Pinot Meunier, , also known as Meunier or Schwarzriesling (), is a variety of red wine grape most noted for being one of the three main varieties used in the production of Champagne (the other two are the red variety Pinot noir and the white Chardonnay). Until recently, producers in Champagne generally did not acknowledge Pinot Meunier, preferring to emphasise the use of the other noble varieties, but now Pinot Meunier is gaining recognition for the body and richness it contributes to Champagne. Pinot Meunier is approximately one-third of all the grapes planted in Champagne. It is a chimeric mutation of Pinot: its inner cell layers are composed of a Pinot genotype which is close to Pinot noir or Pinot gris; the outer, epidermal, layer is, however, made up of a mutant, distinctive, genotype. Pinot Meunier was first mentioned in the 16th century, and gets its name and synonyms (French Meunier and German Müller—both meaning miller) from flour-like dusty white down on the underside of its leaves.

Ampelography
Pinot Meunier can be identified by ampelographers by its indented leaves that appear downy white, like flour has been dusted liberally on the underside, and lightly on the upper side, of the leaf. The name "Meunier" comes from the French word for miller with many of the grapevine's synonyms (see below) also hearkening to this association—such as "Dusty Miller" which is used in England, "Farineaux" and "Noirin Enfariné" used in France as well as "Müllerrebe" and "Müller-Traube" used in Germany. This characteristic derives from large numbers of fine white hairs on the leaves. However, some clones of Pinot Meunier have been found to be completely hairless—a chimeric mutation, in fact—which has led ampelographers to more closely draw a link between Meunier and Pinot noir.

In research, Paul K. Boss and Mark R. Thomas of the CSIRO Plant Industry and Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture in Glen Osmond, Australia, found that Pinot Meunier has a mutation (VvGAI1) that stops it from responding to gibberellic acid, a plant growth hormone. This leads to different, white-haired, leaf and shoot growth, and also to a slight stunting in growth, explaining why Pinot Meunier plants tend to be a bit smaller than Pinot noir. The mutation exist only in the outermost cell layer of the cultivar, the L1 or 'epidermal' layer, meaning Pinot Meunier is a chimera. Through tissue culture, it is thus possible to separate out plants containing both the mutant (L1) and non-mutant (L2) genotypes, yielding a normal Pinot noir -like genotype and an unusual looking L1-genotype vine with compressed internodes and thickly clustered leaves. The mutants could not produce full-grown tendrils, it seems that gibberellic acid converts grapevine flower buds into tendrils.

Wine regions

Pinot Meunier is one of the most widely planted grapes in France but it is rather obscure to most wine drinkers and will rarely be seen on a wine label. The grape has been favored by vine growers in northern France due to its ability to bud and ripen more reliably than Pinot noir. The vine's tendency to bud later in the growing season and ripen earlier makes it less susceptible to developing coulure which can greatly reduce a prospective crop. For the last couple of centuries, Pinot Meunier has been the most widely planted Champagne grape, accounting for more than 40% of the region's entire plantings. It is most prevalent in the cooler, north facing vineyards of the Vallee de la Marne and in the Aisne department. It is also widely grown in the Aube region in vineyards where Pinot noir and Chardonnay would not fully ripen.

Compared to Pinot noir, Pinot Meunier produces lighter colored wines with slightly higher acid levels but can maintain similar sugar and alcohol levels. As part of a standard Champagne blend, Pinot Meunier contributes aromatics and fruity flavors to the wine. Champagnes with a substantial proportion of Pinot Meunier tend not to have as much significant aging potential as Champagnes that are composed primarily of Chardonnay or Pinot noir. It is therefore most commonly used for Champagnes that are intended to be consumed young, when the soft, plushy fruit of the Pinot Meunier is at its peak. A notable exception is the Champagne house of Krug which makes liberal use of Pinot Meunier in its long-lived prestige cuvees.

During the 19th century, Pinot Meunier was widely planted throughout northern France, especially in the Paris Basin. It was found across the northern half of country from the Loire Valley to Lorraine. Today, Pinot Meunier is found outside of Champagne in dwindling quantities in the Loire Valley regions of Touraine and Orleans as well as the Cotes de Toul and Moselle regions. In these regions Pinot Meunier is used to make light bodied reds and rosés. These wines most often fall into the vin gris style are characterized by their pale pink color and distinctive smokey notes.

Other regions
In Germany, Pinot Meunier is used most often to make still red wines under its synonyms Schwarzriesling, Müllerrebe and Müller-Traube. The style of those wines ranges from simple, light, off-dry (halbtrocken) to rich, dry with substantial flavors. More recently, Schwarzriesling is used also to make dry white wines with a fresh, fruity character. Most German plantings of the variety ( out of , or 74%, in the year 2006) are found in Württemberg. Here it is used to make a local speciality known as Schillerwein which is characterized by its light pink color, smokey noted and slightly higher acidity than wines made from Spätburgunder (Pinot noir). Some growers in Württemberg have been promoting a particular clone of Pinot Meunier that has developed in the region known as Samtrot. Pinot Meunier is also found in significant quantities in the German wine regions of Baden, Franconia and Palatinate. Despite the variety's connection with Champagne, it only recently become popular to use Schwarzriesling in the production of sparkling wines Sekt, often not blended with its Champagne partners but as pure brut Schwarzriesling "Sekt". Pinot Meunier is also grown in the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and in small quantities in Austria.

In California, American sparkling wine producers wishing to emulate the Champagne method began planting Pinot Meunier in the 1980s. Today most of the state's plantings are located in the Carneros AVA. Bouchaine Vineyards, Mumm Napa and Domaine Chandon are a few wineries in all of the Napa Valley to produce a still Pinot Meunier. In Australia, the grape has had a longer history in Australian wine production than Pinot noir. In the Grampians region of Victoria, Pinot Meunier was known at one time as Miller's Burgundy and used to make still red varietal wine. In the late 20th century plantings were starting to decline until a revival of Champagne-style sparkling wine took hold in the 2000s which sparked renewed interest in Pinot Meunier. The New Zealand wine industry has recently discovered Pinot Meunier for both still & sparkling wine production. As a varietal red wine, Pinot Meunier tends to produce slightly jammy, fruity wines with moderate acidity and low tannins.

Possible relationships
Ferdinand Regner has proposed that Pinot Meunier (Schwarzriesling) is a parent of Pinot noir but this work has not been replicated and would appear to be superseded by the Australian work.

The Wrotham (pronounced "rootum") Pinot is an English selection of Pinot that is sometimes regarded as a synonym of Pinot Meunier. The Wrotham Pinot does look somewhat similar to Meunier, with white hairs on the upper surface of the leaves. But it is particularly resistant to disease, has a higher natural sugar content and ripens two weeks earlier than Meunier. No genetic evidence exists however to prove it is anything other than a distinctively named clone of Pinot Meunier.

Synonyms
Pinot Meunier is known under various synonyms across the globe including-Auvernat Meunier, Blanc Meunier, Blanche Feuille, Carpinet, Cerny Mancujk, Créedinet, Dusty Miller, Farineux noir, Fernaise, Frésillon, Fromenté, Frühe blaue Müllerrebe, Goujeau, Gris Meunier, Meunier, Meunier Gris, Miller Grape, Miller's Burgundy, Molnár Töke, Molnár Töke Kék, Molnárszölö, Morillon Tacone, Morone Farinaccio, Moucnik, Müllerrebe, Muller-Traube, Noirin Enfariné, Noirien de Vuillapans, Pineau Meunier, Pino Meine, Pinot negro, Plant de Brie, Plant Meunier, Plant Munier, Postitschtraube, Rana Modra Mlinaria, Rana Modra Mlinarica, Resseau, Riesling noir, Sarpinet, Trézillon and Wrotham Pinot.

See also
 Pixie Grape, natural dwarf grapevine that is derived from the Pinot Meunier.

References

Champagne (wine)
Red wine grape varieties

Pinot Meunier


Sarcodexia est un genre de mouches de la famille des Sarcophagidae.

Systématique
Le genre Sarcodexia a été créé en 1892 par l'entomologiste américain Charles Henry Tyler Townsend (1863-1944) avec pour espèce type Sarcodexia sternodontis qui s'est avéré ultérieurement synonyme de Sarcodexia innota décrite en 1861.

Liste des espèces
Selon  et  :
 Sarcodexia biseriata (Aldrich, 1916)
 Sarcodexia innota (Walker, 1861)
 Sarcodexia servilis (Aldrich, 1916)
 Sarcodexia welchi (Hall, 1930)

Selon  :
 Sarcodexia lambens (Wiedemann, 1830)

Notes et références

Liens externes

Genre de Diptères (nom scientifique)
Sarcophagidae

Sarcodexia


Le château d'Is se situe sur la commune d'Onet-le-Château, près de Rodez dans le département de l'Aveyron, en France.

Localisation
Le château d'Is est situé sur le causse, à 4 km au sud-ouest d'Onet-le-Château entre la voie romaine allant de Rodez à Cahors et la draille de transhumance du Quercy à l'Aubrac en passant par Labro.

Histoire
Les parties  les plus anciennes datent du  et proviennent d'une des nombreuses granges de l'abbaye de Bonnecombe. Celle-ci s'étendait sur 200 hectares, jusqu'aux rives de l'Aveyron. La tour de guet apparaît au . Le domaine, mis en fermage sous le régime de la commende qui entraîne une chute des vocations, périclite et échappe de peu à la démolition avant d'être vendu à la Révolution.

Racheté en 1811 par Pierre Cabrol de Mouté, il passe entre diverses mains pour revenir en 1850 à Louis Marie Frédéric de Roquefeuille qui transforme la ferme en château néo-Renaissance. Les travaux se poursuivent avec Gustave Solanet, mégissier à Millau, qui en fait sa demeure d'été. Son petit-fils Aymar Solanet qui en hérite en 1967 le vend à la famille Cazelles en 1990. Depuis cette date, les propriétaires actuels y font vivre la mémoire des cisterciens à travers les siècles, au sein de l'association Cisterciens en Rouergue.

Architecture
L'entrée principale, sur le côté du château, présente une large arche qui subsiste de l'époque médiévale et qui menait à une grande cour où étaient stockées les céréales. La grange a été modifiée à la Renaissance comme en témoigne la tour carrée, qui flanque le logis, à l'ouest, et les petits jours couverts de larmiers de la façade sud. Le logis a été très largement remanié vers 1850, et doté, à la fin du siècle, de vastes dépendances agricoles pour la culture céréalière et l'élevage.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Onet-le-Château
 Abbaye de Bonnecombe

Is
Onet-le-Château

Château d'Is


Paul Brunold est un claveciniste, organiste et musicologue français, né le  à Paris (4 arrondissement) et mort dans la même ville le .

Biographie
Paul Brunold, de son vrai nom, Paul Marie Émile Bruneau, est né le  à Paris.

Il étudie au Conservatoire de Paris, où il est élève d'Antoine-François Marmontel, Albert Lavignac et Xavier Leroux, puis travaille avec Ignacy Paderewski.

Il s'intéresse au clavecin et se consacre à partir de 1910 à l'étude de la musique ancienne. De 1912 à 1920, il est rédacteur en chef de la revue L'Écho musical.

En 1915, Brunold devient organiste titulaire de l'orgue des Couperin à Saint-Gervais.

Avec Henry Expert, il publie une Anthologie des maîtres français du clavecin des  et avec André Tessier réalise une édition complète des œuvres de Chambonnières. Il édite aussi deux volumes d'œuvres de Dieupart pour l'Oiseau-Lyre et est l'auteur d'une Histoire du grand orgue de l'église Saint-Gervais à Paris (1934).

En 1946, Paul Brunold est nommé conservateur du musée instrumental du Conservatoire.

Il meurt le  à Paris.

Publications
Comme auteur ou éditeur, Paul Brunold a notamment publié :

 Traité des signes et agréments employés par les clavecinistes français (Paris, 1925 ; rééd. Nice, Delrieu, 1965) ;
 Histoire du grand orgue de Saint-Gervais (Paris, L'Oiseau-Lyre, 1934) ;
 François Couperin (Monaco, 1949, en anglais) ;
 Les maîtres français du clavecin des  (Paris, 1914–25), avec Henry Expert ;
 Œuvres complètes de Chambonnières (Paris, 1925), avec André Tessier ;
 Suites de clavecin de Dieupart (Paris, 1935) ;
 Pièces de clavecin de Clérambault (Paris)
 Pièces de clavecin d'Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre, rév. par Th. Dart (Monaco, L'Oiseau-Lyre, 1965).

Références

Bibliographie

 .
 .

Liens externes

Naissance en octobre 1875
Naissance dans le 4e arrondissement de Paris
Musicologue français
Organiste français
Claveciniste français
Pseudonyme
Décès dans le 15e arrondissement de Paris
Décès en septembre 1948
Décès à 72 ans

Paul Brunold


The Hudud Ordinances are laws in Pakistan enacted in 1979 as part of the Islamization of Pakistan by Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the sixth president of Pakistan. It replaced parts of the British-era Pakistan Penal Code, adding new criminal offences of adultery and fornication, and new punishments of whipping, amputation, and stoning to death. After much controversy and criticism parts of the law were extensively revised in 2006 by the Women's Protection Bill.

The Hudood Law was intended to implement Shari'a law or bring Pakistani law into "conformity with the injunctions of Islam", by enforcing punishments mentioned in the Quran and sunnah for zina (extramarital sex), qazf (false accusation of zina), theft, and consumption of alcohol. The system provided for two kinds of offences — hadd and tazir — with different punishments to go with them.  Hadd offences (fixed punishment) require a higher standard of proof than tazir (discretionary punishment) and their punishments are more severe.

The zina provisions of the law were particularly controversial and critics alleged that there were "hundreds of incidents where a woman subjected to rape, or even gang rape, was eventually accused of zina" and incarcerated. The laws in 2006 were corrected, excusing such women who failed to prove the rape.

Ordinances
The ordinances follow the classical mainly Hanafi jurisprudence doctrine. One non-classical feature is that Hadd punishments can only be carried out after an appeal to the Federal Shariat Court has failed.
The Federal Shariat Court, which has "exclusive jurisdiction" to examine whether or not a law is in accordance with the injunctions of Islam, was created along with the Ordinances.

Under the ordinances, tazir punishments often involve flogging.

Offences Against Property (theft) ordinance
Officially known as "The Offences Against Property (Enforcement Of Hudood) Ordinance (VI of 1979)."

Offences Against Property liable to hadd must be
theft of something nisab level of value, i.e. property worth more than 4.457 grams of gold (about USD $258 )
from a place where the property was protected.
evidence must be from a confession by the accused, or at least two Muslim adult male witnesses who are `tazkiyah-al-shuhood`, (truthful and non-sinners).
Punishment for "theft liable to hadd";
first offence: "amputation of his right hand from the joint of the wrist";
second offence: "amputation of his left foot up to the ankle";
third offence: imprisonment for life;
 Theft liable to tazir: Whoever commits theft, which, is not liable to 'hadd' or
for which there is no confession or evidence provided by two qualifying Muslim adult male witnesses, or
for which 'hadd' may not be imposed or enforced under this Ordinance;
Punishment for theft liable to tazir: is stipulated in the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860).

For robbery liable to hadd, the right hand of the offender and his left foot should be amputated by a surgeon.

Zina (extramarital) Ordinance
Officially known as "The Offence of Zina (Enforcement of Hudood) Ordinance (VII of 1979)" refers to fornication, adultery and zina bil jabbar (rape). The most controversial of the four ordinances,  it has several distinct categories of sexual offences and assigned punishments for each:
zina liable to hadd; punishable by
stoning to death for the adulterer
public whipping of 100 lashes for a fornicator
zina liable to tazir; punishable by
imprisonment for up to ten years
zina-bil-jabr liable to hadd;
zina-bil-jabr liable to tazir;

Further Zina offenses are (or as of 1991 were)
kidnapping
sodomy
enticement
attempted rape
abetment of zina crime
deceitful marriage
conspiracy to engage in prostitution

Under hadd, eyewitnesses evidence of the act of penetration by "at least four Muslim adult male witnesses", about whom "the court is satisfied", that "they are truthful persons and abstain from major sins (kabair)" (tazkiyah al-shuhood). Because of this stringent standard, no accused has ever been found guilty and stoned to death in Pakistan, and punishments have been awarded only under the Tazir provision of the Hudood Ordinance which uses circumstantial evidence.

The ordinance also abolished Pakistan's statutory rape law.

The 2006 Act has now deleted zina bil jabbar from the Zina Hudood Ordinance and inserted sections 375 and 376 for Rape and Punishment respectively in the Pakistan Penal Code to replace it.

Qazf (false accusation of fornication or adultery) Ordinance

Officially known as: "The Offence of Qazf (Enforcement of Hudood) Ordinance of 1979". It described the offence of false accusation of Zina (fornication and adultery) either written, verbal or "by visible representations", with intent to cause harm, and without producing four witnesses in support of the accusation before the Court, or who "according to the finding of the Court", a witness has given false evidence of the commission of zina or rape, or when a complainant has made a false accusation of rape;
Proof of "qazf liable to hadd" includes the accused confessing to it in court, the accused committing qazf in court, or if two Muslim adult male witnesses (other than the victim of the qazf) testify that the defendant committed qazf. (If the accused is a non-Muslim, the witnesses may be non-Muslims.)
Punishment of "qazf liable to hadd" will be a whipping numbering 80 stripes.
"Qazf liable to Tazir" applies whenever
proof in any of the forms mentioned above is not available,
or when the perpetrator has committed 'qazf' against any of his descendants,
or when the victim of qazf has died during the "pendency of the proceedings";
punishment of "qazf liable to tazir" shall be imprisonment for up to two years, a whipping of up to 40 stripes, and may also include a fine.

Prohibition (alcohol) Order

Officially known as: "The Prohibition (Enforcement of Hadd) Order of 1979", described the offence of producing, importing, selling, owning, possessing or consuming alcohol.

Producing, bottling, selling alcohol is punishable by imprisonment of up to five years, or flogging of up to 30 stripes, and may also be fined.
Owning or possessing is punishable by imprisonment of up to two years, or flogging of up to 30 stripes, and may also be fined.
drinkers liable to hadd are adult Muslims who "takes intoxicating liquor by mouth"   if they confess to drinking or evidence is given by "two Muslim adult male witness" of good character.
They "shall be punished" with flogging of "eighty stripes".
drinkers liable to tazir include
non-Muslim citizens of Pakistan who have been drinking (unless it is "part of a ceremony prescribed by his religion"):
non-Muslim, non-citizens of Pakistan, who have been drinking in a public place;
Muslims for whom "the offence stands proved by the evidence on the record" but not by hadd evidence of two Muslim witnesses, etc.
these drinkers shall be punished by imprisonment of up to three years, flogging of up to 30 stripes, or both.
owning or possessing heroin, cocaine, opium or coca leaf is also punishable with imprisonment, flogging and fines.

Whipping Ordinance

"The Execution of the Punishment of Whipping Ordinance of 1979" was developed to regulate the punishment of whipping/flogging.

It specifies that whips shall be made of leather, or a cane or a branch of a tree, be no longer than  1.22 meters and no thicker than 1.25 cm. Convict shall be medically examined before flogging to determine if the flogging should be "applied in such manner and with such intervals" that it does not kill the offender being flogged. Flogging may be postponed if the offender is ill, pregnant, or if the weather is too cold, etc.  Stripes shall not be applied to "the head, face, stomach or chest or the delicate parts of the body of the convict," and should not lacerate the skin of the convict.

Controversy and revision

Whipping
In 1996 the Abolition of Whipping Act (passed by Benazir Bhutto's Pakistan People's Party), forbade sentences/punishments of whipping offenders except when imposed as a hadd punishment.
It has "greatly reduced" the instances of corporal punishment.

Zina (extramarital) Ordinance
In the two and a half decades the law was unchanged, several Pakistani government appointed commissions recommended the Zina Ordinance's repeal (such as the National Commission for the Status of Women in 2003, the Special Committee to Review the Hudood Ordinances, 1979, Commission of Inquiry for Women).
Critics of the law alleged that while no one had actually been executed by stoning or had their hand or foot amputated in punishment as a result of the law, the ordinance made it dangerous to file rape charges as the women can be punished under tazir if failed to prove an allegation of rape.  In 1979, before the ordinances went into effect there were 70 women held in Pakistani prisons. By 1988, there were 6000.
A 2003 report by the National Commission on Status of Women (NCSW) estimated "80% of women" were incarcerated because "they had failed to prove rape charges and were consequently convicted of adultery under tazir."
According to legal scholar Martin Lau
While it was easy to file a case against a woman accusing her of adultery, the Zina Ordinance made it very difficult for a woman to obtain bail pending trial. Worse, in actual practice, the vast majority of accused women were found guilty by the trial court only to be acquitted on appeal to the Federal Shariat Court. By then they had spent many years in jail, were ostracized by their families, and had become social outcasts.

A woman alleging rape was Initially required to provide eyewitnesses of good standing and moral character (Tazkiyah-al-shuhood) and the witnesses would have to witness "the act of penetration" for the death penalty to apply to the rapist or if there was no witnesses then Ta'zir would apply.
In principle, the failure to find such proof of the rape does not place the woman herself at risk of prosecution.
According to Mufti Taqi Usmani, who was instrumental in the creation of the ordinances:

If anyone says that she was punished because of Qazaf (false accusation of rape) then Qazaf Ordinance, Clause no. 3, Exemption no. 2 clearly states that if someone approaches the legal authorities with a rape complaint, she cannot be punished in case she is unable to present four witnesses. No court of law can be in its right mind to award such a punishment.

However, in practice, these safeguards have not always worked. In addition, because the ordinance abolished Pakistan's statutory rape law, girls as young as twelve were prosecuted for having extra-marital intercourse "under circumstances that would previously have mandated statutory rape charges against their assailant," according to Human Rights Watch.

Stories of suffering by women who claimed to have been raped appeared in the press in the years following the passing of the Hudood Ordinance stirring protests by Pakistani activists and lawyers and international human rights organizations. One case was that of Safia Bibi, an unmarried blind woman from the northwest frontier who was prosecuted for zina because of her illegitimate pregnancy she was given jail sentence of 3 years with 15 stripes of lashings and a fine of 100 rupees under tazir. Her rapist was acquitted. Judge ruled that there insufficient evidence to link him with rape.

The evidence of guilt was there for all to see: a newborn baby in the arms of its mother, a village woman named Zafran Bibi. Her crime: she had been raped. Her sentence: death by stoning. Now Ms. Zafran Bibi, who is about 26, is in solitary confinement in a death-row cell.

Thumping a fat red statute book, the white-bearded judge who convicted her, Anwar Ali Khan, said he had simply followed the letter of the Qur'an-based law, known as hudood, that mandates punishments.

"The illegitimate child is not disowned by her and therefore is proof of zina," he said, referring to laws that forbid any sexual contact outside marriage. Furthermore, he said, in accusing her brother-in-law of raping her, Ms. Zafran had confessed to her crime.

The appeal judgment of the Federal Shariah Court cleared the girl of the accusation of zina.

Another scenario for some of the accusations of adultery leading to imprisonment was following divorce by the husband and remarriage by the ex-wife.
A triple talaq is pronounced. The woman returns to her parental home. She goes through her period of iddat.  After a while the family arranges another match and she gets married. The husband then claims that sans the confirmation of divorce by the local authorities the marriage is not over and launches a zina prosecution. It is necessary to delete this definition [of a valid marriage] to shut this door.Protection of Women (Criminal Laws Amendment) Act, 2006, at Statement of Objects and Reasons (Pak.), http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/legislation/2006/wpb.html  (last visited Oct. 27, 2007) (on file with the Washington and Lee Law Review).

A number of international and Pakistani human rights organizations argue that Hudood Ordinance goes beyond what is required by sharia. They are opposed by right wing religious parties (Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA)), who accuse them of departing from Islamic values.

Case study

A study by Charles Kennedy of the Hudood Ordinances based on random stratified sample of cases tried by the Federal Shariat Court (FSC) from 1980–84, found 88% of cases heard by the FSC were Zina Ordinance-related, that the court acquitted over half (52%) of the appellates (an "extraordinarily high" number), and "fully upheld" less than one in five (19%) of the convictions. Around 90% of the cases were overturned based on misappreciation of the facts, not misappreciation of the law.
 The average time that defendants had to wait for disposition of their cases (in jail unless they were granted bail) after the "First Information Report" in district and sessions courts was around eighteen months.   However the acquitted defendants still had to contend with high legal fees, a social opprobrium facing even acquitted defendants, and time in jail until their appeal was heard unless they were granted bail.

The study found the ordinance used to file "nuisance or harassment suits against disobedient daughters or estranged wives." Three common patterns in the cases were:
 a man and a woman are accused of zina by the father or older brother of the accused woman, the complainant(s) not consenting to the marriage or relationship;
a complainant accuses his "former" spouse of zina when she remarries;
a girl bring charges of rape against her 'boyfriend' after she is confronted by her relatives with alleged evidence of possible wrongdoing or dishonor.

Kennedy states that "clearly the perception that Zia's program significantly discriminated against women's rights is fundamentally flawed". 84% of those convicted in district and sessions courts under Hudood law were men, and 90% of those whose convictions were upheld by the FSC were men, the law cannot be accused of gender bias. He does not argue with statements such as "eight out of every ten women in jail today are those charged with the offence of Zina". He also states "it is undoubtedly the case" that the Hudood Ordinances, or at least their implementation, "discriminated against Pakistan's lower socioeconomic classes". Only 2% of those convicted were middle-class (and none upper-class).

Human rights attorney Sadakat Kadri replies that "Kennedy reached that mistaken view" because he compared male and female "conviction statistics as though they were alike, ignoring the fact that most men would have been rapists, whereas the women would all have been rape victims or alleged consenting adulterers."

Reforming the Hudood Ordinance

Attention to the Ordinance and suggestions for revising it were given by a number of government appointed commissions, a several-weeks-long televised debate on the subject of "No debate on Hudood Allah (Allah's laws as prescribed in Quran and Sunnah)-is the Hudood Ordinance (Man's
interpretation of Allah's law) Islamic?" on Geo television channel, and a 2005 University of Karachi Dept of Public Administration workshop.

In 2006, then President Pervez Musharraf again proposed reform of the ordinance. On November 15, 2006, the "Protection of Women (Criminal Laws Amendment) Act" was passed in the National Assembly, allowing rape to be prosecutable under civil law. The bill was ratified by the Senate on 23 November 2006, and became law after President Musharraf signed it on 1 December 2006.

The bill
returns a number of offenses from the Zina Ordinance to the Pakistan Penal Code, where they had been before 1979;
since rape, unlike zina and qazf, is not mentioned in the Quran, rape is now excluded from Islamic criminal law.
reformulates and redefines the offenses of zina and qazf (the wrongful accusation of zina);
no complaint of adultery or rape can be converted into one of fornication;
creates an entirely new set of procedures governing the prosecution of the offenses of adultery and fornication.
adds to the Pakistan Penal Code a new offense of false accusation of fornication, so that an accusation of fornication runs the risk of a lengthy prison sentence if his complaint does not result in a conviction;
adultery is the only offense retained in the Zina Ordinance. A complaint of adultery must be made to a judge with at least four witnesses testifying under oath that they witnessed the act of penetration.

Legal experts have claimed that the original law was not so unbalanced as its opponents claimed or that the reforms will be impossible to enforce.

Human rights groups and activists in Pakistan have also criticized the bill, with one group complaining: "The so-called Women's Protection Bill is a farcical attempt at making the Hudood Ordinance palatable". The concern is that thousands of rapes go unreported as victims fear that they would be treated as criminals. In contrast Martin Lau has said that the Act "cannot be dismissed as a mere window dressing undertaken to satisfy a Western audience."

Criminal Law (Amendment) (Offense of Rape) Act 2016
On 7 October 2016, Pakistan's parliament unanimously passed a new anti-rape and anti-honour killing bills. The new laws introduced harsher punishments for the perpetrators of such crimes. According to the new anti-rape bill, DNA testing was made mandatory in rape cases. Sabotaging or disrupting the work of a police officer or Government official could result in imprisonment of 1 year under the new law. Government officials who are found taking advantage of their official position to commit act of rape (e.g. custodial rape) are liable to imprisonment for life and a fine. According to the new law, anyone who rapes a minor or a mentally or physically disabled person will be liable for the death penalty or life imprisonment.

Recording of statement of the female survivor of rape or sexual harassment shall be done by an Investigating Officer, in the presence of a female police officer, or a female family member of the survivor. Survivors of rape shall be provided legal aid (if needed) by the Provincial Bar Council. The new law also declares that trials for offences such as rape and related crimes shall be conducted in-camera and also allows for the use of technology such as video links to record statements of the victim and witnesses, to spare them the humiliation or risk entailed by court appearances. The media will also be restricted from publishing or publicising the names or any information that would reveal the identity of a victim, except when publishing court judgements. The trial for rape shall conclude within three months. However, if the trial is not completed within three months then the case shall be brought to the notice of the Chief Justice of the High Court for appropriate directions. The new bill also ensures that sex workers are also included in the law's protection.

UN Women Executive Director, Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, hailed the Government of Pakistan's decision to pass the anti-rape and anti-honour killing bills.

See also
Hudood
Pakistan penal code
Women related laws in Pakistan

Bibliography

 Khan, Shahnaz. Zina and the Moral Regulation of Pakistani Women, Feminist Review, Volume: 75 issue: 1, page(s): 75-100, Issue published: December 1, 2003; Sage Journals,  https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400111

References

1979 in law
1979 in Pakistan
Law of Pakistan
Repealed Pakistani legislation
Sharia in Pakistan
Women's rights in Pakistan
Military government of Pakistan (1977–1988)

Hudud Ordinances


Quererte así es una telenovela mexicana producida por Rafael Urióstegui para TV Azteca en 2012, una historia original de Eric Vonn.

Protagonizada por María José Magán y Francisco Angelini, con las participaciones antagónicas de Aura Cristina Geithner y Mauricio Barcelata, además de la participaciones estelares de Bernie Paz, Fernando Luján, Gabriela Vergara, Verónica Merchant, Fernando Becerril y María Fernanda Quiroz.

Sus grabaciones empezaron el 30 de enero de 2012. Y concluyeron oficialmente el 15 de junio de 2012.

Sinopsis
Según los deseos de su abuelo Antonio Duncan, al firmar el acta matrimonial Paulina Navarrete Duncan, tendrá poder absoluto sobre su herencia, el consorcio hotelero más próspero del país. Fue su ideal de tener una familia lo que la impulsó a aceptar casarse con Alberto, pero, ¿es el cariño suficiente para sostener un matrimonio?

Pero es el propio testamento del patriarca lo que despertó a los demonios que dormían dentro de cada uno. El rencor y resentimiento de Emilia, una fría mujer de negocios, hija de Antonio y madre de Paulina, quien planea arrebatarle todo a la joven. La obsesión y apatía de Gustavo, el marido de Emilia, por demostrar su valía. La envidia de la guapa Gabriela que se oculta tras una falsa sonrisa mientras sostiene un tórrido romance con Alberto, pues nada le daría mayor placer que robarle el marido a quien cree su hermana. La ambición y urgencia de Alberto por casarse para manejar los hoteles lo guía a ver en Gabriela una confiable fuente de información. Así se desata una lucha silenciosa por manipular a Paulina, pues quien la controle, tendrá el poder.

El origen de Paulina es aún un secreto, ya que Emilia tuvo un amorío con el chofer de la familia, y para ocultar su embarazo Antonio obligó a su única hija a casarse con el exitoso abogado Gustavo Navarrete, un viudo con una pequeña hija de nombre Gabriela. Es así que Paulina floreció lejos de sus padres y bajo la calidez de la Nana Yuya, quien al presentir su muerte le comunica su última voluntad: ella deberá esparcir sus cenizas en la playa que la vio nacer.

A cientos de kilómetros, el Doctor Rafael Romero viaja de regreso a Playa Paraíso, su tierra, un pequeño paraíso donde esperan sus orgullosos padres, Eva y Ramón. Armado con el apoyo de Fred -el extranjero que pagó sus estudios- y su inteligencia, el joven médico tiene ya un trabajo en Playa Paraíso y planes para ayudar a su gente.

La muerte de Yuya, hunde a Paulina en un profundo dolor que no es compartido por ningún miembro de su familia. Para cumplir el último deseo de la anciana, la heredera pospone su boda y sin decir nada se dirige a Playa Paraíso con las cenizas de quien fue su madre. En el sinuoso camino, el auto en que viaje sufre un accidente y es Rafael quien auxilia a las víctimas. El joven médico queda prendado de la asustada joven que abraza un maletín como si de ello dependiese su vida.

Es él quien la acompaña a esparcir las cenizas de la Nana Yuya a la orilla del mar. Bajo la luz de la luna, Paulina y Rafael descubren la afinidad de sus almas, pero su paraíso se derrumba ante la cruel realidad que los aparta cuando llega Alberto a buscar a su futura esposa. Rafael se siente traicionado, pero al descubrirse enamorado comete la locura de impedir la boda, afrenta que desata la furia de quienes están detrás de la fortuna de Paulina.

La ambición de los Navarrete Duncan y la prepotencia de Alberto se alían con Adalina, la cantante exótica que sueña con ser la esposa del médico. Juntos harán lo inimaginable para destruir el amor de Paulina y Rafael, un amor que pone en jaque a sus diferentes mundos e intereses económicos.

Reparto
 María José Magán ... Paulina Navarrete Duncan / Paulina Ramírez Duncan
 Francisco Angelini ... Rafael Romero / Rafael Parker
 Aura Cristina Geithner ... Emilia Duncan de Navarrete / Emilia Duncan Vda. de Parker
 Bernie Paz ... Gustavo Navarrete
 Mauricio Barcelata ... Alberto "Beto" Santos
 Fernando Luján ... Alfred "Fred" Parker
 Verónica Merchant ... Carmela Ramírez de Ordóñez
 Gabriela Vergara ... Marisela Santos / Isadora Morales
 Fernando Becerril ... Ramón Romero
 María Fernanda Quiroz ... Gabriela "Gaby" Navarrete Duncan / Gabriela "Gaby" Navarrete García
 Wendy de los Cobos ... Yolanda García
 Tomás Goros ... Amílcar Ramírez
 Rodolfo Arias ... Matías Santos
 Fabián Corres ... Javier Valdez
 Guillermo Larrea ... José María Ordóñez
 Eva Prado ... Eva Romero †
 Surya MacGregor ... Esther Andrade
 Cinthia Vázquez ... Silvia Andrade
 María de la Fuente ... Perla Ramírez Vda. de Santos
 Gloria Stálina ... Adalina Rivas
 Sylvia Sáenz ... Magaly Valdez
 Germán Valdés ... Daniel Andrade
 Giovanni Florido ... Genaro Ramírez
 Roberta Burns ... Cristina Santos
 Rykardo Hernández ... Diego Aguirre
 Ivonne Zurita ... Viviana
 Thalía Gómez ... María
 Luis Santibáñez ... Gilberto "Gil" Contreras
 Luciano Zacharski ... Julián Valdez
 Ana Ofelia Murguía ... Yuridia "Yuya" Domínguez
 Raúl Méndez ... Marcial Andrade
 Enrique Becker ... Antonio Duncan
 Juan Carlos Martín del Campo ... Boris Montenegro
 Juan Pablo Campa ... Damián Monteagudo

Referencias

Telenovelas de 2012
Telenovelas de México
Telenovelas de TV Azteca

Quererte así


Dvorac Heidelberg (njemački: Heidelberger Schloss) je ruševina dvorca u Njemačkoj i znamenitost Heidelberga. Ruševine dvorca su među najvažnijim renesansnim građevinama sjeverno od Alpa.

Dvorac je djelomično obnovljen nakon rušenja u 17. i 18. stoljeću. Nalazi se 80 metara do sjevernog dijela brda Königstuhl i time dominira pogledom na staru gradsku jezgru Heidelberga. Do njega vodi uspinjača "Heidelberger Bergbahn" koja ide od Kornmarkta (113 m. nadmorske visine ) u Heidelbergu do vrha brda Königstuhla. Dugačka je 471 metara, a razlika u visini je 171 metar.

Najraniji dio dvorca izgrađen je prije 1214. godine, a kasnije je proširen na dva dvorca oko 1294. godine; međutim, 1537. godine, grom je uništio gornji dvorac. Sadašnje strukture bile su proširene do 1650. godine, prije oštećenja ratovima i požarima. Godine 1764., još jedan grom prouzročio je požar koji je uništio neke obnovljene dijelove.

Galerija

Dvorci u Njemačkoj

Dvorac Heidelberg


Eugenia Šarlota Pawel-Kroll, poljska grafička dizajnerica i crtačica dječjih stripova. Najpoznatija je po svojoj seriji dječjih stripova Jonka, Jonek i Kleks, koji su doživjeli više desetaka nastavaka između 1974. i 2003. godine te se smatraju najvrjednijim dostignućem poljskog dječjeg stripa.

Diplomirala je na Akademiji primijenjenih umjetnosti u Varšavi u klasi priznatog strip crtača, prof. Henrika Jeržija Chmielewskog.

Godine 2010. odlikovana je Medaljom za zasluge u kulturi "Gloria Artis" koju dodjeljuje Ministarstvo kulture i narodne baštine Republike Poljske.

Ilustrirala je više dječjih knjiga, a crtala je i za razne časopise, pretežno namijenjene djeci i mladima, poput Broj osmijeha i Svijet mladih.

Izvori

Životopisi, Poljska
Crtači stripa
Grafičari
Ilustratori

Šarlota Pawel


الدكتورة مارغريت تشان، مديرة عامة سابقة لمنظمة الصحة العالمية من جنسية صينية وكندية. تحصلت الدكتورة تشان على شهادة الطب من جامعة أونتاريو في كندا والتحقت بإدارة الصحة بهونغ كونغ في عام 1978، حيث بدأت حياتها المهنية في مجال الصحة العمومية. وفي عام 1994 عُيّنت تشان في منصب مدير إدارة الصحة بهونغ كونغ. وأطلقت أثناء إشرافها على تلك الإدارة خدمات جديدة لتوقي انتشار الأمراض وتعزيز الصحة. كما أدرجت مبادرات جديدة ترمي إلى تحسين ترصد الأمراض السارية ومواجهتها، وتعزيز عمليات تدريب المهنيين العاملين في مجال الصحة العمومية، وإلى تحسين التعاون على الصعيدين المحلي والدولي. وتمكّنت من التصدي، بفعالية، لفاشيات إنفلونزا الطيور ومتلازمة الالتهاب الرئوي الحاد الوخيم.

المناصب التي تتولاها
وفي عام 2003 عُيّنت الدكتورة تشان في منصب مدير إدارة حماية البيئة البشرية بمنظمة الصحة العالمية. وعُيّنت، في يونيو 2005، مديرة لشؤون ترصد الأمراض السارية ومواجهتها، وممثلة المدير العام لمسائل جائحة الإنفلونزا. وفي سبتمبر 2005 عُيّنت في منصب المدير العام المساعد المسؤول عن دائرة الأمراض السارية.

وعُيّنت الدكتورة تشان في منصب المدير العام للمنظمة في 9 نوفمبر 2006. وتولت  مهامها في 4 يناير 2007، وانتهت ولايتها في يونيو 2012 ولكن أُعيد انتخابها مجددا لغاية 2017.

التكوين
حصلت الدكتورة تشان على ليسانس الآداب في الاقتصاد العائلي عام 1973، إضافة إلى حصولها على دكتوراه في الطب من جامعة ويسترن أونتاريو عام 1977، إضافة إلى درجة الماجستير في الصحة العامة في جامعة سنغافورة الوطنية، واتبعت أيضا برنامج مديري البرامج الإنمائية (التنمية الإدارية) في كلية التجارة في جامعة هارفارد في عام 1991.

انظر أيضاً
 قائمة نساء في القيادة
 كين يامي

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أطباء صينيون
أطباء هونغ كونغيون
خريجو جامعة سنغافورة الوطنية
خريجو جامعة ويسترن أونتاريو
زملاء كلية الأطباء الملكية
ضباط رتبة الإمبراطورية البريطانية
طبيبات صينيات
عالمات القرن 20
عالمات القرن 21
عالمات كنديات في القرن 20
عالمات كنديات في القرن 21
مسؤولون صينيون في الأمم المتحدة
مسؤولون كنديون في الأمم المتحدة
مواليد 1947
مواليد في هونغ كونغ
موظفو منظمة الصحة العالمية

مارغريت تشان


Crkva sv. Nikole nalazi se u Milni na Braču, na izlazu iz milnarske luke, s desne (sjeverne) strane ubale.

Crkvicu je 1844. dao sagraditi Arne Harašić, posjednik iz Milne. Crkvica je sagrađena kod ulaza u ulavu Vlaška, u koju su se pomorci često sklanjali za vrijeme nevremena. Harašić je za gradnju crkve potrošio više od 600 forinti, a Crkvi je poklonio i zemljište na kojem je vinograd i maslinik.

U crkvici se na blagdan sv. Nikole priređuje fešta koju osobito časte milnarski pomorci.

Izvori

Nikola
Milna

Crkva sv. Nikole u Milni


Frederiksborgvej  er en to sporet omfartsvej der går vest om Slangerup. Vejen er en del af primærrute 6, primærrute 53 der går imellem Køge og Helsingør, Og fra Hillerød til Kirke Sonnerup.
Omfartsvejen blev lavet for at få den tung trafik uden om Slangerup Centrum, så byen ikke blev belastet af for meget tung trafik.

Vejen forbinder Hørup Skovvej i syd med Roskildevej i nord, og har forbindelse til Hørup Skovvej. Strandstræde, Manderupvej, Kvinderupvej og Frederiksborgvej.

Kilder

Slangerup
Omfartsveje i Danmark

Frederiksborgvej (Slangerup)


Isla Ribeyre (en inglés: Ribeyre Island) es una isla estadounidense que se encuentra en el sur del río Wabash de New Harmony, Indiana. La isla es accesible solo desde el lado de Illinois. La isla está atrapada entre un antiguo meandro del río Wabash, que forma el límite entre los estados de Indiana e Illinois y el canal principal del río. La isla está cubierta de campos de cultivo con una sola residencia. Numerosos pantanos marcan el extremo sur de la isla.

Véase también
Isla Reedy
Isla Reindeer
Isla Rema
Isla Remembrance

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de localización

Archipiélagos e islas de Indiana
Islas fluviales de Estados Unidos

Isla Ribeyre


Tim Hecker es un músico canadiense de electrónica y electroacústica. Hecker grabó sus primeras producciones bajo el apodo de Jetone, pero es más conocido por sus trabajos ambientales lanzados a través de las discográficas Kranky, Mille Plateaux, Alien8, Force Inc, Staalplaat, y Fat Cat, con su propio nombre.

Hecker comenzó como productor y compositor de música electrónica con el pseudónimo de Jetone. Sus  LPs más célebres, firmados con su nombre real, se caracterizan por la reconstrucción y recomposición, mediante el collage y otras técnicas digitales de arte sonoro, de actuaciones en vivo de música instrumental: los más elogiados por la crítica han sido Harmony in Ultraviolet, Ravedeath, 1972 y Virgins.

Ha actuado en directo en festivales como Sónar (Barcelona), MUTEK (Montreal), Impakt Festival (Utrecht), Victoriaville (Quebec), IDEAL (Nantes), Vancouver New Music Festival (Vancouver), y el club Transmediale (Berlín).

Además de haber realizado giras con Godspeed You! Black Emperor y Fly Pan Am, ha colaborado con Christof Migone, Martin Tétreault, y Aidan Baker. También ha contribuido con remixes de otros artistas, como Isis.

Sus aportaciones musicales incluyen bandas sonoras como las de la miniserie de televisión de la BBC The North Water o la película Infinity Pool de Brandon Cronenberg.

Discografía

Tim Hecker

Álbumes
Haunt Me, Haunt Me Do It Again (2001)
Radio Amor (2003)
Mirages (2004)
Harmony in Ultraviolet (2006)
An Imaginary Country (2009)
Ravedeath, 1972 (2011)
Virgins (2013)
 Love Streams  (2016)
 Konoyo  (2018)
 Anoyo  (2019)
 No Highs (2023)

Colaboraciones

con Aidan Baker (Nadja)
Fantasma Parastasie (2008)

Bandas sonoras
The North Water (2021)
Infinity Pool (2023)

EP y demás
Trade Winds, White Noise (2002)
My Love Is Rotten To The Core (2002)
Radio Marti / Radio Havana (2004)Mort Aux Vaches (2005)Pareidolia (2006)
Norberg (2007)Atlas (2007)Apondalifa (2010)
Dropped Pianos (2011)

Jetone

Álbumes
Autumnumonia (2000)
Ultramarin (2001)
Sundown (2006)

Referencias

Músicos de Vancouver
Músicos de ambient
Músicos de noise
Músicos de Quebec
Músicos de música electrónica
Nacidos en Vancouver

Tim Hecker (músico)


Nybøl Sogn (på tysk Kirchspiel Nübel) er et sogn i det sydlige Angel i Sydslesvig, tidligere i Strukstrup Herred (Gottorp Amt), nu kommunerne Ny Bjernt og Nybøl i Slesvig-Flensborg Kreds i delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

I Nybøl Sogn findes flg. stednavne:
 Bjernt (også Bjerrent, Berend)
 Bjernthede
 Bregling (Brekling)
 Dam
 Guldholm (Guldenholm)
 Hareholm (Haarholm)
 Henkelhoved (Hinkelhöft)
 Holt
 Højeloft (Hoheluft)
 Kattehund
 Lund (Lunden)
 Ny Bjernt (Neuberend)
 Nybøl  (Nübel)
 Nybøllund
 Søholm
 Triangel el. Østerkro

Litteratur
 M. Mørk Hansen og C. L. Nielsen: : Kirkelig Statistik over Slesvig Stift: Med historiske og topografiske bemærkninger, bind 2, Kjøbenhavn 1864, side 359
 Jens Peter Trap: Statistisk-topographisk beskrivelse af hertugdømmet Slesvig'', Kjøbenhavn 1864, side 521

Eksterne henvisninger
 Nybøl Menighed / Kirchengemeinde Nübel

Sogne i Sydslesvig

Nybøl Sogn (Sydslesvig)


An Oreobolus goeppingeri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Karl Suessenguth. An Oreobolus goeppingeri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oreobolus, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Oreobolus

Oreobolus goeppingeri


Auto-stop () est un moyen métrage italo-hélvéto-soviétique réalisé par Nikita Mikhalkov et sorti en 1991.

Synopsis
Le pilote italien Sandro (Massimo Venturiello) est engagé pour effectuer un test de voiture d'hiver en Union soviétique. Il se rend sur place, mais lorsqu'il fait le test, les événements prennent une tournure inattendue. Une femme enceinte, Nastya (Nina Ruslanova), fait de l'auto-stop car elle doit de toute urgence parvenir à l'hôpital pour accoucher. Sandro la prend en stop. Son mari (Vladimir Gostyukhin) les rattrape sur sa moto et fait route avec eux. Ils n'arrivent pas à temps à la maternité, et Nastya accouche dans les bois au bord de la route. Sandro, qui est témoin de la naissance, est en pleine crise de conscience : il commence à se rendre compte de l'erreur qu'il a commise en abandonnant sa femme et son fils.

Fiche technique
 Titre français : Auto-stop
 Titre original russe :
 Titre italien :
 Réalisateur : Nikita Mikhalkov
 Scénario : Nikita Mikhalkov, Roustam Ibraguimbekov
 Photographie : Franco Di Giacomo
 Montage : Enzo Meniconi
 Musique : Edouard Artemiev
 Décors : Vladimir Aronine
 Production : , Francesco Pistorio
 Société de production : Gamma Film, Trité, Stylos
 Pays de production : , ,
 Langue de tournage : russe, Italien
 Format : Couleur
 Durée : 51 minutes
 Genre : Comédie dramatique
 Dates de sortie :
 Union soviétique :

Distribution
  : Sandro
 Nina Rouslanova : Nastya
 Vladimir Gostioukhine : Sacha, le mari de Nastya
 Lioubov Sokolova : L'infirmière dans la maternité
 Larissa Oudovitchenko : La standardiste
  : Le garde-frontière

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film soviétique sorti en 1991
Film italien sorti en 1991
Film suisse sorti en 1991
Film tourné en 1990
Moyen métrage soviétique
Moyen métrage italien
Moyen métrage suisse
Film réalisé par Nikita Mikhalkov
Comédie dramatique soviétique
Comédie dramatique italienne
Comédie dramatique suisse
Film en russe
Film en italien
Film avec une musique composée par Edouard Artemiev
Film se déroulant en Union soviétique
Film sur la grossesse

Auto-stop (film)


යථාර්ථය පිළිබද ත්‍රිපිටකාගත විග්‍රහයක් මෙ තුළින් ගම්‍ය වන්නේ යැයි උපකල්පනය කෙරේ.

බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සේ සම්මා සම්බුද්ධත්වයට පත්වෙලා ඉස්සර වෙලාම ලෝකයාට දේශනා කළා වූ  ධම්මචක්කප්පවත්තන සූත්‍රයදී "මහණෙනි, යම්තාක් කල් මම වට්ට තුනකින් යුක්ත මේ ධර්‍මතාවය හතර ආකාරයෙන් වැඩිලා, දොළොස් ආකාර වූ ධර්‍මතාවය ඇත්ත ඇති හැටියේ දැකලා ඥාන දර්ශනය සම්පූර්ණ නොවුන ද, ඒ තාක් කල් මම දෙවියන් සහිත වූ, මරුන් සහිත වූ, බඹුන් සහිත වූ සත්ව ලෝකයෙහි ද මහණ බමුණන් සහිත වූ දෙවි මිනිසුන් සහිතවූ ප්‍රජාවෙහි ද අනුත්තර වූ සම්‍යක් සම්බෝධිය අවබෝධ කළෙමි යි පිළින නොකළෙමි. යම් කලෙක සත්‍ය ඥානය, කෘත්‍ය ඥානය, කෘත ඥානය කියන මේ තුන් ඥානය දුක්ඛ, සමුදය, නිරෝධ, මාර්‍ග කියන සත්‍ය සතරෙහි බහාලා මැනවින් දැක්කද, අවබෝධ කළාද, අවබෝධ වුණාද, එදා මම දෙවි මිනිසුන් සහිත ලොකය තුළ සම්මා සම්බුද්ධයි කියලා ලෝකයට ප්‍රකාශ කළා" කියලා දේශනා කළා.

තිපරිවට්ටය - මෙහි වට්ට තුන යනු
 සත්‍ය ඥානය - ආර්‍ය්‍ය සත්‍යයන් පිළිබද ඉගෙනීම.
 කෘත්‍ය ඥානය - ආර්‍ය්‍ය සත්‍යයන් වටහාගැනීම සදහා හේතුවන ක්‍රියාමාර්ගය අනුගමනය කිරීම.
 කෘත ඥානය යි - ආර්‍ය්‍ය සත්‍යයන් තමා තුළින්ම ප්‍රත්‍යක්ෂ කිරීම.

ද්වාදසාකාරය - දොළොස්ආකාරය යනු වට්ට තුන සත්‍ය හතරෙහි යෙදීමයි.
 දුක්ඛ සත්‍යයේ සත්‍ය ඥානය,    සමුදය සත්‍යයේ සත්‍ය ඥානය,     නිරොධ සත්‍යයේ සත්‍ය ඥානය,    මාර්‍ග සත්‍යයේ සත්‍ය ඥානය,
 දුක්ඛ සත්‍යයේ කෘත්‍ය ඥානය,  සමුදය සත්‍යයේ කෘත්‍ය ඥානය,  නිරොධ සත්‍යයේ කෘත්‍ය ඥානය,  මාර්‍ග සත්‍යයේ කෘත්‍ය ඥානය,
 දුක්ඛ සත්‍යයේ කෘත ඥානය,    සමුදය සත්‍යයේ කෘත ඥානය,     නිරොධ සත්‍යයේ කෘත ඥානය,    මාර්‍ග සත්‍යයේ කෘත ඥානය යි.

අපට සසර ගමන, සසර දුක නිමාකරන්න පුළුවන්. යන්න ඉස්සෙල්ලා යන තැන දැනගෙන යන්න. මේ දුක, මේ දුක ඇතිවුණේ මෙන්න මෙහෙමයි,මේ දුක නැති තැන, දුක නැතිකරන මාර්‍ගය මෙන්න මේකයි කියලා කල්‍යාණමිත්‍ර ආශ්‍රයෙන් දැනගැනීම. දැනගත්තට පස්සෙ තමයි තමන්ට යමක් කරන්න හම්බවෙන්නෙ. ඔන්න ඕක තමයි භාවනාව නැත්නම් මාර්‍ගය. ඉස්සෙල්ලාම සත්‍ය ස්වභාවය තේරුම් ගන්න. ඒ ස්වභාවය තේරුම් ගත්තහම කිරීමේ නුවන - කෘත්‍ය ඥානය - තමන්ටම ලැබෙනවා. කරන කොට කරන කෙනාට කරලා ඉවරයි කියන නුවණ - කෘත ඥානය - ලැබෙනවා. එදාට සියලු සසර දුක්, සසර ගමන අවසන්. භාවනා කරනවා කියල යමක් කරන්න කලින් කරන්නෙ මොකටද, කරන්නෙ කොහොමද කියන ප්‍රශ්න වලට උත්තර ලබාගත යුතුයි.

සත්‍ය ඥානය
 සත්‍ය ඥානය කියන්නෙ ඇත්ත පිළිබදව නුවණ, දුක පිළිබදව, දුක ඇතිවීම පිළිබදව නුවණ. බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සෙ දේශනා කළ නිසාම නොවෙයි. විචාරශීලී මනුස්සයෙක් හදන්නයි තථාගතයන් වහන්සේගේ මේ උත්සාහය. 'හිතන්න' ඉගැන්වීමයි සත්‍යය ඥානය. මේක ඇත්තද කියලා බලන්න.
 තම තමන්ගෙ ජීවිතේ වටා පිටාව ඇස් ඇරලා බලන්න. එහෙම බැලුවහම පෙනේවි ජීවිතේ කියන තැනක තියෙන්නෙ දුකම විදිමින්, දුකෙන් ගොඩ එන්න වෙර දරන, ඒත් දුකටම පතිත වෙන ස්වභාවයක් නේද කියන එක බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සෙ පෙන්නනවා.
 නූපන්න අනාගතයවත්, මැරුණ අතීතයවත්, සිහි කරන්න ඕන නෑ. නැත්නම් නොපෙනෙන අතීත, අනාගත දෙක පසෙකින් තබන්න. පෙනෙන ජීවිතය දිහා ඇස් ඇරලා බලන්න. බලනකොට ඉපදීම, ලෙඩවීම. මහලු වීම, මරණය, අප්‍රියයන් හා එක්වීම, ප්‍රියයන්ගෙන් වෙන්වීම ආදී යම්තාක් දුක් තියේ නම් මේ දුක් දිහා බලන්න.

1.සංඛිත්තේන පංචඋපාදානක්ඛන්ධා දුක්ඛා -(දුක)
 කෙනෙකුට නුවණක් ආවොත් ඇත්තටම දුකක් තියෙනවා, මේ දුක පංචඋපාදානස්කන්යකයි නේද කියලා එ්කට 'දුක්ඛේ ඥාණං' කියනව. මේ දුක් ගත්තහම මේවා ස්කන්ධ නිසා, ස්කන්ධයන් තුළ එන දුක්. නමුත් ලෝකයාට ඒක පෙනෙන්නෙ නැහැ.
 ලෝකයා ඒක දකින්නෙ සත්වයෙක් පුද්ගලයෙක්ගෙ දුකක් හැටියට. මම ඉපදෙනවා, මම ලෙඩවෙනවා, මම මහලු වෙනවා, මම මැරෙනවා කියල හෝ තව සත්වයෙක්, පුද්ගලයෙක් උපදිනවා, ලෙඩවෙනවා, මහලු වෙනවා මැරෙනවා කියලා හෝ තමයි දකින්නෙ.
 උපාදාන වශයෙන් ගෙන තිබෙන ස්කන්ධ ටිකයි දුක. ස්කන්ධ දුකයි, ඒ දුක් වූ ස්කන්ධ බර ගැනීමත් දුකයි. එහෙම නොගෙන ඉන්ඩ නම් දුක පිරිසිඳ දකින්න වෙනවා.

ගස් උපමාව
දැනට නොපෙනෙන නාම ධමර් පසෙකින් තබා රූපය කියන තැනින් විතරක් ගනිමු.අර මිදුලෙන් එහා තියෙන පිහිඹිය ගහ ගනිමු.ඔය ගහට තිබුණා බීජ අංකුර අවස්ථාවක්.ඔය ගහට තිබුණා පුංචි පැළෑටි අවධියක්.ඔය ගහට තිබුණා ළමා අවධියක්.ඔය ගහට අතු පතර විහිදුන හොඳට සවි ශක්තිය තියෙන තරුණ කාලයක් තියෙනවා. ක්‍රම ක්‍රමයෙන් වැඩිලා ඔය ගහටත් තියෙනවා තලත්තෑනි වයසක්. ක්‍රමයෙන් වියපත් වෙලා ඒ ගහේ ආයු සන්තතිය අවසන් වෙලා මහලු වෙලා, දිරලා, මැරෙන දවසක් එනවා.ඉපදීමේ ස්වභාවය, වයසට යාමේ, ජරාවීමේ ස්වභාවය, මැරෙනවා කියන ස්වභාවය, ජාති ජරා මරණ කියන ලක්ෂණ තුන ඒ ගහට අයිතියි. ගහට හිතෙනවද මමයි ඉපදුණේ, මම දැන් මහලු වෙලා, මම දැන් මැරෙන්නයි යන්නෙ කියලා ගහට හිතෙනවද? නෑ. ගහ එහෙම දුකකින් දුක් විදින්නෙ නෑ. ඒ ගහ අචේතනිකයි. නමුත් ජාති ජරා මරණ කියන ධර්‍මතාවය තියෙනවා.මම කියලා ගත්ත තමන් කියල ගන්න මේ රූපය ගන්න.මේ රූපයටත් තිබුණා අංකුර අවස්ථාවක්.මේ රූපයටත් තිබුණා ළමා අවධියක්.මේ රූපයටත් තරුණ කාලයක් තියෙනවා.මේ රූපයටත් තලත්තෑනි වයසක් තියෙනවා.මේ රූපයද ක්‍රමයෙන් දිරාගිහින් මරණයට පත් වෙනවා.ගස නම් වූ ඒ අචේතනික චස්තුවත්, මමයි කියලා හිතාගෙන ඉන්න මේ සචේතනික කයත් අතර වෙනසක් තියෙනවද?ජාති ජරා මරණ කියන ධර්‍මතාවය අයිති ස්කන්ධයන්ට මිසක, රූපෙට මිසක පුද්ගලයෙකුට නොවෙයි කියන එක තේරෙනවද?මේ කය ආහාරයෙන් හැදුණ, ගහ පොලොවෙ තිබුණ ඕජා සාරයෙන් හැදුණෙ. ඒ ගස නැමැති අචේතනික වස්තුව හදන හේතුවත් අනාත්මයි. අනාත්ම වූ ඕජා සාරය නිසා හැදුණ ගහ පුද්ගලයෙක් නොවෙයි, අනාත්මයි. අනාත්ම වූ ඒ රූපයේ ස්වභාවය ඉපදීම, මහලුවීම, මරණය. ඒ ධර්‍මතාවය කෙනෙක්ගෙ නොවෙයි, අනාත්මයි.ඒ වගේ අපි මම කියල හිතුවට, මම කියල හිතාගෙන හිටියට, මගේ  කියල මෙච්චර කල් දැක්කට, මේ කයත් කන බොන ආහාරයෙන් හැදුණෙ. මේ කයත් දිරනවා. මේ කයත් මැරෙනවා. මේ රූපයේ හැටි. රූපයේ ස්වභාවය.
 "තීණි මානි භික්ඛවේ සංඛත ලක්ඛණානි උප්පාදො පඤ්ඤායති, වයෝ පඤ්ඤායති, ඨිතස්ස අඤ්ඤතත්තං පඤ්ඤායති". මහණෙනි, සංඛතයන්ගේ ලක්ෂණ තුනකි. ඉපදීීම පෙනේ, මැරීම නැසීම පෙනේයි, ඒ අතර තුර සිටියහුගේ වෙනස් වීම පෙනෙයි.(අනිත්‍යයයි)
 "භාර දානං දුක්ඛං" බර ගැනීම ලෝකෙ දුකක්. මේ ධර්‍මයෝ (රූපය) දුකක්, මේ ධර්‍මයෝ බරක්.
 පංචඋපාදානස්කන්ධයෝ ද දුකයි. ඒවා මම මගේ කියල ගත්ත කෙලෙස් නිසාත් දුකයි කියල දකින කොට, උරුම වුණ දේත් දුකයි, උරුම වුණ දේ නිසා ඇතිවන මානසික මට්ටමත් දුකයි කියලා උත්තරයක් ලැබෙයි.

2.දුක ඇතිවුනේ කොහොමද? - (සමුදය)
 මීට පෙර ජීවිතයෙත් මේ විදියෙම රූපයක් තිබුනානම් එදා ඒ රූපෙ හැදුනෙත් කන බොන ආහාරයෙන්මයි.
 ඒ රූපය පිරිසිද නොදැක්ක අවිද්‍යාව නිසා, රූපය මම, මගේ, මගේ ආත්මයයි කියන දිට්ඨි සහගත කෙලේසයක්, කර්‍මයක් ඇතිකරගත්තා.
 කය මම කියල දැක්කම මම මට ආදරෙයි, තණ්හාව ඇතිවෙනව. වැරදි දැක්මක් මානයක් ඇතිවෙනව.
 රූපය නැතිවී ගියත්, මමයි කියල හදාගත්ත රූප නිමිත්තත්, එ් අරබයා ඇතිවූ තණ්හාවත් කියන ගති ටික නිසා විඤ්ඤාණය නැවත මව්කුසක රූපෙකට බැසගත්තා.

මෝහය
 කය සවිඥානික වුණාට කය වෙනමම සිද්ධියක්. කය ඇසුරු කරගෙන තිබෙන සිත වෙනමම සිද්ධියක්.
 කයේ ඇත්ත නොදන්නාකම නිසා, කයේ තත්වාකාරය අවබෝධ නොවුන නිසා හිතේ ඇතිකරගත්ත ගතියකුයි මම කියන්නෙ කියන රූපය ගැන විද්‍යාව දන්නෙත් නැහැ. ඒ නොදන්නාකම නිසා හිතේ ඇතිවෙච්ච ගතියක්ය, කෙලේසයක්ය මම කියන්නෙ කියලා ඒ බව දන්නෙත් නෑ. අනාගත දුකට හේතුවයි පෝෂණය කරන්නෙ කියල ඒ බව දන්නෙත් නෑ. එවිට ආපහු දුක ඇතිකරවන හේතුව හැදෙනවා.

3.දුක නොවන්නෙ කොහොමද? - (නිරෝධය)
 අතීතයේදී දැකල තිබුණ නම්, මේ දුක හටගැනීම නිසාත්, මානසිකව දුක හදා ගැනීම නිසාත්. දුකම නේද උරුම වුණේ කියල,
 මේක මම හෝ මගේ හෝ මගෙ රූපේ හෝ නෙමේ, මේකට කියන්න වෙන්නෙ දුක නේද කියන නුවණ අතීතෙ තිබුණානම්,
 මේ කය මම, මගේ, මගේ ආත්මය කියල අතීතයේ නොදැක්ක නම්, අද මෙබදු වූ දුක් ඇති කයක් අපට උරුම වෙන්නෙනෑ කියන පිළිතුර ලැබෙනවා.

4.මාර්‍ගය උපදින හැටි - (මාර්‍ගය)
 රූපය මම මගේ කියල ගන්නකම අත් හැරියොත්, දුකෙන් මිදුණොත්, දුක අත හැරියොත්, නැවත දුක් හදන හේතුව නැතිවෙනවා නේද කියන මාර්‍ගය උපදිනවා.
 රූපය විදියමයි ඉතිරි නාම ධර්‍මත්, ඒවාත් මම මගේ මගේ ආත්මයයි කියන හැගීම නැතිවෙනවා, තණ්හා මාන දිට්ඨි කියන කෙලේශය නැතිවෙනවා.

කෘත්‍ය ඥානය

නොපමාව උත්සාහය, වීරිය යෙදීම
 දුක්ඛ සත්‍යය - පිරිසිද දැකීමට
 සමුදය සත්‍යය - ප්‍රහාණය කිරීමට
 නිරෝධ සත්‍යය - සාක්ෂාත් කිරීමට
 මාර්ග සත්‍යය - වැඩීමට
නොපමාව උත්සාහය, වීරිය යෙදීම පිළිබද උපදෙස්.

කෘත ඥානය

කළයුතුදේ කරල ඉවර කළා
 දුක්ඛ සත්‍යය - පිරිසිද දැක්කා
 සමුදය සත්‍යය - ප්‍රහීණ කළා
 නිරෝධ සත්‍යය - ප්‍රත්‍යක්ෂ කළා
 මාර්ග සත්‍යය - සම්පූර්ණ කළා
කළයුතුදේ කරල ඉවර කළා කියණ අවබෝධය.

ස්කන්ධ ටික - ආහාර ප්‍රත්‍යයෙන් හැදුන මේ රූපය පවතිනකම් තියෙයි. එයාට මේ රූපය මම කියලවත්, මගෙ කියලවත්, මගෙ ආත්මය කියලවත් හිතෙන්නෙ නෑ. මේ දුක කියලා දකිනවා. දුකක් තියෙනවා. දුකක් එනවා. ඒත් ඒ හේතුවෙන් දුක් විදින කමක් නැහැ. ප්‍රියයන්ගෙන් වෙන්වීමේ දුක්, අප්‍රියයන් හා එක්වීමේ දුක් නැහැ. මම ඉපදෙනවා, ලෙඩවෙනවා, මැරෙනවා කියල තමා ජරා මරණ ධර්‍මයෝ අල්ලගෙන, විදින සත්වයෙක් පුද්ගලයෙක් ජරා මරනයට යනවා කියන දුකෙනුත් මිදෙනවා. දුක්ඛ නිරෝධයම සිද්ධවෙනවා.

සබැදි
 සද්ධාය තරතී ඔඝං

සමුද්දේස

බුදුබණ

යථාභූතං ඤාණදස්සනං


Doğu kayını (Fagus orientalis), kayıngiller (Fagaceae) familyasından 40 m'ye kadar boylanabilen düzgün gövdeli bir kayın türü.

Morfolojik özellikleri

Çok sayıda pullarla örtülmüş bulunan iğ biçimindeki sivri uçlu ve büyük tomurcuklar sürgünlere açı yapacak şekilde dizilmiştir. Sürgünler koyu kahverenginde veya kırmızımtırak kahverenginde olup oldukça ince, çıplak veya parlak, sürgün ucuna doğru hafif tüylü olup üzerinde bol sayıda küçük lentiseller bulunur.

Yaprak sapının sürgün üzerinde bıraktığı iz yarım daire biçiminde olup üzerinde, yanlarda birbirine yakın ikişer, ortadakinde ise çok sayıda belirgin iki kulakçık izi vardır.

Erkek çiçekler birçoğu bir arada uzun bir sapın ucunda toplanmıştır. Kupula 2 cm boyunda, kupulanın dibindeki pullar geniş şerit biçimindedir.

Dağılımı

Türkiye'de yayılışını Karadeniz sahillerinde yapar. Marmara Bölgesinde, Sinop, Vezirköprü, Bolu, Kocaeli'de yer yer görülür. Doğu Karadeniz'de bütün sahil boyunca 1000–1700 m yükseltilerde sakallı kızılağaç, doğu ladini ve büyük yapraklı ıhlamurla karışık veya saf ormanlar kurar.

Fagus
Türkiye'deki odunsu taksonlar

Doğu kayını


Klasik Osmanlı Ordusu, Osmanlı ordusunun 1451'de II. Mehmed'in yapılandırmasından başlayıp 1826 Vaka-i Hayriye biten kısmına verilen isimdir. Dönemin ordusu, 1606 sonrasında yenilmeye başlamış ve 17. ve 18. yy itibarıyla geçirdiği reformlar ardından 1826 yılında lağvedilmiştir. Bu dönemde birçok ocaklardan birisi olan  Yeniçeri ocağı olarak adlandırılan ve devşirmelerden kurulan ocağın ordu ve siyasette büyük yeri ve etkisi vardır.

Birimler

Piyade

Solaklar
Solaklar, genelde yaya birlikti. Solaklar, padişahın bindiği atın sağında giderler.

Yeniçeri
II. Mehmed döneminde Çandarlı ailesinden sonra vezir-i azamlığa devşirme-kapıkulu kökenliler getirilmeye başlanmıştır. Yeniçeri-devşirme aristokrasisi Cem ve II. Beyazıt arasında çıkan taht kavgasında belirleyici rol oynayarak tımarlı sipahi-Türk aristokrasisine karşı üstünlük sağlamışlardır.

Atlı Birlikler

Ağır Silahlı Birlikler

Topçu Ocağı
Çin'de barutun icat edilmesinden sonra geliştirilen ateşli silahların bilgisini haiz Osmanlılar, 14. yüzyıldan başlayarak ateşli silah ve top teknolojisini kullanıyorlardı. Yeniçerilerin ilk defa 1389'da Kosova Savaşı sırasında ateşli silahları kullandıkları kaynaklarda aktarılmaktadır. Fatih devrinde toplar daha da geliştirilmiştir. Bu süreçte Osmanlı Devleti, hem doğudan hem batıdan gelen uzmanları istihdam ederek mevcut küresel bilgi ve teknoloji akışından yararlanmışlardır.

1440'lı yıllarda Osmanlılar, kalelerde, Tuna Nehri'nde ve Boğaz'da görev yapan filolarında top kullanıyorlardı ve topları hızlıca gerekli yerlere taşıyıp kuruyorlardı. Ayrıca bu dönemde rakiplerine kıyasla Osmanlı harp sanayisinin daha ileri bir seviyede olduğuna dair önemli bir başka gösterge, topçuluğun ve ateşli silahların Osmanlı daimi ordusunun önemli bir parçası olmasıydı. 15. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren Osmanlılar savaştıkları ordulara karşı daha organize ve düzenli bir şekilde ateşli silahları daimi ordu içinde kullanmaktaydılar. Buna karşın Avrupa'da topçular zanaatkârlardı; sanatkâr ve askerler arasında geçici bir sosyal kaynaşmadan bir sosyal grup oluşturmuşlardı. Osmanlılar ise 15. yüzyılın ortalarında topçuluğu daimi ordunun önemli bir parçası olarak kullanmışlardır. Bu süreçte Osmanlı harp sanayi kurumsallaşmış ve topçuluk teknolojisi gelişmiştir.

Top Arabacılar Ocağı

Humbaracı Ocağı

Lağımcılar

Organizasyon (Teşkilatlanma)
Osmanlı ordu teşkilatı, Anadolu Selçukluları, İlhanlılar ve Memlüklüler devletlerinin ve Roma İmparatorluğunun askeri teşkilat yapılarından belirli ölçülerde yararlanılarak kurulmuştur. Devletin temeli atılırken süvari olan beylik kuvvetlerinin yerine Vezir Alaâddin Paşa ile Kadı Cendereli Kara Halil'in tavsiyeleriyle Türk gençlerinden oluşan ayrı ayrı biner kişilik yaya ve müsellem isimleriyle muvazzaf iki sınıf piyade ve süvari kuvveti kuruldu.

Kapıkulu Sistemi
Kapıkulu Ocağı, piyadeler ve süvarilerden oluşmuştur. Kapıkulu Piyadeleri; Acemi Ocağı, Yeniçeri Ocağı, Cebeci Ocağı, Topçu Ocağı, Top Arabacılar Ocağı, Humbaracı Ocağı, Lağımcılar, Sakalar, Solaklar Kapıkulu Süvarileri ise Silahtar, Sipahi, Sağ Ulufeciler, Sol Ulufeciler, Sağ Garipler, Sol Garipler'den oluşmaktaydı.

Eyalet Sistemin
Eyalet Sistemi, Yerli Kulu ve Serhat Kulu askerleri olarak ayrılır. Yerli Kulu birlikleri Azab, Sekban, Tüfenkçi, İcareli; Serhat Kulu birlikleri ise Deliler (Deli), Gönüllüler, Besliler, Topraklı Süvari, Tımarlı Sipahiler ve Akıncılar olarak örgütlenmiştirler.

Personel

Rütbeler
Osmanlı Ordusu'nun Başkomutanlık görevini padişahlar yapmışlardır.

Piyadeleri "yaya", süvarileri ise "müsellem" şeklinde adlandırılmıştı. Kapıkulu Ocakları'nın kuruluşuna kadar savaşlarda fiili olarak hizmet görmüşlerdir. Osmanlı Devleti'nin beylik devlet siyasetinden imparatorluk siyasetine geçişi imparatorluk içinde bağımsız güç bırakmak istemeyen, merkezi otoriteyi devşirme,kapıkulu, yeniçeri ve enderun sistemiyle sağlamlaştırmak isteyen II. Mehmet ile başlamıştır.

Modernizasyon çalışmaları
Gerileme döneminde, Avrupa örnek alınmaya çalışılmış, teknik ve ekonomik alanlarda yapılanmaya gidilirken Donanmanın yenilenmesi gibi askeri birtakım yenileşme çabalarına gidilmiştir. Ancak;
 III. Murat döneminden itibaren kapıkulu ocaklarına kanunlara aykırı asker alınarak sayılarının artırılması,
 Yeniçerilerin geçim sıkıntısını ileri sürerek askerlik dışında işlerle uğraşmaları,
 İltizam sisteminin yaygınlaşması üzerine tımar sisteminin önemini kaybetmesi ve eyaletlerde asker yetiştirilmemesi ve
 Avrupa'da meydana gelen harp teknolojisindeki gelişmelerin takip edilmemesi gibi etkenler sistemin bozulmasına neden olmuştur.

Büyüklüğü

Kuvvet
Orduda muvazzaf askerlerin yanında savaş ve olağanüstü durumlarda çağrılan ek kuvvetler de bulunuyordu. 1610'da, 203.000 kişilik Osmanlı ordusunun mevcudu aşağıdaki gibidir.

Gelirleri

Resimler

Kaynakça

Kaynakça

Osmanlı ordusu (klasik dönem)


Tornow, auch Tornau oder Tornauw, ist der Name eines neumärkischen und mecklenburgischen, später baltischen Adelsgeschlechts. Zweige der baltischen Linie bestehen bis in die Gegenwart fort.

Geschichte

Erstmals urkundlich erscheint das Geschlecht 1217 mit Erwinus de Tornowe. Seit 1360 war die Familie im Besitz von Strantz und Quiram bei Deutsch-Krone. Im Jahr 1466 ist Zacharias von Tornow, erbgesessen auf Wittenhagen, urkundlich erwähnt, als er dies zusammen mit Lichtenberg und Teschendorf an Busso von Dören verkauft. Eine herkunftsmäßige Verbindung zum gleichnamigen Ort Tornow ist denkbar. Später erwarben die von Tornow Wittenhagen zurück, das bis 1796 der Stammsitz der Familie blieb. Auch bei der Übertragung der mecklenburgischen Frauenklöster auf die Ritterschaft 1572 ist das Geschlecht erwähnt. 1554 ist es in der Altmark und später auch in der Neumark, in Pommern, Polen (unter dem Namen Tornowski) und in Kurland (unter dem Namen Tornauw) ansässig, wo es 1639 mit Otto von Tornauw am 17. März 1639 in die Kurländische Ritterschaft (Nr. 93, heute Nr. 176) aufgenommen wurde. Christoph Felix von Tornow auf Friedrichstorf und Claustorf und Friedrich Ernst von Tornow auf Wittenhagen gehörten 1755 zu den Unterzeichnern des mecklenburgischen Landesgrundgesetzlichen Erbvergleichs. Im 19. Jahrhundert starb das Geschlecht in Deutschland aus, blühte aber noch im Baltikum und in Russland. Am 17. Januar 1855 erging die russische Anerkennung der Berechtigung zur Führung des Baronstitels für die Vettern Nicolaus von Tornauw (* 1811; † 1882) und Friedrich von Tornauw (* 1810; † 1890). Durch Senatsukas vom 3. April 1862 wurde das Gesamtgeschlecht im Baronstand legitimiert (Nr. 2823).

Im Einschreibebuch des Klosters Dobbertin befinden sich drei Eintragungen von Töchtern der Familie von Tornow aus Wittenhagen von 1747–1787 zur Aufnahme in das dortige adelige Damenstift.

Es besteht keine Stammverwandtschaft des Geschlechts zum 1654 in Regensburg in den Reichsadelsstand erhobenen brandenburgischen Staatsmann Johann Tornow (1610–1662) auf Schönwalde im neumärkischen Kreis Oststernberg.

Wappen
Das Wappen zeigt in rotem Schild drei (2,1) mit der runden Schneide nach oben gekehrte silberne Handmesser (Schuster-Kneife), jedes oben von einem silbernen Stern begleitet. Auf dem gekrönten Helm drei Rautensträuche natürlicher Farbe. Die Helmdecken sind silber und rot.

Ein mit der Ordensdekoration (Damenschleife und Ordenskreuz) umgebenes Wappenschild der am 28. Januar 1855 im Kloster Dobbertin als Nr. 638 verstorbenen Konventualin Catharina Friederica Wilhelmina von Tornow befindet sich auf der Nonnenempore in der Klosterkirche.

Angehörige

 Ferdinand Otto Karl von Tornauw (* 1785; † 1850), kaiserlich-russischer Offizier, zuletzt Generalmajor
 Jenny von Tornau (* 1800; † 25. März 1830), seit 1815 verheiratet mit Hans Karl von Diebitsch-Sabalkanski
 Fjodor Fjodorowitsch Tornau (* 1810; † 1890), kaiserlich-russischer Offizier, zuletzt Generalleutnant
 Nicolaus von Tornauw (* 1811; † 1882), kaiserlich-russischer Verwaltungsjurist

Literatur
 Ernst Heinrich Kneschke: Neues allgemeines deutsches Adels-Lexicon Band 9, Leipzig 1870, S. 246
 Gustav von Lehsten: Der Adel Mecklenburgs seit dem landesgrundgesetzlichen Erbvergleich (1755). J. G. Tiedemann, Rostock 1864, S. 270
 Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels, Adelslexikon Band XIV, Band 131 der Gesamtreihe, S. 489, C. A. Starke Verlag, Limburg (Lahn) 2003,
 Genealogisches Handbuch der Baltischen Ritterschaften (Neue Folge), Hamburg 2011, Band 1, S. 337–366

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Mecklenburgisches Adelsgeschlecht
Baltisches Adelsgeschlecht

Tornow (Adelsgeschlecht)


Domnișoara V îmbrăcată ca un toreador este o pictură în ulei pe pânză din 1862 a pictorului francez Édouard Manet și se află acum la Metropolitan Museum of Art din New York. A fost expusă împreună cu Micul dejun la iarbă verde și Tânăr îmbrăcat ca un majo la Salonul Refuzaților în 1863.

Note

Picturi din 1862
Picturi realizate de Édouard Manet
Metropolitan Museum of Art

Domnișoara V îmbrăcată ca un toreador


L'Estadio José Nasazzi est un stade de football situé à Montevideo, en Uruguay.

Il appartient au Club Atlético Bella Vista depuis 1931. Il a été appelé précédemment Parque Olivos, Parque Bella Vista et Parque José Nasazzi.

Sa capacité officielle est de 5002 spectateurs assis, et environ 10 000 spectateurs au total.

L'entrée principale du stade se trouve avenue Lucas Obes.

Historique

Le CA Bella Vista joue pour la première fois sur son terrain de la rue Lucas Obes en 1931, près d'une décennie après sa fondation. Le premier terrain du club, qui est promu en première division du championnat d'Uruguayen en 1923, se trouve au Parque Olivos, sur le site de l'actuel lycée San Francisco de Sales. En 1928, le club doit abandonner le terrain où des travaux sont entrepris par la ville, et joue par la suite de façon temporaire sur différents stades de la capitale uruguayenne.

En 1931, le club trouve enfin un terrain sur lequel s'installer de façon durable, rue Lucas Obes. Le terrain est appelé nuevo Parque Olivos par les uns, Parque Bella Vista par les autres.

En 1933, peu après l'avènement du football professionnel en Uruguay, le CA Bella Vista accepte de laisser partir son capitaine emblématique José Nasazzi, capitaine de l'équipe d'Uruguay championne du monde en titre, au Club National, l'un des deux grands clubs du pays. En signe de reconnaissance, Nasazzi offre à son ancien club les  de sa prime de transfert, afin qu'il puisse y aménager les premières tribunes. Dès lors, le stade commence à être appelé Parque José Nasazzi, alors même que le joueur joue dans un club concurrent et vient parfois y jouer.

Le 16 décembre 1934, une fois les travaux de modernisation achevés, le Parque José Nasazzi est officiellement inauguré, à l'occasion d'un match de championnat face aux Wanderers. Plus tard, le nom de José Nasazzi sera également donné à une rue proche.

En 1942, le club est relégué en Divisional B. Sept ans après, le club fête son premier titre dans son stade, en remportant le championnat, synonyme de retour en première division. Le 23 décembre 1990, Bella Vista y remporte pour la première fois le titre de champion d'Uruguay, officialisé après un match face au CA Cerro.

Le 7 octobre 2000, à l'occasion des 80 ans du club et d'un match amical de prestige avec l'Unión de Santa Fe, le stade, modernisé, est rebaptisé Estadio José Nasazzi. En 2022, il est de nouveau l'objet de travaux de remise en état, le club retrouvant le professionnalisme après plusieurs années au niveau amateur.

Références

Équipement sportif achevé en 1934
Stade de football à Montevideo
Stade portant le nom d'une personnalité sportive

Estadio José Nasazzi


Fritz Konrad Ferdinand Grobba (nacido como Arthur Borg, alias Fritz Grobb, alias Franz Gehrke) (Gartz, Alemania, 1886 - Bonn, Alemania, 1973) fue un diplomático de Alemania que prestó servicios como embajador germano en Medio Oriente durante la República de Weimar y el Tercer Reich.

Biografía
Fritz Grobba nació en la localidad de Gartz, Brandeburgo, en la época del Imperio Alemán con el nombre de Arthur Borg, aunque en su juventud recibió el apodo de "El Turco" por parte de sus condiscípulos en la Universidad de Berlín, donde estudió leyes, economía e idiomas orientales. Tras graduarse en 1913, Borg empezó a trabajar para el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores de su país y su primer puesto fue en el consulado alemán de Jerusalén (entonces parte del Imperio Otomano).

En la Primera Guerra Mundial Borg fue reclutado por el Reichsheer y luchó en el frente occidental, aunque luego fue destinado a apoyar a la misión militar alemana ante el Imperio Otomano, participando en las operaciones militares de las tropas turcas en Medio Oriente. Herido en la guerra, Borg se casó con una mujer árabe de origen sirio y se convirtió al islamismo; de vuelta a su patria tras terminar la guerra, Borg se estableció en Baviera, donde falleció su esposa.

En septiembre de 1922 Borg volvió al servicio diplomático de la República de Weimar y fue transferido a un puesto administrativo encargado de las relaciones con el Medio Oriente. En octubre de 1923 Borg fue enviado a Kabul como cónsul alemán en Afganistán, pero fue llamado de vuelta a Berlín en abril de 1926, sirviendo nuevamente en su puesto administrativo dedicado al Medio Oriente, especializándose en Irán, Afganistán y la India Británica, y siguiendo sus estudios sobre la cultura e idiomas de Oriente Medio.

En octubre de 1932 Borg fue enviado nuevamente en misión diplomática, con el cargo de embajador alemán en Irak, instalándose en Bagdad. Para esa fecha, por un consejo del general Erich Ludendorff, Borg se dedicó a participar en las intrigas políticas de Medio Oriente, para lo cual cambió su nombre a Fritz Konrad Ferdinand Grobba, abreviándolo a Fritz Grobba.

Fritz Grobba actuó como embajador alemán en Irak, por saber el idioma árabe y el turco, y estimulando en lo posible el nacionalismo árabe. Después de que Adolf Hitler asumiera el gobierno de Alemania en enero de 1933, Grobba continuó en sus funciones diplomáticas pero tratando de estimular el nacionalismo de los pueblos árabes en oposición a la influencia de Gran Bretaña en la región, y presentando al Tercer Reich como una potencia que podría apoyar a las naciones del Medio Oriente en este objetivo.

Tras la muerte del rey Faisal I el 8 de septiembre de 1933, Grobba convenció al rey Gazi I de que enviara a un grupo de oficiales del ejército iraquí para entrenarse en Alemania y viceversa. Cuando en 1938 se produjo un sabotaje contra un oleoducto británico en Irak, se descubrió que los atacantes habían sido nacionalistas contactados por Grobba, por lo cual éste huyó de Irak hacia Arabia Saudita, donde se acogió a la protección del rey Ibn Saud, quien ya había tenido conflictos con el gobierno británico. Allí, en noviembre de 1938 Grobba fue designado por el gobierno nazi como embajador ante Arabia Saudita hasta septiembre de 1939.

Segunda Guerra Mundial
Al estallar la Segunda Guerra Mundial en septiembre de 1939, Arabia Saudita rompió las relaciones con el Tercer Reich y Fritz Grobba volvió a Berlín para seguir trabajando en el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores dirigido por Joachim von Ribbentrop.

El 31 de marzo de 1940, el político iraquí Rashid Ali ocupó el cargo de primer ministro de su país y empezó a desarrollar una política antibritánica y proalemana. Esto le trajo un conflicto con el príncipe 'Abd al-Ilah, regente de Irak, quien destituyó a Rashid Ali en enero de 1941. Éste, no obstante, lanzó un golpe de Estado el 1 de abril de 1941 que derrocó al regente e instaló en Irak un gobierno favorable a las potencias del Eje. Tal situación causó pocas semanas después la Guerra Anglo-Iraquí, en la cual Rashid Ali pidió ayuda al Tercer Reich y a la Italia fascista, y en respuesta a ello el 3 de mayo de 1941 Joachim von Ribbentrop convenció a Hitler de que Fritz Grobba fuera enviado como embajador especial en Irak, llevando consigo un equipo de asesores políticos y militares de la Luftwaffe en apoyo de Rashid Ali.

Grobba y su equipo llegaron a Irak el 10 de mayo y de inmediato empezaron a coordinar la resistencia de las tropas iraquíes contra las fuerzas del Imperio Británico que invadía Irak. La misión militar alemana comprendía solo fuerzas de la Luftwaffe, pero éstas fueron vencidas prontamente por la RAF británica. El 30 de mayo, ante la derrota de Rashid Ali y su régimen, Grobba evacuó a la delegación alemana de Bagdad poco antes de la entrada de las fuerzas británicas en esa ciudad.

En febrero de 1942 Grobba fue designado plenipotenciario del Reich alemán ante los exiliados árabes en Europa, encargándose del enlace político y la coordinación entre el régimen nazi y estos grupos; en ese cargo Grobba colaboró con el líder religioso árabe Mohammad Amin al-Husayni. En junio de 1944 Grobba fue cesado en el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y pasó a prestar servicios para la administración civil de Sajonia, donde fue capturado como prisionero de guerra por los soviéticos al terminar la contienda en 1945.

Posguerra
Liberado en 1955, Grobba escribió sus memorias en 1957, presentando su propia versión del fracaso alemán en el Medio Oriente, culpando de ello al racismo de Hitler que le impedía considerar como aliados verdaderos a los pueblos árabes, al extremo de rechazar una completa expulsión de la influencia británica en la zona. Grobba culpó también al poco interés real de los jerarcas nazis por intervenir en la política del Medio Oriente, al que consideraban zona de expansión privativa de Gran Bretaña e Italia.

Grobba volvió a trabajar en la Alemania Occidental, pero ya no en la diplomacia, sino como especialista en asuntos políticos y económicos del Medio Oriente. Murió en Bonn en 1973.

Referencias
Fritz Grobba, Entile Marmorstein, Middle Eastern Studies, Volumen 23, año 1987
 Grobbas Geist aus der Lampe Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Zs. Comparativ, DAVO, 14, 2004, S. 53-56 Documento en alemán

Diplomáticos de Alemania
Conversos al islam desde el cristianismo
Alemanes del siglo XX
Musulmanes de Alemania
Personas de la Provincia de Brandeburgo

Fritz Grobba


Bologna Football Club 1909, oftast þekkt sem Bologna, er ítalskt knattspyrnufélag  staðsett í Bologna. Það er í ítölsku A-deildinni og hefur sjö sinnum orðið deildarmeistari, síðast árið 1964 og tvisvar sinnum sigrað Coppa Italia síðast árið 1974.

Heimabúningur liðsins er röndótt dökkblá og rauð treyja og dökkbláar buxur. Heimavöllur liðsins er Stadio Renato Dall'Ara.

Titlar

 Ítalskir meistarar: 7
 1924–25, 1928–29, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1938–39, 1940–41, 1963–64

 Ítalska bikarkeppnin: 2
 1969–70, 1973–74

Tengill

 Heimasíða félagsins

Ítölsk knattspyrnufélög

Bologna F.C. 1909


La fuite et l'expulsion des Allemands de Pologne sont l'épisode le plus important d'une série de déplacements et d'expulsions d'Allemands en Europe pendant et après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. La population allemande fuit ou est expulsée de toutes les régions qui se trouvent actuellement dans les limites territoriales de la Pologne, y compris les anciens territoires de l'Est de l'Allemagne et certaines parties de la Pologne d'avant-guerre par l'Union soviétique.

Contexte
Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, des expulsions ont été initiées par l'Allemagne nazie en Pologne occupée. Les Allemands déportèrent 2,478 millions de citoyens polonais des régions polonaises annexées par l'Allemagne nazie, assassinèrent 1,8 à 2,77 millions de Polonais de souche, 2,7 à 3 millions de Juifs polonais et réinstallèrent 1,3 million d'Allemands ethniques à leur place. Environ  Allemands étaient stationnés en Pologne dans le cadre de sa force d'occupation ; il s'agissait de personnes telles que des commis, des techniciens et du personnel de soutien.

La population allemande à l'Est d'Oder-Neisse est estimée à plus de 11 millions au début de 1945. La première expulsion de masse des Allemands a suivi l'avancée de l'Armée rouge et fut composée à la fois d'une fuite spontanée, motivée par des rumeurs d'atrocités soviétiques et d'une évacuation organisée commençant à l'été 1944 et se poursuivant jusqu'au printemps 1945. Dans l'ensemble, environ 1% () de la population civile allemande à l'est de la ligne Oder-Neisse a péri dans les combats avant la capitulation en mai 1945. En 1945, les territoires de l'Est de l'Allemagne ainsi que les zones polonaises annexées par l'Allemagne ont été occupés par l'Armée rouge soviétique et les forces militaires polonaises communistes. Des civils allemands ont également été déportés au motif du « travail de réparation » en URSS. L'Union soviétique a transféré d'anciens territoires allemands à l'Est de la ligne Oder-Neisse à la Pologne en juillet 1945. Au milieu de 1945, 4,5 à 4,6 millions d'Allemands sont restés sur les territoires sous contrôle polonais en attendant une conférence de paix finale avec l'Allemagne, qui n'aura finalement jamais lieu.

Déportations
Les premières expulsions en Pologne ont été entreprises par les autorités militaires communistes soutenues par les Soviétiques en Pologne avant même la conférence de Potsdam (« expulsions sauvages »), pour assurer l'intégration ultérieure dans une Pologne ethniquement homogène telle qu'envisagée par les communistes polonais . Entre  à  Allemands ont été touchés. Contrairement à la déclaration officielle selon laquelle les anciens habitants allemands des territoires  devaient être évacués rapidement pour loger les Polonais déplacés par l'annexion soviétique, les terres ont d'abord fait face à une grave pénurie de population.

Au début de 1946,  avaient été « vérifiées » comme ayant la nationalité polonaise. Lors du recensement de février 1946,  ont été répertoriées comme Allemandes et  ont fait l'objet d'une vérification visant à établir leur nationalité. À partir du printemps 1946, les expulsions s'organisent progressivement, affectant le reste de la population allemande. En 1950, 3 155 000 civils allemands avaient été expulsés et 1 043 550 naturalisés polonais. Les Allemands considérés comme « indispensables » à l'économie polonaise sont retenus ; pratiquement tous partiront en 1960. Quelque  Allemands en Pologne, en Prusse orientale et en Silésie ont été employés comme travailleurs forcés dans des camps administrés par les communistes avant d'être expulsés de Pologne. Outre les grands camps, dont certains étaient des camps de concentration allemands réutilisés, de nombreux autres camps de travaux forcés, punitifs et d'internement, des ghettos urbains et des centres de détention constitués parfois seulement d'une petite cave ont été mis en place.

Selon la commission Schieder ouest-allemande de 1953, le nombre de morts parmi les civils s'élève à 2 millions. Cependant, en 1974, les Archives fédérales allemandes estiment le nombre de morts à environ  (y compris les victimes des déportés de Kaliningrad).

Les chiffres du gouvernement ouest-allemand concernant les personnes évacuées, émigrées ou expulsées en 1950 s'élèvent à . ( dans les anciens territoires allemands ;  de Dantzig,  de Pologne d'avant-guerre et  Allemands baltes réinstallés en Pologne pendant la guerre). Les recherches du gouvernement ouest-allemand évaluent à  le nombre d'Allemands émigrés de Pologne de 1951 à 1982 ; ils sont également considérés comme des expulsés en vertu de la loi fédérale allemande sur les expulsés.

Attitudes polonaises et soviétiques
L'attitude des civils polonais, dont beaucoup avaient subi des brutalités lors de la précédente occupation allemande, s'avéra disparate. Il y eut des incidents où des Polonais, voire d'anciens travailleurs forcés, ont protégé des Allemands, par exemple en les déguisant en Polonais. L'attitude des soldats soviétiques fut ambivalente ; beaucoup ont commis de nombreuses atrocités, surtout des viols et des meurtres, et n'ont pas toujours fait la distinction entre les Polonais et les Allemands, les maltraitant souvent de la même manière. D'autres Soviétiques ont été surpris par le traitement brutal des Allemands et se sont engagés dans leur protection.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Bibliographie

 Douglas, R.M.: Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press, 2012. .
 Gormly, James L. From Potsdam to the Cold War. Big Three Diplomacy 1945-1947. Scholarly Resources, Delaware, 1990 ()

 Naimark, Norman m.: Fires of Hatred. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth - Century Europe. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2001.
 Naimark, Norman M. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995.

 "Unsere Heimat ist uns ein fremdes Land geworden..." Die Deutschen östlich von Oder und Neiße 1945-1950. Dokumente aus polnischen Archiven. Band 1: Zentrale Behörden, Wojewodschaft Allenstein

 de Zayas, Alfred-Maurice. Nemesis at Potsdam: The Expulsion of the Germans from the East. London: Routledge, 1977.
 Alfred M. de Zayas: Die deutschen Vertriebenen. Keine Täter sondern Opfer. Ares, Graz, 2006. .
 Alfred M. de Zayas: Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht. Universitas, München, 2001. .
 de Zayas, Alfred-Maurice. A Terrible Revenge: The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994,

Expulsion des Allemands pendant et après la Seconde Guerre mondiale
Histoire sociale de l'Allemagne
Histoire contemporaine de la Pologne
Relations entre l'Allemagne et la Pologne
Crime de guerre soviétique pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale

Fuite et expulsion des Allemands de Pologne après la Seconde Guerre mondiale


Las elecciones presidenciales de Argentina de 1868 se llevaron a cabo para elegir al presidente de la República Argentina. En las mismas resultó elegido Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, simpatizante del disuelto Partido Unitario, para desempeñarse en el período 1868-1874. Como vicepresidente fue elegido Adolfo Alsina, del Partido Autonomista de Buenos Aires.

Las elecciones se realizaron bajo las reglas de la Ley Electoral 75, que mantuvo en vigencia el régimen de «voto cantado», caracterizado históricamente por el fraude electoral masivo, la violencia en los comicios, el voto venal (pago) y la baja participación, sin que se permitiera votar ni ser elegidas a las mujeres. Solo concurrió a votar el 1% de la población. La Constitución establecía que la elección del presidente y vicepresidente debía realizarse en forma indirecta y por separado, delegando la elección final de cada uno, en colegios electorales provinciales integrados por representantes elegidos en la elección primaria, por el sistema de lista completa, siendo electos todos los candidatos más votados, en cada distrito electoral.

Las elecciones mostraron un equilibrio de fuerzas entre los tres máximos referentes de la política argentina de ese momento: el presidente Bartolomé Mitre, que buscaba continuar su programa nacionalista a través del candidato Rufino de Elizalde; el expresidente Justo José de Urquiza, líder de la corriente federal; y el hombre fuerte del autonomismo porteño, Adolfo Alsina. En las elecciones Sarmiento ganó en Mendoza, San Juan y San Luis; De Elizalde, en Catamarca, Santiago del Estero y Tucumán; Urquiza en Entre Ríos, Salta y Santa Fe; y Adolfo Alsina en la poderosa Buenos Aires. Corrientes no votó. El equilibrio de fuerzas encontró en Sarmiento una figura transaccional.

Contexto
Presidiendo una economía próspera ensombrecida por la costosa guerra del Paraguay, Bartolomé Mitre se esforzó por no arriesgar la tenue unidad nacional que su administración se había asegurado de consolidar.  Aunque él eligió a candidatos anticipados, Mitre evitó declarar apoyo abierto a ninguna de las figuras, mientras que limitaba el camino a los que él consideró como no aceptables. Los electores de la provincia de Buenos Aires favorecieron al candidato del Partido Autonomista Adolfo Alsina, quien fue persuadido por Mitre de postularse a la vicepresidencia. La nominación principal fue entregada al Embajador de Argentina ante los Estados Unidos, Domingo Sarmiento, quien permaneció en su puesto y no hizo campaña. Mitre también apoyó al exlíder del Partido Unitario Rufino de Elizalde y su compañero de fórmula el General Wenceslao Paunero, figura clave en la victoria de Mitre en la Batalla de Pavón. El único candidato que no recibió ningún apoyo de Mitre fue Justo José de Urquiza, pues Mitre pensaba que su participación podría provocar otro conflicto separatista.

Todos los candidatos, exceptuando Sarmiento, eran polémicos en muchos círculos pero tenían, a su vez, grandes bastiones de apoyo, lo que provocó que estas elecciones fueran, por mucho, las más competitivas que habría en el país hasta el establecimiento del sufragio secreto en 1912.

Candidatos

Resultados del Colegio Electoral

Resultados por Provincia

Véase también
 Elecciones legislativas de Argentina de 1868
 Elecciones al Senado de Argentina de 1868

Referencias

Bibliografía

1868
Elecciones en Argentina en 1868

Elecciones presidenciales de Argentina de 1868


Den Østrig-ungarske hær (; ) var det østrig-ungarske dobbeltmonarkis landstyrker fra 1867 til 1918. De bestod af tre dele: den fælles hær, , der kom fra alle dele af landet, det kejserlige østrigske Landwehr (rekrutteret fra Cisleithanien) og det kongelige ungarske hjemmeværn (rekrutteret fra Transleithanien).

Efter slagene mellem det østrigske kejserrige og det ungarske kongerige, og de to årtiers ustabile sameksistens der fulgte, aftjente ungarske soldater deres værnepligt enten i blandede enheder eller blev udstationeret væk fra de ungarske områder. Efter det Østrig-ungarske kompromis i 1867 blev den nye tredelte hær oprettet. Den varede frem til Østrig-Ungarn faldt sammen efter 1. verdenskrig i 1918.

Enhederne i den fælles "kejserlige og kongelige hær" ( eller k.u.k.) var generelt dårligt trænede og havde meget begrænset adgang til nyt udstyr, da de østrigske og ungarske dele af kejserriget normalt hver især foretrak at finansiere deres egne enheder frem for at udruste alle tre grene af hæren ligeligt. Alle hjemmeværns- og Landwehr-regimenterne bestod af tre bataljoner, mens de fælles k.u.k.-regimenter havde fire.

Den gamle hvide infanteriuniform blev i den anden halvdel af det 19. århundrede udskiftet med mørkeblå tunika, som igen blev udskiftet med en geddegrå uniform ved starten af første verdenskrig. I september 1915 blev feltgrå vedtaget som den nye officielle uniformsfarve.

Den sidste overlevende kendte soldat fra den østrig-ungarske hær var veteranen Franz Künstler, som døde i maj 2008 i en alder af 107.

Fodnoter

Østrig-Ungarn

Østrig-ungarske hær


Cortinarius praestans (François Simon Cordier, 1826 ex Claude Casimir Gillet, 1876), denumit în popor cortinaria uriașă sau ciuperca bufniței, este o ciupercă comestibilă din familia Cortinariaceae și de genul Cortinarius. Denumirea științifică provine din  cuvintele latine (=văl, perdea și =extraordinar, excelent). Acest burete coabitează, fiind un simbiont micoriza (formează micorize pe rădăcinile arborilor). În România, Basarabia și Bucovina de Nord, se dezvoltă, crescând solitar sau în grupuri mici, pe soluri calcaroase precum călduroase, în păduri de foioase erbacee, în special sub fagi, dar de asemenea sub stejari și aluni. Prin luminișuri de păduri de conifere pe lângă brazi și pini se întâlnește mult mai rar. Timpul apariției este din (iunie) iulie până în octombrie (noiembrie). Această specie este de departe cea mai mare a acestui gen.

Istoric
Cortinarius praestans a fost identificat ca specie autonomă destul de târziu, anume de micologul francez François Simon Cordier (1797-1874) în lucrarea sa Guide de l'amateur des Champignons ou précis de l'histoire des champignons alimentaires vénéneux et employés dans les arts din 1826 sub denumirea Agaricus praestans. Compatriotul său Claude Casimir Gillet a transferat soiul la genul Cortinarius cu același epitet în volumul 3 al marii sale opere Les Hyménomycètes: Ou, Description de tous les champignons (Fungi) qui croissent en France din 1876.

Redenumiri mai recente (Cortinarius infractus Miles Joseph Berkeley, 1860, Cortinarius berkeleyi Mordecai Cubitt Cooke, 1883, Cortinarius torvus var. berkeleyi (Cooke) Émile Boudier 1905, Phlegmacium praestans (Cordier) Meinhard Michael Moser, 1953) sunt acceptate ca sinonim, dar nu aplicate.

Descriere

 Pălăria: are un diametru între 5 și 25 (30) cm, este cărnoasă, la început boltită semisferic cu marginile răsucite spre interior, dar devine în  scurt timp convexă și apoi plată, purtând în tinerețe fragmente ale vălului parțial în formă de cortină, formată din fibre foarte fine ca păienjeniș între marginea pălăriei și piciorul. Marginea pălăriei este mai întâi flocoasă, apoi netedă, încrețită și canelată. Cuticula netedă, compactă, foarte regulată și lucioasă devenine unsuroasă pe vreme umedă. Culoarea pălăriei arată diverse tonuri de roșu-maroniu, variind până la brun, câteodată cu nuanțe de violet.
 Lamelele: stau dens, sunt destul de subțiri în comparație cu pălăria, ușor bombate și cu muchii zimțate, fiind învăluite la început de sus menționata cortină, aici de culoare alb-violetă. Coloritul este inițial alb, repede gri-gălbui, devenind  cu maturitatea ocru-maroniu.
 Piciorul:  are o lungime de 10 până 15 (20) cm și o lățime 3 până la 5 (8) cm, este foarte consistent, fibros, cu un bulb pronunțat la bază. Coloritul este albui, spre pălărie ușor palid-violet precum de culoare crem la bază.
 Carnea: este foarte compactă, fermă, albicioasă, în tinerețe cu tonuri violacee, cu miros aproape imperceptibil și gust dulceag. Reacții chimice nu sunt cunoscute.
 Caracteristici microscopice: are spori fusiformi sau în formă de lămâie, ascuțiți și verucoși de colorit ruginiu cu o mărime de 12-16 x 5-7 microni, pulberea lor fiind de culoare roșu-ruginie.
 Reacții chimice: Carnea se colorează cu acid sulfuric galben (cuticula mai slab), cu fenol gri-albui, cu azotat de argint carnea și lamelele imediat negru-verzui până negru (cuticula mai slab), carnea cu Hidroxid de potasiu gri și cu sulfat de fier mai întâi brun-gălbui, apoi gri.

Confuzii
Acest burete este de abia plin dezvoltat ușor de recunoscut datorit mărimii evidente. Poate fi confundat (adesea în stadiu mai tânăr) cu următoarele ciuperci:

Câteodată, soiul se confundă (de asemenea în stadiu tânăr) cu unele specii ale genului Hebeloma,  cu toate necomestibile prin gustul și/sau mirosul lor nepotrivit, ca de exemplu cu Hebeloma laterinum sin. Hebeloma edurum (pălărie crem până ocru-maroniu cu tonuri roșiatice, lamele la început albicioase, apoi maronii, picior albicios-ocru.

Imagini de specii similare

Valorificare
Această ciupercă este foarte savuroasă, fiind vândută în Franța și Elveția]] la paiață. Se oferă ca adăugare la mâncăruri cu alte ciuperci, în primul rând cu hribii. Buretele este predestinat pentru prepararea în legătură cu legume fine sau adăugați la jumări de ou, omletă precum sufleu sau folosiți pentru un foietaj cu șuncă sau într-o plăcintă (de exemplu "în stilul reginei", cu carne de vițel sau pui, sparanghel și mazăre).

Note

Bibliografie
 Marcel Bon: "Pareys Buch der Pilze", Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-440-13447-4
 Giacomo Bresadola: "Iconographia Mycologica, vol. XIII, Editura Società Botanica Italiana, Milano 1930, p./tab. 607 (în limba latină)
 Bruno Cetto: "Der große Pilzführer", vol. 1-4 (vezi sus)
 Rose Marie și Sabine Maria Dähncke: "700 Pilze in Farbfotos", Editura AT Verlag, Aarau - Stuttgart 1979 și 1980, ISBN 3-85502-0450
 Ewald Gerhard: "Der große BLV Pilzführer" (cu 1200 de specii descrise și 1000 fotografii), Editura BLV Buchverlag GmbH & Co. KG, ediția a 9-a, München 2018, ISBN 978-3-8354-1839-4
 Jean-Louis Lamaison & Jean-Marie Polese: "Der große Pilzatlas", Editura Tandem Verlag GmbH, Potsdam 2012, ISBN 978-3-8427-0483-1
 J. E. și M. Lange: "BLV Bestimmungsbuch - Pilze", Editura BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München, Berna Viena 1977, ISBN 3-405-11568-2
 Hans E. Laux: "Der große Pilzführer, Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2001, ISBN 978-3-440-14530-2
 Till E. Lohmeyer & Ute Künkele: "Pilze – bestimmen und sammeln", Editura Parragon Books Ltd., Bath 2014, ISBN 978-1-4454-8404-4
 Meinhard Michael Moser: "Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze - Kleine Kryptogamenflora Mitteleuropas" ediția a 5-ea, vol. 2, Editura Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart 1983

Legături externe

 Cortinarius praestans, film

Cortinarius
Micoriză
Ciuperci comestibile
1826 în știință

Cortinarius praestans


Aa maderoi je vrsta orhideje (porodica kaćunovke, Orchidaceae) iz reda šparogolike. Rasprostranjena je na području Kolumbije, Ekvadora i Venezuele.

Sinonimi
 Aa hartwegii Garay
 Altensteinia fragosa Løjtnant

Izvori

Aa
Flora Ekvadora
Flora Kolumbije
Flora Venezuele

Aa maderoi


L'incendie de whisky de Dublin est un accident ayant eu lieu le 18 juin 1875 dans le quartier Liberties de Dublin. Il dure une seule nuit mais entraîne la mort de 13 personnes et ainsi que des dégâts contemporainement évalués à 6 millions d'euros de dégâts rien qu'en whisky (ajusté en fonction de l'inflation).

Les gens boivent notamment la rivière de 15 cm de whisky qui aurait coulé jusqu'au centre de Dublin. Aucun des décès subis lors de l'incendie n'est dû à l'inhalation de fumée, à des brûlures ou à toute autre forme de contact direct avec l'incendie lui-même, mais à des intoxications alcooliques.

Origine
Il est supposé que l'incendie commence dans l'entrepôt sous douane de Laurence Malone au coin de la rue Ardee, où 5 000 hogsheads (soit près de 1,2 million de litres) de whisky sont stockés pour une valeur de 54 000 £. La cause exacte de l'incendie n'est pas connue, mais on sait qu'il s'est déclaré entre 16 h 35, lors de la vérification du magasin, et 20 h 30, lorsque l'alarme est déclenchée. À 21h30, les barils à l'intérieur de l'entrepôt commencent à exploser sous la chaleur, envoyant un flot de whisky s'écouler à travers les portes et les fenêtres du bâtiment en feu.

Propagation
Le flux de whisky s'étend d'abord sur Cork Street, tournant sur Ardee Street et emportant une maison sur Chamber Street, puis continue plus loin jusqu'à Mill Street où il démolit rapidement une rangée de petites maisons.

Réactions
Les personnes vivant à proximité sont d'abord alertées de l'incendie par les cris de cochons provenant d'enclos à bétail à proximité du bâtiment en feu. Cela entraîne une évacuation étonnamment rapide qui est ensuite saluée par les membres des services d'urgence ainsi que par le Lord Maire de Dublin à l'époque, Peter Paul McSwiney.

Pendant l'évacuation, de nombreuses personnes se rassemblent près des flots de whisky, remplissant n'importe quel récipient à portée de main avec le liquide brûlant. Par la suite, 24 hospitalisations dues à une intoxication alcoolique sont notées, dont 13 entraînant des décès.

Articles connexes
 Inondation de bière à Londres
 Grande inondation de mélasse de Boston

Références

Histoire de Dublin
Whiskey sur l'île d'Irlande
Catastrophe industrielle en 1875

Incendie de whisky de Dublin