Ziua Bunicului, sau Ziua Bunicilor este o zi comemorativă, dedicată bunicilor în cadrul fiecăreia dintre familiile care își onorează precursorii, zi care complementează Ziua Mamei și Ziua Tatălui. Această zi este celebrată doar în anumie țări, cu diferențe în ce privește denumirea ei, motivația sau/și data. În multe țări din America Latină, a fost aleasă pentru această comemorare, ziua de 26 iulie, zi în care liturghia catolică comemorează  pe San Joaquin (Sânt Ioachim) și pe Santa Ana (Sânta Ana), părinții Fecioarei Maria și, prin urmare, bunicii lui Isus.

În plus, ONU promovează celebrarea la nivel internațional a unei zi care sa reamintească de persoanele vârstei a treia, în general: Ziua Internațională a Persoanelor Vârstnice,  pentru ziua de 1 octombrie.

Celebrări ale acestei zi, în diferite țări

Argentina
În Argentina, în afară de mai sus pomenita zi de 26 iulie, este posibil sa găsim celebrată "Ziua Bunicii", și în cea de-a doua duminică a lunii noiembrie, și "Ziua Bunicului" cea de-a treia duminică a lunii August.

Bolivia
În Bolivia, se celebrează "Ziua Adultului Major (Vârstnic)" pe 26 August.

Brazilia
 În Brazilia, "Ziua Bunicilor" ("dia dos avós") este celebrată pe 26 iulie.

Canada
Celebrarea acestei zile în această țară a fost stabilită după ce a fost aprobată în 1995 de către Parlament moțiunea nr. 273, propusă de deputatul Sarkis Assadourian, prin care este desemnată a doua duminică din luna septembrie a fiecărui an, ca Zi a Bunicilor în scopul de a recunoaște importantul lor aport laborios în familie și în îngrijirea și în educația copiilor.

Chile
În Chile, se celebrează la două date diferite: Ziua Adultului Vârstnic este sărbătorită pe 1 octombrie, în conformitate cu Decretul Suprem Nr. 125 din 2004; iar la 15 octombrie este celebrată Ziua Națională Omului Bătrân și a Bunicul, potrivit decretului 754 al Ministerul de Interne, din 1977.

Columbia
În Columbia, se celebrează în a treia duminică a lunii august.

Costa Rica
În Costa Rica, este celebrată Ziua Națională a Adultului Vârstnic, la 1 octombrie.

Cuba
În Cuba,  Ziua Bunicilor este celebrată pe 26 iulie.

Ecuador
În Ecuador, este celebrată Ziua Națională a Adultului Vârstnic, la 29 septembrie.

Statele Unite Ale Americii
În Statele Unite ale Americii, se numește "National Grandparents Day (Ziua Naționala a Bunicilor)", și este celebrată în prima duminică de după  (Ziua Muncii). Se spune că originea acestei celebrări provine de la eforturile făcute în 1961 de către Hermine Beckett Hanna, din , in direcția aducerii de recunoștință persoanelor vârstnice și recunoașterea importanței lor sociale. La 21 februarie 1990 James T. Walsh, deputat de New York, a recunoscut eforturile depuse de Hermine Beckett Hanna în Camera Reprezentanților a Statelor Unite ale Americii, mulțumindu-i pentru rolul său în determinarea celebrării acestei "zi a bunicilor".

Alții au indicat-o pe Marian McQuade, din Fayette County (Virginia de Vest), căreia senatorul Alfonse D'Amato , și președintele Jimmy Carter, i-au transmis recunoștința pentru fondarea celebrării National Grandparents Day. McQuade a încercat sa transmită tinerilor informații educative asupra importanței contribuțiilor persoanelor care au ajuns să aparțină vârstei a treia, in lungul istoriei. De asemenea, ea a cerut tinerilor să "adopte" un bunic, nu doar pentru o zi, un an, ci pentru toată viața.

În 1973, senatorul Jennings Randolph a introdus o moțiune în scopul de a incorpora Ziua Bunicilor în rândul sărbătorilor având grad de sărbătoare publică națională. Cinci ani mai târziu, în 1978, Congresul a adoptat o lege care a stabilit prima duminică de după Labor Day (Ziua Muncii) drept Ziua Națională a Bunicilor.

Spania
 În Spania, ziua convenită pentru celebrarea Zilei Bunicilor este, 26 iulie.

Franța
În Franța, "Ziua Bunicilor" are celebrarea, începând din 1987, în prima duminică a lunii martie.

Honduras
În Honduras, Ziua Națională de Bunicilor și Bunicelor, este convenita spre celebrare pentru ultima duminică a lunii august ; în afară de asta, mulți oameni celebrează, aceasta "Zi a Bunicilor" pe 26 iulie.

Italia
În Italia, celebrarea Zilei Bunicilor a fost convenită în 2005 și este celebrată pe 2 octombrie, ziua Îngerului păzitor în cadrul Bisericii Catolice.

Mexic
În Mexic, celebrarea Zilei Bunicilor este convenită pentru 28 August .

Nicaragua
În Nicaragua, din anul 2014, Ziua Bunicului și a Bunicii are convenită data celebrării pentru 26 iulie a fiecărui an, "în semn de recunoaștere a contribuției în formarea, dezvoltarea și educației  familiei"; dată ce a fost stabilită printr-un decret legislativ al , în scopul de a  aduce "recunoștință prezenței bunicului și bunicii, în familie".

Panama
În Panama, se celebrează pe 26 iulie.

Paraguay
În Paraguay, este celebrată pe 5 mai.

Peru
În Peru, este celebrată pe 26 august.

Polonia
În Polonia, Ziua Bunicilor ("Dzień Babci") este celebrată pe 21 ianuarie. Ziua Bunicului ("Dzień Dziadka") este celebrată pe 22 ianuarie.

Portugalia
 În Portugalia, Ziua Bunicilor ("dia dos avós") este celebrată pe 26 iulie.

Puerto Rico
În Puerto Rico, este celebrată în a doua duminică a lunii septembrie.

Marea Britanie
În Marea Britanie, Ziua Bunicilor este celebrată în prima duminică a lunii octombrie. Celebrarea ei a fost promovată în 1990 de către ONG - Age Concern.

Uruguay
În Uruguay, Ziua Bunicilor isi are fixată celebrarea pe 19 iunie, ziua de naștere a eroului național José Gervasio Artigas.

Venezuela
În Venezuela, este sărbătorită Ziua Națională a Adult mai în Vârstă de 29 mai. este, de Asemenea, sărbătorită pe 26 iulie, data în care biserica catolică îl sărbătorește ziua de Sfântul Ioachim și Sfânta ana, părinți ai  Fecioarei Maria și bunicii lui Isus.

Republica Dominicană
În Republica Dominicană, este celebrată Ziua Națională a Adultului Vârstnic pe 29 mai. Este de asemenea celebrată, pe 26 iulie, dată în care biserica catolică îi celebrează pe Sfântul Ioachim și pe Sfânta ana, părinții Fecioarei Maria și bunici lui Isus.

Alte entități

Mesageri de Pace
ONG Mesageri de Pace celebrează începând cu anul 1998, Ziua Bunicilor în fiecare 26 iulie. Aceasta organizația declara că înțelege că, în cazurile în care părinții nu pot asigura o îngrijire adecvată copiilor lor, bunicii își asumă  rolul de întreținători sau/și de tutori.

Link-uri externe

Referințe

Sărbători
Sărbători seculare
Bătrânețe

Ziua bunicilor


George Granville Leveson-Gower, 1. Hertug af Sutherland KG, PC (født d. 9. januar 1758 - død d. 19 juli 1833), kendt som viscount Trentham fra 1758 til 1786, som Earl Gower fra 1786 til 1803 og som markisen af Stafford fra 1803 til 1833 var en engelsk politiker, diplomat, godsejer og mæcen for kunst fra familien Leveson-Gower.

Han blevet kaldt "Leviathanen af Rigdom" og "Den rigeste mand der nogensinde døde". Han var den rigeste mand i Storbritannien i den sidste del af sit liv. Den store rigdom kom fra ejendomsretten til jord, udnyttelse af de mineralske ressourcer jorden indeholdt og, som Disraeli påpegede, "talent for ægte kvindelige arvinger".

Biografi
Som ældste søn af Granville Leveson-Gower, 2. Jarl Gower, 1. markis af Stafford og hans anden hustru, lady Louisa Egerton, John Egerton, 2. Hertug af Bridgewaters yndlingssøster, arvede han betydelige indtægter og formuer fra Bridgewater-kanalen, da hans onkel døde i 1803. Samme år døde hans far, og han arvede familiens ejendomme ved Lilleshall i Shropshire og Trentham i Staffordshire.

George Granvilles ægteskab i 1785 med Elizabeth, grevinden af Sutherland, baronesse af Strathnavar (1765-1839), bragte ham store godser i Skotland med endnu en residens: Dunrobin Castle. Hun havde arvet store godser i Sutherland på 1,25 millioner acres (ca. 505.000 hektar) i en alder af 1 år, da hendes forældre døde af tyfus feberen i Bath i 1766.

Leveson-Gower-familien besad således tre store residenser, Dunrobin i Skotland, Lilleshall Hall som i 1820 blev genopbygget som hjem for familiens arving og til sidst Trentham Hall, en meget storslået Italiensk palads, med en sø, formelle haver, terrasser og skov. Paladset blev udviet og forbedret for £123.000 i 1830-erne. Det svarer til ca. £13,35 mio. i 2019, cirka 111,4 mio danske kroner.

Hans enorme rigdom stammede dels fra udnyttelsen af mineralrigdomme fra hans engelske godser, dels fra virksomheder som Lilleshall Co. Coal, lime og ironstone, som blev udnyttet på Donnington Wood Kannalen ved Lilleshall, bygget af hans far. George Granville fortsætte med at investere i kanalprojekter. Han anerkendte truslen om jernbanerne og investeret i dem i et forsøg på at beskytte sine interesser.

Han og hans forvalter, James Loch, blev meget upopulær for "The Highland Clearances", der blev gennemført omkring 1810 på Sutherland. Han var  chokeret over levevilkårene for sine skotske lejere, og de blev med magt forflyttet til nye industrikvarterer på kysten. Han blev derfor holdt ansvarlig for ødelæggelsen af Highlandernes livsstil. De engelske godser i West Midlands blev også forbedret, dog ikke  så drastisk.

I 1827 købte George Granville, lord Stafford, palæet York House i London af regeringen. Det var bygget af George 4.s broder, hertugen af York, der døde dybt forgældet, før palæet var færdigt. George Granville brugte £150.000 (Ca. £15 mio. i 2019, cirka 125,7 mio. dkk) til at færdiggøre og udvide palæet. Han ændrede også dets navn til Stafford House. Det er siden anerkendt som det fornemste byhus i London (Lancaster House fra 1912). Her blev familien ledere af fashionable samfund med hertuginden, der underholdt ved dyre fester og forlystelser.

George Granvilles politiske karriere var mindre strålende end hans faders, selv om han var MP og ambassadør i Paris. Senere, støttede han den katolske frigørelse og Reform loven. Som belønning blev han hertug af Sutherland i 1833.

Død
Ved hans død i 1833 gik den enorme Bridgewater arv videre til hans søn, Francis, der senere blev Jarl af Ellesmere. Han tog sin bedstemors navn Egerton. Jernbaneinteresserne og resten af godserne gik til hans næstældste søn, George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 2. Herug af Sutherland

Børn
Geroge Granville giftede sig med Elizabeth Sutherland, 19. grevinde af Sutherland, datter af William Sutherland, 18. jarl af Sutherland , tidligere Mary Maxwell, den 4 September 1785. De fik fire børn, der overlevede deres ungdom:

 George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 2. Herug af Sutherland,( 1786–1861) ægtede lady Harriet Elizabeth Georgiana Howard og fik:
 Lady Charlotte Sophia Leveson-Gower (c. 1788–1870), ægtede Henry Fitzalan-Howard, 13. hertug af Norfolk og fik børn.
 Lady Elizabeth Mary Leveson-Gower (1797–1891), ægtede Richard Grosvenor, 2. Markis of Westminster og fik børn, bl.a. Hugh Grosvenor, 1. Hertug af Westminster
 Francis Leveson-Gower (Senere Egerton) 1. Jarl af Ellesmere, (1800–1857) ægtede Harriet Greville og fik børn

Referenceliste

Hertuger fra Skotland

George Leveson-Gower, 1. Hertug af Sutherland


An Masdevallia melina in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Willibald Königer ngan J.Meza. An Masdevallia melina in nahilalakip ha genus nga Masdevallia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Masdevallia

Masdevallia melina


A calvária é a parte superior do crânio e cobre a cavidade craniana que contém o cérebro. Ele forma o principal componente do teto do crânio. A calvária é composta pelas porções superiores do osso frontal, osso occipital e ossos parietais. No crânio humano, as suturas entre os ossos normalmente permanecem flexíveis durante os primeiros anos de desenvolvimento pós-natal, e as fontanelas são palpáveis. A ossificação completa prematura dessas suturas é chamada de craniossinostose.

Crânio

Calvária


Discord er en gratis Voice over IP-applikation designet til gamere. Den specialiserer sig i tekst-, billed-, video- og lydkommunikation. Discord findes på Windows, MacOS, Android, iOS, Linux og i internetbrowsere.
I december 2017 havde Discord omkring 87 millioner brugere og i maj 2018 omkring 130 millioner brugere.

Partnerskab
Discord partner er for Twitch-broadcastere, Mixer-broadcastere, YouTubere, Reddit-samfundet eller non-profit organisationer. Ved at have dette kan man få nogle fordele til Discord, som gratis Discord Nitro, personligt discord.gg-link, bedre lydkommunikation til ens server, eksklusivt ikon til sin profil og en Discord-hættetrøje kun for partnere.

Discord Nitro
Discord Nitro er et abonnement, man kan købe hos firmaet Discord, så man får nogle fordele og er med til at støtte Discord økonomisk.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Windows-software
Mac OS-software
IOS programmer
Linux-software
Fællesskab

Discord


Iton Vita poyde tinmudlok ha:
Vita, Italya, comune ha lalawigan han Trapani ha rehiyon han Sicilia ha nasod han Italya.
Vita, Ávila, bungto nga nahamutang ha lalawigan han Ávila, Castilla y León, Espanya.

Vita


Rådmandshaven er et naturområde i Næstved på Sydsjælland. Den aller sydligste del af området er græs, lige op mod Næstved Kommunes bygninger. Mod vest ligger Susåen og mod øst ligger et boligområde, hvor også Næstved Sygehus er placeret. Mod nord ligger Herlufsholm som ejer Rådmandshaven foruden Friheden i nærheden af Næstved centrum, Stenskoven og Kalbyrisskoven. Disse skove kaldes samlet for Herlufsholmskovene. Rådmandshaven som dækker 57 ha, blev fredet i 1947.

Rådmandshaven er primært løvskov. Som naturtype er skoven karakteriseret som bøgeskov på muld, fugtig egeskov og ellesump. På et højdedrag i midten af skoven findes en samling nåletræer, som er plantet mellem 1891 og 1960. Skoven har stor artsrigdom, og der findes flere meget gamle træer og ellesumpe. Den har været fredet siden 1947. Rådmandshaven har en af Danmarks fineste bestande af almindelig hæg. De fleste af kommunens skove og parker bliver vedligeholdt af Næstved Park & Vej.

Rådmandshaven er en del af Natura 2000 plan område nr. 163 Suså, Tystrup-Bavelse Sø, Slagmosen, Holmegårds Mose og Porsmose.

Flora og fauna
Mange gamle træer, blandt andet ask, eg og bøg og en underskov af hæg, hassel, hyld, tjørn og benved præger Rådmandshaven. Om foråret dækkes skovbunden af hvid og gul anemone, hulrodet lærkespore og fladkravet kodriver, der tilsammen danner et usædvanlig rigt skovbundsflor.

Vandstær, isfugl og bjergvipstjert – tre fuglearter der er knyttet til rindende vand – findes ofte findes langs Susåen på den strækning, der fører forbi Rådmandshaven, og kan her opleves på nært hold.

Selve skoven huser en række almindelige småfugle som forskellige arter af mejser og spætmejse, der trives godt blandt de gamle træer. Også den store flagspætte er almindelig.

Pinetum
En del af Rådmandshaven er nåletræsskoven Pinetum på ca. 2,75 ha. Her er store, gamle rødgraner som blev plantet i 1873, og andre nåletræer som er plantet i perioden fra 1891 til ca. 1960. Det er hovedsageligt træer som stammer fra Nordamerika og Østasien, hvoraf nogle er sjældne i Danmark.

Arrangementer
På græsarealet mod syd blev der i slutningen af 1980'erne afholdt koncertarrangementet Grøn, men det er siden blevet afholdt andre steder i byen. Området har også været brugt til at afholde middelaldermarkeder.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Rådmandshaven på fredninger.dk

Næstved
Skove i Næstved Kommune

Rådmandshaven


An Microepidendrum subulatifolium in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Achille Richard ngan Henri Guillaume Galeotti, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Wesley Ervin Higgins. An Microepidendrum subulatifolium in nahilalakip ha genus nga Microepidendrum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Microepidendrum

Microepidendrum subulatifolium


is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. Developed by Kan'ami and his son Zeami, it is the oldest major theater art that is still regularly performed today. Although the terms Noh and nōgaku are sometimes used interchangeably, nōgaku encompasses both Noh and kyōgen. Traditionally, a full nōgaku program included several Noh plays with comedic kyōgen plays in between; an abbreviated program of two Noh plays with one kyōgen piece has become common today. Optionally, the ritual performance Okina may be presented in the very beginning of nōgaku presentation.

Noh is often based on tales from traditional literature with a supernatural being transformed into human form as a hero narrating a story. Noh integrates masks, costumes and various props in a dance-based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized conventional gestures while the iconic masks represent the roles such as ghosts, women, deities, and demons. Written in late middle Japanese, the text "vividly describes the ordinary people of the twelfth to sixteenth centuries". Having a strong emphasis on tradition rather than innovation, Noh is extremely codified and regulated by the iemoto system.

History

Origins
The kanji for  means "skill", "craft", or "talent", particularly in the field of performing arts in this context. The word Noh may be used alone or with gaku (; entertainment, music) to form the word nōgaku. Noh is a classical tradition that is highly valued by many today. When used alone, Noh refers to the historical genre of theatre that originated from sarugaku in the mid 14th century and continues to be performed today.

One of the oldest forerunners of Noh and kyōgen is , which was introduced to Japan from China in the 8th century. At the time, the term sangaku referred to various types of performance featuring acrobats, song and dance as well as comic sketches. Its subsequent adaptation to Japanese society led to its assimilation of other traditional art forms." Various performing art elements in sangaku as well as elements of dengaku (rural celebrations performed in connection with rice planting), sarugaku (popular entertainment including acrobatics, juggling, and pantomime), shirabyōshi (traditional dances performed by female dancers in the Imperial Court in the 12th century), gagaku (music and dance performed in the Imperial Court beginning in the 7th century), and kagura (ancient Shinto dances in folk tales) evolved into Noh and kyōgen.

Studies on the genealogy of the Noh actors in 14th century indicate they were members of families specializing in the performing arts. According to legend, the Konparu School, which is considered to be the oldest tradition of Noh, was founded by Hata no Kawakatsu in the 6th century. However, the founder of the Konparu school, which is widely accepted among historians, was Bishaō Gon no Kami (Komparu Gonnokami) during Nanboku-chō period in the 14th century. According to the genealogical chart of the Konparu school, Bishaō Gon no Kami is a descendant after 53 generations of Hata no Kawakatsu. The Konparu school was descended from the sarugaku troupe which had played active roles in Kasuga-taisha and Kofuku-ji in Yamato Province.

Another theory, by Shinhachirō Matsumoto, suggests Noh originated from outcastes struggling to claim higher social status by catering to those in power, namely the new ruling samurai class of the time. The transfer of the shogunate from Kamakura to Kyoto at the beginning of Muromachi period marked the increasing power of the samurai class and strengthened the relationship between the shogunate and the court. As Noh became the shōguns favorite art form, Noh was able to become a courtly art form through this newly formed relationship. In 14th century, with strong support and patronage from shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Zeami was able to establish Noh as the most prominent theatre art form of the time.

The establishment of Noh by Kan'ami and Zeami

In the 14th century, during the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573), Kan'ami Kiyotsugu and his son Zeami Motokiyo reinterpreted various traditional performing arts and completed Noh in a significantly different form from the traditional one, essentially bringing Noh to the present form. Kan'ami was a renowned actor with great versatility playing roles from graceful women and 12-year-old boys to strong men. When Kan'ami first presented his work to the 17-year-old Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Zeami was a child actor in his play, around age 12. Yoshimitsu fell in love with Zeami and his position of favor at court caused Noh to be performed frequently for Yoshimitsu thereafter.

Konparu Zenchiku, who was the great-grandson of Bishaō Gon no Kami, the founder of the Konparu school, and the husband of Zeami's daughter, incorporated elements of waka (poetry) into Zeami's Noh and further developed it.

By this period, among the five major schools of Noh, four were established: the Kanze school, established by Kan'ami and Zeami; the Hōshō school established by Kan'ami's eldest brother; the Konparu school; and the Kongō school. All of these schools were descendants of the sarugaku troupe from Yamato Province. The Ashikaga Shogunate supported only the Kanze school among the four schools.

Tokugawa era
During the Edo period, Noh continued to be an aristocratic art form supported by the shōgun, the feudal lords (daimyōs), as well as wealthy and sophisticated commoners. While kabuki and joruri popular to the middle class focused on new and experimental entertainment, Noh strived to preserve its established high standards and historic authenticity and remained mostly unchanged throughout the era. To capture the essence of performances given by great masters, every detail in movements and positions was reproduced by others, generally resulting in an increasingly slow, ceremonial tempo over time.

In this era, the Tokugawa shogunate appointed Kanze school as the head of the four schools. Kita Shichidayū (Shichidayū Chōnō), a Noh actor of the Konparu school who served Tokugawa Hidetada, founded the Kita school, which was the last established of the five major schools.

Modern Noh after Meiji era

The fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 and the formation of a new, modernized government resulted in the end of financial support by the state, and the entire field of Noh experienced major financial crisis. Shortly after the Meiji Restoration both the number of Noh performers and Noh stages greatly diminished. The support from the imperial government was eventually regained partly due to Noh's appeal to foreign diplomats. The companies that remained active throughout the Meiji era also significantly broadened Noh's reach by catering to the general public, performing at theatres in major cities such as Tokyo and Osaka.

In 1957 the Japanese Government designated nōgaku as an Important Intangible Cultural Property, which affords a degree of legal protection to the tradition as well as its most accomplished practitioners. The National Noh Theatre founded by the government in 1983 stages regular performances and organizes courses to train actors in the leading roles of nōgaku. Noh was inscribed in 2008 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO as Nōgaku theatre.

Although the terms nōgaku and Noh are sometimes used interchangeably, the Japanese government's definition of "nōgaku" theatre encompasses both Noh plays and kyōgen plays. Kyōgen is performed in between Noh plays in the same space. Compared to Noh, "kyōgen relies less on the use of masks and is derived from the humorous plays of the sangaku, as reflected in its comic dialogue."

Women in Noh
During the Edo period, the guild system gradually tightened, which largely excluded women from Noh, except for some women (such as courtesans) performing songs in marginal situations. Later, in the Meiji era, Noh performers taught wealthy people and nobles, and this led to more opportunities for female performers because women insisted on female teachers. In the early 1900s, after women were allowed to join Tokyo Music School, the rules forbidding women from joining various schools and associations in Noh were relaxed. In 1948, the first women joined the Nohgaku Performers' Association. In 2004, the first women joined the Association for Japanese Noh Plays. In 2007, the National Noh Theatre began to annually present regular programs by female performers. In 2009, there were about 1200 male and 200 female professional Noh performers.

Jo-ha-kyū

The concept of jo-ha-kyū dictates virtually every element of Noh including compiling of a program of plays, structuring of each play, songs and dances within plays, and the basic rhythms within each Noh performance. Jo means beginning, ha means breaking, and kyū means rapid or urgent. The term originated in gagaku, ancient courtly music, to indicate gradually increasing tempo and was adopted in various Japanese traditions including Noh, tea ceremony, poetry, and flower arrangement.

Jo-ha-kyū is incorporated in the traditional five-play program of Noh. The first play is jo, the second, third, and fourth plays are ha, and the fifth play is kyū. In fact, the five categories discussed below were created so that the program would represent jo-ha-kyū when one play from each category is selected and performed in order. Each play can be broken into three parts, the introduction, the development, and the conclusion. A play starts out in a slow tempo at jo, gets slightly faster at ha, then culminates in kyū.

Performers and roles

Actors begin their training as young children, traditionally at the age of three.

Training
Zeami isolated nine levels or types of Noh acting from lower degrees which put emphasis on movement and violence to higher degrees which represent the opening of a flower and spiritual prowess.

In 2012, there are five extant schools of Noh acting called Kanze (観世), Hōshō (宝生), Komparu (金春), Kongō (金剛), and Kita (喜多) schools that train shite actors. Each school has its own iemoto family that carries the name of the school and is considered the most important. The iemoto holds the power to create new plays or modify lyrics and performance modes. Waki actors are trained in the schools Takayasu (高安), Fukuou (福王), and Hōshō (宝生). There are two schools that train kyōgen, Ōkura (大蔵) and Izumi (和泉). Eleven schools train instrumentalists, each school specializing in one to three instruments.

The Nohgaku Performers' Association (Nōgaku Kyōkai), to which all professionals are registered, strictly protects the traditions passed down from their ancestors (see iemoto). However, several secret documents of the Kanze school written by Zeami, as well as materials by Konparu Zenchiku, have been diffused throughout the community of scholars of Japanese theatre.

Roles

There are four major categories of Noh performers: shite, waki, kyōgen, and hayashi.

 Shite (仕手, シテ). Shite is the main protagonist, or the leading role in plays. In plays where the shite appears first as a human and then as a ghost, the first role is known as the mae-shite and the later as the nochi-shite.
 Shitetsure (仕手連れ, シテヅレ). The shite's companion. Sometimes shitetsure is abbreviated to tsure (連れ, ツレ), although this term refers to both the shitetsure and the wakitsure.
 Kōken (後見) are stage hands, usually one to three people.
 Jiutai (地謡) is the chorus, usually comprising six to eight people.
 Waki (脇, ワキ) performs the role that is the counterpart or foil of the shite.
 Wakitsure (脇連れ, ワキヅレ) or Waki-tsure is the companion of the waki.
 Kyōgen (狂言) perform the aikyōgen (間狂言), which are interludes during plays. Kyōgen actors also perform in separate plays between individual Noh plays.
 Hayashi (囃子) or hayashi-kata (囃子方) are the instrumentalists who play the four instruments used in Noh theatre: the transverse ,  or , the , and the . The flute used for Noh is specifically called .

A typical Noh play always involves the chorus, the orchestra, and at least one shite and one waki actor.

Performance elements
Noh performance combines a variety of elements into a stylistic whole, with each particular element the product of generations of refinement according to the central Buddhist, Shinto, and minimalist aspects of Noh's aesthetic principles.

Masks

Noh masks (能面 nō-men or 面 omote) are carved from blocks of Japanese cypress (檜 "hinoki"), and painted with natural pigments on a neutral base of glue and crushed seashell. There are approximately 450 different masks mostly based on sixty types, all of which have distinctive names. Some masks are representative and frequently used in many different plays, while some are very specific and may only be used in one or two plays. Noh masks signify the characters' gender, age, and social ranking, and by wearing masks the actors may portray youngsters, old men, female, or nonhuman (divine or demonic) characters. Only the shite, the main actor, wears a mask in most plays, although the tsure may also wear a mask in some plays.

Even though the mask covers an actor's facial expressions, the use of the mask in Noh is not an abandonment of facial expressions altogether. Rather, its intent is to stylize and codify the facial expressions through the use of the mask and to stimulate the imagination of the audience. By using masks, actors are able to convey emotions in a more controlled manner through movements and body language. Some masks utilize lighting effect to convey different emotions through slight tilting of the head. Facing slightly upward, or "brightening" the mask, will let the mask to capture more light, revealing more features that appear laughing or smiling. Facing downward, or "clouding" it, will cause the mask to appear sad or mad.

Noh masks are treasured by Noh families and institution, and the powerful Noh schools hold the oldest and most valuable Noh masks in their private collections, rarely seen by the public. The most ancient mask is supposedly kept as a hidden treasure by the oldest school, the Konparu. According to the current head of the Konparu school, the mask was carved by the legendary regent Prince Shōtoku (572–622) over a thousand years ago. While the historical accuracy of the legend of Prince Shōtoku's mask may be contested, the legend itself is ancient as it is first recorded in Zeami's Style and the Flower written in the 14th century. Some of the masks of the Konparu school belong to the Tokyo National Museum, and are exhibited there frequently.

Stage

The traditional Noh stage (butai) has complete openness that provides a shared experience between the performers and the audience throughout the performance. Without any proscenium or curtains to obstruct the view, the audience sees each actor even during the moments before they enter (and after they exit) the central "stage" (honbutai, "main stage"). The theatre itself is considered symbolic and treated with reverence both by the performers and the audience.

One of the most recognizable characteristic of Noh stage is its independent roof that hangs over the stage even in indoor theatres. Supported by four columns, the roof symbolizes the sanctity of the stage, with its architectural design derived from the worship pavilion (haiden) or sacred dance pavilion (kagura-den) of Shinto shrines. The roof also unifies the theatre space and defines the stage as an architectural entity.

The pillars supporting the roof are named shitebashira (principal character's pillar), metsukebashira (gazing pillar), wakibashira (secondary character's pillar), and fuebashira (flute pillar), clockwise from upstage right respectively. Each pillar is associated with the performers and their actions.

The stage is made entirely of unfinished hinoki, Japanese cypress, with almost no decorative elements. The poet and novelist Tōson Shimazaki writes that "on the stage of the Noh theatre there are no sets that change with each piece. Neither is there a curtain. There is only a simple panel (kagami-ita) with a painting of a green pine tree. This creates the impression that anything that could provide any shading has been banished. To break such monotony and make something happen is no easy thing."

Another unique feature of the stage is the hashigakari, a narrow bridge at upstage right used by actors to enter the stage. Hashigakari means "suspension bridge", signifying something aerial that connects two separate worlds on a same level. The bridge symbolizes the mythic nature of Noh plays in which otherworldly ghosts and spirits frequently appear. In contrast, hanamichi in Kabuki theatres is literally a path (michi) that connects two spaces in a single world, thus has a completely different significance.

Costumes

Noh actors wear silk costumes called shozoku (robes) along with wigs, hats, and props such as the fan. With striking colors, elaborate texture, and intricate weave and embroidery, Noh robes are truly works of art in their own right. Costumes for the shite in particular are extravagant, shimmering silk brocades, but are progressively less sumptuous for the tsure, the wakizure, and the aikyōgen.

For centuries, in accordance with the vision of Zeami, Noh costumes emulated the clothing that the characters would genuinely wear, such as the formal robes for a courtier and the street clothing for a peasant or commoner. But in the late sixteenth century, the costumes became stylized with certain symbolic and stylistic conventions. During the Edo (Tokugawa) period, the elaborate robes given to actors by noblemen and samurai in the Muromachi period were developed as costumes.

The musicians and chorus typically wear formal montsuki kimono (black and adorned with five family crests) accompanied by either hakama (a skirt-like garment) or kami-shimo, a combination of hakama and a waist-coat with exaggerated shoulders. Finally, the stage attendants are garbed in virtually unadorned black garments, much in the same way as stagehands in contemporary Western theatre.

Props
The use of props in Noh is minimalistic and stylized. The most commonly used prop in Noh is the fan, as it is carried by all performers regardless of role. Chorus singers and musicians may carry their fan in hand when entering the stage, or carry it tucked into the obi (the sash). The fan is usually placed at the performer's side when he or she takes position, and is often not taken up again until leaving the stage. During dance sequences, the fan is typically used to represent any and all hand-held props, such as a sword, wine jug, flute, or writing brush. The fan may represent various objects over the course of a single play.

When hand props other than fans are used, they are usually introduced or retrieved by kuroko who fulfill a similar role to stage crew in contemporary theatre. Like their Western counterparts, stage attendants for Noh traditionally dress in black, but unlike in Western theatre they may appear on stage during a scene, or may remain on stage during an entire performance, in both cases in plain view of the audience. The all-black costume of kuroko implies they are not part of the action on stage and are effectively invisible.

Set pieces in Noh such as the boats, wells, altars, and bells, are typically carried onto the stage before the beginning of the act in which they are needed. These props normally are only outlines to suggest actual objects, although the great bell, a perennial exception to most Noh rules for props, is designed to conceal the actor and to allow a costume change during the kyōgen interlude.

Chant and music

Noh theatre is accompanied by a chorus and a hayashi ensemble (Noh-bayashi 能囃子). Noh is a chanted drama, and a few commentators have dubbed it "Japanese opera". However, the singing in Noh involves a limited tonal range, with lengthy, repetitive passages in a narrow dynamic range. Texts are poetic, relying heavily on the Japanese seven-five rhythm common to nearly all forms of Japanese poetry, with an economy of expression, and an abundance of allusion. The singing parts of Noh are called "Utai" and the speaking parts "Kataru". The music has many blank spaces (ma) in between the actual sounds, and these negative blank spaces are in fact considered the heart of the music. In addition to utai, Noh hayashi ensemble consists of four musicians, also known as the "hayashi-kata", including three drummers, which play the shime-daiko, ōtsuzumi (hip drum), and kotsuzumi (shoulder drum) respectively, and a nohkan flutist.

The chant is not always performed "in character"; that is, sometimes the actor will speak lines or describe events from the perspective of another character or even a disinterested narrator. Far from breaking the rhythm of the performance, this is actually in keeping with the otherworldly feel of many Noh plays, especially in those characterized as mugen.

Plays
Of the roughly 2000 plays created for Noh that are known today, about 240 make up the current repertoire performed by the five existing Noh schools. The current repertoire is heavily influenced by the taste of aristocratic class in Tokugawa period and does not necessarily reflect popularity among the commoners. There are several ways to classify Noh plays.

Subject
All Noh plays can be classified into three broad categories.
 Genzai Noh (現在能, "present Noh") features human characters and events unfold according to a linear timeline within the play.
 Mugen Noh (夢幻能, "supernatural Noh") involves supernatural worlds, featuring gods, spirits, ghosts, or phantasms in the shite role. Time is often depicted as passing in a non-linear fashion, and action may switch between two or more timeframes from moment to moment, including flashbacks.
 Ryōkake Noh (両掛能, "mixed Noh"), though somewhat uncommon, is a hybrid of the above with the first act being Genzai Noh and the second act Mugen Noh.
While Genzai Noh utilizes internal and external conflicts to drive storylines and bring out emotions, Mugen Noh focuses on utilizing flashbacks of the past and the deceased to invoke emotions.

Performance style
Additionally, all Noh plays may be categorized by their style.
 Geki Noh (劇能) is a drama piece based around the advancement of plot and the narration of action.
 Furyū Noh (風流能) is little more than a dance piece characterized by elaborate stage action, often involving acrobatics, stage properties, and multiple characters.

Theme

All Noh plays are divided by their themes into the following five categories. This classification is considered the most practical, and is still used in formal programming choices today. Traditionally, a formal 5-play program is composed of a selection from each of the groups.
 Kami mono (神物, god plays) or waki Noh (脇能) typically feature the shite in the role of a deity to tell the mythic story of a shrine or praise a particular god. Many of them structured in two acts, the deity takes a human form in disguise in the first act and reveals the real self in the second act. (e.g. Takasago, Chikubushima)
 Shura mono (修羅物, warrior plays) or ashura Noh (阿修羅能) takes its name from the Buddhist underworld. The protagonist appearing as a ghost of a famous samurai pleads to a monk for salvation and the drama culminates in a glorious re-enactment of the scene of his death in a full war costume. (e.g. Tamura, Atsumori)
 Katsura mono (鬘物, wig plays) or onna mono (女物, woman plays) depict the shite in a female role and feature some of the most refined songs and dances in all of Noh, reflecting the smooth and flowing movements representing female characters. (e.g. Basho, Matsukaze)
 There are about 94 "miscellaneous" plays traditionally performed in the fourth place in a five-play program. These plays include subcategories kyōran mono (狂乱物, madness plays), onryō mono (怨霊物, vengeful ghost plays), genzai mono (現在物, present plays), as well as others. (e.g. Aya no tsuzumi, Kinuta)
 Kiri Noh (切り能, final plays) or oni mono (鬼物, demon plays) usually feature the shite in the role of monsters, goblins, or demons, and are often selected for their bright colors and fast-paced, tense finale movements. Kiri Noh is performed the last in a five-play program. There are roughly 30 plays in this category, most of which are shorter than the plays in the other categories.

In addition to the above five, Okina (翁) (or Kamiuta) is frequently performed at the very beginning of the program, especially at New Year, holidays, and other special occasions. Combining dance with Shinto ritual, it is considered the oldest type of Noh play.

Famous plays

The following categorization is that of the Kanze school.

Influence in the West
Many Western artists have been influenced by Noh.

Theatre practitioners
 Eugenio Barba – Between 1966 and 1972, Japanese Noh Masters Hideo Kanze and Hisao Kanze gave seminars on Noh at Barba's Theater Laboratory of Holstebro. Barba primarily studied the physical aspects of Noh.
 Samuel Beckett – Yoshihiko Ikegami considers Beckett's Waiting for Godot a parody of Noh, particularly Kami Noh, in which a god or a spirit appears before a secondary character as the protagonist. Ikegami argues that "the dramatic conflict which was much in evidence in Yeats is so completely discarded that Beckett's theatre (where 'nothing happens') comes to look even closer to Noh than Yeats's did."
 Bertolt Brecht – According to Maria P. Alter, Brecht began reading Japanese plays during the middle twenties and have read at least 20 Noh plays translated into German by 1929. Brecht's Der Jasager is an adaptation of a Noh play Taniko. Brecht himself identified Die Massnahme as an adaptation of Noh play.
 Peter Brook – Yoshi Oida, a Japanese actor with training in Noh, began working with Brook in their production of The Tempest in 1968. Oida later joined Brook's company.
 Paul Claudel – According to John Willett, Paul Claudel learned about Noh during the time he served as French Ambassador to Japan. Claudel's opera Christophe Colomb shows an unmistakable influence of the Noh.
 Jacques Copeau – In 1923, Copeau worked on a Noh play, Kantan, along with Suzanne Bing at Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier, without ever having seen a Noh play. Thomas Leabhart states that "Jacques Copeau was drawn instinctively by taste and tendency to a restrained theatre which was based in spirituality." Copeau praised Noh theatre in writing when he finally saw a production in 1930.
 Guillaume Gallienne - Deguchinashi (Huis-Clos) by Jean-Paul Sartre, a Noh version of Sartre's play directed by Guillaume Gallienne at the Noh Tessenkai theatre, Tokyo in 2006.
 Jacques Lecoq – Physical theatre taught at L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq founded by Lecoq is influenced by Noh.
 Eugene O'Neill – O'Neill's plays The Iceman Cometh, Long Day's Journey into Night, and Hughie have various similarities to Noh plays.
 Thornton Wilder – Wilder himself expressed his interest in Noh in his "Preface" to Three Plays and his sister Isabel Wilder also confirmed his interests. Wilder's work Our Town incorporates various elements of Noh such as lack of plot, representative characters, and use of ghosts.

Composers
 William Henry Bell – An English composer Bell wrote music for modern presentation of several Noh plays, including Komachi (1925), Tsuneyo of the Three Trees (1926), Hatsuyuki (1934), The Pillow of Kantan (1935), and Kageyiko (1936).
 Benjamin Britten – Britten visited Japan in 1956 and saw for the first time Japanese Noh plays, which he called "some of the most wonderful drama I have ever seen." The influences were seen and heard in his ballet The Prince of the Pagodas (1957) and later in two of the three semi-operatic "Parables for Church Performance": Curlew River (1964) and The Prodigal Son (1968).
 David Byrne – Byrne encountered Noh when he was on tour in Japan with Talking Heads and he was inspired by the highly stylized practices of Noh, completely different from its Western counterparts that focus on naturalism. According to Josh Kun, "Japanese Noh theatre inspired him to design the oversize business suit that became a visual staple of Talking Heads live shows."
 Alan Watts – 20th century philosopher, the liner notes from his third song off the 1962 album 'This is IT' state "Watts in a Japanese no-noh."
 Harry Partch – Partch called his work Delusion of the Fury "a ritualistic web". Kate Molleson wrote for The Guardian that "the narrative is a bleary mix of Japanese Noh theatre, Ethiopian folk mythology, Greek drama and his own wacky imagination". Will Salmon cites Partch himself writing, "Noh has been for centuries a fine art, one of the most sophisticated the world has known." Delusion of the Fury incorporates two Noh plays, Atsumori by Zeami and Ikuta by Zenbō Motoyasu, into its story.
 Karlheinz Stockhausen – The essentially plotless libretto of Stockhausen's grand operatic cycle Licht ("Light") is based on "a mythology drawing on multiple cultural traditions, from Japanese Noh theatre to German folklore".
 Iannis Xenakis – Xenakis "admired Noh, the venerable theatrical form known for its ritualistic formality and gestural complexity." Electronic Music Foundation presented Xenakis & Japan in March 2010, "a dance/music event highlighting Xenakis' lifelong interest in Japanese music and theatre". The event featured a female Noh performer, Ryoko Aoki.

 Classicists
 Scholar Akiko Kiso collaborated with Mae J. Smethurst, writing and translating several works that compared compared the Greek tragedy form of theatre with noh.

Poets
 W. B. Yeats – Yeats wrote an essay on Noh titled "Certain Noble Plays of Japan" in 1916. As much as he tried to learn Noh, there were limited resources available in England at the time. The lack of complete understanding of Noh led him to create innovative works guided by his own imagination and what he fantasized Noh to be. Yeats wrote four plays heavily influenced by Noh, using ghosts or supernatural beings as the central dramatis personae for the first time. The plays are At the Hawk's Well, The Dreaming of the Bones, The Words upon the Window-Fane, and Purgatory.

Aesthetic terminology
Zeami and Zenchiku describe a number of distinct qualities that are thought to be essential to the proper understanding of Noh as an art form.
 Hana (花, flower): In the Kadensho (Instructions on the Posture of the Flower), Zeami describes hana saying "after you master the secrets of all things and exhaust the possibilities of every device, the hana that never vanishes still remains." The true Noh performer seeks to cultivate a rarefied relationship with his audience similar to the way that one cultivates flowers. What is notable about hana is that, like a flower, it is meant to be appreciated by any audience, no matter how lofty or how coarse his upbringing. Hana comes in two forms. Individual hana is the beauty of the flower of youth, which passes with time, while "true hana" is the flower of creating and sharing perfect beauty through performance.
 Yūgen (幽玄, profound sublimity): Yūgen is a concept valued in various forms of art throughout Japanese culture. Originally used to mean elegance or grace representing the perfect beauty in waka, yūgen is invisible beauty that is felt rather than seen in a work of art. The term is used specifically in relation to Noh to mean the profound beauty of the transcendental world, including mournful beauty involved in sadness and loss.
 Rōjaku (老弱): Rō means old, and jaku means tranquil and quiet. Rōjaku is the final stage of performance development of the Noh actor, in which he eliminates all unnecessary action or sound in the performance, leaving only the true essence of the scene or action being imitated.
 Kokoro or shin (both 心): Defined as "heart," "mind," or both. The kokoro of noh is that which Zeami speaks of in his teachings, and is more easily defined as "mind." To develop hana the actor must enter a state of no-mind, or mushin.
 Myō (妙): the "charm" of an actor who performs flawlessly and without any sense of imitation; he effectively becomes his role.
 Monomane (物真似, imitation or mimesis): the intent of a Noh actor to accurately depict the motions of his role, as opposed to purely aesthetic reasons for abstraction or embellishment. Monomane is sometimes contrasted with yūgen, although the two represent endpoints of a continuum rather than being completely separate.
 Kabu-isshin''' (歌舞一心, "song-dance-one heart"): the theory that the song (including poetry) and dance are two halves of the same whole, and that the Noh actor strives to perform both with total unity of heart and mind.

Existing Noh theatres
Noh is still regularly performed today in public theatres as well as private theatres mostly located in major cities. There are more than 70 Noh theatres throughout Japan, presenting both professional and amateur productions.

Public theatres include National Noh Theatre (Tokyo), Nagoya Noh Theater, and Osaka Noh Theater. Each Noh school has its own permanent theatre, such as Kanze Noh Theater (Tokyo), Hosho Noh Theater (Tokyo), Kongo Noh Theater (Kyoto), and Nara Komparu Noh Theater (Nara). Additionally, there are various prefectural and municipal theatres located throughout Japan that present touring professional companies and local amateur companies. In some regions, unique regional Noh such as Ogisai Kurokawa Noh have developed to form schools independent from five traditional schools.

Audience etiquette
Audience etiquette is generally similar to formal western theatre—the audience quietly watches. Surtitles are not used, but some audience members follow along in the libretto. Because there are no curtains on the stage, the performance begins with the actors entering the stage and ends with their leaving the stage. The house lights are usually kept on during the performances, creating an intimate feel that provides a shared experience between the performers and the audience.

At the end of the play, the actors file out slowly (most important first, with gaps between actors), and while they are on the bridge (hashigakari), the audience claps restrainedly. Between actors, clapping ceases, then begins again as the next actor leaves. Unlike in western theatre, there is no bowing, nor do the actors return to the stage after having left. A play may end with the shite character leaving the stage as part of the story (as in Kokaji, for instance)—rather than ending with all characters on stage—in which case one claps as the character exits.

During the interval, tea, coffee, and wagashi (Japanese sweets) may be served in the lobby. In the Edo period, when Noh was a day-long affair, more substantial makunouchi' bentō (幕の内弁当, "between-acts lunchbox") were served. On special occasions, when the performance is over, お神酒 (o-miki, ceremonial sake) may be served in the lobby on the way out, as it happens in Shinto rituals.

The audience is seated in front of the stage, to the left side of the stage, and in the corner front-left of stage; these are in order of decreasing desirability. While the metsuke-bashira pillar obstructs the view of the stage, the actors are primarily at the corners, not the center, and thus the two aisles are located where the views of the two main actors would be obscured, ensuring a generally clear view regardless of seating.

 See also
 Theatre of Japan
 Higashiyama culture
 Shuhari

References

Further reading
 Brandon, James R. (ed.) (1997). Nō and kyōgen in the contemporary world. (Foreword by Ricardo D. Trimillos) Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.
 Brazell, Karen (1998). Traditional Japanese Theater: An Anthology of Plays. New York: Columbia University Press.
 Ortolani, Benito; Leiter, Samuel L. (eds) (1998). Zeami and the Nō Theatre in the World. New York: Center for Advanced Study in Theatre Arts, CUNY.
 Tyler, Royall (ed. & trans.) (1992). Japanese Nō Dramas. London: Penguin Books. .
 Waley, Arthur (2009). Noh plays of Japan. Tuttle Shokai Inc. , .

 Zeami Motokiyo (1984). On the Art of the Nō Drama: The Major Treatises of Zeami.'' Trans. J. Thomas Rimer. Ed. Masakazu Yamazaki. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

External links

 THE NOHGAKU PERFORMERS' ASSOCIATION THE NOHGAKU PERFORMERS' ASSOCIATION

 Noh Stories in English Ohtsuki Noh Theatre Foundation
 Nō Plays -Translations of thirteen Noh plays- Japanese Text Initiative, University of Virginia Library
 Virtual Reality and Virtual Irreality On Noh-Plays and Icons
 Page on the variable expressions of Noh masks
 Noh plays Photo Story and Story Paper the-Noh.com: Comprehensive Site on Noh
 "Hachi-No-Ki, A Perspective"
 nohmask.jp Photos of Noh-masks carved by Ichyuu Terai in Kyoto Japan.
 How to enjoy Noh
 Momoyama, Japanese Art in the Age of Grandeur, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Noh
 Buddhism in Noh by Royall Tyler
 Howard B. Hamilton Japanese Theater Papers at the Amherst College Archives & Special Collections

Dances of Japan
History of theatre
Japanese styles of music
Japanese traditional music
Theatre in Japan

Noh


An Asphodelus viscidulus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Pierre Edmond Boissier. An Asphodelus viscidulus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Asphodelus, ngan familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Asphodelus

Asphodelus viscidulus


Don Torcuato est une ville située dans le partido de Tigre, dans l'agglomération du Grand Buenos Aires en Argentine.

Sa population était de  en 2001.

Elle a été nommée d'après Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear, président de l'Argentine entre 1922 et 1928, qui avait son ranch et sa résidence à cet endroit. De nombreuses rues sont nommées d'après des membres de sa famille et de son équipe gouvernementale.

Don Torcuato est connu en particulier pour son club de rugby Hindú Club.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Buenos Aires

Don Torcuato


Howard Jay Phillips (February 3, 1941 – April 20, 2013) was an American politician and activist. A political conservative, Phillips was a United States presidential candidate who served as the chairman of The Conservative Caucus, a conservative public policy advocacy group which he founded in 1974. Phillips was a founding member of the U.S. Taxpayers Party, which later became known as the Constitution Party.

Personal life
Phillips was born into a Jewish family in Boston in 1941, Phillips converted to evangelical Christianity as an adult in the 1970s and was subsequently associated with Christian Reconstructionism.

A 1962 graduate of Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he was twice elected chairman of the Student Council, and was lauded by "The Cross and the Flag," a Ku Klux Klan magazine, for his "patriotic" ideological bent. Phillips publicly and immediately disavowed the Klan. Phillips was also president of Policy Analysis, Inc., a public policy research organization which publishes the bimonthly Issues and Strategy Bulletin.

Phillips resided in Fairfax County, Virginia in the Washington, D.C., suburbs with his wife, the former Margaret "Peggy" Blanchard.

Republican years
During the Nixon Administration, Phillips headed two federal agencies, ending his Executive Branch career as director of the U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) in the Executive Office of the President for five months in 1973, a position from which he resigned when U.S. President Richard M. Nixon reneged on his commitment to veto further funding for Great Society programs begun in the administration of Nixon's predecessor, Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson.

Nixon's appointment of Phillips as Acting Director of OEO in January 1973 touched off a national controversy culminating in a court case in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia (Williams v. Phillips, 482 F.2d 669) challenging the legality of Phillips' appointment, since the statute establishing the office did not specifically establish a presidential right to make an interim appointment (one not confirmed by the Senate) under the existing circumstances.  The Court ruled (and the 2nd Circuit subsequently affirmed) that the President had no right to make the interim appointment and voided it, declaring his time in it to have been illegal.

Formation of the Conservative Caucus
Phillips left the Republican Party in 1974 after some two decades of service to the GOP as precinct worker, election warden, campaign manager, congressional aide, Boston municipal Republican chairman, and assistant to the chairman of the Republican National Committee. In 1970, he was the Republican nominee for Massachusetts's 6th congressional district. In 1978, Phillips finished fourth in the Democratic primary for the U.S. Senate in Massachusetts.<ref name="stalwart">Weber, Bruce (April 23, 2013) "Howard J. Phillips, Stalwart Conservative, Dies at 72" , The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-04-24.</ref>

In 1974, Phillips founded the Conservative Caucus, a nationwide, grass-roots public policy advocacy group.Black, Chris (September 25, 1992) "Political activist loses to win Conservative takes defeats in stride in effort to build national antitax party", Boston Globe. Retrieved 2013-05-06. The group opposed the 1978 Panama Canal treaties and the Jimmy Carter-Leonid Brezhnev SALT II treaties in 1979, supported the Strategic Defense Initiative and major tax reductions during the 1980s, and fought to end Federal subsidies to activist groups under the banner of "defunding the Left."

The fight against Baker was not Phillips' first clash with Reagan. The year before in 1981, he had joined other conservatives, including the Reverend Jerry Falwell, in opposing the nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor to the United States Supreme Court. According to Phillips, "People say you can't tell how a Supreme Court nominee will turn out once on the bench. I respectfully disagree. In most cases, it's very clear. I opposed the nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor because it was very clear that she had a pro-abortion record in the Arizona State Senate and as a judge in Arizona. She was also allied with Planned Parenthood."Flynn, Dan  In 1990, Phillips opposed the first President Bush's nomination of David Souter of New Hampshire to the high court. Phillips said that he opposed Souter because "I read his senior thesis at Harvard in which he said he was a legal positivist and one of his heroes was Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., and that he rejected all higher law theories, such as those spelled out in our Declaration of Independence. In addition, he was a trustee of two hospitals: Dartmouth Hitchcock and Concord Memorial. He successfully changed the policy of those two hospitals from zero abortion to convenience abortion."

Other Conservative Caucus campaigns have involved opposition to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the World Trade Organization, support for a national version of California's Proposition 187 (to end mandated subsidies for illegal aliens), as well as continuing efforts to oppose publicly funded health care, abortion and gay rights. Phillips was the host of Conservative Roundtable, a weekly public affairs television program.

Role in formation of the New Right

Phillips played an instrumental role in the leadership of the New Right, and in the founding of the religious right in the 1970s. He worked with fellow conservatives Paul Weyrich of The Heritage Foundation and both former Christian Voice co-activists Richard Viguerie and Terry Dolan to persuade the Reverend Jerry Falwell to form the Moral Majority, and helped Judie Brown form the American Life League.

Later, Phillips continued to support the New Right by helping found the Council for National Policy with Dr. Tim LaHaye.

U.S. Taxpayers Party/Constitution Party
Phillips was one of the founders of the U.S. Taxpayers Party (which changed its name to the Constitution Party in 1999), a third party associated with conservative, anti-abortion issues, and constitutional government ideas on both social and fiscal issues. He was that party's presidential candidate in the 1992, 1996 and 2000 elections for U.S. president.

Presidential campaigns
Phillips first campaigned for president in 1992, as an independent. He refused to support the re-election of Republican George H. W. Bush or Democratic challenger Bill Clinton. He finished in seventh place in the popular vote. The campaign received 43,369 votes for 0.04% of the total vote.

Phillips was chosen by an overwhelming majority of delegates at the National Convention of the U.S. Taxpayers Party, in San Diego, California, on August 17, 1996, to serve as its presidential candidate in the 1996 election. Phillips finished sixth, with 184,656 votes, for 0.19% of the total vote.

In the 2000 U.S presidential election, Phillips received 98,020 votes for 0.1% of the total vote and a sixth-place finish.

Death
Phillips died at his home in Vienna, Virginia, on April 20, 2013, at the age of 72 after a battle with frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease. A private service was held on April 29, 2013 with Chuck Baldwin, the 2008 Constitution Party presidential nominee, officiating.

Writings
 The New Right at Harvard (1983)
 Moscow's Challenge to U.S. Vital Interests in Sub-Saharan Africa (1987)
 The Next Four Years (1992)
 Judicial Tyranny: The New Kings of America? (Amerisearch, 2005)  – contributing authorSee also

References

External links

 Howard Phillips' Blog

 Official Website of The Conservative Caucus
 The Constitutional Education Project, founded by oPhillips.
 Official website of Conservative Roundtable''

1941 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American far-right politicians
American Independent Party presidential nominees
College Republicans
Constitution Party (United States) presidential nominees
Virginia Constitutionalists
Converts to Evangelicalism from Judaism
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Deaths from dementia in Virginia
Deaths from frontotemporal dementia
Harvard College alumni
Jewish American candidates for President of the United States
Massachusetts Democrats
Massachusetts Republicans
New Right (United States)
People from Vienna, Virginia
Politicians from Boston
Candidates in the 1992 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1996 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 2000 United States presidential election
Virginia Democrats
American political party founders
21st-century American Jews

Howard Phillips (activist)


نادي هيركوليز  نادي كرة قدم إسباني يلعب في دوري الدرجة الأولى. تأسس النادي في سنة 1922.

مراجع

أندية الدوري الإسباني
أندية الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1919
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1922
أندية كرة قدم في منطقة بلنسية
الرياضة في لقنت
تأسيسات سنة 1919 في إسبانيا
تأسيسات سنة 1922 في إسبانيا

نادي إيركوليس


Airton puede referirse a:

Airton es un nombre propio masculino de origen portugués en su variante en español.

Airton Ribeiro Santos futbolista brasileño .

Airton


Koza İpek Holding, 1948 yılında iş insanı ve matbaacı Ali İpek tarafından kurulan şirket. 11.000'i kapalı toplam 22.000 metrekare alanda üretim yapılmaktaydı. Grubun yönetim kurulu başkanlığını Akın İpek yapmaktaydı. Şirket, medya da dahil olmak üzere farklı alanlarda hizmet vermekteydi. Holding FETÖ/PDY soruşturması kapsamında önce kayyım atanmış ardından da TMSF'ye geçmiştir. Holding kayyım atanmadan önce Gülen Hareketi'ni desteklemekteydi.

Holdinge yönelik soruşturma

1 Eylül soruşturması
Ankara 2. Ağır Ceza Mahkemesince iddianamesi kabul edilen Fethullahçı Terör Örgütü'''ne mali yardım sağlamak suçlamasıyla 1 Eylül 2015 sabahında Koza İpek grubuna yönelik operasyon başlatılmış, holding bünyesindeki birçok şirkette ve Akın İpek'in evinde aramalar yapılmıştır. Üst düzey yöneticilerden 7 kişi tutuklandı, ertesi gün tamamı serbest bırakıldı.

Holdingin sahibi Hamdi Akın İpek hakkında gözaltı kararı çıkarılmış ancak İngiltere'de olduğu için kendisine ulaşılamamıştır. Akın İpek bu olay üzerine kendisine ait Kanaltürk ve Bugün TV kanallarına bağlanarak "Tek kuruş kara para bulsunlar şirketleri onlara hediye edeceğim. Benim grubuma dışarıdan hiçbir para girişi olmadı" cevabını vermiştir.

Bu operasyonun ardından borsada açık olan şirket hisseleri %10 değer kaybederek taban seviyelerine düştü.

 26 Ekim soruşturması
Ankara 5. Sulh Ceza Hakimliği'nin kararı ile 26 Ekim'de Koza İpek Holding ve bünyesindeki şirketlere kayyım atanmasına karar verdi. Saat 08.00'da operasyona başlayan polisler, holding önünde toplanan gruba biber gazı sıkarak binaya girdi. Polis, holdinge destek amaçlı ziyarette bulunan MHP İl Başkanı Bülent Karataş'ın yardımcıları gözaltına almaya çalıştı, CHP milletvekili Mahmut Tanal darp edildi.

Çeşitli medya gruplarından gazeteciler ve siyasi partilerden siyasetçiler de destek ziyaretinde bulundu. HDP Eş Genel Başkanı Selahattin Demirtaş, CHP Milletvekilleri Barış Yarkadaş, Mahmut Tanal, Eren Erdem, Şafak Pavey, Bugün gazetesinden Nazlı Ilıcak, T24 yazarı Hasan Cemal, Cumhuriyet Gazetesi Genel Yayın Yönetmeni Can Dündar, destek ziyaretinde bulundu.

Cumhurbaşkanı Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, bu operasyon hakkında "Bu bir yargı süreci. Yargı, inanıyorum ki elinden geleni yapacak. Acaba niye kayyım tayin etti yargı? ...Çünkü 1 numarası kaçıyor. Arkadan da diyor ki, herhangi bir usulsüzlük söz konusu değildir, diyor. O zaman niye kaçıyorsun? Kaçma kal ülkende. Kaçıyorsa demek ki burada bir su kaçağı var."'' yorumunu yaptı. Ve sonra UPLINK yayını 16:34'ten TV ve radyo, 16:50'den web'den yayın kesilmiştir. Eski hali 2 Kasım'da Kanaltürk Radyo, 10 Kasım'da Bugün TV, 12 Kasım'da Kanaltürk normale döndü. Ardından Akın İpek'e ait medya kuruluşları kapatıldı.

Bünyesindeki kuruluşlar
 Koza Altın
 Koza Anadolu Metal
 Özdemir Antimuan
 İpek Doğal Enerji
 Koza İpek Basın ve Basım
 Konaklı Metal Madencilik
 Atp İnşaat
 Koza İpek Tedarik
 Atp Koza Gıda
 Atp Havacılık
 Atp Koza Turizm
 Koza İpek Eğitim
 İpek Üniversitesi
 Koza İpek Sigorta

Kapanan medya kuruluşları
Soruşturmaların ardından, holdingin medya grubundaki gazete, televizyon ve radyo faaliyetlerine, sürekli zarar ettiği gerekçesiyle 29 Şubat akşamı itibarıyla son verildi.

Gazete
 2014-2016: Millet
 2005-2016: Bugün (Turgay Ciner ve Mehmet Ali Ilıcak'tan satın aldı.)

Televizyon
 2008-2016: Kanaltürk (Tuncay Özkan'dan satın aldı.)
 2009-2016: Bugün TV

Radyo
 2009-2016: Kanaltürk Radyo

Kaynakça

Türkiye merkezli medya şirketleri
1948'de kurulan şirketler
Türk holdingler
Türkiye merkezli madencilik şirketleri
Borsa İstanbul'daki şirketler
Gülen hareketi

Koza İpek Holding


San Troyano, conocido en latín original como Troianus Santonensis, santo francés, quinto obispo de Saintes, en santoñés Sénte, en la antigua provincia de Saintonge, hoy departamento de Charente Marítimo, fallecido el año 532.

Sucedió al obispo Pierre en la sede obispal de Saintes en la segunda Aquitania hacia el año 511, cuando falleció el rey Clodoveo I. Él murió en el año 532 y fue sucedido en la silla de Saintes por Eusebio. Fue más famoso por el gran número de milagros que se le atribuyeron tras su muerte que por sus hechos en vida, aunque San Gregorio de Tours escribió en su De gloria confessorum que era tan celebrado por sus virtudes que el pueblo le rendía ya devoción en vida y algunos veneraban hasta los hábitos que vestía. Fue enterrado en una basílica de Saintes hoy desaparecida. Canonizado por la Iglesia católica, su fiesta se celebra el 1 de diciembre. Tres villas llevan su nombre: una en Saintonge, en la isla de Oléron, otra en el Blayais, en la Gironda, y la última cerca de Cognac, en Charente.

Referencias
 Adrien Baillet, Les vies des saints, Jean de Nully, 1704, p. 468.

Obispos de Francia del siglo VI
Santos católicos de Francia del siglo VI
Obispos santos de Francia
Obispos de Saintes

Troyano de Saintes


الظاهرة الاجتماعية هي فعل تمارسه جموع من البشر، أو هم يتعرضون له
أو يعانون منه أو من نتائجه. وحينما تكون الظاهرة ذات بعد سئها. ولنا أن
 نعلم أن المشكلة الاجتماعية لا يمكن تحديد المصادر المسؤولة عن تشكلها ما
 لم نكن على دراية تامة بموقعها من المجال الاجتماعي العام. وعلينا أن
 نعي بشكل ماهر تداخلات الأفعال التي تشكل في مجملها حالة مثل حالة
الأمية والفقر الذي ينتشر في المجتمع. وفي الغالب الفقر
والأمية بصفتها حالة لا تدعى ظاهرة بقدر ما تسمى قضية اجتماعية. بينما
 الفعل السلبي المنتشر يسمى ظاهرة مثل ظاهرة أطفال
الشوارع، ولا يوجد في المرجعية العلمية لعلم الاجتماع تحديد واضح أو
 تفريق بين السلوك أو القضية الاجتماعية كظواهر، وفي الغالب تسمى جميعها
ظاهرة اجتماعية.

مراجع

ظواهر
ظواهر اجتماعية
فلسفة اجتماعية
مصطلحات علم الاجتماع

ظاهرة اجتماعية


Greenville County er et county i South Carolina i USA. Ifølge folketællingen i 2010, er indbyggertallet 451.225, som gør Greenville County til det mest folkerige i delstaten. Greenville Countys sæde er i Greenville.

Greenville County indgår i det statistiske storbyområde Greenville-Anderson-Mauldin, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Geografi
Ifølge United States Census Bureau er Greenville Countys samlede areal på 2.060 km², hvor af 2.030 km² er land og 25 km² (1,2 %) er vand.

Demografi
Ifølge folketællingen i 2010 er der 451.225 indbyggere, 198.546 husstande og 201.997 familier i Greenville County. Befolkningstætheden er 186 personer pr. km².

Etnisk sammensætning:
 77,53 % hvide,
 18,30 % afroamerikanere,
 0,19 % indianere,
 1,38 % asiater,
 0,05 % fra stillehavsøerne,
 1,42 % fra andre etniske grupper,
 1,14 % med to eller flere etniciteter

Referencer

Counties i South Carolina

Greenville County


Termenul sarcină poate avea ca semnificație:
 (în rezistența materialelor) mărime fizică (forță, moment, deplasare, câmp electromagnetic) care produce o stare de solicitare mecanică (stare de tensiuni și deformații) într-un corp solid deformabil sau într-un sistem fizic;
 (în tehnică) putere activă sau aparentă dată sau preluată de la un sistem tehnic generator, transmițător sau transformator de energie;
 (în electrotehnică) sarcină electrică mărime fizică scalară ce caracterizează proprietatea unui corp de a crea în jurul său un câmp electric;
 sarcină: stare a femeii gravide din momentul fecundării ovulului până la naștere.

Sarcină (dezambiguizare)


Boala rară este orice boală care afectează un procent mic din populație. În unele părți ale lumii este numită boală orfană, adică este o boală a cărei raritate o face să nu beneficieze de suficient sprijin și resurse pentru descoperirea tratamentelor pentru aceasta din partea companiilor farmaceutice, excepție făcând anumite guverne care dispun din bugetele ministerelor de resort, fonduri necesare cercetării boliilor respective și inovării de tratamente.
Majoritatea bolilor rare sunt genetice și astfel sunt prezente pe parcursul întregii vieți a persoanei, chiar dacă simptomele nu apar imediat. Multe boli rare apar la începutul vieții, iar aproximativ 30% dintre copiii cu boli rare vor muri înainte de a împlini a cincea zi de naștere. Cu doar trei pacienți diagnosticați în 27 de ani, deficiența de izomerază de riboza-5-fosfat este considerată cea mai rară boală genetică cunoscută.
Nu a fost convenit niciun număr de pentru care o boală este considerată rară. O boală poate fi considerată rară într-o parte a lumii sau într-un anumit grup de oameni, dar este totuși comună în alta.
Organizația americană Global Genes a estimat că peste 300 de milioane de oameni din întreaga lume trăiesc cu una dintre cele aproximativ 7.000 de boli pe care le definește drept "rare" în Statele Unite.

Definiție
Nu există o definiție unică, acceptată pe scară largă pentru bolile rare. Unele definiții se bazează exclusiv pe numărul de persoane care trăiesc cu o boală, iar alte definiții includ alți factori, cum ar fi existența unor tratamente adecvate sau severitatea bolii.

În Statele Unite, Legea privind bolile rare din 2002 definește boala rară strict în funcție de prevalență, în special "orice boală sau afecțiune care afectează mai puțin de 200.000 de persoane în Statele Unite", sau aproximativ 1 din 1.500 de persoane. Această definiție este în esență aceeași cu cea a Legii medicamentelor orfane din 1983, o lege federală care a fost scrisă pentru a încuraja cercetarea bolilor rare și a vindecărilor posibile.
În Japonia, definiția legală a unei boli rare este una care afectează mai puțin de 50.000 de pacienți în Japonia, sau aproximativ 1 din 2.500 de persoane.
Cu toate acestea, Comisia Europeană pentru Sănătate Publică definește bolile rare drept "boli care pot pune viața în pericol sau se pot debilita cronic, care au o prevalență atât de scăzută încât sunt necesare eforturi speciale combinate pentru a le rezolva". Termenul prevalență scăzută este ulterior definit ca fiind în general semnificativ mai puțin de 1 din 2.000 de persoane. Sunt excluse de la definiția lor bolile care sunt statistic rare, dar nu și care pot pune viața în pericol, se debilitează cronic sau sunt tratate inadecvat.
Definițiile utilizate în literatura medicală și în planurile naționale de sănătate sunt împărțite în mod similar, cu definiții cuprinse între 1 / 1.000 și 1 / 200.000.

Relația cu bolile orfane
Din cauza definițiilor care includ referință la disponibilitatea tratamentului, lipsa resurselor și severitatea bolii, termenul de boală orfană este utilizat ca sinonim pentru boala rară. Dar în Statele Unite și Uniunea Europeană, "bolile orfane" au o semnificație juridică distinctă.
Legea Medicamentelor pentru Boli Rare din Statele Unite include atât boli rare, cât și orice boli non-rare ", pentru care nu există nicio așteptare rezonabilă ca costul dezvoltării și punerii la dispoziție în Statele Unite a unui medicament pentru o astfel de boală sau afecțiune să fie recuperat de la vânzări în Statele Unite ale acestui medicament "ca boli orfane.
Organizația Europeană pentru Boli Rare (EURORDIS) include, de asemenea, boli rare și boli neglijate într-o categorie mai mare de "boli orfane".

Răspândire
Prevalența (numărul de persoane care trăiesc cu o boală la un moment dat), mai degrabă decât incidența (numărul de noi diagnostice într-un an dat), este utilizată pentru a descrie impactul bolilor rare. Proiectul Global Genes estimează că aproximativ 300 de milioane de persoane din întreaga lume sunt afectate de o boală rară.
Organizația Europeană pentru Boli Rare (EURORDIS) estimează că există până la 5.000 până la 7.000 de boli rare distincte și până la 6% până la 8% din populația Uniunii Europene este afectată. Doar aproximativ 400 de boli rare au terapii, iar aproximativ 80% au o componentă genetică, conform Institutului de Genomică Rare.
Bolile rare pot varia în prevalență între populații, astfel încât o boală care este rară în unele populații poate fi frecventă în altele. Acest lucru este valabil mai ales în cazul bolilor genetice și al infecțiilor . Un exemplu este fibroza chistică, o boală genetică: este rară în majoritatea regiunilor din Asia, dar relativ frecventă în Europa și în populații de origine europeană. În comunitățile mai mici, efectul fondator poate duce la o boală care este foarte rară la nivel mondial, prevalentă în cadrul comunității mai mici. Multe boli infecțioase sunt predominante într-o anumită zonă geografică, dar rare peste tot. Alte boli, precum multe forme rare de cancer, nu au un model de distribuție aparent, dar sunt pur și simplu rare. Clasificarea altor afecțiuni depinde în parte de populația studiată: Toate formele de cancer la copii sunt, în general, considerate rare, deoarece atât de puțini copii dezvoltă cancer, dar același cancer la adulți poate fi mai frecvent.
Aproximativ 40 de boli rare au o prevalență mult mai mare în Finlanda ; acestea sunt cunoscute colectiv ca boală a patrimoniului finlandez. În mod similar, există boli genetice rare printre comunitățile religioase Amish din SUA și printre oamenii evrei etnic.

Caracteristici
Bolile rare sunt de obicei genetice  și, prin urmare, sunt cronice. EURORDIS estimează că cel puțin 80% dintre ei au identificat origini genetice.  Alte boli rare sunt rezultatul infecțiilor și alergiilor sau din cauze degenerative și proliferative.
Simptomele unor boli rare pot apărea la naștere sau în copilărie, în timp ce altele apar numai după ce se ajunge la vârsta adultă.
Publicațiile de cercetare subliniază bolile rare care sunt cronice sau incurabile, deși multe afecțiuni medicale pe termen scurt sunt, de asemenea, boli rare.

Cercetarea publică și politica guvernamentală

Statele Unite
Biroul de cercetare a bolilor rare din cadrul NIH (ORDR) a fost înființat prin HR 4013 / Public Law 107-280 în 2002. HR 4014, semnat în aceeași zi, se referă la "Legea dezvoltării produselor orfane pentru bolile rare". În Europa au fost propuse inițiative similare. ORDR administrează, de asemenea, rețeaua de cercetare clinică a bolilor rare (RDCRN). RDCRN oferă sprijin pentru studiile clinice și facilitează colaborarea, înscrierea la studiu și schimbul de date.

Regatul Unit
În 2013, guvernul Regatului Unit a publicat Strategia Regatului Unit pentru Boli Rare, care "urmărește să se asigure că nimeni nu este lăsat în urmă doar pentru că au o boală rară", 51 de recomandări pentru îngrijire și tratament în Marea Britanie vor fi puse în aplicare până în 2020 Serviciile de sănătate din cele patru țări constitutive au fost de acord să adopte planuri de implementare până în 2014, dar până în octombrie 2016, Serviciul de Sănătate din Anglia nu a produs un plan, iar grupul parlamentar al tuturor partidelor privind condițiile rare, genetice și nediagnosticate a elaborat un raport care lasă pe nimeni în spatele său : De ce Anglia are nevoie de un plan de implementare a Strategiei britanice pentru boli rare în februarie 2017. În martie 2017, a fost anunțat că NHS Anglia va dezvolta un plan de implementare.  În ianuarie 2018, NHS England a publicat Planul său de punere în aplicare a Strategiei britanice pentru boli rare.

Conștientizarea publicului
Ziua bolilor rare este organizată în Europa, Canada și Statele Unite în ultima zi a lunii februarie pentru a sensibiliza în ceea ce privește bolile rare.

Vezi și
 ICD Sistemul de codare pentru boli rare
 Lista organizații pentru boli rare
 Misterele diagnosticelor
 Ziua Bolilor Rare
 Boli idiopatice
 Rețeaua Bolilor Nediagnosticate

Referințe

Legături externe

 Centrul de informare al bolilor genetice și rare al NIH
 Baza de date cu boli rare la Orphanet
 Organizația Națională pentru Tulburări Rare (Statele Unite)
 Bolile rare Marea Britanie
 Motor de căutare pentru boli rare

Pages with unreviewed translations

Boli rare


تشير نظرية الخلية أو النظرية الخلوية إلى فكرة أن الخلايا هي الوحدة الأساسية في تركيب كل شيء حي. وضع هذه النظرية كان بفضل التقدم في الفحص المجهري في منتصف القرن السابع عشر. هذه النظرية هي واحدة من أسس علم الأحياء. النظرية تقول أن الخلايا الجديدة تتشكل من الخلايا الأخرى القائمة، والخلية هي الوحدة الأساسية في التركيب والوظيفة لدى جميع الكائنات الحية.

التاريخ

اكتشفت الخلية لأول مرة على يد روبرت هوك في 1665. درس شرائح رقيقة جداً من الفلين وشاهد عددا كبيرا من المسام الصغيرة التي تشبه خلية النحل. وبسبب هذا التشابه، أسماها خلية. ومع ذلك، لم يكن هوك يعرف حقيقية بنية الخلية أو وظيفتها. وقد نشر ملاحظاته عن الخلية (التي هي في الواقع جدران خلايا غير حية) في كتابه Micrographia. ملاحظاته عن الخلية لم تشر إلى النواة والأجزاء العضوية الموجودة في أغلب الخلايا الحية.

كان انطوني فان ليفينهوك Antonie van Leeuwenhoek أول رجل يشاهد الخلايا الحية تحت المجهر، وهو الذي وصف في عام 1674 طحالب Spirogyra، وقام بتسمية الكائنات الدقيقة المتحركة، وهذا يعني «الحيوانات الدقيقة». كما شاهد ليفينهوك ربما البكتيريا. نظرية الخلية كانت مقارنة لنظريات المذهب الحيوي التي اقترحت قبل اكتشاف الخلية.
اقترح لادوف كريستيان تريفينوس Ludolph Christian Treviranus ويوهان جاكوب بول ملدنويرJohann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer فكرة ان الخلايا عبارة عن وحدات منفصلة، ما أدى في النهاية إلى وضع أحد المباديء الرئيسية في نظرية الخلية الحديثة عندما أعلن هنري دوترشت Henri Dutrochet أن «هذه الخلية هي عنصر أساسي من عناصر تنظيم».

المؤسسين
ملاحظات هوك، وليفينهوك، وشلايدن، وشوان، ورودولف فيرشو، وغيرها أدت إلى وضع نظرية الخلية. نظرية الخلية المقبولة على نطاق واسع هي تفسير للعلاقة بين الخلايا والكائنات الحية. نظرية الخلية تنص على ما يلي:
 جميع الكائنات الحية تتكون من واحد أو أكثر من الخلايا.
 الخلايا هي الوحدات الأساسية في التركيب والوظيفة في الكائنات الحية.
 والخلايا تنتج خلايا جديدة من الخلايا الموجودة.

نظرية الخلية صحيحة بالنسبة لجميع الكائنات الحية، مهما كانت كبيرة أو صغيرة، بسيطة أو معقدة. إذ إنه وفقا للبحوث، فإن الخلية عنصر مشترك بين جميع الكائنات الحية، فإنها يمكن أن تقدم معلومات عن كل أشكال الحياة. ولأن جميع الخلايا تنتج من خلايا أخرى، يمكن للعلماء بدراسة الخلايا للتعرف على النمو والتكاثر، وسائرالمهام التي تؤديها الكائنات الحية المهام التي تؤديها. بالإمكان الاطلاع ودراسة جميع أنواع الكائنات الحية، من خلال التعرف على الخلايا وكيفية عملها.

تفسير الكلاسيكي
جميع الكائنات الحية تتكون من واحد أو أكثر من الخلايا.
الخلايا هي الوحدة التركيبية والوظيفية الأساسية.
كل الخلايا تنتج من الخلايا الموجودة من قبل.
الخلية هي وحدة التركيب، والفيزيولوجيا، والتنظيم في الكائنات الحية.
تحتفظ الخلية بوجود مزدوج حيث أنها كيان قائم بذاته ولبنة في بناء الكائنات.

التفسير الحديث
الافتراضات المقبولة عموما من نظرية الخلية الحديثة ما يلي:

 الخلية هي الوحدة الأساسية في التركيب والوظيفة في الكائنات الحية.
 كل الخلايا تنتج من الخلايا السابقة من قبل عن طريق الانقسام الخلوي.
 تدفق الطاقة (الأيض والكيمياء الحيوية) يحدث داخل الخلايا.
 تحتوي الخلايا على معلومات وراثية (الحمض النووي DNA) التي تنتقل من خلية إلى أخرى خلال انقسام الخلايا
 كل الخلايا لها تتفق في أساس التركيب الكيميائي.
 جميع الكائنات الحية التي نعرفها مكونة من خلايا.
 بعض الكائنات أحادية الخلية، وهي تتألف من خلية واحدة فقط.
 البعض الآخر متعدد الخلايا، ويتألف من عدد من الخلايا.
 نشاط الكائن الحي يعتمد على مجموع نشاط خلايا مستقلة.

الاستثناءات

ينظر البعض إلى الفيروسات على أنها كائنات حية، إلا أنها ليست مكونة من خلايا. تظهر الفيروسات الكثير من سمات الحياة، ولكن لا ينطبق عليها تعريف الكائنات الحية، لذلك فهي كائنات غير حية.
الميتوكوندريا واليخضور لها مادة الوراثية الخاصة بها، وتقوم بإعادة تكوينه بشكل مستقل عن بقية أجزاء الخلية.

أنواع الخلايا
يمكن تقسيم الخلايا إلى الفئات الفرعية التالية:

الخلايا بدائية النواة (Prokaryotes cell) ليس لها غشاء خلوي: لأنها تحوي، إضافة إلى الهيولى، منطقة كثيفة ذات شكل غير منتظم، تسمى المنطقة النووية، إذ تفتقد هذه الخلايا لغشاء فاصل بين الهيولي والمنطقة النووية التي تحوي الحَمْن (أي المادة الوراثية)، وهو الفرق الرئيسي بين الخلايا البدائية النوى والخلايا الحقيقية النوى. من أمثلته الكائنات وحيدة الخلية ذات النواة البدائية وهي: العتائق والبكتيريا والطحالب الزرقاء المخضرة.
الخلايا حقيقية النواة (Eukryotic cell)، من جهة أخرى، تتكون الخلايا حقيقية النواة من ثلاث أجزاء رئيسية هي:
 الغشاء الخلوي
 النواة
 السيتوبلازم
 الهيكل الخلوي

أما الأجزاء الأخرى في داخل الخلية والتي تكون عادة معلقة في الهيولي فتشمل:

 الشبيكة البلازمية
 أجسام جولجي
 الجسيمات الحالة
 الميتوكندريا
 البلاستيدات الخضراء (بالنسبة الخلايا النباتية)

المراجع

تاريخ علم الأحياء
خلايا
علم الأحياء الخلوي
نظريات علم الأحياء

نظرية الخلية


An Philodendron glaziovii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Joseph Dalton Hooker. An Philodendron glaziovii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Philodendron, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Philodendron

Philodendron glaziovii


Hercules ist ein Einschlagkrater auf der nordöstlichen Mondvorderseite am südöstlichen Rand des Mare Frigoris.
Er liegt westlich des noch etwas größeren Kraters Atlas, sein Boden weist im Gegensatz zu Atlas keine Bruchstrukturen auf, sondern ist – abgesehen von dem Nebenkrater Hercules G – weitgehend eben. Der Wall ist mehrfach terrassiert.

Der Krater wurde 1935 von der IAU nach Herakles, dem Heros der griechischen Mythologie, offiziell benannt.

Weblinks

 Hercules auf The-Moon Wiki
 Spektrum.de: Amateuraufnahmen

Einzelnachweise

Einschlagkrater (Mond)

Hercules (Mondkrater)


حركة التحرير الإريترية تم تأسيسها أثناء الاحتلال الإثيوبي لإريتريا في أواخر عام 1958، اضطر عدد كبير من العمال الإريتريين إلى الهجرة إلى الدول المجاورة، وبادر عدد منهم إلى تأليف تنظيم ثوري حمل اسم حركة التحرير الإريترية واتخذ قاعدة له في بور سودان، وشيئً فشيئً توسعت الخلايا السرية لهذا التنظيم إلى الكثير من المدن الإريترية. ثم شهد عام 1960 أول تأليف للجبهة بين العمال والطلبة الإريتريين في المشرق العربي، وانتقل نشاطه في العام التالي إلى المرتفعات الإريترية إثر الانتفاضة التي قادها حامد إدريس عواتي في 1 سبتمبر 1961 مع بضعة مقاتلين يحملون بنادق إيطالية عتيقة، وقد تبنت الجبهة تلك الانتفاضة لتحولها في مدى سنوات قليلة إلى ثورة مسلحة منظمة انسجاماً مع أهداف التحرير التي حددها دستور الجبهة. في مقدمتها الاستقلال الوطني الكامل عن طريق الكفاح المسلح المدعم بجهود سياسية ودبلوماسية في الخارج. واختار المؤسسون أن يكون إدريس محمد آدم أول رئيس للجنة التنفيذية للجبهة. وقد تطور الكفاح المسلح بإمكانات ذاتية بسيطة وبدعم من بعض الأقطار العربية، وفي مقدمتها سوريا، إلى مقاومة حملات قمع وإبادة إثيوبية شرسة شملت مئات الألوف من الضحايا الإريتريين، واتسمت بعض تلك الحملات باتباع سياسة الأرض المحروقة للقضاء على المحصولات الزراعية وقتل المواشي، وإبادة المواطنين بالجملة من دون تمييز، كما حدث في حملات 1967 و1970 و1974 و1975 على التوالي فشردت أعداداً كبيرة من الإريتريين في الصحارى والغابات، وعبرت أعداد أخرى الحدود إلى السودان، الأمر الذي أدى إلى نشوء مشكلة اللاجئين الإريتريين هناك، في حين سيطرت حركة المقاومة الإريترية على معظم الريف الإريتري، وتمكنت من تحرير بعض المدن، وكانت سيطرة جبهة التحرير تتسع أو تتقلص بحسب ظروف المواجهة وتطوراتها. وفي هذا السياق، عقدت حركة المقاومة الوطنية الإريترية أكثر من مؤتمر لها في الأراضي المحررة، ولم تنج من التعدد والانقسامات التي فرضها تباين منعكس المعاناة الداخلية، ورواسب المجتمع والتداخلات الخارجية أحياناً.
إثر سقوط نظام منغستو هايله مريم في إثيوبيا بتاريخ 25 مايو 1991 ، وفي الوقت الذي أصبحت فيه إريتريا على عتبة الاستقلال، شهدت الساحة الإريترية صراعات داخلية أفرزتها التعددية السياسية في بنية حركة التحرر، ويعد تنظيم الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير إريتريا من أكبر التنظيمات وأقواها على الساحة، إضافة إلى تنظيمات أخرى أهمها: (جبهة التحرير الإريترية - التنظيم الموحد، وجبهة التحرير الإريترية - المجلس الثوري، وجبهة التحرير الإريترية - المجلس الوطني).

وعلى الرغم من المراهنة على تفجر الصراعات الداخلية بين فصائل التحرير، فإن ظاهرة الاختلاف ليست من الحدة والتناقض بحيث تعيق الوحدة الوطنية المنشودة لقوى الثورة، ولاسيما أن دروس التاريخ المريرة وقسوة المعاناة قد وحدت شعور المواطنة الإريترية الغالبة. وسيبقى أثر هذا العامل حصانة أساسية بوجه المؤامرات التي يمكن أن تتعرض لها الوحدة الوطنية بعد انهيار نظام منگستو في إثيوبية وسيطرة فصيل الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير إريترية على الحكم في الوطن الإريتري، وتشكيلها للحكومة الإريترية المؤقتة برئاسة الأمين العام للجبهة «اسيس أفورقي». ومن أبرز مهام هذه الحكومة مواجهة تراكمات الاحتلال المديد ومخلفاته وإجراء الاستفتاء العام وإعلان الاستقلال.
تحقق للإريتريين النصر والاستقلال والسيطرة على العاصمة أسمرة في عام 1993. أجري على أثره الاستفتاء في العام المذكور، فكانت نتيجته إجماع شبه تام (99.8٪) لصالح الاستقلال الكامل. وهكذا أعلن استقلال إريترية في نيسان من عام 1993، واعترفت بها دول كثيرة.

المصدر
 <http://www.marefa.org/index.php/جبهة_التحرير_الإريترية>

مراجع

حرب الإستقلال الإريتيرية
حركات تحرر وطني في إفريقيا
قومية إريترية
مجموعات متمردة في إثيوبيا
منظمات أسست في 1960
منظمات عصابية مسلحة

جبهة التحرير الإريترية


Simav, Kütahya'nın bir ilçesidir. İl merkezinin 143 km güneybatısında yer alır.

Coğrafya

Ege Bölgesinin İçbatı bölümündedir. Kuzeyde Simav, güneyde Demirci kasabaları arasında, doğu-batı doğrultusunda uzanan 1,800 m rakımlı Simav dağları mevcuttur.

Simav ovası, faylarla sınırlanmış tektonik kökenli bir ovadır. Güneyinde billurlu kayaçların geniş yer tuttuğu Simav dağları, Kuzeyinde billurlu kayaçlar ve granit plütonlarının yüzeylediği Katrancı ve Akdağ kütleleri yükselir. Yaklaşık 820 m yükseklikte, üçgen biçimli bir çöküntü alanı olan ovanın tabanı alüvyonla kaplıdır. Ortasında yer alan sığ Simav gölü kurutulmuştur. Birinci derece deprem alanıdır. 19 Mayıs 2011 de saat 23:15'te 5,9 büyüklüğünde depremle sarsıldı.

Tarihçe

Bilinen en eski adları milattan önce 4 binli yıllarda varolduğu bilinen Sunauva ve Synaos şehirlerinden gelmektedir. Simav çevresinde yerleşen ve adı bilinen en eski halk, Abaitlerdir. Milattan önce 1200 yıllarına kadar yaşayan bu halktan sonra, Trakya' dan ve Çanakkale boğazından gelen Frigler yöreye egemen olmuştur. Daha sonra Lidyalılar, Persler, Helenistik Krallıklar, Romalılar ve Bizanslılar Simav yöresine hâkim olmuşlardır. Roma İmparatorluğu döneminde Simav'da uzun süre sikke basılmıştır.

Evliya Çelebi'nin seyahatnamesinde belirttiğine göre "Germiyanoğlu Beyi Babık, Simavna adlı Rum kralının elinden aldığı için Simav derler. Bir rivayete göre de Simav (Gümüş suyu) anlamına gelir. Hakikaten suları gümüş gibi berraktır."

Simav, 1113 yılında Edremit – Kırkağaç bölgesinden Kütahya – Eskişehir'e yardıma dönen Selçuklu kumandanı Emir Muhammet tarafından Simav Çayı vadisinden gelinerek fethedildi. Bu fetih dönemi uzun sürmedi, tekrar Bizans'ın eline geçtikten 192 yıl sonra Germiyanoğulları Beyliğinin kurucusu Yakup Bey, 1305 yılında Alaşehir'i fethetmeye giderken Simav'ı da fethetti. 1305 yılındaki fetih de Bizans'ın kiraladığı İspanyol Katalan askerlerinin Erdek'ten gelişi ile son buldu. Germiyanoğlu Mehmet Bey'in 6 Mayıs 1327 tarihinde Simav ve Kula'yı Katalanlardan fethetmesiyle Simav'da Türk hakimiyeti kesin bir şekilde başladı.

Mehmet Bey'in oğlu Süleyman Şah, komşu beylik Osmanlılarla dost geçinmek, Karamanoğullarının düşmanlığından da korunmak için kızı Devlet Hatun'u Osmanlı padişahı I. Murad'ın oğlu Yıldırım Bayezid'e verdi. 1381 yılında kızının çeyizi olarak Kütahya, Tavşanlı, Emet ve Simav'ı Osmanlılara verip kendi Kula'ya çekildi.

Fatih Sultan Mehmet döneminde Simav, Abdullah-i İlahi gibi bir din âliminin ve onun yakın dostu Emir Buhari'nin feyz dağıttığı bir yer olarak gelişmiş medreselere sahipti. Simav medreselerinin son ünlü öğrencisi Ali Süavi (1839-1878), son değerli müderrisi ise Simavlı Arif Efendi'''dir.(1850-1944)

Simav, 1867 yılında belediye, 1868'de de ilçe statüsüne kavuştu.

Kurtuluş Savaşının başlarında Simav'da Reddi İlhak adındaki Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti'nin kuruluşu Binbaşı İsmail Hakkı Beyin gayretleriyle gerçekleşti. Çok geçmeden cemiyetin merkezi Uşak oldu ve adı da Kuvâ-yi Milliye'ye çevrildi. İlk Büyük Millet Meclisi'nde mebus olarak görev alanlardan biri de Simav'lı Yusuf Cemil Bey'dir.

Simav ilçesi kurtuluş savaşı döneminde üç defa Yunan işgaline uğramış üç kez de kurtuluşu yaşamıştır. Simav Kuvay-ı Milliye Teşkilatı, Yunan ordusunun İzmir'i işgalinden kısa bir süre sonra 1919 yılının Temmuz ayında, Kütahya Mevki Kumandanı Binbaşı İsmail Hakkı Bey tarafından Redd-i İlhak Cemiyeti ismiyle kuruldu.

Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı'nın ilk meydan savaşı, Simav-Demirci ilçeleri sınırında 1920 yılının Ağustos ayında Kuvâ-yi Milliye'nin bir kolu olan Kuva-yi Seyyare'nin 4.500 kişilik kuvvetleriyle, Demirci'de konuşlanmış 10 bin kişilik Yunan tümeni arasında oldu.

 Belediye Başkanları

 Doğa ve ekonomi

Simav, özellikle Eynal, Çitgöl ve Naşa Kaplıcaları ile ünlü bir jeotermal tesisi merkezidir.

İç Anadolu Bölgesi'ne yakın bir konumda olmasına rağmen geçiş ikliminin özelliği ile bol ormanlara sahiptir. Bu yüzden kerestecilik önemli bir uğraştır. Ormanlarında genellikle kestane ağaçları ve çam ağaçları boy göstermektedir. Daha sonra Susurluk nehri adını alan akarsu da Simav'da; Simav Çayı'' olarak başlar.

Zamanında Emet ilçesine bağlı iken Simav ilçesi sınırlarına alınan Krater gölü ve çam ormanıyla Gölcük, ilçenin önemli doğa güzellikleri arasında yer aldığı gibi ilçenin önemli gelir kaynağıdır.
Simav'da bor, demir, krom, bakır gibi önemli yeraltı zenginlikleri mevcuttur.

İlçe nüfusunun %70,75' ini çiftçilikle uğraşan nüfus teşkil etmektedir.

Eğitim durumu
İlkokul ve orta okullarının yanı sıra Simav Fen Lisesi, Nurullah Koyuncuoğlu Anadolu Lisesi, Simav Anadolu Lisesi (Simav Anadolu Öğretmen Lİsesi), Simav Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi, Simav Eynal Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi,  Simav Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi,  Simav Gülizar Eren Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi,  Simav Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi, Simav Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi, Halil İbrahim Kazcıoğlu Mesleki Eğitim Merkezi eğitime önemli katkılar sağlamaktadır.

Kütahya Dumlupınar Üniversitesine bağlı olarak ilçede faaliyet gösteren Simav Teknoloji Fakültesi  ve Simav Meslek Yüksekokulunda  yaklaşık 3000 öğrenci eğitim görmektedir.

Bazı İllere Mesafesi

Nüfus
Simav, Kütahya'nın ilçeleri arasında nüfus büyüklüğü yönünden ikinci sıradadır. 1935'te 5.900 olan, 2000 yılına kadar ortalama düzeyde artan ilçe nüfusu bu yıllardan sonra göç nedeniyle durağanlaşmış ve azalmaya başlamıştır. Çok sayıda belde yerleşimi bulunan Simav'da beldelerin nüfusu oldukça azalmıştır. İlçe halkı özellikle İzmir, Uşak ve Bursa gibi illere göç etmiştir. İlçe merkezinin nüfusu 26.436, köyler ve beldelerle beraber ise 62.237'dir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Simav Kaymakamlığı

Simav


معركة ماريتسا ، سُميت نسبة إلى نهر ماريتسا، وهو نهر صغير ينبع من غربي بلغاريا ويمر على أدرنة ثم يصب في بحر إيجة، وتسمى أيضا معركة جيرنومين وأيضا معركة ماريتسا الثانية معركة وقعت بين القائد العثماني لالا شاهين باشا (أمير جيش السلطان العثماني مراد الأول) وملك الصرب فوكاشين مرنيافتشيفتش Vukašin Mrnjavčević (الذي كان يترأس جيش تحالف بلقاني، بمساعدة أخيه الديسپوت يوفان أوغلييشا Jovan Uglješa) على ضفاف نهر ماريتسا يوم الجمعة 2 ربيع الأول 773هـ الموافق لـ 26 سبتمبر 1371م.

دواعي الخلاف
فتح السلطان مراد الأول، الدولة العثمانية مدينة أدرنة عام 1361م / 762هـ، وجعلها عاصمة الدولة ليكون على مقربة من أوروبا لفتح الأقاليم بها. فكان العثمانيون يهددون البيزنطيين والبلغاريين وخاصة الصرب.

التحضيرات
ولما كان السلطان مراد الأول منشغلا في آسيا الصغرى، تكون تحالف أوروبي بلقاني صليبي سرعان ما باركه البابا، وضم الصربيين والبلغاريين والمجريين. وقد استطاعت الدول الأعضاء في التحالف الصليبي أن تحشد جيشًا بلغ عدده سبعين ألف جندي وسـار الجميع نحو أدرنة.

المعركة
وفي 26 سبتمبر 1371م بينما خيّم الجيش الصليبي في الليل قرب نهر ماريتسا استعدادا للحرب في الغد، قام القائد العثماني لالا شاهين باشا، الذي كان يملك جيشًا أقل عددا من القوات المتحالفة، بالإغارة على مخيمهم ليلاً بينما كانوا نائمين، فوقعت معركة مروعة وسُحق الجيش المتحالف، وقُتل الملك الصربي وأخوه.

وكان من نتائج انتصار العثمانيين على نهر ماريتسا أمور مهمة منها :
 تم لهم فتح تراقيا ومقدونيا ووصلوا إلى جنوب بلغاريا وإلى شرقي صربيا.
 أصبحت مدن الدولة البيزنطية وبلغاريا وصربيا تتساقط في أيديهم واحدة تلو الأخرى.

المراجع

 التاريخ الإسلامي لمحمود شاكر 8/68.
 الدولة العثماية لعلي محمد الصلابي، ص 102.

أوروبا في 1371
الدولة العثمانية في 1371
الإمبراطورية الصربية
بلغاريا في القرن 14
صربيا في القرن 14
تاريخ محافظة أدرنة
صربيا العثمانية
معارك الدولة العثمانية
معارك العصور الوسطى
معارك حروب صربية عثمانية
معارك صربيا في العصور الوسطى
مقالات مع مصادر باللغة الألمانية (de)
نزاعات في 1371

معركة ماريتسا