewhat similar to that of the Malaysian state of Perlis and the English county of Durham (without the cross), but has a reversed colour arrangement, lighter shades of blue and yellow, and a different aspect ratio.

Protocol and use

Article 20 of the Constitution of Ukraine states that "the State Flag of Ukraine is a banner of two equally sized horizontal bands of blue and yellow colour." ().

In addition to the normal horizontal format, many public buildings, such as the Verkhovna Rada, use vertical flags. Most town halls fly their town flag together with the national flag in this way; some town flags in Ukraine exist only in vertical form. The proportions of these vertical flags are not specified. When hung like a banner or draped, the blue band should be on the left. When flown from a vertical flagpole, the blue band must face the mast.

The flag did not appear on Ukrainian postal stamp issues until 1992, when they depicted the flag with the state coat of arms. Since then, the flag has frequently appeared on stamps. Cinderella stamps of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists were printed outside Ukraine during the Soviet period for patriotic purposes.

Decoration
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with a golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag, as long as it does not deface the flag proper. The tradition began with the flag of the Ukrainian SSR. In addition, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia shows a flag decorated with a gold star. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use a fringe to enhance the allure of the flag. No specific law governs the use of the fringe. Traditionally, the Army, Guard, Navy and Air Force use a fringed flag for parades, colour guards and indoor displays, while the Office of the President and local authorities use a fringed flag on all occasions.

Places of continuous display
Ukrainian flags are customarily displayed continuously in certain locations.
 Maidan Nezalezhnosti, main square of Kyiv, traditional site for political rallies, including large-scale radical protest campaigns (Orange Revolution and Euromaidan)
 Presidential Administration Building, Verkhovna Rada building and Budynok Uryadu
 Kyiv City Council
 Lviv High Castle
 Vernadsky Research Base
 State Border Guard Service of Ukraine sites
 National, regional and local government buildings
 Ukrainian embassies and consulates

Particular days for display
In particular, the flag should be displayed at full staff on the following days:
 1 January: New Year's Day
 7 January: Christmas (Julian)
 22 January: Ukrainian Unity and Freedom Day
 8 March: International Women's Day
 1 & 2 May: International Workers' Day
 9 May: Victory Day over Nazism
 28 June: Constitution Day
 23 August: Flag Day
 24 August: Independence Day
 13 October: Defenders of Ukraine Day
 21 November: Day of Dignity and Freedom
 6 December: Armed Forces Day
 25 December: Christmas (Gregorian/Neo-Julian)

Display at half-staff
The flag is displayed at half-staff (or half-mast) as a sign of respect or mourning. When done nationwide, such a step is proclaimed by the president. Half-mast means flying a flag two-thirds of the way up a flagpole; the top of the flag must be at least a flag's height from the top of the flagpole. Black ribbons indicate mourning on banners that can not be lowered to half-mast.
 4th Saturday of November: Holodomor Memorial Day
 Other historical cases: mass victims of accidents, Russo-Ukrainian War and Euromaidan; death and state funeral of Lech and Maria Kaczyński, funeral of Pope John Paul II and 11 September attacks.

Flag Day

The Day of the National Flag in Ukraine is celebrated on 23 August; it began in 2004. Previously, 24 July was National Flag Day in Kyiv. The first ceremonial raising of the yellow-and-blue Ukrainian flag in modern times took place on 24 July 1990, at the flagstaff of the Kyiv City Council, two years before the flag was officially adopted as the National flag. Since 1992, the Independence Day of Ukraine has been celebrated on 24 August. Following a government decree, the flag must be flown from public buildings on this date and certain other holidays; not all are public holidays. Flags must also be flown on parliamentary election days and regional-specific flag days. The public display of flags to mark other events, such as the election of the president or the death of a prominent politician (whereupon flags are flown at half-mast), can be declared at the discretion of the Cabinet of Ministers. When flags are flown at half-mast, vertical flags are not lowered. A black mourning ribbon is instead attached, either atop the mast if hung from a pole, or to each end of the flag's supporting cross-beams if flown like a banner.

History

The roots of Ukrainian national symbols come from pre-Christian times when yellow and blue prevailed in traditional ceremonies, reflecting fire and water. During the battle of Grunwald in 1410 two Polish banners of Lwów and Przemyśl Lands used flags with yellow and blue colours.

Blue-yellow, red-black, crimson-olive and especially raspberry colour banners were widely used by Cossacks between the 16th and 18th centuries. These were not the only possible combinations, since normally Cossacks would fly their hetman's banners, which were similar to the coats of arms of the nobility. Also, yellow and blue were the colours common on coats of arms in Galicia. In fact, the coat of arms of Lviv to this day remains a golden lion on a blue field.

Some put the starting point of the adoption of the current national flag of Ukraine to 1848 when, during the Spring of the Nations on 22 April 1848, a blue-and-yellow banner was adopted by the Supreme Ruthenian Council in Lemberg (Lviv), the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and flew over the city's magistrate for the first time. Although this move did not have significant consequences, the newly formed Ukrainian divisions in the Austrian army used blue-and-yellow banners in their insignia.

During the Russian Revolution of 1905, this flag was used by Ukrainians of the Dnieper Ukraine.

Early independence: 1917–1921

Both blue-yellow and yellow-blue flags were widely used during the Ukrainian struggle for independence in 1917. For the first time in the history of the Russian Empire, the blue-yellow flag was flown on 25 March 1917 in Petrograd during a 20,000-strong mass demonstration. On the territory of Ukraine the national flag was flown for the first time in Kyiv on 29 March 1917 by soldiers. On 1 April 1917, Kyiv saw a 100,000-strong demonstration where over 320 national flags were flown. Afterwards, similar demonstrations with Ukrainian flags took place across the entire Russian Empire, even beyond ethnic Ukrainian lands. Numerous famous Ukrainian politicians wrote about the 1 April demonstration, including Mykhailo Hrushevsky and Serhiy Yefremov, noting that there were blue-and-yellow flags, while Dmytro Doroshenko claimed that they were yellow and blue. The blue-yellow flag was flown at the First Ukrainian Military Congress on 18 May 1917.

The official flag established by the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1918 was blue-yellow. Instead, they refer to the decision on the Fleet Flag, which was to be light blue–yellow, as an indication that the official flag was light blue–yellow. Also adopted were several other service flags of the Ukrainian People's Republic.

The official flag of Pavlo Skoropadsky's Hetmanate was also light blue-yellow and remained the same under the Directorate of Symon Petlura. The flag of the West Ukrainian People's Republic was blue-yellow. The stateless Makhnovshchina, which existed during the Ukrainian War of Independence, used the black flag.

Among Ukrainian immigrant organisations, there were proponents of both blue-yellow and yellow-blue flags. Eventually, an agreement was reached to use the blue-yellow flag until the issue could be resolved by an independent Ukraine.

Soviet Ukraine: 1922–1991

During Soviet rule, the Ukrainian flag was banned, and anyone displaying it could be criminally prosecuted for "anti-Soviet propaganda". The first flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was adopted on 10 March 1919, to serve as the symbol of state of Soviet Ukraine. Details of the official flag changed periodically before the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, but all were based on the red flag of the October Revolution in Russia and an exact replica of the flags of the neighbouring Russian SFSR.
The first flag was red with the gold Cyrillic sans-serif letters  (U.S.S.R., acronym for  in the Russian language). In the 1930s, a gold border was added to the flag. In 1937, a new flag was adopted, with a small gold hammer and sickle added above the gold Cyrillic serif  (U.R.S.R., for  in the Ukrainian language).

Interbellum and Reichskommissariat Ukraine
The Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists is a Ukrainian political organisation which as a movement was originally created in 1929 in Western Ukraine (interwar Poland at the time). For a long time, the OUN did not officially have its own flag; however, during the Hungarian and Polish aggression against the Republic of Carpathian Ukraine in 1939, Carpathian Sich, a militarised wing of the OUN, adopted as its flag a design taken from the OUN's emblem – a golden nationalistic trident on a blue background. The flag was finalised and only officially adopted by the organisation in 1964 at the 5th Assembly of Ukrainian Nationalists.

The Ukrainian Insurgent Army was a Ukrainian nationalist paramilitary and later partisan army that engaged in a series of guerrilla conflicts during World War II against Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and both underground and communist Poland. The group was the military wing of the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists — Bandera faction (the OUN-B), originally formed in Volyn in the spring and summer of 1943. Its official date of creation is 14 October 1942. The battle flag of the UPA was a 2:3 ratio red-and-black banner. The flag continues to be a symbol of the Ukrainian nationalist movement. The colours of the flag symbolise 'Ukrainian red blood spilled on Ukrainian black earth'.

In 1949, the flag of the Soviet Ukraine was changed once again. The Soviet Union managed to obtain two additional seats in the United Nations by adding Ukraine and Byelorussia as member states. The flag change came about because all the Soviet flags were the same. The new Ukrainian flag consisted of red (top, 2/3) and azure (bottom, 1/3) stripes, with the golden star, hammer and sickle in the top left corner. Communist party leaders such as Nikita Khrushchev and Lazar Kaganovich feared using words like 'light blue' and 'blue' in the official flag colors, as they were the terms used by the Ukrainian diaspora.

During the Soviet period, multiple unsanctioned attempts to hoist the national blue-and-yellow flag were made. In 1958, an underground group was established in the village of Verbytsia, Khodoriv Raion; its members raised national flags and spread anti-Soviet pamphlets under cover of darkness.

Return of the national flag

Under the influence of Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost, individual Soviet republics gained a strengthened sense of national identity, leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. This was particularly true for the three Baltic states and Western Ukraine, which were the last territories annexed into Soviet Union. The national awakening was accompanied by attempts to restore historical national symbols. In 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR re-established Lithuania's national flag and coat of arms as the state symbol. The parliaments of Latvia and Estonia soon followed suit.

The events in the Baltic countries soon led to similar patterns in Ukraine. In particular, West Ukraine and the Ukrainian SSR's capital city of Kyiv were the scenes of near-constant political demonstrations, in which yellow-and-blue flags were waved by demonstrators.
 On 14 March 1990, the Ukrainian flag was raised for the first time since the establishment of the Soviet Union in the small city of Stryi.
 On 20 March 1990, the Ternopil town council voted on the use and re-establishment of the yellow-and-blue flag and the tryzub and Shche ne vmerla Ukrainy national anthem. The same day, the yellow-and-blue national flag was flown for the first time in 80 years on a governmental building in Kyiv, replacing the then-official red-azure flag of the Ukrainian SSR.
 On 28 April 1990, the Lviv oblast council (oblasna rada) also allowed the use of the national symbols of Ukraine within the Oblast.
 On 29 April 1990, the yellow-and-blue flag was flown from the Ternopil city theatre's flagstaff without the flag of the Soviet Union hanging above it.
 After 24 July 1990, the yellow-and-blue flag was flown for the first time over an official governmental building, the Kyiv City Council, on Maidan Nezalezhnosti Square of Khreshchatyk Street.
 After the declaration of independence of Ukraine on 24 August 1991, the national yellow-and-blue flag flew for the first time over the Ukrainian Parliament (Verkhovna Rada) building on 4 September 1991.

The blue and yellow flag was provisionally adopted for official ceremonies in August 1991 following Ukrainian independence, before officially being restored on 28 January 1992 by the Parliament of Ukraine. At the beginning of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, landmarks all over the world were lit up with the colours of the Ukrainian flag, while numerous cities raised the Ukrainian flag in solidarity. Kastuś Kalinoŭski Regiment, an independent Belarusian volunteer regiment, also adopted the colours of the Ukrainian flag in its insignia.

Controversies and criticism

Origin
One claimed version is that, since one of the first known coloured depictions of the coat of arms of Kyiv was mainly in yellow-blue colours, this tradition may have existed since the time of the Nordic-Slavic Grand Prince of Kyiv Volodymyr the Great. However, the blue-yellow colouring dates back to Kievan Rus', as an early version of the Tryzub, Ukraine's national coat of arms, sported the same colouring as the seal of Sviatoslav I of Kyiv (c. AD 945). During the 1709 Battle of Poltava, the Cossacks following Mazepa fought under yellow-blue banners, while their Swedish allies were under yellow ones. Some Cossacks and noblemen had coats of arms in yellow and blue.

Yellow-blue versus blue-yellow
Ukrainians commonly refer to the flag as "yellow and light blue" (, zhovto-blakytnyy)—a different version of the flag used during UNR (Ukrainian National Republic) years (1917–1921) with yellow on the top and blue on the bottom. The yellow on the top allegedly represents golden domes (cupolas) of Christian churches and the blue the Dnieper river.

The head of the Ukrainian Heraldry Society, Andriy Grechylo, points to the fact that the discussion about order of colours was taking place as far back as 1918. Nonetheless, both governments of the Ukrainian People's Republic as well as the Ukrainian State defined that the upper half would be light-blue, while the lower would be yellow. During 1918 it was taken into consideration that light blue would lose its shade under sun, therefore it was decided to make the colour darker.

Already in the 1918 draft of the Constitution of the Ukrainian People's Republic, the order of colours was defined as blue and yellow. The same order could be found in legislative acts of the West Ukrainian People's Republic for November 1918 and the Republic of Carpathian Ukraine on 15 March 1939. The argument on the order of colours was taking place in the Ukrainian diaspora as well. In 1949 it was decided that, until Ukraine defined a single state flag, the diaspora would use the blue-and-yellow banner.

Attempts to revive Soviet flags
On 21 April 2011, the Verkhovna Rada passed a law allowing the Victory Banner to be raised on Victory Day. The current Victory Banner was adopted in Russia in 2007. On 20 May 2011, the law was signed by the President of Ukraine Viktor Yanukovych. On 17 June 2011, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine recognised the law as unconstitutional and proposed that the parliament implement required amendments to the Constitution of Ukraine.

On 9 April 2015, the Ukrainian parliament passed legislation on decommunization, banning the promotion of symbols of "Communist and National Socialist totalitarian regimes". Since then, Soviet symbols, like the Victory Banner, have only been allowed in cemeteries.

Although the Soviet flags remained illegal in Ukraine, they have been flown in territories outside of the government's control after Russia invaded the country in 2022 and occupied parts of it.

Flag of the head of state
Throughout the history of Ukraine, various heads of state have used different flags. The designs differ according to the historical era they were used in and in accordance with the political scene in Ukraine at the time. The first flag to be used by a head of state of Ukraine was that of Pavlo Skoropadskyi. A standard for the President of the Ukrainian People's Republic in exile appeared around 1930. The current design, the flag of the president of Ukraine, was adopted in 1999. In 2022, the president of Ukraine used a variant where the left side of the blue upper-half contains the yellow Tryzub.

Military flags

Historical

Gallery

See also

 List of Ukrainian flags
 Flags of the regions of Ukraine
 Coat of arms of Ukraine
 National colours of Ukraine

References

External links

 DSTU 4512:2006 Technical specifications from DSTU (Ukrainian national standards body) regarding flag of Ukraine, in Ukrainian. 1 September 2006.
 Ukraine – Vexillographia
 Armed Forces Flag in Ukraine
 Departmantal Flag and Emblem in Ukraine
 Brief history of the flag  at the Science Library of Franko National University (Lviv).
 "About Ukrainian flag". Statement of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of Ukraine. 18 September 1991.
 "About the State Flag of Ukraine". State of the Supreme Council of Ukraine. 28 January 1992.

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