Les élections législatives françaises de 2022 se déroulent les  et . Dans la Manche, quatre députés sont à élire dans le cadre de quatre circonscriptions.

Contexte

Élections législatives de 2017

Les élections législatives de 2017 voient La République en marche remporter trois des quatre sièges à pourvoir dans le département avec un score de 55.21 % des voix au second tour, Les Républicains, avec 34.28 % des voix, perdent un de leurs deux sièges, tandis que le Parti socialiste avec 4.12 % des voix perd l'intégralité de ses sièges dans le département.

Élection présidentielle de 2022

Section de Pont-Farcy
Pourtant intégré à la commune nouvelle de Tessy-Bocage depuis 2018, le bureau de vote de Pont-Farcy sera encore rattaché à la Sixième circonscription du Calvados ; en effet, même si les limites départementales Manche/Calvados ont bien été changées par décret, il n'y a pas eu de décret pour modifier la définition des limites des circonscriptions régie par l'ordonnance  du 29 juillet 2009.

Système électoral
Les élections législatives ont lieu au scrutin uninominal majoritaire à deux tours dans des circonscriptions uninominales.

Est élu au premier tour le candidat qui réunit la majorité absolue des suffrages exprimés et un nombre de voix au moins égal au quart (25 %) des électeurs inscrits dans la circonscription. Si aucun des candidats ne satisfait ces conditions, un second tour est organisé entre les candidats ayant réuni un nombre de voix au moins égal à un huitième des inscrits (12,5 %) ; les deux candidats arrivés en tête du premier tour se maintiennent néanmoins par défaut si un seul ou aucun d'entre eux n'a atteint ce seuil. Au second tour, le candidat arrivé en tête est déclaré élu.

Le seuil de qualification basé sur un pourcentage du total des inscrits et non des suffrages exprimés rend plus difficile l'accès au second tour lorsque l'abstention est élevé. Le système permet en revanche l'accès au second tour de plus de deux candidats si plusieurs d'entre eux franchissent le seuil de 12,5 % des inscrits. Les candidats en lice au second tour peuvent ainsi être trois, un cas de figure appelé . Les second tours où s'affrontent quatre candidats, appelés  sont également possibles, mais beaucoup plus rares.

Partis et nuances
Les résultats des élections sont publiés en France par le ministère de l'Intérieur, qui classe les partis en leur attribuant des nuances politiques. Ces dernières sont décidées par les préfets, qui les attribuent indifféremment de l'étiquette politique déclarée par les candidats, qui peut être celle d'un parti ou une candidature sans étiquette.

En 2022, seules les coalitions Ensemble (ENS) et Nouvelle Union populaire écologique et sociale (NUP), ainsi que le Parti radical de gauche (RDG), l'Union des démocrates et indépendants (UDI), Les Républicains (LR), le Rassemblement national (RN) et Reconquête (REC) se voient attribuer  une nuance propre.

Tous les autres partis se voient attribuer l'une ou l'autre des nuances suivantes : DXG (divers extrême gauche), DVG (divers gauche), ECO (écologiste), REG (régionaliste), DVC (divers centre), DVD (divers droite), DSV (droite souverainiste) et DXD (divers extrême droite). Des partis comme Debout la France ou Lutte ouvrière ne disposent ainsi pas de nuance propre, et leurs résultats nationaux ne sont pas publiés séparément par le ministère, car mélangés avec d'autres partis (respectivement dans les nuances DSV et DXG).

Résultats

Élus

Résultats à l'échelle du département

Résultats par coalition

Résultats par nuance

Cartes

Résultats par circonscription

Première circonscription

Député sortant : Philippe Gosselin (Les Républicains).

Deuxième circonscription

Député sortant : Bertrand Sorre (La République en marche).

Troisième circonscription

Député sortant : Stéphane Travert (La République en marche - Territoire de progrès).

Quatrième circonscription

Député sortant : Sonia Krimi (La République en marche).

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Articles connexes
 Liste des circonscriptions législatives de la Manche
 Liste des députés de la Manche
 Élections législatives françaises de 2022

Manche
Legislatives, 2022

Élections législatives de 2022 dans la Manche


එස් ඇන්ඩ් පී ග්ලෝබල් රේටින්ග්ස් () ඇමරිකානු ණය ශ්‍රේණිගත කිරීමේ ආයතනයකි (CRA). මෙම සමාගම පෙරදී ස්ටෑන්ඩර්ඩ් ඇන්ඩ් පුවර්ස් () ලෙස හැඳින්වූ අතර අවිධිමත් ලෙස එස් ඇන්ඩ් පී () ලෙස හැඳින්වෙයි. එස් ඇන්ඩ් පී, මූඩීස් ඉන්වෙස්ටර් සර්විස් සහ ෆිච් රේටින්ග්ස් ඇතුළු ණය ශ්‍රේණිගත කිරීමේ ආයතනය වල බිග් ත්‍රී හි විශාලතම ආයතනය ලෙස සැලකෙයි. මෙහි මූලස්ථානය 55 වෝටර් ස්ට්‍රීට්, ලෝවර් මෑන්හැටන්, නිව් යෝක් නුවර යන ලිපිනයෙහි පිහිටා ඇත.

ඉතිහාසය

මෙම සමාගමේ ඉතිහාසය 1860 වසර දක්වා දිවයයි.

ආශ්‍රිත

 Global Industry Classification Standard
 List of countries by credit rating

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි

 එස් ඇන්ඩ් පී ග්ලෝබල් රේටින්ග්ස්
 එස් ඇන්ඩ් පී ඉතිහාසය

American companies established in 1941
Business duos
Financial services companies established in 1941
ණය ශ්‍රේණිගත කිරීමේ ආයතන
Financial services companies based in New York City
Financial data vendors
1941 establishments in New York City
1966 mergers and acquisitions

ස්ටෑන්ඩර්ඩ් ඇන්ඩ් පුවර්ස්


USS Pittsburgh (CA-72), originally named USS Albany (CA-72), was a  heavy cruiser of the US Navy and the third ship to bear the name.  She was laid down on the 3 February 1943 by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation's Fore River Shipyard at Quincy, Massachusetts, launched on 22 February 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Cornelius D. Scully, wife of the Mayor of Pittsburgh and commissioned in Boston, Massachusetts on 10 October 1944, with Capt. John Edward Gingrich in command.

Service history

World War II, 1944–1945
Pittsburgh worked up along the east coast and in the Caribbean before departing from Boston, Massachusetts on 13 January 1945 for duty in the Pacific theatre of operations. After calling at Panama and final gunnery exercises around the Hawaiian Islands, she was assigned to Fast Carrier Task Force 58 (TF 58), built around the aircraft carrier , at Ulithi on 13 February.

Iwo Jima
The force sailed on 10 February for the assault on Iwo Jima, conducting carrier airstrikes against airfields near Tokyo on 16 and 17 February which restricted the Japanese air response to the initial landings on 19 February. Further strikes against Tokyo on 25 February and Ryukyu Islands on 1 March complemented these actions.

The task force sailed from Ulithi on 14 March to shell airfields and other military installations on Kyūshū on 18 and 19 of March.  The next day, a Japanese aircraft hit the aircraft carrier  with two 250 kg bombs, setting the fueled and armed aircraft on her flight deck on fire, and she lost all power. Pittsburgh came alongside and rescued 34 men from the water and with the light cruisers ,  and  managed to get a tow line on board the carrier to begin the task of towing the carrier. The cruiser continued her effort until midday on 20 March when Franklin was able to cast off the tow and proceed under her own power. Capt. Gingrich remained on the bridge for 48 hours during this time.

Okinawa
Between 23 March and 27 April, Pittsburgh guarded the carriers as they first prepared, covered and supported the invasion of Okinawa. Enemy airfields were interdicted, and the troops given close air support by the carriers. Pittsburgh helped repel enemy air attacks and launched her scout planes to rescue downed pilots. After replenishing at Ulithi, the force sailed on 8 May to attack the Ryukyu Islands and Southern Japan.

Damaged by a typhoon

On 4 June, Pittsburgh was caught in Typhoon Viper which increased to  winds and  waves. Her starboard scout plane was lifted off its catapult and dashed onto the deck by the wind, then shortly after her second deck buckled. Her bow was thrust upward, then sheared off, but there were no casualties. Still fighting the storm, and maneuvering to avoid being hit by her drifting bow structure, Pittsburgh was held quarter-on to the seas by her engine power while the forward bulkhead was shored. After a seven-hour battle, the storm subsided, and Pittsburgh proceeded at  to Guam, arriving on 10 June. Her bow, nicknamed "McKeesport" (a suburb of Pittsburgh), was later salvaged by the tugboat  and brought into Guam. The 104-foot section of bow broke off owing to poor plate welds at the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Co. at the Fore River Shipyard, Quincy, Massachusetts.  The typhoon damage also earned her the nickname "Longest Ship in the World" as thousands of miles separated the bow and stern.

With a false bow, Pittsburgh left Guam on 24 June for Puget Sound Navy Yard, arriving 16 July. Still under repair at war's end, she was placed in reserve on 12 March 1946 and decommissioned on 7 March 1947.

Atlantic and Mediterranean, 1951–1954

As the Korean War called for a major restoration of US naval strength, Pittsburgh was recommissioned on 25 September 1951, with Capt. Preston V. Mercer in command. She sailed on 20 October for the Panama Canal, worked up out of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and prepared at Norfolk, Virginia for a tour of duty with the 6th Fleet sailing on 11 February 1952. Returning on 20 May, she joined in the Atlantic Fleet's schedule of exercises and special operations in the western Atlantic and Caribbean. At this time her captain was P D Gallery.

During her second Mediterranean tour of duty, sailing on 1 December, she flew the flag of Vice Admiral Jerauld Wright, Commander in Chief, Naval Forces Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, for a good-will cruise to the Indian Ocean in January 1953. She returned to Norfolk in May for a major modernization overhaul, before rejoined the 6th Fleet at Gibraltar on 19 January 1954. Once again she carried Admiral Wright to ports of the Indian Ocean, returning to Norfolk on 26 May. During the summer of 1954, she engaged in further operations along the eastern seaboard and in the Caribbean. On 29 July 1954, Pittsburgh collided with another ship while sailing in the Saint Lawrence River. Damage to the hull was above the waterline and the holes were repaired.

Pacific, 1954–1956
On 21 October 1954, she passed through the Panama Canal to join the Pacific Fleet, with Long Beach as her home port. She sailed for the Far East, calling at Pearl Harbor on 13 November and reaching Yokosuka on 26 November. She joined the 7th Fleet helping to cover the Chinese Nationalist defense of the Dachen Islands and evacuation of civilians and non-essential military personnel. Leaving Japan on 16 February 1955, she resumed course for the west coast before reporting to Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 28 October to be deactivated.

Decommissioning and sale, 1956–1974

Pittsburgh went into reserve on 28 April 1956, and was decommissioned at Bremerton on 28 August 1956. The ship remained there until stricken on 1 July 1973 and sold for scrap on 1 August 1974, to the Zidell Explorations Corp., Portland, Oregon.
An anchor from USS Pittsburgh is on display in front of the Children's Museum at Allegheny Center in Pittsburgh, and the ship's bell is on display in front of Pittsburgh's Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall and Museum.

Awards
Pittsburgh received two battle stars for World War II service.

References

External links

 Pittsburgh Tribune-Review article

Baltimore-class cruisers
World War II cruisers of the United States
Korean War cruisers of the United States
Cold War cruisers of the United States
Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
1944 ships

USS Pittsburgh (CA-72)


Dobbs Ferry station is a commuter rail stop on the Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line, located in Dobbs Ferry, New York.

History

Dobbs Ferry station opened on September 29, 1849 with its origins as part of the Hudson River Railroad. The current station house, which was built in 1889 by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, became a Penn Central station upon the merger between NYC and Pennsylvania Railroad in 1968 like many NYCRR stations in Westchester County, until it was taken over by Conrail in 1976, and then by Metro-North Railroad in 1983. It was restored between 2006 and 2008 by Metro-North. The station house is now a local bar and grille.

Station layout
The station has two slightly offset high-level side platforms–each eight cars long. The two inner tracks not next to either platform are used by express trains, one of which does not include a third rail.

References

External links

Dobbs Ferry Metro-North Station (TheSubwayNut)
 Station House from Google Maps Street View
 North entrance from Google Maps Street View

Metro-North Railroad stations in New York (state)
Former New York Central Railroad stations
Railway stations in Westchester County, New York
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1849
1849 establishments in New York (state)

Dobbs Ferry station


NGC 316 este o stea situată în constelația Peștii. A fost descoperită în 29 noiembrie 1850 de către Bindon Stoney.

Note

Vezi și
 NGC 315
 NGC 317

Legături externe
 NGC 316 pe spider.seds.org
 NGC 316 pe WikiSky

Stele
Constelația Peștii
Obiecte NGC
Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1850
Obiecte astronomice descoperite de  Bindon Stoney

NGC 316


Colegiul Național "Coriolan Brediceanu", inițial Liceul Romano-Catolic din Lugoj, este o unitate de învățământ preuniversitar din județul Timiș.

Istoric
În data de 7 mai 1718 au sosit la Lugoj primii călugări franciscani minoriți, cu misiunea a de ridica o biserică și o școală romano-catolică. Primii călugări au locuit într-o casă aflată pe locul actualului liceu.

În anul 1837 călugării minoriți au primit aprobarea de a înființa un liceu. Între anii 1885-1896 liceul s-a mutat în clădirea actuală, construită pe locul primei reședințe a franciscanilor minoriți. În anul 1919 liceul catolic a fost transformat în liceu românesc de stat.

Elevi
Károly Maderspach (1791-1849), inginer
Traian Vuia (1872-1950), inginer
Franz Kräuter (1885-1969), pedagog, deputat, deținut politic
Pius Brânzeu (1911-2002), medic chirurg, membru al Academiei Române
Nicolae Breban (n. 1934), scriitor
Daniel Ciobotea (n. 1951), patriarh al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române

Note

Vezi și
Biserica Minoriților din Lugoj
Liceul "Dragoș Vodă" din Sighetu Marmației

Colegiul Brediceanu
Școli din județul Timiș
Dieceza de Timișoara
Fondări în 1837

Colegiul Național „Coriolan Brediceanu” din Lugoj


Krešimir Georgijević (Nova Gradiška, 5. siječnja 1907. – Beograd, 14. listopada 1975.), hrvatski književni povjesničar i prevoditelj.

Životopis
Rođen u Novoj Gradišci. Diplomirao je u Zagrebu na Filozofskom fakultetu. U Pragu je doktorirao disertacijom Adam Mickiewicz i srpskohrvatska narodna pjesma. Bavio se poviješću starije i novije hrvatske književnosti. Namještenje je dobio u Beogradu gdje je postao redoviti profesor hrvatske književnosti na Filozofskom fakultetu. Prevodio je s češkoga, slovačkog i poljskog jezika.

Djela
Važnija djela:
 Novija hrvatska komedija (1934.), autor
 Savremene poljske pripovetke, urednik antologije i predgovora (1935.)
 Čapekova knjiga, urednik antologije i predgovora (1939.)
 Antologija savremenih hrvatskih pripovedača, urednik antologije i predgovora (1940.)
 Hrvatska književnost od XVI do XVIII stoljeća u sjevernoj Hrvatskoj i Bosni (1969.)

Izvori

Nova Gradiška
Književnici iz Beograda
Hrvatski književni povjesničari
Hrvatski prevoditelji

Krešimir Georgijević


The Condor Legion () was a unit of military personnel from the air force and army of Nazi Germany, which served with the Nationalist faction during the Spanish Civil War. The Condor Legion developed methods of strategic bombing that were used widely during the Second World War. The bombing of Guernica was the most infamous operation by the Condor Legion. Hugo Sperrle commanded the unit's aircraft formations and Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma commanded the ground element.

History of military aid to Spain

After the military coup in Spain on 17 July 1936 launched the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalists requested the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The first request for German aircraft was made on 22 July, with an order for 10 transport aircraft. German Führer Adolf Hitler decided to support the Nationalists on 25 or 26 July, but was wary of provoking a wider European war. The Reich Air Travel Ministry concluded that Nationalist forces would need at least 20 Junkers Ju 52s, flown by Luft Hansa pilots, to carry the Spanish Army of Africa from Spanish Morocco to Spain. This mission became known as Operation Magic Fire (). To carry out this mission, a joint venture was created between the Spanish-German "Spanish-Moroccan Transport Company" (, HISMA) and the German Raw Materials and Good Purchasing Company (). The German involvement was kept hidden from the foreign and the economic ministries and funded with three million Reichsmarks.

The organisation and the recruitment of German volunteers was also kept secret.
The first contingent of 86 men left Germany on 1 August 1936. Unaware of their destination, they were accompanied by six biplane fighters, anti-aircraft guns and about 100 tons of other supplies. Many believed that the German troops' role would be to train the Nationalists and not to engage in active combat.

The volunteers were stationed at Tablada Airfield near Seville, and, with the support of German Air transport, began the airlift of Francisco Franco's troops to Spain. Germany's involvement grew in September to encompass the Wehrmacht's other branches. Operation Magic Fire was renamed Operation Guido in November. The Kriegsmarine provided submarines in 24 October and also provided various surface ships and co-ordinated movement of German supplies to Spain. German U-boats were dispatched to Spanish waters under the codename Ursula.

In the two weeks after 27 July, German transport moved nearly 2,500 troops of the Army of Africa to Spain. By 11 October, the mission's official end, 13,500 troops, 127 machine guns and 36 field guns had been transported to mainland Spain from Morocco. Over that period, there was a movement from training- and supply-missions to overt combat. The operation commander, Alexander von Scheele, was replaced by Walter Warlimont. In September, 86 tons of bombs, 40 Panzer I tanks and 122 personnel had been deployed in Spain. They were accompanied by 108 aircraft from July to October, divided between aircraft for the Nationalist faction itself and planes for German volunteers in Spain.

German air-crews supported the August-to-October 1936 Nationalist advance on Madrid, and the successful relief of the Siege of the Alcázar on 27 September 1936. Ultimately, the initial phase of the Siege of Madrid proved unsuccessful. Soviet air support for the Republicans was growing, particularly through the supply of Polikarpov aircraft. Warlimont appealed to Germany to step up support. After Berlin's recognition of Franco's government on 30 September, German efforts in Spain were reorganised and expanded. The existing command structure was replaced with the Winterübung Rügen,
and the military units already in Spain were formed into a new legion, which was briefly called the "Iron Rations" () and the "Iron Legion" () before Hermann Göring renamed it the "Condor Legion" (). The first German chargé d'affaires to Franco's government, General Wilhelm Faupel, arrived in November, but was told not to interfere in military matters.

Motivation
In the years after the Spanish Civil War, Hitler gave several possible motives for German involvement. These included: providing distraction from German rearmament; preventing the spread of communism to Western Europe; creating a state friendly to Germany in order to disrupt Britain and France; and opening up possibilities for economic expansion. Although the Nationalist offensive on Madrid was abandoned in March 1937, a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas was supported by the Condor Legion. Despite prolonging the Civil War, it would help to distract the other western powers from Hitler's ambitions in Central Europe. Furthermore, the offensive on Vizcaya, a mining and industrial centre, would help fuel German industry. In a speech at Würzburg on 27 June 1937, Hitler declared that he supported Franco in order to gain control of Spanish ore.

Discussions over German objectives for intervention occurred in January 1937. Germany was keen to avoid prompting a wider European war, which was a risk if it committed further resources to Spain. There was no consensus among German officials: Ernst von Weizsäcker of the German Foreign Office suggested that it was merely a matter of graceful withdrawal, and Göring stated that Germany would never recognise a "red Spain". A joint Italian–German agreement stated that the last shipments would be made no later than early February.

It has been speculated that Hitler used the Spanish Civil War issue to distract Benito Mussolini from Hitler's own plans to annex Austria. The authoritarian, Catholic and anti-Nazi Vaterländische Front ran the government of Austria from 1933 to 1938 and had been allied with Mussolini. In 1934, the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss had already given rise to Italian military assistance to prevent a German invasion.

A communiqué in December 1936 from Ulrich von Hassell, the German ambassador in Rome, made another point — that Italy's involvement in the Spanish Civil War kept it firmly out of the camp of Western powers:
The role played by the Spanish conflict as regards Italy's relations with France and England could be similar to that of the Abyssinian conflict, bringing out clearly the actual, opposing interests of the powers and thus preventing Italy from being drawn into the net of the Western powers and used for their machinations.... All the more clearly will Italy recognize the advisability of confronting the Western powers shoulder to shoulder with Germany.

Military operations
The Condor Legion originally consisted of the , with three squadrons of Ju 52 bombers, and the Jagdgruppe 88, with three squadrons of Heinkel He 51 fighters; the reconnaissance Aufklärungsgruppe 88, supplemented by the Aufklärungsgruppe See 88, an anti-aircraft group, the Flakabteilung 88; and a signals group, the Nachrichtenabteilung 88. The anti-aircraft guns used by Flakabteilung 88 were the standard German anti-aircraft guns of the time: the 8.8cm Flak 18, 3.7cm Flak 18 and 2cm Flak 30. Overall command was given to Hugo Sperrle, with Alexander Holle as chief of staff. Scheele was transferred to become a military attaché in Salamanca. Also operational were two armoured units under the command of Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma, with four Panzer I tanks each.

The Nationalists were supported by German and Italian units and material at the Battle of Madrid. However, the military situation in Madrid remained poor for the Nationalists. Under orders from Franco, both German and Italian aircraft began bombing raids on the city as a whole. The Germans were keen to observe the effects on a city of bombings and deliberate burning of civilian sites. Offensives involving German aircraft, as well as the bombings, were unsuccessful. Growing Republican air superiority became increasingly apparent, particularly the strength of the Soviet Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 aircraft, but the historian Hugh Thomas described their armaments as "primitive".

In November and December, Faupel advocated the creation of a single German unit of 15,000 to 30,000 men, which he believed would be enough to turn the tide of the war toward the Nationalists. Hans-Heinrich Dieckhoff argued that this would be insufficient and that larger measures could provoke the wrath of the Spanish. Between late 1936 and early 1937, new aircraft were sent to the Condor Legion, including Henschel Hs 123 dive bombers, and prototypes of the Heinkel He 112 and Messerschmitt Bf 109, with the latter proving the most successful. The Heinkel He 111 was added to the bomber fleet, along with the Dornier Do 17 (E and F types). Older aircraft were passed onto the Nationalists. By the end of 1936, approximately 7,000 Condor Legion personnel were in Spain.

German forces also operated in the Battle of Jarama, which began with a Nationalist offensive on 6 February 1937. It included German-supplied ground forces, including two batteries of machine guns, a tank division, and the Condor Legion's anti-aircraft guns. Bombing by both Republican and Nationalist aircraft, including Ju 52s from the Legion, created a stalemate. It showed up the inadequacy of the Legion's aircraft when faced with superior Soviet-made fighters. Von Thoma requested Irish nationalist support for a tank advance at one point, never to be replicated. The use of He 51 and Ju 52s and the Legion's anti-aircraft guns used in ground roles only partly mitigated the significant defeat for the Nationalists at the Battle of Guadalajara in March. A joint Italian-German general staff had been set up in January 1937 to advise Franco on war planning. The defeat of a significant Italian force and the growing Soviet superiority in tanks and aircraft led the Germans to support a plan to abandon the offensive on Madrid and instead to concentrate a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas.

Some concluded from these experiences that motorised troops had proved less effective than had first been thought. Furthermore, the inadequacy of the Italians as a fighting force had become apparent to the Germans.

Vizcaya campaign
The isolated area of Vizcaya, a predominantly-Basque region of northern Spain, was the most immediate target in what was called the War in the North. It was largely a Nationalist and Italian offensive, but it was supported by a consistently re-equipping Condor Legion. The terrain was favourable, with the planes coming over a range of mountains to the south, which masked their entrance. Sperrle remained in Salamanca, and Wolfram von Richthofen replaced Holle in January as deputy and was in actual command. Since the Basque air force was very limited, fighter aircraft were even used in ground-attack roles (as opposed to, for example, air-to-air combat). The Legion's air force initially attacked the towns of Ochandiano and Durango. Durango had no anti-aircraft defence and only a few other defences. According to the Basques, 250 civilians died there on the 31 March, including the priest, nuns and the congregation of a church ceremony. The Germans, with their air raids, were hated. The Basque ground forces were in full retreat towards Bilbao through the town of Guernica, which was bombed on 26 April in one of the most controversial attacks of the Spanish Civil War.

Guernica

In Operation Rügen, waves of Ju 52 and He 111 planes bombed and strafed targets in Guernica. The number of casualties is a matter of controversy, with perhaps 200 or 300 people killed; the casualties reported by the Basques were 1,654 dead and 889 wounded. Several explanations were put forward by the Nationalists, including blaming the attack on the Republicans; or claiming the attack was part of a prolonged offensive; or that the Rentería bridge, outside Guernica, was the true target. However, the nature of the operation itself, including the formation and armaments that were used, undermines the credibility of these explanations. Guernica was a clear target of the Condor Legion, rather than the Nationalists as a whole. The offensive on Bilbao, when it eventually came on 11 July, was supported by ground units of the Condor Legion and extensive air operations. It proved the worth of the Condor Legion to the Nationalist cause.

The first English-language media reports of the destruction in Guernica appeared two days after the attack. George Steer, a reporter for The Times, who was covering the Spanish Civil War from inside the country, wrote the first full account of events. Steer's reporting set the tone for much of the subsequent reportage. Steer pointed out the clear German complicity in the action. The evidence of three small bomb cases stamped with the German Imperial Eagle made it clear that the official German position of neutrality in the war and the signing of a Non-Intervention Pact were only nominal and that German forces were actively participating in combat. Steer's report was syndicated to the New York Times and then worldwide and generated widespread shock, outrage and fear.

Further campaigns
The Condor Legion also took part in the Battle of Brunete, which was a Republican offensive designed to take the pressure off northern Spain, where the fighting was ongoing. The Legion was sent from the north to reinforce the broken line. There were repeated raids by bombers and by fighters based at Salamanca on Republican armoured vehicles and, later, defensive positions. Despite Nationalist fears, the Republican aircraft were ineffective, compared with German aircraft. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was shown to be superior to the I-15 and I-16 models used by Republican forces. The Legion lost 8 aircraft but claimed 18 victories. German tactics were also improved with the experience of Brunete, particularly with the en masse use of tanks by the Nationalists.

The Nationalists returned to focus on the capture of northern Spain. The latest models of German test aircraft faced an outdated Basque air force (that had some Russian planes). Heavy aerial bombardment from 200 Nationalist, German and Italian planes occurred far behind Basque lines in August 1937 and led to the fall of Santander after the Battle of Santander on 1 September. The formal battle in Asturias ended with the fall of Gijon on 21 October. A large amount of ammunitions was used by the Legion, including a million machine gun rounds and 2,500 tonnes of bombs. Germany immediately began to ship industrial production back to the country. Sperrle argued repeatedly with Faupel and against HISMA's monopoly. Faupel was replaced by Franco through Sperrle. Sperrle also returned to Germany and was replaced by . After disagreements with Volkmann, Von Richthofen would be replaced with Hermann Plocher in early 1938.

After the next major campaigns, Madrid and Barcelona (discussed above), the Condor Legion was moved to Soria and began a week of strikes against Republican airfields. This move was halted by the Republican advance on Teruel and the ensuing Battle of Teruel. The Legion's land and air forces were deployed, and the Legion moved to Bronchales. Poor weather resulted in few flights, and the town fell to Republican forces on 6 January. Up to 100 sorties a day were launched during the Nationalist's counter-offensive through the Alfambra Valley. The Junkers Ju 87A was used for the first time on the advance on Teruel, which was retaken on 22 February. The continued Nationalist offensive on Aragon in April to June 1937, including the Battle of Belchite, involved bombing raids and the use of the Legion's ground forces. The Legion was switched to focus in the north, towards the Segre River, before it moved south again following Nationalist successes. The Legion moved its main headquarters to Benicarló; single-engined planes operated from airfields nearby and twin-engined planes from Zaragoza. Hitler's words to his colleagues belied a change in attitude about the war in Germany: a quick victory in the war was not desirable, and a mere continuation of the war would be preferable. German policy would be to prevent a Republican defeat. However, casualties were beginning to mount for the Legion, and combined with a resurgence in Republican air activity, the Nationalist advance stalled, perhaps because of the reluctance of commanders in Germany to supply reinforcements, given the emerging Czechoslovak crisis. Debates concerning the rising cost of the operation to the Germans — then at about 10 million Reichsmarks a month — continued unresolved. The Legion's materiel had been exhausted.

On 24–25 July, Republican forces launched the last major offensive of the war, the Battle of the Ebro. Reconnaissance units of the Condor Legion had noticed a troop build-up and warned Nationalists forces, but the warning went unheeded. Although the Republicans gained ground, they failed to gain control of Gandesa; 422 sorties by the Legion (with around 70 aircraft operational) having considerable effect. The rest of the battle saw a series of attacks using artillery or air strikes, followed by a Nationalist ground advance. However, tensions in Czechoslovakia and a shortage of pilots in Germany led to the return of 250 pilots from the Legion, around half of whom were bomber crews. Although trained Spaniards made up some of the shortfall, Volkmann complained to central command in Berlin, which would lead to his recall in September. During the battle, which saw 113 days of fighting, only 10 aircraft were lost (some by accident) and 14 were badly damaged. The Legion claimed around 100 Republican aircraft, a third of those lost. Only 5 aircrew had been killed and 6 captured. Aid from Germany temporarily halted in mid-September. Germany and Nationalist Spain settled the issue of German interests in Spanish mines.

The Legion took a short break from active duty to receive new aircraft, including Bf 109Es, He 111Es and Js, and Hs 126As, which brought its strength to 96 aircraft — around a fifth of the Nationalist's force as a whole. Richthofen returned to Spain in overall command, with Hans Seidemann as chief of staff. That reinforcement may have been the single most important intervention by a foreign side in the war by enabling a counterattack after the Battle of the Ebro. It mainly took part in operations against the remaining Republican air force during January–February 1939, with considerable success. After it took part in parades in Barcelona and elsewhere and minor duties over Madrid, it was rapidly dissolved. The men returned on 26 May, the best aircraft were returned to Germany and the rest of the equipment was bought by the newly installed Spanish regime.

The Condor Legion claimed to have destroyed 320 Republican planes using aircraft (either shot down or bombed on the ground) and to have shot down another 52 using anti-aircraft guns. It also claimed to have destroyed 60 ships, including Spanish Republican Navy vessels. It lost 72 aircraft from hostile action and another 160 from accidents.

Maritime operations
The Maritime Reconnaissance Staffel 88 () was the Condor Legion's maritime unit under the command of Karl Heinz Wolff. Operating independently of the land-based division, it acted against enemy shipping, ports, coastal communications and occasionally inland targets such as bridges. It used floatplanes, starting with the Heinkel He 60, which began operating at Cadiz in October 1936. Missions started as reconnaissance, but after the move from Cadiz to Melilla in Spanish Morocco in December 1936, the focus shifted to attacks on shipping. It was again moved in February 1937 to Málaga, which was newly captured, and then to Majorca when Málaga proved unsuitable. In June, operations began to be expanded to allow attacks on all Republican ports as long as British ships were not present. There were 10 ships attacked in the second half of 1937, but the Norwegian torpedoes that were used proved ineffective, and strafing or bombing targets was used instead.

The arrival of Martin Harlinghausen (known as "Iron Gustav") saw operations expand, and operations targeted Alicante, Almería, Barcelona and Cartagena. As naval activity declined, inland targets became more numerous, and night missions began. Activities in support of ground forces became the main focus of the unit until the end of hostilities. Both Wolff and Harlinghausen received the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds. In total, eleven men were killed in action, and five others died due to accident or illness.

Other operations

Overtly, the Kriegsmarine was partly used to enforce the Non-Intervention Agreement from interfering in the war. However, the agreement was clearly broken by Germany. As a result, the German pocket battleship  stood guard over Ceuta to prevent interference from Republican ships while Franco transported troops to the Spanish mainland. By mid-October, the German North Sea Group around Spain consisted of the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer, the light cruiser , and four torpedo boats. After the Germans claimed that Leipzig had been attacked by an unidentified submarine, it was formally withdrawn from international patrols.

Operation Ursula, named after the daughter of Karl Dönitz, involved a group of German U-boats active around Spain. It began on 20 November 1936, with the movement of the U-33 and the U-34 from Wilhelmshaven. Identification marks were obscured, and the whole mission was kept secret. Difficulties in identifying legitimate targets and concerns about discovery limited their operations. During their return to Wilhelmshaven in December, the Republican submarine C-3 was sunk; the Germans claimed that the sinking resulted a torpedo fired by U-34, although the Republican enquiry claimed its loss to have been caused by an internal explosion. Their submarines' return marked the official end of Operation Ursula. However, further submarines seem to have been sent in mid-1937, but details of the operation are not known (although six are believed to have been involved).

Abwehr
The German Intelligence service, the Abwehr, working independently of the Condor Legion, was secretly involved in Operation Bodden. It later played a part in the detection of the Operation Torch invasion fleet.

Return to Germany
On 20 May, the KdF fleet, including the MV Wilhelm Gustloff and 7 other ships, were given secret orders and diverted from their regular pleasure cruise schedule to arrive in Vigo, Spain. They arrived on the 24th to pick up the triumphant legion and departed on the 26th to bring them on a five-day voyage to Hamburg, Germany. There, they arrived to ecstatic crowds, parades and ceremonies celebrating their success, with Hermann Göring and other high-ranking officials in attendance.

Military advantages gained

Training

Many army leaders were hesitant to become involved in the conflict and resisted a call made by the Italian government for a dual transfer of ground troops to Spain. The involvement of the Luftwaffe, however, was not entirely restricted, and a commonly-held viewpoint is that the involvement of the Luftwaffe in the Civil War was a proving ground for troops fighting during World War II. That view is supported by the testimony of Hermann Göring, when he was on trial at Nuremberg. When asked about the decision to use the Luftwaffe, Göring stated:
When the Civil War broke out in Spain, Franco sent a call for help to Germany and asked for support, particularly in the air. One should not forget that Franco with his troops was stationed in Africa and that he could not get the troops across, as the fleet was in the hands of the Communists, or, as they called themselves at the time, the competent Revolutionary Government in Spain. The decisive factor was, first of all, to get his troops over to Spain. The Führer thought the matter over. I urged him to give support [to Franco] under all circumstances, firstly, in order to prevent the further spread of communism in that theater and, secondly, to test my young Luftwaffe at this opportunity in this or that technical respect.That is requently misquoted along these lines: "The Spanish Civil War gave me an opportunity to put my young air force to the test, and a means for my men to gain experience" or other permutations.

That was also a view put forth in western media after the disengagement of German forces from Spain.

Dozens of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and Heinkel He 111 medium bombers and, from December 1937, at least three Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers, first saw active service in the Condor Legion against Soviet-supplied aircraft. The Stuka's first mission flown in Spain was February 1938. Each of the aircraft played a major role during the early years of World War II. The Germans also realised that biplane fighters were quickly becoming less effective than newer monoplane designs. The Heinkel He 51 fighter, after suffering many losses during the first twelve months of the conflict, was switched to a ground attack role and later saw service as a trainer.

Other units
The Condor Legion also included ground combat units. Panzer crews operating Panzer I light tanks were commanded by Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma. The Germans also tested small numbers of 88 mm Flak 18 anti-aircraft artillery guns to destroy Republican tanks and fortifications with direct fire, as well as enemy aircraft in their designed role.

The German involvement in Spain also saw the development of the first air ambulance service for evacuation of wounded combatants.

Technical advances

One military innovation that is thought to have directly resulted from the conflict is the technical development of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The V3 – V6 types entered service in Spain directly from operational trials around January 1937. In the spring of 1938, they were joined by type C aircraft with type Es being first deployed in December 1938.

Tactics
Besides the potential gains in combat experience, it is also thought that strategic initiatives were first tested during Luftwaffe involvement in the conflict. As the fighting progressed into March 1938, Italian pilots under Fieldmarshal Hugo Sperrle launched 13 raids against Barcelona that involved fire and gas bombs and that killed thousands of civilians. It is worth noting that a subsequent commander of the Legion in Spain, Wolfram von Richthofen, would rise to the rank of Field Marshal during World War II and serve in high positions of Luftwaffe throughout the conflict, mostly as a specialist in ground attack. His units spearheaded offensives in Poland, France and the Low Countries, and the Balkans, as well as Operation Barbarossa.

Tactics of combined or joint operations were a particular focus. Close air support for Nationalist troops, attack bombing of Republican troop concentrations and strafing became features of the war. The Legion worked closely in missions to maximise the fighting ability of the Nationalist air force and troops, the Italian CTV, and pilots from the Aviazione Legionaria (Legionary Air Force). The German air ace Adolf Galland claimed that the focus after World War II on lessons learned by the Germans from the conflict in Spain, the value of these lessons was exaggerated; he believed that the wrong conclusions were drawn by the German High Command, in particular with respect to the Luftwaffe:
Whatever may have been the importance of the tests of German arms in the Spanish Civil War from tactical, technical and operational points of view, they did not provide the experience that was needed nor lead to the formulation of sound strategic concepts.

Commemoration and re-evaluation

Shame in Germany for the activities of the Condor Legion and for its involvement in the bombing of Guernica have re-surfaced since German reunification in the 1990s. In 1997, the 60th anniversary of Operation Rügen, German President Roman Herzog wrote to survivors of the raid to apologise on behalf of the German people and state. Herzog said that he wished to extend "a hand of friendship and reconciliation" on behalf of all German citizens. That sentiment was later ratified by members of the German Parliament who, in 1998, went on to legislate for the removal of all former Legion members' names from associated German military bases. The process was then carried out, but the issue surfaced again in 2005 after media revelations about the role of the pilot Werner Mölders, who had volunteered to serve in Spain. Although he was not involved in the bombing of Guernica, it was decided by German Defence Minister Peter Struck that, in keeping with the law, Mölders' name should be removed from the barracks at Visselhoevede and from the association with Luftwaffe Fighter Wing 74 (Jagdgeschwader 74) based in Neuburg an der Donau. Until 2005, it had not been established that Mölders had flown as a Condor Legion volunteer before his death in 1941.

On 26 April 2017, on the 80th anniversary of the Guernica bombing, the Madrid City Council announced that it had dismantled the memorial tomb for the Condor Legion at the La Almudena cemetery, pictured right. The tomb was removed at the request of the German embassy in Madrid and was to be replaced with simple name plaques for the dead.

Awards
The Spanienkreuz (Spanish Cross) campaign medal was awarded by the German authorities in seven classes from April 14, 1939. The clandestine nature of German activities in Spain caused no awards to be instituted until April 1939, at the end of German involvement in the conflict. The Spanish Cross complemented the Condor Legion Tank Badge, which was approved on 10 July 1939, and cuff titles issued to those who served. Legionnaires could also expect a Campaign Medal struck by the Spanish authorities to thank German volunteers for their service. See both websites listed below for examples of each medal and others issued to Legion veterans.

Other notable events on the return of the Legion included an assembly for a personal address by Hitler on 6 June 1939 and a parade as part of the celebrations organised for Hitler's 50th birthday 20 April 1939. Also by way of commemoration the activities of the Legion were memorialized in a special edition of Der Adler, the Luftwaffe's magazine for service members, which was then also circulated in both Spain and the United States.

Ranks and insignia

Notable participants
 Oskar Dirlewanger
 Rudolf Demme, head trainer
 Adolf Galland
 Hajo Herrmann
 Werner Mölders
 Hugo Sperrle, commander
 Hannes Trautloft
 Heinrich Trettner
 Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, commander
 Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma, commander

See also
 Kampfgeschwader 53, nicknamed "Legion Condor"
 Aviazione Legionaria
 Fuerza Aérea Nacional (Arma de Aviación), the Spanish Nationalist Air forces.
 Aviación del Tercio, the Spanish Foreign Legion.
 Fuerza Aérea de la República Española (FARE), the Spanish Second Republic Air Force, supported mainly by the Soviet Union.
 Hugo Jaeger, photographer

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

 "Aerial Warfare and the Spanish Civil War" by Pamela Feltus at centennialofflight.net
 "Spanish Civil War: German Condor Legion's Tactical Air Power" by Walter A. Musciano at TheHistoryNet.com

Expatriate military units and formations
Francoist Spain
Military units and formations of Nazi Germany in the Spanish Civil War
German military personnel of the Spanish Civil War
Military units and formations established in 1936
Military units and formations disestablished in 1939
Military units and formations of the Luftwaffe
Foreign volunteers in the Spanish Civil War (National faction)
Germany–Spain military relations
Aerial operations and battles involving Germany
Expeditionary units and formations

Condor Legion


වර්ණගෝලය යනු,  සූර්යයාගේ  වායුගෝලයේ ප්‍රධාන ස්ථරයන් තුනෙන් දෙවැන්න වන අතර, දළ වශයෙන් කිලෝමීටර 2,000 ක ගැඹුරකින් යුතු වෙයි. එය පවතින්නේ  ප්‍රකාශ ගෝලයට ඉහලින් සහ සෞර ආන්තරික ප්‍රදේශයට පහළිනි.

වර්ණගෝලය


Problema celor șapte poduri din Königsberg este o problemă de matematică de importanță istorică. Leonhard Euler a arătat în 1736 că nu există soluție, punând bazele teoriei grafurilor și prefigurând ideea de topologie.

Orașul Königsberg din Prusia (astăzi, Kaliningrad, Rusia) se întindea pe ambele maluri ale , cuprinzând și două insule mari legate una de cealaltă, și cu diverse alte porțiune ale orașului prin șapte poduri. Problema era de a elabora un drum prin oraș, care să traverseze fiecare dintre aceste poduri o dată și numai o dată.

Pentru a enunța fără echivoc cerința logică a problemei, soluțiile care implică fie
 ajungerea pe o insulă sau într-o parte de oraș altfel decât trecând podurile, sau
 accesarea oricărui pod fără a-l traversa până la celălalt capăt
sunt în mod explicit inacceptabile.

Euler a demonstrat că problema nu are soluție. Dificultatea cu care s-a confruntat a fost să dezvolte de o tehnică adecvată de analiză, și teste ulterioare, care să enunțe această afirmație cu rigoare matematică.

Analiza lui Euler
În primul rând, Euler a subliniat că alegerea drumului prin interiorul fiecărei porțiuni de oraș este irelevantă. Singura caracteristică importantă a unui traseu este șirul de poduri traversate. Acest lucru i-a permis să reformuleze problema în termeni abstracți (punând bazele teoriei grafurilor), eliminând toate caracteristicile, cu excepția listei de mase de uscat și podurile de legătură. În termeni moderni, a înlocuit fiecare masă de uscat cu un "nod" sau vârf abstract, iar fiecare pod cu o legătură abstractă, o "muchie", care servește doar pentru a înregistra care pereche de noduri (mase de uscat) este conectată prin pod. Structura matematică rezultată se numește graf.

→
→

Deoarece numai informațiile de conectare sunt relevante, forma reprezentării picturale a grafului poate fi distorsionată în orice mod, fără a schimba graful în sine. Numai existența (sau absența) unei muchii între fiecare pereche de noduri este semnificativă. De exemplu, nu contează dacă muchiile trasate sunt drepte sau curbe, sau dacă un nod este la stânga sau la dreapta altui nod.

Apoi, Euler a observat că (cu excepția capetelor drumului), ori de câte ori se intră într-un nod de pe un pod, se iese din nod tot printr-un pod. Cu alte cuvinte, în timpul oricărui drum prin graf, numărul de intrări într-un nod neterminal este egal cu numărul de ieșiri. Acum, dacă fiecare pod este traversat exact o dată, rezultă că, pentru fiecare masă de uscat (cu excepția celor alese pentru început și sfârșit), numărul de poduri care duce în acea masă de uscat trebuie să fie par (jumătate dintre ele, în parcurgere, vor fi traversate "spre" masa de uscat; cealaltă jumătate, "dinspre" ea). Cu toate acestea, toate cele patru mase de uscat din problema inițială sunt atinse de un număr impar de poduri (unul este atins de 5 poduri, și fiecare dintre celelalte trei este atins de 3). Întrucât cel mult două mase de uscat pot servi ca puncte finale ale unui drum, propunerea de drum care să traverseze fiecare pod o singură dată conduce la o contradicție.

În limbaj modern, Euler a arătat că posibilitatea de parcurgere a unui graf, prin traversarea fiecărei muchii exact o dată, depinde de gradele nodurilor. Gradul unui nod este numărul de muchii care îl ating. Argumentul lui Euler arată că o condiție necesară pentru mersul pe jos în forma dorită este ca graful să fie conex și să aibă exact zero sau două noduri de grad impar. Această condiție se dovedește a fi și suficientă—rezultat enunțat de către Euler și demonstrat ulterior de . Un astfel de drum este astăzi numit drum eulerian. Mai mult, dacă există noduri de grad impar, atunci orice drum eulerian va începe de la unul dintre ele și se va termina la celălalt. Întrucât graful corespunzător Königsbergului istoric are patru noduri de grad impar, el nu poate avea un drum eulerian.

O formă alternativă a problemei cere un drum care traversează toate podurile și ajunge în final în punctul de început. Un astfel de drum este numit "ciclu eulerian". Un astfel de ciclu există dacă și numai dacă graful este conex și nu există niciun nod de grad impar. Toate ciclurile euleriene sunt și drumuri euleriene, dar nu toate drumurile euleriene sunt și cicluri euleriene.

Lucrarea lui Euler a fost prezentată la Academia din St. Petersburg pe , și publicată sub titlul  ("Soluția unei probleme referitoare la geometria de poziție"), în revista  în 1741.

Semnificația în istoria și filosofia matematicii
În istoria matematicii, soluția lui Euler a problemei podurilor din Königsberg este considerată a fi prima teoremă din teoria grafurilor și prima demonstrație adevărată în teoria rețelelor, un domeniu considerat astăzi, în general, o ramură a combinatoricii. Alte probleme de combinatorică de alte tipuri au fost analizate încă din antichitate.

În plus, recunoașterea de către Euler că informațiile-cheie sunt numărul de poduri și lista capetelor lor (mai degrabă decât poziția exactă) prevestea dezvoltarea topologiei. Diferența dintre distribuția reală și schema grafică este un bun exemplu al ideii că topologia nu se preocupă de forma rigidă a obiectelor.

Prin urmare, așa cum constata și Euler, "geometria de poziție" nu este despre "măsurători și calcule", ci despre ceva mult mai general. Aceasta a pus sub semnul întrebării viziunea tradițională, cum că matematica este o "știință a cantității". Deși această viziune se potrivește aritmeticii și geometriei euclidiene, ea nu se potrivește cu topologia și cu caracteristicile structurale mai abstracte studiate în matematica modernă.

Filosofii au observat că demonstrația lui Euler nu este despre o abstracție sau despre un model al realității, ci direct despre aranjamentul real al podurilor. Prin urmare, certitudinea demonstrației matematice se poate aplica direct la realitate.

Variante
Enunțul clasic al problemei, dat mai sus, folosește noduri neidentificate adică sunt toate la fel, cu excepția modului în care sunt conectate. Există o variantă în care nodurile sunt identificate fiecare nod primește un nume unic sau o culoare.

Malul de nord al râului este ocupat de , sau "castelul", Prințului Albastru; la sud, de cel al Prințului Roșu. Pe malul de est este Ritcherul podului, sau biserica; și pe o mică insulă în centru este un , sau "han".

Se înțelege că problemele ar trebui să fie luate în ordine, și să se înceapă cu un enunț al problemei inițiale:

Cum era obiceiul printre orășeni, după câteva ore în , să încerce să meargă pe poduri, mulți s-au întors să mai bea ceva proclamându-și succesul. Cu toate acestea, niciunul nu a mai putut să repete isprava la lumina zilei.

Podul 8: Prințul Albastru, după ce a analizat sistemul de poduri al orașului prin teoria grafurilor, concluzionează că podurile nu pot fi parcurse. El pune la cale un plan ascuns de a construi un al optulea pod, astfel încât el să poată începe seara la , să parcurgă podurile, și să ajungă la Gasthaus să se laude cu victoria lui. Desigur, el vrea ca Prințul Roșu să nu poată face același lucru pornind de la Castelul Roșu. Unde va construi Prințul Albastru al optulea pod?

Podul 9: Prințul Roșu, înfuriat de soluția gordiană a confratelui său, vrea să construiască un nou pod, care să-i permită lui să înceapă la , să parcurgă podurile, și să ajungă la  pentru a-i face în ciudă Prințului Albastru. Ca răzbunare suplimentară, confratele lui ar trebui să nu mai fie capabil să parcurgă podurile pornind de la  și să ajungă la  ca înainte. Unde va construi Prințul Roșu al nouălea pod?

Podul 10: Episcopul a privit furios această frenezie de construcții de poduri. Consideră ca a stricat mult Weltanschauungul orașului și, mai rău, a contribuit la proliferarea beției. El vrea să construiască un al zecelea pod care să permită tuturor locuitorilor să parcurgă podurile și să revină în propriile lor case. Unde va construi episcopul cel de al zecelea pod?

Soluții

Se reduce orașul, ca și mai înainte, la un graf. Se colorează fiecare nod. Ca și în problema clasică, nu există drum eulerian; colorarea nu afectează acest lucru. Toate cele patru noduri au un număr impar de muchii.

Podul 8: Drumuri euleriene sunt posibile dacă exact zero sau două noduri au un număr impar de muchii. Dacă avem 2 noduri cu un număr impar de muchii, drumul trebuie să înceapă la un astfel de nod și să se termine la celălalt. Deoarece există doar 4 noduri în problemă, soluția este simplă. Drumul dorit trebuie să înceapă la nodul albastru și să se termine la cel portocaliu. Astfel, se trasează o nouă muchie între celelalte două noduri. Deoarece fiecare din ele avea anterior un număr impar de muchii, acestea trebuie să aibă acum un număr par de muchii, care îndeplinesc toate condițiile. Aceasta este o schimbare în  de un grad impar la unul par.

Podul 9: Al nouălea pod este ușor de plasat odată ce este rezolvată cerința celui de al optulea. Dorința este de a face castelul roșu punct de plecare și de a-l împiedica pe cel albastru să fie punct de plecare; nodul portocaliu rămâne la sfârșitul drumului și nodul alb rămâne neafectat. Pentru a schimba paritatea nodurilor roșu și albastru noduri, se trasează o nouă muchie între ele.

Podul 10: Al zecelea pod vine cu o cerință ușor diferită. Episcopul dorește ca fiecare cetățean să se întoarcă la punctul de plecare. Acesta este un ciclu eulerian și necesită ca toate nodurile să fie de grad par. După rezolvarea celui de al 9-lea pod, nodurile roșu și portocaliu au grad impar, iar paritatea acestora trebuie să fie schimbată prin adăugarea unei noi muchii între ele.

Starea actuală a podurilor

Două dintre cele șapte poduri inițiale nu au supraviețuit . Altele două au fost ulterior demolate și înlocuite cu o autostradă modernă. Au mai rămas alte trei poduri, deși numai două dintre ele sunt din vremea lui Euler (unul a fost reconstruit în anul 1935). Astfel, actualmente există în Kaliningrad cinci poduri care au făcut parte din problema lui Euler.

În termeni de teoria grafurilor, două dintre noduri au acum gradul 2, iar alte două au gradul 3. Prin urmare, astăzi este posibil un drum eulerian, dar acesta trebuie să înceapă pe o insulă și să se termine pe cealaltă.

 din Christchurch, Noua Zeelandă, are încorporat un model al podurilor într-o pajiște între fosta Bibliotecă de Științe Fizice și Clădirea Erskine, unde își au sediul Departamentele de Matematică, Statistică și Informatică. Râurile sunt înlocuite cu scurte tufișuri și pe insula centrală se află o piatră . Institutul de Tehnologie Rochester a încorporat problmea în pavajul din fața , o arenă de hochei pe gheață, deschisă în 2014.

Vezi și
 Drum eulerian
 Glosar de teoria grafurilor
 Drum hamiltonian

Bibliografie

Legături externe
 Kaliningrad și problema podurilor din Königsberg la Convergence
 Publicația inițială a lui Euler (în limba latină)
 Podurile din Königsberg
 Cum ne ajută podurile din Königsberg să înțelegem creierul
 Problema podurilor din Königsberg a lui Euler  la departamentul de matematică de la Contra Costa College
 Pregel – o unealtă grafică de la Google numită după această problemă
1735 în știință
Poduri
Teoria grafurilor
Königsberg
Probleme de matematică
Topologie

Problema podurilor din Königsberg


Peter Julian Alexander Collins (* 15. Januar 1951 in London) ist ein britischer Musikproduzent.

Leben
1976 war Collins mit einer Gruppe namens Madison aktiv, die einen Vertrag bei Magnet Records hatte. Mit dieser Gruppe hatte er einen kleineren Charthit, Let It Ring.

Schließlich gründete er mit Pete Waterman eine Produktionsfirma. Er zeichnete für die ersten beiden Alben von The Lambrettas verantwortlich. Diese konnten mit Poison Ivy die Charts erreichen.

Bekannt wurde Collins dann insbesondere als Produzent von Rush. 1985 ging er dafür in die USA. Die ersten Alben waren Power Windows (1985) sowie Hold Your Fire (1987). Insbesondere brachte er einen Synthesizer-Sound mit in die Produktion ein.

Weiterhin gewann er an Bekanntheit durch die Produktion von Operation: Mindcrime und Empire von Queensrÿche. Es folgten die rockorientierteren Rush-Alben Counterparts (1993) und Test for Echo (1996).

Collins war zudem für Alice Cooper, Nik Kershaw (Wouldn't It Be Good), Bon Jovi, Suicidal Tendencies (The Art of Rebellion), Indigo Girls, Jermaine Stewart, Jane Wiedlin, October Project, The Cardigans und Tracey Ullman tätig. 2011 produzierte er das selbstbetitelte Debüt der Supergroup Flying Colors.

Weblinks

 Inglis, Sam (March 2002). "Peter Collins". Sound on Sound.

Einzelnachweise

Musikproduzent
Brite
Geboren 1951
Mann

Peter Collins (Musikproduzent)


Herz ist der Name einer deutschen Unternehmerfamilie, die mit Tchibo verbunden ist. Die Familienmitglieder zählen zu den reichsten Deutschen.

Max Herz (1905–1965) gründete im Jahre 1949 zusammen mit Carl Tchiling-Hiryan den Kaffeeversandhandel Tchibo. Der Name leitete sich aus dem Namen Tchilling und Bohnen ab. Tchilling verließ kurze Zeit später jedoch das Unternehmen.

Max Herz heiratete 1940 Ingeburg König (1920–2015). Das Paar hatte fünf Kinder:
 Günter Herz (* 1940),
 Joachim Herz (1941–2008),
 Michael Herz (* 1943),
 Wolfgang Herz (* 1950),
 Daniela Herz-Schnoeckl (* 1954).

Max Herz starb 1965. Sein Sohn Günter Herz führt das Unternehmen weiter. Tchibo erwarb 1974 eine Minderheitsbeteiligung an der Beiersdorf AG und 1980 die Mehrheitsbeteiligung an Reemtsma. Nach Differenzen um die Unternehmensführung schied Michael Herz aus der Unternehmensführung aus. Anfang 2001 gab Günter Herz seinen Vorstandsvorsitz  in der Tchibo Holding AG, die seit 2007 unter dem Namen Maxingvest firmiert, ab.

Im Jahre 2003 wurden Günter Herz und Daniela Herz abgefunden, die mit dem Kapital die Mayfair Vermögensverwaltung gründeten. Michael Herz und Wolfgang Herz sind Anteilseigner an Maxingvest. Weitere Anteile entfallen auf die Max und Ingeburg Herz Stiftung und die Joachim Herz Stiftung.

Einzelnachweise

Deutsche Unternehmerfamilie

Herz (Familie)


Good Impact (zuvor: enorm) ist ein deutsches Wirtschaftsmagazin, das im Social Publish Verlag in Hamburg erscheint und sich als Magazin für den gesellschaftlichen Wandel versteht.

Inhalt
Das Magazin behandelt Themen aus den Bereichen Social Entrepreneurship, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) und nachhaltiges und ökologisches Wirtschaften. Es beschäftigt sich in diesem Kontext mit Wirtschaftsmodellen, Unternehmen und Personen.

Geschichte
Fünf Personen gründeten das Medium. Der Journalist Thomas Friemel (ehemals Chefredakteur) und der Verlagskaufmann Alexander Dorn stellten 2009 ihre Ideen für eine Fachzeitschrift im Bereich Social Business im Genisis Institut vor, das von Peter Spiegel geleitet wird. Kurz zuvor hatten die beiden Gestalter Carsten Hermann-Hehl und Markus Artur Fuchs diesem Institut ihre Ideen für ein Publikumsmagazin im Bereich Nachhaltigkeit vorgestellt. Spiegel brachte die beiden Teams mit dem Social Entrepreneur David Diallo zusammen.

Das Team produzierte für den Vision Summit, eine internationale Leitkonferenz für den Bereich CSR, im Jahr 2009 eine Nullnummer. Aufgrund der dortigen positiven Resonanz gründeten die fünf Gesellschafter den Social Publish Verlag und brachten die erste Ausgabe am 18. März 2010 auf den Markt.

Das Magazin hat seither Auszeichnungen erhalten, unter anderem den red dot design award 2010.

Im November 2022 änderte die Zeitschrift ihren Namen von enorm zu Good Impact.

Erscheinungsweise
2010 und 2011 erschienen jeweils vier Ausgaben pro Jahr. Seit 2012 wurde die Zahl auf sechs Ausgaben erhöht. Im Juni 2016 erfolgte ein Relaunch des Heftes. Dabei änderte sich auch die Positionierung der Zeitschrift.

Die Printausgabe ist auf zu 100 Prozent recyceltem Naturpapier gedruckt. Für Nutzer von Tablet-PC und Smartphones ist seit Ausgabe 1/2012 eine Apple- und Android-App verfügbar. Seit 2014 liefert das Magazin auf seiner Website Nachrichten.

Der Social Publish Verlag in Hamburg ist Herausgeber des Magazins. Die Redaktion hat ihren Sitz in Berlin und Hamburg.

Weblinks
 Website des Magazins

Einzelnachweise

Wirtschaftsmagazin (Deutschland)
Zeitschrift (Hamburg)
Ersterscheinung 2010
Konstruktiver Journalismus

Good Impact


Agnes Jeruto Barsosio (* 1983) ist eine kenianische Marathonläuferin.

2008 wurde sie Zweite beim Lille-Halbmarathon und gewann die Foulées Monterelaises.

2012 wurde sie Zweite bei den 10 km von Taroudant und gewann bei ihrem Debüt über die 42,195-km-Distanz den Düsseldorf-Marathon.

Persönliche Bestzeiten

 10-km-Straßenlauf: 31:50 min, 11. März 2012, Taroudant
 Halbmarathon: 1:09:53 h, 3. Juni 2017, Budweis
 Marathon: 2:20:59 h, 9. April 2017, Paris

Weblinks

 Athletenporträt von Agnes Jeruto Barsosio bei der IAAF (englisch)

Fußnoten

10-km-Straßenläufer (Kenia)
25-km-Straßenläufer (Kenia)
Marathonläufer (Kenia)
Kenianer
Geboren 1983
Frau

Agnes Jeruto Barsosio


روابط إيضافية
 Official site

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أبطال الجراند سلام (كرة مضرب) في الزوجي المختلط
أبطال بطولة أمريكا المفتوحة
أبطال بطولة فرنسا المفتوحة
أبطال بطولة ويمبلدون
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
حائزون على ميداليات في دورة الألعاب الآسيوية 1994
رياضيون من محافظة كاناغاوا
فائزات بالجراند سلام في زوجي السيدات
لاعبات كرة مضرب يابانيات
لاعبو كرة مضرب أولمبيون من اليابان
لاعبو كرة مضرب شاركوا في دورة الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية لعام 2004
لاعبو كرة مضرب شاركوا في دورة الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية لعام 2008
مواليد 1975
لاعبو كرة مضرب في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2000
لاعبو كرة مضرب في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 1996
لاعبو كرة مضرب في دورة الألعاب الآسيوية 1994
رياضيون من يوكوهاما
فائزون بميداليات ذهبية في الألعاب الآسيوية لليابان
فائزون بميداليات في الألعاب الآسيوية في كرة المضرب

أي سوجياما


NGC 6543 je planetna maglica u zviježđu Zmaju.
U središtu maglice je bijela točkica. To je mogući bijeli patuljak.
Suvremana istraživanja nekoliko tajna. Složenost strukture obično se objašnjava koronarnim izbačajima u dvojnim zvjezdanim sustavima u središtu maglicu, no izravnih potvrda da središnja zvijezda ima pratnju još nema. U prošlosti je u središtu maglice bila svijetla i vruća zvijezda koja je prije tisuću godina izgubila vanjsku ljusku i proizvela maglicu. Središnja je zvijezda klase O, temperature 80.000 Kelvina. 10.000 puta je sjajnija od Sunca, a promjera je 0,65 Sunčeva. Zvijezda i danas gubi masu jer njen zvjezdani vjetar je brzine 3,2·10−7 Sunčevih masa godišnje ili 20 bilijuna tona u sekundi. Prema izračunima današnja joj masa malko nadilazi Sunčevu, a nekad je bila 5 puta veća. Promatranjima rendgenskog zračenja putem teleskopa Chandre dade se uočiti točkasti izvor na mjestu središnje zvijezde. Jedna zvijezda obično ne zrači tako jako rendgensko zračenje, zbog čega se to ne može lako objasniti. Ukazuje na mogućnost akrecijskog diska u dvojnom zvjedanom sustavu. Promatranjima preko infracrvenog, proizlazi da ondje ima međuzvjezdane prašine u nižim temperaturnim područjima. Pretpostavlja se da nastaje u zadnjoj fazi izvorne središnje zvijezde. Infracrveno zračenje pokazuje postojanje neionzirane tvari poput molekulskog vodika (H2). Planetne maglica je sama po sebi ponajviše emisija molekulama uokrug maglice, ali izgleda da je kod NGC 6543 najsnažnija emisija molekulskog vodika oko unutarnjeg dijela vanjskog haloa. Mogući razlog je da se sražavaju različiti udarni valovi koji sadrže H2.

Mačje oko bilo je izvorom jedne od znanstvenih zabuna. Njegov emisijski spektar nije bio kao Sunčev, niti je odgovarao ikojem poznatom kemijskom elementu na Zemlji, zbog čega je u modele bio uvršten novi kemijski element nebulij.  Poslije se pokazalo da je to bilo pogrešno i da se radi o drugoj pojavi.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 6543
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 6543 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 6543  DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 6500 - 6549

6543

Mačje oko (planetna maglica)


A closed-loop controller or feedback controller is a control loop which incorporates feedback, in contrast to an open-loop controller or non-feedback controller.
A closed-loop controller uses feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamical system. Its name comes from the information path in the system: process inputs (e.g., voltage applied to an electric motor) have an effect on the process outputs (e.g., speed or torque of the motor), which is measured with sensors and processed by the controller; the result (the control signal) is "fed back" as input to the process, closing the loop.

In the case of linear feedback systems, a control loop including sensors, control algorithms, and actuators is arranged in an attempt to regulate a variable at a setpoint (SP).  An everyday example is the cruise control on a road vehicle; where external influences such as hills would cause speed changes, and the driver has the ability to alter the desired set speed. The PID algorithm in the controller restores the actual speed to the desired speed in an optimum way, with minimal delay or overshoot, by controlling the power output of the vehicle's engine.
Control systems that include some sensing of the results they are trying to achieve are making use of feedback and can adapt to varying circumstances to some extent. Open-loop control systems do not make use of feedback, and run only in pre-arranged ways.

Closed-loop controllers have the following advantages over open-loop controllers:
 disturbance rejection (such as hills in the cruise control example above)
 guaranteed performance even with model uncertainties, when the model structure does not match perfectly the real process and the model parameters are not exact
 unstable processes can be stabilized
 reduced sensitivity to parameter variations
 improved reference tracking performance

In some systems, closed-loop and open-loop control are used simultaneously. In such systems, the open-loop control is termed feedforward and serves to further improve reference tracking performance.

A common closed-loop controller architecture is the PID controller.

Open-loop and closed-loop

Closed-loop transfer function

The output of the system y(t) is fed back through a sensor measurement F to a comparison with the reference value r(t). The controller C then takes the error e (difference) between the reference and the output to change the inputs u to the system under control P. This is shown in the figure. This kind of controller is a closed-loop controller or feedback controller.

This is called a single-input-single-output (SISO) control system; MIMO (i.e., Multi-Input-Multi-Output) systems, with more than one input/output, are common. In such cases variables are represented through vectors instead of simple scalar values. For some distributed parameter systems the vectors may be infinite-dimensional (typically functions).

If we assume the controller C, the plant P, and the sensor F are linear and time-invariant (i.e., elements of their transfer function C(s), P(s), and F(s) do not depend on time), the systems above can be analysed using the Laplace transform on the variables. This gives the following relations:

Solving for Y(s) in terms of R(s) gives

The expression  is referred to as the closed-loop transfer function of the system. The numerator is the forward (open-loop) gain from r to y, and the denominator is one plus the gain in going around the feedback loop, the so-called loop gain. If , i.e., it has a large norm with each value of s, and if , then Y(s) is approximately equal to R(s) and the output closely tracks the reference input.

PID feedback control

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a  control loop feedback mechanism control technique widely  used in control systems.

A PID controller continuously calculates an error value  as the difference between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable and applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms. PID is an initialism for Proportional-Integral-Derivative, referring to the three terms operating on the error signal to produce a control signal.

The theoretical understanding and application dates from the 1920s, and they are implemented in nearly all analogue control systems; originally in mechanical controllers, and then using discrete electronics and later in industrial process computers.
The PID controller is probably the most-used feedback control design.

If  is the control signal sent to the system,  is the measured output and  is the desired output, and  is the tracking error, a PID controller has the general form

The desired closed loop dynamics is obtained by adjusting the three parameters ,  and , often iteratively by "tuning" and without specific knowledge of a plant model. Stability can often be ensured using only the proportional term. The integral term permits the rejection of a step disturbance (often a striking specification in process control). The derivative term is used to provide damping or shaping of the response. PID controllers are the most well-established class of control systems: however, they cannot be used in several more complicated cases, especially if MIMO systems are considered.

Applying Laplace transformation results in the transformed PID controller equation

with the PID controller transfer function

As an example of tuning a PID controller in the closed-loop system , consider a 1st order plant given by

where  and  are some constants. The plant output is fed back through

where  is also a constant. Now if we set , , and , we can express the PID controller transfer function in series form as

Plugging , , and  into the closed-loop transfer function , we find that by setting

. With this tuning in this example, the system output follows the reference input exactly.

However, in practice, a pure differentiator is neither physically realizable nor desirable due to amplification of noise and resonant modes in the system. Therefore, a phase-lead compensator type approach or a differentiator with low-pass roll-off are used instead.

References

Control theory

Closed-loop controller


Invadarea Transcarpatiei a fost o operațiune militară a Armatei Regale Maghiare, care a avut loc între 15-18 martie 1939. În urma acestei operațiuni militare Carpato-Ucraina a fost încorporată în Regatul Maghiar până în toamna anului 1944, când a fost ocupată de către Armata Sovietică (în cadrul celui de-al II-lea Război Mondial).

Preludiu

Regiunea Transcarpatia era anexat de Cehoslovacia în urma Tratatului de la Trianon în anul 1920. Cauzele conflictului din viitor poate să fie explicate din două motive: în primul rând componența etnică era o sursă de conflict, regiunea fiind locuită mai ales de ruteni, în rândurile cărora era puternică agitația pentru dreptul de autodeterminare. O altă sursă de conflict era politica oficială a statului maghiar, care în epoca interbelică a continuat o politică externă revizionistă, a cărui scop era restabilirea integrală sau parțială a Ungariei Mare.

Politica revizionistă a Regatului Maghiar a dus la rezultate mai întâi în față de statul cehoslovac. Când liderul Germaniei naziste, Adolf Hitler, în cadrul acordului de la München a atins scopul de a ocupa - sub recunoaște internațională - Regiunea Sudeților (o regiune locuită preponderent de germani), un paragraf a acordului respectiv a obligat pe conducerea de stat a Cehoslovaciei să ajunge la înțelegere cu Polonia și Ungaria, în ceea ce privește revendicările teritoriale ale țăriilor vecine. În urma tratativelor bilaterale, majoritatea regiunii Zaolzie (cu orașul Cieszyn) era transferat la Polonia. În contrar, tratativele cu delegațiunea maghiară la Komárno au fost eșuate. În final, conflictul era rezolvat prin primul arbitraj de la Viena, în cadrul căruia Ungaria a primit aproximativ 12 000 km² din partea sudică a țării, un teritoriu, care era locuit în majoritate de maghiari (59% conform recensâmăntului cehoslovac din 1930, iar 84% conform recensâmăntului maghiar din 1941.). În cadrul arbitrajului era transferat la Statul Maghiar partea sudică a Transcarpatiei - cu orașele Ujhorod (Ungvár), Muncaci (Munkács) și Bereg (Beregszász) - într-o zonă care era locuit preponderent de etnici maghiari, dar în orașele Ujhorod și Muncaci și în împrejurimea lor a existat și o minoritate rutenă semnificativă.

Anexarea orașelor Ujhorod și Muncaci după un scurt timp a devenit o sursă de conflict între unele forțe politice din Cehoslovacia, guvernul maghiar și elita politică a rutenilor. Pentru a evita dezintegrarea statului, guvernul cehoslovac a asigurat autonomia Transcarpatiei, cu data de 9 octombrie 1938 numind un guvern autonom ruten, în fruntele cu Andrij Brodij. Însă la începutul anului 1939 era acuzat cu separatism și arestat de către autoritățile cehoslovace. Succesorul lui devenea Avgustin Voloșin, sub conducerea lui a început organizarea treptată a unei Transcarpatie independentă. La Hust era organizat miliția cu numele Gărziile Sich, alcătuit din voluntari ruteni, sub conducerea politicianului social-democrat Dmitro Ivanovich Klimpus. După un scurt timp, miliția a devenit armata de facto oficială a regiunii autonome.

Primele incidente pe teritoriul Transcarpatiei
La 6 ianuarie 1939 o unitate militară cehoslovacă sub conducerea generalului Lev Prchala a pornit un atac împotriva orașului Munkács. Asediul era respins de către garnizoana militară orășenească și voluntari maghiari localnici (dintre apărători șapte persoane au fost uciși). Referindu-se la atacul de la Munkács, ambasadorul maghiar din Berlin, Döme Sztójay, a cerut suportul conducerii Germaniei pentru invazia maghiară a Transcarpatiei, explicate prin motive strategice (apărarea mai ușoară a orașelor Ungvár și Munkács). Ambasadorul german din Budapesta, a înmânat la 11 martie răspunsul favorabil al guvernului german.

La 14 martie, garnizoanele maghiare la Ungvár și Munkács au pornit o ofensivă pentru ocuparea unor localități strategice, aflate în împrejurimea celor două orașe. În urma atacului, șapte sate au fost ocupate, care mai târziu au devenit capete de pod pentru armata maghiară în ofensiva pentru cucerirea Transcarpatiei.

Ocuparea Transcarpatiei
La data de 14 martie 1939 o grupare politică s slovacilor, în frunte cu Jozef Tiso a proclamat independența Slovaciei. Ca un răspuns, guvernul lui Voloșin tot a proclamat independența Transcarpatiei, declarând pe orașul Hust ca sediu a statului nou-create. În același timp, militanții ruteni au atacat garnizonul cehoslovac la Hust, care mai înainte a refuzat să retrage din oraș. Ca un rezultat al incidentului, mai mulți militanți au fost uciși, iar ostașii cehoslovaci au asigurat - temporar - pozițiile lor în Hust.

La 15 martie dimineață a început ofensiva maghiară împotriva Transcarpatiei. Conform planului operațional, trei grupuri de armate au fost înființate, cu sediile la Munkács, Ungvár și Beregszász, iar cu supravegherea ofensivei a fost însărcinat generalul-maior Ferenc Szombathelyi (el mai târziu, între 1941-1944 a devenit șef de stat major). Obiectivul grupului din Munkács a fost ocuparea orașului Svaleava (Szolyva), grupul din Ungvár a atacat în direcția orașului Perecin (Perecseny), iar cel din Beregszász a pornit ofensiva în direcția orașului Seleușu Mare (Nagyszőlős), iar după atingerea obiectivului a trebuit să continuă ofensiva în valea Tisei, până la Frasin.

Grupurile din Munkács și Beregszász au atins scopul chiar în același zi, militanții ruteni au retras după lupte sporadice. În paralel, grupul din Ungvár a complicat în lupte violente cu armata regulară cehoslovace lângă satul Domaninci (Alsódomonya, astăzi se constituie un cartier al orașului Ujhorod) și înaintarea lui a fost încetat.

La 16 martie, Armata Maghiară a pornit atacul împotriva orașului Hust, care a devenit bătălia cea mai sângeroasă a conflictului, însâ trupele maghiare au reușit să obține controlul asupra localității. În acest timp batalionul 14 biciclist, sub comanda colonelului Károly Ungár a ocupat orașul Teceu Mare (Técső), iar după 114 de mile marș forțat, lângă Frasin a ajuns la granița Poloniei (colonelul Ungár în același an a fost decorat pentru faptul aceasta). În paralel, grupul din Ungvár, obținând întăriri seminificative, a forțat pe unitățiile cehoslovace să se retrage din teritoriul Transcarpatiei, iar la 17 martie a ajuns la Pasul Ujok.

La 18 martie, o unitate rutenă a atacat un regiment maghiar la Slatina, dar fără succes. După bătălia aceasta, majoritatea militanților au capitulat, iar mulți dintre ei au încercat să se retrage pe teritoriul Poloniei, dar au fost uciși în luptele cu grănicerii polonezi. La sfârșitul lunii martie, regentul Miklós Horthy a vizitat pe teritoriile ocupate, consacrând anexarea.

Consecințe

Note

Invadarea Transcarpatiei (1939)


Serbía hefur tekið þátt í Söngvakeppni evrópskra sjónvarpsstöðva 13 sinnum síðan að frumraun landsins í keppninni átti sér stað árið .

Yfirlit þátttöku (niðurstöður)
Fyrir þátttöku undan 2007, sjá .

Heimildir

Serbía

Serbía í Söngvakeppni evrópskra sjónvarpsstöðva


Les élections législatives de 1952 ont été tenus en Libye pour élire la Chambre des Représentants le 19 février 1952, sauf dans trois circonscriptions en Tripolitaine, où les élections ont été reportées au mois de mars après que des émeutiers ont détruit le registre électoral le jour du scrutin Ce sont les premières élections de l'histoire du pays.

Système électoral
Le vote était limité aux hommes sains d'esprit et solvables de plus de 21 ans et ne permettait pas le vote secret, sauf dans les zones urbaines. Ils ont élu 55 députés à la Chambre basse du Parlement dans des circonscriptions uninominales. Les circonscriptions étaient divisées en zones urbaines et rurales ; dans les zones urbaines, les électeurs recevaient un bulletin de vote, qu'ils ont déposé dans l'urne colorée de leur candidat, tandis que dans les zones rurales, on demandait aux électeurs qui ils soutenaient et leur réponse enregistrée par l'agent d'inscription, avec un comité d'observateurs Le comité comprenait un directeur du scrutin, un juge et une personne notable de la circonscription.

Les Nations unies ont rejeté une proposition visant à surveiller les élections.

Campagne et jour des élections
Au total, 141 candidats se sont présentés à l'élection, dont la plupart se sont présentés comme indépendants. Il y avait deux groupes opposés ; l'un favorable au Premier ministre Mahmoud al-Muntasir et l'autre dirigé par le Parti du Congrès dirigé par Beshir Bey Sadawi. Le Parti du Congrès s'est largement concentré sur l'opposition à l'influence étrangère en Libye, bien qu'il ait reçu un soutien financier de l'Égypte. Il a également affirmé que voter pour des candidats progouvernementaux conduirait les électeurs à s'excommunier efficacement de la foi islamique. Le Premier ministre a appelé les électeurs à élire le candidat le plus susceptible d'aider à mettre en œuvre le programme en 19 points du gouvernement.

Le jour du scrutin, une personne a été tuée et un policier britannique a été blessé à la suite d'échanges de tirs entre une foule de personnes et la police de Misrata, et plusieurs personnes ont également été hospitalisées après que la police a utilisé des gaz lacrymogènes. La violence a éclaté après que la foule a été informée que leurs demandes d'un candidat du Parti du Congrès à être présent dans l'isoloir étaient illégales. Des manifestations similaires ont eu lieu en Tripolitaine.

Résultats et conséquences
Comme prévu, le Parti du Congrès a remporté la victoire à Tripoli, mais les candidats progouvernementaux ont remporté tous les autres sièges. Le Parti du Congrès a remporté un total de huit sièges, tandis que la majorité des sièges étaient occupés par des indépendants progouvernementaux. Après le scrutin, des émeutes ont éclaté, entraînant l'interdiction de tous les partis politiques. Sadawi a été déporté en Égypte, avec son frère, son neveu et d'autres partisans, tandis que le secrétaire du Parti du Congrès a été déporté vers sa Tunisie natale.

Références

1952
Libye
1952 en Libye
Février 1952

Élections législatives libyennes de 1952


Călătorie în lumea morților (franceză: Voyage chez les morts) este o piesă de teatru  scrisă în limba franceză de Eugen Ionescu.  Piesa a fost compusă în anul 1980.  Este ultima piesă a lui Ionescu.

Prezentare

Personaje

Adaptăr

Traduceri în limba română

Vezi și
 Listă de piese de teatru românești
 Listă de piese de teatru franceze

Note

Legături externe

Piese de teatru franceze
Eugen Ionescu

Călătorie în lumea morților


An Juncus aemulans in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Frederik Michael Liebmann. An Juncus aemulans in nahilalakip ha genus nga Juncus, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Juncus

Juncus aemulans